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THE 


IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 
OF  INDIA 


VOL.    VII 


BAREILLY  to  BERASIA 


NEW  EDITION 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OK  HIS  MAJESTY'S 
SECRETARY  OF  STATE  FOR  INDIA  IN  COUNCIL 


fci  r 


PRESERVAllOM 
SERVICES 


DATE 


OXFORD 

AT   THE   CLARENDON    PRESS 

1908 


HENRY  FROWDE,  M.A. 

PUBLISHER    TO    THE    UNIVERSITY   OK    OXFORD 

LONDON,    EDINBURGH 

NEW    YORK    AND   TORONTO 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES 

Notes  on   Transliteration 

Voivel- Sounds 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  woman.' 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  father.' 

e  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  grey.' 

i  has  the  sound  of  /  in  '  pin.' 

i  has  the  sound  of  /  in  '  police.' 

o  has  the  sound  of  o  in  '  bone.' 

u  has  the  sound  of  u  in  '  bull.' 

u  has  the  sound  of  u  in  '  flute.' 
ai  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  mine.' 
au  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  house.' 

It  should  be  stated  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish 
between  the  long  and  short  sounds  of  e  and  o  in  the  Dravidian 
languages,  which  possess  the  vowel-sounds  in  '  bet '  and  '  hot '  in 
addition  to  those  given  above.  Nor  has  it  been  thought  necessary 
to  mark  vowels  as  long  in  cases  where  mistakes  in  pronunciation 
were  not  likely  to  be  made. 

Consoiiants 

Most  Indian  languages  have  different  forms  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonants, such  as  d^  f,  r,  Sic,  marked  in  scientific  works  by  the  use 
of  dots  or  italics.  As  the  European  ear  distinguishes  these  with 
difficulty  in  ordinary  pronunciation,  it  has  been  considered  undesir- 
able to  embarrass  the  reader  with  them  ;  and  only  two  notes  are 
required.  In  the  first  place,  the  Arabic  /c,  a  strong  guttural,  has 
been  represented  by  /:  instead  of  ^,  which  is  often  used.  Secondly, 
it  should  be  remarked  that  aspirated  consonants  are  common  ;  and, 
in  particular,  d/t  and  f/i  (except  in  Burma)  never  have  the  sound  of 
i(/i  in  '  this  '  or  'thin,'  but  should  be  pronounced  as  in  '  woodhouse  ' 
and  '  boathook.' 


iv  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

Burmese    Words 

Burmese  and  some  of  the  languages  on  the  frontier  of  China  have 
the  fallowing  special  sounds  : — 

aw  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  law.' 
o  and  ii  are  pronounced  us  in  German. 
gy  is  pronounced  almost  like/ in  'jewel.' 
ky  is  pronounced  almost  like  ch  in  '  church.' 
th   is  pronounced  in  some  cases  as  in  '  this,'  in  some  cases  as  in 

'  thin.' 
w  after  a  consonant  has  the  force  of  uw.     Thus,  yiva  and  pive 
are  disyllables,  pronounced  as  if  written  yinua  and  pinve. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that,  whereas  in  Indian  words  the  accent 
or  stress  is  distributed  almost  equally  on  each  syllable,  in  Burmese 
there  is  a  tendency  to  throw  special  stress  on  the  last  syllable. 

General 
The  names  of  some  places — e.  g.  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
Cawnpore — have  obtained  a  popular  fixity  of  spelling,  while  special 
forms  have  been  officially  prescribed  for  others.  Names  of  persons 
are  often  spelt  and  pronounced  differently  in  different  parts  of  India  ; 
but  the  variations  have  been  made  as  few  as  possible  by  assimilating 
forms  almost  alike,  especially  where  a  particular  spelling  has  been 
generally  adopted  in  English  books. 

Notes  on  MOiXEv,  Prices,  Weights  and  Measures 

As  the  currency  of  India  is  based  upon  the  rupee,  all  statements 
with  regard  to  money  throughout  the  Gazetteer  have  necessarily  been 
expressed  in  rupees,  nor  has  it  been  found  possible  to  add  generally 
a  conversion  into  sterling.  Down  to  about  1873  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  (containing  165  grains  of  pure  silver)  was  approximately 
equal  to  2j-.,  or  one-tenth  of  a  £  ;  and  for  that  period  it  is  easy  to 
convert  rupees  into  sterling  by  striking  off  the  final  cipher  (Rs.  1,000 
=  £100).  But  after  1873,  owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  as 
compared  with  gold  throughout  the  world,  there  came  a  serious  and 
progressive  fall  in  the  exchange,  until  at  one  time  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  dropped  as  low  as  \s.  In  order  to  provide  a  remedy  for 
the  heavy  loss  caused  to  the  (Government  of  India  in  respect  of  its 
gold  payments  to  be  made  in  England,  and  also  to  relieve  foreign 
trade  and  finance  from  the  inconvenience  due  to  constant  and 
unforeseen  fluctuations  in  exchange,  it  was  resolved  in  1893  to  close 
the  mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  thus  force  up  the  value  of 
the  rupee  by  restricting  the  circulation.     The  intention  was  to  raise 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTES  v 

the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee  to  i^.  4^.,  and  then  introduce  a  gold 
standard  (though  not  necessarily  a  gold  currency)  at  the  rate  of  Rs.  15 
=  £1.  This  policy  has  been  completely  successful.  From  1899  on- 
wards the  value  of  the  rupee  has  been  maintained,  with  insignificant 
fluctuations,  at  the  proposed  rate  of  i^.  4d.  ;  and  consequently  since 
that  date  three  rupees  have  been  equivalent  to  two  rupees  before  1873. 
For  the  intermediate  period,  between  1873  and  1899,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  to  adopt  any  fixed  sterling  value  for  a  constantly  changing 
rupee.  But  since  1899,  if  it  is  desired  to  convert  rupees  into  sterling, 
not  only  must  the  final  cipher  be  struck  off  (as  before  1873),  ^^t 
also  one-third  must  be  subtracted  from  the  result.  Thus  Rs.  1,000 
=  £100  — §  =  (about)  £67. 

Another  matter  in  connexion  with  the  expression  of  money  state- 
ments in  terms  of  rupees  requires  to  be  explained.  The  method  of 
numerical  notation  in  India  differs  from  that  which  prevails  through- 
out Europe.  Large  numbers  are  not  punctuated  in  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands and  millions,  but  in  lakhs  and  crores.  A  lakh  is  one  hundred 
thousand  (written  out  as  1,00,000),  and  a  crore  is  one  hundred  lakhs 
or  ten  millions  (written  out  as  1,00,00,000).  Consequently,  accord- 
ing to  the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee,  a  lakh  of  rupees  (Rs.  1,00,000) 
may  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of  £10,000  before  1873,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  (about)  £6,667  ^^er  1899  ;  while  a  crore  of  rupees 
(Rs.  1,00,00,000)  may  similarly  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of 
£  1, 000,000  before  1873,  and  as  the  equivalent  of  (about)  £666,667 
after  1899. 

Finally,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  rupee  is  divided  into 
16  annas,  a  fraction  commonly  used  for  many  purposes  by  both 
natives  and  Europeans.  The  anna  was  formerly  reckoned  as  i^d.  ; 
it  may  now  be  considered  as  exactly  corresponding  to  id.  The 
anna  is  again  subdivided  into  12  pies. 

The  various  systems  of  weights  used  in  India  combine  uniformity 
of  scale  with  immense  variations  in  the  weight  of  units.  The  scale 
used  generally  throughout  Northern  India,  and  less  commonly  in 
Madras  and  Bombay,  may  be  thus  expressed  :  one  maund  =  40  seers  ; 
one  seer  =  16  chittaks  or  80  tolas.  The  actual  weight  of  a  seer 
varies  greatly  from  District  to  District,  and  even  from  village  to 
village  ;  but  in  the  standard  system  the  tola  is  1 80  grains  Troy 
(the  exact  weight  of  the  rupee),  and  the  seer  thus  weighs  2-057  lb., 
and  the  maund  82-28  lb.  This  standard  is  used  in  official  reports 
and  throughout  the   Gazetteer. 

For  calculating  retail  prices,  the  universal  custom  in  India  is  to 
express  them  in  terms  of  seers  to  the  rupee.  Thus,  when  prices 
change,  what  varies  is  not  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid  for  the 


vi  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

same  quantity,  but  the  quantity  to  be  obtained  for  the  same  amount 
of  money.  In  other  words,  prices  in  India  are  quantity  prices,  not 
money  prices.  When  the  figure  of  quantity  goes  up,  this  of  course 
means  that  the  price  has  gone  down,  which  is  at  first  sight  perplexing 
to  an  Enghsh  reader.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  quantity 
I)rices  are  not  altogether  unknown  in  England,  especially  at  small 
shops,  where  pennyworths  of  many  groceries  can  be  bought.  Eggs, 
likewise,  are  commonly  sold  at  a  varying  number  for  the  shilling. 
If  it  be  desired  to  convert  quantity  prices  from  Indian  into  English 
denominations  without  having  recourse  to  money  prices  (which  would 
often  be  misleading),  the  following  scale  may  be  adopted — based 
upon  the  assumptions  that  a  seer  is  exactly  2  lb.,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  rupee  remains  constant  at  i^.  4.^.  :  i  seer  per  rupee  =  (about) 
3  lb.  for  2S. ;  2  seers  per  rupee  =  (about)  6  lb.  for  2s. ;  and  so  on. 

The  name  of  the  unit  for  square  measurement  in  India  generally 
is  the  blgka,  which  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
But  areas  have  always  been  expressed  throughout  the  Gazetteer  either 
in  square  miles  or  in  acres. 


MAPS 

Baroda  .........  to  face  p.  64 

Bengal  .........  ,,       336 

Berar    .........  .at  end 


IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 
OF    INDIA 


VOLUME   VII 

Bareilly  Division. — North-central  Division  of  the  United  Provinces 
lying  below  the  Himalayas  between  27°  35'  and  29°  58'  N.  and  78° 
and  80°  27'  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  sub-Himalayan 
tract  of  the  Kumaun  Division  and  by  Nepal ;  on  the  west  and  south  by 
the  Ganges,  which  divides  it  from  the  Meerut  and  Agra  Divisions  ;  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Lucknow  Division  of  Oudh.  The  Rampur  State 
forms  a  wedge  of  territory  between  the  Districts  of  Moradabad  and 
Bareilly,  and  political  control  is  exercised  by  the  Commissioner  of  this 
Division,  whose  head-quarters  are  at  Bareilly  city.  Population  decreased 
between  1872  and  1881,  but  has  increased  considerably  since.  The 
numbers  at  the  last  four  enumerations  were  as  follows  :  (1872)  5,252,325, 
(1881)  5,122,557,  (1891)  5,344,054,  and  (1901)  5,479,688.  The  total 
area  is  10,720  square  miles,  and  the  density  of  population  511  persons 
per  square  mile,  compared  with  445  for  the  Provinces  as  a  whole.  The 
Division  is  the  sixth  largest  in  area  and  the  sixth  in  population  in  the 
United  Provinces.  In  1901  Hindus  formed  nearly  75  per  cent,  of 
the  total,  and  Musalmans  24  per  cent.,  while  the  other  religions  most 
largely  represented  were  Christians  (24,459,  of  whom  21,421  were 
natives),  Aryas  (14,993),  Sikhs  (3,334),  and  Jains  (2,016).  The 
Division  includes  six  Districts,  as  shown  below : — 


District. 

Area  in  square 

miles. 

Population, 
1901. 

Land  revenue  and 

cesses,  1903-4, 

in  thousands 

of  rupees. 

Bareilly 
Bijnor     . 
Budaun  . 
Moradabad     . 
Shahjahanpur 
Pilibhlt  . 

Total 

1,580 

1,791 
1,987 

2,285 

1.727 
1,350 

1,090,117 

779,951 

1,025,753 

1,191,993 

921,535 

470,339 

17,47 
16,63 
14,98 
17,38 
13,40 
8,39 

10,720 

5.479,688 

88,25 

The  northern  portions  of  each  of  these  Districts,  except  Budaun, 
reach  to  the  damp  submontane  area  called  the  tat-ai,  and  the  Division 
VOL.  vn.  B 


2  BAREIL  L  Y  DI J  'I ST  ON 

generally  is  a  fertile  tract,  especially  noted  for  the  production  of  sugar- 
cane. There  are  65  towns  and  11,403  villages.  The  largest  towns  are 
Bareii.i.y  (131,208,  with  cantonments),  Shahjahanpur  (76,458,  with 
cantonments),  Moradabad  (75,128),  Amroha  (40,077),  Sambhal 
(39.715),  Budaun  (39,031),  PIi.ibhIt  (33,490).  ChandausI  (25,711), 
and  Nagina  (21,412).  The  chief  places  of  commercial  importance  are 
Bareilly,  Shahjahanpur,  Moradabad,  Pillhhit,  ChandausI,  and  'I'ii,har. 
Sugar  and  grain  are  dealt  with  also  in  many  smaller  places.  Although 
ancient  sites  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  Division,  Ramnagar  is  the 
only  one  which  has  been  even  partially  explored.  Budaun  and 
Sambhal  were  early  seats  of  Muhammadan  governors;  and  Bareiixy, 
PIi.Tbhit,  Rampur,  and  Agnla  were  important  centres  during  the 
Rohilla  rule  in  the  eighteenth  century.     See  Rohilkhand. 

Bareilly  District  (^rt;r//).— District  in  the  Bareilly  or  Rohilkhand 
Division,  United  Provinces,  lying  between  28°  \'  and  28°  54'  N. 
and  78°  58'  and  79°  47'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,580  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Nairn  Tal ;  on  the  east  by  Pillbhit  and 
Shahjahanpur ;  on  the  south  by  Shahjahanpur  and  Budaun  ;  and  on 
the  west  by  Budaun  and  the  State  of  Rampur.  The  District  of  Bareilly, 
though  lying  not  far  from  the  outer  ranges  of  the 
ysica  Himalayas,  is  a  gently  sloping  plain,  with  no  greater 

variety  of  surface  than  is  caused  by  the  shifting 
channels  of  its  numerous  streams.  Water  lies  almost  everyw^here  near 
the  surface,  giving  it  a  verdure  that  recalls  the  rice-fields  of  Bengal. 
The  most  prominent  physical  feature  is  the  Ramganga  River,  which 
traverses  the  south-western  portion.  Its  channel  has  a  well-defined 
bank  at  first  on  the  south,  and  later  on  the  north  ;  but  except  where 
the  stream  is  thus  confined,  the  khadar  or  lowland  merges  imper- 
ceptibly into  the  upland,  and  the  river  varies  its  course  capriciously 
through  a  valley  4  or  5  miles  wide,  occasionally  wandering  to  a  still 
greater  distance.  North  of  the  Ramganga  are  numerous  streams 
running  south  to  meet  that  river.  The  chief  of  these  (from  west  to 
east)  are  the  Dojora,  which  receives  the  Kichha  or  West  Bahgul,  the 
Deoranian,  the  Nakatia,  and  the  East  Bahgul,  which  receives  the 
PangailT.  The  Deoha  forms  the  eastern  boundary  for  some  distance. 
The  gentle  slope  of  the  country  makes  it  possible  to  use  these  rivers  for 
irrigation  in  the  upper  part  of  their  courses.  Lower  down,  and  more 
especially  in  the  east  of  the  District,  they  flow  below  the  general  level 
and  are  divided  by  elevated  watersheds  of  sandy  plains. 

The  District  exposes  nothing  but  alluvium,  in  which  even  kankar,  or 
calcareous  limestone,  is  scarce. 

The  flora  resembles  that  of  the  Gangetic  plain  generally.  In  the 
north  a  few  forest  trees  are  found,  the  semal  or  cotton-tree  {Boml>ax 
fnalaba?-icum)  towering  above  all  others.     The  rest  of  the  District  is 


BAREILLY  DISTRICT  3 

dotted  with  fine  groves  of  mangoes,  while  ih^jatmin  {Euge?iia/ambohina), 
shlsham  [Daibergia  Sissoo),  tamarind,  and  various  figs  [FicHS  glomerata, 
religiosa,  iufectoria,  and  indica)  are  also  common.  Groves  and  villages 
are  often  surrounded  by  bamboos,  which  flourish  luxuriantly.  The 
area  under  trees,  which  is  increasing,  amounts  to  about  32  square 
miles. 

Leopards  are  frequently  found  in  the  north  of  the  District,  and 
wolves  are  common  in  the  east.  Antelope  are  seen  in  some  localities, 
and  pdrha  or  hog  deer  haunt  the  beds  of  rivers.  The  ordinary  game- 
birds  are  found  abundantly,  and  fish  are  plentiful.  Snakes  are  also 
very  numerous. 

The  climate  of  the  District  is  largely  influenced  by  its  proximity  to 
the  hills,  Bareilly  city  and  all  the  northern  parganas  lying  within  the 
limits  of  the  heavier  storms.  The  rainy  season  begins  earlier  and 
continues  later  than  in  the  south,  and  the  cold  season  lasts  longer. 
The  north  of  the  District  is  unhealthy,  on  account  of  excessive  moisture 
and  bad  drinking-water.  The  mean  temperature  varies  from  54°  to  60° 
in  January,  and  from  85°  to  93°  in  May,  the  hottest  month. 

The  annual  rainfall  in  the  whole  District  averages  nearly  44  inches ; 
but  while  the  south-west  receives  only  39,  the  fall  amounts  to  nearly 
47  inches  in  the  north  and  exceeds  48  in  the  north-east.  Fluctuations 
from  year  to  year  are  considerable;  in  1883  less  than  19  inches  was 
received,  and  in  1894  nearly  65  inches. 

Before  the  Christian  era  the  District  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of 
Northern  Panchala  ;  and  the  names  are  known,  from  coins  found  at 
Ramnagar,  of  a  number  of  kings  who  probably 
reigned  in  the  second  century  b.  c.  These  kings 
were  connected  by  marriage  with  a  dynasty  ruling  in  the  south  of 
Allahabad,  and  it  has  been  suggested  they  were  the  Sunga  kings  of  the 
Puranas^  A  kingdom  called  Ahlchhattra,  in  or  near  this  District,  was 
visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  in  the  seventh  century  a.d.,  and  is  described 
as  flanked  by  mountain  crags.  It  produced  wheat  and  contained  many 
woods  and  fountains,  and  the  climate  was  soft  and  agreeable. 

In  the  early  Muhammadan  period  the  tract  now  known  as  Rohilkhand 
was  called  Katehr,  and  the  Rajputs  who  inhabited  it  gave  continual 
trouble.  Shahab-ud-dln,  or  his  general  Kutb-ud-din,  captured  Bangarh 
in  Budaun  District  about  the  year  1194  ;  but  nothing  more  is  heard  of 
the  Muhammadans  in  this  neighbourhood  till  Mahmud  II  made  his 
way  along  the  foot  of  the  hills  to  the  Ramganga  in  1252.  Fourteen 
years  later,  Balban,  who  succeeded  him,  marched  to  Kampil,  put  all 
the  Hindus  to  the  sword,  and  utterly  crushed  the  Katehriyas,  who  had 
hitherto  lived  by  violence  and  plunder.     In  1290  Sultan  Firoz  invaded 

^Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1897,  p.  303;  A.  Cunningham,  Coins  oj 
Ancient  India. 

B  2 


4  J'^A  RE  ILL  ] '  DIS  TKICT 

Katehr  again,  and  l)rought  the  covmtn'  into  final  subjection  to  Musalman 
rule,  which  was  not  afterwards  disputed  except  by  the  usual  local  revolts. 
Under  the  various  dynasties  which  preceded  the  Mughal  empire,  the 
history  of  Katehr  consists  of  the  common  events  which  make  up  the 
annals  of  that  period  :  constant  attempts  at  independence  on  the  part 
of  the  district  governors,  followed  by  barbarous  suppression  on  the 
part  of  the  central  authority.  The  city  of  Bareilly  itself  was  founded  in 
1527  by  Bas  Deo  and  Barel  Deo,  from  the  latter  of  whom  it  takes  its 
name.  It  was,  however,  of  small  importance  till  the  reign  of  Shah 
Jahan,  when  it  took  the  place  of  Budaun.  In  1628  All  Kull  Khan 
was  governor  of  Bareilly,  which  had  grown  into  a  considerable 
place.  In  1657  Raja  Makrand  Rai  founded  the  new  city  of  Bareilly, 
cut  down  the  forest  to  the  west  of  the  old  town,  and  expelled  all  the 
Katehriyas  from  the  neighbourhood.  A  succession  of  regular  governors 
followed  during  the  palmy  days  of  the  great  Mughal  emperors;  but  after 
the  death  of  Aurangzeb,  in  1707,  when  the  unwieldy  organization  began 
to  break  asunder,  the  Hindus  of  Bareilly  threw  off  the  imperial  yoke, 
refused  their  tribute,  and  commenced  a  series  of  anarchic  quarrels 
among  themselves  for  supremacy. 

Their  dissensions  only  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  rise  of  a  new 
Muhammadan  power.  All  Muhammad  Khan,  a  leader  of  Rohilla 
Pathans,  defeated  the  governors  of  Bareilly  and  Moradabad^,  and  made 
himself  supreme  throughout  the  whole  Katehr  region.  In  1744  the 
Rohilla  chieftain  conquered  Kumaun  right  up  to  Almora ;  but  two 
years  later  the  emperor  Muhammad  Shah  marched  against  him,  and 
All  Muhammad  was  taken  a  prisoner  to  Delhi.  However,  the  empire 
was  too  much  in  need  of  vigorous  generals  to  make  his  captivity  a  long 
one,  and  in  1748  he  was  restored  to  his  old  post  in  Katehr.  Next  year 
he  died,  and  a  mausoleum  at  Aonla,  in  this  District,  still  marks  his 
burial-place.  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan,  guardian  to  his  sons,  succeeded  to 
the  governorship  of  Rohilkhand,  in  spite  of  the  crafty  designs  of  Safdar 
Jang  of  Oudh,  who  dispatched  the  Nawab  of  Farrukhabad  against  him 
without  effect.  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan  defeated  and  slew  the  Nawab, 
after  which  he  marched  northward  and  conquered  Pilibhit  and  the 
tarai.  The  Oudh  Wazir,  Safdar  Jang,  plundered  the  property  of 
the  Farrukhabad  Nawab  after  his  death,  and  this  led  to  a  union 
of  the  Rohilla  Afghans  with  those  of  Farrukhabad.  Ahmad  Khan  of 
Farrukhabad  defeated  Nawal  Rai,  the  deputy  of  Safdar  Jang,  besieged 
Allahabad,  and  took  part  of  Oudh ;  but  the  ^^'azlr  called  in  the  aid  of 
the  Marathas,  and  with  them  defeated  Ahmad  Khan  and  the  Rohillas 
at  Fatehgarh  and  at  Bisauli,  near  Aonla.  He  then  besieged  them  for 
four  months  at  the  foot  of  the  hills ;  but  owing  to  the  invasion  of 
Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  terms  were  arranged,  and  Rahmat  Khan  became 
the  de  facto  ruler  of  Rohilkhand. 


IIISTOR  Y  5 

After  the  accession  of  Shuja-ud-dauUi  as  Nawab  of  Oudh,  Rahmat 
Khan  joined  the  imperial  troops  in  their  attack  upon  that  prince,  but 
the  Nawab  bought  them  off  with  a  subsidy  of  5  lakhs.  Rahmat  Khan 
took  advantage  of  the  victory  at  Panipat  in  1  761  to  make  himself  master 
of  Etawah,  and  during  the  eventful  years  in  which  Shuja-ud-daula  was 
engaged  in  his  struggle  with  the  British  power,  he  continually  strengthened 
himself  by  fortifying  his  towns  and  founding  new  strongholds.  In  1770 
Najlb-ud-daula  advanced  with  the  Maratha  army  under  Sindhia  and 
Holkar,  defeated  Rahmat  Khan,  and  forced  the  Rohillas  to  ask  the  aid 
of  the  Wazlr.  Shuja-ud-daula  became  surety  for  a  bond  of  40  lakhs, 
by  which  the  Marathas  were  induced  to  evacuate  Rohilkhand.  This 
bond  the  Rohillas  were  unable  to  meet,  whereupon  Shuja-ud-daula, 
after  getting  rid  of  the  Marathas,  attacked  Rohilkhand  with  the  help 
of  a  British  force  lent  by  Warren  Hastings,  and  subjugated  it  by  a 
desolating  war.  Rahmat  Khan  was  slain,  but  Faiz-ullah,  the  son  of 
All  Muhammad,  escaped  to  the  north-west  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
Rohillas.  After  many  negotiations  he  effected  a  treaty  with  Shuja-ud- 
daula  in  1774,  by  which  he  accepted  nine  parganas  worth  15  lakhs 
a  year,  giving  up  all  the  remainder  of  Rohilkhand  to  the  Wazlr  {see 
Rampur  State).  Saadat  Ali  was  appointed  governor  of  Bareilly  under 
the  Oudh  government.  In  1794  a  revolution  in  Rampur  State  led  to 
the  dispatch  of  British  troops,  who  fought  the  insurgents  at  Bhitaura  or 
Fatehganj  (West),  where  an  obelisk  still  commemorates  the  slain.  The 
District  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Wazlr  until  1801,  when  Rohilkhand, 
with  Allahabad  and  Kora,  was  ceded  to  the  British  in  lieu  of  tribute. 
Mr.  Henry  ^^'ellesley,  brother  of  the  Governor-General,  was  appointed 
President  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  sitting  at  Bareilly,  and  after- 
wards at  Farrukhabad.  In  1805  Amir  Khan,  the  Pindari,  made  an 
inroad  into  Rohilkhand,  but  was  driven  off.  Disturbances  occurred  in 
1816,  in  1837,  and  in  1842  ;  but  the  peace  of  the  District  was  not 
seriously  endangered  until  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 

In  that  year  the  troops  at  Bareilly  rose  on  May  31.  The  European 
officers,  except  three,  escaped  to  NainT  Tal ;  and  Khan  Bahadur,  Hafiz 
Rahmat  Khan's  grandson,  was  proclaimed  Nawab  Nazim  of  Rohilkhand. 
On  June  1 1  the  mutinous  soldiery  went  off  to  Delhi,  and  Khan  Bahadur 
organized  a  government  in  July.  Three  expeditions  attempted  to  attack 
Naini  Tal,  but  without  success.  In  September  came  news  of  the  fall 
of  Delhi.  Walidad  Khan,  the  rebel  leader  in  Bulandshahr,  and  the 
Nawab  of  Fatehgarh  then  took  refuge  at  Bareilly.  A  fourth  expedition 
against  Naini  Tal  met  with  no  greater  success  than  the  earlier  attempts. 
On  March  25,  1858,  the  Nana  Sahib  arrived  at  Bareilly  on  his  flight 
from  Oudh,  and  remained  till  the  end  of  April  ;  but  the  rebellion  at 
Bareilly  had  been  a  revival  of  Muhammadan  rule,  and  when  the  com- 
mander-in-chief marched  on  Jalalabad,  the  Nana  Sahib  fled  back  again 


BAREILL  V  DISTRICT 


into  Oudh.  On  the  fall  of  Lucknow,  Firoz  Shah  retired  to  Barcilly,  and 
took  Moradabad  on  April  22,  but  was  compelled  to  give  it  up  at  once. 
The  Nawab  of  Najibabad,  leader  of  the  Bijnor  rebels,  joined  him  in  the 
city,  so  that  the  principal  insurgents  were  congregated  together  in 
Bareilly  when  the  English  army  arrived  on  May  5.  The  city  was  taken 
on  May  7,  and  all  the  chiefs  fled  with  Khan  Bahadur  into  Oudh. 

AhTchhattra  or  Ramna(;.\r  is  the  only  one  of  many  ancient  mounds 
in  the  District  which  has  been  explored.  It  yielded  numerous  coins 
and  some  Buddhist  sculptures.  It  is  still  a  sacred  place  of  the  Jains. 
The  period  of  Rohilla  rule  has  left  few  buildings  of  importance;  but 
some  tombs  and  mosques  are  standing  at  Aon  la  and  Barp:illy. 

There  are  12  towns  and  1,924  villages.  Population  has  risen  steadily 
during  the  last  thirty  years.  The  numbers  at  the  last  four  enumera- 
tions were  as  follows:  (1872)  1,015,041,  (1881) 
1,030)936,  (1891)  1,040,949,  and  (1901)  1,090,117. 
The  District  is  divided  into  six  tahsils — Faridpur,  Bareilly,  Aonla, 
MiRGANj,  BaherT,  and  Nawabganj — the  head-quarters  of  each  being 
at  a  place  of  the  same  name.  The  principal  towns  are  the  municipality 
of  Bareilly  and  Aonla.  The  following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics 
of  area  and  population  in  1901  : — 


Population. 


3 

Number  of 

B 

0 

geof 
n  in 
n  be- 
891 
01. 

rof 

bleto 

nd 

Talisil. 

o5 

m 

a; 
two 

■3 

\3  0, 

enta 
alio 
latio 
en  I 
d  19 

mbe 
ns  a 
ad  a 
vrite 

rt 

Q. 

^  s 

0  I-  3  ?;  c 

3    U    D    -- 

S 

,0 

^ 

0 

a.^ 

in  ?  o.#  S 

Z  "  ^ 

< 

H 

2 

> 

p.. 

0  <n 
Oh 

c^'g. 

Q. 

Faridpur 

249 

314 

128,861 

518 

+  7-6 

2,635 

Bareilly  . 

310 

I 

414 

325,650 

1,050 

+  9.1 

17,111 

Aonla     . 

306 

3 

320 

211,836 

692 

+  8.1 

4,913 

MTrganj  . 

149 

I 

15S 

103,198 

640 

+  8.3 

1,225 

BaherT    . 

345 

2 

410 

193,412 

.561 

-  6.6 

2,522 

Nawabganj 
District  total 

221 

3 

12 

308 

127,160 

575 

+  2.2 

1,404 

1,580 

1,924 

1,090,117 

690 

+  4.7 

29,810 

Hindus  form  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Musalmans  24  per  cent., 
w^hile  Christians  number  7,148  and  Aryas  1,228.  The  density  is  much 
higher  than  the  Provincial  average,  and  the  rate  of  increase  between 
1891  and  1 901  was  larger  than  in  most  parts  of  the  United  Provinces. 
More  than  99  per  cent,  of  the  population  speak  Western  Hindi,  the 
ordinary  dialect  being  Braj. 

The  most  numerous  Hindu  caste  is  that  of  Chamars  (leather-workers 
and  cultivators),  100,000.  Other  castes  numerically  strong  in  this  Dis- 
trict are  :  KurmTs  (agriculturists),  94,000  ;  Muraos  (market-gardeners), 
73,000;  Kisans  (cultivators),  67,000;  and  Kahars  (cultivators  and 
water-carriers),  56,000.  Brahmans  number  48,000  and  Rajputs  38,000. 
Ahars,  who  are  found  only  in  Rohilkhand,  but  are  closely  allied  to  the 


AGRICULTURE  7 

Ahirs  of  the  rest  of  the  Provinces,  number  46,000.  Daleras  (1,724), 
who  are  nominally  basket-makers  but  in  reality  thieves,  are  not  found 
outs-ide  this  District.  Among  Muhammadans,  Shaikhs  number  54,000  ; 
Julahas  (weavers),  41,000;  and  Pathans,  41,000.  The  Mewatis,  who 
number  9,000,  came  from  Mewat  in  the  eighteenth  century,  owing  to 
famine.  Banjaras,  who  were  formerly  army  sutlers  and  are  still  grain- 
carriers,  have  now  settled  down  to  agriculture,  chiefly  in  the  submontane 
Districts,  and  number  9,000  here.  About  66  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion are  supported  by  agriculture,  6  per  cent,  by  personal  services,  and 
4  per  cent,  by  general  labour.  Cotton-weaving  by  hand  supports  3-5 
per  cent.  Rajputs,  Pathans,  Brahmans,  Kayasths,  and  Banias  are  the 
largest  landholders.  Kurmis  occupy  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  total  area 
as  cultivators,  while  Ahars,  Kisans,  and  Brahmans  each  cultivate  about 
7  or  8  per  cent. 

There  were  4,600  native  Christians  in  1901,  of  whom  4,488  were 
Methodists.  The  American  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission  was  opened 
here  in  1859,  and  has  ten  stations  in  the  District,  besides  a  theological 
college  at  Bareilly  city. 

The  north  of  the  District  contains  a  damp  unhealthy  tract,  where 
rent  rates  are  low  and  population  is  sparse,  while  cultivation  depends 
largely  on  the  season.  The  central  portion  is  extremely  . 

fertile,  consisting  chiefly  of  loam,  with  a  considerable 
proportion  of  clay  in  the  Mirganj  and  Nawabganj  tahsils.  In  the 
south,  watersheds  of  sandy  soil  divide  the  rivers;  but  these  sandy  strips 
are  regularly  cultivated  in  the  Bareilly  and  Aonla  tahsils,  while  in 
Faridpur  much  of  the  light  soil  is  very  poor  and  liable  to  be  thrown 
out  of  cultivation  after  heavy  rain.  The  alluvial  strip  along  the 
Ramganga  is  generally  rich,  but  is  occasionally  ruined  by  a  deposit 
of  sand.  Excluding  garden  cultivation,  manure  is  applied  only  when 
the  turn  comes  round  for  sugar-cane  to  be  grown,  at  intervals  of  from 
3  to  8  years. 

The  tenures  are  those  common  to  the  United  Provinces.  Zamliiddn 
or  joint  zamindari  tenures  prevail  in  5,547  /iiahals,  503  are  perfect  or 
imperfect  pattldari,  and  36  are  hhaiydchdrd.  The  District  is  thus 
chiefly  held  by  large  proprietors.  The  main  agricultural  statistics  for 
1903-4  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  in  square  miles. 

The  principal  food-crops,  with  their  areas  in  square  miles  in  1903-4, 
are  :  rice  (237),  wheat  (368),  gram  (201),  bdjra  (166),  and  maize  (115). 
Sugar-cane  covers  71  square  miles,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
products;  while  poppy  (23),  oilseeds  (27),  cotton  (13),  and  5rt;/-hemp 
(10)  are  also  valuable  crops. 

The  total  cultivated  area  has  not  varied  much  during  the  last  thirty 
years  ;  but  there  has  been  a  permanent  increase  to  the  west  of  Aonla 
and  north  of  Faridpur  tahsils,  which  is  counterbalanced  by  a  temporary 


8 


/>.  / RETT.  T.  ) '   PTS  TRTC T 


decrease  in  the  north  of  the  District  owing  to  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons. 
The  i>rincipal  changes  in  cultivation  have  been  directed  towards  the  sulv 
stitution  of  more  valuable  crops  for  inferior  staples.  The  area  under 
bajra  has  decreased,  while  sugar-cane,  rice,  and  maize  are  more  largely 
grown.  Poppy  has  been  reintroduced  recently,  and  the  area  sown  with 
it  is  increasing.  A  rise  in  the  area  producing  barley  and  gram  points  to 
an  increase  in  the  area  double  cropped.  Very  few  loans  are  taken 
under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act ;  between  1890  and  1903  the 
total  amounted  to  Rs.  41,000,  of  which  Rs.  38,000  was  advanced  in 
the  famine  year,  1896-7.  Nearly  \\  lakhs  was  lent  under  the  Agricul- 
turists' Loans  Act,  of  which  Rs.  63,000  was  advanced  in  1896-7.  In 
uood  seasons  the  advances  are  small. 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

CuItivateJ. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

FaiTdpur    . 

Bareilly      . 

Aonla 

Miignnj 

Baheri 

Nawabganj 

Total 

249 
310 
306 
149 

221 

196 
240 
240 
II  1 

178 

34 

17 
44 

5.5 

>9 
20 

27 

14 
.',1 
12 

1,580 

1,22.-^ 

256 

123 

The  cattle  used  for  agricultural  purposes  are  chiefly  bred  in  the  Dis- 
trict or  imported  from  the  neighbouring  submontane  tracts,  those  bred 
in  Pilibhlt  being  called  pa?nvdr.  These  varieties  are  small  but  active, 
and  suffice  for  the  shallow  ploughing  in  vogue.  Stronger  animals,  used 
in  the  well-runs  in  the  south-west  of  the  District,  are  imported  from 
west  of  the  Jumna.  Horse-breeding  is  confined  to  the  Ramganga  and 
Aril  basins,  where  wide  stretches  of  grass  and  in  some  places  a  species 
of  Oxalis  resembling  clover  are  found.  Four  pony  and  two  donkey 
stallions  are  maintained  by  Government  and  by  the  District  board,  and 
two  donkey  stallions  are  kept  on  estates  under  the  Court  of  Wards  to 
encourage  mule-breeding.  There  has,  however,  been  little  progress  in 
either  horse  or  mule-breeding.    Sheep  are  not  kept  to  any  great  extent. 

The  soil  of  the  District  is  generally  moist,  and  in  ordinary  seasons 
there  is  very  little  demand  for  irrigation  of  the  spring  crops.  In  the 
north,  where  a  regular  supply  of  water  is  valued  for  rice  and  sugar-cane, 
the  Rohilkhand  canals  are  the  main  source.  Elsewhere,  wells,  rivers, 
and  jhlls  are  used.  In  1903-4  canals  and  wells  supplied  76  and 
75  square  miles  respectively,  tanks  ox  Jhlls  58,  and  other  sources  (chiefly 
rivers)  47.  The  canals  are  all  small  works  and  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes.  Those  drawn  from  the  Bahgul,  Kailas,  Kichha,  and  Paha 
have  permanent  masonry  head-works,  with  channels  dug  to  definite 
sections,  and  are  provided  with  subsidiary  masonry  works,  regulators, 


FAMINE  9 

&€.,  like  the  regular  canals  of  the  Doab.  The  others  are  small  channels, 
into  which  water  is  turned  from  the  rivers  by  earthen  dams,  renewed 
annually.  Masonry  wells  are  not  constructed  for  irrigation,  except 
by  the  Court  of  Wards.  In  most  parts  of  the  District  the  wells  are 
temporary  excavations  w^orked  by  pulley,  or  by  a  lever,  as  the  spring- 
level  is  high  ;  but  in  some  tracts  to  the  south  water^  is  raised  in  a 
leathern  bucket  by  a  rope  pulled  by  bullocks  or  by  men. 

Kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is  scarce  and  of  poor  quality.  A  little 
lime  is  made  by  burning  the  ooze  formed  of  lacustrine  shells. 

The  most  important  industry  of  the  District  is  sugar-refining.      This 
is  carried  on  after  native  methods,  which  are  now  being  examined  by 
the  Agricultural  department  in  the  hope  of  eliminating 
waste.     Coarse   cotton  cloth   and  cotton  carpets  or  communlcTtfons. 
dans  are  woven  largely,  and  Bareilly  city  is  noted  for 
the  production  of  furniture.     A  little  country  glass  is  also  manufactured. 
The  Rohilkhand  and  Kumaun  Railway  workshops  employed  8i  hands 
in  1903,  and  a  brewery  in  connexion  with  that  at  NainI  Tal  is  under 
construction.     The  indigo  industry  is  declining. 

Grain  and  pulse,  sugar,  hides,  hemp,  and  oilseeds  are  the  chief 
exports,  while  salt,  piece-goods,  metals,  and  stone  and  lime  are  imported. 
The  grain  is  exported  to  Calcutta,  and  sugar  is  sent  to  the  Punjab, 
Rajputana,  and  Central  India.  Bareilly  city  aid  Aonla  are  the  chief 
centres  of  trade. 

The  main  line  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway  passes  through 
the  south  of  the  District,  with  a  branch  from  Bareilly  city  through  Aonla 
to  AlTgarh.  The  north  is  served  by  the  Rohilkhand  and  Kumaun  Rail- 
way, which  is  the  only  route  to  the  hill-station  of  NainT  Tal,  and  by  a 
line  through  Pilibhit  and  Sitapur  to  Lucknow,  which  leaves  the  Rohil- 
khand and  Kumaun  Railway  at  Bhojupura,  a  few  miles  north  of  Bareilly 
city.  Another  metre-gauge  line,  recently  opened,  leads  from  Bareilly 
south-west  through  Budaun  to  Soron  in  Etah  District. 

The  tcjtal  length  of  metalled  roads  is  139  miles  and  of  unmetalled 
roads  186  miles.  Of  the  former,  125  miles  are  in  charge  of  the  Public 
Works  department,  but  the  cost  of  all  but  88  miles  is  met  by  Local 
funds.  There  are  avenues  of  trees  along  254  miles.  The  District  is 
not  well  supplied  with  roads.  Those  which  are  metalled  follow  roughly 
the  ahgnment  of  the  railways,  and  there  are  no  others,  except  the  road 
from  Aonla  to  Budaun.  In  the  north  communication  is  almost  im- 
possible during  the  rains  ;  but  the  streams  can  easily  be  forded  in  the 
hot  and  cold  seasons. 

Bareilly  is  not  liable  to  severe  famine,  owing  to  the  natural  moisture 

of  the  soil  and  the  rarity  of  so  complete  failure  of  the 

11  T     •       ,  11  11  Famine, 

rams  as  occurs  elsewhere.     It  is  also  well  served  by 

railways,  and  a  considerable  portion  can  be  irrigated.     Ample  grazing- 


lo  BAREILL  V  DISTRICT 

grounds  lor  cutllc  arc  within  easy  reach.      \n  1S03-4  distress  was  felt, 

and  the  spring  crops  were  grazed  by  the  cattle  as  no  grain  had  formed. 

In  1819  and  1825-6  there  was  scarcity.    The  famine  of  1837-8  followed 

a  succession  of  bad  years,  and  its  effects  were  felt,  but  not  so  .severely 

as  in  the  Doab.      While  famine  raged  elsewhere   in    1 860-1,  Bareilly 

sufTcred  only  from  slight  scarcity,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  autumn 

harvest ;  and  relief  works,  which  were  opened  for  the  first  time,  alleviated 

distress.     Relief  works  were  also  necessary  in    1868-9,    1877-8,   and 

1896-7,  but  the  numbers  attracted  to  them  never  rose  very  high. 

The  Collector  is  usually  assisted  by  a  member  of  the  Indian  Civil 

Service,  and  by  four  Deputy-Collectors  recruited  in  India.      There  is  a 

.  ,    .   .        .        tahs'ihidr  at  the  head-quarters  of  each  tahsil.     The 
Administration.    „  t-      •  r      ,        t^    i   ,1  ,        1      t   •  • 

Executive    Engineer    of    the    Rohilkhand    division 

(Roads  and  Buildings)  and  the  Executive  Engineer  of  the  Rohilkhand 

Canals  are  stationed  at  Bareilly  city. 

There  are  three  regular  District  Munsifs  and  a  Subordinate  Judge, 
and  the  appointment  of  Village  Munsifs  commenced  recently.  The 
District  and  Sessions  Judge  of  Bareilly  has  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion in  both  Bareilly  and  Pilibhit  Districts.  Crime  is  very  heavy, 
especially  offences  affecting  life  and  grievous  hurt.  Religious  feeling 
runs  high,  and  quarrels  between  Hindus  and  Muhammadans,  accom- 
panied by  serious  rioting,  are  not  infrequent.  The  thieving  caste  of 
Daleras  has  already  been  mentioned.  Female  infanticide  is  now  very 
rarely  suspected,  and  in  1904  only  130  names  remained  on  the  registers 
of  proclaimed  families. 

Under  the  Rohillas  proprietary  rights  did  not  exist,  and  villages  were 
farmed  to  the  highest  bidder.  After  annexation  in  1801  Rohilkhand 
was  divided  into  two  Districts,  Moradabad  and  Bareilly.  Shah- 
jahanpur  District  was  formed  in  1813-4;  Budaun  was  carved  out  of 
both  the  original  Districts  in  1824  ;  the  south  of  Naini  Tal  District  was 
taken  away  in  1858,  and  sixty-four  villages  were  given,  as  a  reward  for 
loyalty,  to  the  Nawab  of  Rampur.  Pilibhit  was  made  a  separate  Dis- 
trict in  1879.  Ii''  the  early  short-term  settlements  the  Rohilla  system 
of  farming  was  maintained  till  1812,  when  proprietary  rights  were  con- 
ferred on  persons  who  seemed  best  entitled  to  them.  The  demand 
then  fixed  w-as  so  high  that  heavy  balances  were  frequent,  and  many 
estates  were  abandoned.  A  more  enlightened  method  of  settlement 
based  on  a  survey  was  commenced  under  Regulation  VII  of  1822,  and 
the  first  regular  settlement  followed  under  Regulation  IX  of  1833. 
Different  methods  were  adopted  by  the  officers  who  carried  this  out. 
Some  divided  each  village  into  circles  according  to  soil  and  situation, 
while  others  classified  villages  according  to  their  general  condition  as  a 
whole.  Rent  rates  were  sometimes  assumed  for  the  various  soils,  while 
in  other  cases  general  revenue  rates  were  deduced  from  the  collections 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


II 


in  previous  years.  The  revenue  fixed  amounted  to  ii  lakhs  on  the 
present  area.  Another  settlement  was  made  in  1867-70.  The  rental 
'  assets  '  were  calculated  from  rent  rates  selected  after  careful  inquiry.  A 
large  area  was  grain-rented  ;  and  the  rent  rates  for  this  tract  were 
selected  after  an  examination  of  the  reputed  average  share  of  the  land- 
lord, and  after  experiments  in  the  out-turn  of  various  crops,  the  average 
prices  for  twenty  years  being  applied  to  ascertain  the  cash  value.  The 
result  was  an  assessment  of  13-5  lakhs  ;  but  this  was  reduced  by  about 
Rs.  4,000  in  1874-6,  owing  to  the  assessment  of  too  large  an  area  in 
the  north  of  the  District,  where  cultivation  fluctuates.  The  latest 
revision  was  carried  out  in  1 898-1 902.  Cash  rents  were  then  found  to 
be  paid  on  about  two-thirds  of  the  total  cultivated  area,  and  the  actual 
rent-roll  formed  the  basis  of  assessment.  Rents  of  occupancy  tenants 
had  remained  for  the  most  part  unaltered  since  the  previous  settlement, 
and  enhancements  were  given  where  these  were  inadequate.  Grain  rents, 
chiefly  found  in  the  north  of  the  District,  were  largely  commuted  to 
cash  rates.  The  demand  fixed  amounts  to  15  lakhs,  representing  45  per 
cent,  of  the  net  'assets,'  and  the  incidence  falls  at  Rs.  1-7  per  acre, 
varying  from  Rs.  1-3  to  Rs.  2  in  different  parts. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  have  been, 
in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Lnnd  revenue 
Total  revenue 

13,14 
16,67 

12,93 
20,45 

15,44 
25,13 

14,94 
26,01 

There  is  one  municipality,  Bareilly  City,  and  ten  towns  are  ad- 
ministered under  Act  XX  of  1856.  Outside  of  these,  local  affairs  are 
managed  by  the  District  board,  which  has  an  income  of  1-7  lakhs, 
chiefly  from  rates.  In  1903-4  the  expenditure  on  roads  and  buildings 
amounted  to  Rs.  63,000. 

There  are  22  police  stations  and  19  outposts,  all  but  one  of  the  latter 
being  in  Bareilly  city.  The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  under 
him  an  assistant  and  4  inspectors,  besides  a  force  of  1 1 2  subordinate 
officers  and  587  men  of  the  regular  police,  374  municipal  and  town 
police,  and  1,989  village  and  road  chaukiddrs.  The  Central  jail,  which 
has  accommodation  for  more  than  3,000  prisoners,  contained  a  daily 
average  of  nearly  1,800  in  1903,  while  the  District  jail  contained  715. 
The  latter  was  formerly  used  for  convicts  from  NainT  Tal  and  from 
Pilibhit,  and  is  a  Central  jail  for  female  prisoners. 

The  District  takes  a  medium  place  as  regards  the  literacy  of  its 
inhabitants,  of  whom  2-7  per  cent.  (4-7  males  and  o-6  females)  can  read 
and  write.  The  number  of  public  institutions  increased  from  143  in 
1 880-1   to   154  in   1 900-1,  and  the  number  of  pupils  from   5,033  to 


12  ILIREILLY  DISTRICT 

6,675.  In  1903-4  there  were  196  sucli  institutions,  with  9,636  pupils, 
of  whom  996  were  girls,  besides  163  private  schools  with  2,479  pupils. 
Of  the  total,  3  were  managed  by  Government,  and  136  by  the  District 
and  nuuiicipal  boards,  while  55  were  aided.  There  is  an  Arts  college 
at  Bareilly  city.  In  1903-4  the  expenditure  on  education  was  a  lakh, 
of  which  Rs.  53,000  was  derived  from  Local  and  municipal  funds, 
Rs.  23,000  from  fees,  and  Rs.  12,000  from  Provincial  revenues. 

There  are  13  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
287  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  114,000, 
of  whom  3,068  were  in-patients,  and  2,815  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  30,000,  most  of  which  was  met  from  Local 
and  municipal  funds.  There  is  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Bareilly  city  with 
about  400  inmates. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  36,000, 
representing  a  proportion  of  2)2,  per  1,000  of  the  population.  Vaccina- 
tion is  compulsory  only  in  Bareilly  city. 

\_District  Gazetteer  (1879,  under  revision);  S.  H.  Fremantle,  Settle- 
7nent  Report  (1903).] 

Bareilly  Tahsil.— Central  tahsil  of  Bareilly  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  Karor  or  Bareilly,  lying 
between  28°  13'  and  28°  37'  N.  and  79°  14'  and  79°  38'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  310  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  298,482  in  1891 
to  325,650  in  1901.  There  are  414  villages  and  one  town,  Bareilly 
(population,  131,208),  the  District  and  tahsil  head-quarters.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,71,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  48,000.  The  high  density  of  population,  1,050  persons  per  square 
mile,  is  due  to  the  inclusion  of  a  large  city.  There  is  some  poor  soil, 
but  the  tract  across  which  the  Ramganga  flows  in  a  constantly  varying 
channel  is  generally  fertile.  Five  smaller  streams  flow  from  north  to 
south  and  are  used  for  irrigation.  Sugar-cane  is  the  most  valuable 
crop,  and  is  largely  grown,  while  sugar  is  refined  at  many  places, 
especially  in  Bareilly  city.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation 
was  240  square  miles,  of  which  50  were  irrigated.  Small  canals 
drawn  from  the  East  Bahgul  river  irrigate  6  or  7  square  miles,  and 
wells  15  or  20.     Tanks  or  jhils  and  rivers  supply  the  remainder. 

Bareilly  City  {Bareh). — Administrative  head-quarters  of  the  Bareilly 
Division  and  District,  United  Provinces,  with  a  cantonmen*^,  situated  in 
28°  22'  N.  and  79°  24'  E.,  812  miles  by  rail  from  Calcutta  and  1,031 
from  Bombay.  It  lies  at  the  junction  of  a  branch  of  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway  from  Aligarh  with  the  main  line ;  and  these  are 
met  by  the  narrow-gauge  railways  from  Lucknow  through  Sitapur,  from 
Kathgodam  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  from  Soron  through  Budaun. 
Population  has  increased  steadily.  The  numbers  at  the  last  four 
enumerations  were  as  follows:  (1872)  102,982,  (1881)  113,417,  (1891) 


BARE  ILLY  CITY  13 

121,039,  unci  (1901)  131,208.  These  figures  include  the  inhabitants  of 
the  cantonment,  who  numbered  13,828  in  1901.  There  are  67,000 
Hindus,  59,000   Musalmans,   and  3,000   Christians. 

Tradition  relates  that  the  old  city  was  founded  in  1537,  and  derived 
its  name  of  Bans  Bareli  from  Bas,  a  Barhela  by  caste,  or  from  Bas  and 
Barel,  Katehriya  Rajputs.  The  prefix  is  now  usually  interpreted  as 
being  the  word  bans  or  '  bamboo,'  and  is  still  used  by  the  inhabitants. 
About  1573  a  subordinate  post  was  established  here,  to  check  the 
turbulent  Katehriyas  of  Rohilkhand,  and  a  small  town  gradually  grew 
up  round  the  fort.  By  the  close  of  Akbar's  reign,  in  1596,  Bareilly 
had  become  the  head-quarters  of  a  inalial  or  pargana.  In  1657  it 
was  made  the  capital  of  Katehr  (see  Rohilkhand),  and  a  new  city 
was  founded  by  Makrand  Rai,  who  was  appointed  governor.  As  the 
Mughal  empire  decayed  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Rohilla  power 
was  consolidated  by  All  Muhammad,  who  established  his  capital  at 
Aonla,  and  Bareilly  was  for  a  time  of  small  importance.  Hafiz  Rahmat 
Khan,  who  virtually  succeeded  All  Muhammad,  though  nominally 
guardian  to  his  sons,  lived  alternately  at  PilibhTt  and  at  Bareilly, 
which  again  rose  into  prominence.  The  place  fell,  with  the  sur- 
rounding country,  into  the  possession  of  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Rohillas  by  the  combined  British  and  Oudh  forces 
in  1774,  and  passed  to  the  British  by  cession  in  i8or,  when  it  became 
the  head-quarters  of  a  District  and  of  a  provincial  court.  In  18 16 
an  insurrection  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  imposition  of  a  house 
tax,  and  in  1837  and  1842  serious  religious  disturbances  occurred 
between   Hindus  and   Musalmans. 

During  the  Mutiny  of  1857  Bareilly  was  an  important  centre  of 
disaffection.  The  sepoys  rebelled  on  May  31,  and  Khan  Bahadur 
Khan,  grandson  of  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan,  was  proclaimed  governor. 
Most  of  the  Europeans  escaped  to  NainI  Tal.  The  rebel  ruler  found 
government  no  easy  task,  and  the  annals  of  his  brief  term  relate  many 
dissensions  and  difficulties.  As  British  troops  recovered  ground  to 
the  south  and  west,  the  Nawab  of  Farrukhabad,  the  Nana  Sahib  from 
Cawnpore,  Firoz  Shah  from  Lucknow,  and  other  leading  rebels 
took  refuge  here.  On  May  5,  1858,  a  British  army  arrived  before  the 
city,  and  two  days  later  the  rebels  fled  into  Oudh,  and  the  British 
occupied  Bareilly.  In  1871  the  peace  of  the  city  was  again  dis- 
turbed by  serious  religious  riots,  and  since  then  religious  differences 
have  occasionally  threatened  to  develop  into  actual  fighting. 

Bareilly  stands  on  a  plateau  slightly  elevated  above  the  basin  of  the 
Ramganga,  a  branch  of  which  now  runs  under  the  city.  The  native 
quarter  is  traversed  by  a  long,  well-kept  street,  widening  at  intervals  into 
markets.  The  houses  are  usually  of  brick  coated  with  white  plaster, 
which  is  sometimes  adorned  with  tracery,  but  few  have  any  pretensions 


14  BARE  ILLY   CITY 

to  architectural  beaut)'.  Tlie  oldest  building  of  any  importance  is  the 
tomb  of  Hafiz  Rahmat  Khan,  close  to  the  city  on  the  Aonla  road, 
which  is  an  elegant  building  of  plastered  brick  with  gilded  finials. 
It  was  built  by  his  son  in  1775  and  repaired  by  his  daughter  in  1839, 
and  was  again  repaired  in  189 1-2  at  the  cost  of  (lOvernment.  The 
finest  public  buildings  are  the  dispensary  and  Uufferin  Hospitals, 
the  tahslll  and  chief  police  station,  and  a  triangular  building  con- 
taining the  municipal  hall,  a  literary  institute,  and  the  honorary 
magistrates'  courthouse.  The  Central  jail  is  situated  north  of  the 
city  on  the  NainI  Tal  road.  South  of  the  city  lies  the  civil  station, 
which  contains  the  high  school,  the  American  Methodist  Orphanage 
and  Theological  Seminary,  the  District  offices  and  District  jail,  and 
several  churches.  The  cantonment  lies  south  of  the  civil  station, 
and  contains  a  small  fort  built  after  the  disturbance  of  18 16.  The 
usual  garrison  consists  of  British  artillery,  British  and  Native  infantry, 
and  Native  cavalry.  Bareilly  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Division,  and  of  the  Executive  Engineers  of  the 
Rohilkhand  Canals  and  Rohilkhand  division  (Roads  and  Buildings). 

A  municipality  was  constituted  in  1858,  which  in  1901  had  a  popula- 
tion of  117,380.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  income  and 
expenditure  averaged  1-2  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  2-1  lakhs, 
chiefly  from  octroi  (1-5  lakhs).  The  expenditure  of  2-2  lakhs  included 
public  works  (Rs.  42,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  33,000),  public  safety 
(Rs.  31,000),  and  administration  and  collection  (Rs.  19,000).  An 
excellent  water-supply  is  drawn  from  wells.  In  1903-4  the  income  of 
the  cantonment  fund  was  Rs.  48,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  49,000. 

The  chief  industry  of  the  city  is  sugar-refining,  and  about  20,000  tons 
of  raw  sugar  are  imported  annually,  while  10,000  tons  of  sugar  are  ex- 
ported by  rail  alone.  Bareilly  is  also  noted  for  its  furniture,  made  both 
of  bamboo  and  of  the  ordinary  timbers  in  use  for  this  purpose.  Cloth 
is  woven  and  brass  vessels  are  made ;  but  these  industries  are  not  very 
important.  The  Rohilkhand  and  Kumaun  Railway  workshops  employ 
about  80  hands,  and  there  is  a  dairy  farm  in  connexion  with  the 
lunatic  asylum.  The  principal  educational  institution  is  the  college, 
which  contains  104  students.  A  new  building  for  this  institution  will 
be  erected  shortly  on  a  site  in  the  civil  station  presented  by  the  Nawab 
of  Rampur.  The  District  school  has  about  450  pupils  and  the  tahslll 
school  370.  The  municipality  maintains  21  schools  and  aids  3  others, 
with  a  total  attendance  in  1904  of  2,321.  There  are  also  three 
orphanages,  maintained  by  the  Arya  Samaj,  the  American  Methodist 
Mission,  and  a  Muhammadan  Association. 

Barel. — Hill  range  in  Cachar  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Barail. 

Barendra. — Ancient  name  given  to  the  part  of  Eastern  Bengal  lying 


BARH   TOWN  15 

between  the  Mahananda  and  Karatoya  rivers,  and  corresponding  with 
the  old  kingdom  of  Pundra,  and  with  the  western  portion  of  the 
modern  Rajshahi  Division.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  conferred 
by  king  Ballal  Sen  in  the  eleventh  century  ;  and  it  still  survives  in  the 
Barind,  an  elevated  tract  on  the  confines  of  Dinajpur,  Malda,  Rajshahi, 
and  Bogra  Districts. 

Bargarh. — ^Western  tahsll  of  Sambalpur  District,  Bengal,  lying 
between  20°  45'  and  21°  44'  N.  and  82°. 38'  and  83°  54'  E.,  with  an 
area,  in  1901,  of  3,126  square  miles.  The  population  in  that  year  was 
467,076,  compared  with  452,022  in  1891.  In  1905  the  Phuljhar 
zaminddri,  with  an  area  of  842  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
102,135  persons,  was  transferred  to  the  Raipur  District  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  and  the  adjusted  figures  of  area  and  population  of  the  tahsll 
are  2,284  square  miles  and  364,941  persons.  The  density  is  160  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  tahsll  contains  1,172  inhabited  villages.  Bargarh, 
the  head-quarters,  is  a  village  of  3,609  inhabitants,  29  miles  distant 
from  Sambalpur  town  on  the  Raipur  road.  Excluding  206  square  miles 
of  Government  forest,  69  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for 
cultivation.  The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  1,403  square  miles. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  1,06,000,  and 
for  cesses  Rs.  21,000.  The  tahsll  comprises  an  open  tract  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mahanadi,  flanked  by  hill  and  forest  country  to 
the  west  and  north.  It  contains  nine  zaminddri  estates,  with  a  total 
area  of  1,204  square  miles. 

Barh  Subdivision. — North-eastern  subdivision  of  Patna  District, 
Bengal,  lying  between  25°  10'  and  25°  35'  N.  and  85°  11'  and  86°  4'  E., 
with  an  area  of  526  square  miles.  Owing  to  plague,  its  recorded 
population  in  1901  was  only  365,327,  compared  with  408,256  in  1891, 
the  density  being  695  persons  per  square  mile.  The  subdivision  consists 
of  a  long  and  somewhat  narrow  strip  of  country  intersected  by  tributaries 
of  the  Ganges,  and  bordering  that  river.  It  contains  two  towns,  Barh 
(population,  12,164),  its  head-quarters,  and  Mokaisieh  (13,861),  an 
important  railway  junction  ;  and  1,075  villages. 

Barh  Tcwn. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name 
in  Patna  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25^^  29'  N.  and  85°  43'  E.,  on  the 
Ganges.  Population  (1901),  12,164.  Barh  is  a  station  on  the  East 
Indian  Railway^  299  miles  from  Calcutta,  and  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  country  produce.  Jessamine  oil  (chameli)  of  a  superior  quality  is 
manufactured.  Barh  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1870.  The 
income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  6,700,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  6,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10,400,  mainly 
from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  9,500.  The  town  contains  the  usual  subdivisional  offices,  a  sub-jail 
with  accommodation  for  28  prisoners,  and  an  English  cemetery. 


ifi  liAIUIAJ 

Barhaj. — Town  in  tin-  Dcoiia  tiiliul  (if  (.loiakhpur  District,  UnilL-d 
Provinces,  situated  in  26°  17'  N.  and  83"  45'  !£.,  at  the  ttTniiiuis  of 
a  branch  of  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway,  and  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Rapti  and  Gogra.  Population  (1901),  10,054.  'J'he 
town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  about  1770,  but  only  rose  into 
importance  with  the  introduction  of  sugar  cultivation  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. It  is  now  the  most  important  trade  centre  in  the  District,  and 
is  also  remarkable  for  its  filthiness.  Grain,  oilseeds,  and  sugar  are 
largely  exported  by  rail  and  river,  and  the  insurance  of  the  river  traffic 
is  part  of  the  business  of  the  town.  Sugar  is  manufactured  in  about 
forty  ftictories.  The  banks  of  the  RaptI  are  covered  with  immense 
piles  of  timber — part  for  re-exportation,  part  for  boat-building,  and 
part  for  fuel  in  the  factories.  The  town  is  administered  together 
with  Gaura  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about 
Rs.  3,400.  The  Raja  of  MajhaulT  collects  octroi  duties  and  bazar  dues 
under  (United  Provinces)  Act  III  of  1901,  and  pays  Rs.  3,500  annually 
to  the  town  fund.  Barhaj  contains  a  flourishing  town  school  with 
183  pupils,  a  girls'  school  with  26,  and  a  dispensary. 

Barhalganj. — Town  in  the  Bansgaon  tahsJl  of  Gorakhpur  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  17'  N.  and  83°  30'  E.,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Gogra,  and  on  the  road  from  Gorakhpur  to  Azamgarh. 
Population  ( i  go  i),  5,181.  It  is  composed  of  a  street  of  masonry  shops 
lining  the  sides  of  the  road,  with  a  fine  metalled  market-place.  The 
trade  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  grain,  and  in  the  distribution 
of  imported  goods,  but  there  is  also  some  manufacture  of  sugar. 
Barhalganj  is  a  port  of  call  for  the  river  steamers.  It  is  adminis- 
tered under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,100.  It 
contains  a  town  school  with  113  pupils,  a  girls'  school  with  14,  and 
a  dispensary. 

Barhampur. — Subdivision  and  town  of  Murshidabad  District, 
Bengal.     See  Berhampore. 

Bari  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Dholpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  39'  N.  and  77°  37'  E., 
about  19  miles  almost  due  west  of  Dholpur  railway  station  and  45  miles 
south-west  of  Agra.  Population  (1901),  11,603.  A  strong  masonry 
fort  here  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  the 
oldest  building  is  a  mosque  which  bears  an  inscription  recording  that 
it  was  constructed  between  1346  and  1351.  Three  miles  to  the  south- 
east are  the  remains  of  a  palace,  built  about  161 7  for  prince  Shah 
Jahan  as  a  shooting  lodge.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  are  sandstone 
quarries,  which  are  being  connected  with  the  railway  at  Dholpur  by 
a  light  steam  tramway.  The  town  possesses  a  post  office,  a  primary 
vernacular  school  attended  by  60  boys,  and  a  dispensary. 

Bari    Doab.— A   doab   or    'tract   between    two   rivers'    (the    Beas 


BARI  DOAB    CANAL  17 

<iiid  Ravi)  in  the  Punjab,  lying  between  29°  22'  and  32'^  30'  N.  and 
71°  6' and  75°  58'  E.,  and  comprising  Amritsar  District  and  portions 
of  Gurdaspur,  Lahore,  Montgomery,  and  Multan.  The  name  was 
formed  by  the  Mughal  emperor  Akbar,  by  combining  the  first  syllables 
of  the  names  of  the  two  rivers. 

Bari  Doab  Canal. — A  perennial  irrigation  canal  in  the  Punjab, 
taking  off  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Ravi,  and  watering  the  Districts 
of  Gurdaspur,  Amritsar,  and  Lahore  in  the  Bari  Doab  or  tract  of 
country  between  the  Beas  and  Ravi.  The  present  undertaking 
originated  in  a  project  for  the  improvement  of  an  older  work,  the  Hash 
canal,  constructed  about  the  year  1633  by  All  Mardan  Khan,  the 
famous  engineer  of  the  emperor  Shah  Jahan.  After  the  occupation 
of  Lahore  in  1846,  Major  Napier  (afterwards  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala) 
turned  his  attention  at  once  to  this  project,  and  set  on  foot  the  necessary 
surveys.  The  progress  of  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the  outbreak 
of  war.  After  annexation  the  work  was  pressed  on,  because  the 
immediate  construction  of  the  canal  was  regarded  as  almost  a  matter 
of  political  necessity  to  provide  employment  for  the  disbanded  Sikh 
soldiers,  who,  having  their  homes  in  the  centre  of  the  tract,  would 
otherwise  have  had  little  encouragement  to  turn  to  agriculture.  The 
alignment  of  the  Hash  canal  proved  on  examination  to  be  so  defective 
that  the  officers  in  charge  decided  upon  the  adoption  of  an  entirely 
independent  line,  parts  only  of  the  original  channel  being  utilized  as 
distributaries.  Irrigation  began  in  1 860-1,  but  the  present  permanent 
weir  and  other  regulating  head-works  were  not  completed  till  after  1875. 
The  head-works  are  at  the  village  of  Madhopur  in  Gurdaspur  District, 
where  the  river  is  crossed  by  a  weir  2,700  feet  long.  The  canal  is 
capable  of  carrying  6,500  cubic  feet  per  second:  the  highest  average 
supply  in  the  hot  season  is  4,850,  while  in  the  cold  season  it  varies  from 
1,270  to  2,170  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  main  line  terminates  at  its 
31st  mile,  there  separating  into  the  Kasur  and  main  branches.  The 
Kasur  branch  7  miles  lower  down  gives  off  the  Sobraon  branch,  and 
the  main  branch  after  25  miles  gives  off  the  Lahore  branch,  the  four 
branches  following  the  crests  of  the  ridges  into  which  the  tract  is  divided 
by  its  natural  drainage.  The  total  length  of  the  main  and  branch 
canals  is  369  miles,  and  there  are  1,591  miles  of  distributaries,  from 
which  water  is  brought  upon  the  fields  by  means  of  watercourses  con- 
structed and  maintained  by  the  cultivators.  The  canal  is  not  navigable. 
The  rainfall  is  heaviest  in  the  upper  part  of  the  system,  which  has 
necessitated  a  special  system  of  irrigation  in  Gurdaspur  District  and  in 
the  portion  of  Amritsar  District  north  of  the  North-Western  Railway  on 
the  Kasur  and  Sobraon  branches.  In  that  tract  the  distributaries  are 
closed  during  the  cold  season  after  a  watering  has  been  given  for  sowing 
the   spring  crops,  the  winter   rains  with   some  help  from   wells  being 

VOL.  VII.  c 


1 8  BART  DOAB    CANAL 

sufficient  to  iiiaturc  those  crops.  The  water  thus  set  free  has  been 
utilized  in  extending  irrigation  in  the  driest  part  of  Lahore  District, 
where  it  borders  on  Montgomery — a  tract  for  which  it  would  otherwise 
have  been  impossible  to  provide  a  perennial  supply.  The  gross  area 
commanded  by  the  canal  is  2,710  square  miles  in  Gurdaspur,  Amritsar, 
and  Lahore  Districts.  The  lower  portion  of  the  Doab  in  Montgomery 
and  Multan  is  not  irrigated,  as  there  is  not  sufficient  water  avail- 
able in  the  Ravi  during  the  winter.  The  area  irrigated  was  297  square 
miles  in  i860,  677  square  miles  in  1880-1,  1,346  square  miles  in 
1900-1,  and  1,464  square  miles  in  1903-4.  The  total  capital  ex[)endi- 
ture  (exclusive  of  interest)  up  to  the  end  of  1903-4  was  197  lakhs. 
The  gross  income  for  that  year  was  about  33  lakhs,  or,  inclusive  of  the 
increase  of  land  revenue  due  to  irrigation  (which  is  credited  to  the  canal 
in  the  accounts),  36  lakhs.  The  working  expenses  amounted  to  1 1  lakhs, 
leaving  a  net  profit  of  25  lakhs,  or  12-68  per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay. 

Barind. — Elevated  tract  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  occupying 
a  considerable  area  on  the  confines  of  the  Districts  of  Dinajpur,  Malda, 
Rajshahi,  and  Bogra.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  old  Hindu  kingdom 
of  Barendra.  It  belongs  to  an  older  alluvial  formation  than  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  is  composed  of  argillaceous  beds  of  a  rather  pale 
reddish-brown  hue,  often  weathering  yellowish,  in  which  kankar  and 
pisolitic  ferruginous  concretions  frequently  occur.  It  is  covered  in 
many  places  with  a  scrub  jungle,  the  predominant  tree  being  the  siil 
{Shorea  robustd).  It  is  now  being  reclaimed  by  the  Santals,  Mundas, 
and  Oraons,  large  numbers  of  whom  have  immigrated  into  this  tract, 
attracted  by  the  prospect  of  holding  their  new  clearances  rent-free  for 
a  few  years.  As  soon  as  rent  is  demanded,  they  move  on,  leaving  the 
fields  they  have  cleared  to  be  occupied  by  the  less  hardy  Hindu 
cultivators,  who  have  not  the  energy  to  clear  land  for  themselves. 

Baripada. — Capital  of  Mayurbhanj,  one  of  the  Orissa  Tributary 
States,  Bengal,  situated  in  21°  56''  N.  and  86°  44'  E.,  on  the  Burhabalang 
river.  Population  (1901),  5,613.  Baripada  is  connected  by  a  light 
railway  (2  feet  6  inch  gauge)  wMth  Rupsa  junction  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur 
Railway,  and  by  metalled  roads  with  Bahalda  and  Karanjia,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Bamanghati  and  Panchpir  subdivisions,  and  with  the 
towns  of  Balasore  and  Midnapore ;  several  fair-weather  roads  run  from 
it  to  other  parts  of  the  State.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  administration, 
and  contains  the  residence  of  the  chief,  a  good  dispensary,  and  a  high 
school,  besides  criminal  and  civil  courts,  and  a  jail. 

Bari  Sadri. — Principal  town  of  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  25'  N.  and  74°  29'  E., 
about  50  miles  east  by  south-east  of  Udaipur  city.  Population  (1901), 
4,063.  On  a  hill  to  the  south  is  a  small  fort,  now  almost  in  ruins.  The 
estate,  which  is  held  by  the  senior  noble  of  Mewar,  who  is  styled  Raj, 


BARISAL    TOWN  19 

consists  of  91  villages.  The  income  is  about  Rs.  48,000,  and  a  tribute 
of  Rs.  820  is  paid  to  the  Darbar.  The  chiefs  of  Sadri  are  Jhala  Rajputs. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  one  Ajja  came  to  Mewar 
from  Hahvad  in  Kathiawar,  and  fought  in  1527  on  the  side  of  Rana 
Sangram  Singh  I  against  the  emperor  Babar  in  the  famous  battle  of 
Khanua.  When  the  Rana  was  wounded  and  was  being  carried  off 
the  field,  Ajja  took  his  place  on  his  elephant  and  drew  on  himself  the 
brunt  of  the  battle.  He  did  not  survive  the  day  ;  but  his  son  received 
the  fief  of  Sadri,  the  title  of  Raj,  the  seat  of  honour  next  to  the  Rana, 
and  the  right  of  carrying  the  ensigns  of  Mewar  and  of  beating  his  kettle- 
drums as  far  as  the  gate  of  the  palace.  These  privileges  are  still  enjoyed 
by  his  successors.  Of  the  latter,  one  was  killed  at  Chitor  fighting 
against  Bahadur  Shah  in  1534,  another  at  the  same  place  fighting  against 
Akbar  in  1567,  and  a  third  at  the  battle  of  Haldighat  in  1576. 

Barisal  Subdivision. — Head-quarters  subdivision  of  Backergunge 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  at  its  north-east  corner, 
between  22°  28'  and  23"  5'  N.  and  90°  \'  and  90°  41'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  1,110  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  945,367,  compared 
with  879,177  in  1 89 1.  It  contains  three  towns,  Barisal  (population, 
18,978),  the  head-quarters,  and  the  important  marts  of  Jhalakati 
(5,234)  and  NalchitI  (2,240);  and  2,048  villages.  It  is  the  most 
densely  populated  subdivision  in  the  District,  having  852  persons  to  the 
square  mile.  It  is  a  deltaic  tract,  intersected  by  numerous  rivers  and 
water-channels.  The  level  sinks  to  the  north-west,  and  parts  of  this 
portion  are  covered  with  deep  morasses. 

Barisal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  Backergunge  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  22°  42'  N.  and  90°  22'  E.,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Barisal  river.  Population  (1901),  18,978.  In  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  Barisal  was  an  important  salt  chauk'i,  or  place 
where  salt  tax  was  paid.  The  head-quarters  of  the  District,  formerly 
at  Backergunge,  were  transferred  here  in  1801.  The  Barisal  river  is 
navigable  by  steamers  all  the  year  round  ;  and  daily  steamers  ply  to 
Khulna  and  Narayanganj,  establishing  communication  with  Calcutta 
and  Dacca  respectively,  the  journey  to  the  former  occupying  twenty-four 
hours  and  to  the  latter  twelve  hours.  It  has  also  steamer  communica- 
tion with  Patuakhali  in  the  District  and  Ichakhali  and  Bhawanlganj  in 
Noakhali.  Barisal  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1876.  The  income 
during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  31,000,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  29,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  47,000,  of 
which  Rs.  10,000  was  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax), 
and  Rs.  12,000  from  a  conservancy  rate  ;  the  income  was  also  augmented 
by  contributions  of  Rs.  4,000  for  medical  purposes  and  Rs.  10,000  for 
general  purposes  from  Local  funds  and  other  sources.  The  expenditure 
in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  35,000.     The  town  has  wide,  straight,  and 

c  2 


20  BARISAL    TOWN 

well-kept  streets,  the  riverside  road  to  Sagardi  being  bordered  by  fine 
avenues ;  and  it  is  intersected  by  numerous  creeks,  which  are  flushed 
twice  a  day  at  flood  tide,  and  add  much  to  the  healthiness  of  the  town. 
There  are  numerous  tanks,  of  which  four,  unconnected  with  the  river, 
are  reserved  for  drinking  purposes  ;  a  scheme  to  supply  filtered  water 
is  under  consideration. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  public  offices  and  the  jail,  the  town  contains 
three  churches  belonging  to  the  Anglican,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Baptist 
denominations,  and  a  public  library  founded  in  1855.  The  District  jail 
has  accommodation  for  580  prisoners,  who  are  employed  on  oil-pressing, 
brick-pounding,  brick-making,  carpet  and  mat-making,  weaving,  and 
bamboo  work.  A  first-grade  college  teaches  up  to  the  B.A.  standard. 
A  District  school  is  controlled  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  municipality 
and  District  board,  and  two  girls'  schools  are  maintained  respectively  by 
the  Baptist  Zanana  Mission  and  by  subscriptions ;  a  technical  school 
is  afifiliated  to  the  District  school.  There  are  five  printing  presses, 
and  three  vernacular  newspapers  are  published  in  the  town. 

Bariya  State  {Deogarh  Bdriya). — Tributary  State  in  Rewa  Kantha, 
Bombay,  lying  between  22°  21'  and  22°  58'  N.  and  73°  41'and  74°  18'  E., 
with  an  estimated  area  of  813  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
east  and  west  by  the  British  District  of  the  Panch  Mahals  ;  on  the  north 
by  the  State  of  Sanjeli ;  and  on  the  south  by  the  State  of  Chota  Udaipur. 
The  extreme  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  39  miles.  The  country  is 
hilly  in  the  south  and  east,  but  fiat  in  the  west,  and  is  divided  into 
seven  subdivisions — Randhikpur,  Dudhia,  Umaria,  Haveli,  Kakadkhila, 
Sagtala,  and  Rajgarh.  Much  of  it  is  covered  with  forest.  The  climate 
is  damp  and  unhealthy,  fever  being  the  prevailing  disease. 

The  chiefs  of  Bariya  are  Chauhan  Rajputs,  who  are  said  to  have  been 
driven  south  by  the  advance  of  the  Musalmans  about  the  year  1244,  and 
to  have  taken  possession  of  the  city  and  fort  of  Champaner.  Here  they 
ruled  till  defeated  by  Mahmud  Begara  in  1484,  and  forced  to  retire  to 
the  wilder  parts  of  their  dominions.  Of  two  branches  of  the  family,  one 
founded  the  house  of  Chota  Udaipur  and  the  other  the  house  of  Bariya. 
The  connexion  of  this  State  with  the  British  dates  from  1803,  when,  in 
consequence  of  the  help  given  by  the  chief  to  the  British  army  in  their 
operations  against  Sindhia,  the  Government  subsidized  a  detachment  of 
Bariya  Bhils  at  a  monthly  cost  of  Rs.  1,800.  The  State  formed  part  of 
the  Central  India  Agency  up  to  1825,  when  it  was  transferred  to  Bombay. 
The  title  of  the  chief  is  Maharawal  of  Deogarh  Bariya,  and  he  is  entitled 
to  a  salute  of  9  guns.  He  holds  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption.  Suc- 
cession follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 

The  Census  of  1901  showed  a  population  of  81,579,  or  100  persons 
per  square  mile,  living  in  483  villages.  Hindus  numbered  79,149,  and 
Musalmans  2,301.      The  chief  castes  are  BhIls,   Kolis,  and  Naikdas 


BARKHAN 


21 


Of  the  total  area,  (Jiily  20  per  cent,  is  cultivated.  'J"he.  principal  products 
are  timber,  maize,  pulse,  gram,  and  wheat.  The  State  contains  no 
mines  and  no  manufactures.  The  chief  has  power  to  try  his  own 
subjects  for  capital  offences. 

The  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  56,000  was  derived 
from  land  and  Rs.  18,000  from  forests.  The  State  maintains  a  quasi- 
military  police  force  of  180  men.  Of  the  public  works  constructed 
before  1876  under  British  management,  the  chief  are  the  portion 
(21  miles  in  length)  of  the  high  road  between  Malwa  and  Gujarat  lying 
within  the  limits  of  the  State,  and  a  branch  7  miles  long  connecting  the 
village  of  Bariya  with  the  main  road.  Since  1892  the  Anand-Godhra 
Railway  has  been  extended  to  Ratlam,  passing  through  Bariya  territory. 
The  State  supports  a  dispensary,  which  treated  4,331  patients  in  1903-4, 
and  12  schools  for  boys,  with  an  average  attendance  of  427  pupils. 
There  is  also  one  girls'  school,  with  an  average  attendance  of  48. 

Bariya  Village  {Deogarh  Bariya). — Chief  town  of  the  State  of 
the  same  name  in  the  Rewa  Kantha  Agency,  Bombay,  situated  in 
22°  42'  N.  and  73°  51''  E.,  50  miles  north-east  of  Baroda,  about  5  miles 
from  Limkheda  on  the  Godhra-Ratlam  branch  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda, 
and  Central  India  Railway.  Population  (1901),  3,717.  It  lies  almost 
in  the  centre  of  the  State,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  Panam  river,  in  an 
angle  formed  by  two  lines  of  hills.  The  third  side  is  enclosed  by  a  wall 
built  by  Raja  Prithvviraj.  About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
town  seems  to  have  been  of  considerable  importance.  It  was  on  a  much- 
frequented  route  between  Gujarat  and  Malwa,  the  tolls  levied  at  its 
gates  generally  exceeding  Rs.  20,000  a  year.  Partly  on  the  Deogarh 
hill  and  partly  in  the  plain  stands  the  Bariya  fort,  with  walls  about 
10  feet  high  in  the  plain  and  6  feet  on  the  hill  slopes.  On  the  top  of 
the  hill  a  small  white  building  contains  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  Bariya 
house.  The  story  is  that  three  generations  after  the  fall  of  Champaner, 
when  Dungar  Singh  was  looking  for  a  site  for  his  capital,  one  of  his 
Bhils,  cutting  wood  on  a  hill,  struck  his  axe  against  two  round  stones, 
blood  gushed  out,  and  the  axe  was  shivered.  Hearing  his  story,  Dungar 
Singh  visited  the  spot,  called  it  Deogarh  or  '  God's  fort,'  installed  the 
stones  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  hill,  and  founded  his  capital  at  its 
foot.  The  stones  are  still  visited  with  great  pomp  by  the  Raja  every 
twelfth  year. 

Barkal.— Mart  in  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  situated  in  22°  43'  N.  and  92°  25'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Karnaphuli  river.  Population  (1901),  2,194.  It  gives  its  name  to  the 
hills  in  the  vicinity.  The  river  here  forms  rapids,  and  a  tramway  has 
been  constructed  by  which  passengers  and  goods  are  transhipped. 

Barkhan. — Tahsil  in  the  south-east  of  Loralai  District,  Baluchi- 
stan, lying  between  29°  37'  and  30°  21'  N.  and  69°  3'  and  70°  4'  E., 


22  BARKHAN 

and  bonlcring  the  riinjub,  with  an  area  of  1,317  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1901  was  14,922,  an  increase  of  4,276  on  the  rough 
estimate  made  in  1891.  The  head-quarters  station,  which  bears  the 
same  name  as  the  tahsil^  is  about  3,650  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
number  of  villages  is  114.  The  land  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  47,000.  The  frequent  existence  of  occupancy  rights  is  a  special 
feature  of  the  tenures  of  the  tahs'il.  In  the  LeghariTiarkhan  circle, 
one-third  of  the  revenue  levied  is  paid  to  the  Leghari  chief  as  superior 
proprietor  of  the  soil,  and  he  holds  a  revenue-free  grant  up  to  1907. 
Earkhan  rugs  are  well-known,  but  have  recently  deteriorated  in  quality. 

Barkhera. — ^The  name  of  four  Thakiirats  in  Central  India :  two  in 
the  Bhopawar  Agency,  distinguished  as  Mota  and  Chhota,  and  two  in 
the  Malwa  Agency,  known  as  Deo  DungrI  and  Panth. 

Barkur. — Village  in  the  Udipi  taluk  of  South  Kanara  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  13°  29'  N.  and  74°  48'  E.  The  traditional  capital 
of  Tuluva,  the  country  of  Tulu-speaking  people,  it  was  long  the  local 
seat  of  the  representatives  of  the  Hoysala  Ballalas  of  Dorasamudra,  who 
were  Jains  by  religion.  The  local  rulers  attained  practical  independence 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  the  most  powerful  of  them 
being  named  Bhutal  Pandya  (^circa  a.  d.  1250),  confounded  by  some  with 
the  Bhutal  Pandya  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  Aliya  Santana  law  of  inheri- 
tance peculiar  to  the  west  coast,  the  origin  of  which  is  really  much  earlier. 
When  the  Vijayanagar  kingdom  was  founded  in  1336,  Harihara,  its  first 
ruler,  stationed  a  viceroy  called  the  Rayaru  here  and  built  a  fort, 
remains  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  On  the  fall  of  Vijayanagar  the 
Bedniir  kings  asserted  their  authority  ;  and  in  the  ensuing  struggle  the 
Jains  were  almost  extirpated  and  Barkur  was  destroyed.  Ruined  tanks 
and  Jain  shrines  and  sculptures  .still  abound,  but  its  importance  has 
vanished  and  not  one  Jain  house  remains. 

Barliyar. — Village  in  the  Coonoor  taluk  of  the  Nilgiri  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  11°  20'  N.  and  76°  50'  E.,  6-|  miles  from  Coonoor, 
and  half-way  down  the  ghat  road  from  Coonoor  to  Mettupalaiyam. 
Population  (1901),  2,234.  Mr.  E.  B.  Thomas,  a  former  Collector  of  the 
District,  started  a  private  garden  here  in  1857,  which  was  afterwards 
taken  over  by  Government.  Experiments  in  tea  cultivation  and  in  the 
growth  of  medicinal  plants,  camphor,  rubbers,  &c.,  which  like  a  warm, 
damp  climate  at  a  moderate  elevation,  have  been  made.  The  garden, 
which  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  Presidency,  is  in  charge  of  the 
Curator  of  the  Government  Gardens  at  Ootacamund. 

Barmanda. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Barmer. — Head-quarters  of  the  Mallani  district  in  the  State  of 
Jodhpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  25°  45'  N.  and  71°  23'  E.,  on  the 
Jodhpur-Bikaner  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,064.  1  h^  present 
town  is  said  to  have  been   founded  in  the    thirteenth    century  by  a 


BARN  ALA  23 

Raja  Bahada,  and  to  have  been  called  after  him  Bahadaiiicr  (the  iiicrii 
or  '  hill-fort '  of  Bahada),  since  contracted  to  Barmen  It  is  substantially 
built  on  the  side  of  a  rocky  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  are  the  remains 
of  an  old  fort ;  and  it  possesses  a  post  and  telegraph  office,  a  vernacular 
school,  and  a  hospital.  Millstones  constructed  here  are  largely  exported, 
and  fuller's  earth  (used  as  a  hair-wash)  is  found  at  Kapuri  and  other 
places  in  the  neighbourhood.  Barnier  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the 
principal  estates  in  Mallani,  consisting  of  sixty-six  villages  held  by  five 
different  families,  who  pay  between  them  a  tribute  of  about  Rs.  1,000 
to  the  Darbar. 

Barnadi. — A  river  of  Assam  which  rises  in  the  Himalayas  and  enters 
the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  at  26°  13'  N.  and  91°  48''  E.  From  this 
point  it  once  formed  the  boundary  between  the  Districts  of  Kamrup 
and  Darrang,  but  the  river  has  so  often  changed  its  channel  that  its 
present  course  is  no  longer  recognized  as  the  boundary.  Near  the  hills 
the  Barnadi  flows  through  forest  and  grass  jungle,  but  farther  south  vil- 
lages appear  on  the  banks.  The  most  important  places  are  Sonarikhal, 
where  two  small  fairs  are  held,  and  Magamuri  market  in  the  Tamulpur 
tahsil,  which  is  situated  about  4  miles  from  the  Barnadi,  but  is  a  con- 
siderable centre  of  river-borne  trade.  A  ferry  plies  throughout  the  year 
at  Dumunichaki  on  the  trunk  road.  The  river  is  largely  used  as  a  trade 
route,  and  boats  of  4  tons  burthen  can  proceed  as  far  as  Sonarikhal 
throughout  the  year,  and  to  Malmuragaon  in  the  rainy  season.  It  has 
a  total  length  of  about  1 00  miles. 

Barnagar  {Nolai). — Town  in  the  Ujjain  district  of  Gwalior  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  23°  4'  N.  and  75°  23'  E.,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Chamla,  a  tributary  of  the  Chambal  river,  and  on  the  Khandwa- 
Ajmcr  branch  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
10,856.  The  town  grew  rapidly  between  1881  and  1891,  owing  to  the 
opening  of  the  railway,  and  in  spite  of  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900  is  still 
increasing.  It  belonged  formerly  to  the  Bahram  Loth  family  of  Raj- 
puts, who  still  hold  a  rent-free  village  in  the  neighbourhood ;  but  in  the 
eighteenth  century  it  fell  to  Sindhia.  Barnagar  is  managed  by  a  muni- 
cipality, constituted  in  1901,  which  controls  the  lighting  and  sanitation, 
having  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,200  a  year,  chiefly  derived  from  local 
taxes.  A  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  opium  has  arisen  since  the 
opening  of  the  railway.  A  State  post  office,  a  dispensary,  a  school,  and 
a  resthouse  are  situated  in  the  town.  Close  to  the  railway  station  there 
is  a  British  combined  post  and  telegraph  office. 

Barnagar. — Ancient  site  in  Gwalior  State,  Central  India  See 
Baro. 

Barnagore. — Town  in  the  Twenty-four  Parganas  District,  Bengal. 
See  Baranagar. 

Barnala    (or    Anahadgarh). — Head-quarters    of    the    Anahadgarh 


24  BAR  MALA 

tuzdmat,  Patiala  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  32°  23'  N.  and  75"^^  37'  E., 
52  miles  west  of  Patiala,  on  the  Rajpura-Bhatinda  branch  of  the  North- 
western Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,905.  Rebuilt  in  1722  by  Ala 
Singh,  Raja  of  Patiala,  it  remained  the  capital  of  the  State  until  the 
foundation  of  the  town  of  Patiala  in  1763,  and  the  hearths  of  its  founder 
are  still  revered  by  the  people.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  and 
surrounded  by  a  wall  of  masonry,  within  which  is  a  fort.  Lying  in  the 
centre  of  the  Jangal  tract,  it  is  a  mart  for  the  export  of  grain,  and  the 
State  has  constructed  a  large  market  to  foster  its  development.  The 
town  contains  a  dispensary,  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school,  and  a 
police  station. 

Baro  (or  Barnagar). — Village  and  ancient  site  in  the  Gwalior  State, 
Central  India,  lying  in  23°  56'  N.  and  78°  14'  E.  Baro  is  now  only 
a  small  village,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  533;  but  the  neighbour- 
hood is  covered  with  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city  of  considerable 
size,  the  ruins  extending  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Pathari.  The 
principal  remains  consist  of  Hindu  and  Jain  temples,  chiefly  situated 
close  to  a  large  tank,  the  waters  of  which  are  held  up  by  a  fine  old 
stone  dam.  The  village  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  Gayanath  hill,  a  part 
of  the  arm  of  the  Vindhyas  which  strikes  north  from  Bhilsa.  The 
sandstone  and  shales  of  the  Vindhya  series  are  well  exposed  here,  and 
the  former  has  been  employed  in  constructing  the  temples  and  houses 
of  Baro.  The  finest  building  is  the  Gadarmal  temple,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  tank ;  and  though  the  existing  structure  is  a  restoration  of 
the  original  shrine,  as  the  heterogeneous  nature  of  its  spire  shows,  it  is 
still  a  magnificent  example  of  mediaeval  Hindu  architecture.  The 
shape  of  the  sanctuary  is  interesting,  being  oblong  instead  of  square, 
and  within  it  is  an  unusually  fine  sculptured  figure.  The  temple 
formerly  stood  in  a  spacious  courtyard  and  was  surrounded  by  seven 
smaller  shrines,  now  mere  heaps  of  bricks.  The  entrance  to  the  court- 
yard lay  through  a  lofty  gate  of  which  one  richly  carved  pillar  is  still 
standing.  The  temples  in  this  group  are  all  Saivite,  there  being  no 
Jain  sculptures,  as  Cunningham  has  erroneously  stated.  The  other 
large  temple  is  called  the  Jain  Mandir,  and  has  evidently  been  restored 
by  Jains  from  the  remains  of  a  Hindu  building.  It  is  entirely  enclosed 
by  a  high  wall,  in  the  centre  of  which  there  is  a  samddhi  or  ascetic's 
tomb.  A  gallery  runs  round  all  four  sides,  the  shrines,  which  number 
eighteen  in  all  and  are  of  various  sizes,  lying  behind  it.  Six  spires  and 
several  domes  surmount  the  building,  and  have  been  made  up  of  the 
remains  of  Hindu  and  Jain  temples,  carved  with  images  peculiar  to 
each  religion.  The  cells,  however,  contain  only  Jain  images.  Tradition 
relates  that  Baro  was  once  a  large  and  wealthy  city,  but  was  destroyed 
at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  Chhatarsal,  the  chief  of  Panna, 
who  sacked  the  town.     It  is,  however,  impo.ssible  that  a  Hindu  should 


B  A  ROD  A    STATE  25 

have  injured  the  temples,  which  show  evident  signs  of  Muhammadan 
violence. 

[A.  Cunningham,  Archaeological  Sint'ey  Reports,  vol.  x,  p.  71.] 

Baroda  State  (or  Territories  of  the  Gaikwar). — An  important  Native 
State  in  direct  relations  with  the  Government  of  India,  but  geographically 
in  intimate  connexion  with  the  Presidency  of  Bombay.  The  territories 
of  the  State  are  situated  in  Gujarat  and  in  Kathiawar,  but  are  so  inter- 
laced with  British  Districts  that  it  is  impossible,  without  reference 
to  a  detailed  map,  to  realize  accurately  their  position,  extent,  and 
boundaries. 

Roughly  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  the  State  lies  between  20°  45' 
and  24°  9'  N.  and  70°  42'  and  73°  59'  E.,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Okhamandal  tract,  which  lies  between  22°  5'  and  22°  35'  N.  and 
69°  5'  and  69°  20'  E. 

The  name  by  which  the  natives  recognize  the  territories  of  Baroda 
and  the  capital  town  is  Wadodara,  which  according  to  tradition  is 
a  corrupt  form  of  the  Sanskrit  word  vatodar  ('  in  the  heart  of  the 
banyan-trees ').  At  any  rate,  this  name  well  describes  the  capital  of 
Baroda,  inasmuch  as  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  banyan-trees  exist  in 
great  numbers.  But  the  capital  had  also  another  name,  namely, 
Virakshetra  or  Virawati  ('  a  land  of  warriors  ') ;  'rnd  this  name  deserves 
special  notice,  as  it  is  mentioned  (along  with  Wadodara)  by  the  Gujarat 
poet  Premanand,  who  was  a  native  of  Baroda  and  flourished  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Moreover,  it  is  stated  that  the  ancient  name  of 
the  city  was  Chandanavati,  and  that  it  was  so  called  after  Raja  Chandan 
of  the  Dor  tribe  of  Rajputs,  who  wrested  it  from  the  Jains.  It  is  now 
almost  impossible  to  ascertain  when  the  various  changes  in  the  name 
were  made  ;  but  early  English  travellers  and  merchants  mention  the 
town  as  Brodera,  and  it  is  from  this  that  the  name  Baroda  is  derived. 

The  Gujarat  portion  of  the  State  is  divided  into  three  great  divisions 
or  prdnts  :  namely,  the  Kadi  prdnt  to  the  north,  the  Baroda  prdnt  in 
the  centre,  and  the  Navsari  prCmt  to  the  south  ;  while  the  Kathiawar 
portion  is  usually  known  as  the  Amreli  prdnt. 

A  consideration  of  the  boundaries  of  these  four  administrative 
divisions  will  make  clearer  the  geographical  position  of  the  scattered 
territories  of  the  State.  The  most  northerly  taliikas  of  the  Kadi  prdnt 
are  bounded  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  the  Palanpur  and  Rad- 
hanpur  States,  while  the  southern  half  is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Ahmadabad  District,  and  on  the  south  by  Ahmadabad  and  Kaira. 
The  eastern  portion  of  the //v?;//  has  for  its  boundary  the  Mahl  Kantha 
States.  The  Baroda  prdnt  has  on  its  northern  side  Kaira  District, 
which  juts  in  between  the  Petlad  and  Savli  tdhikas.  The  western  side 
is  bounded  by  a  portion  of  Kaira,  by  Cambay,  and  by  Broach  District. 
To  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the  river  Narbada,  a  portion  of  Broach 


26  BARODA    STATE 

District,  and  a  porlion  i)f  the  Rcwa  Kaiillui  States,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  Panch  Mahals  District  and  tlie  Rewa  Kantlia  States.  The  Navsari 
prant  is  nearly  split  into  two  by  a  portion  of  Surat  District  which 
almost  crosses  it  from  north  to  south.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  it  may  be 
said  with  tolerable  accuracy  that  this  praut  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Broach  and  the  Rewa  Kantha  States,  on  the  west  by  Surat  District  and 
the  sea,  on  the  south  by  Surat,  the  State  of  Bansda,  and  the  Dangs, 
and  on  the  east  by  Khandesh  District.  The  chief  portion  of  the 
scattered  Amreli //-<?«/  is  surrounded  by  Junagarh  and  other  Kathiawar 
States,  while  the  outlying  Okhamandal  subdivision  adjoins  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  and  is  bounded  on  the  land  side  by  the 
State  of  Navanagar. 

The  area  of  the  State  is  now  estimated  at  8,099  square  miles,  made 
up  as  follows  :  (i)  Kadi,  3,015  square  miles  ;  (2)  Baroda,  1,887  square 
miles;  (3)  Navsari,  1,952  square  miles;  (4)  Amreli,  1,245  square  miles. 
These  figures  differ  from  previous  estimates  by  reason  of  the  progress 
of  a  survey  which  is  now  almost  completed. 

The  greater  part  of  the  State  lies  within  the  area  of  the  coastal  band 

of  alluvium  which  has  been  formed  by  the  encroachment  on  the  shallow 

Gulf  of  Cambay  of  the  detrital  deposits  brought  down 

ysica  1^    j.j^g  many  rivers,  large  and  small,  which  drain  the 

province  of  Gujarat,  the  western  slopes  of  Malwa,  and 

the  southern  parts  of  Rajputana.     The  upward  slope  of  this  alluvial 

band  is  very  gradual,  so  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  face  of  the  country 

appears  to  be  a  dead  level,  and  it  is  only  when  the  eastern  side  of  the 

alluvial  flat  is  approached  that  low  hills  begin  to  make  their  appearance. 

In  the  Kadi /ra«/ the  only  eminences  that  diversify  the  general  flat 
surface  of  the  country  are  hillocks  and  ridges  of  blown  sandy  loam, 
which  rise,  on  an  average,  not  more  than  50  or  60  feet  above  the 
general  level,  and  only  occasionally  attain  a  height  of  100  feet  or  a  little 
more.  In  the  Baroda  prdnt  the  number  of  eminences  deserving  the 
name  of  hills  is  also  very  small,  and  the  only  ones  claiming  attention 
are  in  the  Sankheda  taliika  in  the  east.  Here  is  the  Achali  ridge,  of 
which  the  highest  point  rises  888  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  Lach- 
haras  hill  (508  feet).  The  Navsari /r<7///  is  much  more  diversified  than 
the  other  divisions  ;  and  here  the  height  of  the  hills  ranges  from  about 
400  feet  to  about  2,000,  with  the  exception  of  the  fortified  peak  of 
Salher,  which  attains  a  height  of  5,263  feet,  and  is  the  third  highest 
point  in  the  northern  section  of  the  Western  Ghats.  The  greater  part 
of  the  Amreli  prCmt  is  occupied  by  rolling  plains  which,  as  a  rule,  are 
very  treeless  and  cheerless  in  their  aspect,  and  it  is  only  in  the  Dhari 
tdluka  that  we  meet  with  hills  worthy  the  name.  This  taluka  includes  a 
great  part  of  the  well-known  Gir  forest,  a  tract  zoologically  interesting  as 
being  the  last  refuge  of  the  Gujarat  lion.     In  the  Baroda  section  of  the  Gir 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  27 

there  are  four  groups  of  hills  increasing  in  height  from  east  to  west :  the 
Sarkala  group,  lying  to  the  west  and  containing  Sarkala  peak  (2,128 
feet  above  sea-level) ;  the  Rajmal  group,  of  which  the  highest  point 
attains  an  elevation  of  1,623  feet;  the  Nandivela  group  (highest  point 
1,741  feet)  ;  the  Lapala  group,  with  a  culminating  point  of  1,547  feet. 
Across  the  northern  ridge  of  this  talitka  runs  a  small  range  of  much 
lower  hills,  which  near  its  western  end  is  cut  through  by  the  Shatranji 
river,  2\  miles  north-east  of  Dhuri.  Its  highest  point  is  Dharitor  (893 
feet  above  sea-level).  The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  Kodinar  taluka 
is  also  hilly,  but  on  a  much  smaller  scale,  while  in  Okhamandal  the 
highest  elevation  does  not  exceed  150  feet.  The  hills  are  mostly  flat- 
topped,  and  form  small  plateaux  which  in  most  cases  are  more  or  less 
scarped  round  their  summits. 

The  drainage  of  the  Gujarat  portion  of  the  State  falls  westwards  into 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  excepting  that  of  the  most  northerly  tdli/kas,  which 
are  drained  by  the  Banas  and  SaraswatI  rivers  into  the  Rann  of  Cutch. 
The  four  principal  rivers  falling  into  the  Gulf  are  the  Sabarmatl,  the 
Mahi,  the  Narbada,  and  the  Tapti,  all  passing  in  some  parts  of  their 
courses  through  the  Baroda  State.  Of  much  smaller  size  are  the 
Dhadhar,  between  the  Mahi  and  the  Narbada ;  the  Kim,  between  the 
Narbada  and  the  Tapti ;  and  the  Mindhola,  the  Puma,  and  the 
Ambika  to  the  south  of  the  Tapti.  The  Sabarmati  first  touches 
Baroda  territory  at  Virpur  in  the  Kheralu  tdliika,  and  then  flows 
through  it  for  about  18  miles,  thereafter  entering  Ahmadabad  District. 
It  receives  no  affluent  of  any  size  in  Baroda  ;  but  farther  down  it  is 
joined  by  the  Khari,  the  Meshwa,  and  the  Vatrak,  which  drain  outlying 
patches  of  the  State.  The  Mahi  only  skirts  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Salvi  taluka,  and  receives  the  waters  of  the  Mesri,  and  a  little  lower 
down  the  united  Goma  and  Karad,  which  flow  for  a  few  miles  through 
part  of  Savli.  The  central  part  of  the  Savli  taluka  discharges  its 
superfluous  rain-water  through  the  Meni,  which  falls  into  the  Mahi, 
8  miles  west  of  Baroda.  The  Narbada  itself  only  skirts  portions  of 
the  State  ;  but  its  northern  tributary,  the  Orsang  or  Or,  after  being 
joined  by  the  Unchh  and  Hiran,  which  drain  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Sankheda  taluka,  brings  it  an  important  accession  of  water.  The 
Tapti  flows  for  a  distance  of  43  miles  through  and  past  Baroda  territory 
in  the  Songarh  and  Vyara  tdlukas.  Farther  down  it  flows  for  23  miles 
through  the  Kamrej  taluka,  and  to  the  north  of  Surat  skirts  the  out- 
lying Baroda  township  of  Variav  for  2\  miles.  The  only  river  of  im- 
portance in  the  Amreli  prdnt  is  the  Shatranji,  which  rises  in  the  highest 
part  of  the  Gir  forest  and  drains  the  central  portion  of  the  division. 

The  Baroda /;77«/  presents  a  great  diversity  of  aspect,  the  reason  for 
this  being  that  south  of  the  city  of  Baroda  black  soil  extends  for  a 
distance  of  40  miles  to  the  Narbada,  while  all  the  country  to  the  north 


28  BARODA   STATE 

of  it  is  red  soil.  'Ihe  black  soil,  although  very  fertile,  is  remarkable  for 
the  desert-like  appearance  it  gives  to  the  country  where  it  predominates, 
while  where  the  surface  soil  becomes  red,  there  is  a  complete  change. 
The  latter  is  cultivated  from  one  end  to  the  other,  there  are  high 
hedges  between  the  fields,  and  the  view  is  shut  in  on  every  side  by 
lofty  trees  such  as  abound  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  country  between  Baroda  and  Ahmadabad  has 
often  been  said  to  present  the  appearance  of  an  English  park.  The 
Kadi  prdnt,  consisting  of  an  uninterrupted  plain  sloping  gently  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  has  a  much  more  uniform  and  conse- 
quently less  picturesque  aspect.  The  western  portion  of  the  division  is 
especially  monotonous.  The  Navsari  prdnt  is  the  most  variegated  of 
the  four  divisions  of  the  State,  affording  within  a  small  compass  the 
scenery  of  cultivated  land,  hills,  rivers,  forests,  and  seaboard.  All  the 
country  to  the  north  and  north-east  of  Navsari  is  thickly  wooded,  and 
these  woods  run  for  some  distance  down  into  the  more  level  plains  of 
Gujarat  along  the  Purna  and  Ambika  rivers.  The  most  hilly  portion  of 
the  country  is  in  the  Songarh  tdlnka.  The  inland  tdhikas  to  the  south- 
east of  Navsari,  and  the  country  adjoining  the  Bansda  State,  are  more 
level,  but  not  so  rich  or  well  cultivated  as  the  coast  subdivisions.  Still 
here  and  there  clumps  of  forest  appear,  which  become  larger  and  bolder 
as  an  approach  is  made  to  the  Dangs,  where  the  wood  is  very  thick. 
The  Amreli //-<?«/,  being,  with  the  exception  of  the  Gir,  devoid  of  hills 
and  containing  no  rivers  of  any  importance,  is  decidedly  unpicturesque. 
The  Okhamandal  division  is,  however,  attractive,  as  it  is  on  the  sea- 
coast,  and  contains  the  important  harbour  of  Dwarka. 

There  are  no  large  natural  lakes  worthy  of  the  name ;  but  in  the 
Kadi  prdnt  artificial  tanks  of  more  than  ordinary  dimensions  exist,  of 
which  the  Sarmishta  at  Vadnagar  and  the  tanks  in  Visnagar  and  near 
Patan  may  be  specially  mentioned.  The  Baroda /n////  contains  several 
large  tanks,  the  most  extensive  being  that  of  Maval  in  the  Savli  tdluka. 
The  most  important  is,  however,  the  great  reservoir,  almost  deserving 
the  name  of  lake,  which  has  been  constructed  at  Ajwa  during  the  rule 
of  the  present  Gaikwar,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  inhabitants  of 
Baroda  city  with  potable  water. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the  State  is  mainly  due  to  Mr.  R. 
Bruce  Foote  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  who,  in  the  years  1892-4, 
visited  and  carefully  examined  all  the  regions  containing  important 
minerals.  The  results  arrived  at  by  him  were  published  in  a  memoir, 
entitled  The  Geology  of  Baroda  State. 

In  the  Gujarat  portion,  recent  subaerial  formations,  consisting  mainly 
of  the  great  loess  or  blown-loam  deposit,  cover  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  country.  They  are  underlaid  by  the  old  alluvium  of  the  great 
rivers,    which    is    nearly    coextensive   with    them    in    the    same   area. 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  29 

but  is,  as  a  rule,  exposed  only  in  the  deep-cut  river  valleys.     To  the 

south  of  Baroda  city  the  loess  itself  is  largely  obscured  by  extensive 

sheets  of  black  soil.     The  Deccan  trap  rocks  stand  second  in  respect 

of  the  area  they  occupy,  and  are  followed,  but  at  a  long  distance,  by  the 

eocene  (Nummulitic)  rocks.     Archaean  granites  and  gneisses,  and  the 

lower  Cretaceous  rocks,  occupy  about  equal  areas  of  small  extent,  while 

the  Champaner  quartzites,  &c.,  are  exposed  over  an  area  of  only  about 

3  square  miles,  in  about  twenty  different  small  patches.     The  succession 

of  the   geological  formations  met  with    in  the  Kathiawar  part  of  the 

State  is  shown  in  order  in  the  following  schedule  : — 

T    ,-,         ,  f  Alluvium  and  subaerial  deposits. 

I.  Recent  \  ^^.,.  ,.  ^ 

(  Miholite. 

TT   r,,    ,.  f  Dwarka  beds. 

Il.leruary        {  ^.j  ^^^^ 

III.  Cretaceous —  Deccan  trap  series. 
Of  these  the  Deccan  trap  series  is  much  the  most  important  formation 
in  every  way,  being  in  many  parts  of  great  thickness.     The  Tertiary 
Gaj  and  Dwarka  beds  are  met  with  only  in  the  Okhamandal  tdhika. 

The  vegetation  of  the  greater  part  of  Baroda  territory  is  characteristic 
of  a  highly  cultivated  country,  .so  that  beyond  the  regular  crops  the 
plants  consist  mainly  of  field-weeds,  water  or  marsh  plants  growing  in 
or  fringing  rivers,  and  species  generally  met  with  in  hedges.  The  hilly 
portions  of  the  State  have  a  flora  that  is  more  or  less  characteristic  of 
the  Western  Ghats  generally.  Among  the  weeds  of  cultivation  the 
species  are  chiefly  referable  to  the  natural  families  Gramineae,  about 
thirty  species  ;  Leguminosae,  about  twenty  species  ;  Cotnposifae,  Labiatae, 
and  Cyperaceae,  about  ten  each  ;  Malvaceae,  Scrophuhirineae,  Convol- 
vi/Iaceae,  Acanihaceae,  Amarantaceae,  and  Euphorbiaceae,  from  six  to 
eight  each.  Aquatic  or  marsh  plants  include  Jussiaea  repens,  Trapa 
bispmosa,  CaesuUa  axillaris,  Ipomoea  aquatica,  Hygrophila  spinosa, 
Herpestis  Monnieria,  Polygonum  glabrum,  Hydrilla  verticillata,  Vallis- 
iieria  spiralis,  Ottelia  alismoides,  Aeluropiis  villosus,  Nymphaea  Lotus, 
Nelumbiiim  speciosum  (both  confined  to  ponds),  and  various  Cyperaceae. 
In  waste  places  and  by  road-sides  are  found  Tridax  procumbens, 
Achyranthes  aspera,  Coldenia  procumbens,  Evolvulus  alsinoides,  Tephrosia 
purpurea,  Heylandia  latebrosa,  Waltheria  indica,  various  species  of  Sida 
and  Hibiscus,  Hypoxis  aurea,  Chrozophora  plicata,  Jatropha  gossypifolia, 
Argemone  mexicana,  Tribulus  terrestris,  Calotropis  gigantea,  Echinops 
echinatus,  Solatium  xanthocarpum.  Datura  fastuosa,  Adhatoda  Vasica, 
Clerodendron  pJilomoides,  Leonotis  nepetaefolia,  and  various  grasses  such 
as  species  of  Andropogon,  Polytoca,  and  Apluda.  Shrubs  met  with  in 
waste  places  include  Woodfordia  floribunda.  Cassia  auriculata,  and 
species  of  Capparis  and  Zizyphus.  The  more  characteristic  hedge- 
plants  include  species  of  J/i^^r/^'rt',  Cadaba,  Capparis,  Zizyphus,  Alangium, 


30  BARODA    STATE 

ConUa,  Vifex  Negimdo,  one  or  two  of  the  cactus-like  Euphorbias, 
species  of  Phyllanthus,  Flueggea,  Jatropha,  and  at  times  Streblus  asper. 
Mixed  with  the  shrubs  in  these  liedges  are  often  various  trees,  the 
most  characteristic  being  Bombax  inalabaricum.  Climbing  in  hedges 
are  many  Legiuni/iosae,  Alefiispcrmaceae,  Co/ivolvulacene,  and  Aschpia- 
daceae.  Among  planted  trees  and  shrubs,  or  sometimes  semi-wild  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  villages,  may  be  mentioned  Michelia  Champaca, 
Artabotrys  odoratissimus,  Polyalthia  longifo/ia,  Afiona  squamosa,  Thes- 
pesia  populnea,  Greivia  asiaiica,  Aegle  Marmelos,  Zizyphus  Jujuba, 
Mangifeni  iiidica,  Spondias  iiia?igifera,  Moringa  pterygospcrma,  Dal- 
bergia  Sissoo,  ro7igamia  glabra,  Poinciana  e/ata,  Parkinso/na  aculeata, 
Tamarindus  indica,  Bauhinia  variegata,  Albizzta  Lebbek,  Acacia  arabica, 
Psidium  Guyava,  Piinica  Granatutn,  Opuntia  nigricans,  Cordia  Myxa, 
Bassia  la/ifolia,  Mimusops  Elengi,  Afillingtonia  horfensis,  several  species 
of  Ficus,  Artocarpus  integri/olia,  Holoptelia  integrifolia,  Phoenix  sylves- 
tris,  and  Borassus  flabellifer. 

The  wild  animals  to  be  found  in  the  Baroda  State  are  the  same  as 
those  of  Gujarat :  namely,  tiger,  leopard,  bear,  hog,  wolf,  hyena,  jackal, 
fox,  sdmbar,  spotted  deer,  barking-deer,  chinkdra,  ntlgai,  antelope. 
Monkeys  abound.  Under  game-birds  may  be  noticed  :  the  spur- 
winged  goose,  the  common  grey  goose,  wild  duck,  teal,  peafowl,  sand- 
grouse,  partridge,  quail,  snipe,  bustard,  florican,  plover,  «&c.  P'ish  are 
to  be  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  Mahl  and  the  Narbada.  Inland 
in  the  Navsari  division  fishing  is  carried  on  in  the  Purna,  Mindhola, 
and  Ambika  rivers. 

In  the  Baroda /rJ«/  the  hottest  months  are  May  and  June,  when  the 
maximum  temperature  is  about  105°,  though  occasionally  it  rises  to 
107°  or  even  to  iio"^.  The  minimum  temperature  during  this  period  is 
about  80°.  The  rainy  season  usually  sets  in  about  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  June,  and  ends  in  October.  During  this  period  the  climate  is 
hot,  moist,  and  very  relaxing,  with  a  maximum  temperature  of  about 
86°  and  a  minimum  of  78°.  The  cold  season,  which  commences  in 
November  and  lasts  for  about  four  months,  is  dry  and  cool,  the  average 
maximum  being  about  90°  and  the  minimum  50°.  The  coldest  months 
are  generally  December  and  January,  while  the  most  unhealthy  are 
September  and  October.  The  Kadi  prdnt  is  the  healthiest  division  of 
the  State.  In  the  hot  season  the  temperature  here  is  high,  the  average 
maximum  being  about  100°  and  the  minimum  72°;  bui  the  rainy 
season  is  pleasantly  moist  and  cool,  forming  a  great  contrast  to  the 
Baroda  division.  Moreover,  Kadi  enjoys  a  moderately  good  cold 
season,  lasting  from  November  till  the  middle  of  February,  with  a 
maximum  temperature  of  about  90°  and  a  minimum  of  51°.  In  the 
Navsari  prant  a  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  rani  or  forest 
mahdls  of  Mahuva,  Vyara,  Songarh,  and  part  of  Velachha,  which  are 


HISTOR  V 


31 


unhealthy,  and  the  rasfi  mahdls  of  Navsari,  Palsana,  Kamrej,  and 
Gandevi,  where  the  cHmate  is  good.  The  rani  mahdls  are  at  all  times 
insalubrious.  In  the  rdsti  inahdls,  the  healthiest  tracts  during  the  hot 
season  are  Navsari,  Gandevi,  and  Bilimora.  Here  the  close  proximity 
of  the  sea  maintains  a  moist  and  temperate  climate  ;  and  though  the 
early  part  of  the  hot  season  is  somewhat  heavy  and  close,  the  regular 
sea-breezes,  which  set  in  towards  the  end  of  April,  produce  a  most 
agreeable  change.  The  maximum  temperature  during  the  hot  season 
is  101°  and  the  minimum  74°.  In  the  rainy  season  the  corresponding 
figures  are  91°  and  70°,  and  in  the  cold  season  87°  and  60°.  In  the 
Amreli  prant  the  climate,  except  in  the  Dhari  and  Kodinar  tdlukas, 
which  are  malarious  and  enervating,  may  be  described  as  dry  and 
salubrious.  The  hot  season,  which  lasts  from  March  to  June,  has  an 
average  maximum  of  98°  and  a  minimum  of  84°.  During  this  portion 
of  the  year  fresh  and  cool  breezes  nearly  always  set  in  at  evening.  In 
the  rainy  season  the  maximum  is  88°  and  the  minimum  77°,  while  in 
the  cold  season  the  corresponding  figures  are  88°  and  60°. 

In  1 88 1  it  was  calculated,  probably  on  very  imperfect  data,  that  the 
average  rainfall  of  the  State  amounted  to  58  inches  in  Navsari,  37-3  in 
Baroda,  32  in  Kadi,  and  21-4  in  Amreli.  The  similar  averages  arrived 
at  for  the  decades  188 2-1 891  and  189  2- 19 -11  give  the  following 
result : — 


1882-91. 

1892-igoi. 

Navsari 
Baroda 
Kadi 
Amreli 

Inches. 

53-9 
37-9 
30.1 

22.3 

Inches. 
.M-9 

27.4 

21-6 

It  will  thus  be  noticed  that,  though  the  Southern  Gujarat  divisions  are 
much  more  favoured  than  the  northern  ones,  in  the  Navsari  division 
rainfall  appears  to  be  steadily  diminishing,  and  the  same  remark  holds 
good  with  reference  to  Kadi. 

The  history  of  the  Baroda  State  as  such  dates  only  from  the  break-up 
of  the   Mughal    empire.     For   previous    events    see 
Bombay  Presidency  and  Gujarat.  '^     ^* 

The  first  Maratha  invasion  of  Gujarat  took  place  in  1705.  A  few 
years  later,  in  1 7 1 2,  a  Maratha  leader,  Khande  Rao  Dabhade  by  name, 
became  so  powerful  that  he  was  able  to  exact  a  fourth  of  the  effects  of 
all  travellers  who  did  not  purchase  his  passport.  He  afterwards  took 
part  in  various  battles  with  the  Muhammadan  viceroys,  and  finally 
returned  to  Satara,  where  he  was  created  Senapati  or  commander-in- 
chief  in  1 7 16.  Four  years  later  the  emperor  Muhammad  Shah  granted 
the  Marathas  the  right  to  levy  chaiith  (a  quarter  of  the  revenues)  in 


BARODA    STA  TE 


Gujarat.  Khande  Rao  was  some  time  afterwards  present  at  the  battle 
of  Kalapur,  wliere  his  troops  behaved  with  great  bravery;  and  it  was  on 
this  occasion  that  one  of  his  officers,  Daniaji  Gaikwar,  distinguished 
himself  so  much  that  he  obtained  the  title  of  Shamsher  Bahadur,  or 
the  '  illustrious  swordsman,'  a  title  which  has  been  borne  by  the 
Gaikwars  ever  since.  In  1721  Khande  Rao  and  Damaji  both  died, 
the  former  being  succeeded  l)y  his  son  Trimbak  Rao,  and  the  latter 
by  his  nephew,  Pilaji. 

Pilaji  Gaikwar,  who  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  present 
ruling  family,  obtained  the  command  of  a  paga,  and  thereafter  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  incursions  into  Gujarat.  But  in  consequence 
of  internal  dissensions  he  was  obliged  to  remove  to  Songarh,  and  it  was 
from  here  that  he  conducted  his  future  raids.  Not  only  was  Songarh, 
therefore,  the  cradle  of  the  Gaikwar  house,  but  it  continued  to  be  their 
head-quarters  till  1766.  For  several  years  Pilaji,  aided  by  other 
Maratha  chiefs,  invaded  and  exacted  tribute  from  the  Surat  atthavisi 
or  'twenty-eight  subdivisions.'  In  1723  he  marched  on  Surat  itself, 
defeated  the  governor,  and  from  that  time  began  regularly  to  levy 
tribute  in  Gujarat,  Help  was  afterwards  afforded  him  by  the  Desais 
of  Padra,  Chhani,  and  Bhayali,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to 
direct  his  ravages  as  far  as  the  Mahi  river.  In  1725,  after  establishing 
his  claim  to  the  districts  south  of  the  Mahl — namely,  Baroda,  Nandod, 
Champaner,  Broach,  and  Surat — he  returned  to  his  stronghold  of 
Songarh,  while  at  about  the  same  time  his  superior,  the  Senapati, 
established  himself  at  Dabhoi,  not  far  from  Baroda,  making  this  place, 
which  had  been  captured  by  Pilaji,  his  regular  head-quarters.  Reverses 
now  began  to  befall  the  Marathas,  and  for  a  time  they  almost  lost  the 
hold  they  had  gained  over  Gujarat.  Pilaji  himself  was  forced  to  fly  to 
Cambay,  and  thereafter  to  Sorath.  But  the  Muhammadan  viceroy, 
Sarbuland  Khan,  owing  to  want  of  succour  from  Delhi,  rapidly  lost 
ground  in  his  turn,  and  was  obliged  to  cede  to  Pilaji  a  share  in  the 
chauth  of  the  districts  south  of  the  MahT.  On  the  other  hand,  as  Pilaji 
was  the  agent  of  the  Peshwa's  rival  the  Senapati,  the  Peshwa  directed 
his  own  adherent,  the  Ponwar,  to  drive  Pilaji  out.  Sarbuland  Khan 
now  came  to  terms  with  Peshwa  Baji  Rao,  and  promised  him  the 
chauth  and  sardeshmiikhi  (an  additional  tenth),  on  condition  that  the 
Peshwa  should  support  him  against  Pilaji  and  other  Maratha  leaders. 
Notwithstanding  this,  in  1727  Pilaji  succeeded  in  capcuring  both 
Baroda  and  Dabhoi.  The  next  event  that  happened  was  that  Sarbu- 
land Khan's  grants  to  the  Peshwa  were  not  ratified  at  the  Delhi  court, 
and  he  was  replaced  as  viceroy  in  1730  by  Abhai  Singh,  Raja  of 
Jodhpur.  As  soon  as  the  latter  was  in  power,  Bajl  Rao  concerted  with 
him  to  oppose  Pilaji,  and,  if  possible,  to  turn  him  out  of  Baroda.  For 
this  purpose  the  Peshwa  advanced  to  lay  siege  to  that  town  in  1731, 


HISTORY 


ZZ 


but  was  called  away  by  the  news  that  Nizam-ul-mulk's  army  was 
preparing  to  attack  him.  During  his  march  he  met  the  main  army  of 
the  Senapati,  who  was  supported  by  the  Gaikwar,  and  utterly  routed  it. 
This  was  the  celebrated  battle  of  Bhilapur,  which  took  place  in  1731. 
Pilaji,  who  was  grievously  wounded,  had  again  to  retire  to  Songarh  ; 
but,  fortunately  for  him,  the  PeshwS  did  not  deem  it  politic  to  crush 
completely  the  other  Maratha  chiefs,  and  so  he  nominated  Pilaji  as 
mutalik  of  the  new  Senapati,  Jaswant  Rao  Dabhade  (appointed  in  the 
place  of  his  father,  who  had  been  slain  in  the  battle).  At  the  same 
time  he  conferred  on  Pilaji  the  title  of  Sena  Khas  Khel  ('leader  of 
the  sovereign  band ').  Pilaji,  as  mutalik,  had  now  all  the  resources 
of  the  Senapati  at  his  disposal ;  but  his  energetic  career  was  put  a  stop 
to  in  1732,  when  he  was  assassinated  at  Dakor  by  the  agents  of  Abhai 
Singh. 

Pilaji  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Damaji,  who  at  the  beginning  of  his 
career  had  many  troubles  to  contend  with.  Abhai  Singh,  taking 
advantage  of  the  confusion  into  which  the  death  of  Pilaji  had  thrown 
the  Marathas,  marched  rapidly  on  Baroda,  and  captured  both  the  fort 
and  the  town.  Damaji  thereupon  fell  back  upon  Dabhoi,  and  busied 
himself  with  preparations  for  reprisals  in  the  direction  of  Ahmadabad. 
This  raid  met  with  partial  success,  and  he  was  also  fortunate  in  other 
expeditions,  the  result  being  that  Baroda  was  recaptured  in  1734,  since 
which  date  it  has  always  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Gaikwars.  After  this 
event  the  Gaikwar's  power  began  to  develop  rapidly,  and  Abhai  Singh 
was  consequently  constrained  in  1737  to  abandon  Gujarat  altogether. 
Thereafter  Momin  Khan,  who  had  succeeded  Abhai  Singh  as  Mughal 
viceroy,  but  found  it  difficult  to  maintain  his  position  at  Ahmadabad, 
summoned  Rangoji,  Damaji's  general,  to  his  assistance,  promising  that 
he  would,  with  certain  exceptions,  grant  the  Gaikwar  one-half  of  the 
revenue  of  Gujarat.  This  viceroy  remained  the  ally  of  the  Gaikwar 
until  his  death,  in  1742. 

About  this  period  Damaji's  power  increased  very  rapidly,  in  both 
Gujarat  and  Kathiawar.  This  may  be  inferred  from  his  capture  "of 
Bansah,  near  Ahmadabad,  and  from  his  demonstration  against  Broach, 
which  was  held  by  an  agent  for  the  Nizam,  upon  which  occasion 
it  is  said  that  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  share  in  the  customs  of  the 
city.  Moreover  as  the  Senapati,  Jaswant  Rao  Dabhade,  had  proved 
utterly  incompetent  for  his  situation,  Damaji  held  the  real  power  as 
agent  for  the  late  Senapati's  widow  ;  so  much  so,  that  when  she  died 
in  1747,  he  was  nominated  deputy  of  the  Peshwa  in  Gujarat.  It  was 
while  his  power  was  thus  increasing  that  Damaji  was  incited  to  make 
an  inroad  into  Malwa,  which  was  very  successful.  After  Momin  Khan's 
death,  Fida-ud-din  was  appointed  viceroy.  He  began  proceedings 
by  vigorously  attacking  and  defeating  Rangoji ;    but    on   the    return 

VOL.  VII.  D 


34  J>ARODA    STATE 

of  Damaji  from  Mahva,  matters  took  a  turn  in  favour  of  the  Marathas. 
Fida-ud-din  fled  the  country,  Rangoji  captured  Petlad,  and  Damaji's 
brother,  Khande  Rao,  established  the  rights  of  his  family  to  share  in  the 
city  of  Ahmadabad.  Meanwhile,  there  had  been  dissensions  at  Surat, 
which  resulted,  in  1751,  in  a  share  of  the  revenue  of  that  city  being 
granted  to  Damaji,  an  equal  share  being  subsequently  allotted  to  the 
Peshwa.  In  1751  Damaji  was  called  upon  by  Tarabai  of  Satara  to 
rescue  her  grandson,  the  representative  of  Sivaji,  from  the  Brahmans. 
In  response  to  this  request,  he  at  once  left  Songarh  with  an  army 
of  15,000  men,  and  attacked  and  defeated  at  Nimb  a  much  stronger 
force  which  opposed  his  march.  But  disaster  afterwards  befell  him,  and 
he  was  finally  hemmed  in  by  the  Peshwa's  army.  Damaji  then  offered 
to  come  to  terms  with  the  Peshwa ;  but  the  latter,  pretending  to 
consider  the  matter,  enticed  him  into  his  neighbourhood,  and  then 
suddenly  seized  him  and  imprisoned  him  at  Poona.  The  Peshwa  now 
made  great  efforts  to  wrest  Gujarat  from  the  Mughal  and  the  Gaikwar 
party  ;  but  failing  in  his  attempts,  he  resolved  to  come  to  terms  with 
Damaji,  and  the  latter  found  himself  obliged  to  accept  the  Peshwa's 
conditions,  which  involved  the  cession  of  half  of  Gujarat  and  of  all 
future  conquests.  He  was  also  to  maintain  10,000  horse,  to  assist  the 
Peshwa  in  time  of  need,  and  to  pay  5^  lakhs  as  tribute.  The  next  event 
of  importance  which  took  place  was  the  campaign  of  Damaji  and  other 
powerful  Maratha  chiefs  in  1753,  which  resulted  in  the  fall  of  Ahmad- 
abad. From  this  time  the  Mughal  authority  in  Gujarat  practically 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  country  was  divided  between  the  Peshwa 
and  the  Gaikwar,  according  to  the  terms  previously  settled. 

Damaji  Gaikwar  was  one  of  the  many  great  Maratha  chiefs  who 
marched  to  fight  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani,  and  in  the  fatal  struggle  which 
took  place  on  the  plain  of  Panipat  (1761)  he  and  his  troops  distin- 
guished themselves  highly.  He  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape  death, 
and  to  make  an  honourable  return  to  Gujarat.  There  he  continued  with 
undiminished  vigour  to  crush  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Musalmans, 
who  had  hoped  to  win  something  by  the  great  disaster  which  had 
befallen  the  Marathas.  It  was  shortly  after  this  that  Damaji  transferred 
his  capital  from  Songarh  to  Patau  (the  ancient  Anhilvada).  Between 
1763  and  1766  he  took  possession  of  almost  the  whole  of  what  is  now 
the  Kadi  prdni,  and  thereafter  added  very  considerably  to  his  power 
and  revenue  by  conquests  in  Kathiawar.  He  also  levied  tribute  on 
the  States  of  Idar  and  Rajpipla.  The  disaster  at  Panipat  was  shortly 
followed  by  the  death  of  the  Peshwa  Balaji,  when  the  rule  passed  to  the 
youthful  Madhava  Rao,  who  was  soon  thwarted  by  his  ambitious  uncle, 
Raghunath  Rao  (Raghuba),  with  whom  Damaji  elected  to  make  a  close 
alliance.  But  in  1768  Madhava  Rao  defeated  the  allies  at  Dhodap,  and 
captured  Raghunath  Rao  and  Damaji's  son,  Govind  Rao.     The  most 


HIS  TOR  Y  35 

onerous  terms  were  again  exacted  from  the  Gaikwar  by  the  Peshwa  ; 
and  as  Damaji  himself  died  soon  after  the  battle,  it  appeared  as  if  the 
prosperity  of  his  house  had  come  to  an  end. 

Damaji  left  behind  him  six  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest,  Sayaji  Rao, 
an  idiot,  and  the  second,  Govind  Rao,  a  weak  and  vacillating  character, 
at  once  claimed  the  gaddi.  These  rivals  were  under  the  necessity 
of  abiding  by  the  arbitration  of  the  Peshwa,  who  thereupon  released 
Govind  Rao  from  his  imprisonment  at  Poona,  and  confirmed  him 
in  the  title,  but  only  after  he  had  agreed  to  pay  a  very  large  sum. 
In  the  meantime,  Fateh  Singh,  the  youngest  son  of  Damaji,  occupied 
the  city  of  Baroda  on  behalf  of  Sayaji  Rao.  In  177 r  Fateh  Singh 
proceeded  to  Poona,  and  there  obtained  a  revision  of  the  Peshwa's 
decision.  Sayaji  Rao,  whose  position,  however,  was  always  merely 
nominal,  was  now  declared  Sena  Khas  Khel,  and  Fateh  Singh  was 
appointed  his  miitdlik.  These  arrangements  had,  however,  scarcely 
been  completed,  when  Khande  Rao,  a  younger  son  of  Pilaji  Gaikwar, 
on  whom  his  father  had  bestowed  the  governorship  of  Kadi,  began  to 
disturb  the  country,  first  assisting  one  nephew  and  then  the  other,  just 
as  his  policy  dictated.  Fateh  Singh,  being  under  the  apprehension  that 
in  this  disturbed  state  of  affairs  the  Poona  court  would  have  little 
difficulty  in  acquiring  Gujarat,  returned  from  Poona  to  Baroda,  and 
made  overtures  to  the  East  India  Company.  In  1772,  when  Broach 
was  taken  by  assault  by  the  British,  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the 
Bombay  Government  for  a  mutual  participation  in  the  revenues  of  the 
conquered  districts.  But  further  proposals  of  Fateh  Singh  being 
refused,  he  and  Govind  Rao  were  left  for  some  time  to  fight  out  their 
quarrel  by  themselves.  In  the  meanwhile,  Raghuba,  who  had  made 
himself  Peshwa,  reversed  the  decision  given  in  favour  of  Sayaji  Rao  and 
recognized  his  old  ally,  Govind  Rao,  as  Sena  Khas  Khel.  Raghuba 
himself  was  soon  after  ousted  from  Poona  by  a  Regency  established  on 
behalf  of  his  infant  grand-nephew  (Madhava  Rao  II) ;  but  in  March, 
1775,  he  obtained  the  support  of  the  Bombay  Government  by  the 
Treaty  of  Surat,  under  the  sixth  article  of  which  he  engaged  himself  to 
'procure  from  the  Gaikwar  a  grant  to  the  Company  for  ever  of  his  share 
in  the  revenues  of  the  town  and  pargana  of  Broach.'  On  this  treaty 
being  disallowed  by  the  Supreme  Government  and  replaced  by  the 
Treaty  of  Purandhar  with  the  Poona  Regency,  the  rival  Gaikwars,  who 
had  been  in  continuous  conflict,  were  again  left  to  settle  their  own 
disputes.  What  followed  is  not  accurately  known  ;  but  the  upshot  was 
that  in  February,  1778,  Fateh  Singh  obtained  from  Poona  the  title  of 
Sena  Khas  Khel,  and  Govind  Rao  had  to  be  content  with  a  jdgir 
of  2  lakhs. 

Fateh  Singh   devoted   the   first  part  of   his  undisturbed  rule  to  an 
attempt   to   get   back   from    the    Company   Broach   and    the   districts 

D   2 


36  B  ARC  DA    STATE 

adjoining,  which  had  lieen  handed  over  by  the  Miirathas  in  virtue  of  the 
Treaty  of  Piirandhar  (1776);  l)ut  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful.  In 
1779  a  second  war  broke  out  between  the  Poona  Regency  and  the 
British,  and  Fateli  Singh  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  latter.  This 
was  ratiiied  by  a  treaty  made  at  Kandila  (Dabhoi)  in  January,  1780,  by 
the  terms  of  which  Fateh  Singh  was  to  become  independent  of  the 
Peshwa,  and  was  to  retain  his  own  share  of  Gujarat,  while  the  British 
took  the  Peshwa's  portion.  This  arrangement  was  afterwards  virtually 
cancelled  by  the  Treaty  of  Salbai.  In  February,  1780,  Holkar  and 
Sindhia,  as  the  Peshwa's  allies,  crossed  the  Narbada  and  attacked 
Dabhoi,  a  town  which  was  bravely  defended  by  Mr.  James  Forbes 
(well-known  as  the  author  of  the  Oriental  M€f?wirs).  The  war  after- 
wards dragged  on  without  any  decided  results,  Fateh  Singh  remaining 
faithful  to  the  British,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Sindhia  to  win 
him  over.  It  was  concluded  by  the  Treaty  of  Salbai  (May,  1782),  the 
general  effect  of  which  was  to  leave  the  Gaikwar  in  his  old  position. 
He  retained  what  he  had  before  the  commencement  of  the  war,  but  he 
was  for  the  future  to  pay  tribute  to  Poona  as  usual.  Fateh  Singh  died 
in  December,  1789. 

In  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  Govind  Rao,  another  brother, 
Manaji,  at  once  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  and  paid  a  large  sum 
to  Poona  as  nazar.  Sindhia,  however,  supported  the  cause  of  Govind 
Rao,  and  the  rivalry  between  the  brothers  was  kept  alive  until  Manaji's 
death,  which  occurred  in  August,  1793.  The  imbecile  Sayaji  Rao  had 
died  in  the  previous  year.  Govind  Rao  was  now  allowed  to  assume,  or 
rather  to  purchase,  the  title  of  Sena  Khas  Khel.  The  demands  made 
by  the  Poona  court  were  so  heavy  that  the  Company  was  compelled  to 
interfere  in  order  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the  Baroda  State. 
Before  entering  his  capital,  Govind  Rao  had  one  more  struggle,  for 
a  rebellion  was  raised  against  him  by  his  own  illegitimate  son,  Kanhoji. 
The  latter  was,  however,  betrayed  by  his  own  forces,  and  was  obliged  to 
surrender  to  his  father.  Afterwards  he  escaped  and  was  joined  in  a  fresh 
insurrection  by  Malhar  Rao,  the  son  of  Khande  Rao,  previously  men- 
tioned, who  had  died  in  1 785.  But  the  two  quarrelled,  Kanhoji  was  again 
betrayed  and  imprisoned,  and  Malhar  Rao  was  forced  to  purchase  peace. 
The  matter  of  greatest  interest  which  occurred  during  the  rule  of  Govind 
Rao  was  his  campaign  against  Aba  Shelukar,  who  had  been  entrusted 
with  the  revenue  management  of  the  Ahmadabad  district  on  behalf  of 
the  Peshwa.  Several  engagements  took  place,  and  finally  Shelukar  was 
betrayed  by  his  own  troops  and  imprisoned  at  Baroda.  Hostilities  now 
ceased,  and  the  Peshwa  in  1799,  for  the  first  time,  leased  the  Ahmad- 
abad territory  to  the  Gaikwar.  Shortly  afterwards,  in  September,  1800, 
Govind  Rao  died. 

Anand  Rao,  the  eldest  legitimate  son  of  Govind  Rao,  succeeded ; 


HISTORY  3  7 

but  he  was  of  weak  mind,  and  his  position  was  soon  disputed  by  his 
illegitimate  brother  KanhojT  and  the  latter's  old  ally  Malhar  Rao.  Both 
parties  appealed  to  the  Bombay  Government,  which  decided  in  favour 
of  Anand  Rao  ;  and  in  April,  1802,  a  force  from  Cam  bay  entered  Kadi 
and  established  Anand  Rao's  authority.  This  was  the  first  of  many 
services  rendered  to  the  Baroda  State  by  the  Bombay  Government,  and 
the  latter  was  not  slow  to  claim  an  ample  reward.  A  treat)'  was  signed  in 
July,  1802,  by  which  considerable  territories  were  ceded  to  the  Company, 
and  the  right  of  British  interference  in  the  case  of  anything  improper 
or  unjust  being  done  by  Anand  Rao  or  his  successors  was  acknowledged. 
From  this  time  the  authority  of  the  British  Resident  at  Baroda  was 
paramount.  It  was  at  the  same  period  that  Holkar  and  Sindhia,  who 
were  at  war  with  each  other,  covered  Central  India  with  their  armies 
and  threw  covetous  eyes  on  Gujarat.  Holkar's  attempt  was  at  once 
frustrated  ;  but  Sindhia's  designs  were  more  alarming,  as  he  sent  an 
army  of  12,000  or  14,000  men  in  the  direction  of  the  northern  dis- 
tricts. He  was,  however,  pacified  when,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
British,  he  received  10  lakhs  which  he  claimed  to  be  due  to  him. 
In  1804  the  Peshwa  again  renewed  the  lease  of  the  Ahmadabad 
territory  to  the  Gaikwar,  for  a  term  of  ten  years,  at  the  rental  of 
A,\  lakhs  per  annum. 

In  April,  1805,  a  definitive  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  British 
Government  and  the  State  of  Baroda,  by  which  the  establishment  of 
a  Subsidiary  force  and  the  cession  of  certain  districts  for  its  maintenance 
were  settled.  This  treaty  also  contained  articles  to  the  effect  that  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  State  should  be  conducted  by  the  British,  and 
that  all  differences  with  the  Peshwa  should  be  similarly  arranged. 
Fateh  Singh,  a  younger  brother  of  Anand  Rao,  became  a  member  of 
the  State  council  in  1807,  and  gradually  exercised  increased  powers. 
In  181 2  the  celebrated  Gangadhar  Sastri  became  Minister.  The  rest- 
less intriguer,  KanhojT,  again  endeavoured  to  subvert  his  brother's 
administration  ;  but  the  plot  was  discovered  in  good  time,  and  Kanhoji 
was  arrested  and  promptly  deported  to  Madras.  The  long-pending 
claims  of  the  Peshwa  on  the  Gaikwar  now  came  up  for  settlement ; 
and,  as  the  political  relations  between  the  States  were  anything  but 
friendly,  it  was  feared  that  the  lease  of  Ahmadabad  would  not  be 
renewed.  Gangadhar  Sastri  was  accordingly  deputed  to  negotiate  at 
Poona.  As  a  result  of  intrigues,  set  on  foot  by  Sitaram,  a  dismissed 
Minister  of  Baroda,  the  Peshwa  refused  to  listen  to  the  terms  offered 
by  the  Sastri,  assigned  the  Ahmadabad  farm  to  Trimbakji  Danglia, 
and  left  all  other  points  unsettled.  While  negotiations  were  still 
being  carried  on,  Gangadhar  Sastri  was  murdered.  An  attempt  at 
a  revolution  in  Sitaram's  favour  followed,  but  it  proved  abortive,  and 
finally  in  1816  the  ex-Minister  was  deported  to  Navsari, 


;,S  /'.I  ROD.  I    STATE 

A  confederacy  of  the  great  Maralhil  cliiefs  had  lunv  been  formed, 
and  the  Peshwa  was  tampering  witli  Katcli  Singh,  while  his  agents  were 
causing  disturbances  in  Kathiawar.  'I"hc  question  of  the  Peshwa's 
claims  on  the  (kiikwar  was  opened  afresh,  and  matters  proceeded  so 
tar  tliat  every  preparation  for  war  between  the  British  and  the  Peshwa 
had  been  made,  when  the  latter  suddenly  gave  way,  the  result  being 
that  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Poona  in  1817.  Under  this  the  Gaikwar 
became  independent  of  the  Peshwa,  who  surrendered  all  i)ast  claims 
for  an  annual  payment  of  4  lakhs,  the  tribute  of  Kathiawar  was  ceded 
to  the  British,  and  Ahmadabad  was  farmed  in  perpetuity  to  the  Gaikwar 
for  \\  lakhs  per  annum.  In  November  of  the  same  year  a  supple- 
mental treaty  was  entered  into  with  the  Gaikwar,  by  which  the  latter 
consented  to  make  additions  to  the  Subsidiary  force,  ceded  his  share  of 
Ahmadabad  on  payment  of  its  estimated  value,  and  obtained  the 
province  of  Okhamandal  and  the  island  of  Beyt,  &c.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  describe  here  the  wars  which  ensued  almost  immediately  with  BajT 
Rao  Peshwa,  the  Raja  of  Nagpur,  the  Pindari  hordes,  and  Holkar, 
during  which  Fateh  Singh  behaved  as  a  stanch  ally  of  the  British. 
The  reward  for  his  valuable  aid  was  the  remission  of  the  tribute  of 
4  lakhs,  due  to  the  Peshwa,  whose  power  was  now  destroyed.  Shortly 
afterwards,  in  1818,  Fateh  Singh  died,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
regency  by  his  younger  brother,  Sayaji  Rao.  Anand  Rao  himself  died 
in  1 819,  and  Sayaji  Rao  ruled  in  his  own  name. 

In  1820  the  commission,  which,  with  the  Resident  at  its  head,  had 
carried  on  the  administration  during  the  reign  of  Anand  Rao,  was 
abolished,  and  the  Gaikwar  appointed  two  Ministers,  but,  as  he  trusted 
neither,  employed  Mir  Sarfaraz  All  to  watch  them  both.  The  State 
was,  however,  in  great  pecuniary  embarrassment ;  and  as  the  Gaikwar 
refused  to  follow  the  advice  of  the  Resident,  affairs,  both  financial  and 
political,  rapidly  grew  worse.  After  much  delay  Sayaji  Rao  consented 
to  the  issue  of  septennial  leases  of  the  mahdls  to  respectable  men, 
instead  of  annual  leases  to  persons  of  doubtful  means  and  position. 
The  intrigues  which  followed  the  adoption  of  this  reform  led  to  the 
dismissal  of  one  of  the  Ministers  and  the  appointment  of  two  joint 
Dlwans.  In  1828  Sir  John  Malcolm,  Governor  of  Bombay,  issued 
a  proclamation  announcing  the  temporary  sequestration  of  Petlad, 
Dabhoi,  Kadi,  Amreli,  &c.,  the  annual  value  of  which  was  estimated 
at  10  lakhs.  And  again  in  1830,  districts  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
ID  lakhs  were  attached,  in  order  to  provide  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  Contingent  of  3,000  horse  ;  but  this  second  sequestration  was 
disapproved  by  the  Court  of  Directors  in  1832,  and  the  territory  was 
restored.  In  1831  Sir  John  Malcolm  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Clare, 
who  attempted  by  conciliatory  measures  to  undo  the  consequences  of 
his  predecessor's  severity.      Steps  were  taken  to  satisfy  the  creditors 


HISTOR  V  39 

of  the  State,  and  the  Gaikwar  pledged  liimself  to  keep  the  Contingent 
in  an  efficient  condition.  Unfortunately,  however,  a  period  of  mis- 
government  again  began,  and  all  remonstrances  were  unheeded.  The 
deposition  of  Sayaji  Rao  was  contemplated  in  1838,  but  in  1839  he 
made  a  complete  submission  and  expressed  his  desire  to  conform  to 
the  wishes  of  the  Government.  A  better  system  of  administration  was 
introduced  into  that  portion  of  Kathiawar  which  belonged  to  the 
Gaikwar,  and  compensation  was  paid  for  robberies  committed  by 
Baroda  subjects.  But  corrupt  practices  still  prevailed  at  Baroda,  not 
only  in  and  about  the  court,  but  also  in  the  Resident's  office,  and 
intrigues  were  rampant. 

In  1847  Sayaji  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Ganpat  Rao,  who 
introduced  many  reforms  into  the  State.  Influenced  by  the  Resident, 
he  built  roads,  bridges,  and  sarais,  planted  wayside  trees,  prohibited 
infanticide  and  the  sale  of  children,  settled  claims  for  robberies  com- 
mitted in  the  State,  and  generally  pursued  a  path  of  progress.  In  1854 
the  political  supervision  of  Baroda  was  transferred  from  the  Govern- 
ment of  Bombay  to  the  Supreme  Government.  The  last  year  of 
Ganpat  Rao's  life  (1856)  was  marked  by  his  cession  of  land  required 
for  the  construction  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India 
Railway. 

As  Ganpat  Rao  left  no  legitimate  male  issue,  he  was  succeeded  by 
the  eldest  of  his  surviving  brothers,  Khande  Rao.  During  the  Mutiny 
the  young  Gaikwar  stood  stanchly  by  the  British,  and  assisted  in 
maintaining  peace  and  security  in  Gujarat.  In  1862  he  received  the 
right  of  adoption.  He  was  also  created  a  G.C.S.I.  Khande  Rao, 
especially  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  desired  to  improve  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  State,  and  introduced  some  beneficial  changes  ;  but  his 
fondness  for  the  chase,  jewels,  d*plays,  and  buildings  left  him  no 
money  to  spend  on  useful  public  works.  However,  he  constructed  the 
branch  railway  from  Miyagam  to  Dabhoi,  attempted  to  improve  the 
land  revenue  system,  and  commenced  a  revenue  survey. 

At  the  time  of  Khande  Rao's  death  in  1870,  his  brother  Malhar  Rao, 
who  had  been  engaged  in  a  plot  for  his  deposition,  was  a  prisoner  at 
Padra.  But  as  he  was  the  undisputed  heir  in  default  of  legitimate 
sons,  he  was  at  once  released  and  proclaimed  Maharaja.  From  the 
outset  Malhar  Rao  determined  to  take  revenge  for  the  sufferings  he  had 
endured  at  Padra,  and  consequently  ill-treated  Khande  Rao's  servants 
and  dependents.  The  administration  rapidly  deteriorated,  the  weight 
of  taxation  was  increased,  and  folly,  extravagance,  and  cruelty  prevailed. 
The  Bombay  Government,  to  which  the  direction  of  affairs  in  Baroda 
had  been  restored  in  i860,  appointed  Colonel  Phayre  as  Resident,  who 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  exposing  abuses.  As  a  result  of  Colonel 
Phayre's  strong  representations,  the  Government  of  India  appointed 


40  BARODA    STATE 

a  Commission  of  inquii)-,   whicli   reported  tlial  tlie  charge  of  general 
niiikulniinistration  was  proved.      Malhar  Rao  was  warnetl  tliat  he  would 
he  held  responsihle,  and  called  upon  to  effect  thorough  reforms  before 
the  end  of  1875.     In  consequence  of  the  strained  relations  between  the 
Resident  and  the  Maharaja,  it  was  determined  to  appoint  Colonel  Sir 
Lewis  Pelly,  in  i)lace  of  Colonel  Phayre,  as  Special  Commissioner  and 
Agent  to  the  Governor-General.     Meanwhile,  in  November,   1874,  an 
attempt   to   poison   Colonel   Phayre    was    reported.      Sir   Lewis    Pelly 
arrived  in  December  and  assumed  the  virtual  direction  of  the  adminis- 
tration.      Inquiries    were    made    into   the    poisoning   case  ;    and    the 
Government  of  India  issued  a  proclamation  in  January,  1875,  notifying 
that  the  Gaikwar  had  been  arrested,  and  that,  pending  the  result  of  an 
investigation  by  a  Commission,  they  had  assumed  the  administration 
of  the  State.      The    ("ommission,   which    was   presided   over    by    Sir 
Richard  Couch,  Chief  Justice  of  Bengal,  was  not  unanimous   in  its 
finding.     The  three  English  members  came  to  the  conclusion  that  an 
attempt  to  poison  Colonel  Phayre  had  been  instigated  by  Malhar  Rao, 
while  the  three  native  members  did  not  consider  him  guilty.     It  was 
finally  decided,  as  stated  in  a  proclamation  issued  in  1875,  that  the 
Maharaja  must  be  deposed,  '  not  because  the  British  Government  have 
assumed  that  the  result  of  the  inquiry  has  been  to  prove  the  truth  of 
the  imputation  against  His  Highness,  but  because,  having  regard  to  all 
the  circumstances  relating  to  the  affairs  of  Baroda  from  the  accession 
of  His   Highness   Malhar  Rao,   his   notorious   misconduct,   his   gross 
misgovernment  of  the  State,  and  his  evident  incapacity  to  carry  into 
effect   necessary  reforms,'  the  step  was  imperatively  called   for.      In 
accordance  with  this  resolution,  Malhar  Rao  was  at  once  deported  to 
Madras,  where  he  resided  under  the  surveillance  of  a  British  officer 
until  his  death  in   1893. 

Jamnabai,  widow  of  Khande  Rao,  returned  to  Baroda,  and,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Government  of  India,  formally  adopted  as  the  son  and 
heir  of  Khande  Rao,  with  the  name  of  Sayaji  Rao,  a  boy  of  thirteen 
years  of  age,  who  was  descended  from  a  distant  branch  of  the  family. 
During  his  minority  the  administration  was  conducted  by  Raja 
Sir  T.  Madhava  Rao  as  Dlwan,  and  great  reforms  were  inaugurated  in 
every  branch  of  the  service.  The  finances  were  restored  to  a  healthy 
condition,  an  efficient  revenue  system  was  introduced,  vexatious  taxes 
were  swept  away,  the  judicial,  police,  medical,  and  educational  depart- 
ments were  reorganized,  the  system  of  railways  was  widely  extended, 
and  public  buildings  were  erected  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  In  1881 
Sayaji  Rao,  whose  education  had  been  carefully  supervised  by  a 
European  tutor,  was  formally  installed  and  invested  with  full  powers. 
He  immediately  commenced  his  career  by  entering  vigorously  into 
every  detail  of  the  administration,  as  will   be  described  below.     He 


POPULATION  41 

bears  the  hereditary  title  of  Maharaja,  and  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of 
21  guns. 

The  style  of  architecture,  as  in  the  rest  of  Gujarat,  is  that  sometimes 
called  Jain,  though  many  of  the  finest  temples  are  Hindu.  It  is 
remarkable  that  the  art  is  still  living,  and  has  not  been  replaced  by 
inferior  work  in  brick  and  plaster,  as  in  some  parts  of  India.  The 
temples  are  distinguished  by  tapering  spires  or  sikharas,  ornamented 
gateways,  halls  or  77iandapas,  and  ornamental  archways  in  front  of  the 
main  buildings.  The  earliest  buildings  were  probably  of  brick ;  but 
later  the  sandstone  of  northern  Kathiawar  came  into  use,  while  white 
marble  was  also  employed,  though  the  latter  material  has  been  carried 
away  and  burnt  for  lime.  Many  temples  were  destroyed  by  the 
Muhammadans.  The  chief  remains  now  existing  are  at  Patan, 
SiDHPUR,  MoDHERA,  Dabhoi,  and  Vadnagar  ;  but  a  number  of  places 
still  await  examination. 

The  table  on  p.  77  shows  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901. 

The  density  of  population  for  the  whole  State  is  229  persons  per  square 

mile,  ranging  from  147  in  Amreli  to  288  in  the  Baroda      _       .    . 

-   .  ,    J-         .         •  T       ,  ,,    •  ,      1      r       Population. 

prant,    excludmg  the   city,     in  the  small  island  ot 

Beyt  and  in  the  city  of  Baroda   the  density  is  far  greater,  rising  to 

1,153  ^"d   11,532  persons  per  square  mile.     The  rural  population  is 

about  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  towns. 

In  1872  the  population  was  estimated  at  2,004,442,  while  in  1881  it 
was  2,185,005,  an  increase  of  9  per  cent.  In  1891  the  number  further 
rose  to  2,415,396,  or  by  10-7  percent.  Ten  years  later  the  population 
was  only  1,952,692,  a  decrease  of  19  per  cent.  This  diminution,  chiefly 
due  to  the  effects  of  plague  and  famine,  was  not  uniform  for  all  parts 
of  the  State  ;  for  while  in  Amreli  and  Navsari  the  decrease  was  3-7  per 
cent,  and  5-9  per  cent,  respectively,  in  Baroda  it  was  22-8  per  cent,  and 
in  Kadi  24  per  cent.  The  city  of  Baroda  lost  io-8  per  cent,  of  its 
population  in  the  same  period. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1901,  1,546,992  were  returned  as  Hindus, 
176,250  as  Animists,  165,014  as  Musalmans,  48,290  as  Jains,  8,409  as 
Parsis,  7,691  as  Christians,  38  as  Sikhs,  and  8  as  Jews.  Taking  the 
three  main  sects  of  Hindus,  Saivas  numbered  276,489,  Saktas  260,096, 
and  Vaishnavas  1,010,351,  The  Jains  are  divided  into  three  sects: 
the  Swetambari  with  34,410  adherents,  the  Digambari  with  9,599, 
and  the  Dhundhia  with  4,281.  Musalmans  have  two  main  sects  : 
the  Sunnis,  129,508,  and  the  Shiahs,  35,506,  The  ParsTs  may  also 
be  divided  into  two  sects:  the  Shahanshahis  (or  Shenshais),  6,010 
in  number,  and  the  Kadlmis,  2,399.  Animists  include  all  members 
of  the  forest  tribes  who  are  neither  Hindus,  Musalmans,  nor  Chris- 
tians. 

The   age   statistics,  as  elsewhere,  are   unreliable,  and  only  a   few 


42  B  A  ROD  A    STATE 

general  conclusions  can  be  drawn  fVoni  ihe  results  of  the  Census.  Of 
the  total  population,  children  under  the  age  of  5  formed  only  10  per 
cent.,  those  from  5  to  15  formed  25  per  cent.,  adults  between  15  and  40 
ft)rmed  45  per  cent.,  and  those  above  40  formed  20  per  cent.  These 
figures  point  to  the  effects  of  famine,  and  a  comparison  between  the 
statistics  of  1891  and  1901  shows  still  more  clearly  the  disastrous  nature 
of  the  decade.  While  the  decrease  in  population  at  all  ages  was 
19-2  per  cent.,  the  number  of  children  under  10  fell  by  35-6  per  cent., 
and  the  number  of  persons  over  60  by  40-6  per  cent.  The  mean  age 
for  males  is  23-56,  and  for  females  23-76. 

Except  in  the  city  of  Baroda,  no  rules  are  in  force  requiring  the 
registration  of  births  or  deaths,  but  it  has  been  the  custom  for  the 
police  ax\d  pdtels  io  make  monthly  reports  through  the  tdiuka  officers 
to  the  Sanitary  Commissioner.  More  effective  regulations  have,  how- 
ever, been  made  for  the  future.  In  1899- 1900  the  recorded  birth-rate 
was  13  per  thousand,  and  the  death-rate  54-5.  That  year  was,  how- 
ever, one  of  great  distress,  and  during  the  previous  five  years  mortality 
had  averaged  only  17-7  per  thousand.  In  1904-5  the  births  reported 
were  22-3  per  thousand  and  the  deaths  24-7.  More  than  half  the 
deaths  are  ascribed  to  fever,  but  the  diagnosis,  as  usual,  is  faulty. 
Guinea-worm  is  common  in  Okhamandal  and  Kodinar,  Epidemics 
of  cholera  and  small-pox  are  not  uncommon,  and  39,300  deaths  from 
the  former  and  6,300  from  the  latter  disease  were  recorded  in  the 
decade  ending  1900-1: 

Plague  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  latter  part  of  1897,  and  since 
that  time  has  caused  considerable  ravages.  By  the  end  of  1904-5  the 
number  of  deaths  due  to  this  cause  alone  was  44,251,  but  here  again 
the  statistics  are  not  very  trustworthy.  The  worst  year  was  1903-4,  in 
which  nearly  15,000  deaths  were  recorded.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
plague  epidemic  the  measures  resorted  to  by  the  State  were  much  the 
same  as  those  adopted  in  British  territory.  A  great  portion  of  the  city 
of  Baroda  was  evacuated,  and  the  people  were  located  in  sheds  erected 
in  fields  outside.  Persons  coming  from  other  affected  parts  were  quar- 
antined for  a  minimum  period  of  ten  days.  All  houses  were  white- 
washed, and  disinfectants  were  freely  used.  A  similar  course  was  adopted 
at  Petlad,  Navsari,  and  other  towns.  But  as  forcible  segregation  and 
other  coercive  proceedings  led  to  no  appreciable  benefit,  the  only 
preventive  measures  now  in  force  are  thorough  cleansing,  disinfection, 
and  the  distribution  of  medicine. 

Males  exceed  females  by  64,576,  the  former  numbering  1,008,634 
and  the  latter  944,058.  This  deficiency  of  females  is  a  characteristic 
of  Gujarat  generally.  Taking  the  different  religions,  it  appears  that 
among  the  Hindus  there  are  929  females  to  every  1,000  males,  among 
the  Jains  951,  among  the  Musalmans  956,  among  the  Christians  819, 


POPULATION 


43 


and  among  the  Animists  971.     The  Parsis  form  an  exception,  the  rates 
for  this  community  being  1,265  females  per  1,000  males. 

Of  the  whole  population,  35-2  per  cent,  of  both  sexes  are  unmarried, 
50-1  per  cent,  married,  and  14*7  per  cent,  widowed.  The  following 
table  compares  the  actual  numbers  of  either  sex  in  1891  and  1901: — 


1891. 

1901. 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females, 

Married     . 
Unmarried 
NV  id  owed  . 

1,287,575 
889,992 
237,829 

646,.^  15 

541,592 

65,076 

641,260 
348,400 
172,753 

978,626 
687,21 1 

286,855 

487.550 

422,  fi5 

98,669 

491,076 
264,796 

188,186 

Among  Hindus  the  first  decade  of  life  includes  1,584  widows  and 
21,431  wives,  while  the  next  age  period  (10-15)  includes  4,287  widows 
and  54,955  wives.  Thus  before  reaching  what  is  considered  in  most 
countries  the  marriageable  age,  there  are  already  in  this  State  5,871 
widows  and  76,386  girl-wives.  At  each  age-period  the  number  of 
widows  increases  until  the  maximum  is  reached  at  the  ages  40-5. 
The  number  of  widowers  is  also  greatest  at  this  period.  Nearly  5 1  per 
cent,  of  Hindus  are  married,  48  per  cent,  of  Jains  and  Musalmans, 
47  per  cent,  of  Animists,  and  44  per  cent,  of  Parsis. 

Every  Hindu  considers  that  his  eternal  welfare  depends  upon  his 
having  a  son,  while  the  custom  of  marrying  girls  at  a  tender  age  is  very 
common.  Hence  arise  early  and  unequal  marriages,  polygamy,  early 
maternity,  a  high  birth-rate,  a  terrible  mortality  among  children  and 
child-mothers,  early  decay  in  both  sexes,  and  a  surplus  of  widows. 
Steps  have,  however,  been  taken  to  minimize  these  evils  by  the  passing 
of  Acts  to  legalize  the  remarriage  of  widows  (1902),  and  to  discourage 
the  marriage  of  infants  (1904).  The  latter  measure  forbids  the  marriage 
of  girls  under  1 2,  except  with  the  permission  of  a  court,  and  in  the  first 
year  of  working  718  offenders  were  fined  under  its  provisions.  In  such 
castes  as  the  AudTchya  Brahmans  polygamy  prevails,  because  the  num- 
ber of  marriageable  girls  is  greater  than  that  of  the  males.  Polygamy 
is  also  found  among  the  Rajputs  and  some  other  castes.  Divorce  is 
allowed  among  many  castes  of  Hindus,  especially  the  lower  ones  which 
permit  widow  remarriage.  Sometimes  it  is  obtained  under  caste  rules, 
while  at  other  times  people  resort  to  the  courts. 

Practically  the  whole  population  speak  languages  of  the  Indo- 
European  family,  only  453  speakers  of  Dravidian  languages,  4  of 
Mongolian  languages,  and  153  of  Semitic  languages  being  recorded. 
In  the  first  group  the  number  of  persons  speaking  GujaratI  is  1,773,594, 
Marathi  38,605,  and  Hindustani  or  Urdu  68,815.  There  are  also 
many  Bhil  and  Gipsy  dialects,  the  former  being  spoken  by  68,503 
persons. 


44  BARODA    STATE 

At  the  Census  of  1901  castes  were  classified,  according  to  the  tra- 
ditional arrangement,  in  four  groups.  Brahmans  number  145,000,  or 
9  per  cent,  of  the  total  Hindu  population.  The  principal  class  is  that 
of  (lujarati  Bralimans,  who  number  128,000.  Maratha  Brahmans  are 
comparatively  numerous  (14,000).  The  representatives  of  the  Kshat- 
triyas  (106,200)  were  arranged  according  to  their  traditional  occupations 
as  warriors  (90,500),  traders  (11,500),  and  writers  (4,200),  the  first  class 
containing  59,000  Rajputs.  Similarly  the  Vaisyas  (459,000)  may  be 
divided  into  Hanias  or  traders  (48,000),  and  Kunbis  (411,000),  who  are 
agriculturists.  TheSudras  are  divided  into  'clean'  castes  and  'un- 
clean.' Among  the  former  are  found  a  large  number  of  occupational 
groups,  none  of  which  is  singly  of  great  importance  except  the  Kolls 
(325,000).  More  than  half  the  unclean  classes  are  included  in  the 
Dheds  (94,000).  Most  of  the  Jains  are  Banias  (39,500).  The  Animists 
differ  in  physical  type  from  the  Hindus  and  Jains,  being  short  in  stature, 
with  broad  flat  noses  and  faces,  and  much  darker  in  colour.  The 
most  numerous  of  these  tribes  are  the  Gamits  (38,200),  Bhils  (37,700), 
Dublas  (28,500),  and  Chodhras  (23,300).  Among  Musalmans  the  most 
numerous  groups  are  Arabs  (29,700)  and  Shaikhs  (56,700),  the  latter 
being  largely  descended  from  Hindu  ancestors. 

The  Girasias,  Kathis,  Marathas,  and  Waghers,  whose  traditional 
occupation  is  military  service,  have  maintained  this  to  some  extent, 
but  nowadays  many  have  taken  to  agricultural  or  other  pursuits.  The 
cultivators,  who  are  generally  Kunbis,  Kolis,  or  Malis,  scarcely  ever 
follow  any  other  occupation.  The  Rabaris,  again,  who  are  graziers  and 
cultivators,  remain  almost  constant  to  their  hereditary  employment, 
only  10  per  cent,  resorting  to  other  occupations.  With  the  Brahmans 
the  case  is  different,  as  many  of  the  caste  have  taken  largely  to  agricul- 
ture. Most  of  the  Prabhus  or  writers  are  employed  in  service,  while 
about  one-third  of  the  Banias  still  follow  their  traditional  occupation 
of  trade  and  commerce,  the  remainder  devoting  themselves  to  service 
and  agriculture. 

Of  the  total  population,  the  number  of  actual  workers  of  both  sexes 
is  about  47  per  cent.,  and  of  these  nearly  68  per  cent,  are  males.  Agri- 
culture and  pasture  support  54  per  cent,  of  the  people,  the  preparation 
and  supply  of  material  substances  14  per  cent.,  unskilled  labour  13  per 
cent.,  personal  services  5  per  cent.,  and  commerce  4  per  cent. 

The  staple  food  of  the  higher-class  Hindus  consists  generally  of  rice, 
wheat,  pulse,  and  hdjra.  Vegetables  of  all  kinds  are  freely  used,  cooked 
with  ghl^  salt,  spices,  turmeric,  &:c.  Cakes  made  from  bdjra  and  wheat- 
flour  are  partaken  of  with  milk,  for  both  dinner  and  supper.  Among 
agriculturists,  however,  the  usual  food  is  khichri  (a  spiced  mixture  of 
rice  and  tuver)  and  curry.  The  poorer  classes  use  jowdr  as  their  chief 
food-grain,  and  also  kodra,  bavto,  and  l>a?ifi. 


AGRICULTURE  45 

Dhotars  or  waistcloths  form  the  common  dress  of  Hindus.  The 
upper  garments  worn  by  males  of  the  better  class  are  Imdans  and 
/Hindis  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the  waist,  and  angarkhas  extending 
as  far  as  the  knees.  Many  educated  Hindus,  however,  now  wear  shirts, 
coats,  and  pantaloons.  Females  wear  chanios  or  petticoat  sd//ds,  and 
cho/ls  or  bodices  with  sleeves  as  far  as  the  elbows.  The  poorer  classes 
do  not  use  cholls. 

In  large  towns  the  dwelling-houses  are  often  situated  in  court-yards 
with  one  entrance  only,  called  khadkis.  This  was  necessitated  by  the 
want  of  safety  in  former  days.  The  houses  of  the  rich  are  built  of 
brick,  and  have  usually  two  storeys  and  an  average  of  seven  rooms. 
The  poor  live  in  mud  huts  with  one  floor  only,  and  usually  two 
rooms. 

The  chief  outdoor  games  played  by  the  young  are  gil/i-dando,  attiso- 
iiiaffiso,  amla-pipli,  &c.  These  all  involve  running  and  catching,  and 
are  very  popular.  In  towns  indoor  amusements,  such  as  cards,  chess, 
&c.,  are  more  resorted  to. 

The  Dewali  holidays,  which  occur  during  October  or  November,  are 
the  most  noteworthy  of  the  Hindu  festivals.  The  temples  are  filled 
with  devotees,  the  people  put  on  their  best  attire,  and  the  streets  and 
houses  are  illuminated  with  lamps.  At  this  time  merchants  and  shop- 
keepers worship  their  account-books  and  open  new  ones.  The  HolT 
takes  place  in  February  or  March,  the  Makar  Sankranti  in  January. 
Other  festivals  are  the  Maha  Sivaratri,  the  Rama  Navami,  and  the 
Janma  Ashtami.  In  the  city  of  Baroda  the  Muhammadan  festival  of 
the  Muharram  is  patronized  by  the  Gaikwar,  and  many  Hindus  join 
in  the  procession.  But  the  greatest  of  all  attractions  to  the  people 
is  probably  the  Dasara  procession,  which  generally  takes  place  in 
October. 

The  soils  are  mainly  alluvial,  except  in  the  hilly  parts  of  the  Navsari 

and  Amreli  prdnfs,  and  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Baroda  prdnt, 

where  they  are  mostly  formed  by  the  disintegration       .     .     , 

■  AsriculturCa 

of  the  underlying  rocks.     These  alluvial   soils   may 

roughly  be  divided  into  gordt  or  light  red  (sand  and  sandy  loams),  besdr 

or  mixed  (loams),  and  kdl'i  or  black.     The  land  is  generally  flat,  here 

and  there  relieved  by  small  hills,  and  in  consequence  the  ground  is  easy 

to  work.     This,  however,  is  not  the  case  in  the  7-dni  tnahdis  of  the 

Navsari  prdnt,  which  are  mountainous,  or  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 

Baroda  prdnt,  which  are  hilly  and  wooded.     The  rainfall  in  different 

parts  has  already  been  referred  to. 

Crops  are  mainly  divided  into  the  'rains'  or  kharif  cro^s  and  the 

'  dry  '  or  rabi  crops.     The  former  are  sown  in  June  or  July,  and  reaped 

in  October  or  November ;  the  latter  are  sown  in  October  or  November, 

and  reaped  in  March  or  April.     In  the  Navsari  prdnt  the  gordt  lands 


46  BARODA    STATE 

produce  all  kinds  oijardyat  or  'dry'  and  /nJi^dydf  or  garden  crops,  while 
the  crops  raised  on  black  soil  are  rice,  cotton,  jowdr,  wheat,  inver,  bdjra, 
and  adad.  Of  these,  rice  and  cotton  flourish  best,  the  remaining  crops 
being  deficient  in  out-turn  and  of  inferior  quality.  In  the  Baroda /n;;//, 
Kahnani  is  famous  for  its  superior  black  soil,  which  produces  cotton 
and  rice  in  abundance.  This  soil  requires  no  manure,  and  is  not  irri- 
gated, so  that  garden  cultivation  does  not  exist.  The  ^^orat  soil  is 
generally  irrigated,  and  wherever  this  is  possible  it  yields  large  returns. 
It  is  specially  utilized  for  the  growth  oi  bdjra.  The  best  kind  oi  gordt 
is  found  near  Petlad,  in  Charotar,  and  is  especially  suited  to  tobacco. 
In  the  Kadi  prdiit  the  soil  is  well  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  poppy 
for  opium,  and  in  Amreli  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  The  agricultural 
implements  used  in  different  parts  of  the  State  are  of  simple  construc- 
tion. They  include  the  mattock  {koddli),  the  hoe  (kharpi),  the  small 
plough  {Jwl)^  the  large  plough  {ndgar),  and  the  sickle  {ddtardu).  The 
small  plough  serves  only  to  scratch  up  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The 
ndgar,  which  resembles  the  hoi  in  construction  but  is  much  heavier, 
is  employed  mostly  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane. 

In  the  whole  State  1,014,027  persons,  or  52  per  cent,  of  the  total,  are 
supported  by  agriculture,  of  whom  45  per  cent,  are  actual  workers  and 
55  per  cent,  are  dependents.  The  proportion  is  lowest  in  the  Amreli 
prdnt  (40-7  per  cent.),  as  the  soil  here  is  difficult  to  work.  It  rises  to 
66-2  per  cent,  in  Navsari,  because  the  only  pursuit  followed  by  the 
forest  tribes,  who  are  numerous  there,  is  agriculture. 

The  principal  crops  are  rice  {Oryza  sativa),  bdjra  {Pennisetum 
typhoideum),  jowdr  {Sorghum  vulgare),  wheat  {Triiiciim  sativum),  fiiath 
{Phaseohis  aco>iitifolius),  gram  {Cicer  arietinum),  adad  {Thaseolus 
radiatus),  tuver  {Cajanus  indicus),  vdl  {Dolkhos  Lablab),  chola  {Vig//a 
Catiang),  kodra  {Paspalum  scrobiculatum),  ndgli  {Eleusine  coracana), 
bdvto  {Patiicum  frumentaceiim),  banti  {Panicum  spkatum),  vatana  {Pisum 
sativum),  mag  {Phaseohis  Mungo),  castor-oil  {Rid/ms  cot?imiinis),  til 
{Sesamum  indicutn),  rapeseed  (Brassica  campestris),  poppy  {Papaver 
somniferuui),  cotton  {Gossypium  herbaceum),  ^a/z-hemp  {Crotalaria 
juncea),  tobacco  {Nicotiana  Tabacum),  sugar-cane  {Saccharum  officina- 
rum),  maize  {Zea  Mays),  and  kasmnbo  {Carthamus  tinctorius). 

Rice  is  generally  manured  with  from  five  to  ten  cartloads  of  cattle- 
dung  per  blgha  \  When  available,  tank  mud  is  used  as  manure  at  the 
rate  of  ten  to  fifteen  cartloads  per  blgha.  With  this  treatment,  it  is 
calculated  that  from  the  best  rice  soils  a  return  of  1 2  cwt.  per  acre  may 
be  expected.  The  crop  is  sown  in  June  and  July,  and  harvested  in 
November. 

Bdjra,  which  is  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  is  generally  sown  as 
a  mixed  crop,  except  in  Amreli.     The  land  is  manured  either  every 

'  Seven  bighas  are  equal  to  4  acres. 


AGRICULTURE  47 

year,  or  every  alternate  year,  with  farm-yard  manure,  at  tlie  rate 
of  five  or  six  cartloads  per  Ingha.  The  average  yield  per  acre  is  from 
5  to  9  cwt.  It  is  sown  in  June  and  July,  and  harvesting  begins  in 
October. 

For  the  growth  o{  jowdr,  another  staple  food,  five  to  eight  cartloads 
of  cattle  manure  are  ap[)lied  to  each  l>igka,  and  the  yield  varies  from 

4  to  9  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  usually  sown  in  July  and  harvested  from 
November. 

In  Navsari  wheat  is  grown  without  irrigation,  while  in  Baroda,  Kadi, 
and  Amreli  irrigation  is  necessary.  In  Amreli  farm -yard  manure  is 
directly  applied  to  the  land  set  apart  for  wheat,  but  in  other  parts 
manure  is  used  only  for  the  kharlf  crops  sown  before  the  wheat.  Of 
this  grain  there  are  about  five  kinds,  and  the  yield  varies  from  4  to 
1 1  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  sown  in  October  and  November,  and  reaped  in 
March. 

Gram  is  usually  sown  after  the  rice  has  been  harvested,  and  gives  an 
out-turn  of  from  7  to  1 1  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  sown  in  November  and 
harvested  in  March. 

Tiiver  is  generally  grown  in  gorat  soil,  the  average  yield  being  about 

5  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  sown  in  June  and  July,  and  harvesting  begins  in 
January. 

The  best  kind  of  rapeseed  is  grown  in  Kadi,  on  land  which  has  been 
left  fallow  for  four  months.  It  is  a  crop  which  does  not  require  any 
watering,  and  gives  a  yield  of  from  400  to  600  lb.  per  acre.  It  is  sown 
in  November  and  reaped  in  March. 

It  is  a  general  rule  when  cotton  is  grown  on  black  soil  that  the  field 
remains  fallow  for  one  year,  so  that  every  year  in  cotton-producing 
tracts  half  the  cultivable  land  remains  untilled.  It  is  generally  sown 
mixed  with  rice  in  Baroda,  and  after  the  latter  has  been  harvested  the 
cotton  grows  rapidly.  No  manure  is  required,  and  the  yield  is  from 
4  to  6  cwt.  per  acre.  Rojl  or  indigenous  cotton  is  also  grown  on  gordt 
soil,  and  in  this  case  farm-yard  manure  is  applied.  It  is  sown  in  June 
and  July,  and  picking  takes  place  in  February  and  March,  sometimes 
as  early  as  December,  and  sometimes  as  late  as  April,  according  to  the 
rainfall. 

In  the  growth  of  sugar-cane  a  rotation  is  always  observed.  Its  pro- 
duction so  impoverishes  the  soil  that  it  is  not  planted  again  in  the  same 
field  for  at  least  four  or  five  years.  In  the  Baroda  prdnt  5rt;i-hemp  or 
Jowar  is  sown  as  a  green  manure  in  the  monsoon,  and  in  winter  the  fields 
are  ploughed  and  prepared  for  sugar-cane.  In  Navsari  and  Amreli  the 
method  followed  is  much  the  same,  though  the  green  crops  previously 
sown  are  different.  The  juice  of  the  cane  is  turned  into  molasses, 
a  product  widely  exported  to  all  parts  of  Gujarat.  In  Navsari  the 
canes  are  cut  in  November  or  December  after  a  year's  growth. 


48  BARODA   STATE 

Tobacco  is  a  staple  produce  of  Petlad  and  the  vicinity.  It  is  grown 
in  gordt  soil  and  requires  frequent  irrigation,  as  well  as  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  cartloads  of  farm-yard  manure  per  b'lgha.  In  Petlad  the  crop 
can  be  grown  continuously  on  the  same  field  for  some  years ;  and  then 
an  interval  of  two  years,  during  which  rice  or  bajra  is  planted,  must 
elapse  before  tobacco  can  again  be  sown.  The  yield  is  from  7  to 
10  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  sown  in  nurseries  in  June,  transplanted  in  about 
a  couple  of  months,  and  cut  in  February  or  March. 

Poppy  is  grown  in  Kadi.  Land  intended  for  this  crop  is  generally 
left  fallow  for  about  four  months  and  ploughed  several  times  before  the 
seed  is  sown.  In  some  places,  however,  it  is  usual  to  take  a  crop 
of  bajra  before  utilizing  the  land  for  poppy.  Manure  is  applied  at  the 
rate  of  twelve  to  fifteen  cartloads  per  bigha  every  third  year,  and 
irrigation  is  necessary.  The  average  yield  is  estimated  at  1 2  lb.  of  crude 
opium  per  acre ;  but  the  out-turn  is  always  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  as 
this  crop  is  easily  influenced  by  changes  of  weather.  Poppy  is  sown  in 
October  or  November,  and  the  collection  of  the  juice  takes  place 
in  February  and  March. 

During  the  rainy  season  various  species  of  Cucurbitaceae,  suran  or 
elephant-foot,  sweet  potatoes,  &c.,  are  grown  ;  but  most  garden  crops 
mature  in  the  cold  season  or  early  summer.  Potatoes  are  planted  in 
small  patches  near  the  large  towns.  They  require  manure  in  the  form 
of  cattle-dung,  oilcake,  and  night-soil,  and  also  irrigation.  Brinjdls 
and  chillies  are  cultivated  wherever  irrigation  is  available,  the  brinjdls 
of  Kathor  being  especially  famous.  Onions  are  abundant,  a  white 
variety  being  largely  cultivated  in  the  Amreli  prdtit  at  Kodinar.  Garlic 
and  radishes  are  plentiful  everywhere.  Ginger  is  largely  grown  in 
Baroda  and  Navsari.  For  this  crop  it  is  found  that  bundles  of  rotten 
hemp  form  an  excellent  manure.  Carrots  are  cultivated  everywhere, 
and  in  some  parts,  chiefly  in  Amreli,  are  used  exclusively  for  fodder. 
Various  native  vegetables  are  grown  in  abundance,  and  of  late  years 
tomatoes  have  been  introduced.  Among  the  chief  fruits  are  the  mango, 
plantain,  pomegranate,  pummelo,  guava,  pineapple,  lime,  custard-apple, 
fig,  and  melon. 

A  table  attached  to  this  article  (p.  77)  gives  statistics  of  cultivation 
for  a  series  of  years.  In  1904-5  the  total  cultivated  area  was  3,751 
square  miles,  of  which  cotton  occupied  24  per  cent.,  and  bdjra  and 
jozvdr  about  20  per  cent.  each. 

A  State  Agricultural  department  has  been  established,  under  a  Director, 
to  give  assistance  to  the  cultivators  in  all  possible  ways.  A  large  farm, 
with  a  school  attached,  has  been  founded  at  Baroda,  where  assistant 
masters  of  vernacular  schools  are  trained  as  agricultural  teachers  in 
village  schools,  a  few  officials  are  instructed  in  the  principles  of  ento- 
mological  research,   and   agriculture    is    taught    to   ordinary  students. 


.f 


AGRICULTURE  49 

At  Songarh  also  a  school  has  been  opened,  and  the  farm  attached  to  it 
is  entirely  worked  by  the  students.  A  class  for  sericulture  was  opened 
in  1904.  The  department  also  concerns  itself  with  cattle-breeding,  and 
the  establishment  of  seed  and  manure  depots.  Travelling  instructors 
have  been  appointed  who  lecture  to  cultivators,  and  endeavour  to 
introduce  new  crops  and  improved  methods  and  implements.  The 
most  successful  innovation  so  far  has  been  the  introduction  of  the 
potato,  but  selected  seed  of  crops  already  grown  is  also  in  demand.  A 
State  entomologist  was  appointed  in  1905. 

Experiments  in  agriculture  are  carried  on  at  the  Baroda  and  Songarh 
model  farms,  and  occasionally  in  the  fields  of  intelligent  cultivators. 
At  the  Baroda  farm  attention  is  chiefly  paid  to  the  improved  growth 
of  the  principal  crops  of  the  vicinity,  and  also  to  the  curing  of  tobacco 
leaf,  while  at  Songarh  Jo7vdr,  rice,  and  cotton  are  mostly  experimented 
on.  The  cultivators  take  much  interest  in  these  farms,  and  have  begun 
to  imitate  some  of  the  improved  processes  followed  there. 

Advances  are  regularly  made  for  agricultural  improvements,  especially 
the  construction  of  wells.  In  ordinary  years  from  i  to  2  lakhs  are  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose,  the  loans  being  repayable  in  thirty  years,  and  no 
interest  being  charged  for  advances  of  less  than  Rs.  500.  Advances 
are  also  made,  at  easy  rates,  for  the  purchase  of  seed  and  bullocks, 
amounting  to  about  2^  lakhs  in  1902-3  and  1903-4.  Owing  to  the 
unfavourable  season  larger  amounts  were  advanced  in  1904—5,  the 
total  being  4-8  lakhs. 

Agricultural  banks  have  been  opened  at  Songarh  (1899)  and  Harij 
(1900),  which  are  practically  financed  and  managed  by  the  State. 
Advances  in  cash  or  kind  are  made  to  cultivators  at  the  rate  of  6j^  per 
cent,  interest,  and  the  State  profits  are  limited  to  3  per  cent.,  the  surplus 
being  credited  to  a  reserve  or  distributed  as  a  bonus.  The  banks  also 
buy  and  sell  produce  and  agricultural  requisites.  About  Rs.  18,000 
was  advanced  in  1904-5.  An  Act  to  regulate  the  formation  of 
co-operative  credit  societies  has  recently  been  passed. 

The  indebtedness  of  the  cultivators  is  considerable,  and  few  men 
with  average  holdings  do  not  owe  something  to  the  money-lender. 
Money  is  borrowed  by  the  poorer  ryots  not  merely  for  marriage  and 
other  festivals,  but  also  for  the  purchase  of  grain  and  manure.  The 
ordinary  rate  of  interest  varies  from  9  to  15  per  cent.  As  in  British 
India,  the  cultivators  still  deal  largely  with  money-lenders,  instead  of 
applying  for  loans  from  the  State.  Advances  are  regularly  given  to 
cultivators  of  poppy. 

The  horses  and  ponies  of  the  country  are  very  indifferent.  The  best 
breeds  are  to  be  found  in  Kathiawar.  Two  breeds  of  cattle  may 
be  mentioned,  the  Desi  and  the  Kankreji.  The  former  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  Baroda  and  Navsari  profits.     They  are  of  small  size,  the 

VOL.   VII.  E 


50  BARODA   STATE 

cows  give  little  milk,  and  the  bullocks,  though  fast,  are  unfit  for  heavy 
draught.  The  Kankreji  breed  is  well-known  throughout  Gujarat,  and 
is  much  esteemed  for  the  size  of  the  bullocks.  These  large  and  powerful 
animals  are  suited  for  ploughing  and  other  heavy  work.  Good  bullocks 
of  this  breed  sometimes  sell  for  Rs.  200  to  Rs.  250  a  pair.  In  the 
Amreli  prant  the  Gir  cattle  are  the  most  celebrated.  They  are  smaller 
than  the  Kankreji  kind,  but  the  milch  cows  give  a  rich  and  abundant 
supply  of  milk.  Buffaloes,  goats,  and  sheep  are  kept  everywhere,  but 
there  is  nothing  special  to  be  noted  about  them.  An  attempt  has  been 
made  to  improve  the  breed  of  buffaloes. 

In  many  villages  pasture  land  is  set  apart  for  cattle.  Bullocks 
employed  in  heavy  work  are  fed  on  hay,  millet  stalks,  and  sometimes 
gram.  Cotton-seed  is  given  to  buffaloes  to  increase  the  supply  of  milk. 
Grass  is  generally  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  State ;  but  in  the  recent 
famines  it  failed,  and  many  cattle  were  lost.  Fairs  are  held  in  a  few 
places  for  the  sale  of  cattle.  The  most  important  is  the  weekly  fair 
at  Baroda. 

The  two  most  prominent  cattle  epidemics  are  rinderpest  and  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  The  former  proves  fatal  in  nearly  all  cases,  while  the 
latter  is  not  so  dangerous.  There  are  two  veterinary  dispensaries,  at 
Baroda  city  and  Mehsana.  The  surgeons  in  charge  are  required  to  tour 
when  cattle-disease  breaks  out,  and  give  their  advice  and  assistance. 
In  1904—5  the  total  number  of  animals  treated  in  the  dispensaries 
was  2,049. 

With  the  exception  of  the  black  cotton  soil,  all  the  cultivable  lands 
can  be  irrigated.  The  chief  crops  which  require  irrigation  are  tobacco, 
sugar-cane,  poppy,  and  vegetables.  Even  the  black  cotton  soil  repays 
irrigation  if  water  can  be  had  at  moderate  depths. 

The  irrigation  works  constructed  by  the  State  include  a  number  of 
tanks,  with  small  distributing  channels.  Some  of  the  larger  works  have 
not  been  successful,  owing  to  deficient  rainfall  or  the  need  for  further 
storage  reservoirs  and  other  subsidiary  works.  The  most  important 
is  a  reservoir  at  Kadarpur  in  the  Kadi/n?«/,  which  cost  3-8  lakhs,  and 
will  irrigate  about  1,500  acres.  The  largest  project  is  the  Orsang  weir 
in  the  Sankheda  taluka,  which  supplies  a  canal  6  miles  long,  and  is 
designed  to  irrigate  20,000  acres.  It  has  cost  5-2  lakhs  up  to  the 
present,  and  the  completed  works  will  cost  about  20  lakhs.  Indigenous 
irrigation  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  wells,  as  very  few  tanks  hold 
a  considerable  supply  of  water  after  the  close  of  the  cold  season.  The 
country  is  not  wanting  in  streams ;  but  most  of  them  either  run  dry  in 
the  summer  months,  or  fall  so  low  that  water  cannot  be  conveyed  by 
canals  to  the  land.  The  usual  water-lift  is  a  large  leathern  bag  con- 
taining about  16  gallons  of  water,  which  is  drawn  up  by  a  pair  of 
bullocks  moving  down  an  incline.     Two  men  are  required,  one  to  drive 


RENTS,    WAGES,  AND   PRICES  51 

the  bullocks,  and  the  other  to  empty  the  bag  when  it  has  arrived  at  the 
top  of  the  well.  The  Persian  wheel  is  also  occasionally  used.  Where 
water  is  near  the  surface,  it  is  raised  in  a  sitpde  or  charaidu.  The  former 
is  a  rectangular  vessel  with  a  rope  on  each  side,  worked  by  two  men, 
who  simply  scoop  the  water  up.  The  charaidu  is  a  vessel  with  its 
length  greater  than  its  breadth,  and  having  one  end  broader  than  the 
other.  It  is  fixed  on  a  pivot,  and  the  broad  end  is  lowered  into  the 
water  and  then  raised,  so  that  the  water  flows  down.  The  average  cost 
of  a  masonry  well  varies  from  Rs.  200  to  Rs.  2,000,  while  that  of  an 
unbricked  well  varies  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  35,  according  to  the  depth 
of  spring-level.  The  total  irrigated  area  is  estimated  at  184,283  acres. 
In  addition  to  the  land  revenue,  a  cess  is  levied  on  irrigation.  This 
takes  different  forms.  In  some  tracts  the  cess  is  levied  at  varying  rates 
according  to  the  depth  of  subsoil  water.  In  others  all  land  round 
a  well  is  charged,  while  sometimes  the  rate  is  paid  on  the  well  itself  as 
long  as  it  is  used  for  irrigation.  The  nominal  demand  is  about  2-7  lakhs, 
but  scarcely  half  this  sum  is  recovered. 

The  greater  part  of  the  State  is  held  on  ryotivdri  tenure,  and  the 
payments  made  by  the  cultivators  are  thus  revenue  rather  than  rent. 
Holders   of  large  areas,   however,   being  unable   or 
unwilling  to  cultivate  the  whole  of  their  land  them-       ^^^  oriels    ' 
selves,  sublet  to  others  at  the  highest  rates  they  can 
obtain.     In  prosperous  years  the  rents  thus  paid  are  sometimes  double 
or  treble  the  State  assessment  on  the  land.     Persons  holding  on  the 
narva,  bhdgddr,   or  bhdrkhali  tenures,  described   below   under    Land 
Revenue  (p.  64),  also  collect  rent  from  the  actual  cultivators.    In  all  these 
cases  rent  is  sometimes  paid  in  kind,  at  the  rate  of  one-third  or  one- 
half  of  the  crop  grown. 

Among  skilled  labourers  the  carpenter  earns  the  highest  wages.  At 
Baroda  his  daily  pay  varies  from  10  annas  to  a  rupee  or  more,  while 
elsewhere  he  receives  from  8  to  12  annas.  A  blacksmith  gets  from 
10  to  13  annas  a  day  at  Baroda,  and  6  to  9  annas  in  other  parts  of 
the  State.  A  mason  can  earn  daily  at  Baroda  from  10  to  14  annas, 
or  from  8  to  12  annas  outside  the  city.  The  rates  for  other  classes 
of  skilled  labour  vary  from  4  to  6  annas.  The  wages  of  agricultural 
labour  are  fairly  uniform  throughout  the  State,  varying  from  3  to 
4  annas  a  day.  Labourers  who  work  as  porters  earn  similar  amounts, 
but  at  Baroda  and  other  important  places  which  have  railway  stations 
their  earnings  often  exceed  8  annas.  The  wages  of  other  labourers 
vary  from   2  to  3  annas  a  day. 

Payment  of  wages  in  kind  still  prevails,  especially  in  villages.  Agri- 
cultural labourers  who  are  permanent  servants  are  provided  by  their 
masters  with  food,  clothing,  &c.,  and  a  small  annual  cash  payment. 
Casual  labour,  at  the  time  of  weeding  and  harvest,  is  in  some  places 

E  2 


52 


BARODA   STATE 


reiiuinerated  by  cooked  food  once  a  day  in  addition  to  a  small  cash 
payment.  Again,  at  marriages  or  on  other  occasions  villagers  often 
secure  the  services  of  artisans  and  labourers  in  return  for  thuir  food 
and  a  small  money  allowance. 

Statistics  of  prices  for  a  series  of  years  are  not  available.  There 
is  little  variation  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  The  following  table 
gives  average  prices  for  the  whole  State,  in  seers  per  rupee  : — 


Wheat. 

Rice. 

Bajra. 

16 
14 

Jowar. 

1902-3 
1904-5 

II 
12 

9 
9 

18 
16 

As  far  as  material  condition  is  concerned,  the  people  of  the  7'asti 
(peaceful  and  populous)  mahdls  of  Navsari  stand  foremost.  There 
are  many  well-to-do  Parsis  in  this  tract.  Baroda  comes  next,  while 
Kadi  shows  a  little  inferiority.  As  usual  the  Amreli  prdfit,  and 
especially  Okhamandal,  is  the  most  backward.  A.  middle-class  clerk 
has  a  comfortable  house,  with  decent  furniture.  His  food  is  generally 
rice,  ttiver,  wheat,  and  bajra,  and  he  also  partakes  of  milk  and  vege- 
tables. His  clothing,  too,  is  good.  The  cultivators  are  not  so  well 
off.  Their  houses,  even  though  sometimes  large,  are  very  scantily 
furnished  and  their  food  is  poor.  Their  dress  too  is  indifferent,  con- 
sisting generally  of  angarkhds  and  badans  (vests)  of  a  coarse  cloth 
called  Jota.  The  landless  day-labourers  are  the  worst  off.  Their 
usual  food  is  kodm  and  Jowdr,  their  dress  is  ragged,  and  their  abodes 
are  poor. 

Navsari /ra;//  contains  the  largest  forest  tract  in  the  State.  Smaller 
areas  exist  in  Baroda  and  Amreli.  In  1905  the  total  area  'reserved' 
was  680  square  miles,  in  addition  to  which  there  are 
considerable  stretches  of  grass  land  and  scrub  jungle 
not  yet  surveyed.  All  the  forests  may  be  classed  as  deciduous  and 
mixed.  The  most  important  species  of  trees  are  sag  ( Tectona  grandis), 
shhhain  (^Dalbergia  Sissod),  ianach  {Ougeinia  dalbergioides),  khair  {Acada 
Catechu),  bia  i^Pterocarpus  Marsupium),  sadad  {Termina/ia  tomentosa\ 
haladvan  {Adina  cordifolia),  kalam  {Stephegvne  parvifo/ia),  kagar  {Aaia'a 
ferruginea),  kati  {Acacia  modesta),  dhamafi  {Gretvia  /i/ia^'folia),  tejnru 
{Diospyros  vielanoxyloti),  bandaro  {Lagerstroefuia  lanceoiafa),  apta 
{Bauhinia  race?nosa),  behedo  {Tenninalia  be/erica),  kagdoli  {Stent/ lia 
nrens),  babul  {Acacia  arabica),  and  bamboo  {Bambusa  atu7iditiacea). 

Systematic  management  of  the  forests  commenced  in  1877,  but  the 
early  administration  was  not  successful.  More  satisfactory  results  have 
been  obtained  since  1891  ;  and  the  department  is  now  superintended 
by  a  ParsI  Conservator  trained  at  Cooper's  Hill,  who  has  under  him 
an  assistant,  a  working-plan  officer,  7  rangers,  7  sub-rangers,  202  guards. 


Forests. 


FORESTS 


53 


and  15  depot  keepers.  The  forests  are  administered  under  an  Act 
passed  in  1891,  and  have  been  completely  demarcated  and  settled. 
^Vorking-plans  have  been  prepared  for  a  large  area,  and  others  are 
being  drawn  up.  The  unreserved  forests  are  managed  by  revenue 
officials,  but  the  price  of  certain  kinds  of  trees  is  credited  to  the 
Forest  department.  Up  to  1901  no  special  steps  had  been  taken 
for  the  prevention  of  forest  fires ;  and  though  regulations  are  now  in 
force,  little  has  been  done  beyond  clearing  the  lines  of  demarcation 
and  the  main  forest  roads.  Artificial  reproduction  is  being  tried  in 
a  few  places ;  and  along  the  sea-coast  at  Umrath,  in  the  Navsari  prdni, 
various  trees  have  been  planted  to  check  the  spread  of  sand-dunes 
inland. 

'  Major '  forest  produce  in  areas  outside  the  Reserves  is  sold  by 
contract,  while  '  minor '  forest  products,  such  as  lac,  gum,  resin,  colouring 
bark,  honey,  wax,  maJiud  flowers,  cS^c,  are  collected  by  lessees.  At  the 
several  depots  which  have  been  established  permits  are  issued  at  fixed 
rates  for  the  extraction  of  dry  fuel,  grass,  reeds,  bamboos,  and  other 
'  minor '  produce  which  is  not  leased.  Grazing  is  permitted  in  most 
of  the  Reserves,  and  fees  are  realized  by  levying  certain  rates  per  head 
of  cattle  grazed. 

Under  the  rules  at  present  in  force  every  family  in  forest  tracts 
is  entitled  to  receive  annually  inferior  timber  worth  Rs.  5  for  repairs, 
and  also  timber  worth  Rs.  20  every  ten  years  for  reconstruction  of  huts. 
The  villagers  are  also  allowed  fuel,  grass,  leaves,  and  thatching  materials 
for  their  bona  fide  use,  and  minor  produce  for  their  own  consumption, 
nothing  being  granted  for  sale  or  barter.  In  return  for  these  concessions, 
the  villagers  are  bound  to  help  the  subordinate  officials  in  protecting 
the  forests.  Owing  to  the  reckless  damage  done  to  the  forests  in 
former  days,  the  value  of  the  free  grants  has  been  reduced  from  about 
Rs.  25,000  to  Rs.  8,000. 

In  the  famine  of  1899-1900,  when  there  was  no  grass  available 
in  nearly  the  whole  of  Gujarat  and  Kathiawar,  the  Songarh  and  Vyara 
Reserves  were  freely  thrown  open,  and  enormous  quantities  of  fodder 
were  supplied  to  the  Baroda  and  Kadi  prdnts,  as  well  as  to  Kathiawar. 
In  addition  to  this,  about  55,000  cattle  were  sent  from  all  parts  of  the 
State,  and  even  from  portions  of  Rajputana,  to  these  Reserves  for 
grazing  purposes.  Similar  assistance  was  given  in  the  bad  seasons 
which  followed. 

The  average  revenue  realized  from  the  forests  during  the  decade 
ending  1890  was  Rs.  70,200,  while  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  29,500, 
giving  an  average  surplus  of  Rs.  40,700.  During  the  next  ten  years  the 
revenue  averaged  Rs.  93,400,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  59,600,  the 
surplus  decreasing  to  Rs.  33,800.  In  1904-5  the  income  was  1-2  lakhs, 
the  chief   items  being  produce  of  clearing  and   improvement  fellings 


54  BARODA   STATE 

(Rs.  33,400),  ;iik1  bamboos  (Rs.  32,100),  while  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  64,000. 

Rich  magnetic  iron-sand  is  brought  down  in  large  quantities  by  the 

Tapti  when  in  flood,  and  the  alluvium  deposited  on  the  bank  of  the 

river  is    full   of  it.      The  ore  seems  to    have    been 

minerals  worked  to  some  extent  formerly,  but  the  introducticMi 

of  cheap  iron  from  Europe  has  destroyed  the  industry. 

'I'he  establishment  of  smelting  works  in  the  Songarh  ialuka  has  been 

considered.     Traces  of  gold  have  been  found  in  the  river-beds. 

Good  sandstone  is  quarried  at  Songir  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hiran 
river,  in  the  Sankheda  tahika.  The  work  is  carried  on  by  a  private 
company,  which  pays  2  annas  for  every  large  and  i  anna  for  every  small 
hand-mill  stone  removed  from  the  quarry,  and  12  annas  for  each 
cartload  of  building  material.  Other  kinds  of  stone  are  common,  but 
are  not  worked.  Granite  of  a  very  handsome  variety  is  found  at  Virpur 
in  the  Kadi  prdnt,  and  at  Bhulwan  and  Bodeli  in  the  Baroda  pnint. 
Crystalline  limestone  of  many  colours  occurs  at  Motipura,  Harikua, 
and  ^\'adeli,  in  the  same  prdnt.  The  green  marble  of  Motipura,  when 
cut  and  polished,  has  been  described,  on  competent  authority,  as  the 
most  beautiful  marble  in  India.  In  Amreli  there  are  practically 
unlimited  supplies  of  common  building  stone,  such  as  basalt  and 
miliolite,  some  of  the  latter  being  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  stone 
obtained  in  the  famed  Porbandar  quarries. 

As  in  other  parts  of  Gujarat,  the  hand-loom  weavers  are  generally 
Dheds  and  Musalmans,  though  Khattris,  Tais,  and  Vanjhas  also  practise 
the  same  handicraft.  Coarse  cotton  cloth  known  as 
At  s  an  ^^^^1^   khadi,   or  chophal,   is  woven   in  all   parts,   the 

products  of  the  Amreli  prant  bemg  perhaps  the  best. 
They  are  chiefly  disposed  of  locally,  as  the  erection  of  steam  weaving- 
mills  has  almost  destroyed  the  export  trade  in  such  material.  Efforts 
are  being  made  to  introduce  the  use  of  looms  of  improved  patterns. 
The  Khattris  of  Baroda  city  turn  out  a  rough  woollen  cloth  which 
is  often  used  for  blankets.  In  the  Kadi  prdnt  a  large  number  of 
Musalman  and  Hindu  women  spin  cotton  thread,  which  is  afterwards 
woven  by  Dheds.  A  more  valuable  industry  is  carried  on  at  Patan, 
where  weavers  manufacture  jnashrn,  which  is  exported  to  x\hmadabad 
and  other  places.  Silk  is  also  brought  to  Patan  from  Ahmadabad  and 
Bombay,  and  there  woven  into  gajis,  p'ltdmbars,  and  the  highly  appre- 
ciated patolas.  The  sacred  threads  worn  by  Parsis  are  largely  made  at 
Navsari  by  women  of  the  priestly  class,  and  exported  to  Bombay. 

At  Baroda  embroidery  with  gold  and  silver  thread  is  undertaken 
by  a  few  artisans,  and  the  work  in  both  pattern  and  execution  is 
of  a  superior  description.  The  Kharadis  of  Patan  also  turn  out  very 
good    embroidery,  while   more   simple   work    is  prepared   at    Navsari. 


ARTS  AND   MANUFACTURES  55 

Carpets  are  made  at  the  Baroda  Central  jail,  and  are  purchased  locally 
or  exported  to  Ahmadabad,  Bombay,  and  Poona. 

There  is  nothing  out  of  the  common  in  the  jewellery  made  in  the 
State.  Goldsmiths  are  found  in  every  town,  and  in  the  marriage  season 
their  business  thrives  greatly.  They  manufacture  ornaments  of  gold  or 
silver,  pearls  being  freely  used  in  the  case  of  gold  ornaments. 

The  village  blacksmith  makes  and  repairs  rude  agricultural  imple- 
ments, and  the  wandering  Pomalas  visit  every  village  to  make  native 
weights  and  the  minor  cooking  utensils.  At  Atarsumba,  in  the  Kadi 
prdnf,  knives  and  frying-pans  of  good  workmanship  are  produced,  and 
a  sword-making  industry  on  a  small  scale  exists  at  Dehgam  in  the  same 
division.  At  Patan  good  betel-nut  cutters  are  prepared,  which  find 
a  ready  sale  through  all  parts  of  Gujarat.  In  the  Baroda  prdnt,  at 
Sojitra,  Vaso,  and  Petlad,  locks  are  manufactured. 

Brass  and  copper  pots  for  the  daily  use  of  the  people  are  manu- 
factured throughout  the  State,  but  there  is  little  else  worthy  of  notice. 
1  )abhoi  is  well-known  for  the  elegance  and  finish  of  the  articles  turned 
out,  and  a  similar  remark  may  be  made  of  the  Kadi  brass  and  copper 
work.  Visnagar  also  is  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its  brass-ware, 
much  of  which  is  exported  to  Ahmadabad  and  Kathiawar. 

Earthen  jars  for  holding  water  or  for  storing  grain,  pipe-bowls,  and 
clay  toys  are  manufactured  in  great  quantities  for  domestic  use.  The 
only  ornamental  pottery  is  made  at  Patan,  and  this,  though  thin,  light, 
and  fragile,  is  often  pretty.  Here  are  manufactured  toys,  hukkas, 
water-goglets,  pipe-bowls,  water-coolers,  and  similar  articles. 

The  art  of  sculpture  has  almost  died  out,  but  specimens  of  stone- 
carving  still  existing  prove  how  great  was  once  the  excellence  attained 
in  this  direction.  Splendid  examples  may  be  seen  at  Dabhoi,  Chandod, 
Patan,  Sidhpur,  Modhera,  and  many  other  places.  Though  the  art  has 
decayed  enormously,  the  stone-carvers  of  the  country  have  done  excellent 
work  in  the  new  palace  and  other  buildings  at  Baroda. 

Ornamental  wood-carving  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  Baroda  and 
Kadi  prduts.  In  the  former  excellent  workmen  reside  at  Dabhoi  and 
Sankheda,  and  fine  specimens  of  their  art  may  be  seen  on  the  doors 
and  verandas  of  the  houses.  Similar  examples  may  be  found  at  Vaso, 
Sojitra,  and  Petlad.  In  the  palace  at  Baroda  there  is  much  wood- 
carving  which  displays  the  same  skill.  In  Kadi  the  best  wood-carving 
is  found  at  Patan,  Sidhpur,  and  Vadnagar.  Good  turning  is  also  done 
at  Patan.  Work  in  ivory  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  at  Baroda  and 
Patan. 

A  spinning  and  weaving-mill  was  established  by  the  State  at  Baroda 
in  1883  at  a  cost  of  6-4  lakhs.  It  contains  nearly  15,000  spindles, 
260  looms,  and  40  gins.  As  signs  of  private  enterprise  had  become 
apparent,  the  mill  was  sold  for  5  lakhs  in   1905  to  a  firm  which  has 


56  BAKODA    STATE 

floated  a  company  to  work  it.  Another  mill  is  approaching  completicjn, 
and  others  are  projected.  Ginning  factories  number  49  and  cotton 
presses  4,  while  there  is  a  single  mill  for  each  of  the  following 
industries  :  flour,  dyeing,  rice,  oil,  rope,  and  timber.  Chocolate  and 
matches  are  prepared  in  private  factories.  A  sugar  refmery  was  worked 
for  some  time  without  success,  and  was  closed  in  1894,  but  has  recently 
been  reopened.  The  total  number  of  hands  employed  in  the  mills 
averaged  about  730  during  the  last  decade. 

'I'he  export  trade  of  the  State  consists  mainly  of  agricultural  produce, 

such  as  cotton,  grain,  oilseeds,  opium,  tobacco,  and  raw  sugar,  Bombay 

being  the  chief  market.     Brass  and  copper  vessels 

^'dT^d^^        are  exported  from  Visnagar  and  Kadi  to  Ahmadabad 

and  Kathiawar,  and  the  silk  fabrics  of  Patan  are  in 

wider  demand.     The  imports  consist  of  rice  and  other  grains,  refined 

sugar,  metals,  salt,  piece-goods,  spices,  and  kerosene  oil.     Goods  are 

largely  carried  by  rail,  but  there  is  some  traffic  by  sea  from  the  ports 

of  Dwarka,  Navsari,  and  Bilimora.     The  harbours  at  the  two  last  are 

being  improved,  and  the  formation  of  a  harbour  at  Velam  is  under 

consideration. 

As  traders,  petty  shop-keepers,  money-lenders,  and  bankers,  the 
Banias  occupy  a  prominent  position.  Some  of  them  also  trade  in 
cloth,  but  in  this  respect  the  Bhavsars  (or  ChhTpas)  perhaps  excel 
them.  Brass  and  copper  vessels  are  dealt  in  by  the  Kansaras.  The 
Gandhis,  who  are  in  general  Jains,  trade  in  groceries,  spices,  articles  of 
common  use  as  drugs,  and  medicines  prepared  according  to  native 
fashion.  The  sale  of  vegetables  is  almost  exclusively  appropriated  by 
the  Kachhis,  while  the  Ghanchis  are  dealers  in  vegetable  oil  and 
kerosene.  They  also  sell  milk  and  ghi.  The  Bohras  have  a  special 
trade  in  iron  vessels,  such  as  frying-pans,  buckets,  &c.,  and  in  ropes  of 
various  kinds,  while  the  petty  Bohras  sell  every  kind  of  small  article. 
Confectionery  is  dealt  in  by  the  Kandois,  and  the  Tambolis  sell  betel- 
leaves,  betel-nuts,  and  tobacco.  Corn  is  sold  by  Banias  or  Ghanchis. 
They  purchase  wholesale  from  the  cultivators  and  then  sell  by  retail  in 
the  markets.  For  molasses  and  sugar  there  are  always  special  shops 
in  large  centres,  but  elsewhere  as  a  general  rule  they  are  sold  by  the 
Gandhis. 

Most  of  the  important  towns  in  Baroda  territory  are  either  on  the 

railway,  or  are  connected  by  fair  roads  with  stations  at  no  very  great 

distance.      No   railway   passes    through    the   Amreli 
Communications.       _        ,  .  .     ..^        ...  °  ,^, 

pra?!t,   but   part  01   it   hes  wnthin  easy  reach  of  the 

Bhavnagar-Gondal-Junagad-Porbandar  Railway.     One  of  the  main  lines 

from    Bombay   to    Northern   India   passes   through    the   State.      The 

southern   portion  is   the    broad-gauge    Bombay,    Baroda,   and    Central 

India  Railway,  which  crosses  parts  of  the  Navsari  and  Baroda  prdnis. 


COMMUNICA  TIONS  5  7 

From  Ahmadabad  in  British  territory  this  hne  is  continued  northwards 
by  the  metre-gauge  Rajputana-Mahva  Railway,  passing  through  the 
Kadi  prdiit.  The  value  to  the  State  of  this  through  route  has  been 
greatly  increased  by  the  efficient  system  of  branch  lines,  most  of  which 
have  been  built  by  the  Darbar,  though  worked  by  the  Bombay,  Baroda, 
and  Central  India  Railway.  Exceptions  are  the  Tapti  Valley  Railway, 
constructed  by  a  company,  which  crosses  portions  of  Navsari  from  west 
to  east,  and  the  Baroda-Godhra  chord  line,  which  is  part  of  the  Bombay, 
Baroda,  and  Central  India  system.  The  Baroda  prant  is  well  served 
by  the  Gaikwar's  Dabhoi  Railway  (2^  feet  gauge),  which  branches 
south  to  Chandod,  east  to  Bodeli,  west  to  Miyagam,  and  north-west  to 
Vishwamitri,  the  two  last  places  being  on  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and 
Central  India  main  line.  Another  branch  passes  south-west  from 
Vishwamitri  to  Masor  Road.  The  total  length  of  this  system  is 
95  miles,  and  its  cost  to  June,  1905,  was  24-4  lakhs.  The  net  earnings 
yielded  5  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost  in  1904.  The  outlying  tdluka 
of  Petlad  is  crossed  by  the  broad-gauge  line  from  Anand  to  Cambay, 
22  miles  of  which  belong  to  the  State,  and  yielded  a  profit  of  nearly 
6  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost  of  11-5  lakhs  in  1904.  In  the  Kadi 
prant  the  Gaikwar's  Mehsana  Railway  radiates  from  Mehsana  north- 
west to  Patan,  north-east  to  Kheralu,  and  south-west  to  Viramgam, 
with  a  total  length  of  93  miles.  The  capital  cost  of  this  system  was 
34-2  lakhs  to  June,  1905,  and  in  1904  the  net  profit  was  6  per  cent. 
Another  metre-gauge  line,  41  miles  long,  passes  south-west  from  Vijapur 
to  Kalol  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway,  and  then  west  to  Kadi.  It 
has  cost  more  than  13  lakhs,  and  yielded  a  net  profit  of  3  per  cent, 
in  1904. 

The  railways  constructed  by  the  Darbar  have  increased  in  length 
from  113  miles  in  1891  to  185  in  1900  and  250  in  1905.  The  total 
capital  cost  has  been  83  lakhs,  giving  an  average  of  Rs.  33,000  per 
mile,  and  the  net  profit  in  1904  was  5-3  per  cent..  Cotton,  grain, 
salt,  oilseeds,  and  sugar  are  the  principal  commodities  carried. 

Good  roads  are  not  numerous  in  Baroda,  owing  to  the  great  expense 
involved  in  construction  and  up-keep,  and  it  is  probably  cheaper,  and 
certainly  more  effective,  to  make  narrow-gauge  railways.  The  main 
roads  are  the  Bombay-Ahmadabad  or  old  trunk  road,  passing  through 
the  Gandevi,  Navsari,  and  Velachha  tdlukas,  and  the  Bardoli-Surat 
road.  Feeders  connect  important  towns  with  railway  stations,  and  a 
few  miles  of  metalled  road  have  been  made  in  and  around  the  capital. 
The  upkeep  of  village  roads  has  recently  been  entrusted  to  local 
boards. 

The  usual  conveyance,  as  throughout  Gujarat,  is  a  large  wagon  called 
gadu,  the  general  pattern  of  which  is  everywhere  the  same.  It  is  simply 
a  long  cart  with  a  yoke  in  front,  movable  sides,  and  two  wheels,  usually. 


5 


S  BARODA    STATE 


hut  not  always  tired.  Another  type,  called  a  dama/iia,  is  about  half  the 
length  of  the  gddu,  and  is  chiefly  used  for  passengers,  of  whom  it  can 
convey  four  or  five.  It  is  usually  drawn  by  two  bullocks,  but  some- 
times one  only  is  used,  and  then  the  conveyance  is  called  an  ekka. 
Closed  carriages,  called  shigrams,  are  used  by  wealthy  people  in  large 
towns. 

In  connexion  with  the  chief  lines  of  traffic  through  the  country,  there 
are  ferry-boats  in  many  places  in  Baroda  territory,  some  belonging  to 
private  owners,  others  to  the  State.  The  Mindhola  river  is  crossed  by 
four  ferries,  and  the  Ambika  by  three.  The  Tapti  has  eight,  the 
Narbada  thirteen,  the  Mahl  seven,  the  Vishwamitri  two,  the  Sabarmati 
one,  while  in  Okhamandal  there  are  ten. 

Postal  arrangements  are  entirely  under  British  jurisdiction,  the  State 
forming  part  of  the  Bombay  circle.  Telegraph  offices  have  been  opened 
in  all  the  large  towns.  The  following  statistics  show  the  postal  business 
in  the  State  for  the  year  1904-5  : — 

Number  of  post  offices         ......  203 

Number  of  letter-boxes        ......  563 

Number  of  miles  of  postal  communication  .         .         .  9674 
Total  number  of  postal  articles  delivered  : — 

Letters     .........  2,222,928 

Post-cards 5.450>545 

Packets  (including  unregistered  newspapers)     .         .  235,738 

Newspapers  (registered  as  such  in  the  Post  Office)   .  338,225 

Parcels    .........  23,021 

Ks. 

Value  of  stamps  sold  to  the  public       ....  1,33,416 

Value  of  money  orders  issued       .....  16,26,490 

When  there  is  scarcity  of  rain,  the  liability  to  famine  varies  in 
different  parts  according  to  the  means  of  irrigation.  Thus  the  rani 
mahdis  of  Navsari,  with  a  stony  and  inferior  soil, 
suffer  as  there  is  no  possible  way  of  irrigating  the 
land.  In  the  Kahnam  and  Chorasi  tracts  of  Baroda  wells  can  only  be 
made  with  great  difficulty,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  black  soil.  Most 
of  the  Kadi  J»'dnt  is  suitable  for  the  sinking  of  wells,  the  exceptions 
being  portions  of  the  Patan  and  Sidhpur  td/ukas,  the  peta  viahdl  of 
Harij,  and  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  Kadi  and  Vadavli  tdlukas, 
a  part  of  the  Kalol  tdluka,  the  peta  mahdl  of  Atarsumba,  and  the  tract 
of  country  through  which  the  Sabarmati  flows.  In  Amreli  the  country 
bordering  on  the  Gir,  the  southern  portion  of  the  Dhari  tdhika,  and 
the  northern  part  of  the  Kodinar  tdluka  have  few  wells,  while  on  the 
sandy  and  almost  rainless  promontory  of  Okhamandal  both  soil  and 
climate  seem  to  combine  to  forbid  cultivation. 

The  records  of  early  famines  are  very  scanty.  There  was  certainly 
a  great  famine  in  1791,  and  another  in   1812-3,  which  prevailed  most 


FAMINE  59 

severely  in  Kadi  and  Amreli.     In   1819,  1834,  1838,  1877,  and   1896 
scarcity  was  experienced  in  portions  of  Baroda  territory. 

In  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  monsoon  in  1899,  the  whole  of 
(lujarat  fell  a  prey  to  the  most  terrible  famine  within  the  memory 
of  living  men.  In  June  the  usual  showers  of  rain  fell  in  all  parts  of  the 
State,  and  the  first  agricultural  operations  were  carried  out.  But  three 
months  followed  without  rain,  and  all  hopes  for  the  year  disappeared  in 
October  ;  numbers  of  cattle  died  in  that  month,  prices  rose  very  high, 
and  a  period  of  disaster  set  in.  The  total  rainfall  varied  from  13  to  34 
j)er  cent,  of  the  normal  in  most  parts  of  the  State.  Up  to  February, 
1900,  the  Navsari  f>raiif,  which  had  received  about  34  per  cent,  of  the 
normal  rain,  was  considered  free  from  famine;  but  an  area  of  6,245 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  2,095,953,  was  severely  affected 
from  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

The  crops  failed  entirely  in  every  part,  and  fodder  was  soon 
exhausted  except  in  the  forest  tracts  of  the  Navsari  prant.  The 
prevalence  of  famine  in  the  Deccan,  Rajputana,  Central  India,  and 
other  parts  added  to  the  distress,  for  the  prices  of  bajra  and  jo7var 
doubled.  Wheat  rose  by  only  60  per  cent.,  and  the  price  of  rice  was 
in  some  measure  kept  down  by  large  importations  from  Rangoon. 

Extensive  relief  measures  were  undertaken  by  the  State.  Gratuitous 
relief  was  granted  to  those  unable  to  work,  6-4  million  units  being  aided 
at  a  cost  of  2-6  lakhs.  In  addition,  4-6  million  units  were  relieved  by 
private  charity  at  a  cost  of  2-5  lakhs.  Cheap  grain-shops  were  also 
opened  and  poorhouses  established.  Relief  works  were  opened  in 
many  places,  some  of  which  were  large  protective  irrigational  works, 
such  as  the  Kadarpur  reservoir,  the  Orsang  irrigation  scheme,  a  new 
feeder  for  the  Ajwa  reservoir,  tanks  at  Karachia  and  Haripura,  and 
drainage  works  at  Sandesar  and  Karamsad.  Roads  and  railway  earth- 
works were  also  used  to  provide  relief.  The  number  of  units  on  works 
was  19-2  millions,  and  the  expenditure  was  19-4  lakhs.  Advances  were 
freely  made  to  agriculturists,  amounting  to  15-2  lakhs.  The  preserva- 
tion of  cattle  was  effected  to  some  extent  by  giving  free  grazing  wherever 
it  was  available,  by  the  stoppage  of  the  sale  of  grass  on  pasture  lands, 
by  the  removal  of  duties  on  cattle-food,  by  the  encouragement  of  the 
growth  of  fodder-crops,  and  by  the  direct  supply  of  grass.  The  total 
quantity  of  grass  so  supplied  amounted  to  3,255  tons,  and  the  cost  was 
a  lakh.  Wells  were  sunk,  specially  in  the  Kadi  division,  at  a  total 
expenditure  of  i2-2  lakhs,  and  with  the  water  so  obtained  fodder-crops 
were  raised.  The  total  expenditure  during  1899- 1900  on  account  of 
this  great  famine  was  46  lakhs. 

In  the  next  three  years  the  rainfall  was  unsatisfactory,  and  the  whole 
country  was  infested  with  rats,  which  destroyed  the  crops  wholesale. 
Ccjnsiderable  expenditure  was   required,    amounting   to    60  lakhs,   of 


6o  JiARODA    STATE 

which  j6  lakhs  was  spent  on  works  and  i6  lakhs  on  advances.  In 
1904-5  scarcity  was  again  felt,  and  relief  measures  were  required  at 
a  cost  of  10  lakhs,  including  advances  of  7  lakhs. 

As  the  registration  of  births  and  deaths  has  only  recently  been 
organized,  statistics  of  the  effect  on  population  are  not  very  reliable. 
During  the  famine  year  the  number  of  deaths  recorded  was  131,261, 
while  the  average  mortality  of  the  previous  five  years  was  only  42,723, 
The  deaths  are  attributed  to  the  following  causes:  cholera,  21,986; 
fever,  73,294;  dysentery  and  diarrhoea,  8,560;  other  causes,  27,421. 
According  to  the  famine  report  for  the  year  1 899-1 900,  the  number  of 
deaths  due  to  famine  causes  alone,  to  the  end  of  July,  1900,  was 
68,674. 

The  State  is  in  direct  political   relation  with   the   Government  of 

.   .        .         India,     all     communications    passing     through     the 
Admmistration.    „     .  , 

Resident. 

The  administration  is  carried  on  by  an  executive  council,  subject  to 
the  control  of  the  Maharaja,  who  is  assisted  by  a  Dlwan  and  other 
officers.  A  number  of  departments  have  been  formed,  which  are 
presided  over  by  officials  corresponding  to  those  in  British  India,  the 
principal  heads  of  departments  being  members  of  the  council.  The 
revenue,  financial,  and  settlement  departments  are  at  present  con- 
trolled by  Mr.  R.  C.  Dutt,  a  retired  Indian  Civilian.  Other  depart- 
ments deal  with  public  works,  medical,  education,  police  and  jails, 
judicial,  military,  records,  and  palace. 

The  State  is  divided  into  {owx  prdtits,  corresponding  to  the  Districts 
of  British  territory,  and  each  prdnt  is  subdivided  into  mahals  or  tdiukas, 
which  number  thirty-three,  besides  a  {q,\n  peta  mahals  or  %\x}a-tdlukas. 

A  Snbah  or  Collector  is  in  charge  of  edich  prdnf,  with  an  Assistant 
called  the  naih-sTibah.  A  vahivdtddr  or  tahsllddr  is  in  charge  of  each 
tdluka.  Corresponding  to  the  Commissioner  in  British  India  is  a  Sar- 
sul'ah,  who  supervises  the  work  of  the  Subahs,  and  is  subordinate  to  the 
Revenue  Minister.  P'or  some  years  attempts  have  been  made  to  restore 
village  autonomy,  and  since  1902  2i  paiichdyat  has  been  formally  con- 
stituted for  each  village  with  a  population  exceeding  1,000,  smaller 
hamlets  being  grouped  together.  The  number  of  members  varies  from 
five  to  nine,  half  being  appointed  by  the  district  officials  and  half 
selected.  The /a/^/ or  headman  is  president,  and  the  accountant  and 
schoolmaster  are  members  ^.v  officio.  These  bodies  are  in  charge  of 
various  details  connected  with  the  administration,  and  form  part  of  the 
scheme  for  local  self-government,  which  is  described  below. 

Before  the  administration  of  the  present  Maharaja  there  were  few 
published  codes  in  force,  and  these  dealt  chiefly  with  civil  and  criminal 
procedure,  stamps,  and  registration.  In  1883  a  law  committee  was 
constituted,  consisting  of  the   Naib   Diwan  and  the  three  Judges  of 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  6i 

the  High  Court.  The  committee  was  replaced  in  1904  by  a  legislative 
department,  under  a  Legal  Remembrancer.  Bills  are  published  in 
the  official  Gazette,  and  after  consideration  of  the 
criticisms  made  by  the  public  and  officers  of  the  State  andTustice' 
become  law  under  the  orders  of  the  Maharaja. 
The  chief  measures  passed  since  1884  are:  Acts  dealing  with  Police 
(1884  and  1898),  Registration  (1885  and  1902),  Excise  (1886  and  1900), 
Stamps  (1889  and  1904),  Small  Cause  Courts  (1890),  Municipalities 
(1892),  Law  relating  to  Possession  (1895  and  1897),  Court  Fees  (1896 
and  1904),  Civil  Procedure  (1896,  1902,  and  1904),  Easements  (1896), 
Limitatioii  (1896  and  1903),  Penal  Code  (1896  and  1904),  Criminal 
Procedure  (1896  and  1904),  Interest  (1898),  Inspection  of  Boilers 
(1898),  Contracts  (1898),  Guardians  and  Wards  (1898),  Lunatic 
Asylums  (1899),  Arms  (1900),  Transfer  of  Property  (1901  and  1902), 
Hindu  Widow  Marriages  (1902),  Opium  (1902),  Village  Munsifs 
(1902),  Primary  Education  (1904),  Infant  Marriage  Prevention  (1904), 
Local  Boards  (1904-5),  Co-operative  Credit  Societies  (1904-5), 
Religious  Endowments  (1904-5),  Charitable  Estates  (1904-5),  and 
Customs    (1904-5). 

Till  recently  the  subordinate  revenue  officials  exercised  magisterial 
powers,  resembling  those  of  a  magistrate  of  the  second  or  third  class 
in  British  India.  Since  1904,  however,  the  vahivdtddrs  have  been 
relieved  of  criminal  work  in  almost  every  tdluka,  and  cases  are  now 
tried  by  the  Munsifs  or  subordinate  civil  officers.  Nail>-sfil>ahs  or 
Siibahs  have  first-class  powers,  and  the  latter  can  transfer  cases  from 
one  subordinate  court  to  another. 

The  lowest  civil  courts  of  first  instance  are  those  of  the  mahdl 
Munsifs,  who  can  usually  hear  suits  up  to  Rs.  7,000,  and  Small  Cause 
suits  up  to  Rs.  100  when  sitting  alone,  and  up  to  Rs.  300  when  forming 
a  bench  with  another  Joint  Munsif  or  a  panchdyat.  A  few  Village 
Munsifs  have  also  been  appointed.  The  Munsifs  have  criminal  juris- 
diction as  magistrates  of  the  first  class. 

The  prdnt  Judges  try  original  civil  suits  up  to  any  amount,  hear 
appeals  from  the  Munsifs'  decisions,  and  try  Small  Cause  suits  up 
to  Rs.  750  when  alone,  and  up  to  Rs.  2,250  when  forming  a  bench 
with  another  Judge  or  with  a  panchayat.  In  criminal  cases  they  can 
sentence  to  imprisonment  for  life,  subject  to  the  sanction  of  the  High 
Court,  and  to  death,  subject  to  the  sanction  of  the  Maharaja.  In 
certain  classes  of  criminal  cases  the  trial  is  conducted  with  the  aid  of 
assessors,  and  the  adoption  of  a  jury  system  is  under  consideration. 
A  separate /ra^/"  Judge  was  appointed  for  Baroda  city  in  1905. 

The  chief  tribunal  is  called  the  Varishth  or  High  Court,  and  sits  at 
Baroda.  It  possesses  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of  the  State,  and 
hears  all  final  appeals  in  civil  and  criminal  cases.     The  Judges  of  this 


62 


B  A  ROD  A    STATE 


court,  wlu)  arc  thrte  in  number,  besides  the  Chief  Justice,  have  also 
extraordinary  powers  to  try  an  original  case.  Sentences  of  death, 
however,  are  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Maharaja,  who  can  also 
modify  any  order  passed  by  the  court. 

A  special  court,  for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases  affecting 
certain  privileged  persons,  such  as  sardars  and  darakdars^  sits  at 
Baroda,  and  is  known  as  the  Sardars'  Court. 

Minor  offences  with  regard  to  sanitation,  petty  quarrels,  &c.,  are 
disposed  of  by  the  village /a/^'A,  who  can  fine  up  to  Rs.  5,  and  inflict 
48  hours'  imprisonment  in  the  village  lock-up. 

Cases  of  theft  and  robbery  are  more  frequent  than  any  others,  and 
offences  against  the  person  rank  next,  although  murders  and  other  cases 
of  grievous  hurt  are  not  prevalent.  Offences  against  public  tranquillity 
are  comparatively  rare.  The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  crime 
and  litigation  for  a  series  of  years  : — 


Criminal  and  Civil  Justice 


Average  for 

ten  years 
ending  1890. 

1 
Average  for  ! 

ten  years           1901. 
ending  1900. 

1904-5- 

Criminal. 
Number  of  persons  tried 

Civil. 

Suits  for  money  and  movable 
property  .... 
Title  and  other  suits    . 
Rent  suits    .... 

Total 

21,404 

30,816 

22,680 

22,295 

14,912 
809 

188 

20,596 

1,903 

365 

13,450 

1,341 

736 

11,904 
1,200 

5or 

15,909 

22,864 

15,527 

13,605 

A  Registration  department  was  formed  in  1885.  In  the  decade 
ending  1900  the  number  of  ofifices  was  48,  and  the  average  number  of 
documents  registered  was  15,945.  In  1904-5  there  were  49  offices, 
and  20,641  documents  were  registered. 

The  department  of  finance  and  accounts  is  usually  controlled  by 
an  Accountant-General,  and  is  modelled  on  the  system  in  force  in 
British  India.  In  addition  to  the  usual  detailed 
examination  of  accounts  at  the  head  office,  the 
officials  of  the  inspection  branch  tour  and  examine  the  working  of  all 
disbursing  offices,  and  check  cash  balances  and  stock. 

The  main  items  of  revenue  in  the  Baroda  State  are  land  revenue, 
tribute  from  other  Native  States  in  Gujarat  and  Kathiawar,  opium, 
excise,  stamps,  and  railways.  The  main  items  of  expenditure  are  the 
palace,  civil  establishments,  army,  public  works,  police,  and  education. 


Finance. 


FINANCE 


63 


The  following  table  shows  the  revenue  and  expenditure  for  a  series 
of  years,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 

State  Revenue  and  Expenditure 


Average  for 

Average  for 

ten  years 

ten  years 

IQOI. 

1904-5. 

ending  1890. 

ending  1900. 

Revenue. 

Land  revenue 

1,01,26 

97,09 

87,69 

58,03 

Stamps ..... 

.^,02 

5,81 

5,93 

4,12 

Customs  (land,  sea,  and  town 

duties)    .... 

10,32 

7,60 

6,71 

5,36 

Miscellaneous  taxes 

3>43 

2,66 

I, .^7 

1,61 

Forests          .... 

63 

1,08 

76 

1,12 

Registration  .... 

39 

51 

51 

64 

Other  sources  (chiefly  tribute, 

excise,  railways,  opium,  and 

interest)       .... 
Total  revenue 
Expenditure. 

40,38 

50,11 

33-44 

42,93 

1,59,43 

1,64,86 

1,36,61 

1,13,81 

Collection  of  land  revenue,  &c. 

19,38 

28,68 

27,11 

21,33 

Huzur  office  establishment     . 

5,04 

5. '3 

5,24 

4,96 

Judicial  establishment    . 

3,30 

3,82 

4,00 

3,10 

Police    ..... 

8,5' 

7,74 

7,86 

7,32 

Education       .... 

2,73 

7,95 

8,07 

6,74 

Medical          .... 

1,59 

2,07 

2.18 

1,64 

Minor  civil  departments 

7,22 

7,74 

8,19 

15,92 

Pensions,  &c. 

9,97 

10,60 

8,77 

7,33 

Public  works  (including  irri- 

gation and  famine  relief)     . 

18,25 

21,88 

34,20 

16,29 

Other  charges  (chiefly  palace 

and  military) 

Total  expenditure 

75.12 

74-59 

73,62 

61,23 

1,51,01 

1,70,20 

179,24 

1,45,86 

The  disastrous  famine  year  and  its  succes.sor  account  for  the  diminished 
land  revenue  in  1901,  and  the  increase  of  expenditure,  due  chiefly  to 
protective  relief  works,  in  the  same  year.  The  large  decrease  in  land 
revenue  in  1904-5  is  due  to  remissions  and  suspensions  owing  to  scarcity. 

The  tributes  from  feudatory  chiefs  in  Kathiawar,  Rewa  Kantha,  and 
Mahl  Kantha  are  chiefly  collected  by  the  British  Government  and  are 
paid  through  the  Resident.     In  1904-5  they  amounted  to  5-9  lakhs. 

The  earliest  coin  struck  in  the  Baroda  State  was  issued,  nominally 
under  the  authority  of  Shah  Alam  II,  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Subsequently  the  Darbar  issued  its  own  money.  The  silver 
coins  were  called  babashdhi  rupees,  and  the  copper  coins  Baroda  pice, 
and  all  were  executed  in  the  rudest  manner,  except  the  latest  issue,  of 
the  present  Maharaja.  This  currency  did  not,  however,  circulate  in  all 
parts.  In  Navsari  and  Amreli  British  coin  was  used,  while  in  Kadi 
i-Zz/X-a/ rupees  were  current  till   1896,  when  babashdhi  xxxs^^t'^  were  sub- 


64  BARODA    STATE 

stituted.     Great  inconvenience  was  caused  by  fluctuations  in  exchange, 

and  British  currency  was  introduced  everywhere  in  1901.     The  only 

trace  still  left  of  the  old  currency  is  in  the  Baroda  prdni^  where  Baroda 

pice  are  still  in  use. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  land  has  been  alienated.     These  alienations 

extend  not  only  to  portions  of  the  khaha  or  State  villages,  but  also 

include   whole  villages,  of  which  about  8  per  cent. 
Land  revenue.     ,.,•,.  ,  ,.    , 

have  been  alienated.     A  general  term  applied  to  such 

lands  is  hharkhali,  the  expression  meaning  those  of  which  the  produce 
is  not  brought  into  the  State  khala  or  '  grain-yard.'  Prominent  among 
the  holders  of  such  land  are  the  Girasias,  whose  ancestors  held  estates 
under  the  Mughals,  or  rose  to  power  subsequently.  Some  Girasias 
are  entitled  to  cash  payments  only,  while  others  hold  land  and  receive 
allowances  as  well.  Land  which  is  exempted  from  assessment  is  called 
nakari,  and  includes  dharmadaya,  devastkdn,  and  pirasthdn,  or  lands  for 
the  support  of  charitable  institutions  or  to  maintain  religious  establish- 
ments. Chdkaryat  lands  are  those  granted  in  lieu  of  cash  for  services 
rendered  to  the  State,  and  the  occupants  have  no  power  to  sell,  mort- 
gage, or  otherwise  dispose  of  them.  Pasaita  lands  are  free  grants  to 
the  different  orders  of  village  servants  in  Gujarat.  There  are  also  indvii 
grants  and  alienations  given  as  rewards  for  services,  military  or  civil,  and 
many  less  important  classes  of  tenure.  Since  1880  alienations  have 
been  more  carefully  supervised  than  was  usual  in  the  past. 

The  principal  tenure  in  the  khdlsa  area  is  ryohvdn,  under  which 
the  State  collects  the  revenue  directly  from  each  cultivator  without  the 
intervention  of  a  third  party.  The  land  revenue  is  usually  assessed  in 
cash  on  the  area  of  the  land  occupied,  but  in  a  small  and  backward 
tract  it  is  still  levied  on  the  number  of  mattocks  used.  This  tract  is 
now  confined  to  one  corner  of  the  State  and  is  mostly  forest  land.  The 
cultivators  have  full  rights  of  sale  and  mortgage ;  but  if  a  holding  is 
sold  in  execution  of  a  decree,  sufficient  land  is  reserved  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  cultivator  and  his  family. 

Two  tenures,  which  resemble  to  some  extent  the  zamjnddri  tenure  of 
Northern  India,  are  called  narvadari  and  bhdgddri.  The  latter  has 
practically  disappeared.  In  the  former  a  lump  assessment  is  made  on 
a  whole  village,  on  general  considerations,  and  the  narvaddrs  are  left  to 
make  their  own  terms  with  the  actual  cultivators.  As  a  rule,  they  set 
aside  a  portion  of  the  village  the  produce  of  which  meets  the  State 
demand.  While  nominally  allowed  to  alienate  their  rights,  they  remain 
responsible  for  the  full  assessment.  Under  the  ankadabandi  and 
ekatikadi  tenures  a  lump  sum  is  assessed  on  a  whole  village,  and  the 
cultivators  are  left  to  distribute  the  demand  among  themselves.  The 
assessment  is  subject  to  revision  in  the  case  of  the  former,  and  is 
permanently  fixed  in  the  latter  class. 


1 

i 


MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE  65 

Under  the  Marathas  tracts  of  land  were  leased  to  farmers,  who 
extorted  as  much  as  they  could  from  the  cultivators.  In  1864  Khande 
Rao  commenced  a  scheme  for  settlement  resembling  that  in  the 
adjacent  parts  of  Bombay.  He  also  substituted  payments  in  cash  for 
division  of  the  produce,  and  established  a  State  service  for  the  collec- 
tion of  revenue.  The  system  was  hardly  successful,  as  the  survey  was 
incorrect,  and  the  assessment  was  largely  guess-work,  while  the  tendency 
to  pitch  it  too  high  was  increased  by  the  temporary  demand  for  Indian 
cotton  during  the  American  Civil  War.  About  ten  years  later,  Sir  T. 
Madhava  Rao  reduced  the  demand  by  12  lakhs;  and  in  1883  a  new 
survey  and  settlement  were  commenced  under  an  officer  of  the  Indian 
Civil  Service.  Operations  were  modelled  on  those  followed  in  Bombay. 
The  demand  for  a  whole  taii/ka  was  fixed  on  consideration  of  the  fiscal 
history  of  the  tract,  and  was  then  distributed  after  careful  classification 
of  the  land  according  to  its  capabilities.  The  total  demand  was  still 
further  reduced  by  8  lakhs,  and  the  assessment  was  fixed  for  a  period 
of  fifteen  years.  A  number  of  taxes  on  agriculturists  were  at  the  same 
time  abolished.  In  1904  the  revision  of  this  settlement  commenced, 
also  under  the  control  of  an  officer  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  and  it 
has  been  decided  to  fix  the  term  of  assessment  at  thirty  years. 

Trade  in  opium  is  a  monopoly  of  the  State,  and  no  cultivator  is 
permitted  to  grow  poppy  without  a  licence.  A  special  agency  is  main- 
tained for  supervising  and  regulating  the  growth  of 
the  plant,  and  the  subsequent  manufacture  of  opium. 
At  present  cultivation  is  confined  to  the  Kadi  pratit. 
Licences  are  issued  by  the  vahivatddrs  or  the  opium  superintendent  to 
cultivators,  who  send  their  applications  through  the  village  accountants. 
Opium  is  collected  from  the  cultivators  at  fixed  places  from  April  to 
June,  and  they  receive  payment  immediately,  at  a  rate  fixed  beforehand, 
which  was  Rs.  6  per  seer  in  1904-5.  A  sufficient  quantity  is  reserved 
for  use  in  the  State,  and  the  balance  is  sent  to  Bombay  for  sale  in 
China.  The  latter  is  packed  in  chests  containing  140^  lb.  or  half- 
chests  of  yoi  lb.,  and  is  subject  to  a  transit  duty  at  present  amounting 
to  Rs.  600  per  chest,  collected  by  the  British  Government  at  Ahniad- 
abad.  Retail  sale  within  the  State  is  effected  by  licensed  vendors.  In 
Navsari  and  Amreli  the  contract  for  sale  throughout  the  whole //■««/  is 
disposed  of  by  auction,  while  in  Baroda  shops  are  let  separately.  In 
Kadi  a  selected  licensee  receives  the  contract.  The  area  under  poppy 
averaged  8,166  acres  during  the  decade  ending  1890,  6,223  acres  during 
the  following  ten  years,  and  was  6,973  acres  in  1901  and  12,262  acres 
in  1904-5.  The  net  revenue  averaged  3-3  lakhs  from  1881  to  1890, 
and  4-1  lakhs  during  the  next  decade.  In  1904-5  sales  within  the 
State  realized  a  net  profit  of  2-5  lakhs,  and  800  chests  were  exported 
at  a  profit  of  3-2  lakhs.    Many  causes  affect  the  popularity  of  the  cultiva- 

VOL.  VII.  F 


66  B  ARC  DA    STATE 

litni.  The  poppy  is  a  difficult  plant  to  bring  under  culture.  It  requires 
constant  care  and  attention,  and  all  the  processes  connected  with  it 
entail  much  labour.  Rapeseed,  wheat,  and  other  crops  compete  with 
poppy.  The  price  to  be  offered  by  the  State  is  notified  before  issuing 
licences,  and  the  people  make  a  choice  according  to  the  conditions  of 
the  season. 

The  manufacture  of  salt  is  carried  on  only  in  Amreli.  The  product 
is  sold  in  this  prdnf,  and  cannot  be  exported  to  other  parts  of 
Baroda  or  to  British  India.  Salt  made  at  Kodinar  is  a  State  monopoly  ; 
but  no  restrictions  are  in  force  at  Okhamandal,  except  the  levy  of  an 
export  duty  on  salt  exported  to  Zanzibar  and  other  foreign  ports.  In 
the  rest  of  the  State  salt  may  not  be  manufactured.  In  1904-5  the 
State  realized  Rs.  573  from  export  duty,  and  Rs.  348  from  the 
monopoly,  while  it  spent  Rs.  230  on  the  latter  and  Rs.  864  on  preven- 
tive establishment. 

The  principal  sources   of  excise  revenue  are  the   manufacture  and 

sale  of  country  liquors  and  toddy,  bhang,  ganja,  and  other  intoxicating 

drugs,  and  fees  for  licences  for  the  sale  of  imported  foreign  liquors. 

In  Amreli  the  out-still  system  is  in  force,  under  which  the  rights  to 

manufacture  and  sell  liquor  are  sold  together.     In  other  prdnts  liquor 

is  manufactured  at  a  central  distillery,  still-head  duty  being  levied  at 

rates  varying  from  6  annas  a  gallon  for  liquor  at  60°  under  proof,  to 

Rs.  2-8  for  liquor  15°  under  proof.     Licences  for  retail  vend  are  sold 

by  auction.     Toddy  is  sold  in  shops  which  are  let  singly  or  in  groups 

of  licensed  vendors,  and  in  addition  a  tree  tax  is  levied.    It  is  important 

only  in  Baroda  and  Navsari.      Licences  for  the  sale  of  imported  liquors 

are  given  at  fixed  annual  rates,  varying  from  Rs.  75  to  Rs.  125.     The 

excise  revenue  during  the  decade  ending   1890  averaged  5-44  lakhs, 

and  during  the   next  ten  years  8-5   lakhs.     In  1901  the  revenue  was 

5-8  lakhs,  and  in  1904-5,  6-8  lakhs.      The  chief  heads  of  receipts  in 

the  last  year  were  5-8  lakhs  from  liquors  and  Rs.  93,000  from  toddy. 

The  incidence  of  receipts  per  head  of  the  population  was  R.  0-1-9  in 

1 88 1,  R.  0-5-5  "^  1 89 1)  R-  0-4-8  in  1 90 1,  and  R.  0-5-6  in  1904-5. 

The  Marathas,  Kolls,  and  labouring  Hindus,  the  Parsis,  and  some  of 

the  Muhammadans  consume  country  liquor ;  but  as  usual  the  greatest 

demand  is  in  the  capital  and  chief  centres.     In  Navsari  there  is  a  large 

consumption  of  toddy,  because  of  the  numerous  palms  that  grow  there, 

and  the  superior  nature  of  the  manufactured  drink.    Bhang,  gdnja,  Szc, 

are  not  used  nearly  so  freely  as  liquor.     The  higher  classes  are  as  a  rule 

strongly  averse  to  the  use  of  liquor,  though  some  educated  persons  take 

a  stimulant  in  case  of  illness.  The  wealthier  part  of  the  community,  as  for 

instance  the  Parsis,  prefer  imported  spirits  to  the  coarser  country  brands. 

The  Stamp  department  is  conducted  on  methods  analogous  to  those 

obtaining  in  British  territory.     Various  kinds  of  stamps  and  stamped 


LOCAL   AND  MUNICIPAL  67 

paper  are  supplied  to  selected  vendors,  who  sell  by  retail  to  the  people, 
and  obtain  a  commission  from  the  State.  The  revenue  derived  from 
stamps  during  the  decade  ending  1890  averaged  3  lakhs,  and  during 
the  next  ten  years  5-8  lakhs.  In  1901  it  was  5-9  lakhs,  and  in 
1904—5,  4-1   lakhs. 

Till  recently  a  number  of  vexatious  taxes  were  levied  on  professions 
and  castes,  forming  214  classes  in  1905.  They  yielded  only  about 
Rs.  85,000,  and  have  been  replaced  by  an  income  tax,  first  levied, 
in  part  of  the  State,  in  1901-2.  This  is  assessed  at  about  i  per  cent., 
incomes  of  less  than  Rs.  300  per  annum  being  exempted.  The 
revenue  in  1904-5  was  Rs.  99,000.  An  income  of  about  a  lakh  is 
derived  from  rents  paid  for  homestead  land  by  non-agriculturists, 
licences  to  collect  valuable  shells,  and  taxes  on  pilgrims. 

Important  reforms  have  recently  been  made  in  the  customs  adminis- 
tration, which  were  formerly  complicated  and  harassing  to  trade.  In 
1904  the  frontier  duties  hitherto  imposed  in  the  Baroda  and  Kadi 
prdnts  on  28  articles  were  abolished,  leaving  8  on  the  schedule,  and  a 
similar  reduction  was  made  in  the  duties  levied  in  towns,  while  export 
duties  were  remitted,  except  in  the  case  of  cotton  and  mahua.  At 
the  same  time  the  assessment  was  simplified  by  levying  it  by  weight, 
instead  of  ad  valorem.  A  year  later  similar  reforms  were  introduced  in 
the  Navsari  and  Amreli //w//^,  and  in  addition  octroi  was  completely 
abolished  in  several  small  towns.  The  customs  revenue  during  the 
decade  ending  i8go  averaged  10-3  lakhs,  and  during  the  next  decade 
7-6  lakhs  ;  in  1904-5  it  amounted  to  5-4  lakhs.  In  the  last  year  the 
expenditure  on  establishment  was  Rs.  80,000. 

A  scheme  for  local  self-government  came  into  force  in  1905,  when  a 
tdhika  board  was  constituted  in  each  tdluka  and  a  District  board  in 
each  prant.     Groups  of  villages  and  each    munici- 
pality return  a  member  to  the  tdluka  board,  half  the        „  ^■-     , 
^        •'  _  '  municipal. 

members  of  which  are  thus  elected,  the  other  half 
being  nominated  by  the  State.  Half  the  members  of  the  District 
board  are  similarly  elected  by  tdluka  boards  and  large  municipalities. 
Alienated  villages  are  also  represented  on  both  District  and  tdluka 
boards.  The  Sudah  presides  over  the  former,  and  the  naib-subah  over 
the  latter.  A  local  cess  is  levied  at  the  rate  of  one  anna  in  the  rupee 
on  land  revenue,  but  has  not  yet  been  extended  to  the  whole  State. 
From  the  proceeds  a  quarter  is  set  apart  for  famine  and  other  unfore- 
seen expenditure,  and  the  balance  is  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
boards,  amounting  to  2-8  lakhs  in  1905-6.  Further  grants  are  made 
for  public  works,  vaccination,  and  village  schools,  the  total  income 
being  4-5  lakhs.  The  boards'  functions  resemble  those  entrusted  to 
similar  institutions  in  British  India,  such  as  public  works,  schools, 
temporary  dispensaries,  vaccination,  sanitation,  and  arboriculture. 

F  2 


68 


BARODA    STATE 


In  1877  municipalities  were  e.stablished  in  all  towns  containing 
a  population  of  10,000  persons  and  over,  excepting  Dwarka,  and  grants 
were  made  by  the  State  at  the  rate  of  4  annas  per  head  of  population. 
The  grants  sufficed  only  for  a  limited  attention  to  conservancy,  lighting, 
watering,  (!v:c.,  and  were  subsequently  raised  to  8  annas  per  head  for  all 
towns  where  the  population  is  more  than  7,000,  and  6  annas  per  head 
in  other  cases.  Municipalities  were  subsequently  established  in  twenty- 
two  other  towns  with  a  population  of  less  than  io,ooo.  From  1899- 
1900  (famine  year)  the  grants  were  reduced  to  4  annas,  except  in 
Patan.  In  1905  separate  sources  of  income  were  assigned  to  some 
municipalities.  Thus  Baroda  city  received  a  grant  of  1-3  lakhs  and  the 
net  receipts  from  octroi,  while  custom  duties,  tolls,  local  cess,  and 
a  proportion  of  the  excise  revenue  raised  in  them  were  handed  over  to 
seven  other  towns,  the  ordinary  grant  being  reduced  or  abolished.  In 
1905  there  were  altogether  35  municipal  towns  :  Baroda  city,  with 
a  population  exceeding  100,000;  10  with  more  than  10,000  and  less 
than  100,000  ;  and  24  with  less  than  10,000.  The  total  population 
wathin  municipal  limits  was  412,626. 

With  the  exception  of  Baroda  city  and  seven  other  towns,  the  Subah 
appoints  no  less  than  half  the  members,  who  are  from  eight  to  sixteen 
in  number,  and  hold  office  for  three  years.  In  making  his  nominations 
the  Subah  is  expected  to  take  into  consideration  the  different  castes  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  nature  of  the  trade  carried  on  in  the  town. 
He  can  also  appoint  State  servants,  such  as  members  of  the  medical 
and  educational  departments.  In  the  more  important  towns,  naib- 
subahs  help  in  the  administration,  and  in  the  tdhika  towns  the  vahivdt- 
ddrs.  In  1905  a  scheme  was  introduced  by  which  half  the  members  are 
elected  in  the  seven  towns  referred  to  above.  The  principle  of  election 
has  been  introduced  to  a  certain  extent  in  other  municipalities  also. 

The  following  table  shows  the  expenditure  of  the  municipalities, 
excluding  Baroda  city  : — 


1889-90. 

Average 
for  the  ten 

years 
1891-1900. 

1900-1. 

1904-5- 

Establishment 

Public  works 

Planting  of  trees . 

Conservancy 

Watering  roads    . 

Lighting 

Fire  establishment 

Tools  and  plant  . 

Miscellaneous 

1 

Rs. 

Details 
not 
avail- 
able 

Rs. 

Details 

not       I 
available 

Rs. 

15.687 

10,271 

191 

57,825 
3.480 

13,496 

579 

776 

1,226 

Rs. 

12,504 

13,224 

202 

48,630 

2,377 

13.582 

918 

1,378 
4,736 

Total 

70,812 

1.23,194 

1,03,531 

97,551 

ARMY  69 

In  Baroda  city  the  expenditure  was  3-4  lakhs  in  1889-90  and  1900-1, 
and  2-4  lakhs  in  1904-5. 

The  pubh'c  works  department,  which  came  into  existence  in  1875, 

is  under  the  control  of  the  Chief  Engineer,  the  administrative  part  of 

the  work  being  conducted  by  a  secretary  in  the  public 

.  Public  works 

works  department,  who  is  of  the  rank  of  Executive 

Engineer.  Five  divisions  have  been  formed  for  the  prdnts  and  Baroda 
city,  at  the  head  of  each  being  an  Executive  Engineer  with  a  qualified 
staff  under  him.  There  is  a  separate  Executive  Engineer  for  irrigation. 
It  has  also  been  found  necessary  to  make  a  separate  branch  for  land- 
scape gardening,  and  to  appoint  at  its  head  a  European  Garden  Super- 
intendent, who  reports  directly  to  the  Chief  Engineer. 

During  the  decade  1881-90  the  expenditure  averaged  16-7  lakhs, 
while  in  the  next  ten  years  it  rose  to  18-3  lakhs.  In  1904-5  it 
amounted  to  20-1  lakhs,  including  2  lakhs  for  famine  relief.  These 
sums  do  not  include  expenditure  on  the  railways,  which  were  not  con- 
structed by  the  department. 

The  following  are  the  principal  works  that  have  been  carried  out 
since  the  accession  of  the  present  Maharaja :  The  Dufiferin,  Jamnabai, 
and  Military  Hospitals,  and  a  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Baroda  city,  and  4 
hospitals  and  25  dispensaries  in  the  districts ;  a  college,  Anglo- 
vernacular  school,  and  female  training  college  at  Baroda,  a  high  school 
at  Amreli,  and  about  50  other  schools  ;  public  offices  at  Baroda, 
Navsari,  Amreli,  and  Mehsana  ;  a  survey  office  and  record  ofifice  at 
Baroda;  judicial  courts  and  a  Central  jail  at  Baroda,  and  4  District 
jails  ;  a  public  park  and  museum  at  Baroda ;  cavalry  and  infantry  lines, 
with  officers'  quarters  at  Baroda ;  the  Ajwa  reservoir  and  city  drainage 
works  for  Baroda,  and  drainage  and  irrigation  works  in  the  districts  ; 
a  lighthouse  at  Dwarka ;  roads  from  Baroda  to  Ajwa  and  Amalyara, 
Petlad  to  Cambay,  vSinor  to  Karjan,  Patan  to  Harij,  Bilimora  to 
Gandevi,  Songarh  to  Surat,  Amreli  to  Chital,  Dwarka  to  Koranga,  and 
many  others  of  short  lengths.  In  addition,  the  magnificent  Lakshmi 
Vilas  palace  at  Baroda,  and  a  palace  at  Umrath,  have  been  constructed 
departmentally. 

The  State  army,  consisting  of  the  regular  and  irregular  forces,  is 
under  the  command  of  the  Senapati,  who  is  assisted  by  the  military 
secretary.  The  regular  forces  include  artillery, 
cavalry,  and  infantry,  whose  total  strength  in  1904-5 
was  4,775  officers  and  men.  The  artillery  forms  a  light  field  battery, 
93  strong.  There  are  four  cavalry  regiments,  with  a  total  strength 
of  1,500  men,  and  four  infantry  regiments  with  3,182,  including 
staff  officers  and  the  band.  The  irregular  forces  are  also  divided 
into  horse  and  foot,  the  former  numbering  2,000  and  the  latter 
1,806.      The   total   cost   in    1904-5    was    17-9    lakhs,  of  which    io-6 


70  r^ARODA    STATE 

lakhs  was  spent  on  the  regulars,  6-5  lakhs  on  the  irregulars,  and  the 
balance  on  pensions.  In  addition,  the  State  pays  3-7  lakhs  annually 
to  the  British  Government  as  coniniutation  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  former  Baroda  Contingent,  making  a  total  military  expenditure 
of  2  1-6  lakhs.  A  regiment  of  native  infantry  of  the  Indian  Army 
garrisons  Baroda,  which  is  a  cantonment  in  the  Mhow  division  of 
the  Western  Command. 

Before   i860  the  police  administration    was    in    the   hands   of  the 

revenue  farmers,  who  were  permitted  to  exercise  magisterial  and  police 

functions.     The  system  was  unsatisfactory,  and  con- 

iails  sequently  numerous  changes  and  improvements  were 

made ;  but  the  first  thorough  reform  was  introduced 

by  Sir  T.  Madhava  Rao,  who  separated  the  work  of  the  magistrates 

from  that  of  the  police. 

The  present  organization  of  the  regular  police  is  as  follows :  At  the 
head  of  the  department  is  a  Commissioner.  Each  prattt  is  under 
a  district  police  officer,  who  is  called  police  naib-subah,  corresponding 
in  rank  with  the  District  Superintendent,  and  has  under  him  a  varying 
number  of  inspectors.  The  inspectors  are  in  charge  of  subdivisions, 
which  consist  of  three  or  more  ta/ukas.  Each  tahtka  has  a  faiijddr 
(chief  constable).  A  taluka  is  subdivided  into  thdnas  (outposts),  each 
thana  containing  a  certain  number  of  villages.  Large  and  important 
thdnas  have  chaukls  under  them  for  a  small  group  of  villages.  The 
thdnas  are  under  naib-faitjdars,  and  the  chaukls  under  havilddrs  or 
jemadars.  The  sanctioned  strength  of  the  regular  force  in  1904-5  was 
4,886,  made  up  as  follows:  60  officers,  4,622  subordinate  officers  and 
men,  and  204  mounted  police,  besides  129  non-effectives.  The  actual 
strength  was  4,660,  and  the  total  cost  was  6-4  lakhs.  The  sanctioned 
strength  allows  one  man  of  the  regular  police  to  every  2-9  square  miles 
of  country,  and  to  every  690  inhabitants.  The  rural  police  are  said  to 
number  about  10,000  men.  These  latter  are,  strictly  speaking,  sub- 
ordinate to  the  village  panchdyats,  but  in  criminal  cases  must  give 
assistance  and  report  to  the  regular  police. 

The  system  of  recruitment  of  the  regular  police  is  almost  the  same 
as  in  British  territory.  Recruits  must  be  men  of  good  character,  with 
a  height  not  less  than  5  feet  5  inches,  and  circumference  of  chest  not 
less  than  31  inches.  After  enlistment  each  recruit  is  trained  at  the 
head-quarters  of  the  division  for  at  least  six  months,  and  is  taught  drill 
and  the  use  of  the  rifle.  Those  who  cannot  read  and  write  receive 
oral  instruction  in  their  duties,  and  manuals  are  provided  containing 
the  chief  points  of  the  Police  Act  and  other  regulations.  In  1904-5 
about  63  per  cent,  of  the  force  could  read  and  write.  Educated  men 
have  not  shown  much  desire  to  enter  this  department ;  but  a  change 
seems  to  be  setting  in,  and  at  the  present  time  there  are  even  a  few 


EDUCATION 


71 


graduates  in  the  service.  The  pay  of  the  force  has  recently  been 
raised. 

Except  in  the  city  of  Baroda  there  is  no  special  branch  for  detective 
service.  To  aid  in  the  detection  of  crime,  the  system  of  taking  finger- 
prints was  introduced  two  years  ago  and  is  now  being  developed 
throughout  the  State.  Police  on  the  State  railways  are  under  the 
control  of  the  Police  Commissioner,  except  on  the  Dabhoi  Railway, 
which  is  under  the  Superintendent  of  Railway  Police,  Bombay. 

The  number  of  cases  dealt  with  by  the  police  and  the  main  results 
are  shown  below  : — 


Average, 
1891-1900. 

1904-5. 

Number  of  cases  reported        ..... 
,,              ,,      decided  in  criminal  courts    . 
,,             ,,      ending  in  acquittal  or  discharge   . 
,,            ,,          conviction    . 

5.807 
3,387 
1,3" 
2,076 

4.263 

2,276 

631 

1.532 

The  Jail  department  is  under  the  Police  Ccniimissioner.  The  State 
contains  a  Central  jail  at  Baroda,  4  District  jails,  a  subordinate  jail,  and 
39  lock-ups.  The  Central  jail  and  three  of  the  District  jails  are  in 
charge  of  Civil  Surgeons,  while  the  others  are  supervised  by  vahivdtddrs 
or  subordinate  officials.  The  average  daily  number  of  inmates  was 
1,511  in  1881,  2,324  in  1901  (a  famine  year),  and  915  in  1904-5.  The 
mortality  usually  ranges  from  25  to  35  per  thousand,  but  in  1901  rose 
to  84,  owing  to  the  effects  of  famine  on  the  population.  The  chief 
industry  pursued  in  the  Baroda  Central  jail  is  weaving.  All  the 
clothing  required  for  the  prisoners  themselves,  and  for  the  police,  is 
prepared  here.  Excellent  carpets  are  also  made,  as  well  as  cane 
baskets,  boxes,  chairs,  &c.  The  produce  is  sold  under  a  contract,  and 
is  exported  in  large  quantities.  In  1904-5  the  total  receipts  from 
convict  labour  amounted  to  Rs.  25,000.  The  annual  average  cost  of 
maintaining  a  prisoner  was  Rs.  69  in  1881,  Rs.  76  in  1891,  Rs.  81 
in  1 90 1,  and  Rs.  73  in  1904-5,  the  total  expenditure  in  the  last  year 
being  Rs.  67,000. 

Up  to  1 87 1  the  State  took  no  interest  in  schools  and  expended  no 
money  on  education.  The  progress  made  since, 
which  has  raised  education  to  a  very  high  standard, 
is  thus  remarkable.  Statistics  will  be  found  in  a  table  at  the  end 
of  this  article  (p.  78). 

Indigenous  schools  are  usually  conducted  by  Brahmans,  the  post  of 
head  master  being  hereditary.  The  fees  are  small,  varying  in  the  case 
of  monthly  payments  from  i  anna  to  4  annas.  In  other  cases  a  small 
lump  sum  is  given,  or  payment  is  made  in  grain.  The  ages  of  the 
boys  attending  these  schools  vary  from  5   to   10   in  towns,  and  from 


Education. 


72  BARODA   STATE 

7  to  about  13  in  villages.  The  subjects  taught  do  not  go  beyond  read- 
ing, writing,  and  elementary  arithmetic,  though  formulae  of  a  moral  and 
intellectual  nature  arc  learnt  by  heart.  No  books  are  used,  and  the 
school-house  is  either  the  master's  own  property  or  he  is  allowed  to 
use  a  dharmsdia.  Many  of  these  institutions  have  been  replaced  by 
State  schools. 

In  187 1  five  State  schools  were  opened,  two  for  GujaratI,  two  for 
MarathT,  and  one  for  English  tuition.  In  1875  a  department  of  public 
instruction  was  established,  and  rapid  extensions  and  developments 
then  followed  until  the  present  system  was  established.  The  depart- 
ment, which  is  controlled  by  the  Vidyadhikari  or  Minister  of  Education, 
is  divided  into  two  branches,  the  Anglo-vernacular  and  the  vernacular 
branch.  The  staff  of  the  Baroda  College  and  high  school  inspect  the 
former,  while  the  latter  is  supervised  by  an  Inspector  in  each  prant, 
aided  by  eleven  deputy-inspectors  and  a  twelfth  for  Urdu  and  low- 
caste  schools. 

The  Baroda  College  was  founded  in  1881,  and  recognized  by  the 
University  of  Bombay  in  the  same  year.  It  is  fully  equipped  with 
chemical  and  physical  laboratories,  a  botanical  garden,  an  excellent 
library,  and  prepares  students  for  the  highest  degrees  in  the  faculty  of 
Arts,  the  B.Sc,  and  also  for  the  first  LL.B.  examination  of  the  Univer- 
sity. Close  to  the  college  building  are  large  boarding-houses  for  the 
residence  of  students.  In  1905-6  students  from  this  college  passed 
the  following  examinations:  Previous  35,  Intermediate  3,0,  B.A.  19, 
B.Sc.  3,  M.A.  I,  and  first  LL.B.  13.  A  number  of  students  have 
been  sent  at  the  State  expense  to  continue  their  studies  in  England, 
America,  and  Japan. 

Secondary  schools  are  divided  into  high  schools  and  Anglo-vernacular 
schools.  Their  number  has  risen  from  10  with  809  pupils  in  1881  to 
17  with  1,978  pupils  in  1891,  21  with  2,926  pupils  in  1901,  and  21  with 
3,095  pupils  in  1904-5.  In  the  last  year  the  State  maintained  3  high 
schools  and  14  Anglo- vernacular  schools,  and  aided  the  other  institu- 
tions. The  total  expenditure  was  1-5  lakhs,  and  the  receipts  from  fees 
were  Rs.  32,000.  The  proportion  of  the  male  population  of  school- 
going  age  under  secondary  instruction  in  1904-5  was  1-83  per  cent. 

In  the  vernacular  schools  education  is  imparted  in  Gujarat!,  MarathT, 
or  Urdu,  and  in  the  best  of  the  MarathT  and  GujaratT  schools  there  are 
seven  standards,  with  Sanskrit  as  an  optional  subject.  These  schools 
are  provided  in  all  towns  and  villages  with  a  population  exceeding 
1,000,  though  even  smaller  places  possess  them.  Great  attention  is 
paid  in  primary  schools  to  subjects  of  practical  use,  such  as  letter- 
writing,  book-keeping,  history  and  geography  of  the  State,  hygiene, 
village  accounts,  &c.  Moral  instruction  is  also  given,  and  physical 
education  is  imparted.     In  some  schools  manual  training  has  also  been 


EDUCATION  73 

introduced.  Village  schools  were  first  opened  in  1891,  and  the  village 
schoolmaster  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  permanent  members  of  the 
panchayat.  The  schools  are  opened  in  all  villages  where  there  are  no 
regular  schools,  provided  that  at  least  sixteen  pupils  can  be  collected. 
The  standard  is  lower  than  in  regular  schools,  but  in  the  upper  classes 
boys  learn  village  accounts,  book-keeping,  and  a  little  surveying.  In 
1905  these  schools  were  made  over  to  local  boards. 

An  experiment  in  compulsory  education  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
Amreli  tdhika  since  1893.  In  1904-5,  66  schools  were  specially  pro- 
vided in  50  villages,  and  these  were  attended  by  5,879  pupils,  or  11  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  An  Act  was  passed  in  1904  to  provide 
for  the  extension  of  this  system  to  other  tCilukas.  The  age  limit  for 
compulsory  attendance  is  7  to  12  for  boys  and  7  to  10  for  girls,  but 
numerous  exemptions  are  allowed. 

The  total  number  of  vernacular  schools  rose  from  180  with  17,465 
pupils  in  1 88 1  to  503  with  50,979  pupils  in  1891,  1,189  ^^il^h  83,277 
pupils  in  1901,  and  1,243  ^^"'^h  81,649  pupils  in  1904-5.  The  latest 
figures  include  496  State  schools  for  boys,  94  for  girls,  and  653  village 
schools  and  other  institutions.  Nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  villages  in  the 
State  have  schools,  and  43  per  cent,  of  boys  of  a  school-going  age  are 
under  instruction.  The  monthly  pay  of  an  assistant  master  ranges  from 
Rs.  7  to  Rs.  25,  while  a  head  master  receives  from  Rs.  15  to  Rs.  60. 

In  188 1  the  number  of  girls'  schools  in  the  State  was  8,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  554.  In  1891  the  number  of  schools  was  39,  and 
the  average  number  on  the  rolls  was  4,103.  In  1901  the  number  of 
schools  was  97,  and,  including  girls  educated  in  mixed  schools,  female 
pupils  numbered  14,427.  There  were  94  girls'  schools  in  1904-5  with 
8,086  pupils,  while  5,027  girls  were  being  educated  in  mixed  schools, 
giving  a  total  of  9  per  cent,  of  the  female  population  of  a  school-going 
age.  In  the  small  girls'  schools,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  literary 
subjects,  needlework  and  singing  are  taught,  and  in  the  more  advanced 
schools,  embroidery,  drawing,  singing,  and  cooking.  Zandna  classes 
have  been  in  existence  for  some  time.  They  are  attended  by  grown-up 
women,  who  are  taught  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  needlework,  in 
convenient  hours  when  they  are  free  from  domestic  duties.  In  1904-5 
there  were  140  students  in  these  classes. 

A  training  class  for  female  teachers  was  opened  in  1881,  and  has  been 
developed  into  a  female  training  college  under  the  charge  of  a  Lady 
Superintendent.  The  number  of  students  on  the  rolls  in  1904-5  was 
26,  of  whom  7  completed  their  course  and  were  employed  by  the 
department.  A  similar  school  for  male  teachers  was  opened  in  1885 
but  abolished  in  1898.  It  was  reopened  in  1905,  in  connexion  with 
the  technical  school  described  below,  and  has  66  pupils. 

In  1890  a  technical  school,  called  the  Kala  Bhavan^  was  established 


74  B  A  ROD  A    STATE 

in  the  city  of  Barodii,  and  has  since  been  improved  and  extended.  It 
now  inckides  classes  for  art,  architecture,  mechanical  and  chemical 
technology,  weaving,  and  watch-making.  The  number  of  pupils  rose 
from  175  in  1901  to  364  in  1904-5,  and  only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
candidates  for  admission  to  the  engineering  class  can  be  accommodated. 
Industrial  schools  at  Padra,  Vadnagar,  and  Kathor  are  in  charge  of  the 
Principal  of  the  Kala  Bhavan.  The  total  expenditure  on  these  institu- 
tions in  1904-5  was  Rs.  53,000. 

Since  1886  schools  where  music  is  taught  on  scientific  principles  have 
been  maintained  in  Baroda  and  other  places.  These  are  exceedingly 
popular,  and  contained  638  pupils  in  1904  5.  Music  is  also  taught  to 
girls  in  the  training  college  and  in  the  higher  classes  of  the  vernacular 
girls'  schools. 

In  1 88 1  there  were  only  13  Muhammadan  students  in  secondary 
schools,  while  primary  schools  contained  1,456.  In  1S91  there  was  one 
Muhammadan  in  the  Baroda  College,  besides  32  in  secondary  and 
5,123  in  primary  schools.  In  1901  the  number  of  Muhammadan  pupils 
in  the  college  was  3,  in  the  secondary  schools  69,  and  in  the  primary 
schools  7,639.  A  further  rise  took  place  in  1904-5,  when  9,418  boys 
and  447  girls  were  attending  schools.  Muhammadan  education  has 
thus  made  rapid  strides,  though  the  number  of  those  who  desire  higher 
instruction  is  small.  Special  Urdu  schools,  numbering  39,  have  greatly 
helped  the  community.  The  Maharaja  has  recently  founded  handsome 
scholarships  to  assist  Muhammadans  in  pursuing  a  university  career. 

Special  schools  are  maintained  for  the  jungle  tribes  and  for  the  castes 
regarded  as  unclean.  The  former  are  taught  reading  and  writing,  and 
are  also  trained  in  carpentry  and  agriculture  at  Songarh.  Less  success 
has  been  obtained  with  the  unclean  castes,  but  in  1904-5  the  number  of 
pupils  was  1,715,  or  10  per  cent,  of  the  children  of  a  school-going  age, 
including  68  girls.     Education  in  these  schools  is  entirely  free. 

The  total  State  expenditure  on  education  amounted  to  4-9  lakhs  in 
1891,  to  8-2  lakhs  in  1901,  and  to  6-7  lakhs  in  1904-5,  or  about 
5^  annas  per  head  of  the  population.  A  number  of  scholarships  are 
also  granted  from  the  Maharaja's  privy  purse  at  institutions  in  Bombay 
and  Poona. 

The  Census  of  1901  showed  that  out  of  every  1,000  of  the  population 
87-7  could  read  and  write,  the  proportion  rising  to  162-7  in  the  case  of 
males,  and  being  7-6  for  females.  Among  Parsis  60  per  cent,  were 
literate,  and  among  Jains  36  per  cent.,  while  Musalmans  (9-4  per  cent.) 
were  rather  more  advanced  than  Hindus  (8-5  per  cent.).  The  Animists 
are  the  most  backward  community,  with  only  3-6  per  cent. 

Since  1881  several  newspapers  have  been  started,  and  at  present  there 
are  five  in  existence.  These  papers  contain  information  on  local  subjects 
and  are  useful  to  the  people.    The  State  has  given  much  encouragement 


MEDICAL 


75 


Medical. 


to  the  publication  of  vernacular  works,  including  many  translations 
from  English  and  Sanskrit  books,  and  also  treatises  on  history,  music, 
games,  cookery,  &c. 

Before  1855  the  practice  of  medicine  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
vaids  and  haklius.  They  numbered  about  50,  and  their  most  important 
duty  was  to  attend  on  the  Maharaja,  his  relations,  and 
his  immediate  followers,  though  they  also  practised 
among  the  townspeople.  Native  systems  of  medicine  were  followed, 
and  the  practitioners  had  no  acquaintance  with  European  science.  In 
1855  a  hospital  was  opened  in  Baroda  city,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  Residency  Surgeon,  but  it  was  not  until  1876  that  a  medical 
department  was  established.  A  ELuropean  medical  officer  was  called 
in  to  commence  the  work,  and  rapid  progress  was  made.  Many  of 
the  vaids  and  hakims  were  pensioned,  and  their  places  were  filled  by 
properly  qualified  practitioners.  The  Sayaji  Rao  Military  Hospital  and 
the  Jamnabai  Civil  Hospital  were  opened  in  the  city  in  1877.  Civil 
hcjspitals  were  founded  at  the  head-quarters  of  each  prdnt,  and  dispen- 
saries at  most  of  the  taluka  head-quarters.  A  central  medical  store 
depot  was  also  established,  and  a  chemical  analyist  appointed.  After- 
wards a  veterinary  hospital  was  added.  In  1886  the  magnificent  building 
now  known  as  the  Countess  of  Dufferin  Hospital  was  erected  to  take  the 
place  of  the  old  State  hospital,  which  had  become  unsuitable. 

Statistics  of  the  progress  made  in  providing  for  the  medical  needs  of 
the  people  are  shown  below  : — 


1881. 

1891. 

1901. 

1904-5. 

Number  of  hospitals  and  dispen- 

saries    ..... 

34 

43 

51 

40 

Daily  average  attendance  of  in- 

patients ..... 

212 

207 

492 

248 

Daily  average  attendance  of  out- 

patients ..... 

1.994 

3,192 

3,736 

3,946 

Number  ot  operations 

6,947 

10,940 

9,232 

9,466 

Expenditure  on  establishment  Rs. 

78.544 

1,42,911 

I, .^9,7  20 

1,10,61 1 

„             medicines,  &c.Rs. 

96,358 

62,833 

79,016 

50,786 

A  lunatic  asylum  was  opened  at  Baroda  city  in  1898,  with  accommo- 
dation for  28  patients — 16  males  and  12  females.  The  number  of 
lunatics  treated  in  1904-5  was  27,  and  the  expenditure  amounted  to 
Rs.  2,785.  Most  of  the  cases  of  insanity  are  ascribed  to  the  excessive 
use  of  liquor  and  to  the  smoking  oS.  gdnja. 

A  vaccination  department  has  been  in  existence  for  many  years,  and 
vaccination  has  been  freely  carried  on  among  all  classes  of  the  people. 
In  the  city  of  Baroda  both  animal  lymph  and  lymph  taken  from 
vaccinated  children  are  used,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  State  human 
lymph  is  generally  used,  which  is  revived  by  bovine  lymph  from  time  to 


76  B  A  ROD  A    STATE 

time.  In  1904-5  the  staff  consisted  of  4  inspectors  and  35  vaccinators, 
besides  probationers  and  servants,  and  60,872  {)ersons  were  success- 
fully vaccinated,  or  31  per  1,000  of  the  population,  the  total  cost  being 
Rs.  13,800. 

The  Sanitary  Commissioner  supervises  sanitary  arrangements  in 
villages,  and  his  instructions  and  regulations  are  enforced  by  the  local 
revenue  officers  and  the  police  pdtels.  These  officers  have  the  power 
of  fining  persons  who  by  storing  manure  or  in  any  other  way  cause 
nuisances  dangerous  to  health.  In  1905  duties  connected  with  village 
sanitation  were  entrusted  to  the  local  boards. 

The  system  of  measurement  followed  in  the  State  is  an  improved 
combination  of  chain  and  cross-staff  survey.  Villages  mapped  by  the 
chain  survey  are  now  being  surveyed.  All  taldtis  and 
tajvtzdars  (subordinate  revenue  officials)  have  to  pass 
an  examination  in  revenue  survey,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  check 
boundary  marks  according  to  the  village  maps,  to  help  the  taluka 
officers  in  cases  where  survey  units  are  divided,  and  inquire  into  field 
boundary  disputes,  encroachments,  &c.  There  are  also  trained  in- 
spectors appointed  to  the  different  tdlukas  to  examine  the  boundary 
marks,  and  to  see  that  the  survey  is  maintained  in  all  its  details. 

[James  Forbes  :  Oriental  Menioits,  4  vols.  (1813). — -A.  K.  Forbes  : 
Rds  Mala,  2  vols.  (1856). — F.  A.  H.  Elliot :  Baroda  Gazetteer  (Bombay, 
1883). — Census  Reports,  1881,  1 891,  and  1901. — Annual  Administration 
Reports  from  1875-6. — R.  Bruce  Foote  :  Geology  of  the  Baroda  State 
(Madras,  1898). — J.  Burgess  and  H.  Cousens  :  Architectural  Antiquities 
of  Northern  Gujarat  (1903). — Bombay  Gazetteer:  Kathidwdr  (Bom- 
bay, 1884).] 


TABLES 


77 


Distribution  of  Population,  Baroda  State,   1901 


Prant. 

.5 
< 

C 
0 
0 

e 

"> 

0 

S 
3 
IS 

Total  population. 

Urban  population. 

si 

a  D 

c  c 

0-- 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Kadi 
Baroda 
Navsari 
Amreli 

Total 

3.01S 
1,887 

1.952 
1.245 

18 
17 

6 

6 

1,063 
904 
772 
296 

834.744 
644,071 
300,441 
173.436 

426,723 

341.693 

150,789 

89,429 

408,021 

302,378 

149,652 

84,007 

173.758 

205,240 

45.128 

44.724 

86,417 

110,040 

22,455 

23.345 

87.341 
95,200 
22,673 
21,379 

277 

288 

154 
139 

8,099 

47 

3.035 

1,952,692 

1,008,634 

944.058 

468,850 

242,257 

226,593 

241 

Statistics  of  Agriculture  and  Irrigation,  Baroda 
State,  for  the  Year  ending  July  30 

(In  square  miles) 


1881-90 
(average). 

1891-1900 
(average). 

1901. 

1904-5. 

Total  area         .... 

8,570 

8,226 

8,099 

8,099 

Cultivable,  but  not  cultivated 

1,411 

1,505 

1,258 

1,76.? 

Uncultivable      .... 

2,524 

2,474 

2,400 

2,585 

Total  cultivated  area 

4,635 

4.247 

4,441 

3,751 

Irrigated  from  canals 

•  •  • 

I 

3 

* 

,,           „      wells  and  tanks  . 

17S 

243 

2J9 

* 

Total  irrigated  area  . 

178 

244 

222 

* 

Unirrigated  area 

4,457 

4.003 

4,219 

* 

Cropped  Area. 

Rice 

82 

80 

101 

190 

Bajra        ..... 

1,108 

95S 

909 

764 

Jowar       ..... 

846 

727 

1 ,075 

770 

Wheat 

170 

200 

208 

150 

Other  food-grains  and  pulses 

946 

924 

802 

545 

Castor-oil  seed  .... 

30 

39 

55 

...  t 

Rapeseed 

103 

93 

81 

27 

Sugar-cane         .... 

13 

7 

6 

4 

Cotton       ..... 

960 

853 

738 

927 

San-\\txn\>          .... 

2 

4 

4 

12 

Poppy    

13 

10 

II 

14 

Tobacco    ..... 

37 

34 

40 

21 

Miscellaneous    .... 

475 

397 

448 

444 

Area  double  cropped 

44 

48 

37 

117 

Not  available. 


t  Included  under  miscellaneous. 


78 


BARODA    STATE 


w 
< 

CO 

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Q 

o 

< 

w 
o 

< 
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13 

Q 
W 


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C/5 


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t^ 

pT 

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PI  «_  ^  q^       c\                "^  ^ 
►^^  -T  n?                                     -f 

Number 
of  insti- 
tutions. 

"    re  Tt-  ro  •^i  00                         -t-'O    'O 
«  O                                          O 

NO 
NO 

^1 

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u 
o 

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«  00    O    O       .    «                          ro  r»       . 
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Number 
of  insti- 
tutions. 

r« 

n 

3v 

00 

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0 

j: 
o 

o 

ro  t^oo    >0  O  !>.                      ro  ro 

i-iOsO'^OnOn                     x-^O. 

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13 

ro  1^00  00    Tj-  t-»                      rO  ro 
i-iONO00t-~.CN                      t^O. 
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Number 
of  insti- 
tutions. 

11     l->-                                                      CI        • 

ro                                          «      • 

ON 

Public. 

Arts  college  . 

High  schools 

Anglo- vernacular  schools 

Primary  schools 

Training  schools    . 

Special  schools 

Private 
{with  grant-in-aid). 

Advanced 
Elementary    . 
Orphanages    . 

Total 

BARODA    PRANT  79 

Baroda  Prant. — A  praut  or  district  of  the  Baroda  State,  lying 
between  21°  50'  and  22°  45'  N.  and  72°  35'  and  73°  50'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,887  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Kaira 
District  of  Bombay ;  on  the  west  by  Broach,  Cambay,  and  part  of 
Kaira ;  on  the  south  by  Broach  and  the  Rewa  Kantha ;  and  on  the  east 
by  the  Rewa  Kantha  and  the  Panch  Mahals.  Most  of  ihe  prdnt  forms 
a  compact  block  between  the  Narbada  and  the  Mahl,  but  the  Petlad 
tdhika  lies  separate,  north  of  the  latter  river.  The  southern  portion 
of  the  prdnt  is  largely  composed  of  black  soil,  which,  though  fertile, 
produces  few  trees.  In  the  north  the  red  soil  is  thickly  wooded. 
The  prdnt  is  either  traversed  or  skirted  by  the  rivers  Mahi,  Dhadhar, 
Narbada,  Vishwamitri,  Surya,  Meni,  Or,  Hiran,  Unchh,  and  Oswan. 

The  country  is  largely  under  cultivation,  and  the  vegetation  there- 
fore consists  chiefly  of  the  crops  with  their  accompanying  weeds.  The 
hedges  enclosing  fields  consist  of  shrubs  like  Maeriia,  Cadaba,  Dios- 
pyros,  Celastrus,  with  occasionally  fleshy  species  of  Euphorbia  ;  asso- 
ciated with  these  shrubby  species  are  trees  of  Bombax  malabarkum. 
The  climbing  plants  in  the  hedges  include  soecies  of  Leguminosae, 
Convo/viilaceae,  Metiisper/naceae,  and  Asclepiadaceae.  In  waste  places 
and  on  waysides  occin-  Tephrosia  purpurea,  Heylandia  batebrosa, 
Wabtheria  i/idica,  Hibiscus  Gibsoni,  Argemone  mexicatia,  and  similar 
species.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  dwellings  are  seen  mangoes, 
tamarinds,  bmebs,  several  species  of  Ficus,  A/iona  squamosa,  Jatroplia 
Curcas,  and  other  more  or  less  useful  planted  or  sub-spontaneous 
species. 

The  population  in  1872  was  estimated  at  747,437,  and  at  the  next 
two  enumerations  it  was  (1881)  761,501,  {1891)  817,023;  while  in 
1901  it  was  only  644,071,  of  whom  523,999  were  Hindus,  36,713  Ani- 
mists,  64,148  Musalmans,  and  10,916  Jains.  The  terrible  diminution 
in  the  population  was  due  to  the  disastrous  effects  of  famine  and 
plague.  The  prdnt  is  divided  into  nine  tdlukas  and  two  petas  or  sub- 
tdbukas,  the  population  of  which  in  1901  is  shown  in  the  table  on 
the  next  page. 

The  principal  towns  are  Baroda  City,  Petlad,  Dabhoi,  Sojitra, 
Vaso,  Padra,  Nar,  Pihij,  and  Sinor.  Gujarat!  is  spoken  by  93  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  Hindustani  by  5  per  cent.,  while  nearly 
a  fourth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  use  Marathl.  In  1901  iheprdni 
contained  6,943  native  Christians.  The  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Mission  has  adherents  in  125  villages  and  towns,  numbering  approxi- 
mately 5,200.  In  addition  to  two  orphanages,  it  provides  a  training 
school  for  teachers  and  preachers,  and  fifty-five  day-schools. 

The  prevailing  black  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  requires  little  manure  or 
irrigation,  while  gordt  or  sandy  loam  needs  both.  The  Petlad  tdluka 
is  noted  for  the  cultivation  of  tobacco.     The  chief  crops  are  rice,  bdjra, 


8o 


BARODA   PRINT 


joivar,  wheat,  math,  gram,  adad,  fiiver,  val,  chola,  fa/,  diveli,  cotton, 
sugar-cane,  kasumbo,  and  tol)acco.  Many  other  minor  crops  and 
vegetable  products  are  raised  for  local  consumption. 


t 

Number  of 

's  _  i 

°            1 

Taluka. 

Is 

c 

0 

0. 

3   % 

centage 
riation  ir 
Illation  b 
een  i8qi 
nd  igoi. 

umber  of 
ons  able 
ead  and 
write. 

a 

a; 

< 

^ 

> 

(2 

ii 

^2 
a. 

Baroda  (city  ex- 

cluded)  . 

1 60 

IIO 

60,428 

332 

-  37-4 

6,375 

Padra 

196 

82 

73>.^95 

374 

-  20.5 

6,727 

Petlad 

181 

7 

68 

134.558 

743 

-  14.1 

17,001 

Savll 

188 

75 

.'■8.34° 

204 

—  14-6 

3,250 

Sisva 

«3 

30 

43.461 

524 

-  J9-4 

4,232 

Choranda 

284 

99 

48,758 

208 

—  22.2 

5,128 

Vaghodia 

143 

•  > . 

71 

20,804 

145 

-  23-9 

1,087 

Dabhoi 

190 

102 

49,077 

258 

-17.8 

6,3'9 

Sinor 

139 

45 

29,979 

216 

-  23-3 

4,3.^9 

Sankheda 

280 

2 

190 

36,665 

159 

-  35-7 

3,072 

Tilakwada 

Total 
Baroda  city  with 

34 

I 
15 

32 

4,816 

141 

-  48-2 

304 

1,878 

904 

540,281 

288 

—   22-9 

57,834 

cantonment     . 

9 

2 

... 

103,790 

11,532 

—    12.2 

21,678 

The  weaving  of  coarse  cotton  cloth  is  the  chief  industry.  But  in 
addition  may  be  mentioned  the  manufacture  of  fine  turbans  at  Dabhoi, 
of  cloths  at  Sojitra,  Petlad,  and  Bakrol,  of  embroidery  with  gold  and 
silver  thread  at  Baroda,  and  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments  in  most 
towns.  Iron-work  is  poor,  but  good  locks  are  made  at  Petlad,  Sojitra, 
and  Vaso.  Excellent  brass  and  copper  pots  are  manufactured  every- 
where. The  only  cotton-mill  is  at  Baroda,  but  there  are  twenty-six 
ginning  factories.  A  dyeing  factory  has  been  working  at  Petlad  for  some 
years.  The  chief  centres  of  trade  are  Baroda,  Dabhoi,  Chandod,  and 
Petlad,  which  are  connected  by  rail.  The  prdn/  is  well  provided  with 
communications,  as  the  main  line  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  Railway  runs  from  north  to  south,  with  a  State  branch  from 
Anand  to  Petlad  and  Cambay,  and  narrow-gauge  lines  connect  Dabhoi 
with  Bodeli,  Chandod,  Sinor,  and  Mobha.  In  addition,  the  Baroda- 
Godhra  chord  line  on  the  broad  gauge  crosses  the  prant.  The  chief 
roads  are  those  from  Baroda  to  Padra,  Makarpura,  Ajwa,  and  Savli, 
from  Petlad  to  Sojitra,  and  from  Chandod  to  Sinor. 

The  land  revenue  decreased  from  37-9  lakhs  in  1881  to  36-8  in 
1 89 1,  but  rose  to  39-8  lakhs  in  1901.  In  1904-5  the  demand  was 
30-7  lakhs,  but  owing  to  famine  only  23-8  lakhs  was  collected.  The 
average  assessment  per  b'lgha  (f  acre)  varies  from  about  R.  0-3-9  '" 
Padra  to  Rs.  4  in  Sinor.  The  prdnt  was  settled  for  fifteen  years 
between  1888  and  1893,  and  a  revision  is  now  in  progress. 


B  A  ROD  A    CITY  8i 

Besides  Baroda  city  the  J>nr//f  contains  ten  municipalities:  namely, 
Dabhoi,  Petlad,  Padra,  Sinor,  Sojitra,  Vaso,  Savli,  Bhadran,  Sankheda, 
and  Makarpura.  Their  funds,  amounting  to  Rs.  14,800  in  1904-5, 
besides  the  income  from  customs,  excise,  and  tolls  in  Dabhoi,  are 
provided  by  the  State.  A  District  board  and  local  boards  were  con- 
stituted in  1905. 

The  prdnt  is  administered  by  the  Siihah,  whose  head-quarters  are  at 
Baroda  city.     The  prd/ii  Judge  also  holds  his  court  at  the  same  place. 

Education  is  well  provided  for,  there  being  a  college  in  Baroda  city 
and  also  a  high  school,  while  the  number  of  Anglo-vernacular  schools 
is  6,  and  of  vernacular  schools  476.  These  schools  were  attended  in 
1904-5  by  35,780  pupils.  T\\Q prdfit  contains  a  civil  hospital,  a  leper 
hospital,  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  10  dispensaries,  in  which  131,322 
patients  were  relieved  in  1904-5,  of  whom  1,044  were  in-patients. 

Baroda  Taluka. — Central  taluka  of  the  Baroda  prdnt,  Baroda 
State,  with  an  area  of  160  square  miles.  Excluding  the  city,  the  popula- 
tion fell  from  96,387  in  1891  to  60,428  in  1901.  It  contains  no  villages, 
besides  the  city  and  cantonment.  The  tdluka  's  a  level  plain  watered 
by  five  rivers,  the  Mahl,  Meni,  Rungal,  Jambva,  and  Vishwamitri.  The 
prevailing  soil  is  black,  though  two  other  classes,  gordt,  or  sandy  loam, 
and  besdr,  a  mixed  soil,  are  found  interspersed  with  it.  The  chief 
crops  grown  are  ddngar,  Joivdr,  bdjra,  tiiver,  ta/,  mat/i,  skidiu,  and 
cotton.     In  1904-5  the  land  revenue  was  Rs.  3,68,000. 

Baroda  City.— Capital  of  the  Baroda  State,  situated  in  22°  18'  N. 
and  73°  15'  E.,  on  the  Vishwamitri  river,  244^  miles  from  Bombay  by 
rail,  and  6ii  miles  south-by-south-east  of  Ahmadabad.  The  population 
at  the  last  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  106,512,  (1891)  116,420, 
and  (1901)  103,790.  In  1901  Hindus  numbered  80,834,  Musalmans 
18,770,  and  Jains  2,266. 

The  municipal  board,  reconstituted  in  1906,  has  an  income  of 
about  2  lakhs,  derived  from  octroi,  fines  levied  for  permission  to 
erect  new  houses,  &c.,  sales  of  land,  and  a  conservancy  tax.  In  1904-5 
the  expenditure  was  2-4  lakhs,  the  chief  items  being  roads  (Rs.  91,000), 
conservancy  (Rs.  61,000),  and  administration  (Rs.  32,000).  The  aspect, 
comfort,  and  health  of  the  city  have  recently  been  considerably  improved. 
A  free  supply  of  filtered  water,  supplied  from  the  Ajwa  reservoir,  is  dis- 
tributed to  every  street  by  means  of  pipes.  Drainage  works  are  being 
constructed  to  carry  off  storm  water  and  sullage  from  the  houses.  New 
roads  have  been  constructed,  old  roads  have  been  made  wider,  new 
buildings  have  been  erected  on  every  side,  old  and  inconvenient  ones 
have  been  removed,  the  streets  are  clean  and  well  lighted,  and  con- 
servancy is  carefully  attended  to. 

The  city  proper  is  enclosed  by  the  old  walls  of  the  fort.  It  is 
approached  from  the  railway  station  by  a  road  which,  at  first  broad  and 

VOL.  VII.  G 


82  BARODA    CITY 

straight,  gradually  becomes  narrower  and  more  tortuous.  Close  to  the 
station  is  the  magnificent  building  erected  for  the  Baroda  College,  at 
a  cost  of  more  than  6  lakhs.  It  is  situated  in  a  spacious  compound, 
which  also  contains  residential  quarters  for  students,  a  fine  botanical 
garden,  a  cricket  ground,  a  tennis  court,  and  a  gymnasium.  A  little 
farther  is  the  entrance  of  the  public  i)ark,  and  across  the  Vishwamitri 
stands  the  Countess  of  Dufferin  Hospital,  a  handsome  modern  building, 
with  wards  for  male  in-patients,  and  the  Victoria  Jubilee  ward  for  female 
in-patients.  Just  beyond  it,  and  on  the  same  side,  is  the  Sayaji  Rao 
Military  Hospital,  for  the  reception  of  the  sick  from  all  regiments  of  the 
Baroda  forces.  In  the  suburbs  of  the  city  stands  the  house  of  the 
famous  minister  Gangadhar  Sastri,  while  close  by  a  steep  ascent  up 
a  short  hill  leads  to  what  is  called  the  Juna  Kot,  or  old  fort,  probably 
the  most  ancient  portion  of  the  Hindu  town  of  Baroda.  The  principal 
offices  of  the  State  are  located  here,  and  just  opposite  is  the  new  Survey 
Office.  A  large  building  has  recently  been  constructed  for  the  safe 
custody  of  records.  The  State  Library,  a  small  but  handsome  erection, 
is  close  to  the  Record  Office.  From  the  Laharipura  or  western  gate 
a  broad  and  picturesque  street  leads  through  the  city  to  the  clock-tower. 
At  right  angles  to  this  street  branch  off  pols  or  wards  belonging  to 
distinct  classes  and  castes  of  people,  and  forming  ctils-de-sac  the 
entrances  of  which  are  barred  by  heavy  doors.  Close  to  the  clock-tower 
is  the  old  palace  in  which  the  Gaikwars  lived  formerly  ;  and  immediately 
behind  it,  rising  high  above  surrounding  buildings,  stands  the  white 
stucco  Nazar  Bagh  palace  which  was  erected  by  the  Maharaja  Malhar 
Rao.  The  Gaikwar's  jewels,  which  are  stored  here,  have  been  valued 
at  over  3  crores.  They  include  a  diamond  necklace,  one  of  the  stones 
of  which  is  known  as  '  the  Star  of  the  South,'  a  brilliant  of  perfect  water 
weighing  125  carats  (originally  254-I),  estimated  to  be  worth  9  lakhs, 
and  a  cloth  embroidered  with  precious  stones  and  seed  pearls  which 
was  designed  to  cover  the  Prophet's  tomb  at  Mecca.  Not  far  from  the 
Nazar  Bagh  is  an  old  building  containing  a  fine  library  collected  by 
Sampat  Rao  Gaikwar.  The  Nazar  Bagh  adjoins  a  continuation  of  the 
Laharipura  street,  terminating  in  the  eastern  or  Water  Gate.  On  its 
southern  side  are  the  military  office,  and  the  lines  where  the  gold  and 
silver  guns  are  kept.  Just  beyond  the  Water  Gate  is  the  arena  where 
public  sports  are  still  held.  From  the  clock-tower  a  road  leads  to  the 
Champaner  Gate,  and  another  to  the  Rhinoceros  or  South  Gate.  Near 
the  western  gate  is  the  Sursagar,  a  large  reservoir  of  water  with  stone 
banks,  and  masonry  steps  in  places.  The  length  of  this"  tank  is 
1,057  feet,  its  width  665  feet,  and  its  average  depth  12  feet.  In  the 
neighbourhood  is  the  Chimnabai  Nyaya  Mandir,  or  '  temple  of  justice,' 
occupied  by  the  High  Court,  and  named  after  the  late  Maharanl 
Chimnabai.     Close   to  it   are   two  other    fine   structures,   the   female 


BARODA    CITY  83 

training  college  and  the  Anglo-vernacular  school.  Another  educational 
building  is  the  Kala  Bhavan,  a  technical  institution  where  students 
learn  dyeing,  weaving,  carpentry,  smithy-work,  drawing,  &c.  The 
Central  jail  is  a  carefully  constructed  building  arranged  on  modern 
principles.  The  public  park  contains  a  museum,  beautiful  gardens, 
and  a  collection  of  wild  animals.  Just  beyond  the  park  is  the  lunatic 
asylum,  a  new  and  spacious  building. 

Besides  the  Nazar  Bagh  palace,  the  Makarpura  palace  is  situated 
about  4  miles  to  the  south  of  the  city.  It  was  originally  erected  by 
Khande  Rao,  but  has  been  much  enlarged  and  improved.  It  is  now 
surrounded  by  fine  gardens  containing  fountains,  grottoes,  and  pergolas, 
and  is  used  by  the  Maharaja  as  a  country  residence.  The  chief  palace 
is,  however,  the  Lakshml  Vilas,  a  building  in  the  Hindu-Saracenic  style, 
which  cost  about  60  lakhs.  It  contains  a  large  Darbar  hall,  with  mosaic 
decorations  on  the  walls  and  a  mosaic  floor  specially  executed  by  Italian 
workmen,  and  covered  wooden  galleries  reserved  for  ladies.  The  palace 
is  well  furnished,  and  contains  bronze  statues  and  costly  paintings  by 
European  artists.  The  grounds  have  been  laid  out  by  an  English  land- 
scape gardener,  and  add  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  palace. 

There  are  many  other  objects  of  interest  in  Baroda,  of  which  perhaps 
the  most  notable  are  the  Hindu  temples  which  crowd  the  city.  Close 
to  the  stone  bridge  which  crosses  the  Vishwamitri  are  the  temples  raised 
to  the  memory  of  several  members  of  the  Gaikwar  family,  as  well  as  two 
temples  to  Mahadeo.  Other  temples  of  importance  are  Bande's,  which 
has  the  largest  allowance  from  the  State;  the  Sidhnath  temple,  Lakshman 
Bava's  Mandir,  Kalika's  temple,  and  Bolai's  temple,  all  of  which  are 
supported  by  the  State.  There  are  also  the  temples  of  Khandoba,  the 
tutelary  god  of  the  Gaikwar  family,  and  those  of  Bechraji  and  BhTmnath, 
where  Brahmans  undergo  penance  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
Maharaja's  house.  Ganpati's  Mandir  and  the  temple  to  Kashi  Vish- 
veshvar  mark  the  liberality  and  religious  aspirations  of  the  late  Gopal 
Rao  Mairal,  banker,  financier,  and  minister.  The  chief  Gujarat  temples 
are  those  of  Narsinhji,  Govardhan-Nathji,  and  Baldevaji,  while  high 
above  all  other  buildings  in  the  city,  except  the  Nazar  Bagh,  towers  the 
temple  built  by  the  followers  of  Swami  Narayan. 

There  is  no  characteristic  art  in  Baroda  deserving  of  special  mention. 
A  few  artisans  are  proficient  in  wood-carving,  some  in  lacquer-work,  and 
some  in  iron  grille  work  suitable  for  balcony  railings.  Calico-printing 
is  also  carried  on  to  meet  the  demand  for  cheap  cotton  saris. 
Embroidery  with  gold  and  silver  thread  of  a  superior  description  is 
produced  to  a  small  extent.  A  cotton  spinning  and  weaving-mill  built 
by  the  State  was  transferred  to  a  private  firm  in  1905,  and  other  mills 
are  being  built. 

The  cantonment  or  Camp  lies  north-west  of  the  city,  from  which  it  is 

G  2 


84  BARODA    CITY 

separated  by  the  \'ish\vaniilri.  Its  area  is  about  2  square  miles,  and  its 
population  (1901)  3,162.  The  garrison  consists  of  a  regiment  of  native 
infantry  belonging  to  the  Indian  army.  In  or  near  the  cantonment  are 
the  church  consecrated  by  Bishop  Heber  in  1825,  the  Residency  (just 
outside  the  boundary  line),  a  stone  column  raised  to  the  memory  of 
Mr.  \\'illianis  a  former  Resident,  the  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  and  orphanages  (280  boys,  260  girls),  vernacular  schools  for 
boys  and  girls,  and  a  school  for  European  children  maintained  by  the 
Government  of  India  and  the  Baroda  State  jointly. 

Baroda  Town. — Town  in  the  Sheopur  district  of  Gwalior  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  25°  29'  N.  and  76°  42'  E.  Population  (1901), 
6,381.  Baroda  is  now  the  chief  town  of  the  Sheopur-Baroday'tT^'Jr,  sub- 
ordinate to  Gwalior.  The  holders  are  Gaur  Rajputs  from  Bengal.  In 
the  twelfth  century  Bachh  Raj  established  himself  at  Ajmer,  whence 
the  family  were  driven  by  the  Muhammadans  about  two  hundred  years 
later.  For  services  rendered  to  the  Delhi  emperors  certain  lands  were 
granted  to  them,  including  the  territory  lying  between  the  Parbati  and 
KuntI  rivers  ;  and  Sheopur,  12  miles  north  of  Baroda,  became  their 
head-quarters.  During  the  Maratha  inroads  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Raja  was  forced  to  acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  Sindhia.  Sub- 
sequently Daulat  Rao  Sindhia  assigned  the  lands  then  held  by  Raja 
Radhika  Das  of  Sheopur  to  his  general  Jean  Baptiste  Filose,  who  com- 
pelled the  Raja  to  relinquish  them.  Radhika  Das  was,  however,  per- 
mitted to  retain  a  portion  of  his  former  territory,  including  twenty-three 
villages,  and  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Baroda.  In  18 13  twelve  addi- 
tional villages  were  assigned  to  him.  In  1857  the  Raja  revolted  and 
his  estates  were  confiscated,  but  were  restored  in  1859,  through  the 
mediation  of  the  Resident  at  Gwalior.  The  present  holder  is  Raja 
Bijai  Singh,  who  succeeded  in  1865. 

Baroda. — Village  in  the  Gohana  tahs'd  of  Rohtak  District,  Punjab. 
See  Barauda. 

Barot. — Town  in  the  Baghpat  tahsll  of  Meerut  District,  United 
Provinces.     See  Baraut. 

Barpeta  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Kamrup  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  26°  5'  and  26°  49'  N.  and  90°  39'' 
and  91°  17'  E.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  with  an  area  of 
1,274  square  miles.  In  1901  the  population  was  115,935,  compared 
with  135,705  in  1891.  It  contains  one  town,  Barpeta  (population, 
8,747),  the  head-quarters,  and  600  villages.  The  land  revenue  and 
local  rates  amounted  in  1903-4  to  Rs.  2,54,000.  The  subdivision  is 
sparsely  peopled,  and  there  are  only  91  persons  per  square  mile,  as 
compared  with  153  in  the  District  as  a  whole.  The  decrease  of  nearly 
15  per  cent,  in  the  last  intercensal  period  was  due  to  exceptional  un- 
healthiness  and  to  the  damage  done  by  the  earthquake  of  1897.     The 


BARRACKPORE  SUBDIVISION  85 

annual  rainfall  averages  96  inches  at  Barpeta,  but  nearer  the  Hima- 
layas it  is  considerably  higher.  The  subdivision  has  always  been  liable 
to  injury  from  flood,  and  since  1897  this  liability  has  been  seriously 
increased.  Mustard  was  at  one  time  extensively  grown  on  the  marshes 
that  fringe  the  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  but  the  land  now  frequently 
remains  too  cold  and  wet  to  admit  of  a  crop  being  raised.  In  the 
northern  vianzas,  which  are  almost  exclusively  inhabited  by  Kacharis, 
rich  crops  of  rice  are  raised  f)n  fields  irrigated  from  the  hill  streams. 
Elsewhere  />ao,  a  long-stemmed  variety  of  winter  rice,  is  the  staple  crop. 

Barpeta  To'wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Kamrup  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in 
26°  19'  N.  and  91°  i'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Chaulkhoa,  connected 
by  a  cart-road  with  the  Kholabanda  ghdi  on  the  Brahmaputra  about 
15  miles  away.  Population  has  steadily  decreased  during  the  last  thirty 
years,  and  was  only  8,747  in  1901.  Barpeta  is  famous  as  the  site  of 
a  sattra  or  religious  college  founded  by  the  Vaishnavite  reformer 
Sankar  Deb  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  ground  sur- 
rounding the  sattra  is  considered  holy,  and  is  crowded  with  native 
huts,  huddled  together  in  the  most  insanitary  propinquity.  The  town 
has  always  been  liable  to  flood  ;  but  since  the  earthquake  of  1897  the 
annual  inundations  have  been  more  extensive,  and  for  some  time  the 
prisoners,  the  treasure,  and  the  office  records  had  to  be  kept  in  boats. 
It  contains  a  hospital  with  four  beds,  and  a  high  school  which  in  1903-4 
had  an  average  attendance  of  113  boys.  Barpeta  was  formed  into 
a  municipality  in  1886.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  10,000.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  9,000,  including  taxes  on  houses  and  lands  (Rs.  3,500)  and 
a  grant  from  Provincial  revenues  (Rs.  2,500);  while  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  16,000,  the  chief  items  being  conservancy  (Rs.  3,300)  and 
public  works  (Rs.  10,000).  Barpeta  is  one  of  the  few  places  in  Assam 
where  the  Assamese  have  displayed  any  commercial  aptitude.  They 
retain  all  business  in  their  own  hands,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade 
in  mustard  seed  and  other  country  produce.  The  manufactures 
are  not  important,  but  include  canoes,  earthenware  well  rings,  and 
artistic  gold  filigree  work. 

Barrackpore  Subdivision. — North-western  subdivision  of  the 
District  of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  lying  between  22°  35' 
and  22°  57'  N.  and  88°  21'  and  88°  31'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Hooghly,  with  an  area  of  190  square  miles.  The  subdivision,  which 
was  formed  in  1904  from  portions  of  the  Sadar  and  Barasat  subdivi- 
sions, consists  of  a  long  narrow  strip  of  riparian  land  and  contains 
a  number  of  low-lying  swamps,  but  the  parts  along  the  banks  of  the 
Hooghly  are  higher  and  healthier.  The  population  in  1901  was 
206,311,  the  density  being  1,086  persons  per  square  mile.     The  bank 


86  BARRACKPORE  SUBDIVISION 

of  the  Hooghly  nortli  of  Calcutta  is  lined  with  mills,  which  provide 
labour  for  a  large  industrial  population.  The  subdivision  contains 
twelve  towns,  all  lying  within  this  tract :  Naihati  (population,  13,604), 
Hai.isahar  (10,149),  Bhati'ara  (21,540),  (iARUi.iA  (7,375),  Barrack- 
PORK  Nt)rth  (12,600)  and  South  (19,307),  TrrAOARH  (16,065),  I'ani- 
HATi  (11,178),  Kamarhati  (13,216),  Baranagar  (25,432),  and  Dum- 
DuM  North  (9,916)  and  South  (10,904).  The  remainder  of  the  inhabi- 
tants live  in  163  villages.  The  head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  are 
at  Barrack  pore,  historically  important  as  the  scene  of  the  outbreak  of 
two  mutinies.  Cantonments  are  situated  within  the  North  Dum-Dum 
and  South  Barrackpore  municipalities,  and  there  is  a  Government 
ammunition  factory  at  Dum-Dum.  Barrackpore  also  contains  the 
suburban  residence  of  the  Viceroy. 

Barrackpore  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated 
in  22°  46'  N.  and  88°  2\'  E.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hooghly  river, 
15  miles  above  Calcutta.  I'he  town  is  comprised  within  two  muni- 
cipalities :  North  and  South  Barrackpore,  containing,  in  1901,  12,600 
and  19,307  inhabitants  respectively.  South  Barrackpore  includes  Bar- 
rackpore cantonment,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  9,888.  The  name 
is  probably  derived  from  the  fact  of  troops  having  been  stationed  here 
since  1772;  the  natives  call  the  place  Chanak.  To  the  south  of  the 
cantonment  is  Barrackpore  Park,  which  has  been  laid  out  with  much 
taste ;  it  contains  the  suburban  residence  of  the  Viceroy  of  India,  built 
by  Lord  Minto  and  enlarged  by  the  Marquis  of  Hastings.  The  military 
force  stationed  at  Barrackpore  consists  of  a  field  battery,  a  company 
of  British  infantry,  and  a  native  infantry  regiment. 

Barrackpore  has  played  a  part  in  two  mutinies.  In  1824,  when 
Bengal  troops  were  required  to  take  part  in  the  Burmese  War,  the 
47th  Bengal  Infantry,  which  was  stationed  here,  was  warned  for  foreign 
service.  Alarmed  by  rumours  that  they  were  to  be  transported  to  Ran- 
goon by  sea,  the  regiment  mutinied  on  parade  on  October  30.  After 
ineffectual  attempts  at  conciliation,  the  regiment  was  paraded  on 
November  i  in  presence  of  Sir  Edward  Paget,  the  Commander-in- 
Chief,  who  directed  them  either  to  obey  the  orders  to  march  or  to 
ground  their  arms.  Upon  their  refusal,  a  battery  of  European  artillery, 
supported  by  two  British  regiments,  opened  fire  upon  the  mutineers, 
who  broke  at  once  and  made  for  the  river,  throwing  away  their  arms. 
Some  were  shot,  some  drowned,  and  others  hanged  ;  and  the  number 
of  the  regiment  was  removed  from  the  Army  List. 

The  first  sparks  of  the  Mutiny  of  1857  were  kindled  in  Barrackpore. 
The  excitement  which  had  been  rapidly  spreading  among  the  native 
troops  culminated  on  March  29,  when  Mangal  Pande,  a  sepoy  of  the 
34th  Native  Infantry,  attempted  to  kill  one  of  the  officers.  Lieutenant 


BAR  SAN  A  87 

Bough,  fired  at  a  European  sergeant-major,  and  called  upon  his  com- 
rades to  join  him.  These  outrages  were  committed  within  a  few  yards 
of  the  quarter-guard,  which  took  no  steps  to  interfere.  As  a  punish- 
ment for  this  mutinous  behaviour,  the  regiment  was  disbanded  with 
ignominy  on  May  6,  Mangal  Pande  and  the  native  officer  in  charge 
of  the  guard  having  been  previously  tried  by  court-martial  and  hanged. 
A  full  account  of  these  events  will  be  found  in  Sir  John  Kaye's  History 
of  the  Sepoy  War,  vol.  i,  pp.  266-9,  495- 

Barrackpore  is  an  important  station  on  the  Eastern  Bengal  State 
Railway,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  recently  constituted  Barrackpore 
subdivision.  It  contains  the  usual  public  offices,  a  sub-jail  with 
accommodation  for  14  prisoners,  and  the  Bhola  Nath  Bose  Hospital 
with  18  beds.  The  town  is  a  favourite  residence  of  Europeans,  and 
the  Christian  population  numbers  914. 

The  North  Barrackpore  municipality  was  constituted  in  1869.  The 
income  and  expenditure  during  the  eight  years  ending  1903-4  averaged 
Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  13,000,  including  Rs.  5,000 
from  a  tax  on  persons  and  the  same  amount  from  a  conservancy 
rate;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,600.  The  municipal  office  is  at 
Nawabganj,  the  residence  of  the  Mandal  family  of  zainindars.  Within 
the  municipal  area  is  Palta,  where  the  Calcutta  water-works  are  situated, 
and  Ichapur,  where  there  is  a  Government  rifle  factory.  The  Garulia 
municipality  was  separated  from  North  Barrackpore  in  1896. 

The  South  Barrackpore  municipality  was  also  constituted  in  1869. 
Its  area  has  been  curtailed  of  late  years  by  the  separation  of  the  Tita- 
GARH  municipality  in  1895  and  of  the  Panihati  municipality  in  1900. 
The  income  during  the  four  years  ending  1903-4  averaged  Rs.  10,000, 
and  the  expenditure  Rs.  9,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  11,000, 
mainly  from  a  tax  on  persons  {or  property  tax),  a  conservancy  rate,  and 
a  tax  on  houses  and  lands  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  9,000.  The 
municipal  office  is  at  Khardah. 

The  receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  cantonment  fund  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  25,000,  and  in  1903-4  they  were 
Rs.  34,000  and  Rs.  33,000  respectively. 

Barren  Island. —  A  volcanic  island  in  the  Andaman  Sea,  lying 
about  71  miles  north-east  of  Port  Blair.     See  Andaman  Islands. 

Barsana. — Town  in  the  Chhata  tahsil  of  Muttra  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  27°  39'  N.  and  77°  23'  E.,  31  miles  north-west 
of  Muttra  city.  Population  (1901),  3,542.  According  to  modern  Hindu 
belief,  this  was  one  of  the  favourite  residences  of  Krishna's  mistress, 
Radha.  It  lies  at  the  foot  and  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  originally 
dedicated  to  Brahma.  The  hill  has  four  peaks,  each  crowned  with 
buildings  erected  during  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries ; 
and   the  importance  of  the  place   dates   from   the  settlement  here  of 


88  I^ARSANA 

a  Brahman  who  had  been  family  priest  to  tlie  Rajas  of  Bharatpur, 
Gwalior,  and  Indore  early  in  the  eighteenth  century-  In  1774  the 
Jats  under  Sumru  were  defeated  near  Barsana  by  the  imperial  troofis, 
who  plundered  the  town.  A  magnificent  new  temple  is  being  built 
by  the  Maharaja  of  Jaipur. 

Barsi  Taluka.  —  7<7////(vj  of  Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  17°  57'  and  18°  26'  N.  and  75°  36'  and  76°  7'  E.,  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  with  an  area  of  596  square  miles. 
There  are  two  towns,  Barsi  (population,  24,242),  the  head-quarters, 
and  Vairag  (5,163);  and  122  villages.  The  population  in  1901  was 
139,435,  compared  with  140,322  in  1891.  With  the  excei)tion  of  the 
Sholapur  ialuka,  Barsi  is  the  most  thickly  populated  in  the  District, 
with  a  density  of  234  persons  per  square  mile.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  The 
tahika  is  crossed  by  several  streams,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  well  wooded. 
The  villages  are  small,  and  lie  chiefly  on  river  banks.  Barsi  has  a 
better  climate  and  a  more  plentiful  and  regular  rainfall  than  the  rest 
of  Sholapur. 

Barsi  To"wn.^ Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name  in 
Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  18°  14'  N.  and  75°  41'  E. 
Population  (1901),  24,242,  including  Hindus,  20,881  ;  Musalmans, 
2,785  ;  and  Jains,  515.  Barsi  is  an  important  centre  of  trade,  with 
a  large  export  of  cotton,  linseed  and  other  oilseeds,  chiefiy  to  Bombay. 
There  are  seven  cotton  presses,  employing  about  500  persons.  The 
town  is  connected  with  Barsi  Road  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sula Railway  by  the  Barsi  Light  Railway,  opened  in  1897.  It  possesses 
a  fine  temple  of  Bhagwan,  richly  ornamented.  The  municipality, 
constituted  in  1865,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending 
1901  of  Rs.  36,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  51,000.  Barsi 
contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  eight  schools,  including  one  for 
girls,  attended  by  411  and  52  pupils  respectively,  and  two  dispensaries, 
one  of  which  belongs  to  the  railway  company.  The  water-supply  is 
obtained  from  a  reservoir  built  in  1877  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  28,000.  The 
reservoir,  which  covers  an  area  of  65  acres  near  the  town,  is  designed 
to  contain  19,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water. 

Bars!  Takli. — Town  in  the  District  and  taluk  of  Akola,  Berar, 
situated  in  20°  35'  N.  and  77°  7'  E.  Population  (1901),  6,288.  At 
this  place  there  is  a  remarkably  fine  Hemadpanti  temple,  with  an 
inscription  giving  the  date  Saka  1098  (a.  d.  1176),  which  is  probably 
the  date  of  its  construction. 

Barsoi. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Purnea  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  25°  38'  N.  and  87°  53'  E.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mahananda.  Population  (1901),  3,101.  It  is  a  railway  junction  on 
the    Eastern   Bengal    State   Railway,    from    which    a   branch    runs    to 


BAR  WAHA  89 

Kishanganj.  It  has  one  of  the  largest  weekly  markets  in  the  District, 
the  chief  articles  of  trade  being  dried  fish,  tortoises,  gur^  country-made 
cloth,  chillies,  turmeric,  onions,  jute,  and  mustard.  Gunny-bags  and 
mats  of  local  manufacture  are  also  largely  sold. 

Baruipur. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  the  District 
of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°  2V  N.  and 
88°  27'E.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Adi  Ganga  (original  bed  of  the  Ganges), 
15  miles  south  of  Calcutta.  Population  (1901),  4,217.  The  town  was 
formerly  the  head-quarters  of  a  subdivision  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  amalgamated  with  the  Alipore  subdivision  in  1883.  Baruipur 
derives  its  name  from  the  extensive  cultivation  of  pan  {Piper  Betk)  by 
the  Barui  caste.  The  town  is  a  mission  station  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  contains  a  large  church.  Baruipur  was 
constituted  a  municipality  in  1869.  The  income  during  the  decade 
ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  4,700,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  4,500.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,900,  including  Rs.  3,000  derived  from  a 
tax  on  persons;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,200. 

Barul. — Village  in  the  Asansol  subdivision  of  Burdwan  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  23°  44'  N.  and  87°  7'  E.  Population  (1901),  532. 
It  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  iron-ore  tract  and  has  given  its  name  to 
the  surrounding  iron-ore  field.  The  total  amount  of  ore  extracted  in 
1900  was  57,000  tons,  or  nearly  three  times  the  quantity  obtained  ten 
years  previously. 

Barur. — Town  in  AmraotT  District,  Berar.     See  Warud. 

Baruva. —  Seaport  and  station  on  the  East  Coast  Railway  in  the 
Sompeta  tahsil  of  Ganjam  District,  Madras,  situated  in  18°  53'  N.  and 
84°  36'  E.  Population  (1901),  4,161.  Coco-nut  oil  and  coir  rope  are 
made  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  port,  which  is  open  only  to  coasting 
trade,  is  marked  by  two  obelisks  50  feet  high,  built  on  a  site  15  feet 
above  the  sea,  bearing  north-west  from  the  usual  anchorage.  Govern- 
ment has  planted  a  casuarina  grove  to  the  south-west  of  the  custom- 
house to  protect  the  building  from  drifting  sand,  and  this  also  serves  as 
a  landmark  to  mariners.  The  only  steamers  touching  at  the  port  are 
those  of  the  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company,  which  call 
weekly  on  their  voyages  between  Cocanada  and  Rangoon.  In  1903-4, 
9,500  native  passengers  travelled  to  Burma  and  7,650  returned  by  these 
boats.  In  the  same  year  the  exports  to  Burma,  chiefly  coir  rope  and 
dried  fish,  were  valued  at  Rs.  13,000.  There  were  no  imports  from 
Burma. 

Barwaha  (or  Barwai). — Town  in  the  Nimar  district  of  Indore 
State,  Central  India,  situated  in  22°  15'  N.  and  76°  3'  E.,  t^Z  niiles 
south  of  Mhow  cantonment  on  the  Indore-Khandwa  road  and  the 
Khandwa-Ajmer  branch  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway,  which  both 
cross  the  Narbada  by  a  fine   bridge  2  miles  south  of  the  town.      It 


90  BAR  WAHA 

occupies  a  picturesque  site  on  the  bank  of  the  Choral,  a  tributary  of 
the  Narbada.  ]\)pulati()n  (1901),  6,094.  Barwaha,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  called  IJabulikhera,  was  founded  in  1678  by  Kana 
Suraj  Mai,  an  ancestor  of  the  present  zannnddrs.  It  is  a  place  of  some 
importance,  and  was  always  a  favourite  resort  with  SivajT  Rao  Holkar, 
who  built  a  fine  palace  on  the  ridge  overlooking  the  Choral  valley.  An 
old  fort,  now  used  for  the  district  offices,  and  an  old  temple  to  JayantI 
Mata  stand  near  the  town.  A  municipal  committee  has  been  formed, 
which  has  an  income  of  Rs.  1,300  a  year,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi 
and  other  taxes.  The  town  contains  a  British  and  a  State  post  office, 
a  school,  a  dispensary,  a  sarai.,  and  a  Public  Works  inspection  bungalow. 

Barwani  State. — A  guaranteed  chiefship  in  Central  India,  under 
the  Bhopawar  Agency,  lying  between  21°  36' and  22°  7' N.  and 
74°  28'  and  75°  16'  E.,  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Narbada  river,  with 
an  area  of  1,178  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Dhar 
State  ;  on  the  north-west  by  All-Rajpur  ;  on  the  east  by  a  portion  of 
the  Indore  State  ;  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Khandesh  District 
of  Bombay.  The  State  lies  generally  in  the  hilly  tracts  division  of 
Central  India,  but  falls  internally  into  two  subdivisions  :  that  of  the 
Narbada  valley  district,  formed  of  a  fertile  alluvial  plain  ;  and  the 
remainder  of  the  State,  which  is  rough  and  hilly.  Much  of  the  country 
is  very  picturesque,  with  a  succession  of  ranges  and  valleys  covered 
with  thick  forest.  In  these  valleys  many  traces  of  former  prosperity 
are  met  with,  such  as  ruined  forts,  mosques,  and  dwelling-houses,  now 
overgrown  with  jungle,  but  once  used  by  the  Mughal  nobles  and 
officials  of  the  Bijagarh  sarkar  of  the  STibah  of  Malwa.  The  climate  is 
subject  to  greater  extremes  of  heat  than  Malwa,  while  the  cold  season 
is  of  short  duration.  The  annual  rainfall,  as  recorded  at  Barwani, 
averages  22  inches. 

The  chiefs  of  Barwani  are  Sesodia  Rajputs,  connected  with  the  house 
of  Udaipur.  Tradition  traces  their  descent  from  the  second  son  of  Bapa 
Rawal,  the  founder  of  that  house,  one  of  whose  descendants  migrated  in 
the  eleventh  or  fourteenth  century  into  the  Narbada  districts,  and  fixed 
his  residence  at  Avasgarh,  a  hill  fort  about  8  miles  from  Jalgun.  The 
history  of  the  line  is  for  the  most  part  lost  in  obscurity.  According  to 
the  State  records  there  have  been  in  all  fifty-one  Ranas  ;  but  little  is 
known  of  them,  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  time  at  which  many 
of  them  lived.  Paras  Ram  (Parsan)  Singh,  the  thirty-fifth  chief,  was 
defeated  by  the  Muhammadans,  and  taken  a  prisoner  to  Delhi,  where 
he  embraced  Islam  on  the  condition  that  he  should  be  allowed  to 
retain  his  ancestral  estates.  His  successor  Bhim  Singh  and  the  two 
Ranas  who  followed,  though  nominally  Hindus,  were  virtually  Muham- 
madans. About  1650  Chandra  Singh,  forty-first  of  the  line,  finding 
that  Avasgarh  was  too  weak  a  position,  moved  the  capital  to  Barwani ; 


BARWANI  STATE  91 

and  the  State  has  since  then  been  known  by  its  present  name.  In  the 
time  of  Mohan  Singh,  son  and  successor  of  Chandra  Singh,  the  greater 
part  of  the  State  was  seized  by  the  Marathas.  This  period  marks  the 
decHne  of  the  house  ;  and  though  the  Barwani  Ranas  managed  to  keep 
their  independence,  and  were  never  actually  tributary  to  any  of  the 
great  Malwa  chiefs,  they  were  finally  left  with  the  small  strip  of  territory 
they  now  hold  instead  of  their  former  extensive  domains.  In  1794 
Rana  Mohan  Singh  II  succeeded,  and  was  ruling  during  the  settlement 
of  Malwa  by  Sir  John  Malcolm.  He  died  in  1839  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jaswant  Singh,  who,  in  1861,  was  removed  from  the  adminis- 
tration owing  to  his  incapacity,  but  was  restored  to  power  in  1873,  and 
dying  in  1880  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Indrajit,  whose  administra- 
tion was  also  not  a  success.  On  his  death  in  1894,  his  eldest  son, 
Ranjlt  Singh  the  present  chief,  succeeded  at  the  age  of  six.  During 
his  minority  he  was  educated  at  the  Maytj  College  at  Ajmer.  The  chief 
bears  the  title  of  Rana,  and  receives  a  salute  of  9  guns. 

Population  has  been:  (1881)  56,445,  (1891)  80,266,  and  (1901)  76,136. 
The  number  increased  by  42  per  cent,  between  1881  and  1 891,  but  fell 
by  5  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade.  The  density  is  65  persons  per 
square  mile.  Hindus  number  38,670,  or  50  per  cent.;  Animists  (chiefly 
Bhilalas),  32,894,  or  43  per  cent.  ;  and  Musalmans,  4,197.  The  true 
percentage  for  Animists  is  higher  than  stated  above,  as  large  numbers 
of  Bhilalas  returned  themselves  as  Hindus,  the  total  of  those  speaking 
Bhil  dialects  giving  68  per  cent,  of  the  population,  which  is  nearer  the 
truth.  The  State  possesses  one  town,  BarwanT  (population,  6,277),  the 
capital  ;  and  333  villages.  Almost  the  entire  population  is  composed 
of  jungle  tribes,  who,  though  describing  themselves  as  agriculturists,  in 
fact  do  but  little  cultivation.  Agriculture  supports  65  per  cent,  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  general  labour  6  per  cent. 

The  total  area  is  thus  distributed  :  cultivated,  302  square  miles,  or 
26  per  cent.,  of  which  3  square  miles  are  irrigated  ;  forest,  566  square 
miles,  or  48  percent.  ;  cultivable  land  not  under  cultivation,  152  square 
miles;  waste,  158  square  miles.  Of  the  cropped  area,  y't'zew-  covers 
61  square  miles;  bdjra,  56;  cotton,  39  ;  ///,  31  ;  maize,  20;  wheat,  5  ; 
gram,  4  square  miles  ;  and  poppy  only  1 2  acres.  Cattle-breeding  has 
always  been  a  speciality  of  this  region,  bullocks  of  the  Nimar  breed 
being  much  in  demand,  on  account  of  their  size  and  strength.  Unfor- 
tunately, of  late  years  breeding  has  not  been  very  systematically 
carried  on. 

The  rates  of  assessment  are  fixed  according  to  the  capability  of  the 
soil,  varying  from  Rs.  2-6-5  to  Rs.  8  per  acre  for  irrigated  land  along 
the  Narbada  ;  from  Rs.  2-6-5  ^^  Rs.  3-1-0  per  acre  for  unirrigated 
lands,  and  6  annas  for  the  rocky  soils  of  the  hills.  Special  rates  are 
given  to  Bhll  cultivators  to  induce  them  to  settle,  only  Rs.  7-8-0  being 


92  BARU'AA'I  STATE 

demanded  from   tliem   per   '  plougli '  (15   acres)  of  land,  where  other 
cultivators  pay  Rs.  20. 

The  distance  of  the  State  from  all  railways  has  delayed  the  develop- 
ment of  trade,  although  much  has  been  done  of  late  years  to  increase 
facility  of  communication  by  the  construction  of  feeder-roads  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Agra-Bombay  trunk  road,  the  principal  route  for  traffic. 
In  1891  there  were  only  7  miles  of  metalled  roads  in  the  State. 
There  are  now  118  miles,  providing  feeders  to  the  Agra-Bombay  trunk 
road.  The  road  from  BarwanT  town  to  Julwania  is  the  general  route 
for  goods  and  passengers  passing  to  the  railway  at  Mhow,  the  nearest 
station,  which  is  80  miles  distant  from  BarwanT.  Four  British  post 
ofifices  are  maintained — at  BarwanT,  Anjar,  Rajpur,  and  Khetia — and 
State  offices  at  other  places,  with  a  telegraph  office  at  BarwanT. 

The  State  is  divided  into  {onx  parganas,  each  in  charge  of  a  kamasddi; 
with  head-quarters  at  Anjad,  Pansemal,  Silawad,  and  Rajpur.  The 
chief,  when  exercising  powers,  has  complete  civil  and  revenue  control, 
but  in  criminal  matters  submits  all  cases  punishable  under  the  Indian 
Penal  Code  with  seven  years'  imprisonment  or  over  for  trial  by  the 
Political  Agent,  while  sentences  by  the  chief  of  two  years'  imprisonment 
or  over  have  to  be  confirmed  by  that  officer.  All  appeals  from  subor- 
dinate courts  lie  to  the  chief.  The  British  codes,  modified  to  suit 
local  usage,  have  been  adopted  in  the  courts.  The  State  being  at 
present  under  British  administration  owing  to  the  minority  of  the  Rana, 
the  general  control  lies  with  the  Political  officer.  The  medical  and 
forest  departments  are  in  charge  of  the  Agency  Surgeon  and  Forest 
officer,  respectively. 

The  total  revenue  is  4-5  lakhs,  of  which  1-9  lakhs  is  derived  from 
land,  Rs.  28,000  from  forests,  Rs.  30,000  from  customs,  and  Rs.  29,000 
from  excise.  The  land  revenue  demand  amounts  to  15  annas  per 
cultivated  acre,  and  4  annas  per  acre  of  total  area.  The  chief  heads  of 
expenditure  are  general  administration  (Rs.  56,000),  chief's  establish- 
ment (Rs.  53,000),  and  public  works  (Rs.  1,10,000).  The  State  pays 
no  tribute  to  any  Darbar  and  receives  no  allowances,  but  it  con- 
tributes Rs.  3,389  yearly  towards  the  up-keep  of  the  Malwa  Bhll  Corps. 
The  British  rupee  has  been  legal  tender  since  1892.  The  sale  oi  gdnja, 
bhang,  and  opium  is  controlled  by  the  State.  In  the  hills  an  excise  rate 
of  Rs.  2-8-0  is  levied  from  each  BhTl  village  through  the  headmen,  the 
BhTls  being  then  allowed  to  prepare  their  own  liquor.  A  Central  jail 
is  maintained  at  BarwanT,  and  a  regular  civil  police  force  has  been 
established.  The  first  school  in  the  State  was  opened  in  1863.  In 
1898  the  Victoria  High  School  was  affiliated  to  the  Calcutta  University. 
There  are  now  19  schools  with  1,000  pupils.  In  1901,  3  per  cent,  of 
the  population  (almost  entirely  males)  could  read  and  write.  Six 
dispensaries  have  been  opened  in  the  State. 


I 


BASANTPUR  93 

Barwani  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name,  in  Central 
India,  situated  in  22°  2'  N.  and  74°  54'  E.,  3  miles  from  the  left  bank 
of  the  Narbada,  and  80  miles  from  Mhow  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,277.  Ihe  town  is  believed  to  have  been 
founded  in  about  1650  by  Rana  Chandra  Singh.  Five  miles  from  the 
town  is  Bawangaja^  ('52  yards')  hill,  a  place  of  considerable  sanctity 
among  the  Jains.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  popular  idea  of  the 
height  of  the  gigantic  figure  of  the  Jain  teacher  Gomateswara,  cut  in 
the  face  of  the  hill  about  three-quarters  of  the  way  up  the  slope.  On 
the  summit  is  a  small  temple  constructed  from  the  remains  of  an  older 
building,  which  contains  two  inscriptions  dated  1166  and  1459.  Large 
numbers  of  Jain  pilgrims  visit  the  place  on  the  full  moon  of  the  month 
of  Pausha  (January).  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  stand  some  modern  Jain 
temples,  which  are  examples  of  the  degraded  style  of  Hindu  archi- 
tecture followed  in  so  many  modern  structures.  A  State  guest-house, 
a  hospital,  British  post  and  telegraph  offices,  a  jail,  and  a  school  are 
situated  in  the  town. 

Barwa  Sagar. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahs'il  of  Jhansi,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  25°  22'  N.  and  78°  44'  E.,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6^355.  The  town 
stands  near  a  fine  lake  formed  by  damming  the  Barwa,  an  affluent 
of  the  Betwa.  The  lake  is  used  for  irrigation,  and  the  embankment  and 
channels  are  in  the  charge  of  the  Public  Works  department.  North- 
west of  it  stands  a  castle  said  to  have  been  built  by  Udit  Singh,  Raja 
of  Orchha.  The  neighbourhood  is  rich  in  antiquarian  remains  dating 
from  the  Chandel  period  or  even  earlier.  Barwa  Sagar  contains  a  school 
with  75  pupils.  It  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an 
income  of  about  Rs.  700.  Ginger  and  vegetables  are  largely  grown  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  there  is  a  flourishing  local  trade. 

Basantia. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Jessore 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  23°  8''  N.  and  89°  22'  E.,  on  the  Bhairab, 
12  miles  east  of  Jessore  town.  Population  (1901),  1,420.  It  has 
a  considerable  trade  in  sugar  and  rice.  Being  the  nearest  point  to 
Jessore  to  which  boats  of  a  large  size  can  come,  it  may  be  said  to  serve 
as  a  j)ort  to  that  town  ;  there  is  also  a  large  country  traffic  by  road 
between  Basantia  and  Jessore. 

Basantpur. — Head-quarters  of  the  Araria  subdivision  of  Purnea 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  26°  18'  N.  and  87°  2,'h'  K->  ^^  '^^  right  bank 
of  the  Panar  river.  Population  (1901),  2,792.  Basantpur  is  4  miles 
west  of  Araria  village,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  subdivision,  and 
it  contains  the  usual  subdivisional  offices ;  the  sub-jail  has  accom- 
modation for  17  prisoners. 

'  Dr.  Iinpey,  Journal  of  the  Koyal  Asiatic  Society,  Bombay  Branchy  vol.  xviii, 
p.  918. 


94  BASARH 

Basarh. — Village  in  the  HajTpur  subdivision  of  M uzafifarpur  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  25°  59'  N.  and  85°  8'  E.  Population  (1901),  3,527. 
Basarh  is  identified  with  the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Vaisali. 
In  the  sixth  century  n.c.  a  confederacy  of  the  Lichchavis  was  pre- 
dominant here,  and  was  able  to  prevent  the  kingdom  of  Magadha  from 
expanding  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges.  Vaisali  was  a  great 
stronghold  of  Buddhism,  and  Gautama  visited  it  three  times  during  his 
life.  Here  was  held  the  second  Buddhist  council  which  had  so  great 
an  effect  in  splitting  up  the  Buddhists  into  the  Northern  and  Southern 
sects.  The  town  was  visited  by  Fa  Hian  and  Hiuen  Tsiang ;  the  latter 
found  it  in  ruins.  The  principal  antiquarian  feature  of  the  place  is 
a  large  brick-covered  mound,  measuring  1,580  feet  by  750  and  repre- 
senting the  remains  of  a  vast  fort  or  palace.  In  the  neighbourhood 
is  a  huge  stone  pillar  surmounted  with  the  figure  of  a  lion.  This 
monolith,  though  locally  known  as  Bhim  Singh's  lath,  appears  clearly 
to  be  one  of  the  pillars  erected  by  Asoka  to  mark  the  stages  of  the 
journey  to  Nepal  which  he  undertook  in  order  to  visit  some  of  the  holy 
sites  of  Buddhism.  It  bears  no  inscription,  but  can  be  identified  with 
one  of  the  Asoka  pillars  mentioned  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  at  the  site  of 
ancient  Vaisali. 

[Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  xvi,  pp.  89-93  j  ^^d  Reports  of  the 
Archaeological  Surveyor,  Bengal  Circle,  for  1 901-2  and  1903-4.] 

Basavapatna. — Deserted  town  in  the  Channagiri  taluk  of  Shimoga 
District,  Mysore,  situated  in  14°  12'  N.  and  75°  49'  E.,  16  miles  from 
Channagiri  town.  It  lies  in  a  narrow  valley  enclosed  by  hills,  and  was 
the  original  seat  of  the  chiefs  who,  when  Basavapatna  was  taken 
by  the  Bijapur  army  in  the  invasion  of  1637,  retired  to  Tarikere, 
and  are  commonly  identified  with  the  former  place.  It  was  the  seat  of 
government  for  this  part  of  the  country  under  Bijapur  rule,  and  under 
the  Mughals  afterwards.  Later  it  changed  hands  several  times,  and  was 
held  by  the  Marathas  for  seven  years.  Haidar  All  dismantled  the  fort 
in  1763,  and  the  Marathas  under  Parasuram  Bhao  sacked  the  town 
in  1 79 1.  The  fort  was  repaired  in  1799,  but  the  place  never  recovered 
its  former  prosperity.  Near  the  fort  was  a  mosque  where  Baba  Budan 
lived  before  he  settled  on  the  mountain  called  after  him. 

Bashahr. — One  of  the  Simla  Hill  States,  Punjab,  lying  between 
31°  6'  and  32°  5'  N.  and  77°  32'  and  79°  4'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,820 
square  miles.  Population  (1901),  80,582.  Number  of  villages,  70. 
Between  1803  and  1815  Bashahr  was  held  in  subjection  by  the  con- 
quering Gurkhas.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Gurkha  power  in  181 5,  the 
British  Government  confirmed  the  Raja  of  Bashahr,  by  a  sanad,  in 
possession  of  all  his  territories,  subject  to  the  payment  of  a  tribute  of 
Rs.  22,500.  In  1847  the  tribute  was  reduced  to  Rs.  5,910,  as  com- 
pensation for  the  abolition  of  transit  duties.     The  present  Raja,  Sham- 


I 


BASIM  DISTRICT  95 

sher  Singh,  who  is  a  Rajput,  tracing  back  his  descent  for  120  generations, 
succeeded  in  1850.  He  is  of  weak  intellect,  and,  since  the  death  of  his 
only  son  in  1898,  the  State  has  been  managed  by  an  official  deputed  by 
Government.  The  Raja  is  required  to  furnish  troops  in  aid  of  the 
British  Government  in  time  of  war,  and  labour  for  the  construction  of 
roads  in  the  Bashahr  territory.  The  revenue  of  the  State  is  about 
Rs.  85,000,  the  chief  sources  being  land  and  forests.  The  forests  are 
leased  to  the  British  Government  for  Rs.  10,000  per  annum. 

Basi.— Head-quarters  of  the  Basi  /(?/w/of  the  Kalsia  State,  Punjab, 
situated  in  30°  35'  N.  and  76°  54'  E.  Population  (1901),  4,641.  The 
income  of  the  municipality,  wholly  derived  from  octroi,  was  Rs.  2,604 
in  1903-4;  and  the  expenditure  was  only  Rs.  158.  The  town  has  a 
vernacular  middle  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Basi. — Head-quarters  of  the  Amargarh  nizdmat,  Patiala  State,  Pun- 
jab, situated  in  30°  42'  N.  and  76°  28''  E.,  6  miles  north  of  Sirhind. 
Population  (1901),  13,738.  Known  in  Mughal  times  as  Basti  Malik 
Haidar,  the  capital  of  the  nizamat  was  established  here,  as  Sirhind  itself 
was  held  accursed  by  the  Sikhs.  It  is  a  flourishing  mart  for  agricultural 
produce,  and  has  a  considerable  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth.  It  is 
said  to  export  Rs.  10,000  worth  of  pepper  annually.  The  town  is  now 
connected  with  the  North-Western  Railway  at  Sirhind  by  a  mono-rail 
tramway,  5  miles  in  length,  which  was  opened  in  February,  1907.  The 
town  has  a  vernacular  middle  school  and  a  police  station. 

Basim  District  (or  Washim  in  MarathI). — District  in  Berar,  lying 
between  19°  25'  and  20°  28'  N.  and  76°  40'  and  78°  14'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  2,949  square  miles.  In  1905  this  District  ceased  to  exist,  its 
component  idluks  being  divided  between  Akola  and  Yeotmal.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Akola  and  Amraot!  Districts ;  on  the  east 
by  Wun  District  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Penganga  river  and  the 
Hyderabad  State  ;  and  on  the  west  by  Buldana  District. 

The  District  is  situated  in  the  Balaghat  of  Berar,  the  table-land  on 
the  south  of  the  Purna  valley.     The  Basim  taluk,  the  most  westerly, 
consists  of  a  rich  table-land  of  the  average  height  of 
about    1,000  feet  above  sea-level,  sloping  down  to-  as^e^t^ 

wards  the  west  and  south  to  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
Penganga.  The  other  two  taluks,  Mangrul  and  Pusad,  are  mainly  a 
succession  of  low  hills  covered  with  poor  grass,  the  formation  being 
trap.  The  soil  of  the  hollows  between  the  hills  is  usually  of  the  best 
quality.  Many  of  the  hill  peaks  rise  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet,  and 
along  the  ranges  of  the  Pusad  taluk  stretch  wide  slopes  of  woodland, 
containing  some  teak.  The  scenery  of  the  more  hilly  portions  of  the 
District  is  fine,  especially  in  the  rains  and  the  early  part  of  the  cold 
season,  when  the  hills  are  still  covered  with  vegetation  and  the  grass 
has  not  been  burnt  yellow  by  the  sun. 


96  BASIM  DISTRICT 

The  principal  river  is  the  I'enganga,  which,  except  in  one  corner  of 
the  Basim  taluk,  forms  tlie  boundary  between  the  District  and  the 
Nizam's  Dominions.  Entering  the  District  near  Wakad  on  the  west, 
it  flows  in  a  south-easterly  direction  as  far  as  the  south-eastern  corner 
of  the  Pusad  taluk.  It  then  takes  a  sharp  turn  and  flows  in  a  north- 
westerly direction,  resuming  its  original  course,  after  another  sudden 
bend,  close  to  Mahur  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions.  The  Piis  is  the 
principal  affluent  of  the  Penganga  in  the  District.  It  rises  near  Basim 
town  and  flows  in  a  south-easterly  direction  through  the  Pusad  tahik., 
joining  the  Penganga  at  Sangam,  after  a  course  of  64  miles.  The  Kata 
Purna  runs  from  its  source  nearly  due  north  until  it  reaches  the  slopes 
of  the  Balaghat,  where  it  inclines  eastward,  entering  Akola  District 
near  Mahan.  Other  insignificant  streams  are  the  Aran,  Kiich,  Adol, 
and  Chandrabhaga,  all  tributaries  of  the  Penganga. 

The  whole  District,  like  the  greater  part  of  the  Balaghat,  is  covered 
with  flows  of  Deccan  trap,  which  were  erupted  at  about  the  end  of  the 
Cretaceous  times,  the  volcanic  activity  lasting,  probably,  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Tertiary  period.  The  trap  is  covered,  on  the  Basim  plateau 
and  also  in  the  valleys,  with  black  loam.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  high 
lands,  but  probably  not  in  workable  quantities. 

The  commonest  trees  in  cultivated  lands  are  the  babul,  the  pipal, 
the  mango,  the  tamarind,  and  the  mahud.  Forests  will  be  noticed 
separately.  The  weed  vegetation  is  that  chiefly  characteristic  of  the 
Deccan,  including  many  small  Compositae  and  Leguminosae. 

Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  wild  hog,  antelope,  nilgai,  spotted  deer,  and 
chinkdra  are  fairly  common  ;  and  the  wild  dog  {Cyoii  dakhunensis), 
the  jackal,  the  wolf,  and  the  hunting  leopard  {Cytiaelurus  jubatus)  are 
also  found  in  the  District. 

The  hot  season  is  less  severe  than  in  the  Payanghat.  The  highest 
and  lowest  readings  of  the  thermometer  in  May,  July,  and  December, 
1901,  a  normal  year,  were  114°  and  84°,  86°  and  76°,  and  77°  and  68°. 
The  climate  is  fairly  uniform,  but  slightly  higher  temperatures  are 
experienced  in  the  river  valleys.  The  hot  season  is  intensely  dry,  and 
therefore  healthy ;  the  weather  in  the  rains  is  usually  cool  and  pleasant, 
and  the  cold  season  is  temperate  and  healthy. 

The  rainfall,  which  is  uniform  throughout  the  District,  exceeds  the 
rainfall  in  the  Payanghat.  In  1901,  a  normal  year,  nearly  41  inches 
were  registered.  The  Penganga  sometimes  rises,  but  no  serious  damage 
has  ever  been  done  by  such  floods ;  and  the  District  has  been  fortunate 
in  escaping  serious  natural  calamities  other  than  famine. 

Basim  never  existed  as  a  separate  political  entity,  and  its  history  is 
chiefly  bound  up  with  that  of  the  Province  of  which  it  has  always 
formed  part.  In  the  days  of  the  Mughal  empire  Basim  was  the 
head-quarters   of  a   sarkdr,   or  revenue   district,   which   extended   on 


POPULATION  97 

both  sides  of  the  Penganga,  and  the  Ain-i-Akbari  makes  mention  of 
the  Hatgars  or  Bargi  Dhangars  ('  shepherd  spearmen  ')  inhabiting  the  hill 
north  of  the  Penganga.  They  were  proud  and  refrac- 
tory, and  possessed  a  force  of  i,ooo  cavalry  and  5,000  ^^' 
infantry.  These  highland  chiefs  owned  little  more  than  nominal 
allegiance  to  the  lowland  rulers,  whether  Hindu  or  Musalman,  and 
thus  they  continued  until  the  establishment  of  British  rule.  In  167 1 
the  District  was  plundered  by  Pratap  Rao,  one  of  SivajT's  generals.  In 
1795,  after  the  battle  of  Kardla,  the  pargana  of  Umarkhed,  with  other 
territory  elsewhere,  was  ceded  by  the  Nizam  to  the  Peshwa ;  and  in 
1818  Baji  Rao  Peshwa,  after  the  rout  of  Siwni,  fled  through  Umarkhed 
before  Sir  John  Doveton,  whom  he  contrived  to  elude.  In  1819  the 
Hatgar  Naiks  of  the  District  broke  the  peace,  and  Naosaji  Naik  Muski 
gave  battle  to  the  Hyderabad  Contingent  troops  under  Major  Pitman 
at  Umarkhed.  He  was  driven  into  his  stronghold  of  Nowah,  which 
was  gallantly  carried  by  assault,  and  the  Naik  was  sent  to  Hyderabad, 
where  he  died.  After  the  Peshwa's  downfall  the  Umarkhed  pargana 
was  transferred  by  the  East  India  Company  to  the  Nizam.  In  1858 
a  gang  of  plundering  Rohillas  were  pursued  by  a  detachment  of  the 
Hyderabad  Contingent  into  the  village  of  Chichamba,  near  Risod, 
where,  behind  walls,  they  resisted  an  assault  by  the  fatigued  troops,  in 
which  Captain  Mackinnon  was  killed. 

On  the  Assignment,  in  1853,  when  Berar  was  divided  into  two 
Districts,  Basim  was  included  in  West  Berar,  and  soon  afterwards 
became  the  head-quarters  of  a  subdivision.  In  1868  the  subdivisional 
officer  was  made  independent  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner  at  Akola, 
and  in  1875  the  subdivision  was  formed  into  a  District  under  the  charge 
of  a  Deputy-Commissioner. 

The  temple  of  Antariksha  Parsvanatha  at  Sirpur,  in  the  Basim 
tdliik,  belonging  to  the  Digambara  Jain  community,  is  the  most 
interesting  monument  of  the  past  in  the  District.  An  old  tank  at 
Basim  is  known  as  the  Padma  Tirtha,  but  the  date  of  its  construction 
cannot  be  ascertained.     Pusad  has  two  very  fine  Hemadpanti  temples. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  District  in  1901  was  827. 
The  population  rose  between  1867  and  1891,  and  then  declined.     The 
number   at   the  four  enumerations  was  as  follows  : 
(1867)     276,646,    (1881)    358,883,    (1891)     398,181,  °P"^tion. 

and  (1901)  353,410.  There  has  thus  been  a  net  increase  of  76,764 
since  1867.  The  great  decrease  during  the  last  decade  was  due  to 
the  scarcity  of  1896-7,  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900,  and  mortality  from 
epidemic  disease.  The  District  included  the  three  taluks  of  Basim, 
Mangrul,  and  Pusad,  named  from  the  towns  at  which  their  head- 
quarters are  situated,  'it  contained  three  towns:  Basim,  Pusad,  and 
Mangrul. 

VOL.  VII.  H 


98 


JLLSJJ/    DISTRICT 


The  following  table  gives  particulars  of  area,  towns  and  villages,  and 
population  in  1901  : — 


Taluk. 

m 

< 

Number  of 

Population. 

U 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1 89 1 
and  igoi. 

0 

E  S  rt  i; 

4,193 
1,767 

2,816 

1 

(A 

1 

Basim 
Mangrul  . 
Pusad 

District  total 

1,046 

630 

',273 

1 
1 
I 

324 
202 
298 

153,320 

91,062 

109,028 

•47 
144 

86 

-  13-5 
+   10.4 

-  2r.6 

2,949 

3 

824 

353,410 

120 

—  11.2 

8,776 

Basim  stood  fourth  among  the  Districts  of  Berar  as  regards  the 
density  of  its  population  (120  persons  per  square  mile).  More  than 
92  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  Hindus.  The  language  usually  spoken 
is  Marathi,  but  the  Musalmans  use  a  corrupt  dialect  of  Urdu,  which  is 
generally  understood  by  all. 

In  Basim,  as  in  all  other  Districts  of  Berar,  the  Kunbis  (110,000)  are 
more  numerous  than  any  other  caste  ;  the  Mahars  (50,700)  come 
second,  the  Musalmans  (22,800)  third,  and  the  Banjaras  (21,400) 
fourth,  being  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  District  in  the  Province, 
except  Wun.  Dhangars  number  14,600,  Mails  12,500,  Brahmans  only 
7,700,  and  Telis  7,600.  The  Hatgars,  specially  mentioned  in  the 
Ain-i-Akbari  as  an  important  tribe  in  the  sarkdr  of  Basim,  now  number 
only  577,  and  are,  strangely  enough,  less  numerous  here  than  in  any 
District  in  Berar,  except  AmraotI  and  Ellichpur.  The  Banjaras  in  the 
sarkdr  of  Basim  are  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari  as  being  under  the 
headship  of  a  woman ;  and  it  is  known,  from  the  change  of  surname 
among  the  local  Naiks,  who  have  their  head-quarters  at  Narsi,  in 
the  Parbhani  District  of  the  Hyderabad  State,  that  the  office  has 
descended  at  least  once  in  the  female  line.  The  figures  for  castes, 
given  above,  clearly  indicate  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people. 
The  District  is  essentially  an  agricultural  one,  over  76  per  cent,  of 
its  population  living  by  the  land.  The  percentage  of  the  industrial 
population  is  11. 

There  is  only  one  Christian  mission,  which  is  supported  by  the 
American  Episcopal  Methodist  body,  and  has  its  head-quarters  at 
Basim.  Of  229  Christians  enumerated  in  the  District  in  1901, 
212  were  natives. 

The  Basim  fdhik  is  a  rich  table-land,  the  trap  flows  being  here 
covered  with  a  layer  of  black  cotton  soil  of  varying  but  nearly  always 
sufficient  depth.  This  layer  is  deeper  in  the  valley  of 
the  Penganga  than  elsewhere,  the  conditions  of  this 
iirea  being  not  dissimilar  from  those  of  the  Payanghat.     The  surface  of 


Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURE 


99 


the  Mangrul  tdluk  is  more  broken,  but  here  too  the  soil  is  rich  and 
of  good  quaHty,  except  on  the  hills.  Pusad  consists  principally  of 
a  succession  of  low  waste  hills,  the  soil  of  which  is  often  too  poor  to 
support  anything  but  grass  of  an  inferior  quality  ;  but  in  the  hollows 
between  the  hills,  and  in  the  Penganga  valley,  which  is,  however,  very 
narrow  here,  the  soil  is  rich  and  fertile.  Cultivation  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  south-west  monsoon. 

Almost  the  whole  area  is  held  ryotivdri ;  ijdra,  Jdgir,  -aw^l  pdlampat 
villages  cover  only  -1,^  square  miles.  The  principal  statistics  relating  to 
the  land  in  1903-4  are  given  below,  areas  being  in  square  miles  : — 


Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forest. 

2,959 

2,037 

6 

32 

721 

The  staple  food-grain  is  great  millet  {Jo7vdr),  the  area  under  which 
in  1903-4  was  822  square  miles.  Cotton,  the  most  profitable  crop, 
occupied  532  square  miles,  and  the  other  imp  irtant  crops  are  wheat 
and  oilseeds,  which  occupied  108  and  59  square  miles. 

After  the  Assignment,  when  the  people  began  to  return  to  the  land, 
the  rich  soil  of  the  Payanghat  was  the  first  to  be  taken  up,  and  the 
Balaghat  remained  comparatively  neglected  till  later.  In  order  to 
encourage  cultivation  in  Basim  District,  it  was  considered  desirable 
to  lease  entire  villages  on  special  terms  to  lessees  who  would  be  likely 
to  repay  themselves  by  importing  sub-tenant.s,  or,  failing  these,  field 
labourers.  Of  these  leased  villages,  forty-eight  still  remain.  The 
measure  undoubtedly  gave  an  impetus  to  cultivation,  but  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  wiser  course  would  not  have  been  to  await 
patiently  the  extension,  which  was  certain  to  come  in  time,  of  ryotivdri 
cultivation.  For  the  last  fifteen  years  the  extension  of  the  cultivated 
area  has  been  steady  and  continuous.  In  agricultural  practice  there 
has,  however,  been  no  marked  improvement.  On  the  contrary,  the 
cultivator  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Berar,  has  abandoned  the  cultivation  of 
the  fine  quality  of  cotton  for  which  the  Province  was  formerly  famous, 
in  favour  of  a  coarser  but  more  prolific  variety.  The  ryots  have  not  in 
the  past  availed  themselves  freely  of  the  Loans  Acts  ;  but  the  famine 
of  1 899-1 900  brought  the  advantages  offered  under  these  Acts  into 
prominent  notice,  and  loans  were  freely  applied  for  and  taken.  During 
the  prosperous  years  which  ensued  there  have  naturally  been  fewer 
applications  for  loans,  but  the  solvent  and  thrifty  cultivator  has  doubt- 
less learnt  that  it  is  the  Government,  rather  than  the  money-lender,  who 
is  his  friend  in  need. 

The  principal  breed  of  cattle  is  the  Umarda,  or  smaller  variety  of  the 
Berari  breed  \  but  the  character  of  the  cattle  in  the  District  has  been 

H  2 


loo  bAst'j  district 

modified  in  the  past  by  an  admixture  of  the  types  found  in  the  northern 
tracts  of  the  Hyderabad  State,  and  more  lately,  since  recent  years  of 
scarcity  and  famine,  by  the  importation  of  cattle  of  the  Nimari,  Shola- 
puri,  and  Labbani  breeds.  Buffaloes  are  chiefly  of  the  Dakhani  breed. 
The  local  breeds  of  ponies,  sheep,  and  goats  are  inferior,  and  the 
breeders  have  neither  the  knowledge  nor  the  means  necessary  to  their 
improvement. 

Only  6  square  miles  of  the  cultivated  land  were  irrigated  in  1903-4, 
consisting  almost  entirely  of  garden  crops,  watered  from  wells. 

Of  the  forest  land,  266  square  miles  are  reserved  for  the  production 
of  timber  and  fuel,  19  square  miles  are  ramna  land,  and  436  square 
miles  are  grazing  land.  The  forests  producing  timber 
are  situated  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Balaghat, 
in  the  Basim  fdluk,  on  the  hills  north  of  the  Pus  river  between  the 
Mangrul  and  Pusad  taluks,  on  the  hills  forming  the  watershed  between 
the  Pus  and  Penganga  rivers,  and  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the 
Pusad  taluk  in  the  loop  of  the  Penganga.  All  these  forests  contain  teak, 
which  varies  in  size  and  quality  in  different  localities,  the  best  being 
found  in  the  Kinwat  Reserve  in  the  loop  of  the  Penganga.  Tiivas 
{Ougeinia  dalbergioides)  is  also  common  in  this  Reserve,  but  rarer  else- 
where. Ain  [Terviinalia  tomentosa),  dhaura  {Afiogeissus  latifolia),  lendia 
{Lagerstroemia  parviflora\  and  dhd?nan  {Grewia  tiliaefolia)  are  also 
common  and  useful  trees.  The  following  trees  are  common  in  both 
forest  and  cultivated  land  :  babul  {^Acacia  arabka),  hhmir  {Acacia 
leucophloea),  mahud  {Bassia  latifolia),  gular  {Ficus  glomeraia),  chinch 
ox  imli  {Tamarindus  indica),  and  ber  {Zizyphus  Jujuba').  The  mango 
is  cultivated,  but  does  not  grow  wild  in  the  forests  ;  bamboos  are  rare, 
and,  where  found,  inferior. 

The  iron  ore  found  in  the  Pusad  hills,  which  has  already  been 
mentioned,  seems  to  be  the  only  mineral  product  of  the  District,  and 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  it  is  of  economic  value. 

There  are  no  important  manufactures.  The  principal  industry  is  the 
preparation  of  cotton  for  the  market.  The  District 
communfcations.  t^o"tained  16  ginning  factories  and  2  cotton-presses, 
all  worked  by  steam. 

The  chief  export  is  cotton,  which  is  sent  by  road  to  Akola  and  thence 
by  rail  to  Bombay.  Some  of  the  cotton  from  the  south  of  the  Pusad 
idluk  finds  its  way  to  the  Hyderabad-Godavari  Valley  Railway.  Oil- 
seeds and  grain  and  pulse  are  also  exported.  The  principal  imports 
are  grain  and  pulse,  sugar,  salt,  and  oils,  which  come  chiefly  from 
Akola,  having  been  brought  thither  by  rail.  Most  of  the  internal  trade 
is  effected  through  the  agency  of  the  weekly  markets  at  pargana  towns. 
Basim  has  a  cotton  market.  The  traders  are  chiefly  Marwaris  and 
Komatls. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  i  o  i 

There  is  no  railway  in  the  District ;  but  a  project  to  connect  the 
Hyderabad-Godavari  Valley  Railway  with  Khandwa,  by  means  of  a  line 
which  will  run  through  Basim  and  Akola,  is  under  consideration. 

The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  62  miles,  and  of  unmetalled 
roads  110  miles.  All  these,  except  5  miles  of  the  former  and  27  of  the 
latter  which  are  maintained  from  Local  funds,  are  in  charge  of  the  Public 
Works  department.  The  principal  road  passing  through  the  District  is 
the  Akola-Hingoli  road,  which  passes  through  Medsi  and  Basim  town, 
and  is  the  highway  from  the  latter  place  to  the  railway.  The  roads  to 
Pusad  and  Umarkhed  are  metalled  for  a  short  distance  only. 

As  regards  liability  to  famine,  the  District  cannot  be  differentiated 
from  the  rest  of  Berar.  The  crops  depend  upon  the  south-west  monsoon, 
the  failure  of  which  is  not  often  so  extensive  as  to  . 

cause  severe  distress.  In  1896-7  the  District  suffered 
from  scarcity  owing  to  a  partial  failure  of  the  rainfall,  and  in  1 899-1 900 
the  famine  which  was  felt  throughout  Berar  afflicted  Basim  severely. 
The  difficulty  of  coping  with  this  calamity  was  increased  by  the 
immigration  of  large  numbers  from  the  Hyderabad  State,  where  relief 
measures  were  less  perfect  than  in  Berar.  In  May,  1900,  when  the 
distress  was  at  its  height,  103,215  persons  were  on  relief  works  and 
36,350  in  receipt  of  gratuitous  relief;  and  it  is  calculated  that  24,000 
cattle  died. 

The  three  tixluks,  at  the  head-quarters  of  each  of  which  there  is 

a   ta/is'ilddr,    have   already   been    mentioned.      The  .   . 

rr     c    ^       T^-     ■  ■  r     ,  i    Admmistration. 

superior  staff  of  the  District   consists  of  the    usual 

officers. 

The  arrangements  for  the  administration  of  justice  are  described  in 
the  article  on  Akola  District.  Dacoities,  cattle-thefts,  and  house- 
breakings fluctuate  in  numbers,  as  elsewhere,  with  the  state  of  the 
season,  but  are  somewhat  more  numerous  than  in  the  Payanghat,  owing 
to  the  large  number  of  Banjaras  in  the  District.  These,  however,  are 
gradually  being  weaned  from  their  criminal  propensities.  Murders, 
which  are  not  common,  are  usually  due  to  personal  motives. 

According  to  the  Aiti-i-Akbarj^  the  land  revenue  demand  in  the 
parganas  composing  Basim  District  was  6-8  lakhs,  a  sum  which  but 
slightly  falls  short  of  the  land  revenue  demand  in  the  same  area  in 
1903-4,  which  was  8  lakhs.  The  extent  to  which  Basim,  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  Berar,  suffered  from  the  wars,  maladministration, 
and  natural  calamities  of  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth,  the 
eighteenth,  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuries  is  illustrated 
by  the  striking  fall  in  the  land  revenue  demand,  which  in  1853,  at  the 
time  of  the  Assignment,  was  returned  by  the  Nizam's  officers — who 
had  certainly  no  reason  for  understating  it — at  2-4  lakhs.  Considering 
the  extension  of  cultivation,  and  the  rise  in  the  price  of  produce  since 


I02 


BASIM  DISTRICT 


Akhar's  tinic,  it  is  evident  that  the  present  assessnunt,  though  absolutely 
somewhat  higher  than  Aktiar's,  is  relatively  very  much  lighter. 

The  fust  regular  settlement  of  the  District  after  the  Assignment  was 
made  between  1872  and  1875,  and  is  now  expiring;  but  in  those  tracts 
where  it  has  already  expired  the  introduction  of  the  new  rates,  assessed 
in  1899,  has  been  postponed,  owing  to  the  extent  to  which  the  District 
suffered  from  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900.  Under  the  new  assessment  the 
maximum  rate  is  Rs.  1-12  per  acre,  the  minimum  7  annas,  and  the  aver- 
age 12  annas  4  pies.  Land  irrigated  from  streams  is  assessed  at  a  special 
land  and  water  rate  of  Rs.  8  per  acre,  except  in  the  Pusad  tdhik,  where, 
for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  irrigation,  it  is  assessed  either  as  '  dry ' 
land  or  as  land  irrigated  from  wells.  Land  irrigated  from  wells  is 
assessed  at  the  maximum  rate  for  '  dry '  land  in  the  village  in  which  it 
is  situated  where  the  wells  have  been  sunk  before  the  original  survey  ; 
but  land  irrigated  from  wells  sunk  since  that  time  is  treated  as  '  dry ' 
land.  The  average  increase  of  the  new  rates  over  the  old  amounts  to 
32-2  per  cent,  throughout  the  District,  but  in  areas  in  which  the  increase 
is  greater  than  33  per  cent,  the  enhanced  rates  are  to  be  gradually 
introduced. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

i8qo-i. 

1900-1.         1003-4. 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue    . 

6>9o 

7.23 

6,02 
8,63 

6,23      1       7,15 

15,68      i       9,18 

1 

Basim  town  is  administered  by  a  municipality,  and  local  affairs  in  the 
rest  of  the  District  were  under  the  District  board,  with  the  three  tCxliik 
boards  subordinate  to  it.  The  expenditure  of  the  District  board  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  65,000,  of  which  Rs.  25,000  was  laid  out  on  public 
works  and  Rs.  10,000  on  education.  The  principal  sources  of  income 
were  Provincial  rates,  assessed  taxes,  and  the  Provincial  contribution  for 
primary  education. 

The  District  had  20  police  stations,  4  outposts,  and  3  road-posts, 
and  the  force  under  the  District  Superintendent  of  police  numbered 
413  of  all  ranks.  The  District  jail  at  Basim  was  the  only  jail,  and 
contained  in   1904  a  daily  average  of  44  inmates, 

Basim  stood  fifth  among  the  six  Districts  of  Berar  in  the  literacy 
of  its  population,  of  whom  3-1  per  cent.  (6-o  males  and  0-2  females) 
were  able  to  read  and  write  in  1901.  Education  is  most  advanced 
in  the  Basim  tdltik.  In  1903-4  the  District  contained  73  public, 
19  aided,  and  30  unaided  schools  with  a  total  of  4,881  pupils,  of 
whom   4,083    were    in    public    schools    and    370    were    girls.     Of   the 


BASIM   TOWN  103 

74  primary  schools,  69  were  managed  by  the  District  board  and  5  by 
the  Basim  municipality.  The  great  majority  of  those  under  instruction 
were  in  primary  classes,  and  no  girls  had  advanced  beyond  this  stage. 
Of  the  male  population  of  school-going  age,  6  per  cent,  were  in 
the  primary  stage  of  instruction,  and  of  the  female  population  of  the 
same  age,  0-5  per  cent.  In  recent  years  the  experiment  of  combining 
elementary  instruction  in  such  handicrafts  as  cane-work  and  carpentry 
with  the  ordinary  school  course  has  been  tried,  but  it  is  too  soon  to 
pronounce  definitely  on  its  success.  The  total  expenditure  on  educa- 
tion in  1903-4  was  Rs.  34,100,  of  which  Rs.  29,000  was  contributed 
by  local  bodies  and  Rs.   2,565  was  realized  from  fees. 

The  District  possessed  one  civil  hospital  and  five  dispensaries,  with 
accommodation  for  27  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated 
was  36,467,  of  whom  252  were  in-patients,  and  940  operations  were 
performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,365,  of  which  the  greater  part 
was  met  from  Provincial  contributions. 

Vaccination  has  made  satisfactory  progress  in  the  District.  In  1903--4 
the  proportion  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  33-7  per  1,000, 
the  mean  for  the  Province  being  36-6.  Vaccination  is  compulsory 
only  in  the  municipal  town   of  Basim. 

On  the  reconstitution  of  the  six  Districts  of  Berar  in  August  1905, 
Basim  ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate  District.  The  taluks  of  Basim  and 
Mangrul  were  transferred  to  Akola  and  now  form  the  Basim  subdivision 
of  that  District,  and  the  taluk  of  Pusad  was  transferred  to  Wun,  now 
designated  Yeotmal  District. 

Basim  Subdivision.— Subdivision  of  Akola  District,  Berar,  con- 
sisting of  the  Basim  and   Mangrul  taluks. 

Basim  Taluk. — Formerly  the  head-quarters  taluk  of  Basim  District, 
but  since  August,  1905,  the  southern  taluk  of  Akola  District,  Berar, 
lying  between  19°  52'  and  20°  25'  N.  and  75°  40'  and  77°  28'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,046  square  miles.  The  population  fell  from  177,250  in 
1891  to  153,320  in  1901,  and  its  density,  147  persons  per  square  mile, 
is  less  than  in  any  other  taluk  except  Mangrul.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,76,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  30,000.  The 
taluk  contains  324  villages  and  only  one  town,  Basim  (population,  13,823), 
the  head-quarters  of  the  taluk  and  of  the  Basim  subdivision.  I'he 
northern  part  of  the  taluk  lies  in  the  Balaghat,  or  southern  plateau  of 
Berar,  but  the  southern  portion  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Penganga, 
which  forms  the  southern  boundary  from  Pardi  eastwards.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  especially  in  the  Penganga  valley. 

Basim  Town  (or  Washim). — Head-quarters  of  the  Basim  tah(k, 
Akola  District,  Berar,  situated  in  20°  7'  N.  and  77°  ii'  E.,  at  a  height 
of  1,758  feet  above  sea-level;  distant  52  miles  south-south-east  from 
Akola  on  the  Nagpur  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway, 


,o4  BASIM    TOWN 

with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  good  metalled  road.  Population 
(1901),  13,823.  Basim  is  said  to  be  a  very  old  town,  and  to  have 
been  founded  by  Wachh,  a  Rishi.  A  legend  tells  of  a  king,  Vasuki, 
afflicted  with  leprosy,  who  was  cured  by  bathing  in  a  pool  outside  the 
town,  which  he  enlarged  to  a  tank,  known  as  Padma  'Pirtha,  still  largely 
resorted  to  for  bathing.  It  is  also  said  to  petrify  articles  exposed  to 
its  action.  The  deslwinkhs  of  Basim  in  the  seventeenth  century 
received  large  grants  of  land  and  perquisites  from  the  Mughal 
emperors,  and  the  family  has  always  been  of  some  consideration 
in  South  Berar.  After  the  Bhonsla  ruler  of  Nagpur  ceased  to  receive 
a  share  (40  per  cent.)  of  the  revenue,  the  Nizam  stationed  troops  and 
established  a  mint  at  Basim.  The  most  striking  buildings  are  the 
temple  and  tank  of  Balaji,  constructed  rather  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago  by  Bhawani  Kalu,  a  general  of  the  Bhonslas.  The  muni- 
cipality was  created  in  1867.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  13,400  and  Rs.  12,700.  In 
1903-4  the  receipts  were  Rs.  18,000,  principally  from  taxes,  the  expen- 
diture, mainly  devoted  to  education  and  conservancy,  being  nearly  the 
same.  The  town  contains  several  ginning  factories  and  a  cotton-press. 
It  was  the  head-quarters  of  Basim  District  till  1905,  when  that  District 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate  administrative  unit. 

Basirhat  Subdivision. — North-eastern  subdivision  of  the  District 
of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  lying  between  21°  31''  and 
22°  55'  N.  and  88°  33'  and  89°  6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,922  square 
miles,  of  which  1,584  are  included  in  the  Sundarbans.  The  northern 
part  of  the  subdivision  consists  of  a  fertile  alluvial  tract  ;  but  to  the 
south,  where  the  delta  is  in  a  less  advanced  stage  of  growth,  there  is 
a  network  of  tidal  creeks  winding  through  numerous  islands  and 
morasses.  The  population  in  1901  was  372,187,  compared  with 
347,138  in  1891,  the  density  being  194  persons  per  square  mile.  It 
contains  three  towns,  Basirhat  (population,  17,001),  its  head-quarters, 
Baduria  (12,921)  and  Taki  (5,089);  and  920  villages. 

Basirhat  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty- four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated  in 
22°  40'  N.  and  88°  51'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jamuna  river. 
Population  (1901),  17,001.  Basirhat  was  constituted  a  municipality  in 
1869.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  decade  ending 
1901-2  averaged  Rs.  6,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,600, 
mainly  from  a  tax  on  persons  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  6,300. 
Basirhat  contains  the  usual  public  offices  ;  the  sub-jail  has  accommoda- 
tion for  12  prisoners.  Basirhat  is  connected  with  Barasat,  a  station 
on  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  by  a  metalled  road  26  miles  in 
length,  along  which  a  light  railway  with  eight  stations  has  recently 
been  laid. 


B  A  SOD  A  105 

Basmat  Taluk.--  Eastern  id/uk  of  Parbhiini  District,  Hyderabad 
State,  with  an  area  of  610  square  miles.  li\c\\iiX\ng  Jdglrs,  the  popula- 
tion in  1 901  was  79,569,  compared  with  117,344  in  1891,  the  decrease 
being  due  to  the  famine  of  1900.  The  taluk  contains  one  town, 
Basmat  (population,  8,445),  ^^^  head-quarters;  and  215  villages,  of 
which  21  d.xQ,  jCxgir.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  3-2  lakhs.  The 
country  is  composed  mainly  of  black  cotton  soil. 

Basmat  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  idhik  of  the  same  name  in 
Parbhani  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  19°  20'  N.  and  77°  10'  E. 
Population  (1901),  8,445.  Besides  the  tahsll  and  police  inspector's 
offices,  it  contains  three  schools  and  a  post  office.  Basmat  is  a  busy 
centre  of  the  grain  trade. 

Basoda  (Nawab-Basoda,  Haidargarh-Basoda). — A  mediatized  chief- 
ship  in  Central  India,  under  the  Bhopal  Agency,  situated  on  the  Malwa 
plateau,  with  an  area  of  about  40  square  miles,  and  a  population  (1901) 
of  4,987.  The  town  from  which  the  State  takes  its  name  was  founded 
by  Raja  Bir  Singh  Deo  of  Orchha  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is 
often  styled  Muhammadgarh-Basoda  and  Haidargarh-Basoda,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  place  of  the  same  name  in  Gwalior  State,  but  is 
generally  called  Nawab-Basoda.  The  State  is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Sironj  district  of  Tonk  State,  and  a  portion  of  Gwalior ;  on  the 
north  by  the  Saugor  District  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and  the  States 
of  Pathari,  Korwai,  and  Muhammadgarh  ;  on  the  east  by  Saugor  District 
and  Bhopal ;  and  on  the  south  by  Bhopal. 

The  Nawabs  of  Basoda  belong  to  the  Korwai  family  founded  by 
Muhammad  Diler  Khan,  an  Afghan  of  the  Barakzai  Firoz  Khel,  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  On  his  death  the  State  was  divided  between  his 
two  sons,  Korwai  falling  to  the  elder.  The  younger,  Ahsan-uUah  Khan, 
settled  at  first  at  Rakha  and  Bahadurgarh,  now  Isagarh  in  the  Gwalior 
State,  but  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Marathas,  moved  his  capital  to 
Basoda  in  1753.  In  181 7  the  State  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sindhia,  but 
was  restored  in  1822  on  the  mediation  of  the  British  authorities.  The 
chief,  though  nominally  subordinate  to  Sindhia,  pays  him  no  tribute, 
and  in  his  relations  with  that  Darbar  receives  the  countenance  and 
support  of  the  Political  Agent,  who  since  1822  has  exercised  the 
same  general  authority  in  this  chiefship  as  in  the  guaranteed  chiefships 
subject  to  his  control. 

Ahsan-ullah  died  in  1786,  having  alienated  part  of  his  possessions  to 
form  the  State  of  Muhammadgarh,  He  was  followed  by  Nawab  Baka- 
ullah  Khan  and  Asad  Ali  Khan,  the  last  being  at  one  time  minister 
of  the  Bhopal  State,  from  which  he  was,  however,  removed  for  intriguing 
with  the  pretender  Dastglr.  The  present  chief  is  Haidar  All  Khan, 
who  succeeded  in  1897,  and  bears  the  title  of  Nawab.  The  State  con- 
tains  twenty-three   villages,   and   is   fertile   and    produces  good   crops 


io6  BASODA 

Alxiut  lo  siiiuue  miles,  or  25  |)er  cent,  of  the  total  urea,  are  cultivated, 
126  acres  being  irrigated.  The  chief  exercises  the  criminal  powers 
of  a  first-class  magistrate,  all  heinous  crimes  being  dealt  with  by  the 
Political  Agent.  The  normal  revenue  of  the  State  is  Rs.  19,000,  of 
which  Rs.  16,000  is  derived  from  land.  The  incidence  of  the  land 
revenue  demand  is  Rs.  2-9-3  P'^r  ^cre  of  cultivated  area.  Ikisoda, 
the  chief  town,  is  situated  in  23°  51'  N.  and  T]"  56'  Ti.  Population 
(1901),  1,850.  It  contains  a  British  post  office,  a  jail,  a  school,  and  a 
dispensary. 

Basrur  (the  Barcelore  or  Barkalur  of  early  geographers). — Village  in 
the  Coondapoor  iii/uk  of  South  Kanara  District,  Madras,  situated  in 
13°  38'  N.  and  74°  45'  E.,  4  miles  east  of  Coondapoor.  It  was  once 
a  large  walled  town  with  a  fort  and  a  temple,  and  carried  on  an 
important  trade  with  Malabar  and  the  Persian  Gulf;  but  its  decline  set 
in  after  the  establishment  of  the  Portuguese  at  Coondapoor  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  it  is  now  an  insignificant  place.  The  ruins  of 
Sir  Thomas  Munro's  courthouse  are  still  pointed  out.  As  Major  Munro 
he  was  the  first  Collector  of  the  District.     Population  (1901),  1,757. 

Bassein  District. — District  of  the  Irrawaddy  Division,  Lower 
Burma,  lying  between  15°  50'  and  1 7°  30'  N.  and  94°  i  \'  and  95°  28''  E., 
with  an  area  of  4, 127  square  miles.  It  forms  an  irregular  wedge-shaped 
strip  of  coast  land  and  delta  country,  narrowing  from  north  to  south,  in 
the  extreme  south-west  corner  of  the  Province.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Henzada  and  Sandoway  Districts ;  on  the  east  by  Ma-ubin 
and  Myaungmya;  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
which  curves  round  its  southern  and  western  edges  at  the  elbow 
formed  by  Pagoda  Point.  The  District  is  divided  into  unequal  parts 
.  by  the  Arakan  Yoma,  which  enters   Bassein  at  its 

aspects  north-western  corner,  and  runs  down  its  western  side 

at  no  great  distance  from  the  sea.  The  main  portion 
lies  to  the  east  of  this  range,  consisting  of  a  flat  alluvial  plain,  the 
northern  end  of  which  is  rich  rice  land.  Farther  south,  between  the 
Ngawun  and  Daga  rivers,  it  is  flooded  and  poor.  To  the  east  of 
the  Daga  and  southwards  towards  Bassein  town  the  land  is  slightly 
higher  and  more  fertile.  To  the  west  of  the  Ngawun,  as  far  as  the 
bifurcation  of  the  Daga,  the  land  is  flooded  and  generally  uncultivable. 
Below  that  point  it  is  higher  and  of  fair  quality,  while  south  of  the  town 
of  Bassein  it  is  typically  deltaic,  intersected  by  innumerable  tidal  creeks, 
marshy,  and  covered  with  mangrove  jungle,  with  some  stretches  of  rice 
land  here  and  there.  In  the  south  the  coast-line  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  a  gently  shelving  sandy  beach,  backed  by  swampy  forest  land  ; 
in  the  west  beyond  Pagoda  Point,  where  the  hills  enter  the  sea  abruptly, 
the  coast  is  rocky  and  difficult  of  approach.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Arakan  Yoma,  which  here  is  comparatively  low,  there  is  no  high  land 


BASSEIN  DISTRICT  107 

in  the  District.  The  whole  face  of  the  country  is  intersected  by  tidal 
channels,  but  they  are  for  the  most  part  unimportant  waterways.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Ngawun  (or  Bassein),  which,  leaving  the  Irrawaddy 
a  short  distance  above  Henzada,  pursues  a  course  almost  due  south 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  District,  till  it  falls  into  the  sea  at 
Hainggyi.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Daga,  joining  it  about  14  miles 
north  of  Bassein,  and  the  Panmawadi,  whose  waters  fall  into  it  some 
28  miles  south  of  that  town.  The  Bassein  river  has  two  mouths,  but 
the  eastern  branch  is  silted  up  with  sand  and  is  useless  for  navigation. 
The  western  or  main  branch,  on  the  other  hand,  is  easily  navigable  by 
ocean-going  vessels  of  a  draught  up  to  2  7  feet,  and  is  the  main  waterway 
to  the  town  of  Bassein. 

Numerous  stretches  of  water  are  found  in  the  District ;  but  the  one 
real  lake,  called  the  Inye,  has  a  circumference  of  7  miles,  and  averages 
15  feet  in  depth  in  the  dry  season.  It  is  situated  in  the  Kyonpyaw 
township,  about  4  miles  from  Kyonpyaw  in  the  north-east  of  the  District. 
Islands  are  plentiful  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Bassein  river ;  but  the 
only  two  deserving  of  special  mention  are  Ha'nggyi  or  Negrais,  near 
Pagoda  Point,  where  the  first  British  trading  settlement  in  Burma  was 
started,  and  Diamond  Island,  called  by  the  Burmans  Thamihla 
('beautiful  daughter'),  a  low  wooded  islet  about  a  square  mile  in  area 
at  the  very  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  soil  of  a  portion  of  the  northern  part  consists  of  the  usual 
agglomeration  of  clay  and  silt  deposit  common  to  alluvial  rice-growing 
plains.  North  of  Bassein  town  and  east  of  Ngaputaw  considerable 
beds  of  laterite  are  met  with,  covered  in  places  with  sandy  deposits. 
On  the  west  coast  a  remarkable  patch  of  calcareous  sandstone  occurs. 
The  Nummulitic  or  eocene  group  of  rocks  is  well  developed  ;  in  the 
Yoma  and  in  the  south  these  have  been  termed  the  Negrais  beds. 
Subordinate  to  the  sandstone  an  irregular  bed  of  conglomerate  occurs, 
which  is,  however,  marked  only  near  Ywatpa,  where  there  is  a  so-called 
mud  volcano.  This  is  really  only  a  small  vent  discharging  marsh-gas, 
connected  geologically,  no  doubt,  with  the  mud  volcanoes  of  Arakan. 
In  the  south,  at  Tonbo  and  Kyaukthinbaw,  limestone  of  the  very  best 
quality  is  found.  The  supply  is  practically  inexhaustible,  the  locality 
is  convenient  for  working,  and  in  consequence  this  area  has  been  largely 
drawn  on  by  the  railway  for  ballasting  the  lately  completed  line  from 
Rangoon  to  Bassein.  Soapstone  in  small  quantities  is  found  in  the 
Arakan  Yoma,  chiefly  on  the  western  slopes. 

The  botany  of  Bassein  is  similar  to  that  of  Hanthawaddy  District. 
Large  areas  of  mangrove  swamp  are  found  near  the  rivers,  and  inland 
are  evergreen  tropical  forests.  Palms  of  various  kinds  are  common. 
The  main  varieties  of  timber  trees  are  enumerated  under  the  heading 
of  Forests. 


io8  BASSETN  DISTRICT 

Tigers  arc  scarce  ;  but  elephants,  sdnil/ar,  bison,  leopards,  and  bears 
are  fairly  common  in  tlie  western  tracts  towards  the  Yoma.  The 
rhinoceros  is  nearly  extinct,  being  ruthlessly  hunted  for  its  blood,  which 
is  accounted  a  valuable  curative  medium  by  the  Burmans,  among  whom 
it  sells  for  its  weight  in  silver.  In  the  less-developed  parts  the  smaller 
kinds  of  deer  and  also  wild  hog  were  plentiful,  but  are  being  rapidly 
exterminated  with  nets.  Crocodiles  are  found  in  most  of  the  tidal 
creeks,  and  there  are  rich  turtle-beds  to  the  south  near  the  coast. 

The  climate  is  rather  relaxing,  though  the  heat  in  summer  is  tempered 
to  some  extent  by  the  strong  sea-breezes  which  spring  up  in  the  after- 
noon. The  mean  of  the  maxinmm  temperatures  in  the  hotter  months 
is  generally  about  95°,  that  of  the  minimum  temperatures  about  75°. 

The  rainfall  is  heavy,  though,  owing  to  the  shelter  afforded  by  the 
Arakan  Yoma,  it  is  not  to  be  compared  in  volume  with  what  the  adjoin- 
mg  District  of  Sandoway  receives.  The  annual  average  at  the  District 
head-quarters  for  the  ten  years  ending  1904  has  been  113  inches,  while 
at  the  other  recording  stations  it  is  highest  at  Ngaputaw  in  the  south 
(129  inches),  and  lowest  at  Kyonpyaw  in  the  north-east  (88  inches). 

The  great  cyclone  of  May  6,  1902,  which  affected  the  whole  Burma 
coast,  did  some  damage  in  the  south  and  west  of  the  District.  Part  of 
the  central  tract  is  inundated  annually,  but  serious  floods  are  not 
known. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  the  District.     Its  Burmese 

name  is  Pathein,  though  how  and  when  this  was  corrupted  into  Bassein 

is  far  from  clear.     In  old  Taking  histories  the  thirty- 
History.  .  .  r  ^  •  •  1     •  r 

two  cities  01  Bassein  are  mentioned  in  a.d.  625  as 
forming  part  of  the  newly  established  kingdom  of  Pegu.  For  many 
centuries  after  this  Bassein  was  the  scene  of  constant  struggles  between 
the  Takings  and  the  Burmans.  The  port  of  Bassein  has  from  early 
days  been  a  trading  centre  of  some  importance.  In  1687,  after  two 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain  a  footing  on  the  Irrawaddy  delta,  the 
East  India  Company  occupied  Negrais,  an  island  now  known  as 
Hainggyi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bassein  river,  and  a  trading  settlement 
was  established  there.  In  1757  the  Company  obtained  from  Alaung- 
paya,  the  king  of  Ava,  who  two  years  previously  had  seized  Bassein  from 
the  Peguans,  the  permanent  cession  of  Negrais  and  of  a  piece  of  land  at 
Bassein,  in  return  for  aid  promised  against  the  enemies  of  the  Burmans. 
On  October  5,  1759,  however,  nearly  all  the  Europeans  in  the  settle- 
ment were  treacherously  murdered  by  the  Burmese  officials,  on  suspicion 
of  having  helped  the  Talaings  (or  Peguans)  against  Akungpaya.  The 
brick  walls  of  the  factory  are  still  standing.  Negotiations  in  180 1-2  to 
regain  Negrais  were  fruitless ;  and  the  British  envoy  was  treated  with 
characteristic  insolence,  the  king  of  Ava,  Bodawpaya,  being  then  at  the 
summit  of  his  power.     But   in    1824,  during  the  first   Burmese   War, 


rOPULATION 


109 


Bassein  was  taken  and  held  as  a  pledge  by  the  British  till  the  evacuation 
of  Pegu  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Yandabo.  During 
the  second  Burmese  War,  in  1852,  the  town  was  stormed  by  the  British 
troops,  and  finally  occupied.  vShortly  after  the  annexation  it  was  pro- 
posed to  move  the  District  head-quarters  from  Bassein  to  what  was 
thought  a  more  suitable  site  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Bassein  river  ;  but 
the  beginnings  of  the  new  civil  station,  which  was  to  have  been  called 
Dalhousie,  were  wrecked  by  a  cyclone  in  1856-7,  and  the  scheme  was 
abandoned.  Since  1854,  when  organized  crime  was  checked  by  Major 
f'ytche,  the  District  has  been  quiet,  except  during  the  Bogale  rebellion, 
which  broke  out  simultaneously  with  the  guerrilla  war  in  Upper  Burma 
(1806).  The  District  as  at  present  constituted  has,  so  far  as  its  external 
boundaries  are  concerned,  been  in  existence  since  1893,  when  a  portion 
of  its  area  was  added  to  the  newly  created  District  of  Myaungmya. 

The  most  important  shrines  are  the  Shwemoktaw,  the  Mahabawdi, 
the  Tagaung,  and  the  Shwezigon  pagodas  in  the  town  of  Bassein 
itself ;  the  Shinthedat  pagoda  at  Kanni  ;  the  Dipayon  pagoda  at 
Mezali ;  the  Hmawdin  pagoda  on  a  sea-girt  eminence  at  the  southern- 
most extremity  of  the  District. 

The    population    at    the    last    four   enumerations   was    as    follows : 
(1872)  202,428,  (1881)  268,169,  (1891)  320,973.  and       Population. 
(1901)    391,427.      The   principal    statistics    of  area 
and    population  in   1901   are  shown  in   the   following  table: — 


cr  « 

Nu 

mber  of 

c 

.0 

V      . 

0.11 

§1 

age  of 
on  in 
on  be- 
1891 
901. 

er  of 
able  to 
and 
te. 

Township. 

M 

aj 

ti  ^ 

c'-^'-H  c  " 

•2  M.n'C 

a; 
u 

< 

0 

H 

> 

3 

la 
0  S* 

Perce 

varia 

popula 

twee 

and 

Nuir 

person 

rea( 

w 

Bassein    . 

563 

I 

518 

104,647 

186 

-1-    II 

26,262 

Thabaung 

1,118 

440 

47,802 

43 

+    23 

I  2,400 

Ngaputaw 

1,439 

244 

37,126 

26 

+    25 

9,444 

Ngathainggyaung     . 

345 

I 

I'^l 

64,891 

188 

+    15 

20,205 

Kyonpyaw 

292 

... 

466 

70,010 

240 

-^  40 

15,462 

Kyaunggon 

District  total 

370 

562 

66,951 

181 

+  29 

14,671 

4>i27 

2 

2,617 

.^91,427 

95 

+   22 

98,444 

1 

The  growth  of  population  has  been  rapid,  amounting  to  45  per  cent, 
since  1872  ;  but  it  is  likely  to  be  less  marked  in  future,  as  the  District 
is  said  to  have  fewer  attractions  for  immigrants  than  the  adjoining 
delta  areas.  Except  in  the  Thabaung  and  Ngaputaw  townships,  where 
there  are  hilly  tracts,  the  density  is  high.  There  are  only  two  towns  of 
over  5,000  inhabitants  :  Ba.ssein,  the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  and 
Ngathainggyaung.  The  population  is  chiefly  Buddhist  (348,100,  or 
89  per  cent.).  Christians  come  next  with  22,400;  Hindus  number 
12,600,  and  Musalmans  6,400. 


TTo  JLISSEIN  DISTRICT 

Burmese  is  spoken  by  287,300  persons  and  Karen  by  84,100,  a  figure 
which  indicates  that  nearly  all  the  Karens  use  their  own  vernacular. 
Though  Talaings  are  numerous,  the  Talaing  language  appears  to  be 
hardly  spoken  at  all  in  Bassein,  while  in  the  neighbouring  District  of 
Myaungmya  it  is  still  the  speech  of  one  Talaing  out  of  four. 

Burmans  numbered  271,800  in  1901;  Karens,  85,300  (mostly  Pwos) ; 
Arakanese,  6,300;  Talaings,  4,700.  There  are  1,200  Chinese,  only  280 
of  whom  are  females.  More  than  half  the  Musalmans  and  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  Hindus  live  in  Bassein  town.  The  agricultural  population 
in  1901  was  returned  at  259,100,  or  66  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

The  large  Christian  population  (more  numerous  than  in  any  District 
of  the  Province  except  Toungoo)  is  chiefly  due  to  the  Karen  converts  of 
the  American  Baptist  Mission,  of  whom  13,890  returned  themselves  as 
Baptists  in  1901,  and  who  also  probably  formed  a  large  proportion  of 
the  5,409  Christians  who  returned  no  denomination.  Roman  Catholics 
and  Anglicans  (principally  natives)  number  more  than  1,200  each.  The 
total  of  native  Christians  was  22,000.  The  American  Baptist  Mission 
works  among  both  the  Karens  and  the  Burmans.  The  Roman  Catholics 
have  three  mission  stations  in  the  District. 

The  conditions  of  agriculture  are  generally  uniform.  The  richest  land 
lies  to  the  north  and  north-east.     In  the  north  the  soil  is  composed  of 

.     ,  a  rich  silt-impregnated  loam,  protected  from  inunda- 

Acriculturc  . 

tion  by  an  extensive  system  of  Government  embank- 
ments, while  in  the  north-east  the  land  consists  of  new  clearings  of  rich 
tree-jungle.  The  southern  portion  of  the  tract  north  of  the  Daga  is 
liable  to  floods  caused  by  the  back-wash  from  the  Ngawun.  South  of 
the  Daga  the  land  is  slightly  higher  and  consequently  of  poorer  quality, 
but  it  falls  rapidly  south  of  the  town  of  Bassein.  The  Ngaputaw  town- 
ship, except  for  some  high  ground  in  the  Thongwa  circle,  is  flat  and 
marshy,  the  soil  is  thin,  and  the  surface  of  the  land  is  intersected  by 
tidal  creeks.  On  the  west  bank  of  the  Ngawun  the  lower  levels  are  as 
a  rule  flooded,  owing  to  the  embankment  on  the  east  bank  of  that 
stream;  and  the  ground  gradually  rises  from  the  river  to  the  hills,  where 
cultivation  is  found  only  in  minute  patches  on  the  gentler  slopes,  or  in 
the  valleys  between  the  hill  ranges.  About  37  miles  of  the  Ngawun 
embankment  lie  within  the  limits  of  the  District.  This  work,  with  its 
continuation  northward  in  Henzada,  forms  a  raised  embankment  151 
miles  in  length,  protecting  from  inundation  about  1,600  square  miles 
of  country. 

The  methods  of  cultivation  exhibit  little  variety  in  the  different  tracts. 
Ploughing  is  performed  with  a  rough  wooden  plough,  consisting  of 
a  transverse  bar  from  7  to  8  feet  long,  with  seven,  eighty  or  nine  pointed 
wooden  teeth  fixed  in  it.  This  is  drawn  in  every  direction  across  the 
field,  more  or  less  frequently  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil.     The 


AGRICULTURE 


III 


rice  is  then  ordinarily  transplanted  from  the  nurseries  in  which  it  has 
been  raised.  In  the  Ngaputaw  township,  however,  the  grain  is  generally 
sown  broadcast,  the  soil  here  being  poorer,  and  the  cost  of  labour  high. 
In  the  flooded  portions  of  the  District  transplanting  is  not  possible  till 
October,  and  the  success  of  the  crop  then  altogether  depends  on  the 
sufficiency  or  otherwise  of  the  later  rains. 

The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Township. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Forests. 

Bassein 
Thabaung  . 
Ngaputaw  . 
Ngathainggyaung 
Kyonpyaw . 
Kyaunggon 

Total 

563 
1,118 

1=439 
345 
292 

370 

244 
81 
107 
1.36 
171 
120 

1-3 

0-3 
0-3 

O-I 

1 

284 

4>i27 

859 

2 

284            j 

In  the  same  year  802  square  miles  were  under  rice  {kaukkyi).  Afayin, 
or  hot-season  rice,  is  grown,  but  only  to  a  small  extent.  Garden  culti- 
vation covered  41  square  miles,  of  which  the  plantain  groves  of  the 
Kyonpyaw  township  on  the  banks  of  the  Daga  constitute  about  a  third. 
The  dani  palm  is  cultivated  in  the  Ngaputaw  and  Bassein  townships  on 
2,100  acres,  and  tobacco  on  2,700  acres  in  the  Ngathainggyaung  town- 
ship in  the  north  of  the  District.  The  size  of  the  average  agricultural 
holding  is  about  18  acres. 

No  efforts  are  made  by  the  husbandmen  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  crop  by  selection  of  seed,  or  to  increase  the  out-turn  by  artificial 
manuring,  though  some  years  ago  the  properties  of  basic  slag  as  a 
fertilizer  were  tested.  Nor  is  any  improvement  likely  to  occur  so  long 
as  the  Bassein  milling  firms  refuse  to  give  higher  rates  for  better-class 
paddy.  Experiments  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  have  not  found 
favour  with  the  local  agriculturist.s.  Agricultural  advances,  generally 
for  purchase  of  cattle  or  seed-grain,  are  eagerly  taken  up,  especially  in 
the  Bassein  subdivision,  where  cattle-disease  is  particularly  rife.  The 
yearly  loss  of  cattle  is  enormous,  and  more  stringent  measures  to  eradi- 
cate disease  are  required.  The  total  amount  advanced  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  15,140. 

The  cattle  of  Bassein  are  of  the  common  breeds  of  the  country,  and, 
except  in  the  Ngathainggyaung  subdivision,  are  only  of  ordinary  quality. 
In  the  north,  however,  where  the  grazing  facilities  are  good,  the 
live-stock,  and  especially  the  bullocks,  are  above  the  average.  Scarcely 
any  Indian  cattle  are  kept,  except  in  Bassein  and  Ngathainggyaung 
towns.  As  is  usually  the  case  in  the  delta  Districts,  where  land  com- 
munications are  not  good,  ponies  are  scarce  and  the  local  breed  is  of 


112  JyASSEI.y  DISTRICT 

poor  quality.  Beasts  imported  from  Prome  and  other  breeding  centres 
command  high  prices,     (loats  are  few  in  number. 

The  grazing  is  ample,  and  no  difficulties  are  encountered  in  feeding 
stock.  The  grazing-grounds  are,  however,  largely  devoid  of  shade,  and 
this  fact  and  the  badness  of  the  water-supply  in  the  hot  season  are  the 
principal  causes  of  disease.  The  total  area  of  grazing-ground  actually 
reserved  is  104,852  acres,  and  the  total  number  of  cattle  in  1903-4  was 
153,700,  showing  about  three-fourths  of  an  acre  per  head  of  stock. 

Numerous  fresh-water  fisheries  exist,  a  full  account  of  which  will  be 
found  in  a  report  by  Major  Maxwell,  published  in  1904.  They  lie  for 
the  most  part  in  the  north-east  of  the  District.  The 
'  '  most  important  fishery  is  the  Inye  Lake  in  the 
Kyonpyaw  township,  the  lease  of  which  fetches  about  Rs.  28,000 
annually.  Of  turtles,  both  the  loggerhead  and  the  green  variety  are 
plentiful  along  the  southern  coast.  The  most  valuable  bank  is  that  at 
Diamond  Island,  from  which  Major  Maxwell  estimates  an  out-turn  of 
one  and  three-quarter  millions  of  turtles'  eggs  annually,  valued  at  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  lakh.  The  District  fishery  revenue  amounted  to 
2-9  lakhs  in  1903-4. 

The  forests  present  two  types.  The  first  is  found  along  both  slopes 
of  the  Yoma,  and  is  evergreen,  interspersed  with  patches  of  bamboo. 
On  the  western  slope  it  has  been  greatly  overworked  in  the  past,  and 
steps  are  being  taken  to  '  reserve '  large  portions.  This  tract  contains 
pyiftgado,  pyini?ia,  and  about  thirty  other  kinds  of  timber,  and  provides 
large  quantities  of  canes  and  bamboos  used  in  the  fisheries  all  over  the 
delta  and  for  building.  The  second  type  of  forest  is  marshy  and  tidal, 
and  contains  various  species  of  mangrove,  kanazo,  and  other  inferior 
woods,  used  mainly  for  fuel.  Owing  to  unrestrained  clearing  of  forest 
in  the  north-east,  fuel  will  probably  be  scarce  before  long  in  that  quarter. 
The  area  of  protected  and  '  reserved '  forests  is  208  square  miles,  and 
that  of  unprotected  but  'reserved'  forests  76  square  miles.  The  forest 
receipts  in  1903-4  amounted  to  a  lakh. 

The  only  minerals  are  pottery  clay,  laterite,  limestone,  and  sandstone, 
and  they  are  of  little  commercial  importance.  The  requirements  of  the 
newly  constructed  railway  have  brought  about  a  temporary  development 
of  the  limestone  and  sandstone  industry  ;  but,  this  demand  satisfied, 
the  further  working  of  these  mineral  resources  is  likely  to  stop.  Laterite 
is  worked  in  a  spasmodic  fashion  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
Public  Works  department  or  the  Bassein  municipality,  and  pottery  clay 
is  collected  by  the  pot-makers  of  Sinobo  and  Kwinlya ;  but  there  is  no 
systematic  working  of  minerals. 

A  little  gold  and  silver  work  is  done  in  Bassein,  but  it  is  ordinarily 
of  poor  quality.  The  best-known  hand  industries  are  pot-making  and 
the  manufacture  of  umbrellas.     Glazed  pottery  is  made  principally  at 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  113 

Sinobo  near  Bassein,  and  at  Kwinlya  below  Ngathainggyaung.     The 
Bassein  uml)rella  is  made  of  paper  or  pith,  and  is  generally  decorated  with 
elaborate  hand-painted  floral  designs.     The  country 
salt,  known  as  kyinsa,  is  used  largely  in  the  making  comiunicrtions. 
of  ngapi,  pressed  fish  or  salted  fish   paste,  which  is 
extensively  manufactured  in  the  District.     From  30  to  40  parts  of  salt 
are  mixed  with  100  parts  of  fish  to  make  this.     A  full  description  of 
the  methods  of  manufacture  is  given  in  the  fishery  report  referred  to 
above,  which  enumerates  eighteen  kinds  of  ngapi,  all  made  in  different 
ways  and  all  bearing  different  names.     It  is  customary  in  some  cases 
for  the  bark  of  the  ondon-ixe.e  {Tetranthera  laurifolia)  to  be  pounded 
up  and  mixed  with  the  ngapi,  its  object  being  to  prevent  decrease  of 
weight  through  shrinkage. 

The  principal  factories  of  Bassein  are  the  rice-mills,  of  which  there 
are  eight,  five  owned  by  British  firms  and  three  by  German.  Another, 
managed  by  a  foreign  firm,  is  in  process  of  construction,  and  a  few 
minor  concerns  are  the  property  of  residents  of  Bassein.  The  rice 
turned  out  is  of  the  kind  known  as  '  cargo  rice,'  i.  e.  one-fifth  of  the 
husk  is  left  on  the  milled  product. 

Saw-mills  are  the  only  other  factories  of  importance,  the  most  im- 
portant being  one  owned  by  the  Sgaw-Karen  Baptist  Mission.  The 
number  of  logs  sawn  in  it  in  1901  was  4,500,  but  the  completion  of  the 
railway  and  the  consequent  demand  for  sleepers  has  considerably 
increased  the  output  since  then.  Pyingado  is  the  principal  timber 
dealt  with  in  the  mills.  Salt  is  obtained  in  the  Ngaputaw  township  by 
concentration  under  solar  heat,  and  then  by  boiling. 

The  maritime  export  trade  of  Bassein  is  practically  confined  to  rice, 
which  is  grown  in  the  District  and  milled  in  the  town  into  'cargo  rice' 
prior  to  export  to  Europe.  In  1903-4  the  exports  of  rice  were  152,000 
tons,  valued  at  104  lakhs.  The  total  imports  by  sea  in  the  same  year 
were  valued  at  only  Rs.  1,35,000.  Owing  to  the  absence  in  most  of 
the  mills  of  plant  for  the  production  of  'white  rice,'  the  exports  to 
India  are  insignificant.  Ordinarily  the  most  important  oversea  imports 
are  salt,  coal,  and  coco-nuts.  Salt  comes  mainly  from  Europe,  coal 
from  Calcutta,  and  coco-nuts  from  Madras  or  the  Straits.  A  brisk  trade 
in  general  merchandise  is  carried  on  by  river  steamers  with  Rangoon 
and  other  delta  towns.  The  imports  are  piece-goods,  hardware,  and 
the  like  ;  and  the  exports  are  ngapi  and  other  local  products.  The 
bulk  of  the  petty  trade  is  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Burmans,  but  natives 
of  India  and  C'hinamen  also  do  a  large  and  growing  business. 

The  Bassein-Henzada-Letpadan  railway,  opened  to  traffic  in  1903, 
passes  through  the  District  for  66  miles  and  taps  the  centre  of  it.  The 
principal  stations  are  Daga,  Athok,  Yegyi,  and  Zayathla.  The  railway 
is   already  very  popular  with  passengers,  though  it  has  so  far  al  racted 

VOL.   VII,  I 


114  BASSE lA'  DISTRICT 

little  goods  tiafific,  and  all  the  paddy  still  comes  l)y  river  to  be  nulled 
at  Bassein. 

In  the  south  of  the  District,  where  communication  is  almost  entirely 
by  water,  the  roads  are  chiefly  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Bassein  town.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  outside  the  town  is 
42  miles,  15^  of  which  are  kept  up  from  Provincial  and  26^  from  Dis- 
trict cess  or  other  Local  funds.  The  total  length  of  un metalled  roads 
is  53  miles,  24  being  maintained  from  Provincial  and  29  from  Local 
funds.  The  principal  roads  are :  the  Bassein-Shwemyindin  road,  the 
Bassein-Henzada  road,  and  the  Bassein-Shanywa  road.  In  the  Nga- 
thainggyaung  subdivision  the  main  highways  are  from  Ngathainggyaung 
to  Ataung  (via  Kyonpyaw),  from  Yegyi  to  Inma  (via  Athok\  and  from 
Inma  to  Kyonpyaw.  In  the  north  the  embankments  constructed  by 
Government  about  thirty  years  ago  to  prevent  the  flooding  of  low-lying 
areas  afford  a  convenient  means  of  communication  during  the  rains. 
The  Ngawun  and  Daga  rivers  are  navigable  practically  throughout  the 
District.  No  sea-going  lines  of  passenger  steamers  call  at  the  port  of 
Bassein  ;  but  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company  runs  steamers  from 
Bassein  three  times  a  week  to  Rangoon  via  Myaungmya,  Wakema,  and 
Ma-ubin,  and  to  Kyonpyaw,  daily  to  Myaungmya,  and  twice  a  week  to 
Ngathainggyaung,  and  in  the  rains  onwards  to  Henzada.  The  south  is 
served  by  private  launches.  The  District  east  of  the  Yoma  contains 
scarcely  a  single  village  of  any  size  which  is  not  supplied  with  some 
form  of  steamer  service.  Native  boats,  large  and  small,  ply  on  all  the 
inland  waters,  and  numerous  ferries  are  maintained. 

The  District  is  divided  into  two  subdivisions,  with  head-quarters  at 
Bassein  and  Ngathainggyaung.     Each  subdivision  has  three  townships. 

.  ,    .  .        .         The  Bassein  subdivision  comprises  the  Bassein,  Tha- 
Administration.  ,  _  ^  ,  .  j   ,     xt  • 

BAUNG,  and  Ngaputaw  townships;  and  the  Ngathaing- 
gyaung subdivision  comprises  the  Ngathainggyaung,  Kyonpyaw,  and 
Kyaunggon  townships.  Bassein  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Bassein- 
Myaungmya  Forest  division,  under  a  Deputy-Conservator  of  forests  ; 
and  the  Port  Officer,  Bassein,  is  collector  of  customs. 

The  District  Judge  exercises  jurisdiction  also  over  Henzada  District, 
and  the  Bassein  Small  Cause  Court  judge  is  at  the  same  time  the  judge 
of  the  Bassein  township  court.  Two  other  judges  relieve  the  township 
officers  of  the  Ngathainggyaung,  Kyaunggon,  and  Kyonpyaw  townships 
of  all  civil  work  and  have  Small  Cause  Court  jurisdiction  locally ; 
but  in  the  remaining  two  townships  the  township  officers  are  judges  in 
their  respective  courts. 

Criminal  justice  is  administered  in  the  usual  way  by  the  executive 
officers.  District,  subdivisional,  and  township.  In  addition,  a  special 
magistrate  has  recently  been  appointed  to  exercise  criminal  juris- 
diction within    the  limits  of  the  Ngathainggyaung  and    Bassein    sub- 


ADM  INI S  TRA  TION  1 1 5 

divisions.     Sessions  cases  are  tried  by  the  Divisional  Judge,  Bassein 
Division. 

Criminal  work  is  heavy.  Cattle-thefts  are  frequent,  as  also  are 
robberies.  Deterrent  sentences  have  somewhat  reduced  the  criminal 
use  of  the  knife,  but  it  is  still  unfortunately  common.  They  have  also 
had  the  effect  of  causing  bullies  to  substitute  for  knives  clubs,  which 
in  practice  are  nearly  as  dangerous.  Gambling,  with  its  lamentable 
predisposition  to  crime,  is  very  prevalent  in  all  parts  of  the  District ; 
and  drunkenness  cannot  be  called  rare,  although  strenuous  endeavours 
have  been  made  in  the  past  to  reduce  the  facilities  for  drinking. 

During  the  first  two  years  (1852-3)  of  the  British  occupation,  the 
Burmese  tax  on  cattle  was  continued  by  the  new  rulers,  and  an  impost 
of  Rs.  10  was  levied  on  every  pair  of  buffaloes  or  bullocks  used  for 
ploughing ;  but  no  land  tax  was  then  demanded  of  the  people.  In 
1854  surveyors  were  brought  down  from  Arakan,  the  different  circles 
were  measured  and  a  scale  of  revenue  rates  was  fixed,  though  it  is  not 
precisely  known  on  what  principles  they  were  calculated.  These  rates 
were  systematically  and  methodically  revised  in  1861,  crop-cuttings 
being  made  and  local  prices  considered.  A  summary  enhancement  of 
25  per  cent,  was  made  in  1879  ;  but  during  this  and  the  following  years 
a  detailed  cadastral  survey  was  undertaken,  and  regular  settlement 
operations  at  once  followed  (1879-83)  over  the  whole  District,  except 
the  Ngaputaw  township,  the  maximum  rate  per  acre  sanctioned  being 
Rs.  3-4-0,  and  the  minimum  12  annas.  Portions  of  the  Ngathaing- 
gyaung  and  Kyonpyaw  townships  were  dealt  with  in  1883-4  and  1884-5, 
and  the  Ngaputaw  township  was  regularly  settled  during  the  season 
1901-2.  The  settlement  of  1879-83  was  revised  between  the  years 
1897-9,  the  result  being  an  enhancement  in  the  Bassein  subdivision  of 
20  per  cent,  and  in  the  Ngathainggyaung  subdivision  of  48  per  cent. 
The  maximum  rate  on  rice  land  now  in  force  is  Rs.  4  and  the  minimum 
12  annas,  the  average  being  Rs.  2-4-0.  The  maximum  on  mixed 
gardens  is  Rs.  3  per  acre  and  the  minimum  Rs.  2-8-0,  the  average 
being  Rs.  2-12-0.  Betel-vines  are  taxed  at  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  10  per  acre, 
dani  palms  at  Rs.  4  to  Rs.  5,  and  miscellaneous  cultivation  at  rates 
varying  from  Rs.  1-8-0  to  Rs.  2-8-0. 

The  tax  on  salt  is  Rs.  2-3-6  per  100  viss  (365  lb.)  turned  out.  The 
system  of  raising  the  salt  revenue  by  a  tax  on  output  was  introduced  in 
1902  as  an  experiment,  the  arrangement  previously  in  force  having 
been  to  tax  the  cauldrons  employed  in  boiling.  After  a  brief  strike  the 
salt-makers  acquiesced  in  this  method  of  assessment.  For  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  tax  a  staff  of  two  inspectors  and  two  assistant  inspectors  is 
employed. 

The  land  revenue  was  12-8  lakhs  in  1900-1  and  i3'8  lakhs  in  1903-4, 
Comparative  figures  cannot  be  given  for  earlier  years,  owing  to  the 


n6  flASSEfN  DISTRICT 

modifications  that  have  taken  place  during  the  interval  in  the  District 
boundaries,  but  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  land  revenue  raised 
from  an  area  larger  than  the  present  District  was  ^'^  lakhs  in  1886, 
The  total  revenue  from  all  sources  was  35-9  lakhs  in  1 900-1  and  29-3 
lakhs  in  1903-4. 

The  District  cess  fund,  administered  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner 
for  the  provision  of  roads,  (S:c.,  is  maintained  by  a  10  per  cent,  levy  on 
the  land  revenue.  Its  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,65,000,  and  the 
chief  item  of  expenditure  was  Rs.  52,000  on  public  works.  Bassein 
and  Ngathainggyaung  with  Daunggyi  are  the  only  municipalities. 

South  of  Cape  Negrais,  in  15°  42'  N.  and  94°  17'  E.,  is  the  Alguada 
reef,  on  which  a  lighthouse  was  built  in  1865.  The  structure  is  of 
granite,  stands  144  feet  high,  and  till  1902  exhibited  a  first-class 
catadioptric  light  visible  at  20  miles.  In  1902  a  new  light  of  97,000 
candle-power,  visible  18  miles,  was  substituted  for  the  old  one. 

The  police  are  under  a  Superintendent,  assisted  by  three  Assistant 
Superintendents,  in  charge  of  the  Ngathainggyaung  and  Bassein  sub- 
divisions and  the  town  of  Bassein  respectively.  The  force  consists  of 
3  inspectors,  2  chief  head  constables,  9  head  constables,  and  369 
sergeants  and  constables,  distributed  in  20  police  stations  and  outposts. 
The  military  police,  who  belong  to  the  Toungoo  battalion,  number  199, 
and  are  posted  as  follows  :  90  at  Bassein,  34  at  Ngathainggyaung,  and 
the  remainder  at  outlying  township  head-quarters. 

The  Central  jail  at  Bassein  has  accommodation  for  1,271  prisoners, 
and  had  an  average  daily  population  in  1903  of  730.  The  principal 
industry  is  mat-making,  and  the  mats  are  taken  as  fast  as  they  can  be 
turned  out  for  the  shipping  which  visits  Bassein.  Furniture  is  also 
manufactured  and  is  sold  locally. 

The  percentage  of  literate  persons  in  1901  was  41  in  the  case  of 
males  and  7-5  in  the  case  of  females,  or  25  for  both  sexes  together. 
The  number  of  pupils  at  school  has  increased  from  8,630  in  1 880-1  to 
11,019  in  1890-1,  and  to  11,531  in  1903-4.  In  the  last  year  the 
District  contained  19  secondary,  218  primary,  6  special,  and  230 
elementary  (private)  schools,  with  8,908  male  and  2,623  feniale  pupils. 
The  principal  educational  institution  is  the  Bassein  municipal  high 
school,  in  which  instruction  is  given  up  to  the  ninth  standard.  The 
expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  68,600,  of  which 
municipalities  contributed  Rs.  16,700,  the  cess  fund  Rs.  14,500,  and 
the  Government  Rs.  10,400,  while  Rs.  16,300  was  collected  in  fees 
and  Rs.  10,700  in  subscriptions. 

There  are  two  hospitals,  with  accommodation  for  75  in-patients.  In 
1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  24,853,  including  1,389  in- 
patients, and  1,135  operations  were  performed.  The  income  amounted 
to  Rs.  20,300,  the  two  municipalities  contributing  Rs.  14,500,  private 


i 


BASSEIN  TOWN  117- 

subscriptions  Rs.  3,300,  and  Local  funds  Rs.  2,500.     A  disj^ensary  is 
about  to  be  built  at  Kyaunggon. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  towns  of  Bassein  and 
Ngathainggyaung,  but  progress  in  vaccination  during  recent  years  has 
been  fair.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated 
was   16,320,  representing  42  per  1,000  of  population. 

[J.  Mackenna,  Settlement  Reports  (1899-1900  and  1903)  ;  Major 
F.  D.  Maxwell,  Report  on  In /and  and  Sea  Fisheries  (1904) ;  B.  Samuel- 
son,  History  of  Embankments,  Hetizada  Division  (1899).] 

Bassein  Subdivision. — Southern  subdivision  of  Bassein  District, 
Lower  Burma,  consisting  of  the  townships  of  Bassein,  Thabauno,  and 
Ngaputaw. 

Bassein  Township. — Central  township  in  the  Bassein  subdivision 
of  Bassein  District,  Lower  Burma,  lying  between  16°  35'  and  16°  59'  N. 
and  94°  30'  and  95°  3'  E.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Bassein  river,  with  an 
area  of  563  square  miles,  which  includes  the  area  that  till  recently 
formed  the  township  of  Kangyidaung.  The  two  townships  together 
had  a  population  of  94,301  in  1891  and  104,647  in  1901,  half  the 
increase  being  due  to  non-agriculturists.  They  contained  one  town, 
Bassein  (population,  31,864),  the  head-quarters;  and  518  villages. 
In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  244  square  miles,  paying 
a  land  revenue  of  Rs.  3,67,000. 

Bassein  Town  {Fathein). — Head-quarters  of  the  Irrawaddy  Division 
and  of  Bassein  District,  Lower  Burma,  situated  in  16°  46'  N.  and 
94°  46'  E.,  on  both  banks  of  the  Bassein  river,  75  miles  from  the  sea 
and  192  by  rail  from  Rangoon.  The  population,  including  that  of 
Bassein  port,  has  increased  steadily  from  20,688  in  1872  to  28,147 
in  1881,  30,177  in  1891,  and  31,864  in  1901.  It  comprises  Burmans, 
Karens,  natives  of  India,  and  Chinamen,  the  first  forming  about 
two-thirds  of  the  whole.  The  main  portion  of  the  town,  consisting  of 
the  Athegyi,  Talainggyaung,  and  Myothit  quarters,  which  comprise  the 
civil  station  and  the  bazar,  lies  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  the  river, 
while  the  Thinbawgyin  quarter  on  the  western  bank  contains  the 
principal  mills.  No  trustworthy  records  of  the  early  history  of  the  town 
exist.  One  tradition  puts  its  foundation  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but 
old  Talaing  histories  mention  the  thirty-two  cities  of  Bassein  (Pathein) 
much  earlier.  It  is  believed  by  some  that  the  name  is  Talaing  in  origin  ; 
but  the  theory  that  Pathein  has  some  connexion  with  Fathi,  the 
Burmese  name  for  a  Musalman,  is  not  unreasonable,  and  it  is  indisput- 
able that  the  town  has  long  been  inhabited  by  natives  of  India.  Bassein 
has  for  centuries  been  a  trading  centre  of  some  importance ;  and  even 
if  it  be  not  identical  with  the  ancient  port  of  Cosmin,  referred  to 
by  Cesare  de'  Federici  and  Caspar  Balbi,  it  is  possible  that  Cosmin  was 
within  the  limits  of  the  existing  District.     The  seizure  of  the  town 


ii8  BASSE/.Y   TOWN 

by  the  Burmese  tro()i)s  in  1755  was  one  of  the  first  incidents  in  the 
great  Alaungpaya's  earliest  cami)aign  against  the  Peguans  in  the  south. 
The  British  were  at  that  time  established  as  traders  in  Bassein,  and 
'"  1757  tbe  East  India  Company  obtained  a  piece  of  land  in  the  town 
by  treaty  with  the  victorious  monarch  of  Ava,  and  secured  free  trading 
rights  within  the  port.  Two  years  later  all  the  Europeans  were 
massacred.  The  town  was  captured  in  1824  during  the  first  Burmese 
War  and  held  till  the  Treaty  of  Yandabo,  to  be  finally  occupied  in  the 
second  Burmese  War  in  1852. 

The  town  has  an  area  of  nearly  12  square  miles,  the  greater  part 
of  which  is  wooded.  The  principal  streets  run  parallel  to  the  river,  with 
short  connecting  roads.  The  most  important  is  the  Strand  road, 
following  the  stream,  from  which  the  other  main  thoroughfares  branch 
off.  The  total  length  of  roads  within  municipal  limits  is  37^  miles. 
The  Government  ofifices  and  treasury  are  on  the  site  of  the  old  Zechaung 
fort,  built  after  the  province  of  Pegu  was  annexed.  Around  the  fort  lies 
the  civil  station.  To  the  east  is  the  Myothit  quarter,  through  which  run 
two  main  streets  to  a  pagoda-covered  plain,  where  all  the  local  festivals 
are  held.  Close  by  the  fort  lie  the  other  principal  public  buildings, 
post  and  telegraph  offices,  the  Queen  Victoria  Memorial  Library,  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  churches,  and  the  extensive  premises  of 
the  American  Baptist  Mission.  There  are  pubHc  gardens  and  a  Jubilee 
Memorial  Park.  The  town  contains  a  number  of  pagodas,  among  the 
most  sacred  being  the  Shwemoktaw  within  the  limits  of  the  Zechaung 
fort,  the  Tagaung,  the  Payagyigon,  the  Mahabawdi,  the  Shwezigon,  and 
the  Wetlu. 

Bassein  is  well  served  by  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company,  the 
steamers  of  which  run  eastwards  to  Rangoon  and  Myaungmya,  and 
northwards  to  Kyonpyaw  and  Ngathainggyaung,  and,  during  the  rains, 
to  Henzada.  The  new  railway  gives  connexion  twice  a  day  with 
Henzada  (82  miles),  and  once  a  day  with  Letpadan  and  Rangoon 
(192  miles).  The  principal  industry  is  rice-milling  ;  eight  important 
mills  and  some  smaller  concerns  turn  out  what  is  known  as  '  cargo  rice ' 
(one-fifth  husk).  The  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  timber-sawing 
are  also  important  local  industries. 

Bassein  is  almost  exclusively  an  exporting  market.  In  1903-4, 
152,000  tons  of  'cargo  rice,'  valued  at  104  lakhs,  left  the  port,  consigned 
entirely  to  Europe.  Imports  from  foreign  countries  are  insignificant ; 
those  from  Indian  ports  were  valued  in  1903-4  at  Rs.  89,000,  comprising 
gunnies,  betel-nuts,  and  other  Indian  commodities.  A  steady  river-borne 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Rangoon,  and  commerce  with  the  rest  of  Burma 
is^likely  to  be  stimulated  by  the  new  railway. 

Bassein  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Judge  of  the  Bassein  Division. 
The  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in    1874.      The  municipal 


BASSE  IN  TALUK  A  119 

income  during  tlic  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  1-2  lakhs,  and 
the  expenditure  i-i  lakhs.  The  figures  for  1903-4  were  1-5  lakhs 
and  1-6  lakhs  respectively.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  in  the 
latter  year  were  house  tax  (Rs.  28,000),  lighting  rate  (Rs.  10,000), 
conservancy  (Rs.  11,500),  and  bazars  (Rs.  56,000);  while  the  chief 
objects  of  expenditure  were  lighting  (Rs.  12,000),  conservancy 
(Rs.  25,000),  hospitals  (Rs.  20,000),  schools  (Rs.  7,500),  and  roads 
(Rs.  31,000). 

The  port  is  administered  through  a  Port  fund,  which  derives  its 
income  from  shipping  dues,  &c.,  and  bears  the  cost  of  lighting  and 
buoying  the  channels.  The  Port  fund  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  37,000. 
There  is  a  municipal  high  school,  teaching  up  to  the  ninth  standard,  in 
addition  to  missionary  schools,  and  a  Convent  school  for  girls.  The 
civil  hospital  has  63  beds. 

Bassein  River  [Ngawun). — A  river  of  Burma,  being  the  most 
westerly  of  the  waterways  through  which  the  waters  of  the  Irrawaddy 
find  their  way  to  the  sea.  It  leaves  the  main  channel  a  few  miles  above 
the  town  of  Henzada,  and  flows  in  a  south-wes*^erly  direction,  past  the 
towns  of  Lemyethna  and  Ngathainggyaung-Daunggyi,  through  the  flat 
delta  country,  to  Bassein,  and  thence,  after  a  total  course  of  200  miles, 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  immediately  north  of  the  Alguada  Reef  light- 
house, at  about  the  i6th  parallel  of  latitude.  Bassein,  famous  in 
the  past  as  a  commercial  emporium,  and  still  important  as  a  rice-shipping 
centre,  lies  on  its  left  or  eastern  bank,  at  a  point  about  75  miles  from 
where  it  flows  into  the  sea".  Ocean  steamers  can  proceed  up  as  far 
as  Bassein,  and  the  river  is  navigable  by  light-draught  launches  through- 
out its  entire  length  during  the  rainy  season. 

Bassein  Taluka. — Western  tdluka  of  Thana  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  19°  16'  and  19°  35'  N.  and  72°  44'  and  73°  \'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  223  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Bassein  (population, 
10,702),  the  head-quarters,  and  90  villages,  including  Ag.\shi  (8,506). 
The  population  in  1901  was  80,251,  compared  with  76,110  in  1891. 
The  density,  360  persons  per  square  mile,  largely  exceeds  the  District 
average.  Land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  in  1903-4  to  i-8  lakhs. 
The  tali(ka  is  formed  of  a  portion  of  the  mainland  and  of  territory  which 
was  once  the  island  of  Bassein,  but  is  now  no  longer  an  island, 
the  narrow  creek  which  divided  it  from  the  mainland  having  silted  up. 
With  the  exception  of  two  small  hills,  about  200  feet  high,  the  surface 
of  the  island  portion  is  flat,  with  a  rich  soil,  yielding  crops  of  rice, 
plantain,  sugar-cane,  and  pan.  On  the  mainland  portion  are  the 
Tungar  and  Kaman  hills,  both  over  2,000  feet  in  height,  the  last  named, 
known  as  Bassein  Peak  or  Kamandrug,  being  2,160  feet  above  sea-level. 
On  the  coast  the  climate  is  generally  pleasant  and  equable ;  inland  the 
heat  is  great,  and  in  the  rains  much  fever  prevails. 


120  BASSEIN   yVII'JV 

Bassein  Town  {ras(7/,  that  is,  'The  Settlement'). — Head-quarters 
of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name  in  Thana  District,  Bombay,  situated  in 
19°  20'  N.  and  72°  49'  E.,  about  5  miles  from  the  Bassein  Road  station 
of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway,  and  28  miles  north 
of  Bombay.  Population  (1901),  10,702.  The  town  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1864,  the  income  in  1903-4  being  Rs.  17,000.  In 
that  year  the  total  value  of  the  seaborne  trade  of  Bassein  was  13  lakhs, 
of  which  5  lakhs  represented  imports  and  8  lakhs  exports.  The  town 
contains  a  dispensary,  a  Sub-Judge's  court,  an  English  middle  school 
with  53  pupils,  8  vernacular  schools  for  boys  with  395  pupils,  and 
one  for  girls  with  71  pupils. 

Bassein  early  attracted  the  notice  of  the   Portuguese,  as  the  river 
or  strait  separating  the  island  from  the  mainland  was  a  convenient 
rendezvous  for  shipping.     In  1534  Bassein  with  the  land  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood was  ceded  to  them  by  Bahadur  Shah,  king  of  Gujarat,  and 
two  years  later  the  fort  was  built.     For  more  than  two  centuries  Bassein 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese,  and  during  this  time  it  rose 
to  such  prosperity  that  it  came  to  be  called  the  Court  of  the  North,  and 
its  nobles  were  proverbial  for  their  wealth  and   magnificence.     With 
plentiful  supplies  of  both  timber  and  stone,  Bassein  was  adorned  with 
many  noble  buildings,  including  a  cathedral,  five  convents,  thirteen 
churches,  and  an  asylum  for  orphans.     The  dwellings  of  the  Hidalgos, 
or  aristocracy,  who  alone  were  allowed  to  live  within  the  city  walls,  are 
described  (1675)  as  stately   buildings,  two  storeys  high,  graced  with 
covered  balconies  and  large  windows.     Towards  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  Bassein  suffered  severely  from  outbreaks  of  the  plague, 
so  deadly  that  in  1695  one-third  of  the  population  was  swept  away. 
Notwithstanding  the  decay  of  Portuguese  power  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  Bassein,  as  late  as  1720,  would  seem  to  have  retained  much 
of  its  prosperity.     In  that  year  the  population  was  returned  at  60,499, 
and  the  revenue  a  few  years  later  (1729)  at   as  much  as   4^  lakhs 
(Xer.  914,125).     But  the  wealth   of  one  city  was  unable  to  stay  the 
advance  of  the  Maratha  power.    In  1739  Chimnaji  Appa,  a  distinguished 
Maratha  general,   at  the   head  of  a  powerful  army,  appeared  before 
Bassein.     After  a  siege  of  three  months,  conducted  on  both  sides  with 
the  greatest  skill  and  courage,  the  garrison  was  forced  to  capitulate,  and 
the  town  and  district  of  Bassein  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Peshwa. 
Under  the  Marathas,  Bassein  became  the  chief  place  in  their  territories 
between  the  Bankot  river  and  Daman  ;  but  they  did  not  long  keep 
possession  of  the  city.     In  1780,  after  a  siege  of  twelve  days,  Bassein 
was  captured  by  a  British  army  under  the  command  of  General  Goddard. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Salbai  (1782)  it  was  restored  to  the  Marathas ;  and  in 
181 8,  on  the  overthrow  of  the  last  of  the  Peshwas,  it  was  resumed  by 
the  English  and  incorporated  with  Thana  District.    Here  was  concluded, 


BASTAR  12  1 

in  1802,  the  treaty  by  which  the  Peshwa  agreed  to  maintain  a  British 
subsidiary  force,  thus  virtually  dissolving  the  Maratha  confederacy. 

Of  Old  Bassein,  the  walls  and  ramparts  remain  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation.     Within  the  enclosure,  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral,  of  the 
Dominican   convent,    of    the    Jesuit    Church    of    St.    Paul,    and    of 
St.  Anthony's  Church,  built  as  early  as  1537,  can  still  be  identified. 
[Dr.  Da  Cunha,  Antiquities  of  Bassein  (Bombay,  1876).] 
Bastar. — Feudatory  State  in  the  Central  Provinces,  lying  between 
17°  46'  and  20°  14'  N.  and  80°  15'  and  82°  15'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
13,062  square  miles.     It  is  situated  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the 
Province,  and  is  bounded  north  by  the  Kanker  State,  south  by  the 
Godavari   District   of   Madras,  west   by   Chanda    District,   Hyderabad 
State,   and    the  Godavari    river,   and    east    by    the   Jeypore   estate   in 
Vizagapatam.    The  chief  town  is  Jagdalpur  (population,  4,762),  situated 
on    the    Indravati   river,    136   miles    south  of  Dhamtarl.      The   town 
is  well  laid  out,  with  many  handsome  buildings  and  two  fine  tanks. 
The  central  and  north-western  portions  of  the  State  are  very  moun- 
tainous.    To  the  east,  for  two-thirds  of  the  tot?l  length  from  north  to 
south,  extends  a  plateau  with  an  elevation  of  about  2,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  broken  by  small  isolated  ranges.     The  old  and  new  capitals, 
Bastar  and  Jagdalpur,  are  situated  towards  the  south  of  the  plateau. 
The  Indravati  river,  rising  in  the  Kalahandi  State,  enters  Bastar  on  the 
plateau  near  Jagdalpur,  and  flows  across  the  centre  of  the  State  from 
east  to  west,  dividing  it  into  two  portions.     On  reaching  the  border 
it  turns  to  the  south,  and  forms  the  boundary  of  Bastar  until  it  joins  the 
Godavari  below  Sironcha.     At  Chitrakot,  where  the  Indravati  leaves 
the  Jagdalpur  plateau,  is  a  fine  waterfall,  94  feet  high,  while  the  course 
of  the  river  through  the  western  hills  exhibits  some  extremely  picturesque 
scenery.     The  rivers  next  in  importance  are  the  Sabari,  which  divides 
Bastar  from  Jeypore  on  the  east,  and  the  Tel,  which  rises  in  the  State 
and  flows  south-west  to  the  Godavari.     The  north-western  portion  of 
the  State  is  covered  by  a  mass  of  rugged  hills  known  locally  as  the 
Abujmar,   or  country  of  the   Maria  Gonds.     South   of  the  Indravati 
the   Bailadila  ('  bullock's  hump ')  range    runs   through   the  centre  of 
Bastar  from  north  to  south,  its  highest  peaks  being  over  4,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  while  smaller  ranges  extend  in  an  easterly  direction  to 
the  south  of  the  plateau.     The  south-western  tracts  are  low-lying,  but 
are  broken  by  ranges  of  sandstone  hills,  all  of  which  run  from  north-west 
to  south-east,  each  range  ending  in  a  steep  declivity,  a  few  miles  south 
of  which  another  parallel  chain  commences.     Great  boulders  of  vitrified 
sandstone  strew  the  surface  of  these  hills  and  gleam  pink  in  the  sun. 
The  rock  formation  belongs  partly  to  the  gneissic  and  transition  series, 
but  is  mainly  the  Lower  Vindhyan,  consisting  of  sandstones,  shales,  and 
limestones.      The    forests    in    the    south-west    contain    a   considerable 


122  B.lS7\iR 

quantity  of  teak,  with  which  is  mixed  bijdsdl  {Plerocarpus  Marsupiuvi). 
Towards  the  north-east  the  teak  rapidly  disappears,  and  is  replaced  by 
sal  {S/wrea  robustd)^  which  then  becomes  the  principal  timber  tree, 
though  much  of  the  forest  is  of  the  nature  of  scrub.  Frequently  the 
undergrowth  is  replaced  by  patches  of  dense  high  grass,  with  scattered 
trees  of  Diospyros  or  ebony.  The  Caryota  urens  and  the  palmyra  palm 
are  found,  the  latter  in  the  south  and  the  former  in  the  west  and  north. 
Cane  brakes  also  occur  by  the  hill  streams.  Bamboos,  of  which  three 
species  occur,  are  restricted  entirely  to  the  hills.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  exceeds  50  inches,  and  the  climate  on  the  plateau  is  pleasantly 
cool,  102°  being  the  highest  recorded. 

The  family  of  the  Raja  is  a  very  ancient  one.  It  is  stated  to  belong 
to  the  Rajputs  of  the  I^unar  race,  and  to  have  come  originally  from 
Warangal  about  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  driven 
thence  by  the  encroachments  of  the  Muhammadan  power.  The  tra- 
ditional founder  of  the  family,  Annam  Deo,  is  said  to  have  established 
himself  in  Bastar  under  the  protection  of  the  goddess  DanteshwarT,  still 
the  tutelary  deity  of  the  family  and  the  State,  who  presented  him  with 
a  sword  which  is  held  in  veneration  to  the  present  day.  The  temple 
of  the  goddess  at  Dantewara,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sankani  and 
Dankani  rivers,  was  formerly  the  scene  of  an  annual  human  sacrifice 
similar  to  that  of  the  Khonds ;  and  for  many  years  after  1842  a  guard 
was  placed  over  the  temple,  and  the  Raja  held  personally  responsible 
for  its  discontinuance.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Marathas  Bastar  occupied 
an  almost  independent  position,  but  a  tribute  was  imposed  on  it  by 
the  Nagpur  government  in  the  eighteenth  century.  At  this  period  the 
constant  feuds  between  Bastar  and  the  neighbouring  State  of  Jeypore 
in  Madras  kept  the  country  for  many  years  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  The 
chief  object  of  contention  was  the  Kotapad  tract,  which  had  originally 
belonged  to  Bastar,  but  had  been  ceded  in  return  for  assistance  given 
by  Jeypore  to  one  of  the  Bastar  chiefs  during  some  family  dissensions. 
The  Central  Provinces  Administration  finally  made  this  over  to 
Jeypore  in  1863,  on  condition  of  payment  of  tribute  of  Rs.  3,000,  two- 
thirds  of  which  sum  was  remitted  from  the  amount  payable  by  Bastar. 
By  virtue  of  this  arrangement  the  tribute  of  Bastar  was,  until  recently, 
reduced  to  a  nominal  amount.  The  late  Raja,  Bhairon  Deo,  died 
in  1 89 1  at  the  age  of  52.  In  consequence  of  the  continued  mis- 
government  under  which  the  State  had  suffered  for  some  years,  an 
officer  selected  by  the  Local  Administration  had  been  appointed  as 
Dlwan  in  1886.  The  late  Raja's  infant  son,  Rudra  Pratap  Deo,  was 
recognized  as  his  successor,  and  during  his  minority  the  State  is  being 
managed  by  Government.  For  six  years  two  European  officers  held 
the  office  of  Administrator,  but  this  post  was  abolished  in  1904  and 
a  native  officer  was  appointed  as  Superintendent.     The  young  chief, 


BASTAR  123 

who  was  twenty  years  old  in  1905,  has  been  educated  at  the  Rajkuniar 
College,  Raipur. 

The  population  in  1901  was  306,501  persons,  having  decreased  by 
I  per  cent,  during  the  previous  decade.  The  State  contains  2,525 
inhabited  villages,  and  the  density  of  population  is  only  23  persons  per 
square  mile.  About  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are  Gonds,  and  there 
are  also  a  number  of  Halbas.  The  Gonds  of  Bastar  are  perhaps  the^ 
wildest  tribe  in  the  Province.  In  some  localities  they  still  wear  no  clothing 
beyond  a  string  of  beads  round  the  waist,  while  the  approach  of  a  stranger 
is  frequently  a  signal  for  the  whole  village  to  take  to  the  jungle.  The 
language  principally  spoken  is  Halbl,  a  mixed  dialect  of  Hindi,  Oriya,  and 
Marathl.  Bhatrl,  a  dialect  of  Oriya,  is  the  speech  of  about  6  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  while  the  Maria  Gonds  have  a  language  peculiar  to 
themselves.  More  than  7  per  cent,  of  the  population  speak  Telugu. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  a  station  at  Jagdalpur. 

The  soil  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Bastar  consists  of  a  light  clay 
with  an  admixture  of  sand,  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  rice,  but 
requiring  a  good  supply  of  water.  There  has  been  no  cadastral  survey 
except  in  647  villages  of  the  open  country  on  the  plateau,  of  which  486 
have  been  regularly  settled.  No  statistics  of  cultivation  for  the  State  as 
a  whole  are  therefore  available.  The  cultivation  is,  however,  extremely 
sparse,  as  even  in  the  regularly  settled  tract,  which  is  the  most  advanced 
and  populous  portion  of  the  State,  only  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
available  has  been  brought  under  the  plough.  Rice  is  by  fL^r  the  most 
important  crop,  but  various  small  millets,  pulses,  and  gram  are  also 
grown.  There  are  a  few  irrigation  tanks  in  the  open  country.  About 
9,800  square  miles,  or  three-fourths  of  the  whole  area  of  the  State,  are 
forest  or  grass  land,  but  only  about  5,000  square  miles  contain  regular 
forest.  The  remainder  either  has  been  wholly  denuded  of  forest  growth 
by  the  system  of  shifting  cultivation,  or  is  covered  only  by  valueless  low 
scrub.  The  moist  or  sal  forests  occur  in  the  tract  south  of  the  Indravati 
and  east  of  the  Bailadila  range,  principally  occupying  the  valleys  and 
lower  hills  and  the  eastern  plateau.  The  dry  forests,  in  which  the 
principal  tree  is  teak,  are  distributed  over  the  south,  west,  and  north- 
west of  the  State,  and  also  cover  the  higher  slopes  of  the  hills  in  the 
moist  forest  belt.  The  commercial  value  of  the  forests  is  determined 
at  present  rather  by  their  proximity  to  a  market  and  the  comparative 
facilities  of  transport  than  by  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  timber.  The 
principal  products  are  teak  and  other  timbers,  myrabolams,  lac, 
wax,  honey,  hides  and  horns,  tanning  and  dyeing  barks,  tasar  silk 
cocoons,  and  other  minor  articles.  Rich  and  extensive  deposits  of  iron 
ore  occur,  especially  in  association  with  the  transition  rocks.  Mica  has 
been  found  in  several  places,  the  largest  plates  discovered  near  Jungani 
from  surface  deposits  measuring  about  5  inches  across,  but  being  cloudy 


124  BAS7\IA' 

and  cracked.  Gold  in  insignificant  quantities  is  obtained  by  washing 
in  the  Indravati  and  other  streams  in  the  west.  The  State  contains 
121  miles  of  gravelled  and  191  miles  of  embanked  roads;  the  principal 
routes  are  those  leading  from  Jagdalpur  to  DhamtarT,  to  Jeypore,  and 
to  Chanda.     The  bulk  of  the  trade  goes  to  Dhamtari  station. 

The  State  is  in  charge  of  a  Political  Agent  for  the  Feudatory  States, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Commissioner,  (^hhattlsgarh  Division. 
For  administrative  purposes  Bastar  is  divided  into  five  tahsiis,  each  in 
charge  of  a  tahs'ildar.  The  Superintendent  of  the  State  is  at  present  an 
Extra-Assistant  Commissioner  and  has  two  Assistants  with  magisterial 
powers.  The  State  also  employs  European  Forest  and  Medical  officers. 
There  are  seven  subordinate  zamhiddri  estates  covering  4,189  square 
miles,  situated  mainly  to  the  south  of  the  Indravati.  The  total  revenue 
in  1904  was  2-76  lakhs,  the  main  items  being  land  (Rs.  1,15,000),  in- 
cluding cesses,  arrears,  and  miscellaneous  receipts,  forests  (Rs.  65,000), 
and  excise  (Rs.  70,000).  A  revised  assessment  of  land  revenue  has 
recently  been  sanctioned.  The  net  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1904 
was  only  Rs.  83,000,  a  considerable  proportion  being  '  assigned.'  A 
cadastral  survey  has  been  effected  in  647  villages  of  the  Jagdalpur 
tahsll,  and  in  most  of  these  a  regular  settlement  based  on  soil  classifica- 
tion has  been  carried  out.  The  remaining  area  is  summarily  settled, 
the  rates  being  fixed  on  the  seed  required  for  each  holding,  or  on  the 
number  of  ploughs  in  the  possession  of  the  cultivators.  The  incidence 
of  the  land  revenue  per  cultivated  acre  in  the  regularly  settled  tract 
is  5  annas  i  pie.  The  total  expenditure  in  1904  was  2-52  lakhs,  the 
principal  heads  being  Government  tribute  (Rs.  15,600),  allowances  to 
the  ruling  family  (Rs.  24,000),  administration  (Rs.  32,000),  forests 
(Rs.  15,000),  excise  (Rs.  15,000),  land  revenue  settlement  (Rs.  7,700), 
and  public  works  (Rs.  37,000).  The  tribute  is  liable  to  revision.  Since 
1893  the  State  has  expended  5-68  lakhs  on  public  works,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Engineer  of  the  Chhattlsgarh  States  division.  The 
works  carried  out  include,  besides  the  roads  already  mentioned, 
residences  for  the  chief  and  the  Administrator  and  for  the  zatnindCxr 
of  Bhopalpatnam,  office  buildings  at  Jagdalpur  and  the  head-quarters 
of  td/isils,  and  a  school,  dispensary,  and  sarai  at  Jagdalpur.  The 
State  maintains  51  schools,  including  an  English  middle  school  at 
Jagdalpur,  4  vernacular  middle  schools,  and  a  girls'  school,  with  a  total 
of  about  3,000  pupils.  The  expenditure  on  education  in  1904  was 
Rs.  iijooo.  Only  1,997  persons  were  returned  as  able  to  read  and 
write  in  1901,  the  proportion  of  literate  males  being  1-2  per  cent. 
Dispensaries  have  been  established  at  Jagdalpur,  Antagarh,  Kondegaon, 
Bhopalpatnam,  Konda,  and  Bijapur,  at  which  59,000  persons  were 
treated  in  1904,  and  Rs.  12,000  was  expended  on  medical  relief. 

Basti  District.—  North-western  District  of  the  Gorakhpur  Division, 


BASTI  DISTRICT  125 

United  Provinces,  lying  north  of  the  Gogra  river,  between  26°  25'  and 
27°  30'  N.  and  between  82°  13'  and  83°  14'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,792 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Nepal  territory  ;  on  the 
east  by  Gorakhpur  District ;  on  the  south  by  the  Gogra,  which  divides 
it  from  Fyzabad  ;  and  on  the  west  by  Gonda.  Basti  lies  entirely  in 
the  submontane  plain,  with  no  natural  elevations  to 
diversify  its  surface.     It  is  traversed  by  a  consider-  asDects 

able  number  of  small  streams,  and  the  north-west 
corner  resembles  the  rice  swamps  of  the  Nepal  ianii.  The  whole  of 
the  drainage  ultimately  reaches  the  Gogra,  but  not  within  Bast!  District. 
The  northern  portion,  extending  14  to  20  miles  from  the  Nepal  frontier 
to  the  Rapti,  has  a  much  greater  rainfall  than  the  rest.  Many  small 
streams  rushing  down  from  the  lower  hills  or  rising  in  the  Nepal  tami 
water  this  tract,  chief  among  them  being  the  Burhi  or  'old'  RaptI,  the 
Banganga,  and  the  Jamwar.  South  of  the  RaptI  the  central  plateau  of 
the  District  extends  almost  to  the  Gogra,  and  is  drained  chiefly  by  the 
Kuwana,  which  has  a  course  parallel  to  the  RaptI  and  Gogra.  The 
Katnehia,  Rawai,  and  Manwar  are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the 
Kuwana.  Another  small  river,  the  Ami,  crosses  the  upland  between 
the  RaptI  and  Kuwana.  There  are  many  natural  lakes  or  depressions, 
often  formed  in  the  old  beds  of  rivers,  the  largest  being  the  Bakhira, 
Chandu,  Pathra,  Chaur,  and  Jasoia  Tals. 

As  is  usual  in  the  submontane  tracts,  kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is 
scarce.  No  other  rock  of  any  kind  is  found  in  the  alluvium  of  which 
the  District  is  composed. 

The  flora  resembles  that  of  the  submontane  tracts.  Forests  formerly 
existed,  but  have  been  cut  down.  The  District  is,  however,  well  pro- 
vided with  clumps  of  mango,  bamboo,  and  mahiid  {Bass/a  laiifolia). 

Wild  hog,  ni/gai,  wolves,  and  jackals  are  common.  Spotted  deer 
are  occasionally  seen.  During  the  cold  season  wild-fowl  and  snipe 
abound  in  the  numerous  lakes  and  swamps.  Fish  are  plentiful,  and 
are  much  used  for  food.     Snakes  and  crocodiles  are  also  common. 

The  climate  of  Basti  is  distinctly  milder  than  that  of  the  more  western 
Districts,  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  less  marked.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  specially  unhealthy,  except  at  the  close  of  the  rains. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  49  inches,  ranging  from  46  in  the 
south-west  to  52  towards  the  north.  Near  the  Nepal  frontier  the  fall 
is  still  heavier.  Large  variations  occur  from  year  to  year.  In  1877  only 
24  inches  were  received,  compared  with  76  in  1894. 

Materials  for  the  history  of  the  tract  included  in  Basti  District  are 
unusually  scarce.  It  possibly  formed  part  of  the  great  kingdom  of 
KosALA.     For    some  years    Kapilavastu,   the   birth-  History 

place   of  Gautama  Buddha,    was    believed   to   have 
been  situated  at  Bhuila,  15  miles   northwest  of  Basti  town;  but  this 


126 


BASTi  DISTRICT 


identification  has  been  abandoned  in  favoiu"  of  a  site  just  outside 
tlie  north-east  angle  of  the  District,  in  Nepal.  The  northern  part 
had  certainly  relapsed  into  jungle  by  the  fifth  century  a.  u.,  when 
it  was  visited  by  Fa  Hian,  though  the  ruins  of  earlier  buildings  were 
numerous.  The  traditions  of  the  Rajput  clans  who  now  hold  the 
l^istrict  point  to  the  conclusion  that  they  began  to  enter  it  late 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  displacing  the  Bhars  and  the  Domkatars  ; 
but  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  them.  A  number  of  petty 
Rajas  held  the  country  and  fought  with  each  other.  In  Akbar's  reign 
the  Muhammadans  penetrated  the  District  after  taking  Gorakhpur, 
and  maintained  a  garrison  at  Maghar;  and  BastI  was  included  in 
the  Subah  of  Oudh.  About  1610  the  Muslims  were  expelled  ;  but  they 
returned  in  force  in  1680,  and  opened  up  the  country.  Most  of  the  Dis- 
trict was  included  in  the  Gorakhpur  sarkdr,  and  its  later  history  is  that 
of  GoR.\KHPUR  District,  from  \vhich  it  was  only  separated  in  1865, 
though  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  Nawab  WazTr  of  Oudh  in  1801. 

Many  ancient  mounds  are  found  in  the  District,  but  few  have  been 
excavated.  Bhuila,  already  referred  to,  was  examined  by  General 
Cunningham  and  his  assistant '.  A  stupa  at  Piprahwa  in  the  north  of 
the  District  was  recently  excavated,  and  yielded  an  interesting  find  of 
relics  in  an  inscribed  casket  ^.  Gupta  coins  are  occasionally  found  in 
various  localities.  The  only  Muhammadan  building  of  interest  is  the 
shrine  of  Kabir  at  Maghar. 

BastI  contains  4  towns  and  6,903  villages.  Population  is  increasing 
steadily.  The  numbers  at  the  last  four  enumerations  were  as  follows  : 
(1872)  1,473,029,  (1881)  1,630,612,  (1891)  1,785,844,  and  (1901) 
1,846,153.  There  are  five  iahslls — Domariaganj, 
BansI,  Haraiva,  Basti,  and  KhalIlabad — the 
head-quarters  of  each  being  at  a  place  of  the  same  name.  BastI, 
the  District  head-quarters,  is  the  largest  town.  The  following  table 
gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Population. 


Tahsil. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

c 
.0 

I 

hi 

■^  u 

544 
648 
698 

733 
700 

661 

Percentage 
of  variation  in 
population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  IQOI. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

V 

be 
> 

Domariaganj     . 
Bans! 
Ilaraiya    . 
BastI 
Khalllabad        . 

District  total 

593 

621 

47S 
53^3 
5^'4 

I 
I 

I 
I 

4 

I, HI 

',343 
1,461 
1,600 
1,388 

322,321 
402,277 
333,801 
393,079 
394,675 

+    2.9 

-1- 10-9 

-   5-1 

+    4.0 

+    3-7 

9,470 
9,938 

9,395 

12,808 

10,393 

2,79-2 

6,903 

1,846,153 

+    3-4 

52,004 

*  Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  m)1.  xii,  p.  loS. 
"^  Jcurnal,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1S98,  p.  573. 


AGRICULTURE  127 

Hindus  form  nearly  84  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Muhammadans 
16  per  cent.  The  District  is  densely  populated,  and  supplies  a  con- 
siderable number  of  emigrants  to  the  West  Indies  and  to  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam.  During  the  last  decade  it  probably  gained  by 
immigration  from  the  more  distressed  Districts  south  of  the  Gogra. 
Almost  the  whole  population  speak  Bihari. 

The  most  numerous  Hindu  castes  are  :  Chamars  (leather-workers 
and  cultivators),  278,000;  Brahmans,  195,000;  Ahirs  (graziers  and 
cultivators),  185,000;  Kurmis  (agriculturists),  148,000  ;  Banias,  52,000; 
Rajputs,  50,000  ;  Kahars  (domestic  servants  and  cultivators),  48,000  ; 
and  Kewats  (cultivators),  40,000.  The  aboriginal  Bhars,  who  once 
held  the  land,  are  now  depressed  and  number  only  50,000.  Among 
Musalmans  may  be  mentioned  Shaikhs,  50,000  ;  Julahas  (weavers), 
43,000  ;  Pathans,  34,000  ;  and  Riijputs,  34,000.  Agriculture  supports 
66  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  general  labour  9  per 
cent.  Brahmans  and  Rajputs  or  Chhattris  hold  about  two-thirds  of 
the  land,  and  Brahmans  occupy  a  larger  area  than  any  other  caste. 
Rajputs,  Ahlrs,  KurmTs,  and  Chamars  are  also  large  cultivators,  while 
the  Koiris  are  noted  for  their  skill. 

There  were  only  53  native  Christians  in  1901,  of  whom  24  belonged 
to  the  Anglican  communion.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  has 
a  high  school  at  BastI,  and  there  is  also  a  Zanana  mission. 

The  clima,te  and  soil  are  suitable  for  the  growth  of  nearly  all  the 
more  valuable  products,  and  the  comparatively  heavy  rainfall  is 
especially  favourable  to  rice.  Wheat  and  poppy  do  »  •  u 
best  in  the  lighter  loams,  and  are  accordingly  grown 
between  the  Rapti  and  Gogra.  North  of  the  Rapti  late  rice  is  the 
principal  crop.  In  the  inferior  light  soils  barley  takes  the  place  of 
wheat,  and  kodon  of  rice.  There  is  a  tract  of  peculiar  calcareous  soil, 
known  as  bhCit,  along  both  banks  of  the  Rapti,  which  is  very  retentive 
of  moisture  and  produces  good  crops  without  irrigation.  In  the  bed 
of  the  Gogra  strips  of  alluvial  soil  are  liable  to  flooding  in  the  rains, 
but  are  cultivated  for  the  spring  harvest. 

About  one-third  of  the  District  is  included  in  zamindari  mahdis, 
and  two-thirds  in  patt'iddri,  the  area  of  hhaiydchdrd  mahah  being  very 
small.  A  great  many  under-proprietors  are  found,  called  birtias.  One 
class  of  biri  is  peculiar  to  the  District,  having  been  originally  granted 
to  a  military  colony  of  Rajputs  or  Chhattris  who  were  settled  on  the 
border  as  guardians  against  invasion.  The  main  agricultural  statistics 
for  1903-4  are  given  in  the  table  on  next  page,  in  square  miles. 

Rice  is  the  crop  most  largely  grown,  covering  1,000  square  miles,  or 
50  per  cent,  of  the  net  cultivated  area,  in  1903-4.  The  other  food-crops 
of  importance  are  wheat  (377  square  miles),  peas  and  masur  (325), 
gram    (237),    barley    (208),    and    arhar    (185).      The    most    valuable 


T28 


BASTI  DISTRICT 


crops  are,  however,  i)oppy,  grown  on  33  square  miles,  and  sugar-cane, 
Oilseeds  are  also  important,  covering  136  srjuare  miles. 


grown  on  68 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Domariiiganj     . 
Bfinsi 

Ilaraiya     . 
Basti 
Khalilahad 

Total 

593 
621 

478 
5.36 
564 

2,792 

4-!7 
463 

338 
387 
394 

142 
144 
211 

2  38 

234 

80 
64 

75 
70 

76 

2,009 

969 

365 

At  the  time  of  its  cession  to  the  British  in  1801,  the  District  was  in 
a  very  depressed  condition.  A  settled  government  soon  gave  an 
impetus  to  cultivation,  and  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  more 
valuable  crops,  sugar-cane  and  poppy.  During  the  thirty  years 
preceding  the  last  settlement  the  cultivated  area  increased  by  13  per 
cent.,  or,  including  the  jungle  grants  in  the  north  of  the  District,  by 
20  per  cent.  In  the  last  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  further  small 
increase  of  about  2  per  cent,  and  a  still  larger  rise  in  the  area  double 
cropped.  There  has  been  no  appreciable  change  in  the  staples  grown. 
Advances  are  taken  freely  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act,  and 
amounted  to  a  total  of  1-2  lakhs  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901, 
of  which  Rs.  51,000  was  lent  in  the  famine  year  1896-7.  From 
Rs.  2,000  to  Rs.  3,000  has  been  advanced  annually  since   1900. 

The  cattle  of  the  District  are  generally  inferior,  but  those  bred  in 
the  Mahuli  pargana  are  a  little  above  the  average.  Buffaloes  are 
largely  kept  for  milk.  Ponies  are  used  a  good  deal  both  for  riding 
and  as  pack-animals,  but  are  of  a  very  poor  stamp.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  chiefly  kept  for  the  supply  of  wool,  skins,  and  manure. 

In  1903-4,  323  square  miles  were  irrigated  from  wells,  435  from 
tanks  and  swamps,  and  211  from  other  sources.  Wells  are  chiefly 
important  in  the  southern  half  of  the  upland  area  between  the  Gogra 
and  Rapti,  and  their  use  decreases  as  the  latter  river  is  approached. 
North  of  the  RaptI  they  are  hardly  used  at  all.  Water  is  invariably 
raised  from  them  by  the  lever  or  by  two  pots  slung  on  a  wheel.  The 
natural  ponds  and  swamps,  which  are  so  numerous  in  the  District, 
are  everywhere  used  for  irrigation,  in  addition  to  the  small  tanks  which 
have  been  excavated.  The  swing-basket  is  used  to  raise  water  from 
these  sources  of  supply.  The  larger  rivers  are  not  used  at  all  for 
irrigation,  as  their  beds  lie  too  low  ;  but  the  smaller  streams  are  held 
up  by  small  temporary  earthen  dams,  and  their  water  is  turned  into 
the  rice-fields  as  required.  In  the  north-east  of  the  District  two 
European  grantees  have  constructed  a  series  of  works  which  effectu- 
ally protect  about  52,000  acres  of  rice  land.     The  valleys  of  several 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  129 

small  rivers  have  been  dammed  with  earthen  embankments  provided 
with  weirs  and  gates,  so  that  sudden  floods  can  be  allowed  to  escape. 
Water  is  conducted  by  82  miles  of  main  canals  and  about  250  miles 
of  distributaries  to  all  parts  of  the  estates.  No  water  rates  are  charged, 
but  the  cultivators  voluntarily  keep  the  works  in  repair.  This  is  the 
only  considerable  system  of  private  canals  in  the  United  Provinces, 
and  has  been  imitated  with  success  by  a  native  zamJnddr,  who  owns 
an  estate  close  by.  Except  in  the  case  of  rice-fields,  irrigation  is 
chiefly  required  for  the  spring  harvest.  Water  is  usually  sprinkled 
over  the  land  with  a  wooden  shovel ;  but  poppy  and  garden  crops 
are  flooded. 

The  chief  mineral  product  is  kankar  or  nodular  limestone,  which  is 
used  for  metalling  roads  and  making  lime.  It  is,  however,  scarce  and 
of  poor  quality,  and  lacustrine  shells  are  also  used  for  making  lime. 
Saltpetre  is  manufactured  from  the  saline  efflorescence  called  reh. 

The  District  is  exceptionally  poor  in  industrial  enterprise.     Sugar- 
refining  alone  is  of  some  importance.     Agricultural 
implements,   coarse   cotton   cloth,  and  the  ordinary  comnuinioitions. 
utensils  for  household  use  are  made  locally.     Brass 
vessels  are  made  at    Bakhira,   but   these   and   also  cloth   are  largely 
imported.     A  little  chintz  is  made  at  Nagar  and  Bahadurpur. 

The  trade  of  the  District  with  other  parts  of  India  is  chiefly  in  agri- 
cultural produce.  Rice,  sugar,  opium,  saltpetre,  oilseeds,  and  hides 
are  exported  :  and  cloth,  metals,  salt,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  im- 
ported. The  through  trade  with  Nepal  is  also  of  importance.  Iron, 
drugs,  spices,  ghi,  fibres,  and  rice  come  from  Nepal  ;'  and  raw  sugar, 
salt,  hardware,  tobacco,  coco-nuts,  cotton  yarn,  and  cloth  are  sent  to 
that  State.  Uska  and  Mehndawal  are  the  chief  marts  for  the  traffic 
of  the  north  of  the  District  with  Nepal.  The  commerce  of  the  south 
is  partly  carried  by  the  Gogra  ;  but  the  railway  has  largely  replaced 
the  river,  as  is  usual  where  the  two  means  of  carriage  compete.  Cawn- 
pore  in  the  west  and  Calcutta  in  the  east  attract  most  of  the  trade  of 
the  District. 

The  Bengal  and  North- Western  Railway  main  line  crosses  Basti  from 
east  to  west,  and  Uska  in  the  north-east  corner  is  at  present  the  terminus 
of  a  branch  from  Gorakhpur.  It  is,  however,  being  connected  with 
Tulslpur  in  Gonda  District  by  a  line  which  will  pass  very  close  to  the 
border  of  Nepal  and  may  be  expected  to  increase  the  traffic  with  that 
State.  Communications  byroad  are  not  good.  Out  of  682  miles,  only 
113  are  metalled.  The  metalled  roads  are  in  charge  of  the  Public 
Works  department;  but  the  cost  of  all  but  62  miles  is  charged  to 
Local  funds.  The  main  lines  are  those  from  Gorakhpur  to  Fyzabad, 
from  Basti  town  to  BansI,  and  from  Uska  towards  the  Nepal  frontier. 
Bridges  are  still  required  on  most  of  the  unmetalled  roads,  which  cross 

VOL.  VII.  K 


I30  I^.ISTI   n/STh'/CT 

many  small  streams  by  fords  and  ferries.  Avenues  of  trees  are  main- 
tniiu'd  on  127  miles  of  road. 

Mention  of  the  famines  experienced  in  IJastT  District  uj)  to  1865, 
when  it  became  a  separate  Collectorate,  will  be  found  in  the  article 
.  on  GoRAKiiPUR   District.      In   1868-9   only  slight 

scarcity  was  felt.  The  rains  of  1873  were  light  and 
the  following  spring  crop  could  not  be  sown.  Relief  works  were  opened, 
and  in  May,  1874,  the  daily  muster  rose  to  127,000;  but  it  was  held 
afterwards  that  relief  had  been  too  lavish.  A  similar  failure  of  the 
rains  in  1877  caused  distress  in  1878,  and  relief  works  were  again 
required.  In  1896-7  distress  was  felt ;  but  this  was  due  to  the  pressure 
of  high  prices  on  the  labouring  classes  rather  than  to  a  failure  of 
the  crops.  Relief  works  were  opened,  but  the  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation who  came  to  them  was  small. 

The  Collector  is  usually  assisted  by  five  Deputy-Collectors  recruited 

in   India,  and  a  tahs'ildar  is   stationed  at   the  head- 
Admmistration.  ,  ^         1,77 

quarters  of  each  tahsll. 

There  are  two  District  Munsifs,  and  the  system  of  Village  Munsifs 
was  introduced  in  1902.  Basti  is  comprised  within  the  Civil  and 
Sessions  Judgeship  of  Gorakhpur ;  but  sessions  cases  are  tried  by  the 
Judge  of  Jaunpur,  who  is  a  Joint  Sessions  Judge  for  this  purpose. 
Crime  is  on  the  whole  light,  and  the  District  is  not  noted  for  any 
particular  form.  Infanticide  was  formerly  suspected,  but  no  villages 
are  now  proclaimed  under  the  Act. 

Bast!  was  acquired  by  cession  in  1801,  but  up  to  1865  it  formed 
part  of  Gorakhpnr  District.  The  quarrels  of  the  Rajas  and  the  failure 
of  the  Oudh  government  to  introduce  any  system  of  administration  had 
reduced  the  country  to  a  miserable  state.  The  early  settlements,  based 
chiefly  on  the  previous  collections,  were  for  short  periods,  and  at  first 
were  made  with  the  Rajas  or  large  proprietors  at  lump  sums  for  whole 
estates.  In  1838-9  the  first  regular  settlement  was  made  under  Regu- 
lation IX  of  1833.  It  was  based  on  a  survey,  and  it  recognized  the 
birtids  or  under-proprietors,  from  whom  engagements  were  taken  direct 
for  the  first  time.  The  revenue  fixed  was  9-7  lakhs,  which  was  more 
than  double  the  former  revenue.  This  settlement  was  revised  between 
1859  and  1865  by  various  officers  working  on  different  methods,  but 
principally  relying  on  estimates  of  the  rental  '  assets,'  and  the  demand 
was  increased  to  12-8  lakhs.  The  latest  revision  was  made  between 
1883  and  1890,  and  BastI  was  one  of  the  first  Districts  to  be  resettled 
on  the  basis  of  the  actual  rents  paid.  The  revenue  demand  amounted 
to  19-4  lakhs,  or  46  per  cent,  of  the  corrected  rent-roll,  the  incidence 
per  acre  being  Rs.  i-i,  varying  from  R.  o-8  to  Rs.  1-7. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  :  — 


BASTI  TAHSIL 


131 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

IQOO-I. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

'3>i4 
14.53 

18,93 
24.59 

20,20 
26,27 

19.55 
26,40 

There  are  no  municipalitie.s,  but  three  towns  are  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856.  Beyond  the  limits  of  these,  local  affairs  are  adminis- 
tered by  the  District  board,  which  in  1903-4  had  an  income  of  i-6 
lakhs,  chiefly  derived  from  local  rates.  The  expenditure  was  also 
1-6  lakhs,  including  Rs.  92,000  spent  on  roads  and  buildings. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  assisted  by  4  inspectors, 
and  has  a  force  of  97  subordinate  officers  and  378  constables,  besides 
52  town  police  and  3,201  rural  and  road  police.  There  are  26  police 
stations.  The  District  jail  had  a  daily  average  of  247  prisoners  in 
1903. 

The  District  contains  few  towns,  and  the  proportion  of  literate 
persons  is  not  very  high;  only  2-8  per  cent.  (5-5  males  and  o-i  females) 
could  read  and  write  in  1901.  Hindus  (3  per  cent.)  were  better  edu- 
cated than  Musalmans  (2  per  cent.).  The  number  of  public  schools 
increased  from  154  with  5,037  pupils  in  1880-1  to  290  with  11,286 
pupils  in  1 900- 1.  In  1903-4  there  were  308  such  schools  with  16,844 
pupils,  including  426  girls,  besides  36  private  schools  with  459  pupils. 
The  primary  classes  contained  all  but  1,400  pupils  in  both  public  and 
private  schools.  Two  schools  are  managed  by  Government  and  135 
by  the  District  board.  Out  of  a  total  expenditure  on  education  of 
Rs.  46,000,  Local  funds  supplied  Rs.  42,000,  and  the  receipts  from 
fees  were  only  Rs.  3,800. 

There  are  8  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
51  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  90,000, 
including  417  in-patients,  and  3,562  operations  were  performed.  The 
expenditure  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  Rs.  26,000,  chiefly  met  from 
Local  funds. 

About  50,000  persons  were  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4, 
giving  a  proportion  of  27  per  1,000  of  population,  which  is  below 
the  Provincial  average. 

{District  Gazetteer  {1881,  under  revision);  J-  Hooper,  Settlement 
Report  (1891).] 

Basti  Tahsil. — Head-quarters  tahs'il  of  Bast!  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Nagar  (East),  Basti  (East),  Maghar 
(West),  and  Mahull  (West),  and  lying  between  26°  t,t,'  and  27°  6'  N. 
and  82°  37'  and  82°  59'  E.,  with  an  area  of  536  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion increased  from  377,935  in  1891  to  393,079  in  1901.  There  are 
1,600  villages  and  only  one  town.  Bast!  (population,  14,761),  the  Dis- 
trict and  /rt/w7  head-quarters.    The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4 

K    2 


i-,2  bast!  TAIISTL 


'>•) 


was  Rs.  4,22,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  78,000.  'riie  density  of  popula- 
tion, 733  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  highest  in  the  District.  The 
tahsll  stretches  north  from  the  Gogra  in  the  upland  portion  of  the 
District,  and  is  crossed  by  the  Kuwana  and  a  number  of  smaller 
streams.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  387  square 
miles,  of  which  238  were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  more  than  half 
the  irrigated  area,  and  tanks  and  swamps  are  a  more  important 
source  than  rivers. 

Basti  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  Basti  District  and  tahsll,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  26°  47'  N.  and  82°  43'  E.,  on  the  Bengal  and 
North-Western  Railway  and  on  the  Gorakhpur-Fyzabad  road.  Popula- 
tion (igoi),  14,761.  The  town  became  the  residence  of  a  local  Raja 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  was  never  of  importance.  For  some 
time  before  the  Mutiny  it  was  the  site  of  an  opium  storehouse  and 
treasury,  and  in  1865  it  became  the  head-quarters  of  a  new  District. 
Basti  consists  of  the  old  village,  in  which  the  Raja's  fort  is  situated, 
a  new  bazar  which  has  sprung  up  on  the  road  south  of  this,  and  the 
civil  station.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
in  the  District,  which  maintains  the  high  school ;  and  besides  the  usual 
offices  there  is  a  dispensary.  The  town  is  administered  under  Act  XX 
of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  4,000.  There  is  little  trade. 
Two  schools  for  boys  contain  330  pupils,  and  a  small  girls'  school 
has  an  attendance  of  15. 

Baswa. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Daosa  nizdviat  of  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27°  9'  N. 
and  76°  36'  E.,  on  the  Rajputana-Malvva  Railway,  63  miles  east-by- 
north-east  of  Jaipur  city  and  128  miles  south  of  Delhi.  Population 
(1901),  5,908.  The  mud  walls  which  surround  the  town  are  breached 
in  several  places,  and  the  small  fort  is  in  a  dilapidated  condition.  The 
town  possesses  a  post  office,  and  three  schools  attended  by  about  160 
boys.  A  fair,  held  yearly  in  April  near  the  railway  station,  is  visited  by 
7,000  to  8,000  Muhammadans.  The  town  is  locally  famous  for  its 
red  and  black  terracotta  pottery  ;  and  in  its  neighbourhood  are  some 
very  old  palaces,  a  reservoir,  and  a  temple  attributed  to  a  Raja  named 
Har  Chand. 

Batala  Tahsil. —  Tahsll  of  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab,  lying  be- 
tween 31°  35'  and  32°  4'  N.  and  74°  52'  and  75°  34'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  476  square  miles.  It  stretches  south-east  and  north-west  between 
the  Ravi  and  the  Beas,  and  consists  of  strips  of  alluvial  country  along 
these  two  rivers,  with  a  fertile  plateau  between  them  irrigated  by  the 
Bari  Doab  Canal  and  the  Kiran  (District)  Canal.  The  population  in 
1 90 1  was  305,867,  compared  with  300,644  in  1891.  The  head-quarters 
are  at  the  town  of  Batala  (population,  27,365).  It  also  contains  the 
towns  of  Srigobindpur  (4,380)  and  Dera  Nanak  (5,118);  and  478 


BATES AR  133 

villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  in  1903-4  to 
Rs.  5,51,000. 

Batala  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in 
Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  49'  N.  and  75°  12'  E.,  on 
the  Aniritsar-Pathankot  branch  of  the  North-Western  Railway,  20  miles 
from  Gurdaspur  town.  It  is  distant  by  rail  1,272  miles  from  Calcutta, 
1,303  from  Bombay,  and  859  from  Karachi.  Population  (1901),  27,365, 
including  17,876  Muhammadans  and  9,071  Hindus.  The  town  was 
founded  about  1465,  during  the  reign  of  Bahlol  LodT,  by  Rai  Ram 
Deo,  a  Bhatti  Rajput,  on  a  piece  of  land  granted  by  Tatar  Khan, 
governor  of  Lahore.  Akbar  gave  it  in  jagir  to  Shamsher  Khan,  his 
foster-brother,  who  greatly  improved  and  beautified  the  place,  and  out- 
side it  built  the  magnificent  tank,  still  in  perfect  repair.  Under  the 
Sikh  commonwealth,  Batala  was  held  first  by  the  Ramgarhias,  and  after 
their  expulsion  by  the  Kanhaya  confederacy.  On  their  return  from 
exile  the  Ramgarhia  chiefs  recovered  the  town,  which  they  retained  till 
the  rise  of  Ranjit  Singh.  After  the  anne.xation  of  the  Punjab,  Batala 
was  made  the  head-quarters  of  a  District,  subsequently  transferred  to 
Gurdaspur.  The  principal  objects  of  antiquarian  interest  are  the  tank 
above  mentioned,  the  massive  tomb  of  Shamsher  Khan,  and  a  hand- 
some building  known  as  the  Anarkali,  erected  by  Sher  Singh,  son  of 
RanjTt  Singh,  who  held  Batala  in  jcig'ir.  This  is  now  occupied  by  the 
Baring  high  school.  The  central  portion  of  the  town  is  raised  to  some 
height  above  the  surrounding  level,  and  has  well-paved  streets,  good 
drainage,  and  substantial  brick-built  houses  ;  but  its  suburbs  consist  of 
squalid  mud  huts,  occupied  by  Gujar  shepherds  and  low-caste  weavers, 
where  filth  accumulates  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  general  health. 

The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  during  the 
ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  34,900,  and  the  expenditure 
Rs.  34,100.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  37,900,  chiefly  from 
octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  38,500.  The  town  has  consider- 
able manufactures,  which  include  cotton,  silk,  and  leathern  goods.  Sus'i, 
a  striped  mixture  of  silk  and  cotton,  used  to  be  very  largely  made, 
but  the  manufacture  has  now  been  superseded  by  that  of  chintz. 
Carpets  and  woollen  blankets  are  also  woven.  Soap  is  manufactured, 
and  a  good  deal  of  cotton  is  ginned.  Batala  has  a  large  trade  in  grain 
and  sugar,  which,  however,  are  bought  and  sold  at  a  mart  outside  muni- 
cipal limits.  Its  chief  educational  institutions  are  the  Baring  Anglo- 
vernacular  high  school  for  Christian  boys  and  the  A.L.O.E.  Anglo- 
vernacular  high  school,  both  maintained  by  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  and  two  Anglo-vernacular  middle  schools,  one  maintained  by 
the  municipal  committee  and  the  other  unaided.  The  municipality, 
aided  by  the  District  board,  also  supports  two  dispensaries. 

Batesar. — Village  in  the  Bah  tahsll  of  Agra  District,  United  Pro- 


134  BATESAR 

vinces,  situated  in  26°  56'  N.  and  78°  33'  E.,  at  a  bend  of  the  Jumna, 
41  miles  south-east  of  Agra  city.  Population  (1901),  2,189.  1'''*^  place 
is  celebrated  for  its  fair,  the  largest  in  the  District.  Originally  this  was 
a  religious  festival,  the  great  day  being  on- the  full  moon  of  Kartik 
(October-November),  but  it  is  now  also  celebrated  as  a  cattle  fair. 
Horses,  cattle,  camels,  and  even  elephants  are  exhibited,  and  remounts 
for  the  native  army  and  police  are/)ften  bought  here.  For  convenience, 
a  branch  Government  treasury  is  opened  at  the  time  of  the  fair.  In 
1904  the  stock  shown  included  35,000  horses  and  ponies,  18,000 
camels,  10,000  mules  and  donkeys,  and  79,000  head  of  cattle;  and 
Rs.  13,000  was  collected  on  account  of  bridge  tolls,  registration  fees, 
and  shop  rents. 

Baud  State. — The  most  westerly  of  the  Tributary  States  of  Oris.sa, 
Bengal,  lying  between  20°  13'  and  20°  53'  N.  and  83°  35'  and  84°  48'  E., 
with  an  area  of  1,264  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Mahanadi  river,  separating  it  from  Sonpur  and  Athmallik ;  on  the  east 
by  Daspalla ;  on  the  south  by  the  Khondmals  ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Patna  and  Sonpur,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Tel  river. 

The  State  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Orissa,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  founded  by  a  Brahman,  but  he  being  childless  adopted  a 
nephew  of  the  Raja  of  Keonjhar,  who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  present  family.  The  list  of  chiefs  contains  forty-five  names,  who  are 
said  to  have  ruled  for  nearly  1,400  years.  The  State  was  formerly  of 
considerable  extent,  but  from  time  to  time  portions  were  wrested  from 
it  by  more  powerful  neighbours,  and  Athmallik,  which  was  for  centuries 
part  of  Baud  and  acknowledged  its  suzerainty,  is  now  quite  separate. 
The  large  tract  known  as  the  Khondmals,  with  an  area  of  about  800 
square  miles,  which  originally  belonged  to  Baud,  was  made  over  to  the 
British  Government  in  1835  by  the  chief,  who  was  unable  to  control 
the  Khonds  or  to  put  a  stop  to  their  human  sacrifices  ;  and  it  was  in 
1 89 1  formed  into  a  subdivision  of  Angul  District.  The  State  as  now 
constituted  yields  an  estimated  revenue  of  Rs.  64,000,  and  pays  to  the 
British  Government  a  tribute  of  Rs.  800.  The  population  decreased 
from  89,551  in  1891  to  88,250  in  1901.  The  falling  oft' is  due,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Khondmals,  partly  to  the  prevalence  of  epidemic  disease  and 
the  general  unhealthiness  of  the  climate,  and  partly  to  the  emigration  of 
many  migratory  Khonds  during  the  scarcity  which  occurred  in  1900. 
The  number  of  villages  is  1,070,  and  the  density  is  70  persons  per 
square  mile.  Of  the  total  population,  87,988  claim  to  be  Hindus,  but 
many  of  them  are  really  Hinduized  aborigines.  The  most  numerous 
castes  are  the  Gaurs  (23,000),  Khonds  (15,000),  Pans  (9,000),  Sudhas 
(7,000),  and  Chasas  (4,000).  The  Khonds  {see  Khondmals)  are 
giving  up  their  primitive  customs  and  beliefs,  and  endeavouring  to 
amalgamate  with  their  Hindu  neighbours.     The  land  is  fertile   and  is 


BAUSI  135 

well  provided  with  wells,  reservoirs,  and  other  sources  of  irrigation.  The 
MahanadT,  which  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State,  and  the 
Tel,  which  borders  it  on  its  west,  afford  excellent  facilities  for  water- 
carriage  ;  and  rice,  oilseeds,  and  such  cereals  as  are  produced  in  the 
State  are  exported  in  large  quantities  by  boat  down  the  Mahanadi.  The 
State  maintains  a  charitable  dispensary,  a  middle  English  school,  and' 
4  upper  primary  and  16  lower  primary  schools. 

Baud  Village. — Chief  place  of  the  Orissa  Tributary  State  of  the 
same  name,  Bengal,  situated  in  20°  50'  N.  and  84°  23'  E.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mahanadi.  Population  (1901),  3,292.  The  village  con- 
tains several  ancient  temples.  The  most  important  are  the  Nabagraha 
temple,  built  of  red  sandstone,  very  profusely  carved,  and  probably 
dating  from  the  ninth  century  ;  and  three  temples  of  Siva  with  elabo- 
rately carved  interiors. 

^Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  xiii,  pp.  118-9.] 

Baugh. — Archaeological  site  in  Central  India.     See  Bagh. 

Bauliari. — Seaport  in  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay.    See  Bavliari. 

Baura. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Jalpaiguri  Dis- 
trict, Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  26°  1^'  N.  and  89°  5'  E., 
on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Tista.  Baura  can  be  reached  by  boats  of  30 
or  40  tons  burden  all  the  year  round,  and  is  the  principal  river  mart  in 
the  District,  whence  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  mustard  seed,  jute, 
cotton,  and  hides  are  exported  by  water  to  Sirajganj  and  Dacca.  Baura 
is  also  served  by  the  Bengal-Duars  Railway.  The  population  in  1901 
is  not  known.  It  was  included  for  census  purposes  in  maiiza  Sibram, 
the  population  of  which  was  5,157. 

Bausi. — Village  in  the  Banka  subdivision  of  Bhagalpur  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  24°  48'  N.  and  87°  2'  E.,  near  the  base  of  Mandar- 
GiRi.  Population  (1901),  649.  The  numerous  buildings,  tanks,  large 
wells,  and  stone  figures  found  for  a  mile  or  two  round  the  base  of  the 
hill  show  that  a  great  city  must  once  have  stood  here.  The  people  of 
the  neighbourhood  say  that  it  contained  52  markets,  53  streets,  and 
88  tanks.  According  to  local  tradition,  a  large  building,  the  ruins  of 
which  still  exist,  and  the  walls  of  which  contain  an  immense  number  of 
small  holes,  evidently  intended  to  hold  chirags,  or  small  native  lamps, 
was  formerly  illuminated  on  the  night  of  the  Dewali  festival  by 
a  hundred  thousand  of  these  lights,  each  householder  being  allowed 
to  supply  only  one.  How  or  when  the  city  fell  into  ruin  is  not  known, 
though  popular  tradition  ascribes  its  destruction  to  Kala  Pahar.  A 
Sanskrit  inscription  on  a  stone  triumphal  arch  seems  to  show  that  the 
city  was  in  existence  less  than  300  years  ago.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  temple  of  Madhusudan  on  Mandargiri  hill,  the  image  of  the  god 
was  brought  to  Bausi,  where  it  now  remains.  Once  a  year,  on  the  Paus 
Sankranti  day,  the  image  is  carried  from  Bausi  to  the  foot  of  the  hill. 


136  BAUSI 

and  is  swung  on  the  triumphal  arch.  About  50,000  pilgrims  assemble 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  in  order  to  bathe  in  the  sacred  tank  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  a  fair  is  held  which  lasts  for  fifteen  days. 

Bavda  {Bavada). — Petty  chiefship  feudatory  to  the  Kolhapur  State, 
within  the  Political  Agency  of  Kolhapur  and  the  Southern  Maratha 
Country,  Bombay,  lying  between  16°  25'  and  16°  44'  N.  and  73°  52' 
and  74°  8'  E.     See  Kolhapur  State. 

Bavisi  Thana. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Bavliari. — Seaport  on  the  creek  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Dhan- 
dhuka  idiiika  of  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  22°  4'  N.  and 
72°  Y  E.  Population  (1901),  980.  In  1903-4  the  imports  and  exports 
were  each  valued  at  8  lakhs,  the  chief  articles  of  trade  being  cotton, 
grain,  ghi,  piece-goods,  coco-nuts,  oil,  molasses,  and  timber. 

Baw. — One  of  the  Southern  Shan  States,  Burma.     See  Maw. 

Bawal  Nizamat.  — A  7iizdmat  or  administrative  district  of  the 
Nabha  State,  Punjab,  lying  between  28°  and  28°  25'  N.  and  76°  15' 
and  76°  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  281  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  71,430,  compared  with  68,147  it^  1891.  It  contains  one  town, 
Bawal  (population,  5,739),  the  head-quarters;  and  164  villages.  The 
land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  in  1903-4  to  2-2  lakhs.  The 
nizamat  consists  of  three  separate  pieces  of  territory  :  Bawal  proper, 
Kanti-Kalina,  and  the  isolated  village  of  Mukandpur  Basi.  Bawal 
proper  lies  south  of  Rewari,  a  tahsil  of  the  British  District  of  Gurgaon, 
and  forms  a  wedge  jutting  southwards  into  the  Alwar  and  Jaipur  States 
of  Rajputana.  It  is  separated  by  the  Rewari  tahsil  from  the />argana  of 
Kanti-Kahna,  21  miles  long  by  9^  broad,  lying  parallel  to  the  Narnaul 
nizdtnat  of  the  Patiala  State.  The  whole  nizdmat  is  geographically 
a  part  of  the  Rajputana  desert,  being  an  arid,  rainless  tract,  singularly 
destitute  of  trees,  streams,  and  tanks,  though  the  Sawi,  a  seasonal 
torrent  which  rises  in  the  Jaipur  hills,  passes  through  the  southern  edge 
of  the  Bawal  pargana.  It  is  divided  into  the  two  police  circles  of 
Bawal  Kanti  and  Chauki  Deb-Kalan. 

Bawal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  nizdmat  of  the  same  name  in 
Nabha  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  28^  4'  N.  and  76°  36'  E.,  10  miles 
south  of  Rewari.  Population  (1901),  5,739.  Founded  in  1205  by 
Rao  Miswala,  Chauhan  Rajput  of  Alwar,  it  eventually  came  under  the 
Nawabs  of  Jhajjar  and  then  passed  to  Nabha.  It  has  since  greatly 
developed,  though  its  trade  suffers  from  competition  with  Rewari.  It 
contains  several  old  buildings,  the  most  interesting  of  which  is  a 
mosque  built  in  1560  and  still  in  good  repair.  It  possesses  a  police 
station,  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school,  and  a  dispensary. 

Bawa  Malang. — Hill  fortress  in  Thana  District,  Bombay.  See 
Malanggarh. 

Bawlake. — One  of  the  Karenni  States,  P)urnia. 


BAVAJVA  137 

Bawnin. — Pjurmese  name  for  one  of  the  Southern  Shan  States, 
Burma.     See  Mawnanc;. 

Bawzaing. — Burmese  name  for  one  of  the  Southern  Shan  States, 
Burma.     See  Mawson. 

Baxa. — MiUtary  cantonment  in  Jalpaiguri  District,  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam.     See  Buxa. 

Baxar. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal.     See 

BUXAR. 

Bayana. — Head-quarters  of  a  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in  the  State 
of  Bharatpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  55'  N.  and  77°  18'  E.,  close 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Gambhlr  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Banganga, 
and  about  25  miles  south-by-south-west  of  Bharatpur  city.  Population 
(1901),  6,867.  'l''^e  town  contains  a  vernacular  school,  attended  by 
150  boys,  and  a  hospital.  The  ancient  name  of  the  place  was  Sripatha. 
Two  old  Hindu  temples  were,  till  recently,  used  by  the  Musalmans  as 
mosques,  and  each  has  a  Sanskrit  inscription.  One  of  them,  bearing 
date  A.D.  1043,  mentions  a  Jadon  Raja,  Bijai  Pal,  to  whom  is  unani- 
mously attributed  the  building  of  the  well-known  fort  of  Bijaigarh, 
which  is  situated  on  an  eminence  about  2  miles  to  the  south-west,  and 
is  shown  in  all  maps  under  the  name  of  Badalgarh  Kot.  There  are 
several  old  temples  and  remains  in  this  fort ;  but  the  chief  object  of 
interest  is  a  red  sandstone  pillar  (Jaf)  bearing  an  inscription  of  the 
Varika  king,  Vishnuvardhana,  a  tributary  of  Samudra  Gupta,  dated  in 
A.D.  372.  Bijai  Pal,  whose  descendants  rule  at  Karauli,  is  said  to  have 
been  killed  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  in  a  battle  with 
Masud  Salar,  a  nephew  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  when  the  fort  was  taken. 
It  was  soon  after  recovered  by  the  Rajputs,  only,  however,  to  be  again 
stormed  successfully  by  Abu  Bakr,  Kandahari,  whose  tomb  is  still 
pointed  out  in  the  vicinity.  Thenceforward,  it  seems  to  have  been 
held  by  whatever  dynasty  ruled  at  Delhi.  Muhammad  Ghori  took 
it  in  1 196  and  Sikandar  LodI  in  1492.  Babar,  writing  in  1526, 
describes  the  fort  as  one  of  the  most  famous  in  India,  and  his  son 
Humayun  took  it  from  the  Lodls  in  1535.  Bayana  is  mentioned  in  the 
Ain-i-Akbari  as  having  in  former  times  been  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  which  Agra  was  but  a  dependent  village.  It  possessed  a  large 
fort  containing  many  buildings  and  subterranean  caverns,  also  a  very 
high  tower.  The  mangoes,  some  of  which  weighed  above  2  lb.,  were 
excellent,  and  the  place  was  famous  for  its  very  white  sugar  and  its 
indigo,  the  latter  selling  at  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  15  a  maund  *. 

\Indian  Antiquary^  vols,  xiv  and  xv  ;  J.  F.  Fleet,  Gupta  I?iscriptions, 
P-  253-] 

'  As  much  as  3,562  'great  maunds  of  Indicoe  Byana,'  valued  at  278,673  niaJimildis 
(say  ;£^i4,ooo),  was  consigned  to  England  in  the  Royal  Anne,  the  ship  which  hrought 
home  Sir  Thomas  Roe  in  i^kj. 


138  JiA/AK 

Bazar. — Valley  in  the  Khyber  rulitiral  Agency,  North-Wcst  Frontier 
Province,  running  east  and  west  between  the  Surghar  range  on  the 
south,  the  liacha  Ghar  or  eastern  extension  of  the  Safed  Koh  on 
the  east,  and  the  Turo  Sar  range  to  the  north,  l)etween  t^t^'^  38'  and 
35°  N.  and  70°  37'  and  71°  E.  Its  elevation  ranges  from  3,000  to 
4,000  feet,  and  that  of  the  enclosing  hills  from  5,000  to  7,000  feet. 
The  valley  is  sterile  in  the  extreme,  save  where  the  village  lands  are 
irrigated  from  the  hill  streams.  The  people  are  Afridis  of  the  notorious 
Zakka  Khel  or  clan,  the  most  active  thieves  on  the  frontier,  against 
whom  on  three  occasions  punitive  expeditions  have  been  sent.  In 
1878  their  attacks  on  the  line  of  communications  in  the  Khyber 
during  the  second  Afghan  AN'ar  compelled  a  punitive  expedition. 
Major  Cavagnari  led  an  armed  body  of  Kuki  Khel  Afridis,  supported 
by  guns,  against  them,  and  inflicted  some  punishment ;  but  a  regular 
expedition  followed  in  December,  which  effectively  chastised  them  at 
small  cost  of  life.  Nevertheless  the  clan  continued  to  give  trouble,  and 
another  expedition  had  to  be  sent  into  the  valley  in  1879,  after  which 
the  clan  submitted.  In  1897  two  columns  under  Sir  AN'illiam  Lockhart 
entered  the  valley  by  the  Chora  and  Ilacha  passes  at  its  eastern 
extremity,  and  destroyed  the  principal  villages. 

Beas  {Hyphasis  of  the  Greeks ;  Arjikuja  of  the  Vedas ;  Sanskrit, 
Vipdsa). — One  of  the  '  five  rivers '  of  the  Punjab  from  which  the  Pro- 
vince derives  its  name.  Rising  on  the  southern  face  of  the  Rohtang 
pass  in  Kulu,  13,326  feet  above  the  sea,  the  Beas  traverses  the  State  of 
Mandi  and  enters  Kangra  District  at  Sanghol,  1,920  feet  above  sea-level. 
During  the  early  part  of  its  course  the  fall  averages  125  feet  per  mile. 
A  fine  suspension  bridge  spans  the  river  at  Mandi  town,  and  a  bridge 
of  boats  is  kept  up  during  the  cold  season  at  Dera  Gopipur  in  Kangra 
District.  During  its  lower  hill  course  the  Beas  is  crossed  by  numerous 
ferries,  at  many  of  which  the  means  of  communication  consists  of 
inflated  skins  {darais).  Lower  down  it  meanders  in  a  westerly  course 
through  hilly  country,  with  a  fall  of  7  feet  to  the  mile,  and  forms  the 
main  channel  for  the  drainage  of  Kangra.  Near  Reh  in  that  District  it 
divides  into  three  channels,  which  reunite  after  passing  Mirthal,  1,000 
feet  above  sea-level.  On  meeting  the  Siwalik  Hills  in  Hoshiarpur,  the 
river  sweeps  sharply  northward,  forming  the  boundary  between  that 
District  and  Kangra.  Then  bending  round  the  base  of  the  Siwaliks, 
it  takes  a  southerly  direction,  separating  the  Districts  of  Hoshiarpur 
and  Gurdaspur.  In  this  portion  of  its  course  through  the  uplands  of 
the  Punjab  plains,  a  strip  of  low  alluvial  soil  fringes  its  banks,  subject 
in  flood-time  to  inundation  from  the  central  stream.  The  main  channel 
is  broad  and  ill-defined,  full  of  islands  and  expanding  from  time  to  time 
into  wide  pools.  The  depth  does  not  exceed  5  feet  in  the  dry  season, 
increasing  to   15   feet  during  the  rains.      Broad  flat  bottomed  country 


BE  A  WAR  139 

boats  navigate  this  portion  of  the  stream  throughout  the  year.  No 
bridges  span  the  Beas  in  the  Districts  of  Hoshiarpur  or  (}urdaspur. 
After  touching  Jullundur  District  for  a  few  miles,  the  river  forms  the 
boundary  between  Amritsar  and  the  Kapurthala  State.  At  Beas  station 
it  is  crossed  by  a  railway  bridge  on  the  North-Western  Railway ;  and 
a  bridge  of  boats  on  the  grand  trunk  road  is  also  maintained  there 
during  the  cold  season.  The  channel  shifts  from  year  to  year  through 
the  alluvial  valley  according  to  the  action  of  the  floods.  Finally,  the 
Beas  joins  the  Sutlej  at  the  south-western  boundary  of  the  Kapurthala 
State,  after  a  total  course  of  290  miles.  It  ranks  sixth  in  size  among 
the  rivers  of  the  Punjab. 

The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Chakki  and  the  Bein.  The  Chakki 
collects  the  drainage  of  the  Chamba  hills  and  its  main  stream  joins 
the  Beas  near  Mirthal,  while  the  other  branch,  formerly  a  tributary 
of  the  Ravi,  has  been  turned  aside  by  the  Bari  Doab  Canal  and  forced 
to  return  to  the  Beas  lower  down.  The  Bein — called  the  '  Black ' 
{Sivdh)  Bein  to  distinguish  it  from  the  '  White '  {Safed)  Bein — rises  in 
the  Siwaliks,  and  joins  the  Beas  10  miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Sutlej. 

The  old  course  of  the  Beas  can  be  traced  from  its  present  point  of 
junction  with  the  Sutlej  through  Lahore  and  Montgomery  1  )istricts 
to  the  place  where  it  used  to  join  the  Chenab,  near  Shujabad,  before 
the  Chenab  turned  westwards.  The  united  waters  of  the  Jhelum, 
Chenab,  and  Ravi  joined  the  Beas  in  those  days  28  miles  south  of 
Multan.  Since  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  course  of  the 
Beas  has  changed  but  little. 

Beauleah. — Head-quarters  of  Rajshahi  District,  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam.     See  Rampur  Boalia. 

Beawar  (also  called  Nayanagar). — Head-quarters  of  Merwara  Dis- 
trict, Ajmer-Merwara,  situated  in  26°  5'  N.  and  74°  19'  E.  Population 
(1901),  21,928:  including  Hindus,  15,547;  Muhammadans,  3,947; 
and  Jains,  2,094.  Founded  in  1835  by  Colonel  Dixon,  afterwards 
Commissioner  of  Ajmer-Merwara,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  now- 
abandoned  cantonment,  Beawar  rapidly  grew  into  a  prosperous  town, 
owing  to  its  advantageous  position  between  Mewar  (Udaipur)  and 
Marwar  (Jodhpur).  The  town,  which  has  wide  streets  and  a  sur- 
rounding stone  wall  with  four  gates,  was  regularly  planned  out  from  the 
beginning,  and  sites  were  allotted  to  traders  who  applied  for  shops. 
Beawar  is  the  only  town  in  Merwara  District,  and  is  a  station  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway.  The  municipal  income 
in  1902-3  was  about  Rs.  60,000.  Beawar  is  the  chief  cotton  mart  for 
Merwara  and  the  contiguous  Native  Stales  of  Mewar  and  Marwar,  and 
possesses  a  flourishing  cotton-mill.  The  United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land has  a  mission  establishment,  and  maintains  an  industrial  school. 


I40  BECnRAjr 

Bechraji.^Tcnii)lc  in  the  Kadi //-a///,  Baroda  State,  situated  about 
2T^  miles  from  the  town  of  Kadi,  and  about  the  same  distance  from 
Modhera.  The  temple  has  been  built  in  the  jungle,  and  is  surrounded 
by  large  and  costly  works  designed  for  the  accommodation  of  pilgrims 
and  others — wells,  tanks,  dharmsdlas,  dispensary,  i^vrc.  In  the  months 
of  Aswin  (September-October)  and  Chaitra  (March-April)  crowds  of 
devotees  visit  the  shrine  from  all  parts  of  Gujarat  and  make  their  offer- 
ings to  the  goddess.  From  these  offerings  and  from  the  rich  endow- 
ments given  by  former  Gaikwars  the  expenses  of  the  temple  are  met. 

Bedadaniiru  Coal-field. — Bedadanuru  is  a  hamlet  in  the  Polavaram 
minor  td/uk  of  Godavari  District,  Madras,  situated  in  17°  15'  N.  and 
81°  14'  E.,  about  10  miles  from  Jangareddigudem  on  the  EUore- 
Prakkilanka  road.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  small  coal-field,  where  the 
Barakar  stage  of  sandstone  outcrops  over  an  area  of  about  5^  square 
miles.  This  is  the  only  coal-field  lying  entirely  within  the  Madras 
Presidency  ;  but  though  prospecting  has  been  carried  on  for  some 
years,  no  paying  seam  has  as  yet  been  discovered. 

Bedla. — Principal  town  of  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the  State 
of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  38'  N.  and  73°  42'  E.,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ahar  stream,  about  4  miles  north  of  Udaipur  city. 
Population  (1901),  1,222.  It  contains  a  mission  school  attended  by 
30  boys.  The  estate  is  held  by  the  second  noble  of  Mewar,  who  is 
styled  Rao.  It  consists  of  in  villages,  the  majority  of  which  are 
situated  to  the  north  of  Chitor ;  among  them  is  Nagari,  one  of  the 
oldest  places  in  Rajputana  and  mentioned  in  the  article  on  Chitor. 
The  income  is  about  Rs.  64,000,  and  a  tribute  of  Rs.  4,100  is 
paid  to  the  Darbar.  The  Raos  of  Bedla  are  Chauhan  Rajputs,  and 
claim  direct  descent  from  Prithwl  Raj,  the  last  Hindu  king  of  Delhi. 
Bakht  Singh,  the  great-grandfather  of  the  present  Rao,  brought  the 
European  residents  of  Nimach  from  Dungla  to  Udaipur  during  the 
Mutiny  of  1857,  by  the  order  of  Maharana  Sarup  Singh.  For  these 
services  he  received  a  sword  of  honour  and  was  subsequently  created 
a  Rao  Bahadur  and  a  CLE. 

Bednor. — Estate  and  head-quarters  thereof  in  Udaipur  State, 
Rajputana.     See  B.\dnor. 

Bedsa. — Village  in  the  Maval  tdhika  of  Poona  District,  Bombay, 
5  miles  south-west  of  Khadkala  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railway,  which  gives  its  name  to  a  group  of  caves  of  the  first  century  a.  d. 
Population  (1901),  171.  The  caves  lie  in  18°  43'  N.  and  73°  35'  E.,  in 
the  Supati  hills,  which  rise  above  Bedsa  village  to  a  height  of  about 
300  feet  above  the  plain,  and  2,250  feet  above  sea-level.  The  two  chief 
caves  are  a  chapel  or  chaitya  and  a  dwelling  cave  or  layana,  both  of 
them  imitating  wooden  buildings  in  style.  The  chapel  is  approached 
by  a  narrow  passage  40  feet  long  between  two  blocks  of  rock  about 


BEGAMPUR  r4i 

1 8  feet  high.  A  passage  5  feet  wide  has  been  cleared  between  the 
blocks  and  the  front  of  two  massive  octagonal  columns  and  two  demi- 
columns  which  support  the  entablature  at  a  height  of  about  25  feet. 
The  veranda  or  porch  within  the  pillars  is  nearly  12  feet  wide,  and 
30  feet  2  inches  long.  Two  benched  cells  project  into  it  from  the  back 
corners  and  one  from  the  front,  with,  over  the  door,  an  inscription  in 
one  line  recording  :  '  The  gift  of  Pushyanaka,  son  of  Ananda  Shethi, 
from  Nasik.'  The  corresponding  cell  in  the  opposite  end  is  unfinished. 
Along  the  base  and  from  the  levels  of  the  lintels  of  the  cell  doors 
upwards  the  porch  walls  are  covered  with  the  rail  pattern  on  flat 
and  curved  surfaces,  intermixed  with  the  chaitya  window  ornaments,  but 
without  any  animal  or  human  representations.  This  and  the  entire 
absence  of  any  figure  of  Buddha  point  to  the  early  or  Hinayana  style  of 
about  the  first  century  after  Christ.  The  dagoha  or  relic  shrine  has 
a  broad  fillet  or  rail  ornament  at  the  base  and  top  of  the  cylinder,  from 
which  rises  a  second  and  shorter  cylinder  also  surrounded  above  with 
the  rail  ornament.  The  box  of  the  capital  is  small  and  is  surmounted 
by  a  very  heavy  capital  in  which,  out  of  a  lotus  bud,  rises  the  wooden 
shaft  of  the  umbrella.  The  top  of  the  umbrella  has  disappeared.  The 
relic  shrine  is  now  daubed  in  front  with  red  lead  and  worshipped  as 
Dharmaraj's  dhera  or  resting-place.  There  is  a  well  near  the  entrance, 
and  about  twenty  paces  away  stands  a  large  unfinished  cell  containing 
a  cistern.  Over  the  latter  is  an  inscription  in  three  lines  of  tolerably 
clear  letters  which  records  :  '  The  religious  gift  of  Mahabhoja's  daughter 
Samadinika,  the  MahadevI  Maharathini  and  wife  of  Apadevanaka.' 
This  inscription  is  of  very  great  interest,  being  one  of  the  earliest 
mentions  of  the  term  Maharatha  yet  discovered.  A  relic  shrine  or 
dagoba  lies  a  short  distance  from  the  chapel  cave  and  also  bears 
a  short  inscription. 

Beehea. — Village  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal.     See  Bihiya. 

Beerbhoom. — District  in  Bengal.    See  BTrbhum. 

Begampur. — Village  in  the  Sholapur  taluka  of  Sholapur  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  17°  34'  N.  and  75°  37'  E.,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bhima  river,  about  25  miles  south-west  of  Sholapur  city. 
Population  (1901),  2,304.  The  place  takes  its  name  from  one  of 
Aurangzeb's  daughters,  who  died  while  her  father  was  encamped  at 
Brahmapuri  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  She  was  buried  at  this 
place,  and  her  tomb  is  a  plain  solid  structure  in  a  courtyard  180  feet 
square.  It  overhangs  the  Bhima,  from  which  it  is  guarded  by  a  strong 
masonry  wall  now  much  out  of  repair.  Round  the  tomb  a  market 
slowly  sprang  up,  with  the  result  that  the  suburb  of  Begampur  outgrew 
the  original  village  of  Ghadeshwar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  water- 
course. About  Rs.  40,000  worth  of  thread,  cloth,  and  grain  change 
hands  every  year  at  the  weekly  market  on  Thursday.     The  village  has 


142  BEG  AM  PUR 

a  little    manufacture   of  coarse   cotton    cloth   or  khCidi.      It  contains 
a  primary  school. 

Begari  Canal. — An  important  water-channel  in  the  Upper  Sind 
Frontier  District,  Sind,  Bombay.  It  taps  the  Indus  at  its  extreme 
south-eastern  boundary,  forming  for  about  50  miles  of  its  course  a  well- 
defined  line  of  demarcation  between  the  Frontier  ]3istrict  and  Sukkur. 
In  185 1  this  canal  was  at  its  head  only  50  feet  wide,  with  a  depth  of 
9  feet.  It  was  enlarged  in  1854,  when  the  water  was  admitted  into  it 
from  the  Indus  and  reached  Jacobabad,  50  miles  distant,  in  sixteen 
hours.  Subsequently,  the  tail  of  the  canal  was  enlarged,  and  extended 
farther  westward.  Several  improvements  have  been  carried  out  during 
the  last  few  years.  The  entire  length  of  the  main  canal  is  76  miles,  and 
it  serves  the  Districts  of  Upper  Sind  Frontier  (202  square  miles),  Sukkur 
(46  square  miles),  Kalat  (43  square  miles),  and  Larkana  (300  acres). 
About  five  canals  branch  directly  from  it,  the  principal  being  the  Nur 
Wah  (19  miles)  and  Mirza  (10  miles).  The  canal  is  also  connected 
with  the  branches  of  the  Ghar  Canal.  The  aggregate  cost  of  these 
works  up  to  the  end  of  1903-4  amounted  to  17  lakhs  ;  the  receipts  in 
the  same  year  were  about  4^  lakhs,  and  the  total  charges  (exclusive 
of  interest)  over  one  lakh.  The  gross  income  was  thus  26  per  cent,  on 
the  capital  expended  and  the  net  receipts  18-3  per  cent.  The  area 
irrigated  was  495  square  miles.  The  canal  is  navigable  for  about 
60  miles. 

Begun. — Chief  town  of  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the  State  of 
Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  59'  N.  and  75"^  V  E.,  about  90  miles 
east-by-north-east  of  Udaipur  city.  Population  (1901),  3,625,  about 
70  per  cent,  being  Hindus.  The  town  contains  a  picturesque  palace 
and  a  fairly  strong  fort.  The  estate,  which  includes  the  town  and 
127  villages,  belongs  to  one  of  the  first-class  nobles  of  Mewar,  who  is 
styled  Rawat  Sawai.  The  income  is  about  Rs.  48,000,  and  a  tribute  of 
about  Rs.  5,200  is  paid  to  the  Darbar.  The  Rawats  of  Begun  belong 
to  the  Chondawat  family  of  the  Sesodia  Rajputs.  In  the  estate  is 
the  village  of  Menal,  formerly  called  Mahanal  or  the  'great  chasm,' 
which  possesses  a  monastery  and  Sivaite  temple  constructed,  according 
to  the  inscriptions  they  bear,  in  1168  by  the  wife  of  the  famous 
Prithwl  Raj  Chauhan,  whose  name  was  Suhav  Devi,  alias  Ruthi 
Rani  ('  the  testy  queen  '). 

Begusarai  Subdivision. — North-western  subdivision  of  Monghyr 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  25°  15'  and  25°  47'  N.  and  85°  47'  and 
86°  27'  E.,  with  an  area  of  751  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  642,966,  compared  with  611,349  in  1891.  It  contains  755  villages, 
but  no  town  ;  the  head-quarters  are  at  Begusarai.  The  subdivision, 
which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  fertile  alluvial  plain  of  Tirhut, 
and    supports    857    persons   to  the  square  mile,  is  the  most   densely 


BEL  A  143 

populated   part  of  the    District.     The   cultivation  of  indigo  is  carried 
on,  but  the  industry  is  declining. 

Begusarai  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Monghyr  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  26'  N.  and  86°  9'  E. 
Population  (1901),  9,338.  The  village  contains  the  usual  public  offices  ; 
the  sub-jail  has  accommodation  for  28  prisoners. 

Behar. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Patna  District,  Bengal.  See 
Bihar. 

Behir.  —  Tahsil  in  Balaghat  District,  Central  Provinces.    See  Baihar. 

Behror. — Head-cjuarters  of  a  tahsil  of  the  .same  name  in  the  .State  of 
Alwar,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27°  53'  N.  and  76°  17'  E.,  about  32  miles 
north-west  of  Alwar  city,  and  18  miles  west-by-south-west  of  Ajeraka 
station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway.  Population  (1901),  5,540. 
The  town  possesses  a  mud  fort  about  50  yards  sfjuare,  a  fair  bazar, 
a  post  office,  a  vernacular  school,  and  a  hospital  with  accommodation 
for  G  in-patients.  A  municipal  committee  supervises  the  lighting 
and  conservancy,  the  income,  derived  mainly  from  octroi,  being 
about  Rs.  2,200  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  1800.  The  tahsil,  which 
contains  132  villages  besides  the  town,  is  situated  in  the  north-west  of 
the  State,  and  has  a  population  of  71,082.  More  than  35  per  cent, 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Ahirs,  who  are  the  best  cultivators  in  the  State. 
Under  the  Mughals  this  tract  was  included  in  the  Siibah  of  Narnaul, 
but  the  real  rulers  were  the  local  Chauhan  chiefs.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Jats  of  Bharatpur  overran  it,  but  they 
were  ousted  before  the  end  of  that  century  by  Pratap  Singh,  the 
first  chief  of  Alwar. 

Beji. — River  in  Baluchistan.     See  Nari. 

Bekal. — Village  in  the  Kasaragod  taluk  of  .South  Kanara  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  12"  24'  N.  and  75°  3'  E.  It  has  a  fine  fort  on 
a  headland  facing  the  sea,  which  was  built  by  Sivappa  Naik  of  Bednur 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  defences  are  said 
to  show  traces  of  European  science.  The  surrounding  tract  is  really 
part  of  the  Malayalam  country,  and  was  at  one  time  subject  to  the 
Chirakkal  Rajas.  Bekal  formerly  gave  its  name  to  the  present 
taluk  of  Kasaragod,  but  it  is  now  of  no  importance. 

Bela. — Capital  of  the  Las  Bela  State,  Baluchistan,  and  residence 
of  the  Jam,  situated  in  26°  14^  N.  and  66°  19'  E.  It  lies  near  the  apex 
of  the  Las  Bela  plain,  \\  miles  from  the  Porali  river  and  116  miles 
from  Karachi.  Population  (1901),  4,183.  The  majority  were  State 
servants,  but  356  Hindus  were  included.  The  town  is  not  walled  and 
consists  of  400  or  500  huts.  The  Jam's  residence,  a  tahslll,  a  treasury, 
a  jail,  and  lines  for  the  military  police  are  the  principal  buildings. 
The  ancient  name  of  the  town  was  Armael  or  Armabel.  Sir  Robert 
Sandeman  died  at  Bela  in  1892,  and  was  buried  on  the  south  of  the 


14}  ]iELA 

town.  His  tomb,  of  granite  and  white  English  marble,  is  placed  beneath 
a  dome  erected  by  the  Jam,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  garden.  A  small 
establishment  is  maintained  in  the  town  for  purposes  of  conservancy. 
Cotton  cloth  and  rice  constitute  the  principal  imports  ;  oilseeds,  ghl^ 
and  wool  the  exports.     Bela  crochet-work  is  well-known. 

Bela  (or  Bela  Partabgarh). — Head-quarters  of  Partabgarh  District 
and  ia/is'i/,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  55'  N.  and  82°  E.,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Sai,  at  the  junction  of  the  main  line  of  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway  with  a  branch  from  Allahabad  to  Fyzabad,  and  on 
a  road  between  the  same  two  places.  Population  (1901),  8,041.  The 
town  derives  its  name  from  the  temple  of  Bela  BhawanI  near  the  river. 
It  was  founded  in  1802  as  a  cantonment  for  the  Oudh  auxiliary  force, 
and  after  the  Mutiny  became  the  head-quarters  of  a  District.  The  town 
is  well  laid  out  and  has  been  thoroughly  drained.  Besides  the  usual 
offices,  it  contains  a  general  dispensary  and  a  magnificent  female 
hospital,  and  there  is  a  branch  of  the  Zanana  Bible  and  Medical 
Mission.  Bela  has  been  a  municipality  since  1871.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  10,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  14,000,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi 
(Rs.  8,000)  and  fees  and  rents  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  16,000. 
There  is  a  flourishing  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Three  schools 
have  340  pupils. 

Belagutti. — Town  in  the  Honnali  tali/k  of  Shimoga  District,  Mysore, 
situated  in  14°  11'  N.  and  75°  31'  E.,  10  miles  south-west  of  Honnali 
town.  Population  (1901),  2,799.  The  original  form  of  the  name  was 
Belagavatti.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  line  of  Naga  chiefs  who  called  them- 
selves Sindas.  They  ruled  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
under  the  Chalukyas,  Hoysalas,  and  Seunas.  The  place  stands  in  a 
plain  of  fertile  black  soil. 

Belapur. — Village  in  the  Rahuri  tdluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  19°  34'  N.  and  74°  39'  E.,  15  miles  north  of  Rahuri, 
on  the  Dhond-Manmad  Railway.  Population  (1901),  4,630,  including 
Belapur-Khurd  (1,167).  It  lies  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Pravara,  which 
in  floods  rises  to  the  gates.  On  the  river-side  are  some  picturesque 
buildings  belonging  to  the  Naiks,  an  old  Maratha  family.  The  chief 
traders  are  Marwari  Vanis  and  Telis.  In  1822  an  attempt  was  made 
to  make  Belapur  the  centre  of  a  revolt.  Troops  were  to  be  collected 
here  and  at  Nandurbar  in  Khandesh,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  local 
KolTs  were  to  make  a  general  attack  upon  the  British  posts.  The 
plot  was,  however,  discovered  and  quashed. 

Belgami  (or  Balgami). — Village  in  the  Shikarpur  idluk  of  Shimoga 
District,  Mysore,  situated  in  14°  24'  N.  and  75°  15'  E.,  14  miles  north-west 
of  Shikarpur.  Population  (1901),  1,330.  Its  name  appears  in  inscrip- 
tions as   Balligamve,  Balligrame,   Balipura,  and  similar  forms.     Even 


BELGAUM  DISTRICT  145 

in  the  twelfth  century  it  was  of  such  aiititjuity  as  to  be  styled  the  mother 
of  cities,  the  capital  of  ancient  cities,  the  immemorial  capital,  and 
is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  the  giant  Bali.  On  account  of  its 
religious  merit  it  was  called  the  Dakshina  Kedara,  and  also  had  the 
name  Kamatha.  Under  the  Chalukyas  and  Kalachuris  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Banavasi  '  twelve  thousand '  province.  It  contained  five  maths, 
with  temples  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  Siva,  Brahma,  Jina,  and  Buddha,  and 
ihxQe.  pi/ras,  besides  seven  Brahmapuris.  At  the  Kodiya  math  of  the 
Kedaresvara  temple  medicine  and  food  were  dispensed  to  all  comers. 
Of  eighty-four  inscriptions  in  the  place  most  are  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries.  Its  prosperity  continued  under  the  Hoysalas  and 
Seunas,  but  the  city  no  doubt  fell  a  prey  to  the  Muhammadan  invaders 
of  the  fourteenth  century  who  overthrew  the  Hoysala  power.  The 
ruined  temples  are  rich  with  carving  equal  to  any  in  Mysore. 

Belgaum  District. — District  in  the  Southern  Division  of  the  Bom- 
bay Presidency,  lying  between  15°  22'  and  16°  58''  N.  and  74°  2'  and 
75°  25'  E.,  with  an  area  of  4,649  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  States  of  Miraj  and  Jath  ;  on  ihe  north-east  by  Bijapur 
District ;  on  the  east  by  the  States  of  Jamkhandi,  Mudhol,  Kolhapur,  and 
Ramdurg ;  on  the  south  and  south-west  by  the  Districts  of  Dharwar  and 
North  Kanara,  the  State  of  Kolhapur,  and  the  Portuguese  territory  of 
Goa ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  Savantvadi  and  Kolhapur.  The 
lands  of  the  District  are  greatly  interlaced  with  those  of  the  neighbouring 
Native  States,  and  within  the  District  are  large  tracts  of  Native  territory. 

The  country  forms  a  large  plain,   studded  with   solitary  peaks  and 
broken  here  and  there  by  low  ranges  of  hills.      Many  of  the  peaks  are 
crowned  by   small    but  well-built   forts.     The  lower 
hills  are  generally  covered   with   brushwood,   but  in  physical 

1       •         •  1  ^11  1    •  11  Aspects, 

some  cases  their  sides  are  carefully  cultivated  almost 
to  the  very  summits.  The  most  elevated  portion  of  the  District  lies  to 
the  west  and  south  along  the  line  of  the  Sahyadri  Hills  or  ^Vestern  Ghats. 
The  surface  of  the  plain  slopes  with  an  almost  imperceptible  fall 
eastwards  to  the  borders  of  Bijapur.  On  the  north  and  east  the  District 
is  open  and  well  cultivated,  but  to  the  south  it  is  intersected  by  spurs  of 
the  Ghats,  thickly  covered  in  some  places  with  forest.  Except  near  the 
Western  Ghats,  and  in  other  places  where  broken  by  lines  of  low  hills, 
the  country  is  almost  a  dead  level ;  but  especially  in  the  south, 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  large  rivers,  the  surface  is  pleasantly  varied 
by  trees,  solitary  and  in  groups.  From  March  to  June  the  fields 
are  bare  ;  and  but  for  the  presence  of  the  mango,  tamarind,  jack,  and 
other  trees,  reared  for  their  fruit,  the  aspect  of  the  country  would 
be  desolate  in  the  extreme. 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Kistna,  here  properly  called  the  Krishna, 
flowing  through  the  north,  the  Ghatprabha,  flowing  through  the  centre, 

VOL.   VII.  L 


^C  BELGAUM  DISTRICT 

and  the  Malpnibha,  through  the  soutli  of  the  District.  From  their 
sources  among  the  spurs  of  the  ^V'estern  Ghats,  these  rivers  pass 
eastwards  through  the  plain  of  Belgaum  on  their  way  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  They  are  bordered  by  deei)ly  cut  banks,  over  whicli  they 
seldom  flow.  None  is  serviceable  for  purposes  of  navigation.  In  the 
west  the  rivers  and  wells  yield  a  sufificient  supply  of  good  water ;  but 
towards  the  east  the  wells  become  brackish,  and  the  water-bearing  strata 
lie  far  below  the  surface.  Except  the  Kistna,' which  at  all  times  main- 
tains a  considerable  flow  of  water,  the  rivers  sink  into  insignificant 
streams  during  the  hot  season,  and  the  supply  of  water  falls  short  of 
the  wants  of  the  people. 

In  the  south  of  the  District  is  a  narrow  strip  of  Archaean  gneissic  rock, 
including  some  hematite  schists  of  the  auriferous  Dharwar  series.  In 
the  centre  quartzite  and  limestone  of  the  Kaladgi  (Cuddapah)  group 
are  found  partly  overlaid  by  two  great  bands  of  basalt  belonging  to 
the  Deccan  trap  system,  and  in  the  north  and  west  basalt  and  laterite 
occur.  Several  of  the  river  valleys  contain  ancient  alluvial  deposits  of 
upper  pliocene  or  pleistocene  age,  consisting  of  clay  with  partings  and 
thin  beds  of  impure  grits  and  sandstones.  In  the  banks  of  a  stream 
that  flows  into  the  Ghatprabha  at  Chikdauli,  3  miles  north-east  of 
Gokak,  were  found  some  remarkable  fossil  remains  of  mammalia, 
including  an  extinct  form  of  rhinoceros  ^ 

Of  the  typical  trees  of  the  District,  mail  {Termhialia  tome?iiosa), 
jdmbul  {Eugeiiia  Jambolatid),  nana,  harda,  sisva,  and  hasan  {Pterocarptis 
Marsupium)  yield  valuable  timber  ;  kdrvi  {Strobilanthus  Grahamianus) 
and  small  bamboos  are  used  for  fencing  and  roofing,  and  kiimba  {Carey a 
arbored)  is  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  field  tools.  The  harda 
and  hela  {Termina/ia  belerica)  furnish  myrabolams,  and  the  shemba 
{Acacia  concifina)  supplies  the  ritka  or  soap-nut  which  is  used  in  cleaning 
clothes.  The  chief  fruit  trees  are  the  mango,  jack,  custard-apple, 
buUock's-heart,  cashew-nut,  Jdmbi/l,  bael,  wood-apple,  pummelo,  sweet 
lime,  citron,  lime,  orange,  kokam,  avia,  bor,  tiiran,  guti,  agasti,  horse- 
radish tree,  guava,  pomegranate, /a/a/,  karanda,  fig,  mulberry,  plantain, 
and  pineapple.  Among  creepers  the  most  noticeable  are  several  species 
of  convolvulus ;  and  a  large  number  of  English  flowers  have  been 
grown  from  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Antelope  are  found  in  the  north  and  east.  Sdmbar,  deer,  wild  hog, 
and  hyenas  are  not  uncommon  in  the  waste  and  forest  lands.  Of  the 
larger  beasts  of  prey,  leopards  are  pretty  generally  distributed,  but 
tigers  are  met  with  only  in  the  south  and  south-west.  Of  game-birds 
there  are  peafowl,  partridge,  quail,  duck,  snipe,  teal,  kalam,  and 
occasionally  bustard. 

'  R.  B.  Foote,  Memoirs,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xii,  pt.  i  ;  and 
Palaeontologia  Indica,  Series  X,  vol.  i,  pt.  i. 


HISTORY  147 

The  moderate  heat,  the  early  and  fresh  sea-breeze,  and  its  altitude 
above  the  sea,  make  Belgaum  pleasant  and  healthy.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature recorded  is  53°  in  January,  while  in  May  it  rises  to  100°.  The 
most  agreeable  climate  is  found  in  a  tract  parallel  with  the  crest  of 
the  Western  Ghats  between  the  western  forests  and  the  treeless  east. 
The  cold  and  dry  season  lasts  from  mid-October  to  mid-February,  tlie 
hot  and  dry  season  from  mid- February  to  early  June,  and  the  wet  season 
from  early  June  to  mid-October.  The  heat  of  April  and  May  causes 
occasional  heavy  showers,  attended  with  easterly  winds,  thunder,  light- 
ning, and  sometimes  hail.  Even  in  May  the  nights  are  cool,  almost 
chilly.  Near  the  Ghats  the  south-west  monsoon  is  very  constant  and 
heavy.  Farther  east  it  is  fitful,  falling  in  showers  separated  by  breaks 
of  fair  weather.  The  rainfall  at  the  District  head-quarters  averages 
about  50  inches.  In  the  east  it  is  as  low  as  24,  while  in  Chandgad  in 
the  extreme  west  107  inches  are  registered.  From  March  to  September 
the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west  and  south,  and  from  October  to 
February  from  the  east  and  north. 

The  oldest  place  in  Belgaum  is  Halsi,  wnich,  according  to  seven 
copperplates  found  in  its  vicinity,  was  the  capital  of  a  dynasty  of  nine 
Kadamba  kings.  In  all  probability  the  Early  (550- 
610)  and  Western  (610-760)  Chalukyas  held  Belgaum 
in  succession,  yielding  place  about  760  to  the  Rashtrakiltas,  a  trace  of 
whose  power  survived  till  about  1250  in  the  Ratta  Mahamandaleshwars 
(875-1250),  whose  capital  was  first  Saundatti  and  subsequently  (1210) 
Venugrama,  the  modern  Belgaum.  Inscriptions  discovered  in  various 
parts  of  the  District  show  that  during  the  twelfth  and  early  years  of  the 
thirteenth  centuries  the  Kadambas  of  Goa  (980-1250)  held  part  of  the 
District  known  as  the  Halsi  '  twelve  thousand,'  and  the  Venugrama  or 
Belgaum  'seventy.'  The  third  Hoysala  king,  Vishnuvardhana  or  Bitti 
Deva  (i  104-41),  held  the  Halsi  division  fora  time  as  the  spoil  of  battle  ; 
but  the  territory  of  the  Goa  Kadambas  as  a  whole  had  by  1208  been 
entirely  absorbed  by  the  Rattas.  The  last  of  the  Rattas,  Lakshmideo  II, 
was  overthrown  about  1250  by  Vichana,  the  minister  and  general  of  the 
Deogiri  Yadava,  Singhana  II  ;  and  from  that  date  up  to  their  final 
defeat  by  the  Delhi  emperor  in  1320,  the  Yadavas  .seem  to  have  been 
masters  of  Belgaum  and  surrounding  tracts.  During  the  brief  overlord- 
ship  of  the  Delhi  emperors  Belgaum  was  administered  by  two  Musalman 
nobles,  posted  at  Hukeri  and  at  Raybag.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  District  was  partitioned  between  the  Hindu 
Rajas  of  Vijayanagar,  who  held  the  portion  south  of  the  Ghatprabha, 
and  the  king  of  Delhi,  who  held  that  to  the  north.  On  the  foundation 
of  the  Bahmani  dynasty  in  1347  the  territories  contained  in  the  latter 
half  fell  under  the  sway  of  that  dynasty,  which  subsequently,  in  1473, 
took    the    town    of   Belgaum    and    conquered    the    southern    division 

L  2 


14S  BELGAUM  DISTRICT 

also.  During  the  next  hiiiKlied  years  the  Vijayauagar  Rajils  niatlc 
luinierous  efforts  to  recover  their  territories,  in  which  they  were  assisted 
l)y  the  Portuguese ;  but  they  failed  to  make  any  lasting  conquests,  and 
were  completely  overthrown  in  the  battle  of  Talikota  (1565).  For  the 
next  hundred  and  twenty  years  Belgaum  may  be  said  to  have  remained 
part  of  the  territories  of  the  Bijajjur  Sultans.  On  the  overthrow  of 
Bijfipur  at  the  hands  of  Aurangzeb  in  1686,  the  District  passed  to 
the  Mughals  and  was  granted  as  a  jaglr  to  the  Nawab  of  Savanur,  who 
subsequently  had  to  relinquish  a  share  to  the  Nizam.  Some  part  oi  it, 
however,  appears  to  have  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Marathas.  About 
1776  the  whole  country  was  overrun  by  Haidar  All,  but  was  subse- 
quently retaken  by  the  Maratha  Peshwa  with  the  assistance  of  the 
British.  In  1818,  after  a  period  of  great  disorder,  during  which  the 
country  was  alternately  harried  by  the  troops  belonging  to  Sindhia, 
Kolhapur,  Nipani,  and  other  chiefs,  the  country  passed  to  the  British 
and  became  part  of  the  District  of  Dharwar ;  but  in  1836  it  was  con- 
sidered advisable  to  divide  the  unwieldy  jurisdiction  into  two  parts. 
The  southern  portion  therefore  continued  to  be  known  as  Dharwar, 
while  the  tract  to  the  north  was  constituted  a  separate  charge. 

Copperplate  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  at  Halsi.  The  Dis- 
trict contains  some  hill  forts,  the  chief  of  which  are  Mahipatgarh, 
Kalanidhgarh,  and  Pargarh.  Scattered  temples  are  ascribed  to  Jakha- 
nacharya  but  are  really  Chalukyan,  a  very  fine  one  being  found  at 
Deganve.  There  is  an  interesting  group  of  prehistoric  burial  dolmens 
at  KoNNUR.  Many  temples  dating  from  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and 
thirteenth  centuries  are  scattered  over  the  District,  of  which  nearly  all 
were  originally  Jain  but  have  been  converted  into  lingam  shrines.  The 
most  noteworthy  are  a  group  in  Belgaum  fort ;  those  at  Deganve, 
Vakkund,  and  Nesargi  in  Sampgaum  ;  groups  at  Huli,  Manoli,  and 
Yellamma  in  Parasgad ;  those  at  Shankeshwar  in  Chikodi,  and  at 
Ramtirth  and  Nandgaon  in  Athni.  The  finest  Musalman  remains  are 
the  fort  and  Safa  mosque  at  Belgaum,  and  the  mosques  and  tombs  at 
Hukeri  and  Sampgaon. 

According  to  the  Census  of  1872  the  population  of  the  District  was 

946,702,     The   next   Census   of   188 1    returned    865,922,    showing   a 

„       ,    .  decrease  of  over  9  per  cent.,  due  to  the  fiimine  in 

Population.         „^Tr,,,--  1  r 

1876.    In  1 89 1  the  population  mcreased  to  1,013,261, 

but  again  fell  in   1901    to    993,976,  owing  to  the  bad  years  of  1892, 

1896,  1899,  and  1900. 

The  table  on  the  next  page  gives  statistics  according  to  the  Census 
of  1901. 

The  Chikodi  and  Sampgaon  tdhikas  contain  many  large  and  rich 
villages  and  are  well  peopled.  The  chief  towns  are  Belgaum,  the 
head-quarters,    Nipani,  Athni,   Gokak,    and   Saundatti-Yellamma. 


POPULATION 


149 


Classified  according  to  religion,  Hindus  form  86  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population,  Musalmans  8  per  cent.,  Jains  5  per  cent.  Among  Hindus 
the  only  special  class  are  the  Lingayats,  a  peculiar  section  of  the  wor- 
shippers of  Siva,  numbering  over  300,000,  of  whom  a  description  will 
be  found  under  Dharwar  District.  The  languages  in  use  are 
MarathI,  mostly  in  the  south  and  west,  and  Kanarese  generally  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  District.  The  latter  is  spoken  by  65  and 
the  former  by  25  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Hindustani  is  used  by  8  per 
cent. 


Number  of 

c 

^« 

0 

^t 

m 

§E 

Mc  goo  0 

<3  0.2  -  0 

fc-SS" 

Talttka, 

u 

u 

<; 
816 

c 

0 

3 

a. 
0 

0- 

"       Populat 
0          square 

Percent 
variat 

populat 
tween 
and  I 

Numb 

persons 

read 

wri 

Athni 

I 

82 

113,077 

-  8 

5,249 

Chikodi     . 

8^6 

2 

210 

304,549 

.364 

+  3 

15,714 

Gokak 

f,7, 

I 

11.^ 

116,127 

173 

—  2 

3,754 

Relganm   . 

644 

I 

201 

137,562 

214 

-  7 

9,839 

Sampgaon 

409 

123 

132,448 

324 

—  I 

6,031 

Parasi^ad   . 

640 

1 

124 

108,311 

169 

—  2 

6,839 

Klianapur 

District  total 

Hi 

... 

2.7 
1,070 

81,902 

129 

-  4 

3,457 

4,649 

6 

993,976 

214 

—  2 

50,883 

The  chief  castes  and  their  occupations  are  :  Brahmans,  or  priests, 
numbering  32,000.  They  are  for  the  most  part  Deshasths  (23,000), 
and  employed  as  writers,  merchants,  traders,  money-lenders,  and  land- 
owners. Ayyas  or  Jangams  (24,000)  are  Lingayat  priests.  Traders  in- 
clude Banjigs  (26,000)  and  Adi-banjigs  (13,000).  There  are  numerous 
Jain  cultivators  and  labourers,  indicating  the  former  supremacy  of  the 
Jain  religion  in  the  Bombay  Carnatic.  Other  cultivators  are  Marathas 
and  Maratha  Kunbls  (175,000),  Chhatris  (9,000),  Hanbars  (15,000), 
and  Lingayat  Panchamsalis  (154,000).  ( draftsmen  include  Panchals 
(15,000)  and  Gaundis  or  Uppars,  builders  and  stone-cutters  (14,000). 
Lingayat  Hongars  or  Malgars  (11,000)  are  flower-sellers.  Shepherds 
include  two  shepherd  castes,  Dhangars  or  Kurubas  (73,000),  and  Gaulis 
who  keep  cows  and  buffaloes.  The  depressed  classes  are  chiefly  the 
Holiars  or  Mahars  (48,000)  and  Mangs  or  Madigs  (22,000).  Along 
the  banks  of  the  Kistna,  in  the  north  of  the  District,  are  many  Kaikadis, 
a  tribe  notorious  for  their  skill  as  highway  robbers  ;  while  the  south  of 
the  District  was  nmch  troubled  in  recent  times  by  Bedars  or  Berads, 
a  thieving  caste  that  assisted  in  the  plundering  of  Vijayanagar  after  the 
battle  of  Talikota.  The  agricultural  population  forms  66  per  cent,  of 
the  total.  Industry  supports  16  per  cent,  and  commerce  i  per  cent. 
Weavers  engaged  in  the  hand-loom  industry  number  more  than  13,000, 
with  11,000  dependents. 


I50  J^EI.GAUM   DISTRICT 

The  District  has  a  considerable  Christian  population.  Of  the  5,366 
native  Christians  in  1901  about  5,000  were  Roman  (Catholics.  The 
majority  arc  Konkani  or  Goa  Catholics,  who  are  immigrants  from  Goa, 
and  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Arclibishop  of  that  place.  The 
others  include  Madras  Catholics  and  Protestants,  who  came  from 
Madras  about  1817.  The  chief  missions  are  an  Anglican  Tamil  Mission 
and  the  American  Methodist  Mission,  with  out-stations  at  Kanbargi, 
Nesargi,  and  Bail  Hongal.  Roman  Catholic  priests  are  resident  in 
Belgaum,  Khanapur,  and  Godoli ;  and  there  are  two  orphanages  and 
a  rescue  home  in  the  District,  which  are  managed  by  independent 
trustees,  but  belong  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission.  A  mission  to 
soldiers,  known  as  the  Soldiers'  Home,  is  situated  in  the  cantonment. 

The  chief  varieties  of  soil  are  black  and  red.  The  black,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  fertile,  is  of  two  kinds.     One  variety  is  very  friable, 

.     .     .  but  when  impregnated  with  moisture  forms  a  tough 

Agriculture.         ,      ,1  u  .  1         .-  ■  •  ^  ..  a 

clay-like  substance,  almost  nnpervious  to  water,  and 

therefore  very  valuable  as  a  lining  for  tanks.  The  other  kind  is  not  so 
tenacious  of  moisture,  and,  unless  it  receives  abundance  of  irrigation, 
either  natural  or  artificial,  not  nearly  so  productive.  In  order  to  bring 
a  waste  of  black  soil  under  tillage,  the  field  must  receive  three  complete 
ploughings^one  direct,  one  transverse,  and  one  diagonal.  It  does  not 
receive  any  further  ploughing  ;  but  annually  before  sowing  the  ground 
is  cleared  and  the  surface  loosened  with  a  small  knife.  The  red  and 
sandy  soils  are  very  apt  to  cake  and  harden  after  rain,  so  that  the  field 
must  be  ploughed  every  year — if  possible,  once  lengthwise  and  a  second 
time  transversely.  This  is  done  by  a  smaller  plough  of  the  same  con- 
struction as  the  large  plough  used  for  black  fields,  but  lighter.  Fields 
of  pure  black  soil  do  not  receive  manure  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
out-turn  from  red  and  sandy  lands  seems  to  depend  almost  entirely 
on  the  amount  of  dressing  they  have  received. 

On  'dry'  fields,  most  of  the  grain,  pulses,  oilseeds,  and  fibres  are 
sown  ;  some  are  cultivated  on  red  and  sandy  soils  during  the  rainy 
months  ;  others  are  grown  on  black  soil  as  a  cold-season  crf)p. 
Cotton  is  raised  entirely  on  black  soil  as  a  cold-season  crop. 

The  District  is  almost  wholly  ryotwari.  Inam  or  jdgir  lands  cover 
983  square  miles.  The  chief  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4  are 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  in  square  miles. 

Jojmr,  the  staple  of  the  District,  occupying  884  square  miles,  is 
grown  in  all  parts,  especially  in  Chikodi,  Athni,  Gokak,  Parasgad,  and 
Sampgaon.  Bajra  covered  297  square  miles,  chiefly  in  Athni,  Gokak, 
and  Chikodi.  The  south-western  portion,  being  too  wet  for  millets, 
produces  rice  (176  square  miles)  and  the  coarse  hill  grains.  Wheat 
(157  square  miles)  is  the  prominent  crop  of  Parasgad.  Rale-kang  or 
Italian  millet  occupied  118  square  miles.     Pulses  occupied  t^2)c>  ^q^ai'e 


AGRICULTURE 


15T 


miles  ;  of  these,  92  square  miles  were  under  tur,  98  under  kulith  or 
horse-gram,  and  62  square  miles  under  gram.  Oilseeds  were  grown  on 
98  square  miles.  Chikodi  is  famous  for  its  sugar-cane  and  fruit  and 
vegetable  gardens.  Tobacco  (35  square  miles)  is  an  important  crop  in 
Chikodi  in  gardens  or  on  favourable  plots  near  villages  or  along  rivers 
and  streams.  Cotton,  covering  352  sqaare  miles,  is  the  most  valuable 
crop  grown  in  the  District.  It  is  especially  important  in  Athni,  Paras- 
gad,  and  Gokak. 


Tahikci. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forest. 

Athni 
Chikodi     . 
Gokak 
Belgauni    . 
Sampgaon 
Parasgad  . 
Khanapur. 

Total 

816 

837 
671 

644 

410 

639 

633 

701 
689 

519 
309 
348 
526 

243 

10 

28 

19 

7 

9 

I 

6 

9 

20 

10 
18 
10 

21 

22 

I 

33 
92 

135 
25 
49 

340 

4.6-10* 

3>335 

80 

no 

675 

*  Statistics  are  not  available  for  2y]\  square  miles  of  this  area.    These  figures 
are  based  upon  the  latest  information. 

American  cotton  was  introduced  in  1845,  and  is  planted  to  a  small 
e.xtent  in  Parasgad  and  Sampgaon.  It  has  greatly  degenerated  in  the 
course  of  years.  The  cultivators  avail  themselves  freely  of  the  Land 
Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts.  During  the  decade 
ending  1903-4  more  than  17-4  lakhs  was  advanced,  of  which  4-2,  3-2, 
and  3  lakhs  was  lent  in  1896-7,  1899-1900,  and  1901  respectively. 

Cattle  of  inferior  quality  are  bred  by  Dhangars  in  the  forest  tracts  of 
Khanapur  and  Belgaum,  the  majority  of  better  breed  being  imported 
from  Mysore  and  other  places.  Bullocks  of  eight  breeds  are  found  in 
all  parts,  the  strongest  and  largest  being  imported  from  South 
Kathiawar,  and  the  best-trotting  oxen  from  Mysore.  Of  local  breeds, 
the  Nagdi  are  the  most  useful  and  hardy.  Buffaloes  do  not  thrive  near 
the  Western  Ghats  ;  but  the  Gaulis,  Hanbars,  and  Dhangars  of  Samp- 
gaon, Gokak,  and  the  eastern  tract  rear  buffaloes  of  a  good  type.  The 
so-called  Nagdi  buffaloes  are  reputed  the  best.  Ponies  of  a  small  and 
ugly  type  are  bred  locally,  as  also  are  donkeys  and  pigs  by  Vaddars  and 
other  low-caste  Hindus.  Sheep  of  two  breeds,  the  Kenguri  with  a  soft 
red  wool  and  the  Yelga  with  white  or  black,  are  reared  by  Dhangars, 
while  goats  of  four  varieties  are  ubiquitous.  The  best  breed  of  the 
latter  is  known  as   Kui.sheli. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated,  80  square  miles,  or  3  per  cent.,  were 
irrigated  in  1903-4.  Government  canals  supplied  15  square  miles, 
tanks  16,  wells  46,  and  other  sources  10  square  miles.  The  water- 
supply  is  plentiful    except  in  the  east.     Irrigation  is  largely  employed 


152  JiELGAUM    DISTRICT 

for  rice  and  vegetables  in  the  best  portions  of  the  western  half  of  the 
District.  Of  the  recently  improved  reservoirs  the  chief  is  the  Gadekeri 
lake  about  15  miles  south-east  of  Kelgaum,  in  the  Sampgaon  taliika^ 
which  has  an  area  of  129  acres  and  a  maximum  depth  of  5  feet.  The 
catchment  basin  measures  4-68  square  miles,  and  the  average  rainfall  is 
29  inches.  It  supplied  337  acres  in  1903-4.  The  most  important 
water-work  is  the  Gokak  canal  and  storage  reservoir.  A  masonry  weir 
lias  been  built  across  the  Ghatprabha  where  its  catchment  area,  in- 
cluding that  of  its  chief  tributaries  the  Tamraparni  and  the  Harankashi, 
is  about  1,100  square  miles,  of  which  a  large  extent  lies  in  the  Western 
Ghats.  The  storage  work  and  the  first  section  of  the  canal  were  com- 
pleted at  a  cost  of  12-2  lakhs,  the  capital  outlay  to  the  end  of  1903-4 
being  12-9  lakhs.  The  Gokak  canals  command  28  square  miles,  and 
irrigate  an  average  of  16  square  miles.  Wells  used  for  irrigation  are 
most  common  in  Chikodi  and  Belgaum.  In  Khanapur  no  wells  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  In  1993-4  wells  and  tanks  used  for  irrigation 
numbered  12,660  and  1,161  respectively. 

In  the  west  of  the  District,  among  the  spurs  of  the  Western  Ghats,  is 
a  considerable  area  of  forest  land.  Formerly  large  tracts  were  yearly 
destroyed  by  indiscriminate  cultivation  of  shifting 
patches  of  fire-cleared  woodland.  This  form  of 
tillage  has  now  been  limited  to  small  areas,  specially  set  apart  for  the 
jnirpose.  The  District  possesses  665  square  miles  of  '  reserved  '  and 
10  square  miles  of '  protected  '  forest.  Of  this  total,  51  square  miles 
are  in  charge  of  the  Revenue  department.  It  is  very  unevenly  distri- 
buted, the  large  tdhihas  of  Athni  and  Parasgad  having  little  or  no 
forest,  while  Khanapur  has  twice  as  much  forest  as  tillage.  The 
forest  administration  is  under  a  divisional  officer,  assisted  by  a  sub- 
divisional  officer.  The  Belgaum  forests  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
'  moist '  and  '  dry,'  the  '  dry  '  lying  east  of  the  Poona-Harihar  road  and 
the  '  moist '  lying  west  of  the  road.  The  latter  includes  the  forests  of 
Belgaum  and  Khanapur,  about  500  square  miles.  The  '  dry  '  forest,  about 
one-eighth  of  which  is  stocked  with  useful  wood,  is  very  poor  and  stony, 
yielding  only  firewood  scrub  with  a  few  small  poles  fit  for  hut-building. 
The  produce  is  chiefly  cactus,  four  kinds  of  fig,  di/idai,  and  tarvar. 
The  most  important  trees  in  the  '  moist '  forest  are  teak,  black-wood, 
honne  (^Pterocarpus  Marsiipiuin),  hirda  or  myrabolam,  and  jack-wood. 
There  are  also  a  few  babul  Reserves.  The  forest  supplies  large  quan- 
tities of  firewood  to  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway.  The  total  forest 
receipts  in   1903-4  were  277   lakhs. 

Diamonds  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  sandstone  towards 
Kolhapur  and  gold  in  the  valley  of  the  Malprabha.  Iron  was  formerly 
smelted  in  Belgaum,  Gokak,  and  Sampgaon,  and  near  the  Ram  pass. 
The  ore  is  generally  peroxide  of  iron,  with  a  mixture  of  clay,  quartz. 


TRADE  AND    COMMUNICATIONS  153 

and  lime.  All  the  laterite  of  the  District  is  charged  with  irun,  though 
in  too  small  a  proportion  to  make  it  worth  smelting.  The  manufacture 
of  iron  has  now  ceased,  partly  on  account  of  the  increased  cost  of  fuel 
and  partly  because  of  the  fall  in  the  price  of  iron.  Besides  iron,  the 
only  metallic  ore  which  occurs  in  any  quantity  is  an  earthy  powdery 
form  of  peroxide  of  manganese,  which  is  found  among  weathered 
dolomite  at  Bhimgarh. 

Next  to  agriculture,  hand-loom  weaving  forms  the  chief  industry  of  the 
District.  The  weavers  are  generally  Lingayats  or 
Musalmans,  with  a  small  sprinkling  of  Marathas.  The  commurfi^ations. 
finer  sorts  of  cloth  are  manufactured  only  in  two  or 
three  towns.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  cjuantity  of  cloth  sent  to  the 
neighbouring  Districts,  the  produce  of  its  hand-looms  is  almost  entirely 
consumed  in  Belgaum.  Simple  dyeing  and  tanning  are  carried  on  over 
the  whole  District.  Gokak  town  was  once  famous  for  its  dyers,  and  is 
still  noted  for  a  coarse  kind  of  paper  made  in  large  quantities.  Gokak 
toys,  made  both  from  light  kinds  of  wood  and  from  a  peculiar  kind 
of  earth,  are  also  celebrated.  They  consist  of  models  of  men  and 
gods,  fruits  and  vegetables.  A  factory  for  spinning  and  weaving 
cotton  yarn  was  established  at  Gokak,  by  an  English  company,  in 
1887.  The  mills  are  worked  by  water-power  supplied  from  the  falls  of 
the  Ghatprabha  from  a  height  of  about  170  feet.  The  average  daily 
number  of  labourers  employed  in  the  factory  is  2,038,  and  the  yearly 
out-turn  amounts  to  5,000,000  lb.  The  railway  station  for  the  mills 
is  Dhupdhal. 

The  capitalists  of  the  District  are  chiefly  Marwaris  and  Brahmans, 
but  in  the  town  of  Belgaum  there  are  a  few  Musalmans  who  possess 
comfortable  fortunes.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  cloth  and  silk, 
the  chief  exports  being  rice,  jaggery,  tobacco,  and  cotton,  and  the  chief 
imports  cloth,  silk,  salt,  and  grain.  In  several  villages  throughout 
the  District  markets  are  held  at  fixed  intervals,  usually  once  a  week. 
These  markets  supply  the  wants  of  the  country  round  w-ithin  a  radius 
of  about  6  miles,  containing  as  a  rule  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
villages  and  hamlets. 

The  West  Deccan  section  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway, 
crossing  the  District  from  north  to  south,  was  opened  in  1887.  The 
line  passes  through  the  Khanapur,  Belgaum,  Chikodi,  Gokak,  and 
Athni  tahikas.  A  considerable  traffic  which  used  to  pass  along  the 
Poona-Harihar  road,  or  coastwards  by  the  ghat  passes,  is  now  carried 
by  the  railway.  At  Londa,  a  station  in  the  Khanapur  td/uka,  the  West 
Deccan  section  connects  with  the  Bangalore  and  the  Marmagao  lines, 
and  in  the  spring  a  large  amount  of  produce  finds  its  way  to  the  sea  by 
the  latter  route.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  498  miles,  and 
of  unmetalled  roads  515  miles.      Of  these,  449  miles  of  metalled  and 


154  nELUAUM   DISTRICT 

62  of  unnictalled  roads  arc  niaintaincd  by  the  Public  Works  depart- 
ment. The  chief  roads  are  the  Harihar  road,  the  Belgaum-Amboli- 
Vengurla  road,  the  Nipani-Mahalingpur  road,  the  road  from  Sankeshwar 
to  Dharwar  via  Hukeri,  (jokak,  and  Saundatti,  the  road  from  Shedbal 
to  Bijapur  via  Athni,  and  the  Belgaum-Khanapur  road  to  Londa  and 
Kanara. 

The  District  has  suffered  from  constant  scarcities  owing  to  the 
uncertainty  of  its  rainfall.  The  earliest  recorded  failure  of  rain  led  to 
the  great  Durga-devI  famine.  Subsequent  famines 
occurred  in  1419,  1472-3  (exceptional  distress),  1790 
(caused  by  the  raids  of  the  Marathas),  1 791-2  (failure  of  early  rain), 
1802-3  (caused  by  the  depredation  of  the  Pindaris),  1832-3,  1853,  and 
1876-7.  The  need  of  Government  help  began  about  the  middle  of 
September,  1876.  At  the  height  of  the  famine  in  May,  1877,  there 
were  43,196  persons  on  relief  works  and  7,641  in  receipt  of  gratuitous 
relief.  After  fifteen  years  the  District  again  (1892)  suffered  from  famine, 
which  chiefly  affected  three  of  its  taiukas,  Athni,  Gokak,  and  Parasgad, 
and  relief  works  were  opened.  In  1896  the  rains  were  indifferent,  and 
nearly  one-third  of  the  total  area  of  the  District  was  distressed,  relief 
being  again  required.  In  1899  the  rains  failed,  bringing  on  intense 
scarcity  in  Athni,  Gokak,  Parasgad,  and  part  ofChikodi.  Relief  works 
were  opened  in  December,  1900,  and  continued  till  October,  1902. 
The  highest  number  relieved  in  a  day  on  works  was  16,313  (excluding 
5,672  dependents)  in  August,  1901,  5,876  being  in  receipt  of  gratuitous 
relief.  It  is  calculated  that  the  excess  of  mortality  over  the  normal 
during  the  three  years  was  60,000,  and  that  100,000  cattle  died. 
Exclusive  of  advances  to  the  agriculturists  and  remissions,  the  famine 
in  the  District  cost  5  lakhs.  Remissions  of  land  revenue  and  advances 
amounted  to  about  2  lakhs. 

The  District  is  divided  into  seven  taiukas  :  Athni,  Chikodi,  Bel- 
gaum,  Gokak,  Sampgaon,  Khanapur,  and  Parasgad.  The  Collector 
is  usually  assisted  by  two  officers  of  the  Indian  Civil 
Service  and  one  Deputy-Collector  recruited  in  India. 
There  are  three  petty  subdivisions  {pethas)  :  Murgod  in  Parasgad, 
Hukeri  in  Chikodi,  and  Chandgad  in  the  Belgaum  tdluka. 

The  District  and  Sessions  Judge  at  Belgaum  is  assisted  by  five  Sub- 
ordinate Judges  for  civil  business.  There  are  altogether  seventeen 
officers  to  administer  criminal  justice  in  the  District.  The  commonest 
offences  are  burglary  and  theft. 

On  the  acquisition  of  Belgaum  in  18 18  the  Maratha  assessment 
remained  for  a  time  unrevised,  although  Baji  Rao's  revenue-farming 
system,  which  had  wrought  great  havoc  in  the  District,  was  immediately 
suspended  in  favour  of  the  personal  or  ryoHvdri,  then  known  as  the 
Madras  system.     A  survey  was  attempted  during  the   first  ten  years 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


155 


of  British  rule,  but  no  revision  of  assessment  was  carried  out.  The 
principal  features  of  the  land-rent  settlement  between  181 8  and  1848 
were  a  very  high  nominal  demand  and  the  annual  grant  of  large 
remissions  after  inspection  of  the  crops.  The  assessment  both  by  village 
and  holding  was  very  unequally  distributed.  The  settlement  of  the 
District  began  in  1848-9.  It  was  at  first  introduced  into  108  villages 
of  the  Parasgad  idli/ka,  and  by  1 860-1  the  whole  District  had  been 
surveyed  and  its  assessment  fixed  for  thirty  years.  The  villages  were 
arranged  in  five  or  more  classes,  the  rate  of  assessment  per  acre  for 
each  class  being  fixed  in  accordance  with  climatic  conditions,  pro- 
pinquity of  markets,  and  other  circumstances.  The  net  result  was  the 
reduction  of  the  total  revenue  from  6-4  to  5-5  lakhs.  The  revision 
survey  settlement  was  introduced  into  the  District  in  1879  and  was 
completed  by  1897.  The  revision  found  an  increase  in  the  cultivated 
area  of  2  per  cent,  and  enhanced  the  total  revenue  from  8-5  to  10-9  lakhs. 
The  average  assessment  per  acre  of  '  dry '  land  is  13  annas,  of  rice  land 
Rs.  3-8,  and  of  garden  land  Rs.  2—7. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880- 1. 

1890-1. 

21,6.^ 
31,04 

1 900-1. 

190.^-4. 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

17,68 
24,05 

20,26 
35,96 

22,55 
31,50 

The  District  contains  six  municipalities  :  namely,  Belgaum,  Nipani, 
Athni,  Gokak,  Saundatti,  and  Yamkanmardi,  the  total  annual 
income  of  which  averages  a  lakh.  Outside  these,  local  affairs  are 
managed  by  a  District  board  and  seven  tdluka  boards,  with  an  average 
income  of  2-2  lakhs.  The  principal  source  of  their  income  is  the  land 
cess.  The  expenditure  in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-3  lakhs,  including 
one  lakh  spent  on  roads  and  buildings. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  aided  by  two  Assistants 
and  two  inspectors.  There  are  fourteen  police  stations  in  the  District. 
The  police  number  667,  including  11  chief  constables,  139  head 
constables,  and  517  constables.  The  mounted  police  number  12,  under 
2  daffaddrs.  There  are  10  subsidiary  jails  in  the  District,  with 
accommodation  for  244  prisoners.  The  daily  average  number  of 
prisoners  in  1904  was  81,  of  whom  6  were  females. 

Belgaum  stands  eleventh  among  the  twenty-four  Districts  of  the 
Presidency  in  regard  to  the  literacy  of  its  population,  of  whom  5-1 
(males  9'8  and  females  0-3)  could  read  and  write  in  1901.  In  1881  the 
number  of  schools  was  200,  with  12,386  pupils.  The  latter  number  rose 
to  22,064  in  1891  ;  and  in  1901  there  were  16,239  pupils,  of  whom 
852  were  in  47  private  schools.     In  1903  4  there  were  352  schools, 


156  BELGAUM  DISTRICT 

of  wliich  37  were  private  institutions,  attended  by  12,927  pupils, 
including  i,Sf)7  girls.  Of  the  public  institutions,  2  are  high  schools, 
6  middle,  and  307  primary  schools.  Of  the  institutions  classed  as 
public,  one  is  supjwrted  by  Government,  220  are  managed  by  local, 
30  by  municipal  boards,  and  64  are  aided.  The  total  expenditure  on 
education  in  1903-4  was  1-38  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  22,500  was  derived 
from  fees,  and  Rs.  34,000  was  contributed  by  Local  funds.  Of  the  total, 
75  per  cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  education. 

Belgaum  ];)istrict  contains  one  hospital,  five  dispensaries,  and  one 
railway  medical  institution,  accommodating  86  in-patients.  In  these 
institutions  48,000  patients  were  treated  in  1904,  including  714  in- 
patients, and  1,386  operations  were  performed.  The  total  expenditure, 
exclusive  of  the  railway  dispensary,  was  about  Rs.  14,500,  of  which 
about  Rs.  6,000  was  met  from  municipal  and  Local  funds. 

The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was 
20,758,  rei)resenting  a  proportion  of  21  per  1,000  of  population, 
which  is  lower  than  the  average  for  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Gazetteer  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  vol.  xxi 
(1884) ;  J.  F.  Fleet,  Dynasties  of  the  Kanarese  Districts  (1896) ;  E.  Stack, 
Meinorandiini  on  Land  Revenue  Settlements  (Calcutta,  1880).] 

Belgaum  Taluka. — Central  tdluJia  of  Belgaum  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  15°  41'  and  16°  3'  N.  and  74°  2'  and  74°  43'  E.,  with  an 
area,  including  the  Chandgad  petty  subdivision  {petha),  of  644  square 
miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Belgaum  (population,  36,878),  the 
head-quarters;  and  201  villages.  The  population  in  1901  was  137,562, 
compared  with  147,150  in  1891,  the  decrease  being  largely  due  to 
the  ravages  of  plague.  The  density,  214  persons  per  square  mile,  is 
about  the  average  for  the  District.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  1-9  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  16,000.  In  the  north-west 
of  Belgaum,  long  sandstone  ridges  border  and  in  many  places  cross 
the  central  plain.  In  the  west,  close  to  the  Western  Ghats,  the  climate 
is  damp,  while  to  the  east  it  is  more  pleasant.  The  annual  rainfall  is 
fairly  heavy,  averaging  52  inches.  Round  Belgaum  town  the  country 
is  richly  cultivated. 

Belgaum  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Southern  Division  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  situated  in  15° 
51'  N.  and  74°  31'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  2,500  feet  above  sea- 
level,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  basin  of  a  watercourse  called  the 
Bellary  nullah,  and  on  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway.  Population 
(1901),  36,878,  including  the  cantonment  (10,641)  and  suburbs  (3,803). 
The  municipality  was  establi.shed  in  1851.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1 90 1  the  income  averaged  about  Rs.  50,000.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  51,500,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi  (Rs.  22,000),  conservancy 
rates  (Rs.  9,100),  and   taxes  on   houses  and  land  (Rs.  4,600).     The 


BELGAUM  TOWN  157 

expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  50,000,  including  general  administration 
(Rs.  6,400),  public  safety  (Rs.  2,300),  conservancy  (Rs.  15,900),  public 
works  (Rs.  4,coo),  and  public  instruction  (Rs.  9,900).  The  average 
receipts  of  the  cantonment  funds  are  Rs.  25,000. 

The  native  town  lies  between  the  fort  on  the  east  and  the  canton- 
ment, which  extends  along  its  western  front,  separated  from  it  by 
a  watercourse.  It  forms  an  irregular  ellipse,  approximating  to  a  circle, 
of  which  the  shorter  axis  is  about  1,300  yards.  The  rock  on  which  the 
town  is  built  consists  of  laterite,  lying  upon  Deccan  trap.  The  site 
is  well  wooded.  Bamboos,  from  which  Venugrama,  the  ancient  name 
of  the  town,  is  said  to  be  derived,  are  plentiful,  and  mangoes,  tamarinds, 
and  banyans  also  abound.  The  fort,  about  1,000  yards  in  length 
and  700  yards  in  breadth  and  occupying  an  area  of  about  100  acres, 
is  surrounded  by  a  broad  and  deep  wet  ditch,  cut  in  hard  ground.  It 
appears  to  have  been  built  in  15 19  and  contains  two  Jain  temples 
of  great  interest.  The  dargdh  of  Asad  Khan  and  the  Safa  Masjid  will 
also  repay  a  visit.  Belgaum  was  the  chief  town  of  a  district  known  as 
the  Belgaum  'seventy'  in  11 60.  About  1205  the  Rattas  captured  it 
from  the  Goa  Kadambas  and  made  it  their  capital.  In  1250  it  passed 
from  the  Rattas  to  the  Yadavas.  In  1375  the  fortress  of  Belgaum  was 
included  in  Vijayanagar  territory.  After  being  held  by  Muhammadan 
rulers  the  fort  passed  to  the  Peshwas  about  1754.  In  1818,  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  Peshwa,  the  place  was  invested  by  a  British  force. 
It  held  out  for  twenty-one  days,  after  which  the  garrison  of  1,600  men 
capitulated,  having  lost  20  killed  and  50  wounded,  while  the  British 
loss  amounted  to  1 1  killed  and  1 2  wounded. 

Belgaum,  since  its  acquisition  by  the  British,  has  increased  greatly  in 
size  and  wealth.  It  was  chosen  as  the  civil  head-quarters  of  the  District 
in  1838.  It  is  a  military  station  of  the  Poona  division  of  the  Western 
Command,  and  is  usually  garrisoned  by  British  and  Native  infantry  and 
a  battery  of  artillery.  Of  recent  years  it  has  suffered  severely  from 
recurring  epidemics  of  plague,  which  have  driven  many  of  the  residents 
to  remove  from  the  town  site  and  to  erect  houses  in  the  vicinity.  The 
principal  articles  of  trade  are  salt,  dried  fish,  dates,  coco-nuts,  and  coir, 
imported  from  the  sea-coast,  chiefly  from  the  port  of  Vengurla.  Grain 
of  all  kinds,  sugar,  and  molasses  are  also  brought  from  the  country 
round.  The  city  contains  more  than  300  hand-looms  for  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  cloth.  The  water-supply  is  derived  entirely  from  wells. 
Besides  9  municipal  boys'  schools  with  980  pupils  and  4  girls'  schools 
with  323  pupils,  there  are  two  high  schools  with  about  500  pupils,  one 
a  Government  institution,  the  other  belonging  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Mission.  There  are  also  two  schools  for  European  and  Eurasian  boys 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  convent  for  girls.  Belgaum  is  the  residence 
of  the  Commissioner  of  the  Southern  Division.     Besides  the  ordinary 


158  BELGAUM   7VJIW 

revenue  and  judicial  oflfices,  the  town  contains  a  cantonment  magis- 
trate's court  and  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  civil  hospital,  and 
a  railway  dispensary. 

Beliapatam.-  A'illage  and  river  in  Malabar  District,  Madras.     See 
Vat-arpatianam. 

Bellamkonda  ('  the  hill  of  caves '). — Hill  fortress  in  the  Sattanapalle 
fd/uk  of  Guntur  District,  Madras,  situated  in  16°  30'  N.  and  80°  E. 
The  works  consist  of  a  single  stone  wall,  connecting  the  elevated  points 
of  the  hill  and  having  bastions  at  the  south-east  and  north-west  angles, 
which  terminate  the  two  extremities  of  the  principal  front.  The 
entrance,  which  is  in  this  front,  at  about  a  third  of  its  length  from  the 
north-west  bastion,  is  gained  by  a  winding  pathway  from  the  foot  of 
the  hill  near  the  village.  In  shape,  the  fort  is  roughly  an  equilateral 
triangle,  enclosing  an  area  of  irregular  elevation  of  about  one-sixteenth 
of  a  square  mile.  The  wall  is  in  a  very  ruinous  state,  every  shower 
loosening  and  bringing  down  parts  of  it.  The  two  bastions  are  the 
most  perfect  parts,  but  even  these  from  their  overhanging  position  seem 
to  threaten  destruction  to  everything  below.  The  interior  is  overgrown 
with  bushes  and  long  grass,  which  obstruct  the  passage  to  the  eastern 
and  western  faces  in  many  parts.  There  still  remain  some  buildings 
of  stone,  the  old  magazine  and  storerooms.  The  highest  point  is 
1,569  feet  above  the  sea.  The  early  history  of  the  fortress  is  obscure. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  the  Reddi  kings  of  Kondavid. 
After  their  power  had  passed  away  in  1482  it  perhaps  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Orissa  kings,  for  Firishta  says  it  was  taken  by  the  Sultan  of 
Golconda  from  a  Telugu  Raja  who  was  a  vassal  of  Orissa.  In  1531  the 
Orissa  king  took  the  place  a  second  time  by  a  general  escalade,  regard- 
less of  the  loss  of  his  best  troops.  It  must  afterwards  have  reverted  to 
the  kings  of  Vijayanagar,  for  it  was  finally  taken  by  the  Muhammadans 
in  1578,  when  they  put  an  end  to  Hindu  rule  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  English  had  a  few  troops 
stationed  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill  in  mud  huts. 

Bellary  District  {Balldri). — The  westernmost  of  the  four  Ceded 
Districts  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  lying  between  14°  28'  and  15° 
58'  N.  and  75°  40'  and  77°  38'  E.,  with  an  area  of  5,714  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  river  Tungabhadra,  which 
divides  it  from  the  Bombay  Presidency  and  the  Nizam's  Dominions ; 
on  the  east  by  Kurnool  and  Anantapur  Districts  ;  and  on  the  south  by 
the  State  of  Mysore. 

Bellary  lies  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Deccan  plateau,  and  the 

trend  of  the  country  is  towards  the  north-east,  ranging 

^soects^         from  an  elevation  of  over  2,000  feet  above  the  sea  on 

the  south  to  about  1,000  feet  in  the  north-east  corner. 

The   District  is  divided  east  and  west   by  the  range  of  hills   in  the 


BELLARY  DISTRICT  159 

midst  of  which  lies  the  Native  State  of  Sandur.  To  the  west  the  surface 
of  the  country  is  broken  by  various  ranges  of  small  hills,  especially  in 
the  Kudligi  and  Harpanahalli  taluks,  where  the  land  rises  to  join  the 
Mysore  plateau,  and  is  often  well  wooded  and  generally  picturesque. 
To  the  east  lies  a  vast  expanse  of  level,  almost  treeless,  dreary,  black 
cotton  soil,  forming  two-thirds  of  the  District,  which  is  broken  only  by 
two  small  groups  of  hills  in  the  extreme  north  and  south,  and  by  those 
granite  masses,  springing  abruptly  from  the  surrounding  country,  which 
form  such  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Deccan.  The  central  rock 
of  these  is  usually  surrounded  by  loose  boulders,  sometimes  of  enormous 
size,  split  off  by  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  of  every  variety  of 
colouring  from  warm  reds  and  browns  to  pale  slaty  greys.  The  principal 
hills  outside  of  Sandur  are  those  round  Kampli,  Adoni,  and  Rayadrug, 
and  the  Copper  Mountain  range.  The  Kampli  group  is  an  irregular 
semicircle  of  barren  hills  lying  to  the  north  of  Sandur  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tungabhadra,  and  is  mainly  interesting  as  forming  the  site  and 
natural  fortification  of  the  ancient  city  of  Vijayanagar.  The  Copper 
Mountain,  so  called  from  mines  no  longer  worked,  is  a  small  range 
7  miles  west  of  Bellary  town,  running  parallel  to  the  Sandur  hills  and 
rising  to  a  height  of  3,285  feet.  The  hills  at  Adoni  and  Rayadrug,  on 
which  stand  the  ancient  forts  of  those  towns,  run  up  to  2,000  and 
2,727  feet  respectively.  With  the  exception  of  the  Sandur  range,  there 
is  very  little  vegetation  on  any  of  these  elevations,  and  no  real  forest. 

The  river  system  of  the  District  consists  of  the  Tungabhadra  and  its 
tributaries.  The  Tungabhadra,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Tunga 
and  Bhadra,  both  rising  near  the  south-western  frontier  of  Mysore, 
skirts  the  District  on  its  western  and  northern  borders  for  about  195 
miles  and  eventually  falls  into  the  Kistna  near  Kurnool.  During  the 
hot  season  its  stream  is  low  and  easily  fordable  in  many  places ;  but 
from  June  to  October,  after  the  south-west  monsoon,  the  waters  rise 
from  15  to  25  feet  and  the  river  in  several  places  exceeds  half  a  mile  in 
breadth.  When  not  fordable,  it  is  crossed  (except  in  heavy  floods)  by 
means  of  coracles  made  of  bamboo  frames  covered  with  hides.  At 
Vijayanagar  the  river  passes  through  a  fine  granite  gorge,  and  below 
this  its  course  is  studded  with  rocks  which  render  navigation  impossible 
in  the  dry  season.  Its  waters  abound  with  crocodiles,  and  considerable 
quantities  of  fish  are  netted.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Southern  Mahratta 
and  Madras  Railways  at  Hosuru  and  Rampuram  respectively.  The 
more  notable  places  upon  its  banks  are  Vijayanagar,  Kampli,  and 
Mailar.  The  Hagari  or  Vedavati,  the  main  tributary  of  the  Tunga- 
bhadra in  the  District,  rises  in  Mysore,  and  after  flowing  through  the 
Rayadrug  and  Bellary  taluks  falls  into  the  Tungabhadra  at  Halekota. 
It  is  a  very  broad  and  shallow  stream,  with  a  total  length  of  about 
280  miles,  of  which  125  are  in  this  District,  and  rarely  has  any  flow  of 


i6o  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

water  tor  more  tliaii  live  moiitlis  in  the  year.  I'he  sand  from  its  bed, 
carried  liy  the  prevaihng  south-westerly  winds,  is  perpetually  encroach- 
ing on  the  land  along  its  eastern  banks.  At  Moka,  12  miles  from 
liellary,  the  sand-beds  are  nearly  2  miles  broad.  The  channel  of  the 
river  varies  from  a  ([uarter  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width,  and  even 
at  flood-time  the  water  rarely  exceeds  4  feet  in  depth.  The  Southern 
Mahratta  Railway  bridges  it  at  Paramadevanahalli.  The  Chikka  Hagari 
is  a  small  stream,  also  rising  in  Mysore,  which,  after  crossing  the  western 
taluks,  falls  into  the  Tungabhadra  at  Kittanuru.  Though  it  comes 
down  occasionally  in  heavy  floods  during  the  monsoons,  it  is  perfectly 
dry  for  many  months  in  the  year.  The  irrigation  from  these  rivers  is 
referred  to  below. 

Five-sixths  of  Bellary  is  covered  with  Archaean  rocks,  granitoid  and 
gneissic,  and  the  little  barren  hills,  characteristic  of  the  Deccan,  are 
formed  of  these.  Superimposed  upon  them  are  four  well-marked  bands 
of  the  younger  Dharwar  series,  which  run  right  across  the  District  from 
north-west  to  south-east.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  line  forming  the 
Sandur  hills,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  immense  quantities  of  rich 
hematite  it  contains.  There  is  also  an  old  gold-mine  in  it.  Quartz 
tops  several  of  the  hills,  and  trap  dikes  of  great  length  and  width  are 
further  characteristics  of  the  geology  of  the  District. 

In  the  drier  eastern  taluks  the  flora  consists  largely  of  such  drought- 
resisting  plants  as  Euphorbias,  acacias,  and  Asclepiads,  and  the  Acacia 
arabica  and  the  margosa  {Afelia  Azadirachta)  are  the  characteristic 
trees.  In  the  west  the  growth  is  more  luxuriant  and  date-palms  flourish 
in  the  damper  hollows.  Over  all  the  waste  lands  grow  the  yellow- 
flowered  Cassia  auriculata  and  the  Dodonaea.  The  chief  trees  in  such 
forests  as  the  District  possesses  are  referred  to  under  Forests  below. 

Leopards  are  fairly  numerous  in  the  hills  of  Sandur  and  in  the 
Kiidligi  and  Harpanahalli  tdluks,  where  their  depredations  on  cattle 
are  considerable.  Bears  are  found  in  the  western  hills,  and  hyenas 
and  wolves  in  Harpanahalli.  Wild  hog  infest  the  Kampli  hills  and 
parts  of  the  Kudligi  tiiluk,  and  do  much  damage  to  crops.  There  are 
also  a  considerable  number  of  chitikara  (gazelle)  and  antelope  in  the 
western  taluks  and  in  Adoni,  but  they  are  not  often  to  be  seen  in  the 
flatter  eastern  taluks.  Of  the  larger  game-birds,  peafowl  and  bustard 
are  found  in  Hadagalli  and  Harpanahalli.  The  former  are  especially 
common  along  the  banks  of  the  Tungabhadra. 

The  climate  of  the  District  is  exceedingly  dry  throughout  and 
correspondingly  healthy.  The  only  parts  which  are  at  all  malarious  are 
the  Kudligi  taluk,  where  there  are  numerous  hills  and  tanks  (artificial 
irrigation  reservoirs),  and  the  irrigated  cultivation  along  the  Tunga- 
bhadra. The  western  taluks,  especially  Harpanahalli,  where  the 
temperature  approximates   Xo  that  of  the  Mysore  plateau,  are  consider- 


HISTORY  10  r 

ably  cooler  than  the  eastern.  The  average  mean  of  the  year  at  Bellary 
town  is  82°,  but  this  is  considerably  exceeded  at  Adoni.  Ramandrug, 
the  little  military  sanitarium  on  the  Sandur  hills,  has  an  average 
temperature  about  1 2°  cooler  than  Bellary. 

Lying  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  Peninsula,  the  District  gets  rain 
from  both  monsoons,  but  only  after  their  supply  is  almost  exhausted. 
Though  everywhere  very  light,  the  fall  varies  considerably  in  different 
parts.  It  is  heaviest  at  Ramandrug  (39  inches),  and  the  Adoni  and 
Hospet  taluks  (27  inches)  receive  a  good  deal  more  than  the  western 
taluks  or  Bellary  and  Rayadrug.  In  these  last  two  the  average  fall  is 
only  19  inches,  and  they  form  one  of  the  driest  tracts  in  the  Presidency. 
Rather  more  than  half  the  year's  supply  is  received  during  the  south- 
west monsoon.  The  rainfall  is  not  only  small  but  also  very  uncertain, 
and  Bellary  has  suffered  constantly  from  prolonged  droughts  and  fre- 
quent deficiencies  in  the  monsoons.  Except  for  famine,  it  has,  how- 
ever, been  peculiarly  free  of  late  years  from  serious  natural  calamities. 
In  1804,  during  the  south-west  monsoon,  there  was  a  series  of  terrific 
storms  during  which  hundreds  of  tanks  were  breached  ;  and  again  in 
1 85 1  a  cyclone  swept  through  the  District,  washing  away  several  villages, 
and  destroying  many  roads  and  irrigation  works.  The  Hagari  rose 
suddenly  during  this  storm  and  overwhelmed  the  town  of  Guliam  on 
its  right  bank,  drowning  many  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  country  round  Vijayanagar  is  the  traditional  scene  of  some  of 
the  most  notable  events  in  the  Ramayana.  Inscriptions  show  that 
Bellary  was  intimately  connected  with  the  fortunes  of  ._. 
the  early  dynasties  of  the  Western  Chalukyas  and 
their  successors  the  Hoysala  Ballalas.  But  little  definite  is  known  of 
the  history  of  the  District  before  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1336  was 
founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Tungabhadra,  near  the  present  hamlet  of 
Hampi,  the  famous  town  of  Vijayanagar,  '  the  city  of  victory.'  The 
town  rapidly  became  the  nucleus  of  a  kingdom,  and  the  kingdom  grew 
into  an  empire.  For  two  centuries  its  rulers  succeeded  in  uniting  the 
Hindus  of  Southern  India  and  holding  in  check  the  Musalmans  who 
were  advancing  from  the  north.  In  1565,  at  the  battle  of  Talikota, 
Vijayanagar  was  utterly  overthrown  by  a  combination  of  the  Sultans  of 
the  Deccan.  The  Musalman  dominion  which  followed  was  weak,  and 
the  country  was  split  up  into  small  principalities  under  chieftains  known 
to  history  as  poligdrs.  Locally,  their  powers  were  absolute  and  they 
used  them  mercilessly,  so  that  the  common  people  were  everywhere 
ground  into  the  dust.  Aurangzeb  annexed  the  dominions  of  the 
Musalman  kings  ;  the  Marathas,  and  after  them  Haidar  All  of 
Mysore,  followed  and  seized  much  of  the  District ;  the  Nizam's  rule 
succeeded  ;  but  through  all  these  changes  the  poligdrs  continued 
to  hold  all  local  authority,  and  it  was  with  them  that  the  British  had  to 

VOL.  VII.  M 


i62  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

deal  when  the  District  was  ceded  to  the  Company.  Bellary  had  fallen 
into  the  power  of  Haidar  All  of  Mysore  and  his  son  Tipu  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  the  partition  of  Tipu's  territory  in 
1792,  part  of  the  District  fell  to  the  Nizam.  At  the  further  partition 
which  occurred  after  Tipu's  defeat  and  death  at  Seringapatam  in  1799, 
the  Nizam  obtained  the  rest  of  it  ;  but  he  ceded  both  portions  and 
other  adjoining  territory  to  the  British  in  1800.  Major  (afterwards 
Sir  Thomas)  Munro  was  the  first  Collector  of  the  country  so  obtained, 
called  the  Ceded  Districts,  which  included  the  present  Districts  of 
Cuddapah,  Bellary,  Anantapur,  and  much  of  Kurnool  ;  and  his  first 
care  was  to  reduce  to  order  the  ^\^\.y  poligdrs  whom  he  found  within 
it.  Some  of  these  were  pensioned  and  the  estates  of  the  remainder 
were  resumed.  In  1808  the  tract  was  split  into  two  Districts,  Cuddapah 
and  Bellary.  The  latter  then  included  the  present  District  of  Ananta- 
pur. This  was  formed  into  a  separate  Collectorate  in  1882,  and  Bellary 
District  as  it  now  stands  has  thus  been  a  separate  Collectorate  for  only 
twenty-four  years. 

More  palaeolithic  and  neolithic  settlements  and  implements  have 
been  found  in  Bellary  than  in  any  other  District  in  Madras,  and  some 
of  them  are  of  great  interest.  Round  Gollapalle  in  the  Rayadrug  tdltik 
are  hundreds  of  kistvaens  of  the  usual  pattern,  some  of  which  have  been 
found  to  contain  pottery,  bones,  &c.  Jain  temples  are  numerous,  and 
in  the  western  taluks  are  a  number  of  little  Chalukyan  shrines,  covered 
with  most  delicate  carving  in  steatite.  These  are  described  and 
illustrated  in  Mr.  Rea's  Chalukyan  Architecture.  At  Adoni,  Bellary, 
Rayadrug,  and  elsewhere  are  ancient  hill  fortresses  of  much  interest. 
But  the  most  important  antiquities  in  the  District  are  the  extensive  and 
impressive  ruins,  near  Hampi,  of  the  great  capital  of  the  Vijayanagar 
empire. 

The  District  contains  10  towns  and  929  villages.     It  is  divided  into 

8  taluks,  the  head-quarters  of  which  are  at  the  places  from  which  each 

is  named.     Statistics  of  population  according  to  the 
Population.       ^  r  •         ■     ^u    i^  ui 

Census  01  1901  are  given  m  the  table  on  next  page. 

The  principal  towns  are  the  two  municipalities  of  Bellary,  the  Dis- 
trict head-quarters,  and  Adoni  ;  and  the  eight  Unions  of  Hospet, 
Yemmiganur,  Rayadrug,  Kampli,  Harpanahalli,  Kosigi,  Kotturu, 
and  Siruguppa.  The  population  of  the  District  in  1871  was  911,755  ; 
in  1881,  726,275  ;  in  1891,  880,950;  and  in  1901,  947,214.  Hindus 
form  89  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Musalmans  10  per  cent.  The  famine 
of  1876-8  was  very  severely  felt,  and  it  was  not  until  over  twenty  years 
afterwards  that  the  population  recovered  the  loss  it  then  suffered.  The 
percentage  of  increase  during  the  last  decade  was  a  little  above  the 
average  for  the  Presidency,  in  spite  of  considerable  emigration  to  Mysore. 
The  apparent  decline  in  the  Hadagalli  tdl//k  is  due  to  the  total  for  1891 


POPULATION 


163 


having  been  unduly  inflated  by  the  presence  of  numerous  pilgrims  at 
the  great  festival  a<:  Mailar.  Bellary  is  the  least  sparsely  peopled  Dis- 
trict in  the  Deccan,  the  density  being  as  much  as  100  per  square  mile 
below  the  Presidency  average.  Kanarese  is  the  prevailing  language  in 
the  west  and  Telugu  in  the  east.  On  the  whole,  57  per  cent,  of  the 
people  speak  the  former  and  30  per  cent,  the  latter  tongue. 


^ 

Number  of 

°c=i-  . 

0 

fli  ■—          On  _ 

0  J^TJ 

Taitik. 

< 

c 
S 

0 

m 

4) 
> 

CI. 

0  c 

IS 

213 

Percentag 

variation 

population 

tvveen  i8 

and  190 

<u  rt  rt  £ 

6,884 

Adoni  . 

8.^9 

l 

191 

178,784 

+    11-2 

Alia-      . 

686 

106 

98,568 

144 

+    11-9 

3,666 

Bellary 

962 

2 

156 

193,401 

201 

+      7.2 

ii,8q7 

Rayadrug 

628 

I 

71 

82,789 

1.^2 

+     5-3 

2-555 

Hospet 

540 

2 

121 

101,947 

189 

+  10.2 

4.939 

Hadagalli 

.S85 

87 

92,094 

157 

-  1 1-5 

4,193 

Kudligi 

S63 

I 

116 

103-985 

120 

+  10.3 

4,937 

Harpanahalli 

District  total 

611 

I 

81 

95,646 

157 
166 

+  i6-3 

3,981 

5,7'4 

10 

929 

947,214 

+     7-5 

430,52 

The  majority  of  the  Hindus  are  Telugus  or  Kanarese.  Of  the 
Telugus,  the  Boyas  {shikaris  and  cultivators,  and  formerly  the  material 
from  which  many  of  the  troops  of  the  poligars  and  of  Haidar  were 
raised)  are  the  strongest  community,  numbering  121,000,  or  more  than 
in  any  other  District.  Then  come  the  Madiga  leather-workers  (77,000), 
followed  by  the  Kapus,  the  great  agriculturist  class  (48,000).  Among 
Kanarese  castes,  the  Kurubas  (shepherds)  are  the  most  numerous 
(97,000).  The  Lingayats,  a  sect  of  Hindus  who  worship  Siva  and 
his  symbol  the  lingam,  and  disregard  the  sacerdotal  authority  of 
Brahmans,  number  96,000  (which  is  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total 
of  the  sect  within  the  Presidency).  The  castes  which  speak  neither 
Telugu  nor  Kanarese  are  divided  almost  equally  between  Marathas, 
Tamils,  and  Lambadis,  the  last  of  whom,  a  wandering  gipsy  com- 
munity, are  more  numerous  in  Bellary  than  in  any  other  District. 
The  majority  of  the  Musalmans  are  Shaikhs,  but  there  are  nearly 
10,000  of  the  mixed  race  of  Dudekulas.  By  occupation,  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  population  are  agriculturists  or  shepherds.  Weavers 
are,  however,  more  than  usually  numerous. 

The  number  of  Christians  in  the  District  is  5,066,  or  about  five  in 
every  1,000  of  the  population.  About  3,700  of  them  are  natives,  and 
nearly  three-quarters  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  first  priest  to  visit 
this  part  of  the  country  was  a  Father  Joachim  D'Souza,  who  came 
to  Bellary  from  Goa  in  1775  and  died  in  1829.  The  natives  called 
him  Adikanada,   and  his  memory  is  still  held  in   veneration.      The 

M  2 


1 64  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

Bellary  mission  continued  under  the  charge  of  the  Goa  priests  until 
1837.  In  that  year  a  chaplain  was  appointed  by  Government  for  the 
Roman  Catholic  troops  at  Bellary,  and  under  the  double  jurisdiction 
which  ensued  many  more  churches  and  chapels  were  erected  than  the 
number  of  Catholics  required.  The  Goa  jurisdiction  ceased  with 
the  establishment  of  the  regular  hierarchy  by  an  apostolic  letter  of 
Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1886.  The  mission  is  at  present  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  chaplain,  assisted  by  four  Fathers  from 
the  Missionary  Society  of  St.  Joseph,  London.  The  only  Protestant 
mission  in  the  District  is  that  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
It  was  established  in  1810  and  has  a  staff  of  five  missionaries,  one 
of  whom  is  a  lady. 

The  soils  of  the  District  are  classed  as  red,  mixed,  and  black ;  the 
two  former  preponderate  in  the  hilly  western  taluks,  and  the  latter 
in  the  level  tracts  of  Bellary,  Alur,  Adoni,  and 
Rayadrug.  The  red  ferruginous  soils  are  derived 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  granitic  rocks,  and  are  loams  of  a  more 
or  less  sandy  character.  They  are  much  less  fertile  than  the  black 
cotton  soil  of  the  eastern  taluks.  The  average  depth  of  this  latter 
is  about  4  feet,  but  a  much  greater  thickness  is  found  in  certain 
localities.  In  Alur  it  is  of  particular  richness,  and  the  rates  of 
assessment  there  are  the  highest  in  the  District.  A  disadvantage, 
however,  is  that,  owing  perhaps  to  the  underlying  beds  of  soft 
calcareous  limestone,  trees  will  not  flourish  in  it  and  the  water  in 
the  wells  is  frequently  brackish. 

The  seasons  of  cultivation  on  the  red  and  mixed  soils  differ  alto- 
gether from  those  on  the  black.  On  the  former,  '  dry '  crops  are 
sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  south-west  monsoon  in  June  ;  but  the 
latter  is  held  to  require  the  thorough  soaking  obtainable  only  from 
the  later  rains  of  that  monsoon,  and  korra  (Setaria  italica)  and  cotton 
are  sown  on  it  in  August  and  other  crops  in  November.  On  '  wet ' 
lands  rice  is  sown  in  May  and  January  and  sugar-cane  in  March. 
Like  the  other  Deccan  Districts,  Bellary  possesses  several  ingenious 
agricultural  implements  which  are  almost  unknown  elsewhere,  among 
them  the  bamboo  seed-drill,  the  bullock-hoe,  and  the  big  iron  plough 
used  for  eradicating  deep-rooted  grasses. 

There  are  no  zaminddris  in  the  District,  but  more  than  a  fifth  of 
the  total  area  is  indni  land.  Of  the  total  of  5,714  square  miles, 
the  village  accounts  give  particulars  for  5,697.  Details  by  taluks  for 
1903-4  are  given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  areas  being  in  square 
miles. 

The  two  principal  food-grains  are  cholam  {Sorghum  vulgare)  and 
the  korra  already  mentioned.  The  area  under  the  former  in  1903-4 
amounted   to  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  area  cropped.     Both  are 


AGRICULTURE 


165 


largely  grown  in  all  taluks,  but  arc  especially  favourite  crops  in  Bellary, 
Alur,  and  Acloni  in  the  east.  Pulses  are  grown  to  a  considerable 
extent ;  but,  except  in  Rayadrug,  they  are  usually  mixed  with  the 
cereals  on  no  fixed  principles,  and  the  exact  area  is  not  ascertainable. 
Irrigation  being  rare,  the  rice  crop  is  small,  occupying  only  63  square 
miles  in  1903-4.  The  chief  industrial  crop  is  cotton,  grown  mainly 
on  the  black  cotton  soil  in  the  four  eastern  taluks  and  in  Hadagalli. 
In  the  red  soils  of  Kudligi,  Harpanahalli,  and  Hadagalli,  large 
quantities  of  castor  and  other  oilseeds  are  raised.  Sugar-cane  is 
grown  mainly  in  Hospet,  where  it  occupies  5  per  cent,  of  the  culti- 
vated area.  It  has  not  yet  developed  the  disease  which  has  appeared 
in  other  Districts,  and  the  area  under  it  is  steadily  increasing. 


Taluk. 

Area 
shown  in 
accounts. 

Forests. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Adoni 

830 

59 

34 

666 

7 

Alur  . 

686 

25 

13 

613 

I 

Bellarv 

962 

29 

38 

799 

8 

Rayadrug 

629 

40 

81 

440 

22 

Hospet 

530 

'31 

34 

253 

27 

Hadagalli 

587 

46 

56 

432 

4 

Kudligi 

S62 

209 

J  30 

382 

16 

Harpanaha 

Hi           611 

86 

43 

375 

5 

Total       5,697 

625 

429 

3,960 

90 

Except  in  Kudligi,  the  proportion  of  arable  land  to  the  total  extent 
is  high,  but  a  considerable  amount  is  still  unoccupied,  especially  in  the 
western  taluks.  The  poorer  soils  there  are  frequently  cultivated  for 
a  single  year,  and  then  abandoned  and  left  to  recuperate.  The  area 
occupied  fluctuates  considerably  owing  to  the  numerous  bad  seasons 
which  have  visited  the  District,  but  there  has  been  a  net  increase  during 
the  last  thirty  years  of  rather  more  than  10  per  cent.  Except  for  the 
general  introduction  of  iron  ploughs  during  recent  years,  little  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  agricultural  improvement.  Attempts  to  introduce 
foreign  varieties  of  cotton  have  been  unsuccessful ;  and  wells,  owing 
largely  to  the  great  expense  of  constructing  them  in  both  the  loose 
cotton  soil  and  the  rocky  red  land,  are  not  popular. 

About  6^  lakhs  was  advanced  during  the  sixteen  years  following  1 888 
under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act.  The  greater  part  of  this  has 
been  spent  upon  the  reclamation  of  land  overrun  with  deep-rooted  grass 
and  prickly-pear  {Opuntia).  Considerable  sums  have  also  been  borrowed 
under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act  for  the  relief  of  distress,  purchase 
of  seed,  and  similar  purposes. 

The  indigenous  breed  of  cattle  is  small  and  weak.  The  best  draught 
animals  in  use  in  the  eastern  taluks  are  brought  from  Nellore  by 
travelling  drovers.     In  the  west,  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  imported 


1 66  BEL  LAR  V  DIS  TRIG T 

from  Mysore  and  sold  at  tlic  two  great  annual  fairs  on  the  'I'ungabhadra 
at  Mailar  and  Ruruvatti.  A  fine  breed  of  pack-buffaloes,  bred  in  the 
Nizam's  Dominions,  is  used  in  Kampli  and  the  neighbouring  villages. 
Ponies  are  not  raised  in  the  District  in  any  number.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  sheep,  the  black  or  long-fleeced  and  the  white  and  reddish- 
brown  long-legged  variety.  The  latter  are  kept  chiefly  for  their  manure 
and  flesh  ;  but  the  former  give  a  fair  wool,  which  is  largely  used  in 
Rayadrug,  Kudligi,  and  Harpanahalli  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
cheap  black  or  black  and  white  blankets  which  serve  the  ryot  as  bed, 
umbrella,  portmanteau,  or  great-coat,  as  need  may  require.  Goats  are 
reared  in  large  numbers  for  both  milk  and  manure. 

Cattle  for  the  plough  and  milch  kine  are  fed  mainly  on  cholain  stalks 
and  cotton-seed.  Sheep  and  the  younger  cattle  are  grazed  in  forest 
Reserves  and  on  waste  lands.  Goats,  owing  to  their  destructive  habits, 
are  confined  to  waste  lands  and  roadsides. 

The  area  irrigated  in  1903-4  was  90  square  miles,  or  little  more  than 
2  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  under  cultivation.  This  was  watered  in 
almost  equal  proportions  from  Government  channels,  from  tanks,  and 
from  wells.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  irrigation  from  channels  is  that 
fed  by  the  Tungabhadra  canals.  This  river  is  perennial,  and  provides 
the  only  unfailing  source  of  supply  in  the  District.  There  are  ten  dams 
across  it,  all  of  which  were  originally  constructed  by  the  Vijayanagar 
kings,  though  English  engineers  have  done  much  to  improve  and 
regulate  the  supply  drawn  from  them.  Near  one  of  them  is  an  in- 
scription recording  its  construction  in  a. D.  1521  by  the  famous  king 
Krishna  Deva  Raya  of  Vijayanagar.  The  area  irrigated  by  them 
collectively  in  1933-4  was  about  17,000  acres,  of  which  12,500  were  in 
the  Hospet  taluk.  The  Tungabhadra  runs  in  a  deep  bed  and  the 
ground  slopes  down  towards  it,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
command  much  land.  Channels  dug  annually  in  the  beds  of  the 
Hagari  and  Chinna  Hagari  irrigate  small  areas  in  the  Rayadrug  and 
Kudligi  taluks.  The  great  Tungabhadra  irrigation  project,  designed 
to  benefit  not  only  Bellary  but  several  other  Districts  also,  is  described 
in  the  separate  account  of  that  river. 

The  tanks  of  the  District  are  usually  small,  irrigating  on  an  average 
less  than  50  acres  apiece.  The  two  largest  are  the  Kanekallu  tank  in 
Rayadrug  and  the  Daroji  tank  in  Hospet.  The  former,  which  is 
supplied  by  a  channel  from  the  Hagari,  waters  2,300  acres.  The 
Daroji  tank,  which  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  Tipu  Sultan, 
has  an  embankment  2\  miles  in  length  and  in  some  places  60  feet  in 
height.  It  irrigates  about  1,800  acres.  Irrigation  from  wells  is  com- 
monest in  Kudligi  and  Rayadrug.  There  is  room  for  more  of  these 
sources  in  Harpanahalli  and  Hadagalli,  but  in  the  cotton-soil  taluks 
irrigation  is  not  popular. 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  167 

Though  there  is  a  considerable  area  in  each  taluk  of  so-called  forest, 
the  Reserves  mainly  consist  of  patches  of  more  or  less  scanty  scrub 
jungle,  in  which  it  is  hoped  that  careful  preservation 
extended  over  a  number  of  years  may  induce  a  growth 
of  larger  timber.  Tradition  says  that  there  were  originally  extensive 
forests  in  the  District ;  but  none  has  existed  within  living  memory,  and 
at  present  the  resources  of  the  Reserves  are  severely  taxed  to  produce 
even  the  firewood  required  locally.  Timber  and  bamboos  are  largely 
imported,  chiefly  from  the  Nallamalais.  The  Kudligi  Reserves  contain 
the  largest  growth,  including  a  small  amount  of  teak.  Anogeissus 
iatifo/ia,  acacias,  Prosopis,  Carissa,  and  Tertninalia  tomentosa  are  the 
commonest  forest  trees.  The  growth  on  the  hills  in  the  Sandur  State 
is  finer  than  anywhere  in  the  District  proper ;  and  40,000  acres  of 
this  range  are  leased  from  the  Raja  at  a  rental  of  Rs.  10,000  and 
worked  as  part  of  the  Bellary  forests.  The  characteristic  tree  here  is 
Hardivickia  binata,  one  of  the  hardest  and  heaviest  woods  in  India. 
A  small  amount  of  sandal-wood  and  teak  is  also  cut,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  it  may  eventually  be  possible  to  supply  the  Southern  Mahratta 
Railway  with  fuel  from  these  hills.  Like  other  forest  areas  in  the 
District  they  suffer  severely  from  fires,  owing  to  the  extreme  dryness 
of  the  climate. 

Very  little  has  been  done  to  exploit  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
District,  though  they  are  considerable.  Iron  used  until  recently  to  be 
smelted  in  small  quantities  in  Hospet  and  Kudligi  to  make  boilers  for 
the  local  manufacture  of  sugar,  but  it  has  now  been  ousted  by  the 
cheaper  English  product.  With  greater  facilities  for  obtaining  fuel  this 
industry  might  be  enormously  extended,  as  the  supply  of  hematite  is 
unlimited  and  the  Sandur  hills  contain  what  is  possibly  the  richest  ore 
in  the  whole  of  India.  Manganese  deposits  also  occur  on  this  range, 
and  several  beds  of  mineral  pigments.  A  small  quantity  of  gold  has 
been  won  in  the  past  by  washing  in  some  of  the  jungle  streams  in 
Harpanahalli,  but  this  part  of  the  District  has  been  prospected  under 
European  supervision  without  result.  Among  building  materials  may 
be  mentioned  seven  beautiful  porphyries,  eminently  suitable  for  decora- 
tive work,  and  the  splendid  varieties  of  ribbon  jasper  which  occur  in  the 
Sandur  hills.     Neither  of  these  has  ever  been  worked. 

Cotton  and  silk- weaving  are  important  in  all  parts  of  the  District,  and  the 

proportion  of  the  population  engaged  in  the  former  industry  is  unusually 

large.     The  cotton  stuffs  woven  are  of  the  ordinary 

•  .^       u   ^     4.  ^u  4.  f  ..u        11  •  Trade  and 

coarse  variety  ;  but  at  the  centres  of  the  silk-weavmg  communications. 

industry  in  Kampli,  Hampasagaram,  Rayadrug,  and 

elsewhere  handsome  fabrics  of  various  patterns  are  manufactured,  which 

are  exported  to  the  Nizam's  Dominions  and  Bombay.     Both  the  cotton 

and  silk  are  largely  dyed  locally.     Coloured  cotton  rugs,  manufactured 


1 68  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

at  Adoni,  mainly  by  Muhamnuidaiis,  liave  a  considerable  sale  all  over 
the  Presidency  and  also  in  other  parts  of  India.  Woollen  blankets  are 
woven  in  a  large  number  of  villages  in  the  Kvldligi  and  Harpanahalli 
taluks,  chiefly  by  Kurubas,  the  wool  being  obtained  locally.  They  are 
exported  in  large  numbers  to  other  Districts.  A  small  amount  oi 
ordinary  brass-ware  is  made  at  Hospet  and  one  or  two  other  villages  : 
and  a  family  or  two  in  the  Kudligi  and  Harpanahalli  tCxluks  make  from 
soapstone  small  vessels  and  little  images  of  Basava,  the  bull  in  whose 
form  the  founder  of  the  Lingayat  sect  is  worshipped. 

There  are  seven  steam  cotton-presses  or  ginning  factories  in  the 
District,  two  at  Bellary  and  five  at  Adoni.  The  total  number  of  hands 
employed  in  1904  was  660.  A  spinning  mill  established  at  Bellary  in 
1894,  which  is  fitted  with  machinery  of  the  latest  pattern,  employed  an 
average  of  520  hands  in  1903-4.  The  number  of  spindles  was  17,800, 
producing  650  tons  of  yarn  valued  at  4^  lakhs.  Several  tanneries  are 
at  work,  but  the  only  one  of  any  size  is  at  Rayadrug,  where  45  hands 
were  employed  in  1904.  About  45,000  skins  were  dealt  with,  producing 
leather  valued  at  Rs.  40,000.  A  small  distillery  at  Bellary  had  an 
out-turn  of  32,000  gallons  of  spirit,  valued  at  Rs.  37,000. 

As  is  natural  from  its  geographical  position,  the  chief  trade  of  Bellary 
is  with  Bombay,  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  and  Mysore,  rather  than  with 
the  rest  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  From  Bombay  are  imported  rice, 
turmeric,  chillies,  metal  and  metal  work  (especially  brass-ware  from 
Hubli) ;  and  in  return  cereals,  silk  fabrics,  cotton  carpets,  blankets,  and 
jaggery  (coarse  sugar)  are  exported.  Cattle,  rice,  timber,  and  coco-nut 
oil  are  received  from  Mysore,  blankets,  oilseeds,  and  cotton  stuffs  being 
exported  thither.  To  the  Nizam's  Dominions  Bellary  sends  cholam, 
jaggery,  cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  and  receives  in  return  chiefly  raw  cotton. 
Trade  with  other  parts  of  the  Presidency  is  principally  in  manufactured 
goods,  the  raw  products  of  the  District  being  sent  in  exchange.  About 
three-quarters  of  the  total  output  of  cotton  is  sent  to  Madras  city. 

The  chief  centres  of  general  trade  are  Bellary,  Adoni,  and  Hospet, 
the  large  trade  in  cotton  being  confined  to  the  first  two  of  these. 
Hospet  serves  as  an  entrepot  for  the  exchange  of  the  products  of  the 
western  taluks  with  the  Dharwar  District  of  Bombay  and  the  Nizam's 
Dominions,  while  a  great  deal  of  business  with  both  Mysore  and  Bom- 
bay is  transacted  at  the  annual  fairs  at  Mailar  and  Kuruvatti.  From 
the  southern  parts  of  the  western  taluks  large  quantities  of  merchandise 
are  taken  to  Davangere  in  the  Chitaldroog  District  of  Mysore.  The 
ordinary  trade  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chetti  caste,  but  a  colony 
of  Marwaris  at  Bellary  controls  the  export  grain  trade  there.  Besider 
the  fairs  above  mentioned,  there  are  numerous  local  markets  for  in- 
ternal trade.  The  fees  levied  at  them  by  the  local  boards  yield  about 
Rs.  7,000  annually. 


FAMINE  ■  169 

The  north-west  line  of  the  Madras  Railway  (standard  gauge)  traverses 
the  two  eastern  taluks,  passing  through  the  town  of  Adoni  and  leaving 
the  District  by  a  large  girder-bridge  over  the  Tungabhadra  at  Ranipuram. 
This  section  was  opened  in  1870.  At  Guntakal,  just  beyond  the  borders 
of  Bellary,  there  is  a  junction  between  the  Madras  and  Southern 
Mahratta  Railways.  The  metre-gauge  line  of  the  latter  crosses  the 
District  in  a  westerly  direction,  connecting  Guntakal  with  Bellary  and 
Bellary  with  Hospet  and  with  Dharwar  in  Bombay.  Through  Guntakal, 
Bellary  is  also  connected  southwards  with  Anantapur  and  Bangalore, 
and  to  the  east  with  the  Districts  of  Kurnool,  Cuddapah,  Guntur,  and 
Kistna.  The  line  from  Guntakal  to  Bellary  was  finished  in  187 1,  and 
was  originally  part  of  the  Madras  Railway  and  on  the  standard  gauge. 
It  was  converted  to  the  metre  gauge  in  1887.  Two  metre-gauge  famine 
protective  lines  from  Bellary  to  Rayadrug  and  from  Hospet  to  Kotturu, 
33  and  38  miles  in  length  respectively,  have  recently  been  constructed. 

Bellary  has  271  miles  of  metalled  and  582  miles  of  unmetalled  roads, 
all  of  which  are  under  the  management  of  the  local  boards.  More 
avenues  along  them  are  badly  needed,  only  112  miles  being  planted 
with  trees,  a  shorter  length  than  in  any  other  Madras  District  except  the 
Nilgiris.  The  main  routes  are  the  road  from  Bangalore,  which  passes 
through  Bellary  and  Adoni  on  the  way  to  Raichiir  and  Secunderabad, 
and  that  from  Madras  to  Bombay  through  Bellary  and  Hospet.  The 
eastern  and  western  taluks  are  joined  by  roads  passing  to  the  north  and 
south  of  the  Sandur  hills,  and  by  a  third  which  crosses  the  State  of 
Sandur  by  means  of  two  narrow  gorges  through  the  hills  which  enclose 
it.  Were  the  roads  kept  in  proper  repair,  the  District  would  be  amply 
supplied  with  means  of  communication ;  but  money  for  bridges  is 
scarce,  and  in  the  cotton-soil  taluks  road-metal  is  difficult  to  obtain. 

The  whole  of  Bellary  lies  within  the  famine  zone,  irrigation  works  are 
few,  and  any  shortage  in  its  scanty  rainfall  is  liable  to  produce  distress. 
It  has  in  consequence  suffered  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  District  in  Madras  from  severe  and  protracted 
famines.  There  were  scarcities  in  1802-4,  1805-7,  1824,  1884-5,  ^^^^ 
1900;  and  famines  in  1833,  1854,  1866,  1876-8,  1891-2,  and  1896-7; 
and  it  has  been  truly  said  that  'the  unfortunate  ryot  has  hardly  emerged 
from  one  famine  before  he  is  submerged  under  another.' 

It  has  been  calculated  that  during  the  last  half-century  alone  the 
expenditure  on  relief  and  the  loss  of  revenue  due  to  bad  seasons  in 
Bellary  have  amounted  to  no  less  than  196  lakhs.  The  worst  years 
were  1854,  1866,  1876-8,  and  1896-7.  In  the  famine  of  1876-8 
Bellary  was  very  severely  affected ;  more  than  a  fifth  of  the  population 
is  computed  to  have  perished  from  starvation  or  disease,  and  the 
mortality  in  the  Adoni  and  Alur  taluks  was  as  high  as  one-third.  At 
the  Census  of  1891,  fourteen  years  after  the  famine,  the  population  of 


lyo  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

the  District  continued  lo  l)e  less  than  at  the  Census  of  187 1,  before 
this  visitation.  At  the  heiglit  of  the  famine  one-half  of  the  population 
were  in  receipt  of  relief  in  one  form  or  other.  The  supreme  difficulty 
that  baffled  the  authorities  was  the  absolute  impossibility  of  getting 
grain  to  an  area  where  the  only  means  of  transport  was  by  bullock-cart 
and  there  was  no  fodder  for  the  bullocks.  The  railways  will  now 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  a  disaster.  The  famine  of  1896-7  was 
severely  felt  in  all  but  the  Rayadrug  and  Harpanahalli  taluks.  In  July, 
1897,  about  18,000  persons  were  receiving  gratuitous  relief  by  grain 
doles  and  78,000  were  employed  on  relief  works.  There  was  con- 
siderable mortality  from  cholera  and  measles,  but,  as  far  as  could  be 
ascertained,  no  deaths  occurred  from  privation  alone. 

For  administrative  purposes  Bellary  is  arranged  into  three  subdivisions. 
The  four  western  taluks  of  Hospet,  Hadagalli,  Harpanahalli,  and  Kudligi 
.  .  .  form  one  charge,  known  as  the  Hospet  subdivision, 
under  a  Covenanted  Civilian.  The  Bellary  subdivi- 
sion, consisting  of  Bellary  and  Rayadrug,  and  the  Adoni  subdivision, 
consisting  of  Alur  and  Adoni,  are  usually  under  Deputy-Collectors 
recruited  in  India.  Besides  the  eight  tahs'ildars  in  charge  of  these  eight 
taluks,  dei^nty-tahslldars  are  stationed  at  Siruguppa  in  the  Bellary  taluk 
and  at  Yemmiganur  in  Adoni ;  and  stationary  sub-magistrates  at  Bellary, 
Hospet,  Kudligi,  and  Adoni.  The  District  Forest  officer  and  the  Dis- 
trict Superintendent  of  police  reside  at  Bellary,  which  is  also  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Inspector  of  Schools,  Second  Circle,  of  the  Superin- 
tending Engineer,  Third  Circle,  and  of  the  Assistant  Commissioner  of 
Salt  and  Abkari  Revenue,  Bellary  Subdivision. 

For  purposes  of  civil  justice,  part  of  Anantapur  (which  was  originally 
included  in  the  old  Bellary  District)  comes  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
District  Judge  at  Bellary  ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  Adoni  ttlluk  is 
within  the  Munsifi  of  Gooty,  outside  the  District,  appeals  from  which 
area  lie  to  the  District  Court  of  Kurnool.  There  are  two  District 
Munsifs,  one  at  Bellary  and  the  other  at  Hospet.  As  a  rule,  fewer 
cases  are  dealt  with  by  Village  Munsifs  in  Bellary  than  in  any  other 
District.  The  number  of  revenue  suits  is  also  extremely  small,  there 
being  no  zamlnddris  and  but  few  large  indms. 

The  arrangements  regarding  criminal  justice  are  also  anomalous,  the 
Court  of  Sessions  at  Bellary  taking  cognizance  of  sessions  cases  in  all 
the  taluks  of  Anantapur  except  Gooty  and  Tadpatri,  as  well  as  those  in 
Bellary.  The  Collector  and  the  three  divisional  officers  are  first-class 
magistrates  with  the  usual  powers.  All  tahs'ildars  and  deY>^iy-tahsllddrs, 
as  well  as  the  stationary  sub-magistrates,  have  second-class  powers,  and 
in  some  cases  the  taluk  sheristaddrs  are  third-class  magistrates.  Usually 
very  few  of  the  village  magistrates  use  the  petty  powers  with  which  they 
are  entrusted. 


ADMINISTRATION  171 

The  distinctive  criminal  caste  of  the  District  is  the  Korachas,  an 
incorrigible  class  who  wander  about  in  gangs.  Several  of  their  gangs 
have  settled  permanently  in  Bellary,  and  are  greatly  aided  in  their 
depredations  by  the  proximity  of  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  where  they 
can  easily  take  refuge  and  are  difficult  to  trace.  They  are  some  of  the 
most  daring  and  best-organized  dacoits  in  the  Presidency.  Murders, 
which  are  numerous,  are  mostly  due  to  village  factions.  Other  crimes, 
such  as  cattle-theft,  are  also  common,  and  are  traceable  to  the  natural 
poverty  of  the  District  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  seasons. 

Nothing  is  definitely  known  of  the  revenue  system  under  the  Vijaya- 
nagar  kings,  but  according  to  tradition  the  revenue  was  paid  in  kind  in 
the  proportion  of  half  the  gross  produce.  The  Musalman  governments 
which  followed  apparently  continued  the  same  system,  though,  by  some 
method  not  clearly  ascertainable,  a  minimum  amount  was  fixed  as  the 
assessment  for  the  whole  region  now  constituting  the  Ceded  Districts. 
This  was  called  the  kdniil  assessment,  and  was  retained  by  Aurangzeb 
and  afterwards  by  Haidar  All,  though  the  latter  and  his  son  and 
successor  Tipu  Sultan  increased  the  revenue  by  a  large  resumption  of 
indnis.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Vijayanagar  empire,  the  country  was 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  poligdrs  already  mentioned,  through  whom 
a  great  part  of  the  revenue  was  nominally  collected.  The  amount 
which  reached  the  central  government  naturally  varied  according  to 
the  relative  power  of  the  poligdrs,  and  the  result  was  an  ever-increasing 
impoverishment  of  the  cultivating  classes. 

When  the  Ceded  Districts  were  transferred  to  the  East  India  Company 
in  1800,  the  whole  tract  was  placed  in  charge  of  Munro.  His  first  step 
was  to  do  away  with  the  interference  of  the  eighty  or  more  poligdrs  who 
were  scattered  over  them,  and  to  introduce  a  system  of  direct  engage- 
ments with  every  cultivator  for  the  revenue,  the  assessment  varying 
according  to  the  amount  of  land  occupied.  In  conjunction  with  this, 
he  instituted  a  survey,  which  ascertained  not  only  the  extent  of  the 
fields,  but  also  the  quality  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil. 

While  this  settlement  was  in  progress,  the  Government  of  India 
directed  that,  as  a  preliminary  step  towards  a  permanent  settlement  of 
the  land  revenue  on  the  Bengal  system,  the  villages  should  be  leased  to 
renters  for  a  fixed  sum  for  three  years,  the  lessee  making  his  own 
arrangements  with  the  cultivators.  In  spite  of  the  strenuous  representa- 
tions of  Munro  and  the  opposition  of  the  Governor  of  Madras,  Lord 
William  Eentinck,  this  system  came  into  force  in  the  Ceded  Districts  in 
1808.  Munro  had  taken  leave  shortly  before  this,  and,  on  his  departure, 
the  present  Districts  of  Bellary  and  Anantapur  were  constituted  a  Col- 
lectorate  by  themselves.  Though  the  Collector  reported  very  strongly 
against  the  triennial  leases  and  their  damaging  effect  on  the  condition 
of  his  charge,  an  extension  in  the  shape  of  decennial  leases  was  intro- 


172 


BELLARY  DISTRICT 


duced  by  order  of  Government  in  181 2.  The  result  was  a  complete 
fiiilure.  The  renters  were  incompetent  and  merciless,  the  ryots  were 
contumacious  and  obstructive,  and  large  numbers  of  the  former  became 
unable  to  pay  their  dues  to  Government.  Eventually  the  Court  of 
Directors  ordered  a  return  to  the  ryotivdri  settlement  on  the  expiration 
of  the  leases,  and  the  immediate  surrender  of  the  leases  was  accepted  in 
all  cases  where  the  renters  were  willing  to  relinquish  them  at  once.  The 
result  of  this  disastrous  experiment  was  a  great  reduction  in  the  wealth 
of  the  District,  the  villages  being  given  up  by  the  renters  with  their 
resources  much  impaired.  From  the  introduction  of  the  ryotwari 
settlement  in  18 18  down  to  1859  there  were  several  general  reductions 
in  the  assessment,  rendered  necessary  both  by  a  succession  of  bad 
seasons  and  also  by  the  fact  that  Munro's  original  settlement  had 
imposed  a  higher  rate  than  the  land  was  capable  of  bearing,  especially 
since  it  was  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  grain  prices  in  force  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century  and  these  had  since  fallen  very  greatly. 

In  1882  seven  of  the  southern  taluks  were  formed  into  the  separate 
District  of  Anantapur.  A  survey  and  settlement  of  the  remaining  taluks 
which  constitute  the  present  Bellary  District  were  carried  out  between 
1884  and  1896.  The  excess  discovered  in  the  cultivated  area  was  about 
5  per  cent.,  and  the  increase  in  the  assessment  effected  (which  was 
especially  lenient  in  consideration  of  the  infertility  of  the  District  and 
its  losses  by  bad  seasons)  was  Rs.  85,000,  or  rather  less  than  7  per  cent. 
The  average  assessment  on  'dry'  land  in  the  cotton-soil  taluks  of  Adoni, 
Alur,  and  Bellary  is  now  R.  0-15-7  per  acre  (maximum  Rs.  2-8,  mini- 
mum 2  annas),  and  on  'wet'  land  Rs.  6-14-11  (maximum  Rs.  ir, 
minimum  R.  i) ;  while  in  the  remaining  red  soil  taluks  the  average 
'dry'  rate  is  R.  0-8-8  (maximum  Rs.  2-4,  minimum  2  annas),  and 
the  average  'wet'  rate  Rs.  5-6-3  (maximum  Rs.  11,  minimum  R.  i). 
Owing  partly  to  the  small  extent  of  irrigated  land,  the  average  extent  of 
a  holding  is  15  acres,  being  greater  than  in  any  other  Madras  District 
except  the  Nilgiris. 

The  revenue  from  land  and  the  total  revenue  in  recent  years  are 
given  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


iSqo-i. 

1900-1. 

'90.^-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue     . 

18,18 
28,10 

19,63 
30,26 

20,79 
32, .^0 

There  are  two  municipalities  in  the  District,  Bellary  and  Adoni,  both 
established  in  1867.  Outside  their  limits  local  affairs  are  managed  by 
the  District  board,  and  the  three  taluk  boards  of  Bellary,  Hospet,  and 
Adoni,  the  jurisdictions  of  which  correspond  to  the  subdivisions  of  the 
same  names.     The  expenditure  of  all  these    boards    in    1903-4   was 


ADMINISTRA  TION  1 7  3 

2\  lakhs,  of  which  nearly  half  was  laid  out  on  roads  and  buildings. 
The  chief  item  in  the  receipts,  as  usual,  is  the  land  cess.  Nineteen 
towns  and  villages  have  been  constituted  Unions  under  (Madras) 
Act  V  of  1884. 

The  police  force  is  controlled  by  a  District  Superintendent  and  an 
Assistant  Superintendent.  In  1904  there  were  61  police  stations,  and 
the  force  consisted  of  13  inspectors  and  1,141  constables,  with  a  reserve 
of  89  men.  There  were  also  974  rural  police  working  in  conjunction 
with  the  regular  force. 

The  District  jail  at  Bellary  town  has  accommodation  for  323  males 
and  23  females,  exclusive  of  the  observation  cells  and  hospital,  which 
will  hold  27  and  36  inmates  respectively.  As  this  does  not  sufficiently 
provide  for  the  needs  of  adjoining  Districts,  from  which  prisoners  are 
sent  to  this  jail,  100  more  cells  are  being  constructed.  The  only 
manufacture  carried  on  in  the  jail  is  the  weaving  of  the  woollen  blankets 
of  the  country.  There  are  nine  subsidiary  jails.  Seven  are  situated  at 
the  taluk  head-quarters  (except  Bellary),  and  the  other  two  at  the 
deputy-/<rA«M?ri-'  stations  at  Siruguppa  and  Yemmiganur.  They  pro- 
vide accommodation  for  a  total  of  161  prisoners. 

As  regards  education,  Bellary  is  one  of  the  most  backward  areas  in 
Madras.  At  the  Census  of  1 901  it  stood  seventeenth  among  the  twenty- 
two  Districts  of  the  Presidency  in  the  literacy  of  its  male  population, 
and  last  in  that  of  its  females.  Persons  who  could  read  and  write 
formed  only  4-6  per  cent.  (8-6  males  and  0-3  females)  of  the  total.  The 
Bellary  taluk  contained  a  considerably  higher  proportion  than  any  other, 
but  in  Rayadrug  only  3  per  cent,  were  returned  as  literate.  The  total 
number  of  pupils  under  instruction  in  1881-2  was  10,368;  in  1890-1, 
18,858;  in  1900-1,  26,283  ;  and  in  1903-4  only  14,861.  The  number 
of  educational  institutions  of  all  kinds  in  March,  1904,  was  627,  of  which 
604  were  classed  as  public,  and  the  remainder  as  private.  Of  the  former, 
1 1  were  managed  by  the  Educational  department,  36  by  the  local  boards, 
and  8  by  the  two  municipalities;  314  received  grants-in-aid,  and  235, 
though  not  aided,  conformed  to  the  rules  of  the  department.  These 
institutions  included  591  primary,  9  secondary,  3  training  and  other 
special  schools,  and  the  Wardlaw  College  at  Bellary  town.  The  number 
of  girls  in  them  was  1,504.  As  usual,  the  majority  of  the  pupils  were 
only  in  primary  classes.  The  percentage  of  boys  of  school-going  age  in 
these  classes  was  18,  and  of  girls  2.  Among  Musalmans  the  corre- 
sponding figures  were  19  and  2.  There  are  13  Panchama  schools  in 
the  District,  with  479  pupils.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  1-2  2  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  34,000  was  derived  from  fees.  Of 
the  total,  Rs.  8,500  was  devoted  to  primary  education. 

Bellary  possesses  seven  hospitals.  Two  are  maintained  by  the 
municipalities  ;  of  the  other  five,  which  are  all  kept  up  by  the  local 


174  BELLARY  DISTRICT 

boards,  four  are  at  taluk  and  one  at  a  AQ.\ywX,^-tahs'ilddr's  head-quarters. 
They  have  a  total  accommodation  of  95  beds,  57  for  males  and  38  for 
females.  The  Bellary  hospital,  founded  in  1842,  with  a  small  endow- 
ment of  Rs.  2,500,  has  40  beds.  There  arc  also  five  dispensaries 
maintained  by  the  boards  in  certain  of  the  larger  villages,  and  two  more 
by  the  municipality  at  Bellary.  The  total  number  of  cases  treated  in 
1903  was  129,000,  of  whom  900  were  in-patients,  and  3,000  operations 
were  performed.  The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  31,000.  There  is  a 
hospital  for  women  at  Bellary  town,  built  from  subscriptions  to  the 
Victoria  Memorial  Fund,  and  two  others  are  to  be  opened  shortly  at 
Adoni  and  Hospet. 

Vaccination  has  been  efficiently  performed  in  late  years.  In  1903-4 
the  number  of  persons  protected  w^as  32  per  1,000  of  the  population, 
compared  with  the  average  of  30  for  the  whole  Presidency.  Vaccination 
is  compulsory  in  the  two  municipalities  of  Bellary  and  Adoni,  but  in 
none  of  the  nineteen  Unions. 

[For  further  particulars  of  the  District  see  the  Bellary  Gazetteer,  by 
W.  Francis  (1904).] 

Bellary  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Bellary  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the  Bellary  and  Rayadrug  taluks. 

Bellary  Taluk. — Eastern  taluk  of  the  District  of  the  same  name, 
Madras,  lying  between  14°  57' and  i5°44'N.  and  76°  40' and  77°  10' E., 
with  an  area  of  962  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  193,401, 
compared  with  180,353  in  1891.  The  taluk  contains  two  towns, 
Bellary  (population,  58,247),  the  head-quarters  and  the  capital  of  the 
District,  and  Siruguppa  (5,805);  and  156  villages.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  in  1903-4  to  Rs.  4,23,000,  being 
the  highest  in  the  District.  As  much  as  four-fifths  of  the  total  area,  a 
higher  proportion  than  in  any  other  taluk,  is  covered  with  black  cotton 
soil,  the  remaining  fifth  being  red  land.  Except  in  the  extreme  south, 
where  it  is  bounded,  and  in  places  broken  up,  by  the  spurs  of  the 
Copper  Mountain,  it  forms  a  wide  level  expanse  diversified  only  by  low 
granite  hills.  It  slopes  north  and  north-eastwards  towards  the  Tunga- 
bhadra  and  the  Hagari ;  the  Pedda  Vanka,  one  of  the  streams  which 
carry  its  drainage  into  the  latter,  is  of  a  respectable  size.  It  is  the 
largest,  most  populous,  and  best-educated  taluk  in  the  District ;  and  it 
contains  the  highest  proportion  of  Musalmans,  nearly  four-fifths  of  all 
the  Christians,  and  an  unusual  number  of  the  few  Jains  who  are  found 
there.  More  than  half  the  population  speak  Kanarese,  only  a  fifth 
speaking  Telugu.  The  land  served  by  the  Tungabhadra  channels  about 
Siruguppa  is  the  most  fertile  in  the  District.  Cholam  and  korra  are  the 
staple  crops,  but  the  area  under  cotton  is  large  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  cambu  is  grown.  The  forest  area  is  smaller  than  in  any 
taluk  except  Alur,  and  the  rainfall  is  the  lightest  in  the  District. 


BELLARY  TOWN  175 

Bellary  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of  the 
same  name,  Madras,  situated  in  15°  9'  N.  and  76°  51''  E.  It  is  one 
of  the  chief  military  stations  in  Southern  India,  and  is  garrisoned  by 
both  British  and  Native  troops.  The  force  maintained  is,  however, 
considerably  smaller  than  it  used  to  be.  Bellary  is  the  seventh  largest 
town  in  the  Presidency.  Its  population  in  1871  was  51,766;  in  1881, 
53,460;  in  1891,  59,467  ;  and  in  1901,  58,247.  The  growth  has  thus 
been  slow.  The  decline  during  the  last  decade  was  due  to  the  removal 
of  some  of  the  troops.  In  1901,  60  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  were 
Hindus  and  32  per  cent.  Musalmans  ;  Christians  numbered  about  4,000. 

The  town  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  wide,  level  plain  of  black  cotton 
soil.  The  .Southern  Mahratta  Railway  passes  through  it,  connecting  it 
with  Hubli  on  the  west  and  with  Guntakal  junction  on  the  east,  by  which 
route  it  is  305  miles  from  Madras.  It  also  lies  on  the  trunk  road  from 
Bangalore  to  Secunderabad.  The  most  conspicuous  objects  are  the 
Fort  Hill  and  the  Face  Hill,  the  latter  so  called  from  the  resemblance  of 
certain  rocks  on  its  summit  to  a  human  face.  They  are  bare,  rocky 
elevations  with  hardly  any  vegetation  on  them.  The  fort  on  the  former 
gave  Bellary  its  ancient  importance  and  led  to  its  selection  as  the  site  of 
a  cantonment.  This  fortress  consists  of  an  upper  citadel  on  the  rock, 
the  top  of  which  is  1,976  feet  above  the  sea,  and  a  lower  enclosure  at 
the  foot.  The  citadel  is  guarded  by  three  lines  of  strong  fortifications, 
which  are  still  in  excellent  repair,  and  contains  a  number  of  substantial 
buildings  and  an  ample  water-supply  from  reservoirs  constructed  in 
the  clefts  of  the  rocks.  There  is  only  one  way  up,  which  is  strongly 
defended.  The  lower  fort  is  surrounded  by  a  rampart  with  numerous 
bastions,  faced  by  a  deep  ditch  and  glacis.  Magazines,  the  quarters  of 
the  guard  in  charge  of  them,  the  chief  church  of  the  civil  station,  and 
several  public  offices  and  schools  are  built  within  this.  It  used  also 
at  one  time  to  contain  an  arsenal.  The  town  includes  the  civil  station 
to  the  east  of  the  fort,  the  cantonment  on  the  west,  and  on  the 
south,  between  these  two  areas,  the  Cowl  Bazar  and  the  suburbs  of 
Bruce-pettah  and  Mellor-pettah,  named  after  two  civil  officers  once 
stationed  at  Bellary. 

Until  the  British  made  Bellary  a  cantonment  it  contained  little  but 
its  fort.  This  was  originally  the  residence  of  a  chieftain  called  Hanum- 
appa  Naik,  whose  family  held  it  as  vassals  of  the  kings  of  Vijayanagar 
and  afterwards  of  the  Sultans  of  Bijapur.  About  1678  it  was  taken  from 
them  by  the  famous  Maratha  chief  SivajT,  because  as  he  was  passing  that 
way  some  of  his  foragers  had  been  killed  by  the  garrison ;  but  he  restored 
it  again  at  once  on  condition  that  tribute  should  be  paid  him.  About 
1761  it  became  tributary  to  Basalat  Jang  of  Adoni.  The  chief  quarrelled 
with  Basalat  Jang  and  refused  to  pay  tribute.  The  place  was  accordingly 
besieged  by  a  force  from  Adoni.      The  chief  applied  for  aid  to  Haidar 


176  BELLAKY  TOWN 

All,  who  made  a  wonderful  forced  march,  which  has  been  graphically 
described  by  Wilks,  and  routed  the  Adoni  troops.  He  then,  however, 
seized  it  for  himself  and  erected  the  present  fortifications.  Tradition 
says  that  they  were  designed  by  a  Frenchman  in  Haidar's  service,  and 
that  Haidar,  finding  the  fort  was  commanded  by  the  Face  Hill,  hanged 
him  afterwards  at  the  main  guard  gate.  The  fort  was  in  the  possession 
of  Mysore  until  1 792,  when,  with  others  of  Tipu's  territories,  it  was  given 
to  the  Nizam.  The  Nizam  ceded  it  to  the  British  with  the  rest  of  the 
District  in  1800.  It  did  not  become  the  head-cjuarters  of  the  District 
until  1840,  the  Collector  until  that  year  living  at  Anantapur. 

Though  Bellary  is  situated  1,400  feet  above  the  sea,  its  climate  is  hot 
and  very  dry,  but  it  is  considered  a  healthy  town.  Its  great  want  is 
a  proper  water-supply,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  completion  of  the  great 
irrigation  project  connected  with  the  Tungabhadra  will  supply  this. 
Besides  being  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  staff,  it  is  also  the 
residence  of  a  Superintending  Engineer  and  an  Inspector  of  Schools. 
A  company  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  Volunteer  Rifles  is  also 
located  here,  and  the  town  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Mission  and  of  the  London  Mission.  It  contains  a  District  jail,  with 
accommodation  for  346  prisoners. 

The  chief  educational  institution  is  the  Wardlaw  College,  which  was 
founded  as  a  school  in  1846  by  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Wardlaw,  D.D.,  of  the 
London  Mission,  and  was  raised  to  a  second-grade  college  in  189 1.  It  is 
the  only  Arts  college  in  the  Ceded  Districts.  In  1903-4  it  had  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  319  students,  of  whom  17  were  in  the  F.A.  class. 
A  high  school  is  maintained  by  the  municipality ;  and  there  is  a  techni- 
cal class  at  St.  Philomena's  high  school  managed  by  the  nuns  of  the 
Order  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  pupils  of  which  are  almost  all 
Europeans  or  Eurasians. 

Bellary  was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  receipts  and  expen- 
diture during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  80,000  and 
Rs.  85,000  respectively.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,17,000,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  90,000.  Of  the  former,  Rs.  44,000  was  contributed 
by  Government,  and  the  rest  was  principally  derived  from  the  house 
and  land  taxes  and  tolls,  while  the  chief  items  of  expenditure  included 
conservancy,  roads  and  buildings,  and  education.  The  municipal 
hospital,  known  as  the  Sabhapati  Mudaliyar  Hospital,  was  founded 
in  1842  and  has  forty  beds.  The  building  was  presented  by  the 
gentleman  whose  name  it  bears.  There  are  two  other  dispensaries.  The 
industries  of  Bellary  include  a  small  distillery,  two  steam  cotton-presses, 
and  a  steam  cotton-spinning  mill.  The  latter,  established  in  1894  and 
fitted  with  machinery  of  the  latest  pattern,  employs  520  hands.  The 
number  of  spindles  is  17,800. 

Bellavi. — Town  in  the  Tumkur  tdhik  of  Tumkur  District,  Mysore, 


BE  ME  TAR  A  177 

situated  in  13°  25'  N.  and  77°  i'  E.,  9  miles  north-west  of  Tumkur 
town.  Population  (1901),  1,669.  ^  great  weekly  fair  is  held  here,  on 
which  all  the  surrounding  country  depends,  and  which  is  an  important 
mart  for  exports.  The  streets  are  wide,  with  uniform  shops  on  either 
side.  The  municipality  formed  in  1870  was  converted  into  a  Union 
in  1904.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending 
1 90 1  averaged  Rs.  960  and  Rs.  700.  In  1903-4  they  were  Rs.  1,000 
and  Rs.  2,700  respectively. 

Belur. — North-western  taluk  of  Hassan  District,  Mysore,  lying 
between  12°  58'  and  13°  19'  N,  and  75°  44'  and  76°  Y  E.,  with  an  area 
of  339  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  79,192,  compared 
with  75,470  in  1891.  The  tdhik  contains  one  town,  Belur  (population, 
3,862),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  410  villages.  The  land  revenue  demand 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,81,000.  The  west  is  a  part  of  the  Malnad,  and  for 
a  short  distance  is  bounded  by  the  Hemavati  river.  The  Yagachi  flows 
through  the  centre  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  being  joined  in  the 
north  by  the  Berinji-halla.  In  the  forests  of  the  hill  country  to  the  west 
are  coffee  plantations,  while  rice  is  grown  in  the  valleys.  In  the 
east  are  rocky  hills,  either  bare  or  covered  with  scrub  jungle.  The 
centre  is  more  level,  with  either  gravelly  and  grassy  plains,  or  stretches 
of  rice  land.  Some  small  channels  are  drawn  from  the  Yagachi  and  the 
streams  falling  into  it.  The  soils  are  poor  in  the  west  but  improve 
eastwards,  much  of  the  best  description  being  around  Halebid  and 
Belur.  In  the  south-west  the  high  ground,  instead  of  sloping  gradually 
to  the  lower,  drops  abruptly  in  perpendicular  scarps  50  to  100  feet 
high.     Good  tobacco  is  grown  in  the  east. 

Bemetara.— Northern  tahsil  of  the  new  Drug  District  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  which  was  constituted  in  1906  from  portions  of  Raipur  and 
Bilaspur.  The  tahsil  lies  between  21°  20'  and  22°  o'  N.  and  80°  43'  and 
82°  2'  E.,  and  contains  portions  of  three  former  tahsils.  A  tract  of  363 
square  miles  was  taken  from  the  west  of  the  Mungeli  tahsil  of  Bilaspur  ; 
614  square  miles  comprised  in  six  zamlndari  estates  were  transferred 
from  the  old  Drug  tahsil;  and  589  square  miles  were  transferred  from 
the  Simga  tahsil  of  Raipur.  The  Bemetara  tahs'il  is  an  irregularly 
shaped  tract,  nearly  cut  in  two  by  the  Khairagarh  State.  Its  area 
is  1,566  square  miles,  and  the  population  of  the  tract  now  constituting 
the  tahs'il  wdA  240,843  persons  in  1901,  compared  with  290,238  in  1891. 
The  density  is  154  persons  per  square  mile,  and  there  are  874  inhabited 
villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Bemetara,  a  village  of  1,197  inhabi- 
tants, 47  miles  from  Drug  town  by  road.  It  includes  the  six  zamhiddri 
estates  of  Sahaspur-Lohara,  Silheti,  Barbaspur,  Gandai,  Thakurtola,  and 
Parpori,  with  a  total  area  of  614  square  miles  and  a  population  of  48,327 
persons.  About  308  square  miles  in  the  zamlnddris  are  forest,  but  there 
are   no   Government   Reserves.      The  western    portion  of   the    tahsil 

VOL.  VII.  N 


178 


BEMETARA 


consists  of  a  fertile  and  closely  cultivated  black  soil  plain,  while  in  the 
east  the  zam'tndari  estates  border  on  the  Satpura  Hills.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1902-3  on  the  area  now  forming  the  tahstl  was 
approximately  r-go  lakhs. 

Benares  Division. — South-eastern  Division  of  the  United  Provinces, 
lying  between  23°  52'  and  26°  12'  N.  and  82^  7'  and  84°  39'  E.  The 
northern  portion  is  traversed  by  the  Ganges  and  in  the  east  reaches  to 
the  Gogra,  while  the  southern  extends  beyond  the  Kaimur  range  and  the 
river  Son  to  the  East  Satpuras.  The  head-quarters  of  the  Commissioner 
are  at  Benares  city.  Population  increased  from  1872  to  1891,  but  fell 
during  the  next  decade.  The  numbers  at  the  last  four  enumerations 
were  as  follows  :  (1872)  4,395,252,  (1881)  5,178,005,  (1891)  5,368,480, 
and  (1901)  5,069,020.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Census  of 
1872  understated  the  actual  population.  The  decrease  between  1891 
and  1 90 1  was  due  partly  to  an  epidemic  of  fever  following  disastrous 
floods  in  1894,  partly  to  emigration,  and  partly  to  the  effects  of  famine. 
The  total  area  is  10,431  square  miles,  and  the  density  is  486  persons 
per  square  mile,  as  compared  with  445  for  the  Provinces  as  a  whole. 
The  Districts  north  of  the  Ganges  include  the  most  thickly  populated 
area  in  the  United  Provinces.  In  1901  Hindus  formed  more  than 
91  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  Musalmans  not  quite  9  per 
cent.  There  were  2,949  Christians  and  1,984  Sikhs.  The  Division 
contains  five  Districts,  as  shown  below  : — 


Area  in  square 
miles. 

Population, 
1901. 

Land  revenue  and 

cesses,  1903-4, 

in  thousands 

of  rupees. 

Benares 
Mirzapur    . 
Jaunpur 
Ghazipur   . 
Ballia 

Total 

1,008 
5,238 
1,551 
1,389 
1,245 

10,431 

882,084 

1,082,430 

1,202,920 

913,818 

987,768 

10,45 
9,93 

14,60 

12,10 
8,43 

5,069,020 

5.'5,5i 

This  is  the  only  considerable  area  in  the  United  Provinces  of  which 
the  revenue  is  permanently  settled.  Ballia  District  lies  entirely  in  the 
Doab  between  the  Ganges  and  Gogra,  which  form  its  northern  and 
southern  boundaries  and  meet  at  its  eastern  extremity.  Jaunpur  District 
is  situated  in  the  same  Doab,  but  does  not  reach  either  of  the  rivers. 
Ghazipur,  Benares,  and  Mirzapur  lie  on  both  sides  of  the  Ganges ;  but 
while  the  first  two  Districts  are  situated  entirely  in  the  alluvial  plain, 
Mirzapur  stretches  many  miles  south  to  the  Vindhyas  and  East  Satpuras. 
There  are  13,654  villages  and  only  38  towns;  and  the  Division  is 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  small  hamlets  in  almost  every  village, 
contrasting  with  the  closely-packed  central  village  sites  of  the  Western 


BENARES  DISTRICT  179 

Districts  in  the  United  Provinces.  The  largest  towns  are  :  Benares 
(fJopulation,  209,331  with  cantonments),  Mirzapur  (79,862),  Jaunpir 
(42,771),  and  Ghazipur  (39,429).  There  are  few  places  of  commer- 
cial importance,  the  chief  being  Benares,  Mirzapur,  Ghazlpur,  Jaunpur, 
Shahganj,  and  Ahraura.  Benares  is  one  of  the  holiest  centres  of 
Hinduism,  especially  to  the  worshipper  of  Siva ;  and  some  interesting 
Buddhist  remains  have  survived  at  Sarnath  near  it.  Jaunpur  was 
the  seat  of  a  powerful  kingdom  during  the  fifteenth  century,  and  con- 
tains fine  specimens  of  the  Muhammadan  buildings  of  that  period. 

Benares  District  (Bandras). — District  in  the  Division  of  the  same 
name.  United  Provinces,  lying  between  25°  8'  and  25°  35'  N.  and  82° 
40'  and  83°  33'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,008  square  miles.  Benares  is 
bounded  by  Jaunpur  and  Ghazlpur  on  the  north  ;  by  the  Shahabad 
District  of  Bengal  on  the  east  ;  by  Mirzapur  on  the  south  ;  and  by 
Jaunpur  and  Mirzapur  on  the  west.  The  District  is  part  of  the  alluvial 
valley  deposited  by  the  river  Ganges,  and  forms  an 
irregular  parallelogram,  divided  by  the  sacred  stream.  nysical 

On  each  bank  of  the  river  is  found  a  high  ridge  of 
coarse  gravelly  soil,  mixed  with  kankar  or  nodular  limestone,  and  scored 
by  ravines.     East  of  the  Ganges  the  surface  dips  rapidly,  and  a  large 
portion  of  this  tract  is  under  water  during  the  rains,  and  is  generally 
marshy.    On  the  opposite  bank  the  level  is  more  uniformly  maintained. 

The  Ganges  first  touches  the  District  on  the  .southern  boundary,  and 
after  crossing  it  in  a  series  of  bold  curves,  with  a  general  direction  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  leaves  the  northern  border,  at  the  point  where 
it  receives  the  Gumtl,  which  forms  the  northern  boundary  for  about 
22  miles.  Two  small  streams,  the  Barna  and  Nand,  drain  the  area  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges.  The  Karamnasa  skirts  the  south-eastern 
border ;  it  becomes  a  heavy  stream  after  rain,  and  is  subject  to  sudden 
floods,  but  is  almost  dry  during  the  hot  months.  The  District  contains 
many  small  marshy  lakes  or  jhils,  some  of  which  attain  a  length  of 
several  miles  during  the  rains,  but  most  of  them  are  almost  dry  in  the 
summer. 

Benares  lies  entirely  in  the  Gangetic  alluvium,  and  kankar  is  the  only 
stone  found.  Saline  efflorescences  called  reh  are  not  uncommon, 
especially  in  the  Chandauli  tahs'il. 

The  flora  of  the  District  presents  no  peculiarities.  The  mango  and 
bamboo  are  largely  planted,  and  fine  groves  are  numerous.  Fruit  is 
also  largely  grown,  and  Benares  is  famous  for  its  mangoes  and  guavas. 
There  is  very  little  jungle. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  uncultivated  land,  the  wild  animals  found 
here  are  not  important.  A  few  antelope  are  seen  north-east  of  the 
Ganges  and  along  the  Karamnasa.  Wild-fowl  congregate  in  numbers 
on  the  rivers  and  lakes.     Fish  are  caught  abundantly  in  the  Ganges. 

N  2 


i8o  BENARES  DISTRICT 

The  climate,  except  in  the  cold  season,  is  moist  and  relaxing,  and 
resembles  that  of  Bengal.  Even  during  the  winter  months  the  cold 
is  much  less  marked  than  in  the  Districts  farther  west.  In  summer, 
though  the  heat  is  great,  the  west  winds  blow  intermittently ;  but  during 
the  rains  a  fairly  constant  east  wind  prevails.  The  mean  monthly  tem- 
perature ranges  from  about  60°  in  January  to  92°  in  May  and  June. 

The  annual  rainfall  over  the  whole  District  averages  nearly  40  inches, 
varying  from  38  in  the  west  to  41  in  the  east.  Fluctuations  from  year 
to  year  are  occasionally  considerable,  but  are  not  so  violent  as  in 
Districts  farther  west.  In  1876  the  fall  was  only  26  inches,  while  in 
1894  nearly  64  inches  were  received. 

Before  the  Muhammadan  invasion  Benares  City  was  at  times  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  ;  but  the  records  of  the  early  period  are  vague  and 
unreliable.  Tradition  relates  that  aboriginal  races, 
such  as  the  Bhars  and  Koirls,  once  held  the  District ; 
but  in  the  twelfth  century  they  certainly  owed  allegiance  to  the  Raja 
of  Kanauj.  Benares  fell  into  the  hands  of  Muhammad  Ghorl  after  the 
defeat  of  Jai  Chand,  and  a  governor  was  appointed  to  dispense  justice 
and  repress  idolatry.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  District  formed  part 
of  the  separate  kingdom  of  Jaunpur  till  its  fall ;  and  in  the  struggles  of 
the  next  century  between  Mughal  and  Pathan  it  suffered  much.  Under 
Akbar  it  was  included  in  the  Subah  of  Allahabad,  and  enjoyed  a  period 
of  peace  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  shared  in  the  troubles 
that  attended  the  fall  of  Mughal  power.  About  1722  the  greater  part 
of  the  present  Benares  Division  was  included  in  the  territory  governed 
by  Saadat  Khan,  the  first  Nawab  of  Oudh,  who  sublet  it  to  Mir  Rustam 
All.  The  latter  was  expelled  in  1738  ;  and  the  grant  was  transferred  to 
his  agent,  Mansa  Ram,  an  ancestor  of  the  present  Maharaja,  who  had 
already  acquired  a  fort  in  Jaunpur. 

Mansa  Ram  died  in  1739;  but  his  son,  Balwant  Singh,  in  whose 
name  the  grant  had  been  made  and  who  had  received  the  title  of  Raja, 
successfully  followed  his  father's  policy.  Through  a  long  course  of  years 
he  endeavoured  to  make  himself  practically  independent  of  the  Nawab, 
his  lord-paramount,  by  building  or  seizing  a  line  of  fortresses  on  a 
strong  strategical  base  south  of  the  Ganges.  Step  by  step  he  acquired 
new  strips  of  territory,  and  strengthened  each  acquisition  by  fresh 
military  works. 

In  1763  the  Raja  joined  the  emperor.  Shah  Alam,  and  the  Nawab, 
Shuja-ud-daula,  in  their  invasion  of  Bengal.  After  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Buxar,  however^  he  went  over  to  the  British  camp  and  prudently 
sought  the  protection  of  the  conquerors.  By  an  agreement  of  1764, 
Balwant  Singh's  estates  were  transferred  from  Oudh  to  the  Company  ; 
but  the  transfer  was  disapproved  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  and  in  1 765 
the  Benares  territory  was  restored  to  Oudh,  the  Nawab  consenting  to 


HISTORY  i8i 

guarantee  the  Raja  in  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  his  possessions.  Balwant 
Singh  died  in  1770,  and  the  Nawab  endeavoured  to  use  the  opportunity 
thus  afforded  him  of  dispossessing  his  powerful  vassal.  The  British, 
however,  compelled  him  to  recognize  the  succession  of  Chet  Singh,  an 
illegitimate  son  of  the  late  Raja.  Five  years  later,  the  Nawab  ceded 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Benares  estate  to  the  British,  who  confirmed 
Chet  Singh  in  his  holding  by  sanad,  dated  April  15,  1776. 

In  1778  a  contribution  of  5  lakhs  was  levied  upon  Chet  Singh  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  battalion  of  sepoys  ;  similar  demands  were  made 
in  1779  and  1780.  In  the  latter  year,  British  power  in  India  being  then 
threatened  with  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  part  of  Haidar  All,  the 
Nizam,  and  the  Marathas,  the  Governor-General,  Warren  Hastings, 
called  upon  the  Raja  to  furnish  a  cavalry  contingent  of  1,500  men.  The 
Raja  returned  evasive  answers,  but  did  not  send  a  single  trooper.  For 
this  conduct  Hastings  determined  to  inflict  upon  him  a  fine  of  50  lakhs. 
In  August,  1 781,  he  arrived  in  person  at  Benares,  and  finding  Chet 
Singh  still  insubordinate,  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  arrested  in  his 
own  house.  A  riot  occurred,  the  little  body  of  British  troops  was 
attacked  and  easily  overcome,  the  Raja  fled  to  one  of  his  strongholds, 
and  a  general  rising  took  place  in  the  city.  Hastings,  shut  up  with  his 
slender  retinue  in  Benares,  found  himself  in  a  most  critical  position, 
from  which  he  extricated  himself  by  flight  to  Chunar.  The  Raja 
remained  in  open  rebellion  till  the  end  of  September,  when  the  British 
troops  dispersed  his  followers.  The  Governor-General  then  returned 
to  Benares,  deposed  Chet  Singh,  and  recognized  his  nephew,  Mahip 
Narayan,  as  Raja.  Chet  Singh  retired  to  Gwalior,  where  he  died  in 
18 10.  The  criminal  administration  of  the  whole  estate  and  the  civil 
and  criminal  administration  of  the  city  were  taken  from  the  Raja  and 
assumed  by  the  Company.  For  the  later  history  of  the  family,  see 
Benares  Estate.  When  Wazir  Ali,  Nawab  of  Oudh,  was  deposed  by 
the  British  in  1798,  he  received  orders  to  live  at  Benares.  In  January, 
1799,  he  attacked  Mr.  Cherry,  the  Governor-General's  Agent,  and  mur- 
dered him  with  two  other  officers.  The  Magistrate,  whom  he  proceeded 
to  assail,  defended  himself  in  his  house  till  the  cavalry  arrived  from 
Bitabar  and  rescued  him.  Wazir  Ali  escaped  at  the  time,  but  was 
subsequently  given  up  and  confined  for  life  in  Calcutta '. 

From  this  period  British  rule  was  never  seriously  disturbed  till  the 
Mutiny  of  1857.  News  of  the  outbreak  at  Meerut  reached  Benares  on 
May  15.  The  37th  Native  Infantry  at  once  became  disorderly,  and  it 
was  determined  to  disarm  them  on  June  i.  They  replied  to  the  order 
with  a  volley  ;  but  when  it  was  returned  they  shortly  dispersed.  The 
Sikhs  and  the  Irregular  Cavalry  joined  the  mutineers.  The  civil  officers, 
however,   held  the  mint  and   the  treasury,  and   the  rebellion  went 

'   Vizier  Ali  Khan,  or  the  Massacre  0/ Benares  (1S44  ;  reprinted  at  Jienares). 


l83 


BENARES  DISTRICT 


farther.  Parties  of  Europeans  passing  up  from  Calcutta  to  the  north- 
west sufificed  to  keep  the  city  quiet,  though  in  the  District  some  distur- 
bances took  place.  Early  in  June  the  Rajputs  of  Jaunpur  marched  to 
attack  Benares,  but  on  June  17  they  were  cut  to  pieces  by  a  British 
force.  Next  day  the  erection  of  the  fort  at  Rajghat  was  commenced  on 
a  site  which  commands  the  whole  city,  and  no  breach  of  the  peace 
afterwards  occurred. 

Ancient  remains  are  found  in  many  places,  the  oldest  being  the  group 
of  Buddhist  ruins  at  Sarnath.  The  famous  temples  of  Benares  City 
are  not  conspicuous  for  architectural  beauty  or  for  antiquity  ;  and  the 
finest,  together  with  the  magnificent  line  of  stone  bathing  ghats  along 
the  Ganges,  date  principally  from  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  District  contains  4  towns  and  1,972  villages.  Its  population  in- 
creased between  1872  and  1891,  and  then  decreased  owing  to  a  series  of 
bad  seasons.  The  numbers  at  the  last  four  enumera- 
tions were  as  follows  :  (1872)  794,039,  (1881)892,684, 
(1891)  921,943,  and  (1901)  882,084.  It  is  probable  that  the  Census  of 
1872  understated  the  population.  There  are  three  tahsils — Benares, 
Gangapur,  and  Chandauli  —  each  named  from  its  head-quarters. 
Benares  City  is  the  administrative  capital,  and  Ramnagar,  the 
residence  of  the  Maharaja,  is  the  only  other  town  of  importance.  The 
following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Population. 


TahsH. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Population. 

•53 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8gi 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

71 

c 

0 

H 

9S9 

280 
703 

Benares   . 
Gangapur 
Chandaull 

District  total 

464 
118 
^26 

2 
2 

557,641 
86,703 

237,840 

1,202 

735 
558 

-  3-9 
-3.6 

-  5-4 

41,757 
2,895 
8,463 

1,008 

4 

1,972 

882,084 

875 

-  4-3 

53,115 

The  density  of  population  is  extremely  high,  being  nearly  double  that 
of  the  United  Provinces  as  a  whole.  Hindus  form  more  than  89  per 
cent,  of  the  total,  and  Musalmans  more  than  10  per  cent.  The  language 
in  common  use  is  Biharl,  which  is  spoken  by  90  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion, while  Western  Hindi  (chiefly  Hindustani)  is  spoken  by  7  per  cent. 
Owing  to  its  religious  reputation,  there  are  large  numbers  of  persons 
speaking  Bengali,  Marathi,  and  GujaratI  in  Benares  city. 

The  most  numerous  Hindu  castes  are  :  Brahmans,  98,000  ;  Chamars 
(leather-workers  and  cultivators),  97,000 ;  Kurmis  (agriculturists), 
83,000;  Ahirs  (agriculturists),  81,000;  Rajputs,  53,000;  and  Koirls 
(cultivators),  42,000.  Among  the  castes  found  chiefly  in  the  east  of 
the  United  Provinces  are  the  high-caste  Bhuinhars,  who  claim  to  be 


AGRICULTURE 


183 


Brahmans,  18,000;  B bars  (an  aboriginal  tribe),  38,000  ;  Lunias  (labour- 
ers), 15,000  ;  and  Gonds  (corresponding  to  Kahars  elsewhere),  12,000. 
Among  Muhammadans  the  castes  and  tribes  chiefly  represented 
are  the  Julahas  (weavers),  28,000 ;  Shaikhs,  26,000 ;  and  Pathans, 
10,000.  The  principal  landholders  are  Brahmans,  Bhuinhars,  Rajputs, 
various  money-lending  castes,  and  Kayasths.  Agriculture  supports 
57  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  general  labour  6  per  cent. 

There  were  669  native  Christians  in  1901,  of  whom  380  belonged  to 
the  Anglican  communion.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  commenced 
work  here  in  181 8,  and  the  London  Missionary  Society  two  years 
later.     The  Baptist  and  Wesleyan  Societies  also  have  branches. 

The  characteristic  features  of  the  portion  of  the  District  east  of  the 
Ganges  are  the  ab.sence  of  drainage  and  the  clay  soil  in  the  centre. 
Rice  cultivation  is  thus  more  important  here  than  in 
the  tract  west  of  the  river,  and  in  ordinary  years  the 
spring  crops  are  largely  grown  without  irrigation.  In  the  extreme  east 
the  soil  turns  to  mar,  the  black  soil  of  Bundelkhand.  West  of  the 
Ganges  the  soil  is  lighter,  and  not  so  liable  to  waterlogging.  The 
whole  District  is  very  closely  cultivated.  In  the  cold  season  the 
spring  crops  are  often  liable  to  attacks  of  rust. 

In  the  portion  of  the  District  outside  the  Benares  Estate  the 
ordinary  tenures  are  found,  zamindari  mahals  numbering  2,688,  and 
pattidCwi  1,972.  Some  of  the  mahals  are  of  the  variety  known  as 
complex,  which  comprise  portions  of  a  number  of  separate  villages. 
There  are  also  tenants  at  fixed  rates,  who  have  a  transferable  as  well 
as  a  heritable  right,  and  under-proprietors  called  mukarraridars,  who 
hold  permanent  leases.  The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4 
are  given  below,  in  square  miles  : — 


Agriculture. 


Tahstl. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Benares 
Gangapur   . 
Chandaull  . 

Total 

464 
118 
426 

1,008 

326                     159 

85                    45 
332                   89 

59 
14 
33 

743        1          293 

106 

Rice  and  barley  are  the  chief  food-crops,  covering  162  and  152 
square  miles  respectively,  or  25  and  23  per  cent,  of  the  net  area 
cropped.  Gram  (77  square  miles)  and  wheat  (60)  come  next  in 
importance;  jowdr,  maize,  bdjra,  and  sdwdn  are  also  grown.  Maize 
is  a  favourite  crop  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  and  near  village  sites. 
Sugar-cane  was  grown  on  2  r  square  miles,  hemp  {sail)  on  1 7,  and  the 
District  also  produces  poppy  and  oilseeds. 

Between   1840  and    1880  the  total   cultivated  area  (excluding  the 


1 84  BENARES  DISTRICT 

Gangapur  tahs'il)  increased  by  only  about  4  per  cent.  The  principal 
change  in  this  period  was  the  replacement  of  sugar  by  rice  and 
hemp  {san),  and  there  have  been  no  striking  alterations  since.  As  a 
rule,  few  or  no  advances  are  made  under  the  Loans  Acts,  but  in 
1896-7  Rs.  7,400  was  lent. 

The  cattle  of  the  District  are  very  poor,  and  when  better  animals  are 
required  they  are  imported.  The  ponies  are  also  inferior,  and  there  is 
no  peculiar  breed  of  sheep  or  goats. 

In  1903-4,  187  square  miles  were  irrigated  from  wells  and  59  from 
tanks.  The  tanks  are  chiefly  natural  depressions  or  J h'l/s,  and  are  used 
in  October  and  November  for  rice  cultivation,  and  later  for  the  spring 
crops  and  for  sugar-cane  if  the  water  is  not  exhausted.  Wells  can  be 
made  in  most  parts  of  the  District,  and  are  chiefly  worked  by  bullocks. 
The  rivers  are  hardly  used  at  all  for  irrigation,  as  the  lowlands  in  their 
beds  do  not  require  it,  and  the  expense  of  raising  water  to  a  higher 
level  W'Ould  be  prohibitive. 

Kankar,  or  calcareous  limestone,  is  the  only  mineral  product,  and 
is  used  for  metalling  roads  and  for  making  lime. 

Excluding  the  city  of  Benares,  there  are  few  manufactures,  and  these 

are  confined  to  the  preparation  of  a  few  classes  of  articles  for  local  use, 

the  weaving  of  coarse  cotton  cloth  being  the  most 

Trade  and  important.     The  city  is,  however,  celebrated  for  gold 

commixnications.         <■  -'      '  '  ,  ■      ■ 

and  silver  jewellery,  ornamental  brass-work,  embroi- 
dery, and  silk-weaving.  It  also  contains  three  ice  factories,  several 
printing  presses,  two  chemical  works,  and  two  brick-making  concerns. 

There  is  little  surplus  agricultural  produce  in  the  District,  and  oil- 
seeds are  perhaps  the  most  important  export.  The  manufactures  of  the 
city  are,  however,  largely  prepared  for  outside  markets.  The  imports 
include  piece-goods,  salt,  and  metals.  Benares  city  is  the  only  trade 
centre,  and  absorbs  a  large  part  of  the  produce  of  the  District,  while  it 
is  the  chief  place  for  the  distribution  of  imported  goods.  Railways 
have  now  taken  the  place  of  roads  as  trade-routes,  and  there  is  little 
traffic  on  the  river  except  the  carriage  of  stone  and  fuel  from  Mirzapur. 

The  District  is  exceptionally  well  served  by  railways  and  roads.  The 
main  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  traverses  the  eastern  portion,  and 
at  Mughal  Sarai  gives  off  a  branch  to  Gaya  in  Bengal.  Mughal  Sarai  is 
also  the  terminus  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway,  which  crosses 
the  Ganges  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  and  then  divides  into  two  branches 
at  Benares,  and  serves  the  western  half  of  the  District.  Benares  is  the 
terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Bengal  and  North- Western  Railway  which 
runs  north.  There  are  577  miles  of  road,  of  which  127  are  metalled. 
The  latter  are  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department,  but  the 
cost  of  all  but  51  miles  is  charged  to  Local  funds.  The  main 
lines   are :    the  grand  trunk  road,  which   traverses  the  south  of  the 


ADMINISTRATION  185 

District,  crossing  the  Ganges  at  Benares;  and  a  series  of  roads  radiating 
from  Benares  city  to  Jaunpur,  Azamgarh,  and  Ghazipur.  Avenues  of 
trees  are  maintained  on  262  miles. 

Benares  District  suffers  like  its  neighbours  from  drought,  and  from 
its  natural  consequence,  famine;  but  it  is  less  severely  affected  than  the 
regions  south  or  west  of  it.  In  1770  Benares  was 
visited  by  the  famine  which  devastated  Bihar  and 
Northern  Bengal.  In  1783,  though  the  dearth  was  more  marked  in  the 
western  Districts,  Hastings  described  the  country  from  Buxar  to  Benares 
as  devastated,  and  serious  riots  took  place.  There  was  little  distress  in 
1803-4,  though  bounties  were  given  to  encourage  the  import  of  grain 
from  Bengal.  The  famines  of  1837-8  and  1860-1  were  also  not  felt 
here  severely.  High  prices  caused  distress  in  1869,  in  1874,  and  in 
1 87 7-9,  but  to  a  much  smaller  degree  than  elsewhere.  The  monsoon 
of  1896  ceased  prematurely,  and  the  important  rice  crop  yielded  only 
one-eighth  of  the  normal.  Prices  rose  very  high  ;  but  the  distress  was 
mainly  confined  to  artisans  and  those  who  were  unable  to  labour,  and 
the  numbers  on  the  relief  works  opened  did  not  reach  4,000,  though 
12,000  persons  were  in  receipt  of  gratuitous  relief 

The  Collector  is  usually  assisted  by  a  member  of  the  Indian  Civil 
Service,  and  by  five  Deputy-Collectors  recruited   in     .... 
India.     A  tahsllddr  is  stationed  at  the  head-quarters 
of  each  tahstl. 

The  civil  courts  of  the  District  are  those  of  the  Munsif,  Sub-Judge, 
Small  Cause  Court  Judge,  and  District  Judge ;  but  these  have  no 
jurisdiction  within  the  Benares  Domains  in  cases  which  are  in  any  way 
connected  with  land.  The  District  Judge  is  also  the  Sessions  Judge. 
Murders  are  not  uncommon,  and  agrarian  quarrels  often  lead  to  riots. 
Professional  dacoity  is  rare.  The  Bhars,  Musahars,  and  Doms  of  this 
District  commit  dacoities  in  Eastern  Bengal.  Infanticide  was  formerly 
suspected,  but  no  villages  are  now  proclaimed  under  the  Act. 

After  the  cession  to  the  British  in  1775  the  revenue  administration 
was  carried  on  for  some  years  by  the  Raja,  who  paid  a  fixed  subsidy  to 
the  British  Government.  In  1787  Mr.  Jonathan  Duncan,  afterwards 
Governor  of  Bombay,  was  appointed  Resident  at  Benares,  and  was 
impressed  by  the  mismanagement  and  extortion  which  prevailed. 
Reforms  were  commenced  in  the  following  year,  and  a  settlement  was 
made  in  which  the  annual  value  of  each  village  was  ascertained  by 
applying  rates  calculated  on  the  average  produce.  The  amiVs  (native 
collector)  fees  of  10  per  cent,  and  banker's  dues  were  deducted,  and 
half  the  balance  was  taken  as  revenue.  The  term  then  fixed  was  four 
years  in  part  of  the  District  and  ten  years  in  the  remainder.  In  179 1-2 
the  Decennial  Settlement  was  extended  to  the  tract  where  engagements 
for  a  shorter  period  had  been  taken,  and  in  1795,  ^^'tb  a  few  revisions, 


1 86  BENARES  DISTRICT 

the  whole  settlement  was  declared  permanent.  In  1818  the  Districts  of 
Gha/.Tpur  (then  including  Ballia)  and  Jaunpur  were  formed,  and  in  1830 
Benares  was  still  further  reduced  by  the  formation  of  Mirzapur  District. 
The  permanent  settlement  had  not  been  based  on  a  survey,  and  no 
detailed  record-of-rights  was  prepared,  engagements  being  often  taken 
from  a  few  representatives  of  large  bodies  of  co-sharers.  Between  1833 
and  1 84 1  a  survey  was  made,  field  maps  were  prepared,  and  detailed 
records  drawn  up.  A  second  formal  revision  was  made  between  1882 
and  1886,  since  which  time  annual  papers  have  been  prepared  as  in  the 
rest  of  the  Provinces.  The  revenue  assessed  in  1 795  on  the  two  tahslls 
outside  the  Benares  Domains  was  7-9  lakhs,  which  by  1843  had  risen  to 
8-2  lakhs,  owing  to  the  assessment  of  alluvial  land  and  resumption  of 
revenue-free  grants.  In  1903-4  the  demand  was  7-7  lakhs,  and  the 
demand  in  the  Gangapur  tahsll  was   1-2  lakhs. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  have  been, 
in  thousands  of  rupees : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

i9(X)-i. 

'903-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

8,95 
13,93 

9,02 
18,67 

9.04 
20,34 

8,98 
21,13 

Benares  is  the  only  municipality  in  the  District,  but  there  are  two 
towns  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856.  Outside  of  these,  local 
affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  which  had  an  income  of 
I'l  lakhs  in  1903-4,  about  one-third  of  which  was  derived  from  local 
rates.  The  expenditure  on  roads  and  buildings  amounted  to  Rs.  60,000, 
out  of  a  total  expenditure  of  1-2  lakhs. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  a  force  of  4  inspectors, 
121  subordinate  officers,  and  619  men,  distributed  in  22  police  stations, 
besides  424  municipal  and  town  police,  and  1,460  rural  and  road  police. 
There  is  a  large  Central  jail  with  a  daily  average  of  1,292  prisoners  in 
1903,  while  the  District  jail  contained  411. 

The  District  of  Benares  contains  a  higher  proportion  of  persons  able 
to  read  and  write  than  any  other  in  the  United  Provinces,  except  the 
Himalayan  Districts.  In  1901,  4-9  per  cent,  of  the  population  (11-2 
males  and  08  females)  were  literate.  The  peculiar  conditions  of 
Benares  city  are  largely  responsible  for  this.  The  number  of  public 
institutions  fell  from  142  with  6,933  pupils  in  1880-1  to  92  with  5,274 
pupils  in  1 900- 1.  In  1903-4  there  were  209  such  institutions  with 
12,006  pupils,  of  whom  1,165  were  girls,  besides  130  private  institutions 
with  3,471  pupils,  including  879  girls.  Three  colleges  and  a  collegiate 
school  are  maintained  in  Benares  City,  but  the  majority  of  schools 
are  of  the  primary  class.  Four  schools  and  colleges  are  managed  by 
Government,  and  118  by  the  District  and  Municipal  boards.    The  total 


BENARES  ESTATE  187 

expenditure  in   1903-4  was    1-3   lakhs,  of  which   Provincial  revenues 
contributed  Rs.  58,000,  Local  funds  Rs.  29,000,  and  fees  Rs.  25,000. 

There  are  1 1  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
330  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  124,000, 
including  3,819  in-patients.  The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  27,000, 
chiefly  met  from  Local  funds. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  26,000, 
representing  a  proportion  of  28  per  1,000  of  population.  Vaccination 
is  compulsory  only  in  the  municipality  and  cantonment  of  Benares. 

^District  Gazetteer  (1884,  under  revision);  F.  W.  Porter,  Survey  and 
Revision  of  Records  in  Benares  E)istriit  (iSSj)  ;  A.  Shakespear,  Selections 
from  the  Duncan  Records  (Benares,  1873).] 

Benares  Tahsil. — Northern  tahsil  of  Benares  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Dehat  Amanat,  Kaswar  Sarkar, 
Pandrah,  Katehir,  Sultanipur,  Kol  Aslah,  Athganwan,  Shivapur,  and 
Jalhupur,  and  lying  between  25°  12'  and  25°  35'  N.  and  82°  40'  and  83° 
12'  E.,  with  an  area  of  464  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  580,467 
in  1891  to  557,541  in  1901.  There  are  98q  villages  and  two  towns, 
including  Benares  City  (population,  209,331),  the  District  and 
tahsil  head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  4,94,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  77,000.  The  density  of  population, 
1,202  persons  per  square  mile,  is  considerably  above  the  District  average, 
owing  to  the  inclusion  of  a  large  city.  The  tahsil  forms  an  elevated 
plain,  bounded  in  part  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Barna  and  Ganges, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  GumtT.  The  northern  portion  is  also  drained 
by  the  Nand,  a  tributary  of  the  Gumti.  The  soil  is  generally  a  rich 
loam,  and  irrigation  is  provided  chiefly  by  wells,  though  tanks  or 
ihils  serve  a  small  area.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was 
326  square  miles,  of  which  159  were  irrigated. 

Benares  Estate. — An  estate,  usually  known  as  the  Family  Domains 
of  the  Maharaja  of  Benares,  comprising  the  tahsils  of  Gangapur  in 
Benares  District  and  Korh  or  Bhadohl  and  Chakia  in  Mirzapur  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces.  The  total  area  is  988  square  miles,  and  the 
revenue  due  to  Government  from  Gangapur  and  Korh  is  3  lakhs, 
Chakia  being  held  revenue-free,  while  the  rent-roll  is  about  10  lakhs. 
The  Maharaja  is  exempted  from  the  payment  of  cesses  on  account 
of  the  Domains,  and  under  Act  I  of  1904  has  recently  been  authorized 
to  collect  certain  rates  which  will  be  applied  in  the  same  manner  as 
local  rates  in  ordinary  Districts.  Besides  his  Family  Domains  the 
Maharaja  owns  a  large  area  of  za/ninddri  land  in  the  Districts  of 
Benares,  GhazTpur,  Ballia,  Jaunpur,  Allahabad,  Mirzapur,  and  Shahabad 
(Bengal),  with  a  rent-roll  of  7  lakhs,  paying  3-9  lakhs  revenue  and 
Rs.  59,000  cesses.  The  founder  of  the  family  was  Mansa  Ram,  a 
Bhuinhar,  who  entered  the  service  of  Rustam  All,  goverjior  of  Benares 


1 88  BENARES  ESTATE 

under  the  Nawab  of  Oudh.  In  1738  Mansa  Ram  obtained  the  engage- 
ment for  the  revenue  of  the  sarkars  of  Jaunpur,  Chunar,  and  Benares  in 
the  name  of  his  son,  Balwant  Singh,  on  whom  the  title  of  Raja  was 
conferred.  Balwant  Singh  was  subsequently  recognized  as  the  zainlnddr 
of  Gangcipur,  and  in  1754  he  received  a  revenue-free  grant  of  Chakia  on 
payment  of  Rs.  80,000.  Later,  on  the  accession  of  Shuja-ud-daula,  half 
the  revenues  of  Korh  were  granted  to  him  in  jagir.  In  1764,  after  the 
battle  of  Buxar,  the  territory  held  by  Balwant  Singh  under  the  Nawab 
of  Oudh  was  granted  by  the  emperor  to  the  Company,  but  the  Court 
of  Directors  disapproved  the  treaty  and  restored  the  sovereign  rights  to 
the  Nawab.  Balwant  Singh  was  succeeded  in  1770  by  Chet  Singh; 
and  the  sovereignty  of  the  tract  under  his  control  was  ceded  to  the 
Company  in  1775.  ^"  agreement  was  made  with  Chet  Singh  confirming 
him  in  his  possessions  subject  to  the  payment  of  revenue.  In  1778  the 
Raja  was  required  to  pay  for  the  maintenance  of  three  battalions  of 
sepoys,  and  in  1780  he  was  further  required  to  pay  for  cavalry  for  the 
general  service  of  the  state.  Chet  Singh  manifested  great  reluctance  to 
meet  these  demands,  and  was  also  believed  to  be  disaffected,  and  to  be 
holding  correspondence  with  the  enemies  of  the  British  Government. 
He  Avas  accordingly  arrested  in  August,  1781,  by  order  of  Warren 
Hastings,  who  had  come  to  Benares ;  but  his  retainers  collected  and 
cut  to  pieces  the  troops  guarding  the  Raja,  and  Hastings  was  compelled 
to  withdraw  to  Chunar.  A  month  later,  when  a  sufficient  force  had 
been  collected,  the  Raja's  strongholds  were  reduced,  and  Chet  Singh 
fled  to  Gwalior,  where  he  died  in  1810.  The  zamlndari  was  then 
granted  to  Mahip  Narayan,  a  grandson  of  Balwant  Singh,  at  an  enhanced 
revenue  ;  and  the  criminal  administration  of  the  province,  as  well  as  the 
civil  and  criminal  administration  of  the  city  of  Benares,  together  with 
control  over  the  mint,  was  taken  out  of  the  new  Raja's  hands.  In 
1787  Mr.  Duncan,  the  Resident  at  Benares,  called  attention  to  the 
bad  condition  of  the  province,  owing  to  maladministration,  and  was 
authorized  to  carry  out  a  settlement  of  revenue  with  the  actual  land- 
holders, and  to  institute  other  reforms.  A  formal  agreement  was  con- 
cluded in  1794,  by  which  the  lands  held  by  the  Raja  in  his  own  right 
were  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  province,  of  which  he  was  simply 
administrator.  The  direct  control  of  the  latter  was  assumed  by  the 
Government,  and  an  annual  income  of  i  lakh  of  rupees  was  assured  to 
the  Raja,  while  the  former  constituted  the  Domains.  Within  the 
Domains  the  Raja  has  revenue  powers  similar  to  those  of  a  Collector  in 
a  British  District,  which  are  delegated  to  certain  of  his  own  officials. 
All  civil  cases  which  are  in  any  way  connected  with  land,  and  all  rent 
cases  arising  within  the  Domains,  are  tried  in  the  Raja's  own  courts. 
The  Commissioner  of  the  Benares  Division  is  Superintendent  of  the 
Domains,  and  an  appeal  lies  from  all  decisions  of  the  Raja's  courts  to 


BENARES   CITY  .     189 

the  Superintendent.  The  Deputy-Superintendent,  who  is  a  member 
of  the  Indian  Civil  Service  stationed  at  Mirzapur,  exercises  most  of  the 
powers  of  the  Superintendent,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  latter. 
Appeals  lie  from  the  Superintendent  or  Deputy-Superintendent  to  the 
Board  of  Revenue,  which  stands  in  the  place  of  the  High  Court  for  such 
land  suits  as  would  be  tried  by  the  ordinary  civil  courts.  The  tenures 
hi  the  Domains  differ  in  some  respects  from  those  in  ordinary  British 
territory.  Under-proprietors  are  called  majiziir'idars  or  iiiukarrarldat-s ; 
the  revenue  payable  by  the  former  to  the  Raja  is  subject  to  revision  at 
a  settlement  made  under  his  orders,  while  the  latter  pay  a  fixed  sum. 
The  tenant  rights  resemble  those  of  tenants  at  fixed  rates  and  occupancy 
tenants  in  the  neighbouring  Districts  ;  but  the  occupancy  right  is  ac- 
quired after  twenty  years  instead  of  twelve,  and  is  transferable  by  sale,  as 
well  as  heritable.  The  piresent  Raja,Sir  Prabhu  Narayan  Singh,  G.C.I.E., 
who  succeeded  in  1889,  holds  the  personal  title  of  Maharaja  Bahadur, 
and  the  privilege  of  being  addressed  by  the  title  of '  Highness.'  He 
is  also  authorized  to  possess  8  cannon  and  maintain  700  armed  retainers. 

[JVarrafive  of  the  Insurrection  in  the  Zemeedary  of  Banaris  (Calcutta, 
1782,  reprinted  at  Roorkee,  1853);  A.  Shakespear,  Selections  from  the 
Dimcan  Records  (Benares,  1873);  F.  Curwen,  The  Bulwuntnamah 
(Allahabad,  1875);  H.  B.  Punnett,  Alanual  of  the  Family  Domains 
(1891).] 

Benares  City  {Banaras,  or  Kasi). — Head-quarters  of  Benares 
District,  United  Provinces,  with  cantonment,  situated  in  25°  18'  N.  and 
83*^  i''  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges ;  distant  by  rail  from  Calcutta 
479  miles,  and  from  Bombay  941  miles.  The  city  is  the  second  largest 
in  the  United  Provinces ;  but  its  population  includes  a  large  number  of 
pilgrims  and  is  liable  to  considerable  fluctuations.  The  numbers  at  the 
last  four  enumerations  were  as  follows  :  (1872)  175,188,  (1881)  214,758, 
(1891)  219,467,  and(i90i)  209,331.  In  1901  the  population  included 
153,821  Hindus,  53,566  Musalmans,  and  about  1,200  Christians.  The 
cantonment  contained  a  population  of  4,958,  included  in  the  figures 
already  given. 

The  ancient  name  of  the  city  of  Benares  was  VaranasI,  the  etymology 
of  which  is  uncertain ;  its  popular  derivation  from  Varana  (Barna)  and 
AsT,  the  names  of  the  two  small  streams  which  confine  the  modern  city, 
is,  however,  untenable.  A  more  recent  name,  still  commonly  used  by 
Hindus  in  all  parts  of  India,  is  Kasi  or  KasI,  w^hich  is  possibly  taken 
from  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Aryas,  though  popularly  explained  as 
meaning  '  bright.'  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  city  was  officially 
known  as  Muhammadabad.  The  great  antiquity  of  Benares  is  attested 
by  its  mention  in  both  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayana  ;  but  details 
of  its  history  are  very  scanty,  and  even  the  Puranas  record  only 
one  dynasty  of  kings.      It  was  close  to  Benares,  in  the  deer-park  which 


I90  BENARES   CITY 

is  identified  with  the  country  round  Sarnath,  that  Gautama  Buddha 
commenced  to  preach.  In  the  seventh  century  a.  d.,  Hiuen  Tsiang 
found  the  kingdom  of  Benares  inhabited  mostly  by  Hindus,  and  only 
a  few  followers  of  the  law  of  Buddha.  The  city  at  that  time  contained 
twenty  Hindu  temples,  with  a  gigantic  copper  image  of  Siva.  It  is 
probable  that  Benares  was  sacked  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  early  in  the 
eleventh  century,  and  nearly  200  years  later  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Muhammad  Ghorl.  Throughout  the  Musalman  period  its  political 
importance  was  slight,  and  the  active  cultivation  of  the  Hindu  religion 
was  forcibly  restrained.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  as  has  been  shown 
in  the  history  of  Benares  District,  the  city  and  surrounding  country 
gradually  came  under  the  Raja  of  Benares,  and  finally  in  1775  were 
ceded  to  the  British. 

Benares  or  Kasi  is  at  the  present  time  one  of  the  holiest  places  to  the 
orthodox  Hindu,  and  attracts  great  concourses  of  pilgrims,  while  many 
of  its  inhabitants  are  persons  who  have  settled  there  in  the  hope 
of  salvation  through  a  death  within  its  sacred  precincts.  The  native 
town  lies  for  four  miles  along  a  kankar  ridge  on  the  north-west  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  which  forms  a  slightly  curved  reach  below  it,  thus  permit- 
ting the  eye  to  take  in  at  a  single  sweep  the  long  line  of  picturesque 
ghats  surmounted  by  irregular  buildings  of  various  styles  and  propor- 
tions, the  slender  white  minarets  of  Aurangzeb's  mosque  rising  high 
above  the  general  level.  For  a  distance  of  from  one  to  two  miles  from 
the  bank  the  city  consists  of  winding  labyrinths  and  narrow  alleys,  lined 
by  many-storeyed  buildings  used  as  shops  or  private  houses,  with 
innumerable  shrines  in  every  part,  ranging  from  a  shapeless  fragment 
of  stone  smeared  with  vermilion  to  magnificent  temples.  Raja  Man 
Singh  of  Jaipur  is  said  to  have  presented  100,000  temples  to  the  city 
in  a  single  day. 

The  ordinary  throng  of  a  large  city  is  swollen  by  the  presence 
of  strings  of  pilgrims  being  conducted  from  one  to  another  of  the  more 
important  shrines,  and  by  the  number  of  sacred  bulls  which  wander 
about  the  streets.  Along  the  ghats  strange  figures  of  religious  mendi- 
cants and  ascetics  are  to  be  seen,  some  superintending  the  ablutions  of 
the  pilgrims  in  the  sacred  stream  of  the  Ganges,  while  others  practise 
devotions  or  various  forms  of  austerity.  Within  the  city  there  are  many 
handsome  houses  substantially  built  and  elaborately  decorated  ;  but  the 
narrow,  dirty,  and  crowded  environments  usually  disappoint  the  visitor, 
after  the  high  expectations  aroused  by  the  view  from  the  river.  Even 
the  temples  are  generally  small,  and  are  not  more  than  a  few  hundred 
years  old.  From  a  religious  point  of  view,  the  Bisheshwar  or  Golden 
Temple,  dedicated  to  Siva,  is  the  most  important.  Siva  in  the  form 
of  Bisheshwar  is  regarded  as  the  spiritual  monarch  of  the  city,  and  this 
is  the  holiest  of  all  the   holy  places    in   the  sacred  city.     It  contains 


BENARES  CITY  191 

the  venerated  symbol  of  the  god,  a  plain  lingam  of  uncarved  stone. 
The  building  is  not  of  striking  dimensions  and  has  no  great  pretensions 
to  beauty,  but  is  crowned  by  a  dome  and  spire  covered  with  copper, 
which  was  gilded  at  the  cost  of  Maharaja  Ranjit  Singh  of  Lahore.      It 
was  built  by  Ahalya  Bai,  the  Maratha  regent  of  Indore.     Subordinate 
to  Bisheshwar  is  Bhaironath,  who  acts  as  his  minister  and  magistrate. 
The  other  temples  to  which  pilgrims  are  specially  directed  are  those 
of  Bhaironath,   and   his  staff  or   Dandpani,  Ganesh  or  Dhundi   Raj, 
Vindumadhava  or  Vishnu,  Durga,  and  Annpurna.     These  were  chiefly 
built  by  Marathas  during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  are  all  compara- 
tively small.     The  Durga  temple  is,  however,  remarkable  for  its  simple 
and  graceful  architecture,  and  is  situated  in  the  outskirts  on  the  bank  of 
a  large  tank.      Along  the  river  front  the  Dasashwamedh,  Manikarnika, 
and  Panchganga  ghats  are  the  most  esteemed.      At  the  first  of  these 
Brahma  is  said  to  have  performed  ten  horse-sacrifices.    Near  the  second 
is  situated  the  famous  well,  which  Vishnu  dug  with  his  discus  and  filled 
with    his    sweat,    forming   one   of   the  chief   attractions   for  pilgrims, 
thousands  of  whom  annually  bathe  in  the  fetid  water.    The  Panchganga 
ghat  is  so  named   from   the   belief   that    five  rivers  meet  at   it,   but 
the  Ganges  alone  is  visible  to  the  gross  material  eye.      Raja  Jai  Singh's 
observatory,   built  in    1693,   is  a  handsome  and  substantial    building 
overlooking  the  Man  Mandir  ^M/.    It  includes  a  number  of  instruments 
which  have  been  allowed  to  fall  out  of  repair.     Close  by  stands  the 
Nepalese  temple,  which  is  ornamented  by  a  series  of  obscene  wooden 
carvings.      The  huge  mass   of   Aurangzeb's  mosque,   built    from   the 
remains  of  a  temple,  towers  high  above  a  steep  cliff  over  the  Panchganga 
ghat,  and  is  the  most  conspicuous  building  in  the  city  when  seen  from 
the  river.     Another  mosque,  also  built  on  the  remains  of  a  temple 
of  Bisheshwar,  stands  close  to  the  Gyan  Bapl  or  '  well  of  knowledge,' 
where  Siva  is  said  to  reside.     The  older  buildings  and  remains  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  north  and  west  of  the  present  city,  and  the  ancient 
site  appears  to  have  been  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Barna.      This 
stream  flows  into  the  Ganges  about  a  mile  beyond  the  present  northern 
limit  of  the  city.    West  of  the  city  lies  the  suburb  of  Sigra,  the  seat  of 
the  chief  missionary  institutions.    Northwards,  the  Sikraul  cantonments 
and  parade-ground  stretch  away  to  the  bank  of  the  Barna,  which  is  here 
crossed    by  two  bridges,  of  stone  and  iron  respectively.      The  civil 
station,  including  the  courts  and  Central  jail,  occupies  the  northern  bank. 
The    most   noteworthy  of   the  modern    buildings  are    the    Mint,   the 
Government  College,  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Hospital,  built  by  the  gentry 
of  Benares  in  commemoration  of  the  visit  of  His  Majesty  to  the  city  in 
1876,  the  police  station,  and  the  town  hall,  a  fine  building  constructed 
at  the  expense  of  a  Maharaja  of  Vizianagram.      Benares  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Commissioner  of  the  Division,  who  is  also  a  Political 


192  BENARES   CITY 

Agent  for  the  payment  of  certain  pensions  ;  of  an  Inspector  of  Schools, 
and  of  an  Executive  Engineer  in  the  Roads  and  Buildings  branch.  It 
contains  three  male  and  three  female  hospitals,  besides  a  lunatic  asylum, 
a  leper  asylum,  a  poorhouse,  and  branches  of  the  Church  Missionary, 
London  Missionary,  Baptist,  and  Wesleyan  Societies.  Some  members  of 
the  ex-royal  family  of  Delhi  reside  at  Benares  in  a  large  building  called 
the  Shivala,  which  was  once  occupied  by  Chet  Singh. 

A  municipality  was  constituted  in  1868.  During  the  ten  years 
ending  1901  the  income  averaged  4-8  laklis,  and  the  expenditure 
5'8  lakhs  ;  the  latter,  however,  included  capital  expenditure  on  water- 
supply  and  drainage.  In  1903-4,  excluding  a  loan  of  1-5  lakhs,  the 
income  was  4-7  lakhs,  the  chief  items  being  octroi  (3  lakhs),  water  rate 
(Rs.  83,000),  other  taxes  (Rs.  34,000),  and  rents  (Rs.  30,000).  The 
expenditure  amounted  to  6-4  lakhs,  including  repayment  of  loans  and 
interest  (r-i  lakhs),  water-supply  and  drainage  (capital,  2-2  lakhs,  and 
maintenance,  Rs.  72,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  70,000),  roads  and  build- 
ings (Rs.  28,000),  public  safety  (Rs.  50,000),  and  administration  and 
collection  (Rs.  40,000).  An  excellent  system  of  water-works  was  con- 
structed between  1890  and  1892,  which  has  cost  upwards  of  26  lakhs. 
In  1903-4  the  daily  consumption  of  filtered  water  amounted  to  over 
16  gallons  per  head  of  population,  and  there  were  more  than  5,000 
house-connexions.  Water  is  pumped  from  the  Ganges  and  filtered 
before  use.  An  elaborate  drainage  scheme  is  still  under  construction, 
which  is  estimated  to  cost  15  lakhs.  It  includes  a  system  of  sewers, 
with  house-connexions. 

The  cantonment  is  usually  garrisoned  by  British  and  Native  infantry. 
The  receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  cantonment  fund  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  12,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  12,700  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  13,100. 

The  wealth  of  Benares  depends  largely  upon  the  constant  influx  of 
pilgrims  from  every  part  of  India,  whose  presence  lends  the  same 
impetus  to  the  local  trade  as  that  given  to  European  watering-places  by 
the  season  visitors.  Some  of  the  pilgrims  are  Rajas  or  other  persons 
of  importance,  who  bring  considerable  retinues,  and  become  large 
benefactors  to  the  various  shrines  and  temples.  Hindu  princes  of 
distant  States  pride  themselves  upon  keeping  up  a  '  town  residence ' 
in  holy  Kasi.  The  city  thus  absorbs  a  large  share  of  the  agricultural 
produce  of  the  District,  and  it  also  acts  as  a  distributing  centre.  Its 
manufactures  include  ornamental  brass-ware,  silk,  both  plain  and 
embroidered  with  gold  and  silver,  jewellery,  and  lacquered  wooden 
toys.  The  brass-ware  has  a  considerable  reputation  among  Europeans 
as  well  as  natives.  The  trade  in  silk  kamkhwdb  or  kincob,  woven  with 
gold  and  silver,  is  decreasing  as  native  taste  inclines  towards  European 
fabrics.     A  good  deal  of  German-silver  work    is    now  turned  out   in 


BENGAL  193 

Benares,  employing  a  number  of  wcjrkmcn  who  formerly  prepared  gold 
and  silver  wire.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  flourishing  industry  of  the 
place.  The  only  factories  are  three  ice  works,  two  brickyards,  two 
chemical  works,  and  a  few  large  printing  presses. 

The  Benares  College  was  opened  in  1791,  and  the  fine  building  in 
which  it  is  now  housed  was  completed  in  1852.  It  is  maintained  by 
Government,  and  includes  a  first-grade  college  with  97  students  in  1904, 
and  a  Sanskrit  college  with  427  students.  The  Central  Hindu  College, 
opened  in  1898,  is  aflfiliated  to  the  Allahabad  University  up  to  the 
B.A.  standard.  It  contained  104  students  in  the  college  and  204  in 
the  school  department  in  1904.  It  was  founded  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  non-Indian  theosophists,  and  is  intended  to  combine  Hindu 
religious  and  ethical  training,  on  an  unsectarian  basis,  with  modern 
Western  education.  The  missionary  societies  maintain  a  number  of 
schools  for  both  boys  and  girls  ;  and  the  Church  Missionary  Society  is 
in  charge  of  Jai  Narayan's  collegiate  school,  which  was  founded  by  a 
Hindu,  after  whom  it  is  called,  in  1818,  and  presented  to  the  Society. 
The  same  society  manages  a  normal  school  for  female  teachers.  The 
municipality  maintains  fifteen  schools  and  aids  seven  others,  attended 
by  more  than  1,300  pupils.  Benares  has  produced  a  number  of  Hindu 
scholars  and  authors,  and  was  the  residence  of  the  celebrated  religious 
teachers  Vallabhacharya,  Kabir,  and  Tulsi  Das,  and  the  nineteenth- 
century  author  and  critic,  Harish  Chandra.  The  Sanskrit  college 
issues  a  periodical  called  The  Pandit,  dealing  with  Sanskrit  learning, 
and  a  society  called  the  Nagari  Pracharini  Sabha  has  recently  com- 
menced the  publication  of  ancient  vernacular  texts.  A  few  newspapers 
are  published,  but  none  of  importance. 

[Rev.  M.  A.  Sherring,  The  Saered  City  of  the  Hindus  (1868).] 
Bendamurlanka.  —  Village   in    Godavari    District,    Madras.      See 

^ANDAMURLANKA. 

Bengal '  (mf)re  precisely  designated.  Lower   Bengal). — The  largest 

1  The  ailicle  was  written  before  the  changes  were  carried  out  which  constituted 
the  new  Province  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  These  were  determined  upon 
to  lighten  the  excessive  burden  imposed  upon  the  (lovemment  of  Bengal  b)'  the 
increase  of  population,  the  expansion  of  commercial  and  industrial  eiUcrprise,  and  the 
growing  complexity  of  all  branches  of  administration.  The  Province  had  hitherto 
comprised  an  area  of  nearly  190,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  over  78 
millions,  and  a  gross  revenue  amounting  to  more  than  1100  lakhs.  In  these  circum- 
stances, the  relief  of  the  P.engal  Government  had  become  an  administrative  necessity, 
and  it  was  decided  that  it  could  be  afforded  only  by  actual  transference  of  territory 
and  not  by  organic  changes  in  the  form  of  government.  Accordingly,  on  October  16, 
1905,  the  Divisions  of  Dacca,  Chittagong,  and  Rajshahi  (except  Darjeeling),  tlie 
District  of  Malda,  and  the  State  of  Hill  Tippera  were  transferred  to  the  newly  formed 
Province  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  the  area  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bengal 
Government    being    thus    reduced   by    50,000    square    miles    and    its    population    by 

VOL.  VII.  O 


194  BENGAL 

and  most  jiopulous  Province  in  India.  It  lies  between  19°  18'  and 
28°  15'  N.  and  between  82°  and  97°  PI,  and  contains  four  large  sub- 
provinces,  Bengal  proper,  Bihar,  Chota  Nagpur,  and  Orissa.  'Hie  two 
former  comprise  the  lower  plains  and  deltas  of  the  (langes  and  the 
Brahmaputra.  Chota  Nagpur  is  a  rugged  tract  and  jungle,  broken  by 
deep  ravines  and  river  valleys.  The  greater  part  of  Orissa  belongs  to 
the  same  formation  as  Chota  Nagpur  :  but  along  the  coast  there  is  a 
narrow  belt  of  alluvium,  formed  from  the  silt  deposited  by  the  rivers, 
which  drain  the  hills  as  th('y  find  their  sluggish  way  to  the  sea. 

The  Province  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Nepal  and  Tibet,  and  by 
the  mighty  chain  of  the  Himalayas  ;  on  the  east  by  A.ssam  and  the 
continuation  of  the  range  of  hills  which  divides  Assam  from  Burma  ; 
on  the  south  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Madras  ;  and  on  the  west  by 
the  United  and  the  Central  Provinces. 

The  whole  Province  forms  a  Lieutenant-Governorship  with  an  area' 
of  196,408  square  miles,  of  which  84,728  square  miles  are  included  in 
Bengal  proper,  44,259  in  Bihar,  24,306  in  Orissa,  and  43,115  in  Chota 
Nagpur.  These  figures  include  an  unsurveyed  tract  of  swamp  and 
jungle  on  the  fringe  of  the  delta,  the  extent  of  which  is  about  6,600 
square  miles.  Of  the  total  area,  157,796  square  miles  are  British 
territory,  while  38,612  square  miles  lie  in  the  Native  States  attached 
to  Bengal :  namely,  Cooch  Behar,  Sikkim,  Hill  Tippera*,  and  the 
Tributary  States  of  Orissa  and  Chota  Nagpur. 

According  to  Hindu  legend,  king  Bali  of  the  Lunar  race  had  five 
sons,  begotten  for  him  on  his  queen  Sudeshna  by  the  Rishi 
Dirghatamas  :  namely,  Anga,  Vanga,  Kalinga,  Pundra,  and  Suhma. 
Each  of  these  sons  founded  a  kingdom  that  was  named  after  him. 
Vanga  ^  or  Banga  is  said  to  have  occupied  the  deltaic  tract  south  of 
the  Padma,  lying  between  the  BhagTrathi  and  the  old  course  of  the 

25,000,000.  The  five  Hindi-spe.nking  Native  Stntes  of  Jashpur,  Siirgnja,  Udaipur", 
Korea,  and  Chang  Bhakar  were  at  the  same  time  transferred  to  the  Centrnl  Provinces  ; 
while  the  District  of  Sambalpur  with  the  exception  of  two  zaniindaris,  and  also  the 
Oriya-speaking  States  of  Patna,  Kalahandi  or  Karond,  Sonpiir,  Bamra,  and  Kairakhol 
in  the  Central  Provinces,  were  attached  to  l^engal.  The  result  of  these  transfers  of 
territory  is  that  the  Province  as  now  constituted  comprises  an  area  of  148,592  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  54,662,529  persons.  In  order  to  show  the  effect  of  this 
change  in  the  constitution  of  the  Province,  footnotes  have  been  added,  where\er 
possible,  giving  statistics  for  the  new  area  ;  and  the  States,  Divisions,  Districts,  and 
towns  transferred  from  Bengal  have  been  indicated  by  asterisks. 

'  Of  the  total  area  of  148,592  square  miles  now  included  in  Bengal,  35,576  square 
miles  are  in  Bengal  proper  (including  5,700  square  miles  in  the  Sundarbans\  43  524 
square  miles  are  in  Bihar,  41,789  in  Orissa,  and  27,703  in  Chota  Nagpur.  Altogether, 
115,819  square  miles  are  British  territory  and   32,773  square  miles  are  Native  .Slates. 

^  The  v^'ord  Vanga  first  appears  as  the  name  of  a  country  in  the  Aitareya 
Aranyaka  (2-1-1).  where  its  inhabitants  are  represented  as  eaters  of  indiscriminate 
food,  and  as  progenitors  of  many  children. 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  ujs 

Brahmaputra,  and  to  have  been  conquered  by  the  Pandava  Bhini  and 
also  by  Raghu.  The  inhabitants  of  this  region  are  described  in  the 
Raghubaiisa  as  hving  in  boats,  and  as  growing  transplanted  rice  for 
their  staple  crop.  In  the  time  of  Ballal  Sen  the  tract  immediately  to 
the  east  of  the  Bhagirathi  was  called  Bagri,  and  Banga  occupied 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  delta.  The  tract  west  of  the  Bhagirathi  was 
known  as  Rarh,  which  in  Prakrit  was  softened  to  Lala.  Possibly 
Bengal  or  Bangala  is  a  combination  of  Banga  Lala,  and,  in  any  case, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  word  is  connected  with  the  ancient 
Vanga.  During  the  period  of  Muhammadan  rule  the  term  was  applied 
specifically  to  the  whole  delta,  but  later  conquests  to  the  east  of  the 
Brahmaputra  and  north  of  the  Padma  were  eventually  included  in  it. 
Under  the  British  the  name  has  at  different  times  borne  very  different 
significations.  All  the  north-eastern  factories  of  the  East  India 
Company,  from  Balasore  on  the  Orissa  coast  to  Patna  in  the  heart  of 
Bihar,  belonged  to  the  '  Bengal  Establishment,'  and  as  its  conquests 
crept  higher  up  the  rivers,  the  term  continued  to  be  the  designation  of 
the  whole  of  its  possessions  in  Northern  India.  From  the  time  of 
Warren  Hastings  to  that  of  Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  official  style 
of  the  Governor-General  was  '  Governor-General  of  Fort  William  in 
Bengal.'  In  1836,  when  the  Upper  Provinces  were  formed  into  a 
separate  administration,  they  were  designated  the  North-Western 
Provinces,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Lower  Provinces  ;  and  although 
they,  as  well  as  Oudh,  the  Punjab,  the  Central  Provinces,  and  Burma, 
were  sometimes  loosely  regarded  as  forming  the  Bengal  Presidency,  the 
word  was  ordinarily  used  in  this  sense  only  for  military  purposes,  to 
denote  the  sphere  of  the  old  army  of  Bengal,  as  distinguished  from 
those  of  Bombay  and  Madras.  In  its  ordinary  acceptation,  the  term 
now  covers  only  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal. 
The  term  '  Bengal  proper  '  has  a  still  more  restricted  meaning,  and 
indicates,  roughly  speaking,  the  country  east  of  the  Bhagirathi  and 
Mahananda,  where  the  prevalent  language  is  Bengali. 

Bengal  contains  tracts  of  very  different  physical  features,  including 
the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the 
deltas  of  those  rivers,  which  form  the  greater  part  of 

Ph  VS1C3 1 

Bihar  and  Bengal  proper ;    the    crystalline    plateau  asoects 

of  Chota  Nagpur,  including  the  Tributary  States 
of  Orissa,  and  the  hills  stretching  to  the  Ganges  at  Rajmahal  ;  the 
narrow  strip  of  alluvium  comprising  Orissa  ;  and  lastly,  a  small  portion 
of  the  sub-Himalayas,  the  Sikkim  State,  and  a  tract  which  once  be- 
longed to  Sikkim  but  now  forms  the  main  part  of  Darjeeling  District. 
It  is  thought  that  there  was  formerly  a  continuous  chain  connecting 
the  Rajmahal  range  with  the  remains  of  the  '  peninsular  system,'  still 
in   existence  in  Assam,    and   that   their   subsidence   was    due   t(j    the 

o  2 


196  BENGAL 

same  disturbances  that  resulted  iti  the  elevation  of  tlie  Himalayas. 
The  hollow  thus  formed  has  been  filled  in  by  the  fluvial  deposits  of 
the  Himalayan  rivers  ;  but  the  gradual  raising  of  the  surface  has  been, 
to  a  great  extent,  discounted  by  fresh  subsidences,  which  have  been 
accompanied  by  upheavals  elsewhere.  However  this  may  be,  the 
uplands  of  Chota  Nagpur  date  from  a  very  ancient  period,  while  the 
Himalayas  were  thrown  up  at  a  time  which,  from  a  geological  point 
of  view,  is  com{)aratively  recent,  and  the  alluvium  in  the  greater  part 
of  Bengal  proper  has  been  deposited  at  a  much  later  date  than  that 
in  the  Bihar  plain  west  of  Rajmahal. 

The  sub-province  of  Bihar  occupies  the  north-western  quarter  of 
Bengal.  It  is  divided  by  the  (ianges  into  two  parts — north  and  south. 
North  Bihar  is  a  level  plain  falling  very  gradually  from  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  with  a  belt  of  fairly  high  land  along  the  bank  of  the 
Ganges.  Between  these  two  extremes  the  general  elevation  is  lower, 
and  considerable  areas  are  liable  to  damage  by  floods.  'Jlie  soil 
consists  mainly  of  the  older  alluvium  or  bdngar,  a  yellowish  clay,  with 
frequent  deposits  of  kankar  \  but  in  many  parts  this  has  been  cut  away 
by  the  torrents  that  rush  down  from  the  Himalayas,  and  the  lowland, 
through  which  these  rivers  have  at  one  time  or  another  found  an  exit 
to  the  Ganges,  is  composed  of  more  recent  deposits  of  sand  and  silt 
brought  down  by  them  when  in  flood.  In  South  Bihar  the  effects  of 
recent  fluvial  action  are  less  marked,  especially  towards  the  east,  where 
the  outlying  hills  and  undulations  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  trench 
more  and  more  upon  the  Gangetic  plain  until,  at  Monghyr,  they  extend 
as  far  as  the  river  itself,  and  ofier  an  effectual  opposition  to  the 
oscillations  in  its  course  which  the  more  yielding  alluvial  soil  is  unable 
to  prevent  elsewhere.  The  Bihar  of  our  administration  contains  two 
tracts  which  do  not  properly  belong  to  it.  The  Santal  Parganas  in 
its  physical  and  ethnic  features  is  an  integral  part  of  Chota  Nagpur, 
while  Malda*  and  the  eastern  part  of  Purnea  belong  to  Bengal 
proper. 

The  latter  sub-province  naturally  subdivides  itself  into  four  distinct 
parts.  West  Bengal,  or  the  part  west  of  the  Bhagirathi,  lies  outside  the 
true  delta.  The  eastern  portion  of  this  tract  is  low  and  of  alluvial 
formation  ;  but  farther  west  laterite  begins  to  predominate,  and  the 
surface  rises  and  becomes  more  and  more  undulating  and  rocky,  until 
at  last  it  merges  in  the  uplands  of  Chota  Nagpur.  Central  Bengal,  or 
the  part  lying  south  of  the  Padma,  between  the  Bhagirathi  on  the  west 
and  the  Madhumatl  on  the  east,  was  formerly  the  Ganges  delta ;  but  it 
has  gradually  been  raised  above  flood-level,  and  the  great  rivers  which 
formerly  flowed  through  it,  depositing  their  fertilizing  silt,  yielding  an 
ample  supply  of  wholesome  drinking-water,  and  draining  it,  have  shrunk 
to  insignificance.     Their  mouths  have  silted  up  and  their  banks  are 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  197 

often  higher  than  the  surrounding  country,  whicli  they  are  no  longer 
able  to  drain.  East  l^engal,  (jr  the  country  east  of  the  Madhumati, 
includes  the  present  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Ikahmaputra,  where  the 
process  of  land-formation  is  still  going  on ;  but  in  the  south-east  the  hill 
range  that  divides  Assam  from  Burma  projects  into  it,  while  on  the 
confines  of  Dacca*  and  Mymensingh*  the  Madhupur  Jungle*,  a  tract 
of  (///aw'-laterite,  rises  above  the  recent  alluvium.  North  Bengal  lies 
north  of  the  Padma  and  is  wholly  alluvial,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Himalayan  State  of  Sikkim,  the  greater  part  of  the  District  of  Darjeeling, 
and  an  elevated  tract  known  as  the  Barind*,  similar  to  the  Madhupur 
jungle,  which  occupies  a  considerable  area  on  the  confines  of  Dinajpur*, 
Malda*,  Rajshahi*,  and  Bogra*.  In  spite  of  its  proximity  to  the  hills, 
the  general  level  of  the  alluvial  country  is  very  low,  especially  in  Cooch 
Behar,  Rangpur*,  and  the  central  part  of  Rajshahi*;  and  it  sufiers  from 
obstructed  drainage,  due  to  the  silting-up  of  the  rivers  and  the  gradual 
raising  of  their  beds. 

The  plains  of  Orissa  are  a  flat  alluvial  tract  of  which  the  centre  and 
south  comprise  the  delta  of  the  Mahanadi,  and  the  north  has  been 
formed  by  the  fluvial  deposits  of  the  rivers  which  drain  the  southern 
flank  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau.  Behind  these  plains  rises  a  belt 
of  hills,  which  gradually  merge  in  the  rocky  uplands  of  the  Tributary 
States. 

Chota  Nagpur,  with  the  Santal  Parganas  and  the  Tributary  States  of 
Orissa,  belongs  throughout  to  the  same  geological  formation.  On  the 
whole,  the  level  rises  gradually  towards  the  north  and  west,  but  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  are  in  the  south. 

The  main  axis  of  the  Himalayas  skirts  the  northern  boundary  of 
Sikkim,  dividing  it  from  Tibet;  but  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in 
the  world,  Kinchinjunga  (28,146  feet),  lies  within  Sikkim,  and  three 
outliers  project  far  into  the  plains  of  Bengal.  The  Singalila  range 
strikes  southward  from  Kinchinjunga  in  88°  E.,  and  forms  the  boundary 
between  Nepal  and  Darjeeling,  its  highest  peaks  being  Singalila  (12,130 
feet),  Sandakphu  (11,930  feet),  Phalut  (ii,8ii  feet),  and  Sabargajni 
(11,636  feet),  and  the  connected  ranges  and  spurs  covering  the  greater 
part  of  Darjeeling  District.  Fifty  miles  to  the  eastward,  the  Chola 
range  runs  southward  from  the  Dongkya  peak  (23,190  feet),  and  divides 
Sikkim  from  Tibet  and  Bhutan  on  the  east ;  it  is  pierced  by  the 
Jelep  La  Pass,  at  14,390  feet,  and  separates  the  basin  of  the  Tista 
on  the  west  from  that  of  the  Torsa  on  the  east.  At  Gipmochi  (the 
tri-junction  point  of  the  Sikkim-Bhutan-Tibet  boundary)  this  range 
bifurcates  into  two  great  spurs  ;  one  runs  to  the  south-east  and  the  other 
to  the  south-west,  including  between  them  the  valley  of  the  Jaldhaka. 
From  Chumalhari  (23,933  feet)  another  great  ridge  strikes  south 
through  Bhutan  between  the  basins  of  the  Torsa  (the  Chumbi  \'alley) 


198  BENGAL 

ami  Kaidak  rivers,  terminating  in  the  Sinchula  hills  which  form  the 
boundary  between  Jalpaiguri  District*  and  Bhutan.  The  sub-Himalayan 
zone  is  represented  by  the  Someswar  hills  (2,270  feet),  which  form  the 
boundary  between  Champaran  District  and  Nepal. 

The  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  is  contiguous  to  the  Vindhyan  system  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet.  There  are  in  reality  three  separate 
plateaux  divided  by  belts  of  rugged  hill  and  ravine ;  and  a  confused 
mass  of  hills  fringes  the  plateaux,  extending  in  the  Rajmahal  Hills 
and  at  Monghyr  north-east  to  the  Ganges,  and  southwards  over  the 
Orissa  Tributary  States,  while  outlying  spurs  project  far  into  the  plains 
of  South  Bihar  and  West  Bengal,  Parasnath  (4,480  feet)  in  Hazari- 
bagh  District  is  the  loftiest  of  these  spurs,  and  the  Saranda  hills  in 
Singhbhiim  rise  to  3,500  feet. 

On  the  south-eastern  frontier  a  succession  of  low  ranges  running 
north  and  south  covers  the  east  of  the  Chittagong  Division*  and  Hill 
Tippera*.  The  SItakund*  hill  rises  to  1,155  ^^^'^',  '^ut  the  ranges  in 
the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*  attain  a  greater  altitude,  the  highest  peaks 
being  Keokradang  (4,034  feet)  and  Pyramid  hill  (3,017  feet). 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  Province  is  its  network  of  rivers — 
the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra,  with  their  affluents  and  distributaries. 
These  rivers  are  of  use  in  many  ways.  They  furnish  an  admirable  and 
cheap  means  of  transport ;  they  contain  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fish; 
and  they  bring  down  vast  quantities  of  fertilizing  silt,  which  they  distri- 
bute over  the  surface  of  the  delta.  The  Ganges,  which  enters  on  the 
western  frontier,  flows  almost  due  east,  with  numerous  oscillations,  as 
far  as  Rajmahal,  where  it  escapes  from  the  restraining  influence  of  the 
hard  rocks  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  formation  and  enters  the  loose  alluvium 
of  Bengal  proper.  Until  some  400  years  ago,  its  subsequent  course  was 
due  south,  down  the  channel  of  the  Bhagirathl  By  degrees  this 
channel  silted  up  and  became  unequal  to  its  task,  and  the  main  stream 
of  the  Ganges  was  thus  obliged  to  seek  another  outlet.  In  this  way  the 
Ichamati,  the  Jalangi,  and  the  Matabhanga  became  in  turn  the  main 
stream.  The  river  tended  ever  eastwards,  and  at  last,  aided  perhaps  by 
one  of  those  periodic  subsidences  of  the  unstable  surface  of  the  country 
to  which  reference  has  already  been  made,  it  broke  eastwards,  right 
across  the  old  drainage  channels,  until  it  was  met  and  stopped  by  the 
Brahmaputra.  The  river,  below  the  point  where  the  Bhagirathi  leaves 
it,  is  known  as  the  Padma. 

Having  its  source  at  no  great  distance  from  that  of  the  Ganges,  but 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Himalayas,  the  Brahmaputra  flows  eastwards 
through  Tibet,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Tsan-po,  until  it  reaches  a  point 
due  north  of  the  eastern  extremity  of  Assam,  when  it  takes  a  southerly 
course  and,  threading  its  way  through  the  Eastern  Himalayas,  emerges 
in  the  [)lains  of  Assam.      It  then  turns  westwards  and,  after  traversing 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  lyy 

the  Assam  Valley,  enters  Bengal  from  the  north-east.  It  formerly 
followed  the  contour  of  the  Garo  Hills  and,  bisecting  the  District  of 
Mymensingh*,  joined  the  Meghna,  or  the  united  channel  of  the  rivers 
which  drain  the  Surma  Valley  and  the  surrounding  hills  of  the  Assam 
range  and  Lushai.  This  is  the  course  shown  on  the  maps  of  Rennell's 
survey  in  1785  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  that,  having  raised  its  bed  and  lost  its  velocity,  it  was  no  longer 
able  to  hold  its  own  against  the  Meghna,  and  suddenly  broke  westwards. 
Its  new  course  runs  due  south  from  Dhubri  and  joins  the  Padma  near 
GoALUNDO*.  From  this  point  these  two  great  rivers  travel  down 
a  common  channel  and  vie  with  each  other  in  depositing  their  silt  in 
the  eastern  corner  of  the  delta,  where  the  land  area  is  now  being  rapidly 
thrust  forward.  They  discharge  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  down  the 
Meghna  estuary. 

Along  the  northern  frontier  of  Bengal  numerous  rivers  debouch  from 
the  Himalayas.  There  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  formerly,  when 
the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra  were  still  150  miles  apart,  many  of 
them  united  to  form  a  great  independent  river  which  flowed  southwards 
to  the  sea,  sometimes  east  of  the  Barind  down  the  channel  of  the  Kara- 
TOYA,  and  sometimes  west  of  it  by  way  of  the  Mahananda.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  Haringhata  was  the  original  estuary  of  the 
Karatoya  and  its  affluents,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  Bhairai;  was  the 
ancient  channel  of  the  Mahananda.  Its  tortuous  course  can  still  be 
traced  on  both  sides  of  the  Jalangi  and  the  Matabhanga ;  and  it  is  only 
near  the  Padma,  almost  opposite  the  point  where  the  Mahananda  flows 
into  it,  that  all  upward  traces  of  this  old  river  disappear.  At  the  present 
time  the  chief  Himalayan  tributaries  of  the  Ganges  in  this  Province 
are  the  Gandak,  the  Kosi,  and  the  Mahananda,  while  the  Tlsta — the 
modern  representative  of  the  Karatoya — is  an  affluent  of  the  Brahma- 
putra. On  its  right  bank  the  Ganges  receives  the  Son  from  Chota 
Nagpur ;  and  its  ancient  channel,  the  Bhaglrathi,  which,  in  the  latter 
part  of  its  course,  is  called  the  Hooghly,  is  augmented  from  the  same 
direction  by  the  waters  of  the  Damodar  and  the  Rupnarayan.  Farther 
south,  in  Oribsa,  several  rivers,  draining  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  find 
an  exit  to  the  sea  independently  of  the  great  fluvial  system  described 
above.  Of  these  the  chief  are  the  Subarnarekha,  Baitarani, 
BrahmanI,  and  Mahanadi. 

In  a  level  alluvial  country  like  Bengal,  where  the  soil  is  composed  of 
loose  and  yielding  materials,  the  courses  of  the  rivers  are  constantly 
shifting  ;  land  is  cut  away  from  one  bank  and  thrown  up  on  the  other, 
and  the  definition  and  regulation  of  the  alluvial  rights  of  the  riparian 
proprietors,  and  of  the  state,  form  the  subject  of  a  distinct  branch  of 
Anglo-Indian  jurisprudence. 

In  spite  of  the  dead  level  and  the  consequent  absence  of  variety,  the 


200  BENGAL 

scenery  of  Bengal  proper  and  Orissa  has  a  distinct  charm  of  its  own. 
Even  in  the  dry  months  the  groves  of  bamboos  and  of  mango,  areca 
and  coco-nut  palm,  tamarind, ///^r/ and  other  trees,  in  which  the  home- 
stead lands  of  the  people  are  buried,  afford  a  profusion  of  green  vegeta- 
tion very  restful  to  the  eye,  while  in  the  rains,  from  the  time  when  tlie 
young  rice  seedlings  cover  the  ground  with  a  delicate  green  sward  until 
December,  when  the  golden  heads  of  the  mature  plants  fall  before  the 
sickle,  the  landscape  verges  very  closely  on  the  beautiful.  In  South  Bihar, 
the  village  sites  are,  for  the  most  part,  devoid  of  trees,  and  the  houses  are 
crowded  together  in  inartistic  confusion.  Except  for  occasional  mango 
groves  and  the  trees  on  the  steeper  hills  or  along  some  of  the  main 
roads,  there  is  very  little  vegetation  when  the  crops  are  off  the  ground, 
and  the  prospect  is  bare  and  arid,  until  the  rains  cause  the  maize, 
millets,  and  early  rice  to  germinate.  In  North  Bihar  trees  are  more 
plentiful,  though  much  less  so  than  in  Bengal  proper.  The  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau  is  a  tangled  mass  of  rock  and  forest.  The  outlook  is 
always  diversified,  and  from  the  higher  points  magnificent  views  are 
obtained. 

In  their  upper  reaches  the  rivers  have  a  rapid  flow  and  carry  away  the 
soil ;  but  when  they  enter  the  level  flats  of  Bengal  proper,  their  speed 
is  reduced,  and  their  torpid  current  is  no  longer  able  to  support  the 
solid  matter  hitherto  held  in  suspension.  They  accordingly  deposit  it 
in  their  beds  and  on  their  banks,  which  are  thus  raised  above  the  level 
of  the  surrounding  country,  until  at  last  the  river  breaks  through  to  the 
adjacent  lowland  and  makes  for  itself  a  new  bed,  where  it  repeats  the 
process.  Great  marshes  or  bils  are  often  found  within  the  enclosures 
thus  formed  by  the  high  banks  of  rivers.  These  are  generally  connected 
with  the  outside  rivers  by  khals  or  drainage  channels ;  but,  owing  to  the 
tendency  of  all  watercourses  to  silt  up,  they  remain  open  only  so  long 
as  the  difference  of  level  between  the  water  in  the  basin  and  that  outside 
is  sufificiently  great  to  maintain  a  flow  which  gives  an  efficient  scour. 
The  natural  tendency  of  these  swamps  is  to  fill  up ;  in  the  rainy  season 
the  rivers  drain  into  them  and  deposit  their  silt,  and  decayed  vegetable 
matter  also  gradually  accumulates.  In  this  way,  but  for  the  vagaries  of 
the  rivers  and  fresh  subsidences  of  the  surface^  the  irregularities  in 
elevation  would  in  course  of  time  disappear.  These  marshes  are  met 
with  all  over  Bengal  proper  ;  but  they  are  especially  numerous  in  the 
south  of  Faridpur*  and  the  west  and  north-west  of  Backergunge*, 
where  the  whole  country  is  a  succession  of  basins,  full  of  water  in  the 
rains,  but  partially  or  wholly  dry  in  the  winter  months.  The  largest  of 
these  depressions  is  the  Chalan  BTl*,  lying  partly  in  Rajshahi*  and 
partly  in  Pabna*,  which  has  a  water  area  varying  from  about  20  square 
miles  in  the  dry  season  to  150  in  the  rains.  The  average  depth  of 
water    during    the    dry  season    is    about   3    feet  ;  a  tortuous  navigable 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  2or 

clianncl  runs  thi()UL;h  it,  with  a  depth  of  from  6  to  12  feet  all  the  year 
round.  In  Bihar  the  number  of  these  marshes  is  com[)aratively  small, 
and  they  usually  dry  up  during  the  eold  season.  The  only  lakes,  pro- 
perly so  called,  are  found  in  Champaran,  where  a  chain  of  them  (forty- 
three  in  number),  covering  an  area  of  139  square  miles,  runs  through 
the  centre  of  the  District,  marking  the  old  bed  of  some  extensive 
river  which  has  now  taken  another  course. 

The  largest  lake,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  in  the  whole  Province  is 
the  Chilka,  in  the  south  of  Orissa,  a  pear-shaped  expanse  of  water, 
44  miles  long,  with  an  area  varying  at  different  seasons  from  344  to 
450  square  miles.  It  was  once  doubtless  a  gulf  of  the  sea,  protected  on 
the  south  by  a  barren  spur  of  hills  and  on  the  north  by  the  alluvial 
formation  deposited  by  the  MahanadT  and  other  rivers.  These  two 
promontories  are  now  joined  by  a  bar  of  sand,  thrown  up  by  the  winds 
of  the  south-west  monsoon,  which  is  steadily  growing  in  breadth. 
P2arly  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  only  opening  had  silted  up,  and  an 
artificial  mouth  had  to  be  cut,  which  still  connects  it  with  the  sea. 
P>om  December  to  June  the  water  is  salt ;  hut  when  the  rivers  which 
feed  it  are  in  flood,  the  salt  water  is  gradually  driven  out,  and  it 
becomes  a  fresh-water  lake.  It  is  slowly  filling  up,  and  its  average 
depth  is  now  only  3  to  5  feet. 

The  process  of  land-formation,  which  is  active  along  the  shores  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  forms  numerous  islands,  which  tend  to  join  the  mainland 
as  the  intermediate  channels  silt  up  ;  many  of  them  are,  however,  still 
separated  from  the  shore  by  broad  channels.  Sagar  Island,  off  the 
mouth  of  the  Hooghly,  has  for  centuries  been  famous  as  the  scene  of 
an  annual  bathing  festival,  at  the  point  where  the  sacred  Changes  merges 
its  waters  in  the  Bay.  Dakhin  Shahbazpur*,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Meghna,  is  the  largest  of  the  islands  formed  by  the  silt-laden  waters  of 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  which  have  also  created  SandwIp*  and 
Hatia*  ;  the  former  was  long  notorious  as  a  nest  of  the  Portuguese 
and  Arakanese  pirates  who  harried  the  coasts  of  Bengal  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Kutubdi.\*  is  an  alluvial  island  off  the  Chittagong* 
coast  which  has  also  been  formed  by  deposits  of  silt  washed  down  from 
the  Meghna  ;  the  adjacent  island  of  Maiskhal*  has  a  backbone  of  low 
hills  which  rise  abruptly  from  the  sea. 

The  coast-line  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  everywhere  alluvial,  and  the 
harbours  are  situated  up  the  rivers  which  until  recently  carried  all  the 
commerce  of  the  country.  Calcutta,  80  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Hooghly,  absorbs  almost  the  entire  trade  of  the  Province,  the  value  of 
its  imports  and  exports  in  1903-4  having  been  113  crores,  or  75  millions 
sterling,  out  of  a  total  for  all  Bengal  of  rather  less  than  118  crores.  Of 
the  entire  volume  of  its  trade  loi  crores  is  with  foreign  ports. 

Chittagong*,  12  miles  up  the  Karnaphuli  river,  on  the  east  side  of 


20  2  BENGAL 

the  Bay,  is  a  much  older  i)t)rt  tluiii  ( 'alcutUi,  hut  has  until  lately  served 
a  very  limited  area,  the  principal  business  having  been  the  shipment  of 
jute  carried  in  brigs  from  Narayanganj*.  The  Assam-Bengal  Railway 
has  now  connected  it  with  the  Assam  Valley,  of  which  it  promises  to 
become  the  principal  outlet.  The  value  of  its  imports  and  ex[)orts  in 
1903-4  was  4  crores  or  nearly  3  millions  sterling.  The  Orissa  ports 
include  Balasore,  False  Point,  and  Puri  ;  but  their  trade  is  declin- 
ing owing  to  the  competition  of  the  East  (.'oast  Railway,  and  it  was 
valued  in  1903-4  at  only  83  lakhs. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  greater  part  of  the  plains  of  Bengal 
is  covered  by  alluvium.  Little  is  known  of  the  hills  in  the  Chitlagong 
Hill  Tracts*  and  Hill  Tippera*,  except  that  they  are  composed  of 
Upper  Tertiary  rocks,  and  geological  interest  is  confined  to  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau  and  to  the  portion  of  the  Himalayas  contained  in 
Darjeeling  and  Sikkim. 

Gneissic  rocks  form  the  nucleus  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  and 
are  fringed  on  all  sides  by  transition  rocks,  and  freely  interbedded  with 
micaceous,  siliceous,  and  hornblendic  schists.  The  transition  or  sub- 
metamorphic  rocks  form  groups  of  isolated  hills  in  South  Bihar,  known 
as  the  Rajgir,  Sheikhpura,  Khafakpurj'and  Gidhaur  hills;  and  similar 
transition  rocks  are  found  in  parts  of  Manbhum,  Singhbhum,  and 
Ranch!  Districts.  The  transition  rocks  carry  metalliferous  lodes  of 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  but  so  far  none  of  these  have  proved 
remunerative. 

Sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones  belonging  to  the  Sasaram 
Vindhyan  system  occur  near  Rohtasgarh  in  Shahabad  District. 

The  Gondwana  system  contains  coal-bearing  strata,  and  is  represented 
in  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  the  Damodar  valley,  in  several  of  the  Chota 
Nagpur  Districts,  and  in  Orissa.  At  the  base  of  this  system  lies  the 
Talcher  group  of  shale  and  sandstone,  and  above  it  the  Karharbari 
sandstones,  grits,  and  conglomerates,  with  seams  of  coal.  This  is  super- 
posed by  the  Damodar  series,  which  comprises  in  ascending  order  the 
Barakar  group,  ironstone  shales,  and  the  Raniganj  beds.  The  Barakars 
consist  of  conglomerates,  sandstones,  shales,  and  coal ;  and  above  them, 
in  the  Raniganj  and  a  few  other  coal-fields  of  the  Damodar  valley,  there 
is  found  a  great  thickness  of  black  or  grey  shales,  with  bands  and 
nodules  of  clay  ironstone.  The  Raniganj  beds  comprise  coarse  and  fine 
sandstones,  with  shales  and  coal-seams. 

Laterite  (a  porous  argillaceous  rock  much  impregnated  with  iron 
peroxide)  is  well  developed  on  the  west  coast,  and  is  traced  northward 
from  Orissa,  through  Midnapore,  Burdwan,  and  Birbhiim,  to  the  flanks 
of  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  where  in  places  it  is  as  much  as  200  feet  thick. 

Gneiss  of  the  well-foliated  type,  frequently  passing  into  mica  schist, 
constitutes  the  greater  portion  of  the  Darjeeling  Himalayas  ;  but  sub- 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  203 

metaniorphic  or  transition  rocks,  known  as  the  Daling  series,  are  well 
represented  in  the  Tista  and  the  Rangit  valleys,  and  in  the  outer  hills 
south  of  Kurseong,  while  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and  clays,  referable 
to  the  Upper  Tertiary  period,  occur  as  a  narrow  band  fringing  the  base 
of  the  Himalayas.  Intervening  between  the  sub-metamorphics  and 
the  tertiaries  there  is  a  thin  belt  of  Lower  Gondwana  rocks,  which 
includes  various  alternations  of  sandstones  or  quartzite,  shales,  slates, 
and  beds  of  friable  coal. 

The  vegetation  of  Bihar  and  Bengal  proper  is  'diluvial' :  i.e.  it  is  of 
the  kind  usually  found  in  or  near  places  liable  to  inundation,  and  most 
of  the  species,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  if  not  cosmopolitan,  are  wide- 
spread in  the  eastern  tropics.  In  Bihar  the  older  alluvium,  with  mainly 
annual  turf,  has  the  crops  and  weeds  of  Upper  India.  Inundated  tracts 
near  rivers  are  often  under  tamarisk.  Village  shrubberies,  except  on 
abandoned  sites,  are  scanty,  and  the  forests  in  the  south  are  open  and 
park-like.  Bengal  proper  has  perennial  turf.  Except  in  the  extreme 
north  the  forests  are  often  mixed  with  reedy  grasses,  which  are  some- 
times replaced  by  savannahs.  The  river-beds  are  wide  and  often  bare. 
East  of  the  Bhagirathi  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  a  half-aquatic 
rice  plain,  with  patches  of  jungle  on  river  banks,  and  shrubberies  of 
semi-spontaneous  species  on  the  raised  ground  found  near  habitations 
and  roadways.  The  marshes,  pools,  and  sluggish  streams  are  filled 
with  water-plants.  These  conditions  become  intensified  eastwards  in 
the  b'lls,  which  are  rice  swamps  in  the  dry  season  but  become  inland 
fresh-water  seas  with  grassy  floating  islets  during  the  rains  ;  and  still 
more  so  in  the  Sundarbans,  where  the  partially-submerged  muddy 
islands  lying  among  interlacing  brackish  creeks  are  densely  covered 
with  Malayan  shore  forest  and  mangrove  swamps.  The  hills  on  the 
extreme  south-east  are  covered  with  forest,  Indo-Chinese  in  character, 
without  sal  {Shorea  ro/u/sta),  but  with  giirja/i  {Dipterocarpiis  turbinatiis), 
unknown  elsewhere. 

In  the  north  the  flora  gradually  changes  from  tropical  to  Himalayan. 
The  lower  ranges  and  the  tarai  beneath  are  covered  with  dense  forest. 
On  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  the  sal  is  the  typical  tree,  while  in  marshy 
tracts  the  gab  {Diospyros  Embryopieris)  and  other  like  species  are 
found.  A  similar  forest  skirts  and  ascends  the  hills  of  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau.  The  high  lands  above  have  a  vegetation  which 
is  mainly  of  the  Central  Indian  type,  but  that  on  the  more  elevated 
peaks  is  sub-temperate.  The  Orissa  rice  plain  resembles  that  of  Bengal 
proper.  Except  in  the  delta  of  the  Mahanadi,  which  is  occupied  by 
a  mangrove  swamp,  it  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  sand-dunes  covered 
with  Coromandel  coast  plants. 

In  ancient  times  Bengal  was  the  home  of  numerous  wild  animals, 
and  the  ele[)hant,   rhinoceros,   and  wild  buffalo  frefjuented    the  dense 


204  BENGAL 

jungles  which  have  long  since  given  place  U)  cultivivtion.  These 
animals  have  now  disappeared  from  all  but  the  most  remote  tracts,  such 
as  the  Sundarbans  and  the  jungles  of  Chittagong*,  Jalpaigurl*,  and  the 
Orissa  Tributary  Stales.  Practically  the  only  large  game  remaining  are 
tigers,  leopards,  bears,  deer,  and  wild  hog.  Tigers  are  comparatively 
scarce,  but  still  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  in  some  Districts  ;  leopards, 
deer,  and  wild  hog  are  common  in  many  parts  ;  and  bears  abound 
wherever  there  are  rocky  hills.  Owing  possibly  to  the  absence  of  suit- 
able grazing,  the  domestic  animals  are  of  an  inferior  stamp.  The  cattle 
are  small  and  weakl}',  and  the  buffaloes  also  are  a  very  degenerate  breed 
compared  with  the  wild  stock  from  which  they  are  descended. 

Although  Bengal  is  situated  almost  entirely  outside  the  tropical  zone, 
its  climate  for  about  two-thirds  of  the  year,  i.e.  from  the  middle  of 
March  to  the  end  of  October,  is  of  the  kind  usually  characterized  as 
tropical ;  it  has  a  high  temperature  and  humidity,  and  a  dry  and  a  wet 
season.  During  the  other  months  the  temperature  is  much  lower,  the 
humidity  is  slight  or  moderate,  and  the  rainfall  is  generally  scanty.  The 
mean  temperature  during  the  cold-season  months  is  about  64°  and 
during  the  hot  season  about  83°.  About  the  beginning  of  March,  as 
the  sun  gains  a  higher  altitude  and  the  days  grow  longer,  the  tem- 
perature increases  rapidly.  The  process  is  aided,  in  the  greater  part 
of  Bengal  proper  and  Orissa,  by  moisture-laden  southerly  winds  from 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which  give  a  fairly  copious  rainfall  when  weather 
is  disturbed  \  while  in  Bihar  and  part  of  North  Bengal  hot  and  dry 
westerly  winds  are  prevalent  in  the  daytime,  but  die  away  at  night. 
From  about  the  middle  of  May  the  south-west  wind-current  steadily 
strengthens,  and,  being  diverted  northwards  by  the  mountain  range  on 
the  western  side  of  Burma,  causes  increasing  rainfall  in  East  Bengal. 
By  the  middle  of  June,  in  normal  years,  the  monsoon  has  attained  its 
full  strength,  and,  flowing  northwards,  is  checked  and  turned  westwards 
by  the  Himalayan  range.  The  moist  current  in  its  northward  course 
is  the  cause  of  heavy  rainfall  near  the  coast  and  in  the  eastern  Districts. 
Farther  west  the  rainfall  is  more  intermittent,  and  is  due  more  to  the 
cyclonic  disturbances  which  develop  at  short  intervals  of  two  or  three 
weeks  in  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Bay  and  in  Lower  Bengal.  These 
invariably  move  westwards,  and  in  passing  over  the  western  Districts 
cause  continuous  and  occasionally  very  heavy  rainfall  for  several  days 
at  a  time.  From  the  beginning  of  September  the  south-west  monsoon 
begins  to  fall  off  in  strength.  Cloud  and  rainfall  are  more  intermittent, 
and  are  generally  due  to  cyclonic  storms,  which  begin  to  move  more  to 
the  north  and  north-east  than  to  the  west.  Temperature  increases  owing 
to  the  longer  intervals  of  bright  sunshine.     Before  the  end  of  October 

'  The  local  liot-season  storms  are  known  as  '  nor'-westers.'  They  are  geneially 
acconipaiiicil  bv  heavy  rain  and  occasinnallv  h\  hail. 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  205 

the  south-west  monsoon  has  ceased  to  affect  the  Province  ;  and,  as 
during  the  latter  half  of  that  month  pressure  becomes  higher  in  Bengal 
than  over  the  Bay,  northerly  winds  begin  to  set  in.  Being  land  winds, 
they  carry  but  a  small  amount  of  moisture,  and  coming  from  the  colder 
region  in  the  north,  their  advent  is  followed  by  an  immediate  fall  of 
temperature.  Hence,  during  the  months  from  November  to  February, 
fine  dry  weather,  with  an  almost  entire  absence  of  cloud  and  rainfall, 
prevails  in  all  parts  of  the  Province.  Occasional  disturbances  originating 
in,  or  proceeding  from,  the  north-west  of  India  pass  from  west  to  east 
over  Bengal  in  January  and  February.  The  cyclonic  winds  which  they 
cause  are  followed  by  the  formation  of  general  cloud,  with  irregular,  but 
at  times  heavy,  rainfall. 

Excluding  the  Darjeeling  hills,  where  the  mountain  slopes  cause  an 
annual  rainfall  varying  from  209  inches  at  Buxa*  to  122  inches  at 
Darjeeling,  the  areas  of  greatest  precipitation  are  in  the  south-east, 
where  the  rainfall  ranges  between  100  and  140  inches.  In  the  rest  of 
East  Bengal  it  is  between  70  and  80  inches,  but  again  rises  in  North 
Bengal  to  84  inches  in  Rangpur*,  and  to  between  100  and  130  inches 
in  the  submontane  plains.  In  the  coast  Districts  of  Central  and  West 
Bengal  and  in  Orissa,  where  the  effect  of  cyclonic  storms  from  the  Bay 
is  chiefly  felt,  the  annual  fall  is  generally  from  60  to  70  inches,  but  in 
places  it  exceeds  80  inches.  In  the  other  Districts  of  Bengal  proper, 
and  in  the  east  of  Bihar,  where  the  influence  of  mountain  ranges  and 
cyclonic  storms  is  less  apparent,  the  rainfall  is  lighter  and  more  uniform, 
being  generally  between  50  and  60  inches.  Farther  west  it  diminishes 
to  45  inches  in  Chota  Nagpur  and  to  42  inches  in  South  Bihar.  In  the 
submontane  tracts  of  North  Bihar  the  annual  fall  varies  from  50  to 
55  inches. 

The  rainfall  depends  largely  upon  local  conditions,  and  the  fluctuations 
are  irregular;  but  generally  it  was  very  deficient  in  1873,  in  1883  and 
1884,  and  in  1895  and  1896.  The  most  marked  deficiency  was  in  1873, 
when  the  fall  was  only  between  50  and  60  per  cent,  of  the  normal. 
Heavy  rainfall  occurred  throughout  the  Province  in  the  years  1876, 
1886,  and  1899  ;  in  other  years  heavy  local  falls  occurred,  e.g.  in 
Lower  Bengal  in  1893  and  1900.  If  the  variability  be  shown  by  the 
absolute  range,  that  is,  the  difference  between  the  heaviest  and  lightest 
rainfall  on  record  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  normal,  we  find  that 
it  is  greatest  in  the  north-west  of  the  Province  and  diminishes  southward 
and  eastward.  In  Bihar  it  is  108,  in  Chota  Nagpur  87,  in  Orissa  87, 
in  the  central  Districts  83,  and  in  North  and  East  Bengal  about  72. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  rainfall  of  Bengal  is  the 
occasional  occurrence  of  excessive  local  precijiitation.  Thus,  ow 
September  25,  1899,  a  fall  of  19^  inches  was  registered  in  Darjeeling, 
causing  numerous  landslips  and  some  loss  of  life.     The  natural  effect 


2o6  BENGAL 

of  a  heavy  downpour  is  to  cause  the  rivers  to  rise  and  overflow  tlioir 
banks,  especially  the  rivers  flowing  from  the  Himalayas,  which  collect 
the  rain-water  more  rapidly  than  do  those  in  the  plains.  'l"he  most 
disastrous  flood  of  this  nature  on  record  occurred  in  1787,  when  the 
Tlsta  suddenly  burst  its  banks  and  spread  itself  over  the  whole  District 
of  Rangpur*.  It  is  estimated  that  the  direct  loss  of  life  due  to 
drowning,  and  the  indirect  mortality  on  account  of  famine  and  disease, 
amounted  to  one-sixth  of  the  entire  District  population.  In  the  case 
of  non-Himalayan  rivers,  the  liability  to  damage  is  greatest  where 
embankments  have  been  thrown  up  to  hold  the  river  to  its  course.  The 
effect  of  these  embankments  is  that  the  water,  which  is  flowing  at  a 
higher  level  than  the  surrounding  country,  suddenly  rushes  over  them 
instead  of  rising  gradually,  as  it  would  do  if  there  was  no  embankment. 
Consequently,  when  a  breach  occurs,  the  water  pours  over  the  lower 
land  beyond  and  does  immense  damage.  In  1885,  and  again  in  1890, 
when  the  great  Lalitakuri  embankment  of  the  BhagTrathi  gave  way,  the 
flood-water  swept  right  across  Murshidabad  and  Nadia  Districts  for 
a  distance  of  more  than  50  miles. 

The  Province  suffers  even  more  from  cyclones,  especially  on  the  sea- 
coast  of  East  Bengal,  where  they  often  cause  an  inundation  of  salt  water. 
The  most  striking  features  in  these  cyclones  are  the  great  barometric 
depression  in  the  centre  and  the  magnitude  of  the  storm  area.  These 
two  causes  produce  a  large  accumulation  of  water  at  and  near  the 
centre,  which  progresses  with  the  storm  and  gives  rise  to  a  destructive 
storm-wave  when  the  centre  reaches  a  gradually  shelving  coast.  This 
conjunction  of  adverse  circumstances  occurs  more  or  less  regularly 
at  intervals  of  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  worst  of  the  recent  calamities 
of  this  nature  was  in  1876,  when  a  great  part  of  Backergunge*  and 
the  adjoining  Districts  was  submerged  to  a  depth  of  from  10  to  45  feet. 
Nearly  74,000  persons  were  drowned  in  Backergunge*  alone,  and  the 
cholera  epidemic  which  followed  carried  off  close  on  50,000  more.  On 
October  24,  1897,  Chittagong  District*  was  devastated  by  a  similar 
but  more  local  catastrophe;  14,000  persons  were  drowned  and  nearly 
three  times  that  number  died  of  the  diseases  that  followed.  Tidal 
waves  have  more  than  once  caused  great  damage  to  the  shipping  in  the 
HooGHLY  ;  and  although  Calcutta  itself  is  so  far  from  the  sea,  it  is  by 
no  means  certain  that  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  a  bore  of  exceptional 
height  and  momentum.  Great  damage  is  occasionally  caused  by 
cyclones  on  the  sea-coast  of  Orissa,  and  in  1885  a  considerable  area  in 
Cuttack  and  Balasore  was  inundated  and  large  numbers  of  human 
beings  and  cattle  were  drowned. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  this  article  reference  has  been  made  to  the 
probability  that  in  the  distant  past  the  surface  of  Bengal  had  been 
greatly  affected  by  changes  of  elevation.      Small  earth  tremors  are  still 


HISTORY  207 

of  constant  occurrence,  and  on  at  least  seven  occasions  in  the  past 
150  years  — in  1762,  1810,  1829,  1842,  1866,  1885,  and  1897  —  earth- 
cjuakes  of  considerable  severity  have  taken  place.  By  far  the  wcjrst  of 
these  was  that  of  June  12,  1897.  Its  focus  is  believed  to  have  been 
somewhere  near  Cherrapunji  in  the  Assam  range,  but  it  travelled  with 
such  rapidity  that  it  reached  the  western  extremity  of  Bengal  in  six 
minutes  or  even  less.  The  violence  of  the  shock  in  this  Province  was 
greatest  in  the  Districts  bordering  on  Assam,  and  it  was  comparatively 
slight  west  of  the  Bhagirathi.  In  North  and  East  Bengal  most  of  the 
older  masonry  buildings  fell  or  were  severely  damaged,  and  even 
in  Central  Bengal  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  larger  buildings 
suffered.  Some  of  the  older  ones  collapsed  altogether  and  many  others 
were  rendered  unfit  for  occupation.  In  the  alluvial  tracts  near  Assam 
numerous  long  cracks  and  fissures  opened  in  the  ground,  and  cir- 
cular holes  were  formed  through  which  water  and  sand  were  ejected  ; 
wells  were  filled  with  sand,  and  many  small  river-channels  were  entirely 
blocked  by  the  upheaval  of  their  beds.  The  railways  in  the  same 
localities  were  rendered  impassable  owing  to  the  damage  done  to  bridges 
and  to  fissures  in  the  embankments,  which  in  some  places  subsided 
altogether.  The  shock  fortunately  occurred  in  the  daytime  and  the 
mortality  was  thus  small ;  had  it  occurred  at  night,  the  number  killed 
must  have  been  very  large.  The  previous  earthquake  (that  of  1885)  was 
felt  chiefly  in  the  same  parts  of  Bengal,  but  it  was  more  local  ;  its  area 
of  maximum  intensity  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bogra*. 

The  people  of  Bengal  appear  from  their  physical  type  to  belong  to 
three  distinct  stocks — Dravidian,  Mongoloid,  and  Aryan.      Except  on 

the   northern   and   eastern  outskirts,   the   main  basis 

1  Tx       •  1-  1        ■     T^  1  1  History. 

IS  everywhere  Dravidian;  hut  in  Bengal  proper  there 

is  a  Strong  Mongoloid  element,  while  in  Bihar  the  Dravidian  type 
has  been  modified  by  an  admixture  of  Aryan  blood.  Philologists  hold 
that  the  earliest  recognizable  linguistic  formation  in  India  is  the  Dra- 
vidian. How  the  people  who  brought  these  languages  with  them  en- 
tered India  is  a  problem  regarding  which  we  can  only  speculate.  They 
may  have  come  from  the  north-west  by  way  of  Arabia,  where  (if  so)  the 
subsequent  intrusion  of  a  Semitic  race  has  since  obliterated  all  trace  of 
them ;  or  they  may,  more  probably,  have  come  from  the  south  in 
the  prehistoric  time  when  it  is  thought  that  India  was  connected  with 
Madagascar  by  a  land  area,  known  to  naturalists  as  Lemuria,  which 
subsequently  broke  up  and  sank  beneath  the  sea,  leaving  as  its  only 
trace  several  huge  shoals  and  a  chain  of  islands,  including  the  Seychelles, 
Chagos  Islands,  the  Laccadives  and  Maldives.  Dravidian  languages  still 
survive,  not  only  in  Southern  India,  where  'Pamil  and  Telugu  are  its 
leading  representatives,  but  also  in  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  where  they 
are  spoken  by  the  Oraon,  Male,  and  other  tribes.    Bengal  was  next  over- 


2o8  BEXGJr, 

run,  as  far  as  Bihar  and  Chota  Nagpur,  l^y  tribes  spoaking  languages  of 
the  family  known  as  Mon-Anam  or  Mon-Khnier,  which  is  still  extant  in 
Pegu,  Cambodia,  and  Cochin  China.  These  tribes  probably  came  from  the 
north-east  by  way  of  the  Patkai  pass  and  the  valley  of  the  Erahmajiutra. 
The  only  dialect  of  this  fiimily  which  survives  in  Assam  is  the  Khasi ; 
in  Bengal  not  a  single  representative  is  left,  but  indications  of  its  former 
existence  are  perhaps  disclosed  by  the  Munda  family  of  languages'. 
These  invaders  from  the  north-east  were  followed  by  fresh  hordes  from 
the  same  direction,  whose  speech  was  of  the  type  known  as  Tibeto- 
Burman,  of  which  Tibetan  and  Burmese  represent  the  two  standards 
to  which  the  other  and  ruder  dialects  tend  to  conform,  and  which  is 
believed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  Eastern  Tibet  or  in  adjacent  territory 
now  Chinese.  The  earliest  of  these  later  incomers  were  probably  the 
ancestors  of  the  Pods  of  Central  and  the  Chandals  of  East  Bengal,  who 
have  long  since  abandoned  their  characteristic  dialects,  while  the  latest 
were  the  Kochs,  Mechs,  and  Garos,  many  of  whom  still  retain  their  tribal 
forms  of  speech.  The  Aryan  invasion  from  the  north-west,  which  took 
place  while  the  incursions  of  Mongoloid  tribes  from  the  north-east  were 
still  in  progress,  was  the  last  notable  movement  so  far  as  this  Province 
is  concerned.  Bihar  was  the  seat  of  rule  of  Aryan  princes,  but  in 
Bengal  proper  the  stream  of  immigration  was  comparatively  thin  and 
attenuated.  As  the  Aryan  invasion  spread,  its  character  changed, 
and  arms  gave  way  to  arts.  Aryan  priests,  adventurers,  merchants,  and 
artificers  found  their  way  over  and  beyond  Bengal,  and  by  their  superior 
intelligence  and  culture  gradually  imposed  their  religion  and  language 
on  people  whom  they  had  never  conquered,  and  sometimes  even 
snatched  the  crown  from  the  indigenous  ruling  families. 

The  province  of  Bihar  is  known  to  us  from  very  early  times.  The 
ancient  kingdom  of  Magadha  comprised  the  country  now  included  in 
the  Districts  of  Patna,  Gaya,  and  vShahabad.  Its  capital  was  at  Raja- 
griha  (Rajgir),  some  30  miles  north-east  of  Gaya.  North  of  the 
Ganges  was  Videha  or  Mithila,  which  was  very  early  a  great  seat 
of  Sanskrit  learning,  and  included  the  modern  Districts  of  Darbhanga, 
Champaran,  and  North  Muzaffarpur  ;  the  south  of  the  latter  District 
constituted  the  small  kingdom  of  Vaisali.  To  the  east  lay  Anga, 
including  Monghyr,  Bhagalpur,  and  Purnea,  as  far  as  the  Mahananda 
river.  There  are  constant  references  to  these  countries  in  the  Maha- 
bharata.  Magadha  is  even  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Kikota  in  the 
Rig  Veda,  and  Mithila  in  the  Satyapatha  Brdhmana.  It  was  in 
Magadha  that  Buddha  developed  his  religion,  and  that  Mahavira 
founded  the  cognate  creed  of  the  Jains.      Soon  after  Buddha's  death, 

'   There  are   traces    of  an    alliance    with    the   Mon-speaking    races    in    the    social 
organization  of  the  Munda-speaking  tribes  and  in  the  monoliths  which  some  of  them 

still  erect. 


HISTOR  Y  209 

a  Sudra,  named  Nanda,  wrested  the  throne  from  the  Kshattriyas  and 
founded  a  new  dynasty.  He  made  his  capital  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Son  and  the  Ganges  near  the  modern  Patna.  Chandragupta, 
a  contemporary  of  Alexander  the  Great,  on  the  death  of  that  monarch, 
organized  a  powerful  force  with  which  he  expelled  the  Macedonians. 
He  then  turned  his  arms  against  Dhema  Nanda,  king  of  Magadha,  and 
having  defeated  and  slain  him,  seated  himself  on  the  vacant  throne 
of  Pataliputra  and  gradually  extended  his  rule  over  the  greater 
part  of  Northern  India.  He  successfully  resisted  Seleucus,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  eastern  portion  of  Alexander's  empire.  When  peace 
was  made,  all  the  Indian  provinces  of  Alexander,  and  probably  also  the 
Kabul  valley,  were  ceded  to  Chandragupta,  and  a  matrimonial  alliance 
was  effected  between  the  two  royal  houses.  Megasthenes  was  deputed 
by  Seleucus  as  his  ambassador  at  Pataliputra,  and  it  was  here  that 
he  compiled  his  work  on  India.  The  government  of  the  Indian 
monarch  is  described  as  strong  and  well  organized,  and  as  established 
in  a  magnificent  fortified  city.  The  standing  army  numbered  60,000 
infantry,  30,000  cavalry,  8,000  elephants,  and  a  multitude  of  chariots. 
On  active  service  the  army  is  said  to  have  attained  the  huge  total 
of  600,000  men.  In  272  B.C.  Chandragupta's  grandson,  Asoka, 
ascended  the  throne,  and  nine  years  later  he  added  Kalinga  to  his 
empire.  His  experiences  during  this  campaign  impressed  him  so  deeply 
with  the  horrors  of  warfare  that  he  thenceforth  turned  his  thoughts  to 
religion  and  became  the  great  champion  of  Buddhism.  He  sent 
his  missionaries  to  every  known  country  and  himself  took  the  vows 
of  a  Buddhist  monk. 

In  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  the  Gupta  dynasty  rose  to  power.  Their 
capital  was  also  at  Patna,  and  their  supremacy  was  acknowledged  by 
the  kings  of  the  different  countries  now  included  in  Bengal.  They 
were  Hindus  by  religion.  In  Hiuen  Tsiang's  time  (seventh  century) 
North  Bihar  was  divided  into  Vriji  to  the  north  and  Vaisall  to  the 
south,  both  countries  stretching  eastwards  to  the  Mahananda.  South 
of  the  Ganges  were  Hiranya  Parvana  (Monghyr)  and  Champa  (south 
Bhagalpur,  the  Santal  Parganas,  and  Birbhum).  The  rulers  of  both 
these  kingdoms  were  probably  Khetauris  of  Mai  origin.  In  the  ninth 
century  the  Buddhist  dynasty  founded  by  Gopal  included  Bihar  in  its 
dominions.  The  last  of  this  line  was  defeated  in  1197  by  Muhammad- 
i-Bakhtyar  Khilji,  whose  soldiers  destroyed  the  capital  at  Odantapuri 
and  massacred  the  Buddhist  monks  assembled  there. 

Very  little  is  known  of  Bengal  proper  until  the  rise  of  the  Pal 
dynasty.  At  tlie  time  of  the  Mahabharata,  North  and  East  Bengal 
formed,  with  Assam,  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Pragjyotisha,  or 
Kamarupa  as  it  was  subsequently  called,  and  its  ruler,  Bhagadatta,  was 
one  of  the  great  chiefs  who  fought  in  the  battle  of  Kurukshettra.     This 

VOL.   VII.  1' 


2IO  BENGAL 

kingdom  stretched  westwards  as  far  as  the  Karatoya  river.  It  was 
ruled"  by  a  succession  of  princes  of  Mongoloid  stock,  and  was  still 
flourishing  when  visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  in  the  seventh  century. 
South-west  of  Pragjyotisha,  l)etween  the  Karatoya  and  the  Mahananda, 
lay  PuNDR.A.  or  Paundravardhana,  the  country  of  the  Pods,  which, 
according  to  Cunningham,  has  given  its  name  to  the  modern  Pabna*  ; 
its  capital  may  have  been  at  Mahasthan*  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
old  Karatoya  river,  or  at  Pandua*,  near  Malda*.  This  kingdom  was 
in  existence  in  the  third  century  li.c,  and  Asoka's  brother  found 
shelter  there  in  the  guise  of  a  Buddhist  monk.  It  was  still  nourishing 
when  Hiuen  Tsiang  travelled  in  India  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  as  a  power- 
ful kingdom  in  the  eighth  century  a.  D.,  and  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage  in 
the  eleventh  century. 

East  of  the  Bhagirathi  and  south  of  Pundra  lay  Banga  or  Samatata. 
Its  people  are  described  in  the  Rag/iuf>ansa  as  possessing  many  boats, 
and  they  are  clearly  the  ancestors  of  the  Chandals,  who  at  the  present 
day  inhabit  this  part  of  the  country.  On  the  west  of  the  Bhagirathi 
lay  Karna  Suvarna  (Burdwan,  Bankura,  Murshidabad,  and  Hooghly), 
whose  king,  Sasanka  or  Narendra,  the  last  of  the  Guptas,  was  a 
fanatical  worshipper  of  Siva,  and  invaded  Magadha  and  cut  down  the 
sacred  l)odhi  tree  early  in  the  seventh  century.  The  capital  was  pro- 
bably near  R.\ngamati,  in  Murshidabad  District.  Lastly,  there  was 
the  kingdom  of  Tamralipta,  or  Suhma,  comprising  what  now  con- 
stitutes the  Districts  of  Midnapore  and  Howrah.  The  rulers  of  this 
country  seem  to  have  been  Kaibarttas. 

During  the  ninth  century,  the  Pal  dynasty  rose  to  power  in  the 
country  formerly  known  as  Anga,  and  gradually  extended  their  sway 
over  the  whole  of  Bihiir  and  North  Bengal.  Traces  of  their  rule  are 
very  common  in  the  south  of  Dinajpur*,  where  the  memory  of  Mahlpal, 
in  particular,  is  preserved  both  in  the  traditions  of  the  people  and  in 
numerous  names  of  places.  Like  the  kings  of  Pundra,  they  were 
Buddhists,  but  they  were  tolerant  towards  Hinduism.  They  were 
driven  from  Bengal  proper,  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century, 
by  a  king  named  Vijaya  Sen  of  the  Sen  family,  but  they  continued  to 
rule  for  some  time  longer  in  Bihar.  The  Sens  rose  to  power  in  East 
and  deltaic  Bengal  towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  and  eventually 
included  within  their  dominions  the  whole  of  Bengal  proper  from  the 
Mahananda  and  the  Bhagirathi  on  the  west  to  the  Karatoya  and  the 
old  Brahmaputra  on  the  east.  The  Sens  were  Hindus,  and  during 
their  rule  Buddhism  was  actively  discouraged.  The  best  remembered 
king  of  this  dynasty  is  Ballal  Sen,  who  reorganized  the  caste  system 
and  introduced  Kulinism  among  the  Brahmans,  Baidyas,  and  Kayasths. 
To  him  is  attributed  the  division  of  Bengal  into  four  parts  :  namely, 
Rarh,  west  of  the  Bhagirathi,  corresponding  roughly  to  Karna  Suvarna; 


I 


HISTORY  211 

Barendra,  between  the  Mahananda  and  the  Karatoya,  corresponding 
to  Pundra ;  Bagri  (Bagdi)  or  South  Bengal;  and  Banga  or  East 
Bengal.  He  conquered  and  annexed  Mithila,  where  the  era  inaugu- 
rated at  the  accession  of  his  son,  Lakshman  Sen,  is  still  current.  The 
latter  was  still  holding  his  court  at  Nabadwip  at  the  time  of  Muhanimad- 
i-Bakhtyar's  invasion  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  himself 
fled  to  Orissa  ;  but  his  descendants  exercised  a  precarious  sovereignty 
in  East  Bengal,  with  their  capital  at  Bikrampur*  in  Dacca  District, 
for  a  further  120  years. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  Orissa  formed  part  of  the  powerful  kingdom 
of  Kalinga,  which  stretched  from  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges  to  those 
of  the  Godavari.  It  was  conquered  by  Asoka,  but  by  150  B.C.  it  had 
again  passed  to  the  Kalinga  kings.  Jainism  was  then  beginning  to 
spread  in  the  land;  but  about  the  second  century  a.d.  it  was  suc- 
ceeded, according  to  Buddhist  tradition,  by  the  latter  creed,  which  was 
still  flourishing  in  640.  Subsequently  the  power  of  the  Kalinga  dynasty 
declined,  and  Orissa  seems  to  have  become  independent.  In  610, 
however,  an  inscription  of  Sasanka,  king  of  Magadha,  claims  it  as  a 
part  of  the  dominions  of  that  monarch,  and  in  640  it  was  conquered 
by  Harshavardhana  of  Kanauj.  In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
Orissa  is  said  to  have  been  under  the  rule  of  the  Kesari  kings,  to  whose 
rule  are  ascribed  the  Saiva  temples  at  Bhubaneswar  and  most  of  the 
ruins  in  the  Alti  hills  ;  but  the  existence  of  such  a  dynasty  is  uncertain  '. 
Then  followed  the  dynasty  founded  by  Chora  Ganga  of  Kalinganagar. 
These  kings  were  of  the  Vaishnava  faith  ;  they  built  the  famous  temple 
of  Jagannath  at  Puri  and  the  Black  Pagoda  of  Konarak..  There  were 
frequent  wars  with  the  Muhammadans,  and  about.  136 1  the  emperor 
Firoz  Shah  conducted  an  inroad  into  Orissa  in  person.  In  1434 
Kapileswar  Deva,  of  the  Solar  line,  usurped  the  throne.  He  extended 
his  dominions  to  the  south,  where  Muhammadan  inroads  had  sub- 
verted the  old  order  of  things,  as  far  as  the  Penner  river ;  but  his 
successors  were  gradually  shorn  of  these  additions  by  the  Musalman 
rulers  of  Golconda.  In  the  north  also  the  onset  of  the  Muhammadans 
became  more  and  more  insistent ;  and  at  last  in  1568,  after  a  period  of 
civil  war,  the  last  Hindu  king,  a  usurper  of  the  name  of  Mukund  Deo, 
was  overthrown  by  Kala  Pahar,  the  general  of  Sulaiman  Kararani. 

Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar  Khilji,  a  TurkI  free-lance,  who  acknowledged 
the  suzerainty  of  Muhammad  Ghori,  conquered  Bihar  about  1197, 
Two  years  later  he  advanced  with  a  small  troop  of  horsemen  into 
Bengal,    and    took    possession    of  Gaur*    and    Nabadwip    without   a 

'  The  account  of  these  kings  given  in  the  Rladala  Panjika,  or  palm-leaf  records  of 
the  Temple  of  Jagannath,  has  been  shown  to  be  wholly  unreliable,  Init  several 
inscriptions  have  recently  come  to  light  which  are  thought  by  some  to  [novc  that  the 
dynasty  really  exiittd. 

P  2 


212  BENGAL 

.struggle.  He  unsuccessfully  invaded  Tibet,  and  in  his  retreat  lost  the 
greater  part  of  his  army  at  the  hands  of  the  Mechs  east  of  the  Karatoya. 
The  greater  part  of  Bengal  gradually  came  under  the  control  of  the 
Muhammadan  governors,  who  ruled  at  Gaur  or  LakhnaiitT,  in  loose 
subjection  to  the  Delhi  emperors. 

Mughls-ud-dln  Tughril,  the  sixteenth  governor,  who  had  originally 
been  a  favourite  slave  of  the  emperor  Balban,  seeing  that  Balban  was 
preoccupied  with  the  advance  of  the  Mongols  from  the  west,  rebelled 
and  defeated  in  turn  the  imperial  armies  that  were  sent  against  him. 
Balban  himself  then  took  the  field  (in  1282),  and  having  surprised  and 
slain  Tughril  and  put  a  great  number  of  his  followers  to  the  sword, 
installed  his  son,  Nasir-ud-din  Bughra,  as  governor.  In  1338  Fakhr-ud- 
din  Mubarak  revolted  against  Muhammad  bin  Tughlak,  and  declared 
himself  independent. 

Eight  years  before  this  date  South  Bihar  had  been  separated  from 
Bengal  and  annexed  to  Delhi.  North  Bihar  apparently  belonged  to 
Bengal  for  some  time  longer,  as  the  Bengal  king,  Hajl  Shams-ud-din 
Ilyas,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  Hajipur.  In  1397  the 
whole  of  Bihar  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Jaunpur ;  but  a  century 
later  it  was  again  taken  possession  of  by  the  emperors  of  Delhi,  who 
continued  to  hold  it,  except  for  a  short  time  when  the  Bengal  king, 
Ala-ud-din  Husain,  and  his  son,  Nasir-ud-dln  Nusrat,  obtained  tem- 
porary possession  of  the  country  north  of  the  Ganges.  Under  the 
Mughals  the  capital  of  the  country  was  the  town  of  Bihar  in  the  south 
of  the  Patna  District,  and  from  this  town  the  whole  province  took  its 
name.  A  considerable  part  of  North  Bihar  was  under  the  rule  of  a 
line  of  Brahman  kings,  who  were  generally  tributary  to  the  l^athans, 
from  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Another  Hindu  dynasty,  possibly  connected  with  them, 
ruled  during  the  fifteenth   century   in  Champaran  and  Gorakhpur. 

From  1338  till  1539,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sher  Shah, 
Bengal  was  ruled  by  various  lines  of  independent  kings,  mostly  of 
Pathan  or  Turk!  origin.  Some,  however,  were  Abyssinian  eunuchs, 
and  one,  Raja  Kans  or  Ganesh  of  Dinajpur*,  was  a  Hindu ;  the 
latter's  son,  who  succeeded  him,  became  a  convert  to  Islam.  The 
exact  area  of  their  dominions  varied.  Sometimes  they  were  contracted 
by  the  encroachments  of  the  kings  of  Kamatapur,  Arakan,  and  Tippera*, 
while  at  others  they  were  extended,  notably  by  Ala-ud-din  Husain,  who 
in  1498  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Kamatapur  in  the  north-east  and 
overran  Orissa  and  Bihar. 

After  Babar  had  overthrown  the  Afghan  dynasty  at  Delhi,  he  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Afghan  rulers  of  Bihar.  These  were  twice 
defeated  in  1528  and  1529,  and  sought  refuge  with  their  compatriots  in 
Bengal,  who  in  their  turn  were  worsted  in  a  battle  on  the  banks  of  the 


HISTORY  213 

Gogra.  After  Babar's  death  the  Bihar  Afghans  rallied  under  a  brother 
of  the  late  Lodi  Sultan  of  Delhi,  but  were  decisively  vanquished  by 
Humayun  in  1531  in  an  engagement  near  Lucknow.  Meanwhile  Sher 
Shah,  a  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of  Suri  kings  of  Ghor,  who  rose 
from  a  humble  executive  office  to  the  rank  of  prime  minister  of  the 
Afghan  governors,  or  kings  of  Bihar,  as  they  called  themselves  in 
Babar's  time,  had  established  himself  at  Chunar.  Humayun  did  not 
trouble  to  reduce  him,  but  contented  himself  with  a  verbal  submission  ; 
and  the  result  was  that  during  the  next  six  years,  while  the  emperor 
was  engaged  elsewhere,  Sher  Shah  became  supreme  on  the  borders  of 
Bengal.  In  1537  Humayun  marched  against  liim,  and  after  a  siege 
of  six  months  reduced  his  fortress  of  (Chunar.  At  the  same  time  Sher 
Shah  was  himself  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  Bengal.  He  effected  this  ; 
but  when  Humayun,  after  taking  Chunar,  marched  into  Bengal,  Sher 
Shah  shut  himself  up  in  Rohtasgarh,  which  he  had  captured  by  a 
stratagem,  and  made  no  effort  to  oppose  his  advance.  Humayun  spent 
six  months  in  dissipation  in  Bengal  ;  but  then,  finding  that  Sher  Shah 
had  cut  off  his  communications  and  that  his  orother  at  Delhi  would  not 
come  to  his  assistance,  he  retraced  his  steps  and  was  met  and  defeated 
near  Buxar.  Sher  Shah  then  ousted  the  Mughal  governor  who  had 
been  left  at  Gaur,  and  proclaimed  himself  king  of  Bengal  and  Bihar. 
A  year  later  he  again  defeated  Humayun  at  Kanauj  and  became 
emperor  of  Delhi.  He  proved  a  strong  and  capable  ruler ;  during 
his  reign  the  country  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity,  and  the  people  were 
secure  from  oppression  and  bribery.  He  died  in  1545.  Ten  years 
later  Humayun  recovered  the  throne  of  Delhi  from  his  nephew,  but 
the  Afghan  governors  of  Bengal  remained  unconquered.  Raju,  better 
known  as  Kala  Pahar,  the  general  of  Sulaiman  KararanI,  who  acknow- 
ledged the  supremacy  of  Akbar,  but  was  practically  independent, 
conquered  Orissa  in  1568.  Sulaiman's  son  Daud  at  first  made  his 
submission  to  Akbar.  He  subsequently  rebelled,  but  was  defeated  ; 
and  Bengal  was  definitely  annexed  to  the  Mughal  empire,  to  which  it 
continued  to  belong  practically  till  the  disintegration  of  the  empire 
after  the  death  of  Aurangzeb,  and  nominally  until  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  East  India  Company. 

During  the  earlier  years  of  Mughal  rule,  the  governors  were  called 
upon  to  meet  repeated  risings  of  the  previously  predominant  Afghans, 
who,  when  defeated,  took  refuge  in  Orissa.  Raja  Man  Singh  inflicted 
a  crushing  defeat  on  them,  but  they  were  not  finally  subdued  until 
161 1  in  the  viceroyalty  of  Islam  Khan.  At  this  time  the  incursions  of 
Maghs  from  Arakan,  and  Portuguese  pirates  from  the  islands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Meghna,  had  become  so]  persistent  that  special  steps  had 
to  be  taken  to  resist  them.  With  this  object  Islam  Khan  removed  the 
capital,  which   had  usually  been    at  Ciaur  or   the  neighbouring   towns 


2T4  BENGAL 

of  Panduji  and  Rajmahal,  to  Dacca*,  wlierc  it  remained,  except 
for  a  short  interval,  until  Murshid  Kuli  Khan  made  Murshidabad  his 
head-quarters  a  hundred  years  later.  When  Shah  Jahan  rebelled 
against  his  father,  the  emperor  Jahangir,  in  162 1,  and  after  being 
defeated,  fled  to  the  Deccan,  where  he  again  suffered  defeat,  he 
determined  to  seize  upon  Bengal.  He  took  Orissa  by  surprise,  and 
subsequently,  with  the  aid  of  the  Afghans,  overthrew  the  governor  and 
took  possession  of  the  whole  Province.  He  held  it  for  two  years,  but 
was  then  defeated  and  made  his  submission.  On  the  death  of  JahangTr 
he  became  emperor,  and  in  1639  appointed  his  son  Sultan  Shuja  to  be 
governor  of  Bengal.  The  latter  subsequently  fought  against  his  brother 
Aurangzeb,  but  was  defeated  by  Mir  Jumla  and  fled  to  Arakan,  where 
he  died  a  miserable  death.  Mir  Jumla  was  rewarded  with  the  post  of 
governor,  which  he  filled  with  conspicuous  ability.  The  most  important 
event  of  his  rule  was  his  invasion  of  Cooch  Behar  and  Assam  in  1661 
and  1662.  He  overran  both  countries  ;  but  the  rigours  of  a  rainy 
season  in  Upper  Assam  spread  death  and  disease  among  his  troops, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  return,  only  to  die  of  dysentery  contracted 
during  the  campaign,  shortly  after  his  arrival  at  Dacca*. 

When  Aurangzeb  died,  the  governor  of  Bengal  was  Murshid  KulT 
Khan,  a  Brahman  convert  to  Islam.  He  possessed  great  administrative 
ability ;  and,  profiting  by  the  dissensions  at  Delhi,  he  succeeded  in 
making  himself  practically  independent.  From  that  time  forward  the 
supremacy  of  the  Mughal  emperors  was  little  more  than  nominal. 

In  North  Bengal  various  Mongoloid  tribes  rose  in  turn  to  power. 
When  Ala-ud-dln  Husain  overran  the  country  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  ruling  monarch  was  Nllambar,  the  third  of  a  line  of  Khen 
chieftains.  Shortly  afterwards  Biswa  Singh,  the  progenitor  of  the  Koch 
kings,  founded  a  new  dynasty,  whose  rule  extended  from  the  Karatoya 
to  Central  Assam  ;  and  it  was  not  until  166 1  that  the  country  as  far  as 
Goalpara  was  permanently  acquired  by  Mir  Jumla.  Previous  to  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Chittagong  Division*  was  usually  in  the  hands 
of  the  Tipperas  or  of  the  Maghs,  and  it  was  only  after  the  transfer  of 
the  capital  to  Dacca*  that  this  tract  was  gradually  annexed. 

Orissa  (including  Midnapore),  which  had  been  wrested  from  the 
Hindu  kings  by  Kala  Pahar,  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Afghans 
until  1592,  when  Man  Singh  annexed  it.  It  was  placed  under  separate 
governors,  but  Midnapore  and  Balasore  were  subsequently  transferred 
to  Bengal.  In  1751  All  VardT  Khan  ceded  the  province  to  the 
Bhonslas  of  Nagpur,  in  whose  possession  it  remained  until  its  conquest 
by  the  P.ritish  in  1803.  The  Marathas  made  no  attempt  to  establish 
any  civil  administration,  and  their  rule  was  confined  to  a  periodic 
harrying  of  the  country  by  their  cavalry,  who  extorted  whatever  they 
could  from  the  people. 


HISTORY  215 

Chota  Nagpur,  including  the  Tributary  States  of  Chota  Nagpur  and  • 
Orissa,  is  called  Jharkand  in  the  Akharndma.  The  country  was  ruled 
by  chiefs  of  various  aboriginal  tribes,  the  Cheros  being  predominant  in 
Palamau,  the  Mundas  in  Ranch!,  and  the  Bhuiyas  and  Gonds  in  the 
Orissa  States.  The  south  of  Chota  Nagpur  proper  was  annexed  by 
Akbar,  and  Palamau  by  Shah  Jahan.  The  remoter  chiefs  appear  to 
have  remained  independent  until  their  subjugation  by  the  Marathas 
towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

During  Muhammadan  rule  the  authority  of  the  central  government 
varied  with  the  character  of  the  king  or  governor  for  the  time  being. 
If  he  was  energetic  and  masterful,  the  whole  country  accepted  his 
authority ;  but  if  he  was  weak  and  indolent,  the  local  rulers  became 
practically  independent.  At  all  times  their  internal  administration  was 
but  little  interfered  with,  so  long  as  they  paid  a  regular  tribute  and 
furnished  troops  or  supplies  for  troops  when  required  to  do  so. 

Some  of  these  local  potentates  were  Hindu  Rajas  and  others  were 
Muhammadan  free-lances,  who  carved  out  kingdoms  for  themselves, 
and  some,  again,  were  agents  of  the  central  authority,  who  gradually 
secured  a  large  measure  of  independence.  The  founder  of  the 
Burdwan  Raj  family  was  a  Punjabi  Khattri,  who  had  received  an  ap- 
pointment under  the  Faujdar  of  Burdwan,  and  whose  descendants 
acquired  property  and  power  by  degrees,  until,  in  1753,  one  of  them 
received  from  the  emperor  Ahmad  Shah  a  farmdn  recognizing  his 
right  to  the  Burdwan  Raj.  The  Rajas  of  Bishnupur  or  Mallabhum 
were  pseudo-Rajputs  of  aboriginal  origin,  who  were  sometimes  the 
enemies,  sometimes  the  allies,  and  sometimes  the  tributaries  of  the 
governors,  but  were  never  completely  subjugated.  About  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century  a  Muhammadan  adventurer,  named  Khan 
Jahan,  or  Khanja  All,  obtained  a  jdg'ir  from  the  king  of  Gaur,  and 
made  extensive  clearances  in  the  Sundarbans,  where  he  appears  to 
have  exercised  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty  until  his  death  in  1459. 
A  hundred  years  later,  when  Daud,  the  last  king  of  Bengal,  rebelled 
against  the  emperor,  one  of  his  Hindu  counsellors  obtained  a  Raj  in 
the  Sundarbans,  the  capital  of  which,  near  the  KalTganj  police  station 
in  Khulna,  has  given  its  name  to  the  modern  District  of  Jessore. 
His  son,  Pratapaditya,  was  one  of  the  twelve  chiefs  or  Bhuiyas  who 
held  the  south  and  east  of  Bengal  nominally  as  vassals  of  the 
emperor,  but  who  were  practically  independent,  and  were  frequently 
at  war  with  each  other.  He  rebelled  against  the  emperor,  and,  after 
some  minor  successes,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Raja 
Man  Singh,  the  leader  of  Akbar's  armies  in  Bengal  from  1589  to 
1606.  Amongst  the  other  Bhuiyas  who  were  ruling  at  the  time  of 
Ralph  Fitch's  travels  (towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century),  may 
l)e  mentioned  Paramananda  Rai,  who  ruled  over  a  small  kingdom  at 


2l6 


BENGAL 


('handradwTp  in  the  south-east  of  the  modern  District  of  Backcrgunge*, 
and  Isa  Klian,  of  Sonargaon*  in  Dacca*,  who  was  'chief  of  all  the 
other  kings '  and  powerful  enough  to  make  war  on  the  Koch  kings  of 
Kamarupa. 

The  following  is  a  chronological  table  of  the  Muhammadan  rulers  of 
Bengal  : — 

Early  Muhavnnadau   Governors  of  Bengal 


Muhninmnd-i-Bakhtyar  KhiljT 
Izz-ud-ciln  Muhammad  Shiran 
Ala-ud-din  Mardaii 
Ghiyas-ud-dln  Iwaz 
Nasir-iid-din  Mahmud,  son  of  em 

peror  Altamsh  . 
Ala-ud-dln  Jani    . 
Saif-ud-din  Aibak 
Izz-ud-din  Tughril  Tuglian   . 
Kamar-ud-din  Tamar    . 
Ikhtiyar-ud-din  Yiizbak 
Jalal-ud-din  Masud 
Izz-ud-dln  Balban  (afterwards  em 

peror)        .... 
Muhammad  Arslan  Tatar  Khan 
Sher  Khan    .... 
Amin  Khan  .... 
MughTs-ud-din  Tughril 


A.D. 

1  202 

1205 

1208 

I2II 

1226 

1229 

1229 

1233 

1244 

1246 

I25S 

1258 

1260 

1277 


A.D. 

Nasir-ud-din  Bughra  (son  of  Bal- 
ban) .....     1282 

Rukn-ud-din  Kaikaus  (son  of  Bu- 
ghra)        .         .         .         •         .     1 291 

Shams-ud-din  Firoz  (son  of  Bughra)      1 30  2 

Shahab-ud-din     liughra     (son     of 

Bughra,  \V.  Bengal)  .  .     1318 

Ghiyas-ud-din    Bahadur    i^son     of 

Firoz,  E.  Bengal)       .  .         .1310 

Ghiyas-ud-din  Bahadur  (all  Ben- 
gal)   1319 

Nasir-ud-dln  (son  of  Fiioz,  Lakh- 

nauti)        ....  I3^3-.S 

Bahadur    restored     with    Bahram 

'E.  Bengal)       .         .         .        1324-30 

Bahram         ....  1330-8 

Kadar  Khan  (Lakhnauti  i32,=;-39 

Izz-ud-din  (Satgaon)     .         .        1323-39 


Independent  MuJiavimadan  Kings  of  Bengal 


A.D. 


Fakhr-ud-dTn    Mubarak     (E. 

Bengal)     .... 
Ikhtiyar-ud-din      Ghazi     (E. 

Bengal)     .... 
Ala-ud-din  All  (W.  Bengal) 
Shams-ud-din  Ilyas  (in  Gaur) 
Sikandar I     . 
Ghiyas-ud-din     Azam     Jn     the 

East) 
Saif-ud-din  Hamza 
Shams-ud-din 
Shahab-ud-din  Baya/id  Shah  wii 

Raja  Kans  (Ganesh) 
Jalal-ud-din  Muhammad 
Shams-ud-din  Ahmad 
Nasir-ud-din  Mahmud 
Rukn-ud-din  Barbak 
Shams-ud-din  Yusuf 
Sikandar  II  . 


133S-49 

1349-52 

13.19-4.1 

1345 

1358 

1 396 
1406 

1409 
1414 

1 43 1 
1442 

i4.'^9 

'474 
..iSi 


Jalal-ud-din  Fateh 
Shahzada  Barbak  Ilabshi 
Saif-ud-din  Firoz 
Nasir-ud-din  Mahmud  . 
Shams-ud-din  Muzaffar 
Ala-ud-din  Husain 
Nasir-ud-din  Nusrat 
Ala-ud-din  Firoz  . 
Ghiyas-ud-din  Mahmud  .Shah  (tiie 
last  substantial  King  of  Bengal) 
Conquest  by  HtiDiayfiii 
Sher  Shah  ^Sultan  of  Delhi)  . 
Islam  Shah  ditto     . 

Shams-ud-dln  Muhammad  Sur 
Bahadur        .... 
Ghiyas-ud-din  Jalal 
Sulaiman  Knrarani 
Bayazid  .... 

Daud    ..... 


A.I). 
1 48 1 
i486 
i486 
1489 
1490 

'493 

I.=i23 

'532 

1.^32 

1537 

1.^.39 

'.^=;2 

•554 
1560 

'  563 
1572 
1573 


HISTOR  Y 

217 

Governors  of 

Bengal  under  tlie  DelJii  Einperc 

>ys 

A.U. 

A.I). 

Khan  Jahan 

1576 

Sultan  Shiija 

•     i^'3'> 

Muzaffar  Khan      . 

•    1579 

Mir  Jumla    . 

.     1660 

Raja  Todar  Mai    . 

•    1580 

Shaista  Khan 

.     1664 

Khan  Azim  . 

•    1582 

Fidai  Khan 

•     1677 

Shahbaz  Khan 

•    1584 

Sultan  Muhammad  Ai.iiu 

.     1678 

Raja  Man  Singh  . 

.       .    1589 

Shaista  Khan  (again)    . 

.     16S0 

Kutb-ud-din  Kokaltash 

.    1606 

Ibrahim  Khan  II 

.     1689 

Jahanglr  Kull 

.     1607 

Azim-ush-shan 

•     1697 

Shaikh  Islam  Khan 

.    1608 

Murshid  Kull  Khan 

•     1704 

Kasim  Khan 

•    1613 

Shuja-iid-din  Khan 

•     17^5 

Ibrahim  Khan  I    . 

.    1618 

Sarfaraz  Khan 

•     17.^9 

Shah  Jahan 

.    1622 

All  Vardi  Khan    . 

■     1740 

Khanazad  Khan   . 

.    1625 

Siraj-ud-daula 

•     1756 

Mukarram  Khan  . 

.     1626 

Mir  Jafar 

•     17.^7 

Fidai  Khan  , 

.    1627 

Mir  Kasim  All  Khan    . 

.     1760 

Kasim  Khan  Jabuni 

.    1628 

Mir  Jafar  (again)  . 

■     i7''3 

Azim  Khan  . 

•    1632 

Najim-ud-daula     ,          .          •»        •      '  Z'^S 

Islam  Khan  Mashhadi . 

•    1637 

The  history  of  Bengal  under  the  British  is  part  of  the  general  history 
of  India.  The  earliest  European  traders  in  Bengal  were  the  Portuguese, 
who  began  to  visit  Chittagong*  and  Satgaon  near  Hooghia'  about 
the  year  1530.  They  were  well  established  at  Hooghly  when  Ralph 
Fitch  travelled  through  the  country  in  1586.  Factors  of  the  East  India 
Company,  coming  from  Surat  by  way  of  Agra,  first  visited  Patna  in 
1620.  About  1625  the  Dutch  settled  at  Chinsura  and  at  Pipli  in  the 
north  of  Orissa,  and  about  1642  the  first  factory  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  this  Province  was  established  near  Balasore.  In  1650 
a  factory  was  started  at  Hooghly,  where  trade  was  greatly  facilitated  by 
^.farnian  obtained  in  the  following  year  from  the  emperor  Shah  Jahan 
by  a  surgeon  of  the  Company  named  Boughton,  who  had  succeeded  in 
curing  a  lady  of  the  royal  family.  Shortly  after  this  factories  were 
started  at  Cossimbazar  and  Patna,  and  a  few  years  later  a  fifth  was 
opened  at  Dacca*.  These  settlements  in  Bengal  were  at  first  worked 
in  subordination  to  Fort  St.  George  at  Madras,  but  in  1681  they  were 
constituted  an  independent  charge.  The  sole  object  of  the  Company 
at  this  time  was  trade,  the  articles  most  in  demand  being  salti)etre, 
silks,  and  muslins.  Their  dealings  were  hampered  by  c(jnstant  disputes 
with  the  Nawab  and  his  local  officials,  who  tried  to  exact  what  they 
could  ;  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  hostilities  broke  out,  in  which, 
on  the  whole,  the  Company's  servants  held  their  own.  Sutanuti,  the 
northern  part  of  modern  Calcutta,  was  occupied  as  his  head-quarters  by 
Job  Charnock,  temporarily  in  1686,  and  permanently  in  1690,  and  by 
1 7 10  the  old  Fort  William  had  been  constructed.  In  1698  the 
Company  was  permitted  to  purchase,  for  Rs.  1,300,  the  three  villages 


2i8  BENGAL 

of  Calcutta,  Sfitanuti,  and  dohindpur,  subject  lo  a  revenue  of 
Rs.  1,195  •  ^'""^  '"  '^1^1  ^'^6  purchase  was  sanctioned  of  thirty-eight 
more  villages,  paying  a  revenue  of  Rs.  8,121. 

In  June,  1756,  Siraj-ud-daula,  the  Nawab  of  Bengal,  finding  that  the 
English,  in  fear  of  an  attack  by  the  French,  who  had  established  them- 
selves at  Chandernagore  in  1688,  were  strengthening  the  fortifications 
of  Calcutta  without  his  permission,  marched  against  the  place  and  took 
it.  It  was  then  that  occurred  the  massacre  of  the  Black  Hole.  The 
European  prisoners,  146  in  number,  were  confined  in  a  small  room, 
only  18  feet  by  14  feet,  and  next  morning  all  but  23  were  found  to 
have  died  of  suffocation.  A  force  was  immediately  dispatched  from 
Madras  under  Clive,  who  advanced  in  1757  towards  Murshidabad.  The 
Nawab,  with  a  large  army,  met  him  at  Plassey,  but  was  utterly 
defeated  ;  Mir  Jafar  was  appointed  Nawab,  but  was  soon  afterwards 
ousted  in  favour  of  his  .son-in-law,  Mir  Ka.sim.  The  latter,  exasperated 
liy  the  exactions  of  the  servants  of  the  Company  and  their  interference 
with  the  transit  duties,  engaged  in  hostilities,  but  was  twice  defeated. 
He  fled  to  Oudh,  after  causing  a  number  of  English  prisoners  at  Patna 
to  be  put  to  death.  The  Nawab  of  Oudh  espoused  his  cause  ;  but  the 
combined  armies  were  defeated  by  Major  Munro  at  Buxar  in  1764, 
and  the  Dlwani  or  civil  authority  over  Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Orissa  was 
conferred  in  perpetuity  on  the  East  India  Company  by  the  emperor 
Shah  Alam  \  The  result  was  that  the  centre  of  British  power  was 
transferred  from  Madras  to  Calcutta,  and  that  from  1774  to  1854  the 
Governorship  of  Bengal  was  merged  in  the  Governor-Generalship  of 
the  Company's  territories  in  India.  The  French  Settlement  at  Chander- 
nagore was  captured  at  the  same  time,  but  was  subsequently  restored, 
and  the  place  is  still  a  French  possession  administered  in  subordination 
to  the  French  governor  of  Pondicherry. 

In  1765  was  inaugurated  Clive's  celebrated  'dual  system,'  by  which 
it  was  thought  that  the  Company  would  get  all  the  benefit  from  its  new 
possessions,  without  the  trouble  and  responsibility  involved  in  their 
actual  administration.  Mir  Jafar  was  reinstated  as  Nawab  ;  but  he  was 
required  to  execute  an  agreement  by  which  the  Company  received  the 
revenues  and  undertook  the  military  defence  of  the  country,  while  he 
carried  on  the  civil  administration  in  return  for  a  fixed  stipend.  The 
revenue  was  collected  by  Naibs  or  Deputy-Nawabs.  This  dual 
government  was  found  most  unsatisfactory  ;  the  people  were  subjected 
to  great  oppression,  while  the  collections  rapidly  declined.  In  1769-70 
there  was  a  terrible  famine  in  which  a  third  of  the  population  is  said  to 
have  perished,  and  which  is  believed  to  have  been  aggravated  by  the 
misgovernment  of  the  agents  of  the  Nawilb  and  the  ignorance  of  local 

'  Oriss.i  was  at  the  time  in  tlie  possession  of  (he  Marathils.  and  it  was  not  nntil  1S03 
that  it  was  conquered  and  annexed  by  l^ord  \\  ellesley. 


HISTORY  219 

conditions  on  the  part  of  British  officials.  After  several  abortive 
experiments  an  entirely  new  system  was  introduced  by  Warren  Hastings. 
European  Collectors  were  appointed  in  each  of  the  fourteen  Districts 
into  which  Bengal  was  then  divided,  and  the  collection  of  the  revenue 
was  placed  in  their  hands.  They  were  also  placed  over  the  Dlwani 
Adalat  or  civil  courts,  where  they  were  assisted  by  the  advice  of 
experienced  native  officials.  The  Faujdari  Adalat  or  criminal  courts 
were  still  presided  over  by  Muhammadan  officials,  but  the  Collector 
was  required  to  see  that  all  witnesses  were  duly  examined  and  that  the 
decisions  were  fair  and  impartial.  Appeals  from  the  local  civil  and 
criminal  courts  were  allowed  to  two  superior  courts  in  Calcutta. 
Subsequently  the  European  Collectors  were  replaced  by  native  dmils, 
and  the  superintendence  of  the  collection  of  the  revenue  was  vested  in 
six  Provincial  Councils,  at  Calcutta,  Burdwan,  Dacca*,  Murshidabad, 
Dinajpur*,  and  Patna.  The  amih  administered  civil  justice,  while  the 
criminal  courts  were  presided  over  by  native  officers  called  faujdars. 
Further  changes  were  made ;  but  when  Lord  Cornwallis  became 
Governor-General  in  1786,  the  original  system  of  Warren  Hastings 
was  reverted  to,  with  this  difference  that  the  Collector  was  himself 
Civil  Judge  and  Magistrate.  For  some  years  longer  serious  criminal 
cases  were  required  to  be  referred  for  trial  to  the  Deputy  of  the  Nawab, 
but  in  1793  f'^ur  courts  of  circuit,  superintended  by  covenanted  servants 
of  the  Company,  were  established  to  try  cases  not  cognizable  by  the 
magistrates.  Separate  judges  were  next  appointed  in  each  District, 
with  native  subordinates  to  deal  with  petty  civil  cases. 

Various  further  improvements  and  alterations  were  from  time  to  time 
effected,  notably  in  1829,  when  Commissioners  of  Revenue  and  Circuit 
were  appointed,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  di.scuss  them  in  detail.  The 
system  of  administration  at  the  present  day  is  the  direct  outcome  by 
a  gradual  process  of  evolution  of  the  arrangements  made  by  Lord 
Cornwallis. 

In  1836  the  now  overgrown  Bengal  Presidency'  was  divided  into  two 
parts — Fort  William  in  Bengal,  and  Agra — and  a  separate  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  subordinate  to  the  Governor-General,  was  appointed  for  the 
latter.  The  former,  which  included  the  whole  of  what  now  constitutes 
the  Province  of  Bengal  and  the  territories  comprised  in  the  Province  of 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  ^,  remained  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
Governor-General,  who  was  authorized,  when  absent  from  the  Province, 
to  nominate  a  Deputy-Governor  from  among  the  ordinary  Members  of 
his  Council,  to  carry  on  the  government.     This  arrangement  continued 


1 


The  varyinc^  nie.nninj(  of  tlie  term  has  already  been  exjilained  on  ji.  195. 

Sylhet,  Goalpara,  and  the  Garo  Hills  formed  part  of  P.eiif^al  from  the  beginning 
of  British  rule  ;  the  Assam  Valley  proper  was  ac(|uired  from  I'.iirma  in  iS2fj,  and  the 
other  tracts  on  different  dntes  which  need  not  here  be  detniled. 


220 


BENGAL 


■  1854 

Sir  Rivers  Thompson     . 

.      1882 

.  1859 

Sir  Steuart  Bayley 

.      1887 

.    1862 

Sir  Charles  Elliot 

.      1890 

.    1867 

Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie 

•      1895 

.    I87I 

Sir  John  Wood  burn 

.      1 898 

■   1874 

Sir  James  Bourdillon 

1902 

•    "877 

Sir  Andrew  Fraser 

•      1903 

until  1S54,  when  tlic  (loveinor-dcncnil  was  relieved  of  llie  direct 
administration  of  IJengal  by  the  appointment  of  a  permanent  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor. The  change  was  much  needed,  as  the  Governor- 
General  being  frequently  absent,  and  his  I)ej)uty-Govcrnor,  who  was 
usually  the  senior  ordinary  Member  of  Council  for  the  time  being, 
constantly  changing,  the  element  of  personal  continuity  at  the  head  of 
the  Administration  was  sadly  lacking.  The  names  of  the  successive 
Lieutenant-Governors  of  Bengal  are  noted  below  ^ : — 

Sir  Frederick  Ilalliday  . 
Sir  John  Peter  Grant 
Sir  Cecil  BeadoH    . 
Sir  William  Grey  . 
Sir  George  Campbell 
Sir  Richard  Temple 
Sir  Ashley  Eden    . 

The  events  of  the  Sepoy  Revolt  took  place  chiefly  in  Upper  India, 
and  the  rising  in  Bengal  was  comparatively  unimportant.  But  the  story 
of  the  greased  cartridges  had  its  origin  at  Barrackpore,  and  both  there 
and  at  Berhampore,  Dinapore,  and  Dacca*,  the  sepoys  mutinied.  They 
were,  however,  quickly  suppressed  ;  and  it  was  only  in  Bihar  that  events 
for  a  time  took  a  serious  turn,  especially  in  Shahabad,  where  the 
defence  of  the  billiard-room  at  Arrah,  by  a  handful  of  Civilians  and 
Sikhs,  against  the  onslaught  of  the  sepoy  mutineers  from  Dinapore  and 
the  levies  of  a  local  Rajput  zamlndar^  forms  one  of  the  most  splendid 
pieces  of  gallantry  in  the  history  of  the  British  arms. 

In  1864  repeated  raids  by  the  Bhutanese,  and  the  barbarous  outrages 
committed  on  the  British  Envoy  sent  to  negotiate  with  the  Bhutan 
government,  led  to  a  campaign  in  which  the  Bhutanese  were  worsted 
and  the  British  troops  took  possession  of  the  Duars,  i.e.  the  passes  into 
the  hills  and  the  adjoining  lowlands;  and  in  1865  a  treaty  was 
concluded  by  which  those  territories  were  ceded  to  the  British 
Government  in  return  for  a  fixed  annual  payment.  In  1874  the 
Districts  constituting  the  Province  of  Assam  were  separated  from 
Bengal  and  placed  under  a  Chief  Commissioner.  In  1888  the  Tibetans 
having  advanced  into  Sikkim,  an  expedition  was  sent  against  them. 
They  were  defeated  with  ease,  the  campaign  ending  with  their  complete 
expulsion  from  Sikkim,  and  that  State  was  brought  into  closer  relations 
with  the  British  Government  by  the  appointment  of  a  resident  Political 
officer.  This  was  followed  by  the  execution  of  a  convention  which 
provided  for  the  improvement  of  the  trade  relation  with  Tibet ;  but  the 
results  in  this  respect  were  disappointing,  and  in  1904  a  British  Mission 
was  sent  into  Tibet  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Lhasa,  where  a  new 
convention  was  executed  by  the  Tibetan  authorities. 

•  Short  officiating  appointments  liave  been  omitted. 


HISTORY  221 

The  oldest  remains  of  ascertained  date  are  a  series  of  iiiscrii)tions  of 
Asoka,  partly  on  rocks,  as  at  Dhauli  in  Purl  District  and  in  a  small 
cave  high  on  the  Chandan  Pir  hill  at  Sasaram,  and  partly  on  pillars, 
four  in  number,  marking  the  route  taken  by  the  great  king  through 
Muzaffarpur  and  Champaran,  on  his  visit  to  the  sacred  sites  of 
Buddhism  in  what  is  now  the  Nepal  tarai ;  of  the  latter  the  pillar  near 
Lauriva  Nandangarh  is  still  almost  perfect.  Next,  in  point  of  time, 
come  the  caves  on  the  Khandgiri  and  Udavagiri  hills,  in  the  District 
of  Purl,  which  were  long  believed  to  be  Buddhist  but  are  now  thought 
to  be  mostly  of  Jain  origin.  Their  period  is  fixed  by  an  inscri[)tion  of 
Kharavela  in  165  r.c.  With  the  exception  of  the  Sonbhandar  cave  at 
Rajgir,  dating  from  the  third  century  a.d.,  these  are  the  only  Jain 
remains  with  any  claim  to  antiquity.  Buddhist  relics,  though 
frequently  reduced  to  mere  heaps  of  bricks,  are  far  more  plentiful, 
especially  in  South  Bihar — the  ancient  Magadha,  the  birthplace  of 
Jainism  as  well  as  of  Buddhism — where  the  latter  religion  continued  to 
flourish  more  or  less  until  finally  swept  away  by  the  Muhammadans. 
At  BuDDH  Gaya  are  still  to  be  seen  portions  of  an  ancient  stone 
railing,  with  interesting  carvings  in  relief,  dating  from  about  the  time  of 
Asoka,  which  originally  surrounded  the  holy  ///«/-tree  there.  The 
present  temple  of  Buddh  Gaya  was  probably  erected  about  a.d.  450, 
but  it  underwent  many  additions  and  repairs  before  it  fell  into  ruins  ; 
its  restoration  was  effected  about  twenty  years  ago  under  the  auspices 
of  Government,  but  the  method  in  which  the  work  was  carried  out  has 
been  much  criticized.  Interesting  remains  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Pataliputra  have  recently  been  discovered  at  Patna  by  Major  Waddell. 
Numerous  mounds  at  Baragaon,  7  miles  south  of  Bihar  town,  bury 
the  remains  of  Nalanda,  a  famous  seat  of  Buddhist  learning  in  the  days 
of  the  Pal  kings.  The  innumerable  Buddhist  images  still  to  be  seen 
in  every  village  in  South  Bihar  date  from  the  same  period. 

The  temple  of  Jagannath  at  Purl  and  the  Saiva  temples  at 
Bhubaneswar  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  latter  have  recently 
been  repaired,  and  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  remedy  the  inroads 
made  by  time  and  mischief  in  the  temple  of  the  Sun  God  at  Konarak, 
which  was  built  by  Nara  Sinha  Deva  about  a.d.  1275.  Among  other 
Hindu  remains,  which  are  far  from  numerous,  may  be  mentioned  the 
temples  on  the  Mundeswari  Hill  in  Shahabad  and  at  Afsar  near 
Gaya,  both  dating  from  the  sixth  or  seventh  century ;  a  number  of  stone 
temples  at  Barakar  and  elsewhere  in  the  old  tract  of  Jharkand,  some 
of  which  are  upwards  of  500  years  old ;  and  some  Bengali  brick 
temples,  from  200  to  400  years  old,  of  which  those  at  Bishnupur  in 
Bankura  and  at  Kantanagar  in  Dinajpur  *  are  typical  examples. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  independent  Muhammadan  kings,  Bengal 
proper   developed  a  peculiar  style  of  Pathan  architecture,  the  most 


222  BENGAL 

striking  feature  of  whit  h  is  the  curved  battlement,  imitating  the  peculiar 
shape  of  a  Uengali  hut.  (Ial  r  and  Pandua,  in  the  District  of  Malda*, 
the  ancient  capitals  of  those  dynasties,  still  contain  the  best  s[)eciniens 
of  this  type,  such  as  the  liaraduari  of  Ranikel,  the  Dakhil  Darwa/.a,  the 
'lantipara,  Sona,  and  Lotan  mosques,  the  Kadam  Rasul,  and  the  Kiroz 
Minar.  ihe  Adina  mosciue,  at  Pandua,  was  built  by  Sultan  Sikandar 
Shah  in  136S.  It  is  constructed  almost  entirely  from  the  spoils  of 
Hindu  temples,  which  must  have  abounded  in  this  neighbourhood  '. 
Many  of  these  are  now  being  repaired.  Among  other  buildings  of  this 
period  may  be  mentioned  the  curious  Shat  Gumbaz,  a  mosque  with 
seventy-seven  domes,  near  Bagherhat  in  the  District  of  Khulna,  built 
by  Khan  Jahan,  whose  tomb  is  close  to  the  mosque.  At  a  second 
Pandua,  in  Hooghly  District,  there  is  a  large  mosque  and  miliar  of 
about  the  year  1300,  and  close  to  it,  at  Tribeni,  is  the  dargah  of  Zafar 
Khan  (IhazT  and  a  mosque  of  the  same  period. 

The  short  reign  of  Sher  Shah  is  still  borne  witness  to  by  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Muhammadan  sepulchral  architecture,  his  own 
tomb  at  Sasaram,  which  place  he  originally  held  as  his  Jdgir.  His 
father's  tomb  in  the  same  town,  and  the  tomb  of  Bakhtyar  Khan,  near 
Chainpur,  in  the  Bhabua  subdivision  of  Shahabad  District,  are  similar 
but  less  imposing.  The  small  hill  fort  of  Shergarh,  26  miles  south- 
west of  Sasaram,  dates  from  Sher  Shah's  time,  but  at  Rohtasgarh 
itself  little  remains  of  his  period  ;  the  palace  at  this  place  is  attributed 
to  Man  Singh,  Akbar's  famous  general.  The  dargah  of  Shah  Daulat  at 
Maner,  near  Dinapore,  completed  in  1616,  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
architecture  of  the  Mughal  period  ;  it  is  covered  with  most  exquisite 
sandstone  carvings.  There  are  numerous  other  tombs  and  mosques  of 
the  same  period  at  Patna,  Bihar,  Rajmahal,  Murshidabad,  Monghyr, 
Dacca*,  &c.;  but  they  are  of  little  interest  compared  with  similar 
buildings  in  other  parts  of  India, 

The  distribution  of  the  population",  as  disclosed  by  the  Census  of 

1901,  is  shown  in  Tables  II  and  IIa  at  the  end  of  this  article  (pp.  343-5). 

The  total  population  of  the  Province,  including  Native 

States,  is  78,493,410,  of  whom  39,278,186  are  males 

and  39,215,224  females.       Of  the   total    number,  74,744,806    are    in 

British  territory  and  3,748,544  in  Native  States. 

In  the  Province-''  as  a  whole  there  are  400  persons  to  the  square 
mile,  but  the  density  varies  remarkably  in  different  parts.     It  is  greatest 

'  It  hns  already  been  mentioned  that  Pandua  is  believed  by  many  to  be  identical 
with  the  ancient  Paundiavardhana. 

^  The  population  of  the  Province  as  now  constituted  is  54,662,529,  of  whom 
27,140,616  are  males  and  27,521,913  females.  Of  the  total  number  50,722,067  are 
in  British  territory  and  3,940,462  in  the  Native  States. 

"  The  i)resent  area  of  Penj/al  coiuains  368  persons  to  tiie  S(iuaie  mile. 


POPULATION  223 

in  North  Bihar,  where  there  are  634  persons  to  the  S([uare  mile. 
Central  Bengal  and  West  Bengal  are  also  thickly  peopled.  Then 
follow  South  Bihar,  Orissa,  East  and  North  Bengal,  and  last  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau,  which,  with  only  152  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the 
area  of  least  dense  population.  The  density  is  far  from  uniform  even 
in  the  same  natural  division.  In  East  Bengal,  for  example,  Dacca 
District*  has  952  persons  to  the  square  mile,  while  the  Chittagong  Hill 
Tracts*  have  only  24,  and  in  North  Bihar  the  number  ranges  from  908 
in  Muzaffarpur  to  375  in  Purnea.  Howrah,  with  1,668  persons  to  the 
square  mile,  is  the  most  thickly-inhabited  District  in  Bengal,  while  the 
most  sparse  population  (21  to  the  square  mile)  is  found  in  Sikkim  and 
in  the  Chang  Bhakar*  and  Korea*  Tributary  States  of  Chota  Nagpur 
(22  to  the  square  mile).  Marked  variations  are  sometimes  found  even 
within  the  borders  of  a  single  District,  e.  g.  in  Dacca*,  where  the 
Srinagar  police  circle  contains  1,787  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile 
compared  with  only  415  in  Kapasia.  As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said 
that  the  tracts  where  cold-season  rice  is  the  chief  staple  of  cultivation 
are  capable  of  supporting  the  largest  number  of  inhabitants.  Some 
parts  of  Bihar,  where  other  crops  are  mainly  grown,  have  a  fairly  dense 
population  ;  but  their  inhabitants  are  not  wholly  dependent  on  local 
sources  of  income,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  adult  males  earn  their 
livelihood  in  other  parts  of  the  Province,  whence  they  make  regulai 
remittances  for  the  support  of  their  families. 

In  the  Province  as  a  whole,  out  of  every  100  persons,  95  live  in 
villages  and  only  5  in  towns\  Bengal  is  a  distinctly  agricultural  country, 
and  many  even  of  the  so-called  towns  are  merely  overgrown  villages. 
The  urban  population  is  considerable  only  in  Central  Bengal,  where  the 
inclusion  of  Calcutta  and  its  environs  brings  the  proportion  up  to  19  per 
cent.  The  second  place  is  shared  by  West  Bengal,  with  its  flourishing 
industrial  centres  at  Howrah,  Bally,  Serampore,  and  Raniganj  : 
and  by  South  Bihar,  with  its  ancient  towns  of  Patna,  Cava,  Monghvr, 
and  Bihar.  In  both  these  tracts  7  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  live  in 
urban  areas.  Orissa  follows  with  an  urban  population  of  4  per  cent., 
then  North  Bihar  and  North  Bengal  with  3  per  cent.,  and,  lastly.  East 
Bengal  and  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  with  only  2  per  cent.  The  order 
in  which  the  different  tracts  stand  is  sufficient  to  show  the  want  of  any 
connexion  between  the  prosperity  of  the  people  and  the  growth  of 
towns.  The  general  standard  of  comfort  is  highest  in  East  Bengal, 
although  it  has  the  smallest  proportion  of  persons  living  in  towns. 
South  Bihar  ranks  comparatively  high  in  respect  of  its  urban  population, 
and  yet  it  includes  the  poorest  part  of  the  Province.  The  older  towns, 
which  usually  owed  their  origin  to  the  presence  of  a  native  court,  have 
few  industries,  and  such  as  they  possess  are  for  the  m(xst  part  decadent ; 

'   r)f  the  present  populalion  94  per  cent,  live  in  villay;es  anrl  6  jier  cent,  in  towns. 


2  34  BENGAL 

whiU'  ill  llu'  newer  towns  the  industries  are  carried  on  by  foreign  capital, 
and  even  the  employes  come  from  other  parts  of  the  country.  The 
mills  of  Howrah  and  the  coal-mines  of  Asansoi.  are  alike  worked,  with 
British  capital,  by  coolies  from  Bihar  and  the  United  Provinces,  and 
the  shopkeepers,  who  are  enriched  by  the  trade  they  bring,  are  also  for 
the  most  part  foreigners. 

The  population  of  Calcutta,  as  limited  by  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
municipal  corporation,  is  848,000;  but  to  this  should  be  added  that  of 
its  suburbs  (101,000),  and  also  of  Howrah  (158,000),  which  lies  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Hooghly  and  is  as  much  a  part  of  Calcutta  as 
Southwark  is  of  London.  With  these  additions,  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants rises  to  1,107,000,  which  is  greater  than  that  of  any  European  city 
except  London,  Constantinople,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  Next  to  Calcutta 
Howrah  is  now  the  largest  town  in  Bengal.  It  is  of  entirely  modern 
growth,  and  owes  its  position  to  its  growing  importance  as  a  manufac- 
turing centre.  The  increase  during  the  last  decade  has  been  35  per 
cent.,  and  it  has  grown  by  no  less  than  80  per  cent,  since  1872.  Patna, 
which  stands  next,  has  a  very  ancient  history,  and  its  population  was 
once  much  greater  than  at  present.  It  was  estimated  by  Buchanan 
Hamilton  at  312,000;  but  his  calculation  referred  to  an  area  of 
20  square  miles,  whereas  the  city  as  now  defined  has  rather  less  than 
half  that  area.  At  the  present  time  its  prosperity  is  declining,  owing  to 
the  gradual  diversion  of  trade  from  the  river  to  the  railway.  At  the  time 
of  the  Census  plague  was  raging  in  the  city,  and  the  recorded  population 
w'as  only  134,785.  Six  months  later,  when  the  epidemic  had  subsided, 
a  fresh  count  showed  it  to  be  153,739,  which  was  still  less  by  nearly 
17,000  than  in  1881.  Dacca*  was  also  a  flourishing  city  long  before 
the  days  of  British  rule.  For  about  a  century  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Nawabs,  and  its  muslins  were  once  famous  throughout  Europe.  When 
the  demand  for  these  muslins  declined,  its  prosperity  was  seriously 
affected,  and  in  1830  its  inhabitants  numbered  only  about  70,000. 
Since  then  the  growth  of  the  jute  trade  has  caused  a  revival,  and  the 
population  has  now  risen  to  90,542. 

The  villages  of  Bengal  vary  greatly  in  different  parts.  In  Bihar, 
especially  south  of  the  Ganges,  the  buildings  are  closely  packed  together, 
and  there  is  no  room  for  trees  or  gardens.  As  one  goes  eastwards,  the 
houses,  though  still  collected  in  a  single  village  site,  are  farther  apart, 
and  each  stands  in  its  own  patch  of  homestead  land,  where  vegetables 
are  grown,  and  fruit  trees  and  bamboos  afford  a  grateful  protection  from 
the  glare  of  the  tropical  sun.  Farther  east,  again,  in  the  swamps  of 
East  Bengal,  there  is  often  no  trace  of  a  central  village  site,  and  the 
houses  are  found  in  straggling  rows  lining  the  high  banks  of  rivers,  or  in 
small  clusters  on  mounds  from  12  to  20  feet  in  height  laboriously  thrown 
up  during  the  dry  months  when  the  water  temporarily  disappears.    The 


POPULATION 


225 


average  population  of  a  village  is  335,  but  the  definition  of  this  unit  for 
census  purposes  was  not  uniform.  In  some  parts  the  survey  area  was 
adopted  ;  elsewhere  the  residential  village  with  its  dependent  hamlets 
was  taken ;  but  in  practice  it  was  often  found  very  difificult  to  decide 
whether  a  particular  group  of  houses  should  be  taken  as  a  separate 
entity  or  treated  as  a  hamlet  belonging  to  some  other  village. 

The  information  regarding  the  early  population  of  Bengal  is  scanty 
and  unreliable.  In  1787  Sir  William  Jones  thought  that  it  amounted  to 
24  millions,  including  part  of  the  United  Provinces  then  attached  to 
Bengal.  Five  years  later  Mr.  Colebrooke  placed  it  at  30  millions.  In 
1835  ^^^-  Adam  assumed  it  to  be  35  millions,  but  this  estimate  was 
thought  too  high  and  was  reduced  to  31  millions  in  1844.  In  1870  the 
population  was  held  to  be  about  42  millions,  or  more  than  a  third  less 
than  the  figures  disclosed  by  the  first  regular  Census  of  the  Province, 
which  was  taken  in  1872.  The  changes  recorded  by  subsequent 
enumerations  are  shown  below  :— 


Locality. 

Percentage 

of  va  nation. 

Net 

187J-81. 

1881-91. 

1S91-1901. 

variation, 
1872-1901. 

Province* 

+  1 1-5 

+    7-3 

+    5-1 

+  259 

West  Beng.il  . 

-    2.7 

+    3-9 

+    7-1 

+    8-3 

Central    ,,       . 

+  II-7 

+    3-1 

+    5-1 

+  21. :^ 

North      „       .          .          . 

<-    5-3 

+    4-4 

+    5-9 

+  16.6 

East         „       .          .         . 

+  109 

+  14.1 

+  IO-4 

+  39-9 

North  Bihar    . 

+  14-0 

+  .s-s 

+     O-l 

+  20-8 

South       ,,       . 

+  10-9 

+    2.6 

-   3-6 

+    9-7 

Orissa     .... 

+ 17-6 

+    6.8 

+    7.1 

+  34-5 

Chota  Nagpur  plateau     . 

+  32-1 

+  13-5 

+    7.8 

+  61.S 

*  The  corresponding  percentages  of  variation  for  Bengal  as  now  constituted  are 
+  3-2,  +  6-5,  +  135,  and  +  247. 

Between  1872  and  1881  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  showed  the  greatest 
apparent  growth  of  population,  but  this  was  due  mainly  to  the  inaccuracy 
of  the  first  Census  in  this  wild,  remote,  and  sparsely-peopled  tract. 
Orissa,  which  came  second,  had  suffered  a  terrible  loss  of  population  in 
the  great  famine  of  1866,  and  its  rapid  growth  was  the  natural  reaction 
from  that  calamity  during  a  period  of  renewed  prosperity.  In  North  and 
South  Bihar,  as  in  Chota  Nagpur,  the  Census  of  1872  was  defective, 
and  the  increment  recorded  in  1881  was  to  a  great  extent  fictitious. 
The  decline  in  AVest  Bengal  was  due  to  a  virulent  outbreak  of  malarial 
fever.  Between  1881  and  1891  the  apparent  rate  of  development  in 
East  Bengal  and  Chota  Nagpur  was  about  the  same,  but  the  latter  tract 
again  owed  part  of  its  increase  to  better  enumeration,  and  the  real 
growth  was  greatest  in  East  Bengal.     Then  followed  Orissa  and  North 

VOL.  VIL  Q 


2  26  BENGAL 

Bihar,  Ukii  North  Bengal,  and  then,  in  order.  West  Bengal,  Central 
Bengal,  and  South  Bihar.  At  the  Census  of  1901  East  Bengal  again 
heads  the  list,  and  is  followed  in  order  by  the  (liota  Nagpur  plateau, 
Orissa,  West  liengal,  North  Bengal,  and  Central  Bengal.  The  population 
of  North  Bihar  is  stationary,  while  that  of  South  Bihar  has  suffered 
a  loss  of  3-6  per  cent. 

So  far  as  the  figures  go,  the  rate  of  growth  in  the  Province  as  a  whole 
shows  a  progressive  decline,  but  this  is  due  to  a  great  extent  to  omissions 
at  the  earlier  enumerations.  The  pioneer  Census  of  1872  was  admit- 
tedly very  incomplete.  That  of  1881  was  much  more  accurate;  and 
although  it  is  impossible  to  estimate,  even  approximately,  the  extent  to 
which  this  affected  the  comparative  results  of  the  two  enumerations,  it 
would  probably  be  quite  safe  to  say  that,  if  the  two  enumerations  had 
been  equally  accurate,  the  excess  of  the  figures  for  1881  over  those  for 
1872  would  have  been  less  than  the  increment  disclosed  by  the  Census 
of  1 90 1  as  compared  with  that  of  1891.  But  although  the  Census  of 
1 88 1  was  very  much  more  complete  than  that  of  1872,  there  were 
still  tracts  where  the  standard  of  accuracy  fell  considerably  below  that 
attained  ten  years  later ;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  of  the  increase 
disclosed  by  the  Census  of  1891,  about  half  a  million  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  greater  accuracy  of  that  enumeration,  but  even  so  the  increment 
then  recorded  exceeds  that  of  the  last  decade  by  about  800,000.  It  is 
calculated  that  the  plague,  which  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  1898, 
accounted  for  150,000  deaths;  while  the  cyclone  of  October  24,  1897, 
which  devastated  large  tracts  in  Chittagong*,  is  believed  to  be  respon- 
sible, directly  and  indirectly,  for  a  mortality  of  about  50,000.  Apart 
from  the  deaths  due  to  plague  and  cyclone,  there  seems  no  reason  to 
believe  that  there  has  been  any  general  increase  in  the  death-rate,  and 
the  slower  rate  of  growth  seems  to  be  due  rather  to  a  falling  off  in  the 
birth-rate.  In  Orissa  and  Central  and  West  Bengal  the  birth-rate  prior 
to  1891  was  abnormally  high,  owing  to  the  recovery,  in  the  one  case, 
from  the  famine  of  1866,  and,  in  the  other,  from  the  ravages  of  malarial 
fever.  In  Bihar  successive  bad  seasons  have  led  to  various  preventive 
checks  on  the  growth  of  the  population ;  but,  as  noticed  elsewhere,  they 
do  not  appear  to  have  affected  the  death-rate,  and  it  is  onl>  among  the 
wild  tribes  of  Chota  Nagpur  that  a  certain  amount  of  mortality  was 
possibly  attributable  to  famine. 

The  number  of  immigrants  to  Bengal  from  other  parts  of  India, 
according  to  the  Census  of  1901,  is  728,715,  and  the  corresponding 
number  of  emigrants  is  879,583.  By  far  the  greatest  influx  is  from  the 
United  Provinces,  which  send  a  continually  growing  supply  of  labourers 
for  the  mills  of  the  metropolitan  Districts  and  the  coal-fields  of  Burdwan 
and  Manbhum,  and  for  earthwork,  /a/>^/-bearing,  &c.,  throughout  the 
Province.     The  total  number  of  persons  born  in  the  United  Provinces 


POPULATION  227 

and  its  States,  but  enumerated  in  Bengal,  was  496,940  in  1901,  com- 
pared with  365,248  in  1891  and  351,933  in  1881.  These  figures  include 
the  ebb  and  flow  between  contiguous  Districts  along  the  boundary  line. 
If  this  be  left  out  of  account,  the  number  of  immigrants  from  the  United 
Provinces  at  the  Census  of  1901  is  about  416,000.  Of  these,  nearly 
three-sevenths  were  residing  in  Calcutta,  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  and 
Howrah  \  The  emigrants  to  the  United  Provinces  number  only 
128,991,  of  whom  all  but  about  32,000  were  found  in  Districts 
contiguous  to  the  District  of  their  birth. 

The  emigrants  from  Bengal  to  Assam  in  1901  numbered  nearly 
504,000,  or  85,000  more  than  at  the  previous  Census.  Of  these, 
300,000  were  from  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  which  is  the  great 
recruiting  ground  for  the  tea  gardens  of  Assam.  About  157,000 
persons  born  in  Bengal  were  enumerated  in  Burma,  compared  with 
112,000  in  1 89 1.  The  majority  were  harvesters  from  the  adjoining 
District  of  Chittagong*;  but  many  also  were  from  Bihar,  and  some  of 
these  have  been  settled  on  waste-land  grants  in  Upper  Burma. 

Of  migration  within  the  Province,  the  mosi  noticeable  feature  is  the 
great  movement  from  Bihar  to  Bengal  proper  in  quest  of  employment 
in  coal-mines  and  factories,  or  on  earthwork,  or  as  field-labourers. 
These  immigrants  are  for  the  most  part  adult  males  who  eventually 
return  to  their  old  homes.  Their  total  number  at  the  time  of  the 
Census  was  very  little  short  of  half  a  million.  Another  internal  move- 
ment of  a  more  permanent  nature  is  that  of  the  tribes  of  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau,  who,  in  addition  to  300,000  persons  enumerated  in 
Assam,  have  given  400,000  to  Bengal  proper.  The  Santals  have  been 
working  their  way  steadily  north  and  east  for  seventy  years  or  more,  and 
are  now  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  elevated  tract  known  as 
the  Barind,  in  the  centre  of  North  Bengal,  which  they  are  rapidly  bring- 
ing under  cultivation.  The  other  tribes  are  following  their  lead  as 
pioneers  of  cultivation  ;  many  also  take  service  in  the  coal-fields  and 
in  the  tea  gardens  of  Jalpaiguri"^  and  the  Darjeeling  tarai,  and  large 
numbers  leave  their  homes  every  cold  season  to  obtain  employment 
on  earthwork  or  as  field-labourers. 

The  age  return  is  so  inaccurate  that  very  little  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  the  absolute  results.  The  degree  of  error  may,  however,  be  assumed 
to  be  fairly  constant,  and,  if  so,  some  interesting  conclusions  may  be 
deduced  by  a  comparison  of  the  figures  for  successive  Censuses.  It 
would  seem  that  the  mean  age  of  the  population,  which  fell  slightly  in 

'  The  Districts  of  the  United  Provinces  from  which  most  of  the  immigrants  come 
are  those  in  the  extreme  east  :  namely,  Ballia,  Azamgarh,  Ghazipur,  Gorakhpur, 
l?enares,  Jaimpur,  Mirzapur,  and  Allahabad.  Then  come  the  Districts  immediately 
to  the  west  of  these :  namely,  Fyzabad,  Sultanpur,  Partabgarh,  Kae  Bareli,  Liicknow, 
Fatehpur,  and  Cawnpore. 

()  2 


2  28  BENGAL 

1891,  has  now  risen  to  a  somewhat  higlier  figure  tlian  in  1881  '.  This 
is  due  mainly  to  the  variations  in  the  birth-rate.  The  population  was 
growing  more  rapidly  than  usual  in  the  decade  ending  1891,  which  was 
a  period  of  recovery  from  famine  and  disease,  and  the  larger  proportion 
of  young  children  reduced  the  average  age  of  the  population  as  a  whole. 
The  higher  castes  appear  to  live  longer  than  the  aboriginal  tribes,  while 
the  latter  have  larger  families  than  any  other  section  of  the  community. 
There  does  not  seem  to  be  much  difference  in  the  relative  longevity  of 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans,  but  the  latter  have  a  larger  proportion  of 
children  than  the  Hindus,  and  the  mean  age  of  the  community  is 
consequently  lower. 

Births  and  deaths  are  recorded  throughout  the  Province,  except  in 
Angul,  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*,  and  the  Feudatory  States.  The 
present  system  of  mortuary  registration  was  introduced  in  1869. 
The  duty  of  reporting  deaths  was  imposed  on  the  chaukiddrs,  or 
village  watchmen,  and  not  on  the  relations  of  the  deceased.  In 
1876  the  system  was  extended  to  births;  but  the  returns  received 
were  so  incomplete  that  they  were  soon  discontinued  and,  except  in 
towns,  for  which  special  legislation  was  undertaken  in  1873,  deaths 
alone  were  registered  until  1892.  In  that  year  the  collection  of 
statistics  of  births  as  well  as  of  deaths  was  ordered,  and  the  system 
now  in  vogue  was  introduced.  In  the  Chaukidari  Amendment  Act 
of  1892,  the  reporting  of  vital  occurrences  was  made  one  of  the  legal 
duties  of  the  chaukiddrs.  The  births  and  deaths  occurring  in  each 
beat  are  entered  on  leaflets  by  the  chaiikiddr,  or,  if  he  be  illiterate, 
by  the  panchdyat,  and  taken  by  the  former  to  the  police  station  when 
he  attends  his  weekly  muster.  A  consolidated  monthly  statement  is 
compiled  at  the  police  station  and  submitted  to  the  Civil  Surgeon, 
who  prepares  a  similar  return  for  the  whole  District.  The  accuracy 
of  the  reporting  is  checked  by  the  police  and  other  local  officers,  but 
the  most  valuable  testing  agency  is  that  of  the  vaccination  establish- 
ments, who  are  required  to  make  inquiries  regarding  vital  occurrences 
when  on  their  rounds  to  test  the  vaccination  operations.  Errors  and 
omissions  thus  brought  to  light,  which  usually  range  from  i  to  i^  per 
cent,  on  the  total  number  of  vital  occurrences,  are  communicated  to 
the  District  Magistrate  and  the  chaukiddrs  at  fault  are  punished. 
Under  the  special  Act  for  towns  the  reporting  of  births  and  deaths  by  the 
nearest  male  relative  was  made  compulsory.  The  information  was  col- 
lected for  some  time  by  the  municipal  authorities,  but  the  results  were 
not  satisfactory,  and  the  duty  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  police. 

'  By  mean  age  is  meant  the  average  age  of  the  living,  which  (except  in  a  stationary 
population^  is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  mean  duration  of  life.  The  mean  age  of 
males  is  calculated  to  have  been  24.2  years  in  1S81,  24-0  in  1S91,  and  24-3  in  1901. 
These  figures,  however,  are  mere  approximations. 


POPULATION  229 

These  measures  have  led  to  a  great  improvement  in  the  accuracy  of 
the  vital  statistics.  The  latest  estimate  of  the  birth  and  death-rates  in 
Bengal  is  that  of  Mr.  Hardy,  F.I.A.,  F.S.S.,  based  on  the  Census 
figures  for  1891  and  1901,  which  places  them  at  43-9  and  38-9  per 
1,000  respectively.  The  rates  according  to  the  returns  are  still  below 
this  estimate,  but  the  figures  reported  from  year  to  year  show  a  gradual 
improvement ;  and  they  are  now  sufficiently  accurate  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  relative  healthiness  or  unhealthiness  of  the  year, 
but  also  for  calculating  the  approximate  growth  of  the  population.  The 
increase  shown  by  the  Census  of  1901,  as  compared  with  that  taken  ten 
years  previously,  in  the  areas  for  which  vital  statistics  are  collected,  was 
3,358,576,  while  that  indicated  by  the  excess  of  reported  births  over 
deaths  was  3,159,200.  In  Noakhali*  in  1900  the  reported  birth-rate 
was  52-3  per  1,000  calculated  on  the  population  disclosed  by  the 
Census  of  1901,  and  in  Patna  in  1901  the  reported  mortality  was  56-8. 

According  to  the  returns,  more  than  70  per  cent,  of  the  total  mortality 
is  ascribed  to  fever.  This  is  due  mainly  to  the  difficulty  of  diagnosing 
all  but  a  few  well-defined  diseases.  Cholera,  dysentery,  and  small-pox 
are  known,  but  most  other  complaints  are  classed  indiscriminately  as 
fever.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  proportion  of  the  total  is  attributable 
to  malarial  affections,  but  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that,  wherever  the 
mortality  entered  under  '  fevers '  is  unusually  high,  the  greater  part  of 
the  excess  over  the  normal  is  due  to  their  prevalence.  On  an  average, 
about  one-twelfth  of  the  total  mortality  is  due  to  cholera,  but  the 
])revalence  of  this  disease  varies  greatly  from  year  to  year  and  from 
District  to  District.  In  1898  it  was  responsible  for  less  than  i  death 
per  1,000  of  the  population  of  the  Province,  but  in  1900  the  mortality 
from  it  rose  to  nearly  5  per  1,000.  In  the  latter  year  it  killed  off  nearly 
24  persons  in  every  1,000  in  Purnea,  while  in  Bankura  only  i  person 
in  4,000  died  from  the  disease.  Dysentery  and  diarrhoea  account  for 
barely  a  quarter  as  many  deaths  as  cholera,  while  small-pox  claims  only 
I  victim  in  every  5,000  persons  yearly. 

Plague  first  appeared  in  Bengal  in  1898,  when  there  were  two  out- 
breaks, one  in  Calcutta  and  the  other  in  Backergunge*.  In  the  early 
part  of  1899  it  again  visited  Calcutta,  and  there  were  also  outbreaks  in 
ten  rural  Districts  ;  and  in  the  cold-season  months  of  1 900-1  the 
disease  spread  over  a  larger  area,  not  less  than  40,000  deaths  being 
caused  by  it  during  that  period.  Plague  has  now  become  an  annual 
visitation  in  many  parts  of  the  Province,  altogether  twenty-seven  Dis- 
tricts being  affected  in  1905.  In  the  eastern  Districts  the  conditions, 
whether  of  soil,  climate,  or  habitations,  seem  to  be  inimical  to  the 
propagation  of  the  microbe ;  but  in  the  north-western  part  of  the 
Province,  and  particularly  in  the  Patna  r)ivision,  the  disease  has 
established   itself  firmly,    coming   and   going   w'ith    the   seasons    with 


BENGAL 


wonderful  regularity,  being  mo.st  i)revalent  in  the  winter,  and  then 
practically  disappearing  or  remaining  dormant  throughout  the  hot  and 
rainy  seasons,  to  recrudesce  in  September  with  the  advent  of  the  cold 
season.  The  mortality  from  plague  in  1905  was  the  highest  on  record 
since  it  first  broke  out  in  1898,  the  total  number  of  deaths  being 
126,000,  as  against  75,000  in  1904  and  58,000  the  average  of  the 
preceding  quinquennium. 

As  in  other  parts  of  India,  so  also  in  Bengal,  the  infant  mortality  is 
very  high,  and  it  was  estimated  in  1891  by  Mr.  Hardy  that  only  71  per 
cent,  of  male  and  75  per  cent,  of  female  children  survive  the  first  year 
of  life.  During  the  second  year  the  mortality  is  believed  to  be  only 
one-third  as  great  as  in  the  first  year,  and  it  then  continues  to  fall 
rapidly. 

Vital  Statistics  as  registered 


Population 
under  re- 
gistration. 

Ratio  of 

registered 

births  per 

1,000. 

Ratio  of 

registered 

deaths  per 

1,000. 

Deaths  per  i,ooo  from 

Cholera. 

Small- 
pox. 

Fever. 

Rowel 
com- 
plaints. 

I88I 
1891 
T896 
1 901 

66,106,026 

70,388,083 

7',o7o>233 
74.428,193 

Not 

available. 

38.0 

38.6 

190 
26.9 

34-2 

31.0 

1-3 

3-3 
3-2 

0.4 

0-2 
0-2 

'.S-7 

18.9 

24.8 

21.7 

0.9 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 

The  actual  population  shows  a  slight  deficiency  of  females,  who 
number  only  998  to  every  1,000  males  ^  ;  but  if  the  effects  of  migration 
be  discounted  by  considering  only  the  natural  population,  i.e.  the 
persons  born  in  the  Province,  it  appears  that  the  females  exceed  the 
males  in  the  ratio  of  1,003  ^o  1,000.  They  are  in  marked  excess  in 
Bihar  and  Orissa  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  West  Bengal  and  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau.  East  of  the  Bhaglrathi,  where  the  Mongoloid  element 
in  the  population  is  largest,  they  are  in  a  considerable  minority.  There 
has  been  a  steady  decline  in  the  proportion  of  females  since  i88r,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  most  progressive  tracts  are,  generally  speaking,  those 
where  males  predominate,  while  many  of  the  Districts  with  the  largest 
proportion  of  the  other  sex  are  stationary  or  decadent.  In  urban  areas 
females  are  generally  in  marked  defect,  and  in  Calcutta  they  are  only 
half  as  numerous  as  the  males. 

The  most  striking  fact  brought  out  by  the  statistics  of  marriage  is  the 
universality  of  this  institution.  The  number  of  persons,  other  than 
those  suffering  from  some  bodily  or  mental  affliction,  who  go  through 
life  unmarried  is  extremely  small.  About  half  the  total  number  of 
males  were  returned  at  the  Census  as  unmarried,  but  of  these  four-fifths 
were  under  fifteen  years  of  age.     Only  one-third  of  the  female  popula- 

'   In  the  present  area  of  l^engal  there  are  1,015  females  to  every  1,000  males. 


POPULATION  231 

tion  was  unmarried,  and  of  these  only  4  per  cent,  were  over  fifteen. 
The  proportion  of  the  widowed  is  about  i  in  25  in  the  case  of  males, 
but  among  females  nearly  i  in  every  5  is  a  widow. 

The  marriage  practices  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  Province, 
especially  in  regard  to  females.  The  girls  of  the  animistic  tribes  marry 
when  they  are  about  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age.  Muhammadan 
girls  marry  earlier,  but  not  so  early  as  those  of  the  Hindus,  with  whom 
marriage  before  puberty  is  the  rule.  In  some  parts  of  Bihar  the  Hindus 
give  their  children  in  wedlock  much  earlier  than  elsewhere,  and  in 
Darbhanga  and  the  neighbourhood  both  boys  and  girls  are  frequently 
married  before  the  age  of  five.  Widows  remarry  most  freely  amongst 
the  animistic  tribes,  and  least  so  amongst  the  Hindus.  Hindu  widows 
of  the  higher  castes  are  everywhere  forbidden  to  take  a  second  husband, 
and  in  Bengal  proper  the  prohibition  extends  to  all  but  the  lowest 
castes.  The  result  is  that  the  proportion  of  Hindu  women  of  child- 
bearing  age  who  are  widowed  is  nearly  twice  as  great  in  this  tract  as 
elsewhere.  In  the  Province  as  a  whole  the  age  at  marriage  is  gradually 
rising,  while  the  proportion  of  the  widowed  is  diminishing.  The  former 
circumstance  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  a  genuine  change  in  the  customs 
of  the  people.  In  Darbhanga  and  the  neighbourhood,  infant-marriage 
is  as  prevalent  as  ever,  but  elsewhere  the  tendency  is  to  postpone  the 
age  at  which  girls  are  given  in  wedlock.  The  decline  in  the  number  of 
widows  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  Muhammadans,  animistic 
tribes,  and  low  Hindu  castes,  who  permit  their  widows  to  marry  again, 
are  increasing  more  rapidly  than  the  section  of  the  community  that 
forbids  them  to  do  so,  and  partly  to  the  effect  of  the  preaching  of  the 
Maulvis  amongst  the  Muhammadans  and  to  the  gradual  disappearance 
of  their  old  Hindu  prejudices  against  widow  marriage. 

Polygamy  is  allowed  among  Hindus,  Musalmans,  and  Animists  alike, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  first-mentioned  it  is  often  accompanied  by  restric- 
tions ;  many  castes  allow  a  man  to  take  a  second  wife  only  when  the 
first  is  barren  or  suffers  from  some  incurable  disease ;  frequently  the 
permission  of  the  caste  panchdyat  has  to  be  obtained,  and  in  some 
cases  that  of  the  elder  wife.  With  the  Muhammadans  there  are  in 
theory  no  restrictions  on  the  practice,  so  long  as  a  man  does  not  exceed 
the  limit  of  four  wives  prescribed  by  the  Prophet,  but  in  practice 
the  poorer  classes  at  least  are  almost  invariably  monogamous.  The 
fraternal  form  of  polyandry,  where  a  man's  younger  brothers  share  his 
wife,  still  survives  amongst  the  Bhotias  ;  but  it  seems  to  be  dying  out. 
The  woman  is  regarded  as  the  wife  of  the  elder  brother,  and  the  children 
that  are  born  of  her  call  him  'father'  and  his  brothers  'uncle.'  The 
woman  moreover  can,  if  she  wishes,  withhold  her  favours  from  the 
younger  brothers.  A  somewhat  similar  system  prevails  amongst  the 
Santals. 


23- 


BENGAL 


Civil  comiition. 

Sex. 

1881. 

i8qi. 

1901. 

Male   . 

15,403,131 

i6,SSi,4oo 

'7,747,071 

Unninrricd 

■  Female 

9,^30,370 

11,096,693 

11,701,711 

Total  . 

25-233,501 

27,978,093 

29,448,782 

(Male   . 

16,381,811 

17,138,038 

18,103,648 

Married     . 

■  Female 
iTotal  . 

16,445,679 

17,257,257 

18,151,092 

32,827,490 

34,395,295 

36,254,740 

.Male  . 

1,333,163 

1^4841295 

1,526,063 

Widowed  . 

J  Female 

7,195,705 

7,382.018 

7,515,281 

1 

(Total  . 

8,528,868 

8,866,313 

9,041,344 

Note.— The  figures  are  for  British  Districts  only,  and  those  for  1881  and  i8gi  ex- 
clude the  Chittagonjj  Hill  Tracts*  as  civil  condition  in  that  District  was  not  recorded 
at  those  enumerations. 

Excluding  immigrants,  the  languages  spoken  in  Bengal  belong  to  one 
or  other  of  four  linguistic  families  :  Aryan,  Dravidian,  Munda  or  Kol- 
arian,  and  Tibeto-Burman.  Of  these,  the  languages  of  the  Aryan  family 
are  by  far  the  most  important,  being  spoken  by  no  less  than  95  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  The  Munda  family  comes  next,  but  its 
speakers  represent  only  3^  per  cent,  of  the  total,  while  the  other  two 
families  each  claim  less  than  i  per  cent.  The  Aryan  languages  are 
spoken  in  the  plains  by  almost  the  whole  population,  while  those  of 
the  other  families  are  current  only  in  the  hills  or  among  recent  settlers 
in  the  plains.  The  home  of  the  Munda  and  Dravidian  dialects  is  in 
the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau.  The  Tibeto-Burman  languages  are  found 
partly  in  Darjeeling  and  Sikkim  and  the  adjoining  District  of  Jalpai- 
guri*,  and  partly  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  Bengal,  in  the  Chittagong 
Hill  Tracts*  and  Hill  Tippera*.  There  are  also  a  few  scattered 
colonies  of  people  speaking  languages  of  this  family  in  Dacca*  and 
Mymensingh*.  All  these  non-Aryan  dialects  are  gradually  dying  out, 
and  are  being  replaced  by  some  Aryan  form  of  speech.  The  main 
Aryan  languages  of  Bengal  are  Bengali,  Bihari,  Eastern  Hindi,  and 
Oriya.  The  Census  does  not  distinguish  Bihari  from  Hindi.  On  the 
average,  of  every  1,000  persons  in  the  Province,  528  speak  Bengali, 
341  Hindi  (including  Bihari),  79  Oriya,  and  i  Khas,  leaving  only  51 
persons  per  1,000  for  all  the  other  languages  put  together. 


Language  spoken. 

1881. 

1891. 

1901. 

Bengali  . 

Hindi    . 

Oriya     . 

Mundarl 

Ho         .         .         . 

Santali  . 

Oraon    . 

35,785,208 

24,-390,566 

4,186,272 

28,183 

1,004,239 
9.229 

37,898,102 

25,985,028 

4,605,626 

493,453 

1,360,220 
362,803 

40,714,099 

26,151,361 

4,561,323 

383,843 

236,011 

1,510,881 

438,226 

Note. — The  figures  are  for  British  territory-  only. 

Bengal  proper,  Bihar,  and  Orissa  each  has  its  own  caste  system,  with 


POPULATION  2XX 


JO 


many  castes  not  found  elsewhere,  and  in  the  north  there  are  numerous 
representatives  of  the  caste  system  of  Nepal.  Chota  Nagpur  is  peopled 
mainly  by  Dravidian  tribes  who  are  still  outside  the  pale  of  Hinduism, 
and  on  the  eastern  border  there  are  many  similar  tribes  of  Mongoloid 
stock.  The  main  characteristics  of  the  Dravidians  are  a  long  head, 
a  very  broad  bridgeless  nose,  a  full  round  eye,  thick  protruding  lips, 
hair  inclined  to  be  woolly,  somewhat  low  stature,  black  colour,  and 
absence  of  muscle  on  the  limbs,  especially  the  legs.  The  Mongoloid 
nt)se  is  also  broad  and  bridgeless,  but  less  so  than  the  Dravidian  ;  the 
head  is  short,  the  eye  oblique  and  narrow,  the  cheek-bones  very  promi- 
nent, the  hair  coarse  and  straight,  the  colour  inclined  to  yellow,  and 
the  figure  short  and  clumsy,  but  very  muscular.  The  Aryan  type,  which 
is  comparatively  rare  in  i3engal,  except  among  some  sections  of  the 
higher  castes,  differs  markedly  from  the  others.  The  head  is  long, 
like  the  Dravidian,  but  the  features  are  finely  cut,  and  the  thin  nose 
in  particular  is  characteristic ;  the  figure  is  tall  and  well  shaped,  and 
the  hair  is  comparatively  fine. 

Owing  to  the  size  of  the  Province  and  tht  inclusion  within  its  limits 
of  the  dissimilar  tracts  described  above,  the  number  of  its  castes  and 
tribes  is  exceptionally  great.  There  are  66  castes  with  100,000  members, 
and  15  with  a  strength  of  more  than  a  million:  namely  (in  order  of 
numbers),  the  Ahir  (or  Goala),  Brahman,  Kaibartta,  Rajbansi  (including 
Koch),  Namasudra  (Chandal),  Santal,  Chamar  (including  Muchi), 
Rajput,  KurmI,  Teli,  Kayasth,  Koiri,  Dosadh,  Babhan,  and  Bagdi. 
The  Ahirs,  who  number  nearly  four  millions,  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous ;  next  follow  the  Brahmans  with  nearly  three  millions,  the 
Kaibarttas  with  two  and  a  half  millions,  and  the  Rajbansis  with  over 
two  millions.  The  Brahmans  and  Kayasths  are  found  everywhere,  and 
so  also  are  the  Chamars,  Telis,  and  AhIrs,  though  to  a  less  extent ;  the 
Rajputs,  Kurmis,  Koiris,  Dosadhs,  and  Babhans  are,  in  the  main,  Bihar 
castes.  The  home  of  the  Kaibarttas  and  Bagdis  is  in  West,  of  the  Raj- 
bansis in  North,  and  of  the  Namasudras  in  East  Bengal ;  the  Santals 
are  one  of  the  great  non-Hindu  tribes  who  inhabit  the  Chota  Nagpur 
plateau. 

The  persons  who  described  themselves  at  the  Census  as  Hindus  con- 
stitute 63  per  cent,  of  the  total  population '  of  the  Province,  and  the 
Muhammadans  t^-^  per  cent.  ;  all  other  religions  taken  together  make 
up  only  4  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Hindus  are  most  numerous 
in  Bihar  (excluding  Malda*  and  East  Purnea),  Orissa,  and  West 
Bengal,  and  Muhammadans  in  the  Districts  lying  east  of  the  BhagT- 
rathi  and  the  Mahananda.  The  Musalmans  of  Bengal  form  more  than 
two-fifths  of  the  total  number  in  India. 

'  In  the  present  area  of  Benj^al,  Hindus  constitute  78  per  cent.,  Muhammadans 
17  per  cent.,  and  other  religions  5  per  cent,  of  the  population. 


234  BENGAL 

The  actual  numerical  increase  since  1891  is  about  llic  same  An^  botli 
tlu'  main  religions  ;  but  compared  with  their  previous  strength,  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  have  increased  by  nearly  8  per  cent.,  while 
the  Hindus  have  gained  only  4  per  cent.  The  most  progressive  part 
of  the  Province  is  that  inhabited  by  Muhammadans,  while  Bihar,  the 
stronghold  of  Hinduism,  has  returned  a  smaller  population  than  in 
1891  ;  but  this  affords  only  a  partial  explanation  of  the  figures,  and  the 
Muhammadans  have  gained  ground  in  every  Division  as  compared  with 
their  Hindu  neighbours.  The  subject  has  been  discussed  at  length  in 
the  Census  Report  for  1901,  where  it  is  shown  that  Islam  gains  to  some 
extent  through  conversions  from  Hinduism,  but  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  greater  prolificness  of  its  adherents.  They  have  a  more  nourishing 
dietary,  their  girls  marry  later,  and  they  permit  widow  marriage.  They 
are  also,  in  Eastern  Bengal,  more  prosperous  than  the  Hindus,  as  they 
have  fewer  prejudices  about  changing  their  residence  and  move  freely 
to  new  alluvial  formations,  where  the  soil  is  exceptionally  fertile.  The 
advance  made  by  Islam  is  to  some  extent  obscured  by  the  fact  that 
Hinduism  has  itself  been  gaining  new  recruits  from  the  ranks  of  the 
animistic  tribes — the  .Santals,  Mundas,  Oraons,  and  other  so-called 
aborigines.  These  tribes  are  very  prolific,  and  yet  the  strength  of  the 
animistic  religions  has  increased  by  only  i  per  cent.  The  natural 
growth  was  probably  at  least  1 1  per  cent.,  but  this  has  been  counter- 
balanced by  conversions  to  Christianity  and  Hinduism.  Christianity 
has  taken  some  60,000  during  the  decade.  The  rest  (about  200,000) 
have  entered  the  fold  of  Hinduism. 

The  conventional  divisions  of  Hinduism  are  better  known  to  the 
readers  of  textbooks  than  to  the  people  themselves.  In  Bengal  proper 
and  Orissa,  where  the  Vaishnava  reformer,  Chaitanya,  gained  a  great 
following,  the  people  may  often  give  a  definite  reply  to  the  question, 
whether  they  are  followers  of  Vishnu  or  of  Siva  and  his  wife ;  but  in 
Bihar  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  collect  accurate  information 
on  the  subject.  Moreover,  it  is  only  the  members  of  the  highest  castes 
who  concentrate  their  worship  on  the  deities  of  the  orthodox  Hindu 
pantheon.  The  everyday  religion  of  the  lower  orders  consists  largely 
of  the  propitiation  of  a  host  of  minor  deities  and  spirits.  The  personi- 
fied powers  of  nature — the  Earth,  Sun,  planets,  and  certain  mountains 
and  rivers — are  worshipped  everywhere  ;  deified  heroes  are  the  main 
objects  of  veneration  in  many  parts  of  Bihar,  while  in  West  and  part  of 
North  Bengal  snake-worship  is  widely  prevalent.  Farther  east  various 
aboriginal  deities  are  adored  as  forms  of  the  goddess  Kali.  In  addition, 
almost  every  village  has  its  special  tutelary  spirits,  who  preside  over  the 
welfare  of  the  community  and  have  their  home  in  a  tree  or  sacred  grove 
somewhere  within  its  precincts.  There  are  again  numerous  disembodied 
spirits  of  persons  who  have  met  with  a  painful  or  violent  death,  e.g.  of 


POPULATION  235 

women  who  died  in  childbirth  or  of  persons  killed  by  wild  animals. 
These  hover  round  the  scene  of  their  former  existence  and  cause 
various  kinds  of  illness  and  misfortune,  and  they  thus  require  to  be 
propitiated.  In  the  (juaint  and  childish  ceremonial  observed  at  the 
worship  and  propitiation  of  these  demons  and  spirits,  the  Brahman 
has,  as  a  rule,  no  place. 

A  third  aspect  of  the  amorphous  collection  of  religious  ideas  known 
as  Hinduism  is  furnished  by  the  followers  of  the  different  persons  who 
have  from  time  to  time  set  themselves  up,  sometimes  as  inspired 
teachers,  but  more  often  as  incarnations  of  the  supreme  deity.  The 
Kartabhajas,  for  example,  regard  their  founder,  a  man  of  the  Sadgop 
caste,  as  an  incarnation  of  the  Divinity,  and  his  descendants  are  held 
in  equal  veneration.  The  exhibition  of  fervid  love  is  the  only  form  of 
religious  exercise  practised  by  them,  and  indescribable  excesses  are  said 
to  take  place  at  their  secret  nocturnal  meetings. 

The  religion  of  the  uneducated  majority  of  the  people  is  a  mixture  of 
Hinduism  and  Animism,  in  which  the  belief  in  evil  spirits  is  the  main 
ingredient.  There  must  be  something  tangible  to  represent  a  beneficent 
or  even  a  malignant  spirit,  on  which  vermilion  can  be  rubbed,  over 
which  a  libation  can  be  poured,  and  before  which  a  fowl,  goat,  or  pig  can 
be  sacrificed.  Accordingly,  the  simple  villagers  set  up  a  shapeless  stone 
or  block,  or  even  a  mound  of  mud,  to  represent  the  spirit  whom  they 
worship,  while  side  by  side  with  it  is  a  temple  dedicated  to  one  of  the 
regular  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon.  The  architecture  of  these  temples 
varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  Province.  In  Bihar  their  dis- 
tinguishing feature  is  a  tall  pyramidal  spire,  the  outline  of  which  appears 
originally  to  have  been  determined  by  the  natural  bend  of  two  bamboos, 
planted  apart  in  the  ground,  and  drawn  together  at  the  top.  In  Lower 
Bengal  the  temples  are  dome-shaped  structures,  with  a  peculiar  hog- 
backed  roof,  which  has  obviously  been  modelled  on  the  form  of  the 
ordinary  Bengali  huts  surrounding  them. 

The  Muhammadans  of  Bengal  are  mostly,  in  name  at  least,  Sunnis. 
But  the  great  majority  are  of  Hindu  origin,  and  their  knowledge  of  the 
faith  they  now  profess  seldom  extends  beyond  the  three  cardinal  doc- 
trines of  the  Unity  of  God,  the  Mission  of  Muhammad,  and  the  Truth 
of  the  Koran.  It  was,  until  recently,  the  regular  practice  of  low-class 
Muhammadans  to  join  in  the  Durga  Puja  and  other  Hindu  festivals, 
and,  although  they  have  been  purged  of  many  superstitions,  many  still 
remain.  In  particular,  they  are  very  careful  about  omens  and  auspicious 
days.  Dates  for  weddings  are  often  fixed  after  consulting  a  Hindu 
astrologer  ;  bamboos  are  not  cut,  and  the  building  of  new  houses  not 
commenced,  on  certain  days  of  the  week,  and  journeys  are  often  under- 
taken only  after  referring  to  the  Hindu  almanac  to  see  if  the  proposed 
day  is  auspicious.     When  disease  is  prevalent,  Sltala  and  Rakshya  Kali 


236  BENGAL 

arc  worshipped.  Dharmaraj  and  Manasa  or  IJishahari  are  also  venerated 
by  many  ignorant  Muhammadans.  Sashthl  is  worshipped  when  a  cliild 
is  born.  Even  now  in  some  parts  of  Bengal  they  observe  the  Durga 
Puja  and  buy  new  clothes  for  the  festival  like  the  Hindus.  In  Bihar 
they  join  in  the  worship  of  the  Sun,  and  when  a  child  is  born  they  light 
a  fire  and  place  cactus  and  a  sword  at  the  door  to  prevent  the  demon 
Jawan  from  entering  and  killing  the  infant.  At  marriages  the  bride- 
groom frequently  follows  the  Hindu  practice  of  smearing  the  bride's 
forehead  with  vermilion.  Offerings  are  made  to  the  grainya  devatd 
('  village  god  ')  before  sowing  or  transplanting  rice  seedlings,  and  exor- 
cism is  resorted  to  in  case  of  sickness.  These  practices  are  gradually 
disappearing,  but  they  die  hard,  and  amulets  containing  a  text  from 
the  Koran  are  commonly  worn,  even  by  the  Mullas  who  inveigh  against 
these  survivals  of  Hindu  beliefs. 

Apart  from  Hindu  superstitions,  there  are  certain  forms  of  worship 
common  among  Muhammadans  which  are  not  based  on  the  Koran. 
The  most  common  of  these  is  the  adoration  of  departed  Firs.  When 
a  holy  man  departs  from  this  life,  he  is  popularly  believed  to  be  still 
present  in  spirit,  and  his  tomb  becomes  a  place  of  pilgrimage  to  which 
persons  resort  for  the  cure  of  disease  or  the  exorcism  of  evil  spirits,  or 
to  obtain  the  fulfilment  of  some  cherished  wish.  The  educated  stoutly 
deny  that  Pirs  are  worshipped,  and  say  that  they  are  merely  asked  to 
intercede  with  God,  but  among  the  lower  classes  it  is  very  doubtful  if 
this  distinction  is  recognized.  Closely  allied  to  the  adoration  of  Pirs  is 
the  homage  paid  to  certain  mythical  persons,  among  whom  Khwaja 
Khizr  stands  pre-eminent.  This  personage  appears  to  have  been  a 
preTslamic  hero  of  the  Arabs,  and  he  is  believed  at  the  present  day  to 
reside  in  the  seas  and  rivers  of  India  and  to  protect  mariners  from 
shipwreck. 

These  unorthodox  beliefs  are  violently  inveighed  against  by  numerous 
reformers,  most  of  whom  owe  their  inspiration  to  Ibn  Abdul  Wahhab 
of  Nejd  in  Arabia,  who,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  founded  the 
sect  called  Wahhabi.  He  rejected  the  glosses  of  the  Imams,  denied 
the  superiority  of  the  Ottoman  Sultan,  made  comparatively  light  of  the 
authority  of  Muhammad,  and  insisted  on  the  necessity  for  waging  war 
against  all  infidels.  His  followers  in  India  at  the  present  day  do  not 
accept  all  his  views,  and  many  now  hold  that  India  is  not  a  country 
in  which  war  against  the  infidels  is  lawful.  But  they  are  all  united  in 
their  opposition  to  non-Islamic  superstitions,  and  in  many  places  they 
seem  to  have  succeeded  to  a  great  extent  in  eradicating  them. 

In  Eastern  Bengal  the  Wahhabi  movement  met  with  considerable 
success  during  the  nineteenth  century.  The  principal  local  reformers 
were  Dudhu  Mian  and  Karamat  All.  The  adherents  of  both  are  known 
as  Farazis,  or  followers  of  the  law  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  difference 


POPULA  TION 


237 


between  them,  the  latter  being  pure  revivaHsts,  while  the  former  sub- 
scribe to  the  extreme  views  of  the  original  VVahhabis  regarding  infidels. 
The  aggregate  Christian  population  in  1901  was  278,366,  compared 
with  192,484  in  189 1.  Of  the  total  number,  27,489,  or  9-9  per  cent., 
belong  to  European  and  allied  races;  23,114,  or  8-3  per  cent.,  are 
Eurasians;  and  227,763,  or  8i-S  per  cent.,  are  native  converts  or  their 
descendants.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  Europeans  are  of  British  nation- 
ality. The  great  increase  of  the  Christian  population  during  the  decade 
is  due  to  new  conversions,  especially  in  Chota  Nagpur,  and  more  par- 
ticularly in  Ranch!,  where  the  German  Lutheran  missionaries  have  met 
with  great  success.  This  District  now  contains  124,958  Christians, 
against  75,693  only  ten  years  ago.  Some  other  Districts  in  the  Province 
which  show  a  noteworthy  increase  in  the  number  of  Christians  are 
noted  below  : — - 


Number  of 
Christians  in 

C^'-'^-     P^s. 

Dar- 

jeeling. 

Jalpai- 
guri\ 

Burdwan. 

Manbhuin. 

Mymen- 

singh*. 

211 
1,291 

189I  . 
1901  .         . 

28,997 
37.925 

5,943 

9,875 

1,502 
4,467 

357 
2,486 

1,408 
2,960 

1,532 
2,910 

The  return  of  sects  shows  that  165,528  are  Protestants  and  108,194 
Roman  Catholics ;  the  balance  consists  of  persons  who  failed  to  specify 
their  sect,  and  Armenians,  &c.  Of  the  Protestants,  61,024  belong  to 
the  Anglican  communion,  69,580  are  Lutherans,  21,621  Baptists,  and 
6,691  Presbyterians.  The  remainder  belong  to  various  miscellaneous 
sects. 

The  great  centre  of  Roman  Catholic  missionary  enterprise  in  this 
Province  is  Ranch!,  where  three-fifths  of  the  total  number  of  converts 
are  found.  The  next  largest  community  of  Roman  Catholic  native 
Christians  is  in  Dacca*,  where  they  exceed  10,000  (partly  descended 
from  Portuguese  settlers  in  the  seventeenth  century) ;  the  number  is 
also  considerable  in  Calcutta,  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Nadia,  and 
Champaran.  The  mission  in  the  last-mentioned  District  is  the  oldest 
of  all,  dating  from  1740. 

Of  the  Protestant  missions  the  best  known  and  most  successful  is 
that  in  Ranch!,  which  was  started  in  1845  ^Y  six  German  missionaries, 
under  the  name  of  Gossner's  Mission.  An  unfortunate  disagreement 
took  place  twenty-three  years  later,  and  the  mission  was  split  up  into 
two  sections,  the  one  enrolling  itself  under  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel,  and  the  other  retaining  the  original  designation. 
The  first  mission  of  the  Church  of  England  was  started  in  Burdwan  in 
1816  ;  but  the  success  here  has  not  been  so  great  as  that  of  the  offshoot 
of  Gossner's  Mission  in  Ranch!,  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  nor 
as  that  in  the  adjoining  District  of  Nadia,  which  was  founded  by  the 


238 


BENGAL 


Church  Missionary  Society  in  1831,  and  now  claims  nearly  6,000  native 
Christians.  Anions  other  missions  of  the  Church  of  England,  those  in 
the  Twenty-tour  I'arganas,  Calcutta,  and  the  Santal  Parganas  are  the 
most  successful.  The  liaptists  have  their  liead-cjuarters  in  the  swamps 
of  Backergunge*  and  Faridpur*,  where  they  have  been  working  among 
the  Chandals  since  1824.  The  number  of  their  converts  now  exceeds 
7,000.  The  Cuttack  mission,  founded  in  1822,  claims  2,000  con- 
verts. The  missionaries  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  have  been  at  work 
since  1870  in  Darjeeling  and  Jalpaigurl*  Districts  with  a  fair  measure 
of  success. 

So  far  as  the  Anglican  Church  is  concerned,  the  whole  of  Bengal, 
with  the  exception  of  Chota  Nagpur,  which  is  under  an  Assistant 
Bishop,  lies  in  the  diocese  directly  administered  by  the  Bishop  of 
Calcutta,  the  Metropolitan  of  India.  The  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  vests  in  an  Archbisliop  resident  in 
Calcutta,  who  has  suffragan  sees  at  Krishnagar  and  Dacca* ;  but  cer- 
tain small  communities  of  Portuguese  origin  are  under  the  Portuguese 
Vicar-General  of  Bengal. 

Of  the  other  religions  returned  at  the  Census  it  will  suffice  to  mention 
the  Buddhists,  numbering  about  a  quarter  of  a  million,  found  mainly  on 
the  confines  of  Burma  and  Nepal;  the  Jains  (7,831),  who  are  chiefly 
immigrant  traders;  and  the  Brahmos  or  Hindu  Theists  (3,171). 


Religion. 

1881. 

1891. 

1901. 

Hiudu 

Animist 

Musalman    . 

Christian 

Buddhist 

Others 

43.267,460 

1,668,266 

21,492,766 

127,412 

155,269 

59.321 

45,217.831 
2,294,506 

23.4.^7,352 
190,829 
189,122 

17,321 

46,737.543 

2,242,770 
25.265,342 

275,125 
210,628 

13,458 

Note. — The  figures  are  for  British  Districts  only,  and  the  details  for  i88i    and 
1891   are  the  adjusted  figures  on  the  area  of  1901. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  return  of  occupation  is  the  very 
large  proportion  of  persons  who  are  dependent  on  agriculture.  Nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  population  are  either  landlords  or  tenants  ;  6  per  cent, 
have  been  returned  as  agricultural  labourers ;  and  of  the  7  per  cent, 
shown  as  general  labourers  the  great  majority  must  also  be  mainly 
dependent  on  agriculture.  About  1 2  per  cent,  of  the  total  population 
(including  dependents)  are  engaged  in  the  preparation  and  supply  of 
material  substances  ;  and  of  these  half  find  a  livelihood  by  the  provision 
of  food  and  drink,  and  a  fifth  by  making  and  dealing  in  textile  fabrics 
and  dress.  Domestic  and  sanitary  services  provide  employment  for 
very  few,  the  number  of  persons  who  support  themselves  in  this  way 
being  barely  2  per  cent,  of  the  population,  or  less  than  a  third  of  the 
proportion  so  employed  in  England  and  Wales.     Commerce,  transport. 


POPULATION  239 

and  storage  provide  employment  for  2  persons  in  every  100,  of  whom 
rather  more  than  half  are  engaged  on  transport  and  storage,  and  slightly 
less  than  half  on  commerce.  Professions,  including  the  priesthood, 
are  the  means  of  subsistence  of  less  than  2  persons  per  100. 

In  East  Bengal  the  cultivator  takes  as  a  rule  three  meals  a  day.  He 
begins  in  the  early  morning  with  rice  left  over  from  the  previous  night's 
supper,  parched  or  popped  rice,  and  jack-fruit  or  mango  when  in  season. 
The  midday  and  evening  meals  have  boiled  rice  as  their  foundation, 
and  with  it  are  mixed  pulses  of  different  kinds,  fish,  or  vegetables. 
Muhammadans  eat  meat  when  they  can  afford  it.  Among  the  poorer 
classes  in  Bihar  conditions  are  very  different.  The  principal  meal  is 
taken  at  nightfall  and  consists  of  some  coarse  grain,  such  as  maize  or 
a  millet,  boiled  into  a  porridge.  A  lighter  meal  of  the  same  diet  is 
taken  at  midday,  but  only  the  well-to-do  enjoy  two  full  meals  a  day. 
In  Orissa  rice  again  forms  the  staple  diet,  but  the  cultivator  is  content 
with  a  full  meal  in  the  evening  of  rice  boiled  with  a  little  salt, 
some  pulse  or  vegetables,  and  perhaps  fish  ;  in  the  morning  he  eats 
cold  the  remains  of  the  evening  meal.  In  Chota  Nagpur  a  cold  meal 
is  taken  at  noon,  and  a  hot  supper  in  the  evening ;  the  food  consists 
sometimes  of  rice  or  maize,  but  more  commonly  of  a  millet  such 
as  niarud  i^Ekusine  coraca/ia)  or  gondii  {Panicuin  miUare\  pulses,  oil, 
vegetables,  &:c.  These  are  eked  out  with  jungle  fruits  and  roots,  and 
especially  with  the  blossoms  of  the  fnahita  tree  {Bassia  latifolia)  when 
in  season. 

The  garments  commonly  worn  by  men  are  the  dhoti  or  waist  cloth 
and  the  chddar  or  loose  cloth  worn  over  the  shoulders  ;  those  who  can 
afford  it  wear  Sipinln  or  coat.  Among  the  strict  Farazi  Muhammadans 
of  Eastern  Bengal,  the  dhofi  is  worn  as  a  lungi  or  kilt,  and  is  frequently 
of  coloured  cloth.  Muhammadans  wear  a  skull-cap,  and  Hindus 
a  pagri.  In  Bihar  the  poorer  classes  wear  only  the  dhoti,  and  the  pagr'i 
is  reserved  for  special  occasions.  For  women  the  sdri  is  almost  uni- 
versal, one  end  being  worn  over  the  head  and  shoulders  and  fastened 
to  the  waist-piece  ;  a  bodice  is  added  by  those  who  can  afford  it,  and  is 
commonly  worn  even  by  women  of  the  poorest  class  in  North  Bihar. 
In  the  towns  the  men  wear  an  English  shirt  over  the  dhoti,  the  tails 
hanging  loose,  and  a  chddar  over  the  shoulders ;  English  socks,  loose 
slippers  or  shoes,  and  an  umbrella  complete  the  costume.  In  the  fields 
the  agriculturist  is  content  with  an  exiguous  rag  round  his  loins,  and  in 
Eastern  Bengal  a  large  wicker  shield,  and  in  Orissa  a  wicker  hat, 
protects  him  from  the  weather.  Girls  up  to  the  age  of  three  and  boys 
up  to  five  years  generally  go  naked.  All  but  the  very  poorest  women 
wear  ornaments  on  wrist,  neck,  and  ankle  ;  these  are  generally  of  silver, 
brass,  or  lac. 

The  houses  in  Lower  Bengal  are  not  congregated  into  villages,  but 


2  40  BENGAL 

each  homestead  stands  in  its  own  orchard  of  fruit  and  pahii  trees.  Tlie 
sites  have  been  laboriously  raised  by  excavation,  which  has  left  tanks  in 
every  compound  ;  and  the  houses  arc  erected  on  mud  i)linths  and  built 
round  a  courtyard  with  wooden  or  bamboo  posts  and  interlaced  walls 
of  split  bamboo,  with  thatched  roofs  resting  on  a  bamboo  framework. 
The  whole  is  encircled  with  a  bamboo  fence,  and  sometimes  by  a  moat 
and  a  thorny  cane  or  cactus  hedge.  In  Bihar  the  comi)ounds  are 
smaller,  and  where  the  fields  are  low  the  houses  cluster  thickly  on  the 
raised  village  sites  ;  the  walls  are  of  mud  and  the  roof  tiled  or  thatched. 
In  the  uplands  of  Bihar,  and  in  Chota  Nagpur  and  Orissa,  the  home- 
steads are  separate,  though  they  generally  adjoin  one  another ;  each 
house  is  surrounded  by  a  well-manured  patch  of  castor,  tobacco,  or 
some  other  valuable  crop. 

The  Hindus  bury  small  children  who  die  during  the  first  year  after 
birth  ;  all  others  are  nominally  burnt,  but  where  fuel  is  scarce  the 
cremation  is  often  far  from  complete,  and  sometimes  consists  only 
of  putting  a  few  lighted  sticks  in  the  mouth  and  on  the  face,  after 
which  the  corpse  is  thrown  into  the  nearest  river.  In  tracts  near  the 
Ganges  it  is  the  practice  to  carry  dead  bodies  to  burning  ghats  on 
its  banks,  and  in  all  parts  it  is  considered  right  that  the  ashes  and  main 
bones  should  be  thrown  into  the  sacred  stream.  The  Muhammadans 
bury  their  dead,  and  so  do  the  Jugis  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  various 
sects  of  ascetics,  and  also  the  low  castes  and  most  aboriginal  tribes. 
The  Jugis  place  the  corpse  in  a  sitting  position,  with  the  legs  crossed  in 
the  conventional  attitude  of  Buddha,  and  the  face  turned  towards  the 
north-east. 

The  chief  amusement  of  the  people  lies  in  attending  the  fairs  which 
are  held  all  over  the  Province.  These  gatherings  are  at  stated  seasons, 
generally  in  connexion  with  some  bathing  festival  or  other  religious 
ceremony,  and  are  attended  by  numerous  hawkers,  who  set  up  booths 
for  the  sale  of  miscellaneous  articles,  by  religious  mendicants,  jugglers, 
conjurers,  actors,  and  musicians,  all  of  whom  contribute  their  quota 
to  the  entertainment  of  the  crowd.  Every  market  is  thronged  by  gaily 
dressed  crowds,  who  exchange  the  gossip  of  the  day  and  discuss  the 
latest  cause  cefebre  while  making  their  weekly  purchases.  The  great 
annual  religious  festivals  afford  an  excuse  for  merry  gatherings,  espe- 
cially at  the  New  Year  in  April,  when  numbers  congregate  in  the  fields 
and  amuse  themselves  with  wrestling,  hook-swinging,  which  now  takes 
the  form  of  a  merry-go-round,  and  gossip.  Every  one  goes  mad  with 
merriment  at  the  Holi  festival,  and  many  Musalmans  enjoy  the  fun  as 
much  as  the  Hindus.  Their  own  religious  festivals  are  attended  by 
devout  worshippers  ;  they  are  very  fond  of  religious  discussions,  and 
immense  crowds  gather  when  famous  Maulvis  are  pitted  against  each 
other  to  argue  some  knotty  point  of  law  or  practice.     Football  is  by  far 


AGRICULTURE  241 

the  most  popular  outdoor  game,  and  huge  crowds  assemble  on  the 
Calcutta  maiddn  to  watch  games  under  Association  rules,  at  which 
Bengali  boys  are  remarkably  proficient.  Among  the  aboriginal  tribes 
hunting,  cock-fighting,  bull-baiting,  drinking  bouts,  and  saturnalian 
dancing  are  the  chief  amusements. 

Hindu  names  are  threefold.  The  third  name  is  a  family  or  caste 
title,  such  as,  among  others,  Mukhopadhyaya  (contracted  to  Mukharji) 
or  Acharjya  in  the  case  of  a  Brahman,  Das  for  a  Kayasth,  Singh  for  a 
Rajput.  The  first  two  names  are  appellative,  and  the  middle  name  is 
often  dropped  in  actual  intercourse.  In  Bihar  there  is  generally  no 
middle  name.  Common  affixes  denoting  a  town  are  -dbad,  -pur,  and 
-nagar ;  -garh  means  a  fort,  -gauj  a  market,  -gaon  or  -grdm  a  village, 
and  -bdgh  a  garden  :  e.g.  Murshidabad,  Chandpur,  Krishnagar,  Rohtas- 
garh,  Sirajganj,  Bangaon,  Kurigram,  Hazaribagh. 

The  general  characteristics  which  distinguish  agricultural  conditions 
in  Bengal  are  a  regular  and  copious  rainfall,  a  fertile  soil,  and  a  dense 
population   subsisting  on  the  produce  of  the  land ;  . 

but  within  the  Province  conditions  are  by  no  means 
uniform,   and  the  important  factors  of  soil,  surface,  and  rainfoll  vary 
widely    in    different    localities.     The    soils    may    be    classed   as  either 
gneissic,  old  alluvium,  or  recent  alluvium,  the  first  two  classes  being 
found  for  the  most  part  to  the  west,  and  the  last  to  the  east,  of  the  88th 
degree  of  longitude,   which  passes  a  few  miles  west  of  Calcutta  and 
Darjeeling.     The  gneissic  tract  comprises  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau 
and  portions  of  the  neighbouring  Districts.     Laterite  soils  are  to  be 
found   sloping   upwards    towards   the    interior   from    beneath    the  old 
alluvium  of  Orissa  and  of  West  Bengal,  and  overlying  part  of  the  Chota 
Nagpur  plateau.    For  agricultural  purposes  the  whole  of  this  western 
tract,  comprising  the  sub-province  of  Bihar  with  the  exception  of  Malda 
District*,  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division,  and  the  Burdwan  Division  with 
the  exception  of  Hooghly  and  Howrah  Districts,  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  eastern  tract  of  recent  alluvium  which  includes  the  excepted 
Districts,  the  Rajshahi*,  Presidency,  and  Dacca*  Divisions,  the  greater 
part  of  the  Chittagong  Division*,  and  the  coast-line  of  Orissa.     The 
gneissic,  laterite,  and  old  alluvial  soils  are  alike  mainly  dependent  upon 
artificial  manures  to  maintain  their  fertility,  whereas  the  recent  alluvium 
is  periodically  fertilized  by  fresh  deposits  of  silt  from  the  overflowing 
rivers.     The  latter  process  is  most  active  in  Eastern  Bengal,  in  the 
deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra,  whose  waters  possess  the 
fertilizing  properties  of  the  Nile. 

The  conformation  of  the  surface  in  the  old  and  the  new  alluvium  is 
widely  different,  the  former  being  in  process  of  denudation  and  the 
latter  of  formation.  In  the  tract  covered  by  new  alluvium  the  periodical 
deposits  of  river  3ilt  maintain  a  perfectly  level  surface,  which  is  eminently 

VOL.   VII.  R 


24^  nEXCAL 

adapted  for  rice  cukivalion.  The  surface  of  the  old  alluvium,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  broken  by  the  scouring  action  of  the  rivers  and  of  surface 
drainage,  and  the  level  of  the  country  rises  and  falls  in  parallel  waves  at 
right  angles  to  the  watershed,  the  crest  of  each  wave  lying  midway  be- 
tween two  rivers.  In  order  to  make  this  undulating  surface  fit  for  rice 
cultivation,  an  elaborate  system  of  small  terraces  and  low  embankments 
has  to  be  constructed  to  hold  up  the  rain-water.  \\'here  the  gradient  is 
steep,  the  expense  of  this  terracing  is  prohibitive,  and  on  such  slopes 
rice  is  generally  replaced  by  some  less  thirsty  crop. 

There  are  of  course  local  exceptions  to  this  broad  classification  of 
soils  and  surface  conditions.  In  North  Bihar,  for  instance,  there  are 
numerous  saucer-shaped  depressions,  sometimes  of  considerable  extent, 
in  which  rice  thrives.  The  soil  in  these  depressions  is  generally  a  strong 
clay,  with  a  much  smaller  admixture  of  sand  than  is  found  in  the 
higher  uplands  which  mark  the  deposits  of  some  ancient  river.  Again, 
in  the  broad  belt  of  hilly  country  which  surrounds  the  Chota  Nagpur 
plateau,  rice  can  be  grown  only  in  the  valleys.  The  hill  slopes  are 
steep,  and  are  covered  with  forest  and  dense  undergrowth,  except  where 
they  have  been  artificially  cleared.  Scanty  crops  of  millets  and  pulses 
are  raised  in  patches  on  the  hill-sides ;  and  where  the  forest  has  been 
recently  cleared,  the  primitive  form  of  nomadic  culture  known  asy'////;// 
is  practised,  as  it  is  also  in  the  Chittagong  HillTracts*. 

The  distinction  between  the  east  and  west  of  the  Province,  due  to  the 
difference  in  soils  and  surface,  is  accentuated  by  the  unequal  distribution 
of  rainfall,  which  is  generally  far  less  regular  and  copious  in  the  west 
than  in  the  east.  The  annual  fall  in  the  western  tract  averages  only 
52  inches,  as  compared  with  73  inches  in  the  east.  Rain  commences 
much  earlier  in  North  and  East  Bengal  than  it  does  farther  west,  and 
heavy  showers  in  April  and  May  facilitate  the  cultivation  of  jute  and 
early  rice.  Moreover,  the  average  yearly  humidity  in  the  east,  including 
Orissa,  is  86  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  only  74  per  cent,  in  the  west 
of  the  Province. 

Not  only  do  the  eastern  Districts  receive  a  great  deal  more  rain,  but, 
owing  to  the  annual  overflow  of  the  great  rivers  that  traverse  them,  they 
remain  practically  under  water  for  six  months  in  the  year,  and  the 
people  live  on  little  island  mounds  and  can  move  about  only  by  boat. 
The  surface  of  this  tract  is  low  and  flat,  and  much  of  it  is  covered  with 
huge  marshes  where  rice  and  jute  luxuriate.  In  fact,  in  the  east  of  the 
Province  rice  and  jute  are  grown  almost  exclusively,  the  former  occupy- 
ing two-thirds,  and  both  together  no  less  than  three-fourths,  of  the  gross 
cropped  area. 

In  the  west  all  this  is  changed.  Rice  is  still  the  principal  crop,  but 
the  rainfall  is  often  insufficient  to  bring  it  to  maturity,  and  has  to  be 
supplemented  by  artificial  irrigation  ;    fortunately  the  broken  surface 


AGRICULTURE  243 

admits  of  water  storage,  and  there  are  numerous  small  streams  which 
can  be  dammed.  The  products  are  far  more  varied  ;  there  is  very  little 
jute,  and  rice  accounts  for  only  half  the  cultivated  area,  the  other  crops 
most  extensively  grown  being  maize,  barley,  wheat,  oilseeds,  marud 
[^Ekusine  coracand),  and  gram.  The  most  striking  contrast  to  the 
monotony  of  cropping  in  East  Bengal  is  furnished  by  West  Bihar,  where 
an  astonishing  variety  of  staples  is  raised,  and  where  it  is  by  no  means 
unusual  to  find  four  crops,  such  as  gram,  wheat,  sesamum,  and  linseed, 
grown  together  in  the  same  field. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  nomadic  form  of  cultiva- 
tion locally  known  as  jhum.  A  piece  of  forest  land,  generally  on  a  hill- 
side, is  selected  in  April ;  the  luxuriant  undergrowth  of  shrubs  and 
creepers  is  cleared  away,  and  the  felled  jungle  is  left  to  dry  till  May  and 
is  then  burnt.  At  the  approach  of  the  rains,  small  holes  are  made,  and 
into  each  is  put  a  handful  of  mixed  seeds,  usually  cotton,  rice,  melons, 
pumpkins,  maize,  and  yams.  The  crops  ripen  in  succession,  the 
harvest  ending  with  the  cotton  in  October.  After  a  year  or  two  the 
ground  becomes  choked  with  weeds  and  is  abandoned  for  a  new 
clearance,  where  the  same  process  is  repeated. 

In  the  Darjeeling  Himalayas  steep  mountain  slopes  are  terraced 
and  revetted  with  stone  for  rice  cultivation,  wherever  water  is  available 
for  irrigation  ;  elsewhere  the  mountain-sides  are  sown  with  maize  or 
millets.  In  the  Rajmahal  hills  the  level  crests  are  cultivated  with  the 
ordinary  plains  crops,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  in  these  parts  to  find 
rice  flourishing  on  a  hill-top. 

More  than  56  millions,  or  71  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  of 
Bengal,  are  supported  by  agriculture;  and  of  every  100  agriculturists 
89  are  rent-paying  tenants,  9  are  agricultural  labourers,  and  2  live  on 
their  rents.  The  proportion  of  field-labourers  varies  widely  in  different 
parts,  being  as  high  as  16  per  cent,  of  the  agricultural  population  in  the 
Patna  Division,  and  as  low  as  2  per  cent,  in  the  Dacca  Division*.  The 
agriculturists  are  far  better  off  in  the  east  of  the  Province  than  in  the  west. 
Not  only  are  their  profits  much  higher,  especially  from  the  very  lucrative 
jute  crop,  but  they  enjoy  a  far  larger  measure  of  rights  in  the  soil. 

No  record  is  maintained  in  Bengal  of  the  cropping  of  each  field  from 
year  to  year,  and  accurate  statistics  of  agriculture  are  not  available. 
The  District  officers  furnish  periodical  estimates  to  the  Agricultural 
department  of  the  areas  in  each  District  under  each  of  the  more 
important  crops,  and  it  is  upon  these  estimates  that  the  agricultural 
statistics  of  the  Province  are  based.  These  are  not  sufficiently  accurate 
to  form  the  basis  of  a  reliable  comparison  between  the  results  of 
successive  years,  except  in  the  case  of  such  crops  as  jute  and  indigo,  to 
which  special  attention  is  devoted.  Such  as  they  are,  they  apply  to 
the  whole  of  British  territory,  excluding  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts* 

R  2 


244  BENGAL 

and  the  Sundarlxms.  They  show  that  of  the  total  area'  of  146,132 
square  miles,  76,454  square  miles,  or  52-5  per  cent.,  were  cropped  in 
1903-4.  Of  the  remainder,  4,372  square  miles,  or  3  per  cent,  of  the 
whole,  were  covered  with  forests,  35,263  scjuare  miles  (24-1  per  cent.) 
were  not  available  for  cultivation,  19,470  square  miles,  or  13-3  per  cent., 
were  cultivable  waste  other  than  fallow,  and  10,573  square  miles 
(7-2  per  cent.)  were  fallow.  An  area  of  16,925  square  miles,  or  22  per 
cent,  of  the  cultivated  area,  was  returned  as  cropped  more  than  once 
in  the  year. 

Food-crops  occupy  82  per  cent,  of  the  gross  cropped  area  ;  6  per 
cent,  is  under  oilseeds,  \\  per  cent,  under  fibres,  and  sugar-cane  and 
tobacco  each  occupy  about  i  per  cent.  Of  the  food-crops,  rice  is  by 
far  the  most  important,  as  it  occupies  54,690  square  miles,  or  71  per 
cent,  of  the  net  cropped  area.  Next  come  various  cereals  and  pulses 
with  11^  per  cent.,  and  these  are  followed  by  maize  (4  per  cent.), 
wheat  and  barley  (3  per  cent,  each),  and  gram  and  mariid  (2  per  cent, 
each).  Among  the  non-food-crops,  jute  (5  per  cent.)  occupies  an  area 
second  only  to  that  of  rice.  Of  the  oilseeds,  rape  and  mustard,  together 
covering  3,125  square  miles,  are  grown  most  extensively. 

There  are  innumerable  varieties  of  rice,  each  possessing  special 
characteristics  which  adapt  its  cultivation  to  particular  localities.  They 
may  all,  however,  be  classified,  according  to  the  harvesting  season, 
under  three  main  heads  :  the  winter  rice,  occupying  42,970  square 
miles;  the  early  rice,  10,940  square  miles;  and  the  spring  crop,  780 
square  miles. 

The  winter  rice  is  grown  on  low  land.  A  piece  of  high  ground  is 
usually  selected  for  a  seed  nursery,  ploughed  in  May  or  June  after  the 
first  rain,  and  sown  broadcast.  In  July  or  August  the  seedlings  are 
transplanted  to  flooded  fields,  which  have  been  ploughed  and  re- 
ploughed  till  the  whole  surface  is  reduced  to  mud,  and  the  crop  is 
harvested  between  November  and  January.  In  the  swamps  of  Eastern 
Bengal,  however,  a  variety  of  long-stemmed  rice  is  sown  broadcast  after 
one  or  two  ploughings  ;  by  harvest-time  the  fields  are  several  feet  under 
water,  and  the  rice,  which  rises  with  the  flood-level,  is  reaped  from 
boats,  the  ears  only  being  cut.  In  West  Bihar  the  fields  are  drained 
in  September  when  the  rice  is  flowering,  and  flooded  when  the  grain  is 
forming  in  October.     It  is  this  practice,  known  as  nigar/i,  which  makes 

*  In  Bengal  as  now  constituted,  the  net  cropped  area  was  54,138  square  miles,  or 
49.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  110,217  square  miles.  Of  the  remainder,  4,419 
square  miles,  or  4  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  were  covered  with  forests,  26,161  square  miles 
(23.7  percent.)  were  not  available  for  cultivation,  16,421  square  miles  (14-9  per  cent.) 
were  cultivable  waste  other  than  fallow,  and  9,078  square  miles  (8.3  per  cent.)  were 
fallow.  Altogether  10,369  square  miles,  or  9.4  per  cent,  of  the  net  cropped  area, 
were  returned  as  cropped  moie  than  once  in  the  year. 


AGRICULTURE  245 

rainfall  or  artificial  irrigation  in  the  beginning  of  October  essential  to 
a  .successful  harvest. 

The  early  rice  is  generally  sown  broadcast  in  April  or  May,  though 
it  is  occasionally  transplanted  ;  the  crop  is  harvested  in  August  or 
September.  Spring  rice  is  grown  on  the  low  banks  of  rivers  or  on  the 
edges  of  swamps.  The  seed  is  sown  in  a  nursery  in  October  and  trans- 
planted a  month  later  ;  the  crop  is  harvested  in  March  and  April.  The 
yield  per  acre  of  cleaned  rice  is  estimated  at  11-02  cwt.  for  winter  rice 
and  7-34  cwt.  for  the  early  and  spring  crops.  This  is  the  average  yield 
for  the  Province  ;  in  the  rich  rice  swamps  of  Eastern  Bengal  the  return 
is  at  least  half  as  much  again,  while  on  the  sterile  uplands  of  Chota 
Nagpur  not  half  this  estimate  is  realized.  Unhusked  rice  or  paddy  yields 
about  three-fifths  of  its  weight  as  cleaned  rice. 

Maize  occupies  3,125  square  miles,  mainly  in  Bihar  and  Chotil 
Nagpur,  and  in  Darjeeling  District.  It  is  a  valuable  food-crop,  yield- 
ing 7-34  cwt.  per  acre;  it  is  sown  in  June  and  harvested  in  September 
or  October.  Wheat  and  barley  each  cover  about  2,344  square  miles, 
and  both  are  grown  principally  in  Bihar,  barley  thriving  best  north  of 
the  Ganges,  and  wheat  south  of  that  river  ;  both  are  sown  in  November 
and  reaped  in  March.  The  out-turn  of  wheat  is  estimated  at  8-8 1  cwt. 
to  the  acre  for  Bihar,  7-71  cwt.  for  Bengal,  and  4-04  cwt.  for  Chota 
Nagpur,  the  average  for  the  Province  being  5-87  cwt.  The  normal 
yield  of  barley  is  7-88  cwt.  per  acre.  Gram  {Cicer  arietiiiion)  is  a  pulse 
which  thrives  on  clay  soils,  and  is  grown  on  over  1,560  square  miles, 
principally  in  Bihar  and  Central  Bengal.  It  is  in  the  ground  from 
November  to  March,  and  yields  about  7-88  cwt.  to  the  acre.  Mariui  is 
a  valuable  millet  which  occupies  nearly  1,560  square  miles  in  Bihar  and 
Chota  Nagpur.  It  is  sown  in  July  and  reaped  in  November,  and  the 
average  yield  is  7-34  cwt.  per  acre.  Jowar  {Sorghum  vii/gare)  and  Inyra 
or  spiked  millet  {Pennisetum  typhoideum)  are  grown  in  Bihar  and  Chota 
Nagpur ;  they  are  sown  in  July  and  reaped  in  November-December, 
and  yield  about  7-34  cwt.  per  acre.  Jowdr  is  grown  as  a  fodder-crop 
in  Central  Bengal. 

More  than  1,562  square  miles,  principally  in  Bihar,  are  under  various 
cereals  and  pulses,  which  are  sown  in  November  and  reaped  in  March 
or  April.  Among  these  are  the  china  millet  {Fatu'ciun  miliaceum),  peas, 
lentils,  kalai  {Phaseolus  radiaius),  kurthl  {Do/ichos  InJIorus),  and  khesdri 
{Lathyriis  saiivi/s).  Some  other  cereals  and  pulses  are  sown  in  July  and 
reaped  in  December.  These  occupy  1,953  square  miles,  and  include 
rahar  {Cajafius  indicus),  gondii  {Fanicuni  mi/iare),  kodon  {Paspalum 
scrobiciilatum),  a  species  of  kalai,  and  urd  {Phaseo/us  Ro.xdiirghii). 

Jute  is  commercially  the  most  important  crop  in  the  Province,  and  its 
cultivation  is  developing  rapidly.  In  1872  it  occupied  less  than  1,560 
square  miles,  while  at   the   present  time  the   normal  area  is  probably 


246  BENGAL 

not  far  short  of  3,900  scjuare  miles,  and  the  exports  in  1900-1,  a  bumper 
year,  were  valued  at  14  millions  sterling.  The  tract  in  North  and  East 
Bengal  which  lies  between  23°  and  26°  30'  N.  and  88°  and  91°  E.  is 
by  far  the  largest  jute-growing  area  in  the  world.  'I'he  crop  is  sown  in 
April  and  reaped  in  August,  and,  after  retting,  the  fibre  is  baled  to  save 
freight.  The  chief  centres  of  the  jute  trade  and  baling  are  Narayan- 
GANj*,  SiRAjGANj*,  and  Chandpuk*.  The  average  yield  per  acre  is 
estimated  at  10-71  cwt. 

The  various  oilseeds  are  commercially  important,  and  collectively 
occupy  nearly  6,250  square  miles.  Rape  and  mustard  account  for  more 
tlian  half  this  area,  and  are  grown  extensively  in  North  Bengal  and 
Mymensingh*.  Linseed  is  commonly  grown  as  a  catch-crop  after  the 
winter  rice  has  been  reaped.  Other  oilseeds  are  ///  or  gingelly  [Sesamnm 
i/idiai/fi),  castor,  and  sargi/Ja  or  niger-seed  {Guizotia  a/^rssi/n'ca),  the 
latter  grown  largely  in  Chota  Nagpur.  These  are  mostly  spring  crops, 
sown  in  October  and  harvested  in  March.  Rape,  mustard,  and  linseed 
yield  about  4-41  cwt.  per  acre,  and  the  other  crops  about  3-12  cwt. 

Sugar-cane,  with  1,020  square  miles,  is  usually  planted  in  February  or 
March  and  occupies  the  ground  for  ten  or  eleven  months  ;  the  normal 
out-turn  is  22  cwt.  per  acre.  The  juice  is  boiled  and  sold  as  gur  or 
jaggery,  and  is  also  refined  into  sugar  ;  large  refineries  have  recently 
been  started  at  Ottur  in  Muzaffarpur,  and  elsewhere  in  North-West  Bihar, 
where  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  is  to  some  extent  replacing  indigo. 
Tobacco  is  grown  everywhere  in  small  quantities  and  occupies  780 
square  miles ;  it  is  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  in  Rangpur*  and  the 
neighbouring  Districts  of  North  Bengal,  whence  the  leaf  is  exported  to 
Burma  and  made  into  cigars.  The  produce  varies  from  4-41  to 
8-82  cwt.  per  acre  in  Bengal,  and  from  ii'75  to  14-69  cwt.  in  Bihar; 
it  is  sown  in  November  and  reaped  in  March. 

Indigo  occupies  390  square  miles,  chiefly  in  North  Bihar,  though  it  is 
still  cultivated  in  Central  Bengal ;  the  area  is  shrinking,  as  the  natural 
dye  suffers  from  competition  with  the  artificial  substitute.  Indigo  is 
sown  in  March,  and  the  leaf  is  cut  in  July  and  again  in  September ;  the 
yield  of  dye  varies  from  12  lb.  per  acre  in  Bengal  to  20  lb.  in  Bihar. 
The  general  practice  is  for  the  planter  to  take  a  lease  of  a  village,  and 
then  arrange  with  the  cultivators  to  grow  indigo,  assisting  them  with 
seed  and  cash  advances,  though  in  some  places  the  villagers  grow  it 
independently  and  sell  it  to  the  factory  by  weight. 

The  poppy  is  grown  in  West  Bihar,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  Chota 
Nagpur,  and  occupies  390  square  miles.  It  is  cultivated  with  the  help 
of  Government  advances,  and  the  opium  is  sold  at  a  fixed  rate  to 
Government,  as  will  be  described  in  the  section  on  Miscellaneous 
Revenue.  The  seed  is  sown  in  November,  and  the  crop  is  collected  in 
March  and  April ;  the  yield  varies  from  10  lb.  to  1 8  lb.  per  acre.    Cotton 


A  GRIC  UL  TURE  2  4  7 

is  little  grown  ;  there  is  none  in  the  plains  of  Bengal  proper,  and  else- 
where it  occupies  only  about  125  square  miles.  One  crop  is  sown  in 
July  and  harvested  in  November,  and  another  is  sown  in  October  and 
harvested  in  April.  Tea  is  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  only  in  Jalpai- 
GURi*,  Darjeeling,  and  Chittagong*  ;  in  1903  there  were  422 
gardens,  with  a  total  area  of  210  square  miles  and  an  out-turn  of 
51,000,000  lb.  The  average  yield  from  mature  plants  is  367  lb.  per 
acre ;  but  the  out-turn  varies  in  different  parts,  averaging  453  lb.  an  acre 
in  Jalpaigurl*,  313  lb.  in  Chittagong*,  and  2S8  lb.  or  less  elsewhere. 
The  value  of  the  crop  in  1901  was  i-|  crores,  and  the  average  price  per 
pound  in  the  same  year  was  5^  annas,  compared  with  7f  annas  twelve 
years  previously.  This  disastrous  fall  in  prices  is  due  mainly  to  over- 
production ;  but  during  the  last  two  or  three  years  there  have  been  very 
few  fresh  extensions  of  tea  cultivation,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  better 
times  are  in  store  for  this  important  industry.  Gaiija  {Cannabis  sativa) 
is  a  Government  monopoly  and  is  grown  on  1,100  acres  in  Rajshahi 
District*;  the  yield  varies  from  10  to  21  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is  sown  in 
August  and  harvested  in  February. 

Among  non-food-crops  grown  in  the  rains  are  hemp  and  mulberry, 
the  latter  chiefly  in  Malda*,  Murshidabad,  Rajshahi*,  and  Bogra*. 
In  the  winter  are  grown  condiments,  such  as  chillies  {Capsicum  fnitescens) 
and  onions,  the  safflower  dye,  and  oats,  which  are  generally  used  for 
fodder.  Turmeric  is  sown  in  June  and  harvested  in  March,  and  ginger 
is  sown  in  June  and  harvested  from  December  to  February,  The  piin 
creeper  {Piper  Betle)  is  planted  in  May  or  June  in  a  thatched  enclosure, 
and  the  leaves  are  ready  for  picking  in  twelve  months.  Among  other 
condiments  are  garlic,  coriander,  cumin,  and  aniseed.  Large  areas  are 
given  up  to  thatching  grasses,  such  as  ulu  grass  {Iviperata  arundinacea) 
and  kiis  {Saccharum  spontaneum).  In  the  Santal  Parganas  and  parts 
of  Chota  Nagpur  sabai  grass  {Ischaenuun  angus/ifo/ium)  grows  on  the 
hilly  slopes  and  is  carefully  preserved  ;  it  is  used  locally  for  twine  and 
rope,  and  it  is  also  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 
Reeds,  such  as  the  hogla  {Typha  e/ep/iantina),  nal  {Aniphidonax  Koika), 
and  siialpdti  {Phryniutn  dichotomutn),  are  extensively  grown  and  woven 
into  mats. 

A  strong  prejudice  exists  against  night-soil  or  bonemeal  as  manure, 
and  chemical  manures  are  practically  unknown.  Cattle-dung  is  used 
wherever  it  can  be  spared,  but  it  is  largely  burned  as  fuel,  and  little 
or  no  use  is  made  of  the  urine.  The  feeding  of  the  cattle  is  also  so 
poor  that  their  dung  is  not  rich  in  manurial  constituents.  House- 
sweepings  are  freely  utilized,  generally  in  the  form  of  ashes.  What 
little  manure  is  available  is  mostly  applied  close  to  the  homesteads  for 
garden  crops,  and  for  maize,  tobacco,  castor,  and  poppy.  Castor  and 
mustard-cake  are  occasionally  used  as  a  top-dressing  for  sugar-cane  and 


248  BENGAL 

potatoes.  In  East  Bengal  rice  straw  is  sometimes  burnt  as  a  manure, 
and  sugar-cane,  garden  crops,  potatoes,  and  tol^acco  are  generally 
manured,  though  the  (juantity  applied  is  very  small.  In  Bihar  refuse 
indigo  is  used  with  avidity  where  it  is  available  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  factories,  and  pond  mud  is  very  highly  valued. 

Clay  soils  grow  winter  rice  year  after  year ;  occasionally  a  catch-crop 
of  khesari  is  taken  as  a  fodder,  or,  if  the  land  continues  moist  until 
harvest  tinie,  it  may  be  ploughed  and  sown  in  East  Bengal  with  kalai, 
and  in  Bihar  with  gram  and  peas  or  barley.  Lighter  soils  generally  bear 
two  crops  in^  the  year — in  the  rainy  season,  early  rice  or  jute  in  North 
and  Lower  Bengal,  and  maize  or  some  of  the  inferior  millets  in  Bihar  or 
Chota  Nagpur  ;  in  the  winter  a  pulse  or  an  oilseed  in  Bengal,  and  a 
mixture  of  various  pulses  and  oilseeds  with  wheat  or  barley  in  Bihar. 
Potatoes  often  follow  maize  in  Bihar,  and  jute  or  early  rice  in  North 
and  Lower  Bengal,  and  jute  itself  is  sometimes  rotated  with  early  rice. 
Sugar-cane  is  an  exhausting  crop  and  is  generally  rotated  with  rice. 
The  mixture  of  pulses  and  cereals  serves  the  purpose  of  rotation,  as 
the  pulses  belong  to  the  leguminous  family  and  enrich  the  soil  with 
nitrogen. 

Among  the  cultivated  fruits  are  the  mango  {Mangifera  i/idica),  plantain 
{Musa  sapientiini),  pineapple  {Ananassa  sativa),  jack-fruit  {Artocarpus 
integrifolid),  guava  {Fsydiia/i  pomiferu/n),  custard-apple  (Anona  squa- 
mosa),  lichl  {Nephelium  Litchi),  and  several  varieties  of  fig  and  melon. 
Many  parts  of  East  Bengal  are  studded  with  coco-nut  plantations.  The 
mangoes  of  Darbhanga  and  Malda*  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  \^egetables 
are  everywhere  cultivated  in  garden  plots  for  household  use,  and  also  on 
a  larger  scale  in  the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns.  The  favourite  are 
the  egg-plant  or  baigun  {Solani/m  Afelongena),  ground-nut  {Trichosanthes 
dioica\  pumpkin  {Lagenaria  vulgaris),  gourd  {Benincasa  cerifera),  and 
aru?n  {Colocasia  Antiquorum)  grown  in  the  rains,  while  in  the  winter 
potatoes,  yams,  melons,  and  radishes  are  largely  cultivated.  Cauliflowers 
and  cabbages  are  also  common,  and  spinach  and  onions  are  universal. 
Potatoes  are  extensively  grown  on  the  rich  soils  bordering  the  Ganges 
in  West  Bihar,  and  in  the  Hooghl)-  and  Burdwan  Districts  of  West 
Bengal;  they  yield  about  2  tons  to  tho  acre. 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  of  cultivation  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  but  the  earlier  statistics  were  so  defective  that  they  do  not  afford 
evidence  of  this  increase.  Tillage  is  extended  by  felling  the  forests  on 
upland  tracts  and  in  the  submontane  tarai,  by  reclaiming  the  sandy 
islands  which  are  constantly  forming  in  the  big  rivers,  by  embanking 
lands  in  the  littoral  tracts,  and  by  cultivating  the  swamps  of  Eastern 
Bengal,  the  level  of  which  is  being  gradually  raised  by  silt  deposits. 

An  Agricultural  Institute  under  the  Government  of  India  has  been 
opened  at  Pusa  in  Darbhanga  District.    Experimental  farms  under  the 


A  GRIC  UL  TURK  249 

-superintendence  of  the  Agricultural  department  are  established  at 
SiBPUR,  BuRDWAN,  and  Dumraon,  and  demonstration  farms  have 
recently  been  started  at  Chittagong*  and  Angul.  Experiments 
have  been  made  with  improved  varieties  of  rice,  wheat,  sugar-cane,  and 
potatoes,  and  with  manures  for  these  crops ;  the  cultivation  of  potatoes 
has  been  extended,  and  Burdwan  sugar-canes  have  been  introduced  into 
Bihar.  Useful  work  has  been  done  in  the  direction  of  stimulating  the 
out-turn  of  raw  silk,  by  training  the  rearers  to  eradicate  pebrine  and 
other  diseases  of  the  silkworm.  An  agricultural  class  is  attached  to  the 
Sibpur  Engineering  College,  but  it  has  not  been  successful  ;  it  is  to  be 
moved  to  Pusa.  The  department  has  recently  extended  its  sphere  of 
activity  in  many  directions.  Special  investigations  have  been  made  into 
the  alleged  deterioration  of  jute,  efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the 
cultivation  of  cotton,  aid  has  been  given  to  indigo  research  operations, 
and  an  experimental  farm  has  been  started  at  Cuttack  to  show  cultivators 
what  can  be  done  with  water  always  at  command.  Besides  this,  agri- 
cultural associations,  working  in  co-operation  with  the  department,  have 
been  established  in  order  to  help  it  with  advice,  to  disseminate  agricul- 
tural knowledge  by  communicating  the  results  of  its  operations  to  the 
people,  and  to  awaken  further  interest  in  the  development  of  the 
agriculture  of  the  Province.  A  Central  Association  has  been  formed 
at  Calcutta,  and  Divisional  and  District  Associations  are  being  formed 
in  the  interior,  which  will  work  in  concert  witli  this  central  body. 

Loans  are  rarely  taken  from  Government,  and  in  1903-4  the  total 
sum  amounted  to  onl}'  3-6  lakhs,  of  which  nearly  half  was  advanced 
in  Palamau  District.  It  is  too  early  to  pronounce  an  opinion  on  the 
prospects  of  the  Agricultural  banks  which  have  recently  been  started  ; 
but  58  banks  are  now  in  existence,  and  some  of  them  seem  to  be 
working  successfully. 

Little  attention  has  been  directed  in  Bengal  to  the  subject  of  the 
indebtedness  of  the  cultivators,  and  in  the  Province  generally  the 
question  has  never  reached  an  acute  stage.  In  a  great  part  of  Bengal 
proper  a  system  akin  to  peasant  proprietorship  prevails,  and  the  rich 
profits  of  jute  cultivation  are  shared  by  all  the  cultivating  classes.  In 
Bihar  and  Chota  Nagpur  the  peasantry  are  as  a  class  impoverished,  but 
there  is  little  evidence  to  show  the  extent  of  their  indebtedness.  In 
Chota  Nagpur  and  the  Santal  Parganas,  the  Bengali  money-lender  at 
one  time  threatened  to  oust  the  improvident  aborigines  from  their 
lands  ;  but  land  transfer  to  Bengalis  has  now  been  prohibited,  and  the 
prohibition  is  strictly  enforced  at  the  time  of  rent  settlement.  In 
various  parts  of  the  Province  a  survey  and  record -of-rights  are  in 
progress,  which  aim  at  securing  to  the  ryots  the  fixity  of  status  and 
the  immunity  from  arbitrary  enhancement  which  the  Tenancy  Act 
prescribes,  and  the  Settlement  officers   have  made  careful  inquiries  as 


250  BENGAL 

to  the  extent  of  indebtedness  in  Gaya,  Champaran,  and  Muzaffarpur 
Districts,  where,  if  anywliere  in  the  Province,  it  niiglit  be  expected  to  be 
serious.  The  inquiries  in  Muzaffarpur  and  Gaya  show  that  cultivators 
owe  on  the  average  Rs.  2-6  a  head  and  cultivating  labourers  Rs.  1-5, 
and  that  indebtedness  is  decreasing.  In  (Champaran  the  tenantry  are 
badly  off,  and,  during  the  decade  preceding  the  settlement,  1-4  per 
cent,  of  the  cultivators'  holdings  had  been  sold  or  mortgaged  to 
money-lenders.  The  people  are  thriftless,  and  the  majority  are  in 
debt  to  the  mahajan.  In  Saran  only  one-fifth  of  the  cultivators  are  in 
debt,  and  their  total  indebtedness  is  estimated  at  less  than  a  crore, 
whereas  the  net  profits  of  cultivation  amount  to  over  2>\  crores.  In  the 
whole  Province  only  7,000  holdings  were  purchased  by  money-lenders 
in  1902,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  the  peasantry  as  a  body  are  in 
danger  of  losing  their  lands  to  money-lenders.  A  common  rate  of 
interest  is  36  per  cent,  per  annum. 

The  implements  in  universal  use  are  the  plough,  harrow,  sickle,  and 
hoe,  and  they  vary  in  size  and  shape  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
draught  cattle  in  use,  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  the  description  of 
cultivation  practised.  The  ploughs  in  Bihar  are  generally  heavier  and 
more  effective  than  in  Bengal,  and  work  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  5  inches, 
whereas  those  in  use  in  North  Bengal  scratch  the  surface  to  a  depth  of 
only  2  inches.  The  Cuttack  and  Noakhali*  ploughs  are  very  heavy, 
and  the  two  sides  are  shaped  like  mould-boards,  giving  them  the 
appearance  of  ridging  ploughs.  The  Bihiya  sugar-cane  mill,  made  in 
Shahabad,  and  a  similar  type  of  mill  made  at  Kushtia  in  Nadia  are  the 
only  improved  implements  which  are  really  popular  ;  they  have  largely 
superseded  the  native  wooden  mills. 

The  cattle  are  generally  poor,  especially  in  the  east  of  the  Province, 
where  pasture  is  deficient;  in  the  north-west  some  improvement  has 
been  effected  by  crossing  with  bulls  imported  from  the  United 
Provinces.  The  chief  breeds  of  cattle  are  the  Patna,  Sltamarhi, 
Bachaur,  and  Bhagalpuri  in  Bihar,  and  the  Siri  and  Nepali  in 
Darjeeling.  These  are  worth  from  Rs.  30  to  Rs.  40  a  head,  though  the 
Patna  milch-cattle,  which  were  crossed  half  a  century  ago  with  an 
imported  short-horn  strain,  sell  for  Rs.  80.  Good  buffaloes  are  to 
be  found  in  the  forests  and  swampy  island  flats,  and  are  much  prized 
for  their  milk.  The  only  horses  bred  in  Bengal  are  the  weedy 
indigenous  ponies  or  tats^  which  are  found  everywhere  and  are  worth 
from  Rs.  50  to  Rs.  60  each.  Goats  abound,  but  are  very  small. 
Sheep  are  bred  in  Bihar  and  Chota  Nagpur ;  the  Patna  breed  is 
the  best. 

Pasture  is  plentiful  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  few  forests  and  on 
the  river  islands  ;  but  it  is  very  scanty  elsewhere,  especially  in  Bengal 
proper,  where  every  inch  of  land  grows  rice  and  the  cattle  have  to  be 


A  GRIC  UL  TURE  2  5  r 

content  with  such  scanty  herbage  as  the  roadsides,  tank  hanks,  and 
field  boundary  ridges  afford.  Cart  bullocks  and  plough  bullocks  are 
partly  stall-fed  on  chopped  rice  straw  when  at  work,  and  milch-buffaloes 
are  carefully  tended  ;  but  the  cattle  generally  are  under-fed  and 
miserably  housed,  and  no  attempts  are  made  to  improve  the  breed.  In 
Bihar  and  elsewhere  dedicated  bulls  roam  the  countryside  and  feed  on 
the  fat  of  the  land,  but  they  are  not  selected  for  breeding.  The  cattle 
suffer  fnjm  rinderpest,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  haemorrhagic  septi- 
caemia, and  malaria,  and  occasionally  from  anthrax.  The  Civil 
Veterinary  department  trains  young  men  at  the  Bengal  Veterinary 
College  at  Belgachia,  and  distributes  them  to  the  District  boards  and 
other  bodies  requiring  their  services  ;  the  total  number  of  passed 
students  from  this  college  who  were  employed  as  veterinary  assistants 
or  in  other  capacities  under  these  bodies  and  under  Government  in 
1903-4  was  46. 

A  large  number  of  cattle  and  horse  fairs  are  held,  the  largest  being 
those  at  Sonpur,  Sitamarhi,  Suri,  and  Kalimpong.  At  these  fairs 
cattle  shows  are  held,  and  prizes  are  given  for  the  best  specimens 
exhibited. 

The  copious  and  regular  rainfall  renders  irrigation  far  less  essential 
than  in  other  parts  of  India,  and  it  is  almost  unknown  in  a  great  part  of 
Bengal  proper.  Statistics  are  available  only  for  the  areas  irrigated  from 
Government  canals  ;  and  in  1903-4  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  rice  crop 
and  only  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  wheat  crop  were  supplied  with  water 
from  this  source.  The  principal  crops  irrigated  are  winter  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  poppy,  sugar-cane,  and  potatoes.  Of  these,  winter  rice  is  by  far 
the  most  important.  It  is  not  irrigated  in  East  or  North  Bengal,  and 
but  seldom  in  the  Presidency  Division,  while  in  North  Bihar  it  is  only 
irrigated  near  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  where  the  hill  streams  can  be 
dammed  without  much  difficulty.  In  Orissa  there  are  large  irrigation 
works,  but  they  are  not  much  resorted  to  in  normal  years.  In  the 
Burdwan  and  Chota  Nagpur  Divisions,  however,  and  in  South  Bihar, 
the  natural  supply  of  rain-water  is  insufficient,  and  rice  can  be  grown 
only  with  the  aid  of  artificial  irrigation.  This  is  chiefly  necessary  in 
October ;  but  if  the  rains  are  late  in  starting,  water  is  also  required  for 
the  seed-beds,  and  again  at  the  time  of  transplantation.  Wheat  and 
barley  are  commonly  grown  without  irrigation,  except  in  the  vicinity  of 
homesteads  in  North  Bihar,  where  they  get  two  or  three  waterings  from 
wells  in  November  and  December.  The  poppy  is  generally  irrigated 
from  wells  and  requires  weekly  watering.  Sugar-cane  is  irrigated, 
except  in  North  Bihar  and  North  Bengal ;  it  is  watered  once  a  fortnight 
during  April,  May,  and  June,  and  once  a  month  in  November  and 
December.  Potatoes  are  irrigated  once  a  fortnight  in  Burdwan, 
Hooghly,  Patna,  and  Cuttack,  but  not  usually  elsewhere. 


252  BENGAL 

Bengal  possesses  three  important  systems  of  irrigation  canals — the 
Son,  the  Okissa,  and  the  Midnapork.  The  Son  Canals  in  Bihar  are 
fed  from  the  Son  river  by  means  of  a  weir  at  Dkhri  ;  they  supply  water 
to  Shahabad  District  on  the  west  and  to  Gaya  and  Patna  Districts  on 
the  east.  The  system  comprises  (1903-4)  367  miles  of  main  and 
branch  canals,  of  which  218  are  navigable,  with  1,217  "liles  of 
distributaries,  and  3,237  miles  of  village  channels  which  are  private 
property.  The  supply  of  water  available  for  the  kharlf  or  autumn 
irrigation  is  about  6,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  For  the  rain  or  spring 
crops  the  supply  is  always  ample.  The  demand  fluctuates  greatly 
according  to  the  rainfall  in  September  and  October  ;  the  area  irrigated 
in  1903-4  was  790  square  miles,  compared  with  756  square  miles  in 
1902-3.  In  the  hot  season  the  supply  of  water  is  very  limited,  but 
there  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of  about  25,000  acres  of 
sugar-cane. 

The  Orissa  Canals  are  fed  n)ainly  from  the  MahanadI  river,  but 
derive  part  of  their  supply  from  the  Brahman!  and  BaitaranI,  there 
being  in  all  seven  anicuts  or  weirs.  The  country  served  by  these  canals 
lies  chiefly  in  the  delta  of  the  MahanadI,  and,  being  liable  to 
inundation,  it  has  been  necessary  to  protect  the  irrigated  tracts  by 
marginal  flood  embankments.  Four  main  canals — the  Taldanda, 
the  Kendrapara,  the  Machgaon,  and  the  High  Level — comprise  301 
miles  of  main  and  branch  canals,  of  which  205  miles  are  navigable,  and 
1,166  miles  of  distributaries.  There  are  no  village  channels.  The 
supply  which  can  be  given  in  the  kharif  season  is  4,550  cubic  feet  per 
second.  During  the  rabi  season  there  is  very  little  demand  for  water. 
Sugar-cane  is  little  cultivated  in  these  parts. 

The  Midnapore  Canal  is  supplied  from  the  Kasai  river.  It  is  72 
miles  in  length  and  is  navigable  throughout,  and  possesses  267  miles 
of  distributaries  and  30  miles  of  village  channels.  The  capacity  of 
discharge  is  1,500  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  supply  at  the  end  of 
the  kharif  season  is,  however,  uncertain,  and  in  a  dry  autumn  there  is 
frequently  difficulty  in  meeting  the  demand  for  water.  There  is  little 
irrigation  in  the  rabi  season. 

In  the  north-west  corner  of  Champaran  District  the  Tribeni  Canal 
is  being  constructed  as  a  protective  work.  It  is  designed  to  carry 
enough  water  to  irrigate  about   178  square  miles. 

Table  III  at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  346)  gives  the  principal 
figures  connected  with  these  systems  of  canals ;  the  falling  off  in 
navigation   tolls  is  due  to  the  development  of  railways. 

The  '  minor '  irrigation  works  maintained  by  Government  are  the 
Saran,  the  Eden,  and  the  Tiar  or  Madhuban  canals.  The  Saran  canals 
have  a  head  sluice  on  one  of  the  side  channels  of  the  Gandak  river. 
There  is  no  weir,  and,  owing  to  alterations  in  the  main  channel,  it  is 


AGRICULTURE  253 

very  difficult  to  feed  the  canals,  which  for  the  present  are  closed.  The 
Eden  canal  takes  off  from  the  Damodar  river  in  Burdwan.  It  was 
intended  primarily  to  supply  fresh  water  to  some  old  river-beds  as  a 
sanitary  measure,  but  it  is  also  used  for  the  irrigation  of  about  42 
square  miles.  The  Tiar  canal  in  the  north  of  Champaran  is  supplied 
from  the  stream  of  the  same  name,  and  can  irrigate  9  square  miles. 

The  sale  of  water  for  irrigation  is  regulated  by  Act  III  (B.C.)  of 
1876,  which  provides  that  it  shall  only  be  supplied  on  a  written  request. 
For  rice,  leases  are  entered  into  for  a  term  of  years  in  which  the 
lands  to  be  irrigated  are  specified  in  detail ;  the  quantity  of  water  to 
be  given  is  not  mentioned,  but  there  is  an  implied  obligation  to  supply 
what  is  needed.  In  charging  for  the  irrigation  of  rabi  and  sugar-cane, 
it  is  not  practicable  to  determine  beforehand  precisely  which  lands 
are  to  be  supplied,  and  the  principle  of  the  Northern  India  Act  is 
adopted,  i.e.  an  acreage  rate  is  charged  on  those  fields  which  are 
actually  irrigated. 

The  principal  private  irrigation  works  are  reservoirs  and  water 
channels.  This  form  of  irrigation  is  mainly  practised  in  the  gneissic 
and  old  alluvial  tracts,  where  the  broken  surface  facilitates  water- 
storage.  In  hilly  country  the  reservoir  is  made  by  throwing  an 
embankment  across  a  drainage  channel,  but  on  more  level  ground  the 
surface-water  is  confined  in  an  artificial  catchment  basin,  of  a  more  or 
less  rectangular  shape,  by  an  embankment  raised  on  three  sides  of  the 
rectangle.  Artificial  channels  are  dug  parallel  to  the  beds  of  rivers 
which  have  a  steep  gradient,  to  irrigate  high  lands  down  stream  ;  many 
of  these  are  large  works  with  numerous  branches  and  distributaries. 
Comparatively  little  use  is  made  of  wells  for  irrigation,  though  a  good 
deal  of  land  along  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  in  Patna  and  Muzaffarpur 
Districts  is  watered  from  earthen  wells,  and  small  masonry  wells  are  to 
be  found  near  the  houses  in  Bihar,  and  are  used  for  irrigating  poppy 
and  other  crops.  The  cost  of  a  masonry  well  varies  from  Rs.  100  to 
Rs.  300  and  of  a  kachchd  well  from  Rs.  2  to  Rs.  5.  Tanks  are  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  for  irrigating  rice,  especially  in  Burdwan. 

Numerous  water-lifts  are  used,  such  as  the  lever  and  bucket  or  skin 
bag,  the  swing-basket,  and  the  spoon  irrigation  lever.  The  first- 
mentioned  lever  is  fitted  to  a  forked  tree  or  masonry  pillar,  and 
counterpoised  by  clods  of  earth.  When  bullocks  are  used,  they  are 
yoked  to  a  rope  which  passes  over  a  pulley  carried  on  a  cross-beam, 
supported  on  two  masonry  pillars.  The  basket  is  swung  by  two  men 
with  the  aid  of  ropes  tied  to  the  corners,  and  is  used  for  raising  water 
from  a  river  or  tank.  The  spoon  irrigation  lever  is  a  canoe-shaped 
dug-out  working  on  a  pivot.  When  the  level  of  water  is  very  low,  two 
or  more  successive  lifts  are  required. 

The  importance  of  the  Bengal  fisheries  may  be  gauged  from  the  fact 


254  BENGAL 

that  1-6  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  catching,  curing,  and 
selHng  fish,  a  percentage  which  rises  to  2-6  in  the  Presidency,  Rajshahi* 
and  l^acca*  Divisions  ;  moreover,  one  cultivator  in  every  twenty  is 
returned  as  a  fisherman  also.  The  waters  of  the  ]]ay,  the  rivers,  and 
swamps  swarm  with  fish,  and  every  ditcli  and  puddle  furnishes  small 
fry  to  eke  out  the  frugal  diet  of  the  people.  The  best  salt-water  fish 
are  the  hckti,  iapsi  or  mango-fish,  mullet,  pomfret,  and  sole.  Inland 
the  hilsa  {Clupea  ilisha)  is  found  in  shoals  in  the  Ganges,  while  the 
rohu  i^Laheo  rohitd)  and  the  kdtdl  [Catla  buchanani)  abound  every- 
where, as  do  also  innumerable  other  varieties  much  esteemed  by  the 
Bengalis ;  prawns  and  crabs  are  caught  in  myriads.  The  mahseer  is 
found  in  the  higher  reaches  of  the  rivers  which  debouch  from  the 
Himalayas,  and  in  some  of  the  rivers  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau. 

The  Bengali  is  a  very  clever  fisherman.  In  the  Bay  of  Bengal  he 
practises  deep-sea  fishing,  drying  his  catch  ashore  on  stakes  driven  into 
some  sandy  beach.  The  larger  rivers  are  trawled  from  a  sailing  boat, 
and  the  smaller  streams  are  fished  from  weirs.  The  tanks  and  ditches 
are  periodically  dragged,  the  fish  at  other  times  being  angled  or  caught 
in  a  cast-net.  Every  streamlet  is  studded  with  hundreds  of  wicker 
fish-traps,  while  prawn  cages  are  ubiquitous.  The  wonder  is  that  any 
living  fish  escapes,  so  persistent  and  remorseless  is  the  hunt  for  the 
finny  tribe.  Every  other  interest  is  subordinated  to  its  pursuit,  and  not 
only  is  navigation  impeded,  but  the  drainage  of  the  country  is  blocked 
by  the  obstruction  of  every  channel  and  outlet. 

The  right  of  fishery  in  all  but  the  largest  rivers  has  generally  been 
alienated  by  Government  to  private  persons,  having  been  included  in 
the  '  assets '  on  which  the  permanent  settlement  of  estates  was  based, 
but  in  some  cases  the  fishery  itself  is  a  separate  '  estate.'  In  tanks  the 
right  of  fishing  vests  in  the  owner  or  occupant ;  in  the  Bay  and  large 
rivers  fishing  is  free  to  all. 

The  conditions  which  determine  the  rent  paid  by  the  actual  culti- 
vator to  his  immediate  landlord  vary  widely  in  different  parts  of  the 
Province,  and  even  in  different  estates.     In  some  large 

en  s,  wages,     ggj-g^j-gg  jj  \^  p^j^j  according  to  rates  current  throughout 
and  prices.  .  '.     .        ,  *^  f  . 

a  village,  while  in  others  lump-rents  prevail.     In  Orissa 

and  the  Santal  Parganas  the  rents  have  been  fixed  by  Settlement 
officers.  In  Bengal  proper,  lump-rents  are  generally  paid,  except  for 
newly  reclaimed  lands,  and  inquiry  often  fails  to  detect  the  existence  of 
any  standard  rates  known  to  the  people.  In  large  estates  in  Bihar,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  usual  to  find  the  rent  calculated  according  to  rates 
applied  to  different  classes  of  soil  or  to  particular  crops.  Generally 
speaking,  the  principal  factors  which  affect  the  incidence  of  rent  are  the 
fertility  of  the  land,  the  density  of  population,  the  antiquity  of  the  hold- 
ing, the  social  position  of  the  tenant,  and  the  position  and  character  of 


RENTS,    WAGES,  AND   PRICES  255 

the  landlord.  Where  the  population  is  dense,  there  is  a  keen  demand 
for  arable  land  and  rents  rule  high.  On  the  other  hand,  rents  which 
were  fixed  some  years  ago  are  lower  than  those  recently  settled, 
because  prices  and  rent  rates  have  steadily  increased  for  many  years. 
A  Brahman,  again,  usually  pays  a  lower  rate  than  a  man  of  low  caste. 
The  highest  rents  prevail  where  the  landlord  is  a  petty  proprietor  or  a 
middleman  resident  in  the  village.  Specially  high  rent  rates  are  usually 
paid  for  land  under  special  crops,  such  as  sugar-cane, /^J//,  mulberry, 
and  poppy.  The  cultivators  have  been  protected  from  arbitrary  rent 
enhancement  and  eviction  by  the  Bengal  Tenancy  Act  of  1885,  but, 
owning  to  the  apathy  and  ignorance  of  the  peasantry,  the  Act  has 
remained  a  dead  letter  over  a  great  part  of  the  Province.  In  Bihar, 
especially,  the  tenant  is  still  very  much  at  the  mercy  of  his  landlord, 
who  rarely  gives  him  a  written  lease.  In  Eastern  Bengal  conditions 
are  different.  Documents  are  far  more  freely  interchanged,  the  demand 
for  cultivators  to  till  the  land  is  keen,  and  the  tenant  has  the  best  of 
the  bargain. 

Little  accurate  information  is  available  in  Bengal  regarding  rates  of 
rent,  but  the  following  are  the  average  rates  per  acre  ascertained  by 
Settlement  officers.  In  Eastern  Bengal  Rs.  4  is  paid  in  Tippera*,  and 
Rs.  5-12  in  Chittagong*,  where  rents  rule  very  high;  the  ordinary 
minimum  and  maximum  rates  probably  range  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  12. 
In  Orissa  rents  vary  from  Rs.  1-8  to  Rs.  4,  the  average  being  Rs.  2-8. 
In  Central  Bengal  they  run  from  Rs.  3-4  to  Rs.  8-1 1,  the  average 
being  Rs.  5-8,  and  in  North  Bihar  the  limits  are  Rs.  i— 14  and  Rs.  4-5, 
the  average  being  about  Rs.  3-2  an  acre.  In  Chota  Nagpur  the  rents 
are  much  lower,  varying  from  8  annas  to  Rs,  2,  with  an  average  of 
Rs.  1-4,  while  in  the  Santal  Parganas  the  average  is  Rs.  4-4,  the  limits 
being  Rs.  3-12  and  Rs.  6-12.  The  rates  of  rent  for  special  crops 
occasionally  rise  much  higher,  the  maximum  rates  recorded  for  tobacco 
being  Rs.  37-8;  for  sugar-cane,  Rs.  18;  for  potato  and  poppy,  Rs.  20; 
and  {ox pan,  Rs.  75. 

Rent  is  extensively  paid  in  kind  in  Ciaya,  Shahabad,  and  l-'atna 
Districts,  where  the  character  of  the  country  renders  the  maintenance 
of  an  elaborate  system  of  irrigation  necessary  ;  but  to  a  less  extent  such 
rents  are  to  be  found  throughout  the  Province.  Different  methods  of 
payment  prevail;  sometimes  the  grain  is  divided  on  the  threshing-floor, 
or  the  standing  crop  is  appraised,  while  sometimes  a  fixed  payment  in 
grain  is  made  irrespective  of  the  yield.  In  Bengal  newly  reclaimed 
lands  are  often  tilled  by  temporary  settlers,  who  contract  to  raise  a 
crop  and  give  the  landlord  half  of  it ;  they  erect  temporary  shelters  for 
the  season,  and  throw  up  the  land  at  the  end  of  it. 

Wages  for  all  kinds  of  labour  are  lowest  in  Bihar  and  highest  in 
Bengal,  Orissa  occupying  an  intermediate  position.     The  actual  daily 


256 


BEiXGAL 


rates  for  skilled  and  unskilled  labour  in  the  different  sub-provinces  and 
in  the  three  chief  cities  are  shown  below  : — 


Sub-provinces. 

Cities. 

Bengal.       Orissa. 

Bihar. 

1 
Calcutta.  '  Dacca*. 

Patna. 

Skilled  labour  . 
Unskilled  do.  . 

A.     P.           A.  p. 

7   10     '     5    3 
41          29 

A.    P. 

4    9 
2    6 

A.    P.              A.  P. 

S   u          67 

•••       j     3    4 

A.  p. 

3   0 
2     0 

In  Bihar  there  has  been  a  nominal  rise  of  7  per  cent,  in  the  wages  of 
unskilled  labour  during  the  last  decade,  and  in  Bengal  of  14  per  cent. ; 
in  Orissa,  on  the  other  hand,  wages  are  reported  to  have  fallen  12  per 
cent,  during  the  same  period.  In  Patna  city  they  have  increased 
9  per  cent.,  while  a  decrease  of  2  per  cent,  has  taken  place  in  Dacca*. 
The  wages  of  skilled  labour  have  increased  by  11  per  cent,  in  Bihar, 
15  per  cent,  in  Orissa,  and  5  per  cent,  in  Bengal ;  they  have  increased 
in  Calcutta  by  20  per  cent.,  while  in  Patna  and  Dacca*  they  are 
reported  to  have  fallen  by  5  and  13  per  cent,  respectively. 

The  remuneration  of  village  servants  is  fixed  by  custom.  In  Bihar 
each  artisan  takes  his  recognized  share  of  grain  when  the  crop  has  been 
reaped  and  brought  to  the  threshing-floor  ;  he  often  holds  in  addition 
a  small  plot  of  land  rent-free,  in  remuneration  for  services  rendered  to 
the  zamhidar.  In  Orissa  the  village  employes  serve  a  fixed  circle  of 
from  30  to  50  families  and  receive  small  monthly  payments  of  grain 
and  money,  with  other  customary  perquisites.  This  system  is  not 
found  in  Bengal  proper,  where  the  village  organization,  with  its  com- 
plete equipment  of  servants  and  artisans,  never  seems  to  have  been 
developed. 

The  rise  in  wages  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  increase  in  the  price  of 
food-grains,  for,  whereas  during  the  last  twenty  years  the  price  of  rice 
has  risen  by  38-5  per  cent.,  the  wages  of  unskilled  labour  have  risen 
by  only  15  and  of  skilled  labour  by  25-4  per  cent,  during  the  same 
period.  The  fact  is  that  wages  are  largely  governed  by  custom,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  the  increased  demand  for  labour  due  to  the 
development  of  railways  and  to  industrial  expansion  has  had  more  to 
do  with  the  rise  in  wages  than  the  increase  in  the  price  of  food-grains. 
The  payment  of  day-labourers  and  village  artisans  and  servants  in  kind 
also  tends  to  keep  down  wages  in  spite  of  high  prices. 

The  average  prices  of  certain  staples  at  important  centres  during  the 
last  three  decades  and  for  the  year  1903-4  are  shown  in  Table  IV  at  the 
end  of  this  article  (p.  347).  The  increase  during  the  years  1890-1900 
was  due  to  the  famines  of  the  decades,  which  caused  a  heavy  drain  of 
food-stuffs  from  this  Provincei 


FORESTS  257 

The  masses  are  much  better  off  and  enjoy  a  more  generous  diet  in 
Lower  Bengal  and  Orissa  than  in  Bihar  and  Chota  Nagpur.  The 
annual  cost  of  living  per  head  of  an  average  adult  cultivator  is  estimated 
at  Rs.  15  in  Bihar,  Rs.  20  in  Chota  Nagpur,  and  Rs.  35  to  Rs.  45  in 
Lower  Bengal  and  Orissa.  An  ordinary  hut  costs  from  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  40, 
and  a  well-to-do  family  has  three  or  four  of  them.  The  furniture 
consists  of  mats,  one  or  two  wooden  boxes,  bamboo  baskets,  earthen 
pots  and  pans,  and  brass  utensils.  To  dress  himself  and  his  family 
costs  a  well-to-do  cultivator  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  15  per  annum,  while  he 
may  spend  Rs.  5  or  Rs.  10  in  brass  and  silver  ornaments.  The  landless 
day-labourer  is  generally  attached  to  the  household  of  his  master,  and 
lives  in  a  wretched  hut  on  his  employer's  land.  He  gets  one  full  meal 
at  midday  and  a  scanty  breakfast  and  supper. 

The  middle  classes  comprise  those  who  live  on  land  rents,  members 
of  the  learned  professions,  merchants  and  shopkeepers,  and  persons  in 
Government  or  private  employment.  The  joint  family  system  which 
furnishes  a  common  fund  for  all  the  members  is  a  relief  to  those  earning 
small  salaries.  Their  food  consists  of  rice,  pnlses,  vegetables,  fish,  ght, 
oil,  milk,  sugar,  flour,  and  sweetmeats,  and  occasionally  meat.  The 
ornaments  of  a  married  woman  of  this  class  are  usually  not  worth  more 
than  Rs.  50.  One  or  two  bedsteads,  a  few  cane  or  wooden  stools,  a  few 
cheap  boxes,  some  coarse  mats,  together  with  a  number  of  brass  and 
bell-metal  utensils,  make  up  the  furniture  of  an  ordinary  house,  except 
in  the  towns,  where  it  may  include  a  table,  a  couple  of  chairs,  and  one 
or  two  benches.  The  cost  of  living  in  Calcutta  is  estimated  at  Rs.  50 
to  Rs.  70  a  month  for  an  ordinary  family,  and  in  the  country  at 
from  Rs.  30  to  Rs.  50. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  standard  of  living  has  improved  of  late 
years  in  North  and  East  Bengal,  where  better  clothes  are  worn,  earthen- 
ware is  giving  place  to  brass-ware,  and  vegetable  oils  to  kerosene.  \n 
Bihar  progress  is  slower,  though  the  improvement  in  communications 
has  facilitated  migration  to  Bengal,  where  the  remarkable  industrial 
expansion  of  recent  years  has  created  a  great  demand  for  labour.  The 
same  causes  have  benefited  Chota  Nagpur,  but  here  the  people  are 
primitive  in  their  habits,  and  they  have  not  yet  taken  to  growing 
produce  for  export  on  a  large  scale ;  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  has, 
however,  done  much  to  open  up  this  part  of  the  country.  The  middle 
classes  suffer  from  high  prices,  unless  they  have  an  interest  in  land,  as 
many  of  them  have  ;  and  this  is  probably  the  class  which  has  made 
least  progress. 

The  history  of  the  Government  forests  in  Bengal  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  forests   in  other  parts  of  India.     When    the  _ 

East  India  Company  first  began  to  acquire  sovereign 
rights,  its  ofificers  were  naturally  impressed  by  the  great  extent  of  the 

VOL.  VII.  s 


258  BENGAL 

forests,  rather  than  by  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  them  ;  and  for 
many  years  their  sole  aim  was  to  expedite  their  conversion  into  culti- 
vated fields.  Many  of  the  best  forests  were  alienated,  and  reckless 
exploitation  ran  riot.  The  work  of  destruction  was  hastened  by  the 
wasteful  form  of  shifting  cultivation  known  as  jhuvi,  the  constant 
occurrence  of  forest  fires,  and  the  direct  and  indirect  demands  for 
railway  construction.  But  with  the  growing  scarcity  of  valuable  timber, 
and  the  observed  bad  effects  upon  climatic  conditions  of  the  wholesale 
removal  of  forest  growth,  a  reaction  set  in  ;  and  scientific  forest  manage- 
ment and  conservancy  in  Bengal  dates  from  the  year  1854,  when  the 
first  Conservator  of  Forests  was  appointed.  As  in  other  Provinces,  rules 
were  then  laid  down  for  the  control  of  forest  matters,  which  eventually 
led  up  to  the  passing  of  the  Indian  Forest  Act,  VII  of  1878. 

Under  this  enactment  land  at  the  disposal  of  the  state  may  be  divided 
into  '  reserved,'  '  protected,'  and  '  village  '  and  '  unclassed  '  forests,  and 
powers  are  also  taken  for  the  issue  of  orders  with  the  object  of  prevent- 
ing the  destruction  of  private  forests.  No  such  orders  have  hitherto 
been  issued  in  Bengal,  and  there  are  no  '  village  '  forests.  The  arrange- 
ments for  conservancy  are  most  complete  in  the  case  of  'reserved' 
forests.  These  are  permanently  demarcated  ;  private  rights,  where  they 
exist,  are  defined,  commuted,  or  provided  for  elsewhere,  and  every 
effort  is  made  to  prevent  damage  by  fire.  Timber  is  extracted  from  the 
greater  part  of  these  forests  in  accordance  with  scientific  working-plans, 
and  the  regeneration  of  suitable  species  is  carefully  attended  to.  In 
'  protected '  forests  the  arrangements  are  less  elaborate  :  private  rights  are 
recorded  but  not  defined,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Forest  department 
are  directed  mainly  to  the  prevention  of  reckless  felling  and  to  securing 
to  Government  its  dues  on  account  of  forest  produce  extracted.  As 
cultivation  extends,  the  area  of  these  '  protected '  forests  tends  to  become 
more  and  more  restricted.  There  are  also,  in  the  Chittagong  Hill 
Tracts*,  certain  waste  lands  at  the  disposal  of  Government,  in  which 
even  this  modified  control  is  considered  inadvisable.  The  forests  on 
such  lands  are  known  as  '  unclassed,'  and  their  management  is  regulated 
by  executive  orders. 

In  consequence  of  the  permanent  revenue  settlement,  there  is  very 
little  land  at  the  disposal  of  Government  in  the  greater  part  of  Bengal 
proper  and  Bihar,  and  the  forests  there  have  long  since  yielded  to  the 
axe  and  the  plough.  Owing  to  the  moisture-laden  winds  of  the  south- 
west monsoon,  and  the  generally  low  and  level  surface  of  the  country, 
which  prevents  rapid  draining  and  denudation,  their  disappearance  has 
not  been  accompanied  by  the  ill  effects  which  have  supervened  in  other 
less  favourable  conditions.  Except  in  a  few  limited  areas,  vegetation  is 
suflficiently  plentiful ;  and  the  bamboos,  palms,  and  fruit  trees  grown  by 
the  villagers  suffice  to  meet  all  their  ordinary  requirements.     For  other 


FOJ^ESTS  259 

purposes,  however,  such  as  sleepers  for  railways,  timber  for  bridges  and 
large  buildings,  tea  boxes,  and  to  meet  the  fuel  demand  in  cities,  the 
only  important  sources  of  supply,  with  the  exception  of  the  forests  in 
a  few  Native  States  and  the  timber  imported  from  Nepal  or  from 
abroad,  are  the  Government  forests  which  have  been  '  reserved '  or 
'  protected '  in  the  tracts  lying  outside  the  area  which  was  permanently 
settled  :  namely,  in  Chota  Nagpur,  the  Santal  Parganas,  the  Jalpai- 
guri  Duars*,  Darjeeling,  Chittagong*,  Angul,  and  Purl  Districts,  the 
Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*,  and  the  Sundarbans.  The  Government 
forests  in  these  tracts'  in  1904  covered  an  area  of  9,581  square  miles, 
of  which  6,014  square  miles  were  'reserved,'  and  3,567  'protected,' 
while  there  were  also  3,753  square  miles  of  'unclassed'  forests  in  the 
Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  whole  of  this 
area  is  uncier  the  contrcjl  of  the  Forest  department  of  the  Province. 
At  the  head  is  a  Conservator  of  Forests,  and  under  him  are  deputy, 
assistant,  and  extra-assistant  Conservators,  who  are  in  charge  of  or 
attached  to  Forest  *  divisions '  (twelve  in  number),  and  a  subordinate 
staff  of  rangers,  deputy-rangers,  and  foresters.  In  matters  of  general 
Forest  administration,  the  divisional  officer  is  the  assistant  of  the 
Collector  of  the  District,  or  in  some  cases  of  the  Commissioner,  while 
as  regards  technical  matters,  accounts,  establishments,  and  the  like,  he 
is  directly  under  the  Conservator. 

The  forests  of  Bengal  contain  a  great  number  of  species,  anti  their 
composition  is  very  varied  in  character.  The  principal  types  are 
briefly  :  {a)  The  tidal  forests  situated  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  known 
as  the  Sundarbans,  where  the  sundri  {Hentiera  littoralis)  is  the  most 
important  species  ;  {b)  the  dry  forests  of  Chota  Nagpur  and  the  Santal 
Parganas,  where  the  sal  tree  {Shorea  robustd)  largely  predominates  ; 
(f)  the  forests  in  the  hilly  portions  of  Orissa,  where  the  sal  occurs  some- 
times in  pure  forests,  but  usually  in  conjunction  with  several  species  of 
Terminalia^  Diospyros,  Albizzia,  Dalbergia,  and  bamboo  ;  {ci)  sal  forests 
in  the  Duars  *  and  tarai  at  the  foot  of  the  Eastern  Himalayas  and  on 
the  drier  spurs  of  the  lower  hills,  and  those  of  Dalbergia  Sissoo  and 
khair  {Acacia  Catechu)  on  the  gravel  and  boulder  deposits  along  the 
rivers  of  that  part  of  the  country  ;  {e)  the  hill  forests  of  British  Sikkim 
and  Bhutan,  stocked  chiefly  with  oaks,  magnolias,  and  rhododendrons  ; 
and  lastly  (/)  the  Chittagong  *  forests,  of  which  bamboos,  jdrul 
i^Lagersiroemia  Flos  Reginae)  and  gurjan  {^Dipterocarpus  iurbinaius) 
are  the  most  important  products. 

Timber  and  other  forest  produce  are,  for  the  most  part,  now  removed 

1  The  Jalpaicjuri  Duars,  Chittagong,  and  the  Chittngong  Hill  Tracts  have  been 
transferred  to  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  The  Government  forests  in  the  present 
area  of  Uengal  cover  7,806  square  miles,  of  which  4,244  square  miles  are  '  reserved,' 
and  3;562  square  miles  are  '  protected.' 

S  2 


26o  BEXGAL 

by  purchasers,  and  departmental  working  is  resorted  to  only  for  the 
supply  of  sal  sleepers  to  railways,  and  of  fuel  to  the  Commissariat 
department  at  Darjeeling.  Water-carriage  is  little  used  save  in  the 
forests  of  Angul,  the  Sundarl)ans,  and  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*, 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  Jalpaiguri*  and  Buxa*  forests.  The  practice 
of  shifting  cultivation,  which  is  most  injurious  not  only  on  account  of 
the  destruction  of  forest  growth,  but  also  because  the  fires  employed 
for  clearing  the  felled  areas  often  spread  in  all  directions,  is  now  almost 
everywhere  forbidden,  though  it  is  still  allowed  in  the  '  unclassed ' 
forests  of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*  and  in  the  '  protected  '  forests 
in  the  Santal  Parganas.  The  most  valuable  minor  products  of  the 
forests  are  bamboos,  golpata  (palm)  leaves,  mica,  honey  and  wax, 
thatching  grass  and  sabai  grass  {Ischaemum  atigustifolium),  the  last 
named  being  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

The  experiment  of  cultivating  rubber  (Ficits  elasticd)  has  been  tried 
in  the  Darjeeling  tarai,  the  Tista  valley,  and  Chittagong*  with  some 
success,  but  the  plantations  are  still  on  a  very  small  scale. 

Measures  for  protecting  the  forests  from  fire  were  commenced  in 
1872,  and  have  now  been  extended  to  all  the  more  valuable  areas. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season  fire-lines,  as  well  as  all  boundaries 
and  forest  roads,  are  cleared  of  grass  and  jungle,  and  a  number  of  fire- 
watchers  are  employed  to  assist  the  ordinary  protective  establishment 
in  patrolling  the  forests.  In  many  parts,  e.g.  in  the  Sundarbans,  the 
forests  are  not  inflammable,  and  in  others,  owing  to  the  damp  climate, 
fire-protection  is  an  easy  matter.  It  is  in  the  dry  climate  of  Chota 
Nagpur  and  Orissa  that  forest  fires  are  most  to  be  feared,  and  the 
greatest  care  has  to  be  taken  ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  large 
areas  in  these  portions  of  the  Province  are  frequently  burnt.  Of  the 
total  area  of  2,169  square  miles  in  1903-4,  over  which  protection  from 
fire  was  attempted,  94-98  per  cent,  was  successfully  protected  at  a  cost 
of  Rs.  7-8-7  per  square  mile. 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  area  in  Jalpaiguri  District*,  there  are 
no  special  fuel  and  fodder  Reserves.  In  the  temporarily  settled  estates 
of  Orissa,  however,  lands  have  been  set  apart  in  many  villages,  during 
the  recent  settlement  operations,  for  grazing  purposes,  while  in  the 
Government  estates  of  the  Kolhan  and  Palamau  and  in  some  recently 
settled  tracts  in  Singhbhum  District  blocks  of  waste  land  have  been 
detached  from  the  'protected'  forest  areas  and  included  in  the  limits 
of  villages,  to  meet  the  possible  requirements  of  the  villagers  in  respect 
of  fuel-supply  and  pasture  grounds.  In  the  case  of  famine  or  fodder 
scarcity,  the  '  reserved '  forests  in  the  affected  area  are  thrown  open  for 
the  free  removal  of  fruits  and  roots,  and  in  some  cases  for  grazing. 

During  the  ten  years  ending  1890,  the  forest  revenue,  expenditure, 
and  surplus  averaged,  respectively,  6-5i,  3-86,  and  2-65  lakhs;  and  for 


MINES  AND   MINERALS  2 fir 

the  ten  years  ending  1900,  9-45,  4-86,  and  4-59  lakhs.  In  1900-1  the 
gross  revenue  was  12-34  lakhs,  the  expenditure  5-78  lakhs,  and  the  net 
surplus  6-56  lakhs  ;  and  in  1903-4  the  gross  revenue^  was  10-47  lakhs, 
the  expenditure  6-89  lakhs,  and  the  net  surplus  3-58  lakhs. 

Coal  is  the  chief  mining  industry.  The  Bengal  mines  furnish  more 
than  83  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  of  coal  in  India,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  coke.  With  the  exception  of  a  narrow 
unworked  field  of  crushed  anthracitic  coal  of  Gond-  minerals 
wana  (upper  palaeozoic)  age  in  Darjeeling  District 
near  the  Nepal  frontier,  the  coal  seams  lie  mainly  in  the  valleys  of  two 
rivers,  the  Barakar  and  the  Damodar.  The  principal  fields  at  present 
worked  are  at  GirTdih,  or  Karharbari,  in  the  valley  of  the  Barakar,  and 
at  Jherria  and  Raniganj  in  the  valley  of  the  Damodar.  These  fields 
are  estimated  to  be  capable  of  yielding  14,000,000,000  tons  of  coal, 
excluding  67,000,000  tons  already  extracted.  They  all  lie  within  200 
miles  of  Calcutta  and  have  been  made  accessible  by  rail.  The  Raj- 
mahal  fields  give  a  small  output,  and  Daltonganj,  which  has  recently 
been  connected  by  rail  with  Barun,  is  being  developed.  Of  the  un- 
worked fields,  Karanpura  with  nearly  9,000,000,000  tons  of  coal  is 
perhaps  the  most  important.  The  Auranga,  Bokaro,  Hutar,  and  Ram- 
garh  fields  are  also  of  value,  but  they  have  not  yet  been  opened  out  by 
the  construction  of  railways.  These  fields  contain  fair  steam  coals ; 
some  are  very  good,  but  they  all  contain  a  rather  high  percentage  of 
ash.     Many  of  them  yield  a  good  firm  coke  suitable  for  furnaces. 

The  maximum  thickness  of  the  seams  is  95  feet,  and  the  portions 
worked  vary  in  thickness  from  2\  to  45  feet.  As  a  rule,  a  quarry  is 
commenced  at  the  outcrop  ;  and  as  it  pays  to  remove  a  large  over- 
burden from  thick  seams,  a  number  of  huge  open  excavations  are 
formed.  When  the  cover  overlying  a  seam  is  too  thick  to  be  econo- 
mically removed,  or  when  the  seam  is  thin,  galleries  from  8  to  12  feet 
wide  are  driven,  both  on  the  dip  and  along  the  strike  of  the  seam, 
leaving  pillars  of  coal  the  size  of  which  varies  according  to  the  method 
of  working  and  the  thickness  of  the  seams  cover.  A  system  which 
provides  for  12  feet  galleries  and  12  feet  pillars  yields  at  once  three- 
quarters  of  the  coal  ;  but  the  remaining  quarter,  which  is  left  in  pillars, 
can  seldom  be  won.  A  system  allowing  12  feet  galleries  and  60  feet 
pillars  yields  30  per  cent,  of  coal  in  the  first  working,  and  70  per  cent, 
is  left  in  pillars  ;  but  unless  the  seam  be  more  than  20  feet  thick,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  latter  can  be  obtained  in  the  second,  or  pillar,  work- 
ing. Pillar  working  is  mainly  confined  to  European-managed  mines, 
as  there  is  always  danger  of  a  fire  breaking  out  in  large  areas  of  pillars. 
In  driving  galleries  it  is  usual  to  start  from  the  top  of  the  seam  with 

'  The  coriespoiuling  fij^utes  for  JJciigal  as  now  constituted  are:  receiiits,  S-6  lakhs; 
expenditure,  5-45  lakhs;  and  net  surplus,  3-15  lakhs. 


262  BENGAL 

a  height  of  6  feet,  and,  after  tliis  thive  lias  advanc-cd  some  distance,  to 
deepen  it  to  the  full  height  of  the  seam  by  rutting  out  the  remainder 
of  the  coal  in  successive  steps.  In  a  few  mines  the  galleries  are 
commenced  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  seam,  and  are  heightened  by 
dropping  the  coal  left  above.  In  the  East  Indian  Railway  collieries  in 
the  Gfrldih  coal-field  the  coal  is  extracted  by  a  combination  of  the  pillar 
and  long  wall  methods.  The  lower  portion  of  the  scam  is  cut  up  into 
pillars  6  feet  in  height,  and  the  latter  are  thinned  down  till  they  are 
only  just  able  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  overlying  coal.  These  thinned 
pillars  are  then  blown  down  by  dynamite,  and  the  top  coal  (17  feet 
thick),  which  comes  away  readily  from  a  strong  sandstone  roof,  falls  on 
the  floor,  ^^'hen  a  large  area  of  coal  has  been  extracted,  a  rib  of  coal 
is  left  against  the  worked-out  portion,  or  goaf,  and  a  new  set  of  workings 
is  started. 

The  methods  of  raising  the  coal  to  the  surface  vary  from  the  primi- 
tive means  of  baskets  carried  on  the  heads  of  cooly  women  to  hauling 
sets  of  5  or  10  tubs  on  inclines  provided  with  rails,  or  hoisting  in 
well-fitted  shafts  up  to  640  feet  in  depth  by  direct-acting  engines.  All 
three  methods  are  in  vogue  in  the  chief  coal-fields.  The  coal  is  cut  with 
picks  of  English  pattern  and  make  by  natives  of  many  castes,  including 
the  aboriginal  Santals,  Mundas,  and  Oraons,  and  the  semi-Hinduized 
Musahars,  Bauris,  Bagdis,  Ghatwals,  Mahlis,  Turis,  Chamars,  Telis, 
and  PasTs.  The  majority  are  recruited  from  the  villages  surrounding 
the  coal-fields,  and  from  the  adjoining  parts  of  Bankura,  Manbhum, 
Birbhum,  and  the  Santal  Parganas, 

The  underground  work  is  performed  at  a  fixed  price  per  tub  of  coal 
by  families,  or  gangs  of  men,  women,  and  children,  who  choose  their 
own  hours  of  labour.  The  men  cut  the  coal,  and  the  women  and 
children  carry  it  to  the  tubs.  As  a  rule,  they  also  push  the  tubs  to  the 
shaft  or  incline,  but  at  one  colliery  no  horses  and  ponies  are  employed 
to  '  lead  '  the  coal  underground.  A  man  can  cut  about  2^  tubs  (i^  tons) 
of  coal  per  day  of  eight  hours;  but  he  seldom  works  more  than  five  days 
in  the  week,  and  strictly  observes  all  high-days  and  holidays.  The 
number  of  working  days  per  year  varies  from  200  to  300.  The  total 
value  of  coal  at  the  pit's  mouth  in  1901  was  1-54  lakhs;  and  as  there 
were  79,652  persons  employed,  the  value  of  each  person's  out-turn  for 
the  year  was  Rs.  191.  Of  this  sum,  the  colliery  owner's  profit,  the 
landowner's  rent  or  royalty,  the  cost  of  stores,  tools  and  equipment,  and 
the  superior  establishment  take  about  Rs.  98,  leaving  about  Rs.  93 
a  year  as  the  earnings  of  each  person,  or  about  Rs.  15-8  a  month 
per  family. 

In  1774  Mr.  S.  G.  Heatly  (the  reputed  discoverer  of  Bengal  coal)  and 
Mr.  J.  Summer  applied  to  Government  for  the  right  of  working  coal  at 
Raniganj.     In  1777  six  mines  were  worked  and  90  tons  of  coal  were 


MINES  AND  MINERALS  263 

obtained.  Nothing  further  was  done  till  about  1815,  when  a  Mr.  Jones 
mined  coal  from  pits  and  was  the  first  to  sell  it  in  the  general  market. 
The  industry  progressed  slowly  till  1840,  when  the  imports  to  Calcutta 
from  RanTganj  reached  36,200  tons.  From  1840  to  1845  there  was 
a  constant  increase  in  output,  which  in  1845  amounted  to  62,400  tons. 
The  East  Indian  Railway  tapped  the  fields  in  1854,  and  in  1858 
the  out-turn  had  increased  to  220,000  tons.  In  1903  the  out-turn 
exceeded  3,000,000  tons,  obtained  from  142  mines  employing  34,000 
persons  daily.  The  Raniganj  field  contains  two  valuable  coal  series, 
which  are  separated  by  ironstone  shales  x,ooo  feet  thick.  The  Giridih 
field  was  worked  from  1857  to  r86i,  when  it  was  closed  for  a  time; 
it  was  reopened  and  worked  systematically  in  187 1,  and  in  1903  its 
yield  was  767,000  tons,  from  nine  mines  employing  10,700  persons. 
It  possesses  two  valuable  seams  in  the  lower  coal  series,  and  one  of  the 
shafts  has  a  depth  of  640  feet.  Jherria  was  opened  in  1894,  but  its 
output  in  1903  had  already  risen  to  2,746,000  tons,  from  115  mines 
employing  28,000  persons.  As  at  Raniganj,  two  coal  series  exist,  the 
lower  one  containing  eighteen,  and  the  upper  one  two,  valuable  seams. 
Of  these  seams,  twelve  are  being  worked.  The  East  Indian  Railway 
Company  at  Giridlh,  and  the  Bengal  Coal  Company  in  the  Daltonganj, 
Glridih,  and  RanTganj  coal-fields,  each  raise  more  than  600,000  tons 
yearly  ;  and  the  output  of  the  Equitable,  New  Birbhum,  and  the 
Barakar  Coal  Companies  exceeds  300,000  tons  each.  The  European- 
owned  collieries  raise  between  them  more  than  4,000,000  tons,  and 
those  owned  by  natives  have  an  output  exceeding  i\  million  tons. 
The  capital  invested  in  joint-stock  companies  is  about  115  lakhs,  and 
there  is  also  a  large  but  unknown  investment  by  private  owners.  The 
total  output  of  the  Province  in  1881  was  930,000  tons.  In  1891  it  had 
risen  to  1,747,000,  in  1901  to  5,704,000,  and  in  1903  to  6,566,000  tons. 

The  railways  consume  one-third  of  the  total  output.  The  imports 
of  foreign  coal  into  Calcutta,  the  only  important  distributing  port,  which 
were  70,000  tons  in  1880,  had  dwindled  to  2,000  tons  in  1901.  The 
exports  to  foreign  ports  amounted  to  8  tons  in  1880,  26,000  tons  in 
1890,  a  quarter  of  a  million  tons  in  1897,  and  more  than  half  a  million 
in  1901.  In  Bombay  English  coal  still  competes  with  Indian,  for 
although  the  latter  can  be  bought  in  Calcutta  for  Rs.  7  per  ton,  the 
steamer  freight  and  other  charges  raise  its  price  to  Rs.  15  at  Bombay, 
which  is  only  Rs.  2  less  than  the  cost  of  English  coal  of  better  quality. 
Indian  coal  reaches  Suez  on  the  west  and  Singapore  on  the  east ;  at  the 
latter  port  it  competes  with  the  supply  from  the  Japanese  mines. 

About  1,700  persons  are  employed  in  iron-mining,  and  practically  all 
the  mineral  won  is  dispatched  to  the  works  at  Barakar,  near  Asansol, 
where  pig-iron,  pipes,  and  various  kinds  of  castings  are  turned  out. 
The  ore  is  found  in  thin  alluvial  deposits  at  a  number  of  places,  as 


264 


BENGAL 


masses  of  hematite  and  magnetite  in  metamoiphic  njcks  at  Kalimati 
and  in  the  ironstone  shales  of  the  Ranlganj  coal-field.  The  alluvial 
deposits  were  at  one  time  worked  by  natives.  The  Kalimati  quarries 
are  shallow,  and  were  opened  in  1901,  when  they  produced  7,800  tons 
of  ore,  rising  in  the  following  year  to  10,382  tons.  The  Raniganj  ore 
is  in  the  form  of  carbonate  below  ground,  but  it  readily  weathers,  and 
at  the  surface  consists  of  hematite  and  limonite.  The  beds  vary  from 
2  to  8  inches  in  thickness  and  form  one-seventeenth  of  the  whole  series, 
which  is  1,000  feet  thick.  About  50,000  tons  of  ore  were  won  in  1901 
from  shallow  trenches  and  pits.  The  output  of  the  Province  rose  from 
20,000  tons  in  1891  to  58,000  tons  in  1901  and  to  72,000  tons  in  1902. 
The  success  of  the  industry  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  coking 
qualities  of  the  Bengal  coal.  Attempts  at  steel-making  have  proved 
unremunerative. 

Details  of  Output  and  Labour  for  each 
Coal-field  in  1903 


Particulars. 

Total. 

Name  of  coal-field. 

Giridih. 

Jherria. 

Ranlganj. 

Daltonganj 
(Palainau). 

Raj- 
niahal. 

Number  of  mines  . 

27 

9 

"5 

142 

2 

4 

Output    in    thou- 

sands of  tons    . 

6,566 

767 

2.745 

3,020 

34 

Average     number 

of  persons    em- 

ployed daily 

7.^928 

10,691 

28,114 

33,854 

1,235 

34 

L  'nder  gioiiiid 

49)274 

7,739 

17.789 

22,913 

823 

10 

Men    . 

33,372 

5.436 

10,622 

16,611 

697 

6 

Women 

14,744 

2,213 

6.510 

5,892 

125 

4 

Children     (^under 

twelve) 

1,158 

90 

657 

410 

I 

Above  groiatd 

24,654 

2,952 

10,325 

10.941 

412 

24 

Men    . 

15,113 

2,155 

6,109 

6,570 

262 

17 

Women 

8,231 

618 

3.557 

3.916 

133 

7 

Children     (under 

twelve) 

1,310 

179 

659 

455 

17 

... 

Mica  is  found  over  a  large  area  in  Gaya,  Hazaribagh,  and  Monghyr 
Districts.  It  occurs  in  dikes  and  masses  of  pegmatite,  as  more  or  less 
defined  shoots  and  patches  which,  in  many  cases,  are  found  at  the 
surface  during  the  rains  and  are  worked  in  the  cold  and  hot  seasons. 
In  1903  there  were  251  mines  and  quarries,  employing  about  6,500 
labourers  daily.  With  the  exception  of  Bendi,  all  the  quarries  and 
mines  are  worked  by  primitive  native  methods.  Haulage  and  pumping 
are  done  by  women,  who  are  seated  on  ladders  and  i)ass  up,  from  hand 
to  hand  to  the  surface,  earthen  pots  filled  with  water  or  baskets  with 


MINES  AND  MINERALS  265 

mica.  The  output  in  1901  was  914  tons,  valued  at  4^  lakhs,  or  seven 
times  the  quantity  obtained  ten  years  previously.  Of  this  amount, 
628  tons  were  obtained  by  a  European  firm,  which  owns  a  large 
area  of  land  outside  the  Kodarma  Government  forests,  where  most 
of  the  other  mines  are  situated.  In  1903  the  output  had  fallen  to 
692  tons. 

Recent  gold-bearing  sands  are  widely  distributed,  and  yield  poor 
wages  to  a  few  Jhoras  working  with  wooden  dishes.  Numerous  veins 
of  vitreous  white  quartz  and  grey  quartzites  occur  in  Singhbhum  District, 
and  in  1895  several  small  shafts  were  sunk.  Assays  give  results  varying 
from  r  to  7  dwts.  per  ton.  A  small  amount  of  prospecting  work  was 
done  in  1901.  Copper  pyrites  are  found  at  Karaganda,  in  a  band 
of  mica  and  talcose  schists  varying  from  12  to  40  feet  in  thickness. 
The  only  mine  hitherto  worked  was  closed  in  1891.  The  rock  contains 
3  per  cent,  of  copper,  which  was  increased  by  concentration  to  12  per 
cent,  and  the  concentrates  were  carted  to  Girldih  and  smelted.  In  all, 
1,100  tons  of  copper  were  obtained.  At  Rajdoha  also  copper  has  been 
worked  in  small  quantities.  Alluvial  tin  is  reported  from  Hazaribagh, 
but  it  has  not  yet  been  found  in  paying  quantities. 

The  saltpetre  of  Indian  commerce  is  obtained  mainly  from  the  Patna 
Division  and  Monghyr.  It  occurs  as  a  natural  efflorescence  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  its  manufacture  affords  employment  to 
a  large  number  of  people  belonging  to  the  caste  (Nunia)  named  after 
it.  The  quantity  produced  in  1900  is  estimated  at  160,000  cwt., 
valued  at  12  lakhs,  or  rather  less  than  the  out-turn  in  1891.  In  1903 
the  out-turn  was  382,000  cwt.,  of  a  total  value  of  22-33  l^ikhs. 

Slate  has  been  quarried  in  Monghyr  for  many  years,  and  is  now 
mined.  The  industry  gives  employment  to  nearly  400  persons,  and 
1,600  tons  were  produced  in  1903.  There  are  two  beds  of  slate  on 
edge,  13  and  9  feet  thick  respectively.  Owing  to  'creep'  in  the  hill-side, 
quarrying  has  been  given  up  and  underground  chambers  are  now  cut, 
from  15  to  25  feet  in  height,  leaving  a  minimum  cover  of  30  feet.  The 
slates  are  thicker  than  Welsh  slates,  but  are  strong  and  suitable  for 
the  flat  roofs  of  Indian  bungalows.  The  castes  employed  are  chiefly 
Koras,  Musahars,  Beldars,  Gonrs,  Nunias,  Chamars,  and  Goalas. 

Limestone  is  widely  distributed  in  the  nodular  form  known  as  kankar, 
except  in  the  deltaic  tract  east  of  the  Bhaglrathi.  In  1900  the  out-turn 
was  100,000  tons,  valued  at  three-quarters  of  a  lakh.  Sandstone,  suit- 
able for  building  and  road-making,  is  found  in  the  coal-fields.  An 
output  of  40,000  tons,  valued  at  a  quarter  of  a  lakh,  was  reported  in 
1900.  Laterite  is  found  in  Bihar  and  Orissa ;  100,000  tons,  valued  at 
half  a  lakh,  were  raised  in  1900.  Granite  and  other  igneous  rocks  are 
used  in  Gaya  and  Hazaribagh  for  road-metal.  Soapstone  occurs  in 
Manbhum,  and  is  made  into  cups  and  images,  but  the  industry  is  small. 


2Gr,  BENGAL 

'J'hroughout  the  Province  various   handicrafts  are  carrictl   on,   but, 

as  a  rule,   the  articles   manufactured  suffice  only   to   meet  the    local 

demand.       Dacca*    and    Santipur    were    formerly 
Arts  3.ncl  •  • 

manufactures  f^'^'^^is  for  their  fine  mushns ;  and  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  cjuantity  exported  to  Europe,  and 
especially  to  France,  was  very  great.  From  Dacca*  alone  the  exports 
in  1817  were  valued  at  152  lakhs.  Ordinary  cotton  goods  were  also  in 
great  demand  for  the  P^uropean  market,  and  as  early  as  1706  efforts 
were  made  to  induce  weavers  to  settle  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Calcutta.  The  introduction  of  machinery  in  Europe  has  not  only 
killed  the  export  trade,  but  has  flooded  the  country  with  cheap  piece- 
goods  and  seriously  crippled  the  local  weaving  industry.  Country-made 
goods,  however,  are  more  durable,  and,  in  the  more  remote  parts, 
country  weavers  have  maintained  their  business.  The  weavers  of 
Serampore,  who  use  an  improved  loom,  still  hold  their  own,  and  so  do 
those  of  Dacca*,  where. a  carefully  bleached  white  cloth  with  a  border 
of  gold  thread  is  made ;  wiiile  in  Patna  District  the  trade  in  cotton 
goods  and  cheap  muslins  made  at  Dinapore  is  still  fairly  brisk.  Cotton- 
spinning,  except  as  a  domestic  industry,  no  longer  exists,  and  the 
weavers  generally  work  with  imported  yarn  or  cotton  twist. 

Jute  is  worked  up  into  cloth  for  gunny-bags,  sails,  and  quilts,  mainly 
in  Hooghly  and  Dacca*,  but  smaller  quantities  are  manufactured  in 
most  parts  of  Bengal  proper.  This  work  is  the  speciality  of  the  Kapali 
caste.  The  yarn  is  prepared  by  the  men,  and  the  women  weave  tlie 
cloth.  Jute  is  also  twisted  into  twine  from  which  ropes  are  afterwards 
made. 

The  silkworm  is  reared  in  West  Bengal  and  in  the  tract  where  the 
Presidency  and  Rajshahi*  Divisions  meet.  The  industry  was  threatened 
with  extinction,  owing  to  diseases  among  the  worms  ;  but  the  subject 
has  been  investigated  by  Government  agency,  and  remedies  have  been 
applied  with  a  fair  measure  of  success.  Silk-reeling  is  carried  on  in 
both  European  and  native  filatures,  and  raw  silk  is  largely  exported,  the 
value  of  the  exports  amounting  in  1903-4  to  47  lakhs.  Silk  thread 
is  twisted  from  the  reeled  silk  by  women,  and  is  knotted  and  uneven. 
The  cloth  woven  is  thus  of  a  rough  quality,  but  in  spite  of  this  silk- 
weaving  was  once  a  flourishing  industry.  Of  late  years  it  has  suffered 
greatly  from  the  competition  of  silks  made  in  Japan,  China,  and  Italy, 
and  the  value  of  manufactured  silk  exported  in  1903-4  was  estimated 
at  only  6  lakhs  compared  with  18  lakhs  in  1881.  The  weaving  of 
mulberry  silk,  which  is  made  chiefly  for  export,  is  carried  on  in 
Murshidabad  and  several  Districts  of  West  Bengal.  That  of  tasar  silk, 
which  is  in  demand  among  natives,  who  wear  it  when  performing 
religious  ceremonies,  has  its  head-quarters  in  West  Bengal,  Manbhum, 
and  Gaya  ;    the  business  is  still   fairly   prosperous,   but,  as   the   worm 


ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  267 

is  not  cuUivntcd  and  the  cocoons  are  collected  in  the  jungle,  the  supply 
is  very  fluctuating.  In  East  Bengal  w/7i,''<7  silk  from  Assam  is  woven, 
and  in  North  Bengal  a  rough  cloth  is  made  by  the  Mech  women 
from  the  silk  of  the  eri  worm.  A  mixed  cloth,  the  warp  of  which 
is  tasar  silk  and  the  woof  cotton,  is  woven  at  Dacca*,  Bhagalpur, 
and  Bankura. 

I-ocally  made  cloths  and  English  cloths  of  similar  texture  are 
embroidered  in  coloured  silks  and  cottons  at  Santipur  by  the  women 
of  the  weaving  class,  but  the  arrangement  of  colours  is  not  very 
pleasing.  Embroidered  caps  are  made  at  the  town  of  Bihar.  .Skilled 
embroiderers  in  gold  and  silver  are  found  at  Patna  and  Murshidabad, 
but  their  work  is  chiefly  confined  to  caps  and  to  the  trappings  of  horses 
and  elephants.  In  Calcutta  and  the  neighbourhood,  the  fancy  work 
known  as  chikan  is  a  thriving  industry,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
demand  for  it  in  Eurooe. 

Cotton  carpets  are  made  at  Nisbetganj  in  Rangpur*  and  at  a  few 
places  in  Bihar.  The  weaving  of  woollen  goods  is  carried  on  only  in 
Bihar  and  in  part  of  Murshidabad  District  ;  but  the  industry  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  blankets,  which  are  made  for 
the  most  part  by  the  shepherds  themselves.  The  cloth  is  woven  in 
narrow  strips  which  are  afterwards  stitched  together.  Woollen  carpets 
of  good  texture  are  made  at  Obra  in  Gaya  District. 

The  filigree  gold-  and  silver-work  of  Cuttack  and  Dacca*  is  well- 
known.  The  silver-work  of  Kharakpur  in  Monghyr  is  famous,  and 
there  are  also  skilled  workers  in  Calcutta.  lilacksmiths  and  workers  in 
iron  are  found  everywhere,  but  most  of  them  are  employed  in  the 
manufacture  and  repair  of  agricultural  implements  and  other  articles  of 
general  use.  In  Patna,  Calcutta,  and  Kishanganj  (Purnea),  iron  cages, 
platters,  spoons,  chains,  bolts,  &c.,  are  made.  A  few  cutlers  work  in 
the  suburbs  of  Calcutta,  at  Kanchannagar  near  Burdwan,  and  at  one 
or  two  other  places.  Padlocks  and  keys  are  manufactured  on  a  small 
scale  at  Natagarh  and  elsewhere.  Monghyr  was  famous  for  its  iron- 
workers before  the  days  of  foreign  competition,  and  it  still  holds  a 
relatively  high  position.  Its  speciality  is  the  making  of  shot-guns  ;  but 
during  the  last  few  years  the  business  has  declined,  and  in  1901  only 
463  guns  were  manufactured,  or  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  out-turn 
four  years  previously.  The  number  of  fire-arms  exported  in  1903-4 
was  899.  This  is  attributed  by  the  dealers  in  arms  partly  to  the  effect 
of  foreign  competition,  and  partly  to  the  reduced  number  of  gun 
licences  issued  in  recent  years.  The  manufacture  of  brass  and  copper 
utensils  is  the  one  indigenous  industry  which  has  not  suffered  from 
foreign  competition.  Figures,  supports  for  /lukkas,  hinges,  and  the  like 
are  sometimes  moulded  ;  but  the  chief  articles  manufactured  are  do- 
mestic utensils,  vessels  of  brass  being  used  by  Hindus  and  of  copper 


2  68  BENGAL 

by  Muhanimadaiis.  They  arc  made  either  by  casting  and  moulding,  or 
by  joining  together  pieces  of  beaten-out  metal,  which  at  the  present 
day  is  usually  imported  in  sheets  from  Europe.  The  methods  employed 
are  of  the  simplest,  and  practically  no  machinery  is  used. 

The  manufacture  of  earthen  vessels  is  carried  on  everywhere  in 
Bengal,  but  the  best  ware  is  made  in  Burdwan  District,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Bhagirathi,  where  the  clay  is  especially  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  durable  pottery.  Black  earthen  jars  are  exported  in  large  quantities 
from  the  Satkhira  subdivision  of  Khulna,  and  are  used  for  storing  oil 
and  grain.  In  Monghyr  porous  water  vessels  are  made,  and  decorated 
pottery  of  graceful  form  is  produced  at  Sasaram.  Ornamental  pottery 
is  also  made  at  Siwan  in  Saran,  which  is  remarkable  both  for  its  shape 
and  decoration,  llie  vessels  are  baked  in  earthen  jars  to  prevent  con- 
tact with  the  flames  ;  they  thus  become  black  when  baked,  and  are 
then  glazed  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and  fuller's  earth.  Owing  partly  to 
the  absence  of  suitable  clay,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  Hindus  think 
it  necessary  to  change  their  earthen  vessels  constantly,  nothing  has  yet 
been  done  in  Bengal  towards  the  production  of  porcelain  or  white 
earthenw^are.  Glazes  also  are  rarely  resorted  to.  Occasionally  vessels 
are  smeared,  before  burning,  with  a  mixture  of  fine  clay,  but  the  art  of 
fusing  glazes  is  not  understood.  Clay  figures  of  some  merit  are  moulded 
at  Krishnagar,  and  idols  with  no  pretensions  to  artistic  skill  are  made 
everywhere. 

Stone-carving,  as  an  art,  is  practised  only  in  Gaya,  where  small 
statues  of  gods  and  figures  of  animals  are  made  of  granite  ;  the  carving 
of  stone  for  the  decoration  of  temples  and  buildings  has  almost  entirely 
died  out  in  Bengal.  Glass-ware  is  made,  chiefly  in  Patna,  from  Son 
river  sand  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda.  The  glass  is  green  and 
clouded,  but  at  Patna  a  fair  amount  of  white  glass  is  now  made.  Bottles 
for  holding  perfumery,  lamps  for  illuminations,  and  glass  bangles  are 
the  chief  articles  produced.  Bracelets  of  coarse  glass  are  also  made  at 
Bhagalpur. 

The  ordinary  carpenter  of  Bengal  is  a  very  rough  workman,  and  is 
capable  of  little  beyond  the  making  of  ploughs  and  other  simple  articles 
in  common  use  among  the  people.  In  North  and  East  Bengal,  Orissa, 
and  Chota  Nagpur,  the  number  even  of  such  carpenters  is  deficient. 
Carving  in  wood  was  formerly  practised  as  an  adjunct  to  architecture, 
and  there  are  traces  of  the  skill  of  former  workmen  in  the  carved  bal- 
conies of  Patna,  Gaya,  and  Muzaffarpur.  This  sort  of  work  has  almost 
entirely  died  out ;  and  the  only  indigenous  wood-carving  deserving  of 
mention  at  the  present  time  is  that  of  the  ebony  workers  of  Monghyr, 
who  make  pieces  of  furniture,  boxes  and  other  small  articles,  which  are 
inlaid  with  patterns  in  horn  and  ivory.  In  some  parts,  especially  in  the 
Patna    Division,  carpenters  have  been  taught  by  Europeans  to  make 


ARTS  AND   MANUFACTURES  269 

articles  of  furniture  from  European  models,  and  they  often  acquire  great 
accuracy  and  finish.  In  Calcutta  there  are  now  numerous  cabinet- 
makers who  learnt  their  art  in  the  English  shops.  In  Muzaffarpur 
hiikka  stems  are  turned,  and  over  200,000  are  exported  yearly  ;  palkis 
and  cart-wheels  are  also  manufactured  on  a  large  scale. 

Conch-shell  bracelets  are  made  chiefly  in  Dacca*.  They  are  sawn 
out  by  a  large  metal  disk,  and  are  then  polished  and  coloured.  Bengal 
has  always  been  famous  for  its  ivory-carving,  the  peculiar  feature  of 
which  is  the  minuteness  of  the  work,  which  requires  about  eighty 
different  tools.  The  number  of  persons  now  employed  is,  however, 
very  small,  and  consists  only  of  a  few  families  in  Murshidabad,  Rang- 
pur*,  and  Cuttack.  Metal  inlaying  is  practised  in  a  few  places,  the 
best  known  being  the  so-called  bidri  work  of  Purnea  and  Murshidabad, 
which  was  introduced  from  the  Deccan,  and  consists  of  inlaying  with 
silver  a  sort  of  pewter,  which  is  made  black  with  sulphate  of  copper. 

Mat-making  is  largely  carried  on  in  South  Midnapore,  whence  comes 
the  cyperus  matting  sold  in  Calcutta,  and  mats  of  fine  reeds  are  woven 
in  various  parts  of  East  Bengal.  Bamboo  n.ats  and  baskets  are  made 
everywhere,  and  fancy  baskets  of  coloured  grasses  in  Bihar.  The  in- 
digenous Cham  fir,  or  leather-dresser  and  cobbler,  is  found  all  over 
the  Province  ;  but  his  work  is  very  rough  and  is  confined  to  meeting  the 
simple  requirements  of  ordinary  village  life — the  supply  of  leather 
straps  for  plough  yokes,  rough  shoes,  and  the  like.  In  Calcutta  a 
number  of  shoemakers  working  in  the  European  style  are  found,  com- 
prising both  Chinamen  and  natives  of  the  country.  Leathern  harness 
is  made  on  a  small  scale  in  Calcutta  and  Patna. 

The  extended  use  of  jute,  as  a  fibre,  dates  from  1832,  when  experi- 
ments made  in  Dundee  showed  that  it  could  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
hemp ;  and  a  further  impetus  was  given  to  the  demand  when  the  diffi- 
culties which  once  existed  in  bleaching  and  dyeing  it  were  overcome. 
It  is  used  not  only  for  the  making  of  gunny-bags  and  coarse  cloth,  but 
also  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  curtains,  and  shirtings,  and  is  largely 
mixed  with  silk  or  used  for  imitating  silk  fabrics.  The  rapid  spread 
of  jute  cultivation  during  recent  years  has  already  been  described.  The 
whole  of  the  raw  material,  except  such  as  was  required  for  the  hand- 
looms  of  the  villages,  was  formerly  exported  to  Europe,  mainly  to 
Dundee  ;  but  of  late  a  flourishing  local  industry  has  been  established, 
and  the  banks  of  the  Hooghly  are  now  lined  with  jute-mills,  which  are 
rapidly  growing  in  number  and  importance.  In  1903-4  there  were 
36  mills  with  18,000  looms,  employing  122,724  hands,  compared  with 
25  mills  with  9,000  looms  and  66,000  hands  in  1892-3.  Nearly  half 
the  raw  jute  produced  in  Bengal  is  now  consumed  in  these  mills  ;  the 
value  of  gunny-bags,  rope,  and  other  goods  exported  in  190 1-2  was 
859  lakhs,  against  only   100  lakhs  twenty  years   previously  ;   and    the 


•7° 


BENGAL 


export  had  furtlier  increased  by  1903-4  to  936  lakhs.  Jute  presses  are 
also  increasing  rapidly  in  number;  in  1903  there  were  155,  compared 
with  37  in  1892  and  only  4  in  1882. 

The  great  centre  of  the  Indian  cotton-manufacturing  industry  is  in 
Bombay,  but  it  is  steadily  growing  in  importance  in  Bengal,  and  there 
.irc  now  ten  mills  employing  about  11,000  hands,  compared  with  an 
average  of  six  mills  employing  6,000  hands  in  the  decade  1881-90. 
In  1903-4  the  out-turn  of  yarn  exceeded  46,000,000  lb.  and  that  of 
cloth  was  nearly  700,000  lb.  The  capital  invested  has  risen  from 
"iiT^  to   177   lakhs. 

The  principal  statistics  in  connexion  with  the  jute  and  cotton  indus- 
tries are  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 


Number 

Number 

Number  of 

Averajje 

of 

of 

spindles 

daily  number 

mills. 

looms. 

in 

thousand;. 

of  persons 
employed. 

Jute-mills : 

1880-1 

19 

4,893 

66 

33>994 

1890-1 

25 

8, 066 

162 

61,563 

1900-1 

34 

'.^,'69 

314 

110,051 

1903-4       . 

36 

18,234 

373 

122,724 

Cotton-mills : 

1880-1 

r. 

1.-6 

167 

4,166 

1S90-1 

8 

297 

8,790 

1896-7       . 

9 

200 

348 

10  900 

190C-1 

10 

209 

411 

8,030 

1903-4       . 

10 

213 

451 

10,230 

There  were  in  1903  four  paper-mills  with  a  capital  of  50  lakhs,  em- 
ploying on  the  average  nearly  900  hands  each,  and  producing  nearly 
36,000,000  lb.  of  paper.  The  capital  invested  and  the  production 
have  quadrupled  since  1881-90.  Other  large  industries  are  also  growing 
apace,  such  as  iron  and  brass  foundries,  oil-mills,  silk,  soap,  and  lac 
factories,  potteries,  rope  works,  &c. ;  and  for  miles  above  Calcutta  the 
banks  of  the  Hooghly  present  a  scene  of  industrial  activity  which  bids 
fair  in  time  to  rival  that  of  the  largest  towns  in  Europe.  The  principal 
statistics  of  these  undertakings  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : — • 


Number 
in 

Industries. 

Iron  and 

brass 
foundries. 

Oil- 
mills. 

Lac 
factories. 

Potteries. 

Rice- 
mills. 

Rope- 
works. 

Silk 
factories. 

Silk- 
mills. 

Soap 
factories. 

188 1  . 
1891   . 
1901   . 
1903  . 

4 
15 

38 

32 
47 
63 

I 

.39 
16 

48 

I 
I 
2 
I 

3 

2 
1 

I 

2 

5 
7 
7 

20 
80 

71 
62 

4* 

2* 

10 

8 

I 

I 
I 

*  These  Ogures  include  some  weaving  establishments,  the  number  of  which  was  not  reported. 


COMMERCE   AND    TRADE  271 

These  industries  are  at  present  worked  chiefly  under  European  super- 
vision and  supported  by  European  capital.  It  may  be  hoped  that  in 
time  the  natives  of  the  country  will  follow  the  lead  thus  given  them. 

It  is  said  that  the  supply  of  labour  for  these  large  industries  has  not 
kept  pace  with  the  rapidly  growing  demand,  but  in  spite  of  this  the 
number  returned  as  employed  in  1902  aggregated  253,000,  compared 
with  247,000  ten  years  earlier.  The  real  increase  is  much  greater,  as 
many  industries  employing  less  than  twenty-five  persons  have  been  left 
out  of  account  in  recent  years  ;  and  if  allowance  be  made  for  these,  the 
total  number  of  labourers  employed  in  1902  may  be  estimated  at  275,000. 
The  returns  for  1903  show  altogether  261,656  persons  employed.  These 
labourers  come  chiefly  from  Bihar  and  the  United  Provinces  and,  to 
a  less  extent,  from  Chota  Nagpur.  The  wages  offered  by  the  mills  are 
nearly  double  those  obtained  by  unskilled  labourers  in  the  tracts  whence 
they  chiefly  come ;  and,  although  the  cost  of  living  is  also  higher, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  rapid  expansion  of  this  field  of  employment 
is  a  great  boon  to  the  poorer  classes.  Their  main  object  is  to  save  as 
much  money  as  they  can  for  the  support  of  their  families  at  home  or  as 
a  provision  for  their  old  age.  In  the  meantime,  they  live  huddled  to- 
gether in  crowded  lodging-houses  as  close  as  possible  to  the  mills  and 
factories  where  they  work  ;  but  in  other  respects  they  fare  far  better  than 
they  would  do  in  their  own  country,  and  their  dietary  is  much  more 
liberal  and  of  a  far  better  quality  than  that  to  which  they  are  accustomed 
at  home. 

British  trade  with  Bengal  commenced  about  1633;  but  prior  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  Province  it  was  on  a  very  small  scale,  and  in   1759 
only  thirty  vessels  with  an  aggregate  burden  of  less 
than  4,000   tons  sailed    from   Calcutta.      The  chief  .  .     . 

exports  were  opium  from  Bihar  and  Rangpur*,  silk 
manufactured  goods  and  raw  silk  from  Murshidabad  and  Rajshahi*, 
muslins  from  Dacca*,  indigo  and  saltpetre  from  Bihar,  and  cotton 
cloths  from  Patna.  Little  except  bullion  was  imported.  The  150 
years  of  British  rule  have  witnessed  a  commercial  revolution.  Hand- 
woven  silks  and  cottons  are  no  longer  exported,  and  machine-made 
European  piece-goods  have  taken  the  first  place  among  the  imports. 
On  the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  increased  facilities  for  the  transport 
of  goods,  the  food-crops  have  been  largely  displaced  by  fibres  and 
oilseeds,  which  now  figure  largely  among  the  exports.  The  principal 
imports  are  yarns  and  textile  fabrics,  metals  and  machinery,  oil,  and 
sugar ;  and  the  principal  exports  are  raw  and  manufactured  jute,  coal, 
tea,  opium,  hides,  rice,  linseed,  indigo,  and  lac.  Bengal  enjoys  a 
practical  monopoly  of  the  export  of  coal,  raw  and  manufactured 
jute,  lac,  saltpetre,  and  raw  silk,  and  has  a  large  or  preponderating 
share  in  that  of  opium,  indigo,  rice,  hides,  and  tea. 


272  BENGAL 

The  maritime  trade  of  the  Province  is  concentrated  in  Calcutta, 
Chittagong*,  the  terminus  of  the  Assam-Bengal  Railway,  exports 
jute,  rice,  and  tea,  and  imports  salt  and  oil ;  but  its  total  trade  is  still 
comparatively  small.  The  Orissa  ports  do  an  insignificant  rice  trade. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  jute  trade  are  N.\ravanganj*,  Sirajganj*, 
Chandpur*,  and  Mad.\ripur*  in  East  Bengal,  and  Jalpaiguri* 
in  North  Bengal ;  the  jute-mills  line  both  banks  of  the  Hooghly  river 
from  lo  miles  below  to  30  miles  above  Calcutta.  Patna  is  still  a  market 
for  grain,  but  the  East  Indian  Railway  has  robbed  it  of  much  of  its 
importance.  Raniganj,  Asansol,  GTrIdTh,  Jherria,  and  Barakar  are 
the  centres  of  the  coal  trade.  Calcutta,  with  its  suburbs  of  Howrah, 
Garden  Reach,  and  Chitpur,  is  the  centre  of  the  commercial  and 
industrial  activities  of  the  Province. 

The  Bengal  Chamber  of  Commerce  was  founded  in  1834,  and 
represents  all  the  large  commercial  interests  of  Calcutta.  The  Bengal 
National  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  Calcutta  Trades  Association 
have  been  formed  to  protect  the  interests  of  native  merchants  and 
of  the  retail  trading  community.  The  affairs  of  the  Calcutta  and 
Chittagong  ports  are  administered  by  Port  Trusts. 

Broadly  stated,  the  imports  into  Calcutta  represent  the  convergence 
of  the  products  of  the  country  to  the  chief  seaport  for  shipment 
overseas,  and  the  exports  from  Calcutta  the  distribution  inland  of 
foreign  imports ;  the  principal  articles  of  export  and  import  are  thus 
the  same  as  have  already  been  enumerated  for  the  Province  as  a  whole. 

The  registration  of  internal  trade  is  defective,  except  for  Calcutta, 
and  complete  returns  exist  only  for  rail-borne  traffic.  The  Province  is 
divided  for  registration  purposes  into  eight  blocks.  The  articles  most 
largely  exported  from  the  Eastern  block  are  jute,  grain  and  pulses, 
timber,  kerosene  oil,  and  fodder ;  from  the  Northern  block  jute,  grain 
and  pulses,  tobacco,  and  tea  ;  from  the  Dacca*  block  jute  ;  and  from 
Bihar  grain,  pulses,  oilseeds,  stone,  and  lime.  All  the  blocks  obtain 
their  piece-goods  from  Calcutta.  Calcutta  receives  rice  from  East  and 
West  Bengal ;  coal  from  West  Bengal  and  Chota  Nagpur  ;  jute  from 
Dacca*  and  East  and  North  Bengal;  timber  from  East  Bengal ;  grain  and 
pulses  from  West,  East,  and  North  Bengal,  Dacca*,  and  Bihar ;  and  oil- 
seeds, opium,  and  indigo  from  Bihar.  West  Bengal  imports  salt,  oilcake, 
wrought  iron  and  steel,  and  sugar  from  Calcutta ;  coal  and  timber  from 
Chota  Nagpur  ;  and  grain,  stone,  lime,  and  oilseeds  from  Bihar.  East 
Bengal  draws  its  supplies  of  salt  and  railway  material  from  Calcutta  ; 
coal  from  ^Vest  Bengal  and  from  Chota  Nagpur  ;  and  jute  and  rice  from 
North  Bengal.     Bihar  imports  coal  and  timber  from  Chota  Nagpur. 

The  railways,  rivers,  canals,  and  roads  carry  country  produce  to  the 
ports  for  export,  and  distribute  the  imports  :  the  main  routes  of  traffic 
will    be   described    under   the   head    of  Communications.      Calcutta, 


COMMERCE   AND    TRADE  273 

the  chief  receiving  and  distributing  centre,  is  connected  with  all  parts 
of  the  Province  by  the  railways,  which  carry  the  bulk  of  the  internal 
trade.  Next  in  importance  as  a  channel  of  communication  are  the 
Calcutta  and  Eastern  Canals,  which  carry  enormous  quantities 
of  rice  and  jute  from  the  eastern  Districts  into  Calcutta. 

Jute  is  either  exported  from  Calcutta  or  manufactured  in  the  mills  on 
the  Hooghly.  In  the  former  case  it  is  pressed  into  bales  to  reduce  the 
freight.  One-third  of  the  jute  pressed  at  Narayanganj*  finds  its  way 
to  Chittagong*  by  the  Assam-Bengal  Railway,  and  is  thence  shipped 
direct.  The  presses  and  the  mills  obtain  their  jute  from  the  cultivator 
through  native  brokers,  and  the  trade  in  Calcutta  is  largely  in  the  hands 
of  European  brokers.  Tea  grown  in  North  Bengal  is  taken  to  Calcutta 
by  rail,  but  most  of  that  produced  in  Assam  is  carried  thither  by 
steamer,  and  shipped  thence  to  London  either  by  the  producers,  or 
by  brokers  who  purchase  it  at  auction.  Considerable  and  increasing 
quantities  of  Assam  tea  are,  however,  now  sent  by  the  Assam-Bengal 
Railway  to  Chittagong*,  and  are  shipped  thence  direct  to  England. 
Coal  is  carried  by  rail  from  the  mines  to  Calcutta,  whence  it  ,is  shipped 
to  Bombay  and  other  coast  ports.  Opium  intended  for  export  is  also 
brought  to  Calcutta,  where  it  is  sold  at  auction  by  the  Board  of 
Revenue.  Imported  foreign  goods  are  bought  by  native  merchants, 
through  European  brokers,  from  the  consignees,  and  distributed  up- 
country. 

Only  8  per  1,000  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  commerce. 
A  great  part  of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  enterprising  merchants  from 
Marwar,  chiefly  Agarwals  and  Oswals  ;  the  indigenous  dealers  belong  in 
Bengal  to  the  Sunri,  Kayasth,  Teli,  Subarnabanik,  and  Brahman  castes, 
and  in  Bihar  to  the  Rauniar  and  Kalwar  castes.  The  Marwaris  are 
bankers  and  money-lenders,  and  dealers  in  piece-goods  and  country 
produce ;  of  the  other  castes  mentioned,  the  Brahmans  and  Kayasths 
are  engaged  as  brokers,  money-lenders,  and  bankers,  while  the  others 
are  for  the  most  part  petty  shopkeepers. 

Statistics  of  the  value  (i)  of  the  trade  with  other  Provinces  and  States 
in  India,  (ii)  of  the  foreign  maritime  trade,  and  (iii)  of  the  foreign 
land  trade  are  given  in  Tables  V-VII  on  pp.  348-50.  Of  the  trade  by 
sea  with  other  Provinces  the  largest  share,  both  in  imports  and  exports, 
is  with  Burma,  which  sends  rice,  timber,  and  kerosene  oil  to  Bengal, 
and  receives  from  it  coal,  tobacco,  gunny-bags,  and  betel-nuts.  Next 
comes  the  Bombay  Presidency,  which  supplies  Bengal  with  cotton 
goods  and  salt,  in  exchange  for  coal,  rice,  gunny-bags  and  cloth,  and  tea. 
The  trade  by  land  with  Provinces  other  than  those  named  is  carried 
by  rail  and  river,  and  much  of  it  is  due  to  the  position  of  Calcutta  as 
a  seaport  and  medium  of  trade  with  other  countries.  The  largest  share 
of  this  trade  is  with  the  United  Provinces,  whence  are  received  opium, 

VOL.  VII.  t 


2  74  BENGAL 

oilseeds,  grain  and  pulses,  hides  and  skins,  and  wool  manufactures,  and 
to  which  are  sent  cotton  piece-goods,  gunny-bags  and  cloth,  metals,  and 
sugar.  From  Assam,  Calcutta  receives  tea,  oilseeds,  grain  and  pulses, 
and  stone  and  lime,  and  sends  in  return  cotton  piece-goods,  metals  and 
manufactures  of  metals,  oils  (mostly  rape  and  mustard),  and  salt. 
Excluding  the  trade  with  Calcutta,  the  imports  of  Bengal  consist 
mainly  of  the  staple  products  of  the  United  Provinces,  Assam,  and  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  the  exports  consist  mainly  of  grain  and  pulses, 
coal,  jute,  gunny-bags  and  cloth,  spices,  and  sugar. 

Of  the  foreign  trade  by  far  the  largest  part  is  with  countries  in 
Europe ;  and  of  this  the  greatest  share  is  with  the  United  Kingdom, 
from  which  two-thirds  of  the  imports  come.  Kerosene  oil  is  imported 
from  Russia,  sugar  and  piece-goods  from  Germany,  wrought  iron  and 
steel  from  Belgium,  and  sugar  from  Austria-Hungary  and  from  the 
Straits.  The  United  Kingdom  takes  one-third  of  the  total  exports,  and 
Germany  as  much  as  all  the  other  countries  combined. 

The  foreign  land  trade  is  insignificant  except  with  Nepal,  which 
absorbs  about  92  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Tibet  still  presents  a  practically 
closed  door  to  the  Indian  trader,  and  with  Sikkim  and  Bhutan  the  trade 
is  trifling.  About  half  of  the  imports  consists  of  grain  and  pulses 
(largely  rice) ;  the  exports  are  cotton  yarn  and  piece-goods  (European 
and  Indian),  metals,  provisions,  and  salt. 

The    total    length^  of  the   railways   in   the    Province  in    1904  was 

4,578-4  miles,  of  which  the  state  owned   3,894-8   miles,  971-3   being 

worked  by  the  state  and  2,92^-15  by  companies,  while 
Commumcations.    ^    ^         -,      ,    ,  •,  .     ^^     ^         ^         '      ., 

616-7  nines  belonged  to  assisted  companies,  33-3  miles 

to  an  unassisted  company,  and  33-6  to  Native  States  ;  no  lines  are 

owned  by  guaranteed  companies.     Of  the  total  length,  2,932-6  miles 

belonged  to  inter- Provincial  railways  ;  these  are  the  East  Indian,  Bengal- 

Nagpur,  Assam-Bengal,  and  Bengal  and  North- Western  Railways. 

The  East  Indian  Railway,  a  broad-gauge  line  owned  by  the  state,  the 

length  of  which  in  Bengal  is  1,211-6  miles,  connects  Bengal  with  the 

1  In  the  same  year  the  railways  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  had  a  length  of  3,484.9 
miles,  of  which  3,040-5  miles  were  owned  by  the  state,  .^77-5  miles  by  assisted  com- 
panies, 33-3  miles  by  an  unassisted  company,  and  33-6  miles  by  Native  States.  Of 
the  state-owned  railways,  2,808-8  miles  were  worked  by  companies,  and  231-7  by  the 
state.  Of  the  total  length,  3,049.6  miles  belonged  to  inter-Provincial  railways : 
namely,  the  East  Indian,  Bengal-Nagpur,  Bengal  and  North- Western,  and  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railways. 

As  a  result  of  the  partition  the  following  railways  now  lie  entirely  outside  the 
Province  :  the  Assam-Bengal  (193-9  miles),  Bengal-Duars  (152-3),  Mymensingh- 
Jamalpur-Jagannathganj  (51.4),  and  Noakhali  (34-9)  Railways.  The  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway  now  lies  partly  outside  Bengal,  231.6  miles  being  included  in 
the  Province  and  739-6  miles  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  The  length  of  the 
l^engal-Niigpur  Railway  witliiii  ]>engal  has  at  the  same  time  been  increased  by 
79.2  miles. 


COMMUNICA  TIONS  2  7  5 

United  Provinces,  and  fur  many  years  was  the  only  connexion  between 
Calcutta  and  Bombay.  It  enters  l^engal  on  crossing  the  Karamnasa 
river  a  little  west  of  Buxar,  and  has  its  terminus  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hooghly  at  Howrah,  which  is  connected  with  Calcutta  by  a  pontoon 
bridge.  There  is  also  a  short  link-line  which  connects  the  East  Indian 
Railway  at  Hooghly  with  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  at  Naihati. 
The  earliest  alignment  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  ran  due  north  from 
Howrah  to  Sahibganj,  where  it  struck  the  Ganges,  and  then  swung 
westwards  along  the  south  bank  of  that  river.  This  is  now  known  as 
the  loop-line,  and  has  been  replaced  for  through  traffic  by  a  chord-line 
from  Luckeesarai  to  Khana  junction.  Another  chord-line  from  Mughal 
Sarai  via  Gaya  and  Katrasgarh  to  Sitarampur  was  opened  in  1907. 
The  East  Indian  Railway  is  the  main  carrier  between  Bengal  and 
the  United  Provinces,  and  it  taps  the  coal-fields  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Raniganj.  This  railway  is  worked  by  a  company,  which 
also  works  the  South  Bihar  and  Tarakeswar  Railways,  two  small  broad- 
gauge  lines  owned  by  assisted  companies. 

The  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  is  owned  by  ihe  state,  but  is  worked  by 
a  company  of  that  name.  It  is  a  broad-gauge  line  with  a  length  of 
855-4  miles  within  Bengal,  and  a  terminus  at  Howrah  ;  it  forms  a  con- 
necting link  between  Bengal  and  Madras,  and  provides  an  alternative 
and  shorter  route  to  Bombay.  The  bifurcation  of  the  lines  to  Madras 
and  Bombay  takes  place  at  Kharakpur,  70  miles  west  of  Calcutta, 
whence  the  Madras  line  runs  south  through  Orissa,  while  the  Bombay 
line  passes  west  through  Chota  Nagpur  to  the  Central  Provinces. 
This  line  taps  the  Jherria  coal-field,  and  competes  with  the  East  Indian 
Railway  as  a  coal-carrier  to  Calcutta. 

The  Assam-Bengal  Railway  is  also  a  state  line  worked  by  a  company. 
It  is  a  metre-gauge  line  with  a  length  of  193-9  miles  within  Bengal. 
The  terminus  is  at  Chittagong*  and  the  main  line  runs  north-east  to 
Assam.  From  Laksham*  a  branch  runs  west  to  Chandpur*  on  the 
Meghna,  whence  communication  with  Calcutta  is  established  by  steamer 
to  Goalundo*  ;  and  another  branch  from  Laksham*  to  Noakhali*  has 
also  been  opened  by  the  company,  to  whom  land  was  given  free  of 
charge.  This  line  competes  with  the  river  steamers  in  carrying  tea 
from  Assam,  and  it  also  brings  Narayanganj*  jute  from  Chandpur*  to 
Chittagong*  for  shipment. 

The  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway,  a  metre-gauge  line,  con- 
necting North  Bengal  and  Bihar  with  the  United  Provinces,  belongs 
to  an  assisted  company,  which  also  works  the  Tirhut  State  Railway, 
and  has  a  length  in  this  Province  of  671-7  miles,  including  535  miles 
of  the  Tirhut  State  Railway.  The  metre-gauge  line  from  Sagauli  to 
Raxaul,  18  miles  in  length,  was  purchased  from  a  company  and 
incorporated  with  the  Tirhut  State  Railway.     It    is   linked   with    the 

T  2 


2  76  BENGAL 

Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  at  Katihar,  and  with   the  East  Indian 
Railway  by  ferries  across  the  Ganges. 

The  railways  lying  wholly  within  Bengal  are  the  Eastern  Bengal  State 
(including  the  former  Bengal  Central),  the  Noakhali  ^  (Bengal),  the 
Myniensingh-Jamalpur-Jagannathganj ',  the  South  Bihar,  the  Bengal- 
Duars,  the  Calcutta  Port  Commissioners',  the  Darjeeling-Himalayan, 
the  Deogarh,  the  Tarakeswar  and  the  Cooch  Behar  Railways,  and  the 
Howrah-Amta,  Hovvrah-Sheakhala,  Tarakeswar-Magra,  Bakhtiyarpur- 
Bihar,  Barasat-BasTrhat,  and  Baripada  light  railways. 

The  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  is  of  different  gauges  :  278-7  miles 
on  the  5  feet  6  inch  gauge  and  20-3  miles  on  the  2  feet  6  inch  gauge 
are  on  the  south  of  the  Padma,  and  north  of  that  river  637-6  miles  are 
on  the  metre-gauge  and  34-8  miles  on  the  2  feet  6  inch  gauge.  The 
Cooch  Behar  State  Railway,  on  the  2  feet  6  inch  gauge,  which  is  also 
on  the  north  of  the  same  river,  forms  part  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State 
Railway  system.  The  terminus  is  at  Sealdah  in  Calcutta.  The  main 
line  runs  north  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  at  Siligurl,  crossing  the 
Padma  by  a  ferry  at  Sara*.  From  Poradaha  a  branch  line  runs  east  to 
the  steamer  terminus  at  Goalundo*  ;  and  from  Parvatipur*,  north  of 
the  Ganges,  branches  run  east  to  Dhubri  in  Assam  and  west  to  Katihar, 
where  a  junction  is  effected  with  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Rail- 
way. Branch  lines  run  south  from  Calcutta  to  Diamond  Harbour, 
Budge-Budge,  and  Port  Canning ;  and  an  isolated  branch  from 
Narayanganj*  runs  north  to  Dacca*  and  Mymensingh*,  and  thence 
to  Jagannathganj*  via  Singhani.  This  railway  brings  to  Calcutta  large 
quantities  of  jute  and  tea  from  North  Bengal  and  of  jute  from  East 
Bengal. 

The  Bengal  Central  Railway,  on  the  5  feet  6  inch  gauge,  is  a  state 
line  formerly  worked  by  a  company,  which  has  been  worked  by  the 
Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  since  July  i,  1905,  the  date  of  the 
termination  of  the  contract  between  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India 
and  the  company.  It  runs  north-east  from  its  terminus  at  Sealdah  to 
Khulna,  with  a  branch  from  Bangaon  to  Ranaghat,  and  carries  a  large 
jute  traffic.  The  Bengal-Duars  Railway  on  the  metre-gauge  traverses 
Jalpaiguri  District*,  and  is  connected  with  the  Eastern  Bengal  State 
Railway  system  at  Jalpaiguri*  and  Lalmanir  Hat*.  It  serves  the  sub- 
Himalayan  tea  district  known  as  the  Duars.  The  Calcutta  Port  Com- 
missioners' Railway  on  the  5  feet  6  inch  gauge  connects  the  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway  north  of  Calcutta  with  the  docks ;  a  short  branch 
runs  on  the  Howrah  bank  from  Telkal  Ghat  to  Shalimar.  The  Deogarh 
Railway  is  a  metre-gauge  line  of  short  length  running  from  Baidyanath, 
a  station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  to  Deogarh,  a  popular  place 
of  Hindu  pilgrimage.     The  Darjeeling-Himalayan  Railway,  which  is 

*  Transferred  entirely  from  Bengal. 


COMMUNICA  TIONS  2  7  7 

assisted  by  Government,  runs  from  SilTgurl,  the  northern  terminus  of 
the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  to  Darjeeling.  The  ruling  gradient 
is  I  in  28,  and  curves  with  radii  varying  from  60  feet  (the  sharpest) 
to  1,000  feet  are  almost  continuous  on  the  hill  portion  of  the  line. 

The  Howrah-Amta  Light  Railway,  like  most  of  the  other  light 
lines,  receives  a  4  per  cent,  guarantee  from  the  District  board,  and  any 
profits  above  that  figure  are  divided  equally  between  the  board  and  the 
company.  Several  similar  lines  have  been  constructed  of  late  years, 
the  most  recent  being  the  Barasat-Baslrhat  Railway  opened  in  1905. 
The  Tarakeswar-Magra  Light  Railway  is  also  on  the  2  feet  6  inch 
gauge.  The  Baripada  Light  Railway,  a  feeder-line  with  a  2  feet  6  inch 
gauge,  opened  in  1905,  cfjnnects  the  Mayurbhanj  State  with  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  system. 

The  rapid  extension  of  railways  has  revolutionized  agricultural  and 
trade  conditions.  They  have  rendered  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Province  immune  from  famine,  and  have  greatly  reduced  the  difficulty 
of  battling  with  it  in  the  few  Districts  still  liable  to  its  attacks.  The 
railways  have  also  done  much  to  level  prices  and  to  moderate  their 
fluctuations  ;  and  by  putting  food-grains  in  circulation,  they  have  led 
to  a  vast  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  fibres,  oilseeds,  and  other  non- 
food crops  of  commercial  value. 

The  principal  statistics  in  connexion  with  the  Provincial  railways  are 
given  in  Table  VIII  at  the  end  of  this  article  (pp.  351-2). 

Roads  are  classed  as  Provincial  or  District  roads,  the  former  being 
maintained  from  Provincial  and  the  latter  from  District  funds.  Pro- 
vincial aid  is  occasionally  given  to  the  District  boards  for  the  construc- 
tion of  new  roads,  especially  for  those  intended  to  serve  as  feeders  to 
railways.  Minor  roads  are  classed  as  municipal,  Local  fund,  military 
or  cantonment,  and  village   roads. 

The  total  length^  of  Provincial  roads,  which  was  1,663  mile^  in 
1890-1  and  1,659  in  1900-1,  increased  to  2,406  in  1903-4.  During 
the  same  periods  the  length  of  District  roads  increased  from  32,110  to 
37,728  and  to  50,631  miles  respectively;  the  last  figure  includes  a  great 
many  village  roads  already  in  existence  but  not  previously  taken  into 
account.  The  maintenance  of  Provincial  roads  cost  6-27  lakhs  in  1 890-1, 
12-29  lakhs  in  1900-1,  and  9-99  lakhs  in  1903-4.  The  corresponding 
figures  for  District  roads  were  22-09,  22-81,  and  21-16  lakhs.  The 
increase  in  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  Provincial  roads  in  1 900-1  was 
due  t(_)  the  expenditure  of  7-34  lakhs  on  the  Darjeeling  roads  after  the 
cyclone.  The  grand  trunk  road  traverses  the  Burdwan,  Chota  Nagpur, 
and  Patna  Divisions,  from  ("alcutta  to  the  western  frontier,  with  a  total 

'  The  total  lent;th  of  Provincial  roads  in  1904 -5  in  the  Province  as  now  constituted 
was  2,362  miles,  and  of  ])istrict  rf)ads  36,367  miles.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of 
Provincial  roads  was  8-21  laklis,  and  of  District  roads  14-45  lakhs. 


2  78  BENGAL 

length  ill  the  Province  of  390  miles.  The  Orissa  trunk  road  runs 
from  Calcutta  via  Cuttack  to  tlie  Madras  border,  the  length  being  320 
miles.  The  Ranlganj-Midnapore  road  has  a  length  of  loi  miles,  and 
the  Barakar-RanchT  road  of  120  miles.  The  Ganges-Darjeeling  road 
runs  from  near  Katihar  to  SilTgurT  for  1 24  miles.  These  roads  are 
metalled.  An  important  unmctalled  road  runs  from  Chittagong*  to 
Daudkandi*,  a  distance  of  124  miles. 

\\\  the  alluvial  soil  of  Bengal  proper  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  good 
roads.  The  roads  are  raised  by  embankments  above  the  level  of  the 
swamps  with  earth  dug  from  the  roadsides,  but,  stone  not  being  avail- 
able locally,  very  few  of  them  can  be  metalled.  Those  which  are 
metalled  are  soled  with  brick  and  dressed  with  broken  brick.  Stone 
is  employed  only  in  Calcutta  and  Chittagong*,  to  which  ports  ships 
bring  stone  in  ballast.  Elsewhere  in  the  Province  laterite  and  kankar 
make  excellent  road  material,  and  stone  also  is  sometimes  available. 
The  construction  of  railways  has  diminished  the  importance  of  the 
trunk  roads,  some  of  which  have  consequently  been  made  over  to 
District  boards  for  maintenance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  increased 
facilities  afforded  by  the  railways  for  the  export  and  import  of  goods 
have  created  a  demand  for  numerous  feeder-roads. 

The  ordinary  country  cart  of  Bengal  consists  of  a  framework  of 
bamboo,  supported  on  two  wooden  wheels  and  a  wooden  axle.  The 
body  is  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle  tapering  down  towards  the  front,  and 
it  is  drawn  by  a  pair  of  bullocks  which  are  yoked  to  a  cross-bar  about 
4  feet  long.  The  felloes  of  the  wheels  are  made  of  six  segments  of  sissu 
wood,  and  there  are  six  spokes  arranged  in  parallel  pairs.  The  ekka  is 
a  light  two-wheeled  trap,  drawn  by  a  single  pony.  The  body  consists  of 
a  framework  covered  with  coarse  cloth  with  iie7var  tape  woven  across. 
It  can  be  used  over  the  most  uneven  ground.  The  vtanjholl  and  the 
champiDii  zx^  both  drawn  by  a  pair  of  bullocks.  The  former  is  similar 
to  an  ekkd,  but  the  yoke  consists  of  a  beam  of  wood  at  right  angles  to 
another  long  beam  projecting  from  the  body  of  the  cart.  The  c/iampani 
is  a  two-wheeled,  and  sometimes  a  four-wheeled,  light  carriage  similar  in 
construction  to  an  omnibus.  It  has,  however,  no  benches  within  to  sit 
on,  and  the  travellers  squat  or  lie  down  as  they  please.  It  has  a  pole 
with  a  cross-bar,  which  rests  on  the  necks  of  the  bullocks  which  drag  it. 

On  the  hill  roads  of  Darjeeling  a  very  heavy  strongly  made  cart  is 
used.  In  Bihar  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  large  heavy  country 
cart  or  chakrd  and  the  sdgar^  which  is  rougher,  lighter,  and  cheaper,  but 
otherwise  very  similar.  In  Chota  Nagpur  and  the  Orissa  Tributary 
States,  where  the  sdgar  is  also  in  use  among  the  villagers,  the  wheels  do 
not  exceed  2-|  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  made  by  joining  three  pieces  of 
solid  wood  hewn  out  of  a  mango  or  viahud  tree  ;  being  low  and  narrow, 
it  is  well  suited  for  rough  work  and  bad  roads.     The   Oriya  cart  is 


COMMUNICA  TIONS  2  7  9 

peculiar.  It  consists  of  two  poles  of  sd/  wood  or  bamboo  tied  together 
at  one  end  and  about  3  feet  apart  at  the  other,  and  joined  by  cross-bars 
at  intervals.  The  framework  rests  on  a  pair  of  wheels  about  4  feet  high 
and  about  4  feet  apart,  and  there  is  as  much  behind  as  in  front  of  the 
axle-bar.  The  bullocks  are  yoked  one  on  each  side  of  the  narrow  end, 
and  wilj^drag  half  a  ton  15  or  20  miles  a  day  on  a  metalled  road.  For 
carrying  grain  a  long  cofifin-shaped  basket  of  split  bamboo  holding  some 
10  maunds  is  fitted  on  to  the  body  of  the  cart,  while  in  towns  the 
body  itself  is  often  made  in  the  shape  of  a  box  for  transporting  road 
materials.  In  Cuttack  town,  with  the  advent  of  the  railway,  the  light 
little  Madras  hackeries  drawn  by  a  single  bullock  have  become  common. 

Several  steam  tramways  have  been  opened  in  rural  areas  ;  but  these 
would  be  more  properly  described  as  light  railways,  and  as  such  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  section  dealing  with  railways.  The  only  tramway 
in  urban  areas  is  that  serving  the  city  of  Calcutta,  which  is  owned  by 
a  private  company.  This  tramway  was  formerly  dependent  on  horse 
traction  ;  but  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  tramway  lines  and  of 
the  traction  employed  led  in  1900  to  the  framing  of  a  new  agreement 
between  the  Corporation  and  the  company,  the  main  features  of  which 
were  the  introduction  of  electric  traction  by  means  of  overhead  wires, 
the  postponement  of  the  Corporation's  right  to  purchase  the  tramways 
to  1 93 1,  and  the  restriction  of  the  fixed  track  rents  payable  by  the 
company  for  the  existing  tramways  to  Rs.  35,000  a  year.  An  arrange- 
ment has  recently  been  made  with  the  Calcutta  Tramways  Company  for 
the  introduction  of  a  similar  electric  tramway  service  in  Howrah. 

The  Calcutta  and  Eastern  Canals  are  a  system  of  improved 
natural  channels  connected  by  artificial  canals,  which  carry  the  produce 
of  East  Bengal  and  of  the  Brahmaputra  Valley  to  Calcutta.  The  total 
length  is  1,127  miles,  and  the  capital  outlay  amounts  to  77-1  lakhs.  The 
net  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-3  lakhs,  and  in  the  same  year  the  value  of 
the  goods  carried  was  estimated  at  512  lakhs. 

The  HijiLi  Tidal  and  Orissa  Coast  Canals  run  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Rupnarayan  river  to  Chandbali  in  Balasore  District,  with  a  total 
length  of  159  miles.  The  capital  cost  of  the  two  canals  has  been  26-15 
and  44-79  lakhs  respectively.  Their  gross  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  Rs.  42,000  and  Rs.  34,000  respectively  ;  the  former  showed  a  small 
profit  and  the  latter  a  loss  on  the  year's  working.  The  Bengal-Nagpur 
Railway  has  diverted  much  of  the  trafific  from  these  canals,  as  it  has  also 
from  the  Midnapore  and  Orlssa  Canals,  which,  like  the  Son  Canals, 
were  constructed  primarily  for  irrigation.  The  Midnapore  Canal  is 
navigable  for  72  miles,  and  the  tolls  collected  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  47,153.  The  Orissa  Canals  are  navigable  for  205  miles,  and  carried 
in  1903-4  cargo  valued  at  74  lakhs,  tlie  tolls  aggregating  Rs.  70,336. 
The  Son  Canals  are  navigable  for  218  miles.     The  East  Indian  Rail- 


28o  BENGAL 

way  has  killed  the  traffic  on  them,  and  in  1903-4  they  carried  cargo 
valued  at  only  16  lakhs,  the  tolls  amounting  to  Rs.  22,708. 

Finally,  the  Nadia  Rivers  are  a  group  of  spill  channels  of  the 
Ganges,  which  are  kept  open  by  artificial  means  in  the  dry  season,  and 
are  navigable  for  472  miles.  In  1903-4  the  cargo  carried  by  them  was 
valued  at  205  lakhs;  the  gross  revenue  amounted  to  Rs.  88,402,  but 
there  was  a  loss  of  Rs.  15,986  on  the  year's  working. 

In  the  east  of  the  Province  the  rivers  and  estuaries  carry  the  bulk  of 
the  country  trade,  and  the  roads  are  little  used,  especially  in  the  rainy 
season.  The  chief  waterways  are  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  and 
their  joint  estuary  the  Meghna,  which  are  navigable  throughout  their 
course  in  Bengal  by  river  steamers  and  large  country  boats.  Both  rivers 
throw  off  in  their  lower  reaches  innumerable  distributaries,  which  inter- 
sect the  country  in  every  direction  and  enable  boats  to  find  their  way 
to  every  village  and  almost  to  the  door  of  every  cottage.  The  eastern 
deltaic  offshoots  of  the  Ganges  feed  the  Calcutta  and  Eastern  Canals. 
The  Gandak  in  North  Bihar  still  carries  a  heavy  traffic,  and  the 
Mahanadi  and  Brahman!  tap  the  hinterland  of  Orissa. 

Weekly  steamers  ply  to  Chittagong*  and  to  Chandbali  on  the  Orissa 
coast  ;  small  steamers  also  run  from  Chittagong*  to  Cox's  Bazar*. 
Goalundo*,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Padma  and  Brahmaputra  rivers,  is 
the  terminus  of  a  great  steamer  traftic  up  the  Ganges  to  Ghazipur,  and 
up  the  Brahmaputra  to  Dibrugarh.  A  daily  service  to  Narayanganj* 
connects  Dacca*  with  Calcutta,  while  mail  steamers  to  Chandpur*  link 
up  the  Assam-Bengal  with  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  Steamers 
ply  daily  from  Calcutta  through  the  Sundarbans  to  Assam,  via  Barisal*, 
Chandpur*,  and  Narayanganj*.  On  the  Hooghly  river  steamers  run 
daily  up  to  Kalna,  and  down  to  Budge-Budge,  Ulubaria,  and  Ghatal. 
On  the  Padma  steamers  ply  between  Damukdia  (ihat  and  Rampur 
Boalia*  and  Godagari*,  with  a  continuation  to  English  Bazar  (Malda)*, 
and  between  English  Bazar*  and  Sultanganj.  From  Khulna  steamers 
run  to  Barisal*,  Noakhali*,  Narayanganj*,  Madaripur*  and  other  places, 
and  there  is  a  daily  service  on  the  Brahmaputra  from  Goalundo*  to 
Phulchari*.     Backergunge  District*  is  also  well  served  by  steamers. 

Several  lines  of  steamers  connect  Calcutta  with  London,  the  principal 
being  those  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  and  the  British  India  Steam 
Navigation  Companies,  and  the  City,  Clan,  Harrison,  and  Anchor  Lines. 
The  Flansa  Line  has  a  steamer  service  to  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  the 
Austrian-Lloyd  Steam  Navigation  Company  to  Trieste,  and  the  Brockle- 
bank  Line  to  Antwerp.  The  South  African  mails  are  carried  by  the 
Natal  Line,  while  the  steamers  of  the  Indian  and  African  Line  also  ply 
between  Calcutta  and  Durban.  The  chief  steamers  running  to  Australia 
are  those  of  the  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company  and  the 
Currie   and    Commonwealth    Lines.     A   steamer    of   the    Messageries 


COMMUNICATIONS  281 

Maritimes  Company  plies  regularly  between  Calcutta,  Pondicherry,  and 
Colombo,  where  it  connects  with  the  main  line  between  Marseilles  and 
the  Far  East.  Vessels  belonging  to  the  fleet  of  the  British  India  Steam 
Navigation  Company  carry  passengers  and  cargo  to  Penang  and  Singa- 
pore, and  also  to  Chittagong*,  Akyab,  Rangoon,  Moulmein,  and  various 
coast  ports  on  both  sides  of  the  peninsula.  The  Calcutta-Hongkong 
Line  of  Messrs.  Apcar  &  Co.  maintains  a  regular  service  to  Penang, 
Singapore,  and  Hongkong;  while  the  Asiatic  Steam  Navigation  Company 
carries  the  mails  to  Port  Blair,  and  has  a  line  of  steamers  running 
weekly  to  Burma  and  fortnightly  to  the  coast  ports  and  Bombay. 

Country  boats  are  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  and  the  largest  carry  some 
150  tons.  They  are  generally  very  broad  in  the  beam  and  of  light 
draught.  All  carry  a  great  square  sail,  the  larger  boats  adding  a  topsail. 
Against  wind  they  are  rowed,  or  poled  if  the  water  be  shallow,  and 
against  tide  or  current  they  are  towed  from  the  bank.  The  cargo  boats 
are  always  decked  over.  Passengers  use  the  budgerow,  a  broad-beamed 
craft  with  ample  cabin  space  and  room  for  a  galley  in  the  stern.  The 
hhaulid  is  a  smaller  and  more  lightly  buiU  passenger  boat.  On  the 
smaller  streams  and  across  the  swamps  light  dug-outs  carry  all  the 
traffic.  They  are  poled  in  shallow  water  and  paddled  on  the  deeper 
channels. 

The  larger  rivers  are  rarely  bridged,  and  passengers,  carts,  and  cattle 
cross  in  ferry-boats.  These  ferries  are  leased  annually  at  auction  for 
a  considerable  sum.  Some  are  Provincial,  but  most  have  been  made 
over  to  District  boards  and  municipalities.  The  total  receipts  from 
ferries  in  1903-4  were  6-5  lakhs,  of  which  5  lakhs  was  credited  to 
District  boards  and  1-5  lakhs  to  municipalities.  Steam  ferries  ply 
across  the  Ganges,  connecting  railway  systems  ;  the  most  important 
are  at  Sara,  Mokameh,  and  Paleza  Ghat.  A  steam  ferry  crosses  the 
Hooghly  from  Diamond  Harbour  to  Geonkhali. 

The  Province  is  divided  for  postal  purposes  into  three  circles  \  of 
which  the  Bengal  circle  (which  includes  Katmandu  in  Nepal)  is  under 
a  Postmaster-General,  and  the  East  Bengal  and  Bihar  circles  under 
Deputy-Postmasters-General.  Each  circle  is  subdivided  into  divisions 
managed  by  Superintendents.  The  table  on  the  next  page  shows  the 
remarkable  advance  which  has  taken  place  in  postal  business,  for  the 
three  Bengal  circles  taken  together. 

The  business  is,  however,  still  very  small  in  comparison  with  the 
population,  and  the  number  of  postal  articles  of  all  kinds  delivered 
in  1903-4  works  out  to  only  two  per  head  of  the  population.  The 
figures  relate  to  both  the  Imperial  and  District  post.  The  latter  system 
was  a   substitute   for   the   official   posts   which    under    ancient    custom 

'  In  1905  the  Pioviiice,  as  reconstituted,  became  a  single  circle,  the  liihfir  circle 
being  abolished. 


282 


BENGAL 


Bengal  landowners  had  to  maintain.  A  tax,  known  as  the  Dak  cess, 
was  levied,  and  expended  in  maintaining  postal  communications  required 
for  administrative  purposes,  the  up-keep  of  which  was  not  warranted  on 
commercial  principles.  The  District  Magistrate  decided  what  communi- 
cations were  to  be  opened  and  maintained,  but  their  management  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Postal  department.  The  expenditure  from  this  cess, 
which  was  fixed  for  each  District  according  to  its  requirements,  averaged 
3-58  lakhs  annually  for  the  five  years  ending  in  1903-4.  In  1903-4  the 
offices  numbered  292,  the  length  worked  was  11,832  miles,  and  the 
expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  3,53,384.  In  1906  the  tax  was  abolished, 
and  the  District  post  was  amalgamated  with  the  Imperial  system. 


1880-1. 

1 890-1. 

I900-I. 

1903-4. 

Number  of  post  offices 

and  letter  boxes 

4,671 

8,089 

9.927 

11,204 

Number    of   miles    of 

postal    communica- 

tion 

21,498 

25,672 

27,686 

28,347 

Total  number  of  postal 

articles  delivered  (in 

thousands) : — 

Letters 

28,550 

37.636 

57,538 

56,495 

Postcards     . 

3.433 

24,922 

53.678 

64..307 

Packets 

382 

2,524 

6,747 

4,803 

Newspapers 

2,229 

5>394 

9- .^88 

10,248 

Parcels 

213 

407 

804 

1,182 

Rs.  in 

Rs.  ill 

Rs.  ill 

Rs.  in 

thousands. 

thousands. 

thousands. 

thousands. 

Value  of  stamps  sold 

to  the  public    . 

11,91 

12,53 

31,35 

36,16 

Value  of  money  orders 

issued 

1,20,24 

5,08,02 

7.99.03 

8,81,87 

Total   amount  of  sav- 

ings bank  deposits    . 

•• 

1.54,46 

2,93,62 

3,39,80 

Famine. 


In  an  agricultural  country  like  Bengal  the  failure  of  the  crops  must 
always  cause  considerable  distress,  the  degree  of  which  varies  with  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  failure,  the  material  condition 
of  the  people,  and  their  character,  and  lastly  the 
accessibility  or  otherwise  of  the  tract  affected. 

The  great  cause  of  deficient  harvests  is  insufficient  or  badly  distributed 
rainfall.  Sometimes  much  damage  is  done  by  floods,  and  sometimes, 
though  more  rarely,  by  blight  or  locusts  ;  but  in  such  cases  the  area 
affected  is  generally  limited. 

The  crop  which  is  most  sensitive  to  a  short  or  badly  distributed  rain- 
fall is  the  winter  rice,  which  requires  copious  showers  in  May  and  a 
punctual  commencement  of  the  monsoon,  but  is  especially  dependent 
on  the  continuance  of  the  rainfall  throughout  September  and  the  early 
days  of  October;  it  is  this  crop  which  is  most  liable  to  fail  in  adverse 


FAMINE  283 

seasons.  It  follows  that,  if  the  rainfall  is  uncertain,  the  tracts  most 
liable  to  famine  are  those  in  which  the  winter  rice  is  most  largely  grown. 
In  the  favoured  Districts  of  Eastern  Bengal  the  winter  rice  is  the  staple 
crop ;  but  there  a  serious  failure  of  the  annual  rains  is  unknown,  and 
the  subsoil  water-level  is  so  high  that,  in  years  when  the  rainfall  is  only 
moderately  deficient,  the  ground  retains  sufficient  moisture  to  prevent 
anything  approaching  a  total  loss  of  the  crops.  The  whole  of  the 
Dacca*  and  Chittagong*  Divisions  are  therefore  excluded  from  the  list 
of  tracts  liable  to  famine.  Here  the  only  danger  of  disaster  arises  from 
the  cyclonic  storm-waves  which,  at  intervals,  burst  over  the  country  and 
carry  in  their  train  widespread  ruin  and  desolation.  In  other  parts  of 
Bengal  proper,  where  also  the  winter  rice  is  as  a  rule  the  principal  crop, 
the  immunity  from  famine  is  less  complete ;  but  the  rainfall  is  usually 
ample,  and  the  areas  liable  to  famine  are  less  extensive  than  in  the 
other  sub-provinces.  From  time  to  time  the  submontane  tracts  have 
been  swept  by  disastrous  floods  ;  and,  when  the  embankments  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Bhaglrathi  give  way,  floods  occasionally  break  across 
Murshidabad  and  Nadia  Districts.  The  Damodar  also  sometimes 
inundates  the  country  on  its  right  bank. 

In  Bihar  the  conditions  north  and  south  of  the  Ganges  differ  con- 
siderably. The  latter  has  a  more  scanty  rainfall  ;  but  it  enjoys  an 
extensive  system  of  irrigation,  partly  from  the  Son  Canals  constructed 
by  the  Government,  and  partly  from  reservoirs  constructed  by  the  ryots 
themselves  on  the  slopes  of  the  undulations  which  characterize  that  part 
of  the  country.  A  great  variety  of  crops  are  grown,  and  it  rarely  happens 
that  famine  obtains  a  grip  over  any  considerable  area.  North  of  the 
Ganges  the  rainfall  is  more  copious  than  on  the  south  bank,  but  it  is 
more  capricious  than  in  Bengal  proper.  In  Saran  and  the  south  of 
Muzafiarpur  there  is  a  good  deal  of  irrigation  from  wells  or  streams,  and 
the  crops  are  divided  almost  equally  among  the  three  great  harvests  of 
the  year,  so  that  a  total  crop  failure  is  practically  impossible.  Elsewhere, 
and  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  Champaran,  Muzafiarpur,  and 
Darbhanga  Districts,  which  borders  on  the  Nepal  tarai,  winter  rice  is 
the  main  crop.  In  normal  years  the  fertile  soil  yields  bountiful  crops 
without  irrigation,  which  has  not  been  adequately  provided  and  which 
is  necessary  only  in  seasons  of  drought  ;  but  the  population  is  dense, 
wages  are  low  and  rents  high,  and  when  the  rains  fail  the  distress  is 
great.  This  is  the  zone  described  by  Sir  Richard  Temple  as  the 
'  blackest  of  black  spots  on  the  famine  map.'  There  has  scarcely  ever 
been  a  year  of  distress  or  scarcity  in  any  part  of  Bengal  when  North 
Bihar  did  not  bear  the  brunt  of  it.  Orissa  suffered  terribly  from  famine 
in  1866  and  1867  ;  but,  since  the  construction  of  the  canals  now  in 
existence,  there  has  been  no  widespread  crop  failure,  and  it  is  only  in 
Purl  District  that  famine  on  a  large  scale  is  at  all  likely  to  occur.   Chota 


284  BENGAL 

Nagpur  is  a  sparsely  populated  region,  inhabited  by  wild  tribes  ;  and  its 
liability  to  famine  is  due  mainly  to  its  inaccessibility,  which  makes  it 
difficult  to  import  food-grains,  and  to  the  suspicious  and  restless  nature 
of  the  ignorant  aborigines,  who  shun  relief  works  as  they  would  the 
plague. 

The  danger  of  widespread  famine  is  gradually  being  reduced,  owing 
to  the  improvement  in  the  material  condition  of  the  people,  the  growing 
demand  for  labour  in  the  coal-mines,  jute-mills,  and  other  non-agricul- 
tural undertakings,  the  great  improvement  that  has  been  made  in  com- 
munications, and  especially  the  rapid  growth  of  railways,  which  now  tap 
nearly  every  District  in  the  Province,  and  the  construction  of  protective 
canals  in  the  tracts  where  the  danger  of  famine  due  to  insufficient  rain- 
fall is  greatest.  In  the  whole  Province  it  is  estimated  that  an  area  of 
74,500  square  miles  is  liable  to  famine  ;  and  of  this  area  28,500  square 
miles  are  in  the  sub-province  of  Bihar,  27,000  in  Chota  Nagpur,  14,500 
in  Bengal  proper,  and  4,500  in  Orissa.  The  population  of  this  area  is 
29,000,000  ;  and  if  all  these  tracts  were  simultaneously  affected  by  severe 
famine,  it  might  be  necessary  to  provide  relief  for  2,000,000  persons. 

The  first  great  famine  of  which  we  have  any  trustworthy  record  is 
that  which  devastated  the  Province  in  1769-70,  when  Bengal,  though 
under  British  control,  was  still  under  native  administration.  Eastern 
Bengal  alone  escaped,  and,  except  for  the  importation  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  rice  from  this  favoured  tract,  it  does  not  appear  that  any  public 
measures  for  relief  were  taken.  One-third  of  the  population  of  Bengal 
is  believed  to  have  perished  in  this  terrible  catastrophe.  The  next 
really  serious  scarcity  in  Bengal  was  the  memorable  Orissa  famine  of 
1865-7.  The  full  extent  of  the  crop  feilure  consequent  on  the  scanty 
rainfall  of  1865  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  local  food  supplies  was  not 
realized  by  the  authorities  in  time;  and  when  at  last,  in  June,  1866,  an 
effort  was  made  to  provide  the  starving  people  with  food,  the  south-west 
monsoon  prevented  the  ships,  lying  laden  with  grain  in  the  port  of 
Calcutta,  from  reaching  the  stricken  peopled  It  is  said  that  a  quarter 
of  the  population  died  of  starvation  and  of  the  diseases  which  resulted. 
This  disaster,  appalling  as  it  was,  had  one  good  result — it  led  to  a  firm 
determination  to  prevent  all  similar  occurrences  in  future,  and  from  that 
time  dates  the  earnest  watchfulness  which  has  never  since  been  relaxed. 
At  the  next  serious  crop  failure  in  1874  scarcity  prevailed  chiefly  in 
North  Bihar  and  also,  in  a  lesser  degree,  in  South  Bihar  and  North 
Bengal.  On  this  occasion  relief  measures  were  undertaken  in  ample 
time,  and  all  serious  loss  of  life  was  prevented.  The  defect,  if  any,  in 
the  administration  of  this  famme  was  that  money  was  expended  too 

'  The  monsoon  of  1S66  was  as  heavy  as  that  of  the  previous  year  had  been  light, 
and  in  low-lyini(  tracts  tiie  rice  was  destroyed  by  floods.  On  this  occasion  ample 
relief  was  given. 


FAMINE  285 

lavishly,  and  the  object  in  view  might  perhaps  have  been  effected  at  a 
lower  cost  than  the  6  crores  actually  spent. 

In  1 89 1  the  early  close  of  the  monsoon  and  the  absence  of  the  cold- 
season  rains  caused  much  damage  to  the  winter  rice  and  rabi  crops, 
and  relief  operations  were  necessary  in  parts  of  Muzaffarpur,  Darbhanga, 
Monghyr,  BhSgalpur,  Purnea,  and  Dinajpur*.  The  largest  number  on 
relief  works  on  any  one  day  was  83,000,  and  on  gratuitous  relief  4,700  ; 
the  total  cost  of  the  operations  was  rather  less  than  5  lakhs. 

The  famine  of  1896-7  was  far  more  serious.  The  causes  of  the  crop 
failure  were  a  very  unfavourable  distributioi'v  of  the  rainfall  early  in  1896 
and  its  entire  absence  after  the  early  part  of  September.  There  had 
been  a  very  poor  harvest  of  winter  rice  in  1895,  and  in  1896  it  was 
again  this  crop  that  suffered  most.  The  brunt  of  the  famine  fell  U[)on 
the  Districts  of  Champaran,  Muzaffarpur,  Darbhanga,  and  Saran,  and 
especially  upon  the  tracts  near  the  Nepal  frontier,  where  the  proportion 
of  rice  cultivation  is  highest.  In  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  Palamau, 
Hazaribagh,  Manbhum,  and  two  tracts  in  the  Santal  Parganas  were 
seriously  affected.  Relief  works  were  opened  in  November,  1896,  and 
by  the  close  of  the  year  45,000  persons  were  employed  on  them.  In 
March,  1897,  the  distress  deepened  rapidly,  and  the  numbers  on  relief 
rose  steadily  until  May,  when  402,000  persons  were  employed  on 
famine  works,  and  426,000  were  in  receipt  of  gratuitous  relief.  As 
soon  as  the  monsoon  had  fairly  set  in,  the  numbers  quickly  diminished, 
and  during  September  and  October  relief  operations  were  brought  to 
a  close.  The  total  expenditure  was  nearly  no  lakhs,  in  addition  to 
advances  to  cultivators  aggregating  nearly  3  lakhs,  donations  of  nearly 
20  lakhs  from  the  Charitable  Relief  Fund,  the  outcome  of  voluntary 
subscriptions  in  India,  England,  and  other  countries,  and  private  relief 
by  zamlndars  and  others.  The  measures  adopted  were  most  successful 
in  saving  life  ;  and  the  vital  statistics,  which  are  confirmed  by  the  results 
of  the  last  Census,  show  that,  except  in  the  wilder  parts  of  Chota  Nag- 
pur, the  mortality  was  actually  below  the  normal  during  the  famine 
year\  The  birth-rate  was  very  little  affected;  it  fell  slightly  in  1898, 
the  year  after  the  famine,  but  rose  so  much  higher  than  usual  in  the 
following  year,  that  the  mean  birth-rate  of  the  two  years  taken  together 
was  considerably  above  the  average  for  the  decade. 

In  1899  the  monsoon  was  very  capricious  in  parts  of  Chota  Nagpur 
and  Orissa.  There  w^as  excessive  rain  in  July,  but  exceptionally  little 
in  August  and  September.  The  crops  were  very  poor  throughout 
the  area  affected,  but  actual  famine  supervened  only  in  about  half  of 
Ranch!  and  a  small  part  of  Palamau  District. 

As  already  stated,  the  immediate  control  of  the  Province  of  Bengal 

'  This  subject  is  fully  discussed  in  the  Bengal  Census  Report  for  1901,  paragiaphs 
iSi,  184,  1S6,  199,  202,  and  397. 


286  BENGAL 

was  vesical  in  thr  Governor-General  of  India  till  1854,  when  a  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor was  api)ointed.     He  has  a  staff  of  five 
Administration.  ^     .  .         r     .1         j-  •  -i     1     ■   •  .    .• 

secretaries — three  for  the  ordinary  civil  administration 

and  two  for  Public  \\'orks.  The  former  are  the  Chief  Secretary,  who  is 
in  charge  of  the  Revenue,  Political,  and  Appointment  departments,  the 
General  Secretary  in  the  Judicial  and  General  departments,  and  the 
Secretary  in  the  Financial  and  Municipal  departments.  One  of  the 
Public  Works  Secretaries  is  concerned  with  irrigation,  marine,  and 
railways,  and  the  other  with  roads  and  buildings.  The  Judicial  de- 
partment was  formerly  under  the  Chief  Secretary,  and  revenue  matters 
were  dealt  with  by  the  General  Secretary  ;  but  recently  (1905)  a  redis- 
tribution of  work  has  been  introduced  by  which  the  Revenue  depart- 
ment has  been  transferred  to  the  Chief  Secretary,  and  the  Judicial 
department  to  the  General  Secretary.  The  branches  of  work  now 
under  the  Chief  Secretary  include  land  revenue,  surveys  and  settle- 
ments, agriculture,  forests,  mines,  police,  registration,  and  political 
matters ;  those  under  the  Judicial  and  General  Secretary  include 
prisons,  education,  and  emigration ;  and  those  under  the  Financial 
and  Municipal  Secretary  include  separate  revenue,  opium,  local  self- 
government,  medical,  and  sanitation. 

The  control  of  all  matters  connected  with  the  collection  of  the 
revenue  and  the  administration  of  the  land  is  vested  in  the  Board  of 
Revenue,  which  was  constituted  by  Regulation  III  of  1822.  There 
are  two  members,  one  of  whom  deals  with  land  revenue,  surveys  and 
settlements,  land  registration,  the  management  of  wards'  estates,  the 
collection  of  cesses,  &c.,  and  the  other  with  miscellaneous  revenue, 
including  excise,  opium,  income-tax,  salt,  customs,  and  the  like.  Each 
member  is  vested  with  the  full  powers  of  the  Board  in  respect  of  his 
own  department,  and  can  act  for  his  colleague  if  the  latter  is  absent. 

For  administrative  purposes  Bengal  is  divided  into  nine  Divisions, 
each  of  which  is  superintended  by  a  Commissioner.  Of  these,  five — 
the  Burdwan,  Presidency,  Rajshahi*,  Dacca*,  and  Chittagong*  Di- 
visions— lie  within  the  limits  of  Bengal  proper ;  two — Patna  and  Bha- 
galpur — make  up  the  sub-province  of  Bihar,  while  Orissa  and  Chota 
Nagpur  each  forms  a  separate  Commissionership.  The  average  area  * 
of  a  Commissioner's  Division  is  rather  more  than  17,000  square  miles, 
and  the  average  population  is  a  little  more  than  8  millions.  The 
Chota  Nagpur  Division  with  27,000  square  miles  is  the  largest,  while 
the  most  populous  is  the  Patna  Division  with  15-I  millions,  or  about 
the  population  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  excluding  Sind.  The  Com- 
missioner exercises  a  general  control  over  the  conduct  of  affairs  within 
his  Division.     He  is  responsible  for  seeing  that  the  local  officers  duly 

'  Bengal  now  consists  of  six  Divisions,  tiie  average  area  being  a  little  over  19,000 
square  miles. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  2  8  7 

perform  the  duties  required  of  them,  and  that  the  orders  issued  by 
Government  are  carried  into  effect.  He  is  addressed  by  the  local 
ofificers  when  they  are  in  need  of  instructions,  and  he  refers  to  Govern- 
ment or  to  the  Board  of  Revenue  all  questions  which  he  is  not  competent 
to  dispose  of  himself.  He  also  assists  Government  and  the  Board  with 
his  advice  when  called  upon  to  do  so. 

These  Divisions  are  again  subdivided  into  Districts,  each  under  a 
District  officer,  known  as  the  Magistrate  and  Collector  in  regulation, 
and  the  Deputy-Commissioner  in  non-regulation  *  tracts.  Including 
Angul  and  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*,  but  excluding  Calcutta,  there 
are  in  all  forty-seven  Districts.  The  two  largest  are  Hazaribagh  and 
Ranchl,  each  extending  over  more  than  7,000  square  miles,  or  about 
half  as  large  again  as  Wales,  while  the  smallest  is  Howrah  with  only 
510  square  miles.  The  greatest  number  of  inhabitants  is  found  in 
Mymensingh*,  whose  population  of  4,000,000  does  not  fall  far  short 
of  that  of  the  whole  of  Upper  Burma.  The  average  area^  of  a  District 
exceeds  3,300  square  miles,  and  the  average  population  is  more  than 
1^  millions. 

These  Districts  again  are  usually  partitioned  into  two  or  more  sub- 
divisions, the  head-quarters  subdivision  being  usually  administered  by 
the  District  Magistrate  and  each  of  the  others  by  a  Joint,  Assistant,  or 
Deputy-Magistrate  subordinate  to  him.  The  total  number  of  these 
subdivisions  is  134.  Their  area  is  on  the  average^  i)i77  square  miles, 
and  their  population  more  than  559,000.  The  last  and  smallest  unit  of 
administration  is  the  police  circle  or  thdna.  This  is  primarily  the  unit 
of  police  administration,  and  is  usually  in  charge  of  a  sub-inspector ;  but 
it  has  also  come  to  be  the  acknowledged  unit  of  territorial  partition  and 
is  used  in  all  administrative  matters.  The  number  of  thdnas  in  Bengal 
is  569,  or  about  12  per  District;  their  average  area  is  277  square 
miles,  and  their  population  about  130,000  persons.  The  fiscal  divisions 
of  the  Muhammadans,  called  parganas,  formed  the  basis  of  the  British 
revenue  system  ;  but  they  are  wanting  in  compactness  and,  except  for 
the  purpose  of  land  revenue  payments,  they  are  no  longer  of  any  prac- 
tical importance. 

The  mainstay  of  the  British  administration  is  the  District  officer. 
He  is  the  executive  chief  and  administrator  of  the  tract  of  country  com- 
mitted to  him,  and  all  other  magisterial,  police,  and  revenue  officers 
therein  employed  are  subordinate  to  him.     As  District  Magistrate  he  is 

*  The  non-regulation  Districts  are  those  in  which  some  at  least  of  the  general  laws 
and  regulations  are  not  in  force.  They  form  the  '  .Sclieduled  Districts  '  referred  to  in 
Act  XIV  of  1874  (see  Vol.  IV,  p.  1311. 

-  There  are  now  thirty-three  Districts,  the  average  area  being  3,500  square  miles. 

"  There  are  now  100  subdivisions,  the  average  area  f)eing  1,170  square  miles  and 
the  average  population  504,000. 


288  BENGAL 

the  head  of  the  department  of  criminal  justice,  which  is  charged  with 
the  trial  of  all  but  the  more  important  charges;  the  latter  are  committed 
to  the  Court  of  Sessions,  if  inquiry  goes  to  show  that  a  prima  facie  case 
has  been  established.  He  is  assisted  in  police  matters  by  the  District 
Superintendent  of  police,  who  is  allowed  a  free  hand  in  all  purely 
administrative  details.  He  is  cx-ojficio  chairman  of  the  District  board, 
and,  as  such,  is  in  charge  of  all  local  public  works,  village  sanitation, 
and  education  ;  he  is  assisted  in  these  matters  by  the  District  Engineer 
and  the  Deputy-Inspector  of  schools.  The  municipalities  of  the  Dis- 
trict are  sometimes  presided  over  by  official,  and  sometimes  by  non- 
official,  chairmen,  but  in  either  case  the  District  officer  is  expected  to 
exercise  a  general  supervision  and  control.  He  is  also  ex-officio  Regis- 
trar of  assurances.  As  Collector  he  is  responsible  for  the  realization  of 
all  kinds  of  revenue  and  taxes,  for  the  management  of  Government 
estates,  the  assessment  of  the  income-tax,  the  settlement  of,  and  super- 
vision over,  excise  and  opium  shops,  &c.,  &c.  The  officers  in  charge 
of  subdivisions  exercise  in  their  own  jurisdictions,  in  subordination  to 
the  District  officer,  the  powers  of  chief  local  magistrate  ;  certain  other 
powers  are  also  delegated  to  them,  but  they  do  not  usually  collect  land 
revenue,  and  in  police  matters  they  have  only  judicial  and  not  executive 
control. 

The  Magistrate-Collector  is  assisted  in  the  criminal  and  revenue 
administration  of  the  District  by  a  subordinate  staff— a  Joint-Magis- 
trate, Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors,  Assistant  Magistrate-Collectors,  and 
Sub-Deputy  Magistrate-Collectors.  Joint-Magistrates  and  Assistant  Ma- 
gistrates are  junior  officers  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service  ;  the  other  officials 
are  recruited  in  India,  and  are  members  of  the  Provincial  or  the  Subor- 
dinate civil  service.  All  these  officials  are  stationed  either  at  District 
or  at  subdivisional  head-quarters. 

The  village  watch  are  paid  from  taxation  assessed  and  collected  in 
the  villages  by  the  panchdyats,  who  represent  all  that  remains  in  Bengal 
of  village  autonomy.  These  panchdyats  assist  in  the  registration  of  vital 
statistics  ;  and  recently,  in  order  to  develop  the  system  of  village  govern- 
ment, it  has  been  decided  that  the  presidents  of  the  panchdyats  are  to 
be  ex-officio  visitors  of  primary  schools  aided  from  public  funds  or 
under  public  management,  and  also  of  pounds,  public  ferries,  and 
public  sarais  in  their  Unions.  In  some  Districts  the  presidents  have 
also  been  granted  certain  magisterial  powers.  In  Chota  Nagpur  village 
communities  are  still  to  be  found,  and  some  account  of  the  system  is 
given  in  the  article  on  the  Munda  tribe. 

The  following  are  the  Native  States  under  the  control  of,  or  in 
political  relations  with,  the  Government  of  Bengal '  : — 

1  In  1906  Sikkim  and  l^hutan  were  placed  in  direct  relations  with  the  Government 
of  India. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  289 

Sikkim  lies  to  tlie  east  of  Nepal  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
north-east  by  Tibet,  on  the  east  by  Bhutan,  and  on  the  south  by  Dar- 
jeeling  District.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  Sikkim  was  menaced 
by  the  Gurkhas,  but  its  independence  was  secured  by  the  treaty  made 
with  Nepal  in  1816,  at  which  time  it  included  the  greater  part  of  the 
present  District  of  Darjeeling.  In  1835  part  of  the  hilly  tract  west  of 
the  Tista  was  ceded  to  the  British  (Government,  for  the  purpose  of  a 
sanitarium  ;  and  in  1850  the  rest  of  it  and  the  tarai,  i.e.  the  Sillguri 
thdna,  were  annexed  on  account  of  the  Raja's  misbehaviour.  For 
many  years  the  State  was  left  to  manage  its  own  affairs,  but  for  some 
time  prior  to  1888  the  Tibetans  were  found  to  be  intriguing  with  the 
Maharaja,  who  became  more  and  more  unfriendly.  Affairs  reached  a 
climax  in  1888,  when  an  expedition  was  sent  against  the  Tibetans,  who 
had  advanced  into  Sikkim  and  built  a  fort  at  Lingtu.  The  Sikkim  State 
was  occupied  by  British  troops,  and  the  Tibetans  were  driven  off  with 
ease.  Since  1889  a  Political  officer  has  been  stationed  at  Gangtok,  to 
advise  and  assist  the  Maharaja  and  his  council.  No  precise  rules 
have  ever  been  laid  down  for  the  civil  and  criminal  administration.  All 
except  very  trivial  cases  are  tried  at  Gangtok,  either  by  the  Maharaja 
himself  or  by  the  Political  officer,  or  by  one  or  other  of  them  in  associa- 
tion with  some  member  of  the  council.  Appeals  are  heard  by  the 
Maharaja,  sitting  with  one  or  more  members  of  the  council,  or  by  a 
committee  of  the  council.  Capital  sentences  passed  by  other  autho- 
rities require  the  confirmation  of  the  Maharaja.  The  annual  budget 
estimates  of  income  and  expenditure  are,  in  the  first  instance,  approved 
by  the  Maharaja  and  the  council,  and  are  then  submitted  for  the 
sanction  of  the   Government  by  the  Political  officer. 

Bhutan  lies  east  of  Sikkim  and  Darjeeling  and  north  of  Jalpaiguri* 
and  of  the  Goalpara,  Kamrup,  and  Darrang  Districts  of  Assam.  It  is 
internally  independent,  and  there  is  no  British  Resident.  Repeated 
outrages  on  British  subjects  by  the  hillmen,  and  the  brutal  treatment 
of  a  British  envoy,  led  in  1864  to  the  hostilities  already  described, 
which  resulted  in  the  confiscation  of  the  Duars*,  or  submontane  tracts, 
with  the  passes  leading  into  the  hills,  in  return  for  which  an  annual 
subsidy  of  Rs.  50,000  is  paid  at  Buxa*.  Since  then  relations  with 
Bhutan  have,  on  the  whole,  been  of  a  friendly  character  ;  and  under  the 
ascendancy  of  the  Tongsa  Penlop,  who,  in  the  name  of  the  Deb  Raja, 
controls  all  public  affairs,  the  country  enjoys  the  advantage  of  a  settled 
government.  The  Political  officer  in  Sikkim  now  conducts  relations 
with  Bhutan  also. 

The  Feudatory  State  of  Cooch  Behar  lies  in  the  plains  at  the  foot 
of  the  Bhutan  hills,  between  the  District  of  Rangpur*  and  the 
Jalpaiguri  Duars*.  It  is  the  only  remnant  of  the  great  Koch  kingdom 
founded  by  Biswa  Singh  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 

VOL.  VII,  u 


290  J^JCAiG^l/. 

which,  under  his  son  Nar  Narayan,  extended  from  the  Mahananda  as 
far  east  as  Central  Assam.  On  Nar  Narayan's  death  the  kingdom  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  and  only  the  western  portion  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Maharaja,  who  accepted 
the  Muhammadans  as  their  overlords.  Their  power  gradually  declined, 
and  from  time  to  time  they  were  shorn  of  outlying  parts  of  their 
dominions.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Bhotias  began  to 
interfere,  and  by  1772  they  had  taken  possession  of  the  Raja  and  of  his 
capital.  British  aid  was  then  sought,  and,  in  consideration  of  the  cession 
in  perpetuity  of  half  the  revenues  as  then  ascertained,  the  Bhotias  were 
driven  out.  The  Maharaja  administers  the  State  with  the  assistance 
of  a  council,  of  which  he  is  the  president,  and  which  includes  the 
Superintendent  of  the  State,  a  British  ofificer,  who  is  vice-president, 
and  two  State  officials — the  Dlwan,  who  is  revenue  member,  and  the 
Civil  and  Sessions  Judge,  who  is  the  judicial  member.  The  executive 
control  is  vested  in  the  Faujdari  Ahlkar,  who  corresponds  to  the 
Magistrate  of  a  British  District,  and  is  subordinate  to  the  Superintendent 
of  the  State.  The  Civil  and  Sessions  Judge  occupies  much  the  same 
position  as  the  corresponding  officer  in  Bengal  regulation  Districts. 
Sentences  of  death  require  the  confirmation  of  the  Maharaja.  The 
budget  is  passed  by  the  Maharaja,  and  does  not  need  the  sanction  of 
any  other  authority  ;  but  a  general  control  over  the  affairs  of  the  State 
is  exercised  by  the  Government  of  Bengal  in  the  Political  department. 

Hill  Tippera*  lies  to  the  south  of  Tippera  District*  and,  like  Cooch 
Behar,  represents  the  last  fragment  of  a  once  powerful  kingdom,  which 
formerly  extended  far  into  the  plains  of  East  Bengal  and  South  Assam, 
and  which  long  bade  defiance  to  the  Muhammadan  Nawabs\  The 
Tippera  kings  were  gradually  deprived  of  their  rule  in  the  plains,  and 
at  the  time  of  the  acquisition  of  Bengal  by  the  East  India  Company 
they  exercised  sovereign  powers  only  in  the  hill  tract  now  ruled 
by  them.  The  Raja,  however,  derives  the  greater  part  of  his  income 
from  certain  large  estates  in  British  territory  which  he  holds  as 
zain'inddr.  No  formal  treaty  regulates  the  relations  between  the  British 
Government  and  the  Raja  of  Hill  Tippera*,  but  the  succession  of  a  new 
Raja  has  always  been  subject  to  recognition  and  investiture  by  the 
British  authorities.  No  control  was  exercised  in  respect  of  the  internal 
administration  until  the  year  1871,  when  an  English  officer  was 
appointed  to  reside  in  the  State  as  Political  Agent,  to  protect  British 
interests  and  advise  the  Raja.  This  officer  was  subsequently  withdrawn, 
and  his  duties  now  devolve  on  the  Magistrate  and  Collector  of  Tippera 
District*,   who  is  ex-officio  Political  Agent   for  Hill  Tippera'.      He  is 

'  The  Rajindla,  or  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Tippera,  has  been  analyzed  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Long,  in  a  paper  in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  xix. 


ADMINISTRATION  •     291 

required  to  maintain  a  close  watch  over  the  affairs  of  the  Slate,  and 
it  is  to  him  that  Government  looks  for  information  regarding  all 
important  occurrences  there.  All  correspondence  passes  through  him, 
and  an  annual  report  on  the  administration  of  the  State  is  submitted  to 
him  for  transmission  to  Government,  through  the  Commissioner  of  the 
Chittagong  Division*.  The  chief  is  himself  the  highest  court  of  appeal 
in  all  civil  and  criminal  matters,  and  sentences  of  death  passed  or 
confirmed  by  him  are  final. 

The  Orissa  Tributary  States'  are  17  in  number:  namely,  Athgarh, 

Talcher,    Mayurbhanj,    Nilgiri,     Keonjhar,     Pal     Lahara,     l)henkanal, 

Athmallik,  Hindol,  Narsinghpur,  Baramba,  Tigiria,  Khandpara,  Naya- 

garh,    Ranpur,    Daspalla,    and    Baud.      These   were   acquired   at    the 

conquest  of  Orissa  from  the  Marathas  in  1803  ;  but  as  they  had  never 

been  brought  under  complete  control  by  the  native  governments,  they 

were  exempted  from  the  operation  of  the  general  Regulations.    Treaties 

were  made  with  the  several  States  on  various  dates  between  1803  and 

1829.     It  has  been  held  that  these  States  do  not  form  part  of  British 

India,  and  the  status,  position,  and  power  of  the  chiefs  are  defined  in 

their  sanads.     The  chiefs  administer  civil  and  criminal  justice  under 

the  supervision  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  Orissa  Division,  who  is 

exofficio  Superintendent  of  the  Tributary  States.     All  capital  cases,  and, 

except  in  special  cases  when  a  chief's  powers  have  been  increased,  all 

heinous  offences  which  require  more  than  two  years'  imprisonment,  are 

committed  by  the  Assistants  to  the  Superintendent  of  Tributary  Mahals 

for  trial.     One  of  these  is  a  special  native  Assistant,  who  tries  sessions 

cases  from  certain  States  and  such  other  cases  as  the  Superintendent 

may  make  over  to  him  ;  the  others  are  the  Magistrates  of  Cuttack,  Purl, 

and  Balasore,  and  the  Deputy-Commissioner  of  Angul,  who  are  ex-officio 

Assistant  Superintendents,   but,   with   the  exception   of  the    two    last 

mentioned,  they  do  not  often  deal  with  criminal  cases.     The  Assistant 

Superintendents  have  the  power  of  District  Magistrates  and  Sessions 

Judges,  while  the  Superintendent  has  the  powers  of  a  Sessions  Judge, 

and  also,  in  respect  of  the  proceedings  of  his  subordinates,  those  of  a 

High  Court. 

In  Chota  Nagpur  there  are  seven  Tributary  and  two  Political  States  -. 
The  former,  including  Chang  Bhakar*,  Korea*,  Jashpur*,  Surguja', 
Udaipur*,  Gangpur,  and  Bonai,  were  tributaries  of  the  Bhonsla  dynasty 

*  Owing  to  the  territorial  change  effected  in  October,  1905,  the  number  of  these 
States  has  been  increased  from  17  to  24,  as  two  States,  Gangpur  and  Bonai,  have  been 
transferred  from  the  Chota  Nagpur  States,  and  five  more,  namely,  Bamra,  Kairakhol 
Sonpur,  Patna,  and  Kalahandi,  have  been  transferred  from  the  Central  Provinces. 

*  The  Chota  Nagpur  Slates  now  include  only  tlie  two  Political  Slates  of  Kharsawan 
and  Saraikela.  Of  the  oilier  States,  Gangpur  and  Ponai  have  been  transferred  to  the 
Orissa  Tributary  Stales,  and  the  reit,  namely,  Chang  Bhakar,  Korea,  Jashpur,  Surguja, 
and  Udaipur,  have  been  transferred  to  the  Central  Provinces. 

U  2 


292  BENGAL 

of  Nagpur,  and  were  ceded  under  the  provisional  agreement  concluded 
with  Madhuji  Bhonsla  in  1818.  The  tribute  was  then  fixed  at  a  lower 
rate  than  that  levied  under  the  Maratha  government,  and  the  settle- 
ments witli  the  chiefs  were  made  for  a  limited  period.  Fresh  settlements 
for  a  nominal  term  of  five  years  were  made  in  1827,  but  were  not 
renewed  until  1875,  when  they  were  made  for  a  period  of  twenty  years. 
The  latter  were  renewed  in  1889,  when  the  tribute  was  fixed  for 
a  further  period  of  twenty  years,  and  the  States  having  in  the  mean- 
time been  declared  by  the  Secretary  of  State  to  be  outside  British  India, 
the  relations  between  them  and  the  British  Government  were  defined 
in  their  new  sanads.  The  chiefs  of  these  States  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Chota  Nagpur.  They  are  permitted  to  levy 
rents  and  certain  other  customary  dues  from  their  subjects.  They  are 
empowered  to  pass  sentences  of  imprisonment  up  to  five  years  and  of 
fine  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  200  ;  but  sentences  of  imprisonment  for  more 
than  two  years,  or  of  fine  exceeding  Rs.  50,  require  the  confirmation 
of  the  Commissioner.  Heinous  offences  calling  for  heavier  punish- 
ment are  dealt  with  by  the  Deputy-Commissioners  of  Ranchi,  Palamau, 
and  Singhbhum,  who  exercise  the  powers  of  District  Magistrates  and 
Assistant  Sessions  Judges  ;  the  Commissioner  and  Judicial  Com- 
missioner in  respect  of  such  cases  occupy  the  position  of  a  Sessions 
Court,  while  the  functions  of  a  High  Court  are  performed  by  the 
Government  of  Bengal. 

The  two  Political  States  of  Saraikela  and  Kharsawan  lie  in  Singh- 
bhum, and  control  over  them  is  exercised  by  the  Commissioner  through 
the  Deputy-Commissioner  of  that  District.  They  were  claimed  as 
feudatories  by  the  Raja  of  Porahat,  whose  territory  was  confiscated  in 
1857  for  rebellion,  but  was  in  1895  restored  as  a  revenue-free  zamindari 
to  his  son.  It  is  believed  that  engagements  were  taken  from  the  chiefs 
of  these  States,  but  they  are  not  now  forthcoming.  They  have  now, 
however,  received  sanads  similar  to  those  described  above,  and  their 
general  position  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Rajas  of  the  Tributary 
States,  except  that  they  do  not  pay  tribute. 

The  laws  in  force  in  Bengal  consist  of  (i)  Acts  of  Parliament  relating 

to  India ;  (2)  certain  still  unrepealed  Regulations  of  what  was  known 

as  the  Bengal  Code,  framed  by  the  Executive  Govern- 

egis  a  ion  a        ^lent  before  the  creation  of  the  legislative  bodies  ; 

justice.  '^.       .  ,  ' 

(3)  Acts  of  the  Governor-General's  Legislative  Council, 

now   constituted   under   the    Indian  Councils  Acts,    1861   and    1892; 

(4)  Regulations  for  certain  backward  tracts  issued  by  the  Government 

of  India  under  the    Statute  33   Vict.,  c.  3  ;  and  lastly,  (5)  Acts  of  the 

Bengal  Legislative  Council.     The  Bengal  Council  came  into  existence 

on  January  18,  1862,  under  a  proclamation  by  the  Governor-General-in- 

Council   which  extended  the  provisions  of  the  Indian  Councils  Act, 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  293 

1861,  to  the  Bengal  Division  of  the  Presidency  of  Fort  WilHani '.  Tlie 
Council  at  first  consisted  of  twelve  members  and  a  president,  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal ;  but  this  number  has  been  raised  to 
twenty  under  the  Indian  Councils  Act,  1892.  By  regulations  made 
under  this  Act,  it  has  been  provided  that  of  the  twenty  members  not 
more  than  ten  shall  be  officials  ;  of  the  non-official  members  seven  are 
nominated  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor  on  the  recommendation  of 
certain  local  bodies  and  associations,  and  three  at  his  own  discretion. 

The  financial  position  of  the  Government  of  Bengal  is  explained  in 
Council  every  year,  and  is  there  open  to  criticism,  so  far  as  it  concerns 
the  branches  of  revenue  and  expenditure  that  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Government  of  Bengal.  There  is  also  a  right  of  interpellation, 
which  is  limited  to  matters  under  the  control  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  who  may  disallow  questions  which  appear  to  him  to  be 
inconsistent  with  the  public  interest.  No  resolution  can  be  proposed 
or  division  taken  in  connexion  with  the  financial  statement. 

Among  the  legislative  measures  enacted  since  1880,  which  specially 
affect  this  Province,  the  following  deserve  mention  :— 

Act  of  the  Indian  Council 

The  Uengal  Tenancy  Act  (VIII  of  1885). 

Acts  of  the  Bengal  Council 

The  Bengal  Drainage  Act  (VI  of  1880). 

The  Cess  Act  (IX  of  1880). 

The  Bengal  Municipal  Act  (III  of  18S4). 

The  Bengal  Local  Self-Government  Act  (III  of  1SS5). 

The  Calcutta  Port  Act  (III  of  1890). 

The  Public  Demands  Recovery  Act  (I  of  1895). 

The  Calcutta  Municipal  Act  (III  of  1899"). 

In  respect  of  civil  justice  the  High  Court  at  Calcutta  (more  properly 
designated  the  High  Court  of  Judicature  at  Fort  William  in  Bengal) 
is  a  court  of  record  and  equity,  and  is  constituted  under  the  Indian 
High  Courts  Act,  1861,  as  the  supreme  court  in  Bengal,  exercising 
both  original  (including  ecclesiastical,  admiralty,  and  bankruptcy)  and 
appellate  jurisdiction.  Below  the  High  Court  are  the  District  and 
Additional  Judges,  the  Small  Cause  Courts,  the  Subordinate  Judges, 
who  are  sometimes  also  appointed  to  be  Assistant  Judges,  and  the 
Munsifs.  Of  these,  the  District,  Additional,  and  Assistant  Judges  also 
exercise  the  powers  of  a  criminal  court ;  the  others  are  purely  civil 
judges,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Munsifs  who  are  vested  with  magis- 
terial powers. 

The  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  a  Munsif  extends  to  all  original  suits 
cognizable  by  the  civil  courts  in  which  the  value  of  the  subject-matter 

'  As  legaril:;  legislation  and  ihe  functions  of  ihe  Provincial  Legislative  Councils, 
see  Vol.  IV,  L-hap.  v. 


294 


BENGAL 


in  dispute  does  not  exceed  Rs.  i,ooo,  or,  it"  specially  extended,  Rs.  2,000. 
The  jurisdiction  of  a  Subordinate  Judge  or  District  Judge  extends  to 
all  original  suits  cognizable  by  the  civil  courts.  It  does  not,  however, 
include  the  powers  of  a  Small  Cause  Court  unless  these  have  been 
specially  conferred. 

Appeals  from  Munsifs  lie  to  the  District  Judge,  or  to  the  Subordinate 
Judge,  if  the  High  Court,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Local  Government, 
so  direct.  Appeals  from  Subordinate  Judges  lie  to  the  District  Judge, 
except  when  the  value  of  the  subject-matter  exceeds  Rs.  5,000,  in  which 
case  the  appeal  lies  to  the  High  Court.  Appeals  from  the  decrees 
and  orders  of  District  and  Additional  Judges  lie  to  the  High  Court. 
An  appeal  may,  subject  to  certain  restrictions,  be  preferred  from  the 
High  Court  to  the  Privy  Council  in  England,  if  the  amount  in  dispute 
exceeds  Rs.  10,000. 

The  powers  of  Courts  of  Small  Causes  are  regulated  by  Act  IX 
of  1887.  Subject  to  certain  exceptions,  their  jurisdiction  extends  to  all 
suits  of  a  civil  nature  of  which  the  value  does  not  exceed  Rs.  500,  a 
limit  which  may  be  increased  to  Rs.  1,000  by  a  special  order  of  the  Local 
Government.  The  Local  Government  is  empowered,  under  Act  XII 
of  1887,  to  invest  Subordinate  Judges  and  Munsifs  with  Small  Cause 
Court  jurisdiction  for  the  trial  of  cases  not  exceeding  Rs.  500  in  value 
in  the  case  of  Subordinate  Judges,  and  Rs.  100  in  the  case  of  Munsifs. 
In  civil  suits  above  a  certain  limit  Calcutta  is  under  the  original 
jurisdiction  of  the  High  Court.  The  Small  Cause  Court  of  Calcutta 
has  a  purely  local  jurisdiction  and  is  regulated  by  a  special  Act. 

The  principal  statistics^  relating  to  civil  justice  are  embodied  in  the 
statement  below  :  — 


Class  of  suits. 

Average  for 

ten  years 

ending 

1890. 

Average  for 

ten  years 

ending 

1900. 

I  90  I. 

1903. 

Suits  for  money  and  movable 
property      .... 
Title  and  otlier  suits 
Rent  suits       .... 

T0t.1l 

255,630 

3. "^,65  3 
180,650 

297.137 
63,234 

247,787 

284,017 

76,271 

286,201 

2  98. 6  86 

7^-3.^o 

339.099 

471.933 

608,158 

646,489 

714,1.35 

Criminal  justice  is  administered  by  magistrates  (of  whom  there  are 
three  classes),  the  Courts  of  Sessions,  and  the  High  Court.  Subject  to 
the  maximum  punishment  prescribed  by  law  for  each  offence,  a  magis- 
trate of  the  first  class  has  power  to  sentence  offenders  to  imprisonment, 

'  The  corresponding  number  of  suits  instituted  in  1903  in  Bengal  as  now  con- 
stituted was  : — Suits  for  money  and  movable  property,  161,173  ;  title  and  other  suits, 
46,914;  vent  suits,  211,783;  total,  419,870. 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  295 

either  rigorous  or  simple,  up  to  two  years,  including  solitary  confine- 
ment, or  to  fine  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  1,000,  or  to  imprisonment  and  fine 
combined,  or  to  whipping  as  a  separate  or  an  additional  punishment. 
A  magistrate  of  the  second  class  can  award  imprisonment  up  to  six 
months,  fine  up  to  Rs.  200,  or  both,  and  also  whipping,  if  specially 
empowered  in  this  behalf.  A  magistrate  of  the  third  class  may  im- 
prison up  to  one  month  or  fine  up  to  Rs.  50,  or  he  may  combine  these 
punishments.  Benches  consisting  of  two  or  more  honorary  magis- 
trates, sitting  together,  have  been  appointed  at  almost  all  the  District 
head-quarters,  and  at  most  of  the  subdivisional  stations  in  Bengal.  An 
honorary  magistrate,  if  specially  empowered,  can  also  sit  singly  for 
the  trial  of  cases.  Honorary  magistrates  are  ordinarily  appointed  for  a 
term  of  three  years,  which  is  renewable.  Their  powers  vary  according 
to  circumstances  ;  but,  generally  speaking,  benches  of  honorary  magis 
trates  are  invested  with  second  or  third-class  powers,  and  the  majority 
of  honorary  magistrates  sitting  singly  with  the  powers  of  a  magistrate 
of  the  second  class.  The  Magistrate  of  the  District  exercises  first-class 
powers,  and  hears  appeals  against  convictions  by  magistrates  of  the 
second  and  third  classes.  Such  appeals  may  also  be  heard  by  any 
magistrate  of  the  first  class  duly  empowered  by  the  Local  Government. 
Magistrates  of  the  first  class  and  benches  of  magistrates  of  the  second 
and  third  classes  may  try  certain  offences  summarily  when  specially 
empowered  to  do  so,  but  in  such  cases  the  sentence  may  not  exceed 
three  months'  imprisonment. 

In  Calcutta  criminal  justice  is  administered  by  three  stipendiary 
Presidency  -  Magistrates  a  municipal  magistrate  appointed  to  try 
offences  under  the  Municipal  Act,  and  several  benches  of  honorary 
magistrates. 

The  Courts  of  Sessions  are  presided  over  by  a  single  Judge,  who 
tries,  with  the  aid  of  a  jury  or  assessors,  all  cases  committed  to  him  by 
the  magistracy,  and  decides,  sitting  alone,  all  appeals  from  convictions 
by  magistrates  of  the  first  class,  other  than  those  in  cases  tried 
summarily,  when  the  magistrate  passes  a  sentence  of  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  three  months,  or  fine  not  exceeding  Rs.  200,  or  of  whipping 
only,  or  in  petty  cases,  when  the  sentence  does  not  exceed  one  month's 
imprisonment  or  Rs.  50  fine.  The  Sessions  Judge  is  also  empowered 
to  call  for  and  examine  the  record  of  any  proceeding  before  a  sub- 
ordinate court,  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  himself  as  to  the  correct- 
ness and  legality  of  any  order  passed.  The  powers  of  a  Sessions  Judge 
are  limited  only  by  the  maximum  punishment  fixed  for  each  offence 
in  the  Penal  Code,  but  sentences  of  death  are  subject  to  confirmation 
by  the  High  Court. 

The  High  Court,  on  its  original  side,  tries,  by  a  single  Judge  with  a 
jury,  all  cases  committed  to  it  by  the  Presidency  Magistrates,  and  also 


2g6 


BENGAL 


certain  cases  in  whicli  the  accused  are  European  British  subjects, 
which  may  be  committed  for  trial  by  magistrates  in  the  interior.  On 
its  appellate  side  the  High  Court,  by  a  bench  of  two  or  more  Judges 
disposes  of  appeals  in  respect  of  convictions  on  trials  before  a  Court  of 
Sessions.  It  revises,  upon  reference  from  Sessions  Judges  or  magis- 
trates, the  decisions  of  inferior  courts,  when  in  error  upon  points  of  law, 
deals  with  appeals  which  the  Local  Government  may  prefer  against 
acquittals,  and  confirms,  modifies,  or  annuls  all  sentences  of  death 
passed  by  Sessions  Courts. 

The  table  ^  below  contains  some  of  the  more  important  statistics 
relating  to  criminal  justice.  During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been 
a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  offences  against  property, 
which  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  high  price  of  food-grains. 


Average 

Average 

Percent- 

for ten 

for  ten 

age  of 

years 

years 

1901. 

1903. 

convic- 

ending 

ending 

tions, 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

Number  of  persons  tried  : 

{a)  For  offences  against 

person  and  properly 

89,832 

95,346 

99.834 

98,852 

38-8 

ijf)  For  other  offences 

against   the  Indian 

Penal  Code   . 

36,569 

37,249 

33,313 

33,742 

61.2 

I     (c)  For  oftences  against 

special     and    local 

laws 

Total 

98,302 

130,487 

111,425 

121,052 

84-3 

224,703 

263,082 

244,572 

253.646 

.  63-5      , 

The  registration  of  assurances  is  effected  under  the  same  law  (Act  III 
of  1877)  as  in  other  parts  of  British  India.  The  cost  is  met  by  fees 
levied  from  persons  presenting  documents  for  registration  or  desiring 
copies  of  registered  documents,  according  to  a  scale  prescribed  by 
Government.  The  Registration  department  is  presided  over  by  an 
Inspector-General.  The  District  Magistrates,  who  are  ex-ojficio  Regis- 
trars, have  full  powers  of  inspection  and  control  over  all  registration 
offices  in  their  Districts,  and  are  responsible  for  the  proper  conduct 
of  the  work.  At  the  head-quarters  of  each  District  there  is  a  salaried 
officer,  known  as  the  special  sub-registrar,  who  deals  with  the  documents 

^  The  following  table  gives  the  corresponding  figures  for  1903  for  Bmgal  as  now 
constituted : — 


{d}  Offences  against  person  and  jiroperty  . 

(h)  Other  offences  against  the  Indian  Penal  Code 

{c)   Offences  against  special  and  local  laws 

Total 


Number  of 

persons 

tried. 

Percentage 
of  convic- 
tions. 

68,916 

40-3 

22,781 

62.7 

99.S58 

87.4 

191,555 

67-5 

FINANCE 


>97 


presented  for  registration  there,  and  assists  the  Registrar  in  the  super- 
vision of  the  proceedings  of  all  other  registration  officers  in  the  District. 
The  number  of  the  latter,  who  are  called  rural  sub-registrars,  varies 
according  to  local  requirements.  Formerly  the  special  sub-registrars 
used  to  receive,  in  addition  to  their  salaries,  a  commission  on  the 
documents  registered  by  them,  while  the  rural  sub-registrars  were 
remunerated  only  by  fees  on  a  sliding  scale  and  were  entitled  to  no 
pension  or  gratuity  on  retirement.  A  new  scheme  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  department  has,  however,  recently  been  introduced.  The  system  of 
payment  of  commission  has  been  abolished,  and  both  the  special  and 
rural  sub-registrars  have  been  graded  on  fixed  salaries,  the  services  of  tlie 
latter,  like  the  former,  being  made  pensionable.  In  Calcutta  the  Registrar 
is  a  separate  officer  on  a  fixed  salary.  The  chief  statistics  connected 
with  registration  operations  are  exhibited  below.  The  number  of 
documents  registered  in  1901  was  more  than  double  the  average  of 
the  decade  1881-90,  and  the  receipts  exceeded  those  of  the  same 
decade  by  more  than  50  per  cent. 


1881-90. 

1891-1900. 

1901. 

1903*. 

Number  of  offices 
Number  of  documents 

registered 
Annual  receipts    .     Ks. 
,,    expenditure  Rs. 

297 

709,642 

10,58,36;, 

5  62,043 

395 

1,226,997 

14-4^. .^31 
8,18,406 

442 

'-440..M7 

16,^1,822 

8,83,927 

454 

1,448,010 

16,41,989 

8,90,418 

*  The  corresponding  figures  for  the  present  area  of  Bengal  are:  number  ot 
ofTices  272,  and  of  docviments  registered  8<)'),9Jo  ;  annual  receipts  Rs.  10,14,127, 
and  expin(iiture  Rs.  5,20,618.  These  ligures  incliuie  the  portion  of  Sainbalpur 
District  not  transferred  to  Bengal,  separate  statistics  for  which  are  not  available. 

The  present  Provincial  system  of  finance  dates  from  187 1,  when  the 
financial  management  of  the  great  spending  departments  of  registra- 
tion, jails,  police,  education,  medical  (except  medical 
establishments),  printing,  and  certain  branches  of 
public  works  expenditure  was  entrusted  to  the  Government  of  Bengal, 
a  fixed  assignment  of  1 1 7  lakhs  being  made  to  meet  the  charges.  In 
1877  the  process  of  decentralization  was  continued  by  the  transfer 
to  the  Local  Government  of  other  items  of  expenditure,  together  with 
the  assignment,  on  progressive  terms,  of  certain  heads  of  revenue 
which  it  was  thought  would  benefit  by  careful  local  management, 
including  salt,  stamps,  excise,  Provincial  rates,  and  assessed  taxes  ;  an 
equilibrium  being  established  between  the  income  from  these  sources 
and  the  expenditure,  as  estimated  for  the  first  year  of  the  contract,  by 
means  of  a  fixed  money  contribution.  The  receipts  and  expenditure 
on  state  railways  and  canals  were  also  made  over  to  the  Local  Govern- 
ment. It  was  anticipated  that  the  interest  charges  on  account  of  their 
cost  of  construction  would  exceed  the  net  earnings,  and  the  Local 


298  BENGAL 

Government  was  empowered  to  meet  the  deficiency  by  taxation  to  he 
raised  by  a  special  puhhc  works  cess  imposed  under  Act  II  (!!.('.)  of 
1877.     This  settlement  was  made  for  a  period  of  five  years. 

C)n  its  expiry,  a  new  settlement  was  arranged,  on  very  similar  terms, 
but  a  proportion  of  the  land  revenue  was  given  instead  of  the  fixed 
money  contribution  required  to  produce  an  eciuilibrium  between  revenue 
and  expenditure,  and  the  [)ublic  works  cess,  being  no  longer  regarded 
as  hypothecated  for  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  capital  cost  of  Pro- 
vincial public  works,  became  merged  in  the  general  revenues  of  the 
Province.  In  the  three  quinquennial  settlements  which  followed,  no 
material  advance  in  the  system  of  decentralization  was  made ;  but  the 
shares  of  the  Provincial  and  Supreme  Governments  in  the  three 
principal  heads  of  land  revenue,  stamps,  and  excise  were  redistributed, 
the  Local  Government  obtaining  in  1887  and  1892  one-quarter  of  the 
receipts  from  land  revenue  and  excise,  and  three-quarters  of  the  stamp 
revenue.  Meanwhile,  the  management  of  all  but  a  few  minor  lines  of 
railway  was  gradually  resumed  by  the  Government  of  India,  the  last 
railway  to  be  transferred  from  local  control  being  the  Eastern  Bengal 
State  Railway.  This  was  in  1897  ;  and  in  order  to  compensate  for 
the  loss  of  this  progressive  source  of  revenue,  the  Provincial  share 
of  the  receipts  from  excise  was  raised  from  one-quarter  to  one-half.  At 
the  same  time,  the  receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  Salt  department 
were  reserved  as  wholly  Imperial.  The  settlement  of  1897  was,  as 
usual,  fixed  originally  for  five  years,  but  was  extended  by  two  years 
and  did  not  expire  until  March  31,   1904. 

The  latest  settlement  marks  a  great  advance  in  decentralization. 
The  previous  five-year  settlements  began  with  undue  economy  and 
ended  with  extravagance.  The  difficulty  has  been  to  devise  a  scheme 
which  should  be  permanent,  but  which  should  not  involve  unfairness, 
or  risk  of  unfairness  after  a  lapse  of  years,  to  the  Supreme  Government 
or  to  the  Local  Government.  For  this  problem  a  simple  solution  has 
been  found.  The  present  settlement  is  neither  for  five  years  nor  is  it 
permanent,  but  it  will  last  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  it  is  subject  to 
revision  if  over  a  long  period  of  years  it  is  found  to  be  unfair  to  one 
side  or  the  other.  Another  principle  laid  down  was  that  when  heads  of 
revenue  or  expenditure  were  divided,  the  Local  Government  should 
have  the  same  share  both  of  the  revenue  and  of  the  expenditure  under 
the  same  head.  This  has,  however,  been  departed  from  in  the  case  of 
land  revenue,  the  expenditure  on  which  has  been  made  wholly  Provin- 
cial, although  the  Local  Government  gets  only  one-quarter  of  the 
receipts.  The  Local  Government  gets  the  whole  (jf  the  receipts  under 
registration,  one-half  of  those  under  stamps,  seven-sixteenths  of  those 
under  excise,  and  one-quarter  of  those  under  assessed  taxes  and  forests, 
and  bears  the  same  proportion  of  expenditure  in  each  case. 


FINANCE  299 

The  result  of  this  arrangement  has  been  to  reduce  the  annual  net 
addition  to  the  Provincial  revenue  by  about  one-fourth.  Previous 
settlements  involved  a  revision  at  tlie  end  of  five  years,  which  meant 
that  the  Local  Government  gave  up  part  of  its  income  to  the  Supreme 
Government.  As  such  revisions  are  no  longer  to  be  made,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  rate  of  expenditure  must  be  fixed  on  a  somewhat  lower  level. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Local  Government  will  not  benefit  from  the 
absence  of  revision  until  the  expiry  of  five  years,  when  the  first  revision 
would  otherwise  take  place  ;  and  to  make  up  for  this,  the  Supreme 
Government  made  a  grant  to  the  Local  Government  of  a  lump  sum  of 
50  lakhs,  on  the  understanding  that  its  expenditure  was  to  be  spread 
over  several  years.  The  net  result  of  the  changes  under  the  present 
settlement  is  that  the  charges  made  over  to  Provincial  management 
exceed  the  Provincialized  receipts  by  49  lakhs,  and  this  deficit  is  made 
good  annually  by  a  fixed  assignment  under  the  Land  Revenue  head. 

The  general  financial  results,  so  far  as  the  Province  of  Bengal  is  con- 
cerned, will  be  seen  from  Tables  IX  and  X  at  the  end  of  this  article 
(pp.  353-4).  The  most  noteworthy  features  are  the  expansion  of  the 
revenue  under  the  headings  excise.  Provincial  rates,  registration,  stamps 
and  forests,  and  of  the  expenditure  under  superannuation,  law  and  justice, 
police,  contributions  to  Local  funds,  medical,  and  general  administration. 
The  growth  of  the  excise  revenue  has  been  due  to  various  causes,  of 
which  the  more  important  are  enhancement  of  the  rates  of  duty  levied, 
increase  of  population,  greater  prosperity  of  the  people,  which  has 
enabled  them  to  spend  more  on  luxuries,  improvement  in  the  efficiency 
with  which  the  department  is  administered,  and  not  least  the  general 
rise  of  prices,  which  has  affected  excisable  equally  with  other  articles, 
and  has  swelled  the  receipts  of  the  venders  and  the  public  revenue. 
The  avowed  policy  of  the  Government  has  been  to  restrict  the  con- 
sumption of  drugs  and  spirits  by  raising  the  duty  charged  on  them. 
The  steady  expansion  under  Provincial  rates,  which  are  assessed  on  the 
annual  value  of  land,  is  due  mainly  to  periodic  revaluations,  and  not  to 
any  change  in  the  rate  at  which  the  cess  is  levied,  which  has  for  many 
years  stood  at  the  maximum  allowed  by  law.  The  registration  receipts, 
though  they  still  show  an  upward  tendency,  increased  most  rapidly 
during  the  early  years  of  the  system  of  Provincial  contracts,  when 
registration  offices  were  freely  opened  wherever  there  appeared  to  be 
a  reasonable  demand  for  them,  with  the  result  that  many  more 
documents  were  brought  under  registration  than  had  been  the  custom 
in  previous  years.  In  1887  it  was  decided  that  process-serving  fees  in 
revenue  courts  and  copying  fees  should  in  future  be  levied  in  court-fee 
stamps  and  not  in  cash,  and  this  led  to  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
stamp  revenue.  Apart  from  this,  the  development  of  this  source  of 
revenue  is  the  outcome  of  growing  prosperity  and  industrial  and  com- 


300  BENGAL 

mercial  development,  aiul  that  under  forests  is  tluc   to  more  efficient 
management  coupled  with  an  increasing  demand  for  forest  produce. 

There  has  been  a  rise  on  account  of  salaries  in  various  departments. 
Exchange  compensation  allowance  has  been  granted  to  European 
otificials,  and  in  several  departments  there  has  been  a  reorganization 
of  establishments  and  a  general  increase  of  pay.  During  the  currency 
of  the  settlement  of  1884-5,  ^'"'  additional  yearly  expenditure  of 
4|  lakhs  was  incurred  under  'judicial  courts,'  the  result  of  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  Subordinate  Judges  and  Munsifs  and  of  judicial 
establishments  generally.  About  the  same  time  the  reorganization  of 
the  police  department,  in  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the 
Police  Commission  of  1891,  led  to  an  additional  yearly  expenditure 
of  about  6  lakhs.  In  recent  years  the  expenditure  under  medical  has 
been  swollen  by  charges  incurred  in  connexion  with  the  suppression  of 
plague  ;  but  large  sums  have  also  been  spent  on  works  of  general  utility, 
such  as  the  building  of  the  BhawanTpur  Hospital,  the  remodelling  of 
the  Cieneral  Hospital,  and  the  extension  of  the  Medical  College  in 
Calcutta.  The  increased  contributions  to  Local  funds  were  made 
partly  to  aid  them  in  the  arrangements  they  had  to  carry  out  for  the 
prevention  of  plague  or  in  the  repairs  of  damages  caused  by  the  disastrous 
earthquake  of  1897,  and  partly  to  assist  them  to  provide  feeder-roads  for 
railways  and  improve  communications  generally.  The  ordinary  income 
of  the  District  boards  is  not  capable  of  much  expansion,  and  those 
bodies  have  to  rely  on  subventions  from  Government  to  meet  their 
growing  needs,  while  the  amount  of  aid  which  the  latter  is  able  to 
render  varies  with  its  own  financial  position  \ 

The  transfer  of  a  number  of  Districts  to  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam 
has  reduced  the  Provincial  revenues  to  about  463  lakhs  (estimate  for 
1906-7),  to  which  is  added  a  fixed  contribution  of  11  lakhs  from 
Imperial  funds. 

The  current  land  revenue  demand-  for  the  year  1903-4  was  more 

than  4  crores,  or  one-fifth  of  the  principal  heads  of  receipts  in  the 

Province.     Four-fifths  of  the  land  revenue  was  per- 
Land  revenue.  ,  ,    ,         ,  ,     r  1        ■  1  , 

manently  settled  at  the  end  01  the  eighteenth  century ; 

and  since  that  date  the  zamlndars  and  their  tenants  have  shared  between 

them  the  entire  benefit  of  the  enormous  increase  in  the  value  of  the 

produce  of  land  which  has  taken  place,  including  that  of  waste  land 

since  brought  under  cultivation.    The  result  is  that  Bengal  pays  a  lower 

'  The  Provincial  finances  were  seriously  crippled  in  1897  by  an  expenditure  of  27^ 
lakhs  on  famine  relief,  besides  nearly  5  lakhs  granted  as  compensation  for  the  dearness 
of  food  to  the  lower-paid  servants  of  Government,  and  a  heavy  expenditure  on  account 
of  plague;  it  was  thus  necessary  to  withhold  the  much-needed  aid  to  local  bodies 
until  equilibrium  was  restored  by  a  special  contribution  of  17  lakhs  from  the 
(Government  of  India. 

'-'  The  demand  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  was  2.S4  lakhs,  or  nearly  3  crores. 


LAND   REVENUE  301 

revenue  than  any  other  Province,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  the  incidence  of  the  land  revenue  per  acre  is 
only  R.  0-13-2  as  compared  with  Rs.  178  for  India  as  a  whole. 

According  to  valuation  returns  furnished  by  zamlndars  and  tenure- 
holders  under  the  Cess  Act,  the  total  rental  of  the  Province  amounted 
in  1903-4  to  17-84  crores.  Of  this  sum,  the  land  revenue  absorbs  less 
than  one  quarter,  and  the  remainder  is  shared  by  the  zamlndars,  tenure- 
holders,  revenue-free  proprietors,  and  rent-free  holders.  These  figures 
illustrate  the  huge  financial  sacrifice  involved  in  the  permanent  settle- 
ment, for,  after  deducting  the  gross  rental  of  revenue-free  estates,  rent- 
free  holdings,  and  temporarily  settled  estates,  the  '  assets '  of  the 
permanently  settled  revenue-paying  estates  may  be  estimated  at  1472 
lakhs  ;  and  if  the  revenue  had  been  periodically  resettled,  their  assess- 
ment would  probably  now  be  not  less  than  half  the  gross  rental, 
i.  e.  736  lakhs,  or  considerably  more  than  double  the  actual  figures  of 
323  lakhs. 

The  earliest  assessment  known  to  have  been  made  in  the  Province 
was  Todar  Mai's  great  settlement  of  1582,  according  \.o  which  the 
revenue  of  Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Orissa  amounted  to  185  lakhs  of  rupees. 
The  principle  of  Todar  Mai's  settlement  was  to  ascertain  the  produce 
of  each  field,  and  to  take  as  the  revenue  a  share  of  it,  estimated  by 
different  authorities  at  one-third  or  one-fourth.  Bengal,  however,  being 
an  outlying  Province  of  the  empire,  was  not  measured,  and  Bihar  was 
ouXy  partially  surveyed  ;  the  assessment  was  therefore  made  on  the  basis 
of  the  reports  of  village  accountants,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  borne 
any  ascertained  relation  to  the  produce  of  the  soil.  Such  as  it  was, 
however,  it  remained  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  Mughal  settlements, 
and  practically  of  the  Decennial  Settlement  also. 

Todar  Mai's  revenue  was  enhanced  by  the  successive  Mughal 
governors  of  Bengal,  the  increases  being  due  partly  to  territorial 
acquisitions,  partly  to  alnvabs  or  proportionate  additions  to  the  original 
assessment  of  Todar  Mai,  and  partly  to  the  taxation  of  newly  cul- 
tivated or  improved  lands.  By  1765,  when  the  British  acquired  the 
Diwani  or  financial  administration  of  the  Province,  the  nominal  revenue 
had  risen  to  312  lakhs,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  so  large  a  sum 
was  ever  realized. 

In  1790-1  the  Decennial  Settlement,  which  in  1793  was  declared 
permanent,  was  carried  out  by  British  oflScers,  and  the  total  assessment, 
including  that  of  two  Districts  in  Assam,  amounted  to  268  lakhs  oi  sicca 
rupees,  or  286  lakhs  of  Company's  rupees.  It  was  made  on  the  basis 
of  preceding  temporary  settlements ;  and  detailed  inquiries  regarding 
out-turn  and  rates  of  rent  were  expressly  forbidden,  as  the  Directors 
were  anxious  to  avoid  any  investigations  of  an  inquisitorial  character. 
It    is   impossible,  therefore,   to    determine   the    proportion  which    the 


302  BENGAL 

assessment  bore  either  to  the  i)roduce  of  the  land,  ox  to  thr  niUal 
received  by  the  zannndars.  It  was  behcved  at  the  time,  however, 
tliat  it  amountetl  to  90  i)er  cent,  of  the  gross  rental;  and  Sir  John 
Shore  estimated  that,  of  the  gross  produce  of  the  soil,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment received  45  per  cent.,  the  zamliidCirs  and  their  under-renters 
15  j)er  cent.,  and  the  cultivators  40  per  cent. 

The  increase  in  the  revenue  of  the  permanently  settled  estates,  from 
286  lakhs  in  i  790-1  to  323  lakhs  in  1903-4,  was  due  to  the  resumi)tion 
and  assessment,  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  of  a  large 
number  of  estates  which  had  been  claimed  as  free  of  revenue.  During 
the  same  period,  however,  the  gross  rental  of  these  estates  has  risen 
from  318  to  1472  lakhs  (assuming  that  the  assessment  of  1790  was 
equivalent  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  gross  rental) ;  in  other  words,  the 
Government  share  of  the  rental  has  fallen  during  this  period  from  90  to 
24  per  cent. 

The  operations  of  the  Permanent  Settlement  did  not  include  the 
unsettled  part  of  Chittagong*,  the  Kolhan  estate  in  Singhbhum  and 
other  tracts  in  Chota  Nagpur,  the  Daman-i-koh  in  the  Santal  Parganas, 
or  the  Sundarbans.  These  tracts  are  temporarily  settled,  as  are  also 
many  alluvial  islands  and  estates  which  have  escheated,  or  been  pur- 
chased from  time  to  time  by  the  Government  at  revenue  sales.  Tracts 
acquired  since  1793  are  also  temporarily  settled  :  namely,  the  sub- 
province  of  Orissa,  acquired  from  the  Marathas  in  1803  ;  the  Khurda 
estate  in  Purl,  confiscated  in  1804  ;  the  District  of  Darjeeling,  acquired 
partly  from  Sikkim  in  1835  and  1850,  and  partly  from  Bhutan  in  1864; 
the  estates  of  Banki  and  Angul,  confiscated  in  1839  and  1847  ,'  ^^^d  the 
Western  Duars*,  taken  from  Bhutan  in  1864.  Cachar  and  the  Assam 
Valley  proper  were  acquired  on  various  dates  between  1826  and  1842  ; 
but  in  1874  they  and  the  permanently  settled  Districts  of  Sylhet  and 
Goalpara  were  separated  from  Bengal  and  formed  into  a  separate 
administration.  A  brief  review  of  the  revenue  history  of  the  separate 
tracts  is  given  below. 

Orissa  was  settled  in  1845  at  a  revenue  of  13-84  lakhs  for  a  period 
of  thirty  years,  which,  however,  was  extended  in  consequence  of  the 
famine  of  1866.  In  1897  it  was  resettled  for  21-05  lakhs,  or  54  per 
cent,  of  the  '  assets,'  which  amounted  to  38-68  lakhs.  The  incidence 
of  the  new  revenue  is  Rs.  i-i-io  per  acre,  and  the  period  of  settlement 
thirty  years.  The  Khurda  estate  was  settled  ryohvari  in  1875  for 
2-68  lakhs.  In  1897  the  estate  was  resettled  for  fifteen  years  at  a 
revenue  of  3-46  lakhs,  the  increase  being  effected  by  an  enhancement  of 
3  annas  in  the  rupee.     The  incidence  of  rent  per  acre  is  Rs.  1-10-6. 

The  resettlement  of  the  Palamau  estate  in  1896  for  a  term  of  fifteen 
years  resulted  in  the  increase  of  the  rental  from  Rs.  58,000  to  Rs.  74,000, 
mainly  on  the  ground  of  extension  of  cultivation  \  the  average  rate  of 


LAND  REVENUE  303 

rent  paid  by  settled  ryots  is  Rs.  1-2-3  P^i"  ^icre.  By  the  settlement  of 
the  Darjeeling  taraim  1898  the  revenue  was  raised  from  Rs.  93,000 
to  Rs.  1,12,000,  the  assessment  being  made  at  rates  varying  from 
4  annas  to  Rs.  2  per  acre,  and  the  term  being  fixed  for  twenty  years. 
The  Banki  estate  in  Cuttack  District  was  resettled  in  1891,  the  revenue 
being  increased  from  Rs.  21,000  to  Rs.  29,000,  mainly  on  account  of 
extensions  of  cultivation.  The  revenue  of  Angul,  resettled  in  1892, 
was  increased  from  Rs.  46,000  to  one  lakh  for  the  same  reason,  but 
the  enhancement  was  introduced  on  the  progressive  system.  The 
Western  Duars*  were  resettled  in  1895,  when  the  revenue  was 
increased  from   2-34  to  3-75  lakhs. 

The  temporarily  settled  estates  in  Chittagong*  were  settled  in  1848 
and  in  1881,  the  aggregate  revenue  amounting  to  3-85  lakhs.  This  was 
raised  by  the  settlement  of  1897  to  6  lakhs,  the  enhancement  being 
due  chiefly  to  extension  of  cultivation.  The  settlement  was  made 
partly  with  middlemen,  who  were  allowed  to  retain,  on  the  average,  41 
per  cent,  of  the  'assets,'  and  partly  with  the  ryots  direct.  The  average 
rate  of  rent  paid  by  settled  ryots  is  Rs.  5  per  acre.  The  term  of  this 
settlement  is  thirty  years. 

The  settlement  of  the  Jaypur  Government  estate  in  Bogra  District'^ 
in  1898  increased  the  revenue  from  Rs.  39,000  to  Rs.  51,000,  while  the 
resettlement  of  a  number  of  petty  Government  estates  in  the  Sundar- 
bans  and  elsewhere  raised  the  demand  from  4-20  to  5-41  lakhs. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  revenue^  of  the  permanently 
settled  estates  has  risen  from  286  to  323  lakhs.  The  revenue  of  the 
temporarily  settled  estates,  which  was  nil  \\\  1790,  was  in  1903-4 
36  lakhs,  and  that  of  estates  held  direct  by  Government  46  lakhs,  the 
total  revenue  of  the  three  classes  of  estates  taken  together  being  405 
lakhs,  compared  with  347  lakhs  in  1850,  379  lakhs  in  1882,  and  383 
lakhs  in  1892.  The  formation  of  the  Province  of  Assam  in  1874 
deprived  Bengal  of  a  total  land  revenue  of  30  lakhs,  of  which  4^  lakhs 
was  due  from  the  permanently  settled  estates  of  Sylhet  and  Goalpara 
and  the  remainder  from  other  areas. 

The  number  of  permanently  settled  estates  is  increasing  very  rapidly 
owing  to  partitions  ;  this  is  especially  the  case  in  the  Patna  Division, 
where  the  number  has  almost  trebled  in  thirty-eight  years.  Revenue- 
paying  estates^  in  1903-4  numbered  190,000,  of  which  176,000  are  per- 
manently and  10,500  temporarily  settled,  and  the  remainder  are  held 

'  In  the  present  area  of  Bengal  (he  current  demand  from  permanently  settled 
estates  in  the  same  year  was  228J  lakhs,  from  temporarily  settled  estates  29I  lakhs, 
and  from  estates  held  direct  by  Government  25^  lakhs. 

^  In  the  same  year  the  number  of  revenue-paying  estates  in  the  present  area  of 
Bengal  was  122,000,  of  which  110,000  were  permanently  and  10,000  temporarily 
settled,  the  remainder  being  held  direct  by  Clovernment. 


304  BENGM, 

direct  by  Government.  Only  474  estates  are  large  properties  of 
over  JO, 000  acres,  while  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  comprise 
less  than  500  acres  apiece. 

In  addition,  56,000  revenue-free  estates  and  119,000  rent-free  hold- 
ings are  assessed  to  road  and  public  works  cesses.  At  the  time  of  the 
Termanent  Settlement  large  areas  were  claimed  revenue-free,  and  the 
authority  to  scrutinize  such  revenue-free  grants,  and,  if  invalid,  to  resume 
them,  was  specially  reserved.  They  were  divided  into  two  classes, 
according  as  they  had  been  granted  by  the  Mughal  emperor  direct,  or 
by  the  officials  of  the  empire.  The  former  were  recognized  as  valid  if 
the  holder  could  prove  that  his  grant  was  hereditary  and  that  he  was  in 
possession.  The  latter  were  accepted  as  valid  if  dated  prior  to  1765  ; 
all  grants  of  a  subsequent  date  were  resumed,  but  those  given  between 
1765  and  1790  were  assessed  at  privileged  rates.  All  rent-free  grants 
made  by  zaminddrs  after  1790  were  invalidated,  and  zaminddrs  were 
authorized  to  nullify  their  own  grants.  Resum})tion  proceedings  were 
systematically  undertaken  by  special  Commissioners  between  the  years 
1830  and  1850,  when  some  thousands  of  estates  were  added  to  the 
revenue-roll.  The  revenue-free  estates  are  those  which  escaped  re- 
sumption during  these  proceedings,  and  their  number  has  been  swelled 
by  redemption  of  the  land  revenue,  which  is  permitted  in  the  case  of 
very  petty  estates.  The  rent-free  holdings  are  small  areas  which  were 
assigned  in  former  times  by  zaminddrs  for  religious  or  charitable 
purposes. 

The  land  revenue  is  realized  with  remarkable  punctuality.  In  1903-4 
no  less  than  97-8  per  cent,  of  the  current  demand  was  realized  within 
the  year,  the  percentages  in  the  three  classes  of  permanently  settled, 
temporarily  settled,  and  directly  managed  estates  being  98-9,  96-7,  and 
89-3  respectively.  The  revenue  of  estates  belonging  to  the  first  two 
classes  is  realized  under  the  Sale  Law,  which  renders  an  estate  liable  to 
summary  auction  sale  if  the  revenue  is  not  paid  in  full  by  a  fixed  date. 
The  revenue  is  payable  by  instalments  which  have  been  fixed  for  each 
District  with  reference  to  the  date  of  the  harvests,  so  that  the  instal- 
ments may  be  paid  from  the  sale  proceeds  of  the  surplus  produce. 
Arrears  of  rent  in  estates  under  direct  management  are  recovered 
under  the  '  certificate  procedure  '  :  in  case  of  default  the  Collector  cer- 
tifies the  amount  due,  and  his  certificate  has  the  force  and  effect  of 
a  decree  of  court,  and  is  executed  accordingly. 

In  early  Mughal  times  the  only  zaminddrs  recognized  were  the  terri- 
torial chiefs,  who  were  left  in  possession  on  grounds  of  policy,  on 
condition  that  they  agreed  to  pay  into  the  imperial  treasury  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  revenue  collected  from  their  villages  ;  with  this  ex- 
ception, the  ordinary  revenue  system  was  to  collect  a  share  of  the  pro- 
duce direct  from    the   cultivators   through  their  headmen.     With  the 


LAND  REVENUE  305 

decay  of  the  Mughal  power,  however,  the  practice  of  farming  the 
revenues  grew  up,  and  the  ^.v-officials,  court  favourites,  and  men  of 
local  influence  who  undertook  to  farm  the  revenues  gradually  acquired 
the  name  and  position  of  zam'inddrs. 

(3riginally  the  zaviinddrs  paid  into  the  treasury  the  whole  amount 
collected  by  them  from  the  cultivators,  less  a  definite  allowance  for 
maintenance,  for  collection  charges  and  the  up-keep  of  accounts,  and  for 
expenditure  on  charity.  Gradually,  however,  the  contributions  to  the 
treasury  tended  to  become  fixed,  though  always  liable  to  enhance- 
ment, and  meanwhile  the  zamlnddrs  exploited  new  sources  of  income 
over  and  above  the  rental  upon  which  their  revenue  was  calculated. 
They  acquired  private  lands,  realized  rent  from  the  cultivators  of  waste 
lands,  imposed  cesses  or  additions  to  the  rent  rates,  and  levied  dues 
on  fisheries  and  tolls  on  markets.  By  degrees  also  the  zaf/ilnddr's 
office  became  hereditary,  and  the  practice  of  obtaining  a  fresh  grant 
or  authority  to  succeed  from  the  ruling  power  dropped  into  desuetude. 

During  the  two  centuries  which  followed  Todar  Mai's  settlement,  the 
farmer  class  of  zamlnddrs  had  acquired  a  position  similar  to  that  of 
the  original  landholders  of  the  Province,  and  they  were  recognized  as 
proprietors  of  the  soil  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  was  '  persuaded  that 
nothing  could  be  so  ruinous  to  the  public  interest  as  that  the  land 
should  be  retained  as  the  property  of  Government.'  This  bias  was 
shared  by  the  Directors  in  1792,  and  they  were  'for  establishing  real, 
permanent,  valuable  rights  in  our  Provinces,  and  for  conferring  such 
rights  upon  the  zamlnddrs.''  The  proprietary  title  of  the  zamlnddrs  was 
therefore  not  questioned  at  the  time  of  the  Permanent  Settlement ;  and 
the  Regulation  which  gave  it  the  force  of  law  prescribed  that  the 
zamlnddrs,  with  whom  the  Decennial  Settlement  had  been  made,  and 
their  heirs  and  lawful  successors,  should  be  allowed  to  hold  their 
estates  at  the  same  assessment  for  ever.  The  right  of  transfer  of  their 
estates  was  also  conferred  upon  them.  The  present  right  of  the 
zamlnddrs,  therefore,  is  freely  heritable  and  alienable.  It  is,  however, 
limited  by  the  rights  of  their  tenure-holders  and  ryots,  and  also  by  the 
Government  prerogative  to  sell  the  estate  in  default  of  full  payment  of 
revenue  on  the  due  date. 

There  are  two  main  classes  of  tenants — tenure-holders  and  ryots.  It 
is  often  difticult  to  distinguish  between  the  two  classes  in  individual 
cases,  but  broadly  a  tenure  is  an  intermediate  interest  between  the 
zamlnddr  and  the  cultivating  ryot.  For  practical  purposes  the  essential 
difference  between  a  tenure-holder  and  a  ryot  is  that  the  former  can 
sublet  to  an  under-tenure-holder  or  to  a  ryot,  while  the  sub-tenant  of 
a  ryot  must  necessarily  hold  the  inferior  status  of  an  under-ryot. 
The  distinction  is  of  importance,  because  a  sub-lease  to  an  under- 
tenure-holder  or  ryot  commands  a  bonus,  which  is  not  ordinarily  the 

VOL.   VII.  X 


3o6  BENGAL 

case  with  a  sub  lease  to  an  undcr-ryot  ;  hut,  on  the  otlicr  hand,  the 
position  of  a  settled  ryot,  who  holds  an  occupancy  right  in  all  lands 
held  or  acquired  by  him  in  a  village,  is  nuich  coveted  l)y  the  tenure- 
holder,  whose  rights  arc  more  restricted. 

I'enures  are  distinguishable  into  four  classes  according  to  their  origin. 
Many  ancient  tenures  existed  before  the  creation  of  the  zatnlndaris  to 
which  they  are  now  subordinate.  At  the  time  of  the  Permanent  Settle- 
ment, many  of  these  tenures,  known  as  taluks,  were  separated  from  the 
zamlndaris,  and  formed  into  distinct  estates,  paying  revenue  direct  to 
Government.  A  large  number  of  the  smaller  tenures,  however,  remained 
subordinate  to  the  zaminddrs.  A  second  class  of  tenures  was  created 
by  the  zainviddrs,  with  a  view  to  protect  their  property  from  the  ruin 
which  involved  so  many  estates  immediately  after  the  Permanent  Settle- 
ment. The  painl  taluk,  which  originated  in  Burdwan  and  has  since 
spread  over  other  parts  of  Bengal,  is  an  estate  within  an  estate,  the  rent 
being  fixed  in  perpetuity  and  the  tenure  being  saleable  by  the  Collector 
at  the  zaminddrs  instance  for  arrears,  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  the 
parent  estate.  In  some  parts  the  process  of  sub-infeudation  has 
proceeded  much  farther ;  the  patntddr  has  given  his  lands  in  per- 
manent lease  to  dar-pain'iddrs,  and  the  dar-patn'iddrs  have  done  the 
same  to  si-patnlddrs. 

The  reclaiming  tenure  is  a  bait  which  tempts  the  petty  capitalist  to 
spend  his  resources  on  the  land.  It  is  found  all  along  the  coast,  where 
the  low  mud  fiats  are  being  gradually  raised  by  deposits  of  silt.  The 
great  rivers  discharge  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  an  immense  mass  of  sand, 
clay,  and  vegetable  debris,  which  is  again  carried  inland  by  the  action  of 
the  tide.  The  coast-line  is  ever  encroaching  on  the  Bay,  and  as  the 
deposits  rise  above  water-level  they  become  clothed  with  mangrove 
jungle,  and  if  left  to  themselves  would  in  time  rise  to  high  spring-tide 
level.  But  the  impatience  of  the  reclaimer  forestalls  this  natural  process, 
and  soon  after  the  surface  emerges,  an  earthen  embankment  is  thrown 
round  it  to  exclude  the  salt  tidal  water,  and  the  newly-formed  islet  is 
cultivated.  The  natural  growth  of  the  surface  is  thus  arrested,  and  the 
deposit  of  silt  is  confined  to  the  beds  of  the  tidal  channels,  which 
gradually  rise  until  they  threaten  to  overwhelm  the  new  reclamation. 
Perpetual  leases  at  low  rents  are  needed  to  persuade  the  capitalist  to 
undertake  the  heavy  initial  and  recurring  expenditure  required  for  the 
protection  of  such  reclamations,  and  similar  leases  are  often  granted  in 
the  case  of  waste  land  when  heavy  expenditure  has  to  be  incurred 
in  felling  dense  forests  and  undergrowth. 

There  is  a  fourth  class  of  tenures,  which  is  probably  the  most  numerous 
of  all,  and  which  may  be  described  as  the  land-jobbing  tenure.  This 
class  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  reclamation  leases  described 
above,  though  the  nomenclature  is  generally  the  same.      It  is  found  in 


LAND  REVENUE  307 

enormous  numbers  in  Backergunge*  DIstrict,  where,  probably  owing 
to  the  depredations  of  Arakanese  raiders  in  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  reclamation  in  the  coast  tract  was  arrested  until  the 
surface  had  risen  above  flood-level,  and  where  comparatively  small  ex- 
penditure on  embankments  is  required.  The  profits  of  agriculture  are 
very  great  in  this  District,  as  plentiful  crops  are  reaped  which  find  a  good 
market  in  Calcutta,  and  the  rich  soil,  which  is  periodically  fertilized  by 
silt  deposits  from  the  overflow  of  the  great  rivers,  requires  no  manure. 
The  price  of  rice  is  also  steadily  rising,  owing  to  the  rapid  growth  of 
population,  the  extension  of  non-food-crops,  such  as  jute,  and  the  infla- 
tion of  the  currency  caused  by  the  export  of  jute  from  East  Bengal. 
The  profits  of  agriculture  are  therefore  steadily  increasing,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  practice  of  granting  perpetual  leases  has  stereotyped  rent 
rates.  The  cultivator  is  not,  however,  allowed  to  absorb  the  whole  of 
the  increase  in  agricultural  profits,  but  is  compelled  to  disgorge  a  portion 
of  it  in  the  shape  of  abwabs,  or  cesses  proportionate  to  his  rental,  and 
each  new  cess  affords  subsistence  to  a  land-jobbing  tenure-holder.  The 
ryot,  moreover,  ekes  out  his  income  by  sublecting  at  rack-rates  to  under- 
ryots,  and  the  rents  paid  by  the  latter  are  perpetually  rising. 

The  system  may  best  be  illustrated  by  taking  the  simplest  case  of 
a  zamlnddr  who  has  given  a  perpetual  lease  to  a  ryot.  The  ryot  grows 
rich,  and  the  zamlnddr  is  in  need  of  money  ;  he  offers  the  lease  of 
a  tenure  of  his  holding  to  the  ryot  at  a  reduced  rent,  upon  payment 
of  a  bonus  equivalent  to  twenty  years'  purchase  of  the  difference 
between  the  two  rents.  If  the  ryot  refuses,  a  third  person  is  offered  the 
tenure,  and  he  probably  squeezes  a  cess  out  of  the  ryot.  The  same 
process  is  repeated  shortly  afterwards,  either  by  the  zamlnddr,  who  may 
create  a  tenure  between  himself  and  the  new  tenure-holder,  or  by  the 
latter,  who  creates  an  under-tenure  between  himself  and  the  ryot.  The 
creation  of  each  new  tenure  is  the  occasion  for  the  payment  of  a 
substantial  bonus,  for  which  the  lessee  recoups  himself  by  extracting 
a  cess  from  the  man  below  him,  which  is  ultimately  passed  on  to 
the  ryot. 

Tenures  of  the  classes  described  above  are  usually  hereditary  and 
held  at  fixed  rates  of  rent.  Temporary  farming  leases  are  common  in 
Bihar  and  on  Government  estates  ;  they  are  granted  for  a  short  term, 
either  at  a  fixed  rent  or  a  percentage  of  the  rental  of  the  farm. 

The  status  and  privileges  of  all  classes  of  tenants  have  been  secured 
by  the  Bengal  Tenancy  Act  of  1885.  When  Lord  Cornwallis  settled 
the  revenue  of  the  zamlndCirs  in  perpetuity  in  1793,  he  apparently 
intended  to  confer  upon  the  ryots  a  similar  immunity  against  enhance- 
ment of  their  rents,  and  power  was  reserved  to  legislate  in  future,  if 
necessary,  for  the  protection  and  welfare  of  the  tenantry.  The  matter 
was,  however,  lost  sight  of  for  half  a  century.     The  terms  at  which  the 

X  2 


3o8  BEIVGAL 

Decennial  Settlement  had  been  concluded  were  severe  at  the  time,  while 
the  proprietors  were  unaccustomed  to  the  punctual  payments  necessary 
to  protect  their  estates  from  sale.  The  consequence  was  that  many 
proprietors  defaulted  and  their  estates  were  sold,  and  the  attention  of 
(Government  was  for  twenty  years  concentrated  on  efforts  to  realize  the 
revenue  with  punctuality.  The  zamlnddrs  complained  of  the  difficulty 
they  experienced  in  collecting  rents  punctually  from  their  tenants,  and 
in  1799  special  powers  were  given  them  to  seize  the  person  of  a  default- 
ing ryot  and  to  distrain  on  his  crops  summarily.  These  powers  were 
grossly  abused  and  led  to  much  oppression,  but  it  was  not  until  1859 
that  a  remedy  was  found.  Act  X  of  that  year  conferred  on  the  ryots 
a  right  of  occupancy  in  lands  cultivated  by  them  for  twelve  years,  and 
protected  occupancy  ryots  from  enhancement  of  rent  except  on  certain 
specified  grounds  ;  the  landlord's  power  of  distraint  was  also  restricted. 
This  Act  failed,  however,  to  give  the  needed  protection  to  the  tenantry ; 
and  after  prolonged  discussion  a  new  Tenancy  Act  was  passed  in  1885, 
which  provided  that  every  ryot  who  has  held  any  land  in  a  village  for 
twelve  years  acquires  thereby  a  right  of  occupancy  in  all  the  land  he 
may  hold  in  the  village.  The  result  is  that  a  proportion  of  all  the  ryots 
in  the  Province,  varying  from  four-fifths  to  nine-tenths,  have  occupancy 
rights  in  their  lands.  In  the  case  of  such  ryots,  enhancement  by 
contract  is  limited  to  an  addition  once  in  fifteen  years  of  one-eighth  to 
the  previous  rent,  and  a  civil  court  can  enhance  the  rent  only  on  certain 
specified  grounds,  and  even  then  only  once  in  fifteen  years.  Whether 
such  holdings  are  transferable  or  not  depends  on  local  custom.  A  small 
number  of  ryots  hold  at  fixed  rates  of  rent,  and  the  remainder  are  with- 
out a  right  of  occupancy.  Even  the  latter,  however,  cannot  be  ejected 
except  in  execution  of  the  decree  of  a  competent  court,  nor  can  their 
rents  be  enhanced  at  shorter  intervals  than  five  years. 

Produce  rents  are  to  be  found  all  over  the  Province,  and  are  especially 
common  in  South  Bihar,  where  landlords  maintain  irrigation  works  or 
embankments.  Sometimes  the  value  of  the  standing  crop  is  estimated, 
and  the  share  to  be  paid  as  rent  is  fixed  accordingly ;  sometimes 
the  grain  is  divided  on  the  threshing-floor.  The  landlord  generally 
takes  about  half  the  crop,  exclusive  of  the  straw. 

No  attempt  has  yet  been  made  to  check  the  transfer  of  land  by  ryots, 
except  in  Chota  Nagpur,  the  Santal  Parganas,  Angul,  and  the  Kalim- 
pong  Government  estate,  where  transfers  to  non-agriculturists,  or,  in 
some  cases,  to  any  outsider,  are  forbidden,  and  where  the  prohibition 
is  strictly  enforced  at  the  time  of  settlement  of  the  rents. 

In  the  Bengal  Tenancy  Act  of  1885  power  was  taken  by  Government 
to  order  a  survey  and  record-of-rights  in  any  local  area  ;  such  operations 
have  since  been  completed  in  the  four  North  Bihar  Districts  of  Saran, 
Champaran,    Muzaffarpur,    and    Darbhanga,   and   are   in   progress    in 


MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE  309 

portions  of  Monghyr,  Bhagalpur,  and  Purnea  Districts,  and  in  Ranch! 
and  Backergungc*.  The  object  of  these  operations  is  to  frame  an 
authoritative  record  of  the  status  and  rents  of  the  tenantry,  with  a  view 
either  to  protect  them  against  arbitrary  eviction  and  illegal  enhance- 
ment, or  to  compose  or  avert  agrarian  disputes.  Similar  operations 
have  been  conducted  on  a  large  scale  in  estates  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Wards,  with  a  view  to  preparing  correct  rent-rolls, 
and  also  in  a  number  of  estates  upon  the  application  of  the  proprietors. 

The  land  revenue  in  Bengal  is  so  small  a  fraction  of  the  produce  that 
it  can  have  no  bearing  on  the  ability  of  the  people  to  withstand  famine. 
The  produce  may  be  valued  at  not  less  than  Rs.  20  per  acre,  or  9796 
lakhs  for  the  Province  as  a  whole,  of  which  the  total  cropped  area  was 
estimated  at  76,454  square  miles  in  1903-4.  The  rental  of  1670  lakhs, 
therefore,  represents  1 7  per  cent.,  and  the  revenue  of  400  lakhs  only 
about  4  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  produce.  Remissions  and 
suspensions  of  the  revenue  are  very  rarely  granted  in  permanently 
settled  estates,  as  the  incidence  of  the  revenue  is  so  light  that  they  are 
unnecessary.  In  temporarily  settled  and  Government  estates,  however, 
remissions  are  allowed  for  special  reasons,  among  which  are  deteriora- 
tion of  land,  drought,  and  damage  caused  by  fioods  and  cyclones. 

I'he  production  of  opium  in  Bengal  and  the  United  Provinces  is 
a  Government  monopoly,  and  the  administration  of  the  operations  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  Board  of  Revenue,  Bengal,  under 
whom  are  two  Agents,  staticjned  at  Patna  and  Ghazi-  revenue 
pur  respectively,  and  a  subordinate  staff  of  sub-deputy 
and  assistant  opium  agents.  The  poppy  is  grown  in  ten  Districts 
in  Bengal  and  in  thirty-six  Districts  of  the  United  Provinces.  The 
total  area  under  cultivation  (deducting  failures)  averaged  823  square 
miles  during  the  ten  years  ending  1890,  and  820  square  miles  in  the 
subsequent  decade.  In  1 900-1  it  was  948  square  miles,  of  which  345 
square  miles  were  in  Bengal  and  603  square  miles  in  the  United 
Provinces;  and  in  1903-4  it  was  1,004  square  miles,  of  which  324 
scjuare  miles  were  in  Bengal  and  680  in  the  United  Provinces.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  factories  at  the  head-quarters  of 
each  Agency.  The  legal  position  is  governed  by  the  provisions  of  Acts 
XIII  of  1857  and  I  of  1878. 

The  cultivation  of  the  poppy  is  permitted  only  under  annual  licences 
granted  for  the  purpose ;  sowing  is  restricted  to  the  area  applied  for, 
and  the  whole  of  the  produce  must  be  sold  to  Government  at  a  fixed 
rate,  which  for  some  years  has  been  Rs.  6  per  seer  (2  lb.)  of  70° 
consistency.  Advances  free  of  interest  are  given  to  the  cultivators, 
whose  accounts  are  adjusted  after  the  opium  has  been  taken  over. 
Application  for  a  licence  is  entirely  optional. 

The  opium  is  manufactured  in  two  forms  :    '  provision  opium '  for 


o 


to  BEXGAI, 


export  |)iin(ii);illy  to  Chinu  and  tlie  Straits  Settlements,  and  'excise 
opium'  for  consumption  in  India.  The  difference  lies  in  the  consis- 
tency and  size  of  the  cakes  and  the  method  of  packing.  '  Provision 
opium '  is  dispatched  to  the  warehouses  of  the  Board  of  Revenue 
in  Calcutta,  where  it  is  sold  at  public  auction,  the  number  of  chests  to 
be  offered  for  sale  during  the  year  being  fixed  by  the  Government 
of  India,  with  reference  to  the  quantity  manufactured  and  the  stock 
held  in  reserve.  During  the  period  1881-90,  a  yearly  average  of  54,664 
chests  (each  containing  40  cakes  weighing  about  140  lb.)  was  exported 
from  Calcutta,  and  43,164  chests  during  the  succeeding  decade.  In 
1900-1  47,950  chests,  and  in  1903-4  48,218  chests,  were  shipped,  and 
the  normal  .sale  standard  is  now  48,000  chests  per  annum.  The  gross 
value  of  the  chests  sold  averaged  about  6^  crores  between  the  years 
1881  and  1890,  and  a  little  over  5  crores  between  1891  and  1900.  In 
1 900-1  it  amounted  to  about  6^  crores,  and  in  1903-4  to  just  over 
7  crores.  '  Excise  opium  '  is  supplied  to  all  Government  treasuries  for 
sale  to  licensed  vendors.  The  price,  which  is  fixed  by  Government, 
varies  in  different  parts  of  the  Province.  At  the  present  time  it  ranges 
from  Rs.  28  to  Rs.  31  per  seer  in  Bengal  proper  ;  in  Orissa  it  is  Rs.  2>Z  '■> 
and  in  the  Patna  Division,  where  the  danger  of  smuggling  is  greatest, 
it  is  only  Rs.  1 7  per  seer.  With  the  retail  sale  of  the  drug  to  the  actual 
consumers  the  Oi)ium  department  has  no  concern  ;  this  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Commissioner  of  Excise,  as  described  farther  on. 

The  net  yearly  revenue  of  the  Opium  department  averaged  4;^  crores 
from  1 88 1  to  1890  ;  from  1891  to  1900  it  was  a  little  over  3  crores  ;  in 
1 90 1  it  amounted  to  about  4  crores,  and  in  1903  to  3-98  crores.  The 
revenue  varies  from  year  to  year  according  to  the  quantity  of  opium 
available  for  sale  and  the  price  realized  for  it.  A  standard  quantity 
to  be  produced  yearly  is  periodically  fixed  by  Government,  and  the 
maximum  area  to  be  cultivated  is  calculated  accordingly  ;  but  the  area 
actually  under  poppy  depends  also  on  the  willingness  of  the  culti- 
vator to  grow  it.  The  crop,  though  on  the  average  a  remunerative  one, 
is  very  sensitive  to  climatic  conditions,  and  a  series  of  unfavourable 
years  may  create  a  prejudice  against  it.  The  amount  realized  by  the  sale 
of  '  provision  opium '  depends  partly  on  the  quantity  offered  for  .sale, 
and  partly  on  the  nature  of  the  season  in  China  and  the  area  under 
cultivation  there.  Differences  in  the  rate  of  exchange  between  the  two 
countries  may  have  a  disturbing  influence  upon  the  market,  and  the 
interest  charged  by  the  Calcutta  banks  also  affects  it. 

The  administration  of  excise,  including  the  retail  sale  of  opium, 
is  vested  in  the  Excise  Commissioner,  subject  to  the  general  control  of 
the  Board  of  Revenue.  In  the  Di.stricts  the  Collector  is  in  charge, 
assisted  by  a  Deputy-Collector  (who  is,  in  the  more  important  Districts, 
a  special  officer)  with  a  clerical,  preventive,  and,  where  Government 


MISCELLANEO  US  RE  VENUE 


311 


distilleries  have  been  established,  a  distillery  staff.  The  revenue  is 
derived  from  imported  liquors  ;  country  spirits,  including  country  rum  ; 
fermented  liquors  made  in  India,  including  beer,  tdri  (fermented  date 
juice),  and  pacJnvai  (rice  beer)  ;  hemp  drugs,  including  gdnja,  siddhi  or 
hhaug,  c/iaras,  and  /iidjum  ;  opium ;  and  cocaine.  The  revenue  is 
derived  from  {a)  the  duty  levied  on  excisable  articles  passing  into 
consumption,  other  than  imported  liquors  the  duty  on  which  is  credited 
to  the  Customs  revenue,  (b)  the  fees  paid  for  a  licence  to  manufacture 
and  sell  excisable  articles,  and  {c)  the  fees  paid  on  spirits  manufactured 
in  distilleries. 

The  following  figures  show  the  excise  revenue  *  for  the  decades 
1881-90  and  1891-1900  (averages),  and  for  the  years  1 900-1  and 
1903-4,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


Ht.'a(!s  of  revpiiuc. 

1881-90. 

1891-1900. 

1900-1. 
Rs. 

1903-4. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Imported  liquors 

2,07 

2,67 

3.30 

3,77 

Country    spirits    manufactured 

after  the  native  method 

48,05 

55,36 

67,67 

79,03 

Country  spirits,  includini^  coun- 

try rum,  manufactured  after 

the  English  method,  and  beer 

1,01 

3,58 

3,4s 

2,34 

lari       ..... 

7,00 

9,89 

10,39 

10,96 

Paclnvai         .... 

1,82 

3.83 

5, .34 

598 

Hemp  drugs   .... 

20,26 

26,26 

30,20 

34-55 

Opium    ..... 

19.8.5 

^3.09 

25^91 

25,92 

Miscellaneous 

Total  excise  revenue 
Customs    revenue     from     im- 

/ 

14 

19 

41 
1,62,96 

1,00,13 

1,24,82 

1,46,48 

ported  liquors     . 

14,20 

18,49 

20,99 

22,32 

The  causes  leading  to  this  rapid  expansion  ha\  c  been  indicated  in  the 
section  on  Finance.  The  incidence  of  ex(ise  revenue  per  head  of  the 
population  was  2^  annas  in  1881-2,  2\  annas  in  1891-2,  3^  annas  in 
1901-2,  and  2y\  annas  in  1903-4. 

Country  spirits  and  tdri  are  preferred  in  the  dry  Districts,  such 
as  those  of  Bihar  and  Chota  Nagpur,  with  pronounced  hot  and  cold 
seasons,  and  containing  a  large  non-Muhammadan  population.  The 
aboriginal  tribes  brew  paclnvai  at  home,  but  consume  the  stronger 
spirit  when  it  is  within  their  means.  The  consumption  of  gdnja  is  very 
general ;  it  is  greatest  in  wet  and  malarious  Districts,  such  as  those 
of  Bengal  proper  and  part  of  the  Bhagalpur  Division.  Opium  is  also 
in  general  use,  but  chiefly  in  the  Districts  lying  on  the  seaboard  and 
where  the  Muhammadan  population  is  large. 

The    consumption    of   exci.sable    articles   is   closely    watched,   and 

'   The  excise  revenue  in  Hengal  as  now  constituted  was  Ks.  1,4.',  13,000  in  1904-5. 


312  BENGAF. 

facilities  for  obtaining  them  are  allowed  only  in  order  to  meet  an 
ascertained  demand,  or  for  the  prevention  of  illicit  practices.  The 
number  of  licences  issued  is  carefully  considered,  and  the  sites  for 
licensed  shops  are  selected  with  due  regard  to  local  feeling.  The  fees 
for  a  licence  are  ordinarily  settled  by  auction,  subject  to  a  minimum 
Avhich  is  fixed  with  reference  to  the  estimated  sales  at  each  shop  and 
the  average  fees  previously  paid  for  the  licence.  Educated  o{)inion  is 
opposed  to  the  use  of  stimulants,  and  the  general  feeling  of  the  people 
condemns  over-indulgence.  The  consumption  has,  however,  increased 
rapidly  among  the  educated  classes,  who,  next  to  Europeans,  are  the 
chief  purchasers  of  imported  liquors,  and  especially  of  the  cheap  brands 
manufactured  from  German  spirit  and  sold,  under  English  names,  in 
bottles  with  attractive  labels.  These  brands  compete  with  the  country- 
made  spirit  in  cheapness,  and  are  believed  to  be  stronger. 

The  revenue  on  salt  is  levied  mainly  in  the  shape  of  an  import  duty— 
formerly  Rs.  2^,  reduced  in  1903  to  Rs.  2,  in  1905  to  Rs.  1-8,  and  in 
1907  to  R.  I  per  maund  of  82  lb. — which  is  realized  by  the  Customs 
authorities.  There  are  also  certain  miscellaneous  receipts,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  the  rents  paid  for  the  storage  of  salt  in  Government 
\varehouses  and  the  fees  realized  upon  the  passes  granted  for  its 
removal.  The  Bengal  coast  is  unsuitable  for  the  local  manufacture 
of  salt,  by  reason  of  the  dampness  of  the  climate  and  the  large  amount 
of  fresh  water  discharged  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  by  the  Ganges  and  the 
Brahmaputra,  and  the  manufacture  of  salt  in  the  Province  has  been 
discontinued  since  1898  and  is  now  forbidden.  The  quantity  annually 
manufactured  bjt  Government  and  private  individuals  during  the  ten 
years  1881-90  aVeraged  about  280,000  maunds,  and  during  the 
succeeding  seven  years  about  120,000  maunds.  The  quantity  imported 
yearly  from  within  India  and  from  other  countries  during  the  periods 
1881-90  and  1891-1900  averaged  9^  and  10  million  maunds  respec- 
tively. In  1900-1  it  was  about  9  million  maunds,  and  in  1901-2  about 
13^  million  maunds.  The  average  consumption  of  salt  per  head  of  the 
population  during  each  of  the  four  years  1880-1,  1890-1,  1900-1,  and 
1903-4  was  5j^g,  5-|,  5I,  and  5I  seers  respectively.  The  gross  revenue 
from  this  source,  exclusive  of  miscellaneous  receipts,  averaged  2-18 
crores  between  the  years  1881  and  1890,  and  2-59  crores  between 
1891  and  1900,  while  in  1900-1  it  amounted  to  2-66  crores,  and  in 
1903-4  to  2-27  crores. 

The  course  of  the  salt  trade  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  the 
substitution  of  steamships  for  sailing  vessels  and  by  the  improvement 
in  the  means  of  communication  in  India.  The  former  circumstance 
has  given  a  great  impetus  to  the  practice  of  bonding  -salt,  as  steamers 
are  unable  to  waste  time  in  port.  The  opening  of  the  East  Coast 
Railway  encouraged  the  importation  of  Madras  salt  into  Orissa,  and  it 


MISCELLANEOUS  RE  VENUE  3 1 3 

is  now  acquiring  a  firm  hold  of  the  markets  there.  At  the  present  time 
the  United  Kingdom  supplies  about  half  the  salt  imported  by  sea,  Aden 
and  the  Red  Sea  ports  about  31  per  cent.,  Germany  approximately 
10  per  cent.,  while  the  remainder  comes  from  the  Persian  Gulf, 
Port  Said,  and  Madagascar.  The  quantity  supplied  from  the  United 
Kingdom  is  declining,  owing  to  competition  from  other  sources,  and 
especially  from  the  Red  Sea  ports.  Preventive  establishments  are 
employed  to  cope  with  the  illicit  manufacture  of  salt  along  the  coast 
and  in  other  saliferous  areas,  and  the  possession  and  transport  of  salt 
are  regulated  by  a  system  of  passes. 

The  stamp  revenue  is  collected  under  the  Indian  Stamp  Act  (II  of 
1S99)  and  the  Court  Fees  Act  (VH  of  1870).  Stamps  are  broadly 
divided  into  '  non-judicial,'  or  revenue  stamps,  and  '  court-fee,'  or  judicial 
stamps.  Of  non-judicial  stamps  there  are  two  main  classes,  adhesive 
and  impressed.  Adhesive  stamps  include  share  transfer  stamps,  foreign 
bill  stamps,  and  stamps  for  use  by  notaries,  advocates,  vakils,  and 
attorneys.  Impressed  stamps  comprise  impressed  stamp  paper  and 
impressed  labels,  and  forms  of  different  descriptions,  such  as  skeleton 
cheques,  &c.  For  the  distribution  of  stamps  a  central  depot  is  main- 
tained at  Calcutta,  while  every  treasury  is  a  local,  and  every  sub-treasury 
a  branch  depot.  There  are,  in  addition,  numerous  licensed  vendors, 
who  are  allowed  a  discount  on  the  stamps  purchased  by  them.  The  net 
revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps  ^  during  the  decades 
1881-90  and  1891-1900  averaged  93  and  117  lakhs  respectively;  in 
1900-1  it  was  131  lakhs,  and  in  1903-4  it  was  143  lakhs.  The  revenue 
from  non-judicial  stamps^  during  the  same  four  periods  amounted  to 
34,  44,  49,  and  50  lakhs  respectively. 

The  growth  of  litigation  mainly  accounts  for  the  progressive  increase 
in  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps,  but  probate  duty  also  shows  a  tendency 
to  yield  larger  receipts.  The  revenue  derived  from  non-judicial  stamps 
develops  along  with  the  normal  progress  of  the  country,  but  in  particular 
years  the  state  of  the  harvests  causes  fluctuations. 

Income-tax  is  levied  on  non-agricultural  incomes  under  the  provisions 
of  Act  II  of  1886  as  recently  amended  {see  Vol.  IV,  chap.  viii).  The 
minimum  income  assessable  under  the  original  Act  was  Rs.  500,  but 
this  has  now  been  raised  to  Rs.  1,000  per  annum,  upon  which,  and  up 
to  Rs.  2,000  a  year,  the  tax  is  levied  at  the  rate  of  4  pies  in  the  rupee. 
On  larger  incomes  the  rate  is  5  pies  in  the  rupee. 

The  assessment  and  collection  of  the  tax  outside  Calcutta  are 
subject  to  the  control  of  the  Collector,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Commissioner  and  the  Board  of  Revenue  ;  but  the  actual  adminis- 
tration of  the  Act  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Deputy-Collector,  who  is  usually 

'  In  1904-5  tlie  net  receipts  from  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps  in  Bengal  as  now 
constituted  was  94-38  lakhs,  and  from  the  sale  of  non-judicial  stamps  34-49  lakhs. 


314  BENGAL 

in  charge  of  excise  duties  also.  For  Calcutta,  wliich,  with  the  town  of 
Howrah,  constitutes  a  separate  District  for  income-tax  purposes,  there 
is  a  special  Collector  of  Income-tax.  Since  the  enhancement  of  the 
minimum  taxable  income,  assessors  are  appointed  to  Divisions,  and  the 
work  of  assessment  in  the  different  Districts  in  eacli  Division  is  dis- 
tributed among  them  by  the  Commissioner  in  consultation  with  the 
District  officers.  The  rates  of  pay  of  the  assessors  are  Rs.  loo,  Rs.  90, 
and  Rs.  80  a  month.  In  Calcutta  seven  assessors  are  employed,  who 
belong  to  two  grades  with  pay  of  Rs.  250  and  Rs.  200  respectively. 

The  net  revenue  derived  from  the  tax  on  incomes  during  the  five 
years  1886-90  averaged  37-5  lakhs.  During  the  next  ten  years  it 
averaged  45-7  lakhs,  and  in  1901  it  amounted  to  54-4  lakhs  ;  in  1902-3 
it  was  56-5  lakhs,  but  in  1903-4  (after  the  increase  of  the  minimum 
assessable  income)  it  fell  to  47-7  lakhs  ^  The  incidence  of  the  tax  per 
head  of  the  population  during  the  same  five  periods  averaged  o-o6,  o-o6, 
0-07,  O'oS,  and  o-o6  of  a  rupee,  while  the  average  number  of  assessees 
was  109,000,  119,000,  134,000,  135,000,  and  56,000,  or  i-6,  i-7,  i-8, 
1-8,  and  o-8  per  1,000  of  the  population  respectively. 

The  work  of  the  Calcutta  Custom  House  is  directed  by  a  Collector 
of  Customs,  who  is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Revenue  as 
the  chief  Customs  authority,  and  is  assisted  by  five  Assistant  Collectors. 
The  examination  of  goods  and  their  valuation  for  customs  purposes  are 
entrusted  to  a  staff  of  eighteen  appraisers,  while  the  guarding  of  vessels 
and  patrolling  of  the  port  in  order  to  prevent  smuggling,  the  control 
over  the  discharge  of  cargo,  and  the  loading  or  unloading  of  salt  at  the 
^t'/Jy  (warehouses)  rest  with  a  special  establishment  of  about  205  officers 
under  the  orders  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Preventive  Service  and 
Salt  department. 

Information  as  to  the  tariff  is  given  in  Vol.  IV,  chap,  viii,  and  it  will 
suffice  to  state  here  that  the  ordinary  import  duty  is  5  per  cent.,  either 
ad  valorem  or  on  a  tariff  valuation.  The  most  important  exceptions 
are  cotton  piece-goods,  assessed  at  3^  per  cent. ;  iron  and  steel,  at  i  per 
cent. ;  petroleum  below  a  certain  flashing  point,  at  i  anna  per  imperial 
gallon  ;  and  machinery,  railway  material,  and  raw  cotton,  which  are  free. 
The  duty  on  salt  has  varied  ;  it  was  reduced  from  Rs.  2-14  to  Rs.  2  per 
maund  in  1882,  but  was  again  raised  to  Rs.  2-8  per  maund  in  1888,  at 
which  figure  it  continued  till  March,  1903,  when  it  was  again  reduced 
to  Rs.  2  per  maund.  It  has  recently  (1907)  been  still  further  reduced  to 
R.  I  per  maund.  A  duty  was  first  imposed  on  kerosene  oil  in  1888; 
and  in  1899  countervailing  duties  were  placed  upon  bounty-fed  sugar. 

The  total  customs  revenue  in  Bengal  averaged  247  lakhs  during  the 
period   1881-90,    and    352    lakhs   during   the   following   decade.      In 

'  The  revenue  from  the  income-tax  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  was  41-^3  lakhs 
in  J  904-5. 


LOCAL   AND  MUNICIPAL  315 

1900-1  it  amounted  to  427  lakhs S  and  in  1903-4  to  384  lakhs. 
Excluding  the  receipts  from  salt  and  rice,  the  import  duties  in  1903-4 
yielded  150  lakhs,  to  which  cotton-goods  contributed  51  lakhs,  mineral 
oils  18  lakhs,  metals  16  lakhs,  and  sugar  (inclusive  of  countervailing 
duties)  9  lakhs.  The  only  export  duty  is  that  on  rice,  which  realized 
18  lakhs  in  1880-1,  nearly  22  lakhs  in  1900-1,  and  19  lakhs  in  1903-4. 
In  discussing  the  rise  and  present  position  of  local  institutions  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  town  and  country.  In  towns  the  need 
for  proper  roads,  water-supply,  and  sanitary  arrange- 
ments   is    far  greater    than  in   rural  tracts,   while,  as         •  •     , 

°  .         .  .  '  '  municipal. 

their  area  is  limited,  it  is  comparatively  easy  for  the 
representatives  of  the  people  to  deal  with  these  matters.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  towns  are  also  more  advanced  and  better  able  to  express  their 
requirements  than  those  of  the  scattered  villages  in  the  interior.  It 
follows  that  the  first  steps  in  the  direction  of  delegating  to  the  natives 
of  the  country  a  share  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs  were 
taken  in  towns,  and  in  this,  as  in  other  matters,  Calcutta  naturally 
led  the  way. 

Outside  towns  the  rise  of  local  self-government  in  Bengal  dates  from 
1870,  when  District  committees  were  created  for  the  administration  of 
the  funds  set  apart  for  the  construction,  repair,  and  maintenance 
of  roads,  bridges,  &c.,  which  were  derived  mainly  from  the  road  cess. 
They  consisted  of  the  District  Magistrate  and  other  officers  of  the 
District  staff,  and  of  a  certain  number  of  payers  of  road  cess  appointed 
on  the  nomination  of  the  local  authorities.  District  school  committees, 
consisting  partly  of  officials  and  partly  of  private  persons  nominated  as 
above,  were  at  the  same  time  formed  for  the  control  of  education,  and 
were  made  responsible  for  the  supervision  of  all  Government  schools 
and  the  allotment  of  the  sums  set  aside  for  grants-in-aid  of  private 
schools.  Owing  partly  to  the  constitution  of  the  committees,  and  partly 
to  the  fact  that  the  powers  delegated  to  them  were  very  circumscribed, 
these  measures  were  not  attended  with  much  success,  and  local  self- 
government  in  the  Districts  was  for  some  years  little  more  than  a  name. 
At  the  instance  of  Lord  Mayo,  a  fresh  scheme  was  drawn  up  by 
Sir  Ashley  Eden,  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  with  the  threefold  object 
of  relieving  the  Provincial  authorities  of  some  portion  of  the  ever- 
growing details  of  the  work  of  administration,  of  reconciling  the  public 
to  the  burden  of  local  taxation,  and  of  conferring  on  the  people  or  their 
representatives  greater  powers  of  control  over  expenditure  on  objects  of 
local  importance.  This  scheme  was  the  foundation  of  the  Local  Self- 
Government  Act,  III  (B.C.)  of  1885,  which  is  still  in  force. 

'■  These  figures  exclude  collections  in  inland  treasuries  on  bonded  salt.  The 
receipts  on  their  account  averaged  8  lakhs  a  year  between  i!^95  and  1900,  and  in 
1900-1   and  in    1 903-4  amounted  to  26  lakhs. 


3i6  BENGAL 

This  Act  provides  for  the  constitution  of  three  classes  of  local 
authorities— the  District  board  with  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  District, 
a  local  board  for  each  subdivision,  and  Union  committees  for  smaller 
areas  where  circumstances  may  indicate  the  desirability  of  appointing 
them.  The  District  board  is  the  principal  local  authority,  and  the  local 
boards  and  Union  committees  work  in  subtjrdination  to  it,  exercising 
such  powers  and  administering  such  funds  as  the  District  board  may 
direct.  District  boards  have  been  constituted  throughout  Bengal,  save 
only  in  Darjeeling  and  a  few  remote  tracts  ;  local  boards  have  also  been 
formed  in  most  Districts.  On  March  31,  1904,  there  were  42  District 
boards  and  104  local  boards  in  Bengal '.  The  system  of  village  Unions 
has  not  yet  been  fully  developed,  and  only  58  have  been  created,  chiefly 
in  the  Burdwan  and  Presidency  Divisions.  Half  the  members  of  Dis- 
trict boards  are  appointed  by  Government  and  half  are  elected  by  local 
boards  ;  where  there  are  no  local  boards,  the  District  board  consists 
entirely  of  members  appointed  by  Government.  On  March  31,  1904, 
the  42  District  boards  contained  in  all  846  members^.  Of  these  221 
were  members  ex  officio,  292  were  appointed  by  Government,  and  2>2)Ci 
were  elected  by  the  local  boards.  The  Collector  of  the  District  has  in 
all  cases  been  appointed  chairman.  The  area  dealt  with  by  each  board 
is  so  large,  and  the  interests  of  different  parts  of  it  are  so  divergent,  that 
jio  non-ofificial  member  would  be  able  to  perform  effectively  the  executive 
duties  of  the  post  or  to  weigh  impartially  the  conflicting  claims  of 
different  localities.  The  members  of  local  boards  are  appointed  partly 
by  nomination  and  partly  by  election,  one  or  more  members  being 
elected  for  each  thdna.  All  residents  who  possess  a  small  property 
qualification  are  entitled  to  vote,  but  the  number  who  actually  do  vote 
is  usually  very  small.  Similar  rules  have  been  framed  for  the  constitution 
of  Union  committees. 

The  District  boards  have  full  control  over  all  roads  and  bridges,  save 
on  a  few  main  lines  of  communication  of  more  than  local  importance. 
They  are  also  entrusted  with  the  maintenance  and  supervision  of  all 
primary  and  middle  schools,  the  management  of  pounds  and  most 
of  the  public  ferries,  the  control  over  and  upkeep  of  dispensaries,  the 
provision  of  a  proper  water-supply,  village  sanitation,  lS:c.  When  scarcity 
occurs,  it  becomes  their  duty  to  subordinate  all  other  objects  to  the 
special  consideration  of  saving  life,  and  they  are  expected  to  devote 
their  whole  available  resources  to  affording  relief.  If  the  scarcity  is  not 
serious  or  widespread,  the  District  board  is  left  to  cope  with  it,  with 

^  The  number  of  District  hoards  in  IJengal  after  the  recent  territorial  changes  was 
29  and  of  local  boards  76. 

^  The  number  of  members  of  District  boards  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  was  5!^o 
in  7904,  of  whom  148  were  members  ex  officio,  18S  were  appointed  by  Government, 
and   244  were  elected. 


LOCAL   AND   MUNLCLPAL  317 

such  financial  assistance  as  may  seem  to  be  needed  ;  but  when  famine 
supervenes,  the  management  of  rehef  operations  is  taken  over  by 
Government.  The  immediate  administration  of  the  roads  and  build- 
ings under  the  control  of  the  District  board  is  vested  in  the  District 
Engineer,  who  is  appointed  and  paid  by  the  board,  while  that  of  the 
schools  subordinate  to  it  lies  with  the  Deputy-Inspector  of  schools,  an 
officer  of  the  Educational  department,  who,  in  respect  of  these  schools, 
works  in  subordination  to  the  board. 

The  chief  functions  hitherto  delegated  to  local  boards  are  the  care 
and  maintenance  of  village  roads,  the  management  of  pounds,  and  the 
charge  of  ferries.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  they  have  also  been 
entrusted  with  powers  of  varying  extent  with  regard  to  primary  educa- 
tion, and  in  a  few  cases  with  the  control  of  dispensaries  and  the  main- 
tenance of  District  roads.  As  at  present  constituted,  local  boards  have 
not  been  a  very  great  success,  and  several  of  those  at  the  head-quarters 
of  Districts  have  recently  been  abolished. 

The  Union  committees  exercise  control  over  pounds,  village  roads, 
sanitation,  and  water-supply.  In  regard  to  primary  schools,  their  au- 
thority is  restricted  to  inspection.  Their  income  consists  of  the  receipts 
from  pounds  situated  within  the  Union,  a  lump  sum  granted  by  the 
District  board  for  village  roads,  sanitation,  and  water-supply,  and  funds 
raised  under  section  118  of  the  Act.  In  some  Districts  these  com- 
mittees are  reported  to  have  done  useful  work  within  the  narrow  limits 
of  their  powers  and  resources. 

Nearly  53  per  cent,  of  the  income  of  District  boards  is  derived  from 
the  road  cess  levied  on  land,  under  the  provisions  of  Act  IX  (B.C.)  of 
1880.  A  considerable  sum  is  also  derived  from  pounds  and  ferries  and 
special  grants  made  by  Government.  The  main  heads  of  expenditure 
are  public  works  (59  per  cent,  of  the  total),  education  (22  per  cent.), 
medical  (5  per  cent.),  and  general  administration  (4  per  cent.).  Sta- 
tistics of  income  and  expenditure  are  given  in  Table  XI  at  the  end  of 
this  article  (p.  355).  The  duties  of  the  boards  tend  to  outgrow  their  in- 
come, and  it  is  becoming  increasingly  difficult  for  them  to  spare  money 
for  the  construction  of  feeder-roads  to  railways  and  other  new  works. 
Government  has  therefore  recently  helped  to  restore  the  equilibrium  by 
assigning  to  the  Commissioner  of  each  Division  a  considerable  sum  to 
be  allotted  by  him  to  the  boards  which  stand  most  in  need  of  assistance. 
The  total  of  the  special  grants  thus  made  amounted  to  15  lakhs  on 
April  I,  1904  ;  and  in  1905  a  further  grant  of  12^  lakhs  was  made  from 
Imperial  funds  to  the  District  boards. 

The  history  of  municipal  government  in  Calcutta  is  dealt  with  in 
the  article  on  that  city.  The  first  enactment  having  for  its  object  the 
creation  of  local  bodies  elsewhere  was  Act  XXVI  of  1850,  which  autho- 
rized the  Lieutenant-Governor,  on  the  application  of  the  inhabitants  of 


3i8  BENGAL 

any  place  of  pul)lic  resorl  or  residence,  to  extend  the  Act  to  it  uiid  to 
appoint  commissioners  who,  by  ilic  levy  of  a  rate  on  houses  or  of  town 
duties  or  otherwise,  were  to  make  better  provision  for  purposes  of  public 
health  (^r  convenience.  The  Darjeeling  municipality  was  constituted 
in  1850  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act;  but  otherwise  very  little  ad- 
vantage was  taken  of  it  or  of  a  subsequent  Act  (XX  of  1856),  the  main 
object  of  which  was  to  make  better  provision  for  the  appointment  of 
police  chaukidars  in  towns,  but  which  also  provided  that  any  sur{)lus 
funds  raised  in  a  town,  primarily  for  the  above  purpose,  might  be  ap- 
plied to  cleansing  or  lighting  or  otherwise  improving  it.  These  two  Acts 
were  superseded  in  the  larger  towns  by  Act  VI  of  1868,  which  repeated 
their  provisions  in  a  modified  form.  The  first  real  attempt  at  inaugu- 
rating municipal  government  was  made  in  1864,  when  the  District 
Municipal  Improvement  Act  was  passed.  This  Act  authorized  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  to  appoint  municipal  commissioners  for  any  town 
to  which  it  was  extended,  with  power  to  levy  certain  rates  and  taxes  to 
meet  the  cost  of  conservancy,  general  improvement,  and  police. 

The  enactments  were  consolidated  and  amended  by  Act  V  (B.C.) 
of  1876,  in  which  year  there  were  in  existence  24  municipalities  under 
Act  III  of  1864  and  2  under  Act  XXVI  of  1850,  70  'unions'  under 
Act  XX  of  1856,  and  95  '  towns '  under  Act  VI  of  1868.  The  new  Act 
recognized  four  classes  of  municipal  institutions :  namely,  first  and 
second-class  municipalities,  '  unions,'  and  stations.  The  elective  prin- 
ciple was  allowed  in  the  case  of  municipalities,  provided  that  one-third 
of  the  ratepayers  desired  it ;  but  this  condition  was  fulfilled  in  respect 
of  only  three  municipalities.  The  Magistrate  of  the  District  or  of  the 
subdivision,  as  the  case  might  be,  was  as  a  rule  ex-officio  chairman  of 
all  municipalities  situated  within  his  jurisdiction  ;  power  was  given  to  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  to  appoint  other  persons,  but  it  was  exercised  only 
in  a  single  case. 

This  Act  was,  in  its  turn,  superseded  by  Act  III  (B.C.)  of  1884, 
which  is  still  in  operation,  and  which  provides  for  the  election  of  a 
majority  of  the  commissioners  and  gives  to  them  a  far  greater  degree 
of  independence.  By  this  Act  the  distinction  between  first  and  second- 
class  municipalities  was  abolished,  and  the  other  corporate  bodies  known 
as  '  unions  '  and  '  stations  '  were  extinguished.  Under  its  provisions  the 
ratepayers  of  125  municipalities,  out  of  a  total  of  161,  have  obtained  the 
privilege  of  electing  two-thirds  of  their  commissioners,  and  in  109  cases 
the  latter  have  been  empowered  to  choose  their  own  chairman.  In  the 
remaining  towns,  which  are  either  very  backward  or  are  divided  by  con- 
tending interests  or  strong  party  feeling,  Government  has  reserved  to 
itself  the  power  of  appointing  the  commissioners  or  the  chairman,  but 
in  only  twenty-seven  municipalities  does  it  appoint  both.  Except 
in   Howrah,  the  municipalities  have  been  relieved  of  the  charges  on 


PUBLIC    WORKS  319 

account  of  the  local  police,  over  which  they  exercised  practically  no 
control,  on  the  understanding  that  the  funds  thus  set  free  must  be 
spent  on  works  of  general  utility  and  may  on  no  account  be  devoted  to 
the  reduction  of  taxation.  The  charges  previously  borne  by  Govern- 
ment on  account  of  dispensaries  and  hospitals  within  municipal  limits 
have  at  the  same  time  been  transferred  to  these  bodies.  The  muni- 
cipal law  has  now  been  extended  to  all  places  of  an  urban  character, 
where  alone  it  can  be  satisfactorily  worked. 

Act  III  of  1884  has  been  amended  by  Acts  IV  (B.C'.)  of  1S94  and 
II  (B.C.)  of  1896.  By  these  enactments  the  elective  principle  has  been 
further  developed,  and  the  powers  and  responsibilities  of  the  municipal 
commissioners  have  been  enhanced.  The  scope  of  municipal  expendi- 
ture has  been  extended,  and  now  includes  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  veterinary  institutions  and  the  training  of  the  requisite 
staff,  the  improvement  of  breeds  of  cattle,  the  training  and  employment 
of  female  medical  practitioners,  the  promotion  of  physical  culture,  and 
the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  free  libraries.  The  commissioners 
may  order  a  survey  and  organize  a  fire  brigade ;  they  may  control  the 
water-supply  when  its  purity  is  suspected,  even  to  the  extent  of  inter- 
ference with  private  rights  ;  larger  powers  of  precaution  are  conferred 
in  the  case  of  ruined  and  dangerous  houses  and  other  erections,  as 
well  as  increased  powers  for  the  general  regulation  of  new  buildings. 

Out  of  the  total  number  of  municipalities*  in  existence  on  March  31, 
1904  (excluding  Calcutta),  only  two,  Howrah  and  Patna,  contained 
over  100,000  inhabitants;  98  contained  from  10,000  to  100,000,  and 
in  61  there  were  less  than  10,000  inhabitants.  The  total  population 
within  municipal  limits  was  2,871,249,  and  the  incidence  of  taxation 
per  head  of  the  population  was  Rs.  1-3-11.  The  total  number  of 
municipal  commissioners  was  2,236,  of  whom  1,160  were  elected  and 
1,076  appointed;  336  were  official  members,  and  1,900  non-official; 
261  were  Europeans  and  1,975  natives.  The  land  holding  classes  and 
members  of  the  legal  profession  provide  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  com- 
missioners, and  of  the  remainder  the  majority  are  Government  servants 
or  traders.  Statistics  of  municipal  finance  are  given  in  Table  XII 
at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  356). 

There  are  two  branches  of  the  Public  Works  department,  one  of 

which  is  in  charge  of  roads  and  buildings  and  mis-     _.  ...  , 

,,.°.  ,     ,  ,  Public  works. 

ceilaneous  public  miprovements,  and  the  other  con- 
trols irrigation,  marine  matters,  and  railways.     Each  branch  is  under 

'  In  the  present  area  of  IJengal,  there  were  127  municipalities  in  1904,  of  which  75 
contained  from  10,000  to  100,000  inhabitants,  while  50  had  less  than  10,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  total  population  within  municipal  limits  was  2,354,180,  and  the  incidence 
of  taxation  was  Rs.  1-4  per  head.  The  total  number  of  municipal  commissioners 
was  1,753,  of  whom  913  were  elected  and  745  were  nominated;  249  were  official 
and  1,504  non-official  members;  231  were  Europeans  and  1,522  were  natives. 


320  BENGAL 

a  Chief  Engineer,  who  is  also  secretary  to  Government.  The  Roads 
and  Buildings  branch  administers  five  circles ',  three  of  which  are 
controlled  by  Superintending  Engineers  and  two  by  Executive  En- 
gineers, who  are  designated  Inspectors  of  Works,  and  whose  duties 
are  to  inspect  the  work  done  under  the  Engineers  employed  by  the 
District  boards  and  to  exercise  professional  control  over  their  proceed- 
ings. The  Imperial  and  Provincial  buildings  and  roads  in  these  circles 
are  in  charge  of  the  District  P^ngineers,  where  the  District  boards  con- 
cerned have  accepted  the  responsibility  for  their  up-keep,  and  of  the 
Inspectors  of  Works  in  certain  Districts  in  which  those  bodies  have  n(jt 
accepted  such  a  responsibility.  The  Superintending  Engineers  have 
control  of  Public  Works  divisions  held  by  Executive  Engineers,  and 
they  also  act  as  Inspectors  of  Works  in  their  circles.  The  Roads  and 
Buildings  branch  also  includes  a  temporary  charge,  comprising  the 
buildings  connected  with  the  Imperial  Agricultural  Institute  at  Pusa, 
which  is  under  the  control  of  a  superintendent  of  works. 

The  Irrigation  branch  comprises  four  circles,  each  of  which  is  under 
a  Superintending  Engineer.  In  Irrigation  circles  the  Executive 
Engineers  also  carry  out  the  works  of  the  Roads  and  Buildings  branch 
within  the  limits  of  their  divisions,  and  the  Superintending  Engineers 
act  as  Inspectors  of  Works.  Three  revenue  divisions  formed  for  the 
assessment  and  collection  of  canal  water  rates  are  held  by  Deputy- 
Collectors  under  the  control  of  the  Superintending  Engineer  of  this 
branch.  The  main  lines  of  railway  and  their  branches  are  administered 
directly  by  the  Government  of  India,  the  Government  of  Bengal  con- 
trolling only  a  few  minor  railways  undertaken  by  private  enterprise. 

Rapid  progress  has  been  made  in  all  departments  since  the  intro- 
duction of  Provincial  finance  in  1871.  The  Northern  section  of  the 
Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  was  opened  in  1878.  The  Orissa, 
Midnapore,  and  Hijili  Canals  were  completed  in  1873,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Calcutta  and  Eastern  Canals,  the  entire  Provincial 
canal  system  has  been  constructed  since  that  date.  The  canalization 
of  the  Bhangar  channel  in  1899  and  the  opening  of  the  Madhumati  Bil 
route  in  1902  have  greatly  facilitated  navigation  by  the  Calcutta  and 
Eastern  Canals.  As  regards  roads,  the  operations  of  the  department 
are  limited  to  the  maintenance  of  a  few  trunk  lines,  and  the  initiative 
in  the  construction  of  new  roads  has  been  transferred  to  the  District 
boards.  Special  efforts  have,  however,  been  directed  to  the  improve- 
ment of  communications  in  the  Western  Duars*,  and  to  the  construction 
of  feeder-roads  to  the  railways. 

Great  improvements  have  been  effected  in  the  public  buildings  both 

'  The  number  of  circles  in  Bengal,  as  at  present  constituted,  is  four,  of  wliicli  three 
are  controlled  by  Superintending  Engineers  and  one  by  an  Executive  Pjigineer,  who 
is  designated  Inspector  of  Works. 


ARMY  321 

in  Calcutta  and  in  the  Districts.  The  antiquated  structures  in  which 
the  courts  and  pubHc  offices  were  formerly  accommodated  have  been 
replaced  by  more  spacious  edifices  built  with  some  pretensions  to 
architectural  effect.  Munsifs'  courts,  in  particular,  are  being  gradually 
transformed  from  primitive  mat-and-thatch  structures  into  permanent 
buildings  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  educational  institutions  are  being 
provided  with  more  suitable  accommodation  than  was  formerly  thought 
sufficient  for  them,  while  the  jails  are  being  altered  to  meet  modern 
sanitary  requirements  and  to  prevent  overcrowding. 

Among  more  or  less  recent  buildings  in  Calcutta  may  be  mentioned 
the  Imperial  Secretariat,  Writers'  Buildings,  the  General  Post  Office, 
the  Telegraph  Office,  the  Surveyor-General's  Offices,  the  Government 
of  India  Central  Press,  the  High  Court,  the  Office  of  the  Geological 
Survey  department,  and  the  Economic  and  Art  Museum.  Of  educational 
buildings,  the  most  important  are  the  Senate  House,  Presidency  College, 
Hare  School,  School  of  Art,  and  the  additions  to  the  Medical  College. 
The  Eden,  Ezra,  Sambhu  Nath  Pandit,  and  Victoria  Zanana  Hospitals 
and  the  Leper  Asylum  are  new,  and  the  Presidency  General  Hospital 
has  been  reconstructed. 

Much  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  preservation  of  antiquities 
at  Pandua*  and  Gaur*  ;  and  the  Konarak  temple  and  the  Bhu- 
BANESWAR  temples  in  Puri  have  been  protected  from  decay. 

Drainage  schemes  have  been  undertaken  in  Hooghly  District  at 
a  cost  of  26  lakhs,  whereby  an  area  of  370  square  miles  has  been 
drained  and  cultivation  rendered  possible. 

Extensive  waterworks  have  been  constructed  at  Dacca*,  Bhagalpur, 
Mymensingh*,  Howrah,  Burdwan,  Arrah,  Murshidabad,  and 
Darjeeling  ;  a  complete  drainage  scheme  has  been  carried  out 
at  Patna,  and  electric  lighting  has  been  introduced  at  Dacca*  and 
Darjeeling. 

The  strength  of  the  army  stationed  within  the  Province  in  June,  1903, 
was  7,866,  British  troops  numbering  3,221  and  Native  troops  4,645. 
Bengal  is  garrisoned  by  the  Lucknow  division  of  the 
Eastern  Command.  The  troops  are  distributed  at 
eleven  military  stations.  At  Fort  William  in  Calcutta  there  are  British 
and  Native  infantry,  British  artillery,  and  a  submarine  mining  company  ; 
and  there  are  Native  infantry  and  cavalry  at  Alipore.  British  and  Native 
infantry  and  British  artillery  are  cantoned  at  Barrackpore,  and  British 
and  Native  infantry  and  British  artillery  at  Dinapore.  Darjeeling  with 
Lebong  has  British  infantry  and  artillery,  and  a  British  regiment 
is  stationed  at  Dum-Dum.  The  remaining  cantonments  of  Ranchi, 
Buxa,  Cuttack,  and  Gangtok  are  manned  by  Native  infantry.  No 
recruitment  takes  place  among  Bengalis. 

There  is  an  arsenal  at  Fort  William,  a  foundry  and  shell  factory  at 

VOL.  vii.  y 


5-^2 


BENGAL 


Cossipore,  an  ammunition   factory  at   Dum-Dum,  and  a  rifle  factory 
at  Ichapur. 

Volunteer  corps  have  their  head-quarters  at  Calcutta,  Muzaffarpur, 
Darjeeling,  Ranchi,  Jamalpur,  Bankipore,  Dacca*,  and  Chittagong* ; 
and  the  head-quarters  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  Volunteer  Rifles 
are  at  Kharakpur.  The  following  table  gives  the  total  strength  of  all 
the  corps  in  1881,  1891,  1901,  and  1903  : — 


Police  and 
jails. 


The  Calcutta  police  force,  of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in  the 
article  on  Calcutta,  has  a  history  of  its  own,  and  has  always  been 
independent  of  the  police  system  in  other  parts  of  the 
Province.  In  the  early  days  of  British  rule  the  Bengal 
zaminddrs  were  required  to  keep  up  establishments 
of  police  for  the  maintenance  of  peace,  but  by  Regulation  XXII  of  1793 
this  system  was  abolished  ;  the  police  were  placed  under  the  exclusive 
control  of  Government  officers,  and  the  zaminddrs  were  forbidden  to 
maintain  any  such  force  '.  Every  District  was  divided  into  police  circles, 
with  an  area  of  about  400  square  miles,  and  a  ddroga,  with  a  staff 
of  subordinate  officers,  was  appointed  to  each.  To  meet  the  cost  of 
these  measures,  a  police  tax  was  imposed  on  traders  and  others  who 
were  specially  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  the  force  and  who  made 
no  other  direct  contribution  to  the  State ;  but  this  tax  was  abolished  in 
1797,  when  court-fees  and  stamp  duties  were  introduced.  The  functions 
of  the  new  force  were  at  first  confined  to  the  arresting  of  accused 
persons  ;  but  in  1797  the  police  ddrogas  were  directed  to  inquire 
regarding  unnatural  deaths,  and  in  1807  the  Magistrate  was  authorized 
to  order  a  police  inquiry  when  he  saw  reason  to  distrust  the  truth  of 
a  complaint.  From  this  small  beginning  was  soon  evolved  the  regular 
system  of  police  inquiries  now  in  vogue,  which  was  placed  on  a  legal 
footing  by  Regulation  XX  of  181 7. 

In     1808    Superintendents     of    police    were     appointed    to    certain 

'  In  1807  the  experiment  was  tried  of  associating  landholders  and  others  with  the 
police,  and  of  authorizing  them  in  certain  cases  to  receive  charges  and  arrest  accused 
persons  and  send  them  to  the  ddrogas  ;  but  it  proved  a  failure  and  was  abandoned  in 
1 8 10. 


POLICE   AND  JAILS 


323 


divisions,  where  they  exercised  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  Magis- 
trates of  Districts  and  cities.  These  posts  were  abohshed  in  1829,  but 
they  were  again  revived  in  1837.  The  civil  poHce  force  in  that  year 
consisted  of  444  ddrogas,  1,353  subordinate  olificers,  called  muharrirs 
a.nd  Jemadars,  and  6,699  barkandaz  or  constables. 

The  whole  force  was  reorganized  and  placed  on  its  present  footing 
by  Act  V  of  i86r.  An  Inspector-General  of  police  was  appointed, 
with  complete  powers  of  control  in  all  departmental  matters,  and  under 
him  were  6  Deputy-Inspectors-General,  52  District  Superintendents, 
III  Assistant  Superintendents,  570  inspectors,  936  sub-inspectors, 
2,234  head  constables,  and  25,000  constables  :  these  figures  include 
the  police  in  Assam,  who  were  not  separated  from  the  Bengal  police 
till  187 1.  The  annual  cost  of  the  police  force  in  Bengal  rose  from 
36-6  lakhs  in  1881  to  40-8  lakhs  in  1891,  to  51-7  lakhs  in  1901,  and 
to  54-9  lakhs  in  1903.  The  composition  of  the  force  in  those  years 
is  shown  below  : — 


Grade. 

Number  in 

1881. 

1891. 

IQOI. 

1903.* 

Deputy-Inspectors-General . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

District  and  Assistant  Super- 

intendents 

73 

71 

75 

88 

Inspectors    .... 

143 

15.5 

169 

175 

Sub-inspectors 

697 

903 

1,649 

i>7i9 

Head  constables  . 

2,191 

2>357 

1,704 

1,722 

Constables,  includint^  muni- 

cipal police 

20,170 

18,122 

20,322 

■!o,55^ 

Note. — These  Ggures  are  exclusive  of  the  Calcutta  force,  the  aggre'gate  strength 
of  wliich  in  1903  was  3,3.;3,  and  also  of  the  railway  and  military  police;  they  refer 
only  to  the  executive  force  together  with  the  reserves,  both  ordinary  and  armed. 
'  The  corresponding  figures  for  Bengal  as  now  constituted  were  : — 

Deputy-Inspectors-General  . 

District  and  Assistant  Superintendents 

Inspectors       ...... 

Sub-inspectors 

Head  constables 

Constables,  including  municipal  police 


2 

57 
210 

1,241 

1506 

i6,ioi 


The  Deputy-Inspectors-General  are,  in  the  main,  inspecting  officers, 
but  they  also  arrange  the  posting  of  officers  below  the  rank  of  Assistant 
Superintendent.  The  District  Superintendents  are  in  charge  of  the 
police  of  their  Districts,  but  in  all  save  purely  departmental  matters 
they  are  subordinate  to  the  District  Magistrates.  Inspectors  are 
employed  chiefly  on  inspection,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  investigations 
is  conducted  by  sub-inspectors  ;  much  of  this  work  was  formerly  done  by 
head  constables,  but  of  late  years  it  has,  as  far  as  possible,  been  taken 
out  of  their  hands. 

The  higher  grades  of  the  police  are  filled  on  the  results  of  a  com- 
petitive examination   in  England  and  a   competitive   examination   in 

V  2 


324  BENGAL 

India,  restricted  to  nominated  candidates,  a  certain  number  of  appoint- 
ments being  also  given  by  nomination  to  natives  of  the  country.  The 
competitive  examination  held  in  India  is  now,  however,  to  be  abolished. 
Inspectors  are  almost  invariably  promoted  sub-inspectors,  but  in  future 
a  certain  number  are  to  be  appointed  direct.  Sub-inspectors  are 
appointed  either  by  open  competition  or  by  nomination.  As  a  result 
of  the  Police  Commission  of  1903,  it  has  been  decided  that  there  is 
to  be  no  competitive  examination  for  the  recruitment  of  sub-inspectors, 
but  that  they  shall  be,  as  far  as  possible,  recruited  direct,  and  that  a 
maximum  proportion  of  appointments  shall  be  fixed  for  promotion  from 
the  rank  of  head  constable.  In  every  case  they  have  to  go  through 
a  year's  training  in  the  Bhagalpur  Training  School,  Avhere  they  are 
taught  law,  the  Police  Manual  so  far  as  it  concerns  them,  the  reading 
and  recording  of  finger-impressions,  riding,  and  drill.  Head  constables 
are,  as  a  rule,  promoted  constables.  Constables  are  recruited  at  the 
head-quarters  of  each  District.  The  percentage  of  foreigners  (i.  e.  men 
of  another  District)  which  it  is  permissible  to  enlist  varies  in  different 
Districts  from  30  to  80.  Constables  receive  some  training  at  the 
head-quarters  before  being  sent  out  to  investigating  centres,  and  when 
stationed  at  head-quarters  they  also  get  some  instruction  in  drill.  In 
future  they  will  be  trained  at  central  schools  which  are  now  being 
established  for  the  purpose. 

Service  in  the  police  has,  till  very  lately,  been  unpopular  with 
educated  natives.  The  appointment  of  the  Police  Commission  and 
the  hopes  of  an  improved  service  have,  however,  of  late  led  many 
well-connected  natives  to  apply  for  direct  appointment  to  sub-in- 
spectorships. 

The  rural  police  force  of  chauklddrs  or  village  watchmen  is  a  very 
ancient  institution,  and,  except  in  East  and  North  Bengal,  it  is  for  the 
most  part  descended  from  the  old  Hindu  village  system,  under  which 
they  were  remunerated  by  small  assignments  of  land.  The  village 
watchmen  were  placed  under  the  ddrogas  by  the  Regulation  of  1 793 
already  referred  to.  Between  181 3  and  181 6  provision  was  made  for 
the  maintenance  of  chauklddrs  at  all  Magistrates'  head-quarters,  who 
were  paid  monthly  stipends  by  the  residents  of  the  towns  in  question ; 
and  a  somewhat  similar  arrangement  was  soon  afterwards  introduced 
generally  in  all  Districts  where  the  indigenous  system  mentioned 
above  did  not  exist.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  chauklddrs 
were  laid  down  in  detail  in  Regulation  XX  of  181 7.  In  1838  their 
number  was  estimated  to  be  190,000.  In  1870  a  new  law  was  enacted 
(VI  (B.C.)  of  1870)  detailing  their  duties  and  providing  for  the  levy  of 
their  pay  through  the  agency  of  local  committees,  called  panchdyais, 
who  were  empowered  not  only  to  fix  their  pay  at  any  rate  between 
.Rs.  3  and  Rs.  6  a  month,  but  also  to  appoint  and,  if  necessary,  dismiss 


POLICE   AND  JAILS  325 

them.  The  latter  powers  are  now  exercised  by  the  District  Magistrate  ; 
the  necessary  funds  are  still  usually  collected  by  the  panckdyat,  but 
the  Magistrate  may,  in  certain  cases,  appoint  a  tahsilddr  f(jr  the 
purpose.  The  chaukiddrs  are  required  to  attend  the  police  station  at 
regular  intervals,  usually  once  a  week,  in  order  to  report  the  births 
and  deaths  occurring  in  their  beats,  and  to  give  information  regarding 
the  movements  of  bad  characters  and  other  matters.  They  are  also 
required  to  give  immediate  notice  of  the  occurrence  of  all  heinous 
offences,  and  are  empowered  to  arrest  and  take  to  the  police  station 
persons  caught  red-handed.  In  order  to  provide  a  link  between  the 
regular  police  and  the  village  chaukiddrs,  dajfadars  have  been  appointed 
over  groups  of  from  ten  to  iweniy  ckai/kiddrs.  The  rural  police  are  not 
legally  subordinate  to  the  regular  police,  to  whom  they  merely  report. 
They  are  under  the  control  of  the  District  Magistrate,  who  can,  however, 
delegate  his  powers  to  the  District  Superintendent  of  police.  In  some 
Districts  he  delegates  all  his  powers,  keeping  in  his  own  hands  only  the 
general  power  of  control ;  in  some  Districts  he  delegates  his  powers 
in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  only  ;  in  otiiers,  again,  he  delegates 
powers  to  punish  and  reward  within  fixed  limits.  There  are  now 
153,000  chaukiddrs,  and  the  value  of  their  annual  emoluments  is 
estimated  at  about  79  lakhs*.  Most  of  them  are  now  under  Act  VI 
(B.C.)  of  1870,  but  about  5,000  still  hold  service-lands  in  lieu  of  salary  ; 
about  4,500  are  under  Regulation  XX  of  181 7,  and  upwards  of  9,000, 
in  Chota  Nagpur,  are  under  a  special  Act  (V  (B.C.)  of  1887)  passed 
for  that  part  of  the  Province. 

The  only  criminal  tribe  having  its  head-quarters  in  Bengal  that  need 
be  noticed  is  the  Magahiya  Doms.  These  are  most  numerous  in 
Saran  and  Champaran  Districts,  where  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
reclaim  them  by  inducing  them  to  settle  down  as  agriculturists.  Settle- 
ments have  been  formed  on  land  given  for  the  purpose  by  zamnddrs, 
and  allowances  for  the  purchase  of  seeds,  &c.,  have  been  made  to  them 
by  Government.  Enough  has  been  done  to  make  it  possible  for  them 
to  live  honestly  if  they  choose  to  do  so,  but  there  has  so  far  been  no 
very  marked  improvement  in  their  habits  ;  their  location  in  settlements, 
however,  gives  the  local  authorities  some  hold  over  them. 

Reformatory  schools  are  maintained  at  Alipore  and  Hazaribagh ; 
these  contained  383  boys  at  the  end  of  March,  1904,  the  total  cost  to 
Government  during  the  year  being  Rs.  58,000.  Boys  of  the  agricultural 
classes  are  sent  to  the  Hazaribagh  school,  where  cultivation  and 
gardening  are  specially  taught,  while  boys  belonging  to  the  industrial 
castes  are  sent  to  the  Alipore  school,  where  they  are  instructed  in 
various  industries.     The  kindergarten   system   of  teaching   has   been 

'  The  number  of  diaukJdars  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  is  106,500,  and  tiie  value 
of  their  annual  emoluments  is  estimated  at  nearly  49  lakhs. 


326  BENGAL 

introduced  at  AHpore  ;  drill  and  gymnastics  are  included  in  the  training 
at  both  schools,  and  games  are  played.  A  number  of  boys  are  provided 
with  work  outside  the  schools  under  a  system  of  licences,  and  the 
Educational  department  endeavours  to  follow  up  the  history  of  each 
boy  for  three  years  after  his  release. 

On  an  average,  134,000  cases  were  reported  yearly  by  the  police 
between  1896  and  1901,  of  which  67,000  were  dealt  with  by  the  criminal 
courts,  56,700  or  84-6  per  cent,  ending  in  conviction  and  the  remainder 
in  discharge  or  acquittal.  During  the  same  period  32,000  cases  were  on 
the  average  dealt  with  yearly  by  the  Calcutta  police,  the  nature  of  whose 
work  is  very  different ;  of  these,  29,800  were  referred  to  the  courts,  and 
all  but  950  ended  in  conviction. 

The  plan  of  identifying  criminals  by  means  of  head  measurements 
was  introduced  by  Sir  Edward  Henry,  when  Inspector-General  of 
Police ;  but  he  subsequently  replaced  it  by  the  system  of  finger-prints, 
which  is  now  in  vogue  everywhere.  The  record  of  finger-impressions, 
which  in  1897  consisted  of  only  8,000  slips,  had  risen  to  nearly  56,000 
in  1 90 1,  and  to  nearly  80,000  in  1903,  when  1,555  ^''^'^  were  thus 
identified,  compared  with  345  in  1898,  the  first  complete  year  of 
working. 

A  special  reserve  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  constables,  armed  with 
converted  vSniders  (now  being  replaced  by  converted  Martini-Henry 
carbines)  under  a  sub-inspector,  is  maintained  at  the  head-quarters  of 
each  District,  and  four  military  police  companies  of  100  each,  armed 
with  Martini-Henry  rifles,  are  stationed  at  Dacca*,  Bhagalpur,  Dumka, 
and  Hooghly.  In  accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  Police 
Commission,  these  reserves  are  to  be  strengthened  and  placed  in  charge 
of  European  inspectors,  and  all  members  of  the  force  are  to  pass 
periodically  through  them  for  courses  of  training.  A  separate  railway 
police  was  formed  in  1867,  and  now  comprises  2  Assistant  Inspectors- 
General,  17  inspectors,  44  sub-inspectors,  154  head  constables,  and 
731  native  and  14  European  constables. 

The  jails  of  Bengal  are  divided  into  three  classes — Central,  District, 
and  subsidiary.  The  Central  jails,  which  are  in  charge  of  whole-time 
officers,  are  intended  for  the  confinement  of  persons  sentenced  to 
long  terms  of  imprisonment.  Including  the  Presidency  Jail  in  Cal- 
cutta, where  European  convicts  are  incarcerated,  there  are  now  eight' 
Central  jails;  in  1881  there  were  nine,  and  in  1891  seven.  At  the 
head-quarters  of  Districts  where  there  is  no  Central  jail,  there  is 
a  District  jail,  which,  except  at  Darjeeling,  is  supervised  by  the  Civil 
Surgeon.  Prisoners  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  more  than  two 
years  are  transferred  to  a  Central  jail.  There  are  subsidiary  jails  at  all 
subdivisional  head-quarters  for  the  detention  of  under-trial  prisoners, 
'  There  are  six  Central  jails  in  Bengal  as  now  constituted. 


EDUCATION  327 

and  of  those  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  not  more  than  fourteen 
days.  It  is  proposed  to  detain  only  under-trial  prisoners  in  these  small 
jails  as  far  as  is  practicable.  Detailed  statistics  are  given  in  Table  XIII 
at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  357). 

The  modern  administration  of  the  Jail  department,  which  is  controlled 
by  an  Inspector-General,  dates  from  the  period  between  1877  and  r88r, 
when  many  improvements  were  effected — the  superintending  staff  was 
strengthened,  and  the  pay  and  prospects  of  the  subordinates  were 
improved  ;  new  jails  were  built,  discipline  was  made  more  strict,  and 
greater  care  began  to  be  taken  to  see  that  the  prisoners  were  properly 
housed,  clothed,  and  fed,  and  that  medical  aid  was  promptly  rendered 
to  those  in  need  of  it.  The  result  of  these  measures  has  been  most 
satisfactory.  In  1881  and  for  twenty  years  previously,  the  mortality 
amongst  prisoners  had  exceeded  61  per  1,000  ;  in  the  next  decade  it  fell 
to  45;  between  1892  and  1901  it  was  only  32,  and  in  1903  only  23-7 
per  r,ooo.  The  chief  jail  diseases  are  dysentery,  pneumonia,  malarial 
fevers,  and  cholera.  Dysentery  is  becoming  less  common  ;  in  1903,  in 
spite  of  a  greatly  increased  jail  population,  the  deaths  from  this  cause 
numbered  only  91,  compared  with  475  twenty  years  earlier.  Cholera 
has  almost  ceased  to  be  a  jail  disease;  in  1903  there  were  only  24 
cases  and  15  deaths.  Fewer  deaths  than  formerly  are  now  ascribed 
to  '  fever,'  but  this  is  due  in  part  to  better  diagnosis  ;  and  the  same 
cause  may  also  perhaps  account  for  the  reported  increase  in  tuberculosis, 
which,  like  pneumonia,  often  results  from  overcrowding. 

In  the  District  jails  the  prisoners  are  employed  on  simple  forms  of 
labour,  such  as  brick-pounding,  flour-grinding,  and  oil-pressing  ;  but  in 
the  Central  jails  special  industries  are  carried  on  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  various  Government  departments.  In  the  Presidency  Jail 
much  of  the  Government  printing  is  done ;  at  Buxar  tents  and  cotton 
cloth  are  made  ;  at  Midnapore  the  prisoners  work  in  cane,  coir,  and 
aloe  fibre,  and  so  on.  The  earnings  aggregated  nearly  6  lakhs  in  1903, 
compared  with  5^  lakhs  in  iSSr,  but  the  provision  of  hard  labour 
for  the  prisoners  is  considered  of  more  importance  than  the  amount 
earned.  The  expenditure  is  steadily  rising,  but  this  is  due  largely  to  the 
increased  cost  of  food-stuffs. 

Bengal   has   always   contained  a  large  number  of  ordinary  village 

schools  or  pathsdlas.     These  were  used  mainly  by  the  higher  Hindu 

castes  and  gave  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  and        ^^ 

•      1         ,         1         •         1  rr     ^    ^  Education. 

arithmetic,  but  the  education  they  afforded  was  very 

elementary  ;  it  consisted  largely  in  learning  by  rote,  and  especially  in 

committing  elaborate  arithmetical  tables  to  memory.      Brahman  pandits 

taught   Sanskrit    to   their    disciples,    who   were    mostly   Brahmans   and 

Baidyas,  and  there  were  also  some  indigenous  medical  schools.    Muham- 

madan  children  attended  maktabs,  or  elementary  schools  where  boys 


328  •  BENGAL 

learnt  to  recite  the  Koran,  and  madrasas,  or  more  advanced  schools 
teaching  Persian  and  Arabic.  Under  the  Company's  Charter  Act  of 
1813  a  lakh  of  rupees  a  year  was  allotted  for  expenditure  on  education, 
and  in  1823  a  Committee  of  Public  Instruction  was  appointed.  This 
Committee  sought  to  encourage  the  learning  and  literature  respected  by 
the  people  and  to  foster  high  education  as  it  was  then  understood,  but 
no  attempt  was  made  to  arrange  for  any  general  system  of  education. 

Under  Lord  William  Pentinck  the  cause  of  English  education,  which 
had  hitherto  been  fostered  mainly  by  the  independent  efforts  of  mission- 
aries, rapidly  gained  ground;  and  in  1835  ^^  was  decided,  through  the 
influence  of  Macaulay,  to  impart  instruction  in  the  higher  schools 
through  the  medium  of  English.  The  abolition  in  1837  of  Persian  as 
the  court  language  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  the  study  of  English,  and 
about  the  same  time  the  education  grant  was  raised  to  4-|  lakhs ; 
a  system  of  scholarships  was  created  for  English  schools,  and  Bengal 
was  divided  into  nine  educational  circles,  in  most  of  which  there  was 
a  central  college,  while  every  District  was  provided  with  a  school  to 
teach  both  English  and  the  vernacular. 

The  Committee  of  Public  Instruction  was  replaced  in  1842  by 
a  Council  of  Education.  A  system  of  examinations  and  scholarships 
was  devised,  and  steps  were  taken  to  obtain  employment  in  the  public 
service  for  the  most  successful  students.  Model  vernacular  schools 
were  established,  and  arrangements  were  made  for  the  periodical 
examination  of  indigenous  schools.  Books  were  lent  to  these  schools, 
and  money  rewards,  amounting  to  about  Rs.  5,000  a  year,  were  given 
to  deserving  teachers  and  pupils. 

The  celebrated  educational  Dispatch,  issued  by  the  Court  of  Directors 
in  1854,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  education  in  India,  and  led  in  Bengal 
to  the  appointment  in  1855  of  a  Director  of  Public  Instruction  and  of 
a  certain  number  of  inspectors  and  sub-inspectors  of  schools,  and  also, 
shortly  afterwards,  to  the  constitution  of  a  University  Committee.  This 
was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  regular  department  of  Public 
Instruction.  From  that  date  the  progress  of  education  in  Bengal  has 
been  rapid  and  sustained.  Systematic  inspection  was  introduced,  the 
scholarship  system  was  developed,  and  grants-in-aid  were  given  to 
private  schools  and  colleges.  All  grades  of  education  were  fostered, 
and  a  complete  system  of  examinations  was  organized.  Encouragement 
was  afforded  to  elementary  education  by  means  of  small  scholarships 
offered  to  the  best  pupils  of  vernacular  schools.  The  most  advanced 
boys  from  the  District  schools  competed  every  year  for  higher  scholar- 
ships tenable  in  colleges.  Grants-in-aid  were  given  to  79  English  and 
140  vernacular  schools,  and  the  School  Book  and  Vernacular  Literature 
Societies  were  established,  both  of  which  published  useful  works. 

In  Bengal  proper  the  colleges  established  prior  to  1857  were  fourteen 


EDUCATION  329 

in  number,  the  earliest  and  most  important  being  the  Calcutta  Madrasa, 
which  was  founded  by  Warren  Hastings  in  1781.  In  1817  the  Hindu 
College,  which  was  subsequently  merged  in  the  Presidency  College,  was 
founded  for  the  teaching  of  the  English  language  and  European  science. 
A  college  was  established  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  at  Serampore  in 
1818.  The  Sanskrit  College  dates  from  1824,  and  in  1830  Dr.  Duff 
founded  the  General  Assembly's  Institution.  The  schism  in  the 
Scottish  Church  in  1843  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Church 
Institution.  The  Hooghly  College  was  opened  in  1836,  and  the  Patna 
College  in  1855-6.  Besides  these,  there  were  Government  colleges  at 
Dacca*,  Berhampore,  Midnapore,  and  Krishnagar.  The  Doveton, 
La  Martiniere,  and  St.  Paul's  Colleges  in  Calcutta  were  private  founda- 
tions, and  the  BhawanTpur  College  was  maintained  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society. 

The  Educational  department  is  divided  into  four  sections  :  namely, 
the  Imperial  service,  the  Provincial  service,  the  Subordinate  service, 
and  the  Lower  Subordinate  service.  The  Imperial  service  ^  consists  of 
31  officers  appointed  in  England,  comi)rising  the  Director  of  Public 
Instruction,  Assam,  the  Assistant  Director  of  Public  Instruction,  Bengal, 
6  principals  of  colleges,  15  professors  and  5  inspectors  of  schools, 
and  3  to  fill  vacancies.  The  post  of  Director  of  Public  Instruction 
is  not  included  within  the  Indian  Educational  service.  The  Provincial 
service,  which  is  filled  mainly  by  recruitment  in  India,  consists  of 
109  officers:  namely,  6  divisional  inspectors  of  schools,  7  assistant 
inspectors,  7  principals  of  colleges,  56  professors  of  colleges,  23  head 
masters  of  collegiate  and  training  schools,  and  10  other  officers.  The 
Subordinate  service,  which  includes  all  deputy-inspectors  of  schools, 
head  masters  of  District  schools,  some  assistant  masters  in  District 
schools,  foremen  at  technical  institutions,  &c.,  comprises  464  appoint- 
ments. The  minimum  pay  is  Rs.  50  a  month.  The  Lower  Subordinate 
service  consists  of  1,112  persons. 

The  Director  is  the  chief  controlling  officer  of  the  department. 
Below  him  the  chief  executive  officers  are  the  divisional  inspectors  of 
schools,  one  for  each  Commissioner's  Division,  who,  with  the  help  of 

'  Owing  to  the  recent  transfer  of  officers  to  the  new  Province  of  Eastern  Eeiigal 
and  Assam,  the  strenf;th  of  the  Indian  Educational  service  in  Bengal  has  been  reduced 
to  27  officers.  It  includes  2  divisional  inspectors  of  schools,  the  inspector  of  European 
schools,  the  inspectrcss  of  schools,  the  Assistant  Director  of  Public  Instruction, 
5  principals  and  14  professors  of  colleges,  and  3  officers  to  fill  vacancies.  After  the 
transfer  of  27  officers  to  the  new  Province,  there  remain  Sr  officers  in  the  Bengal 
Provincial  service:  namely,  4  divisional  inspectors  and  5  assistant  inspectors  of  schools, 
5  principals  and  42  professors  of  colleges,  16  head  masters  of  collegiate  and  training 
schools,  and  9  other  officers.  Altogethtr  101  officers  have  been  transferred  to  the  new 
Province  from  the  Subordinate  Educational  service,  which  now  comprises  346  officers 
exclusive  of  the  sub-inspectors  of  schools. 


330  BENGAf. 

assistant  inspectors,  supervise  all  schools  in  tlicir  Divisions.  Usually 
each  District  is  in  charge  of  a  deputy-inspector,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
sub-inspector  in  each  subdivision  and  guru  instructors  in  each  thdna. 
The  District  boards  have  control  over  education  more  or  less  elemen- 
tary in  rural  tracts,  but  in  some  cases  they  have  delegated  their  duties 
in  regard  to  primary  education  to  local  boards.  In  the  few  Districts 
where  these  boards  do  not  exist,  the  local  control  is  vested  in  special 
committees. 

The  department^  maintains  ii  Arts  colleges,  including  one  for  girls  ; 
9  professional  colleges,  of  which  7  are  law  colleges  attached  to  and 
forming  part  of  the  same  number  of  Arts  colleges  ;  77  secondary  schools, 
including  2  high  and  one  middle  English  school  for  girls;  123  primary 
schools,  including  one  for  girls;  and  also  145  schools  for  special  in- 
struction, including  a  Government  college  and  4  Government  vernacular 
schools  for  medicine. 

The  teaching  institutions  fall  into  three  main  groups  :  namely.  Uni- 
versity education,  or  the  advanced  instruction  given  to  candidates  for 
degrees ;  and  secondary  education,  or  the  instruction  given  to  boys  and 
girls  who  have  passed  beyond  the  third  or  elementary  stage,  known  as 
primary  education. 

The  rise  of  the  Calcutta  University  dates  from  1856,  when  rules  were 
formulated  for  conducting  examinations  and  granting  degrees  in  Arts, 
Law,  Medicine,  and  Engineering,  and  the  Presidency  College  was 
placed  upon  an  improved  footing.  The  Act  of  Incorporation  of  the 
Calcutta  University  was  passed  in  January,  1857.  In  1859  the  inter- 
mediate examination  in  Arts  was  established,  the  degree  of  '  Licentiate ' 
was  created  in  the  Faculties  of  Law  and  Engineering,  and  that  of 
Doctor  in  the  Faculty  of  Law.  The  degree  of  M.A.  was  conferred  for 
the  first  time  in  1862,  and  that  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  T901-2. 

In  1904  the  Indian  Universities  Act  was  passed,  which  gives  greater 
control  in  academical  matters  to  the  teachers  who  are  connected  with 
colleges  affiliated  to  the  University ;  it  also  aims  at  improving  the 
standard  of  education  in  colleges,  imposes  more  stringent  conditions 
on  affiliation,  and  provides  for  periodical  inspection  by  experts. 

The  Viceroy  is  Chancellor  of  the  L^niversity.  The  Fellows  are 
appointed  by  him,  but  some  of  them  are  selected  on  the  suggestion 
of  graduates  and  of  the  Faculties  of  the  Senate.  The  Vice-Chancellor 
is  appointed  by  the  Governor-General-in-Council  from  the  Fellows. 
The  University  is  not  a  teaching  University  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 

*  In  the  new  Provincial  area  the  department  maintains  S  Arts  colleges,  one  of 
which  is  for  girls  ;  6  professional  colleges  ;  59  secondary  schools,  including  one  high 
and  2  middle  English  schools  for  girls;  86  primary  schools,  one  of  which  is  for  girls; 
and  103  special  schools,  including  one  Government  college  and  3  Government 
vernacular  schools  for  medicine. 


EDUCATION  331 

term  ;  its  principal  functions  are  to  affiliate  colleges,  to  recognize  high 
schools,  to  prescribe  courses  of  study  for  colleges  and  the  upper  classes 
of  high  schools,  to  hold  examinations,  and  to  grant  certificates  and 
diplomas  to  the  successful  candidates.  The  Chancellor,  Vice-Chan- 
cellor,  and  Fellows  constitute  the  Senate,  which  meets  once  a  year, 
and  also  when  convened  by  the  Vice-Chancellor  on  the  requisition  of 
any  six  members.  It  is  divided  into  the  Faculties  of  Arts,  Law,  Medi- 
cine, and  Engineering,  to  which  a  Faculty  of  Science  has  now  been 
added.  Tiiese  Faculties  are  appointed  by  the  Senate  at  its  annual 
meeting,  and  each  elects  its  own  president ;  every  member  of  the 
Senate  is  a  member  of  at  least  one  Faculty.  The  executive  government 
of  the  University  is  vested  in  a  Syndicate,  consisting  of  the  Vice-Chan- 
cellor and  ten  of  the  Fellows,  who  are  elected  for  one  year  by  the 
several  Faculties.  Boards  of  Studies  consisting  of  from  six  to  sixteen 
members  are  appointed  for  the  principal  departments  of  studies  ;  their 
duties  are  to  recommend  textbooks  and  the  courses  of  study  in  their 
respective  departments,  and  to  advise  the  Syndicate  regarding  the 
appointment  of  examiners  and  upon  any  other  matter  that  may  be 
referred  to  them.  The  expenditure  of  the  University  in  1903-4  was 
2-29  lakhs,  which  was  entirely  met  from  the  fees  paid  by  candidates  at 
the  examinations. 

In  1857,  10  Arts  colleges  were  affiliated  to  the  Calcutta  University. 
The  number  had  risen  to  34  in  1891,  to  44  in  1901,  and  to  46  in 
1903-4.  These  are  divided  into  two  grades:  the  first-grade  teach 
up  to  the  B.A.  standard  of  the  University,  while  in  the  second-grade 
colleges  the  course  prescribed  for  the  intermediate  examination  in 
Arts,  or  a  course  of  a  similar  standard,  is  taught.  An  undergraduate 
of  the  University  may  appear  for  the  B.A.  or  B.Sc.  examination,  pro- 
vided he  has  prosecuted  a  regular  course  of  study  in  any  affiliated 
institution  for  not  less  than  four  academical  years,  and  if  he  passes,  he 
may  appear  at  the  M.A.  examination  whenever  he  pleases.  Of  the 
46  affiliated  colleges,  1 1  are  maintained  by  Government  and  one  from 
municipal  funds ;  6  are  aided  and  28  unaided.  The  Presidency, 
Patna,  and  St.  Xavier's  Colleges  were  affiliated  to  the  B.Sc.  standard 
of  the  Calcutta  University  in  1901.  The  Indian  Association  for  the 
Cultivation  of  Science  has  also  been  affiliated  to  this  standard.  In 
addition  to  those  just  mentioned,  the  Dacca*  College,  the  General 
Assembly's  Institution,  the  Duff  College,  the  Metropolitan  Institution, 
the  Ripon  and  the  BangabasI  Colleges  are  the  most  important  Arts 
colleges.  The  total  expenditure  incurred  on  Arts  and  Professional 
colleges  in  1903-4  was  12-73  lakhs,  of  which  5-87  lakhs  was  derived 
from  Provincial  revenues  and  4-92  lakhs  from  fees. 

A  Law  department  was  attached  to  the  Presidency  College  and 
affiliated  to  the  University  in  1857.     This  example  was  soon  followed, 


332 


BENGAL 


and  the  number  of  colleges  teaching  law  had  grown  to  12  in  1 890-1, 
and  to  17  in  1900-T,  the  number  falling  to  16  in  1903-4.  The  open- 
ing of  law  classes  in  other  Calcutta  institutions  greatly  reduced  the 
attendance  and  income  of  those  at  the  Presidency  College,  which  were 
therefore  abolished.  The  Calcutta  Medical  College  was  founded  in 
1835  by  Lord  William  Bentinck,  and  affiliated  to  the  Calcutta  Univer- 
sity in  1857.  For  the  students  of  this  college  University  standards  of 
various  descriptions  have  been  prescribed.  Institutions  for  medical 
education  are  now  controlled  by  the  Inspector-General  of  Civil  Hos- 
pitals. The  Civil  Engineering  College  was  opened  in  November,  1856, 
as  a  department  of  the  Presidency  College,  but  in  1880  it  was  replaced 
by  the  Government  Engineering  College  at  Sibpur  {see  Howrah), 
which  was  affiliated  to  the  University  ;  the  instruction  was  made  more 
practical,  and  classes  were  opened  for  civil  engineers,  mechanical 
engineers,  overseers,  and  mechanical  apprentices.  A  few  appointments 
under  Government  are  guaranteed  to  the  students  of  this  college. 

Students  not  living  with  their  parents  or  guardians  are  now  required 
to  reside  at  duly  authorized  hostels.  The  number  of  such  hostels  in 
1903-4  v>'as  411,  with  14,045  inmates;  and  they  were  maintained  at 
a  cost  of  10-95  hakhs,  of  which  Rs.  51,000  was  paid  from  public  sources. 

The  results  of  the  most  important  examinations  in  each  of  the  years 
1 880- 1,  1 890-1,  1 900- 1,  and  1903-4  are  shown  below  : — 


Passes*  in 

1880-1. 

1890- 1. 

1900- I. 

1903-4. 

Matriculation 

First  or  Intermediate  in  Aits 

Ordinary    Bachelor    of    Arts 

degree       .... 

Higher  and  special  degrees  . 

1,184 
320 

126 
.30 1 

1,816 
693 

231 

57: 

2,812 
1,039 

329 
91  § 

2,. ^94 
1,198 

295 

74 II 

*  Including  private  candid<atcs. 

+  In  M..^.  only.  Besides,  there  were  35  passes  in  B.L.,  17  in  L.M.S.,  one  in  Honours 
in  Medicine,  9  in  M.B.,  10  in  L.E.,  and  3  in  B.E. 

\  In  M.A.  only.  Besides,  there  were  128  passes  in  B.L.,  13  in  2nd  L.M.S.,  one  in 
Honours  in  Medicine,  3  in  2nd  M.B.,  one  in  M.D.,  3  in  L.E.,  and  2  in  B.E. 

§  In  M.A.  only.  Besides,  there  were  160  passes  in  B.L.,  64  in  2nd  L.M.S.,  3  in  2nd 
M.B.,  and  10  in  B.E. 

II  In  M.A.  only.  Besides,  there  were  136  passes  in  B.L.,  50  in  2nd  L.M.S.,  3  in 
2nd  M.B.,  12  in  B.E.,  and  5  in  B.Sc. 

Schools  which  have  classes  where  students  are  prepared  for  the 
University  Matriculation  examination  are  classed  as  '  high  schools,'  and 
all  other  secondary  schools  are  '  middle  schools.'  The  latter,  again,  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  according  as  English  is  or  is  not  included  in 
the  curriculum.  This  language  is  the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  first 
four  classes  of  high  schools,  and  it  is  taught  as  a  second  language  in  all 
but  the  lowest  classes  of  both  high  and  middle  English  schools.  There 
is  a  tendency  to  convert  middle  vernacular  into  middle  English  schools, 
and  to  raise  the  latter  to  the  rank  of  high  schools  ;  the  middle  English 


EDUCATION  333 

now  outnumber  the  middle  vernacular  schools,  and  also  contain  con- 
siderably more  pupils.  The  attendance  at  schools  of  this  class  is 
improving,  and  is  now  about  the  same  as  in  high  schools.  The  total 
number  of  secondary  schools  for  boys  in  1903-4  was  2,465,  of  which 
74,  or  3  per  cent.,  were  directly  managed  by  Government,  and  186,  or 
7-5  per  cent.,  by  District  or  municipal  boards  ;  1,584,  or  64-3  per  cent., 
were  aided  from  public  funds,  including  Native  State  revenues,  while 
the  rest  were  unaided.  The  number  attending  these  schools  was 
252,000,  or  4-4  per  cent,  of  the  boys  of  school-going  age. 

Primary  schools  are  intended  chiefly  for  the  masses.  They  are 
divided  into  two  grades — upper  and  lower.  In  the  latter  the  elements 
of  reading,  writing,  simple  arithmetic,  and  agriculture  are  taught.  It  is 
now  proposed  to  establish  in  purely  agricultural  areas  rural  schools  with 
shorter  and  simpler  courses  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  agricultural 
population.  In  the  upper  primary  schools  the  curriculum  is  a  little 
more  advanced,  though  considerably  below  the  final  course  prescribed 
for  middle  schools  ;  it  includes  the  elements  of  history,  geography, 
geometry,  and  science,  in  addition  to  the  study  of  vernacular  literature. 
A  few  primary  schools  are  managed  by  the  Educational  department  or 
by  local  bodies  ;  but  the  great  majority  are  merely  aided  by  the  grant 
of  monthly  or  quarterly  stipends,  supplemented  by  grants  made  on  the 
result  of  local  inspection  and  depending  upon  the  number  of  pupils 
under  instruction,  the  stage  of  instruction  reached,  the  qualifications  of 
the  guru,  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  school-house,  and  other  factors 
which  go  to  make  up  a  successful  school.  This  system  of  payment  was 
until  recently  the  usual  one,  except  in  backward  localities,  but  it  has 
been  held  not  to  work  satisfactorily.  It  has  now  been  decided  to  pay 
all  the  gurus  by  fixed  stipends,  and  an  additional  grant  of  5  lakhs  has 
been  set  aside  by  the  Local  Government  for  this  purpose.  In  1903-4, 
122  primary  schools  were  wholly  maintained  by  the  department,  18 
by  District  or  municipal  boards,  and  304  by  Native  States  ;  nearly  82 
per  cent,  of  the  total  number  were  aided  in  the  manner  described 
above,  and  a  few  were  aided  by  Native  States  ;  the  remainder  were 
unaided.  The  average  yearly  pay  of  the  teachers  of  upper  primary 
schools  was  about  Rs.  136  in  1900-1,  and  rose  to  Rs.  148  in  1903-4; 
that  of  the  teachers  of  lower  primary  schools  rose  in  the  same  period 
from  Rs.  56  to  Rs.  63.  In  recent  years  no  systematic  attempt  has 
been  made  to  train  guriis,  but  training  schools  for  them  are  now  being 
started  in  each  subdivision. 

The  promotion  of  female  education  in  Bengal  is  beset  with  difficulties. 
There  is  no  general  demand  for  it  as  a  means  of  livelihood ;  the  parda 
system  and  early  marriage  stand  in  the  wa)',  and,  until  recently,  the 
curriculum  was  not  suitable  for  girls.  New  standards,  containing  more 
congenial  subjects  such  as  literature,  history,  domestic  economy,  and 


334  BENGAL 

needlework,  have  now  been  prescribed  for  schools  in  and  about 
Calcutta,  and  are  being  gradually  introduced  in  the  Districts, 

Girls'  schools  in  advanced  tracts  are  aided  from  Provincial  revenues, 
and  model  primary  schools  for  them  have  been  started  in  every  District. 
Training  classes,  aided  from  Provincial  revenues,  have  been  recently 
opened  in  connexion  with  mission  and  other  schools,  and  orthodox 
Hindu  and  Muhamniadan  female  teachers  have  been  appointed  to 
further  the  spread  of  zandna  education.  Zandna  teaching  is  also 
carried  on  by  Christian  missionaries  and  by  several  Hindu  and  Brahmo 
associations,  especially  in  Calcutta. 

The  number  of  Arts  colleges  and  schools  for  girls  rose  from  83 1  in 
1881  to  2,362  in  1891,  to  2,973  in  1901,  and  to  5,005  in  1904.  In  the 
same  years  the  numbers  of  girls  in  colleges  were  respectively  5,  40,  72, 
and  98;  in  secondary  schools,  6,000,  5,500,  5,600,  and  5,600;  and  in 
primary  schools,  29,000,  75,000,  91,000,  and  147,000.  The  percentage 
of  girls  under  instruction  to  the  number  of  school-going  age  was  0-87 
in  1880-1,  i-6i  in  1890-1,  i-8  in  1900-1,  and  2-8  in  1903-4.  The 
Bethune  College,  La  Martiniere,  and  Loretto  House  are  the  principal 
centres  of  female  education.  In  all  twelve  high  schools  for  girls  were 
aided  by  Government  or  by  District  or  municipal  boards  in  1903-4. 

District  boards  spent  Rs.  25,000  on  girls'  schools  in  1890-1,  Rs. 
38,000  in  1 900-1,  and  Rs.  80,000  in  1903-4.  The  boards  have  also 
created  special  scholarships  for  female  pupils  in  primary  schools.  To 
encourage  their  education  up  to  higher  standards  at  home.  Government 
has  recently  ruled  that  girls  may  draw  scholarship  stipends  without 
attending  schools,  if  they  can  prove  that  they  have  attained  a  higher 
standard  by  home  study.  There  are  an  inspectress  and  assistant  inspec- 
tress  of  girls'  schools,  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  female  education. 

The  establishment  of  normal  schools  for  training  teachers  other  than 
gurus  dates  from  1855,  but  it  was  not  until  1874  that  they  became  at  all 
numerous.  There  were  then  56  in  all.  There  are  10  medical  schools 
as  compared  with  5  in  1884;  of  these  4  are  Government  institutions, 
and  the  rest  are  unaided.  Among  other  special  schools  may  be 
mentioned  4  engineering  and  survey  and  4  art  schools.  There  were  27 
industrial  schools  with  806  pupils  in  1903-4,  against  4  with  144  pupils 
twenty  years  previously.  Aladrasas  (for  the  teaching  of  Arabic  and 
Persian)  have  increased  during  the  same  period  from  7  to  83.  Various 
other  educational  institutions,  such  as  recognized  tols  (for  the  teaching 
of  Sanskrit),  reformatory  schools,  music  schools,  and  schools  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  number  in  all  590.  An  agricultural  department 
attached  to  the  Sibpur  Civil  Engineering  College  was  attended  in 
1903-4  by  25  students,  11  in  the  first  year  class  and  14  in  the  second 
year ;  it  has  not  been  very  successful  and  will  shortly  be  removed 
to  Pusa. 


EDUCATION  335 

Fixed  grants  were  formerly  given  to  certain  European  schools  in 
Bengal,  but  since  1882  the  annual  grants  have  been  based  partly  on  the 
returns  of  attendance,  and  partly  on  the  results  of  examinations.  The 
primary  and  secondary  schools,  taken  together,  numbered  55  with  5,000 
pupils  in  1883,  and  69  with  7,000  pupils  in  1891";  while  80  schools 
with  8,000  pupils  were  returned  in  1903-4.  The  number  of  pupils  who 
passed  the  various  code  examinations  was  65  in  1883,  247  in  1S91,  and 
543  in  1903-4  ;  the  numbers  who  passed  the  entrance  examination  of 
the  Calcutta  University  in  the  same  three  years  were  38,  95,  and  16 
respectively.  A  few  boys  of  the  better  class  are  provided  with  appoint- 
ments in  the  Police,  Opium,  and  Accounts  departments.  Some  have 
obtained  situations  in  railways,  mercantile  offices,  tea-gardens,  and  jute 
factories,  and  some  have  continued  their  education  in  the  Medical 
College  or  at  the  Sibpur  Engineering  College.  The  girls  have  become 
teachers,  typewriters,  or  shop  assistants,  and  a  few  of  them  have  entered 
the  medical  profession. 

Although   some  improvement  is  observable  of  late  years,   Muham- 
madans  are  still  backward  in  respect  of  education.     In  proportion  to 
the  relative  populations,  Hindus  gained  twelve  times  as  many  University 
degrees  in  1901  as  Muhammadans,  and  they  sent  thrice  the  number  of 
pupils  to  secondary  schools.     In  the  same  year  only  9  per  cent,  of 
Muhammadans  of  school-going  age  attended  primary  schools,  as  com- 
pared with  11-9  per  cent,  among  Hindus.     The  comparison,  however, 
cannot  fairly  be  made  solely  on  a  numerical  basis  ;  the  great  majority 
of  the  Muhammadans  of  Bengal  are  converts  from  the  lower  strata  of 
the  population,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  worse  educated  than  the 
Kochs  and  Chandals  and  cognate  Hindu  castes  from  whose  ranks  they 
have  sprung.     Moreover,   their  instruction  in  the  ordinary  schools  is 
retarded    by    the    long    course    of   religious    training    which    a    devout 
Musalman   must   undergo   before    he    may    turn    his    thoughts    to    the 
acquisition  of  secular  knowledge.     In  order  to  foster  Muhammadan 
education,  steps  have  been  taken  to  improve  the  Maktabs  and  Koran 
schools  by  offering  subsidies  to  teachers  who  adopt  the  departmental 
standards,  by  replacing  teachers  of  the  old  type  by  better  qualified  men, 
and  by  increasing  the  number  of  Muhammadans  on  the  inspecting  staff. 
Muhammadan    pupils    in    high    schools    are    allowed    additional    free 
studentships  and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  the  Mohsin  fund,  under  which 
they  obtain  part  remission  of  fees   in  schools  and  colleges.     Several 
special  scholarships  have  also   been  created,   with  a  view    to   enable 
Muhammadans  to  receive  collegiate  education. 

The  great  home  of  the  aboriginal  races  is  in  the  hills  and  uplands 
of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  and  the  adjacent  country.  Special 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  requirements  of  these  rude  tribes  by 
Government  and  the  District  boards,  and  excellent  service  has  been 


336  BENGAL 

rendered  by  missionaries,  who  have  established  many  schools  in  their 
midst.  The  Dublin  University  Mission  has  started  a  college  at 
Hazaribagh  for  the  promotion  of  their  higher  education,  and  a  Govern- 
ment high  school  at  Rangamati  is  also  chiefly  intended  for  aborigines. 
In  the  Santal  Parganas  a  special  inspector  has  been  appointed  to  visit 
Santal  schools.  In  all  8,000  Christian  and  34,000  non-Christian 
aborigines  attended  school  in   1903-4. 

The  expenditure  on  the  various  classes  of  educational  institutions 
in  1 900-1  and  in  1903-4,  with  the  sources  from  which  the  funds  were 
derived,  is  shown  in  Table  XIV  at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  358). 

The  number  of  children  attending  schools  represented  10-2  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population  of  school-going  age  in  1881,  13-5  in  1891,  14-2 
in  1901,  and  16-5  per  cent,  in  1903-4.  The  number  of  persons  returned 
as  literate  at  the  Census  of  1901  was  4,259,000,  or  5-5  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population  ;  for  males  the  percentage  was  10-5  and  for  females  0-5. 
During  the  last  decade  the  number  of  literate  males  shows  an  increase 
of  15  per  cent.,  while  that  of  females  has  risen  by  63  per  cent.  In 
every  10,000  persons  of  each  sex,  89  males  and  6  females  can  read  and 
write  English.  The  Burdwan,  Presidency,  and  Orissa  Divisions  are 
the  most  advanced  in  the  matter  of  education.  Among  religions, 
Christians  take  the  lead,  followed,  in  the  order  mentioned,  by  Buddhists, 
Hindus,  Musalmans,  and  Animists.  Of  the  Hindu  indigenous  castes, 
the  Baidyas  and  Kayasths  have  the  largest  proportion  of  literate 
persons,  and  the  depressed  race-castes  of  Bihar  have  the  smallest. 

The  fees  in  Government  colleges  vary  from  Rs.  12  a  month  in  the 
Presidency  College  to  Rs.  2  in  the  Calcutta  Madrasa  and  the  Sanskrit 
College ;  those  in  aided  colleges  range  from  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  3,  and  those 
in  unaided  colleges  from  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  2-8  \  In  Government  high 
schools  fees  range  from  R.  r  to  Rs.  5  \  in  aided  high  schools  from 
annas  8  to  Rs.  2,  and  in  unaided  high  schools  from  annas  4  to  Rs.  2. 
In  Government  middle  schools  the  fees  vary  from  annas  2  to  R.  i,  in 
aided  middle  schools  from  2  to  8  annas,  and  in  unaided  middle  schools 
from  I  to  8  annas.     In  primary  schools  the  fees  are  from  i  to  4  annas. 

The  principal  statistics  of  colleges,  schools,  and  scholars  for  each  of 
the  years  1 890-1,  1 900-1,  and  1903-4  are  shown  in  Table  XV  at  the 
end  of  this  article  (p.  359). 

Leaving  out  of  account  the  Samdchdr  Darpan,  which  was  started 
long  ago  at  Serampore  by  Baptist  missionaries,  and  the  Samdchdr 
Chandrikd,  a  Calcutta  publication,  it  is  doubtful  whether  even 
half  a  dozen  vernacular  newspapers  were  in  existence  in  Bengal  before 
i860.  In  1863,  when  a  weekly  official  report  on  native  papers  was 
instituted,  the  total  number  was  20,  of  which  one  was  published  in 
English  and  Urdu,  3  in  Persian,  one  in  Hindi,  and  15  in  Bengali.     No 

'  The  Raj  College  at  Jjiaduaii  charges  110  fees. 


MEDICAL  337 

less  than  7  of  these  papers  were  entirely  devoted  to  religious  and  social 
topics.  The  numbers  of  these  newspapers  stood  at  40  in  1873,  at 
50  in  1881,  at  71  in  1891,  at  55  in  1901,  and  at  70  (4  only  being 
Muhammadan)  in  1903-4.  In  that  year  there  were  also  22  native- 
owned  English  newspapers  and  4  Anglo-vernacular  papers.  Owing 
to  the  spread  of  vernacular  education  and  the  growth  of  a  reading 
public,  the  native  newspaper  press  has  now,  in  its  own  way,  become  a 
power  in  the  country.  A  great  change  has  gradually  taken  place  in 
its  character,  tone,  and  literary  style.  In  1863  and  for  some  years 
afterwards  the  papers  devoted  small  space  to  the  discussion  of  political 
questions  or  large  administrative  measures,  and  items  of  news  and 
speculations  on  religious  and  social  subjects  constituted  the  major 
portion  of  their  contents.  Politics  received  very  meagre  treatment ; 
the  writers  offered  their  opinions  with  diffidence,  and  their  tone  was 
always  respectful ;  their  literary  style  was  stiff  and  sanskritized.  The 
principal  characteristics  of  such  papers  at  the  present  time  are  the 
increasing  prominence  given  to  political  and  administrative  questions, 
a  reckless,  exaggerated,  and  occasionally  disloyal  tone,  and  a  colloquial, 
ungrammatical,  and  anglicized  style.  With  the  spread  of  English 
education,  the  papers  published  in  English  by  Bengalis  are  rapidly 
growing  in  importance. 

The  vernacular  papers  have,  as  a  rule,  a  very  limited  circulation,  and 
only  about  1 5  are  of  much  importance.  The  Hiiabadi  and  Basumati 
occupy  the  first  place  in  respect  of  circulation ;  the  latter  paper  has, 
however,  less  influence  than  the  Bangabdsl,  the  organ  of  the  orthodox 
Hindus.  The  Sanfibant  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Brahmos,  and  the 
Habl-ul-mafin  and  Mihir-o-Sudhdkar  represent  the  Muhammadans. 

The  number  of  publications  received  in  the  Bengal  Library  during 
1903-4  was  2,905,  of  which  2,089  ^^re  books  and  816  were  periodicals. 
These  publications  deal  with  literary,  social,  political,  religious,  and 
economic  subjects  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  important  scientific 
publications,  they  display  little  original  research. 

Most  of  the  chief  medical  institutions  of  the  Province  are  in  Calcutta. 
Among  the  Mofussil  institutions  the  largest  and  most  important  is  the 
Mitford  Hospital  at  Dacca*,  which  was  built  in  1858  ^ 

at  a  cost  of  over  Rs.  76,000  ;  it  has  accommodation 
for  170  patients.  The  Bankipore  Hospital,  for  which  a  new  building  is 
being  provided,  has  now  124  beds;  the  Cuttack  General  Hospital  has 
82  beds  ;  the  Burdwan  Hospital,  76  ;  the  Darbhanga  Hospital,  65  : 
the  Midnapore  Hospital,  77  ;  and  the  Gaya  Pilgrim  Hospital,  84  beds. 
The  Lady  Dufferin  Zanana  Hospitals  in  Bettiah  and  Darbhanga,  main- 
tained, respectively,  by  the  Bettiah  and  the  Darbhanga  Rajs,  and 
the  Lady  Elgin  Zanana  Hospital  at  Gaya  are  also  doing  excellent 
work. 

VOL.  VIT.  z 


338  BENGAL 

There  are  dispensaries  at  all  District  and  siibdivisional  head-quarters 
and  wherever  there  are  municipalities,  and  also  at  many  places  in  the 
interior ;  all  the  former  and  many  of  the  latter  of  these  have  accommo- 
dation for  in-patients.  They  are  for  the  most  part  maintained  by  the 
municipality  or  District  board  concerned,  with  the  aid  of  grants  from 
Government  and  public  subscrijitions.  The  total  number  of  these 
dispensaries  in  1903  was  614,  compared  with  only  237  twenty  years 
earlier.  For  further  details  Table  XVI  at  the  end  of  this  article 
may  be  referred  to  (p.  360). 

There  are  5  lunatic  asylums  in  the  Province,  situated  at  Bhawanlpur 
in  Calcutta,  Dacca*,  Patna,  Cuttack,  and  Berhampore.  Of  these,  the 
first  is  reserved  for  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  and  the  others  for 
natives ;  the  latter,  with  the  exception  of  that  at  Dacca*,  will  soon  be 
replaced  by  a  single  central  asylum.  The  alleged  causes  of  insanity 
among  Europeans  are  chiefly  the  abuse  of  alcohol  among  males  and 
heredity  in  the  case  of  females  ;  ^«?//a-smoking  and  heredity  are  the 
chief  causes  assigned  for  lunacy  among  natives. 

There  are  8  asylums  for  lepers,  at  Gobra,  Deogarh,  Purulia,  RanT- 
ganj,  Asansol,  Bankura,  Bhagalpur,  and  Lohardaga.  The  six  last 
mentioned  have  been  established  by  the  Society  for  Missions  to  Lepers 
in  India  and  the  East,  and  the  Gobra  asylum  is  a  Government  institution 
managed  by  a  body  appointed  by  Government.  The  total  number  of 
inmates  in  October,  1904,  was  1,179,  of  whom  622  were  in  the  Purulia 
asylum.  The  Lepers  Act,  III  of  1898,  which  came  into  force  in 
Bengal  in  1901,  provides  for  the  segregation  and  medical  treatment  of 
pauper  lepers  and  for  the  control  of  lepers  following  certain  trades 
connected  with  the  bodily  requirements  of  human  beings. 

In  former  times  the  practice  of  inoculation  was  widespread.  The 
operation  was  preceded  by  a  ceremony  performed  in  honour  of 
Sitala,  the  goddess  of  small-pox  :  a  twig  of  a  mango-tree  was  dipped 
in  a  pitcher  of  water,  some  mantras  or  charms  were  recited  by 
a  Brahman,  and  offerings  of  milk  and  sweetmeats  were  made.  The 
patient  was  then  inoculated  with  the  crust  of  small-pox  on  the  right 
forearm,  if  a  male,  or  on  the  left  forearm,  if  a  female.  He  was  bathed 
on  the  second  day,  to  bring  on  fever,  and  was  then  confined  for  twenty- 
one  days,  after  which  a  mixture  of  turmeric,  ?ttm  leaves,  and  coco-nut 
oil  was  rubbed  over  the  body.  Inoculation  is  still  practised  clan- 
destinely in  parts  of  Orissa  and  Bihar,  but  it  is  becoming  more  and 
more  rare,  and  vaccination  is  rapidly  taking  its  place.  Vaccinators  are 
licensed  by  District  Magistrates,  and  their  work  is  supervised  by  the 
Civil  Surgeons  and  the  Superintendents  of  Vaccination.  Where  the 
older  method  survives,  the  vaccinators  are  usually  recruited  from 
the  ranks  of  the  former  inoculators,  but  in  the  Province  as  a  whole 
barely  a  quarter  of  the  staff  belongs  to  this  class. 


SURVEYS  339 

The  chief  statistics  of  hospitals,  lunatic  asylums,  and  of  vaccination 
are  shown  in  Table  XVI  at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  360). 

In  order  to  bring  quinine  within  the  reach  of  all,  the  system  of  selling 
it  through  the  agency  of  the  Postal  department,  in  pice-packets,  each 
containing  5  (now  7)  grains,  was  inaugurated  in  1892.  The  drug  is 
manufactured  at  the  Government  factory  in  Darjeeling,  and  is  made  up 
into  packets  at  the  Alipore  jail,  whence  it  is  supplied  to  all  post  offices 
in  Bengal.  The  postmasters  receive  a  small  commission  on  the  sales 
effected  by  them.  The  system  has  met  with  considerable  success  ;  in 
1903  nearly  3,000,000  packets  of  this  valuable  febrifuge  were  sold, 
compared  with  one-eighth  of  a  million  in   1893. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  promoting  village  sanitation  in  India  are 
enormous,  the  chief  being  the  ignorance  and  prejudices  of  the  people 
and  the  absence  of  an  educated  and  trustworthy  local  agency.  Some- 
thing has  been  done  to  improve  the  water-supply  by  providing  tanks 
and  wells,  and  disinfecting  them  either  periodically  or  when  epidemic 
disease  breaks  out ;  and  grave  sanitary  evils,  which  affect  the  public 
health  and  so  constitute  a  public  nuisance,  are  dealt  with  under  Chap- 
ter XIV  of  the  Indian  Penal  Code.  The  Local  Self-Government  Act 
(III  (B.C.)  of  1885)  contains  provisions  for  enforcing  sanitation,  but 
they  have  not  yet  been  applied.  A  Sanitary  Board  was  constituted  in 
1889,  but  it  is  merely  a  consultative  body,  and  at  present  attention  is 
directed  mainly  to  the  education  of  public  opinion  in  municipalities. 
It  is  hoped  that  in  time,  with  the  diffusion  of  education,  a  knowledge 
of  sanitary  requirements  will  gradually  spread  to  rural  areas ;  but  until 
it  does  so  very  few  improvements  are  feasible. 

The  basis  of  all  surveys  in  Bengal  is  the  Grand  Trigonometrical 
Survey  which  was  carried  out  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  A  general 
revenue  survey  commenced  in  1835,  and  by  1872  the 
operations  had  been  extended  to  the  whole  Province 
except  Midnapore  District  (which  was  surveyed  in  1872-8),  the  Sundar- 
bans.  Hill  Tippera*,  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts*,  the  vSantal  Parganas, 
Angul,  and  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division.  Most  of  these  tracts  were 
.  topographically  surveyed  during  the  same  period  on  scales  varying  from 
\  inch  to  I  inch  to  the  mile.  The  revenue  survey  was  preceded  by 
a  demarcation  of  villages  and  estates,  which  was  known  as  the  thdk 
survey,  and  was  generally  made  on  the  scale  of  4  inches  to  the  mile. 
The  boundary  of  each  village  and  estate  was  separately  surveyed ;  the 
maps  showed  also  important  topographical  details,  but  were  on  too 
small  a  scale  to  indicate  field  boundaries.  From  these  surveys  District 
maps  have  been  prepared  on  \  and  i  inch  scales.  ■  ■ 

Between  1863  and  1869  a  didra^  survey  was  made  along  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges  from  the  point  where  it  enters  Bengal  down  to  its  junction 

'  Diara  means  an  alluvial  flat  or  island. 
Z  2 


34° 


BENGAL 


with  the  Brahmaputra,  and  all  changes  due  to  alluvion  and  diluvion 
which  had  taken  place  since  the  revenue  survey  were  mapped.  In 
1874-6  this  survey  was  continued  down  to  the  sea.  About  the  same 
time  a  number  of  surveys  were  made  in  different  parts  of  the  Province, 
either  in  order  to  resettle  the  revenue  of  Government  estates,  as  in  the 
case  of  Chittagong*  and  Khurda,  or  to  assess  ghdtivdli'^  lands  in  Chota 
Nagpur.  These  surveys  were  generally  on  a  scale  of  16  inches  to  the 
mile  and  showed  field  boundaries,  but  they  were  with  some  exceptions 
partial  and  unprofessional,  and  were  lacking  in  accuracy  and  finish. 
In  1889  it  became  necessary  to  survey  the  sub-province  of  Orissa  and 
the  District  of  Chittagong*,  in  order  to  resettle  the  revenue  of  time- 
expired  estates,  and  professional  detachments  of  the  Survey  department 
of  the  Government  of  India  were  organized  for  this  purpose.  In  1890 
it  was  decided  to  prepare  a  survey  and  record-of-rights  in  the  North 
Bihar  Districts,  and  similar  methods  were  adopted.  The  total  area 
dealt  with  by  parties  of  the  Survey  of  the  Government  of  India  between 
1889  and  the  end  of  September,  1904,  has  been  32,915  square  miles, 
as  shown  below  :  — 


Area  in 

Area  in 

Area  in 

District. 

square 

District. 

square 

District. 

square 

miles. 

miles. 

miles. 

Chittagong* 

2.003 

Cuttack 

2,269 

Purnea 

2,408 

Muzaffarpur 

.^.046 

Balasore      . 

1,733 

Backergunge* 

2,126 

Champaran 

3,280 

Purl    . 

1,134 

RanchI     . 

1,344 

Saran  . 

2,510 

Tippera*     . 

554 

Other     District 

Gaya  . 

546 

Palamau 

294 

areas  under  200 

Darbhanga . 

3,307 

Bhagalpur  . 

3,849 

square  miles    . 

«53 

Monghyr     . 

1,449 

Darjeeling  . 

210 

Total 

32,915 

These  surveys  have  been  made  on  a  scale  of  16  inches  to  the  mile 
(larger  scales  have  sometimes  been  employed  for  crowded  village 
sites),  and  the  maps  show  the  boundary  of  each  field  as  well  as  all 
topographical  features.  In  addition  to  the  area  shown  above,  similar 
operations  have  been  carried  out  in  the  Santal  Parganas,  Singhbhiim, 
Noakhali*  and  elsewhere,  by  parties  working  under  the  supervision  of 
revenue  officers,  the  field-to-field  measurements  in  this  case  being  some- 
times preceded  by  a  professional  traverse  survey.  A  large  number  of 
petty  estates  have  also  been  surveyed  at  the  request  of  the  proprietors. 
Taking  all  these  surveys  together,  cadastral  maps  of  about  36,405 
square  miles,  or  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  area  of  British  territory  in  the 
Province,  have  been  prepared  since  1889. 

In  1892  an  officer  of  the  Survey  of  India  was  appointed,  with  the  title 
of  Director  of  Bengal  Surveys,  to  administer  the  Bengal  Survey  directly 


'  Lands  held,  in  lieu  of  pay,  for  police  services.     Disputes  had  arisen  as  to  what 
lands  were  so  held,  and  as  to  the  services  to  be  rendered. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  341 

under  the  Bengal  Government.  His  post  was  abolished  in  1895,  and 
the  appointment  of  Superintendent  of  Provincial  Surveys  created  in 
its  stead. 

[Vincent  A.  Smith:  The  Early  History  of  India  (1904). — Charles 
Stewart:  The  History  of  Bengal  {i^  it,). — Fifth  Report  from  the  Select 
Committee  on  the  Affairs  of  the  East  India  Company  (181 2). — 
Montgomery  Martin  :  The  History.,  Antiquities,  Topography,  and  Sta- 
tistics of  Eastern  India  (1838). — Official  Mutiny  Narratives. — W.  W. 
Hunter:  The  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal  (1868);  Orissa  (1872);  A 
Statistical  Account  of  Bengal  (1875-7). — C.  E.  Buckland  :  Bengal 
under  the  Lieutenant-Governors  (Calcutta,  1901). — Sair-ul-Mutdkharin, 
Raymond's  translation  (reprinted  at  Calcutta,  1903). — Report  on  the 
Administration  of  Bengal,  190 1-2  (Calcutta,  1903). — Riydzu-s-Saldtln, 
translated  by  Maulvi  Abdus  Salam  (Calcutta,  1904). — The  Diary  of 
William  Hedges,  3  vols.,  ed.  H.  Yule  (Hakluyt  Society,  1887-9). — 
'  Indian  Records  Series,'  S.  C.  Hill :  Bengal  in  1756-7,  3  vols.  (1905). — 
C.  R.  Wilson  :  Early  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  2  vols. 
(Calcutta,  1895  and  1900);  List  of  Lnscriptions  on  Tombs  or  Monu- 
ments in  Bengal  (fL?CiQM.\.\Si.,  1896);  Old  Fort  William  in  Bengal,  2  vols. 
(1906). —  Census  Reports,  1872,  1881,  1891,  and  1901. — H.  H.  Risley  : 
Tribes  and  Castes  of  Bengal  (Calcutta,  1891). — A.  P.  MacDonnell : 
Food-grain  Supply  and  Famine  Relief  in  Bihar  and  Bengal  (Calcutta, 
1876). — E.  W.  Collin  :  Report  on  the  Existing  Arts  and  Industries  in 
Bengal  (Calcutta,  1890). — Provincial  Monographs  on  Brass  and  Copper, 
Pottery  and  Glass,  Dyes,  Cotton,  Woollen  and  Silk  Fabrics,  Ivory  and 
Wood-carving,  Gold  and  Silver  Ware  (Calcutta,  1894- 1905).] 


342 


BENGAL 


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no" 

n    r<    ^-  ro  "^  ro 

ro 

i-T  ro  d"  ro  in  rC  on 

ro 

d"  Tf  0"  in 

ro 

inoo  m'co 

"(3 

NO    -^i-  -"t-  On  ^   n^ 

OnO   r^    ic.  ^    \n 

0 

■•^  ri    d    ro  CI    CO  0 

ON 

-   -  t^  1^ 

r^ 

CO  NO    -+0 

S 

1  -  Tj-  irj  ro  irj  -^ 

l-H 

0     mCO  NO     ONNO 

t^ 

t-^00    ■<)-  r^    1-^   Tf  I^ 

ro 

ro  0    ON  «^ 

-^ 

0  "^^ 

'■' 

'f 

" 

-f 

" 

■^ 

1-1      d              C-l 

in 

n 

•-       m 

M      t--    M       Th    CO    HH 

ON 

N           1-1  CO    -^  w 

NO 

Tj-  I-I  NO   On  d  in  0 

t^ 

ro  0    ro  CI 

00 

«    ro  ONO 

a     f, 

NO     i-l     CNNO  0:)     Uj 

NO 

00           >-c  NO    ON  ■'l- 

ON 

•^   -^NO  NC     -  NO     d 

i-< 

NO     l^CO     -H 

d 

NO    ro  in  On 

Numl 

of 

village 

NO    ro  lO  -^  r<3  ^ 

00^ 

q_    :  -^NO_^c»^  -^ 

•^ 

roCO    l-~.  in  CI  CO    l^ 

ro 

d   r^  d  NO 

ON 

rONO    "^  d 

rc  n?  Uioo    ("T  S 

4- 

in     ■   ro  rO  ■>?  ro 

0 

no"  i^             m  ro  CO 

00" 

f--  On  in  T? 

no" 

in  d    1-1 

r» 

d 

d 

d 

H 

NO    >-    ro  t-.00    ri 

t^ 

•n  M    ON  in  ro  ro 

NO 

d     -I     d     d   NO     d     d 

I^ 

d  CO  d  m 

t^ 

ro  1-1    d      . 

il 

« 

o> 

^ 

'"' 

I-I 

: 

^^ 

c  „    . 

On  ^1    >-H  NO    -    0 

On 

■+  r)    ro  rO  >n  >n 

N 

rONO    d    -^  ro  On  On 

NO 

Cl     d     I-.      Cl 

t^ 

ON  Tt-  d  CO 

CO)    in  N  CO    On  i-H 

^ 

1^  ro  On  Tt-  (N  NO 

0 

On  "l-O  NO    On  ir.  ro 

in 

00    COCO    -^ 

ro 

On  -1-  On  rO 

ca  rt  iJ 

NO   l^NO   M    i-i   ir. 

On 

CO__         1--.  y*^  ON  !•;. 

•n 

in  On  On  I-I    "1^  rocO 

ro 

i^  CO  ci^  in 

On 

Tj^NO    -^  "^ 

cs"  -^  pT  10  I-" 

ro 

Tt-           M     M     M     tJ- 

i-^ 

d    ro  d    1    ro  "    1-^ 

t^ 

m'ncT  cT  -^ 

in 

d   I-I   Cl   in 

" 

""* 

" 

*"* 

'        •      •      • 

c 

a 

_o 

, y)            

* 

rt 

0 

0 

^- 

*> 

c 

* 

U3 

[w 

*3: 

.S 
*tn 

"> 

1— 1 

c 
.2 

Q 
a 

^ «      

"> 

Q 
IS 

.      .     .      ■ 

0 

•      ■      •    c! 

H 

.2 

'c 

E 
< 

1 ,1 1'  I2  ^ 

-S  ^  ^    g    t/3  g 

5 

M 

0 

'A 'O 

'n 

;^ 

'is 
0 

H 

'  *       '  * 

0 
0 

a 

P 
0 

■X- 

oj  -r;    rt    tS 

mcq  wSSffi 

q:5^pl,=5 

H  ;2;  "nJ  u 

TABLES 


345 


.  0\  "   r^cc    O 
1  -^  O    O    O    1  - 

-  -d-  C\  >0  CACO 


r^  '^  ICO   >-i 

if^  ^  fO   "^  ro 


>n  I    lO  -^ 


O 


00     CO  r--.\o   Tj-oo 
■<1-  I   M    M    M    ro  M 


-^  to  CO  N    M 
CO  roo    ■<*■  <^ 


1^  I   O 

0\     o 


O     M     f^^     T.   CN 

■  ►H^  i-<^  ^  q_  nj 
►-,  CO    rOoo    O 


\0  CO  CnO  o 
ro  ON  f^  "^^  *^ 
-h  -h  -*•  't-  ri^ 

-T  n"  -T  4-  rc 


On  '  i-^co 


O  CO 


On 


"t- 

rj 

ro 

■  r. 

rrr. 

Tt- 

ON 

^- 

-1- 

NO 

" 

"00   1^  On  ro 

CC^CO     ■'f  <^nO 
in  O"  OnNO  00 


no 

00 

r^ 

NO 

O 

"^^ 

^ 

o  1 

t~- 

CO 

re  j 

O    r^ 

NO     -^ 

o  m 


ON 


ro 
CO 
ro 

no" 

On 
re 


h-i    trs  iTi  ri    o 

moo  CO  o  M 
!■-  0\  O  ro  w 
ri    HH  CO    rO  H- 


NO 


re  O 

O  CO 

oo_oo_ 

u-.co" 

ro  ro 


11     Ol 

0^ 

lO 

-^  t- 

ON  t^ 

OS 

ro 

roo 

o 

^o 

h-i 

M 

rO  rO 

NO    I>. 

1^  On 

CO  M 


M 

CO 

O 

() 

Tt- 

CO 

ro 

() 

ri 

CO 

OnCO  O    ro  !>-. 

O    r<  ■^  i^  rj 

(j\i->  TO  ■^  r<^ 

l^  o"  -^  t" 


o  o  \o 

ro  M  NO 

On  On  _  no^ 

••f  d"  ■    ro 


CO 

co_ 
o" 

On 
NO 


m  tr,  iTj  ^    ro  ri 

.  lO  ro  ■>^  rooo 
^  oe  rH    ro  t~^  >^ 


•  >ri  On  O 

^  ir^  rO  r^ 


^  «5 


rO 

ro 
On 
ro  , 


rOOO  O)  'J-  l- 
ro  M  CN  »f^  1 
nO^nO^  'f'O^  n 

lO  ri    i^  t-^  ci 

ro  Tj-  «    «    M 


1^  'C 

1-  ro 
O^NO_^ 


r« 

•1- 

ro 

-r 

a> 

NO 

ir. 

NO 

M 

CO 

ri    O 

n  oo 

ONNO^ 

1^  d 


l^O  NO 

„ 

ON 

O  NO    r» 

() 

CO 

i-i  CO    ro 

ON 

CO 

^,  ro  ■<*• 

M 

00 

NO 

ON 

O    ri 

ro  ro 

"   NO 


co 


5>0    On  rO  O    " 
^  On  O  O    On  « 

^NO  u".  -^  '~::^„ 

Jn  rP  o^  O    -t-  ri 

^NO    O    On  "O  — 

I  ON  -^  1^  t^  ON 

I    "    r«    -^    ri    r» 


CO) 
On 


'^-  ro  -^  O   t- 

O    "^  ON  rO  ro 

CO    C^  1^  O^  1-;^ 

co"co   -?  -*•  o^ 

NO  CO    I^CO    O 

O   o  CO  CO  co_ 

n    ri    M  M 


CO  1  GO  I^  -H  'l- 
"  ,  w.  On  "  CO 
ro  I    I--.  «^   On  ri__ 

no'  I  rP  hT  —  iC 
NO  I^  On  " 
O   O   M   o 


X 


n 


O       HH    iri  O    "^  On  '    On 
U-.  ,  o    ri    o  ^O   1^     rj 

M   I   On  OnO    r.~  in     ^ 


i^  t^  On  ""    ro 

t^OO      M      O      hH 

—    i-H  NO    roo 


^  I    "    >- 


NO  !  -^  r)  On  iTj  -^ 
NO  I  1^  O  o»  ri  M 
00_  ,  OnCO  M-  rO  0_^ 
■^  NO  t^  «'  ro  On 
^  I  NO  -h  o  »^  fi 
1~.  I    in  On  o    " 

■■&  I         ""  «' 


PJ 

M  NO    ro  1^ 

ro 

lo 

M    irj  ^  ro 

t^ 

l_4 

r)  CO    r<    p-H 

NO 

NO 

4-  -pNO  NO 

NO 

-  r» 

~    O    ro  ON 

•^ 

O 

ro  On  ■*  ^ 

o 

r^    M    Tj-  OnnO 
r<    ■+  rO  ro  ro 

iC  ^  NO  no"  ro 

IONO     t-<     "^  " 

O    O    On  ^  On 


I    On  ■^nD    ir; 
^  in  r-.  -t 

roO    Cjn  -^ 

iC  ro  <n  o 

NO    "~-  On  "H 


On  ""-  1-.00  ^ 
ro  '^  On  r^    in 

CO_^  I-;-  ro  O^  -_^ 
l^  O  rOCo"  S 
O    ►-    -     -t-  >-. 

vo  NO    rONO    ro 


ro 

Thl 

NO 

00 

o 

I—I 

00 

C?N 

NO 

'*• 

ro  1 

PI 

*"-• 

ro 

rl  On  O  O  On 
0\  ri  l~.rO" 
ir.  CO'  NO  CO    ri 

lO  iC  ■+  d  co" 

NO  1^  ON<yD   ri 
f»    On  ■+ 


I    T)-c»   i~  1—  -^ 
I   ir.  ^>  O   in  -^ 

"vo^  >r.  -ncO^NO 

I    ro  OnCO    ■-•    i-i 
I    On  O  CO    ro  "^ 


O  m  n  On  ro 
CO  ro  in  ro  r- 
in  «n  -^No   ro 

-T  i^co  t^o" 

-    r<    in  ro  ON 

O    O    On  t1-co 


ON  ro  in  On  !  O 
O  -^  ro  ro  '  n 
■^  in  o^co^  i^ 
in  r^  inNO       ir 

ON  >-<      ON  O 

ON  in        m 


rfl  o  rONO  in 
r<  CO    O   ro  r> 

M    ^^  ri^  ro  Tf 

O  t^NO  rO  n 
t^  t^  O  ir.  o 
If.  'n  rONO   ro 


NO 

ri 

o 

oo 

r^ 

r^ 

On 

NO 

C) 

i^ 

•1- 

ro 

ri 

1-^ 

ro 

ri    ro  On  in  in  '  tJ- 

oo  !>.  in  c?N  ON  !  O 

rO  ON  «^  -^  t^  -^ 

"    OiNO"  n    o"  i-T 

O  NO    O    O^  ro  O 

rO  On  in  On 


■  in  m  ro  o  ro 
»  i-t  in  ri  ri  ro 
)  inco  O  "  r< 
>.  in  in  r<    -^  rO 


On 

NO 


NO  ro  in  in  i--. 

—  NO   in  in  NO 
in  O  ro  in  " 

M    ro  ro  rO  ON 


l^CO    C?N  1- 
p-i   in  ^  O 

in  ro  ■+  h- 

in  ro  i-i   ro 


00  ro  -i-  -  O 
■^  I^OO  ri  in 
00  "^  i-H  in  "^ 
oT  ro  ro  in  ro 


NO 

NO     1 

t^ 

t^ 

CO 

^ 

rO 

ro 

r^ 

O 

M 

r^    ir,  ro  ro  in 
On  O    O  NO    rj 

"  CO  NO    "t;  " 

i-T  i-T  ^  J" 


NO   ■*  r<    'h  ■^ 


tJ-  r<    ro  ro  ro 


ro  r>      .  M 


ro  Tj-  cj    ro  M 


■»    ro  "^ 

^  rONO 

ro 

in 

incc 

ro  ^ 
O    ro 

(N  NO 
n    r< 
ON  ri 

Th  ON  O 
On  OM^ 

ONCO    -^ 

in 

■^  in  " 
in  CO  CO 

NO    ONO 

On 
On 

On 

ON 

l-H 

O 

00 

c> 

-  ^o. 

On  I-.  CO 

11 
O 

NO 

ON 

O  00    "  »D    -H 
rO  ro  O    O  CO 

01 

M 

NO 

CO 

1-  -^  r« 

ro 

ro  ro 

ro 

ro  '^ 

T^^-    in 

O 

ro  ci    w 

ci 

On 

1^ 

i-^ 

■^  Tj-  ro 

1^ 

in 

CO 
ro 

NO 

On 

-1-  •<^    .  " 


On 


C 
O 


o 

a 


in! 

t/) 


rH     i->     2     rj     r\ 


a 

o 
r-i 


=  ,!>= 


a 
a 

tii 

l-H 


,  W 


e 
o 


> 

G 

I-. 

M 

a 
O 

H 


.2     S 

(/5        -t-» 


o 


^ 


u 


o  ^ 
rt    5    □ 


•    • 

•        •        • 

a. 

jc: 

.•CO     •    . 
03 

, 

^ 

fq 

.     0)    (U 

r^ 

*!;  -t;  * 

trt 

Q 

rl 

u  B  B  a 

o 

103 
loi    o 

mau 

bhum 

tibhum 

O 

ooch  Beha 
ributary  S 
ributary  S 
ill  Tipper 
kkim    . 

N     ^ 

Ira    S    ti3 

H 

^    l3 

"rt  i2  c 

H 

K^ 

C^i^ijo 

UHHKc^ 

in 

00" 

ro  !  od" 


rO 
ON 


1^ 


< 

O 

Q 
«)  2; 
"J       S 

-4-» 

o 


4-»  QJ  -rj 

rt  i-j:; 

o  '  « 

OJ  O    l-i 


if?  "'"'B 

Mb" 

'^  J.  " 
u_,  y  (/) 

tJ  rt  ii 

^   3-5 

«J     WN_ 

2:no° 

o 

E 


o 


■^  aj~ 
—  ^T3 

W     p     QJ 

(J  u  (J 
U  to  •;; 

E'"     «i 

"  §-^  s 

^  3    2    "= 

u  JJ-C-r- 
=  «iQ2 

o  .  c  _ 
<"  3  ?!  ■- 
■"  u  '^  -» 

eIǤ 

i  O  q  s- 

rt  o 

.^•.2  tit 

F  2  «  S 

Sc^'E 

«  a>  c  i- 

?;  u  fu  rt 

U  >    ^3 

3 '—  ^  si. 
moh  g^ 

"^    C    0)   1) 

aj.2-5-5 

H^  c  o 

P  ™  ^ 

a  o  !;  o 

o      s  i- 

■        U    CJ    OJ 


^^ 


•3    Q. 

O  i«NO 


346 


BENGAL 


TABLE    III 
Statistics  of  Canals  in  Bengal 


Canals. 

Area 

irrigated 

(in 

square 

miles). 

Receipts, 
sands  of 

in  tliou- 
rupees. 

Working 
expenses, 
in  thou- 
sands of 
rupees. 

Net 
revenue, 
in  thou- 
sands of 
rupees. 

Percent- 
age of  net 

revenue 

on  capital 

outlay. 

Irri- 
gation. 

Navi- 
gation. 

Average  for  ten  years  ending  1889-90. 

Son 

Orissa     . 
Midnapore 

447 

172 

128 

6,70 

1.34 
1,10 

63 

84 

1,28 

6,15 

3,90 
2,26 

+  i>45 
-  1,55 

+    26 

■Y  0-57 
—  0-69 
+  0-31 

Average 

for  ten  years  ending 

1899-1900. 

Son 

Orissa    . 
Midnapore 

645 

256 
119 

8,69 

2,51 
1=25 

72 
1,53 
1,23 

6,59 
4,89 

2,41 

+  3>io 
-     63 

-1-      28 

+  115 

—  0-24 

+  0-33 

Year  1 900-1. 

Son 

Orissa     . 
Midnapore 

675 
319 
125 

10,39 
2,88 
1,19 

37    1       6,24 
90          4,52 
98          1,72 

Year  1903-4. 

+  4,86 

-     44 
+      61 

-h  1.S2 
-  0.17 
4-  0.72 

Son 

Orissa     . 
Midnapore 

791 
328 
145 

12,51 
3,26 

i>49 

23 

70 

47 

5-38 
3,83 
1,50 

+  7,86 
+     45 
+      70 

+  2-94 
-*-  0-17 

-H    0-82 

TABLES 


347 


TABLE    IV 

Prices  of  Staples  in  Bengal 

(In  seers  per  rupee) 


Average  price  in  seers 

per  rupee 

for  the  decade  endinsr           1 

Average 

Selected  staples. 

Selected  centres. 

for  the  year 
1903-4. 

i88o. 

1890. 

1900. 

1 

Ikirdwan 

18-23 

21.09 

i4-.'^9 

11-63 

Calcutta  . 

13-66 

14.60 

10.82 

9-41 

Rice  (common).  - 

Rangjiur* 

'9-57 

17-63 

12-02 

13-10 

Dacca*    . 

16-91 

18.43 

13-23 

14.71 

Patna      . 

18.64 

18.60 

15-73 

14-97 

\ 

Cuttack  . 

22.56 

21.21 

15-34 

17.06 

/ 

Burdwan 

14-85 

14-62 

12-69 

13-25 

Calcutta  . 

13-74 

14-17 

11-26 

11.98 

Wheat     .         .  - 

Rangpur* 
Dacca*    . 

16-23 
1.3-95 

15.62 

14-84 

10-93 
11.23 

12.23 

17.00 

Patna 

19.32 

19-47 

15-27 

16.49 

V 

Cuttack  . 

1517 

15-37 

10-97 

14-04 

■ 

Calcutta  . 

20-81 

21-13 

15-75 

15-51 

Barley      .         .    \ 

Dinajpur* 

18-15 

18.59 

15-33 

I. 

Patna       . 

27-77 

28-94 

21-46 

25-06 

Jowa}-      .         .    -, 

Calcutta  . 

16-69 

19-44 

16-02 

16-25 

Patna      . 

28.78 

22.95 

21-76 

24-80 

Mania     .         .    • 

Patna 

... 

25-81 

23-70 

26-33 

Muzaffarpur     . 

24.62 

29-28 

19-93 

27-75 

Hazaribagli      . 

29-54 

30-61 

21-37 

25-70 

Maize       .         .    ] 

Calcutta  . 
Patna       . 

18.48 
27-41 

22.15 
29-33 

16-50 

22-82 

16-68 
26-00 

/ 

Burdwan 

18-25 

20-78 

15-92 

16-42 

Calcutta  . 

16-31 

19-24 

14.08 

14-69 

Ororn                                    « 

Rangpur* 

13-26 

15.11 

13-54 

14-62 

\Jl  tULlL                •                   ,      •■ 

Dacca*    . 

16.95 

17.26 

13-28 

15-54 

Patna 

24.98 

26-67 

19-56 

21-00 

V 

Cuttack   . 

21.67 

19.66 

15-96 

18-30 

Burdwan 

9.26 

12-02 

11-27 

13-33 

Calcutta  . 

9-93 

12-08 

10-66 

11-17 

Salt          .        .  - 

Rangpur* 

7-54 

10.62 

9-29 

11-31 

Dacca*    . 

8.74 

11-23 

9-74 

11-19 

Patna 

8-oS 

10-60 

10-87 

11.25 

Cuttack  . 

10-51 

12-34 

10-6S 

14.50 

Piece-goods. 

Rs.  a.  p. 

Rs.  a.  p. 

Rs.  a.  p. 

Rs.  a.  p. 

Grey  shirtinc^s,     ) 
Calcutta,  8i  lbs.  \ 

■          .         • 

4-12-0 

4-6-6 

5-0^3 

... 

Note.— A  seer  is  2  057  lb. 


348 


BENGAL 


TABLE  V 
Trade  of  Bengal  wtih  other  Provinces  and  States  in  India 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


By  sea  (exclusive  of  Govern- 
ment stores  and  treasure). 

By  rail  and  river. 

1 890- 1. 

ujoo-i. 

1903-4. 

1 890-1. 

1 900- 1. 

1903-4. 

Imports    (Foreign    and 

Indian  goods)    . 
Cotton,  raw  . 

3,32,37 

4,60,00 

4,75,33 

13,46,91 

21,85,86 

26,36,88 

49,47 

5,09 

7,11 

1,11,65 

79,39 

1,58,87 

,,      twist  and  yam    . 

47,36 

59,68 

44,19 

2,05 

40,68 

35,37 

,,      piece-goods 

35,24 

57,67 

54,83 

9,29 

24,03 

31,69 

,,      other    manufac- 

tures 

1,60 

2,02 

2,35 

•  •  • 

70 

7,27 

Grain  and  pulse     . 

2,68 

38,67 

5,79 

92,68 

1,38,40 

3,94,691 

Hides  and  skins     . 

4,31 

4,84 

80 

60,16 

1,40,30 

1 ,05,06 

Metals  and  manufactures 

of  metals  . 

5,63 

21,11 

13,08 

40,47 

52,38 

85,50 

Oils       .... 

9,30 

74,14 

1,71,38 

1,60 

11,15 

10,07 

Oilseeds 

43,52 

23,12 

16,52 

1,43,12 

2,52,46 

2,88,53 

Opium  .... 

... 

2,32,94 

3,12,36 

3,38,78 

Provisions 

3,03 

5,82 

6,04 

60,24 

91,52 

1,12,75 

Salt       .... 

18,12 

17,58 

10,55 

2,61 

22,24 

19,08 

Spices  .... 

15,50 

30,19 

29,73 

1,33 

10,29 

46,47 

Sugar    .... 

5,96 

19,37 

13,06 

4,82 

64,03 

67,64 

Tea       .... 

2 

8 

38 

3,43,60 

4,66,38 

5,53,36 

Wood  .... 

44,10 

46,63 

41,82 

20,55 

22,97 

Woollen  goods 

68 

81 

29 

5,70 

89,10 

31,83 

All  other  articles  . 
Treasure 

45,85 

53,18 

57,41 

2,34,65 

3,69,90 

3,26,95 

11,10 

7,46 

4,27 

Not  re- 

3,38,66 

4,21,82 

Exports    (P'oreign    and 

gistered. 

Indian  goods)    . 
Coal  and  coke 

5,36,76 

7,16,30 

6,44,68 

11,93,30 

19,52,91 

18,05,29 

9,97 

1,43,69 

1,13,24 

25,05 

88,75 

1,39,48 

Cotton  goods 

64,92 

36,00 

42,09 

5,77,2  1 

4,51-73 

5,96,38 

Grain  and  pulse    . 

1,66,08 

1,93,30 

1,18,19 

46,43 

4,97,6S 

81,80 

Jute   and   manufactures 

of  jute 

1,25,59 

1,25,18 

1,36,59 

35,65 

90,20 

1,41,00 

Metals  and  manufactures 

of  metals  . 

11,98 

12,51 

18,73 

1,55,69 

1,58,32 

1,77,26 

Oils       .... 

1,78 

6,60 

15,77 

31,10 

64,46 

66,85 

Provisions 

14,86 

23,27 

31,22 

35,15 

66,45 

41,96 

Spices  .... 

30,41 

42,99 

44,47 

35,82 

54,83 

5.5,62 

Sugar    .... 

2,22 

2,33 

1,76 

52,98 

88,32 

1,11,40 

Tobacco 

11,69 

27,81 

25,04 

27,00 

42,99 

43,09 

All  other  articles  . 
Treasure 

97,26 

1,02,62 
68,03 

97,58 

1,71,22 

3,49,18 

3,50,45 

1,02,43 

59,20 

Not  re- 

1,35,89 

1,52,61 

gistered. 

TABLES 


349 


TABLE   VI 

Foreign  Maritime  Trade  of  Bengal,  exclusive  of 

Government  Stores  and  Treasure 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


1 890- 1. 

1900- 1. 

1903-4. 

Imports    ....... 

Animals,  living         ..... 

26,08,03 

31,86,91 

33,64,54 

11,42 

20,83 

20,19 

Apparel 

42.30 

44,61 

47,83 

Cotton  twist  and  yarn 

1,02,56 

73,52 

49,69 

„        piece-goods 

'3,39,1° 

14,55.90 

14,43,56 

„        other  manufactures 

16,09 

61,07 

66,84 

Drugs,  medicines,  and  narcotics 

23,55 

44,73 

47.54 

Glass  and  glass-ware 

21,54 

29,14 

3 1, .34 

Liquors     ..... 

48,02 

48,92 

49,71 

Machinery  and  mill-work 

81,32 

1,01,81 

1,41,70 

Metals  and    manufactures    of  metal 

s,   ia- 

eluding  hardware  and  cutlery 

2,68,58 

3,96,72 

4,98,35 

Oils 

1,48,24 

1,79,92 

1,51,96 

Provisions 

27,62 

35,35 

34,31 

Railway  plant  and  rolling-stocl 

27,93 

58,57 

39,18 

Salt           .... 

63,62 

45,88 

54,45 

Spices       .... 

26,56 

42,47 

27,74 

Sugar        .... 

69,01 

1,59,99 

1,83,90 

Woollen  goods . 

75,10 

86,78 

71,53 

All  other  articles 

2,15,47 

3,00,70 

4,04,72 

Treasure  ....... 

Exports  (Indian  and  Foreign  goods) 
Coal  and  coke 

3,91,84 
37,25,93 

5,74.93 
55,14,44 

9,47,69 

59,96,10 

2,62 

59,22 

38,12 

Cotton  and  cotton  manufactures 

',12,65 

77.44 

1,27,59 

Grain  and  pulse 

4,11,46 

4,68,65 

6,50,04 

Hides  and  skins 

2,07,05 

5,55,62 

4,82,99 

Indigo       .... 

2,05,11 

1,56,90 

60,13 

Jute  and  manufactures  of  jute 

10,03,33 

18,63,59 

21,07,56 

Lac  (except  dye) 

78,03 

1,04,64 

2,68,99 

Oils 

32,38 

30,01 

31,86 

Oilseeds  .... 

3,49,17 

4,11,92 

4.49,49 

Opium      .... 

5,97,99 

6,12,24 

7,04,08 

Saltpetre  .... 

^ 

37,87 

33.27 

40,11 

Silk  and  silk  manufactures 

65,51 

57.75 

53,20 

Tea 

. 

5,04,11 

9.07.50 

7,88,17 

All  other  articles 

1,18,65 

1,75,69 

1,9.^,77 

Treasure  ..... 

• 

16,90 

63,74 

40,02 

35° 


BENGAL 


TABLE   VII 
Foreign  Land  Trade  of  Bengal 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


1890-1. 

1 900- 1. 

1903-4. 
1,60,62 

Imports 

Animals          ...... 

Fruits,  vegetables,  and  nuts     . 

Grain  and  pulse 

Hides  and  skins      ..... 

Oilseeds  ....... 

Provisions       ...... 

All  other  articles     ..... 

Treasure          .                  .... 

Exports  (Indian  and  Foreign  goods) 

Cotton  goods 

Metals  and  manufactures  of  metals  . 

Provisions 

Salt 

Spices 

Sugar      ....... 

Tobacco          ...... 

All  other  articles 

Treasure          ...... 

1,20,13 

1,69,13 

15,18 

4,31 

55,46 

3,49 

12,7s 

6,82 
22,09 

29,10 
3,23 

78,77 

5.43 

19^33 
8,29 

24,98 

7,55 

21,28 

3,00 

84,  .^2 

5,64 
14,10 

5.76 
26,32 

9,90 

5,47 

99,85 

1,31,75 

97,20 

35,21 
7,68 
8,72 
4,44 
8,95 
3,54 
3,41 

27,90 

46,19 

11,03 

9,12 

10,24 

15,54 
5,38 

7-54 
26,71 

38,77 

13,01 

4,55 

7,19 

4,86 

3,.^5 

2,26 

23,01 

2,13 

64,65 

3,73 

TABLES 


351 


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VOL.  VII. 


A  a 


354 


BENGAL 


TABLE  X 
Principal  Heads  of  Provincial  Expenditure,  Bengal 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


Average 

Average 

for  ten 

for  ten 

Year 

Year 

years 

years 

ending 

ending 

cnrlinjj 

ending 

March  31, 

Marcli  31, 

March  ^i, 

March  31, 

1901." 

1904. 

1890." 

1900. 

Opening  balance 

Charges  in   respect  of  col- 

31,10 

3', 52 

38,18 

55,29 

lections  (principally  Lane 

Revenue  and  Forests) 

49,98 

61,55 

66,26 

69,03 

.Salnriesand  expenses  of  Civi 

Departments — 

{(i)  General  administra- 

tion    . 

15,52 

16,99 

17,37 

19,05 

{b)  Law  and  Justice 

94,06 

1,10,22 

1,19,64 

1,23,82 

if)  Tolice      . 

46,37 

59,86 

60,65 

65,72 

{d)  Education 

28,93 

26,55 

28,06 

34,42 

{e)  Medical  . 

13,74 

iS,33 

21,47 

21,48 

(/)  Other  heads     . 

13,20 

13,55 

15.01 

17,84 

Pensions  and  miscellaneous 

civil  charges    . 

24,46 

33,0a 

37,27 

41,70 

Famine  relief 

32 

4'94 

2,26 

... 

Irrigation    . 

49,17 

52,99 

49,45 

52,37 

Public  works 

42,87 

33,67 

39  Si 

76,05 

Other  charges  and    adjust 

ments 

Total  expenditur( 
Closing  balance  . 

64,73 

42,24 

19,93 

25.49 

'      4,43,35 

4,73,89 

4,77,18 

5,46,97 

29,68 

31,66 

42,61 

1,42,52 

TABLES 


355 


TABLE    XI 

Income  and  Expenditure  of  District  Boards^ 

Bengal 


A\erage 

for  ten  years 

igoo-i. 

iy"3-4- 

ciidiiifj  1900. 

Income  from  — 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Provincial  rates    .... 

37,05,064 

42,35.063 

44.78,981 

Interest 

26,662 

47. '39 

43,696 

Pounds 

4,52,055 

4.73.430 

4.93,423 

Education    . 

53,889 

66,374 

89,351 

Medical        .... 

22,934 

34>585 

65,312 

Scientific,  &c. 

4.970 

10,802 

20,584 

Stationery  and  printing 

480 

661 

804 

Miscellaneous 

1,87,863 

1, 85,. 366 

1.95.330 

Public  works  t     • 

5.30,267 

8,01,714 

9. '5,070 

Ferries 

4.09.855 

4,86,727 

5.07.37' 

Contributions  X     ■ 

6,38,702 

6,26,313 

10,53,195 

Other  Iieads 

7,42,760 

4,29,996 

5.39,771 

Total  income 
Expendittire  on  — 

67,75.501 

73.98,167 

84,02,888 

General  administration 

2,84,900 

2,80,259 

3.  ".396 

Pounds         .... 

24,856 

21,829 

2S,4i6j 

Education     .... 

11,41,008 

12,91,247 

18,19,584 

Medical        .... 

2,00,676 

4.59.422 

4.09,277 

Scientific,  &c. 

14,644 

25,765 

48,659 

Superannuation     pension.-;      and 

allowances 

9.579 

20,73' 

32,025 

Stationery  and  printing 

48,003 

41. -154 

40,569 

Miscellaneous 

52,700 

55.585 

42,322 

Public  works  §      . 

41.35,444 

45,36,741 

48,72,292 

Contribution^  ||      . 

88,394 

1,22,04s 

62,975 

Other  heads 

7.58,932 

5.15.989 

6,55,673 

Total  expel 

iditur 

e 

67.59.136 

73.71.070 

83,23,188 

"  The  income  and  expenditure  in  190.^-4  of  the  Distiict  boards  contained  in  the 
present  area  of  Bengal  was  Rs.  57,  \\.^-!\  and  Rs.  56,20,986  respectively. 

t  Includes  sums  collected  by  Civil  officers  as  fees  and  rent,  &c.,  and  contributions 
by  Government  and  private  individuals  for  particular  works. 

J   Special  Government  jjrants. 

§  ICxpenditure  on  roads,  bridges,  buildings,  &c. 

i  Contributions  towards  the  cost  of  plague  camp-,  refunds  of  unspent  balances  of 
contributions  made  for  special  purposes,  and  the  like. 


A  a  2 


356 


BENGAL 


TABLE   XII 


Income  and    Expenditure  of   MuNiciPALiiTEb*,   Bengal, 
INCLUDING  Calcutta 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


Average 

for  ten  years 

ending 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

1900. 

Incomefrom — 

Tax  on  houses  and  lands 

25>93 

31.03 

35.08 

Other  taxes 

39.58 

48,00 

54,47 

Rents   ....•• 

98 

1,34 

1,44 

Loans  ...... 

18,72 

4, .34 

56,42 

Other  sources        .... 
Total  income 

29,22 

28,62 

35,53 

1,14.43 

1,13,33 

1,82,94 

Expenditure  on — 

Administration    and   collection   of 

taxes         ..... 

t^,.^.6 

8,90 

11,59 

Public  safety          .... 

6,67 

7,89 

8,26 

^Vute^-supply  and  drainage  : 

{a)  Capital        .... 

12,62 

7,68 

17.43 

lb)  Maintenance 

6,54 

8,82 

8.40 

Conservancy          .... 

19.55 

23.38 

29,29 

Hospitals  and  dispensaries  . 

3,50 

4.91 

5,69 

Public  works         .... 

16,97 

11,82 

25,48 

Education 

1,40 

1.35 

1,73 

Other  heads          .... 
Total  expenditure 

37,25 

45  43 

62,21 

1,12,86 

I,20,lS 

1,70,0s    ; 

*  In   ioo_V4  tl"    income  of  the  municipalities  in   Bengal    as  now  constituted  was 
Rs.  1,73,60,503,  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  1,61,34,060. 


TABLES 


357 


TABLE   XIII 
Statistics  of  Jails,  Bengal 


1881. 

i8gi. 

1901. 

1903. 

'9"3, 
present  area. 

6 

Number  of  Central  jails 

9 

7 

8 

s 

Number  of  District  jails 

37 

39 

40 

40 

29 

Number  of  Subsidiary 

jails  (lock-ups) 

82 

86 

88 

89 

67 

Average  daily  jail  popu- 

lation : — 

(a)  Male  prisoners: 

In  Central  jails  . 

7,607 

7,753 

10,279 

9,454 

7,689 

In  District  jails  . 

7,«5^' 

6,916 

9,37« 

8,597 

5,7 '6 

In  Sub-jails 

624 

824 

1,204 

1,107 

725 

(/')  Female  prisoners : 

In  Central  jails  . 

294 

132 

168 

"7 

102 

In  District  jails  . 

339 

267 

326 

249 

217 

In  Sub-jails 

Total 
Rate  of  jail  mortality 

3' 

24 

39 

34 

27 

16,747 

15,916 

21,394 

*' 9,558 

14,476 

per  I, GOD 

68.6 

31-4 

27-7 

2  3-7 

22.4 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Expenditure     on     jail 

maintenance     . 

9,10,377 

10,82,683 

16,25,171 

15,87,645 

11,12,239 

Cost  per  prisoner 

54 

68 

76 

81 

76 

Profits    on   jail    manu- 

factures (net)    . 

5,25,969 

3,64,914 

5,84,174 

5,38,247 

4,59,330 

Earnings  per  prisoner  . 

34 

26 

31 

32 

36 

*  The  decrease  is  due  to  the  release  of  3,<x>3  prisoners  on  the  occa'^ion  of  the  celebration 
of  the  Coronation  of  H  M.  the  King  Kmperor. 


358 


BENGAL 


TABLE    XIV 
Statistics  of  Educational  Expenditure,  Bengal 


Class  of  institutions. 

Expenditure  on  institutions  maintained  or  aided  by 
public  funds  (in  lakhs  of  rupees). 

Pro- 
vincial 
revenues. 

District 

and 

municipal 

funds. 

Fees. 

Other 
sources. 

1 
Total. 

Arls    and    professional 

colleges:         1900-r 

1903-4 

Training    and    special 

schools*:        1900-1 

1903-4 

Secondary  boys' 

schools:         1 900- 1 

1903-4 

Primary  boys' 

schools:          1 900- 1 

1903-4 
Girls' schools:  1 900-1 

1903-4 

Total  \  ^9°°-i 
1903-4 

4-79 

5-87 

3-30 
4.10 

3-95 
4.42 

1.23 
1.66 

1.70 
2.07 

0.27 

0.27 

2.29 
2.42 

6.15 
9-63 
0.47 
0-92 

4-93 
4-92 

0.73 
1. 21 

20.57 
23.21 

'7-73 
19.70 

1.62 

'-75 

1.65 
1.94 

2.02 
1.89 

9-03 

7-94 

4-53 
4.44 

2.89 
2.69 

20-12 
18.90 

1 
1 

11-37 
12.73 

6.32 
7-47 

35-84 
37-99 

29.64 
35-43 

6.68 

7-43 

14.97 
18.12 

9.18 
13.24 

45-5S 
50-79 

89.85 
101.05 

In  1903-4  the  corresponding  expenditure  (in  lakhs  of  rupees) 
in  Bengal  as  now  constituted  was:  — 


Class  of  institutions. 

Pro- 
vincial 
revenues. 

District 

and 

municipal 

funds. 

Fees. 

Other 

sources. 

1 
Total. 

Arts   and    professional 

colleges  . 
Training    and    special 

schools    . 
.Secondary    boys' 

schools*  . 
Primary  boys'  schools* 
Girls'  schools*    . 

Total 

5.61 

3-44 

2.70 
1.27 
0.89 

o.io 

1-64 
6.67 
0.51 

4.17 

0-73 

14-50 

13.06 

036 

1.70 
1-53 

4-85 
309 
1-70 

11.48 

5.80 

23-69 

24.09 

346 

13-91 

8.92 

32.82 

12.87 

68.52 

Excluding  figures  for  European  schools. 


TABLES 


359 


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360 


BENGAL 


TABLE   XVI 

Statistics  of  Hospitals,  Lunatic  Asylums,  and  Vaccination, 

Bengal 


«90.^, 

18S1. 

1801. 

IQOI. 

100,^. 

present 
area. 

Hospitals,  Ifc* 

Number  of  civil  hospitals 

and  dispensaries 

237 

283 

567 

614 

375 

Average  dnily  number  of — 

{a)  In-patients 

2,091 

2,652 

3,456 

3,524 

2,970 

{b")  Out-patients 

9,.^95 

12,160 

25,970 

29,227 

18,847 

Income  from — 

{a)      (jovernment      pay- 

1 

ments    .        .     ks. 

3.74.773 

3,47,445 

8,74,616 

8,10,505 

7,?6,740  j 

(h)  Local  and  municipal 

1 

payments        .     Rs. 

i>9.'..402 

3,65,384 

7,09.911 

7,84.440 

6,04,858 

((•)     Fees,     endowments. 

and    other    sources 

Rs. 

3,25,684 

2,97,358 

6,63,872 

9,67,968 

6,91,726 

Expenditure  on — 

(a)  Establisliment  .     Rs. 

4,09,803 

4-37,662 

8,22,629 

8,91,289 

7,09.513 

(b)  Medicines,  diet,  build- 

ings, &c,        .     Rs. 

4,02,783 

5,20,221 

12,50,347 

14,-30,758 

11,93,019 

Lunatic  Asylums. 

Xumber  of  asylums     . 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Average  daily  number  of — 

(a)  Criminal  lunatics 

277 

455 

517 

543 

391 

{f>)  Other  lunatics   . 

616 

580 

469 

510 

.391 

Income  from — 

(fl)      Government      pay- 

ments   .         .     Rs. 

87,479 

92,165 

1,18,960 

1,16,357 

91,344 

{h)  Fees  and  other  sources 

Rs. 

28,464 

27,985 

20,556 

20,408 

19,236 

PLxpenditure  on — 

(a)  Establishment   .     Rs. 

55,633 

43,97s 

45,769 

46,649 

38,554 

{b)   Diet,   buildings,   &c. 

Rs. 

Van-i>iatioii.-\ 

60,310 

76,173 

93,747 

90,116 

72,026 

i 
1 

1880  1. 

1890-1. 

19G0-1. 

190.1-4. 

Population    among    whom 

\ 

vaccination    was    carried 

on  . 

36,892,735 

62,782,913 

73,843,197 

77,624,647 

Number  of  successful  opera- 

, 

tions       .... 

1,36.3,925 

1,805,096 

2,248,015 

2,662,477 

3 

Ratio  per  1,000  of  popula- 

sS 

tion         .... 

37 

28 

30 

34 

-       0     .r-« 

'  55  z 

Total    expenditure   on  vac- 

1          >-• 
!         0 

cination  .         .          .     Rs. 

1,11,066 

1,82,400 

1,88,114 

2,03,281 

i?     1 

Cost  per  successful  case    Rs. 

0-1-3 

0-1-7 

0-1-4 

0-1-2 

f^          1 

*  The  figures  for  hospitals,  &c.,  include  the  institutions  in  Calcutta. 

t  The  figures   for  vaccination    incluiie  those   for   the  States   of  Orissa  and   Chota   NSgpur   in   which 
vaccination  is  carried  oti. 


BERAR  361 

Bera. — Village  in  the  Sirajganj  subdivision  of  Pabna  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  24°  5'  N.  and  89°  38'  E.,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Ichamati,  Baral,  and  Hurasagar  rivers.  Population  (1901),  1,675, 
and  including  its  adjacent  hamlets,  5,417.  Bera  is  a  market  with 
a  considerable  trade,  especially  in  jute,  and  two  European  firms  have 
branches  here. 

Berar  (otherwise  known  as  the  Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts). — 
A  province,  lying  between  19°  35'  and  21"  47''  N.  and  75°  59'  and 
79°  11''  E.,  which  has  been  administered  by  the  British  Government 
on  behalf  of  His  Highness  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad  since  1853.  It 
consists  of  a  broad  valley  running  east  and  west,  between  two  tracts  of 
hilly  country,  the  Gawilgarh  hills  (the  Melghat)  on  the  north,  and  the 
Ajanta  range  (the  Balaghat)  on  the  south.  The  old  name  of  the  central 
valley  was  Payanghat ;  and  these  three  names — Melghat,  Payanghat, 
and  Balaghat — will  be  used  to  define  the  three  natural  divisions  of  the 
province.     The  area  of  Berar  is  17,710  square  miles. 

The  origin  of  the  name  Berar,  or  Warhad  as  it  is  spelt  in  MarathT,  is 
not  known.  It  may  possibly  be  a  corruption  of  Vidarbha,  the  name  of 
a  large  kingdom  in  the  Deccan,  of  which  the  modern  Berar  probably 
formed  part  in  the  age  of  the  Mahabharata.  The  popular  derivation  from 
certain  eponymous  Warhadis,  who  accompanied  Rukmin  and  Rukmini 
to  AmraotT  when  the  latter  went  to  pay  her  vows  at  the  temple  of  Amba 
Devi  before  her  projected  marriage  to  Sisupala,  must  be  set  aside  as 
purely  fanciful ;  and  Abul  Fazl's  derivation  of  the  name  from  Wardha, 
the  river,  and  taf^  a  '  bank,'  is  of  no  more  value. 

Berar  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Satpuras  and  the  Tapti,  which 
separate  it  from  the  Central  Provinces  ;  on  the  east,  where  again  it 
adjoins  the  Central  Provinces,  by  the  Wardha  ;  along  the  greater  part  of  its 
southern  frontier,  where  it  adjoins  the  Hyderabad  State,  by  the  Penganga ; 
while  on  the  west  an  artificial  line  cutting  across  the  broad  valley  from  the 
Satpura  Hills  to  the  Ajanta  range,  and  produced  southwards  over  those 
hills,  separates  it  from  the  Bombay  Presidency  and  Hyder.abad. 

The  Gawilgarh  hills  attain  their  greatest  height  along  the  southern- 
most range,  immediately  overlooking  the  Payanghat,  where  the  average 
elevation   is   about    3,400  feet,  the   highest    summit 

being  3,989  feet.     These  hills  decrease  in  height  as         Physical 
,  ,  ,       ,  ,       ,         ^  aspects, 

they  stretch   away   towards   the    north,  the   average 

elevation   of  the   range   overlooking   the  Tapti  being   no   more  than 

1,650  feet.     The  plateaux  of  the  Balaghat  do  not  attain  the  height 

of  the  hills  of  the   Melghat,   the   elevation   of  Buldana,   Basim,   and 

Yeotmal  being  only  2,190  feet,  1,758  feet,  and  1,583  feet,  respectively. 

The  general  declination  of  the  Balaghat  table-land  is  from  west  to  east, 

or  in  the  direction  of  the  Wardha  river,  that  of  the  Gawilgarh  hills 

being  in  the  contrary  direction. 


362  BERAR 

The  principal  rivers  of  Berar  are  the  Tapti,  the  Purna,  the 
Wardha,  and  the  Penganga.  The  Tapti  runs  from  east  to  west  and 
the  Penganga  from  west  to  east,  each  following  the  general  declination 
of  the  range  from  which  it  receives  its  principal  affluents.  The  Wardha 
rises  in  the  Satpuras  and  flows  in  a  southerly  direction,  receiving  the 
Penganga  at  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  province.  The  Puma, 
which  is  a  tributary  of  the  Tapti,  drains  the  Payanghat,  rising  in  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Gawilgarh  hills  in  Amraoti  District,  and  running 
westward  through  the  valley  until  it  leaves  the  province  at  the  northern- 
most corner  of  the  Malkapur  taluk.  The  Penganga  rises  in  the  hills 
near  Deulghat  in  Buldana  District,  traverses  that  District  in  a  south- 
easterly direction,  and  enters  the  Basim  taluk  near  AVakad.  From  Yeoti 
eastwards  it  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  Berar  till  it  meets  the 
Wardha  at  Jugad.  Its  prinicpal  tributaries  are  the  Pus,  Arna,  Aran, 
^^'agharI,  KunT,  and  Vaidarbha,  which  rise  in  the  Balaghat  and  flow  to 
meet  it  in  a  south-easterly  direction. 

The  only  lake  in  Berar  is  the  salt  lake  of  Lonar  in  Buldana  District. 

The  scenery  of  the  Payanghat  is  monotonous  and  uninteresting. 
The  wide  expanse  of  black  cotton  soil,  slightly  undulating,  is  broken 
by  few  trees  except  babuls  and  groves  near  villages.  In  the  autumn 
the  crops  give  it  a  fresh  and  green  appearance  ;  but  after  the  harvest  the 
monotonous  scene  is  unrelieved  by  verdure,  shade,  or  water,  and  the 
landscape  is  desolate  and  depressing.  The  Balaghat  is  more  varied 
and  pleasing,  though  here  also  the  country  has  a  parched  and  arid 
appearance  in  the  hot  season.  The  ground  is  less  level  and  the  country 
generally  is  better  wooded.  It  stretches  in  parts  into  downs  and  dales, 
or  is  broken  up  into  flat-topped  hills  and  deep  ravines,  while  in  its 
eastern  section  the  country  is  still  more  sharply  featured  by  a  splitting 
up  of  the  main  hill  range,  v/hich  has  caused  that  variety  of  low-lying 
plains,  high  plateaux,  fertile  bottoms,  and  rocky  wastes  found  in  Wun 
District.  The  scenery  of  the  Melghat  is  yet  more  picturesque,  the 
most  striking  features  of  this  tract  being  the  abrupt  scarps  of  trap  rock 
near  the  summits  of  the  hills,  the  densely  wooded  slopes,  and  the  steep 
ravines.     The  undulating  plateaux  are  rarely  of  great  extent. 

^  With  the  exception  of  the  south-eastern  corner,  comprising  a  portion 
of  Wun  District,  the  whole  of  Berar  is  covered  by  the  Deccan  trap 
flows.  In  the  south-eastern  corner  the  trap  has  been  removed  by 
atmospheric  agencies,  exposing  small  patches  of  the  underlying  Lameta 
beds,  and  the  great  Godavari  trough  of  Gondwana  rocks,  which  are  let 
down  into  very  old  unfossiliferous  Purana  strata,  are  regarded  as  pre- 
Cambrian  in  age,  and  are  known  in  other  parts  of  peninsular  India  as 
Vindhyans,  Cuddapahs,  &c.     The  Deccan  trap  is  itself  covered  with 

'  f^oin  a  note  supplied  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Holland,  Director  of  the  Gtological  Survey 
of  India. 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  363 

alluvium  in  the  valley  of  the  Purna.     The  groups  represented  in  Berar 
can  be  tabulated  thus  : — 

Alluvium     .  .  .  Recent  and  pleistocene. 

Deccan  trap  .  .  Upper  Cretaceous  or  lower  eocene. 

Lameta  .  .  Upper  Cretaceous. 

Gondwana  .  .  Permo-carboniferous  to  Jurassic. 

Purana         .  .  .  Pre-Cambrian. 

The  old  rocks  of  the  Purana  group  come  to  the  surface  on  the  south- 
eastern margin  of  the  great  cap  of  Deccan  trap,  occupying  the  border 
out  to  the  main  boundary  of  the  Gondwana  strata.  They  are  covered 
by  two  small  isolated  patches  of  Deccan  trap — outliers  south-east  of 
Kayar — and  with  some  outliers  of  Gondwana  beds  in  the  Vaidarbha 
valley  and  farther  west.  In  one  or  two  small  hills  in  this  corner  of  the 
province  the  distinction  between  the  Purana  sandstones  and  the  much 
later  sandstones  belonging  to  the  Kamptee  division  of  the  Gondwana 
system  is  seen.  Yanak  hill  (1,005  ^'^et)  is  formed  of  Purana  sandstones, 
and  several  bands  of  conglomerate  occur  containing  pebbles  of  hematite, 
from  which  the  iron  ore  formerly  made  at  Yanak  was  obtained.  Shales, 
slates,  and  limestones  of  the  Purana  group  prevail  to  the  west  of  the 
sandstone  bed  in  Wun  District,  giving  some  magnificent  sections  in  the 
Penganga  and  its  tributaries. 

The  Gondwana  rocks  are  especially  worthy  of  notice,  on  account  of 
their  coal-measures.  It  has  been  estimated  that  about  2,100,000,000 
tons  of  coal  are  available  in  Wun  District.  Direct  evidence  of  the 
occurrence  of  coal  has  been  obtained  throughout  13  miles  of  country 
from  Wun  to  Papur,  and  for  10  miles  from  Junara  to  Chincholl.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  150,000,000  tons  above  the  500  feet  level 
between  Junara  and  Chincholl ;  and  the  existence  of  thick  coal  has 
been  proved  in  the  Barakars  which  crop  out  near  the  Wardha  river,  in 
the  south-eastern  part  of  Wun  District. 

The  Deccan  trap,  with  which  the  greater  part  of  Berar  is  covered, 
was  erupted  towards  the  end  of  Cretaceous  times,  the  volcanic  activity 
stretching  on,  probably,  into  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  period.  At 
the  base,  and  stretching  beyond  the  fringe,  of  the  Deccan  trap,  there 
is  often  a  fresh-water,  or  subaerial,  formation,  composed  of  clays,  sand- 
stones, and  limestones,  representing  the  materials  formed  by  weathering 
or  actually  deposited  in  water  on  the  old  continent  over  which  the 
Deccan  lava  flows  spread. 

The  hollow  containing  the  lake  of  Lonar  in  Buldana  District  was 
probably  caused  by  a  violent  gaseous  explosion  long  after  the  eruption 
of  the  Deccan  trap,  and  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  alluvial  deposits  in  the  valley  of  the 
Purna  is  the  occurrence  of  salt  in  some  of  the  beds  at  a  little  depth 
below  the  surface.     Wells  used  formerly  to  be  sunk  on  both  sides  of 


364  BERAR 

the  river  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  brine  from  the  gravelly  layers. 
The  absence  of  fossils  supports  the  idea  that  the  salt  is  not  derived 
from  marine  beds,  but  is  in  all  probability  due  to  the  concentration  of 
the  salts  ordinarily  carried  in  underground  water  through  the  excessive 
surface  evaporation  which  goes  on  in  these  dry  areas  for  most  of  the 
year  \ 

"-  The  Melghat  hills  are  forest-clad,  the  constituent  vegetation  being 
that  characteristic  of  the  Satpuras  generally.  The  most  plentiful  species 
is  Boswellia,  accompanied  by  Cochlospermum,  Anogeissi/s  hitifo/ia,  and 
Lagerstroemia  patvijlora.  Where  the  soil  is  deeper  more  valuable 
species,  such  as  Tedona  gra?idis,  De7idrocalannis  strictus,  and,  more 
sparingly,  Hardivkkia  hinata,  are  found  occupying  the  valleys  and 
ravines.  Scattered  throughout  the  forest  occur  Ougeinia  dalbergioides, 
Adina  cordifolia,  Stephegyne  parvifolia,  Terminalia  tomentosa,  Schrebera 
swietenioides,  Eugenia  Jainbolana^  Bridelia  rehisa,  Termhta/ia  Chebula; 
some  heavy  creepers,  such  as  Bauhinia  Vahlii  \  and  species  o{  Millettia, 
Conibrefum,  Vifis,  &c.  On  lighter  gravelly  soil,  both  in  Northern  and 
Southern  Berar,  forests  with  Hard^vickia  bhiata  are  met  with,  Ptero- 
carpus  MarsHpium  occurs  near  the  edges  of  most  of  the  high  plateaux, 
with  occasional  trees  of  Dalbergia  latifolia. 

Where  the  soil  in  the  Balaghat  is  thin,  the  slopes  and  plateaux  are 
covered  chiefly  with  Boswellia  ;  but  in  deeper  soil  Anogeissi/s  latifolia, 
Diospyros  melanoxylon,  and  Terminalia  tofnentosa  are  the  principal 
species.  Along  river  banks  considerable  quantities  of  Terminalia 
Arjiina  and  Schleichera  trijuga  are  sometimes  met  with.  In  the 
bottoms  of  the  ravines  are  scattered  clumps  of  Dendrocalamus  strictus. 
The  hills  are  often  bare  and  grass-clad,  the  most  striking  species  being 
large  Andropogons,  Anthistirias,  Iseilemas,  &c.  In  level  tracts,  mangoes, 
tamarinds,  mahnds,  and  pipals  abound,  with  groves  of  P/ioenix  sylves- 
tris.  Stretches  of  babul  jungle  are  characteristic  of  the  province.  In 
cultivated  ground  the  weed  vegetation  is  that  characteristic  of  the 
Deccan,  and  includes  many  small  Composiiae. 

The  principal  wild  animals  are  the  tiger,  the  leopard,  the  hunting 
leopard,  and  the  wild  cat  among  Felidae.  Deer  and  antelopes  are 
represented  by  the  sdmbar,  the  spotted  deer,  the  barking-deer,  the 
common  Indian  antelope,  the  nilgai,  the  four-horned  antelope,  and 
the  chinkdra ;  and  Canidae  by  the  Indian  wolf,  the  Indian  fox,  the 
wild  dog,  and  the  jackal.  The  striped  hyena,  the  wild  hog,  and  the 
Indian  black  or  sloth  bear  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  last 
especially  in  the   Melghat.     Monkeys  are  represented  by  the  latigur 

'  Memoirs,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xiii ;  Records,  Geological  Swvey  of  India, 
vol.  i,  part  iii ;  General  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India  (1902-5). 

^  From  a  note  supplied  by  Major  D.  Prain,  I. M.S.,  Director  of  the  Botanical 
Survey. 


HISTORY 


365 


and  the  smaller  red  monkey,  the  latter  being  found  in  the  Melghat  only, 
while  the  former  is  common  throughout  the  province. 

The  climate  differs  very  little  from  that  of  the  Deccan  generally, 
except  that  in  the  Payanghat  the  hot  season  is  exceptionally  severe. 
During  April  and  May,  and  until  the  rains  set  in  about  the  middle  of 
June,  the  sun  is  very  powerful,  and  there  is  by  day  severe  heat,  but 
without  the  scorching  winds  of  Northern  India.  The  nights  are 
comparatively  cool  throughout,  and  during  the  rains  the  air  is  moist 
and  fairly  cool.  The  climate  of  the  Balaghat  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Payanghat,  but  the  thermometer  stands  much  lower  than  in  the  plains. 
On  the  higher  plateaux  of  the  Gawllgarh  hills,  the  climate  is  always 
temperate,  and  at  the  sanitarium  of  Chikalda  the  heat  is  seldom  so 
great  as  to  be  unpleasant.  The  following  table  shows  the  average  tem- 
perature, at  two  representative  stations,  in  January,  May,  July,  and 
November : — 


Station. 

Height  of 

Observatory 

above  sea- 

level  in 

feet. 

Average  temperature  (in  degrees  Fahrenheit)  for  the 
twenty-five  years  ending  with  1901  in 

January. 

May. 

July. 

November. 

Mean. 

71-3 
69-5 

Diur- 
nal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diur- 
nal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diur- 
nal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diur- 
nal 
range. 

24-9 
300 

Amraoti     .     .     . 
Akola   .... 

1,215 
930 

26-5 
31-5 

93-8 
94-4 

277 
26- 9 

807 
8i-8 

I4-I 
14-8 

74-2 
724 

Note. — The  diurnal  range  is  the  average  difference  between  maximum  and  minimum  temperature 
of  each  day. 

The  following  table  shows,  for  the  same  stations,  the  average  rainfall 
in  each  month  of  the  year : — 


Station. 

Average  rainfall  (in  inches)  for  the  twenty-five  years  ending  with  1901  in 

Jan. 

B'eb. 

Mar. 

0-32 
0-43 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

6-55 
5-26 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total 

of 
year. 

Amraoti      . 
Akola     .     . 

0-51 
0-47 

0-24 

0-2I 

0-30 
o-i8 

0-57 
0-38 

9-25 
9.90 

6-82 
6-84 

6-IO 

6-22 

2-13 

2-55 

0-5I 
o-Si 

066 
074 

33-96 
33-69 

The  rainfall  is  normally  somewhat  heavier  in  the  Balaghat  than  in 
the  Payanghat,  and  considerably  heavier  in  the  Melghat  than  in  either. 

Berar  was  anciently  known  as  Vidarbha,  under  which  name  it  is 
mentioned  in  the  Mahabharata.  In  this  epic  the  Raja  of  Vidarbha, 
Rukmin,  is  represented  as  an  arrogant  and  presump- 
tuous prince,  who  vainly  attempted  to  prevent  the 
marriage  of  his  sister  Rukmini  to  the  demi-god  Krishna,  and  who 
subsequently  so  disgusted  the  Pandavas  by  his  pretensions  that  they 
declined  his  assistance  in  their  quarrel  with  the  Kauravas,  leaving  him 
to  retire  in  dudgeon  to  his  own  dominions. 


History. 


366  BEKAR 

The  next  mention  of  Vidarbha  is  in  connexion  with  the  famous 
Oriental  romance  of  Nala  and  Damayanti.  Nala,  Raja  of  Nishadha 
(Malwa),  loved  Damayanti,  the  daughter  of  Bhima,  Raja  of  Vidarbha. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  this  story,  which  is  mainly  mythical,  through 
its  intricacies  of  detail ;  but  we  learn  from  it  that  the  kingdom  of 
Vidarbha  had  for  its  capital  a  city  of  the  same  name,  with  which  the 
city  of  Bidar  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions  has  been  identified.  If  the 
identification  be  correct,  and  it  is  supported  by  legend  as  well  as  by 
etymology,  we  may  conclude  that  the  ancient  kingdom  was  far  more 
extensive  than  the  modern  province  of  Berar.  Tradition  says  that  its 
kings  bore  sway  over  the  whole  of  the  Deccan. 

The  authentic  history  of  Berar  commences  with  the  Andhras  or 
Satavahanas,  of  whose  dominions  it  undoubtedly  formed  part.  In  the 
third  century  B.C.,  the  Andhras  occupied  the  deltas  of  the  Godavari  and 
Kistna,  and  were  one  of  the  tribes  on  the  outer  fringe  of  Asoka's  empire. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  that  great  ruler  their  territory  was  rapidly 
enlarged,  and  their  sway  reached  Nasik.  The  twenty-third  king, 
Vilivayakura  II  (a.d.  113-38),  successfully  warred  against  his  neigh- 
bours, the  western  Satraps  of  Gujarat  and  Kathiawar,  whose  predecessors 
had  encroached  on  the  Andhra  kingdom.  A  few  years  later,  however, 
the  Satraps  were  victorious  and  the  Andhra  rule  appears  to  have  come 
to  an  end  about  236.  The  next  rulers  of  the  province  of  whom  records 
have  survived  were  the  Rajas  of  the  Vakataka  dynasty,  of  whom  there 
were  ten.  This  dynasty  was  probably  feudatory  to  the  Vallabhis,  but 
their  chronology  is  very  uncertain.  The  Abhiras  or  Ahirs,  who 
succeeded  the  Vakatakas,  are  said  to  have  reigned  as  independent 
sovereigns  for  only  sixty-seven  years  ;  but  Ahir  and  Gaoli  chieftains 
continued  long  afterwards  to  hold  important  forts  in  Berar  and  the 
neighbouring  country,  giving  their  names  to  their  strongholds,  as  in 
the  case  of  Gaoligarh  in  Khandesh,  Asirgarh  (Asa  Ahir  Garh)  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  Gawllgarh  in  Berar.  The  Chalukyas  next  rose 
to  power  in  the  Deccan.  Their  dominions  included  Berar,  and  they 
reigned  until  750,  when  they  were  overthrown  by  the  Rashtrakatas,  who 
ruled  till  973,  when  the  Chalukyas  regained  their  ascendancy,  which 
they  retained,  though  not  without  vicissitudes,  for  two  centuries.  On 
the  death,  in  1189,  of  Somesvara  IV,  the  last  Raja  of  the  restored 
Chalukya  line,  his  dominions  were  divided  between  the  Hoysala 
Ballalas  of  the  south,  whose  capital  was  Dorasamudra  or  Dwaravati- 
pura^,  and  the  Yadavas  of  Deogiri,  the  modern  Daulatabad,  Berar 
naturally  falling  to  the  share  of  the  latter.  Raja  Bhillama  I,  the  founder 
of  this  dynasty,  established  himself  at  Deogiri  in  11 88;  and  the  Yadavas 
had  reigned  with  some  renown  for  rather  more  than  a  century,  when,  in 

'  Halebid,  in  Hassan  District,  Mysore. 


HISTOR  Y  367 

the  reign  of  Ramchatidra,  the  sixth  Raja,  the  Deccan  was  invaded  by 
the  Musahiians. 

In  1294  Ala-ud-din,  the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  Firoz  Shah  Khilji, 
Sultan  of  Delhi,  invaded  the  Deccan  by  way  of  Chanderi  and  Ellichpur. 
After  defeating  the  Yadava  Raja  Ramchandra,  styled  Ramdeo  by 
Muhammadan  historians,  at  Deogiri,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Raja's 
son,  whom  also  he  defeated.  He  was  then  bought  out  of  the  country 
by  a  heavy  ransom,  which  included  the  cession  of  the  revenues  of 
Ellichpur,  the  district  remaining  under  Hindu  administration.  On  his 
return  to  Hindustan  Ala-ud-din  murdered  his  uncle  at  Kara  and  usurped 
the  throne.  Throughout  his  reign  he  dispatched  successive  expeditions 
into  the  Deccan,  but  in  the  confusion  which  followed  his  death  in  1316 
Harpal  Deo  of  Deogiri  rose  in  rebellion.  He  was  defeated  by  Kutb- 
ud-din  Mubarak  Shah  I  in  13 17-8,  and  was  flayed  alive,  his  skin  being 
nailed  to  one  of  the  gates  of  Deogiri.  His  dominions  were  annexed  to 
the  Delhi  empire,  and  thus  Berar  for  the  first  time  became  a  Muham- 
madan possession,  which  it  has  remained  ever  since.  Berar  gained 
considerably  in  importance  during  the  reign  of  Muhammad  bin 
Tughlak  of  Delhi,  who  in  1337  transferred  the  capital  of  his  empire  from 
Delhi  to  Daulatabad  (Deogiri).  In  the  latter  years  of  this  emperor's 
reign  the  Amirs  of  the  Deccan  rebelled,  and  in  1348  Hasan  Gangu, 
Zafar  Khan,  was  proclaimed  Sultan  of  the  Deccan  under  the  title  of 
Ala-ud-dln  Bahman  Shah  \ 

Ala-ud-din  Bahman,  shortly  after  he  had  ascended  the  throne,  divided 
his  kingdom  into  four  provinces  or  tarafs^  of  which  Berar,  which 
included  Mahur,  Ramgarh,  and  Pathri,  was  the  northernmost.  During 
the  next  130  years  Berar  furnished  contingents  in  the  innumerable  wars 
waged  by  the  Bahmani  kings  against  the  Rajas  of  Vijayanagar,  Telin- 
gana,  Orissa,  and  the  Konkan,  the  Sultans  of  Gujarat,  Malwa,  and 
Khandesh,  and  the  Gonds.  It  was  overrun  by  Musalmans  from  the 
independent  kingdoms  on  its  northern  frontier,  by  Gonds  from  Chanda, 
and  by  Hindus  from  Telingana.  Ahmad  Shah  \V'alI,  the  ninth  king  of 
the  Bahmani  dynasty,  found  it  necessary  to  recapture  the  forts  of  MahQr 
and  Kalam  in  Eastern  Berar,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
infidels.  In  1478  or  1479  Berar,  which  had  hitherto  been  an  impor- 
tant province  with  a  separate  army  and  governed  by  nobles  of  high  rank 
and  position,  was  divided  into  two  governments,  each  of  which  was 
known  by  the  name  of  its  fortress  capital,  the  northern  being  called 
Gawll  and  the  southern  Mahur,  At  the  same  time  the  powers  of  the 
provincial  governors  were  much  curtailed,  all  important  forts  being 
placed  under  the  command  of  kiladdrs,  who  were  immediately  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Sultan. 

'  Most  historians  have  erred  in  respect  of  the  title  under  which  Bahman  ascended 
the  throne.     His  correct  title  is  given  as  above  in  a  contemporary  inscription. 


368  BERAR 

These  salutary  reforms  came  too  late  to  save  the  Bahmani  dynasty 
from  ruin ;  and  in  the  reign  of  the  fourteenth  Sultan,  Mahmud  Shah  II, 
the  principal  tarafddrs,  or  provincial  governors,  proclaimed  their 
independence.  Imad-ul-mulk,  who  had  formerly  been  governor  of  the 
whole  of  Berar  and  now  held  Gawll,  proclaimed  his  independence  in 
1490  and  soon  annexed  Mahur  to  his  kingdom.  He  was  by  race 
a  Kanarese  Hindu,  who  had  been  made  captive  as  a  boy  in  one  of  the 
expeditions  against  Vijayanagar  and  brought  up  as  a  Musalman  l)y  the 
governor  of  Berar,  to  whose  place  he  ultimately  succeeded.  Imad-ul- 
mulk  died  in  1504  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ala-ud-din  Imad  Shah, 
who  made  Gawilgarh  his  capital  and  waged  fruitless  war  against  Amir 
Barid  of  Bidar  and  Burhan  Nizam  Shah  of  Ahmadnagar.  Ala-ud-din 
was  succeeded  on  his  death  in  1529  by  his  son  Darya  Imad  Shah,  and 
he,  after  a  peaceful  and  uneventful  reign,  by  his  son  Burhan  Imad  Shah 
( 1 560-1).  This  prince,  shortly  after  his  accession,  was  imprisoned  in 
Narnala  by  his  minister,  Tufal  Khan,  who  declared  himself  independent. 
In  1572  Murtaza  Nizam  Shah  of  Ahmadnagar  invaded  Berar  with  the 
avowed  intention  of  releasing  Burhan  from  confinement.  Tufal  Khan, 
his  son  Shams-ul-mulk  who  had  surrendered  Gawilgarh,  and  Burhan 
were  captured  shortly  afterwards,  and  were  imprisoned  and  put  to 
death.  Thus  ended  the  rule  of  the  Imadshahi  dynasty  in  Berar,  after 
a  duration  of  eighty-five  years. 

The  Ahmadnagar  dynasty  was  not  long  destined  to  hold  possession 
of  the  prize.  At  home  it  could  do  nothing  to  quell  civil  broils  and  allay 
dangerous  feuds.  Even  when  the  famous  Chand  Bibi  became  queen- 
regent  there  was  no  chance  of  upholding  a  tottering  state.  In  1595 
Sultan  Murad,  the  fourth  son  of  the  emperor  Akbar,  besieged  Ahmad- 
nagar, but  raised  the  siege,  early  in  1596,  on  receiving  the  formal 
cession  of  Berar. 

In  those  times  the  Deccan  swarmed  with  adventurers  from  every 
nation  in  Asia  and  even  from  the  African  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
These  men  and  their  descendants  settled  in  the  towns,  and  their  chiefs 
occupied  most,  of  the  high  military  and  civil  offices  ;  but  the  Musalman 
rulers  of  the  Deccan  did  nothing  to  disturb  the  routine  of  ordinary 
revenue  collections  and  the  administration  of  the  internal  affairs  of 
villages  and  parganas,  so  that  the  old  Hindu  organization,  with  its 
YiCK^xtdixy  pargana  and  village  officials,  the  relic,  perhaps,  of  a  civiliza- 
tion older  still,  was  allowed  to  remain,  recognized  by  the  conquerors  as 
a  more  convenient  administrative  machine  than  any  which  they  could 
devise.  There  are  now  in  Berar  several  Muhammadan  families  of 
deshmukhs  (former  pargana  officials) ;  but  they  are  all  believed,  and  for 
the  most  part  admit  themselves,  to  be  descendants  of  Hindus  who  in 
the  reign  of  Aurangzeb  accepted  Islam  in  preference  to  relinquishing 
their  hereditary  offices.     They  may  be  distinguished  from  other  Musal- 


HISTORY  369 

mans  by  their  antipathy  to  beef,  and  frequently  by  a  partiality  for 
Hindu  names,  while  in  one  case  there  are  in  neighbouring  parga?ias  two 
families  of  deshi/iukhs,  one  Musalman  and  the  other  Hindu,  acknow- 
ledged cousins,  both  of  them  claiming  to  be  Rajputs  by  caste.  Of  the 
principal  Maratha  families  enumerated  by  Grant  Duff  as  holding  good 
positions  under  the  Bahmani  monarchy,  that  of  Jadon  Rao  is  the  only 
one  belonging  to  Berar.  In  lineage  and  historical  repute  it  yields  to 
none,  even  if  its  claim  to  descent  from  the  Yadava  Rajas  of  Deogiri  be 
discredited  ;  and  the  line  is  not  yet  extinct. 

Sultan  Murad,  after  the  annexation  of  Berar  to  the  Mughal  empire, 
founded  a  town  about  6  miles  from  Balapur,  which  he  named  Shahpur, 
making  it  his  residence  ;  and  the  newly  won  province  was  divided 
among  the  Mughal  nobles.  After  Murad's  death  in  1598  Akbar  formed 
the  design  of  conquering  the  whole  of  the  Deccan.  Ahmadnagar  was 
besieged  and  captured ;  and  Daniyal,  the  emperor's  fifth  son,  was 
appointed  governor  of  Ahmadnagar,  Khandesh,  and  Berar.  He  died 
in  1605,  in  the  same  year  as  his  father,  Akbar.  For  the  greater  part 
of  the  reign  of  Jahangir,  Ak bar's  son  and  successor,  Berar  was  in  the 
possession  of  Malik  Ambar,  the  Abyssinian  (died  1626),  who  repre- 
sented the  independence  of  the  moribund  dynasty  of  Ahmadnagar,  and 
to  whose  military  genius  and  administrative  capacity  a  generous  tribute 
is  paid  in  the  Tfizak-i-/ahdngtrt,  the  official  record  of  JahangTr's  reign. 

In  the  first  year  of  ShSh  Jahan,  Berar  passed  once  more  under  the 
Mughal  sway.  In  1636  the  whole  of  that  part  of  the  Deccan  which 
was  in  the  possession  of  the  Mughals  was  divided  into  four  Subaks,  or 
provinces,  one  of  which  was  Berar,  with  EUichpur  as  its  capital  and 
Gawilgarh  as  its  principal  fortress,  Aurangzeb,  Shah  Jahan's  third  son, 
was  appointed  viceroy  of  these  four  Sfibahs.  After  Aurangzeb  deposed 
his  father,  the  resources  of  Berar  were  taxed  to  the  utmost  by  his  cam- 
paigns in  Bijapur,  Golconda,  and  Southern  India,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  province  was  the  prey  of  Maratha  marauders.  In  1680  it  was  over- 
run by  Sambhaji,  the  son  of  Sivaji ;  and  in  1698  Rajaram,  the  half- 
brother  and  successor  of  Sambhaji,  aided  by  Bakht  Buland,  the  Gond 
Raja  of  Deogarh,  who  had  embraced  Islam  in  order  to  obtain 
Aurangzeb's  support,  again  devastated  the  province. 

In  1 718  Abdullah  and  Husain  All  Khan,  the  Saiyid  ministers  of  the 
emperor  Farrukh  Siyar,  formally  recognized  the  claim  of  the  Marathas, 
who  periodically  overran  Berar,  to  chaut/i,  or  blackmail,  to  the  extent 
of  one-quarter  of  the  revenue,  and  also  permitted  them  to  levy  from  the 
ryots  the  contribution  known  as  sardesh?nukht,  which  seems  to  have 
been  a  royalty  on  appointments  to  or  recognitions  of  the  old  Hindu 
office  of  deshmnkh,  and  amounted  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  revenue 
collections. 

A  year  later  Muhammad  Shah  ascended  the  throne  of  Delhi,  but  the 

VOL.  VII.  B  b 


370  BERAR 

government  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  two  Saiyids.    Cliin  Kihj  Khan, 
afterwards  known  as  Asaf  Jah,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the 
later  wars  of  Aurangzeb,  had  been  appointed  viceroy  of  the  Deccan 
under  the  title  of  Nizam-ul-mulk,  but  was  opposed  by  the  court  party  at 
Delhi,  who  sent  secret  instructions  to  Mubariz  Khan,  governor  of  Khan- 
desh,  urging  him  to  withstand  Asaf  Jah  by  force  of  arms.      In   1724 
a  battle  was  fought  at    Shakarkhclda  in    Buldana    District,  in    which 
Mubariz  Khan  was  utterly  defeated.    This  battle  established  the  virtual 
independence  of  Asaf  Jah,  the  founder  of  the  line  of  the  Nizams  of 
Hyderabad,  who,    to   celebrate   his    victory,  renamed  the  scene  of  it 
Fathkhelda,  or  'the  village  of  victory';  and  from  that  day  Berar  has 
always  been  nominally  subject  to  the  Nizam.     The  Bhonsla  Rajas  of 
Nagpur  posted  their  officers  all  over  the  province ;  they  occupied  it 
with  their  troops ;  they  collected  more  than  half  the  revenue,  and  they 
fought  among  themselves  for  the  right  to  collect ;  but  the  Nizam  con- 
stantly maintained  his  title  as  de  jure  ruler  of  the  country,   with  the 
exception  of  Mehkar  and  ^ome  parganas  to  the  south,  which  were  ceded 
to  the  Peshwa  in  1760  after  the  battle  of  Udgir,  and  Umarkhed  and 
oXhtx parganas  ceded  in  1795  ^^^^  ^^^  battle  of  Kardla.     This  struggle 
between  Mughal  and  Maratha  for  supremacy  in  Berar  commenced  in 
1737    between    Asaf  Jah   and    Raghujl  Bhonsla,     It  ended  in  1803, 
when,   after   the   defeat   of  the  Maratha   confederacy   at  Assaye  and 
Argaon,  and  the  capture  of  Gawilgarh  by  General  Arthur  Wellesley, 
the  Bhonsla  Raja  signed  a  treaty  by  which  he  resigned  all  claim  to 
territory  and  revenue  west  of  the  ^^^ardha,  Gawilgarh  and  Narnala,  with 
a  small  tract  of  land  afterwards  exchanged,  remaining  in  his  possession. 
The  injury  caused  to  Berar  by  the  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century 
must  have  been  wide   and  deep.      Described  in  the  Ain-i-Akbar'i  as 
highly  cultivated  and  in  parts  populous,  supposed  by  M.  de  Thevenot 
in  1667  to  be  one  of  the  wealthiest  portions  of  the  Mughal  empire,  it  fell 
on  evil  days  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.     Cultivation 
fell   off  just  when  the  finances  were  strained    by  the  long  wars ;   the 
local   revenue   officers    rebelled ;    the   army   became   mutinous ;    and 
the  Marathas  easily  plundered  a  weak  province  when  thev  had  severed 
its  sinews  by  cutting  off  its  trade.     Wherever  the  Mughals  appointed 
a  collector   the    Marathas   appointed   another,  and  both   claimed  the 
revenue,  while   foragers   from  each  side  exacted  forced  contributions, 
so  that  the  harassed  cultivator  often  threw  up  his  land  and  helped  to 
plunder  his  neighbour.     The  Marathas  by  these  means  succeeded  in 
fixing  their  hold  on  the  province ;  but  its  resources  were  ruined,  and  its 
people  were  seriously  demoralized  by  a  regime  of  barefaced  plunder 
and  fleecing  without  the  semblance  of  principle  or  stability. 

By  the  partition  treaty  of  Hyderabad    (1804)  the    Berar  territories 
ceded  by  the  Bhonsla  Raja  were  made  over   to  the    Nizam.      Some 


HISTORY  371 

tracts  about  Sindkhed  and  Jalna  were  also  restored  by  Sindhia  to  the 
Hyderabad  State. 

The  Treaty  of  Deogaon  had  put  a  stop  to  actual  warfare  in  Berar,  but 
the  people  continued  to  suffer  intermittently  from  the  inroads  of  Pin- 
daris,  and  incessantly  from  misgovernment  ;  for  the  province  had  been 
restored  to  the  Nizam  just  at  the  time  when  confusion  in  his  territories 
was  at  its  worst.  '  The  Nizam's  territories,'  wrote  General  Wellesley  in 
January,  1804,  'are  one  complete  chaos  from  the  Godavari  to  Hyder- 
abad ' ;  and  again,  '  Sindkhed  is  a  nest  of  thieves  ;  the  situation  of  this 
country  is  shocking  ;  the  people  are  starving  in  hundreds,  and  there  is 
no  government  to  afford  the  slightest  relief.' 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  war  of  1817^8,  which  did  not  seriously 
affect  the  tranquillity  of  Berar,  a  treaty  was  made  in  1822  which  fixed 
the  Wardha  river  as  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  province,  the  Melghat 
and  the  subjacent  districts  in  the  plains  being  restored  to  Hyderabad 
in  exchange  for  the  districts  east  of  the  AVardha  and  those  held  by  the 
Peshwa.     The  treaty  also  extinguished  the  Maratha  claim  to  chauth. 

Between  1803  and  1820  the  revenue  of  Berar  had  declined  by  one- 
half  owing  to  the  raids  of  Pindaris  and  Bhils,  while  the  administration 
was  most  wasteful,  no  less  than  26,000  troops  being  quartered  on  the 
province.  General  Wellesley  had  advised  in  1804  that  the  local  gover- 
nor should  be  compelled  to  reform  his  military  establishment,  foretelling 
the  aggravation  of  civil  disorder  by  the  sudden  cessation  of  arms.  The 
disbanded  troops  were  too  strong  for  the  weak  police,  while  the  spread 
of  British  dominion  established  order  all  around,  and  drove  all  the 
brigands  of  India  within  the  limits  of  Native  States.  So  Berar  was  har- 
ried from  time  to  time  by  bands  of  men  under  leaders  who  on  various 
pretexts,  but  always  with  the  real  object  of  plunder,  set  up  the  standard 
of  rebellion.  Sometimes  the  British  irregular  forces  had  to  take  the 
field  against  them,  as,  for  instance,  in  1849,  when  a  man  styling  himself 
Appa  Sahib  Bhonsla,  f.v-Raja  of  Nagpur,  was  with  difficulty  captured. 
Throughout  these  troubles  the  Hindu  deshinukhs  and  other  parga?ia 
officials  were  openly  disloyal  to  the  Nizam's  government,  doing  their 
best  to  thwart  his  commanders  and  abetting  the  pretenders.  The 
last  fight  against  open  rebels  took  place  at  Chichamba,  near  Risod, 
in  1859. 

After  the  old  war-time  came  the  '  cankers  of  a  calm  world,'  for  then 
began  the  palmy  days  of  the  great  farmers-general  at  Hyderabad. 
Messrs.  Palmer  &  Co.  overshadowed  the  Government  and  very  nearly 
proved  too  strong  for  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe  when  he  laid  the  axe  to  the 
root  of  their  power.  The  firm  had  made  large  loans  at  24  per  cent,  for 
the  numerous  cavalry  maintained  in  Berar.  Then  Puran  Mai,  a  great 
money-lender  of  Hyderabad,  got  most  of  Berar  in  farm;  but  in  1839 
he  was  turned  out,  under  pressure  from   the   Resident,  in  favour  of 

B  b  2 


372  BERAR 

Messrs.  PestoiijI  &  Co.  These  were  enterprising  Parsi  merchants,  wlio 
in  1825-6  made  the  first  considerable  exportation  of  cotton  from  Berar 
to  Bombay.  They  gave  liberal  advances  to  cotton-growers,  set  up 
presses  at  Khamgaon  and  other  places,  and  took  up,  generally,  the 
export  of  produce  from  the  Nizam's  country.  In  1841  Chandu  Lai, 
the  Hyderabad  minister,  gave  them  large  assignments  of  revenue  in 
Berar  in  repayment  of  loans  to  the  State;  but  in  1843  the  minister 
resigned,  having  conducted  the  State  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy,  and 
Pestonji  was  subsequently  forced  to  give  up  his  Berar  districts. 

All  these  proceedings  damaged  the  State's  credit,  as  Chandu  Lai's 
financing  had  hampered  its  revenue;  and  in  1843  and  several  succeed- 
ing years  the  pay  of  the  Irregular  Force  maintained  under  the  treaty  of 
1800  had  to  be  advanced  by  the  British  Government.  In  1850  it  had 
fallen  again  into  heavy  arrears,  and  in  1853  the  debt  due  to  the  Bri- 
tish Government  on  account  of  this  pay  and  other  unsatisfied  claims 
amounted  to  45  lakhs.  The  bankruptcy  of  the  State  disorganized  the 
administration,  and  the  non-payment  of  the  troops  continued  to  be  a 
serious  political  evil.  Accordingly,  in  1853,  a  new  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  Nizam,  under  which  the  Hyderabad  Contingent  was  to  be 
maintained  by  the  British  Government,  while  for  the  payment  of  this 
force,  and  in  satisfaction  of  the  other  claims,  districts  yielding  a  gross 
revenue  of  50  lakhs  were  assigned  to  the  Company.  The  Berar  dis- 
tricts '  assigned '  by  this  treaty  are  now  popularly  understood  to  form 
the  province  of  Berar,  which  was  administered  on  behalf  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  India  by  the  Resident  at  Hyderabad,  though  they  coincide  in 
extent  neither  with  the  Berar  of  the  Nizams  nor  with  the  imperial  Slibah. 
The  territory  made  over  under  this  treaty  comprised,  besides  Berar,  the 
districts  of  Dharaseo  and  the  Raichur  Doab.  It  was  agreed  that  ac- 
counts should  be  annually  rendered  to  the  Nizam,  and  that  any  surplus 
revenue  should  be  paid  to  him.  His  Highness  was  released  from 
the  obligation  of  furnishing  a  large  force  in  time  of  war,  and  the  Con- 
tingent ceased  to  be  a  part  of  his  army,  and  became  an  auxiliary  force 
kept  up  by  the  British  Government  for  his  use. 

The  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  1853,  which  required  the  submission 
of  annual  accounts  to  the  Nizam,  were,  however,  productive  of  much 
inconvenience  and  embarrassing  discussions.  Difficulties  had  also  arisen 
regarding  the  levy  of  customs  duties  under  the  commercial  treaty  of 
1802.  To  remove  these  difficulties,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reward 
the  Nizam  for  his  services  in  1857,  a  new  treaty  was  concluded  in  i860, 
by  which  a  debt  of  50  lakhs  due  from  him  was  cancelled ;  and  he  also 
received  the  territory  of  Surapur,  which  had  been  confiscated  for  the 
rebellion  of  the  Raja,  and  the  districts  of  Dharaseo  and  Raichur 
were  restored  to  him.  On  the  other  hand,  he  ceded  certain  districts 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Godavari,  traffic  on  which  river  was  to  be  free 


HISTORY  373 

from  all  duties,  and  agreed  that  Berar  should  be  held  in  trust  for  the 
purposes  specified  in  the  treaty  of  1853. 

The  history  of  Berar  from  1853  to  1902  is  marked  by  no  important 
political  events  other  than  the  changes  made  by  the  treaty  of  i860.  Its 
smooth  course  was  scarcely  ruffled  even  by  the  cyclone  of  1857.  What- 
ever secret  elements  of  disturbance  may  have  been  at  work,  the  country 
remained  calm,  measuring  its  behaviour  not  by  Delhi,  but  by  Hyderabad, 
In  1858  Tantia  Topi  got  into  the  Satpura  Hills,  and  tried  to  breakaway 
to  the  south  that  he  might  stir  up  the  Deccan,  but  he  was  headed  at  all 
outlets  and  never  reached  the  Berar  valley. 

The  management  of  Berar  by  the  Nizam's  officials  had  been  worse 
than  the  contemporary  administration  of  the  adjoining  Nagpur  territory, 
which  was,  during  a  long  minority,  under  British  regency,  and  was 
subsequently  well  governed  until  it  lapsed.  There  had  consequently 
been  wholesale  emigration  from  Eastern  Berar  to  the  Districts  beyond 
the  Wardha.  When  Berar  came  under  British  management  the 
emigrants,  with  the  usual  attachment  of  Indian  cultivators  to  their 
patrimony,  the  value  of  which  had  in  this  case  been  enhanced  by  much 
of  it  having  remained  fallow  for  some  time,  returned  in  thousands  to 
Berar.  This  was  only  one  mode  out  of  several,  which  it  would  be 
tedious  to  detail,  whereby  cultivation  was  restored  and  augmented. 
Then  supervened  the  American  Civil  War.  The  cultivation  of  cotton 
received  an  extraordinary  stimulus,  the  cultivators  importing  their 
supply  of  food-grains  so  that  all  available  land  might  be  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  more  profitable  crop.  Cotton  requires  much  manual 
toil  in  weeding,  picking,  ginning,  packing  and  the  like,  and  the  increase 
in  the  area  under  it  created  a  great  demand  for  rural  labour,  which 
operated  to  raise  the  standard  of  wages.  A  great  export  of  cotton 
to  Bombay  was  soon  established;  and  as  the  importation  of  foreign 
produce  was  far  from  proportionate,  much  of  the  return  consisted  of 
cash  and  bullion,  so  that  prices  rose  and  the  labouring  and  producing 
classes  were  rapidly  enriched.  At  the  same  time  a  line  of  railway  was 
being  laid  across  the  province,  causing  the  employment  of  all  labour, 
skilled  and  unskilled,  that  could  be  got  on  the  spot,  and  also  in- 
troducing a  large  foreign  element.  The  people  became  prosperous 
and  contented,  and  progress  in  all  departments  was  vast  and 
rapid. 

The  Census  Report  of  188 1  showed  material  advance.  The  cultivated 
area  had  increased  by  50  per  cent,  and  the  land  revenue  by  42  per  cent, 
since  1867.  But  although  Berar  escaped  the  widespread  famine  of 
1876-8,  the  poorer  classes  undoubtedly  suffered  much  hardship  at  that 
time,  and  cattle  died  by  thousands  for  want  of  fodder.  The  next  ten 
years  were,  on  the  whole,  prosperous,  though  cholera,  which  generally 
appeared  in  an  intense  form  every  other  year,  caused  great  mortality. 


374  BERAR 

There  was,  however,  an  increase  in  trade,  cultivation,  and  manufactures, 
and  the  population  rose  by  8  per  cent.  'J'he  ten  years  preceding  1901 
were  not,  owing  to  natural  causes,  marked  by  a  general  increase  in 
prosperity,  but  the  province  displayed  considerable  stability  and  jwwcr 
of  resistance.  There  was  but  one  year  in  the  decade,  1898,  which  could 
be  described  as  very  favourable,  and  even  then  the  rabi  crops  partially 
failed.  The  other  nine  years  were  marked  by  unseasonable  or  deficient 
rainfiill,  poor  harvests,  sickness,  and  high  mortality,  culminating  in 
1899  and  1900,  when  famine  was  sore  in  the  land.  The  population 
decreased  by  5  per  cent,  during  the  decade.  I3ut,  notwithstanding  all 
this,  other  statistics  show  steady  progress  and  development.  Cultivation 
has  extended  ;  the  value  of  the  import  and  export  trade  has  increased ; 
and  the  number  of  steam  factories  has  risen  by  84  per  cent. 

It  had  gradually  become  apparent  since  i860  that  the  maintenance 
of  the  H)'derabad  Contingent  on  its  old  footing  as  a  separate  force 
was  inexpedient  and  unnecessary,  and  also  that  the  administration  of 
so  small  a  province  as  Berar  as  a  separate  unit  was  very  costly.  In  1902, 
therefore,  a  fresh  agreement  was  entered  into  with  the  Nizam.  This 
agreement  reaffirmed  His  Highness's  rights  over  Berar,  which,  instead 
of  being  indefinitely  '  assigned '  to  the  Government  of  India,  was  leased 
in  perpetuity  on  an  annual  rental  of  25  lakhs;  and  authorized  the 
Government  of  India  to  administer  the  province  in  such  manner  as  it 
might  deem  desirable,  as  well  as  to  redistribute,  reduce,  reorganize,  and 
control  the  Hyderabad  Contingent,  due  provision  being  made,  as  stipu- 
lated in  the  treaty  of  1853,  for  the  protection  of  His  Highness's 
dominions.  In  pursuance  of  this  agreement  the  Contingent  ceased, 
in  March,  1903,  to  be  a  separate  force,  and  was  reorganized  anid 
redistributed  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Indian  army. 

In  October,  1903,  Berar  was  transferred  to  the  administration  of  the 
Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Central  Provinces.  For  the  present  the 
rental  paid  to  the  Nizam  is  charged  with  an  annual  debit  of  10  lakhs, 
towards  the  repayment  of  loans  made  by  the  Government  of  India  for 
famine  expenditure  in  Berar  and  for  famine  and  other  expenditure  in 
the  Hyderabad  State.  AVhen  these  loans  have  been  repaid,  the  Nizam 
will  receive  the  full  rent  of  25  lakhs.  The  advantages  secured  to  him 
by  the  new  agreement  are  manifest.  His  rights  over  Berar  have  been 
reaffirmed,  and  he  will  receive  25  lakhs  per  annum,  compared  with 
a  sum  of  between  8  and  9  lakhs  which  was  the  average  surplus  paid  to 
him  under  the  former  treaties. 

The  principal  remains  of  archaeological  or  historical  interest  in  Berar 
are  the  small  cave  monastery  and  the  shrine  of  Shaikh  Baba  at  Patuk  ; 
the  chhatrl  of  Raja  Jai  Singh  and  the  fort  at  B.\lapur  ;  various  massive 
stone  temples  attributed  to  the  era  of  the  Yadava  Rajas  of  Deogiri,  and 
locally  known  as  Hemadpanti  temples,  in  the  Chalukyan  style;  some 


POPULATION  375 

Jain  shrines,  particularly  that  at  Sirpur  ;  the  hill  forts  of  GawIlgarh 

and  Narnala;  and  the  mosques  at  Fathkhelda  and  Rohankhed. 

The   principal    Hemadpanti    temples  are  those  at  Lonar,    Mehkar, 

Bars!  Takli,  and  Pusad,  but  many  others  are  scattered  throughout 

the  province. 

The  population  of  Berar  in  1901  was  2,754,016,  or  155  persons  per 

square  mile.     The  distribution  varies  in  accordance  with  the  natural 

advantages  of  the   three  divisions  of  the  province.       ^       ,    . 
,,,,         ,1       .      .       ,  ,         _ ,  ,       -.    ,      -r._  _  Population. 

1  hus  the  density  ui  the  twelve  taluks  of  the  Payan- 

ghat  varies  from  150  to  311  persons  per  square  mile,  and  that  of  the 

nine  taluks  of  the  Balaghat  from  85  to  150,  while  the  population  of  the 

Melghat  is  very  sparse,  the  density  being  no  more  than  22  persons  per 

square  mile. 

The  table  on  the  next  page  shows  the  population  of  the  six  Districts 
of  the  province  in  1901.  In  1905  the  six  Districts  were  rearranged; 
Ellichpur,  Wun,  and  Basim  have  been  abolished,  and  a  new  District 
of  Yeotmal  has  been  formed.  The  present  distribution  of  area  and 
population  will  be  found  in  the  several  District  articles. 

The  term  '  village '  denotes  in  Berar  the  area  demarcated  for  revenue 
purposes  as  a  mauza  or  kaslm,  iiiazras  or  hamlets  being  reckoned  for 
census  purposes  as  part  of  the  principal  village.  The  term  '  town  ' 
includes  every  municipality  and  civil  station  and  villages  with  a  popu- 
lation of  5,000  or  more.  The  villages  are  agricultural  communities, 
each  with  its  hereditary  officers  and  servants,  the  former  paid  by  a  per- 
centage on  collections  and  the  latter  by  customary  dues  in  kind.  The 
gaothan^  or  village  site,  on  which  the  houses  are  collected  together, 
is  not  surrounded  by  a  wall  ;  but  each  village  has  its  garhl^  or  fort, 
usually  of  earth,  in  which  the  village  officers  possess  hereditary  rights, 
but  which  was  formerly  used  as  a  place  of  refuge  by  the  whole 
community  in   troublous  times. 

The  first  Census  of  Berar,  which  was  taken  in  1867,  disclosed 
a  total  population  of  2,227,654.  By  1881  this  had  increased  to 
2,672,673,  and  by  1891  to  2,897,491.  The  Census  of  1901  showed 
a  decrease  to  2,754,016,  or  by  4-9  per  cent.,  due  to  the  famines  of 
1896-7  and  1 899- 1 900,  and  to  abnormally  high  mortality  from  disease 
in  the  years  1894-7  and  1900.  One  feature  of  the  decade  was  the 
gravitation  of  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  the  people  towards 
the  towns,  the  percentage  of  urban  population  to  the  whole  being 
15-2  in  1901,  compared  with  i2'5  in  1881. 

The  deductions  to  be  drawn  from  the  age  statistics  in  the  Report  on 
the  Census  of  190 1  may  be  thus  summarized  :  infant  mortality  is  greatest 
between  the  ages  of  one  and  two  ;  the  mortality  among  children  born 
in  the  first  half  of  the  decade  ending  1901  was  considerably  less  than  that 
among  children  born  in  the  second  half,  the  difference  being  attributable 


376 


BERAR 


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POPULATION 


377 


to  the  harder  conditions  of  life  in  the  second  quinquennium ;  there  is 
a  general  tendency  to  understate  the  age  of  marriageable  girls ;  the  last 
quinquennial  period  of  life  exhibited  in  the  tables  (55-60)  is  the  most 
fatal ;  and  famine  and  disease  have  principally  affected  the  youngest 
and  the  oldest  of  the  females,  and  the  youngest  and  those  over  thirty 
among  the  males. 

The  registration  of  births  and  deaths  is  carried  out  with  greater 
accuracy  in  Berar  than  in  most  of  the  Provinces  of  British  India  proper, 
though  the  entire  population  is  not  under  registration.  The  following 
table  shows  the  birth  and  death-rates  and  the  principal  fatal  diseases 
in  1881,  1891,  1901,  and  1903  : — 


I88I   . 
1891   . 

1901    . 

1903  . 

Population 
under 
registra- 
tion. 

Ratio  of 
registered 

births 
per  1,000. 

Ratio  of 
registered 

(ieaths 
per  l,oOQ. 

Deaths  per  i,ooo  from 

Cholera. 

Small- 
pox. 

Fever. 

Bowel 
com- 
plaints. 

2,630,018 
2,840,406 
2,717.346 
2,721.342 

39-9 

42.8 

30.8 
48.16 

29-1 
40.6 
27-6 
41.74 

1-3 

2.8 

0.006 

0.03 

O.I 
O.CI 
0.07 
0.04 

.6-8 
17-5 
139 
I '-57 

4-5 
7-7 
4-4 
5-74 

The  variation  between  the  birth  and  death-rates  in  the  different 
Districts  is  not  constant,  and  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  any  one  District 
is  conspicuously  more  healthy  or  unhealthy  than  the  rest.  The  birth- 
rate seems  to  be  usually  highest  in  Buldana.  Throughout  the  early 
part  of  the  decade  ending  1901  birth  and  death-rates  were  consistently 
lower  in  Wun  than  elsewhere  ;  but  this  was  probably  due  to  defective 
registration,  as  the  District  is  no  longer  exceptional  in  this  respect. 
Both  birth  and  death-rates  were  seriously  affected  by  the  famine 
of  1899-1900. 

The  most  prevalent  disease  is  fever,  the  dt;aths  from  which  about 
equal  in  number  those  from  all  other  causes.  Bowel  complaints  are 
the  next  most  frequent  cause  of  death.  Plague  did  not  appear  in 
Berar  till  1903,  and  the  Administration,  in  coping  with  it,  profited  by 
the  experience  gained  in  other  Provinces.  Evacuation  and  disinfection 
were  the  principal  measures  adopted. 

Males  outnumber  females  by  34,584.  It  has  been  observed  since 
1 88 1  that  male  births  outnumber  female,  but  that  throughout  the  first 
decade  of  life  females  outnumber  males.  It  may  therefore  be  inferred, 
allowing  for  the  habit  of  understating  the  age  of  marriageable  daughters, 
that  female  infanticide  is  unknown  in  Berar.  The  ratio  of  females  to 
males  is  less  in  towns  than  in  villages,  for  the  towns  contain  male 
workers  who  leave  their  families  behind  them.  The  same  circum- 
stances  affect    the    population    of  certain    taluks.      The   greater   the 


378 


BERAR 


commercial  element  in  a  taluk,  the  less  is  the  proportion  of  females 
to  males. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  civil  condition  for  1891  and 
1901 : — 


Civil 
condition. 

1891. 

Persons. 

1901. 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Umnanied  . 
Married    .  . 
Widowed  .  . 

Total 

943,040 
1,644,45s 

309,993 

572,594 

^3.^,575 

370-446 

810,883 

224,336 

897,929 

1 1508,454 

347,633 

2,754,016 

552,329 

752,746 
%,225 

345,600 

755,708 
258,408 

2,897,491 

1,491,826 

',■105,665 

1-394,300 

1,359,716 

Of  the  male  population  40,  54,  and  6  per  cent.,  and  of  the  female 
25,  56,  and  19  per  cent,  are  single,  married,  and  widowed  respectively. 
Married  males  and  females  are  fairly  evenly  balanced,  so  that  it  is 
evident  that  polygamy,  though  permitted  by  all  the  religions  the 
followers  of  which  are  numerically  important,  is  but  sparingly  prac- 
tised. No  relics  of  polyandry  survive.  Widow  remarriage  is  pro- 
hibited, not  only  among  the  higher  castes  of  Hindus,  but  also  among 
the  well-to-do  in  inferior  castes,  such  as  members  of  deshmukh  families 
among  Kunbls.  It  is  allowed  and  extensively  practised  among  most 
of  the  agricultural  castes,  and  is  known  as  pat  or  mohtur,  in  contra- 
distinction to  /agna,  a  word  which  is  applied  only  to  the  marriage  of  a 
virgin  bride.  Among  some  tribes,  Banjaras  and  Gonds  for  example, 
the  levirate  prevails,  i.  e.  it  is  the  duty  of  a  man  to  take  to  wife  the  widow 
of  his  decea,sed  elder  brother,  though  to  marry  a  younger  brother's 
widow  would  be  regarded  as  incestuous.  Child  marriage  is  the 
general  rule  among  the  higher  castes  of  Hindus.  Animists  usually 
defer  marriage  until  after  the  attainment  of  puberty,  and  allow  greater 
freedom  of  choice  to  the  parties  concerned. 

The  joint-family  system  is  the  rule  among  Hindus  in  Berar.  Ignorant 
Musalmans  too  will  assert  in  civil  suits  that  they  are  members  of  an 
undivided  family  when  they  believe  that  the  assertion  may  suit  their 
interests. 

Marathi  is  spoken  by  nearly  80  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The 
Musalmans,  212,000  in  number,  speak  a  corrupt  dialect  of  Urdu, 
popularly  known  as  MusalmanI ;  other  dialects  of  Western  Hindi, 
returned  as  Hindi  and  Hindustani,  are  spoken  by  immigrants  from  the 
United  and  Central  Provinces.  The  Marwarl  dialect  of  RajasthanT 
was  spoken  in  1901  by  41,521  traders  and  bankers  from  Marwar. 
Gipsy  dialects,  of  which  Banjarl  or  LabhanI  is  the  most  important, 
were  spoken  by  68,879  persons.  Of  Dravidian  languages  Gondl  and 
its  dialects,  of  which  the  principal  is  KolamI,  were  spoken  by  83,217 
persons,  and  Telugu   by  85,431,  mostly  dwellers  in  the  south  of  Wun 


POPULATION  379 

District  on  the  banks  of  the  Penganga.  The  only  important  Munda 
language  is  Korku,  spoken  by  the  Korkus  in  the  Melghat  and  its 
neighbourhood.  Nihali  is  a  moribund  language  of  uncertain  affinities, 
returned  as  the  mother-tongue  of  91  Nihals,  who,  however,  probably 
speak  Korku,  defining  it  as  Nihali.  English  was  returned  as  the 
mother  tongue  of  653  persons. 

In  this  small  province  nearly  four  hundred  castes  and  tribes  are 
represented.  The  three  chief  groups  coincide  generally  with  the  main 
religious  divisions,  Hindu,  Muhammadan,  and  Animistic.  Musalmans 
call  for  little  notice  in  this  connexion.  Many  of  them  are  descendants 
of  converted  Hindus.  Shaikhs  number  131,000;  Pathans,  52,000; 
Saiyids,  19,000;  and  Mughals,  4,000. 

The  Kunbis,  the  great  cultivating  caste  of  the  Provinces,  are  the 
most  important  of  the  Hindu  castes.  They  number  791,000,  and  pre- 
dominate in  every  tdhik  except  the  Melghat.  Very  similar  to  them  in 
all  respects  are  the  Malls,  numbering  193,000.  The  Kunbi  is  usually 
of  medium  height,  dark-skinned  from  exposure,  and  wiry.  As  a 
cultivator  he  is  moderately  industrious,  but  devoid  of  enterprise  and 
intelligent  energy.  Next  to  the  Kunbis  the  Mahars,  numbering 
351,000,  are  the  most  numerous  caste.  The  Mahar  occupies  an 
important,  if  humble,  place  in  the  village  system  of  the  Deccan. 
Socially  he  is  regarded  as  an  unclean  outcaste  whose  touch  is  pollution. 
Similar  to  the  Mahars,  but  even  more  unclean,  are  the  Mangs, 
who  number  49,000.  Other  numerically  important  castes  are  :  Telis 
(77,000),  Dhangars  (75,000),  Erahmans  (73,000),  Banjaras  (60,000), 
Wanis  (41,000),  and  Rajputs  (36,000).  The  indigenous  Rajputs  are 
not  favourable  specimens  of  their  class,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
their  claim  to  pure  descent  would  be  admitted  in  Rajasthan. 

The  two  principal  aboriginal  tribes  are  the  Gonds  and  the  Korkus, 
the  former  ordinary  Dravidian  and  the  latter  Munda.  The  Gonds 
number  69,000,  or,  if  the  cognate  Kolams  and  Parahans  be  included, 
96,000.  They  are  very  dark  and  usually  slight  and  undersized,  though 
exceptions  are  found  among  the  division  known  as  Raj  Gonds.  The 
Korkus  number  26,000,  and  have  their  home  in  the  north  of  the 
province  among  the  Gawllgarh  hills.  Their  physique  is  superior  to 
that  of  the  Gonds,  and  they  are  well-built  and  muscular,  but  their 
personal  appearance  is  not  pleasing.  They  are  distinguished  princi- 
pally by  their  small  eyes,  large  mouths,  fiat  noses,  and  large  and 
prominent  ears. 

The  table  on  next  page  gives  statistics  for  religions  in  1891  and 
1 90 1.  Hindus  constituted  86-7  per  cent,  of  the  total  population 
in  the  latter  year.  Since  1891  Hindus  have  lost  absolutely  143,775 
persons,  Musalmans  have  gained  4,359,  and  Animists  have  lost  7,144. 
All  other   religions,    the  followers   of  which  are  not  numerous,   have 


38o 


BERAR 


gained  in  all  3,085.  There  has  been  a  large  increase  in  Sikhs,  which 
is  rather  apparent  than  real,  as  it  is  attributable  solely  to  more  correct 
enumeration.  The  increase  among  Musalmans  seems  to  have  been  due 
partly  to  their  superior  fecundity  and  partly  to  proselytizing  efforts. 


i8<3 

I. 

I9OI. 

Persons. 

Percentage. 

Persons. 

Percentage. 

Hindus 

2,53'>79i 

87-3 

2,388,016 

86.7 

Animists  . 

137,108 

4-7 

129,964 

4-7 

Musalmans 

207,681 

7-1 

212,040 

7.6 

Christians — 

Native  . 

711 

0-2 

1,748 

0.06 

Other    . 

648 

0.2 

627 

0-0  2 

Others      . 

19.552 

0.6 

21,621 

0.7 

Of  all  the  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  Mahadeo  and  Maruti  (Hanu- 
man)  probably  receive  the  most  attention.  The  latter  has  a  shrine  in 
every  village.  The  cultivator  propitiates  Khat  Deo,  the  fertilizing  god, 
who  has  his  habitation  in  a  white  stone  set  up  in  a  field,  and  local  gods 
such  as  Chindiya  Deo,  'the  lord  of  tatters,'  are  worshipped.  The 
'  godlings  of  disease '  are  propitiated  as  occasion  arises.  The  only 
heterodox  sect  which  calls  for  notice  is  that  of  the  Mahanubhavas,  or 
black-robed  devotees,  of  whom  a  description  is  given  in  the  account  of 
RItpur,  their  principal  place  of  pilgrimage.  This  movement,  which  is 
a  protest  against  polytheism,  Brahmanism,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  the 
caste  system,  is  rapidly  declining.  Islam  presents  no  extraordinary 
features  in  Berar.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  India,  the  Musalman  villager 
has  borrowed  or  inherited  from  his  Hindu  neighbour  or  ancestor 
many  practices  which  precisians  would  condemn  as  superstitious.  The 
Gonds  and  Korkus,  though  still  Animists,  are  tinged  with  Hinduism 
and  worship  Mahadeo  as  well  as  other  Hindu  gods,  and  the  Korkus 
worship  also  their  own  ancestors,  both  male  and  female. 

The  oldest  Hindu  temples  of  Berar  are  the  Hemadpanti,  already 
referred  to.  More  recent  temples  have  no  distinctive  features.  In 
mosques  examples  of  both  the  Pathan  and  the  Mughal  styles  are 
found. 

There  are  14  Christian  missions  at  work  in  the  province — two  Roman 
Catholic,  one  Church  of  England,  and  eleven  other  Protestant,  among 
whom  the  Methodists  and  Presbyterians  are  the  most  important.  The 
activity  of  these  missions  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  native  Christians 
more  than  doubled  in  number  between  1891  and  1901.  The  Christian 
missionaries  did  excellent  work  in  the   famines  of  1896-7  and  1899- 

1900.  For  purposes  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  Berar  is  in  the  Angli- 
can and  Roman  Catholic  dioceses  of  Nagpur.      Of  the  Christians  in 

1 901,  888  belonged  to  the  Roman,  and  626  to  the  Anglican  Church. 


POPULATION  381 

Agriculture  supports  73  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  of  every 
100  persons  so  supported  71  are  workers.  The  preparation  and 
supply  of  material  substances  provide  a  living  for  i\  per  cent,  of  the 
people,  the  principal  sub-orders  under  this  head  being,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance,  (i)  cotton  ;  (2)  textile  fabrics  and  dress  ;  (3)  food,  drink, 
and  stimulants  ;  (4)  wood,  cane,  and  leaves.  Commerce  supports  2\  per 
cent.,  and  unskilled  labour,  not  agricultural,  nearly  2  per  cent. 

The  food  of  the  agricultural  and  labouring  classes  consists  chiefly  of 
unleavened  cakes  oijowdr  (great  millet)  meal,  with  a  seasoning  of  green 
vegetables,  onions,  ghi,  chillies,  or  pulse,  or  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  of  these.  Milk  is  an  important  article  of  diet ;  wheat  and  rice  are 
luxuries.  Goat's  flesh  is  extensively  eaten  by  Musalmans,  and  less  so 
by  those  Hindus  to  whom  flesh  is  not  forbidden  as  an  article  of  diet. 
Few  Musalmans,  except  those  living  in  towns  and  in  some  of  the  larger 
villages,  eat  beef.  It  is  necessary  for  those  in  smaller  villages  to  respect 
the  prejudices  of  their  Hindu  neighbours,  many  of  which  they  have 
adopted.  The  Mahars,  who  are  scavengers,  are  habitual  eaters  of  beef 
in  the  form  of  carrion. 

The  ordinary  dress  of  the  cultivator  or  labourer  consists  of  a  dho/i 
a  short  jacket,  an  uparna  or  upper  cloth,  and  a  red  or  white  turban, 
the  former  being  the  favourite  colour.  The  jacket  is  often  discarded. 
Brahmans  and  other  respectable  castes  wear  long  coats,  and  finer 
nparnas  and  turbans.  Musalmans  frequently,  though  not  invariably, 
substitute /rz{;'Jw<7^  and  a  long  coat  for  the  dhoti  and  short  jacket,  and 
their  turbans  display  a  greater  variety  of  colour.  The  dress  of  the 
women  consists  of  a  lugade  and  a  choli.  The  former  is  the  principal 
garment  and  corresponds  to  the  sdrj,  being  tied  round  the  waist ;  the 
long  end  is  taken  over  the  head,  and  the  front  of  the  portion  forming 
the  skirt  is  carried  back  between  the  legs  and  tucked  in  at  the  waist 
behind,  giving  the  wearer  a  singularly  bunchy  and  ungraceful  appear- 
ance. The  chol'i  is  a  scanty  bodice  which  confines  the  breasts. 
Muhammadan  women  often  wear  the  common  combination  of  trousers, 
shift,  or  choli,  and  scarf,  which  is  tied  round  the  waist  and  carried  over 
the  head.  Gond  and  Kolam  women  do  not  wear  the  choh,  but  conceal 
the  breasts  by  drawing  the  end  of  the  lugade  across  them.  The  dress 
of  the  Banjara  women  is  especially  picturesque. 

The  dwelling-houses  of  the  agricultural  classes  are  mostly  of  sun- 
dried  brick  roofed  with  thatch  or  tiles.  Dhdbds,  or  flat  roofs  of  earth, 
are  also  common.  The  houses  of  labourers  consist  of  one  or  two  rooms, 
with  a  small  dngan  or  yard  enclosed  by  a  mud  wall  in  front  of  the 
house.  The  houses  of  the  well-to-do  are  more  pretentious,  consisting  of 
several  rooms  opening  into  a  rectangular  courtyard,  along  one  side 
of  which  the  cattle  are  usually  stalled.  The  poorest  classes  live  in  huts 
of  hurdles  or  grass  mats  daubed  with  mud.    In  the  early  part  of  the  hot 


382  BERAR 

season,  wliile  the  grain  is  being  threshed  and  garnered,  cultivators  move 
with  their  cattle  into  their  fields,  where  they  live  in  spacious  sheds  in 
the  vicinity  of  their  threshing-floors. 

The  higher  castes  among  the  Hindus  burn  their  dead  ;  Musalmans, 
Hindus  of  the  lower  castes,  and  aboriginal  tribes  bury  them.  The 
Korkus  erect  posts  of  teak,  curiously  carved,  at  the  heads  of  graves. 
Among  the  Mahanubhavas  and  some  other  orders  of  ascetics  the  dead 
are  buried  in  salt,  in  a  sitting  posture. 

The  tastes  of  the  agriculturist  are  principally  domestic ;  he  has  few 
amusements  beyond  his  family  circle  except  the  enjoyment  of  village 
gossip,  a  weekly  trip  to  the  nearest  market  village,  an  occasional  visit  to 
ixjaira  or  religious  fair,  or,  more  rarely,  a  pilgrimage  to  a  shrine  of  more 
than  local  celebrity. 

The  principal  festivals  observed  are  the  MandosT,  the  Akshayyatritya, 
the  Nagapanchami,  the  Pola,  the  Mahalakshmi,  the  Pitrapaksha,  or 
feast  to  ?fia/ies  of  male  ancestors,  the  Dasara,  the  Divali,  the  Sivaratrl, 
and  the  Shimga  or  Holl.  The  three  most  important  feasts  to  the 
cultivator  are  the  Holl,  the  Pola,  and  the  Dasara ;  and  at  these  burn- 
ing questions  of  social  precedence,  often  ending  in  criminal  complaints, 
arise  between  different  branches  of  the  families  oi patels  or  hereditary 
headmen  of  villages.  At  the  Pola  festival  the  plough  cattle  are  wor- 
shipped. A  rope  called  toran  is  then  stretched  across  two  upright  poles, 
and  the  cattle  of  the  villagers,  gaily  decorated,  are  led  beneath  it, 
headed  by  those  belonging  to  members  of  Xh^patel's  family  in  the  order 
of  their  seniority. 

Hindus  of  all  castes  in  Berar  have  three  names.  The  first  is  the 
personal  name  and  corresponds  to  the  Christian  name  of  a  European, 
the  second  is  the  father's  personal  name,  and  the  third  is  the  family 
surname.  Thus  Ganpat  Raoji  Sindhya  would  be  Ganpat,  the  son  of 
Raoji,  of  the  Sindhya  family  or  clan. 

The  three  natural  divisions  of  Berar  have  already  been   described. 

The  Melghat  or  northern  division  is  extremely  rugged,  and  is  broken 

.     .     ,  into   a   succession  of  hills  and  deep   valleys.     The 

A&mcultur6 

hilly  portion  consists  of  basaltic  and  calcareous  rock, 

and  the  soil  in  the  valleys  and  ravines  is  a  light  brown  alluvium,  over- 
lying basalt  accumulated  from  superficial  rainwash  from  the  hills.  This 
light-brown  soil,  extending  to  about  8  or  10  miles  from  the  foot  of 
the  hills  towards  the  valley  of  the  Purna,  is  cultivable,  but  is  less  rich 
than  the  soil  of  the  valley  itself.  The  Balaghat,  or  southern  division, 
is  formed  of  undulating  high  land  of  the  Ueccan  trap.  The  plateaux 
are  covered  with  fairly  rich  soil,  and  the  soil  of  the  intermediate  valleys 
is  an  alluvium  of  loam  of  remarkably  fine  quality  and  very  suitable 
for  wheat. 

The  Payanghat,  or  central  valley  of  Berar,  contains  the  best  land  in 


AGRICULTURE  383 

the  province  :  a  deep,  rich,  black,  and  exceedingly  fertile  loam,  often  of 
great  depth,  with  very  thick  underlying  strata  of  yellow  clay  and  lime. 
Where  this  rich  soil  does  not  exist,  as  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  hills, 
muruin  and  trap  are  found  with  a  shallow  upper  crust  of  inferior  light 
soil.  A  great  deal  of  the  Puma  alluvium  produces  efflorescences, 
chiefly  of  salts  of  soda,  and  many  of  the  wells  sunk  in  this  tract  have 
brackish  water.  The  climate  of  Berar  has  already  been  described.  It 
may  be  briefly  characterized  as  intensely  hot  and  dry  in  the  months  of 
March,  April,  and  May,  and  temperate  for  the  rest  of  the  year,  with 
moderate  rainfall  between  June  and  October. 

Cotton,  jowdr  (great  millet),  tiiar  (pulse),  and  sesamum  are  the 
khanf  or  monsoon  crops ;  and  wheat,  linseed,  and  gram  the  principal 
rabi  or  cold-season  crops.  In  1903-4,  of  the  total  area  cropped,  nearly 
87  per  cent,  was  devoted  to  k/ia)-}/ axxd.  13  per  cent,  to  rabi,  only  ^  per 
cent,  being  irrigated. 

The  areas  sown  with  kharlf  and  rabi  crops  vary  according  to  the 
rainfall  and  market  prices,  and  their  extent  is  also  partly  regulated  by 
the  system  of  rotation  of  crops  in  vogue.  If  the  rains  begin  well  in 
June,  a  large  area  is  sown  with  kharlf,  but  if  they  are  late  more  land  is 
kept  for  rabi.  Thus  in  1891^  1)39°  square  miles  were  sown  with  wheat, 
the  principal  rabi  crop,  while  in  1903-4,  after  several  years  of  in- 
adequate late  rains,  the  area  so  sown  had  fallen  to  710  square  miles. 

The  cultivator  generally  commences  the  preparation  of  his  field  in 

January.     The  rich  black  soil  of  the  plains  is  not  worked  with  the 

ndngar  or  heavy  plough  for  several  years  together,  unless  it  should  be 

overgrown  with  grass   or  weeds  ;  but   the  lighter  soil   of  the    upland 

country   is  ploughed   nearly  every  year,  especially  when  the  land   is 

reserved  for  a  rabi  crop.    Ploughing  is  generally  commenced  soon  after 

the  crof)  of  the  year  has  been  removed  from    the  ground ;   if  it  be 

deferred  longer,  the  soil  dries  and  hardens  and  becomes  difficult  to 

work.     Land  that  has  been  lying  fallow  cannot  be  ploughed  until  the 

first  monsoon  rain   has  fallen.     Parallel   furrows   are  not   considered 

sufficient  for  hard  soil,  which  is  therefore  cross-ploughed,  the  second 

operation  being  at  right  angles  to  the  first.     Harrowing  succeeds,  or,  in 

the  case  of  fields  which  do  not  require  ploughing  every  year,  takes  the 

place  of  ploughing.     The  first  harrowing  is  done  with  the  moghada,  a 

large,  heavy  harrow  drawn  by  four  bullocks.     This  turns  up  the  earth 

in  large  clods,  and  brings  roots,  grass,  and  weeds  to  the  surface.     The 

soil  is  then  cross-harrowed  with  the  wakhar,  a  lighter  implement  drawn 

by  two  bullocks,  which  breaks  up  the  clods  and  cleans  the  soil.     In 

some  cases  the  soil  is  harrowed  again  at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  in  order 

that  it  may  be  thoroughly  levelled  and  pulverized.     The  k harif  sowmg?, 

take  place  immediately  after  the  first  regular  monsoon  fiill  of  rain  in 

June,  and  the  rabi  sowings  in  September  or  October. 


384  BERAR 

Weeding  is  commenced  when  the  soil  dries  during  tlic  first  break  in 
the  rains.  It  is  done  with  the  daora,  a  two-bladed  hoe  which  is  drawn 
by  two  bullocks,  and  removes  the  weeds  from  two  of  the  interstices 
between  the  rows  of  plants  at  once,  the  weeds  growing  among  the  plants 
being  removed  by  hand.  Three  or  four  weedings  in  a  season  are 
generally  considered  sufificient,  but  the  more  industrious  cultivators 
often  use  the  hoe  every  fortnight  until  the  crop  is  sufificiently  strong  to 
smother  all  surface  weeds. 

Cotton  pods  are  usually  ready  for  picking  about  the  end  of  October, 
and  this  light  work  is  generally  done  by  women  and  children.  Pay- 
ment is,  as  a  rule,  made  in  kind,  each  labourer  receiving  from  one- 
twelfth  to  one-eighth  of  the  day's  picking.  From  the  short  staple 
variety  of  cotton  which  the  Berar  cultivator  now  grows  he  can  obtain,  if 
the  crop  is  good,  from  five  to  seven  pickings  at  intervals  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  days  ;  but  the  superior  /'ani  and  Jari  varieties,  the  latter  of 
which  is  now  extinct  in  Berar,  will  not  yield  a  second  picking  under  a 
month,  and  the  crop  is  generally  exhausted  in  three  pickings.  The 
cultivator  finds  that  the  short  staple  is  easier  to  raise  and  pays  him  just 
as  well,  for  although  he  gets  a  lower  price  the  crop  is  more  plentiful. 

Before  the  establishment  of  ginning  factories  in  the  province  almost 
every  cultivator  had  his  own  seed  for  sowing  cleaned  by  hand.  Ginning 
by  steam-power  was  first  introduced  in  1887-8,  in  which  year  there  were 
only  four  factories  working.  In  1901  these  had  increased  to  121,  and 
there  is  every  prospect  of  a  further  development  of  this  industry. 

Joivar  ripens  early  in  December,  and  is  reaped  by  men,  the  ears 
being  afterwards  separated  from  the  stalks  by  women.  The  stalks, 
called  kadba  or  kadbi,  are  stacked,  and  'furnish  the  principal  fodder- 
supply  for  cattle.  The  ears  are  conveyed  to  the  threshing-floor,  where 
bullocks  tread  out  the  grain,  moving  round  a  central  pole.  Six  bullocks 
can  thresh  a  h/ia/idi  (about  14  cwt.)  in  two  days.  The  threshed  grain 
is  winnowed  in  a  breeze.  One  man  stands  on  a  tripod,  while  another 
hands  up  to  him  a  basketful  of  grain  from  the  threshing-floor.  As  he 
slowly  empties  the  basket,  the  chaff  is  carried  away  by  the  wind  and  the 
grain  falls  to  the  ground. 

Of  the  total  population  of  Berar  in  1901,  73-2  per  cent,  were 
supported  by  agriculture.     The  figures  are  as  follows  : — 

Persons  interested  in  land,  landholders,  tenants,  co-sharers,  &c.  .        561,912 

Agricultural  labourers,  &c. 1,452,221 

Growers  of  fruit,  vegetables,  &c.  .         .         .         .         .         .  sS^i 

Total     2,014,719 

The  principal  crops  in  the  order  of  their  importance  are  cotton, 
jowar^  wheat,  linseed,  gram,  tuar  or  arhar,  and  sesamum.  Joivar  and 
wheat  are  the  staple  food-grains,  rice  and  bajra,  and,  among  pulses,  tuai 


AGRICULTURE  385 

and  gram,  being  subsidiary  food-crops.  Oilseeds  are  represented  by 
sesamum  and  linseed  ;  fibres  by  cotton  ;  condiments  by  chillies ;  and 
drugs  and  narcotics  by  tobacco.  The  cotton  crop  comes  into  the 
market  at  the  end  of  October  or  beginning  of  November,  and  the 
supply  is  maintained  by  successive  pickings  throughout  the  cold  season. 
Jowar  is  not  available  till  later,  about  January  and  the  beginning  of 
February.  Owing  to  recent  years  of  famine  and  scarcity,  there  has  been 
an  increase  in  the  area  wwdi-^x  jowdr.  In  \<^o-^-\  jowdr  occupied  4,414 
square  miles,  or  38  per  cent,  of  the  whole  cultivated  area  of  the 
province  ;  and  cotton  4,455  square  miles,  also  38  per  cent. 

The  approximate  yield  per  acre  of  the  principal  crops  is  as  follows,  to 
the  nearest  hundredweight  :  cotton,  uncleaned  4,  cleaned  i  ;  jowdr^  8  ; 
wheat,  6  ;  linseed,  4  ;  gram,  6  ;  sesamum,  3  ;  tiiar,  3. 

The  Berar  cultivator  manures  very  little,  not  be(??luse  he  fails  to 
appreciate  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  manure,  but  because  he  is 
unable  to  obtain  a  sufficient  supply.  Cattle-dung  is  generally  the  only 
kind  procurable,  and  so  much  of  this  is  used  as  fuel  that  little  remains 
for  the  fields. 

In  1903-4  only  0-7  per  cent,  of  the  cropped  area  was  irrigated, 
wells  being  practically  the  only  source  of  irrigation,  which  is  confined, 
with  few  exceptions,  to  garden  produce. 

The  necessity  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  the  soil, 
is  thoroughly  understood.  On  light  soil  cotton  dXid  jowar  are  grown  in 
alternate  years ;  on  the  rich  black  soil  of  the  plains  cotton,  j'ozvdr,  and 
ral'i  crops  succeed  one  another.  In  the  third  year  a  plurality  of  crops 
will  probably  be  grown,  wheat,  gram,  and  linseed  or  /dkh  being  raised 
in  various  plots  of  the  same  field.  In  the  present  decline  of  rabi  cultiva- 
tion, cotton  a.x\dJoivdr  follow  one  another  year  after  year  on  the  same 
land,  the  fertility  of  which  is  thus  much  impaired,  as  the  smaller  cultiva- 
tors cannot  afford  to  let  their  fields  lie  fallow. 

The  following  figures  show  the  increase  of  cultivation  in  Berar  during 
the  last  twenty-four  years,  figures  being  in  square  miles  : — 


1881. 

1891. 

1901.       1903-4- 

Assessed  cultivable  land  in  occupation    . 
Assessed  cultivable  land  under  cultivation 

ii>425 
10,377 

12,053 
10,414 

12,593     12,717 
10,989     11,465 

The  occupied  land  not  cropped  is  principally  reserved  for  grazing. 
Except  in  Wun  District,  where  about  7  per  cent,  remains  to  be  taken 
up,  and  in  the  Melghat,  where  nearly  30  per  cent,  is  still  unoccupied, 
most  of  the  cultivable  land  is  now  occupied.  In  Basim  District  much 
of  the  excess  grazing  land  has  recently  been  set  aside  for  cultivation. 
The  demand  for  land  in  Wun  District  is  steadily  increasing  year  by 
year.     A  decrease  of  cultivation  in  the  Melghat  is  due  to  the  emigration 

VOL.  VII.  c  c 


386  BERAR 

of  Korkus  ill   the  famine  of  1 899-1900.      Liberal   concessions,  which 
should  tend  to  restore  prosperity,  have  been  granted. 

Little  is  done  towards  the  improvement  of  the  quality  of  crops  by 
selection  of  seed  or  by  the  introduction  of  new  varieties,  and  there  is  no 
experimental  farm  in  the  province.  As  already  remarked,  the  cultivator 
has  allowed  the  quality  of  the  cotton  crop  to  deteriorate  in  order  to 
obtain  a  greater  yield.  Seed  separated  from  the  fibre  by  the  steam- 
ginning  process  is  said  to  be  less  fecund  than  the  seed  of  hand-ginned 
cotton. 

A  department  of  Land  Records  and  Agriculture  was  formed  in  1891, 
but  its  work  has  hitherto  been  confined  to  survey  and  settlement. 

The  benefits  of  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act  and  the  Land  Improve- 
ment Loans  Act  are  naturally  appreciated  most  highly  in  years  of  scarcity 
and  famine.  iTJe  delay  in  disbursing  loans  allowed  under  these  Acts 
was  for  a  long  time  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  their  popularity,  but 
experience  gained  in  years  of  famine  has  led  to  the  simplification  ot 
procedure ;  and  there  seems  to  be  a  fair  field  for  the  success  of  agri- 
cultural banks. 

The  very  few  horses  in  Berar  are  inferior  animals  and  merit  no  notice. 
Ponies  are  more  numerous,  but  are  weedy.  An  attempt  was  made  by 
Government  for  a  few  years  to  improve  the  breed  by  keeping  Arab 
stallions  at  the  head-quarters  of  Districts,  but  was  abandoned  about  1893 
as  a  failure.  The  breed  of  cattle  proper  to  the  province  is  known  as 
Gaorani  or  Berari,  of  which  there  are  two  distinct  varieties,  the  Umarda 
and  the  Khamgaon,  the  former  being  the  smaller.  Animals  of  this 
breed  are  hardy,  active,  and  enduring,  and  can  easily  cover  30  miles 
within  six  or  eight  hours.  A  pair  will  sometimes  cover  40  or  50  miles 
in  a  day.  The  Khamgaon  breed  is  more  adapted  to  heavy  draught. 
This  breed  is  found  in  the  Khamgaon,  Balapur,  ChikhlT,  Jalgaon,  and 
part  of  the  Akot  iaiuks  ;  the  Umarda  breed  elsewhere.  Indiscriminate 
crossing,  the  neglect  of  stock  cattle,  and  fodder  famines  have  contributed 
to  the  deterioration  of  both  breeds.  On  the  eastern  borders  there  are 
very  distinct  indications  of  the  influence  of  the  Arvi  or  Gaulgani  breed, 
and  on  the  southern  border  of  that  of  the  breeds  of  cattle  found  in  the 
Nizam's  Dominions.  The  recent  prevalence  of  famine  has  necessitated 
the  importation  of  working,  and,  to  a  smaller  extent,  of  milch  cattle. 
The  breeds  most  commonly  imported  have  been  the  Nimari,  Sholapuri, 
Labbani,  and  Hoshangabadi ;  cattle  of  the  Malwi,  Gujarati,  and  Surati 
breeds  are  less  frequently  seen. 

Buffaloes  in  the  north  and  east  of  the  province  are  of  the  Nagpuri, 
and  elsewhere  of  the  Dakhani  breed.  Since  the  famine  of  1899-1900 
buffaloes  have  been  imported  from  Central  India.  These,  which  are 
distinguished  by  the  comparative  smallness  of  their  heads  and  horns, 
are  locally  known  as  Malwi.     The  sheep  and  goats  are  inferior  animals. 


AGRICULTURE  387 

and  the  herdsmen,  mostly  Dhangars,  lack  the  means  and  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  the  improvement  of  the  breed.  In  towns  goats  of  the 
Gujarat  breed  are  found,  and  these  are  said  to  be  good  milch  animals. 

Large  Umarda  bullocks  fetch  about  Rs.  60  to  Rs.  70  each,  small 
Umarda  bullocks  from  Rs.  30  to  Rs.  40,  and  Khamgaon  bullocks  from 
Rs.  50  to  Rs.  70.  Bullocks  of  other  breeds  cost  from  Rs.  25  to  Rs.  40 
each,  and  cows  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  25,  the  Berar  cow  being  a  poor 
milch  animal.  Buffaloes  are  sold  at  from  Rs.  20  to  Rs.  70  each,  sheep 
at  from  Rs.  2-8-0  to  Rs.  3-8-0,  and  goats  at  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  10. 
The  price  of  a  pony  varies  from  Rs.  25  to  Rs.  50. 

Cattle  suffered  severely  in  the  scarcity  of  1896-7  and  the  famine  of 
1899-1900,  and  the  mortality  was  great;  but  large  importations  have 
gone  far  towards  making  good  the  deficiency.  The  grazing  lands  are 
sufficient,  except  in  parts  of  the  Purna  valley,  such  as  the  Akot  and 
Daryapur  taluks.  In  the  upland  country  almost  every  village  has  a 
certain  area  of  land  set  apart  for  free  grazing.  In  1903-4  the  grazing 
area  was  335  square  miles,  of  which  245  were  Government  land  set 
apart  for  free  grazing  and  90  were  held  by  private  occupants.  Kadba, 
ox  jowar  stalks,  form  the  principal  fodder-supply,  and  the  plough  cattle 
of  the  richer  cultivators  are  partly  fed  on  cotton  seed. 

There  is  only  one  cattle  fair  in  the  province,  held  at  Wun  in  February 
or  March.  Some  fine  cattle  are  brought  to  this  fair  and  fetch  good 
prices ;  but  the  fair  has  not  been  regularly  held  of  late  years,  for  fear 
of  importing  plague.  Ponies  are  brought  in  considerable  numbers  to 
the  Deulgaon  Raja  fair  in  Buldana  District,  held  in  September  in  con- 
nexion with  the  festival  of  Balaji.  The  principal  weekly  cattle  markets 
in  the  province  are  those  at  Umarda,  Digras,  and  Nandura. 

Rinderpest,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  and  anthracoid  diseases,  such  as 
charbon  symptoinatique,  are  the  commonest  infectious  diseases,  the  two 
former  being  much  more  frequent  than  the  third.  Anthrax  is  rare,  and 
surra  has  occurred  only  once  among  the  ponies  on  a  dak  line.  The 
Civil  Veterinary  department  has  published  a  leaflet  of  instructions  for 
the  prevention  of  the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.  This  has  been 
widely  circulated  ;  a  system  of  registration  of  cattle  disease  has  been 
introduced  ;  and  on  receipt  of  reports  of  outbreaks  veterinary  assistants 
are  deputed  to  carry  out  suppressive  measures  and  to  treat  the  sick. 
Veterinary  dispensaries  are  being  established  at  taluk  head-quarters. 
The  publication  of  a  manual  of  simple  veterinary  instructions  in  the 
vernacular  has  been  delayed  for  want  of  funds.  Bacteriological  re- 
searches have  been  commenced,  and  inoculation  with  anti-rinderpest 
serum  is  carried  on. 

Irrigation  is  rare  except  for  garden  crops,  which  are  irrigated  almost 
entirely  from  wells,  the  water-lift  being  the  mot  ox  leathern  bucket,  raised 
by  two  iDullocks.     The  average  cost  of  construction  of  a  permanent  well 

c  c  2 


388 


BERAR 


is  from  Rs.  300  to  Rs.  500  when  specially  expensive  blasting  operations 
have  not  to  be  undertaken,  or  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  15  per  foot  of  depth  ; 
and  the  area  irrigated  by  a  single  well  is  about  four  acres.  The  depth 
of  permanent  wells  varies  from  20  to  90  feet.  Temporary  wells,  such 
as  those  found  in  Gujarat,  are  not  in  use  in  Berar,  as  the  water  is  not 
sufficiently  near  X.o  the  surface  ;  but  excavations  known  as  jhiras  are 
very  commonly  made  in  the  beds  of  streams,  in  the  hot  season,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  drinking-water. 

Statistics  of  Agriculture  in  Berar 

(In  square  miles) 


1881-90 

1891-1Q00 

1 

(average). 

(average). 

1 900- 1. 

'903-4. 

Tot.il  area         .... 

'7.715 

17,737 

17,744 

17,763 

Total  uncultivated  area     . 

7,489 

7-479 

5,211 

4,6.50 

Cultivable,  but  not  cultivated    . 

2,830 

2,604 

1,270 

2,181 

Uncultivable     .... 

4,659 

4,890 

.384 

37S 

Total  cultivated  area 

10,226 

10,258 

10. 6m 

11,465 

Irrigated  from  canals 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

„          „        wells 

66 

85 

106 

58 

,,         ,,        other  sources 

2 

2 

I 

I 

Total  irrigated  area  . 

68 

87 

107 

59  1 

Unirrigated  area 

10,158 

10,171 

10,544 

1 1 ,406   i 

Cropped  area* 

Rice 

35 

57 

80 

54 

Wheat 

1,346 

926 

389 

707 

Joivar      ..... 

3.405 

3,594 

4,520 

4-4M 

Pulses 

S49 

7S6 

798 

929 

Oilseeds 

964 

732 

5"^° 

606 

Cotton 

3,266 

3,302 

3.819 

4,455 

Condiments  and  spices 

47 

49 

93 

68 

Orchard  and  garden  produce     . 

24 

37 

65 

44 

Tobacco  ..... 

36 

27 

25 

23 

Miscellaneous  .... 

254 

202 

2SS 

193 

Note.  — Up  to  1896  the  figures  are  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  and  subsequently 
for  the  year  ending  July  31. 

*  This  includes  the  area  double  cropped,  which  amounted  to  only  5  square  miles  in 
1900-1,  and  to  30  square  miles  in  1903-4. 

Berar  being  settled  on  the  ryotwdri  system,  the  rent  of  a  cultivator 
may  ordinarily  be  taken  as  the  land  revenue  paid  by  him  to  Govern- 
ment.    In  the  comparatively  few  villages  held  under 
and^pdcfs^^*     other  tenures,  the  holder  of  the  village  is  not  in  any 
way   restricted    by   legislation    as   regards    the    rent 
which   he  is   entitled  to  demand,  except  that  in  ijdra  villages  those 
tenants  who  occupied  their  holdings  when  the  village  was  leased  are 
entitled  to  hold  at  rates  not  exceeding  those  demanded  by  Government 
for  similar  land  in  adjacent  khdlsa  villages.     This  privilege  is  restricted 
to  land  actually  held  before  the  lease.     The  control  of  rent  by  legis- 
lation has  not  been  found  necessary,  for  rack-renting  is  impossible  at 
present.     Statistics  of  rent  actually  paid  in  alienated  villages  are  not 


RENTS,    WAGES,   AND   PRICES  389 

available ;  but  the  Government  assessment  per  acre,  which  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  standard,  varies  from  Rs.  2-12-0  to  Rs.  1-14-0  in  the 
Payanghat  and  from  Rs.  2-0-0  to  Rs.  1-2-0  in  the  Balaghat.  Of 
tenants  holding  under  occupants  there  are  three  classes  :  tenants  paying 
money  rent,  tenants  paying  rent  in  kind  on  the  batai  system,  z.w<\.  potld- 
ivanidars  or  tenants-at-will,  who  pay  rent  either  in  money  or  in  kind, 
the  landlord  meeting  the  revenue  demand.  The  batai  sub-tenure, 
which  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  mezzadria  or  metayer  system,  is 
very  common  in  Berar,  but  less  so  than  formerly,  as  it  is  being  replaced 
by  leases  for  money,  owing  to  much  of  the  land  having  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  classes  which  do  not  cultivate.  Statistics  of  the  money  rent 
usually  paid  are  not  available.  The  ordinary  conditions  of  batai  are 
that  the  lessor  receives  half  the  produce  and  pays  the  land  revenue, 
while  the  lessee  bears  all  the  expenses  of  cultivation  and  takes  the 
other  half.  Sometimes  the  lessee  contributes  a  proportion,  not  ex- 
ceeding one-third,  of  the  land  revenue,  or  agrees  to  pay  half  the  land 
revenue  and  hands  over  to  the  lessor  one-fourth  only  of  the  produce. 
For  garden  land  the  lessee,  as  a  rule,  delivers  only  one-third  of  the 
produce,  as  the  expense  of  cultivating  land  of  this  class  is  heavy. 

The  average  daily  wage  for  the  last  thirty  years  is  R.  o-i  1-7  for 
skilled  and  R.  0-3-4  for  unskilled  labour,  the  rates  for  the  province 
in  different  years  ranging  between  R.  0-12-9^  and  R.  0-9-1  and 
R.  0-3-1 1  and  R.  0-2-7.  The  lowest  rates  are  those  of  the  famine 
year  1 899-1 900,  when  food  was  only  less  costly  than  it  was  in  the 
following  year.  There  was  a  similar  though  far  less  marked  fall  of 
wages  in  1896-7,  which  was  a  year  of  scarcity  and  high  prices,  and  it 
has  been  observed  that  wages  do  not  rise  with  the  rise  in  the  price  of 
food.  In  years  of  famine,  however.  Government  steps  in  as  an  employer 
of  labour,  and  provides  all  those  in  actual  want  with  a  living  wage. 

Wages  vary  from  year  to  year  in  different  Districts  and  localities,  but 
the  variations  are  not  constant  and  are  due  to  ephemeral  and  not  to 
permanent  local  conditions.  The  Melghat  taluk,  where  wages  are 
ordinarily  lower  than  elsewhere,  is  an  exception.  Though  wages  have 
from  time  to  time  fluctuated  during  the  past  thirty  years,  they  have,  on 
the  whole,  varied  so  little  that  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  been 
affected  by  the  introduction  of  factory  labour.  The  railway  has,  how- 
ever, reduced  wages  for  skilled  labour,  which  could  always  command 
R.  I  per  diem  before  the  railway,  by  facilitating  communication,  brought 
the  rate  down  to  that  which  prevailed  in  other  Provinces. 

The  average  prices  of  the  principal  food-grains,  in  seers  and  chittacks 
per  rupee,  in  1903-4  were  as  follows:  Jotvdr,  22-1;  wheat,  10-7; 
gram,  14-13;  rice,  8-12.  These  are  slightly  above  the  standard,  but 
prices  were  much  disturbed  by  the  famine  of  1899- 1900,  and  are 
returning   to  the  normal   by  slow  degrees.      Prices  vary  considerably 


390  BERAR 

in  different  Districts  from  year  to  year;  but  as  the  variations  are  not 
constant,  they  furnish  no  materials  for  an  estimate  of  the  conditions 
of  any  particular  locality. 

The  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  seems  to  have  had  no  effect  on 
prices,  but  the  natural  tendency  of  this  increase  towards  the  reduction 
of  prices  may  have  been  counteracted  by  the  improvement  in  means  of 
communication.  This  improvement  has  not  affected  the  i)rice  oijotvdr, 
which  is  not  grown  for  export ;  and  though  wheat  is  dearer  now  than  it 
was  thirty  years  ago,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  rise  in  price  is  due  to 
increased  facilities  for  exportation.  The  effect  of  famine  on  prices  is 
very  marked.  Thus  in  1895-6  joivar  sold  at  nearly  23  seers  for  the 
rupee,  while  in  the  following  year,  which  was  a  season  of  scarcity,  only 
ii§  seers  could  be  obtained  for  that  sum.  In  1898-9  a  rupee 
purchased  27^  seers,  but  in  the  famine  year  which  followed  it  would 
purchase  no  more  than  18^  seers,  in  spite  of  low  prices  in  the  early 
part  of  the  year;  while  in  1 900-1  the  average  rate  was  \\\  seers  for 
the  rupee,  5,  6,  or  7  seers  being  the  ordinary  rate  during  the  first  six 
months  of  the  year  1900,  when  the  effects  of  the  famine  were  most 
severely  felt. 

Another  cause  sometimes  operates  to  reduce  the  price  of  grain. 
Thus,  in  1 880-1,  38  seers,  and  in  1884-5,  30^  seers  oijoivar  could  be 
purchased  for  a  rupee.  The  fall  in  price  was  attributed  in  each  case 
to  the  late  rains,  which  in  the  former  year  made  it  impossible  to  store 
grain,  and  in  the  latter  damaged  the  grain  already  stored. 

The  standard  of  comfort  in  Berar,  though  not  high,  is  probably  no 
lower  than  in  any  other  rural  tract  in  India.  The  house  of  the  middle- 
class  clerk,  for  which  he  probably  pays  a  rent  varying  from  Rs.  2  to 
Rs.  10  a  month,  is  scantily  furnished.  His  food  costs  him  but  little, 
for  he  is,  in  all  probability,  a  Brahman,  and  therefore  a  vegetarian  ;  but 
he  uses  such  luxuries  as  wheat,  rice,  milk,  ght,  and  sweetmeats  more 
freely  than  does  the  cultivator.  His  clothes  are  of  fine  cotton  cloth, 
the  dhoti  having  usually  a  border  of  silk,  and  he  wears  a  silken  turban  ; 
but  the  whole  outfit  is  so  seldom  renewed  that  it  costs  him  com- 
paratively little.  The  cultivator's  style  of  living  and  the  character  of  his 
house  depend  on  the  size  of  his  holding  ;  but  the  distinction  between 
the  well-to-do  and  the  impoverished  cultivator  consists  largely  in  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  jewellery  worn  by  the  women  of  the  family. 
The  cultivator's  clothes  are  of  coarse  cotton  cloth.  The  labourer's 
standard  of  living  is  similar  to  the  cultivator's,  but  lower.  His  house  is 
smaller  and  meaner,  his  cooking  pots  fewer,  his  food  scantier,  and  his 
family  jewellery  less  costly.  There  has  been  no  perceptible  change  in 
the  standard  of  living  of  these  classes.  So  little  does  the  cultivator 
understand  physical  comfort  that  when  he  was  suddenly  and  temporarily 
enriched  by  the  rise  in  the  price  of  cotton,  which  was  one  of  the  results 


FORESTS 


391 


of  the  American  Civil  War,  he  was  sometimes  unable  to  find  a  better 
outlet  for  his  wealth  than  the  replacement  of  his  iron  ploughshares 
and  cart-wheel  tires  by  shares  and  tires  of  silver. 

Pricks  of  Certain  Staples  in  Berar 


Average  price  (in  seers  per  rupee) 
for  ten  years  ending 

1903-4. 

1S80. 

i8qo. 

1900. 

Jo7var         .         •         ■         .          . 

Wheat 

Gram          ..... 

Rice 

Salt 

21-5 

14.9 

15-5 
9-13 

Not  available 

26-15 

18.7' 

21-6 

100 

10.15* 

20.1 
12.5 
14-0 

8-0 
9-15 

22-04 
10-46 
14.81 

8-78 

IO-75 

^  Average  for  se\  en  years  only. 

The  Eerar  forests  are  divided  into  three  classes  :  (A)  areas  reserved 
for  the  production  of  timber  and  fuel ;  (B)  raninas, 
or  areas  reserved  for  the  growth  of  grass  for  fodder ; 
and  (C)  grazing  lands  ^     The  tree  growth  has  already  been  described 
under  Botany. 

The  forests  are  under  the  control  of  a  Conservator,  subordinate 
to  whom  are  five  Forest  officers  in  charge  of  divisions,  which  are 
conterminous  with  administrative  Districts  except  in  the  case  of  the 
Buldana  division,  which  includes  both  Buldana  and  Akola  Districts. 
Forests  of  Class  A  are  carefully  protected  from  fire  and  grazing,  except 
during  a  severe  famine,  when  they  are  sometimes  thrown  open  to 
grazing.  The  forests  of  Class  C,  which  are  primarily  pasture  lands,  fall 
under  two  divisions  :  those  in  w'hich  grazing  is  regulated  and  paid  for, 
and  those  in  which  grazing  is  free. 

Only  a  small  proportion  of  forest  produce  is  extracted  by  depart- 
mental agency.  The  greater  part  is  removed  by  purchasers  and 
privilege-holders,  or  by  those  to  whom  special  free  grants  have  been 
made.  The  administration  of  the  forests  has  been  sympathetic,  and 
the  relations  of  the  Forest  department  with  the  people  are  generally 
excellent.  The  forests  supply  the  local  demand  for  timber,  fuel, 
bamboos,  and  fodder,  exports  beyond  the  limits  of  the  province  being 
usually  unimportant :  they  also  serve  as  reserves  of  fuel  and  fodder,  the 
existence  of  which  was  much  appreciated  by  the  people  in  the  famine 
of  1 899- 1 900,  when  the  opening  of  forests  of  Class  A  to  grazing  saved 
the  lives  of  thou.sands  of  cattle  and  provided  large  supplies  of  fodder. 

Preventive  measures  against  fire  are  carried  out.  Such  fires  as  occur 
are  usually  the  result  of  carelessness  and  neglect  of  forest  regulations. 

The  area  of  forest  lands  in  the  province  in  1903-4  was  3,941  square 

1  A  new  class  of  state  forests  called  *  Village  fuel  and  pasture  reserves '  will  shortly 
be  formed,  and  will  remain  under  the  control  of  the  Revenue  department. 


392 


BERAR 


miles,  of  which  Class  A  forests  occupied  1,770,  Class  B  83,  and  Class  C 
2,088  square  miles.  The  average  revenue,  expenditure,  and  surplus 
for  the  ten  years  ending  1900  were  Rs.  4,64,000,  Rs.  2,32,000,  and 
Rs.  2,32,000,  respectively,  while  in  1903-4  the  revenue  was  Rs.  6,13,000, 
the  expenditure  Rs.  2,56,000,  and  the  surplus  Rs.  3,57,000. 

There  are  at  present  no  mines,  but  the  prospects  of 
min  rals  successful  coal-mining  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of 

the  province  are  good. 
The  manufactures  are  few  and  unimportant.     They  are  chiefly  con- 
fined to   twist   and    yarn,  coarse    cotton    cloth,  and    the    productions 
of  unskilled   craftsmen.      Silk-weaving  is  carried  on 

'^Z^"  at  Kholapur   in  Amraoti  District,  where   pitainbars 

manufactures.  '  '  -' 

are  made ;  cotton  carpets  are  woven  at  Akot  and 
EUichpur  ;  saris,  turbans,  khldis,  and  blankets  are  made  in  several 
parts  of  the  province,  and  khadls  of  different  textures  and  colours  at 
EUichpur  and  Wun.  There  are  also  communities  of  dyers  in  some 
towns  and  villages,  but  their  work  calls  for  no  special  notice.  The  only 
spinning  and  weaving-mill  in  the  province,  at  Badnera,  is  the  property 
of  the  Berar  Manufacturing  Company,  Limited.  It  started  work  in 
1885,  and  produces  yarn  and  cotton  cloth.  The  following  table  gives 
some  statistics  of  its  progress  : — 


iSgo-i.  1    1900-1.      IQ03-4. 

Number  of  looms        ..... 
Number  of  spindles    ..... 
Hands  employed         ..... 

214 

16,580 

843 

248            248 

16,992       16,336 

1,228            882 

In  1 891  it  worked  up  17,128  cwt.  of  raw  cotton  into  yarn  and  cloth, 
and  in  1901  it  similarly  worked  up  25,288  cwt.  of  raw  cotton.  The 
out-turn  in  1902-3  was  21,337  cwt.  of  yarn  and  9,689^  cwt.  of  cloth. 
The  greater  part  of  its  produce  is  sold  locally.  The  monthly  wages  of 
skilled  labour  in  this  factory  vary  from  Rs.  35  to  Rs.  5-4-0,  and  those 
of  unskilled  labour  from  Rs.  8  to  Rs.  5.  The  most  important  indus- 
try in  the  province  is  the  ginning  and  pressing  of  cotton  in  steam 
factories.  The  following  table  shows  the  rapid  advance  made  during 
the  last  twenty-four  years  :  — 


1881. 

1891. 

1903. 

Number  of  ginning  factories 

Number  of  steam  presses    .... 

6" 

48 

27 

'.^3 
.■^9 

Migration  from  rural  areas  into  towns  is  principally  due  to  the  growth 
of  this  industry.  The  supply  of  labour  is  adequate,  and  the  great 
majority  of  the  hands  employed  belong  to  the  province.  A  man 
earns  on  an  average  Rs.  9  to  Rs.  9-8-0,  a  woman  from  Rs.  4-12-0  to 


COMMERCE   AND    TRADE  393 

Rs.  5,  and  a  child  from  Rs.  4-3-0  a  month.     The  material  condition 
of  the  factory  hands  is  good. 

The   only  information  concerning   the  trade   of  Berar  prior  to  the 
Assignment  in  1853  relates  to  raw  cotton,  the  principal  product  of  the 
province.     The  first  exportation  direct  to   Bombay 
was  made   by  Messrs.  PestonjI  &  Co.,  merchants  of        and't^ade^ 
Bombay   and    Hyderabad,  in   1825-6.     It  consisted 
of  500  bullock-loads,  weighing  120,000  lb.  and  valued  at  Rs,  25,000. 
General  Balfour,  writing  in  1847,  said  that  the  trade  had  by  that  time 
been  principally  diverted  to  Bombay,  but  that  most  of  the  Berar  cotton 
had  formerly  been  taken  500  miles  on  pack-bullocks  to  Mirzapur  and 
there  shipped  in  boats  for  Calcutta.     After  the  Assignment,  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  from  Bhusawal  to  Nagpur 
and   the  construction  of  metalled  roads   greatly   stimulated  the  trade 
with  Bombay,  and  the  pack-bullock  became  a  thing  of  the  past. 

The  chief  centres  of  trade  are  AmraotI,  Akola,  Khamgaon,  and  She- 
gaon ;  and  the  channels  of  trade  are  the  Nagpur  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  and  the  metalled  roads  connecting  it  with 
trade  centres  of  minor  importance.  The  table  on  the  next  page 
shows  the  general  character  of  the  trade  of  Berar.  The  enormous 
increase  in  the  importation  of  grain  and  pulse  in  the  decade  ending 
1900-1  is  attributable  to  the  large  importations  during  the  years  1896-7 
and  1 899-1 900,  which  were  years  of  scarcity  and  famine.  There  is  no 
Chamber  of  Commerce  in  the  province. 

The  internal  trade  is  unimportant  and  calls  for  little  notice.  The 
agriculturist  or  labourer  buys  what  he  wants  at  weekly  markets  held  at 
the  oldpargana  towns  and  other  large  villages.  Cotton  cloth  and  yarn 
manufactured  in  the  Badnera  mills,  and  silken  pliambars  or  lugades 
made  in  the  province,  are  among  the  principal  articles  of  internal  com- 
merce besides  agricultural  produce.  The  weaving  castes  are  the  Sails 
and  Koshtis,  and  the  Mahars  weave  coarse  blankets.  Kasars  and 
Lobars  make  the  ordinary  utensils  of  brass,  copper,  and  iron.  The 
ordinary  earthen  utensils  used  by  the  people  are  made  by  Kumhars, 
the  tiles  used  for  roofing  purposes  being  made  principally  by  members 
of  this  caste  from  Northern  India,  who  visit  Berar  during  the  cold 
and  hot  seasons,  returning  to  their  homes  before  the  rains  break. 

Berar,  being  an  inland  province,  has  no  registered  trade  beyond  the 
frontiers  of  India,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  surplus  produce  of  raw 
cotton  and  grain  and  pulse  is  exported  by  sea  from  Bombay. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  road-borne  trade  is  not  worth  register- 
ing ;  and  the  external  trade  of  the  province  may  be  briefly  described  as 
consisting  of  the  export  by  railway  of  agricultural  produce,  chiefly  raw 
cotton,  and  the  import  by  the  same  means  of  simple  necessaries  of 
life,  manufactured  articles,  and  a  few  luxuries  not  produced  locally. 


394 


BERAR 


Statistics  ok  the  Value  ok  the  Trade  ok  Berar  with 

OTHER  Provinces  of  India  for  the  Years  i 890-1, 

1900-1,  AND  1903-4 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


By  rail. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Imports. 

j  Cotton  twist  and  yarn 

8,71 

.S-99 

7,04 

,,        piece-£,'oods    . 

43,13 

41,21 

48,15 

.  Grain  and  pulse 

i7>i7 

91,09 

55,77 

i  Metals     and     manufactures     of 

metals 

16,02 

21.02 

58,20 

Oils 

10,79 

9,82 

13,18 

Provisions           .... 

18,96 

25,52 

30,63 

Salt 

14,01 

13,49 

12,66 

Spices 

14,18 

12,68 

13,86 

Sugar         ..... 

22,52 

30,47 

3.i,02 

All  other  articles 

Total 
Treasure             .... 

Exports. 

22,88 

21,50 

2,72,79 

72,22 
3,46,73 

1,88,37 

... 

1,65,96 

2,43,25 

Cotton  goods     .... 

II, II 

47,16 

7,23 

,,      raw         .... 

3,20,97 

3,37,44 

5,87,19 

Grain  and  pulse 

14,16 

7.54 

84 

Oilseeds 

36,17 

41,92 

32,75 

Provisions           .... 

3.04 

2,16 

1,47 

Spices 

84 

1,55 

88     j 

Sugar         ..... 

42 

2,03 

1,96     j 

All  other  articles 

Total 
Treasure 

14,51 

14,93 

26,11 

4,01,22 

4.54,73 
22,03 

6,58,43 

82,39     ' 

Communications. 


Berar  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Nagpur  branch  of  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  the  length  of  the  line  in  the  province 
being  152  miles.  From  this  main  line  two  small 
state  railways  branch  off,  one  from  Jalam  to  Kham- 
gaon  (8  miles)  and  the  other  from  Badnera  to  Amraoti  (6  miles).  The 
Khamgaon  and  Amraoti  State  Railways  are  worked  by  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  Railway  Company.  The  capital  outlay  on  the  former  was 
5-2  lakhs,  and  on  the  latter  4-5  lakhs.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1 90 1-2  their  receipts  averaged  Rs.  52,100  and  Rs.  98,800,  and  their 
expenditure  was  Rs.  30,600  and  Rs.  59,000  ;  and  their  net  profits 
averaged  Rs.  21,500,  or  4- 12  per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay,  and 
Rs.  39,900,  or  8-82  per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay.  There  is  one  mile 
of  railway  in  the  province  to  every  T07  square  miles  of  country. 


COMMUNICA  TIONS  395 

The  railway  has  proved  to  be  of  the  greatest  use  and  benefit  to  the 
people  in  years  of  famine,  large  supplies  of  food-grains  having  been 
imported,  especially  in  1899-1900,  from  long  distances,  as  in  the  case 
of  rice,  which  was  imported  from  Burma  via  Calcutta.  The  tendency 
of  railway  traffic  is  to  bring  about  uniformity  of  prices.  Thus  scarcity 
in  other  parts  will  now  undoubtedly  cause  a  rise  in  prices  in  Berar, 
which  would  probably  not  have  occurred  at  all,  or  would  have  been 
more  gradual  and  less  marked,  before  the  introduction  of  railway  com- 
munication ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  railway  prevents  countless 
deaths  from  starvation  when  the  crops  in  Berar  fail,  so  that  the  advan- 
tages of  railway  communication  in  this  respect  far  outweigh  its  disad- 
vantages. The  railway  may  have  removed  or  modified  some  caste  pre- 
judices ;  but,  so  far  as  has  been  observed,  these  prejudices  seem  to  be 
merely  in  abeyance  during  a  journey,  the  social  habits  of  the  people 
being  unaffected  by  the  temporary  relaxation  of  customary  restrictions. 
The  effect  on  language  in  Berar  is  not  noticeable. 

The  railway  has  altered  the  entire  course  of  communications.  In- 
stead of  the  single  line  of  communication  provided  by  the  old  Nagpur 
dak  road,  which  traversed  the  province  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
we  have  the  main  line  of  communication  provided  by  the  railway,  with 
a  system  of  feeder-roads  running  north  and  south  from  it.  Thus  to  the 
south  there  are  roads  connecting  the  railway  (i)  with  Yeotmal,  Wun, 
and  Darwha  ;  (2)  with  Karanja  and  Basim  ;  (3)  with  Basim,  Pusad, 
Umarkhed,  and  Hingoli ;  and  (4)  with  Buldana,  Chikhll,  and  Mehkar ; 
while  to  the  north  roads  run  (i)  to  Mors!  and  Warud,  (2)  to  Ellich- 
pur  and  Chikalda,  (3)  to  Daryapur,  (4)  to  Akot,  and  (5)  to  Jalgaon. 
The  result  of  this  extension  of  the  road  system  has  been  that  wheeled 
transport  has  completely  displaced  pack  transport,  and  the  Banjara  has 
lost  his  former  means  of  livelihood.  The  main  lines  of  roads  are  Pro- 
vincial, the  District  boards  having  as  yet  taken  charge  of  very  few  roads. 
There  was  no  important  change  in  the  road  system  of  the  province 
between  1891  and  1903.  The  total  length  of  Provincial  roads  in  1891 
was  857  miles,  and  in  1903  862  miles,  the  cost  of  maintenance  per 
mile  being  Rs.  436  in  1891,  and  Rs.  202  in  1903.  For  roads  main- 
tained at  the  cost  of  Local  funds  no  figures  are  available.  These  con- 
sist principally  of  a  few  fair-weather  tracks,  unmetalled  and  practically 
unbridged. 

The  conveyances  in  general  use  are  the  baiidi,  a  large  cart  used  for 
carrying  cotton  and  other  agricultural  produce ;  the  kdchar,  a  two- 
wheeled  cart  capable  of  holding  several  persons  ;  and  the  reitgi,  a  small 
and  very  light  cart  drawn  by  trotting  bullocks,  and  capable  of  holding 
one  or  at  most  two  persons  besides  the  driver. 

Berar  forms,  for  postal  purposes,  a  part  of  the  Central  Provinces 
and   Berar   Circle,  which   is    in   the  charge    of  a   Deputy-Postmaster- 


396 


BERAR 


General.     The  following  statistics  show  the  advance  in  postal  business 
in  the  province  since  1880  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Number  of  post  offices   . 

\oi 

69 

.64 

186 

Number  of  letter-boxes  . 

1671 

11 61 

I25t 

156 

Number  of  miles  of  postal 

communication  . 

9.^9 

1,567 

1,485 

'.2512 

Total  number  of  postal 

articles  delivered :  — 

Letters      . 

* 

2,6i4,485t 

2,92.=;,579t 

2,649,296 

Postcards 

* 

i.i76,734t 

2,254,284! 

2,667,730 

Packets    . 

* 

I22,5I3t 

4ii,o26tt 

242,034+ 

Newspapers 

* 

3ii,397t 

244.394tll 

435-474II 

Parcels     . 

* 

26,002t 

42,992t 

39>3S4 

Value  of  stamps  sold  to 

the  public           .     Rs. 

42,688t 

88,i69t 

i,i6,624t 

Not  available 

Value  of  money  orders 

issued         .         .     Rs. 

* 

2  7, 26,8 1  of 

45,66,56ot 

37,92,138 

Total  amount  of  savings 

bank  deposits    .     Rs. 

... 

* 

8,68,905t 

12,07,720 

*  Tlie  figures  are  included  in  those  given  for  the  Central  Provinces. 

t  The  figures  marked  thus   include   the  figures  for  the  post  offices  in  Hyderabad  State 
included  in  the  Central  Provinces  and  Berar  Postal  Circle. 

X  Including  unregistered  newspapers.  II  Registered  as  newspapers  in  the  Post  Office. 

The  Statistics  given  above  relate  to  both  the  Imperial  and  the  local 
or  District  post.  The  latter  system  provided  postal  communications 
required  for  magisterial  and  police  purposes,  the  upkeep  of  which  was 
not  warranted  under  the  commercial  principles  of  the  Post  Office.  It 
was  maintained  by  contributions  from  District  boards  supplemented  by 
a  Government  grant.  The  number  of  District  post  offices  in  1904 
was  30,  and  the  total  length  of  District  post  mail  lines  554  miles. 
Official  correspondence  conveyed  entirely  over  District  post  lines  was 
carried  free.     The  two  systems  were  amalgamated  in  1905. 

Berar  was  for  many  years  considered  to  be  specially  favoured  by 
nature;  and  so  lately  as  in  1893  it  was  officially  reported  that  no  pro- 
gramme of  relief  works  was  required,  as  the  province 
was  immune  from  famine.  The  Administration  was 
thus  utterly  unprepared  to  cope  with  distress  arising  from  scarcity  when 
in  1896  the  crops  partly  failed. 

Scarcity  and  famine  in  Berar,  as  in  most  other  parts  of  India,  are  due 
to  the  failure  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  and  the  intensity  of  the 
calamity  varies  with  the  extent  of  the  failure;  but  oppressively  high 
prices  are  liable  to  occur  even  when  the  harvest  in  Berar  has  been  fairly 
good,  if  severe  famine  in  other  parts  of  India  stimulate  the  export  of 
grain. 

The  Melghat  is  more  liable  to  famine  than  any  other  part  of  Berar, 
owing  to  the  comparative  poverty  of  the  soil  and  the  thriftlessncss  of 
the   aboriginal  cultivators,    but  no  distinction  can  be  drawn  between 


FAMINE  397 

other  parts  of  the  province.  It  so  happened,  both  in  1896-7  and  in 
1 899-1 900,  that  Wun  District,  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  pro- 
vince, suffered  less  than  other  Districts,  but  its  more  favourable  circum- 
stances were  purely  fortuitous. 

The  staple  food-grain  of  the  province,  jowdr,  and  also  the  pulse 
most  commonly  eaten  being  both  kharlf  oxa^i,,  this  harvest  is  naturally 
the  more  important.  The  only  important  food-grain  grown  as  a  rabi 
crop  is  wheat,  which,  though  eaten  by  the  well-to-do,  is  regarded  more 
as  a  crop  for  export  than  as  an  addition  to  the  food-supply.  Moreover, 
the  rabi  harvest,  never  very  important  as  a  source  of  food-supply,  has 
for  some  years  past  continuously  decreased,  owing  to  the  failure  of 
the  late  rains. 

Hitherto  indications  of  famine  have  been  slower  to  declare  them- 
selves in  Berar  than  elsewhere,  and  the  first  warning  of  the  calamity  has 
been  a  sudden  rise  in  the  price  of  grain,  owing  to  exports.  The  partial 
failure  of  the  crops  and  the  appearance  of  wanderers  in  search  of  work 
are  the  next  symptoms.  In  the  famine  of  1890- 1900  immigration  from 
the  Nizam's  Dominions,  where  relief  measures  were  imperfect,  was  so 
extensive  as  seriously  to  embarrass  the  Administration,  and  immigra- 
tion from  that  State  will  probably  be  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in 
any  future  programme  of  relief  measures. 

Had  the  history  of  Berar  been  more  carefully  studied,  it  is  probable 
that  the  optimistic  views  advanced  in  1893  would  never  have  found 
expression  ;  for,  though  the  province  may  have  been,  on  the  whole, 
more  fortunate  than  other  parts  of  India,  there  is  ample  evidence  that 
it  has,  in  the  past,  suffered  severely  from  famine. 

In  the  reign  of  Muhammad  Shah  Bahmani  (1378-97)  Berar,  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  the  Deccan,  was  devastated  by  a  terrible 
famine  ;  and  it  is  highly  improbable  that  it  escaped  the  famine  of  141 7, 
which  affected  the  greater  part  of  the  Deccan.  Again  in  1472-3, 
Malvva  and  the  Deccan,  including  Berar,  were  wasted  by  a  famine 
which  lasted  for  two  years  and  caused  wholesale  emigration  to  Bengal 
and  Gujarat.  In  1 630-1,  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan, 
there  was  a  terrible  famine  throughout  Gujarat,  Khandesh,  Berar,  and 
the  province  of  Daulatabad.  The  flesh  of  dogs  was  sold  by  butchers 
as  goat's  flesh,  the  crushed  bones  of  the  dead  were  mingled  with  the 
flour  exposed  for  sale,  and  parents  devoured  their  children. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  distress  and  scarcity  due  directly  to 
misrule  and  to  intestinal  wars  and  disturbances,  since  these  are  no 
longer  a  factor  in  the  liability  of  the  country  to  famine.  Berar  did  not 
escape  the  famine  of  1833,  which  caused  considerable  distress,  as  did 
also  the  famine  of  1839  and  the  scarcity  in  1862. 

In  1896  there  was  a  partial  failure  of  the  rains;  and  though  the 
province  produced  grain  sufficient  for  its  own  needs,  the  simultaneous 


398  fiERAR 

appearance  of  famine  in  other  parts  of  India  stimulated  the  export  of 
grain  and  caused  distress  by  raising  prices.  Actual  famine  conditions 
prevailed  in  the  Melghat,  Akola  District,  and  the  Malkapur  taluk. 

An  almost  total  failure  of  the  rains  in  1899  was  followed  in  1900  by 
a  severe  famine.  I'^xcept  in  Wun  District,  the  failure  of  crops  was 
complete  ;  and  the  distress  lasted  till  late  in  1 900,  when  copious  rain 
and  the  prospects  of  a  good  harvest  caused  a  fall  in  prices  and  restored 
the  labour  market  to  its  normal  condition. 

A  general  increase  in  mortality  during  a  famine  is  inevitable.  In 
Berar  it  has  been  found  that  the  mortality  increases  gradually  until  the 
hot  season  has  set  in.  It  then  increases  more  rapidly,  but  does  not 
reach  its  highest  point  until  a  considerable  quantity  of  rain  has  fallen. 
Thus,  in  1900  the  highest  death-rate  (12  per  1,000  in  the  month)  was 
not  reached  till  August.  The  rapid  increase  after  the  commencement 
of  the  rains  is  due  to  inevitable  exposure,  to  bowel  complamts  caused 
by  the  consumption  of  foul  water  and  rank  green-stuff,  and  to  endemic 
diseases,  the  virulence  of  which  is  naturally  more  marked  when  large 
numbers  are  predisposed  to  disease.  A  very  distinct  decrease  m  the 
birth-rate  is  observable  in  the  year  following  a  famine. 

An  extensive  system  of  irrigation  is  impracticable  in  Berar,  though 
storage  tanks  might  perhaps  be  constructed  in  the  Melghat  and  the 
Balaghat.  Protective  measures,  other  than  the  maintenance  and 
extension  of  railway  communication,  are  therefore  confined  to  prepara- 
tion for  emergencies.  Programmes  of  large  and  small  relief  works  are 
maintained,  and  during  a  famine  a  system  of  village  relief  by  the 
distribution  of  cooked  and  uncooked  food  is  inaugurated.  Poorhouses 
are  opened  for  the  decrepit  and  deformed,  loans  are  freely  granted  to 
cultivators  under  the  two  Acts  which  govern  their  issue,  private  charity 
is  stimulated,  and  those  whose  scruples  prevent  them  from  receiving 
gratuitous  relief  are  helped  by  the  opening  of  cheap  grain-shops. 

From  the  Assignment  in  1853  until  1903,  the  administration  of  Berar 

was   conducted   by   the   Resident  at    Hyderabad,    who   exercised,    in 

respect   of    the    province,    the    powers    of   a    Chief 
Admmistration.    ^  ..  .  .  .,        .,. 

Commissioner.       His    Secretariat   consisted     01    his 

two  Assistants,  besides  a  Secretary  and  an  Assistant  Secretary  in  the 

Public    Works    department,    while    the    Comptroller    at    Hyderabad 

exercised  a  general  control,  under  the  Resident,   in  financial  matters. 

In    1903  the  administration  of  Berar  was  transferred,  in  pursuance  of 

the  agreement  of  1902,  from  the  Resident  at  tlyderabad  to  the  Chief 

Commissioner  of  the  Central  Provinces. 

The  province  forms  one  Division,  under  a  Commissioner,  and  up  to 

1905  was  divided  into  six  Districts  — Amraoti,  Ellichpur,Wun,  Akola, 

BuLDANA,  and  Basim — each  under  the  charge  of  a  Deputy-Commissioner. 

These  have  now  been  rearranged  and  form  four  Districts:   Amraotl, 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  399 

Akola,  Buldana,  and  Yeotmal.  The  Deputy-Commissioners  have 
a  staff  of  Assistant  Commissioners  and  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners, 
who  exercise  magisterial,  civil,  and  revenue  powers,  and  tahsllddrs,  who 
exercise  criminal  and  revenue  powers.  Each  tahslldar  has  charge  of 
a  taluk,  of  which  there  are  twenty-two  in  the  province.  Assistance  in 
petty  magisterial  cases  is  rendered  by  special  or  honorary  magistrates, 
of  whom  there  are  31,  including  23  who  sit  as  benches,  in  five  of  the 
most  important  towns.  A  Superintendent  of  Police  manages  the 
})olice  of  each  District,  in  subordination  to  the  Deputy-Commissioner, 
and  there  are  three  Assistant  Superintendents  in  the  province.  The 
District  jails  are  under  the  charge  of  the  Civil  Surgeon  at  the  head- 
quarters of  each  District.  The  province  is  divided  into  five  Forest 
divisions,  each  of  which  is  managed,  under  the  control  of  the  Deputy- 
Commissioner  of  the  District  within  the  limits  of  which  the  forests  are 
situated,  by  a  Deputy,  Assistant,  or  Extra-Deputy-Conservator.  These 
officers  are  subordinate  in  departmental  matters  to  the  Conservator  of 
Forests  in   Berar. 

The  last  link  in  the  chain  of  administration  consists  of  the  village 
officers,  the  pdtel  and  the  pattvdri,  whose  offices  are  hereditary.  The 
pdtel  has  generally  both  revenue  and  police  duties.  He  collects  the 
revenues  in  his  village,  and  is  superintendent  of  \\iQJdglyas  or  village 
watchmen.  He  is  bound  to  give  timely  information  of  all  crimes,  and 
in  cases  of  necessity  may  make  arrests.  In  some  large  villages  the 
offices  of  police  and  revenue  pdtel  are  held  by  different  individuals. 
The  patwdri  is  the  village  accountant.  He  prepares  the  annual 
mmdbandl  or  statement  showing  the  occupant,  area,  rental,  and  crop 
of  every  field  in  his  village  or  circle,  keeps  all  the  village  papers  and 
registers,  applications  for  and  relinquishments  of  land,  and  statements 
showing  transfers.  He  and  the  pdtel  are  responsible  that  every  pay- 
ment of  revenue  is  duly  written  up  in  the  receipt-book  which  every 
registered  occupant  of  land  holds.  Pdtels  Sind  pat7mris  are  remunerated 
by  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  land  revenue,  forest  dues,  and  town  fund 
taxes  collected  by  them.  The  work  of  the  pativdris  is  immediately 
supervised  by  i?uinsarhiis,  of  whom  two  or  more  are  attached  to  each 
taluk.  Munsariins  will  soon  probably  be  replaced  by  circle  inspectors 
under  the  supervision  of  I  )istrict  inspectors. 

Berar  has  no  local  legislature,  and  Acts  of  the  Indian  Legislative 

Council  do  not  apply  propria   vigore  to  the   province,   which   is  not 

legally  a  part  of  British   India.     They  are,  however, 

generally   made   applicable  to  it  by  executive  order       Legislation 
r    1       V-.  /i  1  •     ^  and  justice, 

ot  the  Governor-General-m-Council,    and    the    same 

authority  makes  local  laws  and  rules  for  the  province.     The  Resident 

at    Hyderabad    was    formerly,    and   the    Chief    Commissioner   of  the 

Central  Provinces  is  now,  empowered  to  make  subsidiary  rules  under 


400  BERAR 

certain  Acts  and  laws.  Owing  to  the  extensive  application  of  Acts  of 
the  Legislative  Council  to  the  province,  the  administration  of  civil 
and  criminal  justice  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  administration  of 
justice  in  a  non-regulation  Province  of  Ikitish  India.  The  chief  local 
laws  passed  since  1880  have  been  the  JCxcise  Law  (1897),  the  Rural 
Boards  Law  (1885),  the  Municipal  Law  (1886),  the  Land  Revenue 
Code  (1896),  the  Berar  Courts  Law,  and  the  Berar  Small  Cause  Courts 
Law  (1905). 

In  1905,  after  the  transfer  of  Berar  to  the  Central  Provinces,  the 
Berar  Courts  Law  and  the  Berar  Small  Cause  Courts  Law  came  into 
force ;  and  the  province  is  now  divided,  for  the  purposes  of  the 
administration  of  justice,  into  the  two  civil  districts  of  East  Berar, 
consisting  of  the  revenue  Districts  of  AmraotI  and  Yeotmal,  and  West 
Berar,  consisting  of  the  revenue  Districts  of  Akola  and  Buldana.  In 
each  of  the  two  civil  districts  a  District  Judge  hears  civil  suits  without 
limit  as  regards  value,  and  is  assisted  by  an  Additional  District  Judge. 
Subordinate  Judges,  with  powers  to  try  and  determine  suits  of  which 
the  value  does  not  exceed  Rs.  5,000,  hold  their  courts  at  AmraotI, 
Mors!,  EUichpur,  Daryapur,  and  Yeotmal  in  East  Berar,  and  at  Akola, 
Basim,  Khamgaon,  and  Buldana  in  West  Berar  ;  and  Munsifs,  with 
power  to  try  and  determine  suits  of  which  the  value  does  not  ex- 
ceed Rs.  500,  sit  at  AmraotI,  MorsI,  EUichpur  (where  there  are  two), 
Yeotmal,  and  Darwha  in  East  Berar,  and  at  Akola,  Basim,  Malkapur, 
and  Mehkar  in  West  Berar. 

Appeals  from  the  decrees  of  subordinate  courts  lie  to  the  District 
and  Additional  District  Judges;  and  appeals  from  the  District  courts 
lie  to  the  court  of  the  Additional  Judicial  Commissioner  in  Nagpur, 
which  is  the  Provincial  High  Court.  Appeals  from  this  court,  when 
allowed  by  law,  lie  to  the  Privy  Council. 

Courts  of  Small  Causes,  with  power  to  try  suits  of  a  civil  nature 
not  exceeding  Rs.  1,000  in  value  and  cognizable  by  such  courts,  are 
established  at  AmraotI  in  East  Berar  and  at  Akola  and  Khamgaon  in 
West  Berar. 

The  limits  of  the  two  Sessions  divisions  coincide  with  those  of  the 
civil  districts,  in  which  the  District  and  Additional  District  Judges 
exercise  the  powers  of  Sessions  Judges.  Sessions  are  held  in  alternate 
months  at  AmraotI  and  Yeotmal  in  East  Berar,  and  at  Akola  and 
Buldana  in  West  Berar.  Deputy-Commissioners  as  District  Magistrates 
are  empowered  under  section  30  of  the  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure  to 
try  as  magistrates  all  offences  not  punishable  with  death,  but  they 
exercise  this  power  only  in  exceptional  circumstances.  Subdivisional 
magistrates,  with  power  to  hear  appeals  from  convictions  by  magis- 
trates of  the  second  and  third  classes  and  to  call  for  records,  are 
stationed  at  EUichpur,  Basim,  and  Khamgaon. 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE 


\o\ 


Appeals  lie  from  the  Courts  of  Session  to  the  Additional  Judicial 
Commissioner  at  Nagpur,  by  whom  also  all  sentences  of  death  must  be 
confirmed.  Original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  over  European  British 
subjects  in  Berar  is  exercised  by  the  High  Court  at  Bombay. 

The  number  of  criminal  cases  brought  to  trial  varies  but  slightly  from 
year  to  year  ;  but  in  years  of  scarcity  a  great  increase  is  always  noticed 
in  the  number  of  serious  offences  against  property,  accompanied  by 
a  corresponding  decrease  in  petty  cases  of  assault,  trespass,  and  the 
like.  At  such  times  a  marked  decrease  occurs  in  civil  litigation, 
followed,  on  the  return  of  prosperity,  by  an  abnormal  increase, 
especially  in   suits   affecting  real  property. 

The  Registration  department  is  controlled  by  the  Inspector-General 
of  Registration.  In  each  District  a  District  registrar  is  appointed, 
usually  an  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner,  to  whom  sub-registrars  of 
circles,  who  are  the  actual  registering  officers  in  all  ordinary  cases,  are 
subordinate.  The  average  number  of  registration  offices  during  the 
decennial  periods  ending  1890  and  1900  was  59  and  66.  In  1903 
there  were  68  offices.  The  number  of  documents  registered  in  the  two 
decennial  periods  averaged  25,500  and  34,500,  and  was  37,400  in  1901. 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Criminal  Cases  brought  to 

Trial  in  Berar 


Average 

Average 

Percen- 

for ten 

for  ten 

tage  of 

years 

years 

Il)OI. 

1903. 

convic- 

ending 

ending 

tions, 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

Number  of  persons  tried  : — 

\a)  For  offences  against  per- 

son and  property   . 

12,962 

15,224 

11,962 

5,636 

15 

{b)  For  otlier  offences  as^ninst 

the  Indian  Penal  Code  . 

1,273 

1,70s 

869 

776 

29 

,<:)  For  offences  against  spe- 

cial and  local  laws 

Total 

5,082 

i>7i3 

13,571 

7.256 

88 

19.317 

18,645 

26,402 

13.668 

58 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Civil  Suits  histituted 

IN  Berar 


Average 

for  ten 

years 

ending 

1890. 

Average 

for  ten 

years 

ending 

1900. 

1901. 

1903. 

Suits  for  money  and   movable 
property       .... 
Title  and  other  suits 

Total 

22,431 
2,361 

21,173 

3,727 

21,141 
6,465 

27,606 

14,618 
5,920 

24,792 

24,900 

20,538 

VOL.  Vll. 


I.  d 


402  BERAR 


The  following  figures,  showing,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  revenue 
collected  under  various  heads  in    1853-4,  the  year 
after  the  Assignment  of  Berar,  indicate  the  principal 
sources  of  revenue  under  native  rule  : — 


Finance. 


Land  revenue  .         .         .19,15 

Frontier  and  transit  duties       .      1,95 
Ahkdrl  .....         90 


Sdyar,  or  town  duties      .         .  7 ' 

Salt  wells        .         .         .         .         19 
Miscellaneous  .         .         .         22 


About  74  per  cent,  of  the  revenue  raised  by  or  for  the  Nizam 
represented  the  assessment  on  the  land.  Other  relatively  important 
headings,  such  as  transit  and  town  duties  and  salt  wells,  have  long  since 
disappeared  from  the  public  accounts. 

Former  methods  of  taxation  were  most  oppressive,  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  province  was  usually  leased  out  to  bankers  in  payment  of 
debts  due  to  them  by  the  Hyderabad  State,  and  they  levied  what  they 
could.  All  were  not  equally  extortionate,  but  the  uncertainty  of  their 
tenure  offered  no  inducement  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
cultivator.  The  last  of  these  great  farmers  had  to  give  up  his  lease  in 
1845  ;  and  for  the  next  eight  years  the  khdlsa  land  was  administered  by 
officers  of  the  Nizam's  government,  whose  yoke  was  probably  no  lighter 
than  that  of  the  farmers.  It  was  customary  for  an  officer  appointed  to 
any  important  administrative  post  to  pay,  on  his  appointment,  a  large 
donation,  which  he  recovered  from  his  charge.  The  people  had  scarcely 
recovered  from  these  imposts,  when  the  talukdars  got  wind  of  the  Assign- 
ment to  the  British,  and  promptly  raised  the  land  revenue  demand,  in 
order  that  they  might  carry  off  as  much  as  possible.  So  much  had  Berar 
suffered  that,  when  it  was  *  assigned,'  the  revenues  of  this  rich  province 
were  estimated,  by  a  government  which  certainly  had  no  temptation  to 
underestimate  them,  at  little  more  than  30  lakhs,  while  the  actual  col- 
lections in  1853-4  fell  short  of  26  lakhs.  In  1 860-1  they  had  risen  to 
40  and  in  1869-70  to  83^  lakhs. 

The  Provincial  contract  system  was  introduced  in  1880,  the  Resident's 
expenditure  under  the  heads  '  Civil,'  and  '  Public  Works,  including 
Railways,'  being  limited  to  54  per  cent,  of  the  gross  revenue.  From 
the  year  1882-3  ^he  percentage  was  reduced  to  52,  and  again  in  18S7-S 
to  50,  which  rate,  although  fixed  for  five  years,  was  found  to  be  in- 
sufficient, and  was  raised  to  51  in  1889-90.  The  percentage  \vas  again 
reduced  to.  50  for  the  quinquennium  which  ended  in  1896-7,  and  this 
arrangement  continued  until  the  lease  of  Berar  to  the  Government  of 
India  in  1903. 

The  following  figures  show,  in  lakhs  of  rupees,  the  principal  variations 
in  land  revenue  collections  since  the  Assignment,  the  years  selected 
being  those  in  which  the  variation  has  been  most  marked  : — 


1853-4     ....    19 
1S72-3     ....    53 


1S75-6  .        .        .        .67 
1902-3  ....      745 


LAND   REVENUE  403 

Collections  in  190 1-2  amounted  to  more  than  89^  lakhs,  but  this 
total  included  many  arrears.  Tlie  remarkably  rapid  increase  in  the 
course  of  the  twenty  years  which  followed  the  Assignment  is  attributable 
rather  to  the  extension  of  cultivation  than  to  enhancement  of  the 
demand.  Excise  revenue  has  similarly  increased,  but  more  gradually 
and  less  continuously.  It  reached  nearly  17  lakhs  in  1 891-2,  but  de- 
clined from  that  year  onwards  owing  to  the  abolition,  in  the  more 
populous  parts  of  the  province,  of  the  out-still  system  and  the  intro- 
duction of  a  more  elaborate  system  of  excise  administration.  The 
disappearance  of  some  heads  of  revenue  from  the  public  accounts  has 
already  been  mentioned.  Their  loss  has  been  much  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  revenue  raised  from  sources  untapped  under  the  former 
rule.  Stamps  were  introduced  in  1857,  and  by  1869-70  realized  4-6 
lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  income  from  this  head  amounted  to  8  lakhs. 
Forests  are  another  source  from  which  former  rulers  drew  no  revenue  ; 
but  the  control  and  administration  of  the  forests  was  undertaken  shortly 
after  the  Assignment,  and  forest  revenue,  which  in  1869-70  was  less 
than  2  lakhs  of  rupees,  amounted  in  1903-4  to  Rs.  6,12,527.  Regis- 
tration was  first  introduced  in  1877-8.  The  discovery  of  new  sources 
of  revenue  has  been  accompanied  by  the  opening  of  new  channels  of 
expenditure.  Education  was  not  provided  by  the  state  till  1862,  and 
ten  years  later  the  expenditure  amounted  to  less  than  2-|  lakhs.  In 
1903-4  it  was  more  than  5  lakhs.  Medical  relief  was  also  unknown 
under  native  rule.  In  1870-1  little  more  than  a  lakh  was  spent  under 
this  head.  Rather  more  than  i^  lakhs  is  now  spent  annually  \  but  in 
1 900-1,  the  year  after  a  severe  famine,  the  expenditure  was  2^  lakhs. 
The  expenditure  on  public  works  increased  steadily  until  1892-3,  when 
it  reached  nearly  15  lakhs.  Since  that  time  more  rigid  economy  has 
been  practised,  and  the  expenditure  has  gradually  declined. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  Berar  finance  before  the  lease  was  the  heavy 
military  expenditure,  which  was  necessarily  an  important  item,  for  the 
province  was  specially  assigned  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Hyderabad 
Contingent,  a  force  which  consisted  of  four  regiments  of  cavalry,  four 
batteries  of  artillery,  and  six  regiments  of  infantry.  Statistics  of  this 
expenditure  will  be  found  on  p.  405.  They  show,  as  might  be  expected, 
a  steady  and  progressive  increase,  due  to  the  necessity  of  maintaining 
the  standard  of  efficiency  attained  by  the  regular  Indian  army. 

Berar  has  been  settled  on  the  Bombay  ryohvdri  system,  under  which 
each  field  forms  a  holding  for  which  the  occupier  engages  separately 

with  Government.      The  whole   province,  with  the     ^      ,  ^ 

^         ,  •         J  Land  revenue, 

exception  of  the  Melghat  and  some  uncultivated  tracts 

in  Yeotmal  and  Akola  Districts,  was  measured,  classified,  and  assessed, 

field  by  field,  by  the  close  of  1878.     The  settlements,  which  were  for 

a   term  of  thirty   years,   commenced   to   expire  in    1891.      Revision 

D  d  2 


404 


BERAR 


operations  have  now  been  completed  for  the  whole  province  except 
the  taluks  of  Kelapur,  Yeotmal,  and  Wun  in  Ycotnial  District,  where 
the  work  did  not  commence  till   1904. 

Principal  Sourcls  of  Provincial  Revenue  in  Berar 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


Average  for  ten 

Average  for  ten 

Year  endinir 

Year 

ending 

March 

3i,>904 

years  ending 
March  31,  1890. 

years  ending 
March  31,  1900. 

March 

31,  1901. 

Total  amount 

raised  (Imperial, 

Provincial,  and 

Local). 

^        Amount  credited 
^           to  Provincial 
03              revenues. 

Total  amount 

raised  (Imperial, 

Provincial,  and 

Local). 

_g^     1  Amount  credited 
-J           to  Provincial 
«               revenues. 

Total  amount 

raised  (Imperial, 

Provincia  ,  and 

Locals 

Amount  credited 

to  Provincial 

revenues. 

Total  amount 

raised  (Imperial, 

Provincia  ,  and 

Local). 

Land  revenue   . 

63,98 

64,25 

80,17 

80,15 

78,30 

Opium     . 

1,85 

1,85 

1,60 

1,60 

1,50 

1,50 

•  .  . 

Stamps    . 

6,60 

6,60 

8,31 

8,31 

6,74 

6,74 

8,48 

Excise 

13,45 

13,45 

13,78 

13,78 

9,85 

9,85 

19,94 

Provincial  rates 

4,73 

5,87 

•  ■  • 

6,37 

6,47 

Customs  . 

7 

7 

15 

15 

17 

Assessedta.xes. 

>  .  . 

... 

69 

89 

•  •  • 

1,42 

Forest 

3,30 

3,30 

4,72 

4,72 

3,03 

3,03 

6,07 

Registration     . 

.56 

56 

84 

84 

81 

81 

97 

Other  sources  . 
Total 

2,80 

2,59 

4,79 

3,45 

4,68 

3,27 

5,21 

97,27 

9^,33 

1,04,92 

96,98 

1,14,19 

1,05,50 

1,27,03 

The  holder  of  a  field  or  '  survey  number  '  is  called  the  registered 
occupant  or  khatedar,  and  he  holds  on  condition  of  paying  the  assess- 
ment and  other  dues.  Failure  to  pay  these  dues  renders  him  liable  to 
forfeit  the  right  of  occupancy  and  all  rights  connected  with  it,  such  as 
those  over  trees  and  buildings  on  the  land.  Land  thus  forfeited  reverts 
to  Government,  and  the  right  of  occupancy  is  put  up  to  sale  by  auction 
after  due  notice.  No  occupant  is  bound  to  hold  his  land  for  more  than 
a  single  year.  He  may,  on  giving  due  notice,  relinquish  it,  or  he  may 
dispose  of  the  occupancy  right  by  sale  or  otherwise  to  another  ;  but  he 
is  responsible  for  the  revenue  of  the  year  in  which  he  relinquishes  or 
transfers  his  right.  An  occupant  may,  if  he  chooses,  retain  his  occu- 
pancy right  for  ever,  subject  to  the  payment  of  the  assessment  and 
dues,  which  are  liable  to  revision  once  every  thirty  years.  He  may 
also  sublet  his  holding,  but  only  by  private  arrangement,  which  finds 
no  place  in  the  revenue  records. 

This  description  applies  to  the  ryotwdri  tenure,  which  is  the  ordinary 
tenure  of  Berar.  The  extraordinary  tenures  a.x<tjdglr,  indin^  ijdra,  and 
pdlampat.  The  \.qxvs\  jdgir  means  any  rent-free  holding  of  one  or  more 
villages.     Nearly  all  the  jdgirs  in  Berar  have  been  granted  either  by 


LAND    REVENUE 


405 


the  Delhi  emperors  or  by  the  Nizams,  one  or  two  only  by  the  Peshwas. 
The  term  indm  is  appHed  to  fields  as  jdgir  is  to  villages.  Indms  have 
been  granted  for  charitable  objects,  for  service  in  villages,  offices,  or  in 
temples,  and  sometimes  as  purely  personal  favours.  Pdlampat  tenure 
is  similar  to  tenure  in  jdgir,  but  the  holding  is  not  entirely  free.  A 
fixed  proportion  of  the  rent  is  paid  to  (Government.  Deshmukhs  and 
deshpdndyas  in  Wun  District  hold  a  few  pdlampat  villages  under 
ancient  grants. 

Principal  Heads  of  Provincial   Expenditure  in  Berar 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


Average 

Average 

for  ten 

for  ten 

Year 

Year 

years 

years 

ending 

ending 

ending- 

ending 

March  31, 

March  31, 

March  31, 

March  31, 

1901. 

1904. 

uSqo. 

1900. 

Opening  balance    . 

Charges  in  respect  of  collection 

42,92 

41,18 

-  16,58 

... 

(principally   land     revenue 

and  forest) 

15.27 

17,49 

iS,oS 

16,82 

Salaries  and  expenses  of  civil 

departments — 

(a)  General  administra- 

tion 

2,41 

'^97 

3,17 

1,96 

(^)  Law  and  justice 

3,13 

4,31 

5,27 

3,80 

((-)  Police      . 

5.35 

5,93 

6,30 

5.57 

id)  Education 

1,82 

1.93 

1,96 

2,55 

{e)  Medical  . 

1,32 

I. .50 

2,09 

1,72 

(/)  Other  heads*  . 

22 

30 

23 

23 

Pensions f  and  miscellaneous 

civil  charges  %     • 

4.90 

7.37 

7,92 

2,57 

Famine  relief 

4,04 

80,39 

... 

Irrigation       .... 

.. 

Public  works 

10,76 

9,19 

4,68 

6,09 

Other    charges    and     adjust- 

ments        .... 

1,84 

2.31 

1,76 

25-65 

Expenditure  on  account  of  the 

Hyderabad  Contingent 

Total  expenditure 
Closing  balance     . 

31,32 

38,62 

39.12 

78,34 
4T,i8 

95.96 
-  16,58 

1,70,97 

66,96 

-  77,60 

... 

*  Includes  the  heads  '  Ecclesiastical '  and  'Scientific  and  other  minor  ilepartments.' 

t  Includes  also  the  head  '  Assignments  and  compensations.' 

X  Includes  the  heads  '  Stationery  and  Printing'  and  '  Miscellaneous.' 

The  ijdraddr  is  the  lessee  of  an  integral  waste  village,  holding  under 
a  lease  from  Government,  which  may  be  for  any  term  not  extending 
beyond  the  next  settlement  of  the  idliik  in  which  the  village  is  situated. 
For  the  first  three  years  no  rent  is  paid.  In  the  fourth  year  either  one- 
fifth  or  one-tenth  of  the  full  assessment  has  to  be  paid  ;  in  the  fifth  year 


4o6  BERAR 

the  rent  is  doubled,  in  the  sixth  trebled,  and  so  on,  until  the  full  assess- 
ment is  reached.  The  object  of  the  lease  being  to  encourage  the 
breaking-up  of  the  land  for  cultivation,  tracts  containing  valuable  timber 
are  excluded,  and  quarrying  or  mining  is  prohibited ;  but  special 
arrangements  are  made  in  the  lessees'  favour  in  the  case  of  an  excess  of 
uncultivable  land,  and  special  rules  are  laid  down  with  regard  to  grazing. 
During  the  currency  of  the  lease  the  ijdraddr  \?>  pdtel  and  patwdri  of  the 
village  ;  and  at  its  expiry,  when  the  village  is  liable  to  be  surveyed  and 
to  have  its  assessment  revised,  the  offices  o{ pdte/  ^nd.  pat7vdi-i  vaQ  offered 
to  him,  and  he  is  registered  as  the  occupant  of  all  land  then  actually 
occupied  by  him.  Such  are  the  rules  of  1880,  which  are  now  in  force. 
Under  the  former  rules  of  1865  the  term  of  the  lease  was  limited  to 
thirty  years  ;  and  the  lessee  had  the  option,  on  the  termination  of  his 
lease,  of  constituting  the  village  his  property  in  perpetuity,  subject  to  the 
payment  annually  to  Government  of  one-half  of  a  fair  assessment,  liable 
to  revision  every  thirty  years,  upon  the  whole  of  the  cultivated  and 
cultivable  area. 

In  1901  the  number  of  villages  held  under  each  class  of  tenure  was 
as  follows  :  ryohvdri,  6,133  ;  Jdglr,  211;  ijdra,  449  ;  palampat,  16.  Of 
the  assessment  of  ryotwdri  villages  amounting  to  70-6  lakhs,  land 
assessed  at  Rs.  75,500  was  occupied  by  ind?nddrs. 

Persons  holding  by  cultivation  occupancy  may  be  thus  classified  : — 
(a)  Registered  occupants  holding  direct  from   Government,    the 
fields  being  registered  in  their  names  ; 

{b)  Persons  possessing  interests  similar  in  kind  to  that  of  registered 
occupants  ;  and 
(c)  Tenants. 

The  position  of  the  registered  occupant  has  already  been  described. 
Those  who  possess  an  interest  similar  to  his  are  co-sharers  and  co- 
occupants.  A  co-sharer  is  a  partner  in  a  whole  field,  cultivating  jointly 
with  the  occupant  on  the  co-operative  system  ;  a  co-occupant  occupies 
and  cultivates  a  specific  portion  of  a  field.  Co-sharers  and  co- 
occupants  may  have  co-sharers  and  co-occupants  claiming  under  them 
and  not  directly  from  the  registered  occupant.  There  are  two  ex- 
ceptional varieties  of  co-sharers  :  one  who  obtains  a  share  in  the  profits 
by  personal  labour  in  the  field,  and  one  who  obtains  a  share  by  supply- 
ing bullocks.     The  latter  variety  of  sub-tenure  is  rare. 

The  land  revenue  of  Berar  in  1903-4  was  85  lakhs.  It  is  estimated 
that,  when  the  enhanced  assessment  of  the  tdluks  of  Murtazapur, 
AmraotT,  MorsI,  Basim,  Mangrul,  EUichpur,  Darwha,  and  Pusad — the 
levy  of  which  has  been  postponed  in  order  to  allow  time  to  recover  from 
the  effects  of  the  famine  of  1899-1900 — is  realized  in  1906,  the  land 
revenue  of  the  province  will  amount  to  99  lakhs. 

The  unit  of  calculation  in  the  land  revenue  assessment  is,  as  has 


LAND  REVENUE  407 

been  explained,  the  field  or  'survey  number,'  but  when  a  taluk  is  to 
be  assessed  it  is  divided  into  groups  of  villages,  classified  according  to 
the  productiveness  of  soil  and  such  adventitious  advantages  as  means 
of  communication  and  proximity  to  markets  or  railways.  A  maximum 
rate  per  acre  is  fixed  for  each  group  of  villages,  and  in  assessing  single 
fields  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  each  is  considered.  Soils  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  for  each  of  which  a  maximum  assessment  per  acre  is 
fixed.  In  determining  the  assessment  the  depth  of  the  soil,  and  any 
defects,  such  as  the  presence  of  sand,  of  limestone  nodules,  or  of  a  flow 
of  water  over  any  portion  of  the  field,  are  considered. 

The  land  revenue  demand  in  the  reign  of  Akbar  amounted  to  161^ 
lakhs,  and  fell  in  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan  to  137^  lakhs.  The  famine 
of  1 630-1  may  account  for  the  decrease,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was 
partly  due  to  an  equitable  assessment  based  on  Malik  Ambar's  settle- 
ment of  161 2  and  to  the  relinquishment  of  paper  claims  against  Gond 
chieftains.  These  figures  are,  however,  of  little  use  for  comparison 
with  those  of  the  present  day,  for  Berar  was,  in  the  days  of  Akbar  and 
Shah  Jahan,  approximately  twice  as  large  a.^  the  present  province. 
Moreover,  we  have  no  means  of  estimating  the  population  of  the 
province  in  Mughal  times,  or  the  area  of  the  land  actually  under 
cultivation.  All,  therefore,  that  can  be  asserted  is  that  the  mean 
between  the  figures  for  the  two  reigns  is  approximately  double  the 
present  assessment  of  Berar,  so  that,  taking  gross  area  alone  into 
consideration,  the  Mughal  cash  assessment  was  about  equal  to  the 
British  cash  assessment,  notwithstanding  the  rise  in  the  money  value 
of  agricultural  produce.  No  margin  remains  to  counterbalance  the 
hardships  entailed  by  former  methods  of  collection.  We  know  that 
in  other  parts  of  the  empire,  near  the  capital  city  and  immediately 
under  the  eye  of  Todar  Mai,  who  perfected  Akbar's  land  revenue 
system,  the  rapacity  of  the  karoris  or  collectors  brought  upon  them 
cruel  punishments.  It  is  not  likely  that  provinces  at  a  distance  from 
the  capital,  often  the  seat  of  war,  and  overrun  by  troops,  fared  any 
better.  The  miserable  condition  of  the  province  in  the  days  of  the 
later  Mughal  emperors,  and  during  and  after  the  Maratha  and  Pindari 
Wars,  has  been  described.  During  the  period  which  elapsed  between 
the  overthrow  of  the  Pindaris  and  the  Assignment  of  Berar  to  the  East 
India  Company,  nobody  but  the  revenue  collectors  and  the  ryots  knew 
the  rates  at  which  land  revenue  was  actually  levied,  for  the  province 
was  leased  out  to  farmers,  who  with  perhaps  a  single  exception  squeezed 
as  much  as  they  could  out  of  it. 

The  number  of  holdings  in  ryoiivari  villages  in  Berar  in  1901  was 
392,123,  the  corresponding  assessment  being  67-8  lakhs,  so  that  the 
incidence  per  occupant  was  very  nearly  Rs.  17-5.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  land  revenue  demand  amounts  to  7  per  cent,  of  the  gross  produce. 


4o8  BERAR 

This  being  so,  it  is  obvious  that  the  assessment  has  no  bearing  whatever 
on  the  ability  of  the  people  to  withstand  famine,  for  in  a  prosperous 
year  the  cultivator  would  not  feel  a  deduction  of  7  per  cent,  from  his 
gross  produce.  When  crops  failed  completely — a  phenomenon  of  very 
rare  occiuTence — he  might  be  able  to  meet  the  demand  from  savings  ; 
but  should  he  be  unable  to  do  this  the  demand  would  be  postponed  for 
a  year  at  least,  so  that  in  the  year  following  the  failure  of  crops  he  would 
be  able  to  pay  14  per  cent,  of  the  gross  produce  without  hardship. 

The  principle  observed  in  suspending  and  remitting  land  revenue  in 
times  of  scarcity  is  that  nobody  should  be  compelled  to  borrow  in  order 
to  meet  the  demand.  Tahsildars  are  required  to  prepare  lists  of  all 
landholders  known  to  be  able  to  meet  the  demand,  and  to  recover  it 
by  the  ordinary  procedure.  It  is  ordinarily  assumed  that  recent  pur- 
chasers, mortgagees  in  possession,  occupants  other  than  agriculturists, 
and  occupants  of  fields  which  have  yielded  half  of  a  normal  crop  are 
able  to  pay.  The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  empowered  to  suspend 
collections  of  land  revenue  due  from  persons  who,  by  reason  of  their 
known  inability  to  pay,  have  not  been  entered  in  the  tahsilddr's  list. 
When  the  prospects  of  the  next  kharif  crop  can  be  estimated  with 
some  degree  of  accuracy,  the  Deputy-Commissioner  submits  to  the 
Commissioner  his  proposals  regarding  the  collection  of  arrears.  Re- 
missions of  land  revenue  are  few  because,  owing  to  the  light  assessment, 
they  are  generally  unnecessary. 

The  cultivation  of  the  poppy  has  not  been  allowed  in  Berar  for  many 

years,   all  opium  required  for  local  consumption  being  imported  from 

either  Indore  or  Bombay.     The  right  to  sell  opium. 

Miscellaneous     ^i^gji-jgj.  wholesale  or  retail,  is  sold  annually  by  auction, 
revenue.  •       ,.  • 

Wholesale  vendors  receive  licences  to  import  opium, 

which  is  stored  by  them  at  sub-treasuries  or  authorized  storerooms,  and 
may  be  sold  to  none  but  licensed  retail  vendors.  The  latter  receive 
licences  authorizing  them  to  open  shops  in  localities  approved  by  the 
Deputy-Commissioner  for  the  sale  of  opium  to  the  general  public,  and 
in  certain  circumstances  are  permitted  to  import  opium. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  net  revenue  realized  from  opium 
since  1881  : — 

Rs. 
1881-90  ......     2,97,000 


Average  .    „ 

*=    (  1891-1900 3,00,000 

1903-4 4>f7:Ooo 

The  figures  for  1881-90  and  1891-1900  do  not  accurately  repre- 
sent the  revenue  derived  from  opium  alone,  for  until  1893-4  the  right 
to  sell  hemp  drugs  was  included  in  the  opium  licences,  and  separate 
figures  are  not  available. 

The   cultivation    of  the   hemp   plant    in    Berar   has    hitherto    been 


MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE  409 

prohibited  ;  and  hemp  drugs,  i.  e.  g('i)ija  and  bhang,  are  imported  by 
licensed  vendor.s  from  the  Government  warehouse  at  Khandwa  under 
conditions  similar  to  those  which  govern  the  importation  of  opium. 
Figures  showing  the  revenue  realized  from  hemp  drugs  alone  are  not 
available  for  years  before  1894-5  ;  but  the  average  revenue  for  the  six 
years  ending  1899-1900  was  Rs.  23,500,  the  actual  revenue  for  1903-4 
being  Rs.  51,000. 

The  manufacture  and  supply  of  country  liquor  {mnhita  spirit)  is 
regulated  by  two  distinct  systems.  That  known  locally  as  the  Madras 
contract  distillery  system  prevails  in  the  Districts  of  Amraotl,  Ellichpur, 
and  Akola,  and  in  the  Malkapur  taluk  of  Buldana  District.  These 
areas  are  supplied  by  two  distilleries  :  one  at  Ellichpur,  which  supplies 
Amraotl  and  Ellichpur  Districts,  and  the  other  at  Akola,  which  supplies 
the  other  areas.  In  all  other  parts  of  Berar  the  out-still  system  prevailed 
till  recently,  the  right  to  marmfacture  and  sell  country  liquor  in  approved 
localities  being  sold  annually  by  auction.  From  April  i,  1905,  the 
distillery  system  was  introduced. 

The  annual  net  revenue  derived  from  country  spirits  rose  from  an 
average  of  10-5  lakhs  between  1881  and  1890  to  an  average  of  11  lakhs 
in  the  next  decade.  The  revenue  declined  almost  continuously  from 
1893-4,  the  decrease  being  attributable  to  the  introduction  of  the 
contract  distillery  system,  and  in  later  years  to  famine.  But  since  1901 
there  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  the  revenue  from  this  source. 
In  1903-4  the  receipts  amounted  to  20  lakhs. 

The  revenue  derived  from  imported  liquors  is  trifling.  For  the  seven 
years  preceding  1901  the  receipts  averaged  Rs.  1,947. 

Each  District  treasury  is  a  local  depot  for  the  sale  of  stamps,  and 
every  tdli/k  treasury  is  a  branch  depot.  The  treasurers  or  potddrs  are 
ex-officio  vendors  of  stamps.  Besides  the  ex-officio  vendors  there  are 
Hcensed  vendors,  including  sub-postmasters,  who  are  respectable  men 
appointed  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner,  and  receive  discount  according 
to  the  nature  and  value  of  the  stamps  sold  and  the  place  of  sale. 

The  following  table  shows  the  net  revenue  from  judicial  and  non- 
judicial stamps  for  the  last  twenty  years  : — 


Average, 
1881-90. 

Average, 
1891-igtx). 

Rs. 

4,69,000 
3,12,000 

1901. 

iQO.S-       i 

Judicial  stamps 
Non-judicial  stamps 

Rs. 

.l>73,ooo 
2,55,000 

Rs. 

3,70,000 
2,60,000 

Rs. 

4,73,000 
.1,. 12,000 

Increases  in  the  sale  of  hundi  and  receipt  stamps  are  favourable  signs, 
being  usually  attributable  to  briskness  of  trade,  following  a  good  cotton 
crop.     Bad  seasons  have  a  marked  effect  on  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps 


4  TO  BERAR 

for  two  reasons  :  namely,  that  the  people  cannot  afford  to  go  to  law,  and 
that  the  prospect  of  recovering  anything,  even  if  a  suit  be  successful, 
is  poor.  Similarly,  by  affecting  trade,  they  cause  a  decrease  in  the  sales 
of  general  stamps,  though  this  effect  is  largely  counteracted  by  the 
necessity  for  borrowing.  Plague  in  Bombay  has  had  a  detrimental 
effect  on  trade,  and  consequently  on  the  sale  of  general  stamps  in 
Berar. 

During  the  period  of  the  Assignment  income-tax  was  not  levied  in 
the  province,  except  from  officers  of  the  administration.  It  has  been 
introduced  since  the  lease. 

The  Berar   Rural    Boards   Law    (1885)  was    the    enactment    which 

introduced    local    self-government    into    the    province  ;   but    the    first 

elections  for  idhtk  boards  did  not  take  place  till  late 

Local  and        j^^  ^ggg  ^^^  ^^^^.j    -^^  ^gg        .^y^^  District  of  Wunwas 

municipal.  •'  ^  .  r    1      1  i_-  l 

at  first  excluded  from  the  operation  of  the  law,  which 

was  only  extended  to  it  in  1892,  and  the  Melghat  tdluk  has  always 
been  unrepresented. 

The  newly  constituted  District  boards  commenced  their  work  in 
1890  ;  and  although  the  law,  the  rules  made,  and  the  system  of  accounts 
laid  down  were  not  at  first  clearly  understood,  the  working  of  the 
newly  formed  bodies  has  been  on  the  whole  satisfactory,  and  the 
members  have  displayed  some  interest  in  their  duties. 

There  are  now  twenty-one  tdluk  boards,  one  for  each  tdluk  outside 
the  Melghat,  and  six  '  District  boards.  The  latter  were  composed  in 
1 90 1  of  152  members,  of  whom  122  were  elected.  The  tdluk  boards 
had  373  members,  of  whom  243  were  elected.  The  functions  of 
District  boards  are  generally  those  mentioned  in  Vol.  IV,  chapter  ix  ; 
and  their  principal  duties  are  in  connexion  with  the  upkeep  of  roads, 
schools,  dispensaries,  resthouses,  and  drinking-water  sources.  The 
tdluk  boards  form,  in  practice,  the  electorate  for  the  District  boards  ; 
and  they  constitute  the  local  agencies  for  the  carrying  out  of  District 
board  works,  and  for  representing  to  the  District  boards  the  needs  of 
their  taluks. 

Speaking  generally,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  principles  of  local  self- 
government  have  made  much  headway.  The  percentage  of  actual 
voters  to  those  entitled  to  vote  is  usually  about  8  or  9,  and  sometimes 
as  low  as  3  or  4.  Nine  candidates  out  of  ten  would  probably  think  it  a 
greater  honour  to  be  appointed  by  Government  to  the  membership  of 
a  board  than  to  be  elected. 

Municipal  administration  was  introduced  into  the  towns  of  Amraotl, 
Akola,  EUichpur,  Basim,  Yeotmal,  and  Khamgaon  in  1869,  under 
special  rules  for  the  working  of  municipal  committees  drawn  up  under 
section  10  of  Act  XV  of  1867.    The  committees  were  composed  of  both 

•  Reduced  to  four  in  1905. 


LOCAL   AND  MUNLCIPAL 


411 


official  and  non-ofificial  members,  the  latter  being  in  some  committees 
nominated  by  the  Resident  and  in  others  elected  by  the  ratepayers. 
The  elective  principle  was  afterwards  abandoned.  The  small  town  of 
Yeotmal  could  not  maintain  a  municipality,  and  the  committee  there 
soon  ceased  to  exist.  In  1881  Shegaon  in  Akola  District  was  added  to 
the  list  of  municipal  towns.  In  18S3  a  conference  was  held  to  consider 
the  best  means  of  extending  municipal  self-government  in  Berar,  and 
municipalities  were  invited  to  submit  proposals.  The  next  reform  was 
the  application  of  Punjab  Act  IV  of  1873  to  Berar,  and  in  1884  Akot, 
in  Akola  District,  was  made  a  municipal  town.  The  Berar  Municipal 
Law  was  passed  in  1886,  but  did  not  come  into  full  force  till  1889-90. 
Since  then  elections  have  been  regularly  held  under  that  law. 


Income  and  Expenditure  of  District  Boards  in  Berar 


Average  for 

ten  years 
1891-2  to 

1901-2. 

) 

1903-4.     j 

1 900- 1. 

I 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

I)ico»tefro)ii — 

Land  revenue  .... 

3,596 

1,725 

•  .  . 

Provincial  rates 

3.33,576 

3,19,646 

3,40,111 

Interest  . 

317 

... 

Education 

47,461 

35,664 

37,502    ' 

Medical  . 

16 

245 

Scientific,  &c. 

.3,250 

1,905 

2,100 

Miscellaneous 

96,192 

1,33,148 

1,26,531 

Public  works  . 

6,585 

5,134 

14,169   : 

Pounds    . 

19,692 

5,466 

13,117 

Ferries    . 

862 

2,170 

2.153 

Total  income     . 
Expcudihire  on — 

5,",547 

5,04,858 

5,35.928   1 

Refunds 

42 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

Land  revenue  . 

660 

... 

... 

General  administration 

.38,355 

40,282 

41,012 

Education 

1,92,148 

1,90,880 

1,25,190 

Medical  . 

9,621 

14,028 

22,546 

Scientific,  &c. 

10,363 

8,779 

16,589 

Miscellaneous 

51,472 

5  2,. 368 

48,972    1 

Public  works  . 

2.87,342 

1,99,162 

2,69,950 
5,24-259 

Total  exp( 

;nditu 

re 

• 

5,90,003 

5,o.'5,499 

There  were,  in  1904,  twelve  municipalities  in  Berar.  'J'he  committees 
of  these  municipalities  consisted  of  173  members,  of  whom  81  were 
elected;  54  were  officials  and  119  non-officials;  28  of  the  members 
were  Europeans.  The  attention  of  municipalities  has  been  mainly 
devoted  to  surface  drainage  and  general  improvement  of  sanitation,  the 
upkeep  of  roads,  education,  and  public  health.  The  resources  of  most 
of  the  municipalities  in  Berar  were  severely  strained  by  the  famine  of 


4T2 


BERAR 


1899-1900,  and  assistance  by  means  of  grants  from  Provincial  revenues 
was  found  necessary.  The  municipalities  generally  have  shown  some 
remissness  in  the  collection  of  arrears  of  taxation.  The  financial 
condition  of  all  places,  except  Akola,  Khamgaon,  and  the  AmraotI  civil 
station,  is  now  satisfactory,  and  in  these  three  an  increase  of  taxation 
is  possible. 

Electoral  privileges  are  not  highly  valued.  When  the  elective  prin- 
ciple was  first  introduced,  it  was  believed  that  the  apathy  of  the  elector- 
ate was  due  to  ignorance,  and  that  as  the  privileges  of  self-government 
came  to  be  understood  they  would  be  appreciated.  These  anticipations 
have  not  been  realized.  The  proportion  of  actual  voters  to  the  whole 
body  of  the  electorate  varies  much  at  different  times  and  in  different 
municipalities,  but  a  study  of  the  figures  for  the  period  from  1 889-90  to 
1 900-1  can  only  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  interest  in  municipal  self- 
government  has  declined  and  is  declining. 

Income  and  Expenditure  of  Municipalities  in  Berar 


Average 

for  ten  years 

IQOI. 

1Q03-4. 

1891-IQOO. 

Tnco7ne  from — 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Tax  on  houses  and  lands    . 

6,389 

35,377 

37,040 

Other  taxes         .... 

57.576 

64,099 

97,542 

Rents 

16,390 

15,036 

19,472 

Loans        

13,766* 

31,000 

Other  sources  t .... 

Total  income 
Expenditure  on — 

3,78,882 

2,13,519 

1,32,847 
2,86,901 

4,73,003 

3,59,031 

Administration  and  collection  of 

taxes      

iS,399 

24,879 

24,076 

Public  safety      .... 

9,399 

9,149 

10,310 

Water-supply  and  drainage — 

{a)  Capital  .... 

26,017 

2,752 

20,527 

{b')  Maintenance  . 

25,116 

16,392 

18,072 

Conservancy  %    . 

61,211 

66,976 

73,711 

Hospitals  and  dispensaries 

8,081 

8,810 

6,499 

Public  works     .... 

28,725 

1,37,170 

31,394 

Education          .... 

24,491 

39,^85 

41,376 

Other  heads       .... 
Total  expenditure 

1,93,168 

2,06,440 

54,123 

3,94,607 

5,11,653 

2,80,088 

*  Figures  for  three  years,  1893,  1894,  ^"d  1900. 

t  'Other  sources'  includes  income  from  pounds,  hackney  carriages,  sale-proceeds 
of  lands  and  produce  of  lands,  conservancy  receipts  other  than  taxes  and  rates,  fees 
from  institutions,  markets,  slaughter-houses,  &c.,  interest  on  investments,  grants  and 
contributions,  and  recoveries  on  account  of  services. 

;  Including  road-cleaning  and  watering  and  latrines. 

The  province  is  divided  into  two  Public  Works  divisions,  each  under 
the  charge  of  an  Executive  Engineer.  The  East  Berar  division  con- 
sists of  the   Districts  of  AmraotI  and  Yeotmal,   and  the  West  Berar 


POLICE   AND  JAILS  413 

division  of  the  Districts  of  Akola  and  Buldana.     These  two  divisions 

are  controlled   by  a  Superintending   Engineer,  who  was  formerly  also 

Secretary  in  the  Public  Works  department  to  the  Resi-     „  , ,. 

TTi       1-1  1,,,-,       1  Public  works, 

dent  at   Hyderabad,    and   had    his    head-quarters  at 

Bolarum  ;  but  since  Berar  has  been  transferred  to  the  administration  of 

the  Central  Provinces  the  head-quarters  of  the  Superintending  Engineer 

have  been  moved  to  Nagpur. 

The  department  carries  out  all  Provincial  public  works  and  repairs, 
and  also  original  works  debitable  to  incorporated  Local  funds  costing 
over  Rs.  1,000.  District  boards  carry  out  incorporated  Local  fund 
public  works  costing  Rs.  1,000  and  less,  and  all  repairs  in  works  other 
than  Provincial  public  works. 

The  sum  available  for  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending 
1 89 1-2  averaged  ii-i  lakhs,  and  for  the  next  decade  14-6  lakhs.  The 
normal  expenditure  was  less  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former  period,  but 
the  large  expenditure  of  60  lakhs  necessitated  by  the  famine  of  1899- 
1900  led  to  the  increase  in  total  expenditure  during  the  latter  decennium. 
The  expenditure  on  civil  works  in  1 901-2  and  1903-4  was  7-1  lakhs 
and  6-5  lakhs  respectively. 

Berar  contains  no  notable  public  works  ;  but  it  is  very  well  provided 
with  roads,  and  communications  are  the  principal  item  of  expenditure. 
Civil  buildings,  such  as  court-houses,  schools,  dispensaries,  police 
stations,  «^c.,  come  next  in  importance  to,  but  far  behind,  communi- 
cations. No  large  schemes  of  municipal  drainage  have  been  taken  in 
hand.  A  drainage  project  for  Amraotl,  the  cost  of  which  is  estimated  at 
nearly  5  lakhs,  was  prepared  in  189 1-2,  but  has  not  been  begun  owing 
to  want  of  funds.  The  town  and  civil  station  of  Amraoti,  and  the  towns 
of  Akola,  Khamgaon,  and  Buldana  each  have  a  system  of  artificial 
water-supply  which,  though  ordinarily  good,  cannot  withstand  a  long 
drought. 

The  number  of  soldiers  stationed  within  the  province  on  June  i, 
1903,  was  629,  nearly  all  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Native  army.  Berar 
lies  partly  within  the  Mhow  division  of  the  Western 
Command  and  partly  within  the  independent  Secun- 
derabad  division.  The  only  military  station,  EUichpur  (since  vacated), 
was  in  the  latter.  The  Berar  Volunteer  Rifles,  who  numbered  125  in 
1903,  have  their  head-quarters  company  at  Amraoti,  and  a  second 
company  at  Akola. 

Soon  after  the  Assignment  steps  were  taken  to  organize  a  regular 
police  force  for  the  province.     In  1870  this  consisted  of  2,613  officers 
and   men,  or  one  policeman  to  every    6-77    square 
miles  of  country  and  to  every  849  of  the  population.  ... 

Since  then  the  increase  has  been   trifling,  and  has 
failed  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase  of  population.     The  number  of 


414 


/>EKAR 


officers  and  men  in  1903  was  2,900,  giving  one  policeman  to  every  6-i 
square  miles  of  country  and  to  every  949  inhabitants.  There  are 
no  rural  police. 

The  force  is  recruited  principally  in  the  province,  and  the  sanction  of 
the  Inspcctor-CJeneral  of  Police  is  necessary  for  the  enlistment  of  men 
who  are  not  natives  of  Berar  or  the  Deccan.  The  enlistment  of  Gurkhas, 
Sikhs,  and  frontier  Pathans  is  prohibited ;  and  the  authorized  pro- 
portions of  various  classes  in  the  police  are  40  per  cent.  Musalmans, 
20  per  cent.  Hindus  of  Hindustan,  and  40  per  cent.  Hindus  of  the 
Deccan  and  other  classes.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  suitable 
Hindus,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  enlist  Musalmans  in  excess  of  the 
fixed  proportion. 

The  newly  enlisted  policeman  is  trained  in  each  District  in  a  school, 
where  reading,  writing,  elementary  arithmetic,  drill,  and  the  laws  and 
departmental  rules  which  apply  to  the  duties  of  the  police  are  taught. 
Four  standards  of  examination  have  been  framed  for  non-gazetted 
officers  and  constables,  and  promotion  is  chiefiy  regulated  by  the  results 
of  these  examinations.  Service  in  the  police  cannot  be  said  to  be 
popular  among  educated  natives. 

No  special  measures  have  been  taken  of  late  years  to  improve  the 
status  and  character  of  the  police  force.  The  principal  measure  adopted 
for  the  repression  of  organized  and  habitual  crime  has  been  the  closer 
supervision  of  Banjara  encampments  or  fdndds,  which  have  in  most 
cases  been  moved  closer  to  the  sites  of  the  villages  in  the  lands  of  which 
they  are  situated.  Banjaras  were  formerly  employed  as  detectives,  but 
the  measure  was  only  partially  successful ;  for  they  were  not  always 
trustworthy,  and  were  of  no  further  use  when  their  occupation  became 
known  to  their  fellows.  Anthropometry  has  been  abandoned  as  a  means 
of  identifying  criminals,  and  dactylography  has  taken  its  place.  The 
finger-print  records  have  been  largely  increased  of  late  years,  and  the 
police  should  soon  have  a  complete  record  of  habitual  criminals  in 
the  province. 


iSSi. 

8 
18 

j     501 
2,134 

1891. 

1901. 

1904- 

Supervising  Staff. 
District  and  Assistant  Super- 
intendent 
Inspectors  . 

Subordinate  Staff. 
Chief  constables 
Head  constables 
Constables .... 

Total 

8 
19 

526} 
2,323 

8 
19 

113 

430 

2,3.^0 

8 
19 

113 

430 

2,3.^0 

2,661 

2,876 

2,900 

2,900 

POLICE  AND  JAILS 


415 


Of  the  District  police,  56  are  armed  with  batons  only,  1,799  with 
swords,  and  1,01 8  with  smooth-bore  carbines. 

The  railway  police  force  consists  of  one  inspector,  2  chief  constables, 
12  head  constables,  and  58  constables.  Their  range  is  the  branch  of 
the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  which  traverses  the  province,  and 
they  are  under  the  control  of  the  District  Superintendents  of  AmraotT 
and  Akola. 

The  table  on  p.  414  gives  the  sanctioned  strength  in  the  various 
ranks  of  the  police  at  different  periods. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  cognizable  crime  : — 


Average  for 

five  years 

enaing 

1901. 

1903. 

9,318 

7,323 
409 

6,858 

1904. 

Number  of  cases  reported 

Number    of    cases    decided    in    the 
criminal  courts     .          •         .         . 

Number  of  cases  ending  in  acquittal 
or  dischnrge          .... 

Number   of    cases   ending    in    con- 
viction         ..... 

'0,323 

7-374 

642 

6,704- 

8,966 
6,883 

4SS 
6,343     ' 

The  following  table 
1 90 1,  and  1904  : — 


i88i. 

1891. 

1901. 

1904. 

Number  of  Central  jails 

2 

2 

, 

0 

Number  of  District  jails 

4 

4 

4 

3 

Number  of  Subsidiary 

jails  (lock-ups)  . 

I 

•  .  • 

I 

Average  dailyjail  popu- 

lation : — 

(a)  Male. 

In  Central  jails    . 

1,033-53 

730-S8 

1,055.18 

543-40 

In  other  jails 

181.S6 

214.85 

256-11 

153-13 

i^b)  Female. 

In  Central  jails    . 

44-93 

29.49 

35-76 

13-35 

In  other  jails 

Total 

Rate  of  mortality   per 

11.48 
1,271-80 

15-06 
990.28 

lO-IO 

i,357-J5 

14-36 

724-24 

1,000 

16. 1 

II. I 

25-79 

i6-57 

Expenditure      on     jail 

maintenance     .     Rs. 

75,4*8 

6i,oS6 

1.0^584 

61,742 

Cost  per  prisoner     Ks. 

69-4-11 

61-12-0 

80-0-2 

85-3- 11 

Profits    on    jail    manu- 

factures  .         .      Rs. 

12,047 

12,800 

17,825 

19,615 

Earnings    per  prisoner 

Rs. 

9-14-3 

14-1-0 

16-7-0 

1 2-1 2-0 

4i6  BERAR 

Since  the  redistribution  of  the  Districts  in  August,  1905,  the  jails  in 
Berar  are  classified  as  follows  :  the  jails  at  Amraoti  and  Akola  are 
Central  jails,  those  at  Jkildana  and  Yeotmal  District  jails,  and  those 
at  Ellichpur  and  Basim  subsidiary  jails. 

The  principal  industries  are:  in  the  Amraoti  jail,  the  lithographic 
printing  of  forms  for  official  use,  and  weaving  ;  and  in  the  Akola  jail, 
the  manufacture  of  police  and  prison  clothing,  and  weaving.  Blankets 
are  woven  in  both  jails.  In  the  small  District  jails  coarse  weaving, 
blanket-weaving,  and  oil-pressing  are  the  principal  industries  ;  and  the 
prisoners  in  all  jails  provide  for  their  own  needs  by  tilling  the  jail 
gardens  and  grinding  their  own  meal.  Stone-breaking  is  the  commonest 
form  of  unskilled  labour.  Different  departments  of  the  administration 
lake  the  greater  part  of  the  jail  produce.  Textiles,  such  as  towels, 
dusters,  tape,  &c.,  are  sold  by  private  arrangement. 

Neither  under  Hindu  nor  under  Muhammadan  rule  were  there  any 
schools  in  Berar  expressly  supported  by  the  Government.     Brahmans 
.  in  receipt  of  money-grants  and  indms  taught  Sanskrit 

and  Marathi,  in  most  instances  for  payment ;  and 
schools  in  which  the  Arabic  of  the  Koran,  Persian,  and  Urdu  were 
taught  were  supported  by  wealthy  Musalmans  as  a  work  of  merit.  The 
profession  of  teaching  was  regarded  as  derogatory,  and  was  compared 
to  the  herding  of  cattle.  In  1862  a  few  Marathi  and  Anglo-Marathi 
schools  \vere  established  and  placed  under  District  officers  ;  and  in  1866, 
when  there  were  35  schools  with  an  attendance  of  1,881  pupils,  a  depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction  was  organized  under  the  control  of  a  Director, 
assisted  by  a  Deputy-Inspector  for  each  District.  Two  European 
Inspectors  were  next  appointed,  but  after  1873  there  was  only  one 
Inspector  for  the  whole  province.  In  1903  the  administration  of  Berar 
was  transferred  to  the  Central  Provinces,  and  the  supervising  agency 
under  the  Director  of  Public  Instruction  for  both  areas  now  consists  in 
Berar  of  one  European  Circle  Inspector,  and  eleven  Deputy  and  Sub- 
Deputy-Inspectors. 

There  is  no  college  in  Berar,  but  scholarships  are  tenable  in  the  Arts, 
Science,  and  Medical  colleges  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  by  candidates 
from  the  Berar  high  schools.  The  educational  authorities  in  Berar  are 
not  directly  concerned  with  the  further  education  of  those  who  proceed 
to  these  colleges.  In  1881  nine,  in  1891  fifteen,  and  in  1903  twenty- 
seven  students  from  Berar  matriculated,  and  the  average  annual  number 
of  graduates  for  the  last  fourteen  years  has  been  two. 

Secondary  schools  are  of  two  classes :  namely,  high  and  middle 
schools,  English  being  taught  in  both.  There  are  seven  standards  in 
the  curriculum  of  English  education,  the  first  three  of  which  form  the 
middle  school  course.  The  first  English,  which  succeeds  the  fourth 
vernacular  standard,  includes  arithmetic  to  the  end  of  compound  pro- 


EDUCATION 


417 


portion,  reading  and  writing  the  vernacular,  history  and  geography, 
and  elementary  instruction  in  English.  These  subjects,  together  with 
grammar,  constitute  the  middle  school  course,  a  wider  knowledge  of 
each  subject  being  of  course  required  in  each  successive  standard.  The 
high  school  course  begins  with  the  fourth  standard.  'I'o  the  subjects 
already  taught  elementary  algebra  and  drawing  are  added,  a  classical 
language,  Sanskrit  or  Persian,  may  be  substituted  for  the  vernacular, 
and  geography  and  history  are  taught  in  English.  In  the  fifth  standard 
Euclid  and  easy  English  composition  are  begun.  The  sixth  standard 
is  similar,  but  more  advanced ;  and  the  seventh  is  the  matriculation 
standard  of  the  Bombay  University.  There  is  a  private  unaided  high 
and  middle  school  at  AmraotT.  The  proportion  of  boys  undergoing 
secondary  instruction  to  the  total  male  population  of  school-going  age 
in  1904  was  6-05  per  cent. 

There  are  six  purely  vernacular  standards.  In  the  first  standard 
the  pupil  learns  reading,  the  writing  of  the  alphabet,  and  elementary 
arithmetic  ;  in  the  third,  geography ;  in  the  fourth,  elementary  hygiene 
and  history;  and  in  the  sixth,  the  first  bovik  of  Euclid  and— as  an 
optional  subject — land  measurement  are  added  to  the  curriculum. 

Primary  schools  are  under  the  management  of  municipalities  and 
District  boards.  In  addition  to  the  cess  of  3  pies  per  rupee  of  land 
revenue,  the  contribution  of  Government  towards  their  maintenance 
consists  of  a  grant  from  Provincial  revenues,  which  is  made  over  to 
District  boards.  Municipalities  supply  two-thirds  of  the  expenditure  on 
primary  schools  in  towns,  one-third  being  contributed  from  Provincial 
revenues.  A  few  municipalities  receive  subsidies  from  District  boards. 
The  pay  of  teachers  in  primary  schools  ranges  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  35. 
A  tendency  to  cultivate  the  memory  rather  than  the  intelligence  of 
pupils  is  still  noticeable,  but  it  is  probable  that  this  defect  will  disappear 
by  degrees,  now  that  the  proportion  of  trained  teachers  is  increasing. 
The  proportion  of  boys  under  primary  instruction  to  the  total  male 
population  of  school-going  age  in  1904  was  ly-ai  per  cent. 

Female  education  has  not  yet  advanced  beyond  the  primary  stage. 
The  number  of  girls'  schools  was  12  in  i88r,  48  in  1891,  and  47  (includ- 
ing 3  private  institutions)  in  1904;  the  proportion  of  female  scholars  to 
the  female  population  of  school-going  age  in  those  years  was  0-14,  0-22, 
and  I-I2  per  cent.  Girls'  schools  are  supported  and  managed  by 
municipalities  and  District  boards.  The  subjects  taught  are  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  plain  needlework,  knitting,  and  fancy 
work.  Progress  has  been  fairly  satisfactory  ;  but  the  people  in  general 
still  need  to  be  convinced  that  female  education  is  a  good  thing.  A  great 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  any  thorough  teaching  is  the  practice  of  with- 
drawing girls  from  school  at  a  very  early  age,  due,  among  Hindus,  to  the 
custom  of  infant  marriage,  and,  among  Muhammadans,  to  the  general 

VOL.  \  II.  K  e 


4i8 


ff.rAr 


feeling  that  a  L^irl  who  has  attained  the  age  of  puberty,  which  may  bo 
fixed  at  about  twelve,  is  better  at  home  than  at  school. 

The  training  school  for  teachers  at  Akola  is  a  useful  institution.  It 
contains  Marathl  and  Hindustani  divisions,  and  was  attended  in  r88i 
by  71  teachers,  in  1891  by  91,  and  in  1904  by  47.  The  Government 
industrial  school  at  Amraoti  is  at  i)resent  an  unimportant  institution, 
with  an  attendance  of  12.  The  Alliance  Mission  Workshop  at  Akola 
is  an  industrial  school  under  competent  management,  with  an  attendance 
of  29,  Instruction  is  given  in  ironwork,  carpentry,  and  other  handicrafts, 
and  the  pupils  are  generally  well  started  in  the  world.  In  the  Korku 
Mission  school  at  EUichpur,  62  pupils  are  taught  masonry,  painting, 
smiths'  work,  and  carpentry. 

The  Convent  school  and  the  Anglican  school  at  Amraoti  are  the  only 
schools  for  Europeans  and  Eurasians  in  the  province.  Both  are  mixed 
schools.  In  1904  the  former  had  on  its  rolls  17  boys  and  27  girls,  and 
the  latter  1 1  boys  and  3  girls.  The  highest  standard  in  the  former  was 
the  seventh,  and  in  the  latter  the  fifth,  and  the  two  schools  received 
monthly  grants  of  Rs.  100  and  Rs.  40.  Roys  have  usually  proceeded 
from  these  schools  tf)  others  before  making  a  start  in  life. 

From  the  following  table,  which  shows  for  the  three  census  years 
1881,  1891,  and  1901  the  percentage  of  Muhammadan  and  Hindu  boys 
attending  secondary  and  primary  schools  to  the  total  male  population 
of  school-going  age  of  each  class,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  Berar  Musalmans 
are  not  behind  Hindus  in  appreciating  the  benefits  of  education  : — 


■ 

1881. 

1 89 1. 

1901- 

Musalmans. 

Hindus. 

Musalmans. 

Hindus. 

Musalmans. 

Hindus. 

In  secondary  schools 
In  primary  schools   . 

0-03 
17.07 

0.08 
9-45 

1-46 
25-91 

1-36 

12.28 

1.24 
19.91 

I-I3 
ICO 

These  figures,  however,  include  all  classes  of  Hindus,  the  more  back- 
ward castes  among  whom  have  hardly  been  touched  by  education  ;  and 
it  must  be  understood  that  Musalmans  as  a  class  are  far  less  anxious 
for  education  than  Brahmans  and  other  advanced  castes  among  Hindus. 
Satisfactory  progress  has,  nevertheless,  been  made.  The  establishment 
of  separate  Hindustani  schools,  the  existence  of  which  dates  back  almost 
to  the  introduction  of  a  system  of  education,  can  hardly  be  mentioned 
as  an  instance  of  special  encouragement,  for  the  Musalman  has  as  much 
right  to  receive  instruction  through  the  medium  of  his  mother  tongue  as 
the  Maratha  has  to  receive  it  through  the  medium  of  his.  Musalmans 
are,  however,  encouraged  by  being  treated  leniently  in  the  matter  of 
fees.  The  standards  and  the  subjects  taught  in  Hindustani  schools  are 
similar  to  those  in  the  curriculum  for  Marathi  schools ;  but  instruction 


EDUCATION 


419 


is  conveyed  in  Urdu,  and  in  the  first  standard  no  Marathi  is  taught. 
In  the  second  and  subsequent  standards  the  pupil  learns  Marathi;  but 
after  the  fourth  standard  he  may  proceed  to  the  middle-school  course, 
when  he  may  abandon  Marathi  and  take  Urdu  as  his  sole  vernacular 
language,  or  he  may  complete  his  vernacular  education  by  going  on  to 
the  fifth  and  sixth  standards. 

It  has  occasionally  been  necessary  to  open  here  and  there  special 
schools  for  the  lowest  castes,  such  as  Mahars  and  Mangs,  but  the  last 
of  these  schools  was  closed  in  1902  for  want  of  attendance.  The  need 
for  these  institutions  no  longer  exists,  as  the  prejudice  which  prevented 
low-caste  boys  from  attending  ordinary  schools  has  given  way  to  a  more 
enlightened  feeling. 

There  are  two  schools  in  the  Melghat  for  Korkus,  among  whom 
education  is  making  fair  progress,  though  none  have  yet  passed  beyond 
the  primary  stage.  In  1891  only  127  Korkus  attended  school,  and  in 
1904  the  returns  show  only  38  Korku  girls  at  these  schools. 

Education.\l  Finance  in  Berak,   1903-4 


Expenditure,  on  institutions  mainta 
funds  from 

ned  or  aide( 

1  hy  public 

1 

District 
I'loxincial           and 
revenues.      niunicii;al 
funds. 

Fees. 

Rs. 

'7,073 

20,226 

•^9.5 

Other 
sources. 

i 
Total.      \ 

Secondary  schools 
Primary  schools   . 
Training    and    special 
schools     . 

Total 

Rs.                  Rs. 
.f  9,048                  181 
25.977         228,800 

8,863      '           I, OS  2 

1 

Rs. 

7>574 
2 3. 70S 

Rs. 

83,-^76 
.98. 71 1 

10,240 

93,888          230,063 

37-,^94 

31,282 

392,827   j 

The  following  figures  show  the  percentage  of  males  and  females  of 
school-going  age  under  instruction  in  the  three  last  census  years : — 


Males    . 
Females 


1881. 


6.41 

0.14 


i8gi. 


0-2  2 


I9OI. 


12-12 
1.12 


Education  has  made  considerable  progress.  In  1901,  8-53  per  cent, 
of  the  male  and  0-31  of  the  female  population  could  read  and  write. 
Ellichpur  and  Amraoti  Districts  are  the  most  advanced,  and  Wun 
is  the  most  backward  in  respect  of  education.  The  Brahmans  are 
the  most  highly  educated  section  of  the  indigenous  population,  and  the 
Kolams,  among  whom  not  a  single  person  can  read  or  write,  the  most 
ignorant.  The  Banjaras,  Andhs,  and  Mangs  are  little  better  than  the 
Kolams. 


420 


PERAR 


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Number 
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Class  of  institutions. 

Pithlic. 
.Secondary  schools  : — 

Upper  (High)  . 

Lower  (Middle) 
Primary  schools    . 
Trainin<T  schools  . 
Other  special  schools    . 

Private. 
Advanced     . 
Elementary  . 

Total 

MEDICAL 


421 


Monthly  fees  in  primary  schools  range  from  2  annas  for  the  first  two 
standards  to  6  annas  for  the  sixth  ;  in  middle  schools  from  8  to  1 2  annas; 
and  in  high  schools  from  Rs.  1-8-0  to  Rs.  2-0-0. 

No  English  newspapers  are  published.  In  1904  six  Marathi  papers 
were  published,  one  of  which  had  English  columns.  Their  circulation 
is  local,  and  they  have  little  influence.  Twelve  books,  all  in  Marathi, 
were  registered  in  1904.  The  books  published  in  the  province  deal 
principally  with  religious  and  social  subjects,  and  cannot  be  said  to 
contain  evidence  of  original  research. 

Soon  after  the  Assignment  in  1853,  steps  were  taken  to  provide 
medical  aid  by  the  establishment  of  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  the 
administration  of  which  was  entrusted  to  Civil  Sur- 
geons of  Districts.  By  1871  there  were  3  civil  hos- 
pitals and  20  charitable  dispensaries  in  the  province.  The  progressive 
increase  in  the  number  of  these  institutions  is  shown  in  the  table 
below.  In  1895  a  hospital  for  females  was  opened  in  Amraoti 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Lady  Dufferin  Fund  Committee.  This 
institution  has  made  satisfactory,  though  not  rapid,  progress.  The 
average  annual  numbers  of  in-patients,  out-patients,  and  operations 
since  its  establishment  have  been  159,  6,069,  and   153. 


Medical. 


Statistics  of  Medical  Institutions  and  Vaccination   in  Berar 


1881. 

1891. 

1 90 1. 

1903-4. 

Hospitals,  ^c. 

Number  of  civil  hospitals  and   dis- 

jjensaries        ..... 

36 

44 

47 

47 

Average  daily  miniber  of: — 

(a)  In-patients      .... 

77-25 

100 

i6i-o8 

126-15 

{U)  Out-patients    .... 

1,437-17 

1,803.97 

2,303-10 

2,056-98 

Income  from  : — 

{a)  Government  payments    .    Rs. 

81,614 

8-',975 

60,035 

65,312* 

{b)  Local     and     municipal     pay- 

ments         .         .         .    Rs. 

8,064 

20,119 

20,234 

15,788* 

{c)  Fees,  endowments,   and  other 

sources       .         .         .     Rs. 

10,062 

4,040 

4,405 

8,294* 

Expenditure  on  : — 

(«)  Establishment         .         .     Rs. 

74,058 

76,959 

48,987 

52,567 

{b)  Medicines,  diet,  buildings,  &c. 

Rs. 

18,564 

22,405 

27,113 

28,274 

Vaccination. 

Population   among   whom    vaccina- 

tion was  carried  on        .         .         . 

2,672,673 

2,897,040 

2,897,040 

2, 754,0  r  6 

Number  of  successful  operations 

81,000 

102,596 

86,483 

100,751 

Ratio  per  i  ,000  of  population  . 

30.8 

36 

29.9 

36-58 

Total  expenditure  on  vaccination  Rs. 

17,192 

16,660 

17,626 

17,325 

Cost  per  successful  case    .         .    Rs. 

0-3- i^ 

0-2-7 

0-3-3 

0-2-9 

'   Tlirse  liguirs  aie  for  tlie  calendar  j-eav  190.?       Inforinatioii  for  tlio  official  >Tar  l9(),?-4  is  not 
a\ailable. 


422 


BERAR 


N\)  lunatic  asylum  has  been  established  in  the  province,  and  lunatics 
for  whose  custody  it  is  necessary  to  provide  are  sent  to  the  asylum  at 
Nagpur.  The  principal  causes  of  insanity  are  said  to  be  the  abuse  of 
alcohol  and  narcotic  drugs,  enforced  widowhood  among  Hindus  and 
the  za/ia/ia  system  among  Musalmans,  physical  ailments,  and  pecuniary 
losses. 

There  was  no  indigenous  method  of  inoculation  in  Berar  before  the 
introduction  of  vaccination  by  the  British  Government,  and  it  seems 
that  vaccination  was  at  first  regarded,  if  not  with  disfavour,  at  least  as 
an  innovation  of  doubtful  utility.  This  feeling  has  been  gradually 
removed. 

The  pice-packet  system  of  selling  quinine  through  the  agency  of  the 
Post  Office  was  introduced  in  January,  1895,  in  which  year  1,337  packets 
were  sold.  In  1896  the  aid  of  the  Forest  department  was  enlisted.  In 
1904  the  total  number  of  packets  sold  was  281,729,  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  people  are  awakening  to  the  value  of  this  drug. 

Village  sanitation  is  attended  to  by  village  officials  and  by  rural 
boards  under  the  advice  and  encouragement  of  District  sanitary  boards 
and  of  officials  on  tour  ;  but  very  much  remains  to  be  done  in  this 
direction,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  any  considerable  number  of  the 
people  have  as  yet  any  knowledge  of  elementary  sanitary  principles. 

The  revenue  survey  of  Berar  was  begun  in  1853-4,  the  year  of 
Assignment,  in  the  Malkapur  faluk.  In  1855-6  and  1857-8  the 
Balapur  tdli/k  was  surveyed,  and  the  survey  of 
the  taluks  which  then  existed  proceeded  in  the 
following  order:  jalgaon  (1857-8);,  Mehkar  (i86o-i),  Akot,  Chikhli, 
Daryapur,  and  Murtazapur  (1861-2).  In  the  Berar  revenue  survey 
areas  are  calculated  by  the  English  acre,  divided  into  40  giaitas, 
each  giinta  being  subdivided  into  16  'annas.'  The  chain  used  is 
2^2)  feet  long,  and  is  composed  of  16  links.  A  gunta  is  one  square 
chain,  and  an  'anna'  is  one  chain  long  by  one  link  broad.  Native 
surveyors  survey  with  the  chain  and  a  cross  staff,  and  a  proportion  of 
their  work  is  checked  by  the  survey  officer.  The  original  survey  of  the 
province  was  generally  checked  and  revised  between  189T  and  190 1, 
but  the  survey  of  the  Kelapur  and  Wun  taluks  has  yet  to  be  revised. 
Munsarims,  under  the  control  of  Deputy-Commissioners  and  the  de- 
partment of  Land  Records  and  Agriculture,  are  entrusted  with  the 
duty  of  keeping  surveys  up  to  date.  Many  of  the  patwdris  go  through 
a  course  of  surveying  in  the  Survey  Training  School  at  Akola. 

[A.  C.  Lyall,  Berar  Gazetteer  (1870)  ;  The  Gazetteer  of  Aurangdbdd 
(1884).;  Dr.  R.  G.  Bhandarkar,  Early  History  of  the  Dekkan  (1895); 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xiii ;  Records  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  i,  part  iii  ;  General  Report  op  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  India  (1902-5)  ;  Brandis,  Suggestions  regarding  Forest 


BETiASTA  423 

Administration  in  t/ie  Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts  (1879) ;  Taluk  Set- 
tlement Reports,  enumerated  under  District  articles. 

Berasia  {Barasia). — Head-quarters  of  the  Nizamat-i-Shimal  or 
northern  district  of  the  Bhopal  State,  Central  India,  situated  in  23° 
38'  N.  and  77*^  27'  E.,  24  miles  by  metalled  road  from  Bhopal  city. 
Population  (1901),  4,276.  Under  Akbar,  Berasia  was  included  in  the 
sarkdr  oi  Raisen  in  the  Siibaii  of  Mahva.  In  1709  Dost  Muhammad 
Khan  acquired  the  neighbouring  country  on  lease,  and  by  rapidly  ex- 
tending his  dominions  founded  the  Bhopal  State.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  tract  was  seized  by  Jaswant  Rao  Ponwar  of  Dhar,  and  sub- 
sequently fell  to  Amir  Khan,  who  made  it  over  in  jdglr  to  the  famous 
Pindari  leader  Karim  Khan.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Pindaris  in 
181 7  it  was  restored  to  Dhar,  but  was  confiscated  in  1859,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  made  over  to  Bhopal  as  a  reward  for  services  ren- 
dered during  the  Mutiny.  In  the  town  stands  a  mosque  built  by  Dost 
Muhammad  in  17 16,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  his  father,  Nur 
Muhammad  Khan.  Besides  the  usual  offices,  a  school,  a  dispensary, 
and  a  British  and  a  State  ix)St  office  are  iiiaintained  here. 


OXFORD 
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