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c^TAT  E    Q  U  i   E  T  EM 

CO 


UNIVERS  ITYOFMAS 


THE    IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER  OF   INDIA. 


MORRISON   AND   GIBB,   EDINBURGH, 
PRINTERS  TO   HER   MAJESTY'S  STATIONERY  OFFICE. 


The  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India. 


W.     W.     HUNTER,     C.S.I.,     CLE,     LL.D., 

DIKECTOK-GKNEKAL    OF    STATISTICS    TO   THE   GOVERNMENT    OF    INDIA. 


VOLUME    IV. 


COCHIN     TO      GANGURlA. 


UNITED   STATES  A!R  FORCE 

CAMBRIDGE  RESEARCH  CENTER 

GEOPHYSICS 

RESEARCH  UBRARY 


SECOND    EDniON. 


TRUBNER    &     CO.,     LONDON,     1885. 


V 


4 


KKIV.  OF  KAS3ACKI?-.  ETTS 
AT  BOSTON  -  LiBrjLRy 


^um^^ 


^1  30^- 


IMPERIAL   GAZETTEER 


OF 


INDIA. 


VOLUME    IV. 

Cochin.  —  Native  State  in  subsidiary  alliance  with  the  British 
Government,  and  politically  connected  with  the  Presidency  of  Madras 
— called  after  the  town  of  the  same  name,  formerly  its  capital,  but 
since  its  capture  from  the  Dutch  in  1795,  ^  British  possession,  and 
included  within  the  limits  of  the  District  of  Malabar.  That  District 
bounds  the  State  of  Cochin  on  the  west,  north,  and  north-east ;  a  small 
portion  at  the  south-west  is  washed  by  the  Arabian  Sea ;  and  the  State 
of  Travancore  forms  the  southern  boundary.  It  lies  between  9°  48' 
and  10"  50'  N.  lat,  and  between  76°  5'  and  76°  58'  e.  long. ;  and  con- 
tains 7  Sub-divisions — namely,  Cochin,  Cannanore,  Mugundapuram, 
Trichiir,  Tallapalli,  Chittur,  and  Kranganur.  Total  area,  1361  square 
miles.  Population  (1881)  600,278,  namely,  301,815  males  and  298,463 
females. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  most  striking  physical  feature  of  the  country 
is  the  series  of  shallow  lakes  or  backwaters,  which  receive  the  drainage 
of  the  numerous  streams  descending  from  the  Western  Ghd^ts,  and 
are  consequently  liable  to  great  rises  as  these  feeders  swell,  and  to 
equally  great  reductions  in  volume  as  they  dry  up.  One  of  these 
feeders,  the  Alwai,  has  been  known  to  rise  nearly  16  feet  in  twenty- 
four  hours;  and  the  backwater  into  which^it  flows  sometimes  continues 
swollen  for  months,  while  in  the  dry  season  it  shrinks  in  many  places 
to  a  depth  of  2  feet,  and  even  to  6  inches  at  the  northern  and 
southern  extremities.  The  Cochin  backwaters  extend  from  north 
to  south  for  a  distance  of  about  120  miles  in  all,  passing  consider- 
ably beyond  the  boundary  of  the  State.  Their  breadth  varies  from  a 
maximum  of  10  miles  to  not  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards;  and 
^they  are  very  irregular  in  form,  branching  into  a  great  number  of 
,    intricate  and  shallow  channels,  containing  several  low  alluvial  islands. 

VOL.  IV.  A 


2  COCHIN. 

The  communication  with  the  sea  is  at  three  points — one  at  the  city 
of  Cochin,  another  at  Kodungalilr  or  Kranganiir,  and  the  third  at 
Chetuwai  or  Chatwai.  Though  the  backwaters  are  in  most  places 
shallow,  navigation  is  at  all  times  possible  from  Cochin  to  Kranganiir, 
and  from  Cochin  to  Aleppi  or  Aulapolai,  both  for  passenger  and  cargo 
boats.  During  the  rains,  all  parts  are  navigable  by  flat-bottomed  boats  ; 
but  for  the  conveyance  of  petty  merchandise,  canoes  drawing  little 
water  are  preferred.  All  the  lands  washed  by  the  backwaters,  whether 
islands  or  enclosing  banks,  are  low  and  swampy,  and  liable  to  be  flooded 
during  the  monsoon  inundations.  They  are  in  general  densely  covered 
with  luxuriant  cocoa-nut  palms ;  and  in  such  places  as  are  embanked, 
great  quantities  of  rice  are  grown. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Cochin  are  the  Ponani,  the  Tattamangalam,  the 
Karuvamir,  and  the  Shalakudi.  The  Alwai  or  Periyur  also  passes 
through  a  portion  of  the  State,  The  timber  of  Cochin  is  amongst 
the  most  valuable  of  its  products,  the  revenue  derived  from  the  forests 
in  1881-82  being  ^^5812.  The  principal  timber  tract  is  Iruari  in  the 
north-east,  which  is  covered  with  dense  forests  of  teak-trees  of  enormous 
size,  but  less  durable  and  elastic  than  timber  of  the  same  kind  pro- 
duced in  Travancore  and  Malabar.  It  is  consequently  more  in  demand 
for  building  houses  than  for  ships,  for  which  latter  purpose  it  is  also 
rendered  less  suitable  by  being  cut  into  short  blocks,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  dragged  to  the  torrents  which  sweep  it  down  to  the  backwater. 
The  violence  with  which  it  is  carried  down  the  streams  often  renders 
it  unfit  for  purposes  requiring  wood  of  large  dimensions.  Other 
valuable  descriptions  of  timber  are  peon  or  pun^  of  which  excellent 
masts  are  made ;  and  black  wood,  angel}\  jack,  ben-teak,  and  bastard 
cedar.  The  only  mineral  products  which  contribute  to  the  revenue  of 
the  State  are  laterite  and  granite  ;  for  though  both  gold  and  iron  were 
at  one  time  worked,  these  industries  have  now  died  out.  The  flora, 
however,  abounds  in  plants  of  commercial  value.  Besides  the  timber- 
trees  already  mentioned,  the  hills  afford  a  great  variety  of  drug,  dye 
and  gum-yielding  shrubs ;  cardamoms  are  produced  in  many  parts,  and 
everywhere  on  the  hills  the  jungle  exhibits  a  splendid  luxuriance  of 
foliage  and  flowers.  The  fauna  includes  all  the  larger  animals  of 
Southern  India — elephant,  bison,  bear,  tiger,  leopard,  sdmbhar^  and 
ibex,  with  many  varieties  of  deer.  The  hunting  leopard,  hyaena,  wolf, 
fox,  monkey,  etc.,  are  also  found,  and  birds  are  very  abundant,  as  also 
are  snakes  and  other  reptiles. 

History. — The  State  arose  out  of  the  dismemberment  of  the  Malayalam 
kingdom  in  the  time  of  Cheruma   Perumal,  from  whom,  by  right  of 
lineal  descent,  the  present  Rajas  of  Cochin  claim  to  hold  their  territory. 
Cheruma  Perumal  governed  the  whole   country  of  Kerala  or  Chera, 
including   Travancore    and    Malabar,    in    the    9th    century,    first    as 


COCHIN.  3 

viceroy   and    afterwards    as    an    independent    ruler.       Cochin    early 
succumbed  to  the  Portuguese,  who  in   the  i6th  century  built  a  fort, 
and  established  commercial  and  missionary  relations  with  the  adjoining 
districts.       In    1599,   the  Archbishop    of  Goa    convened    a   synod  at 
Udiampur,  at  which  the  tenets  of  the   Syrian  Christians,  then  a  large 
body,  were  declared  heretical.     In  1662,  the  Dutch  took  the  town  of 
Cochin  from  the   Portuguese,  and   under  their  management  it    soon 
attained  to  great  prosperity.     A  century  later,  the  Zamorin  of  Calicut 
invaded  the  State,  but  was  expelled  by  the  Raja  of  Travancore,  who 
obtained,  as  a  reward  for  this  service,  a  portion  of  Cochin.     In  1776, 
Haidar  All,  the  ruler  of  Mysore,  overran  the  country,  compelling  it 
to  become  tributary;  and  in   1790,  his  son,  Tipii,  entered  the  State, 
and  laid   it  waste  as  far  as  Virapalai,  when  he  was  recalled  to    the 
defence  of  Seringapatam.     It  remained  nominally  under  the  authority 
of  Tipii   until    1799,  when    Mysore  was    conquered    by    the    British. 
Already,  in   the  preceding  year,   the  Raja  of  Cochin  had  signed  an 
independent    treaty  with  the    Company,   by  which   he   acknowledged 
himself  its  tributary,  and  agreed  to  a  yearly  tribute  of  ;^io,ooo.     In 
1809,   a   conspiracy  to  assassinate   the    Resident   and   to   commence 
hostilities  against  the   British  necessitated  the  employment  of  troops. 
After  the  pacification  of  the  State,  another  treaty  was  concluded,  bind- 
ing the  Raja  to  a  yearly  payment  of  ;^2  7,000,  and  admitting  the  right 
of  the  Company  to  control  the  distribution  of  its  forces  in  the  State, 
and  to  demand  increased  payments  in   proportion  to  any  increase  of 
military  expenditure  on  behalf  of  the  Raja,  it  being  provided  that  in 
no  case  should  his  income  fall  below  ;£^35oo,  in  addition  to  one-fifth 
of  the  annual  revenue.     The  Raja  engaged  to  hold  no  correspondence 
with  any  foreign  State  without  the  knowledge  of  the  British  Government, 
to  admit  no  Europeans  into  his  service,  nor  allow  any  to  remain  within 
his  territory  without  the  consent  of  the  British  authorities,  who  might 
dismantle  or  garrison  any  fortresses  in  his  dominions.     On  the  other 
hand,   the  British    undertook    to  defend  the   territories   of  the    Raja 
against  all  enemies  whatsoever.      Subsequently,  in   181 9,   the  annual 
payment  to  the  British  Government  was  reduced  to  ;2{^24jOoo,  being 
one-half  of  the  estimated  revenue  at  that  time  ;  and  at  a  still  later 
period,  the  tribute  was  fixed  at  ;^2 0,000,  at  which  sum   it  remains  at 
the  present  day.       Since  the  date   of  this  transfer  of  power  to   the 
British,  Cochin  has  no   history  beyond  that  of  internal  reforms.     In 
1836,  some  changes  were  made   in  the  levy  of  transit  dues  ;  and  in 
1848,   the   freedom   of  commercial   intercourse   between    this    State 
and  the  neighbouring  Districts  was  further  advanced  by  the  removal 
of    frontier    customs'    restrictions ;    thus,    among    other    advantages, 
facilitating  the  passage  of  merchandise  from  Malabar  and  Coimbatore 
to  the  port  of  Cochin.     By  the  inter-portal  convention  of  1865,  the 


4  COCHIN. 

system  of  inland  transit  duties  was  altogether  abolished ;  the  State 
agreeing  to  equalize  the  rates  of  customs'  duty  at  its  seaports  with 
those  obtaining  at  the  ports  of  British  India,  and  to  sell  salt  within  its 
limits  at  the  price  ruling  in  the  District  of  Malabar.  In  return  for 
these  concessions,  the  British  Government  guaranteed  to  the  State  a 
minimum  customs'  revenue  of  ;£"  10,000,  and  a  revenue  from  tobacco 
of  ^'1050  per  annum. 

Population. — The  first  Census  recorded,  that  of  1820,  returned  the 
total  population  at  223,003;  but  the  method  adopted  was  defective, 
and  it  was  not  till  1875  that  a  satisfactory  enumeration  was  accom- 
plished. The  total  population  then  disclosed  was  601,114  persons, 
inhabiting  120,220  houses.  The  returns  of  the  last  Census,  taken  on 
the  17th  February  1881,  gave  the  total  population  at  600,278  persons, 
or  a  decrease  of  836  since  1875  ;  number  of  persons  per  square  mile, 
441.  The  principal  races  are  Malayalis,  Tamulians,  Konkanis,  and 
Telugus.  Divided  according  to  religion,  there  were  429,324  Hindus, 
33,344  Muhammadans,  136,361  Christians,  and  1249  Jews.  The 
Christians,  of  whom  15,422  are  Protestants,  form  about  21  per  cent,  of 
the  population ;  most  of  the  remainder  belong  either  to  the  Romano- 
Syrian  Church,  established  here  in  1659,  and  subject  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Malabar,  or  to  the  orthodox  Roman  Catholic  Church  under  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Goa.  The  Jacobite  and  Nestorian  Churches,  acknowledging 
the  Patriarch  of  Antioch  as  their  head,  and  established  long  before 
the  period  of  European  settlements,  also  number  many  members,  a  few 
being  substantial  landowners.  The  proportion  of  Christians  is  3  per 
cent,  higher  than  in  the  adjoining  State  of  Travancore,  and  197  per  cent, 
more  than  in  the  Madras  Presidency  generally.  The  Christians  are 
massed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea-coast  backwaters  and  lagoons, 
and  almost  monopolize  the  boating  and  fishing  industry.  Arranged 
according  to  local  precedence,  the  Hindu  castes  stand  as  follows  : — 
(1)  Brahmans,  who  form  3*6  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  are 
generally  priests  and  proprietors  of  land  ;  (2)  Kshatriyas,  also  gene- 
rally landowners ;  (3)  Ambalavasis,  temple  servitors ;  (4)  Nairs, 
superior  agriculturists  and  Government  servants ;  (5)  Pillais,  sub- 
ordinate Government  servants ;  (6)  Ottars,  contractors  for  labour ; 
(7)  Vallamars,  fishermen,  cloth-weavers,  potters,  and  artisans  of  all 
kinds ;  (8)  Ezhuwans,  agricultural  labourers  ;  (9)  Chermars,  agricultural 
serfs;  (10)  hillmen.  Of  these,  the  first  four  may  be  described  as  well- 
to-do,  and  the  two  last  as  wretchedly  poor.  The  chief  hill  tribe  is 
that  of  the  Malayars  or  Kaders,  living  on  roots,  leaves,  mice  and  other 
small  animals,  without  fixed  settlements  or  ostensible  occupation,  except 
occasional  basket-weaving.  The  Vallamars,  who  live  by  fresh-water 
fishing,  number  4000,  but  the  sea  fisheries  are  monopolized  by  the 
Marakan  caste,  who  are  more  numerous.      A  considerable  trade  in 


COCHIN.  5 

cured  fish  is  carried  on  along  the  coast,  emigrants  from  Ceylon 
coming  over  annually  to  engage  in  it  during  the  fishing  season.  Im- 
migration affects  the  population  returns  to  the  extent  of  about  8000 
annually,  the  new-comers  generally  settling  in  the  State.  Enumera- 
tions of  the  population  have  been  made  five  times  during  the  last  55 
years,  and  the  result  up  to  1875  ^"'^^  been  to  show  a  great  and 
continuous,  though  not  always  uniform,  increase.  Up  to  1875,  the 
increase  per  annum  in  Cochin  had  been  i*86  per  cent. — a  more  rapid 
rate  than  in  any  of  the  chief  European  countries.  The  Census, 
however,  of  1881  showed  a  decrease  of  836  persons.  The  density  of 
the  population  is  441  persons  per  square  mile — a  number  exceeded, 
however,  in  Tanjore.  The  luxuriant  growth  of  the  cocoa  palm  on 
the  sea-shore  and  backwaters  is  the  chief  support  of  this  heavy  popu- 
lation. Little  labour  being  entailed  by  this  cultivation,  abundant 
opportunity  exists  for  further  earnings.  Nearly  the  whole  produce  of 
the  country  consists  of  special  articles  for  export;  the  collection  of 
which  at  the  port  of  Cochin,  by  the  endless  network  of  canals,  affords 
ample  employment  to  boatmen,  imported  rice  being  distributed  in  the 
shape  of  return  cargo.  The  fact  that  a  sufficient  fish  diet  is  available 
at  an  almost  nominal  cost  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  material 
condition  of  the  people. 

The  most  populous  towns  are— Ernakolam,  the  capital,  with  14,038 
inhabitants  in  1875;  Cochin,  13,775  i  Trichur,  11,109  ;  and  Tripun- 
THORA,  the  residence  of  the  Raja,  8493.  Seven  other  towns  had  over 
5000  inhabitants,  and  47  more  between  2000  and  4000,  making  the 
urban  population  248,000,  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Smaller  villages 
numbered  595,  the  average  population  being  about  380.  Later  statistics 
for  town  and  village  population  are  not  available.  The  tendency  to 
gather  into  towns  has  become  marked  in  recent  years,  while  the  pro- 
portion of  tiled  houses  annually  increases. 

A gi-icultu7'e. — Rice  forms  the  staple  of  cultivation,  some  50  varieties 
being  locally  distinguished ;  the  best  land  supports  three  crops  annually. 
Next  to  rice,  cocoa-nut  engages  the  attention  of  the  cultivators. 
Wherever  a  sufficiently  light  soil  prevails,  this  tree  is  grown  ;  and  its 
products — coir,  oil,  coprah,  and  the  nuts — form  the  chief  exports  of 
the  State.  Other  crops  are — besides  the  usual  cereals,  pulses,  and 
vegetables, — cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  betel  leaf  and  areca-nuts,  hemp, 
flax,  sugar-cane,  ginger,  and  pepper.  This  list  illustrates  the  very 
diversified  and  fertile  nature  of  the  soil.  Irrigation  obtains  only  on  a 
small  scale,  the  natural  rainfall  usually  sufficing  for  the  crops.  Manure, 
where  necessary,  consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  refuse,  leaves,  bark,  etc., 
and  the  ashes  of  burnt  wood.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  State  (871,359 
acres),  nearly  one-third,  or  288,125  acres,  is  under  cultivation,  divided 
among  66,250  separate  registered  proprietors  ;  the  assessment  ranging 


6  COCHIN, 

from  6s.  an  acre  downwards.  The  yield  of  an  acre  of  superior  rice 
land  averages  in  value  ;^7,  3s.  ;  that  of  inferior  land,  ;£Af.  The 
majority  of  cultivators  do  not  hold  more  than  5  acres,  from  which  they 
obtain  the  equivalent  of  about  i6s.  a  month.  Most  of  them  cultivate 
their  own  land,  and  tenants-at-will  are  rare.  Rent  was,  till  the  present 
century,  paid  in  kind ;  but,  after  several  tentative  standards,  it  has 
now  been  roughly  commuted  at  about  one-fourth  of  the  value  of 
the  produce.  Beyond  this,  no  regular  conversion  of  rents  into  cash 
has  been  introduced,  nor  do  any  of  the  revenue  regulations  of  British 
Districts  obtain  here.  The  proprietary  right  in  the  soil  rests  either  in 
the  Government  or  private  persons.  In  the  former  case,  the  tenants 
occupy  for  the  most  part  on,  nominally,  simple  lease,  held  direct  from 
Government,  but  about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  is  in  reality  mortgaged 
to  the  tenants.  Only  two  kinds  of  land  are  fiscally  recognised — '  rice 
land '  and  '  garden  land,'  the  former  being  assessed  by  the  area 
under  crops,  and  the  latter  by  the  number  of  trees  upon  it.  Cocoa- 
nut  palms,  jack  fruit-trees,  and  palmyras  pay  the  highest  rates,  which 
range  from  is.  lod.  per  tree  down  to  2d.  Where  no  trees  exist,  the 
crop  is  assessed  at  about  is.  4d.  per  acre.  Various  imposts  supplement 
the  ka?iom  or  land-tax  proper, — the  chief  being  kettit-thengu,  levied 
upon  every  100  trees,  after  each  has  been  taxed  individually;  nekudi, 
a  royalty  collected  by  the  State  on  the  rents  of  private  lands ;  and 
7?iaptira,  taken  from  all  holdings  above  a  certain  size.  Wages  have 
doubled  in  every  branch  of  labour  during  the  last  20  years,  and  now 
average  for  a  carpenter  or  bricklayer  yd.  per  diem,  for  a  smith  lod., 
and  for  a  day-labourer  5d.  Prices  of  food  have  increased  in  even 
greater  proportion;  rice,  which  in  1851  was  at  3s.  per  maund  (or 
4s.  id.  per  cwt),  cost  in  187 1,  6s.  6d.  (or  8s.  lod.  per  cwt).  The 
price  of  all  other  grains  has  risen  proportionately.  This  rise,  however, 
does  not  much  affect  the  poorest  class  of  day-labourers,  for  they  receive 
the  bulk  of  their  wages  in  kind,  at  the  old  rates  of  about  4  lbs.  of  grain 
per  diem  for  an  adult  male,  3  lbs.  for  a  woman,  and  2  lbs.  for  a  child, 
the  rate  of  commutation  being  generally  fixed  at  5d.,  3d.,  and  2d.  per 
diem  for  each.  Among  the  urban  population  an  increasing  prosperity 
is  marked  by  the  improved  class  of  dwellings  erected,  and  by  the  more 
general  distribution  of  luxuries.  The  monthly  expenses  for  a  house- 
hold of  the  average  shopkeeper  class  would  be  ^^4,  those  of  an  average 
peasant  ^i,  los. 

Cojnmerce  and  Manufactures. — In  spite  of  its  favourable  configuration 
for  commerce,  and  its  great  natural  resources.  Cochin  possesses  no 
important  trade  by  sea  or  land.  The  total  number  of  vessels  which 
called  in  1881-82,  at  the  ports  of  Mallipuram  and  Narakal,  was  only  82. 
The  port  dues  amounted  to  £^\2.  Except  in  the  coffee  cultivation 
on  the  Nelliampatti  range,  European  capital  has  not  yet  been  attracted 


COCHIN.  7 

to  the  State.  In  the  Cochin  and  Kanayanur  taluks,  ornamental  work 
in  metals,  and  carving  in  wood  and  ivory,  are  carried  to  a  point  of  great 
excellence ;  and  the  hardware  and  arms  here  manufactured  command 
a  sale  beyond  the  limits  of  the  State.  The  timber  produced  in  the 
forests,  and  the  salt  manufactured  along  the  coast,  are  Government 
monopolies,  and  yield  a  large  revenue.  The  old  tobacco  monopoly 
was  abolished  in  1862.  Among  local  products,  the  cocoa-nut  palm 
supplies  in  its  nut  and  fibre  an  article  of  export ;  but  the  others — 
areca-nut,  ginger,  oil-seeds,  pepper,  etc. — are  only  locally  interchanged. 
The  Madras  Railway  approaches  the  State  at  Shoranur,  where  there 
is  a  station.  The  principal  exports,  besides  rice  and  the  products 
of  the  cocoa-nut  already  mentioned,  are  pepper,  cardamoms,  and 
timber. 

Means  of  ConifHunication. — In  consequence  of  the  great  extent  and 
facility  of  water  carriage,  and  of  the  impediments  presented  by  torrents, 
backwaters,  and  inlets  of  the  sea,  the  construction  of  roads  has,  until 
recently,  been  little  regarded  ;  but  there  are  now  133  miles  of  good 
road  in  the  State.  The  longest  and  most  important  line  runs  nearly 
parallel  to  the  sea-shore,  and  on  an  average  about  a  mile  from  it.  This 
forms  the  principal  military  and  official  route  between  Travancore  and 
IMalabar.  Its  continuity,  however,  is  frequently  broken  by  the  water 
channels  which  cross  it.  In  the  less  swampy  parts  about  Trichiir, 
there  are  some  excellent  portions  of  road,  for  making  which  the  pre- 
vailing formation  of  laterite  is  well  suited.  The  Cochin  Government 
has  always  readily  assumed  its  share  in  works  common  to  the  State 
and  to  British  territory,  such  as  the  protective  works  at  Cruz  Milagre 
(where  an  opening  of  the  breakwater  into  the  sea  threatened  by 
diminishing  the  scour  over  the  Cochin  bar  to  impair  the  value  of  the 
harbour),  and  the  improvement  of  the  West  Coast  Canal  for  a  length 
of  30  miles  where  it  forms  the  boundary  of  the  State.  Again,  when  a 
cart-road  was  projected  to  connect  Ponani  with  the  southern  end  of  the 
Shoranur  bridge,  and  thus  with  the  railway  without  the  necessity  of 
fording  the  river,  the  Cochin  Government  readily  undertook  the  cost  of 
the  length  lying  within  the  State.  There  is  now  water  communication 
(canals  and  backwater)  for  45  miles  between  Cochin  and  Trichiir,  and 
smaller  canals  branch  from  this  line  along  its  length.  Throughout  this 
water  system  considerable  traffic  is  carried  on  for  nine  months  of  the 
year,  for  the  remaining  three  (the  hot  months)  the  communication  is 
often  interrupted. 

Religious  and  other  Institutions.  —  Public  libraries,  aided  by  State 
grants,  have  been  established  at  Ernakolam  and  Trichiir ;  and  the 
numerous  missions  represented  in  Cochin  support  printing-presses, 
private  schools,  and  societies  for  the  advancement  of  knowledge.  The 
Catholic  mission  has  a  large  number  of  educational  institutions.      The 


8  COCHIN. 

Official  Gazette  of  Cochin  is  the  only  periodical  publication.  Chari- 
table endowments,  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  Brahman  travellers, 
are  attached  to  all  the  pagodas ;  and  the  State  also  grants  aid  to  many 
establishments  for  the  support  of  the  local  Brahman  population.  The 
total  expenditure  on  religious  and  charitable  endowments  amounts  to 
;2£"i  1,732  per  annum.  Religious  gatherings  are  held  annually  at  all  the 
chief  pagodas ;  the  attendance  at  the  most  important — that  held  at 
Kranganiir,  and  lasting  for  ten  days — averages  12,000  per  diem.  At  all 
these  gatherings  a  large  interchange  of  local  produce  is  effected. 

Natural  Calamities. — The  State  of  Cochin  is  not  subject  to  famine, 
the  ample  means  of  communication  which  it  possesses  placing  it 
beyond  the  likelihood  of  such  a  visitation.  Nor  are  destructive  floods 
or  droughts  known.  A  local  inundation  or  deficiency  of  rainfall  may  at 
times  have  caused  temporary  loss,  but  there  is  no  case  on  record  of 
an  entire  harvest  having  been  destroyed. 

Admi?iistration. — The   State  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes 
into  7  taluks  or  Sub-divisions,  each  supervised  by  a  tahsilddr,  the  local 
head  of  the  police,  revenue,  and  magisterial  administration,  assisted  by 
a  subordinate  native  staff.      In  matters  of  revenue,  the  tahsilddrs  are 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Diwdn,  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  State, 
and  responsible   adviser  of  the  Raja  ;    while  in  matters  of  police  or 
criminal   justice  they  are    subject    to    the   Diwdn-peshkdr   (the   chief 
assistant  of  the  Diwdn)^  who  is  assisted  by  a  Deputy.     Civil  justice  is 
administered    locally  by  five    imuisifs,   possessing  jurisdiction  in  civil 
suits  up  to  the  value  of  ^50,   and  by  two  zild  courts.     The  Court 
of  Appeal,  the  highest  tribunal  of  the  State,  has  unlimited  powers,  both 
civil  and  criminal,  subject  only  in  sentences  of  death  and  imprisonment 
for  life  to  the  confirmation  of  the  Raja.     The   administrative   head- 
quarters of  Cochin  are  at  Ernakolam;  but  the  Raja  resides  at  Tripuntora, 
5  miles  distant.    The  Penal  Code  of  British  India  has  been  partially  intro- 
duced into  the  State,  and  also  a  Registration  Act  modelled  upon  our 
Actviii.  of  1871.    The  total  revenue  for  1881-82  amounted  to  ;£i44,928; 
the  total  expenditure,  to  ;£'i33,426.     In  1809-10,  the  revenue  was  only 
;^58,7i6  ;  and  the  expenditure,  ;£^5o,37o.     The  chief  items  of  income 
(1881-82)  were — land   revenue,  ^63,539;    customs,  ^^11,619;   salt, 
;£i 8,353  ;    and     excise    on    spirits     and    drugs,    ^4270 :    principal 
items    of    expenditure — subsidy    to    British    Government,    ;£20,ooo ; 
Raja's  establishment,  ;;^ 1 8,5 16  ;  administration  (judicial,  revenue,  and 
police),  ;^23,348;    religious   and   charitable   endowments,    ^11,732; 
public    works,    ^15,769.       The    police    force    numbers    217    men, 
and    costs    annually   ^1470.       During    1881-82    they   arrested   3391 
persons  implicated  in  1397  cases,  obtaining  only  654  convictions,  while 
the   remainder  were    either  acquitted    or   discharged.       Owing  to  the 
peculiar  system  of  police  administration  obtaining  in  the  State,  these 


COCHIN.  9 

figures  do  not  convey  a  correct  view  of  the  working  of  the  Department, 
the  reorganization  of  which  is  under  contemplation.  There  is  no  village 
watch  such  as  obtains  in  the  neighbouring  British  Districts.  The  daily 
number  of  prisoners  in  jail  during  1881-82  averaged  134  ;  the  charges 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  jails  were  ^381  ;  average  cost  per  head, 
;^2,  1 6s.  lod.  Education  costs  the  State  ^2646  annually,  the  chief 
institution  being  the  High  School  at  Ernakolam,  with  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  213  pupils.  Five  Anglo-vernacular,  one  Hebrew-Sanskrit, 
and  seven  Malayalam  schools  receive  grants-in-aid  from  Government, 
as  also  do  numerous  primary  schools  for  boys.  Female  education  has 
not  as  yet  engaged  State  attention.  Of  the  total  population  of  600,278, 
the  Census  disclosed  26,621  as  being  able  to  read  and  write  ;  of  these, 
1 133  were  women.  The  postal  department,  which  is  modelled  on  that  of 
British  India,  carried  during  1870-71  about  17,300  letters,  950  news- 
papers, and  17  books,  exclusive  of  all  covers  on  public  service.  There 
are  no  municipalities.  In  regard  to  jurisdiction  over  European  British 
subjects,  the  Raja,  with  the  approval  of  the  Madras  Government,  appoints 
two  or  three  gentlemen — being  European  British  subjects  and  Christians 
— to  exercise  the  same  jurisdiction  as  may  be  exercised  in  British  territory 
by  European  British  subjects  who  are  magistrates  of  the  first  class 
and  justices  of  the  peace.  From  the  sentences  of  these  magistrates 
there  is  an  appeal  to  the  European  judge  of  the  Raja's  chief  court, 
who  is  also  a  justice  of  the  peace ;  and  in  both  original  and  appeal 
cases,  it  is  open  to  the  British  Resident  to  advise  the  Cochin  Government 
to  mitigate  or  remit  the  sentence.  The  gentlemen,  selected  as  above  by 
the  Raja,  have  been  appointed  by  the  Governor-General  in  Council  to 
be  Justices  of  the  Peace,  with  a  view  to  their  remitting  serious  cases 
either  to  the  Resident,  who  under  the  authority  of  the  Government  of 
India  has  the  powers  ad  hoc  of  a  sessions  judge,  or  to  the  High  Court  of 
Madras,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  prescribed  by  sec.  75  of  the  Code 
of  Criminal  Procedure.  The  Rajas  of  Cochin  are  Hindus  of  pure 
Kshatriya  caste,  and  claim  to  be  descended  from  the  last  of  the 
potentates  who  held  supreme  authority  over  the  whole  extent  of  territory 
stretching  from  Gokuru  in  North  Kanara  to  Cape  Comorin.  The 
present  Raja,  Rama  Varma,  was  born  in  1835,  and  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1864.  He  was  created  Kniglit  Commander  of  the  Star  of 
India  in  1871,  and  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  17  guns.  He  holds  Sisanad 
authorizing  adoption ;  the  succession  devolves  on  the  eldest  male 
member  of  the  family,  if  any,  according  to  the  Malabar  law.  The 
military  force  consists  of  326  men  and  2  guns. 

Medical  Aspects.  —  The  climate,  though  very  damp,  is  not  parti- 
cularly unhealthy.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  107*66  inches,  of 
which  82 'lo  inches  fall  during  the  monsoon,  which  lasts  through  the 
months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August.      The  mean  annual  tempera- 


lo  COCHIN  SUB-DIVISION  AND  TALUK. 

ture  is  797°  F.,  and  is  very  uniform  throughout  the  year,  only  vary- 
ing from  a  monthly  average  of  777°  in  January  to  83*4°  in  April, 
which  is  the  dry  season.  Even  during  the  latter,  though  called  dry, 
the  air  is  moist,  and  frequent  showers  of  rain  reduce  the  temperature, 
so  that  a  continued  drought  is  unknown.  Among  endemic  diseases, 
elephantiasis,  leprosy,  and  skin  diseases  are  specially  frequent,  and 
malarious  fevers  prevail  all  the  year  round.  The  elephantiasis  is 
attributed  to  the  impure  water  used  along  the  coast,  where  it  is  most 
prevalent.  Small-pox  was  annually  epidemic  from  1865  to  1868; 
and  in  1873,  an  outbreak  of  special  virulence  occurred,  30  per  cent,  of 
the  cases  proving  fatal.  Cholera  appeared  in  1865,  and  again  in 
1875-1876,  causing,  however,  no  great  loss  of  life.  Native  practice 
is  chiefly  guided  by  two  Sanskrit  works,  the  Ashtanghirtayom  and  the 
Chilli a7'jnai^  the  mode  of  treatment  being  remarkable  for  the  extensive 
use  of  medicated  oils.  [For  further  information  regarding  Cochin  State, 
see  pp.  53-56  of  the  revised  edition  of  the  Standing  Information 
regarding  the  Administration  of  the  Madras  Preside?icy,  by  C.  D. 
Maclean,  Esq.,  C.S.  (Madras,  1879).  Also  Administration  Report  of  the 
Madras  Preside?icy  for  1881-82.] 

Cochin. — One  of  the  seven  Sub-divisions  of  the  Native  State  of 
Cochin,  Madras  Presidency.  Chief  towns — Cochin  (1875)  population 
1357755  Trichur  (1881,  10,094),  Kambalangi  (1875,  6369),  and  Charai 
(1875,  5051);  other  large  villages,  with  their  population  in  1881,  are 
the  following:  —  Narakal  (4254),  Pallurthi  (3912),  Malankuzi 
(3033)5  Edavanakad  (3377),  Edakuchi  (2104),  Andikadava  (1984), 
Challanam  (2532),  Ochanthurti  (2280),  Azhikal  (1725),  Elangunapoya 
(3076),  Nairambolam  (3161),  and  Wadakanpura  (2013).  The  gold  and 
silver  work  and  the  wood  and  ivory  carving  of  this  Sub-division  have 
more  than  a  local  reputation. 

Cochin. — Native  town  in  the  Cochin  Sub-division  of  the  Native 
State  of  Cochin,  Madras  Presidency.  It  consists  of  4  conjoined  villages, 
containing  2626  houses,  with  (1875)  13,775  inhabitants;  situated  in 
lat.  9°  58'  7"  N.,  and  long.  76°  17'  e.,  on  the  Travancore  estuary  half  a 
mile  south  of  the  British  town  of  Cochin,  in  the  midst  of  the  populous 
tract  lying  between  the  backwater  and  the  sea.  It  is  connected  by 
canals  with  Trichur.  Cochin  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  State; 
and  near  it  tradition  places  the  gold  reefs  said  to  have  been 
once  worked,  but  certainly  not  auriferous  now.  The  station  of 
a  (native)  sub-judge.  The  Mattancheri  and  Jews'  quarters  of  the 
British  town  of  Cochin  {vide  infra)  lie  within  the  limits  of  the  Native 
State. 

Cochin  {Kochchi). — Tdluk  of  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Area,  2  square  miles  or  1280  acres,  containing  3436  houses;  population 
(1881)  21,360.    Surrounded  by  the  Native  State  of  Cochin,  but  subject 


COCHIN  TOWN.  II 

to  the  British  District  of  Malabar.     Land  revenue  (1882-83),  £\']^1. 
Chief  towns — Cochin  {infra),  Anjengo,  and  Tangacheri. 

Cochin  (or  Kochchi-bajidar,  'small  port'). — Town  and  head-quarters  of 
the  Cochin  taluk,  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  9°  58'  7"  n., 
long.  76°  17'E.  Houses,  2878.  Population  (i 881)  15,698,  namely,  4383 
Hindus,  2942  Muhammadans,  8360  Christians,  and  13  'others.'  Area 
of  the  municipality,  597  acres,  completely  built  over;  revenue  for 
1875-76,  ;^i8i2  ;  incidence  of  municipal  taxation,  about  iid.  per 
head.  Situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  principal  navigable  entrance 
to  the  great  Travancore  estuary,  along  which  the  town  extends  for  a 
mile,  and  then  joins  Mattancheri  and  the  Jews'  settlement.  Facing 
Cochin  to  the  north  lies  the  island  of  Vypin,  colonized  by  Eurasian 
Roman  Catholics.  The  date  at  which  this  island  was  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  sea  and  river,  a.d.  1341,  is  sometimes  used  in  deeds  as  the 
commencement  of  an  era  styled  Puttuveppii  (new  deposit).  As  the  head- 
quarters of  a  subordinate  revenue  and  judicial  establishment,  Cochm 
contains  the  usual  courts,  jail,  and  public  offices ;  also  a  custom  house, 
Master  Attendant's  office,  post  and  telegraph  offices,  dispensary, 
travellers'  bungalow,  and  numerous  schools,  supported  either  by  the 
various  missions  established  here  or  by  the  municipality.  The  many 
quaint  old  Dutch  buildings  give  a  picturesque  appearance  to  the  town. 
The  exports  of  Cochin  in  1880-81  were  valued  at  ^658,878,  one- 
seventh  dutiable;  and  the  imports  at  ;£"454,954,  of  which  about  4  per 
cent,  paid  duty.  The  port  dues  collected  during  the  year  amounted  to 
^2625. 

History. — Cochin  was  one  of  the  first  spots  in  India  visited  by  Euro- 
peans. Tradition,  indeed,  asserts  that  St.  Thomas  the  apostle  extended 
his  labours  to  this  region  in  52  a.d.,  leaving  behind  him  the  colony  of 
Christians  now  called  Nassarani  Mappilas  (Moplas).  It  is  further  said 
that,  in  the  first  year  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Jews  settled  on  the  site  of 
their  present  colony.  Afterwards  they  established  their  head-quarters 
at  Krangamir  (Kodungaliir),  where  they  remained  until  driven  away  in 
the  1 6th  century  by  the  Zamorin's  Mappilas.  From  copper  plates  still 
extant,  it  is  put  beyond  doubt  that  the  Jewish  and  Syrian  churches 
were  firmly  established  in  Cochin  by  the  8th  century.  The  modern 
history  of  the  port  is  full  of  interest.  In  1500,  the  Portuguese  adven- 
turer, Cabral,  after  having  cannonaded  Calicut,  landed  at  this  place 
and  met  with  a  friendly  reception  from  the  Raja,  who  is  described  as  a 
reluctant  vassal  of  the  Zamorin.  Cabral  returned  to  Portugal  with  a 
cargo  of  pepper,  and  was  followed  by  Inan  de  Nova  Castelho.  In 
1502,  Vasco  da  Gama,  on  his  second  voyage,  came  to  Cochin  and 
estabUshed  a  factory.  In  1503,  Albuquerque,  the  Portuguese  admiral, 
arrived  just  in  time  to  succour  the  Cochin  Raja,  who  was  besieged  by 
the  Zamorin  in  the  island  of  Vypin.     He  built  the  Cochin  fort  called 


12  COCHIN  TOWN, 

'  Mannel  Kolati,'  the  first  European  fort  in  India,  just  five  years  after 
Da  Gama  had  arrived  on  the  Malabar  coast.     The  fort  was  enlarged 
in  1525  by  Menezes,  the  second  Viceroy.     Albuquerque  returned  to 
Portugal,  leaving  Cochin  guarded  by  only  a  few  hundred  men  under 
Duarte   Pacheco,   when  the  Zamorin  with  a  large  host  invaded  the 
country  by  land   and    sea.       Pacheco  with   his   brave  band    of  400 
men  firmly  resisted  all  the  attacks  of  the  Zamorin,  and  at  last  forced 
him   to    retreat   to    Calicut.      In  1505,  Francisco  Almeyda,   the  first 
Portuguese  Viceroy  of  India,  came  to  Cochin  with  a  large  fleet,  and  was 
in  15 10  succeeded  by  Albuquerque.     On  Christmas  day  1524,  Da  Gama 
died  here,  and  was  buried,  according  to  Correa,  whose  narrative  is  the 
most  trustworthy,  in  the  principal  chapel  of  the  Franciscan  monastery, 
now  used  as  the  Protestant  church.     His  body  was  afterwards  (1538) 
removed  to  Portugal.     In  1530,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies,  preached  in  these  parts  and  made  many  converts.     In  1557,  the 
church  of  Santa  Cruz  was  consecrated  as  the  cathedral  of  a  bishop.     In 
i577j  the  Society  of  Jesus  pubhshed  at  Cochin  the  first  book  printed  in 
India.     In  1585,  Cochin  appears  to  have  been  visited  by  the  English 
traveller  Ralph  Fitch,  who,  with  a  band  of  adventurers,  came  by  the 
way  of  Aleppo,  Bagdad,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  to  India.     In  16 16,  the 
English,  under  Keeling,  engaged  to  assist  the  Zamorin  in   attacking 
Cochin,    on    the   understanding   that   an    English   factory  was   to   be 
estabhshed  there.     These  relations  were,  however,  broken  oft",  and  the 
factory  was  built  some  years  later  with  the  consent  of  the  Portuguese. 
In  1663,  the  town  and  fort  were  captured  from  the  Portuguese  by  the 
Dutch,  and  the  English  retired  to  Ponani.    The  Dutch  greatly  improved 
the  place  and  its  trade,  building  substantial  houses  after  the  European 
fashion,  and  erecting  quays,   etc.     They  also  converted  the  cathedral 
into  a  warehouse,  and  the  other  Roman  Catholic  churches  were  used 
as  Protestant  places  of  worship.      In  1778,  Adrien  Van  Moens  com- 
pletely altered  the  fort,  providing  it  with  Vi^\N  ditches,  and  building 
seven  strong  bastions.     On  the  conquest  of  Holland  by  the  French, 
orders  were  received  from  the  English  Court  of  Directors  in  1795  to 
take  possession  of  all  the  Dutch  colonies.     As  the  Dutch  governor 
Vanspall  demurred  to  surrendering  Cochin  peacefully,  it  was  besieged 
and  captured  by  Major  Petrie  (20th   October  1795).      In   1806,  the 
English  blew  up  the  cathedral,  destroying  at  the  same  time  some  of  the 
quays,  the  best  houses  in  the  place,  and  the  fort.     In  18 14,  Cochin  was 
formally  ceded  to  the  English  by  treaty. 

The  Protestant  church  (formerly  the  principal  chapel  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan monastery,  and  probably  dedicated  to  St.  Anthony),  which 
escaped  the  general  destruction  above  referred  to,  is  a  plain  massive 
building,  with  a  nave  142  feet  long  by  51  broad.  Its  exact  age  is 
unknown ;  but  from  inscriptions  on  the  floor,  it  certainly  existed  before 


CO  COS,  THE.  13 

1546,  and  is  therefore  the  oldest  European  church  in  India,  except 
perhaps  the  CaHcut  church.  It  contains  some  curious  old  epitaphs. 
One  of  these  tombstones  is  sometimes  pointed  out  as  that  of  Vasco  da 
Gama,  because  it  has  the  word  '  Vasco '  on  it,  the  rest  of  the  name 
being  obliterated,  but  the  coat  of  arms  above  is  certainly  not  that  of 
Da  Gama.  The  fagade  of  the  church  was  surmounted  by  an  orna- 
mented bronze  cross  and  a  weathercock,  6  feet  high,  which  could  be 
distinctly  perceived  some  10  miles  off  at  sea;  but  in  1865  these  were 
pulled  down.  Nearly  all  traces  of  the  old  fort  have  now  disappeared. 
The  building  occupied  as  court-house  and  taluk  '  cutcherry '  was 
formerly  the  Roman  Catholic  convent.  Among  the  other  principal 
buildings  may  be  mentioned  the  jail,  marine  office,  travellers'  bungalow, 
churches,  and  schools.     The  custom-house  is  situated  on  the  boundary 

limits  of  British  and  Native  Cochin.     The  chief  native  quarters  are 

Calvetti  Bazar,  thickly  populated  by  Mappilas  (Moplas),  which  narrowly 
escaped  destruction  by  fire  on  New  Year's  day  1876;  and  Amaravvadi, 
inhabited  by  Chetties  and  goldsmiths.  The  lighthouse  is  situated  on 
the  ruins  of  the  ramparts,  and  adjoining  it  are  the  bungalows  of  Euro- 
pean residents  facing  the  sea.  Of  late  years,  the  sea  has  threatened 
to  encroach  on  the  place ;  but  several  stone  groins  have  been  thrown 
out  at  right  angles  to  the  river  bank,  and  the  foreshore  has  been 
reclaimed. 

COCOS,  The. — Two  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  situated  between 
lat.  14°  4'  and  14°  10'  n.,  and  in  long.  93°  21'  e.  ;  45  miles  north  of  the 
Great  Andaman,  and  a  short  distance  south  of  Table  Island,  on  which 
there  is  a  good  lighthouse,  showing  a  fixed  light  visible  22  miles  in 
clear  weather,  and  having  an  elevation  of  195  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  larger  and  more  northerly  of  the  two,  called  the  Great  Coco,  is.  a 
low  oblong-shaped  island,  between  6  and  7  miles  in  length  and  2  miles 
broad;  area,  about  14  square  miles.  The  smaller  island,  or  Little 
Coco,  lying  about  3  leagues  to  the  south-west  of  the  Great  Coco,  is  2  J 
miles  long  and  about  a  mile  broad.  Both  islands  are  to  a  great  extent 
protected  by  the  Andamans  from  the  heavy  south-west  swell  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal;  but  more  or  less  boisterous  weather  prevails  in  October 
and  May,  when  the  north-west  and  south-west  monsoons  set  in. 
The  Great  Coco  is  surrounded  by  a  strip  of  white  coral  beach,  on 
which  grows  an  almost  continuous  fence  of  cocoa-nut  trees.  A  ship 
may  anchor  on  the  east  side  of  the  Great  Coco  in  from  14  to  20 
fathoms;  also  on  the  west  side  in  the  north-east  monsoon.  Viewed 
from  a  distance,  the  island  appears  to  be  entirely  covered  with  these 
palms  (to  which  it  doubtless  owes  its  name) ;  but  in  reality  they  form 
only  a  narrow  belt,  the  interior  being  covered  with  forest  trees.  One 
or  two  parallel  ridges,  running  north  and  south  through  the  centre  of 
the  island,  rise  to  a  height  not  exceeding  50  feet.     The  island  appears 


14  •  COIMBATORE. 

(from  a  careful  examination  made  in  1874)  to  be  destitute  of  drinking 
water ;  although  it  has  been  said  that  a  good  tank  exists  somewhere. 
A  few  wild  pigs  are  found,  and  there  are  many  birds.  The  meteoro- 
logical aspects  of  the  islands  do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  Andamans. 
It  is  on  record  that  a  party  of  3  Europeans,  i  East  Indian,  and  8  Bur- 
mese tried  to  effect  a  settlement  on  the  Great  Coco  in  1849;  but  the 
project  had  to  be  abandoned,  7  of  the  party  having  succumbed  to  fever 
shortly  after  they  landed.  In  1878,  the  Governor  -  General  invited 
tenders  for  a  fifty  years'  lease  of  the  Great  Coco,  which  has  subse- 
quently been  rented  to  a  European  gentleman,  and  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  British  Burma. 

Coimbatore  {Koyatnbatiir). — District  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
lying  between  10°  14' and  12°  19'  n,  lat,  and  76°  35'  and  78°  14'  e. 
long.  Area,  7842  square  miles.  Population  in  1881,  1,657,690. 
Bounded  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  the  State  of  Mysore ;  on  the 
east  by  Salem  and  Trichinopoli  Districts,  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery)  river 
marking  the  boundary  up  to  the  line  of  railway  ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Nilgiris,  Malabar  District,  and  the  State  of  Cochin ;  and  on  the 
south  by  the  District  of  Madura  and  the  State  of  Travancore.  Coim- 
batore in  point  of  size  ranks  seventh,  and  in  point  of  population  tenth, 
among  the  Districts  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  It  is  sub-divided 
into  10  taluks,  and  contains  1447  inhabited  villages,  including  10  towns. 
The  chief  town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of  the  District  is 
Coimbatore.      Land  revenue  (1881-82),  ;^28o,969;    total   revenue, 

^328,310- 

Physical  Aspects. — The  northern  portion  of  the  District  consists  of  an 

elevated  table-land,  divided  from  the  Mysore  plateau  (of  which  it  really 

forms  a  continuation)  by  the  Biligiri-rangan  and  other  hill  ranges.     It 

has  a  northerly  slope,  and  presents  throughout  an  undulating  surface, 

with  an  average  elevation  of  2500  feet  above  the  rest  of  the  District. 

The  Biligiri-rangan  Hills  form  a  double  range,  with  ridges  5000  feet  in 

height,  enclosing  a  valley  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  filled  with  heavy 

forest  and  high  grass,  a  favourite  resort  of  wild  elephants.     Two  passes, 

the  Hassanur  and  Burghiir  ghats,  lead  thence  into  the  '  low  country.' 

This  is  a  plain,  slightly  undulating,  with  an  easterly  slope  from  the 

town  of  Coimbatore  (1431  feet  above  the  sea)   to  Kariir  (380  feet). 

All  the  rivers,  therefore,    flow  eastward    to   join    the    Kaveri,  except 

in  the  Pollachi   taluk,  which  is  situated   on   the  western   slope  of  the 

watershed.      On    the   western   confines   of  the  District  lie  the  Nilgiri 

Hills,  the  most   conspicuous  point   being  Lambton's  Peak,  a  narrow 

rid<^e    5000   feet  in  height ;    while   on  the    southern   frontier   lie   the 

Anamalais.      Along   the    northern    boundary  flows   the  Kaveri,  the 

chief  river  of  Coimbatore,  which  receives  in  this  District  the  waters 

of  the  Bhavani,  Noyii,,  and  Amravati.     Being  confined  within  rocky 


COIMBATORE. 


15 


banks,  and  having  a  fall  of  1000  feet  in  120  miles,  the  Kaveri  is 
very  rapid.  An  area  of  3000  square  miles  is  covered  with  forests, 
which  afford  a  large  supply  of  valuable  timber — teak,  rosewood,  sandal- 
wood, etc.  Waste  pasture  lands  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the 
CoUegal  taluk;  and  hither  immense  herds  of  cattle  are  yearly  driven 
from  the  neighbouring  District  of  Salem  to  graze.  The  Lambadis  and 
Brinjaras  here  breed  their  pack-bullocks.  The  chief  mineral  products 
of  the  District  are  iron  and  limestone ;  the  latter,  found  everywhere  in 
the  nodular  form  of  kankar^  exists  near  the  town  of  Coimbatore  in  a 
crystalline  form,  which  is  quarried  for  building  purposes.  In  a  District 
so  abundantly  supplied  with  forest,  waste  land,  and  hills,  it  is  natural 
that  the  fauna  should  be  numerous.  Nearly  all  the  larger  animals 
of  India  are  found  here — elephant,  bison,  bear,  tiger,  leopard,  ibex, 
antelope,  deer  of  several  species,  hyaena,  boar,  wolf,  etc. ;  as  also  the 
representative  birds  of  every  order.  In  the  rivers,  the  mdhser  fish  is 
common,  running  to  a  great  size.  Reptiles  abound,  and  about  100 
deaths  from  snake-bite  are  reported  annually.  The  yearly  expenditure 
in  rewards  for  the  destruction  of  dangerous  animals  averages  ^200. 

History. — The  District  of  Coimbatore  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Chera,  in  the  great  Dravida  division  of  Southern  India.  Its  ancient 
name  appears  to  have  been  Konga  or  Kangiyam,  w^hich  still  survives  in 
the  town  of  that  name  in  the  Darapuram  tdhik.  The  early  kingdom  of 
Chera  corresponded  roughly  with  the  present  Districts  of  Coimbatore 
and  'Salem  h€io\N -ghat s^'  and  had  for  its  capital  a  city  near  the  site  of 
the  present  Kariir.  About  the  9th  century,  the  Chera  country  was 
conquered  by  the  Chola  dynasty  ;  and  two  centuries  later,  both  together 
were  merged,  with  the  Pandya  dominions,  into  one  kingdom.  The 
eastern  portion  of  Coimbatore  passed  nominally  into  the  hands  of  the 
Madura  Naiks  in  the  i6th  century ;  and  in  the  17th  century  commenced 
the  series  of  Mysore  incursions  which  terminated  in  the  1 8th  century 
in  the  incorporation  of  the  District  with  Mysore.  In  1653,  the  first 
invaders,  descending  by  the  Gazalhatti  Pass,  ravaged  the  rich  plains 
of  Satyamangalam,  and  penetrated  across  the  District  into  Madura. 
Thence  they  were  driven  back  by  the  generals  of  Tirumala  Naik 
through  the  passes  into  Mysore.  Fourteen  years  later  they  returned, 
capturing  Erode  and  Darapuram,  and  virtually  subduing  the  District. 
During  the  wars  of  Haidar  All  and  his  son  Tipii  Sultan,  Coimbatore 
divided  with  the  Baramahal  and  TrichinopoH  the  distinction  of  being 
the  scene  of  the  hardest  fighting.  When  Haidar  rose  in  the  service 
of  the  Mysore  Raja,  and  exacted  concessions  of  land  for  himself, 
Coimbatore  was  the  first  tract  assigned  to  him.  He  lost  it  by  the 
temporary  reverses  of  1760-61,  but  immediately  employed  his  recovered 
strength  to  regain  possession.  In  1768,  the  British  troops  occupied 
the  District ;  but  Haidar  soon  rallied,  recaptured  it,  and  carried  into 


1 6  COIMBATORE. 

captivity  all  the  weak  garrisons  that  had  been  left  scattered  over  the 
country.     In   1783,  when  Tipii  was  besieging  Mangalore,  a  diversion 
was  made  by  a  British  contingent  into  Coimbatore ;  and  Kariir,  Arava- 
kurichi,  and  Darapuram  were  taken  in  succession.     The  fort  of  Coim- 
batore next  fell ;  but  the  treaty  of  Mangalore,  signed  immediately  after- 
wards, restored  the  District  to  Mysore.     During  the  second  war  with 
Tipii,  in  1790,  a  British  force  again  advanced  upon  the  District;  and 
though  it  was  overrun,   Tipii,    descending  in  force,    soon   reoccupied 
all  the  forts.     A  severe  battle  fought  near  Darapuram  left  him,  though 
not  victorious,  in  virtual  possession.     In  1791,  while   Lord  Cornwallis 
was   invading    Mysore,   Tipii  laid    siege   to  the  town  of  Coimbatore ; 
and  though  it  was  gallantly  defended   for  five  months  (by  Lieutenants 
Chalmers  and  Nash),  the  garrison  were  at  length  obliged  to  capitulate, 
and  were  carried  prisoners  to  Seringapatam.     The  treaty  of  1792,  signed 
soon  afterwards,    ceded    Coimbatore    and    the   greater  portion  of  the 
District  to  the  English;  and  in  1799,  on  the  capture  of  Seringapatam 
and  death  of  Tipii,  the  whole  passed  under  the  direct  administration 
of  the  East  India  Company.     The  southern  part  of  the   District  was 
then  added  to  the  Dindigal  Collectorate,  and  the  remainder,  with  part 
of  Salem  District,  erected  into  a  separate  charge.     A  rough  survey  was 
carried  out ;  and  on  the  Hues  then  laid  down,  the  administration  of  the 
District  has  ever  since  peaceably  progressed.     The  Jesuit  mission  at 
Coimbatore  has  lately  been  erected  into  a  separate  Vicariate- Apostolic, 
with  jurisdiction  over  the  Nilgiris  and  parts  of  Malabar  and  Cochin. 
The    London,  Leipzig,  Lutheran,  and    Evangelical  missions  have  all 
settlements  in  the  District. 

Population. — The  Census  of  187 1  disclosed  a  total  population  of 
1,763,274  persons,  inhabiting  361,109  houses.  The  latest  Census, 
that  of  1881,  returned  a  total  population  of  1,657,690,  showing  a 
decrease  of  105,584,  or  very  nearly  6  per  cent,  in  the  decade, 
due  to  the  severe  famine  of  1876-78.  Coimbatore  was  one  of  the 
'  famine  Districts '  of  that  disastrous  time,  but  the  distress  was  not 
equally  intense  over  the  whole  District.  In  the  tdhiks  of  Coimbatore, 
Karur,  and  PoUachi,  the  number  of  the  population  has  even  increased. 
The  male  population  of  the  District  in  1881  numbered  806,859, 
and  the  female  850,831;  proportion  of  males,  48*6  per  cent. 
Average  density  of  population,  211  persons  per  square  mile,  as  com- 
pared with  225  in  187 1 ;  number  of  towns  and  villages,  1447  ;  number  of 
occupied  houses,  354,920;  number  of  villages  per  square  mile,  -18; 
occupied  houses  per  square  mile,  45  ;  inmates  per  house,  4*6.  As 
regards  the  religious  distinctions  of  the  people,  1,606,343,  or  96*9 
per  cent.,  were  returned  as  Hindus;  37,855,  or  2  per  cent.,  as 
Muhammadans;  13,326,  or  0*69  per  cent.,  as  Christians;  there 
were   also    63    Buddhists,  68   Jains,  4   Parsis,  and    31    'others.'      Of 


COIMBATORE.  17 

children    under   ten   years    of    age    there    were    218,372    males    and 
228,438    females.      Among    the    Christians,    87    per   cent,    of  whom 
are  Roman  Catholics,  are  included  274  Europeans  and  272  Eurasians. 
The    Hindu    population   was    distributed    as    follows :  —  Brahman s, 
29,792;     Kshatriyas,     3039;     Chetties     (traders),     55,136;     Valla- 
lars    (agriculturists),    690,402  ;    Idaiyars    (shepherds),    42,432  ;     Kam- 
malars    (artisans),    43,458;    Kanakkans    (writers),     1062;     Kaikalars 
(weavers),     81,641;     Vanniyans     (labourers),     107,480;     Kushavans 
(potters),    16,394;    Satanis    (mixed    castes),    66,068;    Shembadavans 
(fishermen),    25,004;    Shanans    (toddy-drawers),    55,517;    Ambattans 
(barbers),   20,062;  Vannans  (washermen),   23,317;    Pariahs,   216,270; 
'others,'  129,269.     According  to  occupation,  18,591,  or  1-12  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population,  are  professional;  14,408,  or  0-87   per  cent, 
domestic;   12,943,  or  078  per  cent.,  commercial;   629,514,  or  37*97 
per  cent.,  agricultural;  251,883,  or   15-20    per  cent,   industrial;   and 
730^35 15  or  44'o6  per  cent.,  indefinite  and  non-productive.     3-12  per 
cent,  among  the  last  are  returned  as  '  occupied.'     About  59  per  cent, 
are  returned  as  w^orkers,  on  whom  the  remaining  41  per  cent,  of  the 
population  depend.     Of  males  67-41  per  cent.,  and  of  females  51 '13 
per  cent,  are   workers.       There    are    educated   or  under  instruction 
89,909  persons,  or  83,202  males  and  6707  females,  the  percentage  being 
10-31  and  0-79  respectively.     The  hill  and  jungle  tribes  are  the  Mala- 
sers,    Irulers,    Paliars,   Kaders,   and    Madavars,   found    chiefly   in   the 
Anamalais,  who  subsist  precariously  on  wild  fruits  and  roots,  by  the 
chase,  or  the  sale  of  jungle  produce.     The  Muhammadans  were  divided, 
according  to  sect,  into  4470  Labhays,  1889  Shaikhs,  2027  Pathans,  and 
6602  Sayyids.    The  Mappilas,  Arabs,  and  Mughals  number  together  onlv 
122,  while  14,758  were  returned  as  'others,'  and  7987  as  'not  stated.' 
The  language  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  District  is  Kanarese,  that 
of  the   remainder   Tamil ;    but   in    many   villages    a   corrupt   Teluo-u 
prevails,  bearing  witness  to  the  northern  origin  of  the  inhabitants.     The 
chief  towns  are— Coimbatore  (population  38,967),  Erode  (9864),  and 
Karur    (9205),   the   three   municipalities    of  the    District;    Bhavani 

(5930)5      COLLEGAL      (8462),     DaRAPURAM     (73  Io),      PoLLACHT     (5082), 

Pallapatti  (6351),  Satyamangalam  (3210),  and  Udamalpet  (5061). 
The  agriculturists  of  the  Vallalar  caste  and^  day-labourers  are  all  poor, 
living  in  mud-walled  huts,  and  subsisting  on  cholam,  ragi,  and  kambu, 
the  staple  food-grains  of  the  District  Rice  is  eaten  only  by  the  well- 
to-do.  The  expenses  of  an  ordinary  shopkeeper,  with  a  household  of 
five  persons,  have  been  estimated  at  about  ^3  per  month,  and  of  a 
cultivator's  family  at  about  one-half  that  sum. 

Agriailture. — Of  the  total  area  of  the  District,  7842  square  miles 
(5,018,880  acres),  3,469,331  acres  were  returned  in  1881-82  as 
assessed  to  Government  revenue.      The  total  area  under  cultivation 

VOL.   IV.  R 


1 8  COIMBATORE. 

amounted  to  2,100,393  acres,  of  which  115,072  acres  were  irrigated. 
The  cultivable  area  not  under  the  plough  was  1,100,869  acres; 
pasture  and  forest  lands,  481,265  acres;  and  uncultivable  waste, 
617,363  acres;  total  uncultivated,  2,099,497  acres.  Of  the  total 
area,  324,511  acres  are  held  in  indm,  or  under  a  free  grant.  In 
the  course  of  1881-82,  a  regular  survey  and  settlement  of  great 
part  of  Coimbatore  took  place.  The  staple  crops  of  the  Dis- 
trict are — cholam  (Sorghum  vulgare)  and  kavibu  (Panicum  spicatum), 
which  occupied  519,775  and  657,555  acres  respectively  of  the 
cultivated  area;  ragi  (Eleusine  coracana),  212,265  acres;  gram 
(Dohchos  biflorus),  63,409  acres;  rice,  85,717  acres;  and  other 
cereals,  35,968  acres.  Rice  requires  heavy  irrigation,  and  its  cul- 
tivation is  not  increasing.  Other  crops,  as  ddl  (Cajanus  indicus), 
ulandu  (Phaseolus  mungo),  peas,  lentils,  and  other  pulses  occupied 
199,357  acres;  orchard  and  garden  produce,  as  plantains,  cocoa- 
nuts,  etc.,  8184  acres;  tobacco,  17,396  acres;  coffee,  258  acres;  con- 
diments and  spices,  16,581  acres;  potatoes,  2128  acres;  sugar-cane 
and  sugar  palm,  5777  acres;  oil-seeds,  46,090  acres;  cotton,  229,631 
acres;  and  flax,  302  acres.  The  agricultural  stock  of  the  District  in 
1881-82  comprised  531,725  horned  cattle,  14,583  donkeys,  2363 
ponies,  350  horses,  245,653  goats,  354,154  sheep,  10,908  pigs,  16,866 
carts,  and  166,770  ploughs.  The  prices  of  produce  ruling  in  the 
District  at  the  end  of  the  year  1881-82,  per  maundoi2>o  lbs.,  were  for 
rice,  5s.  ijd. ;  for  wheat,  6s.  9|d. ;  other  grains,  from  2s.  3d.  to  2s.  lod. ; 
gram,  from  2s.  7jd.  to  5s.  5^d.  ;  chiUies,  7s. ;  salt,  6s.  7jd.  ;  sugar, 
IIS.  5jd. ;  gingelly,  7s.  3|d. ;  ground  nuts,  3s.  2jd. ;  tobacco,  iis.  9fd.  ; 
flax,  los. ;  cotton,  7s.  7jd. ;  sheep,  4s.  6d.  each.  There  are  two 
seasons  for  sowing.  May  and  October,  and  two  harvests,  in  September 
and  February.  Rice  land  pays  from  15s.  to  £^2,  12s.  in  land  revenue 
per  acre,  and  produces  a  crop  ranging  in  value,  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  soil,  from  ^2,  8s.  to  ^5,  6s.  Most  land  also  yields  a  second 
crop,  valued  at  about  half  the  first.  The  majority  of  the  holdings 
are  very  small ;  and  the  average  of  the  revenue  assessment  is  about 
1 6s.  A  holding  paying  ;^5o  a  year  to  Government  is  considered  an 
exceptionally  large  one,  and  one  paying  £^\o  a  comfortable  estate. 
The  holder  of  an  estate  paying  less  than  £,2  would  be  considered  poor. 
With  a  single  pair  of  oxen,  5  acres  can  be  cultivated ;  the  necessary 
implements  and  oxen  would  cost  about  jQ^  ;  and  if  the  plot  were  garden 
land,  the  cultivator  would  be  about  as  well  off  as  a  retail  shopkeeper 
making  i6s.  a  month.  Most  of  the  cultivators  have  occupancy  rights  ; 
but  many  villages  are  held  zaminddri,  as  one  estate,  the  proprietor  pay- 
ing a  fixed  yearly  revenue  {peshkash)  to  Government,  and  recouping 
himself  from  his  tenants.  Other  villages  and  plots,  again,  are  held  as 
Jdgirs,  shrotriem,  or  indm^  rent  free>  and  on  specially   advantageous 


COIMBATORE.  19 

terms,  in  reward  for  services  rendered,  or  for  the  support  of  religious 
and  charitable  endowments.     Under  the  Mysore  rule,  the  District  was 
farmed  by  a  it^^  wealthy  individuals,  who  made  themselves  responsible 
for   the    revenue;    but    in    1800,    after    the    last    Mysore   war,    when 
the    Company   assumed   the  administration,    the    present    system    of 
direct     settlement    with     the     cultivators    was     introduced.       Waste 
lands,    overgrown  with  cactus,   the    scourge  of   part   of  the    District, 
are   leased    rent   free,    for   terms    not    exceeding    ten   years,    to   any 
who   will  rid   them    of  the  pest,  and   bring  them  under  cultivation. 
The  principle  of  rotation  of  crops  appears  to  be  thoroughly  understood, 
and  the  advantages  of  manure  are  appreciated.     The  '  Imperial '  and 
'Minor'  irrigation  works  of   the  District  comprise    59    channels   and 
119  tanks,  irrigating  an  area  of  55,276  acres,  and  yielding  a  revenue 
of  ;:^29,365.     Agricultural  day-labourers  or  coolies  earn  ^\<\.  per  diem  ; 
women,    3d.  ;   and   children,   i^d.     Blacksmiths,  bricklayers,  and  car- 
penters receive  from  is.  to  is.  9d.  per  diem.     Since  1850,  the  rates  of 
wages  for  skilled  labour  have  risen  from  25  to  80  per  cent.,  and  prices 
of  food   have  doubled.     Rice,  which  in   1850  was  selling  at   3s.  per 
inaund  (80  lbs.),  now  sells  at  5s.  6d.;  cholam,  formerly  is.  4d.  ^ex  ??iau?id, 
now  costs  3s.  ;  wheat,  once  3s.  per  matind,  now  sells  at  7s.  ;  salt  has 
risen  from  4s.  4d.  to  6s.  7|d.  per  mamid,  and  country  liquor  from  i  Jd. 
to  3d.  and  8d.  per  gallon.     Accumulations  of  money  from  the  profits 
of  agriculture  are  to  a  large  extent  employed  in  well-building  and  the 
improvement  of  land.     The  rate  of  interest  varies  from  6  to  1 2  per  cent, 
per  annum,  though  24  to  30  per  cent,  is  sometimes  charged ;  9  per  cent, 
is  considered  a  good  return  for  money  invested  in  land. 

Natural  Calamities.  —  Periods  of  drought  and  consequently  high 
prices  have  recurred  at  regular  intervals,  in  1837-38,  1847-48,  1857-58, 
1868-69;  but  in  none  of  these  years  did  the  scarcity  ever  amount 
to  famine.  In  1876,  owing  to  the  failure  of  crops  in  Mysore  and 
the  Ceded  Districts,  an  immense  exportation  of  grain  from  Coim- 
batore  took  place ;  the  result  being  such  a  rapid  rise  in  the  rates,  that 
in  two  months  the  price  of  cholam  had  doubled,  and  ragi,  selling  in 
October  at  25  lbs.  for  is.,  cost  in  December  three  times  that  amount. 
Actual  famine  afterwards  set  in ;  and  relief  works  had  to  be  opened, 
which  in  a  month  gave  employment  to  28,000  persons.  A  steady 
importation  of  sea-borne  grain  soon  brought  prices  to  their  normal 
rates.  Against  famine  Coimbatore  has  now  the  best  safeguard — a 
railway  traversing  it,  and  good  roads  communicating  with  the  Districts 
adjoining  on  all  sides. 

Commerce  and  Trade. — Weaving  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  District, 
and,  though  of  late  years  affected  by  the  low  price  of  British  textures, 
constitutes  a  lucrative  employment.  The  general  export  trade  is  small, 
consisting  chiefly  in  the  exchange  of  cotton  of  inferior  quality,  tobacco. 


20  COIMBATORE. 

and  grain,  for  salt.  Palladam  is  the  centre  of  the  cotton  trade,  the  fibre 
being  there  pressed,  and  despatched  to  the  railway  station  of  Tirupiir 
for  transmission  to  the  ports  of  Madras  and  Beypur.  Weekly  markets 
held  at  the  towns  and  larger  villages — about  250  in  all — provide  amply 
for  local  interchange  of  produce.  The  total  length  of  railway  lines 
running  through  the  District  is  147  miles,  viz.  the  Madras  Railway, 
south-west  line,  with  a  branch  to  the  Nilgiri  Hills  from  Podaniir  junction 
station  to  Mettapolliem,  and  the  South  Indian  Railway  passing  through 
Kariir,  and  joining  the  Madras  line  at  Erode  station.  There  are  also 
1 5 14  miles  of  made  Imperial  and  Local  roads.  The  principal  roads 
are  the  Madras  Trunk  Road  and  those  leading  to  Trichinopoli,  Madura, 
and  the  Burghiir  and  Hassaniir  Passes,  aggregating  a  total  length  of 
385  miles.  Khedas^  or  stockades,  for  the  capture  of  wild  elephants  have 
been  established  in  the  north  of  the  District.  In  1873,  an  Act  was 
passed  forbidding  the  destruction  of  these  animals ;  and  since  that  year 
several  scores  of  elephants  have  been  captured  alive. 

Administ7'ation. — For  administrative  purposes,  the  District  is  divided 
into  10  taluks — Coimbatore,  Pollachi,  Palladam,  Karur,  Erode, 
Udamalpet,  Darapuram,  Satyamangalam,  Collegal,  and  Bhavani 
— each  of  which  is  supervised  by  a  native  staff,  revenue  and  judicial.  The 
Sub-Collector,  Head  Assistant  (Europeans),  and  Deputy  Collector  have 
superior  jurisdiction ;  the  first  over  4,  the  second  over  3,  and  the  third 
over  2  taluks^  the  Collector-Magistrate  having  himself  special  charge  of 
the  head-quarters  tdUik.  The  Nilgiri  Hills  formed,  until  1868,  a  Sub- 
division of  Coimbatore.  The  total  revenue  for  1881-82  was  ;^328,3io. 
The  principal  items  of  income  were — land  revenue,  ^280,969  ;  excise, 
^25,973;  stamps,  ;£"2o,io7;  forests,  ^4623;  and  assessed  taxes, 
^1258.  The  judicial  machinery  of  the  District  consists  of  6  civil  courts 
and  32  magisterial  courts,  exclusive  of  village  magistrates-.  The  police 
force  aggregates  a  strength  of  1 2 1 1  of  all  ranks,  being  in  the  proportion 
of  I  constable  to  every  6  square  miles  and  to  every  1369  of  the  popula- 
tion, maintained  at  an  annual  cost  of  ^19,563.  The  District  contains 
I  central,  i  District,  and  16  subsidiary  jails.  The  central  jail  accom- 
modates upwards  of  1000  prisoners.  The  daily  average  number  of 
prisoners  in  it  and  in  the  District  jail  was,  in  188 1,  1 185  ;  in  all  the  others 
together,  91.  The  total  expenditure  on  this  account  for  1881  amounted 
to  ^7165,  or  ^6,  i8s.  per  head,  for  the  prisoners  in  the  central  jail ; 
and  ;£88i,  or  ^5,  15s.  per  head,  for  those  in  the  District  jail. 

Medical  Aspects. — Coimbatore  is  remarkable  for  the  comparatively 
cool  winds  which  blow  across  it  from  the  west  between  May  and 
October.  The  monsoon  brings  its  rain  to  Malabar,  and  up  to  the  range 
of  hills  separating  that  District  from  Coimbatore;  but  there  it  stops,  a  cold 
damp  wind  without  any  rain  blowing  during  the  monsoon  months  over 
the  plains  of  Coimbatore.     Thus,  after  the  hot  months  of  March  and 


COIMBATORE  TALUK  AND  TO  WIST.  21 

April,  the  temperature  suddenly  falls,  and  remains  low  till  October. 
The  District  is  healthy,  except  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  ranges,  where  the 
atmosphere  at  night  is  so  malarious  that  the  cultivators  dare  not  remain 
after  dusk.  The  number  of  births  registered  in  the  District  in  1881 
was  35,038,  or  a  ratio  of  2ri  births  per  1000  of  population.  The 
number  of  registered  deaths  for  the  same  year  was  20,805,  or  12-5  per 
1000,  the  mean  for  the  previous  five  years  being  15-2.  The  extension 
of  cultivation  having  greatly  curtailed  the  pasturage,  murrain  and  '  foot- 
and-mouth  '  disease  have  become  prevalent  among  the  cattle.  The 
latter  disease  has  been  communicated  to  the  wild  herds  of  bison,  and 
sportsmen  find  the  numbers  of  these  animals  rapidly  decreasing  from 
this  cause.  [For  further  information  regarding  Coimbatore,  see  the 
Madras  Census  Report  iox  1881,  and  i\iQ  Annual  Ad77iinistration  Report s 
of  the  Presidency  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Coimbatore.— 7Iz7//^  of  Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Area,  804  square  miles,  of  which  about  56  per  cent,  is  under  cultivation. 
The  taluk  contains  i  town  and  261  villages,  and  51,761  occupied 
houses.  Population  (1881)  267,804,  namely,  131,334  males  and  136,470 
females;  land  revenue  demand,  ^33,870.  There  are  in  the  tdluJz 
2  civil  and  4  criminal  courts;  police  stations  {thdnds),  10;  strength  of 
police,  349  men. 

Coimbatore  {Koyambdtur,  formerly  Koyampadi  and  Koibinutur).— 
Chief  town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of  Coimbatore  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  A  station  of  the  Madras  Railway  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Noyil  river,  in  lat.  10°  59'  41"  n.,  and  long.  76°  59' 
46"  E. ;  304  miles  by  rail  from  Madras,  and  50  miles  from  Utakamand 
(Ootacamund).  Houses,  6684,  of  which  1007  were  unoccupied  in  1881  ; 
two-thirds  of  the  houses  are  tiled.  Population  (1881)  38,967,  namely, 
33,997  Hindus,  2763  Muhammadans,  2162  Christians,  and  45  'others;' 
municipal  revenue  in  1881-82,  ^2651;  incidence  of  taxation  per 
head,  about  is.  4jd.  As  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  administra- 
tion, Coimbatore  contains  all  the  chief  courts— magisterial,  revenue, 
and  judicial— the  central  jail.  District  police,  post  and  telegraph  offices, 
dispensary,  and  school.  The  town  lies  1437  feet  above  sea-level;  and, 
being  built  with  particularly  wide  streets,  and  possessing  good  natural 
drainage,  an  abundant  water-supply,  and  a  cool  temperature,  it  is  better 
suited  for  the  residence  of  Europeans  than  most  of  the  towns  of  the 
Presidency.  The  Nilgiri  branch  of  the  Madras  south-western  line  con- 
nects it  with  the  railway  system— the  junction  station  for  Coimbatore 
being  Podaniir.  From  its  position,  commanding  the  approach  to 
Palghat  on  the  west,  and  to  the  Gazalhatti  Pass  on  the  north,  Coim- 
batore was  formerly  of  great  strategical  importance.  Originally 
belonging  to  the  Chera  dominions,  it  fell  to  the  Madura  Nayaks,  by 
whom  it  was  considered  one  of  their  chief  strongholds,  and  afterwards 


22  COLABA—COLGONG. 

to  Mysore.  During  the  wars  with  Haidar  AH  and  Tipii  Sultan,  it 
changed  masters  many  times.  In  1768,  the  British  took  it,  and  again 
lost  it;  and  in  1783,  it  was  again  taken  and  retaken.  In  1790,  the 
Company's  forces  a  third  time  occupied  it,  but  Tipii,  after  a  siege  of 
five  months,  compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender.  In  1792  provision- 
ally, and  in  1799  finally,  the  town  was  ceded  to  the  British,  and  from 
that  time  it  ceased  to  be  a  military  station.  Three  miles  distant,  at 
Periir,  stands  the  temple  of  Mel-Chidambaram  (to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Kil-Chidambaram  of  South  Arcot),  celebrated  for  its  sanctity, 
and  further  remarkable  as  one  of  the  three  Hindu  temples  spared  from 
destruction  by  Tipii  Sultan. 

Colaba. — District,  Bombay  Presidency. — See  Kolaba. 

Colepett. — Town  in  Coorg. — See  Amatti. 

Coleroon  {Kolladam). — The  northern  mouth  of  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery) 
river  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  which  leaves  the  main  channel  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  island  of  Srirangam,  about  10  miles  west  of  Tri- 
chinopoh,  in  lat.  10°  53'  n.,  and  long.  78°  51'  e.  After  a  north-easterly 
course  of  about  94  miles,  it  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  at  Atchavaram, 
3J  miles  from  Porto  Novo,  in  lat.  11°  26'  n.,  and  long.  79°  52'  e.  For 
the  greater  part  of  its  length  the  Coleroon  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  Districts  of  Trichinopoli  and  South  Arcot  on  the  left,  and  Tanjore 
on  the  right  bank.  As  compared  with  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery)  proper, 
its  course  is  more  direct  and  its  fall  more  rapid ;  and  consequently  it 
naturally  tends  to  carry  off  the  larger  volume  of  water.  To  counteract 
this  tendency  and  maintain  the  proper  water-supply  of  the  Tanjore 
delta,  'the  great  anient  or  dam  was  constructed  in  1856  across  the 
channel  of  the  Coleroon  by  Sir  A.  Cotton.  A  description  of  this  work 
is  given  in  the  article  on  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery).  In  the  same  year  a 
second  dam,  known  as  the  lower  anient,  was  thrown  across  the 
Coleroon,  70  miles  below  Srirangam,  in  order  to  regulate  the  irrigation 
of  South  Arcot.  This  dam  consists  of  a  hollow  bar  of  masonry,  8  feet 
high  and  as  many  broad,  the  interior  being  filled  with  sand  rammed 
down.  The  total  length  is  1901  feet,  and  in  the  rear  is  an  apron  of 
masonry.  The  lower  anient  also  feeds  the  great  Viranam  tank  by  the 
Vadavar  channel,  and  by  several  canals  irrigates  Tanjore  District.  In 
South  Arcot,  the  main  channels  from  the  Coleroon  are  the  '  Khan 
Sahib,'  the  '  Iron  Company's,'  the  '  Raja  Vaikal,'  the  Budenkugi,  and 
the  Karangiili  canals.  The  total  outlay  on  the  lower  anient  and  its 
dependent  works  was  about  ^£"30,000,  and  the  increase  of  revenue  since 
its  construction  has  averaged  over  ^10,000  per  annum  in  South  Arcot 
alone.  The  Coleroon  is  affected  by  the  tide  for  5  or  6  miles  from  its 
mouth.     The  boat  traffic  is  considerable. 

Colgong  {Kahlgdon). — Town  and  head-quarters  of  a  police  circle 
(thdnd)  in  Bhagalpur  District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the  right  or  south 


COLLEGAL—COLONELGANJ.  23 

bank  of  the  Ganges.  Lat.  25°  15'  55"  n.,  long.  87°  16'  51"  e.  The 
second  largest  town  in  the  District.  Population  (1881),  Hindus,  4419  ; 
Muhammadans,  1240  ;  '  others,'  13  :  total  5672,  namely,  2707  males  and 
2965  females.  Municipal  committee  of  10  members,  of  whom  9  are 
non-officials.  Municipal  income  (1881-82),  ;^3i9  ;  expenditure,  ^321  ; 
rate  of  taxation,  is.  iM.  per  head  of  population  within  municipal  limits. 
Colgong  has  for  long  been  a  place  of  commercial  importance,  owing 
to  its  being  easily  accessible  both  by  railway  and  river,  and  is  still  a 
centre  of  trade  for  the  country  on  all  sides  for  about  a  dozen 
miles  round.  Since  1875,  however,  a  large  number  of  traders  have  left 
the  town  in  consequence  of  the  diversion  of  the  main  stream  of  the 
Ganges,  which  formerly  flowed  just  under  the  town,  but  has  receded, 
although  there  is  now  (1883)  a  channel  close  under  the  town,  which  is 
open  for  trafiic  in  the  dry  season.  The  former  channel  of  the  river  is 
at  present  occupied  by  a  broad  bank  of  loose  sand,  across  which  it  is 
very  difficult  to  convey  heav^y  merchandise.  The  railway  station  is  on 
the  loop  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway,  245  miles  from  Calcutta. 
The  only  fact  of  historical  interest  connected  with  Colgong  is  that 
Mahmiid  Shah,  the  last  independent  King  of  Bengal,  died  here  in 
1539  A.D.  After  his  defeat  at  Behar,  he  fled  to  Gaur;  and  when  that 
place  was  invested  by  the  Afghan  Sher  Shah,  he  took  refuge  with  the 
Emperor  Humayun  at  Chanar.  In  his  absence,  Gaur  was  stormed  and 
sacked,  and  his  two  sons  were  slain  by  the  x\fghans.  He  had  advanced 
with  the  Emperor  as  far  as  Colgong,  to  attack  Sher  Shah,  when  the 
tidings  of  his  sons'  death  was  brought  to  him,  which  so  affected  him 
that  he  died  of  grief  in  a  few  days. 

Collegal  {Kdlligdl). — Tdhik  in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presi- 
dency. Area,  1062  square  miles,  containing  i  town  and  121  villages. 
Houses,  12,617.  Population  (1881)  77,522,  namely,  37,890  males 
and  39,632  females.  Land  revenue  demand  (1882-83),  £.'^Z9Z-  The 
taluk  contains  i  civil  and  2  criminal  courts,  with  6  police  stations 
ithdnds). 

Collegal  {Kdlligdl). — Chief  town  in  the  taluk  of  the  same  name, 
Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  12°  10' n.,  long.  77°  9' e. 
Population  (1881)  8462,  namely,  7951  Hindus,  493  Muhammadans,  and 
18  Christians  ;  number  of  houses,  1347. 

Colonelganj. — Town  in  Gonda  District,  Oudh  ;  2  miles  north  of  the 
Sarju  river,  20  miles  from  Gonda  town,  and  10  from  Bahramghat. 
Lat.  27°  8'  N.,  and  long.  81°  44'  e.  The  original  village,  named 
Sakrora,  was  a  place  of  no  importance  till,  in  1780,  a  force  under  a 
British  officer  was  sent  by  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  to  bring  to  terms  the 
refractory  rulers  of  his  trans-Gogra  Provinces,  and  Sakrora  became  the 
head-quarters  of  this  force  for  some  years.  In  1802,  a  larger  force  was 
stationed  here  ;  and  a  bdzdr  named  Colonelganj,  in  honour  of  the  com- 


2  4  COL  ONEL  GANJ—  CO  MILLAR. 

manding  officer,  came  into  existence.  On  the  annexation  of  Oudh, 
Colonelganj  was  selected  as  the  miUtary  head-quarters  for  the  Com- 
missionership  of  Gonda  and  Bahraich.  The  native  troops  here,  as 
elsewhere,  revolted  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny;  and  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  the  English  officers  escaped  to  the  protection  of  the  loyal 
Raja  of  Balrampur.  On  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion,  Colonelganj 
was  abandoned  as  a  military  station.  Its  central  position  between 
Bahraich,  Gonda,  and  Balrampur,  however,  marked  it  out  as  a  natural 
depot  for  the  rice  and  oil-seeds  of  the  western  portions  of  the  trans- 
Gogra  tardi,  and  it  soon  became  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  export  trade, 
which  has  increased  of  late  years,  but  which  is  probably  doomed  to 
extinction  on  the  completion  of  the  Patna-Bahraich  railway.  Import 
trade  insignificant,  consisting  of  a  Httle  salt,  raw  and  manufactured 
cotton,  and  copper  vessels.  Population  (1881),  Hindus,  4106,  the  pre- 
vailing castes  being  Banias,  Pasis,  and  Ahirs ;  Muhammadans,  1789: 
total,  5904,  residing  in  1243  houses.  A  few  ordinary  Hindu  temples, 
two  mosques,  and  a  sardi,  are  the  principal  buildings.  Bi-weekly 
market,  police  station.  Government  school,  dispensary. 

Colonelganj. — River-side  mart  in  Patna  District,  Bengal,  situated 
west  of  Gulzarbagh,  forming  one  of  the  large  business  quarters  of 
Patna  City,  and  the  centre  of  a  large  trade  in  oil-seeds  and  food-grains. 

Combaconum  {Kumbhakonam). — Taluk  or  Sub-division  in  Tan j ore 
District,  Madras  Presidency.  Area,  314  square  miles,  containing  2 
towns  and  505  villages.  Houses,  61,667.  Population  (1881)370,723, 
namely,  179,538  males  and  191,185  females.  Land  revenue  (1882-83), 
^79,718.  The  tdhik  is  administered  by  a  Head  Assistant  Collector, 
with  tahsilddrs,  who  preside  over  2  civil  and  4  criminal  courts  ;  number 
of  police  stations  {thdnds),  12  ;  strength  of  police  force,  182  men. 

Combaconum  {Kuinbhakonam^  '  The  water-jar  mouth' — Sanskrit). — 
Town  and  head-quarters  of  Combaconum  /tz7z^X',Tanjore  District,  Madras 
Presidency  ;  situated  in  the  richest  tract  of  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery)  delta, 
in  lat.  10°  58'  20"  N.,  and  long.  79°  24'  30"  e.  Population  (1881)  50,098, 
namely,  47,908  Hindus,  of  whom  nearly  20  per  cent,  are  Brahmans, 
1228  Muhammadans,  908  Christians,  and  54  -others;'  number  of 
houses,  7243.  Formerly  the  capital  of  the  Chola  kingdom,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  sacred  towns  in  the  Presidency,  and  so  cele- 
brated for  its  learning  as  to  have  been  called  the  Oxford  of  Southern 
India.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  Hindu  temples,  for  the  most  part 
in  good  repair  and  well  endowed,  it  contains  a  Government  college, 
courts,  etc.  Being  much  frequented  by  visitors  and  pilgrims,  a  brisk 
trade  is  carried  on.  Municipal  revenue,  about  J[^a,\oo\  incidence  of 
direct  taxation,  about  iid.  per  head. 

ComercoUy. — Town  in  Nadiya  District,  Bengal. — See  Kumarkhali. 

Comiilah  {Kumilld). — Chief  town  and  administrative  head-quarters 


COMORIN—  CO  NBA  VI D.  2  5 

of  Tipperah  District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the  Gumti  river,  on  the  main 
road  from  Dacca  to  Chittagong,  in  lat.  23°  27'  55"  n.,  and  long.  91° 
13'  iS"  E.  Population  (1881),  Hindus,  5850;  Muhammadans,  7351  ; 
Christians,  121;  'others,'  50:  total,  13,372,  namely,  males  8029,  and 
females  5343.  Constituted  a  municipality  in  1864,  the  municipal 
limits  covering  an  area  of  2969  acres;  income  in  1881-82,  ^1692 
—  expenditure,  ^1649;  ^^^e  of  taxation,  is.  i\di.  per  head  of 
population  within  municipal  limits.  During  the  rains,  the  water 
in  the  river  often  rises  several  feet  above  the  level  of  the  town, 
which  is  only  saved  from  periodical  inundation  by  an  embankment 
maintained  by  the  Raja  of  Hill  Tipperah ;  but  as  this  is  narrow 
and  Aveak  in  many  parts,  the  town  has  sometimes  been  in  great 
danger.  The  principal  roads  are  metalled  within  municipal  limits,  and 
lined  on  both  sides  with  handsome  trees.  The  largest  of  the  many 
fine  tanks  in  Comillah  is  the  Dharm  Sagar,  constructed  by  a  Raja 
of  Tipperah  in  the  first  half  of  the  15th  century,  which  is  a  mile 
in  circumference.  The  houses  of  the  European  officials,  and  the 
District  school,  are  built  on  its  banks.  An  English  church  was 
consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of  Calcutta  in  September  1875.  Besides 
the  ordinary  Government  courts  and  buildings,  the  houses  of 
the  European  residents,  and  the  post-office,  there  are  very  few  brick 
houses  in  the  place.  The  Raja  of  Tipperah,  who  owns  the  land 
on  which  the  town  is  built,  will  not  allow  his  tenants  to  build 
any  but  mat  or  mud  houses,  unless  they  pay  him  so  large  a  7iazar  (con- 
cihatory  present)  as  to  practically  amount  to  a  prohibition.  Bridged 
unmetalled  roads,  passable  for  carts  all  the  year  round,  connect 
Comillah  with  Daiid  Kandi,  Chittagong,  Company-ganj,  the  Titas  river, 
Hajiganj,  Laksham  Bibi  Bazar,  and  the  Ralmai  hills.  Comilla  has 
been  fixed  upon  as  the  starting-point  for  the  projected  railway  north- 
wards to  Assam  and  Cachar. 

Comorin  {Kumdri ;  Kaimia-Kumdi'i). — Headland  in  the  State  of 
Travancore,  Madras  Presidency,  the  extreme  southern  point  of  India. 
Lat.  8°  4'  20"  N.,  long.  77°  35'  35"  e.  From  Cape  Comorin  the  chain 
of  the  Western  Ghats  runs  northwards.  In  the  Periplus^  reference  is 
made  to  a  harbour  here ;  but  this  has  now  disappeared,  owing  to  en- 
croachments of  the  sea,  although  a  well  of.  fresh  water  in  a  rock  a  little 
way  out  to  sea  seems  to  support  the  theory  of  its  former  existence. 

Comorin  {Kumdri^  'a  virgin'). — Village  near  the  cape  of  the  same 
name.  Lat,  8°  4  n.,  long.  77°  36'  e.  Houses,  430.  Population  (1881) 
2247.  The  bathing  festival  referred  to  by  the  Greek  geographers  is 
still  continued  in  honour  of  Durga,  the  virgin  goddess  after  whom  the 
place  is  named. 

Condavid.  —  Town   in    Kistna   District,    Madras    Presidency. — See 

KONDAVIR. 


26  CONJEVARAM  TALUK  AND  TOWN. 

Conjevaram  {Kdnchivaram  ;  Kdnchipiiram  ;  Klen-chi-pu-lo  of  Hwen 
Thsang). — Tdlnk  of  Chengalpat  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Area, 
447  square  miles.  Houses,  30,411.  Population  (1881)  185,649, 
namely,  91,909  males  and  93,740  females.  In  no  other  taluk  in  the 
District  are  the  women  in  excess  of  the  men.  Classified  according 
to  religion,  there  were  in  1881 — 176,506  Hindus;  3814  Muham- 
madans;  5205  Christians,  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics;  and  124 
'  others.'  A  low-lying  tdluk^  with  a  stony  soil,  and  only  wooded  by 
scrub-jungle.  Watered  by  the  Palar  and  Cortelliar  rivers.  Land 
revenue  demand,  ;£39,2  79.  The  tdluk,  which  is  subject  in  civil 
matters  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  mimsifs  court  at  Trivellore,  contains 
3  criminal  courts,  with  1 1  police  stations  {tJuhids) ;  strength  of  police 
force,  1 6^  men.  f 

Conjevaram  {Kdnchivaj^am). — Town  and  head-quarters   of  Conje- 
varam tdluk,  Chengalpat  District,   Madras  Presidency.     Lat.   12°   49' 
45"  N.,  long.   79°  45'   E.     Houses,   7179.     Population  (1881)  37,275, 
namely,  Hindus,   35,989;  Muhammadans,   1172;  Christians,  28;  and 
'others,'  86.      Area  of  town  site,  5858  acres.     About  11  per  cent,  of 
the    population  are    Brahmans,    and    17   per  cent,  weavers  of  a  caste 
peculiar    to    this    portion    of    the    District.       Municipal    revenue   for 
1881-82,  ^2412  ;  incidence  of  taxation,  about  8d.  per  head  of  rateable 
population.     Situated  on  the  Trunk  road  46  miles  south-west  of  Madras. 
The  branch  line  of  the  South   Indian    Railway  from    Chengalpat  to 
Arkonam  passes  through  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  town.     As  the 
head-quarters  of  the  tdhik,  Conjevaram  contains  the  usual  subordinate 
magisterial  and  revenue  courts,  jail,  dispensary,  school,  etc.    But  it  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  being  a  place  of  special  sanctity.      Conjevaram  is 
one  of  the  seven  holy  cities  of  India,  and  has  been  called  the  '  Benares  of 
the  South.'     Hwen  Thsang  speaks  of  it  as  the  capital  of  Dravida.     It 
was  then  a  great  Buddhist  centre  ;  but  about  the  8th  century  began  a 
Jain  epoch,  and  traces  of  this  religion  still  exist  in  the  neighbourhood. 
To  this  succeeded  the  period  of  Hindu  predominance,  and  the  Vija- 
yanagar  Rajas  (who  had  treated  the  Jains  liberally)  endowed  the  sacred 
places  of  their  own  religion  with   great   magnificence.     Two  of  the 
temples,  the  largest  in  Southern   India,  were  built  by  Krishna  Raya 
about  1509  ;  and  for  many  smaller  pagodas,  choultries  and  agrahdrams 
(Brahman  resting-houses  and  alms-houses),  the  town  is  indebted  to  the 
same  family.     The    lofty  gopuras   (pyramids),    the   thousand  -  pillared 
temple,  with  its  splendid  porch  and  fine  jewels,  attract  the  chief  atten- 
tion of  visitors   {see  Chidambaram).     The  great  annual  fair  held  in 
May  is  attended,  in  prosperous  years,  by  as   many  as  50,000  pilgrims. 
'  Kanchipur '  was  an  important  city  of  the  Chola  kingdom,  and  in  the 
14th  century  the  capital  of  Tondamandalam.     After  the  fall  of  the 
Vijayanagar    family  in    1644,    it    was    subject    to   the    Muhammadan 


CONTAI-  CO  ONO  OR.  2  7 

kings  of  Golconda,  and  at  a  later  date  became  part  of  the  Arcot 
dominions.  In  1751,  Clive,  returning  from  Arcot,  took  the  town 
from  the  French,  but  had,  in  the  same  year,  again  to  contest  its 
possession  with  Raja  Sahib.  In  1757,  the  French,  beaten  off  in  an 
attack  upon  the  pagoda,  set  fire  to  the  town.  In  1758,  the  British 
garrison  was  temporarily  withdrawn,  on  account  of  the  expected  advance 
of  the  French  upon  Madras,  but  was  soon  sent  back  with  reinforcements  ; 
and  during  the  siege  of  the  capital,  and  the  subsequent  wars  of  the 
Karnatic,  this  town  played  an  important  part  as  a  depot  and  canton- 
ment. A  few  miles  distant,  at  Pullaliir,  is  the  battle-field  where  General 
Baillie's  column  was  cut  to  pieces  in  1780  by  Haidar  All, 

Contai  {Kd7ithi). — Sub-division  of  Midnapur  District,  Bengal,  lying 
between  21°  37'  15"  and  22°  10'  30"  n.  lat,  and  between  87°  27'  15" 
and  ZZ°  i'  30"  e.  long.  Area,  849  square  miles,  with  2385  villages  or 
towns  and  55,418  occupied  houses.  Population  (1881),  Hindus, 
457,722;  Muhammadans,  24,176;  Sikhs,  42;  Christians,  20;  and 
'others,'  ^^d:  total,  481,996,  namely,  males  242,277,  and  females 
239j7I9  ;  average  density  of  population,  568  persons  per  square  mile  ; 
average  number  of  houses  per  square  mile,  71  ;  persons  per  village,  202  ; 
persons  per  house,  87.  The  Sub-division,  which  was  created  ist  January 
1852,  comprises  the  6  police  circles  {ihdnds)  of  Contai,  Raghunathpur, 
Egra,  Khejiri  (Kedgeree),  Pataspur,  and  Bhagwanpur.  In  1883,  it 
contained  two  revenue  and  two  magisterial  courts,  with  a  regular  police 
force  158  strong,  besides  1352  village  w^atchmen. 

Contai  {Kdnthi). — Head-quarters  of  Contai  Sub-division,  Midnapur 
District,  Bengal,  and  of  a  police  circle  {thdnd).  The  village  contains 
the  usual  sub-divisional  buildings,  two  munsifs  courts,  and  a  higher- 
class  English  school. 

Coompta  {Kumpta).  —  Sub-division  and  town,  Kanara  District, 
Bombay  Presidency. — See  Kumpta. 

Coonoor  {Kumlr). — Town  and  sanitarium  in  the  Nilgiri  Hills  Dis- 
trict, Aladras  Presidency.  Situated  in  lat.  11°  20'  n.,  and  long.  76°  50' 
E.,  6000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Nilgiri 
plateau,  and  at  the  head  of  the  principal  pass  (the  Coonoor  Ghat) 
from  the  plains;  distant  t^Gt,  miles  by  rail  from  Madras,  and  12 
from  Utakamand  (Ootacamund).  Houses,  1450.  Population  (1881) 
about  4778,  being  3247  Hindus  (chiefly  Pariahs),  and  the  remainder 
Europeans,  with  their  establishments,  a  fluctuating  number.  The 
municipal  limits  extend  over  about  7  square  miles ;  the  municipal 
revenue  realized  in  1881  w^as  about  ^2000;  incidence  of  taxation, 
about  2s.  7d.  per  head  of  population.  A  carriage  road,  21  miles  long, 
connects  Coonoor  with  the  station  of  Mettapalliem,  the  terminus  of 
the  Nilgiri  branch  of  the  Madras  (South-Western)  Railway ;  but  a  Righi 
railway  to  Coonoor  from  the  terminal  station  is  about  to  be  constructed. 


28  '  COORG. 

Coonoor  contains  a  sub-magistrate's  court,  etc.,    hospital,  four  places 
of  worship  (i  Roman  Catholic,  i  Church  of  England,  and  2  of  other 
denominations),  and  many  schools,  a  library  and  shops  and  hotels  for 
the  convenience  of  Europeans.     In  the  neighbourhood  are  several  tea 
and  coffee  estates.     Coonoor  is  one   of  the  principal  sanitaria  of  the 
Presidency,  and  second  only  to  Utakamand  (Ootacamund)  in  natural 
advantages.      The  town  is  built  on  the  sides  of  the  beautiful  basin 
formed  by  the  expansion   of  the  Jackatalla  valle}^,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
great  gorge,   surrounded  by  wooded  hills.     It  possesses    a  cool   and 
equable  climate,   the    mean    annual  temperature   in  the    shade  being 
62°  F.     In  the  warmer  months  the  thermometer  fluctuates  between 
55°    and  75° ;    in   the  colder   months,   between   38°    and   68°.      The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  76  inches,  distributed  in  normal  years  over 
112  days.     The  rate  of  mortality  is  remarkably  low,  and  no  particular 
ailments   can  be  said  to  be  characteristic  of  the  place.      The  town 
is  well  kept,  but  owing  to  increase  of  population,  etc.,  the  drainage 
is   in   much   need    of  improvement;    it   has   about    20   miles   of   ex- 
cellent roads  and  beautiful  pleasure  drives,  along  the  sides  of  wdnch 
grow  hedges  and  roses,  while  the  fuchsia,  dahlia,  and  heliotrope  attain 
the  proportions  of  shrubs.     Altogether,  it  forms  one  of  the  most  lovely 
hill  stations  in  India,  and  commands  magnificent  views  of  mountains, 
precipices,  great  stretches  of  hill  forests,  and  the  plains  spreading  out 
in  a  vast  expanse  of  fertility  beneath.     The  European  settlement  is  on 
the  upper  plateau  ;  the  native  quarter  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  valley. 
Coorg    {Kiirg ;    Kodagu,   lit.    'steep    mountains').  —  Territory   or 
Province  in  Southern  India,  under  the  administration  of  the  Supreme 
Government,  through  the  Mysore  Resident,  who  is  also  Chief  Commis- 
sioner of  Coorg;   situated   between   11°  56'  and  12°  50'  n.  lat.,  and 
between  75°  25'  and  76°  14'  e.  long.     Total  area,  according  to  the  most 
recent  estimate  of  the  Survey  Department,  1583  square  miles,  the  greatest 
length  from  north  to  south  being  60,  and  from  west  to  east  40  miles. 
Population,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881,  178,302.    The  chief  town 
and  seat  of  administration  is  Merkara,  in  75°  46'  n.  lat,  and  12°  26' 
E.  long. ;  population  (t88i)  8383,  including  2156  returned  as  being  in 
the  cantonment. 

Coorg  is  bounded  along  its  entire  western  frontier  by  the  mountain 
chain  of  the  Western  Ghats,  which  separates  it  from  the  Madras 
Districts  of  Malabar  and  South  Kanara.  This  range  curves  somewhat 
inland,  so  as  to  serve  also  to  some  extent  as  the  northern  and  southern 
boundary.  On  the  north,  Coorg  is  partially  separated  from  the  forest 
highlands  of  Mysore  by  the  rivers  Kumaradhari  and  Hemavati.  On 
the  east  it  merges  in  the  general  table-land  of  Mysore,  the  boundary 
for  some  distance  being  marked  by  the  river  Kaveri  (Cauvery). 

History, — Coorg  has  always  been  known  in  history  as  the  home  of  a 


CO  ORG.  29 

brave  and  independent  race  of  mountaineers,  who  maintained  their 
freedom  against  the  outnumbering  forces  of  Haidar  Ah',  and  only 
yielded  to  the  British  power  after  a  sharp  struggle,  the  English  Govern- 
ment conceding  to  them  the  maintenance  of  their  civil  and  relifrious 
usages,  and  respect  for  their  national  characteristics.  At  the  present 
day  the  native  tribe  of  Coorgs,  though  only  numbering  some  27,000 
souls,  preserve  all  the  marks  of  a  dominant  race.  They  cultivate  their 
hereditary  lands  on  a  feudal  tenure,  bear  arms  at  their  pleasure,  and 
treat  with  British  officials  through  their  head-men  on  terms  of  honour- 
able equality.  No  people  in  India  have  given  more  decisive  proofs  of 
their  loyalty  to  the  British  crown. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  true  character  of  the  earlier  history  of 
Coorg,  the  Brahmans,  on  finding  their  way  into  the  country,  enshrouded 
the  current  legends  and  traditions  of  Coorg  in  Puranic  lore,  in  the 
Kaveri  Furdna,  forming  an  episode  of  comparatively  recent  date  in 
four  chapters  of  the  Skdnda  or  Kdrtikeya  Purdtia^  and  glorifying  the 
river  Kaveri,  the  sources  of  which  are  in  Coorg.  Local  tradition  lends 
colouring  to  the  theory  that  the  Coorgs  are  descended  from  the 
conquering  army  of  a  Kadamba  king,  who  ruled  in  the  north-west  of 
Mysore  about  the  6th  century  a.d.  The  earliest  trustworthy  evidence 
that  his  house  exerted  some  authority  in  these  parts  is  manifested  by 
certain  stone  inscriptions  found  in  Southern  Coorg,  which  record  grants 
of  land  by  monarchs  of  the  Ganga  dynasty  dated  in  the  9th  century. 
But  it  is  not  probable  that  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  Coorg  were  ever 
permanently  subjugated  by  the  rulers  of  the  lowlands.  The  Muham- 
madan  chronicler  Ferishta,  writing  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
casually  mentions  that  Coorg  was  governed  by  its  own  princes. 
According  to  tradition,  Coorg  was  at  this  period  divided  into  12 
komhus  or  districts,  each  ruled  by  an  independent  chieftain,  called  a 
ndyak.  The  names  of  several  of  the  families  of  these  ndyaks  are  still 
held  in  veneration  by  the  people ;  but  the  chiefs  themselves  all  finally 
succumbed  to  the  wily  encroachments  of  the  Haleri  pdlegdrs,  who 
founded  the  line  of  Coorg  Rajas  expelled  by  the  British  in  1834. 

The  origin  of  this  Haleri  dynasty  is  obscure.  It  is  certain  that  they 
were  aliens  to  the  native  Coorgs  who  now  reside  in  Central  and  South 
Coorg,  for  they  belonged  to  the  Lingayat^  sect  of  Hindus  who  are  the 
chief  inhabitants  in  the  portion  of  Coorg  to  the  north  and  east  of 
Haleri,  and  whose  influence  was  great  in  the  neighbouring  country  of 
Mysore ;  whereas  the  Coorgs  retain  to  the  present  day  their  own  crude 
forms  of  demon  and  ancestor  worship.  However  this  may  be,  they 
exercised  for  many  generations  absolute  authority  over  the  people ; 
and,  despite  their  bloodthirsty  tyranny,  they  were  universally  accepted 
as  the  national  leaders.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  was  a  younger  scion  of  the  family  who  ruled  at  Ikkeri  in 


30  COORG. 

Shimoga  District,  known  as  the  pdlegdrs  of  Keladi  or  Bedniir.  He  is 
said  to  have  first  settled  at  Haleri,  whence  he  rapidly  extended  his 
power  over  the  whole  of  Coorg.  The  history  of  the  Coorg  Rajas  is 
officially  chronicled  in  the  Rdjendra-7idina^  a  work  compiled  about 
1807  in  Kanarese  by  order  of  Dodda  Vira  Rajendra,  and  translated 
into  English  by  Lieutenant  Abercromby  in  the  following  year.  This 
interesting  native  document  may  be  accepted  as  fairly  trustworthy.  It 
comprises  a  period  of  175  years,  from  1633  to  1807. 

The  most  brilliant  chapter  in  the  history  of  Coorg  is  the  resistance 
offered  to  Haidar  Ali  and  his  son  Tipii  Sultan.     When  all  the  rest  of 
Southern  India  fell  almost  without  a  blow  before  the  Muhammadan 
conqueror,  this  warlike  people  never  surrendered  their  independence.; 
but,  despite  terrible  disasters,  finally  allied  themselves  on  honourable 
terms  with  the  British  to  overthrow  the  common  enemy.     At  one  time 
all  seemed  lost.    Haidar  Ali  had  invaded  the  country,  and  carried  away 
the  Raja  and  all  the  royal  family  prisoners  into  Mysore.    Tipii  followed 
in  his  father's  path  with  more  than  his  father's  ferocity.    He  resolved  to 
remove  the  entire  race  of  Coorgs,  and  actually  deported  many  thousand 
persons  to  Seringapatam,  and  enforced  on  the  males  the  rite  of  Islam. 
The  land  he  granted  out  to   Musalman  landlords,  on  whom  it  was 
enjoined  as  an  imperative  duty  to  search  for  and  slay  the  surviving 
inhabitants.     It  was  reserved  for  a  prince  of  the  blood-royal  to  rescue 
the  Coorgs  from  this  sentence  of  extermination.     Vira  Rajendra,  the 
hero  of  Coorg  history,  and  the  Coorg  model  of  a  warrior  king,  escaped 
from  his  prison  in  Mysore,  and  raised  the  standard  of  independence  on 
his  native  hills.     The  Muhammadan  garrison  was  forthwith  expelled, 
and  a  successful  guerilla  warfare  kept  up  until  the  intervention  of  Lord 
Cornwallis  finally  guaranteed  Coorg  from  danger.     On  the  restoration 
of  peace  in  1799  by  the  death  of  Tipii  Sultan,  the  remaining  exiled 
Coorgs   returned   to   their  country.      But  new   troubles  began.     Vira 
Rajendra  himself,  and  also  his  successor  on  the  throne,  appear  to  have 
been  cursed  with  the  senseless   ferocity  which  so  often  accompanies 
irresponsible  power.     By  their  subjects  they  were  reverenced  almost  as 
gods,  and  in  their  countless  acts  of  cruelty  they  rivalled   the   most 
sanguinary  deities  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon.     Repeated  remonstrances 
from  the  British  Resident  at  Mysore  proved  ineffectual ;  and  at  last,  in 
1834,  Vira  Rajendra  having  taken  umbrage  at  the  shelter  given  at 
Mysore  to  his  brother-in-law  Chenna  Basapa,  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
then  Governor-General  of  India,  resolved  on  armed  intervention.     A 
British  force  of  6000  men  entered  Coorg  in  four  divisions.     Though 
two   of  the  invading   columns  were   bravely  repulsed   by  the    Coorg 
militia,  the  rest  penetrated  to  Merkara,  and  achieved  the  entire  subju- 
o-ation  of  the  country.     The  Raja  surrendered  himself  to  the  Political 
Agent,  Colonel  Fraser,  Vv'ho  issued  a  proclamation  dated  May  7,  1834, 


CO  ORG.  31 

announcing  that,  in  accordance  with  the  general  wish  of  the  inhabitants, 
Coorg  was  transferred  to  the  government  of  the  Company.  The  people 
were  assured  that  their  civil  and  religious  usages  would  be  respected, 
and  that  the  greatest  desire  would  invariably  be  shown  to  augment 
their  security,  comfort,  and  happiness. 

The  pledges  given  on  this  occasion  (1834)  have  been  faithfully 
carried  out  on  both  sides.  In  1837,  however,  a  disaffection  originating 
with  the  Gaudas  of  the  Talu  country,  in  South  Kanara,  spread  also  into 
Coorg ;  and  a  rising  against  the  British  Government  was  planned  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  Brahman  Devvan  Lakshminarayana,  and  the  impostor 
Abhrambara,  which  was  promptly  put  down  by  the  authorities,  aided 
by  a  band  of  faithful  Coorgs,  who  were  rewarded  with  Jdgirs,  pensions, 
and  gold  and  silver  medals.  Coorg  has  ever  since  shown  a  con- 
spicuous "example  of  a  brave  and  intelligent  race,  ruled  by  the  British 
with  the  minimum  of  change  and  interference,  and  steadily  advancing 
in  material  prosperity  consequent  on  settled  rule,  and  the  introduction 
of  coffee  cultivation.  The  Raja  retired  to  Benares,  with  a  pension  of 
Rs.  6000  (^600)  a  month.  In  1852  he  was  allowed  to  visit  England, 
where  he  died  in  1862.  His  daughter,  the  Princess  Victoria  Gauramma, 
was  baptized  into  the  Christian  faith,  with  the  Queen  for  her  sponsor. 
She  married  an  English  officer,  and  died  in  1864.  At  the  present  day, 
a  iQ\N  descendants  of  the  family  reside  at  Benares,  in  receipt  of  small 
pensions  from  Government. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  whole  area  of  Coorg  is  mountainous,  clothed 
with  primeval  forest  or  grassy  glades,  and  broken  by  but  few  cultivated 
valleys.  The  lofty  barrier  range  of  the  Western  Ghats  forms  the 
continuous  western  frontier  for  a  distance  of  more  than  60  miles. 
The  highest  peaks  are  Tadiandamol,  5729  feet,  and  Pushpagiri,  5548 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  western  slope  of  this  range  drops  in  a 
succession  of  precipitous  terraces  towards  the  sea ;  but  on  the  east  a 
confused  network  of  spurs  and  minor  ridges  runs  out  into  Coorg,  some 
of  which  attain  considerable  elevations.  The  town  of  Merkara  is 
situated  on  a  table-land,  about  3500  feet  above  sea-level.  But  even 
this  plateau  is  broken  by  hills  and  steep  valleys,  leaving  but  little  space 
for  cultivation.  The  chief  rivers  of  Coorg  are  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Kaveri  (Cauvery)  and  its  tributaries,  the  Eakshmantirtha,  the  Hemavati, 
and  the  Suvarnavati,  with  its  tributaries  the  Hattihole  and  Madapur, 
which  flow  eastward  into  Mysore.  On  the  west,  the  Barapole  and  the 
Kallahole,  uniting  their  waters  on  the  Coorg  frontier,  and  a  (qv/  minor 
streams,  break  their  way  through  the  Ghats,  and  precipitate  themselves 
on  the  lowlands  of  Malabar.  None  of  the  rivers  are  navigable.  They 
flow  in  narrow  valleys,  usually  through  dense  jungle ;  and  they  are  little 
used  for  artificial  irrigation.  The  geological  formation  of  the  mountains 
belongs  to  the  metamorphic  class  of  rocks,  chiefly  granite,  syenite,  and 


32  COORG. 

mica  schist.  The  weathering  of  these  rocks,  under  the  influence  of 
rain,  wind,  and  sun,  has  produced  a  deep  surface  soil  of  great  fertihty, 
which  is  annually  renewed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  virgin  forest ; 
but  after  the  denudation  of  so  many  hill  slopes  for  coffee  cultivation, 
the  deterioration  of  steep  land  by  the  wash  of  the  monsoon  rains  has 
been  rapid  and  ruinous  to  once  flourishing  estates.  Stone  and  laterite 
are  quarried  for  building  purposes,  and  gold  has  been  found  on  the 
Athol  estate  on  the  Perambadi  ghat  with  graphite,  and  may  probably 
be  found  sparsely  distributed  in  the  Brahmagiri  hills,  and  in  the  quartz 
reefs  in  the  valley  of  the  Kaveri  below  Fraser-pet  Iron-ore  also  exists, 
but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  procuring  skilled  labour,  is  not  worked. 
The  natural  wealth  of  Coorg  is  represented  by  the  boundless  forests, 
which  vary  in  character  in  different  parts  of  the  territory.  The  mountain 
forests,  known  as  7ndle-kddii^  which  clothe  the  Western  Ghats  are  chiefly 
marked  by  evergreen  trees.  Conspicuous  among  these  is  the  pun 
(Calophyllum  angustifolium),  which  often  rises  to  the  height  of  loo  feet, 
and  supplies  excellent  spars  for  ships.  The  other  timber-trees  in  this 
tract  include  ebony  (Diospyros  ebenaster),  jack  (Artocarpus  integrifolia), 
iron-wood  (Mesua  ferrea),  and  white  cedar  or  tun  (Cedrela  toona) ;  and 
the  whole  scene  is  diversified  by  clusters  of  brilliant  flowers  and  fruits, 
gigantic  creepers,  and  numerous  varieties  of  fern.  The  forests  in  the 
lower  hill  ranges  and  passes  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Coorg  are  known 
as  kanive-kddu.  This  is  pre-eminently  the  region  of  bamboo,  teak,  and 
sandal-wood.  The  bamboos  in  the  south  of  Coorg  are  specially 
famous.  They  form  forests  of  their  own,  rising  in  clusters  to  the 
height  of  60,  and  sometimes  even  100  feet.  The  teak  (Tectona 
grandis)  and  the  sandal-wood  (Santalum  album)  are  very  local  in  their 
range,  the  best  teak  trees  being  found  in  the  Government  reserved 
forest  of  Nalkeri,  in  the  taluk  of  Kiggatnad.  The  timber  of  both  is  a 
valuable  monopoly  of  Government.  Other  timber-trees  are  the  black- 
wood  (Dalbergia  latifolia),  ntaddi  (Terminalia  coriacea),  hone  or  kino 
(Pterocarpus  marsupium),  dinduga  (Conocarpus  latifolius),  and  hedde- 
mara  (Nauclea  cordifolia).  Many  products  of  commercial  value,  such 
as  wood,  oil,  fibre,  honey,  and  resin,  are  collected  in  the  jungle,  which 
also  abounds  in  wild  animals ;  and  every  native  Coorg  is  an  enthusiastic 
sportsman.  Among  large  game  may  be  enumerated  tigers,  leopards, 
bears,  elephants,  bison,  sdmbhar  deer,  jungle  sheep,  and  wild  hog.  A 
reward  of  ;£"5  is  now  given  by  Government  for  the  destruction  of 
every  tiger,  and  ;^3,  los.  for  every  leopard.  In  the  days  of  the 
Coorg  Rajas,  elephant  and  tiger  hunting  were  regal  sports,  and  several 
tiger-cubs  were  generally  kept  about  the  palace.  The  number  both 
of  tio-ers  and  leopards  is  still  considerable,  but  wild  elephants  have 
now  become  comparatively  scarce,  and  their  indiscriminate  slaughter 
has  been  prohibited. 


COORG. 


33 


Population. —  \n  1836,  shortly  after  the  British  occupation,  the 
population  of  Coorg  was  returned  at  only  65,437  souls.  The  first 
regular  Census,  conducted  by  actual  counting,  was  effected  on  the 
night  of  14th  November  187 1,  and  gave  a  total  of  168,312.  The 
second  regular  Census  was  taken  on  the  17th  February  1881,  when  the 
population  numbered  178,302  persons,  showing  an  increase  of  6  per 
cent,  during  the  past  decade.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  area, 
population,  and  density  in  each  taluk  of  the  Province  as  returned  by 
the  Census  of  1881  : — 


Tallks. 

Area  in            Population  in 
Square  Miles.               1881. 

Density  per 
Square  Mile. 

Kiggatnad  ,    . 

Padinalknad,           .... 
Nanjarajpatna,        .... 
Merkara,         ..... 
Yedenalknad,          .... 
Yelsavirshime,        .... 

Total, 

410-45 
399-90 
263-89 
216-30 
201  -45 
90-82 

31,230 

28,219 
26,984 
34,088 

41,370 
16,411 

76-08 

70-56 

102-25 

157-59 
205-36 
180-70 

1,582-81               178,302 

112-64 

The  Province  contains  502  villages,  and  but  one  town  of  over  5000 
inhabitants;   22,357  inhabited   and   3233   uninhabited   houses;  which 
gives  the  following  averages  : — Villages  per  square  mile,  -31 ;  houses  per 
square   mile,    i6-i6;    number  of  persons   per   occupied   house,    7-97. 
Classified   according   to    sex,    there    are    100,439    males    and    77,863 
females;  proportion  of  males,  77-5  per  cent.     This  undue  preponder- 
ance of  males  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  more  men  are  employed  as 
labourers  on  the  coffee  estates  than  women.     The  disproportion  would 
have  been  greater  had  the  date  of  the  Census  been  a  month  or  two 
earlier,  for  at  the  time  it  was  taken  the  picking  season  was  over,  and  many 
of  the  labourers  had  returned  to  their  homes  in  Mysore.     Classified 
according  to  age,  there  were,  under  15  years  of  age,  30,986  boys  and 
28,911  girls;  total,   59,897,  or  -^y^  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 
The  division  of  the  people  according  to  birthplace  shows — 154  Euro- 
peans, 2  Americans,  i  Australian,  and  129  Eurasians;    103,437  natives 
of  Coorg,  24,895  of  Madras,  and  48,688  of  Mysore;  318  imrnigrants 
from  Haidarabad,  593   from  Bombay,  68    from  Bengal,  and  17  from 
Kandahar.      The  occupation  tables  are  scarcely  trustworthy ;    but  it 
may  be  mentioned,  as  indicating  the  importance  of  the  coffee  industry, 
that  64,087  persons,  or  35-95  per  cent.,  are  returned  as  labourers,  as 
compared  with  only  33,957  agriculturists,  or  19-0  per  cent.     Classified 
according  to   religion,   the  population   is   composed   of — Hindus  (as 
loosely    grouped    together    fo-r    religious    purposes, 

VOL.  IV.  c 


and    including 


34  COORG. 

Coorgs),  162,489,  or  qi'i  per  cent.;  Muhammadans,  12,541,  or 
7"o  per  cent;  Christians,  3152,  or  17  per  cent;  and  120  'others,' 
including  21  Parsis  and  99  Jains.  The  Brahmans  number  2445, 
chiefly  belonging  to  the  Smartta  or  Sivaite  sect  Of  those  claiming 
to  be  Kshatriyas,  the  Rajputs  number  351,  and  the  Rajpinde,  or 
connections  of  the  late  ruling  family,  129.  The  Vaisyas,  or  trading 
caste,  are  225  in  number,  almost  exclusively  Komatis.  Other  castes  of 
good  social  standing  number  83,834,  among  whom  the  most  numerous 
caste  is  the  cultivating  Wokaliga  (16,808),  including  many  coolie 
immigrants  from  Mysore;  the  Lingayat  (10,443)  and  Jain  (99) 
castes,  being  engaged  in  trade,  and  many  of  the  former  in  agriculture. 
Low  castes  number  21,100,  and  the  wild  tribes  are  returned  at 
54,630,  but  many  belonging  to  the  lower  castes  have  been  erroneously 
classified  as  such. 

The  native  tribes  of  Coorgs  or  Kodagus,  who  were  once  the 
dominant  race  in  the  country,  are  only  27,033  in  number,  or  15 "6  per 
cent  of  the  total  population.  They  and  the  members  of  other  castes 
known  as  the  Gavada,  Mopla,  Heggade,  Aimbokal,  Bautar,  and  Ayeri, 
wear  a  national  dress,  bear  arms  at  their  pleasure,  and  cultivate  their 
hereditary  lands  on  a  feudal  tenure  known  d.'s.jama.  They  pride  them- 
selves on  their  loyalty  to  the  British  Crown.  Their  origin  is  unknown  ; 
but  for  the  last  two  centuries  they  can  be  recognised  as  a  compact 
body  of  mountaineers,  resembling  a  Highland  clan  rather  than  a  Hindu 
caste.  Within  the  last  decade  they  have  increased  by  6  per  cent  A 
sub-division  of  them,  called  Amma  Coorgs,  who  number  475,  are 
more  strict  in  their  mode  of  life,  and  are  perhaps  the  descendants  of  an 
indigenous  priesthood.  They  abstain  from  spirituous  liquors,  and  are 
vegetarians,  holding  much  the  same  place  among  the  Coorgs  as 
Brahmans  do  among  the  Hindus.  While  this  class  has  increased  during 
the  last  decade,  the  Brahman  element  has  decreased,  due  no  doubt  to 
the  well-known  aversion  of  the  Coorgs  to  Brahmanical  influence. 
In  physique,  the  Coorgs  are  not  inferior  to  any  natives  of  India.  The 
men  are  muscular,  broad-chested,  strong-limbed,  and  tall.  Their  mode 
of  life  and  pride  of  race  impart  to  their  whole  bearing  an  air  of  manly 
independence  and  dignified  self-assertion,  well  sustained  by  their 
picturesque  costume.  This  consists  of  a  long  coat  (ktipasa),  of  white  or 
blue  cotton,  or  dark  cloth,  open  in  front  and  reaching  below  the  knee. 
Round  the  waist  is  wound  a  red  or  blue  sash  of  cotton  or  silk, 
which  holds  the  never-absent  Coorg  knife  with  ivory  handle  and 
chains  of  silver.  The  head-dress  is  a  red  kerchief,  or  a  peculiarly- 
fashioned  turban,  large  and  fiat  at  the  top,  and  covering  a  portion  of 
the  back  of  the  neck.  For  ornaments  they  wear  a  necklace  of  berries, 
and  ear-rings  and  bracelets  of  silver  or  gold.  Some  of  the  women  are 
strikingly  handsome   and  well-shaped.      Their   holiday  costume  is  a 


COORG.  3^ 

tight-fitting  jacket,  of  white  or  blue  cotton,  with  long  sleeves.     The 
skirt,  gathered  behind,  is  formed  of  a  long  piece  of  white  muslin  or  blue 
cotton-stuff,  tied  round  the  waist  and  falling  in  graceful  folds  to  the 
feet.     Contrary  to  the  custom  of  other  Hindu  women,  they  tie  a  long 
handkerchief  over  their  hair  as  a  cap,  an  end  falling  gracefully  behind! 
The  women  do  all  the  domestic  work,  and  also  bear  a  large  share  of 
the  labours  of  the  farm.     When  not  engaged  in  labour,  the  men  enjoy 
a  dignified  leisure,  or  range  through  the  forest,  gun  in  hand,  in  search 
of  game.     The  height  of  their  ambition  is  to  be  entrusted  with  some 
Government  post.     They  rarely  marry  until  they  have  attained  the  age 
of  sixteen  years.     The  old  custom  of  polyandry  is  no  longer  practised 
as  a  national  rite,  but  may  occur  in   isolated   cases.       Divorce   and 
widow-marriage,  especially  by  brothers-in-law,   are   recognised   institu- 
tions, sanctioned  by  the  council  of  village  elders,  or  takkds.     Polygamy 
is  permitted  by  custom,  in  case  of  sterility  of  the  first  wife  or  want  of 
male  issue,  but  such  cases  are  of  rare  occurrence. 

The  Coorgs  have  a  language  of  their  own,  believed  to  be  a  dialect  of 
Kanarese,  which  is  intelligible  only  to  themselves  and  to  their  former 
slaves,  the  Holeyas  and  Yeranas.  It  is  derived  from  the  Dravidian 
languages,  chiefly  Malayalam,  Tiilu,  Kanarese,  and  Tamil,  and  has  been 
reduced  to  writing  in  Kanarese  letters.  It  is  rich  in  forms,  and  admir- 
ably suited  for  colloquial  converse,  and  for  expressing  easy-flowing  poetry 
of  a  humorous  or  solemn  strain,  as  their  old  chants  or  Palam.es  attest. 

The  Muhammadans  in  Coorg  are  divided  between  Labbays  and 
Mappilas  (Moplas)  from  the  Malabar  coast,  and  immigrants  from  the 
Deccan.  Out  of  the  total  of  3152  Christians,  Europeans  number  228 
and  Eurasians  287,  leaving  2637  for  the  native  converts,  who  are 
mostly  Roman  Catholic  immigrants  from  Kanara,  oftheKonkani  caste. 
According  to  another  principle  of  division,  there  are  644  Protestants 
and  2508  Roman  Catholics. 

There  are  only  2  towns  in  Coorg  with  a  population  of  more  than 
3000  persons  each.  Merkara,  or  Mahadevapet,  the  civil  head- 
quarters of  the  Province,  has  Z^^Zz  inhabitants;  Vira-rajendra-pet, 
4576.  Fraser-pet,  on  the  eastern  frontier,  1000  feet  below  Merkara,  is 
a  pleasant  retreat  during  the  rainy  season ;  formerly  it  used  to  be  the 
residence  of  the  British  Superintendent.  Merkira  and  Vira-rajendra-pet 
have  been  constituted  municipalities,  with  an  aggregate  income  in 
1881-82  of  ^1592,  giving  an  average  municipal  taxation  of  2s.  5d. 
per  head.  Municipal  committees  have  also  been  formed  in  the 
small  towns  of  Fraser-pet,  Somwar-pet,  and  Kodli-pet.  Amatti  and 
Gonikopal  are  rising  townships  in  the  new  coflee  district  in  South 
Coorg,  known  familiarly  as  the  '  Bamboo.' 

Coorg  possesses  some  remains  of  archaeological  interest.  Cairns  or 
dolmens  have  been  found  in  considerable  numbers,  especially  near 


36  COORG. 

Vira-rajendra-pet;  and  since  attention  was  first  attracted  to  them  in  1868, 
several  of  them  have  been  opened.  They  conceal  kistvaens,  very 
similar  to  those  of  Europe,  composed  of  four  upright  granite  slabs 
about  4  feet  high,  roofed  with  a  larger  slab.  Some  of  these  kistvaens 
are  arranged  in  regular  groups,  others  are  surrounded  by  a  circle 
of  smaller  stones.  Inside  is  found  pottery,  containing  bones,  ashes, 
iron  spear-heads,  and  beads.  No  trace  is  now  preserved  of  the  race 
that  erected  these  memorials.  Of  a  more  recent  date  are  the  kolle 
kallu,  or  sculptured  tombstones  in  honour  of  warriors  slain  in  battle. 
The  figures  show  that  these  were  erected  by  Hindus  of  the  Lingayat 
sect.  The  Coorg  race  has  left  its  warlike  memorials  in  the  kadangas 
or  earthworks,  which  stretch  over  hill  and  dal  through  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land.  Some  of  these  kadangas  are  40  feet  from  summit 
to  bottom  of  ditch,  and  they  are  often  taken  along  hill-sides  having  an 
angle  of  80°  F.  They  were  evidently  constructed  as  fortifications,  but 
they  may  also  have  served  to  mark  the  boundaries  of  the  7idds,  or 
local  divisions,  into  which  the  country  was  divided.  Of  the  palaces 
once  occupied  by  the  Coorg  Rajas,  the  one  in  the  Merkara  fort  alone 
remains  in  good  order.  It  is  used  for  the  public  offices,  and  as  the 
residence  of  the  Commissioner.  The  Rajas'  tombs  at  the  head  of 
Madepet  are  conspicuous  and  in  good  preservation.  There  is  also  a 
Hindu  temple  of  some  pretensions  in  the  valley  below  the  fort ;  and 
like  the  tombs,  it  is  in  the  Muhammadan  style  of  architecture. 

Agriculture. — Cultivation  is  confined  in  Coorg  proper,  above  the 
barriers,  to  the  numerous  valleys  between  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Ghats 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Kaveri  and  its  affluents.  Even  in  the 
narrowest  valley,  wherever  the  plough  is  possible,  the  soil  is  indus- 
triously laid  out  in  terraces  for  rice  cultivation.  Excluding  the  forest 
tracts  planted  with  coffee  and  cardamoms,  the  total  cultivated  area  of 
Coorg  in  1881-82  was  74,357  acres,  of  which  72,940  acres  were  under 
rice,  and  141 7  acres  under  other  food-grains.  Several  varieties  of  rice  are 
grown,  the  most  common  being  the  large-grained  dodda-batta.  A  large 
amount  of  labour  is  expended  on  the  cultivation.  The  seed  is  sown 
about  the  beginning  of  June  in  nurseries,  which  have  previously  been 
ploughed  several  times,  and  are  always  so  situated  as  to  command  a 
perennial  supply  of  water,  except  in  the  Kiggatnad  taluk,  where  the 
rainfall  not  infrequently  proves  insufficient.  The  seedlings  are  planted 
out  in  July  and  August,  and  the  harvest  is  gathered  in  December  and 
January.  Such  is  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  abundance  of  the 
natural  water-supply,  that  the  rice  crop  usually  yields  a  return  of  forty- 
fold  ;  the  straw  is  in  great  demand  for  thatching  purposes,  and  when 
sold  to  the  planters,  realizes  enough  to  pay  the  Government  dues  on 
the  land.  Other  crops  grown  only  in  parts  of  the  Nanjarajpatna  and 
Yelsavirshime  taluks  to  the  east  and  north-east  of  the  Province,  are  ragi. 


COORG. 


37 


gram,  coriander,  oil-seed,  hemp,  a  little  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and  cotton. 
No  wheat  is  grown.  Plantains,  oranges,  and  the  toddy-yielding  wild  sago- 
palm,  are  to  be  seen  round  the  homestead  of  every  Coorg  peasant. 
But  the  two  most  valuable  products  of  Coorg  are  coffee  and  cardamoms. 
Coffee  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  Mysore  in  the  days  of  the 
native  Rajas.  The  first  European  plantation  was  opened  in  1854.  By 
1881,  the  total  number  of  coffee  estates  was  4806  (212  only  being 
owned  by  Europeans),  covering  an  area  of  77,474  acres,  or  a  little  more 
than  xV^^  ^^  ^^^  whole  Province.  The  area  of  land  held  by  the 
European  planters,  in  1881,  was  41,507  acres,  and  by  natives, 
35,967  acres.  The  average  size  of  each  estate  held  by  the  Europeans 
is  196  acres,  and  by  the  natives,  8  acres.  The  assessment  paid  by  the 
former  was  ^7613,  and  by  the  latter  ^6640.  Of  the  whole  area, 
40,350  acres  were  in  bearing,  producing  on  an  average  3  cwt.  per  acre, 
though  the  average  yield  on  most  European  estates,  which  are  much 
better  cultivated  than  native,  is  as  much  as  7  cwts.  per  acre.  The 
coffee  produced  is  over  6000  tons.  Taking  the  average  cost  of  cultiva- 
tion at  ^12  per  acre  on  European  estates,  and  ^4  on  native,  each 
cwt.  of  coffee  costs  ^2,  13s.  4d.  The  number  of  persons  present  on 
the  estates  is  generally  about  27,000,  to  which  10,000  more  may  be 
added  during  the  picking  season.  The  yearly  sum  spent  on  coffee 
cultivation  is  about  ^320,000,  of  which  about  60  per  cent,  is  paid  as 
wages  for  labour.  The  value  of  the  coffee  produced,  calculated  at  the 
average  selling  price  of  ^3  per  cwt.  on  the  spot,  is  about  ;^36o,ooo. 
The  industry  has  passed  through  many  vicissitudes.  Rash  speculation 
in  the  early  years  caused  unsuitable  land  to  be  taken  up,  and  the 
forest  was  recklessly  cleared  of  trees  that  would  have  furnished 
valuable  shade.  The  cultivation  of  Liberian  coffee  after  a  fair  trial  has 
proved  a  failure.  In  recent  times,  the  '  bug '  and  '•  white  borer,'  and 
leaf  disease,  especially  on  the  Ghats  estates,  have  destroyed  the  hopes 
of  the  planter,  when  at  last  they  seemed  on  the  point  of  realization;  but 
in  the  '  Bamboo '  district  in  South  Coorg,  prospects  are  brighter  and 
results  more  satisfactory.  Considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  cultivation  of  cinchona,  especially  on  those  estates  in  which 
coffee  has  not  succeeded.  From  returns  which  have  been  obtained 
from  planters,  the  extent  of  land  under  cinchona  may  be  given  at  771 
acres,  and  the  number  of  plants  put  down,  at  617,156.  The  cardamom 
plant  (Elettaria  cardamomum)  grows  wild  in  the  evergreen  jungles  of 
the  Western  Ghats,  at  an  elevation  of  from  2000  to  5000  feet.  These 
jungles  are  leased  out  by  the  Government  for  a  term  of  ten  years  at  a 
lump  sum  of  ^30,000.  The  cardamom-yielding  tracts  demand  a  good 
deal  of  attention,  and  the  gathering  of  the  crop  in  October  involves 
much  hardship,  as  the  jungles  at  that  season  are  infested  with  innumer- 
able leeches  and  poisonous  snakes.     It  is  estimated  that  a  '  cardamom 


38  COORG. 

garden'  \  acre  in  extent  will  yield  12  J  lbs.  of  dry  cardamoms  ;  the  con- 
tingent expenditure  is  quite  insignificant.  Among  plants  introduced  by 
European  enterprise,  may  be  mentioned  Cinchona  succirubra,  the  Aus- 
tralian gum  tree  (Eucalyptus  globulus),  rhea  nettle  (Boehmeria  nivea), 
Manilla  hemp  (Musa  textiHs),  the  cocoa  tree  (Theobroma  cacao),  and 
many  English  fruits,  vegetables,  and  flowers.  The  cultivation  of  the  tea- 
plant  has  as  yet  attracted  little  attention.  The  cultivation  of  cocoa,  oil- 
seeds, and  the  Eucalyptus  tree  was  only  introduced  a  few  years  ago,  and  is 
purely  in  an  experimental  stage.  The  agricultural  statistics  for  1881-82  ( 
show  a  total  stock  of  109,762  horned  cattle,  5729  sheep  and  goats,  12,242 
pigs,  177  horses,  378  ponies,  350  donkeys,  37,523  ploughs,  27  boats, 
and  48 1  carts.  The  average  rent  per  acre  for  land  suited  for  rice  in 
1881-82  was  from  3s.  3jd.  to  6s.  8Jd.,  the  average  produce  per  acre 
being  820  lbs.  The  prices  per  maund  of  80  lbs.  were,  for  rice, 
6s.  ii:|d. ;  for  wheat,  9s.  lod.  ;  for  cotton,  56s. ;  for  sugar,  34s.;  for 
salt,  8s.  8Jd.  ;  and  for  ragi^  4s.  The  wages  for  skilled  labour  were  2s. 
per  day  ;  for  unskilled,  6d.  per  day. 

Maniifactu7'es  a?id  Coi?i?nerce.  —  Almost  every  article  used  in  the 
country  requires  to  be  imported.  Manufactures  do  not  flourish  to  any 
extent  in  Coorg,  consequent  on  the  great  demand  for  labour  for 
agricultural  purposes,  and  the  higher  rates  of  wages  prevailing.  The 
manufacture  of  the  ordinary  coarse  cloth  worn  by  the  lower  classes  of 
the  people  is  carried  on  at  the  villages  of  Sirangala,  Somwar-pet, 
Sanivarsante,  and  Kodli-pet  in  North  Coorg ;  at  the  first-named  place 
the  red  and  dark-blue  sashes  worn  by  the  poorer  classes  of  Coorgs  are 
also  produced.  About  a  dozen  artisans  add  to  their  means  by 
making  the  knives  which  are  worn  by  the  people  as  part  of  their 
ordinary  dress.  The  sheaths  are  usually  mounted  in  silver,  and  some 
of  them  are  of  considerable  value.  The  number  of  knives  turned  out 
yearly  does  not  exceed  200,  and  their  value  is  estimated  at  jQdoo, 
The  steel  used  is  of  local  manufacture,  and  of  inferior  quality.  Large 
tiles,  known  as  '  Mangalore '  tiles,  for  which  there  is  a  considerable 
local  demand,  are  manufactured  at  a  tilery  at  Merkara.  The  clay 
obtained  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  some  of  the  tiles  manufactured 
have  been  found  to  stand  a  greater  strain  than  those  turned  out  at 
Mangalore  itself.  A  few  pot-makers  and  braziers  may  be  found.  Local 
traffic  passes  along  many  paths  and  cross  country  roads.  Two 
military  trunk  roads  run  across  the  country  from  Mysore  to  the 
western  coast.  According  to  the  statistics  of  traffic  at  the  toll-bars, 
34,399  laden  carts  and  31,144  laden  pack-bullocks  passed  along  these 
ghat  roads  in  1881-82.  The  following  estimates  are  given  of  the  total 
trade  of  Coorg  in  1881-82  : — Exports,  ^£442, 693,  chiefly  consisting  of 
coffee  (122,5 10  cwts.,  valued  at  ^367,530),  grain  and  pulse  (38,687  cwts., 
valued  at  ;!^9237),  cardamoms   (600  cwts.,  valued  at  ;2{^i4,4oo),  and 


CO  ORG. 


39 


timber  (^3180) ;  imports,  ^194,230,  including  piece-goods  (^30,000), 
wines  and  spirits  (^10,000),  food-grains  (^22,196),  and  salt  (^16,625). 
The  principal  external  markets  are  the  ports  of  Mangalore,  Cannanore, 
and  Tellicherri  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  Bangalore  in  Mysore.  Local 
transactions  are  conducted  at  weekly  fairs,  the  largest  of  which  are  held 
on  Wednesdays  at  Vira-rajendra-pet,  on  Fridays  at  Merkara,  on  Satur- 
days at  Sanivarsante,  on  Sundays  at  Suntikoppa,  Amatti,  and  Gonikopal, 
and  on  Mondays  at  Somwar-pet,  all  of  which  are  largely  attended. 

Administration. — Since  the  assumption  of  the  Government  by  the 
British,  the  indigenous  system  of  administration  has  been  interfered  with 
as  little  as  possible.  The  chief  resident  British  officer  is  styled 
Commissioner  and  District  Judge,  who  discharges,  in  addition  to  his 
proper  duties,  the  combined  functions  of  Inspector-General  of  Prisons 
and  Police,  Director  of  Public  Instruction,  and  Conservator  of  Forests 
in  Coorg,  and  who  is  subordinate  to  the  Chief  Commissioner  or  Resi- 
dent of  Mysore.  Under  him  are  two  Assistant  Commissioners — one  a 
European,  who  is  also  a  District  Magistrate,  and  the  other  a  Coorg. 
For  administrative  purposes,  the  territory  is  divided  into  6  taluks^  viz. 
Kiggatnad,  Padinalknad,  Nanjarajpatna,  Merkara,  Yedenalknad,  Yel- 
savirshime,  each  under  the  charge  of  a  native  official  styled  a  snhahddr. 
The  taluks  are  again  sub-divided  into  24  ndds  or  hoblis.  Each  ndd 
contains  an  average  of  about  dZ  square  miles,  and  forms  the  separate 
charge  of  a  subordinate  official  called  a  parpattegar.  The  following 
table  shows  the  revenue  and  expenditure  of  Coorg  in  1881-82  : — 

Balance-Sheet  of  Coorg  for  1881-82. 


Revenue. 

I 

Expenditure. 

£ 

Land  Revenue,   . 

30,724 

Civil  and  Political, 

4,383 

Forests, 

9,959 

Judicial,         .... 

3,510 

Excise  on  Spirits  and 

Police,           .... 

1,445 

Drugs,     . 

11,961 

Military,        .... 

11,724 

Stamps, 

7,691 

Telegraph  and  Post-Office,     . 

2,285 

Law  and  Justice, 

464 

Ecclesiastical, 

697 

Interest, 

224 

Public  Works,        . 

13,602 

Miscellaneous,     . 

64 

Education,     .... 

2,249 

Jails,  .... 

881 

Miscellaneous, 

445 

Registration, 

421 

Local  Funds, 

4,342 

Education, 

218 

District  and  Village  Officers, 

14,306 

Post-Office, 

1,598 

Allowances       and        Assign- 

Public Works,     . 

529 

ments,        .... 

2,279 

Military  Refund, 

168 

Refunds,        .... 

927 

Telegraph, 

546 

Excluded  Local  Funds, 

2,402 

Incorporated        Local 

Funds,     . 

Total, 

2,846 
70,696 

Surplus,     . 

Total, 

8,502 

70,696 

40  COORG, 

The  preceding  table  shows  a  surplus  revenue  of  ^8502,  even  includ- 
ing the  heavy  charges  for  the  army  and  public  works.  The  removal 
of  the  Coorg  garrison  to  Vellore  in  Madras,  which  has  recently 
been  carried  out,  consequent  on  late  reductions  in  the  Madras  army, 
increased  the  surplus  in  the  balance-sheet  for  1882-83  to  ^21,145. 
The  land  revenue  is  chiefly  derived  from  three  sources — (i)  ja?nd 
lands,  held  in  inalienable  tenure  by  the  once  dominant  race  of 
Coorgs,  at  the  rate  of  los.  per  acre  (100  bhattis)  of  wet  land  upon 
the  condition  of  military  and  police  service ;  (2)  sdgu,  the  ordi- 
nary cultivating  tenure,  at  a  fixed  rate  of  about  20s.  per  acre ;  (3) 
coffee  lands,  which  are  now  assessed  at  a  rate  of  4s.  per  acre.  Banes 
(uplands)  are  attached  to  the  rice-fields  for  wood  and  pasturage  \  many 
of  them  are  cultivated  with  coffee  under  shade.  Such  plantations  are 
free  from  assessment  when  they  do  not  exceed  to  acres.  Nearly  all  the 
forest  land  suited  for  coffee  cultivation  has  been  taken  up.  On  land 
which  is  available  being  applied  for,  it  is  sold  by  auction  according  to 
the  Waste  Land  Rules,  after  being  surveyed  and  the  timber  valued.  It 
is  held  rent  free  for  the  first  four  years,  and  at  the  rate  of  2s.  an  acre 
during  the  next  eight  years,  after  which  the  full  assessment  is  charged. 
The  forest  revenue  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  sale  of  timber  and 
cardamom  leases.  In  1881-82,  the  sales  of  timber,  including  sandal- 
wood, realized  jQi'^2']. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  about  2  offtcers  and  188 
men,  maintained  in  towns  only  at  a  total  cost  of  about  ^1874  a  year, 
inclusive  of  the  Coorg  guard,  employed  to  protect  the  treasury  and  jail. 
The  rural  or  village  police  is  composed  of  about  3979  janid  rdyats,  or 
native  Coorgs,  holding  their  lands  on  a  feudal  tenure,  from  whom  duty 
for  half  a  month  in  each  year  is  expected.  These  figures  show  113 
policemen  to  every  square  mile  of  the  area,  or  i  policeman  to  every  43 
persons  of  the  population.  During  the  year  1881,  1363  criminal  cases 
of  all  kinds  were  instituted  ;  2000  persons  were  put  on  their  trial,  of 
whom  821,  or  41  per  cent.,  were  convicted,  being  i  person  convicted  of 
an  offence  in  every  217  of  the  population.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  convictions  were  for  assault,  criminal  force,  and  offences  against 
local  laws.  In  the  same  year,  the  average  daily  number  of  prisoners  in 
jail  was  90*6,  including  4*67  females,  or  i  prisoner  to  every  1981  of 
the  population.  The  total  cost  of  the  jail  was  ;£'io3i,  or  ;£^ii,  iis.  9d. 
per  prisoner.     Jail  manufactures  yielded  a  net  profit  of  £z^o. 

Education  has  always  been  an  object  of  solicitude  to  the  Government 
since  the  British  assumed  the  administration  of  the  country.  The 
Coorgs  themselves  are  an  intelligent  race,  and  they  have  repeatedly 
displayed  a  strong  desire  to  obtain  the  benefits  of  an  English  education 
for  their  children.  In  1862,  the  Coorg  head-men  presented  a  remark- 
able petition  to  Government,  desiring  the  establishment  of  a  boarding- 


COORG.  41 

school  at  Merkara,  towards  the  expense  of  which  they  contributed 
hberally  by  opening  out  a  coffee  estate,  which  is  leased  for  a  term  of 
16  years  at  £,2i^o  per  annum.  In  this  manner  the  school  has  been 
made  self-supporting,  and  provides  accommodation  for  60  boys.  In  the 
year  1881,  there  were  altogether  dT,  schools  in  the  territory  under 
Government  inspection,  attended  by  3233  pupils.  There  were  also  41 
indigenous  schools,  attended  by  470  pupils.  These  figures  combined  give 
I  school  to  every  15  square  miles  of  area,  and  20  pupils  to  every  thousand 
of  the  population.  The  total  cost  of  education  was  ;^2029,  or  an 
average  of  12s.  6jd.  per  pupil;  the  amount  of  fees  paid  was  ;£^22o, 
exclusive  of  p/^89  for  school-books.  Of  the  total  number  of  pupils,  331 
are  girls,  and  as  many  as  2100  belonged  to  the  Coorg  race,  showing 
that  81  out  of  every  1000  of  the  Coorg  population  are  at  school.  The 
high  school  at  Merkara,  under  a  principal  and  1 1  masters,  was  attended 
by  313  boys  in  i88t.  Including  Government  and  indigenous  teaching, 
the  Census  Report  in  1881  returned  4268  boys  and  431  girls  as  under 
instruction;  besides  8839  adult  males  and  356  adult  females  able  to 
read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruction. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Coorg  is  temperate  and  humid. 
The  mountains  of  the  Western  Ghats  collect  the  moisture  that  rolls 
up  in  clouds  from  the  sea.  The  wooded  valleys  are  not  free  from  fogs 
in  the  morning  and  evening.  The  rainy  season  proper,  which  is  the 
result  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  lasts  from  June  to  September.  The 
downpour  of  rain  is  very  heavy  on  the  Merkara  plateau  and  on  the 
Western  Ghats,  and  blasts  of  wind  blow  at  the  same  time  with  great 
vehemence.  The  sun  is  often  not  seen  for  weeks  ;  and  as  much  as  90 
inches  of  rain  have  been  registered  at  Merkara  in  the  single  month  of 
July,  including  10  inches  within  twenty-four  hours.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  for  the  20  years  ending  1882  amounts  to  i22'86  inches.  By 
observations  extending  over  the  same  period,  the  maximum  of  rainfall 
during  the  two  heaviest  monsoon  months,  June  and  July,  occurred  in 
the  years  1864,  1865,  1869,  1872,  1874,  1880,  and  1882.  The 
total  rainfall  for  the  last-named  year  was  203 "5 5  inches.  The  rainfall 
in  the  coffee  district  of  South  Coorg,  known  as  the  '  Bamboo,'  is  not 
nearly  so  great.  The  maxmium  rainfall  at  Amatti  is  72*35,  and  the 
average  is  65  "64  inches.  The  mean  annual  temperature  for  the  whole 
of  Coorg  during  the  last  20  years  was  66 '60°  F.  The  hottest  month  is 
May,  when  the  thermometer  sometimes  rises  to  82° ;  but  on  the  whole, 
the  variations  of  heat  and  cold  are  very  moderate. 

The  Coorg  climate  is  considered  salubrious  by  the  natives,  and  also 
by  European  residents,  but  its  cold  and  damp  exercise  injurious  effects 
on  natives  who  have  arrived  from  the  plains  of  India.  The  nights  are 
cool  throughout  the  year,  and  Europeans  are  able  to  take  exercise  in 
the  open  air  at  all  hours  of  the  day.      European  children  especially 


42  COORLA—CORINGA. 

show  by  their  rosy  cheeks  that  they  enjoy  excellent  health.  The  most 
prevalent  disease  is  malarious  fever,  which  renders  the  mountain  valleys 
unhealthy  during  the  hot  months.  Cholera  is  almost  unknown,  but 
small-pox  has  made  terrible  ravages  among  the  natives,  despite  the 
introduction  of  vaccination.  In  1881-82,  a  total  of  3006  deaths  were 
reported,  of  which  2358  were  ascribed  to  fevers,  1 1 7  to  bowel  complaints, 
215  to  small-pox,  12  to  suicide,  4  to  snake-bite,  12  to  cholera,  and  193 
to  all  other  causes.  The  death-rate  was  16 '3  per  thousand.  There  are 
2  charitable  dispensaries — at  Merkara  and  Vira-rajendra-pet — at  which, 
in  1881,  a  total  of  429  in-door  and  8665  out-door  patients  were  treated. 
The  total  expenditure  was  ;!^744,  towards  which  Government  contributed 
;^32i.  In  the  same  year,  4887  vaccinations  were  performed.  [For 
further  information  regarding  Coorg,  see  the  Gazetteer  of  Mysore  and 
Coorg,  by  Lewis  Rice,  Esq.  (Bangalore,  1878),  vol.  iii.  Also  the 
Census  Repoi't  for  1881 ;  and  the  Administratio?i  Reports  from  1881  to 
1883.] 

Coorla. — Town,  Thana  District,  Bombay  Presidency, — See  Kurla. 

Cooum  {Ktivani). — River  in  Chengalpat  District,  Madras  Presidency, 
rises  in  the  Conjevaram  taluk,  and  flows  due  east,  entering  the  sea  in 
lat.  13°  4'  N.,  long.  80°  20'  E.  The  city  of  Madras  stands  at  the  mouth 
of  this  river,  which  receives  the  drainage  of  a  portion  of  the  town.  The 
volume  of  water  being  too  small  to  carry  off  all  the  impurities  with 
which  it  is  thus  charged,  the  Cooum  here  degenerates  into  little  better 
than  an  open  sewer. 

Corembu  Gaonden. — Range  of  hills  in  the  District  of  South  Arcot, 
Madras  Presidency,  lying  between  11°  51'  and  12°  i'  n.  lat,  and 
between  78°  42'  and  78°  55'  e.  long. — See  Kalrayanmalai. 

Coringa  {Koringa  ;  from  Kurangani,  '  a  stag,'  after  the  golden  stag 
in  the  Ramayana ;  the  Kalingou  of  Pliny). — Town  and  seaport  in 
Goddvari  District,  Madras  Presidency ;  situated  at  the  northern  or 
principal  mouth  of  the  Godavari  river,  8  miles  south  of  Cocanada,  in 
lat.  16°  48'  25"  N.,  and  long.  82°  16'  20"  e.  Population  (1881)  4397, 
namely,  4255  Hindus,  141  Muhammadans,  and  i  Christian  ;  number  of 
houses,  1084.  An  early  Dutch  settlement,  and  once  the  greatest  seaport 
and  shipbuilding  centre  on  the  coast ;  but  now,  owing  to  the  extension 
of  the  delta  seaward,  a  place  of  little  commercial  importance.  The  silt 
carried  down  by  the  Godavari  has  formed  a  bar  outside  the  entrance. 
In  1802,  there  was  a  dock  here  in  which  ships  of  the  Royal  Navy  were 
repaired;  and  vessels  drawing  12  and  13  feet  could  enter.  The  port  is 
still  frequented  by  native  craft,  and  shipbuilding  yards  are  at  work  in 
the  hamlet  of  Tallarevu  hard  by.  In  1880-81,  the  imports  were 
valued  at  £^\o(i\,  chiefly  from  Burma.  The  exports  in  the  same  year 
were  valued  at  ;£^3o,9i3.  The  trade  has  been  steadily  declining  for 
some  years,  but  a  considerable  business  with  Rangoon  and  Maulmain 


COROMANDEL  —  COSSIPUR.  43 

is  still  carried  on  by  small  vessels.  In  1881-82,  shipping  of  6717 
tons  burthen  entered  the  port;  value  of  imports,  ^459;  of  exports, 
^£"20,2 1 9.  The  new  lighthouse  on  the  mainland,  4I  miles  from 
Cocanada,  warns  vessels  off  the  Godavari  shoals,  and  serves  as  a 
guide  to  ships  making  for  Coringa  or  Cocanada.  Koringi  is  the  name 
by  which  all  Telugus  are  known  in  Burma  and  the  Straits,  and  the 
name  of  the  town  itself  is  a  relic  of  the  ancient  Kalinga.  The  town 
has  twice  (in  1787  and  1832)  been  overwhelmed  by  a  tidal  wave.  It 
also  suffered  very  severely  in  the  hurricane  of  1839. 

Coromandel. — The  popular  name  applied  more  or  less  indefinitely 
to  portions  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  present  Madras  Presidency. 
By  some  writers,  the  name  is  derived  from  the  same  source  as  that  of 
the  village  of  Coromandel,  but  the  weight  of  authority  is  with  those 
who  suppose  it  to  be  a  corruption  of  Cholamandalam,  '  the  country 
of  the  Cholas.'  By  this  name  it  is  repeatedly  referred  to  in  ancient 
native  writings;  and  as  recently  as  1799,  the  seaboard  of  Coro- 
mandel was  spoken  of  as  Cholamandalam  and  Choramandalam.  San 
Bartolomeo,  relating  in  1796  his  experiences  during  his  residence  in 
this  district,  speaks  of  '  the  coast  of  Ciolamandala,  which  Europeans 
very  improperly  call  Coromandel,'  but  derives  the  name  from  cJiolam 
(Holcus  sorghum),  the  millet  which  forms  a  staple  food  of  the  people. 
The  true  spelling  of  cholani  in  the  vernacular,  however,  scarcely  supports 
this  theory. — See  Chola. 

Coromandel  (Karimanal,  'black  sand'). — Town  in  Ponneri  taluk, 
Chengalpat  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  13°  26'  10"  n.,  long. 
80°  20'  36"  E.  Houses,  815.  Population  (1881)  3807,  chiefly  fishermen. 
Mentioned  as  a  native  town  as  early  as  1499  by  Italian  travellers. 
The  kariminal,  or  sand  used  by  the  people  instead  of  blotting-paper,  is 
found  here. 

Cortelliar  [Kortalaiydni). — River  of  Madras  Presidency  ;  rises  in 
the  Kaveripak  tank  in  North  Arcot  District,  and,  after  passing  through 
the  Trivellur  and  Ponneri  tdhiks,  flows  into  the  Enniir  backwater  about 
1 2  miles  north  of  Madras.  This  river  is  the  chief  source  of  the  Madras 
water-supply,  being  connected  by  means  of  an  anient  with  the 
Chodavaram  and  Red  Hill  tanks.  An  account  of  the  waterworks  will 
be  found  in  the  article  on  Madras  City.  ^  It  is  said  that  at  one  time 
the  bed  of  the  present  Cortelliar  was  occupied  by  the  Palar.  Tribu- 
taries— the  Mahendranadi,  Sappiir,  Tritani,  and  Nagari.  It  was  the 
delay  caused  by  a  sudden  fresh  in  the  Cortelliar  river  that  led  to  the 
destruction  of  General  Baillie's  column  by  Haidar  Ali  in  1780. 

Cossimbazar. — Decayed  town  in  Murshidabad  District,  Bengal. — 
See  Kasimbazar. 

Cossipur  {Kdsipcr). — Ancient  village  on  the  Hiigli,  in  the  District 
of  the   Twenty-four  Parganas,    Bengal ;    now   a   northern    suburb    of 


44  COSSYE— COX'S  BAZAR. 

Calcutta,  on  the  river  bank  a  few  miles  above  the  custom-house.  Lat. 
22°  37'  30"  N.,  long.  88°  24'  30"  E.  The  site  of  an  important  Govern- 
ment gun  foundry. 

Cossye. — River  of  Bengal. — See  Kasai. 

Courtallum  {Kuttdlam).  —  Village  in  Tenkasi  tdhik,  Tinnevelli 
District,  Madras  Presidency,  and  the  sanitarium  of  the  District  from 
June  to  October.  Lat.  8°  56'  20"  n.,  long.  77°  20'  e.  Population 
(1881)  12 16.  Number  of  houses,  369.  Although  only  450  feet  above 
sea-level,  Courtallum  receives  the  south-west  monsoon  through  an 
opening  in  the  Ghats,  and  possesses  the  climate  and  flora  of  a  much 
higher  elevation.  The  scenery  is  greatly  admired,  and  the  waterfalls 
are  considered  sacred  by  the  natives.  The  smallest  cascade  is  100 
feet  high,  and  below  it  is  a  beautiful  bathing-pool  and  a  pagoda. 
There  are  several  bungalows  occupied  for  a  few  months  every  year  by 
European  officials  and  their  families  from  Palamkotta  and  Trevandrum. 
Distance  from  Palamkotta,  35  miles. 

Covelong"  (A'^?'//^;;/).— Village  in  Chengalpat  District,  Madras  Presi- 
dency;  20  miles  south  of  Madras.  Lat.  12°  46'  n.,  long.  80°  17'  40"  e. 
Population  (1881)  1692,  chiefly  fishermen,  occupying  393  houses.  One 
of  the  earliest  European  settlements,  and  formerly  a  place  of  some 
strategical  importance.  The  fort,  built  by  the  first  Nawab  of  Arcot  in 
1745,  was  by  a  stratagem  occupied  in  1750  by  the  French.  A  party 
of  soldiers,  with  arms  concealed  under  their  clothes,  and  simulating 
extretae  sickness,  were  admitted  into  the  fort  by  the  kindly  natives, 
who  believed  their  tale,  that  they  were  the  scurvy-smitten  crew  of 
the  ship  which  had  just  anchored  off  the  coast,  unable  to  proceed. 
During  the  night,  they  rose  and  overpowered  the  garrison.  In  1752, 
Clive  invested  the  place,  and  the  French  surrendered  without  firing  a 
shot.  The  fortifications  were  then  blown  up.  Covelong  possesses  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  almshouse,  and  orphanage.  The  salt-pans  to 
the  west  of  the  village  are  large,  and  there  is  some  export  trade  in  salt. 
Excellent  oysters  are  found  here. 

Cowcally.— Lighthouse  in  Midnapur  District,  Bengal. — See  Geon- 

KHALI. 

Cox's  Bazar. — Sub-division  of  Chittagong  District,  Bengal,  lying 
between  lat.  20°  43'  and  21°  54'  n.,  and  between  long.  91°  52'  and  92° 
22'  E.  Area,  937  square  miles,  with  275  villages  and  29,972  occupied 
houses.  Population  (188 1),  Muhammadans,  128,037  ;  Hindus,  13,667  ; 
Buddhists,  19,630;  Christians,  14:  total,  161,348,  namely,  males  77,248, 
and  females  84,100.  Average  density  of  population,  172  persons  per 
square  mile ;  number  of  houses  per  square  mile,  -^^^^  ')  persons  per 
village,  594;  persons  per  house,  5*4.  The  Sub-division,  which  was 
constituted  on  the  15th  May  1854,  comprises  the  police  circles  {thdnds) 
of  Maheshkhal,  Chakiria,  Cox's  Bazar,  and  Teknaf.     It  contained  in 


COX'S  BAZAR— CUDDALORE.  45 

1S83,   I   civil  and  3  criminal  courts;    strength  of  regular  police,   102 
men  ;  village  watchmen  {c/iatikiddrs),  236. 

Cox's  Bazar.  —  Head-quarters  of  Cox's  Bazar  Sub-division  and 
police  circle,  Chittagong  District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Baghkhali  khdl,  Lat.  21°  26'  31"  n.,  and  long.  92°  i'  2"  e.  Named 
after  Captain  Cox,  who  in  1799  was  appointed  to  look  after  the  many 
thousand  Magh  fugitives  who  sought  shelter  in  British  territory  after 
the  conquest  of  Arakan  by  the  Burmese.  The  Maghs  still  form  three- 
fourths  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  although  they  only  number  12 
per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  Sub-division.  The  Census  of  1881 
returned  the  population  of  Cox's  Bazar  at  4363,  namely,  males  1887, 
and  females  2476.  The  little  town  is  now  a  thriving  and  important 
place,  differing  altogether  in  appearance  from  a  Bengal  village.  The 
places  of  worship  and  the  rest-houses  of  the  Maghs  are  well  and  solidly 
built;  and  some  of  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do  residents  are  not 
only  substantial,  but  picturesque  and  neatly  ornamented.  The  houses 
are  built  entirely  of  timber  raised  on  piles,  after  the  Burmese  fashion. 
Municipal  income  in  1881-82,  ;^242. 

Cranganore. — Town  in  Travancore  State,  Madras  Presidency. — See 
Kranganur. 

Cuddalore  {KMalur).  —  Tdluk  or  Sub-division  of  South  Arcot 
District,  Madras  Presidency.  Area,  459  square  miles,  of  which  all 
but  96  are  cultivated  or  cultivable.  Houses,  47,298.  Population  (1881) 
298,523,  distributed  in  2  towns  and  221  villages,  and  occupying  42,559 
houses.  Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were — 285,130  Plindus  • 
8026  Muhammadans  (being  6869  Sunnis,  308  Shias,  15  AVahabis 
and  834  unspecified)  ;  Christians,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics,  5226  ; 
Buddhists,  Jains,  and  'others,'  141.  The  land  revenue  for  18S2-8- 
amounted  to  ^39,279.  Chief  places,  Cuddalore  and  Panruti.  In 
1882-83,  the  tdluk  contained  3  civil  and  4  criminal  courts,  with  11 
police  stations  {f hands) ;  strength  of  police  force,  165  men. 

Cuddalore  {KMalur^  Gudidur,  Kudla-ur,  '  The  town  at  the 
junction  of  the  rivers '). — Town  in  Cuddalore  tdluk,  and  adminis- 
trative head-quarters  of  South  Arcot  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Situated  on  the  backwater  formed  by  the  confluent  estuaries  of 
the  Gaddilam  and  Paravanar;  116  miles  by  sea  and  127  by  rail 
south  of  Madras,  and  16  miles  south  ^  of  Pondicherri.  Lat.  11° 
42'  45"  N.,  long.  79°  48'  45"  E.  Number  of  houses,  8055.  Popu- 
lation (1881)  43j5457  namely,  39,997  Hindus,  1983  Muhammadans, 
1510  Christians,  and  55  'others.'  Of  the  adult  males,  22  per  cent, 
are  weavers  or  small  traders.  The  municipal  area  extends  over  i" 
square  miles,  including  18  hamlets  which  form  the  suburbs  of  the 
town;  municipal  income  in  1881-82,  ^2816;  incidence  of  taxation, 
about  IS.  3d.  per  head  of  the  rateable  population.     As  regards  popula- 


46  CUDDALORE. 

tion,  Cuddalore  ranks  tenth  among  the  towns  of  the  Madras  Presidency. 
As  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  administration,  it  contains  all  the 
chief  pubHc  offices,  courts,  jail,  etc.,  besides  a  railway  station  and  sea- 
customs  and  marine  establishments.  It  carries  on  a  large  land  trade 
with  Madras  in  indigo,  oils,  and  sugar,  which  are  manufactured  here ; 
and  it  exports  by  sea  great  quantities  of  grain.  For  the  year  1881-82, 
the  imports,  chiefly  coal  and  jaggery,  were  valued  at  ;£63,8oo  ;  and  the 
exports,  principally  rice  and  refined  sugar,  at  ^55,400.  The  vessels 
which  entered  the  harbour  in  the  same  year  aggregated  31,914  tons 
burthen.  The  river  mouths  having  silted  up,  only  native  craft  can 
come  up  to  the  town,  but  good  anchorage  in  6  to  8  fathoms  can  be 
obtained  in  the  roads  i|  miles  from  the  shore.  The  native  town, 
Cuddalore  proper,  lies  in  a  low,  damp  site  about  2  miles  south  of 
Munjakupam,  where  the  Europeans  reside.  It  is  well  laid  out, 
and  the  houses  are  exceptionally  substantial.  It  contains  the  jail 
(formerly  the  Company's  factory),  the  barracks,  now  unoccupied,  and 
the  marine  and  mercantile  offices.  The  European  quarter,  which  stands 
on  slightly  higher  ground,  contains  all  the  public  offices,  scattered  on  a 
large  plain,  intersected  by  good  roads  with  avenues  of  trees.  The  station 
has  a  reputation  for  being  healthy.  About  \\  mile  north-east  are  situ- 
ated the  ruins  of  Fort  St.  David,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Gaddilam  river. 
The  history  of  Cuddalore  dates  from  1682,  when  the  Company 
opened  negotiations  with  the  '  Khan  of  Gingee '  for  permission  to  settle 
here.  The  first  building  was  erected  in  1683,  and  in  the  following 
year  a  formal  lease  was  obtained  for  the  site  of  the  present  port  and  the 
former  fortress.  During  the  next  ten  years,  trade  increased  so  rapidly 
that  the  Company  erected  Fort  St.  David  for  the  protection  of  the 
place,  and  rebuilt  their  warehouses.  On  the  fall  of  Madras  in  1746, 
the  British  administration  withdrew  to  Cuddalore,  v^hich  was  soon 
afterwards  twice  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  French  under  Dupleix. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  Presidency  remained  here  till  1752,  when  the 
Government  returned  to  Madras.  During  this  interval,  the  Jesuits 
were  expelled  from  the  settlement  as  spies  in  the  French  service.  In 
1755,  Clive  was  in  command  at  Cuddalore.  In  1758,  the  French 
occupied  the  town,  and  stormed  and  destroyed  the  fort;  but  in  1760, 
after  the  battle  of  Wandiwash,  the  British  regained  possession.  In 
1782,  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  and  their  ally  Tipu 
Sultan,  by  whom  the  fortifications  were  sufficiently  renewed  to  enable  it 
to  withstand  in  the  following  year  a  siege  and  several  assaults.  During 
the  siege,  a  drawn  battle  was  fought  in  the  roadstead  between  the 
French  and  English  fleets.  In  1785,  Cuddalore  was  formally  restored  to 
the  British,  and  in  1801  it  was  included  in  the  cession  of  the  Karnatic. 
Of  the  fort,  only  a  few  ruins  now  remain,  but  it  must  once  have  been  a 
place  of  considerable  strength. 


CUDDAPAH.  47 

Cuddapah  {Kadapd). — A  District  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras, 
lying  between  13°  25' and  16°  20'  n.  lat.,  and  77°  55'  and  79°  40'  e. 
long.  Area,  8745  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  1,121,038.  In 
point  of  size,  this  District  ranks  second,  and  in  population  fifteenth 
among  the  Districts  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  It  contains  1231 
villages  and  10  towns.  Land  revenue  (1881),  ;£"i6i,743 ;  total  revenue 
(gross),  ^201,321.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  District  of  Karniil 
(Kurnool),  on  the  east  by  the  District  of  Nellore,  on  the  south  by  North 
Arcot  District  and  Kolar  District  in  the  State  of  Mysore,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  District  of  Bellary.  The  administrative  head-quarters 
of  the  District  are  at  Cuddapah  town. 

Physical  Aspects.  —  Cuddapah  (Kadapa)  District  lies  beneath  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Eastern  Ghats  and  the  opposing  face  of  the 
Mysore  plateau,  forming  an  irregular  parallelogram,  shut  in  on  the  east 
and  south  by  high  mountain  ranges,  and  on  the  west  and  south-west 
stretching  away  into  broad  plains.  The  system  of  hill  chains  that 
shapes  this  country  radiates  from  two  centres.  That  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  District  lies  near  the  holy  hill  of  Tripatti  (Tirupati), 
a  point  from  which  two  main  ranges  strike  northwards.  The  first 
range  is  that  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  which  here  reach,  and  in  some  parts 
exceed,  an  elevation  of  3000  feet,  their  average  height  being  about 
2000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  other  is  the  Palkond"a  and  Seshachalam 
range,  extending  as  far  as  the  river  Pennar  (Ponnaiyar),  and  to  within  a 
few  miles  of  Cuddapah  town.  Palkonda  is  the  common  name  of  the 
range,  meaning  the  '  milk  hill,'  so  called  on  account  of  its  fine  pastur- 
age. This  Palkonda  and  Seshachalam  range,  reaching  an  average 
elevation  of  about  1500  feet,  bisects  the  District  into  two  divisions, 
the  one  of  a  lowland,  the  other  of  a  highland  character,  which  differ 
materially  in  general  aspect  and  character— so  much  so,  that  for 
chmate  and  soil,  cultivation  and  condition,  they  might  be  in  different 
degrees  of  latitude.  Each  division,  also,  has  a  separate  history  of  its 
own.  The  upper  division  consists  in  part  of  a  bare  expanse  of  black 
cotton-soil,  and  elsewhere  of  thickly-wooded  hills,  from  which  impetuous 
torrents  descend  in  the  rainy  season  to  the  Pennar,  the  only  stream  in 
Cuddapah  which  deserves  the  name  of  river.  The  lower  half  of  the 
District,  skirted  on  the  east  and  north-east^  by  the  same  Seshachalam 
range,  slopes  up  gently  from  the  foot  of  the  hills  till  it  merges  in  the 
Mysore  plateau,  undulating  so  continuously  throughout  its  extent  that 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  in  the  whole  a  perfectly  level  mile  of 
ground.  Isolated  hills  and  masses  of  rock  stud  the  country,  in  some 
instances,  as  at  Gurramkonda,  forming  objects  of  peculiar  picturesque- 
ness  and  grandeur.  The  main  watershed  of  the  country  runs  north- 
west and  south-west,  discharging  its  drainage  into  the  central  valley  of 
the  Pennar,  the  chief  tributaries  being  the  Kundair  and  Sagalair.     The 


48  CUDDAPAH. 

other  larger  streams  are  the  Papaghni,  the  Cheyair,  and  the  Chitravati. 
This  last  enters  the  District  in  the  extreme  north-west,  and  after  a  course 
of  only  8  miles  within  it,  falls  into  the  Pennar.  The  Cheyair  exhibits 
scenery  of  remarkable  grandeur  along  its  course  ;  and  all  the  rivers 
have  hills  of  alluvial  soil,  varying  in  breadth,  sloping  up  from  either  bank. 
Excepting  the  Pennar,  which  flows  from  west  to  east  through  the  upper 
half  of  the  District,  and  north  of  the  line  of  railway,  the  streams  of 
Cuddapah  are  small,  but  they  are  all  of  value  to  the  country,  as  on  their 
banks  are  the  busiest  centres  of  population.  The  forest  area  is  large, 
and  the  timber — blackwood,  yellama,  yepf,  shafidainon^  etc. — valuable  ; 
but  only  10,000  acres  are  at  present  conserved,  and  these  chiefly  for 
railway  requirements.  The  chief  mineral  products  of  the  District  are 
iron-ore,  lead,  copper,  limestone,  slate,  and  sandstone  for  building 
purposes.  Diamonds  have  been  worked  for  and  found  on  the.  right 
bank  of  the  Pennar  about  7  or  8  miles  north  of  Cuddapah  town,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cheniir,  Among  the  wild  beasts,  leopards,  sdmbhar 
deer,  bear,  wild  boar,  and  porcupine  may  be  considered  characteristic 
of  the  jungle-clad  hill  tracts,  while  elsewhere  antelope,  wolf,  hygena,  and 
fox  are  common. 

History. — Passing  over  the  tradition  which  assigns  to  Cuddapah  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  story  of  Rama,  and  that  debateable  era  when 
three  Hindu  kingdoms  are  said  to  have  divided  Southern  India,  the 
history  of  the  District  begins  with  the  Muhammadan  period.  The 
Hindu  kings  of  Vijayanagar  then  exercised  feudal  authority  over  this 
tract,  which  was  long  saved  by  its  numerous  hill  forts  from  falling  under 
permanent  subjugation  at  the  hands  of  the  Musalmans.  But  after  the 
disaster  of  Talikot  in  1565,  Cuddapah  became  the  high  road  for  the 
armies  invading  the  Karnatic,  and  was  distributed  piecemeal  among 
various  Muhammadan  chiefs  subordinate  to  the  Golconda  kingdom. 
One  of  these,  the  Gurramkonda  Nawab,  exercised  more  than  local 
powers  ;  he  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  coining  money,  and,  except  for  the 
feudal  obligation  of  military  aid,  was  subject  to  none  of  the  usual  condi- 
tions of  a  tributary.  But  about  1642,  the  estate  fell  into  the  possession 
of  the  Marathas,  and  the  chief  had  to  fly  to  the  Nizam,  by  whom  he 
was  subsequently  assigned  another  jdgir.  Meanwhile,  Cuddapah  was 
given  up  to  plunder  by  Sivaji,  the  Maratha,  who  placed  Brahmans  in 
charge  of  each  of  the  conquered  strongholds,  and,  to  use  a  phrase  of 
contemporary  history,  '  scraped  the  country  to  the  bones.'  A  gap  now 
occurs  in  local  history.  But  early  in  the  following  century,  we  find  Abdul 
Nabi  Khan,  the  Pathan  '  Cuddapah  Nawab,'  acting  independently  of 
the  Nizam,  and  laying  under  tribute  'C(\q  pdlegdrs  of  the  tract  known  as 
the  Baramahal,  notably  the  Chief  of  Punganiir,  who,  besides  an  annual 
payment  of  32,000  pagodas,  was  required  to  maintain  a  force  of  2000 
armed  men.     Three   Nawabs  of  Cuddapah  ruled  in  succession,  each 


CUD  DAP  AH. 

49 

increasing  the  power  bequeathed   to  him;  but  the  third   came  into 
colhsion  with  the  rising  power  of  the  Marathas  about  the  year  17^2 
and  from  this  event  dates  the  dedine  of  the  house.     In  1 750,  however' 
the  Cuddapah  Nawab  was  still  playing  an  important  part  in 'the  affairs 
of  the  Karnatic.     In  the  following  year  he  headed  the  conspiracy  in 
I   which  Muzaffar  Jang,  the  Nizam,  lost  his  life  in  the  Luckereddipalli 
Pass.      In    1757,  the    Marathas   gained  a    decisive   victory   over   the 
Nawab   at  the  town    of  Cuddapah,  but    lost   all  advantage   from  the 
victory  by  the  advance  of  the  army  of  the  Nizam,  with  a  French  con- 
tingent under  M.  Bussy.     Meanwhile,  Haidar  Ali  had  risen  to  supreme 
I  power  m  xMysore.     Jealous  of  the  Marath^  successes,  he  intrigued 
successfully  for  the  surrender  of  Gurramkonda  fort ;  and  in  1769,  hrvin- 
:  signed  a  truce  with  the  British,  turned  all  his  attention  to  Cuddapah'' 
In  a  secret  treaty  with  the  Nizam  he  stipulated  for  a  joint  invasion  of 
the   Coromandel   coast   and,  in  the  distribution  of  conquered  lands 
for   the  possession   of  Cuddapah   by  Mysore.     A  series  of  invasions 
and  counter-invasions  followed.     In  1782,  on  the  death  of  Haidar  Ali 
a  descendant  of  the  last  Cuddapah  Nawab  claimed  th«,  title,  and  was 
supported  by  a  small  British  detachment,  which,  however,  was  treacher- 
ously massacred  during  a  parley.     For  the  next  few  years,  Cuddapah 
enjoyed  comparative  rest;  but  in  1790,  when  the  Marathas,  the  Nizam, 
and  the  British  combined  to  overthrow  Tipii  Sultan,  the  Nizam's  first 
step  was  to  recover  Cuddapah.     In  1792,  Tipii  signed  a  treaty  ceding 
the  whole  of  Cuddapah  District,  with  the   fort  of  Gurramkonda,  to 
the  Nizam,  who  granted  it  mjdgir  three  years  later  to  M.  Raymond,  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  contingent  under  his  command.     But  the 
Madras  Government,  disquieted  by  this  occupation  of  so  important  a 
I  frontier  post,  compelled  M.  Raymond's  withdrawal  by  threatening  to 
attack  Cuddapah.     For  the  next  few  years,  a  general  scramble  for  the 
forts  of  the  District  took  place  among  Wi^ p alegars.     In  1799,  after  the 
jfall  of  Seringapatam,  Cuddapah  was  transferred  by  the  Nizam  to  the 
jBntish,  in  satisfaction  of  arrears  of  pay  due  by  him  to  his  British  con- 
jtingent.    In  1800,  this  cession  was  formally  ratified,  and  since  that  date 
the  District  has  had  but  little  history.     Sir  Thomas  Munro,  the  first 
Collector  of  'the  Ceded  Districts'  (Cuddapah,  Kurnool,  and  Bellary), 
found  Cuddapah  held  by  some  Zo  p  die  gars  or  feudal  chiefs,  all  main- 
taining bodies  of  retainers  who  subsisted  entirely  by  plundering  the 
ppen  villages.     These  feudal  chiefs  asserted  their  independence,  which 
:hey  maintained  with  less  difficulty  because  of  the  isolated  tracts  into 
vhich  the  hill-bounded  river  basins  split  up  the  country.     They  were, 
lowever,  one  after  the  other,  reduced  to  submission ;  and  the  District 
te  surveyed,  assessed,  and  brought  into  order  by  the  establishment  of 
|.  police  and  a  settled  administration  of  justice.      In  1807,  when  Sir 
rhomas  Munro  retired  from  his  post,  the  Madras  Government  recorded 

VOL.  IV.  ^ 


50  CUDDAPAH. 

their  appreciation  of  his  services  in  the  following  order : — '  From  dis- 
united hordes  of  lawless  plunderers  and  freebooters,  the  people  are  now 
as  far  advanced  in  civilisation,  submission  to  the  laws,  and  obedience 
to  the  magistrates  as  any  of  the  subjects  under  this  Government.  The 
revenues  are  collected  with  facility ;  every  one  seems  satisfied  with  his 
position,  and  the  regret  of  the  people  is  universal  on  the  departure  of 
the  Principal  Collector.'  In  1832,  the  Pathans  of  Cuddapah,  affecting 
to  see  in  an  act  committed  by  one  of  their  own  faith  an  attempt  to 
outrage  a  place  of  worship,  raised  a  riot,  in  which  the  Sub-Collector 
(Mr.  Macdonald)  was  murdered.  In  1846,  a  descendant  of  the  dis- 
possessed pdlegdr  of  Nossum,  dissatisfied  with  the  pension  he  received, 
attempted  to  excite  a  general  rebellion,  and  collected  on  the  frontiers 
two  forces  of  several  thousand  men.  Each  was  promptly  defeated  by 
British  detachments,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  quiet  was  com- 
pletely restored.  Since  that  date,  no  event  of  historical  importance 
has  occurred.  Of  all  the  turbulent  pdlegdrs,  not  one  now  remains  in 
occupation  of  his  ancestral  property,  but  their  descendants  receive 
allowances  from  the  Government.  Their  estates  are  now  held  on 
direct  tenure  by  the  cultivators,  to  whom  they  have  been  leased  in 
small  lots. 

Population. — The  Census  of  187 1   disclosed  a  total  population  of 
1,351,194  persons,  living  in  339,603  houses,  on  an  area  of  8367  square 
miles,  giving  an  average  of  4  persons  per  house,  and  161  per  square 
mile.     The  Census  of  1881  returned  the  area  at  8745  square  miles, 
and  the  total  population  at  1,121,038,  showing  a  decrease  of  230,156 
persons   in   the   decade,  or    17*03   per   cent.,  due  to   the   famine   of 
1876-78,  which  was  most  severe  in  this  District.     The  male  population 
was  returned  at  569,970;  the  female  at  551,068;  proportion  of  males 
in   total   population,    50*9   per   cent.      Number   of  houses,    247,186.  \ 
Number  of  persons  per  square  mile,   128,  varying  from   194  in  the 
Cuddapah  tdluk  to  93  in  Rayachoti — in  point  of  density  the  District 
stands    lowest   but    four    among   the    Districts    of   the    Presidency; 
number  of  persons  per  house,  4*5.    As  regards  the  religious  distinctions 
of  the  people,  1,017,211,  or  9074  per  cent.,  were  returned  as  Hindus; 
97,749,  or  872  per  cent.,  as  Muhammadans ;  6067,  or  0*54  per  cent., 
as  Christians,  and  11   'others.'     Children  under  the  age  of  10  yearsi 
numbered    116,045    males   and    119,408    females.     Between    10   and 
20  years  the  males  were  129,350,  the  females  112,187.     The  Hindui 
population  was  distributed  as  follows  : — Brdhmans,  24,226;  Kshattriyas, 
16,650;  Chetties  (traders),  34,261;  Vallalars  (agriculturists),  442,520. 
or  43*5  per  cent,  of  the  total  population ;  Idaiyars  (shepherds),  86,093. 
or  8 "4  per  cent.;  Kammalars  (artisans),   13,638;   Kaikalar  (weavers). 
52,168,    or   5 "12    per   cent;   Vanniyan    (labourers),    771;    Kushavar 
(potters),  10,139;  Satani  (mixed  castes),  13,517;  Shembadavan  (fisher 


CVDDAPAIi. 

men),  35,256;  Shanan  (toddy-drawers),  7435;  Ambattan  (barbers) 
14,705;  Vannan  (washermen),  28,047;  Pariahs,  147,733,  or  14-5  per 
cent. ;  and  '  others,'  89,854.  According  to  occupation,  15,657,  or  1-40 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  are  ^professional;'  4078  'or  o-^6 
per  cent,  are  'domestic;'  19,410,  or  173  per  cent.,  are  '  commercial  • ' 
478,467,  or  42-68  percent,  are  'agricultural;'  134,332,  or  11-98  per 
cent,  are  'industrial;'  and  469,094,  or  41-85  per  cent,  belon/to 
the  'indefinite  and  non-productive'  class,-2-39  per  cent.  amon.  the 
last  being  returned  as  '  occupied.'  About  60-54  per  cent  are  returned 
as  workers,  on  whom  the  remaining  39-46  per  cent  of  the  population 
depend;  71-51  per  cent  of  males,  and  49-21  per  cent  of  females,  were 
workers.  There  were  5 1,693  persons  who  were  either  educated  or  under 
instruction,  of  whom  only  1882  were  females.  The  Christians  of  thi'. 
District  are  better  taught  than  any  other  class  of  natives 

It  is  noteworthy  that,  while  the   Brahmans  are  by  a  vast  majority 
returned  as  Siva-worshippers,  the  Kshattriyas  are  generally  Vaishnavs 
Ihe  Muhammadans  are  arranged  as  follows  :— Shaikhs,  6579  •  Sayyids 
998;  Pathans,  1228;  Mughals,  iii;   Lubbays,  60 ;  and  '  others,' 9421' 
excluding  79,352  Muhammadans  returned  under  the  heading  'not  stated  ' 
Of  the  native  Christians,  nearly  all  are  Pariahs,  and  of  the  Protestant 
faith;    of  Europeans   there    were    only   42;    and   of  Eurasians,    282. 
Ihe  wandering  tribes-known  to  the  police  as  '  the  criminal  classes'— 
comprise  the  Yanadis,  Yerukalas,  Chenchuwars,  and  Sugalis.     The  first 
of  these,  a  low-statured  race,  live  among  the  hills  on  the  frontier  of  the 
District,  descending  at  times  to  take  employment  in  the  plains      In 
their  unreclaimed   state   they  are   the  determined  plunderers  of  the 
shepherds'  flocks.     In  the  Forest  Department  their  woodcraft  is  turned 
to  good  account.      The   Yerukalas  will   seldom    settle,   preferring   to 
wander  about,  under  pretence  of  collecting  jungle  produce.    A  favourite 
lorm  of  crime  with  them  is  to  enter  an  unguarded  house  at  night  and 
wrench  the  jewels  from  the  ears  of  sleeping  women  and  children.     The 
bugahs,  who  are  comparatively  harmless,  resemble  European  gipsies 
in  their  wandering  life,  picturesque  costume,  and  pilfering  tendencies. 
Ihe  Chenchuwars,  physically  a  fine  race  of  men,  are  most  incorrigible 
criminals,  showing  little  regard  for  human  life;  in  habits  they  are  not 
unhke  the  Yanadis.  . 

The  chief  towns  are— Cuddapah,  which  is  the  only  municipal  town 
m  the  District,  with  18,982  inhabitants;  Badvel,  U^,^  ■  Prodd^tur 
,6510;    Jammulamadugu,     4846;     Kadiri,    5004;     Madanapalli,' 
57CO  ;  PuLiVENDALA,  1885  ;  Rayachoti,  4367  ;  Vempalle,  581 1  ;  and 
Vayalpad,  3695.  ^        > 

Agriculture.—ThQ  Cuddapah  agriculturists  are  good  farmers,  and  the 
■alluvial  soil  of  the  valleys  produces  rich  crops.  They  manure  very 
highly,  using  for  that  purpose  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  manures. 


52  CUD  DAP  AH. 

In  the  Cuddapah  valley  especially  the  soil  is  very  rich,  and  grain  of 
all  kinds  is  grown,  as  well  as  cotton  and  indigo.  Tamarind  trees  are 
largely  planted,  800  lbs.  weight  of  the  cleaned  fruit  selling  for  los. 
The  trees,  however,  only  bear  every  second  year.  The  cultivator 
now  holds  his  lands  under  the  rdyatwdri  system  of  tenure.  Formerly 
(in  1808),  land  was  held  under  a  three  years'  lease,  on  the  'village  rent 
system,'  each  village  being  farmed  out  to  a  separate  and  solely  re- 
sponsible renter.  This  did  not  succeed,  and  in  181 1  a  lease  for  ten 
years  was  substituted,  which  continued  up  to  182 1.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  District  still  speak  of  those  days  as  one  incessant  period  of 
extortion  from  the  under-tenants,  and  of  absconding  and  punishment 
of  the  renters.  The  ten  years'  lease  system,  proving  unsatisfactory, 
was  abolished;  and  the  rdyatwdri  system  was  introduced,  which 
caused  the  revenue  to  fall  to  about  ;£i5o,ooo  in  the  first  year  of  hs 
introduction  (1822).  From  this  time,  however,  it  began  steadily 
to  rise,  until  in  1830  it  reached  ^^2 00, 000,  at  which  average  it  has 
stood  since.  As  regards  ordinary  '  wet '  crops,  such  as  rice,  ragi,  etc., 
the  out-turn  per  acre  may  be  valued  at  about  £^  per  annum,  and  the 
net  profit  to  the  rdyat  at  £2.  The  average  size  of  an  ordinary 
cultivator's  holding  is  6^  acres.  Cotton  has  always  been  largely  culti- 
vated in  the  northern  tdluks,  and  indigo  is  grown  very  generally  over 
the  District.  The  cotton  soil  demands  continual  care,  since,  if 
neglected  for  a  short  time,  it  is  liable  to  be  overgrown  by  a  weed 
known  as  '  nut  grass,'  which  spreads  very  rapidly  and  can  only  be 
ploughed  up  with  great  labour.  Sugar-cane  cultivation  requires  very 
deep  ploughing  and  a  constant  supply  of  water.  An  acre  of  cane 
ought  to  produce  about  12,000  lbs.  of  jaggery  (crude  sugar),  worth 
in  the  market  about  ;£22.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  District,  8745 
square  miles  (5,596,800  acres),  2,889,007  acres  were  returned  in 
1881-82  as  assessed  to  Government  revenue.  The  area  actually 
under  cultivation  was  1,495,514  acres,  of  which  178,534  acres  were 
irrigated.  The  cultivable  area  not  under  the  plough  was  1,143,287 
acres;  pasture  and  forest  lands,  184,080  acres;  uncultivable  waste, 
2,776,039  acres;  total  uncultivated,  4,103,406  acres.  Of  the  total 
area,  775,438  acres  are  held  in  indm,  or  under  a  free  grant.  The 
staple  cereals  of  the  District  are  the  millets,  cJiolain  (Sorghum  vulgare),., 
ka77ibic  (Panicum  spicatum),  and  korra  (Panicum  italicum),  which 
occupied  between  them  769,243  acres  of  the  cultivated  area;  283,282 
acres  being  taken  up  by  other  cereals,  as  ragi  (Eleusine  coracana), 
wheat,  rice,  etc.  Of  the  remaining  cultivated  area,  peas,  lentils, 
and  other  pulses  occupied  149^243  acres;  orchard  and  garden 
produce,  25,635  acres;  tobacco,  5084  acres;  chillies  and  cummin, 
13,508  acres;  sugar-cane,  3034  acres;  oil-seeds,  40,210  acres;  indigo, 
100,772    acres;    saffron,    1449    acres;    cotton,    96,743    acres;    jute 


CUDDAFAH.  53 

and  other  fibres,  355  acres.  The  agricultural  stock  of  the  District 
comprised  in  1881-82,  212,924  horned  cattle,  10,630  donkeys, 
385  horses,  1474  ponies,  220,273  sheep,  235,038  goats,  8462  pigs, 
41,152  carts,  and  108,929  ploughs.  The  prices  of  produce  ruling 
at  the  end  of  the  same  year,  per  viaund  of  80  lbs.,  were — for  rice, 
6s. ;  wheat,  6s. ;  other  grains,  2s. ;  sugar,  32s. ;  linseed,  i6s. ;  salt,  8s. ; 
jute,  I2S.  ;  cotton,  32s.  ;  and  sheep,  5s.  to  6s.  each.  The  wages  for 
skilled  labour  were  from  is.  to  is.  3d.  per  day,  and  of  unskilled,  from 
3d.  to  5d. 

Natm-al  Calamities. — Between  1800  and  1802  there  was  considerable 
distress  in  Cuddapah,  and  relief  w^orks  were  opened.  Again  in  1866 
very  high  prices  obtained  ;  and  the  great  drought  of  1876-77  caused 
severe  suffering  throughout  the  District.  In  1865,  part  of  the  Dis- 
trict suffered  from  a  visitation  of  grasshoppers.  From  the  commence- 
ment of  the  District  history,  alternate  droughts  and  floods  appear  to 
have  prevailed.  Three  years  of  drought  preceded  a  great  bursting  of 
the  tanks  in  1803  ;  and  in  1818,  after  a  dry  year,  180  tanks  in  one 
taluk  alone  wxre  breached  by  the  sudden  and  excessive  rainfall.  In 
1820,  a  violent  storm  burst  770  tanks,  causing  the  destruction  of  a 
few  human  lives  and  many  cattle.  In  185 1,  there  was  a  greater 
mortality  from  the  same  cause;  in  one  of  the  villages  swept  away,  500 
people  were  drowned.  Cuddapah  suffered  severely  in  the  great  Madras 
famine  of  1877,  for  an  account  of  which  see  the  article  on  Madras 
Presidency. 

Co?7imerce  and  Trade. — The  manufacture  of  cloth  from  the  cotton 
produced  in  the  District  ranks  first  among  the  local  industries.  In 
1804,  the  number  of  looms  was  estimated,  under  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's system  of  'Investments,'  at  19,626,  turning  out  annually  goods 
to  the  value  of  ;^23o,ooo;  and  in  1875,  the  out-turn  of  cotton  having 
more  than  doubled  since  1804,  the  value  of  the  manufactured  produce 
was  estimated  at  ^400,000.  The  manufacture  of  indigo  has  of  late 
years  decreased,  the  European  firms  having  closed  their  factories,  and 
the  business  falling  entirely  into  the  hands  of  native  producers.  The 
sugar  made  in  Cuddapah  commands  a  market  throughout  Southern 
India,  the  cane  being  of  superior  quality.  The  '  Imperial '  and  '  Minor ' 
irrigation  works  of  the  District  comprise  434  channels  and  995  tanks, 
irrigating  an  area  of  235,612  acres,  and  yielding  a  revenue  of  ;^85,379. 
The  roads  of  the  District  aggregate  a  length  of  11 23  miles  (a  great 
portion  being  over  cotton  soil,  and  passable  only  in  dry  weather),  and 
are  spread  equally  over  the  District.  They  branch  off  from  the  three 
^ain  lines  from  Madras  to  Bellary,  Karniil  (Kurnool),  and  Kadiri. 
The  Kurnool-Cuddapah  canal  enters  the  District  in  the  Proddatiir 
taluk.  It  is  taken  across  the  Pennar  at  Adniamayapalli  by  means  of 
an  anicut  which  holds  up  the  water  at  the  required  level,  and  terminates, 


54  CUDDAPAH. 

after  a  course  of  191  miles,  at  the  Krishnapuram  station  of  the  Madras 
Railway,  4  miles  from  Cuddapah.  The  total  length  of  canals  in  the 
District  is  75  miles.  The  Madras  Railway  (North-West  Line)  traverses 
the  District  for  102  miles,  with  14  stations. 

The  religious  institutions  of  the  District  are  important  in  the 
aggregate,  Government  continuing  an  ancient  allowance  of  ;£"2  7oo, 
and  local  piety  contributing  extensive  endowments.  The  Car  Festival 
in  the  Proddatiir  and  other  taluks,  the  Bathing  Festival  of  Pushpagiri, 
and  the  Ganga  Jafrd  Festivals,  all  attract  large  assemblages,  and 
facilitate  the  interchange  of  local  products. 

Administration. — For  administrative  purposes,  the  District  is  divided 
into  II  taluks,  namely,  Badvel,  Cuddapah,  Jammulamadugu, 
Kadiri,  Madhanapalle,  Proddatur,  Pullivendala,  Pullampet, 
Rayachoti,  Sidhout,  and  Vayalpad.  The  land  revenue  amounted 
in  1881  to  ;^i6i,743,  while  excise  yielded  ;£^2o,37o  ;  stamps,  ;£^i5,354; 
and  assessed  taxes,  ;^3854.  Total  revenue,  ;,^2 01,321.  The  esti- 
mated money  value  of  the  lands  alienated  in  payment  of  service 
amounts  to  about  ^'jj,ooo.  This  does  not,  however,  include 
the  alienations  in  personal  and  religious  indms,  amounting  to  an 
additional  ^60,000.  In  fact,  such  an  excessive  quantity  of  indm 
land  has  been  granted  in  this  District,  that  the  cultivating  class  is  to 
a  considerable  degree  independent  of  Government  land.  The  admini- 
stration of  justice  is  conducted  by  7  civil  and  5  revenue  judges ;  the 
number  of  magistrates  of  all  grades  is  30.  The  police  force  com- 
prises 1058  officers  and  men  of  all  ranks,  giving  a  proportion  of  i  to 
every  8  square  miles  and  every  1060  of  the  inhabitants,  and  is 
maintained  at  a  cost  of  ;^  16,688.  The  District  possesses  one  jail  in 
the  town  of  Cuddapah,  with  a  daily  average  population  of  145,  costing 
;£"9,  15s.  per  prisoner. 

Education  is  provided  by  grants  from  the  Local  Funds,  and  by 
Government.  In  1881-82  there  were  495  schools,  including  3  girls' 
schools,  distributed  over  the  District,  with  a  total  attendance  of  8425 
pupils,  besides  158  indigenous  schools  with  an  average  roll  of  2814 
pupils.  The  one  municipality  is  that  of  Cuddapah,  with  an  income, 
in  1881-82,  of  ;£^2958,  from  which  are  supported  an  elementary 
school,  civil  dispensary,  vaccinating  staff,  conservancy  establishments, 
and  municipal  police. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate,  though  trying,  does  not  appear  to  be 
unhealthy.  In  January  and  February,  north-east  winds,  cool  and  dry, 
keep  the  temperature  at  about  75°  F.,  but  in  March  the  heat  begins  to 
increase,  and  till  the  end  of  June  the  mean  varies  from  95°  to  100°  in 
the  shade.  From  July  to  September  inclusive,  cooler  breezes,  with 
occasional  showers,  prevail  from  the  south-west ;  and  from  September 
to  December,  during  the  north-east  monsoon,  the  temperature  averages 


CUDDAPAH.  55 

70°,  Cholera  occasionally  visits  the  District  in  an  epidemic  form, 
but  causes  no  serious  mortality.  Small-pox  shows  a  lower  death-rate 
than  in  any  other  District  of  the  Presidency,  except  Ganjam  and  South 
Kanara.  Fever  carries  off  great  numbers  annually ;  and  to  this  cause 
is  probably  due  the  reputation  for  unhealthiness  unfairly  bestowed  on 
the  District.  The  disease  called  '  Madura-foot '  is  endemic  in  the  black 
cotton-soil  taluks.  There  are  three  dispensaries  in  the  District — at 
Cuddapah,  Proddatiir,  and  Madanapalli.  The  number  of  births 
registered  in  the  District  in  i88i  was  32,867,  or  a  ratio  of  29-3  per 
1000  of  population.  The  number  of  registered  deaths  in  the  same 
year  was  20,343,  or  i8"i  per  1000,  the  mean  for  the  previous  five 
years  being  27-4.  Vaccination  still  meets  with  opposition,  and  makes 
but  little  progress.  The  annual  rainfall  for  30  years  ending  1881 
averaged  2 7 "26  inches.  [For  further  information  regarding  Cuddapah, 
see  the  Maiiual  of  Cuddapah  District,  by  J.  D.  B.  Gribble,  Esq.,  C.S. 
(Madras,  1875).  ^^so  the  Census  Report  of  Madras  {\ZZ\)\  and  the 
Annual  Administration  Reports  of  the  Madras  Presidency  from  1880 
to  1883.] 

Cuddapah  {Kadapd). — Taluk  or  Sub-division  of  Cuddapah  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Area,  760  square  miles,  containing  31,104  houses, 
grouped  into  i  town  and  146  villages;  population  (188 1)  147,453,  namely, 
74,421  males  and  73,032  females.  The  taluk  forms  a  basin  completely 
shut  in  on  three  sides  by  the  Lankamalai  and  Seshachalam  Hills,  and 
watered  by  the  Pennar  (Ponnaiyar),  which  within  its  limits  receives  three 
tributary  streams,  the  Kundair,  Papaghni,  and  Bugair.  Diamond-yielding 
quartzite  is  found  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  above  Chennur  and  Kanu- 
parti.  The  farming  carried  on  in  this  taluk  is  decidedly  superior  to 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  District.  The  use  of  both  irrigation  and  manure 
is  more  resorted  to  than  elsewhere,  and  the  rotation  of  crops  is  better 
understood.  Cuddapah  indigo,  which  differs  in  being  extracted  from 
the  plants  when  green,  commands  a  higher  price  than  indigo  from 
other  parts  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  Of  the  total  area,  only  about 
one-third  pays  land  revenue.  The  chief  places  are  Cuddapah,  Kamala- 
puram,  Akkayapali,  and  Komadi.  The  Madras  Railway  (North-West 
Line)  has  3  stations  within  the  taluk,  and  good  roads  run  alongside 
the  canal  which  traverses  the  river  valley.  Education  is  very  back- 
ward, even  the  ordinary /^j^^/  schools  being  remarkably  few  in  number, 
and  exclusive.  Land  revenue  demand  (1882-83),  £26,2)^9-  I^  ^^^ 
same  year,  the  /^f////^  contained  2  civil  and  5  criminal  courts,  with  11 
police  stations  (thdnds),  and  a  police  force  numbering  255  officers  and 
men.  Historically,  the  interest  of  the  taluk  centres  in  its  chief  town, 
Cuddapah. 

Cuddapah  {Kadapd). — Town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of 
Cuddapah  District,  Madras  Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  14°  28'  49"  n.. 


56  CUDDAPAH. 

and  long.  78°  51'  47"  e.,  in  the  Pennar  (Ponnaiyar)  valley,  6  miles  south 
of  that  river  and  161  miles  by  rail  from  Madras;  population  (1881)  18,982, 
namely,  11,216  Hindus,  7273  Muhammadans,  and  493  Christians, 
occupying  4015  houses.  Municipal  income  in  1881-82,  ^,^2958  ;  inci- 
dence of  taxation,  about  3s.  id.  per  head.  As  the  head-quarters  of  the 
District,  Cuddapah  contains  all  the  chief  offices  of  local  administration, 
the  Judge's  and  Collector's  courts,  jail,  telegraph  and  post  offices. 
The  trade  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  indigo  and  cotton,  and  the 
principal  industry  is  the  weaving  of  coarse  cloth.  The  town,  being 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  bare  sandstone  hills,  is  one  of  the  hottest 
in  the  District,  the  mean  temperature  in  the  shade  from  March  to 
July  being  97°  F. ;  annual  rainfall,  27  inches.  The  native  town 
is  unhealthily  situated  and  squalidly  built,  the  proportion  of  substantial 
Duildings  being  much  lower  than  in  many  large  villages.  Cuddapah 
is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  a  place  of  importance  under  the 
Vijayanagar  dynasty.  But  the  existence  of  a  hamlet  in  the  neighbour- 
hood called  Old  Cuddapah  (Pata-Cuddapah),  and  the  total  absence  of 
ancient  Hindu  buildings,  prove  the  modern  origin  of  the  present  town. 
Muhammadan  local  tradition  names  Abdul  Nabi  Mia  as  the  founder  ; 
but  it  seems  more  probable  that  one  of  the  Pathan  lieutenants  of  the 
Golcondah  army  erected  the  fort  about  1570.  It  is  not  till  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  when  the  so-called  Nawab  of  Kurpa 
(Cuddapah)  had  absorbed  the  whole  of  the  tract  known  as  the  Balaghat, 
except  Giiti  (Gooty),  and  had  extended  his  conquests  to  the  Baramahal, 
that  Cuddapah  appears  as  the  capital  of  a  separate  kingdom  {see 
Cuddapah  District).  In  1 748,  the  Nawab  followed  the  standard  of  the 
Nizam  Muzaffar  Jang  to  the  Southern  States,  and  two  years  afterwards 
murdered  his  lord  paramount  with  his  own  hand.  Eight  years  later, 
retribution  overtook  him ;  his  country  was  invaded  by  the  Marathas,  to 
whom  he  was  compelled  to  cede  half  his  estates,  including  Gurramkonda 
fort ;  and  at  the  same  time  Haidar  All  of  Mysore  wrested  the  Baramahal 
from  him.  In  1769,  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah  paid  tribute  to  Mysore; 
but  having  in  the  following  year  joined  the  Nizam,  he  was  attacked  by 
Haidar  Ali,  and,  in  spite  of  a  gallant  defence,  his  fort  was  captured. 
■Soon  after  the  Nawab  surrendered  at  Sidhaut.  In  1792,  Cuddapah 
was  restored  by  treaty  to  the  Nizam,  who  made  it  over  for  a  time  in 
jdgir  to  M.  Raymond,  for  the  expenses  of  the  French  contingent.  In 
1800  it  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  181 7  constituted 
the  head-quarters  of  the  District.  Since  1868  it  has  ceased  to  be  a 
military  cantonment. 

.  The  name  has  been  derived  from  Kripa,  'mercy'  (Sansk.);  but 
others  connect  it  with  Gadapa,  '  a  gate '  (Telugu) — i.e.,  '  the  gate  to 
Tripan.'  During  the  Muhammadan  occupation,  the  town  was  called 
Nekuamabad. 


CULNA—CUTCH.  57 

Culna. — Sub-division  and  town  in  Bardwan  District,  Bengal. — See 
Kalna. 

Oumbum  {Kambam). — Town  in  Madura  District,  Madras  Presi- 
dency ;  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  same  name,  in  the  south-west  of 
the  District.  Lat.  9°  44'  50"  n.,  long.  77°  20'  35"  e.  ;  population 
(1881)  5361,  almost  all  Hindus  ;  number  of  houses,  768.  The  valley 
is  a  fertile  tract  sheltered  by  the  Travancore  Hills,  and  watered  by 
a  feeder  of  the  Vygai  (Vaigai).  The  fort  of  Cumbum  was  stormed  by 
Vishwanath  Nayak  in  the  i6th  century. 

Cumbum  {Kambam). — ^Town  in  Karniil  (Kurnool)  District,  Madras 
Presidency,  and  head- quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name.  Lat. 
^5°  34'  15"  N.,  long.  79°  9'  \"  E. ;  population  (1881)  7170,  namely, 
Hindus,  4691 ;  Muhammadans,  2471;  and  Christians,  8:  number  of 
houses,  2238.  The  Local  Fund  grant  (about  ;^i5o)  is  inadequate  to 
meet  the  sanitary  wants  of  the  place  ;  and  no  town  in  the  Presidency 
has  a  worse  reputation  for  fever.  A  tank  or  lake  has  been  formed  here 
by  damming  the  Gundlakamma  river  by  a  bandh  57  feet  high,  thrown 
between  two  hills.  This  lake  has  an  area  of  about  15  square  miles, 
and  is  largely  used  for  irrigation.  The  only  building  of  interest  is  a 
dismantled  fort. 

Cutch  {Kachchh,  or  the  sea-coast  land). — Native  State  in  Gujarat 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the  Government  of  Bombay  ; 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  the  Province  of  Sind, 
on  the  east  by  Native  States  under  the  Pdlanpur  Agency,  on  the 
south  by  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar  and  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  and  on  the 
south-west  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  Its  limits,  inclusive  of  the  great  salt 
marsh  termed  the  Rann  (Runn),  extend  from  lat.  20°  47'  to  24°  n., 
and  from  long.  68°  26'  to  71°  10'  e.  The  territory  comprises  a  belt  of 
land,  160  miles  from  east  to  west  and  about  35  to  70  from  north  to 
south.  The  area  of  the  State,  exclusive  of  the  Rann,  is  about  6500 
square  miles,  containing  8  towns  and  889  villages;  population  in  1881, 
512,084.     The  capital  is  Bhuj,  where  the  Chief  or  Rao  resides. 

From  its  isolated  position,  the  special  character  of  its  people,  their 
peculiar  dialect,  and  their  strong  feeling  of  personal  loyalty  to  their 
ruler,  the  peninsula  of  Cutch  has  more  of  the  elements  of  a  distinct 
nationality  than  any  other  of  the  dependencies  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency. 

Physical  Aspects.— The  whole  territory  of  Cutch  is  almost  entirely 
cut  off  from  the  continent  of  India — north  by  the  Great  Rann,  east 
by  the  Little  Rann,  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  and  west  by  the 
eastern  or  Kori  mouth  of  the  Indus.  Though  on  the  whole  treeless, 
barren,  and  rocky,  the  aspect  of  the  country  is  varied  by  ranges  of 
hills  and  isolated  peaks,  by  rugged  and  deeply-cut  river  beds,  and  by 
well-tilled  valleys  and  tracts  of  rich  pasture  land.    On  the  south,  behind 


58  CUTCH. 

a  high  bank  of  sand  that  lines  the  sea-coast,  lies  a  low,  fertile,  and  well- 
cultivated  plain  from  20  to  30  miles  broad.  Beyond  this  plain,  the 
Dora,  a  broad  belt  of  hilly  ground,  stretches  east  and  west  from  500  to 
1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain.  Behind  the  Dora  range  lies  a 
rich  valley,  bounded  to  the  north  by  the  Charwar,  a  second  line  of  hills 
parallel  to  the  first,  but  higher,  narrower,  and,  especially  along  the 
northern  side,  more  precipitous.  Again,  beyond  the  Charwar  Hills,  a 
low-lying  belt  of  rich  pasturage,  about  7  miles  broad,  stretches  north- 
wards to  the  Great  Rann  or  salt  desert ;  and,  close  to  its  southern 
shore,  four  hilly  islands  (from  one  of  which  rises  Patcham  Pir,  the 
highest  point  in  Cutch,  1450  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea)  stand  out 
from  the  bed  of  the  Rann.  Each  of  the  two  chief  ranges  that,  stretch- 
ing east  and  west,  form  as  it  were  a  double  backbone  to  the  peninsula 
of  Cutch,  is  marked  by  one  peak  of  special  height  and  of  peculiar  shape. 
Of  these,  Nanu,  the  centre  point  of  the  southern  hills,  is  nearly  800, 
and  Indria,  the  most  prominent  peak  of  the  northern  hills,  nearly  90c 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  Besides  these  two  main  ranges,  in  the  south- 
west a  broken  line  of  hills,  and  from  the  central  plains  isolated  peaks 
rising  to  a  commanding  height,  give  the  greater  part  of  the  State  a 
rugged  and  rocky  appearance.  Except  some  brightly-coloured  cliffs 
and  boulders,  the  hills  are  dusty  brown  and  white,  their  sides  bare  01 
covered  with  a  stunted  brushwood.  From  the  sea  on  the  south  and 
west,  and  from  the  Rann  on  the  north  and  east,  the  coast  is  in  some 
places  very  slightly  raised  and  fringed  with  mangrove  swamps. 

There  are  no  permanent  rivers  in  Cutch,  but  during  the  rainy  season 
(July  to  October)  many  streams  of  considerable  size  flow  from  the 
central  ranges  of  hills  northwards  to  the  Rann  and  southwards  to  the 
Gulf  of  Cutch.  For  the  rest^of  the  year,  the  courses  of  these  streams 
are  marked  by  a  succession  of  detached  pools.  Owing  to  the  porous 
nature  of  the  upper  soil,  storage  of  water  in  ponds  and  reservoirs  is 
difficult.  But  in  rocks,  at  no  great  depth  from  the  surface,  water  is 
readily  found,  and  wells  yielding  excellent  supplies  are  numerous. 

The  Rann. — The  most  striking  physical  feature  of  Cutch  is  the  Rann' 
or  salt  desert,  stretching  along  the  north  and  east  of  the  State,  which  is ' 
estimated  to  cover  an  area  of  nearly  9000  square  miles.  It  is  believed 
to  be  the  bed  of  an  arm  of  the  sea,  raised  by  some  natural  convulsion 
above  its  original  level,  and  cut  off  from  the  ocean.  It  almost  com-j 
pletely  surrounds  the  State  with  a  belt,  varying  in  width  from  25  to  35 
miles  on  the  north  to  2  miles  on  the  east.  The  northern  or  larger  Rann 
— measuring  from  east  to  west  about  160  miles,  and  from  north  to 
south  about  80 — has  an  estimated  area  of  not  less  than  7000  square 
miles.  The  eastern  or  smaller  Rann  (about  70  miles  from  east  to  west) 
covers  an  area  estimated  at  nearly  2000  square  miles.  In  appearance 
and  general  character,  the  greater  and  lesser  Ranns  differ  but  little. 


CUTCH, 


59 


The  soil  is  dark,  and  is  generally  caked  or  blistered  by  the  action  of 
the  sun  on  the  saline  particles  with  which  the  surface  is  impregnated. 
At  times,  the  whole  surface,  particularly  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Rann, 
is  covered  with  salt.    With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  smaller  islands, 
on  which  grow  a  iQ\N  stunted  bushes  and  grass,  there  is  no  sign  of 
vegetable  life.     The  wild  ass  roams  over  the  Rann,  finding  subsistence 
on  the  grasses  in  the  islands  and  at  the  borders.     During  the  rains, 
when  the  whole  tract  is  frequently  inundated,  a  passage  across  is  a  work  of 
great  labour,  and  often  of  considerable  danger.     Some  of  this  inundation 
is  salt  water,  either  driven  by  strong  south  winds  up  the  Lakhpat  river 
from  the  sea,  or  brought  down  by  brackish  streams  ;  the  rest  is  fresh, 
the  drainage  of  the  local  rainfall.     In  spite  of  this  yearly  flooding,  the 
bed  of  the  Rann  does  not,  except  in  a  few  isolated  spots,  become  soft 
or  slimy.     The   flood-waters,  as   they  dry,  leave  a  hard,  flat   surface, 
covered  with  stone,  shingle,  and  salt.      As  the  summer  wears  on,  and 
the  heat  increases,  the  ground,  baked  and  blistered  by  the  sun,  shines 
over  large  tracts  of  salt  with  dazzling  whiteness,  the  distance  dimmed 
and  distorted  by  an  increasing  mirage.     On  some  raised  plots  of  rocky 
land,  water  is  found,  and  only  near  water  is  there   any  vegetation. 
Except  a  stray  bird,  a  herd  of  wild  asses,  or  an  occasional  caravan,  no 
sign  of  life  breaks  the  desolate  loneliness.     The  Eastern  Rann  com- 
mences to  fill  in  March,  with  the  south-west  winds  ;  and  during  the 
time  it  contains  water,  it  is  affected  by  the  tides,  and  is  consequently 
very  difficult  to  pass,  as  the  water  is  constantly  in  motion.     It  attains 
its  usual  height  before  a  drop  of  rain  falls,  by  the  influx  of  water  from 
the  Gulf  of  Cutch.     Unseasonable  rain,  or  a  violent  south-west  wind  at 
any  period,  renders  the  greater   part   of  the    Rann   impassable.       It 
generally  becomes  passable  by  the  end  of  October ;  but  even  then  for 
passage  by  troops  it  is  recommended  that  the  Rann  be  crossed  by  night 
to  avoid  the  glare,  and  working  parties  should  be  detached  in  advance 
to  clear  wells.     The  Rann  is  considerably  higher  in  the  centre  than 
along  the  edges ;  while  the  centre,  therefore,  is  dry,  there  is  frequently 
water  and  mud  at  its  sides.     The  little  Rann  is  at  present  undergoing  a 
marked  change.      Year  by  year  the  sea  is  spreading  farther  eastward ; 
and,  along  the  coast,  places  which  a  few  years  ago  were  inaccessible  to 
boats   are   now  open  to  water   traflfic.      Whether  this  change  is   due 
to  a  general  fall  in  the  level  of  the  land,  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained. 

Earthquakes. — The  peculiar  character  of  these  great  salt  wastes,  and 
the  eruptions  of  basalt  and  fire-rent  cliffs  along  the  base  of  the  hills, 
mark  the  early  force  of  volcanic  action  in  Cutch.  Volcanoes  are  no 
longer  at  work  ;  but  frequent  shocks  of  earthquake  show  that  this  tract 
is  still  the  centre  of  strong  subterranean  energy.  On  four  occasions 
during  the  present  century — viz.  1819,   1844,   1845,  ^^^  ^^64 — earth- 


6o  CUTCH. 

quake  waves  have  crossed  Cutch.  The  most  severe  were  the  shocks  of 
1 819,  when  7000  houses  at  Bhiij,  including  the  Rao's  palace,  were 
destroyed,  and  1150  people  buried  in  the  ruins.  Every  fortified  town 
in  the  State  was  injured,  and,  in  the  west,  the  fort  of  Tera,  considered 
the  strongest  in  Cutch,  was  levelled  with  the  ground.  One  effect  of 
this  convulsion  was  the  fall,  at  several  parts  of  its  surface,  of  the  bed  of 
the  Rann.  Sinking  is  reported  to  have  taken  place  in  the  east,  in  the 
north,  and  in  the  west.  In  the  west,  the  change  of  level  was  most 
marked  ;  for  about  16  miles  on  either  side  of  Sindri,  a  fortified  custom- 
house on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kori  river,  the  land  would  seem  to  have 
suddenly  sunk  from  8  to  12  feet,  and  the  place  has  since  been  occupied 
by  an  inland  lake  or  lagoon.  North  of  Sindri,  after  the  earthquake  was 
over,  a  bank  about  50  miles  long  and  from  10  to  18  feet  high,  stood 
out  from  the  plains  which  had  before  stretched  as  level  as  the  sea.  On 
account  of  its  sudden  appearance  across  the  old  bed  of  the  Indus,  the 
natives  gave  to  this  bank  the  name  of  Allah  bandh,  or  'God's  embank- 
ment.' Early  observers  speak  of  it  as  an  upheaval  of  the  surface.  But 
from  the  north  side  there  is  little  sign  of  any  rise  in  the  land  ;  and  a 
few  years  after  its  formation  (1826),  the  flood-waters  of  the  Indus,  keep- 
ing their  former  course,  forced  their  way  through  the  dam.  These  two 
considerations  would  seem  to  show  that  the  apparent  height  of  the  bank, 
as  seen  from  the  south,  is  to  some  extent  due  to  the  fall  in  the  level  of 
the  land  in  that  direction. 

Minerals^  etc. — Both  iron  and  coal  are  found.  Iron  was  formerly 
smelted,  but  at  present  the  Cutch  mines  remain  unworked.  The  coal 
found  in  the  Charwar  Hills  is  of  an  inferior  description,  and  has  not 
been  found  worth  the  expenses  of  working.  Alum  and  a  coarse  variety 
of  saltpetre  are  also  produced.  In  former  times,  alum  was  prepared  in 
great  quantities  ;  but,  partly  owing  to  the  competition  of  Chinese  alum, 
and  partly  because  Cutch  alum  is  said  to  injure  cloths  prepared  with  it, 
the  demand  has  of  late  years  almost  entirely  ceased.  The  Karimori 
Hills  furnish  strong,  tough  millstones  ;  and  good  building  stone  abounds 
in  Cutch.  Some  of  the  best  varieties  are  furnished  by  the  lower  Jurassic 
rocks,  and  others  much  used  are  found  in  the  upper  tertiary  beds.  The 
yellowish  marble  of  Khavda  is  largely  found  and  exported.  There  are 
no  forests  in  the  State.  Of  large  game,  panthers  and  wild  boar  are  to 
be  found. 

Population  and  History.  —  The  population  of  Cutch  in  1881  was 
512,084  persons,  inhabiting  102,007  houses;  number  of  persons  per 
square  mile,  7873  ;  per  house,  5-0.  The  Hindus  numbered  325,478  ; 
Muhammadans,  118,797;  Christians,  96;  Jains,  66,663;  Parsis,  42; 
Jews,  19;  Sikhs,  30;  and  aborigines,  959.  About  87  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population  are  Rajputs,  and  6*9  per  cent.  Brdhmans ;  while  the 
cultivating,  artisan,  and  other  lower  castes  of  Hindus  constitute  about 


CUTCH.  6i 

48  per  cent.     Of  the  Rajputs,  the  Rao  and  his  Bhayad,  or  '  Brethren  of 
the  Tribe,'  are  Jarejas.     Among  the  land  proprietors  are  a  few  Waghela 
Rajputs,  who  reside  in  the  cultivated  spots  of  the  arid  country  between 
Cutch   and   Sind.     The    languages    of    Cutch    are    nominally   two — 
Kachchhi  (Cutchi)  and  Gujarathi ;    the   former   being   the   colloquial 
dialect,  but  litde  used  now  in  literature  or  business.     Gujarathi  is  the 
written  language.     Persian   and  Hindustani  are  but   slightly  used    or 
known  in  the  Province.     The  Jareja  Rajputs,  to  which  branch  the  Rao 
of  Cutch  belongs,  are  descended  from  the  Summa   tribe,  and  came 
originally  from  the  north.     They  are  said  to  have  emigrated  from  Sind 
about  the  15th  century  under  the  leadership  of  Jam  Lakha,  son  of  Jara, 
from  whom  the  tribe  derive  their  name.     Till  1540,  the  Jams  ruled  over 
Cutch  in  three  branches ;  but  about  that  year,  Khengar,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Muhammadan  King  of  Ahmadabad,  succeeded  in  making  himself 
head  of  the  tribe,  and  master  of  the  whole  Province.     He  also  obtained 
from  the  king  the  grant  of  Morvi   in  the  north   of  Kathiawar,  with 
the  title  of  Rao.     The  Jam  Rawal,  the  uncle  of  Khengar,  who  had, 
previous  to  the  latter's  accession  to  full  power,  ruled  over  a  great  part 
of  Cutch,  fled  to  Kathiawar,  and  founded  the  present  reigning  house  of 
Nawanagar,  the  rulers  of  which  are  still  called  Jams.      For  six  genera- 
tions from  Khengar,  the  Raos  succeeded  according  to  primogeniture ; 
but  on  the  death  of  Rayadhan,  his  third  son,  Pragji,  opened  to  himself 
a  road  to  the  throne  by  murder  and  usurpation.     In  order,  however,  to 
pacify  the  son  of  his  murdered  brother,  who  had  a  superior  right  to  the 
throne,  he  placed  him  in  independent  charge  of  Morvi,  which  is  still 
in  the  possession  of  his  descendants.     Khengar  gave  his  own  niece, 
Kamabai,  in  marriage  to  the  King  of  Ahmadabad,  and  one  of  Khen- 
gar's  descendants  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  Gaekwar.     On 
the  death  of  Rao  Lakhpat,  his  sixteen  wives  burnt  themselves  on  his 
funeral  pile,  and  their  tombs,  built  in  a  beautiful  group,  stand  close 
to  the  British  Residency  in  Cutch.     The  practice  of  female  infanticide, 
for  which  the  Jarejas  were  notorious,  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  the  eponymous  hero  Jara,  who  killed  his  seven  unmarried  daughters 
because  he  had  failed  to  find  any  suitable  matches  for  them. 

Agriculture. — There  is  a  fair  proportion  of  good  arable  soil  in  Cutch, 
on  which  wheat  and  barley  of  indifferent  quality  are  cultivated,  as  well 
as  cotton,  the  ordinary  varieties  of  millet  and  pulse,  and  a  little  garden 
produce.  Irrigation  is  practised  over  a  considerable  area.  The  revenue 
system  is  the  bhaghatai,  or  '  metayer,'  and  the  State  share  is  sold  by 
auction.  A  high  value  is  set  upon  the  right  of  occupancy,  but  in 
gardsia  villages  the  cultivators  are  tenants-at-will.  In  State  lands,  the 
right  of  occupancy  is  only  accorded  to  those  who  have  proved  themselves 
worthy  of  the  concession  by  sinking  wells,  or  converting  dry  crop  into 
garden  land.     The  revenue  survey  has  been  at  work  for  several  years,  but 


62  CUTCH. 

on  measurement  only,  not  on  classification  or  assessment  of  the  lands. 
Of  domestic  animals,  the  camel  is  the  most  important ;  the  Rao 
possesses  large  herds  of  these  animals,  as  well  as  of  cows  and  buffaloes. 
Cutch  has  long  been  famous  for  its  horses. 

Trade  a?id  Manufactures. — Owing  to  the  want  of  made  roads,  the 
country  becomes  almost  impassable  during  the  rainy  months.  But  in 
the  fair  season,  there  is  land  communication  northwards  with  the  south- 
east Districts  of  Sind,  with  Marwar,  with  North  Gujarat,  and  across  the 
Little  Rann  with  Jhalawar,  the  north-eastern  division  of  Kathiawar. 
The  trade  of  Cutch  is  chiefly  by  sea.  The  chief  imports  are  of  raw 
produce — grain,  butter,  sugar,  groceries,  fruit,  and  timber ;  and  of 
manufactured  articles — iron,  brass,  and  copper  ware,  cloth,  furniture, 
stationery,  and  ivory.  The  exports  are  alum  and  cotton,  Indian  millet, 
pulse,  and  garlic,  clarified  butter,  black  coloured  cloth,  and  silver  ware. 
The  Rajputana  Railway  is  said  to  have  had  an  injurious  effect  on  the 
trade  of  Cutch,  as  traffic  is  diverted  to  Bombay  and  Karachi.  In  1881, 
the  imports  amounted  to  ;£^585,34o,  and  the  exports  to  ;£"i7o,i9o. 
The  customs  dues  are  for  the  most  part  farmed,  and  in  1881  realized 
^£"74,500.  From  Mandvi,  which  is  the  chief  port  of  Cutch  between  the 
middle  of  August  and  the  middle  of  June,  vessels  sail  to  Arabia,  Muscat, 
Sind,  Kathiawar,  Bombay,  and  the  Malabar  coast.  A  breakwater  to 
protect  the  Mandvi  harbour  is  under  construction.  The  Cutch  sloops, 
called  cotids,  now  generally  built  with  decks,  are  esteemed  very  good  sea- 
boats  ;  and  the  Cutch  sailors,  both  Musalmans  and  Hindus  of  the  Koli 
caste,  are  equal  to  any  to  be  found  on  the  western  coast  of  India,  both 
in  skill  and  daring.  Mandvi  used  at  one  time  to  have  a  close  connection 
with  Zanzibar,  on  the  African  coast,  from  which  were  imported  ivory, 
rhinoceros  hides,  and  slaves.  The  importation  of  slaves  into  Cutch 
was  stopped  in  1836.  Transit  duties  have  been  abolished  since  1874. 
As  there  are  no  forests  in  Cutch,  timber  for  building  purposes  has  to  be 
imported.  In  addition  to  the  beautiful  embroidery  and  silver  work,  for 
which  Cutch  is  chiefly  noted,  its  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  are  of 
some  importance. 

Admmisirati07i. — The  territory  of  Cutch  has  a  threefold  jurisdiction ; 
the  first  comprises  the  State  [Khdlsa)  portion,  under  the  direct 
management  of  the  Rao  ;  the  second,  the  estates  of  the  Bhayad,  or 
cadets  of  the  Rao's  house,  a  body  of  feudal  landlords  ;  the  third  juris- 
diction is  that  over  seven  villages  in  the  centre  of  the  territory,  known  as' 
the  Adhoi  sub-division,  which  is  held  by  one  of  the  leading  chiefs  of  the 
Rao's  tribe,  the  Thakiir  of  Morvi  in  Kathiawar.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  State  is  divided  into  8  Sub-divisions,  namely,  Abdasa  with 
Nakhtarana,  Aujar,  Bhachan,  Bhiij  with  Khavda,  Lakhpat,  Mandvi, 
Mundra,  and  Rapar  with  Khadir,  each  with  an  area  of  about  812  square 
miles,  containing  on  an  average  the  lands  of  130  villages.     Popularly, 


CUTCH.  63 

the  province  is  divided  into  7  Districts.  The  present  Rao  of  Cutch, 
who  is  styled  Maharaja  Mirza  Maha  Rao  Sri  Khengarji,  was  born  about 
1866,  and  succeeded  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Rao  Pragmulji,  in  1876. 
He  is  the  head  of  the  Jareja  Rajputs,  whose  possessions  are  spread 
over  Cutch  and  a  great  part  of  Northern  and  Western  Kathiawar.  The 
present  ruler  is  fifteenth  in  descent  from  Khengar.  The  gross  revenue 
in  188 1  was  stated  to  be  ;£i 60,305.  The  land  revenue  was  formerly- 
farmed  out  each  year,  but  since  the  last  few  years  it  has  been 
collected  by  Darbar  officials,  and  is  paid  in  kind,  the  State  share  being 
sold  by  auction.  The  Bhayad,  who  form  the  brotherhood  of  the  Rao, 
are  bound  to  furnish  troops  on  emergency.  The  number  of  these  chiefs 
has  been  estimated  at  200,  and  the  total  number  of  the  Jareja  tribe  in 
Cutch  at  about  20,000  souls.  There  have  been  several  dissensions 
between  the  Rao  and  his  Bhayad,  in  which  the  British  Government  has 
mediated.  Their  estates  do  not  descend  according  to  primogeniture, 
but  a  system  of  sub-division  prevails.  The  chief  of  Cutch  holds  a 
patent  or  sanad  from  the  British  Government  authorizing  adoption,  and 
in  matters  of  succession  the  family  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 
The  aggregate  income  of  the  Bhayad  is  estimated  at  about  ;^.'i 50,000. 
A  regular  survey  of  Cutch  is  now  being  carried  out,  which  will,  when 
completed,  form  a  valuable  aid  towards  the  general  pacification  of  the 
country.  The  chief  cause  of  British  intervention  has  been  the 
suppression  of  piracy,  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  Wagad,  or  eastern 
Cutch,  were  the  chief  offenders.  Sati  and  female  infanticide  were  at 
one  time  very  prevalent ;  the  first  has  been  suppressed  entirely,  and 
efforts  for  the  suppression  of  the  second  have  been  attended  with 
considerable  success.  In  1842,  the  proportion  of  males  to  females  in 
the  Jareja  tribe  was  found  to  be  as  8  to  i  ;  in  188 1  it  stood  as  2*25 
to  I.  The  proportion  of  males  to  females  in  the  total  population  in 
1 88 1,  was  1*03  to  T. 

The  State  is  by  treaty  bound  to  defray  the  actual  expenses  of  the 
subsidiary  force,  stationed  in  Bhiij  for  the  protection  of  the  country, 
to  the  extent  of  ^18,695  a  year.  The  Rao  of  Cutch  is  entitled  to 
a  salute  of  17  guns.  The  military  force  consists  of  240  cavalry,  404 
foot  soldiers,  495  Arabs,  and  40  artillerymen.  In  addition,  there  are 
some  3000  irregular  infantry,  and  the  Bhayad^could  furnish  on  requisition 
a  mixed  force  of  about  4000  men.  The  police  force  numbers  602, 
or  I  man  to  107  square  miles,  and  to  850  of  the  population.  There 
are  6  municipalities  in  the  State,  of  which  the  principal  are  Bhiij,  with 
an  income  in  1882  of  ;^4i6o;  Mandvi,  of  ;^346o  ;  and  Anjar,  of 
;£"ii6o  ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  2s.  per  head.  The  total  income 
from  the  6  municipalities  in  that  year  amounted  to  ;^999o.  There 
were,  in  1881-82,  86  recognised  schools  in  the  State,  with  a  total  attend- 
ance of  5342  pupils.      The  Census  Report  of  1881,  however,  returns 


64  CUTTACK. 

6502  boys  and  419  girls  as  under  instruction,  besides  27,253  males  and 
1 168  females  as  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruction. 
Education  is  sadly  neglected  among  the  Bhayad,  although  the  present 
Rao  and  his  brother  have  set  the  young  chiefs  a  good  example  in 
this  respect;  still  a  steady  progress  is  observable,  the  number  of 
cadets  under  tuition  having  risen  from  50  to  93,  while  8  Jareja  girls  also 
attend  school.  The  education  is  very  elementary.  Total  number  of 
post-offices  in  the  State,  38. 

Medical  Aspects. — Lying  along  the  parallel  line  of  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  Cutch  is  almost  beyond  the  rain-bringing  influence  of  the 
south-west  monsoon.  The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Bhiij  for  the 
21  years  ending  1881,  is  returned  at  1478  inches.  During  this  period, 
the  greatest  amount  registered  in  any  one  year  was  34*88  inches  in 
1862,  and  the  least,  I'lo  inch  in  1848.  In  i88t,  the  rainfall  was  17*91 
inches,  or  3*13  inches  above  the  average.  Along  the  sea-coast,  through- 
out the  year,  the  climate  is  agreeable ;  and  over  the  whole  Province, 
for  nearly  nine  months,  it  is  cool  and  healthy.  But  in  April  and  May, 
burning  winds  and  dust  storms  prevail,  and,  again,  during  October 
and  part  of  November  the  heat  becomes  excessive.  In  1881,  the 
mean  temperature  for  the  year  at  Bhiij  was  78*4°  F.,  ranging  from 
a  maximum  of  113°  in  May  to  a  minimum  of  46°  in  January.  The 
prevailing  diseases  are  malarious  and  rheumatic  fever,  ague,  small- 
pox, measles,  ringworm,  guineaworm,  syphilis,  and  dysentery.  [For 
further  information  regarding  Cutch,  see  the  Bombay  Gazetteer^  by  J. 
M.  Campbell,  Esq.,  C.S.,  vol.  v.  pp.  1-277  (Bombay,  1880).  Also 
Treaties^  Engagements^  and  Sunnuds  relating  to  India^  etc.  (Revised 
Edition,  Calcutta,  1876),  vol.  iv.  pp.  1-40.] 

Cuttack  {Kataka,  '  The  Fort '). — District  in  the  Orissa  Division  of 
the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal,  lying  between  20°  2'  and  21°  10' 
N.  lat,  and  between  85°  43'  and  87°  4'  e.  long.  Area,  3517  square 
miles  ;  population  (1881)  1,738,165.  Cuttack  forms  the  central  District 
of  the  Orissa  Commissionership  or  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Baitarani  river  and  Dhamra  estuary,  which  separate  it  from 
Balasor  District ;  on  the  east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  on  the  south  by 
Puri  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Tributary  States  of  Orissa. 
The  chief  town,  which  is  also  the  administrative  head-quarters  of  the 
District  and  of  the  Orissa  Division,  is  Cuttack  City,  situated  at  the 
bifurcation  of  the  Mahanadi  and  Katjuri  rivers. 

Physical  Aspects. — Cuttack  consists  of  three  distinct  tracts,  which  are 
continuations  of  three  similar  tracts  which  constitute  Balasor  District. 
The  first  is  a  marshy  woodland  strip  along  the  coast,  from  3  to  30 
miles  in  breadth ;  the  second,  an  intermediate  arable  tract  of  rice  land 
in  the  older  part  of  the  delta ;  and  the  third,  a  broken  hilly  region, 
which  forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  District.      The  marshy  strip 


CUTTACK.  6- 


3 


along  the  coast  resembles  the  Bengal  Sundarbans  as  regards  its  swamps, 
dense  jungle,  and  noxious  atmosphere,  but  lacks  the  noble  forest  scenery 
of  the  Gangetic  tract ;  it  is  intersected  by  innumerable  streams  and 
creeks,  whose  sluggish  waters  deposit  their  silt,  and  form  morasses  and 
quicksands.  Cultivation  does  not  begin  till  the  limits  of  this  dismal 
region  are  passed.  The  intermediate  arable  plains  stretch  inland  for 
about  40  miles,  and  are  intersected  by  several  large  rivers,  which 
emerge  from  the  western  mountains,  and  throw  out  a  network  of 
branches  in  every  direction.  Their  channels,  after  innumerable  twists 
and  interlacings,  frequently  rejoin  the  parent  stream  as  it  approaches 
the  ocean.  This  arable  region  is  rich  in  rice-fields,  and  is  dotted  over 
with  magnificent  banyan  trees,  thickets  of  bamboo,  and  fine  palm  and 
mango  groves.  It  is  the  only  really  fertile  part  of  the  District. 
The  hilly  frontier  tract  separating  the  settled  part  of  Orissa  from  the 
Tributary  States,  consists  of  a  series  of  ranges  from  10  to  15  miles 
in  length,  running  nearly  due  east  and  west,  with  thickly  -  wooded 
slopes  and  lovely  valleys  between.  This  region  sends  down  to  the 
plains  large  quantities  of  jungle  products— j-^//  and  other  timber,  resin, 
lac,  tasar  silk,  beeswax,  dyes,  fibres,  etc.  Unfortunately,  the  timber  is 
small,  and  only  valuable  as  fuel.  In  this  western  tract  lie  all  the  hills 
of  the  District,  except  a  few  isolated  peaks  near  Cuttack  town.  None 
exceeds  2500  feet  in  height,  but  many  of  them  are  interesting  for  their 
shrines  or  their  ancient  forts.  The  chief  of  these  are  Naltigiri,  with 
its  sandal  trees  and  Buddhist  remains  ;  Udayagiri  (Sunrise  Hill),  with 
its  colossal  image  of  Buddha,  sacred  reservoir,  and  ruined  temples 
and  caves;  and  Assiagiri,  the  highest  hill  in  the  District  (2500  feet), 
with  its  old  mosque.  The  Mahavinyaka  peak  in  the  Tributary  States, 
visible  from  Cuttack,  has  for  ages  been  consecrated  to  the  worship 
of  Siva. 

Rivers. — The  conspicuous  feature  of  Cuttack  District  is  its  rivers. 
These  issue  in  three  magnificent  streams,  by  three  gorges,  through  the 
mountainous  frontier  on  the  west.  In  the  extreme  north  of  the  District, 
the  sacred  Baitarani,  the  Styx  of  the  Hindus,  emerges  from  Keunjhar 
State,  in  which  it  takes  its  rise,  and  forms  the  boundary  between 
Cuttack  and  Balasor.  In  the  south  the  Mahanadi,  or  '  Great  River,' 
pours  down  upon  the  delta  from  a  narrow  gully  at  Naraj,  about  7  miles 
west  of  Cuttack  town.  About  half-way  between  the  two,  the  Brahmani 
enters  the  District.  As  in  the  case  of  all  deltaic  rivers,  the  beds  of 
these  great  streams  lie  higher  than  the  surrounding  country ;  and  the 
District  is  consequently  divided  into  two  great  depressions, — one  lying 
between  the  Baitarani  and  the  Brahmani,  and  the  other  between  the 
Brahmani  and  the  Mahanadi.  After  innumerable  bifurcations,  the 
three  rivers  enter  the  ocean  by  three  different  mouths.  The  waters  of 
the  Baitarani  and  Brahmani  meet  before  they  reach  the  sea,  and  the 

VOL.  IV.  '  E 


66  CUTTACK. 

combined  stream  flows  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  at  Point  Palmyras 
under  the  name  of  Dhamra.  The  Mahanadi,  or  rather  that  portion 
of  it  which  remains  in  Cuttack  District,  after  many  interlacings, 
forms  two  great  estuaries — one  generally  known  as  the  Devi,  which, 
with  its  connected  channel  the  Jotdar,  enters  the  bay  at  the  south- 
eastern corner  of  the  District ;  and  the  other,  bearing  the  name  of  the 
parent  river,  the  Mahanadi,  which  empties  itself  into  the  sea  at  False 
Point,  about  half-way  down  the  coast.  Each  of  the  three  great  rivers 
throws  off,  on  its  way  through  the  District,  a  number  of  distributaries, 
those  of  the  Mahanadi  being  the  most  numerous  and  important.  The 
chief  of  these  offshoots  of  the  Mahanadi  are  the  Katjuri  (which  again 
splits  up  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  is  called  the  Devi,  while  the 
other  retains  the  name  of  Katjuri)  and  the  Paika,  from  its  right  or 
south  bank ;  and  the  Birupa  and  Chitartala  (which  eventually 
becomes  the  Nun),  from  its  north  bank.  The  Brahmani  receives,  soon 
after  its  junction  with  the  Baitarani,  an  important  tributary,  the  Kharsua 
which  rises  in  the  Tributary  States. 

Estuaries  and  Harbours. — The  great  rivers  of  Cuttack  thus  enter  the 
sea  by  three  noble  estuaries, — the  Dhamra,  Mahanadi,  and  Devi, — • 
which  will  be  fully  described  under  their  respective  names.  The  name 
Dhamra  strictly  applies  only  to  the  northern  and  more  important  of  the 
two  channels  by  which  the  united  waters  of  the  Baitarani,  Brahmani, 
and  Kharsua  enter  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  southern  channel  is  the 
Maipara  river,  the  mouth  of  which  is  obstructed  by  bars  and  a  high 
surf.  The  entrance  to  the  Dhamra,  though  also  difficult,  has  gready 
improved  of  late  years,  and  is  well  marked ;  the  minimum  reduced 
depth  at  the  lowest  possible  tide,  according  to  the  latest  survey,  is 
6  feet  lo  inches,  but  during  flood-tide  vessels  drawing  as  much  as  i8 
feet  pass  in  with  safety.  The  port  lies  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
Balasor  District,  the  village  of  Dhamra  being  situated  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  estuary.  The  Mahanadi  estuary  has  several  mouths,  of 
which  the  principal  debouches  through  the  shoals  to  the  south  of  the 
lighthouse  on  False  Point.  Although  for  many  miles  up  the  river  there 
is  abundant  depth  for  ships  of  300  or  400  tons  burthen,  its  mouth  is 
blocked  by  a  bar,  which  adds  to  the  perils  of  shoal  water  the  dangers 
incident  to  constant  changes  in  the  channel.  A  description  of  False 
Point,  and  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  harbour  and  its  trade,  will 
be  found  in  its  proper  place.  Two  separate  channels  lead  inland  from 
the  anchorage — the  Jambu  river  on  the  north,  and  on  the  south  the 
Bakud  creek,  a  short,  deep  branch  of  the  Mahanadi.  Unfortunately 
for  inland  navigation  by  ships,  bars  of  sand  intervene  between  the 
anchorage  and  these  channels,  and,  except  at  high  water,  block  the 
entrance  to  both.  At  full  tide,  cargo  boats  and  steamers  enter  with 
ease.     The  Devi  (which,  with  its  channel  the  Jotdar,  forms  the  last 


CUTTACK.  67 

part  of  the  great  network  of  rivers  into  which  the  Kdtjuri  branch  of  the 
Mahanadi  bifurcates)  enters  the  sea  south  of  the  boundary  of  Cuttaclc 
District.  In  this  case,  too,  bars  of  sand  across  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  render  what  would  otherwise  be  an  admirable  harbour  almost 
useless.  Laden  country  boats  can  proceed  up  the  river  for  a  distance 
of  28  miles  in  the  dry  season;  and  an  extensive  rice  trade  has  developed 
at  Machhgaon,  about  9  miles  from  its  mouth.  A  permanent  beacon 
has  been  erected  at  the  entrance  of  the  estuary.  Several  tidal  creeks, 
generally  very  winding  and  narrow,  connect  False  Point  with  the 
Dhamra  and  Devi  estuaries,  and  are  available  for  country  boats  all  the 
year  round. 

Canals.  —  The  great  problem  in  Orissa  is  to  prevent  the  rivers 
from  destroying  the  crops  during  the  rains,  and  at  the  same  time 
husband  and  utilize  them  for  agriculture  and  commerce  in  the  dry 
season.  The  five  great  rivers  which  collect  the  drainage  of  63,350 
square  miles  of  the  hill  country  towards  Central  India  dash  down,  in 
time  of  flood,  2,760,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  upon  the  5000 
square  miles  of  the  Cuttack  and  Balasor  delta ;  while,  in  hot  weather, 
the  supply  dwindles  down  to  1690  cubic  feet  per  second.  To  husband 
and  control  this  enormous  water  supply,  a  vast  system  of  canals  was 
projected.  An  independent  company  (the  East  Indian  Irrigation  Com- 
pany), with  unguaranteed  capital,  undertook  the  execution  of  the 
necessary  works  for  the  irrigation  of  the  Province,  and  its  protection 
from  floods ;  and  in  1862,  operations  were  commenced.  An  account 
of  this  great  undertaking,  designed  to  irrigate  a  total  area  of  1,600,000 
acres,  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Orissa.  The  region  over  which 
the  operations  extend  reaches  along  the  coast  from  the  Chilka  lake,  in 
the  south  of  Puri  District,  to  the  Salandi  (Salnadi)  river  in  Balasor, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  deltaic  mouths  of  the  three  Cuttack  rivers  and 
the  Salandi.  The  company  proved  unable  to  complete  their  project, 
and  Government  took  over  their  whole  works  from  31st  December 
1868.  The  chief  canals  of  the  system  are  four  in  number — viz.  (i)  The 
High  Level  Canal,  originally  designed  to  provide  a  navigable  trade 
route  between  Cuttack  and  Calcutta  via  Midnapur  and  Ulubaria ; 
(2)  the  Kendrapara  Canal,  extending  from  Cuttack  to  Marsaghai, 
and  designed  to  irrigate  385  square  miles  of  country;  (3)  the  Taldanda 
Canal,  connecting  Cuttack  city  with  the  main  branch  of  the  Mahanadi 
within  tidal  range,  and  intended  both  for  navigation  and  irrigation ; 
and  (4)  the  Machhgaon  Canal,  connecting  Cuttack  with  the  mouth 
of  the  Devi  river.  The  idea  of  making  the  High  Level  Canal  a  trade 
route  between  Cuttack  and  Calcutta  has  been  abandoned;  and  the 
Orissa  branch  is  not  carried  beyond  Balasor  District.  The  Bengal 
branch,  starting  from  Ulubaria,  stops  short  at  Midnapur  town.  A 
steamer  traffic  is  now  maintained  by  way  of  the  canals  between  the 


6S  CUTTACK. 

seaboard  at  False  Point  and  Cuttack  Town,  although  the  great  bulk  of 
the  trade  is  carried  on  by  native  cargo  boats. 

Embankments.— \\.  is  obvious  that  the  immense  volumes  of  water 
poured  down  upon  the  comparatively  small  Orissa  delta  must  spread 
over  the  country  with  overwhelming  violence.  From  time  immemorial, 
defensive  embankments  have  existed  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  but 
these  have  hitherto  failed  to  protect  the  low  lands  lying  between  the 
various  deltaic  channels.  In  Cuttack  District,  680  miles  of  Govern- 
ment and  private  embankments  endeavour  to  regulate  35  rivers  or 
distributaries;  and  it  is  recorded  that  between  1831  and  1867, 
;^i57,676  were  spent  in  this  District  alone  on  the  construction  and 
repairs  of  these  protective  works.  Adding  the  amount  of  revenue 
remitted  in  consequence  of  droughts  during  the  same  period,  it  has 
been  officially  estimated  that  the  uncontrolled  state  of  the  Cuttack 
rivers  cost  during  those  thirty-six  years  a  sum  of  ;£3oo,ooo.  The  two 
items  for  remissions  of  revenue  and  cost  of  protective  works  alone 
amount  to  an  annual  charge  of  more  than  \o\  per  cent,  on  the  land 
revenue  of  the  District.  The  great  inundation  of  1866  made  no  fewer 
than  413  breaches  in  Cuttack  District,  not  one  of  the  35  embanked 
rivers  being  effectually  controlled.  |H 

History.  —  In  historical  interest  and  administrative  importancer 
Cuttack  is  by  far  the  leading  District  of  Orissa ;  and  the  town  of  the 
same  name  has  continued  to  be  the  capital  of  the  Province  for  the 
last  900  years.  The  District,  however,  has  no  separate  history  apart 
from  that  w^hich  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Orissa,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred. 

Population. — The  Census  of  1872  disclosed  a  total  population  of 
1,494,784  persons,  dwelling  in  5500  villages,  and  inhabiting  281,430 
houses.  The  next  Census,  in  1881,  returned  the  population  at  1,738,165, 
showing  an  increase  of  243,381,  or  16*29  per  cent.,  during  the  9  years. 
As  explained  in  the  article  on  Balasor  District,  this  large  increase  repre- 
sents an  actual  advance  in  the  numbers  of  a  population  recovering  during 
a  series  of  prosperous  years  from  the  devastating  famine  of  1866.  Area 
of  the  District  in  1881,  3517  square  miles;  number  of  villages  or  towns, 
12,841 ;  houses,  344,540,  of  which  316,436  were  occupied  and  28,104 
unoccupied  ;  average  density  of  population,  494*22  persons  per  square 
mile;  villages  per  square  mile,  3*65;  houses  per  square  mile,  97*96; 
persons  per  village,  135  ;  persons  per  inhabited  house,  5*49.  Classified 
according  to  sex,  there  were — males,  849,254,  and  females,  888,911; 
proportion  of  males  in  the  total  population,  48*28  per  cent.  In  religion, 
the  population  is  almost  entirely  Hindu.  The  excess  of  females  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  numbers  of  men  from  Cuttack  District 
emigrate  to  Calcutta  and  other  towns  as  palanquin-bearers,  labourers, 
and  domestic  servants,  leaving  their  wives  and  families  behind  thein. 


CUTTACK.  69 

The  Census  of  1881  returned  the  number  of  Hindus  at  1,687,608; 
Muhammadans  numbered  47,259;  Christians,  2331;  Sikhs,  104; 
Buddhists,  3;  Erahmos,  3;  and  'others,'  857,  consisting  mainly  of 
aboriginal  tribes  still  professing  their  primitive  faiths.  The  Census 
Report,  however,  includes  58,087  other  aboriginal  tribes  and  castes, 
but  classifies  them  as  Hindus  in  religion. 

Among  the  higher  castes  of  Hindus  are  the  Brahmans,  who  number 
177,193,  and  the  Rajputs  10,782.  Next  come  the  Khandaits,  339,425, 
the  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District.  Their  name  signifies  '  swords- 
man,' and  they  originally  composed  the  ancient  militia  of  the  country, 
holding  lands  on  a  strictly  military  tenure.  They  are  now  chiefly 
cultivators.  The  Goala,  or  great  pastoral  caste,  comes  next,  with 
140,870;  followed  by  the  Chasa  or  chief  cultivating  caste,  with  103,314. 
Next  in  number  come  the  Pans,  a  degraded  caste  of  landless  day- 
labourers,  78,967  in  number;  and  the  Kandaras,  a  cognate  caste, 
73,882  in  number.  Th  other  Hindu  castes,  exceeding  10,000  in 
number,  are  represented  as  follows  : — Karan,  writers  and  Government 
servants,  corresponding  to  the  Kayasths  of  Bengal  proper,  41,761  ; 
Baniya,  traders,  32,709 ;  Siidra  or  Sud,  a  respectable  caste  of  cultivators 
and  domestic  servants,  53,436;  Napit,  barbers,  33,311 ;  Dhobi,  washer- 
men, 33,449;  Kumbhar,  potters,  19,985;  Lobar,  blacksmiths,  15,012; 
Kandu,  sweetmeat  makers,  15,754;  Teli,  oil-sellers  and  traders,  58,559  ; 
Tanti,  weavers,  41,777;  Barhai,  carpenters,  19,488;  Keut,  fishermen, 
46,898;  Chamars,  skinners  and  shoemakers,  12,759;  Bauri,  labourers, 
56,819.  There  were  also  31,328  Hindus  not  recognising  caste,  of 
whom  29,614  were  Vaishnavs.  The  aboriginal  population  returned  as 
Hindus  in  the  Census  Report  numbered  58,087,  including  24,792 
Gonds,  2443  Bhuiyas,  and  146  Kharwars.  The  remainder,  30,706  in 
number,  consist  of  the  wilder  tribes,  such  as  the  Kandhs,  Savars,  etc., 
and  are  not  returned  separately  in  the  Census  Report.  The  vast 
majority  of  the  Hindus  are  Vishnu-worshippers,  but  almost  all  the 
Brahmans  are  Sivaites.  The  worshippers  of  Kali,  one  of  the  forms 
of  the  wife  of  Siva,  are  few  in  number,  and  are  principally  found 
among  the  Bengali  settlers.  The  Muhammadans  are  divided  according 
to  sect  into— Sunnis,  44,444;  Shias,  799;  Wahabis,  2;  and  unspecified, 
2014.  Of  the  2331  Christians,  278  are  Europeans  or  Americans; 
210  Eurasians;  18 19  natives;  and  24  unspecified.  Two  peasant  colonies 
of  native  Christians  have  been  founded  by  the  Cuttack  Baptist  Mission — 
one  at  Chhagan,  a  village  in  Athgarh  State,  but  within  a  short  distance 
of  Cuttack  town,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Mahanadi ;  and  the  other 
at  Khanditar,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kharsua  river.  These  little  colonies 
live  entirely  by  agriculture ;  while  the  town  Christians  find  employment 
as  Government  servants,  or  in  connection  with  the  Mission,  or  as 
domesdc  servants  or  day-labourers. 


70  CUTTACK. 

The  occupations  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  the  District  are  returned 
in  the  Census  Report  in  6  main  divisions  as  follow: — (i)  Professional 
class,  including  Government  ofiEicers,  military,  and  the  learned  pro- 
fessions, 24,974;  (2)  domestic  servants,  hotel  and  lodging-house 
keepers,  etc.,  9369 ;  (3)  commercial  class,  including  merchants,  general 
dealers,  carriers,  etc.,  12,161  ;  (4)  agricultural  and  pastoral  class, 
including  gardeners,  265,599;  (5)  manufacturing,  artisan,  and  other 
industrial  classes,  101,923  ;  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive  (composed 
of  70,524  general  labourers,  13  men  of  rank  and  property  without 
occupation,  and  364,691  unspecified,  including  children),  435,228. 

The  population  of  the  District  is  almost  entirely  rural,  only  3  towns 
containing  upwards  of  5000  souls,  namely,  Cuttack,  42,656;  Kendra- 
para,  15,696;  and  Jajpur,  11,233.  Of  the  12,841  villages  and  towns, 
10,360  contain  less  than  200  inhabitants;  2168  have  from  200  to  500; 
287  from  500  to  Tooo;  22  from  1000  to  2000;  i  from  2000  to  3000; 
and  3  upwards  of  10,000  inhabitants. 

Ethnically,  the  population  consists  of  three  races — Aboriginal,  Indo- 
Aryan  or  Hindu,  and  Afghan  or  Musalman.  The  aboriginal  tribes, 
here  as  elsewhere,  cling  to  their  mountains  and  jungles.  They  chiefly 
consist  of  the  Kandhs,  Kols  and  Savars,  and  a  brief  account  of  them 
will  be  found  in  the  article  on  the  Orissa  Tributary  States. 
They  are  regarded  by  the  orthodox  Hindus  as  little  higher  than  the 
beasts  of  the  wildernesses  they  inhabit.  Miserably  poor,  they  subsist 
for  the  most  part  by  selling  firewood  and  the  other  products  of  their 
jungles ;  but  a  few  of  them  have  patches  of  cultivated  land,  and  many 
earn  wages  as  day-labourers.  They  form,  in  fact,  an  intermediate  stage 
of  destitution  between  the  comparatively  well-off  tribes  in  the  Tributary 
States  (the  home  of  these  races),  and  the  Pans,  Bauris,  and  Kandaras, 
who  now  rank  as  the  basest  of  the  Hindu  community,  but  who  are 
supposed  to  be  remnants  of  the  pre-Aryan  people,  from  the  similarity 
of  their  habits  to  those  of  the  aborigines  in  the  Tributary  States.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  Indo- Aryan  or  Hindu  population  consists  of  Uriyas, 
with  a  residue  of  immigrant  Bengalis,  Lala  Kayasths  from  Behar  and 
Upper  India,  Marathas  from  Central  India,  and  Sikhs  from  the  Punjab. 
The  Musalman  population  are  the  descendants  of  the  northern  soldiery 
who  swooped  down  upon  Orissa  in  1558,  and  during  subsequent 
Muhammadan  invasions. 

Agriculture,  etc. — The  staple  crop  of  Cuttack,  in  common  with  the 
other  Districts  of  Orissa,  is  rice.  Bidliy  corresponding  to  the  dus  or 
autumn  rice  of  Bengal,  is  sown  broadcast  on  high  land  in  May,  and 
reaped  in  September.  A  tradition  relates  that  this  rice  was  not  created 
by  Brahma,  the  author  of  the  universe,  but  invented  by  the  Sage 
Viswamitra.  It  is  therefore  considered  less  pure,  and  its  use  is  pro- 
hibited in  religious  ceremonies.     The  sdrad  rice  corresponds  with  the 


I 


CUTTACK,  71 

dman  or  winter  crop  of  Bengal.  Some  of  its  varieties  are  sown  on  low, 
marshy  ground ;  others  are  carefully  reared  in  nurseries,  and  removed, 
plant  by  plant,  to  higher  and  drier  land.  All  attempts  to  introduce 
Carolina  seed  into  Cuttack  District  have  failed,  owing,  it  is  thought,  to 
the  unsuitability  of  the  soil.  The  area  under  rice  has  increased  by 
about  one-fourth  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  but  the  productive 
powers  of  the  land  are  said  to  have  diminished.  This  is  accounted  for 
by  the  constant  working,  which  allows  it  no  rest;  and  rotation  of 
crops,  although  known  in  Cuttack,  is  not  systematically  practised. 
Deficiency  of  labour  is  also  sometimes  alleged  as  a  cause  for  this 
decrease  of  fertility.  The  large  and  important  public  works  now  in 
course  of  construction  have,  to  a  small  extent,  withdrawn  hired  labour 
from  agriculture ;  but  the  demand  for  it  has  increased.  The  other 
cereals  grown  in  the  District  are  mdndiid  (a  grain  peculiar  to  Orissa), 
wheat,  barley;  pulses,  fibres,  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  and  pdii^  are  also 
produced. 

Of  the  total  area  of  2,469,300  acres,  1,357,990,  or  55  per  cent.,  were 
returned  in  the  Statistical  Reporter  for  October  1876  as  cultivated; 
242,010,  or  10  per  cent.,  as  cultivable,  but  untilled ;  and  869,300 
acres,  or  35  per  cent.,  as  uncultivable  waste.  The  cultivated  area  is 
thus  distributed  : — Under  rainy  season  crops,  1,407,890  acres ;  under 
dry  season  crops,  97,900  acres;  total,  1,505,790  acres,  including  land 
bearing  two  crops  in  the  year.  Rice  occupies  1,097,000  acres,  or  81 
per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  land.  The  average  produce  of  each  crop 
per  acre  is  thus  returned  : — Rice,  1000  lbs. ;  wheat,  150;  inferior  food- 
grains,  270;  cotton,  150;  oil-seeds,  300;  fibres,  160;  sugar,  120;  tobacco, 
1000;  vegetables,  3500  lbs.  In  1882-83  the  price  of  common  rice 
was  4s.  4d.  per  cwt,  and  wheat  iis.  6|d.  per  cwt.  The  year  was  a 
very  favourable  one,  and  the  crops  exceptionally  good.  Irrigation  has 
hitherto  been  conducted  almost  entirely  by  means  of  natural  water- 
courses, but  the  artificial  works  now  open  and  in  progress  fertilize  a 
large  proportion  of  the  District. 

In  the  Orissa  famine  of  1866,  the  maximum  prices  reached  were 
as  follows  : — Best  cleaned  rice,  3 J  sers  per  rupee,  or  32s.  per  cwt.  ; 
coarse  rice,  4  sers  per  rupee,  or  28s.  per  cwt.  A  farm  of  25  acres 
or  upwards  is  considered  a  very  large  holding;  one  of  between  10 
and  25  acres,  a  good-sized  one;  and  anything  much  below  10  acres, 
a  small  one.  Every  well-to-do  villager  has  a  few  acres,  and  the 
standard  by  which  a  cultivator  is  judged  is  the  number  of  ploughs 
he  can  command.  This,  however,  is  no  true  criterion  as  to  the 
value  of  his  farm,  inasmuch  as  some  kinds  of  crops,  such  as  Mali  rice 
and  sugar-cane,  require  much  more  ploughing  than  others.  In  a 
holding  consisting  of  two-crop  and  one-crop  land  in  fair  proportions, 
6  acres  are  technically  termed  a  'plough  of  land, — i.e.  the   quantity 


72  CUTTACK. 

which  a  husbandman  with  one  plough  and  a  single  pair  of  bullocks 
can  cultivate.  A  holding  of  1 2  acres  enables  a  Cuttack  cultivator  to 
live  quite  as  well  as  a  respectable  shopkeeper,  or  as  a  person  earning 
1 6s.  a  month.  His  family  can  afford  to  eat  more  food  than  either  of 
these  two  classes.  One-half  of  the  peasantry  may  be  set  down  as  really 
well  off.  One-fourth  are  permanently  in  debt  to  the  village  money- 
lender or  the  landlord.  The  remainder  are  just  able  to  live,  although 
a  change  for  the  better  has  set  in  in  this  respect,  and  is  steadily  making 
progress.  Able-bodied  pauperism  is  unknown,  except  among  the  religious 
mendicants.  The  District  seems  to  be  steadily  progressing.  Vast  sums 
of  money  have  been  spent  on  irrigation  works,  and  much  of  it  sinks 
into  the  country.  The  improvement  has  probably  affected  the  mercan- 
tile and  labouring  classes  more  than  the  actual  cultivators.  Wages  of 
agricultural  day-labourers  are  generally  paid  in  kind,  and  do  not  seem  to 
have  altered  since  1850.  The  rate  is  about  12  to  15  lbs.  of  unhusked 
rice  per  diem.  All  labour,  paid  by  money,  has  risen  in  price.  Unskilled 
labourers  now  (1883)  earn  from  3d.  to  gd.  a  day,  and  skilled  artisans  in 
towns  from  4jd.  to  is.  6d.  a  day.  Roughly  speaking,  it  may  be  said 
that  labour  fetches  double  in  the  towns  what  it  does  in  the  country. 

Natural  Calamities. — The  calamities  of  Cuttack.  as  of  all  the  other 
Orissa  Districts,  are  floods  and  droughts.  The  former  arise  from 
sudden  freshets  of  the  rivers  before  they  enter  the  District,  and  not 
from  excessive  rainfall  within  it.  Between  1830  and  1876,  flood  has 
caused  a  general  destruction  of  crops  in  eight  years  out  of  the  forty-six. 
For  a  description  of  the  protective  works  of  Cuttack,  see  the  previous 
sections  on  Canals  and  Emba7ikme7its.  Drought  is  more  disastrous 
than  flood,  and  when  long  protracted,  has  always  been  followed  by 
famine.  On  five  different  occasions  since  1850,  drought  has  occurred 
on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to  endanger  the  safety  of  the  people.  For 
an  account  of  the  great  famine  of  1866,  see  Orissa. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  of  Cuttack  District  are  insignificant. 
Brass  vessels,  brass  ornaments,  and  coarse  cloth  are  the  chief  articles 
made.  The  total  annual  out-turn  of  the  cotton  looms  is  roughly  valued 
at  ;£"3o,ooo ;  the  brass  and  copper  work  at  £6000 ;  the  oil-pressing  at 
jQ']6oo  ;  the  joiners'  work  at  ^8500.  Silver  filigree  work,  the  speciality 
of  Cuttack  city,  is  confined  to  a  very  few  hands,  but  the  work  is  becom- 
ing better  known,  and  the  industry  is  extending.  The  salt  manufacture 
has  greatly  declined  in  this  District.  In  1875-76,  less  than  1000  tons 
were  manufactured,  against  a  total  consumption  of  7407  tons,  averaging 
II  lbs.  per  head  of  the  population.  There  is  a  considerable  iron- 
smelting  industry  in  the  hill  country  to  the  south  of  Cuttack.  The 
total  annual  out-turn  of  iron  is  valued  at  ;^2o,ooo. 

Commerce^  Trade.,  etc. — Till  within  the  last  few  years,  trade  hardly 
existed  in  Orissa ;  but  the  improvement  of  False  Point  Harbour  has 


CUTTACK.  73 

recently  opened  a  market  for  the  surplus  rice  of  the  Province,  and  the 
sea-borne  trade  of  Cuttack  District  is  virtually  that  of  False  Point. 
During  the  seven  years  ending  1875-76,  the  total  imports  were  valued 
at;2^652,Soo,  having  risen  from  ;£"3 1,000  in  1869-70  to  nearly  ^140,000 
in  1875-76.  The  exports  in  the  same  period  aggregated  ;2^6 18,609, 
having  increased  from  ^^  18, coo  to  ^127,000.  In  1881-82,  the  sea- 
borne imports  into  Cuttack  amounted  to  ^84,716,  and  the  exports  to 
;^i 99,389.  The  chief  road  is  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  from  Calcutta 
to  Ganjam,  which  enters  the  District  from  Balasor.  From  Cuttack 
city  a  branch  proceeds  due  south  to  the  town  of  Puri.  Other  important 
roads  are  those  from  Cuttack  city  to  Chandbali  and  Taldanda.  The 
total  length  of  all  the  means  of  communication  was  returned  as  follows 
in  1876: — Rivers,  527  miles;  canals,  135  miles — total  mileage  of 
waterways,  662  :  first-class  roads,  72  miles;  second-class  roads,  173; 
third-class  roads,  336  miles — total  mileage  of  roads,  581.  A  preliminary 
survey  for  a  railway  to  connect  Benares  with  Cuttack  has  been  recently 
carried  out.  Besides  having  a  large  pilgrim-passenger  traffic,  the  rail- 
way, which  would  traverse  Chutia  Nagpur  from  north-west  to  south-east, 
would  afiord  an  outlet  to  the  traffic  of  the  plateau  to  the  North-Western 
Provinces  and  to  Orissa. 

Administration.  —  For  1829-30,  the  first  year  in  which  Cuttack 
District  had  an  existence  in  its  present  circumscribed  limits,  as  distinct 
from  Puri  and  Balasor,  the  gross  revenue  is  returned  at  ^139,642,  and 
the  gross  expenditure  at  ;^i  14,438.  In  1860-61,  the  gross  revenue  had 
increased  t0;^202,867,  and  the  disbursements  to  ^193,882.  In  1870- 
187 1,  the  total  income  realized  was  ^^243,958,  and  the  disbursements 
amounted  to  ^223,659.  In  1829-30,  the  land  yielded  ;;{^7 9,893 ;  in 
1870-71,  ^84,781;  and  in  1882-83,  ^^87,482.  In  1829,  Cuttack 
District  contained  1509  estates,  held  by  21 18  proprietors;  by  1870-71, 
the  number  of  estates  had  risen  to  3571,  and  of  proprietors  to  9554. 
In  1882-83,  the  separate  estates  on  the  District  rent-roll  numbered 
3863.  In  1805,  when  the  jurisdiction  of  Cuttack  included  also  the 
greater  part  of  Balasor  and  Puri,  the  land  revenue  of  the  Province 
amounted  to  ^121,904,  or  only  one-fourth  more  than  that  of  the 
single  District  of  Cuttack  in  1882.  This  land  revenue  was  paid  by 
2275  estates,  held  by  2517  owners.  At  the  present  day,  Cuttack 
District  alone  contains  nearly  double  this  number  of  estates,  and 
quadruple  the  number  of  proprietors.  Protection  to  person  and  pro- 
perty has  increased  still  more  rapidly.  In  18 16,  there  were  only  4 
courts,  revenue  and  judicial,  in  the  whole  District.  In  1850,  the 
number  rose  to  11;  and  in  1882-83,  to  13.  For  police  purposes, 
Cuttack  is  divided  into  9  thdnds  or  police  circles.  In  1881,  the 
regular  police  consisted  of  491  men  of  all  ranks.  The  municipal 
force  for  the  protection  of  the  three  municipalities  of  Cuttack,  Jajpur, 


74  CUTTACK. 

and  Kendrapara,  was  86  strong.  The  village  watch  numbered  5541. 
The  total  protective  machinery  of  the  District,  therefore,  consisted 
of  61 18  officers  and  men;  equal  to  an  average  of  i  man  to  every 
•57  of  a  square  mile  as  compared  with  the  area,  or  i  man  to  every 
284  persons  as  compared  with  the  population. 

There  are  4  prisons  in  Cuttack — viz.  the  District  jail  at  the  civil 
station,  and  lock-ups  at  the  sub-divisional  towns  of  Jajpur  and  Kendra- 
para. In  1882,  the  daily  number  of  prisoners  was  as  follows: — Civil, 
8*i8;  under  trial,  21*42;  convicts,  268'83  :  total,  298*43,  of  whom 
15*90  were  females.  The  prison  manufactures  do  not  lessen  the  cost 
of  the  jails  in  any  material  degree.     There  is  no  extramural  work. 

The  number  of  schools  rose  from  3  in  1856-57  to  50  in  1870-71, 
and  the  number  of  pupils  from  168  to  2755  in  the  same  period.  By 
1875,  the  number  of  inspected  schools  had  further  increased  to  539, 
attended  by  10,196  pupils;  and  by  1881-82  to  3804  schools,  and  to 
40,674  pupils.  These  figures  show  i  school  to  every  *95  square  mile 
of  the  District  area,  and  23*4  pupils  to  every  1000  of  the  popula- 
tion. This  rapid  increase  is  due  to  the  extension  of  the  grant-in-aid 
rules  to  previously  unaided  institutions.  The  Cuttack  High  School 
includes  four  departments — the  college,  the  law  department,  medical 
department,  and  the  zild  school ;  the  students  on  the  rolls  on  the  31st 
of  March  1882  were  38  in  the  college,  8  in  the  law  class,  30  in  the 
medical  class,  and  288  in  the  school.  European  and  Eurasian  educa- 
tion was  afforded  by  2  Roman  Catholic  and  2  Protestant  schools, 
attended  by  229  pupils.  Many  pupils  in  the  Roman  Catholic  schools, 
however,  were  natives. 

Medical  Aspects, — The  climate  of  Orissa  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
southern  Districts  of  Bengal.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  seasons — 
the  hot,  commencing  in  March ;  the  rainy,  in  the  middle  of  June ;  and 
the  cold,  in  the  beginning  of  November.  The  Meteorological  Depart- 
ment has  stations  at  False  Point  Lighthouse,  and  at  Cuttack  town. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  during  the  twelve  years  ending  188 1 
is  returned  at  56*59  inches  at  Cuttack  town,  and  73*19  inches  at 
False  Point.  The  average  mean  temperature  at  Cuttack  town  in 
1881  was  80*8°  F. ;  the  maximum  recorded  being  106*9°  i^  April, 
and  the  minimum  51*8°  in  January.  At  False  Point,  the  mean 
temperature  was  76*6°  F.  ;  maximum,  103*5°  i^^  April;  minimum, 
49*8°  in  January.  Intermittent  fever  is  common  throughout  the 
year,  and  cholera  always  breaks  out  in  the  months  of  June,  July, 
and  August.  Measles  and  small-pox  are  also  prevalent.  Cattle-disease 
of  a  fatal  character  often  breaks  out  in  Cuttack.  There  are  two 
charitable  dispensaries  in  the  District,  viz.  the  Cuttack  Hospital  and 
the  Jajpur  Dispensary.  [For  further  information  regarding  Cuttack, 
see  my   Orissa  (2  vols. ;  Smith    &   Elder),   and  Statistical  Account  of 


CUTTACK—CUTWA.  75 

Bengal^  vol.  xviii.  pp.  i  to  243  (Trlibner  &  Co.,  London,  1877).  Also 
Mr.  A.  Stirling's  Geographical^  Statistical^  and  Historical  Account  of 
Orissa,  published  in  vol.  xv.  of  the  Asiatic  Reseai'ches^  and  written 
about  1822  ;  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Orissa  from  1803  to  1828,  by  G. 
Toynbee,  Esq.,  C.S.  (Calcutta,  1873);  Census  Report  of  Bengal  for 
1 88 1 ;  Annual  Administration  Reports  of  the  Government  of  Ben  gal , 
from  1880  to  1883.] 

Cuttack.  —  Principal  or  head  -  quarters  Sub -division  of  Cuttack 
District,  containing  an  area  of  989  square  miles,  with  4452  villages 
and  towns,  and  126,128  occupied  houses.  Situated  between  20°  2'  45" 
and  20°  42'  o"  N.  lat,  and  between  85°  35'  o"  and  86°  19'  o"  e.  long. 
Population  (1881),  Hindus,  635,241;  Muhammadans,  26,159;  Sikhs, 
96 ;  Buddhists,  3  ;  Christians,  2052  ;  *  others,'  4  :  total,  663,555,  namely, 
325,342  males  and  338,213  females.  Average  density  of  population, 
671  persons  per  square  mile  ;  villages  per  square  mile,  4*50  ;  houses  per 
square  mile,  144;  persons  per  village,  150;  persons  per  house,  5  "2. 
The  Sub-division  comprises  the  three  police  circles  {thdnds)  of  Cuttack, 
Salipur,  and  Jagatsinghpur.  It  contained  in  1883,  9  magisterial  and 
revenue  courts,  a  regular  police  force  of  369  of  all  ranks,  besides 
2997  village  watchmen. 

Cuttack  {Kataka,  ^  The  Fort ').  —  Chief  town  and  administrative 
head-quarters  of  Cuttack  District,  and  capital  city  of  the  Province  of 
Orissa ;  situated  on  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  bifurcation  of  the 
Mahanadi,  where  it  throws  off  the  Katjuri.  Lat.  20°  29'  4"  n.,  long. 
85°  54'  29"  E.  The  city  was  founded  about  900  years  ago  by  one  of 
the  kings  of  the  Long-haired  or  Lion  dynasty,  and  has  continued  to  be 
the  seat  of  Government  to  the  present  day.  Its  position  as  the  key  of 
the  hill  territory,  and  as  the  centre  of  the  network  of  the  Orissa  canals, 
gives  it  both  military  and  commercial  importance.  At  present,  how- 
ever, Cuttack  is  mainly  known  in  the  world  for  its  beautiful  filigree 
work  in  gold  and  silver.  The  town  contains  a  population  of — Hindus, 
333O73;  Muhammadans,  7687;  Christians  and  'others,'  1896:  total, 
42,656,  namely,  22,056  males  and  20,600  females.  Area  of  town  site, 
31 1 2  acres.  Municipal  revenue  (1881-82),  ^^3497  ;  expenditure, 
;£"3o66 ;  average  rate  of  municipal  taxation,  is.  6d.  per  head  of  the 
town  population.  The  citadel  of  Cuttack,  known  as  Fort  Barabati, 
is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Katjuri  river,  opposite  the  city. 
It  was  taken  by  storm  by  the  British  on  the  conquest  of  the  Province, 
in  October  1803  ;  and  is  now  in  ruins. 

Cutwa. — Sub-division  and  town,  Bardwan  District,  Bengal. — See 
Katwa. 


76  DABEIN—DABHOL, 


Dabein  (Dhabein). — Tidal  creek  in  Pegu  District,  Pegu  Division, 
British  Burma.  It  runs  between  the  Pu-zwon-daung  and  Pegu  rivers, 
and  is  15  feet  deep  at  high  tide  at  Dabein  village,  up  to  which  the 
largest  boats  can  ascend  at  all  times.  In  the  rains,  the  water  becomes 
fresh,  and  it  is  navigable  throughout  its  entire  course. 

Dabha. — Petty  State  of  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency;  popu- 
lation (1881)  1922;  estimated  area  under  cultivation,  5045  acres; 
revenue,  ^300.  The  Chief  or  Miah  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  ^15  to 
the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  and  ^5  to  the  Thakur  of  Amalyara.  The 
present  ruler  is  a  Mukwana  Koli,  converted  to  Islam.  He  has  no 
j-^/^^^  authorizing  adoption  ;  the  family  follows  the  rule  o*f  primogeniture. 
Transit  duties  are  levied  in  the  State.  The  religion  of  the  Miahs  of 
Dabha  is  a  mixture  of  Muhammadanism  and  Hinduism  ;  they  give 
their  daughters  in  marriage  to  Muhammadans  of  rank,  and  marry  the 
daughters  of  Koli  chiefs.     They  burn  their  dead. 

Dabha. — Town  in  Chanda  District,  Central  Provinces.  Lat.  19°  38' 
N.,  long.  79°  42'  E.  Manufactures — tasar  silk  handkerchiefs,  coloured 
cloths,  and  silver  snuffboxes.  Handsome  woollen  rugs  were  formerly 
also  made,  but  this  industry  has  now  died  out.  Small  local  trade,  prin- 
cipally in  cotton  cloths,  groceries,  and  salt.  Until  the  British  occupation, 
Dabha  was  subject  to  the  raids  of  the  wild  tribes  across  the  Wardha, 
and  even  now  the  shopkeepers  are  afraid  to  expose  their  goods. 
Population  (1881)  2036.  Government  school  for  boys,  girls'  school, 
police  station-house,  and  District  post-office.  The  population  is  almost 
wholly  Telugu. 

Dabhoi. — Town  in  the  territory  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  Gujarat 
(Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency;  15  miles  s.e.  of  Baroda.  Lat.  20° 
10'  N.,  long.  73°  28'  E.  ;  population  ( 1 881)  14,925,  namely,  males  7656, 
and  females  7269.  Contains  a  customs  house,  police  lines,  a  travellers' 
bungalow,  a  railway  station,  a  dispensary,  a  jail,  several  schools,  and  a 
cotton  ginning  factory.  Dabhoi  is  connected  by  railway  with  Miagam, 
Baroda,  and  Chandod.  One-third  of  the  population  is  composed  of 
Muhammadans.  In  the  town  is  a  place  called  mdmddokri^  where 
stands  a  khir7ii  or  musk-melon  tree,  through  whose  hollow  trunk  no 
guilty  person  can  pass.  Dabhoi  is  the  Sanskrit  Dha,rbhavati  of  the 
nth  century,  famous  for  its  ancient  fortress,  and  the  beauty  of  its  walls 
and  gates. 

Dabhoi. — Town  and  port  in  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Of  considerable  historical  importance,  and  the  principal  port  of  the 
South  Konkan  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  i6th  centuries,  carrying  on  an 
extensive  trade  with  Persia  and  the  Red  Sea  ports.     Also  noted  for  its 


DABKA-^DACCA. 


77 


beautiful  mosque,  which  is  the  only  specimen  of  pure  Saracenic  archi- 
tecture in  the  Southern  Konkan.  Dabhol  was  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  Bijapur  kingdom  under  Yusaf  Add  Shah,  which  extended  from 
the  Sivitri  river  to  Deogarh,  including  nearly  the  whole  of  the  present 
District  of  Ratnagiri. 

Dabka. — Village  in  Baroda  State,  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presi- 
dency. Population  (1881)  2823.  Situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mahi 
river;  18  miles  from  Baroda.  Noted  on  account  of  the  deer  and 
boar  preserves  in  the  neighbourhood.  Contains  a  police  station  and 
school,  and  a  couple  of  bungalows  which  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
British  officers  who  may  accompany  the  Gaekwar  on  his  hunting 
expeditions. 

Dabla. — Town  in  Udaipur  (Oodeypore)  Native  State,  Rajputana. 
Originally  a  sub-fief  of  Bunera,  but  confiscated  by  the  Rana,  on  his 
feudatory  thdkur  becoming  insubordinate,  and  refusing  to  pay  the  quit- 
rent. 

Ddbling". — Village  in  Bashahr  State,  Punjab;  situated  in  lat.  31° 
45'  N.,  and  long.  78°  39'  e.,  on  a  belt  of  arable  land  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Sutlej  (Satlej).  The  cliffs  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
;  river  rise  to  a  sheer  elevation  of  6000  or  7000  feet.  The  population 
;  have  the  Chinese  type  of  physiognomy,  and  profess  the  Buddhist 
faith.  A  mile  east  stands  another  village,  known  as  Diibling  ;  the  path 
between  the  two  places  is  rendered  practicable  by  means  of  hanging 
balconies  or  wooden  scaffolds  fastened  against  the  face  of  the  precipice. 
The  two  villages  generally  bear  the  joint  appellation  of  Dabling-Diibling. 
Elevation  above  sea  level,  9400  feet. 

Dabri. — A  guaranteed  Thakurate  or  petty  chiefship  of  the  Western 
Malwa  Agency  of  Central  India.  Receives  ;£'i8  per  annum  from 
Sindhia  on  Haveli  Ujain  and  on  Pan  Bahar. 

Dabtura. — Village  in  Bisauli  tahsil,  Budaun  District,  North-Western 
Provinces,  24  miles  distant  from  Budaun  town  ;  only  noticeable  as 
being  a  station  on  the  Chandausi  and  Bareli  branch  of  the  Gudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway. 

Dacca  {Dhdkd). — Division  or  Commissionership  of  Eastern  Bengal, 
lying  between  lat.  21°  48'  and  25°  26'  n.,  and  between  long.  89°  20' 
and  91°  18'  E.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Garo  Hills;  on  the 
east  by  Sylhet  District,  Tipperah,  and  Noalchali ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal;  and  on  the  west  by  Khulna,  Jesse r,  Pabna,  Bogra, 
and  Rangpur  Districts.  Dacca  Division  comprises  the  four  Districts  of 
Dacca,  Faridpur,  Bakarganj,  and  Maimansingh.  Area,  according  to  the 
Census  of  1881,  15,000  square  miles,  containing  28,022  towns  and 
villages,  and  1,207,908  houses,  of  which  1,158,903  were  occupied  and 
49,005  unoccupied.  The  population  in  1881  numbered  8,700,939,  against 
7359Ij768    on   a  corresponding  area   in   1872,  showing  an  increase  of 


78  DACCA. 

1,109,171,  or  14-61  per  cent.,  in  the  nine  years  between  the  two  Censuses. 
Number  of  males  in  1881,  4,366,728;  females,  4,334,211;  average 
density  of  population,  580  persons  per  square  mile  ;  number  of  villages 
per  square  mile,  1-87  ;  inhabitants  per  town  or  village,  310  ;  houses  per 
square  mile,  80*5  ;  inmates  per  house,  7-5.  According  to  religious 
classification,  the  Muhammadans  formed  the  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion, numbering  5,531,869  against  3,122,624  Hindus.  Other  religions 
were  represented  as  follows: — Christians,  15,408;  Buddhists,  4^59; 
Brahmos,  131;  Jew,  i;  and  'others,'  nearly  all  tribes  professing 
aboriginal  faiths,  and  confined  to  Maimansingh  District,  26,047. 

Dacca  {Dhdkd,  derived  either  from  the  dhdk  tree  (Butea  frondosa)  or 
from  Dhdkeswari^  '  the  concealed  goddess ').  —  District  of  Eastern 
Bengal,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  river  systems  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  Brahmaputra,  between  23°  6'  30"  and  24°  20'  12"  n.  lat.,  and 
between  89°  47'  50"  and  91°  i'  10"  e.  long.  Bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  District  of  Maimansingh  ;  east  by  Tipperah  ;  south  and  south-west 
by  Bakarganj  and  Faridpur  ;  and  west,  for  a  short  distance,  by  Pabna. 
To  a  great  extent,  rivers  form  the  natural  boundaries  :  on  the  east, 
the  Meghna;  south  and  south-west,  the  Padma,  or  main  stream  of 
the  Ganges ;  and  west,  the  Jamuna,  or  present  channel  of  the 
Brahmaputra.  The  District  contained  (i 881)  an  area  of  2797  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  2,116,350  persons.  The  administrative 
head-quarters  are  at  Dacca  City. 

Physical  Aspects. — Dacca  consists  of  a  level  plain  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  Dhaleswari  river,  which  intersects  the  District  from  east  to 
west,  varying  considerably  in  their  physical  aspects.  The  northern  part 
is  again  sub-divided  by  the  Lakhmia  river,  which  crossed  it  from  north 
to  south.  The  western  of  these  two  divisions  contains  the  city,  and  is 
the  larger  of  the  two.  The  greater  part  of  it  lies  comparatively  high 
and  above  flood  level,  the  soil  consisting  of  red  kankar  with  a  strata  of 
clay  in  the  more  elevated  parts,  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable 
mould,  and  near  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  streams  by  alluvial  earth. 
At  some  points,  the  scenery  on  the  river  Lakhmia  is  very  beautiful,  the 
banks  being  high  and  well  wooded.  About  twenty  miles  north  of  the 
city,  small  hilly  ridges  are  met  with  in  the  Madhupur  jungle  adjoining 
Maimansingh.  They  are  mere  mounds,  or  tilds^  never  more  than  30  or 
40  feet  high,  some  being  covered  with  grasses  and  underwood,  and 
others  with  forest.  This  tract  of  country  is  remarkable  for  the  small 
size  of  the  streams  by  which  it  is  watered,  and  the  greater  part  is  an 
unproductive  waste  covered  with  jungle  and  infested  with  wild  beasts. 
Of  late  years,  cultivation  has  been  extended  in  this  direction,  but  very 
slowly,  owing  to  the  badness  of  the  water.  Towards  the  city,  the  red 
soil  is  intersected  by  creeks  and  morasses,  the  borders  of  which  are  well 
suited  for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  mustard,  and  ///  seed  ;  while  to  the 


DACCA.  79 

eastward  of  the  city,  a  broad,  alluvial,  well  cultivated  plain  extends  as  far 
as  the  junction  of  the  Dhaleswari  and  Lakhmia  rivers.  The  north-eastern 
division  is  situated  between  the  Lakhmia  and  Meghna  rivers.  It  is 
inundated  to  a  larger  extent,  and  has  a  much  greater  area  of  alluvial  soil, 
and  is  in  a  higher  state  of  cultivation  than  the  tract  to  the  westward. 
The  division  of  the  District  to  the  south  of  the  Dhaleswari  is  by  far  the 
most  fertile  tract.  The  whole  is  one  uniform  level  of  rich  alluvial  soil 
annually  inundated  by  the  overflow  of  the  great  rivers,  to  a  depth 
varying  from  two  to  fourteen  feet.  The  villages  are  built  upon  mounds 
of  earth,  artificially  raised  above  flood  level.  During  the  rainy  season 
this  tract  presents  the  appearance  of  a  vast  sheet  of  green  rice 
cultivation,  through  which  boats  sail  to  and  fro  ;  diversified  of  late  years 
by  fields  of  jute,  the  cultivation  of  which  is  rapidly  extending. 

The  District  is  intersected  by  a  complete  network  of  rivers  and 
streams,  and  the  chief  means  of  communication  at  all  times  of  the  year 
is  by  water.  Besides  the  great  bordering  rivers  of  the  Ganges  or  Padma, 
the  Jamuna  or  Brahmaputra,  and  the  Meghna,  the  following  seven 
streams  are  navigable  by  boats  of  large  tonnage  : — (i)  Arial  Khan,  (2) 
Kirtinasa,  (3)  Dhaleswari,  (4)  Buriganga,  (5)  Lakhmia,  (6)  Mendikhali, 
and  (7)  Ghazikhali.  Many  of  these  represent  old  channels  or  offshoots 
of  the  great  rivers ;  and  the  southern  half  of  the  District  is  everywhere 
liable  to  annual  changes  of  configuration,  due  to  constant  fluvial 
action.  The  most  important  of  the  smaller  rivers,  which  are  all 
navigable  by  boats  of  two  tons  burthen,  are — (i)  Hilsamari,  (2)  Bansi, 
(3)  Turag,  (4)  Tungi,  (5)  Balu,  and  (6)  the  old  bed  of  the  Brahmaputra. 
The  banks  of  all  the  above  rivers  are  cultivated,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  tract  along  the  Lakhmia  river,  and  all  are  more  or  less 
affected  by  the  tide,  which  rises  and  falls  to  the  extent  of  two  feet  at 
the  town  of  Dacca  on  the  Buriganga.  Numerous  marshes  have  been 
formed  by  changes  in  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  and  are  covered  with 
rank  vegetation.  Several  artificial  watercourses  or  k/idls  have  been 
constructed  as  short  cuts  to  facilitate  cross  communications  between 
the  rivers.  The  drainage  of  the  District  runs  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  the  usual  course  of  the  rivers.  All  the  latter  take  their  exit 
in  the  extreme  south-east  of  the  District,  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
two  great  rivers  the  Ganges  and  Meghna,  into  which  the  other  streams 
of  the  District  flow.  With  the  exception  of  some  wild  herbs  and  water 
plants,  no  indigenous  vegetable  products  of  marketable  value  are  found. 
There  are  no  forests  of  any  considerable  extent,  and  most  of  the  wooded 
land  in  the  Madhupur  jungle  is  so  badly  provided  with  means  of 
communication  as  to  be  almost  valueless.  Nor  is  there  any  wide 
extent  of  uncultivated  pasture  ground,  although  many  people  send 
their  cattle  for  a  few  months  in  the  rainy  season  to  the  Madhupur 
jungle  for  pasturage.     The  fisheries  of  the  District  are  estimated  to  yield 


8o  DACCA. 

altogether  about  ;2^i 0,000  a  year.  The  wild  animals  generally  are  of 
the  same  species  as  those  found  in  the  other  parts  of  the  Gangetic 
delta. 

History. — The  historical  interest  of  the  District  centres  round  Dacca 
city,  an  olden  capital  of  the  Muhammadan  Mughals  in  Bengal,  and,  until 
recent  times,  the  industrial  centre  of  the  Province.  Here,  as  elsewhere 
throughout  Bengal,  authentic  history  begins  with  the  Musalman 
chronicles ;  but  many  local  legends  and  crumbling  ruins  bear  witness  to 
the  power  of  pre-historic  Hindu  rulers.  This  tract  of  country  formed 
the  easternmost  District  of  Bengal,  according  to  the  natural  limitations 
of  the  Province.  On  the  north,  rise  the  broken  hills  and  thick  jungles  of 
Maimansingh,  into  which  Hindu  civilisation  has  but  recently  penetrated. 
Eastwards,  the  broad  stream  of  the  Meghna  always  served  as  a  barrier 
against  the  wild  aboriginal  races,  whose  names  are  preserved  in  the 
dynasties  of  Tipperah  and  Cachar.  Before  the  invasion  of  the  Muham- 
madans,  only  part  of  Dacca  appears  to  have  been  included  within  the 
Hindu  kingdom  of  Bengal.  The  course  of  the  river  Dhaleswari,  which 
marks  off  the  alluvial  delta  of  the  Ganges  from  the  highlands  of  Maiman- 
singh, then  served  also  as  a  political  boundary.  To  the  south  of  this  river, 
the  mythical  monarch  Vikramaditya  is  said  to  have  held  sway,  and  his 
name  is  traced  in  the  present  pargand  of  Bikrampur.  The  dynasty  ol 
Vikramaditya  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Adisur,  and  the  last  authentic 
Hindu  occupant  of  the  throne  was  Ballal  Sen,  whose  connection  with 
Bikrampur  is  proved  by  contemporary  inscriptions.  All  these  names 
are  the  common  property  of  Bengali  legend  throughout  the  Province. 
The  tract  north  of  the  Dhaleswari  supplies  traditions  with  a  more 
distinct  local  colouring.  Here  was  the  home  of  the  Bhuiya  Rajas,  as 
they  are  called,  the  founders  of  a  dynasty  which  bore  the  family  name  of 
Pal,  and  are  supposed  to  have  professed  the  Buddhist  faith.  The  ruins 
of  the  capitals  and  palaces  of  these  Bhuiya  Rajas  lie  scattered  throughout 
Eastern  Bengal,  along  the  line  of  the  Brahmaputra  valley ;  and  their 
memory  is  still  cherished  in  the  household  tales  of  the  Hindu  peasantry. 
In  the  portion  of  Dacca  District  lying  north  of  the  Dhaleswari,  extensive 
earthworks  and  mounds  of  brick  associated  with  their  name  are  to  be 
seen  to  this  day  at  Madhabpur,  Sabhar,  and  Durduria. 

The  Muhammadans  first  entered  Bengal  in  1203  A.D.,but  the  eastern 
Districts  were  not  conquered  until  a  century  later.  The  present 
District  of  Dacca  was  annexed  to  the  Afghan  kingdom  of  Gaur  by 
Muhammad  Tughlak  about  1325,  under  the  name  of  Sonargaon,  which 
town  long  remained  the  frontier  fortress  of  the  Muhammadans  and  the 
terminus  of  their  grand  trunk  road.  The  rise  of  Dacca  city  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  when  Islam  Khan,  the  Mughal  Vice- 
roy, transferred  the  seat  of  Government  from  Rajmahal  to  Dacca.  This 
change  was   dictated   by  military  considerations.      The  valley  of  the 


DACCA.  Si 

Ganges  then  enjoyed  peace,  but  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Province  was 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  numerous  warUke  invaders.  From  the  north, 
the  dreaded  Ahams  or  Assamese  ;  from  the  south,  the  Maghs  or  Arakan- 
ese,  in  aUiance  with  the  merciless  Portuguese  pirates,  harried  the  country, 
and  rendered  all  the  waterways  unsafe.  The  Mughal  Viceroys  protected 
their  frontier  by  maintaining  a  powerful  fleet,  and  distributing  colonies 
of  veterans  on  feudal  holdings  throughout  the  country.  Both  these 
features  of  their  political  system  have  left  traces  in  the  land  tenures 
that  exist  at  the  present  day.  Except  during  an  interval  of  twenty 
years,  when  Muhammad  Shuja  moved  the  administration  back  again  to 
Rajmahal,  Dacca  was  the  capital  of  Bengal  during  the  whole  of  the 
17th  century.  In  the  long  list  of  Nawabs,  the  two  most  celebrated  are 
Mir  Jumla,  the  general  of  Aurangzeb,  who  failed  disastrously  in  his 
expedition  into  Assam ;  and  Shaista  Khan,  the  nephew  of  the  Empress 
Niir  Jahan,  who  broke  the  power  of  the  Portuguese,  and  annexed 
Chittagong  to  the  Mughal  Empire.  Both  these  Nawabs  are  also  known 
for  their  encouragement  of  architecture,  and  for  the  construction  of 
public  works.  This  was  the  most  flourishing  era  in  the  history  of 
Dacca,  for,  like  all  eastern  cities,  its  glory  depended  upon  the 
presence  of  a  luxurious  court.  It  is  said  that  the  suburbs  extended 
northwards  for  a  distance  of  15  miles,  now  buried  in  dense  jungle. 
Portuguese  mercenaries,  and  Armenian  and  Greek  merchants,  settled 
at  Dacca  from  an  early  date.  The  English,  the  French,  and  the  Dutch 
established  factories  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  when 
the  city  was  visited  by  the  French  traveller  Tavernier.  He  describes 
all  the  wealth  of  Bengal,  the  richest  Province  of  the  Delhi  Emperor,  as 
concentrated  in  this  spot.  The  muslins  of  Dacca  became  famous  in 
Europe,  and  the  hereditary  skill  of  the  weaving  castes  has  not  yet 
become  extinct.      Vide  Dacca  City. 

The  downfall  of  Dacca  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century.  In  1704,  Murshid  Kuli  Khan  transferred  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Murshidabad  on  the  Bhagirathi,  and  the  short-lived  prosperity 
followed  the  movement  of  the  court.  Dacca  continued  to  be  governed 
by  a  ndib  or  nawdb,  a  deputy  of  the  Viceroy  at  Murshidabad,  whose 
appointment  was  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  in  Bengal,  having  a 
jurisdiction  considerably  more  extensive  than  the  area  of  the  present 
Dacca  Division.  On  the  establishment  of  the  British  power  in  1757, 
the  office  of  ndib  became  an  empty  title,  but  it  was  continued  in  the 
family  of  the  last  representative  until  1845  >  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  present 
day,  small  pensions  are  paid  by  Government  on  this  account.  The 
decline  of  the  weaving  industry  of  Dacca  began  with  the  present  century. 
Prior  to  1801,  the  East  India  Company  and  private  traders  are  said 
:o  have  made  advances  for  Dacca  muslins  to  the  annual  amount  of 
25  /df^/zi- of  rupees  (^250,000).     In  1813,  the  investments  of  private 

VOL.  IV.  1** 


82  DACCA. 

traders  did  not  exceed  ;£"2i,ooo,  and  the  Commercial  Residency  of  the 
Company  was  discontinued  altogether  in  1817.  The  only  event  of 
importance  in  the  recent  history  of  Dacca  District  is  connected  with  the 
Mutiny  of  1857.  Two  companies  of  sepoys  were  then  stationed  in  the 
fort.  On  the  first  alarm  of  the  outbreak  at  Meerut,  a  force  of  100  men 
of  the  Indian  Navy  was  despatched  from  Calcutta  for  the  protection  of 
the  city.  With  these  sailors,  and  about  60  civilian  volunteers,  it  was 
resolved  to  disarm  the  sepoys,  who  offered  a  violent  resistance,  and 
were  only  dispersed  after  a  sharp  struggle,  in  which  41  rebels  were  killed 
on  the  field,  and  a  number  of  others  drowned  in  the  river  or  shot  down 
in  their  flight.  Some  of  the  mutineers  are  supposed  to  have  escaped 
into  the  jungles  of  Bhutan. 

Population. — No  trustworthy  estimates  of  the  population  in  early  times 
exist.  In  185 1,  the  total  number  was  returned  at  600,000,  and  in  1868 
the  official  estimate  was  1,000,000.  The  first  regular  Census  was  taken 
in  January  1872.  The  result  disclosed  a  total  population  of  1,852,993 
persons,  dwelling  in  5016  villages,  and  in  290,593  houses,  over  an  area 
as  at  present  of  2797  square  miles.  The  last  Census  in  1881  returned 
the  population  at  2,116,350,  showing  an  increase  of  263,357,  or  of 
14*21  per  cent.,  in  the  nine  years.  The  Census  Report  states  that  this 
advance  is  to  be  attributed  to  natural  causes,  aided  by  the  great 
development  of  the  jute  trade,  which  is  centred  in  the  town  of  Narain- 
ganj,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sub-division  of  the  same  name,  in 
which  the  largest  increase  of  population  is  found.  The  general 
results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized  as 
follows: — Area  of  District,  2797  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and 
villages,  6422  ;  number  of  houses,  319,982,  of  which  308,695  were 
occupied  and  1 1,287  unoccupied.  The  population  numbered  2,116,350, 
namely,  1,033,863  males  and  1,082,487  females.  Average  density  of 
population,  756*6  persons  per  square  m.ile ;  villages  per  square  mile, 
2*3;  persons  per  town  or  village,  329;  houses  per  square  mile,  114; 
persons  per  occupied  house,  6*86.  Classified  according  to  religious 
belief,  the  population  was  returned  as  follows :  —  Muhammadans, 
1,250,687,  or  59  per  cent. ;  Hindus,  856,680,  or  40  per  cent.  The 
remainder  consisted  of  8799  Christians,  49  Buddhists,  43  Brahmos, 
2  Santals,  and  90  *  others.'  As  throughout  the  rest  of  Eastern 
Bengal,  the  majority  of  the  population  are  of  semi-aboriginal  descent, 
including  the  great  mass  of  the  Muhammadans,  who  constitute  a  very 
important  element  of  the  community,  in  rank  as  well  as  in  numbers. 
The  great  majority  belong  to  the  Sunni  sect.  The  few  Shias  to 
be  found  are  descendants  of  the  Mughal  conquerors.  The  festival 
of  the  Muharram  is  celebrated  in  Dacca  city  with  great  pomp  and 
enthusiasm,  and  police  measures  have  occasionally  to  be  adopted  to 
prevent  an  outbreak  between  these  two  rival  sects.    In  recent  years,  the 


DACCA.  83 

reforming  faith  of  the  Faraizis  has  spread  rapidly  through  the  District. 
{See  Faridpur  District.)  Its  members  are  intolerant,  but  not  actively 
fanatical.  Many  of  them  are  engaged  in  trade,  dealing  in  rice,  jute, 
hides,  and  tobacco.  In  clan  or  race  distinction  the  Muhammadans 
are  almost  all  Shaikhs ;  the  Sayyids,  Mughals,  and  Pathans  being  few 
in  number.  The  latter  were,  however,  at  one  time  numerous  in  the 
District,  and  a  few  of  their  descendants  are  still  to  be  met  with  at 
the  village  of  Pathantali,  near  Dhamrai.  During  the  Muhammadan 
supremacy,  large  numbers  of  Hindu  inhabitants  of  the  District  were 
converted  to  Islam,  either  willingly  or  through  coercion.  The  Musal- 
man  religion  is  not  now  an  actively  proselytising  one  in  Dacca  District, 
although  it  from  time  to  time  receives  small  additions  from  the  Hindu 
and  Vaishnav  communities.  The  aborigines  proper  are  very  poorl}'- 
represented,  being  chiefly  composed  of  the  gipsy  tribe  of  Nats.  Among 
the  semi-Hinduized  aborigines,  the  great  tribe  of  Chandals  numbers 
202,510,  and  the  Koch  13,498.  Of  the  Hindus  proper,  the  following 
are  the  principal  castes: — Brahman,  60,542,  including  many  Kulin 
^milies ;  Kayasth,  or  clerks  by  hereditary  occupation,  92,909.  The 
most  numerous  of  the  other  recognised  castes  are — Baniyd,  traders, 
14,971;  Barhai,  carpenters,  15,336;  Barui,  growers  of  pan  and  betel 
leaf,  17,524;  Dhobi,  washermen,  11,028;  GoaM,  milkmen  and  herdsmen 
25,327;  Jaliyd,  fishermen,  39,274;  Jugi,  weavers,  17,080;  Kaibartta, 
cultivators  and  fishermen,  40,422;  Lobar,  blacksmiths,  16,747;  Kapali, 
weavers,  18,585;  Kumbhar,  potters,  17,015;  Napit,  barbers,  21,905; 
Sudra,  the  highest  class  of  cultivators,  17,392;  Siinri,  merchants  and 
wine-sellers,  57,917;  Teli,  traders  and  oil-pressers,  15,966.  Among 
caste-rejecting  Hindus,  the  Vaishnav  sect  numbers  1.7,239  members. 
The  Brahma  Samaj  was  first  established  in  Dacca  city  in  1846.  The 
society  now  possesses  a  large  hall,  erected  by  public  contributions,  in 
which  meetings  are  held  every  week.  There  are  about  100  regular 
subscribers,  and  at  least  1000  sympathizers,  throughout  the  District. 
Only  43  professing  Brahmos  were,  however,  returned  separately  as  such 
in  the  Census  Report.  The  Christians  of  Dacca,  numbering  8799 
of  all  races  and  sects,  are  a  motley  race.  They  include  Portuguese 
half-castes,  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  native  converts,  as  well  as  the 
Europeans.  The  Portuguese  mixed  breeds,-  or  Firinghis,  are  scattered 
in  little  communities  throughout  the  District.  Most  of  them  are 
cultivators,  but  many  engage  in  domestic  service.  In  religious 
matters  they  are  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Goa.  The  native  converts  or  their  descendants,  numbering  7710 
persons,  are  principally  either  Roman  Catholics,  under  the  charge 
of  a  mission  sent  direct  from  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  numbering 
3987  adherents ;  or  Baptists,  under  the  charge  of  an  active  mission 
which  in  1881  numbered  4319  followers.     Both  the  Armenians  and 


84  DACCA. 

the    Greeks   are  said   to  be   now   declining   in   numbers   and   social 
position. 

According  to  the  Census  of  1881,  the  following  are  the  only  7  towns, 
or   collections  of  villages,  containing   upwards    of   5000    inhabitants, 
namely,  Dacca  City,  population  79,076 ;  Narainganj,  with  Madan- 
GANj,  12,508;   Manikganj,  11,289;  Charjajira,  7647;  Sholagarh, 
6079;    Kamargaon,    5770;    and   Narisha,    6377.      Total   of  these 
7  towns,   128,646,  leaving    1,987,604  as  the   rural   population.      The 
first  three  named  towns  have  been  constituted  municipalities,  with  a 
total  income  in  1881-82  of  ;£"i2,863,  and  an  expenditure  of  ;2f  13,898; 
average   incidence  of  taxation,  2s.   i^d.  per  head  of  the   population 
living  within  municipal  limits.      The  6422  towns  and  villages  in  the 
District  are  classified  as  follows  : — 3405  contain  less  than  two  hundred 
inhabitants;    191 7  contain  from  two  to  five  hundred;  805  from  five 
hundred  to   a  thousand;    238    from  one  to  two  thousand;    40  from 
two  to  three  thousand;   10  from  three  to  five  thousand;    4  from  five 
to  ten  thousand ;  2  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand ;  and  i  upwards  of 
fifty  thousand  inhabitants.     Dacca  City  will  be  fully  described  in  a 
succeeding  article.     The  chief  mart   in  the  District  is  Narainganj, 
in   conjunction  with  its   suburb  of  Madanganj   on  the  opposite   side 
of   the  Lakhmia    river,   which  is  rapidly  taking  its  stand  as  one  of 
the  most  important  trade  centres  of  Eastern  Bengal.    Apart  from  that 
caused  by  the  increasing  importance  of  river  trafiic,  the  people  show 
no  tendency  to  gather  into  towns,  but  rather  the  reverse.     Manufacturing 
industry  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.     The  following  places  deserve 
mention    as   sites  of  interest : — Sonargaon,   the   first   Muhammadan 
capital  of  Eastern  Bengal ;  Firinghi  Bazar,  the  earliest  settlement  of 
the  Portuguese ;   Bikrampur,  the  capital  of  the   mythical   monarch 
Vikramaditya,  and  his  successors  on  the  throne  of  Bengal ;  Sabhar 
and  DuRDURiA,  both  containing  ruins  of  palaces  ascribed  to  the  Bhuiya 
or  Pal  Rajas.     Many  earthworks  and  ruins  of  Hindu  or  Musalman 
construction  are  scattered  through  the  District. 

The  Material  Condition  of  the  People  has  much  improved  of  late  years, 
and  particularly  that  of  the  cultivating  classes.  This  is  partly  owing  to 
the  increased  prices  of  produce,  but  is  also  very  greatly  due  to  the 
increase  in  the  cultivation  of  more  valuable  crops,  especially  of  jute, 
safflower,  and  oil-seeds.  The  only  persons  who  do  not  share  in  the 
general  increased  prosperity  are  those  with  fixed  incomes,  such  as  sub- 
ordinate landlords  {tdlukddrs),  Government  servants,  and  minor  officials. 
As  regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  of  188 1  classifies  the  male 
population  into  the  following  six  main  classes  : — Class  (i)  Professional, 
including  Government  officials,  police  and  military,  23,391;  (2)  Domestic 
service,  including  hotel  and  lodging-house  keepers,  29,777;  (3)  Com- 
mercial, including  merchants,  traders,  carriers,  messengers,  etc.,  53,532  ; 


DACCA,  85 

(4)  ^Agricultural,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  herdsmen,  and  others 
engaged  about  animals,  412,269;  (5)  Manufactures  and  industries, 
81,646;  (6)  Indefinite  and  unproductive  (composed  of  22,239  general 
labourers,  and  411,009  male  children  and  persons  of  no  specified 
occupation),  433,248. 

Agriculture. — As  elsewhere  throughout  Bengal,  the  staple  food  crop 
is  rice,  which  is  divided  into  four  varieties — (i)  the  dman,  or  cold 
weather  crop,  which  yields  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  food  supply, 
sown  on  low-lying  lands  about  April,  and  reaped  in  December;  (2)  the 
dus,  or  autumn  crop,  sown  on  comparatively  high  lands,  about  the  same 
time  as  dma?!^  and  reaped  in  July  and  August ;  (3)  the  bora  or  ropd 
sown  in  marshy  ground  about  January,  subsequently  transplanted,  and 
reaped  in  May;  (4)  the  uri  ox  jard  dhdn,  an  indigenous  variety  found 
growing  wild  in  the  marshes,  which  is  used  as  food  by  the  poor.  No 
improvement  has  recently  taken  place  in  the  cultivation  of  rice,  and 
sufficient  is  not  grown  to  satisfy  the  local  demand.  Other  crops 
include  millets,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  jute  (the  cultivation  of  which  has 
greatly  extended  of  late  years),  cotton,  safflower,  pdn  leaf,  areca-nut, 
cocoa-nut,  and  sugar-cane.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  has  fallen  off,  but 
the  fibre  produced  is  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  The  chief  staples 
of  export  are  jute,  oil-seeds,  and  safiflower,  all  of  which  are  being  more 
extensively  grown  year  by  year.  Manure  is  not  generally  used,  and 
never  for  rice  land.  Irrigation  is  sometimes  practised  in  the  north  of 
the  District;  and,  in  the  same  tract,  fields  are  occasionally  suffered  to 
lie  fallow.  In  the  south,  the  land  is  under  continuous  cultivation  with 
the  same  crops,  and  the  cultivators  trust  to  the  deposit  left  by  the 
annual  inundation  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  their  fields.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  area  of  the  District  is  estimated  to  be  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  out-turn  of  rice  varies  from  13  cwts.  to  26  cwts.  per  acre. 
The  best  rice  lands  yield  a  second  crop  of  oil-seeds  or  pulses.  The 
out-turn  of  jute  is  about  17  cwts.  per  acre.  The  cultivators,  as  a  class, 
are  described  as  fairly  prosperous.  Comparatively  few  of  them  have 
obtained  rights  of  occupancy ;  but  the  recent  rise  in  the  value  of  all 
agricultural  products,  caused  by  the  development  of  trade,  has  distinctly 
raised  the  standard  of  comfort  among  them.  Rates  of  rent  for  rice 
land  vary  from  is.  lod.  per  acre  for  boro  to^9S.  per  acre  for  dman  land. 
Land  that  produces  two  crops  sometimes  rents  at  as  much  as  12s.  an 
acre.  As  compared  with  the  neighbouring  Districts,  Dacca  has  few 
great  landlords,  and  sub  -  infeudation  has  not  been  carried  to  an 
excessive  extent.  There  are  seldom  more  than  two  classes  of  inter- 
mediate tenure-holders  between  the  zaminddr  and  the  actual  cultivator. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  landowner  collects  his  rents  by  the  agency 
of  his  own  servants,  and  not  through  the  intervention  of  a  farmer. 
Spare  land  at  the  present  day  is  only  to  be  found  in  the  hilly,  broken 


86  DACCA. 

tract  in  the  north  of  the  District,  where  the  aboriginal  tribes  are  gradually 
extending  the  limit  of  cultivation. 

Dacca  District  is  not  specially  subject  to  natural  calamities,  such  as 
flood,  blight,  or  drought.  Each  of  these  does  occasionally  happen,  but 
rarely  on  such  a  scale  as  to  affect  the  general  harvest.  In  the  year 
i777~7S)  3.  terrible  inundation  occurred,  succeeded  by  a  calamitous 
famine.  But,  in  more  recent  times,  the  drought  of  1865  and  the  flood 
of  1870  merely  raised  the  prices  of  grain,  and  did  not  produce  acute 
distress.  If  the  price  of  rice  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  were  to  rise  to 
1 6s.  per  cwt,  that  should  be  regarded  as  a  sign  of  approaching  scarcity. 
At  the  present  time  the  means  of  communication  with  other  Districts 
by  water  are  so  good,  and  the  ordinary  course  of  trade  is  so  active,  that 
importation  could  at  any  time  prevent  scarcity  from  growing  into 
famine.     There  is  no  demand  for  either  embankments  or  canals. 

Industrial. — The  chief  means  of  communication  are  by  water.  The 
rivers  are  crowded  by  native  craft  and  by  steamers  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  no  corner  of  the  District  is  remote  from  some  navigable 
channel.  The  principal  road,  the  only  one  under  the  Public  Works 
Department,  leads  from  Dacca  city  through  Tipperah  to  Chittagong. 
A  second  important  road  runs  northward  through  the  high  country  to 
Maimansingh.  A  line  of  railway  from  Dacca  to  Maimansingh  has  been 
sanctioned,  and  is  now  (1884)  in  course  of  construction,  and  will 
shortly  be  continued  to  Chittagong,  via  Narainganj,  crossing  the 
Meghna  by  means  of  a  steam  ferry.  The  only  road  that  carries  much 
traffic  is  the  branch  from  Dacca  city  to  the  port  of  Narainganj,  which  is 
metalled.  There  are  two  short  navigable  canals,  only  open  during  the 
rainy  season.  The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton-weaving,  em- 
broidery, silver-work,  shell-carving,  and  pottery.  The  muslins  of  Dacca, 
once  so  celebrated,  have  now  almost  entirely  ceased  to  be  made.  A  few 
pieces  are  occasionally  woven  to  order,  to  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  curious. 
Coarse  cotton  cloth  is  still  woven  all  over  the  District.  The  gold  and 
silver  smiths  and  the  shell-carvers  work  in  their  own  houses,  and  on 
their  own  account ;  and  their  condition  is  decidedly  prosperous.  The 
w^eavers  and  embroiderers,  on  the  other  hand,  manufacture  their  goods 
on  behalf  of  merchants,  working  on  a  system  of  advances.  The 
merchants  take  care  that  the  artisan  shall  always  continue  in  their 
debt. 

Dacca  conducts  a  very  large  trade  by  water,  and  many  of  the  mer- 
chants push  their  enterprise  into  remote  countries.  Europeans, 
Armenians,  Muhammadans,  and  Marwaris  maintain  a  brisk  competition 
with  each  other.  In  former  times,  the  export  of  manufactured  cotton 
goods  was  by  far  the  most  important  branch  of  trade.  The  two  largest 
marts  of  commerce  are  Dacca  city  and  the  rapidly  rising  mart  of 
Narainganj,  with   its   suburb   of  Madanganj.      A  commercial  fair  is 


DACCA.  87 

annually  held  at  Munshiganj,  lasting  for  three  weeks,  which  is  attended 
by  merchants  from  such  distant  quarters  as  Delhi,  Amritsar,  and 
Arakan.  According  to  the  registered  statistics  of  river  traffic  for  the 
year  1876-77,  the  total  value  of  the  exports  from  Dacca  District  was 
;£"i,944,ooo,  including  —  jute,  ;^742,ooo ;  rice,  ;£"232,ooo;  hides, 
;^i3i,ooo ;  oil-seeds,  ;^5 1,000 ;  spices,  ^^46,000  ;  betel-nuts,  ;£"39,ooo  ; 
safflower,  ;£i 9,000.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  was  ^£"3, 245,000, 
the  chief  items  being — piece-goods,  ;^795,ooo ;  salt,  ^£"304,000  ;  food 
grains,  ;^366,ooo;  tobacco,  ;£'i69,ooo;  sugar,  ;£255,oooj  timber, 
^135,000.  No  later  District  trade  statistics  are  available,  as  since 
1878  the  system  of  collection  of  statistics  for  the  internal  trade  of 
Bengal  has  been  altered,  and  is  now  limited  to  the  registration  of  the 
trade  of  the  ports  of  Calcutta,  Chittagong,  and  Orissa,  and  of  that 
carried  on  along  the  chief  railway,  river,  and  canal  routes. 

In  1882  there  were  six  printing-presses  in  the  District,  and  six  or 
eight  newspapers  or  periodicals  are  published  regularly.  There  are 
about  forty  native  societies  organized  for  the  spread  of  education  and 
for  charitable  objects,  besides  'The  Dacca  Institute,'  common  to 
natives  and  Europeans. 

Administration. — In  1870-71,  the  total  revenue  of  Dacca  District  was 
;^iii,62o,  of  which  ;£53,67i  was  derived  from  the  land;  the  total 
expenditure  was  ;£^5o,63i,  or  less  than  half  the  revenue.  In  1881-82, 
the  total  revenue,  Imperial,  local,  and  municipal,  amounted  to 
^149,320,  of  which  ^£"49,312  was  derived  from  the  land,  ;^22,592 
from  excise,  and  ^57,053  from  stamps.  The  cost  of  civil  administra- 
tion, as  represented  by  the  pay  of  officials  and  police  of  all  kinds, 
was  pf  46,502.  In  the  same  year,  the  regular  police  force  numbered 
412  officers  and  men,  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £90']'].  In 
addition,  the  village  watch  numbered  3479  men,  who  received  from  the 
villagers  and  Government  rent  -  free  lands  or  money  estimated  at 
;^i4,9i7  ;  and  the  municipal  police  consisted  of  a  force  of  277  officers 
and  men,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  ;^2425.  The  total  force,  therefore, 
for  the  protection  of  person  and  property  amounted  to  4168  men,  or  i 
man  to  every  o'6  square  miles,  or  to  every  507  of  the  population  ;  the 
total  cost  was  ;£"26,4i9,  being  an  average  of  ^9,  8s.  lod.  per  square 
mile,  and  3d.  per  head  of  population.  In  ^1881-82,  the  average  daily 
number  of  prisoners  in  the  District  jail  was  723,  of  whom  8  were 
females ;  in  the  subsidiary  jail  of  Munshiganj,  the  daily  average  prison 
population  was  6,  and  in  that  of  Manikganj,  5  ;  total  daily  average  of 
prisoners,  784,  or  i  to  every  2828  of  the  population. 

Education  has  made  rapid  progress  in  recent  years.  In  1860-61, 
there  were  altogether  21  schools  in  the  District,  attended  by  2003 
pupils.  By  187C-71,  the  number  of  schools  had  risen  to  149,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  to  7155.     Sir  G.  Campbell's  reforms,  by  which  the 


88  DACCA. 

benefit  of  the  grant-in-aid  rules  was  extended  to  the  village  schools  or 
pdthsdlds^  has  greatly  promoted  primary  instruction.  In  1874-75,  the 
number  of  schools  had  further  increased  to  416,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  to  17,937,  and  in  1881-82  to  990  educational  institutions  under 
Government  inspection,  attended  by  27,000  pupils.  The  great  increase 
has  been  in  the  lower  primary  schools,  which  in  March  1882  numbered 
913  out  of  the  990  Government  schools,  vvith  23,849  out  of  the 
27,000  pupils.  Besides  these  State-inspected  schools,  the  Education 
Department  returns  286  unaided  indigenous  schools,  with  3558 
pupils,  making  a  total  of  1276  schools  attended  by  about  30,000 
pupils.  The  chief  educational  institution  is  the  Dacca  College, 
originally  started  in  1835,  attended  in  1882  by  290  students,  and 
taught  by  a  staff  of  six  professors  and  lecturers.  Special  classes  for  law, 
medicine,  and  surveying  are  affiliated  to  the  College ;  to  which  is  also 
attached  the  District  Collegiate  or  High  School,  attended  in  1882  by 
521  pupils.  Female  education  is  afforded  in  26  schools,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  the  Eden  School  in  Dacca  city,  with  an  attendance 
in  1882  of  199  girls.  A  Normal  Training  School  for  Masters  had  64 
students.  For  the  special  necessities  of  the  Muhammadans,  a  Madrdsa 
or  Muhammadan  College  had  332  pupils,  of  whom  113  were  in  the 
Arabic,  and  219  in  the  English  department. 

For  administrative  purposes,  Dacca  District  is  divided  into  4  Sub- 
divisions, and  into  12  thdnds  or  police  circles,  as  follows  : — (i)  Dacca  or 
head-quarters  Sub-division,  comprising  the  police  circles  of  Lalbagh, 
Kapasia,  Sabhar,  and  Nawabganj  ;  (2)  Narainganj,  comprising  the 
police  circles  of  Ndrainganj,  Rupganj,  and  Raipura  ;  (3)  Manikganj, 
comprising  the  police  circles  of  Manikganj,  Jafarganj,  and  Harirampur; 
and  (4)  Munshiganj,  comprising  the  police  circles  of  Munshiganj  and 
Srinagar.  The  number  of /^r^^;?^'^  or  fiscal  divisions  is  182.  In  the 
year  1883,  there  were  11  magisterial  and  15  civil  and  revenue  courts 
open  ;  the  number  of  European  covenanted  officers  stationed  in  the 
District  was  4. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Dacca  during  the  hot  months  is 
sensibly  cooled  by  the  circumstance  that  the  wind  has  passed  over  the 
wide  surface  of  large  rivers.  The  rainy  season  lasts  from  April  to 
October.  The  most  disagreeable  weather  in  the  year  is  experienced  at 
the  close  of  this  season.  The  average  rainfall  for  thirty  years  ending 
1881  was  74*73  inches.  The  rainfall  in  1881  was  79*06  inches,  or  4-33 
inches  above  the  average.  The  average  mean  temperature  in  1881 
was  78-8°  F.,  the  maximum  being  99-5°  in  April,  and  the  minimum 
48*2°  in  January.  Earthquakes  are  of  common  occurrence.  Specially 
severe  shocks  were  experienced  in  April  1762,  April  1775,  and  May 
1812. 

The  principal  endemic  diseases  are  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers, 


DACCA  SUB-DIVISION  AND  CITY.  89 

elephantiasis  and  bronchocele,  dysentery  and  diarrhoea,  rheumatism, 
ophthalmia,  and  intestinal  worms.  Cholera  and  small-pox  both 
occasionally  visit  the  District  in  an  epidemic  form.  No  attention  what- 
ever is  paid  to  sanitation  in  the  rural  tracts ;  but  the  munificence  of  the 
late  Nawab  Abdul  Gani  some  years  ago  presented  Dacca  city  with  a 
fund  for  undertaking  sanitary  improvements,  and  also  with  a  pure  water 
supply.  The  institutions  for  medical  relief  comprise  the  lunatic 
asylum,  the  Mitford  Hospital,  an  almshouse  founded  in  1866  by 
Nawab  Abdul  Gani,  and  9  charitable  dispensaries.  In  1881,  the 
dispensaries  and  the  hospital  were  attended  by  3530  in-door  and 
66,304  out-door  patients.  [For  further  information  regarding  Dacca 
District,  see  my  Statistical  Account  of  Be7igal,  vol.  v.  pp.  1-153 
(Triibner  &  Co.,  London,  1875) ;  also  the  History  a?id  Statistics  of  the 
Dacca  Division^  by  A.  L.  Clay,  Esq.,  C.S.  (Calcutta,  1867) ;  Topography 
and  Statistics  of  Dacca ^  by  Dr.  D.  J.  Taylor  (1840);  Census  Report 
of  Bengal  for  1881  ;  Amiual  Administration  Reports  of  the  Bengal 
Govermnefti  from  1880-83.] 

Dacca. — Head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Dacca  District,  lying  between 
23°  34'  and  24°  20'  12"  N.  lat.,  and  between  90°  2'  45"  and  91°  i'  10"  e. 
long.;  including  Dacca  City.  Area,  1266  square  miles;  towns  and 
villages,  2082;  occupied  houses,  108,512.  Population  (1881),  males 
343,228,  and  females  355,801  ;  total,  699,029.  Classified  according  to 
religion,  there  were  —  Muhammadans,  378,834;  Hindus,  314,613; 
Christians,  5524;  Buddhists,  11  ;  Brahmos,  43  ;  'others,'  4.  Average 
number  of  persons  per  square  mile  (exclusive  of  Dacca  city),  552;  villages 
per  square  mile,  1*64;  persons  per  village,  305;  houses  per  square 
mile,  90;  inmates  per  house,  6 '4.  Dacca  Sub-division  comprises  the 
4  police  circles  of  Lai  Bagh,  Sabhar,  Kapasia,  and  Nawabganj.  In 
1883,  it  contained  8  civil  courts,  besides  an  honorary  Magistrate's 
court,  and  a  municipal  bench  in  Dacca  city;  and  8  criminal  courts. 
The  police  force  consisted  of  479  regular  police  of  all  ranks,  and  100 1 
village  watchmen. 

Dacca. — The  city  of  Dacca,  the  chief  town  of  the  District  and 
Commissionership  of  the  same  name,  and  the  fifth  largest  city  under  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Buriganga  river  (formerly,  no  doubt,  as  its  name  implies,  the  main 
stream  of  the  Ganges),  in  23°  43'  n.  lat,  and  90°  26'  25"  e.  long.,  8 
miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  Buriganga  with  the  Dhaleswari.  The 
municipal  limits  include  an  area  of  about  8  square  miles,  and  the 
population,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881,  numbers  79,076  persons. 
In  1881-82,  the  municipal  income  was  ;£i  1,342;  rate  of  taxation, 
2s.  5d.  per  head. 

The  town  extends  along  the  bank  of  the  river  for  a  distance  of  nearly 
4  miles,  and  inland,  towards  the  north,  for  about  one  mile  and  a  quarter. 


90  DACCA  CITY. 

It  is  intersected  by  a  branch  of  the  Dolai  creek.  The  two  principal 
streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  One  runs  parallel  to  the  river 
for  upwards  of  two  miles,  from  the  Lai  Bagh  Palace  to  the  Dolai  creek. 
The  other  leads  north  from  the  river  to  the  old  military  cantonments ; 
it  is  about  one  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length,  of  considerable  width,  and 
bordered  by  regularly  built  houses.  The  chauk  or  market-place,  a 
square  of  fine  dimensions,  lies  at  the  extreme  west.  The  remainder 
of  the  town  is  composed  of  narrow,  crooked  lanes,  few  of  which 
admit  wheeled  conveyances.  The  native  houses  vary  in  height  from 
one  to  four  storeys.  In  some  of  the  crowded  quarters,  such  as  those 
occupied  by  the  weavers  and  shell-carvers,  each  house  has  a  front- 
age of  only  8  or  lo  feet ;  but  the  side-walls  run  back  for  a  distance  of 
60  feet.  The  two  ends  only  of  such  houses  are  roofed  in,  the  middle 
forming  an  open  court.  The  houses  of  the  European  residents  extend 
along  the  river  for  a  space  of  about  half  a  mile,  in  the  centre  of  the 
town.  In  the  Armenian  and  Greek  quarters,  there  are  several  large 
brick  houses,  now  falling  into  decay.  Dacca  preserves  few  traces  of  its 
former  magnificence  as  the  Muhammadan  capital  of  Bengal  during  the 
17th  century.  The  old  fort,  erected  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Jahangir,  has  entirely  disappeared.  The  only  public  buildings  of  this 
period  still  remaining  are  the  Katra,  built  by  Sultan  Muhammad  Shuja 
in  1645;  ^^^  ^^^  palace  of  the  Lai  Bagh,  which  several  successive 
Nawabs  intended  to  associate  with  their  name,  but  which  was  never 
completed.  Both  these  buildings  are  now  mere  ruins,  and  their  decora- 
tions have  been  wantonly  destroyed.  The  factories  built  by  the  English, 
the  French,  and  the  Dutch  during  the  17th  century  have  also  been 
swept  away.  An  outli'ne  of  the  history  of  the  city  has  been  given  in  the 
preceding  article  on  Dacca  District.  The  city  was  first  selected  as 
the  seat  of  the  Muhammadan  Government  of  Bengal  about  1610, 
owing  to  its  convenient  position  for  controlling  the  waterways  of  the 
delta,  which  were  then  ravaged  by  Portuguese  pirates  in  alliance  with 
the  Arakanese.  In  1704,  the  Nawab  Murshid  Kuli  Khan  moved  his 
residence  to  Murshidabad ;  and  though  Dacca  long  retained  a  titular 
Nawab,  its  glory  departed  with  the  removal  of  the  court.  When  in  the 
height  of  its  prosperity,  Dacca  must  have  been  very  populous.  Its 
suburbs  are  said  to  have  extended  15  miles  northwards,  as  far  as  the 
village  of  Tungi,  where  mosques  and  brick  houses  are  still  to  be  dis- 
covered buried  beneath  thick  jungle.  During  the  18th  century,  Dacca 
won  a  new  reputation  for  its  manufacture  of  fine  muslins,  which  became 
famous  in  the  markets  of  the  West.  The  cotton  grown  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood is  said  to  be  of  peculiarly  fine  quahty.  The  weavers,  who 
were  mostly  Hindus,  attained  a  wonderful  delicacy  of  taste  and 
dexterity  of  manipulation,  by  means  of  hereditary  devotion  to  their 
industry.     At  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  annual  investment  made 


DACCA  CITY.  91 

by  the  East  India  Company  and  by  private  traders  for  Dacca  muslins 
was  estimated  at  ;?^25 0,000.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  this  industry  began  rapidly  to  decline,  under  the  competition 
of  cheaper  piece-goods  from  Manchester.  By  1813,  the  value  of  the 
private  trade  had  fallen  to  ^20,000,  and  four  years  later,  the  Com- 
mercial Residency  of  the  Company  was  closed.  The  prosperity  of  the 
city  has  never  recovered  from  this  second  blow.  The  reduced  and 
impoverished  population,  the  ruinous  and  abandoned  houses,  still  show 
the  disastrous  results  of  the  loss  Dacca  has  sustained  in  her  cotton 
manufactures.  In  1800,  the  number  of  inhabitants  w^as  estimated,  and 
apparently  not  over-estimated,  at  200,000;  in  1872,  a  Census  of  the 
town  showed  that  the  total  had  fallen  to  69,212.  A  small  colony  of 
weavers  of  muslin  still  exists,  who  produce  fabrics  of  exceptional  excel- 
lence, working  under  a  system  of  advances  from  native  capitalists.  In 
recent  years,  the  general  development  of  trade  throughout  Bengal  has 
brought  back  to  Dacca  a  little  of  its  former  wealth,  and  the  city  is  now 
increasing  in  population.  The  city  is  favourably  situated  to  command 
the  three  river  systems  of  the  Ganges,  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the 
Meghna.  If  we  include  the  commerce  of  Narainganj  and  Madanganj, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  river  ports  of  Dacca,  its  total  trade 
exceeds  that  of  any  inland  mart  of  Bengal  except  Patna.  The  collec- 
tion of  jute,  oil-seeds,  rice,  and  hides,  and  the  distribution  of  piece-goods 
and  salt,  constitute  the  most  important  functions  of  the  Dacca  merchants ; 
and  Dacca  boatmen  are  well  known  throughout  Bengal  as  the  most  adven- 
turous of  their  class.  In  the  year  1876-77,  the  total  trade  of  Dacca  city, 
excluding  Narainganj  and  Madanganj,  was  valued  at  ;£"  1,1 83, 000.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  were — hides,  ;^i 30,000  ;  jute,  ;£^79,ooo;  food 
grains,  ;£'4 1,000;  the  imports  included  —  piece-goods,  ^,^436,000 ; 
cotton  twist,  ;2^79,ooo;  timber,  ;£^35,ooo;  and  salt,  ;£'25,ooo.  As 
explained  on  p.  87,  in  the  article  on  Dacca  city,  no  later  trade  statistics 
are  available  under  the  new  system  of  registration. 
I  The  population  of  the  city  is  thus  classified  in  the  Census  Report 
of  1881  :  —  Hindus,  males  22,774,  females  16,861 — total,  39,635; 
Muhammadans,  males  18,634,  females  20,279 — total,  38,913;  Chris- 
tians and  others,  males  295,  females  233 — total,  528.  Grand  total, 
males  41,703,  females  37,373 — total,  79,076.-.  The  large  proportion  of 
females  among  the  Muhammadan  population  is  worthy  of  notice.  The 
total  of  Christians  includes  a  few  Armenians  and  Greeks,  who  formerly 
conducted  a  considerable  share  of  the  trade  of  the  city.  Foremost 
among  the  citizens  of  Dacca  may  be  mentioned  the  late  Nawab  Abdul 
Gani,  C.S.I.,  who  in  1866  founded  the  Langar  Khana,  or  almshouse,  for 
the  accommodation  of  poor  persons  permanently  disabled  from  work. 
He  subsequently  made  a  donation  of  ;£'5ooo  to  the  municipality  for  the 
, carrying   out   of  sanitary   improvements;  and   in    1878,  a  system    of 


92  DADAR—DADHAL  VA. 

water-works  was  opened,  which  he  had  constructed  for  the  city  at  his 
own  expense. 

Dacca  is  well  provided  with  educational  institutions.  The  Dacca 
College,  with  a  staff  of  European  professors,  is  one  of  the  best  of  its 
class  in  India.  In  connection  with  the  college  there  is  an  English 
school  department,  and  English  is  also  taught  at  the  five  following 
institutions  : — The  Pogose  School,  established  by  a  wealthy  Armenian 
gentleman ;  Nawab  Abdul  Ganf  s  school ;  the  Jagannath  school,  founded 
by  a  Hindu  zaminddr  in  memory  of  his  father;  the  Ruplal  Rag- 
hiinath  school,  established  by  the  liberality  of  two  wealthy  native 
gentlemen  of  the  above  names  ;  and  the  Muhammadan  Madrdsa. 

Until  the  conservancy  reforms  effected  by  the  aid  of  the  liberality 
of  Nawab  Abdul  Gani,  the  sanitary  condition  of  Dacca  city  was  very 
unsatisfactory.  During  the  rainy  season,  the  whole  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  labyrinth  of  brimming  creeks,  and  the  low-lying  suburbs  are  liable 
to  be  flooded  every  year.  In  former  times,  the  simplest  rules  of  con- 
servancy were  disregarded,  and  much  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  overcoming  the  traditional  prejudices  of  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  health  of  the  city  will  now  be 
sensibly  improved  by  recent  reforms,  and  by  the  introduction  of  a  pure 
water  supply.  The  principal  charitable  institution  is  the  Mitford 
Hospital,  estabUshed  in  1858,  by  a  bequest  of  a  member  of  the  Civil 
Service.  The  wards  are  well  planned  and  lofty,  and  the  building 
stands  in  grounds  of  its  own,  by  the  river-side.  In  1881,  the  total 
number  of  in-door  patients  was  1634,  and  of  out-door  patients  19,138. 
A  permanent  endowment  of  ;^i6,ooo  was  left  by  the  founder. 

Dadar.  —  Town  in  Kachhi  Province,  Baluchistan;  situated  in 
lat.  29°  28'  N.,  and  long.  67°  34'  e.,  on  the  Bolan  river,  about 
5  miles  east  of  the  Bolan  Pass,  and  37  north-west  from  B^gh; 
elevation  above  sea  level,  about  700  feet ;  population  not  exceeding 
2000.  Surrounded  by  bare  and  rocky  hills,  which  render  the  heat 
in  summer  perhaps  greater  than  that  of  any  other  place  in  the 
world  in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  DMar  is  supplied  with  ex- 
cellent water  from  the  river  Bolan  during  a  great  part  of  the  year. 
Wheat,  cotton,  cucumbers,  and  melons  are  grown  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  town. 

Dadhdlya.— Estate  in  Mahi  Kdntha,  Bombay  Presidency.  The 
area  of  the  land  under  cultivation  in  1881  was  estimated  at  5000  acres, 
the  population  at  3877,  and  the  revenue  at  about  ^330.  The  Thakur 
is  a  tributary  chief,  paying  annually  £^']o  as  ghds-ddna,  or  forage  for 
cattle,  to  the  Gaekwdr  of  Baroda,  and  ;£"6i  as  kichri,  or  supplies  for 
troops,  to  the  Raja  of  Edar.  He  has  enjoyed  semi-independent 
power  since  the  establishment  of  his  family  in  Mahi  Kantha.  The 
family   are    Sesodia   Rajputs,    who    originally    came    from    Udaipur 


DADRI—DAFLAPUR. 


93 


(Oodeypore)  in  Rajputana.  They  hold  no  sa?iad  authorising  adoption  ; 
the  rule  of  primogeniture  is  followed  in  regard  to  succession.  The 
first  Thakur  entered  the  service  of  the  chief  of  Edar  with  a  body 
of  horse,  and  obtained  the  gift  of  48  villages,  in  1674.  At  a  later 
date,  the  Dadhalya  chief,  refusing  to  serve  under  the  Marwar  princes 
who  assumed  the  Government  of  Edar,  had  his  grant  reduced  to  its 
present  limits. 

Dadri. — Village  in  Bulandshahr  District,  North-Western  Provinces, 
lying  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  20  miles  north-east  of  Bulandshahr, 
and  23  miles  south-east  of  Delhi.  Population  (1881)  2421  ;  police 
station,  travellers'  bungalow,  post-office,  village  school,  encamping 
ground  for  troops,  weekly  market.  The  railway  station  (East  Indian 
Railway)  is  a  mile  and  a  half  s.-w,  of  the  village,  and  connected  with 
it  by  a  broad  metalled  road.  Ruins  of  a  fort  built  at  the  end  of  the 
iSth  century  by  Dargahi  Singh,  whose  descendants  held  estates  in  the 
neighbourhood  till  1857,  when  they  joined  the  rebels.  The  police 
station  is  all  that  now  remains  of  the  fort.  Two  members  of  the 
family  were  hanged,  and  their  possessions  were  confiscated.  Colonel 
Greathed's  column  occupied  Dadri  on  the  26th  of  September  1857,  and, 
finding  much  property  taken  from  Europeans,  burned  the  neighbouring 
villages. 

Dadli.  —  Taluk  in  the  Sehwan  Sub-division,  Karachi  (Kurrachee) 
District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  26°  29'  30"  to  26°  56'  30"  n.  ; 
long.  67°  22'  30"  to  67°  57'  45"  E. ;  area,  762  square  miles  ;  population 
(1881)  66,811,  namely,  5101  Hindus,  59,181  Muhammadans,  2522 
Sikhs,  and  7  Christians,  dwelling  in  2  towns  and  77  villages,  and 
occupying  12,132  houses.  The  Sub-division  contains  3  criminal  courts, 
with  II  police  stations,  and  a  police  force  of  71  men.    • 

Dadu.  —  Chief  town  in  Dadii  taluk,  Karachi  District,  Sind, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  26°  43'  30"  N. ;  long.  67°  49'  e.  Population 
(1881)  2270,  principally  agriculturists.  Municipal  income  (1880-81) 
;jf  232  ;  incidence  of  taxation  per  head  of  population,  2s.  A  subordinate 
civil  court,  post-office,  staging  bungalow,  and  railway  station. 

Daflapur  (or  Jath). — Jdgir  within. the  Political  Agency  of  Satara,  in 
Bombay  Presidency,  and  really  an  integral  part  of  the  State  of  Jath,  to 
which  it  will  lapse  on  the  demise  of  the  three  widows  of  the  late  chief. 
The  founder  of  the  Jath  Jdgir  was  hereditary /(i/^/  of  Daflapur  village, 
and  took  his  surname  of  Dafle  therefrom.  Lat.  17°  o'  n.  ;  long.  75'' 
7'  E.  In  1820,  the  British  Government  made  an  engagement  with  the 
ancestors  of  the  present  chief  of  Jath,  confirming  them  in  the  estates 
they  then  held.  In  1827,  the  Jath  estate  was  attached  by  the  Raja 
of  Satara  to  pay  off  the  chiefs  debts,  but,  after  their  liquidation,  it 
was  restored  in  1841.  The  British  Government  have  more  than  once 
interfered  to  adjust  the  pecuniary  affairs  of  the  Jath  Jdgir;  and,  in 


94  DAFLAPUR—DAHANU, 

consequence  of  numerous  oppressions,  were  compelled  in  1874  to 
assume  the  direct  management  on  behalf  of  the  holder.  The  estate 
of  Daflapur  consists  of  6  detached  villages  in  the  Jath  jdgir ;  area, 
about  94  square  miles ;  population  (1881)  6006  ;  gross  revenue,  ;^9oi. 
The  land  is  generally  poor,  but  fairly  good  in  the  eastern  villages. 
Products,  the  staple  millets  {bdjra  and  jodr),  cotton,  wheat,  gram, 
safflower,  and  tur.  There  are  3  schools  in  the  estate  with  56  pupils. 
The  present  ruler  is  the  senior  widow,  Lakshmibai  Dafle,  Deshmukh, 
a  Kshattriya  (Maratha)  by  caste.— ^^^  Jath. 

Dafldpur.— Chief  town  of  the  Daflapur  estate,  in  Satara  District, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  17°  o'  n.,  long.  75°  7'  e.  ;  about  80  miles 
south-east  of  Satara,  and  85  miles  north-east  of  Belgaum. 

Daga. — A  creek  in  Irawadi  Division,  British  Burma,  which  leaves 
the  Bassein  River  3  or  4  miles  from  its  northern  mouth,  in  Henzada 
District,  in  lat.  17°  42'  o  n.,  and  long.  95°  25'  o"  e.,  and  after  a 
tortuous  south-west  course,  rejoins  it  near  Bassein  town,  lat.  16°  55'  o"n., 
and  long.  94°  48'  o"  e.  The  northern  entrance  has  silted  up,  and  is 
now  completely  closed  by  the  embankment  of  the  Bassein  ;  the  bed  for 
about  8  miles  down,  as  far  as  Ywathit,  is  dry  during  the  hot  season. 
In  the  rains  the  downward  current  is  strong,  but  in  the  dry  season  the 
tide  is  felt  as  far  as  Thabye-hla  at  neaps,  and  fifteen  miles  farther  at 
springs.  The  Daga  is  navigable  by  river  steamers  during  the  rains  for 
36  miles,  from  its  southern  outlet  to  the  Min-mnaing  creek;  it  is 
practicable  all  the  year  round  for  native  craft  as  far  as  Kyun-pyaw, 
where  the  creek  is  from  200  to  300  feet  wide,  and  10  to  15  feet  deep. 
A  few  miles  below  Kyun-pyaw  is  the  Inyeh-gyi  Lake,  communicating 
with  the  Daga  by  a  small  channel. 

Dagshdi.  —  Hill  cantonment  in  Simla  District,  Punjab;  situated 
on  a  bare  and  treeless  height  42  miles  south  of  Simla,  on  the  cart- 
road  to  Kalka,  in  lat.  30°  53'  5"  n.  ;  long.  77°  5'  38"  e.  Established 
in  1842  ;  now  regularly  occupied  by  a  European  regiment.  Population 
(1881)  3642;  Hindus,  2129;  Sikhs,  2;  Muhammadans,  624;  'others,' 
nearly  all  European  troops,  887  ;  number  of  occupied  houses,  612. 
The  station,  though  usually  healthy,  suffered  from  an  epidemic  of 
cholera  in  1872. 

Da-gyaing. — River  in  Amherst  District,  Tenasserim,  British  Burma. 
Rises  in  the  Dawna  spur,  and,  flowing  westward,  joins  the  Hlaingbweh 
about  half-way  between  the  villages  of  Kazaing  and  Hlaingbweh. 
In  the  rains  it  brings  down  a  considerable  body  of  water,  but  a  swift 
current  and  numerous  rocks  render  it  unnavigable. 

Dahdnu.  —  Sub-division  of  Thana  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Area,  634  square  miles ;  number  of  villages,  209.  Population  (1881) 
109,322,  namely,  54,575  males  and  54,747  females.  Hindus  number 
97,676;  Muhammadans,  1678;  'others/ 9968.    Land  revenue  (1882-83) 


DAHANU—DAKA  TIA. 


95 


£12,6-]$.  This  Sub-division  lies  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  District; 
it  has  a  picturesque  aspect,  most  of  the  interior  being  occupied  by 
forest-clad  hills  in  small  detached  ranges  of  varying  height.  Towards 
the  coast  are  broad  flats,  hardly  above  sea  level,  and  seamed  by  tidal 
creeks.  The  climate  of  the  interior  is  unhealthy,  and  though  that  of 
the  coast  is  generally  pleasant  and  equable,  after  the  rains  it  becomes 
feverish.  The  Sub-division  contains  i  civil  and  4  criminal  courts,  with 
2  police  stations  {thdnds),  and  a  police  force  of  87  men. 

D^hanu. — Seaport  town  in  the  Dahanu  Sub-division  of  Thana  Dis- 
trict, Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  19°  58'  n.,  long.  72^45'  e.  ;  popula- 
tion (1881)  3525.  Average  annual  value  of  trade  for  the  five  years 
ending  1878-79 — exports,  ;^i 4,5 20  ;  imports,  ;£"i7oi.  Small  fort  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Dahanu  river  or  creek. 

Dahi. — Petty  State  under  the  Bhil  Agency  of  Central  India,  and  a 
guaranteed  thdkurate  in   Chakalda,   tributary  to   Holkar,   to  whom  it 

pays  ^30- 

Dahira  iDahidd). — Petty  State  in  South  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, consisting  of  3  villages.  The  revenue  in  1881  was  estimated  at 
^1000. 

Dain-hdt. — Trading  town  and  municipality  in  Bardwan  District, 
Bengal.  Situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Bhagirathi.  Lat.  23°  36'  24" 
N.,  long.  88°  13'  50"  E. ;  population  (1881)  5789,  namely,  Hindus 
5669,  and  Muhammadans  120;  area  of  town  site,  915  acres.  Scene  of 
a  considerable  annual  fair.  Manufactures,  weaving  and  brass-work  ; 
trade  in  grain,  tobacco,  jute,  salt,  English  cloth,  cotton,  etc.  Gross 
municipal  revenue  (1881-82),  ;^39 1  ;  expenditure,  ;^38i  ;  average  rate 
of  taxation,  is.  4^d.  per  head  of  the  population. 

Dai-pai. — Lake  in  Okepo  township,  Henzada  District,. Pegu  Division, 
British  Burma. — See  Deh-peh. 

D^jal. — Town  in  Jainpur  tahsil^  Dera  Ghdzi  Khan  District,  Punjab. 
Lat.  29°  33'  22"  N.,  long.  70°  25'  21"  E. ;  population  (1881)  5952, 
namely,  1922  Hindus,  4016  Muhammadans,  and  14  Sikhs;  number 
of  occupied  houses,  iioi.  First  rose  to  importance  under  the  rule 
of  the  Nahirs  {vide  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District),  from  whom  it 
was. wrested  by  Ghazi  Khan  ;  subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Khans  of  Khelat.  Formerly  a  thriving  town,  trading  wuth  the  country 
beyond  the  British  frontier,  but  now  in  a  ^decayed  state,  the  traffic 
having  taken  different  channels.  Forms  with  the  adjoining  village  of 
Naushahra  a  third-class  municipality;  revenue  (1875-76)  ;£"2  84,  or 
lofd.  per  head  of  population  (6335)  within  municipal  limits. 

Ddkatia. — River  of  Bengal;  rises  in  Hill  Tipperah,  and  flows 
through  the  southern  portion  of  Tipperah  District,  where  it  is  joined 
by  numerous  hill  streams.  After  taking  a  westerly  course  past  Laksham, 
Chitosi,  and  Hajiganj,  the  Dakatia  sweeps  suddenly  round  to  the  south- 


96  DAKHINES  WAR—DAKSHIN  SHAHBAZPUR. 

ward  6|  miles  east  of  Chandpur,  and  empties  itself  into  the  Meghna  a 
little  above  the  village  of  Raipur,  in  Noakhali  District.  A  direct  canal 
has  recently  been  cut  from  Shikarhat,  about  20  miles  east  of  Chandpur, 
to  Raipur,  thus  cutting  off  a  bend  of  about  40  miles. 

Dakhineswar. — Village  on  the  Hiigli,  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty- 
four  Parganas,  Bengal ;  situated  a  little  north  of  Calcutta.  Contains  a 
powder  magazine,  and  a  few  country  houses  of  Europeans.  Also  noted 
for  its  twelve  beautiful  temples  in  honour  of  Siva,  built  on  the  river 
bank.     Aided  vernacular  school  here. 

Dakor. — Town  in  the  Thasra  Sub-division  of  Kaira  District,  Bombay 
Presidency,  and  a  station  on  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India 
Railway,  Anand-Godhra  branch;  16  miles  north-east  of  the  Anand 
railway  station.  Latitude,  22^45'  n.  ;  longitude,  73°  11'  e.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  7771,  namely,  Hindus,  7401;  Muhammadans,  354;  Jains, 
8;  Parsis,  5;  'others,'  3;  area  of  town  site,  61  acres.  Municipal 
revenue  (1881-82)  ;£"i7i9;  rate  of  taxation,  4s.  9d.  per  head.  Dakor 
is  one  of  the  chief  places  of  pilgrimage  in  Western  India.  There  are 
monthly  meetings,  but  the  largest  gatherings  take  place  about  the  full 
moon  in  October-November,  when  as  many  as  10,000  pilgrims  assemble. 
Dispensary  and  post-office. 

Dakshln  {Dakhin  or  Deccan). — Tract  of  country  in  Southern  India. 
— See  Deccan. 

Dakshin  Shahbazpur. — A  large  low-lying  island  in  the  Meghna 
estuary,  and  now  a  Sub-division  of  Bakarganj  District,  Bengal,  situated 
between  22°  16'  45"  and  22°  51'  30"  n.  lat.,  and  between  90°  39'  30" 
and  90°  57'  15"  E.  long.  It  was  created  a  separate  administrative  Sub- 
division in  1845,  and  comprises  the  two  thdiids  or  police  circles  of  Bhola 
and  Barhan-ud-din  Haldar.  Area,  615  square  miles;  408  villages  or 
towns,  21,209  occupied  houses,  and  a  population  (1881)  of  212,230, 
namely,  males  113,880,  and  females  98,350;  proportion  of  males  in 
total  population,  53*2  per  cent.  Muhammadans  numbered  179,526; 
Hindus,  32,682  ;  Christians,  7  ;  and  Buddhists,  15.  Average  density 
of  population,  345  per  square  mile  ;  villages  per  square  mile,  '()() ; 
houses  per  square  mile,  377;  persons  per  village,  520;  persons  per 
house,  10.  The  cyclone  of  31st  October  1876  is  said  to  have  swept 
away  almost  the  entire  population  of  Daulat  Khan,  then  the  head- 
quarters town  of  the  Sub-division.  The  island  is  a  typical  deltaic  tract, 
formed  out  of  the  silt  brought  down  by  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra. 
Its  level  is  said  to  be  higher  than  that  of  the  adjacent  delta  or  the 
Bakarganj  mainland.  The  strong  '  bore  '  of  the  Meghna  at  spring  tides 
rushes  upon  the  east  of  Dakshin  Shahbazpur,  flooding  all  the  water- 
courses and  creeks.  The  north  and  eastern  sides  are  being  cut  away 
by  the  river,  many  homesteads  with  their  palm  groves  annually  dis- 
appearing in  the  river;  while  large  alluvial  accretions  are  constantly 


DALA—DALHOUSIE.  97 

forming  farther  down  the  estuary,  at  the  southern  point  of  Dakshin 
Shahbazpur. 

Dala. — A  suburb  of  Rangoon  city,  Pegu  Division,  British  Burma  ; 
situated  on  the  right  or  western  bank  of  the  Rangoon  river.  Formerly 
the  Dala  circle  included  Angyi,  now  a  part  of  Hanthawadi  District, 
and  Pyapiin,  a  portion  of  Thungwa ;  but  these  were  transferred  at  the 
end  of  the  last  century.  The  town  was  founded  in  the  nth  century, 
and  was  then  called  Dhalanagara.     Population  (1881)  6953. 

Dala. — A  creek  in  Hanthawadi  District,  Pegu  Division,  British 
Burma,  which  empties  itself  into  the  Rangoon  river  opposite  Rangoon 
city.  On  the  west  side  of  its  mouth  are  dockyards,  and  to  the  east, 
timber  yards  and  steam  sawmills.  In  the  dry  season  it  is  navigable  for 
a  few  miles  only,  but  during  the  rains  boats  can  traverse  its  entire 
length. 

Dala-nwun. — River  in  Shwe-gyin  District,  Tenasserim  Division, 
British  Burma.  Rises  in  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Pegu  Yomas,  and, 
flowing  south-east,  falls  into  the  Sittaung  a  few  miles  below  Thayet- 
thamein.     Navigable  by  large  boats  as  far  as  Thungwa. 

Dalat  {Dhalet). — River  in  Kyaukh-pyu  District,  Arakan  Division, 
British  Burma,  rising  in  the  main  range,  and  falling  into  the  sea  at 
Combermere  Bay.  It  is  navigable  as  far  as  Dalet  (sometimes  called 
Talak)  village,  25  miles  from  its  mouth.  In  its  upper  reaches  the 
stream  is  a  mountain  torrent,  only  passable  by  small  canoes. 

Dalgoma. — Village  in  Goalpara  District,  Assam,  at  which  a  large 
fair  is  held  annually  in  January,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  a 
former  high  priest  of  the  temple.  Lat.  26°  6'  n.,  long.  90°  49'  e.  A 
revenue  court  {zaminddri  kachdri)  of  the  Raja  of  Bijni,  the  principal 
landowner  of  the  District,  is  situated  in  this  village. 

Dalhousie.  —  Municipal  town,  cantonment,  and  hill  sanitarium, 
attached  to  Pathankot  iahsil,  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab,  but  lying 
outside  the  limits  of  the  main  District.  Lat.  32°  31'  45"  n.,  long. 
76°  o'  15"  E.  The  Station  occupies  the  summits  and  upper  slopes  of 
three  mountain  peaks  in  the  main  Himalayan  range  east  of  the  Ravi 
river;  distant  from  Pathankot  51  miles  north-west,  from  Gurdaspur  74 
miles  ;  elevation  above  the  sea,  76S7  feet.  To  the  east  the  granite  peak 
of  Dain  Kiind,  clothed  with  dark  pine  forests,  and  capped  with  snow 
even  during  part  of  summer,  towers  to  a  height  of  9000  feet ;  while 
beyond,  again,  the  peaks  of  the  Dhaola  Dhar,  covered  with  perpetual 
winter,  shut  in  the  Kangra  valley  and  close  the  view  in  that  direction. 
jThe  scenery  may  compare  favourably  with  that  of  any  mountain  station 
'in  the  Himalayan  range.  The  hills  consist  of  rugged  granite,  and  the 
houses  are  perched  on  a  few  gentler  slopes  among  the  declivities  ;  most 
of  the  houses  are  double-storied.  The  first  project  for  the  formation 
of  a  sanitarium  at  this  spot  originated  with  Colonel  Napier,  now  Lord 

VOL.  IV.  G 


98  DALINGKOT—DALLL 

Napier  of  Magdala,  in  1851.  In  the  following  year  the  British  Govern- 
ment purchased  the  site  from  the  Raja  of  Chamba,  and  the  new  station 
was  marked  off  in  1854.  No  systematic  occupation,  however,  took 
place  until  i860.  In  that  year,  Dalhousie  was  attached  to  the  District 
of  Gurdaspur;  the  road  from  the  plains  was  widened,  and  building 
operations  commenced  on  a  large  scale.  Troops  were  stationed  in  the 
Baliin  barracks  in  1868,  and  the  sanitarium  rapidly  acquired  reputation 
as  a  fashionable  resort.  A  military  camel  road  now  leads  direct  to  the 
cantonment  from  below  Dimiria ;  and  there  is  a  good  water-supply  for 
the  troops.  The  town  now  contains  a  court-house,  branch  treasury, 
police-station,  post-office,  dispensary,  church,  and  several  hotels.  A 
European  firm  have  built  a  brewery.  The  sanitary  arrangements  are 
still  somewhat  imperfect.  Municipal  revenue  (1882-83),  £^2^', 
expenditure,  ;^64i.  The  population  fluctuates  greatly,  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year.  At  the  time  the  Census  was  taken 
(February  1881),  the  population,  including  Baliin  cantonments,  was 
returned  at  16 10,  namely,  of  1009  Hindus,  397  Muhammadans,  8 
Sikhs,  and  196  'others;'  and  this  may  be  considered  as  the  permanent 
resident  population,  the  visitors  from  the  plains  not  arriving  till  later  in 
the  year. 

Dalingkot  (or  Kalimp07ig). — A  hilly  tract  situated  east  of  the  Tista, 
west  of  the  Ne-chu  and  De-chu  rivers,  and  south  of  Independent 
Sikkim.  It  was  acquired  as  the  result  of  the  Bhutan  campaign  of  1864, 
and  now  forms  a  part  of  Darjiling  District,  Bengal.  The  principal 
village  in  it  is  Kalimpong,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  3916  feet,  and  the 
tract  has  now  taken  the  name  of  KaUmpong.  The  Sub-division  has 
recently  been  divided  into  three  main  tracts  —  (i)  A  tract  set  apart 
for  native  cultivators,  of  which  30,000  acres  of  cultivated  land  have 
been  surveyed  and  settled  with  the  occupiers  on  ten-year  leases. 
(2)  A  forest  and  cinchona  reserve,  covering  140,433  acres.  (3)  Tea 
cultivation,  9000  acres.  In  the  lower  ranges,  a  small  area  has  been 
reserved  as  a  sanitarium  for  the  tea-planters  of  the  Dwars.  Kalimpong 
village  is  on  the  trade  route  across  the  Jelep  pass  into  Tibet.  It  has  a 
bazar  of  about  a  dozen  shops,  mostly  branch  shops  of  Darjiling  traders, 
and  sub-divisional  offices.  The  construction  of  a  bridge  across  the 
Tista  has  rendered  the  tract  accessible  from  the  west  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  the  population  is  rapidly  increasing.  In  1872,  the 
tract  contained  only  3526  inhabitants;  by  1881,  the  population  had 
risen  to  12,683,  namely,  Hindus,  6475;  Buddhists,  6153;  Muham- 
madans, 9 ;  Christians,  44 ;  and  *  others,'  2.  Area,  486  square  miles ; 
number  of  villages,  32  ;  and  occupied  houses,  2565. 

Dalli. — Zaminddri  or  estate  in  Bhandara  District,  Central  Provinces 
Population  (1881)  3431,  namely,  males  1766,  and  females  1665, 
chiefly  Gonds, .  residing  in   1 7   small  villages  and  688  houses ;   area, 


DALMA—DALMA  U. 


99 


52  square  miles,  of  which  only  5  are  rudely  cultivated.  The  Great 
Eastern  Road  runs  across  Dalli,  through  the  Mundipar  Pass,  the  hills 
round  which  furnish  an  abundant  supply  of  bamboos.  The  chief  is  a 
Gond.  Principal  village,  Dalli,  situated  in  lat.  21°  5'  30"  n.,  long. 
80°  16'  E. 

Dalma. — The  principal  hill  in  the  mountain  range  of  the  same  name 
in  Manbhiim  District,  Bengal ;  height,  3407  feet.  It  has  been  described 
as  the  'rival  of  Parasnath;'  but  it  lacks  the  bold  precipices  and  com- 
manding peaks  of  that  hill,  and  is  merely  a  long  rolling  ridge  rising 
gradually  to  its  highest  point.  Its  slopes  are  covered  with  dense  forest, 
but  are  accessible  to  men  and  beasts  of  burden.  The  chief  aboriginal 
tribes  living  on  Dalma  Hill  are  the  Kharrias  and  Paharias. 

Dalmau. — Tahsil  of  Rai  Bareli  District,  Oudh,  consisting  of  the 
pargands  of  Dalmau,  Sareni,  and  Khiron.  Area  (1881)  479  square 
miles.  Population  (1881)  262,499,  namely,  males  128,471,  and  females 
134,028.  Hindus  numbered  250,864;  Muhammadans,  11,588;  and 
'others,'  47.  Total  Government  land  revenue,  ;£'39,373,  being  at  the 
rate  of  2s.  4jd.  per  acre.  Of  the  584  villages  in  the  tahsil,  440  are 
held  under  talukddri  tenure,  63  are  zamiJiddri,  56  pattiddri^  and  26 
rent  free. 

Dalmau. — Pargand  of  Dalmau  tahsil,  Rai  Bareli  ifistrict,  Oudh. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  Rai  Bareli  pargand  ;  on  the  east  by  Salon  ; 
on  the  south  by  Fatehpur  District,  the  Ganges  marking  the  border  line ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Khiron  and  Sareni  pargands.  Originally  held  by 
the  Bhars  till  their  extirpation  by  Ibrahim  Sharki  of  Jaunpur,  but  first 
created  Vi  pargand  by  Akbar.  The  Bais  were  almost  the  sole  proprietors 
till  the  forfeiture  of  the  great  estate  of  Raja  Beni  Madhu,  and  its 
distribution  among  other  proprietors.  A  fertile  tract,  with  an  area 
of  253  square  miles,  of  which  121  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881) 
139,184,  namely,  68,320  males  and  70,864  females;  average  density, 
573  persons  per  square  mile.  Ten  market  villages,  of  which  Lalganj 
is  the  most  important.  Main  imports — rice  and  sugar  from  Faizabad 
(Fyzdbad),  and  cotton  from  Fatehpur ;  extensive  trade  in  cattle. 
Saltpetre  was  formerly  manufactured  in  considerable  quantities,  but 
the  industry  now  exists  on  a  small  scale  in  only  two  villages.  Two 
large  annual  fairs,  each  attended  by  about  5p,ooo  persons,  are  held  in 
the  paryand. 

Dalmau. — Town  and  head-quarters  of  Dalmau  tahsil  in  Rai  Bareli 
District,  Oudh  ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  16  miles  south  of  Rai 
Bareli  town,  and  14  miles  north  of  Fatehpur.  Lat.  26°  3'  45"  n.,  long. 
01  4  20"  E.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  about  1500  years 
ago  by  a  brother  of  the  Rija  of  Kanauj.  It  was  for  long  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Bhars,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  the  scene  of  a 
protracted  struggle  maintained  by  that  tribe  against  the  encroachments 


1  oo  DA  LMI—DAMAL  C HERRI. 

of  the  Muhammadans.  About  1400  a.d.,  the  Bhars  were  almost 
annihilated  by  Sultan  Ibrahim  Sharki.  Several  Muhammadan  mosques 
and  tombs,  in  various  stages  of  decay,  and  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Bhar  fortress,  attest  the  bygone  importance  of  the  town.  During  the 
last  century  it  has  steadily  declined.  Its  population  in  1881  consisted 
of  4443  Hindus  and  924  Muhammadans;  total,  5367,  namely,  males 
2725,  and  females  2642  ;  area  of  town  site,  1029  acres.  The  principal 
buildings  are  several  mosques,  a  magnificent  Hindu  temple  dedicated  to 
Mahadeo,  and  a  sdrdi  or  rest-house.  A  metalled  road  from  the  Ganges 
to  Lucknow,  via  Rai  Bareli,  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  town, 
which  is  the  seat  of  a  tahsilddr  exercising  the  powers  of  a  magistrate, 
and  also  of  an  inspector  of  police.  The  mu7isif^s  court  exercises  juris- 
diction over  the  whole  of  the  Dalmau  tahsil,  and  the  pargand  of  Salon. 
Three  bi-weekly  markets,  police  station,  post-office.  Government  Anglo- 
vernacular  school,  and  branch  dispensary.  Large  annual  fair,  attended 
by  from  50,000  to  60,000  persons,  is  held  on  the  last  day  of  Kartik,  at 
which  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on. 

Dalmi. — Site  of  remarkable  Hindu  ruins  on  the  Subarnarekha  river, 
Manbhiim  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  23°  4'  N.,  long.  86°  4'  e.  Theyj 
comprise  an  old  fort,  with  the  remains  of  curious  temples,  dedicated! 
both  to  the  Si'^aite  and  Vishnuvite  objects  of  worship.  There  are  somej 
indications  that  the  Brahmans  who  built  and  used  these  temples  werej 
preceded  by  Buddhists. 

Daltong'anj. — Administrative  head-quarters  of  Palamau  Sub-division,  j 
Lohardaga  District,  Bengal.  Prettily  situated  on  the  North  Koel  river,  | 
opposite  the  old  town  of  Shahpur.  Lat.  24°  2'  15"  n.,  long.  84°  6'| 
40"  E.  A  brisk  local  trade  is  springing  up.  The  town  contains  a| 
court-house,  and  the  usual  sub -divisional  offices,  a  munsifi^  and  thej 
head-quarters  of  a  divisional  forest  officer.  Population  (1881)  7440, < 
namely,  Hindus,  6025;  Muhammadans,  1286;  and  'others,'  129. 
Area  of  town  site,  3374  acres.  Municipal  income  (1881-82),  ;j^2i8;: 
expenditure,  ;^2i9.  The  town  is  named  after  Colonel  Dalton,  latei 
Commissioner  of  Chutia  Nagpur. 

Daltonganj  Coal-field.  —  The  name  given  to  an  area  of  2001 
square  miles  in  the  valleys  of  the  Koel  and  Amanat  rivers.  The  civil 
station  of  Daltonganj  lies  just  beyond  its  southern  border.  Of  the 
whole  field,  only  about  30  square  miles  are  considered  by  the| 
geological  surveyors  to  be  important  as  coal-bearing  tracts.  The  coal- 
bearing  area  has  not  been  ascertained  with  any  certainty,  but  mining! 
engineers  who  have  recently  inspected  the  tract  are  of  opinion  that  it 
contains  a  great  deal  more  coal  than  set  down  in  the  estimate  of  thej 
Geological  Survey. 

Damalcherri. — Pass  in  North  Arcot  District,  Madras  Presidency: 
by  which  the  Maratha  chief  Sivaji  made  his  first  descent  (1676)  upon  thej 


DAMAN,  loi 

Karnatic ;  and  here,  in  1 740,  Dost  Ali  the  Nawab  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  Marathas.  Latitude  13°  25'  40"  n.,  longitude  79°  5'  e. 
During  the  campaigns  of  1780-82,  it  formed  the  main  route  for  the 
supplies  of  Haidar  All's  troops  when  invading  the  Karnatic. 

Daman  (//z<?  ^  skirt  ^  of  the  hills). — A  tract  of  upland  in  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  28°  40'  and  33°  20'  n.  lat.,  and  between  69°  30'  and  71° 
20'  E.  long.,  comprising  the  country  lying  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
Sulaiman  mountains,  and  the  high  right  bank  of  the  Indus  in  Dera 
Ismail  Khan  District.  Naturally  bare  and  devoid  of  vegetation,  it 
derives  fertility  in  places  from  the  waters  of  hill  torrents,  particularly 
the  Gumal,  Tank  Zani,  Sohel,  and  Wahoa. 

Daman. — A  Portuguese  town  and  Settlement  in  the  Province  of 
Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency;  situated  about  100  miles  north 
of  Bombay.  Including  the  pargand  of  Nagar  Havili,  it  contains  an 
area  of  82  square  miles,  with  a  total  population  (1881),  including 
absentees  and  temporary  residents,  of  49,084  persons.  The  Settlement 
of  Daman  is  bounded  north  by  the  river  Bhagwan,  east  by  British 
territory,  south  by  the  Kalem  river,  and  west  by  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
Daman  town  is  situated  in  latitude  22°  25'  n.,  longitude  72°  53'  e. 

The  Settlement  is  composed  of  two  portions,  in  Daman  proper, 
namely,  parga?id  Naer  or  Da7Jidn  Grande.,  and  pargand  Calana  Pavori 
or  Da?ndn  Pequeno,  and  the  detached  pargand  of  Nagar  Havili, 
separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  strip  of  British  territory,  5  to  7  miles  in 
width,  and  intersected  by  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India 
Railway.  The  town  of  Daman  was  sacked  by  the  Portuguese  in  1531, 
rebuilt  by  the  natives,  and  retaken  in  1558  by  the  Portuguese,  who 
made  it  one  of  their  permanent  establishments  in  India.  They  con- 
verted the  mosque  into  a  church,  and  have  since  built  eight  other 
places  of  worship.  The  portion  of  Daman  proper  contains  an  area  of 
22  square  miles,  and  29  villages,  with  a  population  of  21,622  souls;  it 
lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  and  is  divided  by  the  river 
Daman-Ganga  into  the  two  separate  tracts  known  as  Damdn  Grande 
(Great  Daman)  and  Da?ndn  Piqueno  (Little  Daman).  The  first,  on  the 
south,  is  contiguous  to  the  British  District  of  Thana,  while  the  other 
lies  towards  the  north  and  borders  on  Surat  District.  This  portion  of 
the  Settlement  was  conquered  from  Bofata  on  the  2nd  of  February 
1559,  by  the  Portuguese  under  Dom  Constantino  de  Braganza.  The 
pargand  of  Nagar  Havili,  situated  towards  the  east,  has  an  area  of  60 
square  miles,  with  a  population  (1881)  of  27,462  persons,  and  is  like- 
wise sub-divided  into  two  parts,  called  Eteli  Pati  and  Upeli  Pati,  con- 
taining respectively  22  and  50  villages.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Portuguese 
by  the  Marathas,  in  indemnification  for  piratical  acts  committed  against 
a  ship  carrying  a  flag  of  the  former  nation,  in  accordance  with  the 
treaty  signed  at  Poona  on  6th  of  January  1780. 


102  DAMAN, 

Physical  Aspects. — The  principal  rivers  are — (i)  the  Bhagwan,  forming 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Settlement;  (2)  the  Kalem,  running  along 
the  southern  boundary ;  and  (3)  the  Sandalkhdl  or  Daman  -  Gangd 
(Border  Ganges),  a  deep  navigable  stream,  rising  in  the  Ghats  about  40 
miles  east  of  Daman  proper.  All  these  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
The  Daman-Ganga  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth — dry  at  the  lowest  ebb  tides, 
but  with  18  to  20  feet  of  water  at  high  tides.  Outside  this  bar  is  a 
roadstead,  where  vessels  of  300  to  400  tons  may  ride  at  anchor,  and 
discharge  cargo.  Daman  has  long  enjoyed  a  high  celebrity  for  its 
docks  and  shipbuilding  yards,  due  chiefly  to  the  excellent  teak  with 
which  the  country  is  stocked.  The  climate  of  the  place  is  generally 
healthy  throughout  the  year.  The  Settlement  has  no  minerals,  but 
possesses  stately  forests  in  the  pargand  of  Nagar  Havili,  whose  total 
value  is  estimated  at  about  ^^444,000.  About  two -thirds  of  these 
forests  consist  of  teak  (Tectona  grandis) ;  the  other  timber-trees  include 
— sadiira  (Pentaptera  arjuna),  khayer  (Acacia  catechu),  sissu  (Dalbergia 
sissoo),  Idl  khayer  (Acacia  sundra),  tanas  (Dalbergia  ujjainensis), 
siwana  (Gmelina  arborea),  dambora  (Conocarpus  latifolius),  hedu  (Nau- 
clea  cordifolia),  asafi  (Briedelia  spinosa),  timbiirni  (Diospyros  montana), 
and  babul  (Acacia  arabica).  The  forests  are  not  conserved,  and  the 
extent  of  land  covered  by  each  kind  of  timber  has  not  yet  been  pre- 
cisely determined. 

Agriculture. — The  soil  is  moist  and  fertile,  especially  in  the  parga?id 
of  Nagar  Havili.  Principal  crops  —  rice,  wheat,  the  inferior  cereals 
common  to  Gujarat,  and  tobacco.  Despite  the  facility  of  cultivation, 
only  one-twentieth  part  of  the  territory  is  under  tillage.  In  the  pargand 
of  Nagar  Havili,  the  greater  part  of  the  soil  is  the  property  of  Govern- 
ment, from  whom  the  cultivators  hold  their  tenures  direct.  A  tax  is 
levied  on  all  lands,  whether  alienated  or  the  property  of  the  State. 
There  is,  however,  no  fixed  rate  of  assessment,  as  the  tax  is  regulated 
by  a  general  estimate  of  the  productiveness  of  each  village.  The  total 
revenue  thus  obtained  amounts  to  about  ;^8oo. 

Trade,  etc. — Before  the  decline  of  the  Portuguese  power  in  the  East, 
Daman  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce,  especially  with  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa,  to  which  the  cotton  fabrics  made  in  Gujarat  were  largely 
exported  in  vessels  carrying  the  Portuguese  flag.  From  181 7  to  1837, 
there  was  a  flourishing  trade  with  China  in  opium  imported  from 
Karachi  (Kurrachee).  But  since  the  conquest  of  Sind  by  the  British, 
the  transport  of  opium  has  been  prohibited,  and  thus  Daman  has  been 
deprived  of  its  chief  source  of  wealth.  In  old  days,  Daman  was  noted 
for  its  weaving  and  dyeing.  The  former  industry  is  still  carried  on  to  a 
limited  extent,  chiefly  by  the  wives  of  Musalman  khaldsis  or  sailors,  while 
the  latter  is  almost  extinct.  The  piece-goods,  made  from  a  mixture  of 
English  and  country  twist,  are  of  a  quality  and  pattern  worn  only  by 


DAMAN,  103 

the  natives  of  Goa,  Mozambique,  and  Diu,  to  which  places  they  are 
exported.  Mats  and  baskets  of  khajuri  and  bamboo  are  manufactured 
on  a  large  scale.  A  noteworthy  feature  in  connection  with  the  industrial 
occupations  of  the  place  is  its  deep-sea  fishing,  giving  employment  to 
150  vessels,  each  with  a  crew  of  about  30  khandis.  They  make  for  the 
coast  of  Kathidwar,  near  Diu,  where  they  remain  for  some  months,  and 
return  laden  with  salted  fish  cured  on  board. 

Population. — The  total  population  of  the  Settlement  in  1881,  includ- 
ing absentees  and  temporary  residents,  was  48,084,  of  whom  27,462 
(almost  entirely  Hindus)  inhabit  the  pargand  of  Nagar  Havili.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Census  of  1850,  the  population  of  Daman  proper  was 
returned  at  33,559 — it  is  now  said  to  be  reduced  to  21,622.  In  the 
total  population  the  number  of  Christians  is  returned  at  1615,  of 
whom  15  are  Europeans.  The  total  number  of  houses  amounts  to 
10,202  ;  but  only  a  very  few  are  of  any  size  or  pretensions.  The  native 
Christians  adopt  the  European  costume.  Some  of  the  women  dress 
themselves  after  the  present  European  fashion,  while  others  follow  the 
old  style  once  prevalent  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  viz.  a  petticoat  and 
mantle. 

Adjninistration. — The  territory  of  Daman  forms,  for  administrative 
purposes,  a  single  District,  and  has  a  municipal  chamber  or  corporation. 
It  is  ruled  by  a  Governor  invested  with  both  civil  and  military  functions, 
subordinate  to  the  Governor-General  of  Goa.  The  judicial  department 
is  superintended  by  a  judge,  with  an  establishment  composed  of  a 
delegate  of  the  attorney-general,  and  two  or  three  clerks.  The  total 
revenues  of  Daman  in  1873-74  amounted  tO;2^796o,  los.,  of  which  the 
larger  portion  was  derived  from  the  pargand  of  Nagar  Havili.  The 
chief  sources  of  revenue  are  land-tax,  forests,  abkdri  or  excise,  and 
customs  duties.  The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  ;^788o,  4s. 
The  police  force  consisted,  in  1874,  of  194  officers  and  men. 

The  Settlement  of  Daman  has  two  forts,  situated  on  either  side  of  the 
river  Daman-Ganga.  The  former  is  almost  a  square  in  shape,  and 
built  of  stone.  It  contains,  besides  the  ruins  of  the  old  monastic 
establishments,  the  Governor's  palace,  together  with  the  buildings 
appertaining  to  it,  military  barracks,  hospital,  municipal  office,  court- 
house, jail,  two  modern  churches,  and  numerous  private  residences. 
On  the  land  side  this  fort  is  protected  by  a  ditch  crossed  by  a  draw- 
bridge, while  at  its  north-west  angle  extends  the  principal  bastion, 
which  commands  the  entrance  to  the  harbour.  It  is  occupied  by  the 
Governor  and  his  staff,  the  military  establishments,  officers  connected 
with  the  Government,  and  a  few  private  individuals ;  all  are  Christians. 
The  smaller  fort,  which  is  a  more  recent  structure,  is  placed  by  the 
Portuguese  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Jerome.  Its  form  is  that  of  an 
irregular  quadrilateral,  enclosed  by  a  wall  somewhat  higher  than  that  of 


1 04  DAMAN-I-KOH— DAM-MA-  THA. 

the  other  fort.  The  principal  buildings  within  it  are  a  church,  a 
parochial  house,  and  a  mortuary  chapel  surrounded  by  a  cemetery. 
Both  the  forts  have  brass  and  iron  cannon  on  the  walls,  some  of  which 
are  mounted,  and  others  either  attached  to  old  carriages  or  lying  on  the 
ground. 

Ddman-i-Koh. — A  tract  of  hilly  country,  literally  '  Skirts  of  the 
hills,'  in  the  District  of  the  Santal  Parganas,  Bengal,  and  extending 
over  portions  of  Dumka,  Rajmahal,  Pakaur,  and  Godda  Sub-districts. 
Area,  1366  square  miles,  which  was  marked  off  by  a  ring  fence  in  1832. 
Number  of  villages,  2385  ;  occupied  houses,  60,052.  The  total  popula- 
tion at  the  time  of  the  Census  of  1881  was  353,413?  of  whom  210,932 
were  Santals,  and  49,895  Kols  and  other  aboriginal  tribes,  still  pro- 
fessing their  primitive  faith.  The  balance  of  the  population  are  also 
aboriginal  by  race,  although  most  of  them  have  adopted  some  form  of 
Hinduism,  and  a  few  are  converts  to  Muhammadanism  and  Chris- 
tianity. The  first  Census  in  1872  was  taken  in  this  tract  by  the  head- 
man of  each  village,  by  means  of  knotted  strings  of  three  colours, 
representing  the  males,  females,  and  children  separately.  Each 
individual  was  '  knotted  off,'"  while  in  some  villages  an  independent 
committee  kept  a  reckoning  by  seeds  or  small  pieces  of  gravel, 
arranged  in  three  sets  upon  the  ground.  The  women  and  children 
apprehended  some  terrible  natural  visitation  in  consequence  of  this 
numbering  of  the  people.  In  1881,  agitators  seized  the  opportunity 
afforded  by  the  Census  for  a  tribal  demonstration.  Objection  was  made 
to  the  numbering  of  the  houses  and  of  the  people.  The  circumstance 
that  the  final  enumeration  was  to  be  taken  by  night  gave  rise  to  rumours 
that  Government  meditated  some  widespread  policy  of  violence,  and 
the  hillmen  worked  themselves  up  into  a  state  of  great  excitement. 
It  was  found  necessary  to  dispense  with  the  nocturnal  enumeration, 
and  by  a  show  of  force  in  marching  detachments  of  troops  through  the 
Santal  country,  the  Census  was  effected  without  disturbance. 

The  Daman-i-Koh  is  the  property  of  Government,  having  been 
'resumed'  from  the  zaminddrs  who  held  it  between  1780  and  1839, 
when  the  last  formal  resumption  was  effected.  It  has  been  kept 
exclusively  for  the  hill  tribes,  who  were  first  found  in  it,  and  for  the 
Santals  and  other  cognate  primitive  races  who  began  to  immigrate 
into  it  about  1820.  Foreigners  are  not  allowed  to  reside  in  this  tract 
without  special  permission. 

Dam-Dama. — Sub-division  and  cantonment,  Twenty-four  Parganas 
District,  Bengal. — See  Dum-Dum. 

Dam-ma-tha.  —  A  small  town  on  the  Gyaing  river,  in  Amherst 
District,  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma.  To  the  south  is  an 
extensive  outcrop  of  limestone  rocks  covered  with  dense  forest,  and 
pierced  by  a  large  cave,  containing  images  of  Buddha.     These  rock? 


DAMODAR. 


105 


terminate  immediately  below  the  village  in  an  overhanging  cliff, 
crowned  by  a  pagoda ;  and  between  this  and  the  village  is  the  Govern- 
ment rest-house,  with  a  flight  of  steps  down  to  the  Gyaing  river.  The 
massive  and  rugged  Zweh-ka-bin  limestone  ridge,  known  as  the  '  Duke 
of  York's  Nose,'  is  situated  to  the  north  of  Dam-ma-tha. 

Damodar. — A  river  of  Bengal ;  rises  in  the  Chutia  Nagpur  water- 
shed, and,  after  a  south-easterly  course  of  about  350  miles,  falls  into 
the  Hugh  just  above  the  ill-famed  '  James  and  Mary  Sands,'  a  shoal 
which  it  has  helped  to  deposit  at  its  mouth.  The  junction  is  in  lat. 
22°  17'  N.,  long.  88°  7'  30"  E.  Together  with  its  tributaries,  it  forms 
the  great  line  of  drainage  of  the  country  stretching  north-west  from 
Calcutta  to  the  fringe  of  the  plateau  of  Central  India.  That  plateau 
throws  off  to  the  eastward  a  confused  mass  of  spurs  and  outliers,  which 
in  the  Districts  of  Hazaribagh  and  Lohardaga  form  a  watershed,  in 
the  84th  degree  of  east  longitude  and  23rd  of  north  latitude,  of  much, 
although  inadequately  recognised,  significance  in  the  hydrography  of 
Bengal.  The  ridges  culminate  near  Lohardaga  town  in  a  well-defined 
barrier,  with  peaks  up  to  3476  feet.  Two  important  river  systems 
here  take  their  rise  in  close  proximity,  and  then  diverge  on  widely- 
separated  routes.  The  drainage  from  the  north-western  slopes  flows 
northwards  into  the  wSon  (Soane),  the  great  river  of  Behar,  which  joins 
the  Ganges  between  Patna  and  Baxar,  500  miles  above  the  spot  where 
the  waters  from  the  eastern  slopes,  as  represented  by  the  southerly 
flowing  Damodar,  enter  the  Hiigli.  The  Hazaribagh  or  Lohardaga 
watershed,  therefore,  forms  the  western  apex  of  a  vast  triangle,  with  the 
Son  as  its  north-eastern,  and  the  Damodar  as  its  south-eastern  sides, 
resting  upon  the  Ganges  as  its  eastern  base.  The  sources  of  the  Damodar 
are  a  two-pronged  fork,  approximately  in  23°  35'  to  24°  n.  lat.,  and  84° 
40'  to  84°  55'  E.  long., — the  southern  one,  the  true  source,  being  in  the 
'Iqx\ pargand  of  Lohardaga  District;  the  northern  one,  the  Garhi,  in  the 
north-west  corner  of  Hazaribagh  District.  After  a  course  of  about  26 
miles  as  wild  mountain  streams,  the  two  prongs  unite  just  within  the 
western  boundary  of  Hazaribagh;  and  the  combined  river  flows  through 
that  District  almost  due  east  for  93  miles,  receiving  the  Kunar, 
Jamunia,  and  other  affluents  from  the  watershed  on  the  north-west.  It 
continues  its  course  still  eastward  through  Manbhiim,  and  receives  its 
chief  tributary,  the  Barakhar,  also  from  the  north,  at  the  point  where  it 
leaves  that  District  and  touches  Bardwan.  A  little  lower  down,  the 
united  stream  becomes  navigable,  and  assumes  the  dignity  of  an  im- 
portant river.  At  the  point  of  junction  it  turns  to  the  south-east, 
separating  the  Raniganj  Sub-division  of  Bardwan  from  Bankura  ;  next 
entering  Bardwan  District,  it  continues  south-east  to  a  little  beyond 
Bardwan  town  ;  then  turns  sharp  to  the  right  and  flows  almost  due 
south  for  the  remainder  of  its  course   through  Bardwan  and  Hugli 


io6  DAMODAR. 

Districts.      Shortly  before  entering  the  latter,  it  assumes  the  deltaic 
type,   and  instead  of  receiving  affluents,  throws  off  distributaries,  the 
best  known  being  the   Kana  nadi,  which   branches  from  the  parent 
stream  at  Salimabad  in   Bardwan  District,  and   finds  its  way  as  the 
Kunti  nadi  into  the  Hiigli  near  the  village  of  Nawa  Sarai.     The  main 
stream  formerly  debouched  into  the  Hugh  more  directly  and  higher  up 
than  at  present ;  its  old  mouth  being  now  marked  by  the  insignificant 
watercourse  known  as  the  Kansond.  khal.     The  Damodar  thus  exhibits 
in  its  comparatively  short  course  the  two  great  features  of  an  Indian 
river.     In  the  earlier  part  of  its  career  it  has  a  rapid  flow,  and  brings 
down  large  quantities  of  silt.     At  the  point   of  junction  of  the  two 
prongs  on  the  western  border  of  Hazarib^gh  District,  the  united  stream 
starts  with  an  elevation  of  1326  feet  above  sea-level.     In  its  course  of 
93  miles  through  Hazaribdgh,  its  fall  averages  8  feet  per  mile  (total, 
744  feet),  and  it  leaves  the  District  with  an  elevation  of  only  582  feet 
to  be  distributed  over  its  remaining  course  of  about   250  miles.     The 
fall  continues  rapidly  through  Manbhum  and  north-western  Bardwan, 
in  the  latter  of  which  Districts  the  Damodar  deposits  large  and  shift- 
ing sandbanks.     In  South  Bardwan  and  Hiigli  Districts  it  declines  into 
a  sluggish  deltaic  channel,  and  deposits  the  remainder  of  its  silt  at 
its    point   of   junction   wuth    the    Hugh   river,    opposite    Falta.     The 
Riipndrayan,  a  southern  congener  of  the  Damodar,  from  nearly  the 
same  watershed,  also  falls  into  the  Hugli,  a  few  miles  lower  down. 
Both  streams  enter  the  great  river  at  a  sharp  angle  from  the  west,  and 
the  '  James  and   Mary  Sands '  have  been   thrown    up    between  their 
mouths.     These  sands  are  formed  from  the  silt  brought  down  by  the 
Hugh'  and  Damodar ;   the  deposit  of  the  suspended   matter   at  this 
spot  being  caused  by  the  freshets  of  the   Riipnarayan,  which   dam  up 
the  Hiigli  by  backwaters,  thus   checking  its  current  and  forcing  it  to 
drop  its  burden.     During  the  dry  season,  the  Damodar  is  only  navigable 
as  far  as  Ampta  in  Howrah  District — about  25  miles  from  its  mouth 
— by  native  boats  of  10  tons  burthen  at  neap,  and  of  20  tons  at  spring 
tides.     In  the  rainy  season  it  is  navigable  to  near  its  point  of  junction 
with  the  Barakhar,  in  the  north-western  extremity  of  Bardwan  District. 
A  flotilla  of  200  to  300  boats  {pdutds)^  from  20  to  30  tons,  built  broad 
with  strong  transverse  timbers  to  resist  the  strain  caused  by  frequent 
grounding  on  sandbanks,  brings  down  yearly  about  40,000  tons  of  coal 
from  the   Raniganj   mines,  to  depots  at  Maheshrekha  in  Howrah  Dis- 
trict, whence  Calcutta  is  reached  via  the  Uliibaria  Canal  and  the  Hiigli. 
In  seasons  of  abundant  and  evenly-distributed  rainfall,  each  boat  can 
make  two  or  three  trips  between  June  and   October.     The  Damodai 
is  subject  to  sudden  freshets,  which  used  to  desolate  the  surrounding 
country  in  Bardwan  District.    In  1770,  a  flood  almost  totally  destroyed 
Bardwan  town,  ruined  the  whole  line  of  embankments,  and  caused  a 


DAMOH.  107 

severe  local  famine.  In  1823,  and  again  in  1855,  inundations  swept 
away  the  river-side  villages,  and  the  terror  of  a  similar  calamity  has 
deterred  the  people  from  building  on  many  of  the  deserted  sites. 
'Picture  to  yourself,'  writes  the  Calcutta  Monthly  Journal  in  1823,  *a 
flat  country  completely  under  water,  running  with  a  force  apparently 
irresistible,  and  carrying  with  it  dead  bodies,  roofs  of  houses,  palanquins, 
and  wreck  of  every  description  ! '  The  floods  lasted  for  three  days, 
during  which  the  fortunate  owners  of  brick  tenements  camped  on  their 
roofs.  The  old  landmarks  of  the  peasants'  holdings  were  swept  away, 
and  many  years  of  bankruptcy  and  litigation  ensued.  Since  the  con- 
struction of  the  railway,  which  for  a  space  follows  the  course  of  the 
Damodar,  and  the  improvement  of  the  river  embankments,  which 
Government  took  into  its  own  hands  after  the  flood  of  1855,  calamities 
on  this  scale  have  been  unknown.  The  Damodar  embankment  now 
protects  the  country  northwards  of  the  river ;  but  this  embankment 
has  had  the  effect  of  throwing  the  spill  of  the  river  over  the  unpro- 
tected country  on  the  right  bank,  attended  with  serious  damage  to 
crops,  and  laying  waste  a  large  tract  of  formerly  fertile  land.  Towards 
the  south,  where  the  Damodar  and  the  Rupnarayan  rivers  converge 
upon  the  Hugli,  there  is  a  great  tract  of  eight  square  miles  subject  to 
inundations  from  eight  to  eighteen  feet  in  depth.  The  engineering  diffi- 
culties incident  to  this  flooded  region  formed  one  of  the  arguments  for 
taking  the  direct  railway  from  Calcutta  to  Bombay  round  by  the  Barakhar 
route,  instead  of  by  the  direct  line  across  Midnapur  District. 

Damoh. — District  in  the  Jabalpur  Division  of  the  Chief  Commis- 
sionership  of  the  Central  Provinces,  lying  between  22°  10'  and  23°  30' 
N.  lat.,  and  79°  5'  and  80°  e.  long.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Bundel- 
khand ;  on  the  east  by  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore)  ;  on  the  south  by  Nar- 
singhpur;  and  on  the  west  by  Sagar  (Saugor).  Population  in  1881, 
312,957  souls;  area,  2799  square  miles.  The  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  District  are  at  Damoh,  which  is  also  the  principal  town. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  contour  of  the  District  is  irregular,  and  in 
parts  ill-defined.  To  the  south,  a  lofty  range  of  sandstone  hills 
separates  Damoh  from  Narsinghpur  and  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore),  and  at 
places  sends  forth  spurs  and  ridges  into  the  plain  below.  But  these 
elevations  are  as  a  rule  insignificant  in  size,  and  add  but  little  beauty 
to  the  landscape.  On  the  east  rise  the  Bhondla  hills,  which  run  east- 
wards till  they  are  lost  in  the  loftier  range  of  the  Bhanrer  mountains. 
The  Vindhyachal  hills,  which  stretch  for  a  considerable  distance  along 
the  western  boundary,  though  of  no  great  height,  form  the  most 
picturesque  feature  of  the  District — from  time  to  time  opening  out  into 
broad  uplands,  thickly  wooded  with  low  jungle.  In  this  part  of  Damoh 
the  overlying  trap  of  the  Sagar  plateau  is  met  with.  From  these 
ranges,  which  more  or  less  distinctly  mark  it  off  on  three  sides,  Damoh 


io8  DAMOH. 

extends  in  a  vast  table-land,  sloping  gradually  towards  the  north,  till 
an  abrupt  dip  in  the  surface  occurs,  beyond  which  the  plains  of 
Bundelkhand  may  be  seen  stretching  far  away  into  the  distant  horizon. 
Except  on  the  south  and  east,  where  the  offshoots  from  the  surround- 
ing hills  and  patches  of  jungle  break  up  the  country,  the  District  con- 
sists, therefore,  of  open  plains  of  varying  degrees  of  fertility,  interspersed 
with  low  ranges  and  isolated  heights.  The  richest  tracts  lie  in  the 
centre.  The  gentle  declivity  of  the  surface,  and  the  porous  character 
of  the  prevailing  sandstone  formation,  render  the  drainage  excellent. 
All  the  streams  flow  from  south  to  north.  The  Sonar  and  the  Bairma, 
the  two  principal  rivers,  traverse  the  entire  length  of  the  District, 
receiving  in  their  progress  the  waters  of  the  Beas  (Bias),  Kopra,  Gurayya, 
and  smaller  tributaries,  rolling  with  a  rapid  stream  towards  the  northern 
boundary  of  Damoh.  As  it  approaches  the  frontier,  the  Sonar  takes  a 
bend  eastwards,  and  joins  the  Bairma ;  the  united  stream  then  leaves 
Damoh  behind  it,  and,  after  receiving  the  Ken,  falls  into  the  Jumna. 
Little  use  has  yet  been  made  of  any  of  the  rivers  for  irrigation,  though 
in  many  places  they  offer  great  facilities  for  the  purpose. 

Uistojy.  —  In  early  times,  the  Chandel  Rajputs  of  Mahoba  in 
Bundelkhand  administered  the  present  Districts  of  Sagar  and  Damoh 
by  means  of  a  deputy  posted  at  Balihri,  in  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore). 
Excepting  a  few  temples  known  as  marhs^  of  rude  architecture,  and 
entirely  destitute  of  inscriptions,  the  Chandels  have  left  no  monuments 
of  their  rule.  On  the  decay  of  the  Chandeli  Raj,  about  the  end  of 
the  nth  century,  the  greater  part  of  Damoh  became  dependent  upon 
the  Gond  power,  which  had  its  seat  at  Khatola,  in  Bundelkhand,  until 
its  subversion  about  1500  by  the  notorious  Bundela  chief.  Raja  Bar- 
singh  Deva.  The  Muhammadan  power  made  itself  felt  in  Damoh 
from  a  very  early  period.  A  Persian  inscription,  formerly  legible  on 
the  principal  gateway  of  the  town  of  Damoh,  bore  the  date  775  a.h. 
(1373  A.D.).  Two  hundred  years,  however,  elapsed  from  this  time  before 
the  Muhammadans  actually  occupied  the  District.  Their  invasion  met 
with  little  opposition,  except  at  Narsinghgarh,  where  the  Gonds  made 
a  show  of  resistance  to  Shah  Taiyab,  the  commander  of  the  Imperial 
forces.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  Muhammadans,  Damoh,  Nar- 
singhgarh (or  as  they  called  it,  Nasratgarh),  and  Lakhroni  were  the 
principal  towns ;  and  their  presence  may  still  be  traced  in  the  ruins 
of  forts,  tombs,  and  mosques.  The  Muhammadan  element  in  the 
population  is  now  insignificant  both  in  numbers  and  in  position ;  and 
though  the  Kazis  of  Narsinghgarh  claim  descent  from  Shah  Taiyab, 
they  have  fallen  so  low  that  they  are  glad  to  take  service  as  messengers 
and  process-servers.  When  the  Mughal  Empire  began  to  give  way 
before  the  rising  Maratha  power,  the  Muhammadans  fast  lost  their 
hold  over  their  outlying  dependencies  ;  and  Chhatar  Sal,  the  powerful 


DAMOH.  109 

Raja  of  Panna,  took  the  opportunity  to  annex  Sagar  and  Damoh.  The 
Gonds  and  other  wild  tribes,  however,  who  held  the  more  mountainous 
regions  in  the  south  and  east  of  Damoh,  never  acknowledged  his 
authority.  In  his  time  was  built  the  fort  of  Hatta.  In  the  year 
1733,  Raja  Chhatar  Sal  was  forced  to  solicit  the  assistance  of  Baji  Rao 
Peshwa  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the  Nawab  of  Farukhabad  from  the 
north.  To  repay  the  service  then  rendered.  Raja  Chhatar  Sal  con- 
sented to  the  cession  called  the  tethrd^  by  which  all  his  territory  was 
divided  into  three  equal  parts — one  for  each  of  his  two  sons,  and  the 
remaining  third  for  the  Peshwa,  whom  he  formally  adopted.  In  this 
distribution,  a  part  of  Damoh  was  allotted  to  each  of  the  three ;  but 
no  long  time  elapsed  before  the  Marathas  wrested  the  whole  of  the 
District  from-  the  Bundelas.  From  this  period,  Damoh  continued  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Maratha  governors  at  Sagar  (Saugor),  until  by  the  treaty 
of  18 18  it  was  made  over  to  the  British.  Under  the  plundering 
revenue  system  of  the  Marathas,  wide  tracts  relapsed  into  jungle,  and 
the  cultivating  classes  sank  into  a  state  of  hopeless  poverty.  Half  a 
century  of  British  administration  has  now  brought  about  a  new  era  of 
prosperity  for  Damoh.  Our  earlier  land  settlements,  based  on  the 
Maratha  records,  pressed  heavily  on  the  agricultural  population;  but 
this  error  has  been  rectified,  and  the  District  now  enjoys  a  light 
assessment  and  fixed  tenures.  The  result  has  already  manifested  itself 
in  the  spread  of  cultivation,  and  in  the  high  market  value  of  land,  in 
some  cases  exceeding  thirty  years'  purchase.  The  official  records  of 
Damoh  were  destroyed  in  the  disturbances  of  1857. 

Population. — A  rough  enumeration  in  1866  returned  the  population 
of  Damoh  at  262,641  ;  and  a  more  careful  Census  in  1872  at  269,642. 
The  last  Census,  in  1881,  returned  the  population  of  the  District,  cover- 
ing the  same  area  as  in  1872,  at  312,957,  showing  an  increase  of 
43?3i55  or  16  per  cent.,  in  the  nine  years.  This  increase  is  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  due  to  immigration  caused  by  the  famine  of  1877, 
when  a  large  number  of  refugees  from  the  Native  States  to  the  north 
settled  down  permanently  in  the  District ;  and  also  to  the  importation 
of  labour  for  the  new  road  from  Damoh  to  Jabalpur.  The  results 
exhibited  by  the  Census  of  188 1  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows  : 
Area  of  District,  2799  square  miles,  with  2  towns  and  1144  villages; 
number  of  houses,  73,602,  of  which  70,276  were  occupied  and  3326 
unoccupied.  Total  population,  312,957,  namely,  162,570  males  and 
^S^jS^y  females.  Average  density,  112  persons  per  square  mile; 
towns  and  villages  per  square  mile,  0*41 ;  persons  per  town  or  village, 
272;  houses  per  square  mile,  25*11;  persons  per  occupied  house, 
4*45-  Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were — Hindus,  288,894  ; 
Jains,  6665  ^  Kabirpanthis,  2423  ;  Satnamis,  137  ;  Muhammadans, 
9384;  Christians,  33;  and  tribes  professing  aboriginal  religions,  5421. 


110  DAM  OH. 

Of  the  Hindus,  the  high  castes,  represented  by  the  Brahmans  and 
Rajputs,  number  32,580.  Of  the  lower  castes,  the  best  agriculturists 
are  the  Kurmis,  who  are  said  to  have  emigrated  from  the  Doab  of 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna  into  the  Central  Provinces  over  two  centuries 
ago.  In  1 88 1  they  numbered  23,635  in  Damoh  District,  being  found 
mostly  in  the  rich  black-soil  tracts.  They  are  a  peaceable  class,  and 
have  always  been  remarkable  for  their  loyalty  to  the  ruling  power. 
They  are  very  tenacious  of  their  ancestral  holdings,  and  seldom 
alienate  their  landed  rights,  except  under  the  greatest  pressure. 
Scarcely  inferior  to  the  Kurmis  as  agriculturists  are  the  Lodhis,  who 
form  the  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District  (36,897  in  number  in 
1881);  they  are  descendants  of  immigrants  from  Bundelkhand  nearly 
three  centuries  ago.  They  differ  greatly  from  the  Kurmis  in  tempera- 
ment, being  turbulent,  revengeful,  and  always  ready  to  join  in  any 
disturbance.  They  make  good  soldiers,  and  are  generally  excellent 
sportsmen.  The  aboriginal  tribe  of  Gonds  (33,499  i^  number)  and 
Ahirs  (15,796)  appear  in  this  part  of  the  country  to  have  entirely 
lost  their  nationality,  and  to  have  become  completely  Hinduized. 
They  are  the  only  tribes  which  inhabit  the  wooded  and  hilly  portions 
of  the  District,  and  are  generally  poor,  of  unsettled  habits,  and  in- 
different agriculturists.  In  the  plains  they  are  principally  employed 
as  farm  labourers.  The  Kachhis  (14,848  in  number)  are  a  superior 
class  of  cultivators  akin  to  the  Kurmis,  and  raise  good  crops  of  sugar- 
cane and  garden  produce.  They  are  also  field  labourers.  The  lowest 
castes  of  Hindus  include  Chamars  (35^976),  who  are  workers  in  leather, 
labourers,  etc. ;  Chandals  (7558),  weavers,  field  labourers,  and  village 
watchmen  ;  and  Dhimals  (10,239),  fishermen,  water-carriers,  domestic 
servants,  etc.  The  Muhammadan  element  amounts  to  only  3  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  is  composed  mainly  of  the  lower  orders, 
who  are  employed  as  cotton  carders,  weavers,  etc.  They  belong,  almost 
without  exception,  to  the  Sunni  sect. 

Division  into  Town  a?id  Coujiiry. — There  are  only  two  towns  in 
Damoh  District  with  a  population  exceeding  5000 — viz.  Damoh,  the 
District  headquarters  (population  in  188 1,  8665),  and  Hatta  (6325),  and 
these  form  the  only  municipaUties.  Of  the  11 46  villages  and  towns, 
661  contained  in  188 1  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants  ;  349  had  from 
two  to  five  hundred;  97  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  29  from 
one  to  two  thousand  ;  6  from  two  to  three  thousand  ;  2  from  three  to 
five  thousand ;  and  2  upwards  of  five  thousand  inhabitants.  As 
regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  classifies  the  male  population 
into  the  following  six  main  divisions  :— Class  I.  Professional,  including 
civil  and  military  and  learned  professions,  3245  ;  II.  Domestic  ser- 
vants, lodging-house  keepers,  etc.,  2023;  III.  Commercial,  including 
merchants,  traders,  carriers,  etc.,   2958;    IV.  Agricultural,   including 


DAMOH. 


in 


cultivators,  gardeners,  and  sheep  and  cattle  tenders,  61,208  ;  V.  In- 
dustrial class,  including  manufacturers,  artisans,  etc.,  25,818 ;  VI. 
Indefinite  and  non-productive,  including  ordinary  labourers  and  male 
children,  67,318. 

j  Agriadture. — Of  the  total  area  of  2799  square  miles,  only  810  square 
miles  were  cultivated  in  1881-82,  and  of  the  portion  lying  waste,  684 
square  miles  were  returned  as  cultivable.  Only  1147  acres  were  irri- 
gated— entirely  by  private  enterprise.  Wheat  constitutes  the  principal 
crop,  being  grown  in  1881-82  on  244,583  acres,  while  199,724  acres 
were  devoted  to  other  food-grains.  Rice  and  oil-seeds  form  the  only 
other  important  produce.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  small,  and 
the  produce  is  used  principally  for  local  consumption.  The  average 
rent  of  land  suited  for  wheat  is  5s.  per  acre ;  for  inferior  grain,  3s. ; 
for  rice,  2s.  9d. ;  and  for  oil-seeds,  3s.  The  produce  per  acre  averages 
— wheat,  452  lbs. ;  inferior  grains,  305  ;  rice,  377  ;  and  oil-seeds,  281  lbs. 
The  average  prices  in  1881  per  cwt.  were — wheat,  3s.  9d. ;  rice,  6s.  7d. ; 
linseed,  5s.  9d. ;  and  inferior  food-grains,  2s.  9d.  The  usual  wages  for 
skilled  labour  amounted  to  is.  per  diem  ;  for  unskilled  labour,  from  3d. 
to  6d.  The  total  agricultural  adult  population,  including  agricultural 
labourers,  in  1881  was  89,359,  or  28*55  P^^  cent,  of  the  total  District 
population.  Total  assessed  area,  1903  square  miles,  paying  a  total 
revenue  to  Government  of  ^£^28,379,  or  an  average  of  is.  per  acre  of 
cultivated,  and  7|d.  per  acre  of  cultivable  land.  The  total  amount  of 
rent,  including  cesses,  paid  by  the  cultivators  to  the  landlords,  was 
^66,769,  or  an  average  of  2s.  6d.  per  acre.  Average  area  of  cultivable 
and  cultivated  land  per  head  of  the  agricultural  population,  1 1  acres. 
The  best  agriculturists  are  the  Kiirmis,  who  are  said  to  have  immigrated 
from  the  Doab  about  250  years  ago.  The  circumstance  that  their  women 
engage  in  field-work  equally  with  the  men  contributes  in  no  slight 
degree  to  their  success.  A  most  peaceable  race,  and  remarkable  for 
their  loyalty  to  the  ruling  power,  the  Kiirmis  are  exceedingly  tenacious 
of  their  ancestral  holdings,  and  will  hardly  alienate  their  rights  in  land 
under  the  greatest  pressure.  The  Lodhis,  who  rank  next  as  agri- 
culturists, made  their  way  into  the  District  about  three  centuries  ago. 
Often  turbulent  and  revengeful,  they  form  good  soldiers,  and  are 
generally  excellent  sportsmen.  Both  Kiirmis  and  Lodhis  make  no 
distinction  between  a  mistress  and  a  wife,  provided  the  former  is  of 
the  same  caste  as  her  partner,  or,  what  is  more  respectable  still,  the 
widow  of  an  elder  brother  or  cousin.  The  children  born  from  such 
connections  inherit  property,  of  whatever  kind,  equally  with  those  born 
of  regularly-married  wives.  In  the  wooded  and  hilly  portions  of 
Damoh,  many  Gonds  pursue  agriculture  after  a  humble  fashion  ;  in 
the  plains  they  are  principally  employed  as  farm  servants.  Of  the 
71  villages  held  by  Muhammadans,  63  are  in  possession  of  one  family, 


112  DAMOH. 

who  obtained  a  whole  taluk  in  proprietary  right  as  a  reward  for  loyal 
services  rendered  during  the  Mutiny. 

Commerce  a?id  Trade. — The  chief  trade  of  the  District  is  conducted 
at  the  annual  fairs  held  at  Kundalpur  and  Bandakpur.  The  Kundalpur 
fair  takes  place  in  March,  beginning  with  the  yearly  gathering  of  Jains, 
immediately  after  the  Holt  festival,  and  lasts  a  fortnight.  It  owes  its 
origin  to  the  Jain  temple  erected  at  Kundalpur  by  the  Purwar  Baniyas, 
to  which  the  neighbouring  Jains  resorted  to  worship  Neminath,  and  to 
settle  caste  disputes.  In  these  adjudications,  the  delinquents  often 
incur  fines,  which  supply  a  fund  for  the  repairs  of  the  temple,  and 
for  embellishing  the  place  with  tanks  and  groves.  The  fairs  at  Ban- 
dakpur are  held  in  January  and  February,  at  the  Basantpanchiimi  and 
Siva-rdtri  festivals  respectively,  when  crowds  of  devotees  visit  the  place 
for  the  purpose  of  pouring  water  from  the  Ganges  or  Narbada  (Nerbudda) 
on  the  image  of  Jageswar  Mahadeva,  in  fulfilment  of  vows  made  for 
prayers  granted,  or  favours  solicited.  Of  the  offerings  made  to  the 
god  on  these  occasions,  to  the  value  of  nearly  ;^i2oo  in  the  year, 
one-fourth  becomes  the  property  of  the  priests.  The  proprietor  of  the 
temple  claims  the  remaining  three-fourths,  and  is  said  to  expend  his 
share  on  religious  objects.  This  temple  was  erected  in  1781  by  the 
father  of  Nagoji  Ballal,  a  respectable  Maratha  pandit  of  Damoh,  in 
obedience  to  a  dream,  which  revealed  to  him  that  at  a  certain  spot  in 
the  village  of  Bandakpur  an  image  of  Jageswar  Mahadeva  lay  buried. 
There  he  built  a  temple ;  and  in  due  time,  as  the  vision  foretold,  the 
image  arose  without  the  help  of  man.  The  fame  of  this  occurrence 
has  attracted  throngs  of  pilgrims,  and  consequently  of  traders ;  and,  in 
1881,  the  attendance  amounted  to  70,000  persons.  Piece-goods  manu- 
factured at  Maria-Doh,  hardware,  with  trinkets  made  at  Hindoria  and 
Patera,  form  the  articles  chiefly  dealt  in.  The  import  traffic  on  the 
north-east  frontier  is  considerable,  consisting  of  European  and  country- 
made  piece-goods,  betel,  cocoa-nuts,  hardware,  tobacco,  spices,  rum,  and 
sugar  from  Mirzapur  and  the  north-west.  But  a  great  proportion  of 
these  goods  merely  passes  through  the  District  on  the  way  to  Sagar  and 
Bhopal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Banjaras  bring  large  quantities  of  salt 
from  the  Rajputana  salt  lakes,  by  w^ay  of  Sagar  and  Damoh,  to  supply 
the  markets  of  Bundelkhand.  The  exports  consist  of  wheat,  gram,  rice, 
hides,  ghi,  cotton,  and  coarse  cloth.  The  total  length  of  made  roads  in 
the  District  is  returned  at  40  miles  of  first  class,  93  miles  of  the  second, 
and  139  of  the  third  class.  The  principal  road  is  that  connecting  the 
military  station  of  Sagar  (Saugor)  with  the  town  of  Jabalpur  (Jubbul- 
pore).  For  the  40  miles  of  its  course  which  lie  within  this  District  it  is 
partially  bridged,  and  all  the  streams  it  crosses  are  fordable.  The 
shorter  line  which  joins  Sagar  with  Jokai  on  the  Mirzapur  road,  travers- 
ing Damoh  for  30  miles,  should  become  an  important  railway  feeder. 


DAM  OH.  113 

The  only  other  important  line  runs  from  Damoh  towards  Nagode  via 
Hatta,  and  supplies  the  route  for  commerce  with  Mirzipur  and  the  Upper 
Provinces.  Besides  these  roads,  two  tracks  start  from  the  north-east  and 
north-west  of  the  District,  along  which  the  Banjaras  drive  their  trains 
of  pack-bullocks,  laden  with  grain  for  the  markets  of  Bundelkhand. 

Administration.— T)2imo\\  was  first  formed  into  a  separate  District 
under  the  British  Government  of  the  Central  Provinces  in  1861.  It  is 
administered  by  a  European  Deputy  Commissioner  with  an  Assistant 
Commissioner  and  tahsilddrs.  Total  revenue  in  1881-82,  ;£38,o94,  of 
which  the  land  revenue  yielded  ^26,676.  Total  cost  of  District 
officials  and  police  of  all  kinds,  ;^io,i88.  Number  of  civil  and  revenue 
judges  of  all  sorts  within  the  District,  5  ;  of  magistrates,  8 ;  maximum 
distance  from  any  village  to  the  nearest  court,  50  miles;  average 
distance,  25  miles.  Number  of  police,  382  men  (costing  ^4812),  being 
I  policeman  to  about  every  7-3  square  miles  and  to  819  inhabitants. 
The  daily  average  number  of  convicts  in  jail  in  1881-82  was  44*33,  of 
whom  4-10  were  females.  In  the  same  year  the  number  of  Government 
or  aided  schools  in  the  District  under  inspection  was  50,  attended  by 
a  total  of  2386  pupils,  besides  a  number  of  uninspected  indigenous 
schools.  The  District  English  school  at  Damoh  town  was  attended  by 
218  pupils.  The  Census  Report  of  188 1  returned  a  total  of  2853  boys 
and  130  girls  as  under  instruction,  besides  6575  men  and  81  women 
not  under  instruction,  but  able  to  read  and  write. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  may  be  pronounced  fairly  healthy. 
The  temperature  is  lower  than  is  usual  in  the  Districts  of  the  Narbada 
(Nerbudda)  valley,  and  the  hot  winds  prove  milder  and  of  shorter 
duration  than  in  Upper  India.     All  the  year  round,  the  nights  are  cool. 
In  the  winter  it  generally  rains,  and  then  the  weather  becomes  really 
cold,  and  sharp  frosts  sometimes  occur.     Rainfall  in  1881-82,  42-03 
inches;  annual  average,  56-30  inches.      Average   temperature  in  the 
shade  at  the  civil  station  for  the   three   years   ending  1881  : — May, 
highest  reading  107°  F.,  lowest  67-7° ;  July,  highest  reading  90-7°,  lowest 
71*2°;  December,  highest  reading  73-7°,  lowest  357°.     Cholera  some- 
times sweeps  over  the  District.     Small-pox  carries  off  large  numbers  of 
children,  but  appears  to  be  now  on  the  decrease.     Vaccination  is  being 
steadily  pushed  on,  11,753  persons  having  been  vaccinated  in  1881-82. 
Fevers  are  generally  prevalent,   especially  at   the   conclusion  of  the 
monsoon.    Those  of  an  intermittent  type  are  the  most  common  forms 
of  the  disease.     Ophthalmia  is  very  common,  as.  also  is  guinea-worm. 
In  1881,  10,661  deaths  from  all  causes  were  registered,  at  the  ratio  of 
about  35  per  1000  of  the  population.     There  were  27  cases  of  suicide, 
of  which  1 6  were  of  women;  94  persons  died  from  snake-bite,  or  were 
Killed  by  wild  beasts.      In  the  same  year,  5   charitable  dispensaries 
afforded  medical  relief  to    14,290  patients.     TFor  further  information 

VOL.  IV.  H 


114  DAMOH— BANGS,  THE. 

regarding  Damoh  District,  see  the  Central  Provinces  Gazetteer  {\%']o)^ 
the  Census  Report  of  1881,  and  the  Administration  Reports  of  the 
Central  Provinces,  188  2-84. ] 

Damoh. — Tahsil  or  revenue  sub-division  in  Damoh  District,  Central 
Provinces.  Lat.  23°  9'  to  24°  27'  n.,  long.  77°  57'  to  79°  24'  e.  Area, 
1792  square  miles,  of  which  476  are  cultivated,  420  cultivable,  and  896 
uncultivable.  Population  (r88i)  187,897,  namely,  97,405  males  and 
90,492  females,  residing  in  698  towns  and  villages,  and  occupying 
34,986  houses ;  average  density,  105  persons  per  square  mile. 
Amount  of  Government  assessment,  ;^i4,48i,  or  an  average  of  ii^d. 
per  acre  of  cultivation.  Rental  paid  by  cultivators,  including  cesses, 
;2^39,i6i,  or  an  average  of  2s.  7d.  per  cultivated  acre.  The  ta/isil  con- 
tains 4  civil  and  7  criminal  courts,  including  the  head-quarters  courts ; 
with  5  police  and  9  outpost  stations  ;  strength  of  regular  police,  140 
men ;  village  watchmen  ichaukiddrs),  484. 

Damoh. — Chief  town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of  Damoh 
District.  Lat.  23°  50'  n.,  long.  79°  29'  30"  e.,  on  the  high  road  between 
Sagar  (Saugor)  and  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore),  and  between  Sagar  and 
Allahabad  via  Jokai.  Population  (1881)  8665,  namely,  4390  males  and 
4275  females.  The  Hindu  population,  consisting  chiefly  of  Lodhis. 
Kiirmis,  and  Brahmans,  numbered  7027;  Muhammadans,  1275  ;  Jains. 
311 ;  Kabirpanthis,  39  ;  and  Christians,  13.  The  porous  sandstone  or 
which  the  town  is  built  does  not  easily  retain  water,  and  there  are  but 
few  wells ;  thus,  in  spite  of  the  fine  tank  called  the  Phutera  Tal,  good 
water  is  scarce.  The  temperature  is  considerably  increased  by  radiatior 
from  the  bluffs  near  Damoh.  There  are  but  few  buildings  of  an) 
interest,  most  of  the  old  Hindu  temples  having  been  destroyed  by  thf 
Muhammadans,  and  their  materials  used  to  construct  a  fort,  which  ir 
its  turn  has  been  destroyed. 

Damsang.  —  Tract  of  country,  Darjiling  District,  Bengal. — Se( 
Dalingkot. 

DangS,  The.  —  Tract  of  country,  situated  within  the  limits  0 
the  Political  Agency  of  Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency 
Bounded  north-west  by  the  petty  State  of  Warsavi  in  the  Rewa  Kanth; 
Agency ;  on  the  north-east  by  the  British  Districts  of  Khandesh  am 
Nasik ;  on  the  south  by  Nasik  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bansd; 
State  in  Surat  District.  The  Dangs  consist  of  15  petty  States,  rule( 
by  Bhil  chieftains,  extending  from  20°  22'  to  21°  5'  n.  latitude,  am 
from  73°  28'  to  73°  52'  E.  longitude.  The  extreme  length  from  nortl 
to  south  is  52  miles,  and  the  breadth  28  miles.  Estimated  area 
about  1000  square  miles;  population  (1881)  45,485;  estimated  gros 
revenue  of  all  the  chiefs,  ^3100  (chiefly  derived  from  dues  on  timber) 

Tlie  country  is  covered  with  dense  forest,  intersected  in  all  direction 
by  precipitous  ravines  and  rugged  mountains,  the  general  slope  bein: 


f 


I 


BANGS,  THE.  j,^ 

towards  the  west.     The  rainfall  is  heavy ;  and  the  air  of  the  valleys 
walled  in  on  all  sides  by  steep  hill  ranges,  is  close  and  hot.     The  water 
obtained  from  pools  and  wells  is  always  full  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter.    From  these  causes  the  climate  is  singularly  unhealthy.    Except 
for  a  iQ\\  months,  from  March  to  May,  or  during  the  driest  season  of 
the  year,  no  European,  and  only  the  hardiest  races  of  natives,  can 
remain  in  the  Bangs.     The  valleys  contain  tracts  of  rich  black  loam, 
but  the  soil  on  the  uplands  is  the  poorer  variety  of  red.     None  of  the 
mineral  resources  have  as  yet  been  ascertained.     Of  vegetable  pro- 
ducts, teak  and  other  timber-trees  are  by  far  the  most  important.    With 
the  exception  of  a  little  rice  and  pulse,  the  crops  are  confined  to  the 
mferior  varieties  of  mountain  grains.     In  the  west  or  Lower  Bangs,  the 
valleys  and  ravine-sides  are  too  densely  wooded  to  be  habitable ;'  the 
it-^  villages  and  hamlets  are  generally  found  on  the  more  open'  flat- 
topped  spurs  and  ridges.    In  the  east  the  country  is  more  open.    There 
are  no  roads  properly  so  called,  but  there  are  4  principal  cart-tracks. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Bangs  belong  almost  entirely  to  the  wild  forest 
tribes.    Most  of  them  are  Bhils,  who,  accompanied  by  herds  of  sheep  and 
goats,  move  about  from  place  to  place,  supporting  themselves  in  great 
measure  on  game  and  the  natural  products  of  the  forest.     Under  the 
former  Native  Governments,  the  Bhils  were  the  terror  of  the  neighbour- 
mg  Bistricts,  and  on  occasions  the  most  indiscriminate  vengeance  was 
taken  on  them  in  return  for  their  habitual  depredations.     After  the 
occupation  of  Khandesh  by  the  British  in  18 18,  anarchy  was   at  its 
height.      The   roads  were   impassable,  villages   were   plundered,  and 
murders  committed  daily,  the  only  protection  the  inhabitants  of  the 
plain  could  obtain  being  through  regular  payment  of  black-mail.     An 
expedition  was  sent  into  the  Bang  country ;  but  at  the  end  of  three 
months,  less  than  half  the  force  marched  back  into  Maligaon,  the 
others  having  succumbed  to  the  malaria  of  the  jungle.     At  that  time, 
Captain  (afterwards  Sir  James)  Outram  came  among  the  Bhils.     First 
conciliating  them  with  feasts   and   his  prowess   in   tiger-shooting,  he 
eventually  succeeded  in  forming  a  Bhil  corps,  originally  based  on  9 
men  who  had  accompanied  him  on   shooting  expeditions.     In  1827, 
this  Bhil  corps  had  reached  600  rank  and  file,  who  fought  boldly  for 
the  Government  and  suppressed  plundering.^     The  Bistrict  treasuries 
are  now  under  their  charge,  and  the  chief  police  rests  in  their  hands. 
The  tribe  next  in  importance  to  the  Bhils  is  called  Konkani.     They  are 
somewhat  more  settled  in  their  habits  and  more  inclined  to  agriculture, 
though  little  superior  to  the  Bhils  in  appearance.     The  language  of 
both  these  tribes  is  a  mixture  of  Hindustani,  Marathi,  and  Gujarathi, 
m  which  the  last  predominates.      Education   is  in  a  very  backward 
state.     In  the  whole  Bangs,  not  more  than  half-a-dozen  persons  can 
read  and  write. 


ii6 


BANGS,  THE. 


There  are  fifteen  petty  chiefs  in  the  Dang  country,  whose  States  are 
returned  (i8Si)  as  follows  : — 


Name  of  State. 


Da 


ig  Pimpri, 

Wadhwan,     . 
Ketak  Kadupada, 
Amala, 
Chincbli, 
Pimpladevi,  . 
Palasbihar,    . 
Auchar, 
Derbhauti,     . 
Garvi,  . 
Shivbara, 
Kirli,    .^ 
Wasurna, 
Dhude  (Bilbari), 
Surgana, 


Total, 


Estimated 

Supposed 

Population. 

Revenue. 

Rs. 

3,572 

3,106 

253 

147 

218 

15s 

5,361 

2,885 

1,668 

601 

134 

120 

223 

230 

513 

201 

4,891 

3,649 

6,309 

5,125 

346 

422 

167 

512 

6,177 

2,275 

1,448 

85 

14,205 

11,469 

45,485 

30,982 

Of  these  petty  estates,  fourteen  are  held  by  Bhils,  and  one  by  a 
Kunbi.  Four  of  the  petty  chieftains  claim  the  title  of  Raja ;  the  others 
are  called  Nayaks.  They  are  all  practically  independent,  though  a 
nominal  superiority  is  awarded  to  the  Garvi  chief,  under  whose  banner 
the  rest  are  bound  to  serve  in  time  of  war.  In  former  times,  the 
Girvi  chief  was,  in  common  with  the  other  Dang  chiefs,  tributary 
to  the  Deshmukh  of  Malhar,  a  strong  fort  in  the  Baglan  Sub-division 
of  Nasik  District.  But  the  oppression  exercised  by  the  Deshmukh 
in  collecting  his  annual  tribute  of  £to  gave  rise  to  such  frequent 
disturbances,  that  the  British  Government  was  induced  to  deduct  the 
amount  from  the  sums  now  paid  to  the  Dang  chiefs  for  the  leases 
of  their  forests,  and  hand  it  over  direct  to  the  representative  of  the 
Deshmukh. 

The  administration  of  justice,  civil  and  criminal,  in  the  Dangs  is 
vested  in  the  Collector  of  Khandesh  as  ex  officio  Political  Agent ;  capital 
sentences,  or  those  involving  more  than  fourteen  years'  imprisonment, 
being  referred  for  the  confirmation  of  Government.  Petty  cases  are 
settled  by  the  Rajas  and  Nayaks  themselves,  each  in  his  own  jurisdiction, 
the  punishments  inflicted  being  chiefly  fines  in  money  and  cattle. 
None  of  the  Dang  chiefs  possesses  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption,  and 
the  succession  in  all  cases  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture.  The 
whole  area  of  the  Dangs  is  leased  to  Government  in  perpetuity,  but  the 
lease  may  be  relinquished  at  any  time  on  giving  six  months'  notice. 
[See  also  separate  article  on  the  Bhil  tribe.] 


DANG  URLI—DANKIA,  1 1 7 

Dangurli.— Small  zaminddri  or  estate  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Wainganga  river,  in  Bhandara  District,  Central  Provinces ;  situated  in 
lat.  21°  36'  N.,  and  long.  80°  11'  e.  ;  and  containing  only  one  village. 
Area,  1905  acres,  of  which  11 76  acres  are  cultivated,  producing  a  large 
quantity  of  the  castor-oil  plant.  The  chief  claims  to  be  a  Rajput. 
Population  (188 1)  777. 

Dankar.  —  Picturesque  village  in  Kangra  District,  Punjab,  and 
capital  of  the  Spiti  tract.  Lat.  32°  5'  30"  n.,  long.  78°  15'  15"  e. 
Stands  at  an  elevation  of  12,774  feet  above  sea-level,  on  a  spur  or  bluff 
which  juts  into  the  main  valley,  ending  in  a  precipitous  cliff.  The 
softer  parts  of  the  hill  have  been  denuded  by  the  action  of  the  weather, 
leaving  blocks  and  columns  of  a  hard  conglomerate,  among  which  the 
houses  are  curiously  perched  in  quaint  and  inconvenient  positions. 
Overtopping  the  whole  rises  a  rude  fort,  belonging  to  Government ; 
while  a  Buddhist  monastery  stands  on  a  side  of  the  hill.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  pure  Tibetans.  Dankar  has  formed  the  seat  of  Government 
for  the  Spiti  valley  from  time  immemorial. 

Dankaur. — Ancient  town  with  a  good  market  in  Bulandshahr 
District,  Meerut  Division,  North  -  Western  Provinces.  Situated  in 
lat  28°  21'  25"  N.,  long.  77°  35'  35"  E.,  on  the  Jumna  (Jamund), 
which  now  flows  two  miles  to  the  south,  but  which  formerly  flowed  close 
under  it;  distant  from  Bulandshahr  20  miles  south-west,  on  the  old 
imperial  road  from  Delhi  to  Aligarh.  Population  (1881)  5122,  namely, 
Hindus  3984,  and  Muhammadans  1138;  area  of  town  site,  125  acres. 
Founded  according  to  tradition  by  Drona  or  Dona,  a  hero  of  the 
Mahabharata,  from  whom  the  town  derives  its  name.  A  few  ruinous 
fragments  exist  of  a  large  fort,  built  by  Kayam-ud-din  Khan  in  the 
reign  of  Akbar,  with  a  mosque  of  more  modern  construction.  In  front 
of  the  little  shrine  erected  in  honour  of  the  traditional  founder,  is 
a  masonry  tank  210  feet  square  constructed  in  1881,  and  supplied 
with  water  from  the  Jumna  canal.  Police  station,  post-office,  village 
school.  Traffic  by  Makanpur  ghat  passes  through  Dankaur.  A  small 
municipal  revenue  for  conservancy  purposes,  etc.,  is  levied  under  the 
provisions  of  Act  xx.  of  1856. 

Dankil— -Mountain  in  the  north  of  the  Chhola  range,  Sikkim, 
Bengal;  height,  23,176  feet;  situated  50  miles  east-north-east  of  Kan- 
chanjanga.  Lat.  27°  57' 30"  n.,  long.  88°  52'  15"  e.  Although  the  Dankia 
mountain  is  5000  feet  lower  than  Kanchanjanga,  it  is  the  culminating- 
pomt  of  a  much  more  extensive  and  elevated  mass.  An  immense 
range,  with  an  average  elevation  of  18,500  feet,  runs  for  thirty  miles, 
and  thence  turns  south-west  to  Kanchanjangi,  the  river  Zemu  breaking 
through  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet  at  the  bend.  The  range  is  again 
broken  through  by  the  Lachen  river  at  a  height  of  14,000  feet,  sixteen 
miles  west  of  the  Dankia  peak.     The  well-known  but  little-frequented 


1 1 8  DANTA—DA-NIV  UN. 

Dankia  pass  (elevation,  18,400  feet),  at  the  head  of  the  Lachung  valley, 
is  four  miles  west  of  the  Dankia  peak. 

Ddnta. — State  under  the  Political  Agency  of  Mahi  Kantha,  in  the 
Province  of  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency.  Comprises  78 
villages,  and  marches  with  Palanpur  and  Sirohi.  A  wild  and  hilly 
country,  with  an  estimated  population  (1882)  of  17,456;  approximate 
gross  revenue,  ;j{^2  7oo,  inclusive  of  transit  dues.  Tribute — £^2^']  to 
the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda ;  £^^\  to  the  Raja  of  Idar  ;  ;^5o  to  the  Raja 
of  Palanpur.  Chief  crops  —  millet,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  sugar- 
cane :  area  under  tillage,  15,000  acres.  Marble  is  found  and  quarried 
in  Danta.  Manufactures  are  inconsiderable.  There  is  i  school,  with 
51  pupils  in  1882.  The  Chief  is  a  Hindu  and  a  Parmar  Rajput  by 
caste  ;  his  title  is  Rana ;  and  his  State  ranks  among  those  of  the 
second  class.  In  matters  of  succession,  the  family,  which  has  held 
semi-independent  power  since  1069  a.d.,  follows  the  rule  of  primo- 
geniture, and  does  not  hold  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption.  The  Amba 
Bhawani  shrine,  famous  throughout  India,  is  situated  in  this  territory. 
A  great  portion  of  the  Chiefs  revenue  is  derived  from  the  costly  offer- 
ings of  the  pious  at  the  shrine.  Pilgrims  of  all  ranks  visit  the  place 
during  August,  September,  October,  and  November.  The  history  of 
Danta  has  been  mainly  a  record  of  continual  struggles  with  the 
neighbouring  State  of  Idar.  Together  with  all  the  adjoining  region, 
Danta  formerly  experienced  the  incursions  of  one  foreign  dynasty  after 
another — Khilji,  Mughal,  and  Maratha. 

Danta.  —  Chief  town  of  the  State  of  Danta,  Gujarat,  Bombay 
Presidency;  38  miles  east  of  Disa  (Deesa),  and  136  miles  north  of 
Baroda.     Lat.  24°  12'  15"  n.,  long.  72°  49'  30"  e. 

Dantewdra. — Village  in  Bastar  Feudatory  State,  Central  Provinces ; 
situated  in  lat.  18°  54'  n.,  long.  81°  23'  30"  e.,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Dankani  and  Sankani  rivers,  and  to  the  west  of  the  Bela  Dilas,  a 
lofty  range  of  hills.  About  60  miles  from  Jagdalpur,  and  120  from 
Sironcha,  on  the  direct  route  between  these  places.  Population,  about 
300.  Famed  for  its  temple  to  Danteswari  or  Kali,  the  patron  goddess 
of  the  Rajas  of  Bastar,  where  human  sacrifices  were  practised  of  old. 

Dantun. — Chief  village  in  the  parga7id  of  the  same  name  in  Midnapur 
District,  Bengal.  Seat  of  a  vmnsifs  and  of  a  sub-registrar's  court ; 
considerable  trade  in  cloth,  made  of  tasar  and  cotton,  manufactured  in 
Morbhanj  State  and  within  the  District. 

Daniit-Paya-gyi.  —  A  vast  pagoda,  now  in  ruins,  in  Twan-te 
township,  Hanthawadi  District,  British  Burma.  It  was  formerly  the 
site  of  a  flourishing  village,  but  there  are  no  records  extant  bearing  upon 
the  history  of  either  village  or  pagoda. 

Da-nwun. — A  tidal  creek  in  Shwelaung  township,  Thungwa  District, 
Irawadi   (Irrawaddy)    Division,   British   Burma.      Navigable  by  river 


DAPHLA  HILLS.  119 

steamers.     With  the  Irawadi  it  forms  an  island  on  which  stands  the 
village  of  Kyunpyathat.     Lat.  16°  25'  N.,  long.  95°  12'  30"  e. 

Daphla  (or  Duffla)  Hills. — A  tract  of  hilly  country  on  the  north- 
east frontier  of  India,  occupied  by  an  independent  tribe  called  Daphla, 
akin  to  the  Abars,  the  Akas,  and  the  Miris.  It  lies  north  of  Darrang 
and  Lakhimpur  Districts,  in  the  Province  of  Assam  ;  bounded  west  by 
the  Aka  Hills,  and  east  by  the  Abar  range.  The  westward  boundary 
is  formed  by  the  BhoroH  river,  the  eastward  by  the  Sundri.  The 
whole  Daphla  country  is  only  some  60  miles  from  east  to  west  and 
40  from  north  to  south,  the  inhabited  hills  varying  in  height  from  2000 
to  7000  feet.  The  Daphlas  are  divided  into  two  clans — the  Tagin 
Daphlas,  whose  villages  border  on  Lakhimpur ;  and  the  Paschim 
Daphlas,  living  on  the  Darrang  frontier.  According  to  the  Assam 
Census  Report  of  188 1,  the  total  number  of  Daphlas  in  British  territory 
was  549,  confined  to  Lakhimpur  and  Darrang  Districts.  They  are  of 
recent  settlement  in  the  plains,  and  of  late  years  have  been  coming  down 
in  small  communities  of  five  or  six  famihes  at  a  time,  driven  by  scarcity 
or  by  the  oppressions  of  the  Abars.  They  assert  a  superiority  over  the 
Miris,  and  repudiate  any  relationship  with  them,  although  they  practically 
speak  the  same  language,  and  their  deities  Yapum  and  Orom  are  the 
same,  and  are  propitiated  by  sacrifices  of  a  white  goat  or  a  fowl.  Their 
great  god,  however,  who  requires  a  mithan  (a  species  of  wild  cow)  to 
propitiate  him,  is  called  Ui  or  Wi,  of  whom  no  Daphla  cares  to  speak 
much  for  fear  of  incurring  his  displeasure.  While  repudiating  any 
connection  with  the  Miris,  the  Daphlas  claim  a  close  relationship  with 
the  Abars,  the  most  powerful  of  the  three  tribes.  The  Daphlas  are  less 
laborious  cultivators  than  the  Miris.  Their  villages  are  not  so  well 
stocked,  nor  so  comfortable,  nor  are  the  men  so  tall  as  the  Miris, 
although  the  eastern  Daphlas  are  physically  fine  fellows.  Going 
westwards,  however,  the  race  degenerates  in  physique  and  in  outward 
appearances  of  prosperity,  and  the  westernmost  Daphlas  are  squalid  and 
dirty.  Cultivation  is  carried  on  both  on  the  nomadic  system  oijiim, 
and  permanently  in  terraced  and  irrigated  lands  in  the  Ranga  valley, 
the  chief  crops  being  rice,  Indian  corn,  tobacco,  chillies,  pulses,  yams, 
pumpkins,  poppy,  and  sesamum.  The  villages  in  their  own  hills  vary 
in  size  from  10  to  200  houses,  the  houses  being  sometimes  from  40  to 
60  feet  long,  and  built  on  bamboo  platform^s  {chang).  As  many  as  150 
people  often  live  in  one  house,  but  many  families  live  separately  m 
small  houses.  Polygamy  is  practised  when  a  man  can  afford  a 
plurality  of  wives  ;  but  polyandry  is  exceedingly  common.  The  Daphlas 
bury  their  dead,  and  build  a  small  hut  over  the  grave  in  which  they  place 
water  and  food  for  five  days.  They  mourn  the  dead  for  two  days,  and 
the  bearers  of  the  corpse  to  the  grave  are  given  two  months'  holiday 
from  work. 


120  DA  POLL 

The  costume  of  the  men  consists  generally  of  a  wicker-work  helmet 
with   a  plume   of  magpie   feathers,  but   some  of  the   chiefs  wear  a 
cylinder  of  silver  round  their  heads.     A  cloth  is  worn  tied  crossways  in 
front  and  round  the  waist  and  passed  between  the  legs.     Many  wear  a 
number  of  cane  rings  round  the  waist,  arms,  and  legs,  as  a  protection 
against  sword-cuts.     Their  weapons  consist  of  a  long  straight  sword  or 
ddo,  slung  round  the  neck  by  a  piece  of  string,  a  bow  and  arrows,  and 
occasionally  a  long  spear.      The   term  Daphla,  which  is  of  uncertain 
derivation,  is  that  applied  to  them  by  the  Assamese  ;  they  call  themselves 
Niso  or  Nising.     Their  political  constitution  is  based  upon  an  excessive 
subdivision  of  authority.      There  are  as  many  as  388  gams,  or  village 
chiefs,  in  receipt  of  posd   or  commuted   black-mail   from  the   British 
Government,  to  the  total  annual  amount  of  £2>M'      I^^  former  times 
the  Daphlas  were  notorious  for  their  raids  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
plains.     At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  northern  valley  of 
the  Brahmaputra  was  entirely  depopulated  by  the  terror  thus  spread ; 
and  during  the  early  years  of  British  administration,  the  passes  leading 
from  the  Daphla  Hills  were  regularly  blockaded  by  military  outposts. 
Recently,  however,  the  Daphlas  have  shown  a  more  peaceable  disposition. 
In  return  for  the  annual  payment  of  posd,  they  have  kept  the  peace 
along  their  own  frontier,  and  a  trade  has  sprung  up  between  them  and 
the  Assamese.     In  1872  there  was  an  unfortunate  recurrence  of  their 
old  practices.     A  party  of  independent  Daphlas,  of   the  Tagin  clan, 
suddenly  attacked  a  colony  of  their  own  tribesmen,  who  had  settled  at 
Amtola,  in  British  territory,  and  carried  away  44  captives  to  the  hills. 
The  motive  of  this  raid  was  a  belief  that  an  outbreak  of  disease  among 
them  was  introduced  from  the  plains.      During  the  next  two  years  the 
hill  passes  were  blockaded  by  police  and  soldiers,  but  with  no  result. 
In  the  cold  season  of  1874-75,  an  armed  expedition  was  marched  into 
the  hills.     No  serious  opposition  was  encountered  ;  all  the  captives  that 
survived  were  released,  and  an  excellent  effect  has  been  produced  upon 
the  hill  tribes. 

Dapoli.  —  Sub-division  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Dapoli  is  the  most  northern  of  the  Sub-divisions  of  the  District. 
Bounded  on  the  east  by  Kolaba  and  Khed ;  on  the  north  by  Janjira 
and  Kolaba ;  on  the  south  by  the  river  Vashishti,  which  separates  Dapoli 
from  Chiplun ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  area  is  not 
yet  fully  surveyed.  The  Census  of  1881  shows  an  area  of  505  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  141,012  persons,  dwelling  in  247  villages. 
Males  number  65,846  ;  females  75,166,  or  more  than  53  per  cent.  In 
point  of  religion  the  population  is  thus  distributed  : — Hindus,  123,836, 
or  more  than  87  per  cent,  of  the  whole;  Muhammadans,  16,880;  of 
other  religions  not  specified,  296.  As  in  other  parts  of  the  Presidency, 
the  different  castes  represent  various  artisan  classes  and  trade  guilds. 


DAPOLI—DARAGANJ.  121 

Kunbis,  or  cultivators,  predominate ;  the  Mangs,  Mhars,  and  Bhangis 
constitute  the  inferior  and  depressed  castes. 

The  Khed  Sub-division  separates  Dapoli  from  the  Sahyddri  range  of 
hills.  The  seaboard  of  Dapoli,  stretching  for  thirty  miles,  has  the 
characteristics  of  other  parts  of  the  Konkan  coast;  bluff  headlands 
stand  at  the  mouths  of  the  chief  rivers,  and  the  coast -line  is 
indented  with  small  and  sandy  bays.  The  coast  villages,  dotted  over 
the  low  belts  of  sand  lying  between  the  sea  and  the  cliffs,  are  thickly 
peopled,  and  are  concealed  in  dense  groves  of  palm.  Bankot  and 
Dabhol  are  the  extremities  of  the  seaboard,  and  are  situated  at  the 
estuaries  of  the  two  main  rivers  of  the  Sub-division,  the  Savitri  and  the 
Vashishti.  Along  the  coast  lie  Harnai,  a  good  harbourage  from 
northerly  winds,  and  opposite  Harnai  the  island  fortress  of  Suvarndurg. 
Inland,  the  aspect  of  the  Sub-division  is  bleak  and  rugged.  Boulders 
of  laterite  crop  out  over  the  bare  plateaux  of  the  region,  and  lie  in  the 
innumerable  watercourses  of  long  dried-up  streams.  Eastward  the 
prospect  improves.  The  villages  are  shaded  by  clumps  of  jack  and 
mango  trees.  Teak  grows  in  some  of  the  more  sheltered  ravines ;  and 
the  river  banks  are  covered  with  brushwood.  The  climate  on  the  whole 
is  temperate  and  healthy.  The  sea-breeze  is  felt  in  all  parts  of  the  Sub- 
division. Annual  average  temperature  for  the  eight  years  ending  1878, 
76°  F. ;  average  rainfall  for  the  ten  years  ending  1877,  112  inches. 
There  are  no  canals  or  other  irrigation  works.  The  water  required  is 
raised  from  wells  by  bullock-draught.  A  small  portion  of  alluvial  soil 
is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  on  the  flats  formed  by  deposits 
at  their  estuaries.  A  good  deal  of  salt  marsh  and  tidal  swamp  has  been 
turned  into  fertile  gardens  and  productive  rice-fields.  The  dry-crop 
soil  is  poor  and  unproductive.  Agricultural  stock  (1879) — oxen,  22,000  ; 
cows,  16,200;  buffaloes,  7700;  sheep  and  goats,  6273;  horses,  60; 
ploughs,  10,000.  The  Sub-division  contains  i  civil  and  3  criminal 
courts ;  police  stations,  7 ;  regular  police,  83.     Chief  town,  Dapoli. 

Dapoli. — Head-quarters  of  Dapoli  Sub-division,  Ratnagiri  District, 
Bombay  Presidency.  About  5  miles  distant  from  the  sea,  wuth  an 
elevation  of  620  feet.     One  of  the  healthiest  localities  in  the  Konkan. 

Daraganj.— Suburb  of  Allahabad  city,  Allahabad  District,  North- 
western Provinces  ;  situated  in  lat.  25°  41'  n.,  long.  81°  25'  e.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  on  Akbar's  bandh  or  embankment,  east  of  the 
Allahabad  peninsula.  Although  shown  in  the  Census  Report  as  a 
separate  town,  it  is  in  reality  a  part  of  Allahabad  city,  being  included 
within  its  municipal  limits,  guarded  by  the  city  police,  and  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  city  magistrate.  Distant  two  miles  from  Kydganj, 
the  nearest  point  of  the  city  proper,  and  connected  with  it  by  the  Grand 
Trunk  Road.  Population  of  Daraganj  (1881)  i3,i59»  namely,  Hindus, 
11,085;  Muhammadans,  2073;  Christian,  i.     Area,  149  acres. 


1 2  2  DARAPUR—DARBHANGAH. 

Darapur. — Village  in  Jehlam  (Jhelum)  District,  Punjab ;  situated  in 
lat.  32°  46'  N.,  long.  73°  36'  E.,  about  a  mile  from  the  right  or  west  bank 
of  the  Jhelum  river,  just  below  its  junction  with  the  Bunhar  torrent.  The 
neighbouring  ruins  of  Udainagar  were  identified  by  Burnes  with  those 
of  NicEea,  built  by  Alexander  to  commemorate  his  victory  over  Porus. 
General  Cunningham,  however,  with  greater  probability,  places  the  site 
of  Alexander's  great  battle  at  Jalalpur. 

Darapur.  —  Tdhik  and  town  in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras 
Presidency. — See  Dharapuram. 

Darauti. — Village  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal  ;  5  miles  north-east 
of  Ramgarh.  Contains  some  old  remains  attributed  to  the  Suars  or 
Saviras.  Dr.  Buchanan-Hamilton  conjectures,  from  the  style  of  this 
work,  that  the  Cheriis  once  had  a  temple  here,  and  that  the  obelisks 
now  left  standing  commemorate  its  destruction  by  the  Suars. 

Darbelo.  —  Town  in  the  Naushahro  Sub-division,  Haidarabad 
(Hyderabad)  District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.  The  population, 
which  is  below  2000,  consists  mainly  of  agriculturists,  the  Muham- 
madans  being  of  the  Kalhora  and  Pir  tribes,  the  Hindus  chiefly 
Lohanos.  Annual  export  of  grain,  by  the  Naulakhi  Canal,  valued  at 
^2000. 

Darbhangah. — District  in  the  Patna  Division  or  Commissionership 
of  Behar,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal, 
forming  the  eastern  portion  of  the  old  District  of  Tirhut.  It  extends 
from  25°  30'  to  26°  40'  N.  lat.,  and  from  85°  35'  to  86°  45'  E.  long. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  independent  territory  of  Nepal ;  on  the 
east  by  North  Bhagalpur ;  on  the  south  by  Monghyr  and  the  Ganges 
river;  and  on  the  west  by  Muzaffarpur  District.  Darbhangah  District 
is  96  miles  in  length  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  contains  an  area 
of  3665  square  miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  Census  of 
1 88 1,  of  2,633,447  souls.  The  administrative  head-quarters  and  chief 
place  of  the  District  is  Darbhangah  Town. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  consists  of  one  large  alluvial  plain 
intersected  with  streams,  and  in  most  parts  well  wooded.  Mango 
groves  and  clusters  of  bamboo  are  numerous,  and  give  a  pleasing 
character  to  the  scenery.  But  in  some  tracts,  nothing  meets  the  eye 
except  an  enormous  tract  of  rice-fields.  The  District  is  divided  from 
north  to  south  into  three  separate  tracts,  Madhubani  in  the  north, 
Taj  pur  in  the  south,  and  Darbhangah  proper  occupying  an  inter- 
mediate position.  The  main  rivers  are  the  Baghmah,  Gandak,  Little 
Baghmati,  Karai,  and  Kamla.  In  the  north,  the  fall  of  the  ground 
is  from  north-east  to  south-west.  In  the  south  of  the  District,  the 
fall  is  from  north-west  to  south-east.  The  Baghmati  and  Gandak 
rivers  cross  into  Darbhangah  from  Muzaffarpur  about  the  latitude  of 
Darbhangah  town.     The   lower   courses  of  these  rivers  are  tortuous, 


DARBHANGAH. 


123 


and  are  interlaced  with  each  other  to  an  extreme  degree.  They  run 
together  and  divide  so  as  to  make  a  great  network  of  deep  channels, 
called  by  many  local  names.  From  north  to  south  the  ground  rises 
gradually  above  flood-level,  and  proceeding  south  grows  gradually  less 
and  less  fertile,  rice  and  other  crops  requiring  plentiful  moisture.  The 
soil  in  the  southern  tracts  is  saliferous,  yielding  saltpetre  and  common 
salt  in  considerable  quantities.  The  rivers  flow  in  high  raised  plateaux 
above  the  surrounding  country,  and  flood  extensive  areas.  South  of  Dar- 
bhangah  town  the  river  names  give  but  little  idea  of  the  fluvial  aspects 
of  the  District.  The  Tiljuga,  Kamla,  Dhaus,  Baghmati,  Little  Bagh- 
mati,  and  Buri  Gandak,  all  mix  their  waters,  not  by  uniting  in  a  single 
stream,  but  by  forking  and  joining  into  innumerable  streams  each  with 
different  local  names.  One  stream  of  the  Kamla  runs  into  the  Little 
Baghmati,  and  afterwards  into  the  Great  Baghmati.  The  names  Tiljuga, 
Little  Baghmati,  and  Buri  Gandak  seem  to  have  been  given  with  rather 
inappropriate  reference  to  other  rivers  of  the  same  namiC,  as  if  the 
Tiljuga  was  mistaken  for  the  lower  courses  of  the  Nepal  river  Trijuga, 
a  tributary  of  the  Kusi  river.  The  only  broad  sheet  of  water  in  the 
District  deserving  the  name  of  a  lake  is  the  Tal  Baraila,  covering  an 
area  of  about  20  square  miles  in  the  rainy  season.  Towards  the  north 
of  the  District  and  in  Nepal,  some  small  streams  are  dammed  up  every 
year.  The  rivers  Kamla,  Balan,  and  Tiljuga  are  also  embanked,  and 
well  irrigation  is  also  carried  on.  Common  long-stemmed  rice  grows 
in  most  parts  of  the  District,  the  best-known  kinds  being  known  as 
esarid  and  sittgrd,  the  former  growing  in  from  14  to  18  feet,  and  the 
latter  in  about  5  feet  of  water.  The  jungle  products  of  Darbhangah 
are  necessarily  few,  for  there  are  no  forests  or  uncultivated  pasture 
lands.  The  few  jungle  products  are  beeswax,  lime  burnt  from  shells, 
and  a  few  drugs.  The  wild  animals  of  the  District  comprise  wolves 
and  wild  hog,  of  which  the  latter  are  especially  common.  Occasionally 
a  stray  tiger  or  leopard  wanders  down  from  Nepal  along  a  river  bank. 
Crocodiles  infest  the  rivers ;  and  several  kinds  of  reptiles  are 
dangerous.  Porpoises  are  also  common.  The  small  game  consists  of 
jackals,  foxes,  hares,  wild  ducks,  teal,  pigeon,  snipe,  quail,  etc.  The 
best  kinds  of  fish  are  the  arwdri  or  mulett,  and  the  hilsa^  found 
chiefly  in  the  Karai.  The  other  species  include  the  rohi^  boari^  mint, 
kaikdrd,  tengrd^  fna,  dewd^  belaunchd^  chilwd,  puthiyd,  dala,  Jhmga, 
shrimps,  and  cray-fish.  Snakes  abound,  the  most  common  being  the 
cobra,  karait,  gohuman,  harhara,  diwmhd. 

Population.  —  The  population  of  Darbhangah  as  at  present  con- 
stituted, after  the  formation  of  Muzaffarpur  and  Darbhangah  into 
separate  Districts  in  1875,  amounted  in  1872  to  2,139,298;  while  in 
i88i  the  population  was  returned  at  2,633,447,  showing  an  increase  of 
494,149,  or  23-09  per  cent.,  in  nine  years,  an  increase,  however,  which 


124  DARBHANGAH. 

is  to  a  considerable  extent  nominal,  being  the  result  of  defective 
enumeration  in  the  first-named  year.  The  results  arrived  at  by  the 
Census  of  1882  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  —  Area  of 
District,  3335  square  miles,  with  6359  towns  and  villages  and  377,818 
houses,  of  which  362,576  were  occupied.  Total  population,  2,633,447, 
namely,  males  1,295,788,  and  females  1,3375659.  Proportion  of  males 
in  total  population,  49*2;  average  density,  789-6  persons  per 
square  mile ;  villages  per  square  mile,  i  -90 ;  persons  per  village, 
414;  villages  per  square  mile,  1*90;  houses  per  square  mile,  113*25; 
inmates  per  house,  7*3.  Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were^ 
Hindus,  2,323,976  ;  Muhammadans,  308,985  ;  Christians,  325  ;  and 
152  'others,'  nearly  all  Kols.  Among  the  higher  castes  of  Hindus 
are  included  Brahmans,  179,263;  Babhans  or  military  and  cultivating 
Brahmans,  118,556  ;  Rajputs,  90,083;  Kayasths,  455I24;  and  Baniyas, 
38,343.  The  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District  are  the  Gwalas, 
341,112  in  number;  Dosadhs,  189,534;  Dhanuks,  130,079;  Mallahs, 
114,891;  Koeris,  129,027;  Chamars,  88,641;  Telis,  79,449;  Musahdrs, 
66,793;  Tatwas,  61,315;  Kurmis,  67,098;  Kent  or  Kewat,  42,067; 
Madaks,  38,333;  Barhais,  38,343;  Kandus,  33,472;  Napit,  31,958; 
Nuniyas,  27,788;  Sunris,  25,429;  Dhobis,  21,114 ;  Tantis,  21,584; 
Sonars,  16,980;  Lobars,  16,320;  Pasis,  12,804;  Kalus,  11,949;  Bauris, 
11,871;  Kallars,  11,030;  Malis,  10,004.  Total  aboriginal  population, 
including  those  who  have  embraced  Hinduism,  10,986.  Caste-rejecting 
Hindus,  5790.  The  26  most  numerous  Hindu  castes  contain  in  all  91 
per  cent,  of  the  Hindu  population  of  the  District. 

Distrihition  of  the  People  into  Town  and  Country, — Six  towns  in 
Darbhangah  District  contain  a  population  exceeding  5000  souls,  namely, 
Darbhangah,  population  65,955;  Madhubani,  11,911;  Rusera, 
1 1,578  ;  BiSHNUPUR  Bhera,  5963  ;  Sultanpur,  5860 ;  and  Madhupur, 
5084.  Total  urban  population  106,351,  or  4-04  per  cent,  of  the 
District  population,  leaving  2,527,096,  or  95*96  per  cent.,  for  the 
rural  population.  Of  the  6359  villages  and  towns  returned  in  1881, 
2375  contained  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants;  2048  had  between 
two  hundred  and  five  hundred  inhabitants ;  1092  between  five  hundred 
and  a  thousand ;  397  between  one  and  two  thousand  inhabitants;  69 
between  two  and  three  thousand;  12  between  three  and  five  thousand; 
3  between  five  and  ten  thousand  inhabitants ;  2  between  ten  and 
fifteen  thousand ;  and  i  upwards  of  50,000  inhabitants.  The 
Census  Report  classifies  the  male  population  as  regards  occupation 
into  the  following  six  main  classes:  —  (1)  Professional,  including 
all  civil  and  military  officials  and  the  learned  professions,  6934 ;  (2) 
domestic  servants,  hotel  -  keepers,  etc.,  42,447;  (3)  commercial, 
including  merchants,  traders,  and  carriers,  32,843;  (4)  agriculturists, 
including   agriculturists,  horticulturists,   gardeners,  etc.,    507,425  ;   (5.) 


DARBHANGAH,  125 

manufacturing  and   industrial   class,  64,215;  (6)  indefinite   and  non- 
productive class,  including  labourers,  male  children,  etc.,  601,673. 

Agriculture — Land  Te?iures. — Land  is  owned  in  estates  of  various 
sizes,  from  the  huge  estate  of  the  Maharaja  of  Darbhangah,  down  to  the 
cultivating  petty  ifiahdls  of  one-acre  lots  in  the  hands  of  the  Brahmans 
Babhans,  Rajputs,  Kayasths,  and  Musalmans.  Intermediate  leases 
other  than  tliikas  or  farming  leases,  are  rare.  Partition  of  estates  has 
gone  on  rapidly  of  late  years.  The  average  size  of  the  small  estates  is 
very  small  indeed.  Excluding  the  Darbhangah  estate,  which  includes 
nearly  one-fifth  of  the  whole  District,  the  average  size  of  the  small 
estates  amounts  to  only  about  50  acres. 

The  principal  crops  are  rice,  linseed,  indigo,  mustard,  tobacco,  common 
cereals,  and   tuberous  roots.      The   great   rice   country  is   in   Alapur 
pargafid  in  the  north-east  of  the  District.     The  only  village  officials 
who  in  any  way  deserve  the  name  are  \}^^  patw arts,  jet h  rdyats  or  leading- 
cultivators,  and  the  chaukiddrs  or  village  watchmen.     The  first  of  these 
officials  is  paid  by  the  landlord,  and  the  last  by  the  village  cultivator  • 
but  both  are   directly  subordinate   to   the   District  officer.     The  'jeth 
rdyat  is  a  petty  tahsilddr  or  rent  collector,  and  is  paid  by  allowances 
from  the  landlord.     Rates  of  rent    fluctuate  much  owing  to  various 
causes.     The  highest  rate  known  is  about  ;^i,  8s.  an  acre  for  the  best 
tobacco  land ;  the  lowest  rates  are  about  2s.  6d.  per  acre  for  poor  rice 
land.     Local  custom   forms  a  strong  factor  in  the  rent  question,  the 
higher  castes  paying  much  lower  rates  than  those  below  them  in  the 
social  scale.     Average  rents  may  be  taken  at  about  7s.  per  acre  for  rice 
and  I  OS.  for  land  producing  spring  crops.     Wages  are  generally  paid 
in  kind,  ranging  from  2d.  a  day  in  the  country  to  6d.  a  day  in  the 
towns.     Skilled  labour  in  the  towns  is  paid  for  as  highly  as  is.  a  day. 
Principal   manufactures — indigo,   sugar,  tobacco,  saltpetre,  cloth,  and 
pottery.      The  indigo  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Euro- 
pean planters,  and  the  sugar-cane  is  confined  to  natives.     A  tobacco 
factory  has  recently  been  estabhshed  at  Piisa  in  Tajpur  Sub-division 
which   turns    out    cigars   and    prepares   tobacco   after    European   and 
American  methods.     The  trade  of  the  District  is  considerable.     In  the 
north,  merchandise  is  carried  by  means  of  carts  and  pack-bullocks  from 
Darbhangah  ;  much  of  it  goes  south  by  rail  via  the  Tirhilt  State  Railway  ; 
and  the  less  perishable  articles  are  conveyed  ^by  water.     The  main  line 
of  the  Tirhiit  State  Railway  runs  through  Darbhangah  District,  and  is 
continued  into  north-eastern  Bhagalpur.     The  northern  roads  have  the 
same  general  course  as  the  rivers,  namely  from  north-east  to  south-west. 
I     Administration,  —  The   gross    revenue   of    Darbhangah    District   in 
1881-82  amounted  to  ;£"i67,278,  of  which  the  land  revenue  contributed 
;^8i,926  ;  cesses,  £ii,izz  ',  excise,  ;£"i6,882  ;  and  stamps,  £16,2^9. 
In  the  same  year,  the  gross  expenditure  was  ^52,748.     The  strength 


126     DARBHANGAH  HEAD-QUARTERS  AND  TO  WN. 

of  the  regular  police  was  312  men,  costing  ;^4936,  besides  a  village 
watch  numbering  3241,  and  maintained  at  a  cost  to  the  cultivators  of 
;^ 1 1,751.  The  municipal  police  numbered  147  of  all  ranks,  maintained 
at  a  cost  of  ^1113.  The  District  contains  one  first-class  and  two 
second-class  municipalities  at  Darbhangah,  Rusera,  and  Madhubani, 
with  an  aggregate  population  of  89,444.  Aggregate  municipal  income 
(1881-82),  ;£4736,  or  an  average  taxation  on  the  population  within 
municipal  limits  of  is.  3d.  per  head.  Education  is  not  making  much 
progress.  The  Darbhangah  estate  maintains  the  zillah  (or  District) 
school,  and  affords  liberal  help  to  others.  There  are  the  usual  English 
schools,  with  a  large  number  of  pdthsdlds,  and  a  Sanskrit  school  at 
Madhubani. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  dry,  generally  mild,  and  fairly  healthy. 
The  ordinary  variations  of  the  thermometer  are  not  excessive.  Average 
recorded  rainfall,  50  inches.  Fever  is  constant,  and  causes  the  highest 
mortality.  Cholera  attacks  the  District  as  an  epidemic  every  four  or 
five  years.     Small-pox  is  not  common. 

Darbhangah. — Head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Darbhangah  District, 
Behar,  Bengal.  Area,  1222  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and 
villages,  2260;  occupied  houses,  136,170.  Population  (188 1),  males 
480,241,  and  females  489,758  ;  total,  969,999.  Classified  according  to 
religion,  Hindus  numbered  822,043,  Muhammadans  147,817,  and 
Christians  139.  Average  density,  793  persons  per  square  mile;  villages 
per  square  mile,  i'85  ;  persons  per  town  or  village,  429;  houses 
per  square  mile,  113;  persons  per  house,  7*12.  The  Sub-division 
comprises  the  three  police  circles  {ihdfids)  of  Darbhangah,  Bahera,  and 
Rusera.  In  1883  it  contained  i  civil  and  5  criminal  courts,  with  a 
regular  police  of  255  officers  and  men,  and  a  village  watch  or  rural 
police  of  1 132  men. 

Darbhangah. — The  head-quarters  station  and  principal  town  of 
Darbhangah  District;  situated  in  lat.  26°  10'  2"  n.,  long.  85°  56'  39"  e., 
on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  Little  Baghmati  river.  It  ranks 
third  in  population  and  size  among  the  towns  of  Behar.  The  Census 
of  1 88 1  returned  the  population  at  65,955,  namely,  males  33,633, 
and  females  32,322.  Hindus  numbered  48,276;  Muhammadans, 
1 7,566  ;  and  '  others,'  113.  Area  of  town  site,  3840  acres.  The  town  has 
been  constituted  a  first-class  municipality,  with  an  income  in  1881-82  of 
^£3760,  of  which  ^2031  was  derived  from  taxation,  being  an  average 
of  7id.  per  head  of  the  municipal  population  ;  expenditure  in  1881, 
^2514.  One  of  the  principal  features  in  Darbhangah  is  the  number  of 
laro-e  tanks  within  the  town.  The  three  principal  ones  are  situated  in  a 
line,  with  a  drive  passing  from  one  to  the  other,  their  united  length 
being  6000  feet.  Darbhangah  was  originally  a  Muhammadan  town. 
According  to  some  authorities,  the  name  is  derived  from  one  Darbhangi 


DARBHANGAH  TO  WN.  1 2  7 

Khan,  the  founder ;  while  others  say  the  word  is  a  corruption  of  Dar-i- 
Bangai,  or  'Door  of  Bengal,'  alluding  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a 
Muhammadan  cantonment.  It  has  even  been  conjectured  that  the 
large  tanks  above  referred  to,  were  dug  to  make  raised  grounds  for  the 
soldiers'  houses.  The  whole  country  around  the  town  becomes  a 
swamp  during  the  rains,  being  subject  to  inundations  from  the  Kamla 
and  Little  Baghmati ;  and  the  scarcity  of  high  ground  caused  some 
difficulty  in  finding  a  suitable  site  for  the  new  civil  station  in  1875. 
The  bazars  are  large,  and  markets  are  held  daily.  A  handsome  large 
market-place  has  recently  been  constructed  between  the  hospital  and 
the  Maharaja's  garden.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  and  the 
communications  by  road  are  good  in  all  directions.  The  Tirhiit  State 
Railway  connects  the  town  with  Bajitpur  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  a 
distance  of  45  miles  ;  and  Bajitpur  in  its  turn  is  connected  by  a  steam 
ferry  with  Barh,  one  of  the  stations  on  the  main  line  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway.  The  principal  exports  from  the  town  are  oil-seeds,  ghi,  and 
timber;  and  the  imports,  food-grains,  salt,  gunny  cloth,  soft  goods, 
lime,  and  iron. 

Darbhangah  has  been  the  residence  of  the  Maharajas  of  Darbhangah 
since  1762.  The  family  trace  their  origin  to  one  Mahesh  Thakur,  a 
priest  under  the  ancient  Rajas  of  Tirhiit.  After  Tirhiit  was  conquered 
by  the  Muhammadans,  and  the  race  of  the  old  princes  became  extinct, 
Mahesh  Thakur  is  said  to  have  proceeded  to  Delhi,  where  he  obtained 
the  grant  of  the  Darbhangah  Raj  from  the  Emperor  Akbar.  But  the 
title  of  Raja  was  not  duly  confirmed  until  the  time  of  Raghu  Singh  in 
1700.  The  residence  of  the  family  was  then  at  Bhawara,  near 
Madhubani,  where  the  remains  of  an  old  mud  fort  are  still  pointed  out, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Raghu  Singh.  A  temporary 
settlement  was  concluded  by  the  British  Government  with  Madhu 
Singh,  who  succeeded  to  the  Raj  in  1776.  A  long  series  of  disputes 
and  misunderstandings  ensued.  The  Rija  refused  to  engage  for  the 
decennial  settlement  of  1790,  alleging  that  grave  injustice  had  been 
done  him  by  the  authorities.  The  estate  was  therefore  leased  out  to 
two  Muhammadan  farmers.  But  in  November  1 791,  the  one  resigned 
his  share,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  other  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse  at  Patna,  and  his  heirs  refused  to  continue  the  lease.  Madhu 
again  refused  the  settlement.  The  lease  was  then  renewed  to  a 
number  of  small  leaseholders,  from  1793  up  to  1800,  when  it  expired. 
Negotiations  were  again  entered  into  with  the  Raja,  but  they  fell  through 
as  before,  and  the  estate  was  once  more  let  in  farm.  At  last  the 
property  was  restored  to  the  Raja  on  his  consenting  to  pay  an  increase 
of  revenue.  Madhu  Singh  died  in  1808.  His  son  Chhatar  Singh,  who 
hved  till  1839,  was  the  first  who  received  the  title  of  Maharaja.  On 
his  death  the  succession  was  disputed,  but  after  costly  litigation,  his 


128  DAREH-BA  UK—DARJILING. 

eldest  son,  Rudar  Singh,  was  declared  heir  to  the  title.     Riidar  Singh 
died  in  1850. 

His  son  Maheshwar  died  in  i860,  leaving  two  sons,  Lakshmeswar. 

the    present    Maharaja,  and    Rameswar   his  brother.     As   these   were 

minors,    the    Court    of    Wards    took    charge    of    their    possessions. 

Everything   was   in   confusion ;    the    estate  was    ^^700,000    in    debt. 

and  the  revenue  was  only  ;2£^i 60,000.     Under  the  management  of  the 

Court  of  Wards,  the  property  has  greatly  improved  ;  the  debt  has  been 

paid   off,  and   the   rental   has   increased   by  ^^40,000.     Besides   this, 

;£"547,6oo  had  been  saved  prior  to  the  famine  of  1874;  but  nearly 

^,^300,000  was   then    expended    in    charitable    relief.      The    present 

Maharaja  came  of  age  in  1879.      The  estate  supports  a  first  -  class 

dispensary   at   Darbhangah,   another   at    Kharakpur,   and   a   third   at 

Narahiya  ;  an  Anglo- vernacular  school  and  22  vernacular  schools  in  its 

villages.     It  further  contributes  largely  to  6  dispensaries  and  27  schools. 

It  has  opened  150  miles  of  new  road,  along  which  about  20,000  trees 

have  been  planted.      Seventeen  iron  and  148   masonry  bridges  have 

been  erected  over  navigable  rivers ;  and  extensive  irrigation  works,  at 

a  cost  of  ;£"7 0,000,  have  been  constructed  on  the  Kharakpur  estate 

in  Monghyr  District.     The  wards  were  educated  at  Benares.     When 

the  Government  took  charge,  the    family  residence   at    Darbhangah 

consisted  of  a  few  low-built  houses,  hemmed  in  by  hovels  in  the  town. 

Many  of  the  latter  have  been  removed,  and  new  buildings  have  been 

erected,  surrounded  by  well-laid-out  gardens  of  about  55  acres  in  extent. 

A  magnificent  new  palace,  with  a  menagerie  and  aviary,  has  recently 

been  erected  for  the  Maharaja's  residence.      The  estates  of  the  Raj 

are  situated  in  the  Districts  of  Darbhangah,  Muzaffarpur,   Monghyr, 

Purniah,  and  Bhagalpur.      The  total  rental  is  ^^238,000  ;    the  total 

Government  revenue,  ^40,000. 

Dareh-bauk. — The  name  given  to  the  northern  mouth  of  the  Salwm 
river  from  Martaban  to  the  sea.  Several  centuries  ago,  it  was  the  ordinary 
entrance  for  ships  coming  to  Martaban  in  Tenasserim,  British  Burma ; 
but  for  many  years  it  has  been  so  choked  with  sandbanks  as  to  be 
impassable  by  sea-going  vessels. 

Dareh-byii. — Creek  in  Bassein  District,  Irawadi  Division,  British 
Burma,  forming  one  of  the  entrances  from  the  sea  to  the  Ywe.  Its 
mouth,  in  lat.  15°  51'  20"  n.,  and  long.  90°  41'  20"  e.,  is  so  obstructed  by 
sandbanks  as  scarcely  to  afford  a  passage  for  the  smallest  sea-going 
craft,  but  the  rest  of  the  river  is  easily  navigable  by  river  steamers. 

Darjlling.  —  The  District  of  Darjiling  forms  the  most  northerly 
portion  of  the  Rajshahi  Kuch  Behar  Division,  under  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bengal.  It  lies  between  26°  30'  50"  and  27°  12'  45"  N. 
latitude,  and  between  88°  i'  30"  and  88°  56'  35"  e.  longitude, 
running  up  between  Nepal  and  Bhutan  towards  Independent  Sikkim. 


DARJILING.  129 

The  British  frontier  is  demarcated  on  the  north  from  Sikkim  by  a 
series  of  rivers  and  mountain  torrents,  on  the  west  from  Nepal  by  a 
lofty  range  of  hills  ;  along  the  east  and  south  run  the  British  Districts 
of  Jalpaiguri  and  Purniah.  The  area  was  returned  in  1881  at  1234 
square  miles;  and  the  population,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881, 
numbers  155,179  persons.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at 
the  station  and  sanitarium  of  Darjiling. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  naturally  divides  into  two  distinct 
tracts— the  ridges  and  deep  valleys  of  the  lower  Himalayas,  and  the 
tardi  or  sub-montane  marshy  strip  immediately  beneath  the  hills. 
The  surface  of  the  plains  from  which  the  Sikkim  Himalayas  take  their 
rise  is  said  to  be  only  300  feet  above  sea-level,  the  mountains  starting 
abruptly  from  the  plains  in  spurs  of  from  6000  to  10,000  feet,  densely 
clothed  with  forest  to  their  summits.  The  scenery  is  of  a  magnifi- 
cent character.  The  background  is  formed  by  a  jagged  line  of  dazzling 
snow,  connecting  the  two  highest  known  peaks  in  the  world,  Everest 
and  Kanchanjanga,  each  above  28,000  feet.  Imposing  series  of  parallel 
mountain  ridges  intervene,  broken  by  almost  perpendicular  valleys. 
Up  to  12,000  feet,  these  ridges  are  clad  with  dark-green  foliage  ;  on  the 
high  slopes  the  rhododendron  predominates,  lower  down  occur  forests 
of  pine  and  deodar,  and  near  the  plains  the  valuable  sal  timber.  To 
travellers  fresh  from  the  swamps  of  Bengal,  this  picturesque  region 
would  prove  yet  more  alluring,  were  it  not  for  the  mists  and  showers 
which  are  continually  closing  upon  the  scene.  European  planters  are 
now  dotting  the  slopes  of  the  lower  ranges  with  trim  tea-gardens.  The 
tardi  portion  of  the  District  was  formerly  overgrown  with  malarious 
jungle,  amid  which  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  Mechs,  Dhimals,  and  Kochs 
formed  clearings  by  fire,  and  reared  crops  of  rice  and  cotton  on  a  system 
of  primitive  nomadic  husbandry.  It  has  now,  however,  been  exten- 
sively cleared  for  settled  tillage,  and  for  tea  gardens. 

The  loftiest  mountains  are  situated  outside  British  territory;  but 
within  it  on  the  Singalila  range,  marching  with  Nepal,  are  several 
peaks  above  10,000  feet  in  height.  The  highest  peaks  are— Phalalum, 
height  12,042  feet;  Subargum,  10,430  feet;  and  Tanglu,  10,084  feet! 
Situng  is  another  bold  peak  in  the  District,  of  a  conical  form,  situated 
south-east  of  DarjiHng.  The  station  of  Darjiling  itself  has  an 
elevation  of  7167  feet  above  sea-level;  and  on  the  long  undulating 
range  of  Sinchal  Pahar  there  were  formerly  barracks  for  a  European 
regiment  1500  feet  higher,  but  these  have  been  abandoned  for  some 
years,  owing  to  the  exposed  position  of  the  place.  The  miUtary  lines 
are  now  at  Jallapahar,  about  a  mile  from  Darjiling,  and  at  an  elevation  of 
about  500  feet  above  the  station.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tista,  the 
^Mahananda,  and  the  Balasan,  with  their  numerous  affluents.  The  Tista, 
''.ike  many  of  the  other  great  rivers  of  Northern  India,  rises  on  the  farther 

VOL.  IV.  J 


130  DARJILING. 

side  of  the  Himalayas,  and  bursts  through  the  mountain  barrier  before 
it  reaches  British  territory.  One  of  its  chief  affluents  is  the  Great 
Ranjit;  and  a  little  below  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  a  fine 
suspension  bridge  has  been  thrown  across  the  Tista.  This  bridge 
is  a  most  important  addition  to  the  communications  of  the  District, 
as  it  connects  the  tract  east  of  the  Tista  with  the  main  portion  of  the 
District,  and  keeps  open  throughout  the  year  the  great  trade  route 
across  the  Jeylep  pass  into  Tibet.  At  the  point  where  the  Tista 
debouches  on  the  plains,  through  a  gorge  known  as  the  Sivak 
Gold  pass,  its  volume  is  very  considerable,  and  it  becomes  at 
once  navigable  for  boats  of  two  tons  burthen,  although  navigation 
is  very  difficult  and  precarious,  owing  to  rapids,  and  numerous  rocks 
and  large  stones  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  Its  tributaries  include  the 
Ranchu  and  Roli,  on  the  left  bank ;  and  on  the  right,  the  Great 
Ranjit,  Rangjo,  Rayeng,  and  Sivak.  The  Mahananda,  while  passing 
through  Darjiling,  is  a  smaller  stream,  and  altogether  loses  itself  in 
the  sand  of  the  tardi  for  a  portion  of  its  course.  Its  tributaries 
join  it  below  the  District  boundary.  The  Balasan  takes  its  rise  a  it^^ 
miles  south-west  of  Darjiling,  and  after  a  southerly  course  enters  the 
tardi,  when  it  divides  into  two  streams,  one  of  which,  the  New  Balasan, 
branches  off  and  joins  the  Mahananda,  while  the  parent  stream 
continues  its  southerly  course  till  it  enters  Purniah  District.  Two 
small  lakes  or  tarns  are  situated  amid  the  hills. 

The  mineral  products  of  the  District  comprise  coal,  iron,  copper, 
calcareous  tufa,  and  slate.  There  are  several  caverns  situated  in  the 
hills,  the  most  important  of  which  is  situated  near  the  Cutcherry 
(Kachari)  hill  in  Darjiling  station,  and  is  superstitiously  believed  by 
the  natives  to  extend  as  far  as  Lhasa  in  Tibet.  The  Ramman  river  is 
crossed  by  a  natural  bridge  of  stone,  between  the  junction  of  the  Ratho 
and  Sri  with  that  river.  With  the  exception  of  the  Sivak  Gola  Pass, 
through  which  the  Tista  river  debouches  on  the  plains,  there  are  no 
gorges  or  passes  in  the  District ;  but  every  valley  and  every  turn  of  the 
road  within  the  hills  is  highly  picturesque.  Several  important  revenue- 
yielding  forests  are  strictly  conserved  by  the  Forest  Department. 

The  principal  pasture  grounds  are  the  reserved  Government  forests, 
and  in  the  rains  the  higher  mountains.  The  Giirungs,  a  Nepali  tribe, 
annually  depasture  large  flocks  of  sheep  in  this  District,  taking  them  to 
the  heights  in  the  rains,  and  in  the  cold  weather  bringing  them  down  to 
the  plains  for  sale.  The  Ghalias,  another  Nepali  tribe,  and  the  Bhutias 
and  Lepchas  depasture  large  herds  of  buffaloes  and  cows  indiscrimi- 
nately. The  Mechs  in  the  plains,  and  the  Nepali's  in  the  hills, 
collect  jungle  products  for  sale,  but  this  is  merely  a  subsidiary 
occupation  to  that  of  agriculture.  Game  is  not  abundant  in  the  hilly 
tracts.     Among  the  larger  kinds  are  bears,  leopards,  and  musk  deer 


DARJILING,  131 

on  the  higher  mountains ;  large  deer  {sambhdr)  on  the  lower  ranges  ; 
and  a  few  elephants  and  tigers  on  the  slopes  above  the  plains.  In  the 
tcirdi,  tigers,  rhinoceros,  deer,  wild  hog,  and  a  distinct  species  of  dwarf 
ho^  are  pretty  numerous.  A  few  wolves  are  also  found.  Among  the 
smaller  sorts  of  game,  hare,  jungle-fowl,  peacock,  partridge,  snipe, 
woodcock,  wild  duck,  wild  geese,  and  green  pigeon,  abound  in  the 
tiirdi.  Jungle-fowl  and  pheasants  are  met  with  in  the  hills.  Good 
mahs'ir  fishing  is  to  be  had  in  the  Tista. 

The  History  of  Darjiling  presents  a  late  chapter  in  the  extension  of 
British  Rule.    The  Gurkha  war  of  18 15-16  first  brought  the  Company 
into  direct  relations  with  this  region.      It  was  then  found  that  the 
ac^crressive  Gurkhas  had  appropriated  from  the  Raja   of  Sikkim   the 
viorang  or  tardi  portion  of  the  present  District ;  and  it  was  one  of  the 
articles  of  the  peace  of  1816,  that  this  strip  should  be  ceded  to  the 
British,  who  immediately  gave  it  back  again  to  the  Sikkim  chief.     In 
1835,  under  the  Governor-Generalship  of  Lord  William  Bentinck,  the 
nucleus  of  what  was  originally  known  as  '  British  Sikkim  '  was  created  by 
the  purchase,  from  the  Raja  of  Sikkim,  of  the  sanitarium  of  Darjiling, 
with  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  hills,  in  consideration  of  an  allowance 
of  ^300,  afterwards  increased  to  ^^600  per  annum.     This  ceded  tract 
is  described  in  the  Deed  of  Grant  as  '  all  the  land  south  of  the  Great 
Ranjit  river,  east  of  the  Balasan,  Kahel,  and  Little  Ranjit  rivers,  and 
west  of  the  Rangmi  and    Mahananda   rivers,'  containing  about   138 
square  miles.     Darjiling  soon  became  a  favourite  summer  retreat  for 
the  officials  of  Lower  Bengal  and  their  families  ;  it  was  also  established 
as  a  sanitarium  for  invalided  European  soldiers.     A  good  deal  of  land 
was  taken  up  from   the    Government   on   building    leases,   but   tea 
cultivation  was  not  introduced  till  a  much  later  date.     In  1849,  Dr. 
Hooker  paid  a  visit  to  Darjiling,  and  founded  upon  his  experiences 
then  gathered  his  well-known  and  most  interesting  Himalayan  Journals 
(2  vols.,  London  1854).     His  visit  was  also  productive  of  important 
political  consequences.     With  the  sanction  of  the  British  Government, 
and  with  an  express  permission  from  the  Raja  of  Independent  Sikkim, 
he  had  crossed   the   frontier   into   that   State,   accompanied   by   Dr. 
Campbell,  the  Superintendent  of  Darjiling  District.     There  they  were 
treacherously  seized   and  imprisoned,  by  the   authority  of  the  Raja's 
Diwan  or  Prime  Minister.     A  military  expedition  was  despatched  to 
rescue  the  prisoners,  and  avenge  the  insult.      The  yearly  allowance 
granted  to  the  Raja  was  stopped.     The  Sikkim  morang  or  tardi,  at  the 
'oot  of  the  hills,  was  annexed ;  and  a  considerable  addition  was  also 
niade  to  the  British  territory  that  lay  among  the  mountains.     In  all, 
-'ibout  640  square   miles   of   land   were    acquired   on   this   occasion, 
mally,  in  1864,  the  District  received  a  further  augmentation  by  the 
cession  of  a  hilly  tract  east  of  the  Tista,  which  had  become  British 


132  DARJILING. 

territory  as  the  result  of  the  Bhutan  campaign  of  that  year.  This 
tract  covers  an  area  of  486  square  miles,  and  is  known  as  the 
Sub-division  of  Kalimpong  or  Dalingkot.  The  relations  between  the 
British  Government  and  the  State  of  Sikkim,  which  are  conducted 
through  the  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Ddrjiling,  are  now  of  a  most 
friendly  character.  The  allowance  to  the  Raja  has  not  only  been 
restored,  but  has  been  raised  to  ;^i200  a  year;  and  his  Darbar  lends 
all  the  assistance  in  its  power  to  the  development  of  the  through  trade 
with  Tibet.  Darjiling  has  obtained  a  place  in  the  history  of  oriental 
scholarship,  as  the  residence  for  years  of  Mr.  Brian  Houghton  Hodgson, 
of  the  Bengal  Civil  Service.  Mr.  Hodgson,  after  distinguished  services 
as  Resident  in  Nepal,  retired  from  active  employment,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Sub-Himalayan  races.  He  fixed  his  head- 
quarters at  Darjiling;  and  from  that  District  issued  his  remarkable 
series  of  essays  and  researches,  which  still  form  the  basis  of  any 
systematic  study  of  the  non-Aryan  peoples  of  India. 

The  popularity  of  Darjiling  as  a  sanitarium  has  been  fully  maintained 
in  recent  years,  notwithstanding  the  rival  attractions  of  Simla  and  other 
hill  stations  in  Northern  India.  The  opening  of  the  Northern  Bengal 
State  Railway  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  of  the  Darjiling  and  Himalayan 
Railway  up  to  Darjiling  itself,  has  rendered  the  station  easily  accessible 
from  the  plains  and  Calcutta,  from  which  it  can  be  reached  in  24  hours. 
The  popularity  of  the  place  has  rapidly  increased  since  the  railway 
extension  ;  and  new  private  buildings  and  municipal  improvements  have 
been  rapidly  pushed  forward  during  the  past  few  years.  {See  Darjiling 
Town.)  The  enterprise  of  European  capital,  in  the  form  of  tea 
cultivation  and  manufacture,  has  opened  a  new  era  of  prosperity.  The 
oldest  tea-garden  now  existing  only  dates  back  to  1856.  In  1882-83, 
165  gardens  were  open,  with  an  estimated  production  of  more  than  8 
million  pounds  of  tea.  The  cinchona  tree  has  been  successfully 
introduced,  so  that  Darjiling  now  aids  in  saving  from  fevers  even  those 
who  are  compelled  to  remain  on  the  plains. 

Population. — In  1872,  the  population  of  Darjiling  District,  according 
to  the  Census  Report  of  that  year,  was  94,712,  spread  over  an  area  of 
1234  square  miles.  The  Census  returns  for  1881  disclosed  a  total 
population  of  155,179,  living  on  the  same  area,  showing  an  increase  of 
60,467  persons,  or  63*84  per  cent.,  in  the  nine  years.  This  remarkable 
increase,  however,  is  to  a  great  extent  only  nominal,  owing  to  defective 
enumeration  in  the  tardidjid.  eastern  Tista  tracts  in  1872.  Nevertheless, 
the  Census  officer  reports  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  reported  increase 
is  real,  being  due  to  the  rapid  development  of  the  tea  industry,  and 
the  extraordinary  demand  for  labour  on  the  railway  and  other  public 
works.  *  To  meet  this  rapidly-increasing  demand,  the  local  supply  of 
labour  was  quite  unequal ;  and  the  result  has  been  an  unexampled 


DARJILING,  133 

imml^^ration.  So  that  in  Darjiling  District  more  than  half  the  population 
(-2'44  per  cent.)  were  born  outside  its  limits.  Of  this  number,  55,000 
are  hillmen  from  beyond  the  British  frontier,  chiefly  from  Nepal ;  nearly 
5000  came  from  the  neighbouring  District  of  Jalpaiguri,  and  more  than 
10,000  from  Purniah.  The  remainder  are  composed  of  representatives 
from  almost  every  Province  of  India.'  The  general  results  arrived 
at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized  as  follows: — Area 
of  District,  1234  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and  villages,  943; 
number  of  houses,  29,904,  of  which  29,028  are  occupied  and  876 
unoccupied.  The  population  numbered  155,179,  namely,  males 
88,948,  and  females  66,231  ;  proportion  of  males  in  total  population, 
57"45  per  cent.  Average  density,  1257  persons  per  square  mile; 
villages  per  square  mile,  76;  persons  per  village,  163;  houses  per 
square  mile,  24*2  ;  persons  per  house,  5*3.  Classified  according  to 
religious  belief,  the  population  was  returned  as  follows : — Hindus, 
126,717;  Sikhs,  3  ;  Muhammadans,  8204;  Christians,  842  ;  Buddhists, 
18,775;  Brahmos,  14;  aboriginal  religions,  624.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  population  consists  of  aboriginal  or  semi-aboriginal  tribes,  among 
whom  the  Nepali's  are  the  most  numerous.  The  Lepchas,  who  are 
considered  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Sikkim,  are  included  among  the 
Buddhists,  but  are  few  in  number,  and  the  race  is  said  to  be  declining. 
[Sie  separate  article,  Lepcha,  in  its  alphabetical  order.)  The  Nepalis, 
including  the  Murmi's,  are  divided  among  no  less  than  42  sub-tribes,  and 
are  returned  among  the  Hindus.  The  Rajbansi  Kochs  number  30,801. 
The  Bhutias  are  not  returned  separately  in  the  Census,  but  are  included 
among  the  Buddhists.  Of  the  Hindus  proper,  the  two  superior  castes  of 
Brahman  (numbering,  including  Babhans,  10,739)  ^^^  Rajput  (6352)  are 
the  most  numerously  represented,  very  few  of  the  other  recognised  Hindu 
castes  exceeding  1000  in  number.  The  population  of  Darjiling  increased 
by  more  than  one-half  between  1872  and  1881,  and  is  still  growing  at  a 
rapid  rate.  The  Nepali's  are  coming  across  the  frontier  in  large  numbers, 
and  are  eagerly  welcomed  by  the  tea-planters  as  their  most  valuable 
labourers ;  while  Bengalis  from  the  plains  are  gradually  extending  over 
the  tardi.  The  Brahma  Samaj  is  represented  by  a  few  Bengali  Govern- 
ment clerks  at  Darjiling  station,  who  have  no  regular  place  of  meeting. 
The  population  may  be  divided  into  those  connected  with  the  tea 
industry,  and  the  aboriginal  agriculturists.  There  are  no  towns  with 
the  exception  of  Darjiling  station,  4033,  which  in  February  1881  had 
a  population  of  7018,  which  may  be  assumed  as  the  permanent  popula- 
tion ;  but  to  this  number  must  be  added  the  temporary  visitors  during 
the  summer  months.  The  only  other  place  of  any  note  is  Karsiang 
(Kurseong),  situated  in  the  lower  hills,  20  miles  to  the  south,  with  a 
population  in  1881  of  4033.  Of  the  943  villages,  769  contain  less  than 
two  hundred  inhabitants;  114  between  two  hundred  and  five  hundred; 


134  DARJILING. 

46  between  five  hundred  and  a  thousand;    11  between  one  and  two 
thousand  ;  and  3  upwards  of  two  thousand. 

Agriculture.— KicQ  constitutes  the  one  food-crop  grown  in  the  tardi 
portion    of  the  District;    but    among   the    hills,  Indian  corn,  millets 
{marud,  etc.),  wheat,  potatoes,  and  cardamoms  are  also  grown,  wherever 
practicable.     Subordinate  crops  in  the  plains  are  cotton,  jute,  pulses, 
oil-seeds,  and  sugar-cane.     As  usual  throughout  Bengal,  the  rice  crop 
is  divided  into  two  harvests,  the  dinan  or  haiinantik,  reaped  in  winter, 
and  the  dus  or  bhadai,  reaped  in  the  month  of  Bhadra  (August  to 
September).     Rice  cultivation  is  rapidly  extending  through  the  tardi, 
although  somewhat  retarded  by  the  requirements  of  the  Forest  Depart- 
ment.    Bengali  and   Nepali  cultivators  use  the   plough,  and  plough 
cultivation  is  also  extending  among  the  aboriginal  tribes,  especially  in 
the  tract  to  the  east  of  the  Tista.     The  nomadic  method  of  agriculture 
known  as  jum,  which  consists  in  burning  down  a  fresh  patch  of  jungle 
land  each  successive  year,  is  decreasing.     The  ddo  or  hill  knife  is  used 
for  all  rustic  operations.     Manure  is  not  commonly  applied  anywhere; 
but  throughout  the  tardi^  and  in  the  hills  wherever  natural  facilities  are 
afforded,  irrigation  is  industriously  practised  by  the  cultivators  of  all 
classes.     In  the  tardi  and  hills,  the  land  measurements  locally  known 
are  the  hdl  and  pdti^  the  former  being  the  quantity  of  land  which  a 
plough  and  pair  of  oxen  can  turn  up  in  one  day,  and  the  latter  the  weight 
of  seed  required  to  sow  a  given  area.     The  seed  standard  is  a  most 
variable  one ;  but  for  general  purposes  one  pdti  may  be  taken  as  the 
equivalent  of  8  lbs.  weight  of  seed,  and  twelve  pdtis  as  the  measure  of 
seed  required  for  one  acre.     According  to  the  other  standard,  an  acre  is 
represented  by  a  quarter  hdl.,  or  a  plough  and  pair  of  oxen  for  four  acres. 
These  local  measurements  are  now  being  superseded  by  the  English 
standard  acre,  by  which  the  recent  land  settlement  with  the  native 
cultivators   was   made,   and   according  to  which,   no  doubt,  the  hill- 
man  will  be  able  in  the  course  of  time  to  calculate  the  area  of  his 
holding.     The  average  yield  of  Indian  corn  on  the  best  lands  in  the 
hills  is  7 J  cwts.  or  10  maunds  per  acre,  and  on  inferior  lands  about  3J 
cwts.     In  the  tardi.^  the  yield  of  rice  per  acre  varies  from  8|  cwts.  or  12 
7>ia7mds  to  3  J  cwts.  per  acre.     A  revised  land  settlement  was  concluded 
in  1880  with  ihejotddrs  for  a  period  often  years,  at  rates  varying  from 
3s.  to  4s.  per  acre.     In  the  Kalimpong  Sub-division  in  the  hills  east  of 
the  Tistd,  most  of  the  land  under  native  cultivation  has  been  surveyed 
and  settled  on  ten  years'  leases  with  the  occupiers,  dating  from  1882, 
the  assessment  being  at  the  rate  of  is.  per  acre  for  the  best  and  6d. 
per  acre  for  inferior  lands,  liable  to  enhancement  at  the  expiry  of  five 
years  to  is.  6d.  per  acre  for  the  best  and  gd.  per  acre  for  inferior  land. 
This  money  assessment  is  in  substitution  for  the  poll-tax  formerly  paid 
by  the   cultivators.     About  thirty  thousand  acres  have  already  been 


DARJILING,  135 

settled  in  this  mdnner;  but  in  the  more  sparsely-cultivated  portions 
of  the  Sub- division,  the  poll-tax  is  still  levied  at  the  rate  of  5s. 
for  each  adult  male,  and  4s.  for  each  adult  female.  In  the  Govern- 
ment estates  {Khds  mahdls)  west  of  the  Tista,  a  house-tax  of  6s.  per 
house  is  levied ;  but  these  estates  will  shortly  be  assessed  with  the 
cultivators  on  joint  rdyattudri  leases,  at  money  rates  approved  by  the 
Government,  viz.  is.  6d.,  is.  ijd.,  and  gd.  per  acre,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  soil.  The  cultivated  area  of  these  mahdls  is  between 
20,000  and  30,000  acres.  The  other  tenures  in  the  District,  which 
include  the  tea  leases,  are  (i)  freehold  and  (2)  leasehold  grants.  The 
former  consist  of  commuted  leases ;  the  latter  are  for  terms  varying 
from  ten  to  thirty  years.  All  tea  leases  now  falling  in  will,  under  recent 
orders  of  Government,  be  renewed  for  a  term  of  twenty  years  at  an  all- 
round  rate  of  one  rupee  or  2s,  an  acre.  Besides  the  foregoing  there 
are  building  leases  for  lands  in  Dirjiling  station  and  Karsiang.  The 
Darjiling  municipality  receives  the  ground  rents  of  sites  within  municipal 
limits. 

The  average  price  of  rice  in  the  tardi  during  the  five  years  ending 
1881-82  was  8s.  a  cwt.,  the  current  rate  in  the  last  year  being  6s.  8d. 
in  the  tardi  and  8s.  per  cwt.  in  the  hills.  The  average  price  of  Indian 
corn  in  the  hills  for  the  five  years  was  6s.  i  id.  per  cwt.,  the  current  rate 
in  1881-82  being  5s.  iid.  per  cwt.  These  are  the  two  main  food-crops 
of  the  District.  The  fall  in  prices,  while  due  to  some  extent  to  good 
harvests,  is  in  a  great  measure  attributable  to  the  improved  means  of 
communication  afforded  by  the  Darjiling  and  Himalayan  Railway,  and 
the  Tista  bridge.  On  the  other  hand,  wages  have  risen.  This  is  mainly 
due  to  the  large  demand  for  skilled  labour  for  the  great  public  works  in 
progress — the  railway,  Tista  bridge,  hospital,  etc.  The  following  rates 
prevail : — Goldsmiths,  ;£"3  per  month ;  Chinese  carpenters,  ^6  per 
month;  native  carpenters,  from  is.  3d.  to  is.  6d.  per  diem;  masons, 
£1,  8s.  per  month  ;  day-labourers,  6d.  to  pd.  per  diem ;  tea-garden 
coolies,  6s.  to  los.  per  month  ;  grass-cutters,  14s.  per  month;  domestic 
servants,  from  i8s.  to  £1,  12s.  per  month. 

Tea. — The  staple  industry  of  Ddrjiling  is  the  cultivation  and  manu- 
facture of  tea.  It  is  conducted  almost  entirely  by  means  of  English 
capital  and  under  skilled  European  supervision.  The  discovery  of 
tea  in  India  dates  from  1826,  when  a  Mr.  Bruce,  who  commanded  a 
flotilla  of  gunboats  in  Upper  Assam  in  the  first  Burmese  war,  found 
the  plant  growing  wild,  and  brought  down  with  him  some  plants  and 
seeds.  It  was  not  till  some  time  after  tea  cultivation  had  established 
itself  in  the  Assam  Valley  that  any  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  it 
into  Bengal  proper.  The  first  regular  tea-garden  in  Darjiling  was  opened 
in  1856 ;  and  after  the  natural  mistakes  of  the  first  few  years,  the  business 
has  continued  to  prosper  with  accelerating  prosperity.     In  1866  there 


136  DARJILING. 

were  39  gardens  established,  with  an  area  under  cultivation  of  10,392 
acres,  yielding  an  out-turn  of  433,715  lbs.  of  tea.     By  1875  ^^  number 
of  gardens  had  increased  to  121,  with  an  area  under  cultivation  of  22,162 
acres,  and  an  out-turn  of  4,600,758  lbs.  of  tea.     In  1882-83  the  number 
of  tea-gardens  numbered  165,  covering  a  total  planting  area  of  44,482 
acres,  of  which  26,716  acres  were  under  mature  and  5854  under  immature 
plant,  while  12,282  acres  taken  up  for  planting  had  not  been  put  under 
seed.     The  approximate  yield  of  the  season  1882-83  was  8,080,293  lbs. 
A  favourable  season  and  good  markets  combined  to  render  the  years 
1881-82  and  1882-83  very  encouraging  ones  for  the  planters,  and  to  re- 
establish many  gardens  to  which  the  disastrous  year  of  1 880-8 1  had 
nearly  proved  fatal.      Improved   machinery  and   processes  of  manu- 
facture have  been   introduced  into   many  of  the   gardens.     Plucking 
is   more   carefully  attended  to   than   formerly,  and   greater  regard  is 
paid  to  the  withering  and  manipulation  of  the  leaf.     Steam  machinery 
is  used  now  on  many  gardens,  while  in   others  water-power   is   em- 
ployed.     The   principal   blights  which  tea-planters   have   to  contend 
with  are  the  red  spider,  green  fly,  and   mosquito  blight.     This  last- 
named  insect  causes  most  apprehension  in  the  lower  ranges  of  the 
hills.     The  plague  is  said  to  be  increasing,  and  to  be  more  serious 
than  the  red  spider  by  attacking  the  bud,  and  not  allowing  the  plant 
even  to  mature.     The  red  spider  proves  a  terrible  scourge  in  some 
gardens,  and  baffles  the  efforts  of  the  most  energetic  planter  to  get  rid 
of.     A  white  grub  turning  into  a  brown  beetle  attacks  the  roots  of  the 
tea  plant,  and  wherever  it  makes  its  appearance  is  exceedingly  destructive. 
Coolie  labour  is  on  the  whole  plentiful,  and  the  light  nature  of  the  work 
attracts  a  number  of  immigrants  from  the  surrounding  hill  States,  espe- 
cially Nepal.     The  Census  of  1881   shows  that  during  the  previous 
decade  there  has  been  a  great  increase  of  settled  immigration  of  Nepalis 
with  their  wives  and  families  to  the  Darjiling  tea-gardens.     Women  and 
children  take  a  large  part  in  the  labour  on  a  garden,  in  plucking  and 
sorting.     The  Darjiling  and  Himalayan  Raihvay  has  greatly  increased 
the  facilities  for  the  transport  of  tea  to  Calcutta. 

Cinchona^  etc. — The  cultivation  of  cinchona  was  commenced  by 
Government  in  1862,  and  the  experiment  has  now  established  its 
success.  In  1875,  a  sum  of  ;^52i7  was  expended  on  the  plantations; 
the  yield  of  dry  bark  was  211,931  lbs.,  which  produced  1989  lbs.  of 
quinine  valued  at  ;£"3i82.  This  was  the  first  year  when  the  young 
trees  came  into  bearing.  The  total  number  of  trees  in  the  plantation 
on  the  31st  March  1882,  was  4,762,200  cinchonas  of  all  sorts.  The  crop 
of  bark  amounted  to  341,570  lbs.  Of  cinchona  febrifuge,  10,878  lbs. 
were  issued  during  the  year;  4650  lbs.  were  sold  to  the  general  public, 
and  the  remainder  was  supplied  to  Government  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries.    There  was  a  net  profit  on  the  year's  working  of  ^13,000,  equal 


DARJILING.  137 

to  a  dividend  of  13  per  cent,  on  the  capital  expended.  The  saving 
effected  by  Government  during  the  year  by  the  substitution  of  cinchona 
febrifuge  for  quinine  was  ^35,000.  The  success  of  the  Government 
plantation  has  induced  private  cultivation.  One  company  has  taken  up 
a  large  tract  of  ground  east  of  the  Tista  for  this  purpose,  and  another  is 
rearing  seedlings  on  its  tea-gardens.  The  experimental  cultivation  of 
ipecacuanha  has  also  been  attempted,  but  without  much  success  as  yet. 
In  1876,  a  public  botanical  garden  was  established  at  Rangariin;  but 
this  has  since  been  abandoned,  and  a  new  garden  has  been  established 
in  the  station. 

Darjiling  is  not  liable  to  either  of  the  calamities  of  flood  or  drought. 
In  the  event  of  local  scarcity  from  any  cause,  the  hill  people  could 
always  save  themselves  from  starvation  by  migrating  to  other  localities ; 
but  in  the  tardi^  previous  to  the  construction  of  the  railway,  the 
inhabitants  were  in  some  danger  of  isolation.  If  the  price  of  rice  were 
to  rise  rapidly  in  January,  after  the  gathering  of  the  dinan  or  low-land 
rice  crop,  that  should  be  regarded  as  a  sign  of  approaching  scarcity. 

Manufactures^  Trade,  etc. — Coarse  cotton  cloth  is  woven  by  all  the 
aboriginal  tribes,  especially  by  the  Lepchas.  The  favourite  colours  are 
white,  with  blue  and  red  borders.  These  Lepcha  cloths  are  in  some 
request  among  the  residents  and  visitors  to  the  station.  The  price  of 
the  better  sorts  varies  from  J[],\  to  £^\^  8s.  each. 

The  local  trade  of  Darjiling  is  entirely  confined  to  the  wants  of 
European  inhabitants,  and  of  the  tea  plantations.  A  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  by  the  hillmen  with  residents  and  visitors  in  China  cups, 
turquoise,  coral,  and  amber  ornaments,  jade  and  agate  cups  and  beads, 
praying  wheels,  bells,  amulets,  and  other  curiosities  illustrative  of 
Buddhist  monastic  life ;  kukris^  Bhutia,  and  Lepcha  knives,  etc.  The 
Darjiling  shopkeepers  trade  mostly  in  European  piece-goods,  stores, 
glass,  hardware  and  crockery.  Much  attention  has  recently  been  directed 
to  the  development  of  through  trade  with  Tibet  via  Sikkim,  and  with 
Nepal.  In  1881,  the  import  of  untaxed  salt  from  trans-Himalayan 
sources  into  Darjiling  amounted  to  1658  cwts.  The  chief  articles  of 
import  from  Nepal  are  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  poultry,  hides,  food- 
grains,  and  country  cloth ;  the  exports  consisting  principally  of  Euro- 
pean piece-goods,  gram,  salt,  vegetables,  betel-nut,  sugar,  and  tobacco. 
The  trade  with  Sikkim  is  of  the  same  character  as  that  with  Nepal,  but 
is  more  extensive.  In  1882-83  the  total  value  of  the  Sikkim  trade 
through  Darjiling  was  ;£"3 1,644,  namely,  imports  ;^2o,oi4,  and  exports 
;£i  1,629.  The  Bhutan  trade  mainly  passes  through  Jalpaiguri  District. 
The  Darjiling  and  Himalayan  Railway  is  gradually  absorbing  all  the 
District  traffic,  to  the  exclusion  of  bullock  carts  and  pack  ponies. 

Mines. — The  mineral  wealth  of  Darjiling  was  carefully  investigated  in 
1873  by  Mr.  Mallet  of  the  Geological  Survey.     He  was  of  opinion  that 


138  DARJILING, 

the  coal  measures,  which  are  easily  exposed,  but  are  of  a  peculiar  friable 
character,  might  possibly  be  used  remuneratively  on  the  Northern  Bengal 
Railway.  Their  chemical  analysis  is  good,  especially  for  the  formation 
of  artificial  fuel,  but  there  would  be  no  little  difficulty  in  delivering 
the  coal  on  the  plains.  Both  iron  and  copper  are  worked  in  several 
places  by  the  Nepali's,  but  the  character  and  accessibility  of  the  mines 
is  not  such  as  to  attract  European  capital.  Lime  can  be  procured  in 
abundance  from  dolomite,  tertiary  limestone,  and  calcareous  tufa.  The 
last-mentioned  is  now  largely  burned  in  kilns. 

The  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway  stops  in  the  plains  at  Siliguri, 
about  8  miles  short  of  the  hills ;  but  railway  communication  is  carried 
on  to  Darjiling  by  the  Darjiling  and  Himalayan  Railway,  40  miles  in 
length.  In  1882,  the  total  length  of  roads  within  the  District  was 
returned  at  617  miles.  An  excellent  iron  suspension  bridge  has  recently 
been  constructed  across  the  Tista  on  the  highway  to  Tibet. 

Adviinistration. — In  1880-81,  the  total  revenue  of  Darjiling  District 
amounted  to  ;2{^i 8,814,  towards  which  the  land-tax  contributed;^!  1,967. 
The  expenditure  was  ;^i4,i5i.  In  the  following  year,  1881-82,  the 
total  revenue  had  increased  to  ;£^3o,oo3,  and  the  land-tax  to  ;2^i 3,843, 
while  the  civil  expenditure  w^as;£"i  7,667.  Under  the  head  of  land  revenue 
is  included  the  house  and  bullock  tax  paid  in  a  certain  portion  of  the  hills, 
and  also  the  poll-tax  levied  in  the  still  unsettled  tract  east  of  the  Tista. 
In  1882  there  were  3  covenanted  officers  stationed  in  the  District,  and 
6  magisterial  and  4  civil  and  revenue  courts  open,  presided  over  by  6 
stipendiary  magistrates  and  5  civil  judges.  In  1881,  the  regular  police 
force  consisted  of  223  men  of  all  ranks,  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of 
;^4093,  and  a  municipal  police  of  35  officers  and  men,  costing  ;!^496. 
These  figures  give  i  policeman  to  5  square  miles  of  area,  or  to  every 
601  persons  in  the  population  ;  the  cost  averaged  ;^3,  14s.  5d.  per  square 
mile,  and  7  Jd.  per  head  of  population.  In  the  same  year,  the  number 
of  persons  in  Darjiling  District  convicted  of  any  offence,  great  or  small, 
was  1492,  being  i  person  to  every  104  of  the  population.  By  far  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  convictions  were  for  petty  offences.  The 
District  contains  one  jail,  which  is  necessarily  a  very  expensive  one  on 
account  of  the  small  number  of  prisoners  confined.  In  1881,  the  daily 
average  number  of  prisoners  was  88*8,  of  whom  277  were  females;  the 
labouring  convicts  averaged  81 '6.  These  figures  show  i  prisoner  to 
every  1747  of  the  District  population. 

Education  has  considerably  advanced  in  recent  years,  despite  the 
difficulties  caused  by  an  aboriginal  population  speaking  various  strange 
tongues,  and  dwelling  in  widely-scattered  huts  among  the  mountains. 
Up  to  i860  there  was  only  i  school  in  the  District — the  Government 
English  School,  attended  by  33  pupils.  By  1872,  the  number  of  schools 
had  risen  to  29    with  723  pupils;  the  total  expenditure  was  ^1735, 


DARJILING.  139 

towards  which  Government  contributed  ;^667.  In  1875,  the  schools 
further  increased  to  46  and  the  pupils  to  994.  The  Census  of  1881 
returned  1610  boys  and  179  girls  under  instruction,  and  5686  males 
and  269  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruc- 
tion. The  principal  educational  institution  is  the  St.  Paul's  School, 
established  at  Calcutta  in  1845  for  the  sons  of  Europeans  and  East 
Indians,  and  removed  to  Darjiling  in  1864.  In  1881  it  was  attended 
by  134  pupils,  and  received  a  Government  grant  of  ;£^5o5.  Other 
schools  for  European  and  Eurasian  education  are  —  a  Government 
boarding-school  at  Karsiang,  attended  in  1881  by  28  boys  and  13  girls ; 
a  Protestant  girls'  school,  wdth  85  pupils ;  St.  Joseph's  Roman  Catholic 
Seminary,  with  51  pupils;  and  the  Darjiling  Convent  School,  with  36  boys 
and  131  girls.  A  Government  boarding-school  for  aboriginal  tribes  has 
also  been  established  in  Darjiling,  and  is  attended  by  Lepchds  from 
Sikkim,  and  Bhutias.  All  the  pupils  learn  English  and  Tibetan.  Its 
purpose  is  to  train  up  a  body  of  explorers,  surveyors,  and  interpreters ; 
and  it  has  been  fairly  successful  in  this  respect.  The  Church  of 
Scotland  has  established  a  number  of  primary  schools,  chiefly  for  the 
children  of  Nepali  coolies  working  in  the  tea-gardens.  An  English 
newspaper,  the  Darjiling  News,  is  printed  at  the  station. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Darjiling  is  marked  by  excessive 
humidity.  According  to  Dr.  Hooker,  '  Sikkim  is  the  dampest  region  in 
the  whole  Himalayas.  .  .  .  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  the 
prevailing  wind  is  from  the  south-east,  and  comes  laden  with  moisture 
from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.'  The  few  hours  between  sunrise  and  9  a.m. 
form  the  only  period  of  the  day  entirely  free  from  clouds,  mist,  or  rain. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  is  returned  at  120  inches.  The  rainfall  in 
1 88 1  was  9  inches  below  the  average.  The  average  mean  atmospheric 
pressure  over  a  period  of  five  years  is  23*320.  During  1881,  the 
maximum  temperature  recorded  was  76'2°  F.  in  May  and  July;  the 
minimum  by  night  was  36*5°  in  December. 

The  District  is  not  unhealthy,  the  hills  being  almost  free  from 
endemic  disease  except  goitre.  In  the  ta?'di  and  the  lower  valleys 
malarious  fevers  occur.  Cholera  rarely  if  ever  visits  the  station,  and 
small-pox  is  disappearing  before  the  introduction  of  vaccination.  During 
1 88 1,  the  charitable  dispensaries  at  Darjiling  station,  Karsiing  and 
Kalimpong,  were  attended  by  183  in-door  and  9356  out-door  patients. 
Before  the  close  of  that  year  a  second  dispensary  was  opened  at 
Karsidng. 

[For  further  information  regarding  Darjiling  District,  see  the  Statistical 
Account  of  Bengal,  vol.  x.  (Triibner  &  Co.,  London,  1877);  Selections 
of  the  Governfnent  of  Bengal  regardi7ig  the  Tea  Industry  in  Bengal ; 
Paper  by  Mr.  B.  H.  Hodgson  on  the  Koch,  Bodo,  and  Dhimal  T?'ibe  ; 
Dr.  Hooker's  Himalayan  Journals,  2  vols.  (London,  1854);  Tofogra- 


I40  DARJILING  SUB-DIVISION  AND  TOWN 

phical  Survey  conducted  by  the  late  Captain  H.  J.  Harman,  R.E.,  and 
continued  by  Lieut-Colonel  H.  C.  B.  James,  of  the  Survey  Depart- 
ment; the  Bengal  Census  Report  of  1881  ;  together  with  the  Annual 
Adjninistraimi  and  Depart??iental  Reports  for  the  three  years  ending 
1883.] 

Darjiling. —  Head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Darjiling  District, 
Bengal.  Area,  792  square  miles;  villages,  122;  occupied  houses, 
11,801.  Population  (1881)  65,001,  namely,  males  36,683,  and  females 
28,318.  Hindus  numbered  48,172;  Muhammadans,  961;  Christians, 
629;  Buddhists,  15,225;  and  Brahmos,  14.  Proportion  of  males, 
56*43  per  cent. ;  average  density  of  population,  82  persons  per  square 
mile  ;  number  of  houses  per  square  mile,  15  ;  persons  per  house,  5*5. 
Darjiling  Sub-division  consists  of  the  police  circles  {thdnds)  of  Darjiling 
and  Kalimpong.  It  contained  in  1883,  3  civil  and  3  criminal  courts, 
and  a  District  police  numbering  179  officers  and  men.  The  chaukiddri 
or  village  watch  system  is  not  in  force  in  the  District. 

Darjiling. — Town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of  Darjiling  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  the  lower  Himalayas.     Lat.  27°  2'  48"  n.,  long. 
88°  18'  36"  E.     The  station  occupies  a  narrow  ridge,  which  divides  into 
two  spurs,  descending  steeply  to  the  bed  of  the  Great  Ranjit,  up  whose 
course  the  eye  is  carried  to  the  base  of  the  great  snowy  mountains. 
The  ridge  is  very  narrow  at  the  top.     The  valleys  on  either  side  are  at 
least  6000  feet  deep,  forest  clad  to  the  bottom,  with  very  few  level  spots, 
but  no  absolute  precipice.     From  the  flanks  of  these  valleys  innumerable 
little  spurs  project,  occupied  by  native  clearings.     The  ridge  varies  in 
height  from  6500  to  7500  feet  above  sea-level.     Darjiling  was  acquired 
by  the  English  Government  in  1835  as  a  sanitarium,  a  tract  of  country 
138  square  miles  in  extent  being  ceded  by  the  Raja  of  Sikkim,  in  return 
for  an  allowance  of  ^300  per  annum,  afterwards  raised  to  ;!^6oo.     The 
station  rapidly  increased,  and  soon  became  a  favourite  summer  retreat 
for  the  officials  of  Lower  Bengal  and  their  families.     The  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bengal  ordinarily  spends  several  months  of  every  year  in 
Darjiling,  which  is  now  brought  within  24  hours'  journey  of  Calcutta,  by 
the  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway,  and  its  continuation,  the  Darjiling 
and  Himalayan  Railway.     Darjiling  is  rapidly  increasing  in  favour  as  a 
summer  resort  for  visitors  and  for  invalids.     A  fine  building,  the  Eden 
Sanitarium,  was  opened  in  1883  for  the  reception  of  sick  and  convales- 
cent, with  accommodation  for  52  patients.     Private  building  enterprise 
has  increased   considerably   in  the  last  few  years,  especially   on   the 
property  of  the  Maharaja  of  Kuch  Behar.     A  line  of  pipes  has  been 
laid  from  the  Senchal  Springs  which  furnishes  the  town  with  an  ample 
supply  of  good  water.     New  secretariat  and  other  public  buildings  are 
in  contemplation.     Besides  the  residence  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
and  the  public  offices,  the  other  principal  buildings  are  the  Episcopalian 


DARKUTI—DARRANG.  1 4 1 

Church,  Wesleyan  Chapel,  Roman  Catholic  Convent,  St.  Paul's  School, 
Club,  etc.  Two  gardens,  Lloyd's  Botanical  Garden  and  the  People's  Park, 
are  open  to  the  public.  A  military  depot,  consisting  of  barracks  for 
about  150  men,  stands  on  the  hill  some  500  feet  above  the  station, 
and  about  a  mile  distant,  which  is  occupied  by  European  invalids 
during  the  hot  months.  The  situation,  although  very  bleak,  is  healthy. 
The  population  of  the  town  fluctuates  according  to  the  season,  but 
the  number  was  returned  by  the  Census  of  February  1881  at  7018, 
namely,  Hindus,  4592;  Muhammadans,  614;  'others,'  1812;  area  of 
station,  3420  acres.  This  may  be  called  the  normal  or  resident  popula- 
tion, but  during  the  hot  weather  months,  from  April  to  October,  it  is 
much  increased  by  the  influx  of  visitors  from  the  plains.  The  area  of 
the  municipality  formerly  coincided  with  that  of  the  tract  originally 
ceded  by  the  Sikkim  Raja,  and  comprised  about  138  square  miles. 
It  is  now,  however,  restricted  to  the  station  itself.  Municipal  income, 
1881-82,  ;2f5964;  expenditure,  £si9^. 

Darkuti.— One  of  the  petty  Punjab  Hill  States  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Punjab.  The  Rana  of  Darkoti,  Ram  Singh,  is  a  Rajput. 
When  the  Gvirkhas  were  driven  out  of  the  hills,  the  British  Government 
confirmed  the  chief  in  possession  of  this  State,  which,  owing  to  its 
smallness,  pays  no  tribute.  The  area  is  5  square  miles.  Lat.  (centre) 
31'  7'  o"  N.,  long.  77°  38'  30"  E.     Population  (1881)  590.     Revenue, 

Dannan. — Town  in  Shakargarh  fahsil,  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab. 
Population  (1881)  1618,  namely,  1242  Hindus  and  376  Muhamma- 
dans; number  of  houses,  251.  A  third-class  municipality,  with  a 
revenue  in  1882-83  of  £S2>  ]  expenditure,  £s^ ;  average  incidence 
of  taxation,  8d.  per  head  of  population.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a 
colony  of  Pahari  Mahajans. 

Daro. — Village  in  the  Shahbandar  Sub-division,  Karachi  (Kurrachee) 
District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.  Population  (1881)  about  1000, 
mainly  agricultural.  The  Pinyari  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  masonry 
bridge  of  six  spans,  each  25  feet  wide.  Police  station;  dharmsdla, 
or  rest-house ;  catde  pound.  Has  road  communication  with  Mirpur 
Batora,  8  miles  distant,  with  Belo,  and  with  Bano. 

Darod. — Petty  State  in  Jhalawar  Division,  Kathiawar  Province, 
Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists  of  i  village,  with  2  independent  tribute- 
payers.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at  ;£"ii8  ;  tribute  of  ^36,  12s.  is  paid 
to  the  British  Government,  and  oi  £^  to  the  Nawab  of  Junagarh. 

Darrang  (Durrung).  —  District  forming  a  portion  of  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  in  the  Province  of  Assam.  It  lies  between 
26°  12'  30"  and  27°  2  30"  N.  lat.,  and  between  91°  45'  and  93°  50'  e. 
long.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bhutia,  Aka,  and  Daphla  Hills ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Maramarnai  river,  separating  it  from  Lakhirapur 


142  DARRANG. 

District ;  on  the  south  by  the  Brahmaputra ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Kamriip  District.  Area,  3418-26  square  miles.  Population  (1881) 
273,333  persons.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of 
Tezpur,  situated  near  the  confluence  of  the  Bhairavi  with  the  Brahma- 
putra. 

Physical  Aspects. — Darrang  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  shut 
in  between  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Himalayas  and  the  Brahmaputra. 
Its  total  length  is  126  miles  from  east  to  west,  with  an  average  width 
of  about  25  miles.  Numerous  rivers  and  streams  cross  it,  flowing 
southwards  from  the  hills ;  and  the  general  level  is  broken  by  a  range 
of  low  hills,  from  200  to  500  feet  high,  which  sweep  outwards  in  a 
crescent  shape  from  the  Bhairavi  to  the  Brahmaputra,  covering  an  area 
of  about  25  square  miles.  The  population  of  the  District  is  sparse, 
and  the  area  under  cultivation  is  still  very  limited.  Extensive  tracts 
are  overgrown  with  dense  reed  and  cane  jungle,  characteristic  of 
the  Brahmaputra  valley,  amid  which  occur  rare  patches  of  rice  culti- 
vation. Virgin  forests  cover  a  large  portion  of  the  region  which  lies 
under  the  northern  hills.  Forest  reserves,  from  which  timber-cutting 
and  juin  cultivation  are  carefully  excluded,  have  recently  been  declared 
by  the  Government  over  an  aggregate  area  of  272  square  miles.  In 
1880-81,  the  total  amount  of  revenue  realized  from  the  direct  sale  of 
timber,  and  from  royalties  on  the  sale  of  timber,  amounted  to  £,2^^^. 
Wild  animals  of  all  kinds  abound,  including  elephants,  rhinoceros, 
buffaloes,  bison,  and  tigers.  In  1879,  it  was  found  necessary  to  revise 
the  rates  paid  for  the  destruction  of  wild  animals.  The  following  is  the 
present  (1883)  sanctioned  scale  for  Darrang  District: — Tigers,  ;£'2 ; 
leopards,  los. ;  bears,  ;^i  ;  hyaenas,  5s.  During  1880-81,  £\^2  was 
paid  on  this  account.  Wild  elephants  occasionally  do  considerable 
damage  to  the  crops.  The  right  of  capturing  these  animals  has  recently 
been  placed  under  restrictions,  and  was  leased  out  in  1882-83  for 
;^2  56.  Gold- washing  is  carried  on  in  several  of  the  hill  streams, 
especially  in  the  Bhairavi.  Limestone  of  an  inferior  quality  is  found  in 
the  west  of  the  District ;  and  travertine,  containing  as  much  as  90  per 
cent,  of  lime,  has  been  discovered  just  beyond  the  British  frontier. 
Coal,  also,  is  known  to  exist  outside  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
District,  but  not,  it  is  believed,  in  valuable  quantities  or  of  good 
quality. 

The  great  river  of  Darrang  is  the  Brahmaputra,  which  forms  the 
continuous  southern  boundary,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers  all  the 
year  through.  Among  its  tributaries,  the  five  following  are  navigable 
for  large  native  boats : — The  Bhairavi,  Ghiladari,  Dhaneswari  (Jia 
Dhansiri),  Nonai,  and  Bar  Nadi.  These  all-  rise  in  the  mountains 
beyond  the  frontier,  and  flow  nearly  due  south  into  the  Brahmaputra. 
There  are  about  26  minor  streams,  which  only  become  practicable  for 


DARRANG.  143 

small  boats  during  the  rains.  Some  of  the  rivers,  immediately  after 
leaving  the  hills,  sink  beneath  the  sandy  soil,  and  reappear  several 
miles  lower  down.  There  are  no  lakes  or  artificial  watercourses  in  the 
District.  Two  embankments  have  been  made  for  purposes  of  cultiva- 
tion, to  restrain  the  flood-waters  of  the  Brahmaputra  and  Bar  Nadi ; 
and  the  old  roads  of  the  Aham  Rajas,  known  as  Raj  All's,  usually  run 
along  raised  earthen  banks. 

History. — Darrang  District  possesses  no  history  apart  from  Assam 
generally.  Besides  sharing  in  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Province,  it  has 
experienced  special  troubles  of  its  own,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the 
wild  Bhutia  and  Daphla  tribes.  Archaeological  evidence  and  local 
tradition  attest  the  existence  of  Hindu  civilisation  high  up  the  Brahma- 
putra valley  in  very  early  times.  The  hills  encircling  the  town  of 
Tezpur  are  still  covered  with  ruins,  hidden  among  the  jungle,  which 
reveal  the  traces  of  temples  and  palaces  such  as  could  only  have 
been  erected  by  a  powerful  dynasty.  The  building  materials  used  were 
gigantic  blocks  of  granite,  which  appear  to  have  been  supplied  by  the 
immediate  neighbourhood.  These  blocks  were  carefully  hewn  to  form 
altars,  columns,  and  porticoes,  and  many  of  them  are  profusely  orna- 
mented with  carvings  in  basso-relievo,  among  which  the  emblems  of 
Siva  are  conspicuous.  It  is  conjectured,  from  the  appearance  of  the 
ruins,  that  these  buildings  must  have  been  overthrown  by  the  hand  of 
some  invader ;  and  local  tradition  points  to  Kala  Pahar,  the  General 
of  Sulaiman,  King  of  Bengal,  as  the  author  of  the  sacrilege.  Another 
legend  is  preserved  in  the  Prem  Sagar,  which  relates  the  battles  between 
Ban  Raja  and  the  god  Krishna.  Ban  Raja's  name  is  associated  with 
many  of  the  ruins  near  Tezpur.  He  was  a  demi-god,  sixth  in  descent 
from  Brahma,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  worship  of  Siva  into 
Assam.  After  the  downfall  of  the  early  Hindu  kingdom,  however  that 
may  have  been  brought  about,  Darrang,  like  the  rest  of  Assam,  relapsed 
into  primitive  barbarism.  The  Ahams,  a  wild  tribe,  of  Shan  origin, 
from  the  Burmese  Hills,  first  entered  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra 
about  the  13th  century,  and  very  gradually  advanced  downwards.  The 
Ahams  organized  their  conquered  territory  with  minute  precision,  and 
held  their  own  until  the  advent  of  the  British.  Though  they  have 
given  their  name  to  the  Province,  it  is  surprising  to  find  how  small  are 
their  present  numbers. 

But  the  Ahams,  though  undisputed  masters  of  the  valley,  never 
extended  their  sway  far  from  the  river  banks.  In  the  present  admini- 
stration of  Darrang  District  is  still  to  be  traced  a  curious  relic  of 
fluctuating  jurisdiction.  A  tract  of  country  extending  along  the  foot  of 
the  northern  hill  ranges  is  said  to  have  been  ceded  by  the  Aham  Raja 
to  the  Bhutias  for  a  period  of  eight  months  in  each  year,  in  order  to 
afford  them  the  means  of  cultivating  rice  and  other  necessaries,  which 


144  DARRANG. 

they  could  not  raise  on  their  own  bleak  mountains.  In  consideration 
of  this  grant,  the  Bhutias  were  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Aham 
Raja  of  articles  produced  and  manufactured  in  the  mountains ;  while 
the  latter  was  to  retain  his  jurisdiction  over  the  tract  for  the  remaining 
four  months  of  the  year,  from  about  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle 
of  October.  This  arrangement  was  continued  during  the  few  first  years 
after  the  British  conquest  of  Assam.  But  in  1840,  the  claims  of  the 
Bhutia  chiefs  were  commuted  for  a  money  payment  of  ;^5oo  a  year, 
which  was  calculated  as  the  equivalent  of  the  average  emoluments  they 
derived  from  the  land.  The  revenue  at  present  derived  by  the  British 
Government  from  the  '  debateable'  tract  amounts  to  ;^5i83. 

The  Bhutias  here  referred  to  are  commonly  known  as  the  Towang 
Bhutias,  and  are  independent  of  the  State  of  Bhutan,  being  directly 
subject  to  the  Government  of  Lhasa.  They  carry  on  a  consider- 
able trade  direct  with  Tibet,  and  have  uniformly  manifested  a  quiet 
and  friendly  attitude.  Next  to  the  Bhutias  on  the  east,  come  the 
Akas  or  Hrusso,  a  small  tribe,  who  used  formerly  to  commit  frequent 
raids  on  British  territory.  They  receive  posd  or  black-mail  to  the 
amount  of  ;£"7o  a  year.  Even  so  recently  as  1883,  the  Akas,  in  assert- 
ing a  claim  to  a  tract  of  land  which  had  been  declared  a  forest  reserve, 
raided  upon  British  territory,  and  carried  away  the  native  forest  officers 
as  hostages  into  their  hills.  A  military  expedition  was  necessary  to  punish 
the  offending  tribe,  and  to  effect  the  release  of  the  captives.  See  article 
Akas,  vol.  I.  pp.  135-6.  Farther  east,  again,  are  the  Daphlas,  whose 
native  mountains  extend  along  the  neighbouring  District  of  Lakhimpur. 
The  Daphlas  are  a  tribe  of  whom  little  was  known  prior  to  the  recent 
frontier  expedition,  which  was  caused  by  their  wanton  outrages  on 
British  subjects.  In  the  year  1872,  the  village  of  Amtola,  occupied  by 
Daphla  settlers,  was  attacked  by  a  strong  party  of  hill  Daphlas,  and  44 
persons  were  carried  off  to  the  mountains.  It  was  ascertained  that  this 
raid  had  no  political  significance.  The  object  was  merely  to  seize  a 
number  of  slaves  as  an  equivalent  for  certain  of  their  own  people  who 
had  died  of  disease,  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  plains. 
The  Daphla  Hills  were  forthwith  blockaded  by  a  strong  force  of  police, 
stationed  in  blockhouses  at  all  the  passes.  The  police  were  subse- 
quently replaced  by  military ;  but  this  method  of  pressure  was  found 
ineffectual.  Accordingly,  in  the  cold  season  of  1874-75,  an  armed 
force  entered  the  hills,  and,  without  encountering  any  opposition, ; 
achieved  the  release  of  all  the  surviving  captives.  ; 

Population. — In  1840,  the  population  of  Darrang  was  estimated  at 
about  80,000.     The  first  regular  Census  was  taken  in  1872,  when  the 
population  was  ascertained  to  be  236,009.     At  the  last  enumeration  in  , 
1881,    Darrang   contained   a   total   population    of   273,333,  being  an  j 
increase  of  37,324  in  the  nine  years  since  1872.     The  results  arrived  at 


DARRANG.  145 

by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: — Area 
of  District,  3418  square  miles;  number  of  villages,  1672;  number 
of  houses,  49)172.  Total  population,  273,333,  namely,  142,418 
males  and  130,915  females;  average  density,  79-9  persons  per 
square  mile  ;  villages  per  square  mile,  0*49  ;  persons  per  village,  163  ; 
houses  per  square  mile,  14*4;  persons  per  occupied  house,  5*5. 
Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were: — Hindus,  251,838; 
Muhammadans,  14,677;  Christians,  371;  Buddhists,  723;  Jains,  27; 
Brahmos,  18;  hill  tribes  professing  aboriginal  religions,  4852.  In 
Darrang,  as  in  the  rest  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  a  great 
proportion  of  the  population  are  of  aboriginal  descent,  numbering 
143,467,  although  they  have  now  nearly  all  embraced  Hinduism.  Of 
the  aboriginal  tribes,  the  most  numerous  are  the  Kachari's,  numbering 
72,200,  with  their  cognate  tribe  of  Rabhas,  15,090.  The  Kochs 
number  42,061.  The  other  tribes  consist  of  Ahams,  the  former 
rulers  of  the  Province,  3312  in  number,  with  the  cognate  Chutiyas, 
1362;  Bhutias,  723;  Daphlas,  339;  Garos,  84;  Madahis,  2140; 
Miki'rs,  1315  ;  Mirfs,  31 13;  Santals,  immigrants  from  Chutia  Nagpur, 
employed  on  the  tea-gardens,  1728.  Of  the  foregoing  tribes,  all, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bhutias,  who  are  Buddhists,  and  the  Daphlas, 
Mikirs,  and  Miris,  who  practise  different  forms  of  aboriginal  demon- 
worship,  are  returned  in  the  Census  Report  as  Hindus  by  religion.  Of 
Hindus  proper  Brahmans  number  8929  ;  Ganaks,  an  inferior  caste  of 
mendicant  Brahmans  who  practise  astrology,  number  8798;  Kshatris, 
724 ;  and  Kayasths,  2464.  Of  the  lower  castes,  by  far  the  most  numerous 
is  the  Kalita,  24,460,  the  ancient  priesthood  of  Assam,  who  are  now 
admitted  to  Hinduism  as  pure  Siidras ;  Katanis  or  Jugi,  silk-weavers, 
16,609;  Kent  or  Kewat,  fishermen,  13,970;  Dom,  fishermen,  a  de- 
graded caste  in  Bengal,  but  with  high  assertions  to  ceremonial  purity 
in  Assam,  9418;  Boria,  3002;  Kiirmis,  2086.  The  Muhammadans  are 
almost  without  exception  of  the  Sunni  sect.  They  are  for  the  most 
part  comparatively  well  off,  but  the  religion  of  Islam  has  ceased 
to  make  further  progress  in  the  District  by  conversion.  Of  the 
Christian  population,  235  are  natives.  The  Church  of  England 
numbers  287  adherents;  33  are  Presbyterians,  25  Baptists,  and  21 
Roman  Catholics.  The  native  Christians  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  the  Kachari  tribe,  among  whom  is  established  a  Mission  of  the 
Church  of  England.  A  masonry  church  has  been  built,  and  an  annual 
allowance  of  ^150  is  made  by  Government  towards  the  maintenance 
jOf  the  mission  schools.  As  a  class,  the  native  Christian  community 
fnay  be  said  to  be  tolerably  well  off.  The  Brahma  Samaj  has  a 
meeting-house  at  Tezpur  town,  established  in  1872;  but  the  members 
consist  entirely  of  immigrant  Bengalis,  mostly  engaged  in  Government 
service.     Jain  traders  are  settled  at  Tezpur  town  and  at  Nalbari. 

VOL.  IV.  K 


146  DARRANG. 

As  throughout  the  rest  of  Assam,  the  entire  population  is  absolutely 
rural.  Out  of  1672  villages  in  the  District,  only  51  contain  upwards 
of  a  thousand  inhabitants,  while  1299  have  less  than  two  hundred,  316 
from  two  to  five  hundred,  and  54  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand 
inhabitants.  The  largest  place  in  the  District  is  Tezpur  town,  with 
only  2910  inhabitants  ;  next  comes  the  Sub-divisional  station  of 
Mangaldai.  Other  places  of  some  importance  as  trading  centres,  or 
as  containing  the  residences  of  wealthy  men,  are  Biswanath  (Bishnath), 
Hawala  Mohanpur,  Nalbari,  and  Kuruagaon.  Generally  speaking,  the 
people  are  well  off.  Their  wants  are  few,  and  the  land  is  held  on  easy 
terms,  subject  to  an  annual  re-settlement.  Numerous  ruins  are 
scattered  over  the  hills  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tezpur. 

Agriculture. — The  one  staple  harvest  of  the  District  is  rice,  grown  in 
two  crops.  The  sdli  crop,  corresponding  to  the  dma7i  of  Bengal,  sown 
on  low  lands  and  reaped  in  the  winter,  furnishes  much  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  the  food-supply.  The  diis  crop  is  sown  broadcast  on  high 
lands,  and  reaped  in  the  early  summer,  when  the  field  is  again  available 
for  a  second  or  cold  weather  crop  of  oil-seeds  or  pulses.  Agricultural 
statistics,  which  are  more  trustworthy  in  Assam  than  in  Bengal,  show 
that  the  area  under  rice  greatly  increased  between  1850  and  1866,  but 
has  since  diminished.  In  1880-81,  the  total  cultivated  area  was  returned 
at  221,864  acres,  thus  divided  :— Rice,  260,671  acres;  mustard,  7565; 
sugar-cane,  191 2;  kaldi,  6453;  tea,  15,041;  and  other  crops,  31,034 
acres.  Of  the  total  area  returned  as  under  cultivation,  10,193  acres 
produced  more  than  one  crop  during  the  year.  The  aggregate  out-turn 
of  rice,  oil-seeds,  and  pulses,  is  estimated  at  nearly  3  million  cwts.,  with 
a  value  of  ^^400,000.  The  land  is  divided  into  three  classes,  paying 
rent  to  Government  at  the  following  rates,  which  have  remained  fixed 
since  1868  : — Basti,  or  homestead  land,  on  which  vegetables,  etc.  are 
grown,  6s.  an  acre  ;  nipit^  or  moist  lands,  suited  for  sdli  rice,  3s.  pd. 
an  acre;  pharifighati,  for  dus  rice  and  second  crops,  3s.  an  acre. 
The  out-turn  from  an  acre,  whether  of  rupit  or  pharifighati  land,  is 
estimated  at  16J  cwts.,  valued  at  about  ^2,  5s.  The  peasantry  are 
fairly  well  off,  and  generally  free  from  debt ;  their  present  comfort- 
able condition  affords  a  striking  contrast  to  the  miseries  from  which 
they  were  relieved  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Burmese  in  1825.  At  the 
present  day,  a  laborious  and  skilful  husbandman  is  able  to  cultivate 
4  acres  of  sdli  rice,  i\  acre  of  mustard  seed,  a  similar  area  under 
pulses,  and  about  one-third  of  an  acre  each  of  sugar-cane  and  veget- 
ables. Seven  acres  of  land  would  make  a  comfortable,  fair -sized 
holding  for  a  cultivator ;  a  small  one  would  consist  of  three  acres 
of  moist  and  about  half  an  acre  of  dry  land.  An  ordinary  pair  of 
bullocks  can  cultivate  from  5 J  to  6  acres.  All  the  cultivators  hold 
their  land  direct  from  Government ;   their  tenure  is  permanent  and 


DARRANG.  147 

transferable,  and  subject  to  a  moderate  rent,  which  is  liable  to  enhance- 
ment from  time  to  time.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  in  favour  of 
lakhirdj  lands,  or  grants  held  either  rent-free  or  at  a  very  low  rental. 
Manure  is  nowhere  commonly  used.  Irrigation  is  only  practised 
in  the  tract  under  the  hills  inhabited  by  the  Kacharis,  who  are  very 
industrious  in  leading  the  streams  through  artificial  channels  over  their 
rice-fields,  and  frequently  combine  with  one  another  to  effect  this 
operation  on  a  large  scale.  Rupit  lands  are  cultivated  continuously 
with  the  sail  rice  crop ;  but  pharmghati  lands,  which  generally  bear 
two  crops  in  the  year,  are  occasionally  allowed  to  lie  fallow.  There 
is  abundance  of  cultivable  waste  in  all  parts  of  the  District;  but 
the  heavy  grass  jungle  and  forest  with  which  it  is  now  overgrown 
would  be  very  expensive  to  clear.  There  are  no  present  indications 
among  the  people  towards  the  growth  of  a  distinct  class  of  day- 
labourers,  neither  possessing  nor  renting  land.  Indeed,  the  tendency 
appears  to  be  in  the  opposite  direction.  Those  who  have  no  land  hire 
themselves  out  by  the  month  as  labourers  on  the  tea-gardens,  and  soon 
save  enough  money  to  buy  a  pair  of  bullocks  and  rent  a  small  patch  of 
land. 

The  rate  of  wages  and  the  price  of  food-grains  have  both  risen  about 
three-fold  within  the  last  twenty  years.  In  1880-81,  an  ordinary  labourer 
received  from  6d.  to  8d.  a  day.  Agricultural  labourers  are  paid  in 
kind,  and  frequently  live  in  the  houses  of  their  employers.  But  labour 
of  all  kinds  is  extremely  scarce.  The  inhabitants  have  a  passion  for 
cultivating  their  own  plots  of  land,  and  a  short  period  of  work  on  a  tea- 
garden  furnishes  them  with  the  capital  necessary  to  purchase  a  pair  of 
bullocks  and  the  few  implements  required.  In  1881,  common  rice  was 
selling  at  6s.  lod.  a  cwt. ;  fine  rice,  which  is  usually  imported  from 
Bengal,  at  8s.  iid.  a  cwt.  The  highest  prices  known  to  have  been 
reached  in  Darrang  were  in  1857-58,  when  common  rice  fetched  more 
than  £1  a  cwt. 

Darrang  is  not  exposed  to  either  of  the  natural  calamities  of  flood  or 
drought,  and  blight  has  never  been  known  to  have  seriously  injured  the 
crops.  In  the  event  of  excessive  inundations,  compensation  would  be 
found  in  the  increased  fertility  of  the  uplands;  and  similarly,  if  the 
ramfall  were  ever  to  prove  deficient,  the  drying  up  of  the  swamps  would 
offer  new  fields  to  cultivation.  The  single  famine  recorded  in  Darrang 
was  caused,  not  by  the  failure  of  the  crops,  but  by  the  invasion  of  the 
Burmese  in  the  early  years  of  the  present  century. 

Manufactures,  ^/<:.-— The  only  indigenous  manufacture  in  Darrang  is 

that  of  silk-weaving.     The  silk  is  of  two  kinds,  known  as  erid  and  iimgd. 

Ihe  former  is  the  produce  of  the  worm   Phalaena  cynthia,  which  is 

\  reared  almost  entirely  in-doors,  and  fed  on  the  leaves  of  the  Ricinus 

\  <^ommunis  or  castor-oil  plant.     The  mugd  worm,  or  Phalaena  saturnia,  is 


148  DARRANG. 

fed  on  certain  forest  trees  in  the  open  air,  but  also  requires  careful 
tending.  The  entire  manufacture  is  carried  on  without  capital  or 
division  of  labour.  Each  individual  spins,  weaves,  and  dyes  his  own 
web ;  yet  some  of  the  fabrics  attain  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  and 
are  bought  up  for  export  by  the  Mdrwari  traders.  There  are  minor 
industries  in  certain  villages  of  brass-work  and  pottery.  The  braziers, 
called  Marias,  form  a  community  by  themselves. 

The  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  tea  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means 
of  European  capital  and  under  European  supervision.  In  1 88 1,  there 
were  altogether  122  tea-gardens  in  Darrang  District,  managed  by  14 
European  assistants  and  138  native  officials.  The  total  area  under 
mature  plant  was  12,123  acres,  the  out-turn  amounting  to  4,079,123153. 
The  number  of  imported  labourers  employed  was  14,007,  of  whom  3726 
were  under  contract  under  the  Emigration  Act. 

The  external  commerce  of  the  District  is  conducted  by  means  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  which  is  navigable  by  steamers  all  the  year  through.  The 
local  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Marwari  immigrants,  chiefly  from  Bikaner 
and  Jodhpur  States.  The  principal  exports  are  tea,  oil-seeds,  silk  cloth, 
and  miscellaneous  forest  produce  brought  in  by  the  hill  tribes.  The 
imports  consist  of  cotton  and  woollen  cloth,  salt,  fine  rice,  dried  fruits, 
spices,  etc.  The  permanent  centres  of  trade  are  Tezpur,  Mangaldai, 
and  BiswANATH.  Weekly  markets  are  held  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  tea-gardens.  Annual  trading  fairs  have  been  instituted  in  certain 
villages  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  hills,  in  order  to  encourage 
intercourse  with  the  Bhutias.  The  most  important  of  these  is  at 
Udalguri,  on  the  north-west  frontier.  The  principal  articles  brought 
for  sale  by  the  Bhutias  are — ponies,  blankets,  salt,  wax,  gold,  lac,  and 
musk ;  in  return  for  which  they  carry  away  rice,  cotton  and  silk  cloth 
of  native  manufacture,  and  brass-ware.  This  gathering  lasts  for  three  or 
four  weeks.  In  1881-82,  the  total  value  of  the  articles  interchanged 
was  valued  at  ;£"3i,325,  the  balance  of  trade  being  greatly  in  favour  of 
the  Bhutias. 

Apart  from  the  main  highway  of  the  Brahmaputra,  means  of  com- 
munication  are  somewhat    defective.      Second  in  importance  is  the  | 
Assam  Northern  Trunk  Road,  which  runs  through  the  entire  length  of  | 
the  District  for  a  distance  of  143  miles.     There  are  several  minor  roads  I 
crossing  north  and  south,  and  an  elephant  path,  or  hdthi poti,  skirts  con- 
tinuously the  base  of  the  Bhutan  Hills.     The  rivers  are  generally  crossed  | 
by  ferries.      The  total  length  of  roads  in  the  District  is  returned  at  571 
miles,  and  of  navigable  rivers  at  230  miles. 

Administration. — In  1870-71,  the  net  revenue  of  Darrang  District 
amounted  to  ^66,654,  towards  which  the  land  contributed  £z^,S^h 
and  opium,  ^19,158  ;  the  expenditure  was  ;^2 6,461,  of  which  £99^1 
was  for  the  commission  of  the  vianzdddrs  or  fiscal  officials.     In  1881-82, 


DARRANG,  ^^^ 

the  net  revenue  had  increased  to  ;^88,87i,  of  which  the  land  revenue 
amounted  to  ;^45595i5  and  the  excise  to  ;£'3 1,823.  The  civil 
expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  ^£25,225.  The  land  revenue  has 
nearly  trebled  within  the  past  thirty  years,  having  amounted  in  1850  to 
only;^i5,668.  In  1880-81,  there  were  2  European  covenanted  officers 
stationed  in  the  District,  and  10  magisterial  and  4  civil  and  revenue 
courts  open.  For  police  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  6  ihdrids 
or  police  circles.  In  1881,  the  regular  police  force  numbered  290 
officers  and  men,  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  ^,^5237.  These  figures 
show  I  policeman  to  every  11 -8  square  miles  of  the  area,  or  to  every 
942  of  the  population,  and  an  average  cost  of  £^\,  los.  8d.  per  square 
mile,  or  4|d.  per  head  of  population.  There  is  no  municipal  police  in 
Darrang,  and  the  chaiikiddrs  or  village  watch  of  Bengal  are  not  found 
anywhere  in  Assam  proper.  The  District  contains  i  jail  at  Tezpur 
Station  and  i  Sub-divisional  lock-up  at  Mangaldai.  In  1881,  the  daily 
average  number  of  prisoners  was  203-30,  of  whom  6-45  were  females. 
These  figures  show  i  person  in  jail  to  every  1346  of  the  population. 
The  total  cost  amounted  to  ^£"1348,  or  jT^d,  12s.  3d.  per  prisoner. 

Education  does  not  make  such  progress  in  Darrang  as  in  the  wealthy 
Districts  of  Bengal,  but  yet  some  improvement  has  been  exhibited  in 
recent  years.  In  1856,  the  total  number  of  schools  was  20,  attended 
by  613  pupils.  The  figures  of  1870  show  a  positive  decrease  ;  but  by 
1880-81,  when  Sir  G.  Campbell's  reforms  had  come  into  operation, 
the  inspected  schools  had  increased  to  97,  and  the  pupils  to  2655. 
These  figures  show  i  school  to  every  35  square  miles,  and  7  pupils  to 
every  thousand  of  the  population.  The  Government  high  school  at 
Tezpur  teaches  up  to  the  matriculation  standard  of  the  Calcutta 
University.  The  Census  of  1881  returned  1484  boys  and  15  girls 
under  instruction,  and  2795  adult  males  and  88  adult  females  able 
to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruction.  The  normal  school  at 
Tezpur  is  under  the  management  of  the  English  Church  Mission. 

The  District  is  divided  into  2  administrative  Sub-divisions,  and  into 
7  thdnds  or  police  circles,  as  under — (i)  Tezpur  Sub-division,  containing 
the  police  circles  of  Tezpur,  Khariapara,  Chatia,  and  Gohpur;  and 
(2)  Mangaldai,  containing  the  police  circles  of  Mangaldai,  Kalaigaon, 
and  Chatgdri.  There  are  9  maJidls  or  fiscal  divisions,  corresponding 
to  the  pargands  of  Bengal,  containing  an  aggregate  of  1 1 1  inauzds  or 
revenue  estates.     There  is  no  municipality  in  the  District. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Darrang  does  not  differ  from  that 
common  to  the  whole  of  the  Assam  valley.  The  north-east  monsoon, 
which  marks  the  opening  of  the  cold  season,  sets  in  about  the  begin- 
ning of  November,  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  April.  It  is  frequendy 
interrupted  in  March  by  heavy  winds  from  the  south-west,  but  the 
south-west  monsoon  proper  lasts  from  May  to  October.     The  annual 


1 50  DARRANGIRI—DARSL 

rainfall  for  the  five  years  ending  1 880-81  averaged   77*07   inches  at 
Tezpur  and  66*92  inches  at  Mangaldai. 

The  prevalent  diseases  are  intermittent  fevers — generally  quotidian  or 
irregular — dysentery  and  diarrhoea,  goitre,  epilepsy.  Dyspepsia  is  said 
to  be  common  among  the  numerous  class  of  opium-eaters.  Small-pox 
breaks  out  almost  every  year,  in  consequence  of  the  practice  of  inocula- 
tion. In  recent  years,  cholera  has  repeatedly  manifested  itself  with 
extreme  epidemic  violence,  and  with  most  fatal  results.  In  1874,  out 
of  a  total  of  8061  deaths  reported  throughout  the  District,  as  many  as 
2997  were  assigned  to  cholera,  showing  a  mortality  from  this  cause 
alone  of  12*6  per  thousand.  The  total  mortality  for  that  year  was  at 
the  rate  of  34'!  per  housand,  being  the  highest  death-rate  recorded  in 
any  of  the  Assam  Districts,  and  more  than  double  the  rate  in  Darrang 
for  the  previous  year.  In  1882,  the  number  of  registered  deaths 
was  7840,  or  at  the  rate  of  28*68  per  thousand  of  the  population.  A 
contagious  disorder  is  common  among  the  cattle  of  Darrang,  which  is 
thought  to  have  been  introduced  by  imported  buffaloes  from  Bengal. 
The  chief  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  excessive  thirst,  high 
temperature  of  the  body,  and  watery  evacuation.  The  proportion  of 
deaths  among  the  animals  attacked  is  very  high.  Two  charitable 
dispensaries  afford  medical  relief  to  the  poor.  [For  further  information 
regarding  Darrang  District,  see  'R.ohmsow''?,  Descriptive  Account  of  Assam 
(London,  1841);  M'Cosh's  Topography  of  Assam  (Calcutta,  1837); 
Assam  Census  Report  of  1881  ;  together  with  the  Provincial  Administra- 
tion a7id  Departmental  Reports  for  the  three  years  ending  1883.] 

Darrangiri. — Village  in  the  Garo  Hills  District,  Assam  ;  situated 
in  lat.  25°  46'  N.,  long.  90°  56'  e.,  on  the  Someswari  river,  near  which  a 
fine  out-crop  of  coal  strata  is  to  be  seen.  The  coal-field  is  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  Someswari  river  ;  it  is  about  ten  miles  in  length  from 
west  to  east,  and  about  six  miles  in  breadth  from  north  to  south. 
Within  these  limits  the  coal  measures  occupy  an  area  of  about  fifty 
square  miles.  The  coal  in  the  eastern  half  is  not  of  a  good  quality,  but 
that  in  the  western  half,  covering  an  area  of  twenty  square  miles,  gives 
at  least  one  seam  of  coal  of  good  quality  of  a  thickness  sufficient  to  be 
worked  profitably.  The  amount  of  coal  to  be  obtained  from  the  seam 
is  estimated  at  76,000,000  tons. 

Darsenda. — Tahsil  and  pargand  in  Banda  District,  North-Western 
Provinces. — See  Kumharsin. 

Darsi. — Zanmiddri  tdluk,  or  Sub-division,  Nellore  District,  Madras 
Presidency.  Area,  616  square  miles  ;  containing  118  villages  ;  houses, 
12,174.  Population  (1881)  68,164,  namely,  34,442  males  and  33,722 
females.     Chief  town,  Darsi. 

Darsi  {Ddrische).  —  Town  in  the  Darsi  tdluk,  Nellore  District, 
Madras  Presidency  ;  situated  in  lat.  15°  48'  N.,  long.  79°  44'  e.,  30  miles 


DAR  WA—DAR  YABAD, 


151 


north-west  of  Ongole.  Population  (1881)  231 1,  namely,  1890  Hindus, 
189  Muhammadans,  and  232  Christians;  number  of  houses,  389.  As 
the  head-quarters  of  the  taluk,  Darsi  possesses  the  usual  native  sub- 
ordinate establishments,  police  station,  and  post-office. 

Darwa. — Tlf////^  of  Wtin  District,  Berar.  Area,  1062  square  miles; 
contains  323  villages.  Population  (1881)  132,788,  namely,  68,468 
males  and  64,320  females,  or  125  persons  per  square  mile;  houses 
per  square  mile,  24;  persons  per  house,  5*5.  Since  1872,  the  popula- 
tion has  increased  by  37,089.  Hindus  number  124,084,  or  more  than 
93  per  cent;  Muhammadans,  7804;  Jains,  880;  Sikhs,  19;  and 
Christian,  i.  The  agricultural  population  in  1881  numbered  98,031  ; 
cultivated  area,  524  square  miles;  cultivable,  but  waste,  322;  uncul- 
tivable  waste,  215.  Total  revenue,  ^^26,923,  of  which  ^20,049  was 
derived  from  the  land.  In  1883,  the  taluk  contained  i  civil  and  2  criminal 
courts;  police  stations  {thdnds),  8;  regular  police,  102  men;  village 
watchmen  {chaukiddrs),  217. 

Darwa. — Town  and  head-quarters  of  Darwa  tdluk,  Wun  District, 
Berar,  Central  India.  Lat.  20°  18'  30"  n.,  long.  77°  49'  o"  e.  Situated 
24  miles  w.s.w.  of  Yeotmal,  the  head-quarters  town  of  Wiin  District, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  metalled  road.  Darwa  lies  in  a  basin 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  hills.  Contains  a  police  station,  post- 
office,  travellers'  bungalow,  and  school.  An  ancient  town,  formerly  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  Bhonsla  chiefs.  Municipal  revenue  (1881),  ^339  ; 
houses,  854;  population  (1881),  3842. 

Darwani. — Village  and  head-quarters  of  a  police  circle  {thdnd),  in 
Rangpur  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  25°  53'  15"  n.,  long.  ^Z°  55'  15"  e. 
Seat  of  an  annual  fair  of  considerable  importance,  at  which  cattle  and 
horses  form  the  principal  articles  of  sale. 

Daryabad. — Pargand  in  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh  ;  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Bado  Sarai,  on  the  east  by  the  Gogra  (Ghagra)  river,  and 
on  the  south  by  Basohri  pargand.  Daryabad  is  said  to  be  gradually 
increasing  its  area,  owing  to  the  recession  of  the  Gogra  towards  the  east. 
The  present  course  of  that  river  is  now  about  8  miles  east  of  its  ancient 
bank,  the  intervening  ground  being  comparatively  low.  Area,  214 
square  miles,  of  which  137  are  cultivated.  Of  the  241  villages  which 
comprise  iht  pargand,  no  are  held  under^  tdlukddri  and  131  under 
zaminddri  tenure,  the  principal  landholders  being  Surajbans  Kshatriyas. 
Cultivated  area  in  acres — rice,  26,023;  wheat,  23,801;  jodr,  1097; 
jodr  and  bdjra,  500 ;  sugar-cane,  2063 ;  barley,  5479 ;  gram,  5000 ; 
poppy,  802;  vegetables,  215;  oil-seeds,  400;  miscellaneous,  18,434. 
Population  (1881)  66,188  males  and  62,456  females.  Thispargandis  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Satnami  sect  of  Hindus.  The  founder  of  the  creed, 
Baba  Jagjuvan  Das,  was  born  here,  and  the  present  religious  head  of 
the  sect,  Baba  Jaskaran  Das,  is  his  descendant  in  the  twelfth  generation. 


1 5  2  DAR  YABAD—DASARA, 

Daryabdd.— Town  in  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh  ;  situated  on  the 
high  road  from  Lucknow  to  Faizabad  (Fyzabad),  about  24  miles  east  of 
Nawabganj.  Lat.  26°  53'  n.,  long.  81°  36'  E.  Founded  about  450  years 
ago  by  a  deputy  {subahddr)  of  Sultdn  Ibrahim  Sharki.  Formerly  the 
head-quarters  of  the  District,  but  some  years  ago  the  Government  offices 
and  courts  were  transferred  to  Nawabganj,  owing  to  the  unhealthiness 
of  the  place,  induced  by  its  low  swampy  situation.  Daryabad  has  since 
declined  in  importance ;  but  it  contains  a  few  fine  houses,  the  principal 
being  the  residence  of  the  tdliikddr  of  Rampur.  Population  (1881), 
Hindus,  2896;  Muhammadans,  2466;  and  Jains,  176:  total,  5538. 
Two  markets  ;  flourishing  Government  English  school. 

Darya  Kheri.— Thdkurate  or  Petty  State  held  by  Thakur  Ranjit 
Singh  as  a  guaranteed  Girasia,  under  the  Bhopal  Agency  of  Central 
India.  Area,  about  6  square  miles.  The  Thakur  receives  a  pecuniary 
allowance  {tankhd)  of  £\\^  from  Gwalior,  Dewas,  and  Bhopal  in  lieu 
of  former  rights  over  land.  He  also  holds  a  grant  of  two  villages  in 
Shujdwalpur  under  the  guarantee  of  the  British  Government,  and  pays 
to  the  Gwalior  Darbar  a  quit-rent  of  ^107. 

Daryapur.  —  Tdluk,  or  Sub-division,  of  Ellichpur  District,  Berar. 
Area,  505  square  miles;  contains  i  town  and  206  villages.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  123,109,  namely,  63,859  males  and  59,250  females,  or 
244  persons  per  square  mile;  number  of  occupied  houses,  23,111; 
unoccupied,  1342;  towns  and  villages  per  square  mile,  -4;  houses  per 
square  mile,  48;  persons  per  house,  5*3.  Since  1872,  the  population 
has  increased  by  20,306.  Hindus  number  113,131,  or  90  percent; 
Muhammadans,  9473;  Jains,  488;  Sikhs,  16;  and  Parsis,  7.  The 
agricultural  population  number  84,026 ;  cultivated  area,  467  square 
miles;  cultivable,  but  waste,  11 ;  waste,  27.  Total  revenue,  £sh^1^^ 
of  which  ^48,094  is  land  revenue.  In  1884,  the  tdhik  contained 
7  civil  and  3  criminal  courts ;  police  stations  {thdnds)^  2  ;  regular  police, 
69  men  ;  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs),  343. 

Daryapur. — Town  and  head-quarters  of  Daryapur  tdluk,  Ellichpur 
District,  Berar.  Lat.  20°  56'  N.,  long.  77°  22'  30"  e.  Situated 
about  36  miles  south-west  of  Ellichpur  town,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Chandra  Bhaga.  Population  (1881)  4392,  chiefly  Kiimbis.  The  town 
contains  the  usual  offices  of  administration,  a  police  station,  and  2 
schools  ;  several  temples  and  mosques  stand  outside  it. 

Dasai. — Town  in  Gwalior  (Sindhia's  territory),  the  capital  of  the 
Dasai  Jdgir,  under  the  Bhil  or  Bhopawar  Agency  of  Central  India ; 
situated  10  miles  north  of  Amjhera  and  12  miles  from  Sirdarpur.  The 
revenue  of  the  jdgir  is  ^{^2400,  and  is  a  grant  by  Sindhia  to  Raja 
Dinkar  Rao  Raghunath. 

Dasdra. — Petty  State  of  Jhdlawar  division,  Kdthiawar,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency.    It  consists  of  7   villages,  with  6  independent  tribute-payers. 


DASARAZUPALLI—DASKROI,  153 

The  revenue  is  estimated  at  ^6000  ;  a  tribute  of  ;£*!  296,  i6s.  is  payable 
to  the  British  Government,  and  of  £2,  6s.  as  siikhdi  on  account  of 
Ahmadabad.     Area,  265  square  miles;  population  (1881)  16,971. 

Dasardzupalli.  —  Village  in  the  Ongole  idluk,  Nellore  District, 
Madras  Presidency.     Population  (1881)  2735  ;  number  of  houses,  475. 

Daska.— ^^/^-i-//  of  Sialkot  District,  Punjab  ;  but  as  it  has  been  con- 
stituted since  1881,  the  Census  Report  gives  no  statistics  of  area  or 
population.  Revenue  in  1883,  ^^22,282.  The  iahsil  is  administered  by 
a  iahsilddr,  ??tunsif,  and  an  honorary  magistrate,  who  preside  over  2  civil 
and  2  criminal  courts ;  number  of  police  stations  {thdnds),  3  ;  strength 
of  regular  police,  34  men,  with  460  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs). 

Daska.  —  Town  in  Sialkot  District,  Punjab,  and  head-quarters  of 
Daska  tahsil.  Population  (1881)  5525,  namely,  Muhammadans,  2855  ; 
Hindus,  1667;  Sikhs,  1000;  and  'others,'  3;  chiefly  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Situated  in  lat.  32°  20'  n.,  and  long.  74°  24'  6"  e.,  on  the 
Gujranwala  road,  16  miles  south-west  of  Sialkot.  The  town  contains 
a  few  well-built  houses  belonging  to  bankers  and  shopkeepers.  It  has 
been  much  improved  of  late  years,  and  some  of  its  streets  have  been 
paved  with  brick.  Its  public  buildings  consist  of  the  iahsil,  civil  court, 
police  station,  post-office,  dispensary.  Government  school,  encamping 
ground  for  troops.  The  road  from  Wazirabad  to  Gurdaspur  via 
Pasriir,  crosses  the  Gujranwala  road  at  this  place.  Daska  is  noted 
for  its  manufacture  of  brass  vessels.  Forms  with  the  neighbouring 
village  of  Kot  Daska  a  third-class  municipal  union.  Revenue 
(1882-83),  ;^224,  or  7jd.  per  head  of  population  (5525)  within 
municipal  limits. 

Daskroi  {DashkroM). — Head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Ahmadabad 
District,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  stretches  round  Ahmadabad  town  for 
about  30  miles  north  and  south,  and  20  miles  east  and  west.  Bounded 
on  the  north  by  Baroda  territory  ;  east  by  Mahi  Kantha  ;  south  by  Kaira 
District ;  and  west  by  Sanand  and  Baroda  territory.  Area,  348  square 
miles.  Population  (1881),  including  the  inhabitants  of  Ahmadabad 
town,  271,563;  dwelling  in  i  town  and  137  villages,  and  occupying 
56,984  houses.  Males  number  138,880;  females,  132,683.  Classified 
according  to  religion,  there  are  219,658  Hindus,  or  about  80  per  cent.; 
32,824  Muhammadans;  and  19,081  'others,'  not  specified.  The 
Revenue  Survey  returned  202,933  acres  as  occupied  land;  135,941 
acres  as  cultivable  waste;  and  36,002  as  uncultivable  waste;  98,023 
acres  are  returned  as  being  under  tillage.  In  the  year  of  settlement 
(1860-61)  there  were  17,476  holdings  with  an  average  of  7f  acres, 
paying  an  average  rent  of  ;if  i,  i  is.  3d. 

The  entire  Sub-division,  except  for  a  ^qw  gentle  undulations  in 
the  east  and  south,  is  a  uniform  plain.  The  region  is  crossed  by 
the  Sabarmati,  the  Khari,  and  Meshvo  rivers.     Only  in  the  extreme 


154  DASNA—DASPALLA. 

south  are  their  waters  used  for  irrigation.  In  1877,  there  were  4083 
wells,  in  addition  to  634  ponds  and  47  water-lifts.  The  soil  is  light, 
gorat ;  and  varies  from  dry  sand  to  rich  loam.  With  good  tillage  and 
watering,  the  sandiest  fields  yield  a  large  return  to  the  husbandman. 
In  the  loops  of  land  enclosed  by  the  Sabarmati,  patches  of  alluvial 
land  produce  the  finest  sugar-cane  and  tobacco.  Staple  crops  are 
millets,  bdjra,  jodr,  and  rice.  In  1878,  1344  acres  were  under  cotton. 
The  Sub-division  contains  (inclusive  of  the  Ahmadabad  courts  and 
head-quarters)  5  civil  and  10  criminal  courts;  police  stations  (t/idnds), 
2  ;  regular  police,  660  men  ;  village  watchmen  {chaiikiddrs),  520. 

Dasna. — Town  in  Meerut  (Merath)  District,  North-Western  Provinces. 
Lat.  28°  40'  30"  N.,  and  long.  77°  33'  55"  e.  Situated  in  the  open 
plain,  23  miles  south-west  of  Meerut,  and  i  mile  west  of  the  Ganges 
Canal,  a  distributary  from  which  irrigates  the  surrounding  lands. 
Population  (1881)  under  5000,  not  returned  separately  in  the  Census 
Report.  Founded  by  Raja  Salarsi,  a  Rajput,  in  the  time  of  Mahmiid 
of  Ghazni.  Formerly  contained  a  large  fort,  destroyed  by  Ahmad  Shah 
in  1760.  Religious  fair  during  the  muhari-am  in  honour  of  a  Musalman 
saint.  Mr.  Michel's  indigo  factory  at  Masuri  employs  a  large  number 
of  workmen.  Police  outpost  and  post-office.  Hindu  fair  twice  a  year. 
Weekly  market  held  every  Saturday. 

Daspalla. — Tributary  State  of  Orissa,  Bengal.  Lat.  20°  10'  50"  to 
20°  35'  N.,  long.  84°  31'  45"  to  85°  8'  E.  Area,  568  square  miles. 
Population  (1881)  41,608.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Angul, 
Narsinghpur,  and  the  Mahanadi  river,  which  flows  through  the 
picturesque  Barmiil  gorge  and  forms  an  excellent  waterway ;  on  the 
south  by  the  Madras  State  of  Gumsar  (Ghumsara) ;  on  the  east  by 
Khandpara  and  Nayagarh ;  and  on  the  west  by  Bod.  The  principal 
mountain  in  the  State  is  Goaldes,  in  the  north,  2506  feet  high.  The 
chief  village  is  Daspalla,  in  lat.  20°  18'  40"  n.,  long.  84°  56'  21"  e.  The 
population  in  1881  numbered  41,608,  consisting  of  29,036  Hindus,  24 
Muhammadans,  and  12,548  belonging  to  other  denominations  (namely, 
non-Hindu  aboriginal  tribes,  etc.).  Of  the  aboriginal  races,  the  Kandhs 
are  the  most  numerous.  Estimated  annual  revenue,  ^1700;  tribute 
payable  to  the  British  Government,  ^£66.  Daspalla  State  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  about  500  years  ago  by  a  son  of  the  Raja  of 
Bod,  the  present  chief,  who  claims  to  be  a  Kshatriya  of  the  Solir 
race,  being  the  sixteenth  in  descent.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts: 
Daspalla  proper,  lying  south  of  the  Mahanadi,  the  original  princi- 
paHty ;  and  Joremuha,  a  small  tract  north  of  the  Mahanadi  annexed 
to  Daspalla  by  conquest.  The  Raja's  military  force  is  returned 
at  521  men,  and  his  police  force  at  269.  There  are  6  schools 
in  the  State,  one  of  which  is  supported  by  the  Raja,  and  a  post- 
office. 


DASUYA—DATHA,  155 

DaSliya. — Northern  tahsil  of  Hoshiarpur  District,  Punjab.  Lat. 
31°  44'  to  32°  5'  N.,  long.  75°  34'  15"  to  75°  57'  E.  Lies  between  the 
Kangra  Hills  and  the  Beas  (Bias)  river,  which  sweeps  round  three  sides 
of  its  boundary  line.  Area,  384  square  miles.  Population  (1881) 
218,644,  namely,  males  117,947,  and  females  100,697  ;  average  density 
of  population,  570  persons  per  square  mile.  Hindus  numbered 
105,057;  Muhammadans,  104,026;  Sikhs,  9142;  and  'others,'  319. 
Revenue  of  the  tahsil  (1883),  ^37,161.  The  administrative  staff  con- 
sists of  a  tahsilddr^  2  miinsifs^  and  an  honorary  magistrate  exercising 
criminal  powers.  These  officers  preside  over  3  civil  and  2  criminal 
courts.  Number  of  police  stations  (thdfids),  4 ;  strength  of  regular 
l)olice,  78  men,  with  458  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs). 

DaSliya. — Tow^n  in  Hoshiarpur  District,  Punjab,  and  head-quarters 
of  Dasiiya  tahsil ;  situated  25  miles  north-west  of  Hoshiarpur  town,  on 
the  road  to  the  Naushahra  and  Mithal  ferries  on  the  Beas  (Bias).  Lat. 
31°  49'  N.,  long.  75°  41'  45"  E.  Population  in  188 1,  6248,  namely, 
Muhammadans,  4367  ;  Hindus,  181 9;  Sikhs,  43;  and  Jains,  19.  The 
town,  with  the  neighbouring  village  of  Kaithan,  forms  a  third-class 
municipality.  Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ;^2  2o;  expenditure, 
;^245.  Tradition  states  that  the  town  was  founded  5000  years  ago, 
and  formed  the  capital  of  Raja  Viratha  mentioned  in  the  Mahabha- 
rata.  There  is  an  old  fort  to  the  north  of  the  town,  mentioned  in  the 
Ain-i-Akbari.  It  was  in  great  part  demolished  in  1848,  but  two  of  its 
towers  still  remain.  The  trade  of  the  town  is  principally  in  grain  and 
tobacco.  Besides  the  ordinary  Sub-divisional  courts  and  police  station, 
the  town  contains  a  Government  middle-class  school,  dispensary,  sardi 
or  native  inn,  and  a  fine  tank. 

Dataganj. — Tahsil  of  Budaun  District,  North- Western  Provinces. 
Area,  430  square  miles,  of  which  273  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881) 
186,815.  Land  revenue,  ^,^2 2,836  ;  total  revenue,  ^25,610;  rental 
paid  by  cultivators,  ;£"5  2,062  ;  incidence  of  Government  revenue  per 
acre,  is.  lod. 

Dataganj. — Town  in  Budaun  District,  North-Western  Provinces, 
and  head-quarters  of  Dataganj  tahsil;  17  miles  east  of  Budaun  town. 
Population  (1881)  2442.  A  small  municipal  income  for  the  sanitation 
and  watch  and  ward  of  the  town  is  raised  under  the  provisions  of 
Act  XX.  of  1856.  Besides  the  ordinary  Sub-divisional  offices  and 
courts,  the  town  contains  a  tahsili  school  and  dispensary. 

Datdna. — A  guaranteed  thakurate  or  petty  chiefship  of  the  Western 
Malwa  Agency  of  Central  India.  Receives  a  sum  of  ^18  as  tankha 
from  Sindhia. 

Datha.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists 
of  26  villages,  with  2  independent  tribute-payers.  The  revenue  in 
1881  was  estimated  at  ;^23oo,  of  which  £^0^,  i8s.  is  paid  as  tribute 


156  DA  TH  WEH-KYA  UK— DA  TIA. 

to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  and  ^29,  i8s.  to  the  Nawab  of  Jun^garh. 
Area,  51  square  miles.     Population  (1881)  9352. 

Dathweh-kyauk.— An  unnavigable  river  in  Prome  District,  Pegu 
Division,  British  Burraah.  It  rises  in  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sinlan 
spur,  and  flows  south  and  west  into  the  Zay,  which  it  joins  just  before 
that  river  enters  the  Inma  lake.  The  lower  portion  of  its  course  is 
through  rice-fields;  but  higher  up  it  flows  through  forests,  producing 
valuable  timber,  such  as  pyingado,  ingying,  banbweh  (Careya  arborea), 

and  in. 

Dathweh-kyauk. — Village  in  Prome  District,  Pegu  Division,  British 
Burma.  Lat.  18°  41'  n.,  long.  95°  34'  35"  e.  Situated  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  20  miles  south-east  of  Prome,  and  near  the  great  rice 
tract  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  valley  between  the  Pegu 
Mountains  and  the  Prome  Hills.  The  inhabitants  are  mainly 
agriculturists. 

Datia.  —  Native  State    in   Bundelkhand,  under   the  Central  India 
Agency  and  the  Government  of  India;  lying  between  lat.  25°  34'  to 
26°  17'  N.,  and  long.   78°   17'  to  78°  56'  e.     Area,  836  square  miles. 
Population    (1881)     182,598,    namely,     Hindus,     174,202;     Muham- 
madans,   8381  ;  Jains,    150.      Number   of  towns   and    villages,  454; 
number    of    houses,     29,396.       Bounded    on    the    east    by   Jhdnsi 
District,     and    surrounded    on     all     other    sides    by    the    State  of 
Gwalior.      It    came    under    the    supremacy   of    the    British   Govern- 
ment  with    other   territories    in   Bundelkhand,    ceded  by  the  Peshwa 
under  the  treaty  of  Bassein  in    1802.      The   ruler   at  that  time  was 
Raja  Parichhat,  with  whom    a   treaty  of  defensive  alliance  was  con- 
cluded in   1804.     After  the  deposition  of  the  Peshwa  in   181 7,  Raja 
Parichhat  was   rewarded   for  his  attachment   to   the   British   Govern- 
ment  by  the   addition    of  a   tract  of  land   on   the   east  of  the  river 
Sind,  and  a  new  treaty  was  made  with  him.     He  was  succeeded  by 
his  adopted  son,  Bijai  Bahadur,  a  foundling,  who  died  in   1857,  and 
was    succeeded    by   his    adopted    son,    Bhawani    Singh,   the    present 
(1883)  ruler.      At  his  accession,  however,  an  illegitimate  son,  Arjun 
Singh,  disputed  the  succession,  and  it  was  necessary  to  send  a  British 
force  for  the  settlement  of  the  country.       Raja   Bhawani  Singh  is  a 
Bundela  Rajput,  and  was  born  about  1845.     The  revenues  are  estimated 
at  ;^i 00,000.     The  State  pays  to  Sindhia,  through  the  British  Govern- 
ment, ;£'i5oo  of  Nanashahi  currency  annually  on  account  of  the  pargam 
of  Nadigaon.     The  Chief  has  the  right  of  adoption,  and  is  entitled  to  a 
salute  of  15  guns.     The  military  force  consists  of  97  guns,  160  gunners, 
700  cavalry,  and  3040  infantry. 

Datia.— Chief  town  of  Datia  State,  Bundelkhand,  lying  on  the  road 
from  Agra  to  Sagar  (Saugor),  125  miles  south-east  of  the  former,  and 
148  miles  north-west  of  the  latter.      Lat.   25°  40'  N.,  long.  78°  3°  ^' 


DA  TIVRE—DA  UDNA  GAR.  1 5  7 

Situated  on  a  rocky  eminence,  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  about  30 
feet  in  height,  but  incapable  of  defence  against  modern  artillery. 
Though  composed  of  narrow  and  intricate  streets,  the  town  presents  a 
flourishing  aspect,  and  contains  a  large  number  of  handsome  houses,  the 
residences  of  the  local  aristocracy.  Population  (1881)  28,346,  namely, 
Hindus,  23,393;  Muhammadans,  4948;  and  'others,'  5.  The  Raja's 
palace  stands  in  the  town,  within  the  walls  of  a  pretty  pleasure-garden, 
planted  with  avenues  of  oranges,  pomegranates,  and  other  fruit-trees. 
The  wall  is  pierced  by  a  fine  gateway,  and  surmounted  at  each  corner 
by  embattled  towers.  Besides  the  Raja's  pavilion,  the  gardens  enclose 
an  octagonal  building  surrounded  by  a  reservoir,  containing  a  fountain 
composed  of  four  elephants,  from  whose  trunks  arises  a  jet  of  water. 
Another  palace,  now  untenanted,  stands  within  the  city  precincts  ; 
while  a  third,  also  deserted,  but  remarkable  for  its  great  size  and 
strength,  as  well  as  for  the  beauty  of  its  architecture,  lies  to  the  west  of 
the  town,  beyond  the  walls.  A  curious  cluster  of  Jain  temples,  at  a 
distance  of  some  4  miles,  deserves  the  attention  of  archaeologists.  The 
rocky  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Datia  is  overgrown  with  stunted 
copse,  abounding  in  game  ;  and  a  small  artificial  lake  lies  close  to  the 
hill  on  which  the  town  stands. 

Dativre  {Dantivra). — Seaport  in  the  Mahim  Sub-division,  Thana 
District,  Bombay  Presidency.  Ten  miles  south-east  of  Mahim.  Lat. 
19°  17'  N.,  and  long.  72°  50'  e.  Near  the  town  is  a  small  ruined  fort 
built  probably  by  the  Portuguese.  Average  annual  value  of  trade  for 
five  years  ending  1878-79,  ^11,569 — viz.  exports,  ;3^io,738,  and 
imports,  ;^83 1. 

Dattaw.  —  Stream  in  British  Burma.  Rises  in  the  Kyi-ba  spur 
west  of  the  Irawadi  (Irrawaddy),  and  falls  into  that  river  near 
Peinthalein.  Its  bed  is  sandy  and  muddy ;  on  its  steep  banks  are 
found  teak,  cutch,  ing-yin  (Pentacme  siamensis),  much  used  in  house- 
building, thingan  and  pyin-nia.  The  Dattaw  is  navigable  only  for  a 
short  distance  during  the  rains. 

Dattigaon.  —  Town  and  jdgir  in  Sindhia's  territory  (Gwalior), 
Amjhera  pargand,  Central  India.  The  residence  of  Maharaj  Pahvant 
Smgh  of  Amjhera,  who  derives  a  revenue  of  ^1600  from  the  estate, 
paying  a  tribute  of  ^375  to  Sindhia. 

Datt's  Bazar  (or  Bim). — Village  on  the  Brahmaputra,  in  the  head- 
quarters Sub-division  of  Maimansingh  District,  Bengal,  37  miles  from 
Nasirabad  town.  One  of  the  principal  marts  of  the  District,  carrying 
on  a  large  trade  in  jute,  etc.  with  Narayanganj  in  Dacca. 

Daiidnagar. — Chief  town  in  Aurangabad  Sub-division,  Gaya  District, 
Bengal.  Lat.  25°  2'  39"  n.,  long.  84°  26'  35"  e.  Population  (1881)  9870, 
namely,  7831  Hindus,  2035  Muhammadans,  and  4  'others;'  area  of 
town  site,  3285  acres.     Situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Son  (Soane),  and 


158  BA  UDPUR—DA  ULATABAD. 

consisting  mainly  of  miserable  crooked  lanes  and  irregular  streets,  con- 
taining numerous  hovels.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  sardi  or 
rest-house  built  by  Daud  Khan  in  the  part  of  the  town  named  after  him, 
and  intended  probably  for  a  stronghold  ;  and  a  small  imdnibdrd  and  a 
chautdrd^  formerly  used  for  the  transaction  of  business.  Manufactures 
of  cloth,  coarse  carpets,  and  blankets  ;  river  trade  with  Patna,  which 
is  likely  to  increase  after  the  opening  of  the  canal  close  to  the  town. 
Gross  municipal  revenue  (1881-82)  ^222  ;  expenditure,  ;£i74.  Local 
police  consists  of  1 3  men.  Four  miles  from  Daiidnagar,  on  the  road 
to  Gaya,  there  is  a  beautiful  temple,  the  carving  of  which  was  executed 
at  Mirzapur. 

Daiidpur. — Depot  in  Rangpur  District,  Bengal.  Trade  in  rice, 
paddy,  and  mustard. 

Daiidzai.  —  Tahsil  of  Peshawar  District,  Punjab.  See  Doaba 
Daudzai. 

Daulatabad  {DeogiH). — Town  and  fort  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions 
(Haidarabad),  Deccan.  Lat.  19°  57'  n.,  and  long.  75°  18'  e.  ;  10  miles 
north-west  from  Aurangabad,  170  miles  north-east  of  Bombay,  and  28 
north-west  of  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad).  Population  (1881)  1243.  The 
fortress,  also  known  by  the  name  of  Deogiri,  has  from  remote  antiquity 
been  the  stronghold  of  the  rulers  of  the  Deccan.  It  consists  of  a  conical 
rock  scarped  from  a  height  of  150  feet  from  the  base.  The  fort  has 
been  provided  with  a  counterscarp  gallery,  and  a  complete  system  of 
countermines  ;  the  outer  wall  is  2|  miles  in  circumference  ;  between 
the  wall  and  the  base  of  the  upper  fort  there  are  three  inner  lines  of 
fortifications,  to  which  access  is  obtained  through  gates.  On  the 
summit  of  the  rock  is  a  small  platform,  on  which  are  mounted  a  cannon 
and  flagstaff.  A  short  distance  outside  the  ditch  is  a  minaret  210  feet 
high,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  commemoration  of  the  first  conquest 
of  the  place  by  the  Muhammadans  in  1294.  The  minaret  is  in  good 
preservation,  and  from  its  summit  a  fine  view  of  the  surrounding 
country  is  obtained.  Close  to  the  minaret  are  the  ruins  of  an  extensive 
Jain  temple.  Near  the  temple  are  the  ruins  of  the  Chini  Mahal  (China 
Palace),  where  Sultan  Ab-ul-Hasan,  better  known  as  King  Tanashah, 
the  last  of  the  Golconda  sovereigns,  was  kept  a  State  prisoner  by 
Aurangzeb.  The  hill  on  which  the  fort  stands  rises  almost  perpendicularly 
from  the  plain  to  a  height  of  about  600  feet,  and  is  entirely  isolated, 
though  commanded  by  several  hills  to  the  south.  The  moat  or  ditch  is 
about  30  feet  wide,  and  is  crossed  by  a  small  stone  bridge,  near  which 
is  a  subterranean  gallery  which  winds  through  the  hill  until  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  summit,  where  the  exit  is  defended  by  a  huge  iron 
plate.  The  original  name  of  the  place  under  the  Hindus  was 
Deogarh  (Deogiri).  It  succeeded  Bijapur  as  the  capital  of  the  Yadava 
kingdom.     Little  is  known  of  its   history  before  its  capture  by  the 


DAULATABAD.  159 

Muhammadans  under  Ala-ud-din  of  the  Khilji  dynasty,  who  at  the 
head  of  a  body  of  8000  horse  appeared  before  the  town  in  a.d.  1294. 
\fter  sacking  the  town,  he  laid  siege  to  the  fort,  which  after  a  period 
of  three  weeks  was,  owing  to  the  unexpected  nature  of  the  attempt, 
and  to  the  failure  of  provisions,  surrendered  by  the  Raja  Ramchandra 
of  the  Yadava  dynasty,  which  had  established  itself  at  Deogiri  about 
the  close  of  the  12th  century  on  the  downfall  of  the  Kalachuris,  the 
successors  of  the  Western  Chalukyas.  Ferishta  relates  that  the  terms 
of  peace  exacted  by  Ala-ud-din  were  as  follows  : — That  Ramchandra 
should  pay  six  hundred  viminds  (a  maund  is  equal  to  80  lbs.)  of  gold, 
seven  mawids  of  pearls,  two  mau7ids  of  jewels,  consisting  of  rubies, 
diamonds,  jaspers,  and  emeralds  ;  one  thousand  maimds  of  silver,  five 
thousand  pieces  of  silk  and  other  articles  ;  that  he  should  hand  over 
Ellichpur,  then  the  capital  of  Berar,  with  its  adjacent  districts ;  and 
that  he  should  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  The  capture  of  the  fortress  is 
noteworthy,  as  this  event  was  the  first  appearance  of  the  Muhammadans 
in  the  Deccan.  The  new  conquest  was  neither  lasting  nor  untroubled. 
In  1306,  Ramchandra  rebelled,  and  Malik  Naib  Kafur,  a  Muhammadan 
general,  was  despatched  to  Deogiri.  Ramchandra  was  taken  prisoner 
and  carried  to  Delhi,  where  the  Sultan  treated  him  with  clemency  and 
even  honour,  and  from  whence  in  the  end  he  was  sent  back  to  his 
dominions.  Ramchandra  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sankara,  but  as 
Sankara  proved  hostile,  Kafur  once  more  appeared,  took  the  fortress, 
and  put  the  king  to  death.  When  Kafur  retired,  he  left  strong 
garrisons  in  Deogiri  and  other  Deccan  points  of  vantage  ;  but  immedi- 
ately after  his  withdrawal,  Harpala,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of 
Ramchandra,  rose  in  revolt.  A  Muhammadan  army  again  appeared ; 
Harpala  was  defeated  and  captured;  and  after  being  flayed  alive  by 
order  of  Mubarik  Khan,  the  new  Sultan,  his  skin  w^as  hung  over  the 
gate  of  Deogiri.  A  succession  of  favourites  of  the  Delhi  Sultan  now 
ruled  in  Deogiri ;  until  in  1325,  Muhammad  Tughlak  Shah,  the  son  of 
Ghiyas-ud-din,  ascended  the  throne.  In  1338,  Muhammad  Tughlak 
conceived  the  idea  of  making  Deogiri  the  capital  of  the  Muhammadan 
Empire ;  and  having  re-christened  the  fort  Daulatabad,  or  '  The  For- 
tunate City,'  issued  stringent  orders  for  the  evacuation  of  Delhi  and 
for  the  immediate  removal  of  the  population  to  Deogiri.  The  distance 
from  Delhi  to  Deogiri  is  800  miles.  Delhi,  called  by  an  annalist  of 
that  time  the  '  Envy  of  the  World,'  became  deserted  at  the  order  of 
the  cruel  and  eccentric  Emperor.  The  story  runs  that  a  paralytic 
and  a  blind  man  alone  were  found  in  the  silent  streets  when  the 
evacuation  was  over.  The  paralytic  was  blown  from  the  mouth  of  a 
culverin ;  the  blind  man  w^as  dragged  from  Delhi  to  Deogiri,  a  march 
of  forty  days;  but  'the  poor  wretch  fell  in  pieces  during  the  journey, 
and  only  one  leg  reached  Daulatabad.'     Deogiri,  however,  rose  into 


1 60  DA  ULA  T  KHAN— DA  UNDIA  KHERA. 

importance.  Ibn  Batuta,  a  native  of  Tangiers,  visited  Daulatabad 
when  Tughlak  had  his  court  there,  and  compares  it  for  size  and 
splendour  to  the  former  Delhi.  Not  once  but  twice  did  Deogiri  gain 
at  the  expense  of  Delhi,  and  wholesale  migrations  were  ruthlessly 
commanded  and  as  ruthlessly  enforced.  On  the  second  occasion, 
the  ravages  of  a  famine  were  added  to  the  disasters  of  a  long  and 
painful  journey.  In  a  few  years,  the  dynasty  of  Tughlak  was  fol- 
lowed, in  this  region,  by  the  Bahmani  kings  of  Gulbarga  and  chiefs  of 
Bider.  The  Bahmanis  held  Daulatabad  until  they  became  extinct  in 
1526.  The  Bahmanis  were  succeeded  by  the  Nizam  Shahi  kings  of 
Ahmednagar,  who  held  the  fortress  until  their  kingdom  fell  beneath  the 
sway  of  the  Mughal.  After  the  death  of  Aurangzeb  in  1707,  the  fortress 
of  Daulatabad,  with  other  Mughal  possessions  in  the  Deccan,  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Asaph  Jah,  the  founder  of  the  Nizam's  dynasty,  in 
whose  family  they  have  remained  ever  since.  Daulatabad  has  not 
been  garrisoned  as  a  fortress  for  many  years.  At  present  there  is  a 
force  of  about  100  military  police  stationed  there.  The  gardens  for 
which  the  place  was  once  famous  have  nearly  all  disappeared. 

Daulat  Khan. — Village  and  formerly  the  head-quarters  of  Dakshin 
Shahbazpur  Sub-division,  Bakarganj  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  22°  38'  N., 
and  long.  90°  50'  30"  e.  Principal  article  of  export,  areca-nut.  The 
village  was  destroyed  and  the  inhabitants  nearly  all  drowned  by  a 
cyclone  and  storm  wave  in  October  1876. 

Daulatpur.  —  Village  in  Naushahro  Sub  -  division,  Haidarabad 
(Hyderabad)  District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency  ;  situated  in  lat.  26° 
30'  30"  N.,  and  long.  68'  o'  15"  e.  on  the  trunk  road  between  Haidar-  | 
abad  and  Rohri.  Population  insignificant,  and  mainly  agricultural. 
The  Muhammadans  belong  to  the  Hotpotra  tribe;  the  Hindus  are 
chiefly  Lohanos.     Rest-house  for  travellers. 

Dauleswaram. — Town,  Godavari  District,  Madras  Presidency. — See 

DOWLAISHVARAM. 

Daundia  Khera. — Pargand  in  Purwa  tahsil,  Unao  District,  Oudh, 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  Ghatampur  and  Bhagwantnagar  pargands, 
on  the  east  by  Sareni,  on  the  south  by  the  Ganges,  and  on  the  west 
by  Ghatampur  pargand.  Conquered  from  the  Bhars  by  the  Bais 
clan  of  Rajputs,  who  here  first  laid  the  foundation  of  their  future 
greatness.  They  rapidly  extended  their  dominions,  and  their  descen- 
dants now  hold  considerable  possessions  in  Rai  Bareli  and  Bara 
Banki.  Area,  64  square  miles,  of  which  35  are  cultivated.  Govern- 
ment land  revenue,  ^5327,  or  an  average  of  2s.  6d.  per  acre.  Principal 
autumn  crops — cotton,  rice,  millet,  iird,  mug,  vetches,  etc.  ;  spring 
crops — wheat,  barley,  gram,  arhar,  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane.  Population 
(1881)  33,467,  namely,  16,397  males  and  17,070  females.  Of  the  104 
villages  comprising  the  pargand,  26  are  held  under  tdhikddri,  34  under 


DA  USA— DA  V A  SI-BE  TTA,  i  g  r 

zaminddri,  and  44  und^x  pattiddri  tenures.      Six  bi-weekly  markets  are 
held  for  the  sale  of  country  produce. 

Dausa.— Town  in  Jaipur  (Jeypore)  State,  Rajputana,  Central  India. 
Population  ( 1 881)  7384,  namely,  Hindus,  6057  ;  Muhammadans,  1139; 
and  unspecified,  188.  Station  on  the  Rajputana  State  Railway,  distant 
about  ^^  miles  east  from  Jaipur.  Dausa  was  once  the  capital  of  the 
State  before  Amber  was  wrested  from  the  Minas.  It  stands  on  the 
slope  of  a  large  isolated  flat  hill  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference, 
fortified  with  a  loopholed  wall  with  bastions  of  considerable  strength. 
The  town  contains  numerous  Hindu  temples  and  ancient  edifices  fast 
falling  to  decay.  At  the  close  of  the  Mutiny,  Tantia  Topi,  the  famous 
rebel  leader,  was  caught  between  two  columns  of  British  troops  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dausa,  when  a  battle  was  fought  under  its  walls. 
Staging  bungalow,  dispensary,  and  post-office.  The  Agra  and  Ajmere 
trunk  roads  intersect  at  Dausa. 

Davangere.— T^i////^  in  Shimoga  District,  Mysore  State,  Southern 
India.  Area  (including  Harihar  taluk,  incorporated  in  1875),  662 
square  miles;  land  revenue  (1882),  exclusive  of  water-rates,  ;^i5,59i. 
The  taluk  is  watered  by  the  Tungabhadra,  which  runs  along  the 
western  boundary.  The  surface  is  a  wide,  level,  and  dreary  plain. 
Black  soil  prevails  in  the  west,  and  stony  or  gravelly  soil  in  the  east. 
Chief  crops,  Jola,  cotton,  and  ragi.  Rice  and  sugar-cane  are  grown 
to  a  small  extent  The  dynasty  of  the  Kadambas  were  probably 
the  earhest  Hindu  occupants  of  the  country.  The  Chalukya  and 
Ballala  dynasties  followed,  the  seat  of  government  being  at  Huchangi- 
Durga.  The  Yadavas  of  Deogiri  were  in  possession  when  that  dynasty 
declined  on  the  advent  of  the  Muhammadans  in  the  13th  century. 
After  falling  to  the  Vijayanagar  Empire  and  the  Bednur  chiefs,  Davan- 
gere  taluk  eventually  became  part  of  Haidar  All's  possessions.  Noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  finely -woven  kaniblis  or  woollen  blankets, 
which  have  been  known  to  sell  for  £20  or  ^,^30  a-piece.  The  taluk 
contains  i  criminal  court ;  police  stations  {thdnds),  10;  regular  police, 
76  men  ;  village  watchmen  (chaukiddrs),  294. 

Davangere.— Town  in  Shimoga  District,  Mysore  State,  Southern 
India.^  Lat.  14°  28'  n.,  and  long.  75°  59'  e.  ;  40  miles  north-west 
of  Chitaldriig.  Population  (1881)  6362,  namely,  5584  Hindus,  763 
I^Iuhammadans,  and  15  Christians.  Origirially  an  obscure  village, 
Davangere  became  a  centre  of  trade  under  the  patronage  of  Haidar 
All,  who  gave  it  as  3.  Jdgir  to  a  Maratha  chief.  The  merchants  are 
mostly  Sivaite  Bhaktas  or  Lingayats.  Their  most  valuable  business  is 
the  carrying  trade  between  Wallaja-pet  in  North  Arcot  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  Sagar  and  Nagar.  Exports— areca-nut,  pepper,  and 
kamblis  or  country  blankets. 

Davasi-betta.— Peak  on  the  Brahmagiri  Hills,  Mysore. 

VOL.  IV.  L 


i62  r>A  VID,  FORT  ST.- DA  WNA. 

David,  Fort  St.  (Native  name,  Thevanapatnam  or  Tegnapaiam).-^ 
A  ruined 'fort  in  South  Arcot  District,  Madras  Presidency  ;  situated  in 
lat.  11°  44'  20"  N.,  and  long.  79°  49'  3°"  e.,  100  miles  south  of  Madras, 
and  I J  miles  north  of  Cuddalore,  of  which  it  may  be  called  a  suburb. 
It  was  purchased  from  the  Marathas  in  1690,  and  was  included  in 
the  kaul  of  that  year,  by  which  Cuddalore  was  granted  to  the  Com- 
pany. All  the  land  round  the  fort,  to  the  distance  of  a  '  randome  shott ' 
fired  on  every  side,  was  included  in  the  purchase.  It  was  christened 
*  Fort  St.  David,'  perhaps  by  its  Welsh  Governor  M.  E.  Yale ;  and 
from  1746  to  1752  it  replaced  Fort  St.  George  as  the  chief  settlement 
on  the  Coromandel  coast.  (See  Cuddalore.)  Upon  the  capitulation 
of  Madras  to  the  French  under  Bourdonnais  in  1746,  the  Company's 
agent  at  Fort  St.  David  assumed  the  general  administration  of  British 
affairs  in  the  south  of  India,  and  successfully  resisted  an  attack  by 
Dupleix.  Clive  was  appointed  Governor  in  1756.  In  1758,  the  French, 
under  M.  Lally,  captured  and  dismantled  the  fort  while  Clive  was 
serving  in  Bengal,  but  sufficiently  restored  it  in  1783  to  withstand  an 
attack  by  General  Stuart.  The  ruined  houses  on  the  ramparts  are  still 
interesting,  and  some  parts  of  the  fort  are  in  good  preservation.  Sub- 
terranean passages  appear  to  have  run  completely  round  under  the  glacis, 
thus  forming  a  safe  means  of  communication  for  the  garrison  ;  while,  at 
short  intervals,  other  galleries  striking  off  at  right  angles,  and  terminating 
in  powder  chambers,  served  as  mines.  At  the  south-east  corner,  the 
gallery  ran  down  to  the  edge  of  the  sea,  while  on  the  other  three  sides 
the  fort  was  protected  by  the  river  Pennar  and  two  canals.  The  ruins 
form  a  recognised  landmark  for  mariners. 

Dawa.— Z^wf;^^«Vf  or  estate  in  Bhandara  District,  Central  Provinces, 
lying  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Eastern  Road,  and  about  30  miles  north- 
east of  Bhandara.  Population  (1881)  4997,  chiefly  Gonds  and  Halbds, 
dwelling  in  12  villages,  on  an  area  of  26  square  miles,  of  which  7  square 
miles  are  cultivated.  Dawa  and  Kor  Seoni,  the  only  large  villages,  both 
possess  indigenous  schools,  and  the  latter  contains  a  strong  colony  of 
Koris.  The  chief  is  a  Halba.  Dawa  village  is  situated  in  lat.  2 1°  1 1'  N., 
and  long.  80°  13'  e. 

Dawer. — Town  in  Mervvara,  Ajmere-Merwara  Division,  Rajputana. 
Lat.  25°  26'  N.,  long.  73°  51'  E.  Situated  at  the  extreme  south  of 
Merwara,  at  the  head  of  the  Dawer  pass  into  Jodhpur.  Police  station, 
school,  and  post-office. 

Dawna.  —  Range  of  mountains  forming  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Amherst  District,  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma.  Th's 
chain  starts  from  the  Muleh-yit  Hill  (5500  feet  high)  in  the  main 
range,  in  lat.  16°  5'  45"  n.,  long.  98°  42'  3"  e.,  and  extends  north- 
west for  200  miles,  dividing  the  waters  of  the  Haung-tharaw  and 
Hlaing-bhweh  rivers   from   those  of  the    Thaung-yin.       The  general 


DA  YA—DEBI  PAT  AN. 


163 


appearance  of  the  range  is  that  of  a  wooded  plateau  of  laterite  cut  up 
by  drainage  into  ridges.  At  places  the  underlying  rocks  project  into 
the  bed  of  the  Thaung-yin,  indicating  volcanic  agency.  Large  areas  on 
the  Dawna  Hills  are  covered  with  evergreen  forests,  containing  many 
varieties  of  valuable  timber. 

Dayd,  ('  The  River  of  Mercy '). — The  western  distributary  of  the  waters 
of  the  KoYAKHAi  river,  in  Orissa,  through  Puri  District  into  the  Chilka 
Lake.  Subject  to  disastrous  floods,  which  in  the  rainy  season  burst  the 
banks,  and  sometimes  desolate  hundreds  of  square  miles.  In  the  dry 
weather,  a  series  of  long  shallow  pools,  amid  expanses  of  sand.  Fall  per 
mile  at  section  half-way  between  Cuttack  city  and  the  sea,  1 7  feet ; 
mean  depth  of  section,  1678  feet;  estimated  discharge,  33,100  cubic 
feet  per  second.  Thirty-six  breaches  were  made  in  its  embankment  in 
1866. 

Dayang"  or  Doyong". — River  in  Assam,  forming  in  part  the  eastern 
boundary  between  the  Naga  Hills  District  and  the  unexplored  country 
occupied  by  the  independent  Nagas.  It  rises  in  the  prolongation  of 
the  Barel  range  which  runs  through  the  Naga  Hills,  and  divides  that 
District  from  Manipur  State,  its  source  being  between  the  lofty  peaks 
called  Khurrho  and  Kopamedza.  It  ultimately  falls  into  the 
Dhaneswari  (Dhansiri)  river,  a  short  distance  above  Golaghat,  in  lat. 
26°  26'  N.,  and  long.  93°  58'  e.  Navigable  by  small  boats  during  the 
rainy  season  as  high  as  its  junction  with  the  Dihinggjan. 

Debar. — Lake  in  Udaipur  (Oodeypore)  State,  Rajputana,  Central 
India.  Situated  about  30  miles  south-east  of  Udaipur  town,  the 
centre  lying  in  lat.  24°  18'  n.,  and  long.  74°  4'  e.  It  is  formed  by  a 
dam  entirely  made  of  massive  stone,  built  across  a  perennial  stream, 
where  it  issues  through  a  gap  in  the  surrounding  hills..  This  dyke  is 
called /j/  Samand,  after  Rana  Jai  Singh,  by  whom  it  was  constructed 
A.D.  1 68 1.  The  length  of  Lake  Debar  from  east  to  west  is  8  or  10 
miles,  and  its  average  breadth  about  a  mile,  with  a  circumference  of 
about  30  miles  ;  elevation  above  sea-level,  960  feet.  Its  northern  shore 
is  dotted  with  picturesque  fishing  hamlets,  and  its  surface  with  small 
wooded  islands,  adding  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  perhaps  one  of  the 
largest  artificial  sheets  of  water  in  the  world. 

Debhata. — Village  and  municipality  in  Maihati  pargand,  Khulna 
District,  Bengal;  situated  on  the  river  Jamu^a.  Lat.  22°  33'  30"  n., 
long.  89°  o'  15"  K  Population  (1881)  5514,  namely,  Hindus, 
4002;  and  Muhammadans,  1512  ;  area  of  town  site,  2400  acres. 
Municipal  income  (1881-82),  ^336;  average  incidence  of  taxation, 
IS.  id.  per  head  of  municipal  population.  Large  trade  in  lime  produced 
from  burnt  shells. 

•Debi  Patan. — Village  with  temples  and  large  religious  fair,  in  Gonda 
I^istrict,  Oudh.     Lat.  27°  32'  8"  n.,  long.  82°  26'  30"  e.      Stated  to  be 


1 64  DECCAN. 

probably  one  of  the  oldest  seats  of  the  Sivalte  cultus  in  Northern  India. 
The  earliest  legend  connects  it  with  Raja  Kama,  son  of  Kunti,  the 
mother  of  the  three  elder  Pandavas  by  the  Sun-god,  and  hero  of  the 
impenetrable  cuirass,  who,  abandoned  in  his  cradle  on  the  Ganges,  was 
adopted  by  Adirath,  the  childless  King  of  Anga.      Brought  up  at  the 
court  of  Hastinapur,  Kama  was  refused  by  Drona  the  arms  of  Brahma, 
which,  however,  he  eventually  obtained   from  Parasurama  by  faithful 
service  at  his  retreat  on  the  Mahendra  mountain.     In  after  life,  he 
attended    Duryodhana   to   the    Swayainvara,  described  in  the  Maha- 
bharata,  and,  having  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  great  war,  was  finally 
granted  the  city  of  Malini  by  Jarasindhu,  the  Sivaite  King  of  Magadha, 
over  which  he  reigned  as  a  tributary  to  Duryodhana.     The  ruins  of  an 
ancient  fort,  once  occupying  the  site  of  the  present    temple,  and  an 
adjoining  tank,  are  popularly  ascribed  to  this  legendary  monarch.    In 
the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  a.d.,  Vikramaditya,  the  Brahminist  king, 
who  restored  the  sacred  city  of  Ajodhya  on  the  decline  of  Buddhism, 
erected  a  temple  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  fort.      This  in  its  turn  fell 
into  ruins;  and  another  was  built  on  the  same  spot  at  the  end  of  the  14th 
or  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  by  Ratan  Nath,  the  third  in  spiritual 
descent  from  Gorakh  Nath,  the  deified  saint  whose  worship  is  spread 
all  over  the  Nepal  valley.     As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  remains, 
this  temple  must  have  been  of  considerable  size,  adorned  by  profuse 
sculptures,  and  full  of  stone  images  of  Siva  and  Devi  in  their  various 
forms.     For  some  centuries,  the  temple  was  a  great  resort  for  pilgrims, 
chiefly  from  Gorakhpur  and  Nepal,  until  its  importance  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  iconoclastic  Aurangzeb,  one  of  whose  officers  slew  the 
priests,  destroyed  the  temple  and  images,  and  defiled  the  holy  places. 
The  temple  was  soon  afterwards  restored,  but  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  still 
exists.     A  large  religious-trading  fair,  lasting  for  about  ten  days,  and 
attended  by  about    100,000  persons,  is   held   here   each   year.    The 
principal  articles  of  commerce   are — hill   ponies,  cloth,  timber,  mats, 
ghi^  iron,  cinnamon,  etc.     During  the  fair,  large  numbers  of  buffaloes, 
goats,  and  pigs  are  daily  sacrificed  at  the  temple. 

Deccan  {Dakshi?i,  'The  South'). — The  Deccan,  in  its  local  accepta- 
tion, signifies  only  the  elevated  tract  situated  between  the  Narbada 
(Nerbudda)  and  Kistna  (Krishna)  rivers,  but  it  is  generally  and  properly 
understood  to  include  the  whole  country  south  of  the  Vindhya  moun- 
tains, which  separate  it  from  Hindustan  proper.  In  its  larger  sense, 
therefore,  it  comprehends  the  valley  of  the  Narbada,  and  all  southward 
— the  belt  of  lowland  that  fringes  the  coast,  as  well  as  the  triangular 
table-land,  the  sides  of  which  are  formed  by  the  Eastern  and  Western  ' 
Ghats,  and  the  base  of  the  Satpura  range  of  the  sub-Vindhyas.  On 
the  western  side,  this  table-land  descends  seaward  by  a  succession  of  | 
terraces,  the  Ghats  throughout  averaging  4000  feet  in  height  above  the  j 


DEC  CAN.  165 

sea,  and  terminating  abruptly  near  Cape  Comorin,  the  extreme  southern 
point  of  the  peninsula,  at  an  elevation  of  2000  feet.  From  here, 
following  the  coast-line,  the  Eastern  Ghats  commence  in  a  series  of 
detached  groups,  which,  uniting  in  about  lat.  11°  40'  n.,  run  northward 
along  the  Coromandel  coast,  with  an  average  elevation  of  1500  feet; 
and  join  the  main  ridge,  which  crosses  the  peninsula  in  lat.  13°  20'  n. 
They  terminate  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  their  western  counter- 
part. The  Vindhyan  range,  running  across  the  north  of  the  Deccan, 
joins  the  northern  extremities  of  the  two  Ghats,  and  thus  completes  the 
peninsular  triangle.  The  eastern  side  of  the  enclosed  table-land  being 
much  lower  than  the  western,  all  the  principal  rivers  of  the  Deccan — 
the  Godavari,  Kistna,  Pennar  (Ponnaiyar),  and  Kaveri  (Cauvery) — rising 
in  the  Western  Ghats  flow  eastward,  and  escape  by  openings  in  the 
Eastern  Ghats  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Between  the  Ghats  and  the  sea 
on  either  side,  the  land  differs  in  being,  on  the  east,  composed  in  part  of 
alluvial  deposits  brought  down  from  the  mountains,  and  sloping  gently  ; 
while  on  the  west,  the  incline  is  abrupt,  and  the  coast  strip  is  broken  by 
inegular  spurs  from  the  Ghats,  which  at  places  descend  into  the  sea  in 
steep  cliffs. 

Geologically,  the  Deccan  table-land  presents  a  vast  surface  of  hypo- 
gene  schists,  penetrated  and  broken  up  by  extraordinary  outbursts  of 
plutonic  and  trappean  rock ;  varied  on  the  Western  Ghats  by  laterite  : 
on  the  eastern  by  laterite,  sandstones  and  limestones  ;  and  in  the  valley 
of  the  Kaveri  by  granite.  To  the  north-west,  this  schistoid  formation 
disappears,  emerging  occasionally  from  under  one  of  the  largest  sheets 
of  trap  in  the  world.  Underlying  this  surface  throughout,  is  a  granite 
floor;  while  in  places  overlying  it  are,  in  the  following  order,  gneiss, 
mica  and  hornblende  schists,  clay-slate,  marble — all  destitute  of  organic 
remains — together  with  fossiliferous  limestones,  varieties  of  clay  and 
sand  rocks.  Through  all  these  aqueous  deposits,  the  volcanic  trap 
thrusts  itself.  Two  rocks,  characteristic  of  the  Deccan,  are  found 
capping  the  trap — viz.  laterite,  an  iron-clay,  and  7'egar  known  in  its 
disintegrated  state  as  '  black  cotton-soil.'  The  latter  is  remarkable  for 
its  retentiveness  of  moisture,  and  for  its  fertility. 

Litde  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  Deccan  before  the  close  of  the 
13th  century.  Hindu  legends  tell  of  its.  invasion  by  Rama,  and 
archaeological  remains  bear  witness  to  a  series  of  early  dynasties,  of 
which  the  Dravida,  Chola,  and  Andhra  are  the  best  known.  Continuous 
history  commences  with  the  Muhammadan  invasion  of  1 294-1 300  a.d., 
\v1ien  Ala-ud-din,  the  Khilji  Emperor  of  Delhi,  conquered  '  Maharashtra,' 
'  felmgana,'  and  '  Karnata.'  In  1338,  the  reduction  of  the  Deccan  was 
completed  by  Muhammad  Tughlak ;  but  a  few  years  later,  a  general 
revolt  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Muhammadan  Bahmani 
dynasty  and  the  retrogression  of  Delhi  supremacy  beyond  the  Narbada. 


iC6  DEDAN—DEGAM, 

The  Bahmani  dynasty  subverted  the  Hindu  kingdom  of  Telingana 
(1565),  and  (at  the  battle  of  Talikot  in  the  same  year)  the  great  Hindu 
kingdom  of  Vijayanagar  or  '  Karnata.'  A  few  years  later,  it  itself 
began  to  disintegrate,  and  was  broken  up  into  the  five  Muhammadan 
kingdoms  of  Bijapur,  Ahmadnagar,  Golconda,  Bidar,  and  Berar. 
The  two  last  became  extinct  before  1630;  the  other  three  were 
successively  restored  to  the  Delhi  Empire  by  the  victories  of  Shah 
Jehan  and  his  son  Aurangzeb.  The  Deccan  was  thus  for  a  second 
time  brought  under  the  Delhi  rule,  but  not  for  long.  The  Marathas 
in  1706  obtained  the  right  of  levying  tribute  over  Southern  India. 
Their  leader,  concentrating  his  strength  in  what  is  now  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  founded  the  Satara  dynasty,  which  afterwards  resigned 
all  real  power  to  the  Peshwa  of  Poona.  Another  usurper,  rallying 
the  southern  Muhammadans  round  him,  estabhshed  the  Nizamati 
of  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad).  The  remainder  of  the  imperial  posses- 
sions in  the  Deccan  was  divided  among  minor  chiefs,  who  acknow- 
ledged the  supremacy  of  the  Peshwa  or  the  Nizam,  according  as 
they  were  north  or  south  of  the  Tungabhadra  respectively.  Mysore, 
generally  tributary  to  both,  became  eventually  the  prize  of  Haidar 
All ;  while  in  the  extreme  south,  the  Travancore  State  enjoyed,  by 
its  isolated  position,  uninterrupted  independence.  Such  was  the 
position  of  affairs  early  in  the  i8th  century.  Meanwhile,  Portugal, 
Holland,  France,  and  Great  Britain  had  effected  settlements  on  the 
coast ;  but  the  two  former  on  so  small  a  scale  that  in  the  wars  of 
the  Deccan  they  took  no  important  part.  The  French  and  English, 
however,  espoused  opposite  sides  ;  and  the  struggle  eventually  resulted 
in  establishing  the  supremacy  of  the  latter.  The  Deccan  is  to-day 
represented  by  the  British  Presidency  of  Madras  and  part  of  Bombay, 
together  with  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad),  Mysore,  Travancore,  and  other 
Native  States. 

Dedan.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists 
of  1 1  villages,  with  2  independent  tribute  -  payers.  The  revenue  in 
1881  was  estimated  at  ;^3ooo,  of  which  ^295,  12s.  is  payable  as 
tribute  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.  Area,  30  square  miles ;  population 
(1881)  5437. 

Dedarda.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  con- 
sists of  I  village,  with  2  independent  tribute-payers.  The  revenue  in 
1881  was  estimated  at  ^410,  of  which  ;^io,  6s.  is  payable  as  tribute 
to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda. 

Deeg"  (Z>/^).— Town  and  fortress  in  Bhartpur  State,  Rijputana.— 5^^ 
Dig. 

Deesa  {Disa).  —  British  cantonment  in  Palanpur  State,  Bombay 
Presidency. — See  Disa. 

Degdm  (Z?^//^^iw).— Seaport  in  the  Jambusar  Sub-division,  Broach 


DEGH—DEHEJ.  167 

District,  Bombay  Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  22°  11'  n.,  and  long.  72'' 
39'  E,,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mahi  river,  about  a  mile  from  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  and  18  miles  north-west  of  Jambusar  town.     Population 
(1881)  about  2000;  average  annual  value  of  trade  for  the  five  years 
ending  1871-72,^14,108,  viz.  exports,  ^5135,  and  imports,  ^8973. 
Mention  is  made  of  Degam  as  a  seaport  of  Broach  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari. 
Degh.— River  in  Jammu  (Jummoo)  State,  and  in  Sialkot,  Lahore, 
and  Montgomery  Districts,   Punjab.      Formed  by  the  union  of  two 
streams  at  Parmandal,  in  Jammu,  both  of  which  take  their  rise  in  the 
outer  Himalayan  ranges.     Enters  British  territory  near  the  village  of 
Lehri-Kalan  in  Sialkot,  passes  into  Lahore  District,  and  finally  joins 
the  Ravi  in  Montgomery  District  in  lat.  31°   2'  n.,  long.  73°  24'  e. 
The  Degh  is  a  river  of  the  lower  slopes,  and  consequently  depends 
entirely  for  water-supply  upon  the  local  rainfall ;  but  its  channel  in  the 
upper  portion  never  runs  dry.     In  Sialkot  District,  a  fringe  of  alluvial 
land  lines  the  bank,  and  the  current  shifts  constantly  from  side  to  side 
of  the  wide  valley;  but  artificial  irrigation  is  only  practised  by  means  of 
Persian  wheels  in  a  few  isolated  spots,  where  the  banks  rise  somewhat 
higher  than  usual  above  the  river  bed.     Large  areas,  however,  benefit 
by  the  silt  deposited  from  the  summer  floods.     At  Tapiala,  in  Lahore 
District,  the  Degh  divides  into  two  branches, — the  western  of  which  is 
only  full  of  water  during  the  rainy  season, — and  these  join  again  near 
the  village  of  Dhenga.     Below  Udeheri,  irrigation  can  be  effected  by 
the  natural  flow  of  the  water,  the  banks  having  subsided  almost  to  the 
river's  edge.     Excellent  rice  grows  upon  the  lands  submerged  by  the 
inundations.     In  Montgomery  District,  the  Degh  again  flows  between 
high  banks,  but  still  contains  sufficient  water  for  irrigation.     Its  course 
in  this  portion  of  its  course  is  remarkably  straight,  and  it  presents  all  the 
appearance  of  an  artificial  canal.      So  much  water  is  withdrawn  for 
agricultural  purposes  during  its  upper  course,  that  the  bed  not  unfre- 
quently  runs  dry  by  the  time  it  reaches  Montgomery  District.     Several 
bridges  span  the  Degh,  notably  an  ancient  one  of  very  curious  con- 
struction, at  the  point  where  it  passes  from  Sialkot  into  Lahore,  besides 
two  at  Pindi  Das  and  Hodial,  erected  by  the  Emperor  Jahangir. 

Dehej.— Seaport  in  the  Wagra  Sub-division,  Broach  District,  Bom- 
bay Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  21°  42'  45".N.,  and  long.  72°  38'  30"  e., 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Narbada  (Nerbudda),  about  3  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  26  miles  west  of  Broach.  Houses,  618.  Population  (1881) 
about  2000.  The  port,  though  convenient  of  approach,  does  not  admit 
of  boats  of  more  than  55  tons  burthen.  In  1804  it  was  closed,  and 
opened  again  in  1819.  Dehej  was  formerly  the  chief  town  of  a  fiscal 
division  of  1 2  villages,  which  first  came  under  British  rule  in  1 780.  This 
tract  was  ceded  to  the  Marathas  in  1783,  and  recovered  in  1818  on  the 
final  overthrow  of  the  Peshwa's  power.     Mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari. 


i68  DEHLI—DEHRA  DUN. 

Dehli. — Division,  District,  and  City,  Punjab. — See  Delhi. 

Deh-peh. — Lake  in  Okepo  township,  Henzada  District,  Irawadi 
Division,  British  Burma ;  situated  near  the  foot  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Pegu  Yoma  hills,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  a  square  mile.  Supplied 
principally  by  the  drainage  from  the  neighbouring  hills;  during  the 
rains  it  has  a  depth  of  9  feet,  but  in  the  dry  season  of  only  i  or  2  feet. 

Dehra. — Tahsil  in  Dehra  Diin  District,  North- Western  Provinces, 
comprising  the  whole  of  the  eastern  and  western  Duns.  Area  (1882) 
715  square  miles,  of  which  78  are  cultivated ;  population  (1881)  98,953; 
land  revenue,  ^3850;  total  Government  revenue,  ;£"472i ;  rental  paid 
by  cultivators,  ;^i4,393  ;  incidence  of  Government  revenue  per  acre,  2d. 
The  tahsil  contains  i  civil  and  8  criminal  courts,  with  14  thdnds  or 
police  circles.  Strength  of  regular  police,  196  men,  besides  53  town 
police  and  106  village  watchmen. 

Dehra. — Town,  cantonment,  and  administrative  head  -  quarters  of 
Dehra  Diin  District,  North- Western  Provinces.  Lat.  30°  19'  59"  n., 
and  long.  78°  5'  57"  e.  Prettily  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  mountain 
valley,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  2300  feet  above  sea-level.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  18,959,  namely,  Hindus,  13,307;  Muhammadans,  4801; 
Jains,  88;  Christians,  711 ;  and  'others,'  52.  Area  of  town  site,  2315. 
Founded  by  Guru  Ram  Rai,  who  settled  in  the  Diin  at  the  end  of 
the  17th  century.  His  temple,  a  handsome  building  in  the  style  of 
Jahangir's  tomb,  forms  the  chief  architectural  ornament  of  the  town. 
The  native  city  also  contains  a  tahsili^  police  station,  jail,  and  schools. 
The  European  quarter  lies  to  the  north,  and  has  a  fixed  English  popu- 
lation of  some  600  persons,  being  one  of  the  largest  in  the  North- 
western Provinces.  To  the  west  stand  the  cantonments  of  the  2nd 
Gurkha  Rifles,  or  Sirmiir  Battalion.  English  Church,  Roman  Catholic 
and  Presbyterian  chapels;  dispensary,  which  in  1883  relieved  a  total 
number  of  16,263  patients ;  post-office  ;  head-quarters  of  Trigonometrical 
Survey.  A  large  and  successful  mission  of  the  American  Presbyterian 
Church  takes  a  prominent  part  in  education.  Municipal  revenue  (1883), 
^951,  of  which  ;£599  was  derived  from  taxation;  incidence  of  taxation, 
IS.  per  head  of  municipal  population. 

Dehra  Diin. — District  in  the  Lieutenant- Governorship  of  the  North- 
western Provinces,  lying  between  29°  57'  and  30°  59'  n.  lat.,  and 
between  77°  37'  15"  and  78°  22'  45"  e.  long.,  with  an  area  of  1193 
square  miles,  and  a  population  (1881)  of  144,070  persons.  Dehra  Diin 
forms  the  northern  District  of  the  Meerut  (Merath)  Division.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Independent  Garhwal,  on  the  west  by  Sirmiir 
and  Ambala  (Umballa)  District,  on  the  south  by  Saharanpur,  and  on 
the  east  by  British  and  Independent  Garhwal.  The  administrative 
head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Dehra. 

Physical  Aspects, — The  District  of  Dehra  Diin  consists  of  two  distinct 


DEHRA  DUN.  169 

portions — the  double  valley  of  Dehra  proper,  and  the  outlying  mountain 
tract  of  Jaunsar  Bawar.     It  projects  northward  from  the  alluvial  up- 
lands of  the  Doab,  like  an  irregular  triangle,  towards  the  sources  of  the 
Jumna  (Jamuna)  and  the  main  range  of  the  Himalayas.     To  the  south, 
I  the  Siwalik  hills,  a  mass  of  Himalayan  debris^  shut  off  the  District  from 
the  level  and  fertile  plain  below.     Between  these  hills  and  the  great 
I  mountain  chain,  whose  farthest  outliers  they  form,  lie  the  two  valleys 
I  known  as  the  Eastern  and  Western  Diins ;  the  former  sloping  down 
I  toward  the  stream  of  the  Ganges,  while  the  latter  descends  by  wooded 
I  undulations  to  the  bed  of  its  principal  confluent,  the  Jumna  (Jamuna). 
The  scenery  of  these   mountain   dales  can   hardly   be  surpassed  for 
I  picturesque  beauty  even  among  the  lovely  slopes  of  the  massive  chain 
'  to  which  they  belong.     The  perennial  streams  nourish  a  fresh   and 
luxuriant  vegetation,  whilst  the  romantic  hills  to  the  south  and  the 
sterner  mountains  on  the  north  give  an  exquisite  variety  to  the  land- 
I  scape.      A  connecting  ridge,  which  runs  from  north  to  south  between 
i  the  two  systems,  forms  the  watershed  of  the  great  rivers,  and  divides 
I  the  Eastern  from  the  Western   Diin.      The  Ganges,   passing  between 
I  this  District  and  Garhwal,  pours  rapidly  over  beds  of  boulder,  through 
several  channels,  encircling  jungle-clad  islets,  and  debouches  at  length 
I  upon  the   plains  at   Hardvvar.     The  Jumna  sweeps  round  the  whole 
I  south-western  boundary,  and  reaches  the  level  uplands  near  Badshah 
I  Mahal,  in  Saharanpur  District,  an  ancient  hunting-seat  of  the    Delhi 
I  Emperors.     Their  tributaries  have  little  importance,  except  for  artificial 
I  irrigation.     When  the  District  first  passed  under  British  rule,  remains 
of  ancient  dams,   tanks,  and  canals  studded  its    surface ;    but  these 
works  had  fallen  completely  out  of  use  during  the  anarchic  period  of 
Sikh  and  Gurkha  incursions.     Our  officers  at  once  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  restoration  of  the  ancient  channels,  or  the  construction  of 
others ;  and  a  number  of  diminutive  but  valuable  irrigation  canals  now 
traverse  both  valleys  in  every  direction,  spreading  cultivation  over  all 
available  portions  of  their  rugged  surface.     North  of  the  Diin  proper, 
the  massive  block  of  mountains  known  as  Jaunsar  Bawar  fills  in  the 
space  between  the  valleys  of  the  Tons  on  the  west  and  the  Jumna  on 
the  east  and  south.     The  latter  river,  bending  sharply  westward  from 
the  Garhwal  boundary,  divides  this  northern  tract  from  the  Dun,  and 
unites  with  its  tributary  the  Tons  near  the  Sirmiir  frontier.     Jaunsar 
Bawar  consists  of  a  confused  mass  of  rocks,  evidently  upheaved  by 
volcanic  action.     Forests   of  deodara,    oak,   and  fir  still  clothe  large 
spaces  on  the  hill-sides ;    but  cultivation  can  only  be  carried  on  by 
means  of  terraces  cut  along  the  mountain  slopes,  and  artificially  irrigated 
hy  dams  upon  the  numerous  minor  streams.     The  wild  elephant  ranges 
over  the  Siwalik  chain ;  v;hile  tigers,  leopards,  sloth  bears,  spotted  or 
other  deer,  and  monkeys  abound  in  the  remoter  jungles.    Wild  elephants 


1 70  DEHRA  DUN. 

occasionally  do  considerable  damage  to  the  crops,  but  their  capture  is 
regulated  by  Government  rules.  Among  game  birds  may  be  mentioned 
the  black  and  grey  partridge,  pea-fowl,  floriken,  snipe,  woodcock, 
pheasant,  etc.  Birds  of  prey  include  several  varieties  of  eagle,  vuliure, 
kite,  hawk,  etc.  The  rivers  abound  in  fish,  the  mahsir,  a  species  of 
carp,  being  commonly  caught  from  40  to  60  pounds  in  weight,  and  fre- 
quently of  a  larger  size.  The  smaller  streams  swarm  with  trout,  sal, 
7'ohi,  etc.  Crocodiles,  both  of  the  snub-nosed  and  bottle-nosed  varieties, 
are  common,  as  is  also  a  repulsive  species  of  fresh-water  shark. 

History. — In  the  earliest  ages  of  Hindu  legend,  Dehra  Diin  formed 

part  of  the  mythical  region  known  as    Kedarkiind,  the  abode  of  the 

great  god  Siva,  whose  sovereignty  is  still  commemorated  in  the  name 

of  the    Siwalik  hills.     Many  generations  later,  according  to  the  most 

ancient  myths  of  the  Aryan  settlers,  the  valley  became  bound  up  with 

the   two   great   epics    of  the    Ramayana   and  Mahabharata.      Hither 

came  Rama  and  his  brother,  to   do   penance   for   the   death   of  the 

demon-king  Ravana ;  and  here  sojourned  the  five  Pandava  brethren, 

on  their  way  to  the  inner  recesses  of  the  snowy  range,  where  they  finally 

immolated  themselves  upon  the  sacred  peak  of  Maha  Panth.     Another 

memorable  legend  connects  the  origin  of  the  little  river  Suswa  with 

the  prayers  of  60,000  pigmy  Brahmans,  whom  Indra,  the  rain-god,  had 

laughed  to  scorn  when  he  saw  them  vainly  endeavouring  to  cross  the 

vast  lake  formed  by  a  cow's  footprint  filled  with  water.     The  indignant 

pigmies  set  to  work,  by  means  of  penance  and  mortifications,  to  create 

a  second  Indra,   who  should  supersede  the  reigning  god ;  and  when 

their  sweat  had  collected  into  the  existing  river,  the  irreverent  deity, 

alarmed  at  the  surprising  effect  of  their  devotions,  appeased  their  wrath 

through  the  good  offices  of  Brahma.     Traditions  of  a  snake,  Bamun, 

who  became  lord  of  the  Diin  on  the  summit  of  the  Nagsidh  Hill,  seem 

to  point  towards  a  period  of  Naga   supremacy.     The   famous  Kalsi 

stone,  near  Haripur,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  inscribed  with 

an    edict  of  the    Buddhist    Emperor  Asoka,  may   mark    the    ancient 

boundary  between  India  and  the  Chinese  Empire.      It  consists  of  a 

large  quartz  boulder,  standing  on  a  ledge  which  overhangs  the  river, 

and  is  covered  with  the  figure  of  an  elephant,  besides  an  inscription 

in    the  ordinary  character  of  the  period.      Hwen  Thsang    does   not 

mention  any  cities  which  can  be  identified  as  lying  within  the  present 

District ;  and  tradition  asserts  that  it  remained  without  inhabitants  until 

the  nth  century,  when  a  passing  caravan  of  Banjaras,  struck  with  the 

beauty  of  the  country,  permanently  settled  on  the  spot. 

Authentic  history,  however,  knows  nothing  of  Dehra  Diin  till  the  17th 
century,  when  it  formed  a  portion  of  the  Garhwal  kingdom.  The  town 
of  Dehra  owes  its  origin  to  the  heretical  Sikh  Guru,  Ram  Rai,  a  Hindu 
anti-pope,  who  was  driven  from  the  Punjab  and  the  Sikh  apostolate 


DEHRA  DUN.  171 

by  doubts  as  to  the  legitimacy  of  his  birth,  and  obtained  recommenda- 
tions from  the  Emperor  Aurangzeb  to  the  Raja,  of  Garhvval.  His 
presence  in  the  Diin  shordy  attracted  numerous  devotees,  and  the  village 
of  Gurudwara,  or  Dehra,  grew  up  around  the  saint's  abode.  Raja  Fateh 
Sah  endowed  his  temple,  a  curious  building  of  Muhammadan  archi- 
tecture, with  the  revenue  of  three  estates.  The  Guru  possessed  the 
singular  and  miraculous  power  of  dying  at  will,  and  returning  to  life 
after  a  concerted  interval ;  but  on  one  occasion,  having  mistaken  his 
reckoning,  he  never  revived,  and  the  bed  on  which  he  died  still  forms 
a  particular  object  of  reverence  to  the  devout  worshippers  at  his  ceno- 
taph. Monuments  of  earlier  date,  erected  by  one  Rani  Karnavati,  still 
exist  at  Nuwada.  Fateh  Sah  died  soon  after  the  arrival  of  Ram  Rai, 
and  was  succeeded  (1699)  by  his  infant  grandson,  Partap  Sah,  whose 
reign  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  a  century.  But  the  flourishing 
condition  of  his  domain  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Najib  Daula, 
governor  of  Saharanpur,  who  crossed  the  Siwaliks  with  a  Rohilla  army 
in  1757,  and  occupied  the  Diin  without  serious  opposition.  Under 
Najib  Khan's  benevolent  and  enlightened  administration,  the  District 
rose  to  an  unexampled  degree  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  Canals  and 
wells  irrigated  the  mountain  -  sides,  Muhammadan  colonists  brought 
capital  to  develop  the  latent  resources  of  the  soil ;  and  mango  topes, 
still  standing  amid  apparently  primeval  forest,  bear  witness  even  now  to 
the  flourishing  agriculture  of  this  happy  period.  But  Najib's  death  in 
1770  put  an  end  to  the  sudden  prosperity  of  the  Diin.  Henceforth  a 
perpetual  inundation  of  Rajputs,  Giijars,  Sikhs,  and  Gurkhas  swept 
over  the  valley,  till  the  once  fertile  garden  degenerated  again  into  a 
barren  waste.  Four  Rajas  followed  one  another  on  the  throne;  but  the 
real  masters  were  the  turbulent  tribes  on  every  side,  who  levied  constant 
black-mail  from  the  unfortunate  cultivators. 

Meanwhile,  the  Gurkhas,  a  race  of  mixed  Nepali  origin,  were 
advancing  westward,  and  reached  at  last  the  territories  of  Garhwal. 
In  1803,  Raja  Parduman  Sah  fled  before  them  from  Srinagar  into  the 
Diin,  and  thence  to  Saharanpur,  while  the  savage  Gurkha  host  overran 
the  whole  valley  unopposed.  Their  occupation  of  Dehra  Diin 
coincided  in  time  with  the  British  entry  into  Saharanpur,  and  the 
great  earthquake  of  1803  proved  the  miraculous  harbinger  of  either 
event.  The  Gurkhas  ruled  their  new  acquisition  with  a  rod  of  iron, 
so  that  the  District  threatened  to  become  an  absolute  desert.  Under 
the  severe  fiscal  arrangements  of  the  Gurkha  governors,  slavery 
increased  with  frightful  rapidity,  every  defaulter  being  condemned  to 
lifelong  bondage,  and  slaves  being  far  cheaper  in  the  market  than 
horses  or  camels.  From  this  unhappy  condition,  the  advent  of  British 
rule  rescued  the  feeble  and  degraded  people. 

The  constant  aggressions  of  the  Gurkhas  against  our  frontier  com- 


172  DEHRA  DUN. 

pelled   the    Government  to  declare  war  in  November  1814.      Dehra 
was  immediately  occupied, 'while  our  forces  laid  siege  to  the   strong 
hill  fortress  of  Kalanga,  which  fell  after  a  gallant  defence,  with  great 
loss   to   the    besieging   party.      The   remnant    of    its    brave   garrison 
entered  the  service  of  Ranjit  Singh,  and  afterwards  died  to  a  man  in 
battle  with  the  Afghans.     A  resolution  of  Government,  dated    17th 
November   1815,  ordered  the   annexation  of  our  new   possession  to 
Saharanpur  ;  while  the  Gurkhas,  by  a  treaty  drawn  up  in  the  succeeding 
month,  formally  ceded  the  country.     The  organization  of  the  District 
on  a  British  model  proceeded  rapidly ;  and  in  spite  of  an  ineffectual 
rising  of  the  disaffected  Giijars  and  other  predatory  classes,  led  by  a 
bandit  named  Kalwa,  in  1824,  peace  was  never  again  seriously  disturbed. 
Under  the  energy  and  perseverance  of  its  first  English  officials,  the  Diin 
rapidly  recovered  its  prosperity.     Roads  and  canals  were  constructed, 
cultivation  spread  over  the  waste  lands ;  and  the  people  themselves, 
awaking  from  their  previous  apathy,  began  to  acquire  habits  of  industry 
and  self-reliance.     Jaunsar  Bawar,   historically  an  integral  portion  of 
Sirmur,  had  been  conquered  in  the  same  campa'gn  as  the  Diin ;  but 
was  at  first   erected   into  a   separate  charge  under  a   Commissioner 
subordinate  to  the  Resident  at  Delhi.     In  1829,  however,  it  was  incor- 
porated with  the  present  District,  of  which  it  has  ever  since  formed  a 
part.     The  Mutiny  of  1857  produced  Httle  effect  in  this  remote  depend- 
ency, cut  off  by  the  Siwaliks  from  direct  contact  with  the  centres  of 
disaffection  in  the  Doab  or  the  Delhi  Division ;  and  though  a  party  of 
Jalandhar  insurgents,  600  strong,  crossed  the  Jumna  into  Dehra  Diin, 
they  traversed  the  District  without   stopping,    and  never   came   into 
collision  with  the  pursuing  troops. 

Population. — It  is  probable  that  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  has 
more  than  trebled  since  the  introduction  of  British  rule.  The  first 
regular  Census,  however,  took  place  as  lately  as  1865,  and  it  returned 
a  total  population  of  102,831.  In  1872,  the  numbers  had  risen  to 
116,945,  showing  an  increase  of  14,114  persons,  or  137  per  cent.  By 
1 88 1,  the  population  had  further  risen  to  144,070,  showing  an  increase 
of  27,125,  or  23*2  percent,  since  1872.  The  principal  results  arrived 
at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  briefly  summarised  as  follows  : — Area 
of  District,  1193  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and  villages,  966; 
number  of  houses,  32,942.  Total  population,  144,070,  namely,  males 
83,985,  and  females  60,085  ;  proportion  of  males  in  total  population, 
58*3  per  cent.  Average  density  of  population,  121  persons  per  square 
mile;  villages  per  square  mile,  0*81;  persons  per  village,  149;  houses 
per  square  mile,  27*6;  inmates  per  house,  4*3.  Classified  according 
to  religion,  the  Census  Report  returned  the  population  as  follows  : — 
Hindus,  125,223,  or  86*9  percent.;  Muhammadans,  16,527,  or  11 '5  per 
cent.;  Christians,  2025,  or  i"4  per  cent.;  Sikhs,  160;  and  Jains,  134. 


DEHRA  DUN.  173 

The  leading  Hindu  castes  comprise  the  Brahmans  (17,274)  and  Rajputs 
(37>55°)'  ^^^^^  ^^  which  has  two  broad    sub-divisions    into   mountain 
and  lowland  clans.     The  latter  regard  themselves  as  vastly  superior 
to  their  hill  brethren,  and  lose  caste  by  intermarriage  with  them.     The 
highland  Brahmans  will  eat  any  kind  of  meat  except  beef.     The  other 
Hindu  castes,  numbering  over  2000,  in  the  District  are  as  follows : — 
Ahir,  shepherds  and  cultivators,   2027;  Baniya,  traders,  2932;  Barhai, 
carpenters,  2999;  Bhangi,  a  very  low  caste  of  sweepers,  and  engaged  in 
other   menial   occupations,   10,781 ;    Chamar,  another  very  low  caste, 
engaged  as  skinners  and   leather  dressers,   16,715  ;    Kahar,  labourers, 
palanquin-bearers,  and  domestic  servants,  4576  ;  Kori,  8669,  and  Lodhi, 
2930,  the  two  principal  cultivating  castes  ;  Lobar,  blacksmiths  and  iron- 
workers, 2050.     The  Giijars,  immigrant  plunderers  of  the  last  century, 
still  retain  several   villages,   but   they  only   numbered    529    in    1881. 
Among  the  lower  castes,  the  Mehras  and  Dhiims  possess  the  greatest 
interest,  as  being  the  probable  representatives  of  the  aborigines  before 
the  tide  of  Aryan  immigration  had  set  in.     The  Mehras  inhabit  the 
remoter  portions  of  the   Eastern  Diin,  inferior  both  in  physique  and 
intelligence,   and  timidly  averse  to    intercourse  with   strangers.     The 
Dhiims  have  dingy  black  skins  and  woolly  hair ;  they  form  the  servile 
class,  only  just  emancipated  from  actual  slavery  under  British  rule,  and 
still  retaining  many  traces  of  their  ancient  status.     Their  number  is  not 
returned  separately  in  the  Census  Report.     With  the  exception  of  167 
Shias,  the  whole  of  the  Muhammadans  belong  to  the  Sunni  sect.    They 
have  secured  few  proselytes,  except  among  the  wretched  Dhiims,  and 
these  generally  prefer  Christianity  to  Islam.     The  Christian  community 
consists  of  1 291  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  and  734  natives;  but  the 
Census  Report  does  not  return  the  Christian  population  according  to 
sect  for  each  District. 

The  District  contained  only  one  town  in  1881  whose  population  ex- 
ceeded 5000,  namely,  Dehra,  with  18,959  inhabitants.  The  sanitaria 
of  Masuri  (Mussooree)  and  Landaur,  now  united  into  a  single  town, 
contain  a  large  number  of  permanent  residents  (3106  in  February  1881), 
and  attract  many  visitors  from  the  plains  during  the  hot  season.  Kalsi, 
the  ancient  mart  of  Jaunsar  Bawar,  has  now  sunk  to  the  position  of  a 
country  village ;  while  the  cantonment  of  Chakrata,  high  among  the 
mountains,  has  succeeded  to  local  importance  as  the  modern  capital  of 
the  tract.  Of  the  966  villages,  no  less  than  824  contained,  in  1881, 
fewer  than  two  hundred  inhabitants ;  in  from  two  hundred  to  five 
hundred;  19  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  9  from  one  thousand 
to  two  thousand ;  2  from  three  thousand  to  five  thousand ;  and  i 
upwards  of  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants.  As  regards  occupation,  the 
Census  Report  divides  the  male  population  into  the  following  six  main 
classes : — Class  (i)  Professional,  including  civil  and  military  and  the 


174  DEHRA  DUN. 

professional  classes,  3367  ;  (2)  domestic  servants,  keepers  of  lodging- 
houses,  etc.,  2379  ;  (3)  commercial,  including  merchants,  traders,  car- 
riers, etc.,  2125;  (4)  agricultural,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  and 
cattle  and  sheep  tenders,  29,989  ;  (5)  manufacturing  and  industrial  class, 
including  artisans,  12,249;  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive  (including 
9595  general  labourers,  and  24,281  male  children  and  unspecified), 
33,876.  The  language  in  ordinary  use  consists  of  a  very  corrupt  dialect 
of  Hindi. 

Agriculture. —  Out  of  a  total  area  of  1193  square  miles,  only  106  were 
cultivated  in  1881,  33  square  miles  were  cultivable,  and  102 1  square 
miles  uncultivable  waste.  Tillage  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  valleys,  or 
to  terraces  on  the  mountain  slopes,  artificially  irrigated  by  dams  and 
canals.  The  agricultural  year  follows  the  same  seasons  as  in  the 
Doab.  The  kharif^  or  autumn  harvest,  consists  chiefly  of  rice,  the 
inferior  kinds  of  which  can  be  grown  in  land  entirely  dependent  on  the 
rainfall  for  its  water-supply.  Jodr,  til,  and  sugar-cane  form  supplementary 
autumn  crops.  The  rabi,  or  spring  harvest,  falls  far  short  of  the  kharif  in 
quantity.  Its  staples  comprise  wheat  and  barley,  with  very  few  inferior 
grains.  The  District  produces  no  surplus  for  exportation ;  and  since 
the  hill  stations  of  Masuri  and  Chakrata  have  risen  into  importance,  a 
considerable  amount  of  food-stuffs  is  annually  imported  for  their  supply. 
On  the  other  hand,  Dehra  Diin  now  raises  tea  for  exportation  to  the 
plains,  while  timber  and  other  forest  produce  turn  the  balance  of  trade 
in  its  favour.  The  cultivation  of  the  Rhea  fibre  or  China  grass  was 
attempted  a  few  years  ago,  but  the  experiment  proved  a  failure,  and  the 
cultivation  has  now  been  abandoned.  Irrigation  in  1881  was  carried  on 
over  9869  acres  by  means  of  Government  works,  and  over  21,953  acres 
by  private  enterprise.  Unirrigated  area,  35,378  acres,  or  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  total  area  under  cultivation.  Government  has  endeavoured 
to  promote  the  reclamation  of  the  waste  lands  which  abound  in  all  parts 
of  the  District,  by  means  of  grants  to  European  capitalists ;  but  hitherto 
little  success  has  attended  these  enterprises.  A  grant  of  a  large  tract  of 
land  in  the  Eastern  Dun  has  recently  been  given  to  Messrs.  Lister  & 
Co.,  a  wealthy  Yorkshire  silk  firm,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  seri- 
culture, but  the  experiment  has  not  yet  (1883)  reached  a  stage  to  justify 
predictions  as  to  its  success  or  otherwise.  The  various  agricultural  staples 
cover  the  following  estimated  areas  : — Wheat,  12,890  acres ;  barley,  5228 
acres;  rice,  13,743  acres;  mandivd,  6412  acres.  The  average  out-turn 
of  wheat  per  acre  may  be  set  down  at  1 1  cwts.  per  acre,  valued  at  ;£i,  5s. ; 
and  that  of  barley  at  15  cwts.  per  acre,  valued  at  ;^i,  is.  Nearly 
three-fifths  of  the  land  is  held  by  tenants  with  rights  of  occupancy. 
Average  incidence  of  Government  land  revenue,  is.  ojd.  per  acre; 
average  rent  paid  by  cultivators,  3s.  9d.  per  acre.  In  the  Ddn 
proper,   the   peasantry  have   not   yet   extricated    themselves    from   a 


DEHRA  DUN.  17- 

condition  of  indebtedness  to  the  village  banker ;  but  in  Jaunsar  Bawar 
they  occupy  a  comparatively  enviable  position,  free  from  debt,  and 
usually  cultivating  their  own  little  farms  themselves.  On  the  tea  planta- 
tions, labour  obtains  excellent  wages,  which  prove  quite  sufficient  to 
attract  Afghans  and  other  foreigners  into  competition  with  natives  of 
the  Diin.  Ordinary  field-labourers  receive  generally  3d.  per  diem. 
Famine  has  never  occurred  within  the  historical  period  ;  and  it  is 
believed  that,  among  a  people  so  favourably  situated  as  regards  the 
demand  for  labour,  its  future  occurrence  may  be  considered  a  very 
remote  contingency.  The  average  prices  of  food-stuffs  for  the  ten 
years  ending  1880  ruled  as  follows  : — Common  rice,  12  sers  per  rupee, 
or  9s.  4d.  per  cwt. ;  best  rice,  9  sers  per  rupee,  or  12s.  5d.  per  cwt.  ; 
wheat,  17  sers  per  rupee,  or  6s.  yd.  per  cwt.  j  barley,  25  sers  per  rupee, 
or  4s.  6d.  per  cwt. 

Conmierce  and  T?'ade,  etc. — The  traffic  of  Dehra  Diin  has  two  main 
channels,  leading  from  the  valley  to  the  plains  and  to  the  hills  respec- 
tively. The  exports  toward  the  lowlands  include  timber,  bamboo,  lime, 
charcoal,  rice,  and  above  all,  tea.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  latter 
article  raised  within  the  District  is  estimated  at  ^20,000.  Some  of 
it  has  even  found  its  w^ay,  through  Afghanistan,  to  the  Russians  in 
Central  Asia.  In  return,  the  Diin  imports  from  the  plains  hardware, 
cotton  cloth,  blankets,  salt,  sugar,  grain,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  spices.  All 
these  articles  pass  on  also  to  the  hills  ;  while  the  return  trade  consists 
of  rice,  ginger,  turmeric,  red  pepper,  honey,  wax,  lac,  gum,  resin,  and 
other  forest  produce.  With  the  exception  of  English-made  beer,  which 
is  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent  by  two  breweries  at  Masuri,  no 
manufactures  of  more  than  local  importance  exist.  The  mode  of 
carriage  is  confined  to  bullock-carts,  and  the  carrying  trade  remains 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Banjaras.  The  District  has  only  one  bridged 
and  metalled  road,  from  Asamri  to  Rajpur,  along  which  goes  the  traffic 
from  the  plains  through  the  Mohan  Pass,  pierced  by  a  causeway  7  miles 
long.  Fair  second-class  roads  connect  the  other  centres  of  population 
with  the  principal  passes  of  the  Himalayas  or  the  Siwaliks.  The  hill 
stations,  however,  can  only  be  reached  by  means  of  horse-paths.  Four 
printing-presses  exist  in  the  District,  and  an  English  newspaper  is 
published  at  Masuri. 

Administration. — In  1881,  Dehra  Dun  District  contained  3  cove- 
nanted officers,  the  chief  of  w^hom  bore  the  title  of  Superintendent, 
with  the  powers  of  a  Magistrate  and  Collector.  The  total  revenue 
raised  in  Dehra  Dun  during  1874-75  was  returned  at  ;£"63o8,  of 
which  sum  £si91  was  due  to  the  land-tax.  By  1880-81,  the 
gross  revenue  of  the  District  had  increased  to  ;^28,i62,  of  which 
;£62ii  were  derived  from  the  land.  The  total  cost  of  civil  administra- 
tion, as  represented  by  the  cost  of  offic'als  and  police  of  all  kinds, 


176  DEHRA  DUN. 

was  ;^io,454.  The  District  contained  in  1881,  9  Magistrates  and 
6  civil  and  revenue  judges.  The  number  of  policemen  of  all  kinds 
amounted  to  370,  being  at  the  rate  of  i  constable  to  every  3-2  square 
miles  of  area  and  every  391  persons.  The  District  jail  and  lock-up  at 
Dehra  Dun  contained  a  daily  average  of  75  inmates  in  1880,  of  whom 
72  were  males  and  3  females.  In  education,  the  District  still  remains 
very  backward.  In  1875-76,  the  number  of  inspected  schools  was 
returned  at  32,  with  an  aggregate  roll  of  1 196  pupils ;  while  in  1880-81, 
the  inspected  schools  numbered  39,  with  an  attendance  roll  of  1240 
pupils,  giving  an  average  of  i  school  to  every  30*6  square  miles, 
and  8'-4  pupils  per  thousand  of  the  population.  There  are  also  a  few 
unimportant  uninspected  village  schools.  The  Census  Report  in 
1880-81  returned  a  total  of  1368  boys  and  310  girls  under  instruc- 
tion;  and  6295  males  and  578  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but 
not  under  instruction.  The  American  Mission  at  Dehra,  established 
in  1853,  has  taken  a  deep  interest  in  educational  matters,  and  main- 
tains a  'female  school  and  girls'  orphanage.  For  fiscal  and  admini- 
strative purposes,  the  District  is  sub  -  divided  into  2  tahsils  and  3 
pargands.  Municipalities  have  been  established  at  Dehra  and  Masuri. 
In  1880-81,  their  joint  revenue  amounted  to  ^379^?  of  which  ;^2983 
was  derived  from  taxation ;  expenditure,  ;^3o62. 

Medical  Aspects.— Y.^Xxo.mt's.  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown  in  the 
Dehra  Diin.  The  proximity  of  the  Himalayas  cools  the  atmosphere ; 
the  warm  blasts  from  the  plain  do  not  reach  so  far  among  the 
mountain  valleys,  while  the  heavy  summer  monsoons  bring  abundant 
showers,  and  even  in  May  or  June  occasional  rainfall  refreshes  the 
country.  The  rainfall  varies  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the 
District,  the  average  for  20  years  ranging  from  57*62  inches  at  Chakrata, 
to  7578  inches  at  Dehra,  95-54  inches  at  Masuri,  and  123-19  inches  at 
Bhogpur.  The  temperature  generally  fluctuates  between  37°  and 
101°  F. ;  but  at  the  sanitarium  of  Masuri  (Mussooree),  6000  feet  above 
sea-level,  the  thermometer  has  a  range  from  27°  to  80°.  Earthquakes 
occasionally  occur,  but  seldom  cause  serious  damage.  The  total  number 
of  deaths  recorded  in  the  District  in  1881  amounted  to  2994,  being  at 
the  rate  of  20-7  per  1000  of  the  population.  During  the  same  year, 
the  Government  charitable  dispensaries  at  Dehra  and  Masuri  gave 
relief  to  20,042  out-door  and  833  in-door  patients.  [For  further  infor- 
mation regarding  Dehra  Diin  District,  see  the  Historical  and  Statis- 
tical Memoir  of  Dehra  Dun,  by  G.  R.  C.  WiUiams,  Esq.  (Riirki,  1874); 
Settlement  Report  of  Dehra  Dim,  by  C.  A.  Daniell,  Esq.,  1866,  this  will 
expire  in  June  1886,  when  a  revised  settlement  will  be  undertaken; 
Settlement  Report  of  J aunsdr  Bdwar  Pargand,  by  H.  G.  Ross,  Esq.,  1883. 
Also  the  Census  Report  for  1881,  and  the  Provincial  Ad mi?ztstration  and 
Depart7ne?ital  Reports  for  the  North-  Western  Provinces  from  1 880  to  i  '^'^'h\ 


DEHRI^DELHL  j^^ 

Dehri.— Town  in  Shihabad  District,  Bengal ;  situated  in  lat.  24°  54' 
30"  N.,  and  long.  84°  12'  30"  e.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Son  (Soane),  at 
the  338th  mile  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Road.  Population  (1881)  3512. 
Now  noted  as  the  site  of  the  head-works  of  the  Son  Canals,  and  of  the 
workshops  designed  by  Mr.  Fouracres  in  1869-70,  to  construct  and 
maintain  the  various  stone,  wood,  and  iron  works  distributed  over  the 
canal  system.  A  training  school  was  opened  at  Dehra  in  1872  with 
the  object  of  recruiting  the  upper  subordinate  establishments  of  the 
rublic  Works  Department,  European,  Eurasian,  and  native  lads  being 
taken  as  indentured  apprentices ;  but  this  school  has  recently  been 
removed  to  Sibpur  at  Howrah,  opposite  Calcutta.  To  the  north  of 
Dehri  town  is  a  large  indigo  factory,  the  property  of  Messrs.  Gisborne 
&  Co.  In  187 1,  a  convict  camp  was  established  at  Dehri,  as  an 
experiment  on  a  large  scale,  for  the  out-door  employment  of  prisoners 
on  remunerative  public  works.  The  prisoners  were  mainly  employed 
on  canal  works  connected  with  the  Irrigation  Department,  till  1875, 
when  they  were  moved  to  Baxar. 

Delhi  {Dehli). — Division  or  Commissionership  in  the  Punjab,  lying 
between  27°  39'  and  30°  11'  n.  lat.,  and  between  76'   13'  and   77° 
35'  E.  long. ;  comprising  the  three  Districts  of  Delhi,  Gurgaon,  and 
Karnal,  each  of  which  see  separately.     Area  (1881)5610  square  miles, 
with  2724  towns  and  villages;  number  of  houses,  295,270,  of  which 
207,616  are  occupied  and  87,654  are  unoccupied;  number  of  resident 
families,    413,499.       Total    population,     1,907,984,     namely,    males 
1,019,104,  and  females  888,880;  proportion  of  males  in  total  popula- 
tion, 5 3 "4  per  cent.     Average  density,  340  persons  per  square  mile; 
average  persons   per   town   or   village,    700   (including   Delhi   City); 
inmates  per  house,  9-2.     Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were — 
Hindus,  1,376,258,  or  72*13  per  cent.;  Muhammadans,   504,623,  or 
26-44  per  cent.;  Jains,   15,768;  Sikhs,  9133;   Parsis,  27;  Christians, 
12172;  and  'others,'  3.      Of  a  total  population  of  1,907,984  persons, 
936,954  are  agriculturists,  305,909  being  returned  as  males  of  fifteen 
I  years  of  age  and  upwards.     The  total  area  of  land  paying  Government 
revenue  or  quit-rent  is  returned  at  5166  square  miles,  of  which  3201 
[Square  miles  are  under  cultivation,  and  987  cultivable.     Total  amount 
|of  Government  land  revenue  and  cesses,  ;^303,379;  total  rental  paid 
iby  cultivators,  including  cesses,  ;^622,366. 

,  Delhi  (Dehli).  —  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the 
(Punjab  (Panjab),  lying  between  28°  12'  and  29°  13'  n.  lat.,  and  between 
|7o  51  15"  and  77°  34'  45"  e.  long.,  with  an  area  of  1277  square  miles, 
l^nd  a  population  in  1881  of  643,515.  Delhi  forms  the  Central  Dis- 
trict in  the  Division  of  the  same  name.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
/Carnal,  on  the  west  by  Rohtak,  on  the  south  by  Gurgaon,  and  on 
jtne  east  by  the  river  Jumna  (Jamuna),  which  divides  it  from  the  Districts 
'     VOL.  IV.  ^^  ''  M 


1 78  DELHI. 

of  Meerut  (Mirath)  and  Bulandshahr  in  the  North- Western  Provinces. 
The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  the  city  of  Delhi,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Mughal  Empire. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Delhi  forms  the  meeting  place  for 
the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Jumna  valley  and  the  last  outlying  ridges  of  the 
Rajputana  Hills.  Its  northern  portion  presents  the  usual  monotonous 
features  which  characterize  the  dry  lowlands  of  the  Cis-Sutlej  (Satlaj) 
tract ;  but  the  waters  of  the  Western  Jumna  Canal,  which  traverses  the 
whole  length  of  the  tract,  produce  splendid  crops  wherever  they  do  not 
collect  in  pestilential  marshes,  or  by  raising  the  salts  of  the  soil  to  the 
surface,  render  vegetation  impossible,  as  in  parts  of  Karnal  District 
[q.v.).  Only  near  the  Jumna  does  the  nature  of  the  soil  exhibit  any 
variety  or  increased  fruitfulness ;  but  along  the  actual  verge  of  the 
river  an  alluvial  margin,  some  lo  miles  in  width,  fringing  the  bank, 
marks  the  western  limit  of  the  ancient  bed  of  the  main  channel,  which 
has  gradually  receded  eastward  during  the  course  of  ages,  leaving  a 
considerable  cliff  far  to  the  west,  the  only  vestige  of  its  original  path. 
As  the  river  approaches  the  city  of  Delhi,  however,  this  lowland  region 
rapidly  contracts  in  width,  terminating  about  a  mile  above  the  town, 
where  an  offshoot  of  the  Mewat  Hills  abuts  upon  the  water's  edge 
in  a  wide  stony  plateau.  The  range  to  which  this  northernmost 
outlier  belongs  may  be  considered  as  a  prolongation  of  the  Aravalli 
system.  It  enters  the  District  from  Gurgaon  on  the  southern  border, 
and  immediately  expands  into  a  rocky  table-land,  some  3  miles  in 
breadth,  running  in  a  north-easterly  direction  nearly  across  the  District. 
Ten  miles  south  of  the  city,  the  range  divides  into  two  branches,  one 
of  which,  turning  sharply  to  the  south-west,  re-enters  the  borders  of 
Gurgaon ;  while  the  other  continues  its  northerly  course  as  a  narrow 
ridge  of  sandstone,  and,  passing  to  the  west  of  Delhi,  finally  loses  itself 
in  the  valley  of  the  Jumna.  The  whole  table-land  nowhere  attains  an 
elevation  of  more  than  500  feet  above  the  lowlands  at  its  base  ;  while  its 
surface  consists  of  barren  rock,  too  destitute  of  water  for  the  possibility 
of  cultivation,  even  in  the  few  rare  patches  of  level  soil.  Nevertheless, 
the  neighbouring  villages  of  the  lowland  tract  have  allotted  this  stony 
plateau  among  their  various  communities,  and  watch  over  their  respec- 
tive boundaries  with  the  utmost  jealousy.  The  land  is  only  valu- 
able as  inferior  grazing  ground.  At  the  very  foot  of  the  hills,  a  few 
villages  derive  fertility  from  the  torrents  which  course  through  the 
ravines  during  the  rainy  season,  and  spread  their  waters  over  the  flat 
plain  below,  thus  preparing  the  soil  for  the  reception  of  the  autumn 
sowing.  The  Najafgarhy/^//or  lake,  a  shallow  scattered  sheet  of  water, 
covers  a  considerable  surface  in  the  south-east  of  the  District,  the  area 
submerged  amounting  in  October  to  about  27,900  acres.  The  Jumna, 
before  reaching  the  borders  of  Delhi,  has  been  so  greatly  drained  of  its 


DELHL  ,75 

waters  for  the  two  older  canals  which  it  feeds,  that  it  forms  only  a  narrow 
stream,  fordable  at  almost  any  point  except  during  the  rains;  while 
at  Okhla,  a  short  distance  below  the  city,  the  whole  remaining  cold- 
weather  supply  is  drafted  off  into  the  new  Agra  Canal.  Water,  how- 
ever, reappears  a  few  miles  lower  down.  At  the  heads  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Jumna  Canals  the  river  can  often  be  crossed  dry-shod 
immediately  below  the  dam.  But  the  water  which  flows  under  the  river- 
bed, among  the  boulders  and  sand,  presently  reappears  and  restores  the 
stream. 

Bisfor}'.— The  tract  immediately  surrounding  the  Mughal  capital  can 
hardly  be  said  to  possess  any  history  of  its  own,  apart  from  that  of  the 
city,  which  will  be  found  in  full  under  the  proper  heading.     From  the 
earliest  period  of  Aryan  colonization   in   India,  the  point  where  the 
central  hills  first  abut  upon  the  Jumna  seems  to  have  formed  the  site  for 
one  great  metropolis  after  another.     The  whole  country,  for  some  lo  or 
12  miles  around  the  modern  Delhi,  and  particularly  in  the  south  and 
south-east,  is  covered  with  the  del^ri's  of  ruined  cities,  whose  remains 
extend  over  an  estimated  area  of  45  square  miles.     First  upon  the  list 
of  successive  capitals  stands  the  name  of  Indraprastha,  a  city  founded 
(as  General  Cunningham  believes)  not  later  than  the  15th  century  b.c, 
by  the  earliest  Aryan  immigrants  into  India,  when  they  first  began  to 
feel  their  way  along  the  tangled  jungles  of  the  Jumna  valley.     The 
Mahabharata  vaguely  enshrines  the  memory  of  this  primitive  setdement, 
and  tells  how  the  five  Pandavas,  leading  an  Aryan  host  from  Hastina- 
pur  upon  the  Ganges,   expelled  or   subdued   the   savage  Nagds,  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants ;  how,  having  cleared  their  land  of  forest,  they 
founded  the  stronghold  of  Indraprastha,  which  grew  into  a  great  kingdom  ; 
and  how  at  last,  as  the  Aryan  race  became  strong  enough  for  discord, 
they  turned  their  arms  against   their   own   kinsmen,   the  Kauravas, 
whom  they  overthrew  in  a  great  war,  the  central  theme  of  the  Hindu 
Ihad.    Yudisthira,  the  founder  of  Indraprastha,  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  thirty  generations  of  collateral  descendants,  until  at  length 
his  line  was  extinguished  by  the  usurpation  of  Visarwa,  minister  of  the 
last  Pandavite  sovereign.     Visarwa's  family  retained  the  sceptre  for  500 
years,  and  was  then  followed,  with  the  usual  symmetry  of  early  Indian 
mythical  lore,  by  a  dynasty  of  fifteen  Gautamas.     In  the  middle  of  the 
1st  century  b.c,  the  name  of  Delhi   makes   its   earliest   appearance 
^^  tradition  or  history;   and  thenceforth  the  annals  of  the   District 
become  identical  with  those  of  the  whole  Upper  Indian  Empire.     Pass- 
ing in  succession  under  the  rule  of  Hindus,  Pathans,   Mughals,  and 
Marathas,  Delhi  came  at  length  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  after 
Lord  Lake's  victories  in  1803.     The  tract  then  ceded  to  the  Company 
included  a  considerable  strip  to  the  west  of  the  Jumna,  both  north  and 
south  of  the  Mughal  capital.     The  Governor-General  assigned  a  large 


i8o  DELHI. 

portion  of  the  territory  thus  acquired  for  the  maintenance  and  dignity 
of  the  royal  family  of  Delhi.  Shah  Alam,  released  from  his  Maratha 
jailors,  received  as  private  domain  for  this  purpose  the  greater  part  of 
the  present  Districts  of  Delhi  and  Hissdr.  A  Resident  and  Chief  Com- 
missioner undertook  the  entire  control  of  the  fiscal  arrangements,  and 
exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the  criminal  jurisdiction ;  but  the 
king  retained  exclusive  power  within  the  palace  walls,  while  British 
officials  administered  Muhammadan  law  in  his  name  throughout  the 
assigned  region.  A  few  native  princes,  however,  still  held  their  inde- 
pendent estates  within  the  Delhi  territory,  the  principal  instance  in  the 
present  District  being  the  Raja  of  Ballabhgarh.  The  anomalous 
mode  of  government  thus  instituted  was  obviously  inconsistent  with  the 
full  authority  of  the  central  power;  and,  in  1832,  it  became  desirable 
to  introduce  a  more  practicable  system  of  administration.  A  Regulation 
of  that  year  abolished  the  office  of  Resident  and  Chief  Commissioner, 
transferred  the  executive  power  to  a  Commissioner  in  correspondence 
with  the  Government  of  the  North-Western  Provinces,  and  vested  the 
judicial  functions  in  the  High  Court  of  Agra.  This  enactment  placed 
the  administration  of  the  Delhi  territory,  nominally  as  well  as  actually, 
in  the  hands  of  the  East  India  Company.  The  territory  continued  to 
form  part  of  the  North-Western  Provinces  up  till  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 
As  early  as  18 19,  a  District  of  Delhi  had  been  regularly  constituted, 
including  a  part  of  the  present  Rohtak  District,  but  since  enlarged  by 
additions  from  Panipat  tahsil  in  Kdrnal  District,  and  from  the  con- 
fiscated principality  of  Ballabhgarh.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny, 
the  whole  District  passed  for  a  time  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels ;  and 
though  communications  with  the  Punjab  were  soon  restored,  enabling 
us  to  recover  the  northern  />argands,  it  was  not  till  after  the  fall  of  Delhi 
City  that  British  authority  could  reassert  itself  in  the  southern  portion. 
When  the  final  suppression  of  the  Mutiny  in  1858  enabled  the  work  of 
reconstruction  to  proceed,  Delhi  District  was  transferred  to  the  newly- 
formed  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the  Punjab.  At  the  same  time,  the 
territories  of  the  insurgent  Rajd  of  Ballabhgarh,  who  had  been  executed 
for  rebellion,  were  confiscated  and  added  as  a  new  fa/isi/  to  the  District ; 
while  the  outlying  Doab  villages,  hitherto  belonging  to  Delhi,  and  known 
as  the  Eastern  Pargand,  were  handed  over  to  the  North-Western  Pro- 
vinces. Since  the  banishment  of  the  dethroned  Emperor  to  Rangoon, 
where  he  died  in  1862,  the  District  has  enjoyed  peaceful  administration. 
Population. — The  frequent  changes  of  boundary,  both  in  the  District 
as  a  whole  and  in  its  component  pargaiids^  render  it  impossible  to 
institute  a  comparison  between  the  results  shown  by  the  Census  of  1853, 
under  the  Government  of  the  North-Western  Provinces,  and  those  of 
the  Census  of  1868,  under  the  Punjab  administration.  The  latter 
enumeration,  taken  over  an  area  of  1276  square  miles,  disclosed  a  total 


DELHL  i8i 

papulation  of  608,850  persons,  distributed  among  772  villages  or  town- 
ships, and  inhabiting  an  aggregate  of  168,390  houses.  The  Census  of 
February  17,  1881,  returns  the  area  at  1276  square  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation at  643,515.  This  population  is  distributed  through  701  towns  and 
villages,  composed  of  an  aggregate  of  73,359  occupied  and  35,624 
unoccupied  houses.  These  figures  yield  the  following  averages : — Persons 
per  square  mile,  504;  villages  per  square  mile,  i*8;  houses  per  square 
mile,  85;  persons  per  village,  918;  persons  per  house,  87.  Classified 
according  to  sex,  there  were — males,  344,016;  females,  299,499;  pro- 
portion of  males,  53*4  per  cent.  Classified  according  to  age,  there 
were,  under  15  years — males,  119,769  ;  females,  102,086  ;  total,  221,855, 
or  over  34  per  cent,  of  the  total.  As  regards  religious  distinctions, 
the  Hindus  number  483,332;  Muhammadans,  149,830;  Sikhs,  970; 
Jains,  7336  ;  Parsis,  27;  Christians,  2017;  and  'others,'  3.  These  figures 
yield  the  following  percentages: — Hindus,  72*9;  Muhammadans,  232; 
Jains,  1*1;  and  all  'others,'  2*8.  The  classification  with  reference  to 
occupations  distributes  the  adult  male  population  into  the  following  six 
main  groups: — (i)  Professional  class,  including  officials  of  every  kind 
and  the  learned  professions,  29,928 ;  (2)  domestic  servants,  inn  and 
lodging-house  keepers,  41,784;  (3)  commercial  class,  including  bankers, 
merchants,  carriers,  etc.,  20,969;  (4)  agricultural  and  pastoral  class, 
including  shepherds,  313,977;  (5)  industrial  class,  including  all  manu- 
facturers and  artisans,  161,801  ;  and  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive 
class,  including  general  labourers,  male  children,  and  persons  of 
unspecified  occupation,  83,855. 

Of  the  701  towns  and  villages  in  the  District  in  1881,  140  contained 
less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants  ;  240  between  two  and  five  hundred ; 
192  between  five  hundred  and  one  thousand ;  91  between  one  and  two 
thousand;  26  between  two  and  three  thousand;  8  between  three  and 
five  thousand ;  2  between  five  and  ten  thousand ;  7  between  ten  and 
fifteen  thousand  ;  and  i  more  than  fifty  thousand. 

Among  the  castes  and  tribes,  the  Jats  come  first  with  107,075,  remark- 
able here  as  elsewhere  for  industrious  habits,  agricultural  skill,  and 
promptitude  in  the  payment  of  revenue.  North  of  Delhi  the  greater 
part  of  the  land  is  in  their  possession,  though  they  often  share  their 
villages  with  Brahman  coparceners.  They  are  found  more  frequently  in 
the  uplands  of  the  interior  than  in  the  alluvial  fringe  of  the  Jumna  valley. 
Two  classes  of  Jats  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi,  the  Deswala 
and  the  Pachade.  The  latter  are  a  later  immigration  from  the  west,  but 
do  not  differ  materially  from  the  former.  The  greater  number  profess 
the  Sivaite  creed  of  Hinduism.  With  regard  to  the  distribution  of 
castes  and  tribes,  the  following  facts  appear  from  the  returns  of  the 
Census:  —  Hindu  Jats  number  103,984;  Muhammadan  Jats,  2318; 
Sikh  Jats,  765  ;  '  others,'  4.     Hindu  Rajputs  number  23,282  ;  Muham- 


i82  DELHI. 

madan  Rajputs,  10,511;  Sikh  Rajputs,  11;  'others,'  19.  Hindu 
Brahmans  number  59,640;  Muhammadan  Brahmans,  2333;  and  'others,' 
34.  Pathans  number  15,969,  all  of  them  Muhammadans;  Chamars, 
63,407  ;  Gujars,  25,836  ;  Chiihras,  26,067  ;  Shaikhs,  50,195,  all  of  them 
Muhammadans;  Bdluchis,  13 18,  all  Muhammadans;  Baniyas,  42,414, 
all  Hindus;  Ndis,  11,080;  Lohars,  5934;  Sayyids,  all  Muhammadans, 
8800;  Sonars,  4085;  Dhobis,  4157;  Fakirs  or  begging-priest  caste, 
1428;  Mughals,  all  Muhammadans,  5806  ;  and  Jogis,  religious  mendi- 
cants, 5006.  The  Brd,hmans  are  most  of  them  industrious  culti- 
vators, sharing  villages  with  the  Jats,  possibly  as  a  remnant  of  some 
conquest-tenure,  resembling  the  Sikh  chahdrami  of  the  Cis-Sutlej  tract 
{see  Umballa  District).  The  Taga  sub-division  of  Brdhmans  is  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  District.  They  are  of  the  Gaur  family, 
and  their  tradition  is  that  they  were  invited  from  Bengal  for  the  purpose 
of  exterminating  snakes.  Sir  H.  Elliot  finds  in  this  story  an  allusion 
to  wars  against  '  Takshak  Scythians '  of  a  Buddhist  creed.  Possibly 
many  of  the  Delhi  Brahmans  are  lineal  descendants  of  the  autoch- 
thonous Pandivas  or  original  Aryan  dwellers  in  the  District.  The 
Baniyas  or  trading  classes  are  scattered  as  shopkeepers  through  the 
country  villages,  and  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  mercantile  body 
in  Delhi  itself.  The  idle  and  dishonest  Gujars  (25,836)  carry  on  their 
usual  pastoral  and  semi-nomad  avocations  in  the  hilly  plateau  of  the 
south,  with  no  better  reputation  for  cattle-lifting  and  thieving  propen- 
sities than  their  clansmen  elsewhere.  The  Pathans  are  the  only  tribe 
of  genuine  Muhammadan  origin,  and  still  retain  their  nationality  dis- 
tinct. The  Ahirs  are  a  high-caste  pastoral  Hindu  tribe.  The  District 
contains  4  towns  with  a  population  exceeding  5000,  in  1881 — Delhi 
City,  173,393;  Sonpat,  13,077;  Faridabad,  7427;  and  Ballabh- 
GARH,  5821.  The  aggregate  urban  population  at  the  date  of  the  Census 
amounted  to  203,717  persons,  or  31  per  cent,  of  the  District  total. 
Urdu  or  Hindustani  forms  the  prevailing  dialect  of  all  classes. 

Agriculture. — The  District  of  Delhi  had  in  1882-83  a  total  cultivated 
area  of  525,676  acres,  of  which  95,346  were  irrigated  from  Government 
works,  and  80,376  by  private  enterprise.  The  uncultivated  area  includes 
10,115  acres  of  grazing  land,  133,642  acres  of  cultivable  waste,  and 
135,500  acres  of  barren  rock  or  soil  rendered  useless  by  saline  efflor- 
escence. The  north-western  uplands  are  watered  by  the  Western 
Jumna  Canal,  except  in  a  few  spots  where  the  surface  of  the  country 
rises  above  the  level  of  the  main  channel.  Cotton  and  sugar-cane  here 
form  the  commercial  staples  of  the  autumn  harvest,  while  rice,  jodr^ 
bdjra,  and  Indian  corn  are  the  chief  food-grains.  In  the  spring  sowings, 
wheat,  barley,  and  gram  make  up  the  principal  crops ;  but  tobacco 
covers  a  considerable  area,  and  rice  of  excellent  quality  is  produced 
wherever  water  is  abundant.    The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  on  the  increase. 


DELHI.  183 

a  ready  market  being  obtained  at  Delhi.  The  khddar,  or  alluvial  fringe 
of  the  Jumna,  cannot  compete  with  the  artificially-irrigated  uplands. 
The  crops  in  this  tract  include  the  same  general  staples,  but  the  produce 
is  inferior  in  kind.  Well-irrigation  is  almost  everywhere  possible  through- 
out the  khddar,  sweet  water  being  found  a  few  feet  below  the  surface. 
South  of  Delhi,  the  nature  of  the  soil  deteriorates.  Most  of  the  land 
belongs  to  the  stony  ridge  which  projects  into  the  District  from  the 
Aravalli  range ;  and  though  the  new  Agra  Canal  traverses  this  unfruitful 
region,  its  level  is  too  low  to  permit  of  irrigation.  The  Najafgarhy////, 
after  being  filled  in  the  rains,  is  drained  into  the  Jumna  by  an  escape 
channel,  and  crops  are  then  sown  upon  the  submerged  land ;  but  only  a 
partial  success  has  hitherto  attended  the  operations  of  the  Canal  Depart- 
ment in  this  respect,  owing  to  the  want  of  a  sufficient  fall.  The  follow- 
ing list  shows  the  number  of  acres  under  each  of  the  principal  staples 
in  1882-83: — Wheat,  138,753;  barley,  63,289;  gram,  56,653;  Indian 
corn,  11,954  ;  tobacco,  4200  ;  rice,  16,406  ;  Jodr,  71,238  ;  bdjra,  90,255  ; 
cotton,  31,991  ;  sugar-cane,  27,223.  The  Government  returns  of 
1882-83  state  the  average  out-turn  per  acre  as  follows: — Rice,  1005 
lbs.;  cotton,  161  lbs.;  tobacco,  737  lbs.;  wheat,  635  lbs.;  gram,  524 
lbs.;  barley,  895  \hs.  ]  Jodr,  181  lbs.;  indigo,  150  lbs.;  oil-seeds,  168 
lbs.;  and  inferior  grains,  226  lbs.  The  tenures  consist  of  the  types 
common  in  the  North-Western  Provinces,  to  which  Delhi  belongs  in 
natural  position  and  historical  antecedents.  The  holding  known  as 
hhaydchdrd,  or  brotherhood,  is  the  most  frequent.  The  village  com- 
munities are  strong  and  united.  From  50  to  100  acres  would  be 
considered  a  large  holding  for  a  cultivating  proprietor;  20  would  be 
regarded  as  above  the  average  for  a  tenant ;  while  5  acres  represent  the 
whole  farm  in  many  cases.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  tenants  possess 
no  permanent  rights  of  occupancy.  Rents  vary  much  with  the  nature 
of  the  crop  which  the  land  is  suited  to  produce.  Rice  lands  fetch  from 
8s.  to  ;jf  I  per  acre;  cotton  lands,  from  6s.  to  i6s. ;  sugar  lands,  from 
los.  to  j[^\,  los. ;  wheat  lands,  from  6s.  to  i6s. ;  indigo  lands,  from  los. 
to  i6s. ;  tobacco  lands,  from  los.  to  ;^i,  4s.;  and  dry  lands,  suitable 
for  inferior  grains,  from  2s.  to  8s.  Wages  are  almost  universally  paid  in 
money.  Agricultural  labourers  received  4d.,  or  10  lbs.  of  wheat,  per 
diem  in  1881.  Prices  ruled  as  follows  in  1883: — Wheat,  19  j^rj- per 
rupee,  or  5s.  iid.  per  cwt. ;  barley,  20  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  4d.  per 
cwt. ;  gram,  24  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  8d.  per  cwt.  ;  jodr,  25  sers  per 
rupee,  or  4s.  6d.  per  cwt. ;  bdjra,  22  sers  per  rupee,  or  5s.  id.  per  cwt. ; 
rice,  5  sers  per  rupee ;  potatoes,  20  sers  per  rupee ;  sugar,  3  sers  per 
rupee ;  tobacco,  2  sers  per  rupee ;  salt,  1 1  sers  per  rupee. 

Commerce  and  Trade. — The  trade  of  the  District  centres  almost  entirely 
in  the  city  of  Delhi.  Sonpat,  Fariddbad,  and  Ballabhgarh  are  local 
marts  of  some  importance,  but  have  no  external  transactions  of  any 


1 84  DELHI. 

value.  The  manufactures  are  also  confined  to  the  capital,  which  has 
a  high  reputation  for  gold  and  silk  embroidery,  jewellery,  and  other 
ornamental  goods  of  fine  workmanship.  The  glazed  ware  of  the  District 
has  a  reputation  second  only  to  that  of  the  similar  ware  of  Peshawar. 
The  District  now  lies  a  little  apart  from  the  main  channel  of  trade, 
owing  to  the  diversion  caused  by  the  great  northern  line  of  railway, 
which  runs  through  the  Doab  Districts  on  the  other  side  of  the  Jumna. 
Nevertheless,  the  means  of  communication  are  amply  sufficient,  both 
by  land  and  water.  In  1882,  there  were  72  miles  of  navigable  river, 
116  miles  of  metalled  and  293  of  unmetalled  roads,  and  12  miles  of 
railway.  The  East  Indian  Railway  has  a  branch  from  Ghaziabdd 
Junction,  which  crosses  the  Jumna  by  an  iron  bridge,  and  has  a  station 
within  the  city ;  and  this  branch  is  also  used  by  the  Punjab  fine.  The 
Rajputana  State  Railway  traverses  the  District  for  a  short  distance  in 
the  direction  of  Gurgaon.  The  Jumna  is  navigable  during  the  rainy 
season  for  country  boats  of  400  inaunds  burden.  Good  metalled  roads 
connect  the  city  with  Lahore,  Agra,  Jaipur  (Jeypore),  and  Hissar ;  while 
a  network  of  local  trade-lines  runs  in  every  direction  to  the  various 
minor  towns  and  ghats.  Bridges  of  boats  lead  across  the  river  at 
Bhagpat  and  Chansa,  Meniarpur,  and  Jhundpur  ;  and  the  railway  bridge 
at  Delhi  has  an  underway  for  ordinary  wheel  traffic. 

Administration. — The  District  staff  usually  comprises  a  Deputy  Com- 
missioner, I  Assistant  and  2  extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  a  judge  of 
the  Small  Cause  Court,  2  mwisifs  or  subordinate  magistrates,  and  3 
tahsilddrs,  besides  the  usual  medical,  fiscal,  and  constabulary  officials. 
The  total  revenue  raised  in  the  District  in  1882-83  amounted  to 
;£"i  12,702,  of  which  ^79,479  was  due  to  the  land-tax.  Among  the 
other  items,  the  chief  w^re  salt,  customs,  and  stamps.  For  police 
purposes,  the  District  is  distributed  into  13  pohce  circles  {thdnds). 
In  1882-83,  the  regular  police  numbered  1141  officers  and  men  of 
all  ranks,  of  whom  539  were  District,  591  municipal,  and  11 
cantonment  police.  The  police  machinery  was  therefore  i  police- 
man to  each  square  mile  of  area  and  to  every  564  persons  of  the 
population.  But  as  the  city  of  Delhi  alone  has  457  policemen,  the 
real  proportion  for  the  rural  pargaiids  may  be  more  fairly  estimated 
at  I  to  every  2  square  miles.  The  total  number  of  persons  brought 
to  trial  upon  all  charges,  great  or  small,  in  1882  amounted  to  5227. 
The  District  jail,  adapted  from  an  old  sardi.,  had  an  aggregate  of  133^ 
prisoners  in  1882,  with  a  daily  average  of  443  inmates.  In  the  District 
lock-ups  during  the  year  667  prisoners  were  received.  Cost  of  mam- 
tenance  of  prisoners,  JP^io'^o.  Education  was  carried  on  in  1882-83  by 
118  schools  and  colleges,  having  a  total  roll  of  6126  pupils.  The 
principal  establishments  include  an  aided  mission  college,  the  Upper 
District  School,  the  Anglo-Arabic  School,  and  the  classes  in  connection 


DELHI  HEAD-QUARTERS  AND  CITY.  185 

with  the  mission  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
The  Government  Delhi  College  has  been  abolished  within  the  last  few 
years.  For  fiscal  and  administrative  purposes,  the  District  is  sub-divided 
into  3  tahsils,  with  an  aggregate  of  800  villages,  owned  by  52,064  pro- 
prietors. Five  towns  within  the  District  possess  municipalities,  namely, 
Delhi,  Sonpat,  Ballabhgarh,  Faridabad,  and  Najafgarh.  In  1882-83, 
the  aggregate  municipal  revenue  amounted  to  ;£"3i,2ii,  or  3s.  per 
head  of  the  population  (203,717)  within  municipal  limits;  municipal 
expenditure,  ^25,400. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Delhi  does  not  materially  differ  from 
that  of  other  Districts  in  the  Jumna  basin.  The  maximum  temperature  in 
the  shade  in  May  1882  was  116°  F. ;  the  minimum  in  December,  46*4°. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  north-westerly  or  westerly.  The  total  annual 
rainfall  amounted  to  21*8  inches  in  1869-70,  237  inches  in  1870-71, 
and  33'i  inches  in  1871-72.  In  1882  it  was  29-2  inches.  The  prin- 
cipal endemic  diseases  are  fever  and  bowel  complaints ;  but  small-pox 
often  commits  severe  ravages  in  an  epidemic  form.  The  total  number 
of  deaths  recorded  in  1882  was  20,122,  being  at  the  rate  of  31  per 
thousand;  and  of  these  12,263,  or  19  per  thousand,  were  due  to  fevers 
alone.  The  District  contains  8  charitable  dispensaries,  which  afforded 
relief  in  1882  to  1148  in-door  and  55,982  out-door  patients.  [For 
further  information  regarding  Delhi  District,  see  the  forthcoming  Pimjab 
Gazetteer ;  Mr.  Stack's  Settlement  Memorandui?i ;  Sir  J.  W.  Kaye  and 
Colonel  Malleson's  Mutiny  Narratives /^j'J'/w.  Also  the  Punjab  Census 
Report  iox  1881,  and  the  Punjab  An?iual  Administration  Reports  ivom 
1880  to  1883.] 

Delhi. — Head-quarters  tahsil  of  Delhi  District,  Punjab.  Area,  434 
square  miles.  Population,  including  Delhi  City,  317,802,  namely,  males 
^705579,  and  females  147,223  ;  average  density  of  rural  population, 
323  persons  per  square  mile;  of  the  total  population,  752  per  square 
mile.  As  regards  religion,  Hindus  number  220,352;  Muhammadans, 
91,105;  Sikhs,  892;  and  'others,'  5453.  Revenue  of  the  tahsil, 
;^26,923.  The  administrative  staff,  including  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Division  and  District,  consists  of  a  Commissioner,  Deputy  Commis- 
sioner, Judicial  Commissioner,  2  Assistant  Commissioners,  i  Small 
Cause  Court  Judge,  with  a  tahsilddr  and  2  honorary  magistrates. 
These  officers  preside  over  7  civil  and  9  criminal  courts ;  number 
of  police  stations,  6  ;  strength  of  regular  police  force,  645  men  ;  village 
watchmen  (chaiikiddrs),  294. 

Delhi.— City  in  Delhi  District,  Punjab,  the  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  District  and  Division,  and  former  capital  of  the  Mughal 
Empire.  Lat.  28°  38'  58"  n.,  long.  77°  16'  30"  e.  Population  in  1881, 
^73>393  souls.  Distant  from  Calcutta  954  miles,  from  Agra  113,  from 
Allahabad  390  miles. 


i86  DELHI  CITY, 

Situation  and  General  Appearance. — The  modern  city  of  Delhi  or 
Shahjahanabid  abuts  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Jumna,  and  is 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  a  lofty  wall  of  solid  stone,  constructed  by  the 
Emperor  Shah  Jahan,  and  subsequently  strengthened  by  the  English 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  with  a  ditch  and  glacis.  The 
eastern  side,  where  the  city  extends  to  the  river  bank,  has  no  wall ;  but 
the  high  bank  is  faced  with  masonry.  The  circuit  of  the  wall  is  5I 
miles.  It  has  ten  gates,  of  which  the  principal  are  the  Kashmir  and 
Mori  gates  on  the  north  \  the  Kabul  and  Lahore  gates  on  the  east ;  and 
the  Ajmere  and  Delhi  gates  on  the  south.  The  Imperial  palace,  nm 
known  as  *  the  fort,'  is  situated  in  the  east  of  the  city,  and  abuts  directly 
on  the  river.  It  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  imposing  wall  of 
red  sandstone,  with  small  round  towers,  and  a  gateway  on  the  west  and 
south.  Since  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  a  great  portion  has  been  demolished 
in  order  to  make  room  for  English  barracks.  South  of  the  fort,  in 
the  Dariaganj  quarter  of  the  city,  is  the  cantonment  for  a  regiment 
of  native  infantry,  which,  with  one  wing  of  a  European  regiment 
stationed  within  the  fort,  makes  up  the  ordinary  garrison  of  Delhi.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the  fortress  of  Salimgarh,  erected  in  the 
1 6th  century  by  Salim  Shah,  and  now  in  ruins.  At  this  point  the 
East  Indian  Railway  enters  the  city  by  a  magnificent  bridge  across 
the  Jumna,  passing  over  Salimgarh,  and  through  a  corner  of  the  fort, 
to  the  railway  station  within  the  city  walls.  Thence  the  line  proceeds 
as  the  Rajputana  State  Railway,  and,  after  traversing  the  city,  emerges 
through  the  wall  on  the  north-west.  In  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the 
city,  within  the  walls  and  close  to  the  Kashmir  gate,  are  situated  the 
treasury  and  other  public  offices.  Dariaganj,  the  fort,  the  public  offices, 
and  the  railway  form  an  almost  continuous  line  along  the  eastern  and 
northern  faces  of  the  city,  the  angle  between  them  being  devoted  to 
public  gardens.  The  area  thus  occupied  amounts  to  nearly  one-half  ot 
the  entire  city ;  it  presents  a  comparatively  open  appearance,  and  forms 
a  marked  contrast  to  the  south-west  quarter  of  the  town,  which  is  densely 
occupied  by  the  shops  and  dwellings  of  the  native  population. 

The  architectural  glories  of  Delhi  are  famous  alike  in  Indian  and 
European  literature.  It  is  impossible  in  a  brief  notice  like  the  present 
to  attempt  any  adequate  description  of  them.  They  have  been  treated 
with  admirable  knowledge  and  artistic  appreciation  in  Mr.  Fergussons 
History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture  (1876).  The  palace  of  Shah 
Jahan — now  the  fort — perhaps  less  picturesque  and  sober  in  tone  than 
that  of  Agra,  has  the  advantage  of  being  built  on  a  more  uniform  plan, 
and  by  the  most  magnificent  of  the  Royal  builders  of  India.  It  forms 
a  parallelogram,  measuring  1600  feet  east  and  west  by  3200  north  and 
south,  exclusive  of  the  gateways.  Passing  the  deeply-recessed  portal, 
a  vaulted  hall  is   entered,  rising   two  storeys,  375  feet  long,  like  the 


DELHI  CITY.  187 

nave  of  a  gigantic  Gothic  cathedral — 'the  noblest  entrance,'  says  Mr. 
Fergusson,  'to  any  existing  palace.'  Omitting  all  mention  of  the 
music  hall  and  smaller  holdings,  or  fountains,  however  beautiful,  the 
celebrated  diwhi-i-khas  or  Private  Audience  Hall  forms,  '  if  not  the 
most  beautiful,  certainly  the  most  ornamented  of  all  Jahdn's  buildings. 
It  overhangs  the  river,  and  nothing  can  exceed  the  delicacy  of  its  inlaid 
work  or  the  poetry  of  its  design.  It  is  round  the  roof  of  this  hall 
that  the  famous  inscription  ran :  '  If  there  is  a  heaven  on  earth,  it  is 
this— it  is  this  ! '  which  may  safely  be  rendered  into  the  sober  English 
assertion,  that  no  palace  now  existing  in  the  world  possesses  an 
apartment  of  such  unique  elegance.  The  whole  of  the  area  between 
the  central  range  of  buildings  to  the  south,  measuring  about  1000 
feet  each  way,  was  occupied,  says  Mr.  Fergusson,  by  the  harem  and 
private  apartments  of  the  palace,  covering,  consequently,  more  than 
twice  the  area  of  the  Escurial,  or,  in  fact,  of  any  palace  in  Europe. 
'According  to  the  native  plan  I  possess  (which  I  see  no  reason  for 
distrusting),  it  contained  three  garden  courts,  and  about  thirteen  or 
fourteen  other  courts,  arranged  some  for  state,  some  for  convenience ; 
but  what  they  were  like  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Not  a  vestige 
of  them  now  remains.  Of  the  public  parts  of  the  palace,  all  that  now 
exists  is  the  entrance  hall,  the  naubdt  khd?id,  the  dtwdn-i-dm,  diwdn-i- 
khds,  and  the  raitg  ma/id/— now  used  as  a  mess-room — and  one  or  two 
small  pavilions.  These  are  the  gems  of  the  palace,  it  is  true ;  but 
without  the  courts  and  corridors  connecting  them  they  lose  all  their 
meaning,  and  more  than  half  their  beauty.  Being  now  situated  in  the 
middle  of  a  British  barrack-yard,  they  look  like  precious  stones  torn 
from  their  setting  in  some  exquisite  piece  of  oriental  jeweller's  work  and 
set  at  random  in  a  bed  of  the  commonest  plaster.' 

The  buildings  in  the  native  town  are  chiefly  of  brick,  well-built  and 
substantial.  The  smaller  streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  and  in  many 
cases  end  in  culs-de-sac.  On  the  other  hand,  no  city  in  India  has  finer 
streets  than  the  main  thoroughfares  of  Delhi,  ten  in  number,  thoroughly 
drained,  metalled,  and  lighted.  The  principal  thoroughfare,  the  Chandni 
Chauk,  or  Silver  Street,  leads  eastwards  from  the  fort  to  the  Lahore 
gate,  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long  by  74  feet  broad.  Throughout  the 
greater  part  of  its  length,  a  double  row  of  nim  and  pipal  trees  runs  down 
Its  centre  on  both  sides  of  a  raised  path,  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
masonry  aqueduct  that  in  former  days  conducted  water  from  the  canal 
into  the  palace.  A  little  to  the  south  of  the  Chandni  Chauk  is  the 
Jama  Masjid,  or  great  mosque,  standing  out  boldly  from  a  small  rocky 
rising  ground.  Begun  by  Shah  Jahan  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign, 
and  completed  in  the  tenth,  it  still  remains  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
of  Its  kind  in  India.  The  front  courtyard,  450  feet  square,  surrounded 
by  a  cloister  open  on  both  sides,  is  paved  with  granite  inlaid  with 


1 88  DELHI  CITY. 

marble,  and  commands  a  view  of  the  whole  city.  The  mosque  itself, 
a  splendid  structure  forming  an  oblong  261  feet  in  length,  is  approached 
by  a  magnificent  flight  of  stone  steps.  Three  domes  of  white  marble 
rise  from  its  roof,  with  two  tall  and  graceful  minarets  at  the  corners  in 
front.  The  interior  of  the  mosque  is  paved  throughout  with  white 
marble,  and  the  walls  and  roof  are  lined  with  the  same  material.  Two 
other  mosques  in  Delhi  deserve  a  passing  notice, — the  Kala  Masjid,  or 
black  mosque,  so  called  from  the  dark  colour  given  to  it  by  time,  and 
supposed  to  have  been  built  by  one  of  the  early  Afghan  sovereigns ; 
and  the  mosque  of  Roshan-ud-daula.  Among  the  more  modern 
buildings  of  Delhi  may  be  mentioned  the  Government  College,  founded 
in  1792,  but  recently  abolished ;  the  Residency;  and  the  Protestant 
church,  built  at  a  cost  of  ;j^  10,000  by  Colonel  Skinner,  an  officer  well 
known  in  the  history  of  the  East  India  Company.  About  half-way 
down  the  Chandni  Chauk  is  a  high  clock-tower,  with  the  Institute  and 
Museum  opposite.  Behind  the  Chandni  Chauk,  to  the  north,  he  the 
Queen's  Gardens  ;  beyond  them  the  '  city  lines '  stretch  away  as  far  as 
the  historic  '  ridge,'  about  a  mile  outside  the  town.  From  the  summit 
of  this  ridge  the  view  of  the  station  and  city  is  very  picturesque.  To 
the  west  and  north-west,  considerable  suburbs  cluster  beyond  the  walls, 
containing  the  tombs  of  the  imperial  family.  That  of  Humayun,  the 
second  of  the  Mughal  dynasty,  is  a  noble  building  of  granite  inlaid  with 
marble.  It  lies  about  2  miles  from  the  city,  amid  a  large  garden  of 
terraces  and  fountains,  the  whole  surrounded  by  an  embattled  wall, 
with  towers  and  four  gateways.  In  the  centre  stands  a  platform  about 
20  feet  high  by  200  feet  square,  supported  by  cloisters,  and  ascended 
by  four  great  flights  of  granite  steps.  Above  rises  the  Mausoleum,  also 
a  square,  with  a  great  dome  of  while  marble  in  the  centre.  About  a 
mile  to  the  westward  is  another  burying-ground,  or  collection  of  tombs 
and  small  mosques,  some  of  them  very  beautiful.  The  most  remark- 
able is  perhaps  the  httle  chapel  in  honour  of  a  celebrated  Musalman 
saint,  Nizam-ud-din,  near  whose  shrine  the  members  of  the  late  imperial 
family,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Mutiny,  lie  buried,  each  in  his  own  little 
enclosure,  surrounded  by  very  elegant  lattice-work  of  white  marble. 
Other  buildings,  ruins,  and  pillars  will  be  described  under  the  next 
section.  History.  The  Kutab  Minar  is  situated  about  10  miles  to  the 
south  of  the  city.     {^See  p.  191.) 

The  palaces  of  the  nobles,  which  formerly  gave  an  air  of  grandeur 
to  the  city,  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared.  Their  sites  are 
occupied  by  structures  of  less  pretension,  but  still  with  some  elegance 
of  architectural  design.  The  city  is  now  amply  supplied  with  water ;  and 
much  attention  has  of  late  been  paid  to  cleanliness  and  sanitary  require- 
ments generally.  The  principal  local  institution  was,  until  1877,  the 
Delhi  College,  founded  in  1792.     It  was  at  first  exclusively  an  oriental 


DELHI  CITY,  189 

school,  supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  Muhammadan 
gentlemen,  and  managed  by  a  committee  of  the  subscribers.  In  1829, 
an  Enghsh  Department  was  added  to  it;  and  in  1855,  the  institution 
was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Educational  Department.  The 
old  college  attained  to  great  celebrity  as  an  educational  institution,  and 
produced  many  excellent  scholars.  In  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  it  was 
plundered  of  a  very  valuable  oriental  library,  and  the  building  com- 
pletely destroyed.  A  new  college  vvas  founded  in  1858,  and  affiliated 
to  the  University  of  Calcutta  in  1864.  Under  orders  of  the  Government 
of  the  Punjab  (February  1877),  the  collegiate  staff  of  teachers  have 
been  withdrawn,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  grant  available  for  higher- 
class  education  upon  the  central  institution  at  Lahore,  the  capital  of  the 
Punjab  Province. 

History. — Delhi  stands  upon  a  site  which  has  been  occupied  by 
many  successive  capitals  since  the  first  Aryan  immigration  into  the 
valley  of  the  Jumna.  Its  modern  aspect  is  thus  described  by  Bishop 
Heber:  'A  very  awful  scene  of  desolation,  ruins  after  ruins,  tombs 
after  tombs,  fragments  of  brickwork,  freestone,  granite,  and  marble, 
scattered  everywhere  over  a  soil  naturally  rocky  and  barren,  without 
cultivation,  except  in  one  or  two  small  spots,  and  without  a  single  tree.' 
The  waste  of  ruins  extends  from  the  southern  end  of  the  present  city 
of  Shahjahdnabad  to  the  deserted  forts  of  Rai  Pithora  and  Tughlak- 
abad,  a  distance  of  10  miles.  The  area  covered  with  these  vestiges  of 
successive  empires  cover  an  area  of  45  square  miles.  The  village  and 
fort  of  Indrapat  or  Purana  Kila,  2  miles  south  of  the  existing  walls, 
mark  the  spot  where  the  earliest  Pandava  colonists  placed  their  city  of 
Indraprastha  {see  Delhi  District)  ;  but  the  name  of  Dilli  or  Dillipur 
only  makes  its  appearance  in  the  middle  of  the  rst  century  B.C. 
General  Cunningham,  following  the  authority  of  Ferishta,  attributes  the 
foundation  of  this  original  Delhi,  5  miles  lower  down  the  river  than  its 
modern  representative,  to  Raja  Dilu,  apparently  the  last  ruler  of  the 
Mayura  dynasty,  whom  tradition  names  as  successors  to  the  Gautama 
hne  of  Indraprastha.  But  the  earliest  authentic  information  which  we 
obtain  with  regard  to  the  city  is  derived  from  the  famous  iron  pillar  of 
Raja  Dhava,  set  up  in  the  3rd  or  4th  century  a.d.  This  remarkable 
rehc  consists  of  a  solid  shaft  of  metal,  16  inches  in  diameter  and  about 
50  feet  in  length,  so  firmly  planted  in  the  earth  that  less  than  half  its 
height  appears  above  the  ground.  A  Sanskrit  inscription,  deeply  cut 
on  its  western  face,  records  the  story  of  its  origin.  Mr.  James  Prinsep, 
the  first  decipherer  of  the  legend,  found  that  it  commemorated  the 
prowess  of  Raja  Dhava,  who  '  obtained  with  his  own  arm  an  undivided 
sovereignty  on  the  earth  for  a  long  period  ; '  while  the  letters  appear  to 
be  '  the  typical  cuts  inflicted  on  his  enemies  by  his  sword,  writing  his 
immortal  fame.'     General  Cunningham  suggests  the  year  319  a.d.  as  an 


I90  DELHI  CITY, 

approximation  to  the  date,  on  the  ground  that  the  Raja  may  probably 
have  contributed  to  the  downfall  of  the  great  Gupta  dynasty  {see 
Kanauj),  which  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  that  year.  Tradition, 
however,  running  counter  to  the  unimpeachable  authority  of  the  inscrip- 
tion, refers  the  erection  of  the  pillar  to  Anang  Pal,  founder  of  the  Tiiar, 
Tunwar,  or  Tomar  dynasty  in  the  8th  century  a.d.  A  holy  Brdhman 
assured  the  Raja  that  the  pillar  had  been  driven  so  deeply  into  the 
earth,  that  it  reached  the  head  of  Vasuki,  the  serpent  king,  who 
supports  the  world;  and,  consequently,  had  become  immoveable, 
whereby  the  dominion  was  ensured  for  ever  to  the  dynasty  of  its  founder, 
so  long  as  the  pillar  stood.  The  incredulous  Rija  ordered  the  monu- 
ment to  be  dug  up,  when  its  base  was  found  reddened  with  the  blood 
of  the  serpent  king.  Thus  convinced,  Anang  Pal  at  once  commanded 
that  the  shaft  should  be  sunk  again  in  the  earth ;  but,  as  a  punishment 
for  his  want  of  faith,  it  appeared  that  no  force  could  restore  it  in  its 
place  as  before.  Hence  the  city  derived  its  name  of  Dhih,  from  the 
fact  that  the  column  remained  loose  {dhila)  in  the  ground  !  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  legend,  not  only  does  the  inscription  prove  its  falsity, 
but  the  name  of  Dilli  is  undoubtedly  earlier  than  the  rise  of  the  Tiiar 
dynasty.  Anang  Pal,  whose  accession  is  placed  by  General  Cunning- 
ham in  the  year  736  a.d.,  restored  Delhi,  which  had  fallen  into  ruins 
for  some  generations,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  race.  The  later 
Rajas,  however,  appear  to  have  taken  up  their  residence  at  Kanauj, 
whence  they  were  expelled  about  the  middle  of  the  nth  century  by 
Chandra  Deva,  the  first  of  the  Rahtor  kings.  Anang  Pal  11.  then 
retired  to  Delhi,  which  became  once  more  the  Tiiar  metropolis.  He 
rebuilt  and  adorned  the  city,  surrounding  it  with  a  massive  line  of 
fortifications,  whose  ruins  are  still  believed  to  exist  in  the  great  circle  of 
masonry  lying  around  the  Kutab  Minar.  The  date  of  this  restoration 
has  been  preserved  for  us  by  a  second  inscription,  cut  into  the  more 
ancient  pillar  of  Raja  Dhava  :  '  In  Sambat  1 109 '  [1052  a.d.],  '  Anang  Pal 
peopled  Dilli.'  Just  a  century  later,  under  the  reign  of  a  third  Anang 
Pal,  last  of  the  Tiiar  hne,  Delhi  fell  (1154)  before  Visaldeva  or  Bisaldeo, 
Chauhan  ruler  of  Ajmere.  The  conqueror  permitted  the  vanquished 
Raja  to  retain  possession  as  a  vassal ;  and  from  a  marriage  between  the 
two  houses  sprang  the  celebrated  Prithvi  Raja,  the  last  champion  of 
Plindu  independence  in  Upper  India,  who  thus  succeeded  to  the  joint 
realms  of  the  Tiiars  and  the  Chauhans.  Prithvi  Raja  further 
strengthened  the  defences  of  the  city  by  the  erection  of  the  fort  called 
Rai  Pithora,  and  by  building  an  exterior  wall,  which  ran  round  the 
fortifications  of  Anang  Pal,  and  of  which  remains  may  still  be  traced 
for  a  considerable  distance.  At  this  point  the  history  of  Hindu  Delhi 
ends.  In  1191,  Shahab-ud-din,  better  known  as  Muhammad  of  Ghor, 
made  his  first  invasion  of  Upper  India,  bringing  the  religion  of  the 


DELHI  CITY.  191 

Prophet  and  authentic  history  in  his  train.  Prithvi  Raja  successfully 
defended  his  kingdom  for  a  time ;  Muhammad  was  routed  at  Thanesar, 
and  his  horde  pursued  for  forty  miles ;  but  two  years  later,  the  Muham- 
madan  marauders  returned,  utterly  overthrew  the  Hindus  in  a  great 
battle,  and  put  their  prince  to  death  in  cold  blood. 

Kutab-ud-din,  the  Sultan's  Viceroy,  attacked  and  took  Delhi, 
which  became  thenceforth  the  Musalman  capital.  On  the  death  of 
Shahab-ud-din,  in  1206,  the  Viceroy  proclaimed  himself  an  independent 
sovereign,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  Slave  dynasty,  to  whom  Old 
Delhi  owes  most  of  its  grandest  ruins.  Kutab-ud-din's  mosque  was 
commenced,  according  to  the  inscription  on  its  entrance  archway, 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  city  in  1193.  It  was  completed  in 
three  years,  and  enlarged  during  the  reign  of  Altamsh,  son-in-law  of  the 
founder,  and  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  line.  This  mosque  consists 
of  an  outer  and  inner  courtyard,  the  latter  surrounded  by  an  exquisite 
colonnade,  whose  richly  -  decorated  shafts  have  been  torn  from  the 
precincts  of  earlier  Hindu  temples.  Originally  a  thick  coat  of  plaster 
concealed  from  the  believers'  eyes  the  profuse  idolatrous  ornamenta- 
tions ;  but  the  stucco  has  now  fallen  away,  revealing  the  delicate  work- 
manship of  the  Hindu  artists  in  all  its  pristine  wealth.  Eleven  magni- 
ficent arches  close  its  western  facade,  Muhammadan  in  outline  and 
design,  but  carried  out  in  detail  by  Hindu  workmen,  as  the  intricate 
lacework  which  covers  every  portion  of  the  arcade  sufficiently  bears 
witness.  Ibn  Batuta,  the  Moorish  traveller,  who  was  a  magistrate  in 
Delhi,  and  saw  the  mosque  about  150  years  after  its  erection,  describes 
it  as  unequalled  either  for  beauty  or  extent.  The  Kutab  Minar, 
another  celebrated  monument  of  the  great  Slave  king,  stands  in  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  outer  courtyard  of  the  mosque.  It  rises  to 
a  height  of  238  feet,  tapering  gracefully  from  a  diameter  of  47  feet  at 
the  base  to  nearly  9  feet  at  the  summit.  The  shaft  consists  of  5  storeys, 
enclosing  a  spiral  staircase,  and  is  crowned  by  a  now  broken  cupola, 
which  fell  during  an  earthquake  in  1803.  The  original  purpose  of  the 
minaret  was  doubtless  as  a  Muazzam's  tower,  whence  the  call  to  morning 
and  evening  prayer  might  be  heard  throughout  the  whole  city.  The 
site  chosen  for  the  mosque  was  that  already  occupied  by  Raja  Dhava's 
pillar,  which  forms  the  centre  ornament  of  the  inner  courtyard.  Around, 
in  every  direction,  spreads  a  heap  of  splendid  ruins,  the  most  striking 
of  which  is  the  unfinished  minaret  of  Ala-ud-din,  commenced  in  13 11. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Slave  kings,  a  queen,  for  the  first  and 
last  time  in  the  history  of  Muhammadan  Delhi,  sat  on  the  throne 
of  the  empire.  As  the  patriot  Hungarians,  in  the  annals  of  modern 
Europe,  drew  their  swords  for  Rex  Maria  Theresa,  so  her  admiring 
subjects  gave  to  Queen  Raziya  the  masculine  title  of  Sultan.  The 
Slave  dynasty  retained  the  sovereignty  till  1290,  when  Jalal-ud-din,  the 


1^2  DELHI  CITY. 

Khilji,  founded  a  new  line.  During  the  reign  of  his  nephew  and 
successor,  Ala-ud-din,  Delhi  was  twice  unsuccessfully  attacked  by 
Mughal  hordes,  who  swept  into  the  country  from  Central  Asia. 

In  132 1,  the  house  of  Tughlak  succeeded  to  the  Musalman  Empire; 
and  Ghiy^s-ud-din,  its  founder,  erected  a  new  capital,  Tughlakabad, 
on  a  rocky  eminence  4  miles  farther  to  the  east.  Remains  of  a  massive 
citadel,  and  deserted  streets  or  lanes,  still  mark  the  spot  on  which 
this  third  metropolis  arose ;  but  no  human  inhabitants  now  frequent 
the  vast  and  desolate  ruins.  Ghiyas-ud-din  died  in  1325,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Muhammad  Tughlak,  who  thrice  attempted  to 
remove  the  seat  of  government  and  the  whole  population  from  Delhi 
to  Daulatabad  {Deogiri)  in  the  Deccan — more  than  800  miles  away. 
Ibn  Batuta,  a  native  of  Tangiers,  who  visited  his  court  in  1341,  gives  a 
graphic  picture  of  the  desolate  city,  with  its  magnificent  architectural 
works  and  its  bare,  unpeopled  houses.  Firoz  Shah  Tughlak  once  more 
removed  the  site  of  Delhi  to  a  new  town,  Firozabad,  which  appears  to 
have  occupied  the  ground  between  the  tomb  of  Humdyun  and  the 
Ridge.  Amid  the  ruins  of  this  prince's  palace,  just  outside  the  modern 
south  gate,  stands  one  of  the  famous  pillars  originally  erected  by  Asoka, 
the  great  Buddhist  Emperor,  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  This  monolith, 
42  feet  in  height,  known  as  Firoz  Shah's  Idt  or  pillar,  is  composed  of 
pale  pink  sandstone,  and  contains  a  Pali  inscription,  deciphered  by  the 
painstaking  scholarship  and  ingenuity  of  Mr.  James  Prinsep.  Its  con- 
nection with  Delhi,  however,  does  not  date  further  back  than  the  reign 
of  Firoz  Shah,  who  brought  it  from  near  Khizrabad  on  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Jumna,  and  fixed  it  on  the  summit  of  his  comparatively  modern 

building. 

In  December  1398,  during  the  reign  of  Muhammad  Tughlak,  the 
hordes  of  Timiir  reached  Delhi.  The  king  fled  to  Gujarat,  the  army 
suffered  a  defeat  beneath  the  walls,  and  Timiir,  entering  the  city,  gave  it 
over  for  five  days  to  plunder  and  massacre.  Dead  bodies  choked  the 
streets ;  and  when  at  last  even  the  Mughal  appetite  for  carnage  was 
satiated,  the  host  retired  dragging  with  them  into  slavery  large  numbers 
both  of  men  and  women.  For  two  months  Delhi  remained  absolutely 
without  a  show  of  government ;  until  Muhammad  Tughlak  recovered  a 
miserable  fragment  of  his  former  empire.  In  1412  he  died;  and  his 
successors,  the  Sayyid  dynasty,  held  Delhi  with  a  petty  principality  in 
the  neighbourhood  until  1444.  The  Lodf  family,  who  succeeded  to  the 
Musalman  Empire  in  that  year,  appear  to  have  deserted  Delhi,  fixing 
their  residence  and  the  seat  of  government  at  Agra.  In  1526,  Babar, 
the  sixth  in  descent  from  Timiir,  and  founder  of  the  so-called  Mughal 
dynasty,  marched  into  India  with  a  small  but  disciplined  force ;  and 
having  overthrown  Ibrahim  Lodi,  the  last  dynastic  Afghan  prince,  on 
the  decisive  field  of  Panipat,  advanced  upon  Delhi,  which  he  entered 


DELHI  CITY.  if)3 

in  May  of  the  same  year.  The  new  sovereign,  however,  resided  mainly 
at  A^^ra,  where  he  died  in  1530.  His  son  Humayun  removed  to  Delhi, 
and  built  or  restored  the  fort  of  Purana  Kila  on  the  site  of  Indraprdstha. 
The  Afghan  Sher  Shah,  who  drove  out  Humayun  in  1540,  enclosed 
and  fortified  the  city  with  a  new  wall.  One  of  his  approaches,  known 
as  the  Lil  Darwaza  or  Red  Gate,  still  stands  isolated  on  the  roadside, 
facing  the  modern  jail.  The  fortress  of  Salimgarh,  already  mentioned, 
preserves  the  name  of  a  son  of  Sher  Shah.  In  1555,  Humayun  regained 
his  throne,  but  died  within  six  months  of  his  restoration.  His  tomb 
forms  one  of  the  most  striking  architectural  monuments  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Akbar  and  Jahangir  usually  resided  at  Agra,  Lahore,  or 
Ajmere  (Ajmir)  \  and  Delhi  again  languished  in  disfavour  till  the  reign 
of  Shah  Jahan.  This  magnificent  Emperor  rebuilt  the  city  in  its  present 
form,  surrounding  it  with  the  existing  fortifications,  and  adding  the  title 
of  Shahjahanabad  from  his  own  name.  He  also  built  the  Jama  Masjid, 
and  reopened  the  Western  Jumna  Canal,  Under  the  reign  of 
Aurangzeb,  Delhi  was  the  seat  of  that  profuse  and  splendid  court  whose 
glories  were  narrated  to  Europe  in  extravagant  fables  by  travellers  and 
missionaries. 

After  the  death  of  Aurangzeb,  the  Mughal  Empire  fell  rapidly  to 
pieces ;  but  the  numerous  palace  intrigues  and  revolutions  amid  which 
it  broke  up,  belong  to  the  general  domain  of  Indian  history.  In  1726, 
(luring  the  reign  of  Muhammad  Shah,  the  Marathas  first  appeared 
beneath  the  walls  of  Delhi.  Three  years  later,  Nadir  Shah  entered  the 
city  in  triumph,  and  re-enacted  the  massacre  of  Timiir.  For  fifty-eight 
days  the  victorious  Persian  plundered  rich  and  poor  alike ;  when  the  last 
farthing  had  been  exacted,  he  left  the  city  with  a  booty  estimated  at 
;f  9,000,000.  Before  the  final  disruption  of  the  decaying  empire  in 
1760,  the  unhappy  capital  was  devastated  by  a  civil  w^ar  carried  on  for 
six  months  in  its  streets ;  twice  sacked  by  Ahmad  Shah  Durani ;  and 
finally  spoiled  by  the  rapacious  Marathas.  Alamgir  11.,  the  last  real 
Emperor,  was  murdered  in  1760.  Shah  Alam,  who  assumed  the  empty 
title,  could  not  establish  his  authority  in  Delhi,  which  became  the 
alternate  prey  of  Afghan  and  Marathas  until  1771,  when  the  latter  party 
restored  the  phantom  Emperor  to  the  city  of  his  ancestors.  In  1788,  a 
Marathd  garrison  permanently  occupied  the  palace,  and  the  king 
remained  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Sindhia  until  the  British  conquest. 
On  March  14th,  1803,  Lord  Lake,  having  defeated  the  Marathas,  entered 
l^elhi,  and  took  the  king  under  his  protection.  Next  year,  Holkar 
attacked  the  city ;  but  Colonel,  afterwards  Sir  David,  Ochterlony,  the  first 
British  Resident,  successfully  held  out  against  overwhelming  numbers  for 
eight  days,  until  relieved  by  Lord  Lake.  The  conquered  territory  was 
admmistered  by  the  British  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor  {see  Delhi 
District),  while  the  palace  remained  under  His  Majesty's  jurisdiction. 

VOL.  IV.  N 


194  DELHI  CITY. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  Delhi  was  happy  in  entire  freedom 
from  the  incidents  of  history.  But  the  Mutiny  of  1857  once  more  gave 
it  prominence  as  the  revived  capital  of  the  fallen  Empire.  The  out- 
break at  Meerut  took  place  on  the  evening  of  May  loth;  and  early 
next  morning  the  mutinous  troopers  had  crossed  the  Jumna,  and 
clamoured  for  admission  beneath  the  Delhi  wall.  The  Commandant 
of  the  Guards,  the  Commissioner,  and  the  Collector  retired  to  the 
Lahore  gate  of  the  palace,  and  were  there  cut  to  pieces.  Most  of  the 
European  residents  then  had  their  homes  within  the  city.  The 
mutineers  and  the  mob  fell  upon  them  at  once,  carrying  murder  and 
plunder  into  every  house.  The  mutinous  infantry  from  Meerut  arrived ; 
and  by  eight  o'clock  the  rebels  held  the  whole  city,  except  the  magazine 
and  the  main-guard.  News  of  these  events  soon  reached  the  canton- 
ment beyond  the  Ridge,  where  three  battalions  of  Native  infantry  and 
a  battery  of  Native  artillery  were  stationed.  The  54th  N.I.  was  marched 
promptly  down  to  the  main-guard,  but  proved  mutinous  on  their  arrival, 
and  cut  down  several  of  their  officers.  Portions  of  two  regiments, 
however,  together  with  the  artillery,  remained  all  day  under  arms  in  the 
main-guard,  and  were  reinforced  from  time  to  time  by  the  few  fugitives 
who  succeeded  in  escaping  from  the  city.  The  magazine  stood  half-way 
between  the  palace  and  the  main-guard  ;  and  here  Lieutenant  Wil- 
loughby,  with  eight  other  Europeans,  held  out  bravely  for  some  time, 
determined  to  defend  the  immense  store  of  munitions  collected  within ; 
but  about  mid-day  defence  became  hopeless,  and  the  nine  brave  men 
blew  up  the  magazine  behind  them.  Five  perished  in  the  explosion; 
two  reached  the  main-guard ;  while  the  remaining  two  escaped  by  a 
different  road  to  Meerut.  All  day  long  the  Sepoys  in  the  cantonment 
and  the  main-guard  were  restrained  by  the  expected  arrival  of  white 
regiments  from  Meerut ;  but  as  evening  drew  on,  and  no  European 
troops  appeared,  they  openly  threw  off  their  allegiance,  and  began  an 
indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  officers,  women,  and  children.  A  few 
escaped  along  the  roads  to  Meerut  or  Karnal,  but  most  even  of  these 
were  murdered  or  perished  of  hunger  on  the  way.  By  nightfall,  every 
vestige  of  British  authority  had  disappeared  alike  in  the  cantonments 
and  in  the  city.  Meanwhile,  in  Delhi,  some  fifty  Christians,  European 
or  Eurasian,  mostly  women  and  children,  had  been  thrust  indiscrimi 
nately  into  a  room  of  the  palace,  and,  after  sixteen  days'  confinement, 
were  massacred  in  the  courtyard. 

The  restoration  of  Mughal  sovereignty,  and  the  acts  by  which  it 
was  accompanied,  belong  rather  to  Imperial  than  local  history.  The 
Court  of  the  rebel  Emperor  did  not  long  enjoy  its  independence.  On 
June  8th,  1857,  the  British  forces  fought  the  battle  of  Badli-ka-Sarai, 
and  the  same  evening  swept  the  mutineers  from  the  cantonments,  anc 
encamped  upon  the  rocky  ridge  outside  the  city.     For  three  month; 


DELHI  CITY.  1 9^ 

the  siege  proceeded  under  the  most  disadvantageous  conditions,  and 
at  length,  on  September  8th,  the  heavy  batteries  were  got  into  action, 
and  an  assault  was  prepared.  On  the  14th,  our  troops  advanced  to 
storm  the  gates,  in  the  face  of  an  overwhelming  rebel  garrison,  and, 
in  spite  of  serious  losses  and  heavy  fighting,  succeeded  by  a  marvellous 
display  of  gallantry  in  carrying  the  bastions  and  occupying  the  whole 
eastern  quarter  of  the  city.  For  five  days  fighting  continued  in  the 
streets,  the  rebels  retreating  from  point  to  point,  and  every  defensible 
position  being  occupied  by  our  troops  only  after  a  severe  struggle.  On 
the  night  of  the  20th,  the  palace  and  the  remaining  portions  of  the  city 
were  evacuated  by  the  mutineers,  and  Delhi  came  once  more  into  the 
possession  of  the  British  forces.  The  king,  with  several  members  of 
his  family,  took  refuge  in  the  tomb  of  Humayun,  and  surrendered  on 
the  2ist.  Tried  by  a  military  commission,  he  was  found  guilty  of 
encouraging  acts  of  rebellion  and  murder,  but,  owing  to  the  terms  of 
his  surrender,  received  no  heavier  penalty  than  that  of  perpetual  banish- 
ment. He  died  at  Rangoon  on  October  7th,  1862.  Delhi,  thus 
recovered,  remained  for  a  while  under  military  government ;  and  it 
became  necessary,  owing  to  the  ffrequent  murders  of  European  soldiers, 
to  expel  the  population  for  a  while  from  the  oky.  Shortly  after,  the 
Hindu  inhabitants  were  freely  readmitted  ;  but  the  Muhammadans  were 
still  rigorously  excluded,  till  the  restoration  of  the  city  to  the  civil 
authorities,  on  January  the  nth,  1858.  The  work  of  reorganization 
then  continued  rapidly  during  the  remainder  of  that  year ;  and  after  a 
few  months,  the  shattered  bastions  and  the  ruined  walls  alone  recalled 
the  memory  of  the  Mutiny.  Since  that  date  Delhi  has  settled  down 
into  a  prosperous  commercial  town,  and  a  great  railway  centre.  The 
romance  of  antiquity  still  lingers  around  it,  and  Delhi  was  chosen 
as  the  scene  of  the  Imperial  Proclamation  on  the  ist  of  January 
1877. 

Popiilation.—^^Xs^Q^xi  the  Census  of  1868  and  the  Census  of  188 1 
the  population  of  Delhi  City  increased  by  18,976.  In  1853,  the  number 
of  mhabitants  was  returned  at  152,426.  In  1868,  the  population 
numbered  154,417,  showing  an  increase  of  1991  persons  in  the  fifteen 
years.  Taking  into  consideration  the  actual  losses  during  the  Mutiny, 
the  expulsion  of  the  Musalmans  after  its  suppression,  and  the  large 
number  of  persons  thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  removal  of  the 
court,  the  fact  that  such  an  increase  should  have  taken  place  bears 
witness  to  the  renewed  prosperity  of  the  city.  According  to  the  Census 
of  February  17th,  1881,  the  population  numbered  173,393,  inclusive 
of  those  dwelling  in  the  cantonments,  civil  lines,  and  suburbs.  The  total 
was  composed  of  93,165  males  and  80,228  females.  The  Hindus 
numbered    95,484,    being    52,467    males    and    43,017    females;    the 

luhammadans,    72,519,   being   37,329   males    and    35,190    females. 


196  DELHI  CITY, 

There  were  also  856  Sikhs,  2676  Jains,  and  858  'others.'    In  1876,  the 
population  of  Delhi  and  its  suburbs  was  returned  at  160,553. 

Institutions^  Public  Buildings^  etc. — The  Delhi  Institute,  a  handsome 
building  in  the  Chandni  Chauk,  erected  by  public  subscription,  with 
the  assistance  of  a  Government  grant,  contains  a  Darbar  Hall,  a 
museum,  a  library  and  reading-room,  and  the  lecture  theatre  and  ball- 
room of  the  station.  The  municipal  committee  and  the  honorary 
magistrates  hold  their  sittings  in  the  Darbar  Hall.  The  official  build- 
ings include  the  District  court  offices  and  treasury,  just  within  the 
Kashmir  gate,  the  tahsili  and  police  offices,  the  District  jail,  the  lunatic 
asylum,  the  hospital,  and  a  dispensary,  with  two  branches.  The  poor- 
house  is  supported  by  private  subscription,  supplemented  by  a  grant 
from  the  municipal  funds.  Four  churches  exist  in  Delhi,  the  Station 
Church,  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Presbyterian  chapels,  and  a  chapel 
belonging  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  The 
Delhi  College,  founded  in  1792,  and  supported  by  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  Muhammadan  gentlemen,  acquired  a  large  accession  of 
income  in  1829,  from  the  gift  of  ;£i7,ooo  by  Nawab  Fazl  All  Khan  of 
Lucknow.  In  1855,  the  Educational  Department  undertook  the 
management.  During  the  Mutiny,  the  valuable  oriental  library  was 
plundered,  and  the  building  destroyed.  A  new  institution,  founded  in 
1858,  was  affiliated  to  the  Calcutta  University  in  1864,  and,  till  lately, 
educated  up  to  the  level  of  its  degrees.  In  1883  there  were  13  printing- 
presses  at  work  in  the  city. 

Co?nmu?iicatioJts,  Trade^  etc. — The  East  Indian  Railway  enters  Delhi 
by  an  iron  bridge  over  the  Jumna,  from  Ghaziabdd  Junction  in  Meerut 
District.  The  Punjab  Railway  also  runs  its  trains  over  the  same 
branch  line.  The  terminus  stands  in  the  city,  near  the  fort.  The 
Rajputana  State  Railway,  running  to  Ajmere,  has  its  station  adjoining 
that  of  the  other  lines.  The  Grand  Trunk  Road  and  other  metalled 
highways  lead  to  all  important  centres,  and  the  Jumna  carries  a  large 
portion  of  the  heavy  traffic.  Delhi  possesses  a  very  considerable  trade, 
though  the  continuation  of  the  great  north-western  trunk  railway  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  has  thrown  it  somewhat  off  the  modem 
line  of  traffic.  It  still  forms,  however,  the  main  entrepot  for  commerce 
between  Calcutta  or  Bombay  on  the  one  side,  and  Rajputana  on  the 
other.  The  chief  imports  include  indigo,  chemicals,  cotton,  silk,  fibres, 
grain,  oil-seeds,  ghi^  metals,  salt,  horns,  hides,  and  European  piece- 
goods.  The  exports  consist  of  the  same  articles  in  transit,  together 
with  tobacco,  sugar,  oil,  jewellery,  and  gold  or  silver  lacework.  Beyond 
the  borders  of  the  Province,  Delhi  merchants  correspond  with  those  of 
Jind,  Kabul,  Alwar,  Bikaner  (Bickaneer),  Jaipur  (Jeypore),  and  the 
Doab ;  while  with  all  the  Punjab  towns  they  have  extensive  dealings. 
The  Bengal  and  Delhi  banks  represent  European  finance,  and  several 


DELL  Y—DENALKANKOTAL  197 

cotton  merchants  have  agents  in  the  city.  The  great  trade  avenue  of 
the  Chandni  Chauk,  already  described,  is  lined  with  the  shops  and 
warehouses  of  merchants,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  sights  of  interest 
to  the  visitor  at  Delhi.  The  only  manufacture  of  importance  consists 
of  gold,  silver,  or  tinsel  filigree  work,  for  which  Delhi  has  long  been 
famous ;  but  the  imitation  of  European  models  is  unfortunately  destroy- 
ing its  originality  and  beauty.  The  abolition  of  the  Mughal  court  has 
also  acted  prejudicially  to  this  branch  of  industry.  The  manufacture 
of  fine  muslin  is  peculiar  to  Delhi  among  the  Punjab  towns,  and  glazed 
work,  carved  work,  and  shawl-weaving  are  also  carried  on.  Jewellers 
and  dealers  in  precious  stones  throng  the  Chandni  Chauk,  and  have 
agents  in  every  European  settlement  of  any  importance  in  Upper  India. 
The  internal  affairs  of  the  city  are  managed  by  a  first-class  municipality. 
The  municipal  income  in  1881-82  amounted  tO;£27,656;  municipal 
expenditure,  ;^25,59o.  In  1882-83,  the  registration  returns  of  Delhi 
show  an  import  trade  valued  at  ^4,342,500,  and  an  export  trade  valued 
at  ;^2,665,ooo. 

Delly.— Hill  in  the  Chirakkal  idluk,  Malabar  District,  Madras  Pre- 
sidency. The  correct  name  is  D'Ely  (Monte  d'Ely  of  the  Portuguese), 
representing  the  name  of  the  ancient  Malabar  State  of  Eli  or  Hely, 
belonging  to  the  Kolattiri  Rajas,  one  of  whose  seats  is  close  to  this 
hill  on  the  south-east.  Lat.  12°  2'  n.,  long.  75°  14'  e.  ;  height,  800 
feet  above  the  sea.  Situated  on  the  coast,  with  creeks  on  either  side, 
which,  joining,  make  it  an  island.  The  fortifications,  now  in  ruins, 
have  been  occupied  at  different  periods  by  Dutch,  French,  and  British 
troops.  Delly  is  a  station  of  the  Great  Trigonometrical  Survey,  and 
a  prominent  landmark  for  mariners,  being  visible  in  fine  weather  at 
27  miles' distance.  The  jungle  covering  the  hill  and  surrounding  the 
base  affords  cover  to  large  game,  sambhar^  leopards,  etc.,  and  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  sportsmen.  A  project  set  on  foot  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  harbour  off  this  headland  was  abandoned  on  account  of  the 
enormous  expense  attending  it.  Mount  Delly  was  the  first  Indian 
land  seen  by  Vasco  da  Gama. 

Demagiri. — Falls  on  the  Karnaphuli  river,  in  the  Chittagong  Hill 
Tracts,  Bengal.  They  are  situated  about  three  days'  journey  from 
Barkal,  where  the  Karnaphuli  leaves  the  higher  ranges  of  hills  in 
the  District.  Above  the  falls  the  river  is  an  insignificant  stream.  A 
bazar  or  market  for  india-rubber  and  other  jungle  produce  opened  at 
the  village  of  Demagiri  in  1872,  has  now  (1883)  become  a  flourishing 
mart. 

Denaikankotai  {Denkanikota).—Tov;n  in  Osiir  taluk,  Salem  Dis- 
trict, Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  12°  31'  45"  n.,  long.  77°  49'  5°"  e.  ; 
elevation  above  sea-level  about  3000  feet;  population  (1881)  3899; 
houses,  915.      Situated  94  miles  north  of  Salem,    16  miles  south  of 


198  DENWA—DEOBAND. 

Osiir  town,  and  10  miles  east  of  Thalli.  The  head-quarters  of  the 
deputy  tahsilddr,  the  forest  overseer,  and  inspector  of  police.  Up  to 
1859,  Denaikankotai,  the  upland  division  of  Osur,  formed  a  separate 
taluk,  now  incorporated  with  Osur.  It  was  ceded  with  the  Bara  Mahal 
to  the  British  in  1792.  The  town  is  well  laid  out  on  the  side  of  a  hill, 
up  which  the  principal  streets  trend.  The  water-supply  is  good.  Fever 
is  very  prevalent.  Trade  in  grain  ;  a  former  silk  industry  has  died  out. 
Denwa. — River  in  Hoshangd.bM  District,  Central  Provinces,  running 
in  a  rough  semicircle  round  the  scarped  cliffs  on  the  eastern  and 
northern  faces  of  the  Mahadeo  chain.  Rising  in  lat.  22°  20'  n.,  and 
long.  78°  27'  30"  E.,  it  winds  through  a  deep  glen  into  a  small  valley 
shut  off  from  the  main  Narbada  (Nerbudda)  valley  by  an  irregular  line 
of  low  hills,  and  entering  the  hills  again  towards  the  west,  it  meets  the 
Tawa  (lat.  22°  34'  n.,  long.  78°  o'  30"  e.)  a  few  miles  above  Bagri 

Denwa.  —  Forest  in  Hoshangabdd  District,  Central  Provinces, 
covering  a  level  tract  of  about  100  square  miles  along  the  valley  of  the 
Denwa  river.     Abounds  in  fine  sal  wood. 

Deo. — Town  in  Aurangabad  Sub-division,  Gaya  District,  Bengal. 
Tat.  24°  39'  30"  N.,  long.  84°  28'  38"  E.  Seat  of  the  Deo  Rajas,  one 
of  the  most  ancient  families  of  Behar,  who  trace  their  descent  from  the 
Ranas  of  Udaipur  (Oodeypore).  In  the  struggle  between  Warren 
Hastings  and  the  Rdja  of  Benares,  the  Deo  Rdja,  although  too  old  to 
take  the  field  in  person,  joined  his  forces  to  those  of  the  British.  His 
next  successor  mustered  a  loyal  contingent  against  the  mutineers  at 
Sarguja.  His  son,  in  turn,  rendered  good  service  to  us  in  quelling  the 
Kol  insurrection.  The  Raja  stood  boldly  forward  for  the  British 
during  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  Four  generations  of  unswerving  loyalty 
have  been  rewarded  by  liberal  grants  of  land  and  villages;  and  the 
chief  in  1877  received  the  title  of  Mahardja  Bahadur,  with  a  Knight 
Commandership  of  the  Star  of  India,  for  his  services  in  1857.  Seat  of 
an  old  ruined  fort  and  famous  temple,  at  which  thousands  of  people 
congregate  twice  a  year  to  hold  the  Chhat  festival  in  honour  of  the 
Sun-god. 

Deoband.— Southern  tahsil  of  Saharanpur  District,  North-Western 
Provinces,  consisting  of  a  level  agricultural  plain,  traversed  by  the 
Eastern  Jumna  (Jamund)  Canal,  and  by  the  Sind,  Punjab,  and 
Delhi  Railway.  Area  387  square  miles,  of  which  309  are  cultivated; 
population  (1881)  180,991 ;  land  revenue,  ;£3o,i6o;  total  Government 
revenue,  ;£"33,344;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;£"38,522;  incidence  01 
Government  land  revenue,  3s.  per  cultivated  acre.  The  tahsil  contains 
I  civil  and  i  criminal  court,  with  5  thdnds  or  police  circles ;  strength  ot 
regular  police,  59  men,  wuth  418  village  watchmen. 

Deoband. — Town  and  municipality  in  Saharanpur  District,  North- 
western Provinces,  and  head-quarters  of  Deoband  tahsil.     Area,  245 


DEOCHA— DEODAR,  195 

acres.  Population  (188 1)  22,116,  namely,  9325  Hindus,  12,457  Muham- 
madans,  332  Jains,  and  2  '  others.'  Situated  in  lat.  29°  41'  50"  n.,  and 
\ovi^.  77°  43'  10"  E.,  about  2  J  miles  to  the  west  of  the  East  Kali  Nadi, 
with  which  it  was  formerly  connected  by  a  waterw\ay  known  as  the  J  or. 
Half  a  mile  from  the  town,  the  Jor  expands  into  a  small  lake,  the 
Devi-kiind,  whose  banks  are  covered  with  temples,  ghats,  and  sati 
monuments,  much  frequented  by  devout  pilgrims.  The  town  has  4 
bazars,  3  of  which  are  prosperous  and  clean.  The  dominant  Musal- 
nian  population  maintain  no  less  than  42  mosques.  Yet  Deoband  is 
essentially  a  town  of  Hindu  origin,  with  a  legendary  history  of  3000 
years.  The  Pandavas  passed  their  first  exile  within  its  precincts,  and 
the  fortress  was  one  of  the  earHest  to  fall  before  the  famous  Musalman 
saint,  Salar  Masaiid  Ghazi.  The  town  originally  bore  the  name  of 
Deviban  or  the  Sacred  Grove,  and  a  religious  assembly  still  takes  plac<; 
yearly  in  a  neighbouring  wood,  which  contains  a  temple  of  Devi. 
During  the  Mutiny  several  disturbances  occurred,  but  they  were 
repressed  without  serious  difficulty.  Export  tro.de  in  grain,  refined 
sugar,  and  oil ;  manufacture  of  fine  cloth.  Dispensary,  Anglo- 
vernacular  school,  police  station,  post-office,  toihsili.  Distant  from 
Muzaffarnagar  15  J  miles  north.  Municipal  revenue  (1882-83),  ;^iio9, 
of  which  £^']o  was  derived  from  taxes,  or  9s.  3,|d.  per  head  of 
population  within  municipal  limits. 

Deocha. — Village  in  Birbhiim  District,  Bengal.  One  of  the  three 
or  four  places  in  the  District  where  the  smelting  of  iron  was  formerly 
carried  on.  The  works,  however,  have  now  been  stopped,  owing  to 
their  unremunerative  results.  The  characteristics  of  the  Birbhiim 
metal  are  toughness  and  malleability. 

Deodangar  (or  Deodonga). — Mountain  peak  in  Park  Kimedi  estate, 
Ganjam  District,  Madras  Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  18°  54' 35"  N., 
and  long.  84°  6'  2"  e.,  20  miles  south-west  from  Mahendragiri,  and  9 
from  Namanagaram.  Height,  4534  feet  above  the  sea;  a  station  of 
the  Trigonometrical  Survey. 

Deodar  (Z)/W^r). — Native  State  under  the  Political  Agency  of  Palan- 
pur,  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency ;  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Tharad,  on  the  east  by  Kankrej,  on  the  south  by  Bhabhar  and  Terwara, 
and  on  the  west  by  Suigam  and  Tharad.  Estimated  area,  440  square 
miles;  population  (1881)  24,061,  principally  Rajputs  and  Kolis ; 
number  of  villages,  66;  number  of  houses,  4651;  estimated  gross 
revenue,  ^2500.  The  country  consists  of  a  flat,  open  plain,  covered 
with  low  brushwood.  The  soil  is  generally  sand}^,  producing  but  one 
crop  yearly,  and  that  only  of  the  common  sorts  of  grain.  There  are  no 
rivers,  but  numerous  ponds  and  reservoirs,  which,  as  a  rule,  dry  up 
before  the  end  of  March.  There  are  no  means  of  irrigation,  and  the 
water,  found  at  a  depth  of  from  40  to  60  feet,  is  brackish.     April,  May, 


200 


DEOGA  ON—DEOGARH. 


June,  and  July  are  excessively  hot ;  rain  falls  in  August  and  September; 
October   and    November   are   again    warm;    while   the   period    from 
December  to  March  is  cold  and  agreeable.     Fever  is  the  prevailing 
disease.     Cholera  is  not  infrequent.     Coarse  cloth,  worn  by  the  poorest 
classes,  is  manufactured  by  men  of  the  Dher  caste.     There  are  numerous 
country  tracks  ht  for  carts,  but  no  regular  road  has  yet  been  made. 
Clarified  butter  is  the  only  export,  which  finds  a  ready  market  in  the 
neighbouring  Districts.      The  chief  holds  the   title  of  Thakur,  and 
does  not  possess  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption,  nor  does  the  succession 
follow   the  rule  of  primogeniture.      No   military  force  is  maintained. 
There  is  only  i  school  with  21  pupils.      The  first  relations  between 
Deodar   and   the   British   date  from   181 9.      The  State  depends  on 
the  British  Government  for  external  defence,  but  is  allowed  complete 
freedom  in  the  internal  management  of  its  revenue  affairs.     The  Chief 
of  Deodar  exercises  the  powers  of  a  third-class  magistrate,  and  civil 
jurisdiction  in  suits  for  sums  up  to  £2^  in  his  territory.     The  principal 
town  of  the  State,  Deodar,  is  situated  in  lat.  24°  8'  30"  n.,  and  long. 
71°  49'  E.,  45  miles  west  of  Palanpur. 

Deogaon.— Southern  tahsil  of  Azamgarh  District,  North-Westem 
Provinces,  consisting  of  the  \S\x^q pargands  of  Deogaon,  Bela  Daulatabad, 
and  Bilahbans.  Area,  389  square  miles  in  1881,  of  which  220  were 
cultivated;  population  (1881)  192,374;  land  revenue,  ^28,402;  total 
Government  revenue,  including  cesses,  £lZ,S^1  ',  rental  paid  by  culti- 
vators, ^58,395  ;  incidence  of  Government  revenue,  2s.  3d.  per  acre. 
The  tahsil  contains  i  criminal  court,  with  4  ihcinds  or  police  circles; 
strength  of  regular  police,  53  men,  besides  310  village  watchmen. 

Deogaon.— Town  in  Azamgarh  District,  North-Western  Provinces, 
and  head-quarters  of  Deogaon  tahsil,  situated  28  miles  from  Azamgarh 
town,  on  the  metalled  road  to  Benares.  Lat.  25°  45'  50"  n.,  long. 
83°  i'  15"  E.  Population  (1881)  3078,  namely,  2128  Hindus  and 
950  Muhammadans;  number  of  houses,  478.  It  contains  a  first-class 
police  station,  with  a  cattle  pound ;  sub-post-office,  and  village  school, 
attended  by  63  boys  in  March  1882.      Market  held  twice  a  week. 

Deogarh.— Town  in  Udaipur  (Oodeypore)  Native  State,  Rajputdna. 
Population  (1881)  6846.  The  residence  of  a  first-class  noble  of 
Udaipur,  with  the  title  of  Rao,  who  owns  82  villages.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  contains  about  3000  houses.  The  Raos 
palace,  with  a  small  fort  at  each  side  of  it,  is  on  the  east  of  the 
town. 

Deogarh.  —  Sub-division  of  the  District  of  the  Santal  Parganas, 
Bengal,  containing  1076  villages;  houses,  20,777;  population  (1881) 
127,846,  namely,  65,237  males  and  62,609  females.  Hindus  numbered 
211,270;  Muhammadans,  18,815;  Christians,  144;  Santdls,  18,645; 
Kols,  2819;  and  other  aborigines,  214.     The  Sub-division  comprises 


DEOGARH.  201 

the  2  thdnds  or  police  circles  of  Deogarh  and  Madhupur,  with  2 
outpost  stations  at  Sarwan  and  Sarhet.  It  contained,  in  1881-82, 
^  ma<^isterial  and  revenue  courts,  a  general  police  force  of  172  men, 
and  a  village  watch  of  794  men. 

Deogarh.  —  Head-quarters  town  of  Deogarh  Sub-division,  Santal 
Pargands  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  24°  29'  34"  n.,  long.  86°  44'  35"  e., 
4  miles  east  of  the  Chord  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  steam  tramway.  Population  (1881) 
8005,  namely,  7704  Hindus,  297  Muhammadans,  and  4  'others;' 
area  of  town  site,  400  acres.  Deogarh  is  a  municipality ;  revenue 
(1881-82),  ;£^487  ;  average  rate  of  taxation,  2s.  per  head  of  population. 
The  principal  object  of  interest  is  the  group  of  22  temples  dedicated  to 
Siva,  which  form  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  for  Hindus  from  all  parts  of 
India.  The  oldest  temple  is  called  Baidyanath,  and  is  said  to  contain 
one  of  the  twelve  oldest  liiigams  of  Siva  in  India.  The  legend  of  the 
temples  is  told  as  follows  in  the  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal : — '  In  the  old 
time,  a  band  of  Brahmans  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  beautiful  high- 
land lake  beside  which  the  holy  city  stands.  Around  them  there  was 
nothing  but  the  forest  and  mountains  in  which  dwelt  the  black  races. 
The  Brahmans  placed  the  symbol  of  their  god  Siva  near  the  lake,  and 
did  sacrifice  to  it ;  but  the  black  tribes  would  not  sacrifice  to  it,  but 
came  as  before  to  the  three  great  stones  which  their  fathers  had 
worshipped,  and  which  are  to  be  seen  at  the  western  entrance  of 
Deogarh  to  this  day.  The  Brahmans,  moreover,  ploughed  the  land, 
and  brought  water  from  the  lake  to  nourish  the  soil ;  but  the  hillmen 
hunted  and  fished  as  of  old,  while  their  women  tilled  little  patches  of 
Indian  corn.  But  in  process  of  time,  the  Brahmans,  finding  the  land 
good,  became  slothful,  giving  themselves  up  to  lust,  and  seldom  calling 
on  their  god  Siva.  This  the  black  tribes,  who  came  to  worship  the 
great  stones,  saw  and  wondered  at  more  and  more,  till  at  last,  one  of 
them,  by  name  Baiju,  a  man  of  a  mighty  arm,  and  rich  in  all  sorts  of 
cattle,  became  wroth  at  the  lies  and  wantonness  of  the  Brahmans,  and 
vowed  he  would  beat  the  symbol  of  their  god  Siva  with  his  club  every 
day  before  touching  food.  This  he  did  ;  but  one  morning  his  cows 
strayed  into  the  forest,  and  after  seeking  them  all  day,  he  came  home 
hungry  and  weary,  and  having  hastily  bathed  Jn  the  lake,  sat  down  to 
supper.  Just  as  he  stretched  out  his  hand  to  take  the  food,  he  called 
to  mind  his  vow,  and  worn  out  as  he  was,  he  got  up,  limped  painfully 
to  the  Brahmans'  idol  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  and  beat  it  with  his 
club.  Then  suddenly  a  splendid  form,  sparkling  with  jewels,  rose 
from  the  waters  and  said :  "  Behold  the  man  who  forgets  his  hunger 
and  his  weariness  to  beat  me,  while  my  priests  sleep  with  their  concu- 
bines at  home,  and  neither  give  me  to  eat  nor  to  drink.  Let  him  ask 
of  me  what  he  will,  and  it  shall  be  given."     Baiju  answered,  "  I  am 


202         DEOGARH  SUB-DIVISION  AND   VILLAGE. 

strong  of  arm  and  rich  in  cattle.  I  am  a  leader  of  my  people ;  what 
want  I  more  ?  Thou  art  called  Ndth  (Lord)  \  let  me,  too,  be  called 
Lord,  and  let  my  temple  go  by  my  name."  "  Amen,"  repUed  the 
deity ;  "  henceforth  thou  art  not  Baiju,  but  Baijnath,  and  my  temple 
shall  be  called  by  thy  name." 

'  From  that  day  the  place  rose  into  note ;  merchants.  Rajas,  and 
Brahmans  commenced  building  temples,  each  vying  with  the  other  who 
would  build  the  handsomest  temple  near  the  spot  where  Mahadeo  had 
appeared  to  Baiju.  The  fame  of  the  spot,  its  sanctity,  all  became 
noised  abroad  throughout  the  country,  until  it  gradually  became  a 
place  of  pilgrimage— at  present,  beset  by  a  band  of  harpies  in  the  shape 
of  Brahmans,  w^ho  remorselessly  fleece  all  the  poorer  pilgrims,  beg  of 
the  rich  with  much  importunity,  and  lead  the  most  dissolute  and 
abandoned  lives. 

'The  group  of  temples  are  surrounded  by  a  high  wall  enclosing 
an  extensive  courtyard,  paved  with  Chunar  freestone ;  this  pavement, 
the  offering  of  a  rich  Mirzapur  merchant,  cost  a  lakh  of  rupees,  and 
serves  to  keep  the  courtyard  in  a  state  of  cleanliness  that  could  not 
otherwise  be  the  case.  All  the  temples  but  three  are  dedicated  to 
Siva  in  his  form  of  Mahadeo  ;  the  remaining  three  are  dedicated  to  his 
wife  Parbati.  The  male  and  female  temples  are  connected  from  the 
summits  with  silken  ropes,  40  and  50  yards  in  length,  from  which 
depend  gaudily-coloured  cloths,  wreaths,  and  garlands  of  flowers  and 
tinsel.  At  the  western  entrance  to  Deogarh  town  is  a  masonry  plat- 
form, about  6  feet  in  height  and  20  feet  square,  supporting  three 
huge  monoliths  of  contorted  gneiss ;  two  are  vertical,  and  the  third  is 
laid  upon  the  heads  of  the  two  uprights  as  a  horizontal  beam.  These 
massive  stones  are  12  feet  in  length,  quadrilateral  in  form,  and  each 
weighing  upwards  of  7  tons.  By  whom,  or  when,  these  ponderous 
stones  were  erected,  no  one  knows.  There  is  a  faint  attempt  at 
sculpture  at  each  end  of  the  vertical  faces  of  the  horizontal  beam, 
representing  either  elephants'  or  crocodiles'  heads.  A  few  ruins,  like 
those  of  ancient  Buddhist  vihdras,  stand  near  the  monolithic  group.' 

Deogarh.— Sub-division  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
— See  Devgadh,  sub-division. 

Deogarh. — Seaport  in  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay  Presidency. -- 
See  Devgadh,  tow^n. 

Deogarh.  —  Village  in  Chhindwara  District,  Central  Provinces; 
picturesquely  situated  among  the  hills,  about  24  miles  south-west  of 
Chhindwara  town.  Ancient  seat  of  the  midland  Gond  kingdom. 
Though  now  containing  only  50  or  60  houses,  the  traces  of  founda- 
tions in  the  surrounding  jungle,  and  the  numerous  remains  of  wells 
and  tanks,  show^  that  the  former  city  must  have  covered  a  large  area. 
Deogarh  contains  several  old  temples,  and  on  a  high  peak  outside  the 


DEOHRA—DEOLL  203 

village  stands  a  ruined  stone  fort.  All  the  buildings  are  constructed  of 
the  finest  limestone. 

Deohra. — Village  in  Jubal  State,  Punjab. — See  Deorka. 

Deolali  {Devldli). — Cantonment  in  the  Nasik  Sub-division,  Nasik 
District,  Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  19°  56'  20"  n.,  and  long.  73°  51' 
30"  E.  Population  (1881)  2150,  among  whom  are  several  families  of 
Deshmukhs,  who  in  former  times,  as  head-men  in  their  villages,  had 
great  influence  over  the  Marathas  of  the  District.  The  village  is  about 
4  miles  south-east  of  Nasik,  off  the  Puna  (Poona)  road,  and  has  a 
station,  known  as  Nasik  Road,  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Rail- 
way. During  the  dry  weather  months  the  village  is  the  gathering- 
place  of  numerous  grain  brokers  from  Bombay.  The  cantonment  is 
situated  about  3J  miles  to  the  south-west.  The  barracks  afford  accom- 
modation for  5000  men,  and  are  in  continuous  occupation  during 
the  trooping  season,  as  nearly  all  drafts  are  halted  here  after  disem- 
barkation at  Bombay,  before  proceeding  farther  up  country,  as  well 
as  drafts  on  their  way  to  England.  The  situation  is  healthy,  the 
water  good,  and  the  views  of  the  distant  ranges  of  hills  remarkably 
fine.  When  the  barracks  are  not  required  for  the  troops,  they  have 
of  late  years  been  occupied  by  the  European  children  of  BycuUa  schools 
from  Bombay,  in  the  rainy  season.     Post  and  telegraph  offices. 

Deoli.  —  Cantonment  in  Ajmere-Merwara  District,  Rajputana. 
Lat.  25°  46'  N.,  long.  75°  25'  E.  Height,  1122  feet  above  sea-level. 
Estimated  population  (1881)  2266.  Deoli  is  situated  on  an  open 
plain,  57  miles  south-east  of  Nasirabad  (Nusseerabad).  The  station 
was  laid  out  by  Major  Thom,  commanding  the  late  Kotah  contingent. 
Lines  exist  for  a  regiment  of  native  infantry  and  a  squadron  of  native 
cavalry.  The  station  is  garrisoned  by  the  Deoli  Irregular  Force.  It 
is  situated  on  the  triple  boundary  of  Ajmere,  Jaipur,  and  Merwara,  and 
is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Haraoti  Political  Agency.  Water-supply 
good.     Post-office,  dispensary,  mission-house,  and  school. 

Deoli. — Town  in  Wardha  District,  Central  Provinces,  and  the  third 
largest  cotton  mart  in  the  District;  11  miles  south-west  of  Wardha 
town.  Lat.  20°  39' n.,  long.  78°  31'  30"  e.  Population  (1881)  5126, 
namely,  Hindus,  4597;  Muhammadans,  367;  Jains,  72;  and  persons 
professing  aboriginal  religions,  90.  At  the  ^market,  held  every  Friday 
and  Saturday,  a  brisk  traffic  is  carried  on  in  cattle  and  agricultural 
produce.  Deoli  has  two  market-places,  one  specially  set  apart  for  the 
cotton  merchants,  in  which  the  ground  is  covered  with  loose  stones,  to 
preserve  the  cotton  from  dirt  and  white  ants  ;  in  the  centre  are  two 
raised  platforms,  on  which  the  cotton  is  weighed.  The  general  market- 
place consists  of  rows  of  raised  and  masonry-fronted  platforms  for  the 
tents  and  stalls  of  the  traders,  with  metalled  roads  between,  and  a 
fenced-off  ground  for  the  cattle  trade.    A  fine  broad  street  runs  through 


204  DEOLIA—DEOPRA  YAG. 

the  middle  of  the  town,  lined  on  both  sides  by  the  shops  and  houses 
of  the  resident  merchants.  Anglo-vernacular  town  school,  Govern- 
ment garden,  sardi  with  furnished  rooms  for  Europeans,  dispensary, 
and  police  station,  etc. 

Deolia. — Former  capital  of  Partabgarh  State,  Rajputana.  Lat.  24° 
30'  N.,  long.  74°  42'  E.  It  lies  7J  miles  due  west  of  Partabgarh  town, 
at  a  height  of  1809  feet  above  sea-level,  or  149  feet  higher  than 
Partabgarh.  The  site  is  now  almost  deserted,  and  the  old  palace, 
originally  built  by  Hari  Singh  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  is 
gradually  falling  to  decay.  There  are  several  temples  still  standing, 
two  of  which  are  Jain  temples.  Among  the  tanks,  the  largest  is  the 
Teja,  which  takes  its  name  from  Tej  Singh,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Bhika  Singh,  the  original  founder  of  Deolia  in  1579.  Deolia  stands 
on  a  steep  hill  detached  from  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  its  natural 
strength  commanding  the  country  on  every  side. 

Deonthal. — Village  in  Simla  District,  Punjab.  Lat.  31°  i'  N.,  and 
long.  77°  2'  E.,  on  the  route  from  Subathu  to  Simla,  3^  miles  north 
of  the  former  station ;  situated  in  a  romantic  glen,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Gambhar  river,  with  cultivated  terraces,  artificially  cut  upon  the 
mountain-sides.  Elevation  above  sea-level,  2200  feet.  The  village  is 
principally  known  to  the  country  people  for  its  shrine  to  a  local  deity, 
Deo  Bijju,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Gambhar,  close  to  the  iron  bridge 
on  the  Simla  road.  The  temple  enjoys  a  considerable  assignment  of 
revenue-free  land. 

Deonthal.— Hill  in  Hindiir  State,  Punjab.  Lat.  31°  11'  n.,  long. 
76°  53'  E.  A  peak  of  the  Malaun  range,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  a 
decisive  engagement  during  the  Gurkha  war  of  1815.  Situated  \\  mile 
south  of  Malaun,  between  that  fort  and  Surajgarh,  both  of  which  were 
held  by  the  Gurkhas  in  April  1815,  when  General  Ochterlony  advanced 
to  reduce  them.  A  detachment  under  Colonel  Thompson  occupied 
Deonthal,  and  repulsed,  with  great  loss,  a  body  of  2000  Gurkhas,  who 
attacked  their  position.  The  engagement  is  known  to  the  country 
people  as  the  battle  of  Loharghati,  after  the  celebrated  Gurkha  leader 
Bhagtia  Thapa,  who,  according  to  some  accounts,  charged  up  to  the 
mouth  of  a  gun,  and  so  sacrificed  his  life.  This  fight  terminated  the 
war,  and  the  Gurkhas  soon  afterwards  gave  up  the  Hill  States,  which 
were  thereupon  restored  to  their  previous  holders. 

Deoprayag. — Village  in  Garhwal  District,  North-Western  Provinces; 
situated  in  lat.  30°  8'  n.,  and  long.  78°  39'  e.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Alaknanda  and  the  Bhagirathi  rivers ;  elevation  above  sea-level, 
2266  feet.  Below  the  village  the  united  stream  takes  the  name  of  the 
Ganges,  and  the  point  of  junction  forms  one  of  the  five  sacred  halting- 
places  in  the  pilgrimage  which  devout  Hindus  pay  to  Himachal.  The 
village  is  perched  100  feet  above  the  water's  edge,  on  the  scarped  side 


DEORA  KOT—DEORT.  205 

of  a  mountain,  which  rises  behind  it  to  a  height  of  800  feet.  The  o-reat 
temple  of  Rama  Chandra,  built  of  massive  uncemented  stones,  stands 
upon  a  terrace  in  the  upper  part  of  the  town,  and  consists  of  an 
irregular  pyramid,  capped  by  a  white  cupola  with  a  golden  ball  and 
spire.  The  Brahmans  compute  its  age  at  10,000  years.  Religious 
ablutions  take  place  at  two  basins,  excavated  in  the  rock  at  the  point 
of  junction  of  the  holy  streams,  one  on  the  Alaknanda,  known  as  Basist- 
kund,  and  another  on  the  Bhagirathi,  called  the  Brahmakund.  An 
earthquake  in  1803  shattered  the  temple  and  other  buildings ;  but  the 
damage  was  subsequently  repaired  through  the  munificence  of  Daulat 
Rao  Sindhia.  The  inhabitants  consist  chiefly  of  descendants  of 
Brahmans  from  the  Deccan,  who  have  settled  here. 

Deora  Kot. — Town  in  Faizabad  (Fyzabad)  District,  Oudh ;  16  miles 
from  Faizabad  town,  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Popula- 
tion (1881),  2256  Hindus  and  162  Muhammadans  —  totals  2418. 
Temple  to  Mahadeo. 

Deorha. — Village  in  Jubal  State,  Punjab,  and  residence  of  the  Rana, 
situated  in  lat.  31°  6'  n.,  and  long.  77°  44'  e.,  on  a  tributary  of  the  river 
Pabar,  in  a  deep  valley,  terraced  for  the  careful  cultivation  of  rice  and 
other  crops.  The  Rana's  residence  is  built  in  partially  Chinese  style, 
the  lower  portion  consisting  of  masonry,  while  the  upper  half  is  ringed 
round  with  wooden  galleries  capped  by  overhanging  eaves.  The  palace 
is  remarkable  for  the  enormous  masses  of  deodar  timber  used  in  its 
construction.     Elevation  above  sea-level,  6550  feet. 

Deori  {Devari). — Zatninddri  or  estate  attached  to  Raipur  District, 
Central  Provinces  ;  on  the  west  of  the  Jonk  river.  Consists  of  50  poor 
and  unproductive  villages,  the  principal  of  which  is  situated  in  lat.  21° 
16'  30"  N.,  and  long.  82°  46'  30"  e.  The  chief  is  an  aboriginal  Binjwar, 
and  holds  his  estate  under  a  very  ancient  grant.  Good  teak  and  sal 
forests. 

Deori. — Chief  town  of  a  tract  of  the  same  name  in  Sagar  (Saugor) 
District,  Central  Provinces;  situated  in  lat.  23°  23'  n.,  and  long.  79°  4' 
E.,  about  39  miles  south  of  Sagar,  on  the  Narsinghpur  road,  at  an 
elevation  of  1700  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1881)  7414, 
namely,  Hindus,  5706;  Kabirpanthis,  471;  Jains,  468;  Muhammadans, 
663  ;  Christians,  4 ;  and  persons  following  aboriginal  religions,  102. 
Number  of  houses,  1963.  Deori  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Bara 
Deori,  and  was  formerly  called  Ramgarh  Ujargarh.  The  present  name 
is  derived  from  a  temple  still  largely  resorted  to.  Weekly  market; 
coarse  white  cloth  is  manufactured  for  export.  Deori  is  essentially  an 
agricultural  town,  the  chief  trade  being  in  wheat,  which  is  usually 
procurable  here  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  in  other  parts  of  the  District. 
The  fort,  situated  to  the  west  of  the  town,  and  still  in  tolerable 
preservation,  must  once  have  been  a  place  of  great  strength.     The 


2o6  DEORIA—DEOTIGARH. 

walls  enclose  a  space  of  3  acres,  formerly  covered  with  buildings,  but 
now  a  complete  waste.  It  was  built,  as  it  now  stands,  about  17 13,  by 
Durga  Singh,  the  son  of  Himmat  Singh,  the  Gond  ruler  of  Gaurjhamar, 
at  the  traditional  cost  of  a  lakh  of  rupees,  and  taken  from  him  in 
1 741  by  the  troops  of  the  Peshwa.  Under  the  Marathas,  the  town 
flourished.  In  1767,  the  Peshwa  bestowed  Deori  and  the  Panch 
Mahal,  or  five  tracts  attached  to  it,  rent  free  on  Dhonda  Dattatraya,  a 
Maratha  pandit,  whose  descendant,  Ramchandra  Rao,  still  held  it  in 
181 7.  In  1813,  Zalim  Singh,  Raja  of  Garhakota,  plundered  the  town, 
and  set  it  on  fire  ;  on  which  occasion  30,000  persons  perished.  In 
181 7,  the  Peshwa  ceded  Sagar  to  the  British  Government,  but  during 
the  next  year  the  Panch  Mahal,  with  Deori,  were  made  over  to  Sindhia, 
Ramchandra  Rao  receiving  another  estate  in  compensation.  In  1825 
they  were  again  transferred  by  Sindhia  to  the  British  Government  for 
management,  and  were  finally  made  part  of  British  territory  by  the 
treaty  of  i860.  In  1857,  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny,  a 
Gond  named  Durjan  Singh,  who  owned  Singhpur  and  other  villages 
near  Deori,  seized  the  fort  with  a  band  of  rebels ;  but  about  a  month 
later  he  was  expelled  by  Safdar  Husain,  the  oficer  in  charge  of  the 
Deori  police.  Deori  has  a  dispensary,  police  station,  District  post- 
office,  and  3  schools — 2  for  boys  and  i  for  girls. 

Deoria. — Southern  tahsil  of  Gorakhpur  District,  North-Western 
Provinces ;  consisting  of  an  almost  unbroken  plain,  co-extensive  and 
identical  with  its  single  pargand  Salimpur.  Area,  587  square  miles, 
of  which  442  are  cultivated;  population  (1881)  481,445;  land  revenue, 
;2^29,686  ;  total  Government  revenue,  ;£"33,266  ;  rental  paid  by  culti- 
vators, ^81,447  ;  incidence  of  Government  revenue,  2s.  4d.  per 
cultivated  acre.  In  general  fertility,  this  tahsil  perhaps  excels  any 
other  part  of  the  District.  It  is  studded  with  fine  mango  groves, 
but  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  villages  hardly  any  traces  of  forest 
survive.  Its  Kurmi  husbandmen  are  noted  for  their  laborious  and 
skilful  agriculture.  The  surface  is  drained  by  several  minor  rivers 
flowing  south  to  meet  the  Ghagra.  The  tahsil  is  almost  entirely 
protected  by  irrigation  from  the  risks  of  famine.  The  soil  is  for 
the  most  part  the  light  loam  known  as  dords.  Sugar-cane  and 
poppy  are  the  most  valuable  products,  and  potatoes  and  vegetables 
are  successfully  cultivated.  In  1883,  Deoria  tahsil  contained  i  civil 
and  2  criminal  courts,  with  7  thdnds  or  police  stations;  strength  of 
regular  police,  90  men,  with  512  chaukiddrs  or  village  watchmen. 

Deotigarh. — Mountain  range  in  the  Province  of  Assam,  forming  a 
portion  of  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the  Naga  Hills  District,  where 
it  marches  with  Manipur.  The  range  is  really  a  prolongation  of  the 
Barel  range,  and  contains  the  fine  peaks  of  Khurrho  (8804  feet)  and 
Kopamidza  (8376  feet).     It  contains  the  sources  of  the  Barak,  Dayang, 


DERA—DERA  GHAZI  KHAN.  207 

and  Makru  rivers.     The  lower  slopes  project  in  table-shaped  masses 
with  grassy  slopes. 

Dera. — Southern  /^//^/Z of  Kangra  District,  Punjab.  Area,  502  square 
miles;  population  (188 1)  121,423  ;  persons  per  square  mile,  242.  Males 
numbered  62,710,  and  females  58,713.  Hindus,  116,067;  Sikhs,  275  ; 
Muhammadans,  5070;  and  'others,'  11.  Revenue  of  the  tahsil,  ;£"i  1,460. 
The  sub-divisional  staff  consists  of  a  ta/isilddr  and  2  honorary  magis- 
trates, presiding  over  3  civil  and  3  criminal  courts.  Number  of  police 
stations,  3  ;  strength  of  regular  police,  52  men,  with  210  c/iaukidd?'s. 

Dera  Ghazi  Khan.  —  District  in  the  Derajat  Division  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the  Punjab  (Panjab),  lying  between  28° 
27'  and  31°  15'  N.  lat.,  and  between  69°  35'  and  70°  59'  e.  long. 
Dera  Ghazi  Khan  is  the  southernmost  District  of  the  Derajat 
Division  or  Commissionership.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Dera  Ismail  Khan ;  on  the  west  by  tlie  Sulaiman  Hills ;  on  the 
south  by  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier  District ;  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Indus.  The  District  forms  a  narrow  strip  of  country,  about  198 
miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  25  miles,  lying  between  the 
foot  of  the  Sulaiman  mountains  and  the  river  Indus.  Area,  4517 
square  miles;  population,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881,  363,346 
souls.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  consists  of  a 
narrow  strip  of  sandy  lowland,  shut  in  between  the  Sulaiman  Hills  and 
the  bank  of  the  river  Indus.  On  the  west,  the  mountains  rise  in  a  succes- 
sion of  knife-like  ridges  towards  the  hilly  plateau  beyond  the  frontier, 
and  give  shelter  to  independent  tribes  of  Baluchi  origin.  From  their 
feet,  the  plain  slopes  gradually  eastward,  in  a  dreary  and  monotonous 
level,  only  broken  from  time  to  time  by  sandy  undulations,  and  con- 
posed  of  a  hard  clay  which  requires  profuse  irrigation  before  it  will 
yield  to  the  arts  of  the  cultivator.  Numerous  torrents  pour  down  from 
the  hilly  barrier  on  the  west,  but  soon  sink  into  the  thirsty  soil,  or 
are  checked  by  artificial  embankments  for  the  water-supply  of  the 
surrounding  fields.  The  Kaha  and  the  Sanghar  alone  possess  perennial 
streams,  all  the  minor  watercourses  drying  up  entirely  during  the 
summer  months.  The  whole  western  half  of  the  District,  known 
as  the  Pachad,  is  then  totally  deserted,  and  its  Baluchi  inhabitants 
seek  pasturage  for  their  flocks  either  among  the  hills  beyond  the 
frontier,  or  in  the  moister  lands  which  fringe  the  bank  of  the  Indus. 
Water  can  only  be  procured  from  wells  in  this  arid  region  at  a  depth  of 
250  or  300  feet.  Between  the  Pachad  and  the  river,  a  barren  belt  of 
desert  sand  intervenes — without  water,  without  inhabitants,  and  without 
vegetation.  Of  late  years,  attempts  have  been  made  by  Government 
to  sink  wells,  but  the   expense  of  such  works   is   very  great.      An 


2o8  DERA  GHAZI  KHAN, 

artesian  well  was  recently  sunk  to  supply  water  to  the  military  post  at 
Rajanpur,  which  is  388  feet  deep.     Other  similar  wells  are  in  course 
of  construction  at  selected  places  on  the  frontier.     As  the  plain  still 
slopes    eastward,    it  reaches   at  last    a   level   at  which  the  waters  of 
the  Indus   begin   to   fertilize  the  sandy   soil.      This  tract   is   known 
as  the  Sind  or  Indus  country,  owing  to  its  being  irrigated  by  canals 
or  wells  which  owe  their  water  to  moisture  imparted  by  the  river. 
This  tract  supports  a  far  denser  population  than  the  dreary  Pachad. 
It   is   occupied,    for   the   most    part,    by   Jats,    Hindus,    and  miscel- 
laneous tribes  of  Baluchis.      The  country  rapidly  assumes  a  fresher 
and    greener    aspect,    a    few    trees    appear    upon    the    scene,    and 
human   habitations   grow    more   and   more   numerous    as    the  culti- 
vated plain  approaches  the  Indus  itself.      Much  of  the  land  in  the 
lower   slopes   lies   open   to   direct   inundation   from  its  floods,  while 
the  higher  tracts  are  irrigated  by  canals   and   wells.      This   portion 
of  the   District  comprises   the   greater  part  of  the  whole  cultivated 
area,  and  has  also  considerable  tracts  of  jungle  under   the   manage- 
ment  of  the   Forest   Department.      Date   palms  grow  luxuriantly  in 
picturesque  groves,  and  shelter  the  town  and   cantonment  of  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  with  their  pleasant  shade.     With  these  exceptions,  how- 
ever, the  District  is  almost  destitute  of  trees,  and  even  in  the  most 
favoured  parts  the  jungle  seldom  attains  a  height  of  more  than  12 
or   15   feet.      The  wood  serves  chiefly  as  fuel   for  the  steamers  on 
the  Indus.     While  the  two  great  natural  divisions  of  the  country  are 
those  universally  known  as  the  Pachad  and  the  Sindh,  other  minor 
tracts  exist,  such  as  the  arid  ddnda  tract  between  the  Pachad  and  the 
Sind,  which  lies  beyond  the  reach  of  the  canals  on   the  one  side, 
and  of  the  hill  streams  on  the  other.     Then  there  are  the  Kalapani 
tracts  in  the  Sangarh  and  Jampur  tahsils,  so  called  because  they  are 
irrigated  by  the  blue-black  water  of  two  perennial  hill  streams;   and 
the  Garkhab    tract  in   Rajanpur   tahsil,   which    is   annually  swept  by 
inundations   of  the    Indus.      The   main  irrigation    canals   are    15   in 
number,  two  under  private  management,  and  the  remainder  controlled 
by  the  Irrigation  Department.     The  principal  peaks  of  the  Sulaiman 
mountains  are  at  Ek  Bhai  opposite  Sakpi  Sarwar,  with  an  elevation  of 
7462  feet ;  the  Gandhari  peak  opposite  Rojhah  is  also  lofty,  but  its 
exact  height  has  not  been  ascertained.     To  the  south  of  Dragul  is  the 
Mari  mountain,  the  summit  of  which  forms  a  large  and  fairly  level 
plateau.     This,  and  the  Gaganka-Thal  plateau  below  Ek  Bhai,  are  now 
approached   by   good   roads,    and   are   occupied   occasionally   during 
the   hot  weather  months  by  officers  from  Rajanpur  and  Dera  Ghazi 
Khan.     The  temperature  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  Sulaiman  Hills  is 
exceedingly  pleasant  at  the  time  when  the  heat  of  the  plains  is  most 
trying.      The   most   important   of    the    92    passes    leading  from  the 


DERA  GHAZI  KHAN.  209 

District,  are  those  of  Sanghar,  Sakhi  Sarwar,  Chachar,  Kaha,  and  Sori. 
They  are  all  held  by  independent  Baluchis,  responsible  to  the  British 
Government  for  the  police  duties  of  their  respective  highways,  in 
return  for  which  service  they  receive  a  money  allowance  from  the 
Government  of  about  ;£"5oo  a  year.  The  Sanghar  pass  leads  into 
the  Bozdar  country ;  the  Sakhi  Sarwar  pass  into  the  Khatrdn  and  Liini- 
Pathan  country ;  the  Kaha  and  Chachar  into  the  Khatran,  Man',  and 
Bugli ;  and  the  Son'  pass  into  the  Mari  and  Bugli  country.  A  chain 
of  forts  along  the  frontier  road  are  occupied  by  detachments  of  cavalry 
or  infantry  from  the  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  or  Rajanpur  garrisons,  or  by  the 
Baluchi  frontier  militia. 

The  Indus  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  District.     In  Sanghar 
iahsil  it  flows  under  a  high  bank,  but  elsew^here  the  level  of  the  river 
is  to  all  appearance  very  little  below  that  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  river  is  constantly  changing  its  course.     At  one  time  the  Sitpur 
tahsil^  which  now  forms  part  of  Muzaffargarh  District,  was  on  the  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  side  of  the  river ;  and  the  former  heads  of  the  Dhiindi, 
Kutdb,  and  Kadra  canals  can  still  be  traced  in  Muzaffargarh,  whilst 
the  canals  themselves  are  now  on  the  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  side.     Below 
the  confluence  of  the  Panjnad  with  the  Indus,  a  series  of  large  islands 
have  been  formed  in  the  Indus,  which  flows  now  on  one  side,  and 
the  next  year  on  the  other  side   of  these  islands ;  and  as  the  river 
here  forms   the   boundary  between    Dera   Ghazi   Khan    District   and 
Bahavvalpur  State,  many  disputes   necessarily  arise  as  to  the  owner- 
ship of   land    between   the   villages    on    either    bank.     Inundations 
from  the   Indus   of  a   disastrous   character   frequently   occur,    which 
are  locally  known  as  dial.     Beginning  to  rise  after   the  melting   of 
the  interior  snows  in  June,  the  river  gradually  swells- till  it  fills  its 
channel,  in  some  places  as  much  as  nine  miles  in  width,  and  finds  an 
outlet  at  certain  points  into  the  country  beyond,  throwing  it  under  water 
for  miles  around.     The  river  usually  rises  about  8-J  feet  in  the  inunda- 
tion season,  but  occasionally  even  higher.    The  greatest  floods  on  record 
are  those  of  1833  ^"^  1841.    In  the  latter  year  the  river  is  said  to  have 
travelled  as  far  as  Torbela  with  a  velocity  of  1 1  miles  an  hour,  and  to 
have  risen  to  a  height  of  20  feet  at  one  of  the  widest  parts  of  the  Shayor 
valley.     In  1856,  a  flood  occurred  from  which  the  people  still  calculate 
their  dates.     The  station  and  cantonment  of  Dera  Gh^zi  Khan  was 
swept  away  by  this  flood,  which  spread  some  10  miles  inland.     These 
inundations  benefit  the  villages  near  which  they  take  their  rise,  and 
in  which  they  deposit  their  silt.     But  they  impoverish  other  villages 
which  they  pass  over  after  having  left  their  silt ;  and  in  those  villages 
in  which  the  water  remains  stagnant,  reh  efflorescence  soon  makes  its 
appearance. 

Among    minerals,   iron,   copper,   and    lead   are    said    to   exist    in 

VOL.  IV.  o 


2IO  DERA  GHAZI  KHAN. 

the  hills,  but  no  mines  are  worked.  Coal  of  a  good  quality  has 
been  discovered  in  the  hills  a  iQ.\N  miles  beyond  the  border,  but 
not  in  veins  of  sufficient  thickness  to  render  its  working  in  any 
way  remunerative.  Alum  is  excavated  and  refined  in  the  extreme 
south  of  the  District.  Earth,  salt,  and  saltpetre  are  also  manu- 
factured. Multani  7natti,  a  saponine  earth,  of  a  drab  colour  and 
somewhat  resembling  fuller's  earth,  is  found  in  the  hills,  and  is  used 
both  medicinally  and  as  a  substitute  for  soap.  True  fuller's  earth  is 
also  found.  Sajji^  a  coarse  carbonate  of  soda,  is  manufactured  from  the 
burnt  ashes  of  a  bush  called  khar  (Salsola  griffithii).  The  jungle 
products  include — niunj  grass,  which  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the 
tracts  exposed  to  the  inundations  of  the  Indus.  Shakh,  a  gum  obtained 
from  the  tamarisk,  is  largely  collected  for  medicinal  use  as  a  cooling 
beverage.  The  wild  animals  comprise  tigers,  deer,  wild  hog,  wild  asses, 
and  numerous  feathered  game,  including  black  and  grey  partridges, 
duck,  teal,  sand  grouse,  etc.  Fish  of  many  sorts  abound  in  the 
Indus. 

History. — The  tract  between  the  Sulaiman  mountains  and  the  Indus 
appears  to  have  been   the  seat  of  a   Hindu  population  from  a  very 
remote  date.     Many  towns  in  the  District  have  close  associations  with 
Hindu  legend,  and  especially  with  the  mythical  Punjab  hero,  Ras^lu. 
Ruins    still    exist   at    Sanghar   and    elsewhere,   which    probably  date 
back  to  a  period  earlier  than  the  Muhamm.adan  invasion  of  India; 
while   tradition    connects   the    surrounding   country  with  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Multan  (Mooltan),  of  which  it  historically  forms  a  part. 
Like  the  rest  of  that  territory,  it  fell  in  the  year  712   a.d.  before  the    , 
young  Arab  conqueror    Muhammad   Kasim,   the  first   Musalman  in-   ] 
vader  of  India.     Throughout  the  period  of  Muhammadan  supremacy, 
the  District  continued  to  rank  as  an  outlying  appanage  of  the  Multan 
Province.     About  the  year  1450  a.d.,  the  Nahirs,  a  branch  of  the  Lodi 
family,  connected  with  the  dynasty  which  then  sat  upon  the  throne  ot   ^ 
Delhi,  succeeded  in  establishing  an  independent  government  at  Kin  j 
and  Sitpur ;    the  former  town   lying  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
present  District,  while  the  latter,  by  a  change  in  the  shifting  channel 
of  the  Indus,  has  since  been  transferred  to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river. 
The    Nahir    dynasty   soon    extended    their    dominions    for    a   con- 
siderable distance   through  the  Derajat ;   but  as  time  went  on,  their 
power  was   circumscribed   by  the    encroachments   of  Baluchi  moun- 
taineers upon  the  western  frontier.  Malik  Sohrab  Baluchi,  the  first  of  these 
hardy  invaders,   was  followed  by  the   Mahrani  chieftain  Haji  Khan, 
whose  son,  Ghazi  Khan,  gave  his  name  to  the  city  which  he  founded, 
and  to  the  modern  District  which  lies  around  it.     This  event  must  have 
taken  place  before  the  end  of  the   15th  century.     The  new  rulers  at 
first  held  their  dominions  as  vassals  of  the  Multan  Government,  but 


DERA  GHAZI  KHAN. 


211 


in  the  third  generation  they  found  themselves  strong  enough  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  and  proclaim    their   independence   of  the    Lodi   court. 
Eighteen    princes  of    the    same    family  held    successively  the    lower 
Derajat,  and  bore  alternately  the  names  of  their  ancestors  Haji  and 
Ghazi  Khan.      In  the  extreme  south,  however,  the  Nahir  rulers  con- 
tinued to  maintain  their  position  until  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury.   Under  the  house  of  Akbar,  the  dynasty  of  Ghazi  Khan  made  a 
nominal  submission  to  the  Mughal  Empire ;    but  though  they  paid  a 
quit-rent,  and  accepted  their  lands  mjdgir,  their  practical  independence 
remained  undisturbed.     During  the   decline  of  the  Mughals,  and  the 
rise  of  the  rival  Durani  Empire,  the  country  west  of  the  Indus  came 
into  the  hands  of  Nadir  Shah  in  1739.      The  twentieth  successor  of 
Ghazi  Khan  then  sat  upon  the  throne  of  his  barren  principality ;  but 
having  made  submission  to  the  new  suzerain,  he  was  duly  confirmed 
in  the  possession  of  his  family  estates.     He  died  shortly  after,  however, 
leaving  no  heirs  ;  and  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  became  once  more,  in  name  at 
least,  an  integral  portion  of  the  Miiltan  Province.      The  date  of  this 
event,  though  by  no  means  free  from  doubt,  may  be  placed  in  or  near 
the  year  1758.     About  the  same  time,  the  District  appears  to  have  been 
overrun  and  conquered  by  the  Kalhora  kings  of  Sind,  whose  relations  with 
the  feudatories  of  Ahmad  Shah  Durani  in  this  portion  of  their  dominions 
are  far  from  clear.      In  any  case,  Ahmad  Shah's  authority  would  seem 
to  have   been  restored  about  1770  by  one  Mahmiid  Giijar,  an  active 
and  enterprising  governor,  who  did  good  service  in  excavating  canals, 
and  bringing   the  waste   land  into  cultivation.       A  series  of  Afghan 
rulers  succeeded,  under  the  Durani  Emperors;   but  this  period  was 
much  disturbed  by  internecine  warfare  among  the  Baluchi  clans,  who 
now  held  the  whole  District.      Before   long,  all   semblance  of  order 
disappeared,  and  a  reign  of  anarchy  set  in,  which  only  terminated  with 
British  annexation    and   the   introduction    of   a   firm    and   peaceable 
government.      Canals   fell   into    disrepair ;    cultivation   declined ;    the 
steady  and    industrious   amongst    the    peasantry  emigrated   to    more 
prosperous  tracts  ;  and  the  whole  District  sank  into  a  condition  more 
wretched  and  desolate  than  that  which  had  prevailed  up  to  the  accession 
of  Ghazi  Khan,  three  centuries  before. 

The  town  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  was  fpunded  by  Ghazi  Khan, 
and  it  was  not  till  his  time  that  the  District  acquired  its  present 
name.  Ghazi  Khan  died  in  1494,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Haji  Khan.  For  fifteen  generations  successive  Ghazi  Khans  and 
Haji  Khans  ruled  at  Dera  Ghazi.  The  village  round  the  town 
of  Dera  Ghazi  is  thus  Haji  Ghazi.  The  first  grant  of  the  family 
estates  by  way  of  imperial  jdgir  is  said  to  have  been  made  by 
the  Emperor  Humayiin.  Haji  Khan  11.,  son  of  Ghazi  Khan  i., 
i^ade  further  acquistions  of  territory  towards  the  south,  in  addition  to 


212  DERA  GHAZI  KHAN. 

the  estates  acquired  by  his  father  and  grandfather;  and  during  the  dis- 
tracted state  of  India  which  preceded  the  consolidation  of  the  Empire 
under  Akbar,  the  family  maintained  itself  in  complete  independence. 
It  was  subsequently  reduced  to  a  comparatively  dependent  position, 
holding  its  estates  merely  as  a  jdgi?'  under  the  Empire.  In  1700, 
towards  the  close  of  Aurangzeb's  reign,  one  of  the  Ghazi  Khans 
rebelled,  and  was  defeated  by  the  Governor  of  Multan.  The  last 
Ghazi  Khan  died  leaving  no  direct  male  heir;  in  1739,  Muhammad 
Shah  the  Persian  ceded  all  the  country  west  of  the  Indus  to  Nadir 
Shah.  The  kings  of  Khorasan  were  therefore  the  actual  rulers  of  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  for  thirty-seven  years  before  the  dynasty  became  extinct. 
Nadir  Shah  was  killed  in  1747,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ahmad  Snah 
Durani,  who  was  followed  by  a  series  of  short-reigned  Durani 
and  Barakzai  princes.  Meanwhile  the  Sikh  power  had  been  rising 
in  the  Punjab  proper,  and  culminated  under  Ranjit  Singh  in  a 
great  and  consolidated  empire.  In  1819,  the  aggressive  Maharaja 
extended  his  conquests  in  this  direction  beyond  the  Indus,  and 
annexed  the  southern  portion  of  the  present  District.  Sadik 
Muhammad  Khan,  Nawab  of  Bahdwalpur,  received  the  newly-acquired 
territory  as  a  fief,  on  payment  of  an  annual  tribute  to  Lahore.  In 
1827,  the  Nawab  overran  the  northern  portion  of  the  District,  all  of 
which  passed  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sikhs.  Three  years  later, 
however,  in  1830,  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  charge  in  favour 
of  General  Ventura,  the  partisan  leader  of  the  Lahore  forces.  In 
1832,  the  famous  Sawan  Mall  of  Multan  {see  Multan  District)  took 
over  the  District  in  farm ;  and  his  son  Mulraj  continued  in  possession 
until  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  with  the  British  in  1 848.  At  the  close 
of  the  second  Sikh  war  in  the  succeeding  year,  Dera  Gh^zi  Khan  passed, 
with  the  remainder  of  the  Punjab  Province,  into  the  hands  of  our  Govern- 
ment. Since  that  period,  an  active  and  vigilant  administration  has  pre- 
served the  District  from  any  more  serious  incident  than  the  occasional 
occurrence  of  a  frontier  raid.  The  wild  hill-tribes  have  been  brought 
into  comparative  submission,  while  the  restoration  of  the  canals  has  once 
more  made  tillage  profitable,  and  largely  increased  the  number  of  in- 
habitants. The  Mutiny  of  1857  found  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  so  peacefully 
disposed,  that  the  protection  of  the  frontier  and  the  civil  station  could 
be  safely  entrusted  to  a  home  levy  of  600  men  ;  while  the  greater  part 
of  the  regular  troops  were  withdrawn  for  service  in  the  field  elsewhere. 
On  the  whole,  the  District  may  be  cited  as  a  striking  instance  of  the 
prosperity  and  security  afforded  by  a  strong  but  benevolent  Govern- 
ment in  a  naturally  barren  tract,  formerly  desolated  by  border  strife  and 
internal  anarchy. 

Population. — In    1854   the    number  of  inhabitants  was  returned  at 
238,964.      In  1868  it   had  reached  a  total  of  308,840,  showing  an 


DERA  GHAZl  KHAN.  213 

increase  for  the  fourteen  years  of  69,876  persons,  or  29*24  per  cent. 
The  last  Census,  that  of  1881,  taken  over  an  area  of  4517  square 
miles,  showed  a  total  of  363,346  persons  dwelling  in  603  villages 
or  towns,  and  in  58,543  houses.  These  figures  yield  the  follow- 
ing averages  :  —  Persons  per  square  mile,  80 ;  villages  per  square 
mile,  -13;  houses  per  square  mile,  18;  persons  per  village,  602; 
persons  per  house,  6*2.  Classified  according  to  sex,  there  were — 
males,  200,667;  females,  162,679;  proportion  of  males,  55*23  per 
cent.  Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were  46,697  Hindus; 
315,240  Muhammadans  ;  1326  Sikhs  ;  82  Christians  ;  and  i  unspecified. 
The  Musalman  element  thus  amounted  to  8677  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  population,  while  the  proportion  of  Hindus  and  Sikhs  together 
was  only  13-24  per  cent.  Among  the  Muhammadans,  160,405  are 
classed  as  Jats,  a  term  which  appears  to  include  all  the  agricultural 
tribes,  once  Hindu,  but  long  since  converted  to  the  faith  of  the 
dominant  races  from  the  west,  who  have  more  recently  settled  in  the 
District.  Foremost  among  the  latter  in  social  and  political  im- 
portance stand  the  different  Baluchi  tribes,  who  in  1881  numbered 
115,749,  or  31-86  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population.  A  few  Pathans 
(987 1)  and  Sayyids  represent  the  later  colonists  in  the  District.  The 
geographical  boundary  between  the  Pathan  and  Baluchi  races  in  the 
hills  nearly  corresponds  with  the  northern  limit  of  the  District ;  and 
it  follows  that  the  Baluchi's  are  more  numerous  in  Dera  Ghazi 
Khan  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  Punjab.  The  settlers,  in 
the  western  half  of  the  District  especially,  retain  in  a  very  marked 
manner  the  tribal  organization  of  their  native  hills.  Each  clan  owes 
allegiance  to  a  hereditary  chieftain  {tuitianddr)^  assisted  by  a  council 
of  head-men  who  represent  the  sub-divisions  of  the  clan.  Though 
shorn  of  certain  monarchical  prerogatives  by  the  necessity  of  sub- 
mission to  an  alien  rule,  the  influence  of  the  tiimanddrs  still  ranks 
paramount  for  good  or  for  evil ;  and  our  Government  has  found  it 
desirable  to  rule  the  clans  through  their  means.  They  receive 
official  recognition,  and  enjoy  certain  assignments  of  land  revenue, 
fixed  in  1873  ^t  ^3600.  The  Baluchi's,  inured  to  toil,  and  endowed 
with  great  powers  of  endurance,  have  a  special  hatred  of  control,  and 
can  scarcely  be  induced  to  enlist  in  our  army,  or  to  take  any  regular 
service.  The  mass  of  the  population  live  in  small  hamlets,  scattered 
over  the  face  of  the  country ;  and  a  vast  majority  subsist  by  agricultural 
or  pastoral  pursuits.  For  further  information  regarding  the  Baluchi 
tribes,  see  the  article  Baluchistan,  vol.  ii.  pp.  27-40. 

The  District  contains  five  municipal  towns,  only  two  of  which 
have  a  population  exceeding  5000  —  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  22,309; 
I^AjAL,  including  Naushahra,  with  which  it  forms  one  municipality, 
7913;   Jampur,   4697;    Rajanpur,   4932;    and   Mithankot,    3353. 


214  DERA  GHAZI  KHAN. 

Dera  Ghazi  Khdn,  the  civil  and  military  head-quarters,  ranks  as  a 
trading  mart  of  considerable  activity.  Rajanpur,  in  the  south  of  the 
District,  73  miles  from  head-quarters,  is  the  station  of  an  Assistant 
Commissioner  and  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  Mithankot,  once  a  busy 
commercial  centre,  has  now  sunk  into  the  position  of  a  quiet  country 
town.  Several  Muhammadan  shrines  of  great  reputed  sanctity  are 
scattered  over  the  District,  the  principal  being  that  of  Sakhi  Sarwar, 
which  is  resorted  to  by  Muhammadans  and  Hindus  alike,  and  is  a 
curious  mixture  of  both  styles  of  architecture.  One  or  more  annual 
fairs  are  held  at  each  of  these  shrines  and  holy  places. 

Agriculture. — The  cultivated  area  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  has  increased 

enormously  since  the  introduction  of  British  rule.     Early  returns  show 

the  total  area  under  tillage  at  261,065  acres  in  1849,  and  ^^  276,981 

acres  in.  1859  ;  while  the  Punjab  Administration  Report  for  1880-81 

gives  a  total  cultivation  of  1,086,413  acres,  of  which  438,205  received 

artificial  irrigation,  namely,  270,158  acres  by  Government  works,  and 

168,047  by  private  individuals.     The  staple  crops  of  the  District  consist 

of  wheat  zxi^jodr.     The  former  ranks  as  the  principal  produce  of  the 

rabi  or  spring  harvest  in  the  Sind ;  the  latter  is  grown  as  a  kharif  or 

autumn  crop  in  the  Pachad.     Barley,  poppy,  gram,  peas,  turnips,  and 

mustard  also  cover  a  considerable  area  in  the  rabi ;  while  rice,  pulses, 

cotton,   indigo,  tobacco,  and  oil-seeds  form  the  chief  supplementary 

items  of  the  kharif.     The  estimated  area  under  the  principal  crops  is 

thus  returned  in  1881  : — Wheat,   180,781   acres;  rice,   22,939  acres; 

other  cereals,  such  as  jodr  (great  millet),  bdjj'a  (spiked  millet),  kangni 

(Italian  millet),    makai  (Indian    corn),  jao   (barley),    195,486   acres; 

pulses,  including  gram  (Cicer  arietinum),  moth  (Phaseolus  aconitifolius), 

matar  (peas),  mash  (Phaseolus   radiatus),  mung   (Phaseolus   mungo), 

w^^//r  (Ervum  lens),  ^r/z^r  (Caj anus  indicus),  18,314  acres;  oil-seeds, 

including  sarson  or   mustard,   ///  (Sesamum  orientale),  and  tdrdmira 

(Sinapis    eruca),    28,841    acres;    cotton,    99,545    acres;    and   indigo, 

11,655  acres.       Throughout   the   whole   District,  cultivation  depends 

entirely   upon    artificial    irrigation,   derived   from   three   sources,— the 

hill  streams,  the  wells,  and   the   inundation  canals   from  the  Indus. 

The  last  begin  to  fill,  in  prosperous  years,  towards  the  end  of  June, 

when  the  sowings  at  once  commence.     The  Pachad  can  only  produce 

a  good  autumn  crop  if  the  hill  torrents  fill  some  time  between  May 

and  August ;  but  when  rain   does  not  fall  until  September,  the  cuUi- 

vator  abandons  all  hope  of  the  kharif  and  sows  his  land  with  wheat 

or  some  other  spring  staple.     The  number  of  main  channels  drawing 

their  supplies  directly  from  the  Indus  is  15,  two  of  which  belong  to 

private  proprietors,   while  the  remainder  are  controlled  and  kept  in 

order  by   the  State.     A  well,   unaided  by  canal  supplies,   suffices  to 

irrigate  an  average  of  10  acres;  with  the  assistance  of  a  canal,  it  can 


DERA  GHAZr  KHAN. 


215 


water  an  area  of  30  acres.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  only  half  the 
lind  is  cultivated  at  a  time,  and  each  field  lies  fallow  after  every 
second  crop.  The  average  out-turn  of  wheat  or  jodr  per  acre  amounts 
to  7^^  cwts. ;  that  of  cotton  to  i  cwt.  14  lbs.  of  cleaned  fibre.  The 
qcrricultural  stock  in  the  District  is  approximately  estimated  as  follows : 
—Cows  and  bullocks,  81,901;  horses,  2913;  ponies,  450;  donkeys, 
4722;  sheep  and  goats,  91,015;  camels,  6930;  ploughs,  12,125. 
The  District  has  no  village  communities  in  the  sense  which  the  term 
usually  implies  in  India.  The  villages  consist  of  holdings  classified 
into  mere  artificial  groups  for  purposes  of  revenue  collection.  The 
only  bond  of  union  between  the  proprietors  consists  in  their  joint 
responsibility  for  the  payment  of  taxes.  The  proportion  of  land  be- 
longino'  to  each  proprietor  is  stated  by  wells  or  fractions  of  a  well  in 
the  Sind,  and  by  band/is  or  irrigation  embankments  in  the  Pachad. 
Eight  wells  form  a  large  holding,  while  one-fourth  of  a  w-ell  would  be 
the  smallest  amount  capable  of  supporting  a  cultivating  proprietor. 
Rents  usually  take  the  shape  of  a  charge  in  kind  upon  the  produce. 
Tenants-at-will  pay  from  one-seventh  to  one-half  the  gross  out-turn ; 
a  quarter  may  be  regarded  as  the  average.  Agricultural  labourers 
receive  their  wages  in  kind,  to  the  value  of  from  4id.  to  6d.  per  diem. 
Skilled  workmen  in  the  towns  earn  from  is.  to  is.  3d.  per  diem.  Of  a 
total  population  of  363,340,  179,821  were  returned  in  1881  as  male 
agriculturists,  of  whom  54,364  were  above  15  years  of  age.  Total  area 
paying  Government  revenue  or  quit-rent,  3944  square  miles,  of  which 
1404  square  miles  are  cultivated,  and  1580  square  miles  cultivable. 
Total  Government  revenue,  including  rates  and  cesses,  £^^,2,6^; 
estimated  value  of  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;^92,395.  The  prevailing 
prices  per  cwt.  for  the  principal  agricultural  staples  in  1880-81,  are 
returned  as  follows: — Wheat,  9s.  8d. ;  flour,  11  s.  2d.;  best  rice, 
17s.  iid. ;  barley,  6s.  8d. ;  gram,  8s.  id.  ;  Jodr,  6s.  9d. ;  bdjra,  8s.  9d. ; 
cleaned  cotton,  ;^2,  us.  2d. ;  and  sugar  (refined),  ^£2,  i6s. 

Com77ierce  and  Trade,  etc. — Petty  Hindu  merchants,  settled  in  almost 
every  village,  entirely  control  the  trade  of  the  District.  Their  deal- 
ings centre  chiefly  in  the  commercial  town  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan. 
The  Indus  forms  the  high  road  of  traffic.  Mithankot,  just  below  its 
junction  with  the  united  stream  of  the  Punjab  rivers,  was  long  the 
mercantile  capital  of  the  District ;  but  a  diversion  of  the  navigable 
channel  5  miles  to  the  east  has  turned  the  course  of  traffic  to  the 
head-quarters  town.  Thence,  indigo,  opium,  dates,  wheat,  cotton, 
barley,  millet,  ghi,  and  hides,  are  despatched  down  the  river  to  Sukkur 
(Sakkar)  and  Karachi  (Kurrachee).  The  annual  value  of  the  opium 
exported  amounts  to  ;£2  5oo ;  that  of  indigo  probably  exceeds 
;£io,ooo.  The  grain  of  all  kinds  may  be  estimated  at  ^60,000. 
Sugar,  gram,   woollen  goods,    English    piece-goods   and   broadcloth, 


2i6  DERA  GHAZI  KHAN. 

metals,  salt,  and  spices  form  the  principal  items  of  the  import  trade. 
Little  traffic  at  present  exists  with  the  country  beyond  the  hills,  owing 
to  the  turbulence  of  the  independent  Baluchi  tribes.  Commercial 
importance  has  lately  attached  to  the  annual  religious  gathering  at 
the  shrine  of  a  Muhammadan  saint,  Sakhi  Sarwar.  The  chief  means 
of  communication  consist  of— the  Frontier  military  road,  which  passes 
through  the  District  from  north  to  south  ;  the  river  road  from  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  to  Sukkur ;  and  the  road  from  the  head-quarters  station 
to  Multan,  crossing  the  Indus  at  the  Kureshi  ferry.  None  of  these 
are  metalled,  but  they  cross  the  canals  and  hill-streams  for  the  most 
part  by  means  of  bridges.  The  total  length  of  unmetalled  roads  within 
the  District  amounted  in  1882  to  1565  miles.  The  length  of  navigable 
river  communication  is  235  miles. 

Administration. — The    District  staff  ordinarily  comprises  a  Deputy 
Commissioner,  with  a  judicial  Assistant  Commissioner,  two  Assistant 
and  one  extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  besides  the  usual  fiscal,  con- 
stabulary,  and   medical   officers.     The   total  amount  of  revenue  (ex- 
cluding income-tax)  raised  in  the  District  in  1861-62  was  returned  at 
^2^37, 182.      In  1882-83  it  had  reached  the  sum  of  £a9->1Z9'    The 
land-tax  forms  the  principal   item   of  receipt,   yielding   (exclusive  of 
canal  collections)  in  1882-83  a  total  of  £2>S^o2o,  or  four-fifths  of  the 
whole.     The  other  chief  items  are  stamps  and  excise.     In  1882-83, 
the    District    contained    16   civil   and  revenue  courts  of  all  grades, 
and   18  magistrates'  courts.     The  regular  or  Imperial  police  in  1882 
consisted    of   a   force    of    394    men,    of  whom    303   were   available 
for   protective    or    defensive   duties,    the   remainder   being   employed 
as   guards   over  jails,    treasuries,  etc.     There   is   also   a   river  patrol 
of  28,  and  a  municipal   force   of  84  men.      As  regards  crime,  out 
of  896   '  cognisable '   cases   investigated  during  the  year,  convictions 
were   obtained   in  436 ;   the   total    number    of   persons   arrested    in 
connection  with   these   cases  was    1226,   of  whom   803  were  finally 
convicted.     Cattle  theft  is  described  as  the  normal  crime  of  the  Dis- 
trict, an  offence  which,  owing  to  the  large  tracts  of  waste  and  jungle, 
is  very  difficult  to  deal  with;  192  cases  occurred  in  1881.     Murder  is 
also  a  common  offence;  19  such  cases  occurred  in  1 881,  of  which 
conviction  was  obtained  in  10.     The  District  jail  at  Dera  Ghazi  Khan, 
a  large  and  substantial  building,  had  a  daily  average  number  of  372 
prisoners  in  1880.     The  Rajanpur  lock-up  during  the  same  year  had 
a  daily  average  of  80  inmates.     The  military  force  maintained  in  the 
District  for  the  protection  of  the  frontier  comprises  2  regiments  of  in- 
fantry and  2  of  cavalry.     One  regiment  of  cavalry  and  one  company  of 
infantry  are  stationed  at  Rajanpur  ;  and  the  remainder  at  Dera  Ghazi 
Khdn.     A  force  of  mounted  militia,  levied  among  the   Baluchi  tribes 
of  the  Pachid,  assists  the  regular  troops  in  the  maintenance  of  order. 


DERA  GHAZI  KHAN  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN.        217 

In  1882-83,  the  District  had  only  40  regularly-inspected  schools, 
with  a  total  roll  of  1895  scholars.  There  were  also,  according  to  Dr. 
G.  F.  Leitner's  Report,  a  total  of  179  indigenous  village  schools,  in 
which  education  of  some  sort  is  imparted  to  about  1650  children. 
The  five  municipalities  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  Jampur,  Rajanpur, 
Mithankot,  and  Dijal  Avith  Naushahra,  had  an  aggregate  revenue  in 
1882-83  oi £^1^'^,  and  an  expenditure  of  ^5255  ;  average  incidence 
of  taxation,  is.  iid.  per  head  of  municipal  population. 

Medical  Aspects.  —  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  cannot  be  considered  an 
unhealthy  District,  although  the  heat  in  summer  often  reaches  an 
intense  degree.  The  annual  rainfall  for  the  eighteen  years  ending 
1880  averaged  only  7-06  inches,  the  maximum  during  that  period 
being  io-8  inches  in  1869-70.  The  total  rainfall  in  1880  was 
only  4"2  inches.  Fever  of  the  ordinary  type  prevails  in  August 
and  September,  when  cold  nights  alternate  with  hot  days.  In 
June  and  July,  a  scorching  and  unhealthy  wind  sweeps  down  from 
the  hills  into  the  Pachad.  Four  charitable  dispensaries  gave  relief 
in  1881  to  52,781  persons,  of  whom  1381  were  in-patients;  total 
expenditure  on  dispensaries  in  1881,  £\\o(^^  of  which  jQdio  was 
derived  from  local  sources,  and  ^468  contributed  by  Government. 
[For  further  information  regarding  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District,  see  the 
forthcoming /^?^;z/^^  Gazetteer;  also  Mr.  F.  W.  R.  Yry^r's  Report  07i  the 
Settlejfient  Operations  from  1869  to  1874;  together  with  the  Punjab 
Census  Report  for  1881,  and  the  Punjab  Administration  and  Depai-t- 
mental  Reports  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Dera  Ghazi  Khan. — Tahsil  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District,  Punjab, 
consisting  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Indus  and  the  Sulai- 
man  mountains.  Lat.  29°  36'  to  30°  30'  30"  n.,  and  long.  70°  11'  to 
70°  59'  E.  Area,  1362  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  159,733, 
namely,  males  88,120,  and  females  71,613.  Persons  per  square  mile, 
117.  Hindus  numbered  22,750;  Sikhs,  525;  Muhammadans,  136,388; 
and  'others,'  70.  Revenue  of  the  tahsil,  ;£i8,426.  The  administrative 
staff  consists  of  a  Deputy  Commissioner,  a  Judicial  Assistant,  2  Assistant 
or  extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  i  tahsilddr,  i  munsif,  and  3  honorary 
magistrates.  These  officers  preside  over  8  civil  and  8  criminal  courts. 
Number  of  police  stations,  4;  strength  of  regular  pohce,  105  men; 
with  68  village  watchmen. 

Dera  Ghazi  Khan. — Town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of 
I)era  Ghazi  Khan  District,  Punjab.  Lat.  30°  3'  n.,  and  long.  70°  50'  e. 
Situated  in  lat.  30°  3'  57"  n.,  and  long.  70°  49'  e.,  about  2 
miles  west  of  the  present  bed  of  the  Indus,  which  once  flowed 
past  its  site.  Population  (1881)  22,309,  namely  10,140  Hindus, 
11,687  Muhammadans,  413  Sikhs,  and  69  Christians.  Number 
of  houses,  3159.      The    Kasturi  Canal    skirts    its    eastern    border, 


2i8  DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN. 

fringed  with  thickly-planted  gardens  of  mango  trees ;  while  ghats  line 
the  banks,  thronged  in  summer   by  numerous   bathers.     Above  the 
town  stands  a  massive   dam,  erected  in  1858  as  a  protection  against 
inundations.     A  mile  to  the  west  lies  the  civil  station,  and  the  canton- 
ments adjoin  the  houses  of  the  District  officials.     The  original  station 
stood  to  the  east  of  the  town,  but  disappeared  during  the  flood  of  1857. 
The  town  owes  its  foundation  to  Ghazi  Khan  Mahrani,  a  Baluch  settler 
in  the   District,  who  made  himself  independent  in  this  remote  tract 
about  the  year  1475.     ^^  ^^^  continued  ever  since  to  be  the  seat  of 
local  administration  under  the  successive    Governments   which  have 
ruled  the  surrounding  country.     i^See  Dera  Ghazi  Khan   District.) 
The  court-house  occupies  the  reputed  site  of  Ghazi  Khan's  garden; 
while  the   tahsili  and   police  office   replace  an   ancient   fort,  levelled 
at  the  time  of  the  English  annexation.     The  other  public  buildings 
include  a  town  hall,  school-house,   dispensary,  staging  bungalow,  and 
post-office.      A  handsome  bazar  has  several  good   shops,   built  on  a 
uniform  plan.     Many  large  and  striking  mosques  adorn  the  town,  the 
chief  being  those  of  Ghazi   Khan,   Abdul   Jawar,  and   Chiitd  Khan. 
The  Sikhs  converted  three  of  them  into  temples  of  their  own  faith 
during  their  period  of  supremacy.     Two  Muhammadan  saints  are  also 
honoured  with  shrines,  and  the  earlier  religion  has  four  temples  dedi- 
cated to  Hindu  gods.     The  trade  of  Dera  Ghdzi  Khan  is  not  large : 
exports — indigo,  opium,  dates,  wheat,  cotton,  barley,  millet,  ghi,  and 
hides ;  imports— sugar,  Kabul  fruits,   English  piece-goods,  metal,  salt, 
and  spices.     Silk  and  cotton  manufacture,  formerly  thriving,  has  now 
declined.     Weekly  fair  on  the  banks  of  the  canal  during  the  summer 
months.     Ordinary  garrison,  i  cavalry  and  2  infantry  regiments  of  the 
Punjab  Frontier  force.     Municipal  revenue  in  1882-83,  ;£26i9;  ex- 
penditure, ^^3380 ;  average  incidence  of  municipal  taxation,  2s.  4|d. 
per  head. 

Dera  Ismdil  Khan.  —  District  in  the  Derajat  Division  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the  Punjab  (Panjab),  lying  between  30°  36' 
and  32°  33'  N.  lat.,  and  between  70°  14'  and  72°  2'  e.  long.;  with  an 
area  of  9296  square  miles,  and  a  population  (1881)  of  441^649  persons. 
Dera  Ismail  Khan  forms  the  central  District  of  the  Derajat  Division. 
It  consists  of  a  strip  of  country  stretching  from  the  foot  of  the  Sulaiman 
Hills,  across  the  hills  into  the  Thai  of  the  Sind  Sagar  Doab.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Bannu  District;  on  the  east  by  Jhang 
and  Shahpur ;  on  the  south  by  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  and  Muzaffargarh ; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Sulaiman  mountains,  which  separate  India 
from  Afghanistan.  Its  average  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  no 
miles,  and  its  average  width  about  80  miles.  It  is  divided  into  5 
tahsils,  of  which  that  of  Tank  occupies  the  extreme  north-western 
corner  of  the  District.      The   remainder  of  the  Trans-Indus  tract  is 


DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN.  219 

divided  between  the  tahsils  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  and  Kulachi.  The 
cis-Indus  area  is  divided  by  a  line  running  east  and  west  into  the 
two  tahsils  of  Bhakkar  and  Leiah,  the  former  comprising  the  northern 
portion.  These  two  tahsils  constitute  a  separate  Sub-division,  and  are 
in  charge  of  an  Assistant  Commissioner  stationed  at  Bhakkar.  The 
administrative  head-quarters  of  the  District  are  at  the  town  of  Dera 
Ismail  Khan. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  a  purely  arti- 
ficial creation  for  administrative  purposes,  comprises  two  distinct  tracts 
d  country,  stretching  from  the  Sulaiman  mountains  across  the  valley 
of  the  Indus  far  into  the  heart  of  the  Sind  Sagar  Doab.  The  channel 
of  the  great  river  thus  divides  it  into  two  sections,  each  of  which 
possesses  a  history  and  physical  characteristics  of  its  own.  To  the  west, 
the  Sulaiman  mountains  rise  barren  and  precipitous  above  the  hard 
alluvial  plain,  ascending  in  a  series  of  parallel  ridges,  which  culminate 
nearly  opposite  Dera  Ismail  Khan  in  the  two  peaks  of  Takht-i-Sulaiman, 
11,295  and  11,070  feet  respectively  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
range  is  the  home  of  various  independent  tribes,  responsible  to  our 
Government  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  upon  the  frontier,  and  the 
prevention  of  robbery  among  the  passes.  Numerous  mountain  torrents 
score  the  hill-sides,  and  cut  for  themselves  deep  and  intricate  ravines  in 
the  plain  below;  but  Uttle  of  their  water  reaches  the  Indus  even  in  times 
of  heavy  flood.  Only  one  among  them,  the  Gumal  or  Lilni,  is  a  perennial 
stream.  On  the  north,  some  low  and  stony  spurs  project  into  the 
valley,  till  finally  the  Shaikh-Budin  range  closes  the  view  upward  and 
separates  this  District  from  that  of  Bannu.  Near  the  Indus,  a  third 
rugged  group,  the  Khisor  Hills,  intervenes  between  the  Shaikh-Budin 
system  and  the  river,  which  is  overhung  by  its  eastern  face  in  a  precipi- 
tous mass,  some  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  From  this  point  the  plain 
stretches  southward  along  the  river-side,  till  it  merges  in  the  similar 
tract  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District.  Sloping  downwards  from  the 
feet  of  the  Sulaiman  range  through  an  intermediate  barren  belt,  it 
gradually  attains  a  lower  level,  at  which  percolation  from  the  Indus 
makes  its  influence  felt.  Cultivation  soon  becomes  general,  and  the 
soil  of  this  lowland  tract  supports  a  population  of  considerable  density. 
In  the  summer  months,  the  river,  rising  6  feet  above  its  cold-weather 
level,  submerges  the  country  for  11  miles  inland;  while  canals  and 
natural  channels  convey  its  fertilizing  waters  to  a  still  greater  distance 
from  the  main  stream  on  either  side.  The  principal  channel  shifts  from 
year  to  year,  causing  great  alteration  in  the  conditions  of  agriculture. 
The  eastern  or  Sind  Sagar  portion  of  the  District  consists  in  part  of  a 
similar  irrigated  lowland,  lying  along  the  edge  of  the  Indus.  The  limit 
of  this  favoured  tract  is  marked  by  an  abrupt  bank,  the  outer  margin  of 
a  high  plateau,  the  Thai,  which  stretches  across  the  Doab  to  the  valley 


2  20  DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN. 

of  the  Jehlam  (Jhelum).  Below  this  bank,  wide  patches  of  closely- 
cultivated  soil,  interspersed  with  stretches  of  rank  grass,  or  broken  by- 
occasional  clumps  of  trees,  meet  the  eye;  but  above  appears  the 
ordinary  monotony  of  a  Punjab  desert,  extending  in  a  level  surface 
of  sand,  or  rolling  into  rounded  hillocks  and  long  undulating  dunes. 
Yet  the  soil  beneath  is  naturally  rich ;  and  unless  the  rainfall  entirely 
fails,  a  yearly  crop  of  grass  pushes  its  way  through  the  sandy  covering, 
and  suffices  to  support  vast  flocks  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Patches  of 
scrubby  jungle  here  and  there  diversify  the  scene ;  while  the  coarse 
vegetation  of  the  general  surface  affords  excellent  fodder  for  camels. 
Cultivation,  however,  can  only  be  carried  on  by  means  of  laborious 
artificial  irrigation  from  deep  wells,  and  nothing  but  the  brave  and 
steady  industry  of  the  inhabitants  renders  life  possible  in  this  sterile 
region. 

Iron  is  produced  in  the  Waziri  hills,  but  no  metals  exist  within 
the  District  itself.  Traces  of  lignite  and  a  little  alum,  naphtha,  yellow 
ochre,  and  saltpetre  are  found  in  the  Shaikh-Budin  range.  Sajji^  an 
impure  carbonate  of  soda,  is  sometimes  manufactured  for  sale,  but 
chiefly  by  washermen  for  their  private  use.  No  quarries  of  any  sort 
are  worked.  The  hills  supply  abundance  of  limestone  for  building 
purposes.  As  regards  wild  animals,  the  antelope  is  unknown,  and 
only  a  i^"^  ravine  and  hog-deer  are  found.  Game  is  rapidly  disap- 
pearing, owing  to  the  increase  of  cultivation.  The  tiger  is  extinct ; 
and  even  wild  hog  are  only  to  be  found  in  certain  outlying  tracts. 
The  wild  ass  {ghor-k/ior)  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  District. 
Hares  were  formerly  numerous,  but  were  drowned  out  during  a  high 
flood  in  1874,  and  hardly  one  is  now  left.  Occasionally  wolves,  foxes, 
and  jackals  are  found,  and  a  few  leopards  haunt  the  Shaikh-Budin 
hills.  Otters  are  common  in  the  Indus,  where  they  are  caught  by 
the  Kehars,  a  wandering  tribe,  and  used  in  hunting  fish.  A  species 
of  field  mouse  is  often  very  destructive  to  the  crops.  Game  birds 
consist  of  wild  duck,  wild  goose,  sand  grouse,  quail,  grey  and  black 
partridges,  chikor^  snipe,  etc.  The  great  bustard  is  occasionally  met 
with,  and  the  small  bustard  affords  good  sport  for  hawking.  The 
fisheries  are  confined  to  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries. 

History. — The  massive  ruins  of  two  ancient  forts,  overlooking  the 
Indus  from  projecting  spurs  of  the  northern  hills,  alone  bear  witness  to 
an  early  civilisation  in  the  Upper  Derajat.  Both  bear  the  name  of 
Kafir  Kot  (infidel's  fort),  probably  connecting  their  origin  with  the 
Grae'co-Bactrian  period  of  Punjab  history.  The  plain  portion  of  the 
District  contains  none  of  those  ancient  mounds  which  elsewhere  mark 
the  sites  of  ruined  cities.  But  the  earliest  traditions  current  in  this 
remote  quarter  refer  to  its  later  colonization  by  immigrants  from  the 
south,    who   found   the   country   entirely  unoccupied.      The   Baluchi 


DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN.  221 

settlers,  under  Malik  Sohrab,  arrived  in  the  District  towards  the  end  of 
the  15th  century.  Plis  two  sons,  Ismail  Khan  and  Fateh  Khan, 
founded  the  towns  which  still  bear  their  names.  The  Hot  family,  as 
this  Baluchi  dynasty  was  termed,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Mahrani 
house  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  held  sway  over  the  upper  Derajat  for  300 
years,  with  practical  independence,  until  reduced  to  vassalage  by 
Ahmad  Shah  Durani  about  1750  a.d.  Beyond  the  Indus,  too,  the 
first  important  colony  settled  under  the  auspices  of  another  Baluchi 
chieftain,  whose  descendants,  surnamed  Jaskani,  placed  their  capital  for 
nearly  three  centuries  at  Bhakkar  in  the  eastern  lowlands  of  the  great 
river.  Farther  south,  the  family  of  Ghazi  Khan  established  several 
settlements,  the  chief  of  which  gathered  round  the  tow^n  of  Leiah. 
About  the  year  1759,  the  Khans  of  Leiah  were  involved  in  the  conquest 
of  the  parent  family  by  the  Kalhora  kings  of  Sind.  Shortly  afterwards, 
Ahmad  Shah  Durdni  became  supreme  over  the  whole  of  the  present 
District.  In  1792,  Shah  Zaman,  then  occupying  the  Durani  throne, 
conferred  the  government  of  this  dependency,  together  with  the  title 
of  Nawab,  upon  Muhammad  Khan,  an  Afghan  of  the  Sadozai  tribe, 
related  to  the  famous  governors  of  Multan  (Mooltan).  Armed  with 
the  royal  grant,  Muhammad  Khan  made  himself  master  of  almost  all 
the  District,  and  built  himself  a  new  capital  at  Mankera.  He  died  in 
1815,  after  a  prosperous  reign  of  twenty-three  years.  His  grandson,  Sher 
Muhammad  Khdn,  succeeded  to  the  principality,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  father,  the  late  Nawab's  son-in-law.  Ranjit  Singh,  however, 
was  then  engaged  in  consolidating  his  powxr  by  the  subjection  of  the 
lower  Punjab.  Nothing  daunted  by  the  difficulties  of  a  march  across 
the  desert,  the  great  Sikh  leader  advanced  upon  Mankera,  sinking  wells 
as  he  approached  for  the  supply  of  his  army.  After  a  siege  of  twxnty-five 
days,  the  fortress  surrendered,  and  the  w^hole  Sind  Sagar  Doab  lay  at  the 
mercy  of  the  conqueror.  The  young  Nawdb  retired  beyond  the  Indus 
to  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  retaining  his  dominions  in  the  Derajat  for  fifteen 
years,  subject  to  a  quit-rent  to  the  Sikhs,  but  otherwise  holding  the 
position  of  a  semi-independent  -prince.  His  tribute,  how^ever,  fell  into 
arrears;  and  in  1836,  Nao  Nihal  Singh  crossed  the  Indus  at  the  head 
of  a  Sikh  army,  and  annexed  the  remaining  portion  of  the  District 
to  the  territories  of  Lahore.  The  Nawab  received  an  assignment  of 
revenue  for  his  maintenance,  still  retained  by  his  descendants,  together 
with  their  ancestral  title. 

Under  Sikh  rule,  the  cis-Indus  tract  formed  part  of  the  Multan 
Province,  administered  by  Sdwan  Mall  and  his  son  Mulraj  {see  Multan 
District).  The  upper  Derajat,  on  the  other  hand,  was  farmed 
out  to  the  Diwan  Laki  Mall,  from  whom  it  passed  to  his  son, 
Daulat  Rai.  British  influence  first  made  itself  felt  in  1847,  when 
Lieutenant    (afterwards    Sir    Herbert)    Edwardes,    being    despatched 


22  2  DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN. 

to  the  frontier  as  Political  Officer  under  the  Council  of  Regency  at 
Lahore,  effected  a  summary  assessment  of  the  land-tax.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding year,  levies  from  Dera  Ismail  Khan  followed  Edwardes  to 
Multan,  and  served  loyally  throughout  the  war  that  ended  in  the 
annexation  of  the  Punjab.  The  District  then  passed  quietly  under 
British  rule.  On  the  first  sub-division  of  the  Province,  Dera  Ismail 
Khan  became  the  head-quarters  of  a  District,  which  also  originally 
included  the  trans-Indus  portion  of  Bannu ;  Leiah  was  erected  into 
the  centre  of  a  second  District  east  of  the  river.  The  present  arrange- 
ment took  effect  in  1861,  Bannu  being  entrusted  to  a  separate  officer, 
and  the  southern  half  of  Leiah  District  being  incorporated  with  Dera 
Ismail  Khan.  In  1857,  some  traces  of  a  mutinous  spirit  appeared 
amongst  the  troops  in  garrison  at  the  head-quarters  station ;  but  the 
promptitude  and  vigour  of  the  Deputy  Commissioner,  Colonel  Coxe, 
loyally  aided  by  a  hasty  levy  of  local  horse  averted  the  danger 
without  serious  difficulty.  In  1870,  the  District  attracted  for  a  time 
a  melancholy  attention  through  the  death  of  Sir  Henry  Durand, 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  Punjab,  who  struck  against  an  arch  and 
was  precipitated  from  his  elephant  as  he  entered  a  gateway  in  the  town 
of  Tank.     His  remains  were  interred  at  Dera  Ismail  Khan. 

Population. — The  changes  of  territory  in  the  cis  Indus  portion  of  the 
District  since  the  Census  of  1855,  render  it  impossible  to  institute  a 
comparison  between  that  enumeration  and  the  returns  of  1868  and 
1 88 1.  In  the  trans-Indus  Sub-division,  however,  which  remains  sub- 
stantially unaltered  in  extent,  a  considerable  increase  took  place  between 
those  dates.  The  Census  of  1881  was  taken  over  a  total  area  of  9296 
square  miles,  and  it  disclosed  a  total  population  of  441,649  persons, 
distributed  among  746  villages  or  townships,  and  inhabiting  an  aggre- 
gate of  88,908  houses.  These  figures  yield  the  following  averages : — 
Persons  per  square  mile,  47  ;  villages  per  square  mile,  o*o8  ;  houses  per 
square  mile,  9'56 ;  persons  per  village,  592 ;  persons  per  house,  4*95. 
Classified  according  to  sex,  there  were — males,  238,468 ;  females, 
203,181  ;  proportion  of  males,  53*99  per  cent.  As  regards  the  religious 
distinctions  of  the  people,  Dera  Ismail  Khan  contains  an  essentially 
Muhammadan  population,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  late  date  and 
quarter  of  its  colonization.  The  Census  showed  385,244  Musalmans, 
54,446  Hindus,  1691  Sikhs,  2  Jains,  13  Parsis,  and  253  Christians. 
Amongst  the  Hindus,  the  Aroras  form  by  far  the  largest  element, 
numbering  as  many  as  44,146  persons;  they  comprise  the  principal 
trading  classes  of  the  District,  a  few  wealthy  families  being  found  in  the 
larger  towns,  while  the  majority  carry  on  business  as  petty  dealers  in 
corn  or  money  throughout  the  country  villages.  The  mass  of  the 
agricultural  population  are  Jats,  the  great  majority  of  whom  profess  the 
Muhammadan  religion,  but  are  of  Hindu   or  Scythian  origin.     Their 


DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN.  223 

ancestors,  according  to  tradition,  accompanied  the  Baluchi  chieftains  on 
the  first  colonization  of  the  District.  The  Pathans  or  Afghans  occupy  a 
strip  of  country  extending  immediately  below  the  Sulaiman  hills,  through- 
out their  whole  length  from  north  to  south.  Most  of  them  belong  to 
inconspicuous  tribes,  the  highest  in  social  position  being  connected 
with  the  Sadozai  Nawabs  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan.  In  1881,  Pathans 
numbered  73,022.  Only  three  towns  contained  a  population  exceeding 
5000  in  1881 — namely,  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  Kulachi,  and  Leiah. 
The  municipal  towns  in  1881  were  as  follows: — (i)  Dera  Ismail 
[Khan,  22,164;  (2)  Kulachi,  7834;  (3)  Leiah,  5899;  (4)  Bhakkar, 
4402;  (5)  Karor,  2723;  (6)  Paharpur,  2496.  Tank  (population, 
2364)  is  the  capital  of  an  Afghan  Principality  till  lately  ruled  by  its 
semi-independent  Nawab,  but  now  brought  directly  under  British 
administration.  The  sanitarium  of  Shaikh-Budin,  at  an  elevation  of 
4516  feet  above  sea-level,  occupies  the  highest  point  in  the  hills  which 
separate  this  District  from  Bannu.  The  seven  municipal  towns  con- 
tained in  1881  a  total  of  47,882  inhabitants,  leaving  393,767,  or  89"i 
per  cent.,  for  the  rural  population.  With  regard  to  occupation,  the 
Census  Report  returns  the  male  population  under  the  following  seven 
main  divisions:  —  Class  (i)  Professional,  including  civil  and  military 
officials  and  the  learned  professions,  6671  ;  (2)  domestic  servants, 
lodging-house  keepers,  etc.,  2631  ;  (3)  commercial  class,  including  mer- 
chants, dealers,  carriers,  etc.,  9960;  (4)  agricultural  and  pastoral, 
including  gardeners,  68,931  ;  (5)  industrial  and  artisan  and  manufac- 
turing class,  23,634  ;  (6)  labourers,  and  unspecified,  29,576  ;  (7)  male 
children  below  15  years  of  age,  97,065. 

Agriculture. — Throughout  all  portions  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  District, 
tillage  depends  entirely  upon  artificial  irrigation.  The  hill  streams 
render  but  scanty  service  in  this  respect,  their  volume  being  speedily 
lost  in  the  intricate  ravines  which  they  have  cut  for  themselves  through 
the  hard  clay  of  the  submontane  tract.  Nevertheless  they  afford  to  the 
Afghans  of  the  border  a  chance  of  raising  some  few  crops,  sufficient  for 
their  own  frugal  subsistence.  In  the  low-lying  lands  within  the  influence 
of  the  Indus,  canals  and  wells  offer  an  easy  and  abundant  supply  of 
water ;  but  in  the  Thai  or  Sind  Sagar  uplands,  wells  can  only  be  worked 
at  an  enormous  depth.  Even  here,  however,  the  indomitable  energy 
of  the  Jat  cultivators  succeeds  in  producing  harvests  not  inferior  to 
those  of  the  richest  alluvial  tracts.  The  State  does  not  maintain  any 
irrigation  works  in  this  District;  but  in  1880,  a  total  of  370,579  acres 
were  artificially  watered  by  private  enterprise.  The  area  cultivated 
without  irrigation  amounted  to  435,432  acres,  giving  a  grand  total  of 
806,011  acres  under  cultivation.  The  remainder  of  the  District  falls 
under  the  following  heads: — Grazing  lands,  806,791  acres;  cultivable 
waste,  3,204,918  acres;  uncultivable  waste,   1,131,900  acres.     Wheat 


2  24  DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN. 

and  barley  form  the  staple  products  of  the  rabi  or  spring  harvest,  while 
the  common  millets, /(^i/-  and  bdji'a^  constitute  the  principal  kharifoi 
autumn  crops.  Sugar  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  the  lowlands  of  the 
Indus,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the  local  demand.  In 
1880,  the  area  in  acres  under  the  principal  staples  were  returned  as 
follows  : — Wheat,  283,433  acres  ;  rice,  1673  ;  jodr  (great  millet),  18,360 
bdjra  (spiked  millet),  110,825  ;  7nakai  (Indian  corn),  542  ;  Jao  (barley), 
28,358;  china  (Panicum  miliaceum),  600  acres;  pulses,  including  gram 
(Cicer  arietinum),  jnoth  (Phaseolus  aconitium),  matar  or  peas  (Pisum 
sativum),  77iash  (Phaseolus  radiatus),  miuig  (Phaseolus  mungo),  masiii 
(Ervum  lens),  arhar  (Cajanus  indica),  39,270  acres;  oil-seeds,  33,723 
acres;  cotton,  9939  acres.  Of  a  total  population  of  441,649,  215,714 
are  returned  as  male  agriculturists,  of  whom  60,925  were  above  fifteen 
years  of  age.  Total  area  paying  Government  revenue  or  quit-rent,  7989 
square  miles,  of  which  1056  square  miles  are  returned  as  cultivated, 
and  4329  as  cultivable.  Total  Government  revenue,  including  rates 
and  cesses  in  1881,  ;£"49,86o;  estimated  value  of  rental,  including 
cesses,  actually  paid  by  cultivators,  ;£^io7,54i. 

Throughout  the  District,  village  communities  of  the  ordinary  types 
prevail,  though  many  of  them,  especially  among  the  Pathans  of  the 
frontier,  appear  to  have  adopted  the  communal  system  only  as  a  con- 
sequence of  British  fiscal  arrangements.  Elsewhere,  in  the  Jat  villages, 
the  existence  of  immemorial  common  lands  attests  the  indigenous 
nature  of  the  institution.  Rents  are  universally  paid  in  kind,  at  rates 
which  range  as  high  as  one-half  of  the  gross  produce.  The  agricultural 
stock  in  the  District  is  approximately  estimated  as  follows : — Cows  and 
bullocks,  182,257;  horses,  3228;  ponies,  496 ;  donkeys,  11,146;  sheep 
and  goats,  485,308;  camels,  10,738;  ploughs,  58,940.  Unskilled, 
labourers  in  towns  received  from  4jd.  to  6d.  per  diem  in  1881 ;  while 
skilled  workmen  obtained  from  is.  to  is.  3d.  The  prevailing  prices 
per  cwt.  for  the  principal  food-grains  and  agricultural  staples  in  January 
1881  is  stated  as  under: — Wheat,  los.  lod. ;  flour,  12s.  5d. ;  barley, 
7s.  3d. ;  gram,  8s. ;  Indian  corn,  6s.  i  id. ;  jodr,  6s. ;  bdjra,  7s.  6d. ;  rice 
(best),  j[^\,  4s.  2d. ;  cotton,  £^2,  i6s.  od. ;  sugar  (refined),  j[^2,  iis.  2d. 

Commerce  and  Trade,  etc. — One  of  the  main  streams  of  caravan  traffic 
between  India  and  Khordsan  traverses  the  District  twice  a  year.  The 
Povindah  merchants  cross  the  Gumal  Pass  between  Tank  and  Kulachi 
from  early  in  October  till  the  middle  of  December,  and,  after  passing, 
on  into  India  proper,  return  again  in  April  or  May.  They  seldom,  | 
however,  unpack  any  portion  of  their  wares  in  the  local  markets.  The 
traffic  of  the  District  centres  in  the  towns  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  Leiah, 
and  Bhakkar.  Wheat,  millet,  and  wool  are  thence  despatched  down 
the  Indus  to  Multan  (Mooltan),  Sukkur  (Sakkar),  or  Karachi  (Kur- 
rachee),  while  Indian  and  English  piece-goods   form   the  staples  of 


DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN.  225 

import  trade.  Hides  from  Shahpur  and  Jhang,  salt  from  Kohat  and 
Find  Dadan  Khan,  and  fancy  ware  of  various  kinds  from  Multan  and 
Sukkur,  also  figure  upon  the  list  of  entries.  Dera  Ismail  Khan  town 
and  many  villages  have  considerable  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth  fur 
domestic  use.  The  main  channels  of  communication  consist  of — the 
Frontier  military  road,  which  skirts  the  base  of  the  hills  from  north  to 
south ;  the  Multan  and  Rawal  Pindi  road,  which  follows  the  high  right 
bank  of  the  Indus,  via  Kot  Sultan,  Leiah,  Kharor,  and  Bhakkar;  and 
the  line  from  Dera  Ismail  Khan  to  Jhang,  and  thence  to  Chichawatni 
on  the  Lahore  and  Multan  Railway.  They  are  all  practicable  in 
ordinary  seasons  by  wheeled  conveyances  or  artillery.  The  Indus  is 
bridged  at  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  opposite  the  cantonments,  by  a  bridge 
of  boats,  from  early  in  October  till  the  end  of  April.  This  boat  bridge 
is  the  longest  of  the  kind  in  the  Punjab,  if  not  in  India.  The  total 
length  of  roads  within  the  District  in  i88o-8r  amounted  to  31  miles  of 
metalled  and  1538  miles  of  unmetalled  roads.  Water  communication 
is  afforded  by  120  miles  of  navigable  river  (the  Indus). 

Administration. — The  District  staff  ordinarily  comprises  a   Deputy 
Commissioner,  with  one  Assistant  and  three  extra-Assistant  Commis- 
sioners, besides  the   usual  fiscal,  constabulary,   and  medical   officers. 
The  total  amount  of  revenue  raised  in  the  District  during  the  year 
1880-81  was  returned  at;^59,286;  of  which  sum,  ^17,542  was  con- 
tributed by  the  land-tax.     A  local  revenue  of  about  ^5000  provides 
for  objects  of  public  utility  within  the   District  itself     In    1880-81, 
Dera  Ismail  Khan  possessed   16  civil  and  revenue  judges  of  all  grades, 
2  of  whom  were  covenanted  civilians ;  there  were  also  2 1  magistrates 
with  criminal   jurisdiction.      The   regular  or   Imperial  police  in   1881 
consisted  of  a  force  of  505  men,  of  whom  387  were  available  for  pro- 
tective or  defensive  duties,  the  remainder  being  employed  as  guards 
over  jails,  treasuries,  etc.     There  was  also  in  the  same  year  a  municii)al 
force  of  68  men,  and  a  ferry  police  of  9  men.     As  regards  crime,  out 
of  633  '  cognisable '  cases  investigated  by  the  police  during  the  year, 
convicdons  were  obtained  in  393  ;  the  total  number  of  persons  arrested 
in  connection  with   these  cases  was   954,   of  whom  703  were  finally 
convicted.     The   District  jail  at   Dera   Ismail   Khan  received  a  total 
number  of  1470  inmates  in  1880;  while  the  .daily  average  of  prisoners 
for  that  and  the  two  preceding  years  was  579.     Education  still  remains 
at  a  low  standard.     The  District  contained   30  schools  supported  or 
aided  by  the  Government  in   1880-81,  with  an  aggregate  roll  of  1996 
scholars.     The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  an  educational  station 
at  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  in  receipt  of  a  grant-in-aid  from  Government. 
I  he  troops  quartered  in  the  District,  for  the  defence  of  the  Frontier, 
comprise  2  regiments  of  infantry,  i  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  a  battery 
of  field  artillery,  amounting  in  all  to  2200  rank  and  file  of  all  arms, 

VOL.  IV.  P 


226       DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN. 

with  4  guns.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Dera  Ismail  Khan.  A  small 
force  of  local  militia  supplements  the  regular  troops  in  the  outpost 
stations  upon  the  Frontier.  The  6  municipal  towns  had  an  aggregate 
revenue  in  1880-81  of  ;£"5635  ;  expenditure,  ^5765  ;  average  incidence, 
2S.  4jd.  per  head  of  municipal  population. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  the  District  is  dry  and  hot,  the 
average  monthly  mean  for  a  period  of  twelve  years  ending  1880  being 
73*9°  R,  ranging  from  927°  in  June  to  51-5°  in  January.  In  1880,  the 
thermometer  registered  a  maximum  temperature  of  114*5°  i^  May,  and 
a  minimum  of  56*2°  in  December.  Up  to  the  middle  of  May,  the 
climate  is  tolerable  for  Europeans ;  but  after  that  date,  the  season  of 
fierce  summer-heat  sets  in.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  a  period  of 
eighteen  years  ending  1880  amounted  to  only  8*89  inches.  In  the 
latter  year  the  rainfall  was  only  4  inches.  The  rainy  season,  or  tather 
the  period  of  occasional  showers,  occurs  during  the  months  of  June, 
July,  August,  and  September.  Malarious  fever,  dysentery,  and  small- 
pox form  the  prevalent  diseases  of  the  District.  The  head-quarters 
station,  however,  bears  a  good  reputation  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 
Six  charitable  dispensaries  afforded  relief  in  1881  to  45,872  persons,  of 
whom  1 164  were  in-patients.  [For  further  information  regarding  Dera 
Ismail  Khan  District,  see  the  forthcoming  Punjab  Gazetteer ;  also 
the  Settlement  Operations  from  1872  to  1879,  quoted  in  Mr.  Stack's 
Settlement  Memorandum.,  p.  313  ;  Mauzdwdr  or  Village  Survey .,  by 
No.  I  Party  (Revenue  Branch),  under  Lieut.  Col.  D.  Macdonald, 
quoted  p.  26  of  the  Ad?ninistratio7i  Report  of  the  Survey  Department 
for  1881-82.  Also  the  Pimjab  Census  Report  for  1881,  and  the 
Punjab  Administration  and  Departmental  Repo?'ts  from  1880  to 
1883.] 

Dera  Ismail  Khan. — Tahsil  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  District,  Punjab, 
consisting  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Sulaiman  mountains 
and  the  Indus.  Lat.  31°  20'  to  32°  2)Z  n.,  and  long.  70°  33' 30"  to 
71°  25'  E.  Area,  1673  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  120,142, 
namely,  males  64,626,  and  females  55,516  ;  average  density  of  popu- 
lation, 72  persons  per  square  mile.  Hindus  number  15,674;  Sikhs, 
721;  Muhammadans,  103,501  ;  'others,'  246.  Revenue  of  the  tahsil, 
^9997 .  The  administrative  staff,  which  includes  the  Divisional 
head-quarters,  consists  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  Division,  with  a 
Deputy  Commissioner,  Judicial  Assistant,  2  Assistant  Commissioners, 
a  ta/isilddr,  a  munsif,  2  honorary  magistrates.  These  officers  preside 
over  8  civil  and  8  criminal  courts ;  number  of  police  stations,  3 ; 
strength  of  regular  police,  102  men  ;  number  of  village  watch  {chauki- 
ddrs),  135. 

Dera  Ismail  Khan. — Town,  cantonment,  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  District  and  the  Dera  Jat  Division,  Punjab. 


DERA  ISMAIL  KHAN  TOWN,  227 

Lat.  31°  50'  N.,  long.  70°  59'  E.  Population  (1881)  22,164,  namely, 
8862  Hindus,  12,440  Muhammadans,  680  Sikhs,  2  Jains,  and  180 
'others.'  Distant  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus  4J  miles  west,  from 
Lahore  200  miles  west,  and  from  Multan  (Mooltan)  120  miles  north- 
west. Founded  in  the  end  of  the  15th  century  by  Ismail  Khan,  one 
of  the  sons  of  the  Baluch  adventurer  Malik  Sohrab,  who  called  the 
town  after  his  own  name. 

The  original  city  was  swept  away  by  a  flood  in  1823,  and  all 
the  existing  buildings  are  of  quite  modern  construction.  The  town 
stands  on  a  level  plain,  with  a  slight  fall  to  the  river,  but  so  badly 
drained  that  pools  of  water  collect  for  weeks  after  heavy  rain,  and 
many  of  the  streets  become  impassable.  Surrounded  by  a  thin  mud 
wall,  with  five  gates,  enclosing  an  area  of  about  500  acres.  Tortuous 
and  ill-ventilated  alleys,  especially  in  the  Hindu  quarter.  The 
cantonments,  which  lie  to  the  south-east  of  the  town,  contain  a  total 
area  of  4f  square  miles.  Lines  exist  for  a  regiment  of  Native  cavalry, 
two  regiments  of  Native  infantry,  and  a  battery  of  artillery.  The  canton- 
ments also  contain  a  church,  staging  bungalow,  and  swimming-bath. 
European  detachments  garrison  the  small  fort  of  Akalgarh,  half  a  mile 
from  the  north-west  angle  of  the  town.  The  ordinary  garrison  of  the 
station  consists  of  a  mountain  battery  of  artillery,  a  regiment  of  Native 
cavalry,  and  two  of  infantry,  belonging  to  the  Punjab  Frontier  Force, 
and  commanded  by  the  general  officer  commanding  the  force  at 
Abbottabad.  Detachments  from  these  regiments  garrison  the  out- 
posts of  Tank,  Girni,  Jatta,  Manjhi,  and  Drabad.  Ten  militia  posts  are 
also  maintained,  exclusive  of  border  police  posts. 

The  civil  station,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  native  town,  contains 
the  offices  of  the  Commissioner  and  Deputy  Commissioner,  the  court- 
house, treasury,  jail,  police  lines,  post-office,  and  dispensary.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  has  an  important  station,  and  supports  a 
considerable  school.  In  time  of  flood,  the  whole  strip  of  land  between 
the  town  and  the  river  is  covered  by  the  inundations.  The  town  is 
traversed  by  two  main  bazars  running  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  intersected  at  the  centre,  which  is  the  most  crowded  part, 
and  is  thronged  with  Povindah  traders  in  the  cold  weather.  Both 
the  main  hdzdrs  are  paved,  and  have  been  recently  widened  and 
provided  with  saucer-shaped  drains  along  the  main  streets.  The 
town  itself  is  very  well  planned,  though  somewhat  straggling.  One 
specially  good  feature  is  the  arrangement  by  which  the  Muhammadans 
and  Hindus  have  each  separate  quarters ;  and  hence  quarrels  between 
the  rival  religions  are  of  rare  occurrence.  The  native  town  is  of 
quite  modern  construction,  and  contains  but  few  buildings  of  interest. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  aristocratic  towns  in  the  Punjab, 
with  a  large  number  of  resident  native  noblemeU;  Pathans,  or  Mul- 


228  DERAJAT—DERA  NANAK. 

tinis,  including  4  Nawabs.  The  old  town  was  situated  some  four 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  present  site,  on  the  bank  of  the  Indus.  It 
stood  in  a  large  wood  of  date  trees,  and  probably  resembled  the 
present  town  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan. 

The  trade  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  ranks  as  of  second-rate  importance 
only,  but  some  foreign  traffic  with  Khorasan  passes  through  in  the 
course  of  transit.  Povindah  caravans  of  Afghan  merchants  traverse 
the  town  twice  a  year,  on  their  road  to  and  from  India.  Chief 
imports — English  and  native  piece-goods,  hides,  salt,  and  fancy  wares ; 
principal  exports — grain,  wool,  and  ghi.  Manufacture  of  scarves  and 
inlaid  wood-work.  Municipal  revenue  in  1882-83,  ;£'35ii ;  municipal 
expenditure,  ^3501 ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  3s.  2d.  per  head 
of  population  within  municipal  limits. 

Derajat. — Division  or  Commissionership  in  the  Punjab,  situated 
between  28°  27'  and  33°  15'  n.  lat.,  and  between  69°  35'  and  72°  2'  e., 
occupying  the  valley  of  the  Indus;  comprising  the  three  Districts 
of  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  and  Bannu,  each  of 
which  see  separately.  Area,  17,681  square  miles,  with  1809  villages 
and  17  towns;  number  of  houses,  204,557.  Population,  1,137,572, 
namely,  Muhammadans,  1,001,486;  Hindus,  131,786;  Sikhs,  3807; 
Jains,  62;  Parsis,  13;  Christians,  417;  unspecified,  i.  The  Jats, 
who  comprise  the  most  important  section  of  the  population,  number 
419,665,  and  are  almost  exclusively  Muhammadans  in  religion. 
Pathans,  all  Muhammadans,  come  next,  with  223,915  ;  Rajputs,  nearly 
all  Muhammadans,  number  7726;  Brahmans,  7740;  Khattris,  or 
Hindu  landholders  and  traders,  7686;  Shaikhs,  21,784;  Mughals, 
1930.  The  total  area  of  the  Division  paying  Government  assess- 
ment amounts  to  15,609  square  miles,  of  which  3334  square  miles 
were  returned  as  cultivated  in  1881,  and  68,909  square  miles  as 
cultivable. 

Dera  Nanak. — Town  in  Batala  tahsil,  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab. 
Population  (1881)  5956,  namely,  1521  Hindus,  2409  Muhammadans, 
and  2026  Sikhs;  number  of  houses,  1057.  Lies  in  lat.  32°  2'  15"  n., 
long.  75°  4'  E.,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ravi,  13  miles  north-west 
of  Batala.  Baba  Nanak,  the  first  Sikh  Guru,  settled  and  died  at  the 
village  of  Pakhoki,  opposite  the  modern  town ;  and  his  descendants, 
the  Bedis,  continued  to  reside  upon  the  same  spot  until  the  encroach- 
ing river  swept  away  their  village.  They  then  crossed  the  stream,  and 
built  a  new  town,  which  they  called  after  the  name  of  their  holy 
ancestor.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  still  consist  of  Bedis. 
Handsome  Sikh  temple,  dedicated  to  Baba  Nanak.  A  second  temple, 
known  as  the  Tali  Sahib,  from  a  large  tali  or  shishcun  tree  which  stood 
near  it,  was  carried  away  by  an  inundation  in  1870,  but  has  since  been 
rebuilt.    The  Ravi  has  encroached  considerably  towards  the  town ;  and 


DERAPUR—DERDI JANBAI.  229 

although  an  embankment  ipandh)  has  been  constructed  to  check  further 
encroachments,  there  is  great  danger  of  the  temple  and  town  itself 
beino-  carried  away.  The  introduction  of  railway  communication  has 
led  to  the  decline  of  the  commercial  importance  of  the  town  ;  but  it  is 
still  the  centre  of  a  considerable  shawl-weaving  industry.  Consider- 
able export  of  cotton  and  sugar.  Police  station,  Anglo-vernacular 
school,  post-office,  and  dispensary.  Municipal  revenue  (1882-83), 
^531;  expenditure,  ^425;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  Qjd. 
per  head. 

Derapur. — South-western  tahsil  of  Cawnpur  District,  North-Western 
Provinces ;  stretching  inland  from  the  banks  of  the  Jumna,  and  traversed 
by  the  Bhognipur  and  Etawah  branches  of  the  Ganges  Canal.  Area, 
321  square  miles,  of  which  189  are  cultivated;  population  (1881) 
124,746  ;  land  revenue,  ;£"27,798  ;  total  Government  revenue,  ;2^3i,i95  5 
rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ^42,102  ;  incidence  of  Government  revenue, 
3s.  3d.  per  acre.  The  river  Sengur,  flowing  from  west  to  east,  divides 
the  tahsil  into  two  portions,  the  northern  being  a  fertile  loamy  plain, 
watered  by  the  canal  and  numerous  wells.  Towards  the  Sengur, 
however,  this  tract  deteriorates,  losing  its  fertility  in  rugged  ravines. 
The  southern  portion  has  a  soil  much  resembling  that  of  the  north, 
but  with  an  almost  complete  lack  of  irrigation.  The  land  between 
this  depression  and  the  Jumna  is  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the 
District. 

Derapur. — Town  in  Cawnpur  District,  North-Western  Provinces,  and 
head-quarters  of  Derapur  tahsil,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Sengur  river,  35  miles  west  of  Cawnpur  town,  and  8  miles  south  of 
Rura  railway  station,  communication  with  which  is  maintained  by  means 
of  a  good  metalled  road.  Population  (1881)  2117  ;  area  of  town  site, 
32  acres.  The  town  possesses  a  tahsili,  first-class  police  station,  school, 
dispensary,  post-office.  It  also  contains  the  remains  of  several  old 
mosques,  and  a  fine  masonry  tank.  In  the  time  of  Maratha  rule 
(1756-1762),  a  fort  was  built  here  by  Govind  Rai  Pandit,  the  Governor 
of  the  Province. 

I      Derband.  —  Village  in  Hazara    District,   Punjab  ;    situated   in    lat. 

'  34°  18'  N.,  long.  72°  55'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  at  the 
point  where  its  stream  expands  on  entering  the  plains.  It  is  the 
principal  village  in  the  cis-Sutlej  possessions  of  the  Nawab  of  Amb, 
which  he  holds  under  the  British  as  landlord.  Population  (1881)  785. 
Near  this  point,  in  1827,  Sher  Singh,  the  Sikh  commander,  defeated 
Sayyid  Ahmad,   an  Afghan  fanatic  who  had  excited  a   religious  war 

,■  against  the  Sikhs. 

ij      Derdi  Janbai.— Petty  State  in   North    Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presi 
dency.     It  consists  of  i  village  with  2  tribute-payers.     The  revenue  is 
estimated  at  ;z£'2  5o. 


230  DERI  KOT—DEULGAON  RAJA, 

Deri  Kot. — Town  in  Shikarpur  District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.— 
See  Ghaibi  Dero. 

Deri  Shahan. — Village  in  Rawal  Pindi  District,  Punjab. — See  Dheri 
Shahan. 

Dero  Mohbat. — Tdluk  of  the  Tando  Sub-Division,  Haidarabad 
(Hyderabad)  District,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  24°  58'  15" 
to  25°  19'  N.,  and  longitude  68°  32'  30"  to  69°  20'  45"  e.  Area,  670 
square  miles.  Population  (1881)  37,260,  namely,  3535  Hindus,  30,528 
Muhammadans,  740  Sikhs,  and  2457  aborigines ;  dwelling  in  65 
villages,  and  occupying  6741  houses.  The  tdluk  contains  2  criminal 
courts ;  poHce  stations  {thdnds),  5 ;  regular  police,  25  men ;  land 
revenue,  ^^5557. 

Detanaw. — A  small  but  once  flourishing  village  in  Twan-te  town- 
ship, Hanthawadi  District,  Pegu  Division,  British  Burma.  At  the 
close  of  the  first  Anglo-Burmese  war,  many  of  the  inhabitants 
who  had  sided  with  the  British  escaped  to  Tenasserim,  but  the 
rest  wTre  massacred  by  the  Burmese  for  their  adherence  to  our  cause. 
In  the  neighbourhood,  there  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  and  very  ancient 
pagoda. 

Deulgaon  Rajd,  {Dewalgdon). — Town  in  Buldand  District,  Berar. 
Latitude  20°  n.,  longitude  76°  e.  Population  {1881)  7025,  namely, 
3467  males  and  3558  females.  Of  the  total  population,  5740  were 
returned  as  Hindus,  825  as  Muhammadans,  and  429  as  Jains.  The 
original  name  was  Dewalwari,  from  a  wdri  or  hamlet  close  by,  founded 
by  a  descendant  of  the  Jadon  family.  On  the  north  is  a  small  range 
of  hills,  and  on  the  south  the  small  river  of  Amni.  The  town  is  60 
miles  east  of  Buldana.  It  was  once  fortified  by  a  wall,  now  in  ruins. 
The  principal  articles  of  trade  are  cotton  and  silk.  There  are  about 
240  Koshtis  or  weavers,  of  both  sexes ;  and  of  Sali's  or  workers 
in  silk  and  cotton,  about  1338.  The  Srawaks  or  Jain  traders,  who 
deal  in  cloth,  are  said  to  have  come  from  the  north  about  300  years 
ago.  The  origin  of  the  great  Jadon  family,  a  member  of  which  founded 
Deulgaon,  is  uncertain.  Lakhji  Jadon  Rao,  w^ho  came  from  Northern 
India,  gave  his  daughter  Jijia  to  Shahji  the  son  of  Maloji;  and  in 
1627  she  became  the  mother  of  Sivaji,  the  founder  of  the  Maratha 
power.  Rasoji,  a  natural  son  of  one  of  the  Jadon  family,  gained  for 
himself  the  title  of  founder  of  Deulgaon,  by  enlarging  the  town.  The 
hereditary  dues  enjoyed  by  the  family  were  confiscated  in  1851,  when 
a  body  of  Arabs  under  the  command  of  Baji  Rao,  then  head  of  the 
family,  engaged  in  a  severe  fight  against  the  Haidarabad  contingent. 
Baji  Rao  died  a  State  prisoner  in  1856.  Of  all  the  dewasthdns  in  Berar, 
that  of  Balaji  at  Deulgaon,  founded  by  the  Jadon  Rajas,  is  the  most 
celebrated.  At  the  annual  fair  held  generally  in  October  in  honour  of 
this  deity,  the  offerings  exceed  half  a  Idkh  of  rupees,  or  ;£"5ooo  in  value. 


DEULGHAT—DEVANHALLL  231- 

At  this  time,   food    is  supplied  gratuitously  to  pilgrims  and  religious 
mendicants  attending  the  festival. 

Deulghdt. — Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar ;  situated  in  latitude 
20°  31"  N.,  and  longitude  76°  10'  30"  e.,  on  the  Penganga  river.  Popu- 
lation (1881)  3867.  An  ancient  town,  formerly  known  as  Deoli,  and 
perhaps  built  as  a  refuge  in  the  troubled  time  of  the  Muhammadan 
invasions;  now  of  little  importance.  The  Hindu  temples  formerly 
existing  were  overthrown  by  the  Nasir-ud-din,  who  was  despatched  by 
Aurangzeb  to  organize  his  conquests  in  the  Deccan. 

Devala  (or  Namhalakod).—  Chief  town  of  the  Nambalakod  amshom 
(Division),  South-east  Wainad  (Wynad),  Nilgiri  District,  Madras  Presi- 
dency ;  situated  4  miles  from  the  head  of  the  Karkiir  gJuit,  on  the 
highroad  traversing  Wainad  to  Vytheri,  in  latitude  11°  28'  n.,  longitude 
76°  26'  E.  The  village  has  long  been  known  as  a  coffee  centre,  but 
has  increased  of  late  greatly  in  importance,  owing  to  its  being  the 
centre  of  the  gold-fields  of  South-east  Wainad.  It  has  a  hotel,  telegraph 
and  police  stations  :  the  hills  around  are  studded  with  bungalows 
inhabited  by  the  European  employes  of  the  gold  companies.  Recently 
made  the  residence  of  the  Head  Assistant-Collector  and  Magistrate 
of  Nilgiri  District. 

Devalgaon.— Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar. — See  Deulgaon 
Raja. 

Devalia.  —  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay 
Presidency. — See  Dew  alia. 

Devanhalli.— ^iz////^  in  Bangalore  District,  Mysore  State,  Southern 
India,  Area,  238  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  52,995,  namely, 
51,576  Hindus,  696  Muhammadans,  and  723  Christians.  Land  revenue 
(1874-75),  exclusive  of  water-rates,  ;^9748,  or  3s.  3d.  per  cultivated 
acre.  The  taluk  is  composed  of  the  old  Devanhalli  and  Jangamkote 
taluks.  The  surface,  watered  by  the  Pinakini,  is  undulating,  with 
many  fertile  and  well-cultivated  valleys.  There  is  some  cultivation  of 
the  poppy  for  opium.  Potatoes  and  nummelos  of  excellent  quality 
are  raised.  Sugar  of  a  superior  kind  was  formerly  manufactured  under 
the  supervision  of  some  Chinese  introduced  by  Tipii  Sultan.  Vadi- 
genthalli  in  the  taluk  is  a  considerable  mart.  The  region  is  crossed 
from  north  to  south  by  the  old  Bangalore-Bellary  high-road,  and  from 
east  to  west  by  the  Kolar  Dod-Ballapur  road. 

Devanhalli.— Town  in  Bangalore  District,  Mysore  State,  Southern 
India;  23  miles  north  of  Bangalore.  Latitude  13°  15'  n.,  longitude 
77°  45'  30"  E.  Population  (1881)  5776,  namely,  5464  Hindus,  296 
Muhammadans,  and  16  Christians.  The  former  seat  of  a  family  of 
pdlegdrs,  who  traced  their  descent  from  one  of  the  refugees  of  the 
Morasu  Wokkal  tribe,  who  founded  petty  dynasties  throughout  Mysore 
in  the  14th  century.     The  last  of  the  Gaudas,  as  the  chiefs  were  called, 


232  DE  VARA  YAPALLE—DE  VGADH. 

was  overthrown  in  1748  by  the  Hindu  Raja  of  Mysore.  It  was  in  the 
siege  of  Devanhalli,  on  this  occasion,  that  Haidar  Ali  first  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  volunteer  horseman,  and  it  was  at  Devanhalli  that  his  son 
Tipii  w^as  born.  Haidar  erected  a  fort  of  stone,  which  was  captured  by 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  1 7  9 1 .  A  weekly  fair  held  on  Wednesdays  is  attended 
by  500  persons.     Head-quarters  of  the  Devanhalli  idluk. 

Devarayapalle.— Village  in  the  Atmakiir  taluk,  Nellore  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Population  (1881)  2466  ;  number  of  houses,  466. 
Devaraydurga  i^' Hill  of  Deva  iP^y^ ').— Fortified  hill  in  Tumkur 
District,  Mysore  State,  Southern  India.  Latitude  13°  22'  30"  n., 
longitude  77°  14'  50"  e.  ;  9  miles  east  of  Tumkur;  3940  feet  above  sea- 
level.  It  consists  of  three  terraces,  well  supplied  with  water,  and  is  now 
used  as  a  summer  retreat  for  the  European  officials  of  the  District.  It 
was  captured  from  a  local  chieftain  in  1608  by  Deva  Raja,  who 
built  the  present  fortification.  A  small  temple  on  the  summit, 
dedicated  to  Durga  Narasinha,  was  erected  by  a  subsequent  Raja  of 
Mysore.  It  contains  jewellery,  etc.,  worth  about  ^1000,  and  is 
endowed  with  £%^  a  year.  An  annual  festival  is  attended  by  about 
3000  persons. 

Devgadh  (Z^^^^^/-//).— Sub-division  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay 

Presidency.     Bounded  on  the  north  by  Rajapur ;  on  the  east  by  the 

Kolhapur  State ;  on  the  south   by  the  Malvan  Sub-division  and  the 

Savantwadi  State  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian  Sea.     Area,  543 

square  miles.     Population  (1881)   112,993,  dwelling  in   121  villages; 

density  of  population,  2 1 7  persons  to  the  square  mile.     Males  number 

56,268;  females,  61,631,  or  more  than  50  per  cent.     Since  1872,  the 

population  has  fallen  off"  by  65,016.     Distributed  according  to  religion, 

Hindus  number  112,993,   or  95-8  per  cent;  Muhammadans,  3639; 

'others,'   not  specified,  1267.     The    Devgadh  Sub-division,  about  26 

miles  long,  and  on  an  average   32  broad,  stretches  from  the  sea-coast 

to  the  watershed  of  the  Sahyadris.      At   the    north-west   corner  the 

rocky  headland  of  Vijayadurg  juts  out  into  the  sea.     The  coast-line 

from  Vijayadurg,  the  northern,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Achra  river,  the 

southern  point,  is  fairly  regular,  although  intersected  by  creeks  and  small 

river  estuaries.     In  the  sandy  coves  along  the  coast  lie  fishing  villages 

picturesquely  secluded  in  groves  of  palm.      The  only  pass  into  the 

Deccan  of  any  importance  is  the  Phonda  route  ;  the  water-supply  is  fair 

for   20  miles  inland.     The  soil  is  poor,  and  there  are  no  irrigation 

works.     The  river  Vijayadurg  is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  seven 

feet  of  water  as  far  as  Vaghotan.    Canoes  can  paddle  up  to  Kharepatan, 

20  miles  from  the  sea.     The  area  of  the  Sub-division  has  not  been  fully 

surveyed.      Agricultural  stock  in  1878-79: — Horned  cattle,  69,47^5 

sheep  and  goats,  7964;  horses,  56  ;  ploughs,  14,840.     In  1878,  30,325 

acres  were  cultivated,  80  per  cent,  of  which  was  under  rice,  while  325 


DE  VGADH—DE  VIKO  TA.  233 

acres  were  under  sugar-cane.     The  Sub-division  contains  7  civil  and 
2  criminal  courts ;  police  stations  {thdnds)^  7  ;  regular  police,  62  men. 

Devgadh  {Deogarh).  —  Seaport  in  the  Deogarh  (Devgadh)  Sub- 
division, Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay  Presidency,  180  miles  from 
Bombay.  Has  a  safe  and  beautiful  land-locked  harbour,  at  all  times 
perfectly  smooth.  Average  depth  of  harbour,  18  feet.  The  entrance, 
only  three  cables  in  width,  lies  close  to  the  fort  point.  The  fort  has  an 
area  of  120  acres;  the  walls  are  in  a  ruined  state,  and  there  is  no 
garrison.  The  position,  said  to  have  been  fortified  by  the  Angrias,  a 
Maratha  pirate  race,  175  years  ago,  was  in  18 18  captured  by  Colonel 
Imlak.  In  1875,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sub-division  were  moved 
here  from  Kharepatan,  and  there  are  now  the  usual  subordinate  offices, 
a  sea-customs  office,  a  post-office,  and  a  vernacular  school.  Lat.  16" 
22'  N.,  long.  73°  24'  E. ;  average  annual  value  of  trade  for  five  years 
ending  1881-82 — exports,  ;£"! 0,945  ;  imports,  ^10,364. 

Devi  (literally  '  T/ie  Goddess,'  a  title  specially  applied  to  the  wife  of 
Siva,  the  All-Destroyer).  River  in  Orissa,  Bengal ;  formed  by  the 
junction  in  Cuttack  District  of  the  Great  and  Litile  Devi,  two  distribu- 
taries thrown  off  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Katjuri,  an  important 
offshoot  of  the  Mahanadi.  The  united  stream  passes  into  Puri  District, 
and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  a  few  miles  below  the  southern 
boundary  of  Cuttack.  The  Devi  forms  the  last  part  of  the  great  net- 
work of  channels  into  which  the  Katjuri  branch  of  the  Mahanadi 
bifurcates ;  most  of  these  streams  reunite  as  they  approach  the  sea, 
forming  a  broad  and  noble  estuary,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Devi, 
enters  the  ocean  in  lat.  19°  58'  n.,  and  long.  86°  25' e.  Some  years 
ago,  a  permanent  beacon  was  erected  at  the  mouth ;  an  excellent 
channel  of  from  16  to  24  feet  is  obtained  for  7  miles  inland  from  the 
entrance  to  the  Devi.  Above  this  distance  the  river  shoals  rapidly,  and 
is  only  navigable  by  country  craft.  This  harbour  is  unfortunately 
rendered  almost  useless  by  bars  of  sand  across  its  mouth,  which  vary 
in  depth  from  year  to  year.  As  soon  as  the  south-west  monsoon  sets  in, 
the  surf  rages  outside  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  the  approach  of 
vessels  perilous  in  the  extreme.  The  ordinary  tidal  rise  is  from  4  to  6 
feet,  and  runs  for  28  miles  up  the  river,  the  limit  of  navigation  in  the 
dry  season.  After  the  rains,  a  much  greater  depth  of  water  is  obtained, 
and  an  extensive  rice  trade  has  developed  itself  at  Machhgaon,  9  miles 
up  the  Devi.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  surrounded  by  dense  jungle, 
destitute  of  inhabitants. 

Devikota.— Town  in  Tiruvadanai  tdhik  or  Sub-division,  Madura 
^strict,  Madras  Presidency.  Population  (1881)  8451,  namely,  7987 
Hindus,  405  Muhammadans,  and  59  Christians.  Number  of  houses, 
1255. 

Devikota   (Z>/z7H'^//^/).  —  Small  ruined   fort   in    Tanjore   District, 


234  DEVJAGAON—DEWA. 

Madras  Presidency  ;  situated  24  miles  north  of  Tranquebar,  in  latitude 
11°  22'  28"  N.,  and  longitude  79°  52'  e.,  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Coleroon  (Kolladam)  river.  Devikota  was  one  of 
the  earliest  settlements  of  the  Company,  the  fort  with  a  small  tract 
of  adjoining  country  having  been  wrested  in  1749  from  the  Raja  of 
Tanjore,  after  two  hazardous  expeditions  from  Fort  St.  David.  The 
first  of  these  was  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  Saiyaji,  the  deposed 
Raja  of  Devikota;  it  consisted  of  430  Europeans  and  1000  Sepoys 
under  Captain  Cope;  but  owing  to  various  mischances,  the  force 
had  to  return.  The  second  expedition  of  a  larger  body  under  Major 
S.  Lawrence  was  successful.  In  the  course  of  the  siege,  Clive,  who 
was  then  a  lieutenant,  had  a  narrow  escape.  The  fort  was  found 
to  be  a  mile  in  circumference,  with  walls  18  feet  high.  No  factory 
was  established,  and  the  fort  was  abandoned  on  the  approach  of  the 
French  in  June  1758.  The  French  in  turn  evacuated  it  after  Sir  Eyre 
Coote's  victory  at  Wandewash,  and  in  1760  it  was  re-garrisoned  by  our 
troops. 

Devjagaon  {Devjdgafi). — Place  of  Hindu  pilgrimage  in  the  Jam- 
biisar  Sub-division,  Broach  District,  Bombay  Presidency  ;  situated  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  village  of  Nara,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Dhadhar  river  ;  contains  about  300  houses.  A  fair  attended  by  2000 
people  is  held  here  twice  a  year.  The  temple  at  Devjagaon  is  enclosed 
by  a  wall  80  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  100  feet  from  east  to  west 
The  interior  forms  one  room  25  feet  by  18  feet.  A  grant  of  1562 
acres  of  land  is  attached  to  the  temple.  A  lighthouse  has  been 
built  on  the  mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dhadhar  river ;  the  height 
of  the  lantern  above  high  water  is  49  feet. 

Dewa. — Pargattd  in  Nawabganj  tahsil^  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh. 
At  the  time  of  the  first  Muhammadan  invasion  of  Oudh,  under  Sayyid 
Salar  Masaiid,  in  1030  a.d.,  this  pargand  appears  to  have  been  held 
by  the  Janwar  Rajputs  ;  and  the  present  Shaikh  residents  of  Dewa 
assert  that  they  are  descended  from  Shdh  Wesh,  the  first  Musalman  | 
conqueror  of  the  village,  and  lieutenant  of  Sayyid  Salar.  But  for  a  « 
long  time  it  formed  only  their  entrenched  camp  ;  they  did  not  acquire 
any  proprietary  rights  in  the  pargand  till  about  the  commencement  of 
the  1 6th  century,  when  aimd  grants  were  made  to  several  Shaikh 
families.  Another  Musalman  settlement  is  that  of  the  Sayyids  of 
Kheoli,  who  colonized  a  tract  of  32  villages  west  of  Dewa  about  the 
commencement  of  the  13th  century.  A  third  colony  to  the  south  is 
that  of  the  Shaikhs  of  Kidwara,  who  probably  came  about  the  same 
time.  Other  smaller  Musalman  communities  have  also  spread  over 
the  pargand.  The  Bais  Kshatriyas  also  obtained  a  footing  in  the 
pargand ;  and  during  the  latter  years  of  the  native  Government,  they 
seized  almost  the  whole  of  the  north  of  the  pargand^  by  annexing  the 


DE  WA—DE  WAL  WAR  A, 


jD 


villages  of  their  weaker  neighbours.  They  became  the  terror  of  the 
whole  neighbourhood,  and  for  a  long  time  they  set  the  King's  Government 
at  open  defiance.  Ultimately  a  strong  force  captured  the  fort  of  one 
of  the  chiefs,  who  was  taken  prisoner  with  his  son,  and  beheaded  at 
Lucknow.  The  other  Janwar  chief  was  afterwards  killed  in  battle. 
Both  estates  were  confiscated  and  partitioned  out,  principally  among 
Muhamraadan  Shaikhs.  The  percentage  of  cultivated  land  is  higher 
than  in  any  other  pargand  of  the  District,  and  south  of  Dewa  the 
soil  is  very  fertile  and  highly  cultivated.  Many  of  the  husbandmen 
belono-  to  the  industrious  class  of  Ahirs,  who  pay  high  rents  to  the 
Musalman  proprietors.  Area,  141  square  miles,  of  which  82  are  culti- 
vated; Government  land  revenue,  ^14,506,  the  average  incidence 
bein«y  5s.  6jd.  per  acre  of  cultivated  area,  3s.  pd.  per  acre  of  assessed 
area,  and  3s.  2|d.  per  acre  of  total  area.  Of  the  163  villages  which 
comprise  ihQ  pargand,  only  57  are  held  by  Hindus,  the  rest  belong  to 
Musalmans.  Half  the  villages  are  held  under  tdlukddri,  and  half  under 
zammddri  tenure.  Population  in  1881,  64,846,  namely,  33,787  males 
and  31,059  females;  average  density  of  population,  460  persons  per 
square  mile.  Five  towns  only  contain  a  population  exceeding  1000 ; 
4  unmetalled  roads  intersect  the  pargand. 

Dewa.— Town  in  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh ;  8  miles  from  the 
town  of  Bara  Banki.  A  Muhammadan  colony  of  old  standing,  and  the 
residence  of  two  well-known  families  of  Shaikhs.  Population  (1881) 
2930.  Noted  for  its  manufactures  of  glassware  and  delf.  Govern- 
ment school. 

Dewala.  — Small  village  in  Chandd  District,  Central  Provinces. 
Lat.  20°  6'  N.,  and  long.  79°  6'  30"  e.  ;  6  miles  west  of  Bhandak. 
Population  (1881)  595.  Interesting  on  account  of  its  architectural 
remains,  for  which  see  Bhandak. 

Dewalgdon.— Small  village  in  Chanda  District,  Central  Provinces. 
LaL  20°  23'  N.,  and  long.  80°  2'  e.  ;  10  miles  south-west  of  Wairagarh. 
Near  it  stands  a  remarkably-shaped  hill,  from  which  excellent  iron-ore 
is  quarried.     Population  (1881)  427. 

DewalgMt.— Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar.— ^^^  Deulghat. 

Dewalia.— Petty  State  in  Jhalawar  prdfith  or  division,  Kathiawar, 
Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists  of  2  villages,  with  2  tribute-payers. 
The  revenue  in  1881  was  estimated  at  ;£'523,  of  which  ^46,  14s.  is 
payable  as  British  tribute  and  £^,  12s.  to  the  Nawab  of  Junagarh. 

Dewalwara.— Small  village  in  Wardha  District,  Central  Provinces ; 
on  the  river  Wardha,  6  miles  west  of  Arvi.  Noted  for  the  large  fair 
held  every  November  for  over  a  century  past,  in  the  bed  of  the  river 
close  by.  The  fair  lasts  from  20  to  25  days,  during  which  time  pilgrims 
and  merchants  from  Nagpur,  Poona,  Nasik,  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore),  etc. 
flock  to  the  fine  temple  of  the  goddess   Rukmi,   besides  transacting 


236  DE  WAL  WARA—DE  WAS. 

business  to  the  value  of  ;£"io,ooo  or  ;£"i 2,500.  Immediately  opposite 
Dewalwara  stood  Kundinapur,  described  in  the  loth  chapter  of  the 
sacred  book  Bhdgvat  as  extending  from  the  river  Vidarbha  (Wardha)  to 
Amraoti,  where  King  Bhimak  reigned  over  the  Vidarbha  country,  and 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  god  Krishna. 

Dewalwara. — Village  in  Ellichpur  District,  Berar,  Deccan  ;  situated 
in  lat.  21°  18'  N.,  and  long.  77°  45'  e.,  on  the  Piirna  river,  about  14  miles 
from  Ellichpur.  Formerly  a^town  of  some  importance,  containing  5000 
houses,  but  now  only  noteworthy  for  its  ancient  buildings,  the  chief  of 
which  are  a  mosque,  built  about  300  years  ago,  and  2  Hindu  temples. 
One  of  these  is  dedicated  to  the  Nar  Singh  of  Hindu  mytholog}-, 
who,  having  killed  Hirania  Kasipii,  was  able,  after  faiUng  everywhere 
else,  to  wash  away  the  blood-stains  at  Dewalwara.  Near  the  temple 
is  a  place  now  called  '  Kar  Shudhi  Tirth,'  or  '  holy  place  of  cleaning 
hands.' 

Dewas. — Native  State  under  the  Manpur  Agency  of  Central  India. 
Lat.  22°  42'  to  23°  5'  N.,  long.  75°  57'  to  76°  21'  e.  Contains  2  towns 
and  455  villages.  The  chief  products  are  grain,  opium,  sugar-cane,  and 
cotton.  The  State  has  two  chiefs,  and  the  rule  of  each  chief  is  distinct 
within  his  own  limits.  The  elder  chief,  Kishnaji  Rao  Puar,  is 
commonly  known  as  the  Baba  Sahib ;  the  younger  chief,  Narayan  Rao 
Puar,  is  styled  Dada  Sahib.  They  are  of  the  Puar  Rdjput  race,  and  of 
the  same  stock  as  the  Raja  of  Dhar.  Originally  true  Rajputs,  they 
intermarried  with  Marathas,  and  thus  impaired  the  purity  of  their 
descent.  The  senior  Branch  keeps  up  a  force  of  87  horse  and  about 
500  foot,  including  police,  with  10  guns  for  saluting  purposes.  The 
junior  Branch  maintains  a  force  of  123  horse  and  about  500  foot, 
including  police.  The  Census  return  of  1881  gives  a  total  population 
for  the  combined  States  of  142,162,  and  an  area  of  289  square  miles. 
Of  the  total  population,  75,647  are  males,  and  66,515  females.  A 
total  of  73,940  represents  the  portion  subject  to  the  senior  Branch. 
In  Dewas  senior,  Hindus  number  64,496 ;  Muhammadans,  7469 ; 
Jains,  118;  and  Parsis,  4.  Aborigines  are  returned  at  1853.  Of  the 
Hindus,  Brahmans  number  1742,  and  Rajputs  3797.  In  Dewas 
junior,  Hindus  number  58,891;  Muhammadans,  6435;  Jains,  40; 
and  aborigines,  2856.  Among  the  Hindus,  Brahmans  number  3753, 
and  Rajputs  9703.  In  the  whole  territory,  448  out  of  the  455 
towns  and  villages  have  less  than  1000  inhabitants.  The  territories 
of  Dewas,  Sarangpur,  and  several  other  tracts  were  allotted  by 
Baji  Rao  Peshwa  to  the  common  ancestor  Kaluji.  His  two  sons, 
Tukaji  and  Jiwaji,  quarrelled,  and  the  State  was  divided  between 
them.  By  a  treaty  in  18 18,  with  the  two  chiefs  conjointly,  the  State 
was  taken  under  British  protection;  the  chiefs  undertook  to  forego 
communication  with  other  States,  and  to  supply  a  body  of  contingent 


DEWAS—DHADHAR.  237 

troops,  which  was  ultimately  commuted  for  an  annual  cash  payment 
of  about  ^3560.  In  1828,  the  chiefs  of  Dewas  made  over  to  the 
administrative  charge  of  the  British  Government  the  pargana  of 
Bagand,  an  outlying  district  in  Nimar.  The  annual  surplus  revenue  of 
\\\i^  pargand,  which  in  1881-82  amounted  to  ;£"662,  after  payment 
of  all  administrative  charges,  is  paid  to  the  chiefs  of  Dewas.  Both  the 
chiefs,  who  hold  the  title  of  Rajas,  did  good  service  during  the 
Mutiny  of  1857-58.  Both  have  received  sanads  guaranteeing  the  right 
of  adoption,  and  both  are  entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns. 

Dewas. — Chief  town  of  the  State  of  Dewas,  under  the  Manpur  Agency 
of  Central  India,  situated  about  20  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Indore. 
Lat.  22°  58'  N.,  and  long.  76°  6'  e.  The  two  chiefs  of  the  State 
reside  in  different  palaces  within  the  town,  which  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  and  irregularly  built;  population  (1881)  11,921  souls. 
The  town  contains  a  post-oftice,  staging  bungalow,  and  dispensary,  all 
under  British  supervision.  To  the  north-west  of  the  town  is  a  small 
conical  hill,  about  300  feet  high,  on  which  stands  the  temple  of 
Chamunda  Devi,  which  is  reached  by  a  half-finished  flight  of  masonry 
steps.  The  temple  near  the  crest  consists  of  a  demi-spherical  vault  or 
cave  cut  in  the  side  of  a  cliff,  having  a  huge  figure  of  the  goddess 
brought  out  in  relief.  In  front  of  the  cavity  is  a  small  masonry  room 
with  steps  descending  to  the  level  of  an  open  space  cleared  out  on  the 
crest  of  the  hill,  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  rectangular  tank,  with  a 
small  temple  dedicated  to  Mahadeo,  built  on  its  edge;  the  hill  is 
visited  by  numerous  devotees  from  the  town  and  surrounding  country. 

Dhabien. — Tidal  creek  in  Hanthawadi  District,  Pegu  Division, 
British  Burma. — See  Dabien. 

Dhabla  Dhir.— Guaranteed  girasid,  or  petty  chiefship,  under  the 
Bhopal  Agency  of  Central  India.  Area,  10  square  miles;  estimated 
population,  1000  souls.  The  Thakur,  or  chief,  receives  a  tankha,  or 
pecuniary  allowance  in  lieu  of  rights  over  land,  from  Holkar,  Sindhia, 
Dewas,  and  Bhopal  to  the  total  amount  of  ^^425.  In  addition,  he  holds  a 
grant  of  3  villages  in  Shujawalpur,  under  the  guarantee  of  the  British 
Government,  for  which  he  pays  a  quit-rent  of  £,^^o  annually.  He  is 
also  Thakur  of  Kankerkhera,  in  which  right  he  holds  another  village  in 
Shujawalpur,  receiving  a  tankha  of  ;£8o,  and  paying  an  additional  quit- 
rent  of  ^17,  subject  to  a  deduction  of  2  per  cent,  on  the  transfer  of  the 
pai'gand  to  Sindhia. 

Dhabla  Ghosi. — Guaranteed  girasid,  or  petty  chiefship,  under  the 
Bhopal  Agency  of  Central  India.  The  Thakur,  or  chief,  receives  a 
tankha — pecuniary  allowance  in  lieu  of  rights  over  land — from  Sindhia, 
Dewas,  and  Bhopal  to  the  total  amount  of  pf  500.  He  also  holds  a 
village  in  Shujawalpur,  for  which  he  pays  a  quit-rent  of  ;;^io5. 

Dhadhar. — River  in  Western    India :   rises  in   the   western   spurs 


238  DHAKA— DHALKISOR. 

of  the  Vindhya  range,  about  35  miles  north-east  of  the  village  of 
Bhilapur,  where  it  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge,  and  in  lat.  22°  20'  n., 
and  long.  73°  40'  e.,  and  after  receiving  on  the  right  the  Vishwamitri 
river,  on  the  banks  of  which  stands  the  city  of  Baroda,  ultimately  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  in  lat.  21°  54  n.,  and  long.  72°  38'  e.  Total 
length,  70  miles;  drainage  area  estimated  at  1850  square  miles. 

Dhdka. —  Division,  District,  and  city  of  Eastern  Bengal.  —  See 
Dacca. 

Dhalandhar. — Village  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas, 
Bengal.  Contains  a  native  asylum  for  lunatics.  The  daily  average 
number  of  inmates  in  1881  was  207,  27-57  per  cent,  of  whom  were 
discharged  as  cured,  and  773  per  cent,  as  improved.  The  deaths 
amounted  to  15*96  per  cent. 

Dhaldighi. — Village  and  large  tank  in  Dinajpur  District,  Bengal. 
Fair  held  annually  on  the  bank  of  the  tank,  which  lasts  for  eight  days, 
commencing  on  the  first  day  of  Phalgun  (latter  half  of  February); 
attendance,  about  25,000.     Considerable  trade  carried  on  at  this  time. 

Dhaleswari. — The  name  of  several  rivers  in  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam  :  ( i )  an  offshoot  of  the  Jamuna,  or  main  stream  of  the  Brahma- 
putra, which  runs  across  Dacca  District  and  forms  a  valuable  com- 
munication with  the  Meghna,  although  the  quantity  of  water  now 
(1882)  coming  into  it  from  the  Jamuna  is  decreasing  rapidly,  and 
steamers  only  run  during  the  rainy  season ;  (2)  the  stream  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Surma  and  Kusiara  rivers  before  its  confluence  with 
the  Meghna,  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Districts  of  Maimansinh 
and  Sylhet;  (3)  a  river  in  Cachar  District,  rising  in  the  Lushai 
country,  and  flowing  northwards  into  the  Barak  through  the  fertile 
valley  of  Hailakandi.  At  the  point  where  it  crosses  the  frontier,  a 
permanent  bazar  has  been  established  for  trade  with  the  Lushais.  In 
the  lower  part  of  its  course,  the  stream  has  been  diverted  by  an 
embankment,  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  a  Raj^  of  Cachar.  The 
old  channel  reaches  the  Barak  at  Sialtekh  Bazar;  the  new  channel, 
called  the  Katakhal,  is  navigable  by  large  boats.  This  river  has  given 
its  name  to  a  forest  reserve  covering  an  area  of  33  square  miles. 

Dhalet.  —  River  in  Kyauk  -  pyii  District,  Arakan  Division,  British 
Burma.  Rises  in  the  main  range  and  falls  into  Combermere  Bay ;  it  is 
navigable  as  far  as  Dhalet  (sometimes  called  Talak),  a  village  25  miles 
from  its  mouth.  In  its  upper  reaches  the  stream  is  a  mountain  torrent, 
only  passable  by  small  canoes. 

Dhalkisor  (or  Dwarkeswar). — River  of  Western  Bengal.  It  rises 
in  the  Tilabani  Hill  in  Manbhiim  District,  whence  it  flows  through 
Bankura  District,  following  a  tortuous  south-easterly  course,  with  several 
bifurcations  through  ihdnds  Bankura,  Onda,  Bishenpur,  Kotalpur,  and 
Indas.     It  enters  Bardwan  District  4  miles  east  of  Katalpur;  flows 


DHAMDA—DHAMONI.  239 

south-east  and  south  past  the  town  of  Jahanabad,  and  leaves  the 
District  at  Berari  village,  after  which  it  is  known  as  the  Rupnarayan, 
eventually  joining  the  Hiigli  opposite  Hugh  Point.  It  is  subject  to 
sudden  floods,  but  portions  of  the  bordering  country  are  now  protected 
from  inundation  by  embankments.  In  its  upper  reaches,  within 
Bankura  District,  it  is  only  navigable  in  the  rainy  months  by  craft  of  2 
tons  burthen. 

Dhamda. — Town  in  Raipur  District,  Central  Provinces.  Lat.  21° 
27'  N.,  long.  81°  23'  E.  ;  about  24  miles  north-west  of  Raipur.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  2850,  namely,  Hindus,  2593;  Kabfrpanthis,  24;  Satnamf,  i; 
Muhammadans,  172  ;  and  persons  professing  aboriginal  religions,  60. 
The  inhabitants  include  a  colony  of  brass-workers,  who  manufacture 
the  heavy  brass  anklets  worn  by  the  women  of  the  country.  Near  the 
town  are  fine  groves,  and  the  remains  of  some  large  tanks,  and  of  an  old 
fort,  with  two  handsome  gateways  in  good  preservation.  Dhamda  was 
formerly  the  head-quarters  of  a  Gond  chief,  subordinate  to  the  kings  of 
Ratanpur.  On  the  conquest  of  Chhatisgarh  by  the  Marathas,  their 
officers  arrested  the  chief  of  Dhamda  on  a  charge  of  treachery,  and 
blew  him  from  a  gun.  Dhamda  has  a  school,  a  post-office,  and  police 
station-house. 

Dhdmi. — One  of  the  Punjab  Hill  States  under  the  Government  of 
the  Punjab,  about  10  or  12  miles  to  the  west  of  Simla.  When 
Shahab  -  ud  -  din  Ghori  (Muhammad  of  Ghor)  invaded  India  in  the 
14th  century,  the  founder  of  this  family  fled  from  Raipur,  in  Ambala 
(Umballa)  District,  and  conquered  the  territory  which  now  forms 
the  State  of  Dhami.  It  was  at  one  time  a  feudatory  of  Bilaspur,  but 
was  made  independent  of  that  State  by  the  British  Government  when 
the  Gurkhas,  having  overrun  the  country  from  1803  to  1815,  were 
finally  expelled  in  the  latter  year.  Fateh  Singh,  the  Rana  of  Dhami, 
is  a  Rajput  by  caste.  The  area  of  the  State  (1881)  is  26  square 
miles;  with  214  hamlets  and  688  houses.  Population  (1881)  3322, 
namely,  3294  Hindus,  3  Sikhs,  and  25  Muhammadans.  Estimated 
revenue,  ;£8oo.  The  State  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  ;^72.  The 
father  of  the  present  chief  paid  only  ^36,  one-half  of  the  tribute 
having  been  remitted  for  his  life  on  account  of  good  services  rendered 
during  the  Mutiny.  The  principal  articles  of  production  are  grains 
and  a  little  opium. 

Dham-ma-tha. — Town  in  Amherst  District,  Tenasserim  Division, 
British  Burma. — See  Dam-ma-tha. 

Dhamoni. — Village  in  Sagar  (Saugor)  District,  Central  Provinces.  Lat. 
24°  12'  N.,  long.  78°  49'  E.  ;  28  miles  north  of  Sagar  town.  Surat  Sah, 
a  scion  of  the  great  Gond  dynasty  of  MandM,  the  original  founder  of 
Dhamoni,  was  defeated  about  1600  by  Raja  Barsingh  Deva,  the  Bundela 
chief  of  the   neighbouring  State  of  Orchha,  who   took  possession  of 


240  DHAMPUR  TAHSIL  AND  TO  WN. 

the  country,  and  rebuilt  the  fort  and  town  on  so  grand  a  scale  that  it 
became  the  capital  of  a  large  tract  with  2558  villages,  including  the 
greater  part  of  the  present  Districts  of  Sagar  and  Damoh.  His  son 
and  successor,  Pahar  Singh,  continued  to  reign  till  1619,  when  the 
country  became  an  integral  portion  of  the  Delhi  Empire.*  During  the 
next  eighty  years  it  was  ruled  by  five  successive  governors  from  Delhi,  the 
last  of  whom  was,  about  1700,  defeated  by  Raja  Chhatar  Sal  of  Panna. 
His  descendants  retained  Dhamoni  till  1802,  when  Umrao  Singh,  Raja 
of  Patau,  a  small  neighbouring  place,  seized  the  fort  and  country  by 
treachery,  but  was  himself  in  a  few  months  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
army  of  the  Raja  of  Nagpur.  In  18 18,  soon  after  the  flight  of  Apa 
Sahib,  the  fort  was  invested  by  a  British  force  under  General  Marshall ; 
who,  having  ineffectually  offered  the  garrison  ^1000  'in  discharge  of 
arrears  of  pay,  on  condition  of  immediate  evacuation,'  opened  batteries 
against  the  place,  with  such  effect  that  in  six  hours  it  was  surrendered 
unconditionally.  Dhamoni  thus  came  under  British  rule,  but  by  that 
time  the  tract  had  been  reduced  to  only  33  villages.  Its  present  con- 
dition is  desolate  in  the  extreme,  the  population  scarcely  exceeding  100; 
but  the  ruins  of  mosques,  tombs,  and  buildings  for  nearly  a  mile  round 
the  fort  and  lake  attest  the  importance  of  the  place  under  Muhammadan 
rule.  The  fort,  which  covers  an  area  of  5  2  acres,  stands  on  an  eminence 
near  the  summit  of  the  ghats  leading  to  Bundelkhand,  commanding  the 
valley  of  the  river  Dhasan.  The  ramparts  are  in  most  parts  50  feet 
high  and  15  feet  thick,  with  enormous  round  towers.  Interior  works 
further  strengthen  the  defences  of  the  eastern  quarter,  where  the 
magazine  was  probably  situated.  Inside  and  around  it  are  large  groves 
of  custard-apple  trees.  The  town  lies  to  the  west  of  the  fort,  and  the 
lake,  which  is  of  considerable  size,  to  the  south-west  of  the  town.  The 
supply  of  water  is  excellent,  and  the  soil  near  the  village  remarkably 
fertile,  as  the  luxuriant  and  varied  vegetation  shows.  Police  outpost 
station. 

Dhampur. — Tahsil  oi  Bijnaur  (Bijnor)  District,  North-Western  Pro- 
vinces. Area,  323  square  miles,  of  which  2  2  3  are  cultivated.  Population 
(1881)  170,039;  land  revenue,  ;^26,63o ;  total  Government  revenue, 
^29,905  ;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;£58,ioo;  incidence  of  Govern- 
ment revenue,  2s.  7d.  per  acre.  The  /^/^^// contained  in  1883,  i  civil 
and  2  criminal  courts,  with  4  police  stations  {thdiids)  ;  strength  of 
regular  police,  67  men,  besides  61  municipal  and  town  police,  and  468 
village  watchmen  and  road  patrols. 

Dhampur. — Town  in  Bijnaur  (Bijnor)  District,  North-Western  Pro- 
vinces, and  head-quarters  of  the  Dhampur  tahsil,  situated  in  lat.  29° 
18'  43"  N.,  and  long.  78°  32'  46"  e.  Lies  on  the  road  from  Morad- 
abad  to  Hard  war,  24  miles  east  of  Bijnaur.  Population  (1881) 
5708,  namely,  Hindus,  3457;  Muhammadans,  2121;  and  Jains,  130; 


DHAMRA  RIVER  AND  PORT,  241 

area  of  town  site,  ^t^  acres.  Total  municipal  income  (1883),  ;£"433, 
of  which  ;^288  was  derived  from  octroi;  average  incidence  of 
taxation,  ii^d.  per  head.  A  small  but  wealthy  and  well-built  town, 
described  by  the  Sanitary  Commissioner  in  1876  as  'one  of  the  best- 
looking  small  towns  in  the  Province — a  town  of  brick -paved  public 
ways  admirably  kept  in  cleanliness.'  The  main  street  or  bazar 
is  a  wide  and  busy  thoroughfare,  lined  with  handsome  shops,  chiefly 
those  of  dealers  in  ironware.  The  ironsmiths  and  braziers  are  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  iron  locks  and  plates,  brass  candlesticks  and 
ornaments  for  native  carriages,  and  gongs  and  bells  of  mixed  copper 
and  lead.  Handsome  matchlocks  are  also  made,  and  a  local  gunsmith 
obtained  a  prize  of  750  francs  for  two  specimens  sent  to  the  Paris 
Exhibition  in  1867.  Markets  are  held  twice  a  week,  and  there  is  a 
monthly  fair.  The  town  is  aired  by  several  open  places  containing  fine 
old  trees.  To  the  north  stand  the  iahsili  buildings,  and  to  the  south  a 
native  inn  {sardi).  The  other  public  buildings  are  a  first-class  police 
station,  post-office,  and  tahsili  school.  The  only  events  of  importance 
in  the  history  of  the  town  are  the  defeat  here  of  the  Mughal  forces  by 
the  Rohillas,  about  1750  ;  its  pillage  by  the  Pindaris  under  Amir  Khan 
in  1805  ;  and  the  attempted  plunder  of  its  treasury  during  the  Mutiny 
of  1857. 

Dhamra. — River  and  estuary  in  Bengal,  formed  by  the  combined 
waters  of  the  Brahmani  and  Baitarani  and  their  tributaries,  which 
enter  the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  lat.  20°  47'  n.,  and  long.  87°  e.  The 
Dhamra  is  a  fine  navigable  river,  but  rendered  dangerous  by  a  bar 
across  its  mouth.  It  forms  the  boundary  line  between  the  Districts  of 
Cuttack  and  Balasor,  but  lies  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  latter ;  the 
entrance  is  marked  by  the  Kanika  buoy  in  21  feet  reduced,  and  by 
Shortt's  tripod  beacon,  on  the  extreme  north-east  dry  portion  of  Point 
Palmyras  Reef  Since  1866,  a  second  outer  channel,  with  10  feet  at 
lowest  tide,  has  opened  about  a  mile  to  the  south.  The  inner  bar  is 
constantly  shifting.  In  1859,  12  feet  of  water  were  found  here  ;  in  1866, 
only  3;  and  in  1870,  8.  The  water  in  the  Dhamra  estuary  rapidly 
shoals  from  a  minimum  depth  of  21  feet  at  the  Kanika  buoy  to  6  feet 
on  the  Central  Sand.  Within  the  southern  outer  channel  (minimum 
depth,  10  feet  at  low  tide)  vessels  are  absolutely  sheltered  from  the 
monsoon.  The  Survey  Report  (dated  May  13,  1870)  returns  the 
tidal  range  of  the  Dhamra  at  10  feet,  with  variations  from  a  minimum 
of  6  feet  10  inches  to  a  maximum  of  \o\  feet.  Brigs  and  Madras 
traders  drawing  from  10  to  even  18  feet  frequent  the  harbour  of  the 
Dhamra,  which  was  declared  a  port  in  1858,  with  perfect  safety. 

Dhamra. — Port  in  the  estuary  of  the  same  name,  Cuttack  District, 
Bengal.  Lat.  20°  47'  40"  n.,  long.  86°  55'  55"  e.  The  name  is  applied 
to  the  navigable  channels  of  the  rivers  forming  the  Dhamra,  as  far  as 

VOL.  IV.  Q 


242 


DHAMSIA—DHANA  URA. 


they  are  affected  by  tidal  waters.  These  limits  embrace  Chandbali,  or 
the  Baitarani,  a  seat  of  coasting  steamer  traffic,  and  a  rapidly  rising 
town  ;  Hansua,  on  the  Brahmani,  formerly  a  great  salt  emporium ; 
Patamundai,  on  the  same  river ;  and  Aul,  on  the  Kharsua,— the  three 
last  within  Cuttack  District.  The  trade  of  Chandbali  is  mainly  steamer 
traffic,  monopolizing  almost  entirely  the  import  and  export  trade  of 
Balasor  District.  The  rest  of  the  trade  of  Dhamra  port  is  carried  on 
exclusively  in  sailing  ships,  and  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  rice. 
The  eastern  boundary  of  the  port  is  the  Dhamra  customs  station. 

Dhamsia. — Estate  of  the  Sankheda  Mewas,  Rewa  Kantha,  Gujarat 
(Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency.  Area,  lo  square  miles.  Estimated 
revenue,  ^400,  of  which  £^\i  is  paid  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.  The 
estate  is  under  the  direct  management  of  the  Political  Agent. 

Dhamtari.  —  Tahsil  or  revenue  sub  -  division  in  Raipur  District, 
Central  Provinces.  Lat.  20°  22'  30"  to  21°  i'  n.,  long.  80°  41'  30"  to 
81°  46'  30"  E.  Area,  2132  square  miles,  of  which  692  square  miles 
are  cultivated,  717  square  miles  cultivable,  and  723  square  miles 
uncultivable  waste.  Population  (1881)  286,694,  namely,  140)833 
males  and  145,861  females,  residing  in  899  villages  and  towns,  and 
occupying  94,781  houses  ;  average  density  of  population,  134-5  persons 
per  square  mile.  Amount  of  Government  assessment,  ^11,645,  or  an 
average  of  6jd.  per  acre  of  cultivation.  Rental  paid  by  cultivators, 
including  cesses,  ;£"25,668,  cr  is.  ijd.  per  cultivated  acre.  Average 
area  of  cultivable  and  cultivated  land  per  head  of  the  agricultural 
population,  6  acres. 

Dhamtari. — The  largest  and  most  important  town  in  the  southern 
portion  of  Raipur  District,  Central  Provinces,  and  the  head-quarters  of 
Dhamtari  tahsil,  lying  in  lat.  20°  42'  n.,  and  long.  81°  35'  30"  E.,on  the 
main  road  from  the  north  to  Bastar  and  Ranker,  36  miles  south  of 
Raipur.  Population  (1881)  6647,  namely,  Hindus,  5202;  Kabi'r- 
panthis,  290;  Satnamis,  260;  Muhammadans,  371;  Jains,  44;  persons 
professing  aboriginal  religions,  480.  The  fertile  plain  around  produces 
crops  of  wheat,  rice,  cotton,  oil-seeds,  and  sugar-cane  unsurpassed  in 
any  part  of  Chhatisgarh.  Dhamtari  does  a  considerable  trade  in  lac, 
exporting  from  2000  to  2400  bullock-loads  yearly.  It  has  a  town 
school,  girls'  school,  dispensary,  post-office,  and  police  station. 

Dhana.— Village  in  Sagar  tahsil,  Sagar  District,  Central  Provinces. 
Population  (1881)  2223,  namely,  Hindus,  2086;  Muhammadans,  51 ; 
Jains,  62  ;  and  persons  professing  aboriginal  religions,  24. 

Dhanaudah.  —  Chiefship  in  Sindhia's  territory,  under  the  Giina 
(Goona)  Sub- Agency  of  Central  India. — See  Dharnaoda. 

Dhanaura. — Town  and  municipality  in  Moradabad  District,  North- 
western Provinces.  Situated  in  lat.  28°  58'  n.,  long.  78°  18'  30"  E., 
9  miles  east  of  the  Ganges,  and  45  miles  by  metalled  road  west  from 


DHANA  UTI—DHANDHUKA.  243 

Moradabad  town.  Population  (1881)  5304,  namely,  Hindus,  4576; 
Muhammadans,  724;  and  Christians,  4.  Area  of  town  site,  115  acres. 
Municipal  income  in  1881,  ;^42i,  of  which  ;^32o  was  derived  from 
taxation;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  4d.  per  head.  A  compact 
town,  with  a  neat  causewayed  market-place.  Police  station,  post-office, 
and  two  schools.     Depot  of  sugar  trade. 

Dhanauti.  —  River  in  Champaran  District,  Bengal.  Formerly  a 
branch  of  the  Lai  Begi,  a  bifurcation  of  the  Lower  Harha,  a  tributary 
of  the  Gandak.  It  is  113  miles  long,  but  has  now  quite  silted  up  in  its 
upper  parts,  and  for  many  years  has  received  no  flood  discharge.  It 
ultimately  falls  into  the  Sikhrena,  near  Sitakiind.  A  large  iron  railway 
bridge  of  220  feet  span  crosses  this  river  near  Motihari  town. 

Dhandhlika.  —  Sub-division  of  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay 
Presidency.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north,  west,  and  south  by  Kathia- 
war;  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  Area,  1098  square  miles. 
Population  (1881)  123,107,  namely,  64,003  males  and  59,104  females  ; 
density  of  population,  112  persons  per  square  mile.  Since  1872  the 
population  has  fallen  off  by  1753.  Classified  according  to  religion, 
Hindus  number  103,606,  or  84  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population; 
Muhammadans  number  12,362;  'others'  not  specified,  7139.  The 
surface  of  the  Sub-division  is  an  open,  treeless,  black-soil  plain,  sloping 
gently  towards  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  In  the  w^st  is  a  tract  of  bare  hills 
and  rough  valleys  with  millet  fields  and  garden  patches.  Cotton  is 
grown  in  the  centre  and  wheat  in  the  east.  The  water-supply  is  scanty. 
There  are  no  large  rivers.  The  streams  of  the  Bhadhar  and  the  Utavli 
lose  themselves  in  marshes.  Wells  are  few,  and  irrigation  limited. 
In  1877,  there  were  800  wells,  170  ponds  or  reservoirs,  and  22  streams 
and  springs.  The  climate  is  trying,  except  in  the  cold  season.  Rainfall 
varies  from  16  to  24  inches  yearly.  In  the  year  of  the  Bombay  Settle- 
ment for  thirty  years  (1857-58),  for  the  Sub-division  there  were  140 
holdings,  with  an  average  area  of  30  acres,  paying  an  average  rent 
of  £2^  4s.  9d.  In  1877,  there  were  339,804  acres  of  land  under 
cultivation,  of  which  27  per  cent,  was  fallow  or  under  grass.  There  are 
2  towns  and  139  villages.  The  Sub-division  has  i  civil  and  3  criminal 
courts;  police  stations  (thd?ids),  2;  regular  police,  126  men;  village 
watchmen  (chaiikiddrs),  558.     Land  revenue,  ^23,089. 

Dhandhuka.— Chief  town  of  the  Dhandhiika  Sub-division,  Ahmad- 
abad District,  Bombay  Presidency,  situated  on  the  right  bank  ot 
Bhadhar.  Lat.  22°  21'  15"  n.,  long.  72°  2'  20"  e.,  62  miles  south-west 
of  Ahmadabad  and  100  miles  north-west  of  Surat.  Population  (1881) 
10,044  ;  municipal  revenue  (1882-83),  ^769  ;  rate  of  taxation,  is.  3fd. 
per  head.  The  town  lies  in  an  open  plain,  exposed  to  the  burning 
winds  of  the  hot  season.  Water-supply  extremely  bad.  Borahs  form 
a  large  class  of  the  population.     Coarse  cloth,  pottery,  and  carpenter's 


244  DHANES  WART—DHANUR, 

work  are  the  chief  industries.  There  are  5  Government  schools,  one 
of  them  for  girls.  Together  with  Dholka,  the  town  w^as  ceded  to  the 
British  in  1802.  Dhandhilka,  which  is  a  place  of  some  antiquity,  has 
a  sub-judge's  court,  post-office,  dispensary,  and  traveller's  bungalow. 

Dhaneswari    {Dhansin).  —  River   of  Assam,  rising  under   Sama- 

guting  in  the  northern  spurs  of  the  Barel  mountains,  which  form  the 

watershed  between  the  Naga  Hills  and  Cachar ;  in  lat  25°  20'  n.,  and 

long.  93°  24'  E.      Its  course  through  the  Naga  Hills  District  is  on  the 

whole  northerly,  through  a  vast  plain  of  heavy  jungle  known  as  the 

Nambur  forest,  amid  which  are  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  Dimapur,  until 

it  is  joined  by  the  Dayang.      The  combined  stream  then  turns  towards 

the    north-east,   and    finds    its   way  after    many   windings    into    the 

Brahmaputra,  near  the  village  of  Bagdwar  Chapari,  in  lat.  26°  44'  n., 

and  long.  93°  42'  e.     The  only  important  place  on  its  banks  is  Golaghat, 

in  Sibsagar  District,  which  is  a  centre  of  trade  for  the  Naga  tribes.     Up 

to  this  point  it  is  navigable  by  steamers  during  the  rainy  season,  but 

small  boats  can  proceed  as  high  as  Dimapur  in  the  cold  weather,  and 

boats  of  about  4  tons  burthen  can  reach  the  same  place  in  the  rains. 

Dhangain. — Pass  in  Hazaribagh  District,  Bengal;  by  which  the 
Old  Trunk  Road  to  Sherghati  left  the  upper  plateau  for  the  lower 
level.  Lat.  24°  23'  30"  n.,  and  long.  84°  59'  45''  e.  It  is  now  imprac- 
ticable for  wheeled  traffic,  and  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

Dhangaon. — Guaranteed  Thakurate,  or  petty  chiefship,  in  Central 
India,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Central 
Provinces.  The  Thakur  or  Chief  receives  an  allowance  of  £_,i\^ 
from  Sindhia,  and  jQ^^  12s.  from  Holkar.  He  pays  to  the  British 
Government  a  tribute  of  ;2^ioo. 

Dhdnikhola. — Town  in  Maimansingh  District,  Bengal,  in  lat.  24° 
39'  10"  N.,  long.  90°  24'  11"  E.  Situated  on  the  Satua  river,  an 
insignificant  stream,  about  1 2  miles  from  Nasirabad,  the  head-quarters 
town. 

Dhanori. — Village  in  Aroi  tahsil^  Wardha  District,  Central  Provinces, 
situated  about  26  miles  north-west  of  Wardha  town.  Population  about 
1000,  principally  cultivators,  with  some  dyers  and  weavers.  Village 
school  and  police  outpost  station.  Small  weekly  market,  held  on 
Fridays. 

Dhansiri. — River  of  Assam. — See  Dhaneswari. 

Dhanu. — River  in  the  south-east  of  Maimansingh  District,  Bengal, 
which  falls  into  the  Meghna.  Navigable  by  boats  of  all  sizes  through- 
out the  year.     It  contains  fish  in  abundance. 

Dhanur. — Lake  in  Sirsa  District,  Punjab.  One  of  the  series  of 
shallow  basins  of  alluvial  clay  which,  connected  by  short  defined 
channels,  form  the  lower  course  of  the  Ghaggar.  It  is  about  3  miles 
long  by  I  broad,  but  often  dries  up  in  the  hot  weather.     The  water  is 


DHANUT  BHURA- G  YI—DHAR.  245 

largely  used  for  rice  irrigation,  being  drawn  off  by  long  irrigation  cuts 
to  the  villages  lower  down.  The  deepening  of  the  exit  channel  by 
erosion  has  gradually  reduced  the  overflow  from  which  it  is  fed,  and 
the  irrigation  has  somewhat  fallen  off  of  late  years  in  consequence. 

Dhanut  Bhlira-gyi. — A  vast  pagoda,  now  in  ruins,  in  the  Angyi 
township,  Hanthawadi  District,  Pegu  Division,  British  Burma.— 6"^^ 
Danut-paya-gyi. 

DMola  Dhar. — Mountain  chain  in  Kangra  District,  Punjab  ;  formed 
by  a  projecting  fork  of  the  outer  Himalayan  range,  marking  the 
boundary  between  the  Kangra  valley  and  Chamba.  The  main  system 
here  rises  steeply  from  the  lowlands  at  its  base,  unbroken  by  any  minor 
hills,  to  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  the  valley  beneath.  The 
chain  is  formed  by  a  mass  of  granite,  which  has  forced  its  way  through 
the  superincumbent  sedimentary  rocks,  and  crowns  the  summit  with 
its  intrusive  pyramidal  crests,  too  precipitous  for  the  snow  to  find  a 
lodging.  Below,  the  waste  of  snow-fields  is  succeeded  by  a  belt  of 
pines,  giving  way  to  oaks  as  the  flanks  are  descended,  and  finally 
merging  into  a  cultivated  vale  watered  by  perennial  streams.  The 
highest  peak  attains  an  elevation  of  15,956  feet  above  sea-level;  while 
the  valley  has  a  general  height  of  about  2000  feet. 

Dhapewara. — A  clean  and  healthy  town  in  Nagpur  District,  Central 
Provinces,  on  either  side  of  the  river  Chandrabhdga,  in  a  fertile  plain. 
Situated  in  lat.  21°  18'  n.,  and  long.  78°  57'  e.,  20  miles  north-west  of 
Nagpur.  Population  (1881)  3666,  namely,  Hindus,  3455  ;  Muham- 
madans,  197;  and  Jains,  14.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Koshtis, 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth,  of  which  industry  Dhape- 
wara was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  in  the  District.  The  fort,  now 
dilapidated,  was  built  for  protection  against  the  Pindaris  about  seventy- 
five  years  ago.     Seat  of  an  honorary  magistrate's  court. 

Dhar.— Native  State  under  the  Bhil  (Bheel)  or  Bhopawar  Agency, 
Central  India ;  situated  between  22°  I'and  23°  8'  n.  lat.,  and  between  74° 
43'  and  75°  35'  E.  long.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Rutlam  Native  State, 
on  the  east  by  Sindhia's  tracts  of  Barnagar,  Ujjain  and  Dikthan,  and 
by  Indore ;  on  the  south  by  the  Narbadd ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  State 
of  Jhabua  and  Sindhia's  district  of  Amjhera.  The  Dhar  State  is  divided, 
for  judicial  and  revenue  purposes,  into  seven  pargands,  namely,  Dhar, 
Badnawar,  Nalcha,  Dharampuri,  Kiiksi,  Tikri,  and  Nimanpur-Mukrar, 
the  last  being  a  desolate  outlying  pargand  resting  on  the  Narbada,  and 
separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  State  by  the  whole  breadth  of  Indore. 
Feudatories  of  the  Dhar  State  are  the  following  Rajput  chiefs  and  nobles 
who  hold  their  lands  under  the  guarantee  of  the  British  Government,  and 
pay  tribute  or  tankha  to  the  State,  namely,  Multan,  Kachhi-Baroda, 
Dhotria,  Badwal,  Bakhtgarh,  Kod,  Katodia,  Manglia,  Dharsikhera, 
Bairsia,  Murwadia,  and  Panah  \  also  the  following  Bhiimia  or  Bhil  and 


246  DHAR, 

Bhildla  chiefs  residing  principally  in  the  Dharampuri  and  Nalcha 
fargands,  namely,  IMota-Barkhera,  Chota-Barkhera,  Nimkhera,  Kali- 
Baori,  Garhi,  J^^ninia  (who  pays  tribute  for  the  village  of  Dabir)  and 
Rajgarh.  The  former  chiefs  or  thakurs  have  the  exclusive  management 
of  their  own  lands,  which,  however,  does  not  extend  to  a  power  of 
life  and  death ;  and  all  their  subjects  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
Rdja  of  Dhar,  who  exercises  general  supremacy,  the  chiefs  yielding 
him  service  and  allegiance.  This  arrangement  was  due  to  Sir  John 
Malcolm.  The  Bhiimias  and  Bhildld  chiefs  have  far  less  power  than 
the  thakurs^  and  are  responsible  for  indemnifying  all  robberies  occurring 
within  their  limits,  and  also  for  the  general  peace  of  their  part  of  the 
country. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  only  river  of  any  size  actually  in  the  Dhar 
State  is  the  Chamla,  a  tributary  of  the  Chambal,  which  latter  runs  for 
a  short  distance  through  the  east  corner  of  the  Dhar  pargand.  At 
Khal  there  is  a  fair-weather  trestle  bridge  over  the  Narbada,  and  a 
ferry  at  the  same  place  in  the  rains.  Rivers  of  minor  importance  are 
the  Maun,  with  a  course  of  35  miles,  the  Kariim,  with  a  course  of  24 
miles,  and  the  Bangui,  all  of  them  dry  for  the  most  part  during  the 
warm  season,  but  becoming  torrents  in  the  rains.  The  Vindhyas,  with 
an  elevation  here  of  from  1600  to  1700  feet  above  the  Narbada  valley, 
runs  across  the  southern  portion  of  the  State.  Numerous  passes  lead 
through  the  range  to  the  plain  below;  but  with  the  exception  of 
two,  the  Golpura  and  the  Bariidpura,  they  are  all  difficult  and  unsuited 
for  wheeled  carriage.  Among  the  wild  animals  are  the  tiger,  leopard, 
bear,  wild  hog,  and  deer  of  various  kinds.  Iron  ore  of  good  quality 
exists  all  along  the  hills,  but  is  nowhere  worked.  Above  the  Vindhyas 
the  climate  is  mild,  the  nights  always  cool,  and  the  hot  season  of 
short  duration ;  but  below  the  ghdfs^  the  heat  is  sometimes  excessive. 
At  the  close  of  the  rains  fever  is  very  prevalent,  and  guinea-worm  is 
very  common  in  the  State.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  for  the  five  years 
ending  1881  was  t,^  inches.  Nearly  every  variety  of  grain  is  grown  in 
the  fertile  lands  above  the  g/idfs.  About  one-third  of  the  wheat  and 
gram  crop  is  exported.  A  large  quantity  of  opium,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
tobacco,  linseed,  and  turmeric  is  also  produced.  The  principal  roads 
through  the  State  are  the  Indore  and  Gujarat  postal  line,  rid  Sardarpur, 
and  on  to  Dohud  in  Gujarat  :  the  road  to  Diidi  from  Ratlam,  along 
which  route  much  opium  passes;  and  67  miles  of  the  new  road  from 
Mhow  to  Nasirabad.  Various  minor  roads  lead  from  the  capital  of 
the  State  to  the  surrounding  country. 

History. — The  present  Raja  of  Dhar,  Anand  Rao  Puar,  K.C.S.I.,  who 
was  born  about  1S43,  i^  a  Puar  Rajput.  The  annals  of  his  State  are 
part  of  the  general  annals  of  Malwa,  the  towns  of  Ujjain  and  Dhar  at 
one  period  or  another  supplying  a  capital  for  the  legendary  Hindu 


DHAR.  247 

dynasties  of  the  region.  Early  story  assigns  to  the  Pu^rs  a  sovereignty 
lasting  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  dating  from  a  period  long 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era.  Among  the  semi-mythical  Pudrs,  the 
names  of  Vikramaditya  (claimed  as  an  ancestor  by  the  present  chief  of 
Dhar)  and  Raja  Bhoj  are  given  special  prominence.  Raja  Bhoj  is 
said  to  have  transferred  the  capital  from  Ujjain  to  Dhar.  About 
500  A.D.,  as  the  tradition  runs,  the  Puars'  power  declined  before  the 
rise  of  one  Rajput  house  after  another;  and  about  this  time  the 
family  is  supposed  to  have  made  their  way  to  Puna  (Poona),  in  the 
Deccan.  The  true  historical  period,  in  Malwd  as  in  the  greater  part 
of  India,  commences  with  the  consolidation  of  the  Muhammadan 
power  towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century.  In  1398,  Uilawan 
Khan  came  as  governor  from  Delhi,  and  with  the  materials  of  the 
great  Hindu  temples  of  Dhar  built  mosques  for  the  followers  of  Islam. 
Dilawan's  son,  who  succeeded  his  father  as  viceroy,  transferred  the 
capital  from  Dhar  to  Mandii.  And  from  the  time  of  Akbar's  visit 
in  1567,  not  long  after  the  transfer,  until  the  ascendancy  of  the 
Marathas,  the  Dhar  State  became  an  insignificant  part  of  a  province 
of  the  Delhi  Empire. 

The  Puars  who  migrated  to  the  Deccan  eventually  supplied  some 
of  their  most  distinguished  commanders  to  the  great  Maratha  leader 
Sivaji  and  his  warlike  successors.  The  present  Dhar  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Anand  Rao,  who  in  1749  received  the  grant  of  Dhar  from 
Baji  Rao  Peshwa.  For  twenty  years  before  the  British  conquest  of 
Malwa,  Dhar  was  subjected  to  a  series  of  spoliations  by  Sindhia  and 
Holkar,  and  was  preserved  from  destruction  only  by  the  talents  and 
courage  of  Mina  Bai,  widow  of  Anand  Rao  11.  and  adoptive  mother  of 
Ramchandra  Puar,  the  fifth  in  descent  from  the  founder  of  the  family. 
Ramchandra  Puar  was  succeeded  by  his  adopted  son,  Jeswant  Rao, 
who  died  in  1857,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  half-brother,  Anand 
Rao,  the  present  Raja.  The  State  w^as  confiscated  for  rebellion  in 
1857,  but  subsequently  restored  to  Anand  Rao  (then  a  minor),  with  the 
exception  of  the  District  of  Bairsia,  which  was  granted  to  the  Sekandar 
Begam  of  Bhopal. 

The  area  of  the  State  is  1740  square  miles.  The  population  in  1881 
was  returned  at  149,244,  namely,  115,051  Hindus,  12,269  Muham- 
madans,  3087  Jains,  12  Parsis,  27  Christians,  and  18,798  'aborigines.' 
The  principal  castes  found  in  Dhar  are  Rajputs,  Kanbis,  Marathas, 
Bhils,  and  Bhilalas.  The  revenue  is  ^74,312.  By  the  treaty  of 
January  1819,  Dhar  was  taken  under  British  protection.  The  State 
pays  a  contribution  of  ^1965  to  the  Malwa  Bhil  corps.  The  military 
force  consists  of  276  cavalry  and  about  800  infantry,  including  police, 
2  guns,  and  21  artillerymen.  The  chief  has  received  a  sanad  of 
adoption,  and  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns.     There  is  i  English 


248  DHAR—DHARAMPUR. 

school  and  i8  vernacular  schools,  2  dispensaries  and  a  new  hospital 
recently  built  by  the  Raja. 

Dhar. — Chief  town  of  Dhar  State  under  the  Bhil  or  Bhopawar 
Agency  of  Central  India;  situated  in  lat.  23°  36'  N.,  and  long,  75°  4'  e., 
on  the  route  from  Mau  (Mhow)  to  Baroda,  Tyi  miles  west  of  the  former 
and  183  miles  east  of  the  latter.  The  present  town  is  nearly  i\  miles 
in  length  and  half  a  mile  in  breadth,  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall, 
and  contains  many  striking  buildings,  especially  two  large  decayed 
mosques  built  of  red  stone.  Water  is  abundant,  being  suppHed  from 
two  small  and  eight  large  tanks.  A  fort,  built  of  red  stone,  is  situated 
outside  the  town  on  an  eminence  40  feet  above  the  plain,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  30  to  35  feet  high,  with  24  round  and  2  square 
towers,  on  the  larger  of  which  last  stands  the  palace  of  the  chief.  The 
gate  is  on  the  western  face,  and  is  defended  by  an  octagonal  tower. 
The  fort  was  the  scene  of  operations  of  a  British  force  under  General 
Stewart  in  1857.  Elevation  of  the  town  above  the  sea,  1908  feet. 
Population  (1881)  15,224,  namely,  Hindus,  11,858;  Muhammadans, 
2832;  'others,'  534.  Post-office,  dispensary,  and  opium  weighing- 
machine  under  European  supervision. 

Dhdrakot. — ZaminddH  or  estate,  8  miles  north-west  of  Aska,  on  the 
Rishikulya  river,  in  Ganjam  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Area,  125 
square  miles;  number  of  villages,  188;  population  (1881)  31,691. 
The  estate  is  divided  into  3  sub-divisions — Jahada  7?mtd,  with  85 
villages;  Kunanogodo  mufd^  with  37  villages;  and  Sahasrango  7mitd, 
with  66  villages.  Peshkash^  or  quit  -  rent,  payable  to  Government, 
j[^2/if()(y.  With  the  neighbouring  divisions  of  Surada,  Bodogoda,  and 
Sergada,  Dharakot  formed  part  of  the  ancient  estate  of  Khidsinghi, 
constituted  by  the  Gajapati  sovereigns  of  Orissa  in  the  12th  century. 
In  1476,  the  Khidsinghi  family  divided  their  property  into  four  baronies, 
of  which  Dharakot  is  one. 

Dharamkota. — Shrine  in  Kistna  District,  Madras  Presidency. — See 
Amravati  {A77iraoti). 

Dharampur. — Native  State  within  the  Political  Agency  of  Surat, 
Province  of  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency.  Bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Chikhli  Sub-division  of  Surat  District  and  the  State  of 
Bansda ;  on  the  east  by  the  State  of  Surgana  and  the  Dangs ;  on  the 
south  by  the  State  of  Peint ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Balsar  and  Pardi 
Sub-divisions  of  Surat  District.  The  territory  is  40  miles  long  from 
north  to  south,  and  20  in  breadth  from  east  to  w^est ;  contains  i  town 
and  272  villages.  Area,  794  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  101,289, 
namely,  15,549  Hindus,  1707  Muhammadans,  and  84,033  'others.' 
A  small  portion  of  the  State  only  is  cultivable ;  the  rest  is  hilly,  rocky, 
and  covered  with  forest  and  brushwood.  Dharampur  is  well  supplied 
with  rivers  :  the  Damanganga,  the  Kolak,  the  Par,  the  Auranga,  and 


DHARAMPUR—DHARAMPURL  249 

the  Ambika  flow  through  the  State  on  their  way  to  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay.  Except  in  Dharampur  town  and  a  few  other  villages,  where 
there  are  reservoirs,  wells  and  river-pools  are  the  only  source  of  the 
water-supply.  The  rainfall  is  estimated  at  over  70  inches  yearly. 
The  climate  is  very  unhealthy.  Prevailing  diseases  are  fever,  dropsy, 
diarrhoea,  and  asthma.  The  principal  products  are  the  flower  of  the 
inahud  (Bassia  latifolia),  teak,  blackwood,  and  bamboos  ;  the  crops — 
rice,  pulse,  gram,  and  sugar-cane ;  the  manufactures — mats,  baskets, 
fans,  molasses,  catechu,  and  pottery.  A  cart-road,  passing  southwards 
through  Peint,  connects  the  State  of  Dharampur  with  Nasik  station 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  while  another  rougher  track 
running  westwards,  and  passable  for  carts  except  during  the  rains, 
joins  it  with  Balsar  station  on  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India 
Railway.  There  is  a  regular  post,  kept  up  by  the  Chief,  between 
Balsar  and  Dharampur.  The  gross  revenue  is  estimated  at  ;£;2 5,000. 
In  1882  there  were  6  schools,  with  275  pupils.  The  present  (1883) 
Chief  is  a  Hindu  of  the  Sesodia  clan  of  Rajputs,  who  claim  descent 
from  the  Solar  race.  His  name  is  Narayandevji  Ramdevji,  and  his 
title  Raja  Maharana  Sri.  He  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  9  guns,  and  has 
power  to  try  his  own  subjects  for  capital  offences  without  the  express 
permission  of  the  Political  Agent.  Persons  convicted  of  murder  are 
punished  with  life  imprisonment.  The  Chief  administers  the  State 
himself,  and  maintains  a  military  force  of  207  men,  with  4  field  guns. 
The  house  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture  in  point  of  succession, 
and  holds  a  saiiad  authorizing  adoption.  It  is  probable  that  the  terri- 
tory of  Dharampur,  or  Ramnagar,  as  it  was  originally  called,  was  once 
much  more  extensive  than  now,  stretching  westward  as  far  as  the 
sea-coast.  In  15  76,  the  Chief  of  Ramnagar  went  to  meet  Akbar's  minister 
Todar  Mall  at  Broach,  and  accepted  military  rank  at  his  hands.  Seventy- 
two  of  the  Dharampur  villages  were  wrested  away  by  the  Marathas 
early  in  the  i8th  century.  The  claims  of  the  Peshwa  on  the  revenues 
of  the  State  were  ceded  to  the  British  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Bassein  (1802),  and  are  still  levied  by  oflicers  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment; they  yield  a  yearly  sum  of  from  ;£"6oo  to  ^700.  A  district 
constabulary  has  recently  been  formed.  In  all,  there  are  8  schools  in 
the  State. 

Dharampur.  —  Chief  town  of  the  Native  State  of  Dharampur, 
Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  20°  34'  n., 
and  long.  73°  14'  e.  Population  (1881)  5176,  namely,  2271  Hindus, 
841  Muhammadans,  33  Parsis,  and  2031  'others.'  Three  vernacular 
schools,  one  of  them  for  girls.  There  is  also  a  dispensary  where 
vaccination  is  being  gradually  introduced. 

Dharampuri.  — /'^r^^/zi  of  Dhar  State,  Bhil  (Bheel)  Agency, 
Central  India.     Population  (1881)  18,574;  number  of  houses,  4273, 


250  DHARAMPURI—DHARAPURAM. 

distributed  in  138  villages.     Agricultural  stock — horned  cattle,  i6,J 
Number  of  wells,  560.     Revenue,  ;£"6898. 

Dharampuri. — Town  in  the  Dharampuri  pargand  of  the  Dhar 
Native  State,  Central  India ;  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Narbada,  in  latitude  22°  10'  n.,  and  longitude  75°  26'  e.,  and  distant 
about  2i^  miles  south-west  from  Dhar.  During  the  period  of  Muham- 
madan  rule  at  Dhar,  the  town  is  said  to  have  contained  10,000 
houses,  and  the  ruins  of  the  old  town  extend  far  beyond  its  present 
limits.  It  now  contains  about  500  inhabitants,  but  is  gradually 
extending. 

Dharangaon.  —  Town  and  municipality  in  Erandol  Sub-division, 
Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  21°  n.,  longitude 
75°  20'  20"  E. ;  35  miles  east  by  north  of  Dhiilia,  and  20  miles  west  of 
the  railway  station  of  Jalgaon.  Population  (1881)  13,081;  municipal 
income  (1882-83),  £^^'^^  'y  municipal  expenditure,  ;^582 ;  rate  of 
taxation  per  head  of  municipal  population  (12,388),  6|d.  Dharangaon 
has  a  post-office,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  superintendent 
of  police  and  of  the  Bhil  Corps.  The  lines  for  the  Corps  afford  accommo- 
dation for  200  families.  A  considerable  trade  in  cotton  and  oil-seeds 
is  carried  on  with  Jalgaon,  where  many  of  the  Dharangaon  merchants 
have  agents.  The  paper  and  cloth  of  Dharangaon  were  formerly  held 
in  esteem.  At  present  the  manufacture  of  paper  has  entirely  ceased ; 
but  the  weaving  of  coarse  cloth  still  gives  employment  to  more  than 
1 00  looms.  In  the  year  1855,  Government  established  a  cotton-ginning 
factory  at  Dharangaon,  with  93  saw-gins,  under  the  management  of  a 
European  overseer;  merchants  and  cultivators  were  charged  j[^\  a 
month  for  the  use  of  a  gin.  But  the  experiment  proved  costly,  and 
was  subsequently  abandoned.  Under  Maratha  rule,  Dharangaon  was 
the  scene  of  a  terrible  massacre  of  Bhils,  who  had  on  several  occasions 
plundered  the  town.  A  factory  was  established  here  by  the  English 
in  1674.  The  following  year  the  town  was  plundered  by  Sivaji,  and 
again  in  1679  by  Sivaji  in  conjunction  with  the  Raja  of  Berar.  It  was 
at  that  time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  marts  in  this  part  of  the 
country.  Six  years  later,  in  1685,  it  was  again  plundered  and  burnt 
by  Sambhaji.  In  181 8,  Dharangaon  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
British  Government ;  and  it  was  here  that  Lieutenant,  afterwards  Sir 
James,  Outram  was  engaged  from  1825  to  1830,  in  improving  the 
position  of  the  Bhils,  by  training  them  in  an  irregular  corps.  The  town 
is  badly  supplied  with  drinking  water.  The  most  remarkable  building 
is  Outram's  Bungalow,  now  used  as  an  office  by  the  Assistant-Collector. 
Its  main  hall  is  40  feet  long,  34  broad,  and  16  high.  Dharangaon 
contains  four  schools. 

Dharapuram. — Tdluk  in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Population  (i88t)  195,232,  namely,  94,800  males  and  100,432  females: 


DHARAPURAM,  2  5 1 

number  of  houses,  43,554.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Erode  taluk  ;  on 
the  east  by  Kariir ;  on  the  west  by  Palladam  and  Udumalpatai ;  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Palani  taluk  of  Madura  District.  Contains  82  villages 
with  their  numerous  hamlets,  and  an  area  of  835  square  miles,  of  which 
389,436  acres  are  occupied  at  an  assessment  of  ^33,801.  The  taluk 
is  chiefly  dry  land,  only  71 17  acres  being  irrigated  :  77  per  cent,  of  the 
soil  is  entered  as  red  sand.  The  rivers  of  the  taluk  are  the  Amravati, 
Uppar,  and  Noyel ;  the  first  is  crossed  by  6  anicuts  supplying  irri- 
gation channels ;  there  are  numerous  private  wells,  by  which  good 
crops  are  raised  ;  the  uplands  are  poor  and  badly  tilled.  The  assessment 
averages  is.  6d.  per  acre  for  dry,  and  i6s.  for  wet  land.  A  large  portion 
of  the  land  is  devoted  to  pasture,  cattle  being  more  numerous  here 
than  in  the  surrounding  taluks.  There  are  no  forests  or  hills.  The 
population  is  almost  solely  agricultural.  Shops  are  few;  but  large 
weekly  markets,  especially  at  Kangayam  and  Dharapuram,  supply  the 
needs  of  the  villagers.  The  chief  products  are  cereals,  pulses,  tobacco, 
oil-seeds,  cotton,  and  jaggery.  The  taluk  is  well  supplied  with  roads, 
and  contains  2  criminal  courts,  with  a  deputy  tahsilddr  at  Kangayam,  2 
post-oflices,  7  police  stations,  several  schools,  including  a  middle  school 
at  Dharapuram,  and  a  dispensary.  Number  of  regular  police,  68  men. 
Arrack  and  toddy  shops  number  165.  Except  Dharapuram  town, 
there  are  no  places  of  importance  in  the  taluk.  The  Sivanmalai  temple 
and  the  Nattaroyen  Kovil,  near  Vella  Kovil,  are  much  resorted  to  by  the 
people.  Aqua  marines  were  found  formerly  near  Sivanmalai,  and  rock 
crystals  of  good  size,  form,  and  lucidity  are  often  found ;  so  also  is 
corundum.  The  taluk  is  on  the  whole  healthy,  being  dry  and  open  to 
the  south-west  winds  from  the  Palghat  gap. 

Dharapuram  {Ddrapur). — Chief  town  in  Dharapuram  tdluk^  Coim- 
batore  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Situated  in  latitude  10°  44'  35" 
N.,  and  longitude  77°  34'  28"  e.,  46  miles  east-south-east  of  Coim- 
batore  and  250  from  Madras.  Population  (1881)  7310,  namely,  5579 
Hindus,  1525  Muhammadans,  and  206  Christians;  number  of  houses, 
1327.  The  town  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Amravati,  in 
a  plateau  of  open  country  909  feet  above  the  sea,  which  stretches 
nearly  to  the  Palani  mountains,  about  15  miles  south.  A  channel 
from  the  river  bisects  the  town.  Dharapuram  is  said  to  have  been 
the  capital  of  the  Kshatriya  King  Bhaja,  and  is  otherwise  interesting 
as  having,  in  1667,  and  again  in  1746,  been  taken  from  Madura 
by  Mysore.  In  the  campaigns  with  Haidar  Ali  and  Tipii  Sahib,  it 
was  also  a  point  of  some  strategical  importance,  being  captured  by 
Colonel  Wood  in  1768,  retaken  by  Haidar  in  the  same  year,  again 
occupied  by  the  British  in  1783,  given  up  by  the  treaty  of  Mangalore, 
and  finally  resumed  in  1790  by  General  Medows.  In  1792  the  fort 
was  dismantled.     For  a  time  Dharapuram  was  the  seat  of  the  District 


252  DHARI—DHARMANPUR. 

court,  but  is  now  only  the  head-quarters  of  the  taluk,  and  as  such 
possesses  the  usual  subordinate  administrative  establishments,  a  police 
station,  post-office,  school,  and  dispensary.  At  the  weekly  market  held 
here,  the  ghi,  paddy,  and  chillies,  which,  with  tobacco,  pulses,  and  oil- 
seed, form  the  staple  products  of  the  taluk,  are  collected  for  export  in 
exchange  for  metal-ware  and  cloth.  The  town  is  connected  by  road 
with  three  railway  stations — Tirupur,  Penundurai,  and  Karur,  the  nearest 
being  30  miles  distant. 

Dhari. — Petty  State  of  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency.  Area, 
3 1  square  miles ;  there  are  6  shareholders.  The  estimated  revenue  is 
^250,  and  a  tribute  of  ;^95  is  paid  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda. 

Dharla  (or  Torshd). — River  of  Bengal,  which  rises  in  the  Bhutan 
Hills,  flows  south  through  the  Western  Dwars  of  Jalpaiguri  District, 
passing  through  the  centre  of  Mdidixi  pargand,  till  it  enters  Kuch  Behar 
territory  at  Nekobarpara  village.  Chief  tributaries  in  Jalpaiguri,  the 
Bhela  Kuba  and  the  Hansmara.  Its  course  through  Kuch  Behar  is 
tortuous,  its  old  beds  and  affluents  forming  a  perfect  network  of 
channels.  Gives  off  the  Torsha  river  in  Kuch  Behar;  joined  by  the 
Singimari  or  Jaldhaka  near  Durgapur;  turns  south  through  Rangpur 
District,  and  falls  into  the  Brahmaputra  at  Bagwa,  in  lat.  25°  40'  n., 
and  long.  89°  47'  30"  e.     Navigable  by  cargo-boats  during  the  rains. 

Dharma  (or  Dartnd). — Tract  of  country  in  Kumaun  District,  North- 
Western  Provinces,  lying  on  the  southern  side  of  the  main  Himalayan 
range;  situated  between  30°  5'  and  30°  30'  n.,  and  between  80°  25' and 
80°  45'  E.  Of  considerable  elevation— its  chief  peak,  Lebong,  rising 
18,942  feet  above  sea-level;  while  the  Dharma  Pass,  on  the  northern 
frontier,  leading  into  Hundes,  reaches  a  height  of  about  15,000  feet. 
The  habitable  portion  consists  of  narrow  and  very  rugged  valleys, 
traversed  by  the  Kali  river  (which  rises  in  this  tract),  its  chief  tributary 
the  Dhauli,  and  other  feeder  streams.  The  inhabitants  are  Bhotiyas, 
a  Tibetan  race,  who  carry  on  a  trade  between  Hundes  and  Kumaun, 
by  means  of  pack-sheep,  over  the  Dharma  Pass.  Estimated  area,  about 
400  square  miles. 

Dharmanpur.  —  Pargand  in  Nanpara  tahsil,  Bahraich  District, 
Oudh ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Nepal,  on  the  east  and  south  by  ^i'cs.- 
piri  J>arga7zd,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Kauriala  river,  separating  it  from 
Kheri  District.  It  was  formerly  included  in  Dhaurahra,  and  was  only 
constituted  a  separate  pargand  since  the  British  annexation  of  Oudh. 
Largely  occupied  by  forest  tracts,  which  comprise  172  square  miles  out 
of  a  total  area  of  304.  The  remainder,  132  square  miles,  is  occupied 
by  64  villages,  the  cultivated  area  being  only  47  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation (1881)  25,761,  namely,  males  14,097,  and  females  11,664.  The 
Government  land  revenue,  which,  on  account  of  the  large  area  of 
cultivable  waste  land  available,  has  been  fixed  at  a  rate  progressively 


DHARMAPATAM—DHARMAPURL  253 

increasing  every  ten  years,  is  as  follows  : — 1871,  ;^3303  ;  i^^i*  ;£4i77  ; 
1891,  ^5052.  Average  incidence  of  final  assessment,  2s.  ifd.  per 
acre  of  cultivated  area;  lojd.  per  acre  of  assessable  area,  and  8|d.  per 
acre  of  total  area.  Graziers  from  all  parts  of  Northern  Oudh  drive 
their  herds  into  the  forests  of  this  pargaiid.  Game  of  every  description 
abounds. 

Dharmapatam. — River  in  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency, 
falling  into  the  sea  3  miles  north  of  Tellicherri.  Dharmapatam  town 
is  situated  on  an  island  formed  by  the  mouths  of  this  river. 

Dharmapatam  {Dharmdfattan  ;  Dharmatam  ;  the  Dehfattan  of  Ibn 
Batuta,  and  the  Darmaftan  of  the  Tahfat-al-Mujahidin). — An  island 
town  in  the  Kotayam  taluk,  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency,  lying 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in  latitude  11°  46'  n.,  longitude  75° 
30'  E.  Area,  6  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  5899,  dwelling  in  760 
houses.  Dharmapatam  formerly  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Kolattiri, 
but  was  ceded  in  1734  to  the  East  India  Company.  In  1788  it  was 
taken  by  the  Chhirakkal  Raja,  but  recovered  in  1789. 

Dharmapuri.— r^'/z//&  in  Salem  District,  Madras  Presidency.     The 
most  southerly  of  the  sub-divisional  tdliiks,  and  once  a  portion  of  the 
ancient  province  known  as  the  Baramahal.     Bounded  on  the  north  by 
Hosur  and  Krishnagiri  taluks  ;  on  the  west  by  Hosur  and  the  Bhawani 
tdliik  of  Coimbatore  District ;  on  the  south  by  the  Thopiir  river ;  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Krishnagiri  and  Uttankarai  taluks  of  Salem  District. 
Population  (1881)  135,826,  namely,  66,200  males  and  69,626  females. 
Number  of  houses,  28,108.     Classified  according  to  religion — Hindus, 
129,751  ;   Muhammadans,  3888  ;  Christians,  almost  exclusively  Roman 
Catholics,  2187.     The  area  is  937  square  miles  (599,680  acres).     The 
taluk  is  entered  from  the  south  by  the  Thopiir  pass,  memorable  in  the 
narrative  of  military  operations   during  the  wars  with   Haidar  All  and 
Tipii  Sultan.     The  country  around  is  hilly,  and  from  Thopiir  the  ghat 
road  winds  through  picturesque  mountain  and  valley  scenery.     The 
taluk  is  sparsely  wooded.     The  only  rivers  are  the  Chennar  and  the 
Thopiir,    the    former  much    used    for  irrigation.      The    soil  is  chiefly 
ferruginous  loam  and  sand,  with   (in  the  valleys)  black  alluvial  clay. 
Iron-ore  is  the  only  mineral  product.     The  average   elevation  of  the 
/J/^/^  is  from  1500  to  1700  feet  above  sea-level.     The  chmate  is  hot 
and  dry.     The  rainfall  for  ten  years  ending  1875  averaged  21  inches. 
Tamil  is  the  language  most  spoken.    Rice  and  ragi  are  the  staple  articles 
of  food.     There  are  7  ferries.     The  tdluk  contains  2  criminal  courts ; 
pohce  stations,  13  ;  regular  police,  108  men.     Land  revenue,  ^15,529. 
The   area  liable  to  revenue   is  distributed  as  follows : — Government 
villages,  440,132   acres;   viutd  (or  permanently  assessed)  and  shotriem 
(or  revenue-free)  villages,   144,769  acres.     The  extent  actually  under 
cultivation  in  rayatwdri  villages  is  1 10,363  acres,  paying  ^13,649.    The 


254  DHARMAPURI—DHARMKOT. 

staples  of  cultivation  are  ragi  on  dry,  and  rice  on  wet  lands  ;  but  other 
grain  crops,  as  varagii,  aimba,  and  cholain  are  also  grown  largely.  The 
rates  of  assessment  vary  from  6d.  to  15s.  an  acre,  according  to  the 
quality  and  class  of  land.  Irrigation  is  carried  on  from  small  rivers, 
385  tanks,  56  minor  reservoirs,  and  8683  wells.  The  irrigated  area 
in  1 88 1  v/as  8140  acres,  assessed  at  ;£"373i. 

Dharmapuri. — Town  in  Dharmapuri  tdluk^  Salem  District,  Madras 
Presidency;  situated  in  latitude  12°  9'  n.,  and  longitude  78°  13'  e.,  42 
miles  by  road  north  of  Salem.  Population  (1881)  7090,  namely,  6131 
Hindus,  895  Muhammadans,  and  64  Christians.  As  the  head-quarters 
of  the  taluk,  it  contains  the  subordinate,  judicial,  and  magisterial  courts, 
a  post-office,  police  station,  school,  and  dispensary.  The  town  is 
healthy,  and  the  water-supply  abundant.  Until  1688,  Dharmapuri 
belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Aura,  but  in  that  year  was  annexed  by 
Mysore.  In  1768  it  was  captured  by  Colonel  Wood,  but  reoccupied 
by  Haidar  Ali  until  the  signature  of  peace.  Was  for  some  years  the 
residence  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  Governor  of  Madras. 

Dharmavaram. — Tdluk  of  Anantapur  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Area,  1192  square  miles,  with  a  population  (1881)  of  97,106,  or  81 
persons  to  the  square  mile.  Of  the  total  area,  266,489  acres  are 
cultivated,  only  22,078,  however,  being  under  'wet'  crops,  owing  to 
the  insufficiency  of  irrigation  works.  About  100  miles  of  made  road 
connect  the  large  towns — Dharmavaram,  Kalyandriig,  Konderpidrug, 
and  Kambadiir — with  each  other.  The  idliik  contains  2  criminal 
courts  ;  police  stations  {thdnds),  1 2  ;  regular  police,  80  men.  Land 
revenue,  ;^io,o6i.     Chief  town,  Dharmavaram. 

DharmdvaranL — Town  in  Dharmavaram  tdluk,  Anantapur  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  14°  24'  n.,  long.  77°  e.  Population  (1881) 
5916,  namely,  5086  Hindus,  822  Muhammadans,  and  8  Christians; 
number  of  houses,  1534.  Situated  on  the  Chitravati  river,  50  miles 
south  of  Gutti  (Gooty)  and  196  north-west  of  Madras.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  tdluk,  and  the  market  held  here  is  of  considerable  local 
importance.  Said  to  have  been  founded  by  Kriyasakti  Wodeyar,  and 
formerly  fortified. 

Dharmkot.  —  Town  in  the  Zira  tahsil  of  Firozpur  (Ferozepore) 
District,  Punjab.  Lat.  30°  56'  45"  n.,  and  long.  75°  16'  30"  e.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  6007,  namely,  1950  Hindus,  2673  Muhammadans,  and  1384 
Sikhs.  Lies  on  the  road  from  Firozpur  to  Ludhiana,  56  miles  east  of 
the  former  city.  Originally  known  as  Kotalpur,  but  renamed  after  its 
occupation  in  1760  by  the  Sikh  chieftain,  Tara  Singh,  of  the  Dallewala 
confederacy,  who  built  a  fort,  now  destroyed.  Well  paved  and  drained. 
Middle-class  school,  sardi,  police  station.  Many  wealthy  merchants  ; 
large  trade  in  grain.  Dharmkot  being  situated  near  the  Grank  Trunk 
Road,  with  a  good  bdzdr^  and  being  the  only  town  in  the  immediate 


DHARMPUR—DHARNAODA,  255 

neighbourhood,  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  piece-goods, 
brought  to  the  market  via  Ludhiana,  and  in  grain.  Many  well-to-do 
native  merchants  reside  in  the  town  in  substantial  houses  of  two  and 
three  storeys  high.  Good  bazar,  police  station,  school-house,  native 
inn  {sardi),  with  accommodation  also  for  European  travellers.  A  third- 
class  municipality,  with  an  income  in  1882-83  o^  £"^$9  \  expenditure, 

Dharmpur. — Village  in  Hardoi  District,  Oudh  ;  1 1  miles  east  of 
Fatehgarh,  and  the  first  encamping-ground  on  the  route  from  Fateh- 
garh  to  Lucknow  and  Hardoi.  Noteworthy  as  the  residence  of  Raja 
Tilak  Singh,  brother  of  the  late  Sir  Hardeo  Baksh,  K.C.S.L,  in  whose 
fort  were  loyally  sheltered  several  English  officers  during  the  Mutiny. 
Population  (1881)  1256;  number  of  houses,  161. 

Dharmsala. — Hill  station,  municipality,  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  Kangra  District,  Punjab.  Lat.  32°  15'  42"  n.,  long.  76° 
22'  46"  E.  Dharmsala  lies  on  a  spur  of  the  Dhaola  Dhar,  16  miles 
north-east  of  Kangra  town,  in  the  midst  of  wild  and  picturesque  scenery. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  Hindu  sanctuary  or  dharmsala  (whence 
the  name),  and  originally  formed  a  subsidiary  cantonment  for  the 
troops  stationed  at  Kangra.  In  1855,  the  District  head-quarters  were 
removed  to  the  spot ;  and  a  small  town  rapidly  collected  around  the 
civil  station.  It  now  contains  several  private  European  residences,  a 
church,  two  large  barracks  for  soldiers  temporarily  invalided  from  English 
regiments,  three  bazars,  public  gardens  and  assembly  rooms,  court- 
house, jail,  treasury,  hospital,  and  other  public  buildings.  Population 
(1881),  including  the  cantonment  population  of  1483,  5322,  namely, 
Hindus,  4630;  Sikhs,  5;  Muhammadans,  591 ;  and  'others,'  96;  number 
of  houses,  789.  This  may  be  taken  as  the  regular  resident  population, 
the  Census  having  been  taken  in  the  winter  month  of  February. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  fluctuating  population  of  visitors  from 
the  plains  during  the  summer  months.  The  municipal  area  had  a  popu- 
lation of  3839  persons'in  1881.  Municipal  income  (1882-83),  ;^445,  or 
2s.  3|d.  per  head  of  the  municipal  population;  expenditure,  ;^462. 
The  town  and  cantonments  stretch  along  the  hill-side,  with  an  eleva- 
tion varying  from  4500  to  6500  feet.  The  churchyard  contains  a 
monument  in  memory  of  Lord  Elgin,  who  died  at  Dharmsala  in  1863. 
Picturesque  waterfalls  and  other  objects  of  interest  lie  within  reach 
of  an  easy  excursion.  A  cart-road  connects  the  town  with  Jalandhar 
(Jullundur)  on  the  plains ;  supplies  can  be  obtained  at  moderate 
prices ;  and  the  station  bids  fair  to  become  a  favourite  retreat  for 
civilians  and  invalids.  The  rainfall,  however,  is  very  heavy  ;  its  annual 
average  being  returned  at  148*3  inches.  Trade  is  confined  to  the 
supply  of  necessaries  for  European  residents  and  their  servants. 

Dhamaoda. — A  petty  Chiefship  in  the  Giina  (Goona)  Sub-Agency, 


256  DHARUPUR^DHAR  WAR. 

under  the  Gwalior  Agency,  Central  India.  The  State  consists  of  32 
villages,  yielding  an  annual  revenue  of  about  £,^00  \  population 
(1881)  4196.  The  present  thdkur,  Bhiim  Singh,  is  descended  from 
thdkur  Chatar  Sal,  who  was  given  Dharnaoda  for  his  separate  main- 
tenance, with  the  possession  of  Raghagarh,  according  to  the  arrange- 
ments made  in  1843,  under  the  guarantee  by  the  British  Government. 
The  family  belongs  to  the  Chauhan  Rhichi  clan  of  Rajputs.  Thieving 
and  cattle-lifting  are  incessant  in  the  State. 

Dharupur. — Village  in  Partabgarh  District,  Oudh  ;  24  miles  from 
Bela,  and  16  from  Manikpur.  Founded  by  Dharu  Sah,  the  ancestor 
of  the  present  tdlukddr,  whose  fort  and  residence  are  still  in  existence. 
During  the  Mutiny,  British  refugees  were  hospitably  received  here.  At 
the  bdzdr  adjoining  the  fort,  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  the 
annual  sales  reaching  ;^io,ooo  in  value,  the  market  days  being 
Wednesday  and  Saturday.  Population  (1881),  Hindus,  2002,  and 
Muhammadans,  496  ;  total,  2498.  Three  Sivaite  temples  ;  Government 
school. 

Dhdrwar.  —  British  District  in  the  Southern  Maratha  country, 
Bombay  Presidency;  lying  between  14°  15'  and  15°  51'  n.  lat., 
and  between  74°  47'  and  76°  55'  e.  long.  Bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Districts  of  Belgaum  and  Kaladgi ;  on  the  east  by  the  Haidarabad 
(Hyderabad)  territory  of  the  Nizam,  and  the  river  Tungabhadra  which 
separates  Dharwar  from  the  District  of  Bellary,  Madras  Presidency; 
on  the  south  by  the  State  of  Mysore ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  District 
of  North  Kanara.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  116 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  77  miles.  Area,  4535  square  miles. 
Population  (1881)  882,907. 

Physical  Aspects.  —  Dharwar  District  is  roughly  divided  into  two 
belts,  characterized  by  differences  of  configuration,  soil,  and  products. 
The  Belgaum  and  Harihar  road  may  be  considered  the  dividing  line. 
To  the  north  and  north-east  of  that  road,  in  the  Sub-divisions  of 
Nawalgund,  Ron,  and  the  greater  part  of  Gadag,  spread  vast  unbroken 
plains  of  black  soil,  which  produce  abundant  crops  of  cotton.  In  the 
south-eastern  portion  of  this  plain  are  the  Kapad  Hills  ;  and  again, 
after  passing  over  a  stretch  of  black  soil  in  the  Karajgi  Sub-division, 
there  is  an  undulating  country  of  red  soil,  which  reaches  to  the  boundary 
of  Mysore.  The  western  belt  of  the  District  is  traversed  by  low  hills, 
extending  from  the  southern  bank  of  the  river  Malprabha  to  near  the 
Mysore  frontier.  This  tract  consists  of  a  succession  of  low  ranges 
covered  with  herbage  and  brushwood.  The  ranges  are  separated  by  flat 
valleys ;  and  it  is  to  these  valleys  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills 
that  cultivation  is  chiefly  confined.  Farther  west,  the  country  becomes 
still  more  hilly,  and  the  trees  increase  in  size  towards  the  frontier  of 
North   Kanara.     In  this  tract  all  the  Government  forest  reserves  are 


DHARWAR.  257 

to  be  found.  The  Sub-divisions  of  Hangal  and  Kod,  to  the  south  of 
Dharwir,  present  almost  the  same  appearance,  small  hills  rising  out  of 
the  plain  in  all  directions  with  fertile  valleys  between.  The  number 
of  tanks  in  these  Sub-divisions  is  a  special  feature  in  the  landscape  ; 
but,  with  some  marked  exceptions,  they  are  small  and  shallow,  retaining 
water  for  not  more  than  three  or  four  months  after  the  rains. 

From  its  position  on  the  summit  of  the  watershed  of  the  Peninsula, 
Dharwar  is  devoid  of  large  rivers.  Of  its  seven  principal  streams,  six 
run  eastwards  towards  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  one  penetrates  through  the 
Western  Ghats  to  the  Arabian  Sea.  (i)  The  Malprabha,  for  about 
20  miles,  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  District,  dividing  it  from 
Kaladgi.  (2)  The  Bennihallahas  its  source  about  20  miles  south  of  the 
town  of  Hubli,  and,  flowing  northwards  through  the  central  plain  of  the 
District,  falls  into  the  Malprabha.  Its  water  is  brackish,  and  soon  dries 
up.  (3)  The  Tungabhadra,  on  the  south-eastern  frontier,  divides  Dharwar 
from  Mysore  and  Bellary  in  Madras.  (4)  The  Warda,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tungabhadra,  passes  from  the  south-west  to  east  through  two  of  the 
southern  Sub-divisions  of  the  District.  (5)  The  Dharma  crosses 
Dharwar  in  the  south,  and  eventually  joins  the  Warda;  and  (6)  the 
Kumadwati  flows  north-east  through  Kod  Sub-division,  falling  into  the 
Tungabhadra  near  Holianaweri.  (7)  The  one  westward-flowing  stream 
is  the  Birti  Nala  or  Gangawali,  which  passes  through  the  Kalghatgi 
Sub-division.  None  of  these  rivers  are  navigable,  and  the  only  one 
used  for  irrigation  is  the  Dharma,  in  the  Hangal  taluk.  A  dam  across 
it  diverts  its  water,  when  the  river  is  high,  into  a  channel  on  the 
north  side,  which  extends  as  far  as  Adiir,  a  distance  of  about  6  miles 
in  direct  line.  This  is  an  old  irrigation  work  constructed  under  native 
rule.  The  channel,  besides  irrigating  a  large  area,  directly  feeds  a 
number  of  small  tanks  which  depend  on  it  for  their  supply.  The  waters 
of  the  Malprabha  and  Warda  are  considered  the  best  for  drinking,  while 
the  water  of  the  Tungabhadra  is  said  by  the  natives  to  be  heavy  and 
exceptionally  sweet.  In  the  west,  near  the  hills,  the  rainfall  is  abundant ; 
and  as  the  natural  unevenness  of  the  ground  offers  suitable  sites,  many 
tanks  have  been  constructed,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  is  thus 
kept  in  store.  But  in  the  central  and  eastern  portion  of  Dharwar,  the 
water-supply  is  very  scanty,  and  the  flat  surface  of  the  country  presents 
few  natural  advantages  for  the  storage  of  water  on  a  large  scale. 
Though  almost  every  village  has  its  own  tank,  the  want  of  drinking 
water  is  at  times  keenly  felt,  for  the  shallow  tanks  rapidly  become 
choked  with  the  drainage  from  the  black  cotton-soil.  Even  in  a  season 
of  ample  rainfall,  they  dry  up  by  the  beginning  of  March.  In  1869, 
the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the  villages  in  the  plain  were  forced  to 
fetch  their  water  from  distances  of  10  or  12  miles,  while  many  migrated 
with  their  cattle  to  the  banks  of  the  Tungabhadra  and   Malprabha. 

VOL.  IV.  R 


258  DHARWAR. 

Nor  can  a  sufficient  supply  be  easily  obtained  from  wells.  In  most 
parts  the  water-bearing  strata  lie  far  below  the  surface,  occasionally  as 
deep  as  80  or  90  feet,  while  the  water  obtained  is  often  found  to  be 
brackish.  Large  sums  are  spent  annually  on  the  reservoirs  and  tanks 
of  the  District.  The  '  black  soil,'  or  regar^  occurs  in  beds  from  a  few 
inches  to  30  or  40  feet  in  depth,  but  it  is  interrupted  by  chains  of 
hills,  and  at  places  covered  by  alluvial  soil  and  pebbles  washed  down 
from  their  sides.  In  the  north-east  of  the  District  some  singular  hills 
are  met  with,  rising  abruptly  out  of  the  plain  as  isolated  landmarks. 
They  are  not  more  than  300  feet  high  ;  and  the  stone  varies  much  in 
structure,  being  a  loose  variegated  gritty  substance,  which  sometimes 
approaches  a  compact  quartz  rock,  showing  grey,  whitish  yellow,  and 
red  bands  of  all  shades  of  colour.  The  Kapad  Hills  are  principally 
composed  of  hornblende  and  chloritic  schists,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate. 
Manganese  is  found  in  considerable  quantities.  Some  of  the  hills  are 
capped  with  laterite.  The  bed  of  the  Doni  rivulet,  which  has  its  rise 
in  these  hills,  contains  gravel  and  sand,  in  which  gold  dust  is  found 
associated  with  magnetic  iron-sand,  grains  of  platinum,  grey  carbonate 
of  silver,  and  copper.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  among  the  chlorite  slate 
hills  on  the  western  side  that  gold  is  found.  The  zone  of  hills  on  the 
west  of  the  District,  from  15  to  25  miles  broad,  consists  entirely  of 
various  hypogene  schists.  In  its  northern  part,  jaspideous  schists 
predominate ;  in  the  centre,  these  pass  into  chloritic  and  argillaceous 
slates  and  shales  of  all  shades  of  white,  yellow,  red,  brown,  and  green, 
interstratified  with  beds  of  white  or  iron  coloured  quartz,  and  of  jas- 
pideous rock.  These  layers  generally  form  crests  and  mural  ridges 
on  the  summits  of  the  hills,  which  run  in  parallel  ranges  north-west 
by  north,  and  south-east  by  south. 

In  former  times,  gold  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  in  abundance, 
and  even  now  the  Kapad  range  of  hills  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Dambal  in  the  east  of  the  District,  and  the  beds  of  streams  issuing 
from  them,  yield  some  gold.  Washing  is  practised  by  a  class  of  people 
called  Jalgars,  but  their  employment  is  not  constant,  being  carried  on 
only  for  a  short  time  in  every  year  after  the  flood.  At  this  season  their 
gains  are  said  not  to  average  more  than  from  gd.  to  is.  a  day.  In  the 
hiUs  in  the  west  of  the  District,  iron  was  formerly  smelted  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Owing,  however,  to  the  great  destruction  of  timber 
during  the  past  forty  years,  fuel  has  become  scarce,  and  this  industry 
is  now  only  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent.  The  iron  made  is  of  superior 
quality,  but  cannot  as  a  general  rule  compete  in  cheapness  with  im- 
ported iron.  The  western  or  hilly  portion  of  the  District  contains 
much  forest  land,  which  has  been  set  apart  by  Government  for 
reserves.  The  black-soil  plains,  on  the  other  hand,  suffer  from  a 
scarcity  of  trees ;  timber  for  building  purposes  has  to  be  brought  from 


DHARWAR.  259 

great  distances,  and  sun-dried  cakes  of  cow-dung  are  the  chief  fuel.  To 
supply  these  wants,  strict  conservation,  with  replanting,  is  now  being 
carried  on  in  the  Government  forest  reserves. 

FercE  Natures. — Of  wild  animals,  the  District  contains  the  tiger, 
leopard,  bear,  wolf,  hyaena,  fox,  jackal,  wild  hog;  and  of  game,  the 
spotted  deer  and  common  antelope.  Most  of  the  rivers  and  tanks 
contain  fish,  and  in  the  larger  reservoirs  some  of  great  size  are  caught. 

History. — The  territory  comprised  within  the  present  District  of 
Dharwar  appears  to  have  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Hindu  kingdom 
of  Vijayanagar,  which  rose  to  power  in  the  14th  century.  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  Vijayanagar  dynasty  at  the  battle  of  Talikot,  in  1564, 
by  a  confederacy  of  Musalman  princes,  Dharwar  was  annexed  to  the 
Muhammadan  kingdom  of  Bijapur.  In  1675,  the  country  was  over- 
run, and  partially  conquered,  by  the  Marathas  under  Sivaji ;  and  from 
that  time,  for  about  a  century,  remained  subject  first  to  the  Maratha 
ruler  of  Satara,  and  afterwards  to  the  Peshwa  of  Poona.  In  1776, 
under  Haidar  Ali,  the  usurper  of  Mysore,  the  Musalmans  again 
occupied  Dharwar  \  but  before  five  years  were  over,  by  the  help  of  a 
British  force,  the  Marathas,  in  1791,  captured  a  second  time  the  fort 
and  town  of  Dharwar.  The  country  remained  under  Maratha  manage- 
ment till  1 8 18,  when,  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Peshwa  by  the  British, 
it  was  incorporated  with  the  Bombay  Presidency.  There  are  many 
old  forts  scattered  through  the  District,  and  a  few  religious  buildings, 
elaborately  sculptured,  and  of  beautiful  though  somewhat  heavy  design. 
The  chief  modern  buildings  are  the  religious  houses  or  maths  of  the 
Lingayat  sect.  These  are  ugly  but  commodious  structures,  used  as  a 
residence  for  the  priests  or  ayahas^  and  also  to  a  large  extent  as  resting 
places  for  travellers. 

Population. — In  1872,  the  population  of  the  District  was  989,671. 
The  Census  of  1881  returned  a  total  population  of  882,907  persons, 
or  195  to  the  square  mile.  There  has  thus  been  a  faUing  off  of 
106,764  persons  since  1872.  Of  the  population  in  1881,  769,349,  or 
87  per  cent.,  were  Hindus;  100,622,  or  1 1 '40  per  cent,  Musalmans ; 
2356,  or  0*30  per  cent.,  Christians,  including  79  Europeans,  73  East 
Indians,  and  2204  native  converts;  10,526,  or  1*20  per  cent.,  Jains;  31 
Parsis;  18  Jews;  and  5  Buddhists.  The  males  numbered  442,035, 
the  females  440,872  ;  percentage  of  males  in  the  total  population,  5o"o7. 
Classified  according  to  caste,  the  Hindus  included  28,403  Brahmans ; 
3450  Rajputs;  54,254  Berads;  2545  Chamars;  6579  Shimpis 
(tailors);  87,568  Dhangars;  6869  Dhobi's  (washermen);  6880  Hajjams 
(barbers);  39,116  Jangams ;  44,345  Kunbis  (cultivators);  4410  Kolis 
(cultivators);  18,953  Koshtis  (weavers);  2641  Kumbhars  (potters); 
4359  Lingayats  ;  12 17  Lobars  (blacksmiths);  1545  Mali's  (gardeners) ; 
27,612  Mangs  (inferior  caste) ;   11,392  Mahars  (inferior  caste) ;  135,357 


26o  DEAR  WAR. 

Panchamsalis ;  21,686  Reddis;  2405  Sonars  (goldsmiths);  2014  Sutars 
(carpenters);  22,499  Telis  (oilmen);  and  233,127  'other'  Hindus. 
Among  the  Muhammadans  are  included  7994  Pathans  ;  13,1 18  Sayyids ; 
78,261  Shaikhs;  and  'others,'  1249.  Of  the  adult  males  in  the  six 
classes  into  which  the  Census  divides  the  people  as  regards  occupation, 
there  were  in  all  442,025  ;  namely,  in  the  professional  class,  13,750;  in 
the  domestic,  4422;  in  the  commercial,  3540;  in  the  agricultural, 
207,143;  in  the  industrial,  53,499;  and  in  the  indefinite  and  non- 
productive, 159,681.  Of  the  1285  towns  and  villages  in  the  District 
in  1 88 1,  303  contained  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants,  493  between 
two  and  five  hundred,  308  between  five  hundred  and  one  thousand, 
114  between  one  and  two  thousand,  30  between  two  and  three  thousand, 
24  between  three  and  five  thousand,  9  between  five  and  ten  thousand, 
I  between  ten  and  fifteen  thousand,  i  between  fifteen  and  twenty 
thousand,  and  2  between  twenty  and  fifty  thousand. 

In  the  Sub-divisions  of  Dharwar,  Hubli,  Gadag,  and  Bankapur,  and 
in  the  State  of  Sawaniir,  the  population  contains  a  considerable  Musal- 
man  element.  Among  the  nomadic  tribes,  the  chief  are  the  Waddars, 
Lambanis,  Collars,  and  Advichinchars.  The  Waddars  move,  with 
their  wives  and  families,  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  work.  They 
are  generally  employed  on  earthwork,  quarrying,  sinking  wells,  or 
making  roads  and  reservoirs.  The  Lambanis  also  wander  about  in 
gangs.  They  correspond  to  the  Banjaras,  or  gipsies,  of  Cujarat  and 
Central  India,  and  do  a  large  carrying  trade  on  pack-bullocks  and 
ponies.  The  Collars  and  Advichinchars  are  a  class  of  wandering 
jugglers,  who  live  in  the  forest  and  pick  up  a  precarious  and  often 
dishonest  hvelihood ;  but  they  are  not  thieves  by  profession. 

The  population  of  Dharwar  is,  on  the  whole,  prosperous.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  the  climate  favourable,  and  the  people  not  wanting  in  energy. 
The  cultivators  have  a  good  stock  of  cattle,  especially  in  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  District.  Towards  the  Western  Chats,  cultivation  is 
scantier,  and  the  people  less  thriving. 

There  are  three  Christian  Missions  in  the  District.  The  chief  one  is 
subordinate  to  the  Basle  Cerman  Mission,  with  resident  missionaries  at 
Dharwar,  Hubli,  and  Cadag-Betigeri,  and  congregations  at  the  villages 
of  Unkal,  Hebsiir,  and  Shagoti.  The  second  mission  is  subordinate  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Bombay ;  its  chief  station  is  Dharwar, 
and  it  has  congregations  at  Hubli  and  Tumrikop.  The  third  mission  is 
subordinate  to  the  Archbishop  of  Coa ;  excepting  the  town  of  Dharwar, 
its  congregational  stations  are  situated  beyond  the  District  boundary. 

Kanarese  is  the  vernacular  language  of  the  District,  though  the 
Dharwar  dialect  is  not  so  pure  as  that  spoken  in  Kanara  itself.  By 
many  of  the  better  classes  Marathi  is  understood ;  and  Hindustdni  is 
known  to  a  few. . 


DHARWAR,  261 

The  chief  towns  of  the  District  are— (i)  Hubli,  population  (1881) 
36,677;  (2)  Dharwar,  27,191  (town  26,520,  cantonment  671);  (3) 
Ranibennur,  10,202;  (4)  Gadag,  17,001;  (5)  Nargund,  7874;  (6) 
Nawalgund,  7810;  (7)  MuLGUND,  5386;  (8)  Shahabajar  or  Banka- 
PUR,  6037;  (9)  Haveri,  5652;  (10)  Naregal,  6071;  (11)  Hangal, 

5272;    (12)  TUMINKATTI,  4622;    (13)    ByADGI,  4I16;    (14)    MUNDARGI, 

3826. 

Formerly  all  the  principal  towns,  and  even  villages,  were  defended 
by  a  fort  within  which  the  richest  inhabitants  lived  in  well-built  houses  ; 
without  the  walls  were  the  huts  of  the  poorer  and  less  influential  classes. 
Though  the  fortifications  have  now  been  allowed  to  fall  into  decay,  a 
marked  distinction  still  exists  between  the  town  proper  or  pet  and  the 
houses  within  the  fort.  Villages  in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of 
the  District  have  in  general  a  thriving  appearance,  arising  from  the 
common  use  of  tiled  roofs.  In  the  northern  and  eastern  parts,  houses 
are,  as  a  rule,  flat-roofed,  and  there  are  few  trees  near  the  villages. 
The  houses  are  chiefly  constructed  on  massive  woodwork  frames,  built  in 
with  mud  bricks,  the  ends  of  which  are  triangular  in  shape.  Formerly 
many  of  the  villages  were  surrounded  by  low  walls  of  mud  and  sun- 
dried  bricks,  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of  thieves,  but  most  of 
these  walls  are  now  falling  into  decay. 

Exclusive  of  hamlets,  there  were,  in  1881,  14  towns  and  1271  in- 
habited State  and  alienated  villages,  giving  an  average  of  0*29  villages 
to  each  square  mile,  and  687  inhabitants  to  each  village.  The  total 
number  of  houses  was  returned  at  206,419,  of  which  455269  were 
unoccupied,  showing  an  average  of  45-5  houses  per  square  mile,  and 
of  5  "47  persons  per  house. 

Three  annual  fairs  or  religious  meetings  are  held  in  the  District — (i) 
at  Hulgiir  in  Bankdpur  Sub-division,  in  February,  in  honour  of  a  famous 
Musalman  saint;  attendance  of  pilgrims  about  3000;  (2)  at  Yamnur 
in  Nawalgund  Sub-division,  in  March,  also  in  commemoration  of  a 
Muhammadan  saint;  attendance  of  pilgrims,  about  26,000;  (3)  at 
Gudguddapur  in  Ranibennur  Sub-division,  in  September,  in  honour  of  a 
Hindu  deity,  Malhar  Martand ;  attendance  of  pilgrims,  about  8700. 
Trade  is  carried  on  only  to  a  very  limited  extent  at  these  festivals. 
There  are  2 1  other  religious  gatherings  of  less  importance. 

The  staff  of  the  village  community  consists  of  two  classes,  one  con- 
nected with  the  Government,  and  the  other  useful  to  the  community 
alone.  The  first  class  comprises  the  pdtel,  or  head-man ;  the  hilkarni, 
or  accountant ;  shetsandi,  or  policeman ;  and  talwars^  barkis,  and 
mahdrs,  the  menial  servants.  In  the  second  class  are  the  Joshi,  or 
astrologer ;  the  kdzi  and  mulld,  the  Musalman  priests ;  the  jangam,  or 
ay  a ;  the  siitdr,  or  carpenter ;  the  lohdr,  or  blacksmith  ;  the  kumbhdr, 
or  potter  ;  the  sondr^  or  goldsmith  ;  the  hajjdm,  or  barber ;  the  vaidya, 


262  DHARWAR. 

or  doctor;  the  dhor,  or  manufacturer  of  leathern  articles  for  farmers- 
the  dhohi,  or  washerman ;  the  piijdri,  or  worshipper ;  the  viathapati,  or 
procurer  of  milk  and  butter  for  strangers ;  and  the  viahdrs,  or  sweepers. 
In  large  villages,  the  organization  may  be  found  complete;  but  in 
small  villages,  the  joshi,  so?idr,  vaidya,  dhobi,  and  hajjdm,  do  not 
generally  exist.  Besides  the  above,  in  some  few  villages  in  the  Hangal, 
Karajgi,  and  Kod  Sub-divisions,  there  is  a  class  of  village  servants 
called  nir  manegdrs,  whose  special  duties  are  to  keep  the  tank  water- 
courses in  repair,  and  let  water  on  to  the  fields. 

Agriculture. — Exclusive  of  land  belonging  to  other  jurisdictions  situated 
\vithin  its  limits,  Dharwar  District  contains  a  total  area  of  2,902,400 
acres,  of  which  864,204  acres,  or  nearly  30  per  cent.,  have  been 
alienated.  Of  the  remainder,  1,659,321  acres  are  assessed  arable  land, 
and  378,733  acres  are  unassessed  waste.  The  total  cultivated  area  in 
1882-83  ^vas  1,503,011  acres,  including  1,409,175  acres  under  dry 
crops,  86,873  acres  under  rice,  and  6963  acres  irrigated  for  garden  crops. 
The  soil  of  the  District  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.  red  soil, 
black  soil,  and  a  rich  brown  loam.  The  red  soil  is  a  shallow  gravelly 
deposit  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  hills  and  rocks.  The  black  soil 
is  the  well-known  regar,  or  cotton-soil,  on  which  the  value  of  Dharwar 
as  a  cotton-producing  District  depends.  It  ordinarily  varies  in  depth 
from  2  to  20  feet.  The  brown  loam  is  found  chiefly  on  the  west  of  the 
District,  once  the  site  of  large  forests ;  it  is  supposed  to  be  chiefly  of 
vegetable  origin,  and  is  of  little  depth.  The  Government  land  is  held 
under  the  Bombay  Survey  tenure,  at  a  revenue  fixed,  in  1857-58,  for 
a  term  of  thirty  years.  The  land  alienated  by  the  State  is,  as  a  rule, 
held  at  a  fixed  quit-rent.  There  are  two  chief  crops  in  the  year— the 
early  or  khaiif,  and  the  late  or  rabi  harvest.  The  early  crops  are  sown 
in  June,  and  harvested  in  October  and  November.  The  late  crops, 
except  cotton,  are  sown  in  October  and  reaped  in  February.  Cotton 
is  sown  in  August  and  picked  in  March.  A  field  of  black  soil  requires 
only  one  ploughing  in  the  year,  and  is  seldom  manured.  A  field  of 
red  soil,  on  the  other  hand,  is  ploughed  three  or  four  times,  and  is 
generally  manured.  The  entire  stock  of  agricultural  implements 
required  by  a  single  husbandman  may  be  valued  at  from  los.  to  £2. 

The  oxen  are  of  three  varieties — two  of  inferior  breed,  indigenous 
to  the  District,  and  the  large  and  well-made  animals  imported  from 
Mysore.  These  Mysore  bullocks  are  much  valued ;  an  ordinary  pair 
fetches  about  ;^i5,  and  for  a  superior  pair  as  much  as  ^45,  or  even 
^200,  is  sometimes  paid.  The  ponies  of  Dharwar  were  once  famous, 
but  of  late  years  the  breed  is  said  to  have  fallen  off. 

The  agricultural  stock  in  possession  of  the  cultivators  of  Government 
or  khdlsd  villages  during  1881-82  numbered  89,205  ploughs,  37,376 
carts,  224,170  bullocks,  111,352  buffaloes,  122,386  cows,  5162  horses, 


DHARWAR.  263 

174,528  sheep  and  goats,  and  5633  asses.  Of  1,507,942  acres,  the  total 
cuhivated  area  in  the  same  year — cereals  occupied  756,034  acres,  or 
50*10  per  cent.;  pulses,  101,197  acres,  or  670  per  cent.;  oil-seeds 
70,426  acres,  or  4*67  per  cent.;  fibres,  including  cotton,  359,210 
acres,  or  21*19  P^^  cent.;  sugar-cane,  3742  acres;  tobacco,  1251 
acres;  and  miscellaneous  crops,  32,967  acres,  or  2*20  per  cent.: 
184,776  acres  were  under  grass.  The  current  prices  of  the  chief 
articles  of  food,  per  ??iaund  of  80  lbs.,  in  the  District  in  1881-82,  were, 
for  wheat,  3s.  7jd.  ;  for  rice,  from  6s.  9d.  to  9s. ;  for  bdjra  (Holcus 
spicatus),  2s.  lojd. ;  for  j oar  (Holcus  sorghum),  2s.  6d. ;  for  pulses 
or  da/,  5s.  7d. ;  for  wheat  flour,  5s.  2d. ;  for  gram,  5s.  id.  ;  and  for  salt, 
8s.  7^d. 

Of  the  total  just  enumerated,  534,185  acres,  or  21*06  per  cent.,  were 
under  cotton,  the  indigenous  variety  occupying  395,396,  and  Orleans 
cotton  138,789  acres.  Several  attempts  had  been  made  by  Govern- 
ment to  introduce  the  culture  of  New  Orleans  cotton,  but  up  to  1842 
without  success.  In  that  year,  however,  the  results  were  most  satis- 
factory. Both  in  quantity  and  quality  the  out-turn  was  better  than  the 
indigenous  variety,  and  the  cultivation  of  New  Orleans  cotton  has  since 
spread  rapidly.  Its  superiority  is  now  generally  recognised,  not  only 
in  Dharwar,  but  in  the  neighbouring  Districts.  As  American  cotton 
cannot  be  properly  ginned  by  the  native  process,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  introduce  new  machinery.  To  ensure  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  best 
gins,  they  are  imported  from  England  and  offered  for  sale  at  the 
Government  factory  at  Dhdrwar,  while  for  their  repair  branch  factories 
have  been  established  at  local  centres  of  trade. 

Natural  Calamities.  —  From  the  earliest  date  of  which  historical 
record  is  available,  the  District  appears  to  have  suffered  from  droughts 
of  more  or  less  severity.  Between  1787  and  1796  a  succession  of 
droughts,  accompanied  by  swarms  of  locusts,  occurred.  This  period 
of  famine  is  said  to  have  been  at  its  height  about  1791-92.  The 
people  were  forced  to  feed  on  leaves  and  berries,  and  women  and 
children  were  sold  or  deserted.  No  measures  were  taken  by  the 
Government  of  the  day  to  relieve  the  sufferers.  The  next  famine  was 
in  1 80 2-1 803,  occasioned  by  the  immigration  of  people  from  the 
valley  of  the  Godavari  and  the  march  of  the  Peshwas  army  through 
the  country.  In  1832,  from  want  of  rain,  prices  ruled  very  high,  but 
the  distress  cannot  be  said  to  have  amounted  to  famine.  Owing  to 
successive  bad  seasons,  famines  occurred  in  the  years  1866  and  1877, 
and  it  was  found  necessary  to  employ  large  bodies  of  people  on  works 
of  public  utihty. 

Trade,  etc. — In  no  part  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  has  more  been 
done  of  late  years  to  improve  communications  than  in  Dharwar.  Thirty 
years   ago,   there   were   neither    roads   nor   carts.      In    1881-82,    the 


264  DHARWAR, 

number  of  carts  was  returned  at  37,376,  and  about  1000  miles  of  road 
were  kept  in  sufficient  repair  to  allow  a  spring  carriage  to  be  driven 
over  them.  The  District  is  connected  with  the  ports  of  Coompta, 
Karwar,  and  Vingorla  by  excellent  roads,  the  distance  from  the  western 
sea  being  about  100  miles.  On  the  east,  a  road  runs  to  the  railway 
station  of  Bellary,  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  The  distance  of  Bellary 
from  the  Dharwar  frontier  is  also  about  100  miles.  A  line  of  railway  is 
now  under  construction  to  pass  through  the  District,  from  Bellary  via 
Gadag  and  Hubli,  to  Marmagao  in  Portuguese  territory,  with  a  branch 
to  Belgaum,  while  the  Southern  Maratha  Railway,  from  Sholdpur,  passes 
through  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  District  via  Bijapur  to  Gadag. 
No  returns  of  the  internal  trade  of  the  District  are  available.  Cotton 
is  the  chief  article  of  export,  and  European  goods,  chillies,  cocoa-nuts, 
molasses,  and  betel-nuts  are  imported  from  Kanara  and  Mysore.  The 
local  trade  mjodr  is  also  considerable. 

The  manufactures  consist  of  cotton  and  silk  cloth,  and  the  usual 
household  utensils  and  ornaments.  Common  silk  and  cotton  cloth 
are  woven  to  a  considerable  extent  in  all  the  large  towns.  Fabrics 
of  delicate  texture  and  tasteful  design  are  occasionally  produced. 
Fine  cotton  carpets  are  manufactured  at  Nawalgiind,  both  for  home 
consumption  and  for  export  to  the  neighbouring  Districts.  The  wild 
aloe  grows  well,  and  the  manufacture  of  matting  from  its  fibre  has  been 
carried  on  at  the  jail  with  success.  In  the  city  of  Dharwdr  there  is 
also  a  considerable  manufacture  of  glass  bangles.  Blocks  of  blue  and 
green  glass  in  a  rough  state  are  imported  from  Bellary  and  re-melted 
in  crucibles,  made  of  a  species  of  clay  brought  from  Khanapur,  in 
Belgaum.  During  eight  months  of  the  year  (October  to  June)  iron- 
smelting  is  carried  on  in  small  furnaces  in  parts  of  the  District,  but 
want  of  fuel  prevents  any  extension  of  this  industry. 

The  majority  of  the  traders  are  local  capitalists,  a  few  representing 
firms  in  Bombay  and  other  important  places.  Except  a  few  Parsis  in 
the  town  of  Dharwar,  they  are  by  caste  generally  Brahmans  or  Lingayats, 
a  few  being  Muhammadans,  Giijars,  etc.  Porters  and  other  unskilled 
labourers  earn  from  4|d.  to  6d.  a  day ;  agricultural  labourers  from  3d. 
to  4id.,  bricklayers  and  carpenters  from  is.  3d.  to  is.  4jd.  Female 
labourers  earn  about  one-third  less  than  males.  Lads  of  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  get  about  two-thirds  less  than  full-grown  men. 

Administration. — The  District  is  divided  into  11  Sub-divisions,  or 
taluks,  and  into  3  petas  or  larger  fiscal  units.  The  11  Sub-divi- 
sions of  the  District  are — Dharwar,  Hubli,  Gadag,  Nawalgund, 
Bankapur,  Ron,  Ranibennur,  Kod,  Hangal,  Karajgi,  and 
Kalghatgi.  The  administration  in  revenue  matters  is  entrusted  to  a 
Collector  and  5  Assistants,  of  whom  3  are  covenanted  civil  servants. 
For  the   settlement  of  civil  disputes  there  were,  in   1881,  4  courts, 


DHARWAR,  265 

including  the  court  of  the  District  Judge.  Thirty  officers,  including  6 
Europeans,  shared  the  administration  of  criminal  justice.  In  the  same 
year,  the  total  strength  of  the  District  or  regular  police  force  was  733 
officers  and  men.  The  total  cost  of  maintaining  this  force  was 
;^i2,i54.  These  figures  show  one  policeman  to  every  6*i8  square 
miles  as  compared  with  the  area,  and  i  to  every  1204  persons  as 
compared  with  the  population  ;  the  cost  of  maintenance  was 
;3^2,  13s.  yd.  per  square  mile,  or  3d.  per  head  of  the  population. 
There  is  i  jail  at  Dharwar  town,  in  which  562  male  and  109  female 
prisoners  were  confined  in  1880.  The  District  contains  51  post-offices 
and  3  telegraph  offices,  viz.  at  Dharwdr,  Hubli,  and  Gadag-Betigeri. 

In  1881-82,  the  re-settlement  of  the  Dharwar  District  was  com- 
pleted at  a  total  cost  of  ;£44,o3o,  resulting  in  a  total  increase  of 
the  land  revenue  to  ;^266,54o,  the  annual  increase  consequent  on 
re-settlement  being  ;j^45,489.  The  local  funds,  created  since  1863  for 
works  of  public  utility  and  rural  education,  yielded,  in  1881-82,  a  sum 
of  ;^i5,89i.  There  are  11  municipalities  in  the  District;  their  total 
receipts  in  1881-82  amounted  to  ^10,170,  and  their  expenditure  to 
;^ 1 0,64 1.  The  incidence  of  municipal  taxation  varied  from  lojd.  to 
3s.  ijd.  per  head.  In  the  same  year  there  w^ere  377  schools  in  the 
District,  or  an  average  of  5  schools  for  every  15  villages,  with  an 
attendance  of  27,113  pupils.  In  Dharwar  tow^n  there  is  i  library,  and 
3  local  newspapers  are  published. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  is,  for  both  natives  and  Europeans, 
about  the  healthiest  in  the  Bombay  Presidency.  In  December  and 
January,  dews  are  heavy  and  general.  From  February  to  the  middle 
of  April  is  the  hot  season ;  and  from  the  latter  date  to  the  beginning 
of  June,  when  the  regular  rainy  reason  sets  in,  showers  are  frequent. 
Except  in  November  and  December,  when  strong  winds  blow  from  the 
east,  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west,  south-west,  and  south-east. 
The  average  maximum  temperature  for  the  hot  months  (March  to  May) 
is  93°  F. ;  the  maximum  for  the  rainy  season  (June  to  October),  83°  ; 
the  maximum  for  the  cold  season  (November  to  February),  84°  F.  The 
average  rainfall  at  Dharwar  town  for  a  period  of  seven  years  ending 
1 88 1  was  32-89  inches.  At  HubH  the  rainfall  for  the  same  period 
averaged  25*8  inches. 

There  are  3  dispensaries  in  the  District,  and  a  civil  hospital  at 
Dharwar  town.  During  1881-82,  43,498  persons  in  all  were  treated, 
of  whom  42,900  were  out-door  and  598  in-door  patients.  There 
is  also  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Dharwar.  The  births  registered  in  the 
District  in  1881  numbered  33,315,  or  3773  per  1000  of  population  ; 
the  deaths  in  the  same  year  numbered  20,492,  or  23*30  per  1000;  the 
average  death-rate  for  the  five  years  previous  being  41  "o.  Number 
of  persons  vaccinated  in  1881-82,  21,025.       [For  further  information 


266  DHARWAR  SUB-DIVISION  AND  TOWN. 

regarding  Dharwar  District,  see  Records  of  the  Gove7'n?Jtent  of  Bombay 
(New  Series),  Papers  i-egardvig  the  Revisio?i  of  the  Settlement^  Nos.  cxlv., 
CLV.,  CLVi.,  CLix.,  CLX.,  CLXi.,  and  CLXii.  See  also  the  Bombay  Ce7isus 
Report^  and  the  Bombay  Annual  Admi7iistration  and  Departmental 
Reports  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Dharwar. — Sub-division  of  Dharwar  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Area,  425  square  miles;  contains  i  town  and  127  villages.  Population 
(1881)  111,137,  namely,  55,524  males  and  55,613  females.  Hindus  num- 
ber 92,547;  Muhammadans,  15,011;  'others,' 3579.  The  Sub-division 
contained  in  1883,  i  civil  and  10  criminal  courts;  police  stations 
{thdnds)^  3  ;  regular  police,  70  men;  village  watchmen  (^//^zz/y^/^iri-),  382. 

Dharwar. — The  chief  town  of  Dharwar  District,  situated  in  latitude 
15°  27'  N.,  and  longitude  75°  3'  20"  e.  Area,  including  the  suburbs, 
3  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  27,191,  including  671  in  canton- 
ments, thus  classified — 19,709  Hindus,  6545  Muhammadans,  271 
Jains,  618  Christians,  24  Parsis,  and  24  'others.'  The  fort  stands 
on  undulating  ground.  Towards  the  west,  low  hills  run  down  to  the 
plains,  forming  the  last  spurs  of  the  Western  Ghats.  The  fort  and 
the  town  are  almost  hidden  from  view  on  the  east  by  trees  and  rising 
ground.  The  approach  from  the  south  is  striking.  The  highest  point 
is  occupied  by  the  Collector's  office,  from  which  a  commanding  view 
of  the  town,  suburbs,  and  surrounding  country  is  obtained.  Below  the 
office  and  adjacent  to  it  is  the  temple  of  Ulvi-Basapa,  and  beyond,  the 
hill  of  Mailargud,  formerly  considered  the  key  to  the  fort  of  Dharwar. 
The  travellers'  bungalow  or  rest-house  is  one  mile  west  of  the  fort,  and 
the  cemetery  is  a  little  to  the  south-west.  The  church,  about  one  mile 
to  the  south  of  the  travellers'  bungalow,  belongs  to  the  Basle  German 
Mission.  The  cantonments  lie  to  the  north-west  of  the  fort,  about  2 
miles  distant.  Beyond  the  town  extensive  plains  of  black  soil  stretch 
across  to  the  hills  of  Nawalgund  and  Nargund  on  the  east,  and  on 
the  north-east  to  the  famous  hills  of  Yellama  (a  Hindu  deity)  and 
Parsagad.  Towards  the  south-east,  the  hill  of  Mulgiind  appears  at  the 
distance  of  about  36  miles.  There  is  no  authentic  evidence  of  the 
date  when  the  fort  was  founded.  A  purdna  or  legendary  chronicle 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  neighbouring  temple  of  Someswar  makes 
no  mention  of  Dharwar.  According  to  local  tradition,  the  fort  was 
founded  in  1403  by  one  Dhar  Rao,  an  officer  in  the  Forest  Department, 
under  Ram  Raja,  the  Hindu  King  of  Anigiindi.  The  Anigundi 
kingdom  was  overthrown  by  Muhammad  Adil  Shah  of  Bijapur  in 
1568.  In  1685,  the  fort  was  captured  by  the  Mughal  Emperor  of 
Delhi ;  and  in  1753,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Marathas.  In  1778, 
Dharwar  was  taken  from  the  Marathas  by  Haidar  All,  the  Muhammadan 
usurper  of  Mysore;  and  in  1791,  it  was  retaken  by  a  British  force 
auxiliary  to  the  Marathas  under  Parshuram  Bhao.     On  the  final  over- 


DHASAN.  267 

throw  of  the  Peshwa,  in  1818,  Dharwar,  with  the  other  possessions  of  that 
potentate,  fell  to  the  disposal  of  the  British  Government.  The  fort  is 
described  as  being  well  planned  and  naturally  strong.  Previous  to 
1857  it  was  kept  in  repair.  Since  then  it  has  been  breached;  and, 
like  all  other  forts  in  the  District,  it  is  now  fast  falling  into  ruins. 
In  1837,  Dharwar  was  the  scene  of  violent  feuds  between  the 
Brahmans  and  Lingayats,  compelling  the  interference  of  the  British 
Government. 

The  town,  which  is  very  straggling,  is  made  up  of  7  quarters,  or 
mahdh.     There  are  few  good  houses  with  upper  storeys.     A  market  is 
held  every  Tuesday.      The  only  monument  of  historical  interest   is 
that  erected  in  memory  of  the  Collector,  Mr.  St.  John  Thackeray,  and 
the  sub-Collector,  Mr.  J.  C.  Munro,  who  were  killed  at  the  taking  of 
Kittiir  in  1824.     About  a  mile  and  a  half  south  of  Dharwar  is  a  hill 
called   the   Mailargad ;    on   its   summit  stands  a  small   square  stone 
temple,  built  after  the  Jain  fashion,  and  facing  the  east.     The  columns 
and  beams  are  of  massive  stone,  and  the  roof  of  the  same  material  is 
handsomely  carved.    On  one  of  the  columns  is  an  inscription  in  Persian, 
recording  that  the  temple  was  converted  into  a  mosque  in  1680  by  the 
deputy  of  the  King  of  Bijapur.    The  only  prosperous  classes  of  the  popula- 
tion are  the  Brahmans  and  Lingayats.     The  influential  Brahmans  are 
generally  public  officers,   vakils   (advocates),   zaminddrs  (landowners), 
and   saiikdrs   (bankers   and  money-lenders).     The   Lingayats   are,    as 
a  rule,  traders,  who  almost  monopolize  the  export  of  cotton,  timber, 
and   grain.     Some   of   the    Musalmans   are   also   wealthy  merchants. 
A  few  Parsis  and  Marwaris,  who  have  recently  settled  in  the  town,  deal 
chiefly  in  European  goods.     The  principal  articles  of  export  are  cotton 
and  rice ;  the  imports  comprise  English  piece-goods,  chillies,  cocoa-nut, 
molasses,  dates,  betel-nut,  groceries,  indigo,  lead,  zinc,  and  wrought  and 
unwrought  copper  and  brass.     There  are  no  manufacturing  industries 
of  any  importance  ;  but  in  the  jail,  carpets,  table-linen,  cloths,  and  cane 
articles,— all   of  superior  quality,— are   made  by   the   prisoners.      In 
1882-83,  the  municipal  income  amounted  to  ^{^2509,  and  the  expendi- 
ture to  j{^2297  ;  the  incidence  of  municipal  taxation  being  is.  sd.  per 
head.     The  water-supply  is  drawn  from  two  reservoirs.     There  are  also 
several  wells  in  the  town,  but  with  one  of  two  exceptions  they  are  not 
used   for   drinking   purposes,   the  water  being  brackish.     The  native 
.  quarter   was   formerly  unhealthy ;    but  since  the  introduction  of  the 
Municipal  Act,  some  attention  has  been  paid  to  drainage  and  sanitary 
requirements. 

Dhasan.— River  of  Central  India,  rising  in  Bhopal  State,  in  latitude 
23°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  78°  32'  e.,  a  few  miles  north  of  Sirmau,  at  an 
elevation  of  2000  feet.  After  a  course  of  10  or  12  miles,  it  enters  Sagar 
(Saugor)  District,  Central  Provinces;  through  which  it  flows  for  60  miles, 


2  68  DHA  ULA  GIRI—DHA  URAHRA, 

and  then  runs  along  the  southern  boundary  of  Lalitpur  District,  North* 
Western  Provinces;  finally,  after  a  course  of  220  miles,  falling  into  the 
Betwa.  On  the  road  between  Sagar  (Saugor)  and  Rahatgarh,  the 
Dhasan  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge. 

Dhauld,giri  (Dewdldgiri).  —  Mountain  in  the  State  of  Nepal. 
Latitude  29°  11'  n.,  longitude  82°  59'  e.  One  of  the  loftiest  peaks  of 
the  Himalayas  ;  height,  26,826  feet  above  sea-level. 

Dhauleshvaram. — Town  in  Godavari  District,  Madras  Presidency. 

See  DOWLAISHVARAM. 

Dhaurahra. — Fargand  of  Nighasan  tahsil,  Kheri  District,  Oudh  j 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Kauriala,  on  the  east  by  the  Dahawar, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Chauka  rivers  ;  the  western  boundary  is 
Nighasan  pargand.  In  early  times,  prior  to  the  Muhammadan  conquest 
of  Kanauj,  Dhaurahra  was  the  freehold  property  of  Alha  and  Udal,  the 
famous  generals  of  Mahoba.  It  then  formed  a  part  of  Garh  KiU 
Navva,  which  was  settled  and  visited  by  Firoz  Shah,  and  was  probably 
owned  by  Pasis,  whose  Raja  lived  at  Dhaurahra.  The  Bisens  held  this 
tract  during  the  decline  of  the  Mughal  power ;  but  they  were  displaced 
by  the  Chauhan  Jangres,  who  now  own  it.  First  constituted  2,  pargand 
by  Nawab  Safdar  Jang.  It  consists  of  alluvial  deposits  from  the 
Kauriala  and  Chauka  rivers,  and  is  annually  inundated.  The  inhabit- 
ants suffer  much  from  fever,  and  cultivation  is  very  backward.  Soil 
principally  loam  and  clay,  rather  sandy  towards  the  Chauka.  Area, 
261  square  miles,  of  which  145  are  cultivated  and  72  cultivable.  The 
117  villages  which  the  pargand  comprises  are  held  in  idlukddri  tenure 
by  18  proprietors.  Population  (1881)  82,567,  namely,  Hindus,  74,510, 
and  Muhammadans,  8057.  Land  revenue,  ;£"8239.  The  roads  consist 
merely  of  rough  bridle-paths,  crossing  the  rivers  by  ferries.  Communi- 
cation principally  by  the  Kauriala,  Dahawar,  and  Chauka  rivers ;  by 
means  of  which,  during  ten  months  of  the  year,  a  brisk  trade  is  carried 
on  in  grain  and  oil-seeds. 

Dhaurahra. — Town  in  Kheri  District,  Oudh ;  3  miles  west  of  the 
Chauka  river,  80  miles  north  of  Lucknow,  and  73  miles  east  of  Shah- 
jahanpur.  Lat.  28°  n.,  long.  81°  9'  e.  Population  (i88r)  5767, 
namely,  Hindus,  4023  ;  and  Muhammadans,  1744.  Area  of  town  site, 
163  acres.  Constituted  a  municipality  under  the  provisions  of  Act  xv. 
of  1873.  Town  police  force  consisting  of  i  sub-inspector,  3  head- 
constables,  and  12  constables.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  the 
fugitives  from  Shahjahanpur  and  Muhamdi,  escaping  towards  Lucknow, 
sought  the  protection  of  the  Dhaurahra  Raji ;  but  he,  on  pressure  from 
the  rebel  leaders,  gave  them  up  to  their  enemies.  For  this  he  was 
afterwards  tried  and  hanged,  and  his  estates  confiscated. 

Dhaurahra.— Town  in  Faizabad  (Fyzabad)  District,  Oudh  ;  4  miles 
from  the  Gogra  river,  and  20  miles  from  Faizabad  town  on  the  road  to 


DHA  URA-KUNJA  RA—DHERI  SHAH  AN.  269 

Lucknow.  Population  (1881)  3168,  namely,  3108  Hindus  and  60 
Muhammadans.  It  contains  neither  temple,  mosque,  nor  school ;  but 
a  handsome  gateway,  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  king  of  Oudh, 
Asaf-ud-daula,  stands  just  outside  the  town.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
Dhaurahra  is  an  ancient  Hindu  shrine,  shaded  by  a  magnificent  grove 
of  tamarind  trees.  A  Hindu  legend  relates  that  Mahadeo  once  lived 
here,  his  body  being  buried  in  the  earth.  A  party  of  religious  mendi- 
cants on  their  way  to  Ajodhya  conceived  the  idea  of  digging  out 
the  deity  and  exhibiting  him  for  gain.  As  they  dug,  however,  his 
head  sank  into  the  earth,  and  the  party  fled  in  horror.  To  com- 
memorate the  miracle,  a  dome,  surrounded  by  a  masonry  platform  and 
a  wall,  was  constructed  over  the  spot  by  two  devout  merchants.  The 
place  is  now  almost  in  ruins. 

Dhaura-Kunjara.  — Petty  chiefship  under  the  Indore  Agenc>, 
Central  India.  A  remuneration  of  ^8  is  granted  to  the  thdkur  or 
chief  for  protection  of  the  roads  between  Simrol  Ghat  and  Sigwar. 

Dhenkdnal. — Tributary  State  of  Orissa,  Bengal.  Lat.  20°  31'  to 
21°  11'  30"  N.,  and  long.  85°  3'  to  86°  5'  e.  ;  area,  1463  square  miles  ; 
population  (1881)  208,316.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Pal  Lahara  and 
Keunjhar,  on  the  east  by  Cuttack  District  and  Athgarh,  on  the  south 
by  Tigaria  and  Hindol,  and  on  the  west  by  Talcher  and  Pal  Lahara, 
the  Brahmani  forming  the  boundary  for  a  considerable  distance.  This 
river  runs  from  west  to  east,  through  a  richly-cultivated  valley,  afford- 
ing a  waterway  for  trade.  Cultivable  waste  land  abounds.  Iron  is 
plentifully  found,  but  is  only  worked  on  a  small  scale.  A  petty  trade 
in  cochineal  is  also  carried  on.  Chief  village,  also  the  residence  of  the 
Raja,  Dhenkanal,  situated  in  lat.  20°  39'  45"  n.,  long.  85°  38'  16"  e. 
Weekly  markets,  for  the  sale  of  country  produce,  are  held  at  Hodipur 
and  Sadaipur  villages.  Population  (1881)  208,316,  namely,  Hindus, 
128,358;  Muhammadans,  535;  Christians,  2;  Buddhists,  48;  aboriginal 
tribes  (the  most  numerous  being  the  Savars),  79,347  ;  and  '  others,'  26. 
Estimated  annual  revenue,  ;^79oo;  tribute  payable  to  Government, 
;£"509  ;  militia,  44  men  ;  regular  police,  41 ;  rural  police,  742.  Dhen- 
kanal is  the  best  organized  and  most  prosperous  of  the  Orissa  Tributary 
States.  The  late  chief  received  the  title  of  Maharaja  in  1869,  in 
recognition  of  his  moderation  and  justice  towards  his  people,  and  of 
his  liberality  in  the  Orissa  famine  of  1866.  The  present  chief  being  a 
minor,  the  State  is  now  (1883)  under  the  direct  management  of 
Government. 

Dheri  Shahan  (or  Shdh  Dheri). — Village  in  Rawal  Pindi  tahsil, 
Rawal  Pindi  District,  Punjab.  Lat.  33°  17'  n.,  and  long.  72°  49'  15"  e. 
Identified  by  General  Cunningham  with  the  ancient  city  of  Taxila. 
The  existing  remains  extend  over  an  area  of  6  square  miles,  and  rank 
as  the  most  interesting  and  extensive,  and  the  best  preserved  memorials 


270  DHI-DHARAMRAI—DHODAR  ALL 

of  antiquity  in  the  whole  Punjab  Province.     The  number  and  size  of 
the  stupas  and  monasteries  render  them  worthy  of  the  greatest  attention. 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  region  appear  to  have  been 
the  Takkas,  who  originally  held  all  the  Sind  Sagar   Doab ;    and  from 
their  name  General  Cunningham  derives  that  of  Taxila  or  Takshasila, 
which  Arrian  describes  as  '  a  large  and  wealthy  city,  the  most  populous 
between  the  Indus  and  the  Hydaspes '  (or  Jehlam).     The  city  stood  a 
few  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Margala  Pass,  where  several  mounds  still 
mark  the  sites  of  its  principal  buildings.     Alexander  rested  his  army  at 
this  point  for  three  days,  and  was  royally  entertained  by  the  reigning 
sovereign.     The  Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrim,  Fa  Hian,  visited  Taxila, 
as   a  place  of  peculiar  sanctity,  about  400  a.d.     Again,  in  630  and 
643,  his  countryman  and  co-religionist,  Hwen  Thsang,  also  made  it 
a  halting-place  while  on  his  pilgrimage,  but  found  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment removed  to  Kashmir.    The  ruins  of  Taxila  consist  of  six  separate 
portions.     The  mound  of  Bir,  close  to  the  modern  rock-seated  village 
of  Dheri  Shahan,  abound  in  fragments  of  brick  and  pottery,  and  offers 
a  rich  mine  of  coins  and  gems  for  the  antiquary.      Hatial,  a  fortified 
spur  of  the  Margala  range,  probably  formed  the  ancient  citadel ;  it  is 
enclosed  by  a  ruined  wall,  and  crowned  by  a  large  bastion  or  tower. 
Sir-Kap  presents  the  appearance  of  a  supplementary  fortress,  united 
with  the  citadel  by  a  wall  of  circumvallation.     Kacha-Kot  possibly  gave 
shelter  to  the  elephants  and  catde  during  a  siege.     Babar-Khana  con- 
tains the  remains  of  a  stupa,  which  General  Cunningham  identifies  with 
that  of  Asoka,  mentioned  by  Hwen  Thsang.     Besides  all  these  massive 
works,  a  wide  expanse,  covered  by  monasteries  or  other  religious  build- 
ings,  stretches  on  every  side  from  the  central  city  to  a  considerable 
distance. 

Dhi-Dharamrai.  —  Petty  chiefship  under  the  Bhil  (Bheel)  or 
Bhopawar  Agency  of  Central  India.     The  population  is  entirely  Bhil. 

Dhoba  {Dhobd-Dhobini).  —  Mountain  peak  in  the  Pratdpgiri  or 
Chinna  Kimedi  estate,  Ganjam  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Latitude 
20°  N.,  longitude  84°  23'  e.  It  forms  part  of  the  Eastern  Ghat  range, 
8  miles  distant  from  Dimrigiri.  Height,  4166  feet  above  the  sea.  A 
station  of  the  Great  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India. 

Dhoba-khal. — Village  in  the  Garo  Hills  District,  Assam ;  on  the 
Somesw\ari  river,  near  which  a  fine  outcrop  of  the  coal  strata  was 
discovered  in  1873  by  the  officers  of  the  Survey.  Lat.  25°  28'  n.,  long. 
90°  46'  E. 

Dhodar  All. — One  of  the  most  important  of  the  raised'  roads  or 
embankments  constructed  in  Assam  by  forced  labour  during  the  rule 
of  the  Aham  dynasty.  It  runs  parallel  to  the  Brahmaputra  through 
the  entire  length  of  Sibsagar  District,  for  a  distance  of  117^  miles,  and 
is  under  the  management  of  the  District  Road  Committee.     It  joins 


DHOLA—DHOLKA.  271 

the  Assam  Trunk  Road  at  the  Dhaneswari  river  in  the  Golaghat  Sub- 
division. 

Dhola. — Petty  State  in  Gohelwar  pranth  or  division,  Kathiawar, 
Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency ;  consisting  of  i  village,  with  i  indepen- 
dent tribute-payer.  Estimated  revenue,  ;£i5o,  of  which  ^£"32,  los.  is 
payable  as  tribute  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda  and  ^^5,  i8s.  to  Junagarh. 

Dholarwa.  —  Petty  State  in  South  Kathiawar,  Gujarat,  Bombay 
Presidency ;  consisting  of  i  village,  with  i  independent  tribute-payer. 
Estimated  revenue,  ^200  per  annum,  of  which  £,10^  6s.  is  payable  as 
tribute  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda  and  ^^2,  6s.  to  Junagarh. 

Dholbaja. — Large  village  in  Purniah  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  26°  16' 
N.,  long.  87°  19'  21"  E.  Situated  on  the  Matiyari  road,  40  miles 
distant  from  Purniah  town,  and  16  miles  from  Basantpur  Primary 
school. 

Dholera. — Seaport  in  the  Dhandhuka  Sub -division,  Ahmadabad 
District,  Bombay  Presidency;  62  miles  south-west  of  Ahmadabad.  One 
of  the  chief  cotton-marts  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  Latitude  22°  14' 
45" N.,  and  longitude  72°  15'  25"  e.  Population  (1881)  10,301,  namely, 
7266  Hindus,  1289  Muhammadans,  1740  Jains,  4  Christians,  and  2 
Parsis.  Situated  in  the  swampy  tract  extending  along  the  west  of  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay,  within  the  limits  of  the  Peninsula  of  Kathiawar. 
Though  called  a  port,  the  town  of  Dholera  lies  about  12  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  Bhadar  or  Dholera  creek  on  which  it  stands  is  said 
to  have  been,  a  century  ago,  open  for  boats  up  to  Dholera;  but  for 
the  last  fifty  years  the  creek  has  silted  up  and  trade  passes  through  tw^o 
ports — Khun,  about  5  miles  lower  down  on  the  same  creek,  and  Bavliari, 
on  an  inlet  of  the  sea  about  16  miles  south.  The  space  between  the 
town  and  the  port  was  traversed  by  a  tramway  constructed  by  a 
company  of  native  speculators  at  a  cost  of  ;2^5ooo,  but  it  has  ceased 
to  run.  There  is  a  lighthouse  at  the  entrance  to  the  creek,  Post-office, 
telegraph  office,  3  Government  schools,  police  station,  and  dispensary. 
Dholera  has  given  the  trade  name  to  a  quality  of  cotton  well  known  in 
the  European  market :  during  the  American  War  (1862-65)  ^^  was  the 
chief  cotton  port  in  Gujarat. 

Dholka. — Sub-division  of  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  Sanand ;  on  the.  east  by  Kaira  District  and 
Cambay ;  on  the  south  by  Dhandhuka  ;  and  on  the  west  by  Kathiawar. 
Area,  665  square  miles  ;  contains  i  town  and  117  villages.  Population 
(1881)  111,192,  namely,  56,485  males  and  54, 707  females.  Hindus  num- 
ber 98,080;  Muhammadans,  11,284;  'others,'  1828.  The  Sub-division 
is  a  plain  sloping  south-west  to  the  little  Rann.  In  the  east  along  the 
Sabarmati  the  fields  are  hedged  and  the  land  is  thickly  planted  with 
fruit-trees.  The  south-west  is  a  bleak  country  exposed  to  the  biting 
winds  of  the  cold  season.     The  only  river  is  the  Sabarmati.     In  1877 


2  7  2  DHOLKA^DHOLPUR. 

there  were  2534  wells,  132  water  lifts,  and  725  ponds.  Average  rain- 
fall, 30  inches.  In  the  year  of  the  Bombay  thirty  years'  settlement 
(1856-57),  there  were  9763  holdings  with  an  average  acreage  of  12 
acres,  paying  an  average  rental  of  ^i,  os.  pd.  Agricultural  stock 
in  1877  — horned  cattle,  47,839;  horses,  1068;  sheep  and  goats, 
12,181;  camels,  79;  ploughs,  10,532;  carts,  4358.  In  1878,  the 
total  area  of  cultivated  land  was  222,141  acres,  of  which  27  per  cent, 
were  fallow  or  under  grass.  Cereals  occupied  136,891  acres  out  of 
the  162,714  under  actual  cultivation;  wheat  occupied  91,638  acres; 
iodr,  29,889;  cotton,  14,638.  In  1884,  the  Sub-division  contained  i 
civil  and  2  criminal  courts  ;  police  stations,  3  ;  regular  police,  102  men  ; 
village  watchmen  {chaiikiddrs),  334.     Land  revenue  (1883),  ;^2 9,986. 

Dholka.  —  Chief  town  of  the  Dholka  Sub-division,  Ahmadabad 
District,  Bombay  Presidency;  22  miles  south-west  of  Ahmadabad. 
Latitude  22°  43'  30"  n.,  longitude  72°  28'  30"  e.  Population  (1881) 
17,716,  namely,  11,880  Hindus,  5658  Muhammadans,  126  Jains, 
and  9  Parsis.  Municipal  revenue  (1881-82),  £^()2  ;  rate  of  taxation, 
IS.  ijd.  per  head.  Dholka  is  situated  amidst  ruined  palaces, 
mosques,  mausoleums,  and  spacious  tanks,  embanked  and  lined  with 
masonry.  Though  not  regularly  fortified,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  mud  4  miles  in  circumference.  Probably  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  Gujarat.  Dholka  lies  on  the  river  Sabarmati,  on  the  chief  land- 
route  between  Gujarat  proper  and  Kathiawar.  It  is  supposed,  in 
the  early  Hindu  period,  to  have  been  the  resting-place  of  the 
Pandyas,  of  Prince  Kanaksen  of  the  Solar  race,  of  Minal  Devi,  the 
mother  of  Sidhi  Raj  of  Anhilwada  (1094-1143),  and  of  Vir  Dhaval, 
the  founder  of  the  Vaghela  dynasty  (13th  century).  During  the 
Muhammadan  period,  Dholka  was  the  residence  of  a  local  governor 
from  Delhi,  and  it  still  contains  the  remains  of  many  fine  Musalman 
buildings.  It  was  taken  by  the  Marathas  in  1736;  came  into  the 
Gaekwar's  hands  in  1757;  and  was  eventually  ceded  to  the  British  in 
1804.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  Kasbdtis  ('townsmxen'), 
the  descendants  of  the  soldiers  of  fortune  who  came  with  the  Vaghelas 
when  driven  from  Anhilwada  by  the  Khilji  Ala-ud-din  in  1297.  The 
chief  industry  is  the  weaving  of  women's  robes,  saris,  the  best  of  their 
kind  in  Ahmadabad  District.  There  are  5  schools,  sub-judge's  court, 
post-office,  and  dispensary. 

Dholpur.  —  Native  State  in  Rajputdna,  Central  India,  under  the 
political  superintendence  of  the  Dholpur  Agency.  Lies  between 
26°  22'  and  26°  57'  N.  latitude,  and  between  77°  16'  and  78°  19'  e. 
longitude;  area,  1200  square  miles.  It  extends  from  north-east  to 
south-west  for  a  length  of  72  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  16 
miles.  Dholpur  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  British  District  of 
Agra,  from  which  it  is  for  the  most  part  divided  by  the  Banganga  river; 


DHOLPUR.  273 

on  the  south  by  the  river  Chambal,  which  separates  it  from  the  State  of 
GwaHor ;  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  Karauh'  (Kerowlee)  and  Bhartpur 
(Bhurtpore).     Chief  town,  Dholpur. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  Chambal  flows  from  south-west  to  north-east 
for  over  100  miles  through  Dholpur  territory.  During  the  dry  weather 
it  is  a  sluggish  stream  300  yards  wide,  and  lies  170  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  country.  In  the  rains  it  rises  generally  about 
70  feet  above  its  summer  level ;  its  breadth  is  then  increased  by  more 
than  1000  yards,  and  it  runs  at  the  rate  of  5|-  miles  an  hour.  It  is 
bordered  everywhere  by  a  labyrinth  of  ravines,  some  of  which  are  90 
feet  deep,  and  extend  to  a  distance  of  from  2  to  4  miles  from  the  river's 
bank.  The  Chambal  is  unnavigable  on  account  of  its  rapid  changes  of 
level.  Boats  ply  at  16  ghats  or  crossings  between  the  Dholpur  and 
Gwalior  banks.  The  most  important  crossing  is  at  Rajghat,  3  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  Dholpur,  on  the  high  road  between  Agra  and 
Bombay.  A  bridge  of  boats  is  kept  up  between  the  ist  November 
and  the  15th  June,  and  a  large  ferry-boat  plies  during  the  rest  of  the 
year.  No  tributaries  fall  into  the  Chambal  during  its  course  through 
Dholpur  territory.  The  Banganga  or  Utangan  river,  rising  in  the  hills 
near  Bairat  in  Jaipur,  runs  for  about  40  miles  between  the  northern 
boundary  of  Dholpur  and  the  District  of  Agra ;  its  bed  is  about 
40  feet  below  the  surrounding  country,  and  in  the  rains  it  is  liable 
to  floods,  with  a  rise  of  from  17  to  20  feet.  The  other  rivers  are 
the  Parbati,  which  rises  in  Karauli,  and,  traversing  Dholpur  in  a 
north-easterly  direction,  falls  into  the  Banganga;  and  its  two  tribu- 
taries, the  Merka  and  Merki.  These  three  streams  dry  up  in  the  hot 
season,  leaving  only  occasional  pools  where  the  channels  are  deep. 
The  general  nature  of  the  soil  being  a  friable  alluvium  overlying  a 
stratum  of  stiff  yellow  clay,  the  beds  of  all  the  rivers  in  Dholpur  are 
considerably  below  the  general  level  of  the  country,  and  all  their  banks 
are  more  or  less  cut  up  and  fringed  with  ravines. 

A  ridge  of  red  sandstone,  varying  in  breadth  from  2  to  14  miles,  with  an 
elevation  of  from  560  to  1074  feet  above  sea-level,  runs  for  over  60  miles 
through  the  State  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length.  It  affords  a 
valuable  stone  for  building  purposes,  fine  grained  and  easily  worked 
in  the  quarries ;  it  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  does  not 
deteriorate  by  lamination.  The  railway  bridge  over  the  Chambal 
is  built  entirely  of  this  stone.  Kankar,  or  nodular  limestone,  is 
found  in  many  places  in  the  ravines  leading  to  the  rivers ;  and  a  bed 
of  excellent  limestone  occurs  on  the  banks  of  the  Chambal,  near  the 
Agra  and  Bombay  road,  within  2 J  miles  of  the  town  of  Dholpur. 
No  coal  or  metallic  ores  are  found  in  the  State.  The  soil  is  every- 
where poor  on  the  sandstone  ridge,  and  in  its  immediate  vicinity ; 
but  it  becomes  richer  and  more  fertile  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 

VOL.  IV.  s 


2  74  DHOLPUR, 

distance  from  the  ridge.  In  the  north  and  north-west,  the  soil  is  for 
the  most  part  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  known  as  domat^  which  is  as 
productive  as  the  best  land  in  Agra  District.  To  the  north-east,  in  the 
Rajakhera /^r§-^;/i,  an  area  of  about  90  square  miles  is  covered  with 
black  soil,  similar  to  that  of  Bundelkhand,  yielding  excellent  cold 
weather  crops.  Dholpur  is  a  grain-producing  country,  and  is  not  j 
remarkable  for  any  special  manufactures.  The  chief  crops  raised  are 
bdjra  (Holcus  spicatus),  moth^  and  jodr  (Holcus  sorghum) ;  and  in 
the  cold  season  a  considerable  quantity  of  wheat  and  barley.  Cotton 
and  rice  are  also  produced.  Irrigation  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
tanks  and  wells,  the  average  depth  at  which  water  is  found  being  25 
feet.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  State  (768,000  acres),  about  50  per 
cent,  is  under  cultivation.  About  43*3  per  cent,  of  the  country  is 
barren,  and  about  3  per  cent,  is  occupied  by  villages,  rivers,  tanks,  etc. 
The  land  tenures  are  in  most  respects  similar  to  those  of  the  North- 
western Provinces,  with  this  important  exception,  that  in  Dholpur,  as 
under  other  Native  Governments,  the  chief  is  the  absolute  owner  of  the 
land.  The  zaminddrs,  or  la??ibarddrs  as  they  are  more  usually  termed, 
are  persons  (generally  descendants  of  the  original  founders  of  the 
village)  who  contract  with  the  State  for  the  payment  of  the  revenue 
demand,  which  they  collect  from  the  cultivators.  So  long  as  they 
observe  their  contract,  they  are  considered  as  owners  of  the  land 
actually  cultivated  by  them  and  by  their  tenants,  and  also  of  uncultivated 
land  sufficient  for  the  grazing  of  the  village  cattle.  The  remainder  of 
the  untilled  land,  with  its  produce,  groves,  tanks,  etc.,  belongs  to  the 
State. 

Population. — A  rough  Census  of  the  population  taken  during  the  sur- 
vey of  the  State  in  1876,  showed  a  total  of  227,976  inhabitants.  The 
regular  general  Census  of  1881,  five  years  later,  disclosed  a  population 
of  249,657  persons,  dwelling  in  4  towns  and  534  villages,  and  occupying 
48,429  houses;  average  density  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile,  208*04; 
number  of  towns  and  villages  per  square  mile,  "45  ;  number  of 
houses  per  square  mile,  40*35 ;  number  of  persons  per  house, 
5-15.  Total  males,  138,342;  females,  111,315.  Classified  according 
to  religion,  there  were  returned  229,050  Hindus,  18,097  Muhammadans, 
27  Christians,  and  2483  Jains.  Among  the  Muhammadans  were 
included  9680  Shaikhs,  970  Sayyids,  229  MughaJs,  5585  Pathans,  and 
1633  '  others.'  The  most  numerous  classes  are  at  two  extremes  of  the 
Hindu  social  scale — Brahmans,  44,347,  and  Chamars,  35,075.  Rajputs 
number  23,766;  Giijars,  19,482;  Kachhis,  2510 ;  Minas,  11,924;  Jats, 
3932;  Baniyas,  13,664;  Ahirs,  768;  and  other  Hindu  castes,  76,065. 
The  Muhammadans  live  for  the  most  part  in  the  towns  of  Bari  and 
Dholpur.  The  Giijars,  the  oldest  known  inhabitants  of  the  country 
are  generally  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Chambal,  in  the  Dang  01 


DHOLPUR, 


275 


ravine  taluks  of  Ban  and  Gird ;  they  are  great  cattle-lifters.  The 
Minas,  believed  to  have  come  originally  from  Jaipur  (Jeypore),  are 
among  the  best  cultivators  of  the  State.  The  people  generally  are 
engaged  in  tilling  the  land,  and  the  whole  country  is  agricultural.  The 
dominant  religion  is  Hinduism  of  the  Vishnuvite  sect.  Four  towns 
have  a  population  of  over  5000,  namely,  Dholpur  (15,833),  Purani 
Chaoni  (5246),  Barf  (11,547),  and  Rajakhera  (6247).  In  1882,  8 
schools,  with  a  total  daily  attendance  of  447  pupils,  were  maintained 
in  the  larger  towns  of  the  State.  In  one  of  these,  English,  Persian, 
and  Hindi  are  taught ;  in  three,  Persian  and  Hindi  \  and  in  four, 
Hindi  alone. 

The  Trunk  Road  from  Agra  to  Bombay  runs  through  the  State  from 
north  to  south,  passing  by  Dholpur  town.  There  are  no  other 
metalled  roads  but  a  few  fair-weather  tracks — one  leading  from  Dholpur 
by  Rajakhera  to  Agra ;  a  second  with  a  main  direction  west  from 
Dholpur  to  Bari,  and  thence  to  Bhartpur  on  one  side  and  Karauli  on 
the  other;  a  third  having  a  main  direction  to  the  north-east  from 
Dholpur  to  Kolari  and  Baseri,  and  thence  to  Karauli. 

The  Sindhia  State  Railway,  between  Agra  and  Gwalior,  runs  through 
the  State  in  a  direction  generally  parallel  to  the  Grand  Trunk  Road. 
It  crosses  the  Chambal  by  a  bridge  of  12  spans  of  200  feet  each,  about 
112  feet  above  the  river  bed. 

Ad}ninist7'aiio7i. — The  land  revenue  of  Dholpur  in  1882-83  amounted 
to  ;!^7 1,400.  Customs  and  other  sources  of  revenue  brought  up 
the  gross  total  to  ;^i  10,572.  The  expenditure  in  the  same  year 
was  ^91,001.  The  land,  which  had  not  been  surveyed  since  1570, 
in  the  reign  of  Akbar,  was  re-surveyed  in  1875-76,  preparatory  to  a 
re-settlement  which  was  conducted  on  a  basis  similar  to  that  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces,  but  simpler  in  its  details.  For  fiscal  purposes 
the  State  is  divided  into  the  following  five  sub-divisions  or  tahsils — 
namely.  Gird  Dholpur,  of  5  taluks ;  Bari,  of  7  taluks ;  Baseri,  of  2 
taluks ;  Kolari,  of  3  taluks  ;  and  Rajakhera,  of  2  taluks.  Fifty-seven 
villages  in  the  State  belong  to  jdgirddrs^  who  in  return  are  expected 
themselves  to  serve  in  the  State  army,  and  to  furnish  a  certain  number 
of  horsemen  for  the  State  service ;  44  villages  have  been  set  apart 
principally  as  religious  grants ;  and  the  State  exercises  the  right  of 
interference  in  cases  of  oppression  or  exaction  on  the  part  of  the 
jdgirddrs.  The  Maharaj  Rana  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  regency 
consisting  of  three  members.  The  Dholpur  jail  is  managed  on 
a  system  similar  to  that  in  British  jails.  It  contains  an  average 
of  130  prisoners.  The  police  and  judicial  administration  is  under 
the  Nazim,  or  chief  civil  and  criminal  judge,  who  tries  all  cases ;  but 
those  involving  a  punishment  heavier  than  three  years'  imprisonment 
must  be  referred  for  confirmation  to  the  Council  of  Manasrement.      In 


2  76  DHOLPUR. 

1882-83,  1978  criminal  cases  were  disposed  of;  and  348  civil  suits 
were  heard.  There  are  1 1  police  stations  and  44  outposts,  with  a 
watchman  in  each  village.  A  small  forest  department  is  employed  in 
each  pargand  under  the  tahsilddr.  The  arrangements  for  the  collection 
of  customs  are  co-ordinate  with  those  for  land  revenue. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthy.  The  hot  winds  blow  steadily  and, 
strongly  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June.  The  annual  rain- 
fall averages  from  27  to  30  inches.  There  are  three  State  dispensaries, 
at  which  20,561  cases  were  treated  in  1882;  7895  persons  were  vac- 
cinated during  the  same  period. 

History. — According  to  local  tradition,  Dholpur  derives  its  name  from 
Raja  Dholan  Deo  Tonwar  (of  the  ancient  Tomar  or  Tonwar  dynasty  of 
Delhi),  who  about  1004  a.d.  held  the  country  between  the  Chambal 
and  Banganga  rivers.  Previous  to  that  time  it  is  supposed  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Kanauj.  Very  little  is  authentically 
known  of  the  country  until  the  Musalman  conquests,  with  which  it 
became  early  incorporated.  Dholpur  for  a  time  resisted  Babar,  but 
under  Akbar  the  State  formed  part  of  the  Muhammadan  Subah,  or 
province,  of  Agra.  In  1658,  the  sons  of  Shahjahan,  Aurangzeb  and 
Murad,  fought  for  empire  at  Ranka  Chabutra,  three  miles  east 
of  Dholpur,  Aurangzeb  proving  victorious.  After  the  death  of 
Aurangzeb,  Dholpur  was  again  the  scene  of  a  struggle  for  empire. 
Within  its  territory  the  sons  of  Aurangzeb,  Azam  and  Muazzam, 
decided  their  pretensions  in  the  field,  and  the  former  prince  was 
slain ;  but  Raja  Kalian  Singh  Bhadauriya,  taking  advantage  of  the 
troubles  which  beset  the  new  emperor  on  every  side,  obtained 
possession  of  the  Dholpur  territory.  The  Bhadauriyas  remained 
undisturbed  till  1761,  when  the  Jat  Raja,  Siiraj  Mall  of  Bhartpur 
(Bhurtpore),  after  the  battle  of  Panipat,  seized  upon  Agra  and  overran 
the  country.  During  the  succeeding  forty-five  years,  Dholpur  changed 
masters  no  less  than  five  times.  In  1775,  it  shared  the  fate  of  the  rest 
of  the  Bhartpur  possessions,  which  were  seized  by  Mirza  Najaf  Khan. 
On  the  death  of  Mirza  in  1782,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sindhia.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Maratha  war  in  1803,  it  was  occupied  by  the  British, 
by  whom,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  Sarji  Anjengaon,  it  was,  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  ceded  to  the  Gwalior  chief.  In  1805,  under  fresh 
arrangements  with  Daulat  Rao  Sindhia,  it  was  resumed  by  the  English, 
who  in  1806,  finally  uniting  the  territories  of  Dholpur,  Ban',  and  Raja- 
khera  with  Sir  Muttra  into  one  State,  made  it  over  to  Maharana  Kirat 
Singh  (the  ancestor  of  the  present  chief  of  Dholpur)  in  exchange  for  his 
territory  of  Gohad,  which  was  given  up  to  Sindhia.  The  reigning 
family  of  Dholpur  are  Jats  of  the  Bamraolia  family,  belonging  to  the 
Deswali  tribe,  which  claims  a  very  ancient  lineage.  The  ancestor  of  the 
family  is  said  to  have  been  in  possession  of  lands  at  Bamraoli  near 


DHOLPUR,  277 

Agra  in  11 95,  from  which  circumstance  they  have  taken  their  name. 
They  joined  the  side  of  the  Rajputs  against  the  Musahiians,  and 
received  a  grant  of  the  territory  of  Gohad,  whence  the  title  of  Rana  was 
assumed.  This  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  1505  a.d.  They  appear  to 
have  become  connected  with  Baji  Rao  Peshwa  ;  and  in  1761,  when  the 
Marathas  had  been  completely  defeated  at  Panipat,  Rana  Bhim  Singh 
seized  the  fort  of  Gwalior.  In  1777,  Sindhia  besieged  and  took  the 
fortress.  In  order  to  form  a  barrier  against  the  Marathas,  Warren 
Hastings  in  1779  made  a  treaty  with  the  Rana,  and  the  joint  forces  of 
the  English  and  the  Rana  retook  Gwahor.  In  1781,  a  treaty  with 
Sindhia  stipulated  for  the  integrity  of  the  Gohad  territories  ;  but  after 
the  treaty  of  Salbye,  the  Maharana  was  abandoned,  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  been  guilty  of  treachery,  and  Sindhia  re-possessed  himself  oi 
Gohad  and  Gwalior.  The  Rana  went  into  exile,  until  Lord  Wellesley's 
policy  against  the  Marathas  again  brought  him  forward,  when  the  terri- 
tories of  Dholpur  were  made  over  to  Kirat  Singh  in  1804.  But  in  1805, 
Lord  Cornwallis  re-transferred  Gohad  and  Gwalior  to  Sindhia,  leaving 
to  the  Rana  the  lands  which  he  still  possesses.  Kirat  Singh's  successor, 
Bhagwant  Singh,  showed  a  loyal  attachment  to  the  British  Government, 
especially  during  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  for  which  he  received  the  insignia 
of  K.C.S.I.  He  died  in  1873,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson, 
the  present  chief,  Maharaja  Rana  Nihal  Singh,  born  in  1863,  whose 
mother  is  a  sister  of  the  Raja  of  Patiala.  The  Rana  of  Dholpur  is 
entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns.  The  military  force  of  the  State  consists 
of  600  cavalry,  3650  infantry,  32  field  guns,  and  100  gunners. 

Dholpur. — The  capital  of  the  Native  State  of  Dholpur,  Rajputana, 
Central  India,  situated  in  lat.  26°  42'  n.,  and  long.  77°  56'  e.,  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  Road  between  Agra  and  Bombay,  about  34  miles 
south  of  Agra  and  37  miles  north-west  of  GwaHor.  In  1881  it 
contained  a  population  of  15,833,  namely,  10,587  Hindus,  5215 
Muhammadans,  and  31  'others.'  Three  miles  south  of  Dholpur,  the 
Chambal  river  is  crossed  at  Rdjghat  by  a  bridge  of  boats  between 
the  I  St  November  and  the  15th  June,  and  by  ferry  during  the  rest 
of  the  year.  The  Sindhia  State  Railway  between  Agra  and  Gwalior 
passes  through  Dholpur,  and  the  railway  bridge  across  the  Chambal 
is  within  a  distance  of  5  miles.  The  original  town  is  supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  Raja  Dholan  Deo  in  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century, 
to  the  south  of  the  present  site.  The  Emperor  Babar  mentions 
Dholpur,  and  states  that  it  surrendered  to  him  in  1526.  His  son, 
Prince  Humayiin,  is  said  to  have  moved  the  site  farther  to  the  north, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  encroachments  of  the  Chambal  river.  An  enclosed, 
and  to  some  extent  fortified,  sm'di  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Akbar.  The 
new  portion  of  the  town  and  the  palace  of  the  Rdna  were  built  by  Rana 
Kirat  Singh,  the  great-grandfather  of  the  present  chief.      K  fair  is  held 


278  DHOL  SAMUDRA—DHRANGADRA. 

here  for  fifteen  days  in  the  latter  part  of  October,  when  a  large  traffic  in 
merchandise,  cattle,  and  horses  is  carried  on.  Goods  are  brought  from 
Delhi,  Agra,  Cawnpur,  and  Lucknow.  Religious  fairs  for  the  purpose 
of  bathing  are  held  at  Machkiind,  a  lake  3  miles  to  the  west  of 
Dholpur,  in  May,  and  again  at  the  beginning  of  September.  The  lake, 
which  covers  an  area  of  41  acres,  lies  in  a  natural  hollow  of  great 
depth ;  it  is  filled  in  the  rains  by  the  drainage  of  the  surrounding 
country,  and  maintained  by  the  convergence  of  springs  having  their, 
sources  in  the  sandstone  hills  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  lake  has 
no  less  than  114  temples  on  its  banks,  none  of  an  earlier  date  than  the 
15th  century.  Another  large  fair  is  held  at  Salpau,  14  miles  north-west 
of  Dholpur,  at  the  end  of  February. 

Dhol  Samudrd. — Marsh  in  Faridpur  District,  Bengal ;  situated  to 
the  south-east  of  Faridpur  town.  During  the  rains  it  expands  into 
a  lake  of  about  8  miles  in  circumference,  the  water  extending  close 
to  the  houses  of  the  town.  In  the  cold  weather  it  gradually  dwindles, 
and  in  the  hot  season  is  only  a  mile  or  two  in  circumference. 

Dhonegaon. — Town  in  Buld^na  District,  Berar.  Population  (1881) 
4259- 

Dhoraji. — Fortified  town  in  the  peninsula  of  Kathidwdr,  Gujarat, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  21°  45'  n.,  longitude  70°  37'  e.  ;  43  miles 
south-west  of  Rajkot,  and  52  miles  east  of  Porbandar.  Population  {1881) 
16,121,  namely,  6991  Hindus,  8210  Muhammadans,  and  920  Jains. 

Dhotria-Baisola.  —  Petty  chiefship  of  Dhdr  Native  State,  under 
the  Bhil  or  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India.  Under  a  settlement 
made  in  18 18  the  thdkur  or  chief  engaged  to  pay  annually  ;i{^2  5o  to 
the  State  of  Dhar.  Population  entirely  Bhil.  The  chief  holds  9 
villages. 

Dhrafa.  —  Petty  State  of  the  Halil  prd?it  or  division  of  Kathiiwdr, 
Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists  of  24  villages,  with  9 
independent  tribute  -  payers.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at  ^^6000  ; 
tribute  is  paid  of  ;£37o,  12s.  to  the  British  Government,  and  of 
;^ii6,  I  OS.  to  the  State  of  Junagarh. 

Dhrangadrd.— Native  State  under  the  Political  Agency  of  Kathid- 
war,  Province  of  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency.  It  Hes 
between  22°  30'  and  23°  n.  latitude,  and  between  71°  and  71°  49'  e. 
longitude,  and  contains  an  area  of  1142  square  miles,  with  129 
villages.  Population  (1881)  99,686,  namely,  88,665  Hindus,  5686 
Muhammadans,  and  5335  '  others.'  An  uneven  tract  intersected 
by  small  streams,  and  consisting  of  hilly  and  rocky  ground,  where 
stone  is  quarried.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  extent  of  rich 
black  loam,  the  soil  is  of  inferior  quality.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
healthy.  The  principal  crops  are  cotton  and  the  common  varieties 
of  grain.     The  manufactures  are  salt,  copper  and  brass  vessels,  stone 


DHRANGADRA—DHROL.  279 

handmills,  cloth,  and  pottery.      There   are   no   made  roads,  but  the 
country    tracks    permit    the    passage    of    pack-bullocks.       Dholera, 
about  70  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Dhrangadra  town,  in  Ahmadabad 
District,  is  the  nearest  port.     There  are  31  schools,  with  1400  pupils. 
The  chief  of  Dhrangadra  entered  into   engagements  with  the  British 
Government  in    1807.     Among  the  small  chieftains  of  Kathiawdr,  he 
holds  the  position  of  a  ruler  of  a  first-class  State,  and  is  entitled  to  a 
salute  of  1 1  guns.     The  chief  bears  the  title  of  Raja  Sahib.     He  is  a 
Hindu,  a  Rajput  by  caste,  and  of  the  Jhala  stock.     He  pays  to  the 
British  Government  and  the  Nawab  of  Junagarh  an  annual  tribute  of 
;£'4467,  143.,  and  maintains  a  military  force  of  2150  men.     He  holds 
no  sanad  authorizing  adoption,  and  the  succession  follows  the  rule  of 
primogeniture.     He  has  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  own  subjects. 
The  Jhala  family  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  said  to  have   entered 
Kathiawar  from  the  north,  and  to  have  established  itself  first  at  Patri, 
in  the  Viramgam  Sub-division  of  Ahmadabad  District,  whence  it  moved 
to  Halwad,  and  finally  to  its  present  seat.     The  greater  part  of  this 
territory   would    seem   to   have   been   annexed   at   one   time   by   the 
Muhammadan  rulers  of  Guzerat.     Subsequently,   during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Aurangzeb  (1658-1707),  the  Sub-division  of  Halwad,  then 
called  Muhammadnagar,  was  restored  to  the  Jhala  family.     The  petty 
States  of  Limri,  Wadhwan,  Chiira,  Sayla,  and  Than-Lakhtar  in  Kathia- 
war are  offshoots  from  Dhrangadra  ;  and  the  house  of  Wankaner  claims 
to  be  descended  from  an  elder  branch  of  the  same  race.     Transit  dues 
are  not  levied  in  the  State.     The  gross  revenue  in  1882  was  ;£4o,ooo. 
Dhrangadra.— Chief  town  of   the    Native    State  of    Dhrangadra, 
Kathiawdr,  Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency.     Lat.    22'   59'   10"   n.,  long. 
71°   31' E.;  75   miles  west  of  Ahmadabad.     Population  (1881)  12,304, 
namely,  8914  Hindus,  1473  Muhammadans,  19 13  Jains,  and  4  Christians. 
The  town  is  fortified. 

DhroL— Native  State  under  the  Political  Agency  of  Kathiawar,  Pro- 
vince of  Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency;  situated  between  22°  14  and 
22°  42' N.  lat,  and  between  70°  24  and  70^45' E. long.  It  lies  inland,  and 
contains  i  town  and  64  villages.  Area,  400  square  miles.  Population 
(1881)  21,777,  namely,  18,501  Hindus,  2644  Muhammadans,  and  631 
*  others.'  The  country  is  for  the  most  part  undulating  and  rocky.  The  soil 
is  generally  light,  and  irrigated  by  water  drawn  from  wells  and  rivers  by 
means  of  leather  bags.  The  cUmate,  though  hot  in  the  months  of 
April,  May,  and  October,  is  generally  healthy.  The  crops  are  sugar- 
cane and  the  ordinary  varieties  of  grain.  Coarse  cotton  cloth  is 
manufactured  to  a  small  extent.  There  are  no  made  roads,  but  the 
country  tracks  permit  the  passage  of  carts.  The  produce  is  chiefly 
exported  from  Jodiya,  a  town  on  the  coast.  The  gross  revenue  is 
estimated  at  ^11,700.     There  are  4  schools,  with  270  pupils.     Dhrol 


28o  DHROL—DHULIA. 

ranks  as  a  second-class  State  among  the  States  in  Kathiavvar.  The 
ruler  entered  into  engagements  with  the  British  Government  in  1807. 
The  chief  is  a  Rajput  by  caste,  of  the  Jareja  branch,  with  the  title  of 
Thakur  Sahib.  He  holds  no  saiiad  authorizing  adoption,  and  the 
succession  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture.  He  pays  a  tribute  of 
^£1023,  2S.  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda  and  the  Nawab  of  Junagarh, 
and  maintains  a  military  force  of  118  men.  He  has  power  of  life  and 
death  over  his  own  subjects.  No  transit  duties  are  levied  in  the 
State. 

Dhrol.  —  Chief  town  of  the  Native  State  of  Dhrol,  Kathiawar, 
Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency;  situated  in  latitude  12°  34'  n.,  and 
longitude  70°  30'  e.  Population  (1881)  4613,  being  3109  Hindus, 
1 133  Muhammadans,  and  371  Jains. 

Dhubri. — Sub-division  of  Goalpara  District,  comprising  the  two 
police  circles  of  Dhubri  and  Sukchar.  Total  population  (1881) 
282,010,  namely,  Hindus,  191,163;  Muhammadans,  89,357;  and 
'others,'  1490.     Number  of  villages,  662  ;  number  of  houses,  50,617. 

Dhubri.— Chief  town  of  Goalpara  District,  Assam,  the  head-quarters 
having  been  removed  from  Goalpara  town  in  1879;  situated  in  lat. 
26°  2'  N.,  and  long.  90°  2  e.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra, 
at  the  point  where  that  river  leaves  the  valley  of  Assam,  and  turns  south 
to  enter  the  plains  of  Bengal.  Population  (1881)  2893.  Dhubri 
is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  Superintendent  of  Telegraphy,  Assam 
Division ;  and  as  the  terminus  of  the  emigration  road  running  through 
Northern  Bengal,  and  a  stopping-place  for  Assam  steamers,  the  town 
is  rapidly  rising  in  importance.  Dhubri  is  now  (1882)  the  terminus 
of  a  service  conducted  by  the  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway ;  and 
steamers  ply  daily  in  connection  with  that  railway,  between  Dhubri  and 
Kurigram  on  the  Dharla  river  in  the  rainy  season,  and  with  Jatrapur 
on  the  Brahmaputra  in  the  cold  weather.  A  steam  ferry  crosses  the 
Brahmaputra  to  Fakirganj  town. 

Dhude.— Petty  State  in  the  Bombay  Presidency. — 6'f^DANG  States. 

Dhulapra.-^/^//,  or  natural  reservoir  in  Saharanpur  District,  North- 
western Provinces,  7  miles  west  of  Saharanpur  town.  In  connection 
with  the  drainage  arrangements  of  the  Eastern  Jumna  Canal,  a  cut  has 
been  made  from  this  jJiil  for  purposes  of  reclamation ;  but  up  to  the 
end  of  1882,  only  500  bighds  had  been  reclaimed. 

Dhulatia.  —  A  guaranteed  Thakurate  or  petty  chiefship  of  the 
Western  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India.  Receives  ^£"40  per  annum 
from  Sindhia,  and  ;£6o  from  Holkar  as  tankha  on  Malidpur  and 
Depdlpur. 

Dhlilia. — Sub-division  of  Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Area,  759  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  78,137;  average  density,  103 
persons  per  square  mile.     Since  the  Census  of  1872,  the  population 


DHULIA.  281 

has  increased  by  9814.  Number  of  villages,  152,  of  which  2  are 
alienated.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Virdel ;  on  the  east  by  Pachora 
and  Amalner ;  on  the  south  by  Sub-divisions  of  Nasik  District ;  and  on 
the  west  by  Pimpalner.  Four  square  miles  are  occupied  by  the  lands 
of  alienated  villages.  The  remainder,  according  to  the  revenue  survey, 
contains  345,250  acres,  or  72  per  cent.,  of  arable  land.  Of  these,  m 
1878,  178,109  acres,  or  53  per  cent,  were  under  tillage.  In 
1862-63,  the  year  of  the  Bombay  settlement  for  the  Sub-division,  it 
embraced  6747  holdings,  with  an  average  area  of  24  acres,  paymg  an 
average  rent  of  ^2,  3s.  4d.  In  1878,  cereals  occupied  61  per  cent,  of 
the  land  under  tillage;  pulses,  6*5  per  cent;  oil-seeds,  87  per  cent; 
cotton,  22  per  cent.  The  Sub-division  is  broken  by  low  hills,  is 
watered  by  the  Panjhra  and  Bori  rivers,  and  is  on  the  whole  fairly 
wooded  and  well  cultivated.  It  is  traversed  from  north  to  south  by 
the  road  from  Agra  to  Bombay,  which  divides  it  into  two  nearly 
equal  portions,  and  passes  through  the  town  of  Dhiilia.  The  climate 
is  fairly  healthy,  except  just  after  the  rains.  The  average  rainfall  of 
the  last  12  years  was  23*16  inches.  The  water-supply,  especially  in 
the  south,  is  scanty.  The  prevailing  soil  is  red,  but  there  are  some 
patches  of  excellent  black  loam.  The  petty  district  of  Songir  is 
included  in  Dhiilia  Sub-division.  Land  revenue  of  the  Sub-division 
(1883),  ^18,651. 

Dhiilia.— Chief  town  of  Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency, 
and  head-quarters  of  the  Dhiiha  Sub-division  ;  situated  in  latitude  20° 
54'  N.,  and  longitude  74°  46'  30"  e.,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Panjhra 
river,  and  30  miles  north  of  Chalisgaon,  the  nearest  railway  station. 
Area,  including  suburbs,  about  2  square  miles  ;  houses,  3000.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  18,449,  namely,  14,018  Hindus,  2973  Muhammadans,  445 
Jains,  245  Christians,  26  Parsis,  and  742  'others.'  Municipal  revenue 
(1882-83),  ^2998  ;  municipal  expenditure,  ;£2535  ;  rate  of  taxation, 
2S.  7|d.  per  head.  The  town  is  divided  into  New  and  Old  Dhiilia. 
In  the  latter,  the  houses  are  irregularly  built,  the  majority  being  of 
a  very  humble  description.  In  the  former  there  are  regular  streets 
of  well-built  houses,  with  a  fine  stone  bridge  crossing  the  Panjhra. 
In  1872,  Dhiilia  was  visited  by  a  severe  flood,  which  did  much  damage 
to  houses  and  property. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  Dhiilia  was  an  insignificant 
village,  subordinate  to  Laling,  the  capital  of  the  Laling  or  Fatehabad 
Sub-division.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Nizam,  Laling  was  incorporated 
with  the  District  of  Daulatabad.  The  fort  of  Ldling  occupies  the 
summit  of  a  high  hill,  about  6  miles  from  Dhiilia,  overhanging  the 
Agra  road  and  the  Avir  Pass  leading  to  Malegaon.  This  stronghold, 
Hke  all  ancient  buildings  in  Khandesh,  is  locally  ascribed  to  the  Gauli 
Rajd,  but  it  was  more  probably  built  by  the  Farrukhi  kings,  whose 


282  DHULIA. 

frontier  fortress  it  subsequently  became.     To  the  same  Arab  princes 
may  be   attributed  the  numerous    stone    embankments    for   irrigation 
found  throughout  the  country,   of  which  those  on  the   Panjhra  river 
above   and    below    Dhiilia    are    good    examples.       The    old    fort    at 
Dhiiha  is  also  assigned  to  this  dynasty,  but  it  was  probably,  Hke  the 
village  walls,  restored  and  improved  by  the  Mughal  governors.     The 
town  appears  to   have  passed  successively  through  the  hands  of  the 
Arab  kings,  the  Mughals,  and  the  Nizam,  and  to  have  fallen  into  the 
power  of  the  Marathas  about  1795.     In  1803  it  was  completely  deserted 
by  its  inhabitants  on  account  of  the  ravages  of  Holkar  and  the  terrible 
famine   of  that  year.      In    the  following  year,   Balaji  Balwant,   a  de- 
pendant of  the  Vinchurkar,    to   whom   the  pargands   of  Laling   and 
Songir  had    been  granted  by  the    Peshwa,  re-peopled  the  town,  and 
received  from  the  Vinchurkar,   in  return  for  his  services,   a  grant  of 
mam  land  and  other  privileges.     He  was  subsequently  entrusted  with 
the  entire   management  of   the    territory  of   Songir  and    Laling,  and 
fixed   his    head-quarters  at    Dhiilia,  where   he  continued   to   exercise 
authority  till  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  the  British  in  1818. 
Dhiilia  was  immediately   chosen  as  the  head-quarters  of  the    newly- 
formed  District  of  Khandesh  by  Captain  Briggs.     In  January  181 9  he 
obtained   sanction  for   building   public    offices   for   the  transaction  of 
revenue  and  judicial  business.     Artificers  were  brought  from  distant 
places,    and   the  buildings   were  erected    at    a  total  cost   of   j[^2']oo. 
Every  encouragement  was  offered  to  traders  and  others  to  settle  in 
the  new  town.      Building  sites  were  granted  rent   free  in  perpetuity, 
and  advances  were  made  both  to  the  old  inhabitants  and  strangers  to 
enable    them    to   erect    substantial    houses.       At   this   time.    Captain 
Briggs    described    Dhiilia    as    a    small    town,   surrounded    by  garden 
cultivation,    and    shut    in    between    an    irrigation    channel    and   the 
river.       In    1819    the    population    numbered    only     2509    persons, 
living    in   401    houses.       In    1863    there    were    10,000    inhabitants; 
while  by  1872  the  number  had   increased   to   12,489,  and   by  1882 
to  18,449.       From  the  date  of  its  occupation  by  the  British,  the  pro- 
gress of  Dhiilia  appears  to  have   been  steady ;   but  it  is  only  since 
the  recent  development  of  the  trade  in  cotton  and  linseed  that  the 
town    has    become    of    any   great    importance  as   a   trading    centre. 
Coarse  cotton   and  woollen  cloth  and  turbans  are  manufactured  for 
local  use,  and  a  steam  cotton-press  was  opened  in  1876  by  Volkart 
Brothers  of  Bombay.     Since  1872,  a  little  colony  of  Musalmans  from 
Allahabad,  Benares,  and  Lucknow  have    settled   at    Dhiilia,  who  say 
that  they  left  their   own    homes  on  account  of  poverty.      They  are 
Momins  by  caste,  and  declare  themselves  orthodox   Muhammadans, 
but  their  co-religionists  in  Dhiilia  take  them  to  be  Wahabis.     They 
support  themselves  by  weaving  saris  of  fine  texture,  which  they  sell 


DHULIAN— DIAMOND  HARBOUR.  283 

at  a  lower  rate  than  the  local  merchants.  Dhiilia  is  a  cantonment 
town,  and  possesses  2  hospitals,  telegraph  and  post  offices.  Since 
1873,  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  detachment  of  regular  Native  infantry, 
the  Bhil  Corps  have  occupied  the  lines  lying  to  the  south-west 
of  the  town,  where  also  are  the  jail,  the  court-house  and  offices, 
and  the  dwellings  of  European  officers.  In  the  lines  situated 
near  the  hamlet  called  Moglai  outside  Dhiilia  proper,  is  stationed  a 
detachment  of  Poona  Horse.  Briggs'  Suburb  is  the  newest  and  most 
prosperous  part  of  the  city.  Weekly  fair  on  Thursdays,  at  which 
commodities  to  the  estimated  value  of  ^£"5000  change  hands.  There 
were  in  1879,  5  Government  schools,  with  551  pupils.  In  1883,  465 
in-door  and  3393  out-door  patients  were  treated  in  the  dispensary. 

Dhulidn. — Village  in  Murshidabad  District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the 
Ganges.  Site  of  an  annual  fair,  and  one  of  the  most  important  river 
marts  in  the  District.  Large  trade  in  rice,  pulses,  gram,  wheat,  and 
other  food-grains. 

Dhulipnagar. — Town  and  cantonment  in  Bannu  District,  Punjab. 
— See  Edwardesabad. 

Dhuma. — Village  in  Seoni  District,  Central  Provinces;  situated  13 
miles  north  of  Lakhnadon  and  34  miles  from  Jabalpur  on  the  northern 
road,  at  an  elevation  of  1800  feet  above  sea-level.  Encamping 
ground,  school,  police  station,  and  travellers'  bungalow.  Population 
about  1000. 

Dhurwai.  —  One  of  the  Hasht-bhai  jdgirs  or  petty  States  in 
Bundelkhand,  under  the  Central  India  Agency.  The  founder  of  the 
family  was  Rai  Singh,  a  descendant  of  Bir  Singh  Deo,  Raja  of 
Orchha,  who  held  the  territory  of  Baragaon.  He  divided  it  amongst 
his  eight  sons,  whence  their  jdgirs  were  called  the  Hasht-bhai  (or 
eight  brothers).  There  now  remain  four,  of  which  Dhurwai  is  one. 
The  present  holder,  Diwan  Ranjiir  Singh,  is  a  Hindu  Bundela. 
Area  of  State,  18  square  miles;  population  (1881)  1598;  revenue, 
^1200. 

Dhlisan. — River  of  Bengal. — See  Parwan. 

Diamond  Harbour. — Sub-division  of  the  District  of  the  Twenty- 
four  Parganas,  Bengal ;  situated  between  21°  31'  and  22°  21'  30"  n.  lat., 
and  between  88°  4'  and  88°  33'  30"  e.  long.  Area,  417  square  miles ; 
villages,  1569;  occupied  houses,  44,402.  Total  population  (1881) 
344,330,  namely,  males  171,732,  and  females  172,598.  Propor- 
tion of  males  in  total  population,  49*9  per  cent.  Hindus  numbered 
253,041;  Muhammadans,  88,536;  Christians,  2602;  Santals,  34; 
other  aboriginal  tribes,  117.  Number  of  persons  per  square  mile,  826  ; 
villages  per  square  mile,  376;  persons  per  village,  219;  houses  per 
square  mile,  118;  inmates  per  house,  7*4.  The  Sub-division  com- 
prises the  five  police  circles   {thdnds)  of  Diamond  Harbour,  Debipur, 


284        DIAMOND  HARBOUR— DIAMOND  ISLAND, 

Bankipur,  Kalpi,  and  Mathurapur.  It  contains  3  civil  and  3  crimina' 
courts,  with  a  regular  police  force  of  106  officers  and  men,  and  921 
village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs).  The  cyclone  of  October  1864,  with  itj 
accompanying  storm-wave,  caused  a  fearful  destruction  of  life  anc 
property  here.  The  greater  number  of  deaths  occurred  on  Sagai 
Island,  within  Diamond  Harbour  Sub-division,  and  in  the  Sundarbans. 
Out  of  a  population  of  5625,  only  1488  persons  escaped.  It  waj 
estimated  that  in  all  the  villages  within  one  mile  of  the  river  the  losj 
of  life  was  80  per  cent.,  with  a  loss  of  cattle  in  the  same  proportion 
The  famine  of  1866  also  caused  great  distress.  The  extension  of  the 
Diamond  Harbour  line  of  railway  from  Sonapur  on  the  Calcutta  anc 
South-Eastern  State  Railway,  recently  opened,  will  speedily  develop 
the  resources  of  this  tract. 

Diamond  Harbour. — Port  and  head-quarters  of  Diamond  Harboui 
Sub-division,  Twenty-four  Parganas  District,  Bengal;  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  HiigU  river,  in  lat.  22°  11'  10"  n.,  long.  88°  13'  37"  e. 
Well  known  as  the  anchorage  of  the  Company's  ships  in  old  times 
now  a  telegraph  station.  A  harbourmaster  and  customs  establishment 
are  maintained  here  to  board  vessels  proceeding  up  the  river ;  and  the 
movements  of  all  shipping  up  or  down  are  telegraphed  from  Diamond 
Harbour,  and  published  several  times  a  day  in  the  Calcutta  Telegraph 
Gazette.  But  no  town  or  even  village  has  sprung  up ;  and  since  the 
introduction  of  steam,  few  vessels  have  to  wait  here  for  the  tide.  The 
chief  relic  of  its  historical  importance  is  its  graveyard.  A  great  scheme 
for  dock  -  building  at  Diamond  Harbour,  as  an  auxiliary  port  for 
Calcutta,  has  been  recently  brought  forward ;  but  no  final  decision  has 
yet  (1883)  been  arrived  at.  Diamond  Harbour  has  now  been  brought 
within  38  miles  of  Calcutta  by  rail,  by  the  construction  of  a  railway 
from  Sonapur  station,  on  the  Calcutta  and  South-Eastern  State  Railway. 
Distant  from  Calcutta  30  miles  by  a  good  road,  41  by  river. 

Diamond  Harbour  Canal. —In  Diamond  Harbour  Sub-division, 
Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal ;  extending  from  Thakurpukur  to  Khola- 
khali,  a  distance  of  23  miles,  although  a  portion  of  it  for  three  miles  in 
length  has  silted  up. 

Diamond  Island. — A  low  wooded  island,  about  I  mile  square  in 
area,  and  visible  at  5  leagues,  lying  off  the  mouth  of  the  Bassein  river, 
in  Pegu,  British  Burma.  Lat.  15°  51'  30"  n.,  and  long.  94°  18'  45"  e. 
It  is  50  miles  distant  from  Pagoda  Point,  and  about  8  miles  from 
Negrais  Island  or  Haing-gyi.  In  shape  it  is  quadrilateral,  its  angles 
facing  the  points  of  the  compass.  During  strong  southerly  gales,  land- 
ing is  difficult.  This  island  appears  to  have  been  never  occupied  by 
the  Burmese,  to  whom  it  is  known  as  Meimma-hla-kyun ;  but  it  is 
visited  by  those  engaged  in  collecting  the  eggs  of  turtles,  which  are 
very  abundant.     Important  as  the  home  station  of  the  Alguada  Reef 


DIBAI—DIBR  UGARH.  285 

lighthouse  establishment ;  and  connected  with   Bassein  by  telegraph, 
principally  for  the  use  of  masters  of  ships  calling  for  orders. 

jy^^i,  —  Thriving  market  town  in  Bulandshahr  District,  North- 
western Provinces;  lat.  28'  12'  30"  n.,  long.  78°  18'  35"  e.  Distant 
from  Bulandshahr  26  miles  south-east,  and  from  Aligarh  26  miles  north. 
It  lies  between  the  two  head  branches  of  the  Chhoiya  Nala,  whose 
ravines  form  an  efficient  natural  drainage-channel ;  and  is  said  to  have 
been  built  about  the  time  of  Sayyid  Salar  Masaud  Ghazi,  1029  a.d., 
upon  the  ruins  of  Dhundgarh,  a  captured  Rajput  city.  Population 
(1881)  8216,  namely,  Hindus,  5107  ;  Muhammadans,  3077  ;  Jains,  14; 
'  others,'  18.  Area  of  town  site,  90  acres.  Trade  has  greatly  increased 
since  the  opening  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway,  which  has  a 
station  called  Dibai  at  the  village  of  Kaser,  3  miles  distant  by  metalled 
road.  The  weekly  market  held  on  Monday  is  now  the  largest  in  the 
District ;  a  spacious  masonry  terrace  has  been  built  for  the  convenience 
of  traders,  and  adjoining  it  a  fine  tank  is  now  {1883)  far  advanced 
towards  completion.  The  town  contains  four  sardis  or  native  inns,  two 
schools,  a  post-ofihce,  and  a  police  station.  The  bazar  is  being  greatly 
enlarged.  The  fortunes  of  this  town  have  varied  inversely  with  those 
of  Anupshahr,  the  present  head-quarters  (as  Dibai  was  formerly)  of 
the  tahsil,  which  is  now  declining.  A  small  revenue  for  police  and 
conservancy  purposes  is  raised  in  Dibai  under  the  provisions  of  Act  xx. 
of  1856,  but  the  town  will  doubtless  soon  be  constituted  a  regular 
municipality. 

Dibru  (or  Sondpiir). — A  river  in  the  southern  half  of  Lakhimpur 
District,  Assam,  which  flows  from  east  to  west,  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Brahmaputra,  for  about  100  miles,  and  finally  empties  itself  into  that 
river  just  below  the  town  of  Dibrugarh,  to  which  it  has  given  its  name. 

Dibrugarh. — The  head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Dakhimpur  District, 
Assam,  comprising  the  two  divisions  formerly  known  as  Matak  and 
Sadiya,  consisting  of  the  whole  of  the  District  lying  south  of  the  Brah- 
maputra, and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  area  to  the  north  of  it.  Area, 
2038  square  miles.  Population  in  1881,  126,143,  namely,  Hindus, 
109,053;  Muhammadans,  4029;  and  'others,'  13,061.  Number  of 
villages,  697;  number  of  houses,  19,718.  The  Sub-division  contains 
the  police  circles  {thdtids)  of  Dibrugarh;  Dum-duma,  Jaipur,  and, 
Sadiya. 

Dibrugarh  {^ Fort  on  the  Dibru  river''). — Chief  town  and  head^ 
quarters  of  Lakhimpur  District,  Assam  ;  situated  in  lat.  27°  28'  30"  n., 
and  long.  94°  57'  30"  e.,  on  the  Dibru  river,  about  4  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Brahmaputra.  Population  (1881)  7153,  including 
the  troops  in  the  military  cantonment  Hindus  numbered  5222; 
Muhammadans,  1881  ;  and  Christians,  50.  Dibrugarh  is  the  terminus 
of  the  river  trade,  as   commercial   steamers   never  run  higher;   they 


288  DIHANG—DIKTHAN. 

town,   on   the   banks   of  the   Sai.     Population  (1881)   2751,  namely, 
Hindus,  2536  ;  Muhammadans,  215.     Good  bazar. 

Dihang  (or  Dihong). — River  in  Lakhimpur  District,  Assam,  one  of 
the  three  which  contribute  to  make  up  the  Brahmaputra.  It  brings 
down  the  largest  volume  of  water,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Tsanpu  or  great  river  of  Tibet,  and  thus  the  real  parent 
of  the  Brahmaputra.  It  is  supposed  to  pierce  the  barrier  range  of  the 
Himalayas  through  a  narrow  gorge  in  the  Abar  Hills. 

Dihing. — The  name  of  two  rivers  in  Lakhimpur  District,  Assam, 
which  contribute  to  make  up  the  \vaters  of  the  Brahmaputra— (i)  the 
Noa  Dihing,  rising  in  the  Singpho  Hills  in  the  extreme  eastern  frontier 
of  British  territory,  flows  in  a  westerly  direction  into  the  main  stream  of 
the  Brahmaputra  just  above  Sadiya;  (2)  the  Buri  Dihing  rises  in  the 
Patkai  Hills  in  the  south-east  corner  of  Lakhimpur  District,  and  also 
flows  in  a  westerly  direction,  past  Jaipur  town,  and  finally  forms  the 
boundary  between  Lakhimpur  and  Sibsagar  Districts  before  reaching 
the  Brahmaputra.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Jaipur  by  steamers  during  the 
rainy  season.  The  two  rivers  are  connected  by  an  artificial  channel, 
passing  near  the  village  of  Bisagaon.  The  valley  of  the  Buri  Dihing 
contains  an  extensive  coal-field,  with  outcrops  at  Jaipur  and  Makum. 
The  total  marketable  out-turn  is  estimated  at  about  20  million  tons,  of 
excellent  quality,  and  there  are  tolerable  facilities  for  water-carriage. 
Petroleum  also  exists  in  abundance  in  the  same  tract.  In  1866,  both 
the  coal  and  the  petroleum  were  worked  under  a  Government  grant  by 
a  European  capitalist,  but  on  his  death  the  enterprise  was  discontinued. 
In  the  years  18 74-1 8 7 6,  the  mineral  resources  of  this  tract  were 
examined  by  an  officer  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  favourably 
reported  on.  A  company  called  the  Assam  Railway  and  Trading 
Company,  formed  for  the  purpose  chiefly  of  exploiting  the  Makum  coal, 
has  recently  constructed  a  railway  on  the  metre  gauge  from  the 
Dibrugarh  steamer  ghat  to  Dam-Dama,  a  distance  of  45  miles,  and 
thence  on  to  Makum  coal-fields,  crossing  the  Dihing  river  above  the 
Makum  fort.  The  first  rails  were  laid  in  188 1,  and  the  line  was  opened 
throughout  in  1883. 

Diji  {Kot  Diji,  also  called  A hmaddbdiT). —¥ort  in  the  Khairpur  State, 
Sind,  Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  27°  20'  45"  n.,  longitude  6?>°  AS' ^• 
Of  no  importance  as  a  place  of  strength.  A  jail  has  recently  been  built 
below  the  fort. 

Dikthan. — Town  in  Sindhia's  territory,  and  the  capital  oid^pargana 
of  Gwalior,  under  the  Bhil  or  Bhopawar  Agency  of  Central  India  ; 
situated  16  miles  west  of  Mhau  (Mhow)  and  14  miles  due  east  of 
Dhar.  T\i^  pargand  is  held  vajdgir  by  Hunwant  Rao  Madik  and  Ram 
Rao  Madik,  and  the  revenue  is  ^£'4000  per  annum.  The  pargana  is 
managed  by  two  kumaisddrs,  or  agents  for  the  jdgirddrs^  who  always 


D2LA  WAR—DIMAPUR.  289 

reside  at  Gwalior.     Appeals  from  the  kwnaisddrs  decisions  are  referred 
to  the  Naib  Subah  of  Amjhera. 

Dila war.  —  Fort  in  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab.  Lat.  28°  44'  n., 
long.  71°  14'  E.  Situated  in  a  desert,  40  miles  from  the  kft  bank  of  the 
river  Panjnad.  Very  difficult  of  access.  The  old  fort  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  built  by  Rai  Dhera  Sidh  Bhalt  in  843  a.d.  It  remained 
in  the  possession  of  the  Rajas  of  Jaisalmer  (Jeysulmere)  until  1748, 
when  it  was  seized  by  the  Daiidputras  shortly  after  their  settlement  in 
Bahawalpur. 

Dilwara. — Town  in  Udaipur  (Oodeypore)  Native  State,  Rajputana. 
Situated  among  the  eastern  ranges  of  the  Aravallis,  14  miles  north-east 
of  Udaipur.  Dilwara  is  the  chief  town  of  the  estate  of  a  first-class 
noble  of  Udaipur,  who  owns  149  villages.  The  palace  of  the  chief 
is  on  a  hill  to  the  south,  overlooking  the  town.  About  2\  miles 
farther  to  the  south  is  the  hill-temple  of  Dilwara,  on  a  remarkable 
conical  peak  about  1000  feet  above  the  town ;  the  ascent  is  by  a  zig-zag 
road  cut  out  of  the  rock  on  its  western  and  south-western  faces.  This 
hill  forms  a  landmark  for  miles  around. 

Dimapur.  —  Village  in  the  Naga  Hills  District,  Assam;  on  the 
Dhaneswari  (Dhansiri)  river,  12  miles  north  of  Samaguting ;  the  site 
of  an  early  capital  of  the  Cachari  Rajas,  the  ruins  and  tanks  of 
which  are  still  to  be  found  amid  the  jungle. 

The  following  description  of  these  ruins  is  quoted,  in  a  somewhat 
condensed  form,  from  the  Assa?}i  Administration  Report  for  1880-81, 
pp.  233,  234 : — '  The  site  of  the  city  is  now  overgrown  with  dense 
jungle,  and  till  recently,  when  a  small  bazar  was  started,  was  entirely 
uninhabited.  There  are  several  splendid  tanks  of  clear  water,  and  a 
walled  enclosure,  supposed  to  have  been  a  fort.  The  walls  can  be 
distinctly  traced,  and  must  originally  have  been  upwards  of  12  feet 
in  height  by  6  in  width.  They  are  built  throughout  of  burnt  brick  of 
excellent  quality.  The  enclosure  is  entered  by  a  solid  brick-built  gate- 
way with  some  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty ;  it  has  a  Moorish 
arch,  and  the  stone  hinges  of  the  door  are  still  visible,  though  all  traces 
of  woodwork  have  vanished.  Much  of  the  wall  has  fallen  into  decay, 
and  the  bricks  falling  on  either  side  form  a^iass  oi  debris,  now  covered 
with  vegetable  mould.  The  enclosure  is  as  nearly  as  possible  a  perfect 
square,  each  side  being  about  800  yards  in  length.  Two  faces  are 
further  protected  by  a  deep  moat,  and  it  is  noticeable  that  these  two 
are  those  farthest  from  the  river;  indeed,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
builders  of  the  structure  refrained  from  continuing  the  moat  on  the  two 
faces  nearest  the  river,  lest  the  stream  might  cut  into  them  and  under- 
mine the  foundations  of  the  walls.  Inside  the  fortification  are  three 
small  ruined  tanks,  one  of  which  has  a  flight  of  brick  steps  leading  to 
where  the  water  once  was ;  and  immediately  to  the  back  of  it  a  ruined 

VOL.  IV.  T 


29a  DINAJPUR. 

mass  of  brick  and  earth,  with  the  remains  of  brick  steps  leading  up  to 

it.     This  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  an  altar  or  a  chabutra  (raised 

platform)  on  which  the  Rajas  used  to  sit  after  bathing.     The  most 

interesting  relics  in  the  fort,  however,  are  the  monolithic  pillars,  one 

group  of  which,  ranged  in  four  rows  of  15  each,  stands  not  far  from  the 

gateway,  on  the  left  hand,  and  another  smaller  group  at  a  little  distance 

on  the  right.     Of  the  first  group,  two  rows  consist  of  mushroom-shaped 

pillars  with  rounded  heads,  and  the  other  two  of  square  pillars  of  a  very 

peculiar  V-shape.     All  are  richly  covered  with  tracery  of  some  artistic 

merit.     For  what  purpose  the  round-headed  pillars  were  erected  it  is 

impossible  to  say.     They  cannot  have  supported  a  roof,  because  they 

are  of  unequal  heights,  and  the  tracery  with  which  they  are  covered 

extends  over  the  whole  head.     The  site  has  been  so  long  deserted,  and 

the  people  whose  capital  it  once  was  are  so  widely  scattered,  that  no 

trustworthy  traditions  have  survived  to  explain  the  uses  of  the  building. 

There  is  nowhere  any  trace  of  inscriptions  or  written  character  of  any 

kind.     At  present,  with  the  exception  of  the  site  of  the  pillars,  where 

the  trees  have  been  cut  down,  the  whole  interior  of  the  fort  is  covered 

with  dense  jungle ;  and  when  the  undergrowth  is  cleared,  other  relics 

may  possibly  be  brought  to  light.' 

Dimapur  is  now  a  police  outpost,  and  the  centre  of  some  trade  with 
the  Nagas,  as  the  river  is  navigable  up  to  this  point  by  country  boats. 
All  around  is  wild  jungle. 

Dinajpur. — The  District  of  Dinajpur  occupies  the  west  of  the  Raj- 
shahi  Kuch  Behar  Division,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal.' 
It  lies  between  24°  43'  40"  and  26°  22'  50"  n.  lat.,  and  between  88°  4'  0" 
and  89°  21'  5"  E.  long.,  being  bounded  roughly  on  the  east  by  the 
Karataya,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Mahananda  river.  Area,  41 18  square 
miles;  population  (1881)  1,514,346  souls.  The  administrative  head- 
quarters are  at  Dinajpur  Town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Purnabhaba. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  exhibits  a  less  uniformly  level  appear- 
ance than  the  rest  of  Northern  Bengal.  The  plain  that  stretches  from 
the  Himalayas  to  the  Ganges  is  here  represented  by  a  peculiar  clay 
formation,  locally  known  as  khidr^  which  is  sufficiently  stiff  to  resist  the 
diluviating  action  of  the  rivers.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  District, 
and  again  in  the  north-west  along  the  Kulik  river,  this  clay  soil  rises 
into  undulating  ridges,  some  of  which  attain  the  height  of  100  feet. 
The  entire  country  is  intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  which  run  in  well- 
defined  channels  and  have  deposited  in  their  floods  a  later  alluvium  of 
sandy  loam,  called  pali.  The  agriculture  of  the  District  is  determined 
by  the  difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  soil.  The  river  valleys 
are  everywhere  much  wider  than  the  narrow  limits  within  which  the 
streams  are  confined  during  the  dry  season.  In  the  rains,  the  nooa- 
water  spreads  out  into  large  lakes,  about  2  miles  across ;  but  there  are^ 


DINAJPUR.  291 

few  permanent  marshes  of  any  size  throughout  the  District.  The  clay 
ridges  in  the  south  are  still  much  overgrown  with  scrub-jungle,  which 
affords  cover  to  numerous  wild  beasts,  and  yields  little  forest  produce 
of  any  value. 

The  rivers  in  Dinajpur  arrange  themselves  into  two  systems,  one  of 
which  carries  off  the  drainage  southwards  by  the  Mahanandd,  into 
Maldah  District,  while  the  other  is  connected  with  the  old  Tista  river, 
and  flows  in  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  Bogra  and  Raj  shah  1. 
The  Mahananda  itself  only  skirts  the  western  frontier  of  the  District 
for  about  30  miles ;  its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Nagar,  Tangan,  and 
PURNABHABA.  All  these  rivers  are  only  navigable  for  large  boats  during 
the  rains.  They  run  through  the  khidr  country,  along  shallow  valleys, 
bordered  by  elevated  clay  ridges.  The  Tista  river  system  has  been 
much  broken  up  by  the  violent  changes  which  took  place  in  the  course 
of  the  main  channel  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The  various 
channels  of  the  old  Tista  still  flowing  through  Dinajpur  are  now  known 
as  the  Atrai,  Jamuna,  and  Karataya.  Their  value  for  boat  traffic 
has  been  gready  lessened  by  the  circumstance  that  the  main  volume 
of  the  water  now  finds  its  way  eastwards  into  the  Brahmaputra.  There 
are  several  short  artificial  canals  in  the  District ;  but  some  of  them 
appear  to  have  been  dug  with  a  view  to  facilitate  religious  processions, 
rather  than  as  a  means  of  assisting  trade. 

Sal  woods  occur  throughout  the  District,  but  are  principally  found  in 
small  patches  along  the  course  of  the  Karataya  river.  These  forests 
yield  a  considerable  revenue  to  the  landholders  to  whom  they  belong, 
but  the  trees  generally  are  stunted  in  growth,  and  the  timber  is  of 
inferior  quality.  The  jungle  products  consist  of  beeswax,  anantdmul 
and  sdtdmiil  (vegetable  drugs),  and  the  flowers  of  a  tree  called 
sm!(dhdr,  from  which  a  dye  is  made.  Large  breadths  of  pasture-land 
are  scattered  throughout  the  District.  They  pay  no  rent,  and  some  of 
the  peasantry  engage  in  pasturing  cattle  in  these  tracts  as  an  additional 
means  of  subsistence.  The  wild  animals  of  the  District  comprise  the 
tiger,  leopard,  civet  cat,  tiger  cat,  polecat,  buffalo,  wild  hog,  /^ard 
singha  or  large  deer,  hog  deer,  jackal,  fox,  mongoose,  badger, 
crocodile,  etc.  Tigers  mostly  infest  the  dense,  tangled  jungle  and  grass 
patches;  leopards  are  found  everywhere,  and  numbers  of  cows  and 
goats  are  annually  destroyed  by  them  ;  buffaloes  and  hog  commit  great 
havoc  amongst  the  sugar-cane  and  rice  cultivation.  Game  and  other 
wild  birds  are  plentiful,  and  lish  of  many  varieties  are  numerous,  the 
fisheries  being  of  considerable  value. 

ffistory.—BmiJT^UY  District,  with  the  rest  of  Bengal,  passed  under 
British  rule  in  1765,  and  has  no  independent  history  of  its  own. 

Poptilation.~ln  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Dr.  Buchanan- 
Hamilton,  in  the  course  of  his  statistical  inquiries,  arrived  at  a  most 


292  DINAJPUR. 

elaborate  estimate  of  the  population  of  Dinajpur.  His  calculations 
yielded  a  total  of  about  3  millions,  or  558  persons  to  the  square  mile. 
The  District  was  then  about  one-third  larger  than  at  present.  During 
the  Revenue  Survey  (1857-61),  when  the  area  of  the  District  was 
also  somewhat  larger  than  now,  the  number  of  houses  was  counted, 
and  the  inhabitants  living  therein  were  estimated  to  number  1,042,832, 
or  only  227  per  square  mile.  It  seems  probable  that  this  latter  estimate 
was  as  much  too  low,  as  Dr.  B.  Hamilton's  estimate  must  have  been  too 
high.  The  Census  of  1872  disclosed  a  total  population  of  1,501,924 
persons,  on  an  area  corresponding  to  that  of  the  present  District.  In 
1 88 1,  the  Census  returned  the  population  at  1,514,346,  showing  an 
increase  of  12,422,  or  less  than  i  per  cent,  during  the  nine  years  from 
1872  to  1 88 1.  This  small  increase  is  due  to  the  ravages  of  malarious 
fever,  for  which  the  District  has  an  evil  reputation.  The  general  results 
arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized  as  follows:— 
Area  of  District,  41 18  square  miles,  with  6921  towns  and  villages, 
and  272,368  houses,  of  which  268,647  were  occupied  and  3721  un- 
occupied. Total  population  1,514,346,  namely,  males  782,292,  and 
females  732,054;  average  density,  368  per  square  mile;  villages  per 
square  mile,  i-68;  persons  per  village,  219;  houses  per  square  mile, 
66-14;  inmates  per  house,  5*64.  Classified  according  to  religion, 
there  were — Hindus,  716,630;  Muhammadans,  795,824;  Christians, 
457;  and  Santals,  still  professing  their  aboriginal  faith,  i435- 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  Dinajpur,  even  to  a  greater  extent  than 
in  the  rest  of  Bengal,  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  are  of  aboriginal 
descent;  and  that  the  majority  became  willing  converts  to  the  conquer- 
ing faith  of  Islam,  in  preference  to  remaining  out-castes  beyond  the 
pale  of  exclusive  Hinduism.  The  tribes  now  ranked  as  aboriginal  are 
poorly  represented,  numbering  23,355.  They  come  from  Chutia 
Nagpur  to  work  on  the  roads  or  to  clear  jungle.  Among  them  are  the 
Bhumij,  6834;  Santal,  6813;  Kol,  316;  Kharwar,  213;  Bhuinya,  45 ; 
and  'others,'  9450.  The  semi-Hinduized  aborigines,  who  are  nearly 
twice  as  numerous  as  the  Hindus  proper,  mostly  consist  of  the  kindred 
races  of  Pali,  Rajbansi,  and  Koch.  These  three  tribes  number  collec- 
tively 407,923  of  the  Hindu  population.  The  it\N  who  retain  the  name 
of  Koch  are  palanquin-bearers;  Rajbansi  is  the  high-sounding  title 
which  they  have  adopted  for  themselves ;  whereas  Pali  is  the  appella- 
tion applied  to  them  by  their  neighbours.  This  last  term  is  almost 
confined  to  Dinajpur  and  the  adjoining  District  of  Maldah;  it  would 
not  be  recognised  in  Kuch  Behar  State.  Among  Hindus  proper,  the 
Brahmans  number  8913  ;  they  are  traditionally  reported  to  have  settled 
in  the  District  within  recent  times.  The  Rajputs  number  only  2885 ; 
the  Kdyasths,  6024.  By  far  the  most  numerous  castes  are  the  Kaibartta 
with    37,785,    the    Hari   with    31,934,    and    the    Baniya   with   21,149 


DINAJPUR.  293 

members;  the  fishing  castes  are  also  strongly  represented,  especially 
the  Jaliya,  with  13,560  members.  The  other  castes  with  upwards  of 
5000  members  are  —  Napit,  12,735;  Tanti,  9045;  Chandal,  7180; 
Dosadh,  6000;  Lobar,  5725;  Kumbhar,  5352;  Gwala,  5123;  and 
Sunri,  5096.  The  Brahma  Saraaj  has  a  small  body  of  followers  at 
Dinajpur  town,  who  are  mostly  engaged  in  Government  service;  and  at 
the  same  place  there  are  a  few  families  of  Jain  merchants,  immigrants 
from  the  north-west,  with  their  servants  and  retainers.  The  Vaishnavs 
are  returned  at  19,349,  which  num,ber  only  includes  the  professed 
religious  mendicants ;  many  of  the  Pali  tribe  are  said  to  belong  to 
this  sect  The  Muhammadans  belong  almost  entirely  to  the  agricul- 
tural class  ;  few  of  them  are  landholders,  and  still  fewer  engage  in 
trade.  The  reforming  sect  of  Wahabis  or  Faraizis  is  known  to  have 
exercised  some  influence  among  them,  but  no  active  fanaticism  exists. 
A  little  immigration  into  Dinajpur  of  a  temporary  character  takes  place 
every  harvest  season  ;  emigration  from  the  District  there  is  none. 

The  entire  population  is  absolutely  rural.     The  only  place  returned 
in   the    Census    Report  as  containing  more  than  5000  inhabitants  is 
Dinajpur  Town,  population  (1881)  12,560.     The  people  display  no 
tendency  towards  urban  life,  but  rather  the  reverse.     The  trading  marts 
consist  merely  of  a  line  of  golds  or  warehouses  along  the  river  banks, 
where  agricultural  produce  can  be  conveniently  stored  until  the  rainy 
season  opens  the  rivers  for  navigation.     Out  of  a  total  of  6921  villages, 
as  many  as  4749  contain  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants  each ;  1544 
from  two  to  five  hundred;  445  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  149 
from  one  to  two  thousand;  26  from  two  to  three  thousand;  7  from 
three  to  five  thousand ;  and   i    upwards  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants. 
As  regards  the  occupations  of  the  people,  the  Census  Report  divides 
the  male  population  into  the  following  six  main  classes  : — Class  (i)  Pro- 
fessional, including  military,  civil,  and  all  officers  of  Government,  with 
the  learned  professions,  10,571;  (2)  domestic  servants,  and  keepers  of 
lodging-houses,  etc.,  29,776;  (3) commercial,  including  merchants,  traders, 
and  carriers,  17,022;  (4) agricultural,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  and 
tenders  of  sheep  and  cattle,  393,589;  (5)  industrial  class,  comprising 
manufacturers  and  artisans,  41,359;  (6)   indefinite  and  unproduciive, 
including  general  labourers,  male  children,  and  persons  of  no  stated 
occupation,  289,975.    Almost  the  whole  population  live  by  agriculture  ; 
even  among  the  shopkeeper  and  artisan  classes,  nearly  every  house- 
hold supplement  their  ordinary  means  of  livelihood  by  cultivating  a 
small  patch  of  land,  either  by  their  own  hands,  or  if  sufficiently  well  off, 
through  others,  who  receive  a  share  of  the  crop  in  return  for  their 
labour.     Generally  speaking,  a  cultivator's  entire  holding  is  under  rice, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  patch  around  the  homestead,  on  which  he 
raises  crops  of  vegetables.     The  material  condition  of  the  people  is  said 


294  DINAJPUR. 

to  be,  as  a  rule,  superior  to  that  of  the  peasantry  of  the  more  advanced 
Districts  of  the  Gangetic  delta,  and  the  mode  of  living  much  more 
simple  than  in  the  Districts  to  the  south.  As  a  rule,  every  husband- 
man has  more  than  one  wife.  The  husband  does  all  the  work  of  the 
fields,  while  the  wives  stay  at  home  and  weave  clothing  or  sackcloth, 
the  surplus  of  which,  after  providing  for  home  consumption,  is  disposed 
of  at  the  nearest  village  market.  The  weaving  of  jute  into  gunny 
cloth  is  entirely  a  feminine  occupation. 

AgricuUure. — Rice  constitutes  the  staple  crop  throughout  the  District. 
Of  the  total  food-supply,  the  dmaii  or  winter  crop,  grown  on  low  lands 
and  usually  transplanted,  furnishes  about  80  per  cent. ;  the  dus  or 
autumn  crop,  grown  on  high  lands,  about  16  per  cent. ;  the  boro  or 
spring  crop,  grown  on  the  borders  of  marshes  and  rivers,  in  certain 
tracts  about  4  per  cent.  This  last  is  the  only  crop  in  the  District 
which  demands  irrigation,  and  the  water  required  is  easily  obtained 
from  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  Among  miscellaneous  crops 
may  be  mentioned  maize  and  millet,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  tobacco,  jute, 
sugar-cane,  pdii  or  betel  leaf.  The  staples  grown  for  export  are 
rice  and  jute.  The  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  is  on  the  decline. 
Manure,  in  the  form  of  cow-dung,  is  applied  to  khidr  rice  lands,  and  to 
the  more  valuable  crops  grown  on  pali  soil.  Khidr  land  is  never 
allowed  to  lie  fallow,  but  pali  requires  an  occasional  rest  of  about  one 
year  in  every  five.  The  principle  of  the  rotation  of  crops  is  not  known. 
There  is  still  a  good  deal  of  spare  land  capable  of  cultivation,  to  be 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  District.  Horned  cattle  are  very  abundant ; 
but  owing  to  the  indifference  shown  in  breeding,  they  are  mostly  of  a 
poor  class.  There  is  abundance  of  the  ordinary  pasturage  of  Bengal  in 
the  District.  The  average  produce  of  an  acre  of  good  rice  land  renting 
at  9s.  is  about  20  cwts.  of  rice,  valued  2X  j£,\,  i8s. ;  exceptionally  good 
land  will  sometimes  yield  as  much  as  37  cwts.  per  acre.  Khidr  X-xsA 
produces  only  one  rice  crop  in  the  year ;  but  from  pali  land  a  second 
crop  of  oil-seeds  or  pulses  is  obtained  in  the  cold  season,  in  addition  to 
the  diis  rice.  This  cold-weather  crop  may  be  valued  at  from  p^i,  los. 
to  ;^2,  2S.  per  acre.  The  rate  of  rent  paid  for  khidr  \zxi6.  varies  from 
9s.  to  I2S.  an  acre;  pali  land  rents  at  from  6s.  to  ;^i,  los.  There  is 
little  peculiarity  in  the  land  tenures  of  Dinajpur.  It  is  estimated  that 
over  about  five-eighths  of  the  total  area  of  the  District  the  superior 
landlords  have  parted  with  their  rights  in  favour  of  intermediate  tenure- 
holders.  Only  a  small  fraction  of  the  cultivators  have  won  for  them- 
selves rights  of  occupancy  by  a  continuous  holding  of  more  than  twelve 
years ;  the  great  majority  are  mere  tenants-at-will. 

The  following  were  the  current  rates  of  wages  in  1881  : — Coolies  and 
agricultural  day-labourers  received  6s.  a  month  with  food,  or  los.  a 
month  without  food;  bricklayers  and  carpenters,  from  12s.  to  ^i,  los. 


niNAJPUR.  295 

a  month;  smiths,  from  12s.  to  jT^i.  In  the  same  year,  the  prices  of 
food-grains  were  as  follow  : — Common  rice,  2  s.  6d.  per  viaundoi^o  lbs.  ; 
common  paddy  or  unhusked  rice,  2s.  per  niaund;  barley,  4s.  ^^^x  maund ; 
barley  flour,  8s.  per  7Ttmmd.  The  highest  price  reached  by  rice  in  1866, 
the  year  of  the  Orissa  famine,  was  8s.  per  maund. 

Dinajpur  is  exceptionally  free  from  either  of  the  calamities  of  flood 
or  drought.  Owing  to  the  rising  of  the  rivers  and  the  heavy  local  rain- 
fall, a  considerable  portion  of  the  District  is  annually  laid  under  water  ; 
but  this  inundation  is  productive  of  good  rather  than  harm.  The 
single  occasion  on  which  the  general  harvest  has  been  known  to  be 
injuriously  affected,  was  in  the  autumn  of  1873,  when  the  protracted 
drought  caused  a  failure  of  the  dma7i  rice  crop,  upon  which  the  popu- 
lation almost  entirely  depends  for  its  food-supply.  It  was  only  the 
prompt  interference  of  Government  that  prevented  scarcity  from 
intensifying  into  famine,  and  ;^  16 2, 188  was  expended  on  relief 
operations. 

For  the  future,  Dinajpur  District  will  be  saved  from  the  danger  of 
isolation  by  the  Northern  Bengal  State  Railway,  opened  a  few  years  ago, 
which  runs  northward  for  about  30  miles  through  its  eastern  half,  and 
which  is  being  still  further  extended  from  east  to  west,  passing  through 
Dinajpur  town.  Roads  are  numerous,  and  traverse  the  District  in  all 
directions  to  the  extent  of  1200  miles.  Another  important  means  of 
communication  are  the  rivers,  which  unfortunately  are  only  navigable 
by  large  boats  during  three  or  four  months  in  the  year. 

Manufactures,  etc. — The  whole  population  is  so  entirely  agricultural, 
that  scarcely  any  manufactures  exist.  Neither  indigo  nor  silk  is 
prepared,  and  the  production  of  sugar  has  decreased  since  the  beginning 
of  this  century.  A  little  coarse  cotton  cloth  is  made  for  home  use  ; 
and  in  some  parts  a  durable  fabric  called  mekli  is  woven  from  the  wild 
rhea  grass.  Gunny  cloth  is  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
the  north  of  the  District,  this  industry  being  chiefly  confined  to  the 
women  of  the  Koch  tribe. 

Until  the  opening  of  the  railway,  Dindjpur  was  almost  entirely 
dependent  upon  its  rivers  for  all  its  trade.  The  chief  exports  are  rice, 
jute,  tobacco,  sugar,  gunny  cloth,  and  hides;  the  imports  are  piece- 
goods,  salt,  and  hardware.  The  western  half  of  the  District,  so  far  as 
the  valley  of  the  Purnabhaba,  exports  its  surplus  rice  towards  Behar 
and  the  North-Western  Provinces  by  means  of  the  Mahananda  ;  the 
eastern  half  uses  the  old  channels  of  the  Tistd  and  the  Northern  Bengal 
State  Railway,  and  sends  its  produce  direct  to  Calcutta.  During  the 
dry  season,  pack-bullocks  and  carts  traverse  the  whole  country,  carrymg 
the  surplus  rice  to  the  river  marts,  to  be  there  stored  until  the  streams 
swell.  The  principal  of  these  depots  are  Nitpur,  Chandganj,  Birampur, 
and  Patiram.     The  most  important  centre  of  local  buying  and  selling  is 


296  DINAJPUR. 

the  Nekmard  fair,  which  is  held  annually  in  honour  of  a  Musalman 
saint,  and  attended  by  about  150,000  persons.  Properly,  it  is  a  cattle 
fair,  but  traders  frequent  it  with  miscellaneous  articles  collected  from 
the  farthest  corners  of  India.  Lesser  gatherings  take  place  at 
Alawdrkhawa,  Dhaldighi,  and  Sontapur.  The  registration  returns  of 
river  traffic  are  only  useful  for  Dinajpur  in  so  far  as  they  refer  to  the 
exports.  The  imports  into  the  District  are  chiefly  received  overland, 
passing  by  routes  that  escape  registration.  For  the  year  1881-82  the 
exports  were  valued  at  ^480,750,  against  imports  worth  only  ;^  17 2,000. 
The  chief  exports  are — Rice  and  paddy,  2,600,000  maunds,  valued 
together  at  ^325,000  (placing  Dinajpur  seventh  in  the  list  of  rice- 
exporting  Districts  in  Bengal)  ;  jute,  275,000  7?iaunds,  valued  at 
;^68,75o;  gunny  cloth,  600,000  pieces,  valued  at  ;^72,ooo;  hides, 
80,000  in  number,  valued  at  ;^io,ooo ;  other  exports  valued  at  ;£5ooo. 
The  principal  imports  are — salt,  160,000  maunds^  valued  at  ;^48,ooo ; 
and  European  piece-goods,  valued  at  ;^8o,ooo.  Of  the  local  marts, 
Rdiganj  stands  first,  with  exports  valued  at  ^47,300  (almost  entirely 
jute  and  gunny-bags),  and  imports  valued  at  ^12,000  ;  Nitpur  exported 
;^4o,ooo  (solely  rice),  and  imported  ^6000.  Of  the  total  quantity  of 
rice,  1,400,000  maimds  were  consigned  direct  to  Calcutta,  and  the 
remainder  to  Behar  and  the  North-Western  Provinces. 

Administration. — In  1870-71,  the  net  revenqe  of  Dinajpur  District 
was  ^212,340,  towards  which  the  land-tax  contributed  ;£^i73»454>  or 
81  per  cent. ;  the  net  expenditure  amounted  to  ;£"36,839,  or  little  more 
than  one-sixth  of  the  revenue.  By  1881-82,  the  total  net  revenue  had 
slightly  decreased  to  ^197,137,  towards  which  the  land-tax  contributed 
^163,755,  or  a  little  over  83  per  cent.  The  net  expenditure  amounted 
to  ^£"37,376.  The  large  proportion  derived  from  the  land  revenue 
is  to  be  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  Dindjpur  was  in  an 
exceptionally  prosperous  condition  at  the  date  of  the  Permanent 
Settlement.  In  1881-82  there  were  3  covenanted  civil  servants 
stationed  in  the  District,  and  7  magisterial  and  9  civil  and  revenue 
courts  open.  For  police  purposes,  Dinajpur  is  divided  into  17  thdfids 
or  police  circles.  In  1881  the  regular  police  force  numbered  385  men 
of  all  ranks,  maintained  at  a  total  cost  to  Government  of  ^£"6680.  In 
addition,  there  was  a  municipal  poHce  of  32  men,  and  a  rural  police  or 
village  watch  of  5 199  men,  maintained  by  the  villagers  at  an  estimated  cost 
in  money  and  rent-free  land  of  ;!^i  1,457.  The  total  machinery,  therefore, 
for  the  protection  of  person  and  property  amounted  to  5626  officers 
and  men,  giving  i  man  to  every  73  of  a  square  mile  of  area,  or  to  every 
260  persons  in  the  population.  In  1881,  the  total  number  of  persons 
convicted  of  any  offence,  great  or  small,  amounted  to  1250,  or  i  person 
to  every  1 2 1 1  of  the  population.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
convictions  were  for  petty  offences.      The   District  contains  i  jail  at 


DINAJPUR.  297 

Dinajpur  town.  In  1881,  the  average  daily  number  of  prisoners  was 
175,  of  whom  4  were  women;  the  labouring  convicts  averaged  145. 
These  figures  show  i  person  in  jail  to  every  8904  of  the  population. 

Education  has  widely  spread  of  recent  years,  owing  to  the  changes 
by  which  the  benefit  of  the  grant-in-aid  rules  has  been  extended,  first  to 
the  vernacular  middle-class  schools,  and  ultimately  to  the  village  schools 
Qxpdthsdlds.  In  1856  there  were  only  10  schools  in  the  District,  attended 
by  532  pupils.  In  i860  both  these  numbers  had  actually  decreased; 
but  by  1870  the  number  of  schools  had  risen  to  247,  and  the  pupils  to 
5723.  In  1872  there  was  a  further  increase  to  456  Government  inspected 
schools  and  8174  pupils  ;  and  in  1881-82,  to  487  Government  and  aided 
schools,  attended  by  11,188  pupils,  showing  i  school  to  every  8  square 
miles,  and  7*3  pupils  to  every  1000  of  the  population.  The  higher-class 
English  school  at  Dinajpur  town  was  attended  by  185  pupils.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  private  indigenous  schools.  The  Census  Report 
in  1881  returned  19,493  boys  and  318  girls  as  under  instruction;  and 
44,408  males  and  430  females  as  able  to  read  and  write  but  not  under 
instruction. 

Up  to  the  close  of  1883,  the  sub-divisional  system  of  administration 
had  not  been  extended  to  Dinajpur.  The  District  is  divided  into  the 
following  17  police  circles  : — (i)  Dinajpur,  (2)  Rajarampur,  (3)  Birganj, 
(4)  Thakurgaon,  (5)  Ranisankail,  (6)  Pirganj,  (7)  Hemtabad,  (8)  Kaliganj, 
(9)  Bansihari,  (10)  Patnitala,  (11)  Mahadeo,  (12)  Porsha,  (13)  Patiram, 
(14)  Gangarampur,  (15)  Chintaman,  (16)  Parbatipur,  and  (17)  Nawib- 
ganj.  The  pargands  or  Fiscal  Divisions  are  81  in  number,  with  an 
aggregate  of  778  revenue-paying  estates. 

Medical  Aspects.  —  The  climate  of  Dinajpur  is  considerably  cooler 
than  that  of  the  Gangetic  delta.  The  hot  weather  does  not  set  in  so 
early,  and  the  temperature  at  night  continues  low  until  the  end  of  April. 
During  the  winter  months  a  heavy  dew  falls  at  night,  and  a  thick  mist 
hangs  over  the  ground  until  dispelled  by  the  morning  sun.  It  has  been 
observed  that  the  hot  season  proves  the  least  healthy  to  strangers, 
while  the  natives  suffer  most  at  the  close  of  the  rains.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  for  a  period  of  over  20  years  is  returned  at  76*83  inches. 
In  1 88 1,  the  rainfall  was  60-32  inches,  or  16-51  inches  below  the 
average.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  83-5°  F.  ;  the 
maximum  being  104°  in  the  month  of  May,  the  minimum  d^  in 
December. 

The  principal  diseases  of  the  District  are  remittent  and  continued 
fevers,  ague,  enlargement  of  the  spleen,  bowel  complaints,  cholera,  and 
small-pox.  The  outbreaks  of  small-pox  are  to  be  referred  to  the  popular 
practice  of  inoculation.  The  District  has  a  bad  reputation  for  malarial 
fevers,  which  during  the  nine  years  from  1872  to  1881  kept  down  the 
increase  of  the  population   to  less   than    i    per   cent.     In    1872,  the 


298  DINAJPUR  TOWN. 

reported  deaths  from  fever  in  Dinajpur  were  higher  than  in  any  other 
District  of  the    Division.       The   four   following    years    showed   little 
improvement,  and  in  1876  the  fever  mortality  was  22*05  P^^  thousand 
of  the  whole   population.     In    1877,  which    a   general    consensus  of 
opinion  declares  to  have  been  the  most  unhealthy  year  in  this  District 
within  living  memory,  over  30,000  deaths  were   reported  from  fevers 
alone.     Out  of  seventeen  adult  Europeans,  fifteen  had   to   leave  the 
District  during  the  year,  broken  down  by  repeated  attacks  of  fever,  and 
official  business  could  hardly  be  carried  on.     This  terrible  mortality 
drew   renewed   attention  to  the  insanitary  condition  of  the   District, 
and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  report  on  the  causes  of  this  great 
unhealthiness  and  to  suggest  means  for  improving  the   health  of  the 
station.     The  investigations  demonstrated  the   existence  of  a  terrible 
amount  of  constant  sickness  and  a  very  high  death-rate.      An  examina- 
tion of  nearly  a  thousand  individuals  showed  that  nearly  75  per  cent, 
of  the  inhabitants  were  in  bad  health,  while  53  per  cent,  had  marked 
enlargement  of  the  spleen.     It  so  happened  that  this  District  was  at  the 
time  that  in  which  death  registration  was  best  carried  out  in  all  Bengal ; 
and  it  was  found  that  the  death-rate  in  the  municipality  was  42  per 
thousand,  nearly  double  the  death-rate  of  London,  while  the  police 
died  at  the  rate  of  46,  and  the  prisoners  in  jail  at  the  rate  of  74*6  per 
thousand.     Eventually,  a   scheme  was  drawn  up  and  carried  out  for 
draining  the  neighbourhood  of  Dinajpur  town,  which  has  been  attended 
with  beneficial  results.     A  slight  remission  of  fever  followed  in  1878 
and  1879,  but  it  returned  with  increased  virulence  in  1880.     In  i88r, 
the  total  registered  deaths  were  returned  at  29,403,  or  21*50  per  1000 
of  the  population.      The  real  death-rate  was  no  doubt  much  higher. 
There  were  in  1881  eight  charitable  dispensaries  in  the  District,  namely, 
at  Dinajpur  town,  Raiganj,  Churaman,  Mahadeopur,  and  Baliirghat,  at 
which  322  in-door  and  8843  out-door  patients  were  treated  during  the 
year.       [For    further   information    regarding    Dinajpur,    see    Hunter's 
Statistical  Account  of  Bengal,  vol.  vii.  pp.   355-461   (Triibner  &  Co., 
London,    1876).     Also   the    Geographical  and  Statistical  Account  of 
Dinajpur  District,  hy  Major  Sherwill,  Revenue   Surveyor  (1863);  the 
Bengal  Census  Report  {or  1881  ;  and  the  Amitial  Adi?iinistration  Reports 
of  Bengal  irom.  1880  to  1883.] 

Dinajpur. — Chief  town  and  administrative  head-quarters  of  Dinajpur 
District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Purnabhaba,  just 
below  its  point  of  confluence  with  the  Dhapa  river,  in  lat.  25°  38'  N.,  and 
long.  88°  40'  46"  E.  Population  (1881)  12,560,  namely,  6407  Muham- 
madans,  6059  Hindus,  and  94  'others.'  Area  of  town  site,  3200  acres. 
Dinajpur  is  the  only  municipality  in  the  District,  with  a  total  revenue 
in  1881-82  of  ^6297,  of  which  £iz^6  was  derived  from  taxation,  and 
the  balance  from  other  sources,  chiefly  receipts  from  municipal  lands, 


DIN  ANA  GAR—DINAPUR,  299 

public   gardens,  etc.,  ;^465i  \    and   grant  from   provincial   revenues, 
^1500.     Expenditure  in  1881-82,  ^'j'j4i. 

Dinanagar. — Town  in  Gurdaspur  ^a/isi/,  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab. 
Situated  in  lat.  32°  8'  15"  n.,  and  long.  75°  31'  e.,  on  a  low  and  swampy 
plain,  the  source  of  the  river  Kirran,  whose  malarious  exhalations  render 
the  town  unhealthy,  and  produce  endemic  fever.  Population  (1881) 
5589,  namely,  2842  Hindus,  2700  Muhammadans,  40  Sikhs,  and  6 
'others.'  Derives  its  name  from  Adina  Beg,  the  opponent  of  the  Sikhs 
in  1752.  A  dilapidated  mud  wall  surrounds  the  town  ;  the  neighbour- 
hood is  profusely  irrigated  from  the  Bari  Doab  Canal,  and  dense  vegeta- 
tion comes  up  to  the  very  gates.  Centre  of  trade  in  country  produce  ; 
annual  cattle  fair  during  the  Dasahdra  festival.  Groves  of  mango  and 
plum  trees  surround  the  town,  which  was  the  residence  of  Maharaja  Ranjit 
Singh  during  the  rainy  season.  The  navigation  canal  runs  close  by  the 
town.  Head-quarters  of  a  police  sub-division  ithdna)  and  charitable 
dispensary.  Lies  on  the  main  road  from  Amritsar  to  Pathankot, 
8  miles  north-east  of  Gurdaspur.  Municipal  revenue  in  1882-83, 
;^76i  ;  expenditure,  ;£"6o8  ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  2s.  6;^d.  per 
head  of  the  population. 

jyiTik^-WX  {Dd?idpiir). — Sub-division  of  Patna  District,  Bengal; 
situated  between  25°  32'  and  25°  44'  n.  lat.,  and  between  84°  50'  15" 
and  85°  7'  E.  long.  Area,  143  square  miles  ;  number  of  villages,  349  ; 
houses,  27,041.  Total  population  (1881)  166,128,  namely,  78,503 
males  and  87,625  females.  Hindus  numbered  140,013  ;  Muham- 
madans, 24,122  ;  Christians,  1985  ;  and  Jews,  8.  Average  number  of 
persons  per  square  mile,  1162  ;  villages  per  square  mile,  2*44  ;  persons 
per  village,  476  ;  houses  per  square  mile,  211  ;  inmates  per  house,  6-i. 
The  Sub-division  comprises  the  police  circles  {thdnds)  of  Dinapur  and 
Maner.  It  contains  i  civil  and  3  criminal  courts ;  strength  of  regular 
police,  180  men;  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs),  244. 

Dinapur  (Z)i/m/wr).— Cantonment  and  military  head-quarters  of 
Patna  District,  Bengal,  in  the  Allahabad  Military  Division  ;  situated  on 
the  right  or  south  bank  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25°  38'  19"  n.,  long.  85° 
5'  8"  E.  Divided  into  two  parts,  the  Cantonments  and  the  Nizamat  or 
municipal  area.  Population  (i  881)  of  the  Cantonment  and  the  town 
proper,  37,893,  namely,  Hindus,  26,513;  Muhammadans,  9700 ; 
Christians  and  'others,'  1680;  area,  5884  acres.  Municipal  income 
(1882-82),  ;£873,  of  which  ^839  was  derived  from  taxation,  or  at  the 
rate  of  ^^.  per  head  of  the  population  (23,740)  within  municipal  limits. 
The  military  force  quartered  at  Dinapur  in  September  1883  consisted  of 
2  European  and  i  Native  infantry  regiment,  with  2  batteries  of  Royal 
Artillery.  The  cantonment  magistrate  administers  the  whole  Dinapur 
Sub-division.  The  road  from  Dinapur  to  Bankipur,  the  civil  head-quarters 
of  Patna  District,  6  miles  in  length,  is  lined  throughout  with  houses  and 


300  DINDIGAL. 

cottages;  in  fact,  Dinapur,  Bankipur,  and  Patna  may  be  regarded  as 
forming  one  continuous  narrow  city  hemmed  in  between  the  Ganges 
and  the  raihvay. 

The  Mutiny  of  1857,  in  Patna  District,  originated  at  Dinapur. 
The  three  Sepoy  regiments  stationed  there  broke  into  open  revolt  in  July, 
and  went  off  en  masse,  taking  only  their  arms  and  accoutrements  with 
them.  Thus  lightly  equipped,  the  majority  effected  their  escape  into 
Shahabad,  a  friendly  country,  with  nothing  to  oppose  them  but  the 
courage  of  a  handful  of  English  civilians,  indigo  planters,  and  railway 
engineers.  A  reinforcement  was  sent  from  the  European  garrison  of 
Dinapur  to  aid  in  the  defence  of  Arrah,  which  was  shortly  after 
besieged  by  the  rebel  Sepoys.  The  expedition  failed  disastrously, 
but  individual  acts  of  heroism  saved  the  honour  of  the  British  name. 
Two  volunteers,  Mr.  Eraser  M'Donell  and  Mr.  Ross  Mangles,  both  of  the 
Civil  Service,  conspicuously  distinguished  themselves  by  acts  of  intrepid 
valour.  The  former,  although  wounded,  was  one  of  the  last  men  to 
enter  the  boats.  The  insurgents  had  taken  the  oars  of  his  boat  and  had 
lashed  the  rudder,  so  that  although  the  wind  was  favourable  for  retreat, 
the  current  carried  it  back  to  the  river  bank.  Thirty-five  soldiers 
were  in  the  boat,  sheltered  from  fire  by  the  usual  thatch  covering ;  but 
while  the  rudder  was  being  fixed,  the  inmates  remained  at  the  mercy  of  the 
enemy.  At  this  crisis,  Mr. Eraser  M'Donell  stepped  out  from  the  shelter, 
chmbed  on  to  the  roof  of  the  boat,  perched  himself  on  the  rudder,  and 
cut  the  lashings  amidst  a  storm  of  bullets  from  the  contiguous  bank. 
Strangely  enough,  not  a  ball  struck  him ;  the  rudder  was  loosened,  the 
boat  answered  to  the  helm,  and  by  Mr.  M'Donell's  brilliant  act  the 
crew  were  saved  from  certain  destruction.  Mr.  Ross  Mangles'  conduct 
was  equally  heroic.  During  the  retreat,  a  soldier  was  struck  down 
near  him.  He  stopped,  lifted  the  man  on  to  his  back,  and  though  he 
had  frequently  to  rest  on  the  way,  he  managed  to  carry  the  wounded 
man  for  6  miles,  till  he  reached  the  stream.  He  then  swam  with  his 
helpless  burden  to  a  boat,  in  which  he  deposited  him  in  safety.  Both 
these  civilians  afterwards  received  the  Victoria  Cross  as  a  reward  for 
their  valour. 

Dindigal  {Dindii-kal), — Taluk  or  Sub-division  of  Madura  District, 
Madras  Presidency  ;  area,  1132  square  miles,  containing  i  town  and  208 
villages;  number  of  houses,  52,527;  population  (1881)  304,783,  namely, 
147,736  males  and  157,047  females.  Classified  according  to  religion 
— Hindus,  272,679;  Muhammadans,  12,239;  and  Christians,  19,865, 
of  whom  17,166  are  native  Roman  Catholics.  Formerly  a  separate 
Province,  though  subject  to  Madura,  it  was  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  1792 
to  the  East  India  Company.  It  is  watered  by  the  Kodavar,  Mageri,  and 
other  streams,  and  contains  also  1542  tanks,  with  abundance  offish.  A 
pearl-bearing  mussel  is  said  to  have  been  once  found  here.     Among  the 


DINDIGAL  TOWN.  301 

vegetable  products  are  enumerated  *  croton,  sarsaparilla,  and  senna,  the 
last  equal  to  that  brought  from  Egypt.'  The  ironworks  at  Giitum  and 
Kalampetti  were  once  of  considerable  importance.  In  1883  the  taluk 
contained  i  civil  and  3  criminal  courts  ;  number  of  poHce  circles,  15  ; 
strength  of  regular  police,  122  men.     Land  revenue,  ^35,446.     Chief 

town,  DiNDIGAL. 

Dindigal  {Dindu-kal,  '  The  Rock  of  Dindu,'  an  Asura  or  demon). 
—Town  in  the  Dindigal  fd/uk,  Madura  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Lat.  10°  21'  39"  N.,  long.  78°  o'  if  e.  Number  of  houses,  2115. 
Population  (1881)  14,182,  namely,  Hindus,  10,484;  Muhamma- 
dans,  1601  ;  and  Christians,  2097;  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
are  weavers,  18  per  cent,  traders,  and  13  per  cent,  agriculturists. 
Formerly  the  Christians  lived  in  a  separate  quarter,  their  houses  being 
distinguished  by  a  cross  on  the  roof.  Their  priest  was  a  native  of 
Malabar,  subject  ecclesiastically  to  the  Bishop  of  Cannanore.  Situated 
880  feet  above  the  sea,  about  54  miles  from  Kodaikanal,  the  sanitarium  on 
the  Palani  Hills,  and  40  from  Madura.  Dindigal  is  connected  by  railway 
with  the  chief  towns  of  the  Presidency.  The  staples  of  local  trade 
are  hides,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  cardamoms,  for  the  export  of  which 
the  system  of  roads  radiating  from  the  town  afford  exceptional  facilities. 
The  silks  and  muslins  manufactured  here  had  once  a  high  repute,  as  had 
also  the  blankets  made  from  '  Carumba '  wool.  As  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Sub-division,  Dindigal  contains  the  courts  of  European  as  well 
as  native  officials,  police  and  telegraph  stations,  travellers'  bungalow, 
school,  dispensary,  and  post-office.  There  are  two  churches,  the 
one  Protestant  and  the  other  Roman  Catholic.  '  The  municipal 
revenue  for  1882-83  was  ;£ii73,  the  incidence  of  taxation  being 
IS.  per  head  of  the  population. 

Dindigal  was  formerly  the  capital  of  an  independent  Province, 
which  nominally  formed  part  of  the  Madura  kingdom.  The  fort, 
built  on  a  remarkable  wedge-shaped  rock  1223  feet  above  the  sea, 
to  the  west  of  the  town,  remains  in  good  preservation,  having  been 
occupied  by  a  British  garrison  until  i860.  As  a  strategical  point  of 
great  natural  strength,  commanding  the  passes  between  Madura  and 
Coimbatore,  its  possession  has  always  been  keenly  contested.  Between 
1623  ^^d  1659  it  was  the  scene  of  many  encounters  between  the 
Marathas  and  the  Mysore  and  Madura  troops,  the  pdlegdr  of  Dindigal 
holding  at  that  time  feudal  authority  over  eighteen  neighbouring 
chieftains.  Chanda  Sahib,  the  Marathas,  and  the  Mysore  troops 
occupied  the  fort  in  turn,  and  during  the  intervals  in  which  no  greater 
power  was  in  possession,  the  strongest  local  chief  made  it  his  head- 
quarters. In  1755,  however,  Haidar  Ah  garrisoned  Dindigal,  and, 
while  still  ostensibly  the  faithful  soldier  of  Mysore,  used  it  as  the  basis 
of  his  schemes  for  distant  conquest  and  self-aggrandisement,  subduing 


302  DINDIVARAM—DINDORL 

in  succession  the  powerful /i/^^ir^  of  Madura,  and  annexing  the  greater 
part  of  that  District,  as  well  as  Coimbatore,  to  his  fief.  As  the  gate  to 
Coimbatore  from  the  south,  the  fort  proved,  in  the  wars  with  Haidar,  a 
serious  obstacle  to  the  operations  of  the  British  troops  at  Trichinopoli 
and  Madura.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1767,  lost  again  in  1768, 
retaken  in  1783,  given  up  to  Mysore  by  the  treaty  of  Mangalore  in 
1784,  recaptured  on  the  next  outbreak  of  war  in  1790,  and  finally  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  treaty  of  1792. 

Dindivaram  i^Tindivaram). — Taluk  or  Sub-division  of  South  Arcot 
District,  Madras  Presidency.  Area,  844  square  miles,  of  which  about 
four-fifths  are  cultivated  or  cultivable,  yielding  a  revenue  of  ;£"54,655. 
Number  of  villages,  564;  number  of  houses,  33,559.  Population 
(1881)  264,261,  namely,  Hindus,  248,377;  Muhammadans,  5888; 
Christians  (native  Roman  Catholics),  6369;  'others,'  3627.  The 
taluk  contains  3  criminal  courts;  police  circles  (thdnds),  13;  regular 
police,  116  men.  Twenty-two  miles  distant  from  Dindivaram,  the  chief 
tow^n,  lies  Merkanam,  a  small  sub-port  with  little  or  no  trade.  The 
South  Indian  Railway  runs  through  the  taluk  from  north  to  south  for 
about  17  miles,  with  3  railway  stations.  Chief  places,  Dindivaram  and 
Gingi. 

Dindori.  —  Sub-division  of  Nasik  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  Kalvan  and  the  Saptashring  hills ;  on  the 
east  by  Chandor  and  Niphad  ;  on  the  south  by  Nasik  Sub-division  ;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Sahyadri  hills  and  Peint.  Area,  529  square  miles ; 
number  of  villages,  128.  Population  (t88i)  72,290,  namely,  36,052 
males  and  36,238  females.  Density  of  population,  137  persons  to  the 
square  mile.  Hindus  number  70,165  ;  Muhammadans,  1210  ;  '  others,' 
915.  Most  of  the  Sub-division  is  hilly.  In  the  north  and  west  there 
are  only  a  few  cart  tracks,  and  travelling  is  difficult.  A  fair  road  leads 
to  Balsar  through  the  Saval  pass,  and  to  Kalvan  through  the  Aivan 
pass.  Rainfall  abundant ;  climate  in  April  and  May  healthy,  in  other 
months  feverish.  Average  rainfall  for  12  years  ending  188 1,  26  inches. 
The  main  stream  is  the  Kadva,  used  as  well  as  the  Banganga  for  irriga- 
tion. In  1880-81  there  were  6886  holdings  in  the  Sub-division,  with 
an  average  extent  of  30*5  acres,  and  paying  an  average  rental  of  £2^ 
2s.  6d.  The  area  under  actual  cultivation  was  153,287  acres;  37,195 
acres  were  under  wheat ;  23,399  acres  under  ndgli  (Eleusine  corocana) ; 
14,592  acres  under  bdjra  ;  other  crops,  rice,  pulses,  and  Bombay  hemp. 
The  Sub-division  contains  2  criminal  courts  ;  i  police  circle  {thdnd) ; 
regular  police,  26  men;  village  watch  {chaukiddrs),  150;  land  revenue, 

^15.387. 

Dindori.^Chief  town  of  the  Dindori  Sub-division,  Nasik  District, 

Bombay    Presidency.     Population    (1881)    2794.     Situated    about   15 

miles  north  of  Nasik.     Besides  the  ordinary  sub-divisional  revenue  and 


DINGARH  KINER—DIPALPUR.  303 

police  offices,  the  town  is  provided  with  a  post-office  and  dispensary. 
In  1881,  the  number  of  patients  treated  was  4500. 

Dingarh  Kiner. — Village  in  Sirmur  (Sarmor)  State,  Punjab.  Lat. 
30°  44'  N.,  long.  77°  21'  E.  Stands  on  a  picturesque  site,  in  the  gorge 
traversed  by  the  route  from  Nahan  to  Rajgarh.  Northwards,  it  looks 
towards  the  Chaur  (Chor)  mountain  ;  southwards,  along  the  valley  of  the 
Jalal  river.  Well-built  flat-roofed  houses,  arranged  in  rows  on  the  solid 
limestone  ledges  of  the  mountain  in  its  rear.  The  surrounding  country, 
though  rocky,  contains  some  fertile  spots,  which  produce  luxuriant 
crops  of  wheat. 

Dingi. — Fort  (with  walls  15  feet  high)  in  Khairpur  Native  State,  Sind, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  26°  52'  n.,  long.  68°  40'  e.  The  rendezvous 
of  the  forces  of  the  Mirs  in  1843.     Water-supply  abundant. 

Dingier  (pronounced  Diing-yeh).  —  Range  of  mountains  in  the 
Khasi  and  Jaintia  Hills  District,  Assam.  The  highest  peak  is  6400 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  range  takes  its  name  from  a  mythical  tree 
(Dung-tree),  which,  according  to  Khasi  legend,  grew  here  in  ancient 
times  and  reached  up  to  heaven.  The  fable  says  that  the  tree  was 
destroyed  by  God  on  account  of  the  impiety  of  men  who  essayed  to 
invade  heaven  by  climbing  up  its  branches. 

Diodar. — State  in  the  Palanpur  Agency,  Bombay  Presidency. — See 
Deodar. 

Dipalpur. — Tahsil  of  Montgomery  District,  Punjab.  Area,  956 
square  miles,  about  one-third  being  under  cultivation,  one-half  of  which 
is  irrigated  by  canals.  The  remainder  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
desert  waste,  portions  of  which  are  being  slowly  reclaimed  under  the 
influence  of  settled  Government.  Population  (1881)  154,590,  namely, 
males  83,549,  and  females  71,041  ;  average  density,  162  persons  per 
square  mile.  Muhammadans  numbered  118,126;  Hindus,  30,379; 
Sikhs,  6068;  'others,'  17.  Revenue,  ;£'24, 107.  The  administrative 
staff  consists  of  a  tahsilddr  and  an  honorary  magistrate,  who  preside 
over  2  civil  and  2  criminal  courts.  Number  of  police  circles,  4 ; 
strength  of  regular  police,  57  men  ;  village  watchmen  {chaiikiddrs)^  147. 

Dipalpur. — Ancient  and  decayed  town  in  Montgomery  District, 
Punjab ;  head-quarters  of  the  Dipalpur  tahsil.  Situated  upon  the 
old  bank  of  the  Beas  (Bias),  17  miles  from  the  railway  station  of 
Okhara  and  28  miles  north-east  of  Pakpattan.  Population  (1881) 
3435,  namely,  Muhammadans,  2124;  Hindus,  1194;  Sikhs,  113;  and 
'  others,'  4 ;  number  of  houses,  639.  A  third-class  municipality, 
with  an  income  in  1882-83  ^^  ^243  ;  expenditure,  ^248.  Dipalpur, 
now  an  insignificant  village,  once  formed  the  capital  of  the  Northern 
Punjab  under  the  Pathan  Emperors  of  Delhi;  and  even  as  late  as 
the  1 6th  century,  Babar  mentions  it  as  the  sister  city  of  Lahore. 
General   Cunningham    attributes    its    foundation  to    Raja    Deva    Pal, 


304  .  DIPALPUR—DISA. 

whose  date  is  lost  In  immemorial  antiquity.  Tradition,  however, 
ascribes  the  origin  of  Dipalpur  to  one  Bija  Chand,  a  Kshatriya,  from 
whose  son  it  derived  its  earliest  name  of  Sripur.  Old  coins  of  the 
Indo-Scythian  kings  have  been  frequently  discovered  upon  the  site; 
and  General  Cunningham  believes  that  the  mound  on  which  the 
village  stands  may  be  identified  with  the  Daidala  of  Ptolemy. 
Firoz  Tughlak  visited  the  city  in  the  14th  century,  and  built  a  large 
mosque  outside  the  walls,  besides  drawing  a  canal  from  the  Sutlej  to 
irrigate  the  surrounding  lands.  At  the  time  of  Timur's  invasion, 
Dipalpur  ranked  second  to  Multan  (Mooltan)  alone,  and  contained, 
according  to  popular  calculation,  the  symmetrical  number  of  84  towers, 
84  mosques,  and  84  wells.  At  the  present  day,  only  a  single  inhabited 
street  runs  between  the  two  gates.  A  high  ruined  mound  on  the 
south-west,  connected  with  the  town  by  a  bridge  of  three  arches,  pro- 
bably marks  the  site  of  the  ancient  citadel.  The  walls  apparently 
completed  a  circuit  of  2  J  miles,  but  suburbs  stretched  around  in  every 
direction,  and  may  still  be  traced  by  straggling  mounds  and  fields 
strewn  with  bricks.  The  decay  of  the  town  must  be  attributed  to  the 
drying  up  of  the  old  Beas  (Bias),  after  which  event  many  of  the  inhabit- 
ants migrated  to  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad)  in  the  Deccan.  The  restora- 
tion of  the  Khanwa  Canal,  since  the  British  annexation,  has  partially 
revived  the  prosperity  of  Dipalpur  as  a  local  trade  centre.  Tahsili, 
police  station,  sardi. 

Dipalpur. — Town  in  Indore  (Holkar's  territory),  Central  India; 
situated  in  lat.  22°  51'  n.,  and  long.  75°  35'  e.,  on  the  route  from 
Mhow  (Mau)  to  Neemuch  (Ni'mach),  27  miles  north-west  of  the  former, 
and  128  south-east  of  the  latter.  A  tank  to  the  east  of  the  town 
irrigates  a  large  area  of  ground  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Dipla. —  Taluk  in  the  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  Sind,  Bombay 
Presidency.  Lat.  24°  16'  to  24°  57'  15"  n.,  and  long.  69°  5'  30"  to 
69°  45'  E.  Population  (1881)  17,1 14,  namely,  males  9498,  and  females 
7616,  dwelling  in  4  villages  and  occupying  2987  houses.  Hindus 
number  2291  ;  Muhammadans,  11,548  ;  Sikhs,  13  ;  and  aboriginal  tribes, 
3262.  Areaunder  cultivation,  15,804  acres.  Revenue  (1881-82)  ;£3383, 
of  which  ;^3332  was  derived  from  imperial  and  ;£"5i  from  local  sources. 

Dipla. — Chief  town  in  Dipla  idluk,  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  Sind, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Lat.  24°  28'  n.,  long.  69°  37'  30"  e.  Population 
(1881)  under  2000.  The  municipal  revenue  in  1873-74  was  jQ"]^, 
but  the  municipahty  was  abolished  in  1878,  on  the  introduction  into 
Sind  of  Bombay  Act  vi.  of  1873.  Head-quarters  of  a  mukhtidrkar. 
Ruined  fort,  built  about  1790. 

Dirdpur.— 7l7/w//  of  Cawnpur  District,  North-Western  Provinces. 
— See  Derapur. 

Disa  {Deesa). — Town  and  cantonment  in  Palanpur  State,  Gujarat, 


DISAUN—DIU. 


305 


Bombay  Presidency ;  situated  on  the  river  Banas,  in  lat.  24°  14'  30"  n., 
and  long.  72°  12'  30"  e.,  about  301  miles  north-west  of  Mau  (Mhow), 
251  west  by  south  of  Ni'mach  (Neemuch),  and  390  north  by  west  of 
Bombay.  Population  (1881)  8376,  namely,  Hindus,  5357;  Muham- 
madans,  2455  ;  '  others/  564.  Anciently  the  town  was  called  Faridabdd. 
The  British  cantonment  (containing  4546  out  of  the  total  population)  is 
stationed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bands,  3  miles  north-east  of  the  native 
town.  The  force  consisted  in  1880  of  a  regiment  of  Native  cavalry,  a 
regiment  of  Native  infantry,  a  British  regiment,  and  a  battery  of  artillery. 
A  Brigadier-General  holds  command.  Post  and  telegraph  offices. 
Di'sa  is  surrounded  with  a  wall  and  towers,  now  in  ruins.  In  former 
times  it  successfully  resisted  the  attacks  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda  and 
of  the  Radhanpur  forces. 

Disaun. — River  of  Central  India. — See  Dhasan. 

Disoi  (Disai). — River  in  Sibsagar  District,  Assam  ;  rising  in  the  Naga 
Hills,  and  flowing  northwards  into  the  Gela  bhil^  which  communicates  with 
the  Brahmaputra  near  Nigiriting.  This  river  formerly  discharged  itself 
into  the  Brahmaputra  direct  at  Kokilamiikh,  but  has  latterly  changed 
its  course.  On  its  left  bank  is  Jorhat,  the  most  important  mart  in  the 
District,  but  its  importance  as  a  river  port  has  much  diminished  since 
the  change  in  the  course  of  the  Disoi.  Goods  landed  at  Kukilamiikh 
have  to  be  conveyed  to  Jorhat  on  carts;  but  a  tramway  is  now  (1882) 
under  construction  from  Jorhdt  to  Gohamgaon,  a  mile  distant  from 
Dinagaon  on  the  Brahmaputra,  which  is  a  stopping-place  for  steamers 
in  the  rainy  season. 

Diu. — An  island  forming  portion  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in 
Western  India;  situated  in  lat.  20°  43'  20"  N.,  and  long.  71°  2'  30"  e., 
and  separated  by  a  narrow  channel  through  a  considerable  swamp 
from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency.  Its  extreme  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  7 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  2  miles.  Area,  52*5 
square  kilometres.  On  the  north  the  narrow  channel  separating  it  from 
the  mainland  is  practicable  only  for  fishing  boats  and  small  craft.  On 
the  south,  the  face  of  the  island  is  a  sandstone  cliff  washed  by  the 
sea,  with  deep  water  close  beneath.  Several  groves  of  cocoa-nut  trees 
are  scattered  over  the  island,  and  the  hills  attain  an  elevation  of  about 
100  feet.  It  has  a  small  but  excellent  harbour,  where  vessels  can 
safely  ride  at  anchor  in  2  fathoms  of  water.  The  climate  is  generally 
dry  and  sultry,  the  soil  barren,  and  water  scarce.  Agriculture  is 
much  neglected.  The  principal  products  are — wheat,  millet,  ?idc/mi\ 
bdjra,  cocoa-nuts,  and  some  kinds  of  fruit.  The  entire  population  of 
Diu  island,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881,  numbered  6229  males 
and  6407  females;  total,  12,636  persons,  of  whom  303  are  Christians, 
including  4  Europeans. 

VOL.  IV.  U 


3o6  DIU. 

The  town  of  Diu  stands  at  the  east  end  of  the  island,  the  castle 
being  in  lat.  20°  42'  n.,  and  long.  70°  59'  e.  ;  distance  from  Nawa 
Bandar,  5  miles.  In  the  days  of  its  commercial  prosperity,  the  town 
alone  is  said  to  have  contained  above  50,000  inhabitants.  There  are 
now  2929  houses,  which,  with  very  few  exceptions,  are  poorly  con- 
structed. Some  of  the  dwellings  are  provided  with  cisterns,  of  which 
there  are  altogether  about  300,  for  the  accumulation  of  rain-water. 
Diu,  once  so  opulent  and  famous  for  its  commerce,  has  now  dwindled 
into  utter  insignificance.  Not  long  ago,  it  maintained  mercantile 
relations  with  several  parts  of  India  and  Mozambique,  but  at  present 
its  trade  is  almost  stagnant.  The  castle  is  separated  from  the  other 
fortifications  by  a  deep  moat  cut  through  the  solid  sandstone  rock, 
through  which  the  sea  had  free  passage  at  one  time,  but  now  it  only 
enters  at  the  highest  tides.  Besides  Diu  town,  there  are  3  large 
villages  on  the  island,  namely — Monakbara,  with  a  fort  commanding 
the  channel  on  the  west ;  Bachawara,  on  the  north  ;  and  Nagwa,  wuth 
a  small  fort  commanding  the  bay,  on  the  south.  The  principal 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants  were  formerly  weaving  and  dyeing,  and 
articles  manufactured  here  were  highly  prized  in  foreign  markets. 
At  present,  fishing  affords  the  chief  employment  to  the  impoverished 
inhabitants.  A  few  enterprising  persons,  however,  emigrate  temporarily 
to  Mozambique,  where  they  occupy  themselves  in  commercial  pursuits, 
and,  after  making  a  sufiicient  fortune,  return  to  their  native  place  to 
spend  the  evening  of  their  lives.  The  total  revenue  of  Diu  in  1873-74 
was  ^3802. 

The  Governor  is  the  chief  authority  in  both  the  civil  and  military 
departments,  subordinate  to  the  Governor  -  General  of  Goa.  The 
judicial  department  is  under  2i.Juiz  de  Direito^  with  a  small  establish- 
ment to  carry  out  his  orders.  For  ecclesiastical  purposes,  the  island 
is  divided  into  two  parishes,  called  Se  Matiiz  and  Brancawara,  the 
patron  saints  being  St.  Paul  and  St.  Andrew.  Both  parishes  are  under 
the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  a  dignitary  styled  the  Prior,  appointed  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Goa.  The  office  of  Governor  is  invariably  filled 
by  a  European,  other  posts  being  bestowed  on  natives  of  Goa.  The 
public  force  consisted  in  1874  of  97  soldiers,  including  officers.  The 
present  fortress  of  Diu  was  reconstructed,  with  several  later  improve- 
ments, after  the  siege  of  1545,  by  Dom  Joao  de  Castro.  It  is  an 
imposing  structure,  situated  on  the  extreme  east  of  the  island,  and 
defended  by  several  pieces  of  cannon,  some  of  which  are  made  of 
bronze,  and  appear  to  be  in  good  preservation.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  permanent  bridge  and  entered  by  a  gateway,  which  bears  a  Portu- 
guese inscription,  and  is  defended  by  a  bastion  called  St.  George. 
Towards  the  west  of  the  fortress  lies  the  town  of  Diu,  divided  into 
two  quarters,  the  pagan  and  the  Christian.     The  former  comprehends 


DW.  307 

two-thirds  of  the  total  area,  and  is  intersected  by  narrow  and  crooked 
roads,  lined  with  houses.  Besides  the  villages  of  the  island  already 
named,  the  Portuguese  possess  the  village  of  Gogola,  towards  the 
north,  in  the  Kathiawar  peninsula,  and  the  fort  of  Simbor,  conquered 
in  1722,  and  situated  in  an  islet  about  12  miles  distant  from  the 
town. 

Diu  town  was  formerly  embellished  with  several  magnificent  edifices, 
some  of  which  are  still  in  existence.  Of  these  the  most  noteworthy 
is  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  erected  in  1601,  and  now  converted  into 
a  cathedral,  called  Se  Matriz.  Of  the  former  convents,  that  of  St. 
Francis  is  used  as  a  military  hospital ;  that  of  St.  John  of  God,  as  a 
place  of  burial ;  that  of  St.  Dominic  is  in  ruins.  The  parochial  hali 
of  the  once  beautiful  church  of  St.  Thomas  serves  as  a  place  of  meet- 
ing for  the  municipal  chamber.  The  mint,  where,  in  the  days  of  the 
greatest  prosperity  of  the  Portuguese,  money  of  every  species  used  to 
be  coined,  is  now  gradually  falling  into  decay.  The  arsenal,  once  so 
renowned,  contains  a  few  insignificant  military  stores.  Besides  these 
buildings,  there  are  the  Governor's  palace,  a  prison,  and  a  school. 
The  Hindus  possess  to  small  temples,  and  the  Muhammadans  2 
mosques,  one  of  which  is  in  good  condition. 

Owing  to  the  great  advantages  which  the  position  of  Diu  afforded  for 
trade  with   Arabia  and   the  Persian  Gulf,   the  Portuguese  were  fired 
from  an  early  period  with  the  desire  of  becoming  masters  of  this  island ; 
but  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Nuno  da  Cunha  that  they  succeeded 
in  obtaining  a  footing  in  it.     When   Bahadur  Shah,  King  of  Gujarat, 
was  attacked  by  the  Mughal  Emperor  Humayiin,  he  concluded  a  de- 
fensive alliance  with  the  Portuguese,  allowing  them  to  construct,  in 
1535,  a  fortress  in  the  island,  and  garrison  it  with  their  own  troops. 
This  alliance  continued  till  1536,  when  both  parties  began  to  suspect 
each  other  of  treachery.     Tn  a  scuffle  which  took  place  on  his  return 
from  a  Portuguese  ship,  whither  he  had  proceeded  on  a  visit  to  Nuno  da 
Cunha,  the  Gujarat  monarch  met  his  death  in  1537.     In  the  following 
year,  the  fortress  was  besieged  by  Muhammad  in.,  nephew  of  Bahadur 
Shah ;  but  the  garrison,  commanded  by  Antonio  de  Silveira,  foiled  the 
attempts  of  the  enemy,  and  compelled  hirh  to  raise  the  siege.     Sub- 
sequently, in  1545,  Diu  was  again  closely  invested  by  the  same  ruler; 
but  was  obstinately  defended  by  the  gallant  band  within,  under  the 
command  of  Dom  Joao  Mascarewas.     While  the  Muhammadans  were 
still  under  the  walls,  Dom  Joao   de   Castro  landed  in  the  island  with 
large  reinforcements,  and   immediately  marching  to  the  relief  of  the 
place,  totally  routed  the  army  of  the   King  of  Gujarat  in  a  pitched 
battle.     This  heroic  defence,  and  the  signal  victory  gained  by  Castro, 
which  form  a  brilliant  page  in  the  annals  of  the  Portuguese  empire  in 
the  East,  were  followed  by  the  acquisition  of  the  entire  island.     In 


3o8  DIVI  POINT— DIVING. 

1670,  a  small  armed  band  of  the  Arabs  of  Muscat  surprised  and 
plundered  the  fortress,  retiring  to  their  country  with  the  booty  they 
had  acquired.  Since  this  event,  nothing  worthy  of  note  has  occurred 
in  connection  with  the  Portuguese  settlement. 

Divi  Point. — A  low  headland  in  the  Bandar  taluk  (Masulipatam), 
Kistna  District,  Madras  Presidency;  situated  in  lat.  15°  57'  30"  n.,  and 
long.  81°  14'  E.,  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  branch  outlets  of  the  Kistna 
river,  and  surrounded  by  shoal  flats  for  6  miles  south  and  east,  the  edge 
of  the  shoal  sometimes  extending  5  or  6  leagues  out  to  sea.  A  dioptric 
light  on  a  column  43  feet  high  marks  the  danger.  '  Divi  False  Point ' 
stands  16 J  miles  south-west  by  west  of  '  Divi  Point.' 

Diwala.— Village  in  Chanda  District,  Central  Provinces.  —  See 
Dewala. 

Diwalgaon. — Village  in  Chanda  District,  Central  Provinces.— 6"^^ 
Dewalgaon. 

Diwalgaon  Raja. — Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar. — See  Deul- 
GAON  Raja. 

Diwalghat. — Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar. — See  Deulghat. 

Diwdlia. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency.  —  See 
Dewalia. 

Diwalwdra. — Village  in  Wardha,  Central  Provinces. — See  Dewal- 

WARA. 

Diwalwara. — Ruined  town  in  Ellichpur  District,  Berar. — See 
Dewalwara. 

Diwangiri.  —  Village  in  the  north  of  Kamriip  District,  Assam ; 
situated  in  lat.  26°  51'  n.,  and  long.  91°  27'  e.,  8  miles  from  the 
plains,  on  the  lower  range  of  the  Bhutan  Hills.  The  village  con- 
tains an  old  fort,  formerly  occupied  by  a  Bhutia  governor,  known  as 
the  Diwangiri  Raja.  A  British  detachment  received  a  check  at  Diwan- 
giri during  the  Bhutan  War  of  1864-65,  and  the  tract  to  which  the  fort 
belongs  was  annexed  to  British  territory  at  the  conclusion  of  the  campaign. 
It  is  inhabited  permanently  by  a  few  Bhutia  settlers.  In  the  cold  weather 
the  place  is  visited  by  Bhutias  from  beyond  the  frontier  in  considerable 
numbers,  who  bring  with  them  large  herds  of  magnificent  cattle  to  feed 
on  the  rich  pasturage  of  the  lower  ranges  of  hills  and  the  adjacent 
plains.  They  also  trade  with  the  villages  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
with  Marwari  and  other  shopkeepers  who  establish  themselves  there 
for  the  season.  The  chief  articles  of  import  are  blankets,  ponies, 
yak's  tails,  knives,  and  dogs,  which  are  exchanged  for  rice,  dried  fish, 
coarse  silks,  etc.  A  large  fair  is  held  annually  at  Diwangiri  in  the 
cold  season. 

Diwas. — Native  State  in  Central  India. — See  Dewas. 

Diying. — River  in  North  Cachar,  Assam,  rising  in  the  Barel  range, 
and  flowing  a  generafly  northerly  course   till  it  fails  into  the  Kopiii 


DOAB,  309 

shortly  after  the  latter  stream  issues  from  the  hills.  The  Diying  for  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  course  formed  till  recently  the  western 
boundary  of  the  Naga  Hills  District ;  but  by  a  notification  issued  in 
July  1882,  another  boundary  drawn  farther  east  was  fixed  between 
North  Cachar  and  the  Nagd.  Hills. 

Doab  {Dudb,  or  two  rivers). — A  tract  of  country  in  the  North- 
western Provinces,  comprising  the  long  and  narrow  strip  of  land 
between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna,  from  the  Siwalik  range  south-east- 
ward. The  name  properly  applies  to  any  wedge-shaped  tract  enclosed 
by  confluent  rivers,  but  it  is  especially  employed  to  designate  this  great 
alluvial  plain,  the  granary  of  Upper  India.  The  Doab  includes  the 
British  Districts  of  Saharanpur,  Muzaffarnagar,  Meerut,  Buland- 
SHAHR,  Aligarh,  parts  of  MuTTRA,  and  Agra,  Etah,  Mainpuri,  the 
greater  portion  of  Etawah,  and  Farukhabad,  Cawnpur,  Fatehpur, 
and  part  of  Allahabad,— all  of  which  see  separately.  Naturally  a 
rich  tract,  composed  of  the  detritus  brought  down  from  the  Himalayan 
system  by  its  great  boundary  rivers,  the  Doab  has  been  fertilized  and 
irrigated  by  three  magnificent  engineering  works,  the  Ganges,  the  Lower 
Ganges,  and  the  Eastern  Jumna  Canals.  Throughout  its  entire  length 
it  presents  an  almost  unbroken  sheet  of  cultivation,  varied  only  by  a 
few  ravines  along  the  banks  of  the  principal  streams  and  their  tributaries, 
or  by  occasional  patches  of  barren  usar  plain,  covered  with  the  white 
saline  efflorescence  known  as  reh.  It  supports  a  dense  population, 
most  of  whom  derive  their  subsistence  from  agriculture.  Allahabad, 
Cawnpur,  Meerut,  and  Aligarh  are  the  chief  commercial  centres, 
and  the  principal  stations  of  the  civil  and  military  authorities.  The 
East  Indian  Railway  enters  the  Doab  at  Allahabad,  and  passes  through 
the  heart  of  the  tract,  by  Cawnpur,  Etawah,  and  Aligarh,  to  Delhi  on 
the  opposite  shore  of  the  Jumna.  A  branch  line  also  runs  across  the 
river  to  Agra.  The  Sind,  Punjab,  and  Delhi  Railway  continues  the 
East  Indian  line  from  Ghaziabad  Junction,  nearly  opposite  Delhi,  by 
Meerut,  Muzaffarnagar,  and  Saharanpur,  to  Ambala  (Umballa)  and  the 
other  Punjab  towns.  Other  lines  of  railway  to  connect  with  the  main 
lines,  namely,  the  Hathras  and  Muttra,  and  the  Cawnpur  and  Farukh- 
abad lines,  have  been  lately  constructed  as  provincial  light  railways,  on 
the  metre  gauge,  through  this  tract.  An  extension  of  the  Cawnpur  and 
Farukhabad  line  to  Hathras,  103  miles  in  length,  has  been  sanctioned 
by  the  Secretary  of  State  ;  and  a  further  line  is  projected  from  Bareli 
to  Kdsganj,  but  not  yet  (1883)  commenced.  The  Doab  thus  possesses 
unrivalled  means  of  communication,  both  by  land  and  water,  with  all 
the  neighbouring  tracts ;  and  its  surplus  grain  can  be  transported  in 
i  almost  every  direction,  upon  any  pressure  of  scarcity  or  famine.  Three 
!  principal  divisions  are  commonly  recognised  ;  the  Upper  Doab,  from 
Saharanpur  to  Aligarh  ;  the  Middle  Doab,  from  Muttra  and   Etah  to 


310  no  ABA  DAUDZAI—DOD-BALLAPUR. 

Etawah  and  Farukhabad ;  and  the  Lower  Doab,  from  Cawnpur  to  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers  at  Allahabad.  For  history,  inhabitants,  and 
other  particulars,  see  the  various  Districts  separately. 

Do^ba  Daiidzai. — 7"^//^// of  Peshawar  District,  Punjab.  Area,  182 
square  miles.  Population  (i88t)  68,902,  namely,  males  37,955,  and 
females  30,947  ;  average  density,  378  persons  per  square  mile.  Mu- 
hammadans  numbered  66,754;  Hindus,  1954;  Sikhs,  185  ;  'others,' 9. 
The  tahsil  includes  two  tracts,  formerly  constituting  separate  tahsils^ 
Doaba  to  the  north-east,  and  Daiidzai  to  the  south-west.  The  Adizai, 
or  northern  branch  of  the  Kabul  or  Nagaman  river,  takes  off  near  Fort 
Michni  at  the  point  of  its  entrance  into  the  District,  while  the  Shah 
Alim  or  southern  branch  leaves  it  a  little  lower  down ;  both  rejoin  the 
main  stream  at  its  junction  with  the  Swat  river.  Doaba  is  the  tract 
between  the  Swat  and  Adizai  rivers ;  while  Daudzai  includes  the  area 
between  the  Adizai  and  Shah  Alim,  as  well  as  a  triangle  of  land  abutting 
on  the  latter.  Doaba  is  occupied  by  the  Gigiani  Pathans,  and  contains 
the  two  forts  of  Michni  and  Shankargarh.  The  Halimzai  Mohmands 
have  a  large  settlement  at  Panjpao,  and  the  Tarakzai  Mohmands  a 
similar  one  near  Fort  Michni.  Both  plans  belong  to  the  independent 
Mohmands  beyond  our  border,  and  pay  merely  a  nominal  revenue. 
Daudzai  is  occupied  by  the  Daudzai  Pathans.  The  tahsili  is  located 
at  the  village  of  Nahuki  between  the  Kabul  river  and  its  Shah  Alim 
branch.  The  old  Doaba  tahsili  at  Shabkadr  has  been  abolished. 
Irrigation  by  canals  from  the  Kabul  and  Swat  rivers  make  the  tract 
very  fertile.  Revenue  (1883),  ;£'i6,676.  The  administrative  officer  is 
a  iahsilddr,  who  presides  over  i  civil  and  i  criminal  court.  Number  of 
police  circles  {thdjtds),  2 ;  strength  of  regular  police,  38  men ;  village 
watchmen  {chaiikiddrs\  180. 

Dobbili. — Zaminddri  in  Vizagapatam  District,  Madras  Presidency. — 
See  BoBBiLi. 

Dobhi. — Village  in  Gadarwara  tahsil,  Narsinghpur  District,  Central 
Provinces.  Population  (1881)  2117,  namely,  Hindus,  2007;  Mu- 
hammadans,  35  ;  Jains,  11  ;  and  persons  professing  aboriginal 
religions,  64. 

Dodabetta  {'The  Big  Mountain;'  Toda-Nanc—V^ixn2.x\.7).—Viit 
highest  peak  of  the  Nilgiri  mountains,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  11° 
25'  N.,  long.  76°  40'  E. ;  height,  8760  feet  above  the  sea. 

Dod-ball4pur.— ri/z/^  or  Sub-division  of  Bangalore  District,  Mysore 
State.  Area,  292  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  44,435,  namely, 
21,094  males  and  22,531  females.  Hindus  number  42,637;  Muham- 
madans,  1783;  and  Christians,  15.  Revenue  (1882-83),  ^^13,209,  or 
2s.  lod.  per  cultivated  acre.  In  1883,  the  tdlnk  contained  i  criminal 
court ;  police  circles  {thdnds)^  8 ;  regular  police,  64  men ;  village  watch 
{chaukiddrs),  314. 


DOD-BALLAPUR—DOHAD.  31 1 

Dod-ballapur  {Great  Balldpur,  to  distinguish  it  from  Chik-balla- 
pur).— Town  in  Bangalore  District,  Mysore  State,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Arkavati  river.    Lat.  13°  13'  40"  n.,  long.  77°  22'  50"  e.  ;  27  miles 
by  road  north-west  of  Bangalore.      Population  (1881)  7032,  namely, 
6197  Hindus,   831   Muhammadans,  and  4  Christians.     The  fort  was 
built  in  the  14th  century  by  one  of  the  refugees  of  the  Morasu  Wokkal 
tribe,  who  also  founded  Devanhalli.     In  1638  it  was  captured  by  a 
Bijapur  army  under  Ran-dulla  Khan  ;  and  after  forty  years'  possession 
by  that  power,  was  surrendered  to  the  Mardthas.     About  1700  it  was 
re-taken  by  the  Mughals,  by  whom  it  was  entrusted  to  a  succession 
of  rulers  as  part  of  the  Province  of  Sira,  until  annexed  to  Mysore  by 
Haidar  All  in  176 1.     In  the  fort  are  the  remains  of  several  fine  build- 
ings and  tanks.      Cotton  cloth  of  good  quality  and  great  variety  is 
woven.    A  weekly  fair,  held  on  Thursdays,  is  attended  by  3000  people. 
Head-quarters  of  a  taluk  of  the  same  name. 

Dodderi.  —  T^i/w^  or  Sub-division  of  Chitaldriig  District,  Mysore 
State.  Area,  851  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  65,767,  namely, 
33,508  males  and  32,259  females.  Hindus  number  63,355;  Muham- 
madans, 2401;  and  Christians,  11.  A  wide  and  level  plain,  formerly 
including  the  taluk  of  Molkamuru,  watered  by  the  Vedavati  river. 
Products — rice,  ragijola^  wheat,  tobacco,  gram,  and  fruits. 

Dodderi.— Village  in  Chitaldriig  District,  Mysore  State.  Latitude 
14°  17'  50"  N.,  longitude  76°  45'  5"e.  Population  (1881)  658.  Among 
the  local  manufactures  are  cotton  cloth,  silk  scarves,  kamblis  or  country 
blankets,  carts,  agricultural  implements,  brass  utensils,  and  various 
articles  of  bamboo  and  leather.  The  industry  of  papermaking  has  died 
out. 

Dodka.— Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency,  ruled  by 
three  chiefs  called  P^tels  or  head-men.  Area,  2  J  square  miles  ;  estimated 
revenue,  ^250,  of  which  ;^iio  is  payable  as  tribute  to  the  Gaekwar  of 
Baroda. 

Dohad.— Sub-division  of  the  Panch  Mahals  District,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency. Bounded  on  the  north  by  Jhalod ;  on  the  east  by  Jambua ;  on 
the  south  by  Central  India  territory ;  and  on  the  east  by  Rewa  Kantha. 
Area,  600  square  miles ;  contains  2  towns  and  218  villages.  Population 
(1881)  100,639,  namely,  50,231  males  and  50,408  females,  dwelling  in 
18,499  houses.  Hindus  number  30,044;  Muhammadans,  5797;  'others,* 
64,798.  The  Sub-division  is  a  compact,  circular,  and  well-wooded 
tract ;  hilly  and  picturesque  throughout.  Occasional  frosts  in  the  cold 
weather;  average  rainfall  for  the  12  years  ending  1877,  287  mches. 
The  Anas  river  flows  along  the  eastern  boundary.  Several  large 
reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  water.  In  1883  the  Sub-division  contained 
I  civil  and  2  criminal  courts ;  police  circle  {thdnds),  i  ;  regular  police, 
262  men.     Land  revenue,  ;£i 0,939. 


3 1 2  DOHAD—DOMARIA  GANJ, 

Dohad. — Chief  town  of  the  Sub-division  of  Dohad  in  the  District 
of  the  Panch  Mahals,  Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  22°  53'  n.,  and 
longitude  74°  19'  e.;  77  miles  north-east  of  Baroda.  Population  (1881) 
12,394,  namely,  5845  Hindus,  4204  Muhammadans,  445  Jains,  5  Parsis, 
3  Christians,  and  1892  'others.'  As  the  name  Dohad  (or  'two  boun- 
daries ')  implies,  the  town  is  situated  on  the  line  separating  Malwa  on 
the  east  from  Gujarat  (Guzerat)  on  the  west.  It  is  a  place  of  con- 
siderable traffic,  commanding  one  of  the  main  lines  of  communication 
between  Central  India  and  the  seaboard.  A  metalled  and  bridged 
road,  43  miles  long,  connects  the  town  with  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and 
Central  India  Railway  at  Godhra.  The  strongly-built  fort  dates  from 
the  reign  of  the  Gujardt  king,  Ahmad  i.  (1412-1443).  It  was  repaired 
by  Muzaffar  11.  (15 13-15  26),  also  a  Gujarat  monarch,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  again  restored  under  the  orders  of  the  Emperor  Aurangzeb 
(1658-1707).  The  town  contains  a  sub-judge's  and  mdmlatddi^ s  court, 
post-office,  civil  hospital,  and  the  District  jail.  In  addition  to  the 
unarmed  police,  the  Gujardt  Bhil  corps,  530  strong,  is  quartered  at 
Dohad.  This  regiment  is  not  on  the  rolls  of  the  army,  but  is  com- 
manded by  the  superintendent  and  assistant  superintendent  of  police. 
About  half  the  strength  of  the  corps  is  employed  on  outpost  duty. 
Municipal  income  (1882-83),  ;2^58i  ;  incidence  of  taxation  per  head 
of  municipal  population  (11,472),  is. 

Doharighat.  —  Town  in  Azamgarh  District,  North -Western  Pro- 
vinces; lies  in  lat.  26°  16'  n.,  and  long.  83°  33'  30"  e.,  on  the  bank  of 
the  Gogra,  at  the  point  where  the  roads  from  Ghazipur  and  Azamgarh 
to  Gorakhpur  cross  the  river.  Population  (1881)  3634,  namely,  Hindus, 
3141 ;  and  Muhammadans,  493;  number  of  houses,  518.  For  police 
and  conservancy  purposes,  a  small  municipal  income  is  raised  under  the 
provisions  of  Act  xx.  of  1856,  amounting  in  1881-82  to  ;^43.  First- 
class  police  station,  cattle  pound,  and  sub-post-office.  Extensive  through 
traffic  to  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Great  bathing  festival 
on  the  full  moon  of  the  month  of  Kartik. 

Dolphin's  Nose.  —  Promontory  in  Vizagapatam  District,  Madras 
Presidency.  Latitude  17°  41' n.,  longitude  83°  17'  e.  Elevation  above 
the  sea,  1500  feet.  The  southern  point  of  Vizagapatam  harbour,  forming, 
with  the  ruined  castle  on  it,  a  conspicuous  landmark  to  mariners. 
The  light  formerly  shown  here  was  destroyed  in  the  cyclone  of  1876, 
and  has  not  been  replaced. 

Domariaganj.  —  North-western  tahsil  of  Basti  District,  North- 
western Provinces.  Traversed  by  the  river  Rapti,  and  consisting 
chiefly  of  a  marshy  and  water-logged  submontane  plain.  Area,  583 
square  miles,  of  which  410  are  cultivated.  Population  (i88t)  280,254, 
namely,  Hindus,  211,852;  Muhammadans,  68,399;  and  'others,'  3. 
Number  of  towns  and  villages,  1092;  land  revenue,  ;£"26,i78;  total 


DOMEL—DONGARGARH.  3 1 3 

Government  revenue,  £2(),^^\;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ^69,170; 
incidence  of  Government  revenue,  is.  y^d.  per  acre.  The  tahsil  contains 
I  criminal  court  and  4  police  stations  {thdnds)  \  strength  of  regular 
police,  42  men,  besides  310  village  watchmen. 

Domel. — An  island  in  the  Mergui  Archipelago,  between  lat.  11°  26' 
and  11°  28'  N.,  and  long.  98°  2'  and  98°  11'  e.,  forming  a  portion  of 
Mergui  District,  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma.  It  lies  3  or  4 
miles  west  of  Kissering,  the  navigable  channel  between  them,  however, 
being  very  narrow.  Extreme  length  from  north  to  south,  about  28 
miles ;  breadth  from  east  to  west,  about  4  miles. 

Domeli.— Agricultural  town  in  Jhelum  (Jehlam)  tahsil,  Jhelum  Dis- 
trict, Punjab.  Lat.  33''  i'  n.,  long.  73°  24'  e.;  population  (1881)  4679. 
Head-quarters  of  a  police  circle  {thdnd). 

Dommasundra.— Town  in  Anekal  taluk,  Bangalore  District,  Mysore 
State.     Population  (1881)  1835.     Municipal  revenue  (1881-82),  ^54. 

Donabyii.— Township  in  Thungwa  District,  Irawadi  (Irrawaddy) 
Division,  British  Burma.  It  lies  principally  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Irawadi,  and  was  formerly  a  part  of  Henzada  District ;  protected  from 
inundation  by  extensive  embankments  along  the  west  bank  of  the  river. 
Population  (1881)  43,760;  gross  revenue,  ^10,856,  of  which  ^7827 
was  derived  from  the  land-tax,  ;^4o8o  from  the  capitation-tax,  and 
;£"4495  from  the  fishery-tax. 

Donabyii.— Town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irawadi  (Irrawaddy),  35 
miles  south  of  Henzada,  in  Thungwa  District,  Irawadi  Division,  British 
Burma.  Lat.  17°  15' n., long.  95°4o'e.  The  inhabitants  in i 88 inumbered 
3273;  houses,  526;  revenue  (1881-82),  £^^z.  Police  station,  court- 
house, and  bazar.  In  the  first  Burmese  war,  after  the  capture  of 
Rangoon,  the  Burmese  commander-in-chief,  Bandula,  entrenched  him- 
self in  Donabyii  with  a  force  of  15,000  men;  but  he  was  killed  by  the 
bursting  of  a  shell  when  the  British  batteries  opened  fire  on  the  town, 
and  the  Burmese  retreated.  During  the  second  war,  the  Burmese 
general  evacuated  the  place  before  the  arrival  of  the  English ;  but 
shortly  after  this,  Maung  Myat  Thiin  made  it  his  head-quarters.  He  was 
routed  in  1853  by  a  detachment  under  Captain  Loch,  R.N.,  and  later 
on  was  finally  overtaken  by  Sir  John  Cheape  and  killed.  ^  From  this 
time  Donabyii  remained  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  British. 

Dondi  'Lo\ikTd.—Zaminddri  or  estate  attached  to  Raipur  District, 
Central  Provinces.  Area,  364  square  miles.  Population  (188 1) 
30,134,  namely,  males  15,313,  and  females  14,821,  residing  m  120 
villages,  and  inhabiting  10,440  houses.  Average  density  of  population, 
82-8  persons  per  square  mile. 

Dongargarh.  — Town  in  the  south-east  of  the  Khairagarh  State, 
attached  to  Raipur  District,  Central  Provinces.  Lat.  21°  n'  3°"  N., 
long.  80°  50'  E.     Formerly  an  important  town,  and  still  the  seat  of  a 


314  DONGARPUR—DOSA. 

large  weekly  market,  and  a  station  on  the  Nagpur-Chhatisgarh  railway. 
Population  (1881)  5543,  namely,  Hindus,  439^;  Kabirpanthis,  391; 
Satnamis,  48;  Muhammadans,  322;  Christians,  3;  Jains,  13;  and 
persons  professing  aboriginal  religions,  375.  The  remains  of  the  fort, 
which  must  have  been  a  place  of  great  strength,  stretch  along  the  north- 
east base  of  a  detached  rocky  hill,  about  4  miles  in  circuit,  near  the 
village.  The  spurs  of  the  hill,  which  is  very  steep  and  covered  with 
large  boulders,  were  connected  by  walls  of  rude  and  massive  masonry, 
inside  which  tanks  were  dug,  while  a  deep  fosse  ran  beyond  the  walls. 
On  its  other  faces  the  hill  is  almost  inaccessible,  and  no  works  can  be 
traced ;  nor  have  any  remains  of  buildings  been  found,  although  the 
fort  could  only  be  held  by  a  large  garrison.  The  village  contains  a 
good  school;  also  a  dispensary,  post-office,  and  a  zaminddri  police 
station. 

Dongarpur. — Native  State  in  Rajputdna. — See  Dungarpur. 

Dongartdl. — Village  in  Nagpur  District,  Central  Provinces.  Lat. 
21°  36'  N.,  long.  79°  24'  E.  Situated  on  the  old  road  between  Seoni  and 
Nagpur.  Celebrated  for  its  breed  of  cattle,  and  inhabited  by  Gaulis. 
Fine  tank  and  ruins  of  an  old  fort. 

Dorandd. — Mihtary  cantonment  in  Lohardaga  District,  Bengal; 
situated  to  the  south  of  Ranchi,  the  civil  station  of  the  District.  Lat. 
23°  21'  31"  N.,  long.  85°  22'  5"  E.  It  has  a  parade-ground  and  a  rifle- 
range,  with  a  small  bazar.  Military  force  quartered  here  (September , 
1883),  the  14th  Regiment  of  Madras  Native  Infantry.  A  rural  munici- 
pality under  x\ct  xx.  of  1856. 

Dorka  {Dodka).  —  The  smallest  of  the  3  Mehwdsis  under  the 
Rewa  Kantha  Agency,  Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency.  The  Mehwdsi 
consists  of  3  estates,  of  one  village  each ;  namely  Dorka,  with  an  area 
of  2 J  square  miles  and  a  revenue  of  £,2\o ;  R^eka,  area  2J  square 
miles,  revenue  ;£"i5o;  and  Anghar,  area  3 J  square  miles,  revenue 
^^500.  Dorka  contains  one  school,  and  a  t hdna ddr  xtsidiQS  here,  with 
the  powers  of  a  third-class  magistrate,  and  civil  jurisdiction  in  suits  to 
the  extent  of  ;£ioo.  Population  of  the  Mehwdsi  (1881)  4576,  or 
538  persons  per  square  mile.  The  estates  lie  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mahi  river,  between  Kaira  District  and  Baroda  territory. 

Dornal  Ghat. — A  pass  over  the  Eastern  Ghats,  Nellore  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Latitude  14°  41'  n.,  longitude  79°  14'  e.  The 
main  road  to  Cuddapah  (Kadapa)  from  Nellore  and  the  coast  passes 
through  it.  The  road  from  Nellore  to  the  Ghat  is  58  miles  in  length, 
and  the  distance  beyond  to  Cuddapah  is  52  miles. 

'Do%B,{Daiisa). — Town  in  Jaipur  (Jeypore)  State,  Raj  putana,  situated  on 
the  road  from  Agra  to  Ajmere.  Lat.  26° 51'  n.,  long.  76°  23'  e.  Population 
(1881)  7384,  of  whom  6057  are  Hindus,  1139  Muhammadans,  and  118 
unspecified.     A  town  of  considerable  size,  built  on  one  side  of  a  rocky 


DOUBLE  ISLAND— DO WLAISHVARAM.  315 

hill,  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  containing  a  State  prison. 
The  town  is  in  a  decaying  state,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  half-ruined 
wall.  There  is  a  station  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  State  Railway  about 
half  a  mile  north-west  of  the  town  ;  and  about  500  yards  from  the  station 
is  a  travellers'  bungalow. 

Double  Island. — A  small  island  about  12  miles  south  of  Amherst 
Point,  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma.  It  is  raised  high  above 
the  sea,  and  lies  in  lat.  15°  52'  30"  n.,  and  long.  97°  36'  30"  e.  On  it 
stands  a  lighthouse  containing  a  dioptric  fixed  light  of  the  first  order, 
with  a  catadioptric  mirror  visible  19  miles,  and  first  exhibited  in 
December  1865.  ^^^  object  is  to  guide  ships  making  for  Maulmain, 
and  to  prevent  their  running  up  the  Sittaung  river  to  certain  destruction. 

Doulatabad. — Town  in  Salem  District,  Madras  Presidency. — See 
Krishnagiri. 

Doung-gyi. — Town  in  Bassein  District,  Irawadi  Division,  British 
Burma ;  situated  on  the  Bassein  river,  in  lat.  17°  22'  30"  n.,  and  long. 
95°  8'  E.,  surrounded  by  an  open  waste  country,  which  is  covered  with 
grass  and  tree  forest,  and  liable  to  inundation.  The  inhabitants,  760 
in  number  in  1881,  residing  in  112  houses,  are  chiefly  employed  in 
fishing  and  in  the  manufacture  of  clay  pots  for  salt-boiling. 

Dowlaishvaram  {Doivlaishwar ;  Davaleshwaram^  or  '  White  Siva '). 
—  Town  in  Rajamahendri  (Rajahmundry)  tdluk^  Godavari  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Latitude  16°  56'  35"  n.,  longitude  81°  48'  55"  e. 
Population  (1881)  8002,  namely,  Hindus,  7602;  Muhammadans,  260; 
and  Christians,  140.  Situated  4  miles  south  of  Rajamahendri,  at  the 
bifurcation  of  the  Godavari  river,  where  the  great  anient,  12  feet 
high  and  1650  yards  in  length,  has  been  constructed  at  a  cost 
of  ;^  15 1, 707.  The  anient  extends  to  Pichika  island.  During  its 
construction,  which  was  commenced  in  1847,  Dowlaishvaram,  as  the 
head  -  quarters  of  the  sappers  and  miners  and  a  large  engineering 
staff,  was  a  place  of  much  importance.  At  present  it  is  the 
permanent  station  of  the  District  engineering  staff;  the  Government 
workshop  established  here  turns  out  a  large  quantity  of  work  for  the 
Public  Works  Department.  The  houses  x)f  the  former  European  resi- 
dents, built  on  the  hills  in  the  neighbourhood,  are  now  in  ruins. 
Quarries  of  good  building-stone  are  worked  to  the  extent  of  10,000 
cubic  yards  annually,  and  the  demand  appears  to  be  increasing 
year  by  year.  During  the  wars  between  the  Sithapatis  of  Raja- 
mahendri and  the  Muhammadan  rulers  of  EUore,  in  the  15th  and 
1 6th  centuries,  Dowlaishvaram  was  the  usual  crossing-point  of  the 
contending  armies,  and  the  scene,  therefore,  of  frequent  struggles.  At 
present  the  town  is  connected  with  the  coast  at  several  points  by 
numerous  navigable  canals  of  the  Godavari  irrigation  system ;  and  also 
with  Madras  through  the  Kistna  system  and  the  Buckingham  Canal. 


3i6  DOWLATABAD—DRUG. 

Distance  from  Cocanada,  by  the  shortest  canal,  32  miles. — See  Goda- 
VARi  River. 

Dowlatabad. — Town  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  Haidarabad. — See 
Daulatabad. 

Doyang. — River  in  Assam. — See  Dayang. 

Dravida  {Dravira),  —  A  division  of  the  Indian  Peninsula,  ethno- 
logical and  philological  rather  than  geographical.  It  comprises  India 
south  of  the  Vindhya  range  and  the  Narbada  (Nerbudda)  river,  excepting 
those  parts  of  the  eastern  coast  where  Uriya  is  the  vernacular,  and  the 
Districts  of  Western  India  and  the  Deccan,  where  Gujarathi  and 
Marathi  are  spoken.  As  early  as  404  a.d.,  Dravida  is  spoken  of  (in  the 
Brihat  Samhita  of  Varaha  Mihira)  as  being  divided  into  Chola,  Pandya, 
Kerala,  Karnataka,  Kalinga,  and  Andhra.  Manu  mentions  the  in- 
habitants, '  the  Dravidas,'  as  outcasts  and  barbarians,  i.e.  not  in  com- 
munion with  Brahmans,  nor  incorporated  into  the  Hindu  community. 
Modern  authorities  assign  twelve  dialects  to  the  division,  the  four 
chief  being  Tamil,  spoken  in  Pandya,  Chola,  and  Eastern  Kerala, 
i.e.  throughout  the  central  and  southern  Districts  of  Madras ;  Telugu, 
the  language  of  the  Kalinga  and  Andhra  countries,  or  '  Telingana,' 
corresponding  to  the  '  Northern  Circars,'  spoken  by  a  population  of  14I 
millions  ;  Malayalam,  spoken  in  Western  Kerala,  i.e.  Malabar,  Travan- 
core,  and  Cochin,  the  language  of  about  4  millions ;  and  Kanarese,  in 
'  Karnatika,'  or  Kanara,  Mysore,  and  a  few  tracts  of  the  Wynad  and 
Coimbatore,  comprising  about  9  million  inhabitants.  Tulu  is  spoken 
round  Mangalore  by  some  300,000  persons,  and  in  Coorg  by  some 
150,000.  The  other  six  'uncultivated'  dialects  belong  to  some  2J 
millions  of  people,  so  that  the  entire  division  of  *  Dravida '  may  be 
taken  to  include  nearly  46  millions  of  inhabitants.  The  identification 
of  the  words  Dravida  and  Tamil  (or  Tamul)  has  been  ingeniously 
proposed  by  a  modern  scholar,  as  also  the  identity  of  both  with  the 
Dimyrice  of  the  Peutingerian  tables  and  the  Limyrice  of  Ptolemy. 
The  great  authority  on  the  languages  of  Southern  India  is  Bishop 
Caldwell's  Comparative  Grafjwiar.  As  Dravida  is  a  linguistic  and 
not  an  administrative  division,  the  above  inadequate  notice  must  suffice 
here. 

Drug. — Tahsil  or  revenue  Sub-division  in  Raipur  District,  Central 
Provinces.  Lat.  20°  45'  30"  to  21°  -j^t^  n.,  and  long.  80°  54'  to  80°  41'  e. 
Area,  1104  square  miles,  of  which  789  square  miles  were  cultivated 
in  1 88 1,  241  square  miles  cultivable,  and  74  square  miles  uncultivable 
waste.  Population  (1881)  250,363,  namely,  122,592  males  and  127,771 
females,  residing  in  628  villages,  and  occupying  74,452  houses;  average 
density,  226*8  persons  per  square  mile.  Amount  of  Government 
assessment,  ;£i3,o75,  or  an  average  of  6jd.  per  acre  of  cultivation. 
Rental  paid  by  cultivators,  including  cesses,  ;£"25,7i7,  or  an  average 


DRUG—DUBLANA,  317 

of  IS.    o|d.    per   cultivated   acre.      Average   area   of  cultivated   and 
cultivable  land  per  head  of  agricultural  population,  6  acres. 

Driig".  —  Town  in  Raipur  District,  Central  Provinces,  and  head- 
quarters of  Drug  tahsil,  lying  in  lat.  21°  11'  n.,  and  long.  81°  21'  e., 
on  the  Great  Eastern  Road,  24  miles  west  of  Raipur  town.  Population 
(1881)  3797,  namely,  Hindus,  3300;  Kabirpanthis,  73;  Satnami,  i  ; 
Jains,  34;  Muhammadans,  191;  and  persons  professing  aboriginal 
religions,  198.  The  Marathas  made  Drug  their  base  of  operations  in 
1740-41,  when  they  overran  Chhatisgarh.  Besides  occupying  the 
ancient  fort,  which  is  now  dismantled,  they  formed  an  entrenched  camp 
on  the  high  ground  on  which  the  town  stands,  commanding  a  clear 
view  of  the  surrounding  country.  Drug  manufactures  excellent  cotton 
cloth,  and  has  a  tahsili,  police  station,  town  school,  post-office,  travellers' 
rest-house,  and  dispensary. 

Dudb. — A  long  narrow  wedge-shaped  tract  of  country  enclosed  by 
two  confluent  rivers.  The  name  is  specially  applied  to  designate  the 
great  alluvial  plain  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna. — See  Doab. 

Dlib. — Pass  on  the  border  between  British  territory  and  Kashmir 
State,  Punjab,  on  the  route  from  Attock  to  Kashmir  by  the  Baramula 
road.  Lat.  34°  17'  n.,  long.  73°  21'  e.  Held  by  freebooters  during 
the  Sikh  period,  whom  Hari  Singh  attacked  and  exterminated.  Lies 
on  the  watershed  dividing  the  feeders  of  the  Kishanganga  and  the 
Jehlam  (Jhelum)  on  the  east,  from  those  of  the  Indus  on  the  west. 

Dubari. — Large  village  in  Azamgarh  District,  North- Western  Pro- 
vinces. Situated  4  miles  south  of  the  river  Gogra  (Ghagra),  nearly  26 
miles  east  of  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sagri  tahsil,  and  36  miles  north- 
east of  Azamgarh  town  ;  in  lat.  26°  11'  20"  N.,  and  long.  83°  49'  5"  e. 
The  largest  agricultural  village  in  the  District,  with  a  population  that 
has  steadily  increased  from  4854  in  1865  to  7502  in  1881.  In  the 
latter  year,  Hindus  numbered  6984,  and  Muhammadans  518.  Area  of 
town  site,  138  acres.  Markets  for  miscellaneous  produce  are  held  twice 
a  week.  Most  of  the  village  belongs  to  the  heirs  of  a  Mr.  Venables, 
on  whom  it  was  conferred  for  gallant  service  during  the  Mutiny. 

Dub-chi. — Valley  and  pass  in  Kashnifr  State,  Punjab ;  situated  in 
lat.  33°  45'  N.,  and  long.  75°  e.,  between  the  Fateh  Panjal  and  Pir 
Panjal  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  11,800  feet  above  sea-level. 
Through  it  lies  the  route  from  the  Punjab  to  Kashmir  by  Rajawar. 
The  Remdeara  river  takes  its  rise  on  the  summit  of  the  pass,  and, 
flowing  north-east,  flows  into  the  Jhelum  (Jehlam).  There  is  a  sardt 
(rest-house)  in  the  pass  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers. 

Dublana.— Town  in  Biindi  (Boondee)  State,  Rajputana.  Lat.  25° 
35'  N.,  long.  75°  41'  E. ;  12  miles  north  of  Biindi  town.  Scene  of  a 
battle  fought  in  1744  between  the  forces  of  the  exiled  Raja  of  Biindi 
and  of  Jaipur  (Jeypore),  in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 


31 8  DUBRAJPUR—DUGARL 

Dubrdjpur.— Town  in  Birbhum  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  23°  47'  35" 
N.,  long.  87°  25'  E.  Contains  a  munsif  or  subordinate  judge's  court, 
and  a  police  station;  also  a  good  market  for  English  piece-goods, 
cloth,  brass  pots,  sugar,  lac,  rice,  and  sweetmeats.  Dubrajpur  is 
surrounded  by  tanks,  the  banks  of  which  are  generally  planted  with 
fan-leaved  (toddy)  palms,  yielding  a  spirituous  liquor  from  their 
juice,  which  brings  in  a  considerable  revenue  to  Government.  The 
supply  of  fish  in  the  tanks  is  abundant.  In  the  south  of  the  town, 
huge  picturesque  rocks  of  granite  and  gneiss  (composed  of  glassy 
quartz,  pink  and  grey  felspar,  and  black  mica)  crop  up  through  the  soil, 
covering  an  area  of  about  one  square  mile.  In  the  centre  is  a  vast 
block  of  granite  united  to  a  mass  of  gneiss,  which  adheres  to  it  at  an 
ande  of  45°.  A  good  view  of  the  surrounding  country,  with  the  Parasnath 
mountain,  Rajmahal,  and  Panchet  hills  in  the  distance,  can  in  clear 
weather  be  obtained  from  the  summit  of  this  rock,  which  is  about  60 
feet  high.  A  flat-roofed  temple  has  been  built  on  one  of  these  granite 
rocks,  and  the  whole  block  is  worshipped  by  the  Brihmans  as 
Mahadeo. 

Diidhpur.  —  Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency. 
The  State  contains  an  area  of  fths  of  a  square  mile.  The  chief  is  a 
Rahtor  Rajput.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at  £^0,  and  tribute  of  £1 
is  paid  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda. 

Dudhrej. — Petty  State  of  Jhalawar  prdiit  or  division  of  Kathiawar, 
Gujarat,  Bombay  Presidency.  It  consists  of  2  villages,  with  3  indepen- 
dent tribute-payers.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at;^i834;  a  tribute 
oi £\io\^  paid  to  the  British  Government,  and  ^9,  14s.  to  the  Nawab 

of  Junagarh. 

I),i(iii, — Town  in  Jaipur  (Jeypore)  State,  Rajputana.  Distant  41 
miles  west  from  Jaipur  town.  Contains  a  fort,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
mud  wall.     Dispensary  and  staging  bungalow. 

Duduya.— One  of  the  chief  rivers  of  Jalpaiguri  District,  Bengal ; 
formed  mainly  by  the  junction  of  the  Gayerkata  and  Nanai,  which 
streams,  after  uniting,  flow  in  a  south-easterly  direction  through  the 
Western  Dwdrs  of  Jalpdiguri,  passing  into  Kuch  Behar  territory  at  a 
village  called  Dakalikobd  Hat.  The  Forest  Department  has  a  timber 
depot  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  where  it  is  crossed  by  a  ferry, 
up  to  which  point  it  is  navigable.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Gulandi,  the  Kalua  or  Rehti,  Barabank,  Demdema,  and  Tasati,  all  of 
which  rise  in  the  Bhutan  Hills. 

Dug^ri.— Town  in  Biindi  (Boondee)  State,  Rajputana.  Estimated 
population,  2000.  Contains  the  largest  sheet  of  artificially  enclosed 
water  in  Biindi,  with  an  area  of  about  3  square  miles,  known  as  Kanak- 
Sagar.  Dugari  is  held  in  jdgir  by  a  relative  of  the  chief,  and  has 
several  temples,  two  belonging  to  the  Jain  community. 


D  UGRIA—D  UMA  G  UDIEM.  3 1 9 

Dugrid. — Guaranteed  thdkiirate  or  petty  chiefship  under  the  Bbopal 
Agency,  Central  India.  On  the  settlement  of  Mdlvva,  Raja  Khan, 
brother  of  the  notorious  Pindari  chief  Chitu,  was  allowed  an  assign- 
ment of  land  in  Shujawalpur  for  his  lifetime.  But  in  1825  he  was 
assured  that,  in  consideration  of  his  past  good  conduct,  the  circum- 
stances of  his  family  would  receive  favourable  consideration  after  his 
death.  In  accordance  with  this  promise,  at  his  death  the  estate  was 
divided  among  his  five  sons.     The  third  son  received  Dugria. 

Dujana. — One  of  the  Native  States,  under  the  Government  of  the 
Punjab;  situated  between  28°  39'  15"  and  28°  42'  15"  n.  lat.,  and 
between  76°  37'  and  76°  43'  e.  long.  Muhammad  Sadat  All  Khan, 
the  Nawab  of  Dujana,  comes  of  an  Afghan  stock.  The  estates  of  the 
family  were  originally  granted  to  Abdul  Samand  Khan  and  his  sons 
for  life  by  Lord  Lake,  as  a  reward  for  service  rendered.  In  1806,  the 
tenure  was  made  perpetual  by  a  sanad  of  the  Governor-General,  and 
several  estates  in  Haridna  District  were  added,  which  were  afterwards  ex- 
changed for  the  villages  of  Dujana  and  Mehana  in  Rohtak.  Dujana  is 
about  37  miles  west  of  Delhi.  The  chief  holds  his  tenure  on  conditions 
which  may  be  briefly  described  as  fidelity  to  the  British  Government 
and  military  service  when  required.  The  force  to  be  furnished  on 
application  is  200  horse.  The  territories  of  the  Nawab  are  114 
square  miles  in  extent,  with  28  villages  and  2981  houses.  Population 
(1881)  23,416,  namely,  males  12,525,  and  females  10,891;  average 
density  of  population,  205  persons  per  square  mile.  Hindus  numbered 
18,102;  and  Muhammadans,  5314.  The  estimated  revenue  of  the 
Nawab  is  j[^(^^oo.  The  principal  products  of  the  State  are  grain  and 
opium.  There  is  a  force  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  including  police, 
amounting  to  130  men. 

Dulhi. — Town  in  Kheri  District,  Oudh ;  2  miles  north-east  of  the 
Chauka  river.  Population  (1881)  3778,  namely,  Hindus,  3360;  and 
Muhammadans,  418.  Formerly  the  residence  of  a  large  landholder, 
who  was  transported,  and  his  estates  confiscated,  for  disloyal  conduct 
during  the  Mutiny. 

Dlimagudiem  {D 00771a). — Town  in  the  Bhadrachalam  tdhik^  Goda- 
vari  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  17°  48'  n.,  long.  80°  55'  e. 
Population  (1881)  2121,  chiefly  Kois.  Situated  on  the  Godavari  river, 
15  miles  above  Bhadrachalam  and  116  north  of  Rajimahendri  (Rajah- 
mundry).  Until  recently  the  head-quarters  of  the  Upper  Godavari 
engineering  works,  and  still  the  station  of  an  overseer,  with  police 
establishment,  telegraph  office,  and  post-office.  With  the  rest  of  the 
tdluk^  the  town  formed  part  of  the  Nizam's  territory  until  i860,  when 
it  was  incorporated  with  the  Central  Provinces.  In  1874  it  was 
transferred  to  Madras.  The  '  first  barrier,'  or  rocky  obstruction  to 
irrigation,  on  the  Godavari  is  at  Diimagiidiem. — See  Godavari  River. 


3  20  D  UM-D  UM—D  UMRA  ON: 

Dum-Dum. — Sub-division  of  the  District  of  the  Twenty-four  Par- 
ganas,  Bengal ;  situated  between  22°  34'  and  22°  41'  n.  lat.,  and  between 
88'  26'  and  ^S°  31'  e.  long.  It  consists  of  the  single  police  circle 
{thdna)  of  Dum-Dum.  Area,  24  square  miles  ;  number  of  villages,  43  ; 
houses,  6241.  Population  (1881)  31,578,  namely,  males  17,008,  and 
females  14,570;  average  density,  13 16  persons  per  square  mile;  villages 
per  square  mile,  1*79;  persons  per  village,  734;  houses  per  square 
mile,  282  ;  persons  per  house,  5.  Hindus  numbered  17,868  ;  Muham- 
madans,  12,640;  Christians,  1045;  Buddhists,  6;  and  '  others,' 19. 
The  Sub-division  contains  i  civil  and  4  criminal  courts.  Strength  of 
regular  police,  72  men;  village  constables  {chaukiddrs),  36.  The 
Bengal  Central  Railway  runs  through  the  Sub-division. 

Dum-Dum  {Dam  Damd). — Town,  municipality,  and  cantonment  in 
Dum-Dum  Sub-division,  Twenty-four  Parganas  District,  Bengal.  Lat. 
22°  37'  52"  N.,  long.  88°  27'  51"  E. ;  4 J  miles  north-east  of  Calcutta. 
Population  (1881)  4223,  including  the  troops.  The  force  stationed 
here  in  1883  consisted  of  the  Royal  Welsh  Fusilier  Regiment.  The 
barracks  are  built  of  brick  and  are  very  commodious,  with  a  bazar  some 
distance  from  the  lines.  Dum-Dum  is  a  station  on  the  Eastern  Bengal 
Railway ;  contains  an  English  school.  In  Major  Smyth's  Report, 
referring  to  a  period  anterior  to  1857,  it  is  stated  that  Dum-Dum  was 
the  head-quarters  of  the  artillery  from  1783  until  their  removal  to 
Meerut,  a  more  central  station,  in  1853.  At  that  date  the  town 
possessed  a  magazine  and  percussion  -  cap  manufactory ;  barracks ; 
European  and  native  hospital ;  a  large  bazar ;  several  clear-water 
tanks  ;  and  a  Protestant  church,  containing  monuments  erected  to  the 
memory  of  Colonel  Pearse,  the  first  commandant  of  the  artillery 
regiment,  and  of  Captain  NichoU  and  the  officers  and  men  of  the  ist 
troop,  I  St  brigade.  Horse  Artillery,  who  perished  during  the  retreat  from 
Kabul  in  1841.  The  treaty  by  which  the  Nawab  of  Bengal  ratified 
the  privileges  of  the  British,  and  restored  the  settlements  at  Calcutta, 
Kasimbazar,  and  Dacca,  was  signed  at  Dum-Dum,  February  6,  1757. 

Dumka. — Sub-division  and  town  in  the  District  of  the  Santal  Par- 
ganas, Bengal. — See  Naya  Dumka. 

Dumra  Falls. — A  succession  of  rapids  in  Hill  Tipperah,  Bengal ; 
situated  just  below  the  point  where  the  Chaima  and  Raima  unite  to 
form  the  Giimti.  These  rapids  continue  for  a  distance  reckoned  at  a 
day's  journey,  and  end  in  a  picturesque  cascade,  which  leaps  into  a 
pool  whence  the  stream  issues  through  a  narrow  gorge. 

Dumraon. — Town  and  municipality  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal. 
Lat.  25°  32'  59"  N.,  long.  84°  11'  42"  E.  Station  on  the  East  Indian 
Railway.  Population  (1881)  17,429,  namely,  Hindus,  14,110;  and 
Muhammadans,  3319;  area  of  town  site,  3393  acres.  Municipal 
revenue  (1881-82),  ^551,  of  which  ^477  was  derived  from  taxation, 


D  UMRA  ON—D  UNGA  GALL  3  2 1 

or  an  average  rate  of  taxation  of  7  Jd.  per  head  of  the  population ; 
expenditure,  ^d^i. 

Dumr^on.  — Branch  of  the  Arrah  Canal  in  Shahabad  District, 
Bengal ;  forming  a  portion  of  the  Soane  (Son)  system.  It  is  40J  miles 
long,  with  12  distributaries,  and  leaves  the  main  canal  at  the  17th  mile. 

Dumurdah. — Town  in  Hiigli  District,  Bengal ;  situated  on  the  Hugli 
river  just  above  Naya  Sarai,  in  lat.  23°  2'  15"  n.,  and  long.  88°  28'  50"  e. 
Formerly  notorious  for  its  gangs  of  river  ddkdits,  and  as  the  home  of 
the  ill-famed  robber  chief  Biswanith  Bdbu,  who  was  at  last  betrayed 
by  one  of  his  comrades  and  hanged  on  the  scene  of  his  capture.  Even 
as  recently  as  1845,  it  was  said  that  'people  fear  to  pass  by  this  place 
after  sunset,  and  no  boats  are  ever  moored  at  its  ghat  even  in  broad 
daylight.' 

Dun. — A  range  of  hills  in  the  north-west  of  Champaran  District, 
Bengal ;  extending  in  a  slightly  south-easterly  direction  from  the  Rohua 
nadi  to  the  Achui  nadi,  a  distance  of  about  20  miles,  the  average 
breadth  being  4  miles.  It  has  been  suggested  by  some  that  this  range 
is  adapted  for  tea  cultivation ;  others  consider  the  climate  too  dry. 
The  Diin  valley  is  inhabited  by  the  aboriginal  tribe  of  Tharus. 

Dunal  Ghat.  —  Pass  over  the  Eastern  Ghats,  Nellore  District, 
Madras  Presidency. — See  Dornal  Ghat. 

Dundwaraganj.  —  Small  trading  town  in  Etah  District,  North- 
western Provinces,  situated  on  the  Sahawar  and  Patiali  road,  22  miles 
north-east  of  Etah.  Lat.  27°  43'  50"  n.,  long.  78°  59'  34"  e.  Area, 
65  acres.  Population  (1881)  5692,  namely,  2788  Hindus  and  2804 
Muhammadans.  Consists  of  two  separate  villages,  Dundwaraganj  and 
Dundwara  Khas,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  strip  of  open  country, 
but  sufficiently  close  to  one  another  for  inclusion  under  a  common 
title.  The  town  derives  its  name  from  a  colony  of  Dundiya  Kayasths, 
established  on  the  spot  by  Shahabud-din  Ghori  in  1194  a.d.,  on  the 
expulsion  of  a  settlement  of  Kont  Rajputs,  who  had  previously  owned 
the  land.  Bazar,  market-place,  sarai,  school.  The  central  roadway 
generally  presents  a  busy  scene,  and  the  town,  though  small,  contains 
many  comparatively  wealthy  residents.  Markets  are  held  twice  a  week. 
For  police  and  conservancy  purposes,  a  small  municipal  income  in  the 
shape  of  a  house-tax  is  (1882)  levied  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Chaukidari  Act  (xx.  of  1856).  Dundwara  Khas  is  an  agricultural 
village,  containing  many  large  mud-built  houses  and  enclosures  belonging 
to  Musalman  za77iinddrs.  Both  villages  are  narrow  and  of  no  great 
size,  but  are  situated  on  a  well-raised  site,  and  the  short  road  which 
joins  them  is  wide  and  metalled.  A  good  unmetalled  road  connects 
the  two  villages  with  Patiali  and  Sahawar. 

Dungagali  {Dungd  Gdli). — Small  sanitarium  in  Abbottabid  iahsily 
Hazara  District,  Punjab  ;  composed  of  a  few  houses,  or  rather  huts, 

VOL.  IV.  X 


322  DUNGARPUR, 

scattered  over  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Mochpura  Hill,  belonging  to 
Europeans,  who  visit  it  from  Abbottabad  and  Murree  during  the 
summer.     Staging  bungalow  and  branch  post-office. 

Dlingarpur. — Native  State  in  Rajputana,  under  the  political  super- 
intendence of  the  Agent  to  the  Governor-General  for  the  States  of 
Rajputana.  It  extends  from  latitude  23°  31'  to  24°  3'  n.,  and  from 
longitude  73°  37'  to  74°  16'  e.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  40  miles, 
and  its  breadth  from  north  to  south  35  miles  ;  total  area,  according  to  the 
Census  of  188 1,  1000  square  miles.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Udaipur 
(Oodeypore)  State ;  on  the  east  by  Udaipur  and  the  river  Mahi,  which 
separates  it  from  the  State  of  Banswara;  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  Rewa  Kantha  and  Mahi  Kantha  Agencies  in  Gujardt.  The 
country  consists  for  the  most  part  of  stony  hills  covered  with  low  jungle 
of  cactus,  jujube  trees,  and  a  gum-producing  tree  called  salar  by  the 
natives,  together  with  several  other  varieties  of  shrubs  and  trees  re- 
quiring neither  a  deep  soil  nor  moisture.  In  the  north  and  east  of 
the  State  the  landscape  is  wild  and  rugged,  but  towards  the  south- 
west border  the  harsher  features  are  much  softened,  and  for  several 
miles  the  country  resembles  Gujarat  in  character  and  appearance. 
There  are  two  or  three  large  forest  tracts,  producing  blackwood,  ebony, 
and  other  valuable  timber-trees.  Of  pasture-land,  properly  so  called, 
there  is  scarcely  any ;  and  during  the  hot  season  the  numerous  cattle 
kept  by  the  Bhils  are  reduced  to  a  miserable  state  of  leanness.  The 
cultivated  area  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  valleys  and  low  ground 
between  the  hills,  where  the  soil  is  of  a  rich  alluvial  nature,  and  can 
be  irrigated  from  numerous  wells  and  tanks.  On  the  hill-sides,  the  only 
cultivation  attempted  is  by  burning  down  occasional  patches  of  forest, 
and  scattering  seed  in  the  ashes.  Though  the  country  is  broken  and 
hilly,  none  of  the  hills  attain  a  great  height.  The  geological  structure 
of  Dlingarpur  is  of  trap  ;  the  rocks  belong  to  the  granitic,  primitive,  or 
metamorphic  order  of  formation,  their  chief  constituents  being  gneiss, 
hornblende,  argillaceous  schist  or  clay  slate,  mica,  calcareous  sandstone, 
quartz,  etc.  A  good  durable  stone  of  the  granitic  class,  fit  for  building 
purposes,  is  quarried  from  a  hill  about  6  miles  south  of  the  capital.  A 
soft  greenish  greystone  (serpentine)  is  found  near  the  village  of  Matu- 
gamra,  about  6  miles  east  of  the  capital.  This  is  carved  extensively 
at  Dlingarpur  town  and  elsewhere,  into  idols,  drinking  cups,  and  effigies 
of  men  and  animals.  Another  species  of  hard  stone  (basaltic),  of 
which  grindstones  and  similar  articles  are  manufactured,  is  mined  near 
the  town  of  Sagwara.  Lime  is  found  in  tolerable  abundance,  but  not 
of  very  pure  quality.  No  attempt  appears  ever  to  have  been  made  to 
work  an  iron  mine  in  the  State,  although  the  presence  of  this  ore 
in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites  is  manifest. 

The  only  rivers  are  the  Mahi  and  Som,  which  meet  near  the  sacred 


DUNGARPUR.  323 

temple  of  Baneswar,  where  a  large  fair  is  held  every  year.  The  Mahi 
divides  the  State  from  Banswara,  and  the  Som  from  the  estate  of  Salumbar 
in  Udaipur  (Oodeypore).  Both  these  streams  are  perennial,  although 
in  several  places  the  water  of  the  Som  runs  in  a  subterranean  channel, 
suddenly  disappearing  and  emerging  again,  apparently  but  little  affected 
by  its  temporary  subsidence.  The  bed  of  the  Mahi  is  on  an  average 
about  300  or  400  feet  in  breadth,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  stony.  Its 
banks  are  in  many  parts  steep,  but  never  very  high,  and  are  thickly 
lined  in  many  places  with  Vitex  trifolia  (chaste  tree),  called  by  the 
natives  bena.  which  affords  cover  in  the  hot  weather  to  tigers  and  other 
wild  beasts.  There  are  no  natural  lakes  in  the  State,  but  there  are 
some  five  or  six  large  pieces  of  water  artificially  enclosed.  The  climate 
is  temperate  and  dry.  The  mean  temperature  is  about  75°  F.,  with  an 
annual  range  of  about  25°,  and  the  average  rainfall  is  24  inches.  With 
the  exception  of  ague  and  fever  of  a  mild  type  at  the  end  of  the  rains, 
the  country  is  considered  to  be  on  the  whole  healthy,  cholera  and 
other  epidemics  being  almost  unknown  ;  guinea-worm  is  a  common 
complaint. 

The  natural  productions  of  the  State  are  —  wheat,  barley,  gram, 
millet,  Indian  corn,  rice,  and  a  few  inferior  sorts  of  grain  ;  also  cotton, 
opium,  oil-seeds,  ginger,  chillies,  turmeric,  and  sugar-cane.  Vegetables 
(onions,  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  egg  plants,  and  radishes)  are  grown  in 
considerable  quantities.  Fruit  is  not  abundant,  little  else  being  seen 
but  melons,  limes,  mangoes,  and  plantains.  MaJiud  trees  are  very 
numerous,  and  from  their  flower  a  strong  fermented  liquor  is  distilled. 

The  total  population  returned  by  the  Census  of  1881  was  153,381, 
of  whom  66,952  were  Bhils,  the  whole  being  distributed  in  421 
villages  and  towns,  and  occupying  36,226  houses,  of  which  16,759  ^^'^^^ 
those  of  the  Bhils.  Classified  according  to  religion,  the  Hindus 
numbered  75,260;  the  Muhammadans,  3609;  and  Jains,  7560.  Ex- 
cluding the  Bhils,  whose  enumeration  as  to  sex  was  not  determined, 
the  males  numbered  44,568;  females,  41,861;  average  of  the  total 
population,  153  persons  per  square  mile.  There  are  said  to  be 
sixteen  first-class  nobles  or  Thakurs  and  4;hirty-two  of  inferior  rank, 
who  compose  the  aristocracy  of  the  State.  All  these  are  Rajputs, 
who  hold  their  land  nominally  by  grant  from  the  ruling  chief,  but 
really  by  right  of  kinship  or  alliance  with  his  family;  their  united 
estates  comprise  lands  in  which  are  situated  170  villages.  The  State 
is  divided  into  6  pargands  or  tappds,  namely,  Bara,  Barel,  Kitara, 
Chaurasi,  Tirpod,  and  Chiisat,  in  each  of  which  are  several  villages, 
which  are  classed  as  follows  : — (i)  Khdlsa,  or  crown  lands;  (2)  Jdgirs, 
or  those  held  by  the  nobles  ;  and  (3)  KJiairdt,  or  religious  grants.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  land  is  irrigated  by  wells.  The  principal  traders 
are  the  Mahajans  among  the  Hindus,  and  the  Bohras  (Borahs)  among 


324  DUNGARPUR. 

the  Muhammadans.  A  number  of  Pathans  and  Mekranis  reside  in 
Diingarpur  territory,  most  of  whom  are  employed  as  soldiers  or  armed 
retainers.  The  language  spoken  is  a  mixture  of  Gujarathi  and 
Hindustani,  locally  called  Bagar. 

Some  years  ago,  carefully-prepared  statistics  showed  that  the  total 
land  revenue  of  Diingarpur  amounted  to  about  ^18,335,  of  which 
^7968  went  to  the  State,  ;^9i96  to  the  Thakurs,  and  the  balance  to 
the  religious  orders.  In  1882-83,  the  revenue  of  the  State  was  reported 
to  the  Meywar  officials  as  being  ^20,931.  The  State  pays  tribute  to 
the  British  Government  of  about  ^^350.  No  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished in  Diingarpur,  nor  is  there  any  system  of  education.  All  civil  and 
criminal  cases  of  any  importance  are  settled  by  a  court  of  officials 
called  kdmddrs,  presided  over  by  the  diwdn  or  minister,  from  which, 
however,  an  appeal  lies  to  the  Maharawal.  There  are  six  police  centres 
in  the  Districts,  at  each  of  which  is  stationed  an  official  called  a 
thdndddr.  The  thdndddfs  are  of  two  classes ;  the  first  can  sentence 
offenders  to  one  month's  imprisonment,  or  impose  a  fine  of  50s.  The 
second  can  impose  a  fine  of^i,  or  eight  days' imprisonment.  The 
police  arrangements  of  the  capital  are  conducted  by  a  kotwdl  or  super- 
intendent and  25  constables.     There  is  a  jail  at  the  capital. 

There  are  no  made  roads  in  the  State.     The  principal  towns  are  the 
capital  DuNGARPUR,   Galliakot,  and    Sagwara.      Two   fairs   are   held 
during  the  year,  one  at  Baneswar  in  February  or  March,  the  other  at 
Galliakot  about  the  end  of  the  latter  month,  each  lasting  about  fifteen  - 
days.     Baneswar  is  also  a  place  of  Hindu  pilgrimage. 

Maharawal  Udai  Singh  is  the  present  chief  of  Diingarpur.  He 
belongs  to  the  Sesodia  clan  of  Rajputs,  and  claims  descent  from  an  elder 
branch  of  the  family  which  now  rules  at  Udaipur.  The  early  history 
of  the  family  is  not  known  with  certainty ;  but  when  the  Mughal 
Empire  had  been  fairly  consolidated,  the  Diingarpur  chief  appears 
to  have  opened  communication  with  the  Mughal  court.  His  successors 
paid  tribute  and  did  military  service.  Upon  the  fall  of  the  Empire, 
Diingarpur  became  tributary  to  the  Marathas,  from  whose  yoke  the 
prince  and  his  people  were  rescued  by  the  British,  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  in  181 8.  As  in  other  States  inhabited  by  wild  hill-tribes,  it 
became  necessary  at  an  early  period  of  the  British  supremacy  to  employ 
a  military  force  to  coerce  the  Bhils,  who  had  been  excited  to  rebellion  by 
some  of  the  disaffected  nobles.  The  Bhil  chiefs,  however,  submitted  to 
terms  before  any  actual  hostilities  commenced.  The  Maharawal  Jaswant 
Singh  was  found  incompetent  as  a  ruler,  and  deposed  by  the  British 
Government  in  1825.  His  adopted  son,  Dalpat  Singh,  second  son  of 
the  chief  of  Partabgarh,  was  made  regent,  and  succeeded  him*  But  on 
his  accession  to  the  State  of  Partabgarh,  he  was  permitted  to  adopt  the 
present  ruler,  Udai  Singh,  then  a  minor,  as  his  successor  in  Diingarpur. 


DUNGARPUR—DUNYIN.  325 

The  military  force  consists  of  4  guns,  about  400  cavalry,  and  1000 
infantry.  The  chief  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns,  and  holds  a 
sanad  from  the  British  Government  authorizing  adoption. 

Dungarpur.  —  Town  and  residence  of  the  Maharawal  of  the 
Diingarpur  State  in  Rajputdna ;  lies  in  latitude  23°  52'  n.,  longitude 
73°  49'  E.,  on  the  route  from  Nimach  (Neemuch)  to  Disa  (Deesa),  139 
miles  south-west  of  the  former  and  121  miles  south-east  of  the  latter. 
The  town  is  overlooked  by  a  hill  about  700  feet  high,  and  5  miles  in 
circumference  at  base,  which,  with  the  Maharawal's  palace  on  its  side, 
and  a  lake  at  its  foot,  forms  a  striking  picture. 

Diini. — Town  in  Jaipur  (Jeypore)  State,  Rajputdna.  Latitude  25" 
52'  N.,  longitude  75°  38'  e.  ;  70  miles  south  of  Jaipur.  Population 
(188 1)  3383.     Contains  a  fort,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall. 

Duns,  The. — See  Dehra  Dun. 

Dunthami. — River  in  the  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma,  which 
has  never  been  thoroughly  explored.  It  rises  somewhat  below  the 
latitude  of  Shwe-gyin,  between  the  Bilin  (Bhileng)  and  Sal  win  rivers, 
and,  after  a  tortuous  course  southwards,  unites  with  the  Kyauk-sarit  in 
about  lat.  16°  59'  30"  n.,  to  form  the  Binlaing  (Bhenglaing),  a  tributary 
of  the  Salwin.  Navigable  by  native  boats.  In  the  upper  part  of  its 
course  it  flows  through  a  hilly  teak-covered  country,  and  its  tributary 
streams  facilitate  the  transport  of  the  timber  in  the  rains. 

Dlinwon. — Village  in  Tha-tdn  township,  Amherst  District,  Tenas- 
serim Division,  British  Burma;  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bi'lin 
(Bhileng)  river  now  embanked.  Population  (188 1)  285.  In  former 
times  Dlinwon  was  an  important  walled  city,  and  the  capital  of  the 
surrounding  country.  In  1306  and  1351,  when  it  formed  a  portion 
of  Martaban,  it  was  captured  by  the  King  of  Chiengmai,  east  of  the 
Salwin ;  later  on,  it  was  taken  by  Radzadirit. 

Dlinyian. — Tidal  creek  in  Thungwa  District,  Irawadi  Division, 
British  Burma.  Its  total  length  is  13  miles,  and  it  runs  from  the  To 
or  China  Bakir  in  a  southerly  direction  to  the  sea.  The  depth  of  water 
varies  from  \  fathom  to  8  or  9  fathoms,  the  northern  end  being  shallow, 
and  the  southern  deep ;  the  water  is  sweet,  except  at  spring  tides,  when 
a  high  bore  is  formed.  On  account  of  numerous  shoals,  the  river  is 
only  navigable  by  small  boats.  On  its  right  bank,  in  the  interior, 
stretch  extensive  plains  abounding  in  game;  and  on  the  left,  wild 
elephants  are  found. 

Dlinyin.— A  peak  in  the  Zweh-ka-bin  Hills,  north  of  Maulmain, 
Amherst  District,  Tenasserim  Division,  British  Burma.  It  is  difficult 
of  ascent,  owing  to  the  precipitous  nature  of  the  limestone  rocks.  At 
the  summit  is  a  large  basin,  which  appears  to  be  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano ;  this  is  surrounded  for  miles  by  dark  precipitous  crags 
of  every  form.     Down  a  steep  descent  of  one  or  two  hundred  feet, 


326  DURDURIA—DUYA. 

an  uneven  plain  covered  with  a  luxuriant  forest  is  seen.  This  impreg- 
nable natural  fortress  was  the  refuge  of  the  Karengs  for  many  genera- 
tions. Its  great  drawback  is  the  deficient  water-supply.  It  is  said 
that  a  large  number  of  Karengs,  besieged  here  by  the  Siamese,  perished 
for  want  of  food  and  water.  Diinyin  means  '  City  of  weeping,'  and 
derives  its  name  from  this  tradition. 

Durdurid;. — Site  of  a  ruined  fort  in  Dacca  District,  Bengal,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Bhuiya  Rajas;  its  popular  name  is  Ranibari. 
Dr.  Taylor  states  that  the  fort  is  laid  out  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent, 
bounded  by  the  river  Banar.  In  1839,  the  outer  wall,  upwards  of  2 
miles  in  circuit,  was  12  or  14  feet  high.  The  citadel,  which  appears  to 
have  had  three  openings,  contains  the  remains  of  two  buildings,  one 
of  which  seems  to  have  been  a  tower.  Opposite  to  Durduria  are  the 
foundations  of  a  town,  of  which  the  only  vestiges  existing  in  1839  were 
mounds  and  loose  bricks  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  plain. 

Durgarayapatnam  (  YuvarayapataiJi^  'City  of  the  Minister,' Telugu). 
— Town  in  the  Giidiir  tdluk^  Nellore  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Lat.  13°  59' N.,  long.  80°  12'  E.  Population  (t88i)  2123,  namely,  1829 
Hindus  and  294  Muhammadans.  Number  of  houses,  400.  Formerly 
the  chief  of  the  group  of  small  ports — Piidi,  Pamanji,  Tiipili — lying  near 
the  Armeghon  lighthouse,  but  now  of  as  litde  commercial  importance 
as  the  others,  the  East  Coast  Canal  having  diverted  the  coasting  traffic 
upon  which  they  depended.  Still  possesses  a  customs  station  and  a  fine 
travellers'  bungalow.  The  salt  manufacture  at  this  place  is  of  some 
repute.  Historically,  Durgarayapatnam,  or  Armeghon  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  of  interest  as  being  the  first  British  settlement  on  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast.  In  1625,  after  unsuccessful  attempts  to  settle  at  Pulicat 
and  Masulipatam,  a  colony  was  established  here ;  and  in  1628  a  factory 
was  built  at  Chenna  Kuppam  (re-named  '  Arumugam,'  in  recognition  of 
the  friendly  aid  given  by  Arumugam  Mudelliar,  the  chief  man  of  the 
native  town),  and  fortified  with  12  guns.  The  remnants  of  the 
Masulipatam  settlement  were  then  transferred  here.  But  owing  to  the 
interference  of  the  Dutch  at  Pulicat,  and  the  hostility  of  the  Raja  of 
Venkatagiri,  the  trade  languished;  and  on  the  chief  factor's  recom- 
mendation to  move  the  settlement  to  some  spot  south  of  Pulicat,  the 
site  of  Madras  city  was  purchased. 

Dumnig. — District  of  Assam. — See  Darrang. 

Duttallir. — Village  in  Udayagiri  idluk^  Nellore  District,  Madras 
Presidency.     Population  (1881)  2926  ;  number  of  houses,  552. 

Duttia. — State  in  Bundelkhand,  Central  India  Agency. — See  Datia. 

Duya. — An  extensive  group  of  intercommunicating  lakes  in  Henzada 
township,  Henzada  District,  Irawadi  (Irrawaddy)  Division,  British 
Burma.  The  Diiya  proper  is  2  square  miles  in  extent,  and,  until  the 
embankments  were  made,  was  connected  with  the  Irawadi  by  the  Atha- 


D  WARBAND—D  WARKES  WAR.  327 

yiit  stream.  It  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  an  island.  The  Mosun 
portion  is  2|-  miles  in  length,  and  from  300  to  400  yards  in  breadth, 
with  a  depth  of  from  6  to  9  feet  of  water  in  the  dry  season.  The  other 
chief  lakes  are  the  Intha-nyiit,  length  1400  feet,  maximum  breadth  700 
feet,  and  depth  of  water  4  to  6  feet ;  and  the  Mobaleh,  with  about  5 
feet  of  water  in  the  dry  weather.  These  lakes  are  fed  by  the  drainage 
of  the  surrounding  country,  but  the  Irawadi  embankments  have  now 
closed  the  mouths  of  the  streams  by  which  they  communicated  with 
that  river  during  the  rains. 

Dwarband. — Pass  in  the  Tilain  range  of  hills,  in  Cachar  District, 
Assam,  through  which  the  road  has  been  led  joining  Hailakandi  with 
the  station  of  Silchdr. 

Dwarikeswar. — River  of  Bengal. — See  Dhalkisor. 

Dwarkd. — Seaport  and  place  of  Hindu  pilgrimage,  situated  in  the 
peninsula  of  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency,  within  the  dominions  of 
the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.  Latitude  22°  14'  20"  n.,  and  longitude  69° 
5'  E. ;  235  miles  south-west  of  x\hmadabad,  and  270  west  of  Baroda. 
Population  (1870)  4712  ;  in  1881,  under  5000;  number  of  houses,  743. 
Dwarka  is  the  principal  town  in  the  Vigher  District  of  Okhamandal, 
and  besides  a  company  of  Bombay  Native  Infantr}',  contains  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Okhamandal  Battalion,  which  has  a  non-commissioned 
officer  and  three  privates  stationed  at  every  Vagher  village.  The 
temple  of  Dwarkanath  is  resorted  to  by  about  10,000  pilgrims  annually. 
The  devout  Hindu  believes  it  to  have  been  raised  in  one  night 
by  supernatural  agency.  It  consists  of  a  shrine,  a  spacious  hall  of 
audience,  the  roof  of  which  is  supported  by  60  granite  and  sandstone 
pillars  and  a  conical  spire  170  feet  in  height.  The  body  of  the  temple 
has  five  stories,  its  height  being  100  feet.  Annual  revenue  derived  from 
the  temple,  £,200.  Vessels  occasionally  lie  off  the  roadstead  at 
Dwarka,  but  the  anchorage  is  insecure  during  stormy  weather.  Five 
schools  ;  military  and  civil  hospitals.  Dwarka  has,  since  the  rebellion 
of  the  Vagher  tribes  in  1859,  been  the  head-quarters  of  an  officer 
deputed  by  the  Bombay  Political  Department. 

Dwarka  (or  Babla). — An  unnavigable  river  of  Bengal,  rising  in  the 
Santal  Parganas  District ;  in  lat.  23°  57'  N^,  and  long.  87°  21'  e.  Thence 
it  enters  Birbhiim  from  the  north,  and  from  Birbhiim  passes  into 
Murshidabad  near  Margram  town.  At  first  the  course  of  the  Dwarka 
is  easterly,  until  joined  by  the  Brahmani  stream  at  Ramchandrapur.  It 
then  turns  towards  the  south-east,  and  receives  the  Mor  and  Kuiya, 
two  rivers  also  flowing  down  from  Birbhiim  towards  the  Bhagirathi. 
At  this  point  the  numerous  back-waters  commence  which  connect 
the  Dwarka  with  the  Bhagirathi,  a  branch  of  the  Ganges  or 
Padma. 

Dwarkeswar. — River  of  Bensral. — See  Dhalkisor. 


328  DWAR-KHALING—DWARS,  EASTERN, 

Dwdr-khaling. — Forest  reserve  in  Darrang  District,  Assam. — See 
Khaling-Dwar. 

Dwars,  Eastern. — The  tract  called  the  Eastern  Dwars  forms  an 
integral  portion  of  Goilpara  District,  under  the  Chief  Commissioner  of 
Assam.  It  lies  between  26°  19'  and  26°  54'  n.  lat.,  and  between  89°  55' 
and  91°  E,  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  hills  of  Bhutan ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Manas  river,  separating  it  frorri  the  District  of 
Kamriip ;  on  the  south  by  the  main  portion  of  Godlpard  District ;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Gangadhar  or  Sankos  river,  which  separates  it  from 
the  Western  Dwars,  attached  to  Jalpaiguri  District,  in  Bengal,  and  the 
State  of  Kuch  Behar.  According  to  the  Revenue  Survey  conducted  in 
1874-75,  the  area  amounts  to  1569-92  square  miles,  and  the  Census  of 
1 88 1  returned  the  population  at  56,136  persons.  The  principal  town, 
or  rather  village,  is  Bijni  ;  but  the  tract  is.  administered  from  Dhubri 
town,  which  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  entire  District  of  Goalpard. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  Eastern  Dwars  form  a  flat  strip  of  country, 
lying  beneath  the  Bhutan  mountains.  The  only  elevated  tract  is 
Bhumesw^ar  hill,  which  rises  abruptly  out  of  the  plains  to  the  height  of 
nearly  400  feet,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  detached  spur  of  the  Garo 
Hills  on  the  south  of  the  Brahmaputra.  The  remainder  is  an  absolute 
level,  intersected  by  numerous  streams,  and  overgrown  with  wild  vege- 
tation. In  some  parts  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  sal  forest ;  but  the 
greater  portion  is  covered  with  heavy  grass  and  reed  jungle,  amid  which 
the  beautiful  cotton-tree  (Bombax  pentandrum)  is  the  only  timber  to 
be  seen.  This  grass  jungle  is  especially  thick  along  the  banks  of  the 
rivers,  where  it  is  almost  impenetrable  to  man.  The  few  villages  are 
marked  by  clearings  of  rice  and  mustard  cultivation.  The  houses 
themselves  are  embowered  in  clumps  of  bamboos  and  plantains,  above 
which  tower  the  graceful  betel-nut  palm,  and  various  fruit-trees.  At 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  where  the  rivers  debouch  upon  the  plain,  the 
scenery  assumes  a  grander  aspect. 

The  following  eleven  rivers  are  navigable  by  native  boats  throughout 
the  year: — Manas,  Dalani,  Pakajdni,  Af,  Kanamakra,  Champamatf, 
Gaurang,  Saralbhanga,  Gangia,  Gurupala,  and  Gangadhar.  In  addition, 
there  are  numerous  small  streams  which  become  navigable  during  the 
rainy  season.  By  far  the  most  important  channel  of  communication  is 
afforded  by  the  Manas,  which  might  be  navigated  by  steamers  of  light 
draught.  All  the  rivers  take  their  rise  in  the  Bhutan  Hills,  and  flow  in 
a  southerly  direction  into  the  Brahmaputra.  Their  beds  are  filled  with 
boulders  in  the  hills,  but  they  become  sandy  as  they  advance  into  the 
plain.  There  is  a  peculiar  tract  of  pebbles,  gravel,  and  sand  fringing 
the  hills,  into  which  the  water  of  all  the  minor  streams  sinks  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  not  again  appearing  above  ground  until  it 
reaches  the  alluvial  clay. 


DIVARS,  EASTERN.  329 

The  valuable  forests  of  the  Eastern  Dwars  have  within  the  last  few 
years  been  placed  under  Government  supervision;  and  in  1881  an  area 
of  447  square  miles,  or  just  one-quarter  of  the  aggregate  area  of  the 
entire  tract,  had  been  '  reserved,'  and  placed  under  the  management 
of  the  Forest  Department.  About  80  square  miles  are  sal  timber, 
which  is  described  as  the  most  valuable  property  in  the  whole  Province 
of  Assam,  and  should  yield  an  annual  produce  of  25,000  trees.  At 
present,  however,  owing  to  the  indiscriminate  havoc  wrought  in  former 
years  by  the  Bengali  woodcutters,  there  are  no  mature  trees  left  stand- 
ing. Besides  sal  (Shorea  robusta)  the  following  timber-trees  are  care- 
fully preserved  in  an  'open  forest': — Sissu  (Dalbergia  sissu),  khair 
(Acacia  catechu),  and  chelauni  (Schima  vel  Gordonia  mollis) ;  all  other 
timber  is  free.  The  great  danger  to  which  the  forests  are  exposed  is 
the  spread  oi  jum  cultivation,  by  which  fresh  tracts  of  jungle  are  fired 
every  year.  Stringent  regulations  are  now  enforced  against  this  practice 
within  Government  reserves.  The  jungle  products  include  lac,  bees- 
wax, pipali  or  long  pepper  (Chavica  roxburghii),  and  a  creeper  from 
which  a  red  dye  called  dsu  is  obtained.  No  metals  or  mineral  products 
are  known  to  exist.  Wild  animals  of  all  kinds  abound,  including 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  tiger,  bear,  hog,  and  deer. 

History. — This  tract  first  became  British  territory  as  the  result  of  the 
Bhutan  war  of  1864-65,  and  does  not  possess  any  independent  history 
of  its  own.  It  is  known,  however,  that  the  despotic  rule  of  the  Bhutias 
was  only  of  recent  date.  The  earliest  dynasty  that  can  be  localized  in 
this  tract  is  that  of  Visu  Singh,  the  ancestor  of  the  Kuch  Behar  Rajas, 
who  founded  an  empire  in  the  i6th  century  on  the  ruins  of  an  earlier 
kingdom,  extending  from  Darrang  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Brahma- 
putra to  the  frontier  of  Purniah  in  Bengal.  But  this  wide  empire 
rapidly  fell  to  pieces,  owing  partly  to  the  anarchical  system,  by  which 
large  tracts  were  granted  out  as  appanages  to  younger  sons  of  the  royal 
family.  In  this  way  the  Rajas  of  Bijni  and  SidU  Dwars,  as  well  as 
the  Raja  of  Darrang,  acquired  their  present  estates.  While  the  State 
thus  became  enfeebled,  invaders  were  pressing  forward  from  every 
quarter.  On  the  west,  the  Mughals  rapidly  advanced,  and  annexed  the 
permanently-settled  portion  of  Goalpara  to  their  Province  of  Bengal. 
The  wild  tribe  of  Ahams  spread  down  the  Brahmaputra  valley,  and 
maintained  themselves  at  the  ancient  capital  of  Gauhati  against  the 
Musalman  armies.  At  about  the  same  time,  the  Dwars  or  lowland  passes 
along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  fell  to  the  Bhutias,  who  here  found  the 
cultivable  ground  that  their  own  bare  mountains  did  not  afford.  1  hey 
exercised  predominant  influence  over  the  whole  tract  from  the  frontier 
of  Sikkim  as  far  east  as  Darrang,  and  frequently  enforced  claims  of 
suzerainty  over  the  enfeebled  State  of  Kuch  Behar.  They  do  not 
appear  to  have  occupied  this  tract  permanently,  but  merely  to  have 


330  DWARS,  EASTERN. 

exacted    a    heavy   tribute,   and    subjected   the   miserable   inhabitants 
to   the   cruellest   treatment.      In   contradistinction   to   the   results  of 
Muhammadan  rule,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  Buddhism  of  the 
Bhutias  has  left  no  traces  in  the  religion  of  the  native  population. 
Kuch  Behar  was  delivered  from  the  Bhutia  tyranny  by  the  treaty  of 
1772,  in  accordance  with  which  the  Raja  placed  himself  under  British 
protection,  and  paid  tribute  to  the  East  India  Company.     The  Bhutan 
Dwars,  as  they  were  called,  remained  for  nearly  a  century  longer  in  a 
state  of  anarchy.     In  1863,  a  British  ambassador  was  subjected  to  gross 
insults  by  the   Bhutan   Government ;   and,  as   a   punishment,  it  was 
resolved  to  annex  the    Dwars  to    British  territory.      Accordingly,  in 
December  1864,  four  strong  military  columns  made  a  simultaneous 
advance,  and  occupied  the  low  country  and  the  hill  passes  above,  after 
slight  opposition.      At  the  fort  of  Diwangiri  {q.v.)  a  reverse  to  the 
British  arms    was   experienced;    but   before   the   close  of    1865,  the 
Bhutias   consented  to    accept  the  terms   of  peace   which    had  been 
offered  to  them  before  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.      By  this  treaty, 
the  Dwars  were  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  the  British  Government,  and 
an   annual   allowance   of  ^£2500'  was  granted   to   the  Bhutan  Raja, 
which  sum  may  be  increased  to  ;!^5ooo,  or  withdrawn  altogether,  at 
the  option  of  the  British.     Since  that  date  our  relations  with  Bhutan 
have  been  entirely  peaceful.     The  frontier  raids,  which  were  formerly 
of  frequent  occurrence,  have  altogether  ceased.     A  brisk  traffic  has 
sprung  up  on  the  frontier,  and  cultivation  is  rapidly  extending  in  the 
annexed  territory. 

The  Bhutan  Dwars  were  forthwith  divided  into  the  two  administra- 
tive Districts  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Dwars,  of  which  the  latter 
has  since  been  apportioned  between  the  Bengal  Districts  of  Jalpaiguri 
and  Darj  fling.  The  Eastern  Dwars  were  at  first  placed  in  charge  of  a 
Deputy  Commissioner,  with  his  head-quarters  at  the  village  of  Datma,  in 
the  QxOdX^ixk  pargand  of  Khuntdghat.  In  December  1866  they  were 
completely  incorporated  with  the  District  of  Goalpara,  and  have  since 
shared  in  all  the  changes  of  jurisdiction  by  which  that  District  has  been 
transferred  between  Bengal  and  Assam.  Since  1874,  when  Assam  was 
erected  into  an  independent  Province  under  a  Chief  Commissioner,  the 
Eastern  Dwars  have  been  permanently  detached  from  Bengal.  But 
though  the  settled  portion  of  Goalpara  and  the  Eastern  Dwars  are  under 
the  control  of  a  single  officer,  the  system  of  administration  is  quite 
distinct.  By  Act  xvi.  of  1869,  all  matters  relating  to  immoveable 
property,  revenue,  and  rent,  are  exempted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  courts.  The  property  in  the  soil  is  vested  in  the  State.  By  the 
settlement  which  expired  in  March  1877,  leases  were  granted  for  seven 
years.  In  some  of  the  Dwdrs  these  leases  were  granted  direct  to  the 
cultivators,  without  the  interposition  of  any  middle-men  ;  but  in  other 


DWARS,  EASTERN.  331 

cases  the  Rajas  received  farming  leases  of  the  whole  area  over  which 
they  claimed  to  exercise  authority.  The  latter  system  has  not  been  found 
advantageous  ;  and  in  regard  to  the  Dwars  of  Ripu,  Guma,  and  Chirang, 
the  management  has,  since  the  expiry  of  the  previous  settlement,  been 
carried  on  under  the  regular  Assam  Settlement  system,  by  annual  pattds 
or  leases  granted  direct  to  the  cultivators  through  representatives  of 
villages  {inauzdddrs).  In  Sidli  and  Bijni  Dwars  it  has  recently  been 
decided  to  recognise  the  Rajas  who  derive  their  titles  from  those 
estates,  as  zanii7iddrs  or  proprietors  at  a  permanently-fixed  Government 
rental,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  area,  and  to  conclude  a  settlement 
direct  with  them  for  the  remainder,  protecting  the  cultivators  by  a  sub- 
settlement. 

Population. — At  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  1869-70,  the  Deputy 
Commissioner  personally  conducted  an  enumeration  of  the  people, 
which  showed  a  total  population  of  37,047  persons,  dwelling  in  2863 
enclosures  or  villages  and  in  6888  houses,  on  an  area  of  1569  square 
miles.  In  1881,  the  total  population  was  returned  at  56,136,  but  no 
details  are  available.  The  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the 
two  aboriginal  tribes  of  Mech  or  Cachari  and  Koch  or  Rajbansi.  The 
number  of  Hindus  proper  is  very  small,  and  the  Muhammadans  only 
number  no,  who  are  supposed  to  represent  proselytes  made  at  the  time 
of  the  Mughal  conquest  of  Goalpara.  The  Mechs  are  returned  by  the 
Deputy  Commissioner  as  numbering  in  1870,  8752  adult  males,  or  70 
per  cent,  of  the  total.  This  tribe  is  generally  regarded  as  cognate  to 
the  Koch,  Cachari,  and  Rabha,  all  of  whom  inhabit  this  part  of 
the  country.  The  names  of  Mech  and  Cachari  are  indifferently  applied 
to  the  same  people,  the  latter  name  being  especially  used  in  the  extreme 
east  of  the  District.  The  tribe  is  widely  scattered  over  all  North- 
Eastern  Bengal,  being  able  to  support  life  in  the  malarious  tardi  that 
continuously  fringes  the  first  slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  In  the  Eastern 
Dwars,  and  especially  in  Sidli  Dwar,  where,  under  the  Bhutan  Govern- 
ment, they  remained  comparatively  free  from  Hindu  influences,  they 
have  preserved  their  own  language  and  customs  in  greater  purity  than 
elsewhere.  They  describe  themselves  as  having  originally  come  from  a 
place  they  called  Rangsar,  on  the  south  side  of  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  whence  they  were  gradually  pushed  westwards  mto  Assam. 
Owing  to  the  anarchy  that  prevailed  in  Assam  towards  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  population  of  Kamrup 
crowded  into  the  frontier  District  of  Goalpara.  The  upper  classes 
returned  to  Assam  upon  our  annexation  of  the  Province  in  1824-25  ; 
but  the  poorer  wanderers  settled  permanently  in  the  pargands  of 
Khuntaghat  and  Habraghat,  whence  they  have  recently  moved  into 
Eastern  Dwars.  At  the  present  time  they  are  rapidly  falling  under  the 
influence  of  Hinduism,  and  converts  find  no  difficulty  in  being  received 


332  nWARS,  EASTERN. 

among  the   Rajbansi   and   other   mongrel   castes.      Their  indigenous 
religion  consists  in  the  propitiation  of  evil  spirits  by  the  sacrifice  of 
fowls.      Converts  to  Hinduism  are  known  as  Soronias,  but  the  change 
does  not  seem  to  be  very  extensive  ;  they  are  only  required  to  bathe,  to 
call  on  the  name  of  some  guru  or  spiritual  instructor,  and  to  abstain 
from  beef,  pork,  and  liquor.    Their  social  condition  is  very  low.    They  do 
not  appear  to  have  ever  achieved  any  form  of  polity  of  their  own.    They 
have  but  few  traditions,  no  ancient  songs,  no  monuments,  no  written 
character,  and  no  literature  of  any  kind.     Their   marriage  ceremony 
preserves  the  primitive  form  of  abduction.      They  still  retain  migratory 
habits,  which  are  illustrated  by  the  nomadic  form  of  agriculture  known 
as  jum.      On  the  other  hand,  they  are  not  destitute  of  the  virtues  of 
savages.      They  are  more  uniformly  honest  and  trustworthy  than  the 
lowland  peasantry  ;  chastity  is  esteemed  a  virtue,  and  crime  of  any  sort 
is  rare.     Above  all,  the  Mechs  are  possessed  of  a  physical  constitution 
that  enables  them  to  live  and  flourish  all  the  year  through  in  a  malarious 
tract  which  is  absolutely  fatal  to  strangers ;  and  their  rude  methods  of 
agriculture  are  gradually  rendering  the  country  habitable  for  successors 
of  a  superior  race.    The  Rajbansis  riumbered  in  1870,  2400  adult  males, 
or  20  per  cent,  of  the  total.      This  tribe  is  identical  with  the  Koch  of 
Assam  and  of  Kuch  Behar.     They  are  said  to  have  originally  inhabited 
the  lower  ranges  of  hills  to  the  north,  and  to  have  first  descended  into 
the  plains  in  about  the  i6th  century.     The   high-sounding   name  of 
Rajbansi,  meaning  '  of  the  royal  kindred,'  is  adopted  by  those  Kochs 
who    have   embraced   Hinduism,  as  well   as   by  converts   from   other 
aboriginal   tribes.      According   to    Mr.    Brian   H.    Hodgson,  Koch   is 
beyond  doubt  simply  the  name  of  Hinduized  Mechs  or  Cacharis.    Their 
original  seat  in  Assam  was  probably  in  the  Northern  Cachar  Hills  and 
in  Nowgong  and  Darrang  Districts.      The  most  numerous  of  the  pure 
Siidra  castes  is  the  Kolita,  who  acted  as  priests  to  the  native  kings  of 
Assam,  and  are  now  engaged  as  peons,  clerks,  and  cultivators.      The 
Bairagis  are  the  religious  mendicants  of  the  Vishnuvite  sect ;  and  the 
Goswamis  or   Gosains  are   their   spiritual   preceptors.      The   Brahma 
Samaj  has  no  followers  in  the  Eastern  Dwars. 

The  population  is  absolutely  rural,  every  person  being  directly 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  only  village  that  possesses  a  permanent 
bazar  is  Bijni,  and  even  small  shops  are  rarely  to  be  seen.  There  is 
abundance  of  spare  land  that  can  easily  be  brought  under  cultivation, 
and  the  sparsely-scattered  inhabitants  are  described  as  being  all 
prosperous  and  contented.  Immigration  is  steadily  going  on  from  the 
neighbouring  pargands  of  Kamrup  and  Goalpara,  and  the  new-comers 
at  once  amalgamate  with  the  rest  of  the  people,  as  they  are  usually  of 
the  same  race.  An  interesting  experiment  in  colonization  was  begun 
in   1880  by  the  introduction  of  some  Santal  families,  all  professing 


DWARS,  EASTERN.  333 

Christianity.      These  settlers  now  (1882)  number  about  75  households, 
and  more  are  expected  to  follow. 

Agriculture,  etc. — The  staple  crop  throughout  the  Eastern  Dwars  is 
rice,  which  is  cultivated  in  three  principal  varieties.  The  dus  or  dsu 
crop  is  sown  on  comparatively  high  lands  in  March  ;  it  is  not  trans- 
planted, and  is  reaped  in  July.  The  bdo  or  bdvd,  which  is  a  long-stemmed 
variety,  is  not  much  grown.  The  avian,  haimantik,  or  sdli  furnishes  the 
greater  portion  of  the  food-supply  ;  it  is  sown  broadcast  in  nurseries  in 
June,  transplanted  in  the  following  month,  and  reaped  in  December. 
Mustard  seed  is  extensively  grown  as  a  second  crop  after  dus  rice. 
Minor  crops  include  vegetables,  barley,  pulse,  tobacco,  pdn  or  betel-leaf, 
and  betel-nut  (Areca  catechu).  According  to  the  Survey  of  1869-70, 
out  of  a  total  area  of  more  than  one  million  acres,  only  51,224,  or 
about  one-twentieth,  were  then  under  cultivation, — thus  sub-divided  : 
sdli  rice,  32,296;  dus  rice  and  mustard,  15,498;  homestead  lands, 
2493.  The  cultivated  area  in  1882  had  increased  to  66,572  acres.  The 
Mechs  follow  the  jum  method  of  cultivation,  and  raise  a  good  deal  of 
cotton  on  their  forest  clearings  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  crops. 
Manure  is  only  used  for  the  pdn  plant,  and  then  in  the  form  of  refuse 
from  the  cow-sheds.  Irrigation  is  universally  practised  in  the  case  of 
the  sdli  rice  crop.  The  cultivators  combine  to  cut  channels  from  the 
hill  streams,  by  which  they  distribute  the  water  over  their  fields.  Waste 
land  is  abundant  on  all  sides,  and  consequently  the  same  fields  are 
never  cultivated  after  they  begin  to  lose  their  natural  productiveness. 
Aus  land  is  generally  abandoned  after  two  years  ;  but  sdli  land  continues 
to  yield  annual  crops  for  a  longer  period.  The  entire  soil  is  the 
property  of  Government,  and,  by  the  settlement  of  1869-70,  was  leased 
out  for  a  term  of  seven  years,  on  conditions  favourable  to  the  spread  of 
cultivation.  The  rates  of  rents  then  fixed,  which  still  continue  in 
force  under  the  present  system  of  annual  settlements,  were  the  following  : 
—For  homestead  and  sdli  lands,  3s.  per  acre ;  for  dus  lands,  is.  6d.  per 
acre.  The  average  out-turn  from  an  acre  of  sdli  land  is  estimated  at 
about  23  cwts.  of  paddy  or  unhusked  rice,  valued  at  £2,  15s.  ;  an  acre 
of  dus  land  yields  about  1 5  cwts.  of  paddy,  and  an  additional  5  cwts.  of 
mustard  seed,  the  whole  being  valued  at  £2,  5s.  Women  and  children 
are  largely  employed  in  the  fields. 

No  professional  class  of  day-labourers  exists  in  the  Eastern  Dwdrs  ; 
but  coolies  may  sometimes  be  obtained  for  4d.  a  day.  Agricultural 
labourers  are  generally  remunerated  by  being  allowed  to  retain  a  fixed 
share  of  the  produce,  without  having  any  interest  in  the  soil.  Artisans 
also,  such  as  smiths  or  carpenters,  are  paid  in  kind  for  any  odd  job  they 
may  do.  The  price  of  rice  varies  regularly  with  the  season  of  the  year. 
Best  rice  shortly  after  harvest  sells  at  about  5s.  5d.  per  cwt.,  which 
gradually  rises  through  the  year  till  it  reaches  8s.  2d.,  just  before  the 


334  DWARS,  EASTERN. 

dman  crop  is  gathered.  Similarly  the  price  of  common  rice  varies  from 
28.  8d.  to  5s.  5d.  per  cwt.  Unhusked  paddy  fetches  from  one-third  to 
one-half  the  price  of  cleaned  rice.  The  prices  of  food-grains  were  not 
affected  by  the  famines  of  1866  and  1874. 

Since  the  Eastern  Dwars  came  under  British  rule  in  1864,  such  a 
calamity  as  the  general  destruction  of  the  harvest  by  either  flood, 
drought,  or  blight,  has  been  unknown  and  unthought  of.  The  rice 
crops  have  been  occasionally  injured  by  river  floods  and  excessive  local 
rainfall.  The  irrigation  universally  practised  by  the  cultivators  furnishes 
an  efficient  guarantee  against  the  effects  of  drought.  If  an  unpre- 
cedented misfortune  were  to  happen,  and  the  price  of  rice  were  to  rise 
to  I  OS.  per  cwt.  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  that  should  be  regarded 
as  a  sign  of  approaching  famine.  The  inhabitants,  however,  know 
how  to  support  life  on  various  jungle  products,  and  the  numerous  rivers 
afford  ample  means  of  communication.  The  only  road  in  the  Eastern 
Dwars  is  one  that  crosses  the  whole  tract  from  east  to  west,  running 
a  length  of  73  miles.  It  is  interrupted  by  unbridged  rivers  and  swampy 
tracts,  and  becomes  altogether  impassable  during  the  rainy  season. 
Wheeled  carts  are  nowhere  used,      v 

Manufactures,  etc. — There  is  no  manufacturing  class  in  the  Eastern 
Dwars.  In  addition  to  their  livelihood  of  agriculture,  the  people  make 
for  themselves  their  own  houses,  their  own  clothes,  baskets,  and  mats. 
Brass  utensils  and  pottery  require  to  be  purchased  from  Goalpara. 
The  only  article  manufactured  for  sale  is  a  coarse  silk  fabric  called  erid, 
which  is  woven  from  the  cocoons  of  a  worm  fed  on  the  castor-oil  plant 
(Ricinus  communis).  A  piece,  14  feet  long  by  4  feet  broad,  sells  for 
from  I2S.  to  ;£i,  according  to  the  fineness  of  its  texture.  The  Mechs 
also  hollow  out  the  trunks  of  trees  into  boats,  called  dungds,  which  are 
floated  down  the  streams  in  the  rainy  season  for  sale  on  the  Brahma- 
putra. This  industry  is  mainly  supported  by  advances  from  the 
Goalpara  merchants. 

The  trade  of  the  Eastern  Dwars  is  mainly  conducted  by  barter,  and 
is  in  the  hands  of  Marwari  merchants  from  Goalpara  and  Kamriip. 
Boats  come  up  the  rivers  during  the  rainy  season^  and  transact  their 
business  at  the  villages  on  the  river  banks.  There  are  no  large 
permanent  markets.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  rice, 
mustard  seed,  erid  cloth,  cotton,  india-rubber,  a  dye  called  dsu,  timber, 
and  boats;  in  exchange  for  which  are  received  brass-ware,  pottery, 
salt,  cotton  cloth,  oil,  spices,  cocoa-nuts,  and  miscellaneous  hardware. 
In  ordinary  seasons,  the  crops  provide  a  considerable  surplus  for 
exportation. 

Administration. — The  Eastern  Dwars  consist  of  the  following  5  Dwars  : 
— BijNi — area  374  square  miles,  population  (1881)  24,882  ;  Sidli — 
area  361  square  miles,  population  23,657  ;  Chirang — area  495  square 


DIVJJ^S,    WESTERN.  ^^^ 

miles,  population  1216;  Ripu  — area  242  square  miles,  population 
3040;  GuMA  —  area  98  square  miles,  population  3341.  The  ad- 
ministrative statistics  cannot  be  separated  from  those  of  the  District 
of  Go^lpard,  and  are  given  in  the  aggregate  in  the  special  article  on 
that  District.  It  is  there  stated  that  the  total  land  revenue  from 
temporarily-settled  estates,  which  may  be  assumed  to  be  co-extensive 
with  the  Eastern  Dwars,  amounted  in  1874-75  to  ^5158,  collected 
from  27  estates.  The  tract  is  entirely  administered  from  Dhubri  town, 
and  no  European  officer  is  permanently  stationed  in  it. 

A  settlement  of  the  land  revenue  was  made  for  seven  years  in  1870. 
Chirang  Dwar  was  held  khds,  or,  in  other  words,  engagements  were 
taken  from  the  occupants  actually  in  possession  ;  for  the  four  other 
Dwars  collective  leases  were  granted  to  neighbouring  landlords  or 
chiefs.  Provision  was  made  for  the  protection  of  occupancy  rights, 
and  permission  to  extend  cultivation  was  conceded  to  the  leaseholders, 
who  receive  the  profits  arising  from  such  extension  during  the  currency 
of  their  term.  As  already  mentioned,  the  Assam  system  of  settlement 
has  now  been  substituted  for  the  leases  granted  in  1870,  in  all  but  two 
of  the  Dwars,  which  have  been  settled  with  the  Rajas  of  Sidli  and 
Bijni,  who  have  been  held  to  be  entitled  to  the  position  of  zaminddrs. 
The  Eastern  Dwars  are  included  within  the  head-quarters  Sub-division 
of  Dhubri. 

Dwars,  Western.— A  tract  lying  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  including  some  of  their  outermost  spurs,  in  the  north-east  of 
Jalpaiguri  District,  Bengal.  The  Western  Dwars,  together  with 
their  continuation,  the  Eastern  Dwars  {q.v.),  were  annexed  to  the 
Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal  as  the  result  of  the  Bhutan  war  of 
1864-65.  The  Eastern  Dwars  now  form  part  of  the  Chief-Commis- 
sionership  of  Assam  (Goalpara  District)  ;  while  the  Western  Dwars 
remain  under  the  Bengal  Government.  The  entire  tract  contains  a  large 
area  of  waste  land  covered  with  jungle,  but  intersected  by  streams  from 
the  mountains,  and  well  suited  for  reclamation.  A  considerable  popu- 
lation of  husbandmen  has  already  moved  into  the  Dwars ;  and  the 
Western  Dwars  have  been  lately  (1881-84)  opened  for  tea-planting  on 
a  large  scale.  Grants  of  land  for  the  latter  purpose  have  been  taken 
up  with  increasing  rapidity,  and  tea-planting  is  being  pushed  forward, 
not  only  by  private  persons,  but  also  by  companies  commanding  an 
amount  of  capital  almost  unprecedented  in  this  line  of  industry. 
The  labour  difficulty  which  has  to  be  encountered  in  Assam,  occurs 
here  in  a  much  less  serious  form.  Large  numbers  of  coolies 
find  their  way  into  the  Western  Dwdrs  under  the  guidance  of  native 
contractors,  without  the  intervention  of  the  Labour  Transport 
Laws.  They  receive  high  wages  in  the  tea-gardens,  and  most  of 
them   return   to  their   villages   in  the   interior  of  Bengal   with   con- 


2,2,6  EASTERN  D  WARS—EDAR. 

siderable  savings,  after  a  few  years.  Indeed,  the  success  of  free 
immigration  into  the  Western  Dwars  holds  out  a  hopeful  promise  for 
the  settlement  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  movement  of  labour  to 
other  tea-growing  tracts.  The  climate  is  unhealthy,  but  this  deterrent 
influence  disappears  as  the  jungle  is  cleared,  and  considerable  tracts  are 
opened  up,  and  as  substantial  houses  are  built  for  the  planters,  and 
suitable  coolie  lines  for  the  labourers. 

The  Western  Dwars,  now  called  parga?zds,  extend  from  the  Sankos 
river  on  the  east,  which  forms  the  boundary  between  Goalpara  and 
Jalpaiguri  Districts,  and  the  Tista  river  on  the  west.  They  are  9 
in  number,  viz.: — (t)  Bhalka,  area  (1881)  119  square  miles;  (2) 
Bhatibari,  area  149  square  miles;  (3)  Baxa,  area  300  square  miles; 
(4)  Chakao-Kshattriya,  area  138  square  miles;  (5)  Madari,  area 
194  square  miles;  (6)  Lakshmipur,  area  165  square  miles;  (7) 
Maraghat,  area  342  square  miles ;  (8)  Mainaguri,  area  309  square 
miles  ;  (9)  Chengmari,  area  146  square  miles. 


E. 

Eastern  Dwd,r3. — Tract  of  country  in  Goalpara  District,  Assam. — 
See  Dwars,  Eastern. 

Eastern  GhdtS. — Mountain  range  extending  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  India. — See  Ghats. 

Edapadi. — Town  in  Salem  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  3942,  namely,  3650  Hindus,  277  Muhammadans,  and  15 
Christians. 

Edar  {Idar), — The  principal  Rajput  State  of  the  Mahi  Kantha 
Agency  in  Kathiawar,  Gujarat  (Guzerat),  Bombay  Presidency  ;  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Sirohi  (Sirohee)  and  Udaipur  (Oodeypore),  on  the  east 
by  Diingarpur,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  territories  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency  and  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.  Population  (1881) 
258,429,  including  10,916  Bhils ;  estimated  gross  revenue,  including 
transit  dues,  ^52,444.  The  area  of  the  State,  according  to  the  Census 
statement  of  1881,  was  returned  at  4966  square  miles,  of  which  the  cul- 
tivable waste  was  estimated  at  833  square  miles,  and  the  non-cultivable 
at  about  the  same.  The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  State, 
excluding  the  hamlets  of  the  Bhils,  was  returned  by  the  Census  at  805, 
containing  56,602  occupied  and  12,052  unoccupied  houses.  The  Bhil 
population  occupied  2729  houses  in  94  hamlets.  In  the  whole  popu- 
lation the  males  numbered  131,823,  the  females  126,606.  Number 
of  persons  per  square  mile,  52.  Classified  according  to  religion, 
Hindus  numbered  243,399  ':>  Muhammadans,  8760;  Jains,  6266  ;  there 
were  also  3  Parsis  and  i  Christian.     Among  the  Hindus,  17,441  were 


EDAR,  337 

Brahmans,  and  10,309  Rajputs.  The  soil  of  the  State  is  generally 
fertile  ;  in  some  places  it  is  of  a  light  sandy  nature,  in  others  rich  and 
black ;  towards  the  north  and  north-eastern  parts  near  the  hills,  poor 
and  stony.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  country  is  the  abundance  of 
ma/iud,  mango,  khirni,  and  other  fruit-trees.  The  jungle  in  some  parts, 
particularly  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  is  very  thick  and  intersected  with 
ravines.  Principal  products  —  grains,  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane.  Manu- 
factures— a  small  quantity  of  country  soap.  There  are  quarries  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Ahmadnagar,  and  the  stone  is  used  for  building 
purposes. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  are  Kolis,  the  remainder  consists 
of  Rajputs,  Brahmans,  Baniyas,  Kumbis,  etc.  The  present  ruling  family, 
though  Rajputs  of  the  most  ancient  lineage,  only  arrived  in  Edar  at  a 
comparatively  recent  date.  Tradition  relates  that  the  original  sovereigns 
of  Edar,  as  in  most  of  the  rest  of  Gujarat,  were  Bhalsur  Kolis.  The 
last  chief  of  this  tribe  was  named  Sambla.  A  debauched  and  vicious 
man,  his  ministers  conspired  against  him,  and  invited  Rao  Sonag 
of  Simatra,  the  ancestor  of  the  Raos  of  Pol,  to  their  aid.  This 
chief  killed  Sambla,  and  took  possession  of  his  territory.  About 
twelve  generations  of  this  family  are  reckoned  to  the  expulsion  of 
Jagannath,  the  last  Rao  of  Edar,, in  1656,  by  Murad  Baksh,  at  that 
time  the  Subahdar  of  Gujarat.  A  Desai  or  Deputy  was  afterwards 
placed  in  charge  of  Edar  for  some  years.  In  1729,  Anand  Singh  and 
Rai  Singh,  two  brothers  of  the  Raja  of  Jodhpur,  accompanied  by  a 
few  horsemen  from  Vamo  and  Palanpur  and  the  Kolis  of  Godwara, 
established  themselves  in  Edar  without  much  difficulty.  This  family 
is  the  last  that  effected  a  settlement  in  Gujarat  by  conquest.  They 
are  said  to  have  acted  under  an  order  from  Delhi;  but  the  truth 
seems  to  be  that  they  were  tempted  by  the  state  of  the  country,  and 
most  likely  assisted  by  the  Marwar  princes  who  at  that  period  held 
the  Subahdari  of  Ahmadabad.  The  Edar  principality  consisted  of  the 
Districts  of  Edar,  Ahmadnagar,  Morasa,  Baad,  Harsol,  Parantij,  and 
Vijapur,  to  which  five  other  Districts  were  rendered  tributary.  Some 
years  after  the  conquest,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Desai  above  mentioned, 
who  appears  to  have  been  displaced  by  the  Marwaris,  an  officer  in  the 
service  of  Damdji  Gaekwar,  named  Bachaji  Duvaji,  was  despatched  on 
the  part  of  the  Peshwa  to  take  possession  of  Edar.  This  he  accom- 
plished with  the  aid  of  the  Rah  war  Rajputs,  the  servants  of  the  late 
Rao.  Anand  Singh  was  killed  about  1753  ;  and  Bachaji,  after  leaving 
a  detachment  behind,  returned  to  Ahmadibad.  Rai  Singh,  however, 
collected  a  force,  and  again  obtained  possession  of  Edar.  Seo  Singh, 
son  of  Anand  Singh,  now  became  ruler  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
uncle  Rai  Singh,  who  died  in  1766.  During  the  rule  of  Seo  Singh,  the 
State  was  stripped,  by  the  Peshwd,  of  Parantij,  Vijapur,  and  half  of 

VOL.  IV.  y 


338  EDAR. 

the  three  Districts  of  Morasa,  Baad,  and  Harsol,  which  Districts 
were  afterwards  ceded  by  the  Peshwa  to  the  British  Government.  The 
other  half  of  the  Edar  territories  fell  to  the  Gaekwar,  who  contented 
himself  with  the  exaction  of  a  share  of  the  annual  revenues,  which 
at  the  settlement  of  1812  was  fixed  in  perpetuity  at  £2/^00  for 
Edar,  and  ;£"895  for  Ahmadnagar.  Seo  Singh  died  in  1791, 
leaving  five  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Bhawan  Singh,  succeeded 
him,  but  died  in  a  i^w  days,  leaving  the  State  to  his  son  Gambhir 
Singh,  a  boy  of  ten  years.  Dissensions  in  the  family  now  arose,  which 
resulted  in  the  temporary  dismemberment  of  Edar.  Sugram  Singh, 
second  son  of  Seo  Singh,  who  had  received  Ahmadnagar  from  his 
father  in  feudal  grant,  assumed  independence ;  and  with  his  assistance 
Zalim  Singh  and  Amir  Singh,  two  other  sons  of  Seo  Singh,  after  a  long 
struggle  possessed  themselves  respectively  of  Morasa  and  Baad  during 
Gambhir  Singh's  minority.  Indra  Singh,  the  fifth  son  of  Seo  Singh, 
who  was  blind,  received  Siir  and  three  other  villages  for  his  support. 
Sugram  Singh,  chief  of  Ahmadnagar,  died  in  1798,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Kuran  Singh.  Zalim  Singh  of  Morasa  died  childless  in 
1806,  and  his  appanage  ought  to  have  lapsed  to  Edar.  His  widow, 
however,  was  allowed  by  the  Gaekwar  to  adopt  Pratap  Singh,  Kuran 
Singh's  brother,  on  whose  death,  in  1821,  Morasa  was  united  with 
Ahmadnagar.  On  the  death  of  Amir  Singh  of  Baad  without  children, 
the  reversion  was  claimed  by  both  Edar  and  Ahmadnagar.  The  chief 
of  Ahmadnagar,  Kuran  Singh,  died  in  1835,  ^^^  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Takht  Singh,  who  was  elected  ruler  of  the  State  of  Jodhpur  in 
1843.  On  his  removal  to  Jodhpur,  he  still  claimed  the  right  to 
retain  Ahmadnagar  in  his  family;  but  in  1848,  the  British  Government 
decided  that  Ahmadnagar  should  revert  to  Edar,  and  with  it  Morasa 
and  Baad. 

Maharaja  Juwan  Singh,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Star  of  India, 
and  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  Bombay,  died  in  1868,  and 
was  succeeded  in  1882  by  his  son  Keshri  Singh,  the  present  Maharaja, 
who  was  born  in  1861,  and  educated  at  the  Rajkumar  College  at 
Indore.  He  is  a  Rajput  of  the  Rahtor  clan  and  of  the  Joda  family. 
He  exercises  first-class  jurisdiction,  having  power  to  inflict  capital 
punishment.  He  holds  a  sanad  giving  him  the  right  of  adoption, 
and  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns.  Many  relatives  of  the 
Maharaja,  and  feudal  chiefs  whose  ancestors  helped  to  secure  the 
country  for  the  present  dynasty,  now  enjoy  large  estates  on  service 
tenures.  The  revenues  of  the  State  are  shared  by  the  Raja  with  these 
feudal  chiefs.  In  1875,  out  of  a  total  gross  revenue  of  ;£76o,ooo,  it 
was  estimated  that  only  ;^2 5,000  was  received  by  the  central  authority. 
The  Maharaja  receives  ;£'i9i4  annually  from  several  chiefs  in  the  Mahi 
Kantha,  and  pays  ;£3034  as  tribute  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.     The 


EDAR--ED  WARDESABAD.  3  39 

chiefs  subordinate  to  Edar  hold  their  estates  on  condition  of  military 
service,  the  quota  being  3  horsemen  for  every  ^100  of  revenue.  The 
actual  force  maintained  by  them  amounts  to  about  568  cavalry,  and 
the  same  number  of  infantry,  all  undisciplined.  The  State  contains 
22  courts  for  criminal  justice,  and  maintains  a  police  force  of  30 
mounted  and  418  foot,  at  an  annual  cost  of  ;^3597.  There  are  25 
schools  with  1278  pupils,  of  which  two  are  girls'  schools.  A  forest  reserve, 
covering  54  square  miles,  is  in  contemplation.  The  State  has  agreed 
to  suppress  the  cultivation  of  poppy,  and  to  prevent  smuggling.  A 
special  establishment  to  grapple  with  the  practice  of  infanticide  has 
been  working  for  some  time.  An  attempt  to  induce  the  Bhils  to  send 
their  children  to  school  has  failed  ;  they  laughingly  say  their  sons 
must  learn  to  drive  cattle  and  use  the  bow.  Transit  dues  are  still 
levied  in  the  State. 

Edar. — Chief  town  of  the  State  of  lidar  in  Gujarat,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency. Latitude  23°  50'  n.,  longitude  73°  4'  e.  ;  64  miles  north-east 
ofAhmadabad.  The  town  is  traditionally  known  as  Ildurg.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  6223,  namely,  4206  Hindus,  970  Muhammadans,  and  1047 
Jains.  Dispensary  and  post-office.  The  streets  have  recently  been 
lighted. 

Edawauna.  —  Village  in  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency ; 
situated  in  latitude  11°  59'  45"  n.,  and  longitude  75°  45'  50"  e.,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Beypore  (Bepur)  river,  at  the  head  of  its  navigable 
course,  and  8  miles  above  Arikkod.  Population  (1881)  4800;  number 
of  houses,  820. 

Edwardesabad  (or  DhuUpnagar).  —  Town,  cantonment,  and  ad- 
ministrative head-quarters  of  Bannu  District,  Punjab.  Population  (1881) 
8960,  namely,  4284  Hindus,  41 10  Muhammadans,  503  Sikhs,  and 
63  'others.'  Situated  in  lat.  32°  59'  45"  N.,  and  long.  70°  38'  51'  E., 
near  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District,  i  mile  south  of  the  river 
Kuram,  84  miles  south  of  Kohat,  and  89  miles  north  of  Dera  Ismdil 
Khan.  Founded  in  1848  by  Major  (afterwards  Sir  Herbert)  Edwardes, 
who  selected  the  site  for  political  reasons.  The  fort,  erected  at  the 
same  time,  bore  the  name  of  Dhulipgarb,  in  honour  of  the  young 
.Maharaja  of  Lahore ;  and  the  bazar  was  also  known  as  Dhulipnagar. 
A  town  gradually  grew  up  around  the  bazar ^  and  many  Hindu  traders 
•removed  hither  from  the  village  of  Bazar  Ahmad  Khan,  which  formed 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  Bannu  valley  prior  to  annexation.  The 
main  bazar  consists  of  a  wide  and  handsome  roadway,  and  containr. 
a  fine  market-place.  A  mud  wall  runs  round  the  town,  within  which 
lie  the  tahsili  and  police  office.  The  civil  station,  to  the  west  of  the 
fort,  includes  the  court-house,  treasury,  jail,  sardi,  staging  bungalow, 
dispensary,  mounted  police  lines,  and  post-office.  The  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  supports  a  small  church  and  a  school-house.     The  cantor.- 


340  EGA  TPURA—ELEPHANTA, 

ment  centres  round  the  fort  of  Dhulipgarh,  which  possesses  quarters 
for  two  infantry  regiments  ;  outside  the  fortifications  are  lines  for  a 
cavalry  regiment  and  a  field  battery  of  artillery.  There  are  also  a  few 
bungalows  for  officers.  The  profuse  irrigation  and  insufficient  drainage 
of  the  surrounding  fields  render  Edwardesabdd  an  unhealthy  station ; 
and  the  troops  in  cantonments  suffer  greatly  from  malarious  fevers 
and  prostration.  The  town  has  a  considerable  trade,  embracing  the 
whole  traffic  in  local  produce  of  the  Bannu  valley.  The  nearest 
railway  station  is  at  Kushalgarh  on  the  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway, 
124  miles  distant  by  road.  A  weekly  fair  collects  an  average  number 
of  2000  buyers  and  sellers.  Chief  articles  of  trade — cloth,  live  stock, 
wool,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  grain.  Municipal  revenue  in  1882-83, 
;^i94o;  expenditure,  ;j^2 502. 

Egatpura  (or  Egutpoora). — Town  in  Nasik  District,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency.— See  Igatpuri. 

Egmore.  —A  quarter  or  suburb  of  Madras  City. 

Ekamba. — Village  in  Purniah  District,  Bengal.  Lat.  25°  58'  n., 
long.  87°  36'  30"  E.  One  of  the  chief  seats  of  commerce  in  the  District, 
with  trade  in  agricultural  products,  spices,  piece-goods,  hides,  etc., 
carried  on  at  permanent  markets. 

Eklaspur. — Town  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal. 

Ekwd.ri. — Town  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal. 

Elattiir. — River  in  Madras  Presidency.  Rises  in  the  mountains  west 
of  the  Tamarasseri  Pass,  in  latitude  1 1°  30'  o"  n.,  and  longitude  75°  56'  o" 
E.,  and,  after  a  devious  course  of  30  miles  through  Malabar  District, 
flows  into  the  extensive  backwater  which  communicates  with  the  sea 
near  Elattiir  town,  in  latitude  1 1°  20'  30"  n.,  and  longitude  75°  45'  45"  ^• 
Near  this  town  are  several  islets  whence  fine  views  of  the  Wainad 
Mountains  are  obtained  ;  it  is  a  favourite  resort  of  the  residents 
of  Calicut. — See  Alattur. 

Elavarasanandal  {lUyarasainendal). — Group  of  agricultural  hamlets 
in  Tinnevelli  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Latitude  9°  1 2' n.,  longitude 
77°  50'  E.     Population  (1881)  14,390;  number  of  houses,  3059. 

Elephanta  (called  by  the  natives  Ghdrdpuri). — Island  in  Bombay 
harbour,  latitude  18°  57'  n.,  and  longitude  73°  e.,  about  6  miles 
from  Bombay  City  and  4  from  the  shore  of  the  mainland.  In- 
cluded in  the  Panwell  Sub-division  of  Thana  District,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency. The  island  measures  from  4  to  4^  miles  in  circumference, 
and  consists  of  two  long  hills  separated  by  a  narrow  valley;  the 
superficial  area  varies  from  6  to  4  square  miles  according  as  the  tide 
is  at  ebb  or  flow.  It  was  named  Elepha7ita  by  the  Portuguese, 
from  a  large  stone  -  elephant  which  stood  near  the  old  landing- 
place  on  the  south  side  of  the  island.  This  elephant  was  13  feet 
2  inches  in  length,  and  about   7   feet  4  inches  high;  but  its  head 


ELEPHANTA.  341 

and  neck  dropped  off  in  18 14,  and  subsequently  the  body  sank  down 
into  a  shapeless  mass  of  stones,  which  were  removed  in  1864  to 
the  Victoria  Gardens  in  Bombay.  Near  the  point  where  the  two 
hills  approach  each  other,  and  not  far  to  the  south-east  of  the  Great 
Cave,  once  stood  the  stone  statue  of  a  horse,  described  by  an  early 
writer  as  being  *so  lively,  with  such  a  colour  and  carriage,  and  the 
shape  finisht  with  that  Exactness,  that  many  have  rather  fancyed  it,  at 
a  distance,  a  living  Animal,  than  only  a  bare  Representation.'  This 
statue  has  disappeared.  Except  on  the  north-east  and  east,  the  hill- 
sides are  covered  with  brushwood ;  in  the  hollows  under  the  hill  are 
clusters  of  mango,  tamarind,  and  karanja  trees.  A  broken  line  of 
palms  stands  out  against  the  sky  along  the  crest  of  the  hill.  Below  is 
a  belt  of  rice-land.  The  foreshore  is  of  sand  and  mud,  bare  and  black, 
with  a  fringe  of  mangrove  bushes.  At  one  period,  from  the  3rd  to 
perhaps  the  loth  century,  the  island  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  site 
of  a  city,  and  a  place  of  religious  resort.  Some  archaeologists  would 
place  here  the  Maurya  city  of  Puri.  The  Caves  are  the  chief  objects 
of  interest ;  but  in  the  rice-fields  to  the  east  of  the  northern  or  Shet 
bandar  (landing-place),  brick  and  stone  foundations,  broken  pillars, 
fallen  statues  of  Siva,  and  other  traces  of  an  ancient  city  have 
been  found.  The  landing-place  is  now  on  the  north-west  of  the 
island.  Steam  launches  or  sailing  boats,  which  can  be  hired  at  the 
Apollo  Bunder,  Bombay,  run  to  Elephanta  in  about  an  hour;  and  a 
small  steamer  can  lie  alongside  the  pier  which  has  been  built  at  the 
landing-place. 

The  island  is  greatly  resorted  to  by  visitors  to  the  far-famed  rock- 
caves ;  in  1880-81  the  number  reached  5400.  Of  these  wonderful 
excavations,  four  are  complete  or  nearly  so;  a  fifth  is  a  large  cave 
now  much  filled  up,  with  only  rough  masses  of  stone  left  to  support 
the  roof;  and  a  sixth  is  merely  the  beginning  of  the  front  of  what 
seems  to  have  been  intended  for  a  very  small  excavation — possibly 
two  or  three  cells  for  recluses.  The  most  important  and  most  frequently 
visited  of  these  Brahmanic  rock-temples  is  the  Great  Cave,  which 
is  situated  in  the  western  or  larger  of  the  two  hills  of  the  island,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  250  feet  above  high-water  level.  The  entrance  is 
reached  by  a  winding  path  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length  from 
the  landing-place.  The  cave  faces  the  north,  and  is  entirely  hewn 
out  of  a  hard  compact  variety  of  trap  rock.  From  the  front  entrance 
to  the  back  it  measures  about  130  feet,  and  its  length  from  the  east 
to  the  west  entrance  is  the  same.  It  does  not,  however,  occupy  the 
entire  square  of  this  area.  What  may  be  called  the  porticoes,  or  the 
three  open  sides,  are  only  about  54  feet  long  and  16J  feet  deep. 
Omitting  these  and  the  back  aisle,  immediately  in  front  of  three  of  the 
principal  sculptured  compartments,  which  is  of  about  the  same  dimen- 


342  ELEPHANTA. 

sions  as  each  portico,  the  body  of  the  cave  may  be  considered  as  a  square 
of  about  91  feet  each  way,  supported  by  6  rows  of  columns  with  6 
columns  in  each  row,  except  at  the  corners,  where  the  uniformity  is 
broken  on  the  west  side  to  make  room  for  the  shrine  or  sacelliim,  which 
occupies  a  space  equal  to  that  enclosed  by  four  of  the  columns. 
There  were  originally  26  columns,  with  16  half-columns;  but  8  of  the 
separate  pillars  have  been  destroyed,  and  others  are  much  injured. 
As  neither  the  floor  nor  the  roof  is  perfectly  horizontal,  they  vary  in 
height  from  15  to  17  feet.  The  most  striking  of  the  sculptures  is  the 
famous  colossal  three-faced  bust,  or  trwmrti,  at  the  back  of  the  cave, 
facing  the  entrance.  This  is  a  representation  of  Siva  in  his  threefold 
character  of  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Destroyer;  and  all  the  other 
sculptures  relate  to  the  same  god,  the  cave  being,  like  every  other 
Hindu  rock-temple  of  Western  India,  a  Sivaite  one.  The  irimurti 
is  17  feet  10  inches  in  height;  and  a  line  drawn  round  the  three 
heads  at  the  level  of  the  eyes  measures  22  feet  9  inches  in  length. 
The  length  of  the  middle  face  (Vishnu's)  is  4  feet  4  inches; 
those  of  the  others  (Brahma  and  Riidra),  4  feet  i  inch  and  about 
5  feet.  In  1865,  this  unique  bust  was  mutilated  by  some 
'barbarian  clothed  in  the  garb  of  civilisation,'  who  broke  off  a 
portion  of  the  noses  of  two  of  the  faces ;  and  since  then  some  of 
the  other  sculptures  in  the  temple  have  been  similarly  treated,  so 
that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  place  a  sergeant  and  two  native 
policemen  to  protect  the  cave.  The  tr'wiu7'ti  is  guarded  by  two  gigantic 
iwdrapdlas  or  doorkeepers  of  rock,  respectively  1 2  feet  9  inches  and 
13  feet  6  inches  high;  both  figures  are  much  defaced.  The  Linga 
chapel,  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  temple  on  entering,  contains 
several  dwdrapdlas  and  other  figures ;  and  two  compartments  on  either 
side  of  the  tr'wiurti  are  also  ornamented  with  numerous  sculptured 
groups.  There  are  several  other  compartments  in  the  Great  Cave, 
all  containing  interesting  sculptures,  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  give 
even  a  bare  list  in  the  limits  here  available.  The  reader  who  desires 
to  pursue  the  subject  cannot  do  better  than  consult  the  lucid  and 
exhaustive  account  of  Mr.  Burgess  {The  Rock  Temples  of  Elephanta  or 
Ghdrdpuri,  Bombay  187 1),  from  which  this  article  is  chiefly  condensed. 
*  The  impression  on  the  mind,'  writes  Mr.  Burgess,  *  may  be  imagined 
rather  than  described,  when  one  enters  the  portico  [of  the  Great  Cave], 
passing  from  the  glare  and  heat  of  tropical  sunshine  to  the  dim  light 
and  cool  air  of  the  temple,  and  realizes  that  he  is  under  a  vast  roof  of 
solid  rock,  that  seems  to  be  supported  only  by  the  ranges  of  massive 
columns  that  recede  in  the  vistas  on  every  side,  some  of  which  appear 
to  have  split  or  fallen  under  the  tremendous  superincumbent  weight. 
And  the  feeling  of  strange  uncertain  awe  that  creeps  over  the  mind  is 
only  prolonged  when  in  the  obscure  light  we  begin  to  contemplate  the 


ELEFHANTA.  345 

gigantic  stony  figures  ranged  along  the  walls  from  which  they  seem  to 
start,  and  from  the  living  rock  of  which  they  are  hewn.'  De  Couto 
describes  the  stone  of  the  mountain  where  the  temples  have  been 
carved  as  of  a  grey  colour.  The  same  traveller,  writing  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 7th  century,  continues  : — '  But  the  whole  body  inside,  the 
pillars,  the  figures,  and  everything  else,  was  formerly  covered  with  a 
coat  of  lime  mixed  with  bitumen  and  other  compositions,  that  made 
the  temple  bright  and  very  beautiful,  the  features  and  workmanship 
showing  very  distinct,  so  that  neither  in  silver  nor  in  wax  could  such 
figures  be  engraved  with  greater  nicety,  fineness,  or  perfection.'  At 
the  present  time  there  is  no  trace  of  this  coating. 

The  Second  Cave,  which  is  situated  a  short  distance  to  the  south-east 
of  the  Great  Temple,  faces  east-north-east,  and  is  109  J  feet  in  length, 
including  the  chapel  at  the  north  end.  The  fa9ade,  which  was  nearly 
80  feet  in  length,  is  completely  destroyed,  and  the  cave  is  so  full  of 
debris  and  so  ruined  by  water  that  no  proper  estimate  can  now  be 
formed  of  the  appearance  it  originally  represented.  It  contains  at 
present  only  one  sculptured  group.  At  the  south  end  of  the  portico  of 
this  cave  is  a  large  block  of  rock  not  hewn  away,  above  which  is  a  hole 
through  a  thin  partition  of  rock  into  one  of  the  cells  of  the  Third  Rock 
Temple.  The  proper  entrance,  however,  is  a  litde  to  the  south.  This 
cave  is  in  an  even  more  dilapidated  condition  than  the  second.  The 
Fourth  Temple,  now  known  to  the  natives  as  '  Sita  Bai's  Diwala,'  is 
situated  on  the  other  hill  of  the  island,  and  about  100  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Great  Cave.  It  is  in  better  preservation  than  those  last 
mentioned,  and  had  formerly  a  beautiful  gate  with  a  marble  porch  of 
exquisite  workmanship  ;  but  these  have  now  disappeared. 

Sufficient  data  do  not  exist  to  enable  us  to  fix  with  precision  the 
date  of  the  Elephanta  Caves.  Tradition  attributes  them  variously  to 
the  Pandavas,  to  a  king  of  Kanara  named  Banasur,  and  to  Alexander 
the  Great;  and  many  not  less  unreasonable  conjectures  have  been 
hazarded  regarding  them.  Mr.  Fergusson  concludes  (for  reasons  for 
which  the  reader  is  referred  to  his  Rock-cut  Temples  of  India)  that 
the  Great  Temple  was  excavated  in  the^  loth  century  of  our  era  ; 
but  Mr.  Burgess,  while  admitting  that  there  are  grounds  for  this 
conclusion,  is  inclined  to  attribute  them  to  the  latter  part  of  the  8th 
or  to  the  9th  century.  No  inscription  is  now  to  be  found  in  the  caves. 
It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  date  and  name  of  the  excavator  may 
yet  be  learned  from  a  stone,  taken  to  Europe  about  1540  by  the 
Portuguese  Viceroy  Dom  Joao  de  Castro,  which  may  one  day  be 
re-discovered  and  deciphered. 

The  Great  Temple  is  still  used  on  Sivaite  festivals,  and  specially  by 
Hindus  of  the  Baniya  caste  ;  and  at  the  Sivardtri,  the  greatest  of  the 
Sivaite  festivals,  just  before  the  first  new  moon  falling  after  the  middle 


344  ELLENABAD—ELLICHPUR. 

of  February,  a  religious  fair  is  held  here.  The  view  from  the  front  of 
the  great  cave  is  very  beautiful ;  and  from  the  site  of  an  old  bungalow, 
not  far  from  the  porch,  a  fine  prospect  is  commanded  of  Bombay 
harbour,  with  Butcher  Island  in  the  foreground. 

Ellen^bad  {Khai-idl). — Town  and  municipality  in  Sirsa  tahsil^  Sirsa 
District,  Punjab  ;  situated  in  lat.  29°  26'  n.,  and  long.  75°  54'  e.,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ghaggar,  23  miles  west  of  Sirsa  town.  Founded  in 
1865  by  Mr.  Oliver,  Deputy  Commissioner,  to  replace  the  village  of 
Kharial  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Ghaggar,  founded  some  40  years 
before  by  settlers  from  Bikiner  (Bickaneer)  State,  which  had  been  washed 
away  by  floods.  Mr.  Oliver  called  the  new  town  Ellenabad,  but  it  is 
still  commonly  known  to  the  people  as  Kharial.  It  is  a  small  town, 
but  notwithstanding  a  high  death-rate,  the  population  shows  a  steady 
increase  at  each  successive  Census.  Population  in  1881,4131,  namely, 
Hindus,  3455  ;  Muhammadans,  555  ;  and  Jains,  121  ;  number  of 
houses,  631.  A  third-class  municipality.  Municipal  income  in 
1882-83,  ^^376;  expenditure,  ^^190.  Export  and  import  traffic  in 
country  produce  and  salt  with  Bikaner  State.  Manufacture  of  coarse 
woollen  cloth.  Police  outpost ;  dispensary.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  Ghaggar  lie  the  ruins  of  old  Kharial. 

Ellichpur  {liichpur). — District  in  the  Commissionership  of  Berar, 
within  the  Haidarabad  Assigned  Districts,  lying  between  20°  50'  30" 
and  21°  46'  30"  N.  lat.,  and  between  76°  40'  and  77°  54'  e.  long.  Tiie 
most  northerly  District  in  the  Berdrs.  Bounded  on  the  north-west 
and  north  by  Nimar,  Hoshangabad,  and  Betul  Districts  of  the  Central 
Provinces ;  on  the  east  by  the  Wardha  river  and  Amraoti  District ; 
and  on  the  south  and  west  by  Amraoti  and  Akola  Districts.  Area, 
2623  square  miles;  population  (1881)  313,805.  The  administrative 
headquarters  are  at  Ellichpur  Town. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  entire  northern  half  of  Ellichpur  consists  of 
a  succession  of  hills  and  valleys  known  as  the  Melghat  or  Gawilgarh 
Hills,  a  section  of  the  Sdtpura  Mountains.  The  main  ridge  or  water- 
shed of  the  Satpuras  runs  through  the  District  from  east  to  west, 
attaining  its  greatest  elevation  at  Bairat,  3987  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  southern  portion  of  the  District  is  flat,  and  drained  by  numerous 
small  streams  flowing  into  the  Wardha  and  Purna  rivers.  The  only 
present  metalled  road  is  that  from  Ellichpur  town  to  Amraoti;  but 
several  other  roads  are  under  construction.  The  country  roads  and 
fair-weather  tracks  from  village  to  village  are  passable  for  eight  months 
in  the  year.  In  the  hill  country,  the  chief  passes  are  by  Hewra-devi, 
Komi,  and  Malhara  on  the  east,  and  by  Dulghat  and  Bingara  on  the 
west,  of  which  those  by  Komi,  Malhara,  and  Dulghat  are  practicable 
for  wheeled  vehicles.  The  country  is  well  supplied  with  mango  groves, 
and  when  the  green  crops  cover  it,  has  a  very  park-like  appearance. 


ELLICIIPUR. 


345 


Popiilatio7i. — In  1867,  a  Census  taken  in  Berar  gave  the  popula- 
tion of  Ellichpur  District  at  279,022.  The  Census  of  1881  returned 
a  population  of  313,805  ;  so  that  since  the  former  year  an  increase  of 
34,783  has  taken  place.  The  more  recent  enumeration  affords  the 
following  figures.  Males  number  162,590;  females,  151,215.  Density 
of  population,  119*6  persons  per  square  mile.  Number  of  towns,  6  ; 
villages,  727;  occupied  houses,  58,091,  and  unoccupied,  3945.  Houses 
per  square  mile,  23*6;  persons  per  house,  5*4.  Distributed  according 
to  religion,  Hindus  number  282,000  ;  Muhammadans,  30,299  ;  Jains, 
1280  ;  Christians,  197  ;  Sikhs,  27  ;  and  Parsis,  2.  According  to  caste, 
the  Hindus  are  divided  into  Brahmans  (7422),  Rajputs  (4830),  Kunbis, 
a  cultivating  caste  (77,280),  and  'others'  unspecified  (193,268).  The 
strength  of  the  Muhammadan  tribes  is  as  follows  : — Shaikhs,  19,714  ; 
Pathans,  6453  ;  Sayyids,  1801  ;  Mughals,  565  ;  unspecified  (Arabs, 
Bhils,  P^akirs),  1766.  Among  the  Christians  the  Roman  Catholics 
number  119.  In  regard  to  occupation  the  adult  males  are  classed  in  six 
main  groups: — (i)  Professional  class,  including  State  officials  of  every  kind 
and  members  of  the  learned  professions,  5502  ;  (2)  domestic  servantJ^, 
inn  and  lodging-house  keepers,  2607  ;  (3)  commercial  class,  including 
bankers,  merchants,  carriers,  etc.,  2977  ;  (4)  agricultural  and  pastoral 
class,  including  shepherds,  75,069;  (5)  industrial  class,  including  all 
manufacturers  and  artisans,  21,032;  and  (6)  indefinite  and  non-pro- 
ductive class,  including  male  children,  general  labourers,  and  persons 
of  unspecified  occupation,  55,403.  The  population  is  mostly  Hindu, 
and  their  favourite  God  not  Vishnu,  but  Mahadeo.  The  languages 
spoken  are  Urdii,  Maratha,  and  Gond. 

Agriadttcre  arid  Co?nmerce. — The  principal  agricultural  products  are 
cotton,  yWr,  rice,  and  wheat  (of  excellent  quality),  gram,  pulses,  yams, 
and  oil-seeds  ;  and  these,  together  with  ghi  and  forest  timber,  comprise 
the  chief  exports  of  the  District.  Cotton  is  the  staple  of  the  valley, 
but  mangoes,  tamarinds,  guavas,  grapes,  oranges,  and  pomegranates 
are  cultivated  in  addition  to  the  cereal  crops.  Tea  is  said  to  thrive 
in  the  Melghat.  In  1882-83,  254,018  acres  were  under  cotton ; 
207,458  acres  under y^i/-/  51,148  acres  under  wheat ;  and  4271  acres 
under  tobacco.  The  imports  are  mainly  English  and  country  cloth, 
iron  and  copper  utensils,  tobacco,  salt,  sugar,  etc. 

As  regards  physical  aspects  and  economic  conditions,  the  Melghat, 
or  Upper  Tract,  forms  the  most  interesting  part  of  Ellichpur  District, 
and  has  been  dealt  with  separately. 

History. — The  history  of  the  District  centres  in  Ellichpur  town, 
which  formed  an  important  nucleus  of  Muhammadan  influence  in  the 
Deccan.  Tradition  asserts  that  the  city  was  founded  by  Raja  II,  a 
Jain,  who  came  from  Khanjama  Nagar,  near  Wadgdon,  about  1058 
A.D.     Whatever  may  be  the  date   of  its  foundation,  the  town  holds 


346  ELLICHPUR. 

no  mean  rank  among  the  ancient  historical  cities  of  India,  and 
during  a  short  period  it  was  a  well-known  capital.  It  lost  most  of  its 
local  importance  from  the  time  when  the  first  Nizam-ul-Mulk  became 
supreme  ruler  in  the  Deccan,  and  the  city  was  placed  under  a  viceroy 
or  governor.  The  first  governor  appointed  was  Iwaz  Khan,  who  ruled 
for  five  years — from  1724  to  1728 — and  was  succeeded  by  Siijayat  Khan 
(1729  to  1740),  who  quarrelled  with  the  Maratha  Raghuji  Bhonsla, 
fought  with  him  near  Bhiigaon,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle.  The 
Ellichpur  treasury  on  that  occasion  was  plundered  by  the  victor.  Sharif 
Khan  next  succeeded,  and  held  office  from  1741  to  1752.  He  claimed 
equality  with  the  Nizam,  who  consequently  deposed  him.  The  Nizam's 
son,  All  Jah  Bahadur,  was  then  appointed  governor,  but  he  administered 
by  deputy,  and  was  succeeded  by  Salabat  Khan,  who,  though  he  only 
remained  two  years  at  Ellichpur,  did  much  to  improve  the  city.  He 
enlarged  the  palace,  made  a  public  garden,  and  extended  the  ancient 
water-channels.  He  was  a  brave  soldier,  and  on  the  war  breaking  out 
between  the  Nizam  and  Tipii  Sultan,  he  was  ordered  to  join  the  army, 
and  distinguished  himself  there.  He  also  saw  service  at  the  battle  of 
Kardla,  and  was  with  General  Wellesley's  army  in  1803.  Namdar  Khan, 
son  of  Salabat  Khan,  received,  besides  his  jdgir  of  2  lakhs  of  rupees 
(^20,000),  another  of  like  value  at  Ellichpur,  and  managed  his  estate 
with  the  title  of  Nawab  until  his  death  in  1843.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  placed  specially  under  the  protection  of  General  Wellesley  by 
his  father,  and  he  received  a  jdgir  for  the  payment  of  the  Ellichpur 
brigade.  After  some  years,  getting  into  arrears,  he  gave  up  the  greater 
part  of  his  jdgir^  retaining  only  a  rental  of  ;£^35oo.  Namdar 
Khan  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Ibrahim  Khan,  who  lived  till 
1846,  when  his  widow's  father,  Ghulam  Hassan,  was  allowed  to 
inherit  the  estate  and  the  title  of  Nawab,  on  payment  of  a  nazardna 
of  7  Idkhs,  This  sum  he  borrowed  of  a  local  banker,  at  whose  suit 
the  palace,  with  other  property  of  the  Nawab  at  Ellichpur,  is  now 
under  attachment.  In  1853,  the  District  was  assigned  to  the  British 
with  the  rest  of  Berar. 

From  the  time  that  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk  declared  his  independence, 
the  history  of  Ellichpur  has  been  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the 
family  of  Shadi  Khan  and  Nasib  Khan,  two  Pathan  zaminddrs,  who 
originally  came  from  Jaipur  (Jeypore)  to  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad)  as 
horse  dealers  ;  and  there  attracting  the  notice  of  the  Nizam,  Nasir 
Jang,  rose  to  high  importance.  From  their  descendants  the  governors 
of  Ellichpur  were  generally  chosen  ;  of  these,  Ismail  Khan,  Salabat 
Khan,  Ballal  Khan,  Namdar  Khan,  and  Ibrahim  Khan  were  governors 
of  Ellichpur,  Namdar  Khan  receiving  the  title  of  Nawab. 

Administration. — In  1882-83,  the  administration  was  carried  on  by 
6  civil  judges  and  10  subordinate  magistrates.     The  gross  revenue  was 


ELUCHPUR  TALUK  AND  TOWN.  347 

;^i23,652,  of  which  £()2,2<^\  was  derived  from  the  land.  The  number 
of  police  in  1882  was  260,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  ;^4299.  Average 
distance  between  a  village  and  its  nearest  court,  38  miles.  The  chief 
towns  of  the  District  are  Ellichpur  (26,728),  Anjangaon  (9842),  Parat- 
wada  (9445),  and  Karajgaon  (7330).  Ellichpur  is  the  only  municipaHty. 
No  railroads  run  through  the  ]3istrict,  and  there  are  only  65J  miles 
of  made  road.  Average  daily  population  of  District  jail  in  1882,  53. 
Number  of  schools  in  1883,  135;  of  scholars,  5437;  schools  to  each 
TOO  square  miles,  5.  A  printing-press  issues  a  weekly  newspaper  at 
Ellichpur  town. 

Climaie.—^xom.  November  to  March  may  be  considered  the  cold 
season.  Even  then  the  sun  is  very  powerful  at  mid-day.  The  nights 
are  cold,  but  frost  is  rare.  The  rains  commence  about  the  loth  of 
June  and  last  until  the  end  of  August  September  and  October  are 
the  most  unhealthy  months.  Cholera,  small-pox,  fevers,  ague,  and  a 
severe  form  of  rheumatism  called  wdi,  are  prevalent.  For  the  climate 
of  the  Melghat,  see  that  article.  In  1882,  the  rainfall  at  Ellichpur  town 
was  29-4  inches  ;  average  temperature,  from  97°  F.  in  May  to  56°  in 
December.  There  are  6  dispensaries;  total  patients  relieved  in  1882, 
31,009,  at  a  cost  of  ;^i24o.  Vaccinations  in  same  year,  10,958.  [For 
further  information  regarding  Ellichpur,  see  the  Berdr  Gazetteer,  edited 
by  Sir  Alfred  C.  Lyall,  K.CB.,  Bombay,  1870  ;  also  Settlement  Report 
of  the  Amrdoti  and  Ellichpur  taluks,  by  Major  P.  A.  Elphinstone, 
Bombay,  1870;  the  Berdr  Census  Report  oi  1881  ;  and  the  Berdr 
Administration  and  Departmental  Reports  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Ellichpur.— r^////^  of  Ellichpur  District,  Berar.  Area,  469  square 
miles  ;  contains  5  towns  and  208  villages.  Population  (1881)  148,041, 
namely,  76,514  males  and  71^527  females,  or  315  persons  per 
square  mile.  Hindus  number  127,751;  Muhammadans,  19,304; 
Jains,  785  ;  Christians,  172  ;  and  Sikhs,  9.  The  agricultural  population 
numbers  76,651.  In  1883,  the  tdluk  contained  4  civil  and  6  criminal 
courts,  including  the  head-quarters'  courts  ;  police  circles  {thdnds),  6  ; 
regular  police,  193  men  ;  village  watch  (chaukiddrs),  41 1.  Total  revenue, 
^56,205,  of  which  £ao,2>S9  is  derived  from  land.  Area  occupied  by 
cultivators,  258,110  acres. 

Ellichpur.  —  Chief  town  and  municipality  of  Ellichpur  District, 
Berar.  Lat.  21°  15'  30"  n.,  long.  77°  29'  30"  e.  Population  (1881) 
26,728,  namely,  13,346  males  and  13,382  females.  Of  the  total 
population,  19,092  were  returned  as  Hindus,  7428  as  Musalmans, 
and  208  as  Jains.  Ellichpur  was  once  a  great  and  prosperous 
city,  and  is  said  to  have  contained  40,000  houses.  It  is  not 
on  any  line  of  traffic,  nor  is  it  the  centre  of  any  particular 
trade,  but  it  was  the  capital  of  a  local  Government,  until  the  first 
Nizam,  throwing  off  his  dependence  on  Delhi,  became  supreme  ruler 


348  ELLORA. 

of  the  Deccan.  Ellichpur  was  then  placed  under  a  viceroy  or  governor, 
and  from  this  time  it  declined  rapidly.  The  town  contains  several 
interesting  buildings.  The  dai'gdh  or  burial  shrine,  in  memory  of 
Dalla  Rahman,  built  400  years  ago  by  one  of  the  Bahmani  kings,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Bichan  river,  has  a  spacious  chabutra  or  masonry 
platform,  1 1  bastions,  and  4  gates,  and  is  endowed  by  the  State.  The 
extensive  palace,  built  by  Salabat  Khan  and  Ismail  Khan,  and  after- 
wards added  to  by  Namdar  Khan,  has  some  good  carving  and 
stonework,  but  is  rapidly  falling  to  ruin.  Some  of  the  tombs  of  the 
Nawabs,  commenced  by  Salabat  Khan  sixty  or  seventy  years  ago,  are 
very  handsome.  A  detached  fort,  called  Sultan  Garhi,  built  more 
than  a  hundred  years  ago  by  Sultan  Khan,  and  a  well  (said  to  be 
500  years  old)  called  Mamdel  Shah,  built  of  stone  finely  cut,  are  also 
worthy  of  notice.  An  English-Marathi  school  is  maintained,  and 
also  a  school  for  girls.  Police  stations,  dispensary,  etc.  Municipal 
revenue  in  1881,  ;^i487  ;  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  id.  per  head  of 
population  within  municipal  limits. 

About  2  miles  from  the  city,  on  the  Bichan  stream,  lies  Paratwada, 
the  military  cantonment  and  civil  station.  A  force  of  all  arms  of  the 
Haidarabad  Contingent  is  generally  stationed  here.  In  1882-83 
there  were  73  cavalry,  a  battery  of  artillery  with  125  men,  and  765 
infantry.  The  cantonment  is  well  laid  out ;  the  hills  in  the  back- 
ground give  it  an  attractive  appearance,  but  the  site  is  low,  and  it 
lies  too  near  the  hills  to  be  quite  healthy.  A  police  station  and 
reserve  guard  are  located  in  the  bazar.  English  school  and  two  others  in 
the  bazar — one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls.  A  Government  garden  has  also 
been  formed.  The  courts  of  the  Deputy  Commissioner,  and  of  two 
Assistant  Commissioners,  with  a  treasury,  are  situated  here.  The  popula- 
tion varies  with  the  strength  of  the  troops;  in  1881  the  total  was  9445. 

Ellora  {Eluru  or  Verul).  —  Village  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
Haidarabad,  Deccan.  Lat.  20°  2'  n.,  long.  75°  13'  e.  Distant  north- 
west from  Aurangabad  13  miles,  from  Daulatabad  7  miles.  Population 
(1881)  742.  The  village  is  partly  walled,  and  contains  a  Muhammadan 
shrine  famed  throughout  the  Deccan  for  its  marvellous  heahng  powers. 
Ellora  is  famous  for  its  rock-caves  and  temples.  These  contain,  besides 
the  symbols  of  Sanskrit  mythology  and  statues  of  the  Hindu  deities, 
several  Jain  and  Buddhist  objects  of  worship. 

The  road  from  Aurangabad  to  the  caves  winds  round  the  base  of  the 
fortress  of  Daulatabad,  and  traverses  the  Pi'pal  ghat  to  Raoza,  below 
which  the  caves  are  excavated.  The  Pipal  ghdi^  or  road  upward,  is  so 
called  from  the  pipal  or  sacred  trees  of  the  Hindus  which  line  its  sides. 
Half-way  up  the  arduous  ascent  stand  two  pillars  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  some  nobles  of  the  Court  of  Aurangzeb,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  paved  the  road  to  the  caves. 


ELLORA.  349 

The  caves  are  first  mentioned  by  Mahsudi,  the  Arabic  geographer 
of  the  loth  century,  but  merely  as  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage. 
They  were  visited  in  1306  by  Ala-ud-din  or  his  generals,  when,  as  Dow 
{History  of  Hindostan)  relates,  the  capture  occurred  of  a  Hindu  princess 
of  Gujarat,  who  was  here  in  concealment  from  the  Muhammadans,  but 
was  afterwards  carried  to  Delhi  and  married  to  the  Emperor's  son. 
Thevenot  is  said  to  be  the  first  European  who  has  described  the  caves ; 
I  in  the  quaint  style  of  the  traveller  of  his  period  (1667)  he  details  a 
visit  to  the  '  Pagods  of  Elora.'  The  hill  or  plateau  in  which  the  caves 
are  situated  is  crescent-shaped.  Contrasting  the  caves  of  Ellora  and 
Ajanta,  Mr.  Fergusson  writes  :  'Architecturally  the  Ellora  caves  differ 
from  those  of  Ajanta,  in  consequence  of  their  being  excavated  in  the 
sloping  sides  of  a  hill,  and  not  in  a  nearly  perpendicular  cliff.  From 
this  formation  of  the  ground,  almost  all  the  caves  at  Ellora  have  court- 
yards in  front  of  them.  Frequently,  also,  an  outer  wall  of  rock,  with 
an  entrance  through  it,  is  left  standing;  so  that  the  caves  are  not 
generally  seen  from  the  outside  at  all,  and  a  person  might  pass  along 
their  front  without  being  aware  of  their  existence,  unless  warned  of  the 
fact.'  The  caves  extend  along  the  face  of  the  hill  for  a  mile  and  a 
(quarter.  They  are  divided  into  three  distinct  series,  the  Buddhist,  the 
Brahmanical,  and  the  Jain,  and  are  arranged  almost  chronologically. 

'  The  caves,'  writes  Mr.  Burgess,  the  Archaeological  Surveyor  to  the 
Government  of  Bombay,  *  are  excavated  in  the  face  of  a  hill,  or  rather 
the  scarp  of  a  large  plateau,  and  run  nearly  north  and  south  for  about 
.  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  the  scarp  at  each  end  of  this  interval  throwing 
out  a  horn  towards  the  west.  It  is  where  the  scarp  at  the  south  end 
begins  to  turn  to  the  west  that  the  earliest  caves — a  group  of  Buddhistic 
ones — are  situated  ;  and  in  the  north  horn  is  the  Indra  Sabha  or  Jain 
group,  the  other  extremity  of  the  series.  The  ascent  of  the  ghat  passes 
up  the  south  side  of  Kailas,  the  third  of  the  Brahmanical  group,  and 
over  the  roof  of  the  Das  Avatara,  the  second  of  them.  Sixteen  caves 
lie  to  the  south  of  Kailas,  and  nearly  as  many  to  the  north,  but  the 
latter  are  scattered  over  a  greater  distance. 

'  Most  of  the  caves  have  got  distinguishing  names  from  the  local 
Brahmans ;  but  it  may  be  quite  as  convenient,  for  the  sake  of  reference, 
to  number  them  from  south  to  north,  beginning  with  the  Buddhist 
caves,  of  which  there  are  twelve,  and  passing  through  the  Brahmanical 
series,  of  which  seventeen  are  below  the  brow  of  the  scarp,  and  a  large 
number  of  smaller  ones  above,  and  ending  with  the  Jain  ones,  of  which 
there  are  five  at  the  extreme  north.  There  are  also  some  cells  and  a 
colossal  Jain  image  on  the  north  side  of  the  same  spur  in  which  is  the 
Indra  Sabha.' 

The  chief  building,  called  the  KaiUs — a  perfect  Dravidian  temple, 
complete  in  all   its  parts — is  characterised  by  Fergusson  {History  of 


350  ELLORA. 

Indiaii  and  Eastern  Architecture,  p.  334)  as  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
and  interesting  monuments  of  architectural  art  in  India.  '  Its  beauty 
and  singularity,'  continues  Mr.  Fergusson,  '  always  excited  the  astonish- 
ment of  travellers,  and  in  consequence  it  is  better  known  than  almost 
any  other  structure  in  that  country  from  the  numerous  views  and 
sketches  of  it  that  have  been  published.  ...  It  is  not  a  mere  interior 
chamber  cut  in  the  rock,  but  is  a  model  of  a  complete  temple  such  as 
might  have  been  erected  on  the  plain.  In  other  words,  the  rock  has 
been  cut  away  externally  as  well  as  internally.'  This  wonderful  struc- 
ture, of  which  a  detailed  account  is  given  by  Fergusson  {loc.  cit.), 
measures  138  feet  in  front ;  the  interior  is  247  feet  in  length  by  150 
feet  in  breadth,  the  height  in  some  places  being  100  feet.  This  temple, 
as  well  as  the  others  (which  are  also  described  by  Fergusson),  is  said 
to  have  been  built  about  the  8th  century  by  Raja  Edu  of  Ellichpur 
— by  whom  the  town  of  Ellora  was  founded — as  a  thankoffering  for  a 
cure  effected  by  the  waters  of  a  spring  near  the  place. 

*  All  the  sculptures  and  the  whole  architectural  style  of  the  central 
temple,'  says  Mr.  Burgess,  the  Archaeological  Surveyor  of  Bombay, 
'  impress  me  with  the  conviction^  that  it  is  later  than  the  Papanath 
temple  at  Pattadkal,  but  probably  earHer  than  the  great  Sivaite  temple 
of  Viriipakshadeva  there.  It  has  at  one  time  all  been  painted  in  a  style 
befitting  its  elaborateness  of  sculpture.  This  painting  has  been  renewed 
again  and  again,  perhaps  in  a  continuous  succession  of  debased  styles, 
the  latest  certainly  poor  enough.  But  there  are  still  some  bits  in  the 
roof  of  the  porch,  of  two  or  three  successive  coatings,  that  would  com- 
pare favourably  even  among  many  of  the  Ajanta  paintings.  The  lofty 
basement  of  the  temple  is  of  itself  a  remarkable  conception,  with  its 
row  of  huge  elephants  and  sdrdulas  or  lions,  grifhns,  etc.,  in  every 
possible  attitude,  tearing  one  another  or  feeding.  And  then  the  great 
hall  above,  with  its  sixteen  pillars  and  more  pilasters,  all  carved  with 
different  details  of  sculpture  ;  its  balcony  porches  at  the  sides,  and 
double  pavilions  before  the  front  porch ;  its  vestibule  to  the  sanctuary, 
with  large  sculptures  on  each  side ;  and  its  five  shrines  round  the  out- 
side of  the  principal  one  and  on  the  same  platform,  all  testify  to  the 
attempt  made  to  rival  and  outdo  all  previous  temples  of  the  kind. 

'  Dedicated  to  Siva,  it  is  surrounded  with  figures  also  of  Vishnu  and 
the  whole  Puranic  pantheon.  Its  sculptures  bear  testimony  to  the  pre- 
valence of  the  eclectic  Smartta  school.  The  interior,  and  parts  at  least, 
if  not  the  whole,  of  the  exterior,  have  been  plastered  over  and  painted  ; 
and,  where  this  has  not  very  long  ago  peeled  off,  has  had  the  effect  of 
preserving  the  stone  inside  from  the  smoke  of  wandering  jogis'  and 
travellers'  fires,  with  which  it  must  for  ages  have  been  saturated. 

*  Unlike  any  of  the  preceding  caye-temples,  Kailas  is  a  great  mono- 
lithic temple,  isolated  from  surrounding  rock,  and  carved  outside  as  well 


ELLORE  TALUK  AND  TOWN.  351 

as  in.  It  stands  in  a  great  court  averaging  154  feet  wide  by  276  feet  long 
at  the  level  of  the  base,  entirely  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  with  a 
scarp  107  feet  high  at  the  back.  In  front  of  this  court  a  curtain  has 
been  left,  carved  on  the  outside  with  the  monstrous  forms  of  Siva  and 
Vishnu  and  their  congeners,  and  with  rooms  inside  it.  It  is  pierced 
in  the  centre  by  an  entrance  passage  with  rooms  on  each  side.  Passing 
this,  the  visitor  is  met  by  a  large  sculpture  of  Lakshmi  over  the 
lotuses,  with  her  attendant  elephants.  There  are  some  letters  and  a 
date  on  the  leaves  of  the  lotus,  on  which  she  sits,  but  illegible,  and 
probably  belonging  to  the  15th  century.  On  the  bases  of  the  pilasters 
on  each  side  have  been  inscriptions  in  characters  of  the  8th  century. 
As  we  enter,  to  right  and  left  is  the  front  portion  of  the  court,  which 
is  a  few  feet  lower  than  the  rest,  and  at  the  north  and  south  ends  of 
which  stand  two  gigantic  elephants, — that  on  the  south  much  mutilated. 
Turning  again  to  the  east  and  ascending  a  few  steps,  we  enter  the  great 
court  occupied  by  the  temple,  whose  base  measures  164  feet  from  east 
to  west,  by  109  feet  where  widest  from  north  to  south.  In  front  of  it, 
and  connected  by  a  bridge,  is  a  viandapa  for  the  Nandi,  and  on  each 
side  of  this  mandap  stands  a  pillar  or  dvajadand — "ensign  staff" — 
45  feet  high,  or  with  what  remains  of  the  trisula  of  Siva  on  the  top,  a 
total  height  of  about  49  feet.' 

EUora  was  ceded  in  18 18  by  Holkar  to  the  British,  who  transferred 
it  to  the  Nizam,  in  1822,  by  the  treaty  of  Haidarabad. 

EUore  {Eiiir). — Tdluk  of  Godavari  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Area,  729  square  miles,  containing  248  villages  and  29,015  houses. 
Population  (1881)  149,308,  namely,  140,689  Hindus,  8019  Muham- 
madans,  and  600  Christians.  No  other  tdluk  of  the  District  contains 
so  many  Muhammadans.  The  country  is  to  a  great  extent  covered 
with  jungle.  The  arable  land  amounts  to  118,381  acres,  paying  a 
revenue  of  ^23,804,  while  other  sources  (water  cess,  quit -rent, 
etc.)  raise  the  total  revenue  to  ^26,587.  The  canals  that  pass 
through  the  tdluk  connect  its  chief  town,  Ellore,  with  Rajama- 
hendri  (Rajahmundry),  etc.,  and  besides  irrigating  the  tdluk,  afford  a 
highway  for  the  export  of  grain.  In  1883,  the  tdluk  contained  1  civil 
and  3  criminal  courts;  police  circles  (thdnds),  17  ;  regular  police,  199 
men. 

Ellore  {Eluru;  elu,  *  ruling  ' — uru,  *  town '). — Town  in  Godavari 
District,  Madras  Presidency.  Latitude  16°  42'  35"  n.,  longitude  81° 
9'  5"  E.  Population  (1881)  25,092,  namely,  Hindus,  20,391  ;  Muham- 
madans, 4453  ;  and  Christians,  248.  Number  of  houses,  4133. 
Situated  255  miles  north  of  Madras,  on  the  Tammaler  river.  The 
high-level  canal  from  Vijeshwaram  passes  through  the  tdluk,  and  joins 
the  Bezwara  canal  at  Ellore,  where  the  waters  of  the  Godavari  and 
Kistna  unite.     The  Ellore  Canal  from  Chittapetta  to  Ellore  is  40  miles 


352  EMINAB AD— ENGLISH  BAZAR. 

in  length.  As  the  head-quarters  of  the  tdluk^  Ellore  possesses  the  usual 
subordinate  magisterial  and  judicial  establishments,  police  station,  post- 
office,  school,  etc. ;  it  is  also  the  station  of  the  Head  Assistant  Collector, 
and  of  a  local  fund  engineer.  Both  Church  Missionary  and  Roman 
Catholic  missions  are  established  here.  The  municipal  income  for 
1883  was  ;£i99i  ;  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  ijd.  per  head  of  the 
population.  Manufactures  of  woollen  carpets  and  saltpetre  are  the 
chief  industries.  Historically  Ellore  is  of  importance  as  having  been 
the  capital  of  the  Northern  Circars.  Originally  portion  of  the  Vengi 
kingdom,  it  probably  formed  part  of  the  Orissa  conquests  till  1480, 
when  it  was  occupied  by  the  Muhammadans.  Under  the  supremacy  of 
the  Vijayanagar  kingdom,  Ellore  became  once  more  Hindu ;  but  early 
in  the  i6th  century  it  was  captured  by  Kutab  Shah  of  Golconda,  by 
whom  and  his  successors  it  was  held  against  the  Rajputs  of  Rajdma- 
hendri  (Rajahmundry)  and  the  Reddis  and  Kois  of  the  surrounding 
country,  who  perpetually  harassed  the  garrison,  until  the  Golconda 
power  was  merged  in  the  Subah  or  Muhammadan  viceroyalty  of  the 
Deccan.  In  later  history,  Ellore  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  common  to 
the  other  Circars,  being  in  turn  possessed  by  native  princes,  by  the 
French,  and  finally  by  the  British.  {^See  Northern  Circars.)  The 
ruins  of  the  old  fort,  built  from  the  Buddhist  remains  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Chalukyas  at  Vengi,  8  miles  to  the  north,  are  still  visible 
near  the  town ;  the  modern  barracks  now  form  the  offices  of  the  sub- 
divisional  officer.  The  heat  here  is  remarkable,  even  for  so  hot  a 
District,  the  thermometer  rising  to  110°  F.  in  the  shade. 

Eminab^d. — Town  in  the  Gujranwala  tahsil  of  Gujranwala  District, 
Punjab.  Situated  in  lat.  32°  2  15"  n.,  and  long.  74°  18'  e.,  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  Road,  9  miles  south  of  Gujranwala  town.  Population  (1881) 
5886,  namely,  1764  Hindus,  4103  Muhammadans,  and  19  Sikhs.  9  Now 
a  town  of  small  importance,  but  perhaps  the  most  ancient  in  the 
District ;  particulars,  however,  of  its  early  history  are  not  recorded.  It 
figures  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari,  as  the  head-quarters  of  a  large  inahdl  or 
fiscal  division,  and  contains  some  fine  ruined  specimens  of  Muham- 
madan architecture,  dating  from  imperial  times.  Residence  of  a  leading 
Kshatriya  family,  whose  members  include  Jawala  Sahai,  minister  to  the 
Maharaja  of  Jammu  (Kashmir),  and  the  late  Diwan  Hari  Chand.  The 
town  has  several  streets,  a  grain  market,  police  station,  and  school- 
house.  Trade  insignificant.  Considerable  annual  fair  for  three  days 
in  the  month  of  Baisakh  (about  the  middle  of  April).  A  third-class 
municipality,  with  an  income  in  1882-83  of  ^210;  average  incidence 
of  taxation,  ^&.  per  head  of  the  population. 

English  Baz^r  (or  Angrazdbdd). — Town,  municipality,  and  admini- 
strative head-quarters  of  Maldah  District,  Bengal.  Situated  in  lat. 
25°  o'  14"  n.,  and  long.  88°  11'  20"  e.     Population  (1881)  12,430, 


ENG-RAI—ENG-RAI-G  YL  353 

namely,  Hindus,  7268;  Muhammadans,  5146;  and  *  otliers,'  16;  area 
of  site,  1500  acres.  Municipal  income  (1881-82),  ^{^696,  of  which 
;2f  498  was  derived  from  taxation  ;  incidence  of  municipal  taxation,  gjd. 
per  head  ;  expenditure,  ;C']i6.  The  town  consists  of  a  series  of  trading 
villages  lining  the  right  bank  of  the  Mahananda  for  a  considerable 
distance.  Being  an  open  elevated  site  on  the  river  bank  in  a  mulberry- 
growing  country,  it  was  chosen  at  an  early  date  as  the  site  of  one  of  the 
Company's  silk  factories.  The  French  and  the  Dutch  had  also 
settlements  here ;  and  the  residence  of  the  superintendent  of  police 
was  formerly  a  Dutch  convent.  The  East  India  Company's  factory 
was  of  considerable  importance  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  17th 
century,  and  its  '  Diaries  and  Consultations,'  from  1685  to  1693  (with 
breaks),  are  still  preserved  in  the  India  Office  under  the  title  of 
'  Maulda  and  Englesavad.'  In  1770,  English  Bazar  was  fixed  upon  for 
a  commercial  residency,  and  retained  its  importance  until  the  discon- 
tinuance of  the  Company's  private  trade  in  1836.  An  extensive  trade 
in  grain  is  now  carried  on.  The  largest  building  is  the  public  Cutcherry 
(Kachari)  or  Court-House,  originally  a  factory  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. It  is  regularly  fortified,  and  within  its  walls  are  all  the  public 
offices  of  the  District.  A  small  embankment  protects  the  town  from 
inundations,  which  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Maldah  District. 

Eng-rai  {In-rai). — Town  in  Bassein  District,  British  Burma ;  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Daga  river,  in  latitude  17°  10'  30"  n.,  and 
longitude  95°  18'  30"  e.  Formerly  the  head-quarters  of  the  extra- 
Assistant  Commissioner. 

Eng-rai-gyi  {In-rai-gyi). — Lake  In  Bassein  District,  British  Burma  ; 
about  3  miles  in  circumference,  with  a  fairly  uniform  breadth  of  from 
280  to  300  yards,  and  a  depth  of  from  20  to  45  feet  in  the  centre.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Daga  branch  of  the  Bassein  by  a  small  outlet, 
which  serves  to  replenish  the  lake  from  the  Irawadi  (Irrawaddy)  and  to 
carry  off  the  surplus  water.  This  lake  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  a 
former  portion  of  the  bed  of  the  Daga,  by  others  it  is  thought  to  have 
been  caused  by  a  slip  of  the  lower-lying  beds,  totally  independent  of 
fluvial  action.  It  is  very  valuable  as  a  preserve  for  fish,  and  proved  an 
important  source  of  revenue  to  the  Burmese  Government,  who  exacted 
an  annual  tax  of  ^780  from  the  Paineng  or  hereditary  chief  of  the 
lake,  who  had  sole  authority  over  the  villagers  employed  in  the  fisher)-. 
Each  villager  had  the  right  of  investing  his  capital  in  the  general 
working  of  the  fishery,  and  received  a  share  in  the  out-turn  at  the  end 
of  the  season  proportionate  to  the  sum  subscribed.  The  process  of 
dragging  the  lake  is  performed  by  floating  capstans  worked  by  hawsers 
of  jungle  rope  attached  to  a  frame,  and  occupies  three  months' 
working,  at  the  rate  of  about  45  fathoms  each  day.  The  fishing  begins 
with  the  full  moon  in  June,  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  has  been 

VOL.  IV.  Z 


354  ENNORE—ERAN. 

reduced  by  the  first  showers  of  the  monsoon.  The  number  of  fish 
caught  is  never  below  70,000  to  80,000  of  all  kinds ;  the  principal 
belonging  for  the  most  part  to  the  genera  of  Cerca,  Cyprinus,  Gobio, 
Labeo,  Cimelodus,  Cirrhinus,  Cyprinodon,  and  Silurus.  The  largest 
specimens  weigh  about  56  lbs.  each.  Crocodiles  of  all  sizes  are  found 
in  the  drag-net,  but  no  casualty  has  been  known  to  have  been  caused 
by  them.  Some  8000  to  10,000  persons  are  engaged  in  the  taking 
and  disposal  of  the  fish,  of  which  about  40  tons  are  annually  sold  on 
the  spot. 

Ennore  {Ennur).  —  Town  in  Chengalpat  District,  Madras  Presi- 
dency ;  also  called  Kattivakam.  Latitude  13°  13'  4° "  n.,  longitude  8o' 
2i'55"e.  Population  (1881)  1453,  namely,  1418  Hindus,  26  Muham- 
mmadans,  and  9  Christians.  Number  of  houses,  233.  Ennore  is  in 
reality  only  a  fishing  village  ;  but  being  a  favourite  resort  of  Europeans 
from  Madras,  it  contains  several  bungalows,  built  on  the  strip  of  land 
between  the  sea  and  the  back-water ;  and,  until  lately,  the  oldest  club- 
house in  India.  Situated  12  miles  north  of  Madrrs,  to  which  there  is 
some  export  of  the  salt  manufactured  here.  Manufacture  of  salt  in  1878, 
36,000  tons.     In  1769,  Haidar  Ali  encamped  near  Ennore. 

Entalli. — Suburb  of  Calcutta,  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal.  Lat. 
22"  33'  15"  N.,  long.  88°  24'  30"  E.  Contains  an  Enghsh  school,  a 
large  native  school  belonging  to  the  Baptists,  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
convent. 

Eran. — Chief  village  of  a  tract  of  the  same  name  in  Sagar  (Saugor), 
District,  Central  Provinces,  48  miles  west  of  Sagar  town.  Lat.  24°  5' 
30"  N.,  long.  78°  15'  E.  Population  (1881)  339;  number  of  houses, 
84.  Eran  is  remarkable  for  its  monumental  remains,  attributed  to 
Raja  Bharat.  The  chief  of  these  is  a  rudely-shaped  image  of  Vishnu 
in  his  manifestation  as  the  boar.  The  animal  stands  about  10  feet 
high,  with  his  snout  in  the  air.  Successive  rows  of  small  figures  in 
short  tunics  and  high  caps  cover  the  body ;  while  a  band,  ornamented 
with  seated  figures,  encircles  the  neck.  The  tip  of  the  projecting 
tongue  supports  a  human  figure  erect.  The  breast  bears  an  inscription, 
and,  as  at  Oodehghir  (Udaigarh),  a  young  female  hangs  by  the  arm 
from  the  right  tusk.  On  one  side  of  Vishnu  stands  a  four-armed  deity, 
more  than  12  feet  high,  with  girt  loins,  a  high  cap,  and  round  his  neck 
and  reaching  to  his  feet  a  thick  ornamental  cord.  On  the  columns 
before  this  statue  are  seen  figures  weaving  the  sacred  thread,  with 
twisted  snakes,  elephants,  nude  female  figures,  seated  Buddhas,  faces 
of  satyrs,  and  other  devices.  Besides  these  and  other  remains,  there 
are  three  figures  of  crouching  lions  ;  and  in  front  of  them,  a  pillar,  and 
a  small  temple  half  buried  in  the  soil.  The  pillar  has  a  broad  base, 
for  about  1 5  feet  the  shaft  is  square,  and  for  about  i  o  feet  more  round. 
The  bell  capital  occupies  2  feet,  and  sustains  a  pedestal  about  3  feet 


BRAND  OL—ERNAKOLAM,  355 

high,  on  which  stands  a  small  double-fronted  four-armed  statue.  From 
the  inscription  on  this  column  the  date  of  Buddha  Gupta,  of  the  great 
Gupta  line  of  Magadha,  has  been  established.     Police  outpost  station. 

Erandol. — Sub-division  of  Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tapti ;  on  the  north-east  and  east  by 
the  Girna;  on  the  south  by  Pachora ;  and  on  the  west  by  Amalncr. 
Area,  460  square  miles;  contains  2  towns  and  196  villages.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  90,872,  namely,  46,296  males  and  44,576  females.  Hindus 
number  76,379;  Muhammadans,  9327;  'others,'  5166.  The  soil  is 
part  of  the  fertile  Tapti  valley.  Mango  groves  are  scattered  all  through 
the  Sub-division.  Besides  water-supply  from  the  rivers,  there  were  in 
1879-80,  2061  wells  of  which  the  average  depth  was  35  feet.  The 
Sub-division  of  Erandol  was  surveyed  and  settled  in  1858-59.  There 
were  then  8774  holdings  with  an  average  area  of  21-2  acres,  and  an 
average  rental  of  £2,  7s.  sjd.  In  1879,  there  were  under  tillage 
193)256  acres,  of  which  37  per  cent,  were  under  jodr  (millet),  and 
34  per  cent,  under  cotton.  Rice,  wheat,  pulses,  and  oil-seeds  occupied 
the  remainder.     Land  revenue  (1883),  ^24,828. 

Erandol.— Chief  town  of  the  Sub-division  of  Erandol  in  Khandesh 
District,  Bombay  Presidency ;  situated  on  the  Anjani  river,  40  miles 
east  of  Dhulil  Latitude  20°  56'  n.,  longitude  75°  20'  30"  e.  Popula- 
tion  (1881)    11,501,  namely,   8681  Hindus,  2558  Muhammadans,  and 

13  Jains.  Municipal  revenue  (1881-82),  £s^^\  rate  of  taxation, 
IS.  per  head.  Sub-judge's  court,  post-office,  and  dispensary.  Erandol 
is  connected  by  metalled  roads  with  the  towns  of  Dhulia,  Dharaneaon 
(7  miles  north-west),  and  with  the  railway  station  of  Mahasawar  (9  miles 
south-east).  It  is  a  place  of  some  antiquity,  and  was  formerly  cele- 
brated for  its  manufacture  of  coarse  native  paper,  an  industry  which 
still  survives  to  a  limited  extent.  There  is  a  considerable  local  trade 
in  cotton,  indigo,  and  grain ;  the  chief  market  being  Jalgaon,  a  station 

14  miles  north-east. 

Emdd  {Erdnddu  ox  Erddindd). — Taluk  in  Malabar  District,  Madras 
Presidency.  Area,  811  square  miles,  containing  52  villages.  Houses, 
54,415.  Population  (1881)  296,143,  namely,  148,521  males  and 
147,622  females.  Hindus  number  145,451  ;  Muhammadans,  149,987  ; 
Christians,  699;  and  'others,'  6.  In  1883  the  tdluk  contained  3  civil 
and  2  criminal  courts;  police  circles  (thdnds),  13;  regular  police,  112 
men.     Land  revenue,  ^^20,005. 

Emagiidem. —  Tdluk  of  Godavari  District,  Madras  Presidency. — See 
Yernagudem. 

Emakolam  ( Yernacoulam).  —  Town  in  Cochin  State,  Madras  ; 
situated  on  the  back-water  2  miles  east  of,  and  opposite  to.  Cochin 
town.  Latitude  9°  58'  55"  n.,  longitude  76°  19'  21"  e.  The  chief 
officials   of  the   State  reside   here;    and  the  town   also   contains  the 


356  ERNIAL— ERODE. 

judicial  courts,  several  public  offices,  and  a  Ddrbdr  palace,  where  the 
British  Resident  pays  his  state  visits  to  the  Raja  of  Cochin.  Some  of 
the  roads  are  metalled,  and  there  are  two  churches.  The  suburb  of 
Anjikaimal  (so  called  in  memory  of  five  chiefs  who  at  a  distant  period 
of  history  shared  the  surrounding  country)  contains  a  large  and  regularly- 
built  market,  and  has  a  considerable  trade,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jews  and  the  Konkanis. 

Emial. — Town  in  the  Ernial  tdliik  or  Sub-division  of  Travancore 
State,  Madras  Presidency.  Latitude  8°  12'  12"  n.,  longitude  77° 
21' 31'  E.  Population  (1881)  18,420;  houses,  4429.  As  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Sub-division,  it  possesses  the  usual  subordinate  native 
establishments.     The  London  Missionary  Society  has  a  school  here. 

Erode  {Irodti). — Tdhik  of  Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bhawani ;  on  the  north-east  and  east  by 
the  Kaveri  (Cauvery) ;  and  on  the  south  by  the  Noyel  river.  The  tdhik 
has  an  area  of  599  square  miles,  and  contains  i  town  and  193  villages, 
with  their  hamlets.  Houses,  45,427.  Population  (1881)  195,669, 
namely,  96,619  males  and  99,050  females.  Hindus  number  192,148  ; 
Muhammadans,  2722  ;  Christians,  783  ;  and  '  others,'  16.  The  occupied 
area  is  302,590  acres,  and  the  assessment  about  ^^42,182.  The  land 
is  chiefly  'dry'  land,  only  8882  acres  being  irrigated  from  channels  and 
tanks.  The  chief  source  of  irrigation  is  the  Kalingarayan  channel,  led 
from  an  anicut  at  Bhavani,  which  traverses  the  eastern  border  for  57 
miles ;  it  irrigates  7283  acres,  assessed  at  ;£"9820.  There  are  a  few  rain- 
fed  tanks  and  several  thousand  private  irrigation  wells.  The  cuUivation 
under  wells  is  good,  and  the  soil  fair ;  but  the  uplands  are  poor  in  soil 
and  badly  tilled.  The  fields  are,  however,  almost  universally  hedged. 
The  assessment  averages  2s.  2d.  per  acre  for  ' dry,'  and  £^\^  3s.  7|d.  for 
'  wet '  lands.  Eighty-three  per  cent,  of  the  soil  is  red  sand.  There  are 
no  forests  or  hills,  except  three  small  ridges  of  very  slight  elevation. 
The  population  is  chiefly  agricultural  and  Hindu.  Brahmans  are 
rarely  found,  except  along  the  Kaveri.  The  produce  of  the  tdluk 
consists  chiefly  of  cereals,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  cotton  (about  40,000  acres), 
chillies,  tobacco,  turmeric,  jaggery,  saltpetre,  gunny,  and  coarse  cloths ; 
carts  are  largely  made  at  Erode  town,  and  building  materials  are 
cheap.  Chief  places  are  Erode  town,  Perundurai,  Chennimalai, 
Kodumudi,  and  Arasaliir.  The  tdluk  is  well  supplied  with  the  means 
of  communication ;  the  trunk  road  from  Madras  passes  through  it,  via 
Perundurai ;  and  it  has  two  railways — the  Madras  and  the  South  Indian 
lines — which  meet  at  Erode  town.  Weekly  markets  abound,  those  at 
Erode,  Kunnattiir,  Perundurai,  and  Kanakapiiram  being  important.  In 
1883  there  were  3  criminal  courts  and  1  civil ;  police  circles  {thdnds)^  9 ; 
regular  police,  81  men.  The  tdluk  contains  3  post-offices,  a  fair  number 
of  schools,  including  a  second-class  middle  school  and  a  large  municipal 


ERODE— ElAH.  y^-j 

primary  school  at  Erode,  and  a  municipal  hospital.  Arrack  and  toddy 
shops  number  78  and  107  respectively.  The  taluk  is  hot  but  not 
unhealthy,  and  its  rainfall  is  scanty. 

Erode  {Irodu). — Town  in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Situated  in  latitude  11°  20'  29"  n.,  and  longitude  77°  46'  3"  e.,  on  the 
Kaveri  (Cauvery)  river,  at  the  extreme  east  of  the  District,  243  miles  by 
rail  from  Madras,  85  from  Trichinopoli,  60  from  Coimbatore,  and  37 
from  Salem.  Houses,  1886.  Population  (1881)  9864,  of  whom  8338 
are  Hindus,  chiefly  Vellalars,  1084  Muhammadans,  439  Christians,  and 
3  '  others.'  Being  the  head-quarters  of  the  Erode  taluk,  it  possesses 
the  usual  subordinate  judicial  establishments,  police  station,  school,  tele- 
graph and  post-office.  It  is  now  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  District 
Sub-Collector,  and  is  a  municipality,  with  an  income  (1883)  of  ^^i 01 9, 
chiefly  from  house-tax  and  tolls.  In  the  time  of  Haidar  Ah',  Erode 
contained  3000  houses ;  but  in  consequence  of  successive  Mardtha, 
Mysore,  and  British  invasions,  the  town  became  almost  utterly  deserted 
and  ruined.  As  soon,  however,  as  peace  was  signed,  the  people 
returned  to  a  place  with  so  many  advantages  in  position  and  fertility ; 
and  within  a  year  it  had  400  houses,  and  a  population  of  over  2000. 
The  garrison  was  withdrawn  in  1807,  and  the  ruined  fort  levelled  as  a 
relief  work  during  the  famine  of  1877.  The  space  enclosed  within  the 
ramparts  had  been  long  before  occupied  by  houses,  with  a  cotton-press 
and  saltpetre  warehouse.  The  trade  of  Erode  consists  chiefly  in  the 
export  of  cotton,  chillies,  saltpetre,  and  rice  ;  it  is  an  important  railway 
centre,  and  is  rapidly  rising  in  importance.  Roads  to  Kariir,  Peran- 
durai,  and  Mysore — one  via  the  Hassaniir  ghat,  the  other  via  the 
Barghar  ghat — radiate  from  it,  serving  as  feeders  to  the  railway,  which 
has  here  a  station  at  the  junction  of  the  Madras,  South-Western,  and 
South  Indian  lines.  About  i^  miles  east  of  the  town  a  girder  bridge 
of  22  arches  crosses  the  Kaveri,  1536  feet  in  length,  constructed  at 
a  cost  of  jQao,^']<^.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  besides  other  public 
edifices  has  a  good  court-house  and  sub-jail,  erected  at  a  cost  of  ;£^3ooo. 

Eruvddi. — Town  in  Tinnevelli  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  5171,  namely,  Hindus,  2416.;  Muhammadans,  2522;  and 
Christians,  233. 

Etah. — British  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the  North- 
Western  Provinces,  lying  between  27°  19'  42"  and  28°  i'  39"  n.  lat., 
and  78°  27'  26"  and  79°  19'  23"  e.  long.  Etah  is  the  northernmost 
District  of  the  Agra  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river 
Ganges,  separating  it  from  Budaun  District ;  on  the  west  by  Aligarh  and 
Agra ;  on  the  south  by  Mainpuri ;  and  on  the  east  by  Farukhabad. 
Area,  1738  square  miles;  population  (1881)  756,523.  The  admini- 
strative head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Etah,  but  Kasganj  is  the 
chief  centre  of  population  and  commerce. 


358  ETAH. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Etah  lies  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  middle  Doab,  where  the  elevated  plateau  composing  that   fertile 
tract  dips  into  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.     From  the  banks  of  the  great 
river  to  the  terraces  which  form  the  escarpment  of  the  upland  plain 
stretches  a  belt  of  level  land  known  as  the    tardi,  bounded   on   the 
west  by  the  Biirh  Ganga,  or  ancient  bed  of  the  river.     The  abandoned 
channel  is  still  marked  by  a  line  of  swamps  and  hollows,  which  receive 
the  surface  drainage  of  the  neighbouring  fields.      The  whole  tardi^ 
lying  between   the    former   and   the   present   stream    of  the   river,  is 
covered  with   a   rich    alluvial   deposit,  and   abundantly  supplied  with 
water,  so  that  artificial  irrigation  is    unnecessary.     But   in   its  widest 
portion,  the  crust  of  alluvial  matter  becomes  thinner,  and  sandy  undu- 
lating downs  begin  to  crop  up.     Above  the  marshy  bed  of  the  Biirh 
Ganga  rises  the  old  high  bank  of  the  ancient  channel,  which  leads  at 
once  to  the  central  Doab  plateau.     This  upland  tract  exhibits  the  same 
natural  characteristics  in  Etah  as  elsewhere,  being  for  the  most  part  a 
level  plain,  interspersed  with  hillocks  of  yellow  sand  and  patches  of  rich 
loam,  which  latter  are  generally  chosen  as  village  sites ;  but  it  is  neither 
so  fertile  nor  so  highly  cuhivated  as  in  the  Meerut  (Merath)  Division  to 
the  north,  owing  to  the  want  of  irrigation.     The  Lower  Ganges  Canal, 
however,  recently  completed,  will,  it   is   hoped,  supply  all   the  needs 
of  Etah ;  and  the  District  may  be  expected  before  long  to  rival  the 
fertility  of  Aligarh  and  Bulandshahr.    The  central  plateau  is  bounded  to 
the  west  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Kali  Nadi,  a  tributary  of  the  Ganges, 
which  provides  Etah  with  a  main  drainage  channel,  and,  occasionally 
overflowing  its  banks  after  heavy  rain,  fertilizes  the  fallow  land  with  a 
rich  layer  of  fine  silt  and  decaying  vegetable  matter.     The  angle  to 
the  south-west  of  the  Kali  is  by  far  the  most  fruitful  portion  of  the 
District.     Naturally  composed  of  a  strong  and  rich  clay,  it  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Cawnpur  and  Etawah  branches  of  the  Ganges    Canal, 
which  supply  water  to  the  fields  by  138  miles  of  distributary  streams. 
It  is  much  cut  up,  however,  by  wide  stretches  of  ?/^^r  plain,  which  are 
absolutely  barren  of  all  vegetation.      Indeed,  the    whole    District  is 
distinguished  for  its  bare  and  treeless  appearance.     The  larger  villages 
and  towns  are  surrounded  with  pleasant  groves,   but  there   are  few 
woods  of  any  extent,  and  very  little  jungle-land.     Over  one-third  of  the 
area  is  returned  as  uncultivated,  of  which   one-half  is  cultivable,  and 
that  will  doubtless  be  reclaimed  as  soon  as  the  irrigation  schemes  now 
on  foot  are  completed.     The  remainder  consists  either  of  dry  saline 
y/i-^r  plain  or  barren  flats  of  ^>^//r  waste.     As  a  whole,  while  Etah  cannot 
boast  of  such  advantages  as  the  Districts  which  lie  above  it  in  the 
Doab,  it  is  more  flourishing  than  the  majority  of  its  neighbours  to  the 
south  and  west 

History. — Tradition  points  to  the  valley  of  the  Kali  as  the  seat  of 


ETAH.  359 

populous  cities  in  mythical  times ;  and  the  accounts  of  the  Buddhist 
pilgrims  from  China,  in  the  5th  and  7th  centuries  a.d.,  bear  out  to 
some  extent  the  legendary  statements.     The  District  was  at  that  time 
rich  in  temples  and  monasteries,  as  befitted  a  place  which  had  been 
honoured   by  the   personal   presence   of  Buddha,  many  incidents  in 
whose  life  are  connected  with  the  ruined  mounds  of  Atranji.     From 
the  6th  to  the  loth  century,  Etah  appears  to  have  been  held  by  Ahirs 
and  Bhars,  and  then  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Rajputs,  during 
the  course  of  their  great  immigration  eastwards.     When  Mahmiid  of 
Ghazni  marched  against  the  kingdom  of  Kanauj  in  1017,  he  must  have 
taken   Etah  on    his  route;    and  the  District  must  again   have   been 
traversed  nearly  two  centuries  later  by  the  army  of  the  second  gieat 
Musalman  conqueror,  Muhammad  Ghori,  on  its  way  to  the  final  battle 
with  the  Rahtor  Raja,  Jai  Chand,   in    the  Jumna   ravines   of   Agra. 
From  that  time  forward,  Etah  remained  a  dependency  of  the  Musalman 
rulers  at  Kanauj  or  Koil,  and  never  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
Hindu  prince.      But  the  District  was  then  a  wild  expanse  of  dhdk 
forest,  studded  with  the  mud  forts  of  robber  chieftains  and  the  villages 
of  a  lawless  peasantry,  and  such  it  remained  until  the  introduction  of 
British  rule.     Patiali,  the  then  principal  town,  lying  on  the  old  channel 
of  the  Ganges,  was  infested  by  robber  hordes  whose  misdeeds  roused 
the  indignation  of  Sultan  Balban,  about  the  year  1270.     The  Sultan 
proceeded  in  person  to  Patiali,  and  opened  the  roads  to   Hindustan 
for  merchants  and  caravans  by  placing  strong  garrisons   in  the   for- 
tresses of  the  banditti,  so  that  '  Musalmans  and  guardians  of  the  way 
took  the  place  of  highway  robbers.'     The  principal  Muhammadan  in- 
habitants still  trace  the  origin  of  their  families  to  this  period.     During 
the  frequent  Musalman  invasions  of  the  15th  century,  Etah  was  con- 
stantly exposed  to  the  ravages  of  both  parties,  as  it  lay  on  the  direct 
route  to  the  great  cities  on  the  Ganges.     Akbar  included  it  in  his 
sarkdrs  of  Kanauj,   Koil,  and    Budaun,   and  used   it  as    an    outpost 
against  the  refractory  Hindus  of  Mainpuri.     At  the  end  of  the  last 
century,  Etah  passed   into  the  hands   of  the   Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh, 
and  formed  a  portion  of  the  territory  ceded  to  the  British  in  180 1-2. 
It  was  then  distributed  among  the  adjoining  Districts  of  Etawah, 
Farukhabad,   Aligarh,  and    Moradabad.     The   outlying  pargaiids 
which  compose  the  present  District  were  from  the  first  so  remote  from 
the  central  authority  that  it  was  found  necessary  in   181 1  to  place  a 
subordinate  European  officer  at  Patiali,  with  criminal  jurisdiction  over 
the  surrounding  country.     After  many  changes  of  an  intricate  sort,  the 
condition   of  the  pargands  around  Etah  attracted  serious  considera- 
tion  in    1845.      The   Ahi'rs    and    Aheriyas    carried    on    a    system    of 
organized  plunder ;  and  dakditis  (gang-robberies),  planned  by  an  outlaw 
from  the  Jumna  ravines  of  Mainpuri,  became  so  frequent  as  to  call 


36o  ETAH. 

for  more  efficient  police  arrangements.  Much  of  the  country  was  still 
covered  with  dhdk  jungle,  and  studded  with  mud  forts,  moated  and 
fenced  on  every  side.  Tlie  landowners  even  considered  it  a  mark  of 
disrespect  to  call  for  the  revenue  without  some  show  of  force  to  back 
up  their  demand.  Accordingly,  a  Deputy  Collector  and  Joint  Magis- 
trate was  stationed  at  Patiali  in  1845  ;  and  in  1856  the  head-quarters 
were  transferred  to  a  more  accessible  position  at  Etah,  a  village  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  from  which  the  District  takes  its  name.  The 
succeeding  year  saw  the  outbreak  at  Meerut  (Merath),  which  quickly 
developed  into  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  As  soon  as  the  troops  garrisoned 
at  Etah  received  intelligence  of  the  revolt  at  Aligarh,  the  whole  body 
left  the  station  w^ithout  any  disturbance.  As  there  was  no  place  of 
strength  in  the  town,  and  no  force  with  which  to  defend  it,  the  Magis- 
trate found  it  necessary  to  withdraw  until  the  mutineers  from  Mainpuri 
and  Etawah  had  passed  through.  After  a  gallant  but  unsuccessful 
-^attempt  to  hold  Kasganj,  the  whole  District  was  abandoned  on  the 
7th  of  June,  and  the  officers  reached  Agra  in  safety.  Damar  Singh, 
Raja  of  Etah,  then  set  himself  up  as  an  independent  ruler  in  the  south 
of  the  District.  As  usual,  however,  rival  claimants  appeared  in  various 
quarters  ;  and  towards  the  end  of  July,  the  rebel  Nawab  of  Farukhabad 
took  practical  possession  of  the  country  for  some  months.  On  the 
approach  of  General  Greathed's  column,  the  rebels  retired  for  a  while, 
and  Mr.  Cocks  was  appointed  Special  Commissioner  for  Etah  and 
Aligarh.  The  force  at  his  disposal,  however,  was  quite  insufficient  to 
restore  order,  and  the  rebels  still  continued  to  hold  Kasganj.  It  was 
not  till  the  15th  of  December  that  Colonel  Seaton's  column  attacked 
the  rebels  at  Gangiri,  and,  after  totally  routing  them,  occupied  Kasganj. 
By  the  middle  of  1858,  order  was  completely  restored,  and  the  peace 
of  the  District  has  not  since  been  disturbed. 

Popidation. — The  population  of  Etah  District  in  1865  (then  a  smaller 
area  than  at  present),  according  to  the  Census  of  that  year,  was  re- 
turned at  614,351  ;  in  1872  it  was  703,527  on  the  then  area,  or  829,118 
on  the  present  area  of  the  District.  Since  1872  the  population  shows 
a  considerable  decrease,  being  returned  in  1881  at  756,523,  being 
72,595,  or  87  per  cent.,  less  than  the  number  living  on  the  same  area 
nine  years  previously.  This  decrease  is  partially  due  to  the  scarcity 
and  sickness  which  prevailed  in  1878-79 ;  but  there  appears  little 
doubt  that  the  population  of  Etah  and  the  surrounding  Districts,  if 
not  of  the  Provinces  in  general,  has  reached  the  stationary  stage.  The 
results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  188 1  may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows: — Area  of  District,  1739  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and 
villages,  1489  :  houses,  88,543  ;  total  population,  756,523,  namely,  males 
413,689,  and  females  342,834.  These  figures  yield  the  following 
averages  : — Proportion   of  males  in  total  population,   54*5  per  cent. ; 


ETAH.  361 

average  density  of  population,  435  persons  per  square  mile  ;  villages  i)er 
square  mile,  0*85 ;  persons  per  village,  508  ;  houses  per  square  mile, 
50*9;  persons  per  house,  8-5.  As  regards  the  religious  distinctions 
of  the  people,  Etah  is  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  Hindu  Districts  in 
the  Doab.  The  Hindus  in  iS8i  numbered  674,463,  or  89-9  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  population  ;  and  the  Muhammadans,  76,774,  or  lo'i  per 
cent.,  the  remainder  consisting  of  5152  Jains,  16  Sikhs,  117  Christians, 
and  I  Jew.  Of  the  four  great  classes  into  which  the  Hindus  are  con- 
ventionally divided,  the  Brahmans  number  63,065  persons.  They  own 
a  large  portion  of  the  District  as  zaminddrs,  and  most  of  them  belong 
to  the  ancient  Kanaujiya  sub-division.  The  Rajputs  are  exceptionally 
numerous  in  Etah,  being  returned  at  67,371.  They  are  by  far  the 
most  important  landowning  class  in  the  District,  and  include  many  of 
the  great  territorial  families.  The  Baniyas  or  trading  castes  are  repre- 
sented by  27,632  persons;  they  are  a  wealthy  mercantile  body,  and 
own  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  land.  The  great  mass  of  the 
Hindi  population  here,  as  elsewhere,  belong  to  the  lower  castes  of 
the  Census  returns.  The  Chamars  or  despised  skinners  and  leather- 
dressers  are  their  most  numerous  tribe,  forming  the  landless  labouring 
class  throughout  the  whole  Doilb,  where  they  have  only  just  emerged 
under  British  rule  from  a  state  of  rural  serfdom.  Number  in  1881, 
97,120.  Next  come  the  Ahirs  (77,819),  once  the  dominant  race,  and 
still  the  possessors  of  a  large  number  of  villages.  The  Kayasths,  the 
first  of  the  Siidra  castes  in  social  rank,  are  wealthy  landholders,  and 
numbered  9640  in  1881.  The  two  great  cultivating  castes  are  the 
Lodhis,  72,549;  and  the  Kachhis,  72,258  in  number.  The  other 
Hindu  castes  numbering  upwards  of  10,000  in  1881  were  the  following 
— Gadariyas,  28,860;  Kahars,  22,988;  Barhais,  15,765;  Nais,  14,281; 
Koris,  14,150;  Bhangis,  13,426;  Dhobis^  11,919  ;  Kumbhars,  10,983; 
and  Telis,  10,679.  The  Musalmans  (76,774)  still  retain  much  of  their 
landed  possessions,  and  all,  with  the  exception  of  395,  belong  to  the 
Sunni  sect.  Among  the  Muhammadans  are  included  409  Rajputs  and 
417  Mewatis  by  race.  The  Christian  population  included  36  Europeans, 
51  Eurasians,  i  Armenian,  and  29  native  Qonverts. 

Distribution  of  the  People  into  Town  and  Country.  —  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  adult  male  population  are  dependent  upon  the  soil  for 
their  support,  the  District  being  strictly  agricultural,  and  the  popula- 
tion almost  entirely  rural.  In  i88i  there  were  7  towns  with  a 
population  exceeding  5000  persons,  namely,  Etah,  8054 ;  Kasganj, 
16,535  ;  Jalesar,  15,609  ;  Soron,  12,745;  Marahra,  9271 ;  Aliganj, 
7436;  and  AwAH,  5679.  Total  urban  population,  75,329,  leaving 
681,194  as  representing  the  rural  population.  Of  the  1489  villages 
and  towns,  459  contained  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants ;  606  from 
two  to  five  hundred;  295  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  98  from 


362  ETAH. 

one  to  two  thousand;  13  from  two  to  three  thousand;  11  from 
three  to  five  thousand ;  4  from  five  to  ten  thousand ;  and  3  upwards 
of  ten  thousand  inhabitants.  As  regards  occupation,  the  Census 
Report  divides  the  male  population  into  six  main  classes  as  follows  : — 
Class  (i)  Professional,  including  the  civil,  military,  and  learned  pro- 
fessions, 7531  ;  (2)  domestic  servants,  inn  and  lodging-house  keepers, 
1268;  (3)  commercial,  including  merchants,  traders,  carriers,  etc., 
8226;  (4)  agricultural,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  sheep  and 
cattle  tenders,  etc.,  196,507  ;  (5)  industrial,  including  manufacturers 
and  artisans,  47,365  ;  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive  (comprising 
19,681  general  labourers,  and  133,111  male  children  or  persons  of 
indefinite  occupation),  152,792.  The  ordinary  language  of  the  people 
is  Hindi. 

Agriculture. — The  principal  crops  grown  in  the  District  are  wheat 
and  other  cereals,  millets  and  pulses,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  and 
poppy ;  the  harvests  are  t-he  usual  kharif  and  rabi,  the  former  being 
the  more  important  of  the  two.  Of  a  total  area  of  1,112,829  acres 
in  1881-82,  more  than  one-half,  or  683,537  acres,  were  under  cultiva- 
tion ;  206,773  acres  cultivable  waste;  9259  acres  of  grazing  land;  and 
213,260  acres  barren  and  uncultivable  waste.  The  area  occupied  by 
the  principal  crops  was  distributed  as  follows  : — Wheat,  129,900  acres  ; 
barley,  60,424  acres;  indigo,  20,002  acres;  cotton,  42,958  acres;  sugar- 
cane, 15,158  acres  ; /Wr,  103,838  acres;  bdjra^  131,588  acres;  Indian 
corn,  33,720  acres;  and  rice,  14,093  acres.  The  average  out-turn  of 
an  acre  of  wheat  is  13  tnaunds,  or  a  little  over  9  cwts.,  valued  at  £2>' 
The  employment  of  manure  is  almost  universal,  though  a  single 
application  is  expected  to  suffice  for  two  successive  harvests.  As 
a  rule,  only  one  crop  a  year  is  raised  on  each  plot,  but  cotton  is  often 
succeeded  by  tobacco  or  v^etables,  and  indigo  by  wheat  or  barley. 
Rotation  of  crops  is  rapidly  supplanting  the  old  wasteful  habit  of 
leaving  the  lands  to  lie  fallow  after  exhausting  products  have  been 
grown.  Irrigation  is  extensively  practised  from  wells  and  canals, 
though  it  has  not  kept  pace  with  other  agricultural  improvements. 
The  total  area  irrigated  in  1881  was  263,197  acres,  of  which  183,293 
acres  were  irrigated  by  private  enterprise  from  wells,  tanks,  etc.,  and 
79,944  acres  from  Government  works.  The  recent  completion  of 
the  Lower  Ganges  Canal,  however,  will  doubtless  effect  an  immense 
extension  in  the  Government  irrigated  area.  The  area  under  sugar- 
cane has  decreased  in  recent  years,  except  where  an  abundant 
water-supply  can  be  obtained  from  the  canals  which  intersect  the 
south-western  corner  of  the  District ;  but  all  the  other  export  staples 
have  been  grown  in  larger  quantities,  while  no  corresponding  diminu- 
tion has  taken  place  in  the  area  devoted  to  food-stuffs.  The  cultivators 
are  in   comfortable  circumstances,  less  wealthy  than  their  neighbours 


ETAH.  363 

in  the  Meerut  Division,  but  removed  far  above  the  squalid  poverty  of 
Bundelkhand.  Temples  and  mosques  are  rare  in  Etah,  a  mound  of 
earth  being  often  the  only  place  of  worship  in  a  village  ;  while  in  Ali- 
garh,  beyond  the  northern  boundary,  handsome  buildings  for  religious 
purposes  are  to  be  seen  on  every  side.  Cultivators  with  rights  of 
occupancy  hold  64  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area,  and  tenants-at-will 
21  per  cent.,  while  the  remaining  15  per  cent,  is  occupied  by  small 
proprietors  who  farm  their  own  land.  Rents  are  unusually  low,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  jealous  care  with  which  Government  has  guarded  the 
rights  of  hereditary  tenants,  and  resisted  all  attempts  at  illegal  en- 
hancement. The  average  rates  vary  from  2s.  gd.  to  7s.  id.  per  acre, 
according  to  crop.  The  male  adult  agriculturists  in  1881  numbered 
194,399,  cultivating  an  average  of  3*54  acres  each.  The  total  popula- 
tion, however,  dependent  on  the  soil  is  returned  at  511,519,  or  6  7 '6 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  District  population.  Of  the  total  area  of  the 
District,  24*5  square  miles  are  held  revenue-free,  leaving  1714  square 
miles  assessed  for  Government  revenue.  Total  land  revenue  in  1881, 
including  cesses  and  local  rates  levied  on  the  land,  ;^  140,5 95,  or  an 
average  of  4s.  i|d.  per  cultivated  acre.  Total  rental  paid  by 
cultivators,  ;;£"24i,965,  or  an  average  of  7s.  per  cultivated  acre. 
Wages  ordinarily  rule  as  follows : — Carpenters,  masons,  and  black- 
smiths, 6d.  per  diem ;  tailors,  4jd.  per  diem  ;  coolies,  water-carriers, 
etc.,  3d.  per  diem.  Agricultural  labourers  are  generally  paid  in  kind  ; 
when  paid  in  cash,  men  get  3d.,  women  ijd.,  and  children  3|d.  per 
diem.  Prices  have  risen  steadily  during  the  last  thirty  years.  The 
average  of  ten  years,  ending  in  1870,  shows  the  following  rates  at  Kas- 
ganj  : — Wheat  or  gram,  22  sers  per  rupee,  or  5s.  id.  per  cwt. ;  barley 
or  jodr^  28  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  per  cwt.  ;  bdjra^  27  sers  per  rupee,  or 
4s.  ifd.  per  cwt.  Prices  at  Etah  town  ruled  about  i  ser  per  rupee 
dearer  than  these  quotations.  The  average  rates  in  1883  were  as 
follow: — Wheat,  19 J  sers  per  rupee,  or  5s.  9d.  per  cwt.;  barley,  24J: 
sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  7d.  per  cwt. ;  common  rice,  14I  sers  per  rupee,  or 
7s.  9d.  per  cwt. ;  jodr^  22^  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  i  id.  per  cwt. ;  bdjra^ 
2  2^  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  iid.  per  cwt.;  gram,  23 J  sei's  per  rupee,  or 
4s.  9d.  per  cwt.  Jodr  and  bdjra  form  the  ordinary  food-grains  of  the 
population. 

Natural  Cala??iities. — Etah  suffers  from  the  ravages  of  locusts,  white 
ants,  and  other  destructive  insects  ;  and  the  cereal  crops  are  liable  to 
several  kinds  of  Wight.  Floods  also  occasionally  occur  in  the  low- 
lying  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  overwhelm  the  fertile  soil  with  ridges 
of  barren  shingle.  But  the  great  enemy  of  Etah,  as  of  all  the  Doab,  is 
drought,  which  has  frequently  produced  severe  famines.  The  last  was 
that  of  1860-61,  known  among  the  peasantry  by  the  graphic  title  of 
the  '  Seven-5^;'  famine,'  in  which  rice  sold  at  the  rate  of  7  sers  per 


364  ETAH, 

rupee,  or  7  lbs.  for  a  shilling.  The  people  were  forced  to  live  upon 
wild  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  even  to  extract  food  from  grass  seeds. 
The  drought  of  1868-69,  however,  was  felt  in  Etah  much  less  severely 
than  in  neighbouring  Districts.  Though  both  harvests  were  partial 
failures,  the  scarcity  which  ensued  did  not  rise  to  the  intensity  of 
famine,  and  the  highest  quotation  for  wheat  was  only  13  sers  per  rupee, 
or  8s.  7jd.  per  cwt.  Famine  rates  are  reached  in  this  District  when 
wheat  sells  at  less  than  12  sers  per  rupee,  or  more  than  9s.  4d.  per 
cwt.  But  it  is  hoped  that  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal,  recently  com- 
pleted, will  secure  the  District  in  future  from  the  extremity  of  famine. 

Commerce,  Trade,  etc.  —  Etah  has  a  considerable  export  trade  in 
agricultural  produce.  In  an  average  season  the  surplus  for  exporta- 
tion is  estimated  to  amount  to  the  following  quantities  : — Rice,  100,000 
uiaunds,  or  73,469  cwts. ;  cleaned  cotton,  46,909  maiinds,  or  34,463 
cwts.  ;  uncleaned  cotton,  140,727  maunds,  or  103,391  cwts. ;  wheat  and 
barley,  1,831,725  mau?ids,  or  1,345,757  cwts.,  besides  a  large  quantity 
of  pulses  and  millets.  The  only  important  manufacture  is  that  of 
indigo,  which  is  carried  on  in  about  200  factories,  some  of  them  under 
European  management.  Sugar  is  refined  to  a  large  extent  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  District ;  and  the  pargands  lying  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ganges  and  the  Biirh  Ganga  prepare  salt  from  the  saline  earth 
which  is  common  everywhere.  Ropes  and  coarse  sacking  are  also 
made  from  the  hemp  of  the  country,  and  exported  as  far  as 
Calcutta.  Before  the  Mutiny,  firearms  of  finished  workmanship  and- 
elaborately  inlaid  with  silver  were  manufactured  in  the  District ;  but 
since  the  Disarming  Act  this  trade  has  greatly  declined.  A  religious  fair 
is  held  once  a  year  at  Soron,  when  the  Hindus  bathe  in  the  purifying 
waters  of  the  Biirh  Ganga,  and  lay  in  their  annual  stock  of  clothing  and 
household  utensils.  Another  fair  is  held  at  Kakora  in  Budaun  District, 
just  opposite  the  village  of  Kadirganj  in  Etah;  and  although  the  traders 
congregate  chiefly  on  the  Budaun  bank,  many  pilgrims,  whose  object 
is  purely  religious,  bathe  and  remain  at  Kadirganj.  No  railway  passes 
through  the  District,  but  a  good  metalled  road  connects  the  head- 
quarters at  Etah  with  the  Shikohabad  station  on  the  East  Indian 
line,  35  miles  distant.  There  are  altogether  541  miles  of  first,  second, 
and  third-class  roads  in  the  District.  The  last  class  are  being  raised 
and  bridged  in  portions  from  year  to  year.  The  Ganges  is  navigable 
throughout  the  District,  and  the  exports  of  Kasganj  and  Dundwaraganj 
are  shipped  at  the  ghats  of  the  same  name.  Some  small  traffic  also 
passes  by  the  Cawnpur  branch  of  the  Canal.  In  1881  there  were  two 
printing-presses  in  the  District,  owned  by  natives  at  Etah,  provided  both 
with  Nagari  and  Persian  type. 

Ad77iinistration. — In  1860-61,  the  total  revenue  of  the  District  from 
all  sources  amounted  to  ;£88,867,  of  which  ;£73,743  was  derived  from 


ETAH.  36s 

the  land-tax  ;  while  the  total  expenditure  amounted  to  ;^23,68o,  or 
hardly  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  revenue.  In  1870-71,  the  total 
receipts  had  increased  to  ^119,399,  while  the  land-tax  had  remained 
almost  stationary  at  ;^78,852.  The  increase  was  mainly  due  to  canal 
collections,  and  to  a  large  rise  in  the  proceeds  of  local  cesses,  the  income- 
tax,  and  the  items  of  stamps  and  octroi.  At  the  same  time,  the 
expenditure  had  risen  to  ;£^37,272,  or  nearly  one-third  of  the  revenue. 
This  increase  was  due  to  the  need  for  more  active  administration,  and 
was  chiefly  set  down  to  such  items  as  salaries  of  officials,  education, 
post-office,  canals,  medical  staff,  and  local  cesses.  In  1882-83,  after 
the  transfer  of  Jalesar  tahsil  from  Agra  District  to  Etah  in  1879,  the 
gross  District  revenue  amounted  to  ;£^i35,788,  of  which  ^119,521  was 
derived  from  the  land.  In  the  same  year,  the  District  was  administered 
by  2  covenanted  civilians,  and  contained  1 1  magisterial,  2  civil,  and  9 
revenue  courts.  The  police  consisted  in  1883  of  350  regular  and  262 
municipal  and  town  police,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  ;£592  3,  of  which 
^4467  was  paid  from  provincial  funds,  and  ^1456  from  local  sources. 
This  force  was  supplemented  by  1469  village  watchmen  {cJuiukiddrs) 
and  66  road  patrols,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  ;^5565.  The  whole 
machinery,  therefore,  for  the  protection  of  person  and  property  consisted 
of  2043  officers  and  men,  or  i  policeman  to  every  o*8i  square  mile  and 
every  370  inhabitants  ;  and  the  total  cost  of  their  maintenance  was 
;£i  1,488,  or  about  3jd.  per  head  of  the  population.  The  District 
has  but  one  jail,  the  average  daily  number  of  prisoners  in  which  was 
117  in  i860,  210  in  1870,  and  257  in  1882.  Education  is  making  a 
slow  but  steady  advance  in  Etah ;  it  is  gaining  in  popular  estimation, 
and  some  of  the  village  schools  are  said  to  be  models  of  excellence.  In 
1870-71,  the  District  contained  166  Government-inspected  schools, 
with  a  total  of  3953  pupils.  By  March  1883,  although  the  number  of 
such  inspected  schools  had  fallen  to  149,  the  number  of  pupils  had 
increased  to  4586.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private  schools  unin- 
spected by  the  educational  officers;  and  the  Census  Report  of  i88e 
returns  5499  boys  and  iii  girls  as  under  instruction,  besides  15,731 
males  and  230  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  in- 
struction. The  District  is  divided  into  4  tahsils  and  13  pargandsy  with 
an  aggregate,  in  1882,  of  1856  estates.  It  contains  6  municipalities — 
Kasganj,  Jalesar,  Etah,  Soron,  Marehra,  and  Aliganj.  In  1882-83 
their  joint  income  amounted  to  ;!^5073,  of  which  ^£^43 17  was  derived 
from  octroi;  expenditure,  ;£^262,. 

Sanitary  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Etah  is  dry  and  healthy,  but  sand 
and  dust  storms  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  in  the  hot  season. 
During  the  cooler  months  the  air  is  cold  and  bracing,  and  fires  are 
often  found  necessary,  especially  in  the  winter  rains.  The  total  rainfall 
was  44*7  inches  in  1867-68,  i2"9  inches  in  1868-69  (a  year  of  scarcity), 


366  ETAH  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN. 

27-3  inches  in  1869-70,  34*1  inches  in  1870-71,  36*1  inches  in  1880-81. 
and  34*6  inches  in  1881-82.  The  principal  diseases  are  fevers  and 
small-pox,  but  cholera  sometimes  visits  Etah  with  severity.  The 
reported  death-rate  was  22  per  1000  in  1872,  24-2  per  1000 
in  1873,  22-1  per  1000  in  1874,  and  29*5  per  1000  in  1882.  In  the 
latter  year,  the  total  number  of  deaths  recorded  was  21,554,  of  which 
as  many  as  19,204  were  due  to  fever  alone.  There  are  7  charitable 
dispensaries  in  the  District,  of  which  2  are  supported  by  endowments, 
which  afforded  assistance  in  1883  to  35,902  out-door  and  887  in-door 
patients.  [For  further  information  regarding  Etah,  see  the  Gazetteer 
of  the  North-  Western  Provinces^  vol.  iv.,  compiled  by  E.  T.  Atkinson, 
Esq.,  C.S.  (Allahabad,  1876).  Also  Report  on  the  Settlement  of  Etah 
District  from  1863  to  1873,  by  S.  O.  B.  Ridsdale,  Esq.,  dated  February 
1873  ;  the  Census  Report  of  the  North- Western  Provinces  and  Oiidh  for 
1881 ;  and  \kit  Administration  and  Departmental  Reports  of  the  North- 
western Provinces  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Etah.— South-western  tahsil  of  Etah  District,  North-Western  Pro- 
vinces, lying  to  the  west  of  the  Kali  Nadi,  and  watered  by  three 
branches  of  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal.  Area,  491  square  miles,  of 
which  276  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881)  226,892,  namely, 
Hindus,  207,624;  Muhammadans,  17,021;  Jains,  2191  ;  and  'others,' 
56.  Number  of  towns  and  villages,  470.  Land  revenue,  £%S^^^2> ; 
total  Government  revenue, ;^ 40, 256;  rental  paid  by  cultivators, ;65 7 j 23 1 ; 
incidence  of  Government  revenue  per  acre,  2s.  of  d. 

jjtah. — Town,  municipality,  and  administrative  head-quarters  of 
Etah  District,  North-Western  Provinces.  Situated  in  lat.  27°  33'  50"  n., 
and  long  78°  42'  25"  e.,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  9  miles  west  of  the 
Kali  Nadi.  Population  (1881)  8054,  namely,  Hindus,  521 1  ;  Muham- 
madans, 2311  ;  Jains,  492  ;  Christians,  31  ;  'others,'  9  ;  area  of  town 
site,  230  acres.  Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ;^io47,  of  which  £ti1 
was  derived  from  octroi,  and  the  balance  from  miscellaneous  fees  and 
fines  ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  9jd.  per  head.  Etah  is  rather 
an  overgrown  village  than  a  town,  deriving  its  whole  importance  from 
the  presence  of  the  civil  station,  removed  hither  from  PatiaU  in  1856, 
on  account  of  the  superior  accessibility  of  the  site.  The  principal 
market-place,  Mayneganj,  perpetuates  the  name  of  Mr.  F.  O.  Mayne, 
C.B.,  a  former  Collector  of  the  District.  Westward  lies  the  new  town  of 
Etah,  containing  the  tahsili  school,  while  to  the  east  Raja  Dilsugh  Rai's 
temple  towers  over  the  other  buildings  to  an  extraordinary  height. 
Large  tank  with  handsome  flight  of  steps,  municipal  hall,  court-house, 
tahsili  office,  dispensary.  The  site  is  low,  and  was  formerly  subject  to 
floods ;  but  a  cutting  to  the  Isan  Nadi,  efl'ected  by  Mr.  Mayne,  has 
remedied  this  evil.  In  the  town  itself  mud  houses  predominate,  but 
most  of  the  streets  are   metalled  and  drained.       The   residences  of 


ETAIYAPURAM—ETA  WAN.  367 

the  officials  are  iQ\v  and  scattered.  Founded  about  500  years 
since  by  Sangram  Singh,  a  Chauhan  Thakur,  whose  mud  fort  still 
exists  to  the  north  of  the  town.  His  descendants  occupied  the 
surrounding  territory,  with  the  title  of  Raja,  till  the  Mutiny,  when  Raja 
II  Damar  Singh  rebelled,  and  lost  his  property,  together  with  the  family 
honours.  {See  Etah  District.)  Chief  trade — the  scarlet  dl  dye, 
indigo-seed,  cotton,  and  sugar.  Market  twice  a  week,  on  Monday  and 
Friday. 

Etaiyapuram. — Town  in  Tinnevelli  District,  Madras  Presidency. 
Population  (1881)  5167,  namely,  Hindus,  4831;  Muhammadans,  320; 
and  Christians,  16. 

Etawah. — British  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces,  lying  between  26°  21'  8"  and  27°  o'  25"  n.  lat., 
and  between  78°  47'  20"  and  79°  47'  20"  e.  long.  Etawah  is  a  District 
of  the  Agra  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mainpuri  and 
Farukhabad  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Jumna  (Jamuna)  river  and  Agra 
District,  the  Chambal,  the  Kuari  Nadi,  and  the  Native  State  of  Gwalior; 
on  the  south  by  the  Jumna ;  and  on  the  east  by  Cawnpur.  Area 
(1881)  1693  square  miles;  population,  722,371  persons.  The  admini- 
strative head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Etawah,  which  is  the  only 
place  of  importance  in  the  District. 

Physical  Aspects.  —  The  District  of  Etawah  is  a  purely  artificial 
division  for  administrative  purposes,  stretching  from  the  level  plain  of 
the  Doab,  across  the  valley  of  the  Jumna  (Jamuna),  to  the  gorges  and 
ravines  of  the  Chambal,  which  form  the  last  outliers  of  the  Vindhyan 
range.  It  exhibits  an  unusual  variety  of  scenery.  The  north-eastern 
portion  of  the  District,  known  as  the  pachdr,  which  is  separated 
from  the  remainder  by  the  deep  and  fissured  bed  of  the  river  Sengar, 
belongs  in  its  physical  features  to  the  great  upland  plateau  of  the 
Doab.  This  tract  consists  of  a  fertile  loam,  occasionally  interrupted 
by  barren  tisar  plains,  and  interspersed  with  saucer-like  depressions 
of  clay,  whose  centre  is  occupied  by  marshes  or  shallow  lakes.  It 
is  well  watered,  both  by  the  streams  which  take  their  rise  from  these 
,,  swampy  hollows,  and  by  the  great  artificial  canals  which  intersect  and 
^  fertilize  the  Upper  and  Central  Doab.  The  Cawnpur  branch  canal, 
though  it  does  not  enter  the  District,  runs  close  to  its  borders,  and  sends 
off  distributaries  which  supply  the  extreme  eastern  angle ;  the  Etawah 
branch  traverses  the  centre  of  the  plateau  ;  while  the  Bhognipur  division 
of  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal,  recently  completed,  passes  between  the  two 
older  works,  and  irrigates  the  intervening  country.  The  whole  pachdr 
is  rich  and  fertile,  and  it  is  clothed  in  the  season  with  a  green  expanse 
of  wheat  and  sugar-cane. 

On    the    opposite    bank    of  the   Sengar   lies    another    stretch    of 
uplands,  reaching    almost    to   the    bed    of   the    Jumna.     This  tract, 


368  ETAWAH. 

locally  known  as  the  garh^  is  not  unlike  the  pachdr  in  its  physical 
characteristics  ;  but  as  water  can  only  be  obtained  at  a  great  depth 
in  wells,  cotton  and  inferior  food  -  grains  here  replace  the  more 
valuable  crops  for  which  abundant  irrigation  is  necessary.  The 
Bhognipur  canal,  however,  now  passes  through  the  very  heart  of  this 
region,  whose  natural  fertility  was  always  considerable.  The  uplands 
descend  into  the  Jumna  valley  through  a  wild  terraced  slope,  broken 
by  ravines,  and  covered  with  thorny  brushwood.  Upon  its  sides  the 
villages  are  scanty,  and  lie  concealed  in  the  remotest  nooks,  while 
cultivation  is  difficult  and  unprofitable.  Below,  the  river  bank  is 
sometimes  fringed  by  a  strip  of  rich  alluvial  deposit ;  but  in  other 
places  the  Jumna  sweeps  close  round  the  bold  bluffs  which  terminate 
the  upland  terraces.  Its  bank  should  form  the  natural  boundary 
of  the  District,  but  a  narrow  strip  of  British  territory  lies  along  its 
opposite  side,  cut  off  from  the  Native  State  of  Gwalior  by  the  rapid 
torrents  of  the  Chambal  and  the  Kuari  Nadi.  This  outlying  region  has 
been  attached  to  Etawah  for  administrative  purposes.  A  little  alluvial 
soil  is  found  here  and  there  on  small  plots  of  table-land  in  the  trans- 
Jumna  tract ;  but  the  greater  part  consists  of  a  perfect  labyrinth  of 
gorges,  amongst  whose  recesses  may  be  found  some  of  the  wildest  and 
most  romantic  scenery  in  Upper  India.  From  the  fortress-crowned 
cliff  of  Bhareh  the  eye  wanders  over  a  tangled  mass  of  rock  and  valley, 
threaded  by  eddying  rivers,  overgrown  with  leafy  jungle  of  acacia  or 
oleander,  and  studded  on  every  prominent  bluff  with  the  ruined  strong- 
hold of  some  ancient  robber  chief.  The  rugged  and  picturesque  nature 
of  this  intricate  range,  known  as  the  Panchnada,  or  Country  of  Five 
Rivers,  contrasts  strangely  with  the  cultivated  and  monotonous  level  of 
the  Doab  to  the  east. 

Etawah  is  well  watered,  both  naturally  and  artificially.  The  rivers  of 
the  District,  proceeding  from  east  to  west,  are  the  following: — (i)  The 
Pandu  rises  in  the  extreme  north-east  corner  of  the  District,  in  a  great 
clay  depression  forming  a  large ///f/  or  marsh,  and  flows  south-eastwards 
into  Cawnpur  District,  ultimately  joining  the  Ganges.  This  channel 
attains  to  no  size  in  Etawah,  and  is  dry  except  in  the  rainy  season. 
(2)  The  Rind  or  Arind  rises  in  Aligarh,  touches  on  Etawah  near  the 
village  of  Bhau  Khera,  runs  eastwards  along  the  northern  boundary  as 
far  as  the  large  village  of  Sabhad,  when  it  turns  to  the  south  until  it 
receives  the  united  waters  of  two  small  tributaries,  the  Puraha  and 
Ahneya,  after  which  it  flows  south-east  into  Cawnpur  District.  The 
Rind  is  a  perennial  stream,  but  very  shallow  in  the  dry  season.  Its 
banks  are  mostly  formed  of  alluvial  soil.  The  tributary  streams  entirely 
dry  up  in  the  hot  and  cold  seasons,  being  mere  drainage  channels 
for  carrying  off  superfluous  rain-water.  (3)  The  Sengar  Nadi,  said  to 
derive  its  name  from  the  Sengar  clan  of  Thakurs  who  live  along  its 


ETA  WAH.  369 

banks,  enters  the  District  from  the  north-west,  and  flows  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  till  it  enters  Cawnpur  District.    In  the  upper  part  of  its  course 
the  stream  is  not  of  much   importance,  and  the  banks  are  generally 
cultivable ;  but  about  four  miles  above  Etawah  town  it  is  joined  by  a 
smaller  stream,  the  Sarsa,  which  has  previously  flowed  almost  parallel 
to  it.     Thenceforward  the  Sengar  runs  in  a  deep  bed,  and  the  drainage 
from    the   surrounding   country  furrows    its  banks   into  deep  ravines, 
altogether  unfit  for  cultivation.     They  are,  however,  in  places  useful  for 
pasturage,  and  produce  bdbid  and  rhmj  trees,  which  are  utilized  for 
timber.     (4)  The  Jumna  first  touches  on  the  north-western  extremity  of 
the  District,  and,  flowing  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  either  bounds  or 
traverses    it   for    115    miles.       During   the  rainy  season  this   river 'is 
navigable  by  boats  of  heavy  burthen,  though  the  windings  of  its  channel 
render   it    by  no  means   a  direct   line  for  traflic,  and  reefs  of  lime- 
stone and  sand  conglomerate  jut  out  into  the  stream,  and  frequently 
render  navigation  both  difficult  and  dangerous.     The  traffic  is  small, 
and  hardly  averages  more  than  two  boats  up  and  down  every  day.    The 
bank  on  one  side  is  usually  steep  and  precipitous,  and  on  the  other  low 
and  open  to  the  overflow  of  the  river  in  the  rains.     The  river  conse- 
quently spreads  out  widely  in  time  of  flood,  and  its  surface  velocity 
being  small,  it  covers  a  large  area  in  the  rains  with  a  rich  alluvial 
deposit.     Numerous  ferries  are  maintained  across  the  Jumna  on  the 
principal  lines  of  traffic.     (5)  The  Chambal  runs  in  a  direction  almost 
parallel  with  the  Jumna.     It  forms  the  south-western  frontier  of  Etawah 
for  about   25   miles,  after  which  it  continues  its  course  through  the 
District,  and  eventually  joins  the  Jumna  at  Bhareh..     In  appearance 
and  character,  the  Chambal  in  this  part  of  its  course  closely  resembles 
the  Jumna,  and  has  a  channel  of  equal  dimensions.     It  is  exceedingly 
liable  to  sudden  and  heavy  floods,  when  from  the  superior  velocity  of 
its  current  it  discharges  a  greater  volume  of  water  than  the  Jumna. 
During  heavy  flood,  communication  is  almost  entirely  cut  off"  between 
the  two  banks.     It  is  crossed  by  four  principal  ferries.     The  waters  of 
the  Chambal  are  as  clear  as  crystal;  and  for  some  distance  after  its 
junction  with  the  Jumna,  its  stream  may  be  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  latter,  which  always  carries  either  sand  or  mud  in  suspension. 
(6)   The  only  other  river   of  importance  is   the   Kuari,  which   also 
marks  a  portion  of  the   south-western  boundary  of  the  District,   or 
traverses   it   for  a  distance   of  about   20  miles,   when  it   unites  with 
the   Jumna   and    Chambal   just   below  their   junction.     It   is   of  the 
same  class  and  character  as  those  rivers,  and  subject  to  great  and 
sudden  floods  in  the  rains,  though  very  often  dry  in  the  hot  season. 
The  characteristic  of  the  tract  lying  around  the  confluence  of  these 
rivers  is  the  tangled  mass  of  ravines  which  lie  on  either  side  of  their 
channels.      The  whole  of  it  is  so  deeply  furrowed,  that  only  a  little 

VOL.  IV.  2  A 


370  ETAWAB. 

more  than  a  quarter  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation.  The  canals  by 
which  the  District  is  watered  artificially  have  been  alluded  to  in  the 
previous  paragraph. 

Etawah  in  general  is  well  wooded,  except  in  the  usar  tracts.  There 
are  no  jungles  of  any  size,  but  the  remains  of  a  broad  wooded  belt, 
now  containing  little  but  d/idk  trees  (Butea  frondosa),  runs  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  through  the  pacJidr  tract.  This  jungle  was  once 
of  considerable  size,  but  all  the  cultivable  parts  of  it  are  now  being 
brought  under  the  plough.  The  usar  plains  in  the  Doab  and  the 
ravines  along  the  courses  of  the  larger  rivers  occupy  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  area  of  the  District,  and  detract  much  from  its  general 
productiveness.  The  village  communities  who  inhabit  these  tracts 
have  done  all  that  industry  could  do  to  utilize  the  existing  patches 
of  good  land.  Where  the  ravines  are  wide  enough,  they  have  been 
dammed  across  so  as  to  stop  the  rush  of  water  and  preserve  the  good 
soil.  The  sides,  too,  have  been  carefully  terraced.  The  portions 
which  could  not  be  so  worked  are  of  value  for  pasturage,  or  as  pro- 
ducing firewood;  and  the  people  derive  a  liveUhood  from  grazing 
cattle,  and  by  the  sale  oi  ghi.  Th€  other  uncultivated  land  is,  as  a  rule, 
bad  land,  impregnated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  the  saline 
efflorescence  reh.  There  are  no  mines  or  stone  quarries  in  the  District, 
but  kankar  or  calcareous  Umestone  is  procurable  in  quantities  from  the 
ravines,  which  is  either  ground  into  lime,  or  used  in  its  raw  state  as 
road-metalling.  The  principal  wild  beasts  found  in  the  District  are  the 
following : — Leopard,  wolf,  jackal,  nilgai,  antelope,  wild  hog,  porcupine, 
badger,  etc.  Game  birds  are  plentiful ;  and  the  rivers  and  tanks  abound 
with  fish,  crocodiles,  porpoises,  and  turtles,  which  sometimes  grow  to  an 
enormous  size.  Venomous  snakes,  particularly  the  cobra  and  karait, 
are  common. 

History. — The  physical  features  of  Etawah,  which  rendered  it  practi- 
cally inaccessible  to  invaders  in  early  times,  marked  it  out  for  many 
ages  as  a  secure  retreat  for  the  lawless  and  turbulent.  Numerous 
mounds  still  show  the  ancient  sites  of  prehistoric  forts  throughout  the 
District,  which  long  formed  a  main  stronghold  of  the  Meos,  the 
Ishmaelites  of  the  Upper  Doab.  In  their  hands  it  doubtless  remained 
until  after  the  earliest  Muhammadan  invasions,  as  none  of  the  tribes 
now  inhabiting  its  borders  has  any  traditions  which  stretch  back  beyond 
the  1 2  th  century  of  our  era.  Etawah  was  probably  traversed  both  by 
Mahmiid  of  Ghazni  and  by  Kutab-ud-din,  on  their  successful  expedi- 
tions against  the  native  dynasties  ;  but  the  memorials  of  these  events 
are  indistinct  and  uncertain  on  all  local  details.  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  the  Hindus  of  Etawah  succeeded  on  the  whole  in  maintaining 
their  independence  against  the  Musalman  aggressors  ;  for  while  the 
neighbouring  Districts  have  a  number  of  wealthy  and  influential  Muham- 


ETAWAH.  371 

madan  colonies,  only  a  thin  sprinkling  of  Shaikhs  or  Sayyids  can  be  found 
amongst  the  territorial  families  of  Etawah.  The  Rajputs  seem  to 
have  occupied  the  District  in  the  course  of  their  great  eastward  migra- 
tion during  the  12th  century,  and  they  were  shortly  followed  by  the 
Kanaujiya  Brahmans,  whose  descendants  still  form  the  most  important 
element  of  the  landowning  community.  Musalman  histories  teem 
with  notices  of  raids  conducted  with  varying  success  by  the  Sayyid 
generals  against  the  '  accursed  infidels '  of  Etawah.  The  Hindu 
chiefs  were  generally  able  to  defend  their  country  from  the  invaders, 
though  they  made  peace  after  each  raid  by  the  payment  of  a  precarious 
tribute.  Early  in  the  i6th  century,  Babar  conquered  the  District, 
together  with  the  rest  of  the  Doab ;  and  it  remained  in  the  power  of 
the  Mughals  until  the  expulsion  of  Humayun.  His  Afghan  rival, 
Sher  Shah,  saw  that  no  order  could  be  established  without  a  thorough 
system  of  internal  communications ;  and  he  opened  up  the  country 
with  roads  and  watch-houses,  besides  stationing  12,000  horsemen  in 
Hathkaut,  who  dealt  out  such  rude  but  prompt  measures  of  justice  as 
suited  the  circumstances  of  the  place  and  the  people.  His  reforms 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  imperial  organization  of  the  Mughal  dynasty. 
Akbar  included  Etawah  in.  his  sarkdrs  of  Agra,  Kanauj,  Kalpi,  and 
Irich.  But  even  that  great  administrator  failed  thoroughly  to  incor- 
porate Etawah  with  the  dominions  of  the  Delhi  court.  Neither  as 
proselytizers  nor  as  settlers  have  the  Musalmans  impressed  their  mark 
so  deeply  here  as  in  other  Districts  of  the  Doab.  During  the  decline 
of  the  Mughal  power,  Etawah  fell  at  first  into  the  grasping  hands  of 
the  Marathas.  The  battle  of  Panipat  dispossessed  them  for  a  while, 
and  the  District  became  an  appanage  of  the  Jdt  garrison  at  Agra.  In 
1770,  the  Marathas  returned,  and  for  three  years  they  occupied  the 
Doab  afresh.  But  when,  in  1773,  Najaf  Khan  drove  the  intruders 
southward,  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh  crossed  the  Ganges,  and  laid 
claim  to  his  share  of  the  spoil.  During  the  anarchic  struggle  which 
closed  the  century,  Etawah  fell  sometimes  into  the  hands  of  the 
Marathas,  and  sometimes  into  those  of  the  Wazi'r ;  but  at  last  the 
power  of  Oudh  became  firmly  established,  and  v.-as  not  questioned 
until  the  cession  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1801.  Even  after 
the  British  took  possession,  many  of  the  District  chiefs  maintained  a 
position  of  independence,  or  at  least  of  insubordination ;  and  it  was 
some  time  before  the  revenue  officers  ventured  to  approach  them  with 
a  demand  for  the  Government  dues.  Gradually,  however,  the  tur- 
bulent landowners  were  reduced  to  obedience,  and  industrial  organiza- 
tion took  the  place  of  the  old  predatory  regime.  The  murderous 
practice  of  thaggi  {thuggee)  had  been  common  before  the  cession,  but 
was  firmly  repressed  by  the  new  power.  In  spite  of  a  devastating 
famine  in  1837,  which  revolutionized  the  proprietary  system  by  dis-" 


372  ETAWAH. 

membering  the  great  idhiks  or  fiscal  farms,  the  District  steadily 
improved  for  many  years,  under  the  influence  of  settled  government. 
The  opening  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  with  its  constantly  increasing 
branches,  diffused  fertility  through  a  wide  portion  of  the  area ;  and 
every  class  of  the  community  was  advancing  in  material  prosperity, 
while  the  opening  of  schools  gave  an  earnest  of  future  advancement. 
The  Mutiny  of  1857  interrupted  for  some  months  this  progress.  News 
of  the  outbreak  at  Meerut  (Merath)  reached  Etawah  two  days  after  its 
occurrence.  Within  the  week,  a  small  body  of  mutineers  passed 
through  the  District,  and  fired  upon  the  authorities,  upon  which  they 
were  surrounded  and  cut  down.  Shortly  after,  another  body  occupied 
Jaswantnagar,  and,  although  a  gallant  attack  was  made  upon  them  by 
the  local  officials,  they  succeeded  in  holding  the  town.  On  the  22nd 
of  May,  it  was  thought  desirable  to  withdraw  from  Etawah  station, 
but  the  troops  mutinied  on  their  march,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
the  officers  and  ladies  reached  Barhpura.  There  they  were  joined  by 
the  I  St  Gwalior  Regiment,  which,  however,  itself  proved  insubordinate 
upon  the  17th  of  June.  It  then  became  necessary  to  abandon 
the  District  and  retire  to  Agra.  The  Jhansi  mutineers  immediately 
occupied  Etawah,  and  soon  passed  on  to  Mainpuri.  Meanwhile, 
many  of  the  native  officials  proved  themselves  steady  friends  of  order, 
and  communicated  whenever  it  was  possible  with  the  Magistrate  in 
Agra.  Bands  of  rebels  from  different  quarters  passed  through  between 
July  and  December,  until  on  Christmas-day  Brigadier  Walpole's  column 
r2-entered  the  District.  Etawah  station  was  recovered  on  the  6th 
January  1858;  but  the  rebels  still  held  the  Shergarh  ghat,  on  the  main 
road  to  Bundelkhand,  and  the  whole  south-west  of  the  District  re- 
mained in  their  hands.  During  the  early  months  of  1858,  several 
endeavours  were  made  to  dislodge  them  step  by  step,  but  the  local 
force  was  not  sufficient  to  allow  of  any  extensive  operations.  Indeed, 
it  was  only  by  very  slow  degrees  that  order  was  restored ;  and  as  late 
as  the  7th  of  December  a  body  of  plunderers  from  Oudh,  under  Firoz 
Shah,  entered  the  District,  burning  and  killing  indiscriminately  wherever 
they  went.  They  were  attacked  and  defeated  at  Harchandpur,  and  by 
the  end  of  1858  tranquillity  was  completely  restored.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  this  trying  period,  the  loyalty  exhibited  by  the  people  of 
Etawah  themselves  was  very  noticeable.  Though  mutineers  were 
constantly  marching  through  the  District,  almost  all  the  native  officials 
remained  faithful  to  the  cause  of  order;  and  many  continued  to 
guard  the  treasure,  and  even  to  collect  revenue,  in  the  midst  of 
anarchy  and  rebellion.  The  principal  zatJiinddrs  also  were  loyal  ahnost 
to  a  man. 

Population. — The  Census  of  1865  was  the  first  enumeration  of  the 
people  in  which  the  area  corresponded  with  that  of  the  present  time 


ETAWAH.  373 

sufficiently  for  purposes  of  comparison.     It  revealed  a  total  population 
of  627,378,  or  384  to  the  square  mile.     The  Census  of  1872  showed 
an  increase  to  the  number  of  668,641  persons,  or  395  to  the  square 
mile.     The  Census  of  1881  returned  the  population  at  722,371,  or  an 
increase  of  53,730,  or  8*03  per  cent,  over  the  enumeration  in  1872. 
The  general  results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows  : — Area,  1693  square  miles;  number  of  villages 
and    towns,    1478;    houses,    105,548.       Total    population,     722,371, 
namely,  males  395,224,  and  females  327,147  :  proportion  of  males  in 
total  population,  547  per  cent.     These  figures  show  the  usual  pre- 
ponderance of  males,  which  must  doubtless  be  to  a  great  extent  accounted 
for  by  the  former  prevalence  of  infanticide.     There  is  reason  to  fear 
that  this  practice  still  lingers  amongst  the  people.     Average  density  of 
population,  426*5  persons  per  square  mile;    number  of  villages  per 
square  mile,  0*87;  persons  per  village,  489;  houses  per  square  mile,  62  ; 
inmates  per  house,  6*8.     As  regards  religious  distinctions,  Etavvah  is 
one  of  the  Districts  where  the  faith  of  Islam  has  never  succeeded  in 
obtaining  any  large  body  of  followers.    The  Census  of  1881  returned  the 
number  of  Hindus  at  679,247,  or  94*0  per  cent.,  and  the  Muhammadans 
at  41,437,  or  57  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.      The  remainder 
consists  of  1526  Jains,   2   Sikhs,   158  Christians,  and  i   Parsi.      The 
proportions  which  the  various  castes  and  tribes  bear  to  one  another 
are  the  same  as  those  prevalent  throughout  most  of  the  Doab.     Of 
the  4  great  Hindu  divisions,  the  Brahmans  numbered  96,882  persons 
in  1 88 1,  minutely  sub-divided  into  the  usual  stocks  and  clans.     They 
hold  nearly  one-half  of  the  villages  in  the  richest  portions  of  the  Dis- 
trict, and  are  the  most  important  element  of  the  population,  both  from 
their  social  position   and  their  newly-acquired  landed  estates.      The 
Rajputs  are  returned  at  55,792,  and  hold  about  one-third  of  the  villages. 
They  form  the  old  territorial  aristocracy  of  Etawah,   who  are  being 
gradually  ousted  from  their  possessions  by  Brahman  usurers  and  Baniya 
traders.     The  last-named  class  is  returned  at  31,076  persons.     The 
*  other  Hindu  castes '  of  the  Census  include  the  great  body  of  the 
population,    amounting   in   the   aggregate,  to   495,497  persons.     The 
Chamars  (106,749)  head  the  list;  they  are  almost  without  exception 
agricultural    labourers,   whom  the  benevolent    efforts  of   British    rule 
have  only  now  succeeded  in  raising  from  a  condition  of  abject  serfdom. 
Ahirs  come  next  in  numerical  order,  with   85,655,  and  this  tribe  has 
some  landed  property  of  small  value.      The  Kayasths  number  only 
8671  persons,  but  they  possess  a  considerable  number  of  villages,  and 
are    the    wealthiest   landholding    community,    in   proportion   to   their 
numbers,    in    Etawah.      The  other   leading   tribes   are   the    Kachhis, 
52,607;  Lodhis,  38,060;  Gadarias,   24,875;  Koris,  21,900;  Dhanuks, 
i5?767  ;  Nais,  15,687  ;  Telis,  14,137  ;  Barhais,  11,195  ;  Dhobis,  10,855  ; 


374  ETAWAH. 

Kumbhars,  10,612  ;  and  Lobars,  7306.  Tbe  Musabiians  are  for  tbe 
most  part  Sbaikbs  or  Patbans,  and  are  to  be  found  cbiefly  in  the  larger 
towns  ;  tbey  belong  almost  without  exception  to  the  Sunni  sect.  The 
Christian  population  consists  of  48  Europeans,  41  Eurasians,  and  69 
native  converts. 

Distribution  into  Town  and  Country. — The  population  is  still  essen- 
tially agricultural,  and  there  is  little  movement  towards  urban  life.  In 
1881,  only  3  towns  had  a  population  exceeding  5000 — namely,  Etawah 
(34,721),  Phaphund  (7796),  and  Auraiya  (7299).  Of  the  1478 
villages  comprising  the  District  in  i88ij  475  contained  less  than  two 
hundred  inhabitants,  577  from  two  to  five  hundred,  287  from  five 
hundred  to  a  thousand,  no  from  one  to  two  thousand,  18  from  two 
to  three  thousand,  8  from  three  to  five  thousand,  2  from  five  to 
ten  thousand,  and  i  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  inhabitants. 
As  regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  classifies  the  male  popu- 
lation into  six  main  divisions  as  follows:  —  Class  (i)  Professional, 
including    civil    and    military    and    the    learned    professions,    6271  ; 

(2)  domestic   servants,   and   inn  and    lodging-house   keepers,    1490; 

(3)  commercial,    including   merchants,    traders,    carriers,    etc.,    6788 ; 

(4)  agriculturists,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  sheep  and  cattle 
tenders,  etc.,  188,672  ;  (5)  industrial,  including  manufacturers  and 
artisans,  44,056  ;  and  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive  (comprising 
25,141  general  labourers,  and  122,806  male  children  and  persons  of 
no  specified  occupation),  147,947. 

Agriculture. — A  large  portion  of  the  area  of  Etawah,  especially  in 
the  trans-Jumna  region,  is  covered  with  jungle  or  rendered  barren  by 
usar  plains.  Of  a  total  area  of  1693  square  miles,  exactly  one-half, 
or  848  square  miles,  were  under  cultivation  in  1881,  most  of  which 
has  reached  a  high  degree  of  tillage.  At  the  date  of  the  last  settle- 
ment (1869-72),  the  area  under  each  crop  for  the  two  harvests  was 
found  to  be  as  follows  : — Rabi.,  or  spring  crops — wheat,  54>776  acres; 
bcjar,  or  wheat  mixed  with  gram  or  barley,  137,458  acres;  barley, 
13,373  acres;  gram,  21,830  acres;  together  with  poppy,  vegetables, 
and  other  crops,  making  up  a  grand  total  of  247,245  acres:  kharif, 
or  rain  crops — sugar-cane,  22,484  acres;  cotton,  77,007  acres;  bdjra^ 
78,347  acres  ;7Wr,  102,845  acres;  indigo,  7344  acres;  together  with 
rice,  Indian  corn,  and  other  crops,  making  up  a  total  of  300,371 
acres;  grand  total,  547,616  acres.  In  1882-83,  cultivation  had 
increased  to  the  extent  (including  two-crop  lands)  of  278,910  acres 
for  rabi^  366,791  acres  for  kharif^  and  1031  acres  for  extra  crops;  grand 
total,  646,732  acres.  The  average  out-turn  of  wheat  on  good  soil  is  21 
fnaunds  or  about  15  cwts.  per  acre,  valued  at  ;£"4,  i8s.,  inclusive  of  the 
straw  and  the  crops  grown  amongst  it ;  the  out-turn  of  cotton  is  7  maunds 
or  5  cwts.  per  acre,  valued  at  ^^3.     The  system  of  cultivation  is  the  same 


ETAWAH.  375 

as  that  prevalent  in  the  Doab  generally.  Manure  is  applied  every  second 
year,  and  rotation  of  crops  is  practised  to  a  slight  extent.  Irrigation  is 
widely  employed,  and  its  advantages  are  thoroughly  appreciated.  Over 
37  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area  has  been  already  watered  by  artificial 
means ;  and  the  extensions  of  the  canal  system  recently  completed  will 
doubtless  effect  a  further  improvement  in  this  respect.  As  many  as 
135,801  acres  were  irrigated  from  canals  alone  in  1882-83,  and  the 
amount  supplied  from  wells  and  ponds  brings  up  the  total  to  201,919 
acres.  As  elsewhere,  the  canals  have  been  instrumental,  not  merely  in 
extending  the  area  of  cultivation,  but  also  in  improving  the  character 
of  the  crops,  by  substituting  indigo,  sugar-cane,  opium,  and  superior 
cereals  for  the  commoner  sorts  of  grain.  The  condition  of  the 
peasantry  is  comfortable ;  the  Brahman  and  Rajput  proprietors  are  in 
easy  circumstances.  The  people  are  better  clothed  and  better  fed 
than  formerly,  and  their  standard  of  living  has  been  steadily  rising  of 
late  years.  The  proprietors  till  1 1  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  as  home- 
stead; tenants  with  rights  of  occupancy  hold  57  per  cent.;  tenants-at- 
will  cultivate  only  23  per  cent. ;  and  the  remainder  is  revenue-free. 
Rents  have  risen  of  late  years,  with  the  rise  of  prices  and  increase  of 
population,  but  the  enhancements  have  been  slow  and  slight,  owing  to 
the  strong  local  feeling  in  favour  of  the  customary  rates.  It  is  difficult 
to  give  any  statistics,  as  the  amount  varies  somewhat  capriciously, 
not  only  with  the  nature  of  the  soil,  but  also  with  the  caste  of  the 
cultivator  and  the  mode  of  tenure.  Good  irrigated  land  brings  in  as 
much  as  ^i,  is.  an  acre,  common  dry  lands  may  fetch  as  little  as 
3s.  6d.  an  acre.  The  male  agriculturists  in  1881  numbered  186,490, 
cultivating  an  average  of  3*03  acres  each.  The  total  population, 
however,  dependent  on  the  soil  is  returned  at  484,420,  or  67*06  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  District  population.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  District, 
16 '4  square  miles  are  held  revenue-free,  leaving  1677  square  miles 
assessed  for  Government  demand,  of  which  877  square  miles  are 
cultivated.  Total  land  revenue  in  1881,  including  cesses  and  local 
rates  levied  on  the  land,  ;^i53,664,  or  an  average  of  5s.  5jd.  per 
cultivated  acre.  Total  rental  paid  by  ^cultivators,  including  cesse?, 
^229,678,  or  an  average  of  8s.  o|d.  per  cultivated  acre.  Wages 
have  been  on  the  increase  for  some  years.  Cabinetmakers,  masons, 
and  smiths  receive  7jd.  per  diem;  water-carriers,  4|d.  per  diem; 
labourers,  3d. ;  women  and  boys,  2|d.  per  diem.  Prices  in  the  cis- 
Jumna  tract  have  risen  more  than  50  per  cent,  within  the  last  thirty 
years.  The  average  prices  of  food-grains  for  the  decade  ending  in 
1870  were  as  follows  :— Wheat,  4s.  8d.  per  cwt. ;  gram,  5s.  4d.  per 
cwt.  \  jodr,  3s.  iifd.  per  cwt.  In  1882-83,  the  average  rates  for  food- 
grains  per  cwt.  were — Wheat,  5s.  iid. ;  jodr  zxid.  bdjra,  4s.  6d. ;  gram, 
4s. ;  common  rice,  7s.  9d. ;  and  barley,  4s.  9d.  per  cwt. 


376  ETAWAH, 

Natural  Calamities, — Etawah  has  suffered  much  in  previous  years 
from  drought,  which  produced  famines  in  1803,  1813,  1819,  and  1837. 
In  1860-61  the  District  escaped  with  comparatively  Httle  distress, 
though  even  here  measures  of  relief  were  necessary,  and  the  number  of 
persons  relieved  amounted  in  all  to  54,101.  In  1868-69,  again,  Etawah 
was  not  visited  with  nearly  so  much  severity  as  many  other  portions 
of  the  Dodb.  Though  one-half  of  the  kharif  harvest  was  destroyed, 
rain  fell  in  time  to  bring  the  rabi  to  fully  two-thirds  of  its  average 
amount.  The  highest  price  reached  by  wheat  during  the  period  of 
scarcity  was  about  9  sers  per  rupee,  or  12s.  5d.  per  cwt.  The  famine 
of  1878-79  also  affected  the  District,  destroying  the  greater  part  of  the 
kharif  crops ;  the  little  that  was  raised  was  due  entirely  to  canal 
cultivation.  The  spread  of  irrigation  has  done  much  to  remove  the 
extreme  danger  of  famine ;  and  the  construction  of  the  new  Lower 
Ganges  Canal  will  probably  render  the  District  safe  in  future  years 
from  actual  want  of  food,  so  far  as  human  calculation  can  foresee. 

Commerce  and  Trade,  etc. — The  exports  of  Etawah  consist  almost 
entirely  of  agricultural  produce,  amongst  which  the  chief  items  are 
cotton,  gram,  indigo,  and  oil-seeds.  Some  of  the  cotton  goes  as  far  as 
Bombay,  and  a  little  is  even  sent  beyond  the  bounds  of  India  itself. 
Cloth  goods,  metals,  drugs,  and  spices  form  the  staple  imports.  They 
are  distributed  to  consumers  by  the  medium  of  religious  fairs,  one  of 
which,  at  Doha,  sometimes  attracts  as  many  as  30,000  visitors.  There 
is  also  a  good  deal  of  through  traffic  to  and  from  Gwalior,  grain 
passing  outward  and  ghi  inward.  The  communications  have  improved 
greatly  of  late  years.  The  East  Indian  Railway  runs  through  the  centre 
of  the  District,  with  stations  at  Jaswantnagar,  Etawah,  Bharthna, 
Achalda,  and  Phaphund.  The  Jumna  is  also  largely  used  as  a  water- 
way, and  carries  a  great  part  of  the  heavy  traffic.  The  District  contains 
63  miles  of  'first-class'  roads,  bridged  and  metalled  throughout;  the 
'  second'  and  'third'  class  roads  have  a  total  length  of  596  miles. 

Administration. — In  i860,  the  total  revenue  of  Etawah  amounted  to 
^£"136,582,  of  which  ;j^i  2 1,375,  or  eight-ninths  of  the  whole,  was  due 
to  the  land-tax.  At  the  same  date,  the  total  expenditure  amounted  to 
^^90,103,  or  two-thirds  of  the  revenue.  In  1882-83,- the  total  revenue 
of  the  District  amounted  to  ;3^i48,i9i,  of  which  ^£"133,128  was  con- 
tributed by  the  land  revenue.  In  1882,  the  administrative  staff  con- 
sisted of  2  covenanted  civilians,  with  7  subordinate  officers ;  and  the 
District  contained  14  magisterial  and  13  civil  and  revenue  courts.  The 
police  in  the  same  year  numbered  516  men  of  all  ranks,  namely.  District 
police  392,  and  municipal  and  town  police  124,  maintained  at  a  cost 
of  ^5620,  of  which  ;^4862  was  derived  from  provincial  funds,  and  the 
balance  from  local  funds.  This  force  was  supplemented  by  1388 
village  watchmen  (chaickiddrs)  and  66  road  patrols,  upon  whose  main- 


ETAWAH  TAHSIL.  377 

tenance  a  further  sum  of  ;j£"52  74  was  expended.  The  whole  machinery, 
therefore,  for  the  protection  of  person  and  property,  consisted  of  1970 
men  of  all  ranks,  being  i  man  to  every  o*8i  square  mile  and  every  366 
inhabitants;  and  the  total  expense  of  the  establishment  was  ^{^10,894, 
or  about  3jd.  per  head  of  the  population.  A  single  jail  suffices  for  the 
criminal  population;  the  average  daily  number  of  prisoners  in  1870 
was  226,  and  in  1882,  243*72,  of  whom  223  were  labouring  convicts. 
In  18S1,  there  were  132  Government  inspected  schools,  with  3883 
pupils.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private  schools  uninspected  by  the 
Government  educational  officers;  and  the  Census  Report  of  1881 
returned  4807  boys  and  91  girls  as  under  instruction,  besides  15,966 
males  and  251  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruc- 
tion. The  District  possesses  a  superior  educational  establishment 
in  Hume's  High  School,  founded  by  the  Collector  in  1861.  The 
District  is  sub-divided  into  5  tahsils^  with  an  aggregate  of  1813  estates 
owned  by  15,523  registered  proprietors  or  coparceners.  The  only 
municipality  in  1882-83  was  Etawah  town. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Etawah  was  formerly  reported  as 
hot  and  sultry  to  an  oppressive  degree,  but  the  planting  of  trees  and 
the  spread  of  canal  irrigation  have  modified  its  character  of  late  years. 
It  is  now  comparatively  moist  and  equable,  and  the  District  is  among 
the  healthiest  in  the  plains  of  India.  The  rainfall  was  49*6  inches  in 
1867-68,  14-8  inches  in  1868-69  (the  year  of  scarcity),  34*2  inches  in 
1869-70,  and  46-6  inches  in  1870-71.  In  1881,  the  rainfall  was 
30*40  inches,  the  average  for  the  twenty  years  previous  being  27-17 
inches.  The  chief  endemic  disease  is  fever  of  a  malarious  type, 
which  seems  occasionally  to  assume  an  epidemic  typhoidal  form.  The 
District  is  also  visited  from  time  to  time  by  small-pox  and  cholera. 
In  1874,  the  total  number  of  deaths  recorded  was  19,276  (28'83  per 
1000  of  the  population);  and  of  these  no  fewer  than  12,684  were 
due  to  fever,  while  4841  were  set  down  to  small-pox.  In  1880-81, 
the  registered  deaths  numbered  22,993,  or  37*3  per  1000  of  the 
population,  of  which  no  fewer  than  20,040  were  ascribed  to  fever 
alone.  In  1882,  the  registered  death-rate  fell  to  28*33  P^^  thousand,  as 
against  an  average  of  30*88  per  thousand  in  the  previous  five  years. 
The  cattle  of  Etawah  are  subject  to  frequent  attacks  both  of  rinderpest 
and  of  foot-and-mouth  disease.  [For  a  further  description  of  Etawah, 
see  the  Gazetteer  of  the  North-  Western  Proimices^  compiled  by  E.  T. 
Atkinson,  Esq.,  vol.  iv.  pp.  219-472  (Allahabad,  1876);  the  Report  on 
the  Settlement  of  Etawah  District,  from  1868-69  to  1873,  by  C.  H.  J. 
Crossthwaite,  Esq.  Also  the  Census  Report  of  the  North-  Western 
Provinces  and  Oiidh  in  1881  ;  together  with  the  Ad?ninistration  and 
Departmental  Reports  of  the  North-Western  Provinces  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Etawah.— North-western  tahsil  of  Etawah  District,  North-Westcrn 


378  ETA  WAH  TO  WN. 

Provinces,  including  a  considerable  tract  in  the  Doab,  watered  by  a 
branch  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  and  extending  into  the  ravine-covered 
country  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  (Jamuna),  together  with  an  isolated 
wedge  of  land  between  that  river  and  the  Chambal,  consisting  for  the 
most  part  of  wild  jungle-clad  gorges.  Area,  425  square  miles,  of 
which  222  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881)  193,211,  namely,  males 
105,319,  and  females  87,892.  Hindus  numbered  175,946;  Muham- 
madans,  15,893;  Jains,  1249;  'others,'  123.  Land  revenue,  ^27,813; 
total  Government  revenue,  ^29,473;  rental  paid  by  cultivators, 
;£"49,o32.  The  tahsil  contains  i  civil  and  7  criminal  courts,  with  a 
regular  police  force  of  80  officers  and  men,  and  a  village  watch  of  358 
men. 

Etawah. — Town,  municipality,  and  administrative  head-quarters  of 
Etawah  District,  North-VVestern  Provinces.  Situated  in  latitude  26°  45' 
31"  N.,  and  longitude  79°  3'  18"  e.,  among  the  ravines  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Jumna,  at  a  point  where  the  river  bends  sharply  backwards  upon 
its  own  course.  Population  (1881)  34,721,  namely,  18,311  males  and 
16,410  females.  Hindus  numbered  23,552;  Muhammadans,  10,289; 
Jains,  765;  Christians,  112;  and  'others,'  3;  area  of  town  site,  500 
acres.  Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ;^2365,  of  which  ^£"1940,  or 
IS.  2d.  per  head,  was  derived  from  taxation  ;  expenditure,  ^£"2298.  The 
suburbs  extend  nearly  down  to  the  water's  edge,  but  the  main  quarter 
is  separated  from  the  Jumna  river  by  a  strip  of  broken  country  about 
half  a  mile  in  length,  while  to  the  north  the  houses  stretch  to  within  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  Etawah  station  of  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
The  town  proper  is  situated  among  the  ravines,  which,  owing  to  their 
wild  and  irregular  forms,  present  a  picturesque  and  pleasing  appearance, 
especially  where  the  broader  ravines  are  clothed  with  trees.  These 
trees  are  so  abundant  in  places,  that  from  many  points  of  view  the  city 
looks  like  one  large  garden,  amidst  which  buildings  appear  enshrouded 
in  green.  A  somewhat  broader  fissure  than  the  others  separates  the 
old  from  the  new  town,  between  which,  owing  to  the  uneven  nature  of 
the  ground,  communication  was  at  one  time  difficult ;  but  now  fine, 
broad,  metalled  roadways  taken  over  the  ravines  by  embankments  and 
bridges,  render  communication  at  all  times  easy  and  practicable.  The 
roads  from  Agra  and  Mainpuri  unite  outside  the  city  to  the  north-west, 
and  are  continued  through  the  new  quarter,  forming  the  principal 
bdzdr-^'2iy^  and  lined  on  each  side  by  substantially-built  and  fine- 
looking  shops.  The  main  road  between  Gwalior  and  Farukhabad 
intersects  the  Agra  and  Mainpuri  road  at  right  angles  about  the  centre 
of  the  bdzdr,  Hume-ganj,  a  handsome  square,  called  after  a  late 
Collector,  A.  O.  Hume,  C.B.,  contains  the  public  buildings,  and  forms 
the  centre  of  the  city.  It  includes  a  market-place,  tahsili.  and  Magis- 
trate's courts,  mission-house,  police  station,  and  dispensary.     Hume's 


ETAIVAH  TOWN.  379 

High  School  is  a  handsome  building,  erected  chiefly  by  private  sub- 
scription. The  north  and  south  sides  of  the  square  form  the  principal 
grain  and  cotton  markets.  A  sardi^  with  a  fine  well  and  arched  gate- 
way, adjoins  the  square.  The  civil  station  lies  about  half  a  mile  to  the 
north  of  the  town.  The  roads  are  numerous  and  well  metalled,  and 
the  station  is  well  stocked  with  plantations  of  shady  trees.  The  rail- 
way buildings  occupy  the  east  end  of  the  station,  and  next  to  them  is 
the  jail.  The  offices  of  the  Collector  and  Magistrate  lie  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  to  the  west  of  the  jail ;  and  beyond  them,  to  the  north-west, 
are  the  church,  public  garden,  racket  court,  and  billiard  room ;  also 
telegraph  and  post  office.  Etawah  was  formerly  a  military  station ;  but 
the  garrison,  which  had  been  reduced  to  the  wing  of  a  native  regiment, 
was  entirely  withdrawn  in  1861,  and  the  buildings  of  the  old  canton- 
ments have  disappeared.  Etawah  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
ghi  (clarified  butter),  gram,  cotton,  and  oil-seeds,  the  traders  principally 
belonging  to  the  Kurmi  caste.  No  important  manufacture  of  any  kind 
is  carried  on.  A  kind  of  coloured  native  cloth  named  tapti  is  woven, 
and  one  quarter  of  the  city,  7nahaUd  Dabgaran,  derives  its  name  from 
the  Dabgars,  or  makers  of  skins  for  carrying  oil  and^''////  but  owing  to 
the  greater  employment  of  tins  and  casks  for  this  purpose,  the  industry 
is  declining.  Another  niahalld,  Shakligaran,  is  so  called  from  its  being 
the  residence  of  the  Shakligars,  or  comb-makers  and  workers  in  horn. 
Etawah  is  also  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  a  sweetmeat  called  pethd^ 
which  is  much  esteemed  by  natives  and  is  largely  exported.  The  Jama 
Masjid,  or  'great  mosque,'  originally  a  Hindu  or  Buddhist  temple, 
stands  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  Gwalior  road,  and  is  interesting 
from  its  numerous  fragments  of  early  workmanship.  The  Asthala, 
situated  in  a  grove  to  the  west  of  the  city,  ranks  first  among  the  Hindu 
places  of  worship ;  it  was  built  about  ninety  years  ago  by  one  Gopal 
Uas,  a  Brahman,  in  honour  of  Nara  Singha,  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
Another  Hindu  temple,  dedicated  to  Mahadeo  Tiksi,  stands  among  the 
ravines  between  the  city  and  the  Jumna.  The  bathing  ghats  along 
the  river's  edge  are  lined  by  many  handsome  shrines ;  and  a  modern 
Jain  building,  with  a  lofty  white  spire,  forms  a  striking  object.  The 
fort,  the  stronghold  of  a  Thakur  in  olden  times,  appears  to  have  been 
founded  on  a  still  earlier  mound,  and  makes  a  handsome  ruin,  with 
massive  bastions  and  an  underground  passage,  used  to  the  present 
day  as  a  pathway  to  the  summit.  The  city  dates  back  to  a  period 
before  the  Musalman  conquest,  both  Mahmiid  of  Ghazni  and  Shahab- 
ud-din  Ghori  having  plundered  it  during  their  expeditions.  The 
fort  was  built  by  the  Chauhans  on  their  immigration  into  this  wild 
tract,  and  occupied  by  a  Musalman  governor  after  their  expulsion. 
Babar  and  the  Muhammadan  historians  frequently  mention  it  as  a 
place  of  great  strength.     In  the  17th  century,  Etawah  became  a  famous 


38o  ETTIAPURAM—FAIZABAD, 

banking  and  commercial  town,  but  suffered  greatly,  on  the  decline 
of  the  Mughal  Empire,  from  Rohilla  and  Maratha  raids.  For  its  later 
history  and  the  events  of  the  Mutiny,  see  Etawah  District. 

Ettiapuram. — Zaminddri  or  estate  in  Otapidaram  taluk,  Tinnevelli 
District.  Madras  Presidency.  Population  (1878)  126,660,  dwelling  in 
349  villages.  Revenue  of  the  zaminddr^  ;j^28,78i  ;  peshkash  or  tribute 
to  Government,  ;3^8882.  Chief  manufacture,  toddy,  made  from  the 
palmyra  trees,  of  which  there  are  70,000  on  the  estate,  each  worth 
annually  2jd.     The  tenantry  are  well-to-do. 

Everest,  Mount. — The  loftiest  known  peak  in  the  world,  situated 
in  the  Nepal  ranges  of  the  Himalayas,  beyond  Bengal.  Latitude  27° 
59'  12"  N.,  longitude  86°  58'  6"  e.  Altitude  above  the  sea,  29,002  feet. 
Named  in  honour  of  Sir  G.  Everest,  Surveyor-General  of  India,  by  his 
successor.  Sir  Andrew  Waugh,  at  the  time  when  the  height  was  first 
accurately  calculated. 


F. 

Faizdbdd  {Fyzdbdd). — A  Division  or  Commissionership  of  Oudh, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North-Western 
Provinces  and  Oudh,  lying  between  26°  9'  and  28°  24'  n.  lat,  and 
between  81°  5'  and  Zt^  oj  e.  long.  The  Division  comprises  the  three 
Districts  of  Faizabad,  Gonda,  and  Bahraich,  all  of  which  see  sepa- 
rately. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Nepdl  tardi ;  on  the  east  by 
Gorakhpur  ;  on  the  south  by  Azamgarh  and  Sultanpur ;  and  on  the 
west  by  Bara  Banki,  Sitapur,  and  Kheri.  Area  (1881)  7305  square 
miles ;  number  of  towns  or  villages,  7362  ;  number  of  houses, 
586,846.  Total  population,  3,230,393,  namely,  1,656,132  males  and 
1,574,261  females.  Hindus  numbered  2,791,892,  or  86*4  per  cent; 
Muhammadans,  436,337,  or  13*5  per  cent.  ;  Sikhs,  591 ;  Jains,  41  ; 
Buddhist,  i;  Pirsis,  2;  Jews,  17;  and  Christians,  15 12.  Average  density 
of  population,  442  persons  per  square  mile  ;  villages  per  square  mile, 
1*00;  persons  per  village,  439;  houses  per  square  mile,  80;  persons 
per  house,  5*5.  Total  cultivated  area,  2,546,240  acres;  number 
of  adult  male  agriculturists,  859,535,  or  2*94  acres  of  cultivated  land 
for  each  male  agriculturist ;  total  agricultural  population,  including 
agricultural  labourers,  2,566,012,  or  79*43  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. Of  the  total  area  of  7305  square  miles,  6539  square  miles  are 
assessed  for  Government  revenue,  of  which  3864  square  miles  are  under 
cultivation ;  unassessed  area,  765  square  miles,  of  which  85  square 
miles  are  cultivated.  Total  land  revenue,  including  cesses,  ;j^397,34i) 
or  an  average  of  3s.  2jd.  per  cultivated  acre.  Average  rental  paid  by 
the  cultivators,  6s.  2jd.  per  acre. 


FAIZABAD.  381 

Faizdbdd  {Fyzdbdd). — District  of  Oudh,  in  the  Division  of  the  same 
name,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North- 
western Provinces  and  Oudh,  lying  between  26°  9'  and  26°  50'  n.  lat., 
and  between  81°  43'  and  83°  9'  e.  long.  In  shape,  the  District  is  an 
irregular  parallelogram  running  from  west  to  east,  with  a  slight  tendency 
southwards ;  length,  varying  from  85  miles  in  the  north  to  64  in  the 
south ;  average  width,  from  20  to  25  miles.  Bounded  on  the  north  by 
Gonda  and  Basti  Districts,  the  Gogra  river  forming  the  boundary-line ; 
on  the  east  by  Gorakhpur  :  on  the  south  by  Azamgarh  and  Sultanpur  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Bara  Banki.  Area,  1689  square  miles.  Population 
(1881)  1,081,419.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  the  town 
of  Faizabad. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  physical  features  of  the  country  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Oudh,  and  require  but  brief 
notice.  Faizabad  consists  of  a  densely-populous,  well-cultivated  plain 
of  great  fertility,  having  an  average  elevation  of  350  feet  above 
sea-level,  without  hills  or  valleys,  and  devoid  of  forests,  but  well 
wooded  with  numerous  mango  and  bamboo  groves,  and  scattered 
pipal  and  simul  trees.  The  drainage  is  towards  the  south-east.  The 
principal  river,  affording  the  chief  means  of  communication  between 
Faizdbad  and  the  Gangetic  valley,  is  the  Gogra  (Ghagra),  which  flows 
along  its  whole  northern  frontier  for  a  distance  of  95  miles,  being 
navigable  throughout  by  the  largest  -  sized  cargo -boats  and  river 
steamers.  The  banks  of  the  river  are  about  25  feet  above  cold  weather 
water  -  level.  They  are  never  flooded,  but  a  breadth  of  low  -  lying 
land  between  the  banks  and  the  stream  is  submerged  every  rainy 
season.  The  other  rivers  are — the  Tons,  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
the  Bisoi  and  the  Madha  rivers  ;  and  the  Majhoi,  which  marks  the 
boundary  between  Faizabad  and  Sultanpur.  The  Tons  is  navigable 
during  the  rains  as  far  as  Akbarpur  by  boats  of  about  5  tons  burthen. 
Its  banks  are  steep ;  in  many  places  covered  with  lisar,  in  others 
fringed  with  jungle.  Many  other  small  streams  flow  through  the 
District.  Water  is  everywhere  abundant,  and  lies  close  to  the  surface. 
Although  there  are  no  large  j'hils  or  lakes,  there  are  innumerable 
artificially-constructed  tanks  and  natural  water-holes  and  small  swamps, 
which  afford  ample  means  for  easy  irrigation.  Owing  perhaps  to  the 
greater  extent  of  cultivation,  Faizabad  is  worse  stocked  with  game  than 
any  other  District  of  Oudh.  Wild  hog  are  tolerably  numerous  near 
the  Gogra,  and  antelope  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  west  of  the 
District ;  bears  and  deer  are  unknown ;  ducks  and  geese  are  com- 
paratively scarce.     Fisheries  unimportant. 

History. — The  early  history  of  Faizabad  is  that  of  Ajodhya  {q.v.), 
of  which  kingdom  it  formed  a  part.  (See  also  Sahet  Mahet.) 
Passing  from  the  time  of  Ramchandra  —  the   hero  of  the   Sanskrit 


382  FAIZABAD. 

epic,  the  Rdmayana  —  through  the  subsequent  period  of  Buddhist 
supremacy ;  its  decline ;  the  revival  of  Brahmanism  under  King 
Vikramaditya  of  Ujjain ;  the  struggles  between  Buddhism  and 
Brahmanism ;  and  the  subsequent  re-establishment  of  the  Brah- 
manical  faith  about  the  8th  century  a.d. — we  come  to  the  first  event 
in  what  may  be  called  the  modern  history  of  the  country,  namely 
the  Muhammadan  invasion.  In  1030,  Sayyid  Salar  Masaiid,  the  son 
of  Salar  Sahu,  one  of  the  generals  of  Sultan  Mahmild,  invaded  Oudh, 
and  passed  through  Faizabad.  It  is  not  certain  whether  any  great  battle 
was  fought  here,  but  a  portion  of  the  high  road  is  still  pointed  out, 
along  which  the  country  people  will  not  pass  after  dark.  They  say  that 
at  night  the  road  is  thronged  with  headless  horsemen  of  Sayyid  Salar's 
army.  Sayyid  Salar,  after  a  series  of  victories,  was  slain,  and  his  troops 
completely  defeated,  at  Bahraich  by  the  confederate  Rajput  princes. 
These  afterwards  turned  against  each  other,  and  the  Province  seems  to 
have  been  split  up  into  a  number  of  petty  fiefs.  After  the  conquest  of 
Kanauj,  the  Musalmans  again  overran  Oudh,  and  succeeded  in  con- 
solidating their  rule.  Ajodhya  long  remained  the  capital  of  the 
Province  ;  but  by  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century  it  had  given  way 
to  Faizabad,  a  few  miles  to  the  west.  Shuja-ud-din,  however,  was  the 
first  of  the  Oudh  Viceroys  who  made  Faizabad  his  permanent  residence 
in  1756.  After  his  death  in  1780,  the  capital  was  removed  to  Lucknow. 
The  only  important  event  in  the  history  of  the  District  since  the 
annexation  of  the  Province  was  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  In  the  early 
part  of  that  year,  the  troop's  in  cantonments  consisted  of  the  22nd 
Bengal  Native  Infantry,  the  6th  Irregular  Oudh  Cavalry,  a  company  of 
the  7th  Bengal  Artillery,  and  a  horse  battery  of  light  field-guns.  The 
troops  revolted  on  the  night  of  the  8th  June,  but  the  outbreak  was 
not  accompanied  with  the  scenes  of  massacre  which  occurred  at 
other  military  stations.  The  European  officers,  with  their  wives  and 
families,  were  allowed  to  leave  unmolested  ;  and  although  some  of  them 
were  attacked  in  their  flight  by  mutineers  of  other  regiments,  they  nearly 
all  succeeded,  after  more  or  less  hardship,  in  reaching  places  of  safety. 
K  Muhammadan  landholder,  Mir  Muhammad  Husain  Khan,  sheltered 
one  party  in  his  small  fort  for  several  days,  until  the  road  was  open  and 
they  could  reach  Gorakhpur  in  safety. 

Population. — The  population  of  Faizabad,  according  to  the  Census 
of  1869,  but  allowing  for  later  transfers,  was  1,024,652  upon 
the  area  constituting  the  present  District.  In  1881,  the  Census 
returned  a  population  of  1,081,419,  an  increase  of  56,767,  or  5*25 
per  cent,  in  twelve  years.  The  results  of  the  Census  of  1881  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  follows: — Area,  1689  square  miles;  number 
of  towns  and  villages,  2676;  houses,  206,258.  Total  population, 
1,081,419,  namely,  males  546,174,  and  females  535,245;   proportion 


FAIZABAD.  383 

of  males  in  total  population,  50-5  per  cent.  Average  density  of 
population,  640  persons  per  square  mile ;  towns  or  villages  per  square 
mile,  I "5 8;  persons  per  village,  405;  houses  per  square  mile,  122; 
persons  per  house,  5*2.  Classified  according  to  religion,  the  Census 
returned  the  population  as  follows  : — Hindus,  955,458,  or  88-4  per 
cent.  ;  and  Muhammadans,  124,539,  or  11-5  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
Christians  numbered  1294  ;  Sikhs,  104;  Jains,  4;  Jews,  17  ;  Buddhist, 
I  ;  and  Parsis,  2.  The  Hindu  castes  of  Faizabad  are  the  same  as  those 
found  in  the  rest  of  Oudh.  The  Brahmans  stand  first,  with  153,982, 
or  14*2  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  ;  the  despised  Chamars,  the 
lowest  caste  in  social  rank,  come  next  with  136,310,  or  12*6  per  cent.  ; 
followed  by  the  Ahi'rs,  with  121,972,  or  11*3  per  cent.  The  Rajputs  or 
Kshatriyas,  who  rank  socially  next  to  the  Brahmans,  form  the  wealthy 
landed  class,  and  own  two-thirds  of  the  soil,  although  numbering  only 
68,109,  or  d'-i^  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  remaining  Hindu 
castes,  numbering  upwards  of  5000  souls,  are  as  follow :  Kurmi, 
64,978;  Kachhi,  38,255;  Mallah,  34,493;  Pasi,  32,305;  Baniya, 
31,470;  Kahar,  29,441;  Bhar,  20,371;  Kumbhar,  18,055;  Kori, 
17,703;  Dhobi,  14,528;  Nai,  14,419;  Teli,  14,408;  Kayasth,  14,317  ; 
Gaddria,  13,799;  Barhai,  12,684;  Lobar,  12,211;  Kalwar,  11,781; 
Tambuli,  10,686;  Lonia,  9162;  and  Bhurji,  8526.  Although  of  the 
124,539  Muhammadans  the  great  majority  (113,030,  or  91  per  cent.) 
belong  to  the  Sunni  sect,  yet  Faizabad  has,  with  the  exception  of 
Lucknow,  a  larger  number  and  proportion  of  followers  of  the  Shiah  sect 
(11,460,  or  9  per  cent,  of  the  Muhammadan  population)  than  any 
other  District  in  Oudh.  The  Shiahs  form  the  most  influential  class,  and 
are  principally  met  with  in  Faizabad  city,  which  was  for  long  the 
residence  of  a  Shiah  court.  Unspecified  Muhammadans,  49.  Of  the 
1294  Christians,  11 17  were  British  born  or  Europeans  by  race,  119 
were  Eurasians,  and  58  native  converts. 

Division  into  Town  and  Country.  —  The  population  is  almost 
entirely  rural,  the  urban  residents  in  the  five  towns  numbering 
only  83,614  souls,  or  less  than  8  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
These  towns  are  Faizabad  city  and  cantonment  (population, 
43,927);  Tanda,  16,594;  AjODHYA,  ^11,643 ;  Jalalpur,  6240; 
and  Ronahi  (or  Naurahi),  5210.  Faizabad  and  Ajodhya,  which 
are  adjacent  towns,  have  been  constituted  into  a  single  municipality. 
The  only  other  municipality  is  Tanda.  Of  the  2676  villages  which 
the  District  contained  in  1881,  mo  had  fewer  than  two  hundred 
inhabitants  ;  968  from  two  to  five  hundred ;  428  from  five  hundred 
to  a  thousand;  136  from  one  to  two  thousand;  29  from  two  to 
five  thousand ;  and  5  upwards  of  five  thousand  inhabitants.  As 
regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  classifies  the  male  population 
into  the  following  six  main  divisions  or  groups  :  Class  (i)  Professional, 


384  FAIZABAD. 

including  civil  and  military  and  the  learned  professions,  6473  ;  (2) 
domestic  servants,  inn  and  lodging-house  keepers,  etc.,  2132;  (3) 
commercial,  including  merchants,  traders,  carriers,  etc.,  6957;  (4) 
agricultural,  including  cultivators,  gardeners,  and  keepers  of  animals, 
274,589  ;  (5)  industrial,  including  manufacturers  and  artisans,  39,234; 
(6)  indefinite  and  non-productive  (comprising  12,249  general  labourers 
and  204,540  male  children  and  persons  of  no  specified  occupation), 

216,789. 

Agriculture.  —  The    principal    agricultural    staples    are   wheat   and 
rice,  which  together  make  up  41  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  under 
cultivation.      This  was   returned   in   1883   at    1240   square   miles,   or 
793,891  acres,  including  land  yielding  two  crops  in  the  year.      The 
total  area  actually  cultivated  was  949  square  miles,  or  607,208  acres. 
The  acreage  under  each  crop  in    1883  (including  land  bearing  two 
crops  in  the  year)  is  returned   as   follows  : — Wheat,    109,342  ;    rice, 
215,822;  jodr,  urd,  gram,  peas,   barley,   and  arhar,  410,670;   sugar- 
cane,  30,231;    oil-seeds,   12,746;    opium,  8597;    indigo,   3457;    and 
miscellaneous  crops,   1157  acres.      The  average  produce  per  acre  of 
the  different  crops  is  thus  returned  :— Rice,  737  lbs. ;  wheat,  816  lbs. ; 
inferior   food-grains,    1029   lbs.;    oil-seeds,    277;    sugar    (unrefined), 
2016  lbs.     Irrigation  is   largely  practised,  but  there  are  no  Govern- 
ment canals  or  irrigation  works  in  the  District.     The  area  irrigated  by 
private  individuals  in  1883  amounted  to  352,730  acres.     The  water  is 
principally  derived  from  jhils  and  tanks,  but  masonry  wells  are  more 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose  in  Faizabad  than  in  any  other  District 
in  Oudh.     Water  is  met  with  at  various  depths,  varying  from  1 2  feet 
along  the  banks  of  the  Gogra  to  37  feet  in  parts  beyond  the  old  bed  of 
the  river.      A  masonry  well,  25  feet  deep,  and  sufficiently  large  for  two 
pulleys  to  be  worked  at  once,  costs  about  ^25  if  mortared,  or  ^^17,  los. 
if  unmortared.     Such  a  well  is  worked  by  five  men,  who  can  irrigate 
one  local  bighd  (about  1 150  square  yards)  in  a  day.     One  watering  costs 
from  3s.  9d.  to  5s.  an  acre,  according  to  the  current  rate  of  wages.     In 
the  tardi,  where  water  is  found  within  1 2  feet  of  the  surface,  the  well  is 
a  mere  hole,  and  3  men  are  able  to  irrigate  a  bighd  at  a  cost  of  from 
2s.  44d.  to  3s.  I  Jd.  for  each  watering.     As  a  rule,  sugar-cane  is  watered 
10  times,  opium  and  tobacco  each  7,  barley,  peas,  and  masurt\  once. 
Wheat  requires  a  double  well  for  every  1 2  acres,  opium  and  tobacco  for 
every  5,  and  barley,  peas,  etc.,  for  every  15.     Rents  are  high,  and  are 
still  rising.      The  rate  per  acre  in  1883  for  land  growing  the  different 
crops  is   thus  returned  : — Opium  and  tobacco,    19s.   3d. ;  sugar-cane, 
1 8s.  3d. ;  wheat,  14s.  9d.  ;  rice,  iis.  9d. ;  inferior  food-grains,  9s.  6d. ; 
oil-seeds,  5s.  6d. ;  indigo,  13s.     Classified  according  to  the  different 
qualities  of  land,  rents  may  be  set  down  as  follows  : — Manured  crops 
near  the  village,  25s.  per  acre ;  irrigated  loam,  i6s.  ;  unirrigated  loam, 


FAIZABAD.  385 

I2S.  ;  sandy  unirrigated  loam,  7s.     The  total  male  adult  agricultural 
population  of  the  District,  including  agricultural  labourers,  is  returned 
by  the  Census  at  245,054,  cultivating    608,192  acres,   or  an  average 
of  2 '47   acres  each.     The  total  agricultural  population,  however,  de- 
pendent  on    the    soil    numbers    834,294,   or    77-15    per   cent,  of  the 
District  population.      Of  the  total  area  of  1689  square  miles,  1663  are 
assessed  for  Government  revenue,  of  which  033  square  miles  are  culti- 
vated and   272  cultivable.     Total   Government  assessment,  including 
rates  and  cesses,  ^Ti  2 1,297,  or  an  average  of  4s.  ojd.  per  cultivated 
acre.      Rent  paid   by  cultivators,  including  cesses,  ";£■  19 9, 740,  or   an 
average  of  6s.  6|d.  per  cultivated   acre.     The  cultivator's  profits  are 
probably  the  same  in  Faizabad  as  in  other  parts  of  Oudh— just  enough 
to  pay  for  his  labour  and  for  the  keeping  up  of  his  stock.      Of  late 
years,  however,  owing   to  the  rise  of  rent,  bad    harvests,  and    cattle 
murrain,  they  have  not  reached  this  standard.     The  difficulties  of  the 
cultivating   class  are    not  due  to  the  Government  revenue  being  too 
heavy,  but  to  pressure  put  upon  them  by  the    petty  proprietors  and 
middle-men,  who  have  to  raise  the  rents  in  order  to  enable  them  to 
live  according  to  their  old  standard  of  comfort.     The  land  is  divided 
among  a  i^w  large  and  an  immense  number  of  small  proprietors.     The 
large  idlukddri  estates  are  32  in  number,  containing  an  area  of  998,000 
acres,  or  an  average  of  49  square  miles  each.     Included  within  these 
fiefs  are  many  sub-tenures,  which  have  been  granted  by  the  tdlukddrs 
or  decreed  by  the  courts.      These  consist  of  703  villages,  and  cover 
an  area  of   250,000  acres,  or   a   little  over  one-fourth  of  the  parent 
estates.     The  number  of  these  sub-proprietors  is  22,846,  the  average 
area  of  each  estate  being  14  acres.      The  small  independent  estates 
number  about  17,000;    average   area,  29   acres.     Tenants  possessing 
occupancy  rights  are  said  to  number  about  2\  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
The  agricultural  stock  in  the  District  in  1883  was  returned  as  follows  : 
Cows  and  bullocks,  372,677  ;  horses  and  ponies,  2733  ;  donkeys,  2328  ; 
sheep  and  goats,  51,496;  pigs,  5^,953;  carts,  955;   ploughs,  82,884. 
Wages  are  paid  both  in  money  and  in  grain.     Throughout  the  District 
the  ordinary  rate  of  money  wages  for  unskilled  labour  is  3d.,  and  for 
skilled  labour  6d.  a  day,  but  rates  are  higher  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Faizabad  town.     Prices  of  food-grains  have  considerably  advanced  of 
late   years.     Between   the  ten  years  1 861-18 70,  prices   for   common 
unhusked  rice  rose  from  3s.  to  4s.  2d.  a  cwt.,  common  husked  rice  from 
7s.  to  8s.  2d.,  wheat  from  4s.  6d.  to  5s.  i  lA.^jodr  from  3s.  6d.  to  4s.  7d., 
bdjra  from  4s.   2d.  to  7s.   lod.,  gram  from  4s.  8d.  to  6s.  3d.,  arhar 
from  4s.   7d.  to  5s.  9d.,  urd  from  5s.  6d.  to  7s.  3d.,  inug  from  7s.   2d. 
to  8s.  4d.,  masuri  from  4s.  2d.  to  5s.  7d.  a  cwt.     The  average  prices  in 
1883  were  (according  to  quality),  for  wheat  from  5s.   7d.  to  5s.  9jd, 
a  cwt.,  rice  from  8s.  4|d.  to  los.  6d.  per  cwt.,  and  gram  4s.  2d.  per  cwt, 

VOL.  IV.  2  B 


386  FATZABAD. 

Natural  Calamities. — The  three  last  famines  which  afflicted  the  Dis- 
trict occurred  in  1869,  1874,  and  1877-78,  being  caused  by  the  failure 
of  the  rains  in  the  preceding  years.  Famines  in  Faizabad  are  of  two 
kinds — one  of  food  itself,  and  the  other  of  the  means  to  purchase  food, 
which  may  be  termed  a  labour  famine.  The  first  outward  sign  of  dis- 
tress is  shown  when  the  small  farmers,  who  pay  their  labourers  grain 
wages,  turn  them  off  to  shift  for  themselves.  The  result  is  that  these 
men  emigrate  from  the  District  as  scarcity  approaches,  long  before 
there  is  absolute  famine ;  the  demand  for  food  is  diminished,  and  the 
crisis  perhaps  tided  over  till  the  next  harvest.  Another  cause  which 
mitigates  the  effect  of  a  bad  crop  in  Faizabad,  is  the  great  variety  of 
the  staples  sown.  Rice,y^^V,  barley,  gram,  tird,  and  peas  are  all  grown 
in  fiiir  proportion ;  whereas  in  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Gonda  and 
Bahraich,  if  the  rice  fails,  there  is  nothing  to  fall  back  upon.  In 
Faizabad,  the  harvests  follow  within  every  two  months  of  each  other, 
except  from  June  to  September. 

Co7nmunications,  Trade,  Covwierce,  etc. — Besides  the  water  highway 
along  the  Gogra,  means  of  communication  are  afforded  by  two  good 
metalled  roads  to  SultanpUr,  Partabgarh,  and  Allahabad  on  the  south, 
and  to  Daryabad,  Nawabganj,  and  Lucknow  on  the  west,  aggregating 
60  miles  in  Faizabad  District.  Good  unmetalled  roads  cross  the 
country  in  every  direction,  aggregating  534  miles.  There  are  numerous 
ferries  on  the  Gogra,  and  a  bridge  of  boats  is  maintained  at  Faizabad 
town  during  the  dry  season.  A  branch  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand 
Railway  also  intersects  the  District  for  a  length  of  66  miles,  with  stations 
at  Malipur,  Akbarpur,  Gosainganj,  Nara,  Darshannagar,  Ajodhya, 
Faizabad,  and  Sohwal.  The  navigable  water  communication  is  95 
miles  in  length.  The  trade  of  Faizabad  District  cannot  be  estimated 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The  registered  river-borne  imports 
and  exports  for  1872  and  1873  were  as  follows: — The  value  of  the 
imports,  consisting  principally  of  sugar,  tobacco,  spices,  salt,  cattle, 
and  English  piece-goods,  was  returned  at  ^159.35°  i^  1^72,  and 
;^i58,272  in  1873;  while  that  of  the  exports  (principally  wheat  and 
other  food-grains,  hides,  timber,  country  cloth,  etc.)  was  returned 
at  ^333,336  in  1872,  and  ^306,325  in  1873.  These  figures,  how- 
ever, do  not  show  the  actual  exports  and  imports  of  Faizabad,  but 
merely  indicate  the  course  of  river  trade  at  marts  within  the  District 
boundary.  The  internal  trade  by  road  or  river  with  other  parts  of 
Oudh  is  not  given.  For  instance,  Faizabad  exports  a  large  quantity  of 
opium  by  rail  to  Lucknow ;  but  although  much  of  it  is  produced  in 
Faizdbad  itself,  none  of  it,  or  of  any  other  railway  traffic,  is  credited 
to  the  District  in  the  trade  returns.  These,  again,  exhibit  Faizabad  as 
a  large  importer  of  sugar ;  it  really  produces  more  than  is  required  for 
its  own  consumption.     The  fact  is  that  the  sugar  of  Basti  and  Azani- 


FAIZABAD.  387 

garh  passes  through  Faizabad  to  Lucknow,  whence  it  is  distributed  to 
Cawnpur  and  Bareli.  Country  cloth  is  largely  exported  from  Tanda  ; 
timber  is  exported  really  from  Kheri  and  Bahraich,  but  is  credited  to 
Faizabad,  as  the  logs  are  counted  in  this  District.  The  grain  exported 
is  mainly  rice,  wheat,  and  maize,  but  much  of  it  comes  from  neigh- 
bouring Districts,  and  is  embarked  in  Faizabad,  which  acts  as  an 
emporium  for  Eastern  Oudh. 

Administration. — The  judicial  staff  consists  of  the  Divisional  Com- 
missioner, Civil  Judge,  Deputy  Commissioner,  with  2  European  and  3 
native  assistants,   a  cantonment  magistrate,   and  4  revenue  collectors 
{tahsilddrs)^  a  subordinate  judge,  and  3   viunsifs.     There  are  also  11 
magistrates,  all  of  whom   have   civil  and   revenue   powers  ;  besides  2 
honorary  magistrates.     The   total  imperial  revenue  of  the   District  in 
1875-76  amounted  to  ^i^^iS  1,856,   of  which    ;!^i33,242   was   derived 
from  the  land.      The  total  expense  of  civil  administration,  as  repre- 
sented  by  the   cost  of  the    District    officials    and    police,    amounted 
in  the  same    year  to  j[^\'^.,o<^'].      In    1882-83,   the    imperial   revenue 
had   slightly   decreased   to   ^141,433,    owing    to   a   decrease  in   the 
land    revenue,    which    had    been    lowered    to    ;z^r  10,027  )    cost    of 
officials  and  police,  ;£"i8,io7.     The  regular  police  force  in   1882-83 
consisted  of  528  officers  and  men,  maintained  at  a  cost  to  the  State 
of  ;£^5964;  the  rural  police   consisted  of  2490  village  watchmen,  and 
7   men   on  road  patrol,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  ^^6135  ;   and  there 
was  also  a  municipal  force  of  272  men,  costing  jQ'^']^^  from  municipal 
funds.     During   1881,  1089   cases  were  brought  by   the  police  before 
the   magistrates,    and    848    convictions    obtained.     Crime   reaches  its 
maximum  in  July,  the  month   when  grain  is  scarcest.      The  District 
jail  contained  a  daily  average  of  504'i 7' prisoners  in  1882,  of  whom 
35*17  were  females.     The  Government  or  aided  educational  institutions 
consisted  in  1872-73  of  162  schools,   attended  by  4633  pupils;  and 
in  1880-81  of  184  schools,  with  5294  pupils.    In  1882-83,  the  number 
of  Government  inspected  schools  had  fallen  to  89,  and  the  pupils  to 
3891.     There  are  also  a  number  of  private  schools  not  under  inspec- 
tion; the  Census  Report  in   1881  returned  4657  boys  and  60  girls  as 
under  instruction  in  that  year,  besides  21,^98  males  and  380  females 
able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under  instruction. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  rainfall  of  Faizabad  is  more  regular  than  in 
Western  Oudh,  and  during  the  fifteen  years  ending  1881  has  averaged 
42-90  inches.  The  rainfall  in  the  latter  year  was  32-80  inches,  or 
lo-io  inches  below  the  average.  Mean  temperature  (1875),  May 
87-9°  F.,  July  85-6°,  December  65-6°.  The  principal  diseases  of  the 
District  are  fevers.  Small-pox  is  also  prevalent,  and  cholera  occasionally 
makes  its  appearance  in  an  epidemic  form.  The  registered  deaths  in 
1882  numbered  33,552,  or  at  the  rate  of  33*08  per  thousand  of  the 


388  FAIZABAD  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN. 

population,  against  a  mean  of  25*28  per  thousand  for  the  five  previous 
years.  The  deaths  fi-om  fever  alone  amounted  in  1882  to  26,701,  and 
from  cholera  to  2841.  Four  charitable  dispensaries  in  the  District,  at 
Faizabad  town,  Tanda,  Akbarpur,  and  Bikapur,  afforded  medical  relief 
in  1883  to  923  in-door  and  20,227  out-door  patients.  [For  further 
information  regarding  Faizabad,  see  the  Gazetteer  of  the  Province  of 
Oudh,  vol.  i.  pp.  402-488  (Lucknow,  Oudh  Government  Press,  1877). 
Also  Report  on  the  Settlenient  of  the  Land  Revenues  of  the  Faizabad 
District,  by  A.  F.  Millet,  Esq.,  C.S.  (Allahabad  Government  Press, 
1880) ;  the  Census  Report  of  the  North-  Western  Provinces  and  Oudh  ; 
Administration  and  Departnwital  Reports  for  the  North-  Western  Pro- 
vinces and  Oudh,  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Faizabdid  {Fyzdbdd). — Tahsil  or  Sub-division  of  Faizabad  District, 
Oudh,  lying  between  26°  32'  30"  and  26°  50'  n.  lat.,  and  between  81° 
51'  and  82°  31'  15"  E.  long-;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Begamganj 
tahsil  of  Gonda,  on  the  east  by  Basti  District  in  the  North-Western 
Provinces,  on  the  south  by  Bikapur  tahsil,  and  on  the  west  by  Ram 
Sanehf  tahsil  of  Bara  Banki.  Area,  342  square  miles,  of  which  201 
are  cultivated.  Population  (1881)  290,942,  namely,  males  148,170, 
and  females  142,772.  Hindus  numbered  249,659;  Muhammadans, 
39,866;  Jains,  4;  and  'others,'  1413.  The  tahsil  consists  of  the  3 
pargands  of  Haweli  Oudh,  Mangalsi,  and  Amsir. 

Faizdbad  {Fyzdbdd).— (Z\i\ti  town,  municipality,  and  cantonment, 
Faizabad  District,  Oudh;  situated  in  lat.  26°  46'  45"  n.,  and  long. 
82°  11'  40"  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Gogra,  78  miles  east  of- 
Lucknow.  Adjoining  it  on  the  west  is  the  modern  Ajodhya,  both 
towns  being  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Ajodhya.  Faizabad 
is  a  comparatively  modern  place,  although  there  are  several  ancient 
Muhammadan  buildings  in  its  vicinity.  Mansur  Ali  Khan,  Viceroy 
of  Oudh,  in  1732  passed  a  portion  of  his  time  here;  but  his  suc- 
cessor, Shuja-ud-daula,  took  up  his  permanent  residence  at  Faizabad, 
and  made  it  the  Provincial  capital  in  1760.  Twenty  years  later, 
Asaf-ud-daula  moved  the  court  back  again  to  Lucknow.  The  city 
has  fallen  into  decay  since  the  death  of  the  celebrated  Bahu  Begam 
in  1816,  who  had  held  it  rent-free  since  1798,  and  who  lived  and 
died  here.  Her  mausoleum  is  described  as  'the  finest  building  of 
the  kind  in  Oudh.'  The  Dilkushi  palace  adjoining  the  tomb  was 
the  residence  of  this  lady  ;  it  is  now  the  opium  storehouse.  Several 
other  Muhammadan  buildings,  mosques,  gardens,  etc.,  all  more  or 
less  out  of  repair,  are  situated  in  the  town.  The  population  of  the 
town  proper  in  1881  was  38,828,  namely,  Hindus,  26,602;  Muham- 
madans, 11,976;  Christians,  209;  and  'others,'  41  ;  area  of  town  site, 
867  acres.  The  cantonment  contained  a  population  of  5099,  consisting 
of  Hindus,  3034  ;  Muhammadans,  963  ;  Christians,  1044  ;  and  '  others,' 


FAIZPUR^FAKHRPUR.  389 

58;  area,  708  acres.  Total,  town  and  cantonments,  43,927,  namely, 
Hindus,  29,636;  Muhammadans,  12,939;  Christians,  1253;  'others,' 
99.  The  military  force  consists  of  a  battery  of  Royal  Artillery,  one 
European,  and  one  native  infantry  regiment.  Faizabad  together  with 
Ajodhya  constitutes  one  municipality,  with  a  total  population  of 
71,405.  The  municipal  income  (1882-83)  amounted  to  ;£5204,  of 
which  ;j^4347  was  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  to  ;£^5845. 
There  are  numerous  markets  in  the  town,  and  trade  is  very  active, 
the  estimated  annual  sales  within  municipal  limits  amounting  to  about 
;3^i5o,ooo,  of  which  upwards  of  one-half  consists  of  wheat,  rice,  and 
other  food-grains.  Large  station  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand 
Railway. 

Faizpur. — Town  in  Khandesh  District,  Bombay  Presidency  ;  situated 
in  lat.  21°  11'  N.,  and  long,  75°  56'  e.,  72  miles  north-east  of  Dhulia. 
Population  (1881)  9640,  namely,  8055  Hindus,  1295  Muhammadans, 
195  Jains,  and  95  '  others.'  Faizpur  is  famous  for  its  cotton  prints, 
and  its  dark  blue  and  red  dyes.  There  are  about  250  families  who 
dye  thread,  turbans,  and  other  pieces  of  cloth,  and  print  cloth  of  all 
sorts.  Weekly  timber  market,  and  one  of  the  chief  cotton  marts  in 
Khandesh. 

Fakhrpur. — Pargand  in  Bahraich  District,  Oudh  ;  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Nanpara /^r^^;zi  /  on  the  east  and  south  by  Bahraich  and 
Hisampur ;  and  on   the  west  by  Sitapur  District.     A  large  pargand^ 
which  has  undergone  many  changes  of  area.     As  at  present  defined, 
it  comprises  a  great  portion   of  what  was  once   Firozabad,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  number  of  its  former  villages  have  been  transferred 
to  Hisampur.     The  Sarju  and  a  small  sluggish  stream,  the  Bhakosa, 
flow  through  the  pargand^  and  several  well-defined  deserted  channels 
mark  old  beds  of  the  Gogra  (Ghagra),  which  now  flows  to  the  south. 
Water  is  commonly  met  with  so  close  to  the  surface,  that  irrigation  is 
scarcely  required.      Area,  383  square  miles,   of  which  217  are  under 
cultivation,  and  114  are  cultivable  waste.     Government  land  revenue, 
;^9248  ;  average  incidence,  is.  5fd.  per  acre  of  cultivated  area,  ii|d. 
per  acre  of  assessed  area,  and  9jd.  per  acre  of  total  area.     The  prin- 
cipal landlord  is  the  Raja  of  Kapiirthala,  on  whom  the  estate  of  the 
rebel   Raja  of  Baundi  has    been   conferred  at  a  quit -rent  for   ever. 
Sardars  Fateh  Singh  and  Jugjot  Singh,  reputed  grandsons  of  Maharaja 
Ranjit  Singh  of  Lahore,  are  the  grantees  of  the  Chahlari  Raja's  estate. 
The  Raja  of  Rahwa's  estates  also  lie  almost  entirely  in  this  pargcmd. 
Of  the  288  villages  which  compose  the  pargand^  227  are  held  under 
tdlukddri  tenure,  and  161  are  permanently  settled.     Population  (1881) 
i5^5737>   namely,    males    79,897,   and    females    71,840.      The    most 
numerous  castes  are   Brahmans,  Ahirs,  and   Chamars.      Three    lines 
of    road   intersect    the   parga?id.     Eight    market    villages,   the    most 


390  FAKHRPUR— FALSE  POINT. 

important  of  which  is  at  Jaitapur,  which  has  a  large  well-frequented 
bazar.  Government  schools  in  nine  villages,  besides  an  English  town 
school  at  Baundi  maintained  by  the  Kapurthala  State ;  police  station 
at  Sisia  ;  post-offices  at  Baundi  and  Sisia. 

Fakhrpur. — Village  in  Bahraich  District,  Oudh  ;  on  the  high  road 
from  Bahramghat  to  Bahraich,  loj  miles  from  the  latter  town.  Lat. 
27°  25'  55"  N.,  long.  81°  31'  41"  E.  The  village  is  pleasantly  situated 
among  park-like  groves  of  mango  trees,  but  is  unhealthy,  owing  to  bad 
water ;  goitre  is  very  prevalent.  In  former  times  the  place  is  said  to 
have  been  held  by  Ahirs.  In  Akbar's  reign  it  was  made  the  head- 
quarters of  2ipargand  named  after  it,  a  fort  was  built,  and  a  tahsil  or 
revenue  collectorate  established.  Up  to  1818,  the  tahsilddr.  had  his 
fort  and  treasury  here,  but  in  the  latter  year  the  larger  portion  of  the 
pargaiid  was  incorporated  in  the  Baundi  estate  {ildkd),  and  from  that 
time  the  fort  has  ceased  to  be  used.  The  village  has  been  held  now 
for  many  years  by  the  revenue  officers  of  the  pargand.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  village  has  dwindled  away  from  2140  in  1869  to  387  in 
1 88 1.  Saltpetre  is  prepared,  but  not  to  any  great  extent.  No  market. 
Government  school. 

Fakirganj.  —  Commercial    village   in    Dinajpur    District,    Bengal. 
Exports  of  rice,  gunny  cloth,  and  jute. 

Fakirhat.— Village  in  the  Satkhira  Sub-division  of  the  District  of 
the  Twenty- four  Parganas,  Bengal ;  situated  in  lat.  22°  23'  30"  n.,  long. 
89^  7'  15"  E.,  5  miles  south-east  of  Kaliganj  police  station.     Bi-weekly, 
market.     Traffic   carried    on    entirely   by   means    of  water  communi- 
cation. 

False  Point.— Cape,  harbour,  and  lighthouse  in  Cuttack   District, 
Bengal ;  situated  in  lat.  20°  20'  10"  n.,  and  long.  86°  46'  25"  e.,  on  the 
north  of  the  Mahanadi  estuary.     The  harbour  consists  of  an  anchorage, 
land-locked   by  islands  and  sandbanks,  with  two  navigable  channels. 
False  Point  takes  its  name  from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  often  mis- 
taken by  ships  for  Point  Palmyras,  one  degree  farther  north.     It  is  the 
best  harbour  on  the  Indian  coast  between  the  Hiigli  and  Bombay.    The 
lighthouse  stands  on    the  point  which   screens  it  from  the  southern 
monsoon,  in  lat.  20°  19'  52°  n.,  long.  86°  46'  57"  e.     The  anchorage  is 
protected  by  two  sandy  reefs,  named   Long  Island  and  Dowdeswell 
Island,  and  is  completely  land-locked  by  the  latter.     Point  Reddie,  on 
Dowdeswell  Island,   shelters  the  entrance.      Farther  in  lies  Plowden 
Island,  for  the  most  part  a  low  jungly  swamp,   with  a  limited  area 
of  high  ground  suitable  for  building  purposes,  and  with  good  drinking 
water.     The  harbour  is  safe  and  roomy,  the  channel  properly  buoyed, 
and   a  soft  mud  bottom  prevents  injury  to  vessels  running  aground. 
The  port  is  now  open  throughout  the  year,  and  ships  of  large  tonnage 
can  lie  in  security  in  all  weathers.     Two  separate  channels  lead  inland 


FALTA.  39T 

from  the  anchorage — the  Jambu  river  on  the  north,  and  on  the  south 
the  Bakud  creek,  a  short  deep  branch  of  the  Mahanadi.  Bars  of  sand 
intervene  between  the  anchorage  and  these  channels,  but  at  full  tide 
cargo-boats  and  steamers  enter  with  ease.  Several  tidal  creeks,  narrow 
and  winding,  but  navigable  by  country  boats  throughout  the  year, 
connect  False  Point  with  the  Dhamra  and  Brahmani  rivers  on  the 
north,  and  with  the  Devi  on  the  south. 

History  of  False  Poi?it  Harbour. — It  is  only  within  the  last  twenty 
years  that  the  capabilities  of  False  Point  Harbour  have  been  appre- 
ciated. Prior  to  this  period — although  the  place  is  but  two  days  by 
steamer  from  Calcutta — no  regular  communication  existed,  and  the 
exports,  consisting  chiefly  of  rice,  were  entirely  in  the  hands  of  native 
shipmasters  from  Madras.  The  port  was  opened  in  i860,  about  vvhich 
date  an  enterprising  French  firm  in  Calcutta  established  an  agency  for 
the  export  of  rice,  and  the  East  Indian  Irrigation  Company  perceived 
its  natural  advantages  as  an  import  depot.  But  it  was  during  the 
year  of  the  great  Orissa  famine  (1866),  when  Government  was  anxiously 
exploring  every  means  of  throwing  supplies  into  the  Province,  that  the 
capabilities  of  False  Point  were  first  publicly  appreciated.  The  for- 
mation of  new  canals  has  been  the  making  of  the  port.  The  Kendra- 
PARA  Canal,  which  extends  from  Cuttack  for  a  distance  of  42^  miles, 
connects  False  Point  with  the  capital  of  Orissa  ;  and  False  Point  has 
now  become  the  entrepot  for  the  trade  of  the  Province.  A  small 
steamer  plies  regularly  between  the  entrance  to  the  canal  near  the 
harbour  and  Cuttack.  The  British  Indian  General  Steam  Navigation 
Company  make  the  place  a  regular  port  of  call ;  it  is  also  visited  by 
French  ships  from  Mauritius,  which  take  rice  and  oil-seeds  for  that 
island,  and  also  for  Havre,  Bordeaux,  and  other  French  ports.  False 
Point  was  formerly  considered  very  unhealthy ;  but  the  malaria  to 
which  it  owed  this  evil  reputation  has  to  a  great  extent  disappeared. 
A  harbourmaster  and  superintendent  of  customs  have  been  appointed. 

Trade. — In  i860,  4  vessels,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  2830  tons,  entered 
the  port;  the  value  of  exports  was  returned  at  ;£"6759.  During  the 
years  between  1863-64  and  1883-84,  the  trade  has  increased  from 
;^5i,92i  to  ^295,763,  or  upwards  of  five-fold,  and  the  number  of 
vessels  cleared  from  16  (tonnage,  8681)  to  146  (tonnage,  199,497). 
The  chief  trade  is  with  other  Indian  ports. 

Falta. — Village  in  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal ;  situated  on 
the  Hiigli,  nearly  opposite  its  point  of  junction  with  the  Damodar. 
Lat.  22°  18'  N.,  long.  88°  10'  e.  The  site  of  an  old  Dutch  factory,  and 
also  noted  as  the  place  of  retreat  of  the  English  fleet  on  the  capture 
of  Calcutta  by  Suraj-ud-daula.  A  small  fort  has  been  constructed 
within  the  last  few  years  at  Falta  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Damodar. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  moat  fifty  feet  broad,  within  which  is  a  mud  wall 


392  FARADNA  GAR—FARIDKOT. 

twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high,  with  a  top  width  of  about  ten  feet,  and 
with  a  slope  of  two  to  one.     Mounted  with  eight  guns. 

Paradnagar.  —  Village  in  Noakhali  District,  Bengal,  and  head- 
quarters of  the  Pheni  Sub-division;  situated  in  lat.  22°  57'  n.,  and 
long.  91°  30'  15"  E.,  near  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  2  miles  north  of  the 
Big  Pheni  ghat  at  Bhurbhuria. 

Farah. — Town  in  Agra  tahsil,  Muttra  (Mathura)  District,  North- 
Western  Provinces;  situated  in  lat.  27°  19'  n.,  and  long.  77°  49'  e., 
on  the  route  from  Agra  to  Muttra  (22  miles  north-west  of  the  former, 
and  13  miles  south-east  of  the  latter),  a  mile  from  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna  (Jamund).  Population  (1881)  3642,  namely,  2448  males 
and  1 1 94  females.  Well  supplied  with  water.  Small  bazar  2iX\d  police 
station.  Formerly  the  seat  of  a  tahsili  in  Agra  District,  which  has 
been  abolished,  and  the  area  divided  between  Agra  and  Muttra 
Districts.  For  police  and  conservancy  purposes  a  small  municipal 
income  in  the  shape  of  a  house-tax  is  raised  under  the  provisions  of 
Act  XX.  of  1856. 

Fardd<pur. — Village  in  the  Nizam's  territory,  Deccan,  4  miles  from 
the  Ajantd  pass ;  the  site  of  a  travellers'  bungalow  used  by  visitors  to 
the  Ajanta  caves. 

Farldabdd. — Town  and  municipality  in  Ballabhgarh  iahsil,  Delhi 
District,  Punjab;  16^  miles  south  of  Delhi.  Lat.  28°  25'  n.,  long. 
77°  21'  45"  E.  Population  (1881)  7427,  namely,  Hindus,  5367  ; 
Muhammadans,  1988;  Sikhs,  5;  and  'others,' 67;  number  of  houses, 
923.  Municipal  income  in  1881-82,  ;2^386,  or  is.  ofd.  per  head  of 
the  population.  The  town  formed  part  of  the  estate  held  by  the  Raja 
of  Ballabhgarh,  but  was  confiscated  with  the  rest  of  his  possessions 
after  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  It  was  founded  in  1605  a.d.,  during  the 
reign  of  Jahangir,  by  one  Shaikh  Farid,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name. 
The  main  bazar  is  a  fairly  broad  street,  with  houses  of  brick  on  each 
side ;  but  with  this  exception,  the  buildings  are  of  mud  and  mean  in 
appearance.  Police  station,  school-house,  sardi^  and  dispensary.  Little 
trade,  no  manufactures. 

Faridkot.— One  of  the  Sikh  cis-Sutlej  States,  under  the  political 
superintendence  of  the  Punjab  Government;  lying  between  30°  13' 
30"  and  30°  50'  N.  lat.,  and  between  74°  31'  and  75°  5'  e.  long.,  south- 
east of  Firozpur  (Ferozepur)  District,  and  north-west  of  Patiala.  It 
consists  of  two  portions,  Faridkot  proper  and  Kot-Kapiira.  Area  of  the 
State,  612  square  miles,  with  168  villages  and  10,031  houses.  Popula- 
tion (1881)  97,034,  namely,  males  53,848,  and  females  43,186  ;  average 
density,  158  persons  per  square  mile;  persons  per  village,  578.  The 
population  consists  mainly  of  Sikhs,  who  numbered  40,187  in  1881  ; 
Hindus,  27,463  ;  Jains,  349  ;  and  Muhammadans,  29,035.  The 
chief  of    the    State    is    head    of   the    Barar   Jat    tribe.       One    of   his 


FARJDKOT—FARIDPUR.  393 

ancestors,  named  Bhallan,  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  greatness  of  his  house.  His  nephew  built 
the  fort  of  Kot-Kapiira,  and  made  himself  an  independent  ruler. 
Early  in  the  present  century,  the  Kot-Kapilra  District  was  seized  by 
Ranji't  Singh,  and  in  the  following  year  Faridkot  was  also  taken  ;  but 
when  the  British  Government  demanded  from  the  Maharaja  the  restitu- 
tion of  all  his  conquests  made  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej  (Satlaj) 
during  1808  and  1809,  Faridkot  was  unwillingly  resigned  to  its  former 
possessors.  The  revenue  of  the  State  was  at  that  time  small  and 
fluctuating.  The  country  was  entirely  dependent  on  rain  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  this  falls  in  small  quantities,  and  in  some  years  not  at  all. 
Wells  were  difficult  to  sink,  and  hardly  repaid  the  labour  of  making 
them,  the  water  being  from  90  to  120  feet  below  the  surface.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Sikh  war  in  1845,  the  chief,  Pahar  Singh,  exerted 
himself  in  the  English  cause,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Raja,  and 
further  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  half  the  territory  confiscated  from  the 
Raja  of  Nabha,  his  ancestral  estate  of  Kot-Kapiira  being  then  re- 
stored to  him.  Wazir  Singh,  the  son  and  successor  of  Pahar  Singh, 
served  on  the  side  of  the  British  during  the  second  Sikh  war  in  1849. 
In  the  Mutiny  of  1857  he  distinguished  himself  by  seizing  mutineers, 
guarding  the  Sutlej  ferries,  and  attacking  a  notorious  rebel.  Sham  Das, 
whose  village  he  destroyed.  For  these  services,  Wazir  Singh  was  duly 
rewarded.  He  died  in  April  1874,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Bikram  Singh,  the  present  (1883)  Raja,  who  was  born  in  1842.  He 
holds  his  State  under  a  sanad  oi  1863,  by  which  the  domain  belongs 
for  ever  to  the  Raja  and  his  male  heirs  lawfully  begotten.  The  right  of 
adoption  has  also  been  accorded.  The  Raja  has  abandoned  excise  and 
transit  duties  in  exchange  for  compensation.  His  estimated  revenue  is 
;^3o,ooo  per  annum.  He  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  11  guns.  The 
military  force  consists  of  200  cavalry,  600  infantry  and  police,  and  3 
field  guns. 

Faridkot— Chief  town  of  Faridkot  State,  Punjab,  and  residence 
of  the  Raja ;  situated  60  miles  south-west  of  Ludhiana  town,  in  lat. 
30°  40'  N.,  and  long.  74°  59'  E.  Population  (1881)  6593,  namely, 
Muhammadans,  3241;  Hindus,  1862;  Silchs,  1226;  and  Jains,  264; 
number  of  houses,  1132. 

Faridpur  {Furreedpore). — District  in  the  Dacca  Division  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal,  lying  between  22°  47'  53"  and  23° 
54'  55"  N.  lat.,  and  between  89°  21'  50"  and  90°  16'  e.  long.  Bounded 
on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Padma  or  main  stream  of  the  Ganges  ; 
on  the  west  by  the  Garai,  Barasia,  and  Madhumati  rivers ;  and  on  the 
south  by  a  line  of  swamps  and  the  Nawa  Bhangni.  The  civil  station 
and  chief  town  of  the  District  is  Faridpur  town,  on  the  bank  of  the 
Mara  Padma.     Area,  2267  square  miles;  population  (1881)  1,631,734. 


394  FARIDPUR. 

Physical  Aspects. — Faridpur  District  is  essentially  a  fluvial  creation, 
and  exhibits  the  later  stages  in  the  formation  of  the  Gangetic  delta. 
In  the  north,  the  level  is  now  comparatively  well  raised,  and  lies  above 
water  during  the  summer  and  cold  weather  months.  But  from  the 
town  of  Faridpur  the  level  gradually  declines  down  the  delta  to  the 
southward,  until  on  the  confines  of  Bakarganj  District  the  country 
sinks  into  one  vast  swamp,  never  entirely  dry,  and  in  this  tract  all 
communication  is  carried  on  by  means  of  boats.  The  soil  changes 
from  a  light  sandy  loam  in  the  north,  to  a  comparatively  recent  alluvial 
deposit  farther  south.  The  highest  levels,  as  in  other  deltaic  Districts, 
are  found  along  the  river  banks,  being  formed  by  the  annual  deposits 
from  overflow.  The  lowest  levels  lie  midway  between  the  rivers,  as 
such  situations  obtain  less  silt  from  overflows,  and  remain  perennial 
swamps.  The  population  clings  to  the  higher  levels ;  and  the  villages 
are  chiefly  built  along  the  river  banks,  or  on  the  margin  of  the  swamps, 
surrounded  with  a  picturesque  jungle  of  bamboos,  betel  palms,  and 
plantains.  These  villages  or  hamlets  consist  of  mud  huts,  and  often 
stand  on  artificially-raised  sites,  which,  during  the  rainy  season,  rise 
from  the  universal  expanse  of  water  like  wooded  islets. 

The  District  forms  a  tongue  of  land  between  two  great  rivers, 
the  Ganges,  or  Padma  as  it  is  locally  called,  and  the  Madhumati,  and 
is  cut  through  by  their  innumerable  distributaries  and  lines  of  swamps. 
The  chief  of  these  intersecting  water-ways  is  the  Arial  Khan ;  and 
these  large  rivers,  with  the  Barasia,  are  navigable  throughout  the  . 
year  by  large  trading  boats  of  four  tons  or  a  hundred  mauiids 
burthen.  It  is  impossible  to  attempt  a  list  of  the  streams  navigable 
by  boats  of  two  tons  burthen  during  the  rainy  season,  as  at  this  time 
of  the  year  nearly  the  whole  country  is  submerged,  and  boats  of  this 
or  even  greater  size  can  ply  over  almost  its  whole  surface.  The 
numerous  small  watercourses  or  khdls  with  which  the  District  is  in- 
tersected in  every  direction,  and  which  dry  up  in  the  cold  weather  and 
the  hot  season,  are  all  open  for  navigation  during  the  rains.  All  the 
large  rivers,  but  particularly  the  Ganges  or  Padma,  are  subject  to 
constant  alluvion  and  diluvion  on  an  extensive  scale,  large  islands  or 
chars  being  constantly  thrown  up  in  one  place,  and  washed  away  in 
another.  Changes  in  the  river  channels  are  also  constantly  taking 
place.  A  local  tradition  exists  that  the  Ganges  or  Padma  formerly 
took  a  southerly  direction  at  Salimpur,  a  village  about  25  miles  north 
of  Faridpur  town,  and  after  running  by  Kanaipur,  flowed  towards  the 
east,  and  discharged  itself  into  the  present  Padma,  which  was  then 
but  a  narrow  stream.  The  old  channel  has  now  silted  up,  and  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Mara  (or  dead)  Padma.  The  Padma, 
indeed,  has  now  several  channels,  flowing  between  constantly-shifting 
sandbanks    and   islands ;   but  it    is   impossible    to    give   any  idea  of 


FARJDPCR,  395 

the  changes  in  these  channels,  sometimes  one  being  navigable,  and 
sometimes  another.  Similar  changes  on  a  considerable  scale  occur 
in  the  Chandna.  About  fifty  years  ago,  the  hdzdr  of  Madhukhali 
was  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  when  the  stream  sud- 
denly changed  its  course,  and  began  to  flow  past  the  south  of  the 
bdzd7\  A  subsequent  alteration  of  channel  has  again  removed  the 
market-place  to  the  south  bank  of  the  river.  The  village  of  Bai- 
kunthpur,  which  was  formerly  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Chandna,  is 
now  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  that  river.  The  banks  of  the 
rivers  are  generally  shelving  on  one  side,  and  high  and  abrupt  on 
the  other,  according  to  the  set  of  the  current.  The  beds  of  the 
Padma,  Chandna,  Madhumati,  and  Barasia  are  sandy ;  that  of  the 
Kumar  is  of  clay  and  a  vegetable  mould  formed  by  a  species  of 
water-weed  called  pdtd  sdola,  which  is  used  as  a  clarifier  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar.  The  banks  of  the  Faridpur  rivers  are  for  the  most 
part  cultivated,  and  dotted  with  numerous  villages,  sometimes  ex- 
tending in  a  continuous  line  for  many  miles.  The  alluvial  islands 
(chars)  in  the  Padma  are  generally  covered  with  jungle  on  the 
Faridpur  side  of  the  river,  but  on  the  opposite  bank  they  are  cultivated 
and  contain  numerous  densely-populated  villages.  The  principal 
islands  formed  by  the  Ganges  in  its  course  along  the  northern 
boundary  of  Faridpur  are — Char  Ujan,  area  about  9179  acres;  Char 
Teprakandi,  about  5127  acres;  Char  Nasirpur,  about  11,735  acres; 
and  Char  Bhadrasan,  about  7340  acres.  During  the  rainy  season, 
not  a  single  river  in  the  District  is  fordable  ;  but  in  the  dry  season 
there  are  numerous  fords  on  the  Chandnd  and  Kumar.  The  Padma, 
Madhumati,  and  Arial  Khan  are  not  fordable  at  any  time  of  the  year 
at  any  place  within  the  limits  of  Faridpur  District. 

The  marshes  in  the  District  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  in 
detail,  but  the  most  important  are — (i)  The  Dhol  Samudra,  situated  a 
short  distance  to  the  south-east  of  Faridpur  town.  During  the  height 
of  the  rains,  this  marsh  expands  into  a  lake,  the  water  extending  to 
near  the  houses  of  the  town.  At  that  time  it  is  about  eight  miles  in 
circumference,  but  gradually  dwindles  in  the  cold  season,  and  in  the 
hot  weather  is  only  a  mile  or  two  in  circumference.  (2)  Bil  Patia  in 
the  south  of  Goalanda  Sub-division,  about  three  miles  in  length  by 
two  in  breadth  ;  not  navigable  in  the  dry  season.  (3)  Bil  Hathimohan, 
about  two  and  a  half  miles  in  length  by  two  in  breadth  ;  not  navigable 
in  the  dry  season.  (4)  Bil  Rankoli,  about  fifteen  miles  in  length  by 
six  in  breadth  ;  not  navigable  in  the  dry  season.  It  contains  several 
villages  within  it,  built  on  artificially-raised  sites.  (5)  The  Nasib 
Shahi  marsh  in  Goalanda  Sub-division,  about  sixteen  miles  long  and 
six  broad,  but  like  the  others  mentioned  above,  only  navigable  during 
the  rains.     It  also  contains  artificially-raised  villages  within  its  limits. 


396  FARIDPUR, 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  District,  the  marshes  are  too  numerous  to 
mention  ;  and  in  fact  the  whole  of  the  police  circle  ithdna)  of  Mak- 
siidpur  is  one  vast  swamp,  with  isolated  strips  of  dry  land  during  the 
dry  season.  Within  this  swamp  are  several  artificially-raised  mounds, 
inhabited  by  low-caste  Chandals,  who  keep  up  communication  from 
village  to  village,  and  often  from  house  to  house,  by  boat,  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  The  largest  marshes  in  the  south  of  the 
District  are  the  Mottar,  Chandra,  and  Bakhshir  bils. 

In  a  fluvial  District  like  Faridpur,  numerous  towns  or  trading  marts 
are  inhabited  by  a  community  living  mainly  by  river  traflic.  The 
principal  articles  of  river  trade,  which  form  the  chief  support  of  these 
towns  or  markets,  are — rice,  tobacco,  salt,  cotton,  oil,  linseed,  mustard, 
sugar,  molasses,  cloth,  pulses,  jute,  onions,  piece-goods,  iron,  tin,  copper, 
coal  tar,  mustard  oil,  brass  and  copper  manufactured  utensils,  and 
timber. 

Fisheries  are  extensively  carried  on,  and  contribute  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  material  wealth  of  the  District.  Fishermen  from  the 
neighbouring  Districts  of,  Dacca  and  Pabna,  as  well  as  those 
resident  in  Faridpur,  take  annual  leases  of  certain  portions  of  the 
rivers  for  catching  hilsdy  rohi,  kdtld,  dhdin,  pdngds,  and  other  large 
fish,  which  yield  them  a  considerable  profit.  In  1870,  the  annual 
value  of  the  traffic  carried  on  in  the  produce  of  the  fisheries  was  esti- 
mated at  ;,£"2o,ooo.  With  regard  to  the  fisheries  in  the  marshes  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  District,  the  following  extract  is  taken  from 
the  Revenue  Survey  Report  of  Faridpur : — '  These  jhils,  and  the 
streams  that  traverse  them,  afford  also  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
various  kinds  of  fish,  crabs,  and  prawns  to  the  various  local  markets. 
At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  no  small  quantity  of  the  fish  is  con- 
veyed to  the  Calcutta  and  other  markets  along  the  canal  or  Sundarban 
routes,  by  which  all  the  boat  traffic  is  carried  on  between  the  eastern 
Districts  and  the  metropolis.  The  fish  in  this  case  are  stored  in 
reservoirs  constructed  in  the  middle  of  the  boat,  and  closed  by  a 
grating  at  bottom,  through  which  a  constant  and  fresh  supply  of  water 
is  afforded.  The  boats  are  well-manned  and  swift,  and  are  pulled 
day  and  night.  The  fishermen  cast  the  dead  and  dying  fish  overboard 
en  7'oute,  and  by  these  means  keep  a  considerable  percentage  alive  and 
in  a  fair  condition  for  market.'  As  might  be  expected,  fish  forms  a 
large  part  of  the  food  of  the  people ;  and  in  certain  seasons,  when  the 
supply  of  fish  is  unusually  abundant,  the  lower  classes  may  be  said 
to  almost  live  on  this  diet  for  months  together. 

Marsh  or  river  reclamation,  with  a  view  to  the  extension  of  cul- 
tivation, has  never  been  practised  in  Faridpur.  The  marshes 
could  be  drained  by  artificial  watercourses  connecting  them  with  the 
rivers,   but   the  gain  would  probably  not  be  commensurate   with  the 


FARIDFUR.  397 

heavy  expenditure.  Canes  and  reeds  are  largely  produced  in  these 
marshes,  and  an  extensive  trade  in  mats  and  baskets  manufactured 
from  them  is  carried  on  throughout  the  District,  chiefly  by  the 
Chanddls,  a  low-caste  of  Hindus.  The  cutting  of  thatching  grass 
and  hogld  (a  broad-leaved  flag)  for  roofs,  etc.,  and  the  collection  of 
mussels  and  snails  for  burning  into  lime,  affords  occupation  to  many 
of  the  poorer  classes.  Excellent  clay  is  also  found  in  many  parts 
along  the  banks  of  the  marshes  and  rivers,  from  which  potters  make 
the  largest  kind  of  earthen  pots  for  packing  fish  and  for  holding 
grain  and  water,  measuring  ordinarily  4  or  4 J  feet  high  by  9  or 
10  feet  in  circumference.  Long -stemmed  rice  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  marshes  and  swamps.  The  stem  increases  in  lenglh 
in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  water ;  that  is  to  say,  it  rises 
with  the  rise  of  the  water,  and  ceases  to  grow  as  the  water  ceases 
to  rise.  This  description  of  rice,  of  which  twenty  -  four  different 
varieties  are  cultivated  in  Faridpur,  can  be  grown  in  water  to  a  depth 
of  18  feet. 

No  mineral  products,  such  as  coal,  metals,  lime,  or  building  stone 
are  found.  Pearls  were  formerly  obtained  from  the  Kumar  river ;  they 
were  found  in  the  shell  of  a  species  of  mussel,  and  the  shells  after  the 
extraction  of  the  pearls  were  burnt  and  converted  into  lime.  As  late  as 
1867,  the  Collector  reported  that  the  pearl  fishery  on  the  Kumar  yielded 
about  ^400  or  £,^00  a  year.  No  revenue-yielding  forests,  or  wild 
vegetable  productions  of  marketable  value,  are  found  in  P'aridpur ;  nor 
any  marketable  jungle  products  (except  a  red  powder  called  dbir, 
manufactured  from  the  root  of  a  wild  plant  called  sati\  or  uncultivated 
pasture  grounds.  The  larger  sort  of  wild  animals  found  in  the  Dis- 
trict consist  of  buffaloes,  leopards,  and  hog,  the  latter  of  which  swarm 
in  all  the  villages  in  the  north-west  and  south  of  the  country,  and  do 
considerable  damage.  In  some  parts,  their  depredations  are  such  that 
the  outlying  lands  of  a  village  are  unable  to  find  cultivators  from  this 
cause.  The  villagers  seldom  destroy  these  animals,  which  are  allowed 
to  breed  and  multiply  undisturbed.  The  smaller  varieties  of  game 
consist  of  hares,  wild  geese  and  ducks,  snipe,  curlew,  teal,  quails,  dove, 
green  pigeon,  etc.  The  fisheries  have  been  already  alluded  to  ;  and 
with  this  exception,  the  fauna  does  not  contribute  in  any  way  towards 
the  wealth  of  the  District. 

History. — The  present  District  of  Faridpur  has  been  a  gradual  growth, 
arising  out  of  the  desire  to  bring  the  courts  nearer  to  the  people. 
Under  Akbar's  redistribution  of  Bengal  (1582),  Faridpur  was  included 
within  the  sarkdr  of  Muhammad  Abiid ;  and  for  the  next  two  cen- 
turies remained  exposed  to  the  piratical  incursions  of  the  Maghs  or 
Burmese  from  the  seaboard,  and  of  the  Assamese,  who  sailed  down 
the  Brahmaputra  from  the  north,  ravaging  the  country  on  either  side. 


398  FARIDPUR. 

During  the  first  46  years  of  British  rule  (1765-181 1),  it  formed  an 
outlying  corner  of  the  great  Dacca  District,  under  the  name  of  Dacca 
Jalalpur.  As  the  head-quarters  then  lay  at  Dacca  town,  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  Ganges,  distinct  courts  were  erected  at  Faridpur  in  181 1  ; 
and  from  this  year  the  separate  existence  of  the  District  dates.  After 
various  transfers  and  readjustments,  Faridpur  now  forms  a  compact 
administrative  entity,  shut  in  between  the  Ganges  on  the  east  and  the 
Madhumati  on  the  west. 

Population^  etc. — No  accurate  returns  of  the  population  exist  before 
the  Census  of  1872.  Since  that  year,  the  Sub-division  of  Madaripur, 
excepting  Gaurnadi  thdnd,  has  been  transferred  from  Bakarganj  District 
to  Faridpur,  increasing  the  area  of  Faridpur  to  2267  square  miles. 
Allowing  for  these  transfers,  the  area  comprising  the  present  District 
contained  in  1872  a  total  of  1,502,436  inhabitants.  In  1881,  1,631,734 
persons  were  enumerated,  showing  an  increase  of  129,298  persons,  or 
8*6  per  cent.,  in  nine  years.  The  general  results  arrived  at  by  the 
Census  of  i88i  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  —  Area  of  District, 
2267  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and  villages,  4655;  number 
of  houses,  228,444,  of  which  224,134  were  occupied  and  4310  un- 
occupied. The  population  numbered  1,631,734,  namely,  805,989 
males  and  825,745  females;  proportion  of  males  in  total  popula- 
tion, 49*4  per  cent;  average  density  of  population,  71978  persons 
per  square  mile;  number  of  villages  per  square  mile,  2*05  ;  persons 
per  village,  349  ;  houses  per  square  mile,  loi  ;  inmates  per  house,  7*28. 
The  two  most  densely-populated  police  divisions  {thdnds)  in  1881  were 
Sibchar,  in  the  newly-acquired  Madaripur  Sub-division,  with  a  density 
of  959;  and  Bhanga,  in  the  head-quarters  Sub-division,  with  939  per 
square  mile.  Classified  according  to  religion,  the  population  was 
returned  as  follows: — Muhammadans,  974,983,  or  60  per  cent. ;  Hindus, 
653,992,  or  40  per  cent. ;  Christians,  2741  ;  Buddhists,  13 ;  and 
Brahmos,  5. 

The  Muhajnmadans  are  divided  into  the  two  classes  of  Sunnis  and 
Shias,  ofwhom  the  former  in  1881  numbered  965,254,  and  the  latter 
.7018,  while  27 1 1  were  returned  as  unspecified.  The  Musalman  popu- 
lation is  proportionately  most  numerous  in  the  north  of  the  District, 
and  the  great  majority  are  employed  in  agricultural  pursuits.  A  few 
are  traders,  dealing  in  jute  and  hides. 

Daulatpur  village,  in  this  District,  was  the  birthplace  of  Haji  Sharit- 
uUa,  the  founder  of  the  Faraizi  or  reformed  sect  of  Muhammadans, 
which  has  rapidly  spread  throughout  the  whole  of  Eastern  Bengal 
during  the  past  fifty  years.  The  Faraizis  are  properly  a  branch  of  the 
great  Sunni  division,  and  in  matters  of  law  and  speculative  theology 
they  profess  to  belong  to  the  school  of  Abii  Hanifa,  one  of  the  four 
authoritative  commentators  on  the  Kuran.     Their  essential  point  of 


FARIDPUR.  399 

difference  from  the  general  body  of  Surinis  consists  in  their  rejection  of 
traditional  custom.  They  declare  that  the  Kuran  is  the  complete 
guide  to  spiritual  life ;  and  they  therefore  call  themselves  Faraizis  or 
followers  of  the  fardiz  (plural  of  the  Arabic  word  farz),  the  divine 
ordinances  of  God  alone.  Historically,  they  represent  a  Puritan  reaction 
against  the  corrupt  condition  into  which  Islam  had  fallen  in  Bengal  at 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  in  this  as  in  other  respects  bear  an 
analogy  to  the  Wahabis  of  Arabia.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
vast  majority  of  Musalmans  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahma- 
putra are  descendants  of  the  aborigines,  who  willingly  embraced  Islam 
at  the  time  of  the  Muhammadan  conquest,  in  preference  to  remaining 
outcasts  beyond  the  pale  of  exclusive  Hinduism.  But  though  they 
became  converts  in  outward  profession,  they  still  retained  many  of  the 
superstitious  ceremonies  of  their  former  life,  and  joined  in  social  merry- 
makings with  their  fellow-villagers.  The  reform  inaugurated  by  Haji 
Sharit-ulla  was  a  protest  against  such  pagan  practices,  and  a  return  to 
the  simple  habits  and  pure  monotheism  of  the  Kuran.  In  especial, 
he  objected  to  the  squandering  of  large  sums  of  money  on  marriage 
festivities,  and  to  the  exclusive  employment  of  certain  persons  to  per- 
form the  rite  of  circumcision.  The  articles  of  faith  on  which  he  chiefly 
insisted  were  the  duty  of  the  holy  war  {jihdd\  the  sinfulness  of  infidelity 
{kufr),  of  introducing  rites  and  ceremonies  into  worship  {bida'at)^  and 
of  giving  partners  to  the  One  God  {shirk).  Externally,  a  Faraizi  may  be 
known  by  the  fashion  of  wrapping  his  dhiiti  or  waistcloth  round  his 
loins  without  crossing  it  between  his  legs,  so  as  to  avoid  any  resem- 
blance to  a  Christian's  trousers,  and  by  his  ostentatious  mode  of  offering 
prayers  with  peculiar  genuflexions  in  public.  The  rapid  spread  of  the 
Faraizi  movement  in  the  lifetime  of  its  founder  affords  suflicient  justifi- 
cation for  his  enthusiasm.  On  his  death,  his  followers  met  together 
and  elected  his  son,  Dudu  Miyan,  as  their  spiritual  chief  This  man 
appears  to  have  abused  the  implicit  confidence  imposed  in  him.  He 
was  charged  with  having  applied  the  subscriptions  to  his  own  use, 
and  with  many  tyrannical  acts.  On  more  than  one  occasion  he  was 
sentenced  to  terms  of  imprisonment  by  the  British  courts,  and  he  finally 
died  in  obscurity  at  Dacca  in  1862.  He  left  no  direct  successor,  but 
three  of  his  sons,  together  with  a  nephew,  set  themselves  up  as  leaders. 
Two  of  the  sons  are  now  (1883)  living,  and  maintain  themselves  in  that 
profession.  At  the  present  day  the  Faraizis  do  not  exhibit  any  active 
fanaticism,  nor  would  it  be  just  to  accuse  them,  as  a  class,  of  disloyalty 
to  the  British  Government.  The  majority  of  them  are  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  but  not  a  few  occupy  the  rank  of  traders,  being  especially  active  in 
the  export  of  hides.  All  alike  are  characterised  by  strictness  of  morals, 
religious  fervour,  and  faithful  promotion  of  the  common  interests  of  the 
sect.     They  are,  however,  intolerant  and  bigoted,  and  their  contempt 


400  FARIDPUR. 

for  the  opinion  of  others  has  been  the  cause  of  frequent  affrays  and 
disturbances,  which  have  brought  them  under  the  notice  of  the 
authorities. 

The  Hindus  number  653,992,  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  District  popu- 
lation. The  following  list  exhibits  the  principal  Hindu  castes  having 
upwards  of  5000  members: — Brahman,  priests,  landholders,  and  Govern- 
ment officials,  46,915  in  number;  Baniya,  traders,  8700;  Barhai, 
carpenters,  5273;  Barui,  growers  oi  pan  or  betel  leaf,  8201  ;  Chandal, 
a  semi-aboriginal  caste  or  tribe,  principally  inhabiting  the  swamps  and 
marshes  in  the  south,  and  the  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District, 
244,923.  A  separate  account  of  this  people  will  be  found  below. 
Dhobi,  washermen,  9827  ;  Goala,  cowherds  and  milkmen,  6316  ;  Jaliya, 
fishermen,  28,607  ;  Kaibartta,  fishermen  and  cultivators,  24,010  ;  Lobar, 
blacksmiths,  9550;  Kapali,  weavers,  12,189;  Kayasth,  clerks,  land- 
holders, and  Government  officials,  the  second  most  numerous  caste  in 
the  District,  84,193  ;  Kumbhar,  potters,  10,783  ;  Napit,  barbers,  19,165  ; 
Sudra,  cultivators,  15,109;  Sunri,  wine-sellers  and  merchants,  34,491; 
Tell,  oil-sellers  and  merchants,  12,994.  Aboriginal  tribes  who  have 
embraced  Hinduism,  chiefly  Bunas  and  Bhumijs,  number  6552  ;  and 
Vaishnavs  and  other  Hindus  who  reject  caste,  7672. 

The  Chanddls,  a  race  of  Hinduized  aborigines,  referred  to  above  as 
the  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District,  number  a  million  and  a  half 
in  Lower  Bengal,  of  whom  considerably  more  than  one-half  are  found 
in  the  Districts  of  the  Dacca  Division.  They  are  doubtless  one  of 
those  aboriginal  races  who  embraced  Hinduism,  and,  like  the  Kai- 
barttas,  are  mentioned  in  the  sacred  epics  of  the  Mahabharata  and 
Ramayana.  They  are  semi-amphibious  in  their  habits,  and  capable  of 
enduring  the  extremity  of  exposure  and  fatigue.  They  are  of  a  supe- 
rior physical  development  to  the  mass  of  the  population,  and  this  is 
attributed,  not  to  their  being  of  a  different  race,  but  to  their  mode 
of  life :  inhabiting  a  river  District,  and  constantly  employed  in  row- 
ing, the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  chest  get  more  developed  than  in 
men  who  pass  their  days  at  the  plough.  From  time  immemorial,  the 
Chandals  have  been  despised  by  the  upper-class  Hindus,  and  a  Brah- 
man thought  himself  defiled  by  even  treading  upon  the  shadow  cast 
by  the  body  of  a  Chandal.  A  great  part  of  them  accordingly  turned 
Musalmans  under  the  Afghan  and  Mughal  Governments,  and  the 
remainder  are  now  endeavouring  to  push  themselves  forward  to  a  com- 
paratively respectable  position  in  the  Hindu  social  scale.  A  recent 
Collector  of  the  District,  about  1870,  thus  reported  on  this  interestmg 
race,  which  so  largely  peoples  the  dreary  and  unwholesome  swamps  in 
the  south  of  Faridpur  : — '  These  Chandals  believe  themselves  to  have 
been  once  a  complete  Hindu  community,  consisting  of  all  castes  from 
Brahmans  downwards,  who,  on  having  the  misfortune  to  be  cursed  in  a 


FARIDPUR.  401 

body  by  a  vengeful  Brahman  of  great  sanctity  in  Dacca,  quitted  their 
homes  and  emigrated  in  a  body  to  the  southern  wastes  of  Farldpur, 
Jessor,  and  Bakarganj.  There,  with  great  perseverance  and  toil,  they 
raised  in  the  centre  of  the  swamps  large  hillocks  from  12  to  20  feet  in 
height,  whereon  they  built  their  homesteads  in  the  dry  weather  in  order 
to  preserve  their  cattle  and  goods  during  the  inundations.  Here 
they  are  located  to  the  present  day,  cultivating  the  swamps  with  rice 
and  jute,  and  carrying  on  the  occupations  of  fishing  and  bird-catching, 
varied  with  mat  and  basket  weaving,  and  the  cutting  of  grass  for 
thatching  purposes  and  for  the  consumption  of  their  cattle.  In  the 
rains  the  water  rises  over  10  feet,  and  leaves  their  artificial  mounds  like 
so  many  islands  in  a  huge  lake.  Locomotion  then  becomes  impossible 
except  by  boat ;  while  they  have  to  collect  their  cattle  and  keep  them 
in  their  homesteads,  feeding  them  on  what  fodder  they  may  have 
stored  up  during  the  dry  season,  and  on  a  grass  which,  like  the  rice, 
grows  with  the  rise  of  the  water,  and  in  appearance  very  much  resembles 
paddy.  These  cattle  have  often  to  remain  for  days  standing  above  their 
bellies  in  water ;  and  as  their  food  has  to  be  stored  up  for  them  in  the 
homesteads,  they  are  fed  on  the  minimum  amount  necessary  to  support 
existence.  Consequently,  by  the  end  of  the  rainy  season,  they  are 
reduced  to  skeletons,  and  very  many  die  in  the  meantime.  It  is  this 
that  renders  it  impossible  to  introduce  a  larger  and  less  hardy  descrip- 
tion of  cattle.  However,  notwithstanding  all  the  difficulties  this 
Chandal  community  has  to  contend  against,  they  are  strongly  attached 
to  the  home  of  their  adoption,  and  resist  all  inducements  to  abandon  it. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  transfer  some  of  them  to  the  Sundarbans, 
but  without  success.  They  prefer  remaining  in  the  region  to  which 
they  have  adapted  themselves  perseveringly  and  laboriously,  where 
they  are  not  likely  to  be  envied  in  their  lot,  and  where  they  can  dwell 
together  as  a  distinct  community,  with  their  own  priests,  castes,  and 
traditions.  Their  occupations,  and  their  enforced  practice  of  going 
about  in  boats  during  a  great  portion  of  the  year,  have  rendered  the 
Chandals  a  hardy  and  muscular  race.' 

Of  the  Christian  Populatioji^  numbering  2741,  natives  of  India 
numbered  2591 ;  Eurasians,  74;  Europeans  and  British-born  subjects,  72 ; 
'others,'  4.  In  religion,  the  great  majority,  2416,  belong  to  the  Baptist 
persuasion,  a  branch  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Australia  having  established 
missions  in  Faridpur  town,  and  in  some  of  the  rural  villages.  The 
converts  are  chiefly  Chandils,  poor  in  circumstances,  and  are  looked 
down  upon  by  the  other  inhabitants.  The  Roman  Catholic  community 
numbered  68 ;  the  Church  of  Scotland,  88 ;  Church  of  England  and 
other  Protestants,  108  members. 

Divisio7i  of  the  People  into  Totcn  a7id  Country. — The  population  is 
entirely  rural,  the  so-called  urban  population  only  amounting  to  1-91 

VOL.  IV.  2  c 


402  FARIDPUR, 

per  cent,  of  the  whole.  Only  four  towns  contain  upwards  of  five 
thousand  inhabitants,  namely,  Madaripur,  12,298  ;  Faridpur,  10,263  ; 
GoALANDA,  8652  ;  and  Kutabpur,  7458  inhabitants.  Out  of  a  total 
of  4655  villages,  more  than  one-half,  or  2514,  were  returned  in  the 
Census  Report  as  containing  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants ;  1401 
from  two  to  five  hundred;  524  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  180 
from  one  to  two  thousand;  22  from  two  to  three  thousand;  10  from 
three  to  five  thousand ;  2  from  five  to  ten  thousand ;  and  2  from  ten 
to  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants. 

The    Material   Condition    of    the   People,    owing    to    the    impetus 
which  has  been  given  to  tillage,  together  with  the  increased  price  of 
produce,  has  much  advanced  of  late.      The   cultivating  classes,  who 
form  the  great  mass  of  the  population,  are  visibly  better  off  than  in 
former  years,  and  they  are  gradually  acquiring  a  taste  for  what  may  be 
called  luxuries.    Although  about  one-half  of  the  cultivators  are  reported 
to  be  in  debt,  they  are  said  to  be  able  to  live  comfortably  after  paying 
the  interest  on  their  old  standing  loans.     The  middle  class  of  people, 
however,  who  live    on   fixed   salaries,   do    not   fare    so  well,   and  the 
increased  price  of  provisions  has  considerably  straitened  their  circum- 
stances.    There  is  but  little  immigration  into,  and  no  emigration  from 
the  District.     The  Bunas,  who  were  formerly  employed  as  labourers  in 
the  indigo  factories,  appear  to  have  settled  permanently  in  the  District 
after  the  factories  were  closed.      They  do  not  amalgamate  with  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  although  they  live  in  the  same  towns  and 
villages  with  them,  build  their  houses  close  together  in  a  quarter  by 
themselves.     In   origin,    they   are    immigrants    from    Chutia    Nagpur. 
Many  persons  annually  proceed  to  Calcutta  and  elsewhere  as    boat- 
men  and   in  other   capacities,   but  almost  invariably   return   to  their 
homes.     Many  also  leave  the  District  during  the  harvest  season  as 
reapers,  going  principally  to  Bakarganj.      As  regards  occupation,  the 
Census  Report  of  1881    divides   the   male  population    into   six  main 
classes,    as    follows :— Class   (i)    Professional,    including   Government 
officials  and  professional   men,   15,784;    (2)  domestic  service,  9827; 
(3)  commercial  class,  including  merchants,  traders,  carriers,  messengers, 
etc.,  26,776;  (4)   agricultural   class,   including   cultivators,   gardeners, 
herdsmen,  and  others    engaged  about  animals,   374,986 ;    (5)  manu- 
facturing and  industrial  class,  53,987  ;  (6)  indefinite  and  unproductive 
(comprising  15,758  general  labourers,  and  308,871   male  children  and 
persons  of  no  specified  occupation),  324,629. 

Agriculture,  etc. — Staple  products  of  the  District  :— Rice,  of  four 
principal  varieties,  viz.  dman  (or  winter  rice),  aus  (the  autumn  crop), 
boro  (or  rice  grown  on  low  or  marshy  ground),  and  rdidd.  Of  the  four 
descriptions  of  rice,  the  two  first-named  are  the  more  generally  culti- 
vated, and  form  the  staple  crop  of  the   District;  the  two  latter  are 


FARIDPUR.  4C3 

almost  entirely  consumed  by  the  peasant  who  raises  them.  The  dus 
and  dman  rice  are  sown  broadcast,  the  seeds  being  generally  inter- 
mixed, on  lands  neither  too  high  nor  too  low.  Where  the  dus  is 
separately  cultivated,  it  is  generally  planted  in  pretty  high  ground, 
in  rotation  with  a  crop  of  sugar-cane.  Aman  rice  grows  luxuir- 
antly  in  rather  low  ground  where  the  rain-water  collects.  The  best 
qualities  of  df?ian  rice  are  transplanted  from  nurseries  into  carefully- 
prepared  land,  which,  by  repeated  ploughings  early  in  the  rains,  is 
worked  into  a  field  of  knee-deep  mud.  This  rice  is  always  kept  for 
sale,  the  cultivator  using  the  coarser  varieties  for  his  own  consumption. 
The  d^nan  rice  is  of  two  genera,  the  baran  and  ch/iotnd, — the  former 
comprising  23,  and  the  latter  13  distinct  varieties.  Of  these  species, 
the  baran  is  regarded  by  the  Hindus  as  sacred,  while  the  chhotnd  is 
not ;  and  a  Sanskrit  couplet  {sloka)  is  quoted  from  the  Sdstras  contain- 
ing a  precept  to  avoid  the  use  of  this  rice  on  account  of  its  ripening 
before  the  setting  in  of  the  cold  weather.  The  baran  dman  is  sown  in 
March,  April,  and  May,  and  reaped  from  November  to  January.  The 
impure  chJwtJid  df^iati  is  sown  broadcast  in  moist  lands  in  March,  April, 
and  May,  and  reaped  in  October  and  November.  The  dus  rice 
consists  of  27  different  varieties,  sown  between  March  and  May,  and 
reaped  between  June  and  August.  Boro  rice  consists  of  5,  and  rdidd  of 
4  varieties ;  both  are  sown  in  marshy  lands  from  October  to  December, 
afterwards  transplanted,  and  harvested  in  March,  April,  and  May.  All 
the  rice  sown  in  high  lands  and  in  shallow  water  is  cut  close  to  the 
ground  when  ripe,  so  as  to  leave  as  little  stubble  as  possible,  and  to 
save  all  the  straw  for  the  cattle.  In  deep  water,  however,  only  the  ears 
are  cut  off;  the  stems  remain  in  the  fields  till  the  water  subsides,  when 
they  are  either  burnt  for  manure,  or  collected  for  household  fuel,  or  for 
thatching  purposes. 

The  other  crops  comprise — wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize,  pulses,  tubers, 
oil-seeds,  fibres,  sugar-cane,  date-palm,  indigo,  pdji,  safiflower,  fruits, 
and  tobacco.  About  one-half  the  area  of  the  District  is  under  cul- 
tivation. Good  land  in  Faridpur  yields  22  cwt.  of  dmafi  paddy  per 
acre,  and  rents  at  12s. ;  the  highest  rent  paid  is  24s.  an  acre.  From 
10  to  12  acres  are  considered  a  fair-sized  holding  for  a  peasant 
family.  Much  land  is  held  on  the  maurusi  tenure  —  a  lease  in 
perpetuity,  conveying  rights  of  inheritance  and  transfer  upon  the 
cultivator,  and  not  liable  to  enhancement  of  rent.  Hawdid  {hdo/d)  and 
nim-hawdld  tenures,  of  a  similar  character,  are  also  common  in  this 
District. 

The  cultivators,  as  a  rule,  are  well  off,  as  about  75  per  cent,  of  them 
have  '  occupancy '  rights  in  their  holdings.  The  cattle  and  implements 
required  for  '  a  plough  of  land,'  or  a  holding  of  5  acres,  represent  a 
capital  of  about  ;^4,  los. ;  a  peasant  family  can  live  respectably  on  ;Qi 


404  FARIDPUR. 

a  month.  Wages  and  prices  have  risen  greatly  of  late  years.  In  1855, 
day-labourers  received  2^d.  to  3d.  per  diem — in  1883,  from4^d.  to  yjd. ; 
carpenters  in  1855,  12s.  to  i6s.  a  month — in  1883,  jQ\  to  £\,  8s. 
The  price  of  common  rice  rose  from  2s.  8d.  per  cwt.  in  i860  to  3s.  6d. 
in  1870,  and  4s.  in  1883  ;  and  other  staples  in  proportion.  The  culti- 
vators do  much  of  their  ploughing  and  reaping  by  a  system  of '  mutual 
assistance '  or  gdti.  The  following  extract  from  the  History  and 
Statistics  of  the  Dacca  Divisioji  (Faridpur  section,  p.  197)  explains  the 
system  pursued  for  obtaining  assistance  in  tillage : — '  In  ploughing 
and  weeding,  a  cultivator  has  generally  to  procure  extra  hands ;  for 
this,  however,  no  payment  is  tendered,  as  the  person  so  assisted  repays 
the  debt  by  working  himself  for  those  who  helped  him.  Sometimes  a 
certain  number  of  ploughs  are  engaged  and  paid  for,  but  this  is  not 
usually  the  case.  Those  who  do  not  labour  at  the  plough  themselves 
employ  this  kind  of  labour,  or  else  hire  farm-servants,  who  are  paid  by 
monthly  wages.  The  reaping  is  generally  done  by  labourers,  who  are 
p>aid  out  of  the  produce.  The  general  agreement  seems  to  be,  that  the 
labourer  takes  for  himself  ope  bundle  out  of  every  five  or  six  reaped  by 
him.'  Another  mode  of  getting  assistance  for  agricultural  purposes 
was  formerly  sometimes  resorted  to.  When  a  cultivator  required  extra 
hands  for  ploughing  or  weeding,  he  had  only  to  promise  a  good  dinner 
and  he  was  sure  of  getting  as  many  men  as  he  needed.  This  system, 
however,  has  fallen  into  disuse,  as  the  return  on  the  labour  thus 
obtained  hardly  compensated  for  the  expenses  incurred  in  providing 
a  substantial  dinner.  No  class  of  day-labourers  exists  in  Faridpur, 
neither  possessing  nor  renting  land.  The  higher  class  of  husbandmen 
generally  engage  servants,  who  cultivate  their  fields,  as  well  as  perform 
other  work,  and  who  are  paid  by  monthly  wages.  Most  of  the  servants 
of  this  class,  however,  have  lands  of  their  own,  which,  during  their 
absence,  are  cultivated  by  their  brothers  or  other  relatives.  Children 
are  largely  employed  in  the  fields,  but  not  women. 

Natural  Calamities. — Partial  blights  occur  nearly  every  year,  being 
chiefly  caused  by  insects  and  worms.  Floods  occur  annually  on  a 
more  or  less  destructive  scale,  and  are  due  to  the  rising  of  the  rivers 
Padma,  Garai,  and  Chandna  before  they  enter  Faridpur.  The  waters 
spread  over  the  whole  District,  but  seldom  cause  a  general  failure  of 
the  crops;  they  did  so,  however,  in  1824,  1838,  and  1871.  During 
the  Bengal  famine  of  1866,  there  was  no  failure  of  the  rice  harvest  in 
Faridpur  itself,  but  the  heavy  price  of  grain  told  severely  upon  the 
people.  It  is  stated  that  during  that  famine,  when  the  price  of  rice  was 
between  9  and  1 1  lbs.  for  a  shilling  during  four  months,  men  who  in 
ordinary  times  would  be  considered  in  fair  circumstances  were  gradu- 
ally reduced  to  one  meal  a  day,  and  the  poorer  classes  were  obliged  to 
ask  for  a  share  of  the  meals  of  their  more  fortunate  neighbours.     The 


FARIDPUR.  405 

distress,  however,  never  reached  such  a  pitch  in  Faridpur  as  to  render 
relief  operations  on  the  part  of  Government  needful.  The  country  is 
not  protected  by  embankments  or  other  defensive  works.  Partial 
droughts  occur  at  intervals,  but  no  precautions  are  taken  against  them. 
The  large  landholders  have  not  yet  undertaken  reclamation  works  with 
a  view  of  draining  the  numerous  swamps  and  marshes. 

Manufactures^  etc. — The  most  important  manufacture  of  Faridpur, 
and  the  staple  article  of  District  trade,  is  sugar,  prepared  both  from  the 
juice  of  the  date-tree  and  from  the  cane.  Indigo  was  formerly  manu- 
factured to  a  considerable  extent,  but  all  the  European  factories  are 
now,  with  one  exception,  closed.  A  fine  matting  called  sital  pdti — 
very  cool  to  sleep  on  during  the  hot  season — is  skilfully  woven  out  of  a 
peculiar  wild  grass.  All  the  local  manufactures  are  conducted  by  the 
workers  on  their  own  account,  and  in  their  own  houses,  excepting 
sugar,  which  is  made  by  hired  labourers  on  monthly  wages.  Chief 
articles  of  trade — rice,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  oil-cake,  jute,  sugar,  molasses, 
tobacco,  chillies,  onions,  cocoa-nuts,  betel-nuts,  ghi^  salt,  piece-goods, 
iron,  spices,  timber,  mustard  oil,  fish,  poultry,  hides,  mangoes,  fruit, 
oranges,  potatoes,  honey,  brass,  bell  -  metal  and  copper  utensils. 
GoALANDA,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  is  one  of 
the  principal  river  marts  in  Eastern  Bengal,  being  the  terminus  of  the 
railway  and  the  point  of  departure  of  the  Assam  steamers.  The  chief 
seats  of  local  trade  are — Madaripur,  Bhanga,  Gopalganj,  Boalmari, 
Pangsa,  Godarbazar,  Sibchar,  and  Madhukhali.  The  water-ways  carry 
the  entire  traffic  of  the  District.  There  are  only  four  important  lines  of 
road  in  Faridpur — viz.  the  Calcutta  and  Jessor  road,  from  Faridpur 
town  to  Dhobaghata  on  the  Barasia,  19  miles  in  length,  with  a  branch 
of  4  miles  to  Boalmari ;  the  Belgachhi  road,  from  Faridpur  to  Kalinagar, 
16  miles  in  length;  and  the  Talma  road,  from  Faridpur  to  Talma,  11 
miles  in  length.  These  roads  are  often  damaged  by  floods,  and  at 
times  lie  under  water  for  many  days.  The  Eastern  Bengal  Railway 
runs  for  28  miles  from  west  to  east  through  the  north  of  the  District, 
having  its  terminus  at  Goalanda.  A  native  association  called  the 
Suhrid  Sabhd^  with  its  head-quarters  at  Calcutta,  has  a  branch  at  Farid- 
pur, and  is  fairly  successful  in  promoting  female  education,  holding 
examinations  of  zaiidna  ladies  and  others,  and  granting  rewards  and 
certificates  to  those  who  reach  a  certain  standard.  There  is  also  at 
Faridpur  a  flourishing  joint-stock  native  banking  company,  called  the 
'  Faridpur  Loan  Office,  Limited,'  believed  to  be  the  first  institution  of 
the  kind  in  Eastern  Bengal.     The  shares  are  at  a  high  premium. 

Admbiistration^  etc. — Owing  to  changes  in  jurisdiction,  it  is  impossible 
to  show  accurately  the  increase  in  the  revenue  of  Faridpur.  In  1850-5 1, 
the  total  revenue  of  the  District  was  only  ;£"io,229,  of  which  £,^^1^ 
was   derived  from   the   land;    in  that  year  the  total  expenditure  was 


4o6  FARIDPUR. 

;£"8374.     By  1870-71,  or  within  twenty  years,  the  revenue  had  risen  to 
^'58,868,  of  which   ^27,321  came  from  the  land,  and  ;£"!  1,980  from 
stamps ;   while   the    expenditure   in   the  same   period    had    grown   to 
^25,013.     In  1882-83,  after  the  transfer  of  the  greater  part  of  Madari- 
l)ur   Sub-division  from   Bakarganj,  the  total  revenue,   including  local 
cesses,  had  increased  to  ;£"io4,662,  of  which  ;^55,2  24  was  derived 
from  the  land,  and  ^£^29,385  from  stamps ;  the  expenditure  in  the  same 
year  being  returned  at  ^30,000.     The  extent  to  which  the  sub-division 
of  landed  property  has  progressed  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in 
1 85 1  there  were  only  165  estates  on  the  rent-roll,  with  an  average  pay- 
ment of  ^23,  IS.  ojd.  ;  whereas  in  1870  the  number  of  estates  was 
2307,  and  the  average  payment  ;^ii,  i6s.  4d.     In  1883,  the  number 
of  estates  was  5933  ;  but  this  increase  is  due  more  to  the  transfer  of 
small  estates  from  neighbouring  Districts,  especially  Bakarganj,  than  to 
the  sub-division  of  original  estates.     The  average  payment  from  these 
5933   estates  in   1883  was  ;£"9,  6s.   2d.      In  1883,  there  were  in  the 
District   8   stipendiary  magistrates'  courts,   3   benches  of  magistrates, 
9  revenue   and    10  civil  courts.     The  regular  poHce  force  numbered 
392  men  of  all  ranks  (including  a  river  patrol  of  8  men,  with  4  boats), 
or  I  man  to  every  5*78  square  miles.     This  also  includes  the  munici- 
l)al    police.     The    village  watch  was  2964  strong.     The    total   police 
force,  therefore,  amounted  to  3356  men.     In  1882,  the  daily  average 
number  of  prisoners  in  Faridpur  jail  was  313;  total  number  admitted 
during  the  year,  1129.    The  hard-labour  prisoners  were  chiefly  employed 
in  enlarging  the  jail  buildings;  some  also  in  making  bricks  and  bamboo 
or  rattan  articles,  and  in  oil-pressing.      Since  the  introduction  of  Sir 
George    Campbell's    reforms    (1872),    primary    education    has    rapidly 
extended.     Active  measures  are  being  taken  to  establish  schools  among 
the  Chandals.      In    1882,  there  were  480  schools  aided  or  inspected 
by   Government,   attended  by  about    14,500   pupils.      This  does  not 
include  private  indigenous  schools  ;  and  the  Census  Report  of  1881 
returned    27,404  boys    and    568   girls   as   under   instruction,    besides 
48,912  other  males  and  767  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not 
under   instruction.      In    i88i,    the    number   of  villages   in    Faridpur 
District  was   returned  at  4655  ;  average  population,  349.     There  are 
two  administrative  Sub-divisions  (Faridpur   and  Goalanda),   and  3 
municipalities  (Faridpur,  Goalanda,  and  Madaripur)  ;  total  munici- 
pal income  (1882-83),  ^1388. 

Medical  Aspects^  etc. — The  climate  of  Faridpur  is  very  damp;  the 
rains  often  set  in  at  the  end  of  April,  and  by  the  end  of  June  the 
greater  part  of  the  District  is  under  water.  Average  annual  rainfall  for 
the  ten  years  ending  1882,  707  inches.  Malarial  fevers,  cholera,  and 
rheumatism  are  prevalent.  There  are  dispensaries  at  Faridpur,  Goa- 
landa,  and    Madaripur,   at  which   543    in-door   and    10,138    out-door 


FARIDPUR  TO  WN  AND  TAHSIL.  407 

patients  received  medical  relief  in  the  year  1882.  [For  further  informa- 
tion regarding  Faridpur,  see  the  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal^  vol.  vi. 
pp.  255-362  (London:  Trubner  &  Co..  1876).  Also  the  Revenue 
Survey  Report  of  the  Districts  of  Jessore,  Faridpur,  and  £dkarga?ij\  by 
Colonel  J.  E.  Gastrell  (Calcutta,  1868);  Account  of  Faridpur  printed 
in  the  Report  on  the  History  and  Statistics  of  the  Dacca  Division  (Cal- 
cutta, 1868);  the  Census  Report  of  Bengal  for  1881  ;  Adnmiistration 
and  Departmental  Reports  for  Bengal  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Faridpur. — The  Sadr  or  head-quarters  Sub-division  of  Faridpur 
District,  Bengal,  comprising  the  five  thdnds  or  police  circles  of  Faridpur, 
Bhiishna,  Avvanpur,  Bhanga,  and  Maksudpur,  lying  between  22°  52' 
30"  and  23°  38'  N.  lat.,  and  between  89°  34'  and  90''  14'  e.  long. 
Area,  860  square  miles;  number  of  villages,  1917;  houses,  88,397. 
Population  (1881)  620,545,  namely,  males  304,072,  and  females 
316,473.  Hindus  numbered  239,449;  Muhammadans,  380,555; 
Christians,  486;  Brahmos,  5.  Average  density  of  population,  721-5 
persons  per  square  mile:  number  of  villages  per  square  mile,  2*23; 
houses  per  square  mile,  105 ;  persons  per  village,  324 ;  persons 
per  house,  7.  In  1882,  the  Sub-division  contained  5  civil  and  7 
criminal  courts.  The  regular  District  police  consisted  of  a  force 
of  2 1 2  men  of  all  ranks  ;  chaukiddrs  or  village  watchmen  numbered 
1 171. 

Faridpur.  —  Chief  town  and  civil  station  of  Faridpur  District, 
Bengal ;  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  small  river  Mara  Padma,  in 
lat.  23°  36'  25"  N.,  and  long.  89°  53'  ii"e.  Population  (1881)  10,263, 
namely,  Hindus,  5349;  Muhammadans,  4856;  and  'others,'  58;  area 
of  town  site,  5001  acres.  To  the  south  lies  the  Dhol  Samudra,  a  fresh- 
water lake,  which  affords  ample  drainage  except  in  the  height  of  the 
rains;  water  is  scarce  in  the  dry  season,  but  otherwise  wholesome. 
Municipal  revenue  (1882-83),  ^644;  rate  of  municipal  taxation, 
IS.  3d.  per  head  of  population  within  municipal  limits.  In  January,  an 
annual  agricultural  exhibition  is  held;  this  show,  first  instituted  in  1864, 
has  of  late  much  increased  in  importance,  and  has  given  a  considerable 
impetus  to  the  manufactures  and  agriculture  of  the  District.  The 
South  Australian  Baptist  Mission  has  a  branch  in  the  town ;  and  the 
Brahma  Samaj  was  represented  in  1883  by  20  followers.  An  anni- 
versary Samaj  is  held  every  year,  which  is  largely  attended  both  by 
Brahmas  and  orthodox  Hindus. 

Faridpur.  —  Southern  tahsil  of  Bareilly  (Bareli)  District,  North- 
western Provinces,  consisting  of  the  single  pargand  of  Faridpur.  Area, 
249  square  miles,  of  which  177  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881) 
111,141,  namely,  males  60,254,  and  females  50,887.  Hindus  num- 
bered 96,233;  Muhammadans,  14,898;  and  'others,'  10.  Number  of 
towns     nd  villages,  323.     Land  revenue,  p{;i5»9i4 ;  total  Government 


4o8  FARIDPUR   VILLAGE. 

revenue,  ;^i7,78i;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;£"3o,846;  incidence  of 
Government  revenue  per  acre,  2S.  ojd.  This  tahsil  is  described  as 
the  most  unproductive  tract  in  the  whole  of  Bareilly  District,  consisting 
for  the  most  part  of  a  plateau  with  light  siliceous  soil,  undulating  in 
places  into  gleaming  sandy  ridges  which  present  the  appearance  of 
low  hills.  In  years  of  abundant  rainfall  such  soil  often  yields  a  good 
autumn  crop.  But  as  no  facilities  for  irrigation  exist,  its  produce  in 
ordinary  years  hardly  repays  the  labour  of  cultivation.  Two  tracts — the 
basins  of  the  Ramganga  river  along  the  western  and  south-western  border 
of  the  tahsil^  and  of  the  Baghiil  and  Kailas  rivers,  a  wedge-shaped 
tract  along  the  western  border,  with  its  apex  in  the  centre  of  the 
tahsil — are  exceptions  to  the  general  sterility.  In  the  former  tract,  the 
soil  is  a  rich,  deep  loam,  whose  natural  humidity  renders  irrigation 
superfluous,  even  in  seasons  of  drought.  The  latter  is  composed  of 
excellent  loam  and  clay,  and  is  watered  both  from  dams  on  the  rivers 
and  from  wells.  The  Bareilly  branch  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand 
Railway  crosses  the  tahsil^  with  stations  at  Fatehganj  East  and  Faridpur. 
Parallel  to  the  railway  runs  the  Rohilkhand  Trunk  Road.  The  only 
other  road  is  the  Bareilly-Bisalpur  line,  which  traverses  the  northern 
border.  There  are  no  important  manufactures ;  and  trade  is  confined 
chiefly  to  the  sale  of  agricultural  raw  produce,  the  principal  markets 
being  at  the  towns  of  Faridpur,  Tisua,  and  Fatehganj  East.  The  tahsil 
or  Sub -division  contains  i  criminal  court,  with  3  thdnds  or  police 
stations;  strength  of  regular  police,  38  men,  besides  297  chaukidd^s  or 
village  watchmen. 

Faridpur. — Chief  village  of  Faridpur  tahsil,  Bareilly  (Bareli)  District, 
North-Western  Provinces;  situated  in  lat.  28°  12'  17"  n.,  and  long.  79° 
4'  45"  E.,  on  the  route  from  Bareilly  town  to  Shahjahanpur,  14  miles 
south-east  of  the  former.  Population  (1881)  5881,  namely,  Hindus, 
3471;  Muhammadans,  2402;  and  'others,'  8.  Area  of  town  site,  95 
acres.  A  small  munici])al  revenue  for  police  and  conservancy  purposes 
is  raised  under  the  provisions  of  Act  xx.  of  1856.  The  town  is  long 
and  narrow,  with  few  brick-built  houses,  but  many  well-built  mud 
structures  of  the  better  class.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway.  Market  twice  a  week;  no  important  manu- 
factures. The  public  buildings  consist  of  the  usual  tahsili  or  Sub- 
divisional  offices,  two  sardis  (native  inns),  post-office,  school,  road 
bungalow,  and  several  temples.  A  fine  mango  grove  is  situated  near 
the  village,  and  the  surrounding  country  is  well  cultivated.  Water  and 
supplies  are  abundant,  and  a  good  encamping  ground  lies  to  the  south, 
beside  the  Shahjahanpur  road.  The  town,  which  was  formerly  called 
Pura,  was  originally  founded  by  some  insurgent  Katehriya  Rajputs, 
who  were  expelled  from  Bareilly  city  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 
It  derives  its  present  name  from   one  Shaikh  Fan'd,  a  mendicant,  or. 


FARUKHABAD.  409 

according  to  others,  a  governor  who  built  a  fort  here  in  Rohilla  limes, 
1748-74. 

Farukhabdd.  —  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces,  lying  between  26°  46'  31"  and  27°  42'  51"  n. 
lat,  and  between  79°  9'  59"  and  80°  3'  59"  e.  long.  Farukhabad  forms 
the  south-eastern  District  of  the  Agra  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Budaun  and  Shahjahanpur ;  on  the  east  by  the  Oudh  District 
of  Hardoi ;  on  the  south  by  Cawnpur  and  Etawah  ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Mainpuri  and  Etah.  Area,  17 19  square  miles.  Population  (1881) 
907,608  persons.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  Fatehgarh  ; 
but  Farukhabad,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Ganges,  is  the  most 
populous  town  in  the  District. 

Physical  Aspects.  —  The  District  of  Farukhabad  consists  of  an 
irregular  strip  of  country  in  the  middle  Doab,  together  with  a  small 
outlying  tract  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  the  Ganges.  The  former 
portion  presents  the  usual  monotonous  features  of  the  great  alluvial 
plain  to  which  it  belongs.  Starting  from  the  banks  of  the  river,  a 
belt  of  land,  varying  from  a  broad  stretch  of  well-watered  lowland  to  a 
mere  strip  of  sand,  is  first  encountered,  bounded  to  the  west  by  the 
high  cliff  which  marks  the  ancient  limit  of  the  narrower  Ganges  valley. 
Above  this  cliff  rises  the  general  upland  plain,  divided  into  two  main 
sections  by  the  little  stream  of  the  Kali  Nadi,  and  further  intersected 
by  the  lesser  watercourses  of  the  Isan.  Each  of  these  minor  divisions 
displays  the  same  general  characteristics,  consisting  of  a  narrow  low- 
land belt  along  the  banks  of  the  boundary  rivers,  together  with  a 
central  level  of  sandy  soil  {b/uir),  rising  by  a  series  of  ravines  from  the 
valley  below,  and  culminating  in  a  watershed  of  loamy  earth,  often 
accompanied  by  marshy  lakes  and  wide  expanses  of  the  white  saline 
efflorescence  known  as  usar.  The  dorsal  ridge  of  loam  comprises, 
roughly  speaking,  the  irrigated  portion  of  the  District,  where  wells  can 
be  sunk  with  little  difficulty  or  expense,  and  cultivation  lies  in  scattered 
■  patches,  like  green  islands  amongst  the  barren  stretches  of  usar.  The 
trans-Gangetic  tract,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  entirely  of  lowland, 
scarcely  ever  rising  above  the  level  of  the  yearly  inundations,  and  liable 
to  a  sterile  deposit  of  sand  after  heavy  rains.  Much  of  the  land  is 
subject  to  erosion  by  the  river ;  and  the  areas  of  the  villages  vary 
greatly  from  year  to  year,  as  the  floods  devour  or  cast  up  again  the 
cultivable  soil.  The  Ramganga  passes  through  the  extreme  eastern 
angle,  which  it  often  overflows,  forming  large  but  temporary  swamps. 
The  whole  District  is  uniformly  though  not  thickly  wooded,  and  the 
strip  lying  along  the  high  bank  of  the  Ganges,  a  poor  and  barren  tract, 
has  a  comparatively  large  proportion  of  trees. 

History.— i:hQ  District  of  Farukhabad  possesses  great  antiquarian 
interest,  owing  to  the  presence  within  its  boundaries  of  Kanauj,  the 


4 1  o  FAR  UKHABAD. 

capital  of  a  powerful  Hindu  kingdom  in  the  earliest  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  city,  however,  was  entirely  transformed  under 
Muhammadan  rule,  and  the  architectural  remains  in  the  present  town 
and  its  neighbourhood  are  almost  entirely  Muhammadan.  It  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Kali  Nadi,  4  miles  from  the  modern  bed  of  the 
Ganges,  which  once  flowed  close  below  its  walls.  Ruins  of  ancient 
buildings  extend  over  the  lands  of  five  villages,  and  occupy  a  strip  ot 
land  about  four  miles  long  and  from  one  to  two  miles  broad ;  but  as 
their  walls  consisted  entirely  of  brick,  the  foundations  alone  now 
remain.  The  relics  are  constantly  used  as  a  storehouse  of  building 
material,  so  that  the  traces  of  the  ancient  metropolis  grow  fainter  day 
by  day.  The  principal  Hindu  monument  is  the  shrine  of  Raja  Ajai 
Pal,  supposed  to  be  the  prince  conquered  by  Mahmiid  of  Ghazni,  and 
killed  in  1021  a.d.  by  the  Chandel  Raja  of  Kalinjar.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  Muhammadan  monuments  which  are  much  more  con- 
spicuous. The  famous  Gupta  dynasty  of  Kanauj  ruled  over  the  whole 
upper  basin  of  the  Ganges  for  about  six  centuries,  from  315  B.C.  to 
275  A.D.  Their  coins  and  other  monuments  are  still  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers  over  the  whole  of  their  wide  domain,  and  have 
yielded  a  comparatively  consistent  chronology  to  the  patient  labours  ot 
Lassen,  Rajendralala  Mitra,  and  English  scholars.  Tradition  points  to 
Thakur  colonists  as  the  earliest  Aryan  settlers  in  the  District,  after  the 
extermination  of  the  Bhars,  as  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  are  here 
universally  called.  The  tract  south  of  the  Kali  Nadi  was  peopled  by 
the  celebrated  Jai  Chand,  Raja  of  Kanauj ;  but  the  northern  angle 
passed  into  the  hands  of  its  present  occupants  some  seven  generations 
later,  after  the  Musalman  invaders  had  completed  the  overthrow  of  its 
early  Tuar  possessors.  We  know  nothing  of  the  District,  however, 
from  authentic  historical  records,  up  to  a  comparatively  modern  period 
of  Muhammadan  rule.  During  the  18th  century,  the  northern  portion 
of  Farukhabad,  together  with  many  parga?ids  now  lying  in  Etah  and 
Mainpuri,  constituted  the  j'dgir  of  the  Nawab  of  Farukhabad ;  while 
the  southern  region  was  administered  by  deputies  sent  from  Lucknow. 
In  1 75 1,  on  the  death  of  Ali  Muhammad,  the  Rohilla  chief  (j^^  Bar- 
EiLLY  District),  the  Emperor  refused  to  acknowledge  Hafiz  Rahmat 
Kh^n  as  his  successor,  and  despatched  the  Farukhabad  Nawab  to 
reduce  that  turbulent  leader  to  order.  Rahmat  Khan,  however, 
defeated  and  slew  the  imperial  lieutenant,  four  of  whose  pargands  in 
Budaun  he  proceeded  to  annex.  Safdar  Jang,  Wazir  of  Oudh,  there- 
upon plundered  the  defenceless  territories  of  the  Farukhabad  Nawab ; 
but  his  interposition  led  to  a  union  between  the  Farukhabad  Rohillas 
and  their  Bareilly  (Bareli)  clansmen,  under  the  leadership  of  Hafiz 
Rahmat  Khan.  The  allied  forces  defeated  Safdar  Jang,  re-took  Farukh- 
abad, and  laid  siege  to  Allahabad ;  while  another  body  invaded  Oudh 


FAR  UKHABAD.  41 ' 

itself.  But  Safdar  Jang  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Marathas,  defeated  the 
Rohillas  at  Bisauli,  near  Aonla,  and  once  more  recovered  Farukhabad. 
His  successor,  Shuja-ud-daula,  conquered  all  Rohilkhand  in  1774,  with 
the  aid  of  an  English  force,  granted  by  Warren  Hastings  ;  and  the  whole 
country  remained  in  his  hands  until  its  cession  to  the  British  in  t8oi. 

From  the  period  of  its  passage  under  a  firm  and  regular  Government, 
the  District  remained  free  from  historical  events  up  to  the  date  of  the 
Mutiny.  News  of  the  outbreak  at  Meerut  (Merath)  reached  Fatehgarh 
on  the  14th  of  May  1857;  and  another  week  brought  tidings  of  its 
spread  to  Aligarh.  The  loth  Native  Infantry  showed  symptoms  of  a 
mutinous  spirit  on  the  29th  of  May;  but  it  was  not  till  the  3rd  of  June 
that  a  body  of  Oudh  insurgents  crossed  the  Ganges,  and  arranged  for 
a  rising  on  the  following  day.  The  European  officials  and  residents 
abandoned  Fatehgarh  the  same  evening ;  but  several  of  them  returned 
to  Fatehgarh  a  few  days  later,  and  remained  till  the  18th,  when  another 
outbreak  occurred,  and  the  rebels  placed  the  Nawab  of  Farukhabad  on 
the  throne.  The  4TSt  Native  Infantry,  from  Sitapur,  marched  into 
Fatehgarh,  and  the  Europeans  began  to  strengthen  the  fort.  On  the 
25th,  the  rebels  attacked  their  position,  which  became  untenable  by  the 
4th  July.  The  fort  was  then  mined,  and  its  defenders  escaped  in 
boats.  The  first  Fatehgarh  boat  reached  Cawnpur,  where  all  its 
fugitives  were  murdered  by  the  Nana  on  loth  July;  the  second  boat 
was  stopped  10  miles  down  the  Ganges,  and  all  in  it  were  captured  or 
killed  except  three.  The  Nawab  governed  the  District  unopposed  till 
the  23rd  of  October,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the  British  at  Kanauj. 
Our  troops  passed  on,  however,  and  the  Nawab,  with  Bakht  Khan  of 
Bareilly,  continued  in  the  enjoyment  of  power  until  Christmas.  On  the 
2nd  of  January  1858,  our  forces  crossed  the  Kali  Nadi,  and  took 
Fatehgarh  next  day.  The  Nawab  and  Firoz  Shah  fled  to  Bareli. 
Brigadier  Hope  defeated  the  Budaun  rebels  at  Shamsabad  on  the  1 8th 
of  January,  and  Brigadier  Seaton  routed  another  body  on  the  7th  of 
April.  In  May,  a  force  of  3000  Bundelkhand  insurgents  crossed  the 
District  and  besieged  Kaimganj ;  but  they  were  soon  driven  off  into  the 
last  rebel  refuge,  in  Oudh,  and  order  was  not  again  disturbed. 

Population.— ThQ  population  of  Farukhabad,  in  common  with  the 
neighbouring  Districts  of  Etah  and  Etawah,  appears  to  have  now 
reached  the  stationary  stage,  and  has  indeed  shown  a  decline  of  late 
years.  In  1865,  the  population  of  the  District  (which  then  contained 
about  400  miles  of  area  more  than  it  does  at  present)  was  returned  at 
917,496.  At  the  next  Census,  in  1872,  on  an  area  corresponding  to 
the  present  District,  the  population  was  returned  at  917,178;  while 
in  1881  it  had  fallen  to  907,608— a  decrease  of  9570  since  1872. 
The  results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized 
as  follows :— Area,  17 19  square  miles;  number  of  towns  and  villages, 


412  FARUKHABAD. 

1723;  houses,  133,966.  Total  population,  907,608,  namely,  males 
490,508,  and  females  417,100;  proportion  of  males  in  total  popu- 
lation, 54'o  per  cent.,  a  figure  which  suggests  that  the  practice  of 
female  infanticide,  formerly  so  common  among  the  Rajput  clans  in 
Upper  India,  has  not  been  entirely  suppressed.  Average  density  of 
population,  528  persons  per  square  mile;  villages  per  square  mile,  I'o; 
persons  per  village,  526;  houses  per  square  mile,  78;  inmates  per 
house,  6*7.  Classified  according  to  religion,  the  population  is  returned 
as  follows: — Hindus,  804,624,  or  88*65  per  cent,  of  the  population; 
Muhammadans,  101,284,  or  1 1*34  per  cent. ;  Jains,  814 ;  Sikhs,  60  :  and 
Christians,  826.  Among  Hindus,  the  Brahmans  numbered  83,696 
persons.  The  Rajputs,  descendants  of  the  original  colonists,  and  still 
the  leading  landowners  in  the  northern  half  of  the  District,  were 
returned  at  62,991  persons.  South  of  the  Kali  Nadi,  in  the  tract 
formerly  subject  to  the  Oudh  Wazirs,  the  Rajput  Thakurs  were  for  the 
most  part  dispossessed  by  the  severe  fiscal  exactions  of  the  Lucknow 
court.  The  other  principal  castes  and  tribes,  according  to  numerical 
superiority,  but  not  to  social  rank,  are  the  following : — Chamar,  the 
most  numerous  caste  in  the  District,  although  the  lowest  in  social 
estimation,  95,949;  Kurmi,  93,983;  Ahir,  87,080;  Kachhi,  74)552; 
Lodhi,  32,027;  Kahar,  31,173;  Gadaria,  30,126;  Baniya,  27,937; 
Kori,  17,425;  Nai,  16,802;  Teli,  16,424;  Dhanuk,  15,582;  Kayasth, 
14,454;  Dhobi,  12,509;  Lobar,  11,747;  Barhai,  10,814;  Bhiirji, 
10,546;  Kumbhar,  8292;  Bhangi,  7234;  Sonar,  6019,  The  Muham- 
madans are  divided  according  to  sect  into  99,395  Sunnis  and  1889 
Shias.  The  Musalmd.n  population  includes  1212  Rajputs  and  19 
Mewatis  by  race.  The  Christian  community  consists  of  298  British- 
born  and  69  other  Europeans,  78  Eurasians,  and  381  native  converts. 

Dhnsion  into  Town  and  Country. — With  the  exception  of  130,221 
persons,  residing  in  eight  towns  containing  above  5000  inhabitants,  the 
population  is  entirely  rural.  These  eight  towns  are — Farukhabad,  the 
largest  and  most  important  town  in  the  District,  and  the  main  centre 
of  commerce  and  communications,  population  62,437;  Fatehgarh, 
the  civil  station  and  administrative  head-quarters,  12,435  \  Kanauj, 
16,646;  Kaimganj,  10,443;  Shamsabad,  8271;  Chhibramau,  7990; 
TiRWA,  6220;  and  Taugram,  5779.  Of  the  1723  towns  and  villages, 
565  contain  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants,  651  had  from  two  to 
five  hundred,  337  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand,  127  from  one  to 
two  thousand,  26  from  two  to  three  thousand,  9  from  three  to  five 
thousand,  4  from  five  to  ten  thousand,  2  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand, 
I  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand,  and  i  upwards  of  fifty  thousand. 
As  regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  classifies  the  male  population 
into  the  following  six  groups: — (i)  Professional,  including  civil  and 
military  and  the  learned  professions,  6956  ;  (2)  domestic  servants,  inn 


FARUKHABAD.  413 

and  hotel  keepers,  etc.,  1210;  (3)  commercial,  including  merchants, 
traders,  carriers,  etc.,  10,479;  (4)  agricultural,  including  cultivators, 
gardeners,  and  sheep  and  cattle  tenders,  216,157;  (5)  industrial,  in- 
cluding manufacturers  and  artisans,  54,463 ;  (6)  indefinite  and  non- 
productive (comprising  35,907  general  labourers,  and  165,336  male 
children  and  persons  of  unspecified  occupation),  201,243. 

Agriculture. — Out  of  a  total  area  of  17 19  square  miles,  all  but  88 
square  miles  pay  Government  revenue.  Of  the  assessed  area,  thus 
amounting  to  1630  square  miles,  348  were  uncultivable,  313  cultivable 
waste,  and  969  actually  under  tillage  in  1882-83.  The  usual  agricultural 
seasons  of  the  Doab  prevail  throughout— the  kharif,  or  autumn  crops, 
being  sown  in  June  and  harvested  in  October  or  November;  while  the 
rahi,  or  spring  crops,  are  sown  in  October  or  November  and  reaped  in 
March  or  April.  Rice,  maize,  bdjra,  Jodr,  and  cotton,  with  the  lentils 
[arhar  and  vioth)  grown  among  the  last-mentioned  three  crops,  form  the 
staples  of  the  autumn  harvest,  covering  a  total  area  in  1882-83  (includ- 
ing twice-cropped  land)  of  367,054  acres.  Wheat  and  barley,  with 
gram  and  peas  either  intermixed  with  them  or  grown  separately,  and 
opium,  are  the  spring  products.  These  covered  (also  including  two- 
crop  lands),  355,694  acres.  Indigo  forms  the  chief  intermediate  (or  late 
hot-weather  and  early  rainy  season)  harvest.  The  cultivation  of  potatoes 
has  been  introduced,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Farukhabad 
itself,  and  the  smaller  towns  of  Kaimganj,  Shamsabad,  and  Chhibramau. 
In  the  villages  near  the  city,  the  system  of  a  triple  crop  (one  of  them 
potatoes)  is  in  full  working.  The  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  gives  rise  to 
an  exceptional  rotation  of  crops.  When  the  autumn  harvest  has  been 
gathered  in  November,  the  land  remains  fallow,  and  undergoes  frequent 
ploughings  for  the  next  sixteen  months,  and  the  cane  is  planted  in  the 
second  following  March.  It  is  not  cut  till  January  or  February  of  the 
second  year.  Cultivators  with  rights  of  occupancy  have  a  fairly  com- 
fortable livelihood;  tenants-at-will  pay  somewhat  heavier  rents  and 
clear  a  smaller  margin  of  profits.  Occupancy  tenants  hold  64  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  cultivated  area ;  and  where  the  proprietors  do  not  them- 
selves till  their  lands,  they  obtain  the  best  plots,  which  the  landlords 
would  otherwise  have  kept  as  homestead.  The  total  adult  male 
agricultural  population,  including  field  labourers,  in  1881  was  215,418, 
cultivating  an  average  of  3-04  acres  each.  The  total  population 
dependent  on  the  soil,  however,  was  572,815,  or  63-11  per  cent,  of 
the  total  District  population,  giving  an  average  of  i'5i  acre  per  head 
of  the  agricultural  population.  Government  assessment,  including  rates 
and  cesses,  ^145,812,  or  an  average  of  4s.  tI^I-  Per  cultivated  acre; 
amount  of  rent  actually  paid  by  the  cultivators,  ^^265,372,  or  an  average 
of  8s.  i|d.  per  cultivated  acre.  The  average  rent  rates  per  acre  ruled  as 
follows  in  1877  :— Resident  tenants,  7s.   iid.  j  non-resident,  6s.  7d.  ; 


414  FARUKHABAD, 

although  for  exceptionally  poor  lands,  or  for  lands  growing  specially 
valuable  crops,  rents  vary  from  is.  to  ^5  an  acre.  The  principal  land- 
owning tribes  are  the  Thakurs,  Brahmans,  and  Musalmans,  who  hold 
about  36,  20,  and  21  per  cent,  of  the  District  respectively.  Coolies 
and  unskilled  town  labourers  receive  2jd.  to  3! d.  per  diem  ;  agricultural 
labourers,  2jd.  to  3d.  ;  bricklayers  and  carpenters,  6d.  to  yjd.  The 
prices-current  of  food-grains  ruled  as  follows  in  1882-83:  —  Wheat, 
6s.  3d.  per  cwt.  ;  best  rice,  i6s.  per  cwt.  ;  common  rice,  7s.  4d.  per 
cwt. ;  jodr^  4s.  yd.  per  cwt.  ;  bdjra^  4s.  Qd.  per  cwt.  These  prices  are 
considerably  more  than  double  of  those  which  prevailed  in  1803. 

Natural  Cala7nities. — The  famines  of  1770  and  1783  doubtless 
affected  Farukhabad,  as  they  did  the  whole  of  the  North-Western 
Provinces,  but  the  existing  accounts  are  too  scanty  to  admit  of 
separate  estimates  for  each  District.  In  subsequent  famines,  Farukh- 
abad suffered  severely  in  the  four  worst  years,  1803-04,  1 815-16, 
1825-26,  and  1837-38.  The  area  affected  by  minor  scarcities  did 
not  extend  so  far  northward  as  to  embrace  the  pargands  then 
included  under  the  present  District ;  and  the  southern  portion  of  the 
existing  territory,  originally  incorporated  with  Cawnpur  and  Etawah, 
is  believed  to  have  been  much  more  liable  to  dearth  than  the  northern 
region ;  although  the  opening  of  the  canal  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  District,  and  other  less  intelligible  causes,  has  rendered  this  tract 
comparatively  safe  in  recent  times  of  scarcity.  In  the  disastrous 
season  of  1837-38,  Farukhabad  suffered  with  great  severity,  nearly 
one -fourth    of  the    cultivated   area    being   abandoned.       In    August 

1837,  relief  measures  were  adopted,  reaching  their  maximum  in  March 

1838.  The  famine  of  i860  was  confined  to  the  Upper  Doab  and 
Rohilkhand,  and  scarcely  affected  this  District,  except  by  raising  the 
price  of  grain.  The  last  scarcity,  in  1868-69,  occasioned  considerable 
distress  in  Farukhabad  for  a  short  period,  but  the  dearth  rapidly  passed 
a\vay.     Relief  operations  continued  from  February  to  October  1869. 

Commerce  and  Trade. — The  cereal  crops  produced  in  the  District 
barely  suffice  for  local  needs,  and  no  surplus  for  export  exists ;  on  the 
contrary,  grain  is  largely  imported  from  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  for  the 
use  of  Farukhabad  city.  But  potatoes  and  other  products  are  largely 
exported.  The  receipts  at  the  ferries  and  bridges  have  increased  five- 
fold since  1844,  a  fact  which  shows  how  greatly  more  active  the  traffic 
of  the  District  has  become  during  the  interval.  The  city  of  Farukhabad 
contains  a  few  native  banking  establishments  ;  but  their  operations  do 
not  extend  to  the  villages  of  the  District,  where  the  professional  money- 
lender and  the  zaminddr  still  retain  the  exclusive  power  of  making  cash 
advances,  and  keep  a  firm  hold  over  the  indebted  peasantry.  The 
prevalent  rates  of  interest  are  from  18  to  37  per  cent,  on  personal  security, 
6  to  15  per  cent,  on  jewels  or  other  pledges,  and  10  to  24  per  cent. 


FAR  UKHABAD.  4 1 5 

on  mortgages  of  landed  property.  Fatehgarh  town  is  noted  for  its 
manufacture  of  tents,  and  also  for  its  gun-carriage  factory,  which  since 
1830  has  been  the  sole  depot  for  supplying  the  Bengal  Army  with  gun- 
carriages  and  other  vehicles  required  for  garrison,  field,  and  siege 
artillery.  The  principal  manufactures  of  the  District  are  sugar  and 
indigo.  Two  European  planters  have  between  them  thirteen  indigo 
factories,  and  several  minor  concerns  are  worked  by  natives.  Other 
manufactures  include  the  weaving  of  cloth  and  chintz,  and  the  extraction 
of  saltpetre.  The  Grand  Trunk  Road  formed  till  recently  the  chief 
I  connecting  link  between  Farukhabad  and  the  surrounding  country, 
keeping  up  the  communication  with  the  east  and  north-west ;  but  in 
188 1,  the  Cawnpur-Farukhabad  light  railway  was  opened,  and  this  now 
forms  the  chief  communication  with  the  east.  The  same  line  is  about 
to  be  extended  to  Hathras,  and  operations  have  (1883)  been  commenced. 
This  line  will  be  the  chief  route  to  the  Panjab,  Agra,  Rohilkhand,  and 
perhaps  even  Bombay.  The  District  has  been  hitherto  injuriously 
atfected  by  its  distance  from  the  railway  system.  When  the  Grand 
Trunk  Road  and  the  river  Ganges  formed  the  main  channels  of  com- 
merce, the  situation  of  Farukhabad  admirably  adapted  it  for  the  trade 
in  which  its  merchants  were  chiefly  engaged  ;  but  when  the  railway 
offered  a  new  and  better  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  North-West, 
the  course  of  traffic  deserted  the  city  for  towns  more  favourably 
situated  on  the  modern  route.  The  road  into  Rohilkhand  crosses 
the  Ganges  at  Fatehgarh,  where  a  bridge  of  boats  suffices  for  the 
requirements  of  traffic  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year ;  but  inter- 
ruption is  caused  in  the  rains  by  the  substitution  of  ferry-boats  for  a 
standing  bridge.  Internal  communication  is  well  maintained  by  an 
excellent  system  of  unmetalled  roads,  while  abundant  feeders  in  every 
direction  connect  the  various  villages  with  each  other  and  with  the 
main  thoroughfares. 

Admi7iistration. — The  District  staff  usually  comprises  a  Collector- 
Magistrate,  a  Joint  Magistrate,  an  Assistant  and  two  Deputy  Magistrates, 
besides  the  ordinary  fiscal,  medical,  and  constabulary  officials.  Farukh- 
abad is  the  head-quarters  of  a  civil  and  sessions  judge,  whose  jurisdiction 
is  entirely  confined  to  the  District.  The  whole  amount  of  revenue, 
imperial,  municipal,  and  local,  raised  within  the  District  in  1876,  was 
;£i97,229,  of  which  ;^i24,673,  or  more  than  five-eighths,  was  derived 
from  the  land-tax.  In  1882-83,  the  total  imperial  revenue  was  returned 
at  ^156,975,  of  w^hich  the  land  tax  contributed  ^122,523.  The 
cost  of  civil  administration  in  the  same  year,  as  represented  by  the 
salaries  of  officials  and  police  of  all  kinds,  was  ^34,o43-  The  last  land 
settlement  was  commenced  in  1863,  and  completed  in  1874;  it 
resulted  in  an  increase  of  revenue  by  ^12,127.  Farukhabad  contains 
two  places  of  confinement  for  criminals— the  central  prison  and  the 


4i6  FARUKHABAD, 

District  jail,  both  of  which  are  situated  within  a  short  distance  of 
Fatehgarh.  The  central  jail  had  a  daily  average  of  1078  prisoners 
in  1882,  of  whom  43  were  females.  The  District  jail  contained  in 
the  same  year  a  daily  average  of  340  prisoners,  of  whom  8  were 
females.  The  total  strength  of  the  District  regular  and  municipal  police 
force  was  906  men;  and  the  cost  of  their  maintenance  was  ;£"8884,  of 
which  ;^6479  was  contributed  from  Provincial  revenues,  and  j[^2\o^ 
from  municipal  or  local  funds.  There  was  also  a  rural  or  village  police 
force  of  2004  men,  and  a  road  patrol  of  68  men,  maintained  at  a  cost 
of  ;!^75oo.  These  figures  give  an  average  of  i  policeman  to  every  0*57 
square  mile  of  area  and  every  305  of  the  population  ;  while  the  cost  of 
maintenance  amounted  to  ;£"9,  los.  7jd.  per  square  mile  and  4jd.  per 
head.  There  are  15  imperial  and  12  local  post-offices  ;  and  there  is  a 
railway  telegraph  station  at  Fatehgarh.  There  were,  in  1882,  166  Govern- 
ment inspected  schools  in  the  District,  with  a  joint  roll  of  5319  pupils. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  private  uninspected  schools;  and  the  Census 
Report  of  1 88 1  returned  6488  boys  and  347  girls  as  under  instruction, 
besides  20,169  rnales  and  419  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but 
not  under  instruction.  The  city  of  Farukhabad  has  a  zild  school,  and 
an  Anglo-vernacular  school  is  established  at  Fatehgarh.  The  District 
contains  only  one  municipality,  Fatehgarh-cum-Farukhabad. 

Medical  Aspects. — Farukhabad  bears  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  healthiest  Districts  in  the  Doab.  The  general  elevation  is  con- 
siderable, the  climate  is  dry,  and  the  country  possesses  remarkable 
freedom  from  epidemics.  The  trans-Gangetic  pargands,  however,  must 
be  excepted  as  low-lying  and  damp.  The  annual  mean  temperature 
was  77°  F.  in  1874  ;  the  lowest  monthly  mean  being  58°  in  January, 
and  the  highest  94°  in  May.  The  observatory  was  closed  in  1875. 
The  cold  weather  begins  later  than  in  the  Districts  to  the  west,  and 
lasts  from  about  the  end  of  October  to  the  end  of  March.  The  hot 
weather  lasts  till  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of  July,  when  the 
rainy  season  sets  in,  which  lasts  till  October.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  for  a  period  of  thirty-five  years  ending  1881  amounted  to  29*5 
inches;  the  maximum  being  47*2  inches  in  1867,  and  the  minimum 
12*1  inches  in  1868  (the  year  of  scarcity).  In  1881  the  rainfall  was 
27*5  inches,  or  2  inches  below  the  average.  Fevers  prevail  in  August 
and  September.  The  total  number  of  deaths  recorded  in  1882  was 
25,389,  or  31*3  per  thousand  of  the  population,  of  which  23,010  were 
owing  to  fevers.  The  average  registered  mortality  for  the  five  previous 
years  was  37*55  per  thousand.  Four  charitable  dispensaries,  at  Farukh- 
abad, Fatehgarh,  Kaimganj,  and  Miran-ki-Sarai,  afforded  relief  in  1883 
to  36,915  persons,  including  1438  in-door  patients.  [For  further 
information  regarding  Farukhabad,  see  the  Gazettee?-  of  the  North- 
western Provinces,  vol.  vii.  pp.  1-402  (Allahabad,  Government  Press, 


FAR  UKHABAD—FAR  UKHNA  GAR.  41 7 

1884).  Also  Final  Report  of  the  Settlement  of  the  Fariikhdbdd  District 
by  H.  T.  Evans,  Esq.,  C.S.  (1875);  Census  Report  of  1881  for  the 
North- Western  Provinces  and  Oiidh ;  Adffimistration  and  Depart- 
mental Reports  of  the  North- Western  Provinces  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Farukhabad.— Head-quarters  tahsil  of  Farukhabad  District,  North- 
western Provinces,  lying  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Ganges,  and 
comprising  the  pargands  of  Bhojpur,  Muhammadabad,  Pahara,  and 
Shamsabad  East.  Area,  343  square  miles,  of  which  222  are  cultivated. 
With  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  of  4I  square  miles,  the  whole  tract 
lies  in  the  bangdr  or  upland  portion  of  the  District,  along  the  high  cliff 
above  the  alluvial  basin  of  the  Ganges.  Population  (1881)  255,127, 
namely,  Hindus,  218,253;  Muhammadans,  35,917;  Jains,  100;  and 
'others,'  857.  Land  revenue,  ;£^23,977  ;  total  Government  revenue, 
;£"28,35o;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;^29,528.  The  tahsil  contained 
in  1883,  3  civil  and  10  criminal  courts  (including  the  head-quarter 
courts) ;  5  police  circles  {thdnds) ;  2 1 7  regular  police,  and  640  village 
watchmen  {chaukiddrs). 

Farukhabad. — City  and  municipality  in  Farukhabad  District,  North- 
western Provinces.  Situated  in  lat.  27°  23'  35"  n.,  and  long.  79°  36' 
50"  E.,  two  or  three  miles  from  the  right  or  west  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
which  formerly  flowed  under  its  walls ;  distant  from  Cawnpur  83 
miles  north-west,  and  from  Etawah  62  miles  north-east.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Cawnpur  and  Farukhabad  light  railway,  now  (1883) 
being  extended  to  Hathras.  Population  (1881)  62,437,  namely, 
males  31,416,  and  females  31,021.  Hindus  numbered  42,133; 
Muhammadans,  18,172;  Jains,  98;  and  Christians,  34.  Area 
of  town  site,  1802  acres.  The  town  forms  a  joint  municipality  with 
Fatehgarh,  the  civil  station  of  the  District  in  its  immediate  neighbour- 
hood. Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ^553°,  of  which  ^4877  was 
derived  from  octroi ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  3|d.  per  head 
of  the  population  (74,872)  within  municipal  hmits.  Farukhabad  is  a 
handsome  and  well-built  town,  with  many  of  its  streets  shaded  by 
avenues  of  trees.  It  was  founded  about  17 14  by  Nawab  Muhammad 
Khan,  and  named  after  the  Mughal  Emperor  Farukhsiyyar.  A  mud 
fort,  once  the  residence  of  the  Nawabs  of  Farukhabad,  commands 
an  extensive  view  of  the  Ganges  valley.  The  trade  of  the  town  was 
formerly  considerable,  but  it  rapidly  declined  on  the  diversion  of 
commerce  by  the  opening  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Now  that 
Farukhabad  itself  is  connected  with  the  general  railway  system  of  India, 
it  is  hoped  that  commerce  will  revive,  and  there  are  already  encouraging 
signs  of  improvement  in  this  respect.  Zild  school ;  dispensary  ;  head- 
quarters at  the  adjacent  civil  station  of  Fatehgarh.  For  early 
history  and  Mutiny  narrative,  see  Farukhabad  District. 

Farukhnagar.  —  Town  and   municipahty  in   Gurgaon   tahsil  and 

VOL.  IV.  2  D 


4i8  FATEHABAD. 

District,  Punjab,  situated  in  lat.  28°  25'  n.,  and  long.  76°  51' 
30"  E.,  in  the  midst  of  a  sandy  sterile  tract  in  the  north-west  of  the 
District  near  the  Rohtak  border,  ij  miles  from  the  terminus  of  a 
branch  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  State  Railway.  Population  (1881) 
8738,  namely,  Hindus,  5398;  Muhammadans,  2950;  Jains,  375; 
Sikhs,  6;  and  'others,'  9;  number  of  houses,  1215.  In  1875,  Farukh- 
abad  contained  a  population  of  10,594,  and  its  recent  falling  off  is 
attributable  to  a  virulent  epidemic  fever  in  1878-79.  Municipal 
income  (1882-83),  ^^822,  or  an  average  incidence  of  is.  lod.  per 
head  of  the  population ;  expenditure,  ;£693.  The  town  is  octagonal 
in  shape  and  surrounded  by  a  high  wall  with  four  gates.  It  has 
two  broad  bazars  running  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  well  paved 
and  drained,  and  flanked  with  good  shops.  The  other  streets  and 
courts  are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  principal  export  is  salt,  produced 
by  evaporation  from  the  waters  of  saline  wells  in  the  neighbourhood  ; 
and  the  imports  are  unrefined  sugar,  grain,  spices,  and  piece-goods. 
The  salt  trade  was  once  considerable,  but  since  the  extension  of  railway 
communication  has  cheapened  the  superior  salt  from  the  Sambhar  lake, 
it  has  been  on  the  decline.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  Delhi 
gate ;  the  Shish  mdhal  or  Nawab's  palace,  in  which  are  now  located  the 
municipal  hall,  rest-house,  school,  police  station,  and  post-oflice  ;  a  fine 
mosque  ;  large  well  with  stone  staircase  to  the  water ;  and  a  dispensary. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1 713  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Farukh- 
siyyar,  after  whom  it  was  named,  by  a  Baluch  chief  Dalel  Khan,  better 
known  by  his  title  of  Faujdar  Khan,  the  governor  of  the  country.  The 
family  held  possession  of  the  country  till  1757,  when  the  place  was 
conquered  by  the  Jats  of  Bhartpur.  Twelve  years  afterwards  it  was 
recaptured  by  the  grandson  of  Faujdar  Khan;  and  in  1803,  when  the 
British  supremacy  began,  he  was  confirmed  in  his  possessions  and 
dignities.  The  family  ruled  till  1857,  when  the  then  Nawab,  Ahmad 
All  Khan,  was  hanged  for  participation  in  the  rebellion,  and  the  estate 
was  conferred  on  Tafuzzul  Husain  Khan,  as  a  reward  for  good  service 
during  the  Mutiny,  and  is  still  (1883)  held  by  his  son,  Suraj-ud-din 
Haidar,  who  holds  the  position  of  an  honorary  magistrate. 

Fatehabad. — Town,  municipality,  and  head-quarters  of  Fatehabad 
tahsil,  Hissar  District,  Punjab ;  distant  from  Hissar  30  miles  north-west. 
Lat.  29°  31'  N.,  long.  75°  30'  E.  Population  (1881)  2992,  namely, 
Muhammadans,  1720;  Hindus,  1234;  Jains,  37;  and  Sikh,  i;  number 
of  houses,  610.  A  third-class  municipality;  income  (1882-83), 
;^i99  ;  expenditure,  ;^202.  Founded  by  the  Emperor  Firoz  Shah, 
and  named  after  his  son  Fateh  Khan.  Held  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  by  a  Bhatti  chieftain.  Khan  Bahadur  Khan.  North 
of  the  town  runs  a  cut  from  the  river  Ghaggar,  constructed  by  Firoz 
Shah,  and  still  used  for  purposes  of  irrigation.      Considerable  manu- 


FATEHABAD—FATEHGANJ.  419 

fecture  of  country  cloth;  export  of  grain  and  ghi  to  Bikaner  (Bickaneer) 
and  the  Bagar  territory ;  brisk  trade  in  leather.  Tahsili,  police  station, 
sardi,  staging  bungalow,  and  dispensary. 

Fatehabad.  —  Tahsil  of  Agra  District,  North- Western  Provinces, 
lying  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Jumna  (Jamuna).  Lat  29°  15'  to 
29°  34'  N.  j  long.  75°  16'  to  75°  51'  E.  Area,  241  square  miles, 
of  which  163  are  cultivated.  Population  (1881)  104,762,  namely, 
males  56,835,  and  females  475927.  Hindus  numbered  97,543; 
Muhammadans,  5962;  Jains,  1244;  and  'others,'  13.  Number  of 
villages,  161.  The  /^/w// lies  between  the  Jumna  and  Utangan  rivers, 
and  contains  a  large  ravine  area,  with  a  considerable  amount  of  low- 
lying  sandy  soil  at  the  foot  of  the  ravines  along  the  rivers.  Proceeding 
inland,  the  soil  gradually  changes  as  the  higher  lands  are  approached, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  upland  area  is  a  good  loam,  light  in  places, 
but  of  average  fertility.  Land  revenue,  ;^2  7,000;  total  Government 
revenue,  £z^,'^']Z  ',  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;^42,885  ;  incidence  of 
Government  revenue  per  acre,  3s.  6fd.  In  1883,  the  /<a;//i-f/ contained 
I  civil  and  i  criminal  court,  with  4  police  circles  {thdnds) ;  strength  of 
regular  police,  44  men ;  village  watchmen  {ckaukiddrs),  336. 

Fatehabad. — Town  and  head-quarters  of  Fatehabad  tahsil,  Agra 
District,  North- Western  Provinces;  situated  in  lat.  27°  i'  30"  n.,  long. 
78°  20'  30"  E.,  21  miles  south-east  of  Agra  City.  Population  (1881) 
4441.  Ta/isili,  munsifi^  police  station,  post-office,  boys'  and  girls' 
schools.  The  town  has  but  little  trade  ;  small  bi-weekly  market.  For 
police  and  conservancy  purposes,  a  house-tax  is  levied  under  the 
provisions  of  Act  xx.  of  1856,  which  in  1881-82  yielded  ;^93.  The 
town  was  originally  named  Zafrnagar,  and  was  changed  to  Fatehabad 
by  Aurangzeb,  after  his  victory  over  his  unfortunate  brother  Dara, 
in  1658.  The  Emperor  built  a  mosque  here  on  the  spot  on  which 
he  rested  after  the  battle,  as  well  as  a  sardi,  now  the  tahsili,  and  a  tank, 
which  has  now  nearly  silted  up.  He  also  planted  a  large  grove  to  the 
south-east  of  the  town,  which  still  remains  in  tolerable  preservation. 

Fatehganj  (East).  —  Village  and  batde-field  in  Bareilly  (Bareli) 
District,  North- Western  Provinces,  lying  in  lat.  28°  4'  n.,  and  long.  79° 
42'  E.,  on  the  route  from  Bareilly  to  Shahjahanpur,  23  miles  south-east 
of  the  former  town.  Population  (1881)  2189.  Founded  by  Shuja- 
ud-daula,  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  in  commemoration  of  the  British 
victory  over  the  Rohillas  in  1774,  which  gave  him  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  Rohilkhand.  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan,  the  Rohilla  chieftain, 
fell  in  this  engagement.  Station  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Rail- 
way. Police  station,  post-office,  village  school,  and  sardi  or  native  inn. 
Market  twice  a  week. 

Fatehganj  (West).  —  Village  in  Bareilly  (Bareli)  District,  North- 
western Provinces ;  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  British  victory  over  the 


420  FATEHGARH. 

Rohillas  in  October  1794.  Lat.  28°  28'  n.,  long.  79°  24'  e.  A 
monument  marks  the  burial-place  of  the  Company's  troops,  and  a 
carved  tomb  with  minarets  covers  the  remains  of  two  Rohilla  chiefs. 
Police  station,  encamping-ground,  missionary  school,  and  2  sardis, 

Fatehgarh. — Town,  cantonment,  and  administrative  head-quarters 
of  Farukhabad  District,  North-Western  Provinces,  and  station  on  the 
Cawnpur-Farukhabad  Railway,  adjoining  the  native  city  of  Farukh- 
abad, 3  miles  to  the  eastward.  Lat.  27°  22'  55"  n.,  long.  79°  40'  20"  e. 
Population  (1881)  12,435,  namely,  Hindus,  8728;  Muhammadans, 
3588;  and  Christians,  119;  area,  383  acres.  The  military  station  of 
Fatehgarh  dates  from  1777,  although  the  town  did  not  pass  into  the 
possession  of  the  British  until  1802.  Farukhabad  District  having  fallen 
under  the  power  of  the  Oudh  AVazirs,  Fatehgarh  formed  an  outpost 
against  the  Marathas ;  and  the  British  brigade  lent  to  the  Nawab  Wazir 
was  stationed  at  Fatehgarh  in  1777.  At  the  cession  in  1802,  Fatehgarh 
became  the  head-quarters  of  a  Governor-General's  Agent,  and  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  the  Ceded  Provinces.  Holkar  attacked 
the  fort  of  Fatehgarh  in  1804,  but  was  defeated  and  put  to  precipitate 
flight  by  the  timely  arrival  of  Lord  Lake.  From  this  time,  nothing 
eventful  occurred  in  the  history  of  Fatehgarh  until  the  outbreak  of 
the  Mutiny  in  1857,  in  the  course  of  which  nearly  the  entire  population 
of  European  blood  in  the  station,  upwards  of  200  in  number,  were 
killed  by  the  rebels.  A  few  who  sought  flight  early  in  June 
succeeded  in  reaching  Cavvnpur,  only  to  be  seized  by  the  Nana  and- 
massacred.  Those  who  remained  behind,  after  sustaining  a  siege  of 
upwards  of  a  week,  were  forced  to  abandon  the  fort,  which  had  been 
undermined  by  the  rebels,  and  to  betake  themselves  to  the  Ganges.  On 
their  way  down  the  river,  they  were  attacked  by  the  rebels  and  villagers 
on  both  sides  of  the  river.  One  boat  reached  Bithiir,  where  it  was 
captured;  the  occupants  were  taken  prisoners  to  Cawnpur,  and  sub- 
sequently massacred.  Another  boat  grounded  in  the  river  the  day  after 
leaving  Fatehgarh,  and  the  passengers  were  shot  down  or  drowned  in 
their  attempt  to  reach  land.  A  number  of  the  refugees  were  brought 
back  to  Fatehgarh,  and  after  being  kept  in  confinement  for  nearly  three 
weeks,  were  shot  or  sabred  on  the  parade  ground.  Their  remains  were 
cast  into  a  well,  over  which  has  been  built  a  memorial  cross,  with  a 
memorial  church  near  to  it.  Fatehgarh  still  forms  a  military  station  of 
the  Meerut  division  of  the  Bengal  army ;  the  force  usually  stationed  here 
consists  of  three  companies  of  European,  and  two  of  Native  infantry. 
A  Government  gun-carriage  factory  was  established  at  Fatehgarh  in 
1818,  which,  since  the  abolition  of  the  central  factory  at  Cossipore 
(Kasipur),  near  Calcutta,  in  1830,  has  been  the  sole  depot  for  supplying 
the  Bengal  army  with  gun-carriages  and  other  vehicles  required  for 
garrison,  field,  and  siege  artillery.     The  factory  is  superintended  by  an 


FA  TEHGARH—FA  TEHJANG.  42 1 

officer  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  assisted  by  a  commissioned  officer  of  the 
same  corps,  and  six  European  overseers.  The  working  establishment 
in  1883  consisted  entirely  of  natives,  the  average  number  employed 
being  about  625  daily.  Two  native  Christian  settlements  are  main- 
tained at  or  near  Fatehgarh,  by  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission. 
The  Mission  dates  from  the  great  famine  of  1837-38,  and  was  estab- 
lished as  an  orphanage  for  children  whose  parents  had  died  or  had 
abandoned  them.  As  the  orphans  grew  up,  houses  were  built,  and 
lands  assigned  to  them,  till  a  village  was  formed,  and  afterwards  a 
second  establishment  was  set  up  at  Burhpur.  Many  of  the  native 
Christians  are  employed  as  catechists,  and  others  as  domestic  or  public 
servants.  But  the  bulk  of  the  community  support  themselves  by  tilling 
the  plots  of  land  allotted  to  them,  or  by  working  in  the  tent  factory. 
This  industry  was  originally  established  by  the  Mission,  and  managed 
by  it.  Since  the  Mutiny,  the  native  Christians  have  worked  it  inde- 
pendently, and  for  some  years  past  as  a  flourishing  Limited  Incor- 
porated Company.  The  Mission  maintains  a  high  school,  and  several 
elementary  schools  both  for  boys  and  girls  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
station ;  also  a  mission  church.  Besides  the  usual  public  courts  and 
offices,  the  other  public  buildings  comprise  the  central  prison,  District 
jail,  Government  and  mission  high  schools,  police  station,  dak  bungalow, 
and  2  sai'dis  or  native  inns.  Fatehgarh  forms  a  joint  municipality  with 
Farukhabad.  Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ^5530,  of  which  ^4877 
was  derived  from  octroi ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  3|d.  per 
head  of  the  population  (74,872)  within  municipal  limits. 

Fatehgarh. — Town  in  Fatehgarh  tahsil,  Gurdaspur'  District,  Punjab. 
Population  (1881)  4078,  namely,  2644  Muhammadans,  1167  Hindus, 
263  Sikhs,  and  4  'others;'  number  of  houses,  591.  A  third-class 
municipality  with  a  revenue  in  1882-83  of  ^204;  expenditure, 
^188  ;  average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  per  head  of  the  population. 
Bazar,  police  station,  school,  dispensary,  and  sardi.  The  town  is  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  shawl-weaving  industry  conducted  by  immigrants 
from  Kashmir. 

Fatehjang.  —  Tahsil  of  Rawal  Pindi  District,  Punjab,  situated 
between  33°  9'  30"  and  33°  44  30"  n.  lat,  and  between  72°  25'  30" 
and  73°  3'  30"  E.  long.  It  contains  the  Khan-i-Miirat  range,  and  the 
eastern  half  of  the  Chitta  Pahar  hills.  Area,  798  square  miles. 
Population  (1881)  107,100,  namely,  males  56,377,  and  females  50,723; 
average  density,  134  persons  per  square  mile.  Muhammadans 
numbered  96,959;  Hindus,  9085;  Sikhs,  105;  'others,'  951.  Revenue 
of  the  tahsil  (1883),  ^10,283.  The  administrative  staff  consists  of  i 
tahsilddr  and  2  honorary  magistrates,  presiding  over  2  civil  and  3 
criminal  courts.  Number  of  police  circles  {thdnds),  2  ;  strength  of 
regular  police,  37  m^en  ;  village  watchmen  {c/iaukiddrs),  169. 


422  FATEHJANG—FATEHPUR, 

Fatehjang. — Town  and  head-quarters  of  Fatehjang  tahsil^  Rawal 
Pindi  District.  Lat.  33°  35'  n.,  long.  72°  38'  e.  Population  (1881) 
4875,  namely,  Muhammadans,  3327;  Hindus,  1527;  Sikhs,  16; 
^  others/  5.  The  town  is  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Northern  Punjab 
State  Railway  from  Rawal  Pindi  to  Kohat,  midway  between  the  Khan- 
i-Murat  range  and  the  Chitta  Pahar  hills.  There  is  no  municipality. 
The  town  contains  a  court-house,  police  station,  staging  bungalow, 
sardi,  school-house,  and  dispensary.  The  railway  station  is  half  a  mile 
to  the  north  of  the  town. 

Fatehkhelda. — Town  in  Buldana  District,  Berar ;  situated  in  lat. 
20''  11'  30"  N.,  and  long.  76°  27'  e.,  on  the  small  river  Bhogawati,  an 
affluent  of  the  Penganga.  Population  (i 881)  3250.  The  original  name 
of  the  town  was  Shakarkhelda,  but  it  was  changed  to  Fatehkhelda 
(*  Field  of  victory ')  in  commemoration  of  a  decisive  success  gained  here 
by  the  Nizam  in  1724  over  Mubariz  Khan,  who  was  slain  on  the  field 
of  battle.  Since  the  sack  of  the  town  by  Sindhia's  troops  in  1803, 
before  Assaye,  and  the  great  famine  of  that  year,  Fatehkhelda  has 
fallen  into  decay  ;  and  a  large  extent  of  ground  is  covered  with  ruined 
habitations. 

Fateh  Panjal.  —  Mountain  chain  in  Kashmir  (Cashmere)  State, 
Punjab,  forming  a  segment  of  a  circle,  and  bounding  the  Kashmir 
valley  to  the  south.  Lat.  33°  34'  N.,  long.  74°  40'  e.  Estimated  height, 
about  1 2,000  feet ;  total  length,  40  miles. 

Fatehpur. — British  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces,  lying  between  25°  26'  17"  and  26°  16'  13"  n. 
lat.,  and  between  80°  16'  15"  and  81°  23'  e.  long.  Fatehpur  forms  a 
District  of  the  Allahabad  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Ganges,  dividing  it  from  Rdi  Bareli  District  in  Oudh  ;  on  the  west  by 
Cawnpur ;  on  the  south  by  the  Jumna,  separating  it  from  Hamirpur 
and  Banda  Districts ;  and  on  the  east  by  Allahabad  District.  Area, 
1639  square  miles  j  population  (1881)  683,745.  The  administrative 
head-quarters  are  at  Fatehpur  Town. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Fatehpur  forms  a  portion  of  the 
Doab,  or  great  alluvial  plain  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna 
(Jamuna),  being  only  separated  from  their  point  of  junction  by  a 
triangular  tongue  of  land,  which  belongs  to  the  adjoining  District  of 
Allahabad.  Its  main  features  do  not  differ  from  those  common  to 
the  whole  monotonous  level  enclosed  by  the  two  great  rivers  of  Upper 
India.  It  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a  highly-cultivated  plain,  whose 
soil  is  composed  of  the  loam,  silt,  and  clay  deposited  in  earlier  periods 
by  the  drainage  of  the  Himalayan  slopes.  The  central  portion  presents 
the  appearance  of  an  unbroken  level,  only  relieved  in  places  by  barren 
and  sharply-defined  usar  plains,  the  saline  efflorescence  of  which 
glistens  like  hoar-frost  in  the  morning  sun,  or  thickly  studded  in  the 


FATEHPUR.  423 

neighbourhood  of  the  villages  with  leafy  groves  of  mango  and 
mahiid  trees.  A  ridge  of  higher  land,  forming  the  watershed  of  the 
District,  runs  through  it  from  east  to  west,  at  an  average  distance  of 
5  miles  from  the  Ganges.  The  country  is  thus  divided  into  two 
declivities  —  the  one,  only  a  few  miles  in  breadth,  sloping  rapidly 
down  toward  the  Ganges  on  the  northern  border  ;  the  other,  with  a 
stretch  of  some  15  or  20  miles,  falling  gradually  southward  till  it  ends 
in  the  wilder  valley  of  the  Jumna.  The  portions  of  these  plains  which 
abut  on  the  two  great  rivers  are  seamed  in  every  direction  by  deep 
ravines,  especially  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  and  its  tributary  streams. 
In  the  extreme  west  of  the  District,  three  large  watercourses  may  be 
considered  to  attain  the  dignity  of  rivers.  The  Pandu  flows  northward 
into  the  Ganges  ;  the  Rind  and  the  Nun  swell  the  waters  of  its 
great  confluent.  The  tract  enclosed  between  the  Jumna  and  the  two 
last-named  streams  is  one  tangled  mass  of  ravines,  whose  scenery  is 
often  picturesque  and  varied.  The  main  channels  are  fed  by  innumer- 
able rivulets,  each  of  which  cuts  its  way  through  beds  of  nodular  lime- 
stone into  the  central  gorge ;  while  the  sides  are  clothed  with  matted 
jungle,  in  whose  recesses  lurk  wild  boars,  wolves,  and  leopards. 
Shallow  lakes  {jhils)  abound  in  the  midland  portion  of  the  District, 
which  is  not  drained  by  any  considerable  stream.  They  are  generally 
temporary,  being  filled  during  the  rains,  and  drying  up  in  January 
or  February.  As  long  as  the  water  stands  in  them,  wild-fowl  of  every 
kind  may  be  found  in  abundance  ;  and  during  the  hot  weather  nilgai 
and  antelope  take  refuge  in  the  dry  beds,  when  driven  by  the  harvest 
from  their  ordinary  shelter  among  the  standing  crops.  As  a  whole,  the 
western  region  is  the  most  cut  up  by  ravines  and  covered  with  hdbul 
jungle ;  the  central  tract  is  more  generally  cultivated,  though  mter- 
spersed  with  frequent  patches  of  useless  mar :  and  the  eastern  slope, 
near  the  Allahabad  border,  is  one  unbroken  reach  of  smiling  and 
prosperous  tiUage. 

History.— \vi  the  earliest  times,  Fatehpur  was  inhabited  by  the  Bhils, 
a  tribe  of  non-Aryan  aborigines,  one  of  whose  kings  is  mentioned 
in  the  Ramayana  as  the  host  of  Rama.  At  a  later  date,  it  appears 
to  have  formed  part  of  the  wide  dominions  ruled  over  by  the  Rajas  of 
Argal,  whose  territories  stretched  from  the  borders  of  Kanauj  to  the 
gates  of  Allahabad.  The  Angal  Rajas  fought  against  the  Muhammadans 
as  alHes  of  the  Kanauj  Raja.  Even  after  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  they 
held  a  more  or  less  independent  position  until  the  time  of  Akbar,  who 
for  some  shortcoming  sent  a  force  against  the  Angal  Raja.  He  was 
defeated  and  slain,  and  his  forts  and  palaces  razed  to  the  ground. 
The  estate  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Thakur  Rajas  of  Asothar, 
as  revenue  farmers  on  behalf  of  the  Mughal  government.  Like  the  rest 
of  the  Doab,  it  was  overrun  in  1194  a.d.  by  Shahab-ud-din  Ghori,  and 


424  FATE  HP  UR, 

became  thenceforth  a  portion  of  the  Delhi  kingdom.  In  1376,  the  fief 
of  Fatehpur  was  made  over,  with  Kora  in  Allahabad  and  Mahoba  in 
Hamirpur,  to  the  care  of  a  Viceroy  known  as  the  Malik-ul-Shark. 
Order  was  successfully  maintained  by  this  officer  during  the  terrible 
raids  of  Timur,  and  the  country  enjoyed  comparative  security  through- 
out the  troublous  period  which  preceded  the  final  establishment  of 
Mughal  rule.  Babar  conquered  the  District  about  1529;  but  it  still 
remained  a  stronghold  of  the  Pathan  resistance,  and  was  the  centre  of 
the  reactionary  movement  under  Sher  Shah,  by  which  Humayiin  was 
driven  for  a  while  from  the  newly-founded  throne  of  his  father.  During 
the  slow  decline  of  the  Delhi  dynasty,  Fatehpur  was  entrusted  to  the 
Governor  of  Oudh  ;  but  in  1736  it  was  overrun  by  the  Marathas,  on 
the  invitation  of  Ajaju,  a  disaffected  landholder  of  Kora.  The  Marathas 
retained  possession  of  the  District  until  1750,  when  it  was  wrested  from 
them  by  the  Pathans  of  Fatehgarh.  Three  years  later,  Safdar  Jang,  the 
practically  independent  Wazir  of  Oudh,  reconquered  the  country  for 
his  own  benefit.  In  1759,  the  Wazir  threw  off  his  nominal  allegiance 
to  Delhi,  and  was  acknowledged  by  the  British  as  a  sovereign  prince  in 
1765.  By  the  treaty  of  that  year,  Fatehpur  was  handed  over  to  the 
titular  Emperor,  Shah  Alam;  but  when,  in  1774,  the  Emperor  threw 
himself  into  the  hands  of  the  Marathas,  his  eastern  territories  were 
considered  to  have  escheated,  and  the  British  sold  them  for  50  lakhs  of 
rupees  to  the  Nawdb  Wazir.  As  the  Oudh  Government  was  in  a 
chronic  state  of  arrears  with  regard  to  the  payment  of  its  stipulated 
tribute,  a  new  arrangement  was  effected  in  1 801,  by  which  the  Nawab 
ceded  Allahabad  and  Kora  to  the  English,  in  lieu  of  all  outstanding 
claims.  Fatehpur  at  first  was  divided  between  the  Districts  of  Allahabad 
and  Cawnpur;  but  in  18 14,  a  separate  charge  was  erected  at  Bithiir 
on  the  Ganges,  which  was  transferred  eleven  years  later  to  Fatehpur. 
The  benefits  of  settled  government  were  nowhere  more  conspicuous 
than  here.  In  1798,  the  District  was  described  as  a  waste,  whose 
ruined  towns  bore  lamentable  marks  of  former  prosperity.  But  some 
half-century  later,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  boundless  garden,  in  which  fields 
of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  poppy  and  cereals  alternated  with  beautiful 
groves  of  mango  or  tamarind,  overshading  the  village  mosques  and 
tanks.  No  event  of  interest  occurred  after  the  introduction  of 
British  rule,  until  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  On  the  6th  of  June,  news  of 
the  Cawnpur  outbreak  arrived  at  the  station.  On  the  8th,  a  treasure 
guard  returning  from  Allahabad  proved  mutinous ;  and  next  day  the 
mob  rose,  burnt  the  houses,  and  plundered  all  the  property  of  the 
European  residents.  The  civil  officers  escaped  to  Banda,  except  the 
Judge,  who  was  murdered.  On  the  28th  of  June,  the  fourteen  fugitives 
from  Cawnpur  landed  at  Shiurajpur  in  this  District,  and  were  all  killed 
but  four,  who  escaped  by  swimming  to  the  Oudh  shore.      The  District 


FATEHFUR.  425 

remained  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels  throughout  the  month  ;  but  on 
the  30th,  General  Neill  sent  off  Major  Renaud's  column  from  Allahabad 
to  Cawnpur.  On  the  nth  of  July,  General  Havelock's  force  joined 
Renaud's  at  Khaga,  and  next  day  they  defeated  the  rebels  at  Bilanda. 
They  then  attacked  and  shelled  Fatehpur,  drove  out  the  rebels,  and 
took  possession  of  the  place.  On  the  15th,  Havelock  advanced  to 
Aung  and  drove  the  enemy  back  on  the  Pandu  Nadi.  There  a  second 
battle  was  fought  the  same  day,  and  the  insurgents  were  driven  out  of 
the  District  in  full  flight  on  Cawnpur.  We  could  not,  however,  retain 
possession  of  the  District  except  just  along  the  Grand  Trunk  Road ; 
and  order  was  not  finally  re-established  till  after  the  fall  of  Lucknow 
and  the  return  of  Lord  Clyde's  army  to  Cawnpur,  when  the  Gwalior 
mutineers  were  finally  driven  off. 

Fopiilation. — Fatehpur  is  one  of  the  Districts  where  agriculture  and 
population  appear  to  have  reached  their  utmost  Umits.  In  1865,  the 
Census  showed  a  population  of  681,053,  being  a  steady  increase  upon 
previous  returns  in  1848  and  1853.  In  1872,  the  Census  gave  a  total 
population  of  663,877,  or  a  decrease  of  17,176  persons  in  seven  years. 
The  last  enumeration,  in  1881,  returned  the  population  at  683,745, 
showing  an  increase  of  19,868  over  the  returns  for  1872,  and  leaving 
the  population  as  regards  numbers  practically  the  same  as  in  1865. 
The  results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized 
as  follows: — Area  of  District,  16387  square  miles  ;  towns  and  villages, 
1414;  houses,  131,589.  Total  population,  683,745,  namely,  males 
347,587,  and  females  336,158.  From  these  data  the  following 
averages  may  be  calculated: — Persons  per  square  mile,  417;  villages 
per  square  mile,  o'86  \  houses  per  square  mile,  80  ;  persons  per  village, 
483  ;  persons  per  house,  5 '2.  As  regards  religious  distinctions,  Fateh- 
pur, like  the  rest  of  the  Doab,  remains  essentially  Hindu,  in  spite  of  its 
long  subjection  to  a  Muhammadan  power.  The  Census  of  188 1 
returned  the  Hindus  at  609,380,  or  89*12  per  cent.,  and  the  Muhamma- 
dans  at  74,218,  or  10-85  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  remaining 
population  consisted  of  88  Christians,  58  Jains,  and  i  Sikh.  The 
number  of  Brahmans  is  70,427,  most  of  whom  are  landholders  or 
domestic  servants.  A  few,  however,  are  to  be  found  at  Shiurajpur  and 
other  places  of  pilgrimage  along  the  Ganges,  as  superintendents  of  the 
religious  bathing-places,  priests  in  the  temples,  or  guides  and  caterers  for 
the  pilgrims.  The  Rajputs  number  44,715  persons.  They  are  generally 
well-to-do  landlords  ;  but  as  cultivators,  they  are  reputed  quarrelsome 
and  lazy,  and  they  do  not  make  good  tenants.  There  are  a  few  villages 
owned  by  Kayasth  auction-purchasers,  and  tilled  by  Thakur  peasants, 
the  former  proprietors,  in  which  it  is  said  that  the  landlord  dare  not 
show  his  face  from  year  to  year,  and  that  the  agent  can  only  collect  the 
rents  at  great  personal  risk.    Baniyas  number  21,586,  engaged,  as  usual, 


426  FATEHPUR. 

in  commercial  pursuits.  These  three  tribes  form  the  upper  and  more 
prosperous  classes.  The  remainder  of  the  Hindus,  numbering  in  all 
472,652  persons,  belong  to  the  Siidra  or  lower  castes.  As  a  rule  they 
are  darker,  shorter,  and  more  sparely-built  than  the  higher  castes, 
besides  often  betraying  in  their  features  other  traces  of  aboriginal 
descent.  The  Kurmis,  39,806  in  number,  and  Kachhis  (28,229),  are 
industrious  and  diligent  tenants,  the  agricultural  backbone  of  the 
District.  They  pay  higher  rents  than  any  other  tribes,  and  pay  them 
easily.  The  Ahirs  (59,399),  Lodhis  (46,609),  and  Pasis  (29,451)  are  a 
turbulent  and  quarrelsome  set,  but  sometimes  make  fair  cultivators 
under  Thakur  masters.  It  is  from  them  that  the  criminal  class  is  most 
frequently  recruited;  and  they  also  furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the 
village  watchmen  and  protective  servants.  The  Garariyas,  who  are 
shepherds  and  herdsmen,  number  22,088;  and  the  Mallahs,  boatmen 
and  fishers,  23,297.  Next  to  the  Brahmans,  the  most  numerous  caste 
in  the  District  are  the  despised  Chamars,  the  general  labouring  popula- 
tion, who  only  emerged  from  a  state  of  semi-servitude  under  British 
rule.  The  Musalmans  are  found  chiefly  in  the  north-eastern  portion 
of  the  District.  As  a  rule,  they  are  more  prosperous  and  energetic 
than  the  Hindus,  a  large  number  being  small  zaminddrs,  but  in  the 
towns  many  have  been  reduced  to  great  poverty.  In  Tappa  Jar/^r- 
gand  there  is  a  considerable  body  of  half- converted  Rajputs,  who  still 
describe  themselves  by  their  caste  title. 

Division  into  Tozvn  and  Country. — The  population  is  entirely  rural ; 
in  1 88 1  only  three  towns  contained  a  population  exceeding  5000, 
namely,  Fatehpur,  population  21,328;  Bindki,  6698;  and  Jahanabad, 
5244.  Of  the  1414  villages  and  towns,  498  had  less  than  two  hundred 
inhabitants,  538  from  two  to  five  hundred,  224  from  five  hundred  to  a 
thousand,  107  from  one  to  two  thousand,  30  from  two  to  three  thousand, 
14  from  three  to  five  thousand,  and  3  upwards  of  five  thousand.  As 
regards  occupation,  the  Census  Report  classifies  the  male  population 
into  six  main  groups  as  under: — (i)  Professional,  including  civil  and 
military  and  the  learned  professions,  6808 ;  (2)  domestic  servants, 
lodging-house  keepers,  etc.,  914;  (3)  commercial,  including  merchants, 
traders,  carriers,  etc.,  3878  :  (4)  agricultural,  including  cultivators, 
gardeners,  sheep  and  cattle  tenders,  etc.,  161,131  ;  (5)  industrial, 
including  manufacturers,  artisans,  etc.,  42,603  ;  (6)  indefinite  and  non- 
productive (comprising  21,361  general  labourers,  and  110,892  male 
children  and  persons  of  unspecified  occupation),  132,253. 

Agriculture. — The  District  contains  879  square  miles  of  cultivated 
land,  and  a  very  small  margin  of  the  available  area  now  remains 
untilled.  The  ravine-clad  country  of  the  western  pargands  is  of  course 
incapable  of  cultivation,  while  a  few  tisar  plains  break  in  upon  the 
ploughed  fields  of  the  central  portion  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  soil 


FATEHPUR.  427 

is  cultivated  up  to  a  very  high  point.  The  fertile  black  alluvial  mould, 
known  as  mar,  occurs  in  several  places  along  the  Jumna,  and  there  is 
a  strip  of  similar  deposit  between  the  high  and  low  water  mark  of 
the  Ganges,  on  which  the  best  crops  of  the  District  are  raised.  The 
harvests  are  those  common  to  the  whole  Doab.  The  kharif  ox  autumn 
crops  are  sown  after  the  first  rains  in  June,  and  ripen  in  October  or 
November.  They  consist  of  rice,  cereals,  and  millets  ;  jodr  and  bdjra 
being  the  principal  staples.  Area  under  kharif  crops  in  1882-83, 
256,179  acres.  As  soon  as  the  rains  are  over  and  the  water 
has  drained  off  the  land,  the  wheat,  barley,  gram,  oats,  peas,  and 
other  rabi  crops  are  sown,  about  the  end  of  October,  and  these 
ripen  from  March  to  May.  Area  under  rabi  crops  in  1882-83, 
291,619  acres.  Autumn  and  spring  harvests  are  not  generally 
taken  off  the  same  lands  within  the  twelve  months ;  but  if  the  autumn 
rice  crop  has  been  harvested  early,  the  land  may  be  made  to  produce  a 
rabi  crop  as  well.  Manure  and  irrigation  are  both  employed  for  the 
spring  harvest,  but  are  seldom  applied  to  the  kharif.  The  jhils  or 
shallow  lakes  of  the  central  pargands  are  of  great  value  for  purposes  of 
irrigation.  The  rabi  and  the  rice  crops  entirely  depend  upon  them. 
If  the  rainfall  is  scanty,  the  jhils  are  drained  dry  by  the  end  of 
November,  the  cultivators  working  night  and  day  in  relays  to  raise  the 
water  by  means  of  leathern  baskets.  There  are  no  canals  in  the 
District,  and  all  irrigation  is  effected  by  private  agency.  Irrigated 
area  in  1882-83,  147,733  acres.  Of  a  total  area  of  13687  square 
miles,  all  but  1-2  square  mile  are  assessed  for  Government  revenue. 
The  total  male  adult  agricultural  population,  including  field  labourers, 
was  returned  by  the  Census  of  1881  at  158,317  persons,  cultivating 
563,392  acres,  or  an  average  of  3-53  acres  each.  The  total 
agricultural  population,  however,  including  women  and  children, 
numbers  447,116,  or  65-39  per  cent,  of  the  District  population. 
Total  Government  assessment,  including  rates  and  cesses,  ^153591  ^ 
or  an  average  of  5s.  5jd.  per  cultivated  acre.  Total  rent  paid 
by  cultivators,  ;^2 20,083,  or  7s.  gfd.  per  cultivated  acre.  The 
condition  of  the  peasantry  is  far  from  comfortable,  and  indebted- 
ness is  still  their  almost  universal  state.  The  modes  of  tenure  are 
those  of  the  Province  generally.  The  caste  panchdyats  have  very 
much  the  character  of  guilds  or  trades-unions.  The  Kurmi  and 
Kachhi  cultivators  in  pargaftds  Ekdala  and  Dhata  have  been  known  to 
unite  together  to  resist  enhancement  of  their  rents.  They  then  pay  a 
fixed  rate  per  plough  or  per  field  towards  a  general  defence  fund,  from 
which  are  defrayed  the  expenses  of  defending  actions  brought  by 
zaminddrs.  Blacksmiths,  masons,  and  carpenters  often  enforce  very 
strict  labour  rules  among  their  communities  ;  an  artisan  is  not  allowed 
to  work  for  lower  wages  or  longer  hours  than  his  fellows,  and  piece- 


428  FATEHPUR, 

work  is  discouraged  as  much  as  possible.  Wages  ordinarily  rule  as 
follows : — Coolies  and  unskilled  labourers,  2jd.  to  3|d.  per  diem ; 
agricultural  labourers,  2jd.  to  3d.  ;  bricklayers  and  carpenters,  6d.  to 
2s. ;  boys  and  girls  get  about  one-half  the  wages  of  adults.  The 
following  were  the  average  prices-current  of  food-grains  in  1876  : — 
Wheat,  i5§  sers  per  rupee,  or  7s.  3d.  per  cwt.  ;  common  rice,  18;^  sers 
per  rupee,  or  6s.  id.  per  cwt. ;  jod7'^  30  sers  per  rupee,  or  3s.  Qd.  per 
cwt.  ;  bdjra,  28  sers  per  rupee,  or  4s.  per  cwt. 

Natural  Calamities. — Fatehpur  has  not  suffered  so  severely  from 
drought  of  late  years  as  many  neighbouring  Districts.  Famines  from 
this  cause  occurred  in  1770,  in  1783,  and  in  1837.  In  i860,  scarcely 
any  rain  fell  in  the  Doab,  but  the  worst  distress  never  reached  its  lower 
extremity,  and  Fatehpur  escaped  with  comparative  immunity.  In  1864, 
although  only  16  inches  of  rain  fell,  and  the  rice  crops  suffered  greatly, 
there  was  no  actual  famine.  In  1868  the  rain,  though  more  copious, 
was  badly  distributed,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  single  heavy  downpour 
in  September,  none  fell  after  the  middle  of  July.  The  solitary  shower, 
however,  prevented  the  crops  from  utterly  perishing ;  but  the  autumn 
harvest  was  very  poor,  and  as  the  winter  passed  away  without  rain,  it 
became  evident  that  the  spring  crops  would  fail  in  all  high  places 
where  the  land  could  not  be  irrigated.  In  January  1869,  reUef  works 
were  started  on  a  large  scale  in  the  southern  pargands,  and  about 
200  miles  of  raised  roads  were  constructed.  This  gave  employment  to 
the  starving  poor  till  the  spring  crops  were  cut  in  April ;  and  the  worst 
pressure  was  thus  relieved.  There  has  been  no  severe  distress  in  the 
District  since  that  date,  although  in  1870  heavy  floods  did  a  great  deal 
of  damage  to  the  autumn  crops.  The  scarcity  which  prevailed  through- 
out Northern  India  in  1877-78  did  not  reach  famine  point  in  Fatehpur 
District,  although  much  distress  was  felt. 

Commerce  and  Trade,  etc. — The  trade  of  the  District  is  mainly  in 
agricultural  produce,  and  is  concentrated  in  the  towns  of  Fatehpur  and 
Naraini.  Bindki,  however,  is  the  great  grain  and  cattle  mart  of  the 
District,  where  dealers  from  Bundelkhand  and  the  Doab  meet  to 
exchange  their  produce.  Most  of  the  Bundelkhand  grain  is  sent 
off  from  the  Mauhar  railway  station,  5  miles  north  of  Bindki.  Brass 
and  copper  work  is  turned  out  in  considerable  quantities  at  Khajuha  and 
Kora ;  and  the  latter  town  has  likewise  some  trade  in  whips  and  skins. 
Saltpetre  is  manufactured  to  a  large  extent  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  District,  from  the  saline  deposits  of  the  /isar  plains  ;  a  good  deal 
of  refined  salt  is  also  made,  but  only  surreptitiously,  as  the  manufacture 
is  prohibited.  The  means  of  communication  are  ample.  The  East 
Indian  Railway  main  line  runs  through  the  heart  of  the  District,  with 
five  stations,  and  a  total  length  within  its  boundaries  of  55  miles.  The 
Grand  Trunk  Road  also  traverses  the  District  from  side  to  side,  with  a 


FATEHFUR.  429 

length  of  about  60  miles.  Other  excellent  roads  connect  Fatehpur 
with  Oudh,  Bundelkhand,  and  the  Doab  generally.  The  Ganges  and 
Jumna  afford  water  communication  along  the  whole  northern  and 
southern  frontiers.  They  still  carry  a  large  part  of  the  heavy  traffic  in 
cotton,  grain,  and  stone,  though  of  course  the  railway  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Road  have  seriously  diminished  its  dimensions.  The  only  fair 
of  any  importance  is  that  held  at  Shiurajpur,  on  the  Ganges,  in  the  first 
week  of  November.  Its  object  is  primarily  religious,  but  a  good  deal 
of  business  is  transacted  side  by  side  with  the  bathing  in  the  sacred 
river.  From  20,000  to  50,000  people  often  attend  it  Horses,  cattle, 
whips,  shoes,  and  toys  are  the  chief  articles  sold. 

Administration. — The  District  staff  usually  consists  of  a  Colleccor- 
Magistrate,  a  Joint  Magistrate,  an  Assistant,  and  an  uncovenanted 
Deputy  Collector.  The  whole  amount  of  revenue — imperial,  municipal, 
and  local — raised  in  the  District  in  1876  was  ;£"i65,409.  In  1882-83, 
the  imperial  revenue  of  the  District  amounted  to  ;£^  137,874,  of  which 
;^i  30,834  was  derived  from  the  land-tax.  In  the  same  year  the  regular 
and  municipal  police  amounted  to  482  men,  and  the  cost  of  their 
maintenance  to  ;^5487,  of  which  ^^4987  was  defrayed  from  provincial 
funds,  and  the  remainder  from  other  sources.  These  figures  give  an 
average  of  i  policeman  to  every  3-4  square  miles  and  every  141 9  of  the 
population.  The  expenditure  upon  the  force  is  equal  to  an  average  of 
;^3,  7s.  2jd.  per  square  mile  and  ifd.  per  inhabitant.  The  regular 
police  were  supplemented  by  1869  village  watchmen  {c/iaukiddrs), 
maintained  at  a  cost  of  ^6764.  During  1882,  the  Fatehpur  jail 
contained  a  daily  average  of  31 1  prisoners,  of  whom  293  were  males  and 
18  females.  The  District  contains  22  post-ofhces,  of  which  14  are 
imperial  and  8  local  The  Government  has  no  telegraph  station  in 
Fatehpur,  but  there  is  a  railway  telegraph  office  at  each  station  on  the 
East  Indian  line.  Education  was  carried  on  in  this  District  in  1882-83 
by  107  Government  inspected  schools,  with  3845  scholars.  Six  of  the 
schools  are  for  girls.  There  are,  however,  several  private  schools  unin- 
spected by  the  educational  officers;  and  the  Census  Report  of  1881 
returned  6082  boys  and  121  girls  as  under  instruction,  besides  19,443 
males  and  155  females  able  to  read  and  write,  but  not  under 
instruction.  For  fiscal  and  administrative  purposes,  Fatehpur  is  sub- 
divided into  6  tahsi/s,  i^  pargands,  and  20  police  circles  {thdnds). 
The  District  contains  only  one  municipality — Fatehpur  town. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  climate  of  Fatehpur  is  that  of  an  ordinary 
Doab  District ;  but  from  its  easterly  position,  the  west  winds  do  not 
reach  it  with  such  force  in  the  hot  weather  as  they  display  at  Agra 
and  the  adjoining  towns.  The  surface  is  somewhat  marshy,  and  the 
numerous  shallow  lakes  {jhils)  render  the  atmosphere  damper  than  that 
of  the  Upper  Doab.      The  humidity  of  the  climate  makes  it  rather 


430  FATEHPUR. 

feverish,  but  the  natives  do  not  consider  it  unhealthy,  especially  when 
compared  with  the  malarious  flats  and  valleys  of  Bundelkhand  to  the 
south.  Europeans  enjoy  moderate  health ;  and  the  once  notorious 
head-quarters  at  Fatehpur  have  now  been  rendered  safe  by  the  drainage 
of  a  large  swamp,  which  formerly  stretched  to  the  west  of  the  station. 
During  the  winter  months  the  climate  is  most  enjoyable,  but  towards 
the  end  of  March  the  weather  gets  rapidly  hotter,  and  in  June  the 
thermometer  often  remains  at  96°  or  98°  F.  day  and  night.  The  maximum 
rainfall  was  53*5  inches  in  1870,  and  the  minimum  was  16-3  inches  in 
1864.  The  slight  rainfall  of  the  latter  year  was,  however,  so  evenly 
distributed,  that  drought  was  not  felt  so  severely  as  in  1868,  when  i8'6 
inches  fell,  but  so  irregularly  as  to  cause  a  partial  famine  during  the 
following  winter.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  a  period  of  33  years 
ending  1881  was  29*99  inches.  The  rainfall  in  1881  was  39*40  inches, 
or  9*41  inches  above  the  average.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
recorded  in  1882  was  28,178,  or  4i'35  per  thousand  of  the  population. 
The  mean  ratio  of  recorded  deaths  per  thousand  during  the  previous 
five  years  was  33'i5  per  thousand.  There  is  one  charitable  dispensary 
in  the  District,  at  Fatehpur  town;  in  1882-83  it  afforded  relief  to  a 
total  number  of  5792  patients.  [For  further  information  regarding 
Fatehpur,  see  the  Gazetteer  of  the  North-  Western  Provinces^  vol.  viii. 
(Government  Press,  Allahabad,  1884).  Also  Final  Settlemejit  Report  of 
the  Fatehpur  District^  by  A.  B.  Patteson,  Esq.,  C.S. ;  Report  on  the 
Census  of  the  North- Western  Provinces  and  Oudh  for  1881 ;  and  the 
Provincial  Administration  and  Depart7nental  Reports  of  the  North- 
western Provinces  and  Oudh  from  1880  to  1883.] 

Fatehpur.  —  Tahsil  or  Sub-division  of  Fatehpur  District,  North- 
Western  Provinces.  Area,  357  square  miles,  of  which  170  were 
cultivated  in  1881,  77  cultivable,  and  103  square  miles  waste.  Popu- 
lation (1881)  177,596,  namely,  males  90,959,  and  females  86,637. 
Number  of  villages,  368.  Land  revenue,  ;^28,7i7  ;  total  Government 
revenue,  ;£"33,863  ;  rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ^£"50,382. 

Fatehpur. — Town,  municipality,  and  administrative  head-quarters  of 
Fatehpur  District,  North- Western  Provinces;  lies  in  lat.  25°  55'  18''  n., 
long.  80°  52"  E.,  on  the  road  from  Allahabad  to  Cawnpur,  70  miles 
north-west  of  the  former  and  50  miles  south-east  of  the  latter.  Popu- 
lation (1881)  21,328,  namely,  Hindus,  11,896;  Muhammadans,  9356; 
and  76  Christians  and  '■  others ; '  area  of  town  site,  761  acres.  Municipal 
income  in  1882-83,  ;£"ii68,  of  which  ;i^io24  was  derived  from  octroi; 
average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  o|d.  per  head  of  municipal 
population.  The  town  lays  claim  to  considerable  antiquity,  and  Babar 
mentions  it  in  his  memoirs.  The  tomb  of  Nawab  Bakar  Ali  Khan, 
minister  of  the  Oudh  Nawabs  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  forms  the 
chief  architectural  ornament  of  the  principal  street.    The  Jama  Masjid, 


FATEHPUR  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN.  431 

or  great  mosque,  and  the  mosque  of  Hakim  Abdul  Hasan  of  Kora,  also 
possess  considerable  interest.  For  the  Mutiny  narrative,  see  Fatehpur 
District.  Station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway  main  line.  Telegraph 
office,  District  jail,  administrative  offices,  charitable  dispensary,  high 
school.  Trade  in  hides,  soap,  and  grain.  The  only  industry  peculiar 
to  the  town,  and  that  an  unimportant  one,  is  the  manufacture  of  whips. 
Two  vernacular  newspapers  are  published  here. 

Fatehpur. — TahsU  or  Sub-division  of  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh ; 
lying  between  26°  58'  and  27°  21'  n.  lat.,  and  between  80°  58'  and 
81°  36'  E.  long;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mahmudabad  tahsil  of 
Sitapur,  on  the  east  by  Hisampur  tahsil  of  Bahraich,  on  the  south  by 
Bara  Banki  tahsil,  and  on  the  west  by  Malihabad  tahsil  of  Lucknow. 
Population,  according  to  the  Census  of  1881  —  Hindus,  240,443; 
Muhammadans,  48,951;  Jains,  241;  ^others,'  8:  total,  289,643, 
Number  of  villages,  676.  The  tahsil  comprises  the  6  pargands  of 
Fatehpur,  Kursi,  Muhammadpur,  Bhitauli,  Ramnagar,  and  Bado  Sarai. 
It  contains  i  civil  and  i  criminal  court  and  4  police  circles  {thdnds). 

Fatehpur.  —  Pargand  in  Fatehpur  tahsil,  Bara  Banki  District, 
.Oudh.  The  original  seat  of  the  Khanzada  family,  to  which  the  great 
talukddrs  of  Mahmudabad,  Bhatwamau,  and  Bilahra  belong ;  the 
Shaikhzadas  of  Fatehpur  are  connections  of  the  family  of  the  same 
name,  once  so  powerful  in  Lucknow.  The  pargand  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  high  lands  above  the  Gogra  (Ghagra),  between  Dewa 
on  the  north  and  Mahmudabad  on  the  south.  Area,  154  square  miles, 
or  98,352  acres,  of  which  65,358  acres  are  cultivated  and  13,186  are 
cultivable  waste.  Government  land  revenue,  ;£i  2,-904;  average  inci- 
dence, 3s.  iijd.  per  acre  of  cultivated,  or  3s.  3^d.  per  acre  of  assessed 
area.  Population  (1881)  92,969,  namely,  48,524  males  and  44,445 
females.     Average  density  of  population,  609  persons  per  square  mile. 

Fatehpur. — Town  in  Bara  Banki  District,  Oudh;  15  miles  north- 
north-east  of  the  head-quarters  town,  at  the  junction  of  the  Daryabad, 
Ramnagar,  Bara  Banki,  and  Sitapur  roads.  Lat.  27°  10'  15"  n.,  long. 
81°  15'  5"  E.  A  place  of  considerable  importance  during  the  days  of 
Mughal  supremacy.  Many  large  Muhammadan  buildings  exist,  but  all 
in  a  state  of  decay.  The  principal  of  these  is  an  imdmhdrd,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Maulvi  Karamat  Ali,  an  officer  of  high  rank  at  the 
court  of  Nasir-ud-din  Haidar,  but  now  only  used  during  the  vmhar-ram 
festival.  There  is  also  an  old  inasjid,  said  to  have  been  built  in  the 
time  of  Akbar ;  the  present  owner  of  the  ground  attached  to  it  holds 
under  a  sanad  or  deed  of  gift,  purporting  to  have  been  granted  by 
Akbar  himself.  There  are  also  many  Hindu  temples.  Besides  a 
well-attended  daily  hdzdr,  a  special  bi-weekly  market  is  also  held,  the 
principal  trade  being  in  grain  brought  from  the  trans -Gogra  tract, 
and  in  English  cloth.      Coarse  country  cloth  is  manufactured  by  a 


432  FATEHPUR—FATEHPUR  CHAURASI. 

numerous  colony  of  weavers.     Police  station,  revenue  court,  and  well- 
attended  Anglo-vernacular  school. 

Fatehpur. — Village  in  Hoshangabad  District,  Central  Provinces; 
situated  in  lat.  22°  38'  n.,  and  long.  78°  34'  e.,  on  the  outer  slope  of 
the  low  limestone  hills  which  shut  in  the  Denwa  valley,  and  upon  the 
road  from  Bankheri  to  Pachmarhi.  A  line  of  semi-independent  Gond 
Rajas  held  the  surrounding  country  from  the  days  of  the  Mandla 
dynasty ;  and  its  present  representatives  still  live  at  Fatehpur,  and  hold 
large  estates  in  the  neighbourhood.  Tantia  Topi  passed  this  way  to 
the  Satpura  Hills  in  1858. 

Fatehpur.  —  Village  in  Hatta  tahsil,  Damoh  District,  Central 
Provinces.  Population  (1881)  2276,  namely,  Hindus,  2108;  Muham- 
madans,  120  ;  and  Jains,  48. 

Fatehpur. — Town  in  Shaikhawati  District,  Jaipur  State,  Rajputana. 
Population  (1881)  14,731,  namely,  Hindus,  10,561  ;  Muhammadans, 
3927;  and  'unspecified,'  243.  Situated  145  miles  north-west  from 
Jaipur.  The  town  is  fortified  and  belongs  to  the  chiefship  of  Sikar. 
Post-office. 

Fatehpur  Chaurasi. — Pargand  in  Safipur  tahsil,\^nio  District,  Oudh, 
lying  along  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  south  of  Bangarmau,  and  north 
of  ^2Sv^\}iX pargand ;  colonized  about  250  years  ago  by  Janwar  Rajputs, 
who  ousted  the  aboriginal  Thatheras.  The  last  chief,  who  held  the  whole 
pargand  as  his  estate,  rebelled  in  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  He  seized  the 
English  fugitives  who  were  escaping  by  boat  from  Fatehgarh,  and  delivered 
them  up  to  the  Nana,  by  whom  they  were  massacred  on  the  Cawnpur 
parade.  He  died  from  the  effects  of  a  wound  received  in  an  attack  on 
Unao ;  one  of  his  sons  was  hanged,  and  the  other  fled.  The  family 
estates  were  confiscated  and  given  to  strangers.  The  pargand  possesses 
varied  scenery,  being  dotted  with  picturesque  groves,  and  intersected 
by  channels  leading  to  the  Ganges.  Indian  corn  of  the  best  descrip- 
tion, and  barley  of  a  fair  quality,  are  the  principal  crops.  Area,  90 
square  miles,  of  which  49  are  cultivated.  Government  land  revenue, 
^5418,  or  an  average  assessment  of  is.  lofd.  per  acre.  Land  is  held 
under  the  different  tenures  as  follows: — Td/ukddri,  25,966  acres; 
zaminddri,  25,806  acres;  pattiddri,  5442  acres;  and  Government  estates, 
308  acres.  Population  (1881)  33,087,  namely,  males  17,853,  and 
females  15,234. 

Fatehpur  Chaurasi. — Town  in  Safipur  tahsil,  Unao  District,  Oudh  ; 
6  miles  west  of  Safipur,  and  25  north-west  of  the  head-quarters  town. 
Said  to  have  been  held  successively  by  the  Thatheras,  a  colony  of 
Sayyid  emigrants,  and  the  Janwars,  each  of  whom  ousted  the  previous 
holders  by  force.  The  estates  of  the  last  holder  were  confiscated  for 
rebellion  in  1857.  Population  (1881)  2948,  namely,  Hindus,  2619  ;  and 
Muhammadans,  329.     Six  Hindu  temples.     Bi-weekly  bdzdr^dind.  small 


FATEHPUR  SIKRI  TAB  SI L  AND  TOWN.  433 

annual  fair  on  the  occasion  of  the  Basahara  festival.  Post-office, 
registration  office,  and  village  school. 

Fatehpur  Sikri.— r^//>f/7of  Agra  District,  North-Western  Provinces, 
(also  known  as  ta/isil  Kiraoli),  lying  in  the  western  or  trans-Jumna 
portion  of  the  District.  Area,  272  square  miles,  of  which  189 
square  miles  are  cultivated,  62  square  miles  cultivable,  and  21  square 
miles  waste.  Land  revenue,  £20),^^;  total  Government  revenue, 
including  local  rates  and  cesses,  ^33,423 ;  rental  paid  by  cultivators, 
including  cesses,  ;£"38,349.  Population  (1881)  114,678,  namely,  males 
61,596,  and  females  53,082.  Hindus  numbered  101,861  ;  Muham- 
madans,  11,989;  Jains,  823;  and  'others,'  5.  Number  of  towns  and 
villages,  171.  The  tahsil  \s  watered  by  the  Utangan  river  in  the  south, 
and  by  the  Khari  jiadi  which  flows  through  its  centre.  In  the  east  the 
country  is  level,  resembling  the  adjoining  tract  in  the  Agra  tahsil.  In 
the  western  half,  however,  there  are  hills,  the  most  important  being  the 
range  on  which  the  town  of  Fatehpur  Sikri  is  situated,  running  across 
the  valley  between  the  Utangan  and  Khari  7iadi  in  a  north-easterly 
direction.  A  much  shorter  and  lower  range  runs  parallel  to  this  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Khari  nadi ;  both  ranges  consist  of  red  sandstone. 
The  Muttra  and  Agra  road  crosses  the  north-east  of  the  tahsil^  but  the 
most  important  road  is  the  one  from  Agra,  through  the  centre  of  the 
tahsil  to  Kiraoli,  the  head-quarters,  and  to  Fatehpur  Si'kri,  up  to  which 
point  it  is  metalled.  Thence  it  continues  westwards,  and  is  known  as 
the  Nasirabad  road.  This  line  of  communication  is  connected  by- 
numerous  village  roads  with  all  parts  of  the  tahsil,  which  is  thus 
brought  into  close  connection  with  Agra  city,  distant  only  10  miles 
from  its  eastern  border.  The  Rajputana  State  Railway  runs  through 
the  northern  half  of  the  tahsil,  within  4  miles  of  Kiraoli ;  and  at 
Achhnera  the  branch  line  to  Muttra  strikes  off.  The  Agra  Canal  passes 
through  the  north  of  the  tahsil,  and  three  distributaries  irrigate  the 
tract  to  the  north  of  the  Khari  nadi.  The  tahsil  or  Sub-division 
contains  i  criminal  court,  with  4  police  stations;  strength  of  regular 
police,  54  men. 

Fatehpur  Sikri. — Town,  municipality,  and  a  former  capital  of  the 
Mughal  Empire;  situated  in  Agra  District,  North- Western  Provinces, 
23  miles  west  of  Agra,  and  10  miles  south-west  of  Kiraoli.  Lat. 
27°  5'  35"  N.,  long.  77°  42'  18"  E.  Population  (i88r)  6243,  namely, 
Hindus,  3536;  Muhammadans,  2706;  and  i  Christian.  Municipal 
income  (1882-83),  ^426,  of  which  ;^4ii  was  derived  from  octroi; 
average  incidence  of  taxation,  is.  id.  per  head  (7466)  of  municipal 
population.  Founded  by  the  Emperor  Akbar  in  1570  with  a  view 
to  its  establishment  as  the  permanent  seat  of  the  Mughal  court ;  and 
enriched  by  magnificent  architectural  works  in  the  time  of  Akbar  and 
Jahangir ;   but   abandoned    within  fifty   years   of  its    foundation,    in 

VOL.  IV.  2  E 


434  FATEHPUR  SIKRI  TOWN. 

favour  of  Delhi.     It  chiefly  consists  of  a  vast  expanse  of  ruins,  enclosed 
by  a  high  stone  wall,  some  5  miles  in  circuit.     The  great  mosque  is 
approached  by  a  magnificent  gateway,  known  as  the  Buland  Darwaza, 
which  surmounts  a  splendid  flight  of  steps,  and  gives  access  to  the 
Dargah  or  sacred  quadrangle,  a  courtyard  some  500  feet  square,  sur- 
rounded by  a  lofty  cloister  and  a  range  of  cells  for  Fakirs  or  pilgrims. 
The  quadrangle  contains  a  large  mosque  with  three  handsome  domes 
of  white  marble,  besides  the  tomb  of  Shaikh  Salim  Chishti,  a  Musalman 
ascetic,  through   whose   intercession   Akbar   obtained  an   heir  in  the 
person  of  Prince  Salim,  afterwards  known  as  the  Emperor  Jahangir. 
The  tomb  consists  of  an  elaborately- carved  shrine  in  white   marble, 
enclosing  a  sarcophagus  within   a  screen  of  lattice-work,  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl.     North  of  the  Dargah  stand  the  houses  of  Abul  Fazl 
and  his  brother  Faizi,  now  used  as  a  boys'  school.     Eastward  is  the 
principal  palace,  containing  the  apartments  of  Akbar's  chief  wife.     It 
consists  of  a  spacious  courtyard,  surrounded  by  a  continuous  gallery, 
from  which  rise  rows  of  buildings  on  the  north  and  south,  roofed  with 
slabs  of  blue  enamel.      A  _  lofty  and  richly-carved  gate   gives  access 
to  a  terrace  paved  with  sandstone  flags,  and  formerly  enclosed  by  a 
colonnade.     On  this  terrace  stand,  among  other  noble  buildings,  the 
so-called  houses  of  Birbal  and  of  the  '  Christian  lady.'     Birbal's  palace, 
which  modern  antiquaries  assign  with  greater  probability  to  his  daughter, 
is  noticeable  for  its  massive  materials  and  the  lavish  minuteness  of  its 
detail.     The  '  Christian  lady's  house '  belonged,  according  to  tradition, . 
to  Bibi  Mariam,  a  Portuguese  wife  of  Akbar.     Some  of  the  paintings 
are  supposed  to  represent  Christian  scenes,  but  the  Musalmans  have 
nearly  obliterated  all  traces  of  these  offensive  pictures.     Great  doubts, 
however,  have  been  cast  upon  the  traditions  respecting  the  '  Christian 
lady,'  who  was  probably  a  Hindu  princess,  the  mother  of  Jahangir. 
Among  the  other  architectural  masterpieces,  the  Diwan-i-Khas  and  the 
Diwan-i-am,  or  Council  Chamber  and  Hall  of  Judgment,  especially 
attract  the  attention  of  visitors.      The  Elephant  Gate  contains  two 
massive  figures  of  the  animals  from  which  it  derives  its  name;  but 
their  heads  were  removed  by  the  Muhammadan  bigotry  of  Aurangzeb. 
Close  by  towers  the  Hiran  Minar,  a  pile  some  70  feet  in  height,  covered 
with  enamelled  imitations  of  elephants'  tusks,   which  are  commonly 
believed  by  the  populace  to  consist  of  solid  ivory.     Numerous  other 
splendid  buildings,  dating  back  in  every  case  to  the  reign  of  Akbar,  or 
of  his  son  Jahangir,  stand  in  various  parts  of  the  city.     Fatehpur  Sikri 
has   little   modern   importance,   and  its  architectural   remains,   which 
attract   many  tourists   from   Agra,   are   its    chief  claim   to   attention. 
During  the  Mutiny  of  1857  it  was  occupied  by  the  Nimach  (Neemuch) 
and  Nasirabad  (Nusseerabad)  rebels  on  the  2nd  of  July,  and  the  British 
authorities  did  not  permanently  recover  the  place  until  November. 


FATWA—FAZILKA.  435 

The  modern  town  of  Fatehpur  lies  to  the  south-west  of  the  ruins  and 
palaces,  and  the  village  of  Sikri  to  the  north-east,  but  both  are  within 
the  old  boundary  wall  built  by  Akbar,  which  had  a  circumference  of 
about  7  miles.  The  public  buildings  comprise  a  police  station,  post- 
office,  charitable  dispensary,  and  Anglo-vernacular  school.  There  is 
also  a  dak  bungalow,  in  a  part  of  the  old  palace,  formerly  Akbar's  record 
office ;  while  other  portions  of  the  palace  buildings  are  available  for 
occupation  by  visitors  on  permission  given  by  the  Collector.  Fatehpur 
Sikri  is  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari  as  among  the  principal  places  in 
the  Mughal  Empire  in  1596,  although  it  had  then  ceased  for  ten  years 
to  be  the  capital,  and  as  celebrated  for  its  hair-weaving,  silk-spinning, 
and  stone-carving,  which  '  clever  workmen  chisel  so  skilfully  as  t.k^ 
turner  could  do  with  wood.'  Its  grand  sardi  was  the  rendezvous  of 
merchants  from  all  the  then  known  parts  of  the  globe,  European 
countries  being  largely  represented.  But  at  the  present  day,  the 
weaving  of  a  few  coarse  and  cheap  cotton  carpets,  and  the  fashioning 
of  rude  millstones,  are  the  only  manufactures  of  the  place,  while  its 
trade  has  dwindled  down  into  the  import  of  a  few  insignificant  items, 
mainly  for  local  consumption. 

Fatwa  {Fatuhd). — Town  in  Patna  District,  Bengal,  and  station  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway,  8  miles  from  Patna  city,  and  324  from 
Calcutta.  Situated  in  lat.  25°  30'  25"  n.,  and  long.  85°  21'  e.,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Punpiin  with  the  Ganges,  and  supported  in  a  great 
measure  by  river  traffic.  Fatwa  was  described  by  Dr.  Buchanan 
Hamilton,  in  181 2,  as  a  large  country  town,  which  might  contain  2000 
houses  and  12,000  people,  with  a  considerable  trade  and  manufacture 
of  cloth.  Population  (1881)  10,919,  namely,  Hindus,  9718;  and 
Muhammadans,  1201.  Area  of  town  site,  588  acres.  Its  position  on 
the  railway  and  on  the  Ganges  naturally  give  it  commercial  import- 
ance. Fatwa  is  also  a  place  of  considerable  sanctity.  Five  festivals 
are  held  here  annually,  when  large  numbers  of  pilgrims  bathe  in  the 
sacred  river.  At  the  Bdrni  Dawddasi^  or  festival  commemorating  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  in  the  form  of  a  dwarf,  from  10,000  to  12^000 
persons  bathe  at  the  junction  of  the  Piinpiin  with  the  Ganges. 

Fazilka. — TahsU  of  Sirsa  District,  Punjab,  lying  along  the  bank  of 
the  river  Sutlej  (Satlaj).  Area,  1196  square  miles.  Population  (1881) 
87,894,  namely,  males  48,345,  and  females  39,549,  Muhammadans 
numbered  41,781;  Hindus,  37,085;  Sikhs,  8974;  'others,'  54.  The 
tract  is  naturally  divided  into  the  low  alluvial  tract  along  the  Sutlej, 
and  the  high  land  to  the  east,  the  latter  being  by  far  the  larger  of  the 
two.  Steps  are  being  taken  to  re-open  the  Padi-nala,  an  old  inundation 
canal  which  once  watered  the  lowlands  ;  while  a  branch  of  the  Sirhind 
Canal  has  been  brought  into  the  uplands,  and  was  opened  in  1882. 
Revenue  of  the  iahsil,  ;£"9552.     The  administrative  staff  consists  of  an 


436  FAZILKA—FIRINGHl  BAZAR. 

extra-Assistant  Commissioner  and  a  tahsilddr,  presiding  over  2  civil  and 
2  criminal  courts.  Number  of  ihdnds  or  police  circles,  3 ;  strength  of 
regular  police,  81  men;  village  watchmen  {chmikiddrs),  187. 

Fazilka. — Town  and  municipaUty  in  Sirsa  District,  Punjab,  and 
head-quarters  of  Fazilka  tahsil  Lat.  30°  24'  57"  N.,  long.  74°  4'  10"  e. 
Situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej  (Satlaj).  Population  (1881) 
6851,  namely,  Hindus,  4917;  Muhammadans,  1874;  Sikhs,  44;  and 
Jains,  16;  number  of  houses,  11 19.  A  third-class  municipality. 
Municipal  income  in  1882-83,  ^1969;  expenditure,  ;^i484' 
Founded  about  1846  by  Mr.  Oliver  on  the  ruins  of  a  deserted  village, 
named  after  a  Wattu  chief,  Fazil,  and  greatly  developed  by  his 
exertions.  Great  entrepot  for  the  produce  of  the  neighbourhood,  and 
of  the  western  portion  of  Patiala,  exported  by  boats  down  the  Sutlej 
towards  Miiltan  (Mooltan)  and  Karachi  (Kurrachee).  Fazilka  is  the 
most  thriving  and  progressive  town  in  this  part  of  the  Punjab.  Con- 
siderable trade  with  Bhawalpur  and  Bikaner,  chiefly  in  grain  and  wool. 
The  Indus  Valley  State  Railway  has  established  a  depot  on  the  river 
bank,  five  miles  from  the  town,  to  which  steamers  ply  in  the  rainy 
season.  It  is  proposed  to  connect  Fazilka  with  the  Firozpur-Rewari 
Railway,  by  a  branch  either  at  Bhatinda  or  Mukatsar.  Station  of 
an  extra-Assistant  Commissioner,  court-house,  tahsili^  police  station, 
dispensary,  staging  bungalow,  sardi. 

Ferokh  {Farrukhdbdd,  'Fortunate  city,'  Faramukka).—i:hQ  town 
which  Tipu  Sultan  in  1789  designed  to  be  the  capital  of  Malabar,  and 
whither  in  that  year  he  removed  the  inhabitants  of  Calicut.  In  the 
following  year^  however,  it  was  captured  by  the  British,  and  hardly  a 
vestige  now  remains  of  the  town.  The  site  lies  a  few  miles  from 
Beypur  (Beypore),  in  Malabar  District,  Madras  Presidency. 

Ferozabad.— 27z/^j//  and  town  in  Agra  District,  North-Western 
Provinces. — See  Firozabad. 

Ferozabad. — Pargand  in  Kheri  District,  Oudh. — See  Firozabad. 

Ferozepur. — District,  tahsil,  and  town,  Punjab. — See  Firozpur. 

Ferozeshah.  —  Battle-field    in    Firozpur    District,    Punjab.  —  See 

FiROZSHAH. 

'FiageswSi.r.—Zaminddri  or  estate  in  the  Central  Provinces. — See 
Phingeswar. 

Firinghi  Bazar. — Village  in  Dacca  District,  Bengal ;  situated  in 
lat.  23°  33'  N.,  and  long.  90°  33'  e.,  upon  a  branch  of  the  river 
Ichamati.  Noted  as  the  first  Portuguese  settlement  in  the  District, 
formed  about  1663,  during  the  Governorship  of  Shaista  Khan.  These 
Portuguese  were  mainly  soldiers  who  had  deserted  from  the  service 
of  the  Raja  of  Arakan  to  that  of  Husain  Beg,  the  Mughal  general 
besieging  Chittagong,  which  at  that  time  was  Arakanese  territory. 
Firinghi  Bazar  was  once  of  considerable  size,  but  its  prosperity  has 


FIRING! PE  T—FIR  OZABAD.  43  7 

declined  since  the  decay  of  the  Dacca  trade,  and  it  is  now  an  insigni- 
ficant village. 

Firingipet  {Parangipetd'i). — Town  in  South  Arcot  District,  Madras 
Presidency. — See  Porto  Novo. 

Firozabad.  —  Tahsil  of  Agra  District,  North-Western  Provinces, 
lying  along  the  northern  or  Doab  bank  of  the  river  Jumna  (Jamuna). 
Population  (1881)  108,521,  namely,  males  59,287,  and  females  49,234. 
Hindus  numbered  97,284  ;  Muhammadans,  8826  ;  Jains,  2407  ; 
'others,'  4.  Number  of  villages,  285.  Area,  203  square  miles,  of 
which  140  square  miles  are  cultivated,  16  square  miles  cultivable, 
and  47  square  miles  barren.  Land  revenue,  ;£"2  2,450  ;  total  Govern- 
ment revenue,  including  rates  and  cesses,  ^^25,144;  rental  paid  by 
cultivators,  ^42,307.  With  the  exception  of  the  extensive  ravines 
which  skirt  the  Jumna  along  the  whole  of  its  course  in  the  tahsil^  there 
are  no  remarkable  physical  features  varying  the  general  aspect  of  the 
country,  which  is  that  of  a  level  cultivated  plain.  These  ravines 
occupy  an  area  of  about  34  square  miles,  as  a  rule  bare  and  unpro- 
ductive, although  large  quantities  of  munj  grass  grow  in  some  tracts, 
and  in  others  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  low  jungle  wood.  Of 
the  cultivated  area,  84  per  cent,  is  returned  as  irrigated ;  and  of  this,  96 
per  cent,  derives  its  irrigation  from  wells,  the  average  irrigated  area  per 
well  being  6 "3  acres.  Canal  irrigation  is  confined  to  a  very  limited 
tract.  The  tahsil  is  traversed  by  the  East  Indian  Railway,  with  a 
station  at  Firozabad  town ;  by  a  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Road 
parallel  to  the  railway;  two  second-class  roads,  and  several  third- 
class  roads.  It  contains  2  criminal  courts,  with  4  police  stations 
{thdnds) ;  strength  of  regular  police,  56  men ;  village  watchmen 
(chaickiddrs),  331. 

Firozabad. — Town  and  municipality  in  Agra  District,  North-Western 
Provinces,  and  head-quarters  of  Firozabad  tahsil.  Lies  in  lat.  27°  8' 
37"  N.,  and  long.  78°  25'  56"  e.,  on  the  route  from  Muttra  (Mathura) 
to  Etawah ;  distant  from  Agra  24  miles  east.  Population  (1881) 
16,023,  namely,  Hindus,  10,770;  Muhammadans,  4473;  Jains,  777; 
and  '  others,'  3 ;  area  of  town  site,  766  acres.  Municipal  income 
(1882-83)5^789,  of  which  ;£"702  was  derived  from  octroi;  average 
incidence  of  taxation,  lo^d.  per  head.  Contains  numerous  ruins  of 
handsome  buildings,  and  appears  to  have  been  in  former  times  an 
important  centre.  It  is  now  a  small  trading  town,  with  a  considerable 
agricultural  population.  Station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway  main  line, 
817  miles  from  Calcutta.  Telegraph  office,  charitable  dispensary, 
Anglo-vernacular  school,  police  station,  post-office,  encamping-ground, 
and  rest-house. 

Firozdibad. — Pargand  in  Nighasan  tahsil,  Kheri  District,  Oudh, 
lying  between  the  Chauka,  Kauriala,  and  Dahawar  rivers.     The  par- 


438  FIROZPUR. 

gand  receives  its  name  from  the  Emperor  Firoz  Shah,  with  whom  it 
was  a  favourite  hunting-ground.  In  olden  times  it  belonged  in  great 
part  to  the  Bisens ;  but  they  were  expelled,  after  repeated  conflicts, 
by  the  Jangres,  who  in  their  turn  were  ousted  in  1776,  and  their 
Raja  killed.  About  sixteen  years  afterwards,  a  relative  of  the  deceased 
chief  was  granted  a  few  patches  of  rent-free  ground,  which  he  gradually 
increased  till  in  forty  years  he  had  obtained  possession  of  the  whole 
northern  portion  of  the  pargand,  which  now  forms  the  estate  of 
Isanagar,  and  is  still  in  the  possession  of  the  family.  The  entire  south 
of  the  parga7td  also  forms  a  single  estate,  which  has  grown  out  of  five 
villages  granted  to  a  Raikwar  Kshattriya  chief,  who  extended  his 
possessions  at  the  expense  of  his  neighbours.  The  pargand  is  of 
alluvial  formation,  but  is  now  well  raised,  and  but  little  of  it  is  ex- 
posed to  flood.  Soil,  principally  loam,  but  towards  the  centre  a 
good  deal  of  clay.  Area,  163  square  miles,  of  which  104  are  under 
cultivation.  Population  (1881),  Hindus,  48,255  ;  and  Muhammadans, 
6751  :  total,  55,006.  The  Lodhis,  who  form  16  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, are  the  most  numerous  caste;  next  come  Ahirs  (11  per  cent.), 
and  Brahmans  (10  per  cent.).  The  91  villages  constituting  \^q  pargand 
are  held  entirely  by  the  Jangre  and  Raikwar  tdlukddrs  dhowe.  mentioned, 
who  divide  \hQ  parga7td  in  about  equal  proportions. 

Firozpur. — British  District  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  the 
Punjab,  lying  between  30°  8'  and  31°  11'  n.  lat.,  and  between  74°  3' 
30"  and  75°  27'  E.  long.  Firozpur  forms  the  southern  District  of  the 
Lahore  Division.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north-east  by  the  river  Sutlej 
(Satlaj),  which  separates  it  from  Jalandhar  (Jullundur) ;  on  the  north- 
west by  the  united  stream  of  the  Sutlej  and  Beas  (Bias),  which  divides 
it  from  Lahore;  on  the  east  and  south-east  by  Ludhiana  District, 
and  the  Native  States  of  Faridkot,  Patiala,  and  Nabha,  which  last 
stretch  into  the  District  so  as  almost  to  divide  it  into  two  parts  ;  and 
on  the  south-west  by  Sirsa  District.  Area,  2752  square  miles  ;  popu- 
lation (1881)  650,519.  It  stands  seventeenth  in  order  of  area,  and 
eleventh  in  order  of  population  among  the  thirty-two  Districts  of  the 
Punjab.  The  administrative  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Firozpur, 
on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Sutlej. 

Physical  Aspects. — The  District  of  Firozpur  is  one  unbroken  plain, 
comprising  within  its  limits  every  variety  of  soil,  from  the  most  fertile 
to  the  most  barren,  to  be  found  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  Punjab. 
The  action  of  the  Sutlej  has  played  a  chief  part  in  determining  its 
geographical  features.  Striking  the  District  at  its  north-eastern  comer, 
the  great  river  trends  northwards  to  its  junction  with  the  Beas  (Bias), 
after  which  the  united  channel  turns  sharply  toward  the  south-west, 
until  it  passes  beyond  the  borders  of  Firozpur.  The  angular  segment 
thus  circumscribed  has  for  its  base  an  ancient  bed  of  the  river,  known 


FIROZPUR,  439 

as  the  Sukhar  Nai,  which  winds  in  a  tortuous  course  east  and  west 
across  the  District,  and  joins  the  modern  channel  near  the  confines 
of  Sirsa.  The  abrupt  cliff  which  rises  above  its  right  bank  forms  the 
most  marked  element  in  the  physical  aspect  of  the  country.  Within 
the  memory  of  the  present  generation,  water  is  said  to  have  flowed  in 
its  bed,  while  groves  of  shisham  trees  lined  the  banks ;  but  no  traces 
of  timber  now  remain.  Evidence,  however,  still  exists  of  yet  another 
and  more  ancient  change  of  course  in  the  shifting  waters  of  the  Sutlej. 
The  original  bank,  locally  known  as  the  ddnda,  crosses  the  south-western 
corner  of  the  District  35  miles  east  of  the  present  stream.  It  can 
be  traced  distinctly  as  far  as  the  battle-field  of  Miidki  (Moodkee), 
and  thence  at  intervals  to  the  Sutlej,  15  miles  farther  to  the  north. 
The  poorest  portion  of  Firozpur  lies  to  the  west  of  the  ddnda,  beyond 
the  fertilizing:  influence  of  the  modern  river.  The  soil  consists  of  hard 
and  hopelessly  sterile  sand,  while  the  water  obtained  from  wells  is 
largely  impregnated  with  salt,  and  lies  at  a  depth  of  180  feet  below 
the  surface.  East  of  the  ddnda,  however,  excellent  agricultural  land 
stretches  over  the  upland  tract  or  rohi ;  and  the  wells  yield  sweet  and 
drinkable  water,  sufficiently  close  to  the  surface  for  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion. The  bhet  or  low-lying  tract  between  the  great  river  and  the  high 
bank  of  the  Sukhar  Nai,  has  a  maximum  width  of  14  miles  opposite 
the  confluence  of  the  Beas  (Bias)  and  the  Sutlej.  Much  of  its  soil 
consists  of  a  poor  and  sandy  loam,  but  great  facilities  exist  for  arti- 
ficial water-supply;  while  the  annual  inundations  render  the  border 
fringe  extremely  productive,  through  the  deposit  of  a  rich  black  silt. 
The  northern  portion  of  the  District  comprises  a  fairly-wooded  region, 
though  most  of  the  trees  have  been  planted  in  recent  years ;  but  the 
southern  half  is  still  extremely  bare  of  shade.  When  Firozpur  first 
came  under  British  rule,  our  authorities  almost  despaired  of  arboriculture 
in  so  dry  a  tract ;  yet  the  constant  efl'orts  of  the  settlement  officers,  who 
set  apart  a  piece  of  ground  as  a  plantation  in  every  village,  have  at 
length  been  crowned  with  success,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  river, 
at  least,  now  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  siris,  fardsh,  and  pipal 
trees.  Plantations  have  also  been  established  round  every  police 
station  throughout  the  District,  forming  agreeable  breaks  in  the 
monotony  of  the  levels  and  cultivated  plain.  The  only  animals  of 
prey  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  Firozpur  are  wolves,  which, 
although  not  of  large  size,  are  fierce  and  mischievous.  Jackals 
and  foxes  are  few  in  number.  Antelope  still  exist  in  tolerable 
abundance,  but  they  are  much  shot  down.  Small  game  includes 
hares,  black  and  grey  partridges,  and  sand-grouse  in  abundance; 
and  in  the  cold  weather,  hdang  (demoiselle  crane),  wild  geese  and 
duck  on  and  near  the  river.  Quail  and  small  birds  are  trapped 
by  means  of  decoys   and  nets.      Rohu   and   chilka   fish    are   caught 


440  FIROZPUR. 

in    the    Sutlej,    but    there    are    no    fisheries    of  importance    in    the 
District. 

History. — Tradition,  supported  by  remains  of  antiquity,  assigns  a 
former  period  of  great  prosperity  to  a  region  which  now  forms  the 
dreariest  waste  in  the  District  of  Firozpur.  The  neighbourhood  of  the 
dry  ddnda  channel,  at  present  ahnost  uninhabited,  bears  witness,  by  its 
deserted  sites  and  choked-up  wells,  to  the  existence  of  a  numerous 
agricultural  population  along  its  now  desolate  banks.  Though  no  date 
can  be  absolutely  determined  for  this  epoch  of  prosperity,  there  are 
good  grounds  for  the  belief  that  the  Sutlej  still  flowed  east  of  Firoz- 
pur in  the  time  of  Akbar ;  for  the  famous  Mughal  Domesday-Book, 
known  as  the  Am-i-Akbari,  describes  the  town  as  the  capital  of  a  large 
district  attached  to  the  western  Province  of  Miiltan  (Mooltan),  and  not 
to  that  of  Sirhind,  as  would  probably  have  been  the  case  had  the  river 
already  taken  its  modern  course.  The  shifting  of  the  river,  from  which 
the  tract  derived  its  fertility,  and  the  ravages  of  war,  were  doubtless  the 
chief  causes  of  its  decline,  which  probably  commenced  before  the  end  of 
the  i6th  century.  The  country  certainly  presented  the  appearance  of  a 
desert  when,  about  two  centuries  ago,  the  Dogras,  a  tribe  who  claim  to 
rank  as  Chauhan  Rdjputs,  settled  near  Pakpattan,  and  gradually  spread 
up  the  Sutlej  valley.  They  found  none  to  oppose  them,  as  the  scattered 
Bhatti  population  who  occupied  the  soil  retired  before  the  new  colonists. 
At  length,  in  1740,  according  to  tradition,  they  reached  Firozpur, 
which  became  thenceforth  the  capital  of  the  tribe.  The  imperial 
authority  was  represented  by  an  officer  stationed  at  Kasiir,  to  the  west 
of  the  Sutlej,  bearing  the  title  of  the  '  Faujdar  of  the  Lakka  Jungle.' 
About  the  same  time,  a  tide  of  Jat  immigration  appears  to  have  set 
in  from  the  direction  of  Ambala  (Umballa)  and  Sirhind ;  and  Sikh 
chieftains  began  to  carve  out  petty  principalities  for  themselves  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  District.  In  1763,  the  Bhangi  confederacy,  one 
of  the  great  Sikh  sections,  attacked  and  conquered  Firozpur  under 
their  famous  leader,  Gujar  Singh,  who  made  over  the  newly-acquired 
territory  to  his  nephew,  Gurbakhsh  Singh.  The  young  Sikh  chieftain 
rebuilt  the  fort  and  consolidated  his  power  on  the  Sutlej,  but  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  other  portions  of  the  Province.  In  1792  he  seems 
to  have  divided  his  estates  with  his  family,  when  Firozpur  fell  to 
Dhanna  Singh,  his  second  son.  The  little  State,  encircled  by  enemies, 
proved  almost  too  difficult  a  realm  for  its  new  ruler,  who  lost  his 
territories  piece  by  piece,  but  still  retained  possession  of  Firozpur 
itself,  when  Ranjit  Singh  crossed  the  Sutlej  in  1808,  and  threatened  to 
absorb  all  the  minor  principalities  which  lay  between  his  domain  and 
the  British  frontier.  But  the  English  Government,  established  at  Delhi 
since  1803,  intervened  with  an  offer  of  protection  to  all  the  cis-Sutlej 
States  j  and  Dhanna  Singh  gladly  availed  himself  of  the  promised  aid, 


FIROZPUR.  441 

being  one  of  the  first  chieftains  who  accepted  British  protection  and 
control.  Ran  jit  Singh  at  once  ceased  to  interfere  with  the  minor  States 
when  the  assistance  of  the  British  arms  lay  ready  to  support  their 
rights;  and  Dhanna  Singh  retained  the  remnant  of. his  dominions 
unmolested,  until  his  death  in  1 818.  He  left  no  sons,  and  his  wndow 
succeeded  to  his  principality  during  her  lifetime  ;  but  on  her  death  in 
1835,  the  territory  escheated  to  the  British  Government,  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  arrangement  effected  in  1809.  The  political  importance 
of  Firozpur  had  been  already  recognised,  and  an  officer  was  at  once 
deputed  to  take  possession  of  the  new  post.  After  the  boundary  had 
been  carefully  determined,  the  District  was  made  over  for  a  while  to  a 
native  official ;  but  it  soon  became  desirable  to  make  Firozpur  the 
permanent  seat  of  a  European  Political  Officer.  In  1839,  Sir  Henry 
(then  Captain)  Lawrence  took  charge  of  the  station,  which  formed  at 
that  time  the  advanced  outpost  of  British  India  in  the  direction  of  the 
Sikh  power.  Early  accounts  represent  the  country  as  a  dreary  and  desert 
plain,  where  rain  seldom  fell,  and  dust-storms  never  ceased.  The  energy 
of  Captain  Lawrence,  however,  combined  with  the  unwonted  security 
under  British  rule,  soon  attracted  new  settlers  to  this  hitherto  desolate 
region.  Cultivation  rapidly  increased,  trees  began  to  fringe  the  water- 
side, trade  collected  round  the  local  centres,  and  Firozpur,  which  in 
1835  '^^'^s  a  deserted  village,  had  in  1841  a  population  of  nearly  5000 
persons.  Four  years  later,  the  first  Sikh  war  broke  out.  The  enemy 
crossed  the  Sutlej  opposite  Firozpur  on  the  i6th  December  1845  ; 
and  the  battles  of  Miidki  (Moodkee),  Firozshah,  Aliwal,  and  Sobraon 
— all  of  them  within  the  limits  of  the  present  District — followed  one 
another  in  rapid  succession.  Broken  by  their  defeats,  the  Sikhs  once 
more  retired  across  the  boundary  river,  pursued  by  the  British  army, 
which  dictated  the  terms  of  peace  beneath  the  walls  of  Lahore.  The 
whole  cis-Sutlej  possessions  of  the  Punjab  kingdom  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  the  little  principality  of  Firozpur 
became  at  once  the  nucleus  for  an  important  British  District.  The 
existing  area  was  increased  by  subsequent  additions,  the  last  of  which 
took  place  in  1864.  Since  the  successful  close  of  the  first  Sikh  cam- 
paign, the  peace  of  the  District  has  never  been  broken,  except  during 
the  Mutiny  of  1857.  In  May  of  that  year,  one  of  the  two  Native 
infantry  regiments  stationed  at  Firozpur  broke  out  into  revolt,  and,  in 
spite  of  a  British  regiment  and  some  European  artillery,  plundered  and 
destroyed  the  buildings  of  the  cantonment.  The  arsenal  and  magazine, 
however,  which  gave  the  station  its  principal  importance,  were  saved 
without  loss  of  life  to  the  European  garrison.  The  mutineers  were 
subsequently  dispersed. 

Populatioji.  —  The  earliest  Census  of  Firozpur  District  was  taken 
in   1854,  and  showed  a  total  population  of  475,624  persons.     The 


442  FIROZPUR. 

area  then  differed  but  little  from  that  of  the  present  time.  A  second 
enumeration,  undertaken  in  January  1868,  disclosed  a  totalof  549,614 
persons,  over  the  area  comprising  the  present  District.  In  1881,  the 
Census  returned  the  population  at  650,519,  showing  a  further  increase 
of  100,905,  or  i8*4  per  cent.,  in  the  thirteen  years  since  1868.  The 
results  arrived  at  by  the  Census  of  1881  may  be  summarized  as 
follows  : — Area  of  the  District,  2752  square  miles  ;  number  of  towns 
and  villages,  1189;  number  of  houses,  89,416,  of  which  74,429  are 
occupied  and  14,987  unoccupied.  Total  population,  650,519,  namely, 
males  357,319,  and  females  293,200;  proportion  of  males  in  total 
population,  54*9  per  cent.  As  regards  religious  distinctions,  the  District 
is  mainly  noticeable  for  the  comparatively  large  proportion  of  its  Sikh 
inhabitants,  who  number  168,816,  or  25-9  per  cent,  of  the  total.  The 
Muhammadans  were  returned  at  310,552,  or  477  per  cent.  ;  the 
Hindus  at  168,645,  ^^  -5 '9  P^^  cent.  Jains  numbered  811 ;  Christians, 
1686 ;  and  Parsis,  9.  The  agricultural  population  amounted  to  368,358 
persons,  of  whom  109,533  were  male  agriculturists  above  the  age  of  15 
years.  As  regards  ethnical  divisions  and  caste  distinctions,  the  Hindus 
and  Sikhs  comprised  12,076  Brahmans,  3595  Rajputs,  9174  Kshattriyas, 
11,335  Baniyas,  13,306  Aroras,  and  159,941  Jats ;  while  the  Musalman 
element  included  35,943  Rajputs,  26,635  J^^s,  11,975  Giijars,  6806 
Shaikhs,  3134  Sayyids,  1103  Mughals,  3122  Pathans,  and  2486 
Khwajas.  The  Muhammadans  chiefly  inhabit  the  low-lying  lands  {bhei) 
along  the  banks  of  the  Sutlej.  The  Dogxas  and  Bhattis  form  the  leading 
Rajput  tribes,  and  bear  the  reputation  of  being  lazy  and  thriftless. 
They  also  contribute  to  swell  the  returns  of  crime  far  beyond  their  fair 
numerical  proportion.  On  the  other  hand,  they  hold  a  high  social 
position  in  the  District.  The  Sikh  and  Hindu  Jats,  fine  specimens  of 
their  hardy  and  industrious  race,  apply  their  energy  to  cultivation  in 
the  upland  plateau  of  the  rohi.  The  Rajas  of  the  neighbouring  States 
of  Patiala,  Jhind,  and  Nabha,  belong  to  the  Barar  sub-division  of  the 
Jat  tribe.  The  population  lies  scattered  very  unevenly  over  the  various 
portions  of  the  District.  In  some  parts  of  the  low-lying  Sutlej  belt,  a 
message  can  be  passed  from  village  to  village,  according  to  popular 
belief,  by  the  human  voice ;  while  in  the  extreme  south,  a  horseman  at 
full  speed  could  not  pass  from  one  inhabited  spot  to  another  within  an 
hour.  The  District  contains  5  municipalities  —  namely,  Firozpur, 
population  (1881)  20,870,  exclusive  of  cantonment;  Muktsar,  3125  ; 
Dharmkot,  6007  ;  Zira,  3492  ;  Makhu,  1658.  The  only  other  towns 
in  the  District  are  Moga,  population  6430  ;  and  Mahraj,  5758.  Firoz- 
pur, the  head-quarters  station,  is  also  important  as  a  great  mihtary 
cantonment,  and  the  chief  arsenal  of  the  Punjab.  Population  of  can- 
tonment (1881)  18,700.  Of  the  1189  towns  and  villages  within  the 
District,  370  contained  less  than  two  hundred  inhabitants;  457  had 


FIROZPUR.  443 

from  two  to  five  hundred;  213  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand;  103 
from  one  to  two  thousand;  30  from  two  to  three  thousand;  12  from 
three  to  five  thousand ;  3  from  five  to  ten  thousand ;  and  i  upwards  of 
ten  thousand.  Classified  according  to  occupation,  the  Census  Report 
divides  the  adult  male  population  into  the  following  seven  groups  : — 
Class  (i)  Professional,  9669;  (2)  domestic,  18,404;  (3)  commercial, 
2714;  (4)  agricultural  and  pastoral,  111,380;  (5)  manufacturing  and 
industrial,  38,906;  (6)  indefinite  and  non-productive,  15,609;  (7) 
unspecified,  21,237. 

Condition  of  the  People. — The  general  prosperity  of  the  District  is 
great ;  the  price  of  land  is  rising,  and  the  income  of  the  population, 
both  agricultural  and  commercial,  is  reported  to  be  steadily  increasing. 
Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  the  coparcenary  system,  it  is  difficult  to 
fix  the  ordinary  income  of  an  agriculturist.  One,  however,  whose 
share  amounts  to  9  acres  of  ordinary  land  is  certainly  in  comfortable 
circumstances,  and  able  to  live  quite  as  well  as  a  small  shopkeeper  in 
a  town.  His  average  expenses  in  ordinary  times  may  be  put  down 
at  from  5s.  to  6s.  a  month.  But  on  occasions  of  religious  or  social 
ceremonies,  such  as  betrothals,  marriages,  funerals,  and  other  gatherings, 
■the  peasantry  are  obliged  by  custom  to  incur  extravagant  expenses, 
which  plunge  them  into  debt,  and  sometimes  result  in  utter  ruin. 
Every  peasant  has  his  account  with  the  village  money-lender,  but 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  agricultural  population  are  hopelessly 
involved.  The  usual  rate  of  interest  for  cash  loans  is  about  24  per 
cent,  but  37 J  per  cent,  is  a  common  rate,  and  occasionally  as  much  as 
75  per  cent,  is  taken.  In  loans  of  grain,  the  interest  charged  is  higher 
than  in  money  transactions ;  and  the  money-lender  almost  always 
makes  a  large  extra  profit  by  crediting  payments  in  kind  at  a  much 
lower  rate  than  that  at  which  he  calculates  the  loan.  Where  ornaments 
are  pledged,  12  per  cent,  is  the  current  rate  of  interest;  and  in 
mortgages  of  land,  one-fourth  of  the  produce  is  usually  taken  in  lieu  of 
interest. 

Agriailture. — According  to  the  returns  quoted  in  the  Administra- 
tion Report  for  1882-83,  the  District  contained  in  1878-79  a 
total  cultivated  area  of  1,343,922  acres;  of  which  231,162  were 
irrigated  from  private  works,  leaving  1,112,760  acres  unsupplied  with 
water  by  artificial  means.  The  remainder  comprised  276,356  acres 
of  cultivable  waste,  and  135,910  of  barren  land.  It  appears,  therefore, 
that  only  77  per  cent,  of  the  whole  District  consists  of  irreclaimabl}- 
sterile  soil,  while  76*5  per  cent,  has  already  been  brought  under  the 
plough.  The  staple  crops  include  wheat  for  the  rahi  or  spring  harvest ; 
and  the  two  common  millets,  y^^V  and  bdjra,  for  the  kharif  01  autumn 
harvest.  Other  important  items  are — barley,  gram,  tobacco,  and  oil- 
seeds for  the  rabi ;  and  maize,  cotton,  pulses,  and  til  for  the  khanf. 


444  FIROZPUR. 

The  low-lying  lands  along  the  Sutlej  also  produce  a  small  quantity  of 
rice.  The  area  under  the  various  staples  (including  land  bearing 
two  crops)  was  returned  as  follows  in  1882-83  • — Wheat,  401,565 
acres;  jodr^  219,717  acres;  bdjra,  62,830  acres;  maize,  71,850 
acres;  barley,  139,397  acres;  gram,  236,624  acres;  other  pulses, 
142,357  acres;  rice,  3109  acres;  tobacco,  1789  acres;  cotton, 
12,877  acres;  hemp,  3879  acres;  oil-seeds,  52,801  acres;  vegetables, 
5285  acres;  sugar-cane,  2553  acres.  Irrigation  is  supplied  from 
wells  and  canals.  A  single  well  in  the  b/iet  tract  will  water  from  20 
to  40  acres;  in  the  rohij  from  12  to  20  acres.  All  of  them  are  of  very 
recent  construction,  and  owe  their  origin  to  the  native  industry  of  the 
people,  aided  by  the  advice  and  encouragement  of  an  energetic  British 
official.  In  1875-76,  as  many  as  43,331  acres  of  land  received  irriga- 
tion in  this  manner  for  the  first  time.  The  whole  southern  portion  of 
the  District  still  lies  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  famine,  water  being  found 
at  too  great  a  depth  to  permit  the  use  of  wells  for  agricultural  purposes  ; 
but  to  this  thirsty  tract  the  Sirhind  Canal,  now  (1883)  completed, 
affords  an  abundant  means  of  irrigation.  The  only  manures  used  are 
village  sweepings  and  ashes,  and  these  are  confined  to  the  irrigated 
lands  of  the  b/iet  The  agricultural  stock  in  the  District  is  approxi- 
mately returned  as  under: — 294,254  cows  and  bullocks,  2469  horses, 
2246  ponies,  9076  donkeys,  79,101  sheep  and  goats,  57  pigs,  3741 
camels,  10,014  carts,  75,141  ploughs,  201  boats.  The  tenures  of  land 
conform  to  the  ordinary  Punjab  types — za7ninddri  being  commonest 
among  the  Rajputs  of  the  lowlands,  while  a  partition  of  shares  has 
usually  taken  place  in  the  Jat  communities  of  the  interior.  Tenant 
cultivators  ordinarily  pay  their  rents  in  kind,  at  rates  which  range  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  gross  produce.  Money  rates  are  paid 
only  by  occupancy  tenants,  who  were  permitted  at  the  settlement  of  the 
land-tax  to  commute  payment  in  kind  for  a  cash  percentage  upon  the 
revenue  due  from  their  holdings.  Occasional  agricultural  labour  is 
always  paid  in  grain.  Of  a  total  area  of  2744  square  miles,  1995  square 
miles  are  assessed,  at  a  Government  revenue,  including  local  rates 
and  cesses  on  land,  of  ;£'58,i75.  Rental  paid  by  cultivators,  ;£'i32,974. 
Cash  wages  in  1882-83  ranged  from  3d.  to  4jd.  per  diem  for  unskilled 
labour,  and  from  6d.  to  is.  6d.  for  skilled  labour.  The  prices-current  of 
food-grains  ruled  as  follows  on  the  ist  January  1883  : — Wheat,  23  sers 
per  rupee,  or  4s.  lod.  per  cwt.  ;  barley,  46  sers  per  rupee,  or  2s.  5d. 
per  cwt. ;  Indian  corn,  44  sers  per  rupee,  or  2  s.  6d.  per  cwt. ;  gram, 
42  sers  per  rupee,  or  2s.  8d.  per  cwt. ;  jodr,  48  sei's  per  rupee,  or 
2s.  4d.  per  cwt. ;  and  bdjra,  29  sers  per  rupee,  or  3s.  lod.  per  cwt. 
These  prices  are  exceptionally  low,  and  are  due  to  two  successive 
abundant  harvests,  which  were  common  to  the  Punjab  as  well  as  to  the 
whole  of  Northern  India. 


FIROZPUR.  445 

Natural  Calamities.  —  Although  the  southern  half  of  the  District 
depends  entirely  upon  the  rainfall  for  its  harvests,  yet  Firozpur  has 
suffered  comparatively  little  from  famine.  In  1869-70,  the  District 
not  only  supplied  its  own  internal  needs,  but  continued  to  export  grain 
throughout  the  season  of  scarcity.  Relief  was  required  during  several 
months,  but  principally  for  immigrants  from  Bikaner  (Bickaneer).  On 
January  ist,  1870,  wheat  sold  for  8  sers  per  rupee,  or  14s.  per  cwt. ;  and 
barley,  for  11  sers  per  rupee,  or  los.  2d.  per  cwt. 

Commerce  and  Trade,  etc. — The  staple  export  of  the  District  consists 
of  grain,  for  which  the  market  of  Firozpur  forms  the  local  centre.     The 
enterprising  Jat  cultivators  of  the  interior  carry  on  trade  upon  their  own 
account,  conveying  their  produce  on  camels  or  in  carts,  not  onlv  to 
Firozpur  itself,  but  also  to  Amritsar,  and  even  to  Lahore.     In  the  Sutlej 
(Satlaj)  belt,  the  village  Baniya  acts  as  merchant  and  banker.     Firozpur 
does   a  considerable   trade  with  all   the   towns   between   the  Jumna 
(Jamuna)  and  the  Beas  (Bias),  while  large  consignments  of  vrheat  and 
cotton,  collected  from  the  District  and  the  neighbouring  Native  States, 
are  shipped  down  the  Sutlej  for  Sukkur  and  Karachi  (Kurrachee). 
The  exports  to  towns  beyond   the  Punjab  alone  reached  a  value  of 
^^54,056  in  1871-72,  but  there  are  no  statistics  available  for  the  general 
trade  of  the  District.     An  important  cattle  fair  takes  place  annually  in 
the  month   of  January  at  Muktsar,  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  Sikh 
festival.    The  local  manufactures  are  of  the  humblest  description,  being 
entirely  confined  to  the  supply  of  the  neighbouring  country.     Coarse 
cloths  and  blankets  are  w^oven  in  the  villages  from  home-grown  cotton 
and  wool.      The  chief  road   is   that  which   connects    Firozpur  town 
with   Lahore   on   the    one    side,    and   with   the    Punjab    Railway  at 
Ludhiana   on   the   other;    it   is    metalled   throughout,    and    passable 
by  wheeled  vehicles  at   all  seasons.      Good  lines  also  radiate   from 
Firozpur  to  Jalandhar  (JuUundur),  Karnal,  Patiala,  Fazilka,  and  other 
neighbouring  towns.     The  total  length  of  communications  in  1882-83 
was   returned  as  follows: — By  water,    128    miles;  by  metalled   road, 
80  miles;  by  unmetalled  road,  710  miles.     A  line  of  railway  is  now 
(1884)   under   construction,  leaving  the  Rajputana  State  Railway   at 
Rewari,  in  Gurgaon  District,  and  running,  via  Hissar  and  Sirsa  Districts, 
to  Firozpur.     A  line  of  telegraph  connects  the  cantonment  and  arsenal 
of  Firozpur  with  Ludhiana,  and  so  with  the  other  military  centres  of  the 
Punjab. 

Administration.— T\i^  ordinary  head-quarters  staff  of  the  District 
consists  of  a  Deputy  Commissioner,  a  Judicial  Assistant,  and  two  extra- 
Assistant  Commissioners,  besides  a  District  Superintendent  and  Assistant 
Superintendent  of  Pohce.  For  fiscal  purposes  the  District  is  divided 
into  the  four  Sub-divisions  or  tahsils  of  Firozpur,  Moga,  Muktsar,  and 
Zira,  each  being  in  charge  of  a  tahsilddr,  assisted  by  a  ?idib  or  deputy. 


446  FIROZPUR. 

Mimsifs'  courts  are  established  at  Firozpur,  Moga,  and  Zird.  In 
1851-52,  the  total  revenue  derived  from  the  District  amounted  to 
^44,587;  in  1861-62,  it  had  risen  to  ;2^5o,7i2  ;  in  1875-76,  to 
;£"62,386;  and  in  1882-83,  to  ;^75,8i6.  This  steady  increase  is 
mainly  due  to  the  growth  of  the  land  revenue,  under  the  influence  of 
extended  irrigation  and  the  impetus  given  to  agricultural  industry  by  a 
settled  and  peaceable  Government ;  but  part  of  it  must  also  be  attri- 
buted to  the  larger  income  derived  from  stamps.  In  1851-52,  the 
land-tax  amounted  to  ^£36,044;  by  1875-76,  it  had  reached  ^5o,953  ; 
and  in  1882-83,  to  ^51,489,  or  about  two-thirds  of  the  total  revenue. 
The  land  settlement  in  force  was  effected  between  the  years  1852-55, 
and  expired  in  1883.  Besides  the  imperial  revenue,  a  local  income  of 
about  ^^9500  is  realized  by  means  of  cesses  for  expenditure  upon  works 
of  public  utility  within  the  District.  In  1882,  the  regular  police 
force  numbered  556  men,  including  the  municipal  constabulary  and 
cantonment  police ;  being  an  average  of  i  man  to  every  4-95  square 
miles  and  every  11 69  of  the  population.  This  force  is  further  supple- 
mented by  a  rural  body  of  790  village  watchmen  or  chaukiddrs.  The 
District  jail  and  lock-up  at  Firozpur  contained  a  total  of  1323  prisoners 
in  1882-83,  the  average  daily  prison  population  being  320.  Education 
has  made  but  little  way  against  the  universal  apathy  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  1872-73,  Government  supported  or  aided  45  schools  within  the 
District,  with  2569  pupils.  In  1875-76,  the  number  of  inspected 
schools  had  risen  to  53,  and  of  pupils  to  2755;  while  in  1881, 
although  the  number  of  Government  and  aided  schools  had  risen  to 
61,  the  pupils  had  fallen  to  2631.  These  figures  show  an  average  of 
I  school  to  45  square  miles,  and  of  4*0  scholars  for  every  thousand  of 
the  population.  There  are  also  a  number  of  indigenous  unaided 
schools  in  the  District  of  a  very  elementary  class,  variously  returned 
at  197  with  2126  pupils,  and  287  with  2903  pupils.  The  Census 
Report  of  1881  returned  3342  boys  and  181  girls  as  being  under 
instruction,  besides  15,138  males  and  318  females  able  to  read  and 
write,  but  not  under  instruction.  The  five  municipal  towns  had  in 
1882-83  an  aggregate  income  of  ;£'5092,  being  at  the  rate  of  2s.  id. 
per  head  of  their  population. 

Medical  Aspects. — The  District  enjoys  a  reputation  for  exceptional 
healthiness,  owing  principally  to  the  dryness  of  its  climate;  but  in 
September  and  October,  fever  and  pleuro-pneumonia  largely  prevail. 
Small-pox  also  exists  in  an  endemic  form,  but  its  ravages  have  been 
trreatly  reduced  since  the  more  general  spread  of  vaccination.  Guinea- 
worm  is  not  uncommon  in  the  south  of  the  District,  and  is  traceable  to 
the  water.  The  official  returns  for  1882  give  the  total  number  of  deaths 
during  the  year  at  14,225,  being  at  the  rate  of  22  per  thousand  of  the 
population.      The   District    contains   one   civil  hospital,  at;  Firozpur, 


I 

I 


FIROZPUR  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN.  447 

which  gave  relief  in  1882  to  10,462  persons,  of  whom  579  were  in- 
patients. There  is  also  a  second-class  dispensary  at  Zira,  and  a  third- 
class  one  at  Muktsar,  besides  another  at  Mamdot,  maintained  by  the 
Nawab.  The  rainfall  is  capricious,  and  scanty  even  in  the  best  years ; 
but  its  quantity  appears  to  have  increased,  while  its  regularity  has 
greatly  improved  with  the  spread  of  cultivation  and  the  growth  of  trees. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Firozpur  for  the  thirty  years  ending 
1881  was  2272  inches  ;  but  that  of  the  southern  tract  falls  far  short  of 
the  quantity  in  the  northern  lowlands.  In  1881  the  rainfall  was  20*90 
inches,  or  1*82  inch  below  the  average.  No  systematic  thermometrical 
record  has  ever  been  maintained  in  the  District.  Private  observations, 
however,  show  that  in  December  and  January  the  in-door  temperature 
ranges  between  40°  and  70°  F.,  whilst  during  June  and  July  (with 
closed  doors)  its  range  in  houses  not  artificially  cooled  is  from  92°  to 
97°.  [For  further  information  regarding  Firozpur,  see  the  District 
article  in  the  forthcoming  Pinijah  Gazetteer ;  also  Report  on  the  Revised 
Settlemejit  of  the  Disi7'ict  of  Firozpur^  by  E.  L.  Brandreth,  Esq.,  C.S., 
April  1855;  Rep07't  on  the  Ce7iS2is  of  the  Pu7ijab^  1881 ;  and  the 
Ad77iiiiistratio7i  a7id  Depart77ie7ital  Rep07is  of  the  Pinijab  from  1880  to 
1883.] 

Firozpur. — Tahsil  of  Firozpur  District,  Punjab,  lying  between  30° 
44'  15"  and  31°  7'  15"  N.  lat,  and  between  74°  27'  30"  and  74°  59'  30" 
E.  long.  Area,  495  square  miles.  Population  (188 1)  153,168,  namely, 
males  86,366,  and  females  66,802 ;  persons  per  square  mile,  309. 
Hindus  numbered  34,334;  Muhammadans,  101,963;  Sikhs,  15,034; 
and  'others,'  1837.  The  revenue  of  the  tahsil  in  1883  was  ;^897o. 
The  administrative  staff  consists  of  i  Deputy  Commissioner,  i  Judicial 
Assistant,  2  extra- Assistant  Commissioners,  i  small  cause  court  judge, 
I  tahsilddry  i  7jm7isif  and  4  honorary  magistrates.  These  officers  preside 
over  10  civil  and  10  criminal  courts,  with  5  police  stations ;  strength 
of  regular  police,  112  men,  with  184  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs). 

Firozpur. — Town,  military  cantonment,  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  Firozpur  District,  Punjab.  Situated  in  lat.  30°  56'  42"  n., 
and  long.  74°  38'  24"  e.,  on  the  old  high  bank  of  the  Sutlej  (Satlaj), 
3^  miles  from  the  present  bed  of  the  river.  The  town  was  founded, 
according  to  tradition,  in  the  time  of  Firoz  Shah,  Emperor  of  Delhi, 
A.D.  1351-1387,  but  was  in  a  declining  state  at  the  period  of  British 
annexation.  Under  a  settled  government,  however,  its  growth  has 
been  rapid  and  steady,  the  population  having  increased  five-fold  since 
1 84 1.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  a  thriving  commerce,  due  principally  to  the 
exertions  of  Sir  H.  Lawrence,  who  induced  many  native  traders  to 
settle  in  the  city,  and  more  lately  to  the  enterprise  of  an  English 
merchant,  who  has  erected  a  powerful  cotton-press  in  the  vicinity. 
The  main  streets  are  wide  and  well  paved,  while  a  circular  road  which 


448      FIROZPUR  SOUTHERN  TAHSIL  AND  TOWN 

girdles  the  wall  is  lined  by  the  gardens  of  wealthy  residents.  The  total 
population  of  Firozpur  in  1881  (including  the  cantonment)  was  39,570, 
namely,  males  23,971,  and  females  15,599.  Muhammadans  numbered 
17,609;  Hindus,  19,004;  Sikhs,  1207;  Jains,  72;  Christians  and 
'  others,'  1678.  The  pubhc  buildings  include  the  District  court-house, 
treasury,  post-office,  police  station,  and  staging  bungalow,  within  the 
cantonments;  the  jail,  town-hall,  dispensary,  school-house,  and  sardi, 
upon  the  road  connecting  the  city  with  the  military  station ;  and  the 
memorial  church,  in  honour  of  those  who  fell  in  the  Sutlej  campaign 
of  1845-46,  destroyed  during  the  Mutiny,  but  since  restored.  Thriv- 
ing trade  in  grain  and  other  agricultural  produce.  For  early  history 
and  events  of  1857,  see  Firozpur  District.  Municipal  revenue  in 
1882-83,  ;£"4i74,  or  4s.  per  head  of  population  (20,870)  within 
municipal  limits.  The  cantonments  lie  2  miles  south  of  the  city ;  and 
the  garrison,  now  much  reduced,  ordinarily  consists  of  a  regiment  of 
British  infantry,  one  of  Native  infantry,  and  two  batteries  of  artillery. 
The  cantonment  population  in  1881  numbered  18,700.  The  arsenal, 
to  which  the  town  owes  its  political  importance,  is  by  far  the  largest  in 
the  Punjab,  and  well  stored  with  munitions  of  war. 

Firozpur.  —  Southern  taJisil  of  Gurgaon  District,  Punjab  ;  lying 
between  27°  39'  and  27°  59'  n.  lat,  and  between  76°  56'  and  77°  9'  e. 
long.  Area,  317  square  miles.  Population  (1881)  114,340,  namely, 
males  59,272,  and  females  55,068;  average  density,  361  persons  per 
square  mile.  Muhammadans  numbered  80,835  ^  Hindus,  32,479  ; 
Sikhs,  12;  and  'others,'  1014.  The  revenue  of  the  tahsil  in  1883 
was  ;j^23,296.  The  administrative  staff  consists  of  a  iahsUddr,  who 
presides  over  the  only  civil  and  criminal  court.  Two  police  stations ; 
strength  of  regular  police,  58  men;  village  watchmen  {chaukiddrs), 
264. 

Firozpur. — Town  and  municipality  in  Gurgaon  District,  Punjab,  and 
head-quarters  of  Firozpur  tahsil.  Situated  in  lat.  27°  46'  30"  n.,  and 
long.  76°  59'  30"  E.,  in  a  fertile  valley  on  a  small  perennial  stream,  the 
Landoh,  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  District.  Said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Firoz  Shah,  who  placed  a  cantonment  here  for 
the  subjugation  of  the  neighbouring  hill  tribes.  Annexed  by  the  British 
Government  in  1803,  but  granted  in  j'dgir  to  Ahmad  Baksh  Khan, 
whose  son,  Nawab  Shams-ud-din  Khan,  was  executed  in  1836  for  the 
murder  of  Mr.  W.  Fraser,  Commissioner  of  Delhi.  Since  that  period 
it  has  formed  the  head-quarters  of  a  tahsil.  Population  (1881) 
6878,  namely,  Hindus,  3216;  Muhammadans,  3111;  Jains,  540; 
and  Sikhs,  11.  Number  of  occupied  houses,  957.  Thriving  trade  in 
country  produce ;  exports  of  grain  and  cotton ;  imports  of  rice,  sugar, 
and  Enghsh  piece-goods.  Tahsili,  police  station,  school-house.  The 
oldest  part  of  the  present  town  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  surrounded 


I 


FIROZSHAH—FORT  VICTORIA.  449 

by  a  high  wall ;  but  one  half  of  the  houses  now  lie  outside  the  wall 
towards  the  east.  The  main  bazars^  running  at  right  angles  to  one 
another,  are  unusually  good  for  a  small  town, — broad,  well  drained, 
neatly  paved,  and  ornamented  with  trees.  Municipal  revenue  in 
1882-83,  ^£^62 2,  or  IS.  6d.  per  head  of  population  (8235)  within 
municipal  limits. 

Firozshah. — Battle-field  in  Firozpur /^/w//,  Firozpur  District,  Punjab; 
situated  in  lat.  30°  53'  n.,  and  long.  74°  49'  45"  e.,  about  12  miles  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej  (Satlaj).  Rendered  famous  by  the  attack 
made  upon  the  formidably-entrenched  Sikh  camp,  Dec.  21,  1845,  t>y  the 
British  forces  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  Sir  Henry  Hardinge.  After 
two  days'  severe  fighting,  the  entrenchments  were  carried  and  the 
enemy  completely  routed,  but  not  without  heavy  losses  on  the  part  of 
the  conquerors.  No  trace  of  the  earthworks  now  remains,  but  a 
monument  erected  upon  the  spot  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the 
officers  and  men  who  fell  in  the  engagement.  The  real  name  of  the 
place,  as  called  by  the  people,  is  Pharii  Shahr,  corrupted  into  the 
historical  name  Firozshah. 

Fort  St.  David. — South  Arcot  District,  Madras  Presidency. — See 
David,  Fort  St. 

Fort  St.  George. — Citadel  of  Madras,  and  the  name  officially 
applied  to  the  Government  of  the  Presidency. — See  Madras  Town. 

Fort  Victoria  (or  Bankot,  under  which  name  a  brief  notice  has 
also  been  given). — Village  and  old  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Savitri 
river,  73  miles  south-east  from  Bombay,  and  10  miles  north  by  west  of 
Suvarndrug.  Lat.  17°  58'  30"  n.,  long.  73°  5'  10"  e.  .  In  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  '  Bancoote '  or  Fort  Victoria  was  a  pirate  nest  of 
the  Maratha  chief,  Angria.  It  was  captured  along  with  Suvarndrug 
(Severndrug)  in  1755,  by  an  English  squadron  under  Commander 
James,  during  the  operations  against  the  Angrian  buccaneers.  Bankot 
lies  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  headland  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Ratnagiri  District.  A  mile  outside  the  village  and  two  miles  south- 
west of  Fort  Victoria,  there  is  a  bar  on  the  Bankot  river,  with  a  narrow 
channel  on  its  south-east  side,  with  9  feet  at  low  water.  Although  well- 
buoyed,  the  bar  is  much  exposed  even  in  the  fine  season  (September — 
June),  and  should  not  be  passed  without  a  pilot.  Bankot  is  closed 
during  the  south-west  monsoon,  but  opens  earlier  and  remains  open 
longer  than  most  of  the  Ratnagiri  ports.  The  river  is  navigable,  for 
vessels  of  16  feet  draught,  18  miles  to  Mahapral  in  Dapoli,  and  for 
vessels  drawing  7  feet  10  miles  farther  to  Mahad  in  Kolaba.  Trade 
has  long  left  Bankot.  It  is  now  little  more  than  a  large  fishing  village, 
with  no  manufactures.  Coasting  steamers  call  daily  during  the  fair 
season.  Landing-stage,  bridge  of  boats,  and  a  roomy  rest-house  for 
travellers. 

VOL.  IV.  2  F 


450  FORT-  WILLIAM— FRENCH  POSSESSIONS. 

Fort-William. — Citadel  of  Calcutta,  and  the  name  officially  applied 
to  the  Government  of  Bengal. — See  Calcutta. 

Foul  Island  (in  Burmese,  Nan-tha-kywihi). — An  uninhabited  island 
off  the  coast  of  Sandoway,  in  the  Arakan  Division,  British  Burma; 
lying  about  lat.  i8°  3'  n.,  6  leagues  from  the  mainland,  and  7  from  Bluff 
Point,  and  visible  from  a  distance  of  8  leagues.  The  island  is  about 
2  miles  long,  and  is  conical  in  form.  To  the  north-east  there  are  islets 
and  rocks  near  the  shore,  and  a  reef  partly  above  water  extending 
southwards.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  mud-volcano,  which  at  times 
emits  a  torrent  of  hot  mud  bubbling  with  marsh  gas. 

Fraserpet. — Town  in  the  Commissionership  of  Coorg ;  situated  in 
latitude  12°  27'  30"  n.,  and  longitude  76°  o'  20"  e.,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Kaveri  (Cauvery)  river,  20  miles  east  of  Merkara,  the  capital  of  Coorg, 
and  2720  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1881)  131  o,  namely,  males 
631,  females  679  ;  number  of  houses,  298.  Originally  called  Khush- 
alnagar,  '  glad  town,'  by  Haidar  Ali  (who  was  then  invading  Coorg), 
on  the  news  of  the  birth  of  his  son  Tipii  first  reaching  him  there,  and 
he  so  named  it  in  honour  otthe  event;  it  derives  its  present  name  from 
Colonel  Fraser,  who  was  appointed  the  first  British  Political  Agent 
in  Coorg  (1834),  after  its  conquest  by  the  British.  The  fort  was 
built  of  hewn  stone  by  Tipu  Sultan,  and  stormed  and  demolished  in 
1789  by  the  Coorgs  under  their  native  Raja,  Dodda  Vira  Rajendra. 
The  ruins  supplied  materials  for  the  construction  of  the  fine  bridge 
over  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery),  finished  in  1848.  Fraserpet  is  a  pleasant 
retreat  during  the  rainy  season,  the  climate  being  much  milder,  and 
the  rains  less  severe  than  at  Merkara.  It  used  to  be  the  monsoon 
residence  of  the  Commissioner  of  Coorg,  but  has  lately  been  less 
frequented. 

French  Possessions. — The  following  brief  account  of  the  French 
Settlements  in  India  has  been  condensed  from  materials  courteously 
furnished  by  His  Excellency  the  Governor-General  of  French  India, 
supplemented  by  later  documents  at  the  Ministere  de  la  Marine  et 
des  Colonies,  Paris,  June  1879,  and  from  Pondicherri,  dated  May 
1884.  Pains  have  been  taken  to  render  the  account  accurate;  but 
no  responsibility  can  be  accepted  for  any  statements  contained  in  it. 
A  separate  account  of  each  of  the  Settlements  is  given  under  its  own 
name.  It  has  not,  however,  always  been  found  possible  to  bring  the 
local  figures  into  exact  accord  with  those  obtained  in  France  for  this 
general  resume. 

The  head-quarters  of  the  Governor-General  of  French  India  are 
at  Pondicherri  {q.v.) ;  and  the  French  Possessions  comprise  the 
following  five  Settlements,  with  certain  dependent  '  Lodges.'  They 
aggregate  203  square  miles,  and  had  a  total  population  in  1882  of 
273,611. 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS. 


451 


FRENCH    POSSESSIONS    IN    INDIA. 


Name. 

Area  in 
Square  Miles. 

Population 
(1882). 

_ 

Revenue 

for  1883. 

Pondicherri,     ..... 
Chandarnagar,          .... 
Karikal,  ...... 

Mahe, 

Yanaon,  or  Yanan,  .... 

Total,         .... 

115 

4 

53 

26 

5 

140,943 
26,443 

93,443 
8,246 

4,536 

;^57,3i6 
8,400 

17,743 
1,790 

1,539 

203 

273,611 

^86,788 

A  more  detailed  but  less  recent  statement,  dated  Pondicherri,  ist 
January  1877,  gives  the  total  population  at  280,381,  namely,  Europeans, 
1 1 16  ;  Eurasians,  151 1  ;  natives,  277,754. 

History. — The  first  French  expedition  into  Indian  waters,  with  a 
view  to  opening  up  commercial  relations,  dates  as  far  back  as  1603. 
It  was  undertaken  by  private  merchants  of  Rouen ;  but  it  failed,  as 
also  did  several  similar  attempts  which  followed  it.  In  1642,  Cardinal 
Richelieu  founded  the  first  Compagnie  des  Indes  Orientales,  but  its 
efforts  met  with  no  success.  Colbert  reconstituted  the  Company  on  a 
larger  basis  in  1664,  granting  it  exemption  from  taxes  and  a  monopoly 
of  the  Indian  trade  for  fifty  years.  After  having  twice  attempted, 
without  success,  to  establish  itself  in  Madagascar,  Colbert's  Company 
again  took  up  the  idea  of  direct  trade  with  India,  and  its  President, 
Caron,  founded  in  1668  the  'Cornptoir'  or  agency  at  Surat  But  on 
finding  that  city  unsuited  for  a  head  establishment,  he  seized  the 
harbour  of  Trincomali  in  Ceylon  from  the  Dutch.  The  Dutch,  how- 
ever, speedily  retook  Trincomali ;  and  Caron,  passing  over  to  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast,  in  1672,  seized  Saint  Thome,  a  Portuguese  town  which 
had  for  twelve  years  been  in  the  possession  of  Holland.  He  had, 
however,  to  restore  it  to  the  Dutch  in  1674. 

The  ruin  of  the  Company  seemed  impending,  when  one  of  its 
agents,  the  celebrated  Frangois  Martin,  suddenly  restored  it.  Rallying 
under  him  a  handful  of  sixty  Frenchmen,  saved  out  of  the  wrecks  of 
the  colonies  at  Trincomali  and  Saint  Thomas,  he  took  up  his  abode  at 
Pondicherri,  then  a  small  village,  which  he  purchased  in  1683  from  the 
Raja  of  Vijayapur.  He  built  fortifications,  and  a  trade  began  to  spring 
up  ;  but  he  was  unable  to  hold  the  town  against  the  Dutch,  who 
accordingly  wrested  it  from  him  in  1693,  and  held  it  until  it  was  restored 
to  the  French  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697. 

Pondicherri  became  in  this  year,  and  has  ever  since  remained,  the 
most  important  of  the   French  Settlements  in  India.     Its  foundation 


452  FRENCH  POSSESSIONS. 

was  exactly  contemporaneous  with  that  of  Calcutta  ;  like  Calcutta, 
its  site  was  purchased  by  a  European  Company  from  a  Native  Prince  ; 
and  what  Job  Charnock  was  to  Calcutta,  Francois  Martin  proved  to 
Pondicherri.  On  its  restitution  to  the  French  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick 
in  1699,  Martin  was  appointed  Governor-General,  and  under  his  able 
management  Pondicherri  became  an  entrepot  of  trade.  Chandar- 
NAGAR,  in  Lower  Bengal,  had  been  acquired  by  the  French  Company 
in  1688,  by  grant  from  the  Delhi  Emperor;  Make,  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  was  obtained  in  1725-26,  under  the  government  of  M.  Lenoir; 
Karikal,  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  under  that  of  M.  Dumas  in 
1739.  Yanaon  and  Masulipatam  (the  site  of  a  French  factory  in 
the  17th  century),  on  the  northern  coast  of  Madras,  were  taken  posses- 
sion  of  in   1750,  and  were  formally  ceded  to  the  French  two  years 

later. 

The  war  of  1741  between  France  and  England,  led  to  the  attack 
alike  of  Madras  and  of  Pondicherri,  the  capitals  of  the  French  and 
EngUsh  Companies  in  Southern  India.  Labourdonnais  equipped  at 
his  own  expense  a  fleet,  and  laid  siege  to  Madras,  which  capitulated 
on  the  2 1  St  September  1746.  It  was  ransomed  for  ;^4oo,ooo.  The 
English  in  due  time  made  reprisals.  On  the  26th  April  1748  they 
appeared  before  Pondicherri,  but  eventually  retired  after  a  most  skilful 
defence  of  the  town  conducted  by  Dupleix  during  forty-two  days. 
The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  put  a  stop,  in  that  year,  to  further 
hostihties,  and  left  Dupleix  free  to  reaHze  his  dream  of  an  Indian 
Empire  for  France.  Between  1746  and  1756  he  obtained  from  the 
Delhi  Emperor  the  Nawabship  of  the  Karndtic ;  established  a  pro- 
tectorate over  the  Subahat  of  Arcot  and  other  parts  of  Southern  India  ; 
made  large  additions  to  the  French  territory  around  Pondicherri, 
Karikal,  and  Masulipatam,  and  extended  the  French  authority  over 
the  four  Districts  of  Montfanagar,  Ellore,  Rajamahendri  (Rajah- 
mundry),  with  Chikakol  and  the  island  of  Seringham,  formed  by  two 
arms  of  the  Kaveri  (Cauvery).  These  various  annexations  opened 
up  to  the  French  commerce  200  leagues  of  seaboard,  and  yielded  a 
revenue  of  ;^8oo,ooo  ('  20  millions  de  francs'). 

This  period  of  power  proved  of  short  duration.  Dupleix,  feebly 
supported  by  the  Court  of  Versailles,  met  with  a  series  of  reverses 
from  the  EngHsh  Company,  and  was  recalled  to  Paris  in  1753.  A 
certain  extent  of  territory  still  remained  to  his  successor ;  but  during 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  Government  of  France  could  afford  no  re- 
inforcements for  its  Indian  possessions.  The  English  Company  overran 
them,  defeated  the  French  at  Wandewash,  and  seized  Arcot.  Lally- 
Tollendal,  after  a  chivalrous  defence,  surrendered  Pondicherri  on  the 
6th  January  1761.  The  English  demolished  the  town;  the  walls,  the 
forts,  the  public  buildings,  were  all  destroyed.     The  captured  troops 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS.  453 

and  all  Europeans  in  the  French   Company's  service  were  deported 
back  to  France. 

Two  years  later,  the  peace  of  1763  restored  Pondicherri  and  the 
other  Indian  factories  to  the  French ;  but  with  their  former  territories 
greatly  curtailed.  The  abolition  of  the  monopoly  of  the  French  Com- 
pany in  1769  threw  open  the  trade,  and  Pondicherri  began  to  show 
signs  of  a  new  vitality.  But  in  1778  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English  East  India  Company.  In  1782  the  Bailli  de  Sufifren 
made  a  brilliant  effort  on  behalf  of  his  depressed  countrymen,  fighting 
four  battles  with  the  English  in  seven  months,  and  retaking  the  fort 
of  Trincomali.  Next  year,  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  restored  Pondi- 
cherri and  the  other  factories  to  the  French,  20th  January  1783.  But 
the  English  Company  took  advantage,  as  usual,  of  the  breaking  out  of 
the  next  war  in  Europe  to  seize  the  French  possessions  in  India,  and 
again  compelled  their  rivals  to  evacuate  their  settlements  in  1793. 
The  Peace  of  Amiens  once  more  restored  them  to  the  French  in  1802  ; 
on  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  the  English  Company  again  seized  them, 
nth  September  1803.  Pondicherri  thus  passed  for  the  fourth  time 
under  British  rule ;  and,  during  the  long  Napoleonic  wars,  the  French 
power  ceased  to  exist  in  India. 

Pondicherri  and  the  other  factories  were  restored  to  the  French  by 
the  treaties  of  18 14  and  1815,  the  territories  being  finally  reduced  to  their 
present  narrow  limits.  The  French  had  to  begin  the  whole  work  of 
their  Indian  settlements  de  novo;  and  an  expedition  arrived  at  Pondi- 
cherri on  the  1 6th  September  1816,  to  re-enter  on  possession.  On  the 
4th  December  18 16,  Pondicherri  and  Chandarnagar  were  delivered 
over  to  them  ;  Karikal,  on  the  14th  January  181 7  ;  Mahe,  on  the  22nd 
February  181 7  ;  and  Yanaon,  on  the  12th  April  181 7.  K  convention 
between  the  Governments  of  France  and  England,  dated  7th  March 
18 1 5,  regulated  the  conditions  of  their  restoration.  The  French 
renounced  their  former  right,  under  the  convention  of  the  30th  August 
1787,  to  claim  annually  from  the  English  East  India  Company  300 
chests  of  opium  at  cost  price,  and  agreed  to  henceforth  pay  the  average 
rates  realized  at  the  Calcutta  sales.  They  also  bound  themselves  to 
make  over  to  the  English  Company,  at  "^a  fixed  price,  all  surplus  salt 
manufactured  within  their  restored  territories  over  and  above  the 
requirements  of  the  local  population.  In  compensation  for  these 
lucrative  concessions,  the  English  agreed  to  pay  4  lakhs  of  sikka  rupees 
(one  million  francs,  or,  say,  ^40,000)  annually  to  the  French  Govern- 
ment. As  it  was  found  that  the  right  to  make  salt  at  all  in  the  French 
Settlements  led  to  the  smuggling  of  that  article  into  the  surrounding 
British  Districts,  the  French  Government  were  induced,  on  the  13th 
May  1818,  to  surrender  it  altogether  for  an  annual  payment  of  '4000 
pagodas'  (33,600  francs),  or,  say,  ^1344-    This  second  treaty, although 


454 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS, 


at  first  made  for  only  fifteen  years,  has  been  indefinitely  prolonged ; 
the  English  Government  supplying  the  French  authorities  with  salt  at 
cost  price,  and  allowing  the  latter  to  sell  it  to  their  own  subjects  at 
their  own  rates.  A  somewhat  similar  commutation  of  the  opium  rights 
for  a  fixed  money  payment  has  recently  been  proposed  by  the  French 
authorities,  and  sanctioned  by  the  Government  of  India. 

Present  Te7'rit07'ies. — In  addition  to  the  five  Settlements  already 
mentioned,  which  are  treated  of  in  separate  articles^  the  French  retain 
certain  houses  or  patches  of  ground  within  British  territory,  in  regard 
to  which  they  claim  certain  rights.  These  '  Loges '  or  patches  of  ground 
mark  the  sites  of  ancient  French  factories. 

Revenue  cuid  Expenditure  for  1883. — Receipts,  as  per  budget,  for  all 
the  French  Settlements  in  India,  ^86,788  (2,169,700  francs);  ex- 
penditure, ^86,788.  The  million  francs  (^40,000)  annually  paid  by 
the  English  Government  in  compensation  for  the  surrender  by  the 
French  authorities  of  their  rights  in  regard  to  opium  and  salt,  only 
passes  through  the  Colonial  accounts  on  its  way  to  the  National 
Exchequer,  and  does  not  appear  in  the  above  statement  Among 
items  of  expenditure  may  be  noted — law,  police,  and  justice,  ;£'9537 ; 
public  works  and  sanitation,  ^^2 1,100;  public  instruction,  public 
worship,  etc.,  £,^1ZA-  The  following  table  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditure  for  each  of  the  five  Settlements  is  reproduced,  without 
conversion,  from  the  official  budget  for  1882  : — 


Receipts 

ExrENDITURE 

Receipts 

Expenditure 

(1878). 

(1878). 

(1883). 

(1883.) 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Pondicherri, 

.       1,018,031 

1,207,434 

1,432,870 

1,535,500 

Chandarnagar, 

201,148 

137,388 

210,009 

166,500 

Karikal, 

400,942 

277,204 

443,582 

357,355 

Mahe,  . 

46,292 

44,057 

44,757 

54,243 

Yanaon, 

35,627 

33,957 

38,482 

56,102 

1,702,040 

1,702,040 

2,169,700 

2,169,700 

Total,    . 


;^68,o8i 


;^68,o8i 


;^86,788 


;^86,788 


Admifiistration. — The  military  command  and  administration-in-chief 
of  the  French  Possessions  in  India  are  vested  in  a  Governor,  whose 
residence  is  at  Pondicherri.  He  is  directly  assisted  by  a  minister  of 
the  interior,  secretaries  in  the  different  administrative  departments,  and 
a  principal  judicial  officer.  In  1879,  local  councils  and  a  council- 
general  were  established,  the  members  being  chosen  by  a  species  of 
universal  suffrage  within  the  French  territories.  Ten  municipalities  or 
communal  boards  were  erected  under  a  decree  issued  in  1880,  namely, 
at  Pondicherri,  Oulgaret,  Villenour,  Bahiir,  Karikal,  La  Grande-Aldee, 


FRONTIER  DISTRICT,  SIND—FURREEDCOTE.    455 

Nedouncadou,  Chandarnagar,  Mahe,  and  Yanaon.  On  the  municipal 
boards  natives  are  entitled  to  a  proportion  of  the  seats.  Civil  and 
criminal  courts,  courts  of  first  instance,  and  a  court  of  appeal  com- 
pose the  judicial  machinery  of  the  possessions.  The  army  and 
establishments  connected  with  the  Governor-General  and  his  staff  at 
Pondicherri ;  those  of  the  local  governors  or  chefs  de  service  at  Chan- 
darnagar, Yanaon,  Mahe,  and  Karikal ;  together  with  other  head- 
quarters' charges,  necessarily  engross  a  large  proportion  of  the  revenue. 
All  the  state  and  dignity  of  an  independent  Government,  with  four 
dependent  ones,  have  to  be  maintained  out  of  a  total  income  (1883)  of 
;£86,788.  This  is  effected  by  rigid  economy,  and  the  prestige  of  the 
French  Government  is  worthily  maintained  in  the  East.  Pondicherri 
is  also  the  scene  of  considerable  religious  pomp  and  missionary 
activity.  It  forms  the  seat  of  a  '  Prefecture  Apostolique,'  founded  in 
1828,  consisting  of  a  Prefet  Apostolique  and  7  priests  for  all  French 
India  ;  and  of  the  '  Mission  du  Carnatic,'  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in 
1776.  But  the  chief  field  of  this  mission  lies  outside  the  French 
Settlements.  Of  its  115,000  Christians,  160  churches,  and  65  mis- 
sionaries, no  fewer  than  92,000  of  the  Christians  are  British  subjects, 
and  159  of  the  churches  are  in  British  territory.  The  rupee  (standard 
value  =  2  fr.  40  cents)  is  the  only  legal  tender  within  French  territories. 
The  system  of  education  is  progressive  to  a  satisfactory  extent ;  in  1878, 
the  number  of  children  under  instruction  was  2877.  In  1883,  the 
Colonial  College  had  a  roll  of  185  pupils.  A  line  of  railway  running 
via  Villenour,  from  Pondicherri  to  Belpur,  maintains  communication 
with  Madras  and  the  rest  of  British  India.  The  telegraph  is  working 
throughout  the  Settlements.  A  Chamber  of  Commerce  consisting  of 
14  members,  9  of  them  Europeans  or  persons  of  European  descent,  has 
lately  been  reorganized.  The  capital,  Pondicherri,  is  a  very  handsome 
town,  and  presents,  especially  from  the  sea,  a  striking  appearance  of 
French  civilisation.  It  forms  the  head-quarters  of  the  French  national 
line  of  steam  communication  with  the  East,  the  excellent  Messageries 
Maritimes;  but  its  natural  situation  does  not  admit  of  any  great 
trade.  The  total  exports  and  imports  for  French  India  in  1883 
were  returned  at ^1,067,009  (26,675,^43  francs),  of  which  ^49i'477 
was  with  France  and  ^575,532  with  other  countries,  chiefly  British. 
The  number  of  ships  entering  ports  in  the  French  Settlements  in 
1883  was  516,  with  an  aggregate  burthen  of  125,511  tons.  Detailed 
accounts  of  each  of  the  four  Settlements  which  have  ports  will  be  found 
under  Pondicherri,  Karikal,  Mahe,  and  Yanaon. 

Frontier  District,  Sind.— fe  Upper  Sind. 

Fulaguri. — Village  in  Nowgong  District,  Assam. — See  Phulaguri. 

Furreedabad.— Town  in  Delhi  District,  Punjab.— 6'<?^  Faridabad. 

Furreedcote. — Native  State  in  the  Punjab.— fe  Faridkot. 


456  FURREEDPORE—GADA  JVARA. 

Furreedpore. — District  and  town  in  Bengal,  and  fa/isil  and  town 
in  the  North-Western  Provinces. — See  Faridpur. 

Fyzabad.  —  Division,  District,  fa/isi/,  and  town  in  Oudh.  —  See 
Faizabad. 


G. 

Gabat. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency.  Area 
under  cultivation,  1900  acres;  population  (1881)  1430;  estimated 
revenue,  ^£'317.  The  Thakur  of  Gabat  is  a  Makwana  Koli ;  during 
his  minority  the  estate  is  managed  by  the  Political  Agent.  The  State 
pays  a  tribute  of  ^2,  los.  to  the  Raja  of  Edar.  Transit  dues  are 
levied  in  the  State. 

Gad.  —  Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay  Presidency.  —  See 
Garh. 

Gadadhar.  —  River  in  North  -  Eastern  Bengal ;  tributary  to  the 
Brahmaputra.  It  rises  among  the  mountains  of  Bhutan,  and  debouches 
upon  the  plains  of  the  Dwars  through  a  picturesque  gorge.  The  main 
stream  of  this  river  forms  the  boundary  between  the  Western  Dwars 
of  Jalpaiguri  District,  and  the  Eastern  Dwars,  which  are  included  within 
Goalpara.  Owing  to  many  alterations  in  its  course  and  variations  in 
the  size  of  the  different  channels,  the  Gadadhar  undergoes  several 
changes  of  name.  The  upper  reaches  are  sometimes  identified  with 
the  Sankos,  which  is  properly  the  name  of  a  separate  river.  After 
entering  Goalpara  District,  the  river  bifurcates,  the  larger  volume  of 
water  now  passing  into  the  Brahmaputra  by  a  channel  called  the  Gan- 
gadhar.  The  old  channel,  which  retains  the  original  name,  is  nearly 
dry,  and  only  supported  by  the  water  of  a  small  tributary,  the  Bamnai. 
The  Gadadhar  is  navigable  in  the  plains  by  boats  of  4  tons  burthen. 

Gadag  (Garag).  —  Town  and  Sub-division  in  Dharwar  District, 
Bombay  Presidency. — See  Garag. 

Gadawara. — Western  ^a/isi/  or  Sub-division  of  Narsinghpur  Dis- 
trict, Central  Provinces.  Population  (1881)  189,837,  namely,  males 
97,292,  and  females  92,545,  residing  in  448  villages  or  towns  and 
37,843  houses,  on  an  area  of  874  square  miles.  Area  assessed 
for  Government  revenue,  801  square  miles,  of  which  496  square 
miles  are  cultivated,  98  square  miles  cultivable,  and  the  remainder 
uncultivable  waste.  Total  amount  of  Government  assessments,  in- 
cluding local  rates  and  cesses  levied  on  the  land,  ^^20,068,  or 
an  average  of  is.  4jd.  per  cultivated  acre.  Total  rental  paid  by  the 
cultivators,  including  cesses,  ;£"49,38o,  or  an  average  of  3s.  id.  per 
cultivated  acre.  The  total  adult  male  agricultural  population  in 
1881  numbered  67,126,  or  35*36  per  cent,   of  the  total  f^i/isU  popu- 


GADA  WARA—GADHKA.  457 

lation ;  average  area  of  cultivated  and  cultivable  land,  6  acres  per 
head.  Total  revenue  of  the  tahsU,  £zh^9S  i"  1882-83.  In  that 
year  it  contained  3  civil  and  4  revenue  courts,  with  11  police  and 
outpost  stations. 

Gadawara. — Flourishing  mercantile  town  in  Narsinghpur  District, 
Central  Provinces  ;  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Shakar,  on  the 
main  road  from  Jabalpur  (Jubbulpore)  to  Bombay,  and  30  miles  west  of 
Narsinghpur  civil  station.  Lat.  22°  55'  30"  n.,  long.  78°  50'  e.  A 
Station  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway  ;  is  situated  2  miles 
south  of  the  town,  whence  a  branch  railway  runs  to  the  Mohpani  coal- 
fields 14  miles  farther  south-south-east.  Population  (1881)  8100, 
chiefly  tradesmen  and  artisans.  Hindus  numbered  6553 ;  Kabir- 
panthis,  48;  Muhammadans,  1012;  Christians,  6;  Jains,  353;  and 
aboriginal  tribes,  128.  The  town  possesses  a  considerable  manufacture 
of  cotton  cloth,  and  the  dyers  are  numerous  and  fairly  skilful.  Gada- 
wara is  a  great  entrepot  for  grain  and  cotton  from  Eastern  Bhopal, 
Bhilsa,  Sagar,  etc.  The  carriers  take  back  salt,  ^//r  or  crude  sugar,  and 
piece-goods.  Exports  by  rail  in  1881  amounted  to  812,951  maiinds  or 
595,796  cwts.  ;  imports  by  rail,  152,586  inaunds  or  111,716  cwts.  The 
public  offices  until  1874  were  in  the  small  fortress  on  the  river  bank 
(now  falling  into  decay),  built  by  a  family  of  Gond  Rajputs  in  the 
early  days  of  Maratha  rule.  English  and  vernacular  boys'  school ;  post- 
office  ;  police  station. 

Gaddilam  (or  Garuddnadi). — River  in  South  Arcot  District,  Madras 
Presidency. — See  Garudanadi. 

Gadhali. — Petty  State  of  Gohelwar  pnbit  or  division  of  Kathiawar, 
Bombay  Presidency ;  consisting  of  3  villages,  with  3  independent 
tribute-payers.  Seven  miles  west  of  Ujalvar  railway  station.  Population 
(1881)  1223.  Estimated  revenue,  ;^9oo  ;  tribute  oi £^\(i^,  i8s.  is  paid 
to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  and  ;^3o  to  Junagarh. 

Gadhia.  —  Petty  State  in  South  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency  ; 
consisting  of  2  villages,  with  2  independent  tribute-payers.  Lies  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  Gir  forest.  Population  (1881)  777.  The  revenue 
is  estimated  at  ^250;  tribute  of  ^27,  8s.  is  paid  to  the  Gaekwar  of 
Baroda,  and  ^2  to  Junagarh. 

Gadhi  Diibhar. — Village  in  Muzaffarnagar  District,  North-Western 
Provinces.  Population  (1881)  2348,  including  many  Muhammadan 
Baluchi's,  relations  and  clansmen  of  the  zamindd?:  The  town  contains 
several  brick-built  houses,  and  the  roads  are  also  paved  with  brick. 
Six  mosques,  daily  bazar,  and  large  weekly  market  on  Sundays.  Prin- 
cipal articles  of  trade — sugar  and  salt.  Several  fine  groves  of  trees 
surround  the  village. 

Gadhka.  —  Petty  State  of  Halar  prdnt  or  division  of  Kathiawar, 
Bombay    Presidency ;    consisting   of  6    villages,    with    i    independent 


458  GADHULA—GAGRA  UN. 

tribute-payer.  Population  (1881)  919.  Lies  10  miles  east-south-east 
of  Rajkot.  The  revenue  in  1876  was  estimated  at  ;^iooo  ;  tribute  of 
^£"46  is  payable  to  the  British  Government,  and  ;^2o  to  Junagarh. 

Gadhlila. — Petty  State  of  Gohelwar  /;  ant  or  division  of  Kathiawar, 
Bombay  Presidency ;  consisting  of  i  village,  with  2  independent  tribute- 
payers.  Lies  5  miles  from  Dhola  railway  station.  Population  (1881) 
355.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at  ;£^3oo ;  tribute  of  ^16,  i6s.  is 
paid  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  and  ;^2,  i6s.  to  Junagarh. 

Gadkhall. — Town  and  police  station  in  Jessor  District,  Bengal ; 
situated  on  the  river  Kabadak,  on  the  road  from  Calcutta  to  Jessor. 
Lat.  23°  5'  30"  N.,  long.  89°  6'  e.  In  former  days  the  scene  of 
numerous  outrages,  perpetrated  by  the  Bediyas,  then  a  predatory  tribe, 
now  a  wandering  gipsy  caste. 

Gadra. — Town  in  Umarkot  taluk,  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  Sind, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Population  (1881)  under  2000.  The  municipal 
revenue  in  1873-74  was  ;£^7i,  but  the  municipality  was  abolished  in 
1878  on  the  introduction  into  Sind  of  Bombay  Act  vi.  of  1873. 

Gadra. — Town  in  Gohelwar  prdnt  or  division  of  Kathiiwar,  Bombay 
Presidency.  Population  (1881)  5822,  namely,  41 21  Hindus,  12 14 
Muhammadans,  487  Jains.  One  of  the  principal  centres  of  the  new 
faith  of  Swami-Narayan,  formulated  by  a  Hindu  reformer  named 
Shehjanand  in  1804.  Shehjanand  died  here  in  1830.  Criminal  court 
of  the/r^';//y  dispensary;  boys'  and  girls' school. 

Gagar. — Range  of  mountains  in  Kumaun  District,  North- Western 
Provinces,  forming  a  portion  of  the  outer  Himalayan  range ;  situated 
between  lat.  29°  14'  and  29°  30'  e.,  and  between  long.  79°  9'  and 
79°  39'  E.  The  chain  runs  along  the  whole  southern  border  of  the 
District,  parallel  to  the  plains,  from  the  Kosi  river  to  the  Kali,  and 
presents  a  line  of  higher  elevation  than  any  ranges  between  it  and  the 
main  ridge  of  the  central  Himalayas.  The  principal  peak  is  that  of 
China,  overlooking  the  lake  and  station  of  Naini  Tal,  which  nestle 
among  the  hollows  of  the  Gagar.  Forests  of  cypress,  tiin^  fir,  and 
other  timber  trees  clothe  the  hill-sides.  Average  elevation,  between 
7000  and  8000  feet. 

Gagla. — Trading  village  and  produce  depot  in  Rangpur  District, 
Bengal,  lying  between  the  Sankos  and  Dharla  rivers.  Chief  exports — • 
jute,  tobacco,  and  ginger.     Lat.  25°  59'  n.,  long.  89°  40'  30"  e. 

Gagraun. — Town  and  fort  in  the  State  of  Jhalawar,  Rajputana. 
The  fort  is  situated  between  the  rivers  Ahu  and  Kali-Sind,  on  a  straight 
rocky  ridge  running  south-east  and  north-west,  parallel  to  the  low  range 
between  Jhalrapatan  city  and  cantonments.  It  was  built  by  Zalim  Singh, 
who  considered  it  a  good  military  position.  The  town  lies  on  a  low 
part  of  the  ridge,  and  the  large  fort  which  protects  and  commands  it  on 
the  south-east  is  connected  by  a  masonry  wall.     Although  no  objection 


GAHIJA—GAHMAR.  459 

is  made  to  the  town  being  entered,  admission  is  forbidden  inside  the 
fort,  which  is  separated  from  the  tow^i  by  a  strong  high  wall,  and  a  deep 
ditch  cut  in  the  solid  rock  crossed  by  a  permanent  stone  bridge.  The 
principal  entrance  to  the  fort  is  from  the  town.  After  crossing  the 
ditch,  the  passage  lies  between  two  high  bastions,  without  any  gateway, 
ascending  wdth  high  walls  on  either  side  until  the  great  gate  is  reached. 
Inside  the  fort,  the  path  skirts  a  large  excavation  in  the  rock  intended 
to  hold  water,  but  often  quite  dry,  then  zig-zags  into  the  inner  works 
through  a  large  gateway,  when  a  tolerably  open  space  is  found  with 
long  lines  of  buildings  under  the  walls  on  the  right.  The  exit  is  to 
the  south-east  by  a  simple  doorway  in  the  wall ;  from  this  there  is  a 
descent  till  the  end  wall  is  reached  immediately  over  the  river ;  and  then 
the  path  crosses  a  small  precipice  protected  by  ramparts,  60  or  70  feet 
above  the  ground  outside,  leading  to  the  large  circular  bastions  already 
mentioned.  On  the  north-east  face  there  is  but  one  wall,  the  pre- 
cipitous nature  of  the  hill  here  rendering  a  second  and  lower  wall 
unnecessary.  The  noticeable  feature  in  the  country  around  Gdgraun 
is  the  extreme  straightness  and  parallelism  of  the  two  ridges,  not 
only  at  the  place  itself,  but  for  two  or  three  miles  on  either 
side.  Both  hills  and  valleys  are  thickly  wooded,  and  the  gorge  by 
which  the  river  finds  its  way  out  into  the  open  plains  is  very  fine, 
high  precipices  alternating  with  wooded  slopes  on  either  side.  One 
precipice,  absolutely  vertical,  w^as  plumbed  and  found  to  be  307  feet 
in  height.  This  is  known  as  the  '  Gid  Kerai '  or  Vulture's  precipice, 
and,  it  is  said,  was  formerly  used  as  a  place  of  execution  by  the  Kotah 
Rajas,  the  victims  being  precipitated  on  to  the  rocks  below.  The  tops 
of  these  ridges  are  the  culminating  points  of  the  range.  Wild  animals 
abound.  There  are  only  two  fairly  good  passes  across  the  hills, 
one  north  of  Gagraun  up  the  Amjar  valley  to  Panwar,  and  the  other 
leading  to  Rajpura  about  2\  miles  farther  north,  both,  however, 
impracticable  for  carts.  During  the  dry  season  many  of  the  ropids 
are  fordable  on  foot,  but  dangerous. 

Gahija.  —  Town  in  the  Sakkar  tdhik,  Shikarpur  District,  Sind, 
Bombay  Presidency.  Population  under  2000.  The  Muhammadans 
of  the  town  belong  chiefly  to  the  Gahija  tribe,  whence  the  village 
derives  its  name  ;  the  Hindus  are  mainly  Lohanos. 

Gahmar.  —  Town  in  Zamania  tahs'il,  Ghazipur  District,  North- 
western Provinces.  Lat  25°  29'  40"  n.,  long.  83°  50'  55"  e. 
Stands  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  District,  i  mile  south  of  the 
Ganges  and  15  miles  south-east  of  Ghazipur.  Station  on  the  East 
Indian  Railway  main  line,  424  miles  from  Calcutta.  Population 
(1881)  10,443,  namely,  males  4974,  and  females  5469.  Hindus 
numbered  9733,  and  Muhammadans  710.  Area  of  town  site,  125 
acres.     Number  of  houses,   1494.     In  spite  of  its  size,  Gahmar  is  a 


46o  GAHRAULI—GALAOTHI. 

purely  agricultural  village,  adjoining  an  indigo  factory  under  European 
management. 

Gahrauli. — Town  in  Hamirpur  District,  North- Western  Provinces. 
— See  Garhauli. 

Gaibandha. — Sub-division  of  Rangpur  District,  Bengal.  Area,  760 
square  miles;  number  of  towns  and  villages,  1523;  houses,  79,134. 
Population  (1881),  males  228,727,  and  females  222,135  )  total,  450,862. 
Classified  according  to  religion,  there  were — Muhammadans,  314,392  ; 
Hindus,  136,369  ;  Christian,  i  ;  Jains,  52  ;  and  'others,'  48.  Average 
density  of  population,  593  persons  per  square  mile  ;  villages  per  square 
mile,  2*o;  persons  per  village,  296  ;  houses  per  square  mile,  105  ;  per- 
sons per  house,  57.  The  Sub-division  comprises  the  four  police  circles 
{thdnds)  of  Govindganj,  Bhawdniganj,  Sadullapur,  and  Sundarganj.  In 
1883  it  contained  i  criminal  and  2  civil  courts,  with  a  regular  police 
of  66  officers  and  men,  and  902  rural  police  or  village  w^atchmen. 

Gajapatinagar. — Tdluk  or  Sub-division  of  Vizagapatam  District, 
Madras  Presidency.  Area,  348  square  miles;  houses,  24,371, 
collected  into  228  villages,  all  za7?imddn.  Population  (1881)  116,771, 
namely,  58,727  males  and  58,044  females.  Classified  according  to 
religion,  there  w^ere — Hindus,  116,209;  Muhammadans,  556,  of  whom 
about  500  were  Sunnis;  and  Christians,  6. 

Gajapatinagar. — Town  in  Gajapatinagar  tdluk,  Vizagapatam  Dis- 
trict, Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  18°  16'  n.,  long.  Zt^°  25'  e.  Population 
(1881)  2130,  residing  in  471  houses.  Head-quarters  of  the  tdliik^  with 
sub-magistrate's  court,  sub-registrar's  office,  dispensary,  school,  and 
post-office.     An  important  mart  for  hill  produce. 

Gajendragad.  —  Chief  town  of  an  estate  in  Kaladgi  District, 
Bombay  Presidency;  51  miles  south-east  of  Kaladgi  town.  Lat.  15° 
44'  30"  N.,  long.  76°  o'  45"  E.  Population  (1881)  5458,  namely,  Hindus, 
4671;  Muhammadans,  764;  Jains,  18;  and  Christians,  5. 

Gajghanta. — Trading  village  and  produce  depot  in  Rangpur  Dis- 
trict, Bengal.  Chief  exports — ^jute  and  lime.  Lat.  25°  49'  45"  n.,  long. 
89°  10'  E. 

Galaothl. — Town  in  Bulandshahr  District,  North-Western  Provinces; 
situated  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  12  miles  north  of  Bulandshahr 
town  and  28  miles  from  Meerut  (Merath).  Population  (1881)  5404, 
namely,  2706  Hindus,  2696  Muhammadans,  and  2  Jains.  Akbar  gave 
revenue-free  grants  to  a  number  of  Sayyids,  whose  descendants  held 
them  till  1857,  when  they  were  confiscated  on  account  of  the  rebellion 
of  their  holders.  The  celebrated  rebel,  Walidad  Khan  of  Malagarh, 
held  a  half-share  in  the  village.  Halting-place  and  encamping-ground 
for  troops,  road  inspection  bungalow,  police  station,  post-ofhce,  and 
weekly  market.  The  village  police  force  and  conservancy  staff  are 
maintained  out  of  funds  derived  from  a  house-tax  under  Act  xx.  of  1856. 


GALGHASIA—GAMBILA.  461 

Galghdsid.  (or  Bdnstdld). — River  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty-four 
Parganas,  Bengal ;  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Banstala  Khal  and 
Guntiakhah'.  Falls,  after  a  south-easterly  course,  into  the  Kholpetua, 
opposite  Kalyanpur  village. 

Galikonda  (or  Galiparraf,  '  Windy  Hill ').  —  Range  of  hills  in 
Vizagapatam  District,  Madras  Presidency.  Lat.  18°  30'  n.,  long.  18° 
50'  E. ;  averaging  from  2800  to  5000  feet  above  sea-level,  about  45 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  two  highest  peaks  reach  a  height  of  5345 
and  5287  feet  respectively.  The  shape  of  the  range  is  that  of  a  double 
crescent  joined  by  a  narrow  saddle.  The  summits  of  the  range  are 
of  gneiss  and  syenite,  capped  with  laterite  and  black  mould.  They  are 
easy  of  access  except  near  the  top,  but  the  road  throughout  has  been 
improved  by  Government  sappers.  In  i860,  the  Madras  Government 
tested  this  range  as  a  sanitarium  by  sending  up  a  detachment  of 
Europeans  to  a  site  selected,  and  named  ^  Harris's  Valley.'  The  place, 
however,  proved  unhealthy,  the  men  suffering  much  from  fever,  and, 
after  repeated  attempts,  the  experiment  was  abandoned.  It  was 
thought,  however,  that  a  healthier  site  for  the  cantonment  might  have 
been  found.  The  land  is  the  property  of  the  Raja  of  Vizianagaram, 
who  has  a  coffee  estate  here. 

Gambat.  —  Town  in  Khairpur  State,  Sind,  Bombay  Presidency. 
Population  (1881)  under  2000.  Formerly  a  centre  of  cotton-weaving; 
annual  produce  about  5000  pieces. 

Gambhar. — Mountain  stream  of  the  Punjab,  taking  its  rise  in  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Himalayas,  in  lat.  30°  52'  n.,  long.  77°  8'  e.,  and 
flowing  in  a  north-westerly  direction  past  the  military  station  of  Subdthu, 
until  it  falls  into  the  Sutlej  (Satlaj),  after  a  course  of  about  40  miles, 
in  lat.  31°  17'  N.,  long.  76°  47'  e.  It  is  nowhere  navigable,  and  in  the 
rainy  season  it  is  liable  to  sudden  floods.  The  river  is  bridged  near 
Subathu,  on  the  road  to  Simla. 

Gambila  (or  Tochi). — River  in  Bannu  District,  Punjab ;  rises  in  the 
independent  hill  country  inhabited  by  the  Mangal  tribe  of  Afghans. 
It  thence  flows  east  through  the  Dawar  valley,  which  it  largely  irrigates, 
and  enters  British  territory  a  few  miles  from  the  town  of  Bannu.  Its 
banks  afford  but  little  opportunity  for  cultivation,  being  at  first  com- 
posed of  boulders,  and  afterwards  of  pure  sand.  A  few  irrigation  cuts, 
however,  supply  water  to  some  12,138  acres  of  tilled  land.  It  falls 
into  the  Kuram  three  miles  below  Lakki,  lat.  32°  37'  30"  n.,  long.  71° 
6'  15"  E.  Sweet  and  wholesome  drinking  water.  Average  depth,  ij 
feet  in  the  cold  season,  4I  feet  during  the  rains.  Nowhere  bridged,  but 
fordable  at  all  times,  except  after  heavy  rain  in  the  hills.  The  river  is 
known  as  the  Tochi  until  it  reaches  the  Marwat  tahsil,  when  it  becomes 
the  Gambila.  At  this  point  are  numerous  springs.  Four  miles  farther 
east,  the  Gambila  is  joined  by  a  hill  torrent  known  as  the  Lohra,  and 


462  GANDAI—GANDAK,   GREAT. 

lower  down  it  receives  much  spill-water  from  the  Kachkot  Canal.  All 
tliese  contributions  help  to  make  the  Gambila  a  perennial  current,  but 
about  one  year  in  every  six,  owing  to  insufficient  rain  in  the  hills 
drained  by  the  stream,  irrigation  from  it  fails,  and  the  spring  crops 
dry  up. 

Gandai. — Zaminddri  or  estate  attached  to  Raipur  District,  Central 
Provinces,  at  the  foot  of  the  Saletekri  Hills,  56  miles  north-west  of 
Raipur.  The  estate  was  formerly  much  larger;  but  in  1828,  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Raja  of  Nagpur,  it  was  divided  among  the  three  sons 
of  the  former  holder.  Area,  203  square  miles.  Population  (1881) 
20,872,  namely,  males  10,306,  and  females  10,566,  residing  in  77 
villages,  and  occupying  6459  houses  ;  average  density  of  population, 
103  persons  per  square  mile.  The  zam'uiddr  is  a  Gond.  The  principal 
village,  Gandai,  at  which  a  large  weekly  market  is  held,  is  situated  in 
lat.  21°  40'  30"  N.,  and  long.  81°  9'  e.  A  bathing-place  of  some 
sanctity  is  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the  estate. 

Gandak,  Great  (known  also  as  the  Ndrdyajii  or  Salgrdmi ;  the 
Kondochates  of  the  Greek  geographers).  —  River  in  the  North- Western 
Provinces  and  Behar ;  rises  high  among  the  recesses  of  the  Nepal 
Himalayas,  in  lat.  30°  56'  4"  n.,  and  long.  79°  6'  40"  e.,  and  flowing 
with  a  general  south-w^estward  course  till  it  reaches  British  territory, 
crosses  the  frontier  between  the  District  of  Gorakhpur  in  the  North- 
Western  Provinces  and  the  District  of  Champaran  in  Bengal.  For 
some  20  miles  it  forms  the  boundary  between  the  two  Provinces, 
after  which  it  flows  entirely  within  the  limits  of  Bengal  for  40  miles 
farther,  and  then  once  more  separates  the  Provinces  for  12  miles  of 
its  course.  Thence  it  enters  the  limits  of  Bengal,  flowing  between  the 
Districts  of  Champaran  and  Muzaffarpur  (Tirhiit)  on  the  north-east, 
and  Saran  on  the  south-west.  It  finally  joins  the  Ganges  just  opposite 
Patna,  in  lat.  25°  49'  53"  n.,  and  long.  85°  13'  45"  e.  The  Gandak  is 
a  snow-fed  stream,  issuing  from  the  hills  at  Tribeni  ghdt,  in  the  north- 
west of  Champaran,  but  it  soon  afterwards  acquires  the  character  of  a 
deltaic  river.  Its  banks  generally  rise  above  the  level  of  the  surround- 
ing country,  and  floods  accordingly  often  inundate  large  tracts  of  the 
low-lying  land  on  either  side.  It  has  no  tributaries  in  its  course 
through  the  plains,  and  the  drainage  of  the  neighbouring  region  sets 
not  towards  it,  but  away  from  it.  The  lowest  discharge  of  water  into 
the  Ganges,  towards  the  end  of  March,  amounts  to  10,391  cubic  feet 
per  second  ;  the  highest  recorded  flood  volume  is  266,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  During  a  great  part  of  its  course,  the  river  is  enclosed 
by  protective  embankments.  Where  it  issues  from  the  hills  it  has 
a  clear  and  rapid  current  of  considerable  volume,  never  fordable, 
full  of  rapids  and  whirlpools,  and  navigable  with  difficulty.  Rafts 
of  timber  come  down  the  stream   from  Nepal,  and  these,  with  the 


GANDAK,  LITTLE— GANDGARH.  463 

sunken  snags,  render  navigation  perilous.  Grain  and  sugar  are  sent 
down  from  Gorakhpur  District;  and  during  the  rains,  boats  of  1000 
maiinds  burthen  can  make  their  way  up  stream  as  far  as  Lalganj  in 
Tirhiit.  The  down  traffic  is  more  considerable  than  the  up  trade, 
and  a  register  kept  for  four  months  of  1868  showed  an  export  of 
26,300  tons  of  produce  during  that  period. 

Gandak,  Little. — River  in  the  North- Western  Provinces ;  rises  in 
the  Nepal  Hills,  and  enters  Gorakhpur  District  about  8  miles  west  of 
the  Great  Gandak;  flows  parallel  with  the  latter  channel  southward 
through  the  District,  and  empties  itself  into  the  Gogra  (Ghagra)  at 
Sunaria,  just  within  the  limits  of  Saran  in  Bengal,  in  lat.  25°  41'  n., 
long.  85°  14'  30"  E.  Except  in  the  rains,  it  has  a  small  stream  only  20 
yards  in  breadth,  and  fordable  in  most  places. 

Gandava. — PoHtical  capital  of  the  Province  of  Kachhi,  Baluchistan, 
situated  on  the  Mula  Pass  route,  40  miles  south-west  from  Bagh.  Lat. 
28°  32'  N.,  long.  67°  32'  E.  A  fortified  place,  built  apparently  on  an 
artificial  mound.  The  winter  residence  of  the  Khan  of  Khelat,  whose 
palace  w^as  described  as  the  only  respectable  edifice  in  the  place. 
This  building  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  great  floods  of 
1874.  Here  also  is  the  Khan's  garden  within  a  walled  enclosure. 
Only  periodical  visits  are  paid  by  the  Khan  to  the  town,  and  the 
population  therefore  is  probably  a  fluctuating  one. 

Gandevi.  —  Sub-division  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda's  territory, 
Guzerat,  Bombay  Presidency.  Population  (1881)  27,762  persons,  or 
617  to  the  square  mile.  Area,  45  square  miles.  Bounded  on  the  north 
and  west  by  the  Jalalpur  Sub-division  of  Surat  District,  and  on  the 
east  and  south  by  the  Chikhli  and  Balsar  Sub-divisions  of  the  same 
District.  Land  revenue  (1879-80),  ^14,988.  The  Sub-division  is  for 
the  most  part  flat,  with  but  few  small  elevations,  and  not  well  w^atered. 
The  soil  is  black. 

Gandevi.  —  Town  in  the  Gandevi  Sub-division,  Baroda  territory, 
Guzerat,  Bombay  Presidency,  distant  3  miles  from  the  Amalsar 
station  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway,  and  28 
miles  south-east  of  Surat.  Latitude  20°  47'  30"  n.,  longitude  73°  3'  e. 
Population  (188 1)  7082,  namely,  4844  .Hindus,  1522  Muhammadans, 
662  Parsis,  53  Jains,  and  i  Christian.  The  town  is  the  head-quarters 
station  of  the  vahivdtddr  and  the  faujddr^  and  contains  a  post-office, 
dispensary,  and  an  Anglo-vernacular  school.  Large  tank  and  small 
temple.  Grain,  molasses,  ghi^  and  castor-oil  are  the  principal  articles 
of  trade. 

Gandgarh. — Range  of  hills  in  Rawal  Pindi  and  Hazara  Districts, 
Punjab,  being  the  western  portion  of  General  Cunningham's  outer  or 
sub-Himalayan  range.  Lat.  33°  57'  n.,  long.  72°  46'  e.  These  hills 
take  their  rise  in  Hazara,  and,  projecting  into  Rawal  Pindi,  end  in  the 


464  GANDHA  MADAN—GANGA  BAL. 

lofty  mountain  which  specially  bears  the  name  of  Gandgarh.  The 
northern  escarpment  toward  the  valley  of  Chach  descends  by  gentle 
cultivated  slopes  into  the  fertile  vale  at  its  feet ;  but  the  remaining 
sides  form  rugged  and  precipitous  cliffs,  intersected  by  ravines,  through 
which  the  tributaries  of  the  little  river  Haroh  have  cut  themselves  deep 
channels. 

Gandha  Madan. — One  of  the  principal  peaks  in  the  Orissa  Tribu- 
tary States,  Bengal;  situated  in  Keunjhar  State.  Lat.  21°  38'  12"  n., 
long.  85°  32'  56"  E. ;  height,  3479  feet. 

Gandhol. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay  Presidency ;  consisting 
of  I  village,  with  i  independent  tribute-payer.  Population  (1881)  191. 
Estimated  revenue,  ;^2oo;  tribute  of  ;£^io,  6s.  is  paid  to  the  Gaekwar 
of  Baroda,  and  i6s.  to  Junagarh. 

Gandikot  {^  The  Fort  of  the  Gorge  ;^  GtuijicottaJi). — Mountain  fortress 
in  Kadapa  (Cuddapah)  District,  Madras  Presidency ;  situated  in  the 
Yerramalai  Mountains,  1670  feet  above  sea-level.  Latitude  14°  48'  n., 
longitude  78"  20'  e.  The  fort,  with  its  temple  (endowed  by  the  earliest 
of  the  Vijayanagar  kings),  was  a  famous  stronghold  in  ancient  days. 
Built  (according  to  Ferishta)  in  1589,  it  was  captured  by  Golconda,  and 
held  by  Mir  Jamla ;  later  it  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the  five  Circars 
(Sarkars)  of  the  Karnatic  Haidardbad  Balaghat,  until  absorbed  by  the 
Pathan  Nawab  of  Cuddapah.  It  was  here  that  Fateh  Naik,  the  father 
of  the  great  Haidar,  first  distinguished  himself.  Haidar  improved  and 
garrisoned  the  fort,  which  was  captured  by  Captain  Little  in  the  first 
war  with  Tipii  in  1791.  'The  strong  natural  fortress  of  Gandikot 
must  in  olden  times  have  been  impregnable.  Perched  on  the  scarped 
rock  that  overhangs  at  a  height  of  some  300  feet  the  winding  Pennar, 
this  picturesque  group  of  buildings,  military  and  religious  together, 
illustrate  the  wild  secluded  life  which  to  a  Hindu  robber  chief  seemed 
to  be  grandeur.  Cut  off  from  all  but  those  who  sought  (and  could 
climb  innumerable  stairs)  to  see  him,  he  surrounded  himself  at  once 
with  temples  and  bastions,  with  a  crowd  of  priests  and  a  rabble  of 
soldiers ;  and  yet  no  sooner  was  the  impregnable  fort  attacked,  than  it 
belied  its  name,  and  yielded  to  treachery  or  fear.  The  fort  of  Gandikot 
was,  however,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Cuddapah  country.  It 
was  the  key  to  the  valley  of  the  Pennar,  and  its  name  frequently  occurs 
in  the  account  of  ancient  struggles' — (Gribble).  The  population  of 
Gandikot  town  (1881)  was  973. 

Ganeswari. — River  in  the  Garo  Hills  District,  Assam,  rising  in 
lat.  25°  18'  N.,  long.  90°  49'  E.,  on  the  skirts  of  a  hill  called  Kailas. 
Its  course  lies  southwards  into  Maimansingh  District,  through  a  hme- 
stone  formation,  in  which  there  are  some  large  stalactite  caverns.  Its 
rocky  banks  form  scenery  of  a  picturesque  beauty. 

Ganga  Bal. — Small  lake  in  Kashmir. — See  Gangal. 


GANGAIKANDAPUR.  465 

Gangaikandapur  {Gangd-kanda-puram  (Tamil),  'The  city  visited  by 
the  Ganges,'  from  a  well  in  the  temple  mythically  connected  with  the 
Ganges  ;  sometimes  also  called  Gaugdiko/idu  Solapur,  or  'The  city  of  the 
Chola  king,  Gangai').— Town  and  temple  in  Trichinopoli  District,  Madras 
Presidency.  Situated  in  latitude  11°  i2'3o"n.,  longitude  79°  30'  e.,  about 
6  miles  to  the  east  of  Jaiamkondu  Solapuram  ;  connected  with  Udaiyar- 
polaiyam  by  the  Chellambaram  road,  and  i  mile  distant  from  the  great 
Trunk  Road  running  from  Tanjore  to  South  Arcot.    The  village  is  purely 
agricultural,  (d(d  per  cent,  of  the  population  being  cultivators.     Close  to 
the  village  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  but  least  known  temples  in 
Southern  India.     The  building  consists  of  one  large  enclosure,  measuring 
584  feet  by  372.    This  was  evidently  once  well  fortified  by  a  strong  sur- 
rounding stone  wall,  with  batteries  at  each  corner.     In  1836,  however, 
the  batteries  were  almost  entirely  destroyed,  and  the  wall  removed,  to  pro- 
vide materials  for  the  dam  across  the  river  Coleroon  known  as  the  Lower 
Anient,  which  was  then  under  construction.     In  the  place  of  the  old 
wall,  a  low  one  of  stone  has  been  built  on  two  sides  of  the  enclosure, 
but  the  other  sides  have  been  left  open.     The  vimana  in  the  centre  of 
the  courtyard  is  a  very  conspicuous  building,  and  strikes  the  eye  from  a 
great  distance.     The  pyramid  surrounding  it  reaches  a  height  of  174 
feet.     The  ruins  of  six  gopiras,  or  gate  pyramids,  surmount  different 
parts  of  the  building.      That  over  the  eastern  entrance  to  the  main 
enclosure  was  evidently  once  a  very  fine  structure,  being  built  entirely 
of  stone  except  at  the  very  top.     It  is  now  almost  completely  in  ruins. 
All  the  lower  part  of  the  centre  building  is  covered  with  inscriptions, 
which  have  not  as  yet  been  deciphered.     Dr.  Caldwell  is  of  opinion 
that  this  temple  is  one  of  the  great,  if  not  the  greatest,  of  present  Hindu 
temples,  and  that  the  old  and  splendid  temple  of  Tanjore  is  probably 
merely  a  model  of  it.     Tradition  says  that  the  village  was  once  one  of 
the  principal  seats  of  the  Chola  kings ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
was  formerly  a  much  more  important  place  than  it  now  is.     Northward 
from  its  site  runs  an  embankment  16  miles  long,  provided  with  several 
substantial  sluices,  and  of  great  strength,  which  in  former  times  must 
have  formed  one  of  the  largest  reservoirs  in  India.     This  huge  tank  or 
lake  was  filled  partly  by  a  channel  from^  the  Coleroon  river,  upwards  of 
60  miles  in  length,  which  enters  it  at  its  southern  end ;  and  partly  by  a 
smaller  channel  from  the  Vellar,  which  entered  it  on  the  north.    Traces 
of  both  these  channels  still  remain.     The  tank  has  been  ruined  and 
useless  for  very  many  years,  and  its  bed  is  now  almost  wholly  over- 
grown with  high  and  thick  jungle.     It  is  said,  traditionally,  that  its  ruin 
was  wilful,  and  the  act  of  an  invading  army.     '  All  round  the  Pagoda 
and  village,  but  completely  overgrown  with  jungle,  are  some  remains  of 
ancient  buildings,  now  much  resembling  the  mounds  or  "  heaps  "  which 
indicate  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon,  but  in  which  the  village  elders 

VOL.  IV.  2  G 


466  GANGAL— GANGES. 

point  out  the  various  parts  of  an  extensive  and  magnificent  palace. 
When  this  palace  was  in  existence,  Ganga-kanda-puram  was  the  wealthy 
and  flourishing  capital  of  a  small  monarchy ;  and  the  great  tank  spread 
fertility  and  industry  over  miles  and  miles  of  what  is  now  trackless 
forest'  (Pharaoh).  It  has  more  than  once  been  projected  to  restore 
this  magnificent  work,  and  to  supply  it  by  a  channel  from  the  Upper 
Anicut. 

Gangal. — Tank  or  small  lake  in  Kashmir  State ;  on  the  Harmukh 
mountain,  near  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  valley.  Latitude 
34°  37'  N.,  longitude  74°  58'  e.  Length,  \\  mile;  breadth,  300  yards. 
Remarkable  only  for  its  sanctity  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hindus,  who  make 
pilgrimages  to  its  banks,  and  throw  into  the  waters  such  fragments 
of  the  bones  of  their  relatives  as  remain  unconsumed  after  the  funeral 
cremation.  Large  temple  sacred  to  Siva  in  his  form  of  Mahadeva. 
An  annual  fair  is  held  here. 

Gangapur. — Town  in  Jaipur  State,  Rajputana.  Population  (1881) 
5880,  namely,  5264  Hindus,  534  Muhammadans,  and  82  'others.' 

Gangaru.— Town  in  Muzaffarnagar  District,  North-Western  Pro- 
vinces.— See  Gangiru. 

Gangawali.— Seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gangawali  river,  North 
Kdnara  District,  Bombay  Presidency.  Latitude  14°  36'  n.,  longitude 
74°  21'  E.  Population  (i 881)  982.  In  the  Ankola  customs'  division. 
Imports  for  eight  years  ending  1881-82  averaged  ;£"4i8,  and  exports 
;;£"2o63.  Famous  temple  to  the  goddess  Ganga,  wife  of  Siva.  The 
site  also  of  a  timber  depot  under  the  Forest  Department. 

Ganges. — The  great  river  of  Northern  India,  formed  by  the  drainage 
of  the  southern  ranges  of  the  Himalayas.  This  magnificent  stream, 
which  in  its  lower  course  supplies  the  river  system  of  Bengal,  rises  in 
the  Garhwal  State,  in  lat.  30°  56'  4"  n.,  and  long.  79°  6'  40"  e.,  and  falls 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  after  a  course  of  1557  miles.  It  issues  under  the 
name  of  the  Bhagirathi  from  an  ice-cave  at  the  foot  of  an  Himalayan 
snow-bed  above  Gangotri,  13,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  During 
its  earlier  passage  through  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Himalayas,  it 
receives  the  Jahnavi  from  the  north-west,  and  subsequently  the  Alak- 
NANDA,  after  which  the  united  stream  takes  the  name  of  the  Ganges. 
Deo  Prayag,  the  point  of  junction,  is  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage, 
as  is  also  Gangotri,  the  source  of  the  parent  stream.  At  Sukhi  it  pierces 
through  the  Himalayas,  and  turns  south-west  to  Hardwar,  also  a  place 
of  great  sanctity.  Thence  it  proceeds  by  a  tortuous  course  through 
the  Districts  of  Dehra  Diin,  Saharanpur,  Muzaffarnagar,  Bulandshahr, 
and  Farukhabad,  in  which  last  District  it  receives  the  Ramganga.  At 
Allahabad  the  type  of  the  river  changes.  Heretofore,  the  Ganges  has 
been  little  more  than  a  series  of  shoals,  pools,  and  rapids,  except,  of 
course,  during  the  melting  of  the  snows  and  the  rainy  season.      At 


GANGES.  467 

Allahabad,  however,  dd'^  miles  from  its  source,  it  receives  the  Jumna,  a 
mighty  confluent,  which  also  takes  its  rise  in  the  Himalayas,  to  the  west 
of  the  sources  of  the  Ganges.  The  combined  river  winds  eastward  by 
south-east  through  the  North- Western  Provinces,  receiving  the  Giimti 
and  the  Gogra.  The  point  of  junction  of  each  of  these  streams  has 
more  or  less  claim  to  sanctity.  But  the  tongue  of  land  at  Allahabad, 
where  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  join,  is  the  true  Prayag,  the  place  of 
pilgrimage,  to  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  devout  Hindus  repair  to 
wash  away  their  sins  in  the  sacred  river.  Here  is  held,  every  twelfth 
year,  the  great  himbh  fair  {^tiela),  when  the  planet  Jupiter  is  in  Aquarius 
{kiimbk),  and  the  sun  in  Aries.  The  last  kumbh  mela,  in  1882,  was 
attended  by  from  800,000  to  1,000,000  persons.  Pilgrims  came  from 
all  parts  of  India,  from  Kashmir  and  Madras,  and  from  Kandahar  and 
Calcutta.  The  fair  began  on  the  first  day  of  Migh  (5th  January),  and 
lasted  till  the  full  moon  of  that  month  on  the  3rd  February.  The  most 
strict  observers  keep  the  whole  month  as  a  period  of  sanctity,  bathing 
daily  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers,  fasting  by  day,  and  altogether 
abstaining  from  all  but  the  commonest  food.  Such  devotees  are  called 
kalap-bdshi  (good-livers). 

Of  all  great  rivers  of  India,  none  can  compare  in  sanctity  with  the 
Ganges,  or  Mother  Ganga,  as  she  is  affectionately  called  by  devout 
Hindus.  From  her  source  in  the  Himalayas  to  her  mouth  in  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  every  foot  of  her  course  is  holy  ground ;  and  many  of  the 
other  sacred  rivers  of  India  borrow  their  sanctity  from  a  supposed 
underground  connection  with  her  waters.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  this  superstition  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  earliest  books  of  Sanskrit 
literature,  composed  at  a  time  when  the  primitive  Aryan  race  had  not 
yet  penetrated  into  the  great  plain  of  Eastern  Hindustan.  The  legend 
of  the  Ganges  first  appears  in  the  two  epic  poems  of  the  Mahabharata 
and  Ramayana,  and  affords  abundant  scope  for  the  mytho-poetic  faculty 
subsequently  displayed  in  the  voluminous  literature  of  the  Puranas. 
In  this  legend,  which  admits  of  numerous  variations,  the  three  supreme 
gods  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon— Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva— each  per- 
form a  conspicuous  part,  so  that  the  Ganges  has  been  preserved  from 
sectarian  associations.  The  human  dramatis  personce  in  the  story  are 
localized  as  princes  of  Ayodhya,  the  modern  Gudh.  Ganga  herself  is 
described  as  the  daughter  of  the  Himalayas,  who  is  persuaded,  after 
infinite  solicitation,  to  shed  her  purifying  stream  upon  the  sinful 
earth.  The  ice-cavern  beneath  the  glacier  at  Gangotri,  from  which 
the  river  springs,  is  represented  as  the  tangled  hair  of  the  god  Siva. 
The  names  of  Bhagirathi  and  Sagar  have  a  prominent  place  in  the 
legend. 

After  the  lapse  of  twenty  centuries,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  rival 
religions,  veneration  for  the  Ganges  still  figures  as  a  chief  article  in 


468  GANGES. 

the  creed  of  modern  Hinduism.  The  pre-eminently  sacred  spots  on 
its  banks — Gangotri,  Hardwar,  Allahabad,  Benares,  and  Sagar 
Island  at  its  mouth — are  frequented  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  from 
every  Province  of  the  peninsula.  Even  at  the  present  day,  the  six 
years'  pilgrimage  from  the  source  to  the  mouth,  and  back  again,  known 
as  Pradaks/wta,  is  performed  by  many ;  and  a  few  fanatical  devotees 
may  yet  be  seen  wearily  accomplishing  this  meritorious  penance  by 
'  measuring  their  length.'  To  bathe  in  the  Ganges,  especially  at  the 
great  stated  festivals,  will  wash  away  the  stain  of  sin ;  and  those  who 
have  thus  purified  themselves  carry  back  bottles  of  the  sacred  water  to 
their  less  fortunate  relations.  To  die  and  be  buried  on  the  river  bank 
is  a  passport  to  eternal  bliss.  Even  to  exclaim  '  Ganga,  Ganga,'  at  the 
distance  of  a  hundred  leagues,  will  atone  for  the  sins  committed  during 
three  previous  lives. 

The  river  thus  reverenced  by  the  Hindus  deserves  their  homage  by 
reason  of  its  exceptional  utility  for  agriculture  and  navigation.  None 
of  the  other  rivers  of  India  approach  the  Ganges  in  beneficence. 
The  Brahmaputra  and  the  Indus  may  have  longer  streams,  as  measured 
by  the  geographer,  but  the  upper  courses  of  both  lie  hidden  within  the 
unknown  recesses  of  the  Himalayas.  Not  one  of  the  great  rivers 
of  Central  or  Southern  India  is  navigable  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term.  The  Ganges  begins  to  distribute  fertility  as  soon  as  it  reaches 
the  plains,  within  200  miles  of  its  sources ;  and  at  the  same  point  it 
becomes  in  some  sort  navigable.  Thenceforwards  it  rolls  majestically 
down  to  the  sea  in  a  bountiful  stream,  which  never  becomes  a  merely 
destructive  torrent  in  the  rains,  and  never  dwindles  away  in  the  hottest 
summer.  If  somewhat  diminished  by  irrigation,  its  volume  is  forthwith 
restored  by  numerous  great  tributaries ;  and  the  wide  area  of  its  river 
basin  receives  annually  a  sufficient  rainfall  to  maintain  the  supply  in 
every  part.  Embankments  are  in  few  places  required  to  restrain  its 
inundations,  for  the  alluvial  silt  which  it  spills  over  its  banks  year  by 
year  affords  to  the  fields  a  top-dressing  of  inexhaustible  fertility.  If 
one  crop  be  drowned  by  the  flood,  the  cultivator  calculates  that  his 
second  crop  will  abundantly  requite  him. 

Shortly  after  passing  the  holy  city  of  Benares,  the  Ganges  enters  Behar, 
and  after  receiving  an  important  tributary,  the  Son  (Soane),  from  the 
south,  passes  Patna,  and  obtains  another  accession  to  its  volume  from 
the  Gandak,  which  rises  in  Nepal.  Farther  to  the  east,  it  receives  the 
Kusi,  and  then,  skirting  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  turns  sharply  to  the  south- 
ward, passing  near  the  site  of  the  ruined  city  of  Gaur.  By  this  time  it 
has  approached  to  within  240  miles,  as  the  crow  flies,  from  the  sea. 
About  20  miles  farther  on,  it  begins  to  branch  out  over  the  level 
country,  and  this  spot  marks  the  commencement  of  the  Delta,  220 
miles    in    a    straight    line,    or    nearly   300    by   the   windings   of   the 


GANGES,  469 

river,  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  main  channel  takes  the  name  of 
the  Padma  or  Padda,  and  proceeds  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  past 
Pabna  to  Goalanda,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Jamuna,  or  main  stream 
of  the  Brahmaputra.  The  vast  confluence  of  waters  rushes  towards 
the  sea,  receiving  further  additions  from  the  hill  country  on  the  east, 
and  forming  a  broad  estuary  known  under  the  name  of  the  Meghna, 
which  enters  the  Bay  of  Bengal  near  Noakhali.  This  estuary,  however, 
is  only  the  largest  and  most  easterly  of  a  great  number  of  mouths  or 
channels.  The  most  westerly  is  the  Hugli,  which  receives  the  waters 
of  the  three  westernmost  distributary  channels  that  start  from  the  parent 
Ganges  in  or  near  Murshidabad  District.  Between  the  Hiigli  on  the 
west  and  the  Meghna  on  the  east,  lies  the  Delta.  The  upper  angle  of 
it  consists  of  rich  and  fertile  Districts,  such  as  Murshidabad,  Nadiya, 
Jessor,  and  the  Twenty-four  Parganas.  But  towards  its  southern  base, 
resting  on  the  sea,  the  country  sinks  into  a  series  of  great  swamps, 
intersected  by  a  network  of  innumerable  channels.  This  wild  waste 
is  known  as  the  Sundarbans,  from  the  sundri  tree,  which  grows  in 
abundance  in  the  seaboard  tracts.  The  most  important  channel  for 
navigation  is  the  Hiigli,  on  which  stands  Calcutta,  about  80  miles 
from  the  mouth.  Above  this  city,  the  navigation  is  almost  entirely 
conducted  by  native  craft ;  the  modern  facilities  for  traffic  by  rail,  and 
the  increasing  shoals  in  the  river,  having  put  an  end  to  the  previous 
steamer  communication,  which  pUed  until  about  i860  to  as  high  up  as 
Allahabad.  In  the  upper  portion  of  its  course  in  the  North-Western 
Provinces,  timber  and  bamboos  form  the  bulk  of  the  river  trade ; 
and  in  the  lower  part  bordering  on  Bengal,  stone,  grain,  and  cotton. 
Below  Calcutta,  important  boat-routes  through  the  Delta  connect 
the  Hiigli  with  the  eastern  branches  of  the  river,  both  for  native 
craft  and  steamers.  The  Ganges  is  essentially  a  river  of  great 
cities :  Calcutta,  Monghyr,  Patna,  Benares  lie  on  its  course  below  its 
union  with  the  Jumna,  and  Allahabad  at  the  junction  of  the  two 
rivers. 

Till  within  a  recent  period,  the  magnificent  stream  of  the  Ganges 
formed  almost  the  sole  cliannel  of  traffic  between  Upper  India  and  the 
seaboard.  The  products  not  only  of  the  river  valley,  but  even  the 
cotton  of  the  Central  Provinces,  used  formerly  to  be  conveyed  by  this 
route  to  Calcutta.  But  though  the  opening  of  the  railway  has  caused  a 
revolution  in  the  channels  of  trade,  heavy  goods  in  bulk  still  follow  the 
old  means  of  communication  ;  and  the  Ganges  may  yet  rank  as  one 
of  the  most  frequented  waterways  in  the  world.  In  1877-78,  the  total 
imports  from  the  interior  into  Calcutta  were  valued  at  36  millions  ster- 
ling, of  which  1 7  millions  came  rid  the  Gangetic  channels ;  country 
boats  carrying  more  than  14  millions,  and  river  steamers  (chiefly  from 
the  eastwards)  3  millions.    The  downward  traffic,  as  might  be  expected, 


470  GANGES. 

is  most  brisk  in  the  rainy  season,  when  the  river  comes  down  in  flood. 
During  the  rest  of  the  year  the  boats  make  their  way  back  up-stream, 
often  without  cargoes,  either  helped  by  a  favourable  wind  or  laboriously 
towed  along  the  bank.  The  dimensions  of  the  river  traffic  of  Bengal 
may  be  inferred  from  the  following  figures,  which  give  the  number  of 
boats  passing  certain  registration  stations  in  1876-77  : — At  Baman- 
ghata,  on  the  Circular  Canal,  178,627  boats,  of  which  59,495  were 
laden;  at  Hugh,  124,357,  of  which  73,233  were  laden;  at  Patna, 
61,571,  of  which  44,384  were  laden;  at  Goalanda,  54,329,  of  which 
42,249  were  laden;  at  Sahibganj,  43,020,  of  which  30,798  were  laden. 
The  river  trade  of  Bengal  with  the  North-Western  Provinces  and  Oudh 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  statistics  for  1877-78: — Imports  into 
Bengal  via  the  Ganges  —  oil-seeds,  2,619,818  maiuids ;  food-grains, 
952,521  7)iaunds ;  sugar,  970,132  viau7ids ;  cotton,  40,192  uiaiinds : 
total  of  the  four  items,  4,582,663  mamids  or  197,759  tons.  Exports 
from  Bengal  —  food -grains  (chiefly  rice),  2,299,797  maimds ;  salt, 
481,820  maimds:  total  of  these  two  items,  2,781,617  maiuids  or 
101,827  tons.  Total  of  the  foregoing  items,  upwards  and  down- 
wards, 7,364,280  maimds  or  269,586  tons.  Those  figures,  however, 
comprise  but  a  portion  of  the  river- borne  traffic  of  the  Ganges. 
Among  other  commodities  in  the  down  -  stream  traffic  may  be 
mentioned — (i)  Timber  and  wood  from  the  Bijnaur  (Bijnor)  forests  to 
Garhmukhtesar  and  Anupshahr,  for  transport  to  Agra  and  Delhi  by 
road,  estimated  at  20,000  maunds ;  (2)  Ditto,  via  the  Ramganga 
and  Garra  rivers  to  Farukhabad,  Cawnpur,  and  Allahabad,  199,000 
maunds ;  (3)  Grain  and  oil-seeds,  from  wharves  west  of  Cawnpur  to 
Cawnpur  and  Allahabad,  258,000  maunds ;  (4)  Salt,  from  Farukhabad, 
Cawnpur,  and  Allahabad,  to  wharves  in  the  Benares  Division,  and  to 
Patna  in  Bengal,  60,000  maunds ;  (5)  Cotton  from  Allahabad  and 
Mirzapur  to  Benares  and  Patna,  59,000  maunds ;  (6)  Stone,  from 
wharves  in  Mirzapur  District,  to  Bengal,  450,000  maunds.,  and  many 
Other  articles  of  agricultural  produce  and  commerce.  In  the  up-stream 
traffic,  the  only  noticeable  point  is  the  import  of  rice  from  Hajipur 
and  Satna  wharves  in  Benares.  Articles  of  European  commerce,  such 
as  wheat,  indigo,  cotton,  and  saltpetre,  mostly  prefer  the  railway,  as 
also  do  the  imports  of  Manchester  piece-goods.  But  if  we  take  into 
consideration  the  new  development  of  the  export  trade  in  oil-seeds,  and 
the  growing  increase  in  the  interchange  of  food-grains  between  various 
parts  of  the  country,  it  seems  probable  that  the  actual  amount  of  traffic 
on  the  Ganges  by  native  craft  has  not  at  all  diminished  since  the 
opening  of  the  railway ;  and  the  river  is  not  only  a  rival,  but  also  a 
feeder  to  the  railway.  Stations  favourably  situated  on  its  banks  form 
centres  of  collection  and  distribution  for  the  surrounding  country. 
Such  cities  as  Cawnpur,   Allahabad,    Benares,   and   Patna  have  thus 


GANGES.  47 1 

been  able  to  preserve  their  former  importance,  while  fishing  villages 
like  Sahibganj  and  Goalanda  have  by  the  same  means  been  raised 
into  river  marts  of  the  first  magnitude. 

The  catchment  basin  of  the  Ganges  and  its  tributaries  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  a  section  of  about  700  miles  of  the  Himalayan  range,  on 
the  south  by  the  Vindhya  mountains,  and  on  the  east  by  the  ranges 
which  separate  Bengal  from  Burma.     The  vast  river  basin  thus  enclosed 
embraces  391,100  square  miles.     The  flood  discharge  of  the  Ganges  at 
Rajmahal,  after  it  has  received  all  its  important  tributaries,  was  formerly 
estimated  at  1,350,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.     Latest  calcula- 
tion :  length  of  main  stream  of  Ganges,  1509  miles  by  the  Hugh  route, 
or  1557  to  the  Meghna  mouth,  or  with  its  longest  affluent,  1680;  breadth 
at  entrance  to  the  sea,  20  miles ;  breadth  of  channel  in  dry  season,  \\ 
to  2i  miles  ;  depth  in  dry  season,  30  feet ;  high-flood  discharge  at  Raj- 
mahal, 1,800,000  cubic  feet  per  second;  ordinary  discharge,  207,000 
cubic  feet ;  longest  duration  of  flood,  about  40  days.    Average  discharge 
at  Hard  war,  when  the  river  is  at  its  lowest,  7000  cubic  feet  per  second  ; 
at  Benares,  19,000  cubic  feet  per  second.     At  the  point  at  which  it 
issues  from  its  snow-bed,  the  Ganges  is  27  feet  broad  and  15  inches 
deep,  13,800  feet  above  sea-level.     At  Gangotri,  10  miles  lower,  it  is 
43  feet  broad  and  18  inches  deep  ;  elevation,  10,319  feet.     At  Bhairo- 
ghati,   the  river  is  85 11   feet  above  sea-level;   at  Deo  Prayag,  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Alaknanda,  133  miles  from  its  source,  1953  feet; 
at   Hardwar,   1024  feet;   and  at  Cawnpur,  379  feet  above  sea-level. 
Average  fall  from  Allahabad  to   Benares,   6   inches   per  mile;    from 
Benares  to  Calcutta,  between  4  and  5  inches ;  from  Calcutta  to  the  sea, 
I  to  2  inches.     The  total  length  of  the  stream  in  its  difl'erent  stages, 
from  the  source   of  the  Jahnavi  to  the  Hiigli  mouth  is  returned  as 
follows  :— From    the    source   of  the  Jahnavi   to   the  junction  of  the 
Alaknanda  and  Bhagirathi  rivers,  133  miles;  thence  to  Hardwar,  47 
miles;  thence   to  Allahabad,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Jumna,  488 
miles;  thence  to  Sibganj,  where  the  Hiigli  channel  commences  in  a 
branch  thrown  off  from  the  main  stream,  known  as  the  Bhagirathi,  563 
miles;  thence  to  the  junction   of  the   Bhagirathi  and  Jalangi,  below 
which  the  stream  takes  the  name  of  the  Hiigli,  120  miles;  thence  to 
Chandarnagar,  48  miles;  thence  to  the  sea  by  way  of  Calcutta,  no 
miles  :  total,  1509  miles.    The  length  from  Chandarnagar  to  the  sea  may 
be  variously  stated  from  100  to  150  miles,  according  to  the  point  in  the 
estuary  at  which  the  sea  is  reckoned  to  commence.     The  distance  here 
taken  (no  miles)  ends  at  the  Sagar  anchoring  buoy.     The  water  of 
the  Ganges  begins  to  rise  towards  the  end  of  May,  and  is  usually  at  its 
maximum  in  September.     The  following  table,  drawn  up  by  Captain 
Thomas  Prinsep  (quoted  from  Thornton),  illustrates  the  rise  of  water  in 
the  river  at  various  places  : — 


472  GANGES  CANAL. 


At  Allahabad,  .... 

,,  Benares,        .... 

,,  Colgong,       .... 

„  Jalangi,         .... 
,,        ,,'        (according  to  Rennell), 

,,  Kumarkhali  (not  quite  certain), 

,,  Agradwip  (Nadiya), 

,,  Calcutta  (independent  of  tide), 

,,  Dacca  (according  to  Rennell), 


Greatest  known 

Rise  in  lov 

Annual  Rise. 

tjeasons. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.     In. 

45 

6 

29      0 

45 

o 

34    0 

29 

6 

28    3 

26 

o 

25     6 

32 

o 

22 

6 

22    0 

23 

9 

23     0 

7 

o 

6     7 

14 

o 

Great  changes  take  place  from  time  to  time  in  the  river-bed,  and 
alter  the  face  of  the  country.  Extensive  islands  are  thrown  up,  and 
attach  themselves  to  the  bank ;  while  the  river  deserts  its  old  bed  and 
seeks  a  new  channel,  it  may  be  many  miles  off.  Such  changes  are  so 
rapid  and  on  so  vast  a  scale,  and  the  corroding  power  of  the  current 
on  the  bank  so  irresistible,  that  it  is  considered  perilous  to  build  any 
structure  of  a  large  or  permanent  character  on  the  margin.  Many 
decayed  or  ruined  cities  attest  the  alterations  in  the  river-bed  in  ancient 
times ;  and  within  our  own  days,  the  main  channel  which  formerly 
passed  Rajmahal  has  turned  away  from  it,  and  left  the  town  high  and 
dry,  7  miles  from  the  bank.  The  scheme  of  this  Gazetteer  is  to  deal 
with  India  by  its  administrative  divisions ;  and  much  information 
regarding  the  Ganges  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  the  Districts, 
cities,  etc.,  along  its  route.  For  example,  a  very  full  account  will  be 
given  of  the  Hugli  River,  the  great  commercial  mouth  of  the  Ganges. 
To  save  repetition,  therefore,  the  foregoing  notice  only  attempts  a 
general  description  of  the  course  of  the  river. 

Ganges  Canal  (technically  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal).— An  im- 
portant irrigation  work  and  navigable  channel  in  the  North -Western 
Provinces,  passing  through  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Upper  Doab, 
and  watering  a  large  tract  of  country,  from  Hard  war  to  Nanun,  near 
Akbarabad  in  Aligarh  District,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches, 
known  as  the  Etavvah  and  Cawnpur  terminal  lines.  The  Upper 
Canal  is  considered  to  terminate  at  the  regulating  bridges  of  Gopaipur 
and  Jeyra,  33  and  39  miles  respectively  from  Nanun,  where  the  Lower 
Canal  joins  the  branches.  The  lower  portion  of  the  branches  thence 
become  a  portion  of  the  Lower  Canal.  The  plan  for  this  great  work 
originated  in  the  success  of  the  Eastern  Jumna  Canal,  coupled  with 
the  periodical  recurrence  of  drought  and  famine  in  the  opposite  half  of 
the  Doab,  which  remained  unprotected  by  the  distributaries  from  that 
main  channel  of  irrigation.  Attention  was  thus  directed  to  the  Ganges  as 
affording  a  constant  water-supply  for  a  similar  undertaking,  which  should 
irrigate  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Doab,  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  to 
Cawnpur  District.     As  early  as  1827,  Captain  Debude  had  proposed 


GANGES  CANAL.  473 

a  plan  for  utilizing  the  waters  of  the  West  Kali  Nadi,  along  an  ancient 
line  through  the  Districts  of  Meerut,  Bulandshahr,  and  Aligarh ;  but  as 
practical  difficulties  would  have  prevented  the  realization  of  this  scheme, 
Colonel  Colvin  in  1836  recommended  the  examination  of  the  Ganges 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hardwar,  where  it  emerges  upon  the  plains 
from  a  gorge  of  the  Siwaliks.  The  terrible  famine  of  1837-38,  which 
shortly  afterwards  devastated  the  Doab,  and  caused  an  enormous  loss 
of  life  and  revenue,  directed  the  thoughts  of  our  Government  towards 
the  desirability  of  providing  against  similar  calamities  in  future.  In 
1839,  Major  (afterwards  Sir)  Proby  Cautley  was  deputed  to  inspect 
the  Hardwar  lowlands,  and  on  his  report  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
investigate  the  question.  On  the  i6th  of  April  1842,  the  actual  works 
were  commenced  by  opening  the  excavation  between  Kankhal  and 
Hardwar.  After  many  delays,  caused  by  administrative  changes  or 
alterations  of  engineering  plans,  the  Ganges  Canal  in  its  earliest  form 
was  opened  on  the  8th  of  April  1854.  In  1866,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  consider  the  advisability  of  further  modifications ;  and 
their  deliberations  resulted  in  the  construction  of  several  new  works, 
and  the  continuance  of  the  main  line  towards  Allahabad,  by  means  of 
a  cut  from  Rajghat,  known  as  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal. 

The  canal,  as  at  present  constituted,  derives  its  supplies  from  the 
Ganges  at  Hardwar.  The  main  channel  then  proceeds  through  the 
Districts  of  Saharanpur  and  Muzaffarnagar,  giving  off  the  Fatehgarh 
or  Anupshahr  branch  in  the  latter  District.  Thence  it  sweeps  in 
a  bold  curve  westward,  across  the  headwaters  of  the  Kali  Nadi, 
and  through  the  heart  of  Meerut  District.  Near  Begamabad  it 
trends  south-eastward,  through  Bulandshahr  and  Aligarh,  and,  as  stated 
above,  near  Akbarabad  divides  into  two  branches,  terminating  respec- 
tively at  Etawah  and  Cawnpur.  The  Anupshahr  branch,  which 
leaves  the  main  channel  in  Muzaffarnagar  District,  proceeds  almost 
parallel  with  the  Ganges  through  the  whole  western  edge  of  the  Upper 
Doab.  The  Etawah  branch,  leaving  the  main  line  at  Akbarabad,  is 
joined  by  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal  at  Jeyra,  39  miles  from  Akbarabad, 
and  at  this  point  the  Upper  Canal  is  held  to  end.  The  length  of 
the  main  canal  amounts  to  445  miles.  The  branches  vary  much 
from  time  to  time,  as  new  portions  are  opened  or  old  channels  disused. 
The  capital  expenditure  on  the  canal  up  to  31st  March  1883, 
amounted  to  ;£2,767,538;  and  the  total  ultimate  cost  is  estimated  at 
7^2,848,442  for  direct  outlay  only,  ie.  exclusive  of  interest.  The 
capital  ouday,  inclusive  of  interest,  was  returned  at  ;^2,826,48o  m 
1875-76.  This  includes  a  sum  of  ^70,000  for  a  navigation  canal 
to  connect  the  Ganges  Canal  near  Ghaziabad  with  the  Agra  Canal  by 
means  of  the  Hindan  river.  The  total  gross  income  from  the  Upper 
Ganges  Canal  received  in  cash  during  the   year  ending  31st  March 


474  GANGES  CANAL. 

1883,  was  ^^235,148:  besides  an  indirect  revenue  of  ;£"44,3oi.  The 
current  outlay  (charged  to  revenue)  during  the  year  was  ;^88,o6i, 
and  the  allowance  for  interest,  ^^103, 541.  Total  charges,  ;^i9i,6o2  ; 
leaving  a  'net  surplus'  of  ;£87,847. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  compare  these  totals  with  those  of  1875-76, 
for  which  year  full  returns  were  given  in  the  first  edition  of  this 
work.  The  total  revenue  in  1875-76,  directly  or  indirectly  due  to  the 
canal,  was  returned  at  ;^289,925  ;  of  which  sum  ^212,881  consisted 
of  direct  payments  for  water-rates,  navigation,  etc. ;  while  ;£7 7,043 
was  produced  by  increased  land  revenue,  through  the  influence  of 
irrigation.  The  aggregate  amount  of  annual  income  realized  from  the 
opening  of  the  canal  to  the  end  of  the  year  1875-76,  amounted  to 
;^2, 65 2,009,  ^  sum  which  hardly  falls  short  of  the  original  capital 
outlay.  Out  of  this  amount,  ;^2,33o,i90  consisted  of  direct  income 
from  rates,  etc.;  while  ;^32i,8i9  was  due  to  increased  land  revenue. 
Against  these  figures  must  be  set  the  working  expenses,  which 
amounted  to  ;^io5,462  during  1875-76;  and  to  ;£"i, 400,982  during 
the  whole  period  from  the  opening  of  the  canal  up  to  the  end  of 
that  year.  These  figures  show  that  the  net  revenue  to  the  end 
of  1875-76  amounted  to  ;£'929,207,  exclusive  of  the  increased  land 
revenue;  and  to  ^1,251,027,  inclusive  of  increased  land  revenue. 
Against  the  net  profit  thus  calculated  must  be  set  a  sum  of 
^2,419,912,  as  charge  for  interest  on  capital  outlay  to  the  end  of 
the  year,  being  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  up  to  1870-71,  and  4J 
per  cent,  since  that  date.  The  difference  between  the  net  revenue 
and  the  interest  charge,  up  to  the  end  of  1875-76,  leaves  an 
adverse  balance  of  ;£"i,49o,704,  excluding  the  increased  land 
revenue,  and  ;£"i,  168,885,  including  land  revenue.  The  following 
statement  shows  the  actual  work  accomplished  during  the  year 
1875-76: — Average  water-supply  at  Rurki  (Roorkee)  in  cubic  feet 
per  second,  ^/^^r//"  5235,  i-abi  4868;  area  irrigated  in  acres,  kharif 
317,325,  rabi  571,842 — total,  889,167;  area  irrigated  per  cubic  foot 
of  supply,  178  acres;  length  of  distributaries  open,  3386  miles;  area 
irrigated  per  mile  of  distributary,  262  acres;  water-rate,  ;2{^202,8i3. 
In  1882-83,  the  total  area  irrigated  was  856,035  acres,  as  follows  : — 
Kharif- — rice,  51,387  acres;  cotton,  20,558  acres;  indigo  and  other 
dyes,  141,425  acres;  and  fodder-crops,  7558  acres.  Rabi  —  wheat, 
342,663  acres;  other  food-grains,  165,843  acres;  oil-seeds,  140  acres; 
and  fibres,  2546  acres.  Miscellaneous  crops  —  sugar-cane,  109,261 
acres;  opium,  no  acres;  other  drugs,  1741  acres;  garden  produce, 
■8912  acres  ;  and  miscellaneous,  5548  acres. 

The  falls  along  the  canal  have  been  utilized  in  part  as  a  motive 
power  for  mills,  but  much  of  the  available  power  has  never  yet  been 
employed.      Navigation   takes   place   along    the   entire  length  of  the 


GANGES  CANAL,  LOWER.  475 

main  canal,  and  consists  in  the  rafting  of  timber,  or  the  carrying 
of  merchandise  in  boats.  The  rafting  is  almost  entirely  confined 
to  the  upper  portion  of  the  main  channel,  as  far  as  the  point 
opposite  Meerut.  The  number  of  boats  plying  in  1875-76  amounted 
to  325.  Further  details  as  to  the  agricultural  benefits  derived  from 
the  canal,  the  principal  distributaries,  the  crops  specially  irrigated, 
and  the  effects  of  percolation,  will  be  found  under  the  District 
notices  of  Saharanpur,  Muzaffarnagar,  Meerut,  Bulandshahr,  Aligarh, 
Muttra,  Etah,  Mainpuri,  Etawah,  Farukhabad,  and  Cawnpur,  all  of 
which  see  separately. 

Ganges  Canal,  Lower. — An  important  irrigation  work  in  the  North- 
western Provinces,  designed  to  water  the  whole  southern  portion  of 
the  Doab.  The  new  channel  may  be  regarded  as  a  southward  exten- 
sion of  the  Ganges  Canal,  with  which  it  has  direct  communication. 
The  head  works  draw  their  supply  from  the  river  at  Narora  (lat.  27° 
47'  N.,  long.  78°  18'  E.),  on  the  border  of  Aligarh  District,  about  4  miles 
below  the  Rajghat  station  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  The 
present  work  owes  its  origin  to  a  committee  appointed  in  1866  to 
examine  the  various  projects  for  strengthening  the  irrigating  power  of 
the  Ganges  Canal;  but  the  scheme  originally  adopted  is  due  to  the 
joint  efforts  of  General  Strachey,  C.S.L,  Mr.  R.  Forrest,  Major  Jeffreys, 
and  Colonel  Brownlow.  Under  their  design,  which  was  afterwards 
modified,  the  water  for  the  canal  was  to  be  raised  at  the  point  above 
mentioned,  with  a  discharge  fixed  at  3500  cubic  feet  per  second  in  the 
cold  weather,  and  6500  cubic  feet  in  the  rains. 

The  main  channel  commences  with  a  bottom  width  of  216  feet,  a 
slope  of  6  inches  per  mile,  and  a  full  supply  depth  of  10  feet.  The 
main  line  crosses  the  Kali  Nadi  at  Nadrai,  and  the  Isan  to  the  west 
of  Etah.  Thence,  proceeding  by  what  was  formerly  called  the  '  Supply 
Branch'  in  the  original  project,  it  crosses  the  Cawnpur  branch  at 
Gopalpur,  and  the  Etawah  branch  at  Jeyra,  being  united  with  those 
branches  by  means  of  regulating  bridges.  After  crossing  the  two  lines, 
it  proceeds  direct  to  Shekhoabad,  where  it  makes  a  sharp  turn  to  the 
south-east,  and  after  running  parallel  with  the  East  Indian  Railway, 
which  crosses  it  twice,  as  far  as  Etawah,  it  proceeds  past  Sikandra  and 
Bhognipur  in  the  south-west  portion  of  Cawnpur  District,  until  it  falls 
into  the  Jumna  at  a  point  a  little  above  the  tail  of  the  Etawah  branch. 
This  latter  portion  of  the  canal  from  Jeyra  downwards  is  called  the 
Bhognipur  branch.  Two  other  branches  take  off  from  the  upper 
portion,  the  Fatehgarh  branch,  and  the  Beawar  branch,  which  is  really 
the  upper  portion  of  the  main  line  of  the  original  project  now  cut  short 
at  the  place  where  it  was  intended  to  have  crossed  the  Cawnpur  branch. 
The  proposal  to  extend  the  canal  to  Allahabad,  which  was  a  part  of  the 
original  project,  though  not  entirely  abandoned,  will  probably  not  be 


476  GANGES  CANAL,  LOWER. 

carried  out,  and  forms  no  part  of  the  scheme  as  at  present  sanctioned. 
Should  the  extension  at  some  future  time  be  resolved  on,  it  would  be 
by  a  prolongation  of  the  Cawnpur  branch,  which  it  has  been  resolved 
to  extend  to  Fatehpur,  half-way  between  Cawnpur  and  Allahabad. 
The  canal  scheme,  as  revised,  is  intended  for  a  discharge  of  5100  cubic  - 
feet  per  second  in  the  rains,  and  3400  cubic  feet  in  the  cold  weather. 
The  only  navigable  portion  of  the  canal  is  the  length  of  main  line  from 
the  head  at  Narora  to  the  junction  with  the  two  branch  lines  at 
Gopalpur  and  Jeyra. 

Three  divisions  of  the  work  were  set  on  foot  during  the  year  1873-74, 
at  Narora,  Kasganj,  and  Bhongaon,  comprising  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions for  107  miles  of  main  canal  and  24  miles  of  supply  channel. 
The  chief  engineering  feat  of  the  upper  portion  consists  in  the  weir 
and  headwdrks  at  Narora,  which  include  a  solid  wall  3800  feet  in 
length,  with  a  section  of  10  feet  by  9,  having  42  weir-sluices,  founded 
on  rows  of  huge  square  blocks.  Among  other  important  works 
now  completed  may  be  mentioned  the  approach  to  the  canal 
head  from  the  river,  the  embankment  and  aqueduct  across  the 
Kali  Nadf,  the  double  regulator  at  the  Cawnpur  branch  crossing 
12  large  bridges,  and  3  syphon  culverts  for  cross  drainage.  The 
Cawnpur  and  Etawah  branches  were  first  opened  for  irrigation  in 
November  1878. 

The  revised  scheme  will  bring  under  irrigation  457,575  acres  of  land 
in  the  kharif  ox  autumn  harvest,  and  369,300  acres  in  the  rabi  or  spring 
harvest,  as  a  maximum  attainable  in  course  of  time.  In  1882-83,  the 
area  actually  under  irrigation  from  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal  was  606,017 
acres,  as  follows: — Kharif — rice,  11,095  acres;  cotton,  508  acres; 
indigo  and  other  dyes,  150,576  acres;  and  fodder-crops^  312  acres. 
Rabi — wheat,  193,358  acres;  other  food-grains,  193,019  acres;  and 
fibres,  I  acre.  Miscellaneous  crops — sugar-cane,  24,291  acres;  opium, 
16,122  acres;  other  drugs,  282  acres;  garden  produce,  5962  acres; 
and  miscellaneous,  10,491  acres. 

The  original  scheme  embraced  in  all  555  miles  of  new  trunk  lines, 
estimated  at  a  total  cost  of  ^1,825,845  ;  and  if  we  add  to  this  sum  the 
primary  cost  of  the  Cawnpur  and  Etawah  branches,  now  absorbed  by 
the  new  project,  the  capital  account  would  rise  to  ;^2,226,523.  The 
total  gross  income  from  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal  received  in  cash 
during  the  year  ending  the  31st  March  1883  was  ^156^817,  besides  an 
indirect  revenue  of  ;^2o, 7  83.  The  current  outlay  (charged  to  revenue) 
during  the  year  was  ^66,638,  and  the  allowance  for  interest,  ;£"94,i77. 
'Net  surplus/  ;£^i6,785.  Estimates  return  the  future  gross  income 
at  ^273,600;  and  the  net  income  at  ;^i69,2oo,  giving  a  direct  profit 
of  6*1  per  cent.  From  these  approximate  figures,  and  the  actual  cost 
of  the  Ganges  Canal,  it  would  seem  that  the  total  ultimate  outlay  on 


GANGIR  U^GANGOTRL  4  7  7 

this  great  united  system  of  protective  irrigation  will  probably  not  exceed 
the  sum  of  5  J  millions  sterling. 

In  estimating  the  probable  financial  results  of  this,  as  of  other  Indian 
canals,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  besides  the  direct  benefits  from 
water  dues,  navigation  fees,  etc.,  and  the  indirect  benefits  from 
increased  land  revenue  or  other  taxes,  the  canal  irrigation  acts  as  an 
insurance  against  famine,  thus  preventing  great  ultimate  loss  to  the 
treasury,  and  affording  a  means  of  safety  for  thousands  among  the 
poorer  population  in  seasons  of  drought.  For  further  particulars,  see 
Cawnpur,  Etawah,  Farukhabad,  Fatehpur,  and  Mainpuri  Districts. 

Gangiru. — Town  and  agricultural  centre  in  Muzaffarnagar  District, 
North-Western  Provinces,  situated  35  miles  south-west  of  Muzaffarnagar 
town,  in  lat.  29°  18'  n.,  long.  77°  15'  30"  e.  Population  (1881)  5275, 
namely,  2377  Hindus,  2621  Muhammadans,  and  277  Jains.  Area, 
102  acres.  A  straggling  village,  with  many  brick  ruins;  on  a  raised 
site,  but  containing  numerous  undrained  water-holes=  Canal  channel 
to  the  east  of  the  town,  and  another  i  mile  west. 

Gangoh. — Town  in  Saharanpur  District,  North-Western  Provinces. 
Lat.  29°  46'  20"  N.,  long.  77°  18'  E.  Distant  from  Saharanpur  23  miles 
south-west.  Population  (1881)  12,089,  namely,  Muhammadans,  6735; 
and  Hindus,  5354.  Area  of  town  site,  99  acres.  Consists  of  an  old 
and  a  new  quarter,  the  former  founded  by  the  legendary  hero,  Raja 
Gang,  from  whom  the  town  derives  its  name,  and  the  latter  by  the 
Muhammadan  saint.  Shaikh  Abdul  Kaddus,  who  gives  his  title  to  the 
western  suburb,  where  his  tomb  still  stands  in  the  midst  of  many  other 
sacred  shrines.  Surrounded  by  groves  of  mango  and  other  trees  ; 
narrow,  tortuous  streets,  now  paved  and  drained  with  brick-work  ;  good 
water;  public  health  generally  above  the  average.  School-house, 
charitable  dispensary,  police  station,  post-office.  Little  trade;  pro- 
sperity confined  to  money-lenders.  During  the  IMutiny,  Gangoh  was 
frequently  threatened  by  the  rebel  Giijars  under  the  self-styled  Rc4ja 
Fathna ;  but  Mr.  H.  D.  Robertson  and  Lieutenant  Boisragon  attacked 
and  utterly  defeated  them  towards  the  end  of  June  1857.  For  police 
and  conservancy  purposes,  a  house-rate  is  levied  under  the  provisions 
of  Act  XX.  of  1856.  Income  in  i88j[-82,  ^325,  being  at  the  rate  of 
6jd.  per  head  of  population. 

GangOtri. —  IVIountain  temple  in  Garhwal  State,  North-Western 
Provinces.  Lat.  30°  59'  n.,  long.  78°  59'  e.  Stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Bhagirathi  or  Ganges,  8  miles  from  its  source,  in  a  small  bay 
or  inlet,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  unhewn  stone.  The  temple  is  a  square 
building,  about  20  feet  high,  containing  small  statues  of  Ganga,  Bhagi- 
rathi, and  other  mythological  personages  connected  with  the  spot. 
Pilgrims  visit  the  shrine  as  the  goal  of  their  journey,  regarding  this 
point  as  the  source  of  the  holy  river;    but  no  houses  exist  for  their 


478  GANGPUR. 

accommodation,  and  comparatively  few  reach  so  far  up  the  course  of 
the  stream.  Flasks  filled  at  Gangotri  with  the  sacred  water  are  sealed 
by  the  officiating  Brahman s,  and  conveyed  to  the  plains  as  valuable 
treasures.     Elevation  above  sea-level,  about  10,319  feet. 

Gangpur. — Native  State  of  Chutia  Nagpur,  Bengal,  situated  between 
lat.  21°  47'  5"  and  22°  32'  20"  n.,  and  between  long.  85°  10'  15"  and 
85°  34'  35"  E.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  Lohardaga  District  and  the 
State  of  Jashpur ;  on  the  south  by  the  States  of  Bonai,  Sambalpur,  and 
Bamra ;  on  the  east  by  Singhbhiim  District ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Raigarh,  a  chiefship  of  the  Central  Provinces.  Area,  2484  square 
miles.     Population  (1881)  107,965. 

Gangpur  State  consists  of  a  tangled  mass  of  hills  and  jungle,  the  only 
open  portions  being  the  valleys  of  the  lb,  Sankh,  and  South  Koel 
rivers.  In  these  valleys  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  good  soil ; 
but  the  hills,  which  run  in  spurs  from  the  northern  and  southern  ranges 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Sankh  and  Koel,  and  from  the  east  and  west 
ranges  of  the  valley  of  the  lb,  divide  the  cultivable  area  into  small 
blocks,  so  that  the  actual  tillage  is  much  less  than  in  other  tracts  of 
a  similar  area.  Magnificent  forests  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Brahmani, 
Koel,  and  Sankh  rivers.  Included  within  the  State  are  two  feudatory 
chiefships  subordinate  to  the  Raja,  Nagra  in  the  east  and  Hingir  in  the 
west.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  lb,  the  Sankh,  and  the  South  Koel; 
the  two  latter  unite  in  the  east  of  the  State,  and,  after  a  southerly  course, 
fall  into  the  sea  in  Cuttack  District  as  the  Brahmani.  Diamonds  and 
gold  are  occasionally  found  in  the  lb ;  coal  exists  in  Hingir,  but  is  not 
yet  worked.  The  principal  jungle  products  are  lac,  tdsavs^,  resin,  and 
catechu.     Tigers,  leopards,  wolves,  bison,  etc.  abound. 

History. — Gangpur,  with  Bonai  and  eight  neighbouring  States  now 
attached  to  the  Central  Provinces,  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the 
treaty  of  Deogaon  in  1803,  but  was  restored  to  the  Raja  of  Nagpur 
by  special  agreement  in  1806.  It  reverted  to  the  British  under  the 
provisional  engagement  with  Madhuji  Bhonsla  (Apa  Sahib)  in  1818, 
and  was  finally  ceded  to  us  in  1826.  Gangpur  yields  the  Raja  an 
annual  income  of  ^2000;  tribute  to  the  British  Government,  ^^50. 

The  State  contained  a  population  (1881)  of  107,965,  namely,  males 
56,009,  and  females  51,956.  Hindus  numbered  105,880;  Muham- 
madans,  267  ;  Christians,  105  ;  persons  professing  aboriginal  religions, 
1 7 13.  The  bulk  of  the  population  are  of  aboriginal  descent,  but  have 
gradually  adopted  Hinduism  in  some  shape  as  their  religion.  The 
Bhuiyas  and  Uraons  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  aboriginal  tribes. 
The  residence  of  the  Raja  is  at  Suadi,  on  the  lb,  the  valley  of  which  is 
very  fertile.  Chief  crops — rice,  sugar-cane,  oil-seeds,  and  tobacco. 
Villages  in  Gangpur  are  held  either  on  feudal  tenures  or  on  farming 
leases.     The  feudal  tenures  date  from  early  times,  when  the  vassals  of 


<^ 


GANGRO  V—GANGURIA.  479 

the  chief  received  grants  of  land  in  consideration  of  rendering  miHtary 
service,  and  making  certain  payments  in  kind.  These  payments  have 
been  commuted  for  a  quit-rent  in  money ;  but  the  attendance  of  the 
vassals  with  rusty  matchlocks  or  bows  and  arrows  is  still  enforced  when 
the  chief  moves  through  his  domains. 

In  the  hamlets,  the  priests  of  the  aboriginal  deities  rank  next  to  the 
gdonfid,  or  head-man ;  their  duties  are  to  decide  boundary  disputes,  to 
propitiate  the  gods  of  the  mountains  and  forest,  and  to  adjudicate  on 
charges  of  witchcraft.  Since  the  State  came  under  British  rule,  human 
sacrifices  have  been  abolished.  The  police  force  is  purely  indigenous. 
The  feudatories,  with  one  exception,  form  a  rural  militia. 

Gangrov. — Town  in  the  Native  State  of  Udaipur  (Oodeypore), 
Rajputana.  Situated  on  the  Nimach  and  Nasirabad  (Nusseerabad) 
road,  51  miles  from  the  former,  and  93  from  the  latter.  It  possesses 
a  fine  artificial  lake,  and  is  commanded  by  a  hill  fort  belonging  to  the 
Rao  of  Bedla. 

Ganguria. — Village  and  head-quarters  of  a  police  circle,  in  Bardwan 
District,  Bengal.  Lat.  23'  12'  22"  n.,  long.  88°  8'  48"  e.  Population 
under  5000. 


END    OF    VOLUME    IV. 


^' 


# 


MORRISON   AND  GIBB,   EDINBURGH, 
PRINTERS  TO   HER   MAJESTY'S  STATIONERY  OFFICE. 


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