The imperial gazetteer of India

UNIVERS ITYOFMAS

THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA.

MORRISON AND GIBB, EDINBURGH,
PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

The Imperial Gazetteer of India.

W. W. HUNTER, C.S.I., CLE., LL.D.,

D,RECTOR-GENERAL OK STATISTICS TO THE GOVERNMENT OK INDIA.

VOLUME VIII.
KARENS TO MADNAgARH.

UNITED STATES AlR FORrE

CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH CENTER

GEOPHYSICS

RESEARCH LIBRARY

SECOND EDITION,

TRUBNE.R & CO., LONDON, 18

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THE IHDIArr 1MHH

Prepared for DT H W Bunierfe

MPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA

: —

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER

OF

INDIA.

VOLUME VIII.

Karens (or Karengs). — A semi-aboriginal tribe of Mongolian origin,
inhabiting Siam, Independent Burma, and the British Districts of
Lower Burma. They are scattered throughout British Burma, from
Mergui in the south to beyond Taung-ngu in the extreme north, and
from the Salwin (Salween) Hills in the east to as far as Arakan on the
west. They are found principally in Taung-ngu, Shwe-gyin, Amherst,
Tavoy, Mergui, Bassein, and Hanthawadi Districts. Among the race
themselves the word Karen (Burmese, ' aboriginal ') is not recognised as
a national appellation, and is only known to them as being their name
in Burmese. They are not the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
known as Burma. They point to forest-clad battlements of dilapidated
fortifications, and declare that 'these cities of our jungles were in ruins
when we came here ; this country is not our own. We came from the
north, where we were independent of the Burmese, and the Siamese,
and the Takings.'

From their traditions, it would seem that there have been three
great migrations of the Karens from the central plateau. They say :
'The Karens and Chinese in two companies, as elder and younger
brothers (the Karens the elder), wandered together from the West. The
journey was long, and continued for a long time. The two companies
were finally separated, as the younger brother went in advance of the
other. The company of the elder brother ceased to follow, and
founded cities and a kingdom of their own, but were conquered and
scattered by others who came after from the same quarter from which
they themselves came.' They refer to their ancestors having crossed
the River of Running Sand (the great Mongolian desert of Gobi), < that

VOL. VIII. A

^

2 KARENS.

fearful trackless region where the sands rolled before the wind like the
waves of the sea.' Again, from Northern China, perhaps about the
second century a.d., when they settled somewhere near Ava. And,
lastly, about the fifth or sixth century a.d., when they came southward
and spread over the mountains between the Irawadi, the Salwin, and
the Meinam, as far south as the seaboard. Here they have since
remained, a wild uncivilised race of mountaineers, broken up into
many petty clans and communities, jealous of and ceaselessly at war
with each other. Surrounded by Buddhist nations, they have retained
their primitive nature-worship, leavened with singular traces of a higher
but forgotten faith.

One feature that distinguishes the Karens from the peoples around
them is a tradition of their former possession of a more theistic religion
than the present worship of the spirits of nature, and the embodiment
of that religion in writings now lost. They are said to have traditions
of the creation and fall of man, coinciding minutely with the Scriptural
account, even preserving the names of Adam and Eve, of the Deluge,
the dispersion of nations, and the difference of languages. They have
a pure conception of a Supreme Being, whom they name Y'wah, and
who is perfect, good, omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient. These
alleged traditions undoubtedly point to some former communication
with Christian missionaries. The belief in the immortality of the soul
and a future state, which is common to most of the Karen tribes, is
entirely rejected by others, who hold that the life of man, as of animals,
ends with death.

The doctrine of the tripartite nature of man — namely, his body,
soul, and spirit — is elaborately developed among them. The human
spirit or ka-Id exists, before the man is born, in some mysterious
region, whence it is sent forth by God ; ' it comes into the world with
him, it remains with him until death, and, for aught that appears to
the contrary, is immortal.' Not only man has this ka-Id, but animals,
trees, plants, as well as spears, knives, arrows, stones, have their
separate and individual ka-Id. When the ka-Id is absent the object
dies, or is destroyed, or does not come into existence. The human
soul or heart is thah, and to it alone is attributed praise or blame.
Besides his ka-Id, every man has another principle or spirit attendant
on him called tso (power or influence), which may be defined as
reason.

The Karen tradition respecting their lost books is that formerly God
gave them books written with one-sided letters on skins containing His
laws. These books the Karens carelessly lost, and then the knowledge
of God and how to worship Him departed from them, except as a
misty tradition among their ancient wise men. They do not any
longer profess to worship the Father, God, and Creator Y'wah; they

KARENS. 3

know not how to serve Him. As the whole world is filled with
demons and spiritual beings, more or less malevolent and powerful,
they must devote themselves to the never-ending task of propitiating
these spirits. They have no images, nor, properly speaking, any
visible object of devotion. The worship paid to the ' Nats,' or Spirits
of Nature, is not one of love or even veneration, but simply of
fear and propitiation. The Karen addresses these spirits with
prayers and propitiatory offerings, to entreat them not to afflict
him with sickness or other bodily calamity; or to remove those
afflictions which he believes have come from them. The Karen thus
lives in an atmosphere of intense spiritualism — the air, the water,
the woods around him teem with invisible, intangible, and generally
malicious beings.

The Karen people are composed of three distinct tribes, the Sgau,
the Pwo, and the Bghai ; differing somewhat in their customs and
traditions, and considerably in their language. Each clan is sub-
divided into septs or clans, which also differ from each other in some
of their customs and idioms, and particularly in their dress. There are
three clans of Sgau, five of the Pwo, and six of the Bghai ; but these
only include the tribes and sub-tribes whose representatives are found
in British Burma. In the Shan districts beyond the British frontier are
the Ranlang, the Reng-ban, the Reng-tsaik, and others.

The Sgau tribe is found from Mergui to Prome and Taung-ngu.
On the east, a few have wandered over the watershed which separates
the Meinam from the Salwin, to the eastward of Zimme in Siam. On
the west, some of them have migrated into Arakan. They are foul
feeders. No animal food comes amiss with them : they eat vermin
and reptiles, such as rats, lizards, and snakes. They eat none of the
monkey tribe save the black monkey (Semnopithecus obscurus), which
is considered a great delicacy. The Pwo tribe is found scattered
along the coast from Mergui, up to and within the deltas of the Salwin,
Sittaung (Tsit-taung), and Irawadi rivers. They prefer the banks of
the creeks for their houses. They are very muscular, powerful men,
and make capital boatmen. The Bghai tribe inhabits the elevated
plateau of Karen-ni (q.v.).

Of the Karens, those who live in the plains are strongly built, with
large limbs ; while the mountaineers are a weaker people, with smaller
muscles and limbs. The men are about five feet five inches in height,
and the women not more than four feet nine. In general, they are
fairer than the Burmese, and the obliquity of the eyes and the cast
of the countenance more nearly approach the Chinese. * The head is
pyramidal, wider across the cheek-bones than across the temples, and
the bridge of the nose rises slightly above the face.' The houses vary
in shape, size, and construction. Some tribes live in comparatively

4 KARENS.

permanent houses, some in temporary sheds ; some have separate
structures for each family, others one for the whole village.

The villages of those who live among the hills are generally built in
the middle of the jungle, and remote from any frequented track. The
houses are of the poorest description j all the inhabitants in a village
form really one large family, being all connected by blood or marriage ;
no stranger can settle among them. Many large villages have never
seen a European face. Some few even manage to keep the Burmese
tax-gatherer outside by sending their revenue to him. This life of
freedom and independence is dearer to them than all the luxuries of
the plains. The only domestic animals they have are fowls, dogs, and
pigs ; dogs are eaten by the Bghai only.

The marriage tie is held in greater reverence than among the
Burmans. Divorce is only permitted in cases of adultery; and after
payment of the fine settled by the elders, the offending party is at
liberty to marry. Polygamy is not permitted, but is practised by some
of those who live near the Burmese. Children are generally betrothed
by their parents in infancy, and heavy damages are exacted for the
non-fulfilment of this obligation. A damsel thus jilted is entitled to
a kyi-zi for her head, another for her body, and a 'gong' to hide the
shame of her face. A kyi-zi is an enormous metal drum with only
one head, and varies in value from three up to one hundred pounds,
and is the standard of wealth among the Karens, as herds and flocks
are among pastoral nations.

Infanticide is rarely practised, but sometimes if a mother dies, her
infant is buried with her. Some of the tribes bury and some burn
their dead ; but those who ' resort to cremation state that it is com-
paratively a new practice, and that formerly they buried their dead. The
Karens are nominally bound to temperance by their religion ; but the
highest pleasure they can conceive is to get drunk. The price of blood is
still demanded. Slavery is common among all the tribes, and a clan of
the Bghai often sell their relations. The belief in witchcraft is strong.

Their language is monosyllabic, and has consequently no inflexions,
but is amply provided with suffixes and affixes; resembling the Chinese in
possessing six tones besides the simple root. The American Baptist
missionaries have reduced their language to writing, adopting a
modification of the Burmese alphabet to express it.

At present the Karens of British Burma can be divided into two
classes — those who have permanently settled in the plains and betaken
themselves to a regular system of agriculture, and those who still
remain in their primitive freedom on the hills. Although the former
still to a great extent retain their peculiar dress and language, they
have been greatly influenced by the Burmans both in manners and in
religion. Most of them now profess Buddhism.

KARENS. 5

The wild denizens of the hills and forests have preserved their
ancient customs ; except that blood-feuds, robbing, killing, and
kidnapping have to a great extent ceased. Their life is unsettled and
ever changing. To raise their scanty crops, the virgin forests on the
steep slopes of the hills are cleared and burnt. But the excessive
rainfall washes the soil off the surface, so that only one crop can be
raised on the same spot until it has again become overgrown with
jungle, and a fresh deposit of earth has formed. In two or three years
all the cultivable patches near a large village become exhausted. The
whole community then moves off to new localities, perhaps 30 or 40
miles away, since they may not trespass on what is regarded as the
range of another village.

Every year the dense forest must be attacked, and with infinite
labour large trees six feet in girth, and 100 to 150 feet in height,
felled, cut up, and burnt with the undergrowth, to clear the ground.
The crop usually consists of rice, maize, esculent roots of different
kinds, betel vines, and various pot herbs, with a small patch of cotton
to supply the housewife's loom. The Karen has to guard his patch
of cultivation against elephants, deer, hogs, and birds. But there is
one enemy against whom all his precautions are useless when it appears
in any number— the hill rat. Fortunately the visitations of this pest
occur only at long intervals of forty or fifty years; the rats generally settle
on a tract of country for two or three years in succession, till they have
reduced it to a desert. The Karens during such visitations kill and
salt the rats by thousands and eat them. From 1870 to 1874 the hill
country east of the Sittaung river was devastated by one of these rat-
invasions, and ^10,000 was expended by the British Government in
relieving the Karen tribe.

The customs, traditions, and beliefs that have been mentioned are
not found universally among all the tribes in the same degree.
According to the tradition of the most civilised Karens, they have
retrograded from a higher state. There are certainly some branches
who seem to have reached the extreme of barbarous debasement. In
one part of the Province between the Sittaung river and Karen-ni is
situated a mass of precipitous mountains. Here the Karens may be
found in the wildest and most degraded state ; knowing no arts, not
even how to weave their own garments, and too lazy or proud to
cultivate more than absolute necessity compels them.

In 1857, at the time of the Sepoy Mutiny in India, there arose among
the Karens a leader, named Meng-Laung, a mysterious character, who
affected to be an incarnation of the deity. He proclaimed that he had
appeared on earth to drive the British out of Burma and to establish a
Karen dynasty in Pegu. Many of the simple-minded Karens believed
in his divine mission. They joined him in large numbers from the

6 KARENS.

remotest villages. The rising was promptly suppressed in Bassein
District, but assumed a threatening character in Martaban and the
interior. After giving considerable trouble to the authorities, it was
eventually put down ; but excitement prevailed for months afterwards
among the Hill Karens. Every attempt to capture the leader proved
fruitless. At last he made his escape from British territory, and found
a refuge in the remote region of Eastern Karen-ni.

When the members of the American Baptist Mission first came to
the Karens in 1828 with a Book out of which they taught words
strangely agreeing with the Karen tradition, they were respectfully
listened to. The results of missionary labours among the Karens
have been excellent. The cessation of blood-feuds, and the peaceable
way in which the various tribes are living together, is more due to the
influence of the missionaries than to measures adopted by the British
Government. The missionaries have a well-graded system of schools,
both in the jungles and in the towns. In 1881, the American Baptist
Mission had among the Karens 16 foreign ordained and 91 native
ordained agents, 19 foreign lay agents (of whom 18 were females), 252
native preachers, 173 native male and 41 native female teachers. The
native Karen Christians in 1871 numbered 35,876; in 1881, their
numbers were estimated at about 64,200. The American Baptist
Mission in 1881 maintained 3 theological and training schools, with 58
pupils; 20 Anglo-vernacular schools, with 457 pupils; and 230 ver-
nacular schools, with 6073 pupils.

Besides the American Baptist Mission, there is a ' Home Mission '
among the Karens. No returns are available for 1SS1, but in 1871
this mission included 5500 native Christians. And the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel established a Karen mission in 1872, with
3 foreign ordained and 5 native ordained agents. In 1SS1, the mission
consisted of 53 native preachers, 3 native teachers, 4800 native
Christians. The mission maintains 2 vernacular schools, with 82 pupils
in 1 88 1. In the Sal win Hill Tracts the Karens are taking to police
work, nearly 200 having joined the force there. But they will not serve
for long; as soon as they make enough money wherewith to meet
marriage expenses, they withdraw — without permission, if there is any
delay in answering their request to be allowed to retire.

The Census of 188 1 returned the Karens in British Burma at 518,294,
namely, 264,288 males and 254,006 females. Owing to the imperfect
entries in the Census schedules, it was not found practicable to classify
the Karens by tribes and clans. The Census returns the native
converts of the American Baptist Mission at 55,322, almost entirely
Karens.

A pleasing feature in connection with the Karen Baptist Mission is
the increasing tendency to self-support among the communities. In

KARENG-LE-CHIN—KARHAL. 7

1 88 1, the Karens themselves contributed no less than ^"6066 towards
the maintenance of the Baptist Mission churches and schools. At
the Decennial Missionary Conference held in Calcutta in December

1882, one of the Baptist missionaries stated that among the Karens 'in
Bassein District, there was not a single pastor receiving foreign pay;
not a single school that was not supporting its own teacher.'

Kareng-le-chin. — Village in Taung-ngu (Toungoo) District, Tenas-
serim Division, British Burma. Situated 5 miles south of the boundary
of Upper Burma and 7 miles west of the Sittaung river. Frontier
police post.

Karen-ni. — An elevated plateau, extending from the eastern slope
of the Paung-laung range, immediately joining British Burma on the
north-east, to the Salwin river on the east. It consists chiefly of high
table-land, about 3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the sea ; is well
cultivated, and in parts very fertile. Inhabited by the Red Karens
(Karen-ni), a clan of the Bghai tribe ; so named by the Burmese
from the colour of the bright red turban they wear. The red Karens
originally acknowledged the supremacy of one chieftain ; but within
the last hundred years they have split into two separate tribes, Western
and Eastern Karen-nis. The western tribe has been always friendly
disposed towards the British Government, and has given every assist-
ance in its power in keeping peace on the frontier, and in opening
out trade. The eastern tribe has kept aloof from communication with
the British, and lately acknowledged the suzerainty of the Burmese
Government.

In 1864, the old chief of Western Karen-ni requested the British
Government to undertake the government and protection of his
country. He was informed in reply, that while the Government placed
a high value on the friendship of the Karens, it had no desire to extend
its frontier in the direction of their country. On the death of the old
chief in 1869, this request was renewed by his two sons, on the ground
that the Burmese and the Eastern Karen-nis were encroaching on their
territory ; and that, unless helped, they would have to succumb. The
British again declined to annex the territory of the western tribe, but
made representations to the Burmese Government. Notwithstanding
a formal disclaimer on the part of the Burmese king to any claim
to authority over the Western Karen-nis, his continued menaces and
assumptions of authority over the Karen-ni country obliged the British
Government in 1875 to exact an effective guarantee. A survey party
was therefore despatched under the orders of the Government of India,
to survey and lay down a boundary between WTestern Karen-ni and
Native Burma. This boundary has been formally recognised by all
parties, and the independence of Western Karen-ni secured.

Karhal. — Central southern tahsil of Mainpuri District, North-

8 KARHAL—KARHARBARL

Western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Karhal and Barnahal ;
traversed by the Etawah branch of the Ganges Canal. x\rea, 221
square miles, of which no are returned as cultivated, 34 square miles
as cultivable, and 76 square miles as waste and barren. Population
(1872) 88,850; (1881) 100,031, namely, males 55,720, and females
44,311. Hindus number 93,445 ; Muhammadans, 5534; Jains, 1049;
and 'others,' 3. Land revenue, ,£17,384 ; total Government revenue,
.£19,473; rental paid by cultivators, £26,836. The tahsil contains
1 criminal court and 3 police circles (thdnds) ; strength of regular
police, 31 men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 286.

Karhal. — Town in Mainpuri District, North- Western Provinces, and
head-quarters of Karhal tahsil, situated on the Etawah and Mainpuri
road, in lat. 270 o' 5" n., and long. 780 58' 45" e. The principal street
winds off at right angles to the road and forms the bazar. The
shops here are poor, and the houses mean ; but at the back of the
bazar some of the private dwellings are substantial and well-built.
Irregular narrow lanes connect these houses with the bazar, and serve
as imperfect drains during the rainy season. Population (1872) 5574 ',
(1881) 7885, namely, Hindus, 4630; Muhammadans, 2420; Jains,
832 ; Christian, 1 ; 'others,' 2. Area of town site, 85 acres. A brisk
local trade is carried on in ghi, cotton, and indigo ; and for police and
conservancy purposes a small house-tax is levied. The principal
buildings are the tahsil, police station, sardi or native inn, and school.
The town is the residence of a Sayyid family of considerable note and
influence.

Karharbari. — Coal-field in Hazaribagh District, Bengal, situated
between 240 10' and 240 14' n. lat., and between 86° 16' and 86° 23' e.
long. Area, n square miles, of which 8^- miles are coal-bearing.
The probable amount of available fuel (excluding small seams and
those of inferior quality, such as could not be worked at a profit, also
making allowance for waste, etc.) is estimated at an aggregate of 70
million tons.

The existence of the field was first brought to notice in 1848, and
some coal was raised at the outcrop of several of the seams to test their
excellence. Systematic working was introduced in 1851 by Mr. Inman,
and in 1855 by Messrs. Ward & Company, railway contractors at
Monghyr. In 1856-57, the property held by this firm at Kuldiha
and Ramnadi was transferred to the Bengal Coal Company, who now
own 6 other mining villages in addition. In 1862, the company
discontinued their workings till 1868, since which time they have been
vigorously prosecuted. The East Indian Railway Company commenced
working the Karharbari mine in 1858, and a large quantity of coal was
annually carted away to Lakhisarai. In 1862, work was suspended
chiefly on account of difficulties of carriage. In 1870, a branch line

KARIANA—KARIKAL. 9

of the East Indian Railway was constructed to their mines at Karhar-
bari and Srirampur, and working has been carried on uninterruptedly
ever since. The total output up to June 1875 amounted to nearly
350,000 tons. At Karharbari, the railway company hold 2465 acres
on a lease from Government for 82 years, at a yearly rent of ^5072.
At Srirampur, they have 1408 acres on a perpetual lease from the
Raja, and pay an annual rent of ^494. The company work the coal
for their own consumption, and not for sale. The out-turn from the
Karharbari and Srirampur mines in 1883 was 208,000 tons. The
miners are chiefly Bhuiyas, Bauris, and Santals.

The quality of the coal of the Karharbari field has been tested by
several assays of the mineral from different localities. The best seams
disclose from 4*2 and 4*8 to 6*6 per cent, of ash ; from 71-8 to 73' 1 and
68#6 per cent, of fixed carbon; and from 24 to 22-1 and 24*8 per cent,
of volatile matter, respectively. The inferior seams show from 26*5 to
34 and 39 per cent, of ash ; from 57*1 to 50*9 and 48*2 per cent, of
carbon; and from 16*4 to i5'i and 12*6 per cent, of volatile matter.
The specimens which gave the best results were obtained from localities
in the east of the field ; the inferior quality being obtained from the
south-west. The results from a series of experiments prove that the
Karharbari coals are better in quality than those obtained from the
Raniganj field in the ratio of 113 to 100. The principal advantage,
however, of the Karharbari field is one of position, as a supplying area
for the Upper Provinces and the railway stations west of Lakhisarai,
there being a saving of 23 miles of carriage as compared with the
Raniganj mines.

Kariana. — Petty State in the Gohelwar Division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency; consisting of 10 villages, including Kariana, with
seven separate shareholders. Area, 10 square miles. Population of
Kariana village (1872), 1429 ; (1881) 1063. Kariana village is 12 miles
north of Lathi station on the Dhoraji branch of the Bhaunagar-Gondal
Railway. The revenue in 1881 was estimated at ^2100; tribute of
£85 is paid to the British Government, and ^30, 14s. to the Nawab
of Junagarh. The total population of the little State in 1881 was

3i56-

Karigatta.— Hill in Ashtragram Sub-division of Mysore District,
Mysore State, Southern India, at the junction of the Lokapavni river
with the Kaveri (Cauvery). Lat. 120 26' n., long. 760 47' e. An
annual festival (Jdtra), held in February or March, is attended by
20,000 people.

Karikal (Kdraikkdl, ' the fish pass '—Tamil ; Carical Cariukalla—
Bartolomeo). — French town and settlement on the Coromandel coast,
bounded on the north, south, and west by Tanjore District of the
Madras Presidency, and on the east by the Bay of Bengal. Lat.

io KARIKAL.

(town) io° 55' 10" n., long. 790 52' 20" e. Population (according to
the latest French statistics in 1883) 93,055, namely, males 46,259, and
females 46,796. The number of British subjects residing at Karikal,
according to the Census of 1881, was returned at 4287, of whom 21 13
were males and 2174 females. Karikal is situated on the Coromandel
coast, 12 miles north of Negapatam and 6 miles south of Tranquebar.
The area of the settlement, which is divided into three communes, con-
taining in all no villages, covers 33,787 English acres.

The country is very fertile, and is watered by six branches of the
Kaveri ; and by five large, and numerous smaller canals. The capital
of the settlement, which gives its name to it, is a neatly built town,
situated on the north bank of the Arselaar, an affluent of the Kaveri,
about a mile and a quarter from the sea. The French seized the town
in 1736, and constructed a strong fort to defend their new possession,
which was finally ceded to them, together with 81 villages, on the 21st
December 1749, by the Raja of Tanjore, the addition being confirmed
by treaty in 1754. When it was thus formally given up, the settlement
was estimated to yield a yearly revenue of 106,000 rupees (^10,600) ;
but during the 130 odd years that have since elapsed, its budget has not
augmented by much more than 60,000 rupees (^6000). The town
and fort were besieged by an English force under Major Monson in
1760, and after a gallant defence of ten days, surrendered on the 5th
of April. Karikal came into British possession again on three subse-
quent occasions, and it was not finally restored to the French until
the 14th January 181 7.

A brisk trade in rice is conducted with Ceylon throughout the greater
part of the year ; a less regular import and export business is carried
on with the Straits Settlements. An intermittent petty traffic obtains
with France ; and an emigration society derives much profit from
the exportation of Indian labourers to the French colonies of
Bourbon, Cayenne, Guadaloupe, and Martinique. On the subject
of inland customs, a convention exists with the Madras Government,
and all salt consumed in French territory is by treaty purchased
from the British ; but there is little doubt that the peculiar position
of Karikal, with an open coast on one side, wide - spreading rice
lands on the other, and meandering streams between, admits of many
opportunities for easy smuggling. The administration of the settle-
ment is carried on by a Chef de Service, appointed by the President of
the Republic, who is assisted by eight European officials and a host of
native functionaries, all of whom are nominated by the Governor of the
French settlements in India. A mayor and corporation of the town
also exist, consisting of 13 members, six of whom are Europeans, or
descendants of Europeans, and all are elected by universal suffrage.
Accredited to the French administration is a British Consular Agent,

KAR1MGANJ—KARJA T. T ,

who is an officer of the Indian staff corps and the direct representative
of the Government of Madras. The port of Karikal is an open road-
stead, the anchorage of which varies from 7 to 8 fathoms during the
north-east monsoon, to 6 fathoms during the south-west. The port
flagstaff shows a fixed light about 34 feet above sea-level, visible for a
distance of 10 miles. The revenue of the settlement in 1882-S3
amounted to 381,342 francs or £15,253, and the expenditure to
267,043 francs or ,£10,681. The Budget for 1885 estimated a revenue
of 397,745 francs or £15,909, and an expenditure of 327,250 francs or
,£13,090.

Karimgailj.— Sub-division of Sylhet District, Assam. Area, 106S
square miles. Population (1881) 343,421, namely, Hindus, 181,359;
Muhammadans, 161,831; 'others,' 231. Houses, 68,705.

Karimganj. — Market village in the east of Sylhet District, Assam,
and head-quarters of Karimganj Sub-division, on the Kusiara or southern
branch of the Barak river. Lat. 240 52' n., long. 920 24' e. Rice,
oil-seeds, and raw cotton are exported, in exchange for cotton goods,
salt, pulses, tobacco, and bamboos.

Karimganj. — Village in Maimansingh District, Bengal ; situated 9
miles east of Kisoriganj. Large bazar and reed and jute mart.

Karjat. — Sub-division of Thana District, Bombay Presidency. The
Sub-division, lying in the south-east of the District, includes the petty
division of Khalapur. Bounded on the north by Kalyan and Murbad
Sub-divisions ; on the east by the Sahyadri mountains ; on the south by
Kolaba District ; on the west by the Matheran Hills and Panwel Sub-
division. Area, 353 square miles. Population (1872) 77,150; (1881)
82,062.

Karjat may be described as a rough hilly tract lying between the
Sahyadri range and the hills of Matheran. On its northern side dales
and valleys diversify the surface ; the low lands are divided into rice-
fields ; while the higher grounds are covered with teak, ain (Terminalia
tomentosa), and blackwood. In the east the woodlands become a
forest. The Ulhas and other streams which rise in the Sahyadris flow
through the Sub-division, but are dry channels in the hot season. The
rainfall is fairly sufficient, and failure of the rice crop rare. Drinking
water is scarce. In 1881, there were 86 ponds, 3 river dams, 642
wells, and some river pools. The rice soil is black, and the upland soil
reddish. Besides rice, ragi (Eleusine corocana) and vari (Panicum
miliaceum) are staple crops : no fibres are grown. The climate
varies greatly with the season. In January and February the nights
are extremely cold. Rainfall during ten years ending 18S1 averaged
121 inches.

The population of the Sub-division, according to sex, in 1S81, were
42,207 males and 39,855 females, occupying 14,937 houses. Hindus

12 KARJAT HEAD-QUARTERS AND SUB-DIVISION.

numbered 75,769; Muhammadans, 3732; Christians, 152; Jews, 76;
Parsis, 44; and 'others,' 2289. The general occupation is agriculture,
and of the 268 villages not one deserves the name of town. The
cultivators are mostly Kunbis and Agris. In 1879-80, there were
11,287 holdings in the Sub - division ; each holding averaged 7
acres, and paid an average rental of one guinea. As in other
parts of the Bombay Presidency, the settlement rates of land
revenue were fixed in 1854-56 for a period of thirty years. The
total area of tilled land in 1880-81 was 75,766 acres, of which
47*2 per cent, or 35,794 acres lay fallow. Of the remainder,
1504 acres were twice cropped. Of the 41,476 acres under tillage,
grain crops occupied 38,795 acres, or 93*5 per cent.; pulses, 2210
acres, or 5-3 per cent. ; oil-seeds, 458 acres; and miscellaneous crops,

13 acres. The Sub-division contains 4 criminal courts; police stations
[thdnds\ 2; regular police, 71 men. Land revenue (1882), ^11,919.

Karjat. — Head-quarters of Karjat Sub-division, Thana District,
Bombay Presidency. Population (1881) 692. Station on the south-
east extension of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 62 miles east
of Bombay, and 5 miles distant from Matheran. The village, which
is rapidly expanding since the construction of the railway, is situate
on the south bank of the Ulhas river. Post-office ; rest-house ; school ;
and quarters for railway guards and drivers.

Karjat. — Sub-division of Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency ;
bounded on the east by the Sina river, south by Karmala Sub-division
of Sholapur District, west by the Bhima river, and north by Shrigonda
Sub-division.

A chain of low hills with flat summits traverses the Sub-division
from north-west to south-east, dividing it into two equal parts. The
streams from the eastern slope flow into the Sina river, and from the
western into the Bhima. The country presents a dismal appearance,
owing to the large proportion of rocky and unprofitable ground,
almost destitute of vegetation. There are a few level tracts, some of
considerable extent, where the soil is deep and rich. In the neighbour-
hood of the hills the soil is of the poorest description. The rainfall is
extremely uncertain, and good harvests are rare. The Sub-division
contains about 80 miles of road, and three weekly market towns,
namely, Karjat, Mirajgaon, and Rasin. It suffered severely in the
famine of 1876-77, when many villages were deserted. The cultivators,
owing to a succession of bad harvests, are nearly all in debt. Frequent
territorial changes have occurred, the last in 1868-69. Area, 580
square miles. Population (1872) 48,766; (t88i) 34,820, namely,
17,797 males and 17,023 females.

Number of villages, 79. In 1881, Hindus numbered 32,411 ;
Muhammadans, 1332 ; and ' others,' 1077. Of 115,749 acres, the actual

KARJA T TO WN—KARLL 1 3

area under cultivation in 1882-83, grain occupied 87.310 acres; pulses,
14,992 ; oil-seeds, 10,384; fibres, 2149; and miscellaneous crops, 914
acres. About 135 looms are worked, chiefly in the market towns, for
the manufacture of a coarse strong cloth and woollen blankets.

The Sub-division contains 2 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police station
(thdnd), 1 ; regular police, 31 men ; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 133.
Land revenue (1882-83), ^6891.

Karjat. — Chief town of the Karjat Sub-division of Ahmadnagar
District, Bombay Presidency; situate in lat. 180 33' n., and long. 75°
3' e., 36 miles south by east of Ahmadnagar town. Population (1872)
5535 3 (1881) 3608. Post-office; large school; weekly market on
Saturdays.

Karkal. — Town in South Kanara District, Madras Presidency. —
See Karakal.

Karkamb. — Town in Pandharpur Sub-division, Sholapur District,
Bombay Presidency; situate 13 miles north of Pandharpur. Lat. 170
52' n., long. 750 20' e. Population (1872) 7671 ; (1881) 6421, namely,
Hindus, 5665; Muhammadans, 464; and Jains, 292. The town has
a large weaving and thread dyeing industry, with about 800 looms,
chiefly producing cheap cloth for women's robes. The betel-vine is also
largely grown. Weekly markets on Mondays, when cattle, grain, and
cloth are sold. Post-office, and a school.

Karkiir (Carcoor). — Ghat or hill pass in Malabar District, Madras
Presidency, leading from the Ernad taluk of Malabar into Nilgiri
District. Lat. n° 26' 20" to n° 28' n., long. 760 27' 20" to 76° 28' e.
Karli. — Cave in Puna (Poona) District, Bombay Presidency ; situated
on the road between Bombay and Poona, in lat. 180 45' 20" n., and
long. 730 31' 16" e. It is thus described by Mr. J. Fergusson in his
History of Eastern and Indian Architecture : — ' It is certainly the
largest as well as the most complete Chaitya cave hitherto discovered
in India, and was excavated at a time when the style was in its greatest
purity. In it all the architectural defects of the previous examples
are removed ; the pillars of the nave are quite perpendicular. The
screen is ornamented with sculpture— its first appearance apparently
in such a j>osition— and the style had reached a perfection never after-
wards surpassed.

' In the cave there is an inscription on the side of the porch, and
another on the lion-pillar in front, which are certainly integral, and
ascribe its excavation to the Maharaja Bhiiti or Deva Bhiiti, who,
according to the Purdnas, reigned B.C. 78 ; and if this is so, they fix
the age of this typical example beyond all cavil.

' The building resembles, to a very great extent, an early Christian
church in its arrangements, consisting of a nave and side-aisles, ter-
minating in an apse or semi-dome, round which the aisle is carried.

14 KARLI.

The general dimensions of the interior are 126 ft. from the entrance
to the back wall, by 45 ft. 7 in. in width. The side-aisles, however,
are very much narrower than in Christian churches, the central one
being 25 ft. 7 in., so that the others are only 10 ft. wide, including the
thickness of the pillars. As a scale for comparison, it may be men-
tioned that its arrangement and dimensions are very similar to those of
the choir of Norwich Cathedral, or of the Abbaye aux Hommes at
Caen, omitting the outer aisles in the latter buildings. The thickness
of the piers at Norwich and Caen nearly corresponds to the breadth of
the aisles in the Indian temple. In height, however, Karli is very
inferior, being only 42 ft. or perhaps 45 ft. from the floor to the apex,
as nearly as can be ascertained.

1 Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisles ; each
pillar has a tall base, an octagonal shaft, and a richly ornamented capital,
on which kneel two elephants, each bearing two figures, generally a
man and a woman, but sometimes two females, all very much better
executed than such ornaments usually are. The seven pillars behind
the altar are plain octagonal piers, without either base or capital, and
the four under the entrance gallery differ considerably from those at
the sides. The sculptures on the capitals supply the place usually
occupied by frieze and cornice in Grecian architecture ; and in other
examples, plain painted surfaces occupy the same space. Above this
springs the roof, semicircular in general section, but somewhat stilted
at the sides, so as to make its height greater than the semi-diameter.
It is ornamented even at this day by a series of wooden ribs, pro-
bably coeval with the excavation, which prove beyond the shadow of
a doubt that the roof is not a copy of a masonry arch, but of some
sort of timber construction which we cannot now very well understand.

1 Immediately under the semi-dome of the apse, and nearly where the
altar stands in Christian churches, is placed the daghoba, in this instance
a plain dome slightly stilted on a circular drum. As there are no
ornaments on it now, and no mortices for woodwork, it probably was
originally plastered and painted, or may have been adorned with hang-
ings, which some of the sculptured representations would lead us to
suppose was the usual mode of ornamenting these altars. It is sur-
mounted by a Tee, and on this still stand the remains of an umbrella
in wood, very much decayed and distorted by age.

' Opposite this is the entrance, consisting of three doorways, under
a gallery exactly corresponding with our rood-loft, one leading to the
centre, and one to each of the side-aisles; and over the gallery the
whole end of the hall is open as in all these Chaitya halls, forming one
great window, through which all the light is admitted. This great
window is formed in the shape of a horse-shoe, and exactly resembles
those used as ornaments on the facade of this cave, as well as on those

KARLL

*5

of Bhaja, Bedsa, and at Nasik. Within the arch is a framework or
centring of work standing free. This, so far as we can judge, is, like
the ribs of the interior, coeval with the building.; at all events, if it
has been renewed, it is an exact copy of the original form, for it is found
repeated in stone in all the niches of the facade, over the doorways, and
generally as an ornament everywhere, and with the Buddhist "rail,"
copied from Sanchi, forms the most usual ornament of the style.

' The presence of the woodwork is an additional proof, if any were
wanted, that there were no arches of construction in any of these
Buddhist buildings. There neither were nor are any in any Indian
building anterior to the Muhammadan Conquest, and very few, indeed,
in any Hindu building afterwards.

'To return, however, to Karli, the outer porch is considerably
wider than the body of the building, being 52 ft. wide, and is closed
in front by a screen composed of two stout octagonal pillars, without
either base or capital, supporting what is now a plain mass of rock,
but once ornamented by a wooden gallery forming the principal
ornament of the facade. Above this, a dwarf colonnade or attic of
four columns between pilasters admitted light to the great window ;
and this again was surmounted by a wTooden cornice or ornament of
some sort, though we cannot now restore it, since only the mortices
remain that attached it to the rock.

'In advance of this screen stands the lion-pillar, in this instance
a plain shaft with thirty-two flutes, or rather faces, surmounted by a
capital not unlike that at Kesaria, but at Karli supporting four lions
instead of one ; they seem almost certainly to have supported a chakra,
or Buddhist wheel. A similar pillar probably stood on the opposite
side, but it has either fallen or been taken down to make way for the
little temple that now occupies its place.

1 The absence of the wooden ornaments of the external porch, as well
as our ignorance of the mode in which this temple was finished laterally,
and the porch joined to the main temple, prevent us from judging
what the effect of the front would have been if belonging to a free-
standing building. But the proportions of such parts as remain are so
good, and the effect of the whole so pleasing, that there can be little
hesitation in ascribing to such a design a tolerably high rank among
architectural compositions.

' Of the interior we can judge perfectly, and it certainly is as solemn
and grand as any interior can well be, and the mode of lighting the
most perfect— one undivided volume of light coming through a single
opening overhead at a very favourable angle, and falling directly on the
altar or principal object in the building, leaving the rest in comparative
obscurity. The effect is considerably heightened by the closely set
thick columns that divide the three aisles from one another, as they

1 6 KARMA— KARMALA.

suffice to prevent the boundary walls from ever being seen ; and, as
there are no openings in the walls, the view between the pillars is
practically unlimited.

* These peculiarities are found more or less developed in all the other
caves of the same class in India, varying only with the age and the
gradual change that took place from the more purely wooden forms of
these caves to the lithic or stone architecture of the more modern ones.
This is the principal test by which their relative ages can be determined,
and it proves incontestably that the Karli cave was excavated not very
long after stone came to be used as a building material in India.'

Karma. — Town in Karchhana fa/isil, Allahabad District, North-
Western Provinces; situated 12 miles south of Allahabad city, and 6
miles west of Karchhana town, in lat. 250 17' 52" n., and long. 8i° 53' e.
Population (1881) 3204, namely, males 1648, and females 1556. A
market is held twice a week on Tuesdays and Fridays, the principal
articles of traffic being grain, cotton, hides, cattle, bamboos, and metal
vessels, of an estimated annual value of ^5000. For police and
conservancy purposes, a small house -tax is levied, amounting in
1881-82 to ;£lOI.

Karmala. — Sub-division of Sholapur District, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 170 57' to 1 8° 32' x., long. 740 52' to 750 31' e. Area, 766
square miles; contains 122 villages, with 9300 houses. Population
(1872) 105,291; (1881) 61,548, namely, 31,278 males and 30,270
females. The great decrease is due to mortality and emigration during
the famine of 1876-77. Hindus numbered 57,290; Muhammadans,
2914; and 'others,' 1344.

Karmala is in the north of the District, between the Bhima on the
west and the Sina on the east. Except the hills near Kem and the
dividing ridge, forming the watershed between the two rivers, the
country is flat ; towards the north it is rough and broken, crossed by
many streams. About one-half of the soil is rich and black, and the
other red and gravelly. The seasons are uncertain, a really good one,
as a rule, not occurring oftener than once in three or four years, when,
however, the harvest is unusually abundant. In 1 88 1-82, of 229,048
acres, the whole area held for tillage, 31,442 acres, or 137 per cent.,
were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 197,606 acres, 790 were
twice cropped. Of the 198,396 acres under tillage, grain occupied
151,081 acres; pulses, 17,555; oil-seeds, 22,521; fibres, 5569; and
miscellaneous crops, 1670 acres. In 1882-83, the total number of
holdings was 5537, with an average area of about 48 acres each.
Weekly fairs are held at eight towns and villages ; and at Sonari an
annual fair in April, attended by about 6000 persons. The Sub-division
contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police stations (thdnds), 3 ; regular
police, 40 men ; village watchmen, 206. Land revenue (1882), ;£i 3,008.

KARMALA TOWN—KARNAGARH. tJ

Karmala. — Chief town and municipality of the Karmala Sub-
division, Sholapur District, Bombay Presidency. Situated 69 miles
north-west of Sholapur town, and n miles north of the Jeur station on
the south-east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Lat. 180 24'
N., long. 750 14' 30" e. Population (1872) 6759 ; (1881) 5071, namely,
2495 males and 2576 females. Area of town site, 188 acres. Hindus
numbered 4191 ; Muhammadans, 677; Jains, 200; and 'others,' 3.
Karmala was originally the seat of a branch of the Nimbalkar family.
The founder began and his son finished a fort which still exists, and is
used for the sub-divisional offices. This fort, one of the largest in the
Deccan, extends over a quarter of a square mile, and contains about
100 houses. Karmala grew and became a large trade centre, being a
crossing station for the traffic lines from Balaghat through Barsi to
Poona, and between Ahmadnagar and Sholapur. Most of this traffic
has now passed to the railway, but Karmala is still a large mart for
cattle, grain, oil, and piece-goods. A weekly market is held on
Friday, and the town has a small weaving industry, with 60 looms.
The water-supply is from springs in wells three-quarters of a mile to
the south. The water is carried through an earthenware conduit to
dipping wells in the town. An annual fair lasting four days. Municipal
income (1881), £483 '> expenditure, ^463; incidence of municipal
taxation, is. nd. per head. Post-office, dispensary, school, and reading-
room.

Karmar. — Petty State in the Jhalawar Division of Kathiawar, Bom-
bay Presidency; consisting of 1 village, with 1 landholder. The revenue
in 1881 was estimated at .£511 ; tribute is paid of ^14 to the British
Government, and ^3, 4s. to the Nawab of Junagarh. In addition,
^5, 1 8s. is paid as sukhri on account of Ahmadabad. The estate or
village, with a population of 648 souls, is situated six miles to the
north-east of Ranpur, and six miles south-east of Chura, stations on
the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Area, 3 square miles.

Karnagarh. — Hill, or more properly plateau, near Bhagalpur town,
Bhagalpur District, Bengal. Lat. 250 14' 45" N., long. 86° 58' 30" e.
It formerly contained the lines of the Hill Rangers, a body of troops
raised from among the hill people by Mr. Augustus Cleveland, Collector
of the District, in 1780, for the pacification of the lawless jungle tribes.
The corps was disbanded in 1863 on the re-organization of the native
army. A wing of a native regiment is at times cantoned here.

The only objects of interest are Sivaite temples of some celebrity.
These consist of four buildings (maths), with square bases and the
usual pointed pinnacles. One is several hundred years old, the others
being modern buildings. Numbers of Hindus, though not usually
worshippers of Siva, pay their devotions here on the last day of the month
of Kartik. The temples contain several of the so-called seats of Mahadeo

VOL. VIII. b

18 KARNAL.

or Siva, one much prized being made of stone from the Narbada, said
to have come from the marble rocks near Jabalpur. Two monuments
are here erected to the memory of Mr. Cleveland, — one by Govern-
ment, and the other by the landholders of the District. Karnagarh is
said to derive its name from Kama, a pious Hindu kins: of olden times,
celebrated for the enormous sums he bestowed on Brahmans. The
plateau is locally known as the kild or fort, and is the reputed site of
the good Raja's palace.

Karnal. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab,
lying between 290 9' and 300 11' n. lat., and between 760 13' and 77°
15' 30" e. long. Karnal is the northernmost District of the Delhi
Division, and stands twenty-first in order of area, and fourteenth in
order of population among the thirty-two Districts of the Province.
It is bounded on the north by the District of Ambala (Umbala) and the
Native State of Patiala, on the west by the Native States of Patiala and
Jind, on the south by the Districts of Delhi and Rohtak, and on the
east by the river Jumna (Jamuna), which separates it from the North-
western Provinces. The District includes 45 outlying villages,
scattered throughout Patiala territory, the furthest of which, Budlada, is
10 1 miles distant from head-quarters. It is divided into three tahsils,
of which Panipat includes the southern, Karnal the central and north-
eastern, and Kaithal the western and north-western portions of the
District. Area, 2396 square miles. Population in 1881, 622,621 souls.
The administrative head-quarters are at Karnal town.

Physical Aspects. — Karnal forms a portion of the low dividing ridge
which separates the watersheds of the Sutlej and the Jumna (Jamuna),
its north-western angle being drained by small streams which swell the
freshet torrent of the Ghaggar, while its eastern front slopes gently down
to the banks of the Jumna itself. The District falls naturally into
two divisions — bdngar, or upland plain, and khddar, or low-lying land,
which fringes the valley of the great river. The former consists in its
highest portion of a grazing country, covered in favourable seasons with
rank and luxuriant grasses, whose monotonous level is broken by belts
of brushwood, and interspersed with local hollows fringed with trees of
larger growth. It is traversed in its north-western extremity by the
Ghaggar and the Saraswati, whose floods fertilize a large area. These
open pastures are succeeded to the south and east by a cultivated zone,
through whose midst the Western Jumna Canal distributes its various
branches. Three main channels convey the water towards Delhi,
Hissar, and Rohtak, while minor courses penetrate the fields around
in every direction.

Unhappily, however, the high level of the canal, and the imperfections
of the distributary system, called upon by the increasing demand for
irrigation to carry a supply far larger than that for which it was designed,

KARNAL. I9

have led to much flooding, which has produced its usual bad effects on
the health of this region. Lines of swamps run along the sides of the
embankments, and seriously interfere, not only with the sanitary condition,
but also with the cultivation of the neighbouring villages ; while soda
salts brought to the surface by the high spring level, cover with a snow-
like efflorescence, which is fatal to vegetation, many square miles of what
were once fertile fields. Government is at present engaged on an
extensive improvement in the upper course of the canal, which is now
(1883) on the point of completion, and will, it is hoped, remedy this
defect, and render the work an unmixed benefit to the people whose
lands it was designed to fertilize.

Between the irrigated country and the river stretches the khddar, or
wide valley of the Jumna. It is less abundantly wooded than the
remainder of the District, though even here date-palms abound, and
a thick jungle skirts in places the banks of the river.

The banks of the larger streams are fringed with forest trees, and
groves of mangoes mark the neighbourhood of every temple or home-
stead. Indeed, as a whole, Karnal is better supplied with trees than
most of the plain country of the Punjab.

The Jumna forms the entire eastern boundary of the District for a
distance of 73 miles, separating Karnal from Saharanpur, Muzaffar-
nagar, and Meerut (Merath) Districts in the North-Western Provinces.
Its bed varies from half a mile to a mile in width, of which the cold-
weather stream only occupies a few hundred yards. Changes are
continually taking place in the river-bed. Sandbanks shift from one
side to the other of the main channel, and from time to time the whole
stream changes its course. The Jumna, however, is by no means
so capricious as many of the Punjab rivers. Its present tendency
is slightly towards the east; and within the last few years it has
changed its channel below Karnal town, so that six villages, formerly
in Muzaffarnagar, are now included in this District. The other rivers
or streams are the Ghaggar, Saraswati, Bun Nadi, Chautang, and Nai
Nadi. The District contains numerous jhils and swamps, principally
along the lines of the canals, and near the confluence of the Ghaggar
and Saraswati. It is intended to drain some of these jhils, and the
drainage cuts have been commenced.

The Western Jumna Canal enters Karnal from Ambala District
about 25 miles north-west of Karnal town. It flows through the
low-lying khddar to a point four miles below Karnal town, where
the Grand Trunk Road crosses it by an old Mughal bridge, and then
enters the upland or bdngar tract. From this point it holds a south-
west course for about 18 miles till, near the village of Rer, the Hansi'
branch strikes off westwards, via Saffdon, and occupying the bed of
the Chautang, flows on to Hansi and Hissar. From Rer, the Delhi

20 KARNAL.

branch runs south to Delhi city. About ten miles below Rer, another
branch strikes off south-westwards towards Rohtak ; and a few miles
further on, just upon the confines of the District, another branch goes
to Butana. All these branches are used for irrigation in Karnal
District, and distributary channels from one or other of them penetrate
to all parts of the bdngar tract.

The only mineral products are kankar and sal-ammoniac. The former
is plentiful in most parts of the District, generally in the nodular form,
but occasionally compacted into blocks. Sal-ammoniac is only made in
the Kaithal tahsil.

The District is famous for its sport. Antelope, nilgai, and other
large game are plentiful in the northern jungles ; partridge, hare,
and quail abound throughout the District; while the canal and its
attendant jhih afford a home for numerous water-fowl, whose depre-
dations seriously interfere with the out-turn of the rice crop. Fish
abound in the Jumna, in the swamps along the canals, and in most
of the village ponds.

History. — No District of India can boast of a more ancient history
than Karnal, as almost every town or stream is connected with the
sacred legends of the Mahdbhdrata. The city of Karnal itself,
from which the modern District has taken its name, is said by
tradition to owe its foundation to Raja Kama, the mythical champion
of the Kauravas in the great war which forms the theme of the national
epic, while the greater part of the northern uplands are included in the
Kurukshetr or battle-field of the opposing armies of the Kauravas and
Pandavas. From the same authority we learn that Panipat, in the
south of the District, was one of the pledges demanded from Duryo-
dhan by Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict.

In historical times, the plains of Panipat have three times
been the theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper
India. It was here that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were
defeated in 1526 by the veteran army of Babar, when the Mughal
dynasty first made good its pretensions to the Empire of Delhi.
Thirty years later, in 1556, the greatest of that line, Akbar, re-asserted
the claims of his family on the same battle-field against the Hindu
general of the house of Sher Shdh, which had driven the heirs of Babar
from the throne for a brief interval. Finally, under the walls of
Panipat, on the 7th of January 1761, was fought the battle which
shattered the Maratha confederation, and raised Ahmad Shah Durani
for a while to the position of arbiter of the entire empire.

It was at Karnal town that the Persian Nadir Shah defeated the feeble
Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah, in 1759. During the troublous
period which ensued, the Sikhs managed to introduce themselves into
the country about Karnal; and in 1767, one of their chieftains,

KARNAL. 2 1

Desu Singh, appropriated the fort of Kaithal, which had been built
during the reign of Akbar. His descendants, the Bhais of Kaithal,
were reckoned amongst the most important cis-Sutlej princes. The
country immediately surrounding the town of Karnal was occupied
about the same date by the Raja of Jind ; but in 1795 ** was captured
by the ubiquitous Marathas, and bestowed by them upon George
Thomas, the military adventurer of Hariana. He was, however, almost
immediately dispossessed by the Sikh Raja, Gurdit Singh of Lddwa, who
held it till 1805, when it was captured by an English force, and con-
fiscated as a punishment for the Raja having actively opposed the
British after the battle of Delhi in September 1803.

Karnal was included in the Conquered Provinces which we obtained
from the Marathasby the treaties of Sarji-Anjangaon andPoona(i8o3-o4).
In pursuance of the policy of Lord Cornwallis, Kaithal, and the numerous
petty States which bordered Karnal on the north-west, remained in the
hands of their Sikh possessors, while the remainder of the District was
parcelled out among those who had rendered us service. Of these
latter, the Pathan Nawab of Kunjpura, and a Hindu family who still
enjoy the revenue of the town and pargand of Karnal, alone retain
their grants, all the others having lapsed on the death of the holders.
Under Sikh rule, the sole cbject of the local governments appears to
have been the collection of the largest possible revenue. Every rupee
that could be extracted from the native cultivators was pressed into the
fiscal bag of their Sikh over-lords, while cattle-lifting and open violence
went unpunished on every side. Sir H. Lawrence, who effected the
land settlement of Kaithal after the British occupation in 1843,
described the Sikh system as one of ' sparing the strong and squeezing
the weak.' Much of the District had formed a sort of No-Man's land
between the Sikhs and the Marathas, and when we took it in 1803,
' more than four-fifths was overrun by forests, and the inhabitants either
removed or were exterminated.5 In 1819, the Delhi territory was
parcelled out into Districts, one of which had its head-quarters at
Panipat. The northern portion of the present District, held by the
Sikh princes, lapsed from time to time into the hands of the British.
Kaithal fell to us on the death of Desu Singh's last representative, in
1843. The disorder of the Sikh Government was immediately
suppressed by prompt measures ; two large cattle-lifting raids were
made within a week of the British occupation, and the timely severity
with which the culprits were apprehended and punished taught the
predatory classes what treatment they might expect from the hands
of their new masters. The petty State of Thanesar lapsed in
1850, and its capital was made for a time the head-quarters of a
separate District, in which Kaithal was included ; but after the Mutiny
of 1857, when the Delhi territory was transferred to the Punjab,

22 KARNAL.

Thanesar District was broken up, and its pargands redistributed in
1862 between Karnal and Ambala (Umballa). The course of events
during late years has been marked by few incidents, and nothing more
than local marauding occurred during the troubles of 1857. The
towns are not generally in a flourishing condition, and the opening of
the railway on the opposite bank of the Jumna has somewhat pre-
judicially affected the trade of Karnal. But although the District
cannot compare with its wealthy neighbours in the Doab, it still
possesses great agricultural resources and considerable commerce.

Population. — Owing to numerous territorial changes in the parga?uis
at present composing Karnal District, it is impossible to give compara-
tive statistics of the number of inhabitants previous to the Census of
1868. In that year an enumeration, taken over an area correspond-
ing to that of the present District (2396 square miles), disclosed a
population of 617,997. In 1881, the Census returned a total popula-
tion of 622,621, showing a nominal increase of 4624 in thirteen years,
thus apparently indicating that the population of what was in great part a
tract desolated by continuous struggles between the Sikhs and Marathas,
has now reached the stationary stage. The results of the Census of
1881 may be briefly summarized as follows : — Area, 2396 square miles ;
number of towns and villages, 863 ; number of houses, 91,442, of
which 68,271 are occupied, and 23,171 unoccupied. Number of
families, 118,608. Total population, 622,621, namely, males 336,171,
and females 286,450; proportion of males, 53-9 per cent. The excessive
preponderance of males may be held to imply the former prevalence
of female infanticide, which has not yet been entirely stamped out.
Classified according to age, there were, under 15 years of age — males
121,665, females 101,145 ; total children, 222,810, or 35-8 per cent, of
the population. Above 15 years — males 214,506, and females 185,305 ;
total adults, 399,811, or 64*2 per cent, of the population. From the
foregoing figures the following averages may be deduced : — Persons per
square mile, 260; villages per square mile, 0*36; persons per village,
721 ; houses per square mile, 38 ; persons per house, 9*12. As regards
religious distinctions, the Hindu element decidedly preponderates, its
adherents being returned at 453,662, or 72*8 per cent, of the inhabitants.
The Muhammadans rank second, with 156,183, or 25*1 percent. The
Sikhs form a mere sprinkling of 8036 persons, being only 1*3 per cent,
of the total. The remaining population consists of — Jains, 4655, and
Christians, 85.

In the ethnical classification, the Jats rank first, numbering 95,108,
nearly all Hindus. As usual, they represent the chief agricultural
element, being careful and thrifty cultivators ; yet here, as in most other
Districts, they are confined to the once sterile uplands, while the
Rajputs and Giijars occupy the fruitful khddar. Second in numerical

KARNAL. 23

order come the Brahmans, with 55,168, most of whom are engaged in
cultivation, being found most thickly in the Jumna valley. The
Chamars, who form the majority of the landless labouring class across
the Jumna in the Upper Doab, rank third, with 54,067. The Rajputs
number 53,260 persons, chiefly Muhammadans, and bear the same
reputation for thriftlessness as elsewhere. The Baniyas or trading class
number 40,599, all Hindus or Jains. The Rors, an agricultural caste
akin to the Jats, whom they almost equal as husbandmen, number
34,094. The pastoral Giijars number 21,898 in all, of whom about
one-third are converts to Islam ; they have not yet adopted an agricul-
tural life, and their villages are scattered about the low-lying khddar
country. The other most numerous castes and clans are — Chuhras,
31,288; Jhinwars, 31,200; Kumbhars, 14,712; Tarkhans, 13,787;
Nais, 10,307; Mali's, 10,124. The most numerous Muhammadan class
by race descent, as apart from the descendants of converts from
Hinduism, are the Shaikhs, who number 13,789.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
has a mission station in Karnal town, established in 1865, and two
branch missions at Panipat and Kaithal, established in 1882. The
number of Native Christians connected with the mission, who are
employed as mission agents, is returned at 36. The operations of the
mission include zandnd teaching, girls' schools, a dispensary under
charge of a female medical missionary, and a school for children of low
castes, such as Chamars.

Division of the People into Town and Country. — The Census of 188 1
returned the urban population at 78,328, residing in the following six
towns: — Karnal, 23,133; Panipat, 25,022; Kaithal, 14,754;
Sewan, 5717; Pundri, 4977; and Kunjpura, 4725- The total
urban population therefore amounted to 12-58 per cent, of the inhabit-
ants of the District. Of the 863 towns and villages, 225 contain less
than two hundred inhabitants; 284 from two to five hundred; 182
from five hundred to a thousand; 117 from one thousand to two
thousand ; 35 from two thousand to three thousand ; 16 from three to
five thousand; 1 from five to ten thousand; 1 from ten to fifteen
thousand ; and 2 from twenty to thirty thousand. As regards occupa-
tion, the Census classifies the male population over 15 years of age
into the following seven groups :— Class (1) Professional class, including
all persons in civil or military employ, and the learned professions,
7779; (2) domestic and menial class, 14,105 ; (3) commercial class,
including bankers, merchants, and carriers, 5742 ; (4) agricultural and
pastoral class, including gardeners, 117,216; (5) industrial and manu-
facturing class, 50,712; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, 16,903 ;
(7) unspecified, 2049. The language in common use among the people
is Hindi.

24 KARNAL.

Agriculture. — The total area under cultivation in Karnal is returned
at 680,319 acres; while the uncultivated area amounts to 853,671
acres, of which 562,558 are cultivable. The principal spring crop of
the year is wheat, the yield of the irrigated villages being particularly
large. The autumn harvest consists of rice, cotton, and sugar-cane,
besides millets and pulses for home consumption. The area under
each staple in 1S82 was as follows: — Spring crops — wheat, 91,691
acres; barley, 39,144 acres; gram, 74,970 acres: Autumn crops — rice,
10,826 acres ; jodr, 174,948 acres; bdjra, 54,022 acres; cotton, 22,088
acres; and sugar-cane, 17,869 acres. The growth of the more lucrative
crops is on the increase, under the stimulus given by the canal,
which ensures a fair return for the labour expended even in unfavour-
able seasons. The average out-turn per acre is estimated at 732
lbs. for rice, 159 lbs. for indigo, 173 lbs. for cotton, 11S8 lbs. for
sugar, 643 lbs. for wheat, and 397 lbs. for millet and the inferior
grains.

Irrigation is extensively practised, 249,160 acres being artificially
supplied with water; of these, 145,933 acres are irrigated by Govern-
ment works from the different branches of the Western Jumna Canal,
and 103,227 acres by private enterprise from wells. The use of manure is
on the increase. When the Government stud farm was established at
Karnal in 1853, the villagers could not be induced to cart away the
manure as a gift ; but they are now willing to pay a fair price for the
use of it. The Government stud farm was abolished in 1875. But horse
and mule breeding are still carried on from Government stallions at
Basdhara. General Perrott, the superintendent of the late Government
stud, to whom some of the buildings, lands, and stock were made over
on the abolition of the stud, has carried on horse-breeding as a private
undertaking, and has set on foot what promises to be a successful
breeding stud. There is also a Government cattle farm at Karnal. The
saline efflorescence known as reh, so deleterious in its effects that even
grass will not grow where it makes its appearance, has caused much
trouble in the neighbourhood of the canal. The village communities
are strong and united, most of them owning their lands by the tenure
known as bhdydclidra, or brotherhood. Traces of the primitive com-
munal system, however, still survive ; and cases are recorded in which
communities have voluntarily given up the bhdydclidra organization, and
redistributed their lands on this principle of shares.

The Census Report returns the total agricultural population at 331,796,
and the non-agricultural at 290,825. These figures, however, include
as agricultural only that part of the population whose sole occupation
is the cultivation of the land ; they exclude not only the considerable
number who combine agriculture with other operations, but also the
much larger number of artisans, labourers, and village servants who

KARNAL. 25

are paid in kind, and who thus depend in a great measure for their
livelihood upon the harvest of the year. The majority of the agri-
cultural population are also landholders. According to the Census of
1881, the adult mole agricultural population consisted of 75,256 land-
holders, 21,032 tenants (chiefly tenants-at-will), 14,359 joint cultivators,
and 3071 agricultural labourers.

Rents, if calculated on a money basis, rule as follows, according to
the nature of the crop: — Rice, from 6s. to 10s. per acre; cotton, from
1 os. to 14s. ; sugar-cane, from 16s. to 22s. ; wheat land, irrigated, from
8s. to 13s. — nnirrigated, from 6s. to 9s. ; inferior grains, irrigated, 4s. to
6s. — unirrigated, 3s. to 4s. per acre. As a fact, rent, save in the form of
a share of the produce, is almost unknown. True rent is, however, now
beginning to make its way in the District. Agricultural wages are still
paid in kind, at the same rates which have been current from time
immemorial. Hired labour is made but little use of by the villagers,
except at harvest time. Sayyids and others, who will not do manual
labour, etc., however, often cultivate their fields by servants. Prices in
1873 rule^ as follows :— Wheat, 22 sers per rupee, or 5s. id. per cwt. ;
barley, 38 sers per rupee, or 2s. nfd. per cwt. ; jodr and Indian corn,
30 sers per rupee, or 3s. 8|d, per cwt. In 1882, prices were returned
as under :— Wheat, 20 sers per rupee, or 5s. 7d. per cwt. ; barley, 34
sers per rupee, or 3s. 4d. per cwt. ; jodr and Indian corn, 31 sers per
rupee, or 3s. 7d. per cwt.

Commerce and Trade, etc. — The District is not remarkable for its
commerce or manufactures. Grain and other raw materials are
exported to Ambala (Umballa), Hissar, and Delhi, and raw sugar into
the Doab ; while the return trade consists of European piece-goods,
salt, wool, and oil-seeds. The produce of the canal villages goes via
Karnal town, where a brisk trade is carried on in either direction along
the Grand Trunk Road ; and also very largely via Panipat across the
river, to Shamli in the Doab, the great local sugar mart. Local trade is
principally conducted through the village shopkeepers (baniyds), who
deal with the large traders at the towns of Karnal, Kaithal, and
Panipat. But a considerable trade is also carried on by the villagers
themselves, during the hot season, when their field bullocks would
otherwise be idle.

A large quantity of cotton is woven for local use, the number
of looms being returned at 2080, and the annual value of their out-turn
at ^49,993. Sal-ammoniac is obtained from the clay of Kaithal and
Giila to the value of about ^3500 per annum. Karnal town has a few
blanket factories, and supplies many regiments with boots (a relic of the
days when there were cantonments at Karnal) ; and ornamental glass-
ware, metal vessels, and hide oil jars are made at Panipat. The District
has no railway, but the Grand Trunk Road passes through its midst,

26 KARNAL.

connecting it with Delhi on one side, and Ambala on the other.
There are 69 miles of metalled and 540 miles of unmetalled road in
the District. The Jumna, with a course of 73 miles along the eastern
boundary of Karnal, is occasionally used as a waterway for flat-bottomed
boats ; the main canal, with the Delhi branch, has been hitherto navi-
gable only by rafts, and they have to be broken up several times during
the passage. The new canal, now approaching completion, will, when
fully opened, be navigable by large boats.

Administration. — The District is administered by a Deputy Com-
missioner, three extra - Assistant Commissioners, and three tahsilddrs,
with their deputies, besides the usual medical and constabulary officers.
The revenue in 1872-73 amounted to ^78,847, of which ^67,048
was derived from the land-tax. Ten years later, in 1882-83, the revenue
of the District had fallen to ^72,133, of which ^58,063 was con-
tributed by the land-tax. The other principal items are stamps and
local rates. Number of criminal courts, 17; of civil courts, 12. For
police purposes the District is sub-divided into 1 7 police circles (thdnds).
The regular police amounted in 1882 to 458 men of all grades, supple-
mented by a municipal force of 156 constables; giving a total establish-
ment, for the protection of person and property, of 614 men, or 1
policeman to every 3*9 square miles of the area and every 10 14 of the
population. There is also a village watch or rural police numbering
1 1 16 men. There is one jail at Karnal town, with an average daily
number of 210 prisoners in 1882. The average cost per inmate was
^£5, 15s. iojd. ; while the net cash earnings of each labouring prisoner
amounted to £2, 14s.

Cattle-stealing is the normal crime of Karnal District. These
thefts are performed in a systematic manner, the animals being rapidly
transferred to great distances and to other Districts by accomplices.
Cattle-lifting, however, is not now so prevalent, owing to the heavy
punishment awarded to offenders. Formerly, heads of families of
respectable birth would demur to give a daughter in marriage to a
man who had not proved his capability to support a family by cattle-
lifting. The Sansyas, Biluchis, and Tagus belong to the predatory
tribes, and many of them are proclaimed under the Criminal Tribes
Act. With regard to the Sansyas and Biluchis, this Act has been
worked with much success, and the numbers on the proscribed
roll are decreasing steadily. The Tagus, however, are still addicted
to thieving, and they travel long distances in small gangs for this
purpose.

Education is making some progress, though not so rapidly as
could be desired. In 1872-73 there were 99 schools in operation
within the District, more than half of which were in receipt of
Government aid. The total number of pupils on the rolls was 2541 ;

KARNAL. 27

and the sum expended on instruction from the public funds amounted
to ^1409. In 1882-83, the Education Department returned a total
of 43 State-inspected schools, with 2129 pupils, besides 121 indigenous
schools attended by 1541 pupils. Total, 164 schools of all classes,
with 3670 pupils, The Census Report of 188 1 returned 2715 boys and
63 girls as under instruction, besides 13,226 males and 90 females
able to read and write, but not under instruction. The Karnal District
School, located in the old fort, had an average number of 327 pupils
on the rolls in 1882. Among indigenous schools, the Arabic School at
Panipat is worthy of notice. It is supported by voluntary contributions,
and is attended by some thirty or forty boys, chiefly sons of middle-
class Muhammadans of the town. A branch of the Delhi Zan&na
Mission is established at Karnal town, the ladies of which visit women
in the city, and teach them and their children.

The District is sub-divided, for fiscal and administrative purposes,
into 3 tahsils, and contains 863 villages, owned in 1881 by 76,999
shareholders. There are municipalities at Karnal, Panipat, Kaithal,
Pundri, and Kunjpura. Their aggregate income amounted to ^3325
in 1871-72, and the incidence of taxation per head of population was
1 o|d. In 1882-83, the total municipal income from the same towns
was ,£5879, the average incidence being is. 7& per head.

Medical Aspects -.—The average annual rainfall at Karnal town is
returned at 29*80 inches, although in certain tracts the rainfall is below
18 inches. In 1881, the rainfall at the head-quarters town was only
22-50 inches, or 7-30 inches below the average. No trustworthy ther-
mometrical returns are published. In the portion of the uplands
watered by the canal, malarious fever, dysentery, and enlargement
of the spleen are very prevalent, owing to stagnant morasses which
result from excessive percolation. Some of the villages have suffered
terribly from these causes. Bowel complaints are also common, and
small-pox and cholera appear occasionally in a more or less epidemic
form. The total number of deaths recorded in 1872 was— 13,370,
or 22 per thousand, and in 1882, 19,759* or 32 Per thousand. The
fever-rate for the same years was 12*02 per thousand in 1872, and
19-95 Per thousand in 1882. The District contains 6 charitable
dispensaries, which in 1882 afforded medical relief to 2016 in-door
and 36,458 out-door patients. [For further information regarding
Karnal, see the Gazetteer of Karnal District, published under the
authority of the Punjab Government (Lahore, 1884). Also Mr. D. C.
J. Ibbetson's Report on the Southern Pargands of the District ; Mr.
Stack's Memorandum upon Current Land Settlements in the temporarily
settled parts of British India, p. 321; the Punjab Census Report for
1 88 1 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports from
1SS0 to 1883.]

28 KARNAL TAHSIL AND TOWN.

Karnal. — Central tahsil or Sub-division of Karnal District, Punjab.
It may be divided into three parts — the low riverain valley of the
Jumna to the west; the canal watered highlands to the south; and
the pasture lands of the Nardak to the north-west. Area, 832 square
miles, containing 359 villages or towns, with 23,485 houses. Population
(1881) 231,094, or 278 persons per square mile. Classified according to
religion, there were — Hindus, 161,577 ; Muhammadans, 65,747 ; Sikhs,
2594; Jains, 1 1 29; and Christians, 47. Of a total assessed area of
820 square miles, or 1,533,990 acres, according to the last quinquennial
agricultural statistics of the Punjab Government for 1878-79, 241,870
acres were returned as under cultivation, 174,683 acres as cultivable,
and 112,629 acres as un cultivable waste. The average annual area
under cultivation for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82, was 203,264
acres, the principal crops being — rice, 56,778 acres; wheat, 32,631;
/oar, 58,535; barley, 22,353; gram, 13,478; Indian corn, 501 1;
cotton, 2616; and sugar-cane, 29S0 acres. Revenue of the tahsil,
£16,192. The administrative staff, including the head-quarters for
the whole District, comprises a Deputy Commissioner, with 3 Assistant
or extra-Assistant Commissioners, 1 tahsilddr, 1 munsif, and 1 honorary
magistrate. These officers preside over 7 criminal and 6 civil courts.
The tahsil contains 6 police circles (thdnds), with a regular police
force of 172 officers and men, besides 436 village watchmen
(chaukiddrs).

Karnal. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of
Karnal District, Punjab. Lat. 290 42' 17" n., long. 770 1' 45" E-
Founded, according to tradition, by Raja Kama, champion of the
Kauravas in the great war of the Mahdbhdrata, and certainly a city
of immemorial antiquity. Occupied by the Rajas of Jind about the
middle of the last century, wrested from them in 1 795 by George Thomas,
the adventurer of Hariana, and immediately seized by the Sikh Raja
of Ladwa, from whom the British captured it in 1805. (See Historical
section, Karnal District.) It was conferred together with its pargand
in permanent tenure (isiimrdr) upon the Mandal Nawabs in exchange
for a similar grant held by them across the Jumna. The fort was
occupied as a British cantonment for many years, suitable compensa-
tion being made to the Nawab, but was finally abandoned in 1841.
In 1840, it was selected as a residence for Dost Muhammad Khan,
Amir of Kabul, in which he was detained for about six months, on his
way to Calcutta, as a State prisoner. The fort was afterwards used
successively as a jail, as quarters for a native cavalry regiment, as a
poorhouse, and was ultimately made over to the Education Depart-
ment for the District school.

Karnal stands upon high ground, just above the old bank of
the Jumna, overlooking the khddar, or lowland tract. The river now

KARNALA. 29

flows 7 miles away to the east ; but the Western Jumna Canal passes
just beneath the town, and, intercepting the drainage, causes malarious
fever, which has given Karnal an evil reputation. A wall 12
feet in height encloses the town, and forms the back of many
houses.

The population of the town, which in 1868 numbered 27,022, had by
1881 fallen to 23,133, namely, males 12,626, and females 10,507. Classi-
fied according to religion, the population in the latter year consisted of —
Hindus, 15,215; Muhammadans, 7550; Jains, 213; Sikhs, no; and
'others,' 45. Number of houses, 3679. The decrease of the popula-
tion is in some measure due to the opening of the railway on the
opposite bank of the Jumna, which has prejudiced the commercial
importance of Karnal, but still more to its unhealthiness, caused by
the canal and swamps, which has increased of late years. Municipal
income in 1875-76, ^"1532 ; in 1882-83, ^"2057 ; the average
incidence of taxation being is. o^d. per head of the population.

The streets of the town are well paved, but nearly all are narrow and
tortuous ; the sanitary arrangements are fairly good. The civil station
stretches to the north of the town, where the cantonment formerly lay,
and comprises the court-house and treasury, tahsili, police station,
staging bungalow, and several sardis, besides a small church, dis-
mantled since the removal of the cantonment. Outside the town are
the District and many other schools, charitable dispensary, and town
hall. The Government formerly maintained a large stud farm here,
but it was abolished in 1875. A branch cattle farm has been recently
established in connection with the Government farm at Hissar. Brisk
trade in the produce of the canal villages with Delhi and Ambala.
Manufacture of country cloth for local consumption, and blankets and
boots for export. The blanket trade employs about 100 looms.

Karnala {Funnel Hill).— -Fort and hill in Thana District, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 190 53' n., and long. 730 10' e., a few miles north-
west of the Vegavati river, and 8 miles south of Panwel; elevation,
1560 feet above sea-level. Commands the high road between the Bor
Pass and the Panwel and Apta rivers. The hill has an upper and
lower fort. In the centre of the upper fort is the 'funnel,' an
almost inaccessible basalt pillar about 125 feet high. The funnel
rock is locally known as the Pandu's tower. From the south-west
of the hill can be seen the island-studded harbour of Bombay.

The fort was often taken and retaken during the turbulent period of
Indian history. Under the Muhammadans, Karnala was garrisoned to
overawe the North Konkan. Troops from Ahmadnagar took it in 1540.
The Portuguese captured it soon after, but gave it up on receiving
a ransom of ^1750 a year. Sivaji, the Maratha leader, seized it in
1670, driving out the Mughals. On the death of Sivaji, Karnala was

3o KARNAPHULI— KARNA TIK.

recaptured by Aurangzeb's generals, and was held by the Mughals
till at least 1735. Shortly afterwards, it must have again passed
into the hands of the Marathas, for in 1740 the Peshwas power was
established over the whole of the Deccan. In 1818 the fort was
captured, and passed into British possession, together with the whole
remaining territory held by the Peshwa. It is now in ruins.

Karnaphuli. — River of Bengal ; rises in a lofty range of hills beyond
the north-east border of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, in lat. 220 55' n.,
and long. 920 44' e. ; and, after flowing a circuitous course southwards
and westwards, finally falls into the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 220 12' N.,
and long. 910 49' 30" e., 12 miles below the town and port of Chitta-
gong, which is situated on its right bank. As far up as Chittagong
town, the river is navigable by steamers and sea-going vessels ; and for
large native cargo boats as high as Kasalang in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, a distance by river of about 96 miles. Beyond Kasalang, for
a distance of 20 miles, the river is navigable by smaller craft; but
above this point navigation is much impeded by a succession of low
falls and long rocky slopes, about a mile in length, known as the Barkal
rapids. Following still up stream, the river narrows considerably as it
flows among the higher ranges of hills. Its course continues north for
some distance, and then sweeps to the east till the Demagiri falls are
reached, some three days' journey from Barkal. Above this, it
becomes an insignificant stream in a rocky bed, only navigable by the
smallest canoes. The chief tributaries of the Karnaphuli are the
Kasalang, Chingri, Kaptai, and Rankhiang rivers in the Hill Tracts,
and the Halda in Chittagong District, the latter a navigable stream
which empties itself into the main river from the north, being navigable
by native boats for 24 miles throughout the year. Principal river-side
towns and villages — Kasalang, Rangamati, Chandraguna, Ran-
gunia, and Chittagong.

Karnatik or Carnatic {Kannanda ; Kanara; Karndta ; Karnd-
taka-desa, 'the Kanarese country'). — The name erroneously applied by
modern European writers to the Tamil country — that is, the country
from Cape Comorin to the Northern Circars, lying east of the Ghats,
and reaching to the sea on the Coromandel coast. Including Nellore,
which is a Telugu-speaking District, it stretches from 8° 10' to 160 n.
lat., and from 77° 19' to 8o° 19' e. long. The modern application of
the name Karnatik includes the territories of Arcot, Madura, and
Tanjore, or, going back to a yet earlier period, the kingdoms of
Chola, Pandya, and part of Chera, — countries, as Wilkes says, never
anciently included in the Karnatik. The boundaries of the true Kar-
natik, or Karnataka-desa, are given by the same authority as 'com-
mencing near the town of Bidar (Beder), in latitude 180 45' north, about
60 miles north-west from Haidarabad (Hyderabad, Deccan) j following

KARNATIK. 31

the course of the Kanarese language to the south-east, it is found to
be limited by a waving line which nearly touches Adoni, winds to the
west of Gooty (Giiti), skirts the town of Anantapur, and, passing through
Nandidrug, touches the range of the Eastern Ghats ; thence pursuing
their southern course to the mountainous pass of Gazzalhati, it con-
tinues to follow the abrupt turn caused by the great chasm of the
western hills between the towns of Coimbatore, Polachi, and Palghat ;
and, sweeping to the north-west, skirts the edges of the precipitous
Western Ghats, nearly as far north as the sources of the Kistna
(Krishna) ; whence following first an eastern and afterwards a north-
eastern course, it terminates in rather an acute angle near Bidar, already
described as its northern limits.'

This country was ruled by the Chaliikya, Chera, Ganga, and Pallava
dynasties, till about the 10th century, when the south fell into the
hands of the Cholas, and the last three dynasties ceased to exist. The
Kalachiiris succeeded in the north; and about the 12th century the
whole was subjugated by the dynasty holding court at Dwarasamudra,
from about 1035 to 1326, when, upon being defeated by the Muham-
madans, Ballala Deva retired to Tonnur, in Mysore, where his de-
scendants remained as feudatories of Vijayanagar. The latter dynasty,
which came into power about the year 1336, and survived till 1565,
conquered the whole of the Peninsula south of the Tungabhadra river.
They were completely overthrown by the Muhammadans in 1565, and
retired first to Pennakonda, and then to Chandragiri, one branch of
the family settling at Anagundi. It was these conquests that probably
led to the extension of the term Karnitik to the southern plain
country ; and this latter region came to be called Karnata Payanghat,
or lowlands, to distinguish it from Karnata Balaghat, or the hill
country. When the Muhammadan kings of the Deccan (Dakshin)
ousted the Vijayanagar dynasty, they divided the north of the Vijaya-
nagar country between them into Karnatik Haidarabad (or Golconda)
and Karnatik Bijapur, both being sub-divided into Payanghat and
Balaghat. At this time, according to Wilkes, the northern boundary
of Karnata (Karnatik) was the Tungabhadra.

Speaking of this period and the modern misapplication of the
name, Bishop Caldwell says : ' The term Karnata or Karnataka is
said to have been a generic term, including both the Telugu and
Kanarese peoples and their languages, though it is admitted that
it usually denoted the latter alone, and though it is to the latter
that the abbreviated form Kannadam has been appropriated.
Karnataka (that which belongs to Karnata) is regarded as a Sanskrit
word by native Pandits, but I agree with Dr. Gundvet in preferring
to derive it from the Dravidian words, kar, "black," nddu (the
adjective form of which in Telugu is ndti), "country," i.e. "the

3 2 KARNPRA YA G—KARN UL.

black country/' a term very suitable to designate the "black
cotton-soil," as it is called, of the plateau of the Southern Dekkan.
The use of the term is of considerable antiquity, as we find it in
Vahara-mihira at the beginning of the fifth century a.d. Taranatha
also mentions Karnata. The word Karnata or Karnataka, though at
first a generic term, became in process cf time the appellation of the
Kanarese people and of their language alone, to the entire exclusion
of the Telugu. Karnataka has now got into the hands of foreigners,
who have given it a new and entirely erroneous application. When
the Muhammadans arrived in Southern India, they found that part of
it with which they first became acquainted — the country above the
Ghats, including Mysore and part of Telingana — called the Karnataka
country. In course of time, by a misapplication of terms, they applied
the same name Karnatik, or Carnatic, to designate the country
below the Ghats, as well as that which was above. The English have
carried the misapplication a step further, and restricted the name to
the country below the Ghats, which never had any right to it whatever.
Hence the Mysore country, which is properly the true Karnatik, is no
longer called by that name ; and what is now geographically termed
"the Karnatik" is exclusively the country below the Ghats, on the
Coromandel coast, including the whole of the Tamil country and the
Telu^u-speaking District of Nellore.' — Caldwell's Grammar of the
Dravidian Languages, pp. 34, 35-

Kamprayag. — Village in Garhwal District, North-Western Pro-
vinces; situated at the junction of the Pindar and the Alaknanda.
Lat. 300 15' n., long. 79° 14' 40" e. Forms one of the five sacred
halting-places on the pilgrimage to Himachal. The principal temple,
dedicated to Uma, one of the forms of the wife of Siva, is said to
have been rebuilt by Sankara Acharya, the famous religious reformer
of the 9th century a.d. A jhi'da or rope bridge formerly crossed
the Pindar here, but is now superseded by an iron suspension bridge.
Elevation above sea-level, 2560 feet.

Karaiil (Kurnoul, Karnulu, Ca/wt/l—Orme ; Kandanul — Hamilton).

British District in the Madras Presidency. Lies between 14° 54' and

160 14 n. lat., and between 77° 46' and 790 15' e. long. Bounded
on the north by the rivers Tungabhadra and Kistna (which separate
it from the Nizam's Dominions) and by Kistna District ; on the south
by Cuddapah and Bellary; on the east by Nellore and Kistna; and
on the west by Bellary. Area (including the petty State of Banagana-
palli, q.v.), 778S square miles. Population (1881), also including
Banaganapalli, 709,305 souls. The administrative head-quarters are at
Karnul town.

Physical Aspects. — Two long mountain ranges, the Nallamalai and the
Yerramalai (Yellamalai) hills, extend in parallel lines, north and south,

KARNUL. 33

through the centre of the District. The Nallamalai range is about 70
miles long in Karniil, and nearly 25 miles broad in the widest parts.
The principal heights are Biramkonda (3149 feet), Gundlabrahmeswaram
(3055 feet), and Durgapukonda (3086 feet). There are five plateaux on
this range, of which the principal is that of Gundlabrahmeswaram, 2700
feet high, reached by two paths of easy gradient. On this a bungalow
has been built, but the site is unsuited for a sanitarium. The Yerra-
malai is a low range, generally flat-topped with scarped sides. The
highest point is about 2000 feet. These two ranges divide the District
into three well-defined sections. The eastern section, called the Cum-
bum (Kambham) valley, is about 600 feet above sea-level, and is very
hilly. The Velikonda (2000 feet) range, the main edge of the Eastern
Ghats, bounds this valley on the east. Several low ridges run parallel
to the Nallamalais, broken here and there by gorges, through which
mountain streams take their course. Several of these gaps were
dammed across under native rule, and tanks formed, for purposes of
cultivation. One of the tanks so formed is the magnificent Cumbum
Tank, closed in by a dam across the Gundlakamma river. It covers
an area of nearly 15 square miles, and irrigates about 6000 acres of
land, yielding a revenue of nearly ^"6000 a year. The northern part of
the valley is drained by the Gundlakamma, the southern part by the
Sagilair (Sagileru), a tributary of the Penner. Both these rivers rise
in the Nallamalai hills.

From the Cumbum (Kambham) valley, the Nandikanama ghat
(highest point, 2000 feet) and the Mantral Pass lead across the Nalla-
malais to the central division. This is a very extensive, flat, open valley,
between 700 and 800 feet above sea-level, and covered with black cotton-
soil. Northward, it is crossed by the watershed between the Pennar
(Ponnaiyar) and the Kistna, and it is drained by the Bhavanasi to
the north and the Kundair (Kunderu) to the south. In the hot
months, this plain presents an arid appearance. On the hill-sides, how-
ever, green woodlands and private gardens are seen, watered by the
streams and springs which rise in the neighbouring hills. The canal
of the Madras Irrigation Company is carried right down this valley.
On the flank of the hills, bounded by the two valleys, stone imple-
ments were recently discovered by the geological surveyors. It has
been suggested that the people who used them lived on these hills
when the valleys were still under water.

The western division differs in its features from the other two. It
forms the northern end of the eastern edge of the Mysore Plateau ; and
lies 900 feet above the sea at Karniil town, on its northern extremity,
and 1700 feet at Peapalli, 4 miles north of its southern limits. It is
dotted with bare rocky hills and long ridges, and is drained from south
to north by the Hindri. which falls into the Tungabhadra at Karniil.

vol. viil c

34 KARNUL.

Rivers. — The principal rivers are the Tungabhadra and the Kistna,
which bound the District on the north. When in flood, the Tunga-
bhadra averages 900 yards broad and 15 feet deep. It is usually
crossed by means of basket boats, some of which are of large size. In
i860, an anicut or weir was built across the river at Sunkesala, 18
miles above Karmil town, and a canal dug for the double purpose of
irrigation and navigation. After the floods subside, a fine description
of melon is grown in the river-bed. Small communities of fishermen,
who monopolize the ferrying trade, live in villages on the banks of the
river, but they complain that since the construction of the anicut, the
fishing industry has fallen off considerably. The Kistna in Karmil
District flows chiefly through uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long
smooth reaches, with intervening shingly rapids. The average fall of
the river is about \\ feet per mile above the junction and 4 feet below
it ; the depth in high flood varies from 25 to 40 feet. The Bhavanasi,
which rises in the Nallamalai hills, drains the northern part of the water-
shed, and falls into the Kistna at Sangameswaram, a place of pilgrimage.
Below their junction is a whirlpool {chakratirtam) which is regarded as
holy by the native pilgrims. The Kunderu, a rapid stream, rises on the
western Yerramalais. Winding round the hills, it drains the central
valley and falls into the Pennar. The Gundlakamma rises in the
Nallamalais, and, after receiving two other mountain torrents, passes
through the Cumbum gorge, where it is formed into a tank. Emerging
again from the tank, and obstructed in its easterly course by the base
of the Velikonda range, it makes a remarkable curve towards the north,
and flows through Kistna and Nellore Districts to the sea. It is rapid,
deep, and erosive, often injuring the wells on its banks, and has a
minimum flow of 800 cubic feet of water per second. The Gundla-
kamma and the Sagileru are utilized for cultivation by means of rough
low dams thrown across them. In the Bhavanasi, temporary dams
are constructed every year.

Geology.— The rocks of the District belong to three different for-
mations, corresponding to its three great physical divisions. In the
Kunderu valley or Karmil formation, shales, limestones, and quartzites
are the prevailing rocks. The limestone makes very good building
material, and resembles the Nigri stone, with which many of the railway
stations are built. The limestone found near Karmil is used for litho-
graphic purposes. Nearly the whole of the Kunderu valley, including
the Nandikotkiir taluk at its head, the lands on the banks of the Hindri,
and about one-fifth of the Cumbum valley on the banks of the
Gundlakamma and Sagileru, are covered with black cotton-soil. The
minerals found in Karmil District are diamonds, steatite, iron, lead,
copper. Running from the Nallamalais and Yerramalais are several hot
springs, of which the Mahanandi and the Kalwa Buggas are sufficiently

KARNUL. 35

copious to irrigate a good deal of land. There were in 1882-83, IJ6
mines and quarries in the District ; annual value of out-turn, about
^2100.

Forests. — There are three recognised forest divisions in the District —
the Nallamalai, the Vellikonda, and the Yerramalai. The first two are
conserved by the Forest Department, and yield a revenue which in
1875-76 amounted to ^2700. The Nallamalais are said to contain
the finest forests on the eastern side of the Presidency, covering an
area of about 2000 square miles. The chief timber-trees found
here are teak (Tectona grandis), nallamada (Avicennia officinalis),
and yepi (Hardwickia binata). The jungles on the western slope
are tolerably thick, but those on the eastern flank are thin and
poor. In the northern parts, where the jungle is poor, there are
extensive grassy level lands, which afford pasture to numerous herds
of cattle from Nellore and Kistna Districts. The grazing lands
are annually let for about ^70 or ^80. The Yerramalai hills are
generally bare of trees on their flat tops, but their slopes and the
plains below are clothed with shrubs of all kinds and some stunted
trees, but no valuable timber. These jungles are in charge of the
Collector, and yielded a revenue in 1875-76 of ^518. This revenue
is constituted into a local fund, and spent on works of public utility,
such as planting groves, sinking wells, etc. The jungle products —
found chiefly in the Nallamalai forest — are gall-nuts, honey, wax,
tamarinds, stick-lac, and bamboo rice.

Wild Animals. — Tigers are not numerous in the Nallamalai hills,
but they are remarkably addicted to man-eating. Occasionally a tiger
is known to stray into the plains. In 1867, a man-eater infested the
Nandikanama Pass, and a reward of ^"ioo was offered for its death.
The animal was at last killed ; but it was soon found that it was not
the only one that did the mischief. The usual reward, ^3, 10s., for
killing tigers was raised to ^30= Since then their numbers have been
considerable lessened, and the reward has now been reduced to ^"io.
The other animals of the District include leopards, wolves, hyaenas,
foxes, jackals, etc. No bears or chitds (Felis jubata) are found. The
number of deaths caused by wild beasts between 1867 and 1875 was
163, of which 64 occurred in 1867. The average amount spent in
rewards for the destruction of wild beasts is .£250 a year. Spotted
deer, and several varieties of antelopes, are found on the mountains.
Bison have been seen in the northern Nallamalais. Porcupines and
hogs abound in the jungles, and commit depredations on the crops.
The Indian antelope abounds on the plains, and the gazelle (Gazella
bennettii) on the low rocky hills. Feathered game of many kinds is
abundant : pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, the spangled and red varieties of spur-
fowl, painted and grey partridges, tlorican, duck, snipe, plovers, curlew

36 KARNUL.

of many varieties, and quail. In the Tungabhadra and the deeper
reaches of the Kistna, the mahdsir, sable, etc., attain considerable size.
A mahdsir brought before Dr. Day, when he visited Karniil, weighed
38 lbs., and another was stated to weigh 50 or 60 lbs. No revenue
is derived from fisheries. Snakes, chiefly cobras, abound. Formerly,
small rewards were given for the destruction of snakes, but this practice
has been discontinued. Tiger, leopard, and deer skins, and antelope
horns, are sold in small quantities.

Population. — The regular Census of 187 1 returned a total of 959,640
inhabitants; that of 1881 a total of 709,305, namely, 359,354 males
and 349,951 females. The decrease since 187 1 of 250,335, or 26*09
per cent., is attributable to the famine which devastated Southern
India in 1876-78. Karniil was in the heart of the famine zone.
Always a poor, thinly-populated District, remote from the great centres
of trade and from railway communication, it was the most difficult
tract to relieve with imported food. The decrease in population after
the famine, in the different taluks, varied from 9*30 per cent, in Marka-
pur to 39*21 per cent, in Pattikonda. The area of the District is
returned at 7788 square miles; density of population, 91 persons per
square mile. Number of towns, 3 ; villages, 833 ; occupied houses,
149,194; unoccupied houses, 26,805; villages per square mile, o*i ;
persons per occupied house, 4*8.

In 1881, the Hindus numbered 615,992, or 86*84 per cent, of
the total population; Muhammadans, 81,827, or 11*54 per cent;
Christians, 11,464, or 1*62 per cent.; Jains, 6 ; and 'others,' 16.
Among high-caste Hindus, Brahmans numbered 18,843; Kshattriyas,
2898; and Chettis (merchants and traders), 31,564. The intermediate
class include — Vallalas or Kipus (agriculturists), 192,086 ; Idaiyars
(shepherds), 71,911; Vannans (washermen), 19.629; Ambattans
(barbers), 10,859; Kushavans (potters), 9958; Kammalars (artisans),
9895. The most numerous of the lower castes are the Shembadavans,
who number 66,705, and are fishermen, hunters, and palanquin-bearers;
their women sell jungle fruits. Kaikalars (weavers) numbered 15,122 ;
and Shanans (toddy-drawers), 10,593. Pariahs or outcastes numbered
95,969. Of the Muhammadans, 74,395 were Sunnis, 1005 Shias, 4
Wahabis, and 6423 unspecified.

The Christian population in 1881 was 11,464, or almost exactly three
times the number returned in 187 1. Protestants, undistinguished by
sect, numbered 7256. Adherents of the Church of England were
returned at 727; Baptists, 736; Roman Catholics, 1015; Congre-
gationalists, 21 ; Independents, 2 ; and unspecified, 1698.

The Catholics, whose principal station is at Polur, originally belonged
to the Kapu or cultivating caste, and their conversion to Christianity
has not made any material change in their manners and customs. They

KARNUL.

37

eat and drink with Hindus, and in several cases intermarry with them.
They have founded a village named Kothala, and are generally well off.
The Protestant stations are Nandial, Muthialpad, and Karnul. The
former two were founded in 1855, and the last (Baptist Mission) in
1876. The Protestant converts are almost entirely low-caste natives in
rural tracts.

Classified according to occupation, the Census of 1881 distributes
the adult male population into six main groups: — (1) Professional
class, including State officials of every description and the learned
professions, 10,036; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house
keepers, 2346; (3) commercial class, including merchants, bankers,
carriers, etc., 11,339; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including
gardeners, 153,318; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers
and artisans, 52,184; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising
general labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified occupation,
130,131. About 54 per cent, of the total population are returned as
1 workers,' on whom the remaining 46 per cent, depend. Of the males
68*43 per cent., and of the females 39*46 per cent., are 'workers.' The
language of the District is Telugu. In Pattikonda taluk, a large
number speak Kanarese.

The wild tribes or Chenchus live on the Nallamalai hills, in small com-
munities called gudems. Each gudem includes several tribes, and has a
portion of the hills allotted to it by common consent. The Chenchus
do not transfer their rights to the hill produce to each other, but
occasionally give a portion as dowry to their daughters. They are
unwilling to cultivate, but are sometimes employed by the villagers in
the plains to watch their fields during the harvest. In former times
they were allowed a kind of black-mail ; but since the introduction
of the police force, this has been discontinued, and some of them
are employed as ghat taliaris or road watchmen. During the hill
festival they collect fees from pilgrims. Some of them also enjoy indms
(free lands) for guarding the jungles. Their language is chiefly a patois
of Telugu.

Of the 836 towns and villages in the District, 84 contained in 188 1
a population less than two hundred; 207 contained between two and
five hundred; 314 between five hundred and one thousand; 189
between one and two thousand; 28 between two and three thousand ;
10 between three and five thousand ; 3 between five and ten thousand ;
and 1 between twenty and fifty thousand.

The principal towns are— Karnul (population 20,329), Nandial
(8907), Cumbum (7170), Gudur (3547), Maddikera (6iSi), Kodumur
(3736), and Pepali (3535)- ... ,

Agriculture.— The chief crops grown in Karnul are— millets, pulse,
cotton, oil-producing plants, and indigo. Crops artificially irrigated

38 KARNUL.

occupy comparatively but a small area ; they consist mainly of rice and
sugar-cane. Wheat and flax are grown on an insignificant scale.
Tobacco, chillies, plantains, areca-nut palms, etc., are raised in the
immediate neighbourhood of villages. The staple of the District is
cJiolam (Sorghum vulgare), of which the principal varieties are the yellow
and white jonna. The yellow jonna is the early crop, and is sown early
in June, on red as well as on black soil. The white jonna, the later crop,
is sown in September or October, and reaped in February and March.
No improvement has taken place in the mode of cultivation or in the
quality of produce, but within the last twenty years there has been a
very great extension of the area under the principal crops. Cotton is
largely cultivated, but there has been no consequent decrease in the
cultivation of food-grains ; other fibres are cultivated only to a small
extent for home consumption.

The total area of the District is 4,497,01 1 acres. Of these, 1,635,566
acres were under cultivation in 1882-83 ; 5106 acres bearing two crops.
Of the area under cultivation, 43,452 acres were artificially irrigated,
and 1,592,114 acres unirrigated. Area cultivable but waste, 973>5°6
acres; pasture and forest land, 322,526 acres; barren land, 1,570,519
acres. Indm or rent-free grants covered an area of 991,472 acres.
Cholam occupied 626,699 acres, or 38 per cent, of the total cultivated
area; khoda (Panicum miliaceum), 131,838 acres; samai (Panicum
miliare), 17,640 acres; rdgi (Eleusine corocana), 13,668 acres ; other
millets, 307,099 acres; rice, 51,281 acres; wheat, 5753 acres; and
maize, 190 acres; pulses, 84,221; garden produce, 2915; drugs and
narcotics, 5509; chillies, 8509; onions and spices, 481; sugar-cane,
641; gingelly, 3252 ; castor-oil, 55,799; linseed, 3019; indigo, 103,377;
cotton, 212,585 ; and jute, 382 acres.

A second crop is obtained only from certain lands and in exceptional
cases. It may be taken as three-fourths of the first crop in quantity,
and considerably less than three-fourths in value. The rdyats, as a
rule, cultivate their own lands. Owners of very large holdings sublet
some of their fields and employ labourers on others. The average
annual assessment, including local rates and cesses levied on land,
is is. io^d. per acre. The wages of agricultural day-labourers and
artisans are usually paid in kind. When paid in cash, coolies or
unskilled labourers receive from 5fd. to 7jd. a day; blacksmiths,
bricklayers, and carpenters, is. to is. 4d.

The prices of produce in 1882-83 were as follows: — Per maund of
80 lbs.— rice, 6s. 2d. ; rdgi, 2s. 2^d. ; millets, 2s. 4d. ; wheat, 5s. 4^d. ;
salt, 6s. ijd. ; sugar, £\, 4s. 4d. ; linseed oil, 6s. iojd.; cotton,
£i, 8s. 4-id. ; indigo, £i$, 8s. A sheep costs 4s. 2d.; a plough
bullock, about £4, 13s. Camels can be hired at 2s. a day; draught
bullocks, is. 5d. ; horses, is. iod. ; ponies, is. id.; and carts, 5^d.

KARNUL. 39

Tenures.— The land tenures of the District are :— (i) Rdyatwdri, i.e.
land held direct from Government. (2) Jdgir and Shrotriam, or
villages granted to individuals by former governments. (3) Minor
indm — lands held rent-free or at favourable rates for personal benefit.
If the indm is unenfranchised, it is liable to revert to Government on
failure of lineal heirs. (4) Service indm, granted for the support of
temples and mosques, or for the benefit of the village community,
either rent-free or subject to the payment of a small quit-rent. (5)
Joint tenure. S/irotriam villages are generally held in coparcenary.
In such cases the rdyats have rights of occupancy, and cannot be
ejected unless they fail to pay the rent, which may be either a share of
the produce, a fixed quantity of grain, or a money payment. (6) Dasa-
&and/iam—\and held on condition of repairing irrigation works, for
which the owner is allowed a specified quantity of land or a reduction
averaging one-fourth of his assessment.

There is not much waste land in the plains, but there is a good deal
in the Nallamalai range, which was cultivated in ancient times, but is
now overgrown with jungle. In 1854, Captain Nelson of the Madras
Invalid Corps settled here to restore a large ruined tank and reclaim
the jungle ; but after several years' residence, he gave up the attempt.
Manure is chiefly used for garden and ' wet ' crops ; but to the west of
the Nallamalais, ' dry' lands" are also largely manured. Lands on which
rice, sugar-cane, areca-nut, saffron, rdgi, tobacco, and chillies are grown,
are irrigated from tanks and wells. Poorer lands are left fallow for
purposes of pasture, and are charged the usual assessment, except in
villages where they have been abandoned by common consent.
Rotation of crops is well known in the District.

The main canal of the Madras Irrigation Company, intended for
the double purpose of irrigation and navigation, runs from Sunkesala
to Cuddapah, total length 189 miles ; length within the limits of Karnul
District, 140 miles. The nominal width of the canal is 60 yards, and
the depth of water 8 feet. The water-rate charged for rice is about
12s. per acre, and less for other crops according to the length of time
for which water is taken. The area accessible to the waters of this
canal in Karnul District is estimated at 284,206 acres. The canal was
transferred to Government on the 6th July 1882. The total area
irrigated in 1883-84 was 19,674 acres, against 17,834 acres m 1882-83,
and the revenue derived from irrigation amounted to ^,6795, against
^5926 in the previous year. The navigation receipts in 1882-83
amounted to ^1068; in 1883-84, owing to a breach, traffic was partially
suspended, and remission of rent to the leaseholders of boats was
granted. Arrangements were being made in 18S3-84 for providing
distributaries required for the extension of irrigation.

Natural Calamities. -The villages on the banks of the rivers Tunga-

4o KARNUL.

bhadra and Kistna are occasionally flooded, the most disastrous recent
instance being in 185 1, when the crops of some villages and the build-
ings in the lower part of Karnul town were injured. This inundation
was due to a heavy rainfall at the head- waters and within the District.
Both Karnul and the neighbouring District of Bellary suffer from
droughts at periodic intervals ; and the mass of the population being
small landowners, with no reserve capital, the failure of a single
monsoon involves general distress. There is no record of the earlier
famines; but 1804, 1810, 1824, 1833, 1S54, 1866, 1876, and 1877
were all years of drought and consequent scarcity. In 1854, the price
of cholam rose to ^19 per 3200 Madras measures, against £g, 10s. in
the previous year. In Karnul, the season of 1866 was not so bad as
in Bellary; but owing to exportation, prices rose very high, cholam
selling at 8 \ measures (about 24 lbs.) per rupee, or three times the
normal rate.

In 1876 both the monsoons failed. The floods of 1874 had seriously
injured the tanks and the crops, while the harvest in 1875 waa but
partial. Prices rose from 18 measures (about 50 lbs.) a rupee in
July, the sowing season, to 12 measures or 33 lbs. a rupee in September
or October, the period at which the principal crop is generally har-
vested; and to 6 measures (famine rates) in February and March (1877),
when the later crop is usually cut. In July the price was 3 measures, or
about 8 lbs., for the rupee (2s.). The roads were fortunately all in good
order ; much grain was imported both by the Government, as a reserve,
and by private merchants, from Gooty (Giiti) and Adoni, the nearest
railway stations. There was no difficulty in procuring carts sufficient to
carry into the interior all the grain that the railway could bring from the
coast ; but this quantity was not equal to the demand, even at famine
rates.

Karnul was beyond question the worst of the famine-stricken Districts
in the Madras Presidency. Relief works were set on foot in all parts
of the District. The number of persons gratuitously fed in April 1877
was 44,887. Up to the end of July, nearly ^600,000 was spent on
famine relief in this District alone. Notwithstanding these efforts, the
effects of the famine were appalling. The number of deaths recorded
from 1st October 1876 to 30th June 1877, was 48,000, as compared
with 19,974 in the corresponding period of the previous year; and it is
certain that with a system of collecting vital statistics, which even in
ordinary years is admittedly defective, these figures fail to represent
the excessive mortality of that direful period. All fodder and pasturage
having failed, large numbers of cattle were driven to the Nallamalai
hills for grazing, but the mountain grass was soon exhausted. The
poorer rdyats lost all their cattle, while the rich were scarcely able to
save one-quarter of their herds. When at last the south-west monsoon

KARNUL. 41

of 1877 broke in November, the few cart-cattle that survived were sent
to field-work, and famine labourers drew the grain carts. This, how-
ever, did not last long. The rains ceased prematurely, prices rose
once more, and famine recurred with the same severity as before ; it
was not till the end of 1878 that cultivation was practicable. The
mortality caused by starvation, and the diseases incident thereto, will
never be known. But the Census Report shows a decrease of popu-
lation in Karnul District between 1871 and 1881 of 250,339 souls, or
26*9 per cent., a greatly higher proportionate loss than in any other of
the Madras famine-stricken Districts, Bellary coming next with a
decrease of 19*86 per cent.

Industries. — The chief manufacture in Karnul is weaving, which in
1 88 1 gave employment to ,15,122 persons, exclusive of women. The
weavers conduct the manufacture in their own houses, partly on their
own account, and partly for traders who advance money. Iron and steel
are worked at the foot of the Nallamalai hills. Of late years this industry
has greatly diminished, native iron being superseded for agricultural
implements by imported iron. Diamond mines have been worked from
early times in the quartzite beds of the Yerramalai hills, which are now
leased by Government for about ^20 a year. Quarrying stones is
an important industry. Indigo and jaggery or country sugar are also
manufactured. Weekly markets are held in most of the towns and
important villages. One of the market rules relating to cotton twist,
the chief article of sale in these fairs, is worth mention. When a twist
is found to contain a less number of threads than the prescribed
number, it is broken up by the people and thrown over trees. This
summary vindication of commercial morality is sanctioned by custom,
and is never appealed against.

Commerce. — There is little or no export of grain. Salt is imported
from the eastern coast, but earth salt is largely manufactured. Cotton,
indigo, tobacco, and hides, as well as cotton carpets and cotton cloth,
are the chief exports. European piece-goods, areca-nut, cocoa-nut,
and various dry condiments required for native households, are the

chief imports. ...

Roads.— In 1882, there were 603 miles of made roads in the District,

8 miles of railroad, and 140 miles of navigable canal.

History.— From local records, it appears that Karnul formed part
of the old Telingana kingdom of Warangul. On the downfall of that
dynasty, Karnul seems to have became an independent principality.
According to Wilson, a prince of Karnul (Narasinha Rao, son of
Iswara Rao) was adopted into the family of Vijayanagar, and after-
wards raised to the throne of that mighty kingdom. There can,
however, be no doubt that Karnul formed part of the kingdom of
Vijayanagar. In the reign of Achyuta Deva Raja, the fort of Kamiil

42 KARNUL.

was built, and the country was conferred in jagir on a relative named
Ramraja. After the battle of Talikot in 1564, in which the Raja of
Vijayanagar was defeated by the allied Muhammadan kings of Bijapur,
Golconda, and Ahmadnagar, Karniil became a province of Bijapur.
The first Subahdar was an Abyssinian named Abdul Wahab, who con-
verted the Hindu temples into mosques, and built a fine dome-shaped
tomb in imitation of the one at Bijapur.

In 165 1, after the conquest of Bijapur by Aurangzeb, Karniil was
conferred by him upon a Pathan named Kizir Khan in reward for
military services. Kizir Khan was assassinated by his son Daiid Khan ;
and on his death his two brothers, Ibrahim Khan and Alif Khan, ruled
the country jointly for six years, after which they were succeeded by
Ibrahim Khan, the son of Alif Khan, who built and strengthened the
fort. The country then peaceably descended to his son and grandson.
The grandson, Himmat Khan Bahadur, accompanied Nazir Jang, the
Nizam of Haidarabad (Hyderabad), in his expedition to the Karnatik
along with the Nawibs of Cuddapah and Savaniir. Nazir Jang was
there treacherously murdered by the Nawab of Cuddapah, and his nephew
was made Subahdar of the Deccan. But the new Subahdar failed to
satisfy the expectations of the Pathan Nawabs, who had hoped for an
extension of their territory. He was murdered at Rachoti in Cuddapah
by Himmat Khan Bahadur, who was himself cut to pieces by the
infuriated soldiers. Salabat Jang, a nephew of Nazir Jang, was then
made Subahdar; and on his way back to Haidarabad with Bussy,
assaulted Karniil, and took it in 1752. But he afterwards restored the
idgir for a sum of money to Munawar Khan, brother of Himmat Khan
Bahadur. A short time afterwards, Haidar All overran Karniil, and
exacted a contribution of 2 lakhs of Gadval rupees.

In 1800, this District, together with Cuddapah and Bellary,
was ceded to the British Government. From that time, the yearly
tribute, reduced to 1 lakh of Gadval rupees, was punctually paid by
Alif Khan to the British Government. In 181 5, Alif Khan died, and
his younger son, Muzaffar Jang, usurped the throne and seized the fort.
Munawar Khan, the eldest son, applied to the English for assistance ;
troops were sent from Bellary under Colonel Mariott, Muzaffar Jang
was expelled, and Munawar Khan placed on the masnad. On his death
without heirs in 1823, his brother Muzaffar should have succeeded;
but as he was on his way to Karniil, within the limits of Bellary
District, he murdered his wife, and was imprisoned in the Bellary
fort, where he died in 1879.

In 1838, information reached Government that the Nawab was
engaged in treasonable preparations on an extensive scale. An
inquiry showed that enormous quantities of arms and ammunition were
stored in the fort and palace, for which no satisfactory explanation

KARNUL. 43

could be given. The town and fort were captured after a sharp fight,
and the Nawab escaped to Zorapur, a small village on the east bank of
the Hindri. His foreign soldiers would not allow him to depart until
their arrears of pay were satisfied. The Nawab then yielded himself
prisoner, and was sent to Trichinopoli, where he was basely murdered
by one of his own servants, whom he had charged with a petty theft.
His territories, as well as the minor jdgirs enjoyed by his relatives,
were confiscated, and all the members of the family pensioned. After
the resumption, the country was for a time administered by a Com-
missioner, and then by an Agent till 1858. In that year Karmil was
constituted a separate Collectorate, with the addition of certain tracts
from Cuddapah and Bellary.

Revenue History.— Under native government, the lands were rented
hy palegdrs, or hereditary barons, who paid a peshkash, and sometimes
rendered military service. On the transfer of Cuddapah and Bellary,
which then included the present Karmil District, to the Company in
1800, the palegdrs were summoned by Major (afterwards Sir) Thomas
Munro to make their settlements, but many of them refused to attend,
and proved troublesome. The lands were therefore resumed, and the
palegdrs pensioned. The country was then settled on a quasi-rdyatr.'dri
system, but the rates were fixed with reference to the high assessment
levied under Musalman government. This system was tried till 1807,
when it was superseded by a triennial, and afterwards by a decennial
settlement. The assessment was collected through farmers or middle-
men, who fell largely into arrears, and several of them were sent to
jail. The renting system was thereupon discontinued; and in 1821
the rdyatwdri system was reverted to, but with a reduction in the rates
of 25 per cent, on 'dry' and 'wet,' and 32 per cent, on garden lands.
Since then no important changes have occurred, except that lands under
wells and tanks constructed at private expense have been exempted
from extra assessment, and that old well-land (or garden) rates have
been assimilated to ' dry ' rates.

In Karmil Proper, the revenue administration under the Nawabs was
conducted without system. The old paldyams and zaminddris were
arbitrarily resumed, and villages were rented to the head-men, who
distributed lands among the rdyats according to their means, and raised
or lowered rents at pleasure. In the first four years of British rule
in this part of the District, the revenue decreased by about \\ lakh.
The Agent proposed to revert to village rents, but the Government
negatived the proposal. In the next four years, the revenue rose again
to its former level. Where the rates were too high, they were reduced,
or unassessed lands were given at lower rates to compensate for over-
assessment on old lands, and in some cases remissions were also made,
and the tax on special products was abolished, but the high rates on

44 KARNUL.

garden and ordinary lands were retained. Prices, however, began to
rise, and afforded to the rdyats a more certain relief than any reduction
in the assessment could give, and saved the necessity for temporary
remissions. The latter were accordingly abolished, and the revenue
gradually increased. The remaining inequalities of the old rough
settlement were finally removed by the new Survey and Settlement in
1866.

Administration. — The total gross revenue of Karnul District in
1882-83 amounted to ,£158,375, of which £130,480 was derived from
land. The expenditure on the civil and police administration is
returned at £46,881. The District administration is carried on by 38
high officials, including a District Judge, with 3 subordinate munsifs
for civil jurisdiction; a District Magistrate, with 17 subordinates for
criminal cases; and 13 revenue officers. The total police force of the
District in 1882-83 was 927 men, maintained at a cost of £14,729 ;
proportion of police to area of District, 8 '6 per square mile; of
police to population, 1 to 782. The District contains a District jail
and 13 subsidiary prisons. Daily average prison population, 90
prisoners.

Education. — The state of education in Karnul is backward ; only
37 per cent, of the population in 187 1 being returned as able to read
and write. In 1882, there were altogether 404 schools, with 6501
pupils. Girls' schools numbered 3, with 76 pupils. Pupils in primary
vernacular schools numbered 5596, under Government inspection.
The Census Report of 1881 returned a total of 6687 boys and 411
girls as under instruction, besides 26,094 males and 1401 females able
to read and write, but not under instruction.

Medical Aspect. — The climate of Karnul is on the whole healthy.
The prevailing winds are west and north-east, and the mean tempera-
ture is about 850 F. The rains begin in June, and continue up to
September. The total annual fall is 48 inches. In the villages along
the foot of the Nallamalais, a severe type of fever prevails, accom-
panied by enlargement of the spleen. Other common diseases are
rheumatic affections, conjunctivitis, and dysentery. Murrain and ■ foot-
and-mouth disease ' are very prevalent among cattle. There is very
little or no pasture land in the plains, and the cattle are generally
grazed on the hills ; but during the hot months the hill grass is burnt
up, and the difficulty of feeding cattle becomes very great. In 1882,
the registered death-rate per thousand was 15-5, and the registered
birth-rate per thousand, 28. There are three dispensaries in the
District— at Cumbum, Karnul, and Nandial. Total of persons treated
during 1881, 38,354. [For farther information regarding Karnul, see
Mr. Stack's Memorandum upon the Current Land Settlement in the
temporarily settled parts of British India, p. 371. Also the Madras

KARNUL TOWN—KAROL. 45

Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Administration and Depart-
mental Reports from 1880 to 1883.]

Karniil (Karnaid ; Kandanul ; Canon I of Orme). — Town and muni-
cipality in Ramalkota taluk or Sub-division of Karniil District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 15° 49' 58" N., long. 780 5' 29" e. Population
(1871) 25,579; (1881) 20,329, namely, 9637 males and 10,692 females.
Number of houses, 5391. Hindus numbered 9995; Muhammadans,
10,007; Christians, 320; and * others,' 7. The head-quarters of the
District, with a Judge, Collector-Magistrate, and the usual District
courts.

The town stands on a rocky spit of land (an island since the
construction of a canal in 1865), at the junction of the Hindri and
Tungabhadra rivers. The fort, whose erection is attributed to Gopal
Raya, was dismantled in 1865 ; the curtain was razed, but the four
bastions and three of the gates still stand. Until 187 1, troops were
stationed in the fort, which also contained the palace of the Nawabs ;
it is still the residence of some of the members of the family. The
mausoleum of Abdul Wahab (the first Nawab of Karniil), a modern
fountain presented by the Raja of Vizianagaram, and some mosques,
are the only other architectural features of the place. Karniil at one
time had an evil fame for cholera. But the municipality, which spends
large sums yearly on sanitation, etc., has done much to redeem the
reputation of the place. The town, however, has been much afflicted
by endemic fever since the construction of the canal; this evil is
probably to a great degree incurable, but it is aggravated by a faulty
system of water-supply. In the famine of 1877-78, Karniil and the
surrounding country' suffered terribly, owing to their isolated position.
The nearest railway station is Gooty (a station on the north-west line of
the Madras Railway), 60 miles distant ; and it was only by extraor-
dinary efforts that food was thrown into the town.

The population is half Hindu and half Musalman ; this unusual
proportion marking the long rule of the Pathan Nawabs. The income
of the municipality from taxation in 1883-84 was ^1839 ; incidence of
direct taxation, excluding tolls, is. 2d. per head.

Karo, North. — River of Bengal, tributary of the South Koel river ;
rises in Lohardaga District, Chutia Nagpur, drains the north-west
corner of Singbhum, and finally empties itself into the South Koel.

Karo, South.— Also a tributary of the South Koel ; rises in the
tributary State of Gangpur, in Chutia Nagpur, crosses the north-west
corner of the Orissa State of Keunjhar, then turns north draining part
of Saranda in Singbhiim, and falls into the Koel at Arandpur.

Karol. — Petty State of the Jhalawar Division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency, consisting of 2 villages, with two separate shareholders.
Area of the petty State, 11 square miles, and population (1SS1) 1325.

46 KAROND.

Estimated revenue in 1881, .£618; tribute of £-,0, 6s. is payable to
the British Government, and £g, 6s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.
Karol village is situated 5 miles east of Chura station on the Bhaunagar-
Gondal Railway.

Karond (or Kdldhandt).—K feudatory chiefship attached to Sam-
balpur District, Central Provinces; lying between 190 5' and 200 30' n.
lat., and between 820 40' and 830 50' e. long. Bounded on the north
by Patna State ; on the east and south by Jaipur (Jeypore) estate and
Vizagapatam District in Madras ; and on the west by Bindra Nawagarh
and Khariar. Area, 3745 square miles; number of villages, 2461;
houses, 53,527. Total population in 1881, 224,548, namely, males
116,918, and females 107,630. Average density, 60 persons per square
mile. The population is largely composed of aboriginal Kandhs. Of
the 2461 villages, 2439 contain less than five hundred inhabitants, 19
between five hundred and a thousand, and 3 upwards of a thousand.
The chief place is Bhawani-patna, with a population of 3483.

The country is high, lying behind the Eastern Ghats, spurs from
which project into Karond; while even the plains are intersected
by ranges of hills. The light alluvial soil washed from their slopes
is fertile and easily tilled, yielding heavy crops of almost every
description. Teak is found to the north-west ; and in the south, forests
of sardi and other trees clothe the heights ; but in many parts the
ddhya or nomadic system of tillage has cleared the timber away. The
State is well watered. Within its limits rise the Tndravati, a tributary
of the Godavari; the Hatti and the Ret, tributaries of the Tel;
while it is traversed throughout by the Tel, the San, and the Raul,
which after uniting their waters, fall into the Mahanadi beyond the
limits of Karond.

Principal crops— rice, pulses, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, cotton, and the
lesser millets. Of late years, wheat has been introduced, and the
cultivation of the poppy has been abandoned. Oranges of fine quality
are also grown. Communication has considerably improved of late
years, and weekly markets have been established at the principal
places ; that at the chief town of Bhawani-patna being especially
flourishing. Communication has been opened with Raipur and Sam-
balpur by roads, which are traversed by carts in the dry season. The
imports are salt, tobacco, cloth, and brass utensils ; the exports con-
sisting of grain, which is conveyed chiefly to Vizagapatam on pack
bullocks. The people are fairly prosperous.

The late Raja, Udit Pratap Deo, a Rajput by caste, accompanied the
Chief Commissioner to the imperial assemblage at Delhi, and obtained
the title of Raja Bahadur, with a salute of 9 guns as a personal
distinction. Udit Pratap Deo died in 18S1, and was succeeded by
his adopted son, the present (1884) Raja, Raghu Kishore Deo, a

KAROR. 47

minor, now being educated at the Rajkumar College at Jabalpur.
The administration of the State was entrusted to the late chief's
senior Rani. Shortly after these arrangements had been made,
symptoms of disaffection began to show themselves amongst the
Kandhs, an aboriginal tribe, consisting of about one-third of the whole
population of the State. They rose against the Kultas, a Hindu
agricultural caste, murdered between 70 and 80 of them, and plundered
several of their villages. This outbreak necessitated the interference
of the British Government. The disturbance was quelled by an armed
police force under British officers, and seven of the ringleaders on con-
viction were summarily executed. The State was then taken under
direct Government management, and will remain so until the young chief
attains his majority.

The climate of Karond is in general good. The proximity of the
ghats ensures a regular and abundant rainfall. The gross revenue is
estimated to amount to ;£i 0,000; tribute of ^360 is payable to the
British Government.

Karor. — Head-quarters tahsil of Bareli (Bareilly) District, North-
western Provinces, including Bareli city. Area, 330 square miles,
of which 237 are cultivated. Population (1872) 279,774; (1882)
285,731, namely, males 152,341, and females 133,390, residing in 408
villages. Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 192,890;
Muhammadans, 90,251 ; and 'others,' 2590.

Wheat and gram occupy about four-fifths of the area of the spring
(rabi) harvest. For the autumn (kharif) harvest, bdjra, or great
millet, grown on the sandy uplands, covers more than twice as much
ground as any other crop. Rice, millet, sugar-cane, and jodr
follow next in order. Sugar-refining is largely carried on, and forms
an important industry. After supplying local wants, the surplus
produce finds a sale at Bareli town and several villages where weekly
markets are held. The tahsil is amply provided with means ot
export. Bareli city is the centre from which branches of the Oudh
and Rohilkhand Railway radiate west to Chandausi, south-east to
Shahjahanpur, north-east to Pilibhit, and north to Katgodam (for
Naini Tal). Metalled and unmetalled roads intersect the tahsil in
every direction, converging on Bareli town, besides minor tracks con-
necting the villages. Kurmis and Kisans constitute the bulk of the
cultivating class. Of 554 estates which existed at the time of settlement,
334 were held in zaminddri tenure. By far the greater part of the
cultivated area is held by tenants with rights of occupancy. Land
revenue (1882), ^£24,073 ; total Government revenue, ,£27,287 ; rental
paid by cultivators, ,£45,048. The administrative staff consists of 1
Judge, 2 sub-Judges, and 3 mwisifs in Bareli city ; a District Sessions
Judge, Magistrate-Collector, Joint -Magistrate, 3 Deputy Collectors,

43 KAROR TOWN—KARRA.

a tahsilddr, and a cantonment magistrate. These officers preside over
5 civil and 8 criminal courts. The tahsil contains 7 police circles
(t hands), a regular police force of 397 officers and men, and a village
police (chaukiddrs) numbering 356.

Karor. — Town in the Leiah tahsil of Dera Ismail Khan District,
Punjab. Lat. 310 13' 30" x., long. 700 59' 15" e. Population (1868)
5720. By 1881 it had decreased to 2723, namely, 1459 Hindus, 1263
Muhammadans, and 1 Sikh. Number of houses, 565. Situated on
the old left bank of the river Indus, at some distance from the
present channel. Said to be the earliest settlement in the cis-Indus
portion of the District. The town is surrounded by a circular road,
along which, as well as along the main approaches to the town, are
planted avenues of shisam trees. The bdzdr is well paved, the shops
having masonry fronts. A fair is held here annually in August in
honour of a local saint, Makhdum Lai Isan, whose handsome shrine is
then visited by about 25,000 people. Karor is a third-class munici-
pality, with an income in 1883-84 of ^245, or an average of is. 9d.
per head of the population. Head-quarters of a civil court (munsifi),
and of a police station (thdnd).

Karor. — Town and municipality in Miiltan District, Punjab. — See
Kahror.

Karra (Kara ; Corah). — Town in Sirathu tahsil, Allahabad District,
North-Western Provinces ; on the right bank of the Ganges, 42 miles by
road north-west of Allahabad city. Lat. 250 41' n., long. 8i° 24' e.
Formerly the capital of a native fief. In 1286 a.d., Muiz-ud-din and his
father, Nasir-ud-din, held a meeting in the middle of the river, opposite
Karra, and determined to unite their forces for an attack upon Delhi.
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the town formed the head-quarters of
the Musalman governors in the Lower Doab. Firoz Shah was murdered
here in 1295 by Ala-ud-din. In 1338, Nizam Ma-in attempted to revolt
at Karra, but was at once arrested by Ain-ul-Mulk and flayed alive.
During the rains of 1346, Karra was occupied by the rebel cobbler of
Gujrat, Takhi ; but Muhammad Shah followed him up from Ahmed-
abad and totally defeated him. In 1376, the fiefs of Karra, Mahoba, and
Dalamau were united under one governor, called the Mah'k-ul-Shark.
Akbar removed the seat of government to Allahabad, which thence-
forth superseded Karra in importance. (See Allahabad District.)

An old fort, now in ruins, together with a number of tombs, still attests
the former magnificence of Karra. But Asaf-ud-daula, Nawab of Oudh,
destroyed the finest edifices, for the materials, which he employed
in building his own works at Lucknow. Population (1881) 5080,
namely, Muhammadans, 3026, and Hindus, 2054. Area of town site,
133 acres. The local market has a traffic with Oudh and Fatehpur,
principally in grain, cloth, and paper. The manufacture of paper has

KARRAK— KARTAIRI. 49

much declined of late years, owing principally to the establishment of
the large paper factories at Serampur, near Calcutta. The place is
still well known for its blankets. For conservancy and police purposes,
a small house-tax is levied, which in 1881-82 realized ^108. Post-
office, police station, and station of the Great Trigonometrical Survey.

Karrak.— Salt-mine in Kohat District, Punjab ; one of the series
which extends along the valley of the Teri Toi. Colonized in the time
of Aurangzeb, but not quarried till about 1800. The salt occurs as a
massive rock, almost pure, and is excavated over a tract 1 mile in
length. The produce is exported to Waziristan and Kabul by the
Povindah merchants. The salt quarried from these mines during the
six years ending 1881-82 yielded an average annual income to Govern-
ment in the shape of duty of ^1105. The duty realized in 1883-84
amounted to ^2099.

Karsiang (Kurseong). — Sub-division of Darjiling District, Bengal.
Area, 442 square miles; number of towns and villages, 821 ; number
of houses, 17,227. Population (1881) 90,178, namely, males 52,265,
and females 37,913. Hindus numbered 78,545; Sikhs, 3; Muham-
madans, 7243; Christians, 213; Buddhists, 3550; Kols and other
aboriginal tribes, 624. Proportion of males in total population, 57*28 ;
average density of population, 204 persons per square mile; villages
per square mile, 1*83; houses per square mile, 390; persons per
house, 5*2. This Sub-division comprises the two tlidnas or police
circles of Karsiang and the tardi or submontane tract at the foot of
the hills. In 1883. it contained 2 civil and 3 magisterial courts, with
a total regular police force of 88 officers and men.

Karsiang. — Town, municipality, and head-quarters of Karsiang
Sub-division, Darjiling District, Bengal ; situated in the Lower Hima-
layas, on the road to Darjiling. Lat. 2 6° 52' 40" n., long. 88° 19' 30" e.
It is also an important station on the Darjiling-Himalayan Railway, 30
miles from its starting-point at Siliguri, and 20 miles from its terminus
at Darjiling. Distance from Calcutta by rail, 226 miles. It forms a
central point for the tea-planters between Darjiling and the plains, has
a good hotel, and is within easy reach of some of the most romantic
scenery in the wonderful ascent made by the hill railway. Population
(1881)4343; municipal income (1883-84), ^592; average incidence
of taxation, 2s. 4^d. per head of the population.

Kartairi. — River of Madras Presidency ; rising near the station of
Utakamand (Ootacamund) in the Nilgiri Hills District. After flowing
through the rich coffee-growing tract of Kartairi, at an elevation of about
6000 feet, it descends upon the plains in a series of beautiful waterfalls
and cascades at Kullar, and finally falls into the Bhavani near Metta-
polliem, in lat. n° 18' n., and long. 760 57' e. A small but rising
village has sprung up of late years on the saddle to the south of the

VOL. VIII. D

5 o KARTAK—KAR UMBHAR.

large waterfall, near the junction of the roads from Ootacamund,
Kunur (Coonoor), etc. A considerable trade in grain is carried on.
Population (1881) 496, inhabiting 103 houses.

Kartak (or Ketak).— Petty State in Khandesh District, Bombay
Presidency. — See Dang States.

Kartarpur. — Town and municipality in Jalandhar (Jullundur) tahsil,
Jalandhar District, Punjab. Lat. 31° 26' 39" N., long. 750 32' 28" e.
Situated on the Grand Trunk Road, 9 miles north of Jalandhar
town. Hereditary residence of the Sikh Guru or High Priest, and
therefore a place of great sanctity. Founded in 1588 by Guru Arjun,
whose father, Guru Ram Das, obtained the site from the Emperor
Jahangfr. When Arjun came to the place and desired to build his hut,
a demon who inhabited the trunk of a tree would not permit any wood
to be cut until the Guru promised that he should not be disturbed,
but should receive worship for ever at the shrine. Population (1868)
10,953; (1881) 9260, namely, Hindus, 4958; Muhammadans, 3191 ;
Sikhs, 1 1 05; and 'others,' 6. Number of houses, 1946. A third-
class municipality, with an income in 1881 of ^501 ; average incidence
of taxation, is. id. per head. Residence and gardens of the Guru,
whose annual income from jdgirs or land-grants amounts to about
^1300. The present (1883) Guru is a minor, and his estate is under
the management of the Court of Wards. The town is a place of incon-
siderable trade, but it possesses a good paved bazar, police station,
dispensary, post-office, middle school, and also indigenous schools.

Karumattampati. — Town in Palladam taluk, Coimbatore District,
Madras Presidency ; 16 miles east of Coimbatore town. Lat. ii° 7' n.,
long. 77° 4' e. Population (1872) 3374; (1881) 2963; number of
houses, 677. Hindus numbered 2316; Christians, 604; and Muham-
madans, 43. An early mission station, with a church built in 1660.

Karumattlir. — Town in Tirumangalam taluk, Madura District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 90 57' n., long. 790 59' e. Population (1871)
5775 J (1881) 4079, namely, 2128 males and 1951 females, occupying
488 houses. All, but three, are Hindus.

Karumbhar. — Island in the Gulf of Cutch (Kachchh), Nawanagar
State, Halar Division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency. A coral
island surrounded by a reef, which drops down into deep water. Along
the shore the blown sand has accumulated and formed sandhills. The
centre is a mangrove swamp, or in parts plain sand, cut up by creeks
and overflowed at flood-tide. At the south-east corner, a little arable
land is cultivated during the season by Waghars (originally Hindu
pirates) from the mainland. The reefs of coral are covered with
anemones and living coral, where mud has not silted over them ;
the mud kills the coral, but affords nourishment to the mangroves
which grow readily on the coral reefs. On the north-west corner of

KARUN—KARUR. 51

the island is a lighthouse ; a whitewashed tower 30 feet high, with an
ordinary fixed white light, burning kerosine oil ; visible in clear
weather at a distance of 10 miles. The arc of illumination is S. 59
W. to N. 18 W. Lat. 220 26' n., long. 690 4' e.

Karun. — River of the Central Provinces ; rising in the Kanker
zaminddri, in lat. 210 10' n., and long. 8i° 25' e. It flows past
the town of Raipur, and falls into the Seo near Simga, in lat.
210 34' N., and long. 8i° 44' e. Though shallow and with a rocky
bottom, it is navigable during the rains ; and in times of extraordinary
floods, stores from Calcutta have been landed by it 3 miles west of
Raipur.

Karungalaikudi. — Village in Meliir td/u&, Madura District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 90 54' 45" n., long. 780 t,^' 30" e. Population (1881)
3528, namely, Hindus, 3373; Muhammadans, 127 ; and Christians, 28.

Ka-nip-pi. — Village in Amherst District, British Burma, situated
on the left or south bank of the Ka-riip-pi stream near its mouth.
Population (1877) 1297; (1881) 2041.

Kanir. — Taluk or Sub-division of Coimbatore District, Madras
Presidency. In the south-east corner of the District, the Erode branch
of the South Indian Railway passes through the tdhtk. Area, 613
square miles; 97 towns and villages. Population (1881) 177,155,
namely, 85,385 males and 91,770 females, occupying 39,720 houses.
Number of persons per square mile, 289. Hindus numbered 167,899,
or 94-8 per cent, of the population ; Muhammadans, 8305 ; and
Christians, 951. The tdhik contained in 1881 the following villages
with more than 3000 inhabitants: — Nerur (5610, living in 1288
houses), Gudahir (4944, living in 1208 houses), Uppidamangalam
(4821, living in 1045 houses), Sendamangalam (433°> living in s98
houses), Palapatti (6351, living in 1368 houses), Velliyanai (5386, living
in 12T4 houses), Pavitram (3621, living in 870 houses), Punjaipiigalar
(3215, in 764 houses), and Venjamangudalur (3192, in 637 houses).
In 1883, there were 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police stations
{thdnds), 7 ; regular police, 62 men. Land revenue, ^28,919.

Kanir (Carooroi Karuru ; Kdpovpa of Ptolemy ; Kdpovpa fiaaiXeiov
KrjpopoOpov; at different periods called Vanji and Garbhapiin).--To\\r\
and municipality in Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency ; situated
on the left bank of the Amravati river, near its confluence with the
Kaveri. Lat. io° 57' 42" n., long. 78° 7' 16" e. Population (1872)
9378; (1881) 9205, namely, 4468 males and 4737 females, occupying
1539 houses. Hindus numbered 8176, or 88-8 per cent, of the popula-
tion; Muhammadans, 733 ; and Christians, 296. Head-quarters of the
Kanir taluk ; with post-office, railway station, court, etc.

Kariir was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Chera or Eastern
Kerala. During the struggles between the rival dynasties of Chera,

5 2 KAR VIR—KAR WAITNA GAR.

Chola, and Pandya, it changed hands more than once. With the
rise of the Nayaks, Karur fell to the kingdom of Madura ; but it was
frequently attacked and occupied by the Mysore armies, until towards the
end of the 17th century it was finally annexed to the latter kingdom,
and became its most important frontier post. In 1736, Chanda Sahib
besieged it unsuccessfully.

In the year 1760, the town was captured by the English after a
short siege, and held by them till 1768, when it was retaken by
Haidar Ali, to whom its possession was confirmed by treaty in
the following year. In 1783, Colonel Lang held the fort for a
few months. It was a third time captured in 1790 by General
Medows, and again restored in 1792. At the close of the second
Mysore war, in 1799, which ended with the death of Tipu Sultan,
Karur was finally ceded to the English, and was abandoned as a
military station in 1801. The ruins of this oft-contested fort remain,
and, with the old temple, are the principal points of interest in the
town. The fort, however, is in some places nearly obliterated. The
Jesuit fathers established a mission here as early as 1639.

Karur is now a busy market town, with an excellent road system
converging on it. It is a station on the Erode branch of the South
Indian Railway, and is an important centre of traffic. The municipality
had in 1882-83 an income from taxation, excluding Imperial licence
tax, of ,£861, the incidence of taxation being is. per head of the
population.

Karvir. — A local name of Kolhapur, q.v. Chief town of Kolhapur
State. Karvir has been used by the natives for the Kolhapur capital
from the time of the early Deccan dynasties.

Karwaitnagai*. — Zaminddri estate in North Arcot District, Madras
Presidency; situated between 130 4' and 13° 36' 30" n. lat, and
between 790 17' and 79° 53' e. long. Area, 6S0 square miles; number
of villages, 792; population (1871) 289,894; (1881) 275,830, namely,
males 139,882, and females 135,948, occupying 41,075 houses. Average
density of population, 406 persons per square mile. Hindus in 1881
numbered 272,101, or nearly 99 per cent, of the total population;
Muhammadans, 3668; Christians, 54; and 'others,' 7.

The estate is bounded north by Chandragiri, east by Kalahasti
and Chengalpat, south by Walaja-pet, and west by Chittur. The region
is hilly, and is traversed by the north-west line of the Madras Rail-
way. Timber is cut on the Nagari Hills, and sent by rail to Madras.
Sixty per cent, of the land is uncultivable ; one-half the remainder, or
about 100,000 acres, is under the plough. Indigo is largely cultivated.
The zaminddri is described in Orme as Bommarauze's country, Bom-
marauze being a leading palegdr in the period of the early Karnatik wars.
Permanent revenue or tribute (fieshkash), ^18,049; estimated gross

KARWAITNAGAR TOWN— KARWAR. 53

rental, about ,£60,000. A very fertile tract, with a hardy and intelli-
gent peasantry. Sub-magistrates are stationed at Puttiir and Tirutani,
the head-quarters of divisions of the zamindari. The chief manu-
facture is weaving. There are 117 miles of road in the estate.

Karwaitnagar. — Principal town in Karwaitnagar estate, North
Arcot District, Madras Presidency. Situated seven miles west of
Puttur, and a station on the north-west line of the Madras Railway.
Population (1871) 6894; (1881) 5874. Hindus numbered 5317;
Muhammadans, 554; and Christians, 3. Karwaitnagar was formerly
strongly fortified, and surrounded by a broad wall, eight feet high,
having two gates, one on the south and one on the west. Only traces
of these works now remain.

Karwar. — Sub-division of North Kanara District, Bombay Presi-
dency. Area, 281 square miles; contains 1 town and 51 villages, with
8590 houses. Population (1872) 45,131; (1881) 47>742, or 23,738
males and 24,004 females. Hindus numbered 40,886 ; Muhammadans,
2909; Christians, 3896; Jews, 21; and 'others,' 30.

The Sub-division lies in the north-west of the District, with a coast-
line of eighteen miles. The Kalinadi flows from east to west through
the centre, and as it enters the sea throws up a bar of sand impassable to
any but small craft. Along both banks of the river, broad belts of rice
land, broken by groves of palms and other fruit trees, stretch east to
near the Sahyadri hills. The soil on the plains is sandy, and near
the hills is much mixed with granite. On the banks of the Kalinadi,
and along the sea-shore, are large tracts of gajni land, a black alluvial
deposit charged with salt and liable to be flooded at high tides. To
bring these gajni lands under tillage, a strong and costly wall must be
built to keep out the sea. A heavy rainfall is required to sweeten the
land, and then, without much manure and with due care, rich crops may
be raised. Throughout the Sub-division the villages are not gathered
into streets, but the houses are scattered along narrow lanes, standing
in shady cocoa-palm gardens, some tiled and some thatched, each with
its well, bathing-place, and cattle-shed. Here and there is a well-
built temple, and a few villages have a Roman Catholic church.

The Sub -division contains three ports, namely Sadashivgarh,
Karwar, and Chendia, which are grouped for customs purposes
into the Karwar division. The value of imports of merchandise and
treasure (exclusive of Government stores and treasure) in 1882-83
from Indian ports, British or other, amounted to ,£219,493, and
from foreign ports ^10,947, making a total of ,£230,440. The
exports to Indian ports, British or other, stood at ^356>I1[7> and
to foreign ports ,£4635, the total being ;£36o>752- The average
annual value of the trade at the Karwar customs division, during
the five years ending 1882-83, is returned as follows : — Imports,

54 KARWAR TOWAT.

^204,280, and exports, ,£535,143. The number of vessels, steam,
sailing, and native craft, which entered with cargoes the three ports
of the customs division in 18S2-83 from Indian ports, British or
other, was 949, tons 172,145, of which 118 were steamers, tons
157,621; and from foreign ports 5, all sailing, tons 385. The
vessels which cleared with cargoes for Indian ports, British or other,
numbered 995, tons 180,925, of which 117 were steamers, tons
156,097; and for foreign ports one, a steamer, tons 1514. The
chief imports, most of which are for local use, are wheat, tobacco,
and European cloth. The exports are chiefly cotton, native hand-made
cloth, and husked and unhusked rice.

Karwar (Carwar ; Kddwdd). — Chief town, port, and municipality
of Karwar Sub - division, and the head - quarters of North Kanara
District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 140 50' n., long. 740 14' e. ; 50
miles south-east of Goa, and 295 miles south-east of Bombay. Popula-
tion (1872) 13,263; (1881) 13,761, namely, males 7155, and females
6606. Hindus numbered 10,740; Muhammadans, 1099; Christians,
1848; Jains, 31 ; Parsis, 17 ; and ' others,' 26. The municipal income
of the town in 1882-83 was ^963, of which ^760 were derived from
taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. i^d. per head of the
population.

History. — Old Karwar, on the banks of the Kalinadi, 3 miles to the
east of Karwar (the new town), was once an important place of com-
merce. During the first half of the 17th century, the Karwar revenue
superintendent, or desdi, was one of the chief officers of the Bijapur
kingdom, of which it formed a part. In 163S, the fame of the pepper
of Sonda induced Sir William Courten's Company to open a factory at
Karwar. In 1660 the factory was prosperous, exporting the finest
muslins in Western India ; the weaving country was inland to the east,
at Hubli and other centres, where as many as 50,000 weavers were
employed. Besides the great export of muslin, Karwar provided
pepper, cardamoms, cassia, and coarse blue cotton cloth {dungari).
In 1665, Sivajf, the founder of the Maratha power, exacted a con-
tribution of ,£112 from the English. In 1673, tne faujddj\ or
military governor, of Karwar laid siege to the factory. In 1764,
Sivaji burnt Karwar town ; but the English were treated civilly, and
no harm was done to the factory. In 1676, the factory suffered
from the exactions of local chiefs, and the establishment was
withdrawn in 1679. It was restored in 1682 on a larger scale than
before. In 1684, the English were nearly driven out of Karwar;
the crew of one of two small vessels having stolen and killed
a cow. In 1685, the Portuguese stirred the desdis of Karwar and
Sonda to revolt. During the last ten years of the 17th century, the
Dutch made every attempt to depress the English pepper trade ; and in

KARWAR TOWN.

55

1697 the Marithds laid Karwar waste. In 1715, the old fort of
Karwar was pulled down, and Sadashivgarh was built by the Sonda
chief. The new fort seriously interfered with the safety of the English
factory ; and owing to the hostility of the Sonda chief, the factory was
removed in 1720. The English, in spite of their efforts to regain the
favour of the Sonda chiefs, were unable to obtain leave to re-open their
factory at Karwar till 1750. The Portuguese in 1752 sent a fleet and
took possession of Sadashivgarh. As the Portuguese claimed the
monopoly of the Karwar trade, and were in a position to enforce their
claim, the English agent was withdrawn. In 1801, old Karwar was in
ruins.

The new town dates from after the transfer of North Kanara District
to the Bombay Presidency in 1862. Before the transfer, it was a mere
fishing village. The present town and neighbouring offices and
residences are in the lands of six villages, and within the municipal
limits of the town are nine villages. A proposal was strenuously urged
in Bombay to connect Karwar by a railway with the interior, so as to
provide a seaport for the southern cotton districts. Between 1867-74,
the hope that a railway from Karwar to Hubli would be sanctioned
raised the value of building sites at Karwar, and led to the construc-
tion of many warehouses and dwellings. The scheme has been finally
abandoned in favour of the Marmagoa-Hubli line. As soon as this
line is opened, the importance of Karwar, as a seaport and market
town, will greatly diminish, as all cotton, grain, and spices will be sent
to Marmagoa. Already (1882) several old Karwar merchants have
left for Goa, and many more are expected to follow.

Karwar is the only safe harbour between Bombay and Cochin during
all seasons of the year. In the bay is a cluster of islets called the
Oyster Rocks, on the largest of which, Devgarh island, a lighthouse
has been built, 210 feet above the sea, containing a white fixed
dioptric light of the first order, on a white granite tower 72 feet high,
visible 25 miles. There are two smaller islands in the bay (180 and
120 feet above the level of the sea), which afford good shelter to
native craft and small vessels during the strong north-west winds that
prevail from February to April. From the Karwar post-office on a
white flagstaff, 60 feet from the ground and 65 feet above high-water, is
displayed a red fixed ship's light, visible five miles; with the light
bearing east-south-east, a vessel can anchor in three to five fathoms.
About five miles south-west and two miles from the mainland, Anjidiva
rises steep from the sea, dotted with trees and the houses of its small
Portuguese settlement. Coasting steamers belonging to the British
India Steam Navigation Company call weekly at Karwar throughout
the year. These steamers generally make the trip between Karwar
and Bombay in 48 hours. The average annual value of the trade at

5 6 KAR WI SUB-DIVISION AND TO WN

Karwar port, not of the Karwar customs division, during the five years
ending 1880-81, is returned as follows: — Imports, ^"232,306, and
exports, ^"278,073. The imports for 1880-81 amounted 10^187.882 ;
and the exports to ,£270,116. Courts, post and telegraph offices, civil
hospital, etc.

Karwi (Kirwee). — Sub-division of Banda District, North-Western
Provinces; situated between 240 53' and 250 19' n. lat., and between
8o° 50' and 81 ° 18' e. long. Comprises the three tahsils of Karwi,
Kamasin, and Mau (Mhow), also known as the Tirohan, Darsenda, and
Chibu tahsils. This tract contains an area of 1292 square miles, and
consists of two distinct portions, the mountains of the south, and the
level plain extending from the foot of the hills northward to the Jumna.
The latter region is well wooded and widely cultivated. Formerly a
separate munsift existed at Karwi, but the jurisdiction has recently been
added to that of the subordinate Judge's Court at Banda. The Joint
Magistrate for the Sub-division has his station at the town of Karwi ,
where an assistant superintendent of police is also stationed.

Karwi (more properly Tirohan). — South-eastern tahsil of Banda
District, North-Western Provinces ; consisting chiefly of rugged sand-
stone hills, the outliers of the Vindhyan system, and traversed by the
Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) branch of the East Indian Railway, which has
two stations within its boundaries, at Manikpur and Markundi. Area,
572-8 square miles, of which 147*3 square miles are cultivated. Popu-
lation stationary, being returned at 85,323 in 1872, and 85,318 in 1881.
Classified according to religion, the population in the latter year consisted
of — Hindus, 82,205 ; Muhammadans, 3086 ; Jains, 14; and 'others,' 13.
Number of villages, 189, of which 137 contained less than 500 inhabitants.
Land revenue, ^9456; total Government revenue, ,£10,591; rental
paid by cultivators, .£15,885. In 1884, the Sub-division contained 2
criminal courts, with 4 police stations (thdnds) ; strength of regular
police, 74 men; and village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 263.

Karwi. — Town in Banda District, North-Western Provinces, and
head-quarters of the Sub-division and tahsil. Lat. 250 12' 10" n., long.
8o° 56' 50" e. ; situated on the river Paisuni ; distant from Banda 44
miles south-east, from Allahabad about 60 miles west. Population
(1881) 4167, chiefly Hindus. For police and conservancy purposes,
Karwi and the neighbouring village of Tirohan (population 2751)
form one municipality under x\ct xx. of 1856. In 1805, Karwi had
a cantonment for British troops; and in 1829, it became the principal
residence of the Peshwa's representative, who lived in almost regal
state, and built several beautiful temples and wells. Numerous traders
from the Deccan were thus attracted to Karwi. During the Mutiny,
Narayan Rao, after the murder at Banda of Mr. Cockerell, Joint
Magistrate of Karwi, assumed the government, and retained his inde-

KASAI—KASALANG. 57

pendence for eight months amid the subsequent anarchy. The accumu-
lations of his family constituted the great treasure afterwards so famous
as ' the Kirwee and Banda Prize Money.' It was kept in a vault of the
Bara, a large building, forming the palace of Narayan Rao's family.
The greater part of their possessions were afterwards confiscated for
rebellion, and the Bara now serves as a ta/isili, police station, and
school-house. Balwant Rao, the present head of the family, still retains
a considerable estate, though small by comparison with that of his pre-
decessors. Since the Mutiny, the prosperity of Karwi has gradually
declined. Station of a Joint Magistrate and an assistant District super-
intendent of police. The jurisdiction of the munsifi has been removed
to Banda. Magnificent temple and tank, with masonry well attached,
known as the Ganesh Bagh, and built by Benaik Rao in 1837. Five
mosques, and as many Hindu temples. Government dispensary, post-
office. Trade unimportant.

Kasai (Cossye).— River of Bengal; rises in the north-west of Man-
bhum District, in lat. 230 28' 30" N., and long. 850 58' 15" e. It
follows a very winding south-easterly and easterly course, through Man-
bhum, Bankura, and Midnapur, till it falls into the Haldi in the latter
District, about 20 miles above the confluence of that river with the
Hiigli. During the rainy season, the Kasai is navigable by boats of 2
tons burden from its mouth to some distance above the town of Mid-
napur, which is situated on its north or left bank; but in the dry
weather it is nowhere navigable by large boats, except for a few miles
above its confluence with the Haldi. A considerable floating trade in
timber, chiefly sal, is carried on during the rainy season, from the south
of Manbhiim into Midnapur. Its only tributary is the united stream of
the Kumarf and Tetka, which under the former name joins the Kasai
at Ambikanagar in Bankura District.

Kasalang.— Tributary of the Karnaphuli river, rising in the extreme
north of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bengal. It flows southwards,
receiving two small tributaries in its course, one on either bank, and
falls into the Karnaphuli at Kasalang village, in lat. 220 44 N., long.
920 19' e. Navigable by small boats for about eight days' journey from
its mouth.

Kasalang.— Village in the District of the Chittagong Hill Tract?,
Bengal ; situated at the confluence of the Kasalang river with the Kar-
naphuli. Lat. 220 44' n., long. 920 19' 30" e. One of the principal
marts for the sale of hill produce. Kasalang was formerly the frontier
station in the direction of the Lushai Hills, and an annual fair was held
here which was attended by the local officers, for the purpose of keeping
up friendly intercourse between the independent chiefs and the people
within the District. A darbdr or reception was yearly held on this
occasion by the District officer, at which gifts were distributed to the

5 8 KASARA GHA T—KASA ULL

Kukis and other visitors. After the Lushai campaign of 1871-72, the
frontier line was extended considerably farther east, and the frontier
head-quarters station was removed from Kasalang to Demagiri, a post
on the Karnaphuli river about 30 miles above the Barkiil rapids. Since
that date the annual fair and darbdr has been held at Demagiri, instead
of at Kasalang.

Kasaraghat. — Pass over the range of the Western Ghats, boundary
of Thana and Nasik Districts, Bombay Presidency. — See Thalghat.

Kasaragod {Cassergode). — Taluk or Sub-division in South Kanara
District, Madras Presidency. Area, 1032 square miles. Population
(1881) 243,881, namely, 120,857 males and 123,024 females, dwelling
in 45,287 houses, scattered over 243 towns and villages. Number
of persons per square mile, 229*2. Hindus numbered 191,343 ;
Muhammadans, 46,953; Christians, 5217; and 'others,' 368. The
taluk contains the following places with a population under five and
over two thousand: — Pallakorkod (4191, living in 670 houses), Char-
vattiir (4235, in 847 houses), Kanhangad (4581, in 831 houses),
Madikai (3513, in 780 houses), Muliyar (3003, in 613 houses), Perdal
(3932, in 672 houses), Kumbadaje (3040, in 541 houses), Adiir (2831,
in 581 houses), Bayar (2601, in 453 houses), Vittal (2547, in 479
houses), and Kolnad (2410, in 427 houses). There are in the taluk
1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police stations (thinas), 16; regular
police, 112 men. Land revenue (1883), ,£24,36 7. [This article and the
following were given under their old spelling as Cassergode in volume
iii. But as new materials have been received for the taluk since
volume iii. went to press, the opportunity is now taken of inserting the
additional information here, under the proper spelling of the word.]

Kasaragod (Kasargodie, Cassergode, ' Kangercote ' of the Tohfat-ul-
Majdhildin). — Town and port, South Kanara District, Madras Presi-
dency. Situated on the Chandragiri river, in lat. 120 29' 50" N., and
long. 750 2 10" e. Population (1872) 6416; number of houses, 1178.
Not returned in the Census of 1881. Kasaragod formed the southern-
most post of the ancient Tuluva kingdom, and still contains a ruined
fort of the Ikheri kings. In 1883-84, the imports were valued at
^8427, and the exports at .£7077.

Kasauli {Kussowlee). — Cantonment and convalescent depot in
Simla District, Punjab ; situated on the crest of a hill, overlooking the
Kalka valley ; distant from Ambala (Umballa) 45 miles north, from Simla
station 32 miles south-west. Lat. 300 53' 13" n., long. 770 o' 52" e.
The cantonment was formed in 1844-45, on land acquired from the
Native State of Bija, and barracks were erected in the same year. Since
that date, detachments of European troops have continuously occupied
the station, and many private visitors also arrive during the summer
months. The Kasauli Hill, a summit of the Subathu group, has an

KASBA—KASGANJ. 59

elevation of 6322 feet above sea -level, and commands magnificent
views over the plains to the south-west, and towards the snowy range
of the Himalayas on the north. Although healthy under ordinary
circumstances, the proximity to the plains renders Kasauli liable to
epidemics. Outbreaks of cholera occurred in 1845, I^57, 1867, JS72,
and 1875. Defective water-supply. Permanent station of an Assistant
Commissioner ; head-quarters of the Commissioner of Ambala during
the summer months. The population at the time of the Census in
February 1881 numbered 2807, namely, Hindus, 1S25 ; Muham-
madans, 625; Sikhs, 13; Jain, 1; 'others,' mainly Christians, 343.
During the summer months the population is much higher. Court-
houses, branch treasury, lock-up, staging bungalow, two hotels. The
trade is confined to the supply of necessaries and European commodi-
ties for the troops and summer visitors.

Kasba (or Jessor). — Chief town and administrative head-quarters ot
Jessor District, Bengal. — See Jessor.

Kasba. — Large trading village in Bard wan District, Bengal ; situated
on the Damodar river, which is here crossed by a ferry on the road
to Sonamukhf. Lat. 230 21' n., long. 870 33' 30" E.

Kasba. — Town in Purniah District, Bengal; situated on the road
from Purniah to Arariya, about 9 miles from the civil station, and 4 miles
from the old town of Purniah. Lat. 250 51' N., long. 870 34' 41" E.
The population, which in 1872 numbered 6288, had fallen by 1881 to
5124. Classified according to religion, the population in the latter
year consisted of — Hindus, 5040, and Muhammadans, 84. Area of
town site, 392 acres. Kasba forms the largest centre of the rice trade
in Purniah District. It is chiefly inhabited by Sunris, who collect
unhusked rice from the northern tracts of Purniah and the submontane
morang in Darj fling, for export to Calcutta. Large vernacular school,
with 150 pupils. Police outpost station.

Kasganj.— Northern tahsil of Etah District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, lying between the Ganges and the Kali Nadi, and traversed by
two main branches of the Lower Ganges Canal. Area, 500 square miles,
of which 372 square miles are cultivated. The population, which in 1872
numbered 241,335, had by 1881 fallen to 216,906, showing a decrease
of 24,429, or io-i per cent., in the nine years. Classified according
to religion, the population in 1881 consisted of— Hindus, 191,372;
Muhammadans, 25,190; Jains, 277; and 'others,' 67. Number
of villages, 477, of which 360 contained less than five hundred
inhabitants. Land revenue, ,£31,667; total Government revenue,
£35»Si4; rental paid by cultivators, £67,742 ; incidence of Govern-
ment revenue per acre, is. nfd.

Kasganj. — Town, municipality, and chief commercial centre of
Etah District, North-Western Provinces ; situated on a raised site, 1 \

60 KASHMIR AND /AMU.

mile north-west of the Kali Nadi; distant from Etah town 19 miles north.
Lat. 270 48' 5" n.j long. 780 41' 30" e. Population (1872) 15,764;
(1881) 16,535, namely, males 8709, and females 7826. Classified
according to religion, the population in 1881 consisted of — Hindus,
12,050; Muhammadans, 4398 ; and Jains, 87. Area of town site, 149
acres. Municipal income in 1881-82, ^"1450, of which ^1321 was
derived from taxes, mostly octroi ; average incidence of taxation, is. 7^d.
per head. Well-built, prosperous town, with handsome shops, and drained
and metalled streets, with a good proportion of brick houses, shaded
by fine trees. A metalled road runs through the centre of the town
from north to south, and forms the principal bazar, while a second
intersects it from east to west. The eastern quarter, inhabited by the
poorer Hindus, is less well kept. A fine mosque, remarkable for its
curious roof and numerous minarets, adorns the Muhammadan quarter.
The town owes its origin to Khan Bahadur Khan, the founder of
Aliganj, under the Oudh Wazirs. His successors sold it to Col. James
Gardner, from whom it passed into the hands of his agent, the late
Raja Dflsukh Rai. The public buildings include a municipal hall,
dispensary, police station, ta/isi/i, post-ofiice, good school, and munsifi.
Brisk and increasing trade in cotton, sugar, glii, indigo seed, and
country produce. Increasing population ; large business in grain and
sugar.

Kashmir and Jamu (Cashmere and Jummod). — Native State, politi-
cally subordinate to the Government of India, constituting the territories
of the Maharaja of Kashmir; extending from 320 17' to 360 58' n. lat.,
and from 730 26' to 8o° 30' e. long. Area, 80,900 square miles, with
a population returned in 1873 at 1,534,972 persons. No later Census
has up to the present date (1885) been carried out in Kashmir. The
State is bounded on the north by some petty semi-independent hill
chiefships, mostly subordinate to Kashmir, and by the Karakoram
mountains ; on the east by Chinese Tibet ; on the south and west
by the Punjab Districts and the Hazara country. The State comprises,
in addition to the Districts of Kashmir Proper, Jamu, and Punch : —
the Governorships of Ladakh and Gilghit, including the Districts
of Dardistan, Baltistan, Leh, Tilail, Suru, Zanskar, Riipshu, and
others. The Provinces of Kashmir and Jamu form the more
important part of the State in a general view, and are here chiefly
dwelt upon.

History. — The history of Kashmir is a task beyond the limits of this
work. Valuable light has been thrown on its early periods by the
records of the Chinese pilgrims in the Si-yu-ki. Like other outlying
Provinces of India, its annals divide themselves into four eras : — (1) Pre-
Buddhistic; (2) Buddhistic; (3) Hindu ; and (4) Muhammadan. First
comes an age of pre-historic monsters, probably representing the non-

KASHMIR AND J AMU. C I

Aryan races, Nagas, and others. Tradition relates that the Kashmir
valley was at first altogether a lake, inhabited by a monster, Yaldeo,
who was driven out by a Rishi. The holy man gave his name to the
country left by the subsidence of the waters upon the removal of
Yaldeo. According to this account, the first inhabitants were Indo-
Aryans, and the object of their worship, the Sun -God. Buddhism
found in Kashmir an asylum, from which its influence radiated north,
south, east, and west. Tartar devastations and invasions occupy a long
period of its history. Mahmiid of Ghazni entered the valley in the
eleventh century; the Dardistan chiefs and Tibetan kings made
incursions, and forcibly married its Hindu princesses ; Tiirkistan sent
down its hordes. The old Hindu raj found its final catastrophe in
the death of the Queen of the last sovereign, who upbraided the
Muhammadan usurper, and stabbed herself.

Muhammadanism was introduced into Kashmir in the 14th century
a.d., during the reign of Shams-ud-din. In 1586, the country was con-
quered by Akbar, and became an integral part of the Mughal Empire.
In 1752 it was subjugated by the Afghan, Ahmad Shah, the founder of
the Durani dynasty ; and it remained under Afghan sway until 1819,
when it was conquered by the Sikhs. From that time it was ruled by a
governor appointed by the Maharaja of the Punjab, until the Sikh war
in 1845. Ghulab Singh, who had begun life as a horseman under the
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, but by distinguished conduct had raised himself
to independent command, was presented with the principality of
Jamu, whence, nominally on behalf of the Lahore State, he soon
extended his authority over his Rajput neighbours, and eventually into
Ladakh and Baltistan. In the revolution which preceded the outbreak of
the Sikh war, he was elected Minister of the Khalsa, and he took an
important part in the negotiations which followed the battle of Sobraon.
The results were, that he was enabled to secure his power by a separate
treaty with the English at Amritsar (Umritsar) in March 1846, by which,
on payment of 75 lakhs of rupees, or ^750,000, he was confirmed in
possession of the territory which he had held as feudatory of the Sikhs,
and also obtained the Province of Kashmir.

By this treaty he bound himself to acknowledge the supremacy of the
British Government, to refer all disputes with neighbouring States to its
arbitration, to assist British troops when required, and never to take or
retain in his service any British subject or the subject of any European
or American State, except with the consent of the British Government.
The Maharaja sent a contingent of troops and artillery to co-operate
with the British forces against Delhi during the Mutiny of 1857.
Ghulab Singh died in August 1857, and was succeeded by his eldest
son, Maharaja Ranbhir Singh, G.C.S.I., who is by caste a Dogra
Rajput, and was born about 1832. The Maharaja of Kashmir is

62 KASHMIR AXD JAMU.

entitled to a personal salute of 21 guns, and has received a sanai
giving adoptive rights. As a token of the supremacy of the British
Government, he pays an annual tribute of 1 horse, 25 lbs. of pashm
and fine wool, and 3 pairs of shawls. The military force of the
State consists of about 19,000 men, including 5000 irregular troops,
with 16 batteries of artillery, two of which are horsed; the cavalry,
which is used principally for escort duties, consists of 2 regiments,
mostly stationed near Jamu. The Maharaja was recently presented by
the British Government with a mountain battery ; and on the occasion
of the Delhi Darba> in January 1877, he was gazetted a general in the
British Army, and created a Counsellor of the Empress. Maharaja
Ranbhir Singh died 12th September 1885, and was succeeded by his
son, Pertab Singh, at whose court a British Resident will be stationed.

Physical Aspects. — The general aspect of the valley of Kashmir
is that of a basin, encircled on every side by lofty mountains.
In the middle is an extensive alluvial tract intersected by the Jehlam
(Jhelum) and its numerous tributaries, which flow down from the
mountains and find their way by the sole channel of the Jehlam
through the Baramula Pass to the plains of the Punjab. The elevation
of this valley is about 5200 feet above the sea.

Besides the low alluvial tract extending along the banks of the
Jehlam, there occur extensive plateaux of slight elevation, stretching
from the mountains at various distances into the plains. These
plateaux are known as karewas or wudars. Their soil for the most
part is a loam or loamy clay, containing remains of fresh-water fishes
and molluscs, which indicate a lacustrine or fluvial origin. They
are divided from each other by ravines of from 100 to 300 feet in
depth. Occasionally they are entirely surrounded by lower ground,
but more generally they connect with some of the mountains that
bound the valley. Over the surface of the karewas^ water has some-
times been brought for irrigation, and then a fertile tract is the result ;
but more commonly the cultivation depends on rain alone, and in
that case the yield is precarious. The slopes of the hills between
the flat ground and the limit of forest are a mixture of cultivation,
good grazing grounds, and forests of cedars, pines, firs, etc. The
lowest of the beds forming the karewas have been considered to be of
the same geological age as the topmost Siwaliks, while the higher beds
are of more modern origin. The portion of the valley unoccupied by
the karewas is covered with a more modern alluvium, often containing
objects of human workmanship. The southern and more inhabited
portion of Kashmir includes the lower half of the Kishen Ganga valley
and the whole District south of the snowy range that separates the
drainage of the Indus from that of the Jehlam and Chenab. In this
region the hills are covered with pine forests interspersed with pastures;

KASHMIR AND JAMU. 63

the banks of the streams are green with cultivation ; villages are
connected with each other by roads ; while the principal valley is
crowded with objects of interest, and is fertile and beautiful in a high
degree.

Mountains. — The lofty mountains which surround Kashmir include
in some places large glaciers between their spurs, and are covered
with snow for nearly eight months in the year. The glacier of Biafo
on the north-west border is 35 miles long. The highest ascertained
peaks in the Pansal range are Miili, 14,952 feet, and Ahertatopa,
13,042 feet; and in the north of Kashmir, Haramiik, 16,015 feet.
Captain Montgomerie, R.E., in his account of the Survey, states : ' On
the Pfr Panjal peaks, the electricity was so troublesome, even when
there was no storm, that it was found necessary to carry a portable
lightning conductor for the protection of the theodolite.' Beyond
the limits of Kashmir, the isolated peak of Nanga Parbat, or Dayarmur
— in lat. 350 14' 21" n. and long. 740 37' 52" e., 26,629 feet above the
sea — forms a noble object. Its other name is Daiarmur ; and it stands
midway between the Kashmir valley and the river Indus. Other
remarkable peaks close by are the Ser and Mer, the former 23,410 feet
high, and the latter 23,250 feet. The range enclosing the Kashmir
valley bears different names in different parts — the snowy Pansal on
the east, the Fateh Pansal and Pansal of Banihal on the south, the Pir
Panjal on the west, the Drawar mountains on the north, and Haramiik
and Sonamarg mountains on the north-east. The soft and beautiful
scenery of the valley is on the southern side, where the mountains
slope gently. On the north the country is wild and sublime, the moun-
tains rising in rugged precipices of stupendous height, down the bare
sides of which the numerous streams leap in prolonged cataracts.
Here are found some of the largest glaciers and highest peaks on the
surface of the globe ; long flat valleys, the lowest as high as the
Faulhorn in Switzerland ; and many habitable spots at an elevation as
great nearly as that of Mont Blanc. The average height of this
northern mountain barrier is from twenty to twenty-six thousand feet.
One peak stands 28,250 feet out of the Karakoram range.

The beauties of the Kashmir valley have been so often celebrated in
prose and verse, that further allusion to them here would be out ot place.
Moore, Vigne, Jacquemont, and flocks of annual visitors to Srinagar
have rendered its scenery as well known as the most picturesque spots
of Switzerland or Scotland. The Pir Panjal range is said to have been
the home of a Pir or Saint, who gave benediction to travellers passing
northwards over the mountains. The belief is still current among
Muhammadans in Kashmir that the Pir resides on one of the summits,
and the whole range is thus invested with peculiar sanctity. The
general direction of the range is from north-west to south-east. The

64

KASHMIR AND J AMU.

highest part is of basaltic formation, consisting of upheaved amygdaloidal
trap, transition rocks appearing on its borders. Quartz, slate, and
other primary formations are observable on the northern side. The
lowest parts of the table-lands of Rukshu are 15,000 feet above the level
of the sea. The snow -line here recedes as high as 20,000 feet,
attributed to the great radiation of heat from the high table-lands about.
The plains of Deosai, which embrace a portion of Baltistan, are of
immense extent, bordering the river Indus, and are shut in by snowy
ranges penetrated by valleys of great depth.

The principal passes from the mountains into the Kashmir valley
are the following : —

Situation.

Name.

Elevation in Feet.

From what Place.

North . . .

Rajdiangau

II,8oO

Gurais, Skardo.

South

Marbal
Banihal
Pir Panjal

11,570

9,200

1 1 , 4OO

Kistawar, Chamba.

Tamu, Sialkot.

Bhimbar, Rajaori, Gujrat.

East .

Margan

1 1 , 600

Mara, Ward wan, Suru.

Zoji-la

11,300

Dras, Ladakh.

West .

Tosha Maidan

?

Punch, Jehlam.

»>

Firozpur
Baramula

I2,5DO

Murree, Abbottabad, Punch.

Nattishannar

IO,200?

Karnas, Muzaffarabad, Ab-

bottabad.

The margs or mountain downs, which are numerous on the tops of
the range of hills immediately below the Pir Panjal, and also upon the
northern slopes of those mountains which enclose the north-eastern
side of the valley, are a peculiar feature of the country. They are
covered with rich grass, and afford pasturage during the summer
months to large herds of ponies, cattle, sheep, and goats. Sonamarg
(or golden meadow) is a favourite refuge in the malarious months of
July and August, both for Europeans and natives of high rank.

Rivers. — The principal river of Kashmir is the Jehlam (Jhelum),
which nearly intersects the valley. Formed by the junction of three
streams — the Arpat, the Bring, and the Sandaram — which rise at the
south-east end of the valley, it receives in its course numerous
tributaries. Among those which join it on the right bank are the
Liddar from the north-east, near Islamabad ; the Sind from the east,
opposite Shadipur ; and the Pohrii, which flows into it near Soptir.
On its left bank it is joined by the combined waters of the Veshan and
Rembiara near Murhama ; by the Ramchiiat Karkarpur and the Dudh
Ganga at Srinagar.

The Kishen Ganga, or river of Krishna, which has its sources on
the edges of the Deosai plain and in the Tilail valley, is also a con-

KASHMIR AND J AMU. 6

siderable stream. It flows in a north-north-westerly direction till near
Shardi, when it turns to the south-west and joins the Jehlam just
below the town of Muzaffarabad. The Maru Wardwan river, which
drains the Wardwan valley, flows southward, joining the Chenab
above Kistawar. The latter river traverses Kistawar and Badrawar,
flowing into the plains some miles to the west of Jamu. Of these
rivers, the Jehlam alone is navigable, from the neighbourhood of
Islamabad to Baramula, a distance of about 60 miles.

The Jehlam is spanned by 13 bridges in its course through the
valley of Kashmir. These bridges, which are of peculiar construction, are
called kadals. They are all made of deodar wood, and are constructed
in the following manner : — A space either triangular with the apex up
stream, or more commonly hexagonal, having a triangular apex at each
end, facing up as well as down stream, is formed in the bed of the
river by strong stakes, which are well driven down and covered with
planks on the outside to a height of about 8 feet. This space is then
filled with heavy stones, to form the foundation of a pier. Each pier
consists of alternate layers of deodar trunks, which are placed about
a foot apart, every succeeding layer being broader than the previous
one, and laid at right angles to it. The trunks are fastened together
at their ends by strong wooden pegs. The piers are united by long
and very stout deodar trunks, which stretch across from one to the
other, and are laid about 2 feet apart. The platform consists of rough
planks or slender poles, which are closely laid across the trunks that
connect the piers, and are fastened at each end by wooden pegs. In
some cases there is a coating of grass and earth over the platform, and
a railing on each side.

Smaller bridges of a single span are usually constructed in the
following manner : — On either side of the stream, abutments of
rubble masonry, laced with cross - beams of timber, are built up,
and into these are inserted stout beams, one over the other in
successively projecting tiers, the interstices between the latter being
filled up with cross-beams. The projecting poles increase in size as
they approach the upper platform, and have a slight incline upwards,
their shore ends being firmly braced into the stone- work. Between
the uppermost row of timbers, two or three long and very strong con-
necting trees are placed, and scantlings laid over them for the pathway ;
sometimes a railing is added for greater security. Such bridges are
frequently of considerable span, and, if well built, last from thirty to
forty years.

Next in importance come the rope suspension bridges, which
are often of great length ; of these there are two descriptions, called
respectively chika and jhola. The chika bridge consists simply of
six or eight stout ropes close together, stretched between rude piers

VOL. VIII. e

66 KASHMIR AND J AMU.

on either bank of the torrent. On them a ring of timber, formed of a
section of a tree about 2 feet long and 1 foot in diameter, slides, being
hauled backwards and forwards by a rope attached to it, and con-
nected with the suspension ropes at intervals of about 20 feet by stout
cane rings. To the slide a loop of ropes is secured, through which
the legs of the traveller are inserted, and he clasps his hands in
front of him round the ropes to preserve a sitting position. It looks
dangerous, but is in practice a perfectly safe, though tedious, operation.
Baggage is carried across in the same manner, each package being
lashed to the loop and hauled across separately ; and in like manner
sheep and goats, and sometimes cows, are conveyed across rivers and
torrents.

A jhola bridge is formed of a stout rope of five or six distinct
strands, stretched between piers and securely fastened on either side
of the river. This forms the footway ; and about 3 feet above it on
either side is a guy-rope, which is grasped by the passenger to enable
him to retain his footing on the bridge. The guy-ropes are kept in
their places by being attached at intervals to the ends of forked
branches like the merry-thought of a chicken. Some of these bridges
swing a good deal with the weight of the traveller, and are trying to
the nerves of those unaccustomed to them. The ropes of which
they are constructed are made either of hemp, or willow, or birch
twigs, and are renewed annually, or as often as occasion may require.

The Srinagar tract is intersected with a labyrinth of canals. To
avoid the necessity of crossing the dangerous Wiilar Lake, through which
flows the main stream of the Jehlam, a navigable canal was constructed
in early times to connect Sopur with Srinagar. Irrigation canals are
very numerous ; of these the Shahkiil Canal in Khaurpara District, and
the Naindi and Ninnar Canals near Islamabad, are the most important.

The lakes of Kashmir are numerous, both in the valley itself, and
upon the mountains surrounding it. In the valley the principal lakes
are : — The Dal or 'city lake,' five miles long, which is situated north-
east of Srinagar, and is connected with the Jehlam by a canal called
the Tsont-i-kiil, or ' apple-tree canal,' which enters it opposite the palace.
The Anchar is situated to the north of Srinagar ; it is connected with
the Dal by means of the Nalamar, which flows into the Sind river near
Shadipur. The Manasbal, said to be the most beautiful lake in
Kashmir, is situated near the right bank of the Jehlam, and is 1 \ miles
long, J of a mile wide, and very deep. The Wiilar is the largest of all
the Kashmir lakes. Its extreme breadth from north to south is ih
miles, exclusive of the marshes on the south side; extreme length, 10
miles; circumference, nearly 30 miles; average depth, 12 feet; deepest
part, about 16 feet. The Jehlam flows into the Wiilar on its east side
near the middle of the lake, leaving it at its south-west corner in a fine

KASHMIR AND J AMU. C>7

open stream about 200 yards wide. Like every other lake surrounded
by mountains, the Wiilar is liable to the action of sudden and furious
hurricanes that sweep over its surface. The chief mountain lakes are —
the Konsa Nag, situated on the top of the Pir Panjal range ; the Shi'sha
Nag, situated above the head of the Liddar valley ; the Gangabal
Nag and Sarbal Nag, situated on the top of Haramiik, which overlooks
the north-eastern shore of the Wiilar.

Minerals. — Iron abounds, but Vigne states that the ore of Kashmir
is not considered good ; and Moorcroft remarks that, though iron is
found in considerable quantities, the metal used in the fabrication
of gun-barrels requires to be imported from the Punjab. Near the
village of Harpatnar, at the northern extremity of the Kutihar District,
a copper mine is said to have been worked within late years.
Plumbago abounds in the Pir Panjal mountains, and it has lately
been found of inferior quality on the east side of the Maru Wardwan
valley. Sulphur springs are common, but the mineral has nowhere
been found in a solid state. Sulphide of lead (surma) is found in
the Jamu hills, and samples of coal from the same locality have been
exhibited in the Lahore Exhibition. The rocks in the immediate
vicinity of Daudela are thin carbonaceous shales and grits with earthy
ferruginous limestones ; among them is a seam of coal or anthracite,
varying in thickness from 1 inch to nearly 2 feet, undulating in
chambers or bunches more than in a continuous seam. The general
character of the coal is that of a hard anthracite. During the progress
of the Kashmir Survey, Captain Montgomerie, R.E., found gold dust in
the bed of the Shigar or Shingo river, a tributary of the Dras, but the
quantity to be obtained was very small. Gold-washing is also carried
on to a very trifling extent on the banks of the Jehlam, in the neigh-
bourhood of Tangrot.

Sulphurous springs burst forth in many parts of the valley of
Kashmir, and earthquakes are of not uncommon occurrence. In
June 1828, the city of Srinagar was shaken by an earthquake which
destroyed about 1200 houses and 1000 persons. For more than two
months afterwards, lesser shocks were daily experienced. Abu Fazl,
in describing the country about two centuries previously, mentions
the frequent occurrence of earthquakes at that period. Some years
ago at Sogam, near the north-western extremity of the valley, the
ground became so hot that sand is said to have been fused.

The most terrible visitation on record of earthquake in Kashmir
occurred in June and July of the present year (1S85). An enormous
quantity of private and Government property was destroyed, and many
thousand lives were lost. Throughout large tracts almost the whole
population was rendered homeless, and for a time depended upon
State relief for subsistence.

68 KASHMIR AND /AMU.

Wild Animals. — Bears are found in all parts of Kashmir State,
and, although far less numerous than formerly, are still very common.
Though formidable animals, they do not usually molest man unless
previously attacked. Of the brown or red species, which is between
six and seven feet long, there are two varieties, viz. the Ursus
isabellinus, inhabiting the lower ranges, and the Ursus arctus, found
higher up the mountains. The black bear (Ursus tibetanus), though
smaller than the brown, is far more dangerous, and is usually found
lower down. Both species are chiefly herbivorous, but also partly
carnivorous. Leopards are found all round the Kashmir valley,
but they infest the grazing grounds, where they sometimes commit
great havoc amongst the cattle. The ounce, or snow leopard,
has been seen in Tilail. The bardsingha, or large stag, is found
throughout the Pansal range generally, except where it slopes
towards the plains. It is not, however, usually met with until
the middle of September, though occasionally seen in the middle
of August with fully developed horns. Both Hindus and Muham-
madans eat the flesh of the stag. The gural, or Himalayan chamois,
is found on the Pansal range, and in Kistawar. The ibex is
found in the northern parts of Kashmir. It is stated to be larger
than the European ibex ; the horns, too, are longer, more curved, and
more tapering. The khdkar, or barking deer, is usually found only
upon the southern and western slopes of the Pansal range. The
markhor, or serpent-eater, is a species of gigantic goat ; it is migratory,
and is found all over the Pir Panjal beyond the Baramula Pass, and
upon the mountains between the Jehlam and Kishen Ganga rivers.
The musk deer is found in birch woods in all parts of Kashmir at a
certain elevation. The sarrau or baz-i-kohi (mountain goat) and the
thar (another species of mountain goat) are found upon the Pansal
range.

Wolves are numerous on the mountains of Kashmir, and often do
great injury to the flocks of sheep. They are not often seen in the
valley. Monkeys are common in the lower portion of the Kishen
Ganga valley. Foxes and jackals are numerous ; the former is not the
little grey species of Hindustan, but large and full brushed, like an
English fox. A species of marmot, called drum or J>ua, is found amid
the rocks at high elevation ; it is as large as a fox, of a dull yellowish
colour, with tawny belly, the head, back, and tail being marked with a
darker stripe, distinguishable at a considerable distance. It is stated
that this animal is frequently a prey to the eagle ; it emits a shrill cry
on the approach of danger. The otter is frequently met with in the
rivers, and its skin is highly prized The porcupine is found in
Kistawar. There are few reptiles in Kashmir ; venomous serpents are
rare, though the cobra has been seen.

KASHMIR AND JAMU. 69

Birds of prey are numerous, and there are several varieties of
eagles and vultures, and also of falcons and hawks. Many kinds
of game birds are found. The black chikor, grey and snow
species of partridge, are met with in many parts. Of pheasants,
the varieties found are the argus, munal, kallij, koklas, and the
snow. The common kind of quail, the jack-snipe, and the wood-
cock are met with. Waterfowl of every species abound during the
winter months. They come from Yarkand and Central Asia, in
order to avoid the cold of the more northern regions, and depart as
soon as spring commences. Bald-coots, moorhens, dab-chicks, and
grebes are constantly to be found in the autumn and winter. Herons
are common. The sdras, or gigantic crane, is often seen in the
marshes, and also a small kind of pelican. The bidbiil, or nightingale
of Kashmir, is a distinct species, greatly inferior in note to the genuine
nightingale of Europe. The cuckoo, the maina, and the hoopoe are
common. The parrot is not indigenous to the valley, but the golden
oriole is frequently met with. Flies, sandflies, and mosquitoes are
numerous and troublesome, especially in August and September.

Population. — The population of the dominions of the Maharaja of
Kashmir and Jamu was estimated in 1875 at about 1,600,000 persons.
This estimate is doubtless founded on the Census made in 1873, the
details of which are given in Appendix vn. of Drew's Kashmir. No
Census of Kashmir State was carried out in 1881. The total
population in 1873 was given at 1, 534,972, excluding ladies of rank
\parda nas/im), who live in close retirement. The total population of
the Jamu District is put at 861,075; of Kashmir Proper, at 491,846 ;
of Ladakh, Iskardoh, and Gilghit, at 104,485; of Punch, at 77,5^6.
Of the total, the number of Hindus was 506,699; of Muhammadans,
918,536; of sundry castes, 89,483; and of Buddhists, 20,254. The
great majority of the Muhammadans belong to the Sunni sect. The
respectable Hindu castes are the Brahmans and the Karkuns ; the latter
form the most numerous class, and are employed as writers, merchants,
and farmers, but never as soldiers.

An estrangement exists between Kashmiri Pandits who have been
domiciled in British India, and their brethren in Kashmir. It is
not long since that a service similar to that for the dead was per-
formed over such Kashmiri Pandits as were about to emigrate, as
their relatives looked upon them as dead thenceforward. The way
was so long and difficult, and the means of correspondence so
uncertain, that they never expected to receive tidings of the absentees,
much less to welcome them back into the home circle. In time, the
wanderers fell away from the customs of their house, and embraced those
of the people amongst whom they had settled. Thus it has come to
pass, that whilst Kashmiri Pandits domiciled in India have accepted

70 KASHMIR AND /AMU.

the severe ritual of the Indian Brahmans in matters of food and drink ;
their brethren in Kashmir, whom they characterize as intolerant and
ignorant, do not object to meat, will take water from a Muhammadan,
eat with their clothes on, and have no repugnance to cooking and taking
their meals on board a boat.

The inhabitants of Kashmir are physically a fine race. The men are
tall, strong, and well built ; their complexion is usually olive, but some-
times fair and ruddy, especially among Hindus ; their features are
regular and well developed, and those of the Muhammadans have a
decided Jewish cast, resembling the Pathans. Captain Bates gives the
following analysis of the inhabitants in an ordinary Kashmiri village.
The village selected is Bijbihara, in which are 400 houses. Of the 400
houses, Muhammadan landowners occupied 80 • Muhammadan shop-
keepers, 65; Hindu shopkeepers, 15; Brahmans, 8; pandits, 20;
goldsmiths, 10; bakers, 5; washermen, 5; weavers, 9 ; blacksmiths,
5 ; carpenters, 4; surgeons, 2 ; hakims or physicians, 3 ; leather-workers,
5; milk-sellers, 7; fishermen, 10; carpet and blanket makers, 5;
mullds or Muhammadan priests, 1 2 ; pir zadds or saintly devotees, 40 ;
fakirs, 20. To these 400 houses there were 10 mosques, 8 smaller
shrines, and numerous Hindu temples. The houses throughout the
Kashmir valley are nearly all built after the same pattern. First there
is a ground floor, in which are two chambers with the small hall of the
house. The second floor contains three rooms ; and the floor under
the roof usually consists of one long chamber, which is used as a loft
for storing firewood, kitchen stuff, and lumber. In this last the house-
hold spend the summer months.

Polygamy does not appear to be very common among the Hindus in
Kashmir ; and with the Muhammadans the practice is confined to the
wealthier classes, who are generally found in the towns. Few of the
agricultural population have the means to indulge in a plurality of
wives. Kashmiris, rich and poor, are passionately fond of tea, of which
two kinds find their way into the market, called sitrati and sabzi. The
surati is like English tea, and reaches Kashmir from the Punjab ; the
sabzi is the famous brick-tea, which finds its way into the country
through Ladakh. The Russian tea-urn, or 'samovar,' is a common
article of household furniture in Kashmir ; the shape is said to have
been imitated from a Russian model brought by some travelling
merchant years ago from the north.

The chief towns of Kashmir are Jamu (Jummoo), the capital, on the
river Tavi, an affluent of the Chenab, in the extreme south of the
territory ; Srinagar, the Maharaja's summer residence, and the seat
of the shawl and silk manufacture, situated on the Jehlam to the west
of Kashmir ; Islamabad, the terminus of the navigation of the Upper
Jehlam; and Leh, the entrepot of the trade between Yarkand and

KASHMIR AND J AMU. 71

India, situated near the right bank of the Indus, towards the north-east
of the Maharaja's dominions.

The languages of Kashmir are divided into thirteen separate dialects.
Of these, Dogri and Chibhali, which do not differ much from Hindustani
and Punjabi, are spoken on the hills and country of the Punch and
Jamu Districts. Kashmiri is mostly used in Kashmir Proper, and
is rather curiously and closely related to the Sanskrit. It is not,
however, the Court language, and for the purpose of a traveller through
Kashmir, either Hindustani or Punjabi will serve. Five dialects are
included under the term ' Pahan,' a language spoken by the moun-
taineers in the east of Kashmir. Besides these, there are two dialects
of Tibetan, which are spoken in Baltistan, Ladakh, and Champas ; and
in the north-west three or four varieties of the Dard dialects of Aryan
origin.

The flora of Kashmir bears a strong affinity to that of Europe. Of
trees, the deodar or Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara) merits first
notice. Its range extends from 7000 to 12,000 feet above the sea;
in its most congenial locality it reaches a height of from 100 to 200
feet, and has a girth ranging from 20 to 40 feet. The deodar forests
are very extensive, and of great value. The forests of Kashmir con-
tain, among other trees, the yar (Pinus excelsa), the most widespread
species of pine. There are also two other species of pine, including
the chil (Pinus longifolia), and one of fir. The common yew (Taxus
baccata) abounds. The elm is frequently met with, and there is said
to be a forest of sandal-wood in the Kutihar District. The cypress is
common in gardens ; and a species of plane-tree (Platanus orientalis),
considered an exotic, is probably nowhere found more abundant or
luxuriant than in Kashmir. Poplars, lime-trees, and a species of wild
chestnut-tree attain great size and luxuriance. Two kinds of willow
grow in the valley, and the maple and red and white hawthorn
(Crataegus oxyacantha) are common. The birch and the alder are
found at great heights. Junipers and rhododendrons grow on the
mountains at a height of 11,000 feet, and roses, both wild and culti-
vated, bloom in vast profusion. Flowers are very numerous. The
crocus is cultivated for the production of saffron, which is used as a
condiment and as a medicine. About 1600 lbs. of saffron are said to
be yearly exported to Ladakh.

The fruit-trees of Kashmir are the apple, pear, quince, peach,
apricot, plum, almond, pomegranate, mulberry, walnut, hazel-nut, and
melon. The strawberry, raspberry, and currant grow wild. There are
said to be at least six varieties of grape. Of late years the Maharaja
has been devoting attention to the improvement of vine cultivation
and the manufacture of wine and spirits, with encouraging results.
The extent of land now under vines is considerable, and some of the

72 KASHMIR AND JAMU.

wine and brandy produced has been reported on favourably by Euro-
pean visitors to Kashmir. Neither orange, lemon, nor any other
species of Citrus arrives at maturity in Kashmir, as the intense cold of
winter proves fatal to them. There is great variety and abundance of
excellent vegetables. Hiigel enumerates fifteen different sorts not known
in Europe. The potato, cauliflower, carrot, rhubarb, and, in short,
garden vegetables generally, may be grown of the finest description,
and in any quantity.

The floating gardens of Kashmir are so peculiar as to deserve some
notice. They are common on the city lake, where they yield abundant
crops of fine cucumbers and melons. To form these islands, choice
is made of a shallow part of the lake overgrown with reeds and other
aquatic plants, which are cut off about 2 feet below the surface, and
then pressed close to each other without otherwise disturbing the posi-
tion in which they grow. They are subsequently mowed down nearly
to the bed, and the parts thus taken off are spread evenly over the
floats, and covered with a thin layer of mud drawn up from the bottom.
On the level thus formed are arranged close to each other conical heaps
of weeds, about 2 feet across and 2 feet high, having each at top
a small hollow filled with fresh mud. In each hollow are set three
plants of cucumber or melon, and no further care is required but to
gather the produce, which is invariably fine and abundant. Each bed
is kept in its place by a willow stake driven into the bottom of the
lake. A most valuable product of uncultivated vegetation is the sing-
hdra (Trapa bispinosa), or horned water-nut. It grows in the Wiilar
Lake in such profusion, that 60,000 tons are, it is said, raised every
year, constituting almost the sole food of at least 30,000 persons for
five months in the year. It ripens in the month of October. The
nut is dried, and then formed into a flour or meal, of which cakes are
made.

Agriculture. — In Kashmir, as in Upper India, two harvests are reaped
annually. The first, or raM, ripens about July ; the second, or kharif,
about two and a half months later. The chief rabi crops are wheat,
barley, peas, etc. ; those of the kharif are rice, Indian corn, gram, and
flax. Of the total rainfall of Kashmir, which does not exceed an
average of 18 inches annually, only 6 inches fall during the agricultural
season in the valley. Of much greater importance than the rainfall is
the snow, which falls on the mountains from November to March, and
on the melting of which in the spring and summer the rice crop mainly
depends for its irrigation. Heavy rains usually fall in March and April,
failing which the spring crops of barley and wheat are poor. Steady
showers in July are required for the rice and Indian corn crops, and
further showers in September and October. The spring crop ripens in
June or July, after which is an intermediate crop of Indian corn and

KASHMIR AND JAM U. 7 3

other less important grains, which ripens in August and September ;
and finally, the rice harvest is gathered from the beginning of November.
Rice forms the staple food of the people, and is the most important
crop, occupying three-fourths of the cultivated area.

Famine. — Kashmir suffered severely from famine in the two years
1S78-80. The wheat and barley crops in 1878 were exceedingly poor ;
the fruit crop was to a great extent destroyed owing to an unusually wet
and cold winter ; and the early autumn grains of maize and millet were
partly destroyed by intense heat and blight, and partly devoured by the
starving peasantry, so that scarcely any reached the State granaries.
Notwithstanding a fair spring crop in 1879, famine continued to rage
throughout the summer, and was not checked till the ripening of a good
rice crop in the autumn. Famine was not entirely at an end till June
1880. It was caused mainly by excessive and unseasonable rainfall ;
and was aggravated by a heavy assessment, inadequate arrangements
for collecting the land revenue, the State monopoly of grain, and the
badness of the roads and communications. The mortality was very
heavy, especially among the Muhammadan population ; and the distress
was intensified by an outbreak of cholera in 1879.

Manufactures. — The chief manufacture of Kashmir consists of shawls,
which are celebrated throughout the world. These are of two kinds—
those loom-made, and those woven by hand. The wool of which the
shawls are manufactured is from the goats pastured upon the elevated
regions of Changthan, Turfan, etc. It is also obtained from the yak
and the shepherd's dog. The shawl-weavers are Muhammadans, and
are the most miserable portion of the population, both physically and
morally. Crowded together in small and badly ventilated workshops,
earning a mere pittance (about ijd. a day), and insufficiently nourished,
they suffer from chest affections, rheumatism, and scrofula. Of the
Kashmir shawls imported into Europe, France used to monopolize about
80 per cent. On the breaking out of the war between France and
Germany in 1870, the shawl trade suffered a sudden collapse, which has
continued till the present day, owing, it is said, to a change of fashion
in Europe. There are said to be still exported shawls to the value of
£1 30,000 annually, ^90,000 worth of which goes to Europe. A really
fine shawl may bring as much as ^300, but this is an exceptional price.

Attempts are now being made to divert labour into other channels,
such as the manufacture of carpets, to which trade the peculiar dexterity
of the Kashmir weavers is well adapted. Great attention is also paid
to the cultivation of the vine for wine-making ; and in parts of the
Maharaja's territory, to tea. The manufacture of woollen cloths is
almost universal throughout the valley, and gives employment to the
villagers throughout the long winter months. The better quality of
wool is used in the manufacture of blankets, and the fine woollen cloth

74 KASHMIR AND J AMU.

called pashmind ; of the inferior wool, coarse woollens called pattu are
made. Silk has of late years received considerable attention, and
bids fair to become one of the most important products of the Maharaja s
dominions. There is a factory at Srinagar; and in 187 1, £30,000 was
set apart by the Maharaja to foster the young industry. In 1872,
57,600 lbs. of silk is said to have been produced, the value of which
was about £"12,000.

The paper produced in Kashmir has a great reputation throughout
Hindustan. A description of papier-mache or lacquered work is
peculiar to Kashmir. The designs are by no means always on papier-
mache, being frequently done on articles of smooth wood. They
consist of a delicate pattern in colours, chiefly crimson, green, and
blue, drawn with a fine brush; flowers and the curved forms seen
upon shawls are most commonly produced. The lapidaries of Kashmir
are stated to have produced specimens of their skill and taste superior
to any in Europe. The silver and gold work, of which a great deal
is made in Srinagar, is exceedingly effective; and the smiths, with
the rudest tools, consisting of a hammer and a few tiny chisels and
punches, contrive to copy with admirable fidelity numerous designs
both Oriental and European. Kashmir was long famous for the manu-
facture of gun and pistol barrels and sword-blades, but this trade has
greatly declined of late years.

Commerce and Trade. — The principal commercial intercourse is with
the Punjab, Ladakh, and Afghanistan. The main routes by which the
merchandise of Kashmir enters India are from Srinagar, by the Banihal
Pass to Jamu and Amritsar, by the Pir Panjal and Bhimbar to Giijrat,
also by Akhmir and the Biidil Pass; and lastly, from Srinagar to
Peshawar, by Baramula, MuzarTarabad, and Manserat. The great mart
in the Punjab for the trade of Kashmir is Amritsar. Goods to a con-
siderable amount pass through Kashmir from British India for the
markets of Central Asia. Several main lines of road lead from the
Punjab into Kashmir, and the construction of a railway between
Sialkot and Jamu has been talked of. Telegraphic communication
is kept up between Sialkot, Jamu, and Srinagar.

In 187 1, an annual fair was established at Jamu, which commences
on the 20th November ; prizes are awarded by the Maharaja, and
during the continuance of the fair the custom duties are reduced to
half the ordinary rates. The value of the trade with British territory
in 1874 was estimated at £890,000; and in 1883-84 at ,£901,604,
namely, imports into the Punjab, £529,013, and exports, £372,591.
In addition, there is a trade between British India and Yarkand, passing
through Kashmir, valued at £60,000 a year. The total trade of Leh,
which is the centre of this through traffic, increased in value from about
£5000 in 1864 to about £"80,000 in 1876. In 1883-84, this trade,

KASHMIR AND J AMU. 75

which has been falling off of late years, was valued at .£52,781, both
exports and imports.

In 1870, a treaty was concluded with the Maharaja, by which he
agreed to abolish all transit duties on goods passing between the
countries of Eastern Tiirkistan and British India; while the British
Government agreed to abolish the export dues on shawls and other
textile fabrics, and to levy no duty on goods transmitted in bond through
British India to Central Asia, or to the territories of the Maharaja.
The Maharaja also undertook to facilitate the survey of the trade routes
between his territory and Yarkand, and consented to the appointment
of Joint Commissioners (one to be nominated by the British Govern-
ment) for the settlement of disputes between carriers, traders, or others
using that road, in which either of the parties, or both of them, should
be subjects of the British Government or of any foreign State. An
officer of the British Government is stationed at Leh, and another at
Srinagar.

Coinage. — The silver coins in circulation in Kashmir are of three
classes. First, the old Harisinghi rupees, worth eight annas, introduced
during the Sikh rule by Sardar Hari Singh. They are few in number,
but are for the most part of good metal and full weight. Second,
the old Chilki rupees, issued by the late Maharaja Ghulab Singh, and
valued originally at ten annas. In consequence of irregularities in the
Kashmir mint, these old chilki rupees were greatly debased ; and some
years ago the State found itself forced to lower the value generally to
eight annas. The quantity of alloy, however, varies to the extent of
many annas ; and the device on the coin being a rude one, and easily
imitated, the Kashmir silversmiths have freely issued their own coins
along with Government money, and mixed with them as much copper
alloy as they chose. These old chilki rupees are spread all over the
country, and form the general circulating medium for petty trade.
Third, the new Chilki rupees, issued by the present Maharaja about
fifteen or sixteen years ago. These are of full weight, of good metal,
and of the value of ten annas, say about one shilling if converted into
sterling.

Climate.-— The. climate of Kashmir varies according to the situation.
Upon the summits of the surrounding mountains it is extremely rigorous,
while in the valley it is temperate, being intermediate between that of
Europe and the plains of India. The seasons in the valley are all
well marked, and occur about the same time as in England. In the
higher portions of the valley, the climate from the beginning of May
to the end of October is mild and very salubrious, and almost as
invigorating to the European constitution as that of England. In
consequence of the great elevation of Kashmir, the cold of winter is
considerable, being on an average much more severe than in any part

7 6 KASHMIR AND JAMU.

of the British Isles, and this in a latitude lower than that of Sicily.
The hottest months in the valley are July and August; the air is
occasionally close and oppressive, especially for a day or two before
rain, which is often accompanied with thunder and lightning. The
coldest months are December and January, when the average morning
temperature in the valley is a little below freezing point ; ice invariably
covers the surface of the lakes to a considerable distance from the
banks, and about once in seven or eight years the Jehlam itself is
frozen over at Srinagar. Schlagintweit gives the following as the
monthly mean temperature at Srinagar in 1856 : — January 400 F.,
February 45 °, March 500, April 5 6°, May 6o°, June 700, July 730,
August 710, September 630, October 570, November 540, December
420 F.

There are no periodical rains as in Hindustan ; and although the
annual fall upon the mountains must be very great, yet in the valley
the quantity probably does not exceed 18 or 20 inches during the
year. About the end of March and beginning of April, there are
frequent and sudden storms in the valley, accompanied by hail and
rain ; spring showers are frequent during April and May. In June and
September also, heavy rain is not infrequent, and there are occasional
showers in July and August. The air of Kashmir is in general remark-
able for its stillness. Night frosts set in as early as the middle of
November. By the end of that month the trees are stripped of their
leaves and the year's vegetation is killed off, a thick haze overspreads
the whole valley, and the lakes and rivers send up clouds of vapour.
Every movement of men or beasts raises great quantities of dust, and
the haze becomes so great that even at mid-day, and under a cloudless
sky, no object can be seen at a mile's distance. This murky state of
the air extends for about 200 feet above the level of the valley; and
those who climb beyond that height see the snowy mountains of a
dazzling whiteness, and the sun shining clearly in a cloudless sky, while
the low country lies hidden in dim obscurity. The first fall of snow
restores the clearness of the air. This fall upon the mountains usually
occurs about the beginning of November, but it is slight, and soon
melted by the sun. The heavy fall begins about the middle of
December, and the snow lies to the average depth of 2 feet until the
middle of April.

Medical Aspects. — Malaria is very prevalent throughout the valley,
and fevers arid affections of the bowels are common, but the other
diseases peculiar to India are seldom observed. Epidemics of small-
pox and cholera are not infrequent. In many villages the inhabitants
suffer from goitre. In addition to the above diseases, phthisis,
elephantiasis, syphilis, and scrofula are common.

Administration — Law and Justice. — The Maharaja of Kashmir forms

KASHMIR AND JAMU. 77

himself the ultimate Court of Appeal throughout his dominions, his
decisions alone being final. t The rule obtains that every suit must
be instituted in the Court of First Instance, i.e. in the lowest com-
petent to try the issue, though for the ends of justice it is not very
strictly observed. In cases involving the Hindu and Muhammadan
laws, the authorities are the s/idsfra and the shara respectively ;
but the majority of the text-books of the five schools of Hindu law
have no force in Kashmir. After mature deliberation, the Maharaja
has caused a criminal code to be prepared, consisting of 203 sections,
with punishments for each offence, differing in spirit very little from
the Indian Penal Code. Political offenders and criminals under life
sentences are banished to the frontier fort of Bhiinji, but the bulk of
ordinary prisoners are lodged in the jail near the village of Habbak, on
the margin of the Dal Lake. Education has lately been encouraged by
an annual grant of ^3000, to defray the cost of publishing translations
of books teaching the European sciences, and also standard works in
Sanskrit and Arabic. Dispensaries for the European and Yunani system
of medicine have likewise been established.

Revenue. — The revenue of Kashmir State was estimated in 1876 at
Rs. 8,075,782, or ^807,578. The whole of the land in the State is
considered to have been, time out of mind, the property of the ruler.
During the rule of the earlier Hindu Rajas, i.e. till about the beginning
of the 14th century A.D., one-sixth of the produce was paid to the State.
The Musalman Sultans, who succeeded, continued at first to collect at
the same rate. But they, and afterwards the Mughal Emperors of Delhi,
began gradually to make enhancements, which reached their climax
under the regime of the Duranis, by whose time half the produce in
the case of rice, the staple of the Province, had come to be regarded as
the rightful share of the ruler ; and even to this, additions were generally
made. The first Sikh Governor continued to levy the land revenue at
the previously existing heavy rates. Some of the extra cesses were,
however, reduced by his successor, General Mian Singh, about 1833.

Great frauds having been discovered in the superintendence of the
crops while growing, a rough assessment was made in the following way.
The grain, as it was cut, was tied up into little sheaves which a man
could grasp with his two hands, the fingers meeting. It was the
business of the village shakddr, or watcher of the crops, to see that all
the grain cut was so stored ; and the village patwdri, or accountant,
then had to number the sheaves in the different heaps. This being
done, respectable men, specially chosen for the purpose by the kdrddr or
governor, came round and took out of the heaps certain average sheaves,
which were threshed out in their presence, the produce weighed, and
the total out-turn of grain in the village thus estimated. By means of
the data so acquired, the total amount of grain due to the State from the

7 8 KASHMOR TA L UK AND TO JVM

circle of villages under each kdrddr was estimated, and for that amount
the kdrddr was held responsible. This was the system uniformly
adopted in the case of the rice crop ; with other crops the process
varied slightly. If there was a general outcry against a particular
kdrddr, or if a neighbouring kdrddr offered to pay more for that parti-
cular circle of villages, he was turned out, and the one that offered more
put in his place.

This system continued in force till the year i860, when the valley
of Kashmir was divided into chaklas, each containing several kdrddr-
ships, and the collection of revenue in each chakld was farmed to the
chakldddr. In fixing the amounts of grain and money to be paid by
the farmer, the average amount collected during the previous five
years was taken as the basis, and some remissions were made in the
case of heavily taxed villages. The amount was fixed for three years,
the farmer being left to share with the zam'inddr the profits from exten-
sion of cultivation. In 1864-65, the crops failed extensively, and in
consequence the farming system broke down ; and next year the former
system of division was resorted to. In 1867, the farming system was
tried again, and leases fixed for a period of five years ; but latterly
it has been again abandoned, and the plan of taking the State share in
kind is at present in practice. There is, however, no settled system
throughout the country. A severe famine caused much suffering in
1878-80.

A great many works have appeared on the subject of Kashmir. The
earlier writers are the travellers Bernier, Jacquemont, Moorcroft,
Hugel. and others ; among later writers may be mentioned as of some
authority the works of Dr. W. T. Elmslie, Captain Bates, Dr. T. Ince,
and Mr. Drew.

Kashmor. — Taluk or Sub-division of the Upper Sind Frontier
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between lat. 280 6' 45" and
28° 48' n., and between long. 690 8' 30" and 690 52' e. In 1872
the area was returned at 782 square miles; villages, 15; population,
25,232. In 1881, the area was 862 square miles; villages, 35; popu-
lation, 43,832, namely, 25,035 males and 18,797 females, occupying
7557 houses. Hindus numbered 2770; Muhammadans, 39,980; Sikhs,
507; aboriginal tribes, 567; and Christians, 8. Revenue (1881-82),
£21,102, of which ,£20,374 was derived from imperial and ^728
from local sources. The taluk contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ;
police circles (thdnds), 2 ; regular police, 45 men-

Kashmor. — Chief town of Kashmor tdluk, Upper Sind Frontier
District, Sind; situated 2 miles from the Indus river, and 86 miles
north-north-east from Jacobabad. Lat. 2 8° 26' n., long. 690 36' e.
Population (1872) 956, consisting of 569 Musalmans (mostly of the
Kalwar tribe) and 387 Hindus (chiefly Lohanos). Kashmor has been

KASHPUR—KASIARI. 79

destroyed by floods five times within eighty years, but is now protected
by the Begari Bandh, or embankment. A canal, 4 miles long, con-
nects Kashmor with the Indus. Under the name of the Desert Canal,
the work is being extended 32 miles into the desert country west of
the town, and is expected to have a completed length of 90 miles.
The telegraph line passes through the place. Considerable trade in
grain. Manufactures, principally coarse cotton cloth, shoes, leather
work, and turned lacquered work. Station of a mukhtiydrkdr, subor-
dinate jail, Government English school, dispensary, post-office, military
outpost, and police station.

Kashpur. — Village in the north of Cachar District, Assam, among
the southern spurs of the Barel (Barail) range. The residence of the
Cachari Rajas during the greater part of the 18th century, when Hindu
influence first became powerful at their court.

Kasia (Kusindgara, ' The City of the Holy Grass '). — Village in
Padrauna tahsil, Gorakhpur District, North-Western Provinces; situated
on the crossing of two unmetalled roads, 37 miles east of Gorakhpur
town. The village contains a police station, post-office, dispensary, and
is also the station of a Joint-Magistrate. It, however, derives its chief
importance from its Buddhist associations and remains. Here Buddha
died about 550 B.C. ; and for over 1100 years Kusinagara was a place
of great importance and sanctity, and a centre of Buddhist pilgrimage.
It was visited by the Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hian in the 5th, and Hiuen
Tsiang in the 7th century. The latter informs us that Buddha died
in a sal forest more than half a mile from the city, at a short distance
from the Hiranyavati or Ajitavati river (the modern Little Gandak).
On the scene of his death were erected three large stupas, all standing
in Hiuen Tsiang's time, — the largest, 200 feet in height, having been
built by Asoka (250 B.C.). That monarch also erected here a pillar
describing the nirvana of Buddha, and a large vihdra or monastery,
with a recumbent statue of Buddha. The existing Buddhistic remains
lie south-west of the modern village of Kasia. They consist of a lofty
mound of solid brickwork styled Devisthan or Ramabhar-Bhawani,
sacred to the wife of Siva; an oblong-shaped mound with a brick
stupa; a colossal statue of Buddha seated under the sacred fig-tree
at Gaya; and a number of low grassy barrows regarded by General
Cunningham as tombs, although his excavations did not result in any
discovery of human remains. These are all the existing remains of
Kasia. Its many Buddhist shrines have either been effaced by the
floods of the Little Gandak, or destroyed to supply materials for more
modern buildings in neighbouring villages.

Kasiari. — Village in the Tamliik Sub-division of Midnapur District,
Bengal. Lat. 220 7' 25" n., long. S70 16' 20" e. Large trading village ;
also noted for its tasar silk cultivation and manufacture.

8o KASIJORA—KASIMBAZAR

Kasijora. — Village in Midnapur District, Bengal. Lat. 220 17' 20"
N., long. 87° 22' 45" e. Inhabited by colonies of matmakers, who make
the finer qualities of maslandi mats, which are largely exported to
Calcutta as flooring mats for the houses of European residents.

K&simbdjZ&r (CossimMzdr). — Decayed town in Murshidabad District,
Bengal. Lat. 240 7' 40" N., long. 8S° 19' e. This town, the site of
which is now a swamp marked by a few ruins, may lay claim to a
historical interest even superior to that of the city of Murshidabad.
Long before the days of Murshid Kuli Khan, who founded and gave
his name to the latter city, the trade of Bengal was centred at Kasim-
bazar. The different European nations who traded to India had
factories here from very early times. The common name for the
Bhagirathi in English history down to the early years of the present
century was the Kasimbazar river ; and the triangular tract enclosed by
the Bhagirathi, Ganges, and Jalangi was known in the early days
of the Company as the island of Kasimbazar. The place is said to
derive its name from a legendary founder, Kasim Khan. Its history
cannot be traced back beyond the 17th century; but even when first
mentioned it appears as a place of great consequence. After Satgaon
had been ruined by the silting up of the Saraswati mouth, and before
Calcutta was founded, Kasimbazar was the great emporium.

An English commercial agent was first appointed to Kasimbazar
in 1658; and nine years later it was decided that the * Chief ' at this
place should be also a member of Council. In 1686, the factory at
Kasimbazar, in common with the other English factories in Bengal, was
confiscated by order of the Nawab Shaista Khan. It was restored a
year or two later, and at the close of the century had become the
leading English commercial agency in Bengal. In 168 1, Job Charnock,
the future founder of Calcutta, was Chief at Kasimbazar. In that
year, of ,£230,000 sent out by the East India Company as the 'invest-
ment' to Bengal, ,£140,000 was assigned to Kasimbazar. In 1763,
out of a total of £"400,000 required as ' advances for investment,'
Kasimbazar demanded ^90,000, or as much as any other two agencies,
excepting Calcutta. The filatures and machinery of the Company were
estimated to be worth 20 lakhs of rupees, or £200,000. According
to native tradition, the town was so studded with lofty buildings, that
the streets never saw the rays of the sun.

The factory of the Company at Kasimbazar owed much of its
wealth, and all its political importance, to its close neighbourhood
to the Muhammadan capital at Murshidabad. But, from the same
cause, it was liable to constant danger. It was a matter of common
occurrence for the Nawab to order out his troops to blockade the
walled factory, whenever he had any quarrel with the English
Council at Calcutta. In 1757, when the Nawab Siraj-ud-daula resolved

KASIMKOTA. 81

to drive the English out of Bengal, Kasimbazar felt the first effects of
his anger. The fortified factory was taken without resistance, and the
Englishmen, including Mr. Watts, the Resident, and Warren Hastings,
his assistant, were sent in close custody to Murshiddbad. After
the battle of Plassey, Kasimbazar regained its commercial import-
ance; but the political power formerly held by the Resident was
transferred to the English Agent at the court of the Nawib, who lived
at Murshidabad.

The decay of Kasimbazar dates from the beginning of the present
century, when its climate, which had previously been celebrated for
salubrity, underwent an unexplained change for the worse, so that the
margin of cultivation receded and wild beasts increased. In 1811,
Kasimbazar town is described as noted for its silk, hosiery, fiords, and
inimitable ivory work, while the surrounding country was ' a wilderness
inhabited only by beasts of prey.' In 18 13, the ruin of the town was
effected by a change in the course of the Bhagirathi, which suddenly
deserted its ancient bed, and instead of following its former bend to the
east, took a sweep to the west, and now flows 3 miles from the site of
the old town. The channel in front of the warehouses of Kasimbazar
became a pestiferous marsh, a malarious fever broke out, and the
place gradually became depopulated. The Company's filatures, how-
ever, continued to work, although the place had lost all its ancient
importance, and weaving only ceased when it became impossible to
compete with the cheaper cotton goods of Manchester. In 1829, a
Census returned the population of Kasimbazar at 3538. It is still
(1884) the seat of the wealthiest Hindu family of the District, repre-
sented by a noble and charitable lady, the Rani Swarnamayi, but
otherwise it is quite deserted. Ruins of huge buildings and broad
mounds of earth alone remain to attest its former grandeur. The
chief traces of European occupation now remaining are mouldering
tombstones.

Kasimkota. — Town in the Anakapalle taluk of Vizagapatam District,
Madras Presidency; 23 miles west of Vizagapatam town. Lat. 17° 39' 50"
n., long. 830 o' 10" e. Population (1871) 6218; (1881) 7078, namely,
3562 males and 3516 females, of whom 6703 are Hindus, 374
Muhammadans, and 1 Christian. Number of houses, 147 7- The
principal town of a ' modern proprietary estate,' and formerly a tahsili
station ; contains a good school. The estate is comprised of 8 villages,
and was assessed at the permanent settlement at ^1401. Kasimkota
was, in Musalman days, zfaitjddri of the Chicacole Circar; and after
the Northern Circars came into British hands, in 1768, it remained the
head-quarters of a division. When, in 1802, the Chicacole Circar was
transferred to Ganjam, Kasimkota remained attached to Vizagapatam.
It was here that Colonel Forde's troops made their rendezvous with

VOL. VIII. F

82 KAS1PUR-KASLA PA G1NU MUWAD U.

those of Vizianagaram, previous to the battle of Condore and the
taking of Masulipatam in i758_59-

Kasipur. — Western tahsil of the Tarai District, North - Western
Provinces ; consisting of a damp submontane tract, chiefly covered with
forest jungle or grassy savannahs, but containing a larger proportion of
cultivation than the remainder of the District. Area, 188 square miles,
of which 89 are cultivated. Population (1872) 71,423 ; (1881) 74,973.
namely, males 40,347, and females 34,626. Classified according to
religion, the population in the latter year consisted of— Hindus, 49>263 >
Muhammadans, 25,670; Jains, 34; and 'others,' 6. Number of vil-
lages, 161, of which 122 had less than five hundred inhabitants. Land
revenue, ^9953 ; total Government revenue, ,£11,758; incidence of
Government revenue per acre, is. nd. The tahsil contains 1 criminal
court, and 2 police stations (thdnds) ; strength of regular police, 30
men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 128.

Kasipur. — Town, municipality, and principal centre of population
in the Tarai District, North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of
Kasipur tahsil ; situated in a marshy plain, overgrown with grass and
jungle; distant from Moradabad 31 miles. Lat. 290 13' n., long. 780
59' 50" e. Formerly the site of an ancient city, several large excava-
tions in the neighbourhood being attributed to the Pandava tutor,
Drona, one of the heroes of the Mahdbhdrata. These ruins have
been identified by General Cunningham with the capital of the Govisana
kingdom, visited in the 7th century a.d. by Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim. At the close of the last century, Nandram, governor
of Kasipur, made himself independent ; and his nephew, Sib Sal, was
in possession of the pargand at the date of the British annexation in
1802. The present Raja of Kasipur, Shiuraj Singh, holds rank as a
special magistrate. It is a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, having
several temples and a holy tank, where pilgrims bathe on their way to
Badrinath. Population in 1872, 13,113 ; in 1881, 14,667, namely, males
7555, and females 7 112. Classified according to religion, there were,
in the latter year — Hindus, 8477 ; and Muhammadans, 6190. Area of
town site, 761 acres. Municipal income in 1881-82, ,£924, of which
£744 was derived from taxation ; incidence of taxation, is. id. per head.
Well-built, handsome houses of the chief merchants. Brisk transit trade
from Kumaun and Chinese Tartary to the plains. Exports of grain ;
manufacture of coarse cotton cloth. Government charitable dispensary.
Kasipur. — Village, and site of Government factory, a northern
suburb of Calcutta. — See Cossipur.

Kasla Paginu Muwadu. — Petty State of the Koli group of
Pandu Mehwas in Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, ij
square mile. There are 5 shareholders. Estimated revenue in 1881,
£9 ; tribute of £6 is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda.

KASMANDI KALAN—KASUR. 83

Kasmandi Kaldn. — Town in Lucknow District, Oudh ; situated 4
miles east of Malihabad town, and 3 miles west of the Giimti river.
Noted as having been the seat of the Hindu Raja Kans, who was over-
thrown by Sayyid Salar Masaud, the leader of the first Muhammadan
invasion into Oudh, 1030-31 a.d. Raja Kans was slain in the battle,
and there are numerous ruined tombs marking the burial-place of the
chiefs who fell. A small mound of fallen bricks is pointed out as the
ran-khamba or battle pillar. The present Musalman proprietor of the
place claims direct descent from the settlers left behind by Sayyid Salar.
Population (1869) 1990; (1881) 1809, namely, Hindus, 1061 ; and
Muhammadans, 748. The birthplace and residence of several Muham-
madans distinguished for learning and wealth. Government school,
with a branch girls' school ; post-office ; small market.

Kassia. — Town of Gorakhpur District, North-Western Provinces. —
See Kasia.

Kasta. — Pargana of Muhamdi tahsil, Kheri District, Oudh. The
north and west of the pargana comprises a considerable area of dense
jungle, which is let out rent-free under 5 forest grants. This tract
harbours herds of deer and other animals, which do much damage to
the crops of the cultivators who have settled in the vicinity for the sake
of grazing. The south of the parga?id is highly cultivated by Kiirmis.
Total area, 95 square miles (including 13 square miles of forest); cul-
tivated area, 39 square miles. Government land revenue, ^3871. Of
the 73 villages comprising the pargana, 62 are held by tdlukddrs, 4 by
independent proprietors, 2 are Government villages, and 5 are held rent-
free by forest grantees. Population (1869), Hindus, 29,556 ; Musalmans,
1733 ; total, 31,289; (1881), Hindus, 29,076; and Muhammadans,
2598; total, 31,674. Average density, 329 persons per square mile.

Kasta village is a small place of about 200 houses, and a population
of a little over 1000 persons, on the road from Lakhimpur to Mitauli ;
of no importance, and much decayed of late years.

Kasiir. — Tahsil of Lahore District, Punjab, occupying the southern
half of the eastern or Bari Doab portion of the District, and lying along
the banks of the Sutlej (Satlaj) ; situated between 300 54' 30" and 310
27' n. lat, and between 740 15' and 75° o' 30" e. long. Area, 794 square
miles. Population (1868) 197,667; (1882) 229,798, namely, males
124,783, and females 105,015; average density, 289 persons per
square mile. Classified according to religion, the population in 1881
consisted of — Muhammadans, 138,828; Hindus, 42,160 ; Sikhs, 48,136;
and 'others,' 674. Of the total assessed area, in 1878-79, of 508,060
acres, 352,514 acres were returned as under cultivation, of which
42,462 acres were irrigated from Government works, and 89,200 acres
by private individuals. The average annual area under the principal
crops for the five years 1877-78 to 1S81-S2 is thus returned : — wheat,

84 KASUR TOWN.

169,495 acres; gram, 68,526 acres ; jodr, 31,832 acres; moth, 16,046
acres; Indian corn, 13,357 acres; barley, 20,149 acres; cotton, 7130
acres; and rice, 2052 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, ^£22,684. The ad-
ministrative staff consists of 1 Assistant or extra-Assistant Commissioner,
1 tahsilddr, and 1 munsif. These officers preside over 3 civil and 2
criminal courts. For police purposes, the tahsil is divided in 5 police
circles (thdnds) ; strength of regular police, 137 men, besides 224 village
watchmen (chaiikiddrs).

Kasiir. — Town and municipality in Lahore District, Punjab, and
head-quarters of Kasiir tahsil; situated upon the north bank of the old
bed of the Beas (Bias), upon the Firozpur (Ferozepore) road, 34 miles
south-east of Lahore city. Lat. 310 6' 46" n., long. 740 30' 31" e. Tradi-
tion refers its origin to Kush, son of Rama, and brother of Loh or Lav,
the founder of Lahore. Certainly, a Rajput city seems to have occupied
the modern site before the earliest Muhammadan invasion ; but Kasiir
does not appear in history until late in the Musalman period, when it was
settled by a Pathan colony from the east of the Indus. These immigrants
entered the town in the reign either of Babar or of his grandson Akbar, and
founded a considerable principality, with territory on either side of the
Sutlej (Satlaj). When the Sikhs rose to power they experienced great
opposition from the Pathans of Kasiir ; and though the chiefs of the
Bhangi Confederacy stormed the town in 1763, and again in 1770, and
succeeded for a while in holding the entire principality, the Pathan
leaders re-established their independence in 1794, and resisted many
subsequent invasions. In 1807, however, Kutab-ud-din Khan, their
last chieftain, was forced to give way before Ran jit Singh, and retired
to his property at Mamdot, beyond the Sutlej. The town of Kasiir
was then incorporated with the Lahore monarchy. It consists of an
aggregation of fortified hamlets, standing on the upland bank, and over-
looking the alluvial valleys of the Beas and the Sutlej. The Afghan
element has now declined.

Kasiir is now the most important town in the District after Lahore.
It consists of twelve hamlets, four of which joined together form the
main town, while the others are scattered a short distance around.
Population (1868) 15,209. In 1881 it was 17,336, namely, males 8870,
and females 8466. Classified according to religion, the population in
1881 consisted of — Muhammadans, 13,852; Hindus, 3074; Sikhs,
242; and Jains, 168. Number of houses, 3830. The municipal
income of the town, which in 1875-76 amounted to ^"1218, had
by 1882-83 increased to ^2686 ; average incidence, 3s. ijd. per
head. The situation of the town affords considerable facilities for
drainage. The main streets are paved and furnished with central and
side drains, and a sufficient conservancy establishment is maintained.
The town is the centre of a local trade in country produce. The only

KATAHRA— RATAL. 85

manufacture is leather, especially harness, for which the place has
a considerable reputation. An extra-Assistant Commissioner is sta-
tioned here in charge of the Sub-division. His court, the tahsili,
police station, school-house, dispensary, and dak bungalow are the
public buildings. Kasur is now connected with Lahore and Firoz
pur by the Raiwind-Firozpur branch of the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi
Railway. The town contains a school of industry founded by a former
Deputy Commissioner, and maintained out of local charities. It
chiefly produces rugs and carpets, in imitation of those of Persian
manufacture.

Katahra (or Katerd). — Town in Jhansi District, North-Western Pro-
vinces ; situated 30 miles from Jhansi town, and 15 from Mau (Mhow).
Population (1881) 4463. Station of the Great Trigonometrical Survey.
Local manufacture of pottery. Village school.

Katak (' The Fort'). — District, Sub-division, and city, Orissa. — See
Cuttack.

Katakhal (l New Cut').— Offshoot of the Dhaleswari river, in the
south of Cachar District, Assam ; said to have been formed by one of
the Cachari Rajas, who constructed an embankment across the main
channel of the Dhaleswari, about 25 miles above its junction with the
Barak. The Katakhal now carries off the greater part of the
stream, and is navigable by boats of 20 tons burthen all the year
through.

Katal. — A peculiar geological formation of country covered with
thorn jungle, and extending over the east and north-east of Maldah
District, Bengal. This tract extends north-east and south-east from
the didrd or alluvial land, some six miles west of the Mahanadi
river, to the borders of Dinajpur. It contains no large forests, but
consists of a continuous waste of jungly high lands rising out of swamps.
These high lands are covered with a thorny tree jungle called kdtdl
(whence the tract takes its name). It is broken by narrow steep water-
courses called karis or ndlds, and is very thinly inhabited. The country
shows traces of having been at one time occupied by a consider-
able population, which is reported to have been swept away by
pestilence. Many tanks are to be seen, some of them of grand propor-
tions, and scattered over a wide area. The ruins of the magnificent
Muhammadan city of Panduah or Peruah, which succeeded a Hindu
city of that name, are situated in the wildest and most dangerous
portion of this jungle, known as the Peruah kdtdl. In former times
there were probably many villages on these high lands; but at the
present day there are merely a few miserable huts, inhabited by
aboriginal or semi-aboriginal tribes, who mainly subsist by hunting or
fishing, and raise a few crops by the rudest mode of tillage. Settle-
ments have been recently formed by Santals in various portions of this

86 KATALGARH— KATAS.

tract, notably in the Peruah kdtdl, where extensive clearances are being
made in these long impenetrable jungles.

Katalgarh. — Town in Kumaun District, North- Western Provinces |
on the road from Pithoragarh to Champawat, 4 miles north of the latter
place. Lat. 290 24' n., long. 8o° 5' e. An old fort, garrisoned by
Gurkha troops during the war of 18 14.

Katangi. — Zaminddri or estate in Bilaspur District, Central Pro-
vinces ; containing 41 villages, with an area of 57 square miles, of which
about 11,000 acres are cultivated, and about 15,000 acres are cultivable
waste. The tract consists of an open plain of average soil, bordered
on one side by the Mahanadi river, and on the other by the Sonakhan
hills. Population (1882) 15,845, namely, males 7751, and females
8094; average density, 278 persons per square mile. Number of
houses, 4120. The chief is a Gond ; and Katangi village, where
he resides, contains a small but nourishing community of traders
and weavers, and has a weekly market. Lat. 210 46' 30" n., long. 790

51' E.

Katangi. — A State forest, chiefly of teak, in Betiil District, Central
Provinces ; covering about 1 70 square miles, and stretching from
Katanga village on the Tapti to the river Ganjal.

Katangi. — A large but decaying village in Jabalpur (Jubbulpore)
District, Central Provinces ; situated at the foot of the Bhanrer Hills
on the north bank of the Hiran, 22 miles north-west of Jabalpur city,
on the road to Sagar (Saugor). Lat. 230 26' 30" n., long. 790 50' e.
Population (1881) 3505, namely, Hindus, 2582 ; Muhammadans, 757;
Jains, 163 ; and aboriginal tribes, 3. The inhabitants are mostly agricul-
turists, and among them many Muhammadans, said to be descended
from the soldiers of Akbar and Aurangzeb, both of whom encamped
near the town. Katangi used to be famous for the manufacture of
gun-barrels, which were largely exported. It contains a large tank and
the remains of some mosques, and has a Government school.

Katas. — Holy fountain in the Pind Dadan Khan tahsil of Jehlam
(Jhelum) District, Punjab ; and, after Kuru-kshetra and Jawala-mukhi,
the most frequented place of pilgrimage in the Province. Lat. 32 ° 43'
30" n., long. 7 20 59' 30" e. Siva being inconsolably grieved for the
loss of his wife Sati, the daughter of Daksha, 'rained tears from his
eyes,' and so produced the two sacred pools of Pushkara, near Ajmere,
and Kataksha or Katas, in the Sind Sagar Doab. The pool is partly
artificial, being formed by the enlargement of a natural basin in the bed
of the Ganiya Nala. Just above it, stretches a strong masonry wall
which once dammed up the stream, so as to enclose a large lake ; but
the water now escapes through the interstices and broken masses of the
embankment.

Katas lies on the north side of the Salt Range, 16 miles from

KATERA—KATHL 87

Pind Dadan Khan, and 18 from Chakwal ; elevation above sea-
level, over 2000 feet. Walls, towers, and brick ruins crown the
surrounding heights, while a fort once stood upon the neighbouring
hillock of Kotera. Below these remains, an enclosure contains the
ruined Sat Ghdra or seven temples, with another group, which General
Cunningham ascertained to be twelve in number. The latter resemble
in their general style the Kashmir order of architecture, characterized
by dentils, trefoil arches, fluted pillars, and pointed roofs. Although the
details cannot now be accurately discriminated, enough remains to
prove with considerable certainty that the buildings belong to the
Karkota and Varmma periods, from 625 to 939 a.d., during which
epoch the Salt Range formed part of the Kashmir dominions. Popular
tradition assigns the origin of the seven temples to the Pandava
brethren, who are said to have lived at Katas during a portion of their
twelve years' wanderings. The temples have suffered much from restora-
tion and repairs, the whole wall of the central shrine being now hidden
by a thick coat of plaster, the gift of Ghulab Singh. General Cunning-
ham inclines to believe that Katas may be identified with the capital of
the Sinhapur kingdom, visited in the 7th century a.d. by Hiuen Tsiang,
the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. Some of the existing remains may
possibly date back to the Buddhist period. Katas, as it exists at
present, consists of a large square-shaped pool, set among rocks and
apparently welling up from a spring in the dry bed. Round this pool
a little Hindu colony of Brahmans and fakirs has arisen, who quarrel
over the offerings of the pilgrims. A large fair is held here at the
beginning of the hot weather.

Katera. — Town in Jhansi District, North-Western Provinces. — See
Katahra.

Kathi. — Petty Mehwas State in the Taloda Sub-division of Khandesh
District, Bombay Presidency ; estimated area, about 300 square miles.
The population in 1881 was returned at 10,223. Kathi is situated in the
north-west corner of the Taloda Sub-division. It consists of a succes-
sion of narrow valleys separated by ridges of lofty, irregular, and forest-
clad hills of the Satpura range ; difficult of access on all sides. Two
routes are practicable for bullocks and horses, one from the south-
west, from Kukarmunda village, across the Imli pass ; and the other
from the east, from Dhadgaon village of Akrani pargand. In the low-
lying villages the soil is good, yielding rice and pulse. The forest
products are timber, mahud flower, honey, and wax. The chief has
no patent allowing adoption, and in point of succession his family
follows the rule of primogeniture. The present chief, a Hindu Bhi'l,
claiming Rajput origin, is a minor, and the State is under British
management. Estimated revenue in 1882, ^2230; tribute of ^£13
is paid to the British Government.

88 KATHIAWAR PENINSULA AND AGENCY.

Kathiawar (or Surdshtrd). — The peninsula or western portion of the
Province of Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency, situated between
2o° 41' and 230 8' N. lat., and between 68° 56' and 720 20' e. long.

A square peninsula, standing boldly out into the Arabian Sea
between the smaller projection of Cutch (Kachchh) and the straight
line of the Gujarat coast. Its physical features suggest that it may
once have been an island or a group of islands of volcanic origin.
On the south and west Kathiawar is bounded by the Arabian Sea ;
on the north by the Gulf and Runn of Cutch ; on the east by the
Sabarmati river and the Gulf of Cambay. It was known to the
Greeks and Romans under the name of %avpaa-Tpi)vq ; the Muhamma-
dans called it by the Prakritized name of Sorath, and to this day a
large division in the south-west, 100 miles in length, still retains that
name. Another tract, quite as large, to the east of the centre, how-
ever, has long been known as Kathiawar, from having been overrun
by the Kdthis, who entered the peninsula from Cutch, in the 13th and
14th centuries ; in the 15th, the whole tribe was driven out of Cutch,
and in that and in the following century conquered a considerable
territory. The Marathas, who came into contact with them in their
forays, and were sometimes successfully repelled by them, extended the
name of Kathiawar to the whole Province, and from them we have
come to apply it in a similar wide sense ; but by Bnihmans and the
natives generally it is still spoken of as Surashtra.

The extreme length of the peninsula is about 220 miles, its greatest
breadth about 165 miles, its area about 23,300 square miles, and
its population (1881) about 2,500,000; estimated yearly revenue,
^1,530,000. Of these totals, about 1320 square miles, 148,000
people, and ,£10,900 of revenue belong to the Gaekwar ; about 1100
square miles, 160,000 people, and ^£26,600 of revenue belong to
Ahmadabad District; about 7 square miles, 12,636 people, and
^3800 of revenue belong to the Portuguese possession of Diu ; while
the remainder is the territory forming the Political Agency of Kathia-
war, described in the following article.

Kathiawar. — A Political Agency subordinate to the Government
of Bombay, established in 1822, having under its control 187 separate
States, great and small, whose chiefs have divided among themselves
the greater portion of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Of the 187 States,
13 pay no tribute, 105 are tributary to the British Government, 79 to
the Gaekwar of Baroda, wThile 134 pay also a tribute to the Nawab of
Junagarh. Area, 20,559 square miles. Population (1881) 2,343,899.

Kathiawar Agency is divided for administrative purposes into four
prd?its or divisions, — Jhalawar, Halal, Sorath, and Gohelwar, — but
the old territorial prdnts are ten, namely, Jhalawar, in the north,
containing about 50 States ; Machhukantha, west of Jhalawar ; Halal, in

KATHIAWAR AGENCY. 89

the north-west, embracing 26 States ; Okhamandal, in the extreme west,
belonging to Baroda ; Barda or Jethwar, along the south-west coast ;
Sorath, in the south ; Babriawar, a hilly tract in the south-east ;
Kathiawar, a large district near the middle ; Undsarviya, situated along
the Satriinji river ; and Gohelwar, in the east, along the shore of the
Gulf of Cambay, so named from the Gohel Rajputs, who are the
ruling race in it. In this last-named division is situated the Gogha
or Gogo Sub-division of Ahmadabad District. Municipalities have
been instituted in many of the chief towns of the Province, and muni-
cipal funds are yearly voted by the States for education, vaccination,
roads, and other public purposes.

Physical Aspects. — Generally speaking, the surface of Kathiawar
is undulating, with low ranges of hills running in very irregular direc-
tions. With the exception of the Thanga and Mandav hills, in the west
of Jhalawar, and some unimportant hills in Halal, the northern portion
of the country is flat ; but in the south, from near Gogha, the Gir range
runs nearly parallel with the coast, and at a distance of about 20 miles
from it, along the north of Babriawar and Sorath, to the neighbourhood
of Girnar. Opposite this latter mountain is the solitary Osam Hill,
and still farther west is the Barda group, between Halal and Barda,
running about 20 miles north and south from Ghumli to Rana-
wao. The Girnar clump of mountains is an important granitic mass,
the highest peak of which rises to 3500 feet in height. The principal
river is the Bhadar, which rises in the Mandav hills, and, flowing south-
west, falls into the sea at Navi-Bandar, in Barda, after a course of
about 115 miles, everywhere marked by highly cultivated lands border-
ins: its course. From the same hills rises another Bhadar, known
as the Sukha Bhadar, flowing eastward into the Gulf of Cambay.
Other rivers are the Aji, Machhu, Bhogawa, and Satriinji, the latter
remarkable for wild and romantic scenery.

Four of the old races, the Jethwas, Churasamas, Solankis, and Walas,
still existing as proprietors of the soil, exercised sovereignty in the
country prior to the immigration of the Jhalas, Jarejas, Parmars, Kathis,
Gohels, Jats, Muhammadans, and Marathas, between whom the country
is now chiefly portioned out. As each of the important States in Kathia-
war is treated in a separate article, a brief notice must here suffice for
the group as a whole.

There are important wooded tracts in Kathiawar, besides the Gir
with its 1500 square miles of forest, but insufficient attention is devoted
to them by the chiefs. In Wankaner and the Panchal, however, lands
have been set aside for the growth of timber, and in Bhaunagar, Morvi,
Gondal, and Manavadar, babul plantations have been formed. Palms,
mangoes, and casuarinas have been specially planted and cared for in
Bhaunagar ; trunk and feeder roads are being gradually planted with

9o KA THIA WAR A GENC Y.

trees along their entire length ; and several minor estates and villages
are paying attention to forest conservancy.

History. — At a very early period, Surashtra was doubtless brought
under the influence of Brahmanical civilisation, and, from its position
on the coast, it was most accessible to influences from the west The
edicts of Asoka (265-229 b.c.) were inscribed by that monarch on a
huge granite boulder between Junagarh and Girnar. The Saraostos of
Strabo is not improbably identical with Surashtra ; and if so, the penin-
sula was included in the conquests of the Indo-Scythian kings {circa 190
and 144 B.C.). Its shores were well known to the Alexandrian merchants
of the 1st and 2nd centuries, but there is considerable difficulty in
identifying the places mentioned.

Of the early history of the country we have but scanty notice. It
was probably governed by Satraps under Asoka and the great Maurya
kings. For about three centuries, from the 1st century B.C. to
the 3rd a.d., the local dynasty of the Sah kings ruled in Surashtra.
After the Sahs come the Guptas of Kanauj, who apparently governed by
senapaiis or viceroys. The later senapatis became kings of Surashtra,
who placed their lieutenants at Valabhi-nagar (identified with the buried
city at Wala, 18 miles north-west of Bhaunagar). When the Guptas
were dethroned by foreign invaders, the Valabhi kings, whose dynasty
was founded by Bhattarka, a Gupta commander, extended their sway
over Kutch, Lat-desa (Surat, Broach, Kheda, and parts of Baroda
territory), and Malwa (480 a.d.). It was in the reign of Dhruvasena 11.
(632-640) that the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang visited Falapi
(Valabhi?) and Sulach'a (Surashtra), the inhabitants of which, he says,
are indifferent and not given to learning, but profit by the proximity of
the sea, and engage much in trade and barter. The people he described
as numerous and wealthy, and takes note of the many convents estab-
lished for the benefit of recluses engaged in the contemplative piety of
Buddhism.

How Valabhi fell is not known, but possibly it was subverted by
Muhammadan invaders from Sind. The seat of government was then
moved farther north, beyond the borders of Kathiawar, and remained
at Anhilwara from 746 to 1297 a.d., during which time various petty
kingdoms arose, and the Jethwas became a powerful tribe in the west
of Surashtra. Anhilwara was sacked by the Muhammadans in 1194,
and finally conquered in 1297. The Jhalas are said to have been
settled in Northern Kathiawar by the Anhilwara kings. The Gohels
(now in Eastern Kathiawar) came from the north in the 13th century,
retreating before the tide of Muhammadan conquest, and conquering for
themselves new seats in the decadence of Anhilwara. The Jarejas and
the Kathis came into Kathiawar from the west through Kutch. The
sack of Somndth, in Southern Kathiawar, by Mahmiid of Ghazni in

KA THIA WAR A GENC V. 9 1

1024, and the capture of Anhilwara in 1194, were the prelude to occa-
sional Muhammadan invasions of Kathiawar. In 1394, Zafar Khan
destroyed the temple of Somnath. He was the father of the first of
the Muhammadan kings of Gujarat, who reigned in prosperity from
1403 to 1535, and in decadence to 1573, when Gujarat was conquered
by Akbar. The Ahmadabad kings subjected the tributary chiefs of
Kathiawar ; they carefully fostered commerce, and developed the ports
of Mangrol, Verawal, Diu, Gogo, and Cambay.

About 1528, the coast was threatened by the Portuguese. Bahadur,
defeated by Babar's son Humayun, sought safety in Diu, and
afterwards permitted the Portuguese adventurers to build a factory,
which they turned into a fort, after having treacherously killed
Bahadur (1536). The island and fort of Diu are still a Portuguese
possession. Gujarat, after its conquest by Akbar in 1573, was ruled
by Viceroys from the Court of Delhi, until the Marathas supplanted
the imperial power. In 1705, the Marathas entered Gujarat, and
by 1760 had firmly established their rule; but the following half-
century was a time of little ease for the tributaries in Kathiawar, and
petty wars were frequent. During the latter part of the eighteenth
century, according to Musalman and Maratha custom, the Gaekwar,
partly for himself and partly for his over-lord the Peshwa, sent yearly
a revenue - collecting army (mulk-giri) to collect contributions from
the chiefs of Western and Northern Gujarat. As this annual armed
expedition caused much waste and confusion, the British Government
agreed to associate itself with the Gaekwar in recovering the Maratha
tribute from the Kathiawar States.

In 1803, some of the weaker tdlukdars applied to the British
Resident at Baroda for protection, offering to cede their territory to
the Company. They were then independent of the Peshwa and
Gaekwar, with the exception of being bound to furnish contributions.
In 1807, the forces of the Company and the Gaekwar advanced into
Kathiawar, and the chiefs entered into engagements to pay a fixed
tribute to their over-lords, and to keep the peace towards each other,
and maintain order within their own limits. In return, they were
secured from the visitations of the mulk-giri force, which used to
appear at harvest-time, and in default of payment ravaged the crops
and fired the villages. Internal warfare and resistance to the supreme
authority were ended in 1807-08 by the settlements effected by
Colonel Walker ; one great feature of which was that the tributes were
fixed, and the work of collection was undertaken by the British
Government, which also acquired the Peshwa's rights in the Province
after the treaty of Poona in 1818. In 1820, the Gaekwar agreed to
have his share collected and paid by the British Government.

Since 1822, the sole supreme power in Kathiawar has been vested

9 2 KA THIA WAR A GENC Y.

in the Political Agent, subordinate to the Government of Bombay.
In 1 83 1, a chief criminal court was established, with a British officer as
president, to try criminals whom the local authorities themselves could
not deal with.

In 1863, the States were arranged into seven classes, with varying
civil and criminal powers. This classification was introduced in pur-
suance of reforms suggested by Mr. Kinloch Forbes, Acting Political
Agent, who had drawn attention in i860 to the need of reform in the
relations of the British Government with the administration of the
chiefs. A re-organization of the administrative system was accordingly
introduced in 1863, on the recommendation of Colonel Keatinge.
Chiefs of the first and second class exercise plenary jurisdiction, both
civil and criminal ; the judicial powers of the lesser chiefs are graded
in a diminishing scale, the residuary jurisdiction being vested in four
British political officers, each superintending a group of States, and each
residing in a division with the civil powers of a District judge, and the
criminal powers of a District magistrate. They commit to the sessions
of the Political Agent's criminal court at Rajkot. Civil and criminal
appeals lie from the Political Assistants to the Political Agent. (See
Administration.) The Political Agent controls the whole system.
As a rule, no appeal lies from the decision of a chief; but on
presumption of mal-administration, his proceedings may be called for
and reviewed.

Population. — The enumeration made in 1872 returned the population
of the Province at 2,318,642, of whom 1,224,467 were males, and
1,094,175 were females. The Census of February 17, 1881, gave
the following figures — total population, 2,343,899; namely, males,
1,218,803; females, 1,125,096. There was therefore in the period of
nine years, between 1872 and 1881, a small increase of 25,257, or some-
thing over one per cent. The Census of 1881 returned the area at
20,559 square miles; number of towns, 41; villages, 4127; occupied
houses, 479,435 ; unoccupied houses, 185,646. The density of popula-
tion was 114 persons to the square mile ; number of towns and villages
per square mile, o'2 ; houses per village, 115 ; houses per square mile,
32-3 ; persons per house, 4*8.

Of the 4168 towns and villages in Kathiawar, 1272 contained a
population of less than two hundred; 1591 between two and five
hundred; 887 from five hundred to one thousand; 296 from one
to two thousand; 56 from two to three thousand; 29 from three to
five thousand; 22 from five to ten thousand; 8 from ten to fifteen
thousand ; 4 from fifteen to twenty thousand ; and 3 from twenty to
fifty thousand.

Classified according to religion, the population is distributed as
follows: — Hindus, 1,942,658, or 82*9 per cent, of the whole; Muham-

KA THIA WAR A GENC Y. 93

madans, 303,537, or 12-9 per cent.; Jains, 96,141, or 4 per cent;
Christians, 605; Parsfs, 489; Jews, 145; and ' others,' 324. Among
the Hindus, Brahmans number 146,629; Rajputs, 129,018; Darzis,
tailor and calico - vendor caste, 29,352; Kiinbis, or cultivators,
316,838; Koli's, also cultivators, 330,840; Kumbhars, potters, who
make the village earthenware, now being gradually superseded by
workers in brass, 85,118; Lohars, blacksmiths, 26,178; Mhars, menial
classes, 123,666; Sonars, goldsmiths, 16,502; Sutars, carpenters,
26,738; Napits, barbers, 29,991; Lohanas, 54,968; and many castes
few in point of numbers, but representing the minor artisans and
labourers in the Kathiawar village. The Muhammadans (of whom
256,238 are Sunnis and 47,254 Shias) are divided into the following
tribes: — Baluchi's, 109; Pathans, 7681; Sayyids, 18,656; Shaikhs,
42,187; Sindhis, 32,524; and 'others,' 202,380.

The occupations of the male adult population are sub-divided by the
Census under six main groups : — (1) Professional class, including State
officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, 52,445 ;
(2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 9144; (3) com-
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 43>4°4 ; (4)
agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 435,221; (5)
industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 176,073; (6)
indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers, male
children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 502,516.

Admi?iistration. — Before 1863, except for the criminal court of the
Political Agent established in 1831 to aid the darbdrs of the several
States in the trial of great crimes, interference with the judicial admini-
stration of the territories was diplomatic not magisterial; and the
criminal jurisdiction of the first and second class chiefs only was
defined. In 1863, however, the country underwent an important
change. The jurisdiction of all the chiefs was classified and defined ;
that of chiefs of the first and second class was made plenary ;
that of lesser chiefs was graded in a diminishing scale. Four Political
Assistants, resident in the four divisions of Kathiawar, now exercise
residuary jurisdiction with large civil and criminal powers. They
commit to the criminal court of the Political Agent, to whom also
civil and criminal appeals lie. Each Assistant has a subordinate who
resides at the head-quarters of the prdnt or division, and has sub-
ordinate civil and criminal powers.

In each division are several sub-divisional thdndddrs, holding petty
magisterial powers over a circle of villages contiguous to their station
or thdnd. These thdndddrs administer 134 taluks out of the whole
187 territorial divisions of Kathiawar; they have certain powers of
general administration as well as judicial authority. But as the larger
principalities occupy more than 15,000 of the 20,599 square miles in

94 KA THIA WAR A GENCY.

the country, the Agency through its Assistants, sub-Assistants, and
thdndddrs, cannot be called upon to administer more than one-fourth
of the entire area. There are 20 thdnds in the Province/ The
tdlukddrs are poor, ignorant, and in debt, and have only the semblance
of authority. Inter - tdlukddr relations are characterized by petty
squabbles, small jealousies, and endless sub-division of the estates.

The law administered by the darbdri tribunals of the States is the
customary law of the Province, viz. the Hindu and Muhammadan
religious law as modified by local or tribal usage. The larger States
have procedure and penal codes based on those in use in British
India. To meet a particular class of land disputes, however, a special
court was established in 1873. This was the Rajasthanik Court, con-
stituted with the assent and at the cost of the chiefs. It decides,
under the presidency of a British officer, all disputes as to girds or
hereditary estates, between the chiefs and the bhdydds and mulgirdsids,
who are for the most part the kinsmen of the chiefs, or the descend-
ants of earlier holders who have been unlawfully or oppressively
deprived of their estates. It surveys and maps out the girdsid's
estate, fixes his miscellaneous dues, and defines his relation to his chief
by laying down the extent of his municipal and political obligations.
The term of the court's existence was fixed to expire in 1884; but as
at the close of 1883-84 there remained on the file 488 cases for
disposal, the chiefs have requested an extension of the term. The
court was originally established for three years; in 1876, by desire
of the chiefs, another five years were allowed to it; again, in 1881,
three years were added to its existence. In 1880-81, the court
decided 192 cases; 58 per cent, of them in favour of the girdsids
or claimants to the estates.

There is no general police in Kithiawar. The chiefs are bound by
stipulation to preserve order and indemnify loss through crime com-
mitted in their territory. Each State, however, may be said to have a
police of its own more or less organized. In 1882-83, the States main-
tained a force in the aggregate of 5819 foot and 1022 mounted men,
at a cost for the year of £"83,129. In that year 11,639 offences were
reported, and 12,836 persons were arrested, of whom 6641 were con-
victed and 5272 acquitted. Conviction is generally sought to be
secured through the agency of an informer. The daily average of
prisoners in Rajkot jail was 76. At the present time life and property
are as safe in Kathiawar as in the Districts of British India.

Communications. — The Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway, named after the
States by which it was constructed, is situated wholly within Kathiawar,
and is 193 miles in length: gross earnings for 1882-83, £"87,680;
net earnings, ,£35,460, representing a profit of 3J per cent, on the
original capital of £"885,000. The following stations are between

KA THIA WAR A GENC Y. 95

Bhaunagar and Wadhwan, the termini of the line : Ghadechi, Vartej,
Sihore, Songad, Sanashra, Dhola (Junction), Ujalvar, Ningala, Botad,
Kundi, Rampur, Chuda, and Limbdi. A branch line runs from Dhola
to Dhoraji, 121 miles, with 10 intermediate stations. Several new
lines of railway are in contemplation, the most important being from
Wadhwan to Rajkot and Navanagar, Jetpur to Junagarh and Verawal,
Dhoraji to Upleta and Katiyana, Chitral to Amreli, and Surgad to
Palitana.

The main roads of Kathiawar converge on Rajkot, the residence of
the Agent. New roads are built out of an annual grant of ^63 15,
collected from the chiefs. On works of public improvement, the
different States expended ,£245,000 during 1882-83.

Education has made rapid strides of late years. In 1858, there
were 29 schools and 1909 students, which in 1881 had grown to 599
schools with 33,000 scholars ; while at the Rajkumar College (with, in
1882, 35 pupils), and 3 high schools, the advantages of a liberal educa-
tion are enjoyed by many of the chiefs during their minority. The
amount spent by the chiefs on education during the year 1882-83,
exclusive of the cost of the Rajkumar College and girdsid school, was
^23,100. The total number of post-offices in the Province in 1882
was 132; and all the larger villages are supplied with letter-boxes.
83,401 persons were vaccinated in 1882.

Agriculture, Commerce, Trade, etc. — The Kathiawar region is a wealthy
one. The land, though not of extraordinary richness, is generally of fair
quality and is amply watered. The cotton annually exported supplies
one-sixth cf the total amount of cotton shipped from Bombay to
foreign countries, and a large import of bullion or grain is yearly
received by Kathiawar as part of the price. The total exports in
1882-83 were valued at ^3,71 1,230, and the total imports at ^2,179,090.
The export of cotton alone was more than ^3,000,000 in value, and had
doubled since 1880. The imports of grain vary according to the
season. The import of grain in 1882-83 was valued at ^285,000;
metals, timber, and sugar show an increase in the import. It is found
that the railway has absorbed a great portion of the export trade from
the smaller ports on the coast-line, and concentrated it at Wadhwan in
the north-east, and Bhaunagar in the south-east of the Province, while
the import trade on the contrary is drawn towards the minor ports. The
tribute in 1882, ^112,130, is but 3 per cent, on the value of the exports.
The numerous petty courts and their people form a large body
of rich resident landlords, spending their rents on their estates;
and the ministers, officials, and landholders, of various station and
wealth, contribute to impart a brisk vitality to the progress and general
wellbeing of the country. A large proportion of the public business of
Kathiawar is conducted by, and at the cost of, the native Darbars ; so

96 KA THIA WAR A GENCY.

that in a Province with nearly the area of Oudh and the population of
Ceylon, a Political Agent and 4 Assistants form the administrative staff.
The largest rivers are in course of being bridged; in the principal towns
municipal buildings and hospitals have been erected, tanks have been
excavated, and wells dug. The four chief States are Dhrangadra,
Navanagar, Junagarh, and Bhaunagar. Bhaunagar has taken the
lead in the material development of her resources, and is the first
State in India which constructed a railway at her own expense and
risk. The revenue survey in the State is now completed ; private
enterprise has established 5 steam cotton-press factories, and there
is a prosperous trade in timber. Native States in Kathiawar of
secondary importance are Morvi, Porbandar (deriving importance
from its fine seaport of the same name), Wadhwan, Limbdi, Gondal,
Jhinjuwara, and Wankaner. The chiefs of Morvi, Wadhwan, and
Gondal have experienced the benefits of a European tour.

The principal products of the country are cotton, bdjra, and jodr,
and in some parts sugar-cane, turmeric, and indigo, which latter
product might be more largely cultivated with advantage. The chief
handicrafts are gold and silver thread-making, weaving of silk and
brocades, the making of red powders, of fragrant oils, of perfumed
sticks and powder, of rose and other essences, inlaying ivory, and
carving sandal-wood. Horses, formerly of excellent repute, are bred
in large quantities, and sheep are plentiful in some parts, their wool
forming, together with cotton and grain, the chief articles of export.
The principal imports are cotton manufactures, metals, and sugar. Iron
is found in many parts of Barda and Halal. At Bakharla (a village
belonging to the Porbandar State) there are many iron-mines, but these
have been abandoned on account of want of fuel for smelting the ore.

The principal wild animals include the lion (found in the Gir range),
leopard, hunting cheetah, antelope, hog, hyaena, wolf, jackal, wild cat,
fox, porcupine, and smaller vermin.

The lion formerly abounded all over the Kathiawar peninsula and
Gujarat ; it even spread to Central India. It is now found only in the Gir
hill forest. Compared with the African lion, its mane is shorter, and its
colour lighter. The Gujarat lion is about the same size as the tiger,
somewhat heavier in bulk, but an inch or two shorter. He is as strong,
if not stronger than the tiger. He seeks the loneliest spot for his
mid-day sleep, and when disturbed, does not slink away like the
tiger, but walks or runs upright without any attempt to hide himself.
He avoids man more than either the tiger or the leopard, and never
lives near a village or hamlet. The lion is fond of his kind, and
moves in family parties, three generations being sometimes found in
one party. There are probably not more than a dozen lions left in the
Gir forest. These are strictly preserved.

KA THIR UR—KA THMA ND U. 9 7

The year 18 14-15 was called the 'Rat Year,' from the famine
produced by the ravages of this animal. Captain Le Grand Jacob
remarked of this pest : ' They appear suddenly in dense masses past all
counting, as if springing from the earth, about the harvest season.
Nothing can stop them — fires, ditches, and water have been tried in
vain ; they move along, a mighty host, eating up all that comes in their
way. All at once they vanish as if by magic, and for years not one is
to be seen ; they are about double the size of a common rat, and are of
a reddish sandy colour.'

Kathiawar has many notable antiquities, which have been fully
described by Mr. James Burgess, Archaeological Reporter to the Govern-
ment of Bombay, in his illustrated report. Besides the famous inscrip-
tion of Asoka already referred to, there are a number of rock-cut
Buddhist caves and temples at Junagarh, mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang
in the seventh century, and some fine Jain temples on Mount Girnar
and Palitana. At Ghumli, a former capital of the Jethwas, there are
extensive ruins.

The principal towns are Nawanagar, Bhaunagar, Junagarh, Rajkot
(the head-quarters of the Political Agent), Porbandar, and Mangrol.
The last two, as well as Verawal, are thriving seaports, with which, as
well as anchorages, Kathiawar appears to be well provided, a list of no
less than 60 having been compiled by the Superintendent of Indian
Marine Surveys. There are 14 lights along the coast.

Kathinir. — Town in Kotayam taluk or Sub-division of Malabar
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. n° 58' 40" n., long. 750 31' 54" e.
Population (1871) 3954; (1881)8177, namely, 3945 males and 4232
females; number of houses, 1251. Hindus numbered 7124; Muham-
madans, 1044 ; and Christians, 9. The head-quarters of the British
troops during the Kotiote rebellion (1796-1805).

Kathiwara— Guaranteed Thakurate or petty chiefship under the
Bhopawar or Bhil (Bheel) Agency, Central India. This small inde-
pendent chiefship is situated on the western frontier of the Central
India Agency, bordering Rewa Kantha, under the Presidency of
Bombay. It is bounded on the north by Ratanmal ; on the east
and south by Ali Rajpur ; and on the west by Chhota Udaipur. The
population, consisting of Bhils and Bhilalas, numbers about 500. Little
or no grain is grown, and the Bhils live by hunting, or by what they
purchase from Ali Rajpur with their wages as wood-cutters. The
original possessors of this country were Bhils ; but the ancestors of the
present Hindu chief, on being driven from Rajputana and Malwa,
took refuge in these hills, and eventually established their power over
the wild and ignorant inhabitants. The present (1883) chief is Thakur
Bahadur Singh. Revenue, about .£120.

Kathmandli.— Capital of Nepal State.— See Khatmandu.

vol. viii. G

98 KATHNA—KATIARI.

Kathna.— River ; rising in the Moti-ka-Tal in Shahjahanpur District,
North-Western Provinces (lat. 280 20' n., long. 8o° 21' e.), and flowing
in a south-easterly direction, it forms for some distance the boundary
between Shahjahanpur and Kheri Districts; it afterwards enters Oudh,
and, continuing its course south-east through Kheri and Sftapur Dis-
tricts, empties itself into the left bank of the Gumti in the latter
District in lat. 270 20' n., long. 8o° 27' e. Not navigable, but might
probably be made so for small boats.

Kathrota.— Petty State in the Sorath division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency. Area, 1 square mile ; consists of 1 village, with 1 proprietor.
Estimated revenue in 1881, ^100 ; tribute of ^5, 4s. is paid to the
Gaekwar of Baroda. Kathrota village is about 1 5 miles west of Laka-
padar. Population (1872) 244 ; (1881) 59.

Katiari. — Pargana in Bilgram ta/isi/, Hardoi District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Pali pargana; on the east by Barwan and
Sandi pargana s; on the south and south-west by Bhojpur and Taligram
pargands of Farukhabad District, North-Western Provinces ; and on the
west by Khakhatmau and Paramnagar pargands of Farukhabad, from
which it is separated by the Ganges. Originally occupied by Thatheras,
Baihar Ahirs, and Dhanuks contemporaneously, and the ruined sites
of their forts and villages are visible in all directions. The displace-
ment of these early tribes was effected by conquest by Sombansis from
Sandi, under Kanh Randhir Singh; by Bachhils from Shahjahanpur,
under Udai and Tas ; and by Katiars from near Gwalior, under Rai Deo
Datt, ancestor in the thirteenth generation of the present head of the
Katiar clan, Raja Tilak Singh, son of the late Sir Hardeo Baksh. These
families still own the pargana, with the exception of two or three
villages.

Katiari is a fertile alluvial tract, intersected by streams and channels
which in flood-time connect the Ganges and Ramganga rivers. Its
fertility is due to the nearness of water to the surface, and to the
deposit of rich loam {see) brought down by the rivers, which in heavy
floods often varies from 6 inches to 2 feet in thickness. In such a
season, the extraordinary spring crops more than compensate for the
loss of the autumn crops drowned by the inundation. Area, 90 square
miles, of which 61 square miles, or 67-45 per cent, are cultivated. The
uncultivable area is returned at less than 1 1 per cent, of the whole.
Government land revenue, ^5880 ; average incidence, 3s. o|d. per
acre of cultivated area, or 2s. of-d. per acre of total area. Staple
products, wheat and barley, which occupy nearly half of the cultivated
area ; and barley and jodr, which take up another third. Of the 80
villages comprising the pargana, 58 J are owned by Katiar Rajputs,
12 by Sombansis, 5 by Bachils, 2 J by Bais, and 1 each by Gaurs and
Brahmans. Tenures are as follow: — Tdlukddri, 19 villages (the estate

KA TIG OR A— K A TOL.

99

of Raja Tilak Singh); imperfect pattiddri, 57; and zam'mddri, 4.
Population (1869) 35,164; (1881) 36,173, namely, males 20,099, and
females 16,074. Predominant castes — Brahmans, Rajputs, Chamars,
Kahars, Ahirs, Muraos. Government schools in 5 villages.

Katigora. — Village in the west of Cachar District, Assam ; on the
right or north bank of the Barak river, near its bifurcation into the
Surma and Kusiara branches. Lat. 240 53' n., long. 920 38' e. The
Government offices at Katigora consists of a tahsil, thdnd, coolie depot,
and hospital. There is also a forest toll and registering office at Sialtek,
about a mile from the village. On the opposite bank of the Barak, in
Sylhet District, is the old ruined fort of Badarpur, the site of which has
been recently cleared of jungle.

Katipara. — Village in Khulna District, Bengal; situated on the
banks of the Kabadak, 10 miles north of Chandkhali. Lat. 220 46' n.,
long. 890 54' e. This was one of the first spots of land reclaimed in
the Sundarbans. It contains a settlement of the Kdyasth or writer
caste ; the rest of the inhabitants are engaged in cultivation, either in
the neighbourhood or in the newer Sundarban clearings farther south.

Katjuri— River of Cuttack District, Orissa. A deltaic distributary
of the Mahanadi, which branches off from the main stream soon after
it enters Cuttack District. The Katjuri itself immediately divides into
two, of which the southern branch, under the name of the Koyaldiai,
passes into Puri District. The northern branch, which retains the
name of the Katjuri, throws off the Surua, which after a few miles
rejoins the parent stream. Lower down, the Katjuri throws off two
other minor distributaries, the Large and Little Devi, which unite after
a southerly course of about 20 miles, and fall into the Bay of Bengal in
Puri District under the name of the Devi. A cross stream connects
the Mahanadi with the Katjuri, which latter river ultimately falls into
the Bay of Bengal under the name of the Jotdar.

Katna.— River of Bhagalpur District, Bengal ; formed by the united
waters of the Talaba, Parwan, and Loran. It is a considerable stream,
navigable by boats of about 15 tons burden; and after a course of
about 12 miles, falls into the Tiljuga in Monghyr District, in lat. 250
34' n., long. 86° 46' 30" e.

KatOghan. — Village in Khaga tahsil, Fatehpur District, North-
western Provinces ; situated on the Grand Trunk Road, about 24 miles
from Fatehpur town and 4 from Khaga, in lat. 250 45' IO" N-> lon&-
8i°ii' 32" e. Population (1881) 2896, the prevailing class being
Lodhas. Encamping ground, police station, and large sardi (native inn).
Katol— North-western tahsil or revenue Sub-division in Nag pur
District, Central Provinces ; situated between lat. 210 9' and 210 31' n.,
and between long. 780 17' and 790 6' e. Area, 797 square miles, with
362 towns and villages; number of houses, 31, 49°- Population (1S72)

ioo KATOL TOWN—KATRA.

140,201 ; (1881) 147,336, namely, males 73>9°4> ar>d females 73,432 I
average density, 185 persons per square mile. The total adult agri-
culturists (male and female) numbered 209,568, or 38-9 per cent, of
the whole, the average area of cultivated and cultivable land being
6 acres for each. Of the total area of the tahsil (797 square miles),
73 square miles are held revenue free; while 724 square miles are
assessed for Government revenue, of which 447 square miles are culti-
vated, and 52 square miles are available for cultivation, the remainder
being uncultivable waste. Total amount of Government revenue,
including cesses and rates levied on land, ^2450, or an average of
is. 8jd. per cultivated acre ; amount of rent, including cesses, paid by
the cultivators, ,£30,618, or an average of 2s. i|-d. per cultivated acre.
The tahsil contains 3 civil and 2 criminal courts, with 12 police stations,
and a regular police force of 94 officers and men.

Katol. — Town in Nagpur District, Central Provinces, and head-
quarters of Katol tahsil ; built on an irregular site upon the left bank
of the Jam, 40 miles from Nagpur city. Lat. 210 16' 30" n., long. 780
38' e. The town contains an ancient temple to Bhawani, built, without
mortar, of layers of sandstone brought from a distance, and grotesquely
carved. A ruined fort overhangs the river. Population (1881) 4!37>
namely, Hindus, 3798; Muhammadans, 220; Jains, 42; and tribes
professing aboriginal faiths, 77. School building and market-place.

Katoria. — Petty State of the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency. Area, 1 square mile ; consisting of 1 village, with 2
separate shareholders. Estimated revenue, ^200; tribute of ^19, 6s.
is payable to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and £2, 16s. to the Nawab of
Junagarh. Katoria village is about 6 miles from Sihor, and 1 \ miles
from Songarh station on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Contains many
mango orchards. Population (1872) 394; (1881) 309.

KatOSan. — Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay
Presidency. Population (1872) 4550; estimated revenue, ^2500;
tribute of ^54, 8s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. Number of
villages in the State, 29; area under tillage, 7797 acres. The State lies
north of the Viramgam Sub-division of Ahmadabad. The chief is a
Miikwana Koli, and holds the title of Thakur. He has no sanad or
patent authorizing adoption.

Katra. — Village in Allahabad District, North- Western Provinces ;
situated on a pass in the lower Kaimur range, on the metalled road
between Mirzapur and Rewa, distant from the former 63 miles south-
east. Lat. 240 51' n., long. 820 11' e. The road from Mirzapur rises
gradually by successive terraces, and follows the course of the little
river Sioti. The summit of the pass has an elevation of 12 19 feet
above sea-level.

Katra (or Akbarpur). — Town and head-quarters of a police circle

KATRA MEDNIGANJ—KATWA. 101

(thdnd) in Muzaffarpur District, Bengal ; situated on the west bank of
the Lakhandai river. Population (1872), Hindus, 1906; Muham-
madans, 302 ; total, 2208. Not separately returned in the Census
of 1 88 1. The police station is built on the ruins of an old mud fort
west of the village.

Katra Medniganj. — Town in Partabgarh (Pratapgarh) District,
Oudh; situated 2 miles from the Sdi river, and 4 from Bela town.
Population (1869) 2762; (1881) 2069, namely, Hindus, 1312, and
Muhammadans, 757. The village contains an immense masonry tank,
the largest in Oudh ; but it is useless, having been allowed to fall out
of repair. Seven Hindu and two Jain temples ; also five mosques.
Market; annual fair in the month of Kuar, attended by about 12,000
persons.

Kattywar. — Group of Native States, forming the larger part of the
peninsula of Gujarat (Guzerat) Province, Bombay Presidency. — See
Kathiawar.

Katua. — River in Bhagalpur District, Bengal. — See Parwan.

Katiimbar. — Tahsil or Sub-division of the southern division of
the Native State of Alwar (Ulwur), Rajputana. Area, 122 square miles.
Population (1881) 34,349. Revenue, ^14,548. There are 74 villages,
14 of them rent-free. Formerly a pargand or District under Jai Singh
(Siwai) of Jaipur (Jeypore). The Marathas retained the place till 1803.
The zaminddrs of this tahsil are remarkable for their agricultural
industry. No local trade of importance.

Katiimbar.— Town in Alwar (Ulwur) State, Rajputana; 60 miles
west of Agra, and 95 south of Delhi. Population (1881) 3234. Lat.
270 20' n., long. 770 3' e. Head-quarters of the Katiimbar tahsil.
Thornton describes it as a small town and fort, bombarded and laid in
ruins by the Maratha troops on the 29th October 1803, in their retreat
before Lord Lake's army. The British reached Katiimbar two days
afterwards, but found it had been abandoned that morning. The
pursuit was continued, the Marathas were overtaken the next day, and
totally defeated at Laswari. The town has been in existence nearly
800 years.

Katwa (Cutwa).— Sub-division of Bardwan District, Bengal; situated
between lat. 230 28' and 230 50' 15" n., and long. 870 49' and 88° 19'
30" e. Area, 352 square miles, with 528 villages or towns, and 50,996
houses. Population (1872) 234,753; (1881) 230,209, showing a
decrease of 4544 in nine years. Classified according to religion, there
were, in 1881— Hindus, 183,036, or 79-5 percent.; Muhammadans,
47,159, or 2o-o per cent. ; and Christians, 14; total, 230,209, namely,
108,830 males and 121,379 females. Proportion of males, 47*3 per
cent.; density of population, 654 persons per square mile; number of
villages, 1*50 per square mile; persons per village, 435; houses per

102 KATWA TOWN—KATYAR.

square mile, 163; persons per house, 4*5. This Sub-division, which
was constituted in January 1847, comprises the three police circles
(thdnds) of Katwa, Ketugram, and Mangalkot. In 1883 it contained
1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; with a regular police force numbering
66 men, and a village police of 2207 men.

Katwa {Cutwa). — Town, municipality, and head-quarters of Katwa
Sub-division, and of a police circle (thana) in Bardwan District, Bengal ;
situated at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Ajai rivers. Lat. 230
38' 55" n., long. 88° 10' 40" e. Population (1872) 7963 ; (1881) 6820,
namely, Hindus, 5723; Muhammadans, 1085; and 'others,' 12. Area
of town site, 2730 acres. The municipality, including surrounding
villages, had a population in 1881 of 8620. Municipal income in
1882-83, ^575 ; average incidence of taxation, is. 2jd. per head.
Besides the usual Government courts and buildings, Katwa contains
an aided English school and a charitable dispensary. It is also one of
the principal seats of District trade, and the residence of many wealthy
native merchants.

Now a purely commercial town, Katwa was formerly considered
the key to Murshidabad. In the early part of the iSth century, the
neighbourhood suffered much from the Marathas, whose yearly raids
depopulated the villages along the banks of the river, and converted
the country into jangle. The old fort of Katwa, of which scarcely
a vestige now remains, was situated on a tongue of land at the
confluence of the Ajai and Bhagirathi, and is noted as the scene of
the defeat of the Marathas by All Vardi Khan. It was a mud building,
half a mile in circumference, and mounted 14 guns. Katwa is con-
sidered sacred by the Vaishnavs, as having been the place where their
apostle, Chaitanya, took upon himself the life of an ascetic.

A scheme for the construction of a light railway from Bardwan to
Katwa by a private syndicate has been approved by Government, and
the necessary steps have been taken for starting the undertaking.
Up to the end of the year 1883-84, however, the concessionaires had
not succeeded in raising the necessary capital, and as late as January
1885 no commencement had been made of the work.

Katyar— Village in Guni taluk of Tando Sub-division, Haidarabad
(Hyderabad) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated eleven miles
west of Tando Muhammad Khan, and twenty miles from Haidarabad
city. The head-quarters of a tappaddr. Population (1881) under 2000.
The Musalmans are chiefly landed proprietors, cultivators, weavers,
dyers, and saddle-cloth makers. The Hindus are traders, goldsmiths,
and cultivators. Trade and manufactures unimportant, consisting
mainly of cloth, grain, ghi, mats, and saddle-cloths. Good staging
bungalow (travellers' rest-house). The village dates from the time of
the Kalhora dynasty.

KA UNDHA—KA URIYA. 103

Kaundha. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated on the Shah-
abad road, 5 miles north-west of Hardoi town. An agricultural
village, inhabited chiefly by Chamar Gaurs, whose ancestors dis-
possessed the Thatheras in the latter days of the Kanauj kingdom.
These Gaurs have always had a bad reputation for turbulence and
refractoriness. On one occasion, during the native government, their
village was burned in retaliation for their having murdered the son of
a Musalman chakldddr. Even at the present day, their one redeeming
quality is said to be that they are not addicted to female infanticide.
Population (1869) 2186; (1881) 1737. Bi-weekly market. Govern-
ment school.

Kauniya\ — Village and station on the Northern Bengal State Rail-
way, in Rangpur District, Bengal ; situated on the right bank of the
Tfsta river. Considerable exports of jute and tobacco.

Kauriala (also called Karndli). — River, rising in Tibet, not far from
one of the sources of the Sutlej (Satlaj), in lat. 300 43' n., and long. 8o°
47' e. After leaving Tibet through the Takla Khar, or Yari Pass, it
flows through Nepal generally in a south - easterly direction till it
emerges from the lower range of the Himalayas, through a deep, pic-
turesque gorge, known as the Shisha Pani, ' crystal waters.' The stream
here is about 300 yards broad and of great depth, with a slow current,
closely shut in by precipitous mountains, 2500 feet high. A little
below Shisha Pani, the channel widens, with a steeper and rockier
descent, causing magnificent rapids nearly half a mile broad. Lower
down, the river divides into two, the western branch retaining the
name of Kauriala, the eastern being called the Girwa. A few years
ago, the latter was a mere stream, but its volume has gradually in-
creased till now it is considerably larger than the Kauriala. They are
both rapid rivers, with pebbly beds, and fords which an elephant can
generally cross without difficulty. Eighteen miles from its point of
exit from the hills, it enters British territory at the point where it
receives the Mohan ; and marks the boundary between the Oudh Dis-
tricts of Kheri and Bahraich. In its course it receives as tributaries
on the west bank its former offshoot, the Girwa ; and on the east, the
Chauka and Sarda, or Sarju. From the point of confluence with the
latter stream, the united rivers become the Gogra ; and under this
name it ultimately falls into the Ganges on its left bank, in lat. 25°
46' n., long. 840 40' e., a little above Dinapore. The Kauriala is
navigable by large boats of about 1 7 tons burden beyond the limits of
British territory. The principal river trade is the export of grain, and
of timber, ginger, pepper, wax, g/11, and catechu from Nepal. Gold-
washing is carried on by a caste called after their occupation Sonahis.
Fish are abundant.

Kauriya.— Zaminddri estate in Raipur tahsil, Raipur District, Central

io4 KA URIYA—KA VALE-DURGA.

Provinces ; about 80 miles east of Raipur town, on the Sambalpur
road. Area (188 1 ), 113 square miles ; number of villages, 113; houses,
3199. Population, 11,000, namely, males 5926, and females 5074;
average density of population, 22*4 persons per square mile. The
land is poor and mostly waste, and the quit-rent nominal. The chief
is a Gond.

Kauriya. — Large agricultural village in Gadawara tahsil, Narsingh-
pur District, Central Provinces ; on the high - road from Jabalpur
(Jubbulpore) to Bombay, about 3 miles east of Gadawara. Lat. 220
55' 3°" N-> l°ng- 78° 33' e. Important for the large cotton sales
transacted in January and February. The manufactures are insigni-
ficant. Population (1877) 3167 ; (1881) 3295, namely, Hindus, 2978;
Muhammadans, 126; Jains, 6; persons professing aboriginal religions,
185. The inhabitants are chiefly agriculturists. The Raja of Gangai
is the superior proprietor of Kauriya, which has a good town school.

Kavai. — Town in Chirakkal taluk, Malabar District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. io° 56' n., long. 750 58' e. Population (1881) 6605 ;
number of houses, 999. The north frontier town of Malabar, situated
on an island a few miles from Mount Delly. There is a ruined French
redoubt here.

Kavale-durga. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Shimoga District, Mysore
State. Area, about 276 square miles, with 1022 villages and towns.
Population (1881) 56,561, namely, 31,221 males and 25,340 females.
Hindus numbered 54,890; Muhammadans, 1479; and Christians,
192.

The most southern Sub-division of the District. The Tunga river
enters it from the south, and flows through it from west to east, receiving
a number of minor tributaries, all of which are used for irrigation,
though not formed into large tanks, or diverted by anicuts. The
tract is hilly, especially the west, and is covered with splendid forest.
The chief heights are Kavale-durga, Kabbinada-gudda, and Kundada-
gudda, the last being a conspicuous point. From Kabbinada-gudda,
ironstone of a superior quality is obtained, the iron made from which
the natives hold to be as good as steel. The principal productions
are areca-nut, pepper, cardamoms, rice, and coffee. Sugar-cane is also
grown to a small extent. Coffee was introduced in 1847, and the
cultivation has gradually increased. The only manufactures are
stone jugs at Kavale-durga town, and silver cups at Tirtha-halli. The
cultivated area is estimated at about 162 square miles; cultivable,
52 square miles; and uncultivable, 62 square miles. The revenue is
returned at ,£43,767. In 1884, the Sub-division contained 1 criminal
court, 9 police circles {thdn&s), and a regular police force of 52 men.

Kavale-durga (' Guarding Hill-fort'). — Hill in Shimoga District,
Mysore State ; crowned by ruined fortifications, 3058 feet above the

KA VALI—KA VERIPAK. 105

sea. Lat. 13° 43' 53" n., long. 750 9' 20" e. By local tradition it is
identified with the Kamyakavana of the Mahdbhdrata. Subsequently
it was called Bhuvana-giri, and was a stronghold of the Ikkeri chiefs.
The old town, formerly head-quarters of the taluk of the same name,
lies to the west of the hill.

Kavali. — Taluk or Sub-division of Nellore District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 1 40 40' to 1 50 5' N., long. 790 40' to 8o° 10' e. Area, 521
square miles. Population (1881) 72,913, namely, 36,565 males and
36,348 females, occupying 13,837 houses, in 79 villages. Number
of persons per square mile, 140 nearly. Hindus numbered 69,680 ;
Muhammadans, 3147; and Christians, 86. Land revenue, ,£i7>589-
The taluk contains the following places with over two but under five
thousand inhabitants :— Kavali (4927, dwelling in 909 houses) ; Chinna
Annalooryepinapi (4108, in 754 houses) ; Brahma-nakraka (3284, in
705 houses); Tummalapenta (2963, in 591 houses); Zaladanki (2874,
in 585 houses); and Mangamur (21 14, in 486 houses). Water-
supply uncertain. Indigo and rice are the staples. Weaving carried
on to a considerable extent. There were in 1883 within the taluk 1
civil and 2 criminal courts ; police stations, 8 ; regular police, 63 men.^
Kavali.— Town in Nellore District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 14°
55' n., long. 8o° 3' E. ; 142 miles from Madras. Population (1881)
4927, namely, 2500 males and 2427 females; number of houses,
909. Hindus numbered 4510; Muhammadans, 408; and Christians, 9.
Police lines ; school ; travellers' bungalow.

Kavandappadi (Koundapaddi). — Town in Bhawani taluk or Sub-
division, Coimbatore, Madras Presidency. Lat. n° 23' n., long. 770
42' e. Population ( 1 871) 6898; (1881) 4286, of whom all but five
are Hindus; number of houses, 1012.

Kaveri. — River of Madras. —See Cauvery.

Kaveripak.— Town in Walajah taluk or Sub-division, North Arcot
District, Madras Presidency; 10 miles east of Arcot. Lat. 120 54' n.,
long. 790 30' e. Population (1871) 5711 ; (1881) 5478, namely, 2680
males and 2798 females, occupying 863 houses. Hindus numbered
5248; and Muhammadans, 230. Notable for its irrigation tank, one
of the finest in Southern India, which supplies water to about 6000
acres of rice land in 23 villages, and produces an average annual
revenue of ^3300. The tank is enclosed by a band or embank-
ment four miles long. It is fed by a channel from the Palar, and
in its surplus weir are the head -waters of the Cortelliar, which
supplies Madras city with drinking water. The nominal area of
cultivable land under this tank is about 40,000 acres, but deposits
of silt have greatly impaired its efficiency. Wild duck and other water-
fowl are abundant. Clive here gained a complete victory over the
French in 1752. The battle was fought in the moonlight. The fort

1 06 KA VERIPA TAM—KA WARD HA.

of Kaveripak, close to the town, was held by French and English in
turn during the wars of the Karnatic. The name of the town means
' a dam over the Kaveri ' (Cauvery).

Kaveripatam {Cauveripatam). — Town in Krishnagiri fd/uk, Salem
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 120 25' n., long. 7 8° 16' e. Popu-
lation (1871) 4410 ; (1881) 3886, namely, 1846 males and 2040 females;
number of houses, 735. Hindus numbered 3581 ; and Muhammadans,
305. An irregularly built place on the right bank of the Pennar, with
a considerable trade in oil-seeds, grain, woven goods, and cattle. The
fort, which commands the pass of Palakod, was taken by the English
in 1767, and almost immediately recaptured by Haidar All, who
strengthened the works, and used them as a support in the following
campaign, until his withdrawal above the Ghats, when Colonel Wood
again captured the place. In 1790, Kaveripatam was Colonel Maxwell's
head-quarters before advancing against Tipii Sultan.

Kaveripuram. — Town in Bhawani taluk or Sub-division, Coim-
batore District, Madras Presidency. Lat. n° 55' n., long. 770 47' e.
Population (187 1) 6532 ; (1881) 441 1; number of houses, 849. Hindus
numbered 3899; Christians, 460; and Muhammadans, 52. Formerly
a fort of some importance, as it stands at the mouth of one of the
passes from Mysore, and was an outpost of Tirumala Nayak of Madura,
against the inroads of the Kartars. In 1768 it was captured by Colonel
Wood ; the following year, after a most spirited defence by Captain
Faisan, it was retaken by Haidar Ali. The fort and pass were points
of strategic importance throughout the Mysore wars, the pass being
much used for convoys in the final struggle.

Kavite. — Town in Berhampur taluk or Sub-division, Ganjam
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 190 35' 30" n., long. 840 35' e.
Population (1S71) 4267; (1881) 4574, namely, 2227 males and 2347
females, occupying 841 houses. All but two were Hindus.

Kawardha. — Petty State attached to Bilaspur District, Central Pro-
vinces ; situated between lat. 210 51' and 220 29' n., and between long.
8i° 3' and 8i° 40' e. Area (1881), 887 square miles; number of
towns or villages, 389 ; houses, 28,369. Population (1872) 75,462 ;
(1881) 86,362, namely, males 42,706, and females 43,656 ; average
density of population, 97 persons per square mile.

The western part consists of a network of hills known as the Chilpi
range, along the base of which spreads the valuable portion of the
estate. Much of the soil is excellent, and produces fine crops of
cotton. Rice, wheat, and oil-seeds are also grown ; and the forest
produce, consisting of lac, resin, gum, and mahud flowers, is of some
value. Many of the villages are surrounded by unbroken sheets of
cultivation, and contain comfortable and thriving communities. Esti-
mated gross annual revenue, ^6800; tribute of ^1600 is payable to

KA WARDHA—KA YAL.

107

the British Government. Owing to complaints which had been made
for several years of maladministration and oppression by the chief,
Kawardha State is now (1884) temporarily under direct Government
administration.

Kawardha. — Chief town of the Kawardha chiefship, Bilaspur
District, Central Provinces, situated at the foot of the Saletekri range,
60 miles west of Bilaspur town. Lat. 220 i' n., long. 8i° 15' e.
Population (1872)6590; (1881) 5685, namely Hindus, 413-1; Kabir-
panthis, 348; Satnamis, 330; Muhammadans, 456; aboriginal reli-
gions, 420. A considerable trade takes place here in cotton and
lac. The houses are mostly tiled, a rare feature in Chhattisgarh, and
here and there stand prominently forward some imposing structures
of masonry. The most important of these is the residence of the
chief, containing several double-storied blocks, from the roof of which
the town has a good appearance. The high priest of the Kabirpanthi
sect also lives here, and his presence attracts devotees from all parts of
India.

Kaw-ka-dwiit. — Village in the Bilin (Bhileng) Kyaik-hto township,
Shwe-gyin District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma. The village
is on the high-road from Bilin to Kyaik-hto, where it crosses the Thai-
hpyu river. Population (1877) 1333; (1881) 1443, chiefly agriculturists
and fishermen ; number of houses, 233. Local revenue, ^26. Police
station ; cattle market in the dry season twice a week.

Kaw-ka-reit. — Head-quarters of the Haung - tharaw township,
Amherst District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma. A straggling
village on both banks of a small stream of the same name, here
spanned by a wooden bridge. Population (1876) 2135; (1881) 2146.
Weekly cattle market.

Kayal (the Coil of Marco Polo). — Ancient port in Tenkarai
Sub-division, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Known as Kail
or Koil, it was long a famous coast town. Marco Polo landed
here, and describes it as belonging to Ashar, the eldest of five
brothers who reigned in the Maabar or Malabar and Tinnevelli
regions. Rashid-ud-din, a contemporary of Polo, also mentions it as
a Malabar port. Abdurrazak names it as ' a place situated opposite
the island of Serendib, otherwise called Ceylon.' Nicholas Conti calls
it Cahila, the site of a pearl fishery. Vasco da Gama, writing the word
Caell, notices that with a Kafir (Christian) people, it had a Muham-
madan king. Bishop Caldwell, deriving the name from Kayal, a
lagoon or backwater, places Marco Polo's Call on the Tamraparni river,
half-way between Korkai village and the sea, at an insignificant place
now called Old Kayal (Palaya Kayal). Korkai he identifies with the
' Kolkoi emporium ' of Ptolemy. Korkai, now five miles inland, was
originally on the coast. As the silt accumulated in the sea near the

108 KA YALPATNAM—KAZIPARA.

mouth of the river, or as the line of the coast rose, or from both causes,
Korkai was found at length to be too far inland for the convenience of
a sea-borne trade. Kayal, the Cail of Marco Polo, rose in its stead on
the sea-shore, and attained to still greater dimensions. Kayal has in
its turn sunk to a petty village inhabited partly by Muhammadans and
partly by Roman Catholics. Population (1881) 944. For two or
three miles north of the present village of Kayal, and a mile and a half
inland as far as Maramangalam village, the whole plain is covered
with broken tiles, remnants of Arabian and other pottery and China
porcelain.

Kayalpatnam (or Coilpatani). — Town and port in Tenkarai taluk
or Sub-division, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 33'
30" n., and long. 780 10' e. j 18 miles south of Tuticorin. Population
(1871) 11,197; (1881) 11,806, namely, 4519 males and 7287 females.
Hindus numbered 4170; Muhammadans, 7445; and Christians, 191 ;
number of houses, 2792. The seaborne trade, which is carried on by
Labbays, is estimated at ^20,000, chiefly in pearls and precious
stones ; rice and cocoa-nuts from Ceylon ; timber and areca-nuts from
Travancore ; and palmyra jagari (crude sugar). Large salt manufac-
ture. The port was formerly of importance, but has now been super-
seded by Tuticorin. Kayalpatnam was supposed to have been probably
the ancient Cail of Marco Polo. But Bishop Caldwell's interesting
and conclusive investigations fix the site of Cail about 8 miles to the
north-west. — See Kayal.

Kayan (or Ken). — River of Central India. — See Ken.
Kayenkolam (Quilon). — Seaport on the backwater of the same
name, Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 53' 28" n., long.
76° 36' 59" e. ; containing about 3000 inhabitants. This old town was
formerly the capital of an independent State, Quilon ; and is near the
supposed site of the ancient Nel Kynda. In 829 a. d., the Syrian Church
was founded here. Captured by the Dutch in 1661. In 1745, the Raja
submitted to Travancore ; and fifteen years later, the State was finally
absorbed by its more powerful neighbour. — See Quilon.

Kazipara. —Village in the Barasat Sub-division, District of the
Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal ; situated about \\ mile from Barasat
town, and included within the Barasat municipality. Lat. 220 43' 45"
n., long. 88° 33' e. The site of a large annual fair held in December
or January, in honour of a famous Musalman saint, Pir Ekdil Sahib,
which is attended by Hindus as well as Muhammadans. About 300
acres of land are held by Muhammadan priests for the maintenance
of the mosque, and the due performance of religious services. An
account of the legend connected with the saint, and of the miracles
performed by him, is given in the Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. i.
pp. no, in. »

KEDAR GANGA— KEDGEREE. 109

Kedar Ganga. — Mountain torrent in Garhwal State, North-Western
Provinces. According to Thornton, it rises in a snow-clad rocky gorge,
in lat. 300 54' n., long. 790 5' e., and, after a rapid north-westerly
course of 10 or 12 miles, falls into the Bhagirathf, on the left side,
just below Gangotri, in lat. 300 59' N., long. 7 8° 59' e. It is subject
to sudden floods from the melting of the snow, and therefore varies
greatly in breadth and volume from time to time.

Kedar Kanta — Mountain peak in Garhwal State, North-Western
Provinces. Thornton states that this is the highest summit in the
Himalayan range which separates the head-waters of the Jumna and the
Tons. Lat. 310 1' n., long. 7 8° 14' e. The mountain slopes gently
upward on every side, so that the ascent can be easily performed from
any quarter. Beds of white saccharoid limestone form the base ; the
summit consists of micaceous schist. Forests of oak, pine, yew, horse
chestnut, and rhododendron clothe the shoulders ; but the greater
vegetation abruptly ceases at an elevation of 10,000 feet, leaving the
remainder of its height clad only with grasses and alpine plants.
Jacquemont found the summit free from snow at the end of May.
Kedar Kanta formed a station in the Great Trigonometrical Survey
of the Himalayas. Elevation above sea-level, 12,541 feet.

Kedarnath.— Famous temple and place of pilgrimage in Garhwal
District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 300 44' 10" n., long. 790 5'
50" e. ; lying immediately below the snowy peak of Mahapanth, at an
elevation of more than 11,000 feet above sea-level, and only second
in sanctity to the sister shrine of Badrinath. It marks the spot
where an incarnation of Sadashiu or Siva, after fighting his numerous
battles, attempted to dive into the earth, to escape his pursuers, the
Pandavas, but left his lower limbs above the surface in the shape of
a holy rock, the remaining portions of his body being distributed else-
where. Close to the temple rises a precipice known as Bhairab Jhamp,
where devotees formerly committed suicide by flinging themselves
from the summit ; but the British Government suppressed this practice
shortly after annexation. With Kedarnath are included the temples of
Kalpeswar, Madhya-rriaheshwar, Tunganath, and Rudranath, the whole
forming the Panch Kedar, a famous round of pilgrimage, containing
the scattered portions of Siva's body. The Rawal or chief priest is always
of the Jangam caste from Mysore. He does not officiate at Kedar
itself, but at the branch temples of Gapt, Kashi, and Ukimath, his
adopted son or chela taking the present shrine in charge. Immense
numbers of pilgrims annually visit Kedarnath.

Kedgeree {Khejiri).— Village in Midnapur District, Bengal ; situated
on the right bank of the Hugli river, near its mouth. Lat. 210 53' N.,
long. 88° e. Close by is an old English burial-ground, dating from
the times when vessels of any draught did not come up to Calcutta,

1 1 o KEDIWARI—KELADL

but anchored near the mouth of the river or at Diamond Harbour.
Kedgeree was formerly a telegraph station, which has now been removed
to the opposite side of the Hiigli.

Kediwari. — One of the mouths by which the Indus empties itself
into the sea. Lat. 240 2 n., long. 6f 21' E. Formerly the main
channel of the river, with a depth of from 16 to 18 feet, and navigable
by large boats and Government river steamers; but since 1845,
the Hajamro, which in that year was only suited for the passage of
small boats during floods, has gradually increased in volume, till it has
taken the place of the Kediwari, and is now the largest of the Indus
mouths.

Keitha (Kaiiha).— Village in Rath tahsil, Hamirpur District, North-
western Provinces ; lying on the road from Rath to Jaitpur, 56 miles
south-west of Hamirpur town. Lat. 250 31' n., long. 790 36' e. Popu-
lation (1881) 1309. Occupied from 1812 to 1828 as a cantonment for
British troops, but abandoned on account of the restoration of good
order in the Native States after the British occupation of Bundelkhand.
The English cemetery still exists, as well as the remains of a few
military buildings. Police outpost ; good encamping ground.

Kekri. — Municipal town in Ajmere, Rajputdna. Distant from
Ajmere city 50 miles. Population (1876) 4885 ; (1881) 61 19, namely,
3081 males and 3038 females. Hindus numbered 493 2 ; Muham-
madans, 913 ; and Jains, 274. Formerly a thriving commercial town,
but of late years declining in importance. Municipal income (1880-81),
£622; expenditure, ^496. Water-supply scarce and bad. Head-
quarters of a Deputy Magistrate. Post-office and dispensary.

Keladi. — Village in Sagar taluk, Shimoga District, Mysore State,
Southern India. Lat. 140 13' 10" n., long. 750 3' 41" e. Population
(1871) 1064; (1881) 1249. Cradle of a family of local chieftains or
palegars, who rose to power in the 16th century, and successively
removed their capital to Ikkeri and Bednur or Nagar. The principal
building now standing is a large, plain temple to Rameswara and Vira-
bhadra. While two brothers were ploughing a field, the ploughshare
of one of them struck against a buried caldron, which contained
treasure. Afraid to disturb it, he dreamt that it was desirable to offer
a human sacrifice. On hearing this, their two slaves volunteered to be
victims on condition that their memory should be preserved. Two
mounds are still pointed out as the scene of these human sacrifices.
"With the accession of the wealth thus obtained, the brothers raised a
small force and began to subdue the neighbouring villages. But they
were seized and sent to Vijayanagar, and there put into custody.
Hearing that a palegdr had rebelled, they sought permission to be
allowed to punish him. In this they succeeded ; and as a reward were
confirmed in the possession of the places they had captured.

KELAPUR—KELSI. 1 1 1

Kelapur. — Tdlukoi Wiin District, Berar. Area, 1079 square miles ;
contains 275 villages, with 14,737 occupied and 936 unoccupied
houses. Population (1881) 78,814, namely, 40,1 94 males and 38,620
females, or 73 persons per square mile. Villages per square mile, 0*25 ;
houses per square mile, 14-5; persons per house, 5-4. Hindus num-
bered 53,181; Muhammadans, 2402; Jains, 168; aboriginal tribes,
23,006; Sikhs, 56; and Christian, 1. Area occupied by cultivators,
248,941 acres ; number of persons engaged in agriculture, 55,060.
Total assessed area, 481 square miles; total assessment, ^7672 ; local
cesses paid on land, ^569. In 1884, the taluk contained 1 civil and
1 criminal court ; police stations (t/idnds), 8 ; regular police, 76 men ;
village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 82.

Keljhai*. — Village' in Wardha tahsil, Wardha District, Central Pro-
vinces ; about 16 miles north-east of Wardha" town, on the old Nagpur
and Bombay high-road. Lat. 200 51' n., long. 7 8° 51' e. Said to occupy
the site of the ancient city of Chakranagar, which was preyed upon by
a demon as related in the sacred book Bhdrat. In the gateway of
what remains of a well-built fort, stands a famous image of Ganapati,
in whose honour a yearly fair is held on the fifth day of Magna Suddha,
or about the end of January.

Kelod (Kelwad). — Town in Katol tahsil, Nagpur District, Central
Provinces ; at the foot of the Satpura Hills, about 7 miles north of
Saoner, on the main road to Chhindwara. Lat. 210 27' 30" n., long.
78° 55' e. Population (1881) 4481, namely, Hindus, 3994; Muham-
madans, 376 ; Jains, 86; aboriginal religions, 25. The chief industry
of the place consists of the manufacture of excellent brass and copper
vessels, which are exported as far as Amraoti and Raipur. Kelod also
produces rough glass ornaments. Several firms of Marwari money-
dealers have been long established, but their business is merely local.
The town has a school, police buildings, and a market-place. According
to tradition, Kelod was founded 14 generations ago by the ancestors of
the present mdlguzdr and desmukh, at the same time that a neighbouring
Gauli chief formed the extensive tank at Jatghar, near the town. The
fort, now almost in ruins, was probably built in the early Maratha period.

Kelsi.— Creek on the coast-line of Ratnagiri District, Bombay Presi-
dency ; lies midway between the ports of Bankot and Suvarndurg. The
entrance of the creek is narrow and difficult. Along the southern
bank are a long spit of sand and a salt-marsh. The creek is navig-
able by small canoes for a distance of ten miles. The waters abound
in fish.

Kelsi. — Port in Ratnagiri District, Bombay Presidency ; situated 64
miles north by west of Ratnagiri town, and 3 miles south-east of Bankot.
Betel-nut is the chief article of export. Lat. 17° 55' N.,' long. 730 6' e.
Average annual value of trade during the five years ending 1S81-82

1 1 2 KEL VA—KENCHENG UDDA.

returned as follows: — Imports, ^4704; exports, ^2572. A yearly
fair is held, attended by about 25,000 people. Population in 1872,
3291. Not returned separately in the Census Report of 1881. For
customs purposes Kelsi is grouped with two other ports, Bankot and
Harnai, under the Suvarndurg division.

Kelva (or Kelve, Kelve-Mahim). — Port in the Mahim Sub-division of
Thana District, Bombay Presidency. — See Mahim.

Ken (or Kayan ; the Kar?idvati of Sanskrit, and Kainas of the
Greeks). — River of the North-Western Provinces ; rises in the Native
State of Bhopal, on the north-western slopes of the Vindhya mountains,
and, flowing in a general northerly direction, past the town of Banda,
falls into the Jumna a few miles below Pailanf. Its source, in lat. 230
54' n., long. 8o° 13' e., has an elevation of 1700 feet above sea-level.
After a course of about 35 miles, it falls in a cataract over the brow of
the Bandair range, at Pipariya ghat. It then takes a westerly direction,
and, flowing parallel to the base of the mountains, receives the waters of
the Patna and the Sunar on its left bank. Traversing the Native State
of Panna, it enters Banda District at the village of Bilharka (lat. 25 ° 8'
n., long. 8o° 25' e.), and is there joined by its affluents, the Koil,
Gawain, and Chandrawal. After a total course of 230 miles, it falls
into the Jumna, on the right bank, near Chilla (lat. 250 47' x.,long. 8c°

33' E-)-

Numerous rapids and cataracts interrupt the bed of the Ken, and
the channel is too much blocked by rocks to allow of navigation.
Small craft of light burden, however, proceed in the rainy season from
the Jumna as far up as the town of Banda, a distance of 35 miles. Fish
abound ; and beautiful quartz or basalt pebbles, found in the bed, are
in great request for the manufacture of ornaments. The natives con-
sider the water unwholesome. In time of flood, the volume of water at
Kharauni amounts to 450,000 cubic feet per second ; at Banda, to
500,000 cubic feet The Ken flows in a deep and well-defined bed,
scoured out to a great width through the yielding clay of Bundelkhand
by the flood-water. It is nowhere fordable in the rainy season. A system
of irrigation canals, drawing their supplies from the Ken and the Bagain,
is now (1884) under consideration. The project consists in damming up
the cold-weather supply of the river by erecting a weir at Kharauni,
where it forces its way across a natural granite barrier, through an
outlying spur of the Vindhya range. The proposed capacity of the
canal will be 350 cubic feet of water per second, 300 of which will
be drawn from the Ken, and 50 from the Bagain. The length of the
main line will extend to about 50 miles, with a system of distributaries
commanding a gross area of about 1000 square miles. Estimated
cost, ;£i33>3°9-

Kenchengudda. — Town in the Bellary Sub-division of Bellary

KENDA—KENDRAPARA CANAL. 113

District, Madras Presidency ; situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra.
Lat 15° 36' N., long. 760 54' 10" E. Population (187 1) 1041 ; (1881)
998 ; number of houses, 209. Hindus numbered 898 ; and Muham-
madans, 100. The town is now almost in ruins, but was the head-
quarters of one of the principal palayams or military zamindaris in
former times. An old palace in the ruins has a long Hali Kanarese
inscription on the ceiling of one of its chambers.

Kenda. — Zaminddri estate in Bilaspur tahsil, Bilaspur District,
Central Provinces, adjoining the Lapha estate. Area, 298 square miles,
of which less than 14,000 acres are cultivated ; the hilly portion
contains some fine sal forests, and much lac is exported to Mirzapur.
Number of villages, 79 ; houses, 3358. Population (18S1) 12,252,
namely, males 6421, and females 5831. The chief is a Kunwar.

Kendrapara. — Sub-division of Cuttack District, Orissa. Area,
1424 square miles, with 4400 villages and 99,127 houses. Popu-
lation (1881), males 283,571, and females 291,541; total, 575,112.
Classified according to religion, there were — Hindus, 564,619;
Muhammadans, 9852; Sikhs, 8; Christians, 174; and 'others,'
459. Average density of population, 404 persons per square mile ;
villages per square mile, 3 ; persons per village, 131 ; houses per square
mile, 75 ; inmates per house, 5*8. This Sub-division, which was con-
stituted in January 1859, comprises the 4 police circles of Kendrapara,
Patamundai, Tirtol, and Aul. In 1883 it contained 1 magisterial court,
a regular police force 106 strong, and a village watch numbering 11 14
men.

Kendrapara. — Town, municipality, and head-quarters of Kendrapara
Sub-division, and of a police circle, Cuttack District, Orissa ; situated a
few miles north of the Chitartala branch of the Mahanadi. Lat. 200 29'
55" n., long. 86° 27' 35" e. Population (1872) 13,268; (1881) 15,696,
namely, males 7616, and females 8080. Classified according to
religion, the population in 1881 consisted of — Hindus, 14,033;
Muhammadans, 1658; 'others,' 5. Area of town site, 2880 acres.
In 1883-84, the municipal revenue was ^"494, of which ^421 was
derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, 6|d. During
the Maratha rule, a magistrate (faujddr) was stationed here for the
purpose of checking the depredations of the Raja of Kujang, who had
for centuries preyed upon the surrounding country.

Kendrapara Canal. — A branch of the Orissa Canal System. It
starts from the right flank of the Birupa weir, and proceeds along the
north and west bank of the Mahanadi, and of its distributaries the
Chitartala and the Nun, in a due easterly direction for 42J miles, to
Marsaghai, in tidal waters, 23 miles from False Point. This canal was
opened in May 1869. A branch canal, 40 miles in length, taking off
from the north or left bank of the Kendrapara Canal, passing along the

VOL. VIII. H

n4 KENDULI—KENGERL

north bank of the Birupa and Brahmani, and falling into the latter river
at Patamundai near the Dhamra estuary, has just been completed. An
extension of the Kendrapara Canal, from Marsaghai towards the sea-
coast, for a distance of 15 miles, was sanctioned in 1872-73, in order to
improve the communication with False Point harbour, and was opened
to the Jambu channel near the seaboard in July 1881. The Kendrapara
Canal proper is designed to irrigate 385 square miles ; but as less than
two-thirds of this area will require simultaneous irrigation, the canal
only carries water for 234 square miles, or 150,000 acres. The
Patamundai branch canal is intended to irrigate 113,000 acres. The
extension from Marsaghai towards False Point is intended for navigation
only. The head lock of the Kendrapara Canal, at the Birupa weir, is
100 feet from sill to sill, and 17 feet wide. The sills are 59-5 feet
above sea-level, and the gates iSh feet m height. The canal is divided
into 7 reaches, with a width at water-line varying from 75 to 160 feet,
a uniform depth of 7 feet, a fall ranging from o to 6 inches per mile,
and a minimum capacity of discharge varying in the different reaches
from 340 to 740 cubic feet per second in the dry season, and up to
2000 in the rains. The total fall of the canal from its head to its out-
fall at Marsaghai is 64 feet, the levels being adjusted by means of 8
locks, the last of which is a tidal lock at Marsaghai, with a fall of 10
feet, the upper sill being 6 feet above mean sea-level, and the lower sill
4 feet below. At low-water spring tide there is always 3 J feet of water
on the lower sill. At Mutri, in the 37 th mile, is an escape or waste
weir capable of discharging 360 cubic feet per second. Six syphon
culverts have been led underneath the canal, and 4 traffic bridges, in
addition to the lock bridges, have been constructed across it. — See also
Mahanadi River.

KendulL — Village in Birbhiim District, Bengal ; situated on the north
bank of the Ajai. Lat. 230 s^' 3°" N-> lor|g- 87° 2&' 1S" E- Birthplace
of Jayadeva, a disciple of the Vishnuvite reformer Chaitanya and
Sanskrit poet, the author of the celebrated Gita Govinda, 2, Sanskrit
poem in praise of Krishna. An annual fair in honour of Jayadeva is
held in the village on the last day of Magh (the commencement of
February), and is attended by upwards of 50,000 persons.

Kengeri (or Ten-geri, 'Southern Street'). — Village in the Bangalore
Sub-division of Bangalore District, Mysore State, Southern India ;
9 miles south-west of Bangalore city. Lat. 120 54' n., long. 770 2 e.
Population (1871) 2155; (1881) 1819. The town was destroyed
by Tipii Sultan to prevent its sheltering the forces of Lord Cornwallis.
In 1866, an Italian gentleman, Signor De Vecchi, attempted, with
the assistance of Government, to revive sericulture in this neigh-
bourhood. He imported cartoons of silkworm eggs from Japan, and
established a steam filature at Kengeri, where the delicate process

KEOBRANG— KEONTHAL. 1 1 5

of winding was performed by female orphans from the Bangalore
convent, under the superintendence of native nuns. But a severe
drought proved fatal to the imported worms, and though the stock
was twice replenished, the industry fell for a time into its former
state of depression. It is, however, fast reviving, not only here, but
throughout Bangalore District.

Keobrang. — Pass in Bashahr State, Punjab, over a ridge forming
the boundary between Kunawar and Chinese territory. Lat. 310 36' n.,
long. 7 8° 54' e. Thornton states that the pass lies within the Chinese
boundary, but that the severity of the climate prevents their estab-
lishing an outpost on the spot, so that Europeans have repeatedly
visited it. It has been found free from snow at the end of July.
Elevation above sea-level, 18,313 feet.

Keonthal {Kiunthal) — -One of the Punjab Hill States, under the
political superintendence of the Government of the Punjab ; lies around
Simla Station, between lat. 300 55' 30" and 310 6' n., and between
long. 770 10' and 770 25' e. Area, 116 square miles; number of
villages, 838; houses, 6318; number of families, 6654. Total popu-
lation, 31,154, namely, males 17,329, and females 13,825; average
density of population, 269 persons per square mile. Classified accord-
ing to religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus, 30,819 ; Muhammadans,
307; Sikhs, 18; Christians, 10. The revenue in 1883 was estimated
at ^6000. Principal products, opium and grain. The present Raja"
(1883) is Balbfr Sen, a Rajput by caste, who succeeded his father
Mahendra Sen in 1882. The chief of Keonthal was formerly styled
Rana, but was raised by the British Government to the higher rank of
R£ja in 1857.

After the Gurkha war a portion of the territory of Keonthal,
which had been occupied by the Gurkhas, was sold to the Maha-
raja of Patiala. In consideration of this, no tribute is paid by the
Keonthal Raja for the remainder of his State, which was restored
to him by sanad in 18 15, on the expulsion of the Gurkhas from the
country. The Raja holds another sanad, dated September 1815, con-
ferring on the Keonthal chief, and his heirs for ever, paramount
authority over the petty States of Theog, Kothi, Ghund, Madhan
(or Kiari), and Ratesh, the chiefs of which, with their descendants,
are bound to regard the chief of Keonthal as their liege, and to pay
an annual tribute as follows :— Kothi, ^50 ; Theog, ^50 ; Ghund,
^25 ; Madhan, ^25. A third sanad was granted to Keonthal, con-
ferring Punnar on him and his heirs. It is dated 1823, though the
transfer was authorized in 181 6. The reasons given for this measure
were the isolated position of Punnar, the turbulent character of its
inhabitants, the indisposition of Government to extend its teritorries
in the hills, and a desire to confer a benefit on Keonthal. The tribu-

n6 KERA.

taries of Keonthal are :— The Rana of Kothi, the late chief of which
obtained that rank for services during the Mutiny — area of his estate,
36 square miles; estimated population (1875) 25°° ; and revenue,
£600. The Thakur of Theog— area of estate, 10 square miles;
estimated population (1875) 3000; and revenue, ^330. The Thakur
of Madhan — area of estate, 13 square miles ; estimated population
(1875) 1000; and revenue, ;£i6o. The Thakur of Ghund — area
of estate, 3 square miles; estimated population (1875) 1000; and
revenue, ^100. The Thakur of Ratesh — area of estate, 3 square
miles; estimated population (1875) 437; and revenue, ^20. The
population of these subordinate States are not shown separately in
the Census Report of 1881, but are included within the figures for
Keonthal.

Kerd (Khedd). — Village in Cutch (Kachchh) State, Bombay Presi-
dency ; situated 13 miles south of Bhuj. Noted for its old Sivaite temple,
dating from perhaps the end of the 10th century, which was thrown down
by an earthquake in 1 8 1 9. The following description is condensed from
an account furnished by Mr. James Burgess, Archaeological Surveyor
to the Government of Bombay. The shrine is still standing, and
measures 8 feet 6 inches square inside, with walls 2 feet 7 inches thick,
surrounded by a pradakshina or path 2 feet 6 inches wide — the vimana
measuring 24 feet over all. This temple has been built partly of red
and partly of yellowish stone, very hard, and standing exposure very
well. Of the mandap, which was 18 feet 9 inches wide, only a part of
the north wall with one window in it is left ; all the rest is a heap of
ruins. The sculptures on the walls are not numerous, but are superior
to the usual run of such work. The elaborate ornamental wrork on the
faces of the spire has been largely undercut ; it represents the outlines
of a chaitya window, repeated over a triangular face, with human figures
between. Of these triangles of sculpture there are eight on each side,
gradually diminishing in size as they rise higher and higher, one behind
another, like so many gable ends. The corners of the shrine are
surmounted by miniature spires, reaching not quite half the height of
this sculpture, and above them are four other similar, but set farther
inwards ; above these and the sculpture rises the massive outline of the
great central spire or sikhara, all beautifully carved. To light the
pradakshina, there is a window of perforated stone on each side.

To the south-east of Kera is a small village on rising ground, above
which stands the mausoleum of Pir Ghulam Ali. The principal build-
ings within the enclosure are : — (1) The dargah, facing the east with one
large dome, and in front of it three smaller ones. Inside is the tomb,
under a canopy, supported by 12 small columns. Against the pall lies a
representation of a Mughal pir, a water-colour portrait of Ali, with a
nimbus round his head, and below him Hassan and Husain, also with

KERALA— KESAR1 A. 1 1 7

aureoles ; and in a third frame, Muhammad in a blue c/iogd, but the
face left blank, — a curious compromise between the prohibition in the
Kuran and the desire for a palpable representation of the objects of
reverence. (2) A canopy or chhatra stands in the middle of the
quadrangle in front of the dargah, with a flat roof and balconies on each
side. (3) Dadi All Shah's darga/i, with lantern minarets ; a neat plain
building, with three doors in front and two in the east end. The roof
is supported by two arches, the whole width of the building. It
contains no tomb, the body having been buried in Iran. These
buildings were erected about eighty years ago, Ghulam All Shah having
died at Karachi (Kurrachee) in 1796. The estate attached to the
establishment is said to yield between ^1800 and ^"1900 per
annum, which is expended in charity. Near the village is a large
and strong fort. A considerable trade in cloth and ironware is
carried on.

Kerala (or Chera). — Ancient kingdom of Southern India, one of the
divisions of the Dravida country. — See Chera.

Kerowlee (Karauli). — Native State in Rajputana. — See Karauli.

Kerur. — Town in the Badami Sub-division, Bijapur District, Bombay
Presidency ; 14 miles south by east of Kaladgi, and n miles north-west
of Badarni. Lat. 160 1' n., long. 750 36' e. Population (1872) 7096 ;
(1881) 3833. A fortified town, on the Sholapur-Hubli road. The
fort is on a gentle slope about 300 yards south-west of the town.
As the town increased, a new market was built to the east of the fort,
and a colony of weavers established themselves in the southern market,
where they carry on a flourishing trade. The town and fort contain
several temples.

Kesabpur. — Town in lessor District, Bengal; situated on the
Harihar river about 18 miles south of Jessor town. Lat. 220 54' 45"
n., long. 890 15' 40" e. The town is the second largest entrepot of
commerce in the District, and a centre of the sugar trade. It con-
tains numerous kdrkhdnds or refineries, conducted by Calcutta native
merchants. Sripur, a suburb on the other side of the river, almost
entirely consists of sugar-refineries. The town has an import
trade in rice ; and manufactures large quantities of earthen pots
and vessels for the purpose of sugar manufacture. Another local
manufacture is brasswork. Population (1881) 6405, namely, Hindus,
3236 ; Muhammadans, 3168 ; ' others,' 1. Area of town site, 640 acres.
Municipal income (1882-83), ^73, 10s. Two large bazars or market-
places.

Kesaria. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency. Area, 3 square miles. Population (1872) 186; (18S1)
231. Consists of 1 village, with 2 separate proprietors. The revenue
in 1882 was estimated at ^165 \ tribute of ^27, 16s. is paid to the

n8 KESARIYA—KETI.

British Government. Three miles north of Lakhtar station on the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway. ,

Kesariya. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (thdnd),
Champaran District, Bengal. Population (1881) 5256, namely, Hindus,
4753; and Muhammadans, 503. Two miles south of the village, on
the road to Sattar ghdt, stands a lofty brick mound 1400 feet in circum-
ference at its base, capped by a solid brick tower, 62 feet high. The
date of this tower (a memorial of Buddhism) is assigned by General
Cunningham to between 200 and 500 a.d. The common people call
it Raja Ben ka deora, after a traditional monarch who is said to have
been one of five Supreme Emperors of India. A tank a little to the
south is also called after this king.

Keslabori. — Ancient village in Chanda District, Central Provinces ;
beneath the Chimiir Hills, 10 miles north-north-east of Segaon. Lat.
200 25' n., long. 790 17' 30" e. Once a large town, but now reduced
to a few huts, with a population in 1881 of only 103 souls. It has a
considerable area under rice, irrigated by a hill spring, the water of
which proves injurious when drunk by strangers. Near the village is
the Ramdighi pool, a basin about 40 feet in diameter and of unknown
depth, hollowed out of the rock, into which falls, during the rains, a
stream of some size from a precipice above. According to tradition,
Rama formed the pool ; and an ancient temple still overhangs it, in
which are two. good carvings of a warrior with shield and straight
sword.

Kesod. — Town in the Sorath division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presi-
dency. Population (1872) 3169; (1881) 2589, chiefly Lohanas ; the
decrease is due to the famine of 1878-79. A walled town with an inner
citadel, 25 miles south-west of Junagarh. Has a thriving trade. Known
in Persian histories as Kesoj.

Keti. — Port, town, and municipality in the Jerruck Sub-division,
Karachi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. Population
(1881) 2141. Situated in lat. 240 8' 30" N., long. 670 28' 30" e., close
to the sea, on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Chief port in the
Indus delta for river and sea-going boats. Has taken the place of
Ghorabari, a little farther inland on the same branch, which was
the principal commercial town of the surrounding tract in 1845.
Ghorabari, or Bandar Vikar, was founded about 1826, and ten years
later contained 1000 inhabitants. In 1836, Mir Nasir Khan, brother
of the reigning Mir at Haidarabad, owned Ghorabari, and drew from
it an annual revenue of over ,£10,000, the customs of the port alone
having been farmed out for ^5200; while 180 vessels frequented the
harbour every year. In 1837, the exports (rice, ghi, grindstones) were
valued at ^26,500, and the imports (English cloth, raw cotton, metals,
dates, slaves) at ^"10,050. In those days no route presented such

KETI. ng

facilities for the transport of goods to the Upper Delta as the Hajamro
branch. In 1848, however, the Hajamro capriciously receded, and
GhoraMri immediately dwindled into comparative insignificance.
The trade of the deserted port then betook itself to the first Keti,
nearer the sea; but about 1853 the place was swept away by a flood,
and a new site was chosen in the neighbourhood. This second Keti,
the existing town and harbour, now about thirty years old, soon attracted
the river trade, and at present ranks next to Karachi among the ports
of Sind.

During the inundation season, nothing is done in the way of trade,
and the town has a deserted look ; about November the port is
open for sea-going vessels. Exports, to the Bombay and Madras
Presidencies, to Sonmiani, and Makrdn, comprise grain, pulses, oil-
seeds, wool, cotton, drugs, dyes, saltpetre, and firewood. Imports,
from the same places and the Persian Gulf, include cocoa-nuts, cotton
piece-goods, metals, sugar, spices, coir, and shells.

The following statement shows the value of the sea-borne trade of Keti
in 1873-74 : — To and from ports within Sind — exports, ,£164,135 ; im-
ports, ^19,424: to and from ports beyond Sind — exports, ,£116,188 ;
imports, .£37,629. The gross amount of customs duties collected during
the same year was .£"3070, being import duties, .£48, and export duties,
£3022. During the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, trade
remains at a standstill, vessels being unable to make the harbour from
seaward. In the brisk season, from 70 to 90 boats of various sizes may
be seen lining the bandar. Sea-borne goods for transit up the Indus
must be transferred to river boats. The total number of ships which
entered the port from all quarters in 1873-74 was 1295, with a gross
tonnage of 41,073 tons ; the total number clearing for all ports was 1323,
with a gross tonnage of 41,991 tons. The average annual value of the
imports for the five years ending 1882-83 was£3°j338, and the exports
,£66,723. The value of the imports in 1882-83 was £25,426, and
exports £60,301. The average number of vessels for the five years
ending in 1882-83 that entered the port was 266, with a gross tonnage
of 6277 tons; and that cleared, 764, with 20,698 tons. The number
of vessels that entered the port in 1882-83 was 32 t, tonnage 7967 ;
that cleared, 900, tonnage 23,567.

The river trade of Keti, though considerable, is fluctuating. The
following statement gives particulars for 1873-74: — Value of down-
river trade, ,£274,268 ; value of up-river trade, £46,692 ; entered,
down-river boats, 2915, with a burden of 1,241,155 maunds ; cleared,
up-river boats, 2862, with a burden of 1,204,336 maunds. No later
statistics are available for the river trade.

The town has several times been in danger of floods, but, owing to its
slightly elevated position, has hitherto escaped the fate of its pre-

! 2 o KE UKUCHI—KE UNJHAR.

decessor. Communication by road with Tatta, 60 miles south-west ;
with Mirpur Sakro, 32 miles south-south-west ; and with Ghorabari, 13
miles. Subsidiary jail, custom-house, Government charitable dispen-
sary. A municipality was established in 1854. In 1882-83, the
municipal income was ^624 ; municipal expenditure, £^9 > incidence
of municipal taxation, 4s. per head.

Keukuchi. — Halting-place in Bashahr State, Punjab, on the north-
east slope of the Cbarang Pass. Lat. 310 27' n., long. 780 37' e.
According to Thornton, the abundance of fuel and herbage causes this
spot to be selected as a camping-ground. The Nangalti, a rapid unford-
able torrent, flows down the pass, and falls into the Tidang a few miles
below Keukuchi. Elevation above sea-level, 12,457 feet.

Keunjhar.— Native State of Orissa, lying between lat. 210 1' and
22° 9' 30" n., and between long. 850 14' and 86° 24' 350 e. Bounded
on the north by Singbhiim District; on the east by Morbhanj State
and Balasor District ; on the south by Cuttack District and Dhenkanal
State ; and on the west by Dhenkanal, Pal Lahara, and Bonai States.
Keunjhar is divided into two wild tracts — Lower Keunjhar, including
the valleys, and Upper Keunjhar, embracing the mountainous high-
lands. The latter consist of great clusters of rugged crags, which
afford almost inaccessible retreats to their inhabitants ; and which,
although from the plains they appear to be sharply ridged or peaked,
have extensive table-lands on their summits, equally fit for pasture and
for tillage. The Baitarani river takes its rise in the hilly north-
western division. Principal peaks— Thakwani, 3003 feet; Gandha-
Madan, 3479 feet; Tomak, 2577 feet; and Bolat, 1818 feet.

Keunjhar is the second largest of the Orissa States, with an area of 3096
square miles. The Census of 1S72 thus returned the population,
according to religion — Hindus, 113,207, or 62*2 per cent.; Muham-
madans, 487, or 0-3 per cent. ; Christian, 1 ; ' others,' consisting of
aboriginal tribes who still retain their primitive forms of faith, 68,176,
or 37*5 per cent.; total, 181,871, namely, males 90,879, and females
90,992. Classified according to race, there were, in 1872— aboriginal
tribes, 44,438, or 24-3 percent, principally composed of Kols (10,990),
Gonds (10,407), Saonts (7172), and Savars (5125); semi-Hinduized
aborigines, 49,294, or 27*2 percent., mainly composed of Pans (19,827),
Bhuiyas (18,481), and Bathudis (7898); Hindu castes, 87,651, or
48-2 per cent., the most numerous castes being Khandaits (22,225),
Brahmans (8583), and Gaurs (6743) ; Muhammadans, 487, or 0-3 per
cent.

In 1 88 1, a different system of classification was adopted by the
Census officers, and no ethnological division seems to have been
made. The total population had increased to 215,612, namely, males
109,041, and females 106,571; average density, 697 persons per

KE UNTHAL—KHA B. 121

square mile; number of villages, 1638; number of occupied houses,
38,212. Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus,
195,695; Muhammadans, 447 ; Sikhs, 7 ; aboriginal tribes still outside
the pale of Hinduism, 19,40s ; ' others,' 55. The principal village and
residence of the Maharaja is Keunjhar, situated on the Midnapur and
Sambalpur road, lat. 210 37' 25" n., long. 850 37' 31" e.

Keunjhar State originally formed part of Morbhanj ; but about
200 years ago, the tribes of this part finding it a great hardship to
travel through the perilous forests of Morbhanj to obtain justice
from their prince, separated themselves, and set up the brother
of the Morbhanj Raja as their independent ruler. Since then
27 chiefs have ruled. The last prince rendered good service
during the Kol rebellion in 1857, and was rewarded by Government
with the title of Maharaja. He died in 1861, without legitimate
issue. On Government nominating his natural son, the present
Maharaja, to the throne, a dispute arose as to the succession,
which ultimately culminated in an insurrection of the Bhuiya and
Juang tribes in favour of an alleged adopted son, which called for the
intervention of British troops before it was suppressed. Estimated
annual revenue of the State, ^"6339 ; tribute, ^197- The chiefs
militia consists of a force of 1758 men and 318 village police. A
Government elephant {khedd) establishment was formerly maintained
at Keunjhar under the superintendence of an English officer, and a
large number of valuable animals were captured ; but the establish-
ment has since been abolished. The Maharaja maintains 49 schools
in the State, attended in 1881 by 962 pupils. A number of other
unaided schools exist. Metalled roads have been made in the neighbour-
hood of the capital village, and a postal establishment is maintained.
Keunjhar, besides being one of the most important, is at the same time
one of the best, if not the best, administered of the Orissa States.

Keunthal— One of the Punjab Hill States.— See Keonthal.

Kewani.— River of Kheri District, Oudh ; takes its rise in the
Jumaita tdl, near the village of Jumaita, 4 miles south-west of Kheri
town; flows a tortuous south-south-east course, and falls into the
Chauka, at a distance of 40 miles from its source, as the crow flies.
Near its source it is a narrow and shallow stream, but it deepens as
it nears the Chauka. Non-navigable, and fordable everywhere, except
during the rains. It has a breadth of about 50 feet, and an average
depth of 9 feet during the rainy season. The large villages of Saxda
and Nabinagar are situated on its banks.

Khab.— Village in Bashahr State, Punjab ; lies on the left bank of
the Sutlej (Satlaj), which flows between high cliffs of slate and granite.
Lat. 310 48' n., long. 780 41' e. Thornton states that Khab is the
highest point where the grape ripens in Kunawar, and that fields, vine-

1 2 2 KHAB UL—KHA GHORIA.

yards, and apricot trees surround the village, which is noted for the
excellence of its fruit. Elevation above sea-level, 9310 feet.

Khabul— Village in Bashahr State, Punjab ; situated 1 mile from
the right bank of the Pabar river, on the route from Subathu to the
Barenda Pass. Lat. 310 15' n., long. 77° 58' e. The surrounding
country is well tilled, irrigated by the mountain streams, and wooded
with sycamores, chestnuts, and apricots. Elevation above sea-level,
8400 feet.

Khadki. — Town in Poona District, Bombay Presidency. — See
Kirki.

Khaga. — North-eastern tahsil of Fatehpur District, North-Western
Provinces ; lying along the south bank of the Ganges, and traversed
by the East Indian Railway. Area, 274 square miles, of which
129-5 square miles are cultivated, 57*9 square miles cultivable, and
86-8 square miles barren waste. Population (1881) 136,947, namely,
males 68,712, and females 68,235 ; average density of population, 500
persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, there were,
in 1 88 1 — Hindus, 115,642; Muhammadans, 21,304; 'others,' 1.
Number of villages, 335, of which 257 contained less than five hundred
inhabitants. Land revenue, ^19,925; total Government revenue,
,£23,433, including local rates and cesses ; rental paid by cultivators,
,£36,856. The tahsil, which comprises the two pa rgands of Hathgaon
and Hotila, contained in 1884, 9 civil and criminal courts; number of
police circles [t hands), 3 ; strength of regular police, 180 men; chauki-
ddrs, or village police, 463.

Khaga. — Town in pargand Hathgaon, Fatehpur District, North-
western Provinces, and head-quarters of Khaga tahsil, situated on the
Grand Trunk Road, about 20 miles from Fatehpur town ; lat. 250 46'
28" n., long. 8i° 8' 46" e. Population (1881) 1643, the prevailing caste
being Chamars. Police station, post-office, good market, station on the
East Indian Railway. A religious fair is held here in the month of
October.

Khagan. — Mountain valley in Hazard District, Punjab. — See Kagan.
Khagaul. — Town and municipality in Patna District, Bengal ;
situated a short distance south of Dinapur. Lat. 250 34' 30" n., long.
85 ° 5' e. The population, which in 1872 numbered only 5257, had
increased by 1881 to 14,075, namely, males 6584, and females 7491-
Classified according to religion, the population consisted of — Hindus,
11,771; Muhammadans, 1997; 'others,' 307. Municipal income
(1881), ^£175; (1882-83), £l22\ average incidence of taxation,
4jd. per head of population. The Dinapur railway station is just
outside the town ; which, indeed, has only sprung into importance since
the opening of the railway.

Khaghoria. — Village in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bengal;

KHA GRAPARA—KHAIBAR. 1 2 3

situated on the Myani tributary of the Kasalang river. In 1872-73, a
small colony of Gurkhas from the borders of Nepal was established
here, with the object of getting the jungle cleared through their
means. A sum of ^"io was advanced to each family by the Deputy
Commissioner, to enable the immigrants to purchase cattle and
ploughs, and for their subsistence until they could raise a crop. The
settlers, however, were unable to endure the deadly climate of the
place ; and in the following year they were removed to another settle-
ment of their countrymen at Rangamati, a healthier locality farther
south, with whom they amalgamated and formed one colony. The
settlers, however, proved unfit for colonization, and the little community
was finally broken up in 1877.

Khagrapdra. — Village in the north of Darrang District, Assam ;
lying near the foot of the Bhutan Hills. An annual fair is held here,
which is largely attended by people from considerable distances. In
1881-82, the Bhutids are estimated to have sold goods to the value of
^3656, chiefly salt, blankets, ponies, gold, and a spice resembling
coriander, called jabrang, in exchange for which they purchased rice,
silk and cotton cloth, dried fish, and hardware.

Khaibar (Khyber). — A celebrated pass leading from Peshawar District
of the Punjab into Afghanistan; centre of pass, lat. 340 6' n., long.
71° 5' e. The name is also applied to the range of hills in Yaghistan,
through which the pass runs. The Khaibar mountains form, indeed,
the last spurs of the Sufed Koh, as that mighty range sinks down into
the valley of the Kabul river. The elevation of the connecting ridge is
3400 feet ; but it rises to 6800 feet in the Tatara peak. On either side
of the ridge which connects the Khaibar mountains with the Sufed
Koh rise two small streams — the one flowing north-west to the Kabul
river, the other south-south-east towards Jamrud. The beds of these
streams form the Khaibar defile. On the north of this defile is the
Khaibar range ; on its south is another range, which divides the
defile from the Bara valley, and which is also a spur of the Sufed
Koh. These two ranges respectively throw out their spurs south
and north like two combs placed with their teeth inwards, the
teeth being prevented from quite meeting by the streams above
mentioned.

The Khaibar Pass forms the great northern military route from
Afghanistan into India ; as the Kuram and Gumal Passes form the
intermediate military and trade routes, and the Bolan Pass the
great southern passage both for war and commerce. The Khaibar
Pass commences near Jamrud, to the west of Peshawar, and twists
through the hills for about 33 miles in a north-westerly direction,
till it debouches at Dhaka. The plains of Peshdwar District stretch
rom its eastern mouth ; those of Jalalabad from its western exit.

124 KHAIBAR.

Beyond its eastern end is the remarkable collection of caves at
Kadam ; and beyond its western are many interesting remains of
Buddhism and of ancient civilisation. The pass lies along the bed of
a torrent, chiefly through slate rocks, and is subject to sudden floods.
Burnes' camp had a narrow escape below the fort of Ali Masjid. The
dangerous months for floods are July, August, December, and January.
The gradient is generally easy, except at the Landi Khana Pass, but is
covered with loose stones, which become larger as the head of the
stream is reached. The following details are condensed from General
MacGregor's official account.

Immediately on leaving Jamrud, the defensible ground may be
said to commence, as the spurs come almost up to that place in
round bare knolls of low height, but very sufficient command of the
road. Kadam, however, 3 miles from Jamrud, is generally considered
to be the actual eastern entrance. At this point the hills begin to
close in, and 1000 yards farther the width of the pass is 450 feet;
the bed is easy, level, and covered with small shingle, — the hills on
the left are very steep ; 500 yards farther on, this width gradually
lessens to 370 feet, the hills on either side being sheer precipices.
At 1200 yards farther the width is 190 feet, the hills being steep for 50
or 60 feet in height, then sloping back ; 850 yards farther the width
is 240 feet, the hills on the right being precipitous, and on the left
rounded and practicable; at 1050 yards farther the width is 280 feet,
the hills being very steep on both sides; 850 yards farther the width is
210 feet, the hills on the right being perpendicular, and on the left not
so steep; 1050 yards farther the width is 70 feet, the hills being very
precipitous on both sides; 500 yards farther the width is 230 feet, the hills
on the left being precipitous, and on the right rounded and practicable ;
2 miles farther the width is 250 feet, the hills on the right being per-
pendicular, and on the left practicable; 1050 yards farther the width
is 65 feet, the hills on both sides being very steep, those on the left
perpendicular; 1050 yards farther the width is no feet, the hills on
both sides being comparatively easy and practicable ; 880 yards farther
the width is 210 feet, the hills on the left being steep, and on the right
open and easy; 2 miles 220 yards farther the width is 200 feet, the
hills on the left being steepish, and on the right open and comparatively
easy.

At All Masjid, 1300 yards farther, the width is 40 feet, the hills
being perpendicular and impracticable. Between Kadam and this point,
Moorcroft says, the mountains on either hand are about 1300 feet high,
slaty, and to all appearance inaccessible ; 1450 yards farther the width
is 270 feet, hills on the left precipitous, on right comparatively easy; 1
mile 1000 yards farther the width is 390 feet, the hills being very steep ;
6 J miles beyond this lies the Lalabeg valley, which averages ij mile

KIT A IB AR. [2S

broad; 880 yards farther the width is 10 feet or less, the hills being
quite perpendicular; in 1600 yards farther the road goes over the
Landi Khana Pass, the width being 140 feet, and the hills being very
steep, especially on the left ; 3 \ miles farther the width is 300 feet, the
hills being steep on the left, but not so precipitous on the right; 2}
miles farther the width is 200 feet, the hills being very steep on both
sides; 3 miles farther is Dhaka, where the defile opens. The total
length of the defile, therefore, from Jamriid to Dhaka is about ^3
miles.

The elevation in feet of various points of the pass is— Jamriid, 1670;
All Masjid, 2433; Landi Khana, 2488; Landi Kotal, 3373; Dhaka,
1404. If the elevation of Jamriid (2433) given by Mr. Scott of the
Survey is right, all these figures would be increased by 763 feet. The
ascent over the Landi Khana Pass is narrow, rugged, steep, and generally
the most difficult part of the whole road. Guns could not be drawn
here except by men, and then only after the improvement of the road ;
the descent is along a well-made road, and is not so difficult. Tust
beyond All Masjid the road passes over a bed of projecting and slippery
rock, which makes this portion extremely difficult for laden animals.
The Khaibar can be turned by the Tatara road, which enters the hills
about 9 miles north of Jamriid (another branch entering 2-i- miles
nearer), and either joins the Khaibar road at Luadgai, or keeps the
north of the range and goes to Dhaka.

During the first Afghan war, the Khaibar was the scene of many
skirmishes with the Afrfdis, and of some disasters to our troops.
Colonel Wade, with from 10,000 to 11,000 of all arms, including the
Sikh contingent, moved from Jamriid on the 22nd July 1839 to Gagri ;
here he halted a day and entrenched his position ; on the 24th July, he
again marched to Lala China; on the 15th, he moved to the attack
of Ali Masjid, sending one column of 600 men and 2 guns, under
Lieutenant Mackeson, to the right ; and 1 1 companies of infantry, 1
6-pounder gun, and 1 howitzer to the left ; while below a column was
placed to watch the mouth of Shadi Bagadi gorge. Both columns
drove the enemy before them, the right meeting with some opposition,
and the left getting into a position to shell the fort. On the 26th all
the enemy's outposts were driven in, and on the 27th they evacuated
the fort. The enemy had 509 Jazailchis, or musket men, and were
supported by several hundred Khaibaris. The British loss was 22
killed and 158 wounded. After this there was no further opposition.

A strong post was left in Ali Masjid, and a detachment near Lala
China, to maintain communication with Peshawar, and a post of irre-
gulars under Lieutenant Mackeson was placed near Dhaka. The post
near Lala China was attacked during the operations. It was garrisoned
by Yusafzai auxiliaries, whose numbers had been thinned, and the

I26 KHAIBAR.

survivors were worn down by continued sickness, when the Khaibaris,
estimated at 6000 strong, attacked their breastwork. They were long
kept at bay, but the marauders were animated by the love of plunder,
and persevered in their attacks. They were aware that the devoted
garrison had recently received their arrears of pay, and that a sum of
Rs. 12,000 was buried on the spot, which was an old Khaibari haunt.
Finally, they carried the weak field-work, and mercilessly put to the
sword 400 of its defenders. They did not keep possession of it, but,
after repeating their vain attempts on All Masjid and Captain Ferris'
posts in the valley, retired to their mountains.

When Jalalabad was blockaded, it was proposed to send a force through
the Khaibar to its relief, and as a preliminary measure, Lieutenant-
Colonel Moseley was detached to occupy Ali Masjid with two regiments
of Native Infantry. He marched on the night of the 15th January 1842,
and reached the place with little opposition the next morning. Through
some mismanagement, however, only a portion of the provisions requi-
site for the two regiments accompanied them. It became necessary,
therefore, to forward the residue without delay ; and to this end, and
with the purpose of afterwards moving upon Jalalabad, Brigadier Wilde
advanced from Jamriid with the remaining two regiments (the 60th and
30 Native Infantry) and 4 Sikh guns. But the appearance of Colonel
Moseley's detachment had alarmed the Afridis, who now rose, and,
closing the pass, prepared to resist Brigadier Wilde's entrance. The
Brigadier, nevertheless, pushed onwards on the 19th January, and
encountered the enemy at the mouth of the pass ; but, owing to the
uselessness of the Sikh guns, and the inadequacy of his force with so
powerful a body of the enemy advantageously placed in his front, his
attempt to reach Ali Masjid totally failed. The situation of Lieutenant-
Colonel Moseley, shut up as he was in Ali Masjid, with scarcely any
provisions, now became desperate. He was not long, however, in
deciding upon the course which it became him to take under circum-
stances of so serious a nature. He cut his way back to Jamriid;
his reasons for doing so being, that he found that the remnant of
his stores only amounted to 6 maunds of atta for the subsistence of
2500 men, who had already been five or six days on half-rations, and
who had been exposed for eight days, without tents, to an inclement
climate.

The next occasion on which the Khaibar Pass was used as a great
military road was when General Pollock advanced on the 6th April
1842. On his return to India, the British army marched through the
Khaibar in three divisions. The first, under General Pollock, passed
through with no loss. The second, under General M'Caskill, was not
equally fortunate: one brigade being overtaken by night, left two
mountain-train guns with the rear-guard, which was suddenly attacked,

KHAIR TAHSIL AND TOWN. I27

and the guns taken, though they were recovered next day. The rear-
guard of General Nott's force was also attacked on the 5th and 6th
November between Landi Khana and Lalabagh, and again on leaving
Ali Masjid.

It was at Ali Masjid in the Khaibar that Sir Neville Chamberlain's
friendly mission to the Amir Sher All Khan was stopped and repelled
with threats. This was in 1878, when Lord Lytton, the Viceroy of
India, had determined to make a final attempt to establish British
influence in Afghanistan. On the repulse of General Sir Neville
Chamberlain's mission, an ultimatum was handed to the Amir's general,
Faiz Muhammad, in All Masjid ; and the day specified having passed
without the return of an answer, Afghanistan was invaded by three
British columns, one of which started from Jamriid at the mouth of the
Khaibar. The other columns started from Thai and Quetta. On the
second day of the campaign the fortress of Ali Masjid, 9 \ miles from
Jamriid, was brilliantly captured by the British troops, under Sir
Samuel Browne. The successful passage of the Khaibar by Sir Samuel
Browne's force, and the unopposed occupation, first of Dhaka at the
eastern mouth of the pass, and then of Jalalabad in the plains beyond,
were immediately subsequent events. The treaty which closed the war
in May 1879 left the Khaibar tribes for the future under British
control.

Khair.— Western tahsil oi Aligarh District, North- Western Provinces ;
stretching inland from the east bank of the Jumna, and irrigated by
distributaries from the Ganges Canal. It comprises the three pargands
of Khair, Chandausi, and Tappal. Area, 406 square miles, of which
293 were cultivated at the time of the last land settlement in 1874,
the proportion of cultivated to cultivable land being 84 per cent.
Population (1872) 169,459 ; (1882) 160,264, showing a decrease of
9195 in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in
1881 — Hindus, 147,247; Muhammadans, 12,894; Jains, 120; 'others,' 3.
Number of villages, 276, of which 171 had less than five hundred
inhabitants. Land revenue, ^40,105 ; total Government revenue,
,£44,115 ; rental paid by cultivators, £62,131. The tahsil contains 1
criminal, but no civil court ; with 4 police circles (thdnds) ; a regular
police force of 64, and a village watch or rural police of 354 men.

Khair. — Town in Aligarh District, North-Western Provinces, and
head-quarters of Khair tahsil. Situated on the road to the Jumna ;
distant from Aligarh town 14 miles north-west. Tahsili, police station,
post-office, school, munsifi. Population (1881) 4455. For police
and conservancy purposes, a small house-tax is levied. Local revenue
m l873> £96- During the Mutiny of 1857, the Chauhans occupied
Khair, under Rao Bhiipal Singh, who set himself up as Raja. On the
1 st of June, an expedition of the Agra volunteers, under Mr. Watson,

128 KHAIRABAD PARC ANA AND TOWN.

surrounded the town, and captured the rebel leader, who was hanged
by order of a court-martial. Later in the month, the Chauhans called
in the Jats, attacked the town, and plundered or destroyed the
Government buildings and the houses of the wealthy Mahajans and
Baniyas.

Khairabad. — Pargand in Sitapur tahsil, Sitapur District, Oudh.
Bounded on the north by Hargam pargand ; on the east by the Gon
river ; and on the south and west by the Sarayan river, the two streams
meeting at the southern extremity of the pargand, which forms their
dodb. Originally in the possession of the Pasis, who were ousted by
the Bais and Kayasths ; but their descendants still hold many
villages. Constituted a pargand by Todar Mall, in the reign of
Akbar. Soil fertile ; country well wooded and watered ; the Gon and
the Sarayan afford water communication, except during the dry months.
Area, 128 square miles, or 81,919 acres (excluding Sitapur canton-
ment); of which 71 square miles, or 45,70s acres, are cultivated,
and 30 square miles, or 20,628 acres, are cultivable. Incidence of
Government land revenue, 3s. i|d. per acre of cultivated area, 2s. 2^d.
per acre of assessed area, and is. 8|d. per acre of total area. Rents
are paid almost entirely in kind. Population (1869) 63,728; (1882)
57,411, namely, males 29,348, and females 28,063. The town of
Khairabad and the cantonment of Sitapur are situated in this par-
gand. Large markets are held in three other villages. Six numerously
attended Hindu fairs and three Musalman festivals are held, at all of
which a brisk trade is carried on. Three military camping stations,
at Sarayan on the Biswan road, at Thompsonganj, and at Jalalpur on
the Lucknow road.

Khairabad. — Chief town of Sitapur District, Oudh ; situated 5
miles south-east of Sitapur, the civil station and cantonment of the
District, in lat. 270 31' 30" x., and long. 8o° 47' 35" e. The town is
said to have been founded by one Khaira, a Pasi, in the first year of
the nth century, and to have been subsequently taken possession of
by a Kayasth family. In after years, many rent-free grants of portions
of its site were made to Musalmans, who came in great numbers in
the reigns of Babar and Akbar, but these grants were all resumed by
the Nawab of Oudh about 1810. Khairabad is the seventh largest
town in Oudh. It contained a population in 1869 of 15,677 persons,
but had decreased by 1881 to 14,217. Classified according to religion,
the population in the latter year consisted of — Muhammadans, 7653 ;
Hindus, 6551; Jains, 9; and Christians, 4. Municipal income in
1876-77, ^£401; in 1882-83, ^£471, of which ^397 was derived
from octroi ; average rate of taxation, 6|d. per head. The town
contains 40 mosques and 30 Hindu temples, besides a handsome
set of holy Muhammadan buildings, erected about fifty years ago.

KHAIRABAD RIVER— KHAIRAGARH. 129

These consist of a Kadam Rasul (' prophet's footprint '), an Imam-
bdra, and mosques with intervening courtyards, all surrounded by a
wall. The public buildings consist of a police station, school, post-
office, sardis, etc. Four bazars and markets are held daily. Large
fair held in January, lasting ten days, and attended by an average
of 60,000 persons. A second fair is held at the Dasahdra festival,
attended by about 15,000 persons. Annual value of bazar sales,
about ^34,000.

Khairabad. — River in Bakarganj District, Bengal. An offshoot of
the Barisal river at Ranihat, flowing east of Bakarganj town to
Angariahat, a distance of 22 miles ; whence it continues as the Nahalia
river, running a tortuous course, sometimes south-east and sometimes
south-west, for 14 miles, as far as Patuakhali ; after which it is called
the Gulachipa or Rabnabad river, and flows a southerly course for 20
miles till it falls into the Bay of Bengal, just north of the Rabnabad
islands. A branch of this river, called in different parts of its course the
Patuakhali, Beghai, and Buriswar, falls into the sea under the latter name.

Khairagarh. — South-western tahsil of Agra District, North- Western
Provinces ■ consisting of a spur of British territory, almost surrounded
by the Native States of Bhartpur (Bhurtpore) and Dholpur, and
largely intersected by wild ravines. The tahsil is divided by the
Utanghan river into two portions, each varying greatly in physical
features. The northern tract is of the same character as the neigh-
bouring lands of Fatehpur Sikri and Fatehabad, having an alluvial
soil. In the south-west portion of the tahsil, a range of the Vindhya
hills separates it from Bhartpur territory. There are also a number of
isolated hills of red sandstone, which is quarried in considerable quan-
tities. Some of the larger hills are wooded, and supply materials for
charcoal, as well as scanty grazing for cattle. The Sindhia State Rail-
way passes through the eastern half of the tahsil, which is also inter-
sected by the Agra and Bombay road, as well as by five unmetalled
roads which meet at Khairagarh village. Area of the tahsil, 308-9
square miles, of which 192*9 square miles are cultivated, 77 square
miles cultivable, and the remaining 39 square miles uncultivable
waste. Land revenue (1881-82), ^28,485 ; total Government revenue,
.£31,988; rental paid by cultivators, ,£51,703. Total population
(1881) 118,134, namely, males 64,155, and females 53,979, giving
an average density of 382 persons per square mile. Classified according
to religion, there were — Hindus, 110,291; Muhammadans, 7051 ;
Jains, 784; Christians, 6 ; and 'others,5 2. Total number of villages,
156, of which 82 contained less than five hundred, and none upwards
of five thousand inhabitants. The tahsil contains 1 criminal court,
with 5 police stations ; strength of regular police, 69 men ; village watch-
men (chaukidars\ 407.

VOL. VIII. 1

130 KHAIRAGARH NATIVE STATE AND TOWN.

Khairagarh. — Village in Agra District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Khairagarh tahsil ; situated 18 miles south-west
of Agra city, on the left or north bank of the Utanghan river,
in lat. 2 70 i' 28" n., and long. 77 ° 53' 50" e. Population (1881)
1 26 1. Besides being the head-quarters of the tahsil, the village has
a first-class police station, imperial post-office, and Anglo-vernacular
school.

Khairagarh. — Native State attached to Raipur District, Central
Provinces, and the most important of the Chhatisgarh Feudatory
States, lying in the richest part of the Chhatisgarh plain. Area, 940
square miles; number of towns and villages, 512; houses, 30,392.
Population (1881) 166,138, namely, males 82,677, ana" females 83,461 ;
average density, 177 persons per square mile.

The ruling family, which is Raj-Gond, and descended from the
royal family of Garha Mandla, originally held only the small forest
tract known as Kholwa, below the Saletekri range ; but they obtained
extensive grants in 181 8, both from the Mandla princes and from
the Maratha rulers of Nagpur. The last chief, Lai Fateh Singh,
was deposed, and died in 1874. From 1874 till February 1883, the
State was under direct British management, when it was made over to
its present chief, Lai Umras Singh, in public darbdr. During the
year 1876-77, the income amounted to ^12,259, of which p£i 1,261
was derived from land revenue, according to a summary settlement
concluded in 1874; the expenditure amounted to .£9433, of which
^3149 was devoted to the chief's family. In 1882-83, the State
revenue was ,£13,963. The tribute payable to the British Government
is fixed at £4 7 00.

Cotton, wheat, and gram constitute the chief products ; iron-ore is
also found in parts. Two of the principal passes through the Saletekri
hills between Chhatisgarh and Nagpur lie in Khairagarh ; but a different
line has been adopted for the Great Eastern Road. All the roads
leading to the great grain mart of Dongargarh, one of the principal
stations on the Nagpur-Chhatisgarh railway, can at small cost be made
good cold-weather routes. A fair-weather road from Dongargarh to
Borla in Bilaspur District, passing through Khairagarh, Chhuikhadan,
and Kawardha States, is (1883) about to be constructed. Dispensaries
have been opened at Khairagarh and Dongargarh, and various public
buildings, court-houses, jail, etc., have recently been built.

Khairagarh. — Chief town of Khairagarh Feudatory State, attached
to Raipur District, Central Provinces ; situated 45 miles north-west of
Raipur town, at the junction of the Am and the Piparia rivers, in lat.
210 25' 30" n., long. 8i° 2' e. Population (1881) 2887, namely,
Hindus, 2600; Muhammadans, 176; Kabirpanthis, 78; Satnamis, 2;
Jains, 4; aboriginal religions, 27.

KlfAIRI-KII. URIG. IK//.

Khairi.— Small estate in Bhandira* District, Central Proi

miles north of Sakoli, on the Great Eastern k
villages, on an area of 14 square miles, of which 2 square- n
cultivated. The forests yield abundance of inferior timber. I ..
is a Mana, and the population (633 in 18S1) chiefly Gonds.

Khairigarh.--^;^?^ in Nighasan tahsil, Kheri District, 0
situated between the Mohan and Sarju rivers, which boi
the north and south; bounded on the east by the Kauriala river,
and on the west by Nepal State. The largest pargand in the 1 1
trict, being 47 miles from east to west and 12 from north to south.
Area, 425 square miles, of which 263 miles are covered with
forests. Population (1869) 33,046; (1881) 39,444, namely, l
21,378, and females 18,066. Hindus numbered 34,903, and Muhain-
madans, 4541. Ahirs form the principal Hindu caste. Brahman^
are very few in number. Crops, principally rice and barley. The
only landed proprietor in the parga?id is the Raja of Khairigarh, who
owns 67 out of the 70 villages, the remaining 3 being the property of
Government. The Government land revenue, which about 1S75 was
returned at ^4963, had fallen by 1882-83 to ^"2343. The pa$
is said to derive its name from the khair jungle, found here in grea:
quantities.

The early history of the pargand is lost in obscurity. It has been
for many centuries the huge forest which it now appears. In the
reign of Firoz-ud-din Tughlak, 1351-1388 a.d., it is related that the
Emperor established a chain of forts along the north bank of the river
Sarju, to repel marauding expeditions on the part of the mountaineer^
of Dhoti and Garhwal. Tradition states that the Emperor, with his
son, ascended the tallest tower of the great Khairigarh fort. I i
his eyes over the boundless sea of jungle, in which no house roof, no
temple spire, no smoke, nor any other sign of human habitation ap-
peared, and was so appalled by the vast solitude, that lie for ever
abandoned the place at which he had spent two years in building and
hunting. The fort was abandoned for centuries. Khairigarh first re-
appears in deeds granted to the kam'ingo family, which held offi<
in Khairigarh and Kheri. A deed signed by Akbar (1556-1605)
recites that Ahbaran, an Ahir of Khairigarh, had usurped dominion,
and was oppressing the people ; and it directs the destruction oi this
chieftain, whose head-quarters were at Kundanpur, near Khaii
The landholders of the pargand at that time were Bichhil
Bais, and Kurmis. The Bachhils were succeeded by the Rijpis
these latter, in their turn, were ousted by the Lohani Banjaras in t he-
reign of Jahangir. Rao Ram Singh was the Banjara chief at the be-
ginning of the present century. He was a turbulent man, and his
exactions led to a rebellion on the part of his own people, and his

132 KHAIRIGARH VILLAGE— KHAIRPUR.

defeat in 1800. In the following year, Khairigarh came into the hands
of the British, being part of the territories ceded by the Nawab Wazir.
It remained in their possession till 18 16, when it was handed over to
Oudh in exchange for a part of Jaunpur. In 1809, the English sent
a force to punish the Raja for his cruelty and exactions. He was
taken prisoner and carried to Bareilly, where he died. His successor,
in 1830, was ousted by the Surajbans Kshattriyas, who had an ancient
claim to the land, and to which tribe the present Raja belongs.
Khairigarh finally came into British possession on the annexation of
Oudh.

Khairigarh. — Chief village in Khairigarh pargand, Kheri District,
Oudh ; situated on the left bank of the Suheli river, no miles north
of Lucknow. Lat. 2 8° 20' 35" N., long. 8o° 52' 55" e. Population
(1869) 1 135 ; (1881) 1278. Built by Ala-ud-din Tughlak, in order to
check the depredations of mountaineers from Nepal and Kumaun.
Tieffenthaler, describing its condition eighty years ago, states it to be
a fortified place, worthy of note as well on account of its excellent
construction as of its size, being 4 or 5 miles in circuit. The defences
are built of huge blocks of stone below, and of bricks of unusual
size above ; but it now lies waste, and the site is infested with tigers
and other wild beasts. The town is 2 miles north-east of the great
fort, the intervening space being overgrown with trees and grassy
jungle.

Khairi-Murat. — Mountain range in Rawal Pindi District, Punjab ;
midway between the Sohan river and the Chitta Pahar. Rises about
30 miles from the Indus, and runs eastward for some 24 miles, a dreary
ridge of barren limestone and sandstone rock. Lat. 33 ° 28' n., long.
7 20 49' 30" e. North of the range lies a plateau intersected by
ravines ; while southward a waste of gorges and hillocks extends
in a belt for a distance of 5 miles, till it dips into the fertile valley
of the Sohan, one of the richest tracts in Rawal Pindi District.
The Khairi - Murat was formerly covered with jungle, but is now
completely destitute of vegetation, except where the hill has been
formed into a reserved forest, and closed to grazing. In these parts
the trees are rapidly springing up again.

Khairpur. — Native State in Upper Sind, also known as the terri-
tories of the Mir All Murad Khan Talpur ; lying between 260 10'
and 2 70 46' n. lat, and between 68° 14' and 700 13' e. long. Bounded
on the north by Shikarpur District ; on the east by Jaisalmer (Jeysul-
mere) State ; on the south by Haidarabad (Hyderabad) District ;
and on the west by the river Indus. Its greatest length from east
to west calculated at 120 miles, and its breadth from north to south
at 70 miles; area, 6109 square miles. Population (1881) 129,153
persons.

KHA1RPUR.

Physical Aspects.— Like other parts of Sind, Khairpur

great alluvial plain, the part bordering directly upon the I:
very rich and fertile, though much of it is converted into n

hunting-grounds. With the exception of the fertile strip watered by
the Indus and the Eastern Nara (a canal which follows an old I
the Indus), the remainder or three-fourths of the whole area is a con-
tinuous series of sandhill ridges covered with a stunted brush*
where cultivation is altogether impossible. The country generally is
exceedingly arid, sterile, and desolate in aspect. In the northern
portion of the State is a small ridge of limestone hills, being a
tinuation of the low range known as the Ghar, which runs southward
from Rohri for a distance of about 40 miles. On the top of the l
are found oyster, cockle, and numerous other kinds of marine shells.
On a western outlying spur of this ridge is situated the fort of DlJI.
About 150,000 acres of land in all are under cultivation.

Khairpur is watered by five canals, drawn off from the Indus river,
as well as by the Eastern Nara. The largest and most important of
these canals is the Mirwah. ; and it is upon the land watered by this
stream and its branches that much of the indigo grown in the State is
produced There are several cuts from the Mirwah canal, which extend
to the valleys near the sandhills, where the soil is apparently fertile, and
largely cultivated on the occurrence of a good rainfall. No separate-
canal department exists under the Mir's rule ; but when the clearing
out of silt becomes necessary, it is generally done by the cultivators
themselves, who receive for this work about a pound of flour per diem.
The Eastern Nara, which irrigates a portion of the State, is a petty
stream, except during the rains, when it spreads out into wide .sheets
of water ; in the dry season it is but a series of sluggish pools. The
belt of land through which this stream flows is composed of rich
alluvial soil, at present almost wholly uncultivated, but capable of
producing excellent crops.

The soil of Khairpur, especially in the strip adjoining the Indus,
is very productive. The tract lying between the Mirwah Canal and
the Indus is the richest part of the State, but cultivation is even
there by no means so extensive as it might be. In the desert
portion of Khairpur are pits of natron — an impure sesqui-carl
of soda, always containing sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium.
It is generally obtained by means of evaporation. The natron pits
are a source of income to the Mir, as many as a thousand camel
of this substance being annually exported to Northern and Central
India, and also to the seaboard, each camel-load being taxed at 5

The wild animals found in Khairpur are the tiger, lynx, hj
jackal, fox, wild hog, deer, hare, and antelope. The birds and
fowl are those common to Sind generally, such as bustard, wild \

134 KHAIRPUR.

snipe, partridges (both black and grey), and various kinds of wild duck
(which arrive in the cold season). The reptiles are also the same as
those common to the Province, and snakes abound as in other parts of
Sind. The domestic animals comprise the camel, horse, buffalo, bullock,
sheep, goat, mule, and donkey.

History. — The present chief of Khairpur belongs to a Baluch family
called Talpur ; and, previous to the accession of this family, on the fall
of the Kalhora dynasty of Sind in 1783, the history of Khairpur belongs
to the general history of Sind. In that year Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur
established himself as Rais or ruler of Sind ; and subsequently his
nephew Mir Sohrab Khan Talpur, with two sons, named Mir Rustam
and Ali Murad, founded the Khairpur branch of the Talpur rulers
of Sind. The dominions of Mir Sohrab Khan were at first confined
to the town of Khairpur and a small adjacent tract of country; but by
conquest and intrigue he managed to enlarge them, until they extended
to Sabzalkot and Kashmor on the north, to the Jaisalmer Desert on the
east, and to the borders of Kachchh Gandava on the west. About
the year 1813, during the troubles in Kabul incidental to the establish-
ment of the Barakzai dynasty, the Mi'rs were able to refuse the further
payment of the tribute which up to that date had been somewhat
irregularly paid to the rulers of Afghanistan. Two years earlier than
this, in 181 1, Mir Sohrab had abdicated in favour of his son Mir
Rustam. But he appears to have endeavoured to modify this arrange-
ment subsequently; and ultimately the jealousy between the two
brothers, Mir Rustam and Ali Murad, was one of the factors in the
crisis that called in the intervention of the British power.

In 1832, the individuality of the Khairpur State, as separate from
the other Talpur Mirs in Sind, was recognised by the Government
in a treaty, under which the use of the river Indus and the roads
of Sind were secured to the British. When the first Kabul expedition
wTas decided on, the Sind Mirs were required to assist the passage of
the British through their territories, and allow of the occupation of
Sbikarpur ; most of the princes showed great disinclination to comply
with these demands. But in Khairpur, Ali Murad, who gradually
succeeded in establishing his hold on the raisati or chiefship, cordially
supported the British policy ; and the result was that, after the battles
of Miani (Meeanee) and Daba had put the whole of Sind at the
disposal of the British Government, Khairpur was the only State in
that Province that was allowed to retain its political existence under
the protection of the paramount power. In 1866, a sanad was granted
to the present Chief, under which the British Government promised to
recognise any succession to the Chiefship that might be in accordance
with Muhammadan law. The present ruler of Khairpur, His Highness
Mir Ali Murad Khan, mentioned above as the youngest son of Mir

KHAIRPUR.

Sohnib Khan Talpur, was born in the year 1S15. II, • i , : • •',
salute of 15 guns.

Population. — The population of Khairpur, according to th- «
of 1872, was returned at 130,350 persons, or 21 persons to e» h square
mile. The Census taken on February 17, 1881, returned the |
at 129,153, there being in the intervening period of nine yean a hardly
appreciable decrease of 1197. Of the total, 70,746 were males, and
58,407 females, the whole inhabiting 25,720 houses. The density
of population remains at 21 persons to the square mile as in 1872;
houses per square mile, 4*2 ; persons per house, 5. In point of
religion, Hindus numbered 26,727, or 207 per cent, of the whole
population; Muhammadans, who are in a great majority, 102
or 79/3 per cent. Among the Hindus were 213 Brahmans, 7 Rajputs,
25,415 Lohanas (Government servants and the shopkeeping da
and ' unspecified,' 1092. The Muhammadans include 12,276 Baluchi's ;
690 Pathans \ 2297 Sayyids ; 1466 Shaikhs ; Sindhis, 77,524 ; ' in
fled/ 8173. The Muhammadans mostly belong to the Rajur tribe,
which is again subdivided into numerous families. The Hindi
inhabitants are principally Soda Thakurs, or Rajputs, who inhabit
the extreme eastern part of the State. They are a well-built and
sturdy race, nomadic in their habits, and fond of a life of freedom.
Their only wealth consists in their herds of camels, oxen, sheep,
and goats. Their chief food is butter-milk or camel's milk, and the
coarsest grain. Sindhi, Persian, and Baluchi are the languages chiefly
spoken.

The Census divides the male population into the following six main
groups as regards occupation: — (1) Professional class, including
State officials of every kind and the learned professions, 2025
domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 1191 ; (3) com-
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 456 ; (4)
agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds, 28,644 ; (5) indus-
trial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 9407: M»d (6)
indefinite and non-productive classes, comprising general labourers, male
children, and 'unspecified,' 29,023.

Trade and Manufactures, etc.— The value of the article! annually
exported from Khairpur to British Sind and the Native Stat
Jaisalmer has been approximately estimated at about 5] Idkhs ot rupee*
(.£52,500), and that of the imported articles at somewhat more than
z\ lakhs (.£25,000). The principal exports are Indigo, wool, <
grain, tobacco, twine, and skins. The imports are rice, wheat, barley,
sugar, and piece-goods. The chief manufactures are cotton fabrics,
such as woven sheets and coloured cloth; silk fabrics, sil\
different kinds, lacquered wood- work, boots, shoes, horse trap]
swords, matchlocks, and earthen pottery for home consumption, A

116 KHAIRPUR.

small quantity of salt and saltpetre is also manufactured. The lines of
communication in the State are very few. Excepting the main trunk
road from Haidarabad to Rohri, which passes through Khairpur at a
distance of about 20 miles from the Indus, and another road connecting
the same towns by a somewhat more direct route, there are no made
roads in Mir Ali Murad's territory. The telegraph runs along the
trunk road. The ferries, chiefly on the Indus, are six in number,
and have each one boat attached to them. They are — (1) Bindu,
(2) Alipur, (3) Saga, (4) Rafidir, (5) Agro, (6) Nurpur.

Agriculture. — The principal grains grown in the State are jodr
(Sorghum vulgare), bdjra (Pennisetum typhoideum), wheat, gram,
various pulses, and cotton. Indigo is also largely cultivated. The
fruit-trees are the mango (Mangifera indica), mulberry, apple, pome-
granate, date, and others. The forest-trees are the pipal (Ficus
religiosa), nim (Melia Azadirachta indica), ber (Zizyphus jujuba),
siras (Dalbergia latifolia), tali (Dalbergia sissoo) bahan (Populus
euphratica), and kandi (Prosopis spicigera). The bush jungle consists
principally of tamarisk j reed grasses are abundant. There is good
timber in the game preserves bordering on the Indus. The kandi
tree grows luxuriantly in the valleys.

Administration. — The rule of the Mir is a patriarchal system of
government like that of the chief of a Scottish highland clan. The
village system has died out in Khairpur as in the rest of Sind. The
gross revenue of Khairpur, collected not in cash but in kind, the Mir
receiving one-third of the produce, amounted in 1882-83 to ^57>25°-
From this about ^17,000 must be deducted for jdgirs or alienations.
The jdgirddrs are mostly the Mir's own sons and the ladies of his
family. The British Collector at Shikarpur acts as a Political Agent
in regard to the State.

There are only two courts of justice in the State ; one permanent,
and held at the town of Khairpur ; the other of an itinerant nature,
always accompanying the Mir wherever he may be. A Hindu officer
presides over the former, and two Muhammadan Maulvis over the latter.
All sentences passed by these courts require the Mir's confirmation
before they can be carried out. The punishments resorted to in the
case of convicted persons are generally fine and flogging, with or without
imprisonment. The punishment of death is seldom inflicted, but the
Mir has the power of life and death throughout his dominions. In
civil cases the plaintiff is required to give to the State one-fourth of
his claim as costs and expenses ; and it is, no doubt, on this account
that but few suits are brought in the Mir's courts, the litigating parties
preferring to have them settled by means of panc/idjats, or friendly
arbitration. Registration is done by kdzis or subordinate officers, and
the documents are attested by the kdrddrs and zaminddrs. In 1882-83,

KHAIRPUR TOWN.

424 offences were reported to the police, mostly cattle thefts. Th<

jail average was 10 1 prisoners. The military force 1 : about 500

men fairly mounted, and armed with swords and matchlo* Its. !

to canals in 1882 cost ^1720. A preventive service t< >pium-

smuggling from Jaisalmer State is being organized. Number of
schools in the State, 6 ; number of scholars, 240. Persian is specially
attended to by Miillas, who, for the instruction they afford, receive 1
pice ( Id.) weekly from the parents of each child.

Climate, Medical Aspects, etc. — The climate of Khairpur is repres
to be agreeable during about four months of the year, but fiercely hot
during the remaining eight. The fall of rain is slight, but dust storms
are frequent, and have the effect of cooling the atmosphere to some
extent. The diseases common to the country are fevers, intermittent
and remittent, ophthalmia, and several cutaneous affections. Organic
affections of the liver are said to be rare. 2850 persons wer
cinated in 1882-83. In the same year there were 2 native physicians
attached to the Mir's camp, while 3 more were resident in Khair-
pur town, to give advice and medicine to the inhabitants free of
charge.

Khairpur. — Chief town of Khairpur State, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency ; situated on the Mirwah Canal, about 15 miles east of the river
Indus, and 17 miles south of Rohri. Lat. 270 31' 30" x., long. 6S'
48' 30" e. The town, which is irregularly built, consists of a col!
of mud hovels, intermingled with a few houses of a better cla-s.
It is very filthy, and, owing to the excessive heat of the place, and the
deleterious influence of the stagnant marshes around it, decidedly
unhealthy. The palace, covered with gaudy lacquered tiles of various
hues, is situate in the midst of the bazar, and presents but feu-
points worthy of notice. Outside the town stand the tombs of two
Muhammadan saints— Pir Ruhan Zia-ud-din and Haji Jafiar Sbihid
The population, consisting of Muhammadans and Hindus, the former
of whom greatly predominate in number, is estimated by some at from
4000 to 5000 persons, but by others as high as 10,000; 11.
was returned at 7275. The population of Khairpur town is not
returned separately in the Census Report of 1SS1.

During the flourishing period of the Talpur dynasty, Khairpur is
said to have possessed not less than 15,000 inhabitants, but the
is now fast hastening to ruin and decay. The trade of Khairpur is
principally in indigo, grain (>*> and bdjra), and oil-seeds, whici
the chief articles of export; the imports being piece-goods, silk, 00!
wool, metals, etc. The manufactures comprise the weaving and d
of cloths of various kinds, goldsmith's work, and the making of fire-
arms, swords, etc. On the present site of the town of Khairpur,
which owes its rise to Mir Sohrab Khan Talpur, there stood, prior

133 KHAIRPUR TOWN—KHAIRPUR DHARKL

to the year 1787, the village of Boira, and the zaminddri or estate of
the Phulpotras. It was selected as the residence of the chief Mirs of
Northern Sind ; and for some time during Talpur rule, a British
Resident was stationed here, in terms of the treaty of 20th April 1838,
concluded between the British Government and the Mirs of Sind.

Khairpur. — Town and municipality in Alfpur tahsil, Muzaffargarh
District, Punjab; situated in lat. 290 20' n., long. 700 51' e., 6 miles
south-west of Alfpur, on a depressed site, below flood-level from the
Chenab, and therefore surrounded by an embankment, which has to be
kept up at a considerable outlay. The town is compactly built, chiefly
of brick, many of the houses being two and three storied. The
bazars are mostly paved with brick, but the streets are too narrow to
admit of wheeled traffic. Population (1868) 2846; (1881) 2609;
namely, Hindus, 1549, and Muhammadans, 1060; number of houses,
271. A third-class municipality, with an income in 1881-82 of
^"295; average incidence of taxation, 2s. 3^d. per head of the
population. The inhabitants are enterprising traders, and their trade
with Baluchistan, Sakkar (Sukkur), Multan, and other places at a distance
is larger than that of any other town in the District. The exports con-
sist principally of wool, cotton, and grain ; the imports of cloth and
sundries. The town contains a primary school, and has a police
outpost station.

Khairpur Dharki. — Town in Rohri Sub-division, Shikarpur District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated about 65 miles north-east of Rohri
town. Lat. 2 8° 3' n., long. 690 44' 30" e. Head-quarters of a tappa-
ddr, with a musafirkhdna (travellers' rest-house) ; vernacular school ;
thdnd police force of 7 men ; and cattle pound. Connected by road
with the towns of Ubauro, Rawati, Mirpur, and Raharki. Population
(1881) under 2000. The trade of Khairpur Dharki is principally in
grain, sugar, molasses, oil, and cloth. The Lohars are noted for their
handiwork in metal pots, pipe bowls, knives, razors, etc. The Dhars,
who were once the principal landowners in Ubauro taluk, are thus
referred to by Lieutenant Lester, a former Deputy Collector, in his
Report (1852) on the Districts on the left bank of the Indus : —

'The Dhars are a race of Musalmans, originally Hindus, who
emigrated from their native country of Tonk Jodah, near Delhi, under
their chief, one Jodh Dhar, and settled in Ubauro. This migration
took place about a.h. 551 (a.d. 1150). The Dhars took Ubauro by
force of arms from the Odhanas, a Muhammadan race, who formerly
possessed it, and Jodh Dhar became the acknowledged ruler of Ubauro.
Alim Khan, the twelfth chief from Jodh Dhar, was the first who
surrendered his independence. He became subject to the kings of
Delhi about a.d. 1634; and one of the first sanads is dated a.h. 1052
(a.d. 1626), by which one-half of the grain produce is allowed to the

KHAIRPUR JUSO-KITAJUII. i.

Dhar chief, and the other half taken by the Delhi Government '

a.d. 1795, the Talpur chiefs, Mirs Sohrab and Rustam, wi

the chief of Ubauro some of the west and south-west part

pargand near Sirhad, and called this acquired territory u

The Dhars were, however, allowed the zaminddri of these I

1817, the Talpurs took Sabzalkot, two-thirds of which wen

ated to the Haidarabad Mirs, and one-third to .Mir Rustam. The

Talpurs continued to encroach by degrees on the possessions of the

Dhars in Ubauro, until one-half only remained in the possession

latter. At length, on the death of Bhambii Khan, his son, Ablil I

was only allowed an eighth share of the revenue, besides zamind \

The town of Khairpur Dharki is comparatively modern, having been
founded about 1787 by the grandfather of Jam Abul Khair Dhar, the
present head of the Dhar tribe. The Khairpur station (n miles south-
west of the Reti station) on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway is
near the town.

Khairpur JUSO. — Village in Larkhana Sub-division, Shikarpur
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated about 10 miles south-wot
of Larkhana town. Lat. 270 31' N., long. 68° 5' e. Population in
1881 under 2000. Head - quarters of a tappaddr ; police station,
and miisafirklidna (travellers' rest-house). No manufactures of any
importance ; local trade in jodr and rice. A jdgir village, held by
Mir Bijar Khan Talpur, a lineal descendant of the Mir Bijar, who was
murdered by the Kalhora prince Abdul Nabi Khan. The /.\
resides in a small fort in the village.

Khairpur Natheshah.— Municipal village in Kakar taluk, Mehar
Sub-division, Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated
8 miles south of Mehar town. Lat. 270 5' n., long. 67' 46' 30" E.
Population (1881) 1767. Municipal revenue ([S81-S2), ^211 :
expenditure, ^104. Police station, mukhtiydrkdrs court, court-In. u>e,
Government school, and cattle pound. Kjdgir village, in the posse
of Mir Muhammad Khan Talpur.

Khajauli. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle {thdnd) in
Darbhangah District, Bengal; situated on the river Dhauri about 12
miles north-east of Madhubani, on the old road from Jam...
Mirzapur. Lat. 260 26' 30" N., long. S50 56' 51" E. Populati
907. Small bi-weekly market for the sale of grain and cloth.

Khajri.— Small zaminddri estate in Sakoli tahsil, Bhanda:
Central Provinces; 6 miles north of Arjuni, on the Gn
Road; comprising 2 villages, with an area of 7 squaw I win

3 square miles are cultivated. Lat. 2 1° S' 30" n., long. So to'E, 1
chief is a Halba, and the population (1502 in 1SS1) consists "Ml
and Gonds.

Khajuha.— Town in YLoxitahsilt Fatehpur District, North VY.

1 40 KHAJURA—KHAJURAHU.

Provinces. Lat. 260 3' 10" x., long. 8o° $$ 50" e. It lies on the old
Mughal road from Kora to Fatehpur, 2 1 miles from the latter town,
and formerly possessed considerable commercial importance. Chiefly
noted at present for its manufacture of brass and copper wares,
especially drinking and cooking vessels. Population (1881) 3492,
namely, males 1682, and females 18 10 ; prevailing caste, Brahmans.
For police and conservancy purposes, a house-tax is levied, amounting
in 1881-82 to ^105. The town retains some architectural remains
of ancient grandeur, including the Bagh Badshahi, a large enclosed
garden with a bdraddri at the eastern end, and a considerable masonry
tank ; the gateway and walls of the handsome old sardi, through which
ran the Mughal road to Agra and Etawah j and a fine Hindu temple,
dedicated to Siva, with a tank known as the Randon-ka-talao. A large
religious fair is held here in October. Bi-weekly market, school, post-
office, and police station.

Khajurd. — Village in Jessor District, Bengal; situated on the
Chitra river 8 miles north of Jessor town. Lat. 230 17' x., long. 89°
17' e. One of the principal seats of date-sugar manufacture in the
District, the village taking its name from the date-tree (khajur).

Khajurahra. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; 6 miles from
Hardoi town. Population (1869) 3305; (1881) 4028, chiefly Chamar
Gaurs, who have held the village since one of their ancestors drove out
the Thatheras. Petty bi-weekly market.

Khajurahu. — Ancient and decayed town in Chhatarpur State,
Bundelkhand, North-Western Provinces ; famous for its magnificent
architectural remains. Population about 900. Situated at the south-
east corner of the Khajur Sagar, or Ninora Tal Lake, 34 miles south
of Mahoba and 25 miles east of Chhatarpur town, on the Sagar (Saugor)
and Hamirpur road.

Formerly the capital of the old Province of Jajhoti, which closely
corresponded with the later Bundelkhand. Hiuen Tsiang men-
tions it in the 7th century ; and General Cunningham attributes to
the same date a single pillared temple called Ganthai, and a high
mound which probably conceals the ruins of a Buddhist monastery.
Numerous inscriptions of the Chandel kings have been discovered
at various places in the neighbourhood. Upwards of twenty temples
still stand in the town, and the ruins of at least as many more bear
witness to its former greatness. On one alone, General Cunningham
counted over eight hundred statues of half life-size, and eight sculp-
tured elephants of like proportions. The inner shrine of this edifice
constituted in itself a splendid temple, and was crowded with figures.
Captain Burt noticed seven large temples of exquisite carving, whose
mechanical construction adapted them to last for almost indefinite
periods. Most or all of these noble buildings must be referred to the

KHAJURI—KHALILA BAD,

Chandel dynasty, who ruled at Khajurahu, apparently from
841 to 1 157. The modern village contains only about 160 I

Khajliri.— Guaranteed chiefship of Central India.

Khakereru. — South-eastern tahs'd of Fatehpur District, N
Western Provinces, lying along the north bank of the Jumna river,
and comprising the pargan&s of Dhata and Ekdala. Area, 215-3
square miles, of which 130-2 square miles are cultivated, 34*6 square
miles cultivable, and 50-4 square miles uncultivable waste.
lation (1872) 87,153; (1881) 78,686, namely, mak
females 39,402, the decrease in the nine years being 8467, 1
cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881— Hindus,
68,865, and Muhammadans, 9821. Number of villages. [69, 1 f which
120 contained less than five hundred, and none over five thousand
inhabitants. Government land revenue (1881), ,£17,847, or, including
local rates and cesses, £"21,028 ; rental paid by cultivators, including
rates and cesses, £25,643. The tahsil contained 2 criminal courts in
1884, with 3 than as ox police stations; strength of regular police, 34
men ; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 240.

Khakereru. — Village in Fatehpur District, North-Western
vinces; situated 29 miles from Fatehpur town, in lat. 250 36' 56 .\\,
and long. 8i° 10' 18" e. Population (1881) 1152, chiefly Muhamma-
dans. A considerable cotton trade is carried on. Ruined fort, police
station, and post-office.

Khalari. — Village in the centre of the Khalari estate, Raipur
District, Central Provinces; 13 miles from Raipur town. The seat of
a revenue manager under the Marathas. The four ancient temples
built of uncemented stones, were raised, the legend says, by giants of
old. At the top of a lofty eminence, crowned by huge granite boulders,
stands a small chabutra, dedicated to Khalari Devi, beneath which is
y early held a religious fair at the Chaitra Punava festival, about the end
of March, attended by 3000 persons.

Khalilabad. — South-eastern tahsil of Basti District, North-W<
Provinces, stretching northward from the bank of the Gogra (Gl
Population (1872) 307,717; (1881) 341,590, namely, males 17
and females 169,964; increase since 1872, 33,873, or 11 per cent.
Classified according to religion, there were — Hindus, 282, |
hammadans, 59,236; 'others,' 2. Number of villages. 1363, of which
1227 contain less than five hundred inhabitants. Ar ;uare

miles, or 349,746 acres, of which 226,265 acres are cultivated. 1
revenue, £^25,336 : total Government revenue, £28.448; rental
by cultivators, £"72,953 ; incidence of Government revenue pet
is. 7jd. The tahsil contains 1 criminal court, with 5 poli<
a regular police force 59 strong, besides 3S3 village watchmen.

Khalilabad.— Village in Basti District, North-Westem Proi

142 KHALING DWAR—KHAMGAON.

and head-quarters of Khalilabad tahsil, situated on the metalled road
from Gorakhpur to Faizabad, 22J miles from Basti town. Except
as the head-quarters of the tahsil, it has no commercial importance
beyond that of a market village, which trades in the immediate neigh-
bourhood. It contains the usual sub-divisional courts and office,
police station, and post-office.

Khaling" Dwar. — Forest reserve in Darrang District, Assam, skirt-
ing the southern base of the Bhutan Hills. Area, 6240 acres. The
maJidl, or fiscal division of the same name, in which the forest is
situated, has an area of 194 square miles. Revenue (1881-82), ^"3219.

Khambhala. — Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar,
Gujarat, Bombay Presidency; consisting of 2 villages, with 2 separate
shareholders. Area, 9 square miles. Population (1881) 890. Esti-
mated revenue in 1881, £600; tribute of ^40, 13s. is paid to the
British Government, and ;£"ii, 16s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.
Khambhala village is situated 17 miles north-west of the Dhasa station
on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.

Khambhalia. — Town in Nawanagar State, Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 220 12' n., long. 690 50' e. Situated at the
confluence of two small streams, the Teli and Cxhi, flowing into
the Salaya creek, about 10 miles east of the port of Salaya.
Population (1872) 9067 ; (1881) 8576, namely, 4083 males and 4493
females. Hindus numbered 7025; Muhammadans, 1458; and Jains,
93. After Nawanagar, the town of most importance in the State ;
it was the residence of the Jam or chief until the death of the
Emperor Aurangzeb. Khambhalia is an ancient town, and was for-
merly a possession of the Vadhels, from whom it was conquered
by Jam Rawal. It contains several old temples. The ironsmiths
of the town are renowned for their skill, and the gunsmiths are
capable of making breech - loading firearms. A tax is levied on all
pilgrims passing through to Dwarka and Pindtarak. Pindtarak is a
seaport under Khambhalia, and contains a celebrated shrine. It is
said that the remains of several ancient temples, now covered by the
sea, are visible at extremely low tides.

Khamblao. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency; consisting of 2 villages, with 3 separate share-
holders. Area, 10 square miles. Population (188 1) 1449. Estimated
revenue in 1881, .£457 ; tribute of ;£73 is payable to the British
Government, and ,£13, 18s. to the Nawab of Junagarh. Khamblao
village is situated 7 miles east of the Limbdi station on the Bhaunagar-
Gondal Railway.

Khamgaon. — Taluk of Akola District, Berar. Area, 441 square
miles; contains 2 towns and 129 villages. Population (1867) 76,726;
(1881) 96,179, namely, 50,558 males and 45,621 females, or 218

KHAMGAON TO WW

persons per square mile. Occupied houses, 1 7,482 ; unoccupied, . - - -
towns and villages per square mile, -3; houses per square 1
persons per house, 5-5. Since 1872, the population of the tdl*
increased by 1 9,453- Hindus number 88,759; Muhammad
Jains, 801; Parsis, 49; Sikhs, 10 ; Christians, 137 ; Jew,, 3- and
aboriginal tribes, 4. Two towns in the taluk have a population between
ten and fifteen thousand. The taluk contains 1 civil and 3 criminal
courts ; regular police, 99 men ; police circles (t hands), 5 ; vill
154. Total revenue, ,£29,304, of which £23,408 is derived from

Khamgaon. — Town and municipality in Akola District, B
Lat. 200 42' 30" N., long. 760 37' 30" e. Population (18S1) 1.
namely, 6718 males and 5672 females. Of the total population,
9337 were returned as Hindus, 2603 as Muhammadans, 87 as Christians,
314 as Jains, and 41 as Parsis. A large cotton market and the
emporium of the western Districts of the Province for opium. The
grain trade of the town is also of considerable importance. Trade-
was first established about 1820, when a few dealers opened shops
and began to deal in glii, yarn, and a little cotton. A branch State
railway of 8 miles, opened in 1870, connects Khamgaon with the
Nagpur branch of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway at Jalamb
station. It is only worked about seven months in the year, from
December to July, during the cotton season ; in the remaining months
a contractor is allowed to conduct a lorry service for the convenient e
of travellers. It is also made use of to a considerable extent for grain
and other goods, being able to compete successfully with ordinary
carts for light loads. Latterly, considerable supplies of cotton have
been diverted from Khamgaon to Shegaon, on the Nagpur branch of
the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. In good seasons, above 100,000
bullock-loads of cotton are brought into Khamgaon. The weekly
market is held on Thursdays, and during the busy season it i
largely attended. A branch of the Bombay Bank is open for bus
during six months.

The town is surrounded by low irregular hills. To the east is a large
enclosed cotton market, having a small building in the centre used
exchange room. There are upwards of 400 public and private wells ;
but the water in many of them has become contaminated, and a large tank
is being constructed (1883) a mile and a half from the town, which it
culated will afford an abundant supply of pure drinking water. Thi
of this work is estimated at ^18,000, half of which will be borne I
town. The public buildings are— the Assistant Commissioner's 1
house; a tahsil ; a handsome sardi ; travellers' bungalow; dispensary,
telegraph and post offices ; police stations ; three school-houses ; market
shed. Of the private buildings, those erected by the I
merchants are the most conspicuous ; of these, the principal are the

i44 KHAMTI HILLS AND TRIBE.

French Press Company's, the New Berar Company's, the Khamgaon
Pressing Company's, and the Mofussil Pressing Company's factories,
which all possess steam machinery for full-pressing cotton. Several
gardens in the town produce good oranges and vegetables. The
Assistant Commissioner is judge of the Small-Cause Court, and has a
Magistrate's full powers ; a tahsilddr is also stationed at Khamgaon,
and there is a sub-treasury. The imports into Khamgaon by rail in
1882-83 were vamed at ^"316,081, and the exports at ^673,148.
Khamgaon is a municipality. In 1882-83, the municipal receipts were
^£1959; expenditure, ^1742; incidence of taxation, iofd. per head
of population within municipal limits. The daily average attendance
at the dispensary was 48 in 1882.

Khamti Hills and Tribe. — A tract of country on the extreme
eastern frontier of Assam, bordering on Lakhimpur District ; occupied
by the Khamtis, a hill tribe of Shan origin, akin to the Ahams. The
seat of this tribe for centuries, and still inhabited by them, is the
hilly country at the sources of the Nawadi river, known as Bar-khamtf,
which was visited by Captain Wilcox in 1826. About the middle of
last century, owing to internal dissensions, a colony of Khamtis
migrated into Assam and established themselves in the division of
Sadiya. Their chief assumed the title of Sadiya Khoa Gosain, and
was recognised by the British Government. On his death, the division
of Sadiya was taken under British administration, and difficulties arose
with the Khamtis. In 1839 they cut off the outpost at Sadiya.
with its garrison of Sepoys and British commandant. This outbreak
was sternly suppressed, and for several years the Khamtis led a
hunted life. They have now resumed peaceful habits, and new
colonies of their tribesmen from beyond the frontier have recently
joined their settlements on the Tengapani and Noa Dihing rivers.

According to the Census of 1872, the total number of Khamtis in
the settled portion of Lakhimpur District was 1562 souls. In 1881, the
number was returned at 2883. The Khamtis are far in advance of all
the neighbouring tribes in knowledge, arts, and civilisation. They are
Buddhists, and in their own country have regular establishments of
priests, well versed in the mysteries of that religion. The majority
of the laity can read and write their own language, the boys of each
village being (as in Burma) instructed by the village priest or bdpu.
The priests carve with great taste in wood, bone, or ivory. The chiefs
pride themselves upon their manual dexterity in working in metals, and
in ornamenting their shields of buffalo or rhinoceros hide with gold and
lac. The women are skilled in embroidery. The dress of both men
and women is marked by simplicity and neatness, and closely resembles
that of the Burmese.

The principal settlement of the Khamtis in Assam proper is at Nara-

KHAMT1 HILLS AND TRIBE

'45

yanpur, and the following description of the little colony j

from the Assam Census Report of 1881 :— 'The colony at Nariiyanpur

affords a good example of the mode of life characteristic of the K:
in Assam. The houses are built on platforms raised a few feet
the ground. The chief's house is a very large structure, 90 feet V
30 feet broad, with the customary deep verandah or porch in I
Both men and women still retain their national costume, viz. a
cotton jacket and kilt of chequered cloth for the former, and f<
latter a blue cloth tied under the arms and reaching down nearly to the
ankles, with a jacket above. Thus attired, the women may be seen < i
an evening bringing in large loads of firewood to the village. Both
sexes have that robust and well-nourished appearance which distin-
guishes the non-Aryan races of Assam from the Hindu, whenever the
former have not yet been persuaded to relinquish their freedom of
eating and drinking. Though professedly followers of the Buddhist
religion, the Khamti laity eat all kinds of flesh (except beef), and drink
strong liquors, but their priests are bound to abstinence. The Bapu-
chang, or monastery, is a large house outside their village, with onlv
two residents, an old man who has lived there five-and-thirty years, and
a young lad in training to be his successor. Their daily meal of rice
and curried vegetables is supplied to them by the women of the v;
The interior of the home is occupied by the carpets and beds of the
priests, their domestic utensils, and a shrine with a red canopy, con-
taining several images of Gautama, one of which is a clay model three
feet high, and gilded, but of coarse workmanship, while another is a
small image of white marble, and both are of the ordinary Buddhist
type. The priests shave their heads, and wear a yellow dress.

'The doctrines of their religion are contained in sacred books written
in the Khamti character, but believed in some cases to be of th<
language. They have not, however, any very definite notion of the
religion they profess. They celebrate Thursday as the birthd
Gautama, or Kodoma, as they call him, but of the month and v
his birth they are ignorant. Their principal feasts are on the full moon
of Asarh and Asin. The common people worship both Kodoma
the Hindu goddess Debi or Durga, but they are not the follow.
any Gosain, and they employ in her service their own priests, instead
of Brahmans. The priests of Debi are called Pomu, while th
Kodoma are called Thomon (Assamese, Upu\ F01 , and

buffaloes may be offered to Debi, but not a duck nor a goat ; the
service of Kodoma consists of floral offerings only. The wor>
Durga, like the custom of burning their dead, is said by themseh
date from time immemorial, but it seems more probable that both
practices have been adopted from the Hindus with whom this little
colony has been thrown so intimately into contact. The Khamtis oi

VOL. VIII. K

146 KHAN—KHANAPUR.

Sadiya, in Colonel Dalton's time at least, used not only to bury their
dead, but to preserve the graves with particular care. The chief man
of the colony, who has adopted the Hindu name of Mani Ram, is the
grandson of the old Sadiya-khoa, whose office was taken away in 1839/

Closely allied to the Khamtis, and, indeed, undistinguished from
them in the Census, are four tribes, known as Kamjangs, Aitonias,
Pani Noras, and Phakials. They are of somewhat inferior status, and
are not allowed to take wives from the Khamtis, who, however, do not
object to taking wives from them. A full account of the Khamti tribe
will be found in Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872),
which has been quoted at length in the Statistical Account of Assam,
vol. i. pp. 309-315 (Triibner & Co., London, 1879).

Khan (or Kan). — River of Malwa, Central India, rising in lat. 220
36' N., and long. 75° 55' e., on the north side of the Vindhyan range,
8 miles east of Mau (Mhow). It flows in a northerly direction through
a very fertile country until it is joined by the Saraswati. It then takes
a north-easterly direction for about 19 miles, and eventually falls into
the Sipra, in lat. 230 8' n., long. 750 50' e. On the route from Mau
to Ujjain, about 12 miles from the source of this river, there is a good
ford.

Khanapur {formerly known as Bidi). — Sub-division of Belgaum
District, Bombay Presidency. The most southern Sub-division of the
District, known as Bidi till 1868-69, in which year the head-quarters
was transferred from Bidi to Khanapur, and the name of the Sub-
division changed. It contains 219 villages, with an area of 632
square miles; population (1872) 78,875, (1881) 79,264, or 125 persons
per square mile; land revenue, ^11,308. Of the 632 square miles,
6267 had been surveyed in detail in 1882 ; 86 square miles were
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder contains
156,669 acres of arable land, 1796 acres of uncultivable land, 1690
acres of grass, 174,534 acres of forests, and 12,664 acres of village
sites, roads, rivers, and streams. Of the total, 36,400 acres are
alienated lands in Government villages. The south and south-west
of Khanapur is crowded with hills and dense forest, the people are few
and unsettled, and, except in patches, tillage disappears. In the north-
west the hills are especially lofty. In the centre, north-east, and east,
the country is an open, well-tilled black soil plain, with many rich and
populous villages. The climate is temperate and healthy during the
hot months, feverish in the cold season, and sickly during the south-
west rains. At Khanapur town, during the ten years ending in 1882,
the rainfall averaged 63 inches. In 1881-82, of 94,727 acres held for
tillage, 36,143 acres were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining
58,584 acres, 2706 were twice cropped. Of the 61,290 acres under
tillage, grain occupied 52,231 acres; pulse, 5722; oil-seeds, 2184; fibres,

KHANAPUR TO WN-KIIANDAKS. 1. , . -

64; and miscellaneous crops, 999. About 20 miles of the \V, *
Deccan line of the Southern Marathd Railway pass from north to
through the centre of the Sub-division, and about 21 miles of the
Bellary-Marmagoa Railway along the southern boundary. In
there were 15 schools in the Sub-division. [Khanapur Sub-dn
was formerly known as Bidi, and it has been described undt a
name in Volume II. of this edition of the Imperial Gazetteer of In dm.
Since the short article Bidi was written, the further materials here given
under Khanapur have been obtained.]

Khanapur. — Town in the Khanapur Sub-division of Belgium
District, Bombay Presidency. Situated in lat. 15° 37' n., and long.
74° 34' e., on the Malprabha river, about 16 miles south of Belgium
town. Head-quarters of the Sub-division, with a population of 3516
in 1872, and of 4016 in 1881. About 1720, Khanapur was a large
entrepot for Goa merchants with drugs, China goods, metals, and
spices ; they were met here by merchants from Hubli, Nargiind, and
Nawalgiind with cloth, cotton, and saltpetre. This trade was destroyed
about 18 10 by the Kittur Desai, who removed it to Nandgar, seven
miles south-east of Khanapur. Besides the revenue and police offices
of the Sub-division, the town contains a school, post-office, rest-house,
and Portuguese mission with a chapel. It is a station on the West
Deccan line of the Southern Maratha Railway.

Khanapur. — Sub-division of Satara District, Bombay Presidency.
Area, 531 square miles; contains 1 town and 90 villages. Population
(1872) 76,783 ; (1881) 80,327, namely, 40,388 males and 39,939 females,
occupying 11,245 houses. Hindus numbered 76,768; Muhammadans,
2989; and 'others,' 570. Since 1872 the population has increased by
3544. The Sub-division contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police
station (thdnd), 1 ; regular police, 44 men ; village watchmen [chauH-
ddrs), 135. Land revenue, ^16,693.

Khanbaila. — Town in Bahawalpur State, Punjab ; a place of some
importance, near the left bank of the Panjnad. Lat. 29° 4' n., long.
700 52' e. The neighbouring country, fertilized by the inundations,
produces abundant crops of grain.

Khandala.— Sanatorium in Poona (Puna) District, Bombay I
dency. Situated about 41 miles north-west of Poona city, on the
Western Ghats ; a favourite retreat of the inhabitants of Bombay during
the summer months. There is a much admired waterfall, distant about
half a mile, consisting in the rainy season of two cataracts, divided into
an upper and a lower fall. The upper cataract has a sheer fall of 300
feet. The village of Khandala is extending since the opening ot the
south extension of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, on whi. li it is a
station.

Khandansa. — Pargand in Bikapur ta/isil, Laizabad (1

i4S KHAXDAULI VILLAGE AND TAHSIL.

District, Oudh ; situated along the north bank of the Giimti. It con-
tains 12S villages, covering 116 square miles, of which 65 are cultivated.
Population (1S69) 70,905; (1SS1) 67,712, namely, 62,542 Hindus and
5170 Muhammadans. Tradition states that about six hundred years
ago, one Khande, a Bhar chief, while on a pilgrimage to Ajodhya with
his brothers, came to the neighbourhood of the present Khandansa,
and, rinding it fertile and uninhabited, took possession of it and
founded four villages — Khandansa, Urwa, Bhakauli, and Dehli Girdhar
— calling them after his own and his brothers' names. The pargand
remained in the hands of the Bhars, until one Deo Rai, a Bisen of
Manjhauli, happened to stop at Bhakauli on his way to bathe in the
Ganges. During his stay, a quarrel arose between him and the Bhars,
which ended in his putting them to the sword and taking possession of
Bhakauli. Subsequently, his descendants made themselves masters of
Urwa and Khandansa, with other villages in neighbouring pargands, of
which, after the lapse of thirty-five generations, they are still zaminddrs.

Khandauli {A'anau/i). — Village in Bhdgalpur District, Bengal ;
situated within a short distance of the Nepal frontier. Lat. 260 26' 5S"
n., long. S6° 49' 6'' E. Although the population is small (1955 in
1881), a large bi-weekly market is held here, which is one of the most
flourishing seats of trade in the north of the District. Since the
opening of the Tirhiit State Railway to Darbhangah, Khandauli has
much increased in commercial importance. It not only exports large
quantities of rice, oil-seeds, mahud, and other country produce, but
imports salt, cloth, spices, etc. for distribution to smaller bazars, and
also for export to Nepal. Since 1S75, Khandauli has been a station for
the registration of traffic with Nepal.

Khandauli (or Ihtimadpur). — Tahsil oi Agra District, North-Western
Provinces ; lying in the Doab portion of the District, along the north
bank of the Jumna, and much intersected by ravines, which intersect
the country for miles from the river bank. These ravines are distinctive
features of the country, which exhibits three separate and strongly -
marked divisions. First, the tract above the ravines, and removed
from their influence, which forms the main area of the tahsil, and the
soil of which is, with rare exceptions, a rich and productive loam.
Second, the ravines and adjacent parts, which are for the most part
sterile ; and third, the low-lying alluvial or khddar tract below the
ravines, and along the river bank. The khddar is often a mere narrow
belt of sand capable of supporting only melons. The ownership in
this tract is, moreover, precarious, as it is liable to be cut away by
constant changes in the river bed. The tahsil is intersected by the
East Indian Railway, with stations at Tundla and Firozabad. Water
communication is afforded by the Jumna, although river traffic has
greatly diminished of late years. There are also several good lines

KHANDELA— KHANDESH.

of road, metalled and unmetalled. Towns and markets are ;.
absent, and there is no manufacture or trade worth mention ; what
there is consists chiefly of native-made indigo and country cloth.

Area of Khandauli tahsil, 277-3 square miles; 201 square 1
being cultivated, 31 square miles cultivable, and 45-3 square miles
uncultivable. Population (1872) 151,454; (1881) 141,267, namely,
males 77,137, and females 64.130. the decrease of population in nine-
years being 10,187. Classified according to religion, the popula-
tion in 1881 consisted of— Hindus, 128,768; Muhammadans,
Jains, 2639; and Christians, 306. Number of villages, 180, of which
90 contained less than five hundred inhabitants. Government land
revenue (1881), .£30,987; total Government revenue, including rates
and cesses, ,£34,786; rental paid by cultivators, including cesses,
,£58,002. The tahsil contains 2 criminal courts, with 4 police stations
(thdnds); strength of regular police, 56 men; village watchmen (chauki-
ddrs\ 331.

Khandela. — Town in the Tourwati district of Jaipur State, Rajputina.
Population (1881) 7949, namely, 4138 males and 381 1 females.
Hindus numbered 6130 : Muhammadans, 1701 ; and 'others,' 118.

Khandesh. — British District of the Bombay Presidency, lying between
20" 15' and 22° 5' n. lat., and between 73' 37' and 76' 24' e. long.
Bounded on the north by the Satpura hills and the Xarbada river ; on
the east by Berar, and the Nimar District of the Central Provinces :
on the south by the Satmala or Ajanta hills ; on the south-west by the
District of Xasik; and on the west by Baroda territory and the petty
State of Sagbara. The District is distributed into the following sc
Sub-divisions, each of which see separately: — Amalner, Bhusawal,
Chalisgaox, Chopda, Dhulla, Eraxdol, Jamxer. Xaxdurbar,
Xasirabad, Pachora, Pimpalxer, Savda, Shahada, Sherpur.
Taloda, and Virdeb. Area, 9944 square miles. Population (188 1 )
1,237.231. Chief town, Dhulia.

Physical Aspects. — Khandesh forms the most northerly section of the
Deccan table-land. The chief natural feature is the river Tapti, whit h,
entering at the south-east corner of the District, flows in a north-
westerly direction, dividing it into two unequal parts. Of these, the
larger lies towards the south, and is drained by the river Girna.
is the long central plain of Khandesh,— an unbroken stretch - I
miles, from Burhanpur to Xandurbar, comprising an extensive area
of rich alluvial soil. In this tract large and prosperous town
villages, surrounded by mango groves and gardens, are numerous.
Except when blasted by the hot winds of the dry season, the fields are
green with a harvest of' various crops. Xorthwards beyond the alluvial
plain the land rises towards the Satp-ra Hills. In the 1
east, save for some low ranges of barren hills, the count:;

150 KHANDESH.

and has in general an arid, unfertile appearance. Towards the north
and west, the plain rises into a difficult and rugged country, thickly
wooded, and inhabited by tribes of Bhils, who chiefly live on the
wild fruits of the forest, and are supported by the profits of wood-
cutting. The drainage of the District, drawn from an area of about
30,000 square miles, centres in the Tapti, which receives thirteen
principal tributaries in its winding course of 450 miles through Khan-
desh. None of the rivers are navigable, and the Tapti flows in too
deep a bed to be made use of for irrigation. The banks of the Tapti rise
high and bare at distances of from 240 to 400 yards across. Except
for two waterfalls, one above and the other below the Bhusawal railway
bridge, the river rolls over long sandy stretches for 40 miles, till it
meets the waters of the Vaghar. During the rainy season the Tapti
is not fordable; the only bridge across it is the railway bridge at
Bhusawal.

Khdndesh District on the whole may be said to be fairly well
supplied with surface water, for besides the rivers that flow during the
whole year, the channels of many of the smaller streams are seldom
entirely without water. In 1879-80, 28,137 wells and 97 water-lifts
were utilized for irrigation. Three lakes have been built or restored for
the same purpose. The four principal mountain ranges are — in the north,
the Satpura hills, dividing the valleys of the Tapti and the Narbada (Ner-
budda), including the peak of Panchu-Pandu (3000 feet) and plateau
of Turanmal (3800 feet), the starting-point of Khandesh history; in
the south-east, the Hati ; in the south, the Satmala Chandor, or Ajanta
range, separating Khandesh from the Deccan table-land, and, speaking
roughly, from the Nizam's dominions ; on the west, between Khandesh
and Gujarat, is the northern extremity of the Sahyadri range. The
Satmala range is dotted with the remains of rock -cut Bhuddist
monasteries and temples. The only cart road across the Sahyadris,
between Khandesh and the Konkan, is through the Kundaibari Pass,
1 5 miles west of Nizampur. The Arva and Galna hills divide Khandesh
from Nasik.

Khandesh is not rich in minerals. A large area is under forest ; but
the want of conservancy rules in the past, and the destructive habits of
the hill tribes have robbed the jungles of most of their valuable timber.
The forest revenue for the year 1881-82 amounted to ^14,200.

Wild beasts are numerous, comprising the tiger, leopard, hunting
chita, bear, lynx, wolf, bison, sdmbhar deer, nilgai, spotted deer,
antelope, ravine deer, and the four-horned deer. At the time of the
introduction of British rule, and for many years after, tigers and
leopards were found in every part of the District. As late as 1858,
tigers were numerous; but since then they have been very closely
hunted, and during the fifteen years ending 1881 as many as 202

KHANDESH. ,5,

were killed. This, together with the spread of tillage, has driven
the tiger almost entirely out of the plains into the Satpura hills in the
north, the Hati and Satmala ranges in the south-east and south, and
the rough hilly country in the west.

Geology.— The geology of the District has been examined 01
far south as the river Tapti. Alluvium and trap are the predominant
formations, the latter in the mountain ranges and hill-spurs. N r
Burhanpur is a curious patch of limestone formation of an infra-
trappean character, and probably included in some ancient lava flow.
South of the Tapti, the peaks of the Sahyadris take a strangely-
tilted shape, with precipitous and long defiles between. A columnar
structure of the rocks characterizes the ranges between Khandesh and
Nasik. Here the hills are covered with a stratum of dark basalt ; and
traces are obvious of felspar, hornblende, and iron-ore. There is
plenty of stone for building purposes in the District, as well as gravel
for road-making. A good quarry near Bhusawal supplies the railway
requirements. Kankar, or nodular limestone, and clay for brick-
making, occur in all parts of the area.

History. — The history of Khandesh, like the history of the greater
part of India, falls naturally into an earlier and a later period. The
early period is the period of the Hindu, the latter the period of the
Muhammadan dynasties. In the case of Khandesh, the early and
partly mythical period extends from 150 B.C., the date of the oldest
rock inscription yet discovered and deciphered, to the year 1295 a.d.,
when the Musalman emperor Ala -ud- din suddenly appeared from
Delhi. The later and purely historical period extends from 1295 t0
the present time. In its course, Khandesh has been successively ruled
by Muhammadan, Maratha, and British masters.

The annals of the Hindu period may be said to commence with the
mention in the Mahdbhdrdta of the hill forts of Turanmal and Asirgarh ;
the ruler of Turanmal is recorded as having fought against the Pan
the fort of Asirgarh is named as a place of worship to Ashvatthama.
Next, there is the local tradition that, from a time long previous to
Christianity, the dynasty in power was that of a Rdjput chief whose
ancestors had come Out of Oudh. The first dynasty of which distinct
record remains is that of the Andrabhityas ; the Andrabhityas were
succeeded by Sah kings ; in the 5th century after Christ the Chalukya
dynasties rose to power; local chiefs followed; and Khandesh was
under an officer of the Yadava princes of Devagiri (Deogarh) when
Ala-ud-din appeared.

The Muhammadan rule lasted until the Manithas captured the
stronghold of Asirgarh in 1760. In the interval, Khandesh was
subject to successive governors from Delhi, sent by the different
dynasties that rose, each on the ruins of its predecessor in that city.

1 52 KHANDESH.

Under Tughlak, from 1323 to 1370, Khandesh was administered from
Ellichpur in Berar. Arab viceroys, favourites of the Delhi Emperor,
succeeded; and from 1370 to 1600 the Arab dynasty of the Farukhis
administered the District. The last year of the century (1599) saw the
coming of the Mughals. In that year Akbar in person overran
Khandesh at the head of an army, besieged Asirgarh, captured the
fortress, and sent the reigning prince, Bahadur Khan, to Gwalior for
safe-keeping. Khandesh became incorporated into the Delhi Empire.
Its name was changed for a time to Dandesh in honour of its new
governor, Prince Danyal. And from this period, a formerly rich,
prosperous, and contented region began to grow impoverished and
distracted.

Khandesh under the Mughals (1600-17 60) was for more than a
century and a half given up to every species of calamity, internal and
external. Before the arrival of Akbar, all descriptions agree in repre-
senting it to have thriven wonderfully. Its thirty-nine sub-divisions
supplied a revenue of over ^200,000, and were able to furnish a
contingent of 6000 infantry and 500 cavalry. The air was delightful,
the winter temperate, the rivers and streams abundant. The land was
highly cultivated. The husbandmen were dutiful subjects as well as
laborious and thrifty workers. In many places the soil yielded three
crops yearly. There was in the towns and villages a busy cloth manu-
facture. In one of its crowded cities — Burhanpur — were congregated
inhabitants of all nations and of every handicraft. Then the rule of
the Mughals was set up. The Mughal governors could not be held
responsible for such natural changes as the years must bring ; but as to
the degenerate condition of Khandesh and its people under the Mughals,
the following picture is extant: — 'In 1609, the English merchant
Hawkins, travelling from Surat to Burhanpur, even with an escort of
about 60 Pathan horse, was attacked by a troop of outlaws. Next year,
the Viceroy was defeated by the people of the Deccan, and the
country was disturbed. The roads were not safe for bodies of less than
1000 horse. The Deccanis made inroads to the Tapti, plundering the
people and sacking Raver and other towns. Ten years later (161 8) Sir
Thomas Roe found the country quite as unsettled. Travellers, when
they stopped for the night, made a ring-fence of their carts and pitched
their tents inside. On any suspicion of danger, the local governor
provided a special guard of horse.'

In 1630, Khandesh suffered from both war and famine. ' One
army after another sent from Delhi, at times with the Emperor (Shah
Jahan) in command, laid the country waste. The chiefs rose in
revolt. After the rains the governor of Gujarat (Guzerat) let loose
a force of 26,000 men to ravage the country and sack the towns. The
rains proved deficient over the country between Ahmadabad and

KHANDESH.

Daulatibad. Areas, before famous for fertility, became utterly barren.
1 Life,' says the chronicler, ' was offered for a loaf, but none would buy ;
rank for a cake, but none cared for it; the ever-bounteous han<
stretched out to beg, and the rich wandered in search of food. I
flesh was sold, and the pounded bones of the dead were mixed with
flour. The flesh of a son was preferred to his love. The dying
blocked the roads, and those who survived fled.' From 1634 to
there was an interval of relief. Todar Mai's revenue system was intro-
duced into the District, to the greater security of the rdyafs tenure
and the State revenue. The land was measured, the produce of ea< h
bighd ascertained, and the proportion to be paid for each field to
Government settled. Trade began to increase over the Khdndesh
roads, on its way to the emporium of Surat. The ways were safely
guarded, the towns and villages made secure. Cotton, rice, and indigo
were largely grown. Burhanpur again rose into importance as a cloth
mart

But in 1670 began the Mughal contests with the Maratha hordes,
which were to end by dragging the District back to a condition worse
than that before its temporary prosperity. The struggles between the
Miighals and Marathas practically ended with the fall of Asirgarh in
1760, and the cession of Khandesh to the descendants of Sivaji. The
period of Maratha supremacy in Khandesh lasted till the fall of the
Peshwa in 18 18. Until that year Khandesh experienced a return of
most of its former miseries.

In 1802, the country was ravaged by Holkar's army. For two
seasons the land remained uncared for, the destruction and ruin bring-
ing on a severe famine. In the years that followed, Khdndesh was
further impoverished by the greed and misrule of the Peshwds. The
people leaving their peaceful callings, joined together in bands, wander-
ing over the country, robbing and laying waste. It was in this state
that, in 181 8, the District passed into British hands. Order was soon
established, and has never since been disturbed.

Population. — In 1872, the population numbered 1,030,036. The
Census returns of 188 1 disclosed a total of 1,237,231 persons, residing
in 23 towns and 2660 villages; average density, 124-4 persons pel
square mile ; houses per square mile, 28 ; persons per village, 389 ;
persons per house, 5-9. There has thus been an increase of 207,195,
or 20- per cent., in the nine years since 1872. The increase is
mainly due to immigration, arising from the large area of unoccupied
fertile land available for cultivation. Classified according to sex,
there were, in 1881, 632,468 males and 604,763 females ; 1 1
tion of males, 51 per cent. Classified according to age, there were,
under 15 years — 261,174 boys and 250,736 girls; total children,
511,910, or 41 per cent, of the population. Classified according

i54 KHANDESH.

to religion, there were 958,128 Hindus, 92,297 Muhammadans, 158
Parsis, 1 146 Christians, 88 Jews, 43 Sikhs, 10,013 Jains, 175,349
Bhils, 8 Buddhists, and ' others,' 1. Among the Hindus, Brahmans
numbered 40,459; Rajputs, 45,869; Chamars, 16,259; Darjis (tailors),
14,220; Dhangars, 27,743; Dhobfs (washermen), 6564; Napits
(barbers), 16,902; Kunbis (cultivators), 337,816; Kolis, 48,307;
Kumbhars (potters), 7041; Lohars (blacksmiths), 7140; Mali's
(gardeners), 49,153 ; Sonars (goldsmiths), 20,102; Sutars (carpenters),
13,000; Teh's (oil-men), 23,178; Banjaras (carriers), 28,579; Mhars,
85,674. Other Hindus, 170,122.

Of the thirteen divisions of Brahmans in the District, three under-
stand but do not speak Marathi ; the remaining nine use that dialect.
As a rule, the main divisions eat together, but do not intermarry ; the
sub-divisions as a rule do both. The entire body of Brahmans are the
descendants of Brahmans from every part of India who found their
way to Khandesh. The Prabhus, a section of the ' writer ' class, are
scattered over the District, most of them in the service of Govern-
ment. The sub-division of ' writers ' called Thakurs, who come from
Upper India, follow some peculiar customs. They never marry their
sons and daughters into the same sub-division. If possible, the
daughter marries into a higher, the son, perhaps, into a lower one.

Besides the general body of cultivators, who are Kunbis by caste,
large numbers of Pardhis — a low caste of wandering hunters and snarers
— and Rajputs have long been settled in the District. Another class
of cultivators worthy of notice are the Giijars, the most industrious and
well-to-do of the agricultural population. Their name, and their habit
of speaking Gujarathi among themselves, show that they are immigrants
from Gujarat. But they must have lived for many years in Khandesh,
as in many villages they hold hereditary grants of money and land.
Most of the traders are foreigners — Baniyas from Marwar and Gujarat,
and Bhatias, recent comers from Bombay. Wandering and aboriginal
tribes form a large section of the population. The Bhils, with a total
strength of 175,349, or 14 per cent, of the whole, are the most
important. Many of them are employed in police duties, and as
village watchmen. But though most have settled down to peaceable
ways, they show little skill in farming. Since the introduction of
British rule into Khandesh, the efforts made, by kindly treatment and
the offer of suitable employment, to win the Bhils from a disorderly
life have been most successful.

The Musalman Bhils are of two classes, namely, Tadvis and Nirdhis.
The Tadvis, who live chiefly in the villages at the foot of the Satpura
hills, are a tall and well-built race, said to be descendants of Bhi'l
women and Musalman men, dating from the Emperor Aurangzeb's
reign. Like other Hindu converts to Muhammadanism, they have a

KHANDESH. ,55

deep regard for certain Hindu deities. The Nirdhis dwell along the
foot of the Satmalas. In former times they were much di\
during seasons of revolt the most atrocious acts were invariably the
work of the Nirdhis. Banjaras or Lamanis, the pack-bullock carriers
of former, and the gipsies of present times, have suffered much
by the increased use of carts and by the introduction of the
railway. A few are well-to-do traders. But most of them live apart
from the villages, in bands or tandds, each with its own leader or ndik.
Forced to give up their old employment, they now live chiefly by
grazing, and cutting grass and wood. The Musalman section of the
population is poor, and employed chiefly as messengers, policemen, and
day-labourers.

The Census divides the male population into the following six
main groups as regards occupation : — (i) Professional class, including
State officials of every kind and the learned professions, 19,636;
(2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 4595 ; (3) com-
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 7276 ;

(4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 273,640;

(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 61,342 ;

(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers,
male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 265,979.

Of the 2683 towns and villages in the District, in 1881, 1133 con-
tained less than two hundred inhabitants; 931 from two to five
hundred; 379 from five hundred to a thousand; 169 from one to two
thousand; 27 from two to three thousand; 23 from three to five
thousand; 15 from five to ten thousand; 5 from ten to fifteen
thousand ; and 1 from fifteen to twenty thousand.

Language. — Gujarathi is in use among the higher class husbandmen
to the north of the Tapti, and it is the language of trade throughout
the District ; but Marathi, the speech of the people in the south and
west, is the language of Government offices and schools, and is
gradually gaining ground. In their homes the bulk of the people-
speak a dialect known as Khandeshi or Ahirani, a mixture of Gujarathi,
Marathi, Nemadi, and Hindustani.

Agriculture.— \m 1881, agriculture supported 820,127 persons, or 66
per cent, of the entire population. All varieties of soil— black, red,
and light, from the richest to the poorest— are found. The agricultural
stock in State villages amounted in 1881-82 to 113,187 ploughs, 75o01
carts, 369,782 bullocks, 284,295 cows, 131,244 buffaloes, 15,949 horses,
252,744 sheep and goats, and 8705 asses. The District contains many
fine cows and bullocks, brought chiefly from Nimar and Benin But
the greater number of the cattle are small and poor, reduced during the
hot season to the most wretched condition. The horses also are small,
and of little value. To improve the breed, Government has introduced

156 KHANDESH.

bulls and stud horses. Certain tracts have, from their rugged character
and unhealthy climate, been excluded from the Survey operations. Out
of 3,455,122 acres, the total area of Government cultivable land,
2,861,910 acres, or 82-83 Per cent., were taken up for cultivation in
1881-82. Of these, 179,962 acres, or 6*29 per cent., were fallow or
under grass. Of the remaining 2,681,947 acres under actual cultivation
(3478 acres of which were twice cropped), grain crops occupied
1,515,346 acres, or 56-5 per cent.; pulses occupied 117,286, or 4*37
per cent. ; oil-seeds occupied 247,390, or 9*22 per cent. ; fibres occupied
759,346, or 28*31 per cent, of which 758,134 acres were under cotton;
and miscellaneous crops occupied 46,057 acres, or 171 per cent.

Irrigation is more extensively practised in Khandesh than in the
Deccan and Southern Maratha country. The principal agricultural
products exported are wheat, gram, linseed, sesamum, and cotton.
Millet is retained for local consumption, and forms the staple article of
food. Indigo and opium, once important products, are now no longer
grown. Thirty years ago, the poppy wras a favourite crop ; but in 1853,
the Khandesh opium factory was closed, and the further cultivation of
the poppy forbidden. On the other hand, the area under linseed and
cotton has increased from year to year. Two descriptions of foreign
cotton, Dharwar and Hinganghat, have been successfully introduced.
Cotton is seldom grown oftener than once in three years in the same
field, whether of black or light soil, the intermediate crops being wheat
and Indian millet. A Government farm has been established at
Bhadgaon. Almost every year is marked by some partial failure of the
crops. The District is liable to floods, the rivers overflowing the
country for a considerable distance from their banks.

Attempts at La?id Reclamation. — Several attempts have been made,
dating from 1829, at a re-colonization of the Pal tappa, a waste tract
in the neighbourhood of the Satpura hills, which is said to have been
formerly well inhabited. At the time of the British occupation in
1 8 18, the whole was found to be an uninhabited jungle, excessively
unhealthy, and infested with wild beasts. It is said to have been deserted
about the middle of the 1 7th century, owing to famine ; and the remains
of ancient buildings show that the village of Pal was formerly a place
of considerable importance. Portions of the old fort and sardi are
still standing, though much ruined; a handsome mosque with a fountain
and reservoir still remain in good repair; and the lines of the old
streets were traceable in 1870. Small mounds here and there mark
the site of an old fort; but most of the villages have so entirely
disappeared that their sites cannot be ascertained. Several attempts
have been made to colonize Pal, or some other village in the tappa,
as a preliminary to the settlement of the whole tract. The experi-
ment is still (1885) going on, but as yet, owing to the excessive

KH ANDES II.

poverty of the cultivators and other causes, it has yielded little or no
results.

Industries.— The Trunk Road from Bombay to Agra passes thi
the District, and of late years roads have been made along i
chief lines of traffic. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway runs for
124 miles through the District from east to west ; Bhusawal jun
is situated on this portion of the line ; and about 25 miles 1
Nagpur branch are within the District. The chief exports arc
grains, oil-seeds, butter, indigo, wax, and honey. The chief ii
—salt, spices, metal, piece-goods, yarn, and sugar. The most im-
portant article of trade is cotton. There are 2 steam cotton ginning
factories, 13 steam presses, and one steam factory for spinning and
weaving cotton. Of late years, many Bombay mercantile houses have
established agencies in Khandesh ; and towards the east, in the ri< h
Tapti valley, Jalgion and Bhusawal are rising into centres of an
important trade.

Among declining industries may be noticed the manufacture
of coarse paper, the spinning of yarn by Mhar women, the weaving
of coarse cotton cloth, and the manufacture of wax bangles.

The internal trade is carried on by means of weekly markets, and a
succession of fairs and religious feasts. The rates of interest vary
from 9 to 24 per cent, per annum, rising in some cases as high as
36 per cent. Labourers earn 4|d. a day ; bricklayers and carpenters,
is. The current prices of the chief articles of food during 18S2 were,
for a rupee (2s.) — wheat, 34 lbs. ; Jodr, 54 lbs. ; rice, 22 lbs. ; ddl (split
peas), 22 lbs.

Natural Cala7nities. — The Tapti and lesser streams are liable to
sudden and disastrous rising of their waters. Six great floods have
caused more or less injury at various periods in the District. These
floods took place in 1822, 1829, 1837, 1872, 1875, and in 1S76. In
1822, sixty- five villages were entirely destroyed by the Tapti, and fifty
were partly washed away, causing a loss in money value of ,£25,000. On
Sunday, 15th September 1872, the Girna and Panjhra rose and s
away 500 houses in the town of Dhiilia. A whole village on the
opposite side of the Panjhra suddenly disappeared. At seven in the
morning the flood was forty-five feet above the level of the river-bed.
One hundred and fifty-two villages were damaged, and property to
the value of ,£160,000 destroyed. Over 1000 persons were on this
occasion relieved by public and private charity. The m
famine on record is that of 1802-04, when the selling price of
is reported to have risen to 1 ser per rupee (is. per lb.). Great numbers
died, and extensive tracts were left deserted and waste. This famine
was due, not to any natural causes, but to the ravages o( Holkars
army, who during two years (1802-03) spread desolation and famine

158 KHANDESH.

throughout the District. Scarcities not amounting to famine occurred
in 1824, 1833-36, 1845, and 1S76— 77. Locusts have sometimes visited
the District, but never in sufficient numbers to do much harm. In
1869, a large cloud crossed the District from north to south, and in
1873 and in 1878 they did some injury to the late crop. Rats in
1847-48 and 1878-79 caused much havoc.

Administration. — For administrative purposes the District is distributed
into 16 Sub-divisions. The total revenue raised in 1881-82 under all
heads—imperial, local, and municipal — amounted to ,£507,320, showing
an incidence of taxation of 8s. 2-f d. per head. The land-tax forms the
principal source of revenue, amounting to £352,564. Other important
items are stamps and excise. The District local funds, created since
1863, for works of public utility and rural education, yielded a total
sum of £33,132. There are 18 municipalities, containing an aggre-
gate population of 148,084 persons ; total municipal revenue, £10,159,
the incidence of taxation varying from 4d. to 3s. 7d. per head. The
administration of the District in revenue matters is entrusted to a
Collector and 5 Assistants, of whom 4 are covenanted civilians. For
the settlement of civil disputes, there are 10 courts; the number
of suits decided in 1881-82 was 18,832. The total strength of the
regular police for the protection of person and property consisted of
1845 officers and men, being 1 policeman to every 670 of the popula-
tion. The total cost was £27,744, equal to £2, 15s. 9§d. per square
mile of area and 5J& per head of population. The number of persons
convicted of any offence, great or small, was 3551, being 1 to every
348 of the population. Education has widely spread of late years. In
1855-56 there were only 7 schools, attended by 715 pupils. In
1881-82 there were 352 schools, attended by 20,815 pupils, being an
average of 1 school for every 7J villages. There are 3 libraries and
3 printing presses for the publication of vernacular papers, which have,
however, only a small circulation.

Climate. — The rainy period extends from the middle of June to the
middle of October ; the cold months from the middle of October to the
middle of January ; and the hot months from January to June. From
differences of elevation the climate varies greatly in different parts
of the District. Very seldom is the rainfall over the whole area
sufficient. The town of Dhiilia, which may be taken to illustrate the
average, had an annual rainfall of 217 inches during the period of
twenty-nine years ending in 1879. The amount varied during these
years from 10 to 35 inches. The average rainfall during the five
years ending 1882 was 27 inches. In the cold season (October to
January), except on cloudy days, the climate is pleasant and bracing.
At Dhulia the average minimum between 187 1 and 1879 ranged
between 400 F. and 5 20. The heat of the summer period is intense. The

KHANDGIRI

average maximum reading at Dhulia during the 187 1-7^ period wa

for the month of May. The extreme maximum was a ltl\

In the Tapti valley ii5°has been reached during a hot and stifling

The general health of the people is best in the hot season, and .
in the cold season. Malaria is rife at the beginning of the latter k
when the ground commences to dry after the rains. In the east and
centre, the climate is trying to Europeans, but healthy to the natives.
In the west, all periods except the hot are injurious to native and Kui 1
alike. The prevailing diseases are fever and skin affections. Seven
dispensaries afforded medical relief, in 1 88 1-82, to 67 in-door and
29,044 out-door patients, and 38,510 persons were vaccinated. Since
1881-82, three new dispensaries have been opened. [For further
information regarding Khandesh, see the Gazetteer of the Bombay
Presidency 1 published under Government orders, and compiled by Mr.
J. M. Campbell, C.S., vol. xii., Khandesh District (Government Central
Press, Bombay, 1880). Also the Settlement Report of Khandesh District,
by Mr. A. F. Davidson, C.S. (1854); the Bombay Census Report for
1 88 1 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports from
1880 to 1883.]

Khandgiri.— Hill in Puri District, Orissa; situated about 12 miles
west of the road from Cuttack to Puri, and 5 miles east of Bhuvaneswar.
Lat. 200 16' N.j long. 85 ° 50' e. Twin sandstone hills, Khandgiri and
Udayagiri, rise abruptly out of the jungle, separated by a narrow gorge,
each of which is honeycombed into caves and temples cut out of the
rock. These cave dwellings are believed to form the very earliest
memorials of Buddhism in India. They are of various ages, and of
different degrees of architecture. The oldest of them consist of a single
cell, little larger than a dog-kennel, cut in the face of scarcely acces-
sible precipices, and with no signs of even the primitive carpentry
architecture. Others of a somewhat later date are shaped into strangely
distorted resemblances of animals. One has from time immemorial
been known as the Snake Cave, another as the Elephant Cave, a third
as the Tiger Cave. This last stands out from the rock in the form
of a monstrous wild beast's jaw, with nose and eyes above, and teeth
overhanging the entrance to the cell. Such cells in their turn give
way to more comfortable excavations, shaded by pillared verandahs,
and lighted by several doors, which again are succeeded by others still
more elaborate. Of the last, the most important is a two storied
monastery, known as the Ram-nur or Queen's Palace, highly s< ulptnred
in bas-relief. These sandstone caves, as a whole, represent ten centuries
of human existence, or from 500 B.C. to 500 a.d. The oldest U
Udayagiri Hill, the more modern ones being on KHANDGIRI, whose
summit is crowned by a Jain temple erected by the Marathas at the
end of the last century.

t 60 KHANDGOSH—KHANDPARA.

KhandgOSh. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (thand)
in the head-quarters Sub-division of Bardwan District, Bengal ; situated
on the road from Bardwan town to Sonamukhf and Bankura. Lat. 230
12' 30" n., long. 870 44 20" E.

Khandia. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 2 separate proprietors.
Area, 5 square miles. Population (1872) 966; (1881) 781. Estimated
revenue in 1881, ,£294; tribute of ^80, 13s. is paid to the British
Government, £8, 2s. to the Nawab of Junagarh, and jQi, 6s. as
sukhri on account of Ahmadabad. Khandia village is situated about
four miles to the north-east of Bhoika thand, and eight miles south-east
of the Limbdi station on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.

Khandpara. — Native State in Orissa, lying between lat. 200 11' 15"
and 200 25' n., and long. 850 1' and 850 24' 40" e. Bounded on the
north by the Mahanadi river, which separates it from Narsinghpur and
Baramba ; on the east by Banki and Puri District ; on the south by
Puri and Nayagarh ; and on the west by Daspalla. The State originally
formed part of Nayagarh, and was separated from it about 200 years
ago by a brother of the Nayagarh Raja, who established his inde-
pendence. The present chief, a Rajput by caste, is the eighth in
descent from the founder. The country forms a very valuable territory,
and is one of the best cultivated of the Orissa States. Fine sal timber
abounds in the hilly tracts, and magnificent banian and mango trees
stud the plain. It is intersected by the Kuaria and Dauka rivers, small
tributaries of the Mahanadi.

Area, 244 square miles, with 321 villages and 12,946 houses. The
first Census of 1872 thus returned the population, according to religion
— Hindus, 57,007, or 93-6 per cent; Muhammadans, 38, or 'i per
cent. ; -others,' 3832, or 6*3 per cent. ; total, 60,877, namely, males
30,234, and females 30,643. Classified according to race, there were,
in 1872 — aboriginal tribes, 3561, or 5*9 per cent., mainly composed
of Kandhs(i596) and Savars (11 26); semi-Hinduized aborigines, 6438,
or io-6 per cent, consisting principally of Pans (3577), Mehtars (1547X
and Kandaras (1064); Hindu castes, 50,840, or 83-5 per cent;
Muhammadans, 3S.

The more recent Census of 1881 followed a different classifica-
tion, and only returned the population according to religion. In
that year the population numbered 66,296, namely, males 33,891,
and females 32,405, showing an increase of 5419, or SS per cent
in nine years. In religion the people are almost entirely Hindus,
that faith being professed by 66,196 persons, while only 60 were
returned as Muhammadans, and 40 as belonging to aboriginal
religions. The principal seat of trade is Kantilo, on the banks
of the Mahanadi, lat. 200 21' 46" N., long. 850 14' 20" e. Popula-

KHANDTARN—KHAND Jl'.l. |6|

tion (1872) 5386. Not returned in the Census of 1881. Five other
villages also contained upwards of 100 houses in 1872, namely, Khand-
pari, the capital of the State, and residence of the Raja, lat 1
50" x., long. 850 12' 51" e., 680 houses. Khandpara had' risen to
the highest place as regards population by 18S1, in which j
contained 5543 inhabitants, namely, Hindus, 5529, and Muhammadani
14. Biengonia, lat. 200 15' 8" x., long. 850 16' e., 211 houses; !
garh, lat. 200 17' 37" x., long. 850 22' 32" e., 158 houses ; Banmalipur,
lat. 20° 16' 14" x., long. 850 15' 12' e., 130 houses ; Xemapol, lat. 20°
16' 10" x., long. 850 16' 14" e. Estimated annual revenue of the chief,
.£2435; tribute, ^421. A post-office has recently been established at
Kantilo, and increased means of communication have been afforded by
the construction of good metalled roads.

Khandtarn. — Town in Champaran District, Bengal. Lat. 26° 40'
15" x., long. 850 5' 45" e. Population (1872) 6207. Not separately
returned in the Census of 188 1.

Khandwa. — The eastern tahsil or revenue Sub-division of Ximar
District, Central Provinces; situated between 21° 32' and 22° 13' n.
lat., and between 760 6' 30" and 770 1' e. long. Area (1881), 2202
square miles ; number of towns and villages, 497 ; houses, 32,009.
Population in 1872, but according to the area of 1881, 138,922.
Population in 1881, 154,000, namely, males 80,842, and females
73,158, showing an increase of 15,078 in nine years. Average density
of population, 70 persons per square mile. The adult agricultural
population (male and female) numbered 61,689, or 4°'o6 per cent, of
that of the whole tahsil, the average area of cultivated and cultivable
land being 1 1 acres for each adult agriculturist. Of the total area of
2202 square miles, less than one-half, or 1066 square miles, is assessed
for Government revenue. Of this area, 482 square miles were returned
as cultivated in 1881, 372 square miles as still available for cultivation,
and 212 square miles as uncultivable waste. Total Government revenue
(1881), including local rates and cesses, ^12,021, or an average of
9§d. per acre of cultivated land. Total rental paid by cultivators,
including rates and cesses, ,£26,155, or an average of is. 7 jd. per
cultivated acre. Total number of civil courts (including those at head-
quarters for the entire District, and the Cantonment Magistrate's
court at Asirgarh), 6 ; criminal courts, 9 ; number of police stations
(including outposts), 18; strength of regular police force, 135 men,
besides village police (chaukiddrs).

Khandwa. — Head-quarters and civil station of Ximar District,
Central Provinces. Lat. 210 50' x., long. 760 23' e. Khandi
perhaps the most advancing town in the Central Provinces. It has a
station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, where the w!
of Central India towards Bombay meets the line. Thus it has entirely

VOL. VIII. l

1 62 KHANGARH.

superseded Burhanpur, the ancient centre of trade between Malwa,
the Narbada (Nerbudda) valley, and the Deccan. Population (1877)
14,119 ; (1881) 15,142, namely, males 8472, and females 6670.
Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus, 10,321 ;
Muhammadans, 3851 ; Christians, 568; Jains, 264; Parsis, 90; Jews,
26 ; Satnami, 1 ; aboriginal religions, 21. Municipal income (1882-83),
^3440, of which ^2386 was derived from taxation, nearly all from
octroi duties; average incidence of taxation, 3s. ijd. per head.
Extensive barracks have been built for the relays of troops who pass
through in the cold season, and also a good travellers' bungalow with a
spacious sardi or native rest-house, near the railway station.

The Arab geographer, Al Biriini {circa 1000 a.d.), mentions Khandwa ;
and a century later, it was a great seat of Jain worship. The mound
on which the town stands has supplied many finely carved pillars,
cornices, and other remains of the old Jain buildings, which have been
built into Brahmanical temples, the walls of the Maratha fort, and other
structures, besides forming materials for the Sivaite temples surrounding
the four kunds or water reservoirs, one of which is on each side of the
town, that on the west side bearing the date a.d. 1132. Ferishta
describes Khandwa as the seat of a local governor of the Ghori
kingdom of Malwa in 15 16. The town was burnt by Jaswant Rao
Holkar in 1802, and again partially by Tantia Topi in 1858. The
civil station, 2 miles east of the town, contains a court-house, circuit-
house, and church. The road to Indore is in good repair.

Khangarh. — Town and municipality in MuzafTargarh tahsil,
Muzaffargarh District, Punjab ; situated about 4 miles from the present
bed of the Chenab, and 1 1 miles south of MuzafTargarh town. Lat.
29° 55' N-> l°n&- 7J° I2' E- Khangarh is the head-quarters of a police
division (thdnd), and was chosen in 1849 as tne civil station of the
District ; it was found, however, liable to inundation from the Chenab,
and in 1859 the head-quarters were removed to Muzaffargarh. Popu-
lation (1868) 3717; (1S81) 3417, namely, Hindus, 1909; Muham-
madans, 1504; Jains, 3; Sikh, 1. Number of houses, 947. Municipal
income (1875^-1876), ^377; (1881-82), ^522; average incidence,
3s. of d. per head. The land around the town is well wooded, fertile,
and more highly cultivated than any other part of the District. Khanpur
is little more than an ordinary village compactly built, chiefly of brick,
with one principal street running north and south, from which narrow
lanes branch off at right angles. The main streets and lanes are neatly
paved. At the beginning of the century it was an Afghan post, but
the town has now outgrown the dimensions of the circular fortification
which originally enclosed it. It has no manufactures, and owes all the
importance it possesses to being the agricultural centre for a fertile tract.
The town contains a grain market, primary school, municipal hall, dis-

KHANIA-DHANA—KIIAXri / .

pensary, and sardi or native inn. Outside the town is an en

ground.

Khania - dhana. — One of the petty States in Bundelkhand,
under the political superintendence of the Central India
It originally formed part of the 'Orchha (Urchd) or Tehri S
the jdgir having been granted by Udet Singh to his younger bn
Aman Singh, about the year 1703. After the dismemberment of
the Orchha State by the Marathas, the Peshwa granted a sana
the jdgir to Amir Singh. For a long time the claim to feudal suzerainty
over Khania-dhana was disputed between the Manitha State of fhansi
and Orchha. However, in 1862, when the Jhansi Raj was extinct, it
was decided that the Khania-dhana jdgir was directly dependent on
the British Government, as it had undoubtedly formed part of the
Maratha conquests, to which the British Government had sua
The chief is a Hindu Biindela. The present (1S83) Raja being a
minor, the administration is conducted by his uncle. The area of the
State is about 84 square miles. Population (1881) 13,494, namely,
males 7089, and females 6405. Classified according to religion, there
were — Hindus, 12,857; Jains, 480; and Muhammadans, 157. The
revenue is estimated at ^2000 a year. The State is in a wild tract of
country, writh much hill and jungle, west of the Betwa river and south-
west of Orchha.

Khania-dhana. — Chief town in Khania-dhana State, Bundelkhand,
Central India; situated in lat. 250 1' 30" n., long 780 11' 30" e.
Population (1881) 1961 ; number of houses, 370. The town contains
a small fortress, which forms the residence of the Raja. It is situated
amidst much hill and jungle. The roads leading to it are extremely
bad.

Khanna. — Town and municipality in Samrala tahs'i!, Ludhiana
District, Punjab. Lat. 300 42' n., long. 760 16' e. Situated on the-
Grand Trunk Road, and on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, 27
miles south-west of Ludhiana town. Population (1868) 3408; (1SS1)
3988, namely, Hindus, 2643; Muhammadans, 1090; Sikhs, 254;
'other,' 1. Number of houses, 1380. A third-class municipality.
Municipal revenue (1875-76), ^160; (1882-S2), ^439 i -
incidence, 2s. 2jd. per head. The place possesses no importance be-
yond being the seat of a railway station, and the head -quark:
police circle {thdnd).

Khanpur— Village in Shikarpur /#/«£, Sukkur (Sakhar) Sub-division
of Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated about 8 miles
north of Shikarpur town. Lat. 28° o' 15" N., long. 6S^ 47' 1 . 1'
tion (1872) 2807, namely, 1849 Muhammadans (principally bel
to the Bapar and Sethar tribes) and 958 Hindus (of the Lohanf caste).
Population (1881) below 2000. Head-quarters of a tappaddr% with police

i64 KHANPUR TOWN—KHANWAH CANAL.

station, musafirkhdna (travellers' rest-house), and cattle pound. There are
52 wells in and about the village. Manufactures — weaving, shoemaking,
and pottery. Trade chiefly in agricultural produce. Road communi-
cation with Zurkhel, Thairio, and Abad Melani.

Khanpur. — Commercial town in Bahawalpur State, Punjab ; situated
on the Ikhtiarwah, a navigable canal from the Panjnad. Lat. 300 9' n.,
long. 710 1 6' e. Population (18S1) 7189, namely, Muhammadans.
4738; Hindus, 2450; 'other,' 1. Ruinous mud fort; good roofed
bazar. The country in the immediate neighbourhood is irrigated, and
supports a considerable population ; but the sandy desert to the south
presents the usual barren appearance of the Punjab uplands. Thornton
says that Khanpur bears marks of having formerly possessed greater
importance than at present. It now forms a station on the Indus
Valley State Railway, 133 miles from Rohri, and 147 miles from
Miiltan. The town contains a flat-roofed bazar, and a ruined fort
200 yards long and 120 broad.

Khanua {Khdnwa). — Village in Bhartpur (Bhurtpore) State, Raj-
putana ; situated on the road from Agra to Ajmere, 37 miles
west of the former and 197 miles east of the latter town. Lat.
2 70 2' n., long. 770 33' e. Thornton states that this village was the
site of the great battle, in 1526 a.d., between the Mughal conqueror
Babar and the confederated Rajput princes under Rana Sanka of
Udaipur (Oodeypore). The latter were completely defeated ; Babar
henceforth assumed the title of G/idzi, 'Victorious over the Infidel,'
and the supremacy of Upper India passed into the hands of the
Muhammadan invaders.

Khanwahan. — Village in theKandiaro/tf7z^,Naushahro Sub-division,
Haidarabad (Hyderabad) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; 8 miles
north-east of Kandiaro town. The population, chiefly agriculturists,
is inconsiderable. Cotton cloth is manufactured for home consump-
tion and export. The town is supposed to have been founded some
300 years ago by one Khan Sahta, a zaminddr. Head-quarters of a
tappaddr.

Khanwah Canal. — One of the Upper Sutlej (Satlaj) Inundation
Channels in Lahore and Montgomery Districts, Punjab, and one of
the most important of those useful irrigation works. The canal
follows the course of an ancient flood-torrent bed, with a cross cut
from the Sutlej. Its origin and date remain uncertain, though tradition
assigns its construction, amongst other persons, to Khan Khanan, a
minister of the Emperor Akbar, who held this part of the country as a
fief. In 1839, the head was reported to be choked up with sand;
and in the succeeding year, Maharaja Kharrak Singh, the son and
successor of the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh, cleared it out by con-
tributions levied from the surrounding landowners. Shortly afterwards,

KHAPA— KHARAKP I rR. , g -

the canal once more silted up, and continued inefficient till i
Maharaja" Sher Singh repaired it at the expense of the Si
has since levied a half-yearly water-rate of [6s. p r acre irri
head-water flows from the Sutlej near Mamokf, in Lahore Distra
the channel runs as far as Dhappai, 26 miles below Dipiipur in
gomery. Since the annexation, the Canal Department has taken
charge of the works, and greatly promoted its efficient w and much is
still being done to render it useful to a larger area. The area watered
by it in 1881-82 was 84,456 acres, and the water-rate levied amounted
to ,£10,095.

Khapa.— Town and municipality in Nagpur District, Central Pi
vinces. Lat. 210 25' n., long. 790 2' e. ; situated on high ground ovei
looking the Kanhan river, 20 miles north of Nagpur city, with which it
is connected by the Chhindwara road as far as Patan-sdongi (14 miles),
and thence by a main District road. Population (1877) 8007 ; 1
8465, namely, Hindus, 6664; Kabfrpanthis, 11 15; Muhammadans,
636; Jains, 49; 'other,' 1. Municipal income (1882-83), £577, of
which £556 was derived from taxation, nearly all octroi duty; a
incidence of taxation, is. 3|d per head. Fine groves surround the
town, and the river and numerous wells supply excellent water.
Melons are largely cultivated on the sandbanks in the river bed.
Khapa manufactures and exports cotton cloth of good quality ; and
imports cotton, wool, grain, European goods and hardware, and silk
thread. Several mercantile firms in the town carry on large transac-
tions by means of bills with Poona and other distant cities. The town
is well kept ; it has a dispensary, a school where English is taught,
police buildings, and a sardi ; and four good metalled roads converge
in the central market-place.

Kharaila (Kharela). — Town in Hamirpur District, North-W<
Provinces. Lat. 250 32' n., long. 790 50' 45" e. Situated near the
Charkhari border, within which lie many of its lands; distant from
Hamirpur town, 40 miles south-west. Population (1S72) ;
(1881) 7633, namely, Hindus, 7300, and Muhammadans, 33$. i
station, village school, bdzdr, handsome temple. No trade or manu-
factures.

Kharakpur.— Town and head-quarters of a police circle (thdn
Monghyr District, Bengal. Lat. 25 ° 7' 10" n., long. 86° 35' i
The pargand which gives its name to the town forms one of the 1
of the Maharaja of Darbhangah. Kharakpur, with some neighb
villages (population 5450), was constituted a municipal union in 1
income, £72, 14s. Extensive irrigation works are being carTM
here under the superintendence of the Assistant Manager »>t the
Darbhangah estate. Charitable dispensary and vernacular Bel
maintained by the Maharaja.

1 66 KHARAL—KHARDA.

Kharal. — Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Province of Gujarat (Guzerat),
Bombay Presidency. The estate contains 1 2 villages, lying along the banks
of the river Vatrak. The Miah or chief, Sirdar Singh, is a Mukwana
Koli, converted to Islam, and observes a sort of Muhammadan and
Hindu religion. There is no sanad authorizing adoption ; the succession
follows the rule of primogeniture. The area of the land under culti-
vation is estimated at 3250 acres, the population in 1880 was returned
at 2841, and revenue at ^"1650. Tribute of ^175 is paid to the
Gaekwar of Baroda, and of £76 to the British Government. School
with 80 pupils.

Kharar. — Tahsil of Ambala (Umballa) District, Punjab; situated
between 300 38' and 30° 53' n. lat, and between 760 34' and 760 49' e.
long. Area, 366 square miles. Population (1881) 167,869, namely,
males 91,856, and females 76,013 ; average density, 459 persons
per square mile. Classified according to religion — Hindus, 110,445;
Muhammadans, 32,286; Sikhs, 25,019; Jains, 105; and Christians,
14. Land revenue of the tahsil, ^12,542. The average area under
cultivation for the five years ending 1881-82 is returned at 160,176
acres, the principal crops being — wheat, 67,753 acres ; jodr, 20,837
acres; Indian corn, 19,606 acres; gram, 10,956 acres; rice, 6443
acres; cotton, 14,552 acres; and sugar-cane, 3006 acres. The admini-
strative staff consists of a tahsilddr and an honorary magistrate,
presiding over 2 civil and 2 criminal courts ; number of police stations
(thdnds), 3 ; strength of regular police, 5 1 men ; village watchmen
(chaukiddrs), 445.

Kharar. — Town and municipality in Ambala (Umballa) District,
Punjab, and head-quarters of Kharar tahsil. Lat. 300 44' 45" n., long.
7 6° 41' i5"e. Situated on the road from Ambala to Rupar, 25 miles north
of the former town. Population (1868) 4884; (1881) 4265, namely,
Hindus, 2503; Muhammadans, 1639; Sikhs, 71; Jains, 50; 'others,'
2. Number of houses, 792. Municipal income (1875-76), ^240;
(1882-83), ;£436; average incidence, 2s. ojd. per head. The town is
of no importance apart from its official position as the head-quarters
of a tahsil and police circle {thdnd).

Kharda. — Town in the Jamkher Sub-division, Ahmadnagar District,
Bombay Presidency; situated 56 miles south-east of Ahmadnagar town.
Lat. 180 38' n., long. 750 31' e. Population (1872) 6899; (1881)
5562, namely, 2852 males and 2710 females. Hindus numbered
4685 ; Muhammadans, 583 ; and Jains, 294. In 1795, an engagement
took place near here between the Marathas and the Nizam. The
general of the latter, being defeated, retreated to Kharda, where he
was completely hemmed in by the enemy, and constrained to accede
to an ignominious treaty. The town contains upwards of 500 sub-
stantial merchants, shopkeepers, and money-lenders, many of whom

KHA RDAH—KIIARIA X.

carry on a large trade in grain, country cloth, and other irl
Kharda belonged to the Nimbalkar, one of the Niz.im
handsome mansion in the middle of the town is now in ruin
1745, the Nimbalkar built a fort to the south-east of the town,
fort is square, in good repair, being built with cut stone wall
feet, and a ditch, now in ruins. The walls have a massive gateway
two gates at right angles to each other. The cattle marked on '1
is the largest in the District. Post-office.

Khardah.— Village in the District of the Twenty-four I
Bengal; situated on the left bank of the Hugh' river. Lat. 2
30" n., long. 88° 24' 30" e. A Vaishnav place of pilgrimage in honour
of Nityanand, one of the disciples of Chaitanya, who took up hi
dence here. His descendants are regarded as gurus or spiritual guides
by the Vaishnavs. Khardah is a small roadside station on the E
Bengal Railway, 1 1 miles north of Calcutta.

Kharela. — Town in Hamirpur District, North-Western Provinces. —
See Kharaila.

Khargon. — Town in Indore State, Bhopawar Agency, Central India :
now in ruins, but once the capital of the southern part of the old tract
of Nimar. Distant from Indore city 60 miles south, and from Mhau
(Mhow) 49 miles south. Lat. 210 52' n., long. 750 43' 45" e.

KMri. — Village in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal ;
situated on the old bed of the Ganges. The village contains a small
church connected with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,
and many of its inhabitants are native converts. A tank called Ganga*
Chakraghata is held peculiarly sacred by the Hindus, and multitudes
annually resort to its waters. English school.

Kharian. — North-eastern tahsiloi Gujrat District, Punjab ; consisting
mainly of a dry submontane tract, intersected by hill torrents in deep
beds unavailable for purposes of irrigation. Lat. 32° ax' to 33
73° 37' 3°" to 740 15' e. Area, 647 square miles. Population | 1
217,371, namely, males 113,398, and females 103,973; average density
of population, 336 persons per square mile. Classified according to
religion, Muhammadans numbered 199,643; Hindus, 15.456; Sikh-,
2209 ; and ' others,' 63. Number of villages, 504, of which 466 contain
less than five hundred inhabitants. Number of house-, a ;.
number of families, 49,496. The average annual area under cultiva-
tion for the five years ending 1881-82 is returned at
the principal crops being— wheat, 108,763 acres; bdjra, 5S.
jodr, 20,455 acres ; barley, 16,437 acres; moth, 1 1,850 acres ; grain.
acres; and cotton, 5843 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, , 1 he

administrative staff consists of a tahsilddr and munsif, presiding
1 criminal and 2 civil courts. Number of police circl<
strength of regular police, 82 men ; village watchmen [chauHa

1 68 KHARIAR—KHARSAL.

Khariar. — Zaminddri estate in Raipur District, Central Provinces ;
lying to the east of Bindra Nawagarh, and stretching for 53 miles from
north to south, and 32 miles from east to west. Area, 1306 square
miles; number of villages, 508; houses, 15,587. Population (1881)
58,918, namely, males 30,474, and females 28,444; average density,
45 'ii persons per square mile. Khariar is said to have been formed
long ago out of the Patna State, as a dowry for the daughter of a
Patna chief. Nearly half the area is cultivated. The chief is a
Chauhan.

Khariar. — Village in Raipur ta/isil, Raipur District, Central Pro-
vinces, and head-quarters of the Khariar zaminddri, situated in lat.
200 17' 30" n., long. 820 48' 30" e. Population (1881) 2170, namely,
Hindus, 1949; Muhammadans, 51; aboriginal religions, 170.

Kharkhauda. — Town and municipality in Sampla tahsil, in Rohtak
District, Punjab. Lat. 280 52' n., long. 760 57' e. Population (1868)
4181 ; (1881) 4144, namely, Hindus, 2565, and Muhammadans, 1579.
Number of houses, 511. Municipal income (1881-82), ^203 ; average
incidence, is. per head. Kharkhauda is an ancient town, bearing
traces of a bygone prosperity, and now gradually falling into decay.
In 1 88 1 the population was decimated by fever, and many of the
survivors left the town, causing the trade to fall off seriously for a time,
but it is now (1884) gradually recovering. The town contains a police
station, rest-house, school, and post-office.

Kharmatar. — Village in the District of the Santal Parganas, Bengal.
Railway station on the chord line of the East Indian Railway, 168 miles
from Calcutta.

Kharod. — Town in Bilaspur District, Central Provinces; 40 miles
east of Bilaspur town. Population under 2000, comprising traders of all
kinds. The weekly market is well attended. The origin of Kharod is
unknown ; but an old tablet bears the date of Samvat 902 (a.d. 845),
and the remains of ancient earthworks prove the place to have been
strongly fortified.

Kharsal. — Zaminddri estate in Sambalpur District, Central Provinces ;
30 miles west of Sambalpur town. Population (1881) 5135, entirely
agricultural, principally Gonds, Binjwars, Savars, and a few Kultas,
residing in 20 villages, on an area of 30 square miles. Kharsal, the
chief village, has a good school. The estate lies at the base of the
Bara Panar Hills, and consists partly of open country with a good soil,
and is partly hilly, with a fair forest growth. The proximity of the hills
gives the cultivators many facilities for storing water for irrigation by
means of dams. The staple crops are rice and oil-seeds. A little
sugar-cane is also grown. Total revenue, ^123 ; Government tribute,
^45. The estate derives its origin from the grant of this village three
centuries ago, in the reign of Baliar Singh, Raja of Sambalpur, to one

KHARSA WAN—KHASI AND JAINTL I II ILLS. , 69

Udam Gond. The late chief, Daya Sardar, was hanged in i860 I
share in the Surendra Sai rebellion. Kharsal village is situated in lat.
210 31' n., long. S30 33' E.

Kharsawan.— One of the petty States in Singbhum Distro t, Chutia
Nagpur, under the Government of Bengal. Situated between i
and 220 53' 30" n. lat, and between 850 40' 30" and 850 57' 15 1 .
The Thakur or chief, Raghunath Singh Deo, is a Hindu Rajput.
145 square miles; number of villages, 255; houses, 5622.
population (1872) 26,280; (1881) 31,127, namely, males 15,496, and
females 15,631; average density, 215 persons per square mile.
Hindus numbered 30,834, and Muhammadans, 293. Annual revenue,
;£i8oo. This State, with others in Chutia Nagpur, was ceded to the
British by the Marathas. The chief is under engagements binding him
to right administration, and his decisions in serious cases are sut>je< t
to appeal to the Commissioner of Chutia Nagpur. Kharsawan \
is situated in lat. 240 47' 30" n., long. 850 52' 20" e.

Kharshan. — Village in Darjiling District, Bengal. — See Karsiang.

Kharsi Jhalaria {Kharsia).— Guaranteed Thdkurate under the
Indore Agency, Central India. There are two Thakurs, Balwant
and Datar Singh, cousins, owning this estate (the family being divided
into two branches), who receive allowances (tankhds) from Sindhia
(Gwalior) and Dewas State, under two joint sanads from those States.
The first Thakurs to whom the guarantee was given were Swanip
Singh and Fatah Singh. The tankhd from Sindhia amounts to ^175,
and that from Dewas State to ^"22. Area, about 10 square miles.

Kharsua. — River of Orissa, rising in the Tributary States, and flow-
ing south-eastwards through Cuttack District till it falls into the left
bank of the Brahmani river, a short distance above the point where the
combined waters of the Baitarani and Brahmani fall into the I
Bengal as the Dhamra estuary.

Kharturi. — Town in Champaran District, Bengal. Lat. 26' 40' 15
N.,long. 850 5' 45" e. Population (1872) 6207. Not separately returned
in the Census Report of 1881.

Khasaura.— Town in Bilgram tahsil, Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated
on the left bank of the Ramganga, 12 miles north-west of Sandi, on the
road to Farukhabad. A well-to-do Ahi'r village of (1SS1) 2520 inhabit-
ants, residing in 351 mud houses. Bi-weekly market.

Khasi and Jaintia Hills.— District in the Chief Commissioneiship
of Assam; situated between 250 1' and 260 5' N. lat, and between 90'
47' and 920 52' e. long. It contains an area of 6157 square mil<
a population, according to the Census of 1SS1, of 169,360 souls. '1 he
administrative head-quarters are at the station of Shu ich is

also the residence of the Chief Commissioner of Assam, situated U
25° 32' 39" N- lat., and 910 55' 32,/ e. long.

170 KHAS1 AND JA1NTIA HILLS.

The Khasi and Jaintia Hills form the central section of the watershed
between the valleys of the Brahmaputra and the Surma. On the north
the District is bounded by Kamriip and Nowgong (Naugaon); east
by the Nowgong (Naugaon) and Cachar Districts ; south by Sylhet ;
and west by the Garo Hills. The District is divided into three
portions, namely, British possessions in the Khasi Hills ; petty dependent
democratic States in the Khasi Hills, presided over by elected chiefs
known as Siems, Wahadadars, Sardars, and Lyngdohs ; and the Jaintia
Hill country, which is entirely British territory.

The British possessions in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, which cover
an aggregate area of 2160 square miles, consist of the following Fiscal
Divisions: — In the Khasi Hills — (1) Jim-mang ; (2) Lait-lynkot ; (3)
Lait-kroh ; (4) Bai-rang, otherwise Wah-long ; (5) Long-ka-ding ; (6)
Mao-be-lar-kar ; (7) Mao-smai ; (8) Mynteng ; (9) Mao-mluh ; (10)
Mao-pun-kyr-tiang ; (11) Nong-jirf; (12) Nong-lyng-kin ; (13) Nong-
bah; (14) Nong-riat ; (15) Nong-kroh; (16) Nun-niah ; (17) Ram-
dait ; (18) Sait-soh-pen ; (19) Tyng-riang ; (20) Tyng-rong; (21)
Tyr-na; (22) Um-niuh ; (23) Mar-bisu (dependency); and (24) U
Tyma. In the Jaintia Hills — (1) Am-wi ; (2) Chap-duk (Kuki); (3)
Dar-rang; (4) Jowai; (5) Lang-fhit ; (6) Lang-soh ; (7) Laka-dong;
(8) Myn-riang (Mikir) ; (9) Mul-shoi (Kuki); (10) Mas-kiit ; (11)
Myn-sao; (12) Nong-klih ; (13) Nong-fulut; (14) Nong-tha-long ; (15)
Nar-pii ; (16) Nar-tiang ; (17) Nong-bah ; (18) Nong-jyngi ; (19) Ral-
liang ; (20) Rym-bai ; (21) Sai-pung (Kuki); (22) Soh-tyngah ; (23)
Shiliang-myn-tang ; (24) Sath-pathor; and (25) Shang-piing.

The Khasi democratic States, covering an aggregate area of 3997
square miles (in some reports stated at 4490 square miles), are as
follow : — Presided over by Siems — (1) Bhawal, otherwise War-bah ; (2)
Cherra; (3) Khyrim ; (4) Lang-kin ; (5) Malai-soh-mat ; (6) Maharam ;
(7) Mariao; (8) Mao-iong ; (9) Mao-syn-ram ; (10) Mylliem ; (11)
Nong-soh-phoh ; (12) Nong-khlao ; (13) Nongs-pung ; (14) Nong-stoin ;
and (15) Ram-brai. Presided over by Wahadadars — (1) The Con-
federacy of Sheila. Presided over by Sardars — (1) Dwara Nong-tyr-
men ; (2) Ji-rang ; (3) Maolong; (4) Mao-don; and (5) Nong-long.
Presided over by Langdohs — (1) Lan-iong ; (2) Mao-phlang; (3)
Nong-lywai; and (4) Soh-iong.

History. — In history, as in administration, the Khasi Hills and the
Jaintia Hills constitute two separate tracts. The Khasi Hills are
occupied by a collection of States, each governed by an elective ruler,
on democratic principles. The chiefs or siems have treaties or agree-
ments with the British Government, and their territories (vide Act xxii.
of 1869, section 9) are held not to be parts of British India. They
resemble the petty States in the neighbourhood of Simla, and are in so-
called ' political ' relations with the District officer. Heinous offences

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

are tried by him, civil cases and minor offences being decided by the
courts of the States. Besides the territories of the stems, however there
are several villages in the Khasi Hills which are purely British, acquired
either by cession, conquest, or voluntary transfer of allegiance. The
Jaintia Hills, on the other hand, are purely British territory, being
that portion of the dominions of the Raja of Jaintia annexed in 1835,
which it was not found convenient to incorporate with the District of
Sylhet.

When the East India Company acquired the diwdni of Bengal in
1765, Sylhet was the frontier District towards the north-east. All
beyond was occupied by wild tribes, who had never acknowledged sub-
jection to the Muhammadans. Among these the Khasis early attracted
attention. By their language and other characteristics, they stand
out in marked contrast to the various peoples by whom they are
surrounded. Securely perched on the plateaux of their native hills,
they have preserved a political constitution to which there is no analogy
in the rest of India. But it was not to scientific inquirers that they first
became an object of curiosity. They possess, on the southern slopes
of their mountains, a rich abundance of natural products, which at an
early date attracted European enterprise. From time immemorial,
Bengal has drawn its supply of limestone, lime, and oranges from the
Khasi Hills. Potatoes, an article of export now hardly second to lime,
were introduced in 1830 by the first British Agent, Mr. Scott. Coal
and iron are found in many places, both of excellent quality ; but the
expense of transport prevents the coal from being utilized, and the
greater cheapness of English iron has gradually overcome the old
reputation of the Khasis as iron smelters.

Even in the last century, the large profits to be obtained from the trade
in lime, known at Calcutta by the name of ' Sylhet lime,' had brought
the English officers stationed at Sylhet into contact with the Khasis.
In 1826, the chief of Nong-khlao, one of the principal of the Khasi
States, entered into an agreement with certain European British subjects
to allow a road to be made across the hills, to connect the Surma valley
with Assam Proper. Several Europeans took up their residence at
Nong-khlao. Unfortunately, misunderstandings arose, and the growing
discontent was fanned into a flame by the misconduct of some of their
Bengali followers. On the 4th April 1829, the Khasis rose in arms and
massacred Lieutenants Bedingfield and Burlton, together with some
sepoys. This led to military operations on the part of the British
Government, which were protracted through several cold seasons. The
last of the Khasi chiefs did not tender his submission till 1S33. From
1835 to 1854, Colonel Lister was Political Agent in the Khasi Hills, with
his head-quarters at Nong-khlao, subsequently moved to Cherra Piinjf.
The inhabitants of the Jaintia Hills, who call themselve

1 7 2 KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

and are called Santengs or Syntengs by the Khasis, have a less
interesting history. They first became British subjects in 1835. In
that year, the last Raja of Jaintia, Rajendra Singh, was deposed on
the charge of complicity with certain of his tribesmen who had carried
off three British subjects from Nowgong District, and barbarously
immolated them at a shrine of Kali. That portion of his territory
lying in the plains was incorporated with the District of Sylhet ; and
the Raja voluntarily resigned the hill portion, of which also we took
possession. The indigenous revenue system was continued, consist-
ing simply of the payment of a he-goat once a year from each village.
In i860, however, a house-tax was imposed, the highest limit of which
was 1 rupee (2s.) per house. This measure of direct taxation was very
obnoxious to the Santengs, and it led to outbreaks, which had to be
suppressed by force.

In the following year, fresh taxation was introduced in the shape of
judicial stamps, the schedules of the income-tax, and imposts upon
fisheries and wood-cutting. The absence of any resident European
officer, and the injudicious acts of certain subordinates, precipitated a
general insurrection. In January 1862, the thdnd or police station of
Jowai was burnt to the ground ; the garrison of sepoys was besieged,
and all show of British authority was quickly swept away throughout
the hills. The Santengs fought bravely for their independence, and at
first were successful in cutting off several small detachments of police
and sepoys. Their only weapons were bows and arrows. Their defences
consisted of a series of strong stockades, the pathways leading to which
were thickly planted with pdnjis or little bamboo spikes. At last it
was found necessary to move regular troops into the country. The
military operations were tedious and harassing. The rebel chiefs were
captured one by one, and the District was declared to be finally pacified
in March 1863, after the rebellion had lasted for fifteen months. Various
measures of improvement were introduced into the administration, and
the Santengs, like the Khasis, have ever since remained peaceable and
contented.

Physical Aspects. — The District consists of a succession of plateaux,
deeply furrowed by the action of streams, and rising in shelves from
one level to another. On the southern side, towards Sylhet, the moun-
tains rise precipitously from the valley of the Barak. The first plateau
is met with at the height of about 4000 feet above sea-level. Farther
north is another plateau, on which is situated the station of Shillong,
4900 feet above the sea ; behind lies the Shillong range, of which the
highest peak rises to 6449 feet. On the north side, towards Kamrup,
are two similar plateaux of lower elevation. The general appearance
of all these table-lands is that of undulating downs, covered with grass,
but destitute of large timber.

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

On the whole, the Khasi Hills are remarkable for the abscr
forest. At an elevation of 3000 feet, the indigenous pine (Pinus I
predominates over all other vegetation, and forms almost pure pine
forests. The highest peaks are clothed with magnificent chin
timber trees, which superstition has preserved from the axe of the
woodcutter. The characteristic trees in these sacred groves are those
of a temperate zone, chiefly consisting of oaks, chestnuts, magnolias,
etc. Beneath the shade grow rare orchids, rhododendrons, and wild
cinnamon. The streams that find their way through the hills are
merely mountain torrents, navigable by canoes only in their lower
reaches. As they approach the plains, they form rapids and cascades,
and many of them pass through narrow gorges of wild beauty.

The forests are too scanty to furnish any considerable source of
revenue. The total area of ' unreserved forest,' i.e. land covered
with timber trees and not at present required for jum cultivation, is
only 150 square miles. Besides a small forest area in the vicinity
of Shillong, 36 tracts are reserved in the Khasi, and 21 in the
Jaintia Hills. An experimental cinchona plantation was established
near Nong-khlao, but has now been abandoned.

The natural wealth of the Khasi Hills is confined to the limestone
quarries along the southern slope. From time immemorial, Bengal has
drawn its supply of lime from this source, and the quarries are literally
inexhaustible. In 1881-82, the total export of lime was 1,598,117
maunds, valued at ,£27,943. The revenue derived by Government
was ,£3837, and the native chiefs received in addition over ^"600.
The quarries are chiefly situated in the beds and on the banks of
rivers ; and the stone is transported by water to the Surma, where it
is either at once calcined or placed in the lump upon larger v
for shipment to Bengal.

Coal of excellent quality crops out at Cherra Piinji, La-ka-dong,
Laur, and several other places ; but owing to difficulty of transport and
the high price of labour, these deposits have never yet been remunera-
tively worked. Iron-ore, in the shape of crystals of magnetic iron, is
found in the decomposed granite of the central axis of the hills. These
are separated from the lighter elements of the stone by the action of
water, and reduced with the help of charcoal. In former days the
Khasis were renowned as smelters of iron. Recently, however, the
cheapness of the iron imported from England has almost succeeded in
driving the native commodity out of the market.

Among other natural products may be mentioned beeswax, lac, and
caoutchouc. Wild animals of all kinds abound, including elephants,
rhinoceros, tigers, buffaloes, mithuns or wild cows, and many varieties
of deer. The rivers swarm with fish j the mdhsir especially is excellent
both for sport and for the table.

1 74 KB A SI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

Natural Phenomena. — Many peculiar caves and caverns are found
in the limestone rock formation, the most notable being the caves at
Cherra Piinji and at Riipnath in Amwi At the latter place the caverns
extend a great distance beneath the earth, one being imagined by the
people to reach as far as China, and a Hindu legend states that a
Chinese army once marched by this route to the invasion of India.
In another cave, the limestone stalactites have been carved into images
representing the gods of the Hindu pantheon. On the banks of the
Kapili river on the Cachar border, at a place called Sumir, there is a
hot spring, the water of which contains carbonate of lime.

The People. — No early estimates of the population exist. In 1881, an
enumeration was taken mainly through the agency of the native chiefs.
The results show a total population in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills
of 169,360 persons, dwelling in 1546 villages and in 35,048 houses.
These figures give an average of 27*5 persons per square mile, 109
persons per village, and 4*83 persons per house. Divided according
to sex, there are 80,543 males and 88,817 females; proportion of
males, 47*55 per cent. Divided according to age, there are, under 15
years, 33,986 boys and 33,709 girls; total children, 67,695, or 39-97
per cent, of the population. The religious classification of the people
shows 160,976 aborigines, 5692 Hindus, 570 Muhammadans, 15
Brahmos, and 2107 Christians, including 212 Europeans and Eurasians,
and 1895 native converts.

As is clearly shown by the above figures, the two races of Khasis
and Santengs have succeeded in preserving to the present day their
primitive isolation, free from the interference of Hinduism. They
still maintain their indigenous forms of belief and religious worship,
and repudiate alike the authority of Brahmans and the entire system
of caste. They have in the Jaintia Hills given way somewhat to
Hindu prejudices so far as regards purity of food. The compara-
tively few Hindus to be found in the hills either belong to the
regiments as soldiers and camp followers, or are attached in some
capacity to the Government offices, or are private servants. Some
of the local traders, too, are Hindus from other parts of India.
There is no emigration, except in the case of the labourers who proceed
southward every year to work on the tea-gardens in Cachar and
Sylhet.

The Khasis occupy a position of isolation among the hill tribes by
whom they are surrounded, in language, national characteristics, and
political institutions. From the point of view of ethnology, they are
commonly classed with the neighbouring Santengs, Garos, Nagas,
Cacharis, etc., as a sub-division of the Indo-Chinese branch of the
human family. Their physiognomy, colour, and physical appearance
would place them among these tribes ; but their language has no

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

analogy elsewhere in the whole of India. It has been described as
'monosyllabic in the agglutinative stage.' The greater number of the
words used are monosyllabic roots; the compounds arc mere juxta-
positions of these roots. The Khasis have no written character or
literature, but traditions abound. The missionaries use school-books
printed in the Roman character, into which the Old and
Testaments, and several religious and other books have been trans
literated. The Khasi political organization consists of a number
of petty States or democracies, presided over by elective chiefs.
The Hindu village community, the hereditary Raja of some neigh-
bouring States, and the military general of others, are alike unknown to
them.

The most curious of their social customs is the importance attached
to female descent and female authority. The husband marries into
the wife's family, the wife or her mother being regarded as the head of
the household. Property brought by the husband to the wife's house
reverts to his own family at his death, being, together with his ashes
after cremation, made over by his widow and children to the youngest
sister of the deceased, who inherits all ancestral property, and property
acquired previous to marriage. Property acquired during wedlock goes
at the death of the husband fo the widow and children, but this custom
varies in different parts of the country, the inhabitants of the southern
slopes and valleys recognising no difference between property acquired
previous to or after marriage. Children here inherit all property. W
there are no children, the property goes, on the death of the husband,
to the nearest of kin who performed the funeral obsequies. Relatives
who do not join in the performance of such ceremonies do not share.
If the children are minors, and incapable of performing the funeral
ceremonies, the property becomes temporarily alienated to the relatives
who perform the same, but passes to the children when grown up, on
payment of the expenses incurred by the relatives.

The Khasis still maintain their aboriginal forms of belief, and
repudiate alike the authority of Brahmans, and the entire system <>i
caste. To some extent, however, they have given way to Hindu
prejudices in the matter of purity of food. The ashes of the dead are
buried under cromlechs or dolmens, consisting of four upright slabs of
stones covered over by a fifth slab. [A fuller account of the Khasi
tribe will be found in Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 54-58
(Calcutta, 1872), and in the Statistical Account of Assam, vol. li. pp.
215-220 (London, Triibner & Co., 1879).]

Condition of the People.— Both. Khasis and Santengs are a prosperous
people. Adult males earn as much as a shilling a day as common
labourers, and adult females as much as eightpence. The dwellings <>t
the well-to-do classes are generally constructed of masonry, with a

1 76 KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

thatched roof and a plank floor, and divided into two or three rooms.
The furniture consists of a rough bedstead, a seat or two, some cooking
utensils, and a few boxes. The ordinary peasants and poorer classes
construct their huts of stone, mud or plank walls, with a thatch or cane
roof. They are fitted with wooden platforms or loose planks placed on
the ground to serve as beds.

The food of the well-to-do classes consists of rice, fish, fowl, or
meat, curry, vegetables, oil, hog's lard, and fermented or spirituous
liquor ; the expenses of an average-sized household being estimated at
about £2, 1 os. per month. An ordinary husbandman or labourer lives
on rice, dry fish, occasionally a little meat, oil, or hog's lard ; the esti-
mated cost of living for an averaged-sized household being about 16s.
per month. The few Hindus found in the hills are mere temporary
residents, engaged in civil and military employ, who always contem-
plate returning to their own homes. The traders are for the most part
natives of the hills; for the Marwari merchants, who penetrate into
every other corner of Assam, have been able to obtain no footing here
in the face of Khasi competition.

The only places in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills larger than villages
are the two British stations of Shillong and Jowai, and the native
towns of Cherra Punji and Shella Punji. Cherra Piinji was the
chief civil station in the District until 1864, and it is still the
centre of the operations of the Welsh Calvinistic Mission. In 1864,
the District head-quarters were removed to Shillong, which was selected
in 1874 as the permanent seat of the local government of Assam.
According to the enumeration of 1881, Shillong then contained 3640
inhabitants. A good cart-road was opened up between Gauhati in the
Brahmaputra valley and Shillong a few years ago, afterwards extended
to Cherra Piinji, to which place it was opened throughout in January
1883. Large sums of money have also been expended on the erection
of public buildings in Shillong. Sanitation is carefully attended to, and
an excellent supply of water is conveyed into the town by means of an
aqueduct. A project for the supply of a perfectly pure drinking supply
to the station was completed in 1883 from a stream running from the
high range behind it. Such a supply has also been provided for
the cantonments, and for the fast-growing Khasi suburb of Maokhor,
which lies to the north of the civil station. Shillong is now supplied
with as pure and abundant a water-supply as any station in India.
Jowai is the residence of the Assistant Commissioner of the Jaintia
Hills.

Agriculture. — The chief cereal crop cultivated by the Khasis is rice,
but even of this they do not grow sufficient for their own consumption.
The rice crop is cultivated in two ways — (1) on low marshy land, which
can be regularly irrigated by means of artificial channels cut from the

KHAS1 AND JAINTJA HILLS. , - -

adjoining hill streams; (2) on high lands, where the grass and low
jungle have been previously cut down and burned on the 8]
crops grown for food are Indian corn, millet, 'Job's tears,1 pulses, and
an esculent tuberous root called soh-phlang, resembling a small ;

Pan or betel-leaf and supdri or betel-nut are largely grown, bcX
consumption and export. The following four crops are cultiva:
large quantities, chiefly for exportation to Bengal:— (1) Potato
oranges, (3) pine-apples, (4) tezpdt or bay-leaves. Sugar-cane
in some places, and cotton in the lower hills towards the Brahmaputra
valley. Potatoes were first introduced into the hills in 1830. In
1876-77, the export of potatoes was estimated at 74S0 tons, valued at
,£50,125. Orange, limes, and pine-apples are grown to great perfec-
tion on the southern slopes of the hills, whence Calcutta draws its
supply of these fruits. In 1876-77, the export of oranges was valued
at .£3760, and of pine-apples at ,£8oo.

In the Jaintia Hills the use of the plough is common, but in the
Khasi Hills no agricultural implement is to be seen except the
hoe. Manure in the form of cow-dung is generally used for rice
and potatoes. Irrigation is regularly practised, the water being
brought to the land by means of channels cut from the numerous hill
streams in the neighbourhood of the fields. Wells and tanks are
unknown. The total area under cultivation is estimated at only 302
square miles, but an additional 3882 square miles are cultivable. The
principal crops are thus distributed — rice, 59,880 acres; other food-grains,
57,820 acres; potatoes, 33,880 acres ; cotton, 1076 acres; tea, 224 acres.
The average out-turn per acre is returned at 6 cwt. of rice, 2 cwt. of other
food-grains, 40 cwt. of potatoes, and \\ cwt. of cotton. The relations
of landlord and tenant do not exist throughout the hills. The land
is the absolute property of the cultivators, who occupy and cultivate
their hereditary lands, and who pay no rent or revenue either to the
British Government or to their own chiefs. Natural calamities, such
as blight, flood, or drought, are almost unknown, and have never
occurred on such a scale as to affect the general harvest. The price
of rice is directly determined by the rates ruling in the neighbouring
markets of Sylhet and Kamriip, from which the larger portion of the
food supply is drawn.

Comnierce, etc. — The trade of the Khasi Hills is very considerable.
This tract possesses almost a monopoly of certain valuable prod
and the natives, who are notoriously keen at a bargain, retain all the
profits in their own hands. According to estimates carefully compiled
by the Deputy Commissioner, the exports in 1876-77 were vah:
,£160,000, chiefly potatoes, limestone, cotton, stick-lac, tezpdt or bay-
leaves, oranges, betel-nuts, and betel-leaves. The imports were valued
at .£157,000, chiefly rice, dry fish, cotton, cloth, salt, wheat-flour,

VOL. VIII. M

1 7 8 KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

tobacco, oil, and ghi. By far the greater portion of the trade is con-
ducted at a row of markets along the southern foot of the hills, of
which Chhatak on the Surma, in Sylhet District, is the most important.
The trade on the Kamriip side is comparatively small, except for the
importation of rice.

The chief means of communication in the District is the road opened
in 1877 f°r wheeled traffic from Gauhati to Shillong, on the Brahma-
putra. This road is 64 miles in length, and its construction is described
as a model of engineering skill. It has since been extended to
Cherra Piinji, a further distance of about 30 miles, and is open for
wheeled traffic throughout. There are seven other roads through the
hills, maintained at the public expense. These are — (1) Shillong to
Sohrarim via Laitlyngkot ; (2) Shillong to Jowai j (3) Jowai to Jaintia-
pur ; (4) Jowai to Nurtiang ; (5) Shillong to Sympur ; (6) Shillong to
Nongstoin ; (7) Maophlang to Jirang via Nong-khlao. The manufac-
tures of the District are insignificant. Besides a decaying business in
iron-smelting, they comprise coarse cotton and randia cloth, plain silver-
work, rude implements of husbandry, netted bags made of pine-apple
fibre, common pottery, mats, and baskets.

Administration. — The Khasi and Jaintia Hills constitute a Political
Agency, independent of the ordinary jurisdiction. The British territory,
which consists of the whole of the Jaintia Hills, the stations of Shillong
and Cherra Piinji, and a number of villages in the Khasi Hills, is
administered under a special code by the Deputy Commissioner and
his Assistants. The Khasi petty States, 25 in number, are presided
over by elective chiefs, variously styled Seims, Wahadadars, Sardars,
and Langdohs. These chiefs have jurisdiction over their own sub-
jects in all cases except homicide. The British Government undertakes
the management of the natural products of the country, such as lime,
coal, timber, and elephants, and pays over to the chiefs a half share
of the profits. Their other sources of revenue are market dues, court
fines, and various cesses. Their aggregate income is approximately
estimated at ^3200, of which about .£600 is derived from lime
quarries.

In 1881-82, the total revenue of the District to the British Govern-
ment amounted to ^10,700, of which the larger portion came from
royalties on lime quarries and the house-tax ; the expenditure in the
same year was ,£10,91 7. The house-tax is levied throughout the
Jaintia Hills, and from the British villages in the Khasi Hills, at the
rate of 2s. or 4s. per house ; in 1881-82, the total realized was £1660.
The land-tax is applied to some petty holdings in the Jaintia Hills, a
few building sites at Jowai and Cherra Piinji, and the waste land grants
at the foot of the Jaintia Hills towards Sylhet; the total is only ^197
a year, derived from 34 estates. In 1881-82, there were 4 magisterial

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS.

and 3 civil courts in the District, and 2 European officers. 'I be
quarters of a regiment of Assam Light Infantry arc .stationed al
long, with an outpost at Jowai. For police purposes, the District is
divided into 3 thdnds or police circles, with 2 outposts. In
the regular police force numbered 168 men of all ranks, maintained
at a total cost of ^2854. These figures show 1 policeman to
36*68 square miles of area, or to every 1008 persons of the population;
the cost being 9s. 3d. per square mile and 4d. per head. The adminis-
tration of justice is mainly conducted in criminal cases by the petty
chiefs, and in civil cases before panchdyats or indigenous courts of
arbitration ; only heinous crimes or important suits are referred to the
British officers. In 1881, the number of offences reported was 172;
the number of persons tried was 180, of whom 132 or 73-34 per cent,
were convicted. The civil cases tried before the courts numbered 101.
There is a jail at Shillong. In 1881, the daily average number of
prisoners was 43'28> of whom 2-70 were females. The total expenditure
■as ^732, or an average of ^15, 18s. for each prisoner.

The management of education in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills is
chiefly in the hands of the Welsh Calvinistic Mission, whose efforts
have been rewarded by most satisfactory results. In 1874-75, the
total number of schools open in the District was 73, attended by 1666
pupils, which by 1881-82 had increased to 107 schools, attended by
2551 pupils, being 1 school to every 57 square miles, and 1 pupil to
every 66 inhabitants. The total expenditure on education in the latter
year was ^3806, towards which Government contributed ^1586 ; the
average cost per pupil waspfi, 9s. iod. English is taught in 46 schools
out of the 107. The Normal School for higher instruction was attended
by 44 pupils, of whom 9 were girls. The number of girls attending
school increased from 344 in 1874-75 to 742 in 1881, showing 8-35
pupils to every thousand of the female population.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills is mild
and equable, though in some parts excessively humid. At Shillong, the
thermometer rarely exceeds 8o° F., and has been known to fall t<
Hoar frost lies on the ground almost every morning during the months
of December, January, and February. Shallow water occasionally
freezes over, but snow never falls. The rainfall at Cherra PiSnji is
enormous. The average during the 25 years ending 1881 is returned
at 489 inches ; and 805 inches are said to have fallen In 1861, including
366 inches in the single month of July. At Shillong, where the clouds
rolling up from the plains of Bengal have already spent their for
three intervening ridges, the annual rainfall declines to an avera
about 88 inches; and at Jowai, which occupies an intermediate
position, the average is 362 inches. The rainy season is confine i to
the five months from May to November. The District is liable to

1 80 KHASOR—KHA TAX HILLS.

shocks of earthquake, one of which, in 1875, did much damage to the
houses in Shillong.

Generally speaking, the climate of the hills is healthy, both for
natives and Europeans. Malarious fevers do not exist, except in the
marshy strip or tardi on the northern frontier. Cholera never prevails,
unless directly imported from the plains. The chief diseases are fevers
of a typhoid character, or at least engendered by insanitary conditions
of life ; small-pox, dysentery, and bowel complaints. Europeans on
first arriving at Shillong frequently suffer from disorders of the liver ;
but afterwards enjoy excellent health, when they have once passed
through a short period of acclimatizing indisposition. European
children thrive remarkably. Except in the case of Shillong, no regard
is paid to the requirements of conservancy in any Khasi village. The
collection of vital statistics was commenced in the District in 1882 in
certain representative areas. The charitable dispensary at Shillong was
attended in 1881 by 10 1 in-door and 1133 out-door patients. The
total expenditure was ^306, towards which Government contributed
;£i2o. [For further information regarding the Khasi and Jaintia
Hills, see the Statistical Account of Assam, vol. ii. pp. 203-255 (London,
Triibner & Co., 1879). Also Memorandum on the Revenue Adminis-
tration of the Lower Provi?ues of Bengal, by D. J. M'Neill, Esq., 1873,
p. 33 ; the Assam Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Admi-
nistration and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.]

Khasor. — Range of hills in Dera Ismail Khan District, Punjab. —
See Khisor.

Khatak Hills. — A range or series of ranges in Kohat and Peshawar
District, Punjab ; so called from the Afghan tribe who inhabit them.
They bound Peshawar District to the south, and extend from the
Sufed Koh system to the Indus. In Kohat they consist of an intricate
network of barren and almost perpendicular ridges, intersected by deep
valleys, whose sides are clothed with jungle and scored by innumerable
ravines. Patches of cultivation, however, nestle in the open glades,
while occasional clumps of acacia and wild olive relieve the sterile
monotony of the bare gorges. The Teri Toi river divides the system
into two main groups, the southern of which contains the famous salt
mines of Narri, Bahadur Khel, and Kharrak ; while the mines of
Malgin and Jatta lie among the spurs of the northern range. The
peaks of the south-eastern group seldom exceed 3000 feet ; but Swanai
Sir, in the opposite range, has an elevation of 4785 feet above sea-
level.

The salt, which gives these mountains their chief importance,
occurs as a solid rock, uncovered and exposed in many places, so
as to be quarried rather than mined. The deposit may probably
rank as one of the largest in the world. It has a bluish-grey colour,

KHA TA O—KHA TMAND U. , 8 ,

but grinds white. Large quantities are exported to the Punjab
towns, to Afghanistan, and to the surrounding countries generally.
The Government Preventive Establishment consisted in 1872 of 204
persons, maintained at a total annual cost of ^1678. The
quantity of salt extracted from the five mines in 1870-71 amounted to
407,098 itiannds, and the duty realized was ,£8556. In 1882-83, the
annual out-turn was returned at 416,616 maunds. The head-quarters
of the salt establishment are at Jatta.

The Khatak hills on the border of Peshawar District have an average
height of about 3000 feet above sea-level, but the highest peak, that
of Jawala Sir, close to the sanitarium of Charat, reaches an elevation
of 5 1 10 feet. The celebrated shrine of Kaka Sahib is situated in
Peshawar District, at the foot of these hills, and forms the head-
quarters of the powerful clan of Kaka Khels, descendants of Shaikh
Rahim Kar, a Khatak. They are venerated by the other inhabitants
as holy men, and travel to all parts of Central Asia as traders. The
Mir Kalan pass runs through these hills, and a wide road has been
made for military purposes. A bungalow is situated on the Kohat
side. Slate is found in considerable quantities at the foot of the hills.

Khatao. — Sub - division of Satara District, Bombay Presidency.
Area, 497 square miles; number of villages, 84. Population (1872)
66,104; (1881) 74,027, namely, 36,839 males and 37,188 females.
Hindus numbered 71,327; Muhammadans, 2072; and 'others,' 628.
Contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police station (t/idna), 1 ; regular
police, 56 men; village watchmen, 214. Land revenue, ^15, 49°-

Khatauli. — Commercial town in Jansath tahsil, Muzaffarnagar
District, North-Western Provinces. Distant from Muzaffarnagar town
13I miles south. Lat. 290 17' N., long. 770 46' 10" E. Population
(1872) 6409; (1881) 7574, namely, 3342 Hindus, 3601 Muham-
madans, 628 Jains, and 3 Christians. Area of town site, 76 acres.
Khatauli is a place of increasing importance as a mart for the
exchange of country produce, and is a station on the Sind, Punjab, and
Delhi Railway. There are four Jain temples, and the Jain inhabitants
are thriving grain dealers. It contains a good bazar, with a well-paved
road; good communications with the surrounding country. For ;
and sanitary purposes, a house-tax is levied. Police station, post-office,
school, and encamping ground.

Khatmandu (K&thm&ndti).— Capital of the Native State of Nepal ;
situated towards the western side of the valley, about a mile from the
base of Mount Nagarjun, standing on the east bank of the Vishnumatl
river at its junction with the Baghmati; approximate latitude 27 4- *■>
longitude 850 12' e. The population is estimated by the State autho-
rities at 50,000, occupying about 5000 houses, which are usually from
two to four storeys high, made of brick, and tiled or (in the suburbs)

1 82 KHATMANDU.

thatched ; many houses possess large projecting wooden windows or
balconies, often richly carved. The majority of the inhabitants belong
to the Newar class, half of whom are Buddhists. The Gurkhas form
but an inconsiderable minority. There are many small open spaces in
various parts of the town, paved, like the streets, with brick and stone ;
in these the markets are held, and Dr. Wright {History of Nepal, 1877)
notices that in the mornings these places are quite gay with the flowers,
fruit, and vegetables exposed for sale. The general shape of the city is
very irregular, but it is said by the Hindus to resemble the khora or
sword of the goddess Devi, while the Buddhist Newars declare it to
have been built after the shape of the sword of the great founder of
the city, Manjiisri. They state that the handle or blunt extremity of
this traditionary sword is directed to the south, towards the confluence
of the Baghmati and Vishnumati rivers, while its apex points to the
north, where it terminates in the suburb of Timmale, which stretches
round or rests upon it as the chhattra or cloth does upon the point of
Manjiisri's sword. Khatmandu is said to have been founded by Raja
Gunakdmadeva about a.d. 723.

The greatest length of the city from north to south is about a mile,
and its breadth varies from one-fourth to one-third of a mile. The
Vishnumati is crossed by two masonry bridges, over one of which runs
the road from the city to the arsenal and parade-ground, and over the
other the direct road to the temple of Shambunath. The earliest name
by which the city was known was Manju Patan, after Manjiisri, its
traditional founder. Its modern name is said to be derived from an
ancient building which stands in the heart of the city near the royal
palace, and which is still known among the Newars as Kathmandu,
from kdth, ' wood ' (of which material it is chiefly composed), and
mandi or inandon, an 'edifice,' 'house,' or 'temple.' This building
was erected by Raja Lachmina Singh Mai, a.d. 1596, not as a temple
(though there are some figures of Siva inside it), but as a house of
accommodation for religious mendicants, and it has always been used
for that purpose. The walls of the city have been allowed to fall into
decay, and in many places are now hardly distinguishable. Many of
the gateways, of which there were thirty-two, are still standing, but the
gates themselves have long since disappeared. There are said to be
thirty-two small squares or tolas in the city, of which the following only
are now of importance : Assan told, Indra Chauk, Khatmandu, Toba
told, Laghan told, and the square in front of the Darbdr or royal
palace.

The Daibdr covers a considerable extent of ground, in the form
of an irregular quadrangle. To the north it is partly open to the
city, and is flanked by the lofty Taliju temple. At the southern
end is the council-chamber, the Basantpur, and the long modern

KHATMANDU. ,

Darbdr or public reception room. On the east it encloses the
garden and stables, and on the west, which is its principal front, it it
open to the street, and forms one side of a rambling irregular square,
in which are clustered together a number of Hindu temples, originally
built by the Newars. Opposite the north-west corner of the J <
is the K6t, or military council-chamber, in which was enacted the
massacre of 1846. The Kot-ling, Dhunsar, and other courts of law-
are also situated around the western front of the Darbdr. Several of
the SardaVs have, during the last few years, built large houses in
different parts of the city, which, from their imposing appearance,
contrast very strongly with the humble and dirty Newar dwellings in
their neighbourhood.

Dr. Wright gives the following description of the chief objects of
interest at Khatmandu : —

' In the centre of the town stands the Maharaja's palace, which is
a huge, rambling, ungainly building. Part of it is very old, built in
pagoda fashion, and covered with elaborate and grotesque carvings.
Other parts of it, such as the Darbdr room, have been built within the
last ten years, and possess glass windows, which are rare in N
being found only in the houses of the wealthiest. In the square in
front of the palace are numerous handsome temples. Many of these
are like pagodas, of several storeys in height, and profusely ornamented
with carvings, painting, and gilding. The roofs of many of them are
entirely of brass or copper gilt, and along the eaves of the different
storeys are hung numerous little bells, which tinkle in the breeze.
At some of the doorways are placed a couple of large stone lions or
griffins, with well-curled manes, which remind one strongly of the
figures found at Nineveh.

'Another description of temple is built of stone, with pillars and a
dome. Though less ornamented and less picturesque, this style is
far more graceful than the other. Close to the palace, on the north,
is the temple of Taliju, one of the largest of the pagoda type. It is
said to have been built by Raja Mahendra Male, about a.d. 1549.
It is devoted entirely to the use of the royal family. In front of
several of the temples are tall monoliths, some surmounted by
figures of old Rajas, who founded the temples, others by the winged
figure of Garur. The figures are often in a kneeling posture, fat ing a
temple, and are generally overhung by a brazen snake, on whose
is perched a little bird. Not far from the palace, and close to one of
the temples, is an enormous bell, suspended to stone pillars ; ami in
another building are two huge drums, about eight feet in diameter.
The bell is sounded by pulling the tongue, but the peal is by
no means what might be expected from its size. Here, too,
several huge and hideous figures of Hindu gods and goddc

i84 KHATMANDU.

which on festival days are dressed up and ornamented in the usual
way.

'About 200 yards from the palace stands a large semi -European
building, called the Kot, which is famous as being the place where, in
1846, the massacre took place of almost all the leading men of the
country, by which event the [late] prime minister, Sir Jang Bahadur,
was established in power.

1 Besides the temples already noticed, many others are to be found
in every street and lane. In fact, at a first glance, the town seems to
consist of almost nothing but temples. They vary in size from the
gigantic pagoda of Taliju to a diminutive shrine cut out of a single
stone, with an image a few inches high in the centre. Many of them
present a most repulsive appearance, being dabbled over with the blood
of cocks, ducks, goats, and buffaloes, which are sacrificed before them.

' The streets of Khatmandu are very narrow — mere lanes, in fact ;
and the whole town is very dirty. In every lane there is a stagnant
ditch full of putrid mud, and no attempt is ever made to clean these
thoroughly. The streets, it is true, are swept in the centre, and part of
the filth is carried off by the sellers of manure ; but to clean the
drains would now be impossible without knocking down the entire city,
as the whole ground is saturated with filth. The houses are generally
built in the form of hollow squares, opening off the streets by low
doorways ; and these central courtyards are too often only receptacles
for rubbish of every sort. In short, from a sanitary point of view,
Khatmandu may be said to be built on a dunghill in the middle of
latrines !

' On leaving the town by the north-east gateway, and turning to the
south, the first object one sees is a large tank, the Ranipukhri, or
Queen's Tank. It is surrounded by a wall, and in the centre is a
temple, united to the western bank by a long narrow brick bridge. On
the south side is a large figure of an elephant, cut out of, or rather
built of, stone, bearing the image of Raja Pratapa Male, the maker of
the tank, and of his Rani. A little farther south, the road passes
through an avenue of bukdynn (Cape lilac) trees, which runs between
the city and the great parade-ground or Thandikhel. This ground
is a large open space, covered with a fine greensward, and here the
troops are daily drilled and exercised. In the centre used to stand
a square stone building1 about 30 feet high, erected by Sir Jang
Bahadur after his return from England in 185 1. On the top was a
figure of Sir Jang Bahadur, holding a sword in one hand and a scroll
in the other, and at the four corners were hideous brazen griffins or
dragons. All these have, however, been removed to a new temple
built by Sir Jang Bahadur on the bank of the Baghmati. To the west

1 Removed in 18S2.

KHED.

i*5

of the parade-ground is a more graceful object, namely the Darera 01
column erected by a former prime minister, General Bhfmasen I
This column is beautifully proportioned, standing on a base of stone,
and rising to a height of 250 feet. This is the second column of the
kind that was built by Bhimasen, the first having been thrown down
by a violent earthquake in 1833. The column now standing was
struck by lightning in 1856, and a large rent was made all down one
side. It was repaired, however, in 1869, and now looks as well as
ever. There is a good winding staircase inside, and from the windows
at the top a fine bird's-eye view of the town and its environs may be
obtained.

'A little farther south stands the arsenal,1 and to the east of the
parade-ground are store-houses for ammunition, cannon, etc., and a
manufactory where these are cast and bored. A new workshop on a
larger scale has lately been built about 4 miles south of the city, on a
small stream, the Nukkti, near Chaubahal.

* The road now turns to the east, and at about a mile south-east of
Khatmandu it reaches Thatpatali, the residence of [the late] Sir Jang
Bahadur. This is an immense building, or rather range of buildings,
situated close to the northern bank of the Baghmati, just where it is
crossed by a bridge leading to Patan.'

A British Resident, with a small staff and escort, is stationed at
Khatmandu. The Residency is situated about a mile out of the city
on the north side, in a spot described by Dr. Wright (who was Resi-
dency Surgeon) as one of the best wooded and most beautiful in the
valley, though it was originally assigned for a Residency 'because, owing
to a deficient supply of water, it was a barren patch, supposed to be
very unhealthy, and to be the abode of demons.'

The present minister, Sir Ranadip Singh, has a very extensive
residence at Naiainhitti, to the north-east of the city. The military
force maintained in Khatmandu and its suburbs numbers about 12,000
men, in twenty infantry battalions, with 250 field-pieces, all of which
are of small calibre, and many are unserviceable. There are several
magazines in and about the city, filled with muskets and rifles mostly
of obsolete patterns, old equipments, accoutrements, and other material
of war.

Khatmandu is an open town, and is connected with the neighbouring
towns of Bhatgaon, Patan, and Thankot by bridged carriage roads.
There are no manufactures of any importance.

Khed (or Kher). — Sub-division of Ratnagiri District, Bombay
Presidency. Bounded on the north by Kolaba District ; on t
east by Satara District ; on the south by Chiplun ; and on the
west by Dapoli. It lies fifteen miles inland, with the Sub-division oi
1 On the completion of the Nukku buildings this arsenal was abandoned

1 86 KHED HEAD-QUARTERS AND TOWN.

Dapoli between it and the sea. Area, 400 square miles. Population
(1881) 91,492, namely, 44,024 males and 47,468 females, dwelling in
146 villages, containing 17,204 houses; density of population, 228
persons to the square mile. Hindus numbered 84,116; Muham-
madans, 7329; and 'others,' 47.

The Sub-division consists of a rugged and hilly surface, with patches
of poor land. The north-west is much broken by ravines ; in the north-
east are the three lofty hills of Mahipatgarh, Sumargarh, and Rasalgarh,
detached from the range of the Sahyadris by the deep valley of the
Jagbudi. Across the Sahyadris, the principal passes from the Sub-
division are the Hatlot and the Ambaoli, the latter passable by pack-
bullocks. The village sites alone are protected by shade-giving trees ;
near the villages are numerous sacred groves. The sea - breeze is
but little felt. The average rainfall for ten years ending 1877 was
1 30 '5 inches. The river Jagbudi is navigable for small craft as far as
Khed, where a hot spring is found. Grain, rice, and pulses are the
staple crops. In 1878, the agricultural stock consisted of — horned
cattle, 36,774; sheep and goats, 2793; horses, 21; ploughs, 10,362;
and carts, ^. Of the 187,949 acres under actual cultivation in 1878,
grain crops occupied 98 per cent. Of the whole, rice occupied
18,794 acres, and ndchni (Eleusine corocana) 34,700 acres. In 1884,
the Sub-division contained 2 criminal courts ; police stations, 3 ;
regular police, 52 men. Land revenue (1878-79), ^"9262.

Khed (or Kher). — Town and head-quarters of the Khed Sub-division,
Ratnagiri District, Bombay Presidency. Situated at the head of the
Jagbudi river, and surrounded by hills. The population in 1872 was
3817. Not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. A cart-
road connects Khed with the port of Harnai, 26 miles distant. Boats
of light draught work up from Dabhol and Anjanwel to Khed. Post-
office, school, and rest-house for travellers. East of the town are
three small rock temples, now inhabited by a family of lepers.

Khed (or Kher). — Sub-division of Poona District, Bombay Presi-
dency. Area, 888 square miles. Population (1872) 139,152 ; (1881)
141,890, namely, 70,811 males and 71,079 females, dwelling in 244
villages, containing 24,054 houses. Density of population, 159 persons
to the square mile. Hindus numbered 136,395 ; Muhammadans,
3601; 'others,' not specified, 1894. The Sub-division in 1884 con-
tained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; police stations (fhd/ids), 2 ; regular
police, 76 men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 156. Land revenue
(1883), ,£15,980.

Khed (or Kher). — Town and municipality in Poona (Puna) District,
Bombay Presidency ; situated on the left bank of the river Bhima, 26
miles north of Poona city. Lat. 180 51' n., long. 730 55' 30" e.
Population (1881) 3836 ; municipal revenue (1882-83), ^44 ; municipal

KHEJIRI-KHELA T. , 8 ?

expenditure, ^79; incidence of municipal taxation, 3s. 3Jd. PostH 0
and dispensary, and head-quarters of the revenue and police office!
the Sub-division. Khed has a village area of upwards of 20 square
miles. Within those limits are at least three places of interest, from an
architectural or archaeological point of view, viz. the tomb and mosque
of Dilawar Khan, and an old Hindu temple of Siddheswar, on the left
bank of the Bhima river.

Khejiri.— Village near the mouth of the Hugli river in Midnapur
District, Bengal. — See Kedgeree.

Khekera (or Kahkra).— -Town in Bagpat tahsil, Meerut (Merath)
District, North-Western Provinces; situated 26 miles from Meerut
city. Population (1865) 6045 ; in 1872, the population having fallen
to below 5000, it was not returned separately in the Census Report ;
by 1 88 1, however, the population had risen to 6972, namely, Hindus,
5715; Muhammadans, 879; and Jains, 378. Said to have been
founded about 1500 years ago by Ahirs, who were subsequently ousted
by Jats from Sikandarpur. Fine Jain temple ; second-class police
station. Large annual fair. During the Mutiny, the proprietor of the
village rebelled, and his estate was confiscated and made over to some
neighbouring loyal zamindars.

Khelat (Kaldt or Eastern Bahichistdn). — A collection of chiefships
inhabited by tribes of Baluchi's, acknowledging subordination to the
Khan of Khelat, who is the ruler of Baluchistan (q.v.).

Khelat (Kaldt). — Chief town of the territories of the Khan of Khelit,
in Baluchistan ; situated on the northern spur of a limestone hill called
the Shah Mardan. Lat. 280 53' n., long. 66° 28' e. It is about 67S3
feet above sea-level, and has, in consequence, a temperate climate
approximating to places situate in much higher latitudes. Kheldt is a
fortified town built in terraces, and has three gates, known as the
Khani, Mastiing, and Belai — the two latter named, no doubt, from t he-
roads leading to Mastiing and Bela, which pass through them. The
streets are extremely narrow, tortuous, and dirty. The walls are-
built of mud, with bastions at intervals ; and both walls and
bastions are said to be pierced with numerous loopholes for musketry.
Only a few guns are mounted on them. The bazar of Khelat is
reported to be large and well supplied with all kinds of 1,0
saries; and the town itself is furnished with very clear and pure
water from a stream which rises in the base of a limestone hill on
the eastern side of the valley. The miri, or old fort, now forms the
palace of the Khan, and overhangs the town. It consists of a con-
fused mass of buildings closely crowded together. Cook says it is
an imposing and antique structure, and probably the most ancient
edifice in Baluchistan, owing its foundation to the Hindu kings who
preceded the present Muhammadan dynasty. From the Darb&r 01

1 88 KHEM KARN—KHERALL

grand reception room in this building, which has an open balcony, a
most extensive view is obtained, embracing the whole valley and
surrounding hills.

Khelat has two suburbs, the one on the west and the other on
the east side. They would appear to be extensive, and it is here
that the Babi portion of the community reside. The number of
houses, according to Belle w, is 3500, which would imply a population
of about 14,000 persons; but this no doubt includes the suburbs.
Masson states the total number of houses to have been, in his time,
only 1 1 00, which would give probably not more than between 4000
and 5000 inhabitants in all ; but he has nevertheless estimated the
population of Khelat and its environs at 14,000, which would thus
show Bellew's calculation to be correct. The town of Khelat is
inhabited by Brahuis, Hindus, Dehwars, and Babis or Afghans, the
latter residing chiefly, as has previously been stated, in the suburbs.
The Brahuis form the great bulk of the inhabitants ; but the cultivation
is chiefly carried on by the Dehwar communities. There are several
villages and walled gardens clustered together in the valley east of the
town; of these, Sialkoh is one of the largest, having about 100 houses,
or, say, 450 inhabitants. The trade and manufactures of Khelat are in
every way slight and unimportant. Sir Frederick Goldsmid, whose
opinion merits the highest consideration, prefers rendering the name as
Kaldt. — See Baluchistan.

Khem Karn. — Town and municipality in Kasiir tahsil, Lahore
District, Punjab ; 7 miles from Kasiir town, with which place it is
connected by a metalled road. Lat. 310 9' n., long. 740 36' 30" e.
Situated on the old bank of the Beas (Bias), at the edge of the barren
upland known as the Manjha, 34 miles south of Lahore city. Popula-
tion (1868) 5847 ; (1881) 5516, namely, Muhammadans, 3458; Hindus,
1650; and Sikhs, 408. Municipal revenue (1875-76), ^327 ;
(1882-83), ^£402, or average incidence, is. 6Jd. per head. In former
days Khem Karn must have been a place of more importance than
at present, as there are a number of ruins scattered around beyond its
present limits. It is surrounded by a thick, well-built masonry wall,
buttressed at intervals. The main streets are all paved, and it has two
or three straight and fairly broad bazars. The town contains some
good houses, and has a fine bdoli or public reservoir, with steps
leading down to the water's edge. It is not, however, a place of much
commercial importance, although a flourishing manufacture of country
blankets affords employment to about three hundred families. The
public buildings include a municipal hall, school-house, police station,
and rest-house. The Kasiir branch of the Bari Doab Canal passes the
town.

Kherali. — Petty State in the J hate war division of Kathiawar,

KHERAL U—KIJERL

Bombay Presidency; consisting of 2 villages, Kherali and Vadla, with
3 separate shareholders. Area of the estate, 11 square miles ; popula
tion (1881) 1658. Estimated revenue (1S81), ^1061 ; tribute of
^67, 16s. is paid to the British Government. Kherali villa
situated 2 J miles south of the Wadwhdn station on the Bhaun
Gondal Railway. Population (188 1) 1155.

Kheralu. — Town in Kadi Division, Baroda (GaekwaYs territory),
Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency. Lat. 230 54' n., long. 72° 40' k.
Population (1872) 8212; (1881) 8528, namely, 4030 males and
4498 females. Contains a civil court (kachhari), police station, two
rest-houses, a post-office, and a Gujarathi school. The Gosdvji's
temple is famous as having been founded by the Vishnuite reformer
Vallabhacharya, who is said to have dwelt here.

Kheri. — District in the Sitapur Division of Oudh, under the juris-
diction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces,
lying between 270 41' and 280 42' n. lat., and between 8o° 4' 30" and
8i° 23' e. long. The largest District in Oudh, in the extreme north-
west of the Province. Bounded on the north by the river Mohan,
separating it from Nepal ; on the east by the Kauriala river, separating
it from Bahraich ; on the south by Sitapur District ; and on the west
by Shahjahanpur District, in the North-Western Provinces. Area
(1881), 2992 square miles. Population, according to the Census of
1881, 831,922 persons. The administrative head-quarters are at
Lakhimpur town.

Physical Aspects. — Kheri District consists of a series of fairly elevated
plateaux, separated by rivers flowing from the north-west, each of which
is bordered by a belt of alluvial land. The rivers are, commencing
from the east, the Kauriala, Suheli, Dahawar, Chauka, Ul, Jamwari,
Kathna, Giimti, and Sukheta. North of the Ul, the country is what
is generally styled tardi, and is considered very unhealthy. This tract
probably formed in ancient times the bed of a lake, through which two
main rivers, the Kauriala and Chauka, have for thousands of years
been forcing their way. These two rivers change their courses con-
stantly, abandoning old channels and opening up new, so that the
whole surface is seamed with deserted river beds much below the level
of the surrounding country. In these, the vegetation is very dense,
and the stagnant waters are the cause of much fever. The people
reside in the neighbourhood of the low ground, as the soil is more
fertile and less expensive to cultivate than the uplands, which are
covered with forests.

South of the Ul, the scene changes. Between every two rivers
there is a plain, more or less broad, considerably less elevated than
the tardi tract to the north. There is very little slope in any oi
these plains for many miles, and marshes are formed, from which

9°

KHERI.

emerge the head-waters of many secondary streams, but which in
the rains become dangerous torrents, and frequently cause devastat-
ing floods. The general slope of the country is from north-west to
south-east, the highest elevation being 600 feet in the northern forests,
and the lowest 375 feet, opposite Mallapur in the extreme south-east.
Several large lakes exist ; some, formed by the ancient channels of the
rivers in the north of the District, being fine sheets of water, from 10
to 20 feet deep and from 3 to 4 miles long, and in places fringed with
magnificent groves. In Piila and Kheri pargands in the south, there
are also large natural lakes. There are no river-side towns, nor
do any of the villages in the neighbourhood of the rivers contain
any number of persons who live by fishing or river traffic. At the
ferries on the Chauka and Kauriala, merchants encamp during the
cold weather and buy up grain, departing before the rains com-
mence.

The north of the District is covered with forests, occupying an area
of 650 square miles. Of this area, 303 square miles were taken up
by Government in 186 1 and formed into a forest reserve. The re-
mainder was divided into lots of 5000 acres or less, and let out to
grantees rent-free for 20 years, and subsequently at half rates, upon
the condition that one-fourth of the forest area should be cleared and
brought into cultivation within 12 years. Some grants were sold out-
right at an upset price of 5s. an acre. Hardly any of these forest
lessees either brought their land under cultivation under the first set
of conditions, or paid up the due instalments of their purchase money
under the second. Consequently, 120 square miles of such grants
were resumed by Government, raising the present reserved forest area
to a total of 423 square miles. Of the 227 square miles still held by
private individuals, but little has been brought under the plough. Sal
occupies about two-thirds of the whole forest area. In Khairigarh
pargand, the trees grow to a large size, there being an average of more
than ten to each acre, with a girth of over 4J feet. The forests north
of the Mohan consist mainly of sal and dsan. The banks of the
Suheli are fringed with green shisham trees ; above them rise masses
of k/iair, with bare branches, and stiff, grey rugged trunks ; and beyond
them again are the sal forests, groups of tall, slender, straight stems,
the older trees shooting up for 60 or 70 feet without a branch or bend.
In addition to the forest, about 65 square miles of groves, chiefly of
mango trees, are distributed over the District.

Kheri has no merchantable mineral products, except a little petroleum
in Khairigarh pargand. Kankar of good quality is met with near Gold.
Saltpetre is manufactured in large, quantities at Dhaurahra. The wild
animals include tigers, leopards, antelope, spotted deer, hog-deer,
nilgai, principally found in the northern jungles. Tigers, although still

KHERI.

numerous, have decreased considerably of late years. \
snakes and crocodiles are common.

History. — The present District of Kheri has a very brief hi
having only existed as an administrative unit since 1858. Under the
native sovereigns of Oudh, it lay partly in the Chakld of Muhamdi and
partly in that of Khairabad. In 1856, when Oudh was annexed, two
Districts were constituted, those of Muhamdi and Mallapur, dividing
between them the whole of Kheri, in addition to several of the border-
ing parga?ids now included in Hardoi, Sitapur, and Bahraich. Their
head-quarters were Muhamdi and Mallapur, one to the extreme west
of the present District, the other near the south-eastern corner, in
Sitapur. When the Mutiny broke out, the officers of Muhamdi were
captured by the Shahjahanpur mutineers or by the Raja of Mitauli
and massacred ; those at Mallapur fled north into the jungles of Nepil,
being cut off from a retreat to the south, and perished of fever and
ague.

When the present District of Kheri was constituted in 1S58,
Lakhimpur was selected for the head-quarters. It is 28 miles due
north of, and within easy reach of, Sitapur ; but it cannot be considered
central or very accessible, some villages being about 60 miles distant.

In Akbar's time, the country was entirely divided among families of
taminddrs. The Rajas of Muhamdi, who afterwards acquired nearly
the whole District, then held under a royal grant 3000 bighds and 5
small villages. The great estate of the Janwars, which under its three
heads Kaimahra, Oel, and Mahewa now embraces 330 villages, did not
then exist. Similarly the Jangres estate of Bhur Dhaurahra, which
afterwards covered 800 square miles, did not exist even in the germ.
The Ahbans estate of Bhiirwara existed in Akbar's time, but was much
smaller and more divided, while the great Surajbans estate of Khairigarh
is a creation of 1858. In later times, there were four great families who
held the lands now comprised in this District — namely, the Sayvids of
Barwar, the Ahbans of Mitauli and Bhiirwara, the Janwars of Kheri,
and the Jangres of Dhaurahra.

Population. — The population of Kheri District, according to the
Census of 1869, but calculated on the area of 1881, amounted to
399,585 males and 338,504 females ; total, 738,089. The Census of
1 88 1 returned a total population of 831,922, showing an incrc
93>833, or 127 per cent., in twelve years. The main results of the
Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as follows : — Area, 2992
square miles; number of towns and villages, 1655 ; houses, [42,657.
Total population, 831,922, namely, males 445,019, and females
386,903; proportion of males, 53-5 per cent. Average density,
278 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, '55 ; persons
per village, 503; houses per square mile, 47 '6; persons per house,

jg2 KHERI.

5-8. Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 727>770> or
87-5 per cent, of the population; Muhammadans, 103,755, or 12*5 per
cent.; Christians, 397.

Of the higher Hindu castes, Brahmans numbered 67,110, or 9-2
per cent, of the Hindus; the Rajputs or Kshattriyas, 24,966, or
3 -4 per cent; Kayasths, 8017; and Baniyas, 12,389. The most
numerous caste is that of the Chamars, who numbered 108,639,
or 14-9 per cent, of the Hindu population ; next to them come
the Kurmis with 84,441, or n*6 per cent.; Ahirs, 71,984, or 9-9
per cent. ; and Pasis, 62,748, or S'6 per cent. The other principal
Hindu castes, ranked according to numerical superiority, are— Kachhis,
42,801; Lodhis, 36,907; Kahars, 28,285; Koris, 17,847; Telis,
16,195; Gadarias, 16,069 ; Dhobis, 13,176; Loniyas, 13,114; Barhais,
10,763; Bhurjfs, 9506; Nais, 9365; Lohars, 8974; Kalwars, 8056;
Kumbhars, 6702 ; and Gosains, 5084.

The only remarkable feature presented by the population tables is
the comparative scarcity of the higher castes — Brahmans, Kshattriyas,
Kayasths, and Vaisyas (the last represented by the Baniya or trading caste
of the present day). They number altogether only 112,482, or 15-4
per cent, of the Hindus ; in the whole Province of Oudh they amount
to 2,387,602, or a fraction over 24 per cent. The reason of this is not
far to seek. The low castes are the first, in all instances, to occupy
the wilderness, and reclaim it from nature, and much of Kheri District
has but very recently been brought under cultivation. There was little
to invite the Brahman or Kshattriya. There are very few temples,
and none of ancient repute ; consequently the priestly class is not
numerous. Population was so thin that disputes about boundaries, that
fertile source of internal warfare, were comparatively rare, and but
few professional soldiers were required. The District, too, was so dis-
tant from any seat of Government, that there could be little interference
with the great landholders, who found it more profitable in many
cases to have low-caste industrious tenants than the prouder Aryans.

The Muhammadan population are almost without exception Sunnis,
only 499 out of a total of 103,755 being returned as Shias. Of the
397 Christians, 320 are natives, 62 Europeans, and 15 Eurasians.

All the towns now existing are of recent foundation. Kheri was
founded in the 16th century, Muhamdi and Aurangabad in the 17th.
Of their origin, one common tale is told. The Musalman or Kshattriya
founder came through the woods and marshes (the country then lying
much lower than now), and seized upon the slight hills or hummocks,
where some Pasi or Ahir patriarch ruled over a few mud huts. The
rightful owner fled deeper into the forest, and the intruder built a
block house or a brick fort to guard against his return. Only 5 towns
were returned in 1881 as containing upwards of 5000 inhabitants,

KIIKRL

namely, LAKHIMPUR, the civil station, 7526; MUHAMDI, 6635;
Dhakwa, 6533; Kheri, 5996; and DHAURAHRA, 5767. Total
population, 32,457.

Lakhimpur, Muhamdi, and Dhaurahra arc the only three muni,
ties. Of the 1655 towns and villages in the District in 1881, 521 arc-
returned as containing less than two hundred inhabitants; 56;
two to five hundred ; 340 from five hundred to a thousand ; 184 from
one to two thousand; 29 from two to three thousand; 12 from three
to five thousand ; and 5 from five to ten thousand. Classified accord-
ing to occupation, the Census Report returns the male population
under the following six main groups: — Class (1) Professional, includ-
ing all Government servants, civil and military, and the learned pro-
fessions, 5245 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers,
etc., 143 1 ; (3) commercial, including merchants, traders, carriers,
7088; (4) agricultural and pastoral, including gardeners, 224,'. 1.
manufacturing and industrial, 28,871 ; (6) indefinite and unsp<
(comprising 28,266 general labourers, 149,506 male children, and
'others'), 177, 772.

Agriculture. — The chief agricultural product is rice, the area under
this crop being returned in 1883-84 at 179,047 acres. The area under
other crops is thus returned : — Wheat, 132,110 acres ; other food-grains,
546,883; oil-seeds, 6918; sugar-cane, 20,596; cotton, 4270; tobacco,
9335 J vegetables, 16,531 ; fibres (other than cotton), 6635 acres. Opium
and indigo are also cultivated to a small extent. Total cultivated area
(including 133,948 acres of two-crop land), 925,414 acres.

The rice of Kheri District is of excellent quality, but its cultivation
is slovenly. There are two harvests in the year. The kharifox autumn
crops consist of rice, kodo, kdkan, jodr, bdjra, mas, and ;///<;, sown
from June to August, and reaped between the end of September
and the beginning of November. The rain or spring crops are
barley, wheat, gram, peas, and ar/iar, cut between March and June.
The people are employed principally in the cultivation of the soil as
tenants. The agricultural stock, in 1882-83, consisted of 93,733 pi
567,395 bullocks and buffaloes. North of the river Ul, land is hardly
ever manured, and never irrigated, except the small gardens in which
tobacco and vegetables are grown. Total irrigated area, 96,714
all by private industry. South of the Ul, a fair amount of lab
bestowed upon the crops in this respect, although less than is
in the rest of Oudh.

The Kurmfs, who form the most skilful body of cultivators in the
District, are in general tolerably well off; but the mass of th<
caste husbandmen merely live from hand to mouth. The total male
agricultural population of Kheri District in 18S1 was returned at
223>337, giving an average of 332 cultivated acres to each. 1 he

VOL. VIII. N

i94 KHER1.

total agricultural population, however, dependent on the soil,
amounted to 609,654, or 73*28 per cent, of the District population.
Of the total area of 2992 square miles, 2425-9 square miles are
assessed for Government revenue. Of these, 1122-3 square miles
are under cultivation; 999*3 square miles are cultivable; and 304*3
square miles are uncultivable waste. Total amount of Government
assessment, including local rates and cesses on land, ^82,664, or an
average of 2s. 3fd. per cultivated acre. Total amount of rental actually
paid by cultivators, including rates and cesses, ^£180,008, or an
average of 4s. iojd. per cultivated acre. Rents, although not high,
are very uneven. The highest rates seem to be jQi, 13s. per acre for
tobacco, and £\, 7s. per acre for sugar-cane land, in Haidarabad
pargand. The average rent rates per acre for land suited for different
crops was returned as follows in 1882-83: — Rice, 4s. 5J& per acre;
wheat, 7s. old. ; inferior grains, 5s. 9M. ; indigo, 6s. ; cotton, 7s. 9d. ;
opium, 16s. ; oil-seeds, 7s. 4d. ; fibres, 5s. 6§d. ; sugar-cane, 13s. 9J& ;
and tobacco, 15s. 5J& per acre. The lowest rented lands are the
outlying patches far from the sites of villages, in Palia, Kukra, and
Bhiir, where the ordinary rate is 2s. per acre, but even is. an acre is
met with. Tenants settle on the lands at these low rates, which are
raised as population increases. The nominal rents were much the
same under the native rulers as at present.

The principal landholding castes are the Jangre, Raikwar, Surajbans,
and Janwar Rajputs, Sikhs, and Sayyids. According to the Oudh
Gazetteer ; published in 1877, there were four estates in Kheri each
measuring over 100,000 acres. Nine local landholders held in that
year estates in this or other Districts averaging about 220 square
miles each. There were 12 proprietors holding more than 20,000
acres each; their estates averaged 77,000 acres or 120 square miles
in Kheri alone ; the aggregate area of their holdings was 1435
square miles, or nearly half the District, and they controlled a
population of about 400,000 in this District, and of at least a million
in the whole of Oudh. The rest of the villages (656) were owned
by 780 zaminddrs, many owning 2 or 3 villages. There are also
a number of subordinate tenures, of which 873 had been decreed in
the courts. The cultivators have no fixity of tenure. Out of 1690
villages, reported in the Oudh Gazetteer, Rajput landlords are returned
as holding 850; Muhammadans, 353 ; Kayasths, 116; Brahmans, 88 ;
and Europeans, 98.

The average price of food-grains for the ten years ending 1870 is
returned as follows : — Unhusked rice, 34 sers per rupee, or 3s. 4d.
per cwt. ; common rice, 17 sers per rupee, or 6s. 7d. per cwt. ; best
rice, 7 sers per rupee, or 16s. per cwt.; wheat, 22 sers per rupee,
or 5s. id. per cwt.; barley, 34 sers per rupee, or 3s. 4d. per cwt;

KIIERL ,9S

bdjra, 30 sers per rupee, or 3s. 9c!. per cwt. ;Jodr, 31 #rj per r
or 3s. 7<i. per cwt. In 1870, the average rates were as fol
— Unhusked rice, 26J w* per rupee, or 4s. 3d. per < wt. ;
rice, 13 sers per rupee, or 8s. yd. per cwt. ; best rice, 5 J s*n per rupee,
or j£i per cwt. ; wheat, 21 ^r.y per rupee, or 5s. 4<J. per < wt. ; 1
31 sers per rupee, or 3s. 6Jd. per cwt.; bdjra, 36 wj per rur*
3s. id. per cwt.; jodr, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d. per cwt In
18S3-84, the rates for common rice were 16^ sers per rupee, or 6 .
per cwt. ; best rice, 10J sers per rupee, or 10s. Scl. per cwt ; wh<
sers per rupee, or 4s. iod. per cwt. ; and gram, 25! sers per rup
4s. 5d. per cwt.

Natural Calamities. — The District is liable to blights, drought-.
floods, the former, however, doing but little damage. Inundations are
very destructive in Dhaurahra, Srinagar, and Firozabrld pargands, from
the overflow of the Chauka ; and in Kheri and Haidarabad par
from the local rainfall causing the/////* and marshes to overflow into the
neighbouring fields. Muhamdi, Magdapur, Paila, and Khairigarh have
good drainage generally, and do not suffer from floods. Hailstorms
seldom occur. Severe famines occurred in 1769, in 177S-S4, and m
1837, while there has been scarcity in 1865, in 1869, and in 1S74:
all these were caused by drought. The price of coarse grain reached
7 sers during these famine times ; but whenever the cheapest wholesome
grain in the market, whether it be kodo, maize, or barley, be priced for
any length of time at a higher rate than 15 sers for the rupee, there will
undoubtedly be famine. In January 1S74, the cheapest grain reached
18 sers.

As in other Districts of Oudh, the periods in which famine
most to be apprehended are the two months before the rabi h
is cut, January and February, and the two months before the
harvest ripens, Julv and August. There is perhaps less dan
famine in Kheri than in the adjoining District of Bahrdich, becau
sugar-cane crop in January, which is an exceptionally large one,
gates the winter scarcity, and the early half-ripe Indian corn or
in August is used by those who have nothing left from then
harvest.

Roads, Manufactures, Trade, etc.— There are no met
Kheri, except the line from Shihjahanpur to Sftipur, which
21 miles through the south-west corner of the District A raised and
bridged road runs from Sitdpur through Oel to Lakhimpur 28
thence to Gold 20 miles, and thence to Muhamdi 18 miles. Thl
now extends to Shahjahanpur. The District is well 1
minor unmetalled and unbridged roads. The principal ol I
Lakhimpur to Sujahi; (2) Lakhimpur to Khairigarh ; (3 Lakhin
Aurangabad; (4) Lakhimpur to Dhaurahra; (5)PailatO M

196 KHERL

to Bhera; and (7) Gold to Khotar. Total length of roads in 1882-83,
40 2 J miles. The manufactures of the District are confined to weaving
and cotton printing, carried on in Kheripargand, but only to meet local
requirements. Grain of all kinds is exported, as also are turmeric, tobacco,
timber, sugar, syrup, hides, bullocks, and ghi. Catechu is made in large
quantities throughout the northern parts of the District, from the khair
tree (Acacia Catechu), the heart-wood of which is chopped out and
boiled down by a caste called Khairfs. Khaskhas (Andropogon
muricatus), the roots of which are used for matting tatti screens, is
exported in large quantities to Benares and Patna.

Two great annual religious trading fairs are held at Gold Gokarannath
— one in January attended by about 50,000 people, and the other
in February, lasting about fifteen days, at which 150,000 persons
are said to assemble. The latter fair is increasing rapidly in
importance ; goods to the value of about ,£15,000 being sold
annually by traders from all parts of India. The principal trading
ghats or landing-places in the District are Dulhamau and Pachperi
on the Chauka, and Shitabi and Katai ghats on the Kauriala, whence
grain is exported by means of flat-bottomed boats to Lucknow and
Patna. The imports, which consist mainly of cotton, salt, country
cloth, and English piece-goods, are thought to exceed the exports
in value.

Administration. — For administrative purposes, Kheri District is
divided into 3 tahsils and 17 pargands, as follows: — (1) Lakhimpur
tahsil, comprising Kheri, Srinagar, Bhiir, Paila, and Kukra Mailani
pargands; (2) Nighasan tahsil, comprising Firozabad, Dhaurahra,
Nighasan, Khairigarh, and Palia pargands ; (3) Muhamdi tahsil, com-
prising Muhamdi, Pasgawan, Aurangabad, Kasta, Haidardbdd, Magda-
pur, and Atwa Piparia, — all of which see separately. The admini-
stration is conducted by a Deputy Commissioner, with one or more
Assistant Commissioners, and the usual staff of subordinates. The
total revenue in 1870 amounted to ,£74,132, of which ,£62,471, or
six-sevenths of the total, was derived from the land - tax, which is
increasing every year. Total cost of administration in 1870, ,£29,594 ;
but this included the expenses of the Survey Department, then engaged
in making a new Land Settlement. In 1882-83, tne total revenue
amounted to ,£89,605, of which ,£79,088 was derived from the land.
For police purposes, Kheri is divided into 7 police circles {thdnds) ; the
force, including regular police, village watch, and municipal police,
numbered, in 1882, 2972 officers and men, maintained at a total cost
of ,£13,557. Average daily number of prisoners in jail in 1882, 193 ;
total number of convicts imprisoned during the year (732 males and 86
females), 818. In respect of education, Kheri is one of the most back-
ward Districts of Oudh. There were in 1882, 90 schools, attended by

KI1ERI. ,97

3069 pupils, inspected by the Government Education Department [n
addition, there are a number of indigenous uninspected schools.

Climate. — The climate of Kheri is reckoned by the natives
malarious beyond the Ul, but healthy south of that river. The heat i>
less than in the surrounding Districts. The mean annual temper
is returned at 79'6o° F. The rainfall is above the average of the
Province. Cold winds following the course of the rivers sweep from
the Nepal plateaux through the mountain gorges, and meeting the
already saturated atmosphere of the plains, cool it, and precipitate
moisture first on the lowlands at their base. The hot vapours from
the plains are also cooled by the vast forests which clothe the uplands,
and which, being unable to carry so much water, discharge it in rain.
The average rainfall during the fourteen years ending 1SS1 amounted
to 42*69 inches, the maximum being 70*2 inches in 1S70, and the
minimum 23-60 inches in i88j.

Medical Aspects. — The disease most common in this District is inter-
mittent fever, which appears to be endemic in the neighbourhood of
Gokarannath. Its origin is assigned to the malaria produced by the
spontaneous decomposition of vegetable matter after the cessation of
the rains, and by imperfect drainage. European and native
stitutions alike suffer from its attacks. Spring fever appears mostly
among those whose pursuits expose them to the noon-day sun.
It assumes a remittent type, and is proportionally more fatal as
summer advances. Next in the order of frequency are bowel complaints.
As a rule, they increase at harvest -time, and have a fatal tendency
when succulent fruit and vegetables are abundant in the market.
Cholera became epidemic in this District during the rains of 1867, and
was most fatal and persistent in those villages where filth
abounded. In Lakhimpur town, the scourge was apparently intn
on bazar days, or only occurred sporadically. Pulmonic and rheumatic
affections increase in winter.

Of cutaneous affections, herpes deserves notice; it is very prei
among the natives. It seems to be acquired from the pra
keeping on a dhoti while bathing, and replacing it by a dean on
without drying the skin. The disease is seen chiefly ab
hips and loins of those affected, and does not yield readily I
ment; strong acetic acid externally is the best remedy.
is not an uncommon disease. Goitre is most common am
trans -Chauka population. The quality of the water
to be the cause of this disease. Its local distribution
ably capricious, but, as a rule, the great majority ol the .
within 2 miles of the river bank, particularly in Dhaurahra and Ian
pargands. Venereal diseases are common, and frequently seen in 0
secondary and tertiary forms, a fact attributable to neglect or in

1 98 KHERI PAR GANA.

treatment of the primary symptoms. Among ophthalmic disorders, those
most prevalent are ophthalmia and nyctalopia ; they occur principally
in summer. Cataract among the aged is not uncommon. Dropsies of
the skin and abdomen are often seen in subjects who have long suffered
from marsh fever and enlarged spleen.

In 1882, the total number of registered deaths in Kheri District was
28,098, showing a death-rate of 3377 per thousand, as against an
average of 23-32 per thousand for the previous five years. Deaths from
fevers alone numbered 22,744, and from cholera 3957. There are 5
dispensaries in the District, which in 1882 afforded medical relief to
587 in-door, and 20,318 out-door patients.

Cattle plague made its appearance in Kheri in 1870 and 1871,
and it is estimated that about one-fourth of the cattle in the District
died, viz. 120,000, of an estimated value of ^120,000. Cattle murrain
is said to have been unknown prior to this epidemic. [For further
information regarding Kheri, see the Gazetteer of Oudh, vol. ii.
pp. 140-273 (published by authority, Allahabad, 1877). See also the
Settlement Report of the District, by T. R. Redfern, Esq., C.S. (1879);
the Census Report of the North- Western Proriuees and Oudh for 1881 ;
and the several Annual Administration and Departmental Reports from
1880 to 1883.]

Kheri. — Pargand in Lakhimpur tahsil, Kheri District, Oudh ;
lying between the Ul and Jamwari rivers on the east and south-
west respectively, and bounded on the north-west by Paila, and
on the south by Sitapur pargand. Area, 193 square miles, of which
130 are cultivated. Population (1869) 104,916; (1881) 107,668,
namely, males 56,951, and females 50,717. The pargand is roughly
divided into two parts. One is an upland plateau, largely irrigated
from jhils and wells, which contains three-quarters of the total area,
the soil nearly all high-class loam. To the north-east of this plateau,
along its whole length, lies a slope, 1 or 2 miles in breadth, of
lighter soil, which suddenly sinks into the tardi of the Ul. Farther
to the south-east, the Kewani river has formed a very extensive tardi
of first-class land, separated from the Ul tardi, as far as the borders of
Kheri District, by a promontory of high land running south-east from
the main plateau. This tardi is at a level of nearly 60 feet beneath
the upper ground.

Down the centre of the pargand runs a series of jhils, or marshy lakes.
They collect the water of the plateau, which is slightly saucer-shaped.
The southern edge is formed by the high bank of the Jamwari,
and the northern by the bank of the Ul. These lakes communicate
in the rains ; and generally there is a slight stream running through
to Muhammadpur, where the channel becomes perennial and joins
the Kewani. Unfortunately, however, this outlet is not sufficient,

KHERI TOWN—KHETRL

and the overflow spreads over a great area, as the lowest point of the
plateau is only n feet lower than the highest. A part of the water
also from these lakes, in heavy rain, seeks an outlet through Lakhi
station to the Ul, and five persons were drowned or killed I
floods and falling houses in 1870. This series of lakes ofl
facilities for constructing irrigation channels, which will be more required
every year. Kheri is well supplied with groves.

Bisens appear to have been the earliest landlords in Muham-
madan times, having ousted the Pasis. The whole pargand, how-
ever, afterwards became part of the great estate formed by the 1 1
Sayyids. This family, however, has decayed; and out of the 193
villages now forming the pargand, T38 are held by Rajputs. S
local traffic in grain, and a few settlements of weavers and 1
printers.

Kheri. — Town in Kheri District, Oudh, and head-quarters of
Lakhimpur tahsil ; situated in lat. 270 54' n., long. 8o° 51' e. Population
(1S69) 7001 ; (1881) 5996, namely, Muhammadans, 3524, and Hindus,
2472. For police and conservancy purposes, a house-tax is levied.
Daily market, 14 Hindu temples, 12 mosques, and 3 im&mbdr&s.
The one object of antiquarian interest is the tomb of Sayyid Khurd,
who died in 971 a.h. or 1563 a.d. — a building composed of huge
kankar blocks.

Kherkeria. — Village in Bhutan, near the Lakshmf nodi, just beyond
the northern frontier of Darrang District, Assam. An annual fair is
held here, which is largely attended by people from considerable-
distances. In 1875, tne Bhutias are estimated to have sold
valued at ^1700, chiefly salt, blankets, ponies, gold, and a
called jabrang ; and to have bought goods to the value of /~i6oo,
chiefly rice, silk, cloth, cotton cloth, dried fish, and hardware.

Kherna— Seaport in the Salsette Sub-division of Than..
Bombay Presidency. One of the ports of the Panwel customs
Average annual value of trade during the five years ending 1
imports, ^£35 ; exports, ^289.

Khetri.— Chiefship and town in Jaipur (Jeypore) State, Rajpul
The chiefship comprises the pargands of Khetri, Babai, SinghAna,
and Jhunjhnu, yielding an annual revenue of about ^.35-00~- an<
paying a tribute of ^8000 a year to Jaipur. The chief hoi
besides, the pargand of Kot Putli, yielding about /. 10.000 a
a possession which was bestowed in perpetuity upon
Raja Abbi Singh, by the British Government, for military
rendered to Lord Lake against the Marathas in the eai
the present century, notably in an important engagement
troops, under Colonel Monson, with Sindhia's army on the banks
the Chambal. Population of the town (1881) 52S3< na;;

200 KHEURA— KHILCHIPUR.

males and 2691 females. Hindus numbered 3929; Muhammadans,
1347; and 'others,' 7. The town is commanded by a citadel of
some strength, on the summit of a hill icoo feet high. It is
distant from Jaipur city 75 miles north. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood are valuable copper mines. School, dispensary, imperial
post-office.

Kheura. — Village in Jehlam (Jhelum) District, Punjab. — See Mayo
Mines.

Khiaodah. — Petty State in Gwalior, under the Giina (Goona) Sub-
agency, Central India. Originally a portion of the Umri State, it now
comprises 7 villages, with a population (1 881) of 11 84, and an income
of about ^300. The Thdkur or chief is not a feudatory of Gwalior.

Khijadia Naganio. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathia-
war, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 1 proprietor.
Estimated revenue (1881), ^"100. Tribute of ^£5, 4s. is paid to the
Gaekwar of Baroda.

Khijaria. — Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 2 separate share-
holders. Area, 2 square miles. Population (1881) 265. Estimated
revenue (1881), ^240. Khijaria village is situated n miles north-west
of Chital station on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.

Khijaria. — Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 2 separate share-
holders. Area, 1 square mile. Population (1881) 995. Estimated
revenue (1881), ^"240. Tribute of ^38 is payable to the Gaekwar of
Baroda, and of £4, 14s. to the Nawab of Junagarh. Khijaria village
is situated 18 miles south-east of Songarh and 5 miles north-west of
Dhola junction on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.

Khilchipur. — State under the Bhopal Agency, Central India; a
tributary of Gwalior. Lat. 230 52' to 240 17' N., long. 760 28' to 760 45' e.
Chief products — grain and opium. The present Chief of Khilchipur
is Rao Araar Singh, a Khichi Rajput, who since his accession in 1869
has received the title of Rao from the British Government. He
was adopted, with the consent of Sindhia, by the widow of the late
Chief, and the adoption was confirmed by the British Government.
The area of the State is estimated at 273 square miles. Population
(1881) 36,125, or 132 persons per square mile. Of the total popula-
tion, 19,859 are males and 16,266 females. Number of houses, 6757.
Hindus numbered 33,291; Muhammadans, 1273; Jains, 250; and
aboriginal tribes, 131 1. The State contains 269 villages, and its revenue
is estimated at ;£i 7,500. The Chief pays tribute of .£1313 to Sindhia,
through the Political Agent in Bhopal. He maintains a force of 40
horse and 200 foot, and is entitled to a salute of 9 guns.

Khilchipur. — Chief town of the State of Khilchipur, under the

KHIMLASA— KHIPR. I.

2 i

Bhopal Agency of Central India. Situated on the bank, of thi
Sind river, a stone dam across which supplies water to the inhab
The country about the city is hilly and jungly, and sparsely cultivated.
It is about 7 miles north-east from Rajgarh, and on the road from
thence to Jhalra Patan, thus gaining the only trade it pos
Population (1881) from 3000 to 5000.

Khimlasa. — Town in Kurai iahsil, Sagar (Saugor) District, Central
Provinces; 42 miles north-west of Sagar town. Lat. 240 12' 30° n.,
long. 780 24' 30" e. Population (1S81) 2726, namely, Hindus, 2219 :
Jains, 294; Muhammadans, 212; and Kabirpanthi, 1. Number of
houses, 713. A stone wall 20 feet high surrounds the town, enclosing
a space of 63 acres ; and the fort, which is built on high ground
in the centre, occupies 5 acres. Within the fort are the police
station-house and two remarkable edifices. One, a Muhammadan
building, apparently the burial-place of some saint, consisted of a square
structure, surmounted by a lofty dome. The dome has fallen, but the
side walls remain ; they are formed of enormous slabs of stone, about
an inch and a half thick, cut with the most beautiful fretwork de
right through the stone, so that the pattern is visible both within and
without the building. The other edifice is of Hindu origin, and was
apparently a shisha mahal or glass palace. The upper of the two
storeys contained an apartment fitted with mirrors, many trace
which still remain.

Khimlasa originally belonged to a dependant of the Delhi Emperor,
but was taken by the Raja of Panna in 1695, on the death of
whose son without heirs in 1746, the representative of the Peshwa
at Sagar occupied the fort. It was made over to the British with
Sagar in 1818. From that date the town was the head-quartei
a tahsil, till in 1834 the tahsili was moved to Kurai. In July 1
during the Mutiny, when the Bhanpur Raja occupied Kurai, he
seized Khimlasa, and the town has not yet recovered from the dai
done by his troops. Though the streets are narrow and irregular, the
houses are generally well built, but many are still ownerless. Little
trade takes place, though a market is held every Sunday. Tv.
for boys and girls respectively have been established. Police station.

Khindoli.— Tahsil in Agra District, North-Western Provin*
See Khandauli.

Khipra. — Taluk or Sub-division in Thar and Parkar
Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between 25° 26' and 26 14 45 N-
lat, and 690 2' 45" and 700 16' e. long. Population (188]
namely, 14,348 males and 1 1,731 females; number of nous 1 he

Sub-division contains 28 villages. Hindus numbered 2; iham-

madans, 20,279; aboriginal tribes, 2928; Sikhs, 140; Christian
Jews, 4 ; and Jains, 1. Revenue (1881-82), ^6595, of which /:560c;

202 KHIPRA— KHIRON.

is derived from land; ^"667 from ^-^(miscellaneous), and ^319
from local sources. In 1884 the Sub-division contained 2 civil and 2
criminal courts ; police stations (t/tdnds), 9 ; regular police, 45 men.

Khipra. — Chief town in Khipra taluk, Thar and Parkar District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated on the Eastern Nara, about 40
miles north-west of Umarkot town. Lat. 250 49' 30" x., long. 690 25'
e. Population in 1881 inconsiderable. The municipal revenue in
1873-74 was ,£236, but the municipality was abolished in 1878, on
the introduction into Sind of the Bombay Act vi. of 1873. Head-
quarters station of a tnukhtiy&rk&r and tappaddr ; civil and criminal
court-houses ; police post ; dharmsdla or rest-house. Occupation of
the inhabitants principally agricultural. Manufactures consist chiefly in
weaving and dyeing of cloth ; local trade in cotton, wool, cocoa-nuts,
metals, grain, sugar, tobacco, etc. Transit trade — grain, cattle, wool,
ghij indigo, sugar, and cloth. The town is supposed to have been
founded about a century ago.

Khirasra. — Petty State in the Hallar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency; consisting of T3 villages, with 1 proprietor. Estimated
revenue (1881), ^1900. Tribute of ,£236, 12s. is paid to the British
Government, and ^"35 to the Nawab of Junagarh. Area of the estate,
13 square miles. Population (1881) 4377.

Khiron. — Pargand in Dalmau tahsil, Rai Bareli District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Mauranwan ; on the east by Dalmau and Rai
Bareli ; on the south by Sareni ; and on the west by Panhan, Bhagwant-
nagar, Bihar, and Patan. Population (1869) 57,102 ; (1881) 59,492,
namely, males 29,252, and females 30,240. Hindus numbered 56,579,
and Muhammadans 2913. Area, 102 square miles, or 65,097 acres.
Government land revenue, ^9070; average rate per acre, 2s. 9^d. Of
the 123 villages forming the pargand, 79 are held under tdlukddri tenure ;
20 are zaminddri, and 24 pattiddri. Five market villages. Two large
annual fairs. The pargand was originally in the possession of the Bhars,
who were ousted about 700 years ago by Raja Abhai Chand of the
Bais clan, who annexed it to his dominions, and his descendants still
form the main proprietary body. Raja Satna, eighth in descent from
Abhai Chand, founded a village, calling it after his own name Satanpur,
which he also bestowed upon the whole pargand. This arrangement
continued till the time of Nawab Asaf-ud-daula, when the tahsilddr of
the parga?id built a fort at Khiron, which he fixed on as the seat of
the tahsil, and re-named the pargand after it.

Khiron. — Town in Dalmau tahsil, Rai Bareli District, Oudh, and
head-quarters of Khiron pargand ; situated on the road from Rai Bareli
to Cawnpur, 18 miles from Rai Bareli town. Population (1881) 3083,
namely, 2439 Hindus and 644 Muhammadans. The residence of one of
the pargand tdlukddrs. Here also dwell some notable old families of

KHIRPAI—KIIISOR HILLS. 2o3

Kayasth k&n&ngos. Vernacular school ; weekly market. Ruined mud-
built fort dating from the days of native rule.

Khirpai.— Village in Midnapur District, Bengal; situat-
main road from Bardwan to Midnapur town. Transferred, \\v
surrounding country, from Hugh to Midnapur in 1S72. Popu
(188 r) 6295, namely, Hindus, 6081 ; Muhammadans, 207 ; * oth
Area of town site, 1280 acres. Municipal income in 1SS2-
average incidence of taxation, 5§d. per head. The town is principally
inhabited by cotton-weavers, who manufacture fabrics of a SU]
quality, which commands a high price.

Khisor (Khasor) Hills.— Range in Dera Ismail Khan I >.:
Punjab, known also under the name of Rattah Roh or k Re d
Hills;' situated between 320 13' and 320 34 n. lat., and between
700 56' and 710 21' e. long. The Indus washes their eastern base
for a distance of about 25 miles, from Isa Khel to Chiira, near I
after which the chain sweeps slightly westward, parallel to the Shaikh
Budin Hills, from which it is separated by the Paniala valley, having
an average breadth of 5 miles, till it terminates at Paniala, about 16
miles from the Indus. The extensive ruins of two ancient Hindu
forts or fortified monasteries — the one about 9 miles south of the
mouth of the Kuram river, and the other immediately above the town
of Bilot — make these hills archaeologically interesting. Both of the
ruins are locally called Kafir Kot, ' infidel's fort.' Bilot is also famous
for its shrine of a holy Sayyid, who used to sail about the Indus in a
stone boat. His descendant, known as the Makhdiim of Bilot, has
inherited the sanctity as well as the stone boat of his ancestor, and
enjoys ajdgir worth about ^250 a year.

The hills consist of miocene sandstone and conglomerate, super-
imposed upon Jurassic and carboniferous limestone, in which fossils occur
abundantly. The range is generally stony and destitute of vegetation
and water. Here and there springs are to be found, their pre
being usually marked by a clump of palms. The largest of these is the
Garoba spring, near Kirri Khisor. Its waters run for a mile or two
along a narrow ravine fringed with date-palms. These springs are
generally situated too low to allow of their being utilized for irrigation.
Water for cattle is also procured from some large tanks at the very top
of the range, above Kirri Khisor. The hills are dotted with numerous
patches of cultivated land, varying in size from one or two roods to
twenty acres. These fields are embanked to receive and retain the
rain water from the higher land, and sometimes form terraces one
above the other. The cultivation, however, entirely depends on the
rainfall, and is very uncertain. Sometimes nearly the whole of tin
hill fields remain waste; while in years of abundant rainfall almost
the whole is cultivated, yielding very fair crops of wheat and

2 o4 KHOLAPUR—KHUDIAN.

bdjra. Lands at the foot of the hills watered from wells produce
tobacco.

The Khisor range has a total length of about 50 miles, a breadth of

6 miles, and an elevation varying from 2000 to about 3500 feet. Its
northern extremity juts into the District of Bannu.

Kholapur. — Town in Amraoti District, Berar, Deccan ; 18 miles
west of Amraoti town. Lat. 200 55' 30" n., long. 770 33' 30" e. Popu-
lation (1867) 6169; (1881) 6452, namely, 3261 males and 3 191
females, of whom 4576 were Hindus, 1719 Musalmans, 150 Jains, and

7 Sikhs. Silk trade was once considerable. In 1809, the subahddr
of Ellichpur, Vithal Bhag Deo, demanded a contribution of ^10,000.
On payment being refused, he captured the town, which was then
protected by walls; and it was sacked by his troops. Its rapid
decadence may be partly attributable to the annual fights between the
Musalmans and the Rajputs, when the victorious party always took
occasion to plunder at least part of the town.

Kholpetua. — River in Khulna District, Bengal ; an offshoot of the
Kabadak near Asasunf. It first keeps a westerly course for a short
distance, and, after receiving the waters of the Budhata Gang, turns to
the south till it is joined by the Galghasia, whence the united river
flows through the Sundarbans till it falls again into the Kabadak, a few
miles above the place where that river in its turn empties itself into the
Pangasi. The Kholpetua is a river of little note, except for the great
breadth which it assumes after it is joined by the Galghasia, the width of
the channel increasing from 150 to 600 yards in a course of 16 miles.

Khora. — Village in Khairpur State, Sind, Bombay Presidency;
situated on the Abulwaro Canal, about 20 miles from Khairpur town,
and on the postal road between Haidarabad (Hyderabad) and Miiltan
(Mooltan). The population is inconsiderable. There is a small manu-
facture of coarse cotton cloth.

Khoshab. — Tahsil and town [in Shahpur District, Punjab. — See
Khushab.

Khudabad. — Ruined town in Dadu tdluk, Sehwan Sub-division,
Karachi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; 16 miles
north-east of Sehwan, and 8 miles south-west of Dadu. Lat. 2 6° 38'
35" n., long. 670 44' 30" e. With regard to this place, Thornton says:
1 Little more than thirty years ago it rivalled Haidarabad in size and
population, yet now not one habitable dwelling remains. It was a
favourite residence of the Talpur chiefs of Sind, and the remains of
many of them rest here in tombs of neat but plain construction.'

Khudian. — Town in Chunian tahsil, Lahore District, Punjab ;
situated on the road from Firozpur to Miiltan. Lat. 300 59' 30" n.,
long. 740 19' 15" e. Population (1869) 3108; (1881) 2917, namely,
Muhammadans, 1694; Hindus, 1071; and Sikhs, 152. Number of

KHUJJI—KIIULX. I.

houses, 607. Municipal income (1882-83), ;£i20, or an :.-.
taxation of ofd. per head. It is an old town, but of no pn
importance9; surrounded by a brick wall, with well-built h burnt

brick, and several large residences. The Katora Inundatii 1
passes close to the town on the south. School and police station.

Kkajji.—-Zaminddri estate in Drug tahsil, Raipur District, Central
Provinces; 70 miles south-west of Raipur town. Khiijji vil!
situated in lat. 210 57' N., long. 8i° 57' 30" e. Area of the
71 square miles; number of villages, 32; occupied houses, 3459.
Population (1881) 11,309, namely, males 5616, and females 5693;
average density, 159 persons per square mile. The estate is at \ 1
(1883) under Government management, the zaminddr, a Muhammadan,
being a minor.

Khulna. — A British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of
Bengal, lying between 210 38' and 230 1' n. lat, and between i
and 890 59' e. long. Khulna District forms the south-eastern 1
of the Presidency Division. It is bounded on the north by ]
District, on the east by Bakarganj District, on the south by the
Sundarbans, and on the west by the Twenty-four Pargan.
exclusive of the unsurveyed Sundarbans, 2077 square miles. Popula-
tion, according to the Census of 1881, 1,079,948 persons. The admini-
strative head-quarters are at the town of Khulna, which is the
terminus of the Bengal Central Railway.

Physical Aspects. — Khulna occupies the southern central portion of
the Delta between the Hugh' and the united Ganges and Brahmaputra.
Its general shape is much the same as that of the Twenty-four Parganis,
an irregular parallelogram. It is an alluvial plain, intersected by rivers,
which again are interlaced by cross-channels and marshes. The
District may be divided into three parts: the north-western portion,
where the land is well raised; the north-eastern portion, from the
boundary-line between Jessor and Khulna, down to the latiti:
Bagherhat, where the land is low and covered with swamps ; and
the southern portion, which forms the Khulna Sundarbans, a mere
tangled network of swamps and rivers, in the inters!
(except where reclamation has been going on) tillage is impossible, and
there is no settled population.

The north-west of Khulna District is beautified with
groves of date-palms and plantations, especially on the outsk.
villages. Indeed, nearly every village lies within its own frill
plantations and garden-ground. The produce of the date ti.
boiled down into gur or molasses by the cultivators, and sold to
refiners for the purpose of being manufactured into sugar. In the
north-east portion of the District the population is sparse, the only
parts of the tract suitable for dwellings being the high land along the

2o6 KHULNA.

banks of rivers. The principal rivers of Khulna are the Madhumati
(which forms the eastern boundary of the District), with its tributary
the Bhairab, on the banks of which is situated the town of Khulna ;
the Kabadak, the Bhadra, the Atharabanka, the Jamuna or Ichhamati,
the Galghasia or Banstala, and the Sibsa. As in all deltaic tracts, the
banks of the rivers are higher than the adjacent country ; but a great
part of the District is spread out into large marshes.

History. — The history of Khulna District is much the same as the
history of Jessor, as more than two-thirds of it is formed of what
were formerly Sub-divisions of the District of Jessor. Khulna was
erected into a separate District on the ist June 1882.

Population. — The population of Khulna, as ascertained by the
Census of 1881, is 1,079,948 persons, inhabiting 2890 villages or
townships, and 156,223 houses. The average pressure of the popula-
tion on the soil throughout the surveyed portion of the District
is 519*96 to the square mile; number of houses per square mile,
77*03 ; persons per house, 6 '91. The density of the population varies,
however, in a most marked way in different parts of the District.
After what has been said above in connection with the physical aspects
of the three different portions into which Khulna may be divided, it
will be readily understood that the population may be expected to be
more sparse towards the south of the District than in the north-west
and north-east.

Of the total population, 568,402 are males and 511,546 females;
proportion of males, 52*63 per cent. Classified according to age,
there are, under twelve years old — males 183,167, and females
173,414; total children, 356,581, or 33*01 per cent. As regards
religious distinctions, Hindus number 523,657, or 48*48 per cent.
of the total population, while Musalmans number 555,544, or 51*44
per cent., chiefly belonging to the lower classes. The number of
Christians is 747, of whom 723 are native converts. Of the higher
castes of Hindus, Brdhmans number 28,654, and Rajputs 551. Of
the lower ranks of the Hindu community, the fishing and boating
castes deserve special mention. The fisheries in the rivers and
deeper swamps are very valuable, and the right to fish is a regular
tenure, paid for like the right to cultivate land.

Toums and Villages. — There are, in Khulna, according to the Census
of 1 88 1, four towns with a population of over 5000 souls, viz. Satkhira,
8738; Kalamoa, 5995; Kaliganj, 5554; and Debhata, 5514; and
there are three municipalities in the District, at Satkhira, Debhata,
and Chandonia. There are t6o towns containing from 1000 to
5000 inhabitants, of which 138 contain fewer than 2000; 2266
villages with fewer than 500; and 460 with between 500 and 1000
inhabitants. Among the towns or large villages which, though con-

KHULNA.

taining fewer than 5000 inhabitants, are important comma

otherwise, may be mentioned the following :— Khul

the Sundarbans,' a town of commercial importance, and I

of the District, past which the whole boat traffic of the east and :.

east passes on its way to Calcutta; Kapilmuni, a market and pi..

pilgrimage ; Bagherhat, with the celebrated shat-gumbaz ■

mosque, and many other interesting ruins connected with Khan Jahan,

one of the earliest reclaimers of the Sundarbans; Morrellganj on the

Tangachi, lately the property of Messrs. Morrell and I

Satkhira, which contains many Hindu temples. Descriptions of most

of these places will be found in their alphabetical order in this work,

and a detailed account of them is given in the Statistical .

Bengal, vol. ii. pp. 201-239.

Occupatio?is. — As regards occupation, the Census Report of 1SS1

classifies the male population into the following six main divisions :

(1) Professional class, including all Government officials and the
professions, 10,786; (2) domestic servants, innkeepers, etc., 7
(3) commercial classes, including bankers, merchants, traders, carrier ,
etc., 31,666; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners,
253,622 ; (5) industrial class, including manufacturers and artisans,
63,204; (6) indefinite and unspecified class, comprising general lab.
and male children, 202,056.

Agriculture. — As in Jessor, the staple crop in the District of
Khulna is rice, of which there are three harvests, dman, dus, and
The times of sowing and reaping vary in different parts of the
District, as in Jessor. In the north-west portion of Khulna, dman
or winter rice is sown in April and May, and reaped in Noveml
December ; in the Sundarbans, it is sown in April and reaped in January.
The land for this crop is ploughed four times before sowing, a: .
in marsh lands, the young shoots are transplanted in July. Fur dus rice
the ground is ploughed five or six times, the seed is sown on i.
ground, there is no transplanting, and the lands yield a second
Boro rice is hardly ploughed at all ; the seed is scattered broadcast in
the marshes as they dry up, and the shoots are transplanted when a
month old, and sometimes again a month later. Among the 1
crops of the District are peas, jute, sugar-cane, date palms, etc. The
land tenures of the District deserve special notice. Th
Sundarbans grants are called tdlukddrs. Several of them hold
siderable estates in Jessor, Bakarganj, or the Twenty-four Parg
but many are residents in the portion of this District immediately
north of the Sundarbans. These are men who, being in comfortable
circumstances, have money enough to carry on Sundarban ret
tion with success, although they cannot afford to leave the busiiu
the hands of agents. They are therefore immediate'. ted in

2o8 KHULNA.

the reclamation scheme, and to them is due much of the agricultural
improvements and extension since the Permanent Settlement. Rates
of rent vary in Khulna, as in Jessor, according to the description and
position of the land.

National Calamities. — Blights occur occasionally, but rarely to any
serious extent. The District is, as might be expected, subject to heavy
floods, which have sometimes been immediately followed by disastrous
cyclones.

Commerce and Trade. — The trade of Khulna is carried on by means
of permanent markets. The chief exports are sugar, both dhulna (half-
refined) and paka (white granular), indigo, rice, etc., and from the
Sundarbans, timber, honey, shells, etc. The principal imports are salt,
English piece-goods, and hardware. The exports greatly exceed the
imports in value.

Admi?iistration. — Khulna was formerly a Sub-division of Jessor
District, but now, with the addition of two more Sub-divisions, it forms
a District of itself. With the view of lightening the work in the
great suburban District of the Twenty-four Parganas, and of partially
relieving Nadiya and Jessor of the charges which pressed so heavily
on them, the local Government, after long and careful inquiry, came to
the conclusion that the formation of a Sundarbans District with its
head-quarters at Khulna was absolutely necessary. The advantages of
having the head-quarters at the Khulna terminus of the new Bengal
Central Railway are many ; and the same grounds which rendered it
desirable that the Sundarbans should be connected by railway com-
munication with Calcutta, pointed conclusively to the choice of Khulna
as the head-quarters of the new District. The sanction of the Govern-
ment of India and of the Secretary of State having been obtained to the
formation of the new District in the Sundarbans, which the local
Government considered should be formed, a notification, dated the
25th April 1882, which took effect from the 1st June of the same year,
declared that it should consist of the Satkhira Sub-division of the
Twenty-four Parganas, and of the Khulna and Bagherhat Sub-divisions
of Jessor District, the head-quarters being at the town of Khulna.
Jessor District, thus relieved of two Sub-divisions, is in a position
to take one from Nadiya, which District stands in need of relief.
The Bangaon Sub-division of Nadiya is accordingly to be transferred
to Jessor, of which District indeed it geographically forms a part. The
effect of these changes is that each of the three Districts of the
Twenty-four Parganas, Nadiya, and Jessor will be relieved of one
Sub-division, and will be reduced to more manageable proportions in
regard to area and population.

The additional establishment which has been provided for Khulna,
exclusive of the usual ministerial establishments, is a Magistrate and

KHULNA SUB DIVISION.

Collector, a Joint-Magistrate, a Civil Surgeon, and a Di

tendent of Police. Beyond the appointment of a subordinate J
no increase in the judicial establishment is necessary, as the Ju<:_
Jessor will hold sessions at Khulna, and, with the aid of the subordinate-
Judge newly appointed, and the munsif, dispose of the civil work of
the District. For police purposes Khulna is divided into 13 /
or police circles, with 11 outposts and 1 salt pass-station. The District
police consists of 303 men, of all ranks. There is one District jail
in Khulna and two subsidiary jails.

Medical Aspects — Climate. — The seasons arc substantially the
as in other Districts of Lower Bengal ; but the climate is marked by
a comparative absence of cold weather during the winter months,
throughout which heavy night dews prevail, and by a cool breeze
during the rainy season from the south-east. During the year the
thermometer ranges from 5 6° to 980 F. The rainfall during the
1882 at the town of Khulna was returned at 67-02 inches.

Diseases. — As in the neighbouring Districts, intermittent and
other classes of fever are prevalent throughout the year, owing to
the extreme dampness of the District. The people living on the
borders of the Sundarbans, and those at a distance, suffer alike from
this cause ; the country in the immediate neighbourhood of the
head-quarters of the Satkhira Sub-division being apparently the most
unhealthy. Cholera is scarcely ever absent, being most severe at the
commencement of the cold season. The total number of deaths reported
to have occurred from cholera during 1882 was 2830, of which
happened during the last quarter of the year. Small-pox is now almost
unknown. Cattle disease prevails at times, chiefly in the Sun/.
tracts of the Bagherhat Sub-division. The cattle required for cult; .
in those parts are carried backwards and forwards in crowded
and from want of proper accommodation, both in their transit and on
shore, it is not surprising that some disease among them ot 1

Medical Institutions. —There are public charitable
containing accommodation for in-door patients, supported bj
contributions, at the head-quarters of each of the Sub-dii
Khulna, Satkhira, and Bagherhat, in charge of native hospita
and also one at Morrellganj, supported by the owners ol I
one at Daulatpur, 6 miles from Khulna, supported from the fill
the Sayyidpur trust estate (the Mohsin Fund), of which a ,
portion lies in this District ; and one at Syamnagar in tlu
of Satkhira, maintained by the zamind&t of Nokipur. 1;
number of persons who received out-door medical relief in tn
1882 was about 8000.

Khulnl-Head-quarters Sub-division of Khulna D
situated between 210 41' 45" and 23° i' * lat, and between

VOL. VIII.

2 to KHULNA HEAD-QUARTERS— KHUND.

and 890 47' 15" e. long. Area (1881), 696 square miles; with 886
villages or towns, and 47,480 houses. Population (1872) 324,001;
(1881) 344,389, showing an increase of 20,388, or 629 percent., in
nine years. Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 —
Hindus, 169,960, or 49-4 per cent.; Muhammadans, 174,267, or 50*6
percent.; and Christians, 162; total, 344>389> namely, 180,994 males
and 163,395 females. Proportion of males, 52*6 per cent. ; density of
population, 495 persons per square mile ; villages per square mile, 1*27 ;
persons per village, 389; houses per square mile, 54; persons per
house, 7'i. This Sub-division, which was constituted in 1842, comprises
the 4 police circles (thdnds) of Khulna, Baitaghata, Damuria, and
Paikgachha. In 1883 it contained 4 civil and 5 criminal courts, a
regular police force of 151 men, besides 575 village watchmen.

Khulna. — Administrative head-quarters of Khulna District, Bengal ;
situated at the point where the Bhairab river meets the Sundarbans.
Lat. 220 49' 10" n., long. 890 36' 55" e. Khulna may be described as
the capital of the Sundarbans ; and for the last hundred years at least
it has been a place of considerable importance. It was the head-
quarters of the salt department during the period of the Company's
salt manufacture. The whole boat traffic from the east and north-east
passes here on its way to Calcutta : rice from Dacca and Bakarganj ;
lime, lemons, and oranges from Sylhet ; mustard seed, linseed, and
pulse from Pabna, Rajshahi, and Faridpur ; clarified butter (g/ii) from
Patna; and firewood from the Sundarbans. From Calcutta, the
principal cargo is Liverpool salt, the trade in which is very considerable.
Numerous sugar refineries exist. .. It contains three market-places, of
which the most important, Sen's Bazar, is situated on the east and
the other two on the west bank of the river. Khulna town forms the
terminus of the Bengal Central Railway.

Khumber. — Town in Bhartpur (Bhurtpore) State, Rajputana. — See
Kumbher.

Khun. — Port and lighthouse in the Dhanduka Sub-division of Ahmad-
abad District, Bombay Presidency. The port is five miles east of
Dholera, on the Bhadar or Dholera creek. Dholera town and the
port of Khun were once connected by a tramway, which has now ceased
to run. The lighthouse is at the entrance of the creek, in lat. 220 3' 20"
n., and long. 720 17' 30" e. It is provided with a common lantern with
five oil burners and reflectors fixed on a conical building on wooden
piles. The lantern is 50 feet above high-water, and visible for 15 miles.
Khund (or Kund). — Valley in Kashmir State, Punjab, on the
northern side of the Pir-Panjal Mountain. Lat. 330 32' n., long.
750 io' e. Thornton describes it as three miles long, picturesque, well
cultivated, and possessing a cool climate. Elevation above sea-level,
6000 feet.

KHUNDAL U—KI1CKJ. I.

Khundalu.— Lake in Hindiir State, Punjab, among the rani

hills extending from the Sutlej (Satlaj) to the Siwalik chain.
10' x., long. 760 47' e. Thornton states that it varies in length I:
mile in dry weather to i\ miles during the rains; depth,
Winding shore, enclosed by hills, and clothed with vegetation to the
water's edge. Elevation above sea-level, about 2800 feet.

Khurdha.— Sub-division of Pun' District, Orissaj situated
190 40' 30" and 200 25' 15" n. lat., and 850 o' 15" and . Ion-.

Area, 943 square miles; with 1314 villages, and 30.237 hi
Population (1881) 323,405, namely, males 161,861, and fei
161,544. Hindus numbered 316,285 ; Muhammadans, 6889; Christians,
230; Sikh, 1. Density of population, 343 persons per square 1
villages per square mile, 1*39; persons per village, 246; hous^
square mile, 40; persons per house, 107. This Sub-division com]
the 2 police circles (thdnds) of Khurdha and Banpur. It contained in
1S83, 3 courts, with a regular police force of 1 14 officers and men, and
a rural police or village watch numbering 407.

The estate or little principality of Khurdha formed the la
of territory held by the independent Hindu dynasty of 0
The Maratha cavalry were unable to overrun this jungle -covered
and hilly tract ; and the ancient royal house retained much
independence until 1804, when the Raja rebelled against the British
Government, and his territory was confiscated. A rising on the ;
the peasantry took place in 181 7-18, arising in great measure thi
the oppression of underling Bengali officials. The insurre
speedily quelled, reforms were introduced, and grievances redu
At the present day Khurdha is a profitable and well-managed Govern-
ment estate, and the cultivators are a contented and generally
perous class. Since 1804, the Raja has possessed no indepei
powers, but he was held in great veneration by the people as the
hereditary guardian of the Jagannath temple. The late holder of the
title was convicted of wilful murder in 1878, and sentenced to ;
servitude in the Andaman Islands.

Khurdha.— Town in Puri District, Orissa, and head-;
Khurdha Sub-division and police circle (thdnd) ; situated on the high-
road from Cuttack to Ganjam in Madras. Lat. 20 10' 49 n., lonj
40' 12" e. Between 1818 and 182S, Khurdha* was the head-quart*
the District, which in the latter year was transferred to I

Khurja. — South-western tahsil of Bulandshahr District, N
Western Provinces, comprising thtpargandsoi Khurja, Je\var,a:
stretching from the Jumna to the East Kali Nadi, and
by the East Indian Railway, and by three branches
Canal Area, 460 square miles, of which 322 are cultivate L I
lation (1872) 221,712; (1SS1) 212,561, namely, males 112,7

2i2 KHURJA TOWN—KHUSHAB.

females 99,845, showing a decrease of 9 151, or 4-3 per cent, in nine
years. Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus,
175,702; Muhammadans, 36,624: Jains, 231; 'others,' 4. Land
revenue (1872), ,£30,507 ; total Government revenue, ^33,561 ; rental
paid by cultivators, ^69,6 19. In 1883, the Sub-division contained 1
civil and 4 criminal courts, with 4 police stations {thdnds) ; strength of
regular police, 48 men ; village watchmen (chankiddrs), 500.

Khlirja. — Town, municipality, and chief commercial centre of
Bulandshahr District, North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of
Khiirja tahsil. Lat. 2 8° 15' 25" n., long. 770 53' 50" e. Distant from
Bulandshahr 10 miles south, from Aligarh 30 miles north, from Meerut
(Merath) and Delhi 50 miles south and south-east respectively. Popu-
lation (1872) 26,858; (1881) 27,190, namely, males 14,102, and females
13,088. Classified according to religion, the population in 1881 con-
sisted of — Hindus, 16,145; Muhammadans, 10,990; and Jains, 55.
Area of town site, 623 acres. Municipal income (1876-77), £"1843 ;
(1881), ^2287, of which £1892 was derived from octroi; average
incidence of taxation, is. 4§d. per head.

Khiirja is the chief trading town between Delhi and Hathras, and
is particularly well situated for commercial purposes ; railway station
on the East Indian Railway 3^ miles south, and the meeting-place
of the Delhi and Meerut (Merath) branches of the Grand Trunk
Road. The principal inhabitants are Keshgi Pathans and Churiiwal
Baniyas ; the latter, who are Jains by religion, are an enterprising
and a wealthy class, carrying on banking over all India by means
of paid agencies. They have recently built a handsome temple in
the centre of the town, with a lofty dome surmounted by a gilded
pinnacle. The interior is one blaze of gold and colour ; the vault
of the dome being painted and ornamented in the most florid style
of Hindu decorative art. Among the recent improvements in the
town are a fine masonry tank, 200 feet square, supplied with
water from the Ganges Canal ; and a market-place with handsome
facades, a lofty gateway, a mosque in the centre of the square, and
an adjoining bazar, all pointed with carved stone. The cost of the
tank and aqueduct was about £1200; that of the market-place nearly
;£ 10,000. Tahsili, police station, post-office, dispensary, town hall,
tahsili school. Chief trade in raw cotton, of which about 70,000 cwts.
are annually exported to Cawnpur, Mirzapur, and Calcutta. A Euro-
pean cotton press was started in 1882. Imports of English piece-goods,
metals, country cloth, and brass utensils. Local trade in cotton,
safflower, indigo, sugar, molasses, grain, and ghi. The population has
rapidly increased during the last thirty years.

Khushab. — Western tahsil of Shahpur District, Punjab ; consisting
of that portion of the District lying west of the Jehlam (Jhelum) river.

KHUSHAB TOWN. 2,3

Lat. 3r3i'45"t0 3204i/ 30" n., long. 710 38' 30" to 72° 40' 45 r. The
greater part is unproductive land, but a narrow strip along thi
the river, exposed to its fertilizing inundations, produces good 1
The tahsil is intersected by the great salt range of the Punjab.
(1881), 1032 square miles, with 239 towns and villages, 22,874 1.
and 28,423 families. Total population (1881) 122,633, namely, males
64o85> and females 58,048; average density, 119 persons per square
mile. Of the 239 towns and villages, 168 contain less than five
hundred inhabitants; 46 from five hundred to a thousand; 2.;
one to two thousand; while two towns (Shahpur and Shahiwal)
have between five and ten thousand. Classified according to religion,
the population in 1881 consisted of — Muhammadans, 101,831;
Hindus, 19,304; Sikhs, 1481 ; and Christians, 17. Of the
area of 660,615 acres, 182,047 acres were returned in the quin-
quennial agricultural statistics of the Punjab Government as under
cultivation in 1878-79, of which 175,957 acres were irrigated
acres from Government works, and 166,768 acres by private indi-
viduals). The uncultivated area included 274,192 acres of grazing
lands, 190,950 acres of cultivable land available for tillage, and 13.42O
acres of uncultivable waste. The principal crops are wheat, jodr,
bdjra, gram, and barley. Poppy is also grown to a considerable
extent. Revenue, ^14,432. The administrative staff consists of a
tahsilddr, presiding over 1 civil and 1 criminal court. The tahsil is
sub-divided into six police circles (thdnds), with 89 regular police, and
142 village watchmen.

Khushab.— Town and municipality in Shahpur District, Punjab, and
head-quarters of Khushab tahsil ; situated on the right bank of the
river Jehlam (Jhelum), on the road from Lahore to Dera Ismail K
about eight miles from Shahpur town. Tat. 320 17' 4°" >•'•> long, ~:
23' 51" e. Population (1868) 8509; (1SS1) S9S9, namely,
Muhammadans, 2402 Hindus, 227 Sikhs, and 1 'other/ Municip
revenue (1882-83), ^919, or an average of 2s. ojd. per head.
by year the water eats away the bank of the Jehlam, so that the
inhabitants are continually driven out of their homes and compelk
build on the farther side of the town, which has been several tin
washed away. Khushab carries on a flourishing trade with W
(Mooltan), Sakkar, Afghanistan, and the Derajat Exports
cotton, wool, £-///, and country cloth; imports of Englis
metal, dried fruits, sugar, and molasses. The town is ate
mart for the trade of the salt range ; numbers of cattle are eir.
in taking salt eastward, and bringing back rice and sugar. Man; •
of coarse cloth and cotton scarves; 600 weaving establish!!
weaving is also a local industry, and the town has a name I
embroidered silk scarves. A canal 14 miles long, the Corbyn-wal

2 1 4 KHUTAHAN—KHUTGA ON.

been cut from the Jehlam river, which affords irrigation to a large tract
of country, and supplies the town of Khushab with good water. This
canal will fertilize a barren tract of country. The principal official
buildings comprise a town hall, tahsili, school, dispensary.

Khutahan. — Northern tahsil of Jaunpur District, North- Western
Provinces, comprising the pargands of Ungli, Rari, Badlapur, Karyat-
Mendha, and Chandah. Large tracts of barren tisar land are scattered
over the tahsil. Numerous tanks, wells, and ponds afford facilities for
irrigation. The chief tanks are the masonry built Suraj-kund in Sarai-
Khwaja, the royal (badshdhi) tank in Manicha, the viceregal (waziri)
tank, and a masonry tank at Shahganj. Population (1872) 237,536;
(1881) 268,901, namely, males 136,237, and females 132,664; total
increase in the nine years, 31,365, or 13-4 per cent. Classified accord-
ing to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 231,750 ; Muhammadans,
37,148; and 'others,' 3. Of the 697 villages, 537 contained less
than five hundred inhabitants; 117 between five hundred and a
thousand; and 43 between one and five thousand. The only town
with upwards of five thousand inhabitants is Shahganj (population,
6317). The area of Khutahan tahsil, according to the latest official
returns (188 1), is 367 square miles, of which 359*8 square miles are
assessed for Government revenue. Assessed area under cultivation,
209*9 square miles ; cultivable, but not under tillage, 64*1 square miles ;
uncultivable waste, 85*8 square miles. Government land revenue,
£22,583; total Government revenue, including local rates and cesses,
,£27,651. Amount of rent, including rates and cesses, paid by the
cultivators, £51,705. Means of communication are afforded by the
Giimti river, which flows across the tahsil in a south-easterly direction ;
by the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, which runs through its entire
eastern tract, with four stations; and by numerous roads. In 1884,
Khutahan tahsil contained 3 criminal courts, 4 police stations {thdnds),
with a regular police force of 59 men, supplemented by 526 village
watchmen {chaukiddrs).

Khutahan. — Village in Jaunpur District, North- Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Khutahan tahsil ; situated on the left bank of the
Giimti river, 18 miles north-north-west of Jaunpur town. Lat. 250 58'
7" n., long. 820 36' 58" e. The village, which has a population of only
930 souls, is of no importance save as the head-quarters of the tahsil,
which were removed here on the destruction of the former tahsili at
Tighra by the mutineers in January 1858. The village contains a first-
class police station and an imperial post-office ; bi-weekly market held
on Wednesdays and Saturdays.

Khutgaon. — Zaminddri estate in Chanda District, Central Pro-
vinces; 20 miles south-east of Wairagarh; comprising 42 villages,
spread over an area of 157 square miles. Number of houses, 692.

KHWA—KICH1NG,

1 1

Population ( 1 88 1 ) 3614. Khutgaon village is situated in I 1

N., long. 8o° 14' e.

Khwa. — River and town, British Burma. — Set Kw.\.
Khyoung-tshun. — Village in Bfld-gywon island, Amherst D

British Burma. — See Kyaung-sux.

Khyrim (or Nong Khrem).— Petty State in the Khasi Hill .
presided over by a stem or chief named U Klur Singh. Population
(1881) 24,425 ; estimated revenue, ^820. The minerals are lime,
coal, and iron. The iron-ore of Khyrim is the purest found in the
Khasi Hills. In former times, smelting operations were conduct,
a large scale, as evidenced by the deep excavations and largi
slag. The greater part of the smelted iron used to be exported I I
plains in lumps or bars, and was more highly valued than English iron
by native smiths. Under the competition of the cheaper article from
England, this trade has now died out ; but at the present da; .
implements, such as ddos or hill-knives, koddlis or mattocks, hammers,
crow-bars, and wedges, are still manufactured and exported to Sylhet.
Other manufactures are the weaving of cotton and erid silk cloth, and
the making of mats and baskets. The cultivated crops are rice, millet,
cotton, potatoes, oranges, chillies, betel-nut, and pan leaves. Th 1
products gathered in the jungle include caoutchouc, cinnamon, lac,
black pepper, and honey.

Kiamari. — Island on the further side of Karachi (Kurrachee)
harbour, Karachi District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; lying in lat.
240 49' 15" n., and long. 67° 2 e., and forming one of the municipal
quarters of Karachi Town, with which it is connected by a road called
the 'Napier Mole,' 3 miles long, constructed in 1S54. Kiamari
landing-place for passengers and goods destined for Karachi, and
contains 3 piers, the principal of which is the Merewether pier, cal
after the late Sir William Merewether, who was for many years I
missioner in Sind; the foundation-stone was laid by Lord Rif
November 1SS0. There are here a commissariat store, customs bouse,
naval building-yard, etc. Station on the Sind, Punjab, and I >elbi Railway.

Kiching— Village in Morbhanj State, Orissa, Bengal ; situal
lat. 210 55' 30" n., and long. 85' 52' 30" 1:., in a jungly b
south of the State. It is now inhabited only by aboriginal
ruined temples, tanks, and other architectural remains • "1,:

civilised population in ancient days. Two of the tern
are still visited by pilgrims, and are kept in som
surrounding jungle is thickly scattered with fragments 1
sculptured idols, and human figures in alto-relievo. '1 he t
are said to have formed part of a series of 60 similar on
miles apart in a circle 40 miles in diameter, of which
some others at Udaipur on the Baitarani arc now visited.

216 KIDDERPUR—KILA SOB HA SINGH.

Kidderpur. — Village on the left bank of the Hugh', immediately
south of Calcutta, in the District of the Twenty-lour Parganas, Bengal.
Lat 220 32' 25" n., long. 88° 22' 18" e. The seat of the Government
dockyard, constructed in the last century by General Kyd, after whom
the village is named. Between 1781 and 1821, 237 ships were built at
the Kidderpur docks, at a cost of upwards of two millions sterling ; and
in 1 8 18, the Hastings, a 74-gun ship, was launched here. The India
General Steam Navigation Company have also a dock at Kidderpur,
but neither this nor the Government yard is now used for shipbuilding,
but merely for repairs, fitting out, etc.

Kiggat-nad. — Tdluk or Sub-division in Coorg, Southern India.
Bounded on the north by Merkara tdluk ; on the south-west and south
by Malabar District and the Wynad ; and on the east by Mysore State.
Area, 410 square miles; number of villages, 49; number of houses,
3548. Population (1871) 27,738; (1881) 31,230, namely, 16,991 males
and 14,239 females, of whom 6555 are Coorgs. Kiggat-nad occupies
the south-east corner of Coorg, and is the most sparsely populated
tdluk in the territory. It is watered by the Lakshmantirtha and
Barapole rivers, and contains 181 square miles of forest, of which
the most valuable portion is the reserved teak forest of Nalkeri,
whence timber is carted to Mysore. Rice is cultivated along the
narrow valleys of the hill streams. The whole area is mountainous,
being traversed by spurs of the Brahmagiri range, which abound in
sdmbhar deer, and are the favourite resort of sportsmen. Coffee estates
have been opened out on the rich black soil of the northern portion of
the tdluk, which is traversed by the Mysore-Cannanore road. Another
road leads from Gonikopal to the Wynad. The head-quarters of
Kiggat-nad are at Hudikeri, lat. 120 6' n., long. 7 6° 1' e.

Kilakarai (the Korkhoi of the Periplus). — Seaport in Ramnad
zaminddri, Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 90 14'
20" n., and long. 7 8° 50' 10" e., near the mouth of the Gundar.
Population (1871) 11,303; (1881) 11,887, namely, 5029 males and
6858 females. Muhammadans numbered 8274; Hindus, 2926; and
Christians, 687. Number of houses, 2749. Average value of imports
for the five years ending 1882-83, ;£32>445> and exports, .£16,595.
In 1882-83 the imports were valued at £19,253, and the exports at
£14,088. Kilakarai is supposed by some authorities to have been
Kurkhi, the earliest capital of the Pandyas. One account would assign
its foundation to the Chola, Chera, and Pandya kings, who joined in
building it to commemorate the place where a great rain-storm detained
them for a month, when on their way to celebrate the marriage of a
Pandya prince.

Kilang. — Village in Kangra District, Punjab. — See Kolang.

Kila Sobha Singh. — Town in the Pasriir tahsil of Sialkot District,

KILING— KIMEDI.

Punjab; 23 miles south-east of Sialkot town. Lat 32 14' w.
740 48' 15" e. Population (1868) 5153; (1881) 4521, namely,
Hindus, 2734 Muhammadans, and 19 Sikhs. Founded about a CO
ago by Alawalia Sardar Bhag Singh, who erected a mud fort and 1
it after his son Sobha Singh. Residence of a colony of Kashmiri shawl-
weavers, who manufacture edging for exportation to Amritsar (Umritsar).
Of late years many silk factories have been established, and the industry
is in a promising condition. Exports of sugar, grain, and other local
produce. The public buildings consist of a police station, disjM 1
post-office, and a boys' and a girls' school. Municipal revenue in
1881-82, ^366, or is. 75-d. per head of population within municipal limits.

Riling" (or Um-idm). — River of Assam, which rises in the Khasi
Hills, not far to the west of the Shillong peak, and flowing north-east
into Nowgong District, empties into the Kapili river a short di~
before that stream falls into the Kalang near Jagi. Its bed is r-uky
throughout its entire course, but in the plains it is navigable by boats
of 4 tons burthen during the greater part of the year. Um-idm is the
Khasi name of the river ; in Nowgong it is called the Kiling.

Kiliyar.— River in Travancore State, Madras Presidency.

Killianwala.— Battle-field in Gujrat District, Punjab.— See CHILIAN-

WALA.

KilpurL— Eastern tahsil of the Tarai District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, consisting of a long submontane belt, much of it covered with
forest. Area, 413 square miles, of which 79 are cultivated. Population
(1872) 51,480; (1881) 48,99°. namely, males 27,051, and females
21,939. Land revenue, ^2193.

KimedL— Zaminddri hill tract, on the western border o< Ganjam
District, Madras Presidency. It contains the three estates of Pari l
Kimedi; Pedda or Boda Kimedi, also called Vizianagramj and
Chinna Kimedi or Pratapgiri. Each estate consists of two dist
divisions, a lowland and an upland tract ; the former held as an ordu
zaminddrt under the regular District officers, while the latter is
the supervision of a special Government Agency.

Parla Kimedi is the largest zatrinddri in the District. It 1
area of 410 square miles, exclusive of about 354 square miles ol ...
or hill country. Population of lowland tract (187
240,980, namely, 120,487 males and 120,493 females;
houses, 50,708: Hindus numbered 240,266; Muhammadans,
Christians, 118; and 'others,' 99. In 1881 the ********
villages, with a population of 39,152, namely, 20,218 m
females occupying 8936 houses. Hindus numbered 3 -5- -
Sava.rs; and Muhammadans, 200. The peshkash, ■ ancn

assessment, of Parla Kimedi is ^8783. The estate yields an annua
revenue of £i$,z lS t0 the ^minddr.

218 KIMEDI.

Pedda Kimedi, which is situated north of Parla Kimedi, pays a
peshkash of ,£2332, and yields an annual revenue of ^10,087. The
Census returns of 1881 do not show the figures of Pedda Kimedi
zaminddri ; those of 187 1 gave the area as 195 square miles; villages,
194; population, 40,650. In 1881, the Mdliyas or hill tract of Pedda
Kimedi contained 260 villages, with a population of 26,605, namely,
13,665 males and 12,940 females, occupying 5416 houses. Hindus
numbered 26,563, mostly Kandhs ; Muhammadans, 41 ; and Christian, 1.
Area, about 377 square miles.

Chinna Kimedi, the most northern division, pays a peshkash of
^1994, and yields an annual revenue of ;£ 11,641. Area of low-
lands, 56 square miles, with 131 villages, containing 6665 houses.
Population (1871) 28,491; (1881)35,954, namely, 17,851 males and
18,103 females. Hindus numbered 35,926; and Muhammadans, 28.
The extensive Mdliyas (about 1975 square miles) attached to Chinna
Kimedi have been resumed by the British Government, and their
ancient feudal connection with the zaminddr has ceased. In 1881,
these Mdliyas contained 138 villages, with a population of 11,849,
namely, 6254 males and 5595 females, occupying 2671 houses.
Hindus numbered 11,835, principally Kandhs; Muhammadans, n;
and Christians, 3.

The whole Kimedi country was ruled from a remote date by a
descendant of the royal house of Orissa. In 1607, the then
Kimedi Raja allotted Vizianagram and Pratapgiri to his younger
son Unanga Bhima Deo Kesari, whose descendants divided the
estate into two zaminddris, which were temporarily reunited
under Bhima Deo, who proved very troublesome to the British
Resident. Troops were sent against him in 1769, and his fort
at Karla was taken. The following year, in consequence of his
suspected intrigues with Sitarama Razu (of Vizianagram in Viza-
gapatam District) and the Marathas, Pratapgiri, his principal strong-
hold, was seized. On this, the old Raja accepted the terms offered
him; but in 1772 it was again found necessary to enter the country.
After a hard-fought contest, the British gained possession of all his
forts, and the Raja had to submit to strict conditions, including
the partition of his estate between his two sons. This arrangement
was fraught with most disastrous consequences to the country, for
it led to internecine struggles, lasting for a quarter of a century.
The brothers ravaged one another's territory, and burnt one another's
villages, till in 1800 they were both thrown into jail in Ganjam for
disturbing the peace. They were replaced by their respective sons,
who carried on the feud ; and until very recently, although open
hostilities were impossible, the feeling of hatred continued. The
country is now peaceful and flourishing, and connected by road with

KIMIRIA— KIRAKAT.

the coast. The principal towns are Parte Kimedi, Digupodi,

Pudamari.

Kimiria.— A deltaic distributary of the Brahmani river, I
District, Orissa, which branches off opposite the village i Irapur,

and, after receiving the waters of the Genguti, Kelo, and I;
again into the parent stream at the village of Indpur.

Kimlia.— Pass in Bashahr State, Punjab, over the outer Himalayan
range, bounding Kunawir to the north. Lat. 310 14' .\\, Ion- ;
rPhornton states that it can be crossed only during the months « :
June, and July ; later in the year, the snow becomes treacherous,
swallowing pack-sheep and goats, with their drivers. Elevation
sea-level, about 17,000 feet.

Kinhi. — Zaminddri estate in Balaghat District, Central Provii
comprising 64 villages, on an area of 159 square miles, partly above
and partly below the hills. Kinhi, the chief village, is situated in lat.
210 37' n., and long. 8o° 29' e., 25 miles south-east of Biirha, The
present chiefs trace their descent from the head herdsman of the I
and Bhonsla kings of Nagpur, who tended the royal flocks on the
upland pastures of Lanjf. Since the estate was divided into
shares, its value has greatly decreased.

Kin-rwa. — Village in the Kin-rwa revenue circle, Shwe-gyin District,
Tenasserim Division, British Burma. Government rest-house; small
police force. Population (1877) 1349; (1881) 1 107, chiefly enga_
orchard cultivation. Number of houses, 2 n. Prior to annexation, a small
Burmese military force was stationed here. The word ' Keng' or ■ Kin '
means a military station. The termination rwa is simply 'villag

Kirakat (Kardkat). — Eastern tahsil of Jaunpur District, North-
Western Provinces, lying on either side of the river Giimti, and com
prising the pargands of Chandwak, Daryapur, Pisara, and Gujira.
Bounded on the north by Azamgarh District ; on the east by N
and Ghazipur Districts; on the south by Benares District; and on th<
west by Jaunpur tahsil In the south-east of the tahsil are wide trad-
of uncultivable usar plains, and glass is largely produced from the
saline efflorescence (reh) which covers them. There are no lakes in the
tahsil. Water is found at a depth of from 28 to 40 feet, and wells
tanks are numerous. The Grand Trunk Road from Azan arh t<-
Benares passes through the east of the tahsil from north to soutl
several other roads afford communication with Kirakat. the
quarters town. Total area, according to the latest official
171 square miles, of which 12C6 square miles are cultivated,
square miles cultivable, and 157 square miles barren. '1 he are
assessed for Government revenue is i66'6 square miles, of which
116*2 square miles are cultivable. Government land revenue,
.£11,695; total Government revenue, including local rat

2 2 o K IRAK A T TO WN—KIRKL

^14,255. Amount of rental, including rates and cesses, paid by
cultivators, ^31,444. Population (1872) 114,167; (1881) 136,748,
namely, males 68,806, and females 67,942, showing an increase of
22,581, or 19-8 per cent., in nine years. Classified according to
religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus, 128,905; Muhammadans,
7840; and 'others,' 3. Of the 324 villages, 223 contained less than
five hundred inhabitants; 71 between five hundred and a thousand;
and 30 between one thousand and five thousand. There were no
towns containing more than five thousand inhabitants. Of the total
population, 2557 are returned as landholders, 27,068 as agriculturists,
and 12,610 as engaged in occupations other than agriculture. The
majority of the cultivators belong to the Rajput, Koeri, Ahir, and
Chamar castes. In 1884 the tahsil contained 2 criminal courts, 2
police circles (thdnds), a regular police force of 36 men, and a village
watch of 187 chaukiddrs.

Kirakat. — Town in Jaunpur District, North-Western Provinces, and
head-quarters of Kirakat tahsil. Situated on the north or left bank of
the Giimti, distant 16 miles south-east of Jaunpur city, with which it
is connected by an unmetalled road. Lat. 250 38' 5" N., long. 820 57'
41" e. Population (1881) 3251, namely, males 1577, and females
1674. A house-tax, for police and conservancy purposes, realized
.£93 in 1882-83. Kirakat is a long narrow town, with a main road
running east and west, parallel with the Giimti. Besides the usual
sub-divisional courts and offices, it contains an Anglo-vernacular school,
imperial post-office, and first-class police station. Bi-weekly market on
Wednesdays and Saturdays.

Kiratpur. — Town in Najibabad tahsil^ Bijnaur (Bijnor) District,
North-Western Provinces, situated 10 miles from Bijnaur town, at the
junction of the unmetalled roads from Bijnaur and Mandawar to Najib-
abad. Lat. 290 30' 5" n., long. 780 15' 5"e. Population (1872) 9579;
(1882) 12,728, namely, males 6347, and females 6381. Classified
according to religion, there were, in 18S1 — Muhammadans, 8370;
Hindus, 4350 ; and Christians, 8. Area of town site, 236 acres. A
small municipal revenue for police and conservancy purposes is raised
by means of a house-tax. The town was founded about the year 1450,
in the reign of Bahlol Lodi ; and the ruins of the old castle or fort still
exist, though fast falling to decay. Walls of great strength are yet
standing on either side of the main gateway, within which is a hand-
some and well-preserved mosque. Kiratpur is now merely an agri-
cultural centre, of purely local importance, with a petty manufacture of
lacquered wooden work.

Kirki (Kirkee or Khakdi). — Town and cantonment in the Haveli
Sub-division of Poona (Puna) District, Bombay Presidency. Station on
the south-east extension of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 116

KIRL1—KIRTIX. ISA.

miles south-east of Bombay and 4 north-west of Poona ; lat 1

N., and long. 730 54' e. On the 5th November 1S1 7, the fil
three battles which led to the collapse of the Manitha powex
fought near Kirki, then a mere village. The British force under
Colonel Burr was 2800 strong, of whom 800 were Europeans.
Peshwa's force under Bappu Gokla numbered 18,000 horse and 8000
foot, with an immense train of ordnance. The Peshwa* Baji I
witnessed the battle, and his own defeat, from Parbatti hill, one mile
south of Poona. Population (1871) 3098; (1881) 7252, namely,
males and 3353 females. Hindus numbered 4938 ; Christian-,
Muhammadans, 893; Jains, 107; Parsis, 35 ; and 'others,' 33.
office.

Kirli. — A petty State in Khandesh District, Bombay President v. —
See Dang States.

Kirnapur. — Estate in Burha tahs'il, Balaghat District, Central
vinces. Population (1881) 12,667, namely, males 6214, and females
6453 ; residing in 29 villages, on an area of 40 square miles, and
inhabiting 2751 houses. Conferred in 1828 upon Chimna Patel, the
once powerful possessor of Kamtha and the surrounding taluks.
Kirnapur, the principal town, and residence of the chief, stands on
high ground, in lat. 210 39' n., and long. 8o° 22' e., 16 miles south-east
of Burha, and contains some ancient temples. It has a good Govern-
ment school, and a police outpost, and the District post to Lanji
passes daily.

Kirran (or Sdki). — River in Gurdispur and Amritsar (Umi
Districts, Punjab; rises in lat. 320 8' N., and long. 750 30' e., in the
extensive swamps of Bahrampur, west of Dinanagar in the former 1 1
trier, and runs parallel with the Ravi until it passes into Amritsar.
It flows past the towns of Ramdas and Ajnala, and joins the Ravi in
lat. 310 45' N.. and long. 74° 37' e., near the village of Mirow.il, just
above the bridge of boats on the Amritsar and Gujranwala road. It
never runs absolutely dry, but contains little water, except in the
season.

Kirthal.— Village in Meerut (Merath) District, North-Western
vinces. Lat. 290 14' 15" N., and lonS- 77° 17' 15" K- i 24 miles north-
west of Meerut city. Population (1872) 5651 ; (1881) S'^G> namely,
Hindus, 4415; Muhammadans, 827; and Jains, 274. The village stands
on a raised site, bounded on the west by a lake or marsh, htt
depth of 10 feet in January. A cut drains the surplus water inl
Jumna (Jamuna). Few trees, no bazar, unmade and broken
damp situation, defective sanitary arrangements. Inhabitants suffer Hum
enlarged spleen and other malarious diseases.

Kirtiliasa.— River in Dacca District, Bengal; one ol
channels by which the Ganges now finds its way into the Mcgima.

222 KISHANGARH.

In Rennel's map of the last century, the Ganges is shown as joining
the Meghna at Mehndiganj, considerably to the south of the Kirtinasa.
But the Kirtinasa is now the principal channel of the Ganges, branching
off near Rajnagar, and falling into the Meghna, in lat. 230 14' N., and
long. 900 37' e., near Kartikpur. The Kirtinasa has a width of from
3 to 4 miles, with a strong current, which renders navigation difficult
during the rains. The original bed of the Ganges is now almost dry
in the hot season.

Kishangarh (Krishnagarh). — Native State under the political super-
intendence of the Eastern States Agency of Rajputana ; situated
between lat. 260 17' and 26' 59' n., long. 740 43' and 750 13' e. The
area is 724 square miles, and the population in 1881 was returned at
112,633, namely, 59,098 males and 53,535 females; dwelling in 3
towns and 210 villages, and occupying 24,928 houses. Persons per
square mile, 155*5; per house, 4*5. Hindus numbered 97,846;
Muhammadans, 8492 ; and Jains, 6295. Taking the Hindu popula-
tion by caste, there are — Brahmans, 14,154; Rajputs, 8054; Mahajans,
10,599; Jats, 10,458; Balais, 7177; Chamars, 3807; Gujars, 7201;
and 'other Hindus,' 42,701. Divided into their tribes, the Muham-
madans are thus returned — Pathans, 1308; Sayyids, 265; and
'others,' 6919. The Census distributes the adult male population into
the following groups as regards occupation — Agriculture, 13,436; day-
labour, 4946 ; handicraft, 5396 ; service, 5038 ; miscellaneous, 4630 ;
and no occupation, 3034 : total, 36,480. The principal towns are
Kishangarh (the capital), Rupnagar, and Sarwar.

History. — The founder of the State was Kishan Singh, the second
son of Maharaja Udai Singh of Jodhpur, who, leaving his patrimony,
conquered the tract of country which now comprises Kishangarh, and
became its ruler under the sign-manual of the Emperor Akbar in 1594.
There is little of importance known regarding the affairs of the State
until 18 18, when a treaty was entered into by the British Government
with Kishangarh, together with the other Rajput States, as part of a
general scheme for the suppression of the Pindari marauders, by whom
the country was at that time overrun. This treaty contains the usual
conditions of protection on the part of the British Government, and
subordinate co-operation and abstinence from political correspondence
on the part of the chief.

The Maharaja Kalyan Singh, who was supposed to be insane, soon
became involved in troubles with his nobles, which eventually resulted in
his flight to Delhi. Affairs grew worse at Kishangarh, and British terri-
tory having been violated by the disputants, the leaders of both parties
were called upon to desist from hostilities, and to refer their grievances
to the mediation of the Government of India. The Maharaja was at the
same time warned that, if he did not return to his capital and interest him-

KISIIANGARH TOWN.

self in the affairs of the State, the treaty with him would be i
engagements formed with the insurgent Thakurs. This thw
the Maharaja back to Kishangarh, but, finding himself unable I
the State, he offered to lease it to Government His offer was rel
The Maharaja on this took up his residence at Ajmere. The fl
then proclaimed the heir-apparent as Maharaja, and laid siege I I
capital, which they were on the point of carrying when Kalvan -
accepted the mediation of the Political Agent, through whom m
were for the time adjusted.

The reconciliation, however, did not prove sincere, and Kulyin S
shortly afterwards abdicated in favour of his son, Makhdiim Singh, by
whom the late Maharaja, Dhiraj Frith wi Singh Bahadur, was
Prithwi Singh succeeded in 1S40; and the administration, whicl
under his personal guidance, was conducted with prudence, and more
than average ability. He died on the 25th December 1879, leaving
three sons, and was succeeded by the eldest, the present Maharaja
Sadul Singh, who was born about 1854. The chief possesses the right
of adoption, and is entitled to a salute of 15 guns.

Revenue, Agriculture, etc. — The produce of the State consists mainly
of cereals. Its revenue in 1881 was ^27,511. The customs receipts,
which formed a large portion of the revenue, were chiefly derived from
the Sambhar lake salt traffic. These receipts, however, owing to the
introduction of railway communication into Rajputana, and the abandon-
ment of duty on all through traffic, having become greatly diminished,
the Government of India agreed to compensate the Maharaja by a
money payment of ^"2000 per annum. The Rajputana State Railway,
constructed on the metre gauge, passes through the northern portion of
the State. The Nasirabad-Deoli road also traverses the State.

Kishangarh pays no tribute, and contributes nothing to any I
corps or contingent. The military force consists of 550 cavalry, 3500
infantry, 36 guns, and 100 artillerymen.

Kishangarh.— Chief town of the State of Kishangarh, Rijpul
and a station on the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway j situated :
26" 35' n., and long. 740 55' e., about 21 miles north-east of \
(Xusseerabad). Population (188 1) 14,824, namely, 7513 males and
females. Hindus number 9760; Muhammadans,3i4o;aml 'others,'
The town and fort of Kishangarh occupy a picturesque positi<
the banks of a small lake, called Gundolao, in the centre of which is
the Muhkum Bilas, or Maharaja's summer garden. The principal
temples in the town are Brijraj-ji-ka-Mandir, and those dedicated to
Mohan Lai Ji, Madan Mohan Ji, Narsingh Ji, and Chintaman }.. A:
Salimabad, about 12 miles from Kishangarh, is a temple known .
Marag Samparda, which is an object of pilgrimage at all
the natives of the surrounding districts.

224 KISHENGANJ—KISORIGANJ.

The town contains a number of banking houses, and the
principal industrial occupations of the people are the manufacture of
cloth, the cutting of precious stones, and the manufacture of drinking
vessels of khas-khas. There is a post-office, a dharmsdld for the recep-
tion of native travellers, and a staging bungalow near the railway
station, outside of the city ; but European visitors are usually accom-
modated in the Phul-Mahal, a garden-house belonging to the Maharaja,
on the borders of the lake immediately below the palace. This last
building is the highest and most conspicuous part of the fort, and
commands a magnificent view over the surrounding country. An
Anglo-vernacular school, founded by the Maharaja in 1 88 2, is largely
attended.

Kishengailj (properly, KrisJmaganj). — Village and head-quarters of
a police circle (thdnd) in Bhagalpur District, Bengal; situated 33 miles
north of Bhagalpur town. Lat. 250 41' 10" n., long. 86° 59' 20" e.
Contains the second largest market in the District, at which a consider-
able retail trade is carried on. Government distillery. Population
(1872) 1150 males and 1130 females; total, 2280. Not separately
returned in the Census of 188 1.

Kishni. — Town in Sultanpur District, Oudh ; situated in lat. 260 35'
n., and long. 8i° 41' e., on the right bank of the river Giimti, occupy-
ing a high plateau surrounded by ravines. Founded about 400 years
ago, by Raja Kishan Chand, ancestor of the Mandarik Rajputs,
whose capital it remained until they lost their independence. Kishni
contained (1869) 532 houses and 2297 inhabitants. Not separately
returned in the Census Report of 1881. Chief building, a mosque
built in the reign of Alamgfr.

Kisoriganj. — Sub-division of Maimansingh District, Bengal. Lat.
240 2' 30" to 240 49' 30" n., and long. 900 38' to 91 ° 18' e. Area, 744
square miles. Population (1872) 362,436; (1881) 467,320, namely,
males 233,022, and females 234,298, showing an increase of 104,884,
or 28*94 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, the
population in 1881 consisted of — Muhammadans, 292,479; Hindus,
174,808; and Christians, t,^. Number of towns and villages, 1682;
houses, 83,812. Proportion of males, 49*8 per cent.; density of
population, 628*12 persons per square mile; villages per square mile,
2*26; persons per village, 277; houses per square mile, 119*04;
persons per house, 5*58. This Sub-division, which was constituted in
i860, consists of the 3 police circles (thdnds) of Kisoriganj, Niklf, and
Bajitpur. In 1883 it contained a Deputy Magistrate and Collector's
court, and 2 munsifs1 courts, a regular police of 72 men, besides a
village watch of 947.

Kisoriganj. — Town, municipality and head-quarters of Kisoriganj
Sub-division and police circle, Maimansingh District, Bengal ; situated

KISORIGANJ VILLAGE— KISTNA.

on the Kundali/C'/^//, 13 miles east of the Brahmaputra. Lat -4 16' 20"
N., long. 900 48' 40' e. Population (1872) 13,637; (xgg,) /,
namely, Hindus, 5587, and Muhammadans, 7311. The town is a
second-class municipality, with an income in 1883-84 of ^36- of
which ^312 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation
5fd. per head of the population (13,114) within municipal limits.
Kisonganj is connected with the Brahmaputra by a road, and also by
the KundaM kha/, which, however, is only navigable during the rainy
months. A fair is held here annually during the ]hu\an Ja/ra, a festival
in honour of the birth of Krishna, lasting for a month, from the middle
of July to the middle of August.

Kisoriganj.— Market village in Rangpur District, Bengal ; situated
on or near the Sankos river. Exports of rice, jute, and tobacco.

Kistawar.— Town in Kashmir State, Northern India, and former
capital of a small principality. Situated in lat. 330 18' 30" n., long. 75'
48' e. ; on the southern slope of the Himalayas, near the left bank of
the Chenab (Chinab), which here forces its way through a gorge with
precipitous cliffs some 1000 feet in height. Ill-built houses; small
bazar ; fort. Manufacture of inferior shawls and coarse woollens.
Elevation above sea-level, about 5000 feet.

Kistna (Krishna). — A British District in the Madras Presidency. It
lies along the coast of the Bay of Bengal at the mouth of the river Kistna
or Krishna, which gives it the name it bears; between lat. 15 ;;
and 1 70 10' n., and between 790 14' and 8i° 34' e. Bounded on the
north by Godavari District ; on the east by the Bay of Bengal ; on the
south by Nellore ; and on the west by the Nizam's Dominions and
Karmil (Kurnool). The District was formed in 1859 by the amalga-
mation of the two Collectorates of Guntiir and Masulipatam, a small
portion of the latter being assigned to Godavari District. Prior to
1859 there had been in existence the three Districts of Guntiir,
Masulipatam, and Rajamandri (Rajahmundry) ; but these were after
wards consolidated into the two Districts of Kistna and Godavari.
each containing its own irrigation system, constructed in the dell
the two rivers which give their names to the Districts. Area, 8471
square miles, or about the size of Wales. Population (1881 ) 1,54
persons. The administrative head-quarters are at M.wi if mam.

Physical Aspects. — Kistna District is, speaking generally, a flat
country; but the interior is broken by a few low hills, the chief ol which are
Bellamkonda, Kondavir, Kondapalli, Jamalavayadurga, and Medurj
the highest being 1876 feet above sea-level. The principal rivei
the Kistna (^.), which cuts the District into two portions known as the
Masulipatam and Guntiir divisions ; the Muhyeru, Paleru,and Naguleru
(tributaries of the Kistna), and the Gundlakamma ; the first 01.
practicable for navigation. The KoLAR (Koller) Lake, whi<
vol. VIII. >'

226 KISTNA.

an area of 21 by 14 miles, and the Romperu swamp, are natural
receptacles for the drainage on the north and south sides of the Kistna
respectively. Koller Lake is navigable from June or July, according
to the setting in of the heavy rains, till February. The whole coast is
fringed with ridges of blown sand, the most recent formation in the
District. These ridges or sandhills attain a height of from 30 to 50 feet,
and the belt of sand is sometimes more than a mile in width. In some
places the sand is bound by spinifex, ipomcea, and other plants, while
in some nooks grow cashew-nut bushes (Anacardium occidentale).
Plantations of the casuarina trees are being extended on these sands.

The geological survey of the District is completed. Iron and copper
exist, and at one time the mines were worked ; but the smelting of
copper is now a thing of the past, and that of iron is also dying out.
Diamond mines are still worked, to a very slight extent, in five border-
ing villages belonging to the Nizam ; and at other places in the District
there are traces of mines which were abandoned long ago. Garnets
and small rubies are also found. The most trustworthy account of
the Kistna diamond mines is that of the French jeweller, Tavernier,
wrho made six journeys to India to purchase precious stones. At
one mine he visited, he relates that he found 60,000 people at
work. From these mines were obtained the Koh-i-niir and the Regent
diamonds.

A few tigers and leopards are found in the Kondavir and Kondapalli
Hills, and in the hilly part of the Nuzvfr zaminddri and the Palnad ;
antelopes in the plain ; and spotted deer and sdmbhar. Every variety
of the game birds of India, except the pheasant, woodcock, and
hill partridge, abounds in the District ; and almost all the known
inland aquatic birds are found on the Kolar (Koller) Lake, when
it is full. The most deadly of poisonous snakes, the Russell viper
(Daboia russellii), the cobra (Naja tripudians), carpet snake (Echis
carinata), and one kind of karait (Bungarus arcuatus), are also met
with.

Forests. — There is now very little forest within the limits of the Dis-
trict, though formerly the hills of the remote Palnad were covered with
timber. A small revenue of ^1368, derived from jungle conser-
vancy, is spent in planting groves, etc. Soap-nut jungle (Sapindus
emarginatus) is found in the Bapatla and Gudivada taluks. Repalle
taluk supplies firewood to Masulipatam. A plantation of casuarina
trees in the barren sandy wastes on the coast of Bapatla taluk lost
10,000 trees in the cyclone of 1879; the trees were sold as they lay
for 3d. each, and fetched is. each when brought by sea to Madras.
The chief obstacle to the formation of forest reserve is the Opuntia
vulgaris or prickly-pear cactus. As is the case with most hill forts in
India, custard-apple trees are found near the old strongholds of Konda-

KISTNA.

palli, Kondavir, and Bellam Konda. Generally speaking, the District

is bare of trees.

History. — The history of Kistna District may be divided into
periods: — the early or Hindu period; the Muhammadan period;
the French period; and the period of British administratis:!.
The early history of the District is inseparable from that of the
Northern Circars and Godvvari District. The earliest tribes
to settle in the forests that once covered the District, were the hunters,
whose representatives still survive as the Chentsus and Yerikalas.
For some time before and after the Christian era, Buddhism was firmly
established on the banks of the Kistna. The Brahmans were invited
in the third century a.d. The kingdom of Andra, with its capital
Vengi, is mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim, who
came to India in 640 a.d. to visit its Buddhist monasteries. By that
time the Pallava kings of Vengi had been conquered by the Cha-
lukyan kings of Kalyanpur. The Chalukyan kings were succeeded 1 \
Chola kings from the south, and in the Guntiir country are found
traces of the rule of Chola viceroys. The Jain kings of Dharnikota
were the next, if not contemporary, rulers. And it was during the
Jain regime in 1290 that the Venetian, Marco Polo, landed at a fish-
ing village in the Bapatla taluk of this District. The Reddi kings of
Kondavir shortly afterwards divided the sovereignty of the country with
Orissa Rajas from Bengal. Reddi kings reigned from 1328 to 1424.
The Gajapatis of Orissa, who succeeded the Reddi dynasty, went down
before the great Karnatik kingdom of Vijayanagar. With the capture
of the Kondavir fortress in 1579, the Hindu rule of Vijayanagar
place to the Muhammadan conquerors.

The first Musalman king to enter Kistna District was Muhammad
Shah, second of the Bahmani line ; and a general delegated by him,
with the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk, established a Muhammadan garrison in
the fort of Kondapallf. On the fall of the Bahmanis and the pari
of their kingdom into the five States of Bijapur, Bidar, Berar, Ahmad
nagar, and Golconda, the region round Kondapalli fell to the share
of Golconda. A series of attempts made by the neighbouring :
to wrest the District from Musalman hands were all attei
with failure. From this time until 1759, when the British received
Masulipatam and other portions of the District, the reign of Muham
madan princes was only disturbed by the occurrences which :
in what has been called the French period.

In 161 1, the English and Dutch were engaged in trade at the K
ports of Masulipatam and Nizamapatam. In 1686, Masulipatam m
seized by the Dutch. Three years afterwards (1689), the Dutcl
expelled by the forces of Aurangzeb, and the District was included in
one of the twenty-two Provinces of the Mughal Empire. From tin

228 KISTNA.

death of Aurangzeb in 1707 until the British took possession half a
century later, Kistna District formed part of the Subah of the Deccan ;
and it was during the Subahdarship of the last Muhammadan viceroy,
Salabat Jang, that the incidents of the French period occurred.

The French period is remarkable for the first active interference of
a European in the internal politics of the Deccan. In 1741, Monsieur
Dupleix was governor of Pondicherri, and in 1750 French troops
stormed and took Masulipatam. A few months later was fought the
battle in which Nasir Jang, then Subahdar of the Deccan, was slain.
Muzaffar Jang was by French aid installed at Haidarabad. Salabat
Jang succeeded Muzaffar Jang, and came also under the influence of the
French. During the tenure of Salabat, the assistance of the French
was required against the Marathas, and the exertions of French troops
were rewarded by a grant of the province of Kondavir. After a short
time, mainly through the instrumentality of the enterprising Monsieur
de Bussi, Monsieur Dupleix administered a territory with six hundred
miles of seaboard, and larger than any as yet possessed in India by a
European power. Monsieur de Bussi was superseded by the Marquis
de Conflans, on the arrival of Count Lally at Pondicherri. Meanwhile
the English in Bengal became alarmed at the progress of the French
in the Karnatik, and a detachment under Colonel Forde and Captain
Yorke was sent to Masulipatam. The place fell before their gallant
and almost desperate assault. Salabat Jang, on the defeat of his allies,
found himself compelled to sign a treaty with the English by which he
resigned the greater portion of Kistna District.

The opening of the British period was disturbed by a prospect of the
restoration of French influence ; but with the return of Lord Clive to
Bengal in 1765, British authority was confirmed, and imperial sanads
were obtained from the Emperor of Delhi granting to the East India
Company the five Northern Circars. The publication of the sanads took
the Nizam by surprise ; and abandoning a war he had on hand with the
Marathas, he turned his forces against the English. The Nizam was
joined by Haidar Ali of Mysore, but the hostilities which broke out in
1767 speedily ended with a treaty which left the Company tributary
to the Nizam for most of the territory at stake. Guntiir was assigned
to Basalat Jang, brother of the Nizam, for life, and became during the
next twelve years a focus for French and Haidarabad intrigue against
the English. But in 1788, with the rendition to the Company of the
Guntiir Circar, Kistna District, excepting the wild country of the
Palnad, became an integral part of the East India Company's posses-
sions. The absolute right of sovereignty over the whole District was
not obtained until 1823.

Population. — As in other Madras Districts, the population has been
roughly counted every five years by the agency of the village

KISTNA.

establishments. In j86i, it was estimated at 1,296,652. In .
when the first regular Census was taken, the population was returned
at 1,452,374. According to the Census taken on the night of February
17, 1881, the population was 1,548,480, showing an increase of o<
or 6'6 per cent., in the ten years. The density of population in
1 87 1 was 171 persons to the square mile; in 1881, the density
183. Kistna ranks fifteenth in respect of density of population
among the Districts of the Madras Presidency. Males in 1
numbered 780,588 ; females, 767,892. Classified according to age,
there were in 1881 — under 15 years, males 310,158, and females
300,326; total children, 610,484: 15 years and upwards, males
470,430, and females 467,566 ; total adults, 937,996. Number of I
13; villages, 1810; occupied houses, 268,849; unoccupied, 18,963; towns
and villages per square mile, '215 ; occupied houses per village, 1
persons per occupied house, 5*8. Distributed according to religion,
Hindus numbered 1,425,013, or 92 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 87,161,
or 5*6 per cent.; Christians, 36,194, or 2*3 per cent. ; Jains, 8 ; and
'others ' 104.

Taking the Hindu population by caste, there were — Brdhmans
(priests), 94,893; Kshattriyas (warrior caste), 11,569; Shettis (traders),
69,854; Vallalars (cultivators), 522,696, or over 36 per cent, of the
whole; Idaiyars (shepherds), 101,578; Kammalars (artisans), 34-5-
Kannakan (writers), 305; Kaikalars (weavers), 47>I99 ; Vanniyan
(labourers), 24,459; Kushavan (potters), 16,363; Satani (mixed and
depressed castes), 18,606; Shembadavan (fishermen), 5573; Shanan
(toddy-drawers), 30,643; Ambattan (barbers), 16,557; Vannan (washer-
men), 44,276 ; pariahs and ' others,' 385,914. Divided into their tribes,
the Muhammadans were thus returned — Arabs, none; Mughals, 52 :
Pathans, 88; Sayyids, 204; Shaikhs, 1979; and 'other' Muhamma-
dans, 84,838. The Christian population according to sect consisted of—
Protestants, 24,471; Roman Catholics, 9804; and 'othei
The Christian population included Europeans and Americans,
Eurasians, 73 ; native converts, 15,967; *nd 'others,' 20,10a
half the population were returned as workers ; of the workers, 34 pel
cent, were women.

The Census of 1881 distributed the males into the foll<
six groups as regards occupation : — (1) Professional ludn

State officials of every kind and the learned profession .
domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 3986 ; (3) commei
class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc, 1 ncltl"

tural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 340,224; (5)
class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 100,254: (6) mdefim
and non-productive class, comprising general labourers male childr
and persons of unspecified occupation, 294,546.

23o KISTNA.

Of the 1823 towns and villages in Kistna District, 289 in 1881 con-
tained less than two hundred inhabitants ; 517 from two to five hundred;
495 from five hundred to one thousand ; 403 from one to two thousand;
80 from two to three thousand ; 28 from three to five thousand ; 8
from five to ten thousand ; 1 from ten to fifteen thousand : 1 from
fifteen to twenty thousand ; and 1 from twenty to fifty thousand.
The urban population forms 7*9 per cent, of the whole, distributed
through the following thirteen principal towns : — Masulipatam (35,056) ;
Guntiir (19,646); Jaggayapet (10,072); Bezwada (9336); Chirala
(9061); Bapatla (6086) ; Nuzvid (5657) ; Mangalagiri (5617); Chella-
palli (5615) ; Kondapalli (4289) ; Nizampatam (4128) ; Valliir (4070) ;
and Mylaveram (3704). Masulipatam and Guntiir are municipalities,
with a total income in 1883-84 of ^4766, the incidence of taxation being
iojd. per head of the municipal population. The language spoken in
the District is Telugu. The Chentsus and Yerikalas speak dialects of
their own. The Yanadis and Banjaras are gipsy tribes. In 1881, the
Yerikalas numbered 5914; the Banjaras, 5565 ; and the Yanadis, n.

The people of Kistna District are generally poor, but an exception
must be made in the case of the rdyats of the Delta, who are as
a rule very well off. Throughout the Delta, the houses are for the
most part built with brick walls, and tiled or terraced roofs ; in other
parts, they are of mud walls with tiled roofs. Rice is the food of
all classes in the Delta, but only well-to-do people use it in the other
parts of the District. The total monthly expenditure of a prosperous
shopkeeper's family, consisting of five persons, would be about 28s.,
and that of an ordinary peasant about 16s.

Agriculture. — Of the total area of 4,093,718 acres, 667,696 were in
1S82 held as indm or rent-free ; of the remaining 3,426,022 acres,
1,461,964 acres were under cultivation, of which 12,615 acres were
twice cropped ; the whole untilled but cultivable area was returned
at 964,108 acres, and the uncultivable waste at 879,126 acres. In
1882-83, of the total area (Government and indm) of 4,093,718 acres,
1,886,063 acres were under actual cultivation, of which 14,123 acres
were twice cropped; cereals occupied 1,264,608 acres; pulses, 111,841;
fibres, 202,874; dyes (chiefly indigo), 122,975; oil-seeds, 112,385;
sugar (palm or palmyra), 6680 ; condiments and spices (mostly chillies),
55,105; drugs and narcotics (principally tobacco), 20,170; orchard
and garden produce, 3201 ; and starches (chiefly potato), 357 acres.
The staples raised in the District are rice, maize, rdgi, pulses,
hemp, flax, cotton, tobacco, gingelly, oil-seeds, chillies, wheat, garlic,
indigo, and various kinds of fruit. There are three classes of crops
grown — namely, pwidsa (early crop), sown in May or June, and
reaped in September ; pedda (great or middle), sown from July to
September, and cut between November and February ; and paira

KISTNA,

(late crop), sown in November and December, and gathered in
February and March. Rice of all kinds is sown in regar or black
soil. The area under rice in 1882-83 was 351,330 acres, or iS pel
cent, of the whole cultivated area. The price of the best rice per
maund (80 lbs.) was, in the same year, 5s. 3d.

The Delta is irrigated by the water of the Kistna river, which has
been diverted into channels by the anicut at Bezwara at a cost of
^69,741. In 188 1, the area irrigated from this source, within Kistna
District, was 165,136 acres ; in addition, 6019 acres were fertilized by the
Godavari channels, and 19,941 acres were irrigated from tanks. The
total assessment on the irrigated area was ,£109,688. During the same
year the total area irrigated from the Kistna canals amounted to 287,027
acres, the ultimate area irrigable by the works, when carried to com-
pletion, being 475,000 acres. Manure of inferior quality is generally
used. The District contains numerous wells.

Of a total area of 8471 square miles, 51 12 square miles were assessed
in 1 88 1 for revenue, of which 3479 square miles were cultivated,
1238 square miles cultivable but not cultivated, and 395 square miles
uncultivable waste. The agricultural population of the District in 1881
numbered 471,318, or 30*4 per cent, of the total population. Total
amount of Government assessment, including local rates and cesses
on land, ^£478,951, or an average of 4s. 3d. per cultivated acre. Total
amount of rental actually paid by cultivators, including rates and c e
£635,460, or an average of 5s. 6d. per cultivated acre. According to
the returns of 1882-83, the farm stock included 105,159 ploughs,
25,854 carts, 713 boats, 167,094 buffaloes, 358,352 bullocks and cows,
2154 horses and ponies, 304,820 goats and sheep, 33,301 pigs, 8977
donkeys, and 3 camels.

The current prices of the chief articles of food during 1SS2-S3 were,
for a rupee — rice, 30 lbs. ; rdgi, 64 lbs. ; wheat, 23 lbs. ; and gram, 44
lbs. The daily wages of coolies and agricultural day labourers m
were from ijd. to 3d.; in 1882, from 4^. to 6d. Skilled labourers
in 1882 earned iojd. a day; while sixteen years ago they earned
to 6d.

Natural Calamities. — Famines occurred in 1423, 1474, 1686,
1793, but of these there is no detailed account extant. The great
famine of 1832-34 caused a decrease of 200,000 in the population-
It was worst in the Guntiir portion, and was due to the failure o(
both the monsoons, causing, it is said, a loss of revenue in Guntiir
District estimated at ^2,270,000. Prices rose enormously. Public
works were opened, but the bulk of the people would not avail them-
selves of them, and wandered away to other Districts. The 1
population was only in part due to deaths. Kistna 1 '
but slightly affected by the great South Indian famine ol

232 KISTNA.

Although the cultivated area temporarily fell off by 14*2 per cent., the
local scarcity did not reach famine point. Inundations of the sea over-
whelmed the town of Masulipatam in the years 1779 and 1864; and
in both cases they were due to a storm-wave forced on to the coast by
the violence of a cyclone. The reported loss of life on each occasion
was between 20,000 and 30,000 persons. In the last cyclone, the salt
water penetrated to a distance of 17 miles inland.

Manufactures, etc. — Next to agriculture, the most important industry
in the District is weaving. The chintzes and coloured cloths of Masuli-
patam once enjoyed a wide reputation, and these goods were formerly
sent to the Persian Gulf to the value of ^50,000 ; but the annual
value of this export has now fallen to .£5000. In other parts of the
District also the competition of cheap piece-goods from Manchester has
almost destroyed the manufacture of the more durable native cloth. Al
Bezwada a considerable trade is carried on in dressed hides. In th(
villages, the chief manufacture is still cotton-weaving, sometimes froi
native hand-made thread. In some of the villages saltpetre is refined,
little silk is made at Jaggayapet, and in the large towns there is some
trade in copper and brass vessels. At Kondavfr and Kondapalli
certain manufactures are a specialty : at the former, essences and
fragrant oils are distilled ; at the latter, small figures and toys are cut
out of the light wood (Gyrocarpus Jacquini) found on the neighbouring
hills.

A curious export of the District is the feathers of the white-breasted
king-fisher, which are bought up by the dealer for £1, 12s. per
100. Cotton and indigo are exported in considerable quantities
from Cocanada in Godavari District, a far easier port of shipment than
Masulipatam. The only business carried on by European agency is a
steam cotton-press at Guntiir. Cotton is brought there to be pressed,
and thence sent by road and canal to Cocanada, where the purchasers
from the west reside. In 1874-75, the total sea-borne imports into
the District were valued at £190,058, and the exports at £251,206;
in 1881-82, the figures were — imports, £114,009; exports, £"274,231.
The gross duty paid in the former year was ,£1507 ; in the latter
year, £2713. In March 1882, the customs import duties, with the
exception of those on liquors, arms and ammunition, and one or
two other articles, were abolished throughout British India. The
largest exports are of grains, seeds, and spices. The three seaports
are Masulipatam, Nizampatam, and Ipurpalayam. Lighthouses have
been built at Masulipatam and Point Devi. Seventeen thousand
tons of salt were made in 1881, manufactured in the 4 factories of the
District, situated at Pandraka, Manginapudi, Nizampatam, and Chinna
Ganjam. The value of the inland trade, with the Nizam's territory, in
1881 was £182,127 passing coastwards, and £245,921 passing inland.

KISTNA.

The principal roads are — from Masulipatam to Haidai
(Hyderabad); from the Palnad via Sattanapalle to Gunttfr,
thence to Bezwada; from Bhadrachalam via Tirviir to I
and from Nellore District to Pondogala on the Kistna and thei
Haidarabad. Total length of road communication, 537 miles. I
of navigable rivers, 231 miles. There is water communication b<
Bezwada and the Godavari Canals. Length of navigable canals, 17a
miles. Bezwada was but a little village when the anient was made,
and the Kistna irrigation system established ; it is now a flourishing
town, and the busiest place in the District.

Administration.— The total revenue of Kistna District in 1S70-71
amounted to ,£548,469, of which £359,172 was derived from the land.
In 1882 it was £440,058, of which £386,996 was derived from the land.
It appears that from the earliest times there were public officers in each
village, with duties corresponding to those of a kurnam and munsij
at the present day. The Musalmans first introduced the system of
renting out villages to middlemen, or zaminddrs, originally mere
collectors of revenue, who gradually raised themselves to the position
of hereditary landowners, and at last asserted their independence of
the sovereign power. When negotiations were going on between
the Nizam and English, soon after the capture of Masulipatam by
Colonel Forde in 1759, it was urged by the Company that, as the
Nizam had not for a considerable period received any money from
the Circars, he would lose nothing by surrendering his nominal rights
to the English.

When the English undertook the government of that part of the
Circars which now comprises the present District of Kistna, the lands
were divided into hdveli and zaminddri. The hdveli lands were divided
into muta/is, and were sold ; the whole District, including the old
zaminddris, and the recently sold hdveli lands, being brought under
the permanent settlement of 1802. In course of time many of the
zaminddrs fell into arrears, and an inquiry into the causes ot this was
held by Mr. (now Sir) Walter Elliott, reported on in 1846. In 1846, all
the zaminddris in Guntiir District, and some in Masulipatam District,
came under the hammer, and were purchased by Government On the
Masulipatam side of the river, the custom was to let the whole village
for a fixed sum to the chief inhabitants, or any one who would outbid
them, leaving it to the villagers to apportion the revenue and lands
among the cultivators. But when Guntiir fell to Government, the
strict rayatwdri system of dealing with each rayat lor his land was
ordered. The revenue was fixed either by measurement or by the
yearly out-turn of crops. In 1S59, the new settlement, t«. ascertain the
productive value of the land, was begun, and finished in 1873. I he
assessment then fixed will hold good for thirty years.

234 KISTNA RIVER.

Kistna District contains 13 taluks, and several zamindari estates.
The District is administered by a Collector and Magistrate, with
4 Assistants and 37 subordinate judicial officers. The police force
consists (1882) of 1346 men, controlled by a superintendent and
his assistant, who reside at Masulipatam and Guntur respectively.
Cost of police (1882), ,£17,583. There is a District jail at Guntur,
and 21 subsidiary prisons. The average daily number of prisoners in
Guntur jail in 1882 was 129, maintained at a cost of £& per prisoner.

The country people, save Brahmans and Komatis, are generally
uneducated ; but in the towns, the inhabitants gladly avail themselves
of the schools that have been established. The Church Missionary
Society has a station at Masulipatam, and the American Lutherans at
Guntur. In 1823, the number of vernacular schools teaching Telugu
was 465 ; Persian, 19 ; and Sanskrit, 49. In 1882-83, the total number
of educational institutions, Government, aided, and unaided (including
3 normal schools and 44 girls' schools), was 1102, with 23,119 pupils.
The Census Report of 188 1 returns 19,161 boys and 1262 girls as under
instruction, besides 58,365 males and 2378 females able to read and
write, but not under instruction.

Medical Aspects. — The District surgeon resides at Masulipatam, and
there is also a civil surgeon at Guntur who has charge of the Dis-
trict jail. The cost of the hospitals founded in both these places is
defrayed by local funds. Local funds also maintain dispensaries in
every taluk, there being three in the Palnad, where malaria is prevalent.
Advice and medicine are given free. Births per thousand registered
in 1882, 29 ; deaths per thousand registered, 17. Rainfall in 1882, 47*9
inches; average of nineteen years ending 1881, 367 inches. [For
further information regarding Kistna, see the Manual of the Kistna
District, compiled for the Government of Madras, by Mr. G. Mackenzie,
C.S. (Madras, 1883). Also the Settlement Report of the District, by
Mr. W. W. Wilson, C.S. (1867) ; the Madras Census Report for 1881 ;
and the several Annual Administration and Departmental Reports for
the Presidency from 1880 to 1883.]

Kistna (Krishtna, Krishna). — River of Southern India, which, like
the Godavari and Kaveri (Cauvery), flows almost across the peninsula
from west to east. In traditional sanctity it is surpassed by both
these rivers, and in actual length by the Godavari ; but the area of
its drainage basin, including its two great tributaries, the Bhima and
Tungabhadra, is the largest of the three. Its total length is about 800
miles, and the total area of its catchment basin about 97,050 square
miles.

The source of the Kistna is in 180 1' N. lat., and 730 41' e. long.,
near the Bombay sanitarium of Mahabaleshwar, in the Western Ghats,
only about 40 miles from the Arabian Sea. Here stands an ancient

KTSTNA RIVER.

temple of Mahadeo, at the foot of a steep hill, at an elevatioi
4500 feet above sea-level. In the interior of the temple is a
tank, into which a stream of pure water ever pours out 1

fashioned into the image of a cow's mouth. This is the trad;
fountain-head of the river, which is likened to the deity in a I
form, and is fondly called Krishna Bar. Pilgrims in large numbers
crowd to the sacred spot, which is embowered in trees of dark f<
and flowering shrubs. From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runs
wards in a rapid course, flowing through the British DistrU ts of £
and Belgaum, the cluster of Native States which form the £
Maratha Agency, and the District of Kaladgi. Here it turns east to
pass into the dominions of the Nizam of Haidarabad. In this 1
of its course it receives many tributaries, of which the chief are the
Yerla, Warna, Idganga, Ghatprabha, and Malprabha. All these, like
the main stream, are characteristic rivers of the plateau of the 1 1<
They run in deep channels, from which it is almost impossible t
off channels for irrigation. In the rainy season they swell into brim
ming torrents, but during the remaining eight months of the year they
shrink to mere threads of water, straggling through a sandy waste.

On entering the Nizam's dominions, the Kistna drops from the
table-land of the Deccan Proper down to the alluvial Doabs of Shorapur
and Raichur. The fall is as much as 408 feet in about three miles. In
time of flood, a mighty volume of water rushes with a great roar over a
succession of broken ledges of granite, dashing up a lofty column of
spray. The first of the Doabs mentioned above is formed by the con-
fluence of the Bhima, which brings down the drainage of Ahmadnagar,
Poona, and Sholapur ; the second by the confluence of the Tunga-
bhadra, which drains the north of Mysore and the 'Ceded Districts'
ofBellaryand Karnul (Kurnool). At the point of junction with the
Tungabhadra, the Kistna again strikes upon British territory, and, still
flowing east, forms for a considerable distance the boundary between the
Madras Presidency and the Nizam's dominions. Here it is joined by
its last important tributary, the Musi, on whose banks stands the Nizam's
capital of Haidarabad. On reaching the frontier chain oft:
Ghats, the Kistna turns south to reach the sea.

The delta, for about 100 miles from the mountains to the \'
Bengal, lies entirely within British territory, and is now known as the
District of Kistna. The river ultimately falls into the sea by two princi| al
mouths. Along this part of the coast runs an extensive strip o!
which has been entirely formed by the detritus washed down by the
Kistna and the Godavari. Asa great part of the course of the Kistni
its tributaries flow through alluvial soil, the flood-water is heavily < '
with silt. The rocky bed through which the river flows in Karmil
District, and in the Palnad and Sattanapalli Sub-divisions ot Kistna

256 KISTNA RIVER.

District, does not favour the deposit of much of this silt. The channel
which the river has found among the older rocks must be scoured out
in high floods, for the average fall of the river in the 295 miles above
Bazwada is $'$ feet per mile. When it reaches Bazwada. it is confined
between two gneissic hills, the width of the gorge being about 1300
yards. At this point the velocity of the river in flood is rather more
than 6*5 miles an hour, and the maximum flood discharge attains the
enormous figure of 761.000 cubic feet per second. The solid matter
carried by the flood-water past Bezwada is T|T of the bulk. It follows
that the Kistna in high flood carries past Bezwada daily enough detritus
to form a deposit one foot deep over a surface of five square miles.
Below Bezwada to the sea, the fall of the river is only o'66 foot per
mile, and the bed widens out to three or four miles, so that in the course
of ages an extensive deltaic tract has formed between Bezwada and the
coast. This delta slopes away on either side, with a fall of about iS
inches per mile from the elevated river bed ; hence all that is not
protected by embankments is submerged whenever a high flood occurs,
and the deposition of fluviatile alluvium still continues. The Kolar
(Roller) Lake, a depression between the deltas of the Godavari and
the Kistna rivers, represents the work still to be done by this alluvium
in levelling up the land wrested from the sea by the rivers. The actual
mouths of the rivers have thrown out low promontories far into the
sea.

The Kistna may be said to be almost entirely useless for navigation.
From Jaggayapet down to the anicut (about 50 miles), the river is
navigable for about six months of the year by sea-going dhonis, which
are brought up either by the Bandar or the Ellore Canal. The chief
port in the delta is Masulipatam, a bare roadstead, liable to be swept
by cyclones. The river channel is throughout too rocky and the
stream too rapid to allow even of small native craft. The mode of
crossing at the ferries is by wide circular baskets, made of hides stretched
over a framework of bamboos. Near Raichur, the main stream is crossed
bv a magnificent iron girder bridge of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway.
In utility for irrigation the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister
streams, the Godavari and the Kaveri (Cauvery). Throughout the
upper portion of its course it runs in a deep bed, with high banks rising
from 30 to 50 feet above its ordinary level. Naturally it drains rather
than waters the surrounding country ; and but insufficient attempts have
vet been made to extend its usefulness by means of artificial channels.
Of its tributaries, the head-waters of the Bhima are dammed up at
Kharakwasla to furnish Poona with a water-supply; and the Madras
Irrigation Company have expended large sums of money to water the
thirsty soil of Karniil (Kurnool) from the floods of the Tungabhadra.
On the main stream, a small work has been constructed high up in Satara

K1STXAPUR—KITTUR. 2 , ;

District, called the Kistna Canal. A dam has been thrown a< n

bed of the river, from which a canal is taken parallel to the left bank,

capable of irrigating an area of 1825 acres.

But by far the greatest irrigation work on the Kistna is the Be;
anicut, first commenced in 1852, when the similar undertakings on the
deltas of the Kaveri and Godavari had pointed out the way to si.
Bezwada is a small town at the entrance of the gorge by which
the Kistna bursts down through the Eastern Ghats upon the plains.
The channel is here 1300 yards wide. During the dry season the
depth of water is barely 6 feet, which rises in summer freshes some-
times to as much as 40 feet. The maximum flood dischar^
calculated at 761,000 cubic feet of water per second. Theobjeit 0!
the engineer has been to regulate this excessive supply, so that it shall
no longer run to waste and destruction, but be husbanded for the
purposes of agriculture, and to some extent also of navigation. The
Bezwada anicut consists of a mass of loose stone, faced with a front of
masonry. Its total length is 1238^ yards, the breadth 263 feet, and the
height above the river bed 20 feet. At each end sluices have been pro-
vided, in order to scour out channels for the heads of the two main
canals. Of these, the one on the left bank breaks into two brandies,
one running 39 miles to Ellore, the other 49 miles to Masulipatam.
The canal on the right bank proceeds nearly parallel to the river, and
also sends off two principal branches, to Nizampatam and Komamur.
The total length of the main channels (not including minor distribu-
taries) is 254 miles; the total irrigated area is 226,000 acres, yielding
a revenue of ^89,000. Schemes are now under consideration for
extending the network of canals. The Kistna canal system is connected
with that of the Godavari through the town of Ellore.

Kistnapur. — Town in Kaninagapalli District, Travancore State,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 9° q'n., long. 760 33' e. Population (187]
3731 ; houses, 895. Not returned in the Census Report of 1SS1. Scat
of a District judge ; contains a palace and a large square fort in good
repair to the west; a canal leads to Kayenkolam. Its once active
borne trade has now disappeared.

Kittlir. — Town and fort in the Sampgaon Sub-division of Belgium
District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 15° 35' 30" x., and Ion-. 74 5
26 miles south-east of Belgaum. Population (1S72) 7166; (1SS1) 6300.
The Desais of Kitttir were descended from two brothers, who came as
bankers with the Bijapur army towards the close of the 1 6th century.
By distinguished action in the field, the Desais obtained a grant of
Hubli; and their fifth successor established himself at Kittlir. On
the fall of the Peshwa, the town passed into the hands of the British
Government. But in 1S1S, when General Munro was
fort of Belraum, the Desai of Kittlir gave great assistance, and in

238 KOCH—KOD.

return was allowed to retain possession of his town of Kittur. The
■ Desai died in 1824, without issue. An attempt was subsequently made
to prepare a forged deed of adoption, which led to an outbreak, in
which the Political Agent and Collector, Mr. Thackeray, was killed,
and his two Assistants imprisoned. The prisoners were afterwards
released, but the fort was not surrendered until it had been attacked
and breached, with a loss of 3 killed and 25 wounded. Among the
killed was Mr. Munro, Sub-Collector of Sholapur, and a nephew of Sir
Thomas Munro. Kittur then finally passed into the hands of the
British, although another rising occurred in 1829, which was not
suppressed without difficulty. Bi-weekly markets are held in Kittur
town on Mondays and Thursdays, at which cotton, cloth, and grain
are sold. Weaving and glass bangle-making are the sole industries.
School and post-office.

Koch (also called Pali or Rdjbansi). — These three names are
applied to a race of aboriginal descent found in the Districts of Xorth-
Eastern Bengal, and in Assam. Nothing is known for certainty as to
their origin, but their name and that of the ancient kingdom over
which they once ruled is still preserved in the independent State of
Kuch (or Koch) Behar. The best authorities regard the Kochs as a
branch of the Bodo, Mech, or Cachari stock who had become Hindu-
ized at a very early date, and who dominated the ancient kingdom of
Kamriip in Lower Bengal, stretching eastwards as far as the borders
of Bhutan. The Kochs, except by their broad faces, flat noses, and
projecting cheek-bones, are now hardly to be distinguished from ordinary
Hindus. On the conversion of the Kamriip kings to Hinduism, a
divine ancestry was found for the race, and numbers of Kochs now
repudiate their race name, and claim that of Rajbansi, literally ' of royal
descent.' With the exception of the people known as Pani Koch who
inhabit the submontane tract at the foot of the Garo hills, and who
have only partially accepted Hinduism by abstaining from the use of beef
as food, the whole of the Koch people have adopted exclusive Hindu
caste habits. The total number of Kochs (including Rajbansi's) returned
in the Census Report of 1881 is 1,985,180, confined wholly to the
Districts of North-Eastern Bengal and Assam.

Kochchi Bandar. — Town in Malabar District, Madras Presidency.
— See Cochin.

Kod.— Sub-division of Dharwar District, Bombay Presidency. Area,
400 square miles; number of villages, 177; population (1881) 80,345,
namely, 41,397 males and 38,948 females. Hindus numbered 72,759 ;
Muhammadans, 7138; and 'others,' 448. Since 1872, the population
has increased by 1246.

Kod, the most southern Sub-division of Dharwar District, is dotted
with small hills and ponds ; some of the latter when full are two or

,

KODACHADRI—KODAIKAXAI..

three miles in length. Many of the hillocks are hare, but the
which separates Kod from Mysore is covered with bnisl ,1 |ow

forests. A considerable portion of the Sub-division is well water,
covered with sugar-cane fields and areca palms. The villages are
close together, well shaded, and situated in the open plains. 'I |
is chiefly red; black soil occurring in a few villages in the
north and west are studded with small hills and knolls, and the
is also hilly. The Tungabhadra touches a few villages in the soutl
corner; the Kumadvati, rising in the Madak lake in Mysore, with a
bed 150 feet broad, and between steep banks, flows east across the
Sub-division. In the hot season it holds water in pools. Though cool
and healthy during the hot months, the climate is very feverish during
the cold season. During the ten years ending t88i, the rainfall at
Hirekerur, the head-quarters of the Sub-division, averaged 25-73 inches.

Of the 400 square miles, 389 have been surveyed in detail. Fifteen
square miles are occupied by alienated villages. The remainder consists
of 191,648 acres of arable land, of which 46,810 acres are alienated
lands in Government villages; 2016 acres, unarable land;
acres, grass land; 25,829 acres, forests; and 23,811 acres, village
sites, roads, rivers, and streams. In 1881-82, of 123,768 acres, the
whole Government area occupied for tillage, 25,859 acres were fallow or
under grass. Of the 97,909 acres under tillage, cereals covered 65,539
acres; pulses, 7018 acres; oil-seeds, 3843 acres; fibres, 3370 acres; and
miscellaneous crops, 18,139 acres, of which chillies occupied 16.210
acres. In 1882-83, the Sub-division contained 35 boys' and 1 girls'
school, 2 criminal courts, and 1 police station {tJidnd) ; regular police,
43 men; village watchmen, 185. Yearly land revenue, ,£18,663.

Kodachadri. — Mountain of the Western Ghats, boundary between
Shimoga District, Mysore State, and Kundalpur to I it k, South Kanara
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 13° 51' 40" x., long. 740 54' 40" E. ;
4446 feet above sea-level. A well-known landmark. On the M
side it rises 2000 feet from the plateau, and is clothed with magnificent
forests. Towards the west it falls precipitously to the plain of Kanara
for 4000 feet, and affords a view as far as the sea. Half-way up is a
temple to Huli Deva, the tiger-god.

KodagU. — The ancient name of Coorg. meaning 'Steep Mount
— See Coorg.

Kodaikanal (' The Forest of Creepers'). — Hamlet ofVilpatti village
in Palni taluk, on the Palni Hills, Madura District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. io° 13' 21" n., and long. 770 31' 3S" v.. A hill sanitarium, 7209
feet above sea-level. Population ofVilpatti (1S71) 757 : I [88i I 1080,
namely, 605 males and 475 females, occupying 210 houses. Hindus
numbered 794; Christians, 258; and Muhammadans, 28. Kodaikanal
is a summer resort of growing popularity. It contains two churches

240 KODASHIRI—KOD UNGAL UR,

and several English houses, and is about 40 miles by road from
Ammayanayakaniir station on the Tuticorin branch of the South Indian
Railway. The climate is similar to that of Utakamand (Ootacamund),
but somewhat milder, with a lighter rainfall, and without its raw and
treacherous moisture. But the site of the settlement is ill chosen,
and many more suitable spots exist on the Palni range.

Kodashiri. — Mountain in Cochin State, Madras Presidency. Lat.
io° 21' to io° 21' 45" n., and long. 760 23' 20" to 760 28' e.

Kodinar. — Town in the Amreli Division, Baroda State, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 200 46' 30" x., long. 700 46' e. Population (1872)
6524; (1881) 6542, namely, 3291 males and 3251 females. Kodinar
is a walled town, situated in the Kathiawar peninsula on the bank of the
Singawada river, about three miles from the sea. There is a port
exporting grain, cotton, and ghi, and importing wheat, jodr, cloth,
spices, and dry goods. Vernacular school, post-office, and dispensary.

Kodlipet. — Town and municipality in the territory of Coorg, in the
extreme north of Yelusavirasime taluk. Distance from Merkara, 44
miles. Lat. 120 48' x., long. 75° 57' e. Population (1871) 1345;
(1881) 856, occupying 175 houses. Weekly market on Sundays; a
fine description of cloth is woven. School, with 15 pupils.

Kodumiir. — Town in Pattikonda taluk, Karmil (Kurnool) District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 150 41' 30" x., long. 770 50' 15" e. Popula-
tion (1871) 6064; (1881) 3736, namely, 1938 males and 1798 females.
Number of houses, 980. Hindus numbered 3097, and Muhammadans
639. Noted for its blankets.

Kodungallir ( Cranganore ; Kodungalur Singulyi — Yule ; Kzuanga-
loor — Tohfat-al-Mahajidin ; Cudnegalur and Crangalor — Bartolomeo).
— Town in Cochin State, Madras Presidency. Lat. io° 13' 50" x.,
long. 760 14' 50" e. Population (1876) 9475 ; number of houses, 1990.
Situated on the so-called island of Chetwai, at one of the three openings
of the great Cochin backwater, 18 miles north-north-west from Cochin
town. Now a place of little importance, but of great and varied
historical interest. Tradition assigns to it the double honour of having
been the first field of Saint Thomas' labours (a.d. 52 ?) in India, and the
seat of Cheruman PerumaTs government (a.d. 341). The visit of Saint
Thomas must be regarded as mythical. But it is certain that the
Syrian Church was firmly established here before the 9th century
(Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still earlier. The
latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated 378 a.d.

The cruelty of the Portuguese, and their Goa Inquisition, drove
most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 13 14, when the Vypin harbour
was formed, the only opening in the back-water, and outlet for the
Periyar, was at Kodungalur, which must at that time have been
the best harbour on the coast. Dr. Day says : ' The Cranganore

KOEL— KOEL, NORTH. a , ,

(Kodungaliir) Division has been the scene of mo.t mom
changes in times gone by. Here the Jew and the Christian obi
a footing, and founded towns before the Portuguese landed in
India. Here the Perumals flourished and decayed. On this spot the
Portuguese fort was raised in 1523, which they contemplated making
the seat of their chief power in Malabar. Here fell the Portuguese
before Dutch prowess, whilst Cochin still continued in their possession.
Here the Dutch had to sell their fort and territory to a native prince,
before the British would fire a shot to hold back the victorious Tipu.
Now the fort is a ruin, mouldering in the dust, with but one solitary
tower overhanging the broad expanse of the river, which rolls on slowly
but deeply beneath. Its old moat is the resort of the crocodile and
paddy-bird ; and its once well-used streets resound no more to human
tread. The solitary stranger, perhaps, disturbs a snake in this path or
an owl in the dense overhanging trees, but rarely a mortal will meet his
eye. Cranganore fort is utterly and entirely deserted.'

In 1502, the Syrian Christians invoked the protection of the
Portuguese. In 1523, the latter built their first fort here; and in
1565 enlarged it. In 1661, the Dutch took the fort, the possession
of which for the next forty years was contested between the Dutch,
the Zamorin, and the Raja of Kodungaliir. In 1776, Tipu seized the
stronghold. The Dutch recaptured it two years later; and having
ceded it to Tipu in 1784, sold it to the Travancore Raja, and again
to Tipu in 1789, who destroyed and left it in the following year.

The present town consists of two villages, Metthala and Lakamalesh-
wara. In the latter are the ruins of some curious old pagodas. The
remains of the ancient watch-tower, and the palace of the titular Raja
of Kodungaliir, are of interest. A few miles inland is Ambalkota, where
the Jesuits had one of their earliest seminaries, and published in 1577
the first printed work in Malayalam. The town is considered of
sanctity both by Christians and Hindus.

Koel.— Tahsil in Aligarh District, North-Western Provinces. — See
Koil.

Koel, North.— River of Chutia Nagpur, Bengal ; rises in lat 23 .;
n., and long. 840 30' e., in the Barwa Hills, in the west of Lohirdagrf
District; and, after passing through the centre of Palamau Sub-division,
falls into the Son (Soane) on the northern boundary of the District,
in lat. 240 32' n., and long. 830 56' e., about 20 miles above Dehrl
Tributaries— the Amanat and Auranga on the right, and some in
ficant streams on the left bank. The Koel has a rocky bed in its
earlier course, which becomes sandy as it nears the Son. Navigation is
obstructed by a ridge of gneiss rock crossing the river near Si
and even if this obstacle could be removed, the sudden freshets which
occur during the rains would render navigation extremely dangerous.

vol. viii. Q

242 KOEL, SOUTH-KOHAT.

Koel, South.— River of Chutia N£gpur, Bengal ; rises in lat. 230
18' 30" n., and long. 85 ° 6' 15" e., in Lohardaga District, a short
distance west of Ranchi town. It flows circuitously southwards,
until after a course of 185 miles it is joined by the Sankh river in the
Tributary State of Gangpur, whence the united stream becomes the
Brahmani, and ultimately flows into the Bay of Bengal in the north-
west of Cuttack District by the Dhamra estuary. The principal feeders
of the Koel are the North and South Karo, the Deo, and other minor
streams.

Kohat. — A British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the
Punjab (Panjab), lying between 320 47' and 330 53' N. lat., and between
700 34' and 7 20 17' e. long. Kohat forms the south-western District
of the Peshawar Division, and is one of the north-western Districts
of the Punjab. It is bounded on the north by Peshawar District
and the Afridi Hills, and on the north-west by the Orakzai country ;
on the south by Bannu ; on the east by the river Indus ; and on the
west by the Zaimukht hills, the river Kuram, and the Waziri hills.
Area, 2838 square miles; population (1881) 181,540 persons. The
administrative head-quarters are at the town of Kohat.

Physical Aspect. — The District of Kohat consists chiefly of a bare
and intricate mountain region, deeply scored with river valleys and
ravines, but enclosing many rich valleys, and rendered economically
valuable by the rich deposits of rock-salt which occur amongst its
sterile hills. The eastern or Khatak country, especially, comprises a
perfect labyrinth of interlacing mountain ranges, which fall, however,
into two principal groups, to the north and south of the Teri Toi
river, although the line between them is not clearly marked by the
river. The hills in the north of the District are of limestone, and
those to the south of sandstone formation. The line of demarcation
between the two, however, generally runs a good deal north of the Teri
Toi. The lower Miranzai valley, in the extreme west, appears by
comparison a rich and fertile tract. In its small but carefully tilled
and abundantly irrigated glens, fig, plum, apricot, and many other
orchard trees flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild olive,
mimosa, and other thorny bushes, clothes the rugged ravines upon the
upper slopes, where, however, there are very few gardens. Occasional
grassy glades upon their sides form favourite pasture grounds for the
Waziri tribes.

The Teri Toi river, rising on the eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, and
running due eastward to the Indus, which it joins 12 miles north of
Makhad, divides the District into two main portions. The drainage
from the northern half flows southwards, in a complicated system,
into the Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel stream
of the Kohat Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards also

KOHAT.

into the Teri Toi, and southwards towards the Kuram and the Indus.
The frontier mountains, continuations of the Sated Koh system,
in places a considerable elevation, the two principal peaks, Dup
and Mazeo Garh, just beyond the British frontier, being 8260 and
feet above the sea respectively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend
like a wedge between the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a
general elevation of less than 4000 feet. The salt mines are situated
in the low line of hills crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and e
ing along both banks of that river. The mineral occurs as a solid n> k
of bluish-grey colour, exposed at intervals for a distance of 40 miles,
so as to be quarried rather than mined. The deposit has a width of a
quarter of a mile, with a thickness of 1000 feet ; it sometimes forms
hills 200 feet in height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt,
and may probably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the
world. The most extensive exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, in the
south of the District, on a stream draining into the Kuram river. Petro-
leum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 miles east of Kohat ;
and sulphur exists in the northern range, but the supply of both is
trifling.

History. — The annals of the District coincide with those of its two
principal tribes, the Khatak and Bangash Pathans, who constitute
together more than 60 per cent, of the population. The latter occupy
the Miranzai valley, with the western portion of Kohat proper; while
the Khataks hold the remainder of the eastern territory up to the bank
of the Indus. According to tradition, the Bangash Pathans were
driven from Gardez in the Ghilzai country by its present possessors,
and settled in the Kuram valley about the 14th century a.d. Thence
they spread eastward, over the Miranzai and Kohat region, fight-
ing for the ground inch by inch with the Orakzais, whom they O
up at last in the frontier hills. This migration probably took place
before the time of Babar, as that Emperor in his Memoirs mentions
the Bangash tribe among the races inhabiting the fourteen Provinces
of Kabul.

Throughout the Mughal period, their allegiance to the imperial
court seems to have been little more than nominal; but the Durani
Emperors extended their sway to these remote valleys, and Taimur
Shah collected a regular revenue from the Miranzai glens. Early
in the present century, Kohat and Hangu formed a governorship
under Sardar Samad Khan, one of the Barak/ai brotherhood, whose
leader, Dost Muhammad, usurped the throne of Afghanistan. The
sons of Sardar Samad Khan were driven out about 1828 by the 1
war Sardars, the principal of whom was Sardar Sultan Muhammad.
Meanwhile, the great Sikh reaction had been spreading on eve:;.
from its centre at Amritsar, and began to affect even the distant Pi

244 KOHAT.

hill country. In 1834, Ranjit Singh occupied Peshawar, and Sultan
Muhammad Khan retired to Kabul. But the Sikhs found themselves
unable to levy revenue from the hardy mountaineers ; and in the follow-
ing year Ranjit Singh restored Sultan Muhammad Khan to a position
of importance at Peshawar, and made him a grant of Kohat and Hangu.
Sardar Sultan Muhammad Khan continued to govern Kohat District
through his sons till the breaking out of the second Sikh wrar. The
country, however, was generally in a disturbed state, and the Upper
Miranzai villages were practically independent. When the Sikh troops
took up arms at Peshawar on the outbreak of the second Sikh war,
George Lawrence, the British officer there, took refuge at Kohat, but
Sultan Muhammad played false, and delivered him over as a prisoner
to the Sikhs.

At the close of the campaign, Sultan Muhammad Khan and his
adherents retired to Kabul, and the District with the rest of the
Punjab was annexed to the British dominions. The boundaries to
the west were, however, left undefined. The people petitioned that
they had always belonged to Kohat, and in August 1851, Upper
Miranzai was formally annexed by proclamation, and an expedition
was immediately despatched up the valley to establish our rule. There
was no fighting beyond a little skirmishing with the Waziris near Biland
Khel. The lawless Miranzai tribes, however, had no desire to be under
either British or Afghan rule. They were most insubordinate, paid no
revenue, and obeyed no orders. Seeing this, the Punjab Government
wished to withdraw from Miranzai ; but the supreme authority super-
vened. The people still refused to pay revenue, and incursions across
the frontier continued to disturb the peace of the new District. At
last, in 1855, a force of 4000 men marched into the valley, enforced
the revenue settlement, and punished a recusant village at the foot of
the Zaimukht Hills. The Miranzais quickly reconciled themselves to
British rule; and during the Mutiny of 1857, no opposition of any sort
took place in the valley. In March 1858, it was finally decided that
the Kuram river was to form the western boundary of the District, thus
excluding Biland Khel on the opposite bank, which, although really a
part of Miranzai, was handed over to the Kabul Government.

The Khataks, who occupy the eastern half of the District, are an
important tribe, holding the west bank of the Indus for a distance of
120 miles from Hund, north of the Kabul river in Peshawar, to Kala-
bagh in Bannu. According to tradition, they left their native home in .
the Sulaiman mountains about the 13th century, and settled in Bannu
District. Thence they migrated northward two hundred years later,
through a quarrel with the ancestors of the Bannuchis, and occupied
their present domains. One of their leaders, Malik Akor, agreed with
the Emperor Akbar to protect the country south of the Kabul river

KOHAT. 245

from depredations, and received in return a grant of territory with
right of levying tolls at the Akora ferry. He was thus enabled to
assume the chieftainship of his tribe, and to hand down his authority
to his descendants, among whom was the warrior poet, Khushal Khan.

The Khatak chiefs ruled at Akora ; but after the establishment of the
power of Ahmad Shah Durani, it became the custom for a junior
member of the family to rule as sub-chief at Teri. This office gradually
became hereditary, and the sub-chiefs ruled the Western Khataks in
complete independence of the Akora chiefs. The history of these
affairs is very confused. The Akora chiefs were constantly interfering
in Teri affairs. There were generally two or more rival claimants ; the
chiefship was constantly changing hands, and assassination and rebellion
were matters of every-day occurrence. On the occupation of Pesha-
war by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, the rival claimants were Rasiil
Khan and Biland Khan. At last, in 1835, Ranjit Singh granted Kohat
and Hangu to Sultan Muhammad Khan Barakzai, to whom Rasiil Khun
submitted, and obtained the government in return for a fixed tribute.
Rasiil Khan held peaceable possession till his death in 1843 ; when he-
was succeeded by his adopted son, Khwaja Muhammad Khan. The
latter was subsequently expelled for a short time by Muhammad Khan ;
but on the retirement of the Afghans from Peshawar, at the close of
the campaign of 1848, he again assumed the government of the Ten
country, in which the British authorities confirmed him, after the
annexation. Khwaja Muhammad has proved himself a loyal subject j
and in 1872 he obtained the title of Nawab, with the Knight Com-
mandership of the Star of India.

Population.— -The Census of 1855 returned the number of inhabitants
of Kohat District at 101,232. That of 1868 showed an increase of
44,187 persons, or 43-64 per cent. The latter enumeration extended
over an area of 2838 square miles, and it disclosed a total population
of 145,419 persons, distributed among 343 villages or townships, and
inhabiting 28,639 houses. In 1881, over the same area, the Census
returned a population of 181,540, showing a further increase of
36,121, or 24-8 per cent., since 1868. Total number of towns and
villages in 1881, 367; number of houses, 22,442; families, ja
Total population, 181,540, namely, males 101,369, and females 80,171.
From these data the following averages may be deduced :— Persoi
square mile, 64; villages per square mile, 0-13; houses per squari
mile, 9 ; persons per village, 494 ; persons per house, S'io ; proportion
of males, 55-62 per cent. Classified according to age, there
under 15 years - 40, 1 8 1 boys, and 34,747 i^ \ u,lal dllk^n'
74,928, or 41-3 per cent.; above 15 years of age-males, 01,
females, 45,424; total adults, 106,612, or 58-7 per cent.

As re-ards reli-ious distinctions, the District retains the M

246 KOHAT.

man faith of its early Pathan settlers. The Muhammadans number
169,219 persons, or 93*21 per cent., as against 9828 Hindus,
or 5*41 per cent.; 2240 Sikhs, or 1*23 per cent.; Jains, 41;
and Christians, 212. The Hindus chiefly belong to the trading
castes. They comprise 882 Brahmans, 1383 Khetris, and 5233
Aroras, with a small sprinkling of Rajputs, Jats, and Ahirs. Among
the Muhammadans, 7776 rank as Sayyids ; but the Pathans form
by far the largest division, numbering 116,431, or over two-thirds of
the whole population, consisting mainly of the Khatak and Bangash
tribes. The Khatak Pathans are tall and good-looking mountaineers,
fairer than their Peshawar brethren ; and though naturally wild and
lawless, have settled down under our firm administration into peaceful
subjects. The Bangash possess an equally fine physique, but lie under
the imputation of cowardice.

The District contains only one town with a population exceeding 5000
— viz. Kohat, the head-quarters station, with a total in 1881 of 18,179
inhabitants, including suburbs and military cantonment; Hangu, the
capital of the Upper Bangash, and Teri, head-quarters of the Khatak
Nawabs, also possess a certain political importance. Of the 367 villages
in the District in 1881, 148 contained less than two hundred
inhabitants ; 127 from two to five hundred ; 53 from five hundred to a
thousand ; 27 from one thousand to two thousand ; 6 from two to three
thousand ; 5 from three to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of five
thousand inhabitants.

As regards occupation, the Census of 1881 classified the male adults
under the seven following headings: — (1) Professional, 9035; (2)
domestic, 1669; (3) commercial, 1700; (4) agricultural and pastoral,
30,681; (5) industrial and manufacturing, 9246; (6) indefinite and
non-productive, 4701 ; (7) unspecified, 4156.

Agriculture. — Kohat District, though limited in its capabilities by its
generally hilly surface, has made rapid progress in cultivation since the
introduction of British rule. At the date of annexation, only 64,772
acres were under cultivation, out of a total area of 1,816,600 acres ;
but the figures rose steadily, being returned at 76,792 acres in
1860-61; 160,900 acres in 1868-69; I63,oi5 acres in 1873-74; and
201,947 acres in 1876-77, when measurements were first taken by the
Settlement Department. These figures, however, are approximate only,
and probably considerably in excess of the truth, as in 1881-82, when
a circuit of the District was made by the patwdris or village account-
ants, the cultivated area was ascertained to be only 145,845 acres. In
the period of anarchy under the Barakzai Sardars, tillage had almost
disappeared ; the cattle had been carried off, and the zaminddrs had
fled to the hills. But since annexation, the area under the plough
has increased by 125 percent.

KOHAT.

The agricultural staples include wheat and barley for the
harvest, with rice, millet, Indian corn, and pulses fur the aui
crops. Tobacco, mustard, and oil -seeds also cover small .
and cotton of inferior quality is grown in favourable years.
area under each crop in 1881-82 was returned as :
Wheat, 48,950 acres; barley, 18,765 acres; Indian cor
acres; rice, 4201 acres; bdjra, 35,581 acres \ jodr, 287 acres; ka
1883 acres; gram, 5860 acres; moth, 2715 acres; mOg and mash,
5006 acres; cotton, 2822 acres; etc. Cultivation has now nearly
reached its utmost limit in the glens and hollows of these barren
hills. Irrigation from the hill streams supplied water to 40,607
in 1882-83. Manure is abundantly used in lands near the villages,
and more sparingly elsewhere. Rotation of crops exist only in its
simplest form.

Prices ruled as follows on the 1st of January 1S73 : — Wheat,
18 sers per rupee, or 6s. 3d. per cwt. ; barley, 34 sers per rupee,
or 3s. 4d. per cwt. ; Indian corn, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d. per
cwt. ; bdjra, 26 sers per rupee, or 4s. 4d. per cwt. During the
recent Afghan campaigns, the prices of all descriptions of food-gn
all sorts rose extremely high. Prices have since fallen, but up to the
end of 1882 had not sunk to their normal rates before the war. On
the 1 st January 1882, wheat was 14 sers per rupee, or 8s. per cwt. ;
barley, 29^ sers per rupee, or 3s. 9jd. per cwt.; Indian corn, 21 J, sers
per rupee, or 5s. 2|d. per cwt. ; and bdjra, 19 sers per rupee, or 5s. tid.
per cwt. In October 1882, rates were — for wheat, 18$ sers per rupee,
or 6s. id. per cwt. ; barley, 30^7 sers per rupee, or 3s. 8d. per cwt :
Indian corn, 24 sers per rupee, or 4s. 8d. per cwt. ; and bdjra, z~
per rupee, 4s. 5d. per cwt.

Commerce and Trade, etc.— The principal industry of the District is
that of its salt mines, situated in the range of hills along the Ten ToL
Five mines are now open — Malgin and Jatta on the northern bank,
and Narri, Bahadur Khel, and Kharrak on the opposite side of the
river (each of which see separately). Traders resort to the mines
Afghanistan and the Punjab towns. The Preventive Establishment,
maintained by Government for the protection of the salt revenue,
prised in 1881 a body of 208 officers and men. The total quanl
salt quarried at all five mines during the year iS 70-71, an
407,098 maiuids, or 294,680 cwt., yielding a duty of ,£8556. In I
the total quantity of salt quarried was 525,494 standard l
375,352 cwt., yielding a duty of ^9°73- The average duty n
during the nine years ending 18S1-S2 was ^9°93 a )'car- ;
nourishes chiefly during the winter months, as the camels cannot
in the hottest part of the summer. The headquarters of the
establishment are at Jatta. Gun and ritle barrels ma-

248 KOHAT.

Kohat town have a considerable reputation along the north-western
frontier. Coloured scarves, woollen carpets, country cloth, and pottery
are also made at Kohat, Hangu, and Teri.

The frontier military road forms the chief channel of communication
for wheeled conveyances and artillery. There is a good metalled road
to Kushalgarh (29 miles), a point on the Indus on the road to Ravval
Pindi, where there is a good boat bridge, and the terminus of a branch
of the Punjab Northern State Railway. The road to Bannu is metalled
in patches, but is barely practicable for wheeled traffic. A road via
Hangu to Thai was commenced during the Afghan war, and although
much money was spent, it was abandoned while still unfinished. One
or two roads led into Peshawar District via Mir Kalan and Khairabad,
but they are not practicable for wheeled traffic. The road to Peshawar
leads for 12 miles through Afridi territory, through a defile known as
the Kohat Pass, a rough tract frequently covered with large boulders.
The above are the only roads in the District ; the cross tracks between
the different villages are often difficult even for horsemen. They cross
rough rocky hills and precipitous ravines, and in the cultivated tracts
are much broken up by irrigation cuts. The Frontier Telegraph Line
from Peshawar crosses the District, with a station at Kohat town.

Administration. — The total imperial revenue raised in the District
during the year 1851-52 amounted to ^9824. By 1882-83, the
revenue had increased to ^14,477, of which ^8909 were derived from
the land. The other principal items of revenue are salt and stamps.
A small Provincial and local revenue is also raised for home expendi-
ture. The administrative staff consists of a Deputy Commissioner, with
one or more Assistant and extra - x^ssistant Commissioners. Nawab
Khwaja Muhammad Khan, K.C.S.L, of Teri, exercises the powers
of an honorary magistrate within the Teri Sub-division. In 1882,
the District contained 10 civil and revenue judges, and as many
magistrates.

The imperial police force in 1882 numbered 439 officers and men,
besides a municipal constabulary of 54 men at Kohat ; the rural watch-
men (chaukiddrs) numbered 115 men; making a total force of 608, or
one to every 4*66 square miles of area and every 299 of the population.
The District jail at Kohat had a daily average of 164 prisoners in
1882. The troops quartered in the District usually comprise 1 mountain
battery and 1 garrison battery of artillery, 1 regiment of cavalry, and
3 regiments of infantry, making a total of about 3000 men of all
arms. The head-quarters are at Kohat town, but numerous outposts
are maintained along the frontier line. Education remains in a
very backward stage. Four Government or aided schools, and 43
indigenous schools, had a total roll of only 745 pupils in 1872-73. In
1882, the Government-inspected schools numbered only 6, with 632

KOHAT TAI1SIL AND TOWN.

pupils, while the indigenous village schools were returned at 251, with
2447 pupils. The only municipality in the District is that
town (q.v.).

Medical Aspects. — The proximity of the hills renders Kohat
paratively cool, except during the summer months; hut no record oi
temperature is available. The rainfall for the sixteen years ending
1881-82 is returned as follows: — 1866-67, lS'1 inches; 1867-68, 141
inches; 1868-69, J3'4 inches; 1869-70, 19-1 inches; 1870-71, 187
inches; 1871-72, 18*4 inches; 1872-73, 24 inches; 1873-74, 18
inches; 1874-75, 24*4 inches; 1875-76, 30-6 inches; 1876-77, 24-5
inches; 1877-78, 34-9 inches; 1878-79, 25-3 inches; 1879-80, 8-6
inches; 1880-81, 15*3 inches; 1881-82, 13-9 inches: annual a\^
19*64 inches.

The health of the cantonment and civil station, which formerly bore
a bad reputation, has materially improved of late years, owing to the
introduction of a better water-supply. In the District, smallpox, fevers,
and bowel complaints form the principal endemic diseases. The
number of recorded deaths from all causes reported in 1882 amounted
to 3178, or 17 per thousand; but these figures cannot be regarded as
trustworthy. Of the total, 2262 were assigned to fever, and 316 to
small-pox. The 3 Government charitable dispensaries at Kohat, Hangu,
and Teri afforded relief in 1882 to 30,052 persons, of whom S21 were
in-patients. [For further information regarding Kohat, see the forth-
coming Gazetteer of Kohat District, to be published by the authority
of the Punjab Government in the course of the present year (1885).
Also the Punjab Census Report for 1881; and the several Annual Pro-
vincial Administration and Departmental Reports from 1S80 to 1884. ]

Kohat.— North-eastern iahsil of Kohat District, Punjab, com
of a rugged hilly tract stretching below the Orakzai mountains. Area,
803 square miles. Population (t88i) 65,245, namely, males 37,249, and
females 27,996; average density, 81 pe.sons per square mile. (
fled according to religion — Muhammadans numbered 59,71 1 ; Hindus,
3901 ; Sikhs, 1566; and ' others,' 67. Revenue of the tahsil, £si1*<
The administrative staff, including head-quarters offices, compi
Deputy Commissioner, with 4 Assistant or extra-Assistant Commis-
sioners, 1 tahsilddr, 1 munsif, and 4 honorary magistrates. These
officers preside over 9 civil and 10 criminal courts; number of police
circles (t/idnds), 5; strength of regular police, 148 men; village watch-
men {chaukiddrs), 79.

Kohat— Town, municipality, military cantonment, and administi
head-quarters of Kohat District, Punjab. Situated in lat. 33' 35' 3
and long. 710 28' 43" e., near the north bank of the Kohat Toi river, 2
miles from the southern base of the Afrfdi Hills. Distant fr<
war 37 miles south, from Bannu 84 miles north-east, from Rawal Pindl

250 KOHAT TOI—KOHISTAN.

105 miles west. Elevation above sea-level, 1767 feet. Population
(1868), including cantonments, 11,274. Population (1 881)— town and
suburbs, 13,490; cantonments, 4689; total, 18,179; namely, Muham-
madans, 13,752; Hindus, 2798; Sikhs, 1562; and 'others,' 67.
Number of houses, 2061. The present town lies in an amphitheatre
of hills, at some distance from the old site. Built on undulating
ground, with excellent natural drainage. One good main street ; the
remainder are tortuous alleys, often ending in ciils-de-sac. Surrounded
by a slight wall, 12 feet in height. Government schoolhouse ; jail.
Small trade, but of relative importance as the chief mart for the hill
tribes, who bring down grass and firewood. Manufacture of gun and
rifle barrels, at a village near the site of the old town.

The cantonment and civil station lie to the east and north-east of the
native town, occupying an elevated site. There is accommodation for
about 3000 troops, including a battery of artillery, 1 regiment of
cavalry, and 3 regiments of infantry, together with a garrison company
of artillery, stationed in the fort. Climate pleasant; but the water-
supply is polluted, and the general unhealthiness of the station has been
attributed to this cause. The fort, erected by the British Government
after the annexation, stands north of the cantonment and town.

Municipal revenue in 1875-76, ^757 ; the highest amount of muni-
cipal income ever realized was ^3477 in 1880-81, but this was solely
due to the large trade of the town during the Afghan war. In 1882-83,
the municipal revenue was ,£1527, or an average of 2s. 3d. per head of
population (13,490) within municipal limits.

Kohat Toi. — River in Kohat District, Punjab; rises beyond the
British frontier, in the valley which separates the two parallel ranges
of the Orakzai Hills. Issues upon British territory, in lat. ^Z 36' N->
and long. 710 9' e., a little north-east of Hangu. Receives a consider-
able tributary, which drains the Lower Miranzai valley, and opposite
Kohat town sweeps southward, diverted by the curve of the Adam Khel
Afridi Hills; fifteen miles lower down, turns eastward, and, after a
further course of 17 miles, falls into the Indus, in lat. 330 24' n., and
long. 710 51' e., 36 miles south-east of Kohat in a straight line.

Kohistan.— Taluk or Sub-division of Karachi (Kurrachee) District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency. Area, 2652 square miles. Population
(1872) 5681; (18S1) 11,957. Bounded on the north by the Sehwan
Sub-division ; on the east by the Jherak (Jerruck) Sub-division ; on the
south by the Kadeji Hills and Karachi taluk; and on the west by the
Hab river and the Kithar range. Consists of a barren and hilly tract
of country, composed of outlying spurs from the Kirthar range. The
southern portion merges into several extensive plains, separated by low
lines of hills, which afford abundance of forage for herds of cattle
from the neighbourhood of the Indus after falls of rain. The valley

KOHISTAN.

of the Mohul, 20 miles long by 10 broad, is enclosed by hi.
feet altitude. The chief streams are the Hab, Ikiran, and Malir. N<
canals exist; agriculture is all but unknown; and the Baluchi
live almost entirely by pasturing goats and sheep.

The population is nomadic and fluctuating, the whole taluk
taining only 6 permanent villages. The Balrichfs inhabit chiefly the
northern portion; the Numrias and Jokias, who are Sindi tribes, range
over the central hills and the southern plains. As a rule, none of the
people erect any buildings more substantial than a mat hut, whi<
be put up in a couple of hours. The Niimrias or ' nine men,' who are
descended from a family of Rajput freebooters and exiles, are especially
averse to dealings with Government, and all the tribes are
adepts at cattle-lifting.

The treasury derives no revenue from this extensive taluk, as
the land-tax has been remitted for twenty years, the cost of its collec-
tion proving to be greater than the amount realized. The Govern-
ment establishment consists only of a kotwdl, with the powers of a
subordinate magistrate. The police force comprises 77 men, under a
chief constable. The principal village is Biila Khan's Thano, which
communicates by road with Kotri (32 miles east) and Karachi (67
miles south-west).

The ancient system of blood-feud still prevails amongst the
Baluchi tribes of Kohistan, inducing much bloodshed and internal
confusion. A feud may arise from the most trivial causes, such
as a wrestle, in which a man of one tribe knocks off the turban
of a man belonging to another clan. The insult thus offered i>
supposed to extend to all the relations and tribesmen on either side.
and can only be wiped out in the blood of the offender himself or his
family. When the insulted tribe has thus taken vengeance for the
affront, the other tribe proceeds to avenge in turn the murder of their
clansman, and in this manner the quarrel may continue for many
years. To check this state of things, it becomes necessary to inv
the chief of the tribe, though sometimes the injured party, whose turn
it is to take revenge, so as to prevail upon him to accept a com;
tion in the shape of money, camels, or cattle ; after which the I
a natural death.

A former Collector relates a case in which one Ndr Muhammad.
an influential member of the Barejo tribe, seduced a I.e.:
woman, and slew her husband. He attempted to purchase peace,
but the Loharam's refused. He was tried for murder, but es<
through the inapplicability of English procedure to such wild and
barbarous tribes. In a little time some Loharanis were found with arm>
in their hands, going to murder their enemy, and were bound 01
keep the peace. Shortly afterwards, however, in 1S71, his toemen met

252 KOIL—KOKUR.

him in a pass near Taung, and cut him to pieces with swords, together
with his stepson. When the case came on for trial, the Barejos tried
to implicate a third man, a Gabol, as they had a feud with that branch
of the tribe also. This example will illustrate the continuance of the
vendetta amongst the rude Baluchi clansmen, even after twenty-five
years of British rule.

Koil. — Central northern tahsil of Aligarh District, North-Western
Provinces ; comprising the pargands of Koil, Morthal, and Barauli, and
consisting for the most part of a level and well-tilled plain, watered by
the Ganges Canal, and traversed by the East Indian and Oudh and
Rohilkhand Railways. The tahsil is divided into unequal parts by the
Grand Trunk Road, and into two still more unequal portions by the
Ganges Canal. Total area, according to the Settlement Records of
T^745 356 square miles, or 227,897 acres, of which 5575 acres were
held revenue free, and 53,088 acres were barren. The assessable area
was 169,234 acres, of wrhich 151,856 acres were under cultivation, and
17,378 acres cultivable. Population (1872) 230,894 ; (1881) 227,654,
namely, males 123,029 and females, 104,625, showing a decrease of 3240
in the nine years since 1872. Classified according to religion, there
were, in 1881 — Hindus, 188,443; Muhammadans, 38,128; Jains, 786;
and 'others,' 297. Number of villages, 348, of which 247 contained
less than five hundred inhabitants. Land revenue (Settlement Report,
1874), ^36,057 ; total Government revenue, ^39,662 ; rental paid by
cultivators, ,£57,671. In 1883, the tahsil contained, including the
general head-quarters courts for the District, 4 civil and 10 criminal
courts ; number of police circles (thd/ids), 3 ; strength of regular police,
275 men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 359.

Koil. — Town and municipality in Aligarh District, North-Western
Provinces. — See Aligarh Town.

Koil Kuntla. — Taluk or Sub-division of Karmil (Kurnool) District,
Madras Presidency. Area, about 530 square miles. Population
(1881) 76,296, namely, 38,196 males and 38,100 females. Hindus
numbered 68,699; Muhammadans, 6420; and Christians, 1 177.
Villages, 86; houses, 17,747. In 1883 there were 2 criminal courts;
regular police, 63 men ; police stations, 9. Land revenue, ^23,245.

Koilpatti. — Revenue-free village in Satiir taluk, Tinnevelli District,
Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 1213; houses, 262. Hindus
numbered 1139; Muhammadans, 18; and Christians, 56. Station on
the South Indian Railway, Madras to Tuticorin ; market on Monday ;
police station.

A zaminddri estate, consisting of n villages; area, 12,836 acres,
paying a peshkash or permanent assessment of ^323; annual revenue
derived by the zaminddr, ^1058.

Kokiir. — Celebrated spring in Kashmir State, Northern India;

KOL. 253

situated at the northern base of the Pir Panjal Mountain. Lai
3,6' N., long. 750 19' e. Issues by six mouths from the bottom
limestone cliff. The stream thus formed flows into the Bareng river.
Thornton mentions that the Afghan court, when established in
Kashmir, drank no other water except that of the Kokiir spring.

Kol. — The name of a collection of aboriginal tribes, mainly occupy-
ing the mountainous districts and plateaux of the Chutia Nagpur
Division of Bengal, and found to a smaller extent in the Tributary
States of Orissa, and in some Districts of the Central Provinces. Kol
is a generic word for the whole group of tribes included linguistically
within the term Kolarian ; but it is generally applied in a more
restricted sense, embracing the three principal tribes, the Munda Kols,
whose home is in Lohardaga District; the Larka Kols or Hos of Sing-
bhiim District; and the Bhiimij Kols of Manbhum. Of this latter
tribe, those who live on the borders of Chutia" Nagpur proper recognise
no distinction between themselves and the Mundas. They intermarry,
and associate and coalesce in all matters indicating identity of race.
The Bhiimij farther to the east have become too Hinduized to acknow-
ledge the relationship ; and those of Dhalbhum on the borders of
Midnapur consider themselves autochthones, and will not admit that
they are in any way connected with the Mundas or Hos.

Origin. — Behar, the ancient Magadha, has numerous antiquities
attributed to the Cherus and Kols ; and from traditions handed down,
it appears that the sovereigns of the country were at one time Cherus,
the people being for the most part Kols. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton
points to Kabar, the most important of the ruins in Behar attributed
to the Cherus or Kols, as evidently the work of a powerful ruler,
and probably the stronghold of the princes of the race. Numerous
antiquities, forts, and ruins are universally ascribed by the present
inhabitants of Behar to that ancient dynasty and primitive race. Ac-
cording to legends and texts in the Rig-veda and the Bhagavata Purrina,
Cherus and Kols occupied the Magadha country at the time of the
birth of Gautama Buddha; and it has been noticed that the sculptures
at Buddh-Gaya portray not Aryan, but Turanian or Kol features. 1 >r.
Buchanan-Hamilton states that the dominant race, the Cherus. probably
accepted the doctrines of Buddha and became Aryanized, while the
Kols rejected them, and adhered to the life of freedom in which they
are still found. The Kols appear as the earliest historical settlers in
the Gangetic valley; and they had been long established there, and
had attained some advance in civilisation, when they were dislodged
and driven back by the Savars, a Dravidian people, about 500 A.D.

The following description of the Kols of the present day is quoted
in a condensed form from Colonel Dalton's description in his hthno-
logy of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), to which admirable work the re

254 K0L-

referred for a full account of these and the other Kolarian tribes (pp.
150 to 235).

' Of the great Kol empire there are now no remnants in Behar. The
Cheru chiefs, on being expelled from it, fell back into what is now the
Palamau Sub-division of Lohardaga ; whilst the chief seat of the Munda
race is now the plateau of Chutia Nagpur proper. The central table-
land, on which the tribes rallied, is admirably adapted for defence.
The approaches to it from the north, north-west, east, and south, are
exceedingly precipitous, the paths winding up defiles which a handful
of resolute men could hold against hosts of invaders. The highlands
in the western and south-western direction stretch into Sarguja and
Jashpur, uniting with the Vindhyan mountains in a western direction
and the Satpura range to the south-west. They divide the waters of
the Narbada and Mahanadi, forming a covered way by which fresh
accessions of cognates strengthened the growing colonies of Kols on
the Jharkhand or forest tract ; and thus were founded the " strongholds
of the ten chiefs," referred to in the Puranas, and in Colonel Wilford's
essays, as the Dasarana, or ten forest forts east of the Son. These
Jharkhand or Chutia Nagpur chiefs appear to have maintained their
isolated and elevated defensive positions throughout the long series
of Hindu dynasties, and to have come with an indifferent reputation
under the Muhammadan Government.

' Little is found in Munda or Bhumij folk-lore that throws light on
the early history of the race. The families that rank highest among
them have lost such traditions in the hazy fables which Hindus have
invented for them. The lower classes, as a rule, declare themselves to
be autochthones ; and even the chiefs found their claims to be of noble
birth on miracles that took place in the country which they call their
fatherland. But in a manuscript account of the family of the Rajas of
Chutia Nagpur, it is stated that the Mundaris came to Jharkhand,
afterwards called Chutia Nagpur, from Pipra and Paligarh, names that
occur in the Santal traditions.

1 Village Organization.— -The Mundas say they had no Raja when
they first occupied Chutia Nagpur. They formed a congeries of small
confederate states. Each village had its chief, also called a munda,
literally " a head " in Sanskrit ; and as a village often consisted of one
family, the inhabitants were all of Munda dignity, and hence it became
a name for the whole tribe. What the original name for the tribe in
their own language may have been, I do not know ; but as the Mun-
daris on the plateau call themselves Konk Pat Munda, Konk or
Konkpat may have been a national denomination. They appear to
have only one word for ruler, the term gumki, and they apply it to
every one in authority. In Manbhiim District, the word munda be-
comes mura, which is also Sanskrit, and has the same meaning. As

KOL.

these Kols have taken up the word munda, the Santals have appropri-
ated the term mdnj/ii, and the Bhdmij sirddr. The Munda vi

had each its own staff of officers ; and from the customs that still ;
in most old villages, the organization that descended from primitive
times appears to have been very complete. The system mment

that obtained among the Mundas and Unions of Chutia Nagpur,
their polity was disturbed by the conversion of their < hie£ may still be
discerned in the existing organization. The country was divided into
groups of twelve or more villages, called par/ids, each under a I
man, who was generally called the munda. Although not recogl
by the authorities in the administrative divisions of the present time,
the people still acknowledge the par/id jurisdiction ; and questions
affecting their social relations are still adjusted in par Ad cone lave.
Each village had, besides, its establishment of hereditary public
servants, who still exist. The principal of these are the representatives
of the most influential of the patriarchs. They originally formed the
colony, and each is literally a pillar of the little state called khunt.
The head of one of these khunts or families is the chief or munda,
of another the pd/in, or priest, and there is sometimes a third called
md/iato, the munda 's deputy. The headmen had no superior rights in
the lands cultivated by other villagers. They were not landlords but
chiefs, and they and the people acknowledging them held the soii they
cultivated in virtue of being the heirs of those who first utilized
it ; and when it became necessary to distinguish such men from culti-
vators of inferior title, the former were called bhuinhdrs, breakers of the
soil. When the Mundas and Uraons submitted to a Raja, and all
were required to contribute to his maintenance, the people in each
village were divided into two classes. The more privileged, who
retained the designation of bhuinhdr, had to give honorary attendance,
and constituted the militia of the state. The remainder supplied
and raiment; but these obligations were eventually commute
money payment or rent, and the lands cultivated by this class were
called rdjhas, or rent-paying, in contradistinction to the bhuh
which were, no doubt, originally rent-free. At a late period, the
was allowed to hold in each village a proportion of land i
mdnji/ias, which was cultivated for his sole benefit; and ti
who cultivated this land for him or his assigns had lands allotted to
them, subject to no other service and no rent, called belli
Besides the above, there were lands set apart for the expenses periodi-
cally incurred in the propitiation of the national and local deiti
which means the Kols provided against the dangers that threatened
their gods from impending changes of belief. The produce of the
lands has never, so far as known, been appropriated to the 5 rvi
the Hindu divinities, though the people contribute something yearly

25 6 KOL.

towards the public worship of Kali, inaugurated by the zamindars /
if, however, the villagers were all to adopt a new religion, they would
doubtless assert their right to devote the assets of what may be called
their church lands to the service of the newly-adopted faith.

' The Religion of the Mundas possesses a Shamanistic rather than a
Fetish character. They make no images of their gods, nor do they
worship symbols ; but they believe that, though invisible to mortal
eyes, the gods may, when propitiated by sacrifice, take up for a time
their abode in places especially dedicated to them. Thus they have
their "high places" and their "groves," — the former, some mighty
mass of rock to which man has added nothing, and from which he
takes nothing; the latter, a fragment of the original forest, the trees
in which have been for ages carefully protected, left when the clearance
was first made, lest the sylvan gods of places, disquieted at the whole-
sale felling of the trees that sheltered them, should abandon the
locality. Even now, if a tree is destroyed in the sacred grove (the
jdhird or sama), the gods evince their displeasure by withholding
seasonable rain. Sing Bonga, the creator and preserver, is adored as
the sun. Prayer and sacrifice are made to him as to a beneficent
deity, who has no pleasure in the destruction of any of his creatures,
though, as a father, he chastises his erring children ; and to him our
gratitude is due for all the benefits we enjoy. He is said to have
married Chandra Omol, or the moon, but she deceived him on one
occasion and he cut her into two ; but repenting of his anger, he allows
her at times to shine forth in full beauty. The stars are her daughters.
The worship of the sun as the supreme deity is the foundation of the
religion of the Kols in Chutia Nagpur, and also of the Uraons, who
address him as Dharmi, the Holy One. He is not regarded as the
author of sickness or calamity, but he may be invoked to avert it ; and
this appeal is often made, when the sacrifices to the minor deities have
been unproductive. The other deities are all considered subordinate
to Sing Bonga, and though they possess supernatural powers, there are
cases beyond their authority ; but when they are invoked in such cases,
it is their duty to intercede with Sing Bonga, and so obtain for their
votaries the solicited relief. This notion of the intercessional power
of the minor spirits is remarkable. Chanala Desum Bonga and his
wife Pangora have been included among the minor deities of the Hos,
but these are the styles under which Sing Bonga and his wife Chandra
Omol desire to be worshipped by female votaries. Chanala is to
women what Sing Bonga is to men.

1 The next in order among the gods after Sing Bonga is Marang-
Biini or Bura Bonga, the mountain god. The highest or most remark-
able hill or rock in the neighbourhood is the shrine of this deity or
spirit. The Kols evidently recognise the importance of wooded hills

KOL. ,„

in securing the needful supply of rain ; and trusting entirely to rain for
irrigation, and regarding Burri Bonga as the head of the heavenly water
department, they naturally pay him special attention. Every third
year, in most places, buffaloes are sacrificed in his honour, and fowls
and goats every year. He is also invoked in sickness. In Chutia
Nagpur a remarkable bluff, near the village of Lodhma, is the Marang-
Btiru or Maha-Buru for a wide expanse of country. Here people of all
castes assemble and sacrifice — Hindus, and even Muhammadans, as
well as Kols. There is no visible object of worship ; the sacrifices are
offered on the top of the hill, a bare semi-globular mass of rock. If
animals are killed, the heads are left there, and afterwards appropri-
ated by the palm, or village priest. Hindus say that the Marang-Burii,
as a deity, is the same as Mahadeo. They aver, however, that they
cannot exist in Chutia Nagpur without propitiating the local deities.
Every village has in its vicinity a grove reputed to be a remnant of the
primeval forest, left intact for the local gods when the clearing was
originally made. Here Desauli, the tutelary deity of the village, and
his wife, Jhar-Era or Maburu, are supposed to sojourn when attending
to the wants of their votaries. There is a Desauli for every village,
whose authority does not extend beyond the boundary of the village to
which his grove belongs ; if a man cultivates land in another village
than the one in which his home is, he must pay his devotions to the
Desauli of both. The grove deities are held responsible for the crops,
and are especially honoured at all the great agricultural festivals. They
are also appealed to in sickness. The next in order are Naga-Era or
Naiads, who preside over tanks, wells, and any bodies of stagnant
water (called Ekhir-Bonga by the Mundas) ; and Garha-Era, the
river goddess. They, too, are frequently, and no doubt very truly,
denounced as the cause of sickness, and propitiated by sacrifices to
spare the sufferers. The remaining spirits are the ancestral shades,
who are supposed to hover about, doing good or evil to their
descendants. They are often denounced as the cause of calamitous
visitations, and propitiatory offerings are made to them ; but besides,
a small portion of the food prepared in every house is daily set apart f< r
them. The ancestors are the Penates, and are called Ham-ho. The
ancestors of the wife have also to be considered; they are called
Horatan-ho, because sacrifices to them are always offered on the path
hora, by which the old woman came as a bride to the house.

1 The Munda Marriages, as solemnized in most parts of Chutia
Nagpur, have many ceremonies, some of which appear to have been
taken from the Hindus ; at all events the ceremonies I allude to are
common to Hindus and aborigines, but it is not always easy to d<
by whom they were originated. We may, however, safely assert that
practices common to both, which are not in accord.ince with the ritual
vol. VIII. R

258 KOL.

prescribed in the Vedas, are derived from the aborigines. Among
Miradas having any pretensions to respectability, the young people are
not allowed to arrange these affairs for themselves. Their parents
settle it all for them. The pan, or purchase money paid for the bride,
varies from Rs. 4 to Rs. 20 (8s. to £2) ; but the marriage feast is very
liberally provided, and as it takes place at the bride's house, the
expense chiefly falls on her father.

' Iron - Smelting. — The Kols generally understand the smelting of
iron. Their country is rich in that mineral j but it is the wilder clans,
the mountain Kharrias, the Birhors, and in Lohardaga, the Asiirs and
Agarias, that chiefly utilize it. Those who devote themselves to it
regularly pay no attention to the cultivation of the soil. The Mundas
have also acquired the art of washing for gold in the streams and rivers
that drain the plateau of Chutia Nagpur, or rise in the bordering hills,
which are all auriferous ; but the average quantity obtained is not more
than suffices to give a bare subsistence to the persons employed,
including men, women, and children. The richest field, Sonapet, is
the valley of the Sonai river below the plateau opening on Kharsawan.
The population are all Mundas, enjoying a rich soil, a most romantic
and sequestered situation, and low fixed rents. This last advantage
was secured to them after the insurrection of 1831, in which they
heartily joined.

' Food. — The Hinduized Munda abstains from most meats which
Hindus consider impure, but it is not safe to place a fat capon in his
way. Other Mundas, and all the Hos, eat beef, mutton, goats' flesh,
fowls, fish, hares, and deer. Pigs are not much relished except by the
poorer classes ; and the flesh of bears, monkeys, snakes, field mice,
and other small game that the Uraons and Santals affect, the Mundas
and Hos do not approve of. They will take from our hands cakes,
bread and the like, but not cooked rice. In regard to cooked rice,
these tribes are exceedingly particular. They will leave off eating if a
man's shadow passes across their food.

' Very few of this people have been known to take to trade as a
pursuit, but the Kols of one small section of Chutia Nagpur, Tamarh,
known as Tamarias, form an exception. They are employed chiefly as
brokers for the purchase of the produce of the wilder parts of the
Kolhan ; but owing to extension of the market system, and a
growing predilection on the part of the Kols for more direct dealings
with the traders, the Tamarias' occupation as brokers is on the wane.

' Property. — An equal division of property amongst the sons is the
prevailing custom of inheritance ; but they live together as an undivided
family until the youngest boy attains his majority, when the division
is made. The sisters are regarded as live stock, and allotted to the
brothers just as are the cattle. Thus, if a man dies, leaving three sons

KOL.

and three daughters and thirty head of cattle, on a dr.
would pet ten head of cattle and one sister; but should there be only
one sister, they wait till she marries, and divide the pan. The pan is
the price of a wife, paid by her husband -to her father's family, and
usually consists of about six head of cattle. In Singbhiim the pan is
higher than in Chutia Xagpur, and the question of its amount is there
found to affect seriously the number of marriages.

1 Character, etc. — The Mundas are not so truthful and open as the
Hos of Singbhiim, nor so manly and honest ; but the Mundas have
lived for ages under conditions ill calculated to develop the good
qualities for which the Hos take credit. There has been a continual
struggle to maintain what they consider their rights in the land, ag
the adverse interest of the landlord or his assigns. The very conditions
under which most of them hold their lands place them in a position ot
dependence and inferiority, as they have to labour for their landlord
as well as pay rent to him. Moreover, they live among a people who
look down on them as a degraded race, and one of whose favourite
theories is, that the Kols were created to serve them. This, no doubt,
must be as demoralizing as it is aggravating ; and in many places the
Mundas and Uraons have listened to it so long that they begin to
accept the doctrine, and calmly subside into the position of serfdom
allotted to them. The licentiousness indulged in by Mundas and
Hos at their great festival is, of course, incompatible with purity and
chastity, and there is no doubt that the majority of the elders are
terrible sots ; but in Singbhiim the rising generation show a disposi-
tion to abandon licentious habits, and it is satisfactory to know-
that they can be entirely weaned from them. About seven thousand
Mundas have now (1872) embraced Christianity, and recen:
movement has extended to the Hos of Singbhiim. One of the m
with all his family and a considerable number of his villagers, has been
baptized; and, generally speaking, all those who have embraced our
religion have entirely withdrawn from participation in the wild :
of their pagan brethren. Their pastors have made this a test of their
sincerity, and it is no doubt a very severe one. The women must lay
aside all their trinkets, and should not be seen, even as spectal
dances. The race generally are duller of comprehension and more
difficult to teach than^Hindus or Muhammadans. With the
of those who embrace Christianity, the Mundas are usually unwill
learn ; but the Hos have of late years evinced considerable
education, and the progress they make is satisfactory, their anv
learn and wonderful dili-ence making up for sluggishness in Intel

Kol Population.— Owing to the loose use of the term Kol, whl
stated above, is in many cases applied to the whole group of tribes
speaking Kolarian dialects, it was found impossible tor the Census

26o KOLABA.

officers to present any satisfactory return of the Kol population in the
more restricted ethnical sense in which the word is used as referring to
the Mundas, Hos, and Bhiimij, who make up the tribe commonly
known as Kol. In the ethnical sense the Kol tribe is confined mainly
to the Chutia Nagpur Districts and States, and to certain Districts in
the Central Provinces. In Bengal, the Census statements for 1881
show a total number of 871,666 Kols, of whom 613,863 were returned
as professing aboriginal religions, and 257,803 as Hindus. In the
Central Provinces, out of a total of 78,000 Kols, 35,804 were returned
as aborigines by religion, and 42,196 as Hindus. These figures show
a total of 949,666 persons returned as Kols. The Bengal Census Report
of 1 88 1 states—' On the one hand they [the returns for the Kols] include
members of various tribes which have separate names, but belong to
the great Kolarian family ; and on the other hand they do not include
all the persons to whom the term is properly applicable, and who may
have been entered with closer specification as Mundas, Hos, Bhiimij,
or Kharias. ... All that can be said is, not that all the Kols are
entered under that name, but only that all those who are entered as
Kols are Kolarians.' In the language returns of the Census Report, the
total number of persons returned as speaking Kolarian languages is
1,140,489.

Kolaba.— A British District in the Konkan or Southern Division of
the Bombay Presidency. Lies between 170 52' and 180 50' N. lat., and
730 7' and 73° 42' e. long. Bounded on the north and north-east by
the Bombay harbour, the Panwel and Karjat Sub-divisions of Thana
District, and the Amba river ; on the east by the Sahyadri Hills, the
Bhor State, the territory of Pant Sachiv, and the Districts of Poona and
Satara ; on the south and south-west by Ratnagiri ; and on the west by
the Janjira State and (for 18 miles) by the Arabian Sea. Area, 1496
square miles. Population (1881) 38l>649 5 density of population, 255
persons per square mile. Land revenue (1882-83), ;£79>896- Chief
town, Alibagh.

Physical Aspect, etc.— Kolaba District is a rugged belt of country from
15 to 30 miles broad, stretching from the south of Bombay harbour
to the foot of the Mahabaleshwar hills, 75 miles south-east. Situated
between the Sahyadri Hills and the sea, the District contains spurs
of considerable regularity and height, running westwards at right angles
to the main range, as well as isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges.
A series of minor ranges also run north and south between the main
range and the sea. The great wall of the Sahyadris forms the chief
natural feature. Apparently bare of vegetation, a near approach
discovers well-wooded ravines and glades of evergreen forest. The
sea frontage of the District, of 18 miles, is throughout the greater part
of its length fringed by a belt of cocoa-nut and areca-nut palms. Behind

KOLABA.

this belt is situated a stretch of flat country devote 1 to I

In many places, along the banks of the salt-wa:

extensive tracts of salt marsh land, some of them i

subject to tidal inundation, and others set apart for the m.u, u

salt. A few small streams, rising in the hills to the east of the 1 H

pass through it to the sea. Tidal inlets, of which the print i|

Amba or Nagothna in the north, the Kundalika, Roha or Chaul

west, the Mandad in the south-west, and the Savitri or Bankofl

in the south, run inland for 25 or 30 miles, forming high*

trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. The creek oi the Pen river

is navigable to Antora, 4 miles from Pen, for boats of seven ton

khandis) during ordinary tides, and to boats of thirty-five ton^

khandis) during spring tides. Near the coast especially, the 1».

is well supplied with reservoirs. Some of these are handsomely built

of cut stone; but none are very large, and only a few hold

throughout the year. The Alibagh reservoir, built in 1876, ha

of 7 acres and a depth of 20 feet. The well water of the coast \..

is somewhat brackish, and the supply near the Sahyadri Hills 1

defective. Hot springs are found at Unheri, Son, and Kondivti.

On spurs of the Sahyadri range are two remarkable peaks, — R.
(Rdygad), in the Mahad Sub-division, where Sivaji built his capital :
and Miradongar, a station of the Trigonometrical Survey. Two \
in the range are suitable for wheeled traffic, the Fitzgerald pass a:.
Varandha pass, the roads of which unite in the trading town of Mahad.
There are several minor passes adapted for foot passengers.

The teak and blackwood forests of Kolaba are very valual
Kolaba teak (Tectona grandis) has by competent judges been
nounced the best grown in the Konkan, and inferior only to ti
Calicut. The value of the forests is increased by their pr
Bombay, for they may be said to lie around the mouth of the hai
The curved knees are particularly adapted for the building
vessels. The timber trade of the District has two mam brai
an inland trade in wood for building purposes, and a
firewood and crooks for shipbuilding. The area under
Department in 1881 was about 153 square miles. 1'.
years ending 1878, the forest revenue has increase
(1871-72) to ^9194 (1877-78). averaging a little 1 -■<>.

the augmentation of the forest staff in 1878, the
greater than the revenue. In 1880-81, the gross fores! rei
District amounted to £SiS^ The only mineral known :
iron. Road-metalling is abundant, and sand is found in

Tigers and leopards are found all over the Distri<
Sahyadri Hills. Hyaenas and jackals abound. Bi
cheetah have been shot, but are very rare. S

252 KOLABA.

goats are numerous. In the coast villages, the fishermen cure large
quantities of fish for export to Bombay by the inland creeks. The sea
fisheries, especially of the Ah'bagh villages, are of considerable import-
ance, and afford a livelihood to 6800 fishermen in the District. The
chief species caught, mostly by means of stake -nets, are pomphlet,
bamelo or bombil, halwa, and others. A row of stakes with its accom-
panying net costs about ^30.

Kolaba island formed in ancient times a shelter for the piratical
fleets of Western India. The island is situated just outside Alibagh
harbour, about a furlong from the shore, and was in the last century
the stronghold of the Angria family. In 1662, Sivaji rebuilt and
strengthened Kolaba fort, and converted it into a regular buccaneering
stronghold. In 1722, a combined expedition of British ships and
Portuguese troops made an unsuccessful attack upon it. Kolaba fort
continued to be an active scene of Angria's operations, and survived
the sharp measures of Give against that chief. In 1771, Forbes
describes it as still an important place, where the Angria of that day
lived in much splendour. The rise of the Indian navy during the
second half of the last century put an end to piracy on an organized
scale in Bombay waters.

History. — Hindu, Muhammadan, Maratha, and British rulers have,
as throughout most of the peninsula, in turn administered the District
of Kolaba. But it is the rise, daring, and extinction of the pirate
power of the Maratha Angria that vest the history of this part of the
Konkan with a peculiar interest.

The early rulers were most probably local chiefs. Shortly after the
beginning of the Christian era, the semi-mythical Andrabhrftya dynasty,
whose capital was Kolhapur, were the over-lords of Kolaba. About
this time (135 a.d. to 150 a.d.), the Greek geographer Ptolemy describes
the region of Kolaba under the name of Symulla or Timulla, most
likely the Chaul of later days. In Ptolemy's time the Shata Karnis or
Andrabhrityas were ruling in the Konkan as well as in the Deccan ;
and for many years the ports on the Kolaba seaboard were the
emporia of a large traffic, not only inland, over the Sahyadri passes
across the peninsula to Bengal, but by way of the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf to Egypt, Arabia, and Abyssinia. In the sixth century
Kolaba, with all the northern Konkan, came under the sway of the
Chalukyas, whose general, Channa-danda, sweeping the Mauryas or
local rulers before him ' like a great wave,' captured the Maurya citadel
Puri, 'the goddess of the fortunes of the western ocean.' In the
thirteenth century, by which time the rule of the Chalukyas had passed
away, the District was held by the Deogiri (Daulatdbad) Yadavas.

Immediately prior to the appearance of the Muhammadans, tradition
assigns to Kolaba a dynasty of Kanara kings. Nothing, however, is

KOLABA.

known about them. The Bahmanis, who ruled from 1347
reduced the whole Konkan to obedience, and held (Jhaul as 1
other posts in Kolaba District. The Bahmani dynasty was followed
by kings from Gujarat. A period of Portuguese ascendancy 1
at Chaul (1507-1660) preceded the rise of the Angrias, and
contemporaneous with the conquest of all the rest of the Distrii t by the
Mughals and Marathas. The Mughals, who acquired the sovei
in 1600, were in 1632 ousted by Shahji Bhonsla, father of Sivaji, the
founder of Maratha conquest. Sivaji built two small forts near Ghosale
and Raigarh, repaired the great strongholds of Suvarndrug and
Vijayadrug, which stand on the coast-line below Bombay; and in 1674
caused himself to be enthroned at Raigarh. Nine years after Sivajfs
death, in 1680, the seizure of Raigarh restored control of the country to
the Mughals. The period of the Angrias, who terrorized the coast
while the Muhammadans were powerful inland, lasted for one hundred
and fifty years — from 1690 to 1840, when Kanhoji 11. died in infancy
and the country was taken over by the British.

Kanhoji, the first of the Angrias, was in 1698 the admiral of the
Maratha fleet, having his head-quarters at Kolaba, an island-fort
close to Alibagh and within two or three miles of the present city of
Bombay. From here he had long harassed shipping on the coast from
Malabar to Bombay; in 17 13 he threw off his allegiance to the
Peshwa, and having defeated and captured his suzerain, set up an
independent rule in ten forts and sixteen minor posts along the Konkan
coasts. Having conquered the Sidis of Janjira, his rivals in buccaneering,
Kanhoji with a considerable fleet of vessels, ranging from 150 to 20;
tons burthen, swept the seas from his fort of Vijayadrug. In 17 17, h
first piracies against English trade occurred. In retaliation the 1
assaulted Vijayadrug, but the assault was beaten off. On two occas
within the next four years, Kanhoji withstood the combined at!
English and Portuguese. On his death in 1731, the Angrii chid
was weakened by division between Kanhoji's two sons,
Sambhojf Angria was the more enterprising and able. Sal
succeeded in 1748 by Tuiaji; and from now until the fall of Vijaj
before the allied forces of the Peshwa and the British Governm
Bombay, both English and Dutch commerce suffered severely fro
Angria pirates. . ,

In 1756, the fort of Vijayadrug was captured by Admiral W
Colonel (afterwards Lord) Clive, who commanded the Uui(
Fifteen hundred prisoners were taken, eight English and th:
captains were rescued from the underground dungeons in then
hood of the fortress, and treasure to the value of £1 25,000 was
among the captors. Vijayadrug was handed over to the
whom piracy flourished as vigorously as under the Angria. ••

264 KOLABA.

Peshwa, Manaji and Raghoji, the descendants of an illegitimate branch
of the first Angrias, held Kolaba fort as feudatories of Poona. On the
fall of the Peshwa's rule in 1818, the allegiance of the Angrias was
transferred to the British. In 1840, the death of Kanhoji 11., the last
representative of the original Angrias, afforded an opportunity to the
Bombay Government to annex the forts of Suvarndrug, Vijayadriig, and
Kolaba. The District has since enjoyed unbroken peace.

Kolaba District, with the exception of the Sub-division of Alibagh,
formed part of the dominions of the Peshwa, annexed by the Bombay
Government in 18 18, on the overthrow of Baji Rao. Alibagh lapsed
to the Paramount Power in 1840. Kolaba island has still an evil
reputation with mariners, as the scene of many wrecks. Full nautical
details regarding it are given in Taylor's Sailing Directions. Many
houses in the town are built from the driftwood of vessels which have
gone ashore. Ships are sometimes supposed to be intentionally
wrecked here; the coast near Alibagh presents fair facilities for the
escape of the crews.

Population. — In 1872, the population of the District was returned at
35°>4°5- The Census returns of 1881 disclosed a total population of
381,649 persons, residing in 974 towns and villages, and 71,930 occupied
and 7335 unoccupied houses; density of the population, 255 persons
per square mile ; houses per square mile, 52-9 ; persons per village, 392 ;
persons per house, 5-30. The population has thus increased 31,244
since 1872, or nearly 9 per cent, in nine years. Classified according
to sex, there are 191,952 males and 189,697 females; proportion of
males, 50-29 per cent. Classified according to age, there are, under
15 years, 81,554 boys and 74,602 girls; total children, 156,156, or
40 per cent, of the population. The religious division shows 360,117
Hindus, 17,891 Musalmans, 1164 Jains, and 33 Parsis. Of the
remainder, 2139 are Jews (Beni-Israel), and 305 Christians. The
Hindus, who form 94 per cent, of the population, include — Brahmans,
13,789; Rajputs, 167; Agarias, 44,191 ; Bhandaris, 5982 ; Chamars,
6248; Darjis, 1637; Dhobis (washermen), 1566; Napits (barbers),
3153; Kunbis (cultivators), 159,335; Koll's (gardeners), 14,869;
Kumbhars (potters), 3732; Lingayats (mostly shopkeepers), 1463;
Malis (gardeners), 11,260; Mangs and Mhars (inferior castes), 34,847 ;
Sonars (goldsmiths), 5229; Sutars (carpenters), 3670; Telis (oilmen),
S44 ; Gaulis (cowherds), 7332 ; Dhangars (shepherds), 3543 ; Jangams,
1286; Lohars, 328 ; and 'other' Hindus, 35,646. The Muhammadan
tribes are thus distributed— Pathans, 401 ; Sayyids, 162 ; Shaikhs,
17,230 ; and ' other' Muhammadans, 98.

Classified according to occupation, the males are placed in the
Census under the following six main groups : — (1) Professional class,
including State officials of every kind and the learned professions, 3166 ;

KOLABA.

(2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 3945
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc,
agricultural class, including shepherds and gardeners, 83,052
industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 13,131
(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general
male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 85,747.

Kolaba contains the following six towns, namely— Pen (population,
8082) ; Rewadanda (6908) ; Mahad (6804) ; Alibagh (6371 ; I
(5355) I Roha-Ashtami (4894). Of the places of interest tlv
maybe mentioned — the Kuda and Pale caves, and Kaigarh and K
forts. Of the 975 towns and villages in the District in 1881, 354 con-
tained less than two hundred inhabitants ; 429 from two to five hum
140 from five hundred to one thousand ; 41 from one to two thousand ;
2 from two to three thousand j 4 from three to five thousand ; and 5
from five to ten thousand.

Among Hindus, the most important classes are the Brdhmans.
own large gardens and palm groves along the coast. In the south
they are the landlords or kJiots of many villages, holding the position of
middlemen between Government and the actual cultivators.

Of the hill tribes, there are the Thakurs and Kathkaris ; of uns'
tribes, the Vadars and the Banjaras. The Thakurs (3629) are
squat men, with hard irregular features, in some degree redeemed
honest, kindly expression. They speak Marathi; they are h
harmless, and hard-working, the women doing quite as much work as the
men. When not employed on land cultivation, they find str.r.
or gather firewood for sale. The Kathkaris (10,292) are cultivs
labourers, and firewood sellers. Their women, tall and slim, singularly
dirty and unkempt, are hard workers, and help the men by hawking b
loads of firewood. Kathkaris, as a rule, are much darker and slunim
than the other forest tribes; they rank among the lowest of the
their very touch being thought to defile. They eat ev< 1
except the cow and the brown-faced monkey. They are
much given to drinking. The Vadars (232) are rude, int
and unsettled in their habits, gathering wherever building
They are quarry-men, and make grindstones, hand-mil.
jnns. They dig wells and ponds, and trade in and carr.
They are poor, living from hand to mouth.

The Beni-Israel, or Indian Jews, are chiefly found m :
tracts. They are of two classes, the white and bUck ; A
tag to their own story, are descended from the original m
while the black are descendants of converts or
country. A considerable number of them enbst m the
and are esteemed as soldiers. They maintain the ,
and faithfully accept the Old Testament. Then ,

266 KOLABA.

discipline is administered by elders, the chief of whom are called Kad's.
Their home language is Marathi, but in the synagogues their scriptures
are read in Hebrew. The Jews monopolize the work of oil-pressing to
so great an extent, that they are generally known as oilmen or telis.
The late Dr. Wilson was of opinion that the Beni-Israel are descended
from the lost tribes, founding his belief upon the fact that they possessed
none of the Jewish names which date after the captivity, and none of
the Jewish scriptures or writings after that date.

Some of the Musalmans are the descendants of converted Hindus ;
others trace their origin to foreign invaders ; and a few are said to repre-
sent the early Arab traders and settlers. But of these last there is not,
so low down the western coast, any distinct community, and there are
few families that have not intermarried with Musalmans of the country.

Agriculture. — Agriculture is the most important industry of Kolaba
District; the total agricultural population in 1881 was returned at
147,525, giving an average of 3*4 cultivable and cultivated acres
per head. The total number, however, dependent on the soil
amounted to 258,641, or 6777 per cent, of the District population.
Of the total District area of 1496 square miles, 804 square miles
are assessed for revenue. Of these, 792 square miles are under
cultivation; 12 square miles are cultivable; and 692 non-revenue-
paying. Total amount of Government assessment, including local
rates and cesses on land, .£77,909, or an average of 3s. o|d. per
cultivated acre.

There are four descriptions of soil : — (1) Alluvial, composed of
various disintegrated rocks of the overlying trap formation, with a larger
or smaller proportion of calcareous substance. This is by far the richest
variety, and occupies the greater portion of the District. (2) Soil
formed by the disintegration of laterite and trap, covering the slopes
of the hills and plateaux. Though fitted for the cultivation of some
crops, such as ndgliwari and hemp, this soil, owing to its shallowness,
soon becomes exhausted, and has to be left fallow for a few years.
(3) Clayey mould, resting upon trap, called khdrdpdt or salt land. (4)
Soil containing marine deposits, a large portion of sand, and other
matter in concretion. This last lies immediately upon the sea-coast,
and is favourable for garden crops.

A peculiarity of Kolaba District is the khoti tenure, which exists in 485
villages. The khot was originally a mere farmer of the revenue from
year to year, but this right to act as middleman became hereditary,
although he had no proprietary right. Under the Survey, the khot, as
peasant proprietor, pays the survey rates ; while the actual cultivators
pay rent to the khot, not exceeding an excess of 50 per cent, above the
Government demand, and this constitutes the profit of the khot.

The agricultural stock in the District amounted in 1881-82 to 29,902

K0LA11A.

ploughs, 2938 carts, 50,305 bullocks, 40,31c

447 horses, 15,307 sheep and goats, 41 asses. ( »; .

total area of Government cultivable land, 476,643 acn

cent., were taken up for cultivation in 1881-82. I

acres were under grass or occupied by salt-]

307,912 acres were under actual tillage, 5259 of which «

cropped. Food-grains covered 287,267 acres, or 93-23 j 1 1

the cultivated area; pulses, 16,572, or 5-38 per cent ; 1

or 1*59 per cent. ; fibres, 1587, or 0*51 per cent. ; and mi*

crops, 2843 acres, or 0-92 per cent. Rice of many variel

141,835 acres, or 46*06 per cent, of the area actually under cult:-.

in 1881-82, is the staple produce of the District, and : :..

article of export. The finest varieties are called kolamba and

after them patni, nirpunj, and bodak, otherwise called kothim

Rice is grown on saline as well as on sweet land. Beti
and May, the plot of ground chosen for a nursery is coi
cow-dung and brushwood; this is overlaid with thii
earth is spread over the surface; the whole is then set fire to <>n the
leeward side, generally towards morning, after the heavj 1
collected. In June, after the land has been sprinkled by
showers, the nursery is sown and then ploughed. The plants
shoot up after a few heavy falls of rain. In the beginnin
the seedlings are planted out at a distance of from 8 to 10 ii
apart in fields previously ploughed and cleared. The land i
from time to time. Between October and XovemU-r, the n
commences. The cut crop is left on the field, where it is
to dry more perfectly ; it is afterwards tied up in sheave
a stack. Alter a month or so, the threshing comma
piece of hard ground (sometimes a rock) is selected, ai
are then beaten against the ground, the straw being ke|
thatch. The winnowing follows, which is effected
shovel-shaped basket with grain, and slowly emptyii
a height as the upraised arms can reach. In saline Ii
is used, neither is the soil manured. In the
when the ground has become thoroughly saturated, th<
sown in the mud, or wherever the land is low and -
flow of rain-water. No transplanting takes place, but thinning
when necessary. Should a field by any accident be
for three years in succession, the crops would 1

Especially in the northern Sub-divisions, Alii
interesting feature in the tillage of Kolaba 1 >istri< I
salt marsh and mangrove swamps that has been 1
of rice. These tracts, situated along the bank.
locally known as ***** or saline land. Most of the embank*

26$ KOLABA.

shilotris, which save the land from tidal flooding, are said to have been
built between 1755 and 1780 under the Angrias by men of position and
capital, who, with the title of shilotriddrs or dam-keepers, undertook,
on the grant of special terms, to make the embankments and to keep
them in repair. For many years these reclamations were divided into
rice-fields and salt-pans. The salt-pans were gradually closed between
1858 and 1872 ; and about two-thirds of the area formerly devoted to
salt- making has now been brought under tillage. Each reclamation
has two banks, an outer and an inner. In the outer bank are sluice-
gates which are kept closed from October to June ; and, as soon as the
rains set in, are opened to allow the rain w^ater to escape. Two years
after the embankment is completed, rice is sown in the reclaimed land,
in order that the decayed straw may offer a resting-place, and supply
nourishment to grass seeds. Five years generally elapse before any
crop is raised. More than 9000 acres have been reclaimed in this
way. The reclamation of saline land is encouraged by no revenue being
levied for the first ten years, and full revenue only after thirty years.

The inferior kinds of grain called nachni (Eleusine corocana),
wart (Panicum miliaceum), harik (Paspalum scrobiculatum), which
form the chief food-supply of the people, are also grown in consider-
able quantities, especially on the flat tops and terraced sides of the
hills. Cotton, now rarely grown, was cultivated with considerable
success during the great development of the production of Indian
cotton at the close of last century.

A skilled labourer earns from is. to 2s. a day; unskilled, from 3jd.
to 6d. ; cart hire per day, from is. 6d. to 2s. ; boat (machwds) hire per
day, from 10s. to 16s. The current prices of the chief articles of food
during 1881 were, for a rupee — rice, 24 lbs. ; wheat, 21 lbs. ; ddl (split
peas), 19 lbs. ; bdjra, 28 lbs. ; and gram, 25 lbs.

Natural Calamities. — The oldest scarcity of which local memory
remains was the famine of 1803. The distress caused by want of rain
and failure of crops was increased by the influx of starving people from
the Deccan. Many children are said to have been sold for food. The
price of rice rose to about two pounds the rupee. To relieve distress,
entire remissions of revenue, during periods varying from eight months
to two years, were granted. In 181 7-18, there was a great scarcity of
food, approaching to a famine. In 1848, in the old Sankshi division,
part of the rice crop on saline land was damaged by unusually high
spring-tides. Remissions were granted to the amount of ^3775. In
1852, heavy rain damaged grain and other produce stacked in the fields.
In 1854, an exceedingly good harvest was the outcome of a most favour-
able rainfall. But, on 1st of November, a terrible hurricane completely
destroyed every sort of field produce, whether standing or stacked,
felling also cocoa-nut and areca-nut plantations. Remissions to the

K0LA11A.

amount of more than ^1200 were -ranted. In 1-,
serious drought, particularly in the southern halt 1
1875-76, and in 1876-77, floods did much damage to I
In 1878-79, the cold-weather crops were damaged by la

Trade, etc.— The principal trade centres of the District are
Nagothna, Rewadanda, Roha, Ghodegaon, and V
articles of export are rice, salt, firewood, timber, w
and dried fish. The imports consist of Malabar teak, bras
Poona and Nasik, dates, grain, piece-goods, oil, butter, garb
turmeric, sugar, and molasses. The local manufactures barely
local wants. Salt is extensively made by evaporation, and its : 1
furnishes profitable employment in the fair season, when the culth
are not engaged in agriculture. The weaving of silk — a reli
Portuguese times — is practised at Chaul; but the manufa
declined since 1668, about which time a migration of weavers took
place, and the first street was built in Bombay to receive them. The
extraction of oil from /// (Sesamum), the cocoa-nut, and the ground-nut,
and the preparation of cocoa-nut fibre, also support main
The District appears on the whole to be well supplied with means
of transporting and exporting produce, a great portion being within
easy reach of water-carriage. There are 13 seaports in the District:
during the eight years ending 1881-82, the total valu
trade averaged ^285,916, being — imports ^100,218, and ex]
,£185,698. In 1881-82, the imports were valued at ,£93,61 7
^174,459 ; total value, ,£268,076. Minor markets and fairs are held
periodically at twenty-three places in the District. The yearly r
interest varies from 6 to 24 per cent. Pianiyas from Marwar and ( \\
are the chief shopkeepers and money-lenders.

Coimnimications.—lw 1881 there were 12 roads in the Distri :. with
a total length of 187 miles; 139 miles of this number are unbri
fair-weather roads. The Amba is crossed at Kolad by a ferry.
number of toll-bars is eight, iive of them placed on the Mahal
Trunk Road. The largest bridge in the District is one
Mangaon, across the Nizampur-Kal. At Nagothna tha
bridge, built in 1580 at a cost of three lakhs of ni]
march of the Ahmadnagar kings' troops into Chaul. A
plies daily between Bombay harbour, Revas, and Dhai
chief passes across the Sahyadris are— the Par, the I
Varandha, the Umbarda, and Kavalya. The only lighl
District stands on the highest point of the island ol Khand
a small island near the entrance of the Bombay harb
of Bombay. Tat. 180 42' 8" N., long. 72° **' ' 7 "* ]'
octagonal tower 75 feet high from base to vane, built
house, with a single fixed white dioptric light of t:

27o KOLABA.

in clear weather is visible for 20 miles from the deck of a ship. The
height of the lantern above high water is 161 feet, and its area of
illumination is 2250 of the horizon.

Administration. — Kolaba was first attached to Ratndgiri and then
to Thana District. In 1853 it was made a Sub-collectorate, and in
1 S69 an independent District. For administrative purposes Kolaba is
divided into 5 Sub-divisions. The gross revenue in 1882-83 amounted
to .£107,611, showing, on a population of 381,649, an incidence per
head of 5s. 7J& The land-tax forms the principal source of income,
yielding £79,896. Other important items are stamps, forest, and
local dues. The latter, created since 1863 for works of public utility
and rural education, yielded (1881) a total sum of £7976- There are
4 municipalities — Alibagh, Pen, Roha-Ashtami, Mahad — containing an
aggregate population of 26,156 persons, and having (1882) an income
of £2415. The incidence of municipal taxation varies from is. o|d.
to is. gd. per head. The administration of the District is entrusted to
a Collector and two Assistants, of whom one is a covenanted civilian.

Kolaba is included in the local jurisdiction of the Judge of Thana.
For the settlement of civil disputes there are 5 civil judges, and the
number of suits decided in 1881-82 was 3242. Fourteen officers
share the administration of criminal justice. The total strength of
the regular police in 1881 consisted of 346 officers and men, giving
1 man to every 4*32 square miles, or to every 11 03 persons. Total
cost, £5418, equal to £3, 12s. 5d. per square mile of area, and 4d.
per head of the population. The number of persons convicted of any
offence, great or small, was 923, being 1 person to every 413 of the
population. There are 14 post-offices in the District. In 1855-56
there was only 1 school, attended by 108 pupils; in 1881-82 there
were 79 schools, attended by 4990 pupils, or an average of 1 school for
every 1 2 inhabited villages.

Medical Aspects. — There are four distinct climatic periods — the rains
from June to October; the damp hot weather in October and
November on the cessation of the rains ; the cold weather from
December to March ; and the dry hot weather from March to June.
In the region about Alibagh there is said to be always a sea-breeze.
The time of the rains is considered the healthy period of the year.
Baga/yds, or devils, is the local name given to the sudden, short, and
violent hot dust storms that occur. The number of deaths registered
in 1 88 1 was 7723, at the rate of 20*23 Per thousand of the population.
Average rainfall during five years ending 1881, 8^ inches. The
minimum temperature during the period 1 875-1 879 was 72*6° F., and
the maximum 91-3°. In 1881, 3 dispensaries afforded medical relief
to 207 in-door and 24,428 out-door patients. [For further information
regarding Kolaba District, see the Bombay Gazetteer, compiled under

KOLA B A— KOLA CL1EL. 2 7 1

the orders of the Government of Bombay, by Mr. J. M. Campbell, C.S.,

voL vi., Kolaba and Janjira (Government Central Press, Bombay, 1883).
Also the Settlement Report of Kolaba District, by Major J. T. Francis
(1863); the Bombay Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Annual
Administration and Departmental Reports of the Presidency from 1880
to 1883.]

Kolaba. — Point or spur of land protecting the entrance to Bombay
harbour on the north, and comprised within the limits of the city of
Bombay. It was originally a chain of small islands, now connected
with each other and with the island of Bombay by causeways and
reclaimed tracts. The northern portion of Kolaba contains docks,
factories, and other important commercial and industrial buildings
of Bombay city ; it is also the terminus of the Bombay, Baroda,
and Central India Railway. In the centre are the quarters of the
European garrison of Bombay city ; and at the southern point, about
2 \ miles south-west by south from Bombay Castle, are the lunatic asylum,
the observatory, and the old lighthouse, for which was substituted in
1874 a lighthouse with first-class flashing dioptric light, about a mile
seaward of the old lighthouse, on the ' Prongs,' a dangerous reef
running south from Kolaba Point.

Kolabira. — Zaminddri estate in Sambalpur District, Central Pro-
vinces ; situated in the north-east corner of the District, bordering
on Bamra and Gangpur States. Population (1881) 31,246, namely,
males 15,877, and females 15,369, chiefly agriculturists, residing in 242
villages and 7194 houses, on an area of 231 square miles, of which
two-thirds are cultivated. Products — rice, pulses, oil-seeds, sugar-cane,
and cotton. Principal villages — Kolabira (lat. 210 48' n., long. 84°
12' 30" e. ; population in 1881, 790), which contains a good school;
and Raghunathpalli, with a population of about n 00. The estate was
created in the time of Jeth Singh, Raja of Sambalpur, about 1760.
During the Mutiny of 1857 the chief was hanged, and his son died an
outlaw ; but the estate was restored to the family after the amnesty.
Estimated income of the zaminddr, £309 ; tribute payable to Govern-
ment, ^"109. The old road from Sambalpur town to Chutia Nagpur
traverses the estate.

Kolachel {Colachy-Coleci — Bartolomeo ; possibly the Kolias of
Strabo). — Town in Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 10' n.,
and long. 770 19' e., in the southernmost corner of India; containing
1038 houses and (1875) 4768 inhabitants. Not returned in the Census
Report of 1 88 1. A place of yearly increasing importance. South
Travancore coffee is here prepared and exported. Kolachel is now a
regular port for coasting steamers. Since 1870, the annual tonnage of
ships calling has increased from 4000 to 37,000. The imports are
valued at ,£13,500, the exports at ^"68,000 \ of the latter, 85 per cent.

2 7 2 KOLAD ] ^NE— KOLAR.

represent the trade in coffee. The port was of value some centuries
ago, and was occupied by the Danes ; it is referred to by Bartolomeo
as a safe harbour well known to the ancients.

Koladyne. — River in Akyab District, British Burmah. — See Kuladan.

Kolair. — Lake in Kistna and Godavari Districts, Madras Presidency.
— See Kolar.

Kolak. — Port in the Pardi Sub-division of Surat District, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 200 27' 30" n., long. 720 57' e. Situated at the
mouth of the Kolak river, where the channel is 498 feet broad, and can
only be crossed by boats. Vessels of 60 tons can enter and find a
good landing. Beyond the bar are the beds of oysters for which the
Kolak is famous. About eight miles up the river the Bombay, Baroda,
and Central India Railway has a bridge 438 feet long and 33 feet high.
Value of trade for the year 1874 — imports ,£1255, and exports ^3232 ;
no later statistics are available.

Kolakambai. — River, coffee-growing tract, hill peak (5600 feet above
sea-level), with a waterfall north-east of the peak, having an unbroken
fall of 400 feet, in the District of the Nflgiri Hills, Madras Presidency.

Kolang {Kolong). — Village in the Lahul tract of Kangra District,
Punjab ; situated on the right bank of the Bhaga river, about ten miles
above Kyelang. One of the principal places in Lahul, and the residence
of the Thdkur or head-man (negi) of the whole Lahul valley.

Kolar. — District in the Native State of Mysore, forming the eastern
portion of the Nandidrug (Nundydroog) Division. It is situated
between 120 46' and 130 36' n. lat, and between 7 8° 5' and 780
35' e. long.; bounded on the north and north-east by Bellary and
Cuddapah Districts, on the south-east and south by North Arcot and
Salem Districts, and on the west by Bangalore and Tiimkiir Districts of
Mysore. It contains an area of 1891 square miles, and a population,
according to the Census of 1881, of 461,129 persons. The adminis-
trative head-quarters are at Kolar town, 6 miles from the right bank
of the Palar river.

Physical Aspects. — Kolar District occupies that portion of the Mysore
table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The principal
watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug, rising to
4810 feet above the sea, from which rivers radiate in all directions; and
the whole country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers
are the Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and
the Papaghni, which are industriously utilized for irrigation by means
of anicuts and tanks. In no other part of Mysore has the tank
system been more fully developed. The entire water-supply of the
Palar is thus intercepted, while of the North Pinakini and its affluents
upwards of 85 per cent, of the drainage is utilized. The largest tank
is the Ramsagar, which is capable of irrigating 1500 acres.

KOLAR. 2 73

The rocks are mostly syenite or granite, with a small admixture of
mica and felspar. There is one range of a soft ferruginous clay-slate,
which yields gold in small quantities ; and of late years the subject of
gold-mining in the District has attracted considerable attention. The
total yield of the precious metal by washing from the alluvial soil
was estimated in 1876 at about 4 lbs. per annum. A licence was
granted to a European to 'prospect' the auriferous strata upon a
scientific plan ; a small European gold colony has established itself in
Kolar; and prospecting is being industriously carried on. Three
hundred and seventy-three iron mines and quarries were worked in
1880. The estimated produce of the iron mines was 28,160 lbs. The
soil in the valleys of Kolar consists of a fertile loam, formed from the
finer particles of the decomposed rocks washed down during the
rains. On the higher levels, sand and gravel are found, and the
cultivation is there confined to dry grains and pulses.

The hills are covered with scrub jungle and brushwood. The
only tract where the trees attain any size is in the neighbourhood of
Nandidrug, where an area of 7 square miles has been reserved by the
Forest Department. In recent years, avenues of large trees have been
planted along all the high roads, and the peasants are encouraged to
plant groves of their own. The wild animals met with include bears,
leopards, wild hog, and hyaenas.

History. — The early history of Kolar is involved in the usual
Hindu legends, chiefly localized at the village of Avani, which is
identified with Avdntika-kshetra, one of the ten sacred places of India,
still a popular place of pilgrimage, and said formerly to have con-
tained a iinga set up by Rama himself on his return to Ayodhya
from the conquest of Lanka or Ceylon. Here, too, Sita, the wife of
Rama, is supposed to have given birth to her twin sons Kusa and
Lava ; and here Valmiki is represented as instructing them.

The earliest authentic evidence derived from inscriptions shows that
this region in primitive times formed part of the kingdom of the Pallavas,
who had Vengi as their capital. The Pallava kings were overthrown
by Chola kings, to whom is attributed the foundation of Kolar town.
After the Cholas came the Ballala kings of the 12th century, who in
their turn gave way to the powerful monarch of Vijayanagar, in the
early part of the 14th century.

About this period arose the Gauda family, whose numerous branches,
springing from the ' seven farmers of Kanchi,' gradually established
themselves in various strong places throughout the modern Districts
of Bangalore and Kolar. Timme Gauda, one of the ' seven farmers '
from Bangalore, became a favourite at the Vijayanagar court, and
was permitted to establish himself in the old fort of Kolar and to
build Hoskote (the new fort). The Gauda chiefs appear to have

VOL. VIII. s

274 KOLAR.

made no claim to independence, but to have submitted themselves
successively to every conqueror who was strong enough to exercise
temporary authority in those troubled times, until they were swept away
by the organized empire of Haidar Ali.

The first Muhammadans to invade this tract were the Bijapur kings,
whose general was the Maratha Shahji, father of Sivajf. In 1639, Shahji
obtained Kolar as a fief, which he transmitted to his son Venkoji, the
founder of the Tanjore line. Subsequently Kolar was overrun by the
Mughals, and placed under the government of Fateh Muhammad, whose
famous son, Haidar Ali, was born here at the little village of Budikot.
In 1 76 1, the District was formally ceded to Haidar Ali by the Nizam ;
and after the fall of Tipu in 1799, it was incorporated in the Hindu
State of Mysore. The chief historical interest of modern times centres
round the hill fort of Nandidriig (Nundydroog), which was stormed
by the British in 1791, under the eye of Lord Cornwallis, after a
bombardment of twenty-one days.

Two towns have a local history, viz. Chikballapur and Gumnayakan-
palya. The former was founded about 1479 by one of the Gauda
family, and rapidly grew into the capital of a petty kingdom, whose
rock fortress was at Nandidriig. The pdlegdr of his time successfully
resisted the conquering Hindu Raja of Mysore in the beginning of the
1 8th century; but, like the rest of his compeers, he fell before the
might of Haidar All, and his dominions were absorbed in Mysore.
Gumnayakanpalya was founded about one hundred years earlier, as the
fortress of zpakgdr, whose line also was extinguished by Haidar All.

Population. — A khdnasumdri or house enumeration of the people in
1853-54 returned a total of 461,979 persons. The regular Census of
187 1 ascertained the number to be 618,954, showing an increase of
nearly 34 per cent, in the interval of eighteen years, if the earlier
estimate can be trusted. The Census taken on February 17, 1881,
gives the following statistics: — Total population, 461,129; males,
228,193, females, 232,936. Area, 1891 square miles ; number of towns
and villages, 2983; occupied houses, 77,633; unoccupied houses,
17,887 ; persons per square mile, 244; villages per square mile, 1*58 ;
houses per square mile, 50*5 ; persons per occupied house, 5*94. In the
taluk of Sidlaghata, which is reckoned to be peculiarly healthy, is found
the greatest density of population in Mysore, about 375 per square mile.
There are, under 15 years of age, 76,367 boys and 79,715 girls; total
children, 156,082, or over 33 per cent of the population.

The male population is classified under six main groups — (1)
Professional class, including State officials of every kind and the learned
professions, 12,225 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house
keepers, 563 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants,
carriers, etc., 5836 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including

KOLAR. 275

gardeners, 127,151 ; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers
and artisans, 13,046; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class,
comprising general labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified
occupation, 69,372.

The religious division of the people shows — Hindus, 439,092, or 95
per cent. ; Muhammadans, 20,664, or 4 Per cent. ; Jains, 504 ; and
Christians, 869. The Hindus are further sub-divided according to caste,
as follows : — Brahmans, 21,685, of whom tne majority belong to the
Smarta sect; Kshattriyas, 1121 ; Komatis, 7534, mostly traders; and
Nagatars, traders, 2408. Of inferior castes, by far the most numerous is
the Vakkaligars (115,926), who are agricultural labourers ; next come the
Bedars (35,567), hunters; the Banajigas (31,287), traders; the Kurubas
(28,669), shepherds. The Lingayats, who have always been influential
in this part of the country, number only 9823 ; out-castes are returned
at 67,660, wandering tribes at 3973, and non-Hindu aboriginal tribes
at 256. The Muhammadans, who muster thickest in the taluks of
Kolar and Srinivaspur, are chiefly returned as Deccani Musalmans.
Classified by tribes, they are thus distributed : — Sunnis, 20,071 ; Shias,
219; Wahabis, 42; Pindarfs, 19; Labbais, 218; and 'others,' 95. Out
of the total of 869 Christians, 76 are Europeans and 44 Eurasians,
leaving 749 for the native converts. According to another principle of
division, there are 386 Protestants and 483 Roman Catholics. The
language chiefly spoken in the District is Kanarese.

Of the 2983 towns and villages in Kolar District, 2348 contain less
than two hundred inhabitants ; 529 from two hundred to five hundred ;
78 from five hundred to one thousand ; 20 from one to two thousand ;
3 from two to three thousand ; 1 from three to five thousand ; 3 from
five to ten thousand ; and 1 from ten to fifteen thousand. The follow-
ing towns, which are also municipalities, each contain more than 5000
inhabitants: — Kolar, 11,172; Chikballapur, 9133; Sidlaghata,
5804.; Chintamani, 5 i 19. Apart from the towns already mentioned,
the most interesting places in the District are — Avani, one of the ten
places of greatest sanctity in India, and alleged to have been the
residence of Valmiki, author of the Rdmdyana ; Avati, the original
settlement of the ' seven Kanchi farmers ; ' Budikot, the birthplace of
Haidar AH ; and the hill fort of Nandidrug, with the sacred village
of Nandi at its base. Both fort and town were captured by Lord
Cornwallis in 1791.

Agriculture. — More than 45 per cent, of the people of the District
(2 10, t 97) are directly engaged in agriculture. The agricultural products
are substantially the same as those of the neighbouring District of
Bangalore, except that the abundance of tanks encourages more
attention to wet crops and vegetables. The staple food of the people
consists of rdgi (Eleusine corocana) and jodr (Sorghum vulgare).

276 KOLAR.

both of which come under the category of ' dry crops.' Rice, also, is
largely grown in the lower valleys, and nearly half the annual produce
is exported. It is estimated that in ordinary years the surplus of the
food crops, to the value of about ^50,000, is exported to Bangalore
and the adjoining Districts of Madras. Besides various pulses and
oil-seeds, the miscellaneous crops include sugar-cane, poppy, tobacco,
and mulberry for silkworms. Among vegetables are turmeric, garlic,
chilli, and potatoes. The cultivation, also, of viledele or betel-leaf,
tamarind, and kadale kdyi or ground nut, is very considerable.

The following are the agricultural statistics for 1880-81: — Total area
under actual cultivation, 519 square miles; cultivable but not under
cultivation, 342 square miles; uncultivable waste, 1030 square miles.
Area under rice, 39,300 acres ; wheat, 90 ; other food-grains, 260,244 ;
oil-seeds, 12,500 ; sugar-cane, 7040; vegetables, 11,000 ; mulberry, 692 ;
tobacco, 606 ; cocoa-nut and areca-nut, 739 ; fibres, 90 ; coffee, 45
acres. The current (1880) rents per acre in the District are as
follows: — For rice land, 12s.; for wheat, 12s.; inferior grains, 3s.;
cotton, 3s.; oil-seeds, 3s.; sugar-cane, £1, 4s.; tobacco, 12s. The
out-turn of the land per acre was, in 1880, as follows : — Rice, 720 lbs. ;
wheat, 817 lbs. ; inferior food-grains, 990 lbs. ; oil-seeds, 598 lbs.; sugar-
cane, 1420 lbs. ; and tobacco, 438 lbs. The average assessment per
acre of cultivated land is 4s. 8d.

The very large number of tanks forming chains along all the river
valleys has already been alluded to as an element in the scenery of
the District. The total is 5497, themselves covering an area of upwards
of 120,000 acres. As many as 400 can be counted from the summit of
Nandidriig. In addition to these tanks, irrigation is also practised
from small channels branching off from ancient anicuts or dams in
the rivers. Manure is largely used for sugar-cane, which flourishes
best in the Mulbagal taluk.

The indigenous cattle of the District are of a diminutive breed, but fine
bulls are imported from the Madras frontier. Several large cattle fairs
are held annually, of which the most frequented is at the village of
Vanarasi, where 60,000 bullocks sometimes change hands within the nine
days during which the fair lasts. The fairs at Avani and Nandi are of
scarcely second importance. In connection with these fairs, cattle shows
with prizes have been instituted by Government, and the breeding of
cattle has become a passion with well-to-do peasants. Buffaloes are com-
monly used for ploughing throughout the District. Sheep and goats are
numerous, and the village of Gumnayakanpalya is noted for a superior
breed of the former animals. The wool, however, is of a coarse kind,
only suited for native blankets. In 1880-81 the agricultural stock was as
follows: — Horned cattle, 192,085; horses and ponies, 2442; asses, 7837;
sheep and goats, 241,041 ; pigs, 1905; carts, 19,384; ploughs, 58,797.

KOLAR. 277

The town of Kolar and the surrounding villages are celebrated lor
turkeys, which are exported in large numbers to the markets of Bangalore,
Bellary, etc.

The prices of produce in 1880 were, per maundol So lbs., as follows : —
Rice, 4s. 7d.; wheat, 9s. 7d. ; cotton, £2, 13s. 4d. ; sugar, £1, 17-
salt, 7s. id.; gram, 7s. iojd. ; rdgit 2s. 2d.; tobacco, ^3, 7s. 3d.

Manufactures, etc. — The staple industry of the District arises out of
the extensive cultivation of sugar-cane, and consists of the manufacture
of refined sugar, jaggery, and molasses. The production of raw
silk, a business confined to the Muhammadan class of the community,
has greatly declined in recent years, owing to the continued mortality
among the silkworms. The weaving of coarse cotton cloth and rough
woollen blankets or kamblis is common throughout the District, as also
are the making of common pottery and the pressing of oil. The returns
show a total of 6960 looms and 379 oil-mills. In the mountainous taluk
of Gumnayakanpalya, iron-ore was once worked by native methods in
considerable quantities, but the industry has died out since the famine.

The trade of the District is conducted at weekly markets and at
large annual fairs. There are 7 market towns, where the average weekly
attendance numbers over 1000. The principal fairs are those held at
Nandi, attended by 50,000 persons ; Avani, 40,000; Vanarasi, 25,000 :
which are all important cattle fairs, besides having a religious character.
It has not been observed that these large gatherings result in the pro-
pagation of any epidemic disease. Among exports from the District
sugar holds the first place ; the annual production is estimated at
,£78,060 worth of jaggery and refined sugar. Raw silk is manu-
factured to the value of ,£800 ; cotton, wool, and other fibres to the
value of ,£12,972; oils to the value of £51*16. Vegetables, betel-
leaf, cotton cloth, and ghi are also produced in sufficient quantities to
leave a surplus for other Districts. Almost the sole import received
in return is European piece-goods, valued, but manifestly over-valued,
at ,£1,466,000. The imports of salt are returned at ^57°°- Tne
Bangalore branch of the south-west line of the Madras Railway runs
for 31 miles across the south of the District, with stations at Kamasa-
mudram, Bowringpet or Kolar Road, Taiakaland Malur. The length of
made roads in 1880-81 was 419 miles.

Administration. — In 1880-81, the total revenue of Kolar District,
including forests, education, and public works, amounted to £<)(>, 9*1-
The chief item was land revenue, ,£85,763. The District is sub-
divided into 10 taluks or fiscal divisions, with 81 hoblis or minor fiscal
units. In 1870-71, the number of separate estates was 67S, owned by
78,247 registered proprietors or coparceners.

During the year 1 880-8 r, the average daily prison population of the
District jail was 55, and of the taluk lock-ups 2— total, 57, of whom

278 KOLAR TALUK.

2 were women, showing i person in jail to every 8089 of the popula-
tion. Cost of District jail in 1880, ^£389 • net cost per head of convicts,
£6, 19s. 7& In the same year, the District police force numbered 475 of
all ranks, and the municipal police 3 officers and 15 men— total, 493
men of all ranks, maintained at an aggregate cost of ^"5624. These
figures show 1 policeman to about 4 square miles of area, or to every
935 of the population, the cost being nearly 3d. per head of population.
The number of schools aided and inspected by Government in 1874
was 233, attended by 5547 pupils, being 1 school to every iro6 square
miles and 8*9 pupils to every 1000 of the population. In addition
there were 102 unaided schools, with 1494 pupils. In 1880-81,
Government and aided schools numbered 155 for boys, with 4575
pupils, and 7 for girls, with 162 pupils. The London Missionary
Society has a station at Chikballapur.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of Kolar closely resembles that of
Bangalore, and shares in its general reputation for healthiness. The
mean annual temperature is about 7 6° F. During the year 1880-81,
the maximum recorded was 910 in the month of May, the minimum
650 in December. The average rainfall for the year is 30 inches,
which chiefly falls during the months of September and October. In
former times, Kolar town was periodically attacked by cholera and
other epidemics, introduced by the crowds of pilgrims that annually
passed through. But attention to sanitary precautions on the part
of the municipal authorities, and the construction of the railway,
have effectually checked this evil. A total of 7496 deaths, or 127
per thousand, were registered in 1880; but the actual mortality is
no doubt much higher. In 1880, 25 people were killed by snake-
bite. In the same year, 13,557 persons were vaccinated. There
are 2 civil dispensaries in the District — at Kolar and Chikballapur —
each affording relief to about 75 patients per day. During the year
1880, the dispensary at Kolar town was attended by 160 in-patients
and 7329 out-patients. [For further information regarding Kolar, see
the Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer, by Mr. Lewis Rice, vol. ii. pp. 82-138
(Bangalore, 1876) ; and also ther Census Report of Mysore for 1881.]

Koiar. — Taluk in Kolar District, Mysore State. Area, 337 square
miles. Population (1S71) 71,493; (1881) 56,971, namely, 27,526
males and 29,445 females. Hindus number 52,248 ; Muhammadans,
4364; and Christians, 359. The Palar river runs through the northern
and eastern parts of Kolar taluk ; the western side is occupied with the
ranges of the Kolar and Vakkaleri hills. Well cultivated, including even
the table-land on the Kolar hills. The old Bangalore-Madras road
passes through Kolar. The taluk contains 1 criminal court and 8
police stations. Regular police, 78 men; village watch (c/iaukiddrs),
148. Revenue (1883-84), ^12,856.

KOLAR TOWN—KOLAR LAKE.

Kolar. — Chief town of Kolar District, Mysore State ; situated in lat.
130 8' 5" n., and long. 780 10' 18" e. ; 43 miles east-north-east of Ban
galore by road, but also connected with it by rail from the Kokir !
station at Bowringpet, 10 miles to the south. Population (1871)
9924; (1881) 11,172, namely, 5356 males and 5816 females. Hindus,
8165; Muhammadans, 2724; and Christians, 283. The town contains
the usual District offices, school, dispensary, barracks, jail, etc. The
chief building is the tomb of Fateh Muhammad Khdn, the father of
Haidar All (see Kolar District). The mulberry is cultivated for
the rearing of silkworms. Turkeys are exported in large numbers to
Bangalore, Bellary, and other places. Manufacture of kamblis or
coarse blankets. Weekly fair.

Kolar (Co/air; Kolleru; Klugu; Kolair; Roller). — Lake in Kistna
and Godavari Districts, Madras Presidency. Lat. 160 30' to 160 45' n.,
long. 8i° 5' to 8i° 27' e. A curious stretch of fresh water, half lake, half
swamp, sometimes covering more than 100 square miles in the monsoon.
In the dry weather the area is much reduced, and many parts are merely
mud. A few small streams feed it, and the Upputeru river is its only
outlet. At no time is it very deep. It abounds in waterfowl, and is
fairly stocked with fish. Lake Kolar contains numerous fertile islets
called lankds, many of which are inhabited and highly cultivated. On
the other hand, many of the smaller ones are submerged during floods.
The origin of the unusual depression which forms the bed of the lake
is unknown, but it was possibly the result of an earthquake. In very
dry seasons the ruins of ancient villages are perceptible in the bed, and
large quantities of charcoal and charred beams give support to the local
tradition that this was the scene of a conflagration, which was extin-
guished by a great flood ; the latter caused by volcanic subsidence.

Another hypothesis, common to the Kolar, and to the Chilka lake
in Orissa, explains these sheets of fresh water as caused by the land-
making activity of the great rivers, acting together with the monsoon,
which blows up an intervening beach or bank of sand between any low-
lying unfilled tract and the sea. The inner low-lying tract receives the
surrounding drainage, and becomes a shallow lake. The Godavari and
the Kistna have pushed out their deltas on either side, leaving the
area of the lake still to be filled up. Its dimensions are still being
gradually reduced by reclamation and embankments.

Two inscribed copper-plates of the early Pallava dynasty have been
found in the Kolar lake. A legend runs that one of the Orissa kings
had a fort at Kolleti Kota on one of the eastern islands of the lake, and
that the enemy, probably Muhammadan, encamped at Chiguru Kota
on the shores of the lake, whose waters prevented an attack on
Kolleti Kota. At last a channel, the Upputeru, was excavated, and
the lake waters drawn off into the sea. To ensure the success of

28o KOLE— KOLHAPUR.

the assault that followed, the Orissa general is said to have sacrificed
his daughter. And her name, Perantala Kanama, commemorates the
point of attack to the present day.

Kole. Town in the Karad Sub-division of Satara District, Bombay

Presidency. Lat. 170 14' n., long. 740 10' E. ; 31 miles south by east
of Satara town. Population (1872) 5137; (1881) 1781.

Kolhan. — Tract of country forming a Government estate in Sing-
bhiim District, Bengal. Area, 1905 square miles, with 883 villages,
31,640 houses, and a population (1872) of 150,904 persons; density of
population, 79 persons per square mile; persons per village, 171;
persons per house, 4*8. No separate Census of the Kolhan tract
appears to have been taken in 1881.

The indigenous village system of the Kols, based upon a federal
union of villages under a single divisional head-man, which is gradu-
ally dying out elsewhere in Chutia Nagpur, still survives in this tract.
A group of from 5 to 20 villages forms a pirhi or pir, each of
which has its own mundd or village head, all of whom are subject
to the authority of the mdnki or divisional head-man, who exercises
the functions of divisional collector of rents and of divisional police
superintendent within the limits of his pir. Every mundd or village
head is responsible for the payment of the revenue, and for the
detection and arrest of criminals in his own village, to the mdnki
or divisional head of the pir ; and this latter official is in his turn
responsible to Government. For acting as revenue collectors, the
mdnkis receive a commission of one-tenth, and the mundds one-sixth,
of the rent which passes through their hands. Besides these duties,
the mdnkis and mundds, each in his degree, have certain informal
powers to decide village disputes and questions of tribal usage.

Kolhapur (or Karavira; Karvir). — Native State under the Kolhapur
and Southern Maratha Political Agency, Bombay Presidency. Kol-
hapur State is situated between 150 58' and 17° n' N. lat., and between
730 45' and 740 24 e. long. It is bounded on the north by the river
Warna, which separates it from the British District of Satara ; on the
north-east by the river Kistna (Krishna), separating it from Sangli,
Miraj, and Kurundwad ; on the east and south by the District of
Belgaum ; and on the west by the Sahyadri mountains, which divide
it from Sawantwari on the south-west and Ratnagiri on the west. Kol-
hapur State comprises portions of the old Hindu divisions of Maha-
rashtra and Karnatak, — a distinction which is still marked in the
language of the people, part of whom speak Marathi, and the remainder
Kanarese. It forms one of the Deccan group of Native States. Area,
2816 square miles; population (1881) 800,189 persons. Chief town
and capital, Kolhapur.

Physical Aspects. — Stretching from the heart of the Sahyadri range

KOLHAPUR. 281

eastwards into the plain of the Deccan, Kolhapur includes tracts of
country of widely different character and appearance. In the west, along
the spurs of the main chain of the Sahyadri mountains, are situated wild
and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber, and
till lately covered with rich forests. The central belt, which is open and
fertile in parts, is crossed by several lines of low hills running east and
west at right angles to the main range. Farther east, the land becomes
more open, and presents the unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated
and treeless plain, broken only by an occasional river. Among the
western hills are perched the forts of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavra,
Bhiidargarh, and Rangna, ancient strongholds of the Kolhdpur chief-
tains. The State is watered by eight streams of considerable size : but
though navigable during the rainy months by trading boats of 2 tons,
none are so large that they cannot be forded in the hot season. The
only lake of any importance is that of Rankala, near the town of
Kolhapur. It has lately been improved at a considerable cost. Its
circumference is about 3 miles, and its mean depth 33 feet.

The principal agricultural products of the State are rice, millet,
sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower, and vegetables. Iron-ore of
three varieties is found in the Kolhapur territory. It is most
plentiful in Vishalgarh, Panhala, Bhiidargarh, and Kolhapur proper,
" near the main range of the Sahyadri Hills. In these places it
is generally found near the surface, in laterite stone. Formerly the
smelting of iron was an industry of some importance ; but, owing to the
cost of manual labour, the increased price of fuel, and the low rate of
freights from England, the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that
imported from Europe. Stone is the only other mineral product of the
State. There are several good quarries, especially one in a place
known as Jotibas Hill, with a fine grained basalt, that takes a polish
like marble. Game abounds, and the rivers yield large quantities of
fish.

History- -The members of the third branch of the Silahara family,
which was settled above the Western Ghats, possessed the territory
lying round Kolhapur and in the north-west part of Belgaum District,
from about the end of the 10th to early in the 13th century a.d. In
1 2 13 -14, the country passed to the Devgiri Yadava dynasty. The
ancient Hindu dynasty was subverted by the Bahmani kings of the
Deccan, and the country afterwards passed under the rule of Bijapur.
Sivaji obtained possession of the forts in 1659, which, though taken
and retaken many times, finally remained with the Marathas on the
death of Aurangzeb.

The present Rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Kam,
a younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Maratha
power After the death of Raja Ram in 1700, his widow placed her

282 KOLHAPUR.

son Sivajf in power at Kolhapur. But in 1707, when Shahu, the
son of Sambhaji, Sivaji's elder son, was released from captivity, he
claimed the sovereignty over all the possessions of his grandfather,
and fixed his capital at Satara. Between the two branches of the
family disputes continued for several years, till in 1731 a treaty was
concluded, under the terms of which the Kolhapur family agreed to
yield precedence to Shahu, and Shahu recognised Kolhapur as an
independent principality.

On the death of Raja Ram's sons in 1760, the direct line of
Sivaji became extinct ; and a member of the family of the Bhonslas
was adopted under the name of Sivaji 11. The prevalence of
piracy from the Kolhapur port of Mai wan compelled the Bombay
Government to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765, and again
in 1792, when the Raja agreed to give compensation for the losses
which British merchants had sustained since 1785, and to permit
the establishment of factories at Malwan and Kolhapur. Internal
dissensions and wars with the neighbouring States of Patwardhans,
Sawantwari, and Nipani gradually weakened the power of Kolhapur.
In 181 1, a treaty was concluded with the British Government, by
which, in return for the cession of certain forts, the Kolhapur chief was
guaranteed against the attacks of foreign powers ; while on his part he
engaged to abstain from hostilities with other States, and to refer all
disputes to the arbitration of the British Government.

During the war with the Peshwa in 181 7, the Raja of Kol-
hapur sided with the British. In reward, the tracts of Chikori
and Manoli, formerly wrested from him by the chief of Nipani,
were restored to him. But these tracts did not remain long in
the possession of the Raja of Kolhapur ; they were taken back
from him by the British Government in 1829, as the then Raja
did not act in accordance with the treaty entered into by him.
Shahaji, alias Bawa Sahib, who came to the throne in 1822, proved a
quarrelsome and profligate ruler; and in consequence of his aggressions
between 1822 and 1829, the British were three times obliged to move
a force against him. On his death in 1838, a council of regency was
formed to govern during the minority of Sivaji in. Quarrels arose
among the members of this council, and the consequent anarchy led to
the appointment by the British Government of a minister of its own.
The efforts, however, which he made to reform the administration gave
rise to a general rebellion, which extended to the neighbouring State
of Sawantwari. After the suppression of this rising, all the forts were
dismantled, and the system of hereditary garrisons was abolished.
The military force of the State was disbanded, and replaced by a local
corps.

In 1862, a treaty was concluded with Sivaji m., who was bound

KOLHAPUR. 2S3

in all matters of importance to be guided by the advice of the
British Government. In 1866, on his death-bed, Sivaji was allowed to
adopt a successor in his sister's son, Rdja Ram. In 1S70, Rij
proceeded on a tour in Europe, and, while on his return journey to
India, died at Florence on the 30th November 1870.

Sivaji Maharaja Chhatrapati iv. succeeded Rdjd. Ram by adoption.
He was invested with the Knighthood of the Order of the Star of
India. In 1882 he became insane, and Government was compelled
to appoint a Council of Regency, headed by the chief of Kagal as
Regent. Sivaji iv. died on the 25th December 1883 ; and having no
issue, was succeeded by adoption by Yeshwant Rao, alias Baba Sahib,
under the name of Shahaji. He is the eldest son of the Regent, and
a lad of about nine years of age.

The Raja of Kolhapur holds a patent authorizing adoption, and the
succession follows the rule of primogeniture. He is entitled to a salute
of 19 guns, and is empowered to try his own subjects for capital
offences, without permission from the Political Agent.

Population. — In 1872, the population of the State was returned at
804,103. According to the Census of 1881, it amounted to 800,189.
There has thus been a decrease of 3914 in nine years. In 1881 the
males numbered 410,647, females 389,542. The people are scattered
through 5 towns and 1056 villages, and occupy 129,148 houses; un-
occupied houses number 16,036. The density of population is 284
persons per square mile; towns and villages per square mile, "376;
houses per square mile, 51*5 ; persons per house, 6.

Of the 1 06 1 towns and villages in the State, 184 contain less than
two hundred inhabitants ; 382 between two and five hundred ; 306
between five hundred and one thousand; 123 between one and two
thousand; 34 between two and three thousand; 27 between three and
five thousand; 4 between five and ten thousand ; and 1 between twenty
and fifty thousand. The five towns in Kolhapur State with a popula-
tion above 5000 are — Karvir (38,599); Inchalkaranji (9107);
Shirol (6944); Kagal (6371); and Gadh Hinglaj (5002).

The male population is thus distributed as regards occupation—
(1) Professional class, including officials and the learned professions,
18,884; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 41S4;

(3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 374S ;

(4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds, 289,253; (5)
industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 37,182 ; and
(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers,
male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 57, 396.

Classified according to religion, there are — Hindus, 719,164, or
more than 89 per cent, of the whole population ; Muhammadans,
33,022; Christians, 1253; Jains, 46,732; Parsi, 1 ; Buddhists, 12; and

284 KOLHAPUR.

Jews, 5. Among Hindus, Brahmans number 29,446; Rajputs, 1500;
Berads, 5277; Dhangars, 38,326; Kumbhars (potters), 8509; Lingayats
(mostly traders), 72,391; Mahars (inferior caste), 65,314; Chamars,
10,219; Kunbis, 362,158; Mangs, 13,323; Sutars, 11,451; Koshti,
5924; Napits, 7476; Darjis, 5666; Dhobis, 5208. The Muhammadans
are thus sub-divided — Shaikhs, 25,984; Sayyids, 4104; Pathans, 2186;
and unspecified, 748.

Trade, etc. — The principal manufactures are pottery, hardware,
coarse cotton, woollen cloth, felt, paper, liquor, perfumes, and lac
and glass ornaments. Coarse sugar, tobacco, cotton, and grain are
the chief exports; and sugar, spices, cocoa-nuts, piece-goods, silk,
salt, and sulphur are the principal imports. The most noteworthy
centres of local trade with permanent markets are Kolhapur town,
Shirol, Wadgaon, Alta, Inchalkaranji, Kagal, and Malkapur. Six prin-
cipal lines of road pass through Kolhapur territory, the most important
being that from Poona to Belgaum, which crosses the State from north
to south.

Revenue, Administration, etc. — There are thirteen more or less im-
portant estates, including the four feudatories of the Kolhapur Raj,
viz. Vishalgarh, Bavra, Kagal, Inchalkaranji, Jagatguru, Guru Maharaj,
Torgal, Kapsi, Dattaji Rao, Datwad, Himat Bahadur, Sir Lashkar,
and Patankar ; their chiefs pay a nazar or tribute to Kolhapur on
succession, and also usually an annual contribution. Accounts of
them will be found under their respective names ; the principal are
Vishalgarh, Bavra, Kagal, and Inchalkaranji. The gross annual
revenue of Kolhapur State in 1882-83 was ^221,976. The actual
income of the chief is given at ^"167,400. He maintains a military
force of 1684 men. Exclusive of a few missionary institutions, there
are (1882) in all 174 schools. There is also a Provincial College,
which was organized in 1880. The total number of pupils on the rolls
is returned at 10,419. There is a native library, a local newspaper, and
n reading rooms established in the State. The cost of education
in 1882-83 was ;£8ioo. Seven petty chiefs attend the Rajkumar class
of the Rajaram College. The Forest Department cleared a profit of
^1765 in 1882. There are municipalities at Kolhapur, Narsobachi
Vadi, Inchalkaranji, and Kagal. Strength of police, 646 men, main-
tained at a cost of ^6637. In 1882-83, 38°6 persons were brought
before the 38 magisterial courts of the State. The central jail at
Kolhapur has an average daily population of 164; cost per prisoner,
£% 12s. There are 13 subordinate jails. The telegraph and postal
systems are maintained by the British Government.

Climate and Medical Aspects. — At an elevation of about 1800 feet
above the sea, Kolhapur enjoys on the whole a temperate climate. In
the west, with its heavy rainfall and timber-covered hills and valleys,

KOLHAPUR TOWN—KOLKAI. 2S5

the air keeps cool throughout the year ; but in the plain dry tracts
beyond the hills, suffocating easterly winds prevail from April to June.
During the hot weather months, the hill forts, rising about 1000 feet
above the plain, afford a pleasant retreat. The ordinary forms of si< k-
ness are fevers, diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, and small-pox. A State
medical service has been organized. In 1882, the registered death-
rate was 23 per 1000, and the birth-rate 33 per 1000.

Kolh&pur (or Kolldpura, Karavira, or Karvir). — Capital of Kol-
hapur State, Bombay Presidency, and residence of the chief ; situated
in lat. 1 6° 42' n., and long. 740 16' e., opposite a gap in the Sahyadri
Hills ; 144 miles south by east from Poona, and 76 from Satara.
Population (1872) 37,663 ; (1881) 38,599, namely, 19,335 niales and
19,264 females. Hindus numbered 33,583 ; Muhammadans, 3734 ;
Jains, 1 107; Christians, 164; Parsi, 1; and 'others,' 10.

A picturesque native capital, thronged by traders from many parts,
each in his national habit. Much has recently been done to improve
the sanitation of the town, and to adorn it with handsome edifices.
Some of the new public buildings of Kolhapur challenge comparison
with the most successful efforts of modern Indian architecture. The
income of the municipality in 1882-83 was ^4579-

Kolhapur has long been held in high esteem for the antiquity of its
sacred shrines ; and all current legends state that the present capital
originally existed as a purely religious settlement, of which the great
temple dedicated to che goddess Mahalakshmi remains to mark the
site. The cloisters, which formerly surrounded this great temple, now
lie buried many feet under the surface of the earth, which appears
to have undergone at no distant period a serious convulsion. The
extreme antiquity of Kolhapur is borne out by the numerous Buddhist
remains that have been discovered in the immediate neighbourhood,
and notably by a crystal relic casket found in a large stitpa, about
1880, bearing on its lid an inscription in Asoka characters of the 3rd
century B.C. Small temples are frequently brought to light by excava-
tions. It is believed that Karavira is the older and more important
capital of the State, and that the transfer of the political capital, from
Karavira to the originally religious settlement of Kolhapur, was pro-
bably necessitated by some convulsion of nature of which there are
so many evidences in the neighbourhood of Kolhapur. The ancient
Karavira is now a petty village on the north side of the present town
of Kolhapur.

Kolikodu. — Town in Malabar District, Madras Presidency.— See
Calicut.

Kolkai (or Korkai). — Village in Tenkarai tdluk> Tinnevelli Dis-
trict, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 40' n., long. 780 6' e. Population
(1881) 2386. Number of houses, 677. Hindus numbered 2125;

286 KOLLADAM—KOMBAL

Christians, 250; and Muhammadans, 11. Now an inland town, but
once a seaport at the mouth of the Tambraparni river, and the earliest
seat of South Indian civilisation, where (according to tradition) the
brothers Chera, Chola, and Pandya dwelt together before founding
the three kingdoms that bore their respective names. Ko'akoi l^piov
is mentioned by Ptolemy ; and in the Periplus as the seat of King
Pandya's pearl-fishery. It is referred to in the Peutinger Tables as
' Colcis Indorum,' and gave its name to the Colchic Gulf, now known
as Manaar. The silt of the Tambraparni river has spread seaward,
so that this once celebrated port is at present 5 miles from the coast.
Kayal {Kail, Koil), where Marco Polo stopped for a time, succeeded
Kolkai as the port of Madura; but it also has been left 2 miles
inland by the sea, and the insignificant village of Palayakayal has
been identified as the site of this once important city and sea-
port. The present Kayalpatam (q.v.) succeeded Kayal as the port of

Madura.

Kolladam.— The northern mouth of the Kaveri (Cauvery) river,
Madras Presidency.—^ Coleroon.

Kollamallai.— Mountain range in Salem District, Madras Presi-
dency ; lying in the Atiir and Namakal taluks. Lat. n° 10' 30" to n°
28' n., and long. 780 20' 30" to 780 31' 30" e. Estimated area, 180
square miles; 13 ndds or hill-divisions, with 3023 houses and (1881)
10,965 inhabitants. General elevation from 2500 to 3500 feet ; highest
point in the range, 4663 feet above sea-level. The population includes
a number of Malayalis, or hillmen of the same race as those described
in the article on the Shevaroy Hills. The Kotas, a tribe character-
istic of the Nilgiris, have a tradition that the Kollamallai Hills are the
cradle of the race. The Kollamallais are cultivated in many parts, and
furnish the surrounding country with forest produce — sandal-wood,
black-wood, and other valuable timbers, firewood, and charcoal. They
bear an evil reputation at certain seasons for malarious fever of a deadly
type.

Roller (or Kolleru\ — Lake in Kistna and Godavari Districts, Madras
Presidency. — See Kolar.

Kolltir. — Ghat or pass in South Kanara District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 130 52' to 130 53' 20" n., and long. 740 53' to 740 54' E. One of
the principal passes in the Western Ghats, connecting the plateau of
Mysore and Coorg with the low plains of Kanara.

Kolong. — tillage in Kangra District, Punjab. — See Kolang.

Kombai. — Town in Peryakulam taluk, Madura District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 90 51' 30" n., long. 770 17' e. Population (1871)
8708; (1881) 5792. Number of houses, 1523. Hindus numbered
5192; Christians, 384; and Muhammadans, 216. Kombai was one of
the 72 ' Palaiyams ' of Madura.

KOMORIN—KONDA VIR. 2 8 7

Komorin. — Cape in Travancore State, Madras Presidency. — See
Comorin.

Komulmair. — Pass in Udaipur (Oodeypore) State, Rajputana.
Lat 250 9' N., long. 730 40' e. ; 50 miles north of Udaipur city, and
90 south-east of Jodhpur. The pass runs through a series of rugged
ravines in the Aravalli range, and is defended by a fortress, which was
acquired in 18 18 by the East India Company. Elevation above sea-
level, 8353 feet.

Konch. — Tahsil and town in Jalaun District, Xorth-Western Pro-
vinces.— See Kunch.

Kondapalli. — Town and hill fortress in Bezwada taluk, Kistna
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 160 37' 59" n., long. 8o° 34' 17" e.
Population (1871) 5207 ; (1881) 4289. Number of houses, 973.
Hindus numbered 3391, and Muhammadans 8981. Now unimportant,
but formerly a fortress of some strength, giving its name to a Province
known to the Musalmans as Mustafanagar or Mustafabad. It was in
fact the capital of one of the 5 Northern Circars, and was a frequently
contested point for two and a half centuries. The hill fort was con-
structed, circ. 1360, by the Reddis of Kondavir. It was taken by the
Bahmani king, Muhammad Shah 11., in 147 1, from the Orissa Rajas,
and in 1477 from a revolted garrison. Falling again into the hands of
the Orissa Rajas, it was taken by Krishna Raya circ. 15 15, and by
Sultan Kuli Kutab Shah in 152 1. It surrendered to the troops of
the Emperor Aurangzeb in 1687, and on March 10, 1766, was taken
by assault, by General Caillaud, from the Nizam. The old enclosure
of the walled city is now chiefly occupied by corn-fields, but the ruins
of the citadel remain on the overhanging hill. A small British
garrison was stationed here till January 1859. The barracks have been
converted into a public bungalow. At Kondapalli there is a special
local industry, the manufacture of small figures and toys from a very
light wood (Gyrocarpus Jacquini), which grows on the hills in its
neighbourhood.

Kondavir ( Condaveed; Ko?idavidic; Kondhir ; Kondaver — Hamilton).
—Town and fort in Narsaraopet taluk, Kistna District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 16° 15' 15" n., long. 8o° 17' 25" e. Population (1SS1)
1746. Number of houses, 418. Hindus numbered 1533; Muham-
madans, 124; and Christians, 4.

Once the capital of a Province of the same name, extending from the
Kistna to the Gundlakamma (Orme). Constructed in the 1 2th century by
the Orissa Rajas, the hill fortress above the town of Kondavir, on a ridge
running in a north-east and south-west direction for 9^ miles, was the
seat of the Reddi dynasty (1328-1428), was taken by Krishna Raya
about 15 1 6, and by Sultan Kuli Kutab Shah of Golconda in 1531,
1536, and 1579. It was termed Murtizanagar by the Muhammadans.

288 KONDA YAPOLLAM—KONGNOLL

The French obtained the Province in 1752, and in 1757 starved out
a garrison of local insurgents. Kondavir was made over to the
English Company in 1788.

The highest point of the hill is 170 1 feet above sea-level. The village
situated at the western foot of the central ridge, 5 furlongs north-east of
the fort. The old town of Kondavir was to the east of the village, in the
triangular valley between the ridges. The fort, 1050 feet (described by
Mr. Boswell in the Indian Antiquary, vol. i. p. 182), is of large extent even
now, and many parts of it, including granaries, palace, etc., are in good
repair. There are one or two European bungalows here, and the place
was for a time used as a sanitarium by the officers of Guntiir. The only
industry worth notice is the extraction of essences and fragrant oils from
jasmine and other plants, which are sent to Haidarabad for sale.

Kondayapollam. — Town in Udayagiri taluk, Nellore District,
Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 3885; houses, 930. Hindus
numbered 2762, and Muhammadans 1123.

Kondka {Chhuikaddn). — Petty State attached to Raipur District,
Central Provinces; lying at the foot of the Saletekri Hill, and dating
from 1750 a.d. Area, 174 square miles; number of villages, 109;
number of houses, 9669. Total population (1881) 32,979, namely,
males 16,267, and females 16,712 ; average density of population, 189-5
persons per square mile. The area in the plains, which is fertile and
well cultivated, comprises 101 villages ; the largest of which contains
400 huts or houses, with over 1000 inhabitants. Chief products,
wheat, gram, cotton, etc. The chief resides in a substantial stone
building, standing in a fortified square. He is a Bairagi, but belongs
to a sect among which marriage is permitted. He pays to the British
Government a yearly tribute of ^"noo. His estimated annual income
is ^2203.

Kongnoli. — Town in the Chikori Sub-division of Belgaum District,
Bombay Presidency. Situated in lat. 160 32' 30" n., and long. 740 24' e.,
4 miles north of Sadalgi, and 22 miles north-west of Chikori on the
Belgaum-Kolhapur road, in the extreme north-west corner of Belgaum
District. The town has a large trade, sending rice to Belgaum and
various places in Kolhapur, and importing cloth, date, salt, spices, and
sugar, through the ports of Rajapur and Vengurla in Ratnagiri District.
Weekly market on Thursday, when cotton, yarn, grain, molasses, tobacco,
and from 2000 to 3000 cattle form the chief articles of trade. Weaving
of women's robes, waistcloths, and inferior blankets are the only industries.
Travellers' bungalow, rest-house, post-office, and two Government
schools, one for boys and the other for girls. Paper for packing pur-
poses and for envelopes was manufactured to a large extent before
the famine of 1876-77, but during the famine the paper-makers
deserted the town. Population (1872) 5143; (1881) 5061.

K0NKA1R—K0NKAN. 2g9

Konkair. — Town in Nigpur District, Central Provinces. — .&«

Kakair.

Konkan.— A name applied to the Marathf-speaking lowland strip
along the southern portion of the Bombay Presidency, situated between
the Western Ghats and the sea. The term has no very distinct ad-
ministrative signification, and its former geographical limits have be-
come less strictly defined than of old. The coast strip, to which the
word is now applied, is a fertile and generally level tract, varying from
i or 2 to about 50 miles in breadth between the sea and the moun-
tains, with an area of about 12,500 square miles, and, approximately,
a population of 3,800,000. It is watered by hill streams, and at parts
intersected by tidal backwaters, but has nowhere any great rivers. A
luxuriant vegetation of palms rises along the coast, the cocoa-nut
plantations forming an important source of wealth to the villagers.
Splendid forests cover the Ghats on its eastern boundary. The crops
are abundant ; and owing to the monsoon rainfall being precipitated
upon the Ghats behind, the Konkan is peculiarly exempt from drought
and famine. The common language of the Konkan is Marathi.
Kanarese is spoken in the southern part, and a little Gujarathi in the
north of Thana.

In a geographical sense, the Konkan forms one of the five territorial
Divisions of the Bombay Presidency, the others being the Deccan,
the Karnatik, Gujarat, and Sind. It includes the town and island of
Bombay, the three British Districts of Ratnagiri, Kolaba, and Thana,
the three Native States of Jawhar, Janjira, and Sawantwari, and the
Portuguese territory of Goa, all of which see separately.

Area in Population

Square Miles. (Census of 1881).
Ratnagiri District . . . 3,922 997,090

Kolaba ,,

Thana ,,

Bombay City and Island

Jawhar State

Janjira

Sawantwari ,,

Goa Territory .

Total

1,496 38^649

4,243 908,548

22 773,196

534 48,556

325 76,361

900 174,433

1,062 445,449

12,504 3,805,282

The Konkan is bounded by Gujarat on the north, by the Deccan on
the east, by North Kanara District on the south, and by the Arabian
Sea on the west.

The history of the Konkan will best be gathered from a perusal of
the historical portions of the separate articles on the included States
and Districts. The earliest dynasty connected with the Konkan
is that of the Mauryas, who reigned about three centuries before
Christ; but the "evidence of the connection rests altogether on

vol. viii. T

290 KONKAN.

an Asoka inscription discovered at the town of Sopara in Thana Dis-
trict. The dynasties that succeeded were the following, in their order,
so far as order is ascertainable : — The Shatakarnis or Andrabhrityas,
with their capital at Paitan in the Deccan ; the Mauryas, descendants
of the elder house ; the Chalukyas ; the Silaharas, whose capital was
perhaps the island of Elephanta in Bombay Harbour ; the Yadavas,
with their capital at Deogiri, the modern Daulatabad ; the Muhatn-
madans (Khiljis, Bahmanis, Bijapur chiefs, Mughals, and Ahmadabad
kings) ; Portuguese commanders (over a limited area) ; Marathas ; and
British.

The principal incidents in the annals of the Konkan are of modern
interest. The Konkan coast was known to the peoples of Greece
and Rome, and both Ptolemy (150 a.d.) and the author of the Periplus
(247 a.d.) afford evidence that Greek traders from Egypt dealt with
the Konkan ports. Many of these last are named by the Greek
geographers ; and while the modern representative of the ancient
town has been in many instances identified, in others the ingenuity of
conjecture is still employed. To take one or two examples, it is yet a
matter of uncertainty whether Byzantium is the Konkan pirate fort of
Vijayadrug ; whether the word Chersonesus refers to Goa, or whether
the term Heptanesia relates to the islands that stud the modern
harbour of Bombay.

The arrival of the Beni-Israel and the Parsis from the Persian Gulf
and Persia are important incidents in Konkan history. The Beni-Israel,
whom high authority has not hesitated to call the descendants of the
lost tribes of Israel, are found all over Bombay Presidency. The
descendants of the first Parsis, who landed in Thana about the 7th
century, now crowd the streets and markets of Bombay, engross a large
part of the city's wealth and principal trading operations, and have
their agents in all important provincial towns.

The Portuguese reached Malabar in 1498, and fixed the head-quarters
of their naval dominion at Cheul or Chaul. In 15 10, Goa was seized,
and from this time until 1630 the Portuguese shared the rule of the
Konkan with the Muhammadan kings of Ahmadnagar and Bijapur.
The rise and fall of the pirate power of the Angrids, who fixed them-
selves in the island strongholds of Kolaba, Suvarndriig, and Gheria or
Vijayadrug, and from 1700 to 1756 harassed English, Dutch, and native
shipping alike, mark a disastrous period of Konkan history.

Since the British administration was set up in 1818 on the overthrow
of the Marathas, the peace of the whole area, if some disturbances in
Sawantwari in 1844 and 1850 be excepted, has remained unbroken.

The great city and harbour of Bombay are situated about one-third
down the length of the Konkan from the north. The Portuguese terri-
tory of Goa used to form its southern limit ; but the District of North

KONKAN.

Kanara has been transferred from Madras to the Bombay Pi
and now constitutes the southernmost District of the D
as the Konkan.

Physical Aspects, Natural History, and Geology.- -The folio
paragraphs have been condensed from a short mon<
physical features of the Konkan, by Major J. II. Lloyd:- V
ing the coast of the Konkan from seaward, the traveller sees
him a wild-looking country consisting of a confused ma^s of hill
hibiting every shade of brown, red, and purple ; in some par-
down to the sea, in others receding and giving space along the
for tracts of rice cultivation, or belts of cocoa-nut and palm. In the
foreground the sea beating on the rocks sets off the picture with a
fringe of surf, interrupted at intervals where the coastline is bf
by the mouths of creeks and rivers, and far in the background th<
rests on the line of Ghats, blocking the distant horizon with a long
cession of peaks, bluffs, and domes — cool and grey in the mon
misty and indistinct under the glare of noonday, and glowing with pink
and violet as the great trap precipices catch the rays of the setting sun.
As regards its geology, the Konkan is a country, broadly speak u
stratified primary rocks. The hills are composed of layers of trap
varying in composition, and capped by a stratum of laterite, while the
alluvial soil of the valleys is the result of the disintegration and
decomposition of these rocks carried down by drainage from the
hills.

On the shores of the salt marshes, locally known as Khar, and
along the tidal portion of the rivers which empty themselves into
the Arabian Sea, the soil is a stiff blue clay which, when red
from the action of the sea, is capable of being converted int< >
of considerable value. The narrow strip of sand along the i
on what geologists term littoral concrete, which bears the vari- •
of the palm tree, date, and palmyra in the north, cocoa-nut and
nut in the south. The annual rainfall of the Konkan is estimati
over ioo inches; and this rainfall added to the enormous bo
water thrown off the face of the Western Ghats during the
the whole traversing the region to the sea, accounts for the numen
rivers and streams in which the Konkan abounds. Th
of the country presents throughout the dry months i I
parched and barren appearance ; but this air of sterility is i
higher ground is reached.

In the open cultivated tracts are sun-baked rice-fields,
dried-up streams, and occasional groves with their denizei
cattle egrets, noisy koels, and active squirrels. In the loi
are found forests of teak (Tectona grandis), ain (Terrain
tosa), kinjal (Terminalia paniculata), fdngdrd (Erythnna

2 9 2 KONNA GAR—KOPAR GA ON.

and simul (Bombax malabaricum) ; among what scanty foliage there
is, the woodpecker, the babbler, and the coppersmith keep up a
din of confusing notes. On the higher slopes, the kokamb (Garcinia
indica), sissu (Dalbergia latifolia), and wild plantain spread over the
hills, and afford shelter to the green pigeon, green barbet, and bronze-
winged doves. On the highest ranges, in the shade of evergreen forests
of Ran-Jambul (Eugenia Jambolana), punschi (Carallia integerrima),
and many others, ferns and mosses adorn the surface of the ground ;
strange forms of plant and insect life continually demand the
naturalist's attention ; while the notes of the thrush, blackbird, and
ghat bulbul musically salute his ears.

Konnagar. — Village in Hiigli District, Bengal ; situated on the right
bank of the Hiigli river. Lat. 220 42' n., long. 88° 23' e. Inhabited
by a large Brahman community, but not otherwise of any import-
ance. Station on the East Indian Railway, 9 miles from the Howrah
terminus.

Koosee. — River in Purniah District, Bengal. — See Kusi.

Kooshtea. — Sub-division and town in Nadiya District, Bengal. — See
Kushtia.

Kopaganj. — Town in Muhammadabad tahsil, Azamgarh District,
North- Western Provinces; situated in lat. 2 6° o' 40" n., and long. 830
36' 35" e., on the Gorakhpur and Ghazipur road. Population (1872)
6633 ; (1881) 6301, namely, Hindus, 3616; and Muhammadans, 2685.
Area of town site, 147 acres. For police and conservancy purposes, a
house-tax is levied, yielding an income of ^103 in 1881. Founded
about the year 1745 by Iradat Khan, Raja of Azamgarh. Country
cloth is woven. Exports of sugar and grain ; imports of piece-goods,
metal, and manufactured wares. The trade, however, is small, and
the town is not now of any note. Retail markets twice a week.
Police outpost station ; post-office.

Kopargaon. — Sub-division of Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presi-
dency. Area, 511 square miles; containing 121 villages, and 8956
houses. Population (1872) 66,739; (1881) 63,789, namely, 32,530
males and 31,259 females. In 1881, Hindus numbered 56,472;
Muhammadans, 2695 ; and 'others,' 4622.

Kopargaon is the most northerly Sub-division of the District, and was
formed in 1861-62 by splitting up the old Sub-division of Patoda, which
was found too large and unwieldy for administrative purposes. About
half the villages now forming Kopargaon belonged to Patoda, and to
these were added villages all along the south. The river Godavari enters
at the extreme north-west corner, traverses the Sub-division, and forms for
a short distance the eastern boundary. The bed of the river is con-
siderably below the general level of the country, and the high black soil
and clay banks are deeply fissured by the numerous minor streams

KOPARGAON VI LI.. 1 <;/■;.

which drain the Sub-division. Kopargdon i

plain, having a gentle slope from both sides towards the I

most of the villages the people are dependent on wells for theil

supply, as all but the largest tributaries of the GodaVari run -

after the monsoon rains have ceased. The cultivators

are in an impoverished condition, attributable in a great measure I

frequent occurrence of bad seasons. Sudden and violent

which deluge the country, are often succeeded by a long and i

drought. Out of the eleven years ending 1S84, six have be 1

of partial or absolute famine.

Kopargcaon until recently possessed only one made road, tl.
military route from Ahmadnagar to Malegaon, now maintained
Provincial Funds ; but it enjoys the advantage of numerous fair-
weather tracks. The Dhond-Manmar State Railway tr;i\
Sub-division from south to north, with stations at Belipur, Chitali,
Puntamba, Sanwatsar, and Kopargdon Road. The export of grain
the Puntamba station in 1880 amounted to 11 75 tons.

Of a total area of 511 square miles, 509 have been surveyed in detail.
Of these, 4283 acres are the lands of alienated villages. The
includes 290,874 acres of cultivable land; 17,588 acres of uncult:
land ; 269 acres under grass ; 2988 acres of forest reserves ; and 10. 1 1 6
acres of village sites, roads, and river-beds. Of the 290,874 acr
cultivable land, 21,636 acres are alienated lands in Government vill
Of 269,238 acres (the actual area of Government cultivable
254,274 acres were in 1882-83 held for tillage. Of these,
acres were under dry crops, and 9295 acres were watered garden land.
Of 198,982 acres, the actual area under cultivation in 1
crops occupied 186,399 acres; pulses, 9528 acres; oil-seeds, 506 .
fibres, 80 acres ; and miscellaneous crops, 2469 acres.

The Sub-division contains 2 civil and 3 criminal courts. There
police station (thdnd); regular police, 30 men ; village watchm<
Mrs), 162. Six weekly markets; 21 village schools for boys and a f<

Kopargaon. — Village in Kopargaon Sub - division, ^Ahmada
District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 19° 54' N-i loiV- 7
head-quarters of the Sub-division, 60 miles north of Ahmadna
the north bank of the Godavari river. Kopargaon was t;
residence of Raghuba, the father of Baji Rao, the
palace is now used as the sub-divisional office. Populal
2020. In 1804, Balaji Lakshman, the Peshwa's governor of K
inveigled 7000 Bhils into his power at Kopargaon, and thre*
them into two wells. In 1818, on the final overthrow of t!u
power, Kopargaon was occupied by Madras troops. S
court, and a weekly market held on Monday. The K
station on the Dhond-Manmar State Railway is two miles from the v..

294 K0P1LAS—K0RA.

Kopilas. — Hill in Dhenkanal State, Orissa. Lat. 200 40' 40" n.,
long. 850 48' 53" e. ; height, 2098 feet. The hill takes its name from a
temple situated near its summit, which in February of every year is
visited by about 10,000 pilgrims, on which occasion a large fair is held,
and considerable trade carried on. At the top of the hill is a table-
land, which might be made a pleasant place of residence during the hot
months.

Kopili. — River of Assam. — See Kapili.

Koppa. — Taluk in Kadiir District, Mysore State. Area, 503 square
miles, of which only 75 are cultivated. Population (1872) 35,799;
(1881) 40,287, namely, 23,112 males and 17,175 females. In 1881,
Hindus numbered 39,023; Muhammadans, 978; and Christians, 286.
Revenue (1883-84), exclusive of water rates, ^24,760, or 10s. per
cultivated acre. The Koppa taluk is entirely Malnad, or high land. It
contains the sources of the Tunga river, and the sacred site of Sringeri,
founded in the 8th century by the Sivaite apostle Sankaracharya.
Country clothed with the finest forest. Products — coffee, extensively
cultivated in the hill ranges to the north, and on the slopes of the
Western Ghats ; rice, areca-nut, and cardamoms. The taluk contains 2
criminal courts and 7 police stations (thdnds) ; regular police, 58 men ;
village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 10. The head-quarters of the taluk
are at the village of Hariharpur.

Koppa. — Village in the taluk of the same name in Kadiir District,
Mysore State. Lat. 130 32' 4" n., long. 750 21' 51" e. Situated about
two miles to the east of Hariharpur.

Kora {Corah). — Western ta/isil or Sub-division of Fatehpur District,
North-Western Provinces ; lying along the northern bank of the Jumna,
and consisting of a cultivable plain, intersected by jungle-clad ravines.
The tahsil is divided into three portions by the rivers Rind and Nun,
which pass through it from west to south-east. In the northern and
central tract there is well-irrigation, but the southern tract is generally
unirrigated. The irrigation is entirely from wells and tanks, the rivers
not being used at all for that purpose. The most important soils are
— irrigated diimat, covering 22 per cent., and unirrigated dumat, which
extends over about 30 per cent, of the cultivated area. About 13 per
cent, of the area under cultivation consists of sigon. The rabi, or spring
crops, which occupy about two-thirds of the cultivated area, consist
chiefly of birr a, wheat, and gram ; and the autumn crops oijoar, bdjra,
and cotton.

The area of the tahsil, according to the latest official statement (1881),
was 230 square miles, of which 132 square miles were cultivated; 35*4
square miles cultivable; and 62*1 square miles uncultivable waste. The
area paying Government revenue or quit-rent was 229-4 square miles,
of which 132*1 square miles were cultivated. Government land revenue,

KORA TO WN—KORABA I

^19,231 ; total Government revenue, including rates and ccssi>,
^22,613; rental paid by cultivators, ,£32,618. Populati(
91,207; (1881) 81,164, namely, males 40,898, and femali
showing a decrease of 10,043, or 11 per cent, in the nine

since 1872. Classified according to religion, there were, in 1S81

Hindus, 75,486; Muhammadans, 5620; and Jains, 58. Of th<
villages comprising the tahsil, 152 had less than five hundred inhal
Kora is well supplied with roads, and a metalled road conm
the Mauhar station on the East Indian Railway. In 1S84, tin-
division contained 1 criminal court, 3 police circles (thdnds)} with a
regular police of 32 men, and a village watch of 165 chaukiddrs.

Kora (Corah). — Town in Fatehpur District, North- Western
vinces, and head-quarters of Kora tahsil Lat. 26° 6' 35
8o° 24' 20" e. Situated on the old Mughal road from Agra to Allah-
abad. Capital of a subah under the Mughal Empire, and still retaining
many architectural relics of its former magnificence. Amongst them
the most noticeable are — the Baradari of Rao Lai Bahadur, a
enclosed garden with two pleasure-houses, built towards the close of the
last century, under the Oudh Wazirs ; the Sorahi or mausoleum, a mile
west of Jahanabad; the sardi or travellers' halting-place in Jahai.
with handsome old walls and gates ; and a magnificent tank of
size and depth, still retaining a constant supply of clear water. The old
fort is now used as the tahsili, and contains the Government cour
offices. The Thakurdwara, opposite the Baradari, is a modern building
of some interest.

Population (1881) 2650, namely, males 119S, and femal
The two towns of Kora and Jahanabad are situated on opposite
of the road, and are known as one under the name of Kora- J
abad, although they are separately administered under Act xx. ot
Kora was formerly the seat of considerable trade; but lying
on the Mughal imperial highway, away from the modern Grand Trunk
Road and Railway, much of its business has been dil
places more favourably situated. It is, however, still a mark
agricultural produce, and copper and bell-metal vessels are manufa.
in some quantity. The town contains many old and substantially b
houses, mostlv, however, in a ruined state.

Kora (or Kdro).— Hill in Bankura District, Bengal : on the c.v
the provincial road from Raniganj to Bankura. An elongated hill, m
350 to 400 feet high, rising precipitously from the pla
north, and south, but from the east by a very gentle and lonj

Korabaga. - Zaminddri estate in Sambalpur
District, Central Provinces; 30 miles north-, tmbalpur t

Population (1881) 4i54, namely, males 2060, and femal
agriculturists, residing in 27 villages, on an area of 20 square mil

296 KORABAR—KORBA.

of which is covered with jungle. Chief product, rice. Korabaga, the
largest village, with a population in 1881 of 377, contains a school. It
is situated in lat. 210 45' 30" n., and long. 830 42' 30" e.

Korabar. — Town in the Native State of Udaipur, Mewar Agency,
Rajputana. Situated about 20 miles south-west of Udaipur city, and the
residence of a first-class noble of the State, who owns 53 villages. The
town gives its name to his estate.

Koracha. — Zaminddri estate in Brdhmapuri tahsil, on the eastern
border of Chanda District, Central Provinces. Comprising an area of
204 square miles and 52 villages, the largest being Manpur; population
(1881) 2916. Through this place numerous Chhatisgarh Banjaras pass
to and from the eastern coast with grain.

Korangi. — Town in Godavari District, Madras. — See Coringa.
Korari Kalan. — Town in Unao District, Oudh. Lat. 2 6° 27' N.,
long. 8o° 35' e. ; 16 miles south-west of Mohan, and 10 north-west of
Unao town ; 4 miles distant from Rasiilabad. Peopled about 1 100 years
ago by a Kunwar of the Bhar tribe. Six centuries later it passed into
the possession of Iswari Singh and Bisram Singh, Chauhan thdkurs of
Mainpurf, who exterminated the Bhars, and whose descendants still
possess the land. Population (1881) 2079, namely, 2008 Hindus and
71 Muhammadans. Two Sivaite temples.

Koratagiri (KertdgiH). — Taluk in Tiimkiir District, Mysore State.
Area, 383 square miles, of which 81 are cultivated. Population (1871)
73,933; (1881) 43,423, namely, 21,731 males and 21,692 females;
Hindus numbered 41,833; Muhammadans, 1234; and Jains, 356.
Land revenue (1881-82), exclusive of water rates, ^6235, or 2s. 4d. per
cultivated acre. Soil favourable both for crops and cattle. Iron is
smelted from the black sand brought by streams from the rocks. The
hills around Koratagiri are clothed with good fuel jungle.

Koratagiri (Kortdgiri). — Village in Tiimkiir District, Mysore State,
on the left bank of the Suvarnamukhi river, in lat. 130 31' 30" n., and
long. 770 16' 20" e. ; 16 miles by road north of Tiimkiir town. Popula-
tion (1881) 2016. Fort, founded by a local chieftain, was dismantled by
Tipii Sultan. Glass bangles and silk are manufactured. Head-quarters
of Koratagiri taluk.

Korba. —Zaminddri estate in the north of Bilaspur District, Central
Provinces, with a scattered population (1881) of 42,122 persons, namely,
males 21,276, and females 20,846, residing in 316 villages, on an area
of 823 square miles ; comprising both hill and plain. The chief village,
Korba, is situated on the river Hasdii, 48 miles east of Bilaspur town, in
lat. 220 21' n., and long. 820 45' e. Though wild and poorly cultivated,
the estate possesses timber and coal, and with better communications
would be valuable. At present it exports tasdr silk. The chief is a
Kunwar.

KOREA STATE AND II III..

Korea. — Native State of Chutia Nagpur, Bengal, I

220 55' 5°" and 23° 49' 15" N- lat., and between 8i° 5
48' 15" e. long. Bounded on the north by Rewa Si
Sarguja; on the south by Bilaspur District in the Central I
and on the west by Chang Bhukar and Rewa. Korei con
elevated table-land of coarse sandstone overlying the coal mo
from which spring several abruptly scarped plateaux, varying in hi
and irregularly distributed over the surface. To the cast is the S
plateau, with an elevation of 2477 feet ; the north of the Si I
occupied by a still higher table-land, with a maximum elevation oi
feet. In the west a group of hills culminates in Deogarh Peak,
Several streams rise in the hills, of which the largest is the Heshto,
a tributary of the Mahanadi. Large forest tracts of sal timber
but have not hitherto been utilized. Alternating with the :
areas are wide stretches of pasture land, from which grazing dues to the
extent of about ^150 a year are realized. Iron is found throughout
the State, and a tribe of Kols, called Agarias from their occupation, are
largely engaged in iron-smelting. Good coal is found in the Barakhar
rocks, which form the upper surface in the northern part of the S
and underlying the Mahadeva sandstones forming the central plateau.
Crops consist of rice, wheat, barley, Indian corn, mania, pulses, oil-
seeds, cotton, etc. Jungle products, stick-lac and resin. Tigers and
wild elephants formerly committed serious depredations; but of late
years the former have been reduced by increased rewards for
destruction, and the elephants have been captured or driven out by
successful kheda operations.

The area of the State is 1625 square miles, containing in 1
villages, 5798 houses, and a total population of 29,846 persons. I
according to religion, Hindus numbered 29,638, and Muhammadans
208. Classified according to sex, there were— 15,162 males and 1
females; proportion of males, 50-8 per cent. ; average density of
lation, 18*3 persons per square mile. Of aboriginal trik
returned separately in the Census Report of 1SS1). the most nui
and influential are the Gonds, who numbered 4^»44 in
two leading sub-proprietors of the State belong to this tribe. N
importance are the Cherus (3009 in 1872). These tri1
as Hindus according to religion. The principal village and the
of the chief is Sonhat, situated on the plateau so named, at an
of 2477 feet; lat. 820 35' n., long. 23° 28' E. The chiefs
themselves Chauhan Rajputs, and claim descent from l
clan, who conquered Korea* 600 years ago. Estimated I
chief, about ^700 ; tribute, £-\°-

Kore&.— Hill range in the tributary State of Ko* '
Bengal, the highest point of which is situated in lat.

298 KOREGAON—KORIGA UM.

and long. 820 18' 30" e. Principal peaks:— (1) Deogarh, 3370 feet;
(2) Jutarsuka, 3238 feet; (3) Khoro, 3219 feet; (4) Churi, 3010 feet;
(5) Kuhi, 3007 feet; (6) Gagadand, 2945 feet; (7) Gogragarh, 2847
feet; (8) Machigarh, 2839 feet; (9) Jogi, 2805 feet; (10) Tithitangarh,
2790 feet; (11) Bunjari, 2775 feet; (12) Jangia, 2746 feet; (13)
Damaur, 2715 feet; (14) Gorba, 2708 feet; (15) Baskata, 2657 feet;
(16) Mardanighat, 2561 feet; (17) Sul.a, 2534 feet; (18) Maraon, 2505
feet; and (19) Baman, 2217 feet.

Koregaon. — Sub-division of Satara District, Bombay Presidency.
Area, 349 square miles ; containing 1 town and 73 villages, with 11,033
houses. Population (1872) 89,030; (1881) 81,187, namely, 39>392
males and 41,795 females. In 1881, Hindus numbered 78,548;
Muhammadans, 2196; and ' others,' 443. In 1884, the Sub-division
contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police station, 1 ; regular
police, 49 men ; village watch, 99. Land revenue, ;£ 24,429.

Kori. — River in the Native State of Cutch, Gujarat, Bombay Presi-
dency. Kori is the name applied to the eastern mouth of the Indus.
Although of little value for trade or irrigation, the locality is of historic
interest. Alexander the Great (325 B.C.) and Ptolemy (125 a.d.) knew
it as Lonibare, a chief entrance to the Indus. About 1000 a.d. the main
stream appears to have turned to the west ; but as late as the middle
of the 1 8th century the Koli branch had water enough to irrigate the
State of Lakhpat. According to tradition, the river was deep enough
to have a port at Sindhi, 50 miles up ; then shoaling, the port had
to be moved 14 miles lower down to Sindu. Afterwards the port
was fixed at Lakhpat, 20 miles from the mouth; and now the port
is at Koteshwar. These changes are attributed to the change in the
course of the main stream of the Indus. One period of this change
was particularly disastrous. During the nth or 12th century, while
the change was in progress, the great city of Alor and ' 1000 towns'
were swept away. In 1764, when the people of Cutch were beaten by
the people of Sind, Ghulam Shah, the Sindhi conqueror, built an
immense dam across the Kori, which almost entirely prevented the
Lakhpat rice-land irrigation, and caused a loss of revenue to Cutch of
^20,000 a year.

Korigaum. — Town in Poona (Puna) District, Bombay Presidency.
Situated on the right bank of the Bhima river, sixteen miles south of
Poona city ; the scene of the last of the three battles which led to the
collapse of the Maratha power. The battle was fought on the 1st
January 18 18 between Captain Stanton and Baji Rao Peshwa. Captain
Stanton, on his march to strengthen Colonel Burr, arrived at Korigaum
in the morning after a fatiguing night march, with a detachment of 500
Bombay Native Infantry, 300 irregular horse, and two 6-pounders
manned by 24 Madras artillerymen. He found the whole army of the

KORTALAIYAR U-Kl

Peshwa, some 20,000 strong, encamped on the 0]

Bhima river. The Manitha troops were immediately

against the exhausted handful of soldiers, destituti

and water. The engagement was kept up throughoul

resulted in the discomfiture and retreat of the Marathds. The 1

able feature of this engagement was that the British troo]

natives, without any European support excepting 24 artilleryn

whom 20 were killed and wounded. Of seven officers

were killed and one wounded ; total casualties, 276 killed,

missing. This gallant fight is now commemorated by a stone obelisk.

Kortalaiyaru.— River in North Arcot and Chengalpat I
Madras Presidency. — See Cortelliar.

Kosala. — Ancient Division of India. It was estimated by Hiuen
Tsiang (7th century) at 6000 //or 1000 miles in circuit. Its frontiers
are not named; but we know from the pilgrim's Itinerary that ii
have been bounded by Ujjain on the north, by Maharashtra on the
west, by Orissa on the east, and by Andhra and Kalinga on the
The limits of the kingdom may be roughly described as extending
from near Burhanpur on the Tapti, and Nanda on the I
to Ratanpur in Chhatisgarh, and Nawagadha near the source
Mahanadi. Within these limits the circuit of the large trai I
to Kosala is rather more than 1000 miles. — See Ajodhva.

Kosa Nag {Kaiser Nag, Quaizar Nag?). — Mountain lake and
of pilgrimage in Kashmir State, Northern India, on the north side
Fateh Panjal Mountains. Lat. 330 30' n., long. 740 52' e. According
to Thornton, it is three-quarters of a mile in length, by 500 yai
breadth. Supplied by the melting of the snow. Gives rise to the r;\Lr
Veshau, a tributary of the Jehlam. Venerated by the Hindus under
the name of Vishnu Padh, from a legend that the god produced it by
stamping with his foot. Estimated elevation above sea-level, 12,
feet.

Kosi— North-western tahsil of Muttra (Mathura) Distri
Western Provinces, lying along the western bank of the Jun
consisting mainly of an arid plain, intersected by ravil
(1881-82), 153 square miles, of which 125 square miles ai
19-8 square miles cultivable, and 8-2 square miles uncultival '
the total cultivated area, 83,117 acres, or 26 per cent
from the Agra Canal, which intersects the tahsU, cm
road about a mile south of Kosi town. Land revenue. /
Government revenue, including rates and ces
by cultivators, ,£22,937. Population (1872
namely, males 34,002, and females 31,291, showing a
8515, or 11-5 per cent., in the nine years since 1872. Classified
ing to religion, there were, in iSSi-Hindus, 56,275 M lammai

3oo KOSI TO WN—KOTA.

8093; Jains, 924; 'other,' 1. Of the 55 villages comprising the tahsil,
14 contained less than five hundred inhabitants.

The crops most extensively grown in Kosi tahsil are jodr, gram,
and barley. The villages, with but a few exceptions, are held under
bhdyachdra tenure, divided into infinitesimal shares among village
communities ; so that, excepting a few shopkeepers and menial
servants, almost every resident is, to some extent, a landed proprietor.
As a natural result of this sub-division of estates, there is not a single
large landed proprietor. In 1883, the tahsil contained 1 criminal
court, with 3 police circles (thdnds), a regular police force numbering
42 men, besides 190 village watchmen {chaukiddrs).

Kosi. — Town and municipality in Muttra (Mathura) District, North-
western Provinces, and head-quarters of Kosi tahsil. Stands in lat.
270 47' 40" n., and long. 770 28' 45" e., on the open plain, 10 miles
west of the Jumna, and 29 miles north-west of Muttra town, on the
metalled road to Delhi. Population (1872) 12,770; (1881) 11,231,
namely, Hindus, 6831 ; Muhammadans, 3866; Jains, 533; and Chris-
tian, 1. The town contains the largest cattle mart in the District,
police station, post-office, dispensary, and Anglo-vernacular school.
The streets are fairly well drained, and paved with brick and stone.
During the Mutiny, the District officials took refuge at Kosi for a while,
but were compelled to flee by the defection of the Bhartpur (Bhurtpore)
force. The townspeople, however, remained well affected. Municipal
revenue in 1881-82, .£1077, or is. nd. per head of population.

Kosigi. — Town in Adoni taluk, Bellary District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 1 50 51' n., long. 780 17' e. ; 18 miles north of Adoni. Population
(1881) 4907. Hindus numbered 4530; Muhammadans, 376; and
Christian, 1. Number of houses, 979. An irregularly-built town, con-
taining not a single good street. It is situated at the foot of a rock,
on which stand the ruins of fortifications and temples. According to
tradition, Kosigi was founded by Surapah Naik, an officer of the
Anigundi Raja, who visited the place on a marauding expedition. Not
far from the town is a curious isolated rock known by the name of
1 The Sisters ' — Akkachellelu. The north-west line of the Madras
Railway has a station here.

Kota. — Village in Giidur taluk, Nellore District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 140 3' n., long. 8o° 5' e. Population (1881) 4400; number of
houses, 978. Hindus numbered 4242, and Muhammadans, 158.
Station of a sub-magistrate. Police station and post-office.

Kota. — Village in Wiin District, Berar. Lat. 200 31' 30" n., long.
780 19' e. ; 14 miles north-east of Yeotmal. Contains 434 houses;
population (1881) 195 1. Large weekly market. Police station, school,
and serai.

Kota (or Kotu, Koter, Kotar, Kohatur, Kottur). — A primitive tribe

KOTA.

inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills, Madras Presidency. The k
have no traditions; but the Todas, another primitive tril
Nilgiris, assert that the Kotas were a caste of artisans, brought

plains to work for the Todas on certain conditions. The I. •
according to Dr. Shortt, 'are well made and of tolerable height, rather
good-featured and light-skinned, having a copper colour, and
them are the fairest-skinned among the hill tribes. They have well-
formed heads covered with long black hair, grown long and 1- I
tied up carelessly at the back of the head.' The women are of mo I
height, of fair build of body, but not so good-looking as the I
They have more of a snub nose, and a somewhat vacant e\;-r<
The Kotas recognise no caste among themselves, but are divided into
ken's, and a man of one ken must seek a wife in another. They are
not allowed to keep buffaloes j but they have cows, which they neither
milk for consumption nor for sale. The buffaloes are kept by the
Todas, by whom the Kotas are called kuof ox cow-people. The 1
eat all sorts of flesh, even carrion. Mr. Metz observes that 'at no
time do they thrive so well as when there is a murrain among the
herds of the Todas and Badagas.' They are addicted to drinking and
opium-smoking. All the other hill tribes have a great contempt tor
the Kotas on account of their eating carrion. They live in villa.
from 50 to 60 houses, built of mud and thatch, and irregularly arranged
The verandahs of some houses have stone pillars, sculptured by cutters
from the low country. In each village, one or two houses are set apart,
to which the women retire during seasons of purification.

The Kotas worship one God, Kamataraya, and his wile; cadi of
whom is represented by a silver plate. They have two great annual
festivals, one in honour of Kamataraya, and the other in honour of
dead who have died during the year. The former lasts for a for;:
Their national dance requires six or eight performers, who
in a row, their motions being uniform. The main characters;
the dance is the way in which the draperies of the performers
to and fro with the measure.

The Kotas marry only one wife, unless she should be barren, whl
they may take another; in this case the two wives live togethei
same house. Widows may re-marry. The Kotas have tv,
ceremonies, at both of which cows and buffaloes an
After ceremonies performed in the house, the corpse is taken
due or burning ground, and burnt with certain implemei
deceased. The bones are then collected, and buried near the 1
place, and a stone is placed over them. The skull is, ho*
till the 'dry' or second funeral, which must take pi
Thursday. At the 'dry' funeral each skull is wrapped m a new clc
and placed on a cot ; and after certain ceremonies the

302 KOT ADU—KOTAE.

burned, together with the bows, arrows, and other implements of the
deceased.

The Kota language is a dialect of Kanarese. The Kotas are the
artisans of the hills, and are necessary to all the tribes as their black-
smiths, carpenters, tanners, rope and umbrella makers, potters,
musicians, and workers in gold and silver. The Kotas in 1881 num-
bered 1062.

Kot Adu. — Town in Sinanwan tahsil, Muzaffargarh District, Punjab.
Lat. 300 28' 14" N., long. 710 o' 30" e. Situated on the road from
Muzaffargarh to Dera Ismail Khan, 33 miles from Muzaffargarh town,
and 10 miles from the river Indus, in lat. 300 28' 14" n., long. 710 o' 30" e.
Population (1868) 2761 ; (1881) 2574, namely, Hindus, 1627 ; Muham-
madans, 946; and Sikh, 1. Number of houses, 460. Municipal
income (1881-82), ^"107. Kot Adu is in all respects an ordinary
village with narrow lanes and mud-built houses, and derives its only
importance from being an agricultural centre, a halting-place for
travellers marching along the left bank of the Indus, and the largest
village in the Sinanwan tahsil, of which it was at one time the head-
quarters. Its only manufacture is that of ornamented bows and
arrows. Police outpost station, rest-house, school, and dispensary.

Kotae. — Remains of an old city, twelve miles north of Bhuj,
on the shores of the Rann of Cutch (Kachchh), with several
ruined temples of perhaps the early part of the 10th century.
The Sun temple, known as Ra Lakha's, ascribed to Lakha Phulani,
who is said to have fixed his capital here for a time, is built of
the yellowish and red stone used also at Kera, and is roofed in
a peculiar way. The aisles are covered by a sort of groins, like the
side-aisles in some Chaitya caves ; the nave is roofed the same way as
at the Amarnath temple, — the central area being covered with massive
slabs hollowed out in the centre, in which a pendant has been
inserted. Outside, it has a slanting roof divided into four sections of
slightly different heights, that next to the spire being the highest, and
the remote end the lowest ; each section is terminated by a neatly
carved gable-end. The whole has been built without any cement, and
most of the stones are hollowed out on the under or inner side as if for
the purpose of making them lighter. The porch has long since fallen
away. The door of the temple has been neatly carved with the nine
grahas or patrons of the planets over the lintel ; the jambs are also care-
fully sculptured. The shrine door is elaborately carved with two rows
of figures on the frieze, Ganapati on the lintel, and the jambs richly
ornamented. The area behind the central jamb is roofed with large
slabs, carved with sixteen female figures linked in one another's arms in
a circle, with the legs crossed and turned towards the centre. Each
holds a rod or bar in either hand, the left hand being bent down and

KO TA GIRI—KO TA If. ^

the right up, and so interlaced with the arms of the figures on
side. In two neat gokhlas or niches, advanced from the front wall of
the shrine, and with two colonnettes in front of each, there haw-
standing images in alto relievo, neatly canopied by a lotus 0
buds growing over the muguts or head-dresses. Enormously
munis or bhringis seem to have been the supporters.

Beyond a ravine to the north-east are fragments of two oth<
facing west. Of the first, and higher up of the two, only plain square
pillars of the mandap and the lower part of the vimdna are stai
The general style is the same as that of the other temples, hut mu< h
plainer. The stones are cut away below as at the first temple. The
lower of the two is also only a fragment of the shrine of a Siirya temple,
with Ganapati on the lintel, and the nine grahas on the frieze. There
are no figures outside. Foundations still remain on this part of the
hill, showing that whole edifices must have been carted away for build"
ing purposes elsewhere. — Burgess' Archaeological Sur-cey of Western
India.

Kotagiri. — Hill station and tea-growing centre in Nflgiri District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. u° 20' to n° 20' 10" n., long. 76° 51' to
76° 56' e. Contains 934 houses and (1881) 3691 inhabitant-,
about 12 square miles. It is in the Paraganad Ndd, situati
the north-east end of the plateau, 17 miles from Utakamand (Oota-
camund), and 12 from Coonoor, at an average height of 6500 feet
above sea-level. In the opinion of residents, it has the best climate
to be found on these hills ; and the Marquis of Dalhousie preferred
it to Utakamand. The station, which was founded in 1S30, 1
or 15 European houses, and a small church. The residents are nearly
all proprietors of neighbouring tea estates. The annual rainfall
about 50 inches. Near Kotagiri is the military sanitarium of
hatti, now abandoned. A ghat or pass in fair order leads from Kot;i:
to the plains of Coimbatore. Dispensary, rest-house, l\\zat\ |
station, and post-office.

Kotah. — Native State in Rajputana, under the political super-
intendence of the Kotah Agency. The State lies bet*
30' and 250 51' n. lat., and between 75° 4<>' and 76
Bounded on the north and north-west by the river Chanj
separates it from Bdndf (Boondee) State; on the east by Gwalior, t
Tonk district of Chhapra, and by part ofjhalawar; on th
the Mokandarra Hills and Jhalawar; and on the west by
(Oodeypore). Area, 3797 square miles. Population ( l
density of population, 136 persons per square mile.
Kotah. .

Physical Aspects.— Kotah State slopes gently northwards &01
high table-land of Mahva, and is drained by the Chambal wit]

304 KOTAH.

tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or north-easterly direction. The
Mokandarra range, from 1200 to 1600 feet above sea-level, runs from
south-east to north-west, forming the southern border of Kotah, and
separating it from Jhalawar. The Mokandarra Pass through these
hills, in the neighbourhood of the highest peak (167 1 feet), has
been rendered memorable by the passage of Colonel Monson's army
on its disastrous retreat in 1804. The defile is strikingly picturesque,
and forms one of the chief outlets between the Deccan and Northern
India. The hills are for the most part clothed with a thick jungle of
stunted trees and undergrowth. There are no forests of any size, but
several extensive game preserves, chiefly covered with grass. The
largest of these is about 7 miles from the city of Kotah, and is 12
miles in length, with an average breadth of 4 miles. Of the tributaries
of the Chambal within the State, the Kali Sind, with its feeder, the
Parwan, is the principal. It enters Kotah from the south, and joins the
Chambal near the village of Piparda. The Parbati flows due north for
80 miles, and falls into the Chambal in the extreme north-eastern
corner of the territory. It forms the north and south-eastern boundary
of the State for a considerable portion of its length, separating it from
the Chhapra pargand of Tonk on the south, and from Gwalior on
the north. The rivers contain trout and mahsir, besides other fish ;
crocodiles are numerous, and those in the Chambal are of large size.
There are no natural lakes, but numerous small artificial tanks, for
irrigation purposes, have been made by throwing masonry embank-
ments across watercourses. The wild animals of the State include
the ' golden ' lion, the tiger, four varieties of leopards, two of cheetahs
(hunting leopard), hyaena, wolf, bear, jackal, wild dog, etc. ; the bison,
the sdmbhar, the nilgai^ the chital (spotted deer), and antelope. Kotah
is celebrated for its parrots ; birds of every variety abound.

History. — The territory of Kotah is an offshoot from Biindi (Boondee),
forming with that State the tract named Haraoti after the dominant
tribe of Hara Rajputs. About the year 1625, Kotah and its depen-
dencies were bestowed on Madhu Singh, second son of Rao Rattan
of Biindi, in acknowledgment of his services during the campaign
which forced the imperial prince, who afterwards became the Emperor
Shah Jahan, to flee almost unattended from Burhanpur. Madhu
Rao, who assumed the rank and title of Raja, ruled for several
years. He distinguished himself as a commander in the Mughal
service ; and his territory was augmented until it touched Malwa on
one side, and Biindi on the other. He was succeeded by his eldest
son, Mokand Singh, who with his four brothers fought desperately in
a battle at Ujjain, against the revolt headed by Prince Alamgir, after-
wards the Emperor Aurangzeb. All the brothers were slain, with
the exception of the youngest, Kishor Singh, who, though desperately

KOTAH.

wounded, eventually recovered. The son of Mokand Singh
Singh, succeeded to the dignity of Raja. In the beginning'-
18th century, the State, already weakened by civil dissensioi
attacked by Jaipur (Jeypore), and also by the Mardtl.
fully enforced their claims to tribute. Kotah was only saver
absolute ruin at this juncture by the talents of the minister Zaiim S
into whose hand the Maharao Umed Singh surrendered all
Jhalawar). By playing off one party against another, Zdlim -
succeeded in piloting the State safely through the storms of a ,
in which the whole of Central India was desolated by Mai
Pindari, and other predatory hordes ; and in the course of forty-five
years, he raised Kotah to the rank of one of the most flourishing
powerful States in Rajputana. He was one of the first Rajput -
to co-operate with the British Government for the suppression of the
Pindarfs.

Through Zaiim Singh a treaty was made in 1817 by which Kotah
was taken under British protection; the tribute formerly pai
the Marathas was made payable to the British Government, who
accounted to Sindhia for his share; and the Maharao agreed to
furnish troops when required. A supplementary article vested the
administration in Zaiim Singh and his heirs for ever. Even during
Zdlim Singh's lifetime, on the succession of a new chief, inconvei li
was felt through this arrangement, and a British force had to be
sent to insist upon it. On Zaiim Singh's death, his son was notori-
ously unfit to govern the State; and hence it was finally resolved,
in 183S, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the
State, and to create a new principality of Jhalawar as a separate-
provision for the descendants of Zaiim Singh (see Jhalawar). The
Maharao's tribute was reduced by ^"8000, which sum m
paid by Jhalawar, and he agreed to maintain an auxiliary :
cost of not less than 3 hikhs of rupees (say ^30,000). This auxiliary
force, known as the Kotah contingent, mutinied in 1857. The
Maharao's troops also revolted, and murdered the Political A _
his two sons. The Maharao made no attempt to assist the
Agent, and, as a mark of the displeasure of Government, his sahltt
reduced from 17 to 13 guns.

The present Maharao, Chhatra Sal, a Chauhan Rajput. 1
about 1837. He succeeded his father in 1866, and on his accession he-
was restored the full salute of 17 guns, and has also been guaranl
the right of adoption.

A few years later, the confusion into which the affairs of the- Si
fallen induced the Maharao to request the interference of I
Government. Nawab Sir Faiz AH Khan Bahadur, I
upon appointed in 1874 to administer the State, subject to :'

vol. viii. L

3o6 KOTAH.

and control of the Governor-General's Agent in Rajputana. Since his
departure from Kotah, the administration has been superintended by a
British political officer.

There are in Kotah many nobles, generally the descendants of
former Rajas through a cadet branch, who, as a rule, hold their
estates on a semi-feudal tenure. The State claims to be the absolute
owner of all the soil in the territory. Even jagirddrs of the
highest class have no power to dispose of their lands by sale. A
jdgir once granted on a feudal tenure cannot be resumed except
for disloyalty or misconduct ; the grantee has, however, the power of
alienating a portion of his grant as a provision for younger sons or
other near relatives, and he may raise money on it by mortgage, but
this cannot be foreclosed. The present policy of native chiefs tends
towards making their subjects of the agricultural class mere tenants-at-
will. Yet, as shown by Colonel Tod, the rdyats have certain bapoti
(or ancestral occupancy) rights, which even arbitrary native governments
are chary of interfering with. So long as the cultivator pays all his
instalments of rent due, his land cannot be resumed or granted to
another. All classes depend for their subsistence on the produce of the
soil. The majority of the cultivators are poverty-stricken, and live from
hand to mouth, although many tracts produce enough grain for exporta-
tion in considerable quantities after the needs of home consumption are
satisfied.

Crops, etc. — In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, cotton,
opium, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. Rotation of
crops is known and practised to a certain extent. The manufactures
are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, but are being rapidly
superseded by the products of Bombay and Manchester. Articles of
wooden furniture are also constructed. The chief articles of export
from the State are opium and grain. The imports chiefly consist of
salt, cotton, and woollen cloth.

Population. — Previous to 1881, no regular Census had ever been
taken of the whole territory. The enumeration of that year showed
the total population of the State to be 517,275, males numbering
269,924, and females 247,351. This population dwelt in six towns
and 1605 villages, and occupied 130,698 houses. Number of persons
per square mile of area, 136*2; number of persons per house, 3"9-
Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 479,634; Muham-
madans, 32,866 ; Jains, 4750 ; and Christians, 25. Among the Hindus,
43,458 were returned as Brahmans, 15,255 as Rajputs, 425,671 as
'other Hindu castes/ which included 20,717 Mahajans or Baniyas,
33,488 Gujars, 5009 Jats, 1754 Kachhis, 6576 Ahirs, 46>925 Minds,
48,882 Chamars, 43,469 Dhakurs, 16,773 Balais, 8801 Bhils, and
193,277 'others.' The Muhammadans, classified according to tribes,

KOTAK 30?

are thus distributed :— Shaikhs, 18,545 ; Sayyid . 1

Pathans, 9078; and 'others,' 2873. The male populati

into the following seven main groups, namely :— ( 1 ) Agricultui ~

(2) day labour, 66,805 ; (3) handicraft, 20,399 i

(5) service, 21,039 ', (6) miscellaneous, 30,244 ; and

42,232. About 90 per cent, of the feudal jdgirddr

of the ruling family.

Administration. — The gross revenue for the year 1881 l
^294,197, of which the land yielded ^177,321. The expenditu
the same year amounted to ^239,666, of which ,£38,472, inclu
,£20,000 for maintenance of a contingent force, formed tribute
to the British Government, and £"1439 tribute due to !.
(Jeypore).

The criminal court at the capital is presided over by a
a staff of ministerial subordinates. He has the power of inflj
penalties up to one year's imprisonment, a fine of £20, and whi]
to the extent of 12 stripes. A special constabulary, and on
jail for the whole State, have been established at the capital since the
introduction of the present administration. The jail, and the jail and
city police, are presided over by the judge of the chief appellate
court. For police purposes, the State is divided into 19 //.
with special road guards for the protection of travellers and ;
Guards are detailed by turns from the different regiments, and relieved
yearly.

No regular department of education has as yet been de
Kotah. There is a school at the capital, in which English, Persian,
Sanskrit, and Hindi are taught. The staff consists of 9 teacher
the average attendance of pupils is 210. The State maintai:
schools; but the principal villages possess indigenous insl
where Gurus, or priests of the Jain sect, teach arithmetic and * 1
chiefly to sons of Brahmans and Baniyas, with a view to fitting
a political or mercantile career.

The city post-office is the only imperial institution of the kind it
State. The only postal route connected with Kotah ia that fro
Jhalrapatan to Deoli.

The British contingent supplied by the State of K
as the Deoli Irregular Force. The troops which the Mah
to maintain are limited to 15,000 men of all descriptions ; there .1
2 field and about 90 other serviceable guns in the State

Climate.— The climate is very sultry during the prevaJ
hot winds at the commencement of summer, ani I
during the rainy season. Endemic fever and spleen ini
after the close of the rains. The other disc.
ophthalmia, venereal, chest, and rheumatic affect;

3o3 KOTAH TOWN—KOTAHA.

occasionally breaks out in epidemic form. The mean temperature in :
1882 was 820 F. The average annual rainfall registered at the city of
Kotah, for the seven years ending 1881, was 2877 inches.

Kotah. — The principal town of the State of Kotah in Rajputana.
It is situated in lat. 250 10' n., and long. 750 52' e., on the right bank
of the river Chambal (here crossed by a ferry), and on the route from
Nasirabad (Nusseerabad) to Sagar (Saugor). East of the town extends
an extensive artificial lake, the Kishor Sagar, which affords great facilities
for irrigation. The gardens, however, are neither well laid out nor, until ]
recently, well cared for. The town is of considerable size, and contains
a population (1881) of 40,270 persons, namely, Hindus, 30,217;
Muhammadans, 9005; and 'others,' 1048. There are many Hindu
temples and some mosques. The central jail of the State is established
at Kotah, and, for police purposes, the town1 is divided into 25 wards.
There is also a State dispensary, and one school, in which English,
Persian, Sanskrit, and Hindi are taught. The post-office in the city is
the only imperial institution of the kind within the State. A municipal
committee has been formed, and some progress has been made towards
the conservancy and sanitation of the city. The heat in Kotah is very
great, and there is much sickness during the rainy season. Dr. Moore
has pointed out that Kotah, with the Chambal on one side, and the
Kishor Sagar Lake on the other, combining to produce a copious
percolation of water underneath the city, must always be an unhealthy
locality.

Kotaha. — Pargand in the Narayangarh tahsil, Ambala (Umballa)
District, Punjab ; consisting of the hill portion of the District, and
stretching down for a short distance into the plains. Lat. 300 32' 30"
to 300 45' 30" n., and long. 760 51' to 77° 1 3' e. Area of the hill tract,
97 square miles. Population (1868) 5660, or 58 per square mile. The
population of parganas is not returned in the Census Report of 1881.
Bounded on the west by the Pinjaur valley, and on the north and east
by the Nahan or Sirmiir (Sarmor) mountains. The town of Kotaha
itself stands in the plains. The hills run in two parallel ranges, con-
tinuations of the Siwalik chain in Nahan State. Between them flows the
river Ghaggar, while the forest of Morni clothes their sides. In its
midst lie two considerable lakes, at an elevation of about 2000 feet
above sea-level. A hill divides their surface, but some underground
communication apparently exists, as the level of both always remains
the same. The people regard them as sacred, and a great gathering
annually takes place at a ruined temple in honour of Krishna, on the
banks of the larger lake.

The village and fort of Morni are perched high up among the
mountain - sides. The people are a simple race, seldom visiting
the plains, and clinging to their proprietary rights with the usual

KOTAI—KOTAR.

tenacity of hillmen. Kanets, Bruits, Gujars, and Kolia fori
principal castes. Originally ruled by Rajput Thakurs owing all( [
to the Sirmiir Raja, Kotaha became an independent pi
about the 15th century; and after the suppression of the Gurkha* in-
vasion by the British in 181 5, was made over once more to its 1
rulers. In 1849 it came under the same reforms as the oth<
Sutlej States, since which period the representatives of the chief
become simple jdgirddrs. Hinduism is the almost universal rel
Polyandry, frequent in the neighbouring hill tribes, does not occur.
roads exist passable even by a pony, and the villages are mere cl
of huts. Nevertheless, cultivation has spread over most of the avail-
able hill-sides, and irrigation from the Ghaggar or from drainage fer-
tilizes every possible field. The inhabitants are extremely industl
and take great pains in cultivating their terraced slopes.

Kotai.— Ruined city on the shores of the Rann of Cutch (Kachchh),
Gujarat. — See Kotae.

Kotalpur. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (thdnd) in
Bardwan District, Bengal ; situated on the road from Bankurd and
Bishnupur to Jahanabad, and thence to Calcutta. Lat 230 1' 15
long. 870 38^35" e.

Kotapalli. — Village in Godavari District, Madras Presidency. —
Kotipalli.

Kotapalli. — Sub-division of Bastar Dependency, Central Provi:
comprising 60 villages, the chief of which are Pamar and Teklct.
,an area of 400 square miles. The population is composed of I
Marias, and Telingas. The teak forests, once very valuable, have
overworked. The timber is felled and dragged to the Tal river, and
then floated down the Godavari. Kotapalli village is situated in lat.
1 8° 13' n., and long. 8o° 49' 30" e.

Kotappakonda (or Yellamunda).— Hill village and celebrat
n Narsaraopet taluk, Kistna District, Madras Presidency. I
10' x., long. 8o° 5' e. ; the hill-top is 1587 feet above sea-level,
ation (1881) 2504; number of houses, 396. A hill 8 miles SOUtl
Narsaraopet, with a temple to Siva, about 600 feet above the pla
lpproached by a winding flight of stone steps. A festival, attends
oy about 60,000 persons, is held here at the new moon in 1
There is a considerable trade in timber at the festival and fair,
sorts of wood, from bamboo switches to logs and beams, are l
:here, and are sold before the day is over.

Kot&X {Kotaur,YLoTTLdpa— Periplus; Korrwpa Mi^/wr
Cottara— Peutinger Tables ; Kodu-aru, ' river-fort — Mahyahn .
nTravancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 9
28' 30" e. Population (1871) 7338; number of hoi
lation not returned in the Census of 1S81. A very old town u.tl

3 io KOTARAIKARRAI— KOTE-BETTA.

irregular streets. Contains an ancient pagoda with an important in-
scription. A sub-magistrate and munsif 'are stationed here. A good
school, a Catholic church, and a weaving colony are the only other
features of Kotar. The port is now little frequented.

Kotaraikarrai. — Taluk in Travancore State, Madras Presidency.
Area, 234 square miles. Population (1875) 53, 137 ; (1S81) 55,924,
namely, 28,253 males and 27,671 females; density of population,
2^8 persons to the square mile; number of houses, 12,174. Hindus
numbered 45,383 ; Muhammadans, 4327; and Christians, 6214.

Kotaraikarrai. — Town in Travancore State, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 90 o' 15" n., long. 760 49' 15" e.

Kotaria. — Town in the Native State of Udaipur (Oodeypore),
Rajputana. Situated about 26 miles to the south of the capital, and
the residence of a first-class noble of the State, who owns 60 villages.
The town gives its name to his estate.

Kotayam (Cottayam Kotium). — Town in Travancore State, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 90 36' n., long. 760 34' e. Population (1871) 6333;
(1881) 11,293; number of houses, 2309. Head-quarters of Kotayam
District, and seat of the magistrate and civil courts, post-office, high-
class school, and several churches. Situated on the bank of a small
river running into the great Cochin backwater. The centre of the
Syrian Christian community, who form the majority of the population.
Their churches are very old and interesting. The Church Mission
Society has been at work at Kotayam since i8i6,and the Syrian bishop
also resides here.

Kotayam. — T&luk or Sub-division of Malabar District, Madras
Presidency. Area, 656 square miles. Population (1881) 165,775,
namely, 81,345 males and 84,430 females, dwelling in 28 villages, con-
taining 25,646 houses. Hindus numbered 124,099; Muhammadans,
39,825 ; Christians, 1842 ; and ■ others,' 9. In 1883, the taluk contained
3 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles {th&n&s), 8 ; regular police,
105 men. Land revenue, ,£10,450.

Kotchandpur. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (thdnd)
in Jhanidah Sub-division, Jessor District, Bengal ; situated on the left
bank of the Kabadak river. Lat. 230 24' 45" n., long. 890 3' 20" e.
The largest seat of the sugar trade and manufacture in the District,
both it and the adjacent village of Sulaimanpur being covered with
refineries. In 1882, 63 sugar factories produced 156,000 maunds, or
5691 tons of sugar, valued at £93,900.

Kote-betta. — Mountain in the territory of Coorg, being the highest
peak of a spur which branches off from the Subrahmanya range of the
Western Ghats, about 9 miles north of Merkara, 5375 feet above the
sea. The summit divides into two peaks, on one of which stands a
small stone temple dedicated to Siva. There are two reservoirs of

KO THAR I A— KO Til IDE. 3 , ,

water, one for the use of the Brahmans, the other for the Co.
view is reckoned the finest in the magnificent highlands
Black bears are found on the hill.

Kotharia.— Petty State in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency. It consists of 6 villages, with i proprietor. Area, 6 square
miles; population (1881) 2336. The revenue is estimated at ^1500;
and tribute of ^94, 16s. is paid to the British Government, and
^29, 16s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.

Kothi (Koti). — Petty Hill State in the Punjab, subordinate to the
Raja of Keunthal, and conterminous with the Simla territory on the
south and east. Lat (centre of State) 310 7' n., long. 770 15' v.. Area,
36 square miles. Population (1881) 5435 ; revenue, .£606. The chief,
Bishnu Chand, a Rajput, received the title of Ranafor services rendered
during the Mutiny of 1857. His family originally came from Patna" in
Bengal. Mashobra, a suburb of Simla, is in Kothi territory. In a deep
valley east of Mashobra is the little hamlet of Sipi, where an annual
fair is held every May, which is attended by the people of the neigh-
bouring hills in large numbers, and is also a popular resort of holiday-
makers from Simla. Naldera, also in Kothi territory, is a little 1
situated on a beautiful plateau overlooking the Sutlej, bordering a fine
deodar forest often occupied by the tents of European visitors from
Simla.

Kothi.— Petty State in Baghelkhand, under the Baghelkhand Agency,
the Central India Agency, and the Government of India. Lat.
to 240 53' n., and long. 8o° 39' to 80" 54' e. The town of Kothi
lat. 240 45' e., long. 8o° 40' n. The ruling family have long retained
possession of their jdgir, by timely submission to the succe
querors of Bundelkhand. They were never dispossessed either in the
time of the Bundela Rajas or of Ali Bahadur. In 1S10, a sanad was
granted to Lai Diiniapat, the jdgirddr then in possession, making him
directly dependent on the British Government, like the other chieftains
in Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The present (1883) chief, R;i
Bahadur Singh, Raja Bahadur of Kothi, is a Rajput by ca
area of the State is about 90 square miles ; number ot 1
Population (1881) 18,386, namely, males 9218, and fen
Classified according to religion, there were— Hindus, 15,649 I M»ni
madans, 284 ; Christians, 6 ; and aboriginal tribes, -M47-
form the predominant caste, numbering 349°- Estimated rev
the State, ^3529. The chief exercises jurisdiction within his
territory, independent of the British courts of law, except in crimes
of a heinous nature, or where Europeans are concerned, when
jurisdiction lies with the Political Agent.

Kothide.-Guaranteed Thakurate or petty State under the
Bhil or Bhopawar Agency, Central India. The estate cv.

3 1 2 K0T1—K0T K AM ALIA.

Bhfl paras or hamlets, with a total area of about 4000 acres, 250 acres
of which are under cultivation. There are 6 wells for irrigation. Popu-
lation (1881) 289. Revenue about ^50. The Bhumia of Kothide,
Moti Singh, born about 1850, is a younger branch of the Garhi family.
He holds his villages from the Raja of Dhar on the condition of being
responsible for robberies committed. The estate is now under British
administration, in consequence of the indebtedness of the chief.

Koti. — Petty Hill State in the Punjab, subordinate to Keunthal. —
See Kothi.

Kotipalli. — Village in Ramachandrapur taluk, Godavari District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 160 40' n., long. 82 ° 6' e. Population
(1881) 2065 ; number of houses, 398. This village, situated on the
left bank of the Gautama Godavari, halfway between Rajamahendri
(Rajamundry) and Coringa, is the only portion of the District which
belongs to the Maharaja of Vizianagaram, with the exception of a few
yards of land at Rajamahendri. Kotipalli is considered by the Hindus
a very sacred place ; every twelfth year the village is crowded with
devotees ; while near the pagoda the river is looked upon as peculiarly
sanctifying.

Kot Kamalia. — Town and municipality in Montgomery ta/isi/,
Montgomery District, Punjab. Situated in lat. 300 43' 45" n., and long.
7 20 42' e., on the old high north bank of the Ravi, 5 miles north-west
from the present bed of the river. Distant from Montgomery town 27
miles west, from Chichawatni railway station 13 miles north. Kamalia
is a very ancient town, and is identified by General Cunningham with
one of the towns in the Malli country taken by Alexander. An ancient
mound of brick ruins adjoins the present site. Tradition assigns the
foundation of the modern town to Khan Kamal, a Kharal chieftain,
in the 14th century, from whom it derives its name, and whose descend-
ants still occupy it. The town is an uninteresting place, with low and
mean-looking houses. It is traversed by a single bazar from east to west.
The streets are, as a rule, well paved, and though many of them are
narrow and crooked, the drainage, and indeed the sanitary arrangements
generally, are excellent.

Population (1868) 5695 : (1881) 7594, namely, Muhammadans,
4227; Hindus, 3295; Sikhs, 66; Jain, 1 ; 'others,' 5. Number of
houses, 1 02 1. Since the British annexation, a brisk trade in the pro-
duce of the Ravi lowlands has sprung up, and the importance of Kot
Kamalia has been immensely increased by the opening of the Sind,
Punjab, and Delhi Railway. The town is now a place of considerable
commerce, collecting wheat, grain, and pulses from the surrounding
villages and Jhang; gur and sugar from Jalandhar and Amritsar; wool
from Jhang ; piece-goods from Calcutta, Karachi, Amritsar, and Miiltan ;
majith or madder and fruits from Afghanistan. The exports consist of

KOT KANGRA—KOTRL

Hingis, quilts, darns or cotton carpets, etc. In 1857, the in ■•.
tribes held the town for a week, and completely sacked it.
station, post-office, schools; sardi, with accommodation for Eui
travellers. Municipal revenue in 1875-76, ^242 ; in 1
or an average of is. 5d. per head. The municipal inco
derived from octroi.

Kot KangTa. — See Kangra (Town).

Kotkhai Kotgarh (correctly Kotguru).—TahHl of Siml I
Punjab. Area, 14 square miles. Population (1881) 9847, namely,
, males 4854, and. females 4993. Hindus numbered 9675 ; Muhamma-
dans, 131 ; Sikhs, 2 : and 'others,' 39.

Kot Putli. — Town in the Torawati District of Jaipur -
Rajputana, belonging to the chief of Khetri, a tributary of Ji ipur, on
whom it was conferred in perpetuity by Lord Lake in 18c
military services ; distant from Jaipur city 74 miles norths
Putli possesses a fort and other strong positions, which were of
importance when held by the Marathas. Annual revenue, ;£ 10,000.
Population (1881) 8084. Hindus numbered 61 18; Muhamin
1956; and 'others,' 10. Post-office.

Kotra Nayani. — Petty State in the Halar division of Kithi
Bombay Presidency. It consists of 1 village, with 4 separate share-
holders. Area, 3 square miles; population (1881) 1256. The revenue
is estimated at ^600 ; and tribute of ^54, 4s. is paid to the Gaekwar
! of Baroda, and ^14, 10s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.

Kotrang. — Town and municipality in Hugh' District, Benga
situated on the right bank of the Hugli river, about 7 miles above
Howrah. Lat. 220 41' 20" N., long. 88° 24' e. Population 1 1
6811; (1881) 5747, namely, Hindus, 47*° 5 Muhammadans, 99'J
'others,' 46. Municipal income (1871), ^205; (1881
average incidence of taxation, is. o^d. per head. The vil!
cipally noted for its brick manufactories, and for a large prork
belonging to the Calcutta municipality.

Kotra Pitha.— Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kithi
Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. It consists of 13 villages with 5
shareholders. Area, 25 square miles; population (1881) 7186. I h<
revenue is estimated at ^6000; and tribute of £&$ is I'ald t0
British Government, and ^72, 16s. to the Nawab of Jul

Kotra SangAnl.— Petty State in the Hakir division
Bombay Presidency. It consists of 18 villages ; area, 3;
I population (1881) 8642. The revenue is estimated at
tribute of ^1161, 12s. is paid to the British Government

* Totri '(KotreeY-Tdluk of Sehwan Sub-division. Karachi (Kui
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. Area, including ■ 1-

3i4 KOTRL

Kohistan (1881), 3491 square miles; with 31 villages and 1 town.
Population (1881) 36,827, namely, 20,834 males and 15,993 females,
occupying 3161 houses. Hindus numbered 4976; Muhammadans,
30,547 ; Sikhs, 851 ; Christians, 407 ; aboriginal tribes, 26 ; Parsis, 17 ;
and Jews, 3. The taluk contains 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; police
stations, 12 ; regular police, 140 men ; village watch, 15.

Kotri. — Town and municipality in Karachi (Kurrachee) District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency, and head-quarters of Kotri taluk. Popu-
lation (1881), including the neighbouring hamlets of Khanpur and
Miani Multani, 8922, namely, 5813 Muhammadans, 2160 Hindus, 407
Christians, 17 Parsis, and 525 'others.' Situated in lat. 250 21' 41" n.,
long. 68° 21' 37" e., on the right bank of the Indus, here confined by a
tolerably permanent bank. Kotri has been placed in considerable
danger, however, by sudden and violent inundations of the Baran
mountain torrent, to protect it from which a dam was erected some
years since. A station on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, which
communicates with the seaport of Karachi (106 miles). By the river,
here 600 yards wide, and from 9 to 10 feet deep in ordinary seasons, Kotri
has regular communication with Sukkur (270 miles), Mithankot (430
miles), and Multan (570 miles). Besides the steamers, native vessels go
up and down with merchandise. The river bank, crowded with flotilla
steamers, barges, and small native craft, all discharging or collecting
cargo, often presents an animated scene, not to be found at any other
station nearer than Sukkur (Sakkar). Sidings convey goods from the
railway to the river by zigzag routes, so constructed as to suit any
condition of the stream, in flood or drought.

Head-quarters station of Deputy Collector, Civil Surgeon, Conser-
vator and Registrar of the Indus, and judge of subordinate civil court.
Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. Civil hospital, court-
house, subordinate jail, post-office, Government and other schools, and
travellers' bungalow. The Indus Steam Flotilla formerly had its head-
quarters at Kotri, with a large floating dock for the repairs of its
steamers. Since the connection of the railway in the Indus valley with
the general railway system of India, the Indus Steam Flotilla has been
abolished, and its fleet of steamers sold. The European quarter, north
and west of the native town, stands embosomed in foliage, handsome
trees lining all its well-kept and neatly laid-out roads.

Local trade inconsiderable; large transit traffic between Karachi
and the Punjab. The articles of merchandise sent upwards comprise
beer, wine, and spirits for the European troops quartered in the
Punjab ; metals, railway materials, piece-goods, and silk. The return
trade consists principally of wool, cotton, grain, oil -seeds, indigo,
g/ii, oil, saltpetre, and sugar. Water from Kotri is forwarded to
Karachi, especially for the manufacture of ice and for drinking pur-

KOTTAPA TAM— KRISHNA GA A/

poses. Government ferry plies between Kotri and GicM
Haidarabad.

Malik Sardar Khan, chief of the Niimria or 'nine men' dan, 1
almost all the town in jdgir. Unimportant village before the British
conquest, except in a military point of view. Encamping place in i
of the Bombay division of the British army advancing upon Afghani
Municipality, established 1854; income (1882-83), /
diture, ^1619 ; incidence of municipal taxation, 2s. 2d. per
Epidemic of cholera in 1879, since which date great attention has been
paid to sanitary arrangements. In 1878 the railway was opene
Kotri to Sukkur and Miiltan, by which the importance of Kotri
place of trans-shipment has been diminished.

Kottapatam {Kotapatnam). — Port in Ongole taluk, Nellon
Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 6267; number of hoi.
The average annual value of imports, for the five years ending 1
was ^4839; and of exports, ^12,921. In 1882-83, the im;
valued at ^1263 ; and the exports at ^8066. — See also Ali.uk.

Kottayam. — Town in Travancore State, Madras Presided v.—

KOTAYAM.

Kottlir. — Town in Pollachi taluk, Coimbatore District. M
Presidency ; situated at the foot of one of the passes in the Anamalai
Hills, in lat. io° 32' n., and long. 770 2' e. Population (1881) 7406 ;
number of houses, 1869. Hindus numbered 7153; Muhammadans,
241 ; and Christians, 12.

Kourtalam.— Town in Tinnevelli District, Madras Presider.
See Courtallum.

Kovilam— Town in Chengalpat District, Madras Presidency.-

COVELONG.

Kovtir (Koviiru).— Town in Nellore fd/uk, NeUore District, Mad

Presidency. Lat. 14° 30' N., long. 8o° 2 e. Population ( .
number of houses, 945. An agricultural centre, 3 miles north v^
town, on the northern bank of the Pennar. Police station (tha^

Koyakhai.-River of Orissa. A deltaic offshoot of the MaMi
which bifurcates from the main stream opposite Cutta* It, and
turn throws off numerous distributaries, and finally Bnd
the Bay of Bengal, or the Chilka Lake, as the Kusbhadi
and Day a. _ .

Koyambatur.-District, tdluk, and town, Madras Presidency.—

Coimbatore.
Kranganiir (Cranganore).— Town in Cochin State. Madias

dency. — See Kodungalur.

Krishna.-District and river, Madras Presidency.—** K
Krishnaganj.-Town and head-quarters of pol.ee ■, ..

Nadiya District, Bengal ; situated on the right bank 0, t

3 r 6 KRISHNA GANJ SUB-DIVISION— KRISHNA GAR.

river. Lat. 230 25' n., long. 88° 45' 50" e. One of the principal seats
of trade in the District.

Krishnaganj. — Sub-division of Purniah District, Bengal. Lat. 250
54' 15" to 260 35' N., and long. 870 39' 30" to 88° 33' 45" e. Area 1340
square miles, with 1992 villages and 97,408 houses. Population (1872)
564,430 persons; (1881) 631,301, namely, males 324,317, females
306,984. Muhammadans in 1881 numbered 395,224, or 62^6 per
cent ; Hindus, 236,038, or 37*4 per cent. ; Christians, 10 ; ' others/
29 : total, 631,301. Proportion of males in total population, 51*3 per
cent. ; density of population, 471*12 persons per square mile ; villages
per square mile, 1*49; persons per village, 317; houses per square
mile, 7 3 '66 ; persons per house, 6*4. This Sub-division comprises the
3 police circles (than as) of Bahadurganj, Krishnaganj, and Kaliaganj.
In 1883 it contained 1 civil and 2 magisterial courts, with a regular
police force of 128 men, besides 1439 village watchmen.

Krishnaganj. — Town in Purniah District, Bengal, and head-quarters
of Krishnaganj Sub-division and police circle ; situated on the high
road to Darjiling, east of the Mahananda river. Lat. 260 6' 28" n.,
long. 870 59' 13" e. The town and immediately surrounding villages
form a municipal union, containing, in 1872, a population numbering
8490, and in 188 1, 6000, namely, Hindus, 2973, and Muhammadans,
3027. Municipal income in 1882-83, ^371, derived from a house-tax;
average incidence, is. ifd. per head of the population. The public
offices are situated 4 miles north-west of the town, at the village of
Bhariadangi, where there is also a civil court, sub-registry office, English
school, post-office, and charitable dispensary. The police station and
staging bungalow are in Krishnaganj itself.

Krishnagar (Krishnanagar). — Head-quarters Sub-division of Nadiya
District, Bengal. Lat. 230 17' to 230 48' 45" N., and long. 88° io' to
88° 50' 45" e. Area, 701 square miles, with 544 villages or towns, and
70,576 houses. Population (1881) 374,973, namely, males 181,880,
and females 193,093. Hindus numbered 205,298 ; Muhammadans,
l67>378; Christians, 2295; 'others,' 2. Proportion of males in total
population, 48*5 per cent.; density of population, 535 persons per
square mile; villages per square mile, 78; persons per village, 689;
houses per square mile, 107; persons per house, 5*3. This Sub-
division comprises the 6 police circles (thdnds) of Krishnagar, Hans-
khali, Krishnaganj, Chapra, Nakasipara, and Kaliganj. In 1883 it
contained 5 civil and 10 magisterial courts, and a regular police force
of 265 men, besides 813 village watchmen.

Krishnagar. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters
of Nadiya District, Bengal ; situated on the left bank of the Jalangi
river. Lat. 230 23' 31" n., long. 88° 32' 31" e. Population (1872)
26,750; (1881) 27,477, sub-divided as follows: — Hindus, iS,62S ;

KRISHNAGIRI TALUK AND TOWN.

Muhammadans, 8281; 'others,' 568: total, 27,477, namely, 1
males and 14,214 females. Area of town site, 4814 acres. Muni
income (1876-77), ^1867 ; (1883-84), ^2354 ; average bcidec
taxation, is. 7|d. per head. Besides the usual Government oft
courts, Krishnagar is also a station of the Church Missionary -
and of a Roman Catholic Mission, each body having its own «
and schools. The Krishnagar College, affiliated to the Calcutta
University, was attended by 41 students in 18S2-83; ar>d its attached
collegiate school by 209 pupils in the same year. Both college and
collegiate school have shown a steadily decreasing number of pu]
late years, owing to the prevalence of malarious fever in the Distrii t.
The town is a seat of considerable trade, and is noted for its manu-
facture of coloured clay figures, a speciality carried on by a few artists
of the Kumbhar or potter caste. Krishnagar is the residence oi
Rajas of Nadiya, one of the old historical families of Bengal, 1
account of whom see Nadiya District.

Krishnagiri (Kistnagiri). — Tdluk in Salem District, Madras 1
dency. Area, 680 square miles (435,077 acres). Population | 1
120,929, namely, 58,911 males and 62,018 females, occupying 21,55s
houses in 541 villages. Hindus numbered 115,163; Muhammadans,
5226; Christians, 514; and 'others,' 26. The area liable to revenue is
distributed as follows: — Government villages, 246,189 acres, and muta
and shrotriem villages, 188,888 acres. The extent actually under cultiva-
tion in rayatwdri villages is 95,869 acres, paying £1 1,471. The Si
of cultivation are rdgi on dry and paddy on wet lands ; but other
crops, as vardgu, cumbu, and cholam, are also largely grown. Irrigation
is carried on from the Pennar (Ponnaiyar) and other small rivers, tanks
(333), minor reservoirs (71), and wells (6262); irrigated area,
acres, assessed at ^3816. There are two irrigation projects, l
Barur and Pennagondapuram. The tdluk contains 1 civil and 1
criminal courts; police circles {thdnds), 9; regular police, 8a men.
Total land revenue, ,£15,381.

Krishnagiri (Kistnagiri).— Town in Krishnagiri tdluk, Salem
trict, Madras Presidency. Lat. 12° 32' n., long. 780 15' 4
ing, with Daulatabad, 1665 houses and 8856 inhabitants, namely,
males and 4673 females, of whom 22 percent., or 19S0, arc M u
chiefly Sepoys. Hindus number 6755; Christians, H4;and'oth<
Situated on the Madras-Bangalore road, the head-quart<
and formerly the military key to the Baramahal. It 1
portions, Old and New Krishnagiri, the latter also known as 1 >autat*l
Both portions are clean, and well laid out in broad stred
north towers the durgam or fortified hill, rising almost perpendicular
800 feet over the town. The fortifications are said to have
by Jagadeva Rao, but most probably are due to Haidai All and

3 1 8 KRISHNA!— KUCH BEHAR.

Sultan. Dilapidated ramparts, reservoirs, and ruined barracks now alone
mark the former purpose of the site. Such were its capabilities for
defence, that it was never carried by assault. In 1767, and again in
1 79 1, British troops attempted it unsuccessfully, and on several occasions
during our operations against Mysore it was found necessary to blockade
or mask it. In 1768 it surrendered to a blockading force, and was
held by a British garrison for some years, until restored by treaty. In
1803, a powder explosion caused great loss of life, the magazine having
been struck by lightning.

Krishnai. — River of Assam, which rises in the Garo Hills to the
north of the Arbela range, near the village of Mandalang-giri, and, flow-
ing north into Goalpara District, falls into the Brahmaputra a few miles
above Goalpara town. Its tributaries in the hills are the Banji and
Rangri. The principal place on the banks of the Krishnai is the
market village of Jira, where the river debouches upon the plains.
In the hills the stream is only used for floating down timber and
dug-out canoes, but in the plains it becomes navigable for boats of 2
tons burthen for a distance of 22 miles.

Krishtna. — District and river, Madras Presidency. — See Kistna.

Kuba. — Petty State in the Sorath division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency. It consists of 1 village, with 2 separate shareholders.
Area, 1 square mile; population (1881) 375. The revenue is estimated

Kubattlir. — Village in Shimoga district, Mysore State; anciently
called Kuntala-nagara. Associated by tradition with King Chandrahasa
of the Mahdbhdrata, whose romantic story is told at greater length in
the Kanarese Jdimini Bhdrata. Ruins of temples in the Chalukyan
style of architecture still exist.

Kuch Behar.— Native State in political relation with the Govern-
ment of Bengal. It is situated between 250 57' 40" and 260 32' 20" N.
lat, and between 88° 47' 40" and 890 54' 35" e. long., entirely sur-
rounded by British territory, being bordered by the Western Dwars
of Jalpaiguri on the north and by Rangpur District on the south.
The area, including certain outlying and detached tracts in Rangpur
and Jalpaiguri Districts, is 1307 square miles; and the population,
according to the Census of 1881, numbers 602,624 persons. The
administrative head-quarters and the principal residence of the Maharaja
are at Kuch Behar town.

Physical Aspects— The State forms a level plain of triangular shape,
intersected by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile and well
cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the north-east corner,
which abuts upon the Province of Assam. The general green of the
arable fields is only broken by bamboo clumps and orchards, which
surround the homestead of each jotddr or substantial farmer. The

KUCH BEHAR.

soil is uniform in character throughout, consisting of a light, fri
loam, varying in depth from 6 inches to 3 feet, superimposed

a deep bed of sand. The whole is detritus, washed down !
from the neighbouring Himalayas.

The rivers all pass through the State from north to south, with a
slight inclination towards the east, on their way from the mountains to
join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. The following six are
navigable for small trading boats throughout the year, and, with the
exception of the Tista and the Raidhak, are fordable at places during
the dry season : — The Tista, Singiman, Torsha or Dharia, Kaljani,
Raidhak, and Gadadhar. There are, besides, some twenty minor
streams which become navigable only during the rainy season. The
river beds are nowhere strongly defined. The streams have a tendency
to cut new channels for themselves after every annual flood, and they
communicate with one another by cross-country watercourses. These
fluvial changes have scattered over the country many pools and mai
of stagnant water. There are no embankments or artificial canals, nor
are any mineral products known to exist.

History. — As is the case with many of the Native States throughout
India, the ruling family of Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin.
There can be no doubt that this region contained the capital of the ancient
Hindu kingdom of Kamrup, which was overthrown by the Afghan kings
of Gaur towards the close of the 15th century. Local traditions of the
national dynasty still live in the memories of the people, and the ruins
of more than one of their capitals are pointed out at the present day.
On their downfall, according to all accounts, succeeded a peri
anarchy, during which the land was overrun by wild tribes from the
north-east. Among these the Kochs came to the front, and ultim
founded the kingdom of Kuch Behar. Tne first rulers were evidently
powerful princes, for their influence extended over the greater ;
Assam and Bhutan, and they were able to maintain a show of inde-
pendence against the Mughal Nawabs of Bengal. But when the British
entered into relations with the State its power was at a very low ebb.

The generally received tradition makes one Hajo, of the K
the earliest known founder of the dynasty; but accordin
legend, more popular at Court, the family trace back to a M
Hariya. Both stories agree in introducing two women, Hira and
who are variously described as sisters or as wives of a commi l
The part assigned to Jira is unimportant ; but the
attracted the love of the great god Siva, by whom si
mother of a son, Visu or Biswa Singh, the fust king 1
All the members of the ruling family bear the name
Lord. The common people, at least those who have l
Islam, call themselves by the high-sounding title o! Rij

320 KUCH BEHAR.

born ' ; and the official appellation of the State is Nij Behar, Nij =
1 own ' or ' peculiar,' being used to distinguish the country from Behar
proper.

The greatest monarch of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, the son of
Visu Singh, who began to reign about 1550 a.d. He conquered the
whole of Kamnip, and built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist
bearing inscriptions with his name. He compelled the Deb Raja of
Bhutan to pay tribute, and extended his power southwards over what is
now part of the British Districts of Rangpur and Purniah. To this
reign also is attributed the introduction of the well-known Narayani
currency, the privilege of coining which has not yet been entirely
abolished, although the custom has fallen into disuse. Old Narayani
coins are not in general circulation, but are accepted at the treasury at
a fixed rate. A few coins have been struck to celebrate the accession
of recent Rajas, but not for circulation. The privilege, when enjoyed,
was much abused, and the existing Narayani rupees are very bad
silver.

The Koch kingdom did not long retain its independence. Nar
Narayan divided his Assam possessions among his brothers, where
their descendants are to be found at the present day as wealthy zamin-
ddrs. His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar,
came into collision with the Mughal Empire, and was carried away
prisoner to Delhi, whence he returned shorn of the attributes of sove-
reignty. The history of the State now loses all general interest. The
Mughals closed round it from the south, though they never actually
annexed it, as a revenue-paying unit, to the Province of Bengal. On the
north, the Bhutias commenced a regular system of depredations, and
went so far as to assert the right of interfering in the succession to the
throne. The internal affairs of the State also fell into deplorable
confusion. In accordance with the curse of the Hindu political system,
three families, all scions of the royal stock, — the Raikat of Bdikanthpur,
the Nazir Deo, and the Diwan Deo, — each claimed a hereditary
position which was inconsistent with unity of administration, and did
not hesitate to call in the foreign foe to support their pretensions.

It was under these circumstances that the East India Company
gained their first knowledge of Kuch Behar. In 1772, the Nazir Deo,
having been driven out of the country by his rivals, who were aided by
the Bhutias, applied for assistance to Warren Hastings, then Governor-
General of Bengal. A detachment of Sepoys was accordingly marched
into Kuch Behar ; the Bhutias were expelled, after a sharp resistance,
and forced to sue for peace through the intervention of the Lama of
Tibet. The treaty made upon this occasion, bearing date April 1773,
is the only authoritative document to determine the relations now exist-
ing between the two parties. By the third clause, the Raja acknow-

KUCH BEIIAR.

ledged subjection to the Company, and consented to his countn
annexed to the Province of Bengal. In subsequent i
mised to make over to the Company one-half of his a:
according to an assessment to be settled by the Company. The :
amount of this moiety was not determined until i 780, when it wa
by the Collector of Rangpur at Sikka Rs. 62,722, equivalent to <
pany's Rs. 67,700 (say ^6770), which sum has continued t
into the treasury of Goalpara up to the present day. A •
important question of the amount of interference which t; i
might exercise in the internal administration, the treaty i
silent. No doubt it was hoped that things would now go on qui
and even in subject zaminddris at this time, the British wen
inquisitive about misgovernment, provided that there were no <>ut:
of violence, and the revenue was punctually paid. But though the
Bhutias had been driven out, the rivalry of domestic faction «
unabated. Anarchy was rendered yet more intense by a long minority,
and the worse evil of the regency of a Rani. Conspiracies and mi:
repeatedly demanded the armed interference of the Collector of 1:
pur. A commission of two civil servants was nominated in 17-
inquire into the state of the country. In their report they are 1
to point out that the Raja ' had made only a partial and voluntary
surrender of his rights, and maintained his independence unimpaired in
his domestic administration.' They concluded by recommending the
appointment of a Resident or Commissioner at the town of K
Behar. This office subsequently became merged in that of (
General's Agent for the North-east Frontier; and its occupant
usually too much engaged with the troublous affairs of Assam I
any attention to Kuch Behar. The little State went on after its
fashion for many years, presenting a unique picture of the merits and
demerits of native Bengali administration.

In 1863, the death of the Raja, leaving a son and heir only ten
months old, attracted the attention of the Government. It \\v.
that a British Commissioner should undertake the direct man
of affairs during the minority of the prince. No organic
effected beyond what was absolutely necessary; but an attempt
been made to give tone and vigour to the adrainistratioi
example of administrative energy and judicial upright!
the many reforms introduced, the following are the m<
A complete survey of the State, accompanied by a settle!.).
land revenue and a record of all rights in the soil ; tin
of the police, and the establishment of an education departmen
carriage roads have been constructed, to connect t:
adjacent commercial centres; rivers have been brid|
of valuable trees laid out, and an efficient system ol po

VOL. VIII.

322 KUCH BEHAR.

graphic communication established. The young Raja received his
early training under an able European officer at Patna, and subse-
quently attended law lectures for three years at the Presidency College,
Calcutta. In 1878 he married a daughter of the late Babu Keshab
Chandra Sen, and in the same year he paid a visit to England. He
attained his majority in October 1883, when he assumed the admini-
stration of the State. He has been appointed an honorary Major in
the British Army, and is attached to the 6th Bengal Cavalry. The
higher title of Maharaja has also been conferred upon him.

People. — The Census of 1872 returned a total population of 532,565
persons, residing in 1199 mauzds or villages and in 81,820 houses.
In 1 881 the population was returned at 602,624, showing an increase
of 70,059, or 13*1 per cent, in the nine years. Area of State
(1881), 1307 square miles, with 12 14 villages, and 115,720 houses.
Persons per square mile, 461; villages per square mile, 0-93; houses
per square mile, 91. The average number of persons per village is
496; of persons per house, 5-21. Classified according to sex, there
are 311,678 males and 290,946 females; proportion of males, 51-4
per cent. Classified according to age, there are, under 15 years —
123,073 boys and 114,592 girls; total children, 237,665, or 39-4 per
cent, of the total population; above 15 years — males 188,605, and
females 176,354; total adults, 364,959, or 6o*6 per cent, of the popu-
lation. The occupation returns are not trustworthy ; but it may be
mentioned that the total number of male adults connected with agri-
culture is returned at 125,559. Classified according to religion, Hindus
number 427,478 ; Muhammadans, 174,539; Jains, 144; Christians, 48;
and ' others,' 415.

The great bulk of the population is undoubtedly of mixed origin, in
which the aboriginal element strongly predominates. The aborigines
proper are poorly represented, and consist mainly of Morangs, Garos,
and Mechs. But the semi-Hinduized aborigines, with the addition of
the Muhammadans, who are not ethnologically to be distinguished from
them, form together upwards of 90 per cent, of the total population.
The Rajbansis alone, the name by which the Koch tribe is known
at the present day in its original head - quarters, number 299,458
souls, or 49*7 per cent, of the whole. The Koch or Rajbansi is a
widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal descent, which is found
throughout all northern Bengal, from Purniah District to the Assam
valley. In ethnical affinities, they are apparently connected with the
Indo-Chinese races of the north-east frontier; but they have now
become largely Hinduized, especially in their own home, where the
appellation ' Koch ' has come to be used as a term of reproach. They
have adopted exclusive caste habits, and pride themselves upon their
purity in eating and drinking. But it is charged against them that their

KUCH BEHAR.

numbers are largely recruited by the offspring of mixed marriages and
illicit connections. Of the Hindus proper, the BnUunans number
3530; the Kshattnyas or Rajputs, 3197; the Kavasths, 252a
most numerous caste is that of the Tiors, a low semi-aboriginal
of fishermen, menials, and swineherds, numbering 54,152. \
these in numerical order are the Bagdis, 14,196; Chandals,
Jugis, 4431; Kurmis, 3586; Napits, 3052; Kaibarttas, 2678;' I
2640; and Mali's, 2156. There are a few members of the Brahma
Samaj, who have a regular place of meeting in Kuch Behar town.
The Vaishnavs are returned at 1210. The Christian population
comprises 32 Europeans, 3 Eurasians, 9 Native Christians, and 4
unspecified.

Kuch Behar town, which contains the palace of the Raja, and has
9535 inhabitants, is the only place worthy the name of a town in the
State. Even villages, in the ordinary sense of the word, are unknown.
Out of a total of 12 14 mauzds returned in the Census Report, as many
as 827 have a population of less than 500 persons each. The people
do not gather into hamlets of any sort, but each well-to-do family lives
apart in its own homestead. Within the State are situated the
extensive ruins of two ancient walled cities, known as Dharma Pal's
city and Kamatapur, capitals of the Kamrup monarchy before the rise
of Kuch Behar.

Agriculture. — Rice constitutes the staple crop throughout the State.
being grown on about three-fourths of the total cultivated area. The
dman or haima?itik harvest, reaped in December and January, furnishes
about 55 per cent, of the food-supply; the dus or bitari, about a 1
cent., the remainder being made up by millets, wheat, and various sorts
of pulses. Jute and tobacco are largely grown for exportation, 01
area that is increasing year by year. Manure, in the form of cow-dun-,
is used by the cultivators for special crops, the quantity being
mined by the number of cattle they keep. Irrigation is rareh
tised. Lands are occasionally allowed to lie fallow, but the prin
of the rotation of crops is unknown. The average out-turn of an
acre of rice land varies from 11 to 20 cut., valued at from /. I, tl
to £2, 13s. The value of a second crop, if obtained from the
field, would be about £\ additional. The rates paid by all
cultivators are practically fixed by the Government Settlement, w!.
to last for twelve years.

The Raja is the actual owner of the soil; and he deals direct!
ionly with the jotddrs and chukdniddrs, substantial farmers,
frequently cultivate the land themselves, but also let it
; under-tenants. These again sub-let, and about half the
by the jotddrs and chukdniddrs is cultivated by ddA
no interest in the soil, but receive a certain share vi the .

324 KUCH BEHAR.

According to the Settlement now current, the jotddr pays a rent of 3s.
an acre, and is expressly prohibited from exacting an increase of more
than 25 per cent, from his under-tenant, who in his turn is laid under
similar restrictions with regard to the ddhidr. At the same time, an
effort has been made to improve the position of the ddhidrs, by giving
them some degree of fixity of tenure. It is reported that the cultivators
of Kuch Behar are generally in a better position than men of the same
class in the neighbouring Districts of Bengal.

The ordinary rates of wages appear to have trebled within the past
thirty years. Both common labourers and skilled artisans require to be
imported from the south. In 1850, a coolie received only 3s. a month
he now receives about 14s. In the same period, the wages of ar
agricultural labourer have risen from 4s. to 10s. a month; and those 0:
a local artisan from 5s. to 16s. On the other hand, the price of food-
grains would seem to have remained almost stationary. Commor
rice, which fetched 4s. 9d. per cwt. in 1861, is reported to have
sold at 4s. id. per cwt. in 1870, the average price in 1883 being 5s. 6d.
per cwt. The maximum price reached in 1866, the year of the Orissc
famine, was 10s. nd. per cwt.

Kuch Behar is not specially exposed to the calamities of either flood
or drought. Heavy rain in the Bhutan Hills sometimes causes inunda-
tion. On two occasions in recent years, in 1854 and in 1873, the
failure of the crops, due to insufficient local rainfall, has been sc
extensive as to require relief operations on the part of the authorities.
In the latter year ,£20,000 was expended on this account. These
occurrences, however, are so rare that no system of irrigation works or
embankments has ever been thought desirable; and the means of
communication are now sufficiently ample to prevent local scarcity
from intensifying into famine. If the price of rice were to rise in
January to 8s. 2d. per cwt., that should be regarded as a sign of
approaching distress.

Mamtfartures, etc. — The people make a great portion of their own
cloth, mats, baskets, etc. within their own families. The only special
industries are the weaving of a strong silk from worms fed on the
castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth, used for screens and
bedding. An artisans' school has recently been established at Kuch
Behar town, and several skilled workmen have been engaged by the
State to teach their trades.

The external trade of the State is annually on the increase. Its
conduct is chiefly in the hands of Marwari immigrants from the North-
west. The system of registration at Sirajganj unfortunately fails to
record the entire river traffic of Kuch Behar. The returns for the year
1876-77 (the latest year for which full details are available) show a
total export valued at ,£152,683, against imports valued at only

KUCH BEHAR.

£55>837- The cnief articles of export were jute (166,200 mam
obacco (I59J300 maunds), oils (,£8833), timber (^7281); the ira]
,vere almost entirely confined to salt (47,500 maunds), sugar (,£IO>4oo),
)iece-goods (^4420). The explanation of the disproportionate:,
igures of importation is to be found in the circumstance, that the
supplies are mainly received from Sirajganj, whence they are re-
:onsigned after having once passed the registration station,
principal marts are — Chaora Hat, which exported 50,000 mam:..
ute and 22,400 of tobacco, and received 6800 of salt; Kuch Behai
own, which exported 15,400 maunds of jute and 34,200 of tob
md received 8500 of salt : Balrampur, which exported 47,300 m 1
Df jute and received 8100 of salt. The amount of jute exported
greatly increased of late, since the opening of the Northern B
.State Railway, the Haldibari station of which is situated within the
State, and is rapidly becoming an important centre of trade for jute and
J other country produce. The present (1883) export of jute probably
approaches 400,000 maunds.

A small but effective Public Works Department has been instituted
within the last few years. In 1874 there were about 115 mi.
junmetalled roads in the State, with numerous good wooden brid
and 'thousands of carts are now found where only tens and &
iused to be seen.' There are now (1883) 271 miles of road in the S
all of them bridged, excepting where they cross the larger rivers. The
roads in the town of Kuch Behar and its vicinity are many of
metalled. The system of roads is mainly designed to bring all p
the country into easy communication with the Tfsta and the Brahma-
putra, the two water highways of this region; the total cost of main
tenance is ^2000 to ^2500 per annum. A railway from Kuch !
to join the branch line of the Northern Bengal Railway at Kaunia
Rangpur District is projected, and the Haldibari station of the ma
line of that railway is just within the western limits of the State.

Administration.— In 1870-71, the net revenue of Kuch Behar St
1 amounted to ,£112,093, towards which the land-tax conti
,£40,896, and the zaminddri estates in British territory ,
net expenditure was returned at ;£ 1 20,279, including ;£i3,9°3
jhold expenses, ,£10,43° for public works, and an aggregate 0\
for 'land revenue' and zaminddri. In 1881-82, the total reve
!the State from all sources (exclusive of the zaminddHs within 1
territory) amounted to £132,040, of which the land t.
,£96,486. The net expenditure during 1881-81 was / 1
whicn ^30,944 was for the Maharaja's household, / 3 ' P"»

works, 7nd £1,557 for Government tribute and land revenue
the ten yeart from 1 864, when a British Comm-ss.oner I
I the administration on the death of the late Raja up I

326 KUCH BEHAR.

surplus revenue amounted to ^£150,000. Most of it was invested in
public securities.

In 1S83 there were 8 criminal and 11 revenue and civil courts open.
For police purposes, the State is divided into 6 thdnds or police circles.
In 1881-82, the regular police force numbered 300 officers and men,
maintained at a total cost of ^42I5- These figures show 1 policeman
to every 4-3 square miles of the area, or to every 2008 persons in the
population ; and an average cost of £3, 4s. 6d. per square mile, and
ifd. per head of population. The system of village watch has been
gradually introduced, and there are now 1701 chaukiddrs. The force
has been in all respects assimilated to that of the surrounding villages.
In 1874, 2674 criminal cases were instituted, in which 2614 persons
were brought to trial, of whom 174S, or 66 per cent., were convicted,
showing 1 person convicted of an offence to every 304 of the
population. Out of property to the value of £110 reported to be
stolen, ^209, or 27 per cent., was recovered. There is one jail at
Kuch Behar town. In 1S74, the aggregate number of prisoners was
1324, of whom 34 were females; the average cost per head was
£4, 13s. 4&, and the net profit from jail manufactures amounted to

,£478.

Education has extended rapidly during recent years. In 1S74 there
were 245 schools, attended by 6495 pupils, showing 1 school to every
5 -3 square miles, and 1 pupil to every S2 of the population. The high
school, with 176 students, has won many scholarships in the colleges of
Bengal. The artisan school, or technical institution for the lower
classes, is attended by 39 pupils. There is a good library of English
literature in Kuch Behar town, and also a State printing-press. An
official Gazette called Cooch Behar State Gazette is published every
fortnight at the State Press.

The administration of Kuch Behar State is carried on by the
Maharaja, assisted by a council, consisting of three members, namely,
the Superintendent of the State, the Diwan or chief revenue officer,
and the Civil Judge. The Maharaja is the President of the Council,
and in his absence the Superintendent of the State acts as Vice-
President.

The Superintendent of the State supervises, directs, and controls the
administration of criminal justice, and the police, military, jail, public
works, education, and audit departments. He is also Sessions Judge,
hearing all criminal appeals which ordinarily lie to Sessions Judges in
British Districts.

The Diwan is in charge of the revenue department, and is respon-
sible for the collection of all kinds of revenue, and the supervision of
all proceedings in connection therewith. He does not exercise any
judicial powers. Appeals from the decisions of his subordinates in

KUCH BEHAR TOilW.

rent suits lie to the Civil Court; but he hears appeals from the.r
orders in revenue executive matters, such as sales for arrears, mutation
cases, etc.

The Judicial Member of Council hears all civil and revenue a]
in which the subject-matter of the suit exceeds Rs. ioo in value in
Small Cause Court cases, and Rs. 50 in other cases. In addition, he-
tries original civil and rent suits, in which the value exceeds Rs. 500.

The following appeals lie to the Council— (1) Appeals from sent
passed by the Sessions Court ; (2) Civil appeals, both on the facts and
on points of law, from the Judicial Member in original suits ; (3) S
appeals on law points only, in other civil and revenue cases. Sentences
of death are confirmed by the Maharaja in Council in every case.
three Members of Council are independent of each other.

The officers subordinate to the Superintendent of the State are — (1)
The Fanjddri A/iiikdr, or Magistrate, who exercises the powers of a
first-class Magistrate in British Districts. He is assisted by subordinate-
Magistrates, who exercise second and third class powers; (2) The
Superintendent of Education, who has under him a Deputy and a
Sub-Deputy Superintendent; (3) The Superintendent of Police, with
his staff of inspectors and sub-inspectors ; (4) The Superintendent
of Public Works, with a subordinate staff of assistant superinter.
overseers, and sub-overseers. The Diwan, or chief revenue offi«
assisted by an officer styled Mdl-kachhari Naib Ahilkdr, who has also
the charge of the treasury. There are four administrative Sub-divisions
in the State, each presided over by an officer styled Naib Ahiikar,
whose duties are analogous to those of sub-divisional office
British Districts.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of Kuch Behar is damp and malarious,
but not so hot as in other parts of Bengal. The wind sets mud.
the east, and thunderstorms are common from March to May. I he
rainy season lasts from April to October. Fogs are common during
the cold weather in the early mornings. The average anni
is returned at 123 inches. During the year 1S74, tl
temperature recorded at 10 a.m. was 92-5° F., in the month oi
the lowest at 4 p.m. was 49/ 1°, in January.

The chief diseases are malarious fevers, dysentery, diarrto 1
and goitre. Cholera appears to be endemic to the country, ai
sionally breaks out with great epidemic violence. Small-]
disappearing before the introduction of vaccination. In 1
number of patients treated at the charitable dispens
proportion of deaths to patients treated being 31 P« th' «

Kuch Behar.-Capital of Kuch Behar State and the
dence of the Maharaja ; situated on the Torsha river. I
long. 890 28' 53" e. Population (1872) 7*45 i («**«) ^35- llm

328 KUCHLA BIJNA—KUDALUR.

numbered in the latter year 61 19; Muhammadans, 3337; and 'others,' 79.
Area of town site, 1309 acres. The town until recently consisted of a
congeries of mat huts surrounding the brick mansion which formed the
residence of the Maharaja. Great improvements have, however, been
effected within the last few years, and others have been introduced and
energetically proceeded with since the Maharaja assumed the direct
management of the State on attaining his majority in 1883. The
principal square has been surrounded on three sides with handsome
public buildings. In the centre of the square is a large tank called the
Sagar-dighi, which affords good drinking water to nearly all the
population. On the north side of the square stands the Maharaja's
court-house and attached offices, a two-storied building of imposing
appearance. On the east are the English and vernacular schools,
printing-office, and State record rooms. To the south the subordinate
civil and criminal courts occupy a fine building, containing four
large court-rooms and other smaller offices. The old market-place
has been recently cleared of mat huts, and a quadrangular market-
place with a corrugated iron roof and brick floor has been con-
structed. An excellent dispensary and hospital has also been built.
The principal street passing through the bazar now contains hardly a
single mat hut, and corrugated iron has taken the place of straw as
roofing. The other public buildings are the post-office, jail, police
station, and artisans' schools, located in suitable masonry buildings.
A new palace, a splendid building, has just been constructed as a
residence for the Maharaja at a cost of about 12 lakhs of rupees
G£i 20,000).

The trade is not large, and the few Marwari merchants confine their
dealings mainly to export traffic. The two small streams, both called
Torsha, which encircle the town on three sides, are navigable only
during the rainy season. For the rest of the year, the sole means of
communication is by land. The main line of road from Rangpur to
Jalpaiguri passes through the town. A municipality, consisting of official
and non-official members, has lately been established.

Kuchla Bijna. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated on the
right bank of the Ramganga river, 4 miles above its confluence with the
Ganges. Population (1869) 2104 ; (1881) 1612, chiefly Raikwars, who
obtained the village by conquest from the Thatheras.

Ktichmala. — Hill in Palghat taluk, Malabar District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. io° 33' n., long. 760 55' e. ; about 4000 feet above sea-
level. A well-defined, pinnacle-shaped peak, terminating the Kollangod
range. Contains some splendid teak. Inhabited by the hill tribe of
Kurders.

Kudallir.— Taluk and town in South Arcot District, Madras Presi-
dency.— See Cuddalore.

KUDAL UR—KUHAN.
Kudalur. — Pass in Travancore State, Madras Presidency.— See

GUDALUR.

Kudarimukh. — Mountain in the Western Ghits, Bombay I

dency. — See Kuduremukha.

Kudarkot. — Village and ruins in Bidhauna tahsi/, Etawah I >:
North- Western Provinces. Lies on the Etawah and Kanauj ro
miles north-east of Etawah town. Population (1872) 25C7 ; (1881)
3459, namely, Hindus 2709, and Muhammadans 750. Probably a
place of great importance in the days of the Gupta kings. Tradition
asserts that an underground passage connected Kudarkot with Kanauj.
The houses of the modern village are built of bricks dug out of the
ancient mound. Miyan Almas All Khan, minister of Nawab Asafud-
daula, held court at Kudarkot, and built a fort with 16 bastions on the
site of the prehistoric stronghold. Disused after the British occupation,
it now serves in part for the factory of an indigo planter, in part for
a police station and village school. An inscription of the 1 ith century
has been found among the ruins.

Kuddana.— State in Rewa Kantha Province, Gujarat (Gu.
Bombay Presidency. The chief is Thakur Parvat Singhji, born about
1822. The area of the State is 130 square miles. The revenue is
estimated at ^1400. The State pays no tribute.

Kuditini.— Town in Bellary District, Madras Presidency. Popula-
tion (1881) 3944; number of houses, 768. The first stage on the
Dharwar road, and formerly sacred as the halting-place of Komaras
wami on his expedition against the Rakshasas. Remains of a fort anil
of a Jain settlement.

Kudligi. — Taluk in Bellary District, Madras Presidency.
838 square miles (536,595 acres). Population (1881) 74,690, namely,
37,226 males and 37,464 females, inhabiting 15,086 house-
number 72,469; Muhammadans, 2181 ; Christians, 6; 'other.
The area under actual cultivation in 187 1 was 124,42s
quarters of the taluk are waste. There are 70 miles of made rOJ
Chief towns are Kudligi (2977), KottiSr (5156), and Jenmala.
Uluk contains 2 criminal courts and 9 police stations ; regular pol
63 men. Land revenue, ^9046.

Kuduremukha (literally ' Horse-face >).-Peak of the U estern G
on the boundary between Kadiir District, Mysore State, and the
District of South Kanara. Lat. 13° 8' N., long. 75" -°. ' - :
above sea-level. The name is said to be derived from ;•
as a conspicuous landmark to sailors. It can be ascei
west by a bridle-path. On the summit a bungalow has beer.
a summer retreat for the Malabar officials, and anutl.
been built by the missionaries of the Basel Evangelical Mia

Kuhan.— River in the Punjab.— See Kahan.

330 KUHLUR—KULACHI.

Kuhlur. — State in the Punjab. — See Kahlur.

KukdeL — Town in the Shahada Sub-division of Khandesh District,
Bombay Presidency, included within the municipal limits of Shahada
(q.v.) town. The population of Kukdel itself in 1881 was 1217 ; the
houses numbered 202.

Kliki. — A family of wild tribes inhabiting hilly country on the
north-east frontier of India, extending along the southern border of the
Assam District of Cachar, the eastern borders of the Bengal District
of Chittagong, the hilly tracts of Northern Arakan, and stretching away
into the unexplored mountains of Independent Burma. — See Lushai
Hills.

Kukra Mailani. — Pargand in Lakhimpur ta/isi/, Kheri District,
Oudh ; lying between the Kathna river on the west and the Ul on the
east ; bounded on the north by Bhiir, and on the south by Haidarabad
pargands. A jungle tract, containing three large clearings — one to the
south, Saukhia Sansarpur ; one to the north-east, Kukra ; and a third
to the extreme north-west, Mailani. Most of the forest or upland area,
amounting to 126 square miles, was made over to grantees under the
lease rules, but they all failed to comply with the conditions of their
grants, which have since been resumed and transferred to the Oudh
Forest Department. The revenue-paying tract, 51 square miles, consists
mainly of the basins of three or four ancient lakes, into which the high
lands drained.

The aspect of these mere pits in the surface of the forest is very
peculiar. The largest (Kukra) may be taken as a type of all : a flat plain
about seven miles long and four broad, covered with rice-fields and
prairies of long coarse grass, through which breast-high the foot-passenger
moves with difficulty in pursuit of the game which lies concealed in herds.
A few mango groves adjoin the mud -walled villages. Here and
there a slight depression allows the rain-water to gather in stagnant
marshes. All round the horizon the traveller sees the high bluffs—
once the shores of this inland sea — rising crowned with a ring of
lofty and dense sal forest. This wall of verdure is only broken at
places where it has been levelled to make room for the roads which
pass through the plain, piercing the forest towards Gola and Bhira.

Rice is the principal crop in these clearings, but barley and gram have
been sown largely of late years. The want of means of carriage alone
prevents a large trade springing up in timber. Population (1868)
12,236; (1881) 14,641, of whom 2511 are Muhammadans, principally
Pathans ; 12,125 Hindus ; and 5 ' others.' Land revenue, ^945. The
proprietary body was formerly Ahban, but many of them have now
lost all their possessions. Ahban Musalmdns, however, still hold 19 of
the 40 townships comprising the pargand, 13 being held by Rajputs.
Kulachi.— Western tahsil of Dera Ismail Khan District, Punjab ;

KULACHI—KU-LA-DAX.

'consisting of the wild country immediately below the in I

Sulaiman mountains, stretching in its extreme southern ;
the west bank of the Indus. Lat. 300 57' 30" to 32 16' :,..
700 14' to 700 45' e. Area, 1513 square miles, with ml
villages, and 14,172 houses. Population (1SS1) 70,95c 1
males 37,763, and females 33,187 ; average density of i
47 persons per square mile. Number of families, 15,942. I
according to religion, Muhammadans numbered 62,614; Hindus,
8170; and Sikhs, 166. Of the total area of 1513 square miles
or 968,400 acres, 238,618 acres were returned as under cultn
in 1878-79, in the last quinquennial agricultural statistics of the
Punjab Government. The uncultivated area comprised 8771 a< 1
grazing land, 588,159 acres of cultivable waste, and 13s
uncultivable waste. Revenue of the tahsil, ^4673. The administrative
staff consists of a tahsilddr, a munsif, and an honorary magistrate.
These officers preside over 3 civil and 2 criminal courts. The
contains 3 tahsils or police circles, a regular police of 77 men. and a
village watch of 1 2 2 chaukidars.

Kulachi. — Chief town and head-quarters of Kulachi tahs'il. 1 >era I
Khan District, Punjab. Situated in lat. 31° 55' 38" n., Ion-. 70' 30'
19" e., on the left bank of the Lunf, 27 miles north-west of Dera 1
Khan town, and 24 miles south of Tank. Population (1868) 9921 ;
(1881) 7834, namely, 2461 Hindus, 5310 Muhammadans, and 63 Sikh:
number of houses, 1336. Kulachi is rather an aggregation of [6
separate hamlets standing at the point of union in their lands, tha
a regular town. Surrounded by a low mud wall; scattered hou:
30 mosques, 5 dharmsdlas. Formerly carried on a brisk
the Waziris of the hills, which declined before annexatioi
since somewhat revived. Transit trade to Ghwalari Pass. Tm
police station, dispensary, school, travellers' bungalow. A thin
municipality, with an income in 18S0-81 of £y^ j
^551.

Ku-la-dan.— River of Arakan, British Burma. Sup;
the neighbourhood of the Blue Mountain, a peak in tl
After a course generally north and south, it foils into t:
at Akyab town, where it is called by Europeans the ' Araka:
by the inhabitants of the country < Gat-sa-ba.' Before the
leaves the hills, it is fed by numerous tributaries, the tw<
Mf from the east and the Pi from the west; its banks are inh.
hillmen. It is navigable by vessels of from 300 to 40c I » »

nearly 50 miles. Its mouth forms a large harbour witl
ground, protected from the south-west monsoon by tl
On Savage Island, at the entrance to the harbour, sta,
erected in 1842. The entrance is dangerous and difficult at k>« tide,

332 KU-LA-DAN TO WNSHIP—KULBARGA.

there being then a depth of barely 3J fathoms, much reduced when
a rolling swell sets in.

Kli-la-dan. — Township in the north of Akyab District, Arakan
Division, British Burma. It adjoins the Hill Tracts, and is divided into
13 revenue circles. Except to the south, the country is hilly, forest-
clad, and but little cultivated. The township contains 294 villages.
The area under cultivation (1881-82) is 40,880 acres, mostly under rice.
Agricultural stock: — Horned cattle, 25,768; pigs, 2550; goats, 805;
ploughs, 5901 ; carts, 1237; and boats, 1095. The head-quarters of
the township are on the right bank of the Kii-la-dan river, near the
Maha-muni temple. Population (1881) 38,896; gross revenue, ^11,979;
of which land revenue contributed ^7716, capitation-tax ^£3488, and
local cess ^"738.

Kulaghat. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle in Rangpur
District, Bengal ; situated on the right bank of the Dharla river. An
important trading mart; principal articles of export — jute, tobacco, and
ginger.

Kulasekharapatnam. — Town and seaport in Tenkarai taluk, Tin-
nevelli District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 90 4 40" n., long. 77° 31'
20" e. Population (1881) 14,972, namely, 6548 males and 8424
females; number of houses, 3823. Hindus numbered 7182; Muham-
madans, 3572; Christians, 4218. One of the trade centres of the
District. Imports (1880-81), ^16,828 ; exports, ^55,030.

Kulbarga (or Gulbargd). — Chief town of the Kulbarga District of
Haidarabad State (Nizam's Dominions) ; situated on an undulating
plain, which presents a somewhat dreary expanse of black soil.
Population (1881) 22,834. The former capital of a powerful dynasty,
it has now become a place of secondary importance. In early times
it was a Hindu city of great extent. Previous to the Muhamma-
dan conquest, Kulbarga was included in the dominions of the Rajas of
Warangal. After the subjugation of the Zadavas of Deogiri (Daulat-
abad) by the Muhammadans, other inroads followed which resulted
in the overthrow of the Hindu kingdom of Warangal. In 1323, Prince
Alagh Khan (afterwards the emperor Muhammad Tughlak), who was
deputed by his father, Ghazi Beg Tughlak, to suppress a rebellion that
had broken out in the southern portions of the kingdom, captured
Kulbarga and Bidar. Twenty years afterwards the Deccan governors
rebelled against the emperor Muhammad Tughlak, and set up a
king of their own. Malik Magh, the nominee of the rebels, abdi-
cated in favour of Jafar Khan, who assumed the title of Ala-ud-din
Hasan Shah Gangu Bahmani. He selected Kulbarga as his capital,
and commenced to reign in 1347. The new king rapidly extended
his dominions, which were subsequently divided into four great pro-
vinces. In 1432, the capital was transferred to Bidar. Towards

KULIK— KULLAR.

the close of the fifteenth century, Kulbarga came into i.,
of the kings of Bijapur.

During the last ten or twelve years much has been done I
to Kulbarga some of its former prosperity. The south-eastern
sion of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway has a station near the
Between the railway station and the old town, plantation
been laid out. A handsome garden and many new buildings a) >
the town. Kulbarga is entered by a stately gateway re< entl) - I
In the jail the manufacture of carpets, both of the finer and
kinds, of soda-water and lemonade, of tents, and of paper,
with cloth-weaving, is carried on by 400 convicts.

After the abandonment of Kulbarga for Bidar, the palaces and
mosques, which had been erected by the kings who ruled there, were
allowed to fall into ruin and decay. The outer walls and g I
the old fort are now in a dilapidated condition. A citadel, or Bali 1 1
has suffered the least. The only remarkable building in the fort is the
great mosque or masjid, modelled after the mosque of Cordova in -
Its chief peculiarity is that, alone among the larger mosques of India,
the whole area of 38,016 square feet is covered in. Nothing hut
of ruin remain of the palaces and pleasure-houses of the Ilahmani
kings.

Kulik. — River of Dinajpur District, Bengal. The principal tributary
of the Nagar. It takes its rise in a marsh in the police circle (///<///</')
of Thakurgaon, and, after running for 36 miles through the thdi
Ranisankail, Pirganj, and Hemtabad, falls into the Nagar in lat -\
n., and long. 88° 5' e., at Gorahar village, near the point whei
latter river joins the Mahananda. The important jute mart of RAIGANJ
is situated on the Kulik.

Kulitalai. — Taluk in Trichinopoli District, Madr
Area, 941 square miles. Population (188 1) 201,990, nam.:
males and 104,608 females. Number of villi
41,666. Hindus number 187,180; Muhammadans, 651.;: I
8295; 'others,' 2. Villages of considerable size are— \
(4465), Mahadanapuram (6191), and Kristnarayapuram (3233
taluk contains 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police stations
1 2 ; regular police, 86 men. Land revenue ( 1 883 \ / - '

Kulitalai— Town in Kulitalai t&luk, Trichinopoli District, Ma.
Presidency. Lat. io° 56' n, long. 7S0 27' e. ; situated on tin
of the Kaveri (Cauvery). Population (1881) 1459 i ™
296. Head-quarters of the taluk, and a station on the 1 I
of the South Indian Railway.

Kullar.— Village in Nilgiri Hills District, Madras I jr. Lai

ii° 20' N.,long. 7o° 56' E. Although it belongs to N
Kullar lies low, being the dak (post) station (5 miles from

3 34 KULL U—KULSI.

terminus at Mettapolliem), where the ascent of the Kuniir (Coonoor)
ghdt begins.

Kullu. — Valley and Sub-division of Kangra District, Punjab. Set
Kulu.

Kulpahar (also called Pami'dri-Jditpur, from the name of the two
pargands comprising it). — Southern tahsil of Hamirpur District, North-
western Provinces, consisting of part of the hilly and rocky southern
border of the District. Area, 55 8 square miles, of which 309 are
cultivated. Population (1872) 123,911; (1SS1) 125,578, namely,
males 64,468, and females 61,110. Total increase of population in
the 9 years, 1667, or 1*3 per cent. Classified according to religion,
there were, in 18S1 — Hindus, 119,931, and Muhammadans, 5647.
Of the 233 villages constituting the tahsil, 153 contained less than
five hundred inhabitants. Land revenue, ^"17,852 ; total Government
revenue, ^21,110; rental paid by cultivators, ^32,671 j incidence of
Government revenue, is. per acre.

Kulpahar. — Town in Hamirpur District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Kulpahar tahsil ; situated in lat. 250 19' 10" n.,
and long. 79° 39' 40" e., in the southern hill country ; distant from
Hamirpur town 60 miles south. Population (1872) 6044; (iSSt)
6066, namely, 5294 Hindus and 772 Muhammadans. Founded by
Jagatraja, son of the great Bundela leader, Chhatar Sal, and Raja of
Jaitpur. Each of Jagatraja's sons built himself a mansion in the town,
the ruins of which still exist. Kesri Singh also erected the Toriya fort,
whose remains still stand. Large tanks, built by the Bundela Rajas.
Tahsi/i, police station, school, sanii, unpretentious mosques and temples.
Trade in grain, cotton, and the al dye. A specially good variety of
cotton is grown in, and named from, the locality. The town was a
centre of local disaffection during the Mutiny.

Kulsi. — River of Assam, formed by the junction of the Khri and
Um-gin streams in the Khasi Hills. The united stream flows north into
Kamriip District, and, after a very winding course, which changes year
by year, finally falls into the Brahmaputra, in lat. 2 6° 9' n., and long.
910 22' e., near the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of that river.
In the plains it is navigable by native boats during the greater part of
the year. On its banks in Kamriip District are several valuable
forests of sal trees, under the protection of the Forest Department.
The timber depot is at Kukurmara, at the crossing of the trunk road.
A portion of the river is leased annually as a fishery.

Kulsi. — Forest reserve and experimental plantation in Kamriip
District, Assam ; on the right or west bank of the river of the same
name, immediately north of the Bard war reserve. Area, 3520 acres,
or 5-5 square miles. The surface soil is a sandy loam covered with
vegetable mould, resting upon granitoid rock, much decomposed.

KU LSI A— KULU.

There are several marshy tracts, inundated during the rain,. A: out 2
square miles are covered with sdl (Shorea robusta), which
tended to preserve. The remainder is being gradually
experimentally with teak (Tectona grandis), sissu | I
tun (Cedrela Toona), nahor (Mesua ferrea), sUm (Ma
tissima); and all the land not suitable for timber I
planted with caoutchouc or india-rubber (Ficua elastica). Al
close of the year 1882, 168 acres had been planted with teak, 30
with sissu, 101 acres with caoutchouc, and 2 acres with bain:
Kulsia. — Native State, Punjab. — Sec KALSIA.
Kulu. — Eastern tahsil or Sub-division of Kingra District!
Lat. 31° 20' to 33° n., and long. 760 49' to 78" 35' 1 .. j 1
three taluks or cantons of Kulu, Lahul, and Situ, each of •
separately. Area of the Sub-division, 6344 square miles, of whi< h only
67 square miles were returned as under cultivation in 187S. Popula-
tion (1881) 108,981, namely, males 54,546, and females 5.;
living in 67 villages, and occupying 20,576 houses. Numb
families, 22,342. Classified according to religion, Hindus nun/
105,493; Buddhists, 2860; Muhammadans, 547; Christians, 74
Sikhs, 7. The average densitv of the population throughout the «
Sub-division is 1 7 persons per square mile, varying from 1 |
square mile in Spiti to 3 in Lahul, and to 52 in Kiilu taluk. \
the whole of what little cultivation there is, is confined to Kiilu
Proper. The Assistant Commissioner of Kulu has his head-quar:
Nagar on the Beas (Bias). The subordinate officials include— the
tahsilddr of Kiilu, whose head-quarters are at Sultdnpur ; the
tahsilddr of Seoraj, whose head-quarters are at Plach ; the n
head-man of Lahul ; and the nono of Spiti. These 1
over 3 civil and 3 criminal courts; strength of regular police, 20 men,
with 33 village watchmen or chaukiddrs. Revenue of ti
^5598. For further information, see the following article, K I
and also Kangra District.

Kiilu. — A valley and tdluk of Kangra District,
between 310 20' and 320 26' n. lat., and between ;
770 49' 45" e. long. Bounded on the north-east ai.
Central Himalayan range, dividing it from Lahul and n the

south by the river Sutlej (Satlaj) ; on the south-west by the 1
or Outer Himalayan range, the river Beas (Bias) and the N
of Suket and Mandi ; and on the west by the Para BangdhaJ
which separate Kulu from the Bangdhal valley. An
miles: population (1881) 108,981 persons.

Physical Ast>ects.-Thc river Sainj, which rises in the V
range, joining the Beas (Bias) at Par,;,, divides the ttad in!
portions, Kulu Proper and Seoraj. The latter division, lymg bd

336

KULU.

the Sainj and the Sutlej (Satlaj), is again separated into Outer and
Inner Seoraj by the Jalorior Suket range. Kulu Proper, to the north
of the Sainj, together with Inner Seoraj, forms a great basin or de-
pression in the midst of the Himalayan systems, having the narrow
gorge of the Beas at Larji as the only outlet for its waters. North and
east, the Bara Bangahal and Mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a mean
elevation of 18,000 feet; while southward, the Jalori and Dhaoladhar
ridges attain the height of 11,000 feet. Within the basin thus defined,
short but lofty buttresses of rock encroach upon the central area,
leaving only a few rare patches of cultivable land between their barren
and snow-clad summits. The greater portion must consequently ever
remain an utter wilderness. The higher villages stand 9000 feet above
the sea; and even the cultivated tracts have probably an average
elevation of 5000 feet.

The Beas (Bias), which, with its tributaries, drains the entire basin,
rises at the crest of the Rohtang Pass, 13,326 feet above the sea, and
has an average fall of 125 feet per mile, although in the lower part
of its course through Kiilu, its average fall does not probably exceed
62 feet per mile. The principal tributaries of the Beas are on the
right bank, the Solang or Beash-khand, the Manali and the Sarwari ;
on the left bank the Rami, the Parbati (with its affluent the Malana),
the Hural, the Sainj or Larji, and the Tirthan. The Beas is bridged
by a steel rope suspension bridge at Shamsi, and by wooden bridges
at five other places. Its course presents a succession of magnificent
scenery, including cataracts, gorges, precipitous cliffs, and mountains
clad with forests of pine, towering above the tiers of deodar on the
lower rocky ledges.

The general appearance of the country is very different from that of
Kangra Proper. There are no low hills ; at every point, before and
behind, high mountains rise up at no great distance, and shut in the
view. The lower slopes are dotted here and there with villages, not
the scattered houses so common in Kangra, but groups of houses standing
as close together as the ground will admit. Some are tower-shaped, four
storeys high, with but one room to each storey. The sloping roof of stone
or wooden slabs with far projecting eaves, and the wooden verandahs
thrown out round the upper storey, and adorned with carved work,
have a very picturesque appearance. The lower storey is occupied by
the cattle and sheep and goats ; and consequently, instead of the fresh-
plastered walls and clean-swept court-yards to be seen in the low hills,
there is as much mud and mess round the houses as in a farm-yard in
England. Round the villages are terraced fields, planted here and
there with walnut and apricot trees, and fringed with belts of khdrsu or
moru, evergreen oaks whose leaves are used for winter fodder ; mixed
up with the fields, and separating them from those of the next village,

KULU. 3J7

are slopes of steep grass and strips of kail pine and
forest.

Above the villages, wherever there is some soil and not too I
sun, dark forests of reh and tos pines, lit up here and there
patches of maple or horse chestnut, spread along the upper si
and are succeeded again by straggling woods of stunted oak, I
and white rhododendron. Rounded grassy summits or bare ri
of rock crown the whole ; and here and there, up a valley, or thr
an opening in the mountains, a glimpse is caught of the |
and perpetual snows of the great ranges of which the mount
on which the villages stand are spurs and offshoots. This is the
summer aspect of the country; in the winter the ground is covered
with snow for two or three days, or for months together, according to
situation. Snow does not usually lie long at heights of less than 6000
feet.

In the valley of the Beas the mountains stand back on either side
for a distance of one or two miles ; and fine plateaux run down with a
gentle slope from their bases to the banks of the river. These plateaux
are the garden of Kulu. They are closely and carefully cult;
and watered by canals brought from the mountain gorges. The river
banks are high cliffs hung with bush and creeper. Between them the
river winds from side to side, now deep and smooth, now foaming
down rocky rapids in channels fringed with alder, and through meadows
and marshes dotted with ash and poplar. Here and there wooded
islands break the stream into several branches. This part of the
country is remarkably beautiful, and has gained for the Kiilu valley the
reputation of being the prettiest part of the British Himalayas. The
minor rivers have no proper valley ; the mountains rise abrupt!}
the very edge of the water.

Great mineral wealth exists in Kiilu, undeveloped as yet, anion- the
isolated glens, but the isolation of the country and the difficult
transport and labour must for long prevent its proper development.
In the tract known as Waziri Riipi, veins of silver, copper, an.!
have been discovered, and in 1869 a monopoly of working the 1
in this tract was granted to an English private gentleman. His pro-
ceedings, however, were not attended with any marked success, and th
lease was cancelled in 1883. Negotiations with other English
for a fresh lease are now (1884) in progress. In the vail
Beas, various lodes have been discovered ; and traces
white crystal, and of antimony, have been met with at ]
the Beas. Slate of a very fair quality is obtainable th:
the better descriptions being found at Sultanpur. Several 1
exist, much resorted to as places of pilgrimage, and for bath;:.
by persons suffering from rheumatism and skin diseases.

VOL. VIII.

338 KULU.

known of these springs are at Manikarn in the valley of the Parbatf,
and at Basisht and Kalat on the banks of the Beas.

Forests occupy a considerable portion of Kiilu below the snow line.
The finest deodar forests are those of the upper Beas and the Parbatf,
where they lie low in the valley near the water's edge. Higher up on
the hill-side the forests are more dense, the principal timber trees being
the reh or rat (Abies Smithiana), the tos (Abies Webbiana), and several
kinds of oak. Horse chestnut, maple, birch, yew, walnut, and rhodo-
dendron are also very common. In the valleys, Himalayan poplar and
alder are found. Walnut, apricot, and quince trees are much planted
in fields surrounding the villages.

The fauna of Kiilu is rich, and includes two species of bear, the
black and brown ; and two species of leopard, the common spotted
and the white. Ibex and musk deer are found in the hills. The other
animals include the hyaena, wild hog, jackal, fox, marten, wild cat, and
flying squirrel. Several species of hill pheasant abound, but the mundl
and argus pheasants, so prized for their plumage, are only procurable
in the highest ranges. The white-crested pheasant, the koklas, and
the chir, with red jungle-fowl, black and wood partridge, and chikor are
common in the lower hills ; snipe, woodcock, teal, and quail are toler-
ably abundant in the lower grass ground. In winter, the gohind or
snow pheasant, and the snow partridge, can be obtained without diffi-
culty, as also wild geese and duck. Eagles, vultures, kites, and hawks
inhabit the upper fastnesses.

History. — The little principality of Kiilu formed one of the eleven
original Rajput States between the Ravi and the Sutlej, and probably
belonged to some of the minor Katoch dynasties, offshoots from the
great kingdom of Jalandhar (Jullundur). Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim, visited it in the 7th century; and local legends
preserve the names of 87 princes who ruled successively in this remote
mountain valley. Authentic history, however, first recognises Kiilu in
the 15th century, when Raja Sudh Singh ascended the throne, whom
tradition places 74th in descent from the original founder of the
dynasty. His descendants ruled the valley till the beginning of the
present century, their annals being wholly confined to the usual Indian
record of court intrigues, assassinations, and dynastic quarrels. When
the Gurkhas broke out from their home in Nepal, and conquered all
the country up to the banks of the Sutlej, they found Bikrama Singh
upon the throne of Kiilu. Like the other neighbouring chieftains,
Bikrama Singh paid tribute to the invaders for his cis-Sutlej territory,
as well as to Sansar Chand, the Katoch prince of Kangra, for Kiilu
itself. In 1809, however, Ranjit Singh, called in by Sansar Chand,
made himself master of the hills, and obtained tribute from the young
Raja of Kiilu, Ajit Singh, an illegitimate son of Bikrama Singh.

KULU.

Three years later, the Sikhs demanded an annual payment of /5000 ;
and on the Raja's refusal, marched upon his capital of Sultanpui

sacked his palace. Ajit Singh at length bribed the Sikhs to wit!,
by paying them all the money he could collect. After the expu
of the Gurkhas; the Raja became a feudatory of the British fur tl,
Sutlej tract. In 1839, General Ventura led a Sikh force against the
neighbouring State of Mandt ; after conquering which, one of his
lieutenants attacked Kiilu, on the pretext of hostile dispositions. The
Raja made no resistance, and allowed himself to be taken prisoner;
but the brutal discourtesy shown him by his captors routed the
hereditary loyalty of the hillmen. A secret muster took pla<
the invaders marched out of Seoraj by the Basleo Pass, the hillmen fell
upon them in a narrow ravine, rescued their prince, and massai red the
Sikhs almost to a man.

Ajit Singh retired across the Sutlej to his fief of Shangri, whi< h
he held from the British Government since the expulsion of the
Gurkhas; and so placed himself beyond reach of vengeance
Lahore. A Sikh army soon after marched into Seoraj, but t
it completely deserted, the inhabitants having fled into in..
sible forests on the mountain-sides. Accordingly they handed over
the country in farm to the Raja of Mandi, leaving a garrison in
Kiilu to enforce their supremacy. Ajit Singh died at Shangri in 1
and the Sikhs made over in part their portion of his former dominions
to his first cousin, Thakur Singh, while Shangri remained in the hands
of another relative. In 1846, at the close of the first Sikh war, the
Jalandhar (Jullundur) Doab, with the adjoining hill States, passed into
the power of the British; and Kiilu, with Lahul and Spin, became a
tahsil of the new Kangra District. The Government confirmed Thakur
Singh in his title of Raja, and in the territories which he then pos-
sessed. On his death in 1852, his son, Gyan Singh, of doubtful
legitimacy, obtained the inferior title of Rai, with half the land, and no
political powers. The resumed half has since been restored, with
certain reservations in favour of Government.

Population.— The Gensus of 188 1 returned the number of :
at 100,259, spread over an area of 1934 square miles, distributed amor
48 villages. The people are almost exclusively Hindus in religion, the
ancient faith numbering 99,686 adherents, as against
dans and 7 Christians. The chief castes or tribes ranked .
numerical order in 1868 :— Kanets, S2$$6 > I);,~1>' J"
Brahmans, 6615. The Census for 1881 does not return tl
tion of Sub-divisions according to caste or tribe. '1 he I
tribe probably represents impure or degraded Rajputs. Ri
are hill aborigines. The character of the hillmen resem
most other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, ind .

34o KULU.

and superstition. Polyandry still prevails in Seoraj, but the custom
is disappearing, and has almost died out elsewhere. It consists
simply of a community of wives amongst brothers, who hold all their
other goods in common, and regard their women as labourers on the
farm. The temples usually occupy picturesque sites, and are dedicated
rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the Hindu Pantheon.
The language, though peculiar to the valley, belongs essentially to the
Indian or Neo-Sanskritic family, having a basis of Urdu and Pahari,
with an infusion of Tibetan vocables. The only place deserving the
name of town is Sultanpur, the former capital and modern head-
quarters of Kiilu taluk, on the right bank of the Beas. Nagar, also
a capital of the native Rajas, possesses some interest from its fine
old palace or castle, crowning an eminence, which rises above the
Beas to the height of about iooo feet. The castle has been recently
restored, and is now the residence of the Assistant Commissioner in
charge of Kulu Sub-division.

The Pldch or Kulu Mission was founded by the Rev. Dr. Carleton
of the American Presbyterian Mission in 1868, and for ten successive
years he spent the hot season in Plach, engaging in medical work and
preaching. In 1878 he purchased some land on the Kulu side of the
Sutlej basin, about ten miles from the river, and there founded a
Christian village. Since then but little mission work has been done in
Plach. The community of the new village now numbers 28 persons,
all engaged in agriculture ; and their example, under Dr. Carleton's
guidance, has done something towards improving the simple agricul-
tural practice of the neighbourhood. Four years ago a dispensary was
built, and it has become so popular that a new and larger building is
about to be erected.

Pasturage rights and customs. — Pasturage is the occupation of a
considerable proportion of the population, independent of, or subsidiary
to, cultivation. Some villages muster large flocks of sheep and goats.
During the spring or up till about the middle of June, the sheep stay
in the wastes round about the hamlets ; they then move up into the
grazing grounds (gdhr) in the forests above the limits of cultivation,
and graze there promiscuously ; which they leave in July for sheep-runs
(nigdhr) on the grassy slopes above the limits of forest, where they
stay, each flock in its own run, for two months or till the middle of
September ; they then descend again to the lower grounds, and graze
in them for about six weeks or till November. Villages with only a
few sheep and goats, generally winter their flocks in Kulu at the bottom
of the valleys ; but large flocks are sent into Mandi State, where a ban
or run is leased for the purpose from the Raja.

A sort of hereditary title to or interest in each nigdhr is asserted by
by some man or other. He is known as the rdsu, and bases his claim

KULU.

upon a grant from the Rajas, but can rarely or ever produce ad
Sometimes he is a resident of the village in which the nigdhr i
sometimes he is a man of a distant village in which there are pn
no nigdhr, as the mountains are not high enough.

To each nigdhr is attached a certain number of grazing plots (/
in the lower gdhrs ; but when the flocks ascend in the spring, the gdhr$
are free or open to all comers; the exclusive right to graze them arises
when the flocks come down from the nigdhrs in September. I
nigdhr s and gdhrs have tolerably definite boundaries, which are recog-
nised by' the shepherds, who hand down the knowledge of them ai
themselves. It is not easy to say to what the interest of a rdsu in a nigdhr
and gdhr amounts. It is not in any sense a proprietorship of the soil ;
but rather an hereditary managership to be exercised in the rdsii's own
interest and that of his neighbours than an exclusive right of grazing
vested in one man or one family only. The rdsu in practice always
forms his flock by collecting together all the sheep and goats of his
own and neighbouring hamlets, and he takes nothing from the owners
who accompany him in the shape of fee or due. It is doubtful whether
he could give a preference to strangers, or to the people of other hamlets
than those who have been accustomed to combine their flocks with
his. But of late years the rdsus have often dealt with their nigdhrs in
a fashion not quite consistent with this theory of the limited nature ol
their rights ; for instance, some of them who have lost their flocks and
ceased to be shepherds, have given leave to other men to form flocks
and go to their nigdhrs for the year, and have taken from them two or
three rupees as a presentation fee. It appears, however, that the man
so sent in place of a rdsu has ordinarily been one of his old companions
who used to resort to the run in his company.

In the lowlands in and around the villages, the sheep graze promis-
cuously like the cattle. Ordinarily speaking, a flock belonging to a
man of one hamlet would not be driven to graze in another, but within
the village lands he may drive them where he likes, without reference
to, or nearness, or the contrary, to his own hamlet ; and in waste Ian.
near the boundary of two villages, the neighbouring hamlets oil
sides frequently have a common right of grazing. In some pla<
villages high up in the mountains have by custom a right to send th<
flocks to winter in the waste lands of those lower down, which BJ
so much exposed to frost and snowstorms.

In the times of the Rajds, and down to the Regular Settlem
tax was levied on all sheep and goats in Kiilu at the rate of I
head per annum. This tax was on account of the I * tl

whole year, and therefore no special rents or dues were un]

the nigdhrs or summer sheep-runs. It is said that ^m«^
kind ought to be done again, as it now happens that the villages whldl

342 KULU.

pay the least revenue graze the most sheep, and Government loses
greatly by the absence of such an impost. Some temples exact a fee
of a sheep or goat from the flock which resorts to certain runs in their
neighbourhood, but this fee, though now claimed as a right, originated
in the idea that the mountain in question was the peculiar haunt of
the temple god who ought to be propitiated, and not in any grant to
the temples by the Rajas. The numerous flocks from Simla territory,
which spend the summer in Kulu, formerly paid i anna per head for
the summer grazing only. In the Waziri Rupi tract, these taxes both
on native and foreign sheep are still collected by the Raja ; but since
the first regular land settlement in 1852, even sheep from other Districts
which resort to nigdhrs belonging to Government villages, have paid
nothing. Nearly all the foreign sheep, however, go to Waziri Rupi,
which contains the best nig&hrs in Kiilu.

By custom, the grazing of beasts of burden in waste lands alongside
the high road is free to all traders or travellers on the march. In
the winter and spring many are to be found encamped in the Beas
valley. Shepherds can use any route they please when on the march
to and from the summer pasture grounds, and halt a day or two, if
necessary, anywhere in the waste. The shepherds from Kangra, before
crossing the Hanta pass into Lahul, spend some days in the forests
above Jagat Sukh.

Agriculture. — Out of a total area of State lands amounting to 799,834
acres, the revised settlement returns in 1872 show 762,467 acres un-
occupied, as against 37,367 acres in occupation. Of the latter amount,
32,884 acres are under actual cultivation, the remainder being set down
as waste or grass lands. The total area under crops, including 14,210
acres, yielding two harvests in the year, is returned at 37,110 acres.
The above figures do not include the tract known as Waziri Riipi,
which has a total area of 433,050 acres, and is alienated mjagir to the
ex-ruling family. The average cultivated area for the five years ending
1881-82 is returned at 41,682 acres. Seven-eighths of the unoccupied
waste lie above the limits of possible cultivation. The staple spring
products include wheat, barley, poppy, tobacco, and oil- seeds; the
autumn crops are maize, rice, pulses, and millets.

The average area under the principal crops for the five years ending
1881-82 is returned as under — wheat, 13,404 acres; barley, 7014
acres; Indian corn, 5666 acres; rice, 4707 acres; and poppy, 1456
acres. The poppy is a lucrative crop, and cultivators who have no rice
lands rely upon it to pay their land revenue. Opium is but little used
locally, although the poppy seed is freely eaten. The manufactured
opium is bought up by traders for export to the plains, at a price
varying from 6s. to 15s. per lb., the fluctuation in price depending less
on the crop than on the influx of buyers. Rice, the most important of

KULU.

the autumn crops, is grown wherever water is plentiful, . being

from 3600 to 7000 feet above sea-level.

The cultivation of tea has spread from Kingra Proper into Kulu ;
but the area under cultivation is said to be less than 10c
there seems to be very little land in the Kulu valley well suited :
cultivation of tea. The quality of the leaf is excellent, but ti
turn is light. In the lower part of the main valley, the rainfall .
uncertain; while in the upper valley there is a sufficient rainfall, but
hardly enough warmth. The land is often cold and marsh)
depth below the surface; and a combination of a hot sun .
cold water at the root, appears to kill the plant.

Irrigation is effected by small canals cut from the hill 5fa
much as 19 per cent, of the cultivated area being artificially supplied
with water in the greater part of Kulu Proper.

The tenure of land has been largely assimilated to the ordinary
Indian system, the whole artificial village, made up of separate hai
being held jointly responsible for the entire land revenue Bi
upon it. At the time of the revised land settlement in 1872, there
were 771 holdings with a total area of 567 acres held rent free in lieu
of service, and 3943 holdings with a total area of 5494 acres held by
tenants paying rent either in money or kind. The average an
each holding, three acres, seems very small, and the average Govern-
ment assessment of Rs. 6, or 12s., if compared with the value of the
crops, appears heavy. In a great number of villages the field-
absolutely no income, and nothing is produced in them which it would
pay to export to the nearest market. But in these places the ]
have their flocks to fall back upon by selling a sheep and a little
home-spun cloth or a blanket ; they can make good the whole demand,
or they can earn a good deal of money (as many do), by gathi
roots and herbs in the forests, and selling them in Sultanpur
Rampur for export to the plains. Dhup (Dolomiora man
used as incense in India and China, and karru and chirctta, kin
gentians, used in medicine, are the principal articles so sold,
they have their honey and beeswax; the upper verandahs
houses are often full of beehives formed of short lengths 1
trunks of trees covered at top, and with an entrance hole in the
Again, by snaring a musk deer and selling its |
leopard or bear and claiming the reward, a sum equal to one or two
years' land-tax may be secured at one blow.

Commerce and Trade.— The surplus commodu
of rice, barley, wheat, opium, tobacco, tea, and hoi.
barley, and wheat go chiefly to supply the barren va
though a little grain also finds its way to the plains, 1
the Punjab towns and neighbouring Hill State, buy up the opium,

344 KULUTZAL

while the tobacco is exported both into Lahul and Spiti, and into the
Simla States. Rice, wheat, and barley are also bartered for salt, with
the Tibetans who come down to Patseo in Lahul. Honey and tea are
exported to the plains. Sheep are annually sold in large numbers
to traders from Simla, at an average price of 7s. or 8s. per head.
It is not, however, solely with this object that they are bred. The
flesh is freely eaten by the people, and the wool is woven into cloth
and blankets in every village, the blankets of Seoraj and Waziri Riipi
being of superior excellence, and sold at prices ranging from 4s. to 10s.
each. The imports consist of borax from Ladakh ; brass and copper
utensils from the Punjab plains ; salt and iron from Mandi. Horses,
silk, and charas (an intoxicating preparation of hemp) are also largely
imported.

Roads, etc. — Two roads lead from Kangra to Sultanpur, and another
connects the same place with Simla. Wooden bridges cross the prin-
cipal rivers, and the Beas is spanned by a steel-rope suspension bridge
at Shamsi. The main route to Leh and Yarkand follows the right
bank of the Beas, crosses the Rohtang Pass, pursues the valley of the
Bhaga to Bara Lacha Pass, and thence descends into Ladakh. A
post-office has been established at Sultanpur, with a daily mail from
Palampur. Education remains at a very low ebb, but Government
schools exist at the two principal villages. Sultanpur also possesses a
Government charitable dispensary.

Medical Aspects. — The average annual rainfall of the valley may be
put at from 45 to 50 inches. The mean temperature for the month
of August amounts to 7 8° F. ; that of November to 55°. The climate
cannot be considered favourable to health. Intermittent fevers and
bowel complaints prevail in an endemic form, while epidemics of
virulent contagious fever and cholera break out from time to time.
Goitre and cretinism also occur, as in other confined valleys. Much
of the mortality might probably be prevented by cleanliness and better
sanitary arrangements ; but the rank vegetation, damp soil, and hot
sun will always prove prejudicial to the public health, in the opinion
of the settlement officer. [For further information regarding Kiilu, see
the Gazetteer of Kangra District, compiled and published under the
authority of the Punjab Government, Part ii. Kiilu, Lahul, and Spiti.
Also the Report of the Land Revenue Settlement of Kangra District,
1865-72, by Mr. J. B. Lyall, C.S. ; together with the Punjab Census
Report of 1881.]

Kulutzai. — Village in the Ladakh Division of Kashmir State,
Northern India ; perched upon an elevated site above the right bank
of the Indus. Lat. 340 19' n., long. 7 6° 58' e. A wooden bridge
crosses the river, which is here about 25 yards in width. The population
consists chiefly of Buddhists.

KUMALGARH—KUMARADHA AV.

Kumalgarh— Fort in the Native State of Udaipur, 1

Built by Rana Kumbhu in the 15th century, on the site 1 I
ancient fortress, of which mountaineers long held possession,
ascribes it to Sumprit, a Jain prince in the 2nd century; and ai
Jain temples appear to confirm the tradition. The fortress i
near the village of Kailwara on a steep and craggy mountain, risil
the height of 3568 feet above sea-level, and about 700 feet above the
pass below, which it commands. The massive wall, with numerous
towers and pierced battlements, encloses a space of some miles in
extent below, while tier above tier of ramparts rise to the summit of
the hill, which is crowned with the Badal Mahal, or cloud-pal; <
the Ranas, whence the eye ranges far to the west over the sandy
deserts of Marwar and the chaotic mountain group of the Aravallis.
Besides the Arail Pol, or barrier, thrown across the first narrow a
about a mile from Kailwara, there is a second gate, called the
Hulla Pol, intermediate to the Hanuman Pol, the exterior
the fortress, between which and the summit there are four more
gates.

Kumaon. — Division and District in the Xorth-Western Provinces.—
See Kumaun.

Kumar (also called Pangdsi). — River of the Gangetic Delta, B
An offshoot of the Matabhanga, leaving the main stream near Alam-
danga, and flowing a tortuous easterly and south-easterly cours
for a few miles through Nadiya District, and afterwards through
Jessor, till it forms a connection with the Garai (Gorai). The h<
the river is closed during summer by a bar of sand, and silting is
rapidly going on in its upper reaches. In Jessor, the river de
into a beautiful stream of clear water, navigable by large boats all the
year round.

Kumar. — River in Faridpur District, Bengal; a brand
Chandna, taking off from that river near Madhukhali, a few
of Faridpur town, and, flowing a tortuous course generally from
west to south-east, falls into the Arial Khan at Madaripur, in lal
10' n., and long. 900 15' 45" e. Navigable for small boats throw
the year.

Kumaradhari.— River in South Kanara District, Madi
dency; rises in lat. 13° 50' n, and long. 76° 5*' *> in the
on the boundary between Coorg and Hassan District of M)
the Pushpagiri or Subrahmanya range of the Western Ghite, and
westwards towards the Malabar coast. Near the village
it joins the Netravati river, and the combined stream, und
name, flows into the sea near Mangalore. In the lowei
course it is much used for navigation; small boats
above Uppinangadi.

346 KVMARGANJ—KUMAUN.

Kumdrganj. — Village in Dinajpur District, Bengal ; situated on the
Atrai river. One of the principal seats of local trade.

Kumarganj. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (thana)
in the head-quarters Sub-division of Rangpur District, Bengal ; situated
on the right bank of the Karatoya river.

Kumari. — Village on the headland forming the extreme southern-
most point of India. — See Comorin.

Kumarkhali (Comercolly). — Town, municipality, and head-quarters
of a police circle {thdnd) in the Kushtia Sub-division of Nadiya District,
Bengal; situated on the left bank of the Garai (Gorai) river. Lat. 230
51' 30" n., long. 890 17' 14" e. Population (1872) 5251 ; (1881) 6041,
namely, Hindus, 3676; Muhammadans, 2356; and 'others/ 9. Area
of town site, 640 acres. Municipal income (1876-77), ^215 ; (1881),
^353 ; incidence of taxation, is. i^d. per head. Station on the
Eastern Bengal Railway, 118 miles from Calcutta. During the mer-
cantile days of the East Indian Company, a commercial Resident was
stationed at Kumarkhali, and a large business in silk was carried on.
A few old tombs in a small cemetery, the earliest dating from 1790,
are all the existing remains marking the former existence of the Com-
pany's factory. The cemetery is now used as a burial-ground for
employes of the Eastern Bengal Railway.

Kumaun. — Division or Commissionership under the jurisdiction
of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces. The
Division comprises the three British Districts of Kumaun, Garhwal,
and Tarai, all of which see separately. It is bounded on the north
by the Tibetan territory of Hundes ; on the east by the independent
kingdom of Nepal ; on the south by the Rohilkhand Districts
of Pilibhit, Bareli (Bareilly), Moradabad, and Bijnor, and by the
Native State of Rampur; and on the west by the District of Dehra
Dun and by Native Garhwal.

Area, 12,438 square miles; number of towns and villages, 9578;
number of houses, 153,605. Total population (1881) 1,046,263, namely,
males 545,124, and females 501,139. Average density of population,
84-1 persons per square mile, ranging from 220 in the submontane strip
which forms the Tarai District to 62*8 per square mile in the mountain-
ous region of Garhwal. Classified according to religion, there were, in
1881 — Hindus, 955,100, or 91-3 per cent.; Muhammadans, 88,320, or
8'4 per cent. ; Christians, 2646 ; Jains, 103; Buddhists, 87; and Parsis, 7.
Among the Hindus, the higher castes are unusually strongly repre-
sented, Brahmans numbering 204,994, and Rajputs 425,061, these
two classes numbering altogether upwards of two-thirds of the Hindu
population. The Muhammadans are almost without exception Sunnis.
The Christian population consists mainly of European troops cantoned
at the hill stations of Ranikhet, Almora, and Naini Tal. The villages,

KUMAUN DISTRIi ' 1\

especially in the hill Districts, are mere hamlets of a fen

of a total of 9578 villages and towns, 8462 contained Less thai
hundred inhabitants; 946 between two hundred and five hum
140 from five hundred to a thousand; 25 from one to five ;
and 5 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Total male adult
culturists, 308,632, cultivating 506,752 acres, or an avera
per head. The population entirely dependent on the soil nun
833>573> or 797 Per cent- of the total population The cultii
bears but a small proportion to the total area, onh
being returned as under tillage in 1 881, of which 7 38 square
were assessed for Government revenue. The uncultivable
returned at 9223*5 square miles, and that still available fur tillaj
2422*5 square miles.

Total Government land revenue, including local rates and cesses levied
on land, ,£57,257, or an average of 2s. 4|d. per cultivated a< re |
rental paid by cultivators in the Tarai District, 4s. o}d per cult.
acre. In the hill Districts of Kumaun and Garhwal, a very largi
portion of the cultivators are also proprietors, and pay no rent 1
than the Government revenue demand. The head-quarters of the
Commissioner of the Division are at Almora in Kumaun District The
sanitarium of Naini Tal in the same District is the residence of the
Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces for several months
in the year, and the head-quarters of his Government. It is
a favourite summer retreat for Europeans during the hot -weather
months.

Kumaun.— The principal District in the Division of the same name
in the North-Western Provinces, including the Sub -dr.
Almora or Kumaun Proper, Champawat, and the Bhabhar. I
between lat. 280 55' and 300 50' 30" N., and between lor.
and 8o° 56' 15" e. Area, 6000 square miles. Population in l
493,641 persons. The administrative head-quarters are at A;
town.

Physical Aspects.— Kumaun District consists, first, of the
layan ranges ; and, secondly, of the bhabhar ox waterless !• »n st, ai
from 10 to 15 miles in breadth, which stretches between the mount*
and the Tarai. Of the entire area of the highlands, only 500 square
miles are returned as cultivated, and 100 square miles as cultn
No country exhibits more extraordinary diversities oi tempen
climate than Kumaun. The southern or bhabhar port
siderable elevation. It is distinguished by a total abs<
water, and is bounded on the south by a line of springs, 1 lus
consists of the loose detritus of the lower hills, rest::
hard clay. The moisture, instead of flowing o(i iron, the SI
downwards to the clay beneath, over which it percolates in

348 KUMA UN DISTRICT.

direction, and eventually comes to light in the Tarai. The rivers
descending from the lower hills, in the same manner lose a considerable
portion of their volume on entering the bhdbhar ; and in many in-
stances, during the hot and cold seasons, their beds are perfectly dry
for the space of 9 or 10 miles, after which they again fill with water,
and, reinforced by the numerous springs which gush out of the earth
on the border of the moist country, form the characteristic feature of
the Tarai.

Up to 1850, the bhdbhar was an almost impenetrable forest,
given up to wild animals ; but since then, the numerous clearings
have attracted a large population from the hills, who cultivate the
rich soil during the hot and cold seasons, returning home in the
rains. The bhdbhar is, however, still for the most part unreclaimed
jungle of the thickest and most luxuriant description; and what
changes have taken place in the appearance of this tract by clearing
and irrigation, have all been effected within the last twenty-five years,
under the personal superintendence of Sir Henry Ramsay, the late
Commissioner of Kumaun. With the exception of these low lands,
and a few similar tracts of small extent stretching along the great
rivers in the lower parts of their courses, Kumaun is a maze of
mountains, some of which are among the loftiest known. The ranges
run, as a rule, from east to west in groups, connected and intersected
by other ridges varying much in elevation, and gradually increasing
in height as they approach the north and north-east frontier, which
divides the drainage system of the Indus and Sutlej from that of the
Ganges.

The crest of the Nfti Pass is 16,570 feet above the sea; the Mana
Pass, 18,000 feet; the Juhar or Milam Pass, 17,270 feet. To the
west, on the boundary of Garhwal, is the Trisul Mountain, so called
from its peaks having the appearance of a trident, the most easterly of
which attains an elevation of 22,342 feet, the middle peak 23,092 feet,
and the western peak 23,382 feet. To the north-east of Trisul is
Nanda Devi, with an elevation of 25,661 feet; and Nandakot, the
katiya or couch of the great goddess Nanda, with a height of 22,538
feet. Farther east are the two highest of the Panchchula peaks, 22,673
and 21,114 feet respectively. In fact, in a tract not more than 140
miles in length and 40 miles in breadth, there are over 30 peaks rising
to elevations exceeding 18,000 feet. South of the thirtieth parallel of
latitude no peaks attain the limit of perpetual snow, and few exceed
10,000 feet.

The rivers chiefly take their rise in the southern slope of the
Tibetan watershed to the north of the loftiest peaks, amongst which
they make their way down valleys of rapid declivity and extraordinary
depth. Enumerated from east to west, the principal rivers are — the

KUMA UN DISTRICT.

Kali, known as the Sarda where it debouches on the plains, and l
Gogra (Ghagra) farther south to its junction with the Ganj
borders of Bengal; and its affluents the eastern Dhauli, G
Goriganga, eastern Ramganga, and Sarju ; next come the Pil
Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda. Inferior to 1
connected with them, are the drainage lines of the southern and
elevated table-lands. Of such the principal are the Ladhiya, 1
Bhakra, Bhaur, Kosi, and western Ramganga, which last takes i:
in Garhwal District; but ultimately all reach the Ganges. It is only
by the beds of these rivers that access is afforded to the 1 >istri< t from
the plains on the south and Hundes on the north.

There are several lakes in the Chhakhata pargand, the overft
which is used for providing the small canals of the bhdbhar with water
during the cold and hot seasons. In the Himalayan ranges, also,
are several unimportant natural reservoirs resembling lakes. The
principal lakes are — the Naini Tal, 4703 feet long by 15 18 feet broad,
with a maximum depth of 93 feet, and circumference of 2 J miles;
Bhim Tal, 5580 feet long by 1490 broad, with a maximum depth of S7
feet; Naukuchiya, 3120 feet long by 2270 broad, with a maximum
depth of 132 feet; Malwa Tal, 4480 feet long by 1S33 broad, with
a maximum depth of 127 feet. Although the successive steep 1
of Kumaun are only separated by narrow ravines instead of by true
valleys, yet, as compared with Garhwal and other cis-Sutlej western
Districts, it can boast of some extensive river plateaux and level
uplands, which give a peculiar character to its scenery. Of the former,
Sumeswar and " Hawalbagh on the Kosi, the Katyiir valley on the
Gaomati, and the whole centre tract of Pali watered by the ( I
western Ramganga are remarkable examples; of the latter, m
mentioned Charal in Kali Kumaun, and the neighbourhood
ghat and Pithoragarh.

The valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts in Kumaun
is now under official supervision. The chief trees are th three-

leaved Himalayan pine, the cypress, fir, alder, sal or iron \
saindan. Sal, the most valuable of all, grows abundantly in the n
stretching down to the plains, and is strictly preserved by the I
Department.

Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss, and granite constitute I
cipal geological formations of the District. Mines « I
gypsum, lead, and asbestos exist ; but they are not thor«
and often their inaccessible position, combined with the abseil
coal, renders any profitable out-turn impossible.

The fauna and flora of Kumaun District are very j
only be described shortly. The wild animals include the leoj ,
hyaena, black and brown bear, jackal, monkey, fox, d

35o KUMA UN DISTRICT.

species, chamois, and yak or Himalayan ox. Elephants are found in
the bhdbhar, and in the forests bordering on the Siwalik Hills. They
are now protected by order of Government, and are captured, when
required, by means of khedas. Tigers are becoming scarcer every year.
Venomous snakes are numerous. The mora fly is very troublesome in
the months of April and May.

History.— -Of the early history of Kumaun very little is known. The
few facts on record tend to show that at a remote period these moun-
tains were the recognised home of the hero-gods of India, and an
object of veneration to all Hindus. In the travels of the Chinese
pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang in the 7th century, the kingdom of Govisana,
now identified with Kasipur in the Kumaun tardi, is mentioned as
adjacent to Brahmaputra within the hill territory, a seat of civilised
government. The earliest dynasty known to tradition is that of the
Katyura Deos, eventually supplanted by the Chand Rajas, the former
reigning at Baijnath in the Katyur valley, at which place, and also at
Dwara Hat, architectural remains are still extant. The Chand Rajas,
of whom the first, Som Chand, is said to have come from Jhusi, near
Allahabad, probably in the 10th century of our era, had their established
seat of Government at Champawat in Kali Kumaun.

In 1563 a.d., the Chands having obtained full authority over all the
petty chiefs, including the last descendant of the Katyiiras, the capital
was transferred to Almora by Raja Kalyan Chand. His son Riidra
Chand was a contemporary of Akbar, and made his obeisance to that
Emperor at Lahore in 1587. The Muhammadan rulers never obtained
a fixed footing in the hills; but in 1744, All Muhammad Khan sent
a force to invade Kumaun. The resistance of the Chand Raja was
weak and ineffectual. The Rohillas captured and plundered Almora.
Though their stay in Kumaun was short, its results to the Province are
bitterly remembered ; and its mischievous, though zealously religious,
character is still attested by the mutilated sculptures of some of the
Kumaun temples. The Rohillas remained in the hills for seven
months, when, disgusted with the climate and the hardships that they
were forced to suffer, they accepted a bribe of three lakhs of rupees (or
,£30,000), and returned to the plains. But All Muhammad Khan was
not satisfied with the conduct of his lieutenants ; and three months
after their retreat, at the commencement of 1745, the Rohillas returned.
They were defeated at the very entrance of the hills near Barakheri,
and made no further attempt on Kumaun. These were the first and
last Muhammadan invasions of the hills. The Delhi Emperors never
exercised any direct authority in Kumaun, although it was necessary
for the Raja to admit their nominal supremacy for the sake of his
possessions in the plains. These events were followed by disturbances
and revolutions in Kumaun itself; and within the next thirty years the

KUMA UN DISTRICT.

hill Rajas lost all the country which they had held in the plaii
the tract known as the bhdbhar.

In the middle of the 18th century, the Gurkha tribe, under their ( Kief
Prithwi Narayan, had made themselves masters of the m
part of the present kingdom of Nepal. His sua es
1790, to attack Kumaun. The Gurkha forces crossed the Ka
advanced upon Almora through Gangoli and Kali Kumaun.
titular Raja of Kumaun fled to the plains, and the whole of his territory
was annexed to the other conquests of the Gurkhas. Th<
rule lasted twenty-four years, and was of a cruel and oppressive < bar
In the early part of the present century, the Gurkhas had been m
numerous raids in the British possessions lying at the foot of the 1 1
layas. All remonstrance was unavailing; and in Decernbei
was finally resolved to wrest Kumaun from the Gurkhas, and annex it
to the British possessions, as no legitimate claimant on the part of the
Chands was then in existence. Harakdeo Joshi, the minister of the
last legitimate Raja of Kumaun, warmly espoused the British side. At
the end of January 1815, everything was ready for the attack on Kumaun.
The whole force consisted of 4500 men with two 6-pounder ,^uns.

The first successful event on the British side during this war was
the capture of Almora by Colonel Nicholls, on 26th April 1815.
the same day, Chandra Bahadur Sah, one of the principal Gurkha
chiefs, sent a flag of truce to Colonel Nicholls, requesting a susp<
of hostilities, and offering to treat for the evacuation of Kumaun.
Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner was deputed to hold a personal conference
with Bam Sah, the Nepalese commander at Almora ; and on the follow-
ing day the negotiation was brought to a close by the conclusion of .1
convention, under which the Gurkhas agreed to evacuate tin
and all its fortified places. It was stipulated that they should be all
to retire across the Kali with their military stores and private property,
the British providing the necessary supplies and carriage. As a •
for the due fulfilment of the conditions, the fort of Lalmandi (not
Moira) was the same day surrendered to the British tro
Hearsey, who had been taken and imprisoned at Almora. v,
at the same time. The Gurkhas were escorted across the K.i'.i I
troops, and the British took possession of Kumaun and Gar! w

The Hon. E. Gardner was the first Commissioner of Kumau
in August 1817 he was succeeded by his assistant, Mr. Traill. 1 1
followed in 1835 by Colonel Gowan and Mr. S. T. Lushington,
the latter of whom Mr. J. H. Batten carried out the first regular
ment of the Province, and in 1848 succeeded Mr. Lush:
missioner. In 1856, Captain (now Major-General Sir IK,,
was appointed Commissioner, and until 1883 managed the
Kumaun.

3 5 2 KUMA UN DISTRICT.

Mr. P. Whalley, in his Report on the non-Regulation Provinces,
states that the administrative history of Kumaun divides itself naturally
into three periods— under Traill, under Batten, and under Ramsay.
The regime in the first period was essentially despotic and personal, in
contrast with the centralizing tendencies which the policy of the Govern-
ment had developed. It was at the same time just and eminently
progressive. Mr. Traill's incumbency terminated in 1835, and then
followed an interval of uncertainty. Traill left the Province orderly,
prosperous, and comparatively civilised ; but his machinery was not
easily worked by another hand. There was no law, and the lawgiver
had been withdrawn. The Board of Commissioners and the Government
found it necessary to re-assert their control, and to lay down specific
rules in matters that had hitherto been left to the judgment of the
Commissioner.

Mr. Batten was then only Assistant Commissioner of Garhwal, but
he was a man eminently qualified both by training and disposition
to second the action of Government, and to assist in the inaugu-
ration of the new era. His talents had already been recognised,
and from this period he was consulted in every step ; and it was his
influence, more than that of any single officer, which gave its stamp
and character to the period (1836-56) distinguished by his name. It
was marked in its earlier stage by an introduction of codes and rules and
the predominance of official supervision, which gradually diminished as
Mr. Batten gained influence, position, and experience. Thus the second
period glided insensibly into the third, which, nevertheless, has a dis-
tinctive character of its own. In General Ramsay's administration we
see the personal sway and unhampered autocracy of the first era
happily blending with the orderly procedure and observance of fixed
rules and principles, which formed the chief feature of the second

period.

Population, etc — The population of Kumaun in 1872, on an area
corresponding with the present District, was returned at 433,3 14. The
Census of 1881 returned the population at 493,641, showing an increase
of 60,327, or 13-9 per cent, in the nine years. The results of the
Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows: — Area, 6000 square
miles ; number of towns and villages, 5151 ; number of houses, 72,964.
Total population, 493,641, namely, males 261,054, and females 232,587;
proportion of males in total population, 52-8 per cent. Average density
of population, 82*2 persons per square mile; number of villages per
square mile, -85 ; persons per village, 96 ; persons per occupied house,
67. In religion, the District is almost exclusively Hindu. The Census
of 1 88 1 returned the Hindus as numbering 479,948, °r 97 '2 Per cent
of the total population; Muhammadans, 11,261, or 2*3 per cent;
Christians, 2393; Buddhists, 32; and Parsis, 7.

KUMA UN DISTRICT.

The Musalmans are chiefly recent immigrants from the plaii
descendants of the retainers of the Kumaun Rajas. The n
the Hindus belong to the tribe of Khasias, not to be confua d i
inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in Assam. The Khasias i n arc-

to all intents and purposes Hindus in religion and customs, an.'.
language is purely Hindu, as shown both by the archaic records extant
and by their present dialect. There is every reason to believe that
the original Khasias, or inhabitants of Khasdes, mentioned by the
Hindu lawgiver Manu, some 2500 years ago, were identic al
the modern tribe of Khasias. Successive immigrations from the plains
imposed upon them masters, who absorbed all power, and introd
observances characteristic of the Brahman and Rajput castes, to whii h
they themselves now claim to belong. Indeed, these two
mans numbering 120,137 in 1881, and Rajputs 216,247)
nearly three-fourths of the entire population. The Doms (104,93
number), corresponding to the Chamars of the plains, rank as the
lowest of the Khasias, and until the British occupation they wen
prandial slaves of the landholders. It is by no means proved that I
Doms are the descendants of any non- Aryan aboriginal race. They
share with their Khasia countrymen the superstitious belief in demons
and sprites common to all mountaineers. Every crag and summit has
its local deity and shrine, at which kids are offered in sacrifice ; at the
larger temples at river junctions buffaloes are similarly slaughtered.
Most of the great tribes of Northern India have their representatives
amongst the hill communities, and among the Brahmans the tribe
of astrologers, known as jyot is/is or Jos /lis, have attained the gi
influence.

The Bhotiyas (from Bhot, the corrupt form of Bod or Tibet) inhabit
the country lying north of the great peaks. The Bhotiyas arc
of Tibetan origin, but they are little inclined themselves to admit this
fact. In the Juhar valley especially, they have adopted the la;
and customs of their Hindu neighbours; though, if report be
when once across the border they do as the Tibetans do, and are
Buddhists. The features and dialect of the Bhotiyas reseml
those of the people of Tibet. The Kumaunis themselves are a tol<
fair, good-looking race; and, except in the extreme norther:
any difference of feature may be attributed to clima:
than to any extensive intermixture of Tartar blood. On the wb
the character of the people is estimable and pleasing. '1 he 1
active, cheerful, honest, and industrious. The women m their y
are generally pretty. The custom of polyandry is here unkr.
but polygamy is frequent.

The 515. villages or hamlets of the District are scatter)
the hill-sides, the houses being built of stone laid in I

VOL. VIII.

3 5 4 KUMA UN DISTRICT.

roofed with slates, or with planks or thatch. No less than 4662
villages contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 435 from two
to five hundred ; 44 from five hundred to a thousand ; and only 10
upwards of a thousand inhabitants. The better class of dwellings
are ornamented with wooden carvings, principally of tun - wood
(Cedrela toona). The only native town is Almora. Champawat, the
ruined capital of the Chands, ranks only as a village, though it boasts
of a tashili in the old fort. There are large bazars at the European
stations of Naini Tal and Ranikhet. Milam, the principal residence
of the Juhar Bhotiyas, is a large, well-built village, but is uninhabitable
between November and May. Of the mandis or market gatherings in
the bhdbhar, Ramnagar on the Kosi is the most considerable.

Classified according to occupation, the Census Report of 1881
returned the male population as follows:— (1) Professional, including
all Government servants, and the learned professions, 3599; (2)
domestic class, 5586; (3) commercial class, 1405; (4) agricultural
class, 150,946; (5) industrial class, 13,113; (6) indefinite and non-
productive class, 86,405.

Agriculture. — The agriculture of the bhdbhar is being assimilated so
rapidly to that of the plains, that a separate notice of it is hardly
required. Wheat and mustard form a large proportion of the rabi or
spring crops, and the irrigation absolutely necessary for all cultivation
in that tract is supplied by a well-organized system of small canals.
The area available for cultivation is small in Kumaun. In order to
remedy this deficiency, the sides of hills, wherever possible, have been
cut down into terraces, rising above each other in regular succession, and
having their fronts supported by stone abutments. The soil, except in
some of the valleys, is often poor and stony, and requires much manure.
In certain localities, periodical cultivation with the hoe only is carried on.
On the better kinds of land, rice, wheat, and tobacco are grown ; on
the others, according to the season, wheat, barley, mustard, vetch, flax,
Indian corn, millets, pulses, sugar-cane, cotton, oil-seeds, etc. The
staple food of the peasantry is the millet called mandua (Eleusine
corocana), the rdgi of the Deccan. The cucumber family is largely
used ; and in the southernmost pargands, ginger, turmeric, and capsi-
cums are profitable crops. Potatoes are becoming common in some
localities, but are not so plentifully grown as in the Simla Hills.
Fruit is very plentiful in Kumaun. The oranges grown here are of
excellent quality.

The tea plantations form now an important and valuable feature
in the District, but are almost entirely in the hands of European
owners. In 1876-77 the number of gardens was 19, covering
an area of 2222 acres. The total yield of tea in that year was
261,060 lbs. In 1882-83 the number of plantations was returned at

KUMAUN DISTRICT.

H, but no statistics are given showing the area undei
the out-turn. Both are probably nearly double the return foi
The recent opening up of the Central Asian market througl
traders, who come to the plantations in person, has
impetus to this industry, which had begun to decline.

Landed property in Kumaun, both in theory and practice,
been vested in the State. The occupant landholders possess an hereditary
and transferable property in the soil, but their rights were never inde-
feasible and have always been revocable at the hands of the BOVO
The proprietary right is in a state of extreme sub-division, cat h ha
or village being shared commonly amongst many petty propri
Where the proprietary and occupancy rights are vested in the same
individual, the cultivating tenants under him possess no rights in
the soil, and are mere tenants -at -will. Fully three-fifths of the
arable land in Kumaun are cultivated by the proprietors themselves.
Proprietors simply pay their share of the Government den
while old occupancy tenants (khayakdrs) are subject to an additional
money payment, in commutation of certain dues and fees iormcr*.y
demanded.

In native times, Brahmans and other principal grantees cultr.
their lands by means of hdlyas or domestic slaves. In the tea
plantations, the planters hold their estates in what woul
elsewhere called pure zaminddri right, including that \
of the adjacent forest and waste, within fixed boundaries, to which
Government has given up its claim. A very few instaiu i
tenure also exist among the principal natives of the 1 I
The head-man of every village is called the pradhdn, whose
is often hereditary, but essentially elective. In large est
clan has its own representative head-man. The Government rei
is collected by and paid through the pradhdns, who are remui
by rent-free lands and certain fees and privileges. Th
local police officers in each village for reporting offer,
higher class of hereditary head-men are called sijdnas, kam'u.
thokddrs.

Natural Calamities.- -No universal famine has taken pla<
since the British gained possession of the District. The
of this kind were in 1838 and 1867. Disastrous tl
unknown, but sometimes, as in 1840, the valley Ian.
sudden freshets, which cover the soil with barren grave,
rains, too, wash away field terrace-walls, and h<
occasionally injured by landslips. In September 1
caused much damage from landslips and floods. In
mahdls, avalanches are always threatening the
and of travellers, and laden cattle and she<

35 6 KUMA UN DISTRICT.

whelmed in the passes; but no great disaster has yet occurred
requiring special notice. On an average of five years, 58 persons
have perished yearly in Kumaun from the attacks of wild animals
and snake-bites ; while the record of a single year shows the destruction
of 45 tigers, 124 leopards, and 240 bears, at a cost of ^"146 in Govern-
ment rewards.

Manufactures, Commerce, etc. — If we except tea prepared on the
European plantations, there are no manufactures of any note. The
people of the northern tracts, who use woollen clothing, weave a coarse
kind of serge. The trade of Kumaun may be described under two heads
— first, that in the hands of the Bhotiyas with Tibet \ and, secondly, that
with the plains. The Tibet trade is almost a complete monopoly
in the hands of its carriers. The imports are ponies, yaks, sheep,
salt, borax, gold, wool, drugs, precious stones, yak tails, coarse woollen
cloth, and Chinese silks. The exports are grain, cotton goods, broad-
cloth, quilts, hardware, tobacco, sugar, spices, dyes, tea, and wood for
house-building. In the year 1876-77, imports via Juhar were valued
at ,£12,600, and exports at ^4100; imports via Darma and Byaus at
^8500, and exports at ^"5500 in value. No later statistics are
available.

Kumaun sends to the plains grain of sorts, clarified butter, tea,
ginger, turmeric, red pepper, potatoes, hill drugs and spices, bark for
tanning, pine-tar, honey and wax, and a little iron and copper, besides
the timber and wild jungle produce of the bhdbhar. Its imports com-
prise every article of necessity or luxury, both for Europeans and natives,
which the hills themselves do not furnish. Trade has of late much
improved, owing to the increase of markets and the improvement in
communications. The roads in the hills are for the most part only
bridle-paths, more or less well laid out, but all now well bridged,
English iron suspension bridges having superseded the old native rope
/hulas over the larger rivers. Cart-roads run from Haldwani to Xaini
Tal, and from Ramnagar to Ranikhet and Almora, the latter penetrating
into the very heart of the District. Total length of made roads in
1882-83, 1402 miles. Among the resources of Kumaun, which may
be further developed, are the mineral and metallic products. At
Dechauri in the bhdbhar, experiments are being carried on with a
view to the profitable working of the tertiary iron-ores, in the vicinity of
forest fuel.

Administration. — The public revenue under the native rulers was
derived from a variety of sources besides land produce, most of which
were given up at the conquest by the British. Traill's land assessments
were for short periods; Batten's Settlement in 1846 was for twenty
years ; Beckett's existing Settlement is for thirty years, and is the first
based on a regular survey. Though it has produced a large increase

KUMAUN DISTRICT.

of the Government demand, its incidence on the land ii light, the
average rate being Rs. i. 3. 11, or about 2s. 5$&, per culth
or local acre, and Rs. o. 13. 10 per bisi on total cultivate.:
cultivable area. The total revenue of Kumdun District, in
was ,£68,585, of which ,£25,374 was derived from the land. I |
cost of officials and police of all kinds, ,£13,874. Fur the collet ti
the revenue, as well as for general duty, 2 tahs'ilddrs are station
Almora and Champdwat. They are assisted by local patwdris, a peculiar
class of mixed fiscal and judicial petty officers, each of whom has 1
of one or more pattis, paid chiefly from a cess of 4 per rent, on tl.
revenue. Besides this cess, there is a District ddk or post-oft.
3 per cent, in lieu of personal service, and a school cess to 1 11
vernacular education. A small tax of from 1 to 3 rupees (2-.
levied on village water-mills for grinding corn. There are police stations
at Almora, Naini Tal, Ranikhet, Champawat, and Shor, within the hills,
and at Ramnagar, Kaladhungi, Haldwani, and Barmdeo in the bhdbkar%
where protection is required at the mandis or marts. There is a jail
at Almora, but crime in Kumaun is, generally speaking, light

The Civil Courts, presided over by the European staff and 2 native
subordinate judges, have a simple procedure, resembling that of our
county courts, and deal with a rather excessive amount of petty litigation,
chiefly connected with land. The language used is Hindi, written 111
the Nagari character, and well known to the suitors.

Climate, etc.— With the exception of the bhdbhar and de
Kumaun on the whole enjoys a mild climate. Even at heigh!
5000 feet upwards, supposed to possess a European dii
periodical rains and atmospheric conditions preceding an
them, throw the whole southern slope of the great Himalaya!
almost half the year into the sub-tropical rather than the tempo
region. The seven months from October to April are delightful.
rainfall of the outer range, which is first struck by the m< 1
that of the central hills, in the average proportion of 80 in<
No winter passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in *
its occurrence is universal throughout the mountain I
especially in the valleys, are often severe. The averag
the five years ending 1881 was returned at 21-25 per t!
are numerous Government dispensaries in the District, and I
Mission has its medical establishments also. Kumaun
visited by epidemic cholera. Leprosy, affecting 4 '
is most prevalent in the east of the District. There
at Almora for those suffering from this disease Goitre an
afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants, especially m
eastern pargands. The hill fevers at times
malignant features of plague. The mahdman |

3 5 8 KUMBHAKAMDR UG—KUMHARSA1N.

formerly confined to Garhwal, has of late years extended its ravages to
Kumaun. The authorities are giving their anxious attention to sanitary
measures, the total neglect and violation of which have produced among
the natives fatal typhoid outbreaks. Murrains break out from time to
time among the cattle. [For further information regarding Kumaun,
see the Gazetteer of the North-Western Provinces, vols. x. and xi.
(Himalayan Districts), by Mr. E.T.Atkinson, C.S. (Allahabad, 1881
and 1882); the Settlement Report of Kumaun District, by Mr. J. O'B.
Beckett, C.S. (1875); a collection of Official Reports o?i the Province
of Kumaun, edited by Mr. J. H. Batten, C.S. (Agra, 185 1); the Census
Report of the North -Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881 ; and the
several Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports from
1880 to 1885.]

Kumbhakamdrug. — Mountain in North Arcot District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 130 34' 35" n., long. 79° 55' 22" e. The principal
peak in the Satliawad range of hills; highest point, 2598 feet above
sea-level.

Kumbhakonam. — Town in Tanjore District, Madras Presidency. —
See Com bacon um.

Kumbharli-ghat. — Road over the Western Ghats, between Ratna-
giri and Satara Districts, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 170 26' n., long.
730 45' e. ; 123 miles south-east by south of Bombay. The road leads
from Karad in Satara to Chiplun in Ratnagiri.

Kumbher {Kumher). — Town in Bhartpur (Bhurtpore) State, Raj-
putana. Lat. 270 19' n., long. 77° 25' e. ; n miles north-west of
Bhartpur city. Thornton states that it was unsuccessfully besieged by
the Marathas in 1754 ; and surrendered to the British in 1826, after the
capture of Bhartpur. The town is on the high road to Dig. It was
founded at the beginning of last century by the chief of Jaipur, and
is a small place situated in a plain, and surrounded by a mud wall and
ditch. It has a large palace built by Budan Singh, which, although in
a good state of preservation, is now infested by bats, and never used as
a place of residence. The palace of the Raja commands the surround-
ing plain, and serves as a fortress. Post-office. Population (1881)
7306. Hindus numbered 5972, and Muhammadans 1334.

Kumharsain. — One of the Simla Hill States, under the Govern-
ment of the Punjab. Lat. 310 6' to 310 20' 30" n., and long. 770 22' to
77° 35' E- The village of Kumharsain is situated in lat. 310 19' n., and
long. 770 30' e., about 40 miles east of Simla on the road to Kiilu.
Area of State, 90 square miles, containing 254 villages or hamlets,
and 1445 houses. Total population (1881) 9515, namely, males
4920, and females 4595. Hindus number 9405, and Muhammadans
no. This State, formerly a feudatory of Bashahr, was declared inde-
pendent after the expulsion of the Gurkhas in 1815. The sanad, dated

KUMHRA WAN—Kl 'MPT. I .

7th February 1816, binds the chief and his heirs to rcndei :
service to the British Government. The Rana of Kumhai
Singh, is a Rajput, born about 1850. The State pays a tril
British Government of ^200. Estimated revenue of the chi \

Kumhrawan— Pargand in Digbijaiganj tahsll, Rai Bare'. [
Oudh; bounded on the north by pargand Haidaralud of I:
on the east by tahsil Mohanlalganj of Lucknow, on the
pargand Hardoi, and on the west by Rokha Jais. Waten
river Naiya. Area, 70 square miles, or 44,619 acn
(1869) 44,619; (1881) 35,259, namely, males 17,456, and I
17,803. Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 3;
and Muhammadans 1225. Government land revenue, ^57*9
dence per acre, 3s. 2fd. The chief proprietary body an
Rajputs, a branch of the Chamar Gaurs, said to be the di
of a Gaur widow, who, at the extirpation of the Kshattriyas by the
Brahmans, found an asylum in a Chamar's hut. The memory of this
humble refuge is still kept alive by the worship of the rdpi or
cutting tool. Great numbers of the Chamar Gaurs now hold vill
in Hardoi District, and it is probable that the Amethias were an offshoot
of the same immigration. Tradition discovers them first at Shiupuri
and afterwards at the celebrated fortress of Kalinjar. Somewhere
about the time of Tamerlane's invasion of Hindustan, Raipal S
left Kalinjar and settled at Amethi in Lucknow, and a branch of the
family subsequently obtained Kumhrawan. Of the 58 villages com-
prising the pargand 40 are tdlnkddri, 4 zaminddri, and 14 pat t id ' •

Kumilla. — Head-quarters town of Tipperah District, Bengal — See
Com ill a.

Kumiria. — Village and head-quarters of a police circle (t/idnd) in
the head-quarters Sub-division of Chittagcng District, Bengal : situated
near the sea-coast, on the main road from Tipperah to Chin...
on the banks of the Kumhfra Khal (Crocodile Creek), from which it
derives its name. Lat. 200 30' 15" n., long. 910 45' 4°" ,:-

Kumlagrah.— Fortress in Mandi State, Punjab; situated in lat. 31*
48' N., and long. 760 43' e., near the south bank of the 1>
consisting of a range of forts, about 3 miles in length, constnii I
of masonry and partly of the natural sandstone rock. Th<
stronghold crowns an isolated peak, whose precipiti
feet above the Beas, with double that elevation above
Chand, Raja of Kangra, attacked the fortifications unsui
General Ventura, the partisan Sikh commander, succeeded in earn in
them, against the popular belief in their impregnability.

Kumpta {Coompta). — Sub-division of North Kanai
Bombay Presidency. Situated along the coast, an
north by Ankola ; on the east by Sirsi and Siddapur ; on the SOU!

360 KUMPTA TOWN.

Honawar ; and on the west by the Arabian Sea. Area, 230 square
miles. Population (1881) 58,758, namely, 29,088 males and 29,670
females; density of population, 255*4 persons per square mile ; number
of towns, 2 j villages, 115 ; houses, 9803. Hindus number 55,010, or
93 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 2099, or 3*5 per cent. ; 'others,' 1649.

The coast-line, beginning south of the Gangawali river, consists
of long stretches of sand, fringed with cocoa-nut gardens, crossed
by frequent rocky highlands and headlands, and by tidal creeks.
Eight to twelve miles inland the hills are clothed with forest, which
becomes denser as the Sahyadri Hills are approached. Near the
coast is a belt of rice land ; beyond is the central plain occupied
by rice and sugar-cane ; inland, rice gives place to rdgi. Water is
plentiful. The soil is sandy and red loam. Products, cocoa-nuts,
rice, areca-nuts, pepper, sugar-cane, and pulses. The whole Sub-division
has been brought under the Bombay Survey Settlement. Average
rainfall for ten years ending 1879, x32'4 inches ; in one year, 1877, 201
inches fell. Agricultural stock in 1 88 1-82 — Horned cattle, 28,317
horses, n; sheep and goats, 253; ploughs, 4900; carts, 146. In
1883, the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; number
of police circles (thdnds), 3 ; with a regular police force of 43, and a
village watch of 22 men. Land revenue (1881-82), ^12,122.

Kiimpta (Coomptci). — Chief town of the Kiimpta Sub-division,
Kanara District, Bombay Presidency ; situated on the sea-coast, on the
north side of the Kiimpta creek, one mile east of the lighthouse, and
about 113 miles north of Mangalore, and 40 miles south of Karwar.
Lat. 14° 26' N., and long. 740 27' e. Population (1881) 10,629,
namely, 5571 males and 5058 females. Hindus numbered 9189;
Muhammadans, 705 ; Christians, 679 ; and Jains, 56. Municipal
income (1880-81), ^1163, or 2s. ijd. per head.

Kiimpta, though an open roadstead, is a place of large trade, owing
to the roads which connect it with the cotton marts of Dharwar ; but
it is expected that this traffic will be much affected by the new railway
which is to have its terminus at Marmagao, in Portuguese territory.
The lighthouse, in lat. 140 25' n., and long. 740 23' e., is 6 miles to the
north of Fortified Island, and consists of a white masonry column or
tower, 60 feet high, erected on a hill 120 feet in elevation, and about
half a mile to the east of the rocky cliffs of Kiimpta point. It exhibits
a fixed white light, at an elevation of 180 feet above sea-level, which
is visible at the distance of 9 miles from the deck of a ship in
clear weather. This light overlooks the mouth of the creek which
leads boats at high water up to the cotton warehouse on the south side
of the town.

Kiimpta seems to have been formerly a place of some note.
Its lanes are straight and fenced with stone walls, and it has many

KUNAWAR,

cocoa-nut gardens. Twice it had the misfortune of havil
army encamped in its vicinity, and on both occasions it w,
down by some of the irregulars. The town contains a sub-j
court, a telegraph office, a post-office, a school, and a dispensary, and is
the head-quarters station of the chief revenue and police officers of the
Sub-division. Its trade consists chiefly of cotton, spices, and grail
first coming from Dharwar District, and the rest from the upland
country of Kanara. The only manufacture is the carving of a few-
articles of sandal-wood, which are exported to Bombay. Klimpta
is one of the seven ports which make up the Honiwar Customs
Division. The average value of imports at Klimpta port alone for the
five years ending 1881-82 was ,£269,754, and of exports -
In 1881-82, the imports were valued at ^2 19,415, and the exports at
£636,299.

Kunawar (Kandwdr). — The upper or north-eastern Sub-dn
of Bashahr (Bassahir) State, Punjab, consisting in great part of the
valley of the Upper Sutlej. Lat. 310 16' to 320 3' x., and loi
to 79° 2 e. ; bounded on the north by Sptti, on the east by Chinese
territory, on the south by Bashahr Proper and Garhwal, and on th<
by the Kochi Sub-division of Bashahr. Estimated area, 1730 square
miles. Population (1881) 14,315.

Kunawar consists of a rugged country, 50 miles in length by 40 in
breadth, through whose ridges winds the deeply cleft valley of the
Sutlej. The precipitous banks of the central river afford little room
for cultivation ■ but the valleys of its tributaries are assiduou>!y I
by the mountaineers. The chief of these are— the Li or river ol
Spiti, the Darbang, the Pijar, the Kochang, the Malgin, the \
Wanirar, and the Keuncha, which flow into the Sutlej on the rig!
and the Hocho, the Tughlagkhur, the Tidang, the Baspa, the Panwi,
the Soldang, and the Kundala, which enter from the left. I
which forms everywhere the centre of depression, has an elevat
about 10,000 feet on the north-eastern border, falling to about 4 -
as it passes out of Kunawar on the south-west. The lowei
a warm climate, rendered oppressively hot in summer W:
the rocks. The monsoon reaches only the southern extrem I
Kunawar, so that the autumn rains do not extend to the 1
which depends almost entirely for its water-supply upon art.
gation from the hill streams. The winter is rigorous, ai
blocks up and isolates the higher villages t l
together. Nevertheless, until about twenty-five years
an abundant vintage, being manufactured into
spirit. The prevalence of vine disease has, howe,
the vintage of the country. Its attacks are supposed I by m
have been provoked by the wrath of the local goddes

362 KUNCH TAHSIL AND TOWN.

han, who was offended by the attempt of a European to manufacture
wine or spirit at Chini.

The population consists of a mixed Tibetan and Hindu race, the
Turanian element preponderating in the north, while the southern
region is inhabited by persons of Aryan type. In physique, the
Kunawaris are tall, athletic, well made, and dark - skinned ; while
their character stands high for hospitality, truthfulness, and honesty.
Alone among the neighbouring hill tribes, they successfully resisted the
Gurkha invasion, and so completely baffled the enemy by breaking
down bridges, that the Gurkhas entered into a convention by which,
in return for a tribute of ^750 per annum, they agreed to leave the
valley unmolested. Polyandry everywhere exists in its fullest form.

The religion of the Kunawaris shows the same mixed origin as its
ethnical peculiarities. The northern villages profess Buddhism of the
Tibetan model ; in the south, Hinduism prevails, while the middle
region shades off gradually from one faith into the other, producing
grotesque mixtures of ceremonial and belief. Brahmans do not live
beyond Serahan, near the southern frontier ; at Kanum, half-way across
the tract, the Tibetan sacred books are in use, and himas are found, but
the Hindu veneration for kine still exists, and the distinctions of caste
survive ; while at Hang-rang, on the northern frontier, Buddhism
assumes the pure Tibetan form. The language shades off, like the
religion, from Tibetan in the north to neo-Sanskritic dialects on the
Indian side. The chief villages in the valley are Sangnam and Kanum.

Kunch. — South-western tahsil of Jalaun District, North-Western
Provinces ; consisting of a level plain, much cut up by ravines along
the Pahiij river on its western border, and irrigated by the inundation
known as pauh from the Samthar State on the south. The tahsil is
thickly populated, and said to be better cultivated than any other tract in
the District. Area, 209 square miles, of which 168 are under cultivation.
Population (1872) 67,041 ; (1881) 71,429, namely, males 36,246, and
females 35,183 ; the total increase during the nine years being 4388,
or 6*5 per cent. Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 —
Hindus, 67,035, and Muhammadans, 4394. Of the 216 villages com-
prising the tahsil, 162 contained less than five hundred inhabitants.
Land revenue, ,£22,484; total Government revenue, ,,-£25,268 ; rental
paid by cultivators, £40,013 ; corrected rental, £49,663; incidence of
Government revenue per acre, 3s. 4^d. Communication is afforded by
the metalled roads from Jhansi to Phaphund railway station in Etawah
District, and from Kunch to Urai, as well as by several fair-weather
roads. In 1883 the tahsil contained 2 civil and 2 criminal courts;
number of police circles (thdnds), 5 ; with a regular police force of 46,
and a village watch of 186 men.

Kunch.— Municipal town 'in Jalaun District, North- Western Pro-

KUND-KUNDAHS.

vinces, and head-quarters of Kiinch tahs'il. Lat. 25' 59' 30" n., and
long. 79° 11' 55" e. The town stands on the open plain, distant
Urai 19 miles west, from Kalpi 42 miles south-west. Population
(1872) 14,448; (1881) 13,739, namely, males 6749, and females I
Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 11,216 in 1881, and
Muhammadans 2523. Area of town site, 705 acres. The town con-
sists of a business end to the east, and of a quiet, straggling, country
village to the west. A large tank, known as Govind Rao's Tal, built
about 1750, is adorned with steps on all sides, and a cupola at ea< h
corner, but it contains no water during the dry season. Cotton anil
wheat market ; market for molasses, rice, and tobacco ; salt market.
Narrow, tortuous, unmade, undrained bazar lanes, with poor-looking and
often ruinous shops. Surface much intersected by ravines and water-
courses. Declining trade and population ; insufficient communications.
In 1804, Colonel Fawcett, commanding British troops in Bundelkhand,
sent a force to reduce a neighbouring fort. Amir Khan, then plunder-
ing Mau and Irichh, attacked them unexpectedly, and drove them back
to their camp with considerable loss. The freebooting chief next
plundered Kalpi and Ata ; but Kiinch was saved by the remains of the
British force. Shortly afterwards, the British troops under Colonel
Shepherd dispersed the marauding body. During the Mutiny of 1857,
the rebels under Barjor Singh frequently occupied Kiinch. Residence
of an extra-Assistant Commissioner \ tahsili, police station, t
school, girls' school, Government charitable dispensary. Municipal
revenue in 1875-76, ,£805 ; in 1882-83, ^722, of which ^62 6
derived from octroi ; incidence of taxation, iofd. per head of the town
population.

Kund.— Valley in Kashmir State, Northern India.— See Km ^^
Kundada-betta.— Peak in the Kiggatnad taluk of Coorg. Distant
4 miles from Hatur, on the Mysore-Cannanore road. On the summit is
a small stone temple dedicated to Iswara or Siva, repaired in 1
standing on the edge of a precipice 500 feet high. A festival ox jatra
is annually held here.

Klindahs.— Range of mountains in Nilgiri District, Madras I

dency. Lat. n° 9' to n° 21' 40" *., and lonS- '6° 27' 5° to ' '

E. The western wall of the Nilgiri plateau, rising abruptly from

Malabar. The summit of the ridge is rocky and precipitous : and t

sides, covered at places with grass, slope down to the val

Kundah river, which separates this range from the rest ot the tabl

The three highest points are Avalanche Peak, S502 feet ; I

8353 feet; and Makiirti, 8402 feet. The ground is broken, and te

planting is less developed than in the rest of tl

Utakamand (Ootacamund) the view of the Kundah range u remark

beautiful. The Bhavani river rises in this range, and Government

364 KUNDALA— KUNDRI, NORTH.

recently reserved all the remaining woodlands with the view of main-
taining the rain-supply. The best big game shooting on the Nilgiris is
to be found here.

Kundala. — Village in the Hill State of Nalagarh (Hindur), Punjab ;
situated near the borders of Bilaspur State and the Rupar tahsil of
Ambala District, on the road between Bilaspur and Nalagarh towns.
Celebrated for its deep lake known as Kala Kund. A bandh or
masonry dam, placed across one end of the lake by a late Raja
of the State, has enabled its waters to be used extensively for
irrigation.

Kundapur. — Town and river, South Kanara District, Madras Presi-
dency.— See Kandapur.

Kundhnan Khurd. — Town in Faizabad (Fyzabad) District, Oudh.
— See Kandarka Khurd.

Kundia. — Village in the Native State of Udaipur, Rajputana.
Situated 45 miles north-east of Udaipur city, on the banks of the Banas.
Here are many temples ; and the pool Matri-ka-kiind is celebrated, as
it is said that the sins of Parasurama, the would-be matricide, were
washed away on his bathing in its waters.

Kundla. — Town in Bhaunagar State, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Bombay
Presidency. Lat 21° 21' n., long. 710 25' e. Population (188 1) 6135,
of whom 4431 are Hindus, 921 Muhammadans, and 783 Jains. The
Kundla region is very fertile, and excellent cotton is grown. Irrigation
is carried on, and large crops are obtained in the cold weather. Native
saddlery of wide reputation is made here. Travellers' bungalow,
dispensary, post-office, and two schools.

Kundri, North. — Pargand in Biswan tahsil, Sftapur District, Oudh;
forming together with South Kundri the dodb or alluvial valley
between the Chauka and Gogra. The country is a perfect network of
small streams, which annually overflow their banks during the rains,
causing considerable damage. Area, 164J square miles, or 105,507 acres,
of which 67,983 acres are cultivated, 17,695 acres are cultivable, and
19,829 acres are uncultivable waste. Population (1869) 69,584;
(1881) 71,161, namely, males 37,288, and females 33,873. The incidence
of the land revenue is at the rate of is. 3|d. per acre of total area,
is. 8jd. per acre of assessed area, and 2s. ifd. per acre of cultivated
area. The villages number 129, of which 66 are held on tdlukddri and
63 on zaminddri tenure. Rajputs hold 92 villages, Musalmans 26,
Government 7, and Brahmans, Kayasths, Baniyas, and Bhats, 1 each.
In ancient times, the inhabitants were Bhars, Kurmis, and Raghubansis.
Local tradition relates that about 700 years ago two Rajput brothers,
Bal and Sal, came from their native town of Raika in Jamu, and
drove out the Bhars. Bal and Sal divided the country, the former
taking the northern parts, and the latter the southern. The descend-

KUNDRI, SOUTH— KUNHIAR. 365

ants of both are extant to the present day, and are known as Raikwar
Rajputs, from the name of the original village of their ancestors.
The descendants of Sal are chiefly found in Ramnagar par -g and, Bara
Banki District; and those of Bal, in Kundri and in Bahraich. In
Kundri, the chief Raikwar proprietors were the Raja of Chahlari, who
was slain in the Mutiny and his estates confiscated, the Rao of
Mallapur, and the Thakur of Rampur.

Kundri, South. — Pargand in Siddhauli tahsil, Sitapur District,
Oudh; forming, together with North Kundri, the dodb or alluvial
valley between the Chauka and the Gogra, and liable to destructive
inundations. Area, 63^ square miles, or 40,898 acres, of which 24,135
acres are cultivated, 7997 acres cultivable, 52 acres mudfi, and 8764
acres uncultivable waste. Population (1869)29,393; (1881) 26,516,
namely, males 14,259, and females 12,257. The incidence of the land
revenue is at the rate of is. id. per acre of total area, is. 4^d. per acre
of assessed area, and is. 9d. per acre of cultivated area. The villages
number 39, of which 27 are held by a Raikwar tdlukddr.

Kunhar (also called Nainsukh). — River in Hazara District, Punjab ;
draining the whole of the Khagan valley. Rises in lat. 340 51' n., and
long. 740 4' e., in lake Lohusur, at the head of the Khagan glen, and
after a course of about 100 miles, joins the Jehlam (Jhelum) at Patan,
in lat. 340 17' n., and long. 730 31' e. Narrow and rocky bed; as far
as Balakot, extremely tortuous. Mountains from 8000 to 16,700
feet in height hem it in on either side, the basin between rarely
exceeding 16 miles in width, and contracting in its lower portion,
where the hills subside, to 8 miles or less. Above Balakot, the torrent
flows so fiercely that nothing can live in it ; below that point, the
stream may be crossed by swimming during the summer months, and
sometimes even becomes fordable. One of the main roads to Kashmir
runs through the Batrasi and Dub Passes, on the western and eastern
banks respectively, and crosses the Kunhar at Garhi Habib-ulla by a
suspension bridge, with a span of 108 feet, erected in 1856 at a cost of
^"798. Below this bridge, rough suspension bridges of rope, manu-
factured from twisted twigs, cross the river at long intervals.

Kunhiar. — One of the Simla Hill States, under the political superin-
tendence of the Government of the Punjab. Lat. 310 3' to 310 7' n.,
and long. 7 6° 59' to 770 3' e. The area is 8 square miles, and the
population in 1881 was returned at 1923. The little State occupies a
fertile valley about 15 miles west of Simla. The climate is very mild,
and the soil fertile, producing good crops of sugar-cane. The Thakur
of Kunhiar, Tegh Singh, is a Raghubansi Rajput, born about 1834.
The family has the title of Rao, and within the last two generations has
taken the suffix Singh. The founder of the family, Bhaj Deo, who came
from Jamu, conquered and held this petty State at a date unknown. The

3 66 KUNI—KUNJPURA.

sanadoitiit chiefship is dated 4th September 18 15, after the expulsion
of the Gurkhas. It contains the usual terms of vassalage. The annual
revenue of the chief is estimated at ,£4°°- The State pays a tribute of
£\Z to the British Government.

Kuni. — River rising in the Yeotmal range of hills, Wiin District,
Berar. After a southerly course of about 46 miles, it flows into the
Penganga, in lat. 19° 47' 3°" N-> and lon§- 7^° 41' 3°" E-

Kunia-dh&Iia.— Petty State in Bundelkhand, Central India.— See
Khania-dhana.

Kunigal.— Taluk in the south-east of Tumkiir District, Mysore
State. Area, 328 square miles, of which 116 are cultivated. Popula-
tion (1881) 58,757, namely, 28,306 males and 30,451 females. Of the
total population, 54,849 were Hindus, or 93 per cent.; 3830 Muham-
madans, 31 Jains, and 47 Christians. Land revenue (1881-82),
exclusive of water rates, ^9018, or 2s. 5d. per cultivated acre. The
Shimsha runs through portion of the taluk. The north is fertile and
well cultivated. The taluk in 1884 contained 1 criminal court and 5
police stations (thdnds) ; regular police, 5 1 men ; village watch {chauki-
ddrs), 26. Revenue, ,£10,356.

Kunigal.— Town in Tumkiir District, Mysore State. Lat. 130 1'
40" n., long. 77° 4' 10" e. ; on the Bangalore-Hassan road, 22 miles
south by road from Tumkur town. Population (1881) 3793. The fort
is said to have been founded by a local chief in 1290. It is said to
derive its name from a 'dancing stone' {kunigallu), Siva having
danced here. A large tank has been constructed at the junction
of three hill streams. In recent years, a low type of fever has made
the place very unhealthy. An important establishment for breed-
ing horses for the Mysore silliddrs. Head-quarters of the Kunigal
taluk.

Kunjah. — Town and municipality in Gujrat tafisil, Gujrat District,
Punjab, 7 miles north-west of Gujrat town. Lat. 320 31' 45" N., long.
740 1' e. Population (1868) 5975; (1881) 5799, namely, Muham-
madans, 3898; Hindus, 171 2; and Sikhs, 189. Number of houses,
640. Municipal revenue in 1875-76, ^113; in 1882-83, £156,
or 6jd. per head of the town population. Kunjah is a considerable
agricultural and local trading centre, with a bazar, grain market,
police station, school-house, and dispensary.

Kunjpura. — Town and municipality in Karnal ta/isil, Karnal
District, Punjab. Situated in lat. 290 43' n., long. 770 7' 15" e., 6
miles north-east of Karnal town. Population (1868) 5163; (1881)
4725, namely, Muhammadans, 2550; Hindus, 2174; and Jain, 1.
The town is the residence of a distinguished Pathan family, whose head
enjoys the revenues of the neighbourhood as jdgir, and bears the title
Nawab, with jurisdiction as honorary magistrate on his own estates. The

KUXSA— KURAI. 30 7

town is enclosed by an old masonry wall, now in a dilapidated
state, which the municipality is unable to keep in proper repair for
want of funds. The public buildings consist of a police station,
dispensary, and school. Fine orchards exist close to the town.
Municipal revenue in 1S75-76, .£150; in 1882-83, £l9l> or 9fd«
per head of the town population.

Kunsa. — Town in Rai Bareli District, Oudh, situated 16 miles from
Rai Bareli town, on the road from Gurbakshganj to Bachhrawan. Lat.
26° 20' 15" n., long. 8i° 3' 55" e. Almost purely a Hindu town, the
majority of the inhabitants being Brahmans. Population (1869) 5352 ;
(1881) 4807, namely, Hindus, 4638, and Muhammadans, 169.

Klinur. — Mountain sanitarium and town in the District of the
Nilgiri Hills, Madras Presidency. — See Coonoor.

Kupili. — Town and seaport in Chipurupalle tdluk, Vizagapatam
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 180 10' 30" n., long. 830 52' 40" e.
Population (1881) 1942 ; number of houses, 377. Salt station, yielding
a revenue of about ;£i 5,000 per annum.

Kurai. — North-western tahsil or Sub-division of Sagar (Saugor)
District, Central Provinces. Area, 936 square miles, with 1 town
and 482 villages; number of houses, 26,332. Population (1881)
116,767, namely, males 61,440, and females 55,327; average density,
12475 persons per square mile. Total adult agricultural popula-
tion, 34,844, or 29*8 per cent, of the entire population of the
tahsil. Average area of cultivated and cultivable land, 13 acres
per head. Of the total area of 936 square miles, 190 square
miles are held revenue free, and 746 square miles are assessed for
Government revenue. Of the assessed area, 358 square miles are
returned as cultivated, 282 square miles as cultivable, and 106 square
miles as uncultivable waste. Total Government revenue, including
local rates and cesses levied on land, ^11,174, or an average of n|d.
per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, ^27,324, or
2S. 2§d. per cultivated acre. In 1883, the tahsil contained 1 criminal
and 2 civil courts; number of police stations, 3, with 15 outposts;
strength of regular police, 139 men ; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 405.

Kurai. — Town in Sagar (Saugor) District, Central Provinces, and
head-quarters of Kurai tahsil. Lat. 240 2' 30" N., long. 780 22' 30" e. ; 34
miles north-west of Sagar town. From the Gaulis Kurai passed to the
Muhammadan rulers of Delhi. Aurangzeb united the pargand of Kurai
with that of Garola, and gave the tract in jdgir to a Dangi chief,
who built the fort. In 1753, Govind Pandit, on behalf of the Peshwa,
took possession of Kurai. He enlarged the fort, and dug a large well
within it; and built on its south-west side a temple, still in good
preservation, isolating the whole by water from a lake he had excavated.
The fort consists of round towers connected by curtain walls, and

368

KURAM.

encloses 1 1 acres. Within it stands the tahsil court-house, also built by
Govind Pandit.

Kurai formed part of the country ceded by the Peshwa to the
British in 1818. In July 1857, the Raja of Bhanpur invested Kurai,
on which the tahsilddr surrendered the fort and joined the rebels.
They held the place till February 1858, when Sir Hugh Rose defeated
the Raja of Bhanpur at Barodia Nawanagar. The ravages of the
rebels greatly depressed the country round Kurai ; but since the
new Settlement, marked improvement has taken place.

The town is well laid out, with wide streets, and substantial
houses. North of the fort are some handsome Hindu temples. Large
quantities of cattle are brought to the weekly markets, chiefly from the
Native State of Gwalior ; and the whole of the meat supplied by the
commissariat to the European troops at Sagar, Jabalpur (Jubbulpore),
and Nowgong comes from Kurai. The town has a police station-house,
a post-office, and 3 schools, one being for girls. Population (1872)
4965; (1881) 5370, chiefly Dangis, a class of agricultural Rajputs.
Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 — Hindus, 3856;
Jains, 745 ; Sikhs, 10 1 ; Muhammadans, 665 ; and Christians, 3.
Municipal income (1882-83) ;£I09°> of which JJ571 was derived from
taxation, principally octroi; average incidence of taxation, 2s. ijd. per
head.

Kuram. — A district of Afghanistan, consisting of the valley of the
river Kuram as far as British territory. The length of the district,
until 1880 a sub-division of Kabul Province, is about 60 miles, and its
breadth varies from 3 to 10 miles.

The scenery is exceedingly fine, and in some places grand, the Safed
Koh forming a magnificent background to a picture of quiet beauty.
The Kuram river runs through green fields and sunny orchards, and
numerous villages dot the plain. The principal spur from the Safed
Koh range is the Peiwar ridge, which runs south and divides into two
branches, one of which is parallel to the Kuram. The other rivers of
the district are the Hariab, Keria, Mangal, Ahmad Khel, Kirman, and
Karamana. The chief tribes inhabiting the Kuram valley are the
Bangash, Tiiri, Jaji, and Mangal. The two last, who are semi-indepen-
dent, inhabit the upper portion of the district towards the crest of the
Peiwar Kotal, and south of Chamkani. The numbers of these tribes
are thus estimated :—

Mangals,
Jajis,
Bangash,
Turis,

Total,

at 8,000 fighting men, by Lumsden.
,, 800 ,, ,,

,, 5,620 ,, by Edwardes.

„ 5>o°o »

19,420 fighting men.

The total number of inhabitants has been estimated at 77,680.

KURAM. 369

Although Kuram lies in the midst of an Afghan population, all its
tribes belong to the Shia sect.

The chief crops of Kuram are rice, cotton, barley, andjodr. Apples,
pomegranates, melons, quinces, and other fruits are also grown. Water
is abundant everywhere, and irrigation is rendered easy by the presence
of the Kuram and the numerous hill torrents which feed it. A large
unirrigated tract in the north is known as the Maidan. All the irri-
gated lands in the district lie close to the banks of the Kuram ; and
whenever these fields are flooded, it is a common practice to plant rows
of willows as thickly as they will stand, and keep them cut down to 2
or 3 feet in height for some years. These spreading form a complete
barrier, which in ordinary floods catches and retains rich deposits of
alluvial soil, on which as soon as it is dry, a crop is sown, while each
succeeding flood only adds to the depth of the deposit. Thus the
cultivator only loses one crop, and in a very few years regains a fine
field supported on a living wall of willows.

The slopes of the Safed Koh range are clothed with pine forests,
and the timber is floated down the Kuram to Bannu for the use of the
British Forest Department.

The route through the Kuram valley is perhaps the best of all the
roads between Afghanistan and the Punjab, both on account of its
easiness and the abundance of water, fuel, etc. procurable.

The number of villages in Kuram' is 36; the largest contains a
population of about 1000. The fort of the governor is at Ahmadzai.

The following particulars are given by General Macgregor (from
Major Plowden's compilation) as to the administration of Kuram.
The district was formerly divided in 29 sub-divisions, each of 720
acres, the whole paying an aggregate land-tax of ^6250. The mis-
cellaneous revenue is raised by a poll-tax on Hindus, each male adult
paying a sum of about 6s. ; by taxes on animals sold ; and by
transit duties. The Turfs are great traders, and own a large stock of
pack-mules ; there are no camels or pack-bullocks in Kuram. Fruit,
rice, and ddl are brought down to British territory, the traders lading
Kohat salt for the return journey. Habfb-Kala in Peiwar is the chief
centre of trade. The customs of the people do not differ materially
from those of other parts of Afghanistan. In cases of murder, blood
is either taken for blood, or ^"36 and a bride (valued at ;£iS) are
accepted as compensation. Peace is not held to be complete until a
bride has been given. Semi-military and police posts are — Kapian,
Ahmadi-Shama, Balesh Khel, Fort Kuram, and Peiwar.

The Kuram valley is historical as the starting-point of General
Roberts' expedition in the war between England and Afghanistan,
1878-79. On the nth of September in the latter year, the murder of
our envoy Sir Louis Cavagnari was followed by General Roberts'

VOL. VIII. 2 A

37o KURAM RIVER— KURANTA Dili.

seizure of the Shutargardan pass, and an advance by the Kuram route
to Kabul.

Kuram. — River in Afghanistan and Bannu District, Punjab ;
rises in the Safed Koh mountains beyond the frontier, and, before
reaching British territory, waters the fertile Kuram valley in the inde-
pendent hills. Then it rushes through the mountains held by various
Waziri clans, and entering Bannu District at its north-west corner, 5
miles from the cantonment and civil station, finally falls into the Indus
some 4 miles south of Isakhel, after receiving the waters of the Tochi
a few miles east of Lakki, in lat. 320 37' n., and long. 710 22' e.

The rich deposits brought down by the Kuram render its waters
peculiarly valuable for irrigation, but unwholesome for drinking.
The Bannuchis, however, draw their whole domestic supply from this
source. Immediately below the hills, boulders line the shallow bed j
farther down, the stream cuts itself a deep channel through the yield-
ing banks of clay ; while near the Indus it loses its force, and widens
out over a spreading and ill-defined basin. Throughout its course in
British territory, it is used for irrigation, and a large area is constantly
flooded by means of side-cuts ; so much so that but little water reaches
the Indus, except during the rainy season. The depth varies from 2
feet in the dry months to 6 or 7 feet in the floods. In its diagonal
course of about 60 miles through Bannu District, the Kuram falls fully
700 feet. It is subject to sudden and prolonged freshes; and being
nowhere yet bridged, crossing is sometimes impossible for several days
at a time. During the Afghan campaign a military detachment has been
known to be detained on the bank a week, unable to reach the canton-
ment a mile distant on the opposite side of the river. Between June
and September, the only tolerably safe and practicable ford for laden
camels is that opposite the cantonment. A bridge at this point is the
great commercial and military want of Bannu District. In parts, how-
ever, quicksands render the passage difficult or dangerous. Bannu
District owes almost all its fertility to the Kuram and its tributary the
Gambila (Tochi). Area annually irrigated, about 60,000 acres.

Kurambraiiad. — Taluk or Sub - division of Malabar District,
Madras Presidency. Area, 408 square miles. Population (1SS1)
261,024, namely, 129,394 males and 131,630 females, dwelling in
57 villages, containing 48,440 houses. Hindus numbered 196,383;
Muhammadans, 64,245 ; Christians, 394 ; and ' others,' 2. There
were, in 1S83, 2 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circles, 10;
regular police, 91 men. Land revenue, ^£2 1,304.

Kurandwad. — Native State under the South Maratha Agency of
the Bombay Presidency. — See Kurundwad.

Kurantadih. — Eastern tahsil or Sub-division of Ghazipur District,
Xorth-Western Provinces, consisting of the pargands of Muhammad-

KURANTADIH TAIJSIL—KURAUNA. 37,

abad, Garha, Dihma, and Zahiirabad. Area, according to the latest
official statement (1S81), 404-6 square miles, of which 302-2 square
miles are cultivated, 29-3 square miles cultivable, and 73-1 square
miles uncultivable waste. Population (1872) 236,800 ; (1881) 286,022,
namely, males 142,820, and females 143,202. Increase of population
during the nine years, 49,222, or 2o-S per cent. Classified according
to religion, there were, in 1S81— Hindus, 258,814; Muhammadans,
27,202 ; and Christians, 6. Of the 804 villages, 646 contained less
than five hundred inhabitants in 1SS1. Two towns, Narhi and Baha-
durganj, contained upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government
land revenue (1S81), ^£29,943 ; total Government revenue, including
rates and cesses, ,£33,704; total rental paid by cultivators, including
cesses, ^61,408.

Kurantadih.— Head-quarters of Kurantadih tahsil, Ghazipur Dis-
trict, North-Western Provinces; situated in lat. 250 35' n., and long.
840 1' 20" e., 26 miles from Ghazipur town, with which it is connected
by a metalled road. There is no village here, and no population
except the Government officials, who, with their families, number about
40. The public buildings consist of a tahsili, munsifi, police station, and
Anglo-vernacular school. The head-quarters of the tahsil were moved
here from Muhammadabad in 1876. Until 1873, Kurantidih was the
seat of a branch of the Government stud department.

Kurara. — Town in Hamirpur tahsil, Hamirpur District, North-
Western Provinces ; situated on the Kalpi road, 10 miles west of Hamir-
pur town. Population (1872) 4897; (1881) 3612. Police station,
post-office, village school. A considerable trade in grain, cotton,
and the scarlet at dye is carried on at the Sunday and Thursday
markets. A house-tax is raised for police and sanitary purposes.

Kurauli. — Town in Mainpuri tahsil, Mainpuri District, North-
Western Provinces; situated on the road from Mainpuri to Etah, 14 miles
north of the former town. Kurauli is an open and well-built modern
town, owing its rise to the growing prosperity of the Raja and his
family, who have a handsome mansion with large gardens in its
midst. Four mosques ; 9 Hindu temples, the most striking built
by the late Raja, with rest-house for pilgrims attached ; handsome
masonry bathing tank. Post-office, police station, tahsili school.
Population (1872) 4071 ; (1881) 6776, namely, Hindus, 5454;
Muhammadans, 11 52; and 'others,' 170. The late Raja took great
interest in education, especially of females, and did much to encourage
improvements in the town. He died in 1880, leaving an adopted
minor son, and the estate is now (1S84) under the Court of Wards.
A local family of oculists have a high reputation for the cure of
cataract.

Kurauna. — Pargand in Misrikh tahsil, Sitiipur District, Oudh.

372 KURG—KURLA.

Area, 46 square miles, or 29,329 acres, of which 16,986 acres are
cultivated, 7024 acres cultivable, 2467 mudji, and 2852 uncultivable
waste. Population (1869) 14,807 ; (1881) 16,283, namely, males 8664,
and females 7619. Incidence of land-tax, 2s. o^d. per acre of total
area, 2s. 3I& per acre of assessed area, 3s. 2§d per acre of cultivated
area. Of the 51 villages comprising the pargand, 32 are held by
Janwar Rajputs, 10 by Muhammadans, 3 by Kayasths, and 2 by
Gosains, while the remaining 4 are newly formed grants. The pargand
was formerly occupied by Pasis, who were driven out 400 years ago
by an invasion of Janwar Rajputs, whose descendants still own the
greater part of the pargand.

Kurg. — Province of Southern India. — See Coorg.
Kurha Keshupur (or Darshannagar). — Town in Faizabad (Fyz-
abad) District, Oudh ; situated 4 miles from Faizabad town, on the
road to Akbarpur. Population (1869) 2730; (1881) 3167, viz. 2726
Hindus and 441 Muhammadans.

Kurhurbaree. — Coal-field in Hazaribagh District, Bengal. — See
Karharbari.

Kurigram. — Sub-division of Rangpur District, Bengal. Area, 937
square miles ; number of villages, 2386 ; houses, 70,828. Population
(1881) — males 268,054, and females 266,900; total, 534,954. Classi-
fied according to religion, there were — Muhammadans, 318,303;
Hindus, 216,596; Christians, 14; Buddhists, 10; Jains, 22; and
' others,' 9. Average density of population, 571 persons per square mile ;
villages per square mile, 2-55; persons per village, 224; houses per
square mile, 77 ; persons per house, 7*5. This Sub-division comprises
the three police circles (thdnds) of Barabari, Nageswari, and Ulipur.
In 1883 it contained 2 civil and 1 criminal court, with a regular
police force of 71 officers and men, and 1205 rural police or village
watchmen.

Kurigram. — Village and head-quarters of Kurigram Sub-division,
Rangpur District ; situated on the right bank of the Dharla river, and
a station on the Kauniya and Dharla Railway. A tobacco and jute
mart.

Kurivikulam. — Town in Sankaranaianarkoil taluk, Tinnevelli Dis-
trict, Madras District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 90 10' 30" n., long.
770 42' e. Population (1881) 6268 ; number of houses, 1499. Hindus
number 6078 ; Christians, 174; and Muhammadans, 16.

Kurla. — Municipal town in Thana District, Bombay Presidency.
Situated on the eastern extremity of Salsette Island, at the point where
it is connected with the island of Bombay by the Sion Causeway.
Also a station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. The town has
a post-office, dispensary, and two large cotton mills, one of which, the
'Dharmsey Poon-jabhoy,' is the largest in India. Population (1881)

KURMA TUR—KURSL 3 7 3

9715. Hindus numbered 6793; Muhammadans, 1320; Christians,
1369; Parsi's, 81; Jains, 30; and 'others,' 122. Municipal income
(1882), ,£"498; expenditure, ^569; incidence of taxation, 9M.

Kurmatxir. — Town in Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat.
90 4' N., long. 760 43' 30" e.

Kurnool. — District and town, Madras Presidency. — See Karnul.

Kurpa. — District and town, Madras Presidency. — See Cuddapah.

Kurrachee. — District, tahsil, and town, Sind, Bombay Presidency.
— See Karachi.

Kursanda.— Town in Sadabad tahsil, Muttra (Mathura) District,
North-Western Provinces ; situated on the Agra and Aligarh road, 8
miles north of the Jumna, 3 miles south-west of Sadabad, and 20 miles
south-east of Muttra town. Lat. 270 23' 45" N., long. 780 3' 24" e. Popu-
lation (1872) 7145 ; (1881) 6018, namely, Hindus, 5625, and Muham
madans, 393. Area of town site, 82 acres. The town was founded
by a Jat named Piiran Chand, who bestowed a portion of the land on
his family priest. Their descendants are still in possession, and Jats
and Brahmans form the principal inhabitants and landholders. The
town contains four small temples ; and markets are held twice a week
on Sunday and Thursday. During the Mutiny, two of the local land-
holders were hanged for participation in the sack of Sadabad.

Kursat.— Town in Unao District, Oudh ; situated 10 miles north
Of Safipur, and 4 miles north of Asiwan. Lat. 260 52' 10" n., long.
8o° 27' 10" e. Population (1869) 5373 ; (1881) 5755, namely, Hindus,
3960, and Muhammadans, 1795. Area of town site, 100 acres.
Vernacular school ; weekly market, with sales averaging ^223 a year.
Founded by one Kuds-ud-din, in the reign of Babar, the previous in-
habitants, a tribe called Shahids, being expelled and their village laid
in ruins. The descendants of the conquerors still hold the land.

Kursat Kalan— Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated near
the right bank of the Sai, 9 miles north-east from Mallanwan. A fine
village with a population (1869) of 2688, and (1881) 2621, chiefly
Kanaujia Brahmans. Bi-weekly market. Held by the Thatheras till
about the middle of the 12th century, when a body of Kurmis drove
them out. Their descendants still hold the village.

Kurseli.— Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated a little off the
Pihani road, 11 miles north of Hardoi town. Population (1869) 2898 ;
(1881) 3056, mostly Pasis. Said to have been founded about 400
years ago by Diwan Singh and Jagat Singh, Chamar Gaurs, the
descendants of Ruber Sah, the conqueror of the Thatheras.

Kurseong— Sub-division and village in Darjfling District, Bengal.—
See Karsiang.

Kursi— Pargand in Fatehpur tahsil, Bara Banki District, Oudh.
Area, 89 square miles, of which 47 are cultivated. Population (1S69)

3 74 KURSI TO WN—KUR UKSHE TRA.

37,459; (1881) 35,814, namely, males 18,813, and females 17,001.
Land revenue assessment, ^7055 ; average incidence, 2s. 5jd. per acre
of total area, 3s. id. per acre of assessed area, and 4s. 8|d. per acre of
cultivated area. Number of villages, 91 ; principally owned by Sayyids
and Rajputs.

Kursi— Town in Fatehpur tahsil, Bara Banki District, Oudh, and
head-quarters of Kursi tahsil ; 18 miles from Bara Banki town.
Population (1869) 3650; (1881) 3154, of whom more than half are
Musalmans. Police station ; Government school ; registration office ;
post-office. Weaving and cotton-cleaning trades flourish, but no bazar
is held here. Crossed by two roads— one running north from Lucknow,
which passes on to Mahmudabad and Biswan in Sftapur District ; and
the other west from Bara Banki, which joins the imperial road from
Lucknow to Sftapur. The town has long belonged to Musalman pro-
prietors j but it is said to have been built by two Bhars, Khushal and
Mithan, one of whom gave his name to Kursi, and the other to the
village of Mithan, some 4 miles east of it.

Kurtkoti.— Town in the Gadag Sub-division of Dharwar District,
Bombay Presidency; situated 25 miles east of Hubli, and 8 miles
south-west of Gadag, in lat. 150 45' N-> and lonS- 75° 4 E. Population
(1881)4516.

Kuruda-male (or Kudu-male, ' Hill of Assembly ').— Hill in Kolar
District, Mysore State. Lat. 13° 12' n., long. 780 25' e. ; 3312 feet
above sea-level. At the foot of the hill are the ruins of several
large temples, .with sculpture ascribed to Jakanachari, but apparently
restored at a later date. The principal are those of Someswara and
Ganesha, The figure of Ganesha is of huge size. Tradition asserts
that here the ancient gods mustered their forces for the attack on
Tripura.

Kurugodu— Town in Bellary taluk, Bellary District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 15° 20' n., long. 760 53' e. Population (1881) 2723;
number of houses, 747. Remarkable for the number of temples in
its vicinity, among them a very fine new one dedicated to Siva, and
containing a colossal representation of the bull Nanii% a monolith.
Village school.

Kurukshetra.— Holy tract and place of pilgrimage in Ambala
(Umballa) and Karnal Districts, Punjab ; embracing the country lying
west and south-west of the town of Thanesar as its centre. The name
derives its origin from Kuru, the ancestor alike of the Kauravas and
Pandavas who figure in the Mahdbhdrata. Kuru became an ascetic
upon the banks of the holy lake south of Thanesar ; but the limits
of the sacred tract cannot be exactly ascertained. According to
popular belief, the Kurukshetra embraces 360 places of pilgrimage,
and extends as far as the town of Jind, 64 miles from Thanesar;

KU RUMBA. 375

though General Cunningham believes that modern Brahmans have
unduly enlarged its boundaries to gratify the Sikh Raja of Jind, whose
territories are thus included within the holy borders. Whatever be
the precise extent of the sacred tract, it is certain that the strip of
country between the Saraswati (Sarsuti) and the Ghaggar (the Saras-
wati and Drishadvati of the Sanskrit epics) formed the original home
of the Hindu faith, the earliest settlement of the Aryan colonists in
India. Here their religion first assumed its present form ; and there-
fore the Kurukshetra and the river Saraswati still attract worshippers
from the remotest parts of Bengal.

The ancient capital of Kurukshetra was Srughna, the site of which
has been identified by General Cunningham with the village of Sugh,
situated in a bend of the old bed of the Jumna, close to Jagadhri and
Buriya. Srughna is mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim
of the 7th century, as a town 3J miles in circuit, the capital of a
kingdom, and the seat of considerable learning, both Buddhistic and
Brahmanical. He describes the kingdom of Srughna as extending to
the mountains on the north, and to the Ganges on the east, with the
Jumna flowing through the centre.

The towns of Thanesar and Pihoia are the chief centres of
pilgrimage, but minor shrines line the bank of the river for many
miles. At Thanesar, as many as 100,000 persons sometimes
assemble on the occasion of an eclipse of the sun, and treble
that number bathe annually in a tank filled from the Sarsuti
(Saraswati). The great conflict between the Pandavas and the
Kauravas was fought out in the surrounding country; and the
Mahdbhdrata keeps alive the memory of all the most famous scenes in
the minds of Hindu votaries, who regard the Kurukshetra as the Holy
Land of their religion.

Kurumba. — A primitive tribe of South India, Madras Presidency.
The Kurumbas are believed to have sprung from a race of nomadic
shepherds, one of the great Dravidian family which inhabited the
Peninsula of South India before the historical period. They founded
a powerful kingdom, known as Kuramba-bhumi, occupying the tract
along the sea-coast from the Pennar to the Palar rivers, and extend-
ing inland to the Western Ghats. This kingdom was finally over-
thrown by Adondai, the illegitimate son of Kulattungi Chola ; and the
conquered country passed thenceforth by the name of Tondamanda-
lam. The power of the Kurumbas probably survived longest in the
North Karnatik, particularly in the hills. The Kurumbas themselves
have lost all traces of their ancient civilisation, and retain no recol-
lection of their previous history. At the present day they are a
tribe of shepherds, scattered through the Districts of Malabar, Coim-
batore, Cuddapah, Bellary, Tanjore, Trichinopoli, the Nilgiris, Mysore,

376 KURUNDWAD.

and Pudukota State. The Census of 1S81 returned the total number
of Kurumbas throughout the whole of Southern India as only 3801, of
whom as many as 3601 were found in the petty State of Pudukota.
The Kurumbas in the British Districts and Mysore were apparently
enumerated among the low-caste Hindus.

The Kurumbas are small in stature, uncouth, and squalid. They
wear their hair matted and straggling, sometimes tied into a knot
with a piece of cord on the crown or back of the head, with the ends
hanging down. The men have scarcely any moustache or whiskers,
and only a scanty beard. Their clothing consists of a piece of cloth
passed between their legs. Some of the women wear a square cloth
which reaches from the arm to the knee ; others have only a waist-
cloth. The Kurumbas profess to worship Siva, and occasionally the
women mark their forehead with the Siva spot. The tribe has no
special ceremonies or rites at birth or marriage. The dead are burned,
and the ashes are left to be scattered by the wind. Mr. Metz describes
the language as a corruption of Kanarese, with Tamil words intermixed.
Dr. Caldwell, however, speaks of it as ' rude Tamil.' The Mysore
Kurumbas speak old Kanarese.

Kurundwad. — Native State under the Political Agency of the
Southern Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency. This State at present
consists of two divisions, one belonging to the elder ruler of Kurund-
wad, and the other to the younger chiefs. The elder division com-
prises two towns, Kurundwad and Tikota, and 37 villages. Of these,
Tikota and Wadegaon — the former in Kaladgi, and the latter in Satara
District — are quite isolated from the main Jdgir, of which 25 villages
lie close to and south of the town of Belgaum, while the remaining
10 lie in the valley of the Kistna intermixed with British territory
and with the territory of the Kolhapur, Sangli, and Muraj States. The
junior division comprises 34 villages, 17 in the neighbourhood of
and mostly to the south of Belgaum, 15 on the borders of the Nizam's
Dominions and to the east of Sholapur District, and 2 within the limits
of the Kolhapur State.

The elder chief's estate contains an area of 182 square miles, and a
population (1881) of 35,187 persons, namely, 17,636 males and 17,551
females, occupying 6577 houses. Hindus numbered 28,558; Muham-
madans, 3409; and 'others,' 3220. The staple products are millet,
rice, wheat, gram, and cotton. Coarse country cloth and articles
of native female apparel are the principal manufactures. The
Kurundwad State was a grant made before 1772 by the Peshwa to a
member of the Patwardhan family, on condition of military service.
In 181 1 the State was divided, a half share being given by the
Peshwa to Ganpat Rao, the nephew of Nilkant Rao, the original
grantee. In 1855 a further division of Kurundwad was effected by

KURUNDWAD TOWN—KURWAL 37 7

the British Government between Raghunath Rao and his nephew
Ganpat Rao, and younger brothers Vinayak Rao and Trimbak Rao.
The latter dying in 1869 without male issue, the whole of his share of
the jdgir was bestowed on the two younger chiefs, with the exception
of the share he possessed in the indm estate, which reverted to the
elder chief. The total yearly tribute received by the British Govern-
ment from Kurundwad amounts to ^96 1. The present (1881-82)
senior chief is Chintaman Rao Raghunath, a Hindu of the Brahman
caste. He is twenty-seven years of age, and administers his estate
in person. The elder chief of Kurundwad ranks as a first-class
sarddr, and has power to try his own subjects for capital offences
without the express permission of the Political Agent. He enjoys
an estimated gross revenue of ^11,000, and maintains a military
force of 268 men. His family hold a sanad of adoption, and the
succession follows the rule of primogeniture. In 1882-83 there were
five schools with 165 scholars, besides seven indigenous schools.

The share of the younger chiefs contains an area of 114 square
miles, and a population (1881) of 25,811 persons, namely, 13,052 males
and 12,759 females, occupying 3557 houses. Hindus numbered
20,632; Muhammadans, 2548; and 'others,' 2631. The arrangement
entered into by the senior branch is considered as binding upon the
younger chiefs. The present (1881-82) head of the younger chiefs
is Ganpat Rao Harihar. He is thirty-nine years of age, and administers
his estate in person. He maintains a military force of 304 men, and
has an estimated gross revenue (1882) of ^10,283. In 1S82-83 there
were two vernacular schools.

Kurundwad.— Chief town of the State of Kurundwad, in the South
Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 160 41' n., long. 74° 38' E.
Population (1881) 7138. Hindus numbered 5278; Muhammadans,
1064; Jains, 791 ; Christians, 1 ; and Parsi's, 4. Situated on the right
bank of the Panchganga river, close to its junction with the Kistna.
The town is the residence of the representatives of both branches of
the ruling family, and was formerly well protected, but the defences are
now mostly in ruins. It has no public buildings of any interest, save
the palace of the chiefs, and a temple dedicated to Vishnu. Outside
the town, and distant about a mile, is a fine masonry bathing ghdt
on the Kistna. The water-supply is dependent on the Panchganga,
from which a windmill pump raises the water for the town. There is
a charitable dispensary. The town is not a part of the jd<it\ having
been given in indm to an ancestor of the present chiefs by the Raja
of Kolhapur. It possesses a municipality.

Kurwai. — Native State under the Bhopal Agency of Central India.
Lat 230 21' to 240 14' n., and long. 770 26' to 780 20' e. The State is
situated on the river Betwa, between Sagar (Saugor) and Sironj. Chief

378 KUR WAI TO WN— KUSHTIA.

i

products, opium and grain. The founder of the principality was an
Afghan adventurer, named Muhammad Dalel Khan. He first entered
the service of the Raja of Datia, and afterwards, about 1726, that of
the Raja of Basoda. By dint of his valour, he became commandant of
the Basoda troops ; and, on the death of the chief of Kurwai, he seized
that territory, and built the fort of Kurwai. During the decline of the
Mughal Empire, the State increased greatly in consideration and pros-
perity. The chief rendered assistance to General Goddard in 1783,
and in consequence suffered severely afterwards from the enmity of the
Marathas; in 18 18 he applied to the British Resident at Bhopal for
protection, which was accorded, and thenceforward he remained undis-
turbed in his possessions. The chief, Muhammad Najaf Khan, bears
the title of Nawab. The area of the State is about 139 square miles,
with a population in 1881 of 24,631, of whom 12,622 were males
and 12,009 females; density of the population, 176 persons per
square mile. Hindus numbered 20,788; Muhammadans, 3609; Jains,
24 ; and aboriginal tribes, 216. The revenue is estimated at
;£io,ooo. The Nawab keeps up a force of 40 horse and 150
infantry.

Kurwai. — Chief town of the Kurwai State, under the Bhopal
Agency, Central India. Lat. 240 7' n., long. 78^ 5' e. Situated on the
Betwa river. The fort, built of red granite and surrounded by a ditch,
is on an eminence to the east of the town. The houses in the town
are of stone set in mud and roofed with stone slabs, which are obtained
in abundance from the quarries in the vicinity. Native weapons, such
as matchlocks and knives, are manufactured, and are much prized in
the neighbouring villages. Dispensary and post-office. Population
(1881) from 3000 to 5000.

Kusbhadra. — A deltaic distributary of the Koyakhai branch of the
Mahanadi, which, after throwing off a branch, the Prachi, falls into the
Bay of Bengal a little south of the Kanarak temple, in lat. 19° 51' n.,
and long. 86° 4' e.

Kushtia (Kooshtea). — Sub-division of Nadiya District, Bengal. Lat.
230 42' to 240 9' n., and long. 88° 47' to 890 24' 45" e. Area,
558 square miles, with 861 villages or towns, and 71,811 houses.
Population (1881) 446,694, namely, males 216,617, and females
23°j°77 ) proportion of males in the total population, 48-5 per
cent. The most densely populated Sub-division in the District, the
average density being 800 persons per square mile, or 1 to every 1*25
acre; villages per square mile, 1*54; persons per village, 519; houses
per square mile, 1337 ; persons per house, 6 2. This Sub-division
comprises the 6 police circles (thdnds) of Daulatpur, Naopara, Kushtia,
Kumarkhali, Bhaluka, and Bhadulia. In 1883 it contained 4 civil
and 2 magisterial courts, a regular police force of 120 men, besides

KUSHTIA TOWN—KUSL 379

a village watch numbering 913. The Northern Bengal State Railway,
from the Eastern Bengal Railway station at Parodah to Damukdiha
on the Ganges, intersects the Sub -division. The population is
almost entirely agricultural, but a considerable river trade is also
carried on.

Kushtia. — Town, municipality, and head-quarters of Kushtia Sub-
division and police circle (thdnd) in Nadiya District, Bengal ; situated
on the right bank of the Padma or Ganges. Lat. 230 54' 55" N.,
long. 890 10' 5" e. Population (1872) 9245, namely, 4674 males and
4571 females; (1881) 9717, namely, males 4778, and females 4939-
Classified according to religion, there were, in 1881 — Muhammadans,
5669; Hindus, 4023; 'others,' 25. Area of town site, 3200 acres.
Municipal income (1876-77), ^279 ; (1883-84), ^524; rate of muni-
cipal taxation, is. oid. per head. The principal seat of river trade in
the District, and an important station on the Eastern Bengal Railway.
Until the extension of the line to Goalanda in 1870, Kushtia was the
terminus of the railway, and the chief landing-place for jute and other
products of Eastern Bengal. The silting up of the river, and the
extension of the line eastwards down the Ganges to Goalanda in
Farfdpur District, has removed much of the traffic of Kushtia to the
new terminus.

Kusi (Koosy). — River of Northern Bengal, rising among the Nepal
Himalayas in lat. 280 25' n., and long. 86° 1 1' E. It first takes a course
south-west for about 60 miles, then south and south-east for 160 more,
during which it receives on its left bank its two great tributaries the
Aran and Tambar. It leaves the mountains in lat. 2 6° 45' n., and long.
87° 13' e., in a series of cataracts and rapids, and after a southerly
course touches upon British territory in the extreme north-east of
Bhagalpur District, at which point it is a large river nearly a mile wide.
It here assumes the character of a deltaic stream, and runs a direct
southerly course, with many bifurcations and interlacings, till, after
receiving another considerable tributary on its left bank, the Ghugri, it
finally falls into the left bank of the Ganges in lat. 250 22' 15" n., and
long. 870 19' e., after a total course of about 325 miles.

The Kusi is remarkable for the rapidity of its stream, the
dangerous and uncertain nature of its bed, but chiefly for its con-
stant westerly movement and the desolation caused by its floods.
Tracts inundated by it lapse into sand and jungle, and in this way
it has made a wilderness of about half the Madahpura Sub-division.
In the early part of the 18th century, the Kusi river passed below
Purniah town, but it has since worked westwards across about 50
miles of country, as indicated by now deserted channels, to its present
line. Owing to these characteristics, its navigation is at all times
of the year a matter of much difficulty. The channels of deep

380 KUSIARA— KUTABNA GAR.

water are constantly changing, new ones being yearly opened up, and
old ones choked by vast sandbanks. The bed of the river is full of
sunken trees or snags. Owing to the great velocity of the current,
boats have frequently to wait several days for a favourable wind to
help them up particular reaches of the river. They require to be pre-
ceded by a regular pilot, who goes some distance in advance, and
selects the channel to be followed. The river is navigable all the year
round, as far as the Nepal frontier, by boats of 9 or 10 tons burden.

According to a Hindu legend, this river is Kausiki, the daughter of
Kusik, Raja, King of Gadhi. Although the daughter of a Kshattriya,
she was the wife of a Brahman ; and on giving birth to a son, who
preferred the warlike exploits of his mother's race to the sacred duties
of his father, she became changed into a river.

Kusiara. — The most southerly of the two branches of the Surma or
Barak river in Sylhet District, Assam. The point of bifurcation is at
the village of Bhanga on the Cachar boundary. The Kusiara, after
receiving the waters of the Langai, Juri, and Manu rivers, takes the
name of Bibiana, at Bahadurpur, where the old course of the Barak
] iver (now almost closed) bifurcates. Farther west, the waters of the
Kusiara or Bibiana meet those of the Surma or northerly branch of the
Barak. The united stream takes various names at different parts of
its course, and at length contributes to make up the estuary of the
Meghna. The various portions of this river are navigable throughout
the year by boats of 4 tons burden, and, except in the very driest
season, by boats of 20 tons burden.

KllSSOWlee. — Town and cantonment in Simla District, Punjab. —
See Kasauli.

Kutabdia. — Island and lighthouse off the coast of Chittagong,
Bengal. This and the neighbouring island of Maheskhal (Maskhal)
bear a resemblance both in character and general appearance to the
Gangetic Sundarbans, except that Kutabdia does not contain much
of the genuine Sundarban jungle, and Maheskhal has some rising
grounds with large trees. The island was at one time nearly abandoned
by its inhabitants, owing to its liability to incursions of the sea.
Recently, large sums have been spent by Government as landlord to
embank the island, and embankments upwards of 40 miles in extent
have been constructed. A new land settlement was in progress in
1883, from which a large increase of revenue is expected. The island
has already recovered its prosperity, and is well cultivated. Lighthouse
situated on the west of the island; lat. 210 520 30" n., long. 910 53' e.
A police outpost station, under the Maheskhal t/uind, is located here.

Kutabnagar. — Town in Sftapur District, Oudh ; situated on the
high road, 18 miles west of Sitapur town. Population (1869) 2256;
(1881) 2319. Bi-weekly market; vernacular school.

KUTABPUR—KUVAM. 3S ,

Kutabpur. — Village in Midnapur District, Bengal. The site of a
considerable fair held in April or May in honour of the goddess
Brahmani, which lasts for eight days.

Kutch. — State in Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency. — See

CUTCH.

Kuthar. — One of the Simla Hill States, under the political super-
intendence of the Government of the Punjab. Lat. 300 55' 30" to
310 1' 30" n., and long. 760 57' to 770 1' e. This little State has an
area of only 7 square miles, and contains 150 villages or hamlets,
with 863 houses. Population (1881) 3648, namely, Hindus, 3494;
Muhammadans, 149 ; and Sikhs, 5. The State lies west of Subathu,
and formerly included it, until the land for the cantonment was
purchased by the Government. The founder of the State is said to
have come from Rajaoli in the Jamu territory, forty-seven generations
ago, whence he fled in fear of the Muhammadan invaders. In 1815,
when the Gurkhas were driven out of this country, the chief was
replaced by the British, on the usual conditions of feudal service. The
present Rana of Kuthar is Jai Chand, a Chandrabansi Rajput, born
in 1844. The family suffix is Chand. The annual revenue is
estimated at about ^"500; tribute of £100 is paid to the British
Government.

Kutiyana (or Katidnd). — Town in the State of Junagarh, Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency. Situated on the Bhadra river, 25 miles east of
Porbandar. Lat. 210 38' n., long. 700 10' e. Population (1881)
8177. Muhammadans numbered 5895; Hindus, 2279; and Jains, 2.
A fortified town, with an inner citadel. Old Kutiyana is about a mile
to the west of the modern town.

Kutosan. — State, Mahi Kantha, Bombay Presidency. — See Katosan.

Kutru. — Zaminddri estate in Bastar State, Central Provinces.
Bounded on the north and west by the river Indravatf ; comprising
150 poor villages, scattered over a wild country. The proprietor is a
Gond.

Kiittalam. — Town in Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. — See

COURTALLUM.

Kuttiyadi. —Pass in the Western Ghats, Malabar District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. n°4i'to n°43'45" N., and long. 750 49' 30" to
750 52' 15" e. Leading from Kurumbranad taluk into the Wynad ;
steep, and only practicable for foot-passengers and beasts of burden.

Kuvam (Cooum). — River of Chengalpat District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 130 1' 30" to 130 4' 10" n., and long. 790 48' to 8o° 20' e. Notable
only as being the stream on which the City of Madras stands. It
flows from a tank in the Kanchipur taluk, and in the upper portion of
its course it is utilized for irrigation ; but within Madras municipal
limits it is little more than a large open sewer.

3S2 KWA—KYAIK-KA UK.

Kwa. — Small river of British Burma, forming a portion of the
boundary between the Arakan and Irawadi Divisions. It takes its rise
in the western slopes of the Arakan Yoma range. After a south-south-
west course of about 20 miles it turns to the west for about 10 miles,
and then north-north-west for 10 more, when it opens out into the Bay
of Bengal, a short distance below the village of Kwa. Its mouth
forms a good harbour; but the entrance is rendered difficult by
a bar of sand, on which during the ebb there are not more than 2 J
fathoms of water. It is affected by the tide as far as Than-ga-ta-ywa
during neap, and Pein-ne-gon-ywa during spring tides, and small boats
can ascend as high as the former with the flood. Larger boats cannot
go farther up than On-min-ywa, which can be reached in one tide.

Kwa. — Township in Sandoway District, British Burma. There are
14 villages in the township. Area under cultivation (1881-82), 1024
acres, of which 902 acres were occupied by rice ; other crops, sugar-
cane, tobacco, cotton, and sesamum. Agricultural stock — horned cattle,
809 ; boats, 44 ; ploughs, 41. Gross revenue, ^"263.

Kwa. — Head-quarters of the southern township of Sandoway District,
British Burma ; on the right bank of the Kwa river, about a mile above
its mouth. Lat. 1 70 34' n., long. 940 39' e. It has been much improved
of late years, and is well laid out with broad straight roads, crossing at
right angles, one of which has been extended to the neighbouring village
of Ta-man-gon. The one or two tidal creeks which run up into the
village are crossed by wooden foot-bridges, built principally by the
people themselves, who also made the roads. The village is buried in
a grove of fruit-trees — mango, tamarind, jack, cocoa-nut, etc. The
houses are generally large and good, with timber posts, mat walls, and
thatched roofs. A little trade during the favourable seasons of the
year is carried on by sea with parts of Bassein District farther south,
and Chinese junks occasionally anchor off the village. Court-house
and police station. The population, including that of the adjoining
villages of Ta-man-gon, Alay-ywa, and Khyin-tsu, was 2044 in 1881 (of
whom nearly all were Burmese, with a few Chinese and natives of India,
and only 9 Arakanese).

Kwon-chan-gOIl. — Village in the Pyawbwe township, Hanthawadi
District, Pegu Division, British Burma. Pots, used in the manufacture
of salt, are made here in considerable quantities. Population (1881),
with the adjacent hamlet of Taw-pa-lwe, 1257.

Kyaik-kauk. — A pagoda standing on the Than-lyin Kiin-dan, or
stretch of low laterite hills, which extend from Than-lyin, or Syriam,
to Kyouk-tan in British Burma. This pagoda, 131 feet in height and
1200 feet in circumference at the base, is constructed almost entirely
of large blocks of laterite. It was built to enshrine two hairs, locally
supposed to have been given by Gautama himself to a hermit on the

KYAIK- Til AX-LAN- K YA T. 383

Martaban Hills, who afterwards presented them in 5S0 B.C. to Ze-ya-
the-na, King of Than-lyin. In 223 B.C., eight Rahanda or Buddhist
monks visited Than-lyin, bringing as offerings to Baw-ga-the-na, the last
independent sovereign, a bone of Buddha's forehead and a tooth, one
of which relics was enshrined in Than-lyin by the pious monarch.

Kyaik-than-lan. — The chief pagoda in Maulmain, Amherst Dis-
trict, Tenasserim Division, British Burma. Founded in 875 a.d. by a
hermit named Tha-gnya or Thi-la, and supposed to contain one of
Gautama's hairs. Height, 152 feet; circumference at base, 377 feet.

Kyaik-ti-yo. — A peak, 3650 feet high, on the crest of the main
dividing range between the rivers Sittaung and Salwin, in British
Burma. Its most remarkable features are the numerous granitoid
boulders scattered about the summit, some being balanced in a marvel-
lous manner on the most prominent rocks. On the more striking of
these, pagodas have been built, among which the Kyaik-tf-yo-ga-le and
the Kyaik-ti-yo are the principal. The latter, about 15 feet high, is
built on a huge egg-shaped boulder perched on the apex of a shelving
and tabular rock which it actually overhangs by nearly one-half. Pious
Buddhists believe that the pagoda is retained in its position solely
by the power of the hair of Gautama enshrined in it. This relic
is fabled to have been given to a hermit living on the mountain by
Gautama himself.

Kyaik-to. — Town in the Kyaik-to-bi-lin township, Shwe-gyin
District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma. Lat. 180 n., long. 96*
50' e. Head-quarters of Sittaung Sub-division ; centre of a busy trade
in cattle, unhusked rice, areca-nuts, fish, salt, piece-goods, cotton twist,
and hardware. Court and circuit houses, police station, and good
market. Population (1881) 191 7. Local revenue (1881), in addition to
imperial taxes, ^287.

Kyan-kin. — Township in the extreme north of Henzada District,
Irawadi Division, British Burma. Lat. 1S0 n' to 180 30' n., and long.
940 56' to 95° 20' e. Extends westwards from the Irawadi to the crest
of the Arakan Yoma range, which separates it from Sandowav, a
District of Arakan. The greater portion of the country is hilly, and
covered with dense forest. The township is divided into 7 revenue
circles, containing in 1881 a total population of 34,618 persons; gross
revenue, ^7533; area under cultivation, 22,882 acres.

Kyan-kin. — Town in Henzada District, Irawadi Division, British
Burma; situated in lat. iSc 19' n., and long. 95 ° 17' e., on the right
bank of the Irawadi (Irrawaddy). Head - quarters of an Assistant
Commissioner; contains a fine market, police station, and Public
Works Department inspection bungalow. Considerable trade in rice.
Population (1881) 7565. Local revenue (1881-82), ^72.

Kyat. — River in British Burma.— See Taung-GNYO.

384 KYA UK-CHAING-GALE—KYA UK-PYU.

Kyauk-chaing-gale. — Village in the Lem-yet-ya township, Bassein
District, Irawadi Division, British Burma ; situated on a river of the
same name, a tributary of the Bassein. Population (1881) 875.

Kyauk-gyi. — Township in the north of Shwe-gyin District, Tenas-
serim Division, British Burma. Traversed from north to south by the
Sittaung river; high mountainous country in the east: to the west
extensive rice plains stretch between the hills and the river. Chief
streams — the Kwiin, the Youk-thwa-wa, and the Kyauk-gyi, all feeders
of the Sittaung. This township is divided into 8 revenue circles.
Total population (1881) 36,447. In 1881-82, the land revenue was
^3256 ; fishery revenue, £698 ; capitation-tax, ^2672 ; net-tax, £\\ ;
and local cess, ^406; total gross revenue, ^7°43- Tne township
contains 177 villages. Area under cultivation, 25,016 acres, of which
23,462 are under rice, 126 under sesamum, 23 under tobacco, and 17
under sugar-cane. Agricultural stock (1881-82) — horned cattle, 1 1,866 ;
carts, 1531; and boats, 70.

Kyauk-gyi. — Village in the circle of the same name, Shwe-gyin
District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma. Lat. 180 20' n., long.
960 40' e. A busy town, but the dense forest and lofty rocks surrounding
it give it a dreary and desolate appearance. Under native rule, Kyauk-
gyi was a fortified place, and traces of the old stockade still remain ;
in 1809, it was attacked' and destroyed by the Zeng-mai Shans. Popu-
lation (1881) 1002.

Kyauk-pyu. — District in the Arakan Division, British Burma, lying
between 180 55' and 190 22' n. lat., and between 930 25' and 940 e.
long. Bounded on the north by Akyab District, and on the farther side
of the Arakan Yoma Hills by Independent Burma ; south by Sandoway ;
and on the west and south-west by the Bay of Bengal. Area, 4309
square miles. Population (1881) 149,303 persons. The administrative
head-quarters are at Kyauk-pyu Town.

Physical Aspects. — Kyauk-pyu District consists of (1) a strip of the
mainland extending from the An Pass, across the main range, to the
Ma-i river, and (2) the large islands of Ramri and Man-aung, with
many others to the south, lying off the coast of Sandoway. The
mainland in the north and east is highly mountainous and forest-clad,
and the lower portion is cut up into numerous islands by a network of
tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramri lies a group of islands
separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming the north-eastern
shore of Kyauk-pyii harbour, which extends for nearly 30 miles along
Ramri in a south-easterly direction, and has an average breadth of 3
miles. In this harbour are several rocks — known as the ' Pagoda Rock,'
the 'Terribles,' the 'Brothers,' the 'Sisters,' etc.— rising abruptly from
the sea, and possessing no cultivable area.

The principal mountains in Kyauk-pyii District are the Arakan

KYAUKPYU, 385

Yomas, which send out spurs and sub-spurs almost to the sea-coast.
This range is crossed within the limits of the District by two passes,
the Da-let and the An. (See An Town.) The former, during the
first Burniese war, was proved to be impassable by troops ; and, owing to
the precipitous nature of its ascents and descents, it is but little used
by the inhabitants of the country. The An Pass, an important trade
route, rises to a height of 4664 feet above sea-level ; on the east
side it falls 3777 feet in 8 miles. A chain of low hills traverses Ramri
Island from north-west to south-east, the highest point being 3000 feet.
There are no rivers of any importance in Kyauk-pyii District, but
numerous small streams drain the larger islands ; and the Da-let and
the An, the chief streams on the mainland, are both navigable by large
boats, the former for 25 and the latter for 45 miles of its course.
Above these distances they become mere mountain torrents. The most
important timber trees found in the District are — pyin-gado (Xylia
dolabriformis, Beiith.); ka-gnyin (Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb.), furnish-
ing wood -oil; three species of kok-ko (Albizzia procera, Benth., A.
Lebbek, Benth., and A. stipulata, Boivin.), used for boats ; kyan (Ter-
minalia myriocarpa, Heurch. and Miill-Arg.), and ban-bwe (Careya
arborea, Roxb.), used for house-posts. The estimated area of uncul-
tivable forest land is about 3740 square miles.

Kyauk-pyii contains numerous mud 'volcanoes,' from which marsh
gas is frequently discharged. Occasional issues of flames rise to a
great height, and illuminate the country around for miles. The
largest ' volcano ' is situated in the centre of Cheduba Island. Earth-
oil (petroleum) wells exist in several places in the District, and
for some years were farmed out by the State. The industry has of
late received a fresh impulse from European capital and steam power.
In 1880, the Boringa Company was formed, with steam machinery for
sinking wells and pumping oil, a large refinery, and a staff of English
and Canadian artificers. In 1883-84 the Company had 24 wells, the
deepest of which is over 1200 feet. During 1883-84 the Company
pumped from 10 wells a total of 234,300 gallons of crude oil.
Of this, 65,450 gallons were refined, and the rest sold in the crude
state. The gross yield of the Company's sales was about £6000.
Another association, the Arakan Company, started during 1883-84 with
steam machinery, and sank seven wells, the deepest of which was
400 feet. Five of these wells yielded in 1883-84 an output of
107,800 gallons, all of which was sold on the spot in the crude state.
A smaller Company, called the Patrolia Company, obtained in 1S83-S4
a prospecting licence, and sank 10 wells, some to the depth of 400 and
500 feet. Unfortunately all these wells have yielded no oil. The
natives, who own rights in several wells, do not use steam boring
apparatus ; but with windlasses, sheers, and local boring tools they

VOL. VIII. 2 B

386 KYAUK-PYU.

have sunk holes 250 and 350 feet deep. One Arakanese worker
had a total output of 24,090 gallons, at an outlay of £76 for the year.
Another Arakanese obtained 20,075 gallons, at an outlay of ^34
for the year. The total output of the field, including the Boronga
Company's wells, was 404, 3 25 gallons in 1883-84. The other mineral
products of Kyauk-pyu District include limestone, iron, and coal.

Population, etc. — By the Census of 1872, the population of Kyauk-
pyu District was found to number I44>i77 persons; in 1873-74 it had
risen to 145,665; and in 1876-77,10 149,035. The Census of i88r
returns a population of 149,303 ; so that during the ten years ending
1 88 1 there has been an increase of 5126. This increase is only part
of a general increase which has taken place over the whole of Burma
since British occupation. The number of males in 1881 was 74,476;
females, 74,827 : the whole inhabiting 937 towns and villages, and
occupying 28,691 houses. Density of population, 34-6 persons per
square mile ; villages per square mile, '2 ; houses per square mile, 7 ;
persons per occupied house, 5*2.

In 1881 the population was thus divided — Arakanese, 118,944;
Burmese, 14,907 ; Khyins, 11,617 \ Muhammadans, Hindus, etc., 3835.
The Arakanese inhabit mainly Cheduba, Ramri, and the coast of the
mainland ; the Burmese, the valley of the An ; and the Khyins, the hill
country. The Khins or Chins trace their origin to the neighbourhood
of the Chin d win river. Only in Thayet-myo District are there more
Chins than in Kyauk-pyu. Their habits and superstitions have been
described already. {See Burma.) The most remarkable of their customs
is the habit of tattooing the faces of their young girls so completely as
not to leave the eyelid free from the blue-black tracing. The Muham-
madans are of mixed blood, descendants of the captives made by the
Arakanese kings in their incursions into Bengal, and of the remnant of
the followers of Shah Shuja, the brother of Aurangzeb.

Classified according to age, there were, under 15 years — males, 28,792 ;
and females, 27,351; total, 56,143. The analysis of the population
shows that at every period up to 50, except between 12 and 20, the
males exceed the females in number; but above 50, the proportion is
reversed. Classified according to religion, there were — Buddhists,
I33?732i Nat - worshippers, 11,042; Muhammadans, 4246; Hindus,
229; Christians, 54. As regards occupation, the Census distributes
the male population into the following six main groups: — (1) Pro-
fessional class, including all State officials and members of the learned
professions, 1433 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers,
214; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc.,
2532; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds, 28,170;

(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 4827 ; and

(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers,

KYAUK-rVU

3«7

male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 37,300. The
District does not contain a single town with 5000 inhabitants. Of its
937 villages, 711 have less than two hundred inhabitants; 199 from
two to five hundred; 21 from five hundred to one thousand; 4 from
one to two thousand ; and 2 from two to five thousand. Kyauk-PYU,
the head-quarters, situated on Ramrf Island, has a population of 3747 ;
Ramri, 3461 ; Man-aung, 512; An, 1492; Mye-bon, 546.

Agriculture, etc.—OvX of 4309 square miles, the total area of the
District, no less that 3740, including the surface covered by streams
and creeks, are returned as absolutely uncultivable ; and in 1882-83,
only 163 were actually under tillage. There are 390 square miles of
cultivable waste. The area under the principal crops in 1882-83 was—
rice (including fallow land), 90,105 acres; sugar-cane, 1362; tobacco,
1828 ; dam, 2684 ; indigo, 65 ; fibres, 50 ; plantains, 960 acres. The rice
land is not very productive, the average yield per acre being only 880
lbs.; the quantity exported varies considerably — in 1873-74, 1234 tons
were shipped, and in 1881-82 only 1 cwt. The tobacco is grown
chiefly for home consumption, and that produced in Cheduba is con-
sidered the finest. This is the only District of British Burma, except
Akyab, in which indigo is grown. There are two pluckings for each
sowing; and an acre of land sown with about 32 lbs. of seed will
produce about 15 cwt. of dye. The selling price per lb. in the local
markets is 2d., and the annual profit per acre is estimated at from ^£11
to £12. Cotton and sesamum are cultivated in the taungya or hill
gardens. About 59 square miles of the total area are said to be suitable
for tea plantation.

The produce per acre in 1S82-83 was — rice, 9°2 1DS- J sugar, 1312
lbs.; tobacco, 820 lbs.; indigo, 246 lbs.; and fibres, 325 lbs. The
price of the most important products (per maund of 80 lbs.) was in
the same year — rice, 6s.; sugar, 12s.; indigo, ns. Whilst the
area under cultivation is extending and prices generally rising slowly,
the rates of wages are rising somewhat more rapidly — skilled
labourers now receive 3s. to 4s. ; unskilled labourers, od. to 2s. per
diem. The agricultural stock in 1882-83 comprised 24,635 buffaloes,
58,084 cows, bulls, and bullocks, 3987 pigs, 635 carts, 17,843 ploughs,
and 4431 boats. The land is held chiefly by small proprietors,
who work their holdings (which seldom exceed 5 acres) themselves.
When land is let, the rent, as a rule, is paid in kind ; and this in the
case of rice land is very low, being about 10 bushels a season. The
size of the holdings shows no tendency to increase, and it is exceedingly
rare to find a landowner settled in a town and living on his rents.

Manufactures, etc. — The principal articles manufactured in the
District, besides the silk and cotton cloths woven in almost every
house, are salt, indigo, pottery, coarse sugar, and sesamum oil. The

388 KYAUK-PYU.

District is one of the three chief salt manufacturing Districts of Burma,
the other two being Amherst and Bassein. In the dry season, salt is made
by boiling down sea-water on the banks of the numerous tidal creeks.
The produce varies with the local demand for fishcuring, and with the
quantity imported from foreign countries into Akyab and Bassein. In
1871-72, 11,681 cwt. of salt were manufactured; in 1872-73, 8057;
and in 1873-74, 13,911 cwt. Earthen pots are made principally in
the Ramri, Myoma, Kaing-chaung, and Than-taung circles, and are
sold on the spot to the salt-boilers. Both men and women are
employed in this industry ; and it has been calculated that it takes a
man and a woman one month to make and burn from 800 to 1000 pots.
Salt pots are sold at about 12s. the hundred, and others at half that
rate. Sesamum oil is made during the hot season, and is expressed by
a simple process, in which a large pestle is turned round and round in
a mortar by a bullock. In some cases the oil runs off by a hole in
the side of the mortar ; but more often it is collected by the primitive
method of dipping cloths into the mass, and wringing them out when
saturated. One mill will turn out about no lbs. of oil a day. The
oil not required for home consumption is exported principally to Akyab.
Sugar-cane is grown extensively on Ramri Island, and a coarse kind
of sugar is made by crushing the cane in a press worked by a bullock
or buffalo, and by boiling the juice down. Indigo is also manu-
factured in Ramri.

The total length of water communications in Kyauk-pyii District
is 894 miles; of third-class made roads, 152 miles. The steamers
of the British India Steam Navigation Company call once a month
on their way from Calcutta to Rangoon {via Akyab) and the Straits
Settlements, and vice versa ; and, from November to May, once a
month on their way from Calcutta to Sandoway and back. During
the rainy season, the mails are sent to and from Akyab in boats, which
run through the creeks, thus avoiding the open sea.

Administration. — The imperial and provincial revenue (derived
chiefly from land and capitation taxes) amounted in 1856-57 to
^21,062, in 1866-67 to ^28,640, in 1876-77 to ^4.3,454, and in
1882-83 to ^32,278. In 1881-82, a local revenue of ^7190 was
derived from port and municipal funds, a ten per cent, cess on the
land and fishery dues, and other sources. In 1882-83 the land revenue
was ^14,894.

In Burmese times, the mainland portion of this District formed part
of Arakan Proper, whilst Ramri and Cheduba were separate and
independent Governorships. After the country was ceded to the
British, the two last were formed into Ramri District, and placed
under an officer styled Principal Assistant Commissioner ; while the
greater portion of the mainland constituted another District, similarly

KYAUK-PYU. 389

ruled, called An. After this arrangement had lasted nearly thirty years,
An was joined to Ramri, and placed under a Deputy Commissioner,
with his head-quarters at Kyauk-pyii ; and in 1871-72 the area was
increased by the addition in the north of four circles from Akyab.
During the first few years of British occupation, the main body of the
garrison was stationed at Sandoway, but subsequently it was removed
to Kyauk-pyii, and finally withdrawn in 1855.

The District is divided into the 5 townships of Cheduba or Man-
aung, Ramri, Kyauk-pvu, An, and Mye-bon. The police force, under
a superintendent, consisted in 1882-83 of 359 officers and men, of
whom 25 are river police. These figures give a proportion of 1 police-
man to every 12 square miles, and to every 416 persons. Total cost
in 1882-83, ^7561. The majority are located in the An township,
which is traversed by the main road across the Yoma mountains into
Upper Burma ; in the north, Khyins are enlisted to keep the hillmen in
order. In 1882, the average daily number of prisoners confined in the
jail at Kyauk-pyii was 87 ; average annual cost per prisoner, ^9, 8s.
The hospital and charitable dispensary are also at Kyauk-pyii ; the
number of patients treated at the former, in 1882-83, was — indoor,
240 ; out-door, 1799. Most of the patients suffered from malaria, ague,
and intermittent fevers. During the same year 4948 persons were
vaccinated. As early as 1837, the State established a school, now-
classed as ' middle,' in the head-quarters town. In 1881-82 this school
had 67 pupils on the rolls, and a daily average attendance of 61 pupils,
all taught the English language. In 1881 there were 43 indigenous
schools in the District. The Census Report of 1881 returned 11,308
boys and 2961 girls as under instruction; besides 23,607 males and
513 females able to read and write but not under instruction. [For
further particulars regarding Kyauk-pyii District, see the British Burma
Gazetteer, compiled by authority (Government Press, Rangoon, 1879),
vol. ii. pp. 298-314. Also the British Burma Census Report for 1881,
and the several Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports
from 1880 to 1884.]

Kyauk-pyii. — -Township in Kyauk-pyii District, Arakan Division,
British Burma. Area, 383 square miles; occupying the north end
of Ramri Island, and a group of islands to the north-east formed by the
numerous tidal creeks intersecting the coast. Head-quarters at Kyauk-
pyu Town. The township comprises 22 revenue circles. Population
(1881) 38,667, mainly Arakanese. Gross revenue, ,£10,075. Chief
products — rice, indigo, salt, and sugar. For the manufacture of the last-
named article, 681 mills were at work in 1881-82.

Kyauk-pyii. — Town, port, and head-quarters of Kyauk-pyii District,
Arakan Division, British Burma ; situated in the north of Ramri Island,
in lat. 190 22' n., and long. 930 30' e. Its name, 'White Stone,' is said

390 KYA UNG-SUN—KYELANG.

to be derived either from the white pebbly beach, or from a rock with a
white pagoda at the entrance of the harbour. The former derivation is
supported by the best authorities. When Arakan was ceded to the
British in 1825, after the first Burmese war, a small fishing village
occupied the site of the modern town of Kyauk-pyu, and Ramri was
then the chief civil station. Captain Pemberton, in his report on the
Eastern Frontier of India (1835), states that the cantonments were
built close to the sea-shore upon a sandy plain, bounded on the south-
west by a low range of sandstone hills, 500 to 2000 feet in height, which
breaks the severity of the monsoon. The whole tract behind the can-
tonments, as far as the mouth of the Oung-chaung creek on the east,
was lined with mangrove jungles. Along the shores of this tidal inlet
the salt of the Province was chiefly made ; but the manufacture has
never been extensively encouraged, as it is carried on far more cheaply
on the western side of the Bay of Bengal. This description of Kyauk-
pyu is still fairly accurate, but the barracks no longer exist, the troops
having been finally withdrawn in 1855. The town contains court and
circuit houses, jail, hospital, charitable dispensary, school, and market.
The harbour extends for many miles along the east shore of Ramri Island,
but numerous sunken rocks render the approach dangerous. The
channel, however, is well buoyed. The population in 1867 numbered
3689 persons ; in 1881, 3747. The local revenue amounted in 1881-82
to ^1045. In 1882-83 the imports were valued at ^150, and the
exports at ^4962.

Kyaung-sun (or Chaung-sun). — Village in Bflii-gywon island,
Amherst District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma ; situated on the
edge of the low hills forming the backbone of the island. The western
portion is called Win-tsin, and the eastern Ka-raik-thit. In the former
portion, an artificial reservoir^vith a water area varying from half to one
square mile, has been made by throwing an embankment across a valley.
The Government has made a bridged opening at the western end
as an escape, to prevent the water overflowing the road crossing the
embankment. Population (1881) 2021. Court-house and police
station.

Kyelang (Kailang).— Village in the Lahul Sub-division of Kangra
District, Punjab ; situated on the right bank of the river Bhaga, about
four miles above its junction with the Chandra, and on the main trade
route between the Rohtang and Bara Lacha passes. A post-office is
maintained here during the summer months, and the village has been
a station of the Moravian Mission for many years. The mission-house
is a substantial residence, the lower part of which is used as a chapel.
A school supported by a Government grant was formerly managed
by the missionaries, who, although they have not met with much
success in the matter of conversions to Christianity, are looked up

KYLASA—LABDAR YA. 39 1

to as friends and protectors by every inhabitant of the valley. The
school is now under Government management.

Kylasa (Kailasa). — Hill in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 1 70 47' N., long. 830 22' e. ; highest point, 1758 feet above
sea-level. This hill was suggested at one time as a sanitarium for
Bengal : and with that view a kind of hotel and one or two houses
were built, the Raja of Vizianagaram assisting the project with much
liberality. There is an average difference of about 1 2 degrees between
the temperature of Kylasa and that of Vizagapatam, 8 miles distant ; and
owing to its proximity to the sea (within 3 miles), and the absence of
forest growth, the site is singularly free from fever. It is easy of access,
and the climate is said to be bracing and invigorating. But whether
from the difficulty of a water-supply, or want of capital, the project of
converting Kylasa into a sanitarium has been abandoned.

Kynchiong. — River in the Khasi Hills, Assam. — See Kanchiaxg.

Kyouk-hpyu. — District and town, Arakan Division, British Burma.
See Kyauk-pyu. A large number of towns and other places in British
Burma, commencing with the syllable Kyouk in the first edition of The
Imperial Gazetteer, appear in this edition under Kyank, according to
a revised system of transliteration prescribed for British Burma.

Kyun-pyaw. — Head-quarters of the Kyiin-pyaw township in Bassein
District, Irawadi Division, British Burma. Lat. 17° 17' n., long. 950
15' e. Large export of rice to Bassein. Contains a court-house, police
station, and market. Population (1881) 2835.

Kyiin-ton. — One of the main branches of the Irawadi (Irrawaddy)
river in British Burma, from which it bifurcates at a place about 10
miles below Gnyaung-don, following a south-westerly course to the
sea. During the rains a rapid current sets downwards ; but at other
times this channel is tidal throughout its whole length, the rise and fall
at its mouth being, at springs, about 7 feet. The Kyiin-ton is navig-
able by river steamers from its northern entrance for about 60 miles.
The islands in this river are numerous, the two principal ones being
Meim-ma-hla (16 miles long by 3 broad) and Kywiin-gnyo-gyf. In its
upper reaches the Kyiin-ton is known as the In-te, and lower down as
the Maran or Kyaik-pf ; by Europeans generally it is called the
Dala. River traffic in rice, sugar, areca-nut, nga-pi, dani-lesLves, and
poles, etc

Labdarya. — Tdluk in Larkana Sub-division, Shikarpur District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency. Situated between 270 15' and 270 31' N. lat.,
and between 68° 2 and 68° 23' e. long. Area, 207 square miles.

3 9 2 LA-B WUT-KU-LA—LA CCADIVE ISLANDS.

Population (18S1) 33,088, namely, 17,726 males and 15,362 females,
dwelling in 4495 houses. Hindus numbered (1881) 1472 ; Muham-
madans, 28,593; and Sikhs, 3023. Number of tapds, 4; number
of villages, 43. Revenue in 1881-82, ,£13,992, of which £"13,219
was derived from imperial sources, and ^£773 from local funds. In
1873-74 the revenue was £9214, of which £"8450 was derived from
imperial sources, and ^764 from local funds. The taluk contained
in 1884, 2 criminal courts and 4 police stations or thdnds ; regular
police, 27 men. The area assessed to land revenue in 1882-83 was
40,656 acres; area under actual cultivation, 39,371 acres.

La-bwut-ku-la. — Village in Bassein District, Irawadi Division,
British Burma. Population (188 1) 1004 ; number of houses, 233. In
1877 the population was 1800.

Laccadive Islands (Laksha Dwipa — 'The Hundred Thousand
Islands'; also called the Divi or Amindivi Islands). — A group of 14
islands off the west or Malabar coast of the Madras Presidency, lying
between io° and 140 x. lat, and between 710 40' and 740 e. long.
Average distance from the mainland, 200 miles. There are 9 inhabited
islands, 2 uninhabited, and 3 open reefs. Total population in 187 1,
J3>495 J number of houses, 2442 ; total population in 1881, 14,473 J
number of houses, 2470. The northern portion of the group is
attached to the Collectorate of South Kanara, the remainder belong to
All Raja of Cannanore, and form part of the administrative District of
Malabar.

The following are the names of the islands : —

South Kanara or Amindivi

Islands —

Population (1881).

House

Amini or Amindivi,

2060

322

Chetlat,

577

I50

Kadam,

245

40

Kiltan,

.

790

I9S

Bitra — uninhabited.

—

—

Cannanore Islands —

Agatti,

1375

302

Kavaratti,

2129

3H

Androth,

2884

407

Kalpeni {Kaluftee of Ibn Batuta),

1222

213

Minikoi (Minkat),

3r9i

524

Suheli — uninhabited.

—

Total, . 14,473 2470

The island of Minikoi more properly belongs to the Maldive group,
and its inhabitants speak a different language from that (Malayalam) in
use on the Laccadives proper.

Physical Aspects. — Each of the islands is situated on an extensive

LACCAD1VE ISLANDS. 393

coral shoal, with an area of from 2 to 3 square miles. Their surface is
flat, and no part of any of these formations rises more than 10 or 15
feet above the level of the sea. Around each island a more or less
extensive fringe of coral reef extends, broader and more shelving on the
west, where thd island naturally most requires protection, and narrow
and abrupt on the east. The outer edges are higher than the body of
these shoals; and extending, as they do, in a semicircle at a distance
of 500 yards to f of a mile round the west, generally enclose a
regularly formed lagoon, in which the water is so still that in the worst
weather coir, or cocoa-nut fibre, may be soaked without danger of being
washed away. The body of the island is the more perfect develop-
ment of the eastern and protected side of the coral formation. The
same feature characterizes all these shoals, and leads to the theory
that they rose to the surface in the form of circular or oval shallow
basins, and that under the protection of the shoal the east rim gradually
developed itself towards the centre and formed an island. This theory
is strengthened by the fact, that on some of the islands this gradual
increase towards the lagoon is still going on. The receding tide leaves
the outer edge of the reef nearly dry, and the tide water passes out of
the lagoon by two or three breaches in the outer rim, which are suffi-
ciently large to admit the light native craft into the natural harbour,
several feet deep even at low tide, formed by the lagoon.

Under the surface of all these islands lies a stratum of coral or
limestone which, varying from 1 foot to i\ foot in thickness, is seem-
ingly above the highest level of the water. This coral stratum
stretches throughout the shoal. Beneath it is loose wet sand ;
and by breaking the crust and removing a few spadesful of sand, to
allow the water to accumulate, a pool of fresh water may be obtained
in most parts. All wells, tanks, and pits for soaking cocoa-nut fibre or
coir (where soaked in fresh water) are thus made. The sand gradually
presses towards this excavation, and from its constant removal some of
the wells and tanks extend under the vault of coral for some distance
all round. The water in these wells is quite fresh, and always abun-
dant ; but it is affected by the tide, rises and falls several inches, and
is said to be not very wholesome.

Above the limestone or coral crust the soil lies to a depth varying
from 2 to 6 feet, generally composed of light coral sand, which is
finer than common sea sand, but quite as dry. In some parts the
soil is entirely made up of small loose pieces of coral without any
other soil, a condition which is said to be particularly well adapted to
the cocoa-nut. The surface soil, except in two of the islands (Androth
and Kalpeni), is naturally so barren that there is little or no spontaneous
vegetation in most of the islands ; and although during the monsoon
some small crops of coarse dry grains are produced, their scantiness

304 LACCADIVE ISLANDS.

shows that the prosperity of the islands must ever depend upon the
cocoa-nut. 'Being so low,' writes Commander Taylor in his Sailing
Directions, ' with cocoa-nut trees only 50 or 60 feet above the sea, these
islands are not discernible at any distance, and therefore are commonly
and prudently avoided by navigators ; but amongst them there are safe
and wide channels through which a ship may extricate herself if, by any
error in reckoning or otherwise, she gets among them.'

There are but few animals of any kind. Rats are unfortunately
numerous, and prove very destructive to the cocoa-nut plantations.
Tortoises are common, and fish is abundant.

History, Administration, etc. — For two and a half centuries, the
Laccadive Islands formed part of the small principality of Cannanore,
having been conferred as jdgir on that family by the Chirakkal or
Kolattiri Raja (about A.D. 1550). The island of Minikoi was a more
recent acquisition from the Sultan of the Maldives. In 1786 the
northern islanders revolted, and transferred their allegiance to Mysore.
In 1799, wnen Klnara fell to the East India Company, these islands
were not restored to the Bibi of Cannanore, but a remission of revenue
(^525) was conceded instead ; hence the different status of the two
portions of the group. From 1855 to i860, the southern islands were
sequestrated for arrears of revenue. This again happened in 1877, and
they are at present directly administered by the Collector of Malabar,
to the unqualified satisfaction of the inhabitants. Such revenue as is
derived from the Laccadive Islands has for more than a century been
obtained by a monopoly of the staple produce of the group — coir. The
entire out-turn of the fibre is claimed by the Government as respects the
northern portion of the group, and by Ah' Raja of Cannanore as respects
the islands which still remain under native management. The article is
paid for to the producers at fixed prices, and is sold on the coast at the
market rates ; the difference constitutes the revenue or profits of trade
of the Government and All Raja respectively. The latter pays a fixed
tribute or peshkash of Rs. 10,000 (^1000) to the Government on
account of the islands which he manages. No change has been made
for many years in the price which is given by Government for the coir
produced in the islands attached to Kanara. Payment is made partly
in rice and partly in money ; and as the price is fairly equitable as
compared with the average rates which could be obtained on the coast
by the producers, the arrangement is still popular with the northern
islanders.

On the southern islands, on the contrary, the price has been con-
stantly changed by the native chief, and so reduced as to produce
discontent and evasion of the monopoly ; other monopolies (cocoa-nut,
cowries, tortoise-shell, and the like) and imposts have been exacted or
maintained, and entire alienation between Ah' Raja and the inhabitants

LA CCA DIVE ISLANDS. 395

has existed for years. In Minikoi, which is geographically the most
isolated of the group, a more profitable arrangement for the inhabitants
exists, and few, if any, monopolies are enforced. Comparative content-
ment and loyalty consequently exist here. Numerous wrecks of large-
vessels have occurred on the reefs, and on more than one occasion
the inhabitants have been hard pressed for food owing to stress of
weather.

The Kanara Islands are managed by a Sub-Magistrate and munsij ;
and the Cannanore group by amins (revenue agents). The islands are
from time to time visited by a European officer. The people are of a
peaceable disposition, with no little aptitude for self-government, and
their disputes are generally settled by their own head-men according to
local custom.

Population. — The entire population numbers (1881) 14,473, of whom
about one -third are in the Government islands (Kanara group).
The people are all Musalmans, and, like the Mappillas of the
neighbouring coast, of Hindu descent. 'A tradition is preserved
among them, that their forefathers formed a part of an expedition from
Malay ala which set out for Mecca in search of their apostate king
Cheraman Perumal (see Malabar District), and was wrecked on these
islands. The inhabitants certainly remained Hindus long after their
first settlement, and were probably converted to Islam not more than
250 or 300 years ago. They retain some of the general distinctions of
caste, as well as the law of succession in the female line, with certain
local modifications. This law is still strictly adhered to on the island
of Amindivi, where distinctions of caste and a more numerous popula-
tion have been obstacles to the gradual change, by which the custom of
regular paternal descent is supplanting the local law of Malabar, on the
islands of Kadam, Kiltan, and Chetlat of the Kanara portion of the
group ; in the southern islands, still under native management, the old
custom is more rigidly observed.' — (Robinson.)

The proportion of females in the population is unusually large.
There are, for the whole group, 11179 females to every 100 males;
and in some islands this disproportion is still more marked ; thus in
Minikoi the excess rises as high as nearly 26 per cent. The boys of
Minikoi follow their fathers to sea at an early age, and when the ships are
absent the proportion of males left on the island is extremely small.
The general disparity is due partly to the emigration of the male popu-
lation to the mainland for employment, and partly to accidental causes.

Customs, Language, etc. — Monogamy is universal, and the women
appear in public freely, with their heads uncovered; in Minikoi, they
take the lead in almost every business except navigation. The language
of the Laccadive group is Malayalam, which is, however, written in the
Arabic character; that of Minikoi is Maldive, with a mixture of corrupt

396 LA CHHMANGARH—LADAKH.

Malayalam. The head-men and pilots of most of the islands know a
little Arabic ; and the male inhabitants can generally both read and
write. The number in 18S1 who could read and write was returned by
the Census at 2377, while the number under instruction was returned
at 246. The inhabitants are bold seamen and expert boat-builders.
They own 184 large and 719 small boats, navigating them by European
instruments, with the use of which they are familiar. The chief
cultivation is that of the cocoa - nut palm ; and the almost sole
industry is the preparation and exportation of cocoa-nut fibre (coir).
The number of cultivators returned in 188 1 was 1S61, a majority
of whom dwelt in the Amindivi group. The soaking of coir and the
other processes connected therewith are almost entirely conducted by
the women, who in 1881 were employed thus to the number of 4638.
The men convey the produce, coir, cocoa-nuts, jaggery, copra, vindia
(a sweetmeat), besides tortoise-shell and cowries, to the mainland — from
the northern islands to Mangalore ; from the southern islands to the
Malabar ports and Ceylon, the Maldives, and Calcutta. The annual
value of the total exports is about ^17,000.

Medical Aspects. — The climate is healthy on the whole, but the last
European officer who visited Minikoi (1881) suffered with his establish-
ment from malarious fever. Cholera has once visited Kalpeni, and
formerly small-pox was the most dreaded disease of the islands. The
practice, however, of both vaccination and inoculation has greatly
reduced the mortality from this cause. Leprosy prevails ; but the
islanders have traditional sanitary laws, such as separate burial-grounds
for small-pox and cholera deaths, and are otherwise careful in their
habits. Cyclones, travelling up the Malabar coast, for a time submerge
some of these islands ; notably the storm of April 1847, which destroyed
above 1000 people. More than one-sixth of the adult male population
of Minikoi perished in a cyclone in 1867.

Lachhmangarh. — Town in the Shaikhawati District, Jaipur State,
Rajputana. Population (1881) 8713. Hindus numbered 7262;
Muhammadans, 1330; and 'others,' 71.. Belongs to the Sikar chiefship
(a feudatory of Jaipur), and named after Rao Raja Lachhman Singh, a
former Sikar chief, by whom the place was founded in 1806. The town
is fortified, and is built after the model of the city of Jaipur. It con-
tains many handsome edifices, occupied principally by the banking
class. Post-office.

Lachmangarh. — Town in the Native State of Alwar (Ulwar),
Rajputana. Population (1872) 3779; number of houses, 996; not
returned in the Census of 1881. Twenty-three miles south-east of
Alwar city. The original name was Taur, but the fort was re-named
by Partab Singh. Najaf Khan besieged the place.

Ladakh. — In its restricted but more correct sense, the name of

I.ADAKIf. 397

Ladakh is applicable only to one of the three outlying Governorships
under the Maharaja of Kashmir (Cashmere), — the other two being
Baltistan and Gilgit. It is of extremely irregular outline ; but, speaking
broadly, it may be described as comprising the valley of the Indus,
and also of most of its tributaries, from 320 to 350 n. lat, and from
750 29' to 790 29' e. long. The different Districts of Central Ladakh,
Riipshu, and Neobra, besides the bleak and almost uninhabited plateaux
of the Kuen-lun and Linzhithang plains, together make up the Province.
The area of Ladakh is estimated by General Cunningham at about
30,000 square miles ; but this includes Zanskar, and some other Districts
which do not belong to it in a political sense. Mr. F. Drew is the most
recent authority on Ladakh ; his return of the population, as ascertained
by the Census of 1873, is 20,621 ; the 168,000 given by Cunningham,
the 165,000 of Moorcroft (1822), and the estimate of 200,000 furnished
by Dr. Bellew in 1873, °f course apply to the more extended area.

Lying as it does at the back of the great central range of the Himalayas,
it may be readily understood that Ladakh is one of the loftiest of the
inhabited regions of the globe. The valleys and plateaux vary between
9000 and 1 7,000 feet, while many of the peaks attain altitudes of 25,000
feet. The chief rivers of Ladakh are the Indus, and its tributaries the
Shayak, Neobra, Chanchengmo, and Zanskar. There are several salt
lakes, the more important of which are the Pang Kong and Cho-moriri.

The climate is characterized by remarkable extremes, burning heat
during the day being succeeded by piercing cold at night, while vegeta-
tion is parched by the excessive dryness of the air. The general aspect
of the country is that of a somewhat complicated series of gigantic
mountains, many of which rise to the limit of perpetual snow, inter-
spersed with occasional valleys and deep ravines, where a few acres of
ground available for cultivation are usually to be found. These support
a few cereals, fruit-trees, poplars, and willows. The slopes of the
mountains and the lofty table-lands in the north-east of the Province
are, with the exception of occasional forest growth, almost destitute of
vegetation. The wild animals comprise the kiang or wild ass, sheep,
goat, marmot, and hare ; snow-pheasant, red-legged partridge, eagle,
and water-fowl ; while the principal domestic animals are ponies, asses,
oxen, sheep, goats, and dogs. The sheep are most useful, as nearly
the whole of the traffic of the country is transported on their backs.
General Cunningham relates that in one day he saw as many as from
five to six thousand sheep laden with shawl and common wool, borax,
sulphur, and dried apricots, all making their way to the hill Provinces
on the south-west. The common domestic goat of Ladakh is the well-
known shawl goat, the wool of which is exported to Kashmir, Nepal, and
British India. In 1853, General Cunningham estimated the amount of
wool produced in Ladakh at about 2400 maunds.

3f;8 LADAKH.

The trade of the country in home produce is confined to four articles,
viz. wool, borax, sulphur, and dried fruits. The total value of this
trade was estimated by Cunningham at ^£8000. But the fact of Leh
being an important entrepot for trade between Kashmir and Hindu-
stan on the south, and Yarkand, Khotan, and Tibet on the north and
east, has probably contributed more to the wealth of the country.
The chief imports from Chinese territories are wool (sheep and
^oats), tea, gold dust and coins, silver, silk, and charas (an intoxicating
preparation of hemp) ; while those from India consist of cotton goods,
hides, skins and leathers, grain, guns, pistols, etc., brocades, and tea.
In 1877, the foreign imports and exports into Leh were valued at
^112,817 and ^89,618 respectively, while the local imports and
exports amounted together to ^3573- The trade in wool with the
Punjab in 18S2-83 was valued at ^83,509. The intermediate position
of Riipshu has induced many travelling merchants to come that way,
the two chief routes from thence into British India being over the Bara
Lacha and Parang Passes to Lahul and Simla respectively. The Lhasa
tea merchants pass through Riipshu on their way to Leh, with their
ventures of brick-tea.

The Ladakhis are a short, strong, but ugly race of Turanian origin,
and Buddhists in religion. They are a settled and cultivating people,
living in villages, which vary from 9500 to 13,500 feet above the sea.
They are cheerful, willing, and not quarrelsome, unless excited by their
intoxicating drink, chang; simplicity and clumsiness are in a measure
their chief characteristics. On the other hand, authorities agree in
remarking that the Ladakhis far excel the Indian munshis, or learned
men, in one point, i.e. the understanding of a map. The man's dress is
a wide and long woollen coat {c/wga), confined at the waist by a woollen
kamarband or scarf, thick boots, and felt gaiters. The women wear a
gown, the skirt gathered into plaits, a sort of sheepskin shawl over the
shoulders, and for head-dress a strip of cloth ornamented with shells or
rough turquoises. The shoes are the same for both sexes, and the
dress of neither varies with the season of the year. Almost all the
Ladakhis are engaged in agriculture, and the area cultivated by one
family is from 2 to 4 acres. The grain which is most prolific, and
which is sown to the greatest extent, is a loose-grained and hardy
barley ; besides this, wheat, peas, and common barley grow at lesser
altitudes. The food is generally barley-meal made into a porridge, or
else into a sort of dough with butter-milk ; chang (a light beer) and tea
among the better-to-do classes are the usual drinks. They are very
dirty in person, but extremely hardy, and carry great weights with
facility and endurance. The women have much social liberty, and do
a large share of the manual labour. Except among the few richer
people, polyandry, or plurality of husbands, is quite general \ the

LADAKIf. 399

practice having no doubt arisen from the limited extent of cultivable
land, and the general inelasticity of the country's resources.

In nearly every village there is a monastery, which sometimes holds
but one or two Lamas or monks, sometimes hundreds. These
monasteries are, as a rule, conspicuously built on a spur of the
mountain or isolated rock, and always somewhat apart from the village
itself. The supply of priests is kept up by one boy in each family being
usually devoted to the profession. The religious tone of the inhabitants
is further exemplified by colossal figures of deities carved in the rock,
stone-heaps or walls covered with inscriptions, and miscellaneous sacred
structures.

The earliest mention of Ladakh is probably to be found in the
description of Kie-chha by the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian (300 a.d.).
It appears to be referred to again in the Akhassa Regio of Pliny, and
in the Mo-lo-pho or San-pho-lo of Hiuen Tsiang (middle of the 7th
century). Originally it formed one of the Provinces of Tibet, governed
as to temporal matters by an independent prince, and in spiritual
affairs by the Grand Lama of Lhasa. In the 10th century, when the
empire of Great Tibet was finally broken up, several of the outlying
Districts were erected into independent kingdoms, and Palgyi-Gon
occupied Ladakh. At the beginning of the 17th century, all the records
of the temples and monasteries were destroyed by All Sher, chief of
Skardo, which has occasioned a deplorable gap in the history of the
country. The dominion of Ladakh was much enlarged by Siunge
Namgyal, who defeated the chief of Balti, although aided by Jahangir
Shah. A series of wars between the Sokpos and Ladakhis ensued,
but eventually in 1688 the Sokpos were driven out of Ladakh with the
assistance of the Muhammadans from Kashmir, and received Rudokh
as a concession. The Raja of Ladakh then became a Muhammadan,
and from that time Ladakh appears to have paid tribute to Kashmir.

About the time of Moorcroft's visit to Ladakh, in 1822, the Gyalpo, or
ruler, made an offer of his allegiance to the British Government, which,
unfortunately for the prosperity of Ladakh, was refused. In 1834,
Ladakh was invaded by the Dogra troops of Ghulab Singh, ruler of
Kashmir, under the leadership of Zorawar Singh, and, with the neigh-
bouring Province of Balti, was conquered after two campaigns. Elated
at these successes, the same commander invaded Rudokh ; but here the
combined power of the Chinese and the piercing cold led to the practical
annihilation of his army, in the very same month of the same year
that a British division of about equal strength was destroyed in Afghan-
istan. By a treaty of the 16th March 1846, Kashmir and its depend-
encies were handed over to Ghulab Singh by the British Government,
to whom they had passed on the conquest of the Punjab.

In 1867, Dr. Cayley was specially deputed to Ladakh, to report on

400 LADOLE-LAHARPUR.

the trade; and in 1870, a treaty was concluded between Lord Mayo
and the Maharaja of Kashmir, providing for the appointment of two
Joint Commissioners, one British and one native, for supervising the
through trade; since which date annual reports on the subject have
been duly submitted. Very full information will also be found in Dr.
Aitchison's Trade Products of Leh (1874).

Ladole (or Ldtol). — Town in Vijapur Sub-division, Baroda State
(Gaekwar's territory). Population (1881) 5761.

Ladwa. Town and municipality in Pipli tahsil, Ambala (Umballa)

District, Punjab; situated on the unmetalled road from Pipli to
Radaur, 33 miles south-east of Ambala town, in lat. 290 59' 30" n., and
lon<*. y7° 5' e. The town was formerly the capital of a small native
State, which was confiscated in 1846, owing to the conduct of its ruler,
Raja Ajit Singh, during the first Sikh campaign. The fort, the former
residence of the Raja, still exists, and is a substantial old building.
Population (1868) 4400 5 (1881) 4061, namely, Hindus, 3100;
Muhammadans, 916; Sikhs, 44; and Jain, i. Number of houses,
690. Municipal income in 1881-82, ^398, or is. 8Jd. per head of
the population. Police station and primary school.

Lahar.— Fortified town in Gwalior State, Central India ; situated in
lat. 260 11' 50" n., and long. 780 59' 5" e., 6 miles east of the right or
east bank of the river Sind; 50 miles east of Gwalior fort, and 85
south-east of Agra. Lahar is chiefly noteworthy as the scene of a
memorable and desperate assault by a British force in 1780. 'Captain
Popham, in command of 2400 infantry, a small body of cavalry, and a
detail of European artillery, with a howitzer and a few field-pieces,
besieged this fort, which was found to be much stronger than had
been fallaciously represented by the Rana of Gohad, who was anxious
to have it captured from the Marathas. It was imperfectly breached ;
and as the light field-pieces could produce no further effect on the
defences, the British commander determined to make a desperate
attempt at storming. By extraordinary efforts, a lodgment was made
in the place. Dreadful slaughter ensued on both sides. The enemy
defended themselves with desperation ; and it was not until the
garrison, which had consisted of 500 men, was reduced to their kiladdr
and a few of his dependants, that quarter was demanded. The British
lost 125 men.'

Laharpur. — Pargand in Sitapur tahsil, Sitapur District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Kheri District; on the east and south by
fargands Biswan and Tambaur ; and on the west by pargands Hargam
and Khairabad. Principal mart, Kesriganj, 2 miles west of Laharpur
town. The pargand is divided into two portions by a ridge of land
from 10 to 30 feet in height, the lands to the north of which are known
as tardi, the soil being a stiff matidr ; while to the south the soil is a

LAHARPUR. 401

fine do mat Population (1869) 84,730; (1881)88,418, namely, males
45,988, and females 42,430. Area (at time of Settlement in 1872),
192 square miles, or 122,880 acres, of which 81,825 acres were
cultivated, 22,415 acres cultivable, 1460 acres revenue-free (mudfi), and
16,996 uncultivable waste. Incidence of land-tax, is.riojd. per acre
of total area; 2s. 2|d. per acre of assessed area, or 2s. 10-J-d. per
acre of cultivated area. The pargand was formed by Raja Todar Mall
in the reign of Akbar, out of the lands of 13 tappds, containing 765
villages. It contained at the time of the Settlement 176 villages, held
under the following tenures : — Tdhikddri, 104, and zaminddri, 72. The
principal castes among the landed proprietors are Gaur and Jan war
Rajputs, the former holding 105 villages and the latter 13. The
Gaurs are descendants of Raja Chandra Sen, who invaded Sitapur
during the anarchy which ensued on the death of the Emperor
Aurangzeb in 1707. The Janwars are known as Saindurias, from
their original village of Saindur in parga?id Kursi, whence they came
into Laharpur before the invasion of the Gaurs. In addition to the 13
villages which they hold direct from the State, they also possess several
villages in sub-settlement.

Lah&rpur. — Town in Laharpur pargand, Sitapur District, Oudh ;
situated 17 miles north of Sitapur town, on a road leading to Mallapur
on the Gogra. Lat. 270 42' 45" n., long. 8o° 56' 25" e. A town of
considerable extent, having a population in 1869 of 10,890, divided
almost equally between Hindus and Muhammadans. Population
(1881) 10,437, namely, Muhammadans, 5595 ; Hindus, 4827 ; and Jains,
15. Area of town site, 418 acres. Laharpur contains 1590 mud huts
and 104 masonry buildings, the number of the latter steadily increasing,
the banker caste being the principal builders. The public buildings
consist of the usual police, post, and registry offices, with a well-attended
school, and a sardi. Thirteen mosques, 4 Musalman tombs, 4 Hindu
and 2 Sikh temples. Good daily bazars, the sales at which amount to
about ^4000 per annum. No manufactures. The town is surrounded
by extensive groves, and numerous fine trees are interspersed among
the houses. Excellent and shady camping ground. Large fair held in
the month of Rabi-us-sani ; and the Muharram festival is celebrated
with great splendour. The town was originally founded by, and named
after, the Emperor Firoz Tughlak in 1370 a. d., when on his way to the
shrine of Sayyid Salar Masaiid at Bahraich. Thirty years afterwards, one
Lahuri, a Pasi, took possession of it, and changed its name to Laharpur.
The Pasis were exterminated in 141 8 by a Muhammadan army from
Kanauj, under Shaikh Tahir Ghazi. Subsequently the Muhammadans
were ousted in 1707 by the Gaur Rajputs, who still possess most
of the land in the pargand. Laharpur is famous as the birthplace of
Raja Todar Mall, Akbar's great finance minister and general.

vol. viii. 2 c

4o2 LAHAUL— LAHORE.

Lahaul.— Valley in Kangra District, Punjab.— See Lahul.

Lahore. — A Division (under a Commissioner) in the Punjab, lying
between 300 8' and 320 33' N. lat, and between 730 11' 30" and 750 27'
e. long., and comprising the three Districts of Lahore, Firozpur,
and Gujranwala, each of which see separately. It is bounded on the
north by Shahpur and Gujrat Districts; on the east by Sialkot and
Amritsar Districts, by Kapiirthala State, and by Jalandhar District ; on
the south by Patiala State ; and on the west by Sirsa, Montgomery, and
Jhang Districts. Area (1881), 8987 square miles, containing 26 towns
and 3845 villages, with 323,296 occupied houses. Population (1868)
1,888,945; (1881) 2,191,517, namely, males 1,201,277, and females
990,240. Total increase for the thirteen years 1S68-1881, 302,572,
or 16-0 per cent. Number of families, 453,547. Average density
of population, 244 persons per square mile. Classified according to
religion, there were, in 1881 — Muhammadans, 1,362,669, or 62-1 per
cent, of the total population; Hindus, 489,286, or 22*3 per cent.;
Sikhs, 330,566, or 15*1 percent.; Jains, 2358; Parsis, 101 ; Christians,
6524; and 'others,' 13. The prevailing castes or tribes are the Jats,
518,225, and Chuhras, 225,841. The former of these tribes are now
almost entirely Muhammadans by conversion, and the latter is about
equally divided between Muhammadans and Hindus. Indeed, in
almost every caste or tribe mentioned below, there is a greater or
less Muhammadan element. The principal of these tribes or castes
are the following : — Rajputs, 130,599; Arams, 167,747; Julahas,
82,406; Tarkhans, 79,305; Aroras, 76,521; Kumbhars, 73,709;
Khattrfs, 63,445; Mucin's, 59,173; Machhis, 55,773. The Muham-
madan population by race, as distinguished from the descendants of
converts, includes — Shaikhs, 33,216 ; Khojahs, 18,257; Sayyids, 17,403;
Kashmiris, 19,482; Baluchi's, 9813; Pathans, 11,010; and Mughals,
5606.

Lahore Division contains a large urban population, numbering
342,587, or 15-6 per cent. Deducting Lahore city, however, the urban
population numbers 193,218, or 8 '8 per cent. Of the 3845 villages
comprising the Division, 2713 contain less than five hundred
inhabitants, and 689 from five hundred to a thousand. The average
area under crops for the four years ending 1881, was 4365 square
miles. Average annual land revenue, 1877 to 1881, ,£168,155;
average annual gross revenue, including land, tribute, local rates, excise,
and stamps, ^247,892. For further details see the articles on the
separate Districts of Lahore, Firozpur, and Gujranwala, which comprise
the Division.

Lahore. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab,
lying between 300 37' and 310 54' n. lat, and between 730 40' 15" and
75° i* E- long. Area (1881), 3648 square miles. Population, 924,106.

LAHORE.

403

Lahore forms the central District of the Lahore Division. It is
bounded on the north-west by Gujranwala ; on the north-east by
Amritsar; on the south-east by the river Sutlej (Satlaj), which
separates it from Firozpur District ; and on the south-west by Mont-
gomery District. It is divided into four tahsils, of which Sharakpur
comprises the trans-Ravi portion of the District ; and Chunian the
south-western half of the tract between the Ravi and the Sutlej. The
north-eastern half is divided between Lahore tahsil, which lies along
the Ravi ; and Kasiir tahsil, along the Sutlej. Lahore stands eleventh
in order of area, and third in order of population, among the thirty-two
Districts of the Province, comprising 3*42 per cent, of the total area,
4-91 per cent, of the total population, and 3*88 per cent, of the urban
population of British territory. The administrative head-quarters are at
Lahore City, the capital of the Punjab.

Physical Aspects. — Lahore District comprises an irregular square of
territory, stretching from the Sutlej (Satlaj) to the Ravi, and extending
beyond the latter river far into the heart of the Rechna Doab. Its
surface, though mainly level, like the remainder of the Punjab plain,
consists of parallel belts, having various degrees of fertility, which follow
the general direction of the rivers Sutlej, Ravi, and Degh. The valleys
of these three principal streams, with their intervening dorsal ridges,
demarcate the country into several well-recognised tracts.

Between the Sutlej and the Ravi stretches an upland region, known as
the Manjha, the original home of the Sikhs, broad and fairly cultivated
towards the north, but contracting towards the south, and becoming
more and more desert, till it becomes at last, in parts not reached by
canal water, a mere barren steppe, interspersed with low bushes, afford-
ing forage to camels, and in favourable seasons covered with long grass
much prized as pasturage for cattle. Villages only occur at rare
intervals ; but ruins of tanks, wells, towns, and forts prove that this
desolate upland once formed the seat of a flourishing people. A
high bank, running due east and west from the Sutlej, bounds the
Manjha to the south ; and between this bank and the river lies a fertile
triangular wedge of lowland, known as the Hitar. The Ravi has only
a small fringe of fruitful alluvium, from two to three miles in breadth,
beyond which a tract of jungle runs north-westward to the Degh.

Except along the banks of rivers and in the canal tract described
below, Lahore District is sadly wanting in fertility, owing to scarcity of
water. Wherever wells can be sunk, or where water has been obtained
from canals or other artificial sources, the out-turn of crops is in no
way inferior to that of the neighbouring Districts, though not equal to
that of the more highly favoured Districts of Sialkot, Hoshiarpur, or
Jalandhar.

The Ravi traverses the District throughout its whole length, passing

4o4 LAHORE.

within a mile of Lahore city, and dividing in places into numerous
branches, which reunite after short courses. The Beas (Bias) and
the Sutlej, which now meet just above the boundary of the District,
once flowed in separate channels till they fell into the Indus ; and
the old bed of the Beas may still be distinctly traced close to the
high bank of the Manjha. According to the villagers, the change
took place about the year 1750, in consequence of the curse of
a Sikh Guru, whose hermitage the irreverent river had destroyed.
The towns of Kasiir and Chunian, besides many large villages, stand
upon the edge of the ancient bank. Several important irrigation works
fertilize the land throughout the District.

The Bart Doab Canal runs down the high backbone between the
Sutlej and the Rdvi. The main line enters the District near Badhana,
and runs south-westwards to Wan Khara in the Chunian tahsil, whence
a permanent escape has been dug to the Ravi at Alpa. The Lahore or
northern branch of the same canal enters the District at Wahgeh, passes
between Lahore city and the cantonment of Mian Mir, and joins the
Ravi at Niaz Beg, a large village eight miles south-west of Lahore.
The Kasiir branch, south of the main line, enters the District at
Mughal, and terminates at Algun Hardo near the line of the Punjab
Northern State Railway^ The Sobraon branch waters a small portion
of the south-eastern corner of the District, and has its escape into the
Sutlej. The Hasli Canal, constructed by Ah' Mardan Khan, the famous
engineer of Shah Jahan, which formerly provided water for the gardens
and fountains at Shalimar, near Lahore, now also feeds the Bari Doab
Canal; while three inundation cuts from the Sutlej, known as the
Katora, Khanwah, and Sohag, spread fertility over the triangular belt
between the Manjha bank and the river.

The only trees indigenous to the District appear to be the kikar
(Acacia arabica), sin's (Albizzia Lebbek), tut or mulberry (Morus
indica), and in a few places in alluvial soil, the palm tree. The ja?id
(Indigofera atro purpurea), wana (Vitex Negundo), phuldhi (Acacia
modesta), karil (Capparis aphylla), a camel thorn, are more properly
shrubs, though the first three sometimes attain the growth of trees.
Shisham or sissu (Dalbergia Sissoo), amb or mango (Mangifera indica)?
bakai?i (Melia Azedarach), amaltds (Cassia fistula), barna, pipal (Ficus
religiosa), bor (Ficus bengalensis), all require planting and tending for
the first three or four years. Government has reserved several large
tracts of waste land as fuel plantations for the railway, or grazing
places for the horses employed by the military authorities, the total
area under the Forest Department being 227,824 acres.

Wolves are still to be found in the wilder portions of the Manjha
and the trans -Ravi tract, but they are now nearly exterminated
The opening of the Bari Doab Canal has made this tract fertile and

. LAHORE. 405

fairly populous, many new villages having been founded quite recently.
Leopards and nilgai are occasionally met with, and antelope, ravine-
deer, wild hog, hares, quails, sand-grouse, and pea-fowl are plentiful,
especially in the forest plantations. Ducks, geese, cranes, wading birds,
and pelicans abound along the banks of the Sutlej and its backwaters.
The principal fishes found in the rivers are the malisir, katld, morit
saulf sanghari, gawalli, khagga, bachwa, and banam. Snakes and
scorpions are common. The Sutlej and the Ravi swarm with the
gharial, or long-nosed crocodile ; the maggar, or snubnosed crocodile,
is also found in the former river.

History. — Numerous ruins of cities and wells, scattered over the
now almost uninhabitable portions of the District, show that at some
early period the general level of water must have stood much higher
than now, and so permitted the existence of a comparatively high
civilisation. Few traces, however, can be recovered of this pre-historic
age ; and the annals of the District coincide in the main with those of
the great city from which it takes its name. Situated on the high road
from Afghanistan, Lahore has been visited by every western invader
from the days of Alexander onward. It long formed the centre of
a confederation which repelled the advancing tide of Islam ; it next
became the capital of the Ghazni dynasty, and at a later period,
stood for a short time as the head-quarters of the Mughal s ; while in
modem times it has seen the rise of Ranjit Singh, and finally settled
down into the administrative centre of a British Province.

At the time of Alexander's invasion, Lahore was probably a place of
little importance ; but in the 7th century, Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim, mentions it as a great Brahmanical city, which he
passed on his way to Jalandhar (Jullundur). At the period of the first
Muhammadan invasion, towards the end of the same century, Lahore
was ruled by a Chauhan prince of the Ajmere (Ajmfr) family. For
three hundred years longer, the native Rajas held their own against all
Musalman attacks; but towards the end of the 10th century, Subuktugin,
Sultan of Ghazni, ' like a foaming torrent, hastened toward Hindustan,'
and defeated Jai Pal of Lahore, who burnt himself to death in despair.
Shortly after, the more famous Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India,
defeated Anang Pal, son of Jai Pal, at Peshawar, and after pushing his
conquests farther into Hindustan, returned thirteen years later to
occupy Lahore, which remained thenceforth in the hands of one 01
other Muhammadan dynasty until the Sikh reaction.

During the reigns of the first eight Ghazni princes, Lahore was
governed by viceroys; but about the year 1102, the Seljaks drove the
Ghazni Sultan to India, and Lahore then became the capital of their
race. It remained the capital of the Musalman Empire till Muhammad
Ghori transferred the metropolis to Delhi in 1193. Under the Khiljf

4o6 LAHORE.

and Tughlak dynasties, Lahore makes little figure in history. In 1397,
when Timiir invaded India, it fell before one of his lieutenants ; but
the fact that the Mughal conqueror did not himself sack it in person,
shows that it must then have sunk into comparative insignificance. In
1436, Bahlol Lodi, afterwards Emperor, seized upon Lahore, as a first
step to power. Under his grandson Sultan Ibrahim, Daulat Khan, the
Afghan Governor of Lahore, revolted, and called in the aid of Babar,
who marched upon the city in 1524. Ibrahim's army met him near
Lahore ; but Babar defeated them with ease, and gave over the city to
be plundered.

In 1526, Babar once more invaded India; and after the decisive
battle of Panipat, took possession of Delhi, and laid the foundation
of the Mughal Empire. Under that magnificent dynasty, Lahore
remained at all times more or less of a royal residence, and still retains
many splendid memorials of its imperial inhabitants {see Lahore
City). Nadir Shah passed through almost unresisted on his way to
overturn the Mughal power in 1738; and the success of his invasion
gave a fresh impetus to the rising enthusiasm of the Sikhs, whose tenets
had been slowly spreading through the Punjab ever since the days of
Nanak. In 1 748, Ahmad Shah Durani took Lahore ; and a period of
perpetual invasion, pillage, and depopulation set in, which lasted up to
the establishment of Ranjit Singh's rule. During the thirty years which
followed Ahmad Shah's final departure in 1767, the Sikhs remained
practically unmolested, and Lahore District fell into the hands of three
among their chieftains, belonging to the Bhangi misl or confederacy.
In 1799, Ranjit Singh took his first step toward the sovereignty of the
Punjab by obtaining a grant of Lahore from the Afghan invader, Shah
Zaman. His subsequent rise to mastery over the whole Province, and
the collapse of his artificial kingdom under his successors, form a
chapter of imperial history {see Punjab). In December 1846, the
Council of Regency was established, and the British Resident became
the real central authority at Lahore. On 29th March 1849, on tne
conclusion of the second Sikh war, the young Maharaja Dhulfp Singh
resigned the government to the British, and the District has ever since
been constituted upon the usual administrative model.

During the Mutiny of 1857, a plot among the native troops at Meean
Meer, for seizing the fort of Lahore, was fortunately discovered in
time and frustrated by the disarming of the mutinous regiments under
the guns of a battery of horse artillery, supported by a British infantry
regiment. Throughout the rebellion, Lahore continued in a disturbed
state. In July, the 26th Native Infantry regiment mutinied at Meean
Meer, and, after murdering some of their officers, succeeded in effecting
their escape under cover of a dust storm. They were, however, over-
taken on the banks of the Ravi, and destroyed by a force under the

LAHORE. 407

command of Mr. Cooper, Deputy-Commissioner of Amritsar. The
strictest precautions were adopted in and around Lahore City until the
fall of Delhi removed all further cause of apprehension.

Population. — The Census of 1868 returned the population of Lahore
District at 789,666, or 788,409 upon the area comprising the District
as at present constituted. In 1881, the population was returned at
924,106, showing an increase of 135,697, or 17-2 per cent, in thirteen
years. This increase is attributable to a large influx of traders, artisans,
etc., and the formation of new villages resulting from the extension of
canal irrigation and of the railway system through the District since
1868. The general results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly sum-
marized as follows : — Area, 3648 square miles, with 9 towns and 1477
villages ; number of houses, 194,834, of which 160,296 were occupied,
and 34,538 unoccupied. Total population, 924,106, namely, males
510,353, and females 413,753; proportion of males, 55-2 per cent.
Average density of population, 253 persons per square mile ; number
of towns or villages per square mile, 42 ; persons per town or village
(excluding Lahore City), 521. Number of houses per square mile,
53 ; inmates per house, 5*8. Classified according to age, there were —
under 15 years of age, males 191,041, and females 159,808; total
children, 350,849, or 37*9 per cent, of the population ; above 15 years,
males 319,312, and females 253,945 ; total adults, 573,257> or 62<I
per cent. As regards religious distinctions, Muhammadans form the
great majority of the population, numbering 599,477? or 64'8 Per
cent. Hindus numbered 193,319, or 20-9 per cent.; Sikhs, 125,591,
or 13*6 per cent.; Christians, 4644; Jains, 970; Parsis, 92; and
• others,' 13.

Among the ethnical divisions, the Jats come first (1575670), and form
the leading agricultural community. More than half of them (84,174)
retain the ancestral creed of their Sikh or Hindu forefathers; the remainder
have embraced Islam. The other principal castes and tribes are as
follow. In almost all of them there is a greater or lesser Muhammadan
element, descendants of converts from Hinduism — Chuhras, 99,025 ;
Arains, 94,964; Rajputs, 54,577; Julahas, 35>742; Aroras, 33>136 ;
Khattris, 32,970; Kumbhars, 31,524; Tarkhans, 31,009; Machhis,
24,747; Telis, 23,066; Jhinwars, 20,941 ; Brahmans, 20,813; Mochis,
18,527; Kambohs, 17,694; Dhobis, 15,596; Nais, 13,840; Lohars,
13,767; Mirasis, 11,747; Labanas, 10,116; Mahtams, 955 1 ; Sonars,
8317 ; Gujars, 7079 ; and Dogras, 6733. The Muhammadan popula-
tion by race, as distinguished from descendants of converts, consists of
—Shaikhs, 17,853; Khojahs, 12,313; Kashmiris, 11,659; Sayyids,
7930 ; Pathans, 6976 ; Baluchi's, 5247 ; and Mughals, 3676. According
to sect, the Musalmans are returned as follows: — Sunni's, 578,201 ;
Shias, 3032; Wahabis, 241; 'others' and unspecified, 18,003. The

4o8 LAHORE.

Christian population includes 3252 Europeans or Americans, 632
Eurasians, and 760 natives. According to sect, the Christian popula-
tion comprises— Church of England, 2535 ; Roman Catholics, 1001 \
Church of Scotland, 208; Baptists, 233; Wesleyans, 53; Protestant
but otherwise unspecified, 417; Armenian Church, 20; 'others' and
unspecified, 177.

Instruction, both religious and secular, is afforded by a number
of schools attached to the American Baptist Mission, and by the
Zanana and girls' schools. A Divinity School is maintained by the
Church Missionary Society for the training of Native Christians as
clergymen and catechists; also a female Normal School for training
girls as teachers, and a Zanana Mission. A branch of the Methodist
Episcopal Mission was established in Lahore in 1881 ; but it mainly
confines its efforts to out-door preaching, and up to 1883 had no church
or schools or community of native Christians attached to it. The
Punjab Religious Book Society, in connection with the London
Religious Tract Society, was established in 1863, and has its central
depository in the Anarkalli bazar. A number of colporteurs are
employed.

Town and Rural Population. — Lahore District contains eight towns
with a population exceeding five thousand, namely, Lahore City and
suburbs, including the civil station and sadr bdzdr, 130,960; Meean
Meer (Mian Mir) cantonment (included with Lahore City in the
Census Report), 18,409; Kasur, 17,336; Chunian, 8122; Patti,
6407; Khem Karn, 5516; Raja Jang, 5187; and Sur Singh, 5104.
Two other towns are municipalities, with a population of less than
five thousand, namely, Sharakpur, 4595, and Khudian, 2917.
Total urban population, 204,553, or 22*1 per cent, of the District
population. Deducting Lahore City and Meean Meer cantonment,
however, the urban population amounts to only 55,184, or 7*1 per
cent., as against a rural population of 719,553, or 92-8 percent. Of
the i486 towns and villages in the District, 465 are returned
as having less than two hundred inhabitants; 559 from two to five
hundred; 279 from five hundred to a thousand; 138 from one to
two thousand; 25 from two to three thousand; 13 from three to five
thousand ; 5 from five to ten thousand ; 1 from fifteen to twenty
thousand ; and 1 upwards of fifty thousand inhabitants.

The villages generally possess a common site, on which all the
habitations of the residents are gathered together in a cluster of mud
huts. A deep pond, out of the excavations of which the huts have
been built, lies on one side of every village ; the water out of the pond
being used for the cattle to drink from, for the village clothes to be
cleaned in, and sometimes even for drinking purposes. In addition
to this, there is generally a tall pipal or other tree affording shelter for

LAHORE. 409

village assemblies, or the accommodation of travellers ; also a takia or
viasjid for religious observances. The houses and courtyards arc
generally huddled together, with narrow lanes between them ; dirty
and badly drained, and often the receptacles for all dirt and filth.
The house, even of a prosperous agriculturist, looks but a poor abode,
built of mud or clay, with a thatched roof in the neighbourhood of
the villages, but in other places with flat mud roofs. The house
generally consists of one or two small dark rooms, with no opening
but the door ; having a large courtyard in front, where the family live
and follow their occupations all day long, while the head of the house-
hold is away in his fields.

The food of the cultivating classes consists of the commoner grains,
such as gram, moth, Indian corn, china, etc., ground and kneaded
with water, and made into round flat cakes or chapdtis. Before the
opening of the Bari Doab Canal, wheat was seldom eaten save as a
luxury, or on occasions of festivity. Since the introduction of irrigation,
the cultivation of this crop has increased so much that it will probably
soon become the staple food of the people. Rice is too expensive to
be much used by the poorer classes, for it has to be brought from a
distance. Meat, particularly the flesh of the goat and kid, is eaten by
those who can afford it. The people are very fond of curds, whey, and
butter-milk, and for vegetables they use the leaves of the mustard plant.
Salt is an indispensable accompaniment to every meal, and is also
largely given to the cattle. Among the cultivating classes, the Rajput
Musalmans are, as a rule, deeply in debt ; but the Jats are more inde-
pendent of the village banker in Lahore than in many other Punjab
Districts, and are more economical. They, however, resort to the bankers
on every occasion of want. As regards the commercial and industrial
classes, it may be said generally that a large proportion of the artisans
in the towns are extremely poor ; while those in the villages are scarcely-
less dependent on the harvest than are the agriculturists themselves,
their fees often taking the form of a fixed share of the produce.

As regards occupation, the Census Report of 18S1 returned
the adult male population under the following seven classes : —
(1) Professional class, including all Government officials, civil and
military, and the learned professions, 21,113 ; (2) domestic and menial
class, 36,508; (3) commercial class, including merchants, traders,
carriers, etc., 10,716; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including
gardeners, 117,975; (5) industrial and manufacturing class, 79^53;

(6) indefinite and non-productive class, including labourers, 37,973 5

(7) unspecified, 15,874.

Agriculture. — According to the Punjab Administration Report for
1883-84, out of a total District area of 2,364,887 acres, 1,156,385
acres were under cultivation, 159,545 acres were grazinS lanc^» 738>I56

4IO LAHORE.

acres were cultivable, and 310,801 acres were uncultivable waste. Of
the cultivated area, 548,688 acres were artificially irrigated, 239,808
acres from Government works, and 308,880 acres by private individuals
from wells, etc. The great crop of the District is the rdbi or spring
harvest. The principal staples of this harvest, and their area in
1883-84, are as follow :— Wheat, 393>°7° acres, now the great agricul-
tural product of the District since the opening up of the formerly
sterile tract of the Manjha by the Bari Doab Canal. The best variety
is grown in the villages around Lahore city. Gram occupies 188,459
acres; barley, 34,597 acres; mustard seed, 13,729 acres; and
vegetables, 10.626 acres. The kharif or autumn harvest is mainly
devoted to inferior grains and fodder for cattle. Rice occupies 15,609
acres, the best kinds being grown along the banks of the Degh, and
in the b&rigar tract of Sharakpur tahsil. Jodr is the principal kharif "crop,
and occupies 62,809 acres; Indian corn, 46,643 acres; moth, 34,793
acres. Of non-food crops, cotton is the most important, and is culti-
vated on 33,961 acres. It is grown in the lowlands of Chunian and
Kasiir between the old bed of the Beas and the Sutlej. It is, however,
of inferior quality, and is mainly employed for home consumption.
The principal fruits cultivated in the District are— mangoes, peaches,
oranges of superior quality, mulberries, plums, loquats, melons, guavas,
pine-apples, phalsa (an acid berry), pomegranates, sweet limes, and
plantains.

The average out-turn per acre for the different crops is thus returned
in 1883-84 :— Rice, 1033 lbs.; wheat, 749 lbs.; gram, 941 lbs.;
barley, 726 lbs. ; bdjra, 378 lbs. ; jodr, 477 lbs. ; inferior grains,
488 lbs.; cotton, 393 lbs.; tobacco, 689 lbs.; oil-seeds, 366 lbs.;
and fibres, 264 lbs. The use of manure hardly extends beyond
the lands immediately adjacent to the villages. Round the city of
Lahore, however, it is employed with great effect, as many as three
crops being sometimes taken from the same field within the year.

The village tenures fall under the three ordinary Punjab types, but
that known as pattiddri prevails in a large majority of cases. The
peasant proprietors in most instances cultivate their own lands. At the
time of the Settlement of 1869, 76,147 proprietors owned 1,703,187
acres; and 57,715 tenants held 336,851 acres. The final results of the
Settlement, as regards tenant-right, were as follows : — Tenants with rights
of occupancy, 13,119 holdings; tenants holding conditionally, 3214
holdings ; tenants-at-will, 34,700 holdings. Cash rents hardly exist, and
rentals mainly depend, not upon free competition, but upon custom
and the caste of the tenant. Cash rates are now becoming more
common, being forced up by competition. The rates current at the
Settlement of 1869 are thus described: 'Of 51,715 tenants, 27,798
cultivating 182,995 acres pay their rent in produce, and only 23,917

LAHORE. 411

holding 153,856 acres pay in cash, or are free of rent. Of the land
held by tenants paying their rent in kind, there are as many as 1 15,856
acres, which yield one-fourth produce to the landlords; 11,084 acres,
paying half; 6745 acres, paying two-fifths; and 49>3IO> paying one-
third.' On unirrigated land, half or one-third of the gross produce
forms the average rate ; on irrigated land, one-fourth may be regarded
as a fair proportion.

Prices of food-grains ruled as follows in 1880 :— Wheat, 16 sers per
rupee, or 7s. per cwt. : barley, 17 sers per rupee, or 6s. 4& per cwt. ;
gram, 20 sers per rupee, or 5s. 7d. per cwt. ; bdjrd, 19 sers per rupee,
or 6s. per cwt. These prices were exceptionally high. On the 1st
January 1884, the ruling rates for food-grains were as follows: —
Wheat, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d. per cwt. ; barley, 40 sers per rupee,
or 2s. iod. per cwt. ; gram, 38 sers per rupee, or 3s. per cwt. ; jodr, 38
sers per rupee, or 3s. per cwt. ; and bajra, 26 sers per rupee, or 4s. 4cl.
per cwt. Skilled labourers are paid at the rate of from 6d. to is. a
day, and unskilled labourers, from 3d. to 6d. a day.

Natural Calamities. — Famines, due to drought, occurred before the
British occupation in 1759, 1783, 1813, and 1833. Since the British
assumed administration, the greatest scarcities have taken place in i860
and 1867 ; but Lahore District suffered comparatively little, except
from the exportation of its produce to other quarters. Grain rose to
7 sers per rupee, or 16s. per cwt. Poorhouses and famine relief works
were set on foot, but they proved useful chiefly to the starving refugees
from Malwa, Hissar, and the eastern Districts. The construction of
the Bari Doab Canal will probably serve in future to protect the
naturally fertile uplands of Lahore from drought. Hail-storms, locusts,
and rats sometimes cause considerable damage to the standing crops.

Commerce, Trade, etc. — The trade of the District centres mainly in
the city of Lahore. The chief manufactures comprise silk, cotton,
wool, and metal work, none of them of more than local importance.
The agricultural produce formerly did not suffice for local consumption,
and large quantities of grain were imported to supply the city. Since
the opening of the Bari Doab Canal, however, enormous quantities
of wheat and oil-seeds are exported from the Manjha uplands. The
main line of the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway terminates at Lahore,
and has stations at Meean Meer and Jallo. A section of the Indus
Valley Railway runs to Sher Shah on the Chenab, below Miiltan
(Mooltan), and is continued to Karachi (Kurrachee) and the sea ; and
a branch line, constructed in 1883, connects Raiwind, a station on the
Karachi branch of the railway, with Ganda Singhwala on the Sutlej
opposite Firozpur. On the other side, the Northern Punjab State
Railway leads towards Peshawar and the north-west frontier. The
Grand Trunk Road enters the District from the east, crosses the Ravi

4I2 LAHORE.

and the Sutlej by bridges of boats, and from Lahore turns nearly due
north on its way to Peshawar. Other roads connect the capital with
surrounding cities and with the lesser towns of the District. The total
length of communications is returned as follows :— Navigable rivers,
104 miles; railways, 144 miles ; metalled roads, 113J miles ; unmetalled
roads, 703 miles. Lines of telegraph run to Ambala (Umballa), Pesha-
war, and Multin (Mooltan), besides the railway wires, which last are
also open to the public.

Administration.— Lahore District is under the Commissioner of the
Lahore Division, who is assisted by an Additional Commissioner.
The District staff ordinarily comprises a Deputy Commissioner, with 1
Judicial Assistant, 2 Assistant and 3 extra-Assistant Commissioners,
besides the usual fiscal, constabulary, and medical officers. In 1882-83,
18 civil and revenue judges and 22 magistrates dispensed justice. The
imperial revenue in 1872-73 amounted to ,£95,285, of which sum
.£61,031, or nearly two-thirds, was contributed by the land-tax. In
1882-83, the total revenue was returned at ^121,537, of which ^72>965
was contributed by the land-tax, fixed and fluctuating, the other chief
items being stamps, ,£26,360; excise, ,£15,701; and local rates, ^65 10.
The District fund showed an income (derived from provincial rates), in
1882-83, of .£7660; the expenditure, mainly on education, public works,
medical services, post-office, etc., being ,£4054- In 1882-83, tne
regular police force numbered 843 officers and men, supplemented by a
municipal constabulary of 447 men, and a cantonment police of 67 men
at Meean Meer (Mian Mir), besides a few constables supplied to private
companies. The total machinery, therefore, for the protection of person
and property amounted to 1357 policemen, being at the rate of 1 man
to every 581 of the population and every 2*68 square miles of area. In
addition to this force, there is a village watch of 1077 chaukiddrs,
receiving a pay of 6s. per month, derived either from a description of
octroi, or from a small house tax. The total number of persons brought
to trial for all offences committed within the District in 1882 was 12,195.
The central jail at Lahore serves as a receiving jail for long-term con-
victs from other parts of the Province. In 1882 it contained a daily
average of 2004 prisoners. During the same year, the female peni-
tentiary, also a Provincial prison, had a daily average of 193 inmates.
The District jail in the same year contained an average of 556
prisoners.

Including the Oriental College affiliated to the Punjab University,
the Lahore Government College, Training College, the Normal Schools,
School of Art, Law School, Veterinary School, Zanana Mission Schools,
the St. John's Divinity School (under the management of the Church
Missionary Society), the Schools of the American Presbyterian Mission,
and several schools for European children, education was carried on in

LAHORE. 413

the District in 1882-83 by 378 aided and unaided schools, having an
aggregate roll of 9277 pupils, and maintained at a cost of ^6724. The
Census of 188 1 returned a total of 9815 boys and 657 girls as able to
read and write, besides 27,690 males and 917 females able to read
and write, but not under instruction. A School of Industry for the
instruction of boys in different branches of native handicrafts after
leaving their village schools, was established at Kasiir in 1874, and is
attended by a daily average of 30 pupils. A staff of master artisans is
maintained to teach the boys cloth and carpet weaving, leather work,
metal work, tailoring, and embroidery. The weaving industry is the
special feature of the institution; and the work turned out is much
sought after.

For fiscal and administrative purposes, the District is divided into the
4 tahsils or Sub-divisions of Lahore, Kasiir, Chunian, and Sharakpur.
In 1882 it contained 7 municipal towns, namely, Lahore, Kasiir, Khem
Karn, Chunian, Sharakpur, Patti, and Khudian. Their aggregate revenue
amounted to ^41,381, or 4s. 6d. per head of the total population
(181,711) within municipal limits.

Medical Aspects. — The District bears a good reputation for general
healthiness, though the heat for four or five months reaches an excessive
intensity, the thermometer sometimes ranging even at night as high as
1050 F. In 1882, the recorded temperature in the shade was as follows
for three selected months: — May, maximum 116-5° F., minimum 62*8°,
mean 88-8°; July, maximum 111-5°, minimum 75*4°, mean 88*6°;
December, maximum 787°, minimum 39-5°, mean 58-6° F. The average
annual rainfall for the seventeen years ending 1882-83 was 17*8 inches
for the District as a whole, varying from a minimum of 12*4 inches in
Sharakpur, to 23-9 inches at Meean Meer, and 18 '6 inches at Lahore
city. September and October form the unhealthiest season of the year ;
and the valleys of the two great rivers are centres of endemic disease,
especially fever.

The vital statistics of 1882 show a total of 26,049 recorded deaths,
being at the rate of 28 per thousand. Of these, i7,443> or l8'87
per thousand, were assigned to fever alone. The District contains five
Government charitable dispensaries — the Mayo Hospital in Lahore, at
Kasiir, at Meean Meer (Mian Mir), Sharakpur, and Chunian. In 1882
they gave relief to a total of 62,215 persons, of whom 2785 were
in-patients. Besides these local dispensaries there are also the Medical
College, Mayo Hospital, Veterinary School, and Lunatic Asylum, which
are all Central Provincial Institutions.

[For further information regarding Lahore, see the Gazetteer of the
Lahore District, published under the authority of the Punjab Govern-
ment in 1883-84 ; the Report on the Revised Land Settlement of Lahore
District, between 1865 and 1869 (Central Jail Press, Lahore, 1873),

4i4 LAHORE TAHS1L AND CITY.

by Mr. Leslie S. Saunders, C.S. ; the Punjab Census Report for 1881 ;
and the several Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports
from 1880 to 1884.

Lahore. — Tahdloi Lahore District, Punjab; occupying the north-
eastern corner of the Bari Doab portion of the District, and lying
between 31° 13' 30" and 310 44' N. lat., and between 740 2' 45" and
740 42' e. long. Area, 740 square miles, with (1881) 376 towns and
villages, 60,082 occupied houses, and 89,009 families. Total popula-
tion, 370,796, namely, males 209,164, and females 161,632 ; propor-
tion of males in total population, 56-4 per cent. Average density of
population, 501 persons per square mile ; average number of persons per
town or village, excluding Lahore city, 609. Classified according to
religion, the Muhammadans form the bulk of the population, num-
bering 234,500 in 1881 ; Hindus, 91,379; Sikhs, 40,144; Jains,
228 ; Parsfs, 92 ; Christians, 4440 ; and 'others,' 13. Of the 376 towns
and villages, 234 contain less than five hundred inhabitants, and 79
between five hundred and a thousand. The average annual area under
cultivation for the five years from 1877-78 to 1881-82 was 253,199
acres, the area under the principal crops being — Wheat, 92,241 acres;
rice, 6538 acres ; jodr, 19,268 acres ; Indian corn, 11,343 acres ; barley,
9222 acres; gram, 37,825 acres; moth, 7536 acres; cotton, 12,622
acres; vegetables, 2777 acres; and sugar-cane, 1444 acres. Total
revenue, ^20,066. The administrative staff, including the Divisional
and District head-quarters, consists of a Commissioner with an
Assistant, Deputy Commissioner with a Judicial Assistant, and six extra-
Assistant Commissioners, a Cantonment Magistrate at Meean Meer, a
Judge of the Small Cause Court, a tahsilddr, a munstf, and nine
honorary magistrates, exercising criminal jurisdiction only. These
officers preside over 14 civil and 13 criminal courts. Number of
police circles (t/idnds), 7 ; strength of regular police, 490 men ; besides
322 village watchmen (chaukiddrs).

Lahore. — City and capital of the Punjab Province, and administra-
tive head-quarters of Lahore Division and District. Lat. 31° 34' 5" n.,
long. 740 21' e. Situated 1 mile south of the river Ravi, amid the
debris and ruins of the ancient city, whose area the modern town does
not nearly cover.

History and Architectural Remains. — Hindu tradition traces the origin
of Lahore to Rama, the hero of the Rdmdyana, whose two sons, Loh
and Kash, founded the sister towns of Lahore and Kasiir. The name
has probably been corrupted from Lohawar, or from a still earlier
Sanskrit form, Lohawarana. Though little can now be recovered with
regard to the date of its foundation, the absence of all mention in
Alexander's historians, and the fact that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian
kings are not found among the ruins, lead to the belief that Lahore

LAHORE CITY.

4i5

did not exist as a town of any importance during the earliest period of
Indian history. On the other hand, Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim, notices the city in his Itinerary ; and it seems probable, there-
fore, that Lahore first rose into eminence between the 1st and 7 tli
centuries of our era. Its condition under the native Hindu and early
Musalman dynasties belongs rather to the general annals of Lahore
District. Governed originally by a family of Chauhan Rajputs, a
branch of the house of Ajmere (Ajmir), Lahore fell successively under
the dominion of the Ghaznf and Ghori Sultans, who made it the capital
of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with numerous buildings,
almost all now in ruins.

But it was under the Mughal Empire that Lahore reached its
greatest size and magnificence. The reigns of Humayiin, Akbar,
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, form the golden period in
the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged and
repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions
of which still remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh.
Specimens of the mixed Hindu and Saracenic style adopted by
Akbar survive within the fort, though largely defaced by later altera-
tions. Under that great Emperor, Lahore rapidly increased in area
and population. The most thickly inhabited portion covered the site
of the existing town, but long bazars and populous suburbs spread
over the now desolate tract without the walls. Jahangir also frequently
resided at Lahore, and it was here that his son Khusru rebelled against
him. During his reign, the Sikh Guru, Arjiin Mall, compiler of the Adi
Granth, died in prison at Lahore ; and the humble shrine of the first
Sikh martyr still stands between the Mughal palace and the mausoleum
of Ranjit Singh. Jahangir erected the greater Khwabgah or ' Sleeping
Palace,' the Moti Masjid or 'Pearl Mosque,' and the tomb of Anarkalli,
still used as a station church, although a handsome cathedral church is
now (1885) in course of construction. The palace originally consisted
of a large quadrangle, surrounded on three sides by a colonnade of red
stone pillars, having their capitals intricately carved with figures of pea-
cocks, elephants, and griffins. In the centre of the fourth side, overlook-
ing the Ravi, stood a lofty pavilion in the Mughal style, flanked by two
chambers with elaborately decorated verandahs of Hindu architecture.
A garden filled the interior space of the quadrangle, with a raised
platform of marble mosaic ; while beneath the colonnade and pavilion,
underground chambers afforded cool retreats from the mid-day sun.
But Sikh and European alterations have largely disfigured the beauty
of this building, the pavilion having been transformed into a mess-room,
and the colonnades walled in to form officers' quarters.

Jahangir's mausoleum at Shahdra forms one of the chief ornaments
of Lahore, though even this has suffered somewhat from depredations.

416

LAHORE CITY.

The marble dome, which once rose over the tomb, was removed by
Aurangzeb. The tombs of Nur-Jahan, his devoted wife, and of her
brother Asaf Khan, have fared worse, having been stripped of their
marble facings and coloured enamels by the Sikhs. Shah Jahan erected
a smaller palace by the side of his father's building, the beauty of
which can still be discerned through the inevitable whitewash which
covers the marble slabs and hides the depredations of the Sikhs.
To the same Emperor is due the range of buildings to the left of
the Khwabgah, with octagonal towers, the largest of which, known
as the Saman Biirj, contains the exquisite pavilion, inlaid with flowers
wrought in precious stones, which derives its name of the Naulaka
from its original cost of 9 lakhs; together with the Shish Mahal,
afterwards the reception-room of Ranjit Singh, and interesting as the
place where Dhulip Singh made over the sovereignty of the Punjab to
the British Government.

Under Aurangzeb, Lahore began to decline in population. Even
before his time, the foundation of Jahanabad or modern Delhi had
drawn away the bulk of the classes dependent upon the court ; and
the constant absence of the Emperor contributed still more to depress
the city. Aurangzeb also constructed an embankment for three miles
along the Ravi, to prevent inundations, but with such undesirable
success that the river completely altered its course, and left the town
at a considerable distance. Among his other works, the Jama Masjid
or ' Great Mosque ' ranks first, a stiff and somewhat ungraceful piece
of architecture, which, by its poverty of detail, contrasts with the
gorgeous profuseness of Agra and Delhi.

With the reign of Aurangzeb, the architectural history of Lahore may
be said to close, later attempts marking only the rapid decadence of art,
which culminated in the tawdry erections of the Sikhs. From the acces-
sion of Bahadur Shah till the establishment of Ranjit Singh's authority
at the beginning of the present century, the annals of Lahore consist of
successive invasions and conquests by Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah, and
many less famous depredators (see Lahore District). The magnificent
city of the Mughal princes and their viceroys sank into a mere heap of
ruins, containing a few scattered houses and a couple of Sikh forts within
its shrunken walls ; while outside, a wide expanse of broken remains
marked the site of the decaying suburbs which once surrounded the
capital.

But the rise of Ranjit Singh's empire made Lahore once more the
centre of a flourishing though ephemeral kingdom. The great Maharaja
stripped the Muhammadan tombs of their ornaments, which he sent to
decorate the temple at Amritsar ; but he restored the Shalimar gardens,
erected a really beautiful bdrddari in the space between the palace and
the Jama Masjid, and also built a number of minor erections in the

LAHORE CITY. 41 7

very worst taste. His mausoleum, a mixed work of Hindu and Muham-
madan architecture, forms one of the latest specimens of Sikh work-
manship.

In 1846, the British Council of Regency was established at Lahore ;
and in 1849, tne young Maharaja Dhuh'p Singh transferred the govern-
ment of the Punjab to the East India Company. Lahore thenceforth
became the capital of a British Province, and a new impetus was given
to its rising prosperity. In 1849, the environs still remained a mere
expanse of crumbling ruins, and the houses of the first European
residents clustered around the old cantonment, on a strip of alluvial
lowland, south of the town, running parallel to a former bed of the
Ravi. Gradually, however, the station spread eastward ; and now a new
town covers a large part of the area once given over to ruins and
jungle, while every year sees fresh additions to the renovated capital.

General Appearance, Modem Buildings, etc. — Modern Lahore covers
an area of 640 acres, surrounded by a brick wall, which formerly rose
to a height of 30 feet, and was strengthened by a moat and other
defences. But the moat has been filled in, and the wall lowered to a
uniform elevation of 16 feet. A garden now occupies the site of the
trench, and encircles the city on every side except the north. Though
built upon an alluvial plain, the debris of ages has raised the present
town to a position upon a considerable mound. A metalled road runs
round the outer side of the rampart, and gives access to the city by
13 gates. The citadel or fort rises upon a slight but commanding
eminence at the north-eastern angle, and abuts northward on the old river
bed, while the esplanade stretches over an open space to the south and
east.

Within the city, narrow and tortuous streets, ending in culs-de-sac,
and lined by tall houses, give Lahore a mean and gloomy appearance ;
but the magnificent buildings of the Mughal period serve to relieve the
general dulness of its domestic architecture. On the north-eastern side
especially, the Mosque of Aurangzeb, with its plain white marble domes
and simple minarets, the mausoleum of Ranjit Singh, with its rounded
roof and projecting balconies, and the desecrated facade of the Mughal
palace, stand side by side in front of an open grassy plain, exhibiting
one of the grandest coups-d'asil to be seen in India.

Outside the wall, with a general southerly direction, lies the European
quarter. From the Lohari gate, the long street known as the Anarkalli or
Sadr Bazar stretches southward, joining the native town to the civil station
and abandoned cantonment of Anarkalli. This portion of the new
quarter contains the secretariat, financial offices, chief court, and station
church. From Anarkalli the civil station now runs three miles eastward
to the Lawrence Gardens and Government House, the extension in this
direction being known as Donald Town, from the late Lieutenant-

vol. vin. 2 D

4i8 LAHORE CITY.

Governor, Sir Donald M'Leod. A broad road, called the Mall, cuts
through the centre of the station, and connects this growing suburb
with Anarkalli. North of the Mall, now largely built over, lies the rail-
way station, surrounded by the bungalows of its employes. South of
the Mall, again, the suburb of Muzang contains many European
residences. The chief public buildings and institutions include the
Punjab University, with its Senate Hall (endowed by several native
Rajas and Nawabs), the Oriental College, the Lahore Government
College, the Medical School, the Central Training College, Law School,
Veterinary School, the Lahore High School, the Mayo Hospital (a fine
building near the Anarkalli bazar, capable of accommodating no
patients), the Museum, the Roberts Institute for European clerks, the
Lawrence and Montgomery Halls, and the Agri-Horticultural Society.

Population. — The population of Lahore city and suburbs, includ-
ing the cantonment of Meean Meer (Mian Mir), was returned at
125,413 in 1868. By 1881 the population had risen to 149,369,
namely, males 87,743, and females 61,626, showing an increase of
23>956, or 19 per cent., in thirteen years. Classified according to
religion, the population of the city, suburbs, and cantonment in 1881
was composed as follows : — Muhammadans, 86,413 ; Hindus, 53,641 ;
Sikhs, 4627; Jains, 227; 'others,' 4461. Number of occupied
houses, 24,077. The military cantonment of Meean Meer (Mian
Mir) lies 3 miles east of the civil station and 6 miles from the city,
and forms the head-quarters of the Lahore Military Division. The
ordinary garrison consists of two batteries of Royal Artillery, one of
Bengal Cavalry, one regiment of British infantry, one of Native infantry,
and one of Punjab Pioneers. Total strength of garrison in July 1883,
3692 officers and men. The total population of the cantonment in
1 88 1 was 18,409. The fort of Lahore is garrisoned by small detach-
ments from Meean Meer. The 1st and 3rd Punjab Volunteer Rifles
have their head-quarters at Lahore.

Commerce, Communications, etc. — Lahore possesses comparatively
little trade, its business being almost confined to the importation of
supplies for the consumption of the inhabitants. Small manufactures
of silk and gold or silver lace form the chief source of export trade.
The total value of the commerce of Lahore in 1871-72 was — imports,
;£333>834; exports, ,£12,395. By 1881-82, the imports of Lahore
had increased to ^790,7 11 ; and the exports to ^116,837. Railways
now connect the capital with most other parts of the Province, and
complete the circuit to the frontier and the sea. The terminus of
the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi line is at Lahore, and a branch to
Sher Shah on the Chenab unites the Karachi (Kurrachee) and
Kotri line with the Punjab system. The Northern State Railway
runs to Peshawar. The Grand Trunk Road also passes through

LAHORI BANDAR— LAHUL. 4 1 9

Lahore, and lines of telegraph afford communication with Ambala
(Umballa), Peshawar, and Multan (Mooltan). Up till 1881, Lahore
was chiefly dependent upon well-water for drinking purposes ; but in
June of that year, a regular system of water-works, calculated to supply
an average of 10 gallons of pure water per head of the population, was
opened ; its advantages are now much appreciated by the towns-
people, although at first there was a good deal of caste prejudice against
using the water. The thorough drainage of the city has also been
effected since 1881. Accommodation for travellers is provided by
numerous hotels ; and besides several places of business of European
tradesmen and merchants, the Bank of Bengal, Agra Bank, Simla Bank,
and Alliance Bank of Simla have all branches in Lahore. The internal
affairs of the city are managed by a municipal committee. The
income is mainly derived from an octroi duty. Municipal revenue in
1875—76, £16,558, or 2s. 6|d. per head of population (128,441) within
municipal limits. In 188 1, the population of the municipality, includ-
ing certain suburbs, but excluding the cantonment of Meean Meer,
was 138,878. Total income in 1882-83, ,£36,407, of which £24,995
was derived from octroi ; average incidence of municipal revenue, 5s.
2|d. ; incidence of taxation, 3s. 7^d. per head.

Lahori Bandar. — Village in Karachi District, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency; situated in lat. 240 32' n., and long. 670 28' e., on the south or
left bank of the Baghiar or western branch of the Indus, 20 miles from
the Piti mouth. In consequence of the channel on which it is situated
having ceased to be navigable, Lahori Bandar has fallen into complete
decay ; but, according to Thornton, it was once the principal port in
Sind, being accessible for ships of 200 tons burden. At the close of
the last century there was an English factory here.

Lahul (Lahaul). — Sub-division of Kangra District, Punjab, lying
between 320 8' and 320 59' n. lat., and between 760 49' and 770 46' 30" e.
long.; and comprising the valley between the Chamba mountains on the
north-west, and the Kanzam range on the south-east. Area, 2255
square miles. Population (1881) 5860. Lahul is bounded on the
north-west by Chamba, on the north-east by the Rupshu Sub-division
of Ladakh, on the south-west by Kangra and Kulu, and on the south-
east by Spiti. For administrative purposes, it forms part of the Kulu
tahsil.

Physical Aspects. — Lahul consists of an elevated and rugged Hima-
layan valley, traversed by the snow-fed torrents of the Chandra and the
Bhaga, which take their rise on the slopes of the Bara Lacha Pass, at
an elevation of nearly 16,500 feet above sea-level. At Tandi the
sister streams unite to form the great river Chenab, here known as the
Chandra-Bhaga, which flows immediately into Chamba on its way to
the Punjab plain. On either side of the two river glens, and in the

42o LAHUL.

triangular space between them, the mountains rise to the level of per-
petual snow, leaving only a narrow strip of wild valley fringing the
streams themselves. To the north-east, the peaks about the Bara
Lacha pass tower to a height of from 19,000 to 21,000 feet; while the
pass itself, the least elevated part of the whole range, is 16,221 feet above
sea-level. Between the two rivers, an isolated mass of mountains attains
still greater dimensions, consisting of one almost unbroken ice-field,
with, at rare intervals, impassable barriers of naked rock. South of the
highest peak, 21,415 feet above the sea, a glacier stretches downward
for 12 miles; while east and west the hills, though slightly inferior in
elevation, still reach the limits of the snow-line, and flank the valley on
every side, except along the narrow outlet of the Chenab. In such a
waste of rock and ice, villages can only be planted in a few compara-
tively favoured spots, among the lower valleys of the Chandra and the
Bhaga, from old Koksar on the former to Darcha on the latter river.
The remainder of Lahul is completely uninhabited, except for a
few weeks in summer, when the Kulu shepherds bring up their flocks
for pasturage. Picturesque knots of houses, however, nestle here and
there in sheltered nooks, amid green irrigated fields, made beautiful by
the exquisite Himalayan flora. Quaint conical buildings, erected in
honour of some saint or Lama, stand just outside the villages ; while,
on the hillside above, the white walls and flying flags of some tiny
Buddhist monastery give animation to the scene. The inhabited
portions of the Lahul valley have an estimated elevation of 10,000 feet
above sea-level. Kangser, the highest village, stands at a height of
11,345 feet. The fact that the main road to Ladakh and Yarkand runs
through the valley, from the Rohtang Pass to the Bara Lacha, lends a
certain degree of importance to this otherwise insignificant tract. The
road is now (1884) in excellent order, and is annually growing in
favour with the traders.

History. — The Lahul valley is mentioned as early as the 7th century
in the Itinerary of Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, who
notices it under the name of Lo-hu-lo, as a district lying north-east of
Kiilu. In the earliest times, it probably formed a dependency of the
Tibetan kingdom; and on the disruption of that empire in the 10th
century, it seems to have been included in the principality of Ladakh.
We have no information to show the period at which it became inde-
pendent, though reasons have been adduced for believing that that
event preceded the reorganization of Ladakh about 1580. An epoch
of native rule under petty chiefs (Thakurs) ensued, during which the
various local families appear to have paid tribute to Chamba. Four or
five of these families have survived up to the present day, and are still
in possession of their original territories, which they hold mjdgir, sub-
ject to the payment of tribute or nazardna. About the year 1700, the

LAHUL. 42 1

supremacy passed to Kiilu, in the reign of Budh Singh, son of Raja
Jagat Singh, a contemporary of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Thence-
forward, Lahul followed the fortunes of Kulu, until they passed together
under British rule in 1846.

Population. — In 1855, the population of Lahul amounted to only
2535 persons. By 1868, the number had risen to 5970. In 1881, the
population was returned at 5860. The slight decrease, however, is
believed to be more apparent than real. The Census of 1868 was
taken at a time of year when the passes were open ; while that of
1 88 1 shows the winter population only, when numbers of the inhabitants
were away in Kiilu or Simla. The Thakurs form the gentry of the
valley, which they ruled until a recent period. They are pure Bhutias
or Tibetans by blood, but affect a Rajput ancestry. The Kanets, who
make up the mass of the population, have a mixed Indian and Mon-
golian origin, the latter element predominating. In religion, the people
belong to the Buddhist faith, though a Hinduizing tendency exhibits
itself in the distinctions of caste and the prohibition of beef as an article
of food, a tendency which is much encouraged by the Thakurs. A
few pure Hindus, of Brahman rank, live in the lower villages, while a
mixture of the two faiths occurs commonly in the intervening tract,
although they have all returned themselves as Hindus in the Census
Report. The use of the Tibetan praying-wheel is nevertheless almost
universal. Numerous monasteries stud the hills, the largest being that
of Guru Gantal, at the point of confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga
rivers. Polyandry was formerly customary throughout Lahul, but is
now fast dying out; the practice is generally considered shameful,
and is not admitted to exist by the people themselves. The Lahulis
bear a good character as peaceable and honest mountaineers, but are
much addicted to drunkenness and unchastity. The chief villages
are Kielang, Kardong, and Kolang.

The houses in Lahul are two and sometimes three storeys high, with
flat roofs. The lower storey is occupied by the cattle, horses, sheep,
and goats; the upper one contains the rooms lived in by the family.
Ordinarily the upper storey consists of an interior or winter room, an
outer or summer room, and a verandah room open on the fourth side.
In this verandah stands the loom \ inside will be found large corn-
chests made of slate set in wooden frames, large stone bowls from
Iskardo, iron cauldrons, and cooking-pots, an iron tripod or pot-stand,
some wooden dishes, and a few earthen pots from Kiilu. Many pack-
saddles for sheep and goats are strewed about, and a few blankets and
thick sheep-skin coats hang on the walls. Small holes in the wall serve
the purpose both of windows and chimneys; bedsteads are unknown.
Grass is stacked on the roof, and wood for fuel inside. Many of the
houses are built together in one block with connecting passages, by

422 LAHUL.

which communication is kept up in the winter without going out, which
when the snow is very deep, may be scarcely possible. Spinning thread
is the chief occupation in winter; on fine days the loom is brought out,
and some weaving done. Both men and women work the loom. The
Moravian Church has a mission station at Kielang village, with a small
following of about 30 members.

Agriculture, Trade, etc.— Out of a total area of 2255 square miles, only
5 square miles are returned as under cultivation. Barley forms the
principal crop, but wheat grows in the lower glens. Cultivation depends
entirely on small irrigation canals, constructed and kept in repair by the
village landowners. The grain produced does not suffice for local con-
sumption, and has therefore to be supplemented by imports from Kiilu.
The Lahulis hold in their hands the trade between Ladakh and Central
Asia on the one hand, and Kiilu and the Punjab on the other. Collect-
ing their merchandise from the north, they pass annually into Kiilu at
the end of summer, driving their ponies and donkeys, goats and sheep,
laden with pashm or shawl-wool, borax, and cloth ; while on their
return journey they bring metal vessels, sugar, rice, wheat, tobacco,
pepper, ginger, and turmeric.

The Lahulis keep only a few sheep and goats, as the snow lies too
long and too deep in the winter for the flocks to live out of doors as
they do in Ladakh. For a very long time, therefore, the upper ends of
the main valleys, which are uninhabited, and the grounds high above
the villages in the inhabited parts, have been utilized by the shepherds
of Kangra, Chamba, and Kiilu. The snow begins to disappear in these
places about the beginning of June ; the shepherds do not ordinarily
enter Lahul before the end of that month, and they leave it again early
in September, by which time the frost is keen, and the rainy season in
the outer Himalayas has come to an end. In the fine dry climate of
Lahul the sheep escape foot-rot and other diseases which constantly
attack flocks kept during the rains on the southern slopes of the outer
Himalayas. The sheep arrive wretchedly thin, but by the time they
are ready to leave are in splendid condition. A short fine grass
of a dull bluish-green colour, called niru, is their favourite food ; mat
and morar are names of other good kinds of grasses. The goats
depend very much on the leaves and twigs of the birch and bush
willow.

Administration. — The valley forms part of Kiilu tahsil. The revenue
amounts to ,£185. The Government established a school at Kielang,
where, till recently, Urdu and Tibetan were taught, under the super-
vision of the Moravian missionaries. It was found necessary to close
the school in 1882; but it is expected to be reopened, the principal
Thakurs being willing to contribute towards its maintenance. A post-
office is kept open at Kielang during the summer months. The mean

LAICHANPUR—LA-KA-D ONG. 4 2 3

temperature at Kardong is 460 F. in March, 590 F. in June, and 290 F.
in September.

Laichanpur. — Port on the Kansbans river, Balasor District, Bengal.
The mouth of the river has now nearly silted up, and is concealed by
a dense fringe of jungle. It is not navigable by vessels of more than
45 tons burden. The rice sloops taking in cargoes at this port load
while at anchor several miles out to sea, the rice being carried to them
in small boats. The sloops come as near the coast as the high tide
permits, and when the water recedes they are left resting on a soft and
yielding cushion of mud ; the vessels are thus secure in case of storms.
In 1873-74, the value of the imports of Laichanpur, and its sister port
Churaman, amounted to ^251, and that of the exports to ;£i3>83T-
In 1881-82, the imports were valued at ^3062, and the exports at
^8710.

Laira (^>/^>rt). — Estate or zambiddri in Sambalpur tahsil, Sambalpur
District, Central Provinces. Lat. 210 44' n., long. 840 17' e. ; 17 miles
north-east of Sambalpur town. Area, 46 square miles, nearly the whole
of which is cultivated. Chief products — rice, pulses, oil-seeds, and sugar-
cane. Iron-ore is found. Number of villages 25, with a total of 1543
houses. Total population (1881) 5932, namely, males 2974, and
females 2958. The high road to Ranchi passes through the western
portion of the estate. The estate was originally granted as a jdgir to
the ancestor of the present chief in 1777, by the Raja of Sambalpur, as
a reward for military services rendered. The jdgir was afterwards
resumed and converted into an ordinary estate held on zaminddri
tenure. The late zaminddr, Sibnath Singh, was noted as being the only
Gond chief who did not join the mutineers in the disturbances of 1857
and 1858. He died a few years ago, and was succeeded by his son
Bindraban Singh, who is still (1884) a minor.

Lait-mao-doh.— Mountain range in the Khasi Hills, Assam. Highest
peak, 5377 feet above sea-level.

La-ka-dong (or Umat). — Village in the south of the Jaintia Hills,
Assam ; 2200 feet above sea-level. There is a coal-field here, with an
estimated area of 0*394 square mile, and a marketable out-turn of
1,100,000 tons. The mineral is of an excellent quality either for
producing gas or coke. From its composition, quick combustion, and
irregular cleavage, it is computed to be about 6 per cent, inferior to good
English coal. The great difficulty in its profitable working lies in the
want of means of communication. La-ka-dong is 6 miles from Borghat,
a village on the Thantidu or Hari river, a tributary of the Surma, which
is navigable all the year round by boats of about 28 mannds burden ; but
from La-ka-dong to Borghat only coolie-carriage is at present available.
The mine is the sole property of Government, which leased the rights
of working to a succession of European capitalists from 1848 to 1859.

424 LAKAPADAR— LAKHI.

During that period about 5000 tons of coal were raised for exportation.
The mine is no longer worked.

Lakapadar. — Petty State in the Thalawar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency, consisting of 1 village, with 1 proprietor. Situated
20 miles south of Amreli, and 9 west-south-west of Kandla. Area, 5
square miles. Population (1881) 413. Estimated revenue (1881),
^300; tribute of ^15, 8s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and
^2, 8s. to the Nawab of Junagarh. Post-office and school.

Lakhandai. — Tributary of the Baghmati river, Bengal ; a small
stream, which rises in Nepal, and enters Muzaffarpur District at Itarwa.
After being joined by the Sauran and Basiad, it becomes more impor-
tant; its breadth here is 40 yards, and depth 15 feet. Flows south
and joins the Baghmati 7 or 8 miles south of the Darbhangah-Muzaffar-
pur road, which is carried over it by an iron girder bridge. In the
rains, the Lakhandai is navigable as far as Sitamarhi by boats of nearly
20 tons burden ; but above this village a rapid current renders naviga-
tion dangerous. The Rajapati, Dumra, Belahi, Serpur, and Rajkhand
indigo factories draw their water from this stream.

Lakhat. — Village on the border of Sylhet District, Assam, at the
south foot of the Khasi Hills. The market, which is held every fourth
day, is frequented by Khasi and Santeng traders, who bring down
potatoes, betel-nuts, /#//, oranges, and other produce of their hills to
exchange for cotton goods, salt, rice, and hardware.

Lakhi {Laki). — Mountain range in Sind, Bombay Presidency. Con-
nected with the Hala or Brahui mountains in Baluchistan ; the most
easterly of a number of hill ranges in the western part of Sind, extending
between Baluchistan and the alluvial tract of the Indus, and also
between the desert of Shikarpur and Karachi (Kurrachee). Length of
range, about 50 miles; greatest elevation, 1500 to 2000 feet. Lat.
(centre) 260 n., long. 670 50' e. The mountains are for the most part
of recent formation, containing marine remains in great quantities.
Huge fissures, apparently produced by earthquakes, traverse this range ;
and the frequent occurrence of hot springs and of sulphurous exhala-
tions is a sign of volcanic action. Some parts, again, appear to be
of more ancient formation, as they yield lead, antimony, and copper.
The whole tract is wild and dreary. Near the town of Sehwan, the
Lakhi range terminates abruptly on the Indus, in a nearly perpendicular
face of rock 600 feet high, which presents an imposing appearance from
the river.

Lakhi (Laki). — Village and railway station in Sehwan Sub-division,
Karachi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated close
to the west bank of the Indus, and adjacent to the entrance of what is
known as the Lakhi Pass, through which runs the Sind, Punjab, and
Delhi Railway. The place is picturesquely situated, the Lakhi Moun-

LAKHI—LAKHIMPUR. 4 2 5

tains, here of considerable elevation, sloping down to the west of the
town, which is on the main road leading from Kotri to Sehwan.
Branch road to the Dhara Tirth or ' hot springs,' distant about 2 miles.
From Sehwan this village is distant 12 miles south, and from Manjhand
32 miles north-west. Post-office, dharmsdla, and police lines. Popula-
tion in 1881, inconsiderable.

Lakhi (Laki). — Town in Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency. Lat. 2 70 51' 30'' n., long. 68° 44' e. ; elevation above sea, 234
feet. Lakhi is 3 J miles distant from the junction station, Ruk, of the
Sind, Punjab, and Delhi line, and is situated on the main road between
Shikarpur and Sukkur (8 miles south of the former), and has road com-
munication also with the villages of Mari and Kazi-Wahan. Lakhi is the
head-quarters station of a tapadar, and contains a travellers' bungalow,
school, and cattle pound. Police post of 6 men. Population in 1881,
inconsiderable. The town of Lakhi is of ancient date, and was the
chief place of that part of Sind known as Burdika and Larkhana, at a
time when the present site of Shikarpur was covered with thick forest.
Soon after the founding of Shikarpur, Lakhi dwindled away in size
and importance.

Lakhimpur. — British District occupying the extreme eastern
portion of the Province of Assam ; situated on both banks of the
Brahmaputra, and lying between 2 6° 51' and 270 54' n. lat, and between
930 49' and 960 4' e. long. The area within these limits is estimated at
about 11,500 square miles, but the greater portion is sparsely occupied
by hill tribes, who do not acknowledge the regular authority of the
British Government. The settled portion of the District was ascer-
tained by the recent Survey to cover an area of 3723 square miles, with
a population, including certain hill tribes in the unsurveyed tracts, of
179,893, according to the Census of 1881. The administrative head-
quarters are at Dibrugarh, near the confluence of the Dibru river with
the Brahmaputra.

The District, in its wider sense, is bounded on the north by the
Daphla, Miri, Abar, and Mishmi Hills ; east by the Mishmf and Singpho
Hills; south by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Naga
Hills; west by the Districts of Darrang and Sibsagar, the former
District being separated by the Maramarnai river, and the latter by the
Dihing and Disang rivers. To the north and east the frontier remains
undefined and undeclared ; on the extreme south, an agreement has
been arrived at between the British and Burmese Governments, but
a debateable land is occupied by various savage communities who
cling to their independence.

Physical Aspects. — Lakhimpur consists of a narrow strip of level
country fringing both banks of the Brahmaputra, from which the hills
rise abruptly north, south, and east. It is situated at the head of

426 LAKHIMPUR.

the Assam valley, where the Brahmaputra and its great tributaries
burst through the gorges of the Himalayas. The scenery is both
varied and picturesque. Along the banks of the river grow gigantic
grasses and reeds. Farther inland are seen extensive paddy fields,
dotted with villages, which are encircled by groves of bamboo and fruit-
trees. In the distance, black, pathless forests stretch away from the
lower slopes high up towards the snow-capped mountains. Except in
the unsurveyed tracts, there are no hills within the District. In the
south-east, however, near Jaipur, there are a few small knolls, rising 200
or 300 feet above the plain.

The river system is constituted by the Brahmaputra and its numerous
tributaries and offshoots. The great river itself flows through the Dis-
trict for a distance of 400 miles. As far as Dibrugarh, it is navigable
for steamers and large native boats at all seasons of the year. During
the rains, steamers can get up to Sadiya ; above that place the current
is rapid, but the passage of canoes is possible almost to the Brahmakund.
The real source and early channel of the Brahmaputra has not yet been
definitely ascertained. The same may be said of its two great tributaries,
the Dibang and Dihang, the latter of which breaks through the Himalayas,
and both of which join the Brahmaputra in Lakhimpur District. It is
now, however, almost certain that the Dihang is identical with the
Tsanpu or great river of Tibet, and is the main source of the Brahma-
putra. Neither the Dibang nor Dihang is at any season navigable by
craft larger than canoes. The other important tributaries of the Brah-
maputra are — on the north bank, the Subansiri, which is navigable for
some distance by steamers, and itself receives numerous hill streams ;
on the south bank, the Noa Dihing, the Dibru and Buri Dihing,
Tingrai-nadi, and Sessa. The Lohit is a large branch of the Brahma-
putra, said to have been produced by the floods of the Subansiri ; it
flows parallel to the main stream for a winding course of about 70 miles.
No rivers or marshes have been embanked for the purpose of extend-
ing cultivation since the British annexation of the country, but some of
the embankments constructed by the old Assamese rulers of the Province
have been repaired and kept in order. There are large tracts of river
and marsh land which could be reclaimed if required, but at present the
population is not sufficiently numerous to bring under tillage the lands
already cultivable. The wild reeds indigenous to the marshes are
utilized for walling the houses. In 1882, the right of fishing in the
rivers was leased out by Government for ^463.

In the settled portion of the District, forests are estimated to cover
an area of 2950 square miles ; and a considerable area has been
brought under the supervision of the Forest Department. Owing to
an improvident system of leasing, and for other reasons, the plains have
now been nearly stripped of the valuable caoutchouc or india-rubber

LAKHIMPUR. 427

tree. Uncultivated pasture lands of wide extent are to be found all
over the District, but their area and extent cannot be estimated, as
they have never been defined or separated from the interminable jungle
waste which stretches around in every direction. None of the inhabi-
tants gain their livelihood by pasturing cattle in the forests. The
principal jungle products are silk, beeswax, and various drugs and
dyes, brought to the market by the hill tribes, who combine this
pursuit with agriculture.

Wild animals of all kinds abound, including elephants, rhinoceros,
buffaloes, the mithun or wild cow, bears, and deer. The right of
capturing wild elephants is a Government monopoly, and is annually
farmed out. From ^2000 to ^3000 a year used to be realized
from this source, in addition to a royalty of ^10 on each elephant
captured, which increased the sum above mentioned by about one-
half. Of late years, very much reduced prices have been received for
these elephant farms, the reason being that to make elephant-hunting
profitable, a large initial expense is required, which any ordinary
lessee cannot afford. There is no lack of elephants, however, in the
District, and a Government kheddah might very profitably be established
here.

The mineral wealth of Lakhimpur has not yet been developed.
Coal and petroleum are known to exist in many spots near Jaipur
and Makum, and arrangements have been recently made to open out
these localities by means of a railway from Dibrugarh, the head-quarters
town. A large demand for coal by the River Steamer Company is
anticipated, and also an increased use of coal or coke in the tea
factories. In January 1883, prior to the opening up of the Makum
railway, coal was difficult to procure at 4s. a cwt. in Dibrugarh, but it
is thought that the railway company will probably be able to supply
it at one-third of this cost. Limestone is found in the bed of the
Brahmaputra, near Sadiya, and in its tributaries from the Mishmi Hills,
but not in any large masses. Traces of iron exist, and the coal near
Makum contains sulphur in rather large quantities. Fine clay also
occurs in connection with the coal. From time immemorial, gold has
been washed in many of the rivers, particularly the Subansiri and its
tributaries north of the Brahmaputra. Formerly a class of gold-washers,
called Sonwals (from Son, gold), used, it is believed, to make con-
siderable profits from this source; but the great demand for labour
caused by the introduction of tea cultivation, and the consequent
increase in wages and prices, has almost entirely put a stop to the
industry. In 1883, the right of searching for gold in the Subansiri river
and its tributaries was let at a nominal rate for a period of ten years to
a European planter of the District, Mr. Scott-Campbell ; and it is pos-
sible that there may be a resuscitation of the industry, although the

423 LAKHIMPUR.

results of Mr. Campbell's operations are not known. Many salt and
mineral springs are found in the low hillocks throughout the District.
The most noticeable are the brine springs at Borhat, which at one
time yielded great quantities of salt, but are now hardly worked at all.

Two picturesque gorges worthy of notice are situated in Lakhimpur.
The Brahmakund or Parasuramkund is the gorge through which the
smallest and most southerly branch of the Brahmaputra (which alone
bears the name of the great river) finds its way to the plains. It is a
famous place of pilgrimage, and is annually resorted to by large numbers
of Hindu devotees, although the journey to it is both difficult and
dangerous. The Deo Dubi or Pool of the Demon is a dark pool of
great depth in the gorge through which the Disang river leaves the Naga
Hills.

History. — This tract of country figures largely in the annals of Assam,
as the region where successive invaders from the east first reached
the Brahmaputra, and as being always inhabited by a turbulent popula-
tion. The earliest traditions, if trustworthy, indicate that Lakhimpur
was in remote times the centre of a flourishing Hindu civilisation,
connected with the name of a Pal dynasty. The first invaders were the
Bara (or twelve) Bhuiyas, who are supposed to have been leaders of
a colony, driven from the western Provinces of India by domestic con-
vulsions. To these chiefs is attributed the construction of the large
tanks still to be seen in the neighbourhood of Banskata and Lakhimpur
town ; but they have left no traces in the present population of the country.
The Bara Bhuiyas are said to have been driven out by the Chutias,
the first of the races of Shan origin who penetrated into Assam. The
Chutia kingdom appears to have centred on the banks of the Subansiri
river, and to have been of no long duration. The Chutias were
in their turn driven out by the Ahams, whose arrival is placed in the
13th century. The Chutias sustained the struggle for some years, but
in the end were completely defeated, many of them being removed
to the tract now known as Chutia, in the adjoining District of Darrang.
The Ahams are also a tribe of Shan descent, whose original home was
in the hilly tract of country known as the Kingdom of Pong. Their
modern representatives are quiet agriculturists ; but at the time of the
conquest the Ahams were undoubtedly a fierce and warlike race, with
great capacity for administration. They gradually extended their rule
down the valley of the Brahmaputra ; and on the frontier of Bengal
defended themselves successfully against the generals of the Mughal
Emperor, Aurangzeb. It is also said that the neighbouring hill tribes
acknowledged an allegiance to the Aham kings, which some of them
now refuse to British authority. The greatest of the dynasty was Raja
Rudra Singh, under whom all Assam was flourishing and peaceful.
The downfall of Aham rule in Lakhimpur is assigned to the reign of

LAKHIMPUR. 429

Gaurinath Singh, who was driven out of his capital into Lower Assam,
and left this prosperous tract to be devastated by the insurgents. It was
at this time that the race known as Moamaria or Maran established their
independence on the south bank of the Brahmaputra; while the Khamtis
ravaged the north-east corner in the neighbourhood of Sadiya. Order
had scarcely been restored under the administration of the Bara
Gosain, when the Burmese commenced their series of invasions which
finally depopulated the whole country. On one occasion the inhabit-
ants made a desperate stand in the neighbourhood of Lakhimpur town,
but they were completely defeated, and the survivors were exposed to
most wanton cruelties.

The misfortunes of Lakhimpur did not cease even with the
expulsion of the Burmese in 1825. For several years after the
British had nominally annexed the whole Province of Assam, they
were unable to spare a single European officer for the civil admini-
stration of this remote tract. The southern region, known as Matak,
and now included within the Sub-division of Dibrugarh, was allowed to
remain under its native chief, whose rule was of a mild and patriarchal
character. But on the death of the old chief in 1839, the conditions
proposed to his successor were not accepted, and the country was then
taken under direct British management. In the same year, it was
resolved to dispossess Raja Purandar Singh, who had been placed over
a tract stretching across both banks of the Brahmaputra, which corre-
sponds to the eastern half of the Sub-division of North Lakhimpur and
all Sibsagar District. The misrule of the governor, the exactions of
his subordinates, and the aggressions of the hill tribes, had reduced
this tract to extreme desolation. So late as 1853, it was described
as ' a wilderness from which it will take years to recover ; ' and even
at the present day it is the most sparsely populated portion of the
Province. The third portion of the District, called Sadiya, had also
been allowed to continue under a native governor, who was in this case
a Khamti chief. In 1835, it was found necessary to place the admini-
stration under the control of the military officer who had from the first
been stationed at Sadiya town. Four years later, the Khamtis swept
down from the hills, destroyed the town, and cut to pieces the detach-
ment of Sepoys, together with Major White, the commandant and
Political Agent. Since 1839, when the entire District was resumed by
the British, such inroads have been successfully checked. The hill
tribes are learning the advantages of peaceful intercourse ; agriculture
is extending on the plains, and the introduction of the tea plant has
opened a new era of prosperity.

Population. — Two early estimates of the population of the regularly
settled part of the District are in existence, which give elaborate details,
and are said to have been arrived at after actual counting. The

430 LAKHIMPUR.

enumeration in 1847-48 showed a total of 81,917 persons, who had
increased by 1852-53 to 85,296. The regular Census of 1871-72
returned the population of the settled and revenue-paying tract at
121,267; while that of 1 88 1 showed that the population had risen to
1 79,893,' being considerably more than double the population of 1848,
and 48-34 per cent, increase on that of 1872. In 1881, however,
the entire District was censused ; and a considerable portion of the
increase is explained by the fact that in 1881 some 4000 Khamtis
and Singphos, who live on the extreme border, were enumerated for the
first time, as well as a large number of Ahams and other settlers in the
jungle. The results of the Census of 188 1 may be briefly summarized
as follows -.—Area of regularly settled District, 3723 square miles, with
1 100 villages, and 29,255 occupied houses. Total population, 179.893,
namely, males 96,335, and females 83,558; proportion of males, 53-6
per cent. Average density of population, 48*32 persons per square
mile; villages per square mile, '29; houses, 7-87 per square mile;
inmates per house, 6*5. Classified according to age, the Census
Report returned the population as follows :— Under 15 years of age,
males 38,370, and females 34,090; total children, 72,460, or 40-2
per cent, of the population: 15 years of age and upwards, males
57,965, and females 49,468; total adults, 107,433, or 59*8 per cent.
In religion, the population consists of— Hindus, 152,190, or 84-5 per
cent.; Muhammadans, 5824; Buddhists, 4657; Christians, 837;
Jains, 3 ; and hill tribes still professing aboriginal religions, 16,382.

As might be anticipated from the history and geographical position
of Lakhimpur, the proportion of Hindus proper, and especially of
high-caste Hindus, is lower than in any other District of Assam. The
Brahmans number 1363, the Rajputs 1791, the Kayasths 2070, and the
Agarwalas, the trading castes from the north-west, 396. By far the
most numerous caste is the Kalita (7742), the former priests of the
aboriginal kings of Assam ; they have now taken to agriculture, and
rank as pure Siidras. Other Hindu castes, based upon race rather
than religion, are returned at 52,395.

The tribes ranked in the Census Report as semi-Hinduized aborigines
constitute more than half the total population. The most numerous
tribe is the Aham, the former rulers of the country, who still number
51,588, or almost the same number as the Hindus proper. Next come
the kindred Chutias (16,708) ; the Doms, a tribe of peculiar exclusiveness
in Assam (11,765); and the Kochs (4598)-

The pure aborigines consist of three classes — representative com-
munities of the neighbouring hill tribes ; immigrants of old standing,
such as the Cacharis ; and labourers on the tea plantations recently
imported from the western Districts of Bengal and from Behar. The
neighbouring hill tribes may again be sub-divided into two broadly

LAKHIMPUR. 431

distinguished races — (1) those of Shan descent, who have forced their
way across the hills from the south, represented by the Khamtfs and
Singphos, who are Buddhists ; (2) a group of Indo-Chinese origin,
comprising the Mishmis, Abars, Miris, Daphlas, and Akas, who occupy
the slopes and spurs of the Himalayas along the north of the District.
The great bulk of these tribes live in mountain fastnesses, far beyond
the British frontier ; but all of them have sent out little colonies, who
settle down peaceably on the borders of the plains, and learn the arts
of agriculture and commerce. The aboriginal tribes in Lakhimpur,
Hindus and non-Hindus, are represented as follows : — Abars, 821 ;
Ahams, 51,588; Chutias, 16,708; Daphlas, 210; Cacharis, 18,699;
Khamtis, 2883; Kochs, 4598; Lalungs, 730; Manipuris, 99; Mataks,
220; Mikirs, 2752; Mishmis, 681; Miris, 11,687; Nagas, 230;
Nepalis, 879; Rabhas, 390; Santals, 1035; and Singphos, 1774. It
is reported that large numbers of the hill tribes are annually converted
from their indigenous forms of demon-worship to Hinduism.

The faith of Islam now makes no progress. The comparatively
large number of Musalmans in this remote corner, into which the
Mughal armies never penetrated, is attributed partly to the fact that
the Aham kings used to import Muhammadan artificers for their public
works, and partly to a later immigration of shopkeepers from Dacca.
The Faraizi or reforming spirit is said to have made some progress
among them. Of the 837 Christians, 227 are Europeans or Eurasians,
and 610 natives. The majority of the native Christians consist of tea
labourers imported from Chutia Nagpur. The Matak tribe represents
the Moamarias or Marans, who inhabit the south-eastern portion of
the District. They became converts to the Vishnuite form of Hinduism
at an early period ; and their persecution by the Durga-worshipping
kings of Assam led to many outbreaks, and ultimately to the assertion
of their independence.

Towns and Villages. — The most populous place in Lakhimpur
District, and the only place with a population exceeding 5000, is the
civil station of Dibrugarh, situated on the Dibru river, a few miles
above its junction with the Brahmaputra. It contains (1881) 1660
houses and 7153 inhabitants, including 1736 in the cantonments.
Other places of some importance as centres of river traffic are —
Lakhimpur, the head-quarters of the Sub-division of the same name ;
and Sadiya, which is occupied as a frontier station by a detachment of
Native infantry. An annual fair is held at Sadiya in the month of
February, on which occasion Government presents are distributed
among the frontier tribes. No tendency is perceptible on the part of
the population to gather into towns or centres of commerce or industry,
except at the head-quarters town of Dibrugarh, where the population
has considerably increased of late years. Of the 11 00 villages returned

432 LAKHIMPUR.

by the Census, no less than 941 had less than two hundred inhabitants ;
152 from two to five hundred ; 5 from five hundred to a thousand ; and
2 upwards of a thousand inhabitants.

Material Condition of the People. — The peasantry, as a rule, are well
off. Their wants are, comparatively speaking, few, and easily supplied
by their own industry. With the exception of such articles as salt or
opium, all their actual necessaries are supplied from their own
agricultural produce. Money is very little used by the Assamese
peasant, and only passes through his hands in small quantities for the
purchase of a little salt, betel-nut, and opium ; with now and then a
cooking utensil, a cotton cloth for a garment, or an ornament for his
wife. He has, further, to pay his rent in money. He cultivates his
land himself, with the assistance of his family, for the purpose of
producing the different articles of food required, and subsists almost
entirely upon the products of his own little plot. His meal of rice
is supplemented by some herbs gathered in the fields and ponds, or
else raised in his own garden ; and also by very small fishes caught
in the small streams, marshes, ponds, and even in the ditches. Many
varieties of edible roots, vegetables, and fruits grow wild, and only
require to be looked for. To clothe himself and his family he rears
silkworms ; either the erid worm, which feeds on the leaves of the
castor-oil plant growing in his little patch of garden land, and which is
reared in the house ; or the mugd worm, which feeds on the leaves of
the sum tree, and is partially reared out of doors. His wife weaves the
cloth and makes it up. Even oil need not be bought, as he can grow
mustard seed in his own garden, and extract the oil by means of a rude
press. To pay the rent of his land, he sells a small portion of his rice
and silk. The rate of the land-tax is very light, being less than the
value of two hundredweights of uncleaned rice per acre, or from 3s. to
3s. 9& per acre, according to the locality and the description of the
land.

Under such circumstances it would naturally be supposed that the
Assamese peasant was prosperous. But, unfortunately, owing to his
inveterate indolence and addiction to the use of opium, his condition
is not so good as it is sometimes supposed to be, and he is very often
in arrears with his rent, even when he has means to pay.

The people are extremely averse to working for daily wages, as they
affirm that by so doing they compromise their respectability. The
indigenous population furnishes very few permanent labourers to the
tea-gardens. These consist principally of Santals from Chutia Nagpur,
low castes from the upper Districts of Bengal and from the North-
western Provinces, together with some local labourers from Lower
Assam. The trading community consists chiefly of Marwaris from the
Rajputana States ; the shopkeepers are mostly Musalmans from Dacca

LAKHIMPUR. 433

and Sylhet. With regard to occupation, the Census of 1SS1 divided
the male population into the following six classes: — (i) Professional
classes, including all civil and military officials and the learned pro-
fessions, 1621 ; (2) domestic class, 1072; (3) commercial class,
including merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 1162; (4) agricultural and
pastoral class, including gardeners, 58,396 ; (5) manufacturing and
industrial class, 1617 ; (6) indefinite and non-productive class (comprising
246 general labourers and 32,311 male children and unspecified),
34,267.

Agriculture. — As throughout the rest of Assam, rice forms the one
staple crop, the only other cereal cultivated being Indian corn in small
quantities. Rice is sub-divided into two usual crops — the sd/i,
sown in low lands about July, transplanted in the following month,
and reaped in December ; the dhu or dus, sown in high lands about
March, not generally transplanted, and reaped in October. The green
crops grown in the District consist of many varieties of pulses, and
mustard grown as an oil-seed. The miscellaneous crops comprise
several sorts of fibres and of sugar-cane, mulberry, long pepper, potatoes,
and pumpkins. Among fruit-trees, are the orange, lime, lemon, citron,
and plantain.

In 187 1 it was estimated that 61,490 acres were actually under culti-
vation in Lakhimpur District, or only one hundred and fiftieth part of the
total area. The several crops were thus apportioned : — Rice, 39,460
acres; tea, 15,000; pulses, 2130; vegetable and potatoes, 1000 each ;
cotton, 850; oil-seeds, 750; sugar-cane, 300; other crops, 1000 acres.
About 2300 acres bore a second crop of vegetables, oil-seeds, or pulses.
By 1883-84 the cultivated area had increased to 126,021 acres, or,
deducting 1460 acres cropped more than once, to 124,561 acres. The
area under the different crops was returned as follows : — Rice, 70,928
acres; other food-grains, 8101 acres; oil-seeds, 1384 acres; sugar-cane,
884 acres; cotton, 1050 acres; jute, 200 acres; tea, 36,873 acres;
miscellaneous crops, 6601 acres. Manure is not generally used, except
for sugar-cane, and then in the form of the sweepings of cattle-sheds.
It is stated, however, that the dead fish left on the lowlands after the
subsidence of the annual inundations, serve as a natural fertilizer.
Irrigation from neighbouring tanks or pools is sometimes resorted to in
the case of the rice crop.

The entire soil is the property of Government. Leases are granted
to the individual cultivators at the following rates, which are common
to all Assam : — For basti or homestead lands, 6s. an acre ; for rupit
or low-lying lands, on which rice is grown, 3s. 9d. an acre ; for
faringhdti or dry lands, suited for vegetables, etc., 3s. an acre. In
early times the revenue used to be collected by means of a poll-tax,
varying in amount from is. to 2s. a head ; an assessment on the land

VOL. VIII. 2 E

434 LAKHIMPUR.

was first introduced in 1841. Certain classes, such as the Mi'ris
occupying the sub-hill tracts, and the Mataks, still pay a poll-tax, the
rate being 6s. a head. The average out-turn from an acre of rupit
land is estimated at about 26 cvvts. of unhusked rice of the sail crop;
from an acre of faringhdti land, about 12 cwts. of dus unhusked rice.
From both lands a second crop is sometimes raised, which may amount
to 13 cwts. of either pulses or fibres, or half that weight of cotton.

A farm of about ten acres in extent is considered a large holding for
a peasant ; one of five acres as a comfortable medium-sized one ; while
one of two acres is reckoned as very small, and as a rule is only held by
a man who has some auxiliary means of subsistence. A cultivator with
a five-acre holding is considered to be as well off as a respectable retail
shopkeeper, and in better circumstances than a man earning 16s. a
month in money wages. The peasantry, on the whole, are free from
debt.

Within the past twenty years, since tea cultivation has been conducted
on an extensive scale, rates of wages have more than doubled ; ordinary
labour, in fact, is almost unobtainable. The construction of the Assam
railway to Makum has temporarily had the effect of enhancing the
rates still further. Day-labourers now receive from 6d. to is. a day;
bricklayers, from is. to is. 6d. ; and smiths and carpenters, from 2s. to
4s. The price of food-grains has risen in an equal proportion. Best
rice now sells at about 14s. per cwt. ; common rice, at about 7s. 6d. ;
and common unhusked rice, at 5s. Prices were not affected by the
famine of 1866.

Lakhimpur District is not specially liable to the calamities of flood
or drought. The harvest is not known to have failed generally within
the memory of the present generation. In the event of a deficient
rainfall, the augmented produce of the low-lying lands and the marshes
would probably compensate for the failure of the crops on the higher
levels. A few embankments are in existence as a protection against
excessive inundations, but they have been suffered to fall into a bad
state of repair. If the price of common unhusked rice were to rise
to 5s. 5d. per cwt. in the rural markets in the month of January, that
should be regarded as a sign of approaching failure of the local harvest,
but not of distress, as wages are very high and the country is easy of
access for supplies from without.

Manufactures^ etc. — Local manufactures consist chiefly of mats,
basket-work, and silk cloth, which are made up by the people them-
selves, each family providing for its own wants. There are a few
potters and braziers ; but the pottery manufactured is of the poorest
description, and the importation of cheap brass utensils from Bengal
has destroyed the native manufacture, which was of well amalgamated
metal and of a handsome shape. The silk cloth, known as mngay is

LAKHIMPUR. 435

made from the cocoons of the mugd worm (Saturnia assamungis), which
feeds on the leaves of the sum tree. This moth is found wild in the
jungle; but domesticated worms imported from Nowgong or Kamnip
are alone used for silk. While feeding on the sum trees, constant care
has to be taken to protect the worms from their enemies of the bird
and insect world. A thousand cocoons will produce from 6 to 8 ounces
of silk thread, which is worth from ios. to us. per pound. A silk
waist-cloth (dhuti), 18 feet long by 3 feet wide, sells for from £1, 4s.
to £2, according to quality. Very little silk is exported, and the
manufacture has greatly fallen off since the prosperous days of the
Aham kings. Singphos, Khamtfs, and other hill tribes wear tartans of
various kinds, both in silk and cotton. Some of their dyes are indigen-
ous, but they now largely employ thread coloured with aniline dyes,
which they procure from Marwari merchants.

Tea. — The cultivation and manufacture of tea is conducted by
European capital and under European supervision. Lakhimpur District
was the scene of the first attempts at tea cultivation by the Government
about the year 1835, and the Assam Company commenced operations
here in 1840. After having passed through periods of depression,
arising from reckless speculation and want of experience, the industry
has now reached a stable position, and has made great strides in recent
years. In 1874 there were 112 gardens under plant, covering an area
of 89,370 acres, of which 11,680 acres were actually in bearing. The
total out-turn was 1,811,920 lbs., showing an increase of 320,725
lbs. on the previous year. The number of European superintendents
employed was 42, with 176 native assistants; the total number of
labourers was 10,612, of whom 7936 had been imported under contract
from Bengal. At the end of 1881, 202 gardens were in existence,
with a total area of 92,982 acres of land taken up for tea, of which
18,876 acres were under mature, and 6386 acres under immature plant.
The total out-turn of tea was 5,735>955 lbs. The Census Report
returned the population on the tea-gardens at 37,295, of whom 8961
were natives of Assam, 28,463 were natives from other Indian Provinces,
and 141 natives of countries outside India, presumably Europeans.

Hopes have been entertained that the mineral wealth of Lakhimpur
would also attract European capital. In 1866, operations were com-
menced in the coal-field near Jaipur, where the coal is of excellent
quality, and can be quarried without mining. About 6700 tons in all
were raised ; but it was found that the mineral could not be brought to
market at a sufficiently low rate to enable it to compete with imports
from Bengal. At the same time, a scheme for working the petroleum
wells in the neighbourhood of the coal-field was taken up with much
energy, but it was unfortunately broken off, owing to the death of its
promoter. In 1882, however, the Assam Railway and Trading Com-

43(3 LAKHIMPUR,

pany, having obtained concessions from Government, commenced
laying a line of railway on the metre gauge from Dibrugarh to Sadiya,
with a branch line to Makiim, of which 70 miles were opened up to the
end of March 1884. Two coal mines in the Makiim field have been
opened ; and it is hoped that these mines, which appear exceed-
ingly rich, will in time supply not only all Assam, but even Calcutta
with coal and coke of excellent quality. It is also proposed to reopen
the petroleum springs near Makiim, the concession of working which
has been granted to the Assam Railway and Trading Company for a
term of years.

The rivers constitute the principal means of communication in
Lakhimpur. In addition, there were, in 1882, 332 miles of District
roads, maintained at a cost of ^1600, besides 93 miles of Imperial roads.
As above stated, the Assam Railway had 70 miles open for traffic up to
March 1884.

The commerce of the District is entirely conducted by river; and is
mainly in the hands of Marwaris from the north-west, and Musalmans
from Dacca. The chief centres of trade are Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur
town, Jaipur, and Sadiya. The exports consist of tea, mugd silk thread,
india-rubber, beeswax, ivory, and mustard seed ; in return for which
the following articles are imported — rice, opium, tobacco, salt, oil, iron,
and cotton cloth. It is thought that the value of the exports, including
tea, largely exceeds the value of the imports ; but no trustworthy
statistics are available. An annual fair has for some years been estab-
lished by Government at the frontier station of Sadiya, but the import-
ance of this gathering is rather political than commercial.

Administration. — In 1870-71, the net revenue of Lakhimpur District
amounted to ^48,430, towards which the land - tax contributed
^14,300, or 30 per cent. : the net expenditure was ,£24,856, or about
half the revenue. In 1881-82, the District revenue had increased to
^80,329, of which ^"24.463 was derived from the land. The total
District expenditure was ^26, 463, or nearly one-third of the revenue.
The land revenue has increased from ^3578 in 1850, to ^15,646 in
1875, and ^24,463 in 1881-82. In 1880-81 there were 3 covenanted
officials stationed in the District, and 9 magisterial, 3 civil, and 6 revenue
courts open. For police purposes, Lakhimpur is divided into 6 police
circles, with 9 outpost stations. In 1881-82, the civil and frontier
police consisted of a force of 344 officers and men. These figures show
1 policeman to every 9*6 square miles or to every 526 of the population,
and an average cost of £2, 8s. per square mile, or iod. per head
of population. There is no municipal police in Lakhimpur, and the
chankiddrs or village watch of Bengal are not found anywhere in Assam
proper. In 1881-82, the total number of persons in Lakhimpur
District convicted of any offence, great or small, was 974, being 1

LAKHIMPUR. 437

person in every 184 of the population. By far the greater proportion
of the convictions were for petty offences. The District contains 1 jail
and 1 sub-divisional lock-up. In 1881, the average daily number of
prisoners was 51, of whom 3 were females; the labouring convicts
averaged 50. These figures show 1 prisoner in jail to every 3863 of
the population. The total cost amounted to ^714, or ^14 per
prisoner; the jail manufactures yielded a net profit of ^257.

Education had not made much progress in Lakhimpur till Sir G.
Campbell's reforms, by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules was
extended to the pdthsdlds or village schools. In 1856 there were only
7 inspected schools in the whole District, attended by 286 pupils. By
1870, apparently owing to some change in system, these numbers had
fallen to 3 schools and 216 pupils; but in 1873, after the above-men-
tioned reforms had come into operation, the schools increased to 24, and
the pupils to 699. In 1881-82, the number of schools had further
risen to 67, with an attendance of 2314 pupils; or 1 school to every
55 square miles, and 12 pupils to every thousand of the population.
The chief institution is the Government Higher School at Dibrugarh,
which had an average attendance of 220 pupils in 1882.

The District is divided into 2 administrative Sub-divisions, and into
6 t/idnds or police circles. The Sub-division of North Lakhimpur,
which covers the whole tract north of the Brahmaputra, and contained
in 1881, 53,750 inhabitants, scattered over an estimated area of between
7500 and 8000 square miles, is considered for certain purposes to form
an independent District by itself. The entire District is divided into
63 mauzds (circles of villages for land revenue purposes), and 82 pdik
mahals (poll-tax paying circles). Dibrugarh town is the only muni-
cipality in the District. Municipal income (1883-84), ^366, or is. 4^d.
per head of municipal population.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of Lakhimpur is of an exceptional
character. There are only two clearly defined seasons in the year ; the
hot and rainy season, which lasts for four months, from the middle of
June to the middle of October ; and the cold and dry season, which
occupies the remainder of the twelve months. The months of April and
May are described as particularly cool and pleasant. The mean annual
temperature is about 650 R, and the average rainfall is about 115 inches
in the year. In 1883, the rainfall at Dibrugarh was 104*26 inches.

The endemic diseases are malarious fevers and their sequelae, various
kinds of cutaneous disorders, rheumatic affections, bronchocele, and
suppurative inflammation of the lymphatic glands. It has been observed
that phthisis, which is prevalent among some of the hill tribes on the
north of the Brahmaputra, attacks Hindustani settlers, but spares the
native Hindus and Europeans. Cholera, also, which has repeatedly
ravaged the District in recent years, seems to pass over Europeans. In

438 LAKHIMPUR SUB-DIVISION.

1861, more than 15 per cent, of the total population were estimated to
have been attacked by cholera, and about 10 per cent, to have died.
Increased cultivation, and the clearance of jungle through the enter-
prise of tea planters, have favourably influenced the general health
of the District ; and conservancy arrangements now receive careful
attention in the town of Dibrugarh. Cattle diseases of a very fatal
character have made their appearance in the District several times in
recent years, having been apparently imported from Bengal.

[For further information regarding Lakhimpur, see the Statistical
Accoutit of Assam, by W. W. Hunter, vol. i. pp. 291-420 (London,
Triibner & Co., 1879) ; A Descriptive Account of Assam, by W. Robin-
son (1841) ; Report on the Province of Assam, by A. J. Moffat Mills
(Calcutta, 1854) ; the Assam Census Report for 1881 ; and the several
Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports from 1880 to
1884.]

Lakhimpur (or North Iakhi?npur). — Sub-division in the north of
Lakhimpur District, Assam, lying between 270 and 280 N. lat., and
between 940 and 95° e. long. The administrative head-quarters are at
the village of Lakhimpur. The Sub-division is bounded north by the
Daphla and Mfri Hills, and south by the Brahmaputra. Estimated
area, about 7750 square miles; number of villages, 403; occupied
houses, 9409. Total population (1881) 53,750, namely, Hindus, 43,137 ;
Muhammadans, 1795; and 'others,' 8818. North Lakhimpur is
watered by the Subansiri and its tributaries, in most of which gold is
found by washing. In former times caoutchouc was abundant in the
jungles, but now it can only be collected beyond the frontier. The
most valuable wild products are a scarlet root called asu, used for dyeing,
and the bark of a tree called udal, which yields a fibre equal in strength
to flax. Apart from the cultivation of rice, the only indigenous industry
is the weaving of silk from the mugd and erid worms. The mugd worm
feeds in the open on the leaves of the sam tree (Artocarpus Chaplasha) ;
the erid worm requires to be carefully reared in-doors on the leaves of
the castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). It is calculated that about
328 cwts. of silk cloth are annually produced in North Lakhimpur,
valued at £3036.

Tea cultivation and manufacture are largely conducted with
pAiropean capital and under European supervision. The chief
difficulty of the planters lies in the scarcity of labour. The country
is very sparsely populated, and the natives are too well off and indepen-
dent to care to work regularly on the gardens. In 1871, the value of
the exports from the Sub-division was estimated at ,£22,000, chiefly
tea, caoutchouc, silk cloth, and rice; the imports were valued at
£16,000, chiefly oil, salt, and cotton cloth. The inhabitants principally
belong to aboriginal and semi-Hinduized tribes — Ahams, Doras,

LAKHIMPUR— LAKHIPUR. 439

Chutias, Kochs, Kalitas, Cacharis, Saraniyas, and Mins. In 1884
the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts, with a police
force of 83 men.

Lakhimpur (or North Lakhimpur). — Village in the north of Lakhim-
pur District, Assam ; on the Gariajan river, a tributary of the Subansiri.
Lat. 270 14' 5" n., long. 940 7' 10" fe. The head-quarters of North Lakhim-
pur Sub-division and a centre of local trade. Population (1872) 577 ;
(1881) 899, namely, Hindus, 560; Muhammadans, 314; 'others,' 25.
The place is the residence of an Assistant Commissioner, who is the
sub-divisional officer, and an extra-Assistant Commissioner. A small
military and frontier police force is also stationed here, occupying a
strong masonry fort. The Gariajan is only navigable during the rainy
season. The public buildings include a lock-up and a charitable
dispensary.

Lakhimpur.— Tahsil or Sub-division of Kheri District, Oudh, lying
between 270 47' 15" and 280 29' 30" N. lat, and between 8o° 20'
and 8i° 4' e. long. Bounded on the north and east by Dhaurahra
tahsil; south by Sitapur District ; and west by Muhamdi tahsil,
and Shahjahanpur District in the North-Western Provinces. The
tahsil comprises the 5 pdrgands of Kheri, Srinagar, Bhur, Paila,
and Kukra Mailani. Area, 1078 square miles, of which 463 are
under cultivation. Population (1869) 298,338; (1881) 33°>7°7,
namely, males 175,987, and females 154,720. Hindus numbered
285,161 in 1881; Muhammadans, 45,468; 'others/ 78. Of the 666
villages comprising the tahsil in 1881, 424 contained less than five
hundred inhabitants each. Land revenue, ^34,749- In l884> the
Sub-division contained 2 civil and 6 criminal courts, with two police
circles {thdnds), and a police force of 244 men, besides a village police
of 8 1 8 chankidars.

Lakhimpur.— Chief town of Kheri District, Oudh, and head-
quarters of Lakhimpur Sub-division ; picturesquely situated about a
mile south of the Ul river. Lat. 270 56' 45" n., long. 8o° 49' 20" e.
A rising town with a population in 1869 of 1654; and in 1881 ot
7526, namely, Hindus 5461, and Muhammadans 2065. Municipal
income in 1883-84, ^447, of which £*92 was derived from taxa-
tion, and ^255 from rents, fees, and fines; average incidence of taxa-
tion, 6£d. per head. The town contains the usual public offices and
court-houses, besides a high school and dispensary maintained partly
by private aid. Masonry houses are increasing, and trade is rapidly
extending. Daily markets, and also special bi-weekly ones, are held
in the bazar.

Lakhipur (Lakshmipur).— Village in the south of Goalpara District,
Assam. Lat. 260 2' 5" N., long. 900 20' 50" e. ; near the north foot of
the Garo Hills. The residence of the wealthy zaminddrs of Mechpara,

44o LAKHIPUR— LAKHNADON.

who maintain efficient schools for boys and girls, and contribute largely
to a charitable dispensary, and other works of public utility. The
zamindars own extensive sal forests near the village, the timber of
which is annually sold at their own depot to Bengali traders.

Lakhipur {Lakshmipur).— Village in the east of Cachar District,
Assam, at the confluence of the Jhiri river with the Barak. A thdnd
or police station, and the chief centre of trade with the State of Mani-
pur. The bazar is frequented by Manipurfs and other hillmen, who
bring down cotton, caoutchouc, and beeswax, to barter for salt, iron
tools, dried fish, and betel-nuts. The population of the Lakhipur
thdnd jurisdiction amounted in 1881 to 39,742, of whom 21,276 re-
presented the population of 28 flourishing tea-gardens, lying on both
sides of the Barak. The number of Manipuris residing within the
thdnd jurisdiction was returned at 7579. The village contains a post-
office, and close by is a revenue court (kachhdri) of the Maharaja of
Manipur, who owns much land in the neighbourhood.

Lakhi Sarai. — Railway station in Monghyr District, Bengal.— See

LUCKEESERAI.

Lakhmia. — An offshoot of the Brahmaputra, Bengal ; which river it
leaves at Tok, a village on the northern border of Maimansingh Dis-
trict. It then flows southwards and empties itself into the Dhaleswari
(lat. 230 34' n., long. 900 34' e.), about 4 miles from its junction with the
Meghna in Dacca District. Narayanganj, the port of Dacca District,
is situated on this river. The Lakhmia, with its high and well-wooded
banks, is one of the most beautiful rivers in Eastern Bengal ; it is also
remarkable for the purity and coolness of its waters. For five months
of the year, it is a tidal stream ; but it is only fordable at Ekdala.
Owing to the silting up of the Brahmaputra, the waters of the Lakhmia
are gradually decreasing.

Lakhna. — Town in Bharthna ta/isi/, Etawah District, North-
western Provinces. Lat. 260 38' 55" n., long. 79° n' 30" e. Situated
2 miles south of the Etawah and Kalpi road, 14 miles south-east of
Etawah town. Population (1872) 2857; (1881) 3551, namely, males
2081, and females 1470, chiefly Brahmans and Marwarfs. The con-
servancy and watch and ward of the town are provided for by the
proceeds of a house-tax. Residence of the late Raja Jaswant Singh,
C.S.I., who built a temple to Kali Kaji from the proceeds of a religious
fair established by himself. Considerable trade in ghi and cotton. A
school-house occupies the site of the former tahsiti, removed to
Bharthna in 1863.

Lakhnadon. — The northern tahsil or revenue Sub-division of Seoni
District, Central Provinces. Area, 1583 square miles, with 770
villages and 28,604 occupied houses. Population (1872) 126,034;
(1881) 138,716, namely, males 70,164, and females 68,552. Total

LAKHNA UTI—LAKHTAR. 44 1

increase of population in nine years, 12,682; average density, 87*63
persons per square mile. Total adult agriculturists (male and female),
56,554, or 4077 per cent, of the tahsil population. Average area
available per head of the agricultural population, 10 acres. Of the
total area of 1583 square miles, 482 square miles are held revenue
free. Area assessed for Government revenue, 1101 square miles, of
which 434 square miles are cultivated, 372 square miles cultivable,
and 295 square miles uncultivable waste. Total Government assess-
ment, including local rates and cesses paid on land, ^6922, or an
average of 6d. per cultivated acre. Rental paid by cultivators, including
cesses, ,£19,306, or an average of is. 4jd. per cultivated acre. In
1883, the Sub-division contained 1 criminal and 2 civil courts, with 3
police stations (thdnds) and 6 outposts. Total strength of regular
police, 86 officers and men, besides 557 village watchmen {chaukiddrs).

Lakhnailti. — Decayed town in Nakur tahsil, Saharanpur District,
North-Western Provinces. Lat. 290 46' n., long. 770 16' e. Situated
on the Karnal road, 26 miles south-west of Saharanpur town, and close
to the high bank leading down to the Jumna (Jamuna) lowlands. Popu-
lation (1872) 3998; (1881), 4312, namely, males 2250, and females
2062. Sanitation, and the watch and ward of the town, are provided
for by a house-tax, which yielded ^£89 in 1881 ; average incidence of
local taxation, 5d. per head. The town contains a fine specimen of
an old native fort. Village school, branch post-office. This and five
neighbouring villages belong to a colony of Turkomans, in the last
stages of poverty. During the last century, however, it possessed con-
siderable strength. In 1794, Bapu Sindhia, the Maratha governor of
Saharanpur, was long engaged in reducing it ; and the commandant
did not surrender until reinforcements arrived under George Thomas,
and a practicable breach was effected.

Lakhtar {Than Lakhtar). — Native State in Kathiawar, Province
of Gujarat, Bombay Presidency, situated between 22° 49' and 230 n.
lat., and between 710 46' and 720 3' e. long. The estate consists of
two distinct portions, Than and Lakhtar, together with some outlying
villages within Ahmadabad District. Population ( 1 881) 23,155 ; number
of villages, 41 ; area, 247 square miles. There are some rocky
tracts in the State, but neither rivers nor hills of any size. The
climate is hot and dry, but healthy, the only endemic disease being
fever. Cotton and the usual grains are cultivated. Dhers and Musal-
mans of the Borah class weave coarse cloth, and the potters of Than
have a name throughout Kathiawar for the excellence of their work.
Lakhtar is one of the ' third-class ' Kathiawar States, and the ruler
entered into the usual engagements in 1807. The present (1884)
chief is Thakur Karan Singhji, a Hindu of the Jhala Rajput caste.
He administers his State in person. Estimated gross revenue,

442 LAKHTAR—LAKI.

£l5°° ; tribute of ^735, 2S. is paid jointly to the British Govern-
ment and to the Nawab of Junagarh. The family of the chief holds
no title authorizing adoption; the succession follows the rule of
primogeniture. There were in 1882-83, 8 schools in the State, with
a total of 384 pupils. Military force in 1882-83, 4°° men. The State
does not levy transit dues.

Lakhtar. — Chief town of Lakhtar State, Kdthiawar, Bombay
Presidency; situated on the Ahmadabad - Wadhwan branch of the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway; 13 miles north-east of
Wadhwan, 20 miles north of Limbdi, and 376 miles from Bombay.
Lat 220 51' n., long. 710 50' 10" e. Population (1881) 4132. The
railway station is a mile from the town, and contains a dharmsdld or
rest-house for passengers. Post-office, school, and dispensary.

Laki.— Tahsiloi Bannu District, Punjab, lying between 320 16' and
320 51' n. lat., and between 700 25' 15" and 71° 18' 45" e. long.;
comprising the southern portion of the basin drained by the Kuram
and the Tochi. This tahsil is generally named Marwat by the people,
owing to the majority of the inhabitants belonging to that clan ; but it
is called Laki in official reports after the head-quarters town. The
greater part of the area consists of sand or sandy loam, sloping down
to the Gambila river from the hills on its southern boundary. There
is no irrigation in this tract, except from small hill torrents after rain.
In the less sandy parts, it is usual to leave waste the higher portions
of the lands of each village, often more than half its area, and to lead
the rain-water falling thereon to the lower tracts by drainage channels
and embankments. Most villages have small tanks for drinking pur-
poses, at which they also water their cattle ; but these tanks are
often dry for months together, necessitating water being brought from
the Gambila, or some pool in the hills often 10 to 15 miles distant.
This work is done by the women with donkeys and bullocks.

Area, 1269 square miles, with 140 towns and villages, 12,801
occupied houses, and 14,504 families. Total population (1881) 75,581,
namely, males 40,045, and females 35,536 ; proportion of males, 53
per cent. Classified according to religion, the population consisted
of — Muhammadans, 70,015; Hindus, 5496; Sikhs, 69; and Chris-
tian, 1. Of the 140 towns and villages, 119 contain less than five
hundred inhabitants. The average annual area under cultivation for
the five years 1877-81 was 177,793 acres, the chief crops being —
Wheat, 92,341 acres; gram, 47,869 acres; bdjra, 24,539 acres;
barley, 7379 acres ; Jodr, 1766 acres; moth, 1409 acres; Indian corn,
1547 acres. Total revenue, ^"10,906. The administrative staff con-
sists of a tahsilddr and munsif, presiding over 1 criminal and 2 civil
courts. Number of police circles {thd?ids\ 3 ; strength of regular
police, 91 men, besides 120 village watchmen (chaukidd? s).

LAKI—LAKSHMANTIRTHA. 443

Laki. — Town and municipality in Bannu District, Punjab, and
head-quarters of Laki or Marwat tahsil. Lat. 2>2° 36' 45" n., long. 700
57' e. Situated on the right bank of the Gambila, 32 miles from
Edwardesabad. The original town, by name Ihsanpur, on the opposite
bank of the river, sprang up around a small fort which was built in
1844 by Fateh Khan Tewana, a revenue collector for the Sikh
Government. It continued to be the capital of Marwat until 1864, when,
owing to a flood in the Gambila, and the plague of mosquitoes in-
separable from its situation near the marshy apex of the Kuram and
Gambila Doab, the District officer had the public buildings removed
to the sands on the higher right bank of the Gambila. Here were
three villages, Minakhel, Khoedadkhel, and Sayyidkhel. The people
of Ihsanpur settled in them, and helped to mould the three villages
into the one town of Laki. Population (1881) 4068, namely, Muham-
madans, 2906; Hindus, 1146; and Sikhs, 16. Number of occupied
houses, 727. Laki is now a thriving little town, with a good bazar,
tahsili, police station, charitable dispensary, dak bungalow, sard/,
school-house, post-office. Considerable trade in grain and other
country produce ; large exports of food-stuffs down the Indus to Dera
Ismail Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Sukkur (Sakhar). Municipal
revenue in 1875-76,^146; in 1883-84, ^226, or is. id. per head
of municipal population.

Laki. — Mountain range and village in Karachi (Kurrachee) District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency. — See Lakhi.

Laki. — Town in Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. — See
Lakhi.

Lakshmantirtha. — Tributary of the Kaveri (Cauvery), in Southern
India ; rises at the village of Kurchi in the Brahmagiri Hills in the
Kiggat-nad taluk of Coorg, and flows north-east into Mysore State,
through the District of Mysore, to join the Kaveri at Sagarkatte. It
is a perennial stream, and much used for irrigation in Mysore, being
crossed by 7 dams, which give water to channels 126 miles in length,
yielding a revenue of .£3381. The Hanagod dam alone takes off 335
cubic feet of water per second, and irrigates 13,400 acres. The Laksh-
mantirtha in its descent over an almost perpendicular wall of the
Brahmagiri Hills forms a celebrated cataract, which is invested with sin-
cleansing virtue, and is visited in February by thousands of devotees.
The way to the bathing-place is romantic, with steep hills to the right,
and the winding stream to the left. ' Every few steps a beggar is
encountered, exhibiting his deformities or sores. Here lies a fanatic,
as if dead, with a wooden nail through his cheeks ; there a boy with a
lancet through his outstretched tongue, and a smoking chatti on his
stomach ; here another man with a long knife across his throat, and a
horrible corpse-like appearance.'

444 LAKSHMES WAR—LALBA GH.

Lakshmeswar.— Town in Miraj State, South Maratha Agency,
Bombay Presidency. Lat. 15° 7' 10" N., long. 750 30' 40" e. Popula-
tion (1881) 10,274, namely, 501 1 males and 5263 females, of whom
8530 are Hindus, 1597 Muhammadans, and 147 Jains.

Lakshmipur. — Ghat or pass in Vizagapatam District, Madras
Presidency, leading from the low country via Parvatipur into Jaipur
(Jeypore) ; height about 3000 feet above sea-level. Lat. 19° 6' nJ
long. 830 20' e.

Lakshmipur. — Villages in Goal para and Cachar Districts, Assam.
— See Lakhipur.

Laktrai. — Range in the State of Hill Tipperah, Bengal. — See
Langtarai.

Lakvalli. — Taluk or Sub-division of Kadiir District, Mysore State.
Area, 504 square miles. Population (18S1) 23,701, namely, 12,786
males and 10,915 females, inhabiting 799 villages. Hindus numbered
21,503; Muhammadans, 2072 ; Christians, 125 ; and 'others,' 1. The
south of the taluk is occupied by the Chandra Drona or Baba Budan
Mountains. The Baba Budan was the first site of coffee cultivation in
Southern India ; and the slopes of the entire range, as well as south of
the forest-bound valley of Jagar, are occupied by coffee-gardens, both
European and native. Throughout the west, up to Lakvalli village,
forests stretch along both sides of the Bhadra river, containing some of
the most valuable teak timber of the State. Areca-nut gardens are
numerous in the north-west of the taluk ; eastward, rice is the principal
crop. Of the 540 square miles, 358 are cultivated, 78 cultivable, and
204 uncultivable waste.

Lakvalli. — Village in Kadiir District, Mysore State. Lat. 13° 42'
40" n., long. 750 41' 40" e. Population (1881) 1211. Has given its
name to a taluk with head-quarters at Yedehalli, situated close to the
site of Ratnapuri, the ancient capital of Wajra Mukuta Raya.

Lalatpur. — District, tahsily and town, North- Western Provinces. — •
See Lalitpur.

Lalbagh. — Sub-division of Murshidabad District (called also the
City of Murshidabad Sub-division), Bengal, lying between 240 6' 45"
and 240 23' n. lat, and between 88° 3' 15" and 88° 32' 45" e. long.
Area, 250 square miles, with 600 towns and villages, and 33,559
occupied houses. Population of the Sub-division on its present area
(1872) 154,512; (1881) 147,007, namely, males 70,407, and females
76,600. Total decrease in nine years, 7505, or 4*86 per cent, of the
population. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 74,382 ;
Muhammadans, 71,506; Jains, 644; Christians, 54; Santals, 177;
other aborigines, 244. Average number of persons per square mile,
588; villages per square mile, 2-4; persons per village, 297; houses
per square mile, 144; inmates per house, 4-4. This Sub-division

LAL BAKYA—LALGULI FALLS. 445

comprises the 6 police circles {t hands) of Mdnullabazar, Shahnagar,
Bhagwangola, Sagardighi, Mohimapur, and Asanpur, the three latter
being of minor importance and ranking merely as outposts. In 1884
the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court ; strength of
regular police, 227 men ; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 339.

Lai Bakya. — Tributary of the Baghmati river in Tirhut, Bengal.
It joins the main stream near Adauri. Flat-bottomed boats can get
up as far as Murpa in the rains.

Lal-darwdza {^ Red Door'). — Mountain pass across the Siwalik
range, between the Districts of Dehra Dun and Saharanpur, North-
western Provinces. Lat. 300 13' n., long. 770 58' e. ; elevation above
sea, 2935 feet.

Lalganj. — Important river mart on the east bank of the Gandak in
the Hajipur Sub-division of MuzafTarpur District, Bengal; 12 miles north-
west of Hajipur town. Lat. 250 51' 45" n., long. 850 1 2' 50" e. The bazar
lies on the low land adjoining the river, but is protected from inunda-
tion by the Gandak embankments. Population (1872) 12,338 ; (1881)
16,431, namely, males 7631, and females 8800. Classified according
to religion, Hindus numbered 14,533; and Muhammadans, 1898.
Municipal income in 1882-83, £$°l '> average incidence of taxation,
3|d. per head. The importance of Lalganj as a trading centre led
to its being selected in 1875 as a point for the registration of river
traffic ; the total river-borne trade for the first quarter of that year
was ^3 6, 93 5. A different system of trade registration has since been
introduced, and the Lalganj registration station abolished. Principal
exports — hides, oil-seeds, saltpetre ; imports — food-grains (chiefly rice),
salt, and piece-goods. The shipping ghat lies a mile to the south of
the town, and is called Basanta. Roads to Sahibganj, MuzarTarpur.
and Hajipur. Police station, several schools, post-office.

Lalganj. — Formerly a tahsil or Sub-division of Rai Bareli District,
Oudh, which since 1876 has been known as the Dalmau tahsil from
the name of the head-quarters town. — See Dalmau.

Lalganj. — Town in Dalmau tahsil, Rai Bareli District, Oudh ;
situated about 10 miles south-west of Dalmau, on the road from Bareli
to Bhitari Ghat in Fatehpur District, North- Western Provinces. Lat.
260 9' 50" n., long. 8i° o' 49" e. A flourishing market town, with a
population (1869) of 2602; (1882) 2568, namely, Hindus, 2334; and
Muhammadans, 234. Bi-weekly market for the sale of agricultural
produce. Hindu thdkiirdwdra dedicated to Kishanji or Krishna.

Lalguli Falls. — Rapids and cascade 8 miles north of Yellapur
on the Kalinadi, Yellapur Sub-division, North Kanara District, Bombay
Presidency. The fall of water is between 200 and 300 feet. Near
the falls is a fort from which, according to local tradition, the Gonda
chiefs used to throw their prisoners into the gorge beneath.

446 LALIAD—LALITPUR.

Laliad. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division, oxprdnt, of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of i village, with 2 proprietors. Area,
4 square miles. Population (1881) 783. Estimated revenue (1881),
^285, of which ^36, 4s. is paid as tribute to the British Government.
The estate is situated about 3 miles north-east of Chuda station, on
the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.

Laling.— Fort in Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency. — See
Dhulia.

Lalitpur. — British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the
North- Western Provinces, lying between 240 9' 30" and 250 14' n. lat.,
and between 78° 12' 20" and 79° 2 15" E. long. Area, 1947 square
miles. Population in 1881, 249,088 persons. Lalitpur is the southern
District of the Jhansi Division. It is bounded on the north and west
by the river Betwa ; on the south-west by the river Narayan ; on the
south by the Vindhyachal Ghats and Sagar (Saugor) District of the
Central Provinces ; on the south-east and east by Orchha State and
the river Dhasan ; and on the east and north-east by the river Jamuni.
The administrative head-quarters are at Lalitpur town.

Physical Aspects. — The District of Lalitpur forms a portion of the hill
country of Bundelkhand. Its general appearance is that of an undulating
plain, bounded on the south by the Vindhyan range, and sloping
gradually northwards, till it descends by a series of low, thickly-wooded
ridges into the valleys of the Betwa and the Jamuni, whose streams
unite to form its northern limit. In the two hilly tracts to the north
and south, the soil consists of a poor red gravel, the detritus of the under-
lying rocks ; but on the central table-land, and in isolated valleys else-
where, there are wide patches of black alluvial soil, known here as moti,
but elsewhere as mar. The plain has a general elevation of about 1500
feet above the level of the sea, and is broken by numerous detached
hills and peaks, most of which are mere bosses of crystalline rock,
overgrown with thick jungle. To the north, these hills run together,
forming low wooded ranges, which finally dip into the deep valley
of the Betwa.

The whole District is traversed or surrounded by considerable
rivers, which take their rise in the Vindhyan chain and flow in a
general northerly direction to join the main channel of the Jumna
(Jamuna). The principal of these rivers are the Betwa, which marks
the western and north-western boundary ; the Dhasan on the south-
eastern boundary ; and the Jamni, which after intersecting the Mahroni
tahsil forms the eastern and north-eastern boundary, till it unites
with the Betwa at the northern apex of the District. These rivers,
however, are of no practical value either for purposes of navigation
or irrigation. Lalitpur is also minutely intersected by a network of
smaller streams, which drain off the surface water through converging

LALITPUR. 447

ravines with excessive rapidity, and so contribute to impoverish the
soil ; while, in times of heavy rain, they pour their swollen torrents
too suddenly into the larger channels, and carry away before them
roads, banks, and bridges, causing a stoppage of communication, and
frequently endangering human life.

Several artificial lakes and tanks have been constructed in past times,
the largest being Talbehat, among the northern hills, which forms a
fine sheet of water covering an area of upwards of 453 acres. Similar
old tanks exist at Dhauri Sagar, Dudhi, Bar, and other places. During
the famine of 1868-69, tne excavation of tanks and the construction
of embankments were undertaken as relief works in several villages.
Owing to the nature of the soil, however, the area susceptible of
profitable irrigation is small, and the cultivators are unwilling to
pay a sufficiently high water-rate to yield a moderate return for the
heavy outlay.

There is little cultivation in the District, and that of a poor class,
although with the recent increase of population a considerable improve-
ment is observable in this respect. A very large proportion (174,740
acres) of the assessed area is covered with forest jungle. Of these,
90,694 acres were demarcated as Government forest at the time of the
land settlement, while 10,900 acres of waste land, in which no proprie-
tary rights existed, have been marked off and reserved. Nomadic
(dahya) cultivation so destructive to forests is prohibited, and all
villages within the demarcated tracts have been removed elsewhere.
Besides timber trees, there is an abundant growth of bamboos. Grass,
however, forms the most important jungle product. Large herds of
cattle are sent every year to graze in the jungles of the Vindhya hills,
and in ordinary years the supply of grass exceeds the demand. In
years of drought (as in 1868-69), when the grass fails in the plains,
these high grass lands prove of inestimable value, and cattle are sent
in large numbers from considerable distances to graze in the Balabahat
and Lakhanjir jungles. The other forest products are mahud and
chironji fruit, lac, honey, wax, gums, and various esculent roots, the
names of which are unknown, but which form part of the food of the
jungle tribe of Sahariyas.

Tigers, leopards, bears, hyaenas, wolves, wild dogs, wild pigs,
sambhdr, chitdl deer, antelope, chausingha, and ravine deer are all
found in the District. One of the great obstacles to the extension
and improvement of cultivation is the extensive damage done to the
crops by wild animals, especially by wild pigs, which are so abundant
that, without strong thorny hedges around every field, it is almost
useless to attempt cultivation at any distance from the village site.
During the year 1883, the number of registered deaths caused by wild
beasts or snake-bite was 89. The fish most commonly found in tlie

443 LALITPUR.

rivers of the District are the rohu, mdhsir, c/iikca, bam, tengra, parhdn,
gauriya, sauri, and mirgal.

History. The earliest inhabitants of Lalitpur whom tradition com-
memorates were the aboriginal tribe of Gonds, traces of whom still
exist in the temples which crown the peaks of the Vindhyan range j
while a remnant of the people themselves is to be found in a few
scattered villages upon its slopes. After the Aryan immigration,
they appear to have adopted a form of the Hindu religion; and
the high civilization which they once attained is attested both by
their architectural works and their splendid irrigation reservoirs. They
were succeeded by the Chandel princes of Mahoba, whose history
has been briefly related in connection with the Districts of Banda
and Hamirpur. After the fall of the Chandels in the end of the
1 2th century, the country became subject to several petty princes,
independent of the Muhammadans at Delhi, till the irruption of
the Bundelas in the 14th century. Those warlike southern adventurers
established themselves first in the District of Jhansi, and gradually
spread their authority over the whole region which still bears their
name.

The modern District of Lalitpur formed part of the Bundela State
of Chanderi, whose Rajas were descendants of the great chieftain
Rudra Pratap. Nine princes of his line reigned in Chanderi from
1602 to 1788, with little interference from the Delhi court, until, in
the time of Ram Chand the ninth, the Marathas, whose interposition
in the affairs of Bundelkhand has been narrated in the article on
Banda, first gained a footing in the principality during the absence of
the Raja on a pilgrimage to Ajodhya. Their authority, however, was
here much less durable than elsewhere, and the son of Ram Chand
was permitted to succeed to the greater portion of his father's dominions
in 1800. Within two years, this prince was murdered at the instigation
of a vassal, and his brother, Miir Pahlad, was placed upon the throne.
He proved a dissolute and inefficient ruler, totally unable to curb his
vassal Thakurs, who, freebooters by training and hereditary disposition,
made constant plundering expeditions into the territories of neighbour-
ing princes, until at last, in 181 1, their incursions on the villages of
Gwalior provoked Sindhia to measures of retaliation. The Maharaja
sent an army to capture Chanderi, under his partisan leader, Colonel
Jean Baptiste; on whose approach, after capturing in succession the
forts of Kotra, Bansi, Rajwara, and Lalitpur, Miir Pahlad fled precipi-
tately to Jhansi, leaving the defence of his capital to his generals. Despite
a determined resistance, Chanderi was captured after a siege of several
weeks through the treachery of one of the Chanderi Thakurs ; and
Talbehat soon afterwards surrendered. Sindhia then assumed the
government, and appointed Colonel Baptiste as its administrator. The

LALITPUR. 449

jagirs were restored to their former owners, 3 1 villages being assigned
for the support of Raja Miir Pahlad.

For fifteen years this arrangement worked smoothly; but in 1829,
the native Bundela turbulence showed itself once more in an insurrec-
tion, headed by the former Raja. Colonel Baptiste again returned ;
and an agreement was entered into by which the Chanderi State was
divided, one-third being retained by Miir Pahlad, and two-thirds falling
to the share of Sindhia. Even in these restricted dominions, Miir
Pahlad continued to have frequent quarrels with his subordinate
chieftains until his death in 1842. He was succeeded by his son,
Mardan Singh. Two years later, after the battle of Maharajpur,
Sindhia ceded to the British Government all his share of the Chanderi
State, as a guarantee for the maintenance of the Gwalior Contingent.

The territory so acquired was formed into a District, under the
stipulation that the sovereignty of the Maharaja and the rights of the
inhabitants should be respected. This arrangement continued in
force until the outbreak of the Mutiny. Murdan Singh, known as
the Raja of Banpur, had for some time considered himself aggrieved by
the withholding of certain honours ; and by his advice, the Bundela
chiefs rose in rebellion in June 1857. The Raja himself occupied the
passes to the south, and entered into communication with the mutineers
at Jhansi. On the 12th of June, the 6th Gwalior Regiment mutinied,
and its officers were forced to fly. Quarrels of the usual type then
broke out between the mutineers and the Raja of Banpur ; but after a
short time, the latter succeeded in making his authority good, and
many native officials in the Government service took posts under him.
The Raja asserted his complete independence, raised revenues in his
own name, extorted money from the trading classes, plundered all who
were supposed to favour the British Government, and established a
cannon factory at Banpur. He even extended his rule into the northern
portions of Sagar (Saugor) District, which he held until the arrival of
Sir Hugh Rose's force in January 1858, when, on being defeated at
Banawadhia, he withdrew into Chanderi territory. On the 3rd of
March 1858, the British army succeeded in forcing the passes leading
into the plains of Lalitpur, and the Raja fell back towards Banpur and
Talbahat. The District was then partially pacified ; but before the
work could be completed, the revolt at Gwalior compelled the with-
drawal of our troops, and the whole Chanderi country fell once more
into the hands of the rebels. It was not till October 1858 that
Lalitpur was finally recovered, and even then only after a desperate
resistance.

Throughout the whole of this troubled period, it is noticeable that
the Bundela Thakurs themselves were in the forefront of disaffection,
revolting long before the mutiny of the troops at Lalitpur, and

VOL. VIII. 2 F

45o LALITPUR.

remaining hostile after the main centres of rebellion had been effectually
reduced. They are in fact a body of half-savage chieftains, accustomed
for centuries to a state of perpetual feud, and little adapted for the
regular industrial life which the Government is endeavouring to render
possible. Since the Mutiny, Lalitpur has been regularly organized as
a British District, and has been free from any of those greater social
disturbances which marked its early history. It has, however, been
subject to the natural calamities of famine and pestilence, which
have combined with the ravages of the Mutiny to impoverish still
further its sterile soil, and to lessen by death or emigration its scanty
population.

Population. — Lalitpur exhibits in the highest degree that decrease of
inhabitants noticeable throughout the whole of Bundelkhand after the
famine of 1868-69. The Census of 1865 gave the total population as
248,146. At the Census of 1872, the numbers had fallen to 212,661,
showing a loss of 35,485 persons, or 14*31 per cent., in seven years.
This large depopulation must be attributed partly to the deaths by
starvation and disease during the famine of 1868-69, but partly, also,
to the exodus of labourers which then took place to more favoured
tracts. Since 1872 the District has been free from serious calamity;
and an increasing population, with extended cultivation, marks a con-
siderable advancement in the former wretched condition of the people.
The Census of 188 1 returned the population at 249,088, or an increase
of 36,427 (i7'i per cent.), showing that the people have now recovered
from the effects of the calamities of 1868-69. There were 750 villages
in the District in 1865, 646 in 1872, and 670 in 1881.

The results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of District, 1947*4 square miles; 670 inhabited and 79
uninhabited villages, and 34,181 occupied houses or enclosures. Total
population, 249,088, namely, males 129,799, and females 119,289;
proportion of males, 52*1 per cent. Children under 15 years of age
— males 51,333, and females 45,304 ; total children, 96,637, or 38-8 per
cent, of population. Adults, males 78,466, and females 73,985 ; total
adults 152,451, or6i-2per cent. Density of population, 128 persons
per square mile ; towns and villages per square mile, "34 ; persons per
village, 371; houses per square mile, 17 '5; persons per house, 7-2.
With regard to religious divisions, Lalitpur District, like the remainder
of Bundelkhand, is essentially Hindu; as many as 233,636, or 9379 per
cent, of the inhabitants, professing some form of Hinduism ; while the
Musalmans number only 5368, or 2T1 percent. The remainder of
the population consists of — Jains, 10,029, or 4'10 Per cent- \ Sikhs, 30;
and Christians, 25.

Of the superior classes of Hindus, the Brahmans number 22,074
persons, and form a large proportion of the cultivators. The Rajputs or

LALITPUR. 45 j

Thakurs number 14,807, amongst whom the Jajhariyas are the most
numerous clan ; but the Bundelas, who still retain much of their old
supremacy, are socially and politically the most important. They were
formerly a turbulent and aggressive race, averse to labour, and living by
plunder. Under British rule, they have settled down into a peaceful
landholding class, and now exist as a sort of feudal nobility. Their
estates have much improved, and are not now heavily mortgaged to
money-lenders as was formerly the case. The trading classes, or Baniyas,
including the Jains, who formerly represented the Vaisya or third class
in the ancient fourfold Hindu social organization, number 12,233 souls>
and they are the most active and money-making class in the Dis-
trict. The purely Hindu Baniyas number 2204. The Kayasths or
writer class, who mostly fill the ranks of the subordinate Government
service, and are also landholders, clerks, etc., number 2449.

The great body of the population belongs to the clans enumerated in
the Census returns as 'other castes.' Of these there are 192,102. The
principal of these ' Siidra ' or low castes, arranged in numerical order,
and not according to social rank, are as follow :— Chamars, leather-
workers and labourers, 29,766 ; Lodhis, landholders and cultivators,
26,122; Kachhis, gardeners, cultivators, and field labourers, 24,045;
Ahirs, cattle-breeders, milk-sellers, and cultivators, 23,978; Kahars,
palanquin-bearers, water-earners, and fishermen, 6256 ; Telis, oil-
makers, 6186; Kiirmis, landholders and cultivators, 6091; Nais,
barbers, 6008 ; Gadarias, sheep and goat breeders and wool-spinners,
5237. The other Hindu castes are all under 5000 in number.

The aboriginal races are represented by a few Gonds in the southern
pargands, and about 11,000 Sahariyas, scattered all over the District
in the thickly wooded tracts. The latter are a very degraded type of
humanity, subsisting till lately on the produce of the jungle, and by
theft, and popularly described as more like monkeys than men. They
have, however, much improved in circumstances of late years. They
profess a low form of Hinduism, and are returned as Hindus in the
Census Report, and in the religious classification given above. The
Muhammadans are, almost without exception, Sunnis by religion, but
as a class they possess neither wealth nor influence. The Christian
population consists of 18 Europeans, 1 Eurasian, and 6 natives.

Town and Rural Population. — Only two towns contain a population
exceeding five thousand inhabitants, namely Lalitpur (10,684) and
Talbahat (5293), making a total urban population of 15,977, or a
fraction less than 6J per cent, of the population of the District.
The villages are mostly very small, and are thinly scattered over the
plain. Very many villages were entirely deserted during the great
famine of 1868-69; ancl although the population has recovered itself
to the number at which it stood prior to that calamity, there were

452 LAL1TPUR.

still 79 villages uninhabited in 1881. The Census Report classifies
the 670 inhabited villages as follows 1—303 with less than two hundred
inhabitants, 229 from two to five hundred, 97 from five hundred to a
thousand, 32 from one to two thousand, 6 from two to three thousand,
1 from three to five thousand, and 2 with upwards of five thousand
inhabitants. In the villages, the houses of the lambarddrs (or headmen)
stand out conspicuously. They are built of small burnt bricks, set in
mud or lime, with an upper storey and a loopholed wall. The
villagers' huts are generally low mud-huts roofed with tiles or thatch,
and plastered with cow-dung ; although of late years, with the returning
prosperity of the country, strongly-built slate and stone houses have
become common. As a rule, the people are now comfortably clothed
and shod, and well fed. Even the wild Sahariyas are able to wear
decent clothing and shoes. The condition of field labourers is
one of comfort, and the demand for labour has increased to such an
extent that farm labourers by means of a strike have been able to
enforce their demand for a payment in kind, of one-fifth and sometimes
even one-fourth of a crop oljoar.

One peculiarity of the District is the number of old forts met with
in every part of the country. These are, for the most part, in ruins ;
those of most importance near towns and villages were dismantled by
Sir Hugh Rose's force in 1858. Many of these were the residences of
robber Thakurs, whose practice of levying black-mail on all passers-by
has only been restrained since the introduction of British rule.
Numerous remains of old temples, the work of the Gonds, are scat-
tered over the south of the District, especially in the neighbourhood
of the Vindhyan hills, where there is an unlimited supply of good
building stone. Modern Jain temples, erected as an act of piety by
the Jain dealers and money-lenders, are common.

Classified according to occupation, the Census Report returned the
male population under the following six main headings: — (1) Profes-
sional, including all Government servants, and the learned professions,
2478; (2) domestic and menial servants, 102; (3) commercial, in-
cluding bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 2744; (4) agricultural, includ-
ing gardeners, herdsmen, and shepherds, 57,911 ; (5) manufacturers
and artisans, 17,783; (6) indefinite and non-productive (comprising
general labourers 5083, male children, etc.), 48,781.

Agriculture. — Out of a total area amounting to 1947 square miles,
only 366 square miles (or less than one-fifth) were under tillage in
1872. By 1883-84, the area under cultivation had increased to 401-8
square miles. The principal crops are wheat, gram, barley, jodr, the
coarser sorts of millet, pulses of various kinds, and other inferior food-
grains, enumerated below. J oar is now the staple crop of the District,
and its production has enormously increased of late years. In 1S77,

LALITPUR. 453

during a local famine in Bhind Bhadawar in Gwalior State, thousands
of the inhabitants passed through this District on their way to Malwa,
purchasing grain by the way. On their return to their own homes,
they apparently reported favourably on the Lalitpur>a>, for since then
many carts come here every year for the grain. To keep pace
with the demand, the area under this crop is steadily increasing, and
even in Districts north of Lalitpur a large area is now sown with jodr
where it was never grown prior to 1877.

Cotton is grown in small quantities sufficient to supply local wants ;
but there is no surplus for export. Every village has a few small fields
of tobacco, but vegetables are rarely cultivated, and garden produce is
very scanty. Betel gardens occupy a small area ; the produce of the
Pali gardens is renowned, and it forms a considerable item of export.
Two varieties of wheat (gehan) are grown ; one sort is grown in black
alluvial soil known as moti with irrigation; and a smaller variety (pisiyd)
is grown in light irrigated soil. Sugar-cane of three varieties is grown,
but in very small quantities, and its cultivation is principally confined to
pargand Banpur.

The crops are almost entirely dependent upon the rainfall, except
on the soil known as moti. Accordingly, the rabi or spring harvest,
locally called unhdri, is very small, amounting to only 24 J per cent,
of the total out-turn ; while the kharif or autumn harvest, locally
called saydri, yields 75 h per cent. The total area under kharif crops
in 1883, was 245,202 acres, and rabi, 79,102 acres; grand total,
324,304 acres, or 505*5 square miles. This, however, includes lands
bearing two crops in the year, the area of which is counted twice over.
The acreage under the principal crops in 1883 was returned as follows :
— Kharif— jodr (Sorghum vulgare), 78,109 acres; maize, 9644; rice,
10,802; urd or mung (Phaseolus mungo), 7744; kodon (Paspalum
scrobiculatum), 37,616; rati (Panicum miliaceum), 22,600; kutki,
(Panicum miliare), 16,551; phikar, 8129; sawdn (Panicum frumen-
taceum), 5769 ; cotton, 2846 ; and al dye, 42,408 acres. Rabi — wheat,
38,655 acres; wheat, mixed with barley or gram, 15,279; gram,
20,322 ; and masuri (Ervum lens), 2062 acres.

Irrigation is little practised, not more than one-tenth of the cul-
tivated area being artificially watered. Irrigation is carried on by
means of wells fitted with the Persian wheel ; by means of small
canoes hollowed out of trunks of trees, weighted at one end, and
worked by men at the other; also from tanks chiefly in the north
of the District. The total irrigated area was returned at 22,222
acres in 1867, and 31,105 acres in 1883. On the red soil of the hilly
tract no cold-weather crops can be grown at all without artificial water-
supply ; yet the people are very slow to avail themselves even of exist-
ing advantages. Rotation of crops is almost unknown, but land lies

454 LALITPUR.

fallow for long periods, except where the rich black moti soil prevails.
Manuring is generally practised in the case of all the more important
products. Lalitpur has not escaped the common plague of kdns grass,
which throughout all Bundelkhand has thrown many villages out of
cultivation.

Ten acres form the average farm held with rights of occupancy,
and seven acres the ordinary holding of a tenant-at-will. The latter,
who form the most numerous class, are almost without exception in
debt to the village banker. The total adult agricultural population
(male and female) was returned by the Census of 1881 at 98,360,
consisting of 2793 landholders, 75,346 cultivators, and 20,221
agricultural labourers and others. The total population, however,
dependent on the soil was 165,197, or 66-32 per cent, of the
entire inhabitants of the District. Of the total area of Lalitpur,
1947 square miles, 403 square miles are held revenue free, leaving
1544 square miles assessed for Government revenue. Of the assessed
area, 402 square miles are returned as under cultivation, 835 square
miles as cultivable but not under tillage, and 307 square miles as
uncultivable waste. Total Government assessment, including local
rates and cesses, ;£i 7,557, or an average of is. 4d. per cultivated
acre. Total rental, including rates and cesses (expressed in a money
value), paid by the cultivators, ^34,029, or an average of 2s. 3^d. per
cultivated acre.

Rents are usually fixed in proportion to the crops. The average
rates (expressed in money) are — for irrigated black soil, on two-
crop lands, 8s. — on one-crop lands, 6s. ; for irrigated red soil on
two-crop lands, 6s. — on one-crop lands, 5s.; for unirrigated soil,
black, 3s. 6d. — mixed, 2s. 6d. — red, is. 3d. The labourers belong to
all castes, and are generally paid in grain. Non-agricultural wages are
reported as follows : — Coolies, i^d. to 3d. per diem : — smiths, car-
penters, masons, tailors, etc. — first-class, 6d. ; second-class, 4^d.
Lalitpur has not participated in the general rise of wages which has
taken place throughout the greater part of Bundelkhand during the
last twenty years, these rates being the same as those current in 1858 ;
the exception is probably owing to the remoteness of the District,
which has been little affected by the development of the railway system.
Prices, however, have nearly doubled during the same period. The
following were the average current rates of food-grains in 1883 : — Com-
mon rice, 15 sers per rupee, or 7s. 6d. per cwt. ; wheat, 20J sers per
rupee, or 5s. 5d. per cwt. ; gram and Jodr, 36 sers per rupee, or 3s. id.
per cwt. ; bdjra, 28 sers per rupee, or 4s. per cwt.

Natural Calamities. — Lalitpur is subject to loss of crops from blight,
hailstorms, and the ravages of locusts ; but its principal enemy is
drought, to which the great famine of 1868-69 was mainly due. The

LALITPUR. 455

kkarif or autumn crop of 1S6S failed almost entirely, through long-
continued want of rain; and the rabi or spring harvest of 1869 pro-
duced only half its usual amount. Relief measures were commenced
in August 1868 ; and during the next thirteen months an average number
°f 5599 persons were daily assisted with work, while 2781 persons
received gratuitous relief at poorhouses. In February 1869, the total
daily average of persons relieved was over 20,000. The maximum
price of wheat and gram during the dearth was 7 sers the rupee, or
about 1 6s. per cwt. Epidemics, as usual, followed in the wake of
famine; cholera broke out in June 1869, and raged amongst the debili-
tated and starving people during the rainy season. Every effort was
made to prevent actual starvation; yet 500 deaths were reported as due
to that cause ; and there can be little doubt that these figures do not
by any means represent the real numbers. The total loss of inhabitants
by death and emigration was enormous. As much as 76 per cent of
the people relieved were women and children, the majority of whom
belonged to families whose male members had deserted them and gone
off elsewhere as soon as the failure of the crops was generally anticipated.
Even after the famine abated, distress continued for a considerable
period, as there were not enough cultivators left to till the ground, and
41 per cent, of the cattle had been lost, 95,543 head out of a total stock
amounting to 233,047 having died from starvation or other causes.
Government endeavoured to alleviate these calamities by large advances
for the purpose of buying seed and beasts ; but much of the money so
granted was really spent upon food to supply existing necessities, and
a considerable period elapsed before the land was restored to cultivation.
The communications are insufficient to avert actual famine, and many
portions of the District are in danger of isolation from floods. On the
whole, in all seasons of scarcity the condition of Lalitpur must be
considered specially critical.

Commerce and Trade. — Until recently the foodstuffs raised in Lalit-
pur were only just sufficient even in favourable seasons to satisfy the
home consumption, and there was but little export trade ; while in times of
scarcity it became necessary to import considerable quantities of grain.
The regular commerce was very small ; the only out-going products
being betel-leaves, clarified butter (g/u), lac, honey, wax, and forest pro-
duce ; and the imported articles being chiefly salt, grain, sugar, cloth, and
tobacco. As explained, however, on a previous page, a great extension
of jodr cultivation has taken place since 1877, and large exports of this
grain take place every year, principally into Gwalior territory. The
manufactures are unimportant, and belong entirely to the domestic type.
The District is still remote from all portions of the railway system.
There is one good through road, metalled throughout between JhaVisi
and Sagar (Saugor), known as the Bundelkhand road, having a length of

456 LALITPUR.

57 miles within this District. The other roads are unmetalled, and
in many cases unbridged, so that communications are often rendered
impossible after heavy rains. The total length of roads in the District
in 1883 was 460 miles. There are no railroads or navigable rivers.
The District does not contain any noticeable institution, and there are
no newspapers or printing-presses.

Administration. — In 1 860-61, the total revenue amounted to ^3 1,03 1,
of which ^"14,513, or nearly one-half, was contributed by the land-tax.
The expenditure at the same date was ;£ 15,808. By 1870-71 the
total receipts had increased to ,£34*677, of which ^"14,881 was made
up by land revenue; while the expenditure had decreased to ^"10,321,
or less than one-third of the receipts. The retrenchment was mainly
effected in the items of Justice and Police. In 1881-82 the total receipts
amounted to ^"40,370, of which ;£ 15,047 was made up by land revenue.
The expenditure for the same year was ,£19,055. Lalitpur suffered, like
other neighbouring Districts, from over-assessment during the native
period ; and the rates continued high before the Mutiny ; but at present
a much lighter settlement has been introduced, which will remain in
force till 1888.

Lalitpur District is administered, on the non-regulation system, by a
Deputy Commissioner, 1 Assistant, and 1 extra-Assistant Commissioner,
and 2 tahsilddrs. In 1883 they presided over 5 magisterial and 5
civil courts. There are 18 police stations, and the regular District and
town police force numbered 421 men, maintained at a cost of ^4717,
almost entirely from imperial funds. Besides these, the District contains
484 village watchmen (chaukiddrs), or 1 to every 514 inhabitants; annual
cost of maintenance, ^1750. The total machinery for the protection
of person and property accordingly consists of 905 men, giving 1 man
to every 2*15 square miles and to every 275 of the population. The
number of convictions for all offences in 1883 amounted to 529, or
1 in every 470 inhabitants. The Sahariyas, a class of professional
thieves recruited from various low castes, well known to the police
throughout India, are numerous in the District, and cause much trouble.
These people originally came from the country in the neighbourhood of
Delhi, and settled down in Bundelkhand, Gwalior State, and the
neighbouring Districts of the Central Provinces many years ago. They
are a wandering gang of persons associated for the pupose of committing
thefts, which they carry out at a distance from their homes, notably in
Gujarat (Guzerat) and the Bombay Districts. In 1883 the jail con-
tained a daily average of 75 inmates, the total number of admissions
during the year being 369.

Education during the last few years has not only failed to make
any progress in Lalitpur, but has retrograded. In i860 there were
27 inspected schools, attended by 677 pupils, and maintained at

LAL1TPUR TAHSIL. 457

a cost of ^182; by 1870 the number of schools had risen to 39, and
that of pupils to 1254, while ^"613 was expended on instruction. In
1883-84, however, the number of State-inspected schools was returned
at only 28, attended by 975 pupils, the cost of State education being
^516. This is exclusive of uninspected and unaided schools; but
the Census of 1881 returned only 1247 boys and 15 girls as under
instruction, besides 5563 males and 43 females able to read and write,
but not under instruction.

The District is divided into 2 tahsils and 7 pargands. The number
of revenue-paying estates in 187 1 was 641, owned by 4946 registered
proprietors or coparceners, and paying a revenue of ,£14,881; each
estate accordingly bore an average burden of £"21, 18s., and each
coparcener contributed an average share of £2, 16s. Sub-division
of property has slightly increased of late years, and in 1881-82 there
were 654 separate estates, owned by 5295 proprietors and coparceners;
each estate paying an average of ^22, 10s., and each individual pro-
prietor an average of £2, 9s. 6d. The District contains only 1 muni-
cipality, Lalitpur town. In 1883-84, its total income amounted to
^1114, and its expenditure to ^871. The incidence of municipal
taxation was at the rate of is. 7 Jd. per head of population.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of Lalitpur is distinguished by a
continuous heat, though the extremes of temperature are not so marked
as in the Upper Provinces, or even in neighbouring Districts, and the
cold weather is bracing. The annual rainfall averages 38*16 inches; in
1867-68 it rose as high as 59-8 inches, while in the disastrous season of
1868-69 it fell to 13*0 inches. In 1881 the rainfall was 37*58 inches,
or 0*58 of an inch below the average. No thermometrical returns
are available. The total number of deaths reported in 1883 amounted
to 6825, or 27*43 to every 1000 inhabitants, of which one -fourth
(1553) were assigned to fever. Snake-bites and the attacks of wild
animals are set down as causing 89 deaths in 1883. The average
death-rate for the previous five years is returned as 34*55 per thousand.
Cattle-disease occurs yearly in a mild form ; and rinderpest, combined
with foot-and-mouth disease, appeared as an epidemic in 1871. The
natives consider it inevitable, and take no measures for its suppression.

[For further information regarding Lalitpur, see the Gazetteer of the
North- Western Provinces, by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, C.S., vol. i. pp. 304-
360 (Government Press, Allahabad, 1874); the Settlement Report of
Lalitpur District, by Colonel J. Davidson (1873); the Census Report of
the North-Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881 ; and the several
Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports from 1880 to
1884.]

Lalitpur. — Western tahsil of Lalitpur District, North - Western
Provinces, consisting of the parga/tds of Lalitpur, Bansi, Talbehat, and

458 LALITPUR TOWN— LALMAI HILLS.

Balabehat. Area, 1059 square miles, of which only 234 square miles
were cultivated in 1881. Population (1872) 118,997; (1881) 138,516,
namely, males 72,606, and females 65,910. Total increase of population
during the nine years, 19,519, or 16*4 per cent. Classified according to
religion, there were in 1881— Hindus, 129,776; Muhammadans, 3374;
Jains, 5324; and 'others,' 42. Of the 376 villages comprising the
tahsil, 301 contained less than five hundred inhabitants. Land revenue
(1881), ^7614; total Government revenue, including local rates and
cesses levied on land, ^9315; rental paid by cultivators, ^17,451.
Excluding the head-quarters courts, the tahsil contains 1 civil and 1
criminal court. Number of police stations {thdnds\ 10, besides 3 out-
post stations. Strength of regular police, 120 men, with 242 village
watchmen (chaukiddrs).

Lalitpur. — Town, municipality, and administrative head- quarters of
Lalitpur District, North- Western Provinces. Lat. 240 41' 30" n., long.
780 27' 50" e. Situated on the Jhansi and Sagar (Saugor) road, close
to the west bank of the Sahjad Nadi. Many of the inhabitants are
agriculturists. Population (1872) 8976; (1881) 10,684, namely, males
5655, and females 5029. Classified according to religion, there were in
1881 — Hindus, 8256; Muhammadans, 1323; Jains, 1072; Christians,
n; and 'others,' 22. Area of town site, 1015 acres. Well-built, white-
washed masonry houses give picturesqueness to the main streets; but
the side streets consist of mere tortuous alleys. An excellent modern
bazar, built by a late Government officer, forms a good centre for the
town. Buddhist remains are built into the walls. Tahsili, jail, police
station, Government charitable dispensary. For Mutiny narrative, see
Lalitpur District. Municipal revenue in 1883-84,^1114, of which
^839 was from octroi; average incidence of taxation, is. 7^d. per head
of population within municipal limits.

Lalmai Hills. — A low range in Hill Tipperah District, Bengal, nowhere
exceeding 100 feet in height ; about 5 miles west of Comillah (Kumilla).
The range extends 10 miles north and south, with an average breadth
of about 2 miles. Densely wooded, and cultivated by the Tipperahs
on the jum system of nomadic tillage. Brown iron - ore (hydrated
sesquioxide) is found, but not abundantly, which yields i,Sh per cent, of
iron. Silver ore in small quantities has recently been found, but it is not
probable that it can be worked at a profit. The Rajd of Tipperah, to
whom the Lalmai with the Maynamati Hills were sold for £2 100 by the
British Government, has built a house for the use of Europeans on the
highest elevation, known as the Maynamati Hill. An old fort, with
statues and bas-reliefs, was found buried in the jungle. The snake
figures in the sculptures, and the presence of the pig, indicate an
aboriginal or non-Hindu origin. The range takes its name from a
princess, Lalmai, of the royal house of Tipperah.

LALSOT—LANDI KHANA. 459

Lalsot. — Town in Dausa District, Jaipur (Jeypore) State, Rajputana,
situated about 40 miles south of Jaipur city. Population (1881) 8743.
Hindus number 8046; Muhammadans, 506; 'others,' 191.

Lambia. — Mountain pass in Bashahr State, Punjab, over the
Himalayan range bounding Kunawar to the south. Seldom used, on
account of the cracks and sinking snow, except during the summer
months. Lat., according to Thornton, 310 16' N., long. 780 20' e. ;
elevation above sea-level, about 17,000 feet.

Landaur (Landour). — Hill cantonment and sanitarium in Dehra
Dun District, North- Western Provinces. It forms at present a single town
with Mussooree (Masuri), but with distinct jurisdiction, which is vested
in the cantonment magistrate. Lat. 300 27' 30" n., long. 780 8' 30" E. ;
situated on the slopes of the Himalayas, 7459 feet above sea-level. A
convalescent station for European soldiers was established in 1827, the
average number of invalids being about 300 in the summer, and 100
in the winter months. The staff comprises a commandant, surgeon,
and station staff officer. The united towns of Landaur and Mussooree
have a permanent Anglo-Indian population of 408 persons, according
to the Census of 1881, largely increased by the influx of visitors from
the plains during the hot season. A special Census taken in 1880 in
September, when the population is at its height, returned the inhabitants
of Landaur cantonment at 4428, namely, Hindus, 2244 ; Muhammadans,
1457; Europeans, 679; Eurasians, 38; Native Christians, 6; and
' others,' 4. Landaur with Mussooree contains two Protestant and one
Roman Catholic church, post-office, several hotels, numerous schools,
and boarding-houses. For further details, see Mussooree.

Landaura. — Town in Riirki (Roorkee) tahsil, Saharanpur District,
North-Western Provinces, situated on the open plain, 5 miles south-east
of Rurki, and 28 miles east of Saharanpur town, in lat. 290 48' n., and
long. 770 58' 15" e. Population (1872) 5023; (1881) 5764, namely,
Hindus, 3731; and Muhammadans, 1833. Village school ; post-office;
old fort, surrounded by a ditch, now converted into a receptacle for the
sewage of the town. The inhabitants are chiefly Giijars, clansmen of the
notorious chieftain Raja Ramdayal Singh. The village was burnt for
excesses committed during the Mutiny.

Landi Khana. — The most difficult part of the Afghan end of the
Khaibar Pass, Afghanistan; about 23 miles distant from Kadam, the
eastern entrance, and about 7 miles from the western entrance. Eleva-
tion of Landi Khana village (lat. 340 3' n., long. 710 3' e.), 2488 feet ;
highest point of the pass, the Landi Kotal or fort, 3373 feet. Landi
Kotal is one of the principal stages in the pass, and has been used as a
halting-place for the different British forces when passing through
the Khdibar. The sarai, or camping ground for travellers and caravans,
at Landi Kotal is protected by a low rampart and ditch. A body of

46o LANGAF—LANGULIYA.

the Irregular Levies, raised from the tribes of the pass, and under the
direction of the British Political Officer in charge of the Khaibar, is now
(1885) stationed at Landi Kotal. Just beyond Landi Kotal rises the]
peak popularly known as Pisgah, whence the British officers who held
Landi Kotal during the late Afghan war were wont to survey the plains 1
of Afghanistan as far as Jalalabad. Shortly beyond Landi Kotal,
the Pass narrows to the gorge of Landi Khana; and a few miles
further it debouches on the open country of Afghanistan. Caravans
entering the pass give up their Afghan escort, and are taken I
charge of by the Irregular Levies under British control, near Landi
Khana.

Langai.— River in the south-east of Sylhet District, Assam, which I
rises beyond the frontier, and, flowing northwards, forms the boundary |
between the Lushai hills and the State of Hill Tipperah. It ultimately I
falls into the Kusiara branch of the Surma or Barak near the village
of Karimganj. It is navigable for large boats in the rains, but in
the cold season for only small boats. On its banks are forests of
jarul (Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae) and ndgeswar (Mesua ferrea), forming
the most important forest reserve in Sylhet. The Langai has also given I
its name to a valuable elephant mahdl or hunting-ground, reserved for |
the operations of the Commissariat khedd.

Langrin (or Lang-Hn). — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam,
presided over by a siem or chief called U Bor. Population (1881)
1 152 ; revenue, ^176, chiefly derived from dues levied on lime. The
products are rice, millet, chillies, turmeric ; limestone is largely quarried,
and coal has been found.

Langtarai (or more probably Laktrdi, the name of a god of the hill
people).— Hill range in the State of Hill Tipperah, Bengal ; runs through
the State in a northerly direction, gradually disappearing in the plains
of Sylhet. The principal peaks are — Pheng Pui, 158 1 ; and Sim Basia,
1544 feet. These hills, like the other Tipperah ranges, are covered
with dense bamboo jungle and huge forest timber.

Langliliya (Langala, Sanskrit; Ndgula, Telugu — 'a plough'). —
River formed by the junction of three streams rising in the Gondwana
mountains, near Kalahandi, Central Provinces. It flows south-east
across the territory of Jaipur (Jeypore), into the plains of the Madras
Presidency. In the last 30 miles of its course, the Langliliya forms the
boundary between Vizagapatam and Ganjam Districts, entering the sea
below Chicacole (in the latter District), where it is crossed by the Great
Trunk Road on a fine bridge of 24 arches, much injured by the cyclone of
1876. The whole course of the river is about 140 miles ; and on its
banks are the towns of Singapiir, Birada, and Rayagadda in Jaipur, and
Parvatipiir, Palkonda, and Chicacole in the plains. Its principal tribu-
taries are the Salur and Makkuva. The Langliliya irrigates the Palkonda

LANG UR—LARA J I AR. 46 T

division of the Chicacole taluk, and part of the Saliir and Bobbili estates.
Its rapid current makes navigation difficult, but during the floods
bamboos are floated down from the hill forests.

Langur. — Ruined hill fort in Garhwal District, North-Western
Provinces ; situated in lat. 290 55' n., and long. 780 40' e., on a conical
hill forming part of one of the southern Himalayan ranges. Very
difficult of access, and, from a military point of view, quite valueless,
there being no water. Elevation above sea, 6401 feet.

Lanji. — Town in Burha tahsil, Balaghat District, Central Provinces ;
40 miles east of Burha town. Lat. 210 30' n., long. 8o° 35' e. Lying in
low ground dotted with tanks, and bounded on the north by dense jungle,
in which stands an old temple dedicated to Mahadeva, surrounded
apparently by the remains of the original town. The fort, now out of
repair, but once a strong place, was probably constructed by the Gonds,
circa 1700. On the edge of the moat round it, a temple has been built
to Lanjkai (the goddess Kali), from whom the town takes its name.
Population (1881) 2240, namely, Hindus, 1990; Muhammadans, 151 ;
Jain, 1 ; and aboriginal tribes, 98. Lanji has a good Government
school, and a police station \ and the District post connects it with the
imperial postal lines.

Lao-bah. — Mountain range in the District of the Khasi and Jaintia
Hills, Assam ; elevation of highest peak above sea-level, 4464 feet

Lao-ber-sat. — Mountain range in the District of the Khasi and
Jaintia Hills, Assam ; elevation of highest peak above sea-level, 5400
feet.

Lao-syn-nia. — Mountain range in the District of the Khasi and Jaintia
Hills, Assam; elevation of highest peak above sea-level, 5775 feet.

Lapha. — Zamindari estate in the north of Bildspur District, Central
Provinces, said to date from 936 a.d. Area, 272 square miles, with
72 villages and 2024 houses. Population (1881) 12,252, namely,
males 6421, and females 5831. Of the total area, only about 12,000
acres, or about 20 square miles, are cultivated. The zaminddr is a
Kunwar by caste.

Laphagarh. — Hill fortress in Bilaspur District, Central Provinces ;
25 miles north of Bilaspur town. Lat. 260 41' n., long. 910 9' e.
Crowning the Lapha Hill, which rises 3200 feet above sea-level, with
an open area on the top of 3 square miles, now overgrown with under-
wood. On this cool and pleasant plateau the Haihai Bansi rulers of
Chhattisgarh had one of their earliest seats, till they left, over a
thousand years ago, for their capital of Ratanpur. Much of the fort
wall, constructed of large slabs of hewn stone, still remains in excellent
preservation.

Larawar. — Pargd?ia in the Sundarsi division of the States of Dhar
and Dewas, under the Bhopal Agency, Central India. Area, 30 square

462 LARKHANA.

miles; estimated population (1881) 3000; estimated revenue, ^700.
This pargdna, comprising 6 villages, was held mjdgir by Ram Chandra
Rao Puar ; on whose death in 1880 it lapsed to the above-named States.
His nephew, Vithal Rao Puar, receives a subsistence allowance of
^20 a month, viz. £16, 13s. from Dhar, and £$, 7s. from Dewas.

Larkhana. — Sub-division of Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency, lying between lat. 27° 16' 30" and 280 4 30" N., and between long.
670 15' and 68° 32' 30" e. In 1881 this Sub-division comprised five
taluks, namely, Larkhana, Labdarya, Kambar, Rato Dero, and Sijawal.
Since then Government has sanctioned the formation of a new taluk,
to be formed of part of the taluks of Rato Dero, Sijawal, and Kambar.
The new taluk is to he named Shahdadpur, and to form part of the
Upper Sind Frontier District. The following paragraphs treat of
Larkhana Sub-division as it stood before these transfeis took place.

Area, 1894 square miles. Population (1881) 281,717. Bounded on
the north by the Frontier District and the territory of the Khan of
Khelat ; east by the Indus and the Sukkur (Sakhar) and Shikarpur Sub-
division ; south and west by Mehar, Khelat, and the Khirthar range.
With the exception of the western portion, which borders on the Khir-
thar Mountains, the general aspect of the country is singularly flat and
uninteresting. Those parts of Larkhana lying between the Indus and
the western Nara, and again between the latter stream and the Ghar
Canal, are one dead level of rich alluvial soil, well cultivated, and,
on the whole, thickly populated. They form one of the most typical
examples of high-class cultivation in Sind. In other parts of the
Sub -division stretch vast plains of kalar or saline soil, while in
the vicinity of the Indus broken patches of sandy waste or low
jungles of tamarisk and babul occur. Canals are numerous, and
afford great facilities for irrigation. The principal Government
canals in the Sub-division are the Western Nara, 30 miles long, and
100 feet wide at its mouth; the Ghar, 22 miles long and 80 feet
wide; the Naurang, a continuation of the Ghar canal, 21 miles long
and 90 feet wide; the Bire-ji-kiir, 27 miles long and 48 feet wide;
and the Edenwah, 23 miles long. Of the zam'mddri or private canals,
the Shah-ji-kur and Date-ji-kiir, both 22 miles long, and the Mir, 20
miles long, are the most important. The Western Nara, navigable by
boats from May to September, is very tortuous in its course, and may
be regarded as a river artificially improved. After flowing through
portions of the Larkhana, Rato Dero, and Labdarya taluks, it enters
the Mehar Sub-division, and falls eventually into the Manchhar Lake.
The Ghar, which is also supposed to be a natural channel, is very
winding, broad, and deep, with level banks. It flows through the
Larkhana and Rato Dero taluks, and enters Mehar by the Nasirabad
taluk. The Government forests in Larkhana cover an area of from

LARKHANA. 463

9000 to 10,000 acres. The chief trees are the nim, si'sst/, babul, pipal,
and karil. The tamarisk is occasionally met with of a large growth ; it
is very plentiful, and valuable as firewood. The principal minerals are
coarse salt and saltpetre. Alum and sulphur occur in the hills to the
west. The wild animals include the tiger, hog, antelope, hyaena, jackal,
wolf, fox, porcupine, and ibex.

Population. — The total population of Larkhana Sub-division was
returned in 1856 at 148,903 ; by 1872, the number of inhabitants had
risen to 234,575, of whom 202,008 were Muhammadans, 32,381 Hindus,
and 186 of other nationalities. In 1881, the number of inhabitants
was returned at 281,717, namely, 152,512 males and 129,205 females,
dwelling in 433 villages and 3 towns, and occupying 40,516 houses.
Muhammadans numbered 243,664; Hindus, 14,649; Sikhs, 23,242;
aboriginal tribes, 126; Christians, 24; Buddhists, 6; Parsis, 5; and
Jews, 1. Density of population, 149 persons per square mile. The
chief Musalman tribes are the Chandias, Jamalis, Abras, and Jats. It is
from the first that this part of the country obtained the name of Chan-
duka or Chandko. The Jamalis are a Baluch race living on the borders
of the desert ; the Abras inhabit the south-west of Larkhana ; the Jats
are found dispersed all over the Sub-division, and are mainly cultivators
and cattle-breeders. The chief towns are Larkhana (the head-
quarters), Rato Dero, and Kambar. Among the few antiquities of
Larkhana, the principal are the old fort in Larkhana town, the tomb of
Shahal Muhammad Kalhora (built about 150 years ago), and of his
minister Shah Baharah. Shahal Muhammad was the grandson of Adam
Shah, the celebrated fakir (religious mendicant), whose descendants
eventually became monarchs of Sind.

Agriculture. — Larkhana contains a portion of one of the finest alluvial
tracts in the whole Province, viz. that lying between the Indus, the
Kara, and the Ghar. There is, perhaps, no part of Sind so admirably
suited for irrigation ; and the soil is so productive as to have procured
for this tract the name of the ' Garden of Sind.' Three principal crops
are raised during the year, viz. — pes/iras, sown in March and reaped in
July ; kharif sown in June and July, and reaped in November and
December ; and rabi, sown in September and October, and reaped in
April and May. The peshras crop includes cotton, sugar-cane, and
vegetables ; the kharif— joar, bdjra, til, rice, indigo, pulses, and hemp ;
the rabi — wheat, barley, oil-seeds, gram, peas, and tobacco. Mangoes,
plantains, dates, limes, pomegranates, and other fruits are grown exten-
sively. The first revenue settlement of the Sub-division was made by
Major Goldney, in 1847 ; it was for seven years, and expired in 1853-54.
The rates were heavy, rabi land being assessed as high as 5 rupees 1
anna (10s. ijd.) per acre, and kha r if and pes lira s lands at 3 rupees 1
anna (6s. ijd.). In 1S55-56, the rates in Larkhana and Kambar taluks

464 LARKHAXA.

were reduced according as the cultivation was by wheel or well. The •
average rate on assessed cultivable land in Larkhana is now 2s. 6y\d.
per acre. In 1882-83, the area assessed to land revenue was 352,205
acres ; and the area under actual cultivation was 306,467 acres.

Tenures.— Before the conquest of Sind by the British in 1843, this
part of the Province was known as the Chandko pargand, and the
ownership of the entire lands in each village seems then to have been
vested in the zaminddrs and their heirs in perpetuity. They cultivated
a portion themselves, leaving the rest to men who appear to have
possessed a hereditary right to occupy, as the lands could not be taken
from them at pleasure ; but they paid Idpo, or rent, to the zawinddr,
generally in kind, at so many kdsas per bighd. Besides this there was
a fee called wdjah zaminddri, claimed by the head-man, and leviable
on the produce of the lands. When a portion of the land was sold, the
purchaser became entitled to the Idpo, but the wdjah was still given to
the head-man. The zaminddr, in fact, only transacted business with
Government or the contractor, and he made his own collections from
the tenants. The villagers paid him great respect, and his advice was
generally acted upon in all the agricultural affairs of the community.
The jdgir land in this Sub-division, cultivable and uncultivable, com-
prises in all about 84,000 acres, of which Ghaibi Khan Chandia's estate
in the Kambar tdluk takes up 75,966 acres.

Natural Calamities. — Larkhana is subject to floods or lets, which at
times cause great destruction to life and property. In 1874, the Kash-
mor let, starting from the town of the same name in the Frontier
District, conjointly with the Jhali let, originating in the Sukkur and
Shikarpur Sub-division, inundated nearly 100.000 acres of waste and
cultivated land, besides destroying in a greater or less degree 53
villages. Strong embankments or bandhs have been raised, but hitherto
without any permanent effect.

Manufactures, etc. — The manufactures of Larkhana consist principally
of coarse cotton cloth, salt, paper ; working in metals, such as culinary
utensils, etc. ; shoes, native saddles, and other leather work. There is
also a small paper manufactory at the town of Larkhana. Dyeing forms
an important industry. The Sub-division carries on an extensive trade.
The exports comprise grain of sorts, wool, cotton, and other agricultural
products ; the imports — English piece-goods, silks, and fruits. Larkhana
town is one of the chief grain marts of Sind. The total length of roads
in the Sub-division is above 400 miles. The main road is that from
Larkhana to Shikarpur, southwards to Mehar. There are 17 ferries,
most of which cross the Indus or the West Nara Canal. Post-offices at
the towns of Larkhana, Kambar, and Rato Dero.

The revenue of the Sub-division in 1881-82 was ,£93,709; being
,£S8,ii2 imperial, and £sS91 Jocal, derived from the following

LARKHANA TALUK— LA SHKARPUR. 465

sources :— Imperial — land-tax, ^80,772; abkdri or excise, ^2510;
drugs and opium, ^1070 ; stamps, ^3274; registration, ^381 : Local
— cesses on land, ^5019 ; percentage on alienated lands, ^46; ferry
funds, ^125 ; fisheries, ^378 ; fees and licences, £ig. There are 3
municipalities in Larkhana, viz. Larkhana, Rato Uero, and Kambar,
with a total revenue in 1881-82 of ^"3322. Dispensary at Larkhana
town. The number of Government schools in 1882 was 22, with 934
pupils. In 1884 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 9 criminal
courts; police stations (thdnds), 20; regular police, 154 men.

The average annual rainfall at Larkhana is returned at 5*17 inches.
Fevers, rheumatism, and ophthalmia are prevalent.

Larkhana. — Taluk of Larkhana Sub-division, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency. Area, 290*6 square miles. Population (18S1) 97,140, namely,
52,796 males and 44,344 females, dwelling in 75 villages and towns,
and occupying 13,378 houses. Muhammadans numbered 82,341 ;
Hindus, 5579; Sikhs, 9208; Christians, 7; Jews, 1; and Parsis, 5.
The area assessed to land revenue in 1882-83, 94,012 acres; area
under actual cultivation, 90,717 acres. Revenue in 1881-82, ^£41,450,
being ^39,104 imperial and ^2346 local. In 1884, the taluk
contained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts, 5 police stations (thdnds),
and 58 regular police.

Larkhana. — Chief town and municipality of the Larkhana Sub-
division, Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. Situated in lat.
2 70 33' n., and long. 68° 15' e., on the south bank of the Ghar Canal ;
40 miles south-west of Shikarpur town, and ^6 north-east of Mehar.
The country surrounding Larkhana is fertile and populous, and perhaps
the finest tract in the whole of Sind. The spacious walks, well laid-out
gardens, and luxuriant foliage, have gained for Larkhana the title of the
'Eden of Sind.' The principal buildings are the civil court, and the
usual public offices, Assistant Collector's and travellers' bungalows,
dispensary, 3 bazars. In the time of the Talpur Mirs the fort served
as an arsenal, and afterwards, under British rule, it was turned into an
hospital and jail. The population in 1881 was returned at 13,188,
namely, 7155 males and 6033 females. Muhammadans numbered
7402; Hindus, 1699; Parsis, 5; Christians, 2; and 'others,' 40S0.
Larkhana is one of the most important grain marts of Sind, and is
famous for a species of rice called sugddsi. Large local traffic in metals,
cloth, and leather. The principal manufactures are cloth of mixed
silk and cotton, coarse cotton cloth, metal vessels, and leather goods.
The antiquities consist of the old fort already mentioned, and
the tomb of Shah Baharah. The income of the municipality in
1882-83 was ^£2230 ; and the incidence of taxation, 2s. 5 jd. per head
of population.

Lashkarpur.— Village in the south-west of Sylhet District, Assam,

VOL. VIII. 2 G

466

LASWARI— LATHI.

on the Kwahi river. Lat 24° 16' 25" n., long. 91° 30' 3°" e. The
village is celebrated for several handicrafts. A little colony of Musal-
mans manufacture talwdrs or swords, and ddos or hill knives, skilfully
damascening the blades with silver and brass. In the neighbourhood,
lac is collected from the branches of trees of the fig order, and worked
up into a variety of elegant articles known as pukdld work. In some
cases, the lac is tastefully inlaid with the blue feathers of the king-
fisher, and with talc. Bracelets are also made of lac by Muhammadan

women.

Laswari (or Ndswdri).— Village in Alwar (Ulwar) State, Rajputana.

Lat. 2 70 ^ 30" n., long. 760 54' 45" e. ; situated 8 miles south-east of

Ramgarh and about 20 miles south-east of Alwar city. Famous as

the scene of the great battle of the 1st November 1803, which

destroyed the Maratha power in India. The battle is thus described

by Marshman: — 'He (Lord Lake) had received an unfounded

report that the Maratha army was endeavouring to avoid him, and,

with his usual impetuosity, started at midnight in search of it

with his cavalry alone, leaving orders for the infantry to follow.

He came up with the encampment of the enemy at daybreak on the

1 st November, at the village of Laswari, and found them, as usual,

entrenched in a formidable position, with their guns drawn up in the

front. The general led his cavalry up in person to the attack ; a fearful

discharge of grape and double-headed shot mowed down column after

column, and rendered the fiery valour of the troops useless. To

prevent their utter extinction, the general was obliged to withdraw

them from the conflict, to await the arrival of the infantry, who had

marched 65 miles in the preceding forty-eight hours, and 25 miles

since midnight. After a brief rest and a hasty meal, they were launched

on the enemy's guns and battalions. The engagement was the severest

in which the Company's troops had ever been engaged, not excepting

that of Assaye. Sindhia's Sepoys fought as natives had never fought

before. They defended their position to the last extremity, contesting

every point inch by inch, and refusing to give way while a single gun

remained in their possession. But they were at length overpowered,

and lost their ammunition and camp equipage, together with 71 pieces

of cannon. It was even reported that one-half their number was left

on the field, killed or wounded. On the British side, the casualties

amounted to 824, one-fourth of which belonged to the 76th Regiment,

which bore the brunt of the action.' [For fuller details of the battle,

see the interesting account given in Appendix iv. pp. 302-309 of The

Rdjputd?ia Gazetteer, vol. iii. (Simla, 1880).]

Lathi. — Native State in the Gohelwar prdnt or division of Kathia-
war, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency, lying between 210 41' and 210 45'
30" n. lat., and between 710 23' to 710 32' e. long. Population (1881)

LATHI— LAUR. 467

6804 ; area, 4S square miles ; number of villages, 8. The territory is
hilly in parts, and the soil black. The climate is hot and dry, and
fever is the most prevalent disease. The usual cereals, sugar-cane and
cotton, are grown. The nearest port is Bhaunagar. Lathi is one of
the Kathiawar 'fourth-class' States. Its chiefs are descended from
Sarangji, second brother of the founder of the Bhaunagar line. One
of the Thakurs of Lathi wedded his daughter to Damaji Gaekwar, and
gave the estate of Chabharia, now called Damnagar, in dowry, being
exempted from tribute in return. He now yearly offers a horse. In
1807, the Gaekwar became security for the Thakur's engagements to
keep order in his territory. The present (1882-83) chief is Bapubha, a
Hindu of the Gohel Rajput caste. He administers his State in person,
and enjoys an estimated gross yearly revenue of ^7311. He pays a
tribute of ^200, 14s. jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the Nawab
of Junagarh, and maintains a military force of 79 men. The family
of the chief hold no sanad authorizing adoption. The succession
follows the rule of primogeniture. There were in 1882-83, 4 schools,
with 160 pupils. No transit dues are levied in the State.

Lathi.— Chief town of Lathi State, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 210 43' 20" n., long. 710 28' 30" e. A railway station on the
Dhoraji branch line of the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Contains a
dharmsdla, dispensary, post and telegraph offices, and school. The
railway station is a mile out of the town, which is 55 miles west of
Bhaunagar.

Lathia.— Village in Ghazipur District, North- Western Provinces ;
distant from Zamaniah 1 mile south-east. Contains a very ancient
monolith column, 26 feet in height above the ground, with a richly-
carved capital. Two female figures, which originally surmounted it,
now lie at the base.

Laun {Loan). — A fertile tract of country in Raipur District, Central
Provinces, east of Simga; occupying an area of about 800 square miles,
with 423 villages. The tract is watered by the Seonath and Mahanadi.
West of the latter river, the land is generally well cultivated, producing
large quantities of rice. To the east, the country consists of low hills,
covered with bamboos and thatching grass, whence most of the villages
of the District are supplied. Along the extreme eastern boundary,
there are fine sal forests.

Laur. — The old name for one of the three Divisions of Sylhet
District, Assam. The division of Gor or Sylhet proper was conquered
by the Muhammadans in the 14th century, but Laur retained its inde-
pendence until the time of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. The last
Hindu Raja of Laur, Gobind, was summoned to Delhi, and there
became a Musalman. His grandson, Abid Reza, abandoned Laur, and
built the town of Baniachang in the beginning of the 18th century. It

46S LA WA—LE-GNYA.

was not till the rule of All Vardi Khan, Nawab of Bengal, that the
estate became subject to a money payment of land revenue.

Lawa.— Town in Talagang tahsil, Jehlam (Jhelum) District, Punjab.
Situated near the western border of the District, a few miles north of
the Salt Range and Mount Sukesar, in lat. 320 41' 45" n., and long.
o g, 3Qv R L£wa is a iarge Awan village, with numerous hamlets,
but of no commercial importance, and its inhabitants are almost
exclusively agriculturists. The population is mainly concentrated in
the central village, though the dhoks or outlying hamlets, which are
included in the Census of the town, are very numerous, and scattered
over an area of 135 square miles which makes up the village domain.
Population (1868) 5259; (1881) 6236, namely, Muhammadans, 4174;
Hindus, 1205; Sikhs, 845; and 'others,' 12. Number of houses,
684. There are several head-men (chaudharis) attached to the village,
and party faction prevails. Police station, subordinate to that at
Pind Dadan Khan.

Lawa.— Native State in Rajputana. Area, 18 square miles. Popu-
lation (1881) 2682, namely, 1360 males and 1322 females. Density
of population, 149 persons per square mile; number of houses, 591;
houses per square mile, 32-8; persons per house, 4-5. Hindus
numbered 2470; Muhammadans, 136; and Jains, 76. Lawa consists
of a single town with broad lands attached; situated about 20 miles
north-east of Tonk. The Lawa chiefship was originally granted by the
Jaipur (Jeypore) family to a relative, and eventually fell to the Maratha
"leader Amir Khan. In recent times the Thakurs of Lawa have been
dependent on the Chief of Tonk, but the connection was severed by the
British Government in 1867.

Lawar. — Town in Meerut (Merath) tahsil, Meerut District, North-
western Provinces ; situated 1 2 miles north of Meerut city. Population
(1872) 2784; (1881) 5258, namely, Hindus, 2945; and Muham-
madans, 2313. Area of town site, 57 acres. There is a fine house
here called the Mahal Sarai, built about 1700 a.d. by a merchant
named Jawahir Singh, who also constructed the Siiraj-kund or great
tank near Meerut. The gardens attached to it are in ruins.

Layada.— Range of hills in Chutia Nagpur Division, Bengal, running
from east to west, and throwing out numerous rocky spurs into
Singbhum District.

Lebong. — Mountain range in Kumaun District, North - Western
Provinces, forming part of the Himalayan system. Lat. 300 20' x.,
long. 8o° 39' e. It runs between the Bians and Dharma valleys,
and is crossed by a difficult pass, covered with snow throughout the
year. The crest of the pass has an elevation of 18,942 feet above
sea-level.

Le-gnya. — Township in Mergui District, Tenasserim Division,

LEH—LEIAH. 469

British Burma. It contains the two circles of Le-gnya and Butpyin,
with head-quarters at Le-gnya. Le-gnya is a mountainous and forest-
covered tract, but little cultivated. Population (1881) 3717, chiefly
Malays, Siamese, and Chinese; gross revenue, ^623. The number of
villages is 19. The land revenue in 1881-82 was £z\Y \ capitation-
tax, ^231 ; fishing licences, £\$ ; local cess, ^36. Area under culti-
vation, 2924 acres, mostly of rice. Agricultural stock — horned cattle,
2620 ; pigs, 315 ; ploughs, 212 \ and boats, 104.

Leh. — Chief town of Ladakh, Kashmir State, Punjab; situated
about 3 miles from the northern bank of the Indus, at an elevation
of 11,538 feet above sea-level Lat. 340 10' n., long. 770 40' e. ;
estimated population, 4000. Leh stands in a small plain, between the
river Indus and a chain of mountains ; a wall with conical and square
towers surrounds the town, and runs up to the crest of the range.
Whitewashed three-storied houses, with wooden balconies. Conspicuous
but simple palace of the late Raja, deposed by Gulab Singh of Kash-
mir. The streets are disposed without any order, and the houses are
built contiguously. Fort about a mile south-west of town. Entrepot
for the trade between the Punjab and Chinese Tartary, being the
principal mart for the shawl-wool imported from the latter country.
Observatory.

Lehra. — Small village and outwork of Pandaul indigo factory,
Darbhangah District, Bengal ; situated on the main road from Mad-
hiiban to Bahera. Small bazar. Population (1881) i498> namely,
males 730, and females 768. In the neighbourhood are three large
tanks— one called Ghordaur, 2 miles long, but only containing water at
one end. Sheo Singh, an early Raja of Tirhiit, is said to have lived
near this tank ; and a space of about 4 acres, covered with bricks and
jungle, is pointed out as the site of his palace.

Leiah.— South-eastern tahsil of Dera Ismail Khan District, Punjab,
lying between 300 35' 45" and 31° 25' N. lat., and between 700 49' and
710 52' 30" e. long. ; comprising the southern portion of the sparsely-
inhabited cis-Indus tract, which consists of two parts, the thai or
prairie-like uplands, and the kachi or alluvial lands in the bed of the
Indus lying to the east of the main stream. The former tract is very
sandy, and has but little cultivation except in the immediate vicinity
of the wells, of which, however, there are great numbers. The thai,
though very sandy, affords, in good years, excellent pasturage for cattle
and camels. The kachi tract lies on a much lower level than the thai,
and its cultivation is entirely dependent on the inundation of the
Indus, branches of which intersect it in every direction. The kachi is,
on the whole, a pleasant country ; about half its area is cultivated, the
remainder being overgrown with tall munj grass, and near the river
with low tamarisk jungle.

470 LEIAH—LE-MYET-HNA.

Area of Leiah tahsil, 2428 square miles, with 103 towns and villages,
21,611 occupied houses, and 22,693 families. Population (1881)
102,612, namely, males 55,670, and females 46,942. The Muham-
madans form the great bulk of the population, numbering 88,888 ;
Hindus number 13,257 ; Sikhs, 465 ; and Christians, 2. The average
annual area under cultivation for the five years 1877-81 was 92,471
acres, the chief crops being — Wheat, 57,679 acres; barley, 6333 acres;
jodr, 3749 acres; bdjra, 3678 acres; gram, 3942 acres; and cotton,
2616 acres. Total revenue, ;£i 1,1 13. The administrative staff consists
of 1 tahsilddr, and 1 tnunsif presiding over 1 criminal and 2 civil courts.
Number of police circles (thdnds), 4 ; strength of regular police, 48
men; village watchmen {chaukiddrs), 158.

Leiah. — Town and municipality in Dera Ismail Khan District,
Punjab, and head-quarters of Leiah tahsil. Situated on the old left
bank of the Indus, somewhat to the east of the present bed, in lat 300
57' 30" n., and long. 700 58' 20" e. The town was founded probably
during the 16th century by Kamal Khan, a Baluch of the Mahrani
family of Dera Ghazi Khan. His descendants ruled the surround-
ing country for about 200 years, having their capital at Leiah, till they
were supplanted by the Kalhora kings of Sind. On the establishment
of Muhammad Khan Sadozai in 1792, Leiah gave place to Mankera
as the capital of the new ruler. Under the Sikh Government, the town
once more became the centre of administration for the neighbouring
tract; and on the British occupation in 1849, lt rose f°r a tniie t0 tne
rank of head-quarters of a District. In 1861, however, the District
was broken up, and Leiah, together with Bhakkar, became a part of
Dera Ismail Khan. Population (1S68) 5446; (1881) 5S99, namely,
Muhammadans, 2913; and Hindus, 2986. Number of houses,
1490. The municipal area includes a number of outlying hamlets
with a total population of 18,449. Municipal income (1882-83),
^637. Leiah carries on a considerable trade in local produce ;
and a through traffic with Afghanistan. The town contains a dak
bungalow, charitable dispensary, and a good middle school, besides
the ordinary Government courts and buildings.

Le-mro (' Four Towns'). — River of British Burma. Its sources,
which have not yet been explored, are situated among the mountains
which occupy the northern part of Arakan. It flows in a direction
generally from north to south, and is joined by several large streams
before it reaches the plains in Akyab District. It enters Hunter's
Bay by numerous mouths, all inter-connected by tidal creeks.

Le-myet-hna. — Township in Bassein District, Irawadi Division,
British Burma. Bounded on the west by the Arakan mountains, in
places 1900 feet high, which send down their well-wooded spurs east-
wards, leaving a line of plain country between their lower slopes and the

LE-MYE T-HNA—LIMRL 4 7 1

Bassein river. This gradually passes into low swampy ground. The
township includes the 8 circles of Sin-pywun, Le-myet-hna (North),
Le-myet-hna (South), Khyauk-shay (or Chauk-se), Mye-nu, Thaung-dan,
Kwon-pyin, and Dan-yin-daing. Population (1881) 49,577; gross
revenue, ,£11,957.

Le-myet-hna.— Head-quarters of Le-myet-hna township, Bassein
District, Irawadi Division, British Burma ; situated on the Nga-wun
or Bassein river, in lat. 170 34' 50" n., and long. 950 13' 40" e. When
the river is high, the streets are two or three feet under water. Contains
a court-house, market, and police station. Population (1881) 5355.

Leilgjut. — Village on the Nowgong border of the Jaintia Hills,
Assam. The weekly market is frequented by Khasi and Synteng
(Jaintia) traders, who bring down the produce of their hills to ex-
change for rice, cotton goods, salt, etc.

Li. — River in Kangra District, Punjab. — See Spiti.

Lidar (Ladar). — River in Kashmir State, Punjab ; one of the head-
waters of the Jehlam (Jhelum). Rises in lat. 340 8' n., long. 750 48' e.,
on the southern slope of the mountains bounding the Kashmir valley
on the north-east, at an elevation of 14,000 feet above sea-level. Falls
rapidly till it reaches the valley, and joins the Jehlam, in lat. 330 45' N.,
and long. 750 15' e., about 5 miles below Islamabad, after a course of
45 miles,

Likhi. — Petty State under the Mahi Kantha Agency, Bombay
Presidency. The Thakur is a Mukwana Koli. Population (1881)
1307 ; revenue, £150. Area under tillage, 1900 acres. The Thakur
pays no tribute. His family hold no deed allowing adoption ; in
matters of succession they follow the rule of primogeniture.

Lilaj an.— River of Hazaribagh District, Bengal, which, with the
Mohani, drains the north-western portion of the District. The two
streams unite in Gaya District, 6 miles south of Gaya town, and con-
tinue their course together towards the Ganges, under the name of
Phalgu.

Limra. — Petty State in the Gohelwar prdnt or division of K£thia-
war, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 4 villages, with 3 proprietors.
Area, 7 square miles. Population (1881) 1839. The town of Limra
is situated 18 miles west-north-west of Songad, 37 west of Bhaunagar,
and close to Jalia station on the Dhoraji branch of the Bhaunagar-Gondal
Railway. Estimated revenue, £2500 ; tribute of £93, 8s. is paid to
the Gaekwar of Baroda, and £27, 16s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.
The railway station is 1 J miles from Limra town.

Limri {Limbadi). — Native State in the Jhalawar /ra «/ or division of
Kathiawar, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency, lying between 220 30' 15" and
220 37' 15" n. lat., and between 710 44' 3°" and 7*° 52' I5" E- lor)g-
Area, 344 square miles, with 1 town and 43 villages. Population (1872)

472 LIMRI-L10.

40,186; (1881) 43,063, namely, 22,274 males and 20,789 females,
dwelling in 9677 houses. Hindus number 33,556; Muhammadans,
4632; and 'others,' 4875. The country is flat, and the soil, in
some parts black and others red, is generally sandy. The Bhogawo
river flows through the State, but, like some of the smaller streams, it
becomes brackish in the hot weather. The territory of Limri or Limbdi
is peculiarly liable to inundations, and suffered severely from their
devastations in the year 1878-79, the road between Limri and Wadhwan
having been breached in many places. As regards the relations of
landlord and tenant, the State is said to be reverting, like other
States in Kathiawar, to the levying of rent in kind rather than in
money. The climate of Limri, though hot, is healthy. The prevailing
diseases are fever and bowel complaints. Cotton and grain are culti-
vated, and coarse cloth is manufactured. Before the opening of the
Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway, the produce was exported chiefly from the
port of Dholera.

Limri is one of the Kathiawar ' second-class ' States, the chief of
which executed the usual engagements in 1807. The succession
follows the rule of primogeniture ; there is no sanad authorizing
adoption. The present (1884) chief is Thakur Sahib Jaswant Singhji
Fatesinghji, a Hindu of the Jhala Rajput caste. He has power
to try his own subjects only for capital offences, without the
express permission of the Political Agent ; and he is entitled to a
salute of 9 guns. He received his education at the Rajkumar College
at Rajkot; and on 1st February 1876, on attaining his majority, he
was permitted to assume full jurisdiction as a ' second-class ' chief.
Estimated gross revenue ^"22,137 ; tribute of ^4553, 6s. is paid jointly
to the British Government and to the Nawab of Junagarh. The chief
maintains a military force of 160 men. Works for irrigation are in
course of construction. There were in 1882-83, 17 schools, with a
total roll of 1 31 7 pupils. No transit dues are levied in the State.

Limri. — Chief town of Limri State, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 220 34' n., long. 710 53' e. Population (18S1) 12,873, namely,
6569 males and 6304 females. Hindus number 8221 ; Muhammadans,
T372 ; Jains, 3271 ; Parsis, 6; and Christians, 3. On the north bank of
the Bhogavo river, Limri is 14 miles south-east of Wadhwan and
90 north-west of Bhaunagar. Telegraph and post offices ; dispensary.
Formerly fortified, and once a populous place.

Lingana.— Hill fort in Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency; 14
miles north-east of Mahad. An ascent of 4 miles leads to the summit,
which is nearly 3000 feet high. Formerly a penal settlement for
prisoners under the Marathas. No fortifications now remain.

Lio— Village in Bashahr State, Punjab. Lat. 310 53' N., long. 78°
37' e.; situated on a small rocky height in Kunawar, on the right bank

LI TAR GOTRA—LODHRAN. 473

of the Spiti river, at its confluence with the Lipak. Ruined fort crowns
an isolated rock east of the village. Population consists of Buddhist
Thibetans. Elevation above sea, 9362 feet.

Litar Gotra.— Petty State in Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency,
situated on the banks of the Mahi river ; one of the Koli group of Pandu
Mehwas States. Area, if square mile. Estimated revenue, ^63 ;
tribute of ^20 is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. The State is ruled
by 3 Kotwals. Although most of the land is covered with brushwood,
the village of Gotra has some importance from lying on the main road
between Gujarat and Malwa and commanding one of the best of the
Mahi fords.

Little Baghmati. — River of Bengal. — See Baghmati, Little.

Little Gandak. — River of the North- Western Provinces. — See
Gandak, Little.

Little Ranjit. — River of Bengal. — Sec Ranjit, Little.

Loan. — Tract of country, Raipur District, Central Provinces. — See
Laun.

Lodhika. —Petty State in Hallar prdnt or division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 2 villages, with 2 proprietors. Area,
15 square miles. Population (1881) of the State, 4655, and of Lodhika
village, 1S10. Estimated revenue in 1882,^2500; tribute of ^128, 14s.
is paid to the British Government, and ^40, 10s. to the Nawab of Juna-
garh. Fifteen miles south-west of Rajkot and 15 miles north-west of
Gondal.

Lodhikhera. — Town and municipality in Sausar tahsil, Chhindwara
District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 210 35' n., and long. 980 54'
e., on the Nagpur road, 38 miles from Chhindwara town. Population
(1872) 52T9; (1881) 4602, namely, Hindus, 3225; Kabirpanthis, 913;
Muhammadans, 376; Jains, 39; and aboriginal tribes, 49. Muni-
cipal income (1882-83), ;£555> of wmch ^"419 was realized from
octroi duty; incidence of taxation, is. 9|d. per head. Chief manu-
factures, excellent brass and copper utensils, and coarse cotton cloth.
The town has a charitable dispensary, school, and sard/.

Lodhran.— Southern tahsil of Multan (Mooltan) District, Punjab,
situated between 290 21' 45" and 290 48' n. lat., and between 710 4
and 710 51' e. long.; consisting chiefly of an arid upland tract, lying
along the bank of the river Sutlej (Satlaj). Area, 781 square miles,
with 179 towns and villages, 13,913 occupied houses, and 20,987
families. Population (1881) 98,203, namely, males 53,387> and
females 44,816. The Muhammadans, who form the great majority of
the population, number 83,259; Hindus, 14,405; Sikhs, 471; and
Christians, 68. Of the 179 towns and villages comprising the tahsil,
1 1 5 contain less than five hundred inhabitants. The average annual
area under crops for the five years 1877-81 was 86,801 acres, the chief

474 LOGHASSI—LOHARA SAHASPUR.

crops being— wheat, 5r,ooo acres; jodr, 7805 acres; indigo, 5480
acres; cotton, 5062 acres; barley, 1806 acres; bdjra, 1137 acres; and
rice, 1 194 acres. Total revenue, ,£16,634. The tahsil is in charge of
a tahsilddr, who presides over 1 civil and 1 criminal court. Number of
police circles (thdnds), 3 ; strength of regular police force, 84 men ;
village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 220.

Loghassi.— State in Bundelkhand, North-Western Provinces. — See
Lughasi.

Lohagara. — Town in Jessor District, Bengal. Lat 230 11' 45" N.j
long. 890 41' 40" e. Seat of an extensive manufacture of sugar, which
is exported chiefly to Calcutta and Bakarganj ; the gur or molasses
being imported from Khajura and other places in exchange for rice.
The sugar made is for the most part J>dhd (refined).

Lohaghat (or Rikheswar). — Cantonment in Kumaun District, North-
Western Provinces. Lat. 29° 24' 15" n., long. 8o° f 10" e.; situated on
the left bank of the little river Loha, at an elevation of 5562 feet above
sea-level, and enclosed on almost every side by precipitous mountains.
Bdzdr, stores, bungalows, and other buildings for the accommodation
of the troops. The cantonment was formerly at Champawat, 3 miles
south, but was removed to the present site for sanitary reasons. It
is, however, now (1883) unoccupied by troops. A tea plantation has
been established here. Population (1881) 154. Distant from Almora,
54 miles south-east.

Lohara. — Zaminddri estate in Dhamtari tahsil, in the south-east
of Raipur District, Central Provinces, comprising 120 villages,
Area, 364 square miles, chiefly hill and jungle, gradually sloping
towards the north. The mountain known as Dalli Pahar attains a
height of nearly 2000 feet. The country is well watered, being bounded
on the east and west by the rivers Tendula and Karkara, while nume-
rous streamlets descend from the hills. Little remains of the once
abundant teak; but the jungles still contain a good deal of kusam,
mahud, bijesdl, and similar trees, and yield abundance of lac, wax,
and honey. The hemp and cotton are bought up by Banjaras for
exportation. Iron also is smelted. Population (1881) 30,134, namely,
males 15,313, and females 14,821. Average density of population,
82*8 persons per square mile. Lohara village contains a grant-in-aid
school, zaminddri police station, and a good garden. The zaminddr
is a Gond ; and the estate was originally granted in 1538, in return for
military service, by one of the Ratanpur Rajas.

Lohara Sahaspur. — Zaminddri estate in Drug tahsil, Raipu
District, Central Provinces. Area, 197 square miles, with 85 villages,
and 5485 houses. Population (1881) 19,748, namely, males 9787
and females 9961. Average density of population, 100*2 persons
per square mile. The greater part lies below the Saletekri Hills,

i

LOHARDAGA. 475

and is exceedingly fertile and well cultivated ; the rest consists of hill
and jungle. The zaminddr is related to the Kawarda and Pandaria
families.

Lohardaga (Lohardvggd). — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship
of Bengal, lying between 220 20' and 240 39' n. lat., and between
S30 22' and 850 55' 30" e. long. Area, 12,045 square miles. Popula-
tion (1881) 1,609,244 persons. Lohardaga District forms the central
and north-western portion of the Chutia Nagpur Division. It is
bounded on the north by Hazaribagh, Gayd, and Shahabad Districts,
from which it is separated by the Son (Soane) river ; on the north-west
and west by Mirzapur District in the North-Western Provinces and by
the Native States of Sargiija, Jashpur, and Gangpur : and on the south-
east and east by the Districts of Singbhiim and Manbhiim. A portion
of the eastern boundary coincides with the course of the Subarnarekha
river. The administrative head-quarters are at Ra:\xhi.

Physical Aspects. — Lohardaga comprises three tracts of country,
differing essentially in their physical conformation — Chutia Nagpur
proper, the Five Parganas, and the Sub-division of Palamau.

Chutia Nagpur proper, as distinguished from the administrative Divi-
sion of that name, is an elevated table-land, forming the central and
southern portion of Lohardaga District. To the west, this plateau rises
and stretches away towards Central India, to meet the Satpura mountains.
Its average elevation is about 2000 feet. On the north, it is connected
with the central plateau of Hazaribagh by a narrow neck of high land
passing through Ton pargand. The surface of the Chutia Nagpur
plateau is undulating, and the slopes of the depressions lying between
the ridges are cut into terraces covered with rice.

The tract commonly called the Five Parganas, consisting of parganas
Silli, Rahi, Bundu, Barauda, and Tanas, lies east of the central plateau,
below the ghats, and in most respects resembles the adjoining District
of Manbhiim. The southern portion of pargand Bassia, with the whole
of pargand Biru on the south, and pargand Tori in the north of Chutia
Nagpur proper, also lie below the central plateau, at an average eleva-
tion of 1200 feet.

Palamau Sub-division, which forms the north-western portion of
the District, consists on the east and south of spurs thrown off from
the plateaux of Hazaribagh and Chutia Nagpur, while the remainder
of the tract is a tangled mass of isolated peaks and long irregular
stretches of broken hills. The general run of these hill ranges
is from east to west, but the relations of the minor ridges are very
involved. The average elevation of the country is about 1200 feet
above sea-level, but some of the higher peaks rise to more than 3000
feet. The two highest peaks in the District are — Saru, 3615 feet, west
of Ranch! \ and Marang Baru, 3445 feet, north of Ranchi. The

4;6 LO HARD AG A.

Palamau Sub-division is wider and more rocky than Chutia Nagpur
proper, and contains no level areas of any extent, except the valleys of
the North Koel and Amanat rivers, to which rice cultivation is confined.
The principal rivers of Lodardaga are the Subarnarekha, and the
North and South Koel. The main confluents of the Subarnarekha
are the Kanchi and Karkari, both rising on the central plateau. The
chief feeders of the North Koel are the Amanat, which rises in Hazari-
bagh, and the Auranga, a picturesque stream of Chutia Nagpur. The
Karu, the Deo, and many minor streams fall into the South Koel. The
highest hills are— in Chutia Nagpur, Sam (3615 feet) and Baragai or
Marang Buru (3445 feet) ; and in Palamau, Bulbul on the south-eastern
boundary (3329 feet), Buri on the south-western boundary (3078 feet),
and Kotam (2791 feet). Throughout the District, the hills are, as a
rule, covered with tree jungle or a scrubby undergrowth, consisting of
wild plum or her tree (Zizyphus Jujuba) and stunted palds (Butea
frondosa).

Jungle Products.— The entire surface of Lohardaga was probably at
one time overgrown with dense forest, but the forest area has been
dwindling, owing to the spread of cultivation and the practice of
girdling the sal tree for resin. Three different kinds of timber are
exported from the Palamau forests. First, large sal timber is exported
from the forests around Barasaud, partly by land, and partly by water
down the Koel ; secondly, small timber averaging 2 feet in girth and
from 12 to 15 feet in length is carted from the north-east of the
District into Gaya j and thirdly, very large quantities of bamboos are
cut in the forests around Barasaud, and transported down the Koel
to Shahabad, Patna, and Gaya Districts. The chief jungle products
are as follow:— (1) The corollas of the mahua tree (Bassia latifolia),
which are eaten by the poorer classes, and from which an intoxicating
spirit is distilled ; (2) the seeds of the sal tree, which are roasted, and
either mixed with mahud flowers or eaten alone; (3) the berry of
the jdmun tree (Eugenia Jambolana), eaten as food; (4) the bean
of the karanja tree (Pongamia glabra) ; (5) lac ; (6) tasar silk ;
(7) catechu; (8) resin; (9) honey; and (10) arrowroot. Throughout
the Palamau Sub-division, the quantity of cleared and cultivated land
bears a very small proportion to the uncleared waste ; and the south
and south-western portions form one vast pasture ground. A consider-
able number of cattle are bred on the spot ; and during the dry months
of the year, large herds are driven in to graze from the neighbouring
Districts of Gaya and Shahabad.

Minerals. — Iron in a nodular form, and three varieties of iron-ore,
are found in the District ; lime and soapstone are obtained in small
quantities ; and copper has been found in several places in Palamau,
though not in sufficient quantity to allow of profitable working. Gold

LOHARDAGA. 477

is washed by the poorest classes from the sands of the rivers in the
south of the District, especially in the valley of Sonapet, bordering on
Singbhum. There is one important coal-bearing tract situated to the
north of Daltonganj, known as the Daltonganj Coal-field. It covers
an area of nearly 200 square miles, lying partly in the valley of the
Koel river and partly in that of the Amanat, and extending altogether
a distance of 50 miles from east to west. A portion of the south
Karanpura coal-field extends into pargand Tori.

The District contains two picturesque waterfalls, known as Hundrug-
hagh and Dasamghagh. The former is situated in pargand Jashpur,
about 25 miles east-north-east of Ranchf, and is caused by the Subar-
narekha river rushing down a rocky chasm, as it passes from the second
to the lowest plateau in its course towards the Delta of Bengal. The
measured height of the fall is 320 feet, but this does not represent a
sheer drop, except in the rains. Dasamghagh waterfall, about 22 miles
to the south-east of Ranchf, is formed by the Kanchi river falling over
a ledge of rock in a perpendicular descent of 1 14 feet.

Ferce Naturce. — The large sorts of game met with in Lohardaga"
District are the tiger, leopard, bear, wild boar, wolf, hysena, antelope,
spotted deer, ravine deer, sdmbhar, and nilgai. A few bison are to be
found in the south of Palamau, and packs of wild dogs are occasionally
seen in the northern and western parts of that Sub-division. The small
game comprise hares, quail, snipe, grey partridge, duck, teal, ortolan,
plover, and pigeon. In Palamau are found, in addition to these, pea-
fowl, jungle-fowl, black partridge, floriken, curlew, and heron. The
superior sorts of fish are the ma/idsir, several kinds of trout, the rit/ii,
Mt/d, ptttid, garai, c/ial/iawd, etc.

History. — The only materials, even for conjecture, regarding the
early history of the District are the legends of aboriginal races. From
these, it would appear that while the country was still covered with
unbroken forest, and retained its ancient name of Jharkhand, or ' the
forest tract,' the Mundas, and subsequently the Unions, effected a
settlement on the central table-land. Although the two races did not
intermarry, and in many respects remained distinct, they adopted a
uniform system of government by par/ids, or village communes. The
hilly country now comprised in the Chutia Nagpur Division remained
independent, both in name and in fact, during the Muhammadan
period, until the Mughal governors of Bengal and Behar failed in their
attempts to push their conquests farther to the east, and therefore
turned their arms towards the west and south.

The earliest Musalman inroads (circa 16 16 a.d.) were directed
against Kokrah or Chutia Nagpur proper, which was celebrated at
the Delhi court for the diamonds found in its rivers. The Musalmans
afterwards (1640-60) made several invasions into Palamau ; and at the

47S

LOHARDAGA.

end of 1660 occurred the attack on Palamau fort, and its capture by
Daud Khan, which forms the subject of a large picture (30 feet by 12)
preserved by Darid's descendants. This picture, which is of consider-
able interest, has been recently photographed, and is described in
detail by Colonel Dalton in the Journal of 'the Asiatic Society for 1874.
Colonel Dalton's description is quoted in the Statistical Account of
Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 464-468.

From the date of the capture of Palamau fort until 1722, the annals
of Palamau are blank. In the latter year, the ruling Raja, Ranjit Rai,
was murdered, and Jaikissen Rai, descended from the younger son of a
former Raja, was placed upon the State cushion (gadi). A few years
afterwards, Jaikissen was shot in a skirmish, and his family fled to Megra
in Behar, and took refuge with one Udwant Ram, a kdnungo, who in
1770 took Gopal Rai, grandson of the murdered Raja, to Patna, and
presented him to Captain Carnac, the Government Agent, as the
rightful heir to the Palamau Raj. Captain Carnac promised the assist-
ance of the British Government, and, after defeating the troops of the
ruling Raja, gave a sanad for five years to Gopal Rai and two of his
cousins, and then left the country.

Palamau thus became part of the British District of Ramgarh. A
year or two later, Gopal Rai was sentenced to imprisonment at
Patna for being concerned in the murder of the kdnungo, Udwant
Ram, who had helped him to power. He died at Patna in 1784,
and in the same year died Bassant Rai, who had succeeded to the
gadi on his imprisonment. Churaman Rai succeeded; but by 1813 he
kid become insolvent, and Palamau was sold for arrears of revenue
and bought in by Government for the amount due. In 1816 the
estate was granted to Fateh Narayan Singh, Raja of Deo in Gaya, for
services rendered to the Government. But his management was so
oppressive as to rouse the people into open rebellion ; and in 1818,
Government revoked the deed of grant, allowing the Raja a remission
of ^300 a year from the revenue of his Behar estates by way of com-
pensation.

Under Government rule, Palamau remained quiet, and continued
so during the outbreak of the Kols in Chutia Nagpur proper in
1 83 1, which was not quelled till March 1832. This outbreak arose
from the oppression of the aboriginal population by the relations and
followers of the Maharaja of Chutia Nagpur proper, who exercised no
authority whatever in Palamau. An account of the causes which led
to this insurrection, and of the measures taken to put it down, will be
found in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 451-454. Not
before several villages had been plundered and burned, and many lives
sacrificed to the enraged Kols, did the leaders surrender. The changes
in administration which followed this insurrection will be found noticed

LOHARDAGA. 479

in the article on Hazaribagh District. A rising of the Chero and
Kharwar tribes in 1832 was soon put down ; and there were no further
troubles until the Mutiny of 1857, when the Kharwars, headed by the
Bhogtas, rose against their Rajput landlords ; and the mutineers of the
Ramgarh Battalion, taking refuge in Palamau, made common cause
with Nilambar and Pitambar Singh, two malcontent landholders. The
26th Madras Native Infantry, and a portion of the Ramgarh Battalion
which had remained loyal, defeated the insurgents at the Satbarwa
forts. Nilambar and Pitambar Singh were taken prisoners and hanged.

Population. — The first attempt at an enumeration of the people of
Lohardaga was made at the time of the Topographical Survey of
Chutia Nagpur proper in 1868. One hundred and twenty-eight houses,
in different villages, and belonging to men of different castes, were
taken at random, and the average number of persons per house thus
ascertained was multiplied by the total number of houses in the
District. The result arrived at was a population of 1,412,956, the
area of the District at that time being 11,404 square miles. According
to an experimental Census in 1869, the population was returned at
1,396,474 persons.

A regular Census was taken for the first time in 1871-72. Owing
to the sparseness and ignorance of the population, no attempt at
a simultaneous enumeration was made ; the work was done gradually
by a special salaried agency. This Census disclosed a total popu-
lation, on the area of the present District of 12,045 square miles, of
1,237,123 persons, inhabiting 6486 villages and 240,843 houses. In
1 88 1, a simultaneous Census taken over the whole District returned
the population at 1,609,244, showing an apparent increase over the
enumeration of 1872 of 372,121, or 30*08 per cent., in nine
years. This increase, however, is only apparent, and is due to
the defective enumeration of 1872, which was only approximate, and
partook rather of the character of a survey of the population than
of a systematic Census. Lohardaga is one of the great recruiting
Districts for coolie emigrants to other parts of India and to the West
Indies and Mauritius, and immigration into it from outside is almost
nil. It is considered, therefore, that about 15 per cent, of the apparent
increase is due to imperfect enumeration in 1872.

The results of the more careful and simultaneous Census of 1881
may be summarized as follows : — Area of District, 12,045 square miles,
with 4 towns, 12,126 villages, and 289,886 occupied houses. Total popu-
lation, 1,609,244, namely, males 796,657, and females 812,587 ; pro-
portion of males, 49-5 per cent. Average density of population, 133*6
persons per square mile; number of towns or villages, i'oi per square
mile ; persons per town or village, 133; houses per square mile, 24-49 ;
inmates per house, 5-55. Classified according to age, there are,

4So LOHARDAGA.

under 15 years of age — males 375>263> females 356,310; total chil-
dren, 731,573, or 45-5 per cent, of the population : 15 years of age
and upwards— males 421,394, females 456,277; total adults, 877,671,
or 54-5 per cent. The large proportion of children is said to be
due to the fact that the aboriginal races are unusually prolific. The
returns of the Chutia Nagpur Division, and of the District of the
Santal Parganas, display a proportion of children to the total popula-
tion bearing a direct ratio to the relative strength of the aboriginal
element. Classified according to religion, the Census Report returned
the population as follows : — Hindus, 868,842 ; Muhammadans, 77,403 ;
Christians, 36,281 ; Jains, 56; Buddhist, 1 ; tribes professing aboriginal
religions, 626,661.

The aboriginal Kols form the majority of the population, those
still professing their primitive faiths, as apart from those who have
accepted some form of Hinduism, or have been converted to
Christianity, being returned at 591,858. The word Kol is popu-
larly employed in a vague way as including not only the Mundas
of Chutia Nagpur proper and the Larkas or Hos of Singbhiim, but
all Kolarian aborigines wherever found. For a detailed account of
these tribes, their origin, customs, etc., the reader is referred to Colonel
Dalton's valuable Ethnology of Bengal, quoted at considerable length
in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 266-279, and vol.
xvii. pp. 36-59. Colonel Dalton thinks there can be no doubt of the
remote north-eastern origin of the Kolarian tribes, but little is to be
found in their folk-lore to throw light on the early history of the race.
The families that rank highest among them have lost their native
traditions in the hazy fables invented for them by the Hindus. The
lower classes, as a rule, declare themselves to be autochthones ; and
even the chiefs found their claims to be of noble birth on miracles
that took place in the country which they call their fatherland.
Besides the Kols, the Census Report includes 34,803 other aboriginal
tribes still outside the pale of Hinduism. The Uraons or Oraons are,
excluding the semi-Hinduized aborigines, the strongest Dravidian tribe
in Bengal. They are the people known in the plains as Dhangars
(hillmen), and are found in great numbers throughout the Chutia
Nagpur Division. Although they are not returned separately in the
Census Report, they are probably included in the ' other aborigines '
mentioned above. According to Colonel Dalton, the tribe has
gradually migrated from the western coast of India — probably from
Gujarat or the Konkan. A detailed account of the Uraons will be
found in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 278-294.
The most numerous of the semi-Hinduized aboriginal tribes in Lohar-
daga are — the Bhuiyas, of whom there are 58,419; the Kharwars,
77,341; the Dosadhs, 37,034; and Gonds, 1389, besides 58,452

LOHARDAGA. 481

'others.' The foregoing figures give a total aboriginal population (by
race as apart from religion) of 859.296, or 53*4 per cent, of the total
District population.

Of high -caste Hindus, the Brahmans number 42,439; Rajputs,
47,471 ; Babhans, a class of agricultural Brahmans, who are supposed
to have lapsed from ceremonial purity, 9406 j Kayasths, 6690 ; and
Baniyas, 17,556. Of lower classes or Siidra castes, the most numerous
are— the Goalas or Ahirs, a pastoral caste, 78,677; the Kurmis, the
great agricultural caste of the Chutia Nagpur Division, 43,766 ; Kahars
(domestic servants and water-carriers), 34,700; Kamars (blacksmiths),
34,341 ; Telis (oilmen), 32,835 ; Chamars (skinners and workers in
leather), 27,276; Koeri's (cultivators), 23,540; Kumbhars (potters),
19,568; Napits (barbers), 17,439; Barhdis (carpenters), 11,447;
Dhobis (washermen), it, 021 ; and Mallahs (boatmen), 10,924.

The Native Christian population is much larger in Lohardaga than
in any other Bengal District. The total number of Christians in 1881
was — males 18,205, anc* females 18,076; total, 36,281, or 2*2 per
cent, of the total population. This includes Europeans, Eurasians,
etc., to the number of 289, leaving a balance of 35,992 for the native
Christians. Of these, about three-fourths are baptized converts, and
the remainder, though not baptized, are 'inquirers,' and call themselves
Christians. Nearly all the Christians are Mundas or Uraons, and belong
to the agricultural classes. Most of them are poor, but they possess con-
siderable influence notwithstanding, and are said to be rising in public
esteem. The District has been, since the founding of the original
Chutia Nagpur Mission in 1844 by the Bavarian Gossner, the most
successful field of missionary labour in Bengal, and the great majority
of the Christian population (23,245) belong to the Lutheran Church.
There are two missions at work in the District, one sent out from
Germany and the other from England. These two bodies, styled the
German Lutheran Evangelical Mission, and the Church of England
Mission, now work side by side with much success. A detailed account
of the separate development of the two missions, together with an
inquiry into the various causes affecting the progress of Christianity in
Chutia Nagpur generally, will be found in the Statistical Account of
Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 423-444.

Town and Rural Population. — The population of Lohardaga is
almost wholly rural. The civil station of Ranch 1, itself little more
than a collection of villages, has (1881), including the cantonment of
Doranda, lying to the south of the town, and separated from it by a
small stream, a population of 18,443 inhabitants. The other towns in
the District deserving notice are — Daltonganj, administrative head-
quarters of the Palamau Sub-division (population 7440) ; Garwa, on
the north Koel river, the chief trading centre of Palamau Sub-division

VOL. VIII. 2 H

482 LOHARDAGA.

(population 6043) ; Lohardaga, 45 miles west of Ranchi town, till
1840 the administrative head - quarters of the District (population
3461); and Chutia village, 2 miles east of Ranchi (whence the
name Chutia Nagpur). Ranchi is a municipality; while Doranda,
Garwa, and Lohardaga have been formed into chaukiddri or police
unions.

At Jagannathpur village, 3 miles south-west of Ranchi, stands
on a high rock the largest temple in the District, built on a plan
resembling that of the great temple at Purf. Doisa is the site of a
ruined palace once inhabited by the Rajas of Chutia Nagpur; and
at the small village of Tilmi are the remains of a ruined fortress,
formerly the seat of the Thakurs, a subordinate branch of the
Chutia Nagpur family. Chokahatu, a village in the south-east of the
District, is interesting as containing a large burial-ground still used by
the Mundas. Annual fairs are held at Chutia and Daltonganj.

The Census Report of 1881 thus classifies the villages and towns.
Of the 12,130 villages in the District, no less than 9895 have less than
two hundred inhabitants; 1932 from two to five hundred; 261 from
five hundred to a thousand ; 3 1 from one to two thousand ; and 1 1
upwards of two thousand inhabitants.

With regard to occupation, the male population are divided into
the following six classes : — (1) Professional class, including all Govern-
ment servants, civil and military, and the learned professions,
4970; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc.,
24,293 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders, carriers, etc.,
11,098; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners,
295,046 ; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including artisans,
52,816; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general
labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified or no occupation,
408,434.

Agriculture. — The system of agriculture followed in Lohardaga
District is determined by the physical conformation of the country,
particularly in the case of rice, which forms the principal product of
Chutia Nagpur proper, while in Palamau its cultivation is confined to
the more fertile parts of the Koel and Amanat valleys.

The rice crops of the District are divided into three classes — viz.,
tewdn, or lowland rice, comprising both an early and an autumn crop ;
gord, or upland rice ; and don, which includes two autumn crops, and
the great winter rice crop of the year. A more general and more
correct classification of the crops will be found in the article on
Hazaribagh District. The method of rice cultivation described
in that article is also followed in Lohardaga; but rice of the
highest quality is not grown to any extent in this District, although
the soil is so well suited for the finest varieties that zaw'mddrs, who

LOHARDAGA. 483

cultivate both here and in Behar, import rice from Chutia Nagpur for
their own consumption in preference to that of Behar.

Other crops of Lohardaga are wheat, barley, Indian corn, millets,
peas, gram, mustard, and other oil-seeds, pan, cotton, and tobacco.
Cotton, sown in July and cut in November, and til (Sesamum orientale)
form the staple export crops of the Palamau Sub-division • the area
under the former crop in 1870 was estimated at 9600 acres — total yield,
949 tons of raw cotton. Tobacco, which is confined to Chutia Nagpur
proper, covers only about 200 acres, the maximum out-turn, under
favourable circumstances, being 28 J cwts. an acre. Opium cultivation
was introduced into Chutia Nagpur proper in 1869. In that year,
the area cultivated was 387 acres, and the out-turn was 60 cwts.
By 1873-74, the area under opium had risen to 1848 acres, and the
out-turn to 245 cwts. The opium agency, however, was abolished in
1878. Tea cultivation has received a considerable impetus of late
years. In 1870 there were but two small tea plantations in the Dis-
trict. By 1883 the number of gardens had increased to 30, with a
total area of 1407 acres under mature and 1345 acres under immature
plant; the total out-turn of leaf in the year being 249,364 lbs., or
an average of 156 lbs. per acre of mature plants.

Condition of the Peasantry. — In Chutia Nagpur proper, a farm of
upwards of 33 acres, containing 22 acres of low land and n acres of
upland, is considered a very large holding for a single husbandman ;
and anything below 3J acres, consisting of if acres low land and if
acres upland, a very small one. A farm of 13 acres, of which 8
acres are low land and 5 acres upland, is a fair-sized comfortable hold-
ing for the support of a cultivator and his family. But in Palamau
the proportion of upland cultivated is far larger than in Chutia Nag-
pur proper ; and there, a farm consisting of 13 acres of low land and
26 acres of high land is considered a large one ; and a holding of
one-third of an acre of low land and 3J acres of upland a very small
one. A fair-sized comfortable holding in Palamau is about 4 acres of
low land, with from 8 to 10 acres of upland. A cultivator with a
middling-sized household can support himself and his family, from
the proceeds of a holding of 13 acres, on the same scale as a man
drawing Rs. 8 or 16s. a month in money wages. In Chutia Nagpur
proper, an ordinary pair of bullocks can plough from 5 to 7 acres of
land ; and in Palamau 5 acres. In Palamau a cultivator who has no
plough-bullocks of his own, hires them on what is called the bhua
system, that is, for every bullock hired, the cultivator has to deliver 2
maunds, or 1^ cwts., at each of the three harvests. If he fails to pay,
the value of the grain is converted into money, and the transaction
treated as a loan. Throughout Palamau, the cultivators, especially
those belonging to aboriginal races, are hopelessly in debt to the rural

484 LOHARDAGA.

money-lenders (mahdjan or sdku). In Chutia Nagpur proper, it may
be inferred from the general consumption of fermented liquors, and
the large sums spent in litigation by the agricultural classes, that their
material condition is at present fairly prosperous. Wages and prices have
risen considerably of late years throughout the District. Coolies and day-
labourers who in 1856 received ij&, now earn from ifd. to 2jd. ; and
smiths, bricklayers, and carpenters, whose wage in 1856 was 3d. to 4|d.,
obtain 4?>d. to 6d., or even 7 |d. In 1870, the price of common rice
was 4s. 2d. per cwt, as against 2s. 8d. in 1859 ; and the price of the
best cleaned rice was in 1870, 5s. 9d. per cwt., as against 3s. 9d. in
1859. In 1883, the average price of common rice was 5s. 6d. per
cwt., and of wheat, 7s. 4d. per cwt.

Natural Calamities. — Mildew and a variety of blights caused by
insects and worms occasionally attack the crops, and failure in the
local rainfall sometimes causes drought; which, however, seldom affects
any considerable area. Such partial failures are more common in
Palamau than in Chutia Nagpur proper. Floods are rendered almost
impossible, except for a very short time, and within the narrowest
limits, by the physical conformation of the country, and the extremely
rapid discharge of surface drainage. The great famine of 1866 did not
seriously affect the District. The highest prices reached were — for
best rice, ns. 6d. per cwt., and for coarse rice, 10s. 6d. per cwt. If
in Chutia Nagpur proper the autumn crop were to fail, and the price
of rice were to rise to 6s. iod. a cwt. immediately after the winter crop
was off the ground, there would be reason to fear that the price would
rise to 13s. 8d. a cwt. in March or April, rendering relief operations
necessary.

Co?n??ierce and Trade, etc.- — The principal seats of trade in Lohardaga
are Ranchi, Lohardaga town, Palkot, Govindpur, Biindu, Garwa, Nagar,
Untari, Satbarwa, and Maharajganj. Markets are held once or twice a
week according to the importance of the neighbourhood supplied. The
principal trading place in the District is Garwa in Palamau, which forms
the distributing centre for the surplus produce of great part of Sargiija,
of the Tributary States farther west, and of Palamau Sub-division itself.
The Garwa market is held during the dry season in the sandy bed of
the North Koel river, and is perhaps the largest in the Chutia Nagpur
Division. Stick-lac, resin, catechu, cocoons of tasar silk, hides, oil-
seeds, gki, cotton, and iron are there collected for exportation ; rice and
other food-grains, brass vessels, piece-goods, blankets, broad cloth, silk,
salt, tobacco, spices, drugs, and beads are brought to market for local
consumption. A large amount of business is done by travelling mer-
chants, who buy up the produce from the cultivators. Few manufactures
of importance are carried on in the District. Shell-lac is manufactured
in considerable quantities, a factory at Ranchi turning out on an average

LOHARDAGA. 4$5

292 tons of the article annually. There are also two factories at Biindu.
The manufacture of lac-dye which was formerly carried on to a con-
siderable extent, has now ceased, the natural product being completely
supplanted by aniline dyes. Inferior articles of brass and iron work,
coarse cloth, rough blankets, mats, baskets, rope, and rude pottery
utensils are also made. The total length of roads in the District is
1024 miles, of which 56 miles are maintained from Provincial funds, at
a cost of £394, and 968 miles are maintained from the District road
cess funds at a cost of £2038.

Administration. — No returns are available of the revenue and
expenditure previous to 1858-59. In that year, the revenue of the
District, which then contained the same area as at present, with the
exception of two pargands recently transferred from Gaya, amounted
to £13,681, and the civil expenditure to £15,440. This excess of
expenditure over income was, however, quite abnormal, being caused
by payments (amounting to £4059) made on account of the Mutiny.
In 1870-71, the net revenue amounted to £29,900, and the total
expenditure to £22,563. In 1883-84, the total of six principal
items of District revenue, imperial, local, and municipal, was returned
at .£60,035, made up as follows: — Land revenue, £11,512; excise,
,£29,694; stamps, £9522; registration, £772; road cess, £7375 ;
municipal taxes, £1160. Total civil expenditure, including police,
£25,674. The expansion of revenue is due for the most part to the
re-settlement of Palamau at enhanced rates, and to an increase under
excise and stamps. The land-tax forms a smaller proportion of the
revenue of the District than in Bengal generally. In 1858-59 it amounted
to £4474, or only one-third of the entire revenue of the District ; by
1870-71 it had risen to £7067, but formed a still smaller proportion of
the entire revenue, while in 1883-84 it was £11,512, or only one-fifth.

There were in 1860-61, 5 magisterial and 5 civil and revenue
courts in Lohardaga ; in 1883 the number had increased to
10 magisterial and 7 civil and revenue courts. The number of
covenanted European officers at work in the District in 1860-61
was three, and in 1883, two. For police purposes, the District is
divided into 21 thdnds (police circles), with 25 outposts. The District
regular police force, including municipal and town police, numbered
501 men of all ranks, in 1883, maintained at a total cost of £9087.
There is also a rural police or village watch of 3297 men, maintained
by the landlords and villagers at an estimated cost, including rent-
free service lands, of £8600. The total machinery, therefore, for the
protection of person and property consisted in 1883 of 3798 officers
and men, giving 1 man to every 3-2 square miles of the area or to
every 424 persons of the population. The estimated total cost was
£17,687, equal to a charge of £1, 9s. 4jd. per square mile, and about

486

LOHARDAGA.

<2^d. per head of population. The number of convicted prisoners
confined in the two jails of the District in 1881 was 659 ; number dis-
charged, 702 ; daily average prison population, 182, of whom 5 were
females. The Reports of the Director of Public Instruction show that
in 1856-57, and again in 1860-61, there was only one Government in-
spected school in Lohardaga. By 1870-71 the number of Government
and aided schools had increased to 7, with 620 pupils ; and in 1872-73,
owing to the extension of the grant-in-aid system to primary schools,
the number of Government and aided schools was 178, attended by
4553 pupils. Since then, education has made rapid progress, and the
number of Government aided and inspected schools in 1882-83 was
335, with 10,314 pupils, being 6*4 pupils to every 1000 of the population.
The District is divided for administrative purposes into 2 Sub-divisions,
and for fiscal purposes into 44 pargands.

Medical Aspects. — The climate of the table-land of Chutia Nagpur
proper is said to be superior to that of any other part of India, except
the lower ranges of the Himalayas. The hot weather extends over
almost six weeks, commencing about the 20th April, and is never really
oppressive. The rainy season lasts from the middle of June to about
the first week in October, but it is not very regular. The principal
diseases of the District are malarious fever and rheumatism of a severe
type. Small-pox has occasionally appeared in an epidemic form,
but no serious outbreak is recorded. There are three charitable
dispensaries— at Ranchi, Lohardaga, and Daltonganj, which afforded
medical relief in 1883 to 239 in-door and 5678 out-door patients. The
total number of registered deaths in the District in 1883 was 26,701,
being at the rate of 16 "6 per thousand. [For further information regard-
ing Lohardaga, see the Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter
(Triibner & Co., 1877), vol. xvi. pp. 231-488; the Chutia Nagpur
Survey Report, by Captain (now Colonel) De Pree (1868); the
Paldmau Survey Report, by Captain G. H. Thompson (1866); Report
on the Land Tenures of Chutia Nagpur, by Mr. G. K. Webster, C.S.
(1875); Memorandum on the Revenue Administration of the Lower
Provinces, by D. J. M'Neill, Esq., C.S. ; the Bengal Census Reports
for 1872 and 1881 ; and the several Administration and Departmental
Reports from 1880 to 1884.]

Lohardaga. — Sadr or head-quarters Sub-division of Lohardaga
District, Bengal. Area, 7804 square miles; villages, 9271; houses,
207,632. Population (1881), males 556,372, and females 568,050;
total, 1,124,422. Hindus numbered 459,284; Muhammadans, 34,307 ;
Christians, 36,263; Buddhist, 1; Jains, 56; Santals, 310; Kols,
587,194; and other aboriginal tribes, 7007. Number of persons
per square mile, 144; villages per square mile, 1*19; persons per
village, 121; houses per square mile, 2 7 ; persons per house, 5 '4.

L 0 HARD A GA—L OHAR U. 487

This Sub-division comprises the 13 police circles of Balumat, Barwa,
Bassia, Bfru, Choria, Korambe, Lodhma, Lohardaga, Palkot, Ranchi,
Silli, Tamar and Torpa. In 1883 it contained 4 civil courts, exclusive
of the court of the Judicial Commissioner, 8 criminal courts, a regular
police force of 331 men, and a village watch of 2276 men.

Lohardaga. — Town and municipality in Lohardaga District,
Bengal, and, until 1840, the administrative head-quarters of the
District; situated in lat. 230 25' 48" n., and long. 840 43' 16" E., 45
miles to the west of Ranchi, the present head-quarters station. Popu-
lation ( 1 881) 3461, namely, males 172 1, and females 1740. Municipal
revenue in 1882, ^£145. Important market.

Lohargaon. — Village in Ajaigarh State, Bundelkhand, North-
western Provinces. Lat. 240 29' 30" n., long. 8o° 22' 25" e. ; situated
on the route from Allahabad to Sagar (Saugor), 198 miles south-west
of the first-named town ; lies in a depression between the Panna and
Bandair Hills. Formerly contained a British military station, now
abandoned. Population (188 1) 384. Elevation above sea-level, 1260
feet.

Loharinaig— Waterfall in Garhwal State, North- Western Provinces
consisting of a series of cataracts on the river Bhagirathi. A fair
road runs along the bank of the Bhagirathi river, which is crossed by
wire-rope suspension bridges in six places within 10 miles below the
Loharinaig rapids. Elevation above sea, 7389 feet. Lat. 300 57' n.,
long. 7 8° 44' e.

Loharu.— One of the Native States under the Political Superin-
tendence of the Commissioner of the Hissar Division and the
Government of the Punjab, lying between 280 21' 30" and 280 45' n.
lat., and between 750 40' and 75° 57' e. long. The principal town,
Loharu, is situated in lat. 280 24' n., and long. 750 52' e.

The founder of the State was Ahmad Baksh Khan, a Mughal, who
was employed by the Raja of Alwar (Ulwur), in negotiations with Lord
Lake in 1806. In recognition of his services, he received Loharu in
perpetuity from the Raja, and the pargand (District) of Firozpur
(Ferozepore) from Lord Lake on condition of fidelity and military
service. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Shams-ud-din Khan,
who was executed at Delhi for compassing the murder of Mr. Fraser,
the Resident, in 1835. The Firozpur pargand was confiscated, but
the Loharu estate was made over to Amin-ud-dm Khan and Zia-ud-
din Khan, the two brothers of Shams-ud-din. The two chiefs remained
in Delhi during the siege in 1857, and, after the capture, they were
placed under surveillance, but were eventually released and restored to
their position. Amin-ud-din Khan died in 1869, and was succeeded
by his son Ala-ud-din, the present Nawab of Loharu, who was born about
1833. By an arrangement of long standing, the younger chief has no

488 LOHGARH— LONAR.

share in the management of the State, but has a fixed allowance of
^1800 per annum assigned to him. The title of Nawab was granted to
Ala-ud-din in 1874, on condition of faithful allegiance to the British
Government. He has also received a sanad of adoption. Recently, the
Nawab having fallen into embarrassed circumstances, arrangements were
made to discharge his debts by a loan from Government, repayable
in twelve years. During this period, the Nawab has resigned the
management of the State, which has been placed in the hands of his
son, he himself receiving the fixed allowance assigned to the younger
chief of the State. Area, 285 square miles, with 54 villages, 161 7
houses, and 2500 families. Population (1881) 13,754, namely, males
7539, and females 6215. Classified according to religion, the popu-
lation consists of — Hindus, 12,225; Muhammadans, 1517; and Jains,
12. Estimated revenue of the State, ^6900. The chief is bound
to furnish a contingent of 200 horse when required. The town of
Loharu contains a population (1881) of 2038, namely, 1251 Hindus.
777 Muhammadans, and 10 Jains, residing in 239 houses. The
Nawab now resides at Farukhnagar in Gurgaon District. Post-
office.

Lohgarh. — Fort near the top of the Bhor Pass, Poona District,
Bombay Presidency ; situated about 4 miles south-west of Khandala.
Seized in 17 13 by Kanhoji Angria, the Maratha pirate. Subsequently,
during British operations against the last Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao in
1818, Lohgarh was occupied by Lieutenant-Colonel Prother. Till as
late as 1845, the fort was garrisoned by a British commandant and a
few troops.

Lohit. — Important branch of the Brahmaputra river in Assam,
which for a long distance forms the boundary between the Districts of
Sibsagar and Lakhimpur. After a winding course of about 70 miles,
generally in a south-westerly direction, it rejoins the parent stream near
the confluence of the Dhaneswari (Dhansiri). The large alluvial island
thus formed is called the Majuli Char. It covers an area of 310,215
acres, lying wholly within the jurisdiction of Sibsagar. On its right or
north bank the Lohit receives the waters of the Subansiri river.

Loisinh. — Estate or zaminddri in Sambalpur District, Central Pro-
vinces ; 20 miles south-south-east of Sambalpur town. Population (1881)
2412, nearly all Gonds and Kandhs, residing in 26 villages; area, 60
square miles, of which only a small part is cultivated, nearly the whole
estate consisting of a thick forest of sal and sdj. During the Mutiny
of 1857, the inhabitants, influenced by the rebel Surendra Sa, did much
mischief on the high-road from Cuttack, which runs through the estate ;
and Muddu, the chiefs brother, was hanged for the murder of Dr.
Moore. Chandru, the chief, was restored after the amnesty.

Lonar. — Town in Buldana District, Berar. Lat. 190 58' 50" N.,

LONARA—LONAULI. 4S9

long. 760 33' e. Population (1881) 2604, the majority of whom are
Brahmans. A place of great antiquity, standing on a hill amidst un-
dulating high lands, among which lies the salt lake of Lonar, the fabled
den of the demon-giant Lonasiir, who was overcome in single combat
by an incarnation of Vishnu. The god assumed the form of a beautiful
youth, and, with the aid of the giant's two sisters, discovered his sub-
terranean abode. With a single touch of his toe, he threw off the lid
of the den, and found the giant sleeping on his couch. A hill near
Dhakefal, about 36 miles south-west of Lonar, is said to be the lid of
the lake thrown off by Vishnu, and to coincide in shape and size with
the top of the lake. Lonasiir was buried in the den or hollow now
occupied by the great lake, whose water is supposed to be the giant's
blood. Lonar has ever since been held in great veneration.

The viewr of the lake is very striking. It is surrounded by a circular
ridge of hills about 400 feet high, among which are several old temples
and ruins of other monuments. From a crevice on the southern ridge
flows an ample spring of sweet water, with a fine temple at the fountain-
head. The top circumference of the hollow occupied by the lake is
about 5 miles, and the cavity presents the appearance of an enormous
volcanic crater. The country around is of tabular or nodular basalt.
The sides of this great bowl rise abruptly at an angle of 750 to 8o°,
the circumference of the lake itself at their bases being about 3 miles.
These slopes are covered with jungle interspersed with teak ; at their
feet is a belt of large trees, about 300 yards broad, encircling the basin.
This belt is formed of concentric rings of tamarind and babul.

A muddy space, several hundred yards broad, white and slimy, and
devoid of all vegetation, surrounds the lake ; and is in the rainy season
covered with water. The specific gravity of the water is 1027-65. When
in the dry weather evaporation reduces the level of the lake, large
quantities of salts are collected, which by analysis (Malcolmson, 1837)
gave in 100 parts — carbonic acid, 38 ; soda, 40*9 ; water, 20-6 ; insoluble
matter, 0-5 ; and a trace of sulphate. The salt is chiefly used for the
manufacture of country soap, and is exported to considerable distances.
It is now proposed to farm the products of the lake, leasing the right to
collect the salt for a term of years.

Lonara. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh; 10 miles north-west of
Sandila. Population (1869) 2947; (1881) 1191, residing in 215 mud
houses. Only noticeable as being the first seat of the Nikumbhs when,
300 years ago, they moved southwards from Muhamdi and drove out
the Kamangars ; and still in their possession.

Lonauli. — Town, municipality, and railway station in Poona District,
Bombay Presidency; situated about 40 miles north-west of Poona city,
at the top of the Bhor Pass. Lonauli forms an important point on the
south-east extension of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Popula-

49o L ONI—L UCKNO U '.

tion (1881) 3334. A railway reservoir, about 2 miles to the south of
the town, affords a fair supply of drinking water. Close to the town
is a wood of fine trees, covering an area of about 56 acres. The
municipality, established in 1877, had in 1882-83 an income of ^100;
incidence of municipal taxation, 3! d. per head. Lonauli contains a
post-office, locomotive works, Protestant and Roman Catholic chapels,
railway school, masonic lodge, and co-operative store.

Loni.— Decayed town in Ghaziabad tahsil, Meerut (Merath) District,
North- Western Provinces. Distant from Meerut city 29 miles south-west,
from Delhi 7 miles north-east. The population, which in 1872 was re-
turned at 4085, had by 1881 dwindled to 2529, namely, Muhammadans,
1505 ; Hindus, 1020; and Christians, 4. Ruined fort, built by Prithwi-raj,
the Chauhan ruler of Delhi. The town was formerly a hunting residence
of the Mughal Emperors. About 1 789, Muhammad Shah built a grove
and tank, to water which the Eastern Jumna Canal was first constructed,
though never actually used. At Uldipur, Zinat Mahal, wife of Bahadur
Shah, planted another grove, enclosed by walls and gates, and containing
a scarlet-domed bdraddri. Numerous other relics exist of the Mughal
dynasty, confiscated after the Mutiny, and now for the most part in ruins.
Police station, post-office.

Lormi (Lurmt). — Valuable estate in Mungeli tahsil, Bilaspur
District, Central Provinces, owned by a Bairagi, to whose predecessor
it was granted in 1830. Area, 92 square miles, of which rather more
than half is cultivated, and nearly all cultivable.

Losar. — The highest inhabited village in Spiti, Kangra District,
Punjab, consisting of sixteen households. Lat. 320 28' N., long. 770
46' e. ; elevation above sea-level, about 13,400 feet.

Lovedale. — Hill station in the Nilgiri District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. n° 22' 40" n., long. 760 44' 30" e. The Lawrence Asylum is
situated here. — See Utakamand.

Lowa. — Town in Unao District, Oudh ; situated on the Sai river,
16 miles north-east of Pdrwa, and 36 from Unao town. Lat. 2 6° 29' n.,
long. 8i° 1' e. Population (1869) 3318; (1881) 3192, namely, 3135
Hindus and 57 Muhammadans.

Lowaghar. — Mountain range in Bannu District, Punjab. — See
Maidani.

Luckeeserai (Lakhi-sardi). — Railway station in Monghyr District,
Bengal, at the junction of the 'chord' and 'loop' lines of the East
India Railway ; 262 miles from Calcutta by the former route. A
broad, handsome bridge here crosses the Keul river, on the west bank
of which Luckeeserai stands. Of growing importance as a railway
junction.

Lucknow {Lakhnau). — Division or Commissionership in Oudh,
under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North- Western

LUCKNOW. 491

Provinces; lying between 2 6° 6' and 270 21' 5" n. lat, and between 8o° 7
and 8i° 56' e. long. It forms the south-east Division of the Province
of Oudh, and comprises the 3 Districts of Lucknow, Unao, and Bara
Banki, each of which see separately. It is bounded on the north by
Hardoi and Sitapur Districts ; on the east by Bahraich and Gonda
Districts ; on the south by Faizabad (Fyzabad), Sultanpur, and Rai
Bareli Districts ; and on the west by the Ganges, separating it from the
North-Western Provinces Districts of Fatehpur and Cawnpur. Area,
4504/5 square miles, containing 18 towns and 4676 villages, with
470,780 houses. Total population in 1869, 2,837,580, namely, males
1,466,831, and females 1,370,749. Total population (1881) 2,622,681,
namely, males 1,350,053, and females 1,272,628. The decrease of
population during the twelve years ending 1881 was, therefore, 214,899,
or 7 '6 per cent. The decrease varies from 49 per cent, in Unao to 8*5
per cent, in Bara Banki, and 10*5 per cent, in Lucknow. These Districts
formed part of the tract which suffered from the drought of 1877-78,
and the terrible fever of the following year. The District officers concur
in ascribing the diminution to these disastrous years, and they show
the rate of decrease to be highest in those pargands where the people
suffered most.

Classified according to religion, the Census of 1881 returned the
population as follows : — Hindus, 2,225,508, or 84-8 per cent. ; Muham-
madans, 389,154, or 14*8 per cent.; Sikhs, 282; Christians, 6407, mainly
consisting of the Lucknow garrison of European troops; Jains, 1301;
Parsfs, 19 ; and Jews, 10. Among the higher castes, Brahmans
number 259,100, constituting the second most numerous caste in the
Division; and Rajputs, 141,512; the two castes aggregating 400,612,
or 15-3 per cent, of the total population. The Baniyas or trading class
number 49,868 ; and the Kayasths, or writer caste, who form the bulk of
the native officials, 39,410. Of the lower or Siidra castes, the most
important are — Ahirs, the most numerous caste in the Division,
271,251; Chamars, 211,385; Kurmis, 184,747; Lodhis, 157,891;
Kachhis, 76,412; Korfs, 64,446; Kahars, 46,274; Gadarias, 45,966;
Nais, 44,541; Telis, 42,581; Barhais, 4°>75I; Dhobfs, 37,112;
Bhurjis, 30,961; Kumbhars, 26,424; Lohars, 23,944; Tambulis,
20,463. The old aboriginal tribe of Pasis are returned at 227,695 in
number, and are included in the Census Report among the Hindus.
The ancient dominant tribe of Bhars, who ruled the country prior to
the Rajput and early Muhammadan invasions, have now entirely dis-
appeared from this part of the country, or been absorbed into some
one or other of the Hindu low castes, as the Census only returns 19
Bhars in the whole Lucknow Division. The Muhammadan population
consists of 347,466 Sunnis and 41,688 Shias, the latter, who are chiefly
found in the neighbourhood of Lucknow City, being the descendants

492 L UCKNO IV DISTRICT.

of the courtiers and retainers of the Nawab Wazirs. Of the Christians,
4631 are Europeans, 1000 Eurasians, 5 Armenians, and 771 native
converts.

Lucknow Division contains a large urban population, the number of
towns, including Lucknow city and cantonment, with upwards of
five thousand inhabitants, being 18, with an aggregate town population
of 386,256, or 147 per cent, of the total population. The remainder,
or rural population, is divided among 4676 villages, classified as
follows: — ^99 contain less than two hundred inhabitants, 1786 from
two hundred to five hundred, 10 18 from five hundred to a thousand,
368 from one to two thousand, 68 from two to three thousand, and 36
from three to five thousand.

Total adult agricultural population, male and female, 854,989,
consisting of 30,502 landholders, 598,599 cultivators, 220,250 field
labourers, and 5638 agents, etc. The population dependent on the
soil, however, numbers 1,705,388, or 65*02 per cent, of the whole
population of the Division. Of the total area of 45°4'5 square
miles, 43717 square miles are assessed for Government revenue.
Of these, 2493*6 square miles were under cultivation in i88r, 892*9
square miles were cultivable but not under cultivation, and 985*2
square miles were uncultivable waste. Total Government assess-
ment, including local rates and cesses, ,£395,266, or an average of 4s.
nfd. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, ,£742,607,
or an average of 9s. o|d. per cultivated acre. The gross revenue of the
Lucknow Division in 1882-83 was ,£479,581 ; the total charges for
civil administration, as represented by the cost of officials and police,
was returned at .£56,576. Justice is administered by 41 criminal
courts, including that of the Judicial Commissioner of the Province,
and 37 civil and revenue courts. Total number of police circles
(thdnds), 32; strength of regular police, 2386 men; village watchmen
(ehaukiddrs), 7485.

Lucknow. — District of Oudh, in the Lucknow Division or Commis-
sionership, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the
North-Western Provinces; lying between 260 30' and 270 9' 30" n. lat.,
and between 8o° 44' and 8i° 15' 30" e. long. Area, 989*6 square miles ;
population (1881) 696,824. Lucknow is bounded on the north by
Hardoi and Sitapur ; on the east by Bara Banki ; on the south by Rai
Bareli ; and on the west by Unao Districts. In shape, the District is an
irregular oblong, running north-west and south-east ; average length, 45
miles; average breadth, 25 miles. The administrative head-quarters
are at Lucknow City, the capital of the Province.

Physical Aspects. — The general aspect of the country is that of an
open champaign, studded with villages, finely wooded, and in parts
most fertile and highly cultivated. In the vicinity of rivers, however,

L UCKNO W DISTRICT. 493

stretch extensive barren sandy tracts (b/uir), and there are many large
sterile wastes of saline efflorescence (lisar). The country is an almost
dead level throughout, the average slope, which is from north-west
to south-east, being less than a foot per mile. The principal rivers
are the Gumti and the Sai, with their tributaries. The former
enters the District from the north, and, after passing Lucknow city,
turns to the east and enters Bara Banki. Its chief tributaries are the
Behta and Nagwa, two small streams, which join it on its right bank.
The Sai forms the south-west boundary of the District, running almost
parallel with the Gumti, receiving as tributaries in Lucknow the Loni
and Bank nadis.

History. — The following paragraphs on the history of the District are
condensed from the Official Settlement Report : —

' Very few of the existing clans are of ancient date. Lucknow itself
was not, by the most probable accounts, founded before the time of
Raja Jai Chand of Kanauj, the downfall of whose kingdom at the
hands of Shahab-ud-din, in 1194 a.d., saw the last of the Hindu
dynasties of Northern India passing away; and the colonization of the
whole of this part of the country seems due to the dispersion of the
Rajputs, which the Musalman conquest effected. There are, so far as
I have been able to gather, only two or three exceptions to this — in the
Janwars of Saindar in Dewa ; in the Parihars of Ghugtir in Kiirsi, since
driven back to Ahmamau ; and in the Gautamas of Sassaindi in the
Mohanlalganj pargand. The history of the former is very ancient, and
seems strangely blended with that of the Bhars and Bahraich. The
traditions of the Gautamas of Sassaindi connect them with the kingdom
of Kanauj, and the Bais of Baiswara', to whose powerful kingdom
they became subject, subsequent to their own occupation and owner-
ship of the soil. Some few of the Rajput colonies — as the Punwars
of Itaunja (Mahona) and the Chauhans of Amosi — conducted their
invasions under the auspices, and with the sanction, of the Delhi
Emperors ; for at that time the Muhammadan rule in this Province was
little more than nominal, and all that the Rajputs effected seems to
have been due to their own strength and exertions.

' The Rajputs, after the tide of their immigration had once set
in, made themselves masters of the whole country. Amethias and
Gautamas possessed themselves of Mohanlalganj and Nighohan.
Subsequently there came to the former pargand a colony of Janwars
from Ikauna in Bahraich ; but they settled peaceably under the Shaikhs,
who had invaded and driven out the Amethias from the north of
the pargand — then known as Amethi — in the middle of the 16th
century.

' Bais to the south, and Chauhans through the centre, of the
pargand held Bijnaur; and Bais invaded and possessed themselves

494 L UCKNO W DISTRICT.

of Kakori. Janwars and Raikwars settled in Mohan- Auras ; Nikumbhs,
Gahirwars, Gautamas, and Janwars spread through Malihabad ; Pun-
wars and Chauhans invaded Mahona ; and Janwars held the north of
Kiirsi and Dewa. At an early period, the Janwars were invaded by a
tribe of Parihars, and confined in Kiirsi to the north of the Kalyani,
In Dewa, they succumbed to a family of Bais.

'Then came the Musalman conquest. Little seems to have been
effected by the first invasion of Sayyid Masaiid in 1030 a.d. Traces
of it may have remained in some of the old pargana towns, which
he made his encamped settlements, as in Nagram and Amethi of
pargana Mohanlalganj — through which he is said to have passed —
where mahallds are still existing, containing, as it is said, the descend-
ants of his old followers who founded them. But for a long time they
did not dare venture far from any of these, or from the head-quarters
which he had fixed for them at Satrikh.

' The next invasion was that of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, during
the time of Shahab-ud-din, in 1202 a.d. But he too seems to have
left but little trace behind him. He may have founded the village of
Bakhhtiyar-nagar, near Malihabad, and may have left some Pathans in
the town itself; but — though they may have resisted any attack made
upon themselves, as in the case of the Bais under the Bais Raja
Sathna of Kakori — they never ventured out into the surrounding
country to colonize it.

' The earliest Musalman colonies do not probably date from much
before the middle of the 13th century. Amongst the first to come
were the Shaikhs of Kasmandi in the Malihabad pargana, and the
Sayyids of Salimabad in Kiirsi. Then came the Shaikhs of Kidwara in
the Lucknow pargana, in the direction of Satrikh, and those of Kheoli
in Dewa. Many scattered Musalman communities are spread also
through Kiirsi and Dewa, but the native accounts favour the belief that
they originated from Satrikh.

1 The Musalmans frequently made short incursions from Satrikh.
One of the first places they attacked was the town of Dewa, where they
seem to have established themselves under Shah Wesh, a captain of
Sayyid Masaiid ; and they penetrated in the direction of Lucknow as
far as the town of Mandiaon or Mariaon, where they met with a repulse,
and their leader fell. In a village is still a tomb of portentous length,
in which a nau gaza pir, so called from his height, is said to have been
buried. By far the greater part of the Musalman proprietorship of
villages in the District dates from the time when a Musalman govern-
ment was firmly established within the limits of the Province. They
were naturally attracted towards the settlements of their own country-
men ; and Musalman villages stretch through the south of parqands
Dewa, Kiirsi, and Lucknow, up to Kakori.

L UCKNO IV DISTRICT. 495

1 Local tradition states that the owners of the country, before the
early Rajput and Muhammadan settlers, were certain low-caste tribes
of Bhars, Arakhs, and Pasis. Who the Bhars were, is a question that
still remains unanswered. Mr. Elliot says that they overran the country
after the loss of Ajodhya by the Surajbansi tribes. The country had
then apparently relapsed into primeval wilderness. The natives' only
conception of it is that of a vast uninhabited jungle, in which none but
saints and anchorites lived, who passed their time in prayer and medi-
tation. Raja Janmajai, son of Parikshit, grandson of Raja Yudisthira,
of mythical times, granted them the land in jdgir.

'The foundation of many of the towns is attributed to devotees, as
Mandiaon to Mandal Rikh, Mohan to Mohangir Gosain, Jugaur to
Jagdeo Jogi, Dewa to Dewal Rikh; and they may belong to these
times. The Bhars, then, found the country open to them ; and in this
District there was certainly some dominant clan that ruled the country,
so far south as the Sai, up to the end of the 12th century.

1 They seem to be of aboriginal origin, and some say belong to the
forest tribes of Kols, Bhils, Kirats, Hais, Pardhans, and Thariis, and
originally came from the Tarai. Ruins of Bhar dihis or village sites,
cover the face of the country. They seem to have built in brick, which
is more than their successors the Hindus do. The Kanauj dynasty
before its fall made great efforts to wrest the country from them. Ala
and Udan, Banaphar Rajputs, were sent by Raja Jai Chandra,
and first attacked Nathawan near Bijnaur, which is said to have
been held by a Pasi Raja Bigli : they then advanced to Sarsawa
near Amethi, and afterwards to Dewa, but seem to have got no
farther.

' In describing the settlements of Pasis and Bhars, etc., Pasis and
Arakhs seem to have been in strength in Malihabad and to have
stretched south to Kakori and Bijnaur, and along the left bank of
the Sai to Sassaindi. All to the east of them were Bhars.

' The Pasis must have been an aboriginal tribe ; they are disowned
by every one else, and their habits would favour it. Their fondness for
drink was notorious. There is not a story told of the conquest of any
fort, but that it was effected by plying the occupants with wine. This
is told of Bhars and Pasis alike. The natives connect them with
Arakhs ; they have an account of a Bhar dynasty founded about a.d.
918, by Tilok Chand, the head of the tribe. This chief fixed upon
Bahraich as his seat of empire, and led a powerful army against Raja
Bikrampal of Delhi, whom he defeated and dispossessed of his king-
dom. It is then said that he held all the country up to Delhi, and all
Oudh up to the mountains. His dynasty lasted for nine generations,
or one hundred and fifteen years, up to a.d. 1093. It ended with Rani
Bhem Devi, wife of Gobind Chand, who died without an heir, and

496

L UCKNO W DISTRICT.

bequeathed the kingdom to her priestly confessor (gurtf), Hargobind,
whose dynasty lasted for fifteen generations.'

Population.— -The area comprising the present District of Lucknow
contained, in 1869, a population of 778,195 souls- At the last Census
in 1881, the population was returned at 696,824, showing a decrease
of 81,371 souls, or 10-5 per cent., in twelve years. Lucknow was in
the very centre of the tract which suffered most severely from the
famine of 1877-78, and the fever epidemic of the following year; and
the diminution of population is ascribed to these calamities. The
results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as follows : —
Area of District, 989-6 square miles, with 5 towns and 942 villages ;
number of houses, 131,215. Total population, 696,824, namely,
males 365,305, and females 331,519; proportion of males in the total
population, 52*4 per cent. Average density of population, 704 persons
per square mile; towns and villages per square mile, 0-95 ; persons per
town or village (excluding Lucknow city and cantonments), 471 ;
number of houses per square mile, 132*5 \ inmates per house, 5-3.
Classified according to religion, the population consisted in 18S1 of—
Hindus, 540,037, or 77-5 per cent; Muhammadans, i49>921> or 21'5
per cent.; Sikhs, 218; Christians, 6280; Jains, 339; Jews, 10; and
Parsis, 19. Classified according to age, there were, under 15 years of
age — males 120,844, and females 107,234; total children, 228,078, or
327 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards — males 244,461,
and females 224,285; total adults, 468,746, or 67-3 per cent, of the
population.

Among Hindus, the higher castes of Brahmans and Rajputs bear
a less proportion to the general population in Lucknow than in any
other District of Oudh. The Census of 1881 returned the Brah-
mans at 45,549, or 8*3 per cent, of the Hindu population; Rajputs
at 27,765, or 5*i per cent. The Baniyas or trading class numbered
18,840; and the Kayasths, or writers and official class, 15,640. Of
the lower or Sudra castes, the most numerous were — Ahirs, 65,189;
Pasis (aborigines and one of the dominant classes of the country prior
to the Rajput and Muhammadan invasions), 58,435 ; Chamars, 58,396;
Lodhis, 45,778; Kurmis, 21,261; Kachhis, 19,836; Koris, 16,333;
Kahars, 14,760; Teh's, 13,428; Dhobis, 10,621; Nais, 10,439; Bar_
hais, 8711 ; Bhurjis, 8019 ; Kumbhars, 7314; Tambuh's, 7088; Lohars,
6263; Bhangis, 6061; Gadarias, 5917; Kalwars, 5890; and Sonars,
5218. Lucknow has a larger proportion of Muhammandans than any
other District in Oudh, but this is mainly due to Lucknow city, which
contains a Musalman population of 94,851. By sect the Muham-
madans consist of — Sunnis, 115,371, and Shias, 34,550, the large pro-
portion of the latter being due to the fact that Lucknow was the seat of
a Shia court during the days of the Nawabi, and the great majority of

L UCKNO IV DISTRICT. 49 7

Shias still live in the city and immediate neighbourhood of Lucknow.
Of the Muhammadans, 654 are Mewatis by race, descendants of
converts to what was then the State religion ; 105 Giijars ; and 29
Rajputs. The Christian community comprises — Europeans, 4590 ;
Eurasians, 946 ; Armenians, 5 ; and native converts, 739.

Town and Rural Population. — Including Lucknow city and canton-
ment, the District contains five towns with a population exceeding five
thousand inhabitants, namely, Lucknow City, 239,773, and canton-
ment, 21,530; Kakori, 7462; Malihabad, 7276; and Amethi,
5654. Total urban population, 281,695, or 4°'4 per cent, of the District
population. Excluding Lucknow city and cantonment, the urban popu-
tion numbered only 20,392, or 2-9 per cent. The remainder, forming
the rural population, is divided among 942 villages, classified as follows :
292 villages contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 355 from two to
five hundred ; 203 from five hundred to a thousand ; 76 from one to two
thousand; 14 from two to three thousand ; and 2 from three to five
thousand inhabitants. With regard to the occupations of the people,
the Census Report thus returns the male population : — Class (1) Profes-
sional, including all Government officials and servants, and the learned
professions, 13,926 ; (2) domestic and menial servants, lodging-house
keepers, etc., 5724; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders,
carriers, etc., 10,507 ; (4) agricultural class, including gardeners, herds-
men, shepherds, etc., 118,311 ; (5) manufacturing and industrial class,
including artisans, 54,409 ; (6) indefinite and non-productive class
(comprising 44,605 general labourers, and 117,823 male children,
and persons of property of no stated occupation), 162,428.

Agriculture.— -The total area of Lucknow District, after the recent
transfer of pargands Mohan Auras, Kiirsi, Dewa to neighbouring
Districts in 188 1, is 989-6 square miles. The area under cultivation
was estimated by the District officer in 1882-83 at 426,000 acres,
or 665 square miles. This estimate includes land counted twice over
as yielding two harvests in the year. The actual cultivated area in
1883-84 was only 332,463 acres, of which 139,998 acres were
irrigated, entirely by private enterprise. Of the remaining area,
139,046 acres were returned as cultivable, and 155,210 acres as
uncultivable waste. There are three harvests in the year, the rabi
in spring, the Man/ in the rainy season, and the henwat in the
autumn. For the rabi, the chief crops are wheat, barley, gram, peas,
gujai (a mixture of wheat and barley), and birra (a mixture of barley
and gram, gram predominating). The land under these crops amounts
to 150,026 acres, wheat heading the list with 72,329 acres, or more
than one -fifth of the whole cultivated area. For the kharif, the
crops are rice, millets, sdivdn, mandwa, kdkun, and Indian corn or
maize. For the henwat, the crops are /00V and bdj'ra, mash, mung, moth,

VOL. VIII 2 1

493

LUCK NO IV DISTRICT.

masur, and labia. In addition, there are the valuable tobacco and
opium and kachhidna or vegetable crops ; of which tobacco takes up
1527 acres, opium 5623 acres, cotton 910 acres, and the spices, as zira
(cummin seed), saunf (aniseed), dhaniya (coriander seed), 402 acres.
Irrigation is carried on from rivers, tanks, and wells.

The total male adult agricultural population in 18S1 was returned at
115,088, made up by 5887 landholders, 89,574 cultivators, 18,756 agri-
cultural labourers, and 8 7 1 estate officers. Number of cultivated acres to
each male agriculturist, 3-01. The population entirely dependent on the
soil, however, numbered 3 1 7 , 5 5 3» or 45 '5 7 per cent, of the total population
of the District. Of the total area of 989-6 square miles, 91*4 square
miles are held revenue free, and the remaining 898*2 square miles are
assessed for Government revenue. Of the assessed area, 495 square miles
were returned in 1881 as under cultivation, 1687 square miles as cultiv-
able, and 234-5 square miles as uncultivable waste. Total Government
assessment, including local rates and cesses levied upon land, ,£83,843,
or an average of 5s. 3jd. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by culti-
vators, including rates and cesses, £154,082, or 8s. iofd. per cultivated
acre. These are the rural rates. In the neighbourhood of towns, rents
are much higher.

The cultivators are almost all deeply in debt, and under advances

of seed grain from their landlords. Wages have remained stationary

in the country, but in the towns they have decreased, owing to

the departure of the Oudh court, and the consequent diminished

wealth and population of the city. Ordinary agricultural labourers

receive about 1 Jd. a day in money, when not paid in grain.

Artisans, such as smiths and carpenters, receive 4jd. a day for

work in their own villages, or 6d. a day if called away from home.

Prices have risen much of late years. The average rate in Lucknow

city for wheat (the staple crop) during the fifteen years preceding

annexation, was 24 sers per rupee, or 4s. 8d. per cwt., while during the

fifteen years subsequent to annexation (1856-70), it was 19 sers per

rupee, or 5s. nd. per cwt. Barley has risen from 36 sers per rupee,

or 3s. id. per cwt., during the fifteen years 1841-55, to 29 sers, or 3s.

iod. per cwt., in the fifteen years 1856-70. In 1883 the price for

wheat was returned at 18 sers per rupee, or 6s. 3d. per cwt. ; barley, 20

sers per rupee, or 5s. 7d. per cwt. ; and common rice, 14J sers per

rupee, or 7s. 9d. per cwt. The real rise of prices is, however, much

higher. Grain is supplied now by railway from a larger area, the city

of Lucknow has fallen off in population, and money is very scarce ; all

these causes should have cheapened food -grains, but the relative

value of wheat compared with money has risen much more than would

appear from these figures.

Te?uires. — Lucknow is mainly a District of small proprietors. In

L UCKNO W DISTRICT. 499

the old District, out of 1498 villages, 374 were owned by 37 tdlukddrs
In the District as at present constituted, 21 tdlukddrs hold 246 villages.
The other villages are either bhdyachdra or zaminddri. In the former
case a community of small proprietors hold a village with its demesne
in coparcenary tenure, each shareholder enjoying a portion of the land,
and also receiving a share of the rents paid by non-proprietary cultiva-
tors. It is a complex tenure. In zaminddri villages there is no such
mixture of rights. Several men are joint proprietors of the village, but
they divide the rents only ; no one has any permanent or other than
permissive interest in any portion of the land. The largest estate in
the District is that of Raja Chand Sekar, who holds 28 villages, and
pays a Government revenue of ^"3663 a year.

Famines. — Famines or severe scarcities have occurred in Lucknow
in 1769, 1784-86, 1837, 1861, 1865-66, 1869, 1873, and 1877-78—
all caused by drought. In 1866, the price of wheat rose to 12 sen per
rupee, or 9s. 4d. a cwt. ; and in 1869 t0 as high as 9 sers per rupee, or
12s. 5d. a cwt. Maize and gram were quoted at from 13 to 12 sers per
rupee, or from 8s. 7d. to 9s. 4d. a cwt. in 1866 and 1869. At the
height of the scarcity of 1873, cheap grain of some kind was to be had
at from 18 to 16 sers per rupee, or from 6s. 3d. to 7s. a cwt. During
the famine of 1877-78, Lucknow was one of the Districts most severely
affected, and numerous Government relief works were opened.

Roads and Commimications. — The District is well provided with
communications by road, river, and railway. Three imperial lines
of road branch out south, east, and north to Cawnpur, Faizabad,
and Sitapur, metalled and bridged throughout, and aggregating, exclu-
sive of the roads in Lucknow city and cantonments, a length of
about 500 miles. The principal local lines of road are 6 in number,
as follow:— (1) to Kiirsi; (2) to Dewa; (3) to Sultanpur, passing
through Gosainganj and Amethi ; (4) to Rai Bareli, passing through
Mohanlalganj ; (5) to Mohan, which, crossing the Sai by a fine old
native-built bridge, passes on to Rasiilabad, in Unao District ; (6) to
Malihabad, which runs on to Sandila, a large town in Hardoi. These
roads connect the capital with the pargand towns, and the latter are
joined by others running (1) from Mahona through Kiirsi to Dewa,
whence it passes on to the District of Bara Banki ; (2) from Gosain-
ganj through Mohanlalganj to meet the Imperial Cawnpur road at
Janabganj near Bani bridge; and (3) by a road from Bani bridge
through Mohan to Auras, which is there crossed (4) by a road that,
passing over the Sai by a substantial bridge, runs through the upper
end of the Mohan Auras pargand, and joins the Malihabad and Sandila
road at Rahimabad. There is another road, some 7 miles long, lead-
ing from Lucknow to Bijnaur. These local roads are well bridged
throughout, and though heavy during the rains, are well suited for the

5 00 L UCKNO W DISTRICT.

traffic of the broad-wheeled carts of the country and the soft-footed
bullocks that pull them.

River communication is not much used. The Giimti flows south-
east through part of the District for a total distance of ioo miles. But
its course is tortuous, and passage slow; and it is not much used, except
for the conveyance of wood and straw, which is carried down in barges,
freighted sometimes with so much as 40 or 50 tons each. On the
whole, the Giimti may be said to bar rather than further communica-
tion, but Government ferry-boats are attached to various ghats.

The line of railway is comprised in the Oudh and Rohilkhand Rail-
way system. It branches out in three directions — east, south-west, and
north-east. The first passes through the thickly-populated pargand
of Lucknow to Bara Banki, and, sending a branch to Bahramghat on
the Gogra, passes on through Faizabad (Fyzabad) towards Benares.
The next connects Lucknow with Cawnpur, a line of 48 miles, of
which about 16 miles run through this District. The last communi-
cates with Shahjahanpur, and passing the large and important towns of
Kakori and MalMbad, traverses the Malihabad pargand on its way
through Hardoi to Shahjahanpur, Bareli, and Moradabad. The entire
length of railway communication in the District is 53 miles.

Manufactures, Trade, etc. — Manufactures are mainly confined to
Lucknow City. In the country towns are a few weavers, dyers,
bangle-makers, brass-workers, and potters. Cotton-weaving has greatly
declined since the introduction of European goods. The principal
imports of the District are foodstuffs, piece-goods, arms, hardware,
glass, crockery, and salt ; exports — muslins, embroidery, cotton prints,
brass vessels, lace, tobacco, etc.

Administration. — The Judicial Commissioner of Oudh, and the Com-
missioner of the Lucknow Division, have their head-quarters in Lucknow
city. For a period of the year it is also the head-quarters of the Provincial
Government. The District is administered by a Deputy Commissioner,
aided by one Magistrate in special charge of the city, and a second in
the cantonments, 1 or 2 Assistant Commisssioners, 3 extra-Assistant
Commissioners, 3 tahsilddrs, and 4 Honorary Magistrates. Besides,
there are a Civil Judge and a Small Cause Court Judge, who have
no criminal or revenue powers. The total imperial and local revenue
of Lucknow District in 1871-72 amounted to ^"162,926, and the ex-
penditure to ^70,534; the Government land revenue was ^70,580.
In 1883-84, with a reduced area, the gross revenue of the District was
,£127,590, of which ^70,258 was derived from the land-tax. The
total cost of civil administration, as represented by the cost of officials
and police, was ^29,564.

Including the Courts of the Judicial Commissioner of the Province
and of the Commissioner of the Division, Lucknow contains 11

L UCKNO IV DISTRICT. 5 o i

criminal and 7 civil courts, with a regular police force, including
city and cantonment police, of 1764 officers and men, and a village
watch or rural police numbering 1447 men. The District is sub-divided
for revenue purposes into the three tahsils of Lucknow, Mohanlalganj
and Malihabad; and for police purposes into 13 circles (thdnds).
The District jail contained a daily average of 405 prisoners in 1883.

Education was afforded in 1883 by 137 schools, supported or aided
by Government, and inspected by the Education Department, with
a total roll on the 31st March 1883 of 6609 pupils. This is exclusive
of unaided and uninspected schools, and the Census Report of 188 1
returned 7760 boys and 719 girls as under instruction, besides 26,369
males and 1438 females able to read and write, but not under instruction.
The principal educational institutions are the Arts College at Lucknow
with its law and medical classes, and attached High School; the
Sanskrit College, and the La Martiniere College for the education of
Europeans and Eurasians.

The only regular municipality in the District is that of Lucknow city ;
but a house-tax for police and conservancy purposes is raised in the
following towns— Kakori, Malihabad, Amethi, Bijnaur, Chinhat, Amani-
ganj, Itaunja, and Gosainganj.

Medical Aspects.— Average annual rainfall in the District generally,
37-6 inches ; in Lucknow city, 41*4 inches. Mean annual temperature,
77-8° F. In the year 1883, the maximum temperature in May, the
hottest month, was 1150; the minimum in February, the coldest month,
was 38'3°.

The prevailing endemic diseases of the District are fevers, skin
diseases, and bowel complaints. The most common kind of fever-
is intermittent of the quotidian type ; the quartan type is com-
paratively rare. Remittent fever is not uncommon. Cholera is
seldom absent from the District. There is no year in which a con-
siderable number of deaths is not ascribed to this disease. Both
forms of cholera (sporadic and epidemic) are met with. The disease
appears at the setting in of the rains, and is generally prevalent during
the months of July, August, September, October, and November.
Small-pox generally makes its appearance in March, and attains its
maximum intensity in the months of April, May, and June. It begins
to decline during the rains, and almost disappears by the middle of
the cold weather. Small-pox rages with virulence among all ranks of
society ; and, in the absence of general vaccination, numbers are carried
off by it every year. The total number of deaths registered from fevers
in Lucknow District (excluding the city) in 1883 was 8044, giving a rate
of 17-60 per thousand of the rural population. An epidemic of small-pox
in the same year caused 7500 deaths, or a rate of 16*41 per thousand.
The total number of registered deaths in 1883 in the District (outside

5o2 LUCKNOW TAHSIL AND PARGANA.

the city) was 17,560, or at the rate of 38*43 per thousand, against an
average of 35*09 per thousand in the previous five years. In Lucknow
city in 1883, the deaths from fever numbered 5127, and from small-
pox 2 1 14, the total mortality being at the rate of 34*66 per thousand.
Total registered deaths in District and city in 1883, 28,630. The prin-
cipal medical institutions are the King's hospital, civil dispensary, and
Balrampur hospital in the city of Lucknow, at which 40,480 patients
received medical relief in 1883. A lunatic asylum for the whole of
Oudh is situated upon the eastern bank of the Gumti, near the Faizabad
road. [For further information regarding Lucknow, see the Gazetteer
of Oudh, vol. ii. pp. 301-396 (published by authority, Allahabad, 1877) ;
the Report on the Land Settlement of Lucknow District, by Mr. H. H.
Butts, C.S. (Lucknow, 1873); the Census Report of the North- West em
Provinces and Oudh for 1881 ; and the several Administration and
Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.]

Lucknow. — Tahsil or Sub-division of Lucknow District, Oudh, lying
between 260 38' 30" and 270 o' 15" N. lat, and between 8o° 42' and 8i°
8' 30" e. long. Bounded on the north by Malihabad tahsil ; on the
east by Bari Banki District ; on the south by Mohanlalganj tahsil ; and
on the west by Mohan tahsil of Unao. This tahsil comprises the 3
pargands of Lucknow, Bijnaur, and Kakori. Population (1869)
468,507; (1881) 414,570, namely, males 219,327, and females
195,243. The decrease of 53,937, or 11*5 per cent., between the
twelve years 1 869-1 881 is, as explained in the article on Lucknow
District, mainly attributable to the famine of 1877-78, and the fever
epidemic of the following year. Classified according to religion, the
population in 1 881 consisted of— Hindus, 291,179; Muhammadans,
116,541; Jains, 338; 'others,' 6512. Total number of villages and
towns, 343, of which 222 contain less than five hundred inhabitants.
The tahsil contains (including the head-quarter Courts of the Judicial
Commissioner of Oudh, the Commissioner of the Lucknow Division,
and the Deputy-Commissioner of the District) 9 criminal and 7 civil
courts. Number of police circles, 3; strength of regular police, 1625
men (including 876 municipal police), besides a rural police or village
watch of 46 1 chaukiddrs.

Lucknow. — Pargand of Lucknow District, Oudh ; the tract lying
immediately around Lucknow City, in which the whole interest of the
pargand centres. Area, 165 square miles, of which 96 are returned as
under cultivation, being practically the whole of the land available for
tillage. Population (1869), including Lucknow city, 368,977 ; (1881)
323>97°> namely, males 172,189, and females 151,781. Rents are
high, but, as elsewhere, Rajputs pay less than the lower castes.
Their average rent is 7s. 9d. per acre, while Lodhis pay 12s. 6d., and
Kachhis as high as 27s. 3d. an acre. In individual instances in

L UCKNO W CITY. 503

villages around the city, rents amount to as much as £4, and even
^5 an acre. Government land revenue, ^14,746 ; average incidence,
5s. per cultivated acre. In villages around the city, the assessment falls
at the rate of 13s. ijd. per acre. Besides Lucknow City, the pargand
contains the towns of Ujariaon, Juggam, Chinhat, Mahaballipur, and
Thawar. Total number of towns and villages, 180.

Lucknow (Ldkhnad). — Capital city of the Province of Oudh ;
situated on both banks of the river Giimti, in lat. 2 6° 51' 40" n., and
long. 8o° 58' 10" e. Distant from Cawnpur 42 miles, from Benares
199 miles, from Calcutta 610 miles. Area, 13 square miles. Popula-
tion in 1881 — city, 239,773, and cantonments, 21,530; total, 261,303.
Though quite a modern town, Lucknow at present ranks fourth in size
amongst British Indian cities, being only surpassed by the three Presi-
dency capitals of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. It stands on a
plain, 403 feet above sea-level. Till recent years, it formed the metro-
polis of a great Muhammadan kingdom, and afterwards contained the
administrative head-quarters of a considerable British Province ; while
even at the present day it retains its position as a centre of modern
Indian life, being a leading city of native fashion, and a chief school
of music, grammar, and Musalman theology. Trade and manu-
factures are now beginning to restore the wealth which it formerly
owed to the presence of the luxurious court of the Nawab Wazirs or
kings of Oudh.

Situation and General Appearance. — Lucknow stands on both banks
of the Giimti, but the greater portion of the city stretches along its
western side, a few suburbs only covering the farther shore. Four
bridges span the river, two of them built by native rulers, and two
since the British annexation in 1856. Viewed from a distance, Lucknow
presents a picture of unusual magnificence and architectural splendour,
-which fades on nearer view into the ordinary aspect of a crowded
oriental town. Some of the most striking buildings, which look like
marble in the moonlight, are disclosed by the disillusioning sun to
be degraded examples of stucco and brick. From the new bridge across
the Giimti, the city seems to be embedded in trees. High up the river,
the ancient stone bridge of Asaf-ud-daula crosses the stream. To its
left rise the walls of the Machi Bhawan fort, enclosing the Lakshman
tila (Lakshman's hill), the earliest inhabited spot in the city, from
which it derives its modern name. Close by, the immense Imambara,
or mausoleum of Asaf-ud-daula, towers above the surrounding buildings.
Farther in the distance, the lofty minarets of the Jama Masjid or
' cathedral mosque ' overlook the city ; while nearer again, on the
same side of the river, the ruined walls of the Residency, with its
Memorial Cross, recall the heroic defence made by the British garrison
in 1857. In front, close to the water's edge, the Chattar Manzil

5o4 LUCKXOW CITY.

palace, a huge and irregular pile of buildings, crowned by gilt umbrellas,
glitters gaudily in the sunlight ; while to the left, at some little dis-
tance, two mausoleums flank the entrance to the Kaisar Bagh,
the last of the overgrown palaces built by the exiled dynasty of
Oudh.

Still more picturesque panoramas may be obtained from any of the
numerous towers and cupolas which abound in every quarter. But a
nearer examination shows that Lucknow does not correspond in its
interior arrangements to its brilliant appearance from a little distance.
Nevertheless, many of its streets are broader and finer than those
of most Indian towns; and the clearance effected for military pur-
poses after the Mutiny, has resulted in greatly improving both the
aspect and the sanitary condition of the city. A glacis half a mile
broad surrounds the fort ; and three military roads, radiating from
this point as a centre, cut right through the heart of the native
quarter, often at an elevation of some 30 feet above the neighbour-
ing streets. Three other main roads also branch out from the same
point, one leading across the bridge, and the two others along the
banks of the Gumti. The Residency crowns a picturesque eminence,
the chief ornament of the city, containing, besides many ruined walls,
an old mosque and a magnificent banian tree. An artificial mound
rises near at hand, its sides gay with parterres of flowers ; while in the
rear, half hidden by the feathery foliage of gigantic bamboos, the
graveyard covers the remains of some 2000 Europeans, who perished
by war or massacre during the Mutiny of 1857. The various archi-
tectural works which adorn or disfigure Lucknow may best be con-
sidered in their historical order. South-east of the city, and separated
from it by a canal, lie the cantonments, which extend over an area of
n or 12 square miles.

History. — Like so many of the great modern cities of India, Lucknow
owes its importance almost entirely to the last century. It first rose
to greatness as the capital of the young dynasty which established
itself in Oudh during the decay of the Mughal Empire, and spread its
rule, not only over the modern Province, but also through the neigh-
bouring tracts of Rohilkhand, Allahabad, Cawnpur, and Ghazipur.
From very early times, however, a small village probably existed upon
the spot where the family of Saadat Khan afterwards fixed the seat
of their supremacy. The earliest inhabitants appear to have been
Brahmans and Kayasths, who dwelt around the Lakshman tild, now the
high ground enclosed within the Machi Bhawan fort. Here Lakshman,
brother of Ram Chandra, Raja of Ajodhya, having obtained a large
tract of country up to the Gogra mjdgir, founded the village of Laksh-
manpur, on a spot sacred to Sesnag, the thousand-headed snake, who
supports the world upon his back. A mosque, built by the bigoted

LUCKNOW CITY. 505

Aurangzeb, now covers the holy place. The village of Lakshmanpur
still stood within the memory of men now living.

The Shaikhs, afterwards known as the Shaikhzadas of Lucknow,
were the earliest Muhammadan conquerors of Oudh. Later on, the
Pathans of Ramnagar occupied the country up to the point where
the Gol Darwaza gate subsequently stood. East of this demarcating
line, the Shaikhs bore rule, and built a stronghold on the site of the
present Machi Bhawan fort. A small town grew up around their
castle, which bore the name of Lucknow at least as early as the
reign of Akbar. In the survey carried out by that Emperor, it is
described as ' a large city pleasantly situated upon the banks of the
Gumti, with very delightful suburbs.' The Ain-i-Akbari also mentions
the tomb of Shaikh Mina Shah, a Musalman saint, to whom prayers
were already offered. The Brahmans then formed a leading section of
the population ; and Akbar, with his usual tolerant indifference, wishing
to gratify them, caused the Bdj pel sacrifice to be offered, and gave
them a lakh of rupees. The city grew but little before his time, and
its subsequent enlargements belong to three periods, those of Akbar
himself, of Saadat All Khan, and of Asaf-ud-daula. The oldest
inhabited portions of the present city are the Hindu wards, lying in
the immediate neighbourhood of the chauk. The wards to the south,
along the line of the chauk, were built under Akbar, who took a great
fancy to the town, and did much to promote its welfare. His son,
Mirza Salim Shah, afterwards the Emperor Jahangir, founded Mirza
Mandi, lying to the west of the enceinte of the present fort. But none
of the great buildings which now adorn the city date back to an earlier
period than that of the independent Oudh dynasty.

Saadat Khan, founder of the Oudh kingdom, began life as a Persian
merchant of Naishapur, and ended it as the greatest Asiatic warrior of
his age, except perhaps Ahmad Khan. He became Governor (Subah-
dar) of Oudh in 1732 a.d., and fixed his residence at Lucknow.

Unlike his descendants, who built themselves the tasteless palaces
which now fill the city, Saadat Khan was content with a comparatively
humble dwelling, situated behind the Machi Bhawan. An open space,
south-west of the fort, now occupied by ordnance stores, marks the site
of two early buildings, the oldest in Lucknow erected by the family of
Shaikhs who formerly ruled over the surrounding territory. When
Saadat Khan assumed the reins of local government as Subahdar, he
hired these houses from their owners at a moderate monthly rent. At
first, the money was regularly paid ; but in process of time, the ruling
family began to regard the buildings as their own, and the rent fell into
arrears. Safdar Jang and Shuja-ud-daula gave written agreements to
fulfil the engagement, but never kept them ; and Asaf-ud-daula finally
confiscated the houses outright, without any compensation.

5o6 LUCKNOW CITY.

Saadat Khan himself met at first with some opposition from the
Shaikhs • but in the end he was completely successful, and before his
death he had made Oudh practically an independent principality.
Even in his old age he retained his personal strength and his military
skill; and his Hindu foes recorded with awe how he slew in single
combat Bhagwant Singh Khichi, and how his troops, when almost
beaten, rushed again to the conflict where the long white beard of their
chief led the van of the battle.

His son-in-law and successor, Safdar Jang (1743)? uved at Delhi as
Wazfr ; but he built the fort of Jalalabad, 3 miles south of the city, to
intimidate the Bais of Baiswara. He also rebuilt the old stronghold
of Lakshmanpur, which thenceforth bore the name of Machi Bhawan,
from his own crest (a fish — machi). Under his rule, too, the bridge
across the river was begun, though not completed till the time of
Asaf-ud-daula. Safdar Jang's son and successor, Shuja-ud-daula (1753),
lived at Faizabad after the battle of Baksar (Buxar) ; and Lucknow
received no additions during his rule.

The three earliest Nawabs of the Oudh dynasty were soldiers and
statesmen, all of whom took the field in person against English,
Marathas, and Rohillas, or against the great nobles whose feudal
power had reduced the central authority to a mere name. Under
their government, therefore, Lucknow received few architectural
embellishments of an ornamental kind. Only works of military utility,
such as forts, wells, and bridges, engaged their attention ; though
the city continued to grow, as the head-quarters of the ruling house,
and several wards were added on its spreading outskirts.

With Asaf-ud-daula, the fourth Nawab, a new political situation de-
veloped. He lived the contented and servile ally of the English. By
their aid, Oudh had acquired Rohilkhand, and might acquire Benares ;
and he felt himself independent of his own people. The grandeur
of Lucknow dates from the reign of this Nawab. Yet his works did not
degenerate into the mere personal extravagance of his successors. He
built bridges and mosques, as well as the Imambara, the chief archi-
tectural glory of Lucknow. Though inferior to the purest Muham-
madan models of Delhi and Agra, the Imambara, taken together with
the adjoining mosque and the Riimi Darwaza, forms a group of striking
magnificence and picturesque splendour. Asaf-ud-daula's erections are
simple and grand, free from the base admixture of bastard Greek and
Italian features which disfigure the later style of the Oudh dynasty.
The Imambara, constructed during the great famine of 1784, as a relief
work for the starving people, now covers the remains of its founder.
Tradition relates that many of the most respectable inhabitants, com-
pelled by want, enrolled themselves amongst the workmen j and that to
save their honour and keep their identity unknown, their names were

LUCK NOW CITY. 507

called over, and their wages paid, at dead of night. The building
consists of one large hall of immense size and magnificence. It
measures 167 feet in length by 52 in breadth, and cost, according
to local computation, no less than a million sterling. The gaudy
decorations which once covered its walls have now disappeared ; and
as the mausoleum stands within the walls of the fort, it serves at
present as an arsenal for the British garrison. The building is as solid
as it is graceful, being raised upon very deep foundations, and
without a single piece of woodwork in its construction. Mr.
Fergusson, though he has little to say in favour of any other
architectural work in Lucknow, praises the admirable vaulting of
the Imambara, and observes that the mausoleum, 'when not too
closely looked into, is not unfit to be spoken of in the same chapter as
the earlier buildings.'

Amongst other works of Asaf-ud-daula, the Rumi Darwaza, a fine
old massive and isolated gateway that still leads out of the Machf
Bhawan fort, ranks highest in importance. The Daulat-khana, along
the banks of the river west of the fort, and the magnificent palace
known as the Residency, also belong to the same period. The latter
edifice looks down upon the Gumti from a considerable elevation, and
forms the most striking feature in the whole of Lucknow. It was
allotted to the British Resident by Saadat All when he made his own
home in the magnificent Farhat Baksh. Outside the city, and across the
river, lies the palace of Bibiapur, built by Asaf-ud-daula as a country
residence and hunting-lodge. Numerous other handsome edifices in
various parts of the town attest the greatness of the same Nawab,
whose memory is still preserved in popular rhymes as the embodiment
of liberality and magnificence.

To the reign of Asaf-ud-daula belongs also the Martiniere, a school
founded by General Claude Martin, and completed after his death. It
consists of a colossal Italian villa on an exaggerated scale. General
Martin himself designed the plan and elevation, and showed them
to the Nawab, who wished to buy the building for a million sterling.
The founder's bones were buried within the Martiniere to prevent its
confiscation by the Musalman court, but were dug up and scattered
during the Mutiny. The school now affords clothing and education to
120 boys.

Under Asaf-ud-daula, the Lucknow court reached its highest splen-
dour. The dominions of the Nawab extended over a wider area than
at any earlier or later period. All the wealth of the State was devoted-
to the personal aggrandizement of its ruler, and the accumulation
of those materials which minister to oriental pomp. No court in
India or in Europe could rival the magnificence of Asaf-ud-daula ;
and his only ambition apparently consisted in discovering how many

5o8 L UCKNO W CITY.

elephants or diamonds the Nizam or Tipii possessed, in order that he
might outvie them. At the marriage of his reputed son, Wazir Ali
Khan, who four years afterwards murdered Mr. Cherry, and died in
Chunar prison, the marriage procession consisted of 1200 elephants,
and the young prince wore jewels valued at ^200,000. But this vast
accumulation of wealth could only be effected by the most crushing
taxation. Four years afterwards, Tennant traversed the whole of
Oudh, and found almost everywhere a plundered and desolate country.
The Nawab's dominions, he says, ' in defiance of the bounty of nature,
display a uniform sterility.' In Rohilkhand, ' not the hundredth part
of an acre is under cultivation ; ' and ' the solitude and gloom of the
Province ' were only relieved by a little prosperity where the eunuch
Mian Almas administered a few districts with comparative wisdom and
moderation. Of Lucknow itself he remarks, ' I never witnessed so
many varied forms of wretchedness, filth, and vice.'

Saadat Ali Khan, half-brother to Asaf-ud-daula (1798), carried his
submission to the British power still further. He gave up half his
dominions to the English, and in return obtained the protection of
their troops quartered in his citadels. Thenceforth the Nawabs and
kings of Oudh degenerated into a mere faineant dynasty of pleasure-
seekers, whose works no longer partook of any national or utilitarian
character, but ministered solely to the gratification of the sovereign. In
the place of mosques, wells, forts, or bridges, palace after palace sprang
up in succession, each more ungraceful and extravagant than the last.
At the same time, European influence began to make itself felt in
the architecture, which grew gradually more and more debased from
reign to reign. Awkward imitations of Corinthian columns supported
Musalman domes, while false Venetian blinds and stucco marble
replaced the solid masonry of the earlier period. A modest mansion
rented from a private family had satisfied the soldier chief, Saadat
Khan, and his two successors. One palace sufficed even for the
prodigal Asaf-ud-daula, the builder of the Imambara, the c/iaukt the
bazars, and the market-places. Saadat Ali, however, built numerous
palaces ; while with Nasir-ud-din Haidar began an era of extravagant
expenditure on monstrous residences for the royal family and their
female dependants. In the Chattar Manzil lived the king's wives ; in
the Kaisar Pasand and other buildings, his concubines ; in the Shah
Manzil, his wild beasts. He himself inhabited the Farhat Baksh, the
Haziir Bagh, the palace at Bibiapur, and many others. Wajid Ali
Shah had 360 concubines, each with a separate range of palatial
apartments.

To Saadat Ali Khan's reign belongs the Farhat Baksh, or ' Giver of
Delight,' the chief royal residence till Wajid Ali built the Kaisar
Bagh. Part of this magnificent building, overlooking the river, the

LUCKNOW CITY. 5c9

Nawab purchased from General Martin. The remainder he himself
constructed. The great throne-room, known as the Kasr-us-Sult£n or
Lai Baradari, was set apart for royal darbdrs ; and at the accession of
a new sovereign, it was customary for the British Resident to seat him
on the throne, and present him with a nazar, in token of his confirmation
in the sovereignty by the supreme power. Saadat Ali Khan also built
all that portion of Lucknow which stretches eastward from the old
Hindu wards, besides numerous small palaces, including the Dilkusha,
which stands on high ground outside the city, north of the modern
cantonments, affording a splendid view of the town, the river, and the
surrounding country. In his time, Lucknow finally reached very
nearly its present size.

Ghdzi-ud-din Haidar, son of Saadat Ali Khan (1814), was the first of
his line who bore the name of king. He built the greater part of the
pile known as the Moti Mahal palace, around the Moti Mahal dome of
his father. Along the river face, he added the Mubarak Manzil and
the Shah Manzil, on either side of the old bridge of boats. The latter
formed the scene of the wild-beast fights for which the court of Oudh
was famous up to the date of its extinction. Ghazi-ud-din Haidar also
erected the Chini bazar, the Chattar Manzil Kalan, which faces the
river, and the Chattar Manzil Khurd in its rear. The Shah Najaf, on
the banks of the Gumti, he built for his own tomb ; and on the spot
formerly occupied by his house when heir -apparent, he raised two
magnificent mausoleums to his father and mother. He attempted to
dig a canal for irrigation, which now skirts the east and south sides of
the city ; but it proved a failure, so far as economical results were con-
cerned. The Kadam Rasiil or ' Prophet's Footprint,' a Muhammadan
place of worship, built by Ghazi-ud-din, stands upon an artificial mound,
and formerly contained a stone bearing the impress of the Prophet's
foot. A pilgrim brought the holy relic from Arabia ; but during the
troubles of 1857 it disappeared, and has not since been recovered.

Nasir-ud-din Haidar, son of the last-named monarch (1827), founded
the Tarawali Kothi or ' Observatory,' under the superintendence of
Colonel Wilcox, his astronomer-royal. It contained several excellent
instruments. On the death of Colonel Wilcox in 1847, Wajid Ali Shah
dismissed the establishment, and the instruments disappeared during
the Mutiny, being probably broken up by the rebels. The Faizabad
Maulvi, Ahmad -ulla Shah, made it his head - quarters during the
rebellion, and the insurgent council frequently held its meetings within
the building. Nasir-ud-din also built a great karbala in Iradatnagar,
under which he lies buried.

Muhammad All Shah, uncle of Nasir-ud-din Haidar (1837), raised his
own monument, the magnificent Husainabad Imambara. It consists of
two enclosures, one of which stands at right angles to the other. Leaving

5I0 LUC KNOW CITY.

the fort by the great Riimi Darwaza, a broad road near the Gumti, a
quarter of a mile in length, conducts to the gate of the outer quadrangle.
A spectator standing a little to the west of the road can take in at a
single view the great Imambara of Asaf-ud-daula and the Riimi Darwdza
to the right, with the Husainabad mausoleum and the Jama Masjid to
the left. The whole forms one of the finest architectural prospects
in the world. This king also laid out a splendid road, which leads
from the Chattar Manzil through the fort along the river bank to his
Imambara. A magnificent tank, standing beside the road, dates from
the same reign. Ali Shah likewise began the erection of a mosque, at
a short distance from his mausoleum, designed to surpass the Jama
Masjid of Delhi in size ; but he did not live to complete it, and it stands
still half built, with the scaffolding rotting away outside, untouched
from the day of his death. The Sat Khanda or ' Seven-storied Tower,'
another of All Shah's projected works, remains similarly unfinished,
only the fourth storey having reached its completion.

Amjad Ali Shah, the fourth king (1S41), made a metalled road to
Cawnpur, built his own mausoleum at Hazratganj, and laid down
an iron bridge across the Gumti. This bridge was brought out from
England by order of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, who, however, died before
it arrived. His son, Nasir-ud-din Haidar, directed that it should
be put up opposite the Residency, where a small temple and ghat
now stand ; but the operations for sinking wells to receive the piers
proved unsuccessful, and the work was thus delayed till the accession
of Amjad All.

Wajid Ali Shah, the last King of Oudh (1 847-1 856), bears the whole
opprobrium for the erection of the Kaisar Bagh, the largest, gaudiest,
and most debased of all the Lucknow palaces. It was commenced in
1848, and finished in 1850, at a cost of 80 lakhs (say ^800,000).
Entering by the north-east gateway, which faces the open space in front
of the Observatory, the visitor passes through a court to a gate known
as the Jilaukhana, whence the royal processions used to start. Turning
to the right, through a screened gateway, he arrives at the Chini Bagh,
so called from the China vessels which formerly decorated the gardens.
A portal flanked by green mermaids, in the worst European taste of the
last century, leads next to the Hazrat Bagh. On the right hand lie the
Chandiwali Baradari, once paved with silver, and the Khas Mukam, as
well as the Badshah Manzil, the special residence of the king, erected
by Saadat Ali Khan, but included by Wajid Ali Shah in the plan of his
new palace. On the left stands a large confused pile of buildings, called
the Chandlakkhi, built by Azim-ulla Khan, the king's barber, and sold
by him to the king for 4 lakhs. It formed the residence of the queen
and the chief concubines. In this building the rebel Begam held her
court, while the British prisoners lay for weeks in one of the stables

LUCKNOW CITY. 51 r

close at hand. The roadway proceeds past a tree, paved round the
roots with marble, under whose shade the king used to sit on fair-
days, dressed in the yellow robes of a fakir. The Eastern Lakhi gate,
so called from its having cost a lakh of rupees, gives access to a
magnificent open square, known pre-eminently as the Kaisar Bdgh, and
surrounded by the residences of the ladies of the harem. In the month
of August, a great fair used to be held in this square, to which all
Lucknow was admitted. Proceeding past the stone Baradari, now
fitted up as a theatre, and under the Western Lakhi gate, which cor-
responds to its eastern namesake, the visitor reaches a building known
as the Kaisar Pasand, surmounted by a gilt hemisphere. This palace
was erected by Roshan-ud-daula, minister of Nasir-ud-din Haidar ; but
Wajid Ali Shah confiscated it, and gave it as a residence to his favourite
concubine, Mashuk-us-Sultan. Finally, a second Jilaukhana leads once
more into the open street.

Since the British annexation, but little has been done in the way of
architectural improvement, though charitable dispensaries, schools, and
other works of public utility have been largely undertaken. The late
Maharaja of Balrampur, Sir Digbijai Singh, K.C.S.I., has also founded
a capacious hospital on a plot of high ground adjoining the Residency,
with beds for one hundred patients.

Architecture.— Summarizing the chief architectural features, Lucknow
thus contains two noble mosques, one Imdmba>a of imperial dimen-
sions, four tombs of regal splendour (those of Saadat Ali Khan, of
Mushid Zadi, of Muhammad Ali Shah, and of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar),
together with two great palaces, or rather collections of palaces (the
Chattar Manzil and the Kaisar Bagh). Besides these larger works, it
also comprises a whole host of royal garden-houses, pavilions, town
mansions, temples, and mosques. Almost every building owes its
origin to the late reigning family. The nobles of the court and the
merchants could not display their wealth with safety in any other form
than the erection of mosques or tombs. It was dangerous for any but
the king's immediate relatives to live in a handsome mansion. Since
the annexation, however, the nobility of Oudh have built a large number
of town houses. They generally possess an imposing gateway, as one
main feature of the facade, consisting of arch within arch, rising from
the same base, and covered with a modern oriental profusion of gaudy
colouring.

Lucknow contains the most debased examples of architecture to be
found in India. Portions of the Kaisar Bagh consist of decoration in
the very worst style which prevailed during the last century in Europe,
and which, when banished from England, took refuge in India. ' No
caricatures of architecture,' says Mr. Fergusson, writing of this city,
' are so ludicrous or so bad as those in which Italian details are

5I2 LUCKNOW CI7Y,

introduced.' Nowhere else has the oriental become simply vulgar.
Nevertheless, many buildings in Lucknow present a sky-line and general
plan of considerable beauty. Seen from a distance, the fantastic domes
and pinnacles of the Martiniere, the Chattar Manzil, and the Kaisar
Bagh are not without a certain picturesque effect ; while the more
ancient tombs and minarets rise in solemn contrast of dark grey
stone against the gilded summits of their younger rivals. The old
buildings, also, are much more solidly built than the new. The
Imambara, now almost a hundred years old, though exposed to a heavy
cannonade during the Mutiny, has not lost a single brick ; while the
Kaisar Bagh, not yet thirty years of age, has suffered much from decay,
and already presents a ruinous appearance. Flying buttresses to
support nothing but one another, copper domes gilt from top to
bottom, burnished umbrellas, and balustrades of burnt clay, form
frequent features in the tawdry architecture which renders the distant
aspect of Lucknow so bright and sparkling. The plaster of stucco,
however, gives considerable beauty to the ordinary dwellings. The
finest kind is made from shells found in the dry beds of ancient lakes.
This chunam has a brighter and purer appearance than even marble,
and when lighted up with thousands of lamps, it produces an exquisitely
beautiful effect.

Since the introduction of British rule, the new authorities have laid
out well-kept roads, widened the tortuous native streets, and founded
commodious bazars, in which due attention has been paid to the
comfort and convenience both of the commercial classes and their
customers. The sanitary officers enforce stringent rules of cleanliness ;
and a municipality, containing many elective members, provides for the
welfare of the city, with a just regard to native feeling and wishes.

Mutiny Narrative. — A couple of months before the outbreak at
Meerut (Merath), Sir Henry Lawrence (20th March 1857) had assumed
the Chief Commissionership of the newly annexed Province of Oudh.
The garrison at Lucknow then consisted of the 32nd (British) Regiment,
a weak company of European artillery, the 7th Regiment Native Light
Cavalry, and the 13th, 48th, and 71st Regiments of Native Infantry.
In or near the city were also quartered two regiments of irregular local
infantry, together with one regiment of military police, one of Oudh
irregular cavalry, and two batteries of Native artillery. The town thus
contained nearly ten Indian soldiers to every European, or 7000 to 750.
Symptoms of disaffection occurred as early as the month of April,
when the house of the surgeon to the 48th was burned down in revenge
for a supposed insult to caste. Sir Henry Lawrence immediately took
steps to meet the danger by fortifying the Residency and accumulating
stores. On the 30th of April, the men of the 7th Oudh Irregulars
refused to bite their cartridges, on the ground that they had been

LUC KNOW CITY. 513

greased with cow's fat. They were induced with some difficulty to
return to their lines. On May 3, Sir Henry Lawrence resolved to
deprive the mutinous regiment of its arms, a step which was effected
not without serious delay.

On May 12, Sir Henry held a darbdr, and made an impressive

speech in Hindustani, in which he called upon the people to uphold

the British Government, as most tolerant to Hindus and Muham-

madans alike. Two days earlier, the massacre at Meerut had taken

place, and a telegram brought word of the event on the morning

after the darbdr. On the 19th, Sir Henry Lawrence received the

supreme military command in Oudh. He immediately fortified the

Residency and the Machi Bhawan, bringing the ladies and children

into the former building. On the night of the 30th May, the expected

insurrection broke out at Lucknow. The men of the 71st, with a few

from the other regiments, began to burn the bungalows of their officers,

and to murder the inmates. Prompt action was taken, and early next

morning the European force attacked, dispersed, and followed up for

10 miles the retreating mutineers, who were joined during the action by

the 7th Cavalry. The rebels fled towards Sitapur. Although Lucknow

thus remained in the hands of the British, by the 12th of June every

other post in Oudh had fallen into the power of the mutineers. The

Chief Commissioner still held the cantonments and the two fortified

posts at the beginning of June, but the symptoms of disaffection in the

city and among the remaining native troops were unmistakeable. In

the midst of such a crisis, Sir Henry Lawrence's health unhappily gave

way. He delegated his authority to a council of five, presided over by

Mr. Gubbins, the Financial Commissioner, but shortly after recovered

sufficiently to resume the command. On June the nth, however, the

military police and native cavalry broke into open revolt, followed on

the succeeding morning by the native infantry. On the 20th of June,

news of the fall of Cawnpur arrived ; and on the 29th, the enemy,

7000 strong, advanced upon Chinhat, a village on the Faizabad road,

8 miles from the Residency. Sir Henry Lawrence marched out and

gave the enemy battle at that spot. The result proved disastrous to our

arms, through the treachery of the Oudh artillery, and a retreat became

necessary. The troops fell back on Lucknow, abandoned the Machi

Lhawan, and concentrated all their strength upon the Residency. The

siege of the enclosure began upon 1st July. On the 2nd, as Sir Henry

Lawrence lay on his bed, a shell entered the room, burst, and wounded

him severely. He lingered till the morning of the 4th, and then died

in great agony. Major Banks succeeded to the civil command, while

the military authority devolved upon Brigadier Inglis. On 20th

July, the enemy made an unsuccessful assault. Next day, Major

Banks was shot, and the sole command wras undertaken by Inglis.

VOL. VIII. 2 K

5r4 LUC KNOW CITY.

On the ioth of August, the mutineers attempted a second assault,
which was again unsuccessful. The third assault took place on the
1 8th ; but the enemy were losing heart as they found the small garrison
so able to withstand them, and the repulse proved comparatively easy.

Meanwhile, the British within were dwindling away and eagerly
expecting reinforcements from Cawnpur. On 5th September, news of
th£ relieving force under Outram and Havelock reached the garrison
by a faithful native messenger. On 22nd September, the relief arrived
at the Alambagh, a walled garden on the Cawnpur road held by the
enemy in force. Havelock stormed the Alambagh, and on the 25th
fought his way with continuous opposition through the narrow lanes
of the city. On the 26th he arrived at the gate of the Residency
enclosure, and was welcomed by the gallant defenders within. General
Neill fell during the action outside the walls. The sufferings of the
besieged had been very great ; but even after the first relief, it became
clear that Lucknow could only be temporarily defended till the arrival
of further reinforcements should allow the garrison to cut its way out.
Outram, who had now re-assumed the command which he generously
yielded to Havelock during the relief, accordingly fortified an enlarged
area of the town, bringing many important outworks within the limits of
defence ; and the siege began once more till a second relieving party
could set the besieged at liberty. Night and day the enemy kept up a
continual firing against our position, while Outram retaliated by frequent
sorties.

Throughout October the garrison continued its gallant defence,
and a small party, shut up in the Alambagh, and cut off unexpectedly
from the main body, also contrived to hold good its dangerous post.
Meanwhile, Sir Colin Campbell's force had advanced from Cawnpur,
and arrived at the Alambagh on the ioth of November. From the
day of his landing at Calcutta, Sir Colin had never ceased in his
endeavours to collect an army to relieve Lucknow, by gathering together
the liberated Delhi field force and the ' fresh reinforcements from
England. On the 12th, the main body threw itself into the Alambagh,
after a smart skirmish with the rebels. Sir Colin next occupied the
Dilkusha palace, south-east of the town, and then moved against the
Martiniere, which the enemy had fortified with guns in position. After
carrying that post, he forded the canal, and on the 16th attacked the
Sikandra Bagh, the chief rebel stronghold. The mutineers, driven to
bay, fought desperately for their fortress, but before evening the whole
place was in the hands of the British. As soon as Sir Colin Campbell
reached the Moti Mahal, on the outskirts of the city proper, General
Havelock came out from the Residency to meet him, and the second
relief was successfully accomplished.

Even now, however, it remained impossible to hold Lucknow, and Sir

LUC KNOW CITY. 515

Colin Campbell determined, before undertaking any further offensive
operations, to return to Cawnpur with his army, escorting the civilians,
ladies, and children rescued from their long imprisonment in the Resi-
dency, with the view of forwarding them to Calcutta. On the morning
of the 20th of November, the troops received orders to March for the
Alambagh ; and the Residency, the scene of so long and stirring a de-
fence, was abandoned for a while to the rebel army. Before the final
departure, Sir Henry Havelock died from an attack of dysentery.
He was buried in the Alambagh, without any monument, a cross on a
neighbouring tree alone marking for the time his last resting-place.
Sir James Outram, with 3500 men, held the Alamba'gh until the
Commander-in Chief could return to recapture the capital. The rebels
used the interval well for the fortification of their stronghold to the
utmost extent of their knowledge and power. They surrounded the
greater part of the city, for a circuit of 20 miles, with an external line
of defences, extending from the Giimti to the canal. An earthen
parapet lay behind the canal ; a second line of earthworks connected
the Mod Mahal, the Mess-house, and the Imambara ; while the Kaisar
Bagh constituted the rebel citadel. Stockade works and parapets
closed every street ; and loopholes in all the houses afforded an oppor-
tunity for defending the passage inch by inch. The computed strength
of the insurgents amounted to 30,000 Sepoys, together with 50,000
volunteers ; and they possessed 100 pieces of ordnance-guns, and
mortars.

On the 2nd of March 1858, Sir Colin Campbell found himself
free enough in the rear to march once more upon Lucknow. He first
occupied the Dilkusha, and posted guns to command the Martiniere.
On the 5th, Brigadier Franks arrived with 6000 men, half of them
Gurkhas sent by the Raja of Nepal. Outram's force then crossed the
Giimti, and advanced from the direction of Faizabad (Fyzabad), while the
main body attacked from the south-east. After a week's hard fighting,
from the 9th to the 15th March, the rebels were completely defeated,
and their posts captured one by one. Most of the insurgents, however,
escaped. As soon as it became clear that Lucknow had been per-
manently recovered, and that the enemy as a combined body had
ceased to exist, Sir Colin Campbell broke up the British Oudh army,
and the work of re-organization began. On the 18th of October 1858,
the Governor-General and Lady Canning visited Lucknow in state, and
found the city already recovering from the devastation to which it had
been subjected.

Population. — The Census of 1869 returned the total population of
Lucknow, including the cantonments, as 284,779. In 1881, the Census
returned the population of the city at 239,773, and the cantonments
at 21,530; total, 261,303, showing a decrease of 23,476, or 8*2 per

5I6 LUCKNOW CITY.

cent, in twelve years. Classified according to religion, the population
of the city and cantonment stood as follows in 1881 : — Hindus, 155,320 ;
Muhammadans, 99,152; Jains, 338; Christians, 6253; and 'others,'
240. Males numbered 139,105, and females 122,198. The European
element in the city is unusually large. The Hindus number three-
fifths of the population, the Kayasth and Baniya castes forming a con-
siderable .proportion. Many pensioners of the British Government and
of the former Oudh kings reside in the city. The Lucknow Musal-
mans are chiefly Shias, that being the recognised orthodox sect under
the Nawabs.

Commerce and Trade, etc. — The traffic of Oudh flows southward
from Bahramghat and Faizdbad through Lucknow to Cawnpur. Large
quantities of grain and timber come in from the trans-Gogra Districts,
while raw cotton, iron, and imported goods go northward in exchange.
The Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, with its branches, has a station in
the town, and gives direct communication with Benares, Bareilly, and
Cawnpur, as well as connecting with the Great Trunk lines to Calcutta,
Bombay, and the Punjab. The railway has given a great impetus to
trade. The chief country imports consist of wheat and other grains,
ghit gur or molasses, sugar, spices, oil-seeds, and tobacco ; besides which
a large quantity of European piece-goods, etc., are brought into the
town.

Manufactures are carried on to a considerable extent ; the chief pro-
ducts being those which call for the oriental combination of patience,
industry, minute manual skill, and delicate taste in the management of
colour. Lucknow muslins and other textile fabrics have a high reputa-
tion, some 30 small establishments being engaged in this trade. Gold
and silver brocade, however, made of small wires, forms the leading
manufacture. It is used for the numerous purposes of Indian pomp, and
has a considerable market even in Europe. The gorgeous needlework
embroidery upon velvet and cotton, with gold thread and coloured
silks, also employs many hands. Lucknow jewellery, once very famous,
has declined since the departure of the court. Glass-work and moulding
in clay still maintain their original excellence. A Kashmiri colony has
introduced a small manufacture of shawls. The only enterprise con-
ducted by Europeans is an ice-making concern. The railway workshops,
however, employ many hundreds of workmen, including several pupils
of the Martiniere school, besides other Europeans and Eurasians. The
principal markets are — the grain markets of Fatehganj and Digbijaiganj,
lying to the west ; Rakabganj, at the south end of the Canning road ;
Saadatganj, in the south-west ; and Shahganj, near the new Victoria
road. Imported cotton and salt are set down at Saadatganj. Molasses
is sold at the Nakhkhas market, and leather in the Chikmandi. A
paper factory has recently been established in the city.

LUCKNOW CITY. 517

Administration. — Before the amalgamation of Oudh with the North-
western Provinces in 1877, Lucknow formed the residence of the
Chief Commissioner and his staff. It is still the head-quarters of the
officials whose authority extends over the whole of Oudh. It also
forms the Oudh head-quarters of the united Provinces of the North-
western Provinces and Oudh, and the residence of the Lieutenant-
Governor for a certain period every year. The Judicial Commissioner
of Oudh, the Deputy Inspector-General of Police, the Inspector of
Education, the Examiner of Public Works Accounts, the Assistant
Commissioner of Customs, the Chief Inspector of Post Offices, and the
Conservator of Forests have their offices at Lucknow. The central
officials of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway likewise have their posts
in the city. The municipal police in 1883 consisted of 876 officers
and men, together with a force of chaukiddrs and jamaddrs, and a
contonment and railway police. Besides the Balrampur hospital,
already noticed, Lucknow contains 2 similar charitable institutions, the
King's Hospital and the Government Dispensary. A lunatic asylum
for the whole Province stands upon the eastern bank of the river, near
the Faizabdd (Fyzabad) road. The municipal revenue in 1870-71
amounted to ^£20,018, of which ,£16,230 was derived from octroi.
By 1883 the municipal income had increased to ^26,119, of which
.£21,037 was derived from octroi ; average incidence of taxation, is. 8d.
per head of the population (239,773) within municipal limirs.

Education, etc. — Canning College, supported by the tdlukddrs, and
assisted by a grant-in-aid from Government, was established in 1864.
It contains five departments, namely, the college, school, oriental, pre-
paratory, and law branches, and is under the management of a com-
mittee, with the Commissioner of the Division as President. The
Martiniere College provides education for the sons of soldiers, and has
also a girls' school in connection. The American Mission conducts 7
schools, and the English Church Mission 5. Eleven other schools
derive support from provincial, municipal, and private funds. The
Loretto Convent and 25 other establishments offer education for girls.
Lucknow, in spite of its comparative decay, still ranks as the admitted
capital of Hindustani music, song, and poetry. The Lucknow native
theatres also maintain a high position in native opinion. The subjects
for the dramas are largely derived from English life in India.

Military Statistics. — Lucknow forms the head-quarters of the Oudh
military Division. The cantonment is healthily and well situated, 3
miles east of the city. The garrison usually comprises 3 batteries of
British artillery, 1 regiment of British cavalry, 2 of British infantry, 1 of
Native cavalry, and 2 of Native infantry. A battery of artillery and a
detachment of Native infantry occupy the Machi Bhawan fort, and
act as a garrison to command the city ; but it has been proposed to

5i8 LUDHIANA.

give up the ancient stronghold and erect a new fort upon some other
site.

Ludhiana. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab,
lying between 300 33' and 31° i' n. lat., and between 750 24' 30" and 76°
27' e. long. Area, 1375 square miles (1881). Population, 618,835
persons. Ludhiana is the westernmost District of the Ambala (Umballa)
Division. It is bounded on the north by the river Sutlej (Satlaj), which
separates it from Jalandhar District ; on the east by the District of
Ambala ; on the south by the Native States of Patiala, Jhind, Nabha,
and Maler Kotla ; and on the west by the District of Firozpur (Feroze-
pore). To the north, east, and west, the boundaries are fairly symme-
trical, but in the south several outlying villages belonging to Ludhiana
District are scattered among the Native States mentioned above ; while
on the other hand, two or three groups of Patiala villages in the east
are completely surrounded by British territory. Ludhiana District is
divided into three tahsils or Sub-divisions, Samrala to the east,
Ludhiana in the centre, and Jagraon to the west. The District stands
twenty-ninth in order of area, and fifteenth in order of population
among the thirty-two British Districts of the Province, and comprises
1 '29 per cent, of the total area, 3*29 per cent, of the total population,
and 3-40 per cent, of the urban population of British territory. Not-
withstanding its limited area, the District is one of the most important
in the Punjab. Excluding the outlying villages, it is probably more
compact and convenient for administrative purposes than any other
Punjab District, the remotest point being not much more than 30
miles from head-quarters, and access to almost every part being easy
by rail, or by good roads which intersect the District in all directions.
The administrative head-quarters are at the town of Ludhiana, which
is centrally situated a few miles south of the Sutlej.

Physical Aspects. — The surface of Ludhiana consists for the most
part of a broad plain, nowhere interrupted by hills or rivers, and
stretching northward from the borders of the Native States to the
south to the ancient bed of the Sutlej (Satlaj). Its soil is composed
of a rich clay, broken by large patches of shifting sand, which
has drifted here and there into ridges of considerable height. The
distribution of the sand-layer is singularly capricious, so that a distance
of only a hundred yards may carry the observer from fertile gardens
into the midst of a deep and barren desert. On the eastern edge,
towards Ambala (Umballa) and the hills, the soil improves greatly,
as the clay is there surmounted by a bed of rich mould, suitable
for the cultivation of cotton and sugar-cane ; but towards the west,
the sand occurs in union with the superficial clay, and forms a light
friable soil, on which cereals form the most profitable crop. Even
here, however, the earth is so retentive of moisture that good harvests

LUDHIANA. 519

are reaped from fields which appear to the eye mere stretches of dry
and sandy waste, but are covered, after the autumn rains, by waving
sheets of wheat and millet.

These southern uplands descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an
abrupt terrace, which marks the former bed of the river. At its
foot lies a half-deserted watercourse, still full at all but the driest
seasons, and once the main channel of the Sutlej. Now, however
the principal stream has shifted to the opposite side of the valley,
leaving a broad alluvial strip of from 2 to 6 miles in width, between
its ancient and its modern bed. This region, known as the bet,
forms the wider channel of the river, and is partly inundated after
heavy rains. It is intersected in every direction by minor water-
courses or ndlas, and, being composed of recent alluvium, is for the
most part very fertile, though in scattered portions its fruitfulness is
destroyed by the occurrence of a deleterious saline efflorescence. The
Sutlej itself is navigable for boats of small burden, but its value as a
water-way is inconsiderable in this portion of its course. A branch of
the Sirhind Canal, recently constructed, enters the District from
Ambala (Umballa), and with its two principal branches, irrigates a large
part of the western pargands. With this exception, irrigation is almost
entirely confined to wells.

Ludhiana is singularly bare of trees. In the bet are a few well-grown
philkans, while pipals and banians are to be found near the village tanks ;
but as a rule, only a few patches of scrubby dhdk jungle break the
general monotony of the sky-line. Attention, however, has been lately
directed to this subject, and avenues of trees are now growing up along
the main roads, which will doubtless do something to improve the
appearance of this level and arid District. The only mineral product in
Ludhiana is kankar or nodular limestone, which is quarried in many
places for metalling the roads and for burning into lime.

History. —Though the present town of Ludhiana dates no further
back than the 15th century, other cities in the District can claim a
much greater antiquity. At Sunet, close to the modern town, are
ruins of an extensive brick-built town, whose greatness had already
passed away before the period of Muhammadan invasion ; and the old
Hindu city of Machrwara is of still earlier date, being mentioned in
the Mahdbhdrata. During the Musalman epoch, the history of the
District is bound up with that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of con-
verted Rajputs, who received the country as a fief under the Sayyid
dynasty, about the year 1445. The town of Ludhiana was founded
in 1480 by two of the Lodhi race (then ruling at Delhi), from whom it
derives its name. It was built in great part from the prehistoric bricks
of Sunet, still bearing their rude trade-mark in the impression of three
human finders. On the overthrow of the Lodhi dynasty by Babar, the

520 LUDHIANA.

town passed into the hands of the Mughals, with whom it remained
till 1760, when the Rais of Raikot took possession of it.

Throughout the palmy days of the Mughal Empire, the present District
was included in the Sarkdr (or Division) of Sirhind, in the SuMh (or
Province) of Delhi, the western portions being leased to the Rais of
Rdikot, who, on the decadence of the empire, asserted their indepen-
dence and formed a kingdom out of the territories held by them in this
and the neighbouring District of Firozpur, the boundaries of which they
extended. On the capture of Sirhind by the Sikhs in 1763, the western
parts of the District fell into the hands of a number of petty Sikh
chiefs. At the close of the 18th century, the Raikot family was repre-
sented by a minor ; and the Sikhs from the other side of the valley
commenced a series of attacks upon their possessions. On one occasion,
the famous adventurer, George Thomas, was called in to repel them.
Finally, in 1806, Maharaja Ranjit Singh crossed the Sutlej on his first
expedition against the cis-Sutlej chiefs, and stripped the Rais of their
possessions, leaving only a couple of villages for the maintenance ot
two widows, who, with the exception of the minor chief, were the only
remaining representatives of the ruling family.

In 1809, after Ranjit Singh's third invasion, a treaty was concluded
between him and the British Government, by which his further con-
quests were stopped, although he was allowed to retain all territories
acquired in his first two expeditions. At the same time, all the cis-
Sutlej States that had not been absorbed were taken under British
protection. In the same year (1809) a cantonment for British troops
was placed at Ludhiana, compensation being made to the Raja of Jhind
in whose possession it then was. In 1835, on the failure of the direct
line of the Jhind family, a tract of country around Ludhiana came into
British possession by lapse, and this formed the nucleus of the present
District.

On the conclusion of the first Sikh war in 1846, Ludhiana District
assumed very nearly its present limits by the additions of territory
annexed from the Lahore Government and its adherents on this side of
the valley. Since the British occupation, the town has grown in wealth
and population, but its history has been happily marked by few noticeable
events of any sort. The cantonment was abandoned in 1854. During
the Mutiny in 1857, an unsuccessful attempt was made by the Deputy
Commissioner of the District, with the assistance of a small force, to
stop the Jalandhar rebellious Sepoys on their way to Delhi. In 1872,
an outbreak by a fanatical sect of Kukas attempted to disturb the
peace of the country ; but it was at once suppressed, and its leader,
Ram Singh, deported from India, and sent as a State prisoner to British
Burma. The more peaceful events to be chronicled are the opening
of the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, and the opening of the

LUDHIANA. 521

Sirhind Canal. Since the first Afghan war (1839-42), Ludhiana town
has been the residence of the exiled royal family of Shah Shuja.

Population. — The first enumeration of the people was that of 1855,
which returned the total number of inhabitants at 527,722, or 388
to the square mile. These figures, however, are suspected of being
slightly in excess of the real numbers. A second Census was taken in
1868, over an area corresponding to the present District, which
returned a total population of 585,547, or 426 per square mile. In
3881 the population had further increased to 618,835, namely, by
33,288, or 57 per cent., during the thirteen years ending 1881.
The general results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly sum-
marized as follows : — Area, 1375 square miles, with 6 towns and 853
villages, 104,231 houses, and 141,719 families. Total population,
618,835, namely, males 339,598, and females 279,237 j proportion
of males, 54*9 per cent. From these data the following averages
can be obtained: — Persons per square mile, 450; villages per square
mile, 0-62; persons per village, 725; houses per square mile, 98;
persons per house, 5*9. Classified according to age, the Census
returned — under 15 years, males 126,501, and females 100,091 ; total
children, 226,592, or 36*6 per cent, of the population : 15 years and
upwards, males 213,097, and females 179,146; total adults, 392,243,
or 63*4 per cent.

As regards religious distinctions, Hindus number 275,240 persons,
or 44-4 per cent.; Muhammadans, 213,954, or 34*6 per cent;
Sikhs, 127,143, or 20'6 per cent.; Jains, 2165; Christians, 322;
and 'others,' 11. In the ethnical classification of the inhabitants,
the Jdts rank first both in number (222,665) and in agricultural
importance; they form one -third of the whole population, and
nearly two - thirds of the cultivating class. As a race, the Jdts
are patient, laborious, and enterprising. They are evenly distributed
over the whole District, with the exception of the Sutlej valley,
where they are comparatively few in number. In religion, the great
majority of Jats are Hindus or Sikhs. The Rajputs come next,
with 30,957 persons; they are almost exclusively Musalmans. The
Giijars number 30,759, and cluster thickly in the fertile strip by the
bank of the Sutlej. Though they hold the richest portion of the
District, they are here as elsewhere careless and improvident cultivators,
and ill fitted for any but a predatory regime. Most of them are
Musalmans in creed. The Brahmans muster strong, numbering 25,121,
but their social importance is small. The mercantile classes are
represented by 15,944 Khattris and 8722 Baniyas. There are also 2492
Kashmiris, chiefly confined to the town of Ludhiana, where they are
employed in weaving shawls and woollen goods.

Town and Rural Population. — The District contained 4 towns

522

LUDHIANA.

in 1 88 1 with a population exceeding 5000 — namely, Ludhiana, 44,163;
Jagraon, 16,873; Raikot, 9219; and Machiwara, 5967. Two other
places are returned as municipal towns, but with a less population
than 5000, namely, Khanna, 3988 ; and Bahlolpur, 2842. These
six towns have an aggregate population of 83,052 persons, or 13-4 per
cent, of the total District population. Of the 859 towns and villages
in the District, 140 are returned as having less than two hundred
inhabitants; 318 from two to five hundred; 243 from five hundred to
a thousand; 119 from one to two thousand; 21 from two to three
thousand ; 4 from three to five thousand ; and 4 between five and fifty
thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the adult male popula-
tion in 1 88 1 was divided into the following seven classes : — (1) Profes-
sional and official class, 8978; (2) domestic and menial class, 8147;
(3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers,
etc., 3031; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners,
117,628; (5) industrial and manufacturing class, including artisans,
41,941; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, 22,646; (7) occupa-
tions not specified, 10,735. Panjabi is the language of the rural
communities, but Urdu is spoken in the towns, and is generally under-
stood by the peasantry.

Agriculture. — In spite of the unpromising appearance of its soil,
Ludhiana is a flourishing agricultural District, a result which must be
largely attributed to the untiring diligence of its Jat cultivators. Almost
all the available land has been brought under the plough, and in many
villages no waste ground is left for pasturage, the cattle being fed from
cultivated produce. Of a total area in 1883-84 of 881,738 acres,
731,388 acres, or 82-9 per cent, were returned as under cultivation,
of which 115,321 acres were irrigated, entirely by private enterprise.
Of the remaining area, 11,085 acres were grazing land, 67,928
acres were still available for cultivation, and only 71,337 acres un-
cultivable waste. Cereals are chiefly grown in the western part of
the District, while sugar-cane and cotton can be raised on the richer
soil of the eastern pargands. The area under each principal crop in
1883-84 was estimated as follows: — Rabi or spring crops — wheat,
177,644 acres; barley, 23,895 acres; gram, 121,286 acres; masur, 386
acres; tobacco, 1057 acres. Kharif 'or rain crops— -joar, 75,393 acres ;
Indian corn, 53,914 acres; moth, 50,525 acres ; rice, 2683 acres; miing,
5004 acres; mash, 3610 acres; cotton, 16,408 acres; hemp, 2853
acres; and sugar-cane, 14,109 acres. The rabi or spring harvest
is ordinarily sown from the middle of September to the middle of
November, and reaped from the middle of April to the middle
of May. The kharif or autumn crops, except sugar-cane and cotton
which have special seasons, are sown in July and August, and reaped
about the end of October. Until the opening of the Sirhind canal,

LUDHIANA. 523

irrigation was confined to the leathern bucket ; and the painstaking
toil of the Jats in watering their arid fields is beyond all praise.
Wells are held in shares by the villagers, each proprietor being per-
mitted to draw water for a certain number of hours out of the twenty-
four, in proportion to the share to which he is hereditarily entitled ;
and the labour of watering never ceases by day or by night. The use
of manure is thoroughly appreciated. This account, however, refers
only to the general upland plain. The bet or valley of the Sutlej is
but poorly tilled by its Rajput proprietors ; and the scattered British
villages, which lie isolated among the native territory to the south, can
obtain no water except at such depths below the surface as render it
practically unavailable.

The Muhammadan portion of the peasantry are for the most part
involved in debt, from which the Hindu Jats are, as a rule, free. Most
of the villages are held m pattiddri tenure, the land having been originally
distributed by shares, which are still easily recognisable. Upwards cf
80 per cent, of the land is cultivated by the proprietors themselves.
Rents vary with the nature and capabilities of the soil; land fit for sugar-
cane or tobacco fetches^ 1, 4s. 8d. per acre, irrigated wheat lands bring
in from us. to 18s., and dry lands from 7s. to 12s. Agricultural
labourers are paid in grain ; cash wages prevail in the towns, at the
rate of from 4d. to 4^d. per diem. Prices in 1883 ruled as follows : —
Wheat, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d. per cwt. ; Indian corn, 38 sers per
rupee, or 3s. per cwt. ; Jodr, 40 sers per rupee, or 2s. iod. per cwt.

Natural Calamities. — Ludhiana is comparatively free from the press-
ing danger of famine, though it suffers much from drought. The
Settlement Officer is of opinion that no continuance of bad seasons
would in any human probability necessitate an importation of grain.
Prices may vary from very low rates to famine quotations, but the pro-
duce of the District would suffice for home consumption, even under
the most trying circumstances. The town of Ludhiana is now one of
the principal entrepots for the grain trade of the Punjab, and the com-
munications by rail, road, and river would be sufficient in the last resort
to avert the extremity of famine.

Commerce and Trade, etc. — The exports of Ludhiana are chiefly
confined to its raw material, including grain, cotton, wool, saltpetre,
and indigo; the principal imports are English goods, spices, and
the red madder dye, which are brought up the Sutlej to the ghat
opposite Ludhiana. Besides the chief town, Jagraon, Raikot, and
Machiwara are centres of local trade. The total annual value of the
exports for the whole District is estimated at ^377>I2°; tnat of the
imports at ,£365,552. The manufactures are by no means inconsider-
able, including shawls, pashmina cloth, stockings, gloves, cotton goods,
furniture, carriages, and fire-arms. Two branches of the weaving

524

LUDHIANA.

industry are carried on — (i) Woollen, consisting for the most part in
the manufacture of the fine cloth known as pashmina, Rampur c/iaddrs,
etc. ; (2) cotton, including gabrun (the 'Ludhiana cloth' of commerce),
k/ies, lungis, and the like. These industries give employment to about
three thousand hands, mostly working at single looms. There are
several metalled roads in Ludhiana, including a portion of the Grand
Trunk Road ; total length of roads, 346 miles. The Sind, Punjab,
and Delhi Railway passes through the centre of the District, for a
distance of 36 miles, with stations at Khanna, Sanhewal, and Ludhiana.
Its opening has given a great impetus to the grain trade, which is now
concentrated in the town of Ludhiana. The Sutlej affords navigable
water communication for 53 miles. The District has 6 printing-
presses, the most important of which are at the American Presbyterian
Mission and at the jail ; the others belong to native proprietors.

Administration. — The administrative staff of Ludhiana comprises a
Deputy Commissioner, with an Assistant and 2 extra-Assistants, a
Judge of the Small Cause Court, and 3 ta/isitddrs, besides the usual
medical and constabulary officers. The total revenue in 1872-73
amounted to ^103,795, of which ^85,215, or about four-fifths, was
contributed by the land-tax. In 1883-84, the total revenue was
returned at ,£127,659, of which ,£92,700, or over three -fourths,
was derived from the land-tax. The other principal items of revenue
are stamps and local rates. The incidence of the land revenue per
acre is heavier than in any other District of the Punjab, but the
collections are made without difficulty.

For police purposes, the District is divided into 10 police circles
(t/idnds). The imperial police force amounted in 1883 to 439 officers
and men, besides a municipal establishment of 101 constables. These
are supplemented by a force cf 796 village watchmen (chaukiddrs), who
keep watch and ward in the villages of the District, and in all the towns
except Ludhiana itself. The aggregate machinery for the protection
of persons and property accordingly consisted of 1336 persons, being 1
policeman to every 1-03 square mile of the area and every 463 of the
population. The number of persons brought to trial for all offences,
great or small, committed in Ludhiana during the year 1883 was 2206,
or 1 in every 280 inhabitants. In 1883, the daily average number of
prisoners in the District jail was 2 85.

Education has made great advances during the last ten years. In
1873 there were 184 schools, of which 68 were in receipt of Govern-
ment aid; the pupils numbered 6733, and the sum expended upon
instruction from the public funds amounted to ^1353. In 1883-84
the number of schools under Government inspection was 99, attended
by 4966 pupils, exclusive of a reported number of 388 indigenous
uninspected village schools in 1882-83, with 4364 pupils.

LUDHIANA TAHSIL. 525

The District is sub-divided into 3 tahsils and 19 pargands, owned
by 83,067 shareholders. Municipalities have been established at
Ludhidna, Jagraon, Raikot, Machiwdra, Khanna, and Bhilolpur. The
aggregate revenue of these six towns amounted in 1871-72 to
^3277. In 1883-84, the income of the above municipalities had
increased to ^8934, the average incidence of taxation being 2s. ifd.
per head.

Medical Aspects. — In the upland portion of the District the atmo-
sphere is dry and healthy, being free from the malarious effluvia which
are so general a cause of febrile disorders on the plains of India. In
the Sutlej valley, however, the network of watercourses renders the
air extremely noxious after the floods of the rainy season, and deaths
from fever are frequent, often assuming an epidemic form. The tem-
perature varies from intense heat in the summer months to com-
paratively severe cold in December and January. In 1883, in the
month of May, the mean temperature was returned at 90-3° F., the
maximum being 114*3°, and the minimum 68*3°. In July, the mean
temperature was 89*4°, with a maximum of 112-8°, and a minimum of
74'3°. In December, the mean temperature was 56'o°, with a maximum
of 73'7°, and a minimum of 35 "8°. The average annual rainfall for the
twenty-five years ending in 1881 is returned at 28-17 inches. In 1883
the total rainfall was 39*6 inches, of which 26*5 inches fell between
June and September. The total number of deaths recorded in 1883
amounted to 14,628, or 24 per thousand ■ of which 8487 were assigned
to fever. Ophthalmia is of common occurrence, owing to the quantity
of sand-dust with wThich the atmosphere is laden during the prevalence
of dry winds. There are 3 Government charitable dispensaries in the
District, from which 38,005 patients obtained assistance in 1883. [For
further information regarding Ludhiana, see the Gazetteer of Ludhidna
District, to be published by the authority of the Punjab Government in
the course of the present year (1885) ; also Report on the Revised Settle-
ment of Ludhidna District, by Mr. H. Davidson, C.S. (Lahore, 1859);
the Punjab Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Administration
and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.]

Ludhiana. — Central tahsil of Ludhiana District, Punjab, lying
between 30° 45' 30" and 31° 1' n. lat., and between 75° 40' 30" and
76° \2 e. long. Area, 678 square miles. Population (1881) 307,559,
namely, males 169,139, and females 138,420 ; average density of popu-
lation, 453 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion,
there were in 1881 — Hindus, 130,478 ; Sikhs, 63,633 ; Muhammadans,
111,942; and 'others,' 1506. Total revenue, ^37,497. The adminis-
trative staff, including the District officers, consists of a Deputy
Commissioner, with a judicial assistant, 3 Assistant Commissioners, i
tahsilddr, 2 munsifs, and 5 honorary magistrates. These officers pre-

526

LUDHIANA TOWN.

side over n civil and n criminal courts. Number of police circles
(thanas\ 5; strength of regular police, 226 men; village watchmen

(chauMddrs), 399.

Ludhiana. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters
of Ludhiana District, Punjab. Lat. 300 55' 25" n., long. 750 53' 30" e.
Situated on the high south bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj), 8 miles from
the present bed of the river. Railway station on the Sind, Punjab,
and Delhi Railway. The town stands on low ground, with some large
open streets, but a greater number of small and tortuous alleys. The
fort lies to the north of the town on an open and detached space,
cleared after the Mutiny. Ludhiana town contained in 1868 a population
0f 39,983, which had increased by 1881 to 44,163, namely, males 24,685,
and females 19,478. Muhammadans number 29,045 ; Hindus, 12,969 ;
Sikhs, 1077; Jains, 752; and 'others,' 320. Number of houses,
7041. Municipal income (1875-76), ^3193 5 (1883-84), ^6675, or
an average of 3s. per head.

Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by Yusaf and Nihang, princes of the
Lodhi family, then reigning at Delhi. In 1760 it fell into the hands of
the Rais of Raikot, who held it until the end of the last century, when
Ranjit Singh expelled them, and made over the town to Raja Bhag Singh
of Jhind. In 1809, General Ochterlony occupied it as Political Agent
for the cis-Sutlej States, at first only as a temporary cantonment ; but
Government afterwards compensated the Raja of Jhind for the loss,
and when the territory lapsed in 1834, retained the town as a military
station. The troops were removed in 1854, but a small detachment
continued to garrison the fort. The shrine of a Muhammadan saint,
Shaikh Abdul Kadir-i-Jalani, yearly attracts an important religious
gathering, frequented by Hindus and Musalmans alike.

The Muhammadan element preponderates strongly in the city, owing
to the large number of Kashmiri and Pathan settlers, the latter being
followers of the exiled royal family of Kabul, whose head, Shahzada
Shahpur, resides at Ludhiana as a pensioner of the British Government.
The Kashmiris retain their hereditary skill as weavers of shawls and pash-
mina cloth, the value of the quantity exported in 1883 being estimated
at ,£15,000. Shawls of the soft Rampur wool, cotton cloths, scarves,
turbans, furniture, and carriages also form large items in the thriving
trade of the town. Since the opening of the railway, Ludhiana has
become a great central grain mart, having extensive export transactions
both with the north and south. The public buildings include the fort,
District court-house, and Small Cause Court, railway station, tahsili,
police station, dak bungalow, sardi, jail, and Government charitable
dispensary. The American Presbyterian Mission has a church and
school, with a small colony of native Christians. The town bears a
bad reputation for unhealthiness.

L UGHASI—L UNA WAR A. 5 2 7

Lughasi — One of the Native States in Bundelkhand, under the
Central India Agency and the Government of India. It is bounded
on the south-west, south, and south-east by the Chhatarpur State, and
on all other sides by Hamirpur District. When the British Govern-
ment assumed supremacy in Bundelkhand, the ancestor of the present
chief was found in possession of 1 1 villages, the title over which was
confirmed to him on his executing the usual deed of allegiance.
During the Mutiny in 1S57, the chief, Sardar Singh, was loyal to the
British Government, although half of the villages of Lughasi were laid
waste by the rebels in consequence of his fidelity. In reward for his
services, Sardar Singh received the title of Rao Bahadur, a jdgir of
^"200 a year, a dress of honour, and the privilege of adoption, which
was afterwards confirmed by sanad. The present chief, Rao Bahadur
Khet Singh, grandson of Sardar Singh, is a Bundela Hindu, and
was born about 1856. Area of the State, 47-2 square miles, with 12
villages and 936 houses. Population (1881) 6159, namely, Hindus,
6010; Muhammadans, 132; Jains, 5; and aboriginal tribes, 12. Esti-
mated revenue, ^1000. The military force consists of 7 guns with 4
gunners, and 90 infantry. The State contains a good school and several
roads, which were constructed during the time when it was under direct
British management during the minority of the present chief. The town
of Lughasi, with a fort and good bazar, is situated on the route from
Kalpi to J^balpur (Jubbulpore), 86 miles south of the former, and 183
miles north of the latter. Population (1881) 2167.

LugU. — Detached hill south of the central plateau of Hazaribagh
District, Bengal. Lat. 230 46' 45" n., long. 850 44' 30" e. A natural
fortress, forming a remarkable feature in this District. The northern
face has a bold scarp of 2200 feet in height; and the highest point is
3203 feet above the sea.

Luka (or Luba).— River in Assam, which is fed by several streams
rising in the hills forming the south-eastern corner of the Jaintia Hill
and the south-eastern corner of North Cachar ; after flowing south-west
through the Jaintia Hills, it falls into the main stream of the Surma,
near the market village of Mulaghul in Sylhet District.

Lukman-jO-Tando. — Town in Khairpur State, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency.— See Tando Lukman.

Lumbaiong. — Mountain range in the Khasi Hills, Assam ; highest
peak, 4646 feet above sea-level.

Luiiawara. — Native State under the Political Agency of Rewa
Kantha in the Province of Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. Bounded on
the north by Dungarpur State, one of the Rajputana chiefships ; on the
east by Siinth and Kadana States of Rewa Kantha ; on the south by
the Godhra Sub-division of the British District of the Panch Mahals ;
and on the west by Edar State (Mahi Kantha) and Balasinor (Rewa

5^8

LUNA WAR A.

Kantha). The State is situated between 220 50' and 230 16' n. lat., and
between 73° 2 1' and 73° 47' e. long. Area, 388 square miles. Population
(1872)74,813; (188 1)75,450, occupying 1 town and 165 villages, contain-
ing 15,966 houses. Hindus numbered 71,870; Muhammadans, 3059;
and 'others,' 521. Density of population, 194-4 persons per square
mile. Lunawara is irregular in shape, and has many outlying villages,
the territory being much intermixed with that of Balasinor and with the
British Panch Mahals. The extreme length from north to south is 34
miles, and the extreme breadth from east to west 25 miles. About one-
third of the State has been alienated, some lands having been granted in
free gift, and others on service or other tenures. The soil is generally
stony, the hills are low and scantily covered with timber. Irrigation is
chiefly from wells ; though there are many reservoirs, and the river
Mahi flows through the terrritory. The climate is perhaps somewhat
cooler than in the neighbouring parts of Gujardt. The prevailing
disease is fever. Cereals and timber are the chief products. A well-
frequented route, between Gujarat and Malwa, passes through Luna-
wara.

Until 1825, the State was under the Political Agency of Mahi
Kantha. The Chief is descended from the Rajput dynasty that ruled
at Anhilwara Patan, and his ancestors are said to have established
themselves at Virpur in 1225. In 1434, the family removed to Luna-
wara, having in all probability been driven across the Mahi by the
increasing power of the Muhammadan kings of Gujarat. Lunawara
was tributary both to the Gaekwar and to Sindhia; the rights of the
latter ruler, guaranteed by the British Government in 181 9, were trans-
ferred by him with the cession of the Panch Mahals District in 1861.
The present (1884) chief, Maharana Wakhat Singhji, a Hindu of the
Solanki Rajput caste, was educated at the Rajkumar College at Rajkot,
and was installed in August 1880. He is entitled to a salute of 9 guns,
and has power to try his own subjects only for capital offences, without
the express permission of the Political Agent. He enjoys an estimated
gross yearly revenue of ^16,216, and pays a tribute of ^1800 jointly
to the British Government and the Gaekwar of Baroda ; military force,
204 men. The family hold no title authorizing adoption, but they
follow the rule of primogeniture. There were, in 1882-83, 12 schools,
with a total of 842 pupils. Something has been done towards abolishing
transit duties.

Lunawara. — Capital of Lunawara State, Rewa Kantha, Bombay
Presidency ; a fortified town, situated in lat. 230 8' 30" n., and long.
73° 39' 30" e., about 4 miles east of the confluence of the Mahi and
Panam rivers, and a mile north of the latter stream. Population
(1881) 9059, of whom 6488 were Hindus; 2248 Muhammadans;
•320 Jains; and 3 'others.' The town was founded by Ra'na Bhi'm

/

LUSHAI HILLS. 529

Singhji in 1434. According to the local legend, the chief one day went
hunting across the Mahi, and, having become accidentally separated
from his companions, found himself near the hut of a sadhu or ascetic.
He presented himself before the recluse, saluted him reverentially, and
remained standing until bidden to be seated. The sadhu was pleased
with his demeanour, and, auguring a great future for him and his
descendants, advised him to build a city in the forest. He told him to
proceed in an easterly direction, and to mark the point where a hare
would cross his path. The Rana did as directed ; a hare soon jumping
out of a bush. The Rana pursued and killed it with a spear, and
marked the spot, which, it is said, is now within the precincts of the
palace. The sadhu was a devotee of the god Luneswar, in honour of
whom the Rana called the town Lunawara. The shrine of the god still
stands outside the Darkuli gate. About the beginning of the 19th
century the town was a flourishing centre for traffic between Malwa and
central Gujarat. Its artisans were remarkable for their skill ; and a
brisk trade in arms and accoutrements went on. Jail, school, and dis-
pensary. A road has been constructed to Shera, a British village, 15
miles north of Godhra, the terminus of the Godhra branch of the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway. The produce of the
State will find a ready market at Godhra.

Lushai (or Kuki) Hills. — A wild and imperfectly known tract of
country on the north-east frontier of India, extending along the southern
border of the Assam District of Cachar and the eastern border of the
Bengal District of Chittagong. On the east, the Lushai Hills stretch
away into the unexplored mountains of Independent Burma. This
extensive region is occupied by a numerous family of tribes, who are
known to us indifferently as Lushais or Kukis. The name ' Kuki ' is
found in early records of the last century, and is still commonly
applied to those colonies who have crossed the frontier and settled
within British territory ; but the appellation of ' Lushai ' has won official
recognition since the Lushai expedition of 1871-72. Among them-
selves these tribes are known by a variety of names, sometimes derived
from that of their prominent chiefs. The most northerly tribe in the
mountains between the State of Manipur and the Naga Hills is known
as the Quoireings. South of these are the Kupiii, who are subjects of
Manipur. The mountains south of Cachar are occupied by the Lushais
proper, under three principal chiefs. On the frontier of Chittagong,
the three best known clans are the Haulongs, the Sylus, and the Thang-
lowas. All these tribes are nomadic in their habits, and subject to
successive waves of migration. It is said that at the present time the
entire race of the Lushais is being forced southwards into British
territory, under pressure from the Soktis, who are advancing upon
them from Independent Burma.

VOL. VIII. 2 L

5 3o L USHAI HILLS.

The principal characteristic common to all the Lushais, in which
they markedly differ from the other tribes on the Assam frontier,
is their feudal organization under hereditary chiefs. Each village
is under the military command of a chief or Idl, who must come
of a certain royal stock, but who exercises his authority by the
voluntary submission of his subjects, as the number of his followers
depends upon the success which attends his border forays. The
chief exercises absolute power in the village; and his dignity and
wealth are maintained by a large number of slaves, and by fixed
contributions of labour from his free subjects. Like all other hill
tribes, the Lushais cultivate rice and a few more scanty crops on
clearings in the jungle, according to the jum or nomadic system of
agriculture ; but their main occupation is hunting and warfare. Their
domestic animals are the gaydl or wild cow, the hill goat, and the pig.
The gaydl is not kept for agriculture or for milking, but only for
slaughter at solemn sacrifices. Women are held in some sort of esti-
mation, though they perform the whole burden of both in-door and
out-door life. They are skilled at weaving a peculiar kind of rug or
puri, which forms to some extent an article of export. The other
articles which the Lushais bring down to the markets on the plains are
caoutchouc, ivory, raw cotton, and beeswax, in exchange for which they
take away rice, salt, tobacco, brass-ware, cloth, and silver. Both sexes
wear a homespun sheet of cotton cloth, which is generally dyed blue.
The women distend the lobes of their ears to an enormous extent with
discs of wood or ivory. The average height of the men is about 5 feet
8 inches. They are described as well made and wonderfully muscular,
but of a sulky and forbidding cast of countenance.

From the earliest times, the Lushais have been notorious for their
sanguinary raids into British territory, which are said to be instigated
by their desire to obtain human heads for use at their funeral cere-
monies. The Districts of Cachar, Sylhet, Tipperah, and Chittagong,
and the States of Manipur and Hill Tipperah, have repeatedly suffered
from these raids. The first of which we have record was in 1777,
under the Governor-Generalship of Warren Hastings, when the Chief
of Chittagong requested the presence of a detachment of sepoys ' for
the protection of the inhabitants against the Kukis.' In 1849, a
colony of Lushais, settled within the frontier of Cachar, was attacked
by their independent kinsmen, and forced to migrate northwards
across the Barak river, where they now live as peaceable British sub-
jects, and are known as ' Old Kukis.' In i860, a raid was made
upon the District of Tipperah, in which 186 Bengali villagers were
massacred and 100 carried away into captivity. Retributive expedi-
tions, consisting of small forces of sepoys, were repeatedly sent to
punish these raids ; but, owing to the difficult nature of the country

LUSHAI HILLS.

53i

and the fugitive tactics of the enemy, no permanent advantage was
gained.

At last, the disturbed state of the frontier attracted the attention of the
supreme Government. A military demonstration in 1869 had entirely
failed in its object. Relying upon their belief in the impracticable
character of their native country, the Lushais made a series of simul-
taneous attacks in January 1871 upon British villages in Cachar,
Sylhet, and Tipperah, as well as on the independent State of Manipur.
In Cachar a party of Haulongs surprised the tea-garden of Alexandra-
pur. The tea-planter was killed, and his daughter, Mary Winchester,
was carried off as a hostage. The outpost of Monierkhal repelled a
number of attacks, lasting through two days, made by a second body of
Lushais from the eastern tribes, who finally retired with a large amount
of plunder, including many coolies and guns. Lord Mayo, who was
then Viceroy, resolved to make a vigorous effort to stop these inroads
once and for all.

The details of a punitory expedition were organized under the
immediate control of Lord Napier, the Commander-in-Chief. The
little army was composed of 2 Gurkha battalions, 2 regiments of Punjab
and 2 of Bengal Native infantry, with 2 companies of Sappers and
Miners, and a strong detachment of the Peshawar Mountain Battery.
This was divided into two columns. One was to advance from Cachar
under General Bourchier, with Mr. Edgar as Political Agent ; the other,
commanded by General Brownlow, and accompanied by Captain Lewin
as Political Officer, was to operate from Chittagong against the Haulong
tribes. The Cachar column started from Silchar in November 1871,
and entered the Lushai Hills at Tipdi-mukh. From that point it
advanced for about no miles southward through country previously
unexplored, encountering considerable resistance from the enemy.
Finally, the Lushai chiefs accepted the terms imposed upon them.
The return march was effected without firing a shot, and Tipai-mukh
was regained in the beginning of March 1872. The operations of
the Chittagong column were equally successful. It penetrated north-
wards for about 83 miles. The surveying staff that accompanied it
triangulated an area of 3000 square miles, and completed the connec-
tion between the Districts of Chittagong and Cachar. Fifteen powerful
chiefs tendered their personal submission ; Mary Winchester was
recovered, and upwards of 100 British subjects were liberated from
captivity. The actual loss in fighting was small, but a large number
both of soldiers and camp followers died from cholera.

Since the date of this expedition, the Lushdis have, on the whole,
remained quiet along the entire frontier. At the same time active
measures have been taken to open commercial intercourse between
them and the people of the plains. On the Cachar side, 3 bazars have

532 L USHINGTON FALLS-MA CHARD A.

been established— at Tipai-mukh, Lushai-hat, and Jhaluachara — each
at the point where a river has its exit from the hills. Trade by barter
is briskly carried on, and the Lushai chiefs frequently send down
friendly messages. It has been estimated that the annual value of the
business done at these three marts is about ^10,000. On the Chitta-
gong frontier, similar bazars have been opened at Demagiri, Kasalang,
and Rangamati. Although the Lushai expedition of 1871-72 was
undoubtedly a sharp measure of retribution, its policy has been entirely
justified by the result.

In November 1883, disturbances occurred on the Chittagong
Hills frontier, two boats containing sepoys being attacked on the
Rangamati river above Barkal, in which a sepoy and a servant boy
were shot, and a second sepoy drowned. The boats were plundered
of money and clothes, and the raiders retreated, pursued by men of a
friendly village. The raid is supposed to have been committed by the
Shendus, instigated thereto by the Sylus, with the object of throwing
suspicion on their enemies, the Haulongs. The information, how-
ever, was too vague to justify retaliatory measures ; and no further action
was taken beyond strengthening the outposts, and distributing a few
muskets with ammunition to the friendly villages to enable them to
defend themselves against the hostile tribes. A darbar or public recep-
tion and a meld or fair, held by the Deputy Commissioner of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts at Rangamati in January 1884, proved very
successful, although the two principal Haulong chiefs refused to
appear. Rumours of intended raids along the Assam and Chittagong
frontier were current till the end of January 1884; but on the frontier
police being reinforced, the excitement gradually died out, and no
disturbances have occurred since. [For further information regarding
the Lushai and Kuki tribes, see The Hill Tracts of Chittagong and the
Dwellers therein, by Captain Lewin (Calcutta, 1869), and A Narrative
of the Lushai Expedition, by Lieut. Woodthorpe.]

Lushington Falls. — Picturesque falls in North Kanara District,
Bombay Presidency. — See Unchhali.

Lyng-ker-dem. — Mountain range in the District of the Khasi and
Jaintia Hills, Assam. Elevation of highest peak above sea-level, 5000
feet.

M

Macharda.— Village on the outskirts of the Dalasa Hills, Kathia-
war, Bombay Presidency, 40 miles south-west of Rajkot. In December
1867, Captain Hebbert was mortally wounded here when leading an
attack against the Vagher outlaws led by Deo Manik. Captain La

MACHARI— MACHHLISHAHR. 533

Touche also was shot dead during the assault. The two officers
lie buried in a small enclosure near Macharda. A pillar is erected in
memory of the fight on Tobar hill, a small hill in the lands of the village.
A tablet in Rajkot church also commemorates the event. Population
of village (1881) 340.

Machari.— Village in Alwar (Ulwur) State, Rdjputana; situated in
lat. 270 15' n., and long. 760 42' e. ; 76 miles south-west of Mathura
(Muttra), 3 north-east of Rajgarh. Machari was the residence of Sher
Shah's famous wazir Hemu, and was only captured by Akbar's troops
after a fierce resistance. It was occupied by Rao Anand Singh, son
of Rao Kalian Singh, the ancestor of the Alwar family, about 1671 ;
and was the head-quarters of the family until the acquisition of the
fort of Alwar in 1775. Machari contained in 1878, 2352 inhabitants,
inhabiting 593 houses.

Machavaram (Matckavaram, Matsavaram). — Town in Amala-
piiram taluk, Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Population (1881)
4637, inhabiting 824 houses. Situated in the Godavari delta, 4 miles
north-north-west from Amalapuram.

Machhgaon. — Port in Cuttack District, Bengal ; situated in lat. 1 90
58' n., and long. 86° 21' e. ; 9 miles from the mouth of the Devi
estuary. A rising town, with extensive rice trade. Sea-going brigs
cannot get up to the port, but float in with the tide as far as possible,
and are laden from country boats.

Machhgaon Canal. — One of the canals of the Orissa system (see
Cuttack District), connecting Cuttack town with Machhgaon at the
mouth of the Devi river. It starts from the Taldanda Canal at
Birbati (lat. 200 28' n., long. 86° o' 30" e.), and was opened in 1871
as far as Singapur, where it crosses the branch of the Kdtjuri, which
falls into the Mahanadi at Jayapur. It joins the Devi river in lat.
200 3' n., and long. 86° 17' e. Total length of the main canal, 53
miles.

Machhligaon. — Village in Gonda District, Oudh. Population,
chiefly Hindus. A famous temple dedicated to Karhuanath Mahadeo
is situated near the village, and a considerable fair is held every year
on the occasion of the Sivardtri festival.

Machhlishahr. — South-western tahsil of Jaunpur District, North-
western Provinces, lying for the most part south of the river Giimti,
and consisting of pargands Ghiswa, Miingra, Badshahpur, and Garwara.
The tahsil is triangular in shape, and is intersected by the Sai and
Bhadohi rivers in a south and south-easterly direction, while the Barna
forms its southern boundary. The principal line of communication is
the metalled road from Allahdbad to Jaunpur, besides a number of
unmetalled cross-country roads. Rice forms the principal crop in the
low-lying land of Miingra and Ghiswa pargands. Population (1872)

534 MACHHLISHAHR—MA CHHRETA.

192,113; (1881) 238,759, namely, males 120,797, and females 117,962.
Total increase in nine years, 46,646, or 24-2 per cent. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 219,953 ; Muham-
madans, 18,800; and Christians, 6. Of the 606 inhabited villages,
435 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; and two towns,
Machhlishahr and Mungra Badshahpur, have upwards of five
thousand inhabitants. Of the total adult population, 1552 are returned
as landholders, 68,286 as agriculturists, and 7150 as engaged in
occupations other than agriculture. Total area, according to the latest
official statement (1881), 353 square miles, of which 344-9 square miles
are assessed for Government revenue. Of the assessed area, 195*3
square miles are returned as cultivated, 55*2 square miles as cultivable,
and 94-4 square miles as uncultivable waste. Land revenue, ,£28,239,
or including local rates and cesses levied on land, ^32,706. Amount
of rent, including cesses, paid by cultivators, £^A^>1' In l883 tne
tahsil contained 1 court, 5 police stations, with a regular police of 81
men, and a village watch or rural police of 5 1 1 chaukiddrs.

Machhlishahr.— Town in Jaunpur District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, and head-quarters of Machhlishahr tahsil. Situated on the
metalled road to Allahabad, 18 miles west-south-west of Jaunpur town,
in lat. 250 41' 10" n., and long. 820 27' 16" e. The ancient name of
the town was Ghiswa, derived from the name of the Bhar chief Ghisu,
who is said to have ruled the pargand, and founded the town. It is
situated in the midst of a low-lying damp tract of country, and its
present name of Machhlishahr, or ' City of Fishes,' was given to it
owing to its liability to floods during the rainy season. The original
inhabitants of the town were Bhars, who were expelled during the
Rajput invasions. The Rajputs were ousted in their turn by the
Musalmans, and the place has ever since been a Muhammadan town.
Population (1872) 8715 ; (1881) 9200, namely, Muhammadans, 4762 ;
Hindus, 4432 ; and Christians, 6. Area of town site, 522 acres. The
town was formerly of considerably more importance than at present.
It was at one time noted for its salt and cloth manufactures ; but it has
long been on the decline, and now presents the appearance of a quiet
agricultural centre whose days of prosperity have gone by. Cultivation
extends up to the walls, and there are a number of fine trees and
groves. For police and sanitary purposes, a small house-tax is raised,
amounting in 1882-83 to £197. Besides the ordinary sub-divisional
courts and offices, the town contains an Anglo - vernacular school,
imperial post-office, first-class police station, charitable dispensary,
and a military encamping ground.

Machhreta— Pargand in Misrikh tahsil, Sitapur District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Ramkot, on the east by the Sarayan river, on
..the south by Gundlamau, and on the west by Kurauna and Misrikh,

MACHHRETA—MACKESON, FORT. 535

Population (1869) 37,677; (1881) 40,672, namely, males 21,400, and
females 19,272. Area, 10S square miles, or 68,990 acres, of which
41,434 acres are cultivated, 18,524 acres are cultivable, 544 acres mudfi,
and 8488 acres uncultivable waste ; average incidence of land-tax,
2s. ofd, per acre of total area, 2s. 4fd. per acre of assessed area, and
3s. 5jd per acre of cultivated area. The pa rgand was first constituted
by Rdja Todar Mall, in whose time the lands were held by an Ahban
Raja, Kesri Singh by name. He was deposed by Akbar, and his
estates conferred on two Kayasths, whose father had been diwdn to the
Ahban chieftain, and had been put to death by him. On their death,
various petty zamindars possessed themselves of the estate. Out of
125 villages comprising the pargand, 99 are held by Rajputs, 10 by
Kayasths, 6 J by Brahmans, 2 by a Bairagi, and 7 J by a Muhammadan
tdlukddr.

Machhreta.— Town in Misrikh tahsil, Sitapur District, Oudh ;
situated on the road from Khairabad to Nimkhar, on the Gumti, 16
miles south of Sitapur town. Lat. 270 25' n., long. 8o° 41' E. Popu-
lation (1869) 4578; (1881) 4177, namely, 2358 Hindus and 1819
Muhammadans. Daily bazar ; manufactures of coarse cloth and sugar.

Machida.— Estate or zaminddri attached to Sambalpur District,
Central Provinces; 25 miles north-west of Sambalpur town. Area, 10
square miles, with 9 villages, and 278 occupied houses. Population
(1881) 1073, principally Gonds and Kultas. Machida, the chief village
(lat. 210 49' n., long. 830 38' e.), has a school, with about 30 pupils.
The family of the zaminddri of Gond descent, and obtained the estate
a century ago. Formerly turbulent and lawless, they have now settled
down to peaceful pursuits. The estate is free of jungle, and the
principal crops are rice, cotton, and oil-seeds.

Machiwara.— Town and municipality in Samrala tahsil, Ludhiana
District, Punjab. Lat. 3c0 55' N., long. 760 14 3°" E- Situated on
the high southern bank of the Sutlej, 23 miles south of Ludhiana
town. Population (1868) 6062 ; (1881) 59^7, namely, Muhammadans,
3710; Hindus, 1948; Sikhs, 151 \ and Jains, 158. Number of
houses, 963. Ancient Hindu city, mentioned in the Mahdbharata,
but now commercially unimportant. Two very early mosques, several
Hindu shrines, and a very sacred Sikh Gurudwdra. Considerable
centre of sugar manufacture. Police station ; school-house. Municipal
revenue in 1875-76, ^288; in 1883-84, £^06, or is. 2U. per head
of population within municipal limits.

Mackesoil, Fort.— Small frontier fort in Peshawar District, Punjab ;
situated at the foot of the Khattak range, 3$ miles from the entrance
of the Kohat pass. It consists of a pentagon, an inner keep and a
horn work, with accommodation for 200 infantry and 300 cavalry. The
fort is no longer garrisoned by troops., and the question of dismantling

536 MADAHPURA—MADAKSIRA.

it is now (1884) under the consideration of Government. In the
meantime it is held by a force of border police and frontier militia. Lat.

33° 45' 45" N-> long- 7i° 36' 15" E-

Madahpura. — Sub-division of Bhagalpur District, Bengal, lying
between 250 24' and 260 7' n. lat., and between 86° 38' 45" and 870
9' e. long. Area, 872 square miles; villages and towns, 900;
houses, 67,548. Population (1871) 391,086 ; (1881) 398,006, namely,
males 198,472, and females 199,534. Classified according to religion,
there were in 1881 — Hindus, 372,009; Muhammadans, 25,973; and
Christians, 24. Proportion of males in total population, 497 per
cent.; average density of population, 456 persons per square mile;
number of villages per square mile, 1 '03 ; persons per village, 442 ;
houses per square mile, 79*5 ; inmates per house, 5*9. The Sub-division
comprises the 2 police circles (thdnds) of Kishenganj and Madahpura.
In 1883 there was 1 magisterial and 1 civil and revenue court, a
regular police of 38 men, and a rural force 1843 strong. This
Sub-division is liable to disastrous floods caused by inundations from
the Kiisi river.

Madahpura. — Town in Bhagalpur District, Bengal, and head-
quarters of Madahpura Sub-division ; situated in lat. 250 55' 40" N., and
long. 86° 49' 51" e., on the right bank of the river Parwana, on the
high-road to Supiil, and about 52 miles from Bhagalpur town. Popu-
lation (1881) 3602. Contains the usual Government sub-divisional
buildings, sardi or native hotel, small bazar. Government-aided school,
dispensary, post-office, excise office ; police force, 26 men. The events
chronicled in the popular ballad of Liirik, the deified cowherd, occurred
for the most part in this neighbourhood. For an account of the legend,
see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xiv. pp. 87-89.

Madaksira. — Taluk in Anantapur District, Madras Presidency.
Population (1881) 55,113, namely, 27,650 males and 27,463 females;
number of houses, 12,512. Hindus numbered 53,309; Muhammadans,
1675; Christian, 1 ; and 'others,' 128. The area is 451 square
miles, the number of villages, 159. In the south the country is
hilly and rocky. Towards the west it is level, and nearly every
available acre has been taken up for cultivation. The soil is fertile ;
and the water-supply bountiful. The taluk contains 2 criminal courts ;
police stations {thdnds), 5; regular police, 44 men. Revenue (1883),
^7227.

Madaksira.— Town in Anantapur District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 1 30 56' 30" n., long. 770 18' 40" e. Population (1881) 4489 ;
number of houses, 1299. Formerly the stronghold of a powerful
pdlegdr of Vijayanagar ; seized by Morari Rao in 1741, and by Haidar
All in 1769. The fort was built on a rock above the town, which was
itself walled and protected by a ditch.

MADANAPALLI— MADAPOLLAM. 537

Madanapalli. — Tdluk in Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras
Presidency. Area, 593 square miles. Population (1881) 106,215,
namely, 53,900 males and 52,315 females; villages, 103; houses,
24,854. Hindus number 98,735; Muhammadans, 7173; Christians,
306 ; and ' others,' 1. Madanapalli tdluk occupies the extreme south-
west corner of Cuddapah District. The country is hilly, with the
exception of the south-western part where it meets the Mysore plateau.
The soil is, for the most part, good. The tdluk contains 1 civil and
3 criminal courts ; police stations (t/idnds), 9 ; regular police, 90 men.
Land revenue, ,£15,368.

Madanapalli (' Cupid's hamlet '). — Town in Cuddapah District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 130 33' 37" n., long. 780 32' 45" E. ;
pleasantly situated on the Cuddapah upland, 2500 feet above sea-level,
and consisting of 3 hamlets (Madanapalligadda, Madanapalli, and
Batalanuttigadda). Population with hamlets (1881) 7106, namely,
3513 males and 3593 females; number of houses, 1856. Hindus
numbered 5801; Muhammadans, 1176 ; Christians, 128; and 'others,' 1.
The central portion, or Madanapalli hamlet, according to the Census,
contains 5700 persons. The head-quarters of Madanapalli tdluk, of
the Sub-Collector and of the assistant superintendent of police. Good
dispensary, hospital, post-office, and a Government and mission school.
The town and tdluk suffered severely in the famine of 1876-78.

Madanganj— Town in Dacca District, Bengal; on the Lakhmia
river, opposite Narayanganj Town, of which it in reality forms a part,
having been established by the merchants of that place, who were
pressed for space in Narayanganj, Large and increasing trade in
country produce. Total population of Narayanganj, with Madanganj
(1872), 10,911 ; (1881) 12,508 (males 7558, and females 495°)> namely,
Hindus, 6324; Muhammadans, 6160; and 'others,' 24. The united
towns form a single municipality of the first class. Municipal in-
come of Narayanganj with Madanganj (1883-84), £2096; average
incidence of taxation, 3s. ifd.

Madanpur. — Estate or zaminddri in Mungeli tahsil, Bilaspur
District, Central Provinces. Area, 25 square miles. Population (1881)
7616 (males 3733, and females 3883), residing in 38 villages, which are
intermixed with the villages of Mungeli ta/isil. Chief crop, rice ; but
wheat, gram, etc. are also grown. The zaminddr is a Raj-Gond, and
the grant dates from 181 2.

Madapollam (Mad/iavdyapalew).— Decayed weaving and dyeing
village, a suburb of Narsapur, Godavari District, Madras Presidency.
Lat. 160 26' n., long. 8i° 44 20" e. Population (1881) 1506, inhabit-
ing 278 houses. Madapollam was an important 'Lodge' or manu-
facturing village and entrepot for cotton goods during the commercial
period of the East India Company, and gave its name to a class of

53^

MADAM— MADA VAR VILA GAM.

goods still known in the market as Madapollams. Madapollam was
attached to the Masulipatam Factory. — See Narsapur.

Madari.— Small river in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas,
Bengal, with the grain marts of Chaital and Bansra on its banks.

Madaria (or Gold). — Town in Bansgaon tahsil, Gorakhpur District,
North-Western Provinces ; situated in lat. 260 20' 50" n., long. 830 23'
40" e., ^t, miles south of Gorakhpur town, on what was once the bank
of the Kuana river, and is now the bank of the Gogra (Ghagra). A
rising and flourishing town and trade centre, with a population in 1872
of 5147, and in 1881 of 7193, namely, Hindus, 6466; Muhammadans,
725 ; and Christians, 2. Area of town site, 74 acres. Some fine groves
which surround the town, and the river which flows past it, give the
place an appearance from a distance which a closer inspection dispels.
Madaria consists of one narrow, straggling street of shops running
parallel to the Gogra, and separated from it by a thick mass of mud
houses, through which a network of narrow lanes run down to the
river-side. Several large masonry houses, however, line the river bank,
and the traders have of late years shown much rivalry in erecting fine
temples. For police and conservancy purposes, a small house-tax is
raised. The town is the head-quarters of a Sub-division of the Opium
Department, and contains a first-class police station, imperial post-
office, and a good elementary school.

Madaripur (Mandaripur). — Sub-division of Faridpur District,
Bengal. Area, 979 square miles; villages and towns, 1515; houses,
88,450. Population (1872) 631,504; (1881) 689,704, namely, males
338,484, and females 351,220. Muhammadans numbered 396,355 ;
Hindus, 291,231 ; and Christians, 21 18. Average density of population,
704*5 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 1*55 ; houses
per square mile, 91*56; persons per village, 455; persons per house, 7*8.
The Sub-division comprises the thdnds or police circles of Madaripur,
Gopalganj, Kotwalipara, Palang, and Sibchar. It contained in 1883,
3 civil and 4 magisterial courts, with a regular police force of 109
officers and men and a village watch or rural constabulary of 1209 men.

Madaripur.— River mart and municipality in Faridpur District,
Bengal, at the confluence of the Arial Khan and Kumar rivers,
and head - quarters of Madaripur Sub-division. Population (1881)
12,298, namely, Hindus, 8181, and Muhammadans, 41 17. Municipal
income (1883-84), ^653; incidence of taxation, 9^. per head of
population within municipal limits. Large import trade in salt, rice,
piece-goods, and timber, and still larger export trade in jute, sugar, oil-
seeds, betel-nuts, and onions.

Madavarvilagam.— Town in Srivillipatur tdluk, Tinnevelli District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 90 30' n, long. 770 38' 20" e. The popula-
tion which in 1871 was returned at 9955, living in 2267 houses, was

MADDIKERA—MADGIRL 539

at the Census of iSSt returned at 1392 only, inhabiting 333 houses.
It is a suburb of Srivillipatur town, and contains a fine pagoda and
a tower dedicated to Siva.

Maddikera.— Town in Pattikonda taluk, Karnul (Kurnool) District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 15° 15' N., long. 77° 28' E. Population
(1881) 6181 ; number of houses, 136S. Hindus numbered 5440;
Muhammadans, 654; Christians, 77; and 'others,' 10. Situated at
the source of the Hindri river, about 3 miles north-east of Nancharla
station, and about 1 1 miles north of Guntakal junction station, on the
north-west line of the Madras Railway.

Maddlir.— An old taluk, Mysore District, Mysore State. In 1875,
the greater part was added to Mandya taluk, and the remainder to
MALVALLI taluk.

Maddlir.— Village in Mysore District, Mysore State. Lat. 120 35'
30" n., long. 770 5' 20" e. ; on the right bank of the Shimsha river,
40 miles by road north-east of Mysore town. Population (1881) 21 17.
Old town, with many temples and tanks. Said to have been originally
named Arjunapura by the Pandyan prince Arjuna when on a pil-
grimage. One of the Hoysala Ballala kings is related to have assigned
the town as indm or rent-free grant to the Brahmans or priestly
caste. The fort was dismantled by Lord Comwallis in 1791, and
the place has never recovered from the ruin caused during the war
with Tipii. The situation is now unhealthy. Until 1875 it was the
head-quarters of Maddlir taluk, since abolished and divided between
Mandya and Malvalli taluks. A brick bridge of 7 arches was constructed
across the Shimsha in 1850, over which the Bangalore-Mysore Railway
now runs. On this railway Maddlir is a station.

Made.— Village in Coorg, at the Sampaji ghat on the Merkara-
Mangalore road! Population (1881) 2194. Head-quarters of the
Parpattigar of Kaggodalnad, with public bungalow. Several coffee
estates in the neighbourhood.

Madgiri.— Tdluk in Tumkiir District, Mysore State. Area, 437
square miles, of which no are cultivated. Population (1881) 59,729,
namely, 30,270 males and 29,459 females; of these 58,176 were
Hindus, 1528 Muhammadans, and 25 Christians. Land revenue
(1881-82), ,£11,578, or 4s. per cultivated acre. A fertile tract,
water being everywhere easily obtained beneath the surface by means
of talpargis or spring heads. The rice, known as chinnada saldki or
golden stick, is reckoned the best in Mysore, and the breed of cattle
is also fine. The Pinakini river runs through the open country to the
north; nearly parallel, to the west, flow its affluents, the Jayamangali
and the Kumadvati. The taluk contains 2 criminal courts ; police
stations, 10; regular police, 104 men; village watch {chaukiddrs), 332.
Total revenue (1883), ,£18,685.

54o MADGIRI— MADHA.

Madgiri {{ Honey HUP). — Town in Tiimkiir District, Mysore State ;
24 miles north of Tiimkiir town, at the north base of the Madgiri-drug,
and surrounded by hills. Lat. 13° 39' n., long. 770 16' e. Population
(1 881) 2S46. Old town, which has grown up under the protection
of the fortifications on the neighbouring hill. It prospered greatly
under both Haidar All and his son Tipii, but was twice sacked by
the Marathas in 1774 and 1791. There are now manufactures of
iron, steel, cotton cloth, and blankets ; and a brisk trade in brass,
copper, and silver utensils. Rice is largely exported. Two large
temples of Venkatramanaswami and Malleswara are conspicuous
objects ; the latter is gracefully ornamented under the eaves with
carved figures of pigeons life-size. Head-quarters of the Madgiri
taluk. Sub-judge's court and post-office.

Madgiri-dnig. — Hill in Tiimkiir District, Mysore State; 3935 feet
above sea-level, crowned with old fortifications commanding the town
of Madgiri. Lat. 130 39' 30" N.y long, 770 14' 40" e. On the summit
are springs of water, with large granaries excavated in the rock. The
present formidable works were erected by Haidar Ah', in substitution for
the mud walls oi&pdlegdr or petty chieftain.

Madgula (Madgole). — Town in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 170 55' n., long. 820 51' 30" e. Population (1881) 7612 j
number of houses, 1639. Hindus numbered 7441 j Muhammadans,
168; Christian, r ; and 'others,' 2. Situated at the foot of the ghats
which separate the low country from Jaipur, about 30a feet above sea-
level. Madgula is the chief town of an ancient hill zaminddri or estate
lying partly above and partly below the gnats, paying apes/ikas/i (tribute)
°f ^30I° t0 Government. Madgula estate contained in 187 1, 139
villages and 56,512 inhabitants ; the Census of 1S81 did not return the
population of the estate separately. The estate is partly under the
' Agency Administration ' of Jaipur (Jeypore).

Madha. — Sub-division of Sholapur District, Bombay Presidency ;
situated between lat. 1 f 38' and 1S0 10' n., and long. 750 13' and 750 46' e.
Area, 619 square miles. Population (1881) 67,961, namely, 34,973
males and 32,988 females, dwelling in 89 villages. Hindus number
63,096 ; Muhammadans, 3338 ; and ' others,' 1527. Madha is an undu-
lating plain, irregular in shape ; the tops of all the higher ridges, though
covered with yellow stunted grass, are bare of trees, and have a barren
soil. The watershed crosses the Sub-division in the direction of its
greatest length from north-west to south-east; and the streams flow
eastward into the Sina and southward into the Bhima. Setting aside the
Ashti lake, situated about 15 miles south-west of Madha town, the land
is chiefly watered from wells. The climate is dry, and hot winds pre-
vail from March to May. Of the 619 square miles, 613 had been
surveyed up to 1883. Lands of alienated villages occupy 22 square miles.

MADHA—MADHES WARANMALAL 541

The rest consists of 347,325 acres of cultivable land; 11,866 acres of
uncultivable land; 2303 acres of forests; and 20,343 acres of village
sites, roads, rivers, and streams. Included in the 347,325 acres of cul-
tivable land, are 16,746 acres of alienated lands in Government villages.
In 1882-83, the total number of holdings was 6159, with an average
area of about 46 acres. In 1881-82, of 251,602 acres, the whole area
held for tillage, 47,929 acres were fallow or under grass. Of the re-
maining 178,234 acres, 4077 were twice cropped. Of the 182,311
acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 153,533 acres; pulses, 8080
acres; oil-seeds, 18,080 acres; fibres, 813 acres; and miscellaneous
crops, 1805 acres. Land revenue (1881), ^12,112. In 1883, the
Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circles
(thdnds), 4 ; regular police, 45 men ; village watchmen (chaiikiddrs), 195.

Madha. — Chief town of the Madha Sub-division, Sholapur District,
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 180 4' n., and long. 750 35' e.,
about 40 miles north-west of Sholapur town. Madha is a station on the
south-east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population
(1881) 4078. Sub-judge's court, post-office, fort, weekly market on
Tuesday, and annual fair in September-October. The fort is now
used to accommodate the sub-divisional offices.

Madhan. — Petty State in the Punjab, subordinate to Keunthal.
Area, 13 square miles; estimated population, 1000; revenue, ^"160.
The chief (Thakur) is a Rajput, his family having originally come from
Bilaspur.

Madhapur. — Town in Porbandar State, Kathiawar, Bombay Presi-
dency. Population (188 1) 2667. An ancient town, with a temple to
Krishna, who is said, after his rape of Rukmini, to have celebrated
his marriage with the goddess here. The port is merely a roadstead,
and its trade is decreasing. Exports (1881-82), ^1163; imports,

Madhepur (Mddhupur). — Town in Darbhangah District, Bengal ;
situated in lat. 260 io' 20" n., and long. 86° 25' 1" e., at the junction
of the roads from Barhampur, Harsinghpur, Gopalpur ghat, and Dar-
bhangah. Population (1872) 7301; (1881) 5054, namely, Hindus,
3716; and Muhammadans, 1338. Area of town site, 2905 acres.
Police station and good bazar ; the Nawada indigo factory is in the
immediate neighbourhood. Madhepur is admirably suited for trade
with all parts of Tirhiit and Purniah, and will probably become an
important commercial town.

Madheswaranmalai. — Town in Collegal fdluk, Coimbatore District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 120 2 n., long. 770 35' e. A place of
pilgrimage much resorted to during the Diwali (Dipvali) festival, and
on new moon days, especially the day of the new moon, in the Tamil
month of Tye (January-February). The population, which in 187 1

542 MADHOPUR—MADHUGARH.

was 7522, living in 1199 houses, was, at the Census of 1881, returned
at only 968 in 201 houses.

Madhopur (or Siwai Mddhopur). — Town in Jaipur State, Rajputana.
Situated about 43 miles north of Jaipur city. Population (1881) 14,07 5,
namely, 6980 males and 7095 females. Hindus number 10,169;
Muhammadans, 2952; 'others/ 954. Two annual fairs are held; one
in May, and the other in September, each attended by about 12,000

visitors.

Madhubani.— Sub-division of Darbhangah District, Bengal, lying
between 260 1' and 260 39' 30" n. lat., and between 850 52' and 86°
46' e. long. Area, 1349 square miles ; villages, 2926 ; occupied houses,
132,287. Population (1881), males 448,237, and females 459,268;
total, 907,505. Classified according to religion, there were — Hindus,
806,408; Muhammadans, 101,063; Christians, 20; and Santals, 14.
Density of population, 673 persons per square mile; villages per
square mile, 2*17 ; persons per village, 661 ; houses per square mile,
102 ; persons per house, 6*8. This Sub-division comprises the 4 police
circles (thdnds) of Madhubani, Benipati, Khajauli, and Phulpara. In
1883 it contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts, a force of 113
policemen and 1587 chaiikiddrs or village watchmen.

Madhubani. — Town in Darbhangah District, Bengal, and head-
quarters of Madhubani Sub-division; situated in lat. 260 21' 20" n.,
and long. 86° 7' e., about 16 miles north-east of Darbhangah town.
Good bazar, with daily markets for grain, vegetables, and cloth. Situated
on one of the main roads from the south of the District to Nepal.
Population (1872) 8569; (1881) 11,911, namely, males 6131, and
females 5780. Hindus number 9945, and Muhammadans 1966.
Area of town site, 960 acres. Communications excellent ; dispensary
and hospital ; registration office ; sardi. Municipal revenue (1883-84),
^£972, of which ^509 was derived from taxation; average incidence
of taxation, 9! d. per head.

Madhugarh. — North-western tahsil of Jalaun District, Nortl>
Western Provinces, lying in the angle between the Pahuj and the Jumna
( Jamuna) rivers ; much intersected by ravines, but producing excellent
crops of sugar-cane. Area, 282 square miles, of which 203 are culti-
vated. Population (1872) 89,165; (1881) 97,457 (males 51,935, and
females 45,522), showing an increase in nine years of 8292, or 9-3
per cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 —
Hindus, 94,472; Muhammadans, 2977; and Jains, 8. Of the 137
villages comprising the tahsil, 97 contained less than five hundred
inhabitants; 26 from five hundred to a thousand; 12 from one to
two thousand; 1 from two to three thousand; and 1 from ten to
fifteen thousand inhabitants. The estates of the Rajas of Rampura,
Jagamanpur, and Gopalpur are situated along the western boundary of

MADHUGARH—MADIIYARJUNAM. 543

the taksil They have not been subjected to interior survey ; their
Rajas pay no Government revenue or cesses, maintain their own police,
and have the sole administration of their estates, which are, however,
subject to the general control of the Deputy-Commissioner of the Dis-
trict. Land revenue, ^13,98 1 ; total Government revenue, .£15,652 ;
rental paid by cultivators, ^30,210; incidence of Government revenue,
is. 6 id. per acre. Madhugarh tahsil contains 4 civil and 4 criminal
courts, 2 of them presided over by honorary magistrates. Number
of police circles (thdnds), 6 ; strength of regular police, 58 men; village
watchmen {chaukiddrs), 181.

Madhugarh (known also as Rdniju). — Town in Jalaun District,
North- Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Madhugarh tahsil, 27
miles from Urai town, the District head-quarters. Population (1872)
2718; (1881) 343S, namely, males 1900, and females 1538. Tahsili
and police station. A small house-tax is levied for the conservancy
and watch and ward of the town.

Madhumati. — River of Bengal. — See Baleswar.

Madhupur. — Village in Pathankot tahsil, Gurdaspur District,
Punjab. Lat. 320 22' n., long. 750 39' e. Population (1868) 2675.
Not separately returned in the Census of 1881. The head-works of
the Bari Doab Canal are situated opposite this village.

Madhupur. — Extensive jungle, known also as the c Garh Gazali,'
stretching northwards from the northern part of Dacca into the heart
of Maimansingh District, Bengal, almost as far as the Brahmaputra.
A slightly elevated tract, averaging about 40 feet above the plain, with
small hills nowhere exceeding 100 feet in height. Covered with dense
jungle and grasses ; very unhealthy, and abounding in wild beasts,
but penetrated by the high-road to Maimansingh. The sal (Shorea
robusta) grows throughout the tract, and supplies timber and charcoal.
The open parts make good pasture grounds during the cold weather ;
and a considerable trade is carried on in beeswax and honey. A
large area has been planted or brought under cultivation, prin-
cipally with cotton and boro rice, by two public-spirited zaminddrs of
Dacca. The soil, a red ferruginous clay, was formerly smelted for
iron ; but this industry ceased to yield a livelihood on the introduction
of the English metal, and has now been abandoned.

Madhupur.— Town in Darbhangah District, Bengal. — See Mad-
hepur.

Madhwapur. — Village and bazar in Darbhangah District, Bengal j
situated on the Nepal frontier, on the river Dhaiis. A busy trade is
carried on with Nepal. Population (iS8i) 1692, of whom 151 7 were
Hindus and 175 Muhammadans.

Madhyarjunam (otherwise called Tiruvadamarudur). — Town in
Combaconum taluk, Tanjore District, Madras Presidency. Lat io=

544 MADNAGARH.

57' n., long. 79° 30' e. Six miles east of Combaconum, and twenty-
nine from Tanjore city. Containing, with its suburbs, a population (1881)
of 2506 persons, including 646 houses. Notable for its temple, and
as the residence of some of the Tanjore ex-royal family. Sub-magis-
trate's court, and a station on the main line of the South Indian

Railway.

Madnagarh.— Fine reservoir in Chanda District, Central Provinces ;
situated in lat. 200 35' N., and long. 79° 3 2 E., 11 miles east-north-east
of Chimur, under the western slopes of the Perzagarh range. Supplied
by a hill stream, diverted into it by a long embankment, at the end of
which are the remains of a fort. The village is deserted ; but the
neighbouring population cultivate the lands.

END OF VOLUME VIII.

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MORRISON AND GIEE, EDINBURGH,
PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

UMASS/BOSTON LIBRARIES

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8