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THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA.
• MORRISON AND cirr, EDINBURGH,
PRINTERS TO HEN MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India.
W. W. HUNTER, C-S. I., CLE., LL.D.,
DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF STATISTICS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.
VOLUME IX.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY TO MULTXl.
SECOND EDITION.
TRUBNER & CO., LONDON, 18S6.
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2 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
and the Arabian Sea, for about 540 miles. Off the south-east lies the
British Colony of Ceylon, separated by a shallow strait, across which
runs the string of rocks and sandbanks known as ' Adam's Bridge.'
The irregular northern boundary of Madras has been formed by acci-
dents of history. On the extreme north-east is the Bengal Province
of Orissa ; next (proceeding westwards) come the wild highlands of
the Central Provinces; then, for a long stretch, the Dominions of the
Nizam of Haidarabad, separated by the Kistna river and its tributary
the Tungabhadra ; lastly, on the north-west by west, the Districts of
Dharwar and North Kanara in the Bombay Presidency. The inde-
pendent State of Mysore, which occupies a large portion of the centre
of the area thus defined, may be regarded, for geographical purposes,
as a part of the Madras Presidency. The Laccadivk Islands also
form, for administrative purposes, a part of the Presidency, being
attached to the Districts of Malabar and South Kanara.
General Aspect. — Viewed on the map, Madras presents a very broken
aspect. Its eastern shore extends up the peninsula more than twice
as far as its western ; while its heart seems to be eaten out by the
independent State of Mysore. From a physical point of view, it may
be roughly divided into three portions— (1) the long and broad eastern
coast; (2) the shorter and narrower western coast; and (3) the high
table-land in the interior. These divisions are determined by the two
great mountain ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghats, which
give the key to the configuration of all Southern India.
The Eastern Ghats, which lie entirely within the Madras Presidency,
form a continuation of the confused hill system of Chutia Nagpur.
They run, rather as a succession of hills than as a range of equal
importance with the Western Ghats, in a south-westerly direction
almost through the whole length of .Madras, until they lose themselves
in the Nilgiris, and there join with the Western ran:: Their
average height is only 1500 feet, and for the most part they leave a
broad expanse of low land between their base and the sea. Their
line is pierced by three great river's, the Godavari, Kistna (Krishna),
and Kaveri (Cauvery), as well as by minor streams ; so that they do
not perform the part of a watershed. These hills may from one point
>>! view be regarded as the eastern cliff of the southern and central
plateau.
The Western Ghats, on the other hand, stretch southwards along the
eastern shore of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, from north
• if Bombay, and satisfy all the characteristics of a mountain range.
The line is only broken by the Palghdt gap; the northern section
measuring about 800 miles in length and the southern section
at 200 miles. Rising steeply at a distance of 30 to 50 miles from
the coast in the Madras Districts, the Western Ghats catch almost the
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 3
whole rainfall of the monsoon, and in the south not a single stream
breaks through their barrier. Their eastern face gradually slopes
down to the table-land of the central plateau. Some of the peaks
attain an elevation of more than Sooo feet. The highest peak of the
Nilgiris is 8760 feet in height, while the loftiest point of the Anamalai
hills is nearly one hundred feet higher. The Palghat gap affords a
singular passage to the wind, which is elsewhere barred by the con-
tinuous range. The country immediately east of the gap receives the
rainfall of the south-west monsoon ; and during the north-east monsoon,
ships passing Beypur (near the mouth of the Palghat gap) meet with a
much stronger wind from the land than is felt elsewhere alonsr the
western coast.
Between the ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghats lies the
central table-land, with an elevation of from 1000 to 3000 feet. This
inner table-land includes Districts of the Bombay Presidency, the Cen-
tral Provinces, the Berars, the Nizam's Dominions, the Ceded Districts,
with other Districts of the Madras Presidency, and the whole of Mysore.
Its outline follows the triangular shape of the peninsula. All the main
rivers of Madras Presidency, particularly the Godavari, the Kistna, the
Penner, and the Kaveri (Cauvery), have their upper courses here.
From the Western Ghats, the plateau shelves to the east. Depressions
in its surface coincide with the valleys of the rivers and their chief
tributaries.
Each of these three divisions of the Madras Presidency has strongly
marked features of its own. The eastern coast possesses the deltas of
the three great rivers, where artificial irrigation has combined with
natural fertility to reward the toil of the husbandman. On the west
coast, the rainfall never fails; but cultivation is hemmed in within
narrow limits by the mountains and the sea. In the central plateau,
the country is generally bare, the rainfall light, and the means of
irrigation difficult. But it contains many tracts of fertile soil, and the
cultivator does his best to store in tanks the local showers which the
monsoons bring to him from either coast.
Rivers, Mountains, and Lakes. — The three principal rivers of Madras
are the Godavari, Kistna or Krishna, and Kaveri (Cauvery), each
with a large tributary system of its own. All of these rivers have the
same uniform features. They rise in the Western Ghats, and run right
across the peninsula in a south-easterly direction into the Bay of
Bengal. They drain rather than water the upper country through
which they flow, and are here comparatively valueless either for navigation
or irrigation. But, like other rivers which fall into the Bay of Bengal,
all of them spread over alluvial deltas before they reach the sea, and
there become capable of being restrained and utilized by the agricultur^t
and engineer. Other rivers on the east coast, of similar character but
4 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
smaller dimensions, are the North and South Penner or Pinakini,
the Palar, the Vaiga, the Vellar, and the Tambraparni.
The two main hill systems of the Presidency have been described in
the Eastern and Western Ghats. The NiLGlRlS, which join these two
ranges, culminate in Dodabetta (8760 feet), one of the loftiest peaks in
Southern India. There are, besides, many outlying spurs and tangled
masses of hills, of which the Akamai, ais in Coimbatore, the Palni
(Pulney) Hills in Madura, and the Shevaroys in Salem are the most
important. Anamudi, a peak of the Anamalai range, is the highest
point (8850 feet) in Southern India.
South of the Palghat gap — where, so to say, the backbone of India
is cut down to within 1000 feet of the sea-level, by a break 25 miles
wide — the Western Ghats resume their course at their full level down
to Cape Comorin, and widen out into the highland tract lying between
Madura on the eastern side, and Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore on
the western coast, which is known as the Anamalais in Coim-
batore District, and as the Palnis in Madura. This region, higher
than the Nilgiris in parts, and much more extensive, narrows abreast of
the Kumbum valley (Madura), and behind Tinnevelli becomes only
a mountain range between the two coasts, with a restricted area.
The highland tract thus formed is very extensive, and is likely to afford
an important field for European enterprise as the Nilgiri tract becomes
fully occupied.
The principal lake in the Presidency is Pulicat, on the cast coast,
which is 37 miles in length from north to south, and from 3 to 1 1 miles
in breadth. Pulicat Pake forms an important backwater for inland
communication between Madras city and the northern Districts. The
lake is supposed to have been caused by the sea breaking in through
the low sandy beach. On the western coast, the perpetual antagonism
between the mountain torrents and the ocean has produced a remark-
able scries of backwaters or lagoons, fringing the entire seaboard of
Kanara, Malabar, and Travancore. The largest is the backwater of
Cochin, which extends from north to south for a distance of 120 miles.
These backwaters are also used for inland navigation. Continuous
water communication is thus provided between Cochin and the capital
of Travancore, and is thence prolonged southwards almost to Cape
( lomorin by an artificial can il.
Minerals, etc. — The greater part of the Madras Presidency is covered
with soils originally formed by the disintegration of rocks of the meta-
morphic and igneous systems. Of the former system, gneiss, mica,
syenite, and quartz are the most widely prevalent ; while the high moun-
tain ranges are usually of granitic formation, with a good deal of felspar.
A wide belt of green sand stretches across the country in a north-east
direction from Trichinopoli. The common red soil shows by its colour
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 5
a large admixture of the peroxide of iron. Pure alluvium is found in
the deltas of the eastern rivers. Tracts of the celebrated 'black cotton-
soil ' are scattered over the Presidency, and in places occupy the beds
of prehistoric lakes.
The mineral wealth of Madras is as yet undeveloped. Iron of excel-
lent quality has been smelted by native smiths from time immemorial.
In Salem District are some remarkable deposits of magnetic iron, from
50 to 100 feet in thickness, extending continuously for miles. A Com-
pany was formed in 1825 to work the beds at Palampatti, and operations
were afterwards extended to Porto Novo, near Cuddalore, and to Bey-
pur (Bepur) on the Malabar coast. But all these enterprises ended in
failure. In 1883-84, 336 mines or small workings yielded 329 tons of
iron, valued locally at ^4135. Carboniferous sandstone extends across
the Godavari as far south as Ellore. The strata were mapped by the
Geological Survey in 1871; coal was tested by borings near Dama-
gudem, and found to be of inferior quality; and in 1881-82 the
Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India expressed an official
opinion that there are no coal resources of economic value in the
Madras Presidency. Such seams as exist are for the most part in the
territory of the Nizam of Haidarabad. Upon receipt of the opinion of
the Superintendent of the Geological Survey, the Madras Government
decided to stop the exploration of the Bhadrachalam coal-fields which
was in progress, and to await the development of the Haidarabad
fields.
Attention has recently been drawn to the promise of gold-mining in
the Wainad (Wynaad) and Kolar. Gold had long been washed in the
hill streams in small quantities ; and it was hoped that operations for
quartz-crushing on a large scale might prove remunerative. Many of
the quartz reefs are auriferous, particularly in Nambalikod and Munad.
Laboratory experiments on the southern ends of six reefs have shown
an average of 7 dwts. of gold to the ton of quartz, rising in one case
to 1 1 dwts. Speculation has taken up the enterprise, and Australian
experts have held out hopes of a fair profit. The Government has
resolved to alienate no waste land without reserving the mining rights.
Investigations disclose the fact that gold-mining is many centuries
old in Wainad. Alluvial washing was, until within the last twenty-
five years, a source of a small State revenue (motarfa). About 1S30,
the Government itself embarked in the industry, but abandoned it
as unremunerative after a few years. Gold may, indeed, be washed
from the sands of many of the rivers descending from the Western
Ghats in Malabar. The larger portion of the auriferous reefs in South
Wainad are supposed to be on private land, the property of the great
landowners or jetimis of Malabar. But the practical results of gold-
mining on a large scale with European capital have not, so far, proved
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
encouraging in Madras. The industry cannot be regarded as having
yet passed through the experimental stage (1885).
Among other minerals may be mentioned manganese in the Nilgiris
and Bellary ; copper-ore in many parts of the Eastern Ghats ; antimony
and silver in Madura; corundum in the valley of the Kaveri (Cauvery).
Garnets are abundant in the sandstone of the Northern Circars, ami
diamonds of moderate value are still found in the same region. The
right to subjacent minerals in the lands of ordinary cultivators is
recognised as belonging to the holders of the land, subject to special
assessment in the event of their being worked. This right does not
extend to lands at present waste.
Forests. — The whole south-western coast is rich in forest vegetation, but
much of the valuable timber grows beyond the limits of the Presidency
—in Bombay, Mysore, Coorg, and Travancore. The first essay at
forest conservancy in the Madras Presidency was the introduction of
a State royalty over teak and other valuable timber in Malabar and
South Kanara in 1807. The measure soon assumed the character of a
Government monopoly of timber throughout the coast Districts, which
led to abuses, and to discontent on the part of the proprietors and
inhabitants. It was accordingly abolished by Sir Thomas Monro
in 1822.
Prior to 1847 there was no Forest Department in Madras Presidency.
In that year, on the report of the denudation of the Malabar forests by
native merchants trading with Bombay, a special officer was appointed,
subordinate to the Public Works Department. The existing Forest
Department for Madras Presidency was first organized in 1856, and
has since then been reconstituted on an improved system. It is
estimated that forests cover a total area in the mountains of the Madras
Presidency of more than 5000 square miles. In 1S82-S3, the area
technically termed 'reserved* was 2782 square miles. The total area,
on hill and plain, dealt with by the Forest Department was estimated
in 1879 to aggregate 10,000 square miles. Throughout this area,
rules of conservation are in force in order to prevent denudation of the
forests, and to maintain a stock which will meet the demand for
timber and fuel that is rapidly increasing throughout India.
The produce of the forests of the Madras Presidency is turned to
account in two ways. The first is that called departmental felling,
according to which the Forest Department fells the timber, and brings
it to the depot and sells it or supplies it to Government on indent.
The working arrangements vary in different localities, according as
elephant-draught is available or not. In some forests companies of
axe-men fell and lop the trees first selected and marked by the forest
officer, or by his subordinates under his orders. The timber is next
dragged by elephants out of the forest ; once out of the forest, it is
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 7
carted to the depot and sold for the benefit of the Department, — that
is, of the State. In other forests the work is done by contract, at so
much per cubic foot, the trees, however, being previously selected and
marked by the forest officer. According to a third plan, the tree is
sold standing, the price and number of cubic feet being estimated by a
rough calculation. What has been said above refers to departmental
felling ; but there is a second method. This method is by licence.
Under the voucher and licence system, as it is called, the timber mer-
chant enters the forest and fells at his own option, after he has paid the
seignorage and exhibited his licence. Certain native revenue officials
have powers of granting licences and vouchers. This latter system
is, however, under reconsideration, and, owing to many inherent' defects,
is likely to be abrogated.
In 1876-77, the revenue from timber sold was ,£19,000, while
,£21,000 was realized from licences. In that year, the total receipts
of the Department amounted to ,£41,531, against an expenditure of
,£41,397. In 1S82-S3, the total receipts amounted to ,£90,391,
and the charges to .£63,655, leaving a profit of ,£26,736 for the
year. The more valuable timber-trees comprise teak, ebony, black-
wood, rose-wood, sandal-wood, and red sanders-wood. There are
altogether 81 Government plantations, covering an area of 15,000
acres, on which, up to 1876-77, a total sum of ,£51,000 had been
expended; the receipts in that year were ^2680. In 1882-83, tne
area regularly planted was 44,977 acres. The trees thus reared are
chiefly teak, red sanders-wood, Casuarina and Eucalyptus. No data
exist for computing their aggregate value ; but it has been estimated
that from one teak plantation now coming to maturity, an income of
nearly 7 millions sterling will accrue within the next hundred years.
The charges during this period are estimated at under 3 millions sterling.
The finest teak plantation is near Beypur in Malabar, called after its
founder, Mr. Conolly. It has been formed gradually since 1844, and
now covers about 4000 acres. At Mudumalli there are plantations of
both teak and sandal-wood ; and the Eucalyptus or Australian gum-
tree now grows on the Nilgiris in magnificent clumps. In 1S75-76,
the total value of timber and wood exported from Madras was
,£104,511 ; and in 18S2-83, ,£195,399.
The Forest Department in Madras has lately been reorganized,
under the Madras Forest Act (v. of 18S2). Shortly before the passing of
the Act, the Jungle Conservancy Fund, hitherto separate, was amalga-
mated with the regular Forest Department. By this Act, the Forest
Department has been strengthened and improved. The Presidencv
has been divided into two circles, a northern and a southern, with a
Conservator over each ; and the whole system has been placed in imme-
diate subordination to the Board of Revenue. In 1SS2-S3, the extent of
S MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
'reserved' forest in the southern circle was 1970 square miles; and in
the northern circle, 812 square miles: total, 2782 square miles.
Wild and Domestic Animals. — The fauna of Southern India will be
treated at some length in the concluding sections of this article. The
] -resent paragraph is confined to the administrative and economic
aspects of the wild and domestic animals of the Presidency. The wild
animals of Madras are for the most part common to the rest of India.
Those deserving mention are the elephant, bison, stag, and ibex of
the Western Chats and the Nilgiris. Bison are also found in the hill
tracts of the Northern Circars. In the State of Travancore, the black
variety of leopard is not uncommon. In 1876, 981 persons (probably
below the actual number) were returned as killed by wild beasts and
snakes ; of whom tigers killed 83, leopards 33, and snakes as many as
819. In that year, 10,322 cattle were reported to have been killed, the
deaths being caused in almost equal proportions by tigers, leopards,
and wolves. A total sum of ^2984 was paid by Government in
rewards for the destruction of wild beasts, including 236 tigers, 1021
leopards, 133 bears, 39 wolves, and 164 hyaenas. The corresponding
statistics for 1881 are as follows: — Number of persons killed by wild
beasts and snakes, 1302; of whom tigers killed 135, leopards 47,
and snakes 1064: the number of cattle killed by wild beasts was
893S, of which tigers and leopards killed about equal numbers (say
3200 each): the total sum paid in rewards for the destruction of
wild beasts was ^2024, the wild beasts destroyed including 189
tigers (amount of reward, ,£596), 837 leopards (amount of reward,
^1276), 149 bears, 26 wolves, and 166 hyaenas. No returns as to the
number of snakes destroyed are available. The District Officer dis-
burses the reward on production of the skin or other satisfactory
evidence. The elephant is now protected by law from indiscriminate
destruction.
The agricultural live stock consists chiefly of horned cattle and sheep ;
in 1882-83 horses numbered less than 8000; and ponies 30,000.
The cattle are small in stature, the average live weight not being much
above 350 lbs. In Nellore, and along the Mysore frontier, a superior
breed is carefully kept up by the wealthier farmers. The cattle fairs in
these Districts are frequented by buyers from considerable distances ;
and prizes are sometimes offered by official personages. The best
buffaloes are imported from the Bombay histrict of Dharwar. The
slice]) are of three well-marked breeds. The first are small, with
black or white hairy wool. The second are about the same size,
red in colour, almost destitute of wool, and covered with short coarse
hair. The third are large, long-legged, and goat-like, with two tassels
from the neck, and with little wool. The sheep yield on an average
about 25 lbs. of mutton. The annual clip of wool, which is always
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 9
largely mixed with hair, is usually not more than i lb. per head.
Experiments in breeding sheep have been made at the Saidapet farm,
with fair success. In 1875-76, the total number of cattle in the
Presidency was returned at 8,270,000 head, and of sheep at 6,745,000 ;
in 1882-83, the number of cattle was 8,624,849, and of sheep, 5,635,867.
In 1875-76, the export of hides and skins was valued at ^1,081,585,
and of horns at ^22,59 1. In 1882-83, the export of hides and
skins was valued at ,£2,040,935, and of horns at ,£40,631. Raw
wool is not exported to any appreciable extent, the supply being locally
consumed in the manufacture of kamblis or coarse blankets.
History. — The history of the Madras Presidency forms an integral
part of the history of India. The narrative of its events occupies. many
hundred pages of Orme, Mill and Wilson, Elphinstone, Grant Duff,
and other standard works. The researches of Orme, the special
historian of English military operations in Madras, form a noble series
of folio manuscript volumes in the India Office. The great missionary
scholar of the Dravidian tongue (Bishop Caldwell), and the eminent
Sanskrit scholar of Southern India of the Civil Service (the late Dr.
Burnell), have opened up a far-stretching background of research. It
would be unsuitable, in a work like the present, to attempt more than -a
bare summary.
The history of Southern India is the history of the Dravidian races,
which have not yet found a chronicler. Of their ethnical affinities and
of their advent into the country little is known. Their early conver-
sion to Hinduism is perhaps recorded in the great epic of the Rdmd-
yanci, which represents the monkey tribes as assisting the god to destroy
the demon king of Ceylon. Subsequently, the wave of Buddhism
passed over the land ; and in historical times, Muhammadan and
Maratha invaders founded dynasties. But through all changes of
religion and government, the obstinate persistence of the two languages
of Tamil and Telugu proves how deeply the Dravidian stock is rooted
in the soil.
Although, however, continuous records are wanting, many interesting
facts indicate the large part played by the South in the early history ot
India. The Malabar coast, with its wealth of spices and timber, was
the cradle of commerce ; and has given local or Tamil names to
articles of Indian trade, from the time of Solomon downwards. Syrian
Christians and Muhammadans from Arabia have been settled on
the western coast from the earliest times, and their proselytes
form a large section of the population of Malabar and Travancore.
A colony of Jews, too, have resided in Cochin for many centuries ;
and in Malabar, the first Portuguese adventurers found their richest
cargoes. At a later date, historical interest shifted to the opposite
shore of the Karnatik, where the issue was fought and decided
i o MADRA S PRESIDE JVC Y.
of English supremacy in the East. Here the schemes of Dupleix for
territorial aggrandisement were baffled by the genius of Clivc. Here also
were witnessed the successful strategy of Coote, the indomitable spirit
of Haidar, the ferocity of Tipii, and the beginnings of Wellington's
career of victory. Since the opening of the present century, Madras
has ceased to furnish material for the military historian.
It is probable that until the paramount power of England established
universal peace, the whole of Southern India had never acknowledged
a single ruler. For a time, indeed, it is conjectured that the Hindu
dynasty of Vijayanagar there exercised an all but universal sovereignty.
But the difficult nature of the hill passes, and the warlike character of
the highland tribes, forbade the growth of great empires, such as succeeded
one another on the plains of Hindustan. So far as we can raise the
veil of primitive history, we find the land partitioned out among nume-
rous minor dynasties, who rose and fell with, to western minds, a be-
wildering rapidity. The Tamil country in the extreme south, to which
the name of Dkavida is alone strictly applicable, is traditionally divided
between the three kingdoms of Pandiya, Chola, and Chera ; and the
succession of these and other dynasties in Southern India can be some-
what briefly epitomized.
Greek accounts, chiefly based on Megasthenes (300 B.C.), speak of
the kingdoms of Kalinga, Andhra, and Pandiya, the last in the ex-
treme south, the two first in the north of the present Madras Presidency,
Kalinga on the coast and Andhra inland. To these may be added
Chola and Kerala (Chera?), in the time of Asoka (250 B.C.). But
by the 6th century a.d. the Pallavas had established a powerful
sovereignty with a capital near Madras, but soon split up into
several contemporary dynasties ruling along the whole eastern coast
as far as Orissa. Both Kalinga and Andhra fell under Palhiva
sway. Before the culmination of Pallava rule, the Chalukyas of the
west had warred against the Cholas and the Pallavas, but without
permanent success. In the 7th century the tide of fortune turned.
The Chalukyas conquered the Pallavas, and under the name of the
Eastern Chalukya dynasties, remained in power until the nth century.
About the same time, the Southern Pallavas of Kanchi or Conjevaram
were overthrown by a fresh inroad of the Chalukyas, who, it is very
probable, were then the an hitects of the celebrated 'Seven Pagodas.'
The Southern Pallavas, however, regained their power, and the Chalukyas
were driven out. In the nth century the Cholas rose to great import-
ance. They conquered for a time the Pandiyas in the south, the Chera
or Gangd dynasty, and the king of Ceylon ; while they added to their
territory the realm of the Pallavas, and the possessions of the Eastern
ilukyas up to the borders of Orissa.
This widely extended kingdom of the Chalukyas gradually fell
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. n
to pieces; and by the close of the 13th century the entire north of
the Presidency had been wrested from the Chola sovereign by a
number of chiefs under various titles, somewhat resembling the barons
of mediaeval Europe. Virtually, they were independent, and per-
petually at war with one another, thus falling an easier prey to the
disciplined armies of the Muhammadans. The Chola king had
besides lost all control of the Pandiyan country, and had been driven
out of Mysore and the Chera or Ganga country by the powerful
dynasty of the Hoysala Ballalas. At the opening of the 14th century,
the position of the various dynasties was accordingly this. The
Pandiyas were still powerful in the south ; the Cholas, only the remnant
of a nation, held the territory about Tanjore and Madras ; the Hoysala
Ballalas had a firm grip on the centre of the peninsula; the north ot
the Presidency was in a state of anarchy.
Hindu legend has preserved marvellous stories of these early dynasties,
but the authentic evidence consists in their inscriptions on stone and
copper, and their noble architecture. Continuous history begins with the
arrival of the Muhammadans. The Muhammadan invader first estab-
lished himself in the south at the commencement of the 14th century.
Ala-ud-din, the second monarch of the Khilji dynasty at Delhi, and his
general Malik Kafur, conquered the Deccan, overthrew the kingdom of
the Hoysala Ballalas, and ravaged the country down to the extreme
south, besides conquering the chieftains of the east coast. After the
withdrawal of the Musalman armies, the Hindu monarchy of Vijay-
anagar arose out of the ruins, with its capital on the Tungabhadra.
This dynasty gradually extended its dominions from sea to sea, and
reached a pitch of prosperity such as had been before unknown. It
destroyed the former dynasties of Southern India, and nominally
governed the entire country now known as the Presidency ot
Madras. At last, in 1565, after a glorious history of two centuries,
Vijayanagar was overwhelmed by a combination of the four Muhammadan
principalities of the Deccan. Mughal and Maratha armies followed in
quick succession ; and it seemed as if all national life had been crushed
out of the Dravidian races.
The Emperor Aurangzeb nominally extended his sovereignty as far as
Cape Comorin ; but in reality the south had again fallen under a number
of rulers, who owned no regular allegiance. The Nizam, himself an
independent sovereign, represented the distant court of Delhi. The
most powerful of his feudatories was the Nawab of the Karnatik, with
his capital at Arcot. In the plain of Tanjore, a descendant of Sivajt
ruled in ignoble ease, cut off from the rest of the Maratha confederacy.
The Pandiyan country was held by a powerful family known as the
Nayakkas of Madura. On the central table-land, a Hindu chieftain was
gradually establishing his authority over his neighbours, and founding
1 2 MA BRA S PRESIDENC Y.
the State of Mysore, destined soon to pass to a Muhammadan usurper.
Such was the state of affairs amid which the prophetic mind of Dupleix
first entertained the dream of European supremacy in the Peninsula.
Vasco da Gama, the pioneer of maritime adventure, cast anchor off
Calicut on the 20th May 1498. For a century, the Portuguese retained in
their control the commerce of India, especially along the western coast.
The Dutch began to establish themselves on the ruins of the Portuguese
at the beginning of the 17th century, and were quickly followed by the
English, who opened places of business at Calicut and Cranganore as
early as 16 16. Tellicherri, a branch factory from Surat, in 1683,
became a principal British emporium on the western coast, and
was permanently obtained by a cession of territory in 1708. The Por-
tuguese eventually retired to Goa, and the Dutch to the Spice Islands.
The first English settlements on the eastern coast were founded in
161 1 at Masulipatam, even then celebrated for its fabrics; and
at Pettapoli (now Nizampatam) in Kistna District. To the south,
a factory was built at Armagaon, a small port in Nellore District ; and
in 1639 another factory, the nucleus of the present city of Madras, was
erected after permission had been obtained from the Hindu Raja of
Chandragiri. The site of Pondicherri was purchased by the French in
1672, and a French settlement was established two years afterwards.
For many years, the English and French traders lived peacefully side by
side, rivals only in commerce, and with no ambition for territorial
aggrandisement.
The war of the Austrian Succession in Europe (1741) lit the first
flame of hostility on the Coromandel coast. In 1746, the weak
garrison of Madras surrendered to La Bourdonnais ; and Fort St.
David remained the only British possession in Southern India.
The Nawdb of the Karnatik attempted to drive out the French, but his
general was defeated at the decisive battle of St. Thome. By the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Madras was restored to the English; but
henceforth the national antipathies were destined to run their course.
\n excuse was found in the disputed successions which always fill a
large place in oriental politics. English influence was generally able to
secure the favour of the rulers of the Karnatik and Tanjore, while the
French succeeded in placing their own nominee on the throne at
I laidanibdd.
At hist, after many vicissitudes and countless intrigues, the
great Frenchman, Dupleix, rose to be the temporary arbiter of the
fate of Southern India. His strength lay in his profound insight into
the native temperament, and the semi-oriental magnificence of his
ambition. But when his ascendancy was at its height, it was suddenly
overthrown by the yet greater Englishman, Give, whose defence of
\rcot forms a turning-point in Indian history, and led to the
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 13
transfer of preponderance in Southern India from the French to the
English. Dupleix was shortly afterwards recalled, to be succeeded by
Bussy and Lally, who possessed higher military skill, but less political
genius, than their predecessor. In 1760, the crowning victory of Wandi-
wash, won by Colonel (afterwards Sir Eyre) Coote, over Lally, established
the doctrine that one European nation, and that the English, must be
supreme in Southern India. In the following year, despite help from
Mysore, Pondicherri was captured ; and the name of France ceased to
awaken disturbing associations in the minds of the natives.
But though the English had no longer any European rival, they had
yet to deal with Muhammadan fanaticism and the warlike population of
Mysore. The dynasty, founded by Haidar All and terminating in his
son Tipii Sultan, proved itself in four several wars the most formidable
antagonist which the English had yet encountered in India. The
Madras Government, then at a low ebb of efficiency, was incapable of
offering a successful opposition. On more than one occasion the horse-
men of Mysore swept unmolested through the lowlands of the Karnatik,
plundering up to the gates of the English forts. The first war was
ended in 1769 by a peace dictated by Haidar AH beneath the Avails of
Madras. In the course of the second war, an English force under Colonel
Baillie was cut to pieces by Haidar near Conjevaram ; and Tipii
drove the English out of Malabar.
But the disaster near Conjevaram was avenged in the following year
by Sir Eyre Coote, who had been despatched by Warren Hastings from
Bengal to take command. The victory of Porto Novo, won after
a severe struggle, proved that the English were still masters in the
open field, though Haidar's superiority in marching power enabled him
to escape the worst consequences of defeat. Thenceforth, however,
he ceased to be the aggressor, and only struggled to hold what he had
won. Haidar died in 1782, at the age of sixty-five. Two years later,
Tipii consented to sign the treaty of Mangalore, which stipulated for the
restoration of conquests on either side. This patched-up peace, which
left Tipii in possession of all the means of offence that he had inherited
from his father, continued till 1790. The ostensible reason for a renewal
of hostilities was Tipii's cruel devastation of Travancore, but the real
cause is to be sought in his inveterate hatred of the English name.
Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General, took the field in person. In
1 791, the fort of Bangalore was captured by assault ; and in the follow-
ing year, Tipu only saved his capital by agreeing to a treaty which
deprived him of half his dominions, and exacted an indemnity of more
than three millions sterling. The intrigues of Tipii with the French
republicans led to the fourth and last Mysore war of 1799, which
ended in a few months by the storming of Seringapatam, and the
death of the Sultan in the breach.
1 4 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Since the beginning of the present century, Madras has known no
.ular war. But over such a wide area of territory occasional dis-
turbances have called for measures of military repression. Thtpdlegdrs
or local chieftains in the south clung to their independence after their
country was ceded to the British. On the west coast, the feudal aristo-
cracy of the Xairs and the religious fanaticism of the Mappilas (Moplas)
have more than once led to rebellion and bloodshed. In the extreme
north, the wild tribes occupying the hills of Ganjam and Vizagapatam
have only lately learned the habit of subordination. In 1836, the
zamind&ri of Giimsur in this remote tract was attached by Govern-
ment for the rebellious conduct of its chief. An inquiry then instituted
revealed the wide prevalence among the tribe of Kandhs of human
sacrifice, under the name of meriah. The practice was suppressed
by a special agency. In the year 1S79, tne country round Rampa on
the northern frontier was the scene of riots sufficiently serious to call
for the action of the military authorities.
The territories of the Madras Presidency have been acquired at
various dates. In 1763, the tract encircling Madras city, long known
as the Jaghire (jagir) of the East India Company, and now called
Chengalpat District, was ceded by the Nawab of Arcot. In 1765, the
Northern Circars (namely, the present Districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam,
Godavari, and Kistna), out of which the French had been driven,
were granted to the Company by the Mughal Emperor ; but it was
thought desirable to obtain the further sanction of the Nizam, at the
cost of an annual tribute of ^70,000. Full rights of dominion over
the Northern Circars were not acquired till 1823, when the tribute
was commuted for a lump payment. In 1792, Tipu Sultan was com-
pelled to cede the Bara Mahal (now forming part of Salem District),
Malabar, the Dindigal and Palrri taluks of Madura, and Kangundi
taluk of North Arcot. In 1799, on the reconstruction of the State of
Mysore after Tipu's death, Coimbatore, the Nilgiri Hills, the rest of
Salem District, and South Kanara District (excepting the small
portion of that District which was taken from Coorg on the annexa-
tion of that State in 1834) were appropriated as the British share.
In 1799 also, the Maratha Raja of Tanjore resigned the administra-
tion of his territory, though his descendant retained titular rank until
1855. In 1800, Anantapur, Karniil, Bcllary, and Cuddapah (Kadapa),
known to this day as the Ceded Districts, were made over by the
Nizam of Haidanibdd, to defray the expenses of an increased Sub-
sidiary Force. In the following year, the extensive dominions of the
Xawab of the Karnatik, extending along the east coast almost con-
tinuously from Nellore to Tinnevelli, were resigned into the hands of
the British. The last titular Nawab of the Karnatik died in 1855; but
his representative still bears the title of Prince of Arcot, and is recognised
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 15
as the first native nobleman in Madras. In 1S39, the Nawab of Karnul
(Kurnool) was deposed for misgovernment and suspected treason, and
his territory was brought under direct British administration.
With regard to Native States, the largest, Mysore, had since 1831
been under the direct administration of the Government of India ; but
in 1 88 1 it was handed back to its native prince. Of Native States
subordinate to Madras, Travancore and Cochin represent ancient
Hindu dynasties, preserved by British aid from falling under the
Muhammadan yoke of Mysore. A joint rebellion was suppressed
in 1808; and the history of both States has since been a continuous
record of peace and commercial prosperity. Pudukota is the inherit-
ance of a chieftain called Tondiman, who rendered valuable service
to the British during their wars in the south. Baxgaxapalli and
Sandur, two petty estates, lie in the centre of two British Districts.
The zamindaris of Jaipur (Jeypore) and Vizianagaram are not Native
States with independent jurisdiction, but large landed properties under
British administration.
People. — From early times the population of the Madras Presidency,
or at least of that portion residing in rdyatwdri villages, has been
enumerated with more or less pretension to accuracy. The first
Census, taken in 1822, returned a total of 13,476,923 inhabitants.
Between 1851-52 and 1866-67, enumerations were made by the village
establishments at intervals of five years. The last of these quinquennial
attempts gave a population of 26,539,052. Attempts at enumeration
were frequently viewed with suspicion and even alarm by the people,
who feared some design on the female population, a new poll-tax, or a
military levy. These feelings, it is officially reported, have in recent
years given way to indifference ; so that one great impediment to an
accurate enumeration has now been almost wholly removed.
The Census of 1871, corresponding to that of 1872 in the greater part
of the rest of India, was the first enumeration conducted with sufficient
care to yield results available for statistical use. But the recent
Census — that of 1881 — has done its work still more completely,
and its figures are the basis of the population statistics in the present
edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. The Census enumerators
were in general the village officials, who received no extra remuneration.
The final counting was effected on the 17th February 1SS1, except in
a few special tracts ; but the staff had been trained in their work for
months previously. The total number of enumerators employed
was 73,059, a block of 243 houses being allotted to each enumerator.
The following tables for 1881 show in detail the area and the number
of houses, villages, and inhabitants in each District of the Madras
Presidency, with the density of population per square mile. On the
[Sentence continued on p. 1 7.
M. IDKAS PRESIDENCY.
Aula, Population, etc. of Madras Presidency in iSSi ;
British Districts and British Agency Tract
Tii ken from the Census Returns.
Name of District.
Area in
Square
Miles.
X umber of
Towns and
Villages.
Number of
Houses.
Population.
Number of
Inhabitants
per Square '
Mile.
Ganjam,1
8,3H
6,895
359. 1S2
1,749,604
2IO'
Vizagapatam,1
17,380
8,762
550,325
2,485,141
143 '
avari,1 .
7-345
2,249
346,432
1,791.512
244 1
Kistna,
s-47i
1,821
287,812
1,548,480
'S3
Nellore,
8,739
1,688
254,859
1,220,236
140
Cuddapah, .
8,74s
1,241
278,331
1,121,038
I2.S
Karnul,
7,78S
836
175,999
709,305
91
Bellary and Anantapur,-'
11,007
2,0.84
317,475
1,336,696
121
Chengalpat,
2,842
2,003
163,03s
981,381
345
North Arcot,
7,256
3,967
310,205
1,817,814
251
South Arcot,
4,873
2,850
266.720
1,814.;
372
Tanjore,
3,654
3,551
4^5,838
2,130,383
583
Trichinopoli,
3.56i
1.485
234,202
1.215,033
34i
Madura,
8,401
3.971
451,420
2,168,680
258
Tinnevelli, .
5. 38 1
i,497
433,346
1,699,747
315
Salem,
7,653
3.972
344,402
1,599,595
209
Coimbatore,
7,842
1,447
390,275
1,657,690
211
Nilgiris,
957
10
21,590
91,034
95
Malabar,
5,765
437
468,825
2.365,035
410
South Kunara, .
3,902
1,282
200, 446
959,514
246
.Madras City,
27
1
64,550
405,848
15,031
Total,
1 39,900 3
52,051
6,355,281
30,868,504
2207
1 The area of Ganjam District without its Agency Tract is 3106 square miles ; the
area of Vizagapatam District without its Agency Tract, 3477 square miles ; the area
of Godavari District without its Agency Tract, 6525 square miles. In Ganjam
proper, the density of population per square mile is 4S4 ; in Vizagapatam proper,
515; in Godavari proper, 273.
8 Bellary District has since 1SS1 been divided into the two Districts of Bellary
and Anantapur, making a total of 22 British Districts, instead of 21, as enumerated
above. Bellary District, as at present constituted, contains, according to the Census
of 18S1, an area of 5904 square miles, with 1 184 towns and villages, and a population
numbering 736,807. Anantapur District has an area of 5103 square miles, with 900
towns and villages, and a population numbering 599,889.
3 The Census (1881) adds Pudukota territory, which raises the total area to
1 it, 001 square miles; the number of towns and villages to 52,64s ; the number of
3 to 6,429.365 ; and the total population to 31,170.,' ;i.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
17
Area and Population' of the Madras Native States.
Area in
- 'are
Miies.
Number of
Towns and
Villages.
Numbe r of
Houses.
Population.
Number of 1
Inhabitants !
per Square
M.le.
Tiavancore,
Cochin,
Pudukota, .
Banganapalli.
Sandur,
6,730
I,36l
I,IOI
255
164
3-719
655
597
64
23
524-950
125,297
74,084
8,735
2,686
2,40I,I5S
600,278
302,127
30.754
IO,532
357
44I
274
121
64
Total,
9.6U
5,058
735-752
3,344,849
34S
Grand Total of Madras
Presidency,1 .
149,092
57,o22
7,079,612
34,172,067
229
1 The grand total figures for area and population do not quite agree with the
separate totals, as the Census figures for Karnul and Bellary Districts in the table on
the opposite page also include the petty States of Banganapalli and Sandur, which
are thus shown twice over.
Sentence continued from p. 15.]
whole, the population of the Madras Presidency has since 187 1
decreased over the same area by 462,897 persons, or nearly half a
million of people. This check to a normal increase of over seven per
thousand per annum is due to the famine in Southern India during
1S76, 1877, and 1878. In the Districts most severely affected by that
visitation, the decrease of population has been 1,751,327, or 12-8 per
cent. In the Districts not affected, or but slightly affected, by famine,
^there has been an increase of 1,288,430, or 7-19 per cent.
^ The total area and population of the Madras Presidency, including
the Agency Tracts and the States of Travancore, Cochin, Banganapalli,
Sandur, and Pudukota, are 149,092 square miles, and 34,172,067
persons. Area and population of the British Districts and British Agency
Tracts, 139,481 square miles, and 30,827,218 persons.1
Taking the area of the Madras Presidency as dealt with in the
Census Report, the following averages are obtained ; but as explained
in footnotes, the exact totals depend upon the classes of territory
included in the enumeration. Density of population per square mile,
221 persons, ranging from 91 in the District of Karnul to 5S3 in the
fertile delta of Tanjore, and 15,031 in Madras city. Towns and villages
per square mile, -373, ranging from "oi in the Nilgiris to 1*34 in
Ganjam. Houses per square mile, 46 (5 of them returned as un-
1 Owing to the varying classifications of territory in Madras, the totals obtained
from one return do not always tally precisely with those obtained from another. See
footnotes to table of population.
VOL. IX. B
1 8 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
occupied). Persons per village, 537; persons per town, 13,335 ; persons
per occupied house, 5*5.
According to sex, there were 15,421,043 males and 15,749,588
females; or in every 1000 of population, 495 males and 505 females.
Classified according to age, there were 6,081,142 boys and 5,930,624
girls under 15 years of age ; total children, 12,011,766, or 38*5 per
cent of the population: and 9,332,223 males and 9,81 1,059 females
of 15 years and upwards; total adults, 19,143,282, or 61*4 per cent, of
the population : age not stated — males 7678, females 7905 ; total, 15,583.
The religious classification of the people for the same area shows
the following results: — Hindus, as loosely grouped together for
religious purposes, 28,497,666, or 91*42 per cent., varying from 99.I-
per cent, in Ganjam to 70^ per cent, in Malabar; Muhammadans,
1,933,571, or 6'2 per cent., being most numerous on the Malabar
coast, in Madras city, and the Ceded Provinces; Christians, 711,072,
or 2*28 per cent. ; Jains, 24,962 ; and 'others,' 3360.
Classified by ' nationality,' there were in every ten thousand of
the population, 9369 Hindus (including Buddhists, Jains, and native
Christians), 620 Muhammadans, 7 Eurasians, 3*5 Europeans, and 0*5
'others.' Since 1871, the Hindus have decreased by 175 per cent.,
due mainly to famine; the Muhammadans have increased by 3*56
per cent., said to be owing to conversions in Malabar; Europeans
appear to have decreased by 25*98 per cent., owing to a temporary
reduction of the garrison ; and although Eurasians appear to have
decreased by 17*09 per cent., the decrease is not accurately shown
owing to defective enumeration in Malabar.
Etlinical Classification. — Broadly speaking, the population of the
Madras Presidency may be described as belonging to the five races
of the great Dravidian stock dominant throughout Southern India. At
an early period, before the dawn of history, these non-Aryan races
appear to have accepted some form or other of the Brahmanical or
Buddhist faiths. Many storms of conquest have since swept over the
land, and a few colonies of Mughal and Maratha origin are to be
found here and there. But the indelible evidence of language proves
that the ethnical character of the population has remained stable under
all later influences ; and that the Hindu, Muhammadan, Jain, and
Christian of Madras are all of the same stock. Of the five Dravidian
dialects (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kanarese, and Tulu), the Census
returns Telugu as spoken by 12,104,246 persons, inhabiting the
tract stretching southwards as far as Nellore and inland to Karnul ;
Tamil, by 12,387,395 persons, occupying the remainder of the
eastern coast from Madras city to Cape Comorin ; Kanarese, by
'^oo^S persons, in the Central Districts surrounding Mysore and in
South Kanara ; Malayalam, by 2,369,671 persons, chiefly in Malabar
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. ig
District (besides the population of the Native States of Travancore
and Cochin) ; and Tulu, by 427,044 persons, most of them in a portion
of South Kanara. For the rest, Uriya is the native tongue in the
extreme north of Ganjam, bordering on Orissa ; and various sub-
dialects of Dravidian origin (e.g. Toda, Kota, Kodagu) are used by the
hill tribes of the Eastern Ghats, of whom the Kandhs may be taken
as the type. In all, 28,853,224 out of the whole population of
31,170,631 (or 92-56 per cent.) are Dravidians as to language.1
Castes. — According to the classification of the Census Report, the
Brahmans, who, with the Kshattriyas, alone represent an Aryan element
in the population, number 1,122,070 persons, or 3-94 per cent, of the
total Hindu population. They follow various pursuits, and are distri-
buted with extreme irregularity, being proportionately most numerous
in South Kanara and Tanjore. Many of them are modern immigrants,
who came south in the train of the Maratha armies. In Malabar is
found a peculiar class called Nambiiri Brahmans, whom local tradition
asserts to be descended from a race of fishermen, and who are regarded
with unusual reverence by their neighbours. The Kshattriyas, or
warrior caste of the primitive Hindu system, number only 193,550, the
principal sub-divisions being the Bondiliars and the Bhat Rajas. Many
of the trading class claim to be Vaisyas, and wear the sacred thread.
The trading castes number 640,047, or 2-25 per cent, of the total,
returned under the heads of Shettis, Beri Shettis, and Komatis
(365)7rS)- Except in South Kanara, they still retain in their hands
the greater part of the trade of the country. The number of
Manvaris, the enterprising traders of Western India and Rajputana,
is 382.
The agricultural castes number 7,767,463, or 27*25 percent. The
highest class among them, named Velama in the Telugu country,
Vellalar in the Tamil Districts, Bant and Nadavar in South Kanara, and
Nair in Malabar, belong to the well-to-do ranks of the community.
They do not usually cultivate with their own hands, and many of them
formerly held their lands on a military tenure. The Madras Nairs
number 335,320 ; and 907 more are found in Coorg.
The pastoral castes, called Idaiyar in Tamil and Golla in Telugu,
number 1,580,000, or 5-54 per cent, of the total, most numerous in the
inland Districts of Bellary and Karniil (Kurnool). They are chiefly
Vishnuites, but a few are Sivaites, and some are demon-worshippers.
A large proportion of them have abandoned their hereditary occupation
of shepherds.
The artisan castes, called Kamalar in Tamil and Kamsala in
1 These totals include the territory of Pudukota, as mentioned in a footnote to the
Table of population on a previous page. The difficulty in regard to the Madras
totals has already been referred to.
2o MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Telugu, number 849,901, or 2-98 per cent, of the total, of whom nearly
one-half are workers in metals. The bulk are Sivaites. They have suc-
ceeded generally in maintaining a higher position in the social scale
than is awarded to them in Northern India. The weavers (Kaikalars)
number 979,062, or 3*44 per cent, of the total. They were once a
much more important section of the community, but they have been
unable to withstand the competition of piece-goods from Manchester.
Many of the weaving castes adopt the Lingayat creed.
The labouring castes number 3,751,093, or i3"i6 per cent, of the
total ; very few in the Telugu country. In the south, the Vannians
or Naiks (1,075,505) supply the bulk of agricultural labour. The
Maravars and the Kalians, whose acknowledged head is the Raja of
Pudukota, bear a bad reputation for thieving and general lawlessness.
The Kanakkan, or writer and accountant class, number 102,472.
The term ' Conicopolliesj applied to agents, purveyors, and other
traders, is a corruption of ' Kannakanpillai,' a word formed from the
name of this caste. ' Pillai' is a title of respect. The Kannakans are
very irregularly distributed. The Upparavas (104,985) are chiefly
engaged in the manufacture of salt and saltpetre, the Wadavars
in tank-digging and road-making. The fishing and hunting castes,
(ailed Shembadavan in Tamil and Besta in Telugu, number 873,448,
or 3"oi per cent. Many of them have now betaken themselves to
agriculture. The palm cultivators and makers of toddy (Shanans) are
very numerous in those Districts where the date, palmyra, and cocoa-
nut flourish ; but they are likewise largely engaged in general agricul-
ture and farm labour, and in the production of coarse sugar (jaggery) ;
their total reaches 1,621,111, or 5*69 per cent, of the total. They are
clearly of aboriginal descent, and are, as a rule, demon-worshippers.
The Kushdvans, or potters, number 263,975, or 0*93 per cent, of the
total ; Ambattans, or barbers, 348,390 ; and Vannans, or washermen,
528,535. The Satanis, or mixed castes, are returned by the Census
at 625,455, or 2-2 of the total. Under them are included temple
servants, actors, dancers, and prostitutes. The Bairagis, who are
enumerated as a mixed caste numbering 9019, are ascetics and
mendicants from Northern India. Dasi (47,185) and Nagavasalu
I 1 2,408) are dancing girls. Kuttadies (4546) are actors and dancers.
The outcastes proper of the Madras Presidency, whose Tamil name
of Pariah has been very generally adopted into European languages,
are called Mala in Telugu, Holia in Kanarese, Paliyar in Malayalam,
and Dheda in Marathf. They number in all 4,439,253, or 15*58 per
cent of the total, being thus four times as numerous as the Brahmans.
In the country round Madras they amount to about one-quarter of
the population. Up to the close of the last century, they lived in a
state of slavery to the superior castes ; and they are still compelled by
MADRA S PRESIDENC V. 2 1
custom to dwell in separate hovels outside the boundary of the village,
and to perform all menial services. They are described as a laborious,
frugal, pleasure-loving people, omnivorous in diet, and capable of per-
forming much hard work. Despite their absolute exclusion from the
Hindu social system, the Pariahs returned themselves under more than
1000 caste sub-divisions in the Census Report for 1881. In that
Report, 73 are returned as 'frog-eating Pariahs.'
The unclassified Hindus, numbering 2,811,841, or 9-84 percent, of the
total, consist of aboriginal races and wandering tribes. They are found
chiefly in the northern hill Districts and on the Nilgiris, in which last
District they form more than half the population. Numerically, the
most important tribes are the Kandhs (205,045), and Sauras or Savars
(132,931), two cognate races of Dravidian origin who inhabit the
mountainous tracts of the Eastern Ghats attached to several of the large
zaminddris of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. On the Nilgiris, the tribe
best known to Europeans is the Todas, a stalwart, haughty race, of a
Jewish type of feature, who domineer over the more timid jungle folk,
and confine themselves to the pasturing of buffaloes. It is believed that
the Todas are now dying out, for at the time of the Census in 18S1 they
numbered only 689 persons. Like the Nairs, the Todas are, or were
lately, addicted to a form of polyandry. The principal wandering tribes
are the Brinjaras and Lambadis, who are to be found in all parts of the
country as carriers of grain and salt. The Karuvar races (numbering
55,645) wander over a wide area in Nellore and the adjacent Districts,
and constitute one of the chief criminal classes.
Throughout the whole of Southern India, sect exercises a social
influence second only to caste, and caste itself often appears to be
founded upon the most arbitrary distinctions, unknown to the law-books
of the Hindus. Thus, in Madras, a broad line of sectarian division
separates the community into members of the right-hand and left-hand
factions.1 The origin of this strange division is obscured by fable, but at
the present day it often occasions disturbance at public festivals. Some
weavers are found in the one faction, some in the other ; the fisherman
sides with the right hand, the hunter with the left ; the agricultural
labourers range themselves on the right, while their wives are reported
to frequently attach themselves to the left. With the shoemakers this
division of the sexes is said to be often reversed.
Religious Classification. —The Hindus in 1871 numbered on the
present area of the Madras Presidency over 2S| millions, or 92-3 per
cent, of the population, and were, in the 1871 returns, sub-divided
according to their forms of worship into 16,421,219 Sivaites, 11,691,860
Vishnuites, 155,658 Lingayats, and 892,070 'others,' including hill tribes.
1 See Census Reports of 1S71 and x8Si, and Mr. Crole's Manual of the CAengalpai
District, pp. 33, 34(1879)-
22 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
The same sub-division has been attempted in the Census of 1881,
and the numbers for that year were as follow: — Sivaites, 15,399,686;
Vishnuites, 10,494,408; Lingayats, 64,580. This leaves a balance
Of about z\ millions for 'others;' total Hindus in 1881, 28^ millions.
The Sivaites number over one million in each of the Districts of
Tanjore, Madura, Tinnevelli, Salem, Coimbatore, and Malabar; and
the Vishnuites over a million in Vizagapatam, Godavari, South
Kanara, and Madras City. But beyond a broad demarcation for
general purposes, the Census authorities in 1881 preferred a classi-
fication based on the Hindu social distinctions of caste which forbid
inter-eating and inter-marrying, rather than on religious or sectarian
distinctions. The Sivaites may be said, however, to be most numerous
in the extreme south and on the west coast ; the Vishnuites are chiefly
found in the northern Districts.
The Lingayats of the Madras Presidency may be regarded as an
heretical sect of Sivaite puritans. Their distinctive tenets are the unity
of the godhead in Siva, the repudiation of Brahman pretensions, and
the absence of all caste distinctions. They show a high respect for
women. They derive their name from their characteristic practice of
carrying about on their persons the iinga or emblem of Siva. The
Lingayats never extended north of the Deccan. They are very
numerous in the west of Mysore, where they have almost a mono-
poly of trade ; but they also extend their operations into Madras
:md the southern Districts of Bombay. The number of Lingayats
in Mysore in 1S81 was 470,269; in Madras, 64,580; and in Bombay,
369,004.
The Jains, who are commonly regarded as a surviving offshoot of the
Buddhism once predominant throughout the whole peninsula, number
only 24,962 in Madras, being chiefly found in the two Arcot Districts
and South Kanara. Like the Lingayats, their present head-quarters are
in the neighbouring State of Mysore. The leading tenets of the Jains
are reverence for certain sanctified ascetics, respect for every form of
animal life, and denial of the infallibility of the Vedas.
The Muhammadans, who number in all 1,933,571, or 6*2 per cent.,
are in the Census of 1881 thus sub-divided according to sect : — Sunnis,
f'758»376» or 91 Per cent of the total ; Shias, 44.378; Wahdbis, 1020;
Kiraizis, 82 ; and 'others,' 129,7x5. The more familiar division is into
the following races : -Labbay, Mappila, Arab, Shaikh, Sayyid, Pathan,
and Mughal. The Labbays (30,162) are properly the descendants
of Tamil converts to Islam ; the name, however, is also used to signify
descendants of foreign traders — Arabs, or Persians — by Indian women.
Taken in the broader sense, they number 515,440, or 26*6 per cent.
of the total, nearly all found in the extreme south in Tanjore and
Ma !ura; the majority still follow their hereditary occupation of trade
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 23
while some have become sailors and fishermen. Their chief city of
resort is Negapatam.
The Mappilas or Moplas are the descendants of native Malayalam
converts to the Muhammadan creed. The head of the Mappilas, the
Raja of Cannanore, is descended from a fisher family in Malabar.
A seafaring life, trade with Arabia, and Arab missions, led to
extensive conversion amongst the Malabar fishing races. At one time,
after the European nations appeared in Eastern seas, conversion
was largely promoted by the Zamorin of Calicut, with a view to
procure seamen to defend the towns on the coast. Subsequently,
forcible conversion was attempted by Tipu Sultan, with no great results.
Thousands of Hindus were removed to Mysore, but few returned, and
those who did, for the most part relapsed into Hinduism ; but, having
partaken of beef and been circumcised, they could not be received
back into their castes. They are now recognised as a separate caste,
professing Hinduism. The Mappilas are almost confined to the tract
between the Western Ghats and the sea. They number 495,738, or
25*6 per cent, of the total, 495,248 being found in the single District
of Malabar. They are fishermen, sailors, and coolies, except in the
inland taluks of Valuvanad and Ernad, where they are cultivators.
The Mappilas are a hardworking, frugal people, but uneducated and
very fanatical; and, under the influence of religious excitement, they
have often been a source of danger to the public peace. Further
particulars of this sect will be found in the article on Malabar
District. The Shaikhs and the Sayyids represent the Musalman
element from the north, together with descendants of converts made
during the period of Muhammadan supremacy. Pathans, numbering
15,401, and Mughals 1229, are also descended from the invaders.
Christians are more numerous in Madras than in any other part of
India. In 1S7 1, they numbered in the British Districts 533,760, or
171 per cent, of the total. In 1S81, their number had reached
711,072; so that the Christian population of Madras Presidency has,
since the Census of 187 1, a period often years, increased by 30*39
per cent. In the protected States of Travancore and Cochin, the
native Christians are still more numerous than in the British Districts,
constituting as much as one-fourth of the total population. The
Church of England in the south, and the Baptists in Nellore and
Kistna, have made great advances of late years ; but the Roman
Catholic Missions, founded three and a half centuries ago, have still
the strongest hold on the country, and their activity is both continu-
ous and widespread. Roman Catholics represent 25^25 per cent,
of the Europeans in Madras Presidency, 37-66 per cent of the
Eurasians, and 6S-68 per cent, of the total Christian population of the
Presidency.
e 4 MA BRA S PRE SIDE NC Y.
The following table shows the classification of the Protestant bodies
in the Madras Presidency : —
Denomination. Adherent1:.
Church of England, 140,877
Baptists, 37,i32
Lutherans, ......... 29,874
Congregationalists, ........ 18,840
Independents, 3oD5
Presbyterians, . . . . . . . . . 2,177
Wesleyans. ......... 1 . 743
Methodists, ......... 264
Unitarians, ......... 43
Total, . . 234,515
The Church of England thus claims nearly two-thirds of the Protes-
tant Christians. It is most strongly represented in Tinnevelli, Madras
City, and Karri dl. Its agencies are the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel, and the Church Missionary Society. The vast majority of
the Christian population of the Presidency (711,072) are Hindu con-
verts, or the descendants of Hindu converts. Excepting the Roman
Catholic Christians of the west coast, they belong for the most part to
the poorer classes, and are drawn from the lower castes.
The Christian population did not appreciably suffer from the famine
of 1876-78. In every District but one they numerically increased. It
is believed that the occasion was particularly favourable to missionary
effort, and the number of converts is believed to have been largest
in the worst period of the distress. In Madras City there are nearly
40,000 Christians, subdivided into 18 sects. Two curious features were
noticeable during the enumeration of the Christian population in 1881.
Over 800 inhabitants of Madras City, including 22 Europeans, and
over 18,500 native Christians throughout the Presidency, professed
Christianity but were not able to decide to what sect they belonged.
More curiously still, over 114,000, or one-sixth of the total Christian
population, were unable (or reluctant) to state whether they were
Europeans, Eurasians, or natives. Notwithstanding the presence of
nearly 11,000 (10,842) Europeans, among whom the proportion of
females is less than that of males, female Christians bear a high propor-
tion to male Christians, namely, 509 females to 491 males in every
thousand. Omitting Europeans and Eurasians, the proportion is 512
females to 488 males. Comparing the Christian population of Madras
1'residency with that of other Provinces, it is found to be the most
numerous of all. In iS8x, there were 22S out of every 10,000 people
in Madras professing Christianity; in British Burma, 225; in Coorg,
177; in Bombay, 62; in Bengal, 18; in the Punjab, 15; in Assam,
15 ; in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 1 1 ; and in the Central
Provinces, 10.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 25
The history of Christianity in Southern India is full of interest. The
Syrian Church of Malabar claims to have sprung from the direct teach-
ing of St. Thomas the Apostle. A Syriac ms. of the Bible, brought
from Cochin and now in the Fitz-William Library at Cambridge, is
plausibly assigned to the 8th century. A Pahlavi inscription, in the
ancient church of the Little Mount, near Madras, indicates an early
settlement of Manichasan or Nestorian Christians on the eastern coast
as well as the west. The Census of 187 1 returned only 14,335
'Xazaranis,' and that of 1881 only 5 'Nazaranis,' in the Madras Presi-
dency. But in Travancore the Syrians numbered 300,000 in 187 1, and
287,409 in 1881 ; and in Cochin, 40,000 in 1871, and 14,033 in 1881.
Some of them are Catholics of the Syrian rite ; the others still acknow-
ledge the jurisdiction of the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch.
The Southern Districts have long been strongholds of Christianity.
St. Francis Xavier, Nobilis, Beschi, Schwartz, Jaenicke, are names
associated with the raising up of the Christian Churches in the south.
Early in the 16th century there were Catholic communities near Cape
Comorin, and the influence has spread and is spreading upward. The
Roman Catholics, whose number throughout all Southern India is
reckoned at more than 650,000, owe their conversion to two distinct
waves of enthusiasm in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first is
associated with the great name of St. Francis Xavier, who is to this day
the patron saint of the Madras fishermen ; the other was effected by
the scarcely less celebrated Jesuit Mission of Madura. The Protestant
missions date from the beginning of the last century. The Danes were
here the pioneers of missionary enterprise; but their work was taken
up in 1727 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, under
whom laboured the great Lutherans of the last century — Schultze,
Sartorius, Fabricius, and Schwartz. The Church Missionary Society
entered the field in 1814; and many other bodies, English, Scotch,
and American, now join in the task of conversion. The history of
Christianity in India, and the progress of Christian missions, are fully
dealt with in chapter ix. of article India, in volume vi. of this work.
Occupation. — The Census of 1S81 distributed the male population of
Madras into six main groups : — (1) Professional class,.including officials
of every kind, and members of the learned professions, 411,118;
(2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, n6,S8S; (3) com-
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 350,743;
(4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds, 6,930,173;
(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 1,938,370 ;
and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising labourers, male
children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 5,673,751. The
Census returned as workers 66*94 per cent, of the total males, and
4i"9o per cent, of the total females; that is to say, .66-94 per
26 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
cent, of the males had definite occupation. In every iooo of the
working population there were 610 males to 390 females. Roughly
speaking, females took part appreciably only in the domestic, agricul-
tural, industrial, and indefinite labour classes.
Emigration. — The inhabitants of Southern India are not so obstinately
attached to dieir homes as in some other parts of the peninsula, A
regular tide of emigration sets from the Madras Presidency towards
Ceylon every year, and is mutually advantageous to both countries.
Official returns show that an annual average of more than 70,000 Tamil
coolies pass over into Ceylon to find work on the coffee plantations ;
and though the great majority return when the season has closed, it is
estimated that about 166,000 persons permanently settled in Ceylon
during the ten years ending 1871. In the famine year of 1877, this
emigration assumed unusual proportions, and acted as an important
relief to the labour market ; in 1876-77, the number was 184,919 ; and
in 1877-78, 152,073. In 1881-82, the number of emigrants to Ceylon
was 46,594. The number of Tamils found in Ceylon who are stated to
have had 'their origin in Madras Presidency,' is 256,611. Similarly,
a certain number of Telugu emigrants from the northern Districts,
including a considerable proportion of women, annually cross the Bay
of Bengal to Burma. In 188 1, the number of Madrasis living in British
Burma was 74,430, namely, 62,348 males and 12,082 females; of whom
35,058 spoke the Tamil and 33,715 the Telugu languages. Emigra-
tion to the more distant labour markets of Mauritius, Natal, British
Guiana, and the West Indies is less popular. During the ten years
ending 187 1, a total of 55,574 persons left Madras ports for those
places ; and in the same period, 8884 persons returned. During the
ten years ending 1882, only 20,415 coolie emigrants left Madras for
these places. The majority of the coolies proceed to Mauritius,
which is the only British colony employing a recruiting agent in
the Presidency ; but a few are attracted to the French colonies of
Reunion, Guadaloupe, etc.
Houses ami Towns. — Out of the total number of 6,429,365 houses
returned in 18S1, 717,834 were shown as unoccupied. In the Dis-
tricts afflicted by the famine of 1876-7S, the occupied houses have
fallen off. during the ten years between 1871 and 1881, by 12 per cent.;
while over the same region the population, under the pressure of
famine, has fallen off 13 per cent. The villages and towns are thus
arranged in the Census of 1881 : — With fewer than 200 inhabitants,
21,559; with from 200 to 500, 14,067 ; with from 500 to 1000, 9379;
with from 1000 to 2000, 5042; with from 2000 to 3000, 1291 ; with
from 3000 to 5000, 813; with from 5000 to 10,000, 404; with from
10,000 to 15,000, 48; with from 15,000 to 20,000, 15; with from
20,000 to 50,000, 21 ; with above 50,000, 9. On the whole, as com-
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 27
pared with Bengal cr Bombay, urban life may be said to be more
highly developed in Madras. Populous cities, indeed, are not nume-
rous ; but there is an unusual proportion of towns with from 2000 to
20,000 inhabitants.
In 1871, eight cities had a population of over 50,000. In 1881,
the following nine towns had a population of more than 50,000 : —
Madras City, 405,848; Trichinopoli, 84,449; Tanjore,. 54,745 ;
Madura, 73,807; Bellarv, 53,460; Calicut, 57,085; Negapatam,
53,855 ; Comraconum, 50,098 ; Salem, 50,667. Forty-eight towns in
the Presidency, including Madras city, have been placed under municipal
administration, with an aggregate of 1,729.818 inhabitants, or over 5
per cent, of the total population.
Agriculture. — The Madras Presidency can scarcely be regarded as a
naturally fertile country. The greater part of its surface is covered
with soils which were originally formed by the disintegration of meta-
morphic and igneous formations. Over the greater part of its area,
too, artificial irrigation is impossible ; and cultivation is dependent
upon the local rainfall, which rarely exceeds 45 inches in the year,
and seems liable to fail both irregularly and at recurrent intervals.
The rainfall in the irrigation region varies from 34 to 36 inches.
The soil may be roughly classified into three varieties — (1) the well-
known regar or black cotton-soil, met with in isolated patches or
far-reaching plains all over the Presidency ; (2) red soil, deriving its
colour from an admixture of the peroxide of iron, which is also very
widely spread, and presents every degree of fertility and barrenness ;
and (3) grey soil. The depth of the cotton-soil varies from 12 inches
to 12 or 15 feet. It is said to represent the deposits or site of dried-
up lakes. In Madras Presidency, the cotton-soil does not contain more
than 4 per cent, of organic matter.
But the prospects of the cultivator are determined less by the
character of the soil than by the facilities for irrigation. The Malabar
coast is the only part where the natural rainfall, brought by the
south-west monsoon, may be trusted both for its amount and its
regularity. Other Districts, such as Bellary, are also dependent upon
this monsoon ; but in their case the rain-clouds have spent themselves
in passing over the barrier range of the Western Ghats, and cultivation
becomes a matter of hazard. Throughout most of the Presidency, the
rainy season is caused by the north - east monsoon, which breaks
towards the end of September. The seed is sown in October, and
the crop harvested in February. But in some Districts, the crops
are raised under the influence of the south-west monsoon, and here
the sowing is performed in April and May, and the reaping in August
and September.
Irrigated land forms (1SS2) over 20 per cent, of the cultivated area.
2S MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
The irrigation is derived from rivers, river channels, and tanks; the
water flowing upon the land by force of gravitation. The area irrigated
directly from rivers is extremely small compared with the area irrigated
by channels, because the beds of the rivers in the plains are situated
in deep valleys or are frequently changing their course. Hence the
practice of putting dams (anicuts) across rivers. The dam, besides
storing the water, raises its level to the required height. Eighty per
cent, of the food-producing area of the Presidency is dry land. Cotton
and cholam (Sorghum vulgare) are grown on the regar or black soil
area ; various cereals and cotton cover the red soil area ; the grey soil
produces millets, varagu (Panicum miliaceum), koralu (Panicum itali-
cum), and inferior sorts of cholam. The fortunate deltas of the three
great rivers— the Godavari, Kistna, and Kaveri (Cauvery)— are the
principal spots along the eastern coast which artificial irrigation is able
to save from all risk of occasional scarcity.
The r&yatw&ri system of land administration permits the collection
of agricultural statistics in a fairly satisfactory form. Out of a total
in 1 88 1 of nearly 90 million acres, information is available for about
75 millions. Of these, 24 millions are returned as parambok or
uncultivable, and 22 millions as cultivable waste, leaving 29 millions
as actually under crops. Of the total cultivated area, roundly 20
million acres (exclusive of the permanently settled estates, for which
no statistics are available), 82-04 per cent, are under food -grains,
4-44 per cent, under oil-seeds, 2-82 per cent, under orchard and
garden crops, 6-38 per cent, under cotton and other fibres, 1-92
tinder indigo, and 2-4 per cent, under drugs and spices, starches,
and miscellaneous produce. The principal food staples are rice,
cholam, kambu, rag'/ (Eleusine corocana), and varagu. Rice is chiefly
grown in the alluvial plains of Tanjore, Godavari, and Kistna, and
in the lowlands of Malabar and South Kanara. Rice is cultivated
almost exclusively under the tank system, which is widely spread and
very profitable. The revenue derived from wet cultivation under
tanks (about 50,000 in number) is estimated at from ^800,000 to
^1,000,000. Cholam covers the table-lands of Anantapur, Bellary, and
Karniil ; while /agi, the staple of Mysore, is extensively grown in other
inland Districts, such as Salem and Coimbatore. The most common
oil-seed is gingelly (Sesamum), which is largely used for local consump-
tion, and is also exported.
Garden crops comprise tobacco, largely grown on the islands of
the Godavari and Kistna, and in the Districts of Coimbatore, Karniil,
and Salem; sugar-cane, chiefly in Godavari, North and South Arcot,
Trichinopoli, Coimbatore, Bellary, and Cuddapah ; chillies, betel-leaf,
and plantain,— all very widely distributed. The following are the
statistics for special crops. In 18S2-S3, the area under cotton in
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 29
the Madras Presidency was 1,682,29s acres ; the increase since 1875-76
being 70,380 acres. In 18S2-83, the largest cotton area was in
Tinnevelli District (342,939 acres); in 1875, tne largest cotton area
was in Bellary District (385,596 acres). In 1875-76, the total area
under indigo was 304,676 acres, including 62,800 in Cuddapah,
61,000 in South Arcot, 57,000 in Nellore, 43,000 in Kistna, and
40,000 in Karnul. In 1882-83, tne area under indigo was 518,468
acres, or an increase since 1875-76 of 213,792 acres, or nearly
twofold. In 1875-76, Cuddapah (Kadapa) was the great indigo-
growing District; it still has a large cultivation (87,772 acres); but
Kistna, with 122,593 acres under indigo in 1882-83, holds rank as
the premier indigo-growing District in the Presidency. In 1875-76,
the total area under coffee, 53,000 acres, was almost entirely confined
to Malabar (33,000) and the Nilgiris (16,000). In 1882, the area
under coffee cultivation was 61,481 acres, of which 31,015 acres lay
in Malabar District, and 19,851 acres in the Nilgiri Hills. The
principal fruit-trees are the cocoa-nut, areca-nut, date and palmyra
palms, jack, tamarind, and mango. The cocoa-nut flourishes luxu-
riantly on the banks of the backwaters and lagoons in Malabar, while
the areca-nut palm is found in the greatest perfection in the lower
valleys of the Western Ghats.
According to the official principle of classification, the cultivated
area is divided into ' dry,' ' wet,' and garden lands. ' Dry ' lands, or
those which are solely dependent upon local rainfall, cover about 77
per cent, of the total; 'wet' lands, which are those irrigated from
river channels or tanks by the natural flow of the water, about 20 per
cent. ; and garden lands, which are irrigated by water artificially raised
from wells, etc., about 3 per cent.
On 'dry' lands, the cultivation is of a simple character. Before
sowing, the field is ploughed several times in transverse directions ; but
the native plough seldom penetrates to a greater depth than 3 inches.
The seed is generally scattered broadcast from the hand, but some-
times a rude bamboo drill is used. Occasionally, two or even three
crops are sown on the same field at the same time, in the hope that at
least one may succeed.
' Wet ' lands are from their position fertile, apart from the advantages
of irrigation. The usual crop is rice, which is sometimes sown broad-
cast in a soil worked up into a semi-liquid state, and sometimes
transplanted. Water is supplied as often as it can be obtained, daily
if possible ; and on each occasion of watering, the land is flooded
to the depth of 1 or 2 inches. Manure is applied wherever avail-
able. There is no established system of rotation of crops, but the
principle is recognised that the resources of the soil must not be over-
taxed. Exhausting crops are never grown for more than two years in
30 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
succession ; and the working of the r&yatwari system, by permitting
the relinquishment of holdings, encourages occasional fallows. After
the crop has been sown, little hoeing or weeding takes place. The
harvest is gathered by hand, the labourers being paid in kind.
On garden lands, irrigation is practised on an elaborate scale.
Three methods of raising the water are adopted, according to the
height of the field above the source of supply. For low lifts a bucket
is used, swung on a rope ; this is raised and lowered by two men,
while a third upsets it over the field. For higher lifts, up to 12 feet,
the picottah is used. This ingenious but simple machine is identical
with the lever lift of Egypt. A horizontal pole is balanced upon an
upright post ; on one end the bucket is suspended ; the counterbalanc-
ing weight at the other end is usually supplied by a man who walks
along the pole, but sometimes by a lump of clay. The third form
of lift, the kavalay, will raise water from wells 40 feet deep. This
consists of a leathern bucket, attached to a rope, which runs over a
roller, and is worked by a pair of oxen moving up and down an inclined
plane.
The area under cereals in 1881-82 was 15,377,168 acres, distributed
as follows : — Rice, 5,423,755 acres ; great millet or cholam (Sorghum vul-
gare), 3,242,914 acres; spiked millet or kambu (Pennisetum typhoideum),
2,319,824; ragi (Eleusine corocana), 1,408,250; varagu (Panicum
miliaceum), 1,312,890; maize, 89,239; wheat (Triticum sativum),
23,210; and other cereals, including Italian millet, chentia, barley (only
16 acres), korali, and ganji, 1,557,086. The area under pulses was
1,561,077 acres, distributed as follows : — Gram (Dolichos biflorus,
Phaseolus Mungo, Phaseolus radiatus, Cajanus indicus, and Cicer arie-
tinum), 1,346,055 acres; peas, 3998; lentils, 1461 ; and other pulses,
209,563. The area under garden produce was 582,597 acres, distributed
as follows: — Plantains, 31,812 acres; cocoa-nuts, 69,921 ; babul trees,
42,632; vegetables, 17,276; brinjals, 7746; mangoes, 15,663; jack,
1208; casuarina, 20,123 5 guavas, 393 ; pumpkins, 2968 ; and 'others,'
372,855. The area under drugs and narcotics was 173,641 acres,
distributed as follows: — Tobacco, 89,228 acres; coffee, 70,296;
opium, 1 86 (only in Kistna District); cinchona, 1846, grown wholly
in the Nflgiris District; senna, 1894 (only in Tinnevelli) ; hemp,
for narcotic preparations, 2169 acres; besides other drugs. Under
condiments and spices, there were 245,807 acres, of which chillies
occupied 123,819 acres; coriander seeds, 50,967; betel leaves,
11,109; areca-nuts, 13,317 ; tamarinds, 7995 ; pepper, 10,083; onions,
8045; and 'others,' 20,472. Starches occupied 15,164 acres, chiefly
under potatoes; sugar occupied 62,516 acres; oil-seeds, 917,002
acres (including 388,155 acres under scsamum or gingellv,
2°9>493 under castor-oil plant, 55,207 under rape seed, 8062 under
MAD J? AS PRESIDENCY. 31
linseed, 2995 under mustard seed, 71,163 under ground nuts, and
81,927 under miscellaneous oil crops). Indigo occupied 389,547
acres ; saffron, 3078 acres ; nona (Anona reticulata), 2S90 ; and
other dyes, 885 ; total under dyes, 396,400 acres. Fibres occu-
pied 1,316,655 acres; the number of acres under cotton being
i,3oz»537-
Coffee Plantations. — The principal coffee tract in Southern India
stretches along the slopes of the Western Ghats, from the north of
Mysore almost down to Cape Comorin. Coffee was originally intro-
duced into India by a returned pilgrim from Mecca. The larger
portion of this area lies in the States of Mysore, Coorg, and Travan-
core ; but the Sub-division of Malabar District known as the Wainad
(Wynaad) and the Nilgiri Hills are within the limits of Madras Presi-
dency. Coffee cultivation has also been successfully introduced on the
Shevaroy Hills in Salem, the Palni and Sirumalai Hills in Madura, and
in Tinnevelli District.
The first regular coffee plantation in the Wainad, under English
management, was opened in 1840 by Mr. Glasson ; but previously
Major Bevan had grown the plant as a curiosity in the same District.
Many of the early clearings, which were made on bamboo or grass land,
proved unprofitable, and have now relapsed into jungle. The enter-
prise made little progress until about 1855, when many estates were
taken up in South Wainad. In 1856-57, the total exports were only
32,000 cwts. In 1862, the returns showed nearly 10,000 acres under
coffee cultivation, and in 1865 there were 200 estates covering 14,613
acres. An official inquiry in 1868 returned 30,000 acres under coffee,
of which 21,000 were held by Europeans, and 9000 by natives; the
exports were 128,000 cwts. In 1878, there were throughout the
Wainad 32,000 acres containing mature plants, and 10,000 containing
immature plants; while there was an additional 27,000 acres of land
taken up for coffee plantation and in process of plantation. In 1S83,
the cultivation amounted to 13,483 plantations, covering an area of
48,725 acres, of which 22,027 acres were under mature plants, 269S
acres under immature plants, and 24,000 acres were taken up for planta-
tion, but not planted. The approximate yield was 306,841 cwts., or an
average of 159 lbs. per acre of mature plants. In 1875-76, the total
export of coffee from the Madras Presidency was 381,176 cwts., valued
at ;£i,66i,iio; and in 1SS3-84, the export was 374,673 cwts., valued
at ^1,570,191.
About 25 years ago, the area under coffee in the Nilgiris did not
much exceed 500 acres ; now (1883) it is nearly 20,000 acres. This
increase, entirely the result of private enterprise, has added greatly to
the prosperity of the Nilgiris, and has at the same time benefited the
Districts adjoining. In the establishment of the Nilgiri coffee estates,
32 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
a property has been created worth about ^£5 00,000 on which the
annual expenditure is not less than ^200,000, one-third of it being
distributed among the coolie labourers of the plantations. Besides
the Nilgiris, coffee cultivation is carried on on the Shevaroy Hills of
Salem, where nearly 6000 acres are under crop; on the Palnf and
Sirumalai Hills in Madura, where nearly 2000 acres have been
planted ; in Tinnevelli and Coimbatore Districts, where there is an
aggregate area under the plant of about 3000 acres ; and in Malabar
District, about 31,000 acres; making a total of 61,481 acres in
1882-83.
The total area under coffee in 1S79 in the south of India, includ-
ing the States of Mysore and Travancore as well as the Madras
Presidency, was as follows: — Under mature plants, 574,951 acres;
under immature plants, 146,251 acres; taken up for planting and in
process of plantation, 43,821 acres. The total approximate yield
for the year was 12,806,195 lt>s. , or an average of about no lbs.
an acre.
Tea Plantations. — The tea plant was introduced on the Nilgiri Hills
about 45 years ago ; but although the experiment was successful, it was
not taken up as a commercial speculation until 1S65. Even at present,
the tea-gardens are on a small scale, rarely exceeding 50 acres ; and
they are generally worked in subordination to an adjoining coffee estate.
The plants include the China variety, the Assam variety, and the hybrid
between the two. The hybrid is perhaps the most profitable, com-
bining the leaf- producing quality of the one with the hardiness of
the other. There were in 1878, 1907 acres under mature plants.
1362 under immature plants, and 3681 taken up for planting and in
process of plantation; the approximate yield was 226.3S9 lbs., or
118 lbs. per acre. In 1883-84, there were in the whole of the Madras
Presidency 86 tea plantations, with 3386 acres under mature plants,
1456 acres under immature plants, and 7032 acres taken up fi»r plant-
ing; the approximate yield was 512,340 lbs., or 151 lbs. per acre of
mature plants. For an account of the processes of tea cultivation, -
Nilgiri Hills. The export of tea from the Madras Presidency in
1876-77 amounted to 144,323 lbs., valued at ^16,466; and in
1883-84, 264,777 lDS-> valued at ,£25,775.
Tobacco Cultivation. — Although only 78,707 acres are returned as
under the crop in 1882-83, tobacco cultivation, to a greater or 1<
extent, is carried on in every District of the Madras Presidency
excepting the Nilgiri Hills. The region where it is most largely
practised is Kistna District. On the alluvial lands of the GodaVari
delta is grown the well-known 'Lanka' (a river island) tobacco.
Tobacco is also largely cultivated in parts of Vizagapatam, Nellorc,
Cuddapah, Bellary, Karnul, South Arcot, Tinnevelli, Salem, Madura,
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. ^
and Coimbatore ; and from the two last-named Districts the Trichi-
nopoli cheroot manufacturers draw their supplies of raw material.
Tobacco is grown on almost every description of soil from black loam
to sand, and from irrigated land to high arid sites. Alluvial lands are
preferred; then high ground, and deserted village sites or back-yards
of houses. The last are considered the best, on account of the salts
impregnating the soil, and for convenience of position as regards
manuring, and watching, and curing the produce. The best of the
Godavari produce is grown on the alluvial lands which receive rich
deposits of silt in the river floods and are out of the influence of
the sea-freshes.
Dindigal tobacco is produced on carefully cultivated red loam, to
which an alluvial character has been artificially imparted. Some of the
highest-priced tobacco is grown on rich dry land under irrigation, but
the leaf, while suited for mastication, is too coarse in texture and too
pungent in flavour for smoking. In some parts irrigation is practised,
and in others it is dispensed with. Only a small quantity of water is
supplied to the plant, and, as a rule, not by gravitation, but by mechanical
means, preferably from wells of brackish water containing potassic salts.
Excess of damp is prejudicial, and the seed-beds and soil generally are
superficially drained or stand high. The crop while young is gently
watered by hand, and heavy rains detract from the good quality of the
leaf, the tobacco grown on ordinary irrigated lands being generally
inferior. The manures used are the droppings of sheep and goats penned
on the land previously to cultivation, cattle-dung, ashes, and sweepings.
In Nellore, salt earth is used. The manures are plentifully applied to
all soils except alluvial lands. The seed is invariably sown in prepared
beds.
The seasons for cultivation vary according to local climatic considera-
tions. As a rule, sowing commences after the local rains, from July to
October, though tobacco is sometimes grown as a second crop, commenc-
ing in January. The site for tobacco cultivation is thoroughly manured
and ploughed. The seed germinates in about eight days after sowing ;
and the seedlings are transplanted in the course of about six weeks, on
attaining a height of 5 or 6 inches, into holes from a foot to a yard apart,
sometimes in ridges, sometimes on the flat surface of the field. In
many localities, the seed-beds and the young plants are protected from
the extreme heat of the sun by means of mats and other coverings. All
leaves except ten or twelve are nipped off to strengthen those left ; the
flowers are also promptly nipped off with the exception of those purposely
left for seed. The leaves begin to ripen in the course of about two
months from transplantation, and as soon as one or two turn colour,
the crop is collected. This collection is generally effected by cutting
the stem with a knife, although in Ganjam and the alluvial lands of
VOL. IX. C
34 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Yizagapatam the leaves are removed separately. In parts of Tanjore,
some of the leaves are first plucked in January, and the stem with its
remaining leaves cut down in May or June. As a rule, no second crop
of leaves is gathered, and where the after-sprouts are collected at all,
they are of very inferior quality.
The process of tobacco-drying and fermenting is effected by methods
slightly differing in detail. In Nellore, for instance, the cut leaves are
hung in the sun for two days, put in heaps, turned every two days, and
ranged in layers for twenty days, during which time they are frequently
turned. They are next tied in bundles, dipped in water, sweetened
with date jaggery or molasses, and are then ready for sale. In other
localities, as in Salem District, the plants are left a day or two in the
field, afterwards exposed to the sun and dew alternately for a week, then
wrapped in straw and buried in the ground for a period of seven days.
Afterwards the leaves are stripped from the stems, made into bundles,
placed in straw, and put under heavy weights with their ends exposed
for six weeks. The piles in which they are laid are opened and turned
every second day. In other localities, the leaves after drying in the fields
for a day or two are hung over poles or ropes, preferably in the shade,
or in regular drying sheds, or in the cultivator's house. They are then
stacked in heaps, which are opened out and pressed together again at
intervals, until the requisite curing is effected. Occasionally, the leaves
are sprinkled with unrefined sugar-water or an infusion of the Cassia
auriculata. In Coimbatore the festoons of leaves are hung up on the
milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli) to acquire a characteristic flavour.
The export of unmanufactured tobacco in 1883-84 was 8,442,806
lbs., valued at p£i 34,973, and of manufactured tobacco, 586,633 lbs.,
valued at ^28,967.
Cinchona. — The cinchona plant was introduced on the Nilgiri Hills
in i860 by Mr. Clements Markham, who had been officially deputed
to visit South America for that purpose. The novel experiment has
proved not only successful, but remunerative. The reports up to
1877 returned seven Government plantations, covering an aggregate
area estimated at 1200 acres. The plants are almost equally divided
between C. condaminea and C. succirubra. The number of plants in
[882—83 was 967,795. The first yield of the plantations was in 1872,
when the earliest trees were twelve years old. The out-turn was 7294 lbs.
of dry bark, which sold for ^729. In 1876, a consignment was sent to
England of 63,000 lbs., which realized .£10,597. The plantations also
furnished the Government quinologist with 362,050 lbs. of green bark,
or 111,481 lbs. of dry bark, valued at ,£9550. In 1882-83, the total
< rop for the four estates of Naduvatam, Hooker, Wood, and Dodabetta
was 135,016 lbs. of dry bark. Of this amount 62,518 lbs. were shipped
to the home market ; 69,327 lbs. were sold locally at an average rate of
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 35
3s. i|d. per lb.; and the remainder was held as samples or in store.
There are also several private cinchona estates on the Nilgiri Hills,
which are cultivated at a profit. For a description of cinchona
cultivation, see Nilgiri Hills.
Government Farm. — In 1865, a Government farm was established
at Saidapet (Sydapet), in the immediate neighbourhood of Madras
city. It covers an area of 300 acres within a ring fence, and has been
the scene of many important experiments. Attention has been especially
paid to subsoil draining, the use of agricultural machines, the utiliza-
tion of manure, and the introduction of new crops, such as Carolina
rice and New Orleans cotton. It has also been proved that by deeper
ploughing, green crops for fodder can be raised at all seasons of the
year. A school of agriculture was established in 1876, and similar
training schools have been proposed for other Districts. In 1876-77,
the total expenses of the Saidapet farm amounted to ^4982 ; the
receipts were ^510, the balance being defrayed out of the surplus
Pound Funds. In 1882, the contracted operations of the farm, as a
practical school of husbandry, were placed under the revived Agri-
cultural Department. Total cost in 1882-83, ^7744. The school of
agriculture in connection with the farm had 69 pupils in 1882. The
Swedish plough, introduced under the auspices of the farm authorities,
has been tried, but with qualified success, in 183 taluks of the Pre-
sidency. On the other hand, the Bihiya sugar-cane mill is likely to be
largely adopted. The operations at Saidapet are now limited to giving
a practical course of training in agriculture.
Wages and Prices. — The agricultural hired-labourers of Madras belong
to castes that were predial serfs up to the close of the last century.
Most of them are still paid in grain, the rate varying in some places
from one to two ' measures ' (say 3 to 7 lbs.) a day. The lower rate
is given to permanent, the higher to occasional, labourers. This
distinction is of general significance. The permanent day-labourers
enjoy little liberty, as they have usually received an advance of money
from their masters on entering service, which is never cleared off. On
the other hand, the occasional labourers, while more independent, lead
a most precarious existence. During the harvest seasons they can get
regular employment, but at other times they wander about seeking
work on the roads and other public works. According to an official
return in 1875, tne wages of agricultural labourers paid in money varied
from Rs. 2. 8 (5s.) a month in Salem, and Rs. 3 (6s.) in Ganjam, to
Rs. 7. 8 (15s.) in Kistna, Cuddapah, and Malabar. The wages of a
skilled workman, such as a mason or carpenter, ranged from Rs. 7. 8
(15s.) a month in Ganjam, and Rs. 9. 12 (19s. 6d.) in Vizagapatam, to
Rs. 20 (£,2) in Cuddapah, Madura, and South Kanara, and Rs. 25
(£2, 10s.) in the Ni'lgiris. In 1882-83, tne agricultural wage in Salem
3 6 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
was 7s. as against 5s. in 1875; on the other hand, in Kistna the
monthly wage was something over 13s. as against 15s. in 1875. ^n
the newly constituted District of Anantapur, the monthly wage for an
agricultural labourer was in 18S2-83 iSs. od. In the Nflgiris the
rate per month in 1882-83 was 15s. The average agricultural wage
throughout the Presidency was, in 1882-83, 4W. per day, or nearly
1 os. 6d. a month. Regarding skilled labour, the average wage of an
artisan throughout the Presidency was, in 1882-83, returned at 10?, d.
a day, or jQ\, 6s. 6^d. a month. In (ianjam, in 1882-83, the monthly
wages of a skilled workman were 19s. io.Ul. ; in Vizagapatam, 19s. io£d. ;
in Cuddapah, jQi, 17s. 3^d. ; in Madura, £2; in South Kanara, j£i,
10s. ; and in the Nflgiris, £2, 5s.
The condition of permanent field hands is thus described: — 'They are
invariably paid their wages in grain, never in money. The rates vary
in different Districts, but inquiry has shown that the quantity of cleaned
cereal grain is not usually less than from 4 to 5 lbs. per diem, and often
more. The labourer often enjoys the privilege of cultivating vegetables,
chillies, and a few oil-seeds or nuts on his own account; and as he gets,
besides a subsistence allowance of grain, a percentage on the yield of the
harvest, his prosperity depends greatly on the abundance of the crops.
Usually the permanent labourers get small money advances from their
masters, and occasional presents of cloth, or a rupee now and again on
festival occasions ; but whatever money may be advanced by the masters,
the labourer is seldom able to repay, and, as a rule, is tied to his
servitude for life.'
Food prices have not risen of late years. In 1S75-76, the follow-
ing were the average quantities of the several kinds of food-grain to
be obtained for the rupee (2s.): — Common rice, 32 lbs.; paddy or
unhusked rice, 57 lbs.; cholam (the staple food of the people) and
kamlnt, 53 lbs. ; ragi, 56 lbs. ; varagu, 79 lbs. ; wheat, 23 lbs. In the
famine year of 1876-77, the average price of common rice throughout
the Presidency rose to 17 lbs. for the rupee. In Bellary, at the end of
1876, only 15 lbs. of cholam could be obtained for the rupee, showing a
rise in price of more than threefold. In 1882-83, prices current for a
rupee (2s.) were as follows : — Common rice, 32 His. ; paddy or unhusked
rice, 58 lbs. ; cholam and kambu, 63 lbs. ; ragi, 65 lbs. ; varagu, 84 lbs. ;
wheat, 22 lbs. ; salt cost the people 2s. for 29 lbs., or a little less than
id. a pound.
The livestock of the Presidency in 1882-83 was returned at 3,687,782
bullocks, 3,453,129 cows, 1,483,938 buffaloes, 7941 horses, 30,1X9
ponies, 124,731 donkeys, 5,635,867 sheep, 3,305,946 goats, 254,557
pigs, 48 J elephants, 50 camels, and 117 mules. There-were also 11,585
boats, 313, 5?8 carts, and 2,013,011 ploughs. Plough bullocks cost
about £2, 1 os., and sheep abo.lt ^s. each.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 37
The Famine 0/" 1876-78. — The great famine which recently de-
vastated all Southern India can only be slightly touched upon in
this place. Like most widespread famines, it was caused by drought,
but not by the drought of a single season or of a single year. The
harvests of 1875 had been indifferent, especially in the Ceded Districts.
In 1876, the south-west monsoon or summer rains, on which the
northern Districts are largely dependent, proved very deficient ; and
the north-east monsoon or autumn rains, on which the southern and
eastern Districts almost entirely rely for their cultivation, failed
still more completely. Except in the deltas of the Godavari and
Kistna, the total rainfall of 1876 scarcely anywhere exceeded 10 inches,
as compared with an average of about 30 inches. When the monsoon
failed in October 1S76, it was recognised that a twelve-months' famine
was at hand, and inevitable. In 1877, the south-west monsoon with-
held its showers for a second time, and distress gradually intensified
through the year. At last, the north-east monsoon broke with a full
downpour in November 1877, and the crops of the coming season were
assured. The area in Madras seriously affected by famine was
estimated by the Famine Commissioners at 83,800 square miles, with a
population of 19,400,000 persons. No District entirely escaped between
the Kistna river and Cape Comorin ; but the distress was severest in
the tract immediately south of the Tungabhadra, including the Districts
of Bellary, Anantapur, Karniil (Kurnool), Cuddapah, and Nellore, and
farther south in North Arcot and Salem. Mysore suffered exceptionally.
As time went on, it was found that no adequate stores of food remained
in the country ; and but for the efforts of Government, and the vast
imports of food brought into the country by the European mercantile
houses from Bengal, Burma, and the Further East, a much greater
proportion of the population than actually perished would have been
swept away.
The Commission of Inquiry on Indian Famines, appointed in May
1878, thus describes the famine, and the manner in which it was dealt
with by the Government. The first peculiarity in the management of
the Madras famine was that following the example of Behar in 1873,
the local Government at an early period thought it necessary to provide
against a possible deficient activity of private trade or the failure of
the supply of food in the less accessible Districts, by purchasing 30,000
tons of rice, to be stored in places where the demand for relief was
expected to be large. At the same time, they proposed to put in hand
several large works of permanent utility. The Government of India
disapproved of both these steps, and decided, that at this stage of the
distress, minor local works which would not take the people far from
their homes should be organized. The purchased grain was partly used
for purposes of relief, and the remainder was sold.
.1
8 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Works were opened under the Public Works Department for the
employment of the famine-stricken at an early period, and others were
afterwards started in 1877, but the greater part of the applicants
uere received on works under the supervision of the civil officers of
the District. The scale of wage was fixed, in accordance with, but
somewhat l>elow, the rates which had been adopted in Behar. The
numbers on relief soon became very large, and by January 1877 had
risen to over a million. In that month, when Sir R. Temple visited
the famine Districts, he was of opinion that relief was given on too
liberal a scale and to persons who did not stand in absolute need
of it. He advised the Government of Madras to reduce the rate of
wages, and they adopted the scale which was being introduced into
Bombay, the amount of money wage being made to vary with the price
of food-grain. After these changes, and on the introduction of stricter
discipline, the numbers on works were at first considerably reduced ;
but they began to rise again shortly, those on gratuitous relief rising
at a still higher rate, so that the total exceeded a million in May, and
reached the maximum figure of 2,218,000 in September 1877.
The effect of the reduced wage was a subject of considerable
difference of opinion ; it was opposed by many of the officials,
including the Sanitary Commissioner, as providing less than was
necessary for the labourer. After the orders for its adoption had
been in force about three months, the balance of opinion being un-
favourable, it was abandoned, and a higher rate substituted at the end
of May. At the same time, it was decided that all weakly persons, and
all who were incapable of performing 50 per cent, of a full task for a
man in normal condition, should be removed from the relief works and
supported at their homes ; and a system of house-to-house relief was
introduced under which a dole of money was given, sufficient for the
support of the applicant. The test of fitness was the certificate of the
head village official, submitted to the village inspector, whose proceedings
again were under the control of the relief officer of the tdluk, so that
opportunities for abuse might be minimized. In the end of August,
when it became apparent that relief operations would have to be con-
tinued at least to the end of the year on a very large scale, the Viceroy
visited Madras, and after consultation with the Governor of the Presi-
dency, certain changes were resolved upon, while the main principles
<>n which relief was to be administered were repeated with additional
emphasis.
It was authoritatively announced that 'a large scheme of useful
public works under departmental supervision should be the backbone
of the relief system ; ' and a great expansion of such works was ordered,
combined with the restriction of gratuitous relief in their villages to
' those who are both incapable of work, and without other adequate
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 39
means of support.' The direction of all matters connected with the
famine, which had hitherto passed through the channel of the Board of
Revenue and the Council, was taken by the Governor under his sole
charge. He issued his orders directly to District officers ; and a large
additional staff of officers was introduced from Northern India to
strengthen the supervising agency. These arrangements were complete
when, as in Mysore, the long-expected rain began to fall abundantly.
The hearts of the people revived, and they dispersed so rapidly that
the numbers, which in September had reached 2,218,000, had fallen in
December to 440,000, and in March 1878 to 215,000. A considerable
number of debilitated persons remained, however, on the hands of
Government till the harvest of 1878 was ripe, in October or November.
The abnormal mortality of the two famine years has been estimated
at two millions. There was also a decrease of 800,000 in the births of
the two years 1877 and 1878; nor did this decrease in the birth-rate
cease in the latter year. The average number of persons relieved was
787,000 daily for the space of twenty-two months; and the total cost of
the famine is estimated at eight millions sterling. The land revenue
remitted was about 118 lakhs (^1,180,000), and the outlay on relief
about 675 lakhs (^6,750,000).
Viewed by the light of the Census Report for 1SS1, it is clear that
the loss in the population of the Presidency since 187 1 has been wholly
due to the influence of famine. In the Districts not affected by the
famine, the population had increased between 1871 and 1881 by over
7 per cent., or within -i6 per cent, of the normal rate of increase. In
the Districts affected by the famine (Nellore, Cuddapah, Karnul,
Bellary, Anantapur, North Arcot, Madura, Salem, and Coimbatore), the
actual loss is shown to have been nearly 13 per cent, on the figures of
the Census of 187 1. Throughout the famine Districts, the population
in 1 88 1 was nearly 18 per cent, below what, at the normal rate of
increase, it would have reached in that year.
The famine fell most heavily on the general Hindu population, which
decreased i3"64 per cent, in the afflicted Districts. The Muhammadan
population in the famine Districts was much less severely affected.
This was due to the fact that the Muhammadan s are not largely
agricultural, but congregate in large towns which were early centres of
relief. The returns show that whereas only 8-64 per cent, of the Hindu
population occupies the large towns, the Muhammadans make up 21*4
per cent, of their urban population.
During the eighteen months ending January 187S, the total amount
of grain imported into Madras by sea was nearly 700,000 tons. The
real problem was to bring these stores of food to the starving people.
This task was effected by means of the railways, and especially the
Madras Railway. This line touches the sea at Madias city and at
4o MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Beypur ; while at Raichor it joins the Great Indian Peninsula system,
thus affording through communication with the rest of India. The
South Indian Railway runs northward from Tuticorin. The total
amount of grain distributed in the interior by these several lines
between August 1876 and November 1877 was 724,339 tons, yielding
a freight of .£553,695.
It will never be possible to obtain perfectly complete statistics of
the loss of life caused directly and indirectly by this stupendous
calamity. As always happens in such cases, starvation suddenly came
with a ru^h. No administrative capacity and no philanthropic zeal
could cope with a distress so intense, and extending over so wide an
area. Government relief works on a colossal scale, gratuitous distri-
butions of food at the public expense, and the searching benevolence
of private charity, were all tried ; and all proved inadequate. Actual
starvation slew hundreds of thousands, and the diseases that stalked in
its train claimed yet more victims. A not unreasonable conjecture,
founded on a partial Census, has placed the mortality in the most dis-
tressed Districts, such as Bellary and North Arcot, at about one-fourth
of the total population. A Census of the entire surviving population
of the District of Salem strengthens this inference. Dr. Cornish, the
Sanitary Commissioner of Madras, estimates the total loss throughout
the Presidency at over three millions, including deaths from various
diseases and persons ' missing.' In the Report of the Famine Com-
missioners, the actual loss was stated at two millions.
The following statistics give a general idea of the character of
the calamity, and the means adopted to alleviate it : — In Bellarj
District, one-third of the inhabitants were in receipt of relief, and one-
half of the land fell temporarily out of cultivation. In one terrible
week of September 1877, a total of 2,218,000 persons received Govern-
ment relief, of whom 708,255 were employed on works, and the rest
relieved gratuitously. The mortality in Madras city during the year
1877 was at the rate of 1167 per thousand. . At one relief camp in
Salem District, during May 1877, 746 persons died out of a strength
of 7000. The expenditure throughout India on account of famine
during the two years ending March 1878 (including loss of revenue),
is officially estimated at nearly 10 millions sterling, of which by far
the largest portion is debited against Madras. The amount subscril
by private charity, chiefly at the London Mansion-House, reached a
total of £820,000. This large sum was distributed through the agency
of local committees, principally in providing seed grain, plough
cattle, and other permanent necessaries of living, and in supporting
those who for various reasons lay beyond the reach of Government
relief.
Irrigation. — With the exception of the Western Jumna Canai in the
MADE A S PRESIDEXC Y. 41
Punjab, the oldest of the irrigation works undertaken by the British
Government in Ind'a are those of the Madras Presidency. Among
the very earliest was the Godavari anicut or weir, commenced in 1S44,
for the supply of the canals of the delta at the head of which it stands.
The irrigation works in Madras were classified until 1883 under three
headings, the classification being determined, not by their hydrographic
character, but from the administrative point of view. The first
two classes of works, known in the systems of account as Ordinary
and Extraordinary, were constructed and kept in repair at the sole
charges of Government, and were under the Department of Public
Works : the third class belonged to the Madras Irrigation and Canal
Company, until in 1882 the projects initiated by the Company were
taken over by Government. The Ordinary Works may be described
as those for which no capital and revenue accounts were kept ; that is
to say, they consisted of undertakings, individually small, but very large
in the aggregate, which did not form part of any comprehensive
system, supplying officially collated returns of profit and loss. Ac-
cording to the official classification, maintained until 1882-83, tnev
ranked as ' unproductive,' and were constructed out of revenue. They
were sub-divided into (1) rain-fed tanks or reservoirs, and (2) channels
led off from rivers by means of anicuts or weirs. For such tanks, the
rainfall is caught and retained before it reaches natural drainage lines ;
for the channels, it is diverted from the drainage lines by artificial
means. The following figures will show the general importance of
these Ordinary Irrigation Works : — There were, in 18S2-S3, altogether
in the several Districts of the Presidency 33,318 tanks and canals under
Government supervision, besides 1212 weirs across rivers or streams;
the total area irrigated was 3,365,000 acres, yielding a revenue of
^1,310,000. In the year 1876-77, the sum expended on original
works of this class, and on repairs, was ^135,232. The total Ordi-
nary expenditure of the Irrigation Department (out of current revenue
and exclusive of borrowed capital) was ^255,600 in 1S76-77, and
.£219,955 in 1SS2-83. Of this latter sum, £23,643 was disbursed
for original works, £92,423 for repairs of existing works, .£39,072
for establishment charges, £1593 for implements, £56,799 for new
agricultural works and repairs of old ones, and .£6425 on small mis-
cellaneous protective works.
Concerning the so-called Extraordinary Works, it is possible to speak
with more precision. These consisted of large projects, constructed
out of borrowed capital ; and they were defined as being such as
give a reasonable promise that they will yield a return at least equal
to the interest of the capital expended. The following is a list of the
seven most important works up to 18S3 comprehended under this
class : — (1) Godavari Delta, (2) Kistna Delta, (3) Penner Anicut,
42 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
(4) Cauvery (Kaveri) Delta, (5) Srivaikuntham Anicut, (6) Sangam
Anicut, and (7) Karnul Canal. The total area irrigated by these seven
productive public works in 1S82-83 was 1,757,579 acres. Up to the
close of 1882-83, the total amount of capital expended on these seven
works was .£3,990,552 ; the gross revenue in that year was ,£360,063
(including share of enhanced land revenue) ; and the working expenses
(including charges for collection) was .£107,197, leaving a net revenue
or profit of £"252,866, equal to 6^34 per cent, on the total capital outlay
to the end of the year. But if the outlay on the Sangam Anicut works
(which had not commenced to earn in 1882-83) and the year's expenses
for the Karnul Canal be excluded, the net returns would be 12 per
cent, on the capital outlay in 1882-83.
In addition to these seven important 'productive ' public works,
there are three minor systems classed under the same designation,
namely — (1) The Chembrambakam Tank, (2) the Palar Anicut,
and (3) the Pelandorai Anicut. Upon them there had been expended
up to 1882-83 a sum °f £^80,458 ; and for the last few years no
practical surplus has been obtained.
According to the method officially adopted in keeping the profit and
loss account, the average return on capital in 1882-83 f°r a^ extra-
ordinary works was 10 per cent., ranging from 51 per cent, in the
case of the Kaveri Delta to 1 per cent, for the Palar Anicut. Out of
the total revenue in 1882-83, ;£I05250 was derived from tolls on
navigation, of which ,£6295 was paid on the Godavari, and £3955 on
the Kistna works.
The foregoing figures refer to the old classification of the Madras
Presidency irrigation systems into Ordinary and Extraordinary Public
Works. This classification was observed until 1882-83, when a
revised classification was introduced, in accordance with which the
irrigation systems of the Presidency are now divided into (1) Pro-
ductive Public Works, (2) Irrigation and Navigation Works not classed
as Productive, and (3) Irrigation and Navigation Works for which
neither Revenue nor Capital Accounts are kept. The first two classes
of the later classification correspond to the Extraordinary Works of
the older classification ; while the last class of the later classification
corresponds somewhat, but in a much modified sense, to the Ordinary
Works of the older classification.
Under Class I., the Productive Public Works of Madias, are now
(1883-84) grouped the Godavari Delta system, the Kistna Delta
system, the IVnner Anicut, the Sangam Anicut, the Karnul Canal,
the Barur Tank, the Kaveri Delta system, and the Srivaikuntham
Anient. On these works, the total outlay up to the end of 1883-84
was £4,171,526 ; they effectively irrigated in the same year 1,814,844
acres, of which 1 54,973 acres were twice cropped. The revenue derived
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 43
from them was ,£560,784, or at the rate of 6s. an acre, for the first
crop; and .£41,135, or at the rate of 5s. 3d. per acre, for the second
crop. Excluding the Karnul Canal, now admitted to be a financial
failure, the Productive Works paid in 1883-84 a profit of 8 '62 per cent.
Class II. of the Madras Irrigation Works embraces the Chem-
brambakam Tank system, the Palar Anicut, the Pelandorai Anicut, the
Madras Water-supply and Irrigation Extension project, and the
Buckingham Canal. On these systems, the total outlay up to the
end of 1883-84 was ,£1,006,088 ; they effectively irrigated 91,569
acres, of which 32,682 acres were twice cropped, besides supplying fresh
water to the city of Madras, and offering large facilities for navigation.
The total loss on Class II. systems was ,£1687 in 1883-84.
Class III. of Irrigation Works includes many miscellaneous works,
consisting for the most part of tanks and channels. In 1883-84,
the expenditure on the 174 tanks and 33 channels completed during
the year, as well as on 82 tanks and 22 channels in process of com-
pletion, was ,£12,253 ; on the repair of 598 tanks and 254 channels
,£55,179 was spent during the same year; while ,£31,905 was ex-
pended on minor irrigation works. In addition to these sums,
,£17,860 was expended in 1883-84 upon famine protection works.
The area effectively irrigated under works of Class III., was in 1883-S4,
2j525>794 acres, of which 675,416 acres were twice cropped.
Regarding irrigation from Government Works in the Madras Presi-
dency as a whole during 1883-84, the figures are — area irrigated,
4,566,016 acres; amount expended, ,£524,071 (of which .£33,324
was the provincial contribution, and ,£16,293 was paid away in Eng-
land); amount of irrigation revenue, ,£1,526,171; increased land
revenue due to irrigation, ,£569,108 ; total land and irrigation revenue,
^£2,095,279.
The Madras Irrigation and Canal Company was incorporated in the
year 1858 ; and in 1863, a contract was entered into with the Indian
Government for the construction of a specified piece of work at a cost
of 1 million sterling, on which sum Government guaranteed interest
at the rate of 5 per cent. The selected work was that known as the
Tungabhadra project, which comprised the construction of a canal
both for irrigation and navigation from Sunkesala, 1 7 miles above the
town of Karnul (Kurnool) on the Tungabhadra, to the Kistnapatam
estuary on the sea-coast in Nellore. The Company undertook the
section of this enterprise which extends from Sunkesala to Sumais-
waram on the Penner river. By 1866, all their original capital was
expended, and an additional loan of ,£600,000 was obtained from
Government.
The work was virtually completed in 1S71, and from a financial
point of view it has hitherto proved a failure. The canal is now
I
44 MADRA S PRESIDENC I \
known as the Karniil-Cuddapah (Kadapa) Canal. It was taken over
by Government from the Madras Irrigation and Canal Company in
1SS2. The canal is carried across the Hindri river by an aqueduct
along 1 4 arches, each with a span of 40 feet. After a course of about
70 miles in an easterly direction, the canal turns south following the
course of the Kundu river ; then traversing the Nandial and Sirvail
taluks of Karniil District, it enters the Proddatur taluk of Cuddapah.
It is taken across the Penner at Adniamaipalli by means of an anicut
which holds up the water at the proper level, and it terminates, after a
course of 191 miles, at the Krishnapuram station of the Madras Rail-
way, four miles from Cuddapah.
While the Karniil-Cuddapah Canal was the property of the Com-
pany, the revenue from irrigation averaged considerably less than a
lakh of rupees (,£10,000) annually, while the charges for repairs and
establishment yearly exceeded a lakli and a half (,£15,000). In addition,
interest at 5 per cent, on a capital of ,£1,600,000 had to be provided ;
the vearly deficit being, in accordance with the agreement between
Government and the Company, made good out of the State revenues.
It is, however, anticipated that the annual loss to Government will be
reduced now that the canal has become State property ; but it is not
expected to yield a profit. The purchase money paid for the canal
by Government to end of 1883-84 was .£1,763, 171. The famine of
1876-78 called attention to the undeveloped capacity of the under-
taking ; and in those years from 50,000 to 90,000 acres were irrigated
by the canal. Previous to the famine years the canal watered only
from 13,000 to 19,000 acres; in 1883-84 the area was 19,674 acres.
The cultivators have recently shown more disposition to use the water
placed at their disposal, and a serious effort is now being made to
stimulate navigation. Until 1881-82 no attempt was made to utilise
the canal for navigation. The receipts from navigation in 1883-84
were ,£459. The irrigation charge for water averages a little more than
6s. per acre.
Land Tenures. — The greater part of the soil of Madias Presidency
is held by the cultivators direct from Government, under the tenure
known as rdydttudri. In 1882 there were over two and a half
million persons holding as tenants under this system. The exact
number of pattas or holdings under rdyatwdti tenure in that year was
2>543>°36 ; and, exclusive of South Kanara, for which no returns are
available, the aggregate area of the holdings amounted to nearly 19
million (18,772,370) acres, or about the same as that occupied by the
landlords1 or zaminddri estates.
A proper understanding of the land system now prevailing in Madras
cannot be obtained without a short sketch of the history of the rdyat-
U'dri tenure. As has been already stated in the historical section, the
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 45
wide area of territory now subjected to one Government possessed in
ancient days no uniformity of administration. When the Nizam of the
Deccan, and his nominal subordinate, the Nawab of the Karnatik,
ceded to the British the large tracts which still constitute the bulk of
the Madras Presidency, the revenue collection with most other branches
of administration was found to be in a state of anarchy. In the
north, the hill chiefs exercised a wide but uncertain authority over the
lowlands • in the south, their place was taken by the pdlegdrs, who
fought bravely for fiscal independence. Along the Malabar coast,
the dominant caste of Nairs claimed the position of feudal landlords,
which they have not unsuccessfully maintained to this day. In the
neighbourhood of Madras city, the indigenous village communities
appear to have preserved their corporate privileges with tenacity ; but
throughout the greater part of the country, no rights intervened between
the actual cultivator of the soil and the British Government.
Under these circumstances, it became necessary to provide a definite
system which should guarantee the regular collection of the land
revenue. At first, in imitation of the precedent supplied by the
Permanent Settlement of Bengal by Lord Cornwallis in 1793, it was
proposed to establish a class of landholders throughout Madras, with
absolute rights over the land, subject only to the payment of a rent-
charge fixed in perpetuity. This system never found favour with the
local Government, but it was enforced in 1802 under positive orders
from England. The land already in possession of zaminddrs was
confirmed to them for ever ; and where no zaminddrs could be found,
the country was artificially parcelled out into estates of convenient size
called muttas, and settled in perpetuity with any one who came forward
to bid for them. These operations were confined to the territory that
had been longest under the rule of the Company, comprising the
Northern Circars, the tract round Madras known as the Jagir, and the
Baramahal in the present District of Salem. In the meantime, the area
of British territory had been growing rapidly, and the fundamental
principles of land settlement were allowed to come up a second time
for consideration.
The zaminddri system, with a permanent assessment, had not
proved successful in Madras ; and the artificial landlords, who had
accepted too high rates, threw up their farms one after another. On
the other hand, the rdyatuuiri tenure found a strenuous advocate in
the person of Colonel (afterward Sir Thomas) Munro, whose influence
is still to be traced in almost every District of Madras. The alter-
native proposal of collecting the revenue through the agency of the
village communities was also considered, but met with little support,
though tried for a short time in the extreme south. Finally, in iSjc,
after much hot discussion, the Court of Directors resolved to adopt
4 6 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
what was then called 'the improved rdyatwdri system;' and Sir
Thomas Munro was appointed Governor of Madras in that year to
carry out his own favourite scheme.
The earliest rdyatwdri settlement of which we have any knowledge
in the Madras Presidency, and which still survives in full operation, is
that of the District of South Kanara, framed in the 14th century, and
revised in the 16th by the Bedmir government. It was based on an
estimate or valuation of the annual out-turn of the rice land and planta-
tions then under cultivation within the properties, great or small, held
by the agricultural population of the District. Each owner — and in the
case of escheats to the State {sarkar-gweni), each tenant — was brought
into account (ivarg) with the revenue officers in respect to the fixed
land-tax {kist) assessed on his cultivation each year. The settlement
survived, with many vicissitudes and arbitrary additions to the demand
(sfidtnildt), in remarkable completeness, all things considered, until the
British rule supervened in 1 799. This ancient rdyatwdri settlement was
accepted and affirmed by the first settlement officer in South Kanara
District, Major (afterwards Sir Thomas) Munro. It is this form of
rdyatwdri settlement for which he successfully contended, in preference
to the proposed parcelling out of the District amongst farmers of
revenue, who could not even look to waste or forest for the improve-
ment of their income, both being included in the immemorial posses-
sions of the ancient proprietary. When the chief holder was, as in
many cases, raised to the proprietorship by special grant, a separate title-
deed (mulpatta) was conferred on the occupant.
The next rdyatwdri settlement in historical order, likewise of native
origin, was that made with the tenantry of the hereditary proprietary
(jenmi) of Malabar by Arshed Beg, Tipii Sultan's revenue officer,
in 1784 and subsequent years. For all practical purposes, Malabar
had been a free and unconquered country until Tipii's Muhammadan
invasion. Its Hindu feudal princes and great proprietors (jenmi) lived
on the rents (Jen mi-pa /an) of their estates, and such royalties as were
levied were in the main unconnected with the soil ; the land remained
unassessed to any land-tax or State dues. During the confusion conse-
quent on the Muhammadan invasion, the great bulk of the Hindu
proprietary fled to Travancore, or otherwise eluded the settlement
officers of the conqueror ; and a zaminddri settlement with the great
hereditary proprietary {jenmi) k'camc impossible. A rdyatwdri settle-
ment was therefore made by Tipii's revenue officers, in the main with
their tenantry (kaiiomkars), and with the smaller proprietors who
occupied their own land.
broadly speaking, the rent (jenmi-patan) payable by the tenant for
his holding was ascertained, and three-fifths of the amount were claimed
as revenue due in future to the State, two-fifths being left to discharge
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 47
the reduced demand of the landlord. Changes and modifications have
since taken place ; but this rdyatwdri settlement (on the estimated
rent-roll) is still the basis of the revenue administration of Malabar.
The bulk of the demand, especially on the properties of great Rajas and
Namburi estates, is now discharged by tenantry under the varied tenures
of the country. The rdyatwdri settlement here altered no old tenures,
and created no new rights ; it gave no permanency to leases or occupa-
tion, and did not protect against a rise of rent at the will of the
proprietor. Indeed, as a rule, the rdyatwdri settlement has been
carried out in Districts where the ancient Hindu village system retained
its vitality. Over the greater part of the country it was a transition
from the national village joint-settlement — which subsisted in parts of
the Northern Circars till i860 — to an individual settlement with each
cultivating member of the community.
The ancient Hindu village system still underlies every form of British
land administration in South India. The zaminddr always treated
his village communities as the units of rent and of revenue responsi-
bilities, and almost invariably does so still. Where no such superior
lord existed, or now exists, the village has always been, and is still, the
unit of land revenue administration, and of rural social status. It
was so under the now obsolete village joint-rent settlement, which was
the natural and prevailing form of revenue arrangement under the rulers
who preceded the English, and indeed during the early years of our
own rule. The abortive viuttaddri settlement consisted in parcelling
out the undivided villages of the country into convenient farms for the
collection of the revenue. The village is still the unit of administration
under the more recent and Europeanized rdyatwdri, or individual
settlement with the sharers in village lands.
The difference lies in that, under the ancient system, the village com-
munity as a body was responsible for the apportionment of the lump
demand amongst their cultivating members and sharers in the village
lands ; under the rdyatwdri settlement, the head of the village and
village accountant keep accounts with each tenure-holder or cultivator
within the limits of the village, for the demand assessed on his indi-
vidual holding, whether that demand be (as is still the case in Districts
not yet subjected to Survey-settlement operations) the old prescriptive
demand, or the newly determined claim under the Survey-settlement
for thirty years. The rdyatwdri system of settlement has imparted
more permanence to tenures. A separate fixed possession of land
was inconsistent with the village joint-settlement. The demand to be
paid by each sharer in the village lands is now fixed. But on the
other hand, this form of settlement, when extended to communities
fully subject to the Hindu village organization, has traversed the
spirit of that institution, and weakened, if not entirely relaxed, those
48 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
ties of common interest and of mutual support and liability which were
the bonds of Indian rural life.
In the Madras Presidency, — subject to the punctual discharge
of the assessed rent-charge or demand on his holding, and sale of the
land by public auction, free of all encumbrances, in case of legal
default, — the control of a village landholder under a rdyaiwdri settlement
over his property is complete and indefeasible as respects the exercise
of all proprietary right, such as sale, gift, inheritance, alienation, parti-
tion, voluntary relinquishment (including the responsibility for the
revenue), and the like. He can only be ousted by Government by sale
for default, or under the Land Appropriation Laws. The main differ-
ence between the condition of landholders under a zaminddri and a
rdyaiwdri settlement lies in the pledge held by the former against
an increase in the fixed land revenue. Nor is even this difference
consistent with the earliest conceptions of the rdyaiwdri settlement.
The first advocates of this system, as against a zaminddri or mutiaddri
settlement, did not seek to deprive the smaller landholders and peasant
proprietary in Government villages of that fixity of demand, which was
the guiding object and spirit of the administration at the time. The
early rdyaiwdri settlements of Salem and South Kanara were designed
to be permanent in respect to all land under cultivation within assessed
occupied holdings. But under the uncertainty caused by the discus-
sion of the relative merits of the two systems, written engagements
(sanads and kdbuliydts) were not exchanged at the time ; and before the
rdyaiwdri system was sanctioned for general adoption, the disadvantages
of the permanent zaminddri settlement were becoming apparent, and the
privilege of a permanent rdyaiwdri settlement was withheld.
A settlement of the land revenue of a great Presidency, which
practically comprised an individual arrangement with each independent
landholder or sharer in the village property, and further required the
issue of an annual notice of demand (patta) in detail to each revenue-
payer, necessarily involved an enormous amount of adjustment of
account each year at the hands of the Collector and a multitude of
subordinates, down to the village accountant of almost every village.
Voluntary relinquishment, fresh occupation, changes of possession, and
the like, had to be registered ; local circumstances added greatly to these
causes of fluctuation. The main items of demand which had to appear
on the patta had the usual Indian tendency to become prescriptive
and unalterable from year to year. They generally did become so ;
ecially in prosperous Districts like Malabar and South Kanara,
and in respect to the better class of land, in every District. But the
necessity of giving large remissions for a variety of causes and under a
vast number of pattas, of making and recovering advances for cultiva-
tion (tak&dvi), settling deserted farms and the like, gave to the wide-
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 49
spread inquisition into these matters and the settlement of the village
accounts (jamabandi) much of the appearance, and some of the
characteristics, of an annual rdyatwdrl settlement. The ulungu adjust-
ment of the demand in Tanjore and Tinnevelli was practically an
annual settlement on the corrected prices of the year.
The chronic agricultural depression (caused by low prices and
dearth of rural capital, which prevailed throughout the first forty or fifty
years of the history of this settlement) greatly enhanced the labour and
difficulty of the annual jamdbandi. Circumstances have entirely changed
within the last thirty years. A permanent and considerable growth
in the prices of all agricultural produce, increased cultivation of the
more valuable products, and other circumstances of advancing pros-
perity, have enabled the husbandmen to do without remissions. Except
in rare years, and under special circumstances, advances are no longer
made for cultivation; and the ulungu has given place in Tanjore and
Tinnevelli to a settled demand per acre. The revised Survey-
settlement has removed many obstacles to the punctual realization of
the revenue, which has now become easy, punctual, and acceptable
to the people. Owing to increased cultivation and other causes, the
aggregate yield has also risen. The annual jamdbaiidi'xs a comparatively
easy and short operation ; and in the absence of change, the issue of
annual pattas is falling into disuse.
The land revenue in 1883-84, the latest year for which figures are
available, amounted to ^4,741,399; but the figures of 1881-S2 are here
made the basis of calculation regarding land revenue pressure, etc.
Going back a quarter of a century, the annual returns may be taken for
quinquennial periods to show the amount of land revenue received.
In 1861-62, the total receipts from land revenue amounted to
,£4,112,588; in 1866-67 (for n months only), to ,£3,635,509; in
1871-72, to ,£4,435,341; in 1S76-77 (famine year), to ,£3,296,575 5
and in 1881-82, to ,£4,575,404. Where the assessment is still
imposed as at the beginning of this century, the rate on irrigated
land is occasionally as high as ,£3, 10s. per acre, and that on
unirrigated land as high as 9s. The minimum on both kinds of land
sinks to less than a shilling, and the total number of rates in a single
District may be as large as 885. In those Districts where the new
Survey and Settlement have been introduced, the rates vary from 6d. to
j£i, 4s. per acre ; and the total number of separate rent rates in a
District amounts in some cases to 35.
Taking the average of the entire Presidency, the assessment per
acre is about 2s. 3d. on unirrigated, and 9s, 6d. on irrigated land.
Taking the gross area for an average recent year, and the land
revenues for an average recent year in different Provinces of British
India, the pressure of the land-tax is thus compared over the Peninsula
VOL. IX. D
5o MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
with the pressure in the Presidency of Madras. In Madras, is. ifd. per
acre; Bengal and Assam, 7d. ; N.-W. Provinces, is. i id. ; Bombay, 9^d. ;
Punjab, 7§d. ; British Burma, 2d.; Central Provinces, 2M. The
pressure per head of the total population may be thus compared —
-Madras, 3s. iid. ; Bengal and Assam, is. 2|d. ; N.-W. Provinces, 3s. i|d. ;
Bombay, 3s. iod. ; Punjab, 2s. 4^d.; British Burma, 3s. 3}d.; Central
Provinces, is. 6|d. The incidence of rent in Madras, that is to say, the
incidence of all payments to Government, and to other landlords, if any,
may be taken as 4s. 4fd. per cultivated acre, and 4s. 3M. per head of
population. Taking the figures of population, cultivated area, and land
revenue for Madras Presidency for 1881-82, the incidence of the land
revenue in that year was 4s. 2id. per cultivated acre, and 2s. ioid.
per head of population.
Survey and Settlement. — The original introduction of the rayatwdri
system was based upon no scientific measurement of the land, or
classification of the productiveness of the soil, and considerable con-
fusion incident to such deficiencies prevailed throughout the country as
respects revenue administration. Added to this, the revenue demand
had in almost every District become exceedingly oppressive. In the
main, the old prescriptive revenue demand of the Madras Presidency
was based on the assumption of a share of the crop — generally as high
as one-half in theory — commuted into a money rent-charge at the high
prices current in the early years of the century. Prices steadily
declined in subsequent years, and, between 1830 and 1845, had fallen
so much below the commutation rates that much land was thrown up
and remained out of cultivation, and the condition of the agricultural
population became depressed and critical. In 1858, a department of
Revenue Survey was established, and in the same year a revision of the
Settlement was begun.
The Survey, as now organized in the Madras Presidency, is con-
ducted on approved scientific principles. It combines the operations
of a cadastral survey with those of a perfect topographical survey on a
trigonometrical basis. The standard scale of 16 inches to the mile is,
however, confined to cultivated Government villages; hill tracts and
zaminddri estates are mapped on scales varying from 4 inches to -i an
inch to the mile. Up to the close of 1S75-76, a total area of 40,407
square miles had been finished on the regular scale, and 17,393 square
miles on the smaller scale; while 13,420 village maps had been pub-
lished. The area mapped in 1882-83 on the standard scale was 50,775,
and on the lesser scales 45,289 square miles; number of village maps
published up to 1S79, 17,470.
Settlement operations follow in the wake of the Survey, with the
object of removing injustice and fixing the land revenue on a satis-
factory footing. These operations are proverbially tedious, but on their
MADRAS FRESIDENC Y. 5 1
thoroughness depend both the efficiency and justice of Indian local
administration. The entire series of circumstances affecting the pro-
duction of every village come up for consideration. Questions of
meteorology, geology, and sometimes chemistry, have to be determined.
Agricultural experiments have to be conducted ; the local records of
plenty and famine have to be searched ; and the probabilities of
improved means of communication have to be reckoned. Finally, a
table is framed showing the yield of each class of soil, and this yield is
commuted into money by an average struck on twenty years' market
prices, after allowing various abatements. From the value of the gross
produce thus determined, the cost of cultivation is deducted, and then
the remainder or net produce is divided into two equal moieties, ot
which one is taken as the Government demand on the land. At the
close of 1882-83, ^e new Settlement had been introduced into the
whole of 10 Districts, and 8 other Districts had been partially settled.
The cost from the commencement had been ^724,981, at the rate of 4
annas (or 6d.) per acre. The additional revenue now realized is about
,£120,000, being at the rate of 16 per cent, on the outlay, not including
the prospective increase to be derived from waste lands, comprised in
the Settlement but not yet taken up for cultivation.
Zaminddri or Permanently Settled Estates. — Although the rdyatwdri
system of settlement may be regarded as the characteristic feature of
Madras, yet proprietary estates on the Bengal model are by no means
rare in parts of the Presidency. These estates conform generally to
one of two types. They are either the remains of ancient principalities,
which the holder cannot sell or encumber beyond his own life interest,
the succession being hereditary in the eldest son ; or they are creations
of British rule, dating from 1802, and subject to the usual Hindu rule
of partition. The chief zaminddris of the first class are those of
Parla Kimedi in Ganjam, Vizianagaram in Vizagapatam, Pittapur
in Godavari, Venkatagiri in Nellore, Ramnad and Sivaganga in
Madura, all of which see separately. On the zaminddri estates, the
land-dues, being permanently fixed, may be considered as practically
no longer a share of the produce, but as a tax. The Government does
not regulate the succession to the zaminddris; although it some-
times interferes to recognise a prima facie claimant, upon demise of
the owner, or pending a suit. The total area of the zaminddri estates
of both classes is estimated at 19 million acres, or nearly one-fifth of the
whole Presidency. The estimated revenue of the zaminddrs is over
^1,500, 000. More than three-fourths of the estates pay less than
^500 a year ; and there are only 8 estates which pay more than
^10,000. The peshkaslt, or tribute payable to Government, amounts
to ^513,000. As this peshkash is fixed in perpetuity, no increase of
revenue accrues to the State as more land is brought under cultivatoin.
52 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Indms or Revenue Eree Grants.- -It was the immemorial practice of
native governments, whether Hindu or Muhammadan, to alienate the
land revenue either for religious endowments, or in favour of certain
classes of privileged persons, or for services rendered to the State and
local communities. But while it was not the principle of the Muham-
madan rulers to regard alienations of revenue as permanent or binding,
their policy with reference to such indm tenures was practically lenient.
It recognised the ancient grants to Brahmans, and endowments
conferred on temples. The British Government, since 1822, has in
the main adopted the alternative policy of granting pensions in money
for service rendered ; but it has always scrupulously respected ancient
land grants. In general the quit-rent on indm villages is a fixed
revenue, and as a rule no remissions are granted. The following is a
classification of the indms or revenue-free tenures found in the Madras
Presidency : —
(1) Lands held by religious institutions, with an estimated area
of 1,458,081 acres, on which the Government assessment would
ordinarily be ,£242,247 ; the larger portion of these are held by
the pagodas at Tripati, Conjevaram, Sn'rangam, Rdmeswaram, and
Madura : (2) grants for purposes of public utility, chiefly for provid-
ing water and shade: — total area, 156,949 acres, with a hypothetical
assessment of ,£30,791 : (3) lands held for the maintenance of irrigation
works, with an area of 24,824 acres ; hypothetical assessment, ;£i 4,071;
these are chiefly to be found in the North, where they are known as
dasabhandams : (4) grants of subsistence to Brahmans and other reli-
gious personages ; these form nearly one-half of the whole, with an area
of 3,694,394 acres; hypothetical assessment, ,£548,993: (5) grants of
maintenance to the families and officials of dispossessed pdlegdrs or
local chieftains, chiefly found in the Ceded Districts, and in Salem :
(6) grants for the maintenance of the dependants of similar chieftains,
chiefly in the Northern Circars and in Madura: (7) kuttabadis,ox lands
held by police officials, chiefly in the Ceded Districts and North Arcot :
(8) lands held for ordinary revenue and police service, in connection
with the village community : and (9) lands held by various descriptions
of village artisans. These two last classes have recently been practi-
< ally abolished, as part of a comprehensive scheme of reform, by which in
the future all village servants will receive remuneration by fixed salaries.
The extensive indms or revenue-free lands in Ganjam District held
by the temple of Jagannath at Pun', belong to the first of these nine
< lasses.
In 1858, an Inam Commission was appointed, with the object
<>( definitely ascertaining the rights of the various classes of tndmddrs,
and of commuting service tenures into fee-simple. Possession for
fifty years was decided to give a good title. In the case of personal
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 53
grants, the holder was offered the alternative of retaining the land
subject to the liability of lapse, and without the power of alienation ; or
of enfranchising it by the payment of a moderate quit-rent or a lump
sum. Service tenures, where the service was still performed, and
religious endowments, were continued on the existing terms ; where the
services were no longer required, the holders were granted the same
terms of commutation as in the case of personal grants. By the end
of 1883-84, the total number oiindms confirmed was 444,496, with an
area of 6,752,803 acres, on which the full assessment would have been
£"1,061,389. The old quit-rent of £94,268 has been raised to
£"166,495. The total cost of the operations of the Inam Commission
has been .£139,539; which cost is less by £41,131 than one year's
revenue secured by it to Government, including the assessment of
indms fully assessed.
Manufadm-es. — Madras possesses few staple manufactures, apart
from the village industries which supply the simple wants of the people.
The preparation of the coffee-berry for export, scarcely a manufacture,
was till lately the sole business carried on in the Presidency by
European capital and under European supervision ; with the exception
of a little tea. There is nothing corresponding to the tea and opium of
Bengal ; and indigo, though largely manufactured in different parts of
Madras, is of inferior quality. Repeated efforts have been made by
English capitalists to introduce European methods of smelting iron in
various parts of the Presidency, but hitherto these attempts have been
uniformly unsuccessful. Almost the only example of a remunerative
English factory was until quite lately the Aska Sugar Works in Ganjdm,
which manufactures sugar for export, and rum and rice-spirit for local
consumption. The produce of this factory has repeatedly obtained
honourable mention at exhibitions in Europe. The chief manufacturing
industry of the Presidency is weaving.
Of recent years, however, mills and factories have been established in
different parts of the Madras Presidency. In 1883-84, there were four
cotton mills in Madras city, and one in Bellary. These mills turned
out 94,451 cwt. of cotton yarn, twist, and cloth, of the value of £"251,937.
The Basel Mission weaving establishment at Mangalore in South
Kanara produces excellent fabrics ; and a native firm of that town has
also set up looms.
The weaving industry was reported to have not recovered, up to 18S2,
from the effects of the famine of 1876-78. Up to the close of the last
century, cotton goods constituted the main article of export to foreign
countries. Masulipatam, where the first English factory on the Coro-
mandel coast was established in 161 1, enjoyed a special reputation for
its chintzes, which were valued for the freshness and permanency of their
dyes, the colours being brighter after washing than before. There is
54 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
siill a small demand for these articles in Burma, the Straits, and the
Persian Gulf; but Manchester goods have nearly beaten the Indian
exporter out of the field. Native looms, however, still hold their own
in the market, in face of strenuous foreign competition. In 1875-76,
the total export of Madras cotton goods was valued at only ^278,040,
against an importation of English piece-goods and cotton twist to the
aggregate value of ,£2,670,691. The manufacture of the famous Ami
muslins of Chengalpat (Chingleput) is dying out.
According to the Census returns of 1 87 1, there were 540,601 males
engaged in manufactures, of whom nearly three-fourths were weavers.
The Census of 1881 adopted the term ' industrial' in its classification,
and under this heading returned 1,938,370 males and 1,476,125 females,
of whom 742,737 males and 709,424 females were persons working
and dealing in the textile fabrics and in dress. The number of
actual weavers returned in the census of 1881 was 407,319 males and
535»247 females.
After weaving, working in metals appears to be the most widespread
native industry. In 187 1, the total number of males thus employed
was 126,117, of whom blacksmiths numbered 40,000, and gold and
silver smiths, 70,000. The workers in metals in 1881 numbered
151,414, of whom 52,235 were blacksmiths, 80,175 jewellers and
goldsmiths, and 19,004 copper or other smiths. The remaining
classes of village artisans comprise shoemakers, potters, weavers of
baskets, tailors.
Among local specialities which have attracted European curiosity,
may be mentioned the swdmi jewellery, the gold and silver filigree
work of Trichinopoli, the manufacture of ornaments and knickknacks
of ivory and horn at Vizagapatam, and the carving of sandal-wood in
South Kanara.
The more important of the remaining manufactories (other than salt)
in the Madras Presidency, are the jute mill at Vizagapatam ; the sugar
factory in South Arcot, besides the old-established one at Aska in
( '.anjam ; the tile and brick factories of the Basel Mission in South
Kanara. South Kanara is also famous for the manufacture of superior
coir matting. The extraction of oil from sandal-wood gave employment
in 1883-84 to 520 persons in that District. More than 3000 gallons
of sandal-wood oil were exported, valued at ^21,000. Tough paper
is made from aloes in Anantapur ; and a rough kind of paper is also
manufactured in Bellary and Madras city.
Salt Manufacture. -The sale of salt is practically a monopoly of
I Government, the manufacture being carried on mainly on its account,
and under close supervision. The monopoly was created by Regula-
tion I. of 1805, which at first applied to the whole Presidency, excepting
the Districts of South Kanara and Malabar; in 1807, these two Districts
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 55
were included; but in 1871, the Salt Excise Act permitted the manu-
facture of salt, on private account, throughout the west coast Districts
of the Presidency. The process employed is solar evaporation of sea
water ; and the entire coast-line on the east, from Orissa to Cape
Comorin, affords natural facilities for the industry. On the west, a
little salt is manufactured in South Kanara District, but the bulk
of the supply is imported from Bombay. There are altogether
47 depots in the Presidency; and the area of land occupied by salt-
pans is about 27,000 acres. These are held as private property, the
Government recognising a right of possession in the holders analogous
to that of the rayatwdri cultivation tenure.
The places of manufacture by the evaporation process are certain
localities along the Coromandel coast. Most of them were chosen as
sites before the creation of the monopoly, with a view to the nature
of the soil, which should be a stiff clay. From the backwaters and inlets
that abound along the coast-line, the salt water is baled up by means
of the picottah, or native lever and bucket, into shallow reservoirs
made by banking up the ground. When, after some days, the brine
has partially condensed, it is let off into still shallower banked up
enclosures or pans, the clay floors of which have been hardened by
treading and ramming. A further process of evaporation now takes
place, until the brine reaches the points of saturation, first of sulphate
of lime (plaster of Paris), then of chloride of sodium (common salt), and
lastly of sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salts), etc. During the second
of these stages of saturation, salt is deposited on the clay floors of the
pans in pure white cubic crystals, the size, solidity, and hardness of
which increase with the depth of the brine in which they are formed
and deposited. The art of the manufacturer is then to scrape up the
salt crystals from off the black clay floor without soiling them, and
before the condensation of the brine has proceeded far enough to cause
the deposit of the more soluble salts of magnesium, etc., which it still
contains. It requires no little skill to ascertain the exact degree of
saturation without any sort of scientific appliances. The salt, when
scraped off the pans, is heaped on a raised platform for a month or six
weeks to dry; brine being again let into the pans, and a fresh coating
of salt being secured. This process is repeated four or five times,
according to the weather. Finally, the pans are drained quite dry of
the residuum of brine or • mother liquor,' at this stage of course highly
charged with magnesian salts. They are re-trodden and re-rammed, and
the manufacture proceeds as before.
The out-turn of salt is about 45 tons to the acre of evaporating sur-
face per season ; but much depends on the weather. A fall of rain a
few days too early or a few days too late makes a difference of two or
three hundred per cent, in the amount of the produce. The time for
56 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
commencing the preparation of the pans is the beginning of January,
previous to which the Commissioner of Salt Revenue arranges what the
salt requirements of the season are. The pans are portioned out, each
man engaging to manufacture a certain quantity. The season for
manufacture usually ceases when the July rains set in, but is occasionally
prolonged until September. The saltmakers socially occupy the same
position as the ordinary village rdyat, but a salt-pan is proportionately
of considerably more value than the same extent of arable land. Salt
labour is not popular, because the work must be carried on at the
hottest period of the year; and because pure drinking water is
not easily attainable in the localities suitable for the manufacture.
Previous to the creation of the Government monopoly, the salt-
producing grounds of the Northern Circars were farmed out or rented
like other lands ; but in some portions of the Karnatik, the salt produce,
or its value in money, was divided between the Government and the
cultivator. Until recently, a species of possession was recognised as
inhering in the owner of a pan; and if discontinuance of the manufac-
ture were ordered, Government paid compensation. Now, however,
in opening new pans a written agreement is entered into with the
manufacturers, reserving the right of Government to close the
works when desirable without compensation. Under ordinary circum-
stances a salt-pan is recognised as real property, alienable by sale or
otherwise.
The sale of salt at the depots is free to all, and salt can be obtained
for cash in as small a quantity as one maund. Salt purchased for re-
sale at a distance is usually carried by Lambadies or Banjards, a
nomad race of petty traders whose home is the Central Provinces.
Salt is conveyed by boat, by pack mules or donkeys, and by rail.
The Madras trade in salt is almost solely in the hands of a few
wholesale houses, which have their own depots and agents in the in-
terior Districts. The retail price as it falls on the ordinary inhabitant
of the country is about one penny a pound ; and it has been calculated
that (inclusive of Mysore and Coorg) the average individual salt con-
sumption is a little over twelve pounds a year. The Government, on
receiving the salt at its depots, pays a price called kudivaram, varying
from 10 pies to 3 annas 7 pies per maund ol 82^ lbs., or approximately
from ifd. to 7 id. per cwt. The average of this payment is 1 anna
5 -8 pies per maund, or about 3d. per cwt. The total cost to Govern-
ment, including the expenses of supervision and every other item, is
estimated at 3 annas $'6 pies per maund, or about 7d. per cwt.
The price charged by Government to the consumer, or rather to the
retail dealer, has varied considerably both in time and place. At the
beginning of the present century (1805 to 1809) it was only 9 annas 4
pies per maund, or is. 7& per cwt. After several changes, the price
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 57
charged by Government in Madras for salt remained stationary at 1
rupee per maund, or 2s. Sid. per cwt., from 1844 to 1859. It was
raised by degrees, during the next eighteen years, to a maximum of
Rs. 2. 11 per maundy or 7s. 4d. per cwt., in 1877. A uniform salt
duty of Rs. 2 per mound, or 5s. 5d. per cwt., has now been fixed for
the whole of India In Madras, 3 annas per maund are added as the
cost of the salt itself. The price charged by Government for salt in
Madras is therefore Rs. 2. 3, or 5 s. 11 id. per cwt.
It should be always borne in mind that conversions into sterling in
this work are made at the nominal official rate of 2s. to the rupee.
At present the rupee is worth only about is. 6d. ; so that the actual
sterling prices are one quarter lower than the nominal ones.
In 1876-77, a Joint Commission, under the orders of the Govern-
ment of India, investigated the salt administration of the Madras Pre-
sidency, and several of the recommendations made in their exhaustive
Report are in course of execution. The importation of salt by Govern-
ment from Bombay for the use of the west coast Districts has ceased,
and the manufacture and sale of salt under a system of excise has been
introduced. Government officers in no way interfere with the sale of
excise salt. The owner is free to sell it when, to whom, and for what
price he chooses. In 1882-83,488,212 mounds of excise salt were stored,
while the storage of the Government salt in the same year was over six
million mounds (6,211,103). ^n addition, 760,639 mounds of salt were
imported, chiefly from Portuguese territory and Arabia. The salt revenue
in Madras for 1882-83 was ^1,390,85 2. The cost of the salt pre-
ventive police was ,£15.993. The imported salt was principally for
use in Malabar. A considerable export trade in salt formerly existed
with Calcutta, Chittagong, Penang, and other places.
Salt is supplied to the French authorities at prime cost for sale at
prices similar to British prices to the inhabitants of the French Settle-
ments, the manufacture of salt by the French having ceased under
the terms of a convention. The whole of Mysore and a part of the
Nizam's territory in the Deccan, as well as the southern and eastern
parts of the Central Provinces, are also supplied with salt taken by
private trade from the Madras Presidency.
Formerly, the Salt Department was administered by the District
officers under the orders of the Board of Revenue, and there was a
large separate establishment for the superintendence of the manufac-
ture and sale. From 1878, the District officers were relieved of the
duty of salt supervision, and a departmental officer called the Com-
missioner of Salt Revenue was appointed for the whole Presidency.
This officer is subordinate to the Board of Revenue in Madras.
History of Abkdr'i in Madras. — The abkdri or excise revenue of Madias
Presidency is composed of all taxes, duties, and fees levied on the manu-
5S MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
facture, distillation, or sale of spirituous intoxicating liquors and drugs,
among which opium has to be included. Taxes upon the sale of in-
toxicants were known as a source of revenue, alike to the ancient Hindu
and the more modern Muhammadan rulers. The English abkari law
for Madras dates from 1808 ; but while arrack and foreign spirits were
included, toddy was originally excluded from the operation of the excise.
The privilege of selling foreign spirits and the privilege of making arrack
were farmed ; and in addition, the licensing of separate stills (called
the ' out-still ' system) was adopted as an alternative mode. The out-
still system was tried in Nellore, South Arcot, and Trichinopoli Dis-
tricts, but proved unsuccessful; and in 1815, the renting system was
in force all over the Presidency, except within the abkari limits of
Madras city. The regulations were consolidated into the Act of 1820,
which practically lasted until the Abkari Act iii. of 1864 became
law.
The law of 1864 made little change in the law of 1820. The
older law provided that the exclusive manufacture and sale of 'rum,
arrack, or other fermented liquors ' should either be retained under the
direct management of Government or be rented out by them to farmers,
while a subsidiary Regulation gave renters power to sub-let. Special
provisions were also introduced against the use of noxious ingredients
in the manufacture, and against irregularities in the liquor shops.
The new law in 1864 added a provision bringing foreign imported
wines and spirits under the chief enactment of 1820, and other
clauses dealing with the regulation of toddy. Act iii. of 1864 has been
amended by Act vii. of 1879. The amendments are principally in the
direction of more stringent measures for the repression of illicit distilla-
tion, and the enlargement of the powers of the police and heads of
villages for the 'detection of offences connected with the abkari law.
The abkari of the city of Madras is regulated by a special enactment,
Act xix. of 1852, subsequently amended in 1879.
The progress of the abkari revenue of the Presidency since 1800 has
been very marked. In 1800, the abkari revenue was a little over
^20,000 ; in 1807, it had risen to ^70,000 ; and in three years more to
,£90,000. From 1810 to 1830, there was a steady rise ; in 1832, the
revenue was ^"180,000; but in 1833 a severe scarcity in some of the
northern Districts caused the revenue to fall to ;£ 140,000. By 1842,
the revenue again reached ,£180,000; in 1855, it was ,£225,000 ; in
1861,^300,000; in 1865, ,£420,000 ; in 1S70, ^£6 10,000 ; in 1SS2-83,
,£645,840. The growth in the abkari revenue since the commence-
ment of the century is due partly to an enhanced taxation on spirituous
and fermented liquors ; but also in a great measure to increased
consumption.
Arrack and Toddy. — The preparation of these two intoxicating liquors
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 59
is, like the manufacture and sale of salt, a Government monopoly.
Arrack or country spirit, which may be described as a species of rum,
is distilled from sugar or jaggery, the source of the sugar being either
the cane, the palmyra, the cocoa-nut, or the date-palm. The Govern-
ment exercise their monopoly in respect to arrack by farming out,
under leases, the exclusive right of distillation and sale within entire
Districts or parts of Districts to contractors, who guarantee a minimum
excise revenue for each year of their lease. In the town of Madras,
arrack is distilled by lessees of the Government distillery on account
of Government, and the liquor is then issued to the retail dealers.
These again contract to sell a certain minimum quantity of liquor in
their respective shops at prescribed prices, and thus guarantee a
minimum revenue from each shop. The annual consumption of arrack
in the large towns of the Presidency is estimated to amount to an
average of half a gallon per head of population. Distillation in Ganjam
and in the coast taluks of Vizagapatam is rented to the owners of
the rum factory at Aska. In the hill tracts of these two Districts, the
spirit consumed is distilled from the flower of the mahud tree (Bassia
latifolia).
The preparation of toddy is a familiar process in every Madras
village. In this case also, domestic manufacture and sale are forbidden,
and the right of sale is farmed out to toddy-renters, the leases being
put up to public auction. Toddy is the fermented juice of several
kinds of palm. Throughout the northern Districts it is almost in-
variably made from the date-palm ; in the southern Districts, from the
cocoa-nut and the palmyra ; and on the western coast, from the cocoa-
nut. The juice from the date-palm is obtained by merely making an
incision in the bark and allowing it to exude. The average produce is
said to be 1 gallon per tree on every alternate day. The juice may be
taken at any period of the year, but only during three months out of the
twelve. In the case of the palmyra, the ends of the young shoots are
cut and squeezed in a rude apparatus for eight days, after which time
the juice begins to flow. The produce is about 2 bottles per day, the
male trees yielding only from January to April, the female from
February to May. Cocoa-nut toddy is obtained in a similar way, and
the average produce is the same, but the trees are tapped for six months
in the year.
In Karniil (Kurnool), a spirit is distilled from ippa or mahud flowers
(Bassia latifolia) ; in the zam'inddri of Jaipur (Jeypore), a fermented
liquor called sauda is brewed from grain, resembling the packtoai or
rice-beer of Bengal ; and in one taluk of Trichinopoli District, a spirit
is distilled from rice. On the Nilgiri Hills and at Bellary, country
beer is now manufactured by European firms, subject originally to an
excise duty of 6d. per gallon. But recently the duty has been reduced
Go MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
to iid. per gallon on condition that the alcoholic strength of the beer
does not exceed 6 per cent.
Railways. — Two guaranteed railway companies, the Madras and the
South Indian, have their lines almost entirely within the Presidency.
The. Madras Railway, which connects at Raichor with the Great
Indian Peninsula system, runs thence south-east to Madras, and then
west across the peninsula to Beypur, with branches to Bellary and
Bangalore. Total length open in 1882, 861 miles, of which 81 Si-
miles are single and 42^ miles are double line ; number of stations,
116; capital expended, ^"11,154,450, or at the rate of ^11,895 Per
mile ; gross earnings, ^691,857 ; net revenue, ^257,084. The number
of passengers carried by the Madras Railway in 1882 was 4,352,726,
each passenger being conveyed an average distance of 47*4 miles.
In the same year, the Madras Railway carried 480,637 tons of goods.
The total quantity of food-grains carried by the Madras Railway was,
in 1SS2, 124,161 tons; of salt, 51,506 tons; and of cotton, 21,100
tons. The block system is in use over the Madras Railway.
The South Indian Railway on the narrow gauge runs northward from
Tuticorin to Madras, with branches to Tinnevelli, Negapatam, Erode,
and Pondicherri. Total length in 1882, 655 miles; capital expended,
^4,302,142; grossearnings, ^375,871; net earnings, ^140,232. The
number of passengers carried by the South Indian Railway in 1882 was
3,843,046, the average distance travelled by each passenger being 38*8
miles. The South Indian Railway carried, in the same year, 415,403
tons of goods.
Both the Madras and South Indian Railways were of great service in
carrying grain into the interior of the country during the famine of
1876-78. Without their aid, nothing could have prevented a most
disastrous depopulation of the more distressed tracts.
A line in Mysore State, from Bangalore, connects Bangalore city
with Mysore city ; length, 86 miles. Another line from Bangalore to
Gubbi was opened in 1884, for a length of 54 miles. This line is to
be further continued to join the South Maiathd system. A projected
line by a private company from Metapolliem, on the Nflgiri branch
of tin- Madras Railway to Utakamand, to be called the Nilgiri-Righi
Railway, is (1885) under the consideration of the Government of India,
but the final terms of agreement have not been arrived at.
Water communication exists between Bezwara and Madras, and a rail-
way following this route is under survey. Telephone communication
has been established between Bangalore and Utakamand ; and the
Presidency is well supplied with telegraph lines.
Commerce and Trade. — The continuous seaboard of the Madras
Presidency, without any natural harbours of the first rank, has tended
to create a widely diffused trade. Madras city, as by far the chief
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
61
centre of population and the eastern terminus of the railway system,
conducts nearly one-half of the total sea-borne commerce. Next comes
Malabar District, containing the western railway terminus at Beypur ;
then Godavari District, with its cluster of ports along the fringe of the
delta; Tinnevelli, with the new harbour at Tuticorin, which has ppened
large dealings with Ceylon ; then Tanjore, South Kanara, Ganjam, and
Vizagapatam Districts. As compared with the other Presidencies,
the trade of Madras is broadly marked by the larger proportion assigned
to coasting trade with other Indian ports and with Ceylon. Madras
produces no great staple of export corresponding to the raw cotton
of Bombay, or the jute, indigo, tea, and oil-seeds of Bengal. The
aggregate excess of export value is comparatively much smaller in
Madras than in the case of either of the other two Presidencies. The
following table exhibits the principal items of foreign trade for 1875-76
and for 1883-84: —
Foreign Trade of the Madras Presidency in 1875-76.
Imports (1875-76).
Exports (1875-76).
Cotton piece-goods, .
^1,431.851
Coffee,
.£1,661,111
Cotton twist,
1,238,840
Raw cotton,
1,652,849
Metals
499,681
Hides and skins,
1,081,585
Railway stores,
459,529
Rice and paddy,
958,576
Rice and paddy,
357,330
Seeds,
586,690
Wearing apparel,
181,015
Indigo, ....
473,163
Timber, ....
151,762
Spices, ....
405,213
Raw silk, ....
141,037
Oils,
344,204
Spices and areca-nuts,
130,550
Cotton goods, .
278,040
Spirits, ....
102,453
Provisions,
238,065
Wine. ....
83,574
Sugar,
194,083
Grain of sorts, .
82,153
Coir and rope, .
189,097
Provisions, etc.,
73,915
Cocoa-nuts,
114,460
Drugs and medicines,
60,452
Timber, .
104,511
Malt liquors,
50,246
Tobacco, .
73,234
Paper, . . ...
41,694
Dyes, other than indigo,
58,133
Woollen manufactures,
39,315
Grain of sorts, .
38,593
Seeds,
28,412
Salt,
36,858
Glass,
27,564
Drags, ....
31,259
Silk manufactures, .
23,570
Horns,
22,591
Machinery,
21,478
Vegetables, etc.,
i6,ioS
Tea,
21,420
Wax, ....
14,309
Coral,
17,691
Silk,
I3,79i
Wheat, .
17,662
Saltpetre, .
8,483
Books,
17,350
Hemp,
6,635
Stationery,
14,137
Mats,
5,714
Earthenware, .
n,963
Wheat, .
3,629
Dyeing materials,
10,107
Jewellery,
3-444
Miscellaneous, .
1,085,954
£6, 422, 705
Miscellaneous, .
Total goods,
268,916
Total goods,
£8,883,344
Government stores, .
342,047
Treasure, .
437,154
( rovernment salt,
87,696
Treasure, .
956,208
Grand total,
Grand total,
. ^7,SoS,656
£9,320,498
6 a
J A / DRA S PRESIDE XC K
Foreign Trade
Imports (1SS3-
Cotton piece-good>,
hi twist,
Metals,
Railway stores, .
Kice antl paddy,
Wearing apparel,
Timber,
Spices ami areca-nu'.s,
Spirit-,
Wine,
( i min of sorts, .
Provisions, etc.,
1 >rugs and medicines,
Malt liquors,
Taper,
Woollen manufacture-.
Seeds,
Glass,
Silk manufactures,
Machinery,
Tea, ....
Coral,
Wheat, .
Hooks,
Stationery,
Earthenware,
I >yeing materials,
Miscellaneous, .
Total goods,
Government stores, .
< iovernment salt,
Treasure, .
Grand total,
of the Madras Presidency
84).
£1,643, 142
845,030
375>io2
53,347
25
141,764
20,671
269,866
103,821
60,074
215
69,055
28,678
40,236
44,956
26, 762
4,098
19,978
4,719
60,562
1,028
23,488
'9
18,865
23,77i
10,089
2,892
494,089
£4,386,342
273,890
428
393,345
£5.054,005
Exports
Coffee,
Raw cotton,
Hides and skins,
Rice and paddy,
Seeds,
Indigo,
Spices,
Oils,
I Cotton goods, twist,
Provisions,
Sugar, .
I Coir and rope, .
j Cocoa-nuts,
Timber, .
Tobacco, .
1 hes, other than ind
Grain of sorts, .
Drugs, .
Horns,
Vegetables,
Wax,
Silk,
Tea,
Hemp,
Mats,
Wheat, .
Jewellery,
Miscellaneous, .
Total goods,
Government stores,
Treasure, .
Grand total,
etc.
IN 1883-84.
(1883-84).
£i,385,790
1,450,086
1,747,338
538,462
674,411
1,153,513
221,134
156,588
399,056
72,030
685,425
99,300
1,456
10,855
27,568
46,921
52,151
54,585
24,609
7,949
7,142
14,642
24,986
8,722
376
648
4,48S
286,629
'go,
£9,146,860
8,300
111,065
£9,266,225
The Madras coasting trade was returned as follows in 1883-84:
trade with British Indian ports not within the Madras Presidency —
imports, ,£3,089,008; exports, ,£2,568,619: trade with British
Indian ports within the Presidency — imports, ,£1,591,236; exports,
£1,471,745: trade with Indian ports other than British — imports,
£50.597; exports, £280,156.
The number of vessels in the foreign trade that cleared and entered
Madras ports in 1875-76 was 6866, with a tonnage of 1,208,745 tons.
In 1883-84, the number entering and clearing was 5723 ; tonnage,
1,329,027 tons. Of these, 499 were steamers, with 733,56610ns; 184
sailing vessels, with 142,643 tons, were British; 73, with 20,724 tons,
were Foreign; 2531, with 329,264 tons, were British Indian; and 2436,
with 102,830 tons, were Native. In the same year, the coasting trade
was conducted by 8346 vessels, with 1,722,065 tons, for other British
Indian ports; 28,138 vessels, with 5,921,836 tons, for ports within the
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
63
Presidency; and 4130 vessels, with 414,622 tons, for Indian ports other
than British.
The importance of this active coasting trade may be gathered from
the fact, that in 1876-77 (the first year of famine) the imports
of grain suddenly rose to 652,850 tons, valued at £.'6,156,224, of
which by far the greater part consisted of rice from Bengal.
Excluding treasure, and transactions on account of Government, the
total value of the sea-borne trade of the Madras Presidency in 1S82-83
was over 20 millions (^20,083,187), of which nearly 12 millions
represented the value of the exports, and over 8 millions the value
of the imports. The following table shows the progress of the
Presidency trade since 1871-72; the abnormal figures for 1877 and
1878 are due to the impetus given to importation during the continu-
ance of famine in those years : —
Sea-borne Trade of the Madras Presidencv.
Vears.
Exports.
Imports.
Total.
1871-72,
^11,296,150
^7,471,356
^18,767,506
IS72-73.
10,020,137
7,5jS,255
17,558,392
1873-74.
11,212,573
7,743.152
18,955,725
1S74-75,
10.697,845
7,904,299
iS, 602, 144
1875-76,
10,666,508
7,665,454
18,329,962
1876-77,
11,141,124
12,431,210
23,572,334
1877-78,
10,127,990
15,822,510
25,950,500
IS78-79.
9,606,925
8,399o25
18.006,450
1879-S0,
11,018,593
6,937,652
17,956,245
1S80-81,
10,706,623
7,509,255
18,215,878
I88I-82,
11,019,474
7,332,426
18,351,90a
1882-83,
n,S69,30i
8,213,886
20,083,187
Of the total, ^20,083,187, returned for 1SS2-83, 64 per cent, or
^12,853,239, represented the value of the foreign trade of the Presi-
dency. Until recent years the average proportion of foreign trade
but little exceeded 40 per cent., while the average proportion of the
coasting trade, that is to say, the trade between the ports within the
Presidency, was about 25 per cent. The foreign trade has of late years
been increasing, and the coasting trade diminishing. In 18S2-S3, while,
as has been already mentioned, the foreign trade was 64 per cent, of
the whole, the Madras coasting trade was only 12I per cent. The
remaining 23^ per cent, of the trade is trade with other Presidencies
and with non-British Indian ports.
The export trade of Madras Presidency consists chiefly of agricultural
produce, cotton, oil or oil-seeds, grain, coffee, ginger, turmeric, dye-wood,
indigo, hides, and skins. But the three staples of the export trade are
hides and skins, coffee, and raw cotton. The imports consist mainly
6 4 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
of piece-goods, cotton-twist, metals, liquors, and miscellaneous western
products. The export and import trade used to be mainly in the
hands of European merchants, but native traders are now beginning
to largely avail themselves of the facilities for direct communication
with Europe instead of transacting European business with a local
house of agency.
In 1882-83, the external trade, namely, the total external trade
excepting that between ports within the Presidency, amounted in
value to ^17,563,618, or 87*5 per cent, of the whole trade. Of
the whole amount, merchandise to the value of .£9,461,543,
and treasure to the value of ,£149,214, was carried through the
Suez Canal.
Administration. — The supreme executive authority is vested in the
Governor, with a Council of three members, of whom one is the Com-
mander-in-Chief; the two others belong to the Covenanted Civil Service.
The Commander-in-Chief is Second in Council, but by statute the
senior Civilian member presides in the absence of the Governor. The
appointment of the members of Council is made by the Queen.
For legislative purposes, the Council is increased by the addition
of the Advocate - General of Madras, and from four to eight other
members nominated by the Governor, of whom not less than one-
half must be non-officials.
The cabinet system of administration, under which each member of
the Executive Council of three deals with separate subjects, and refers
special cases only to the whole Council, is to a certain extent carried
out. It does not, however, prevail to the same degree as in the Viceroy's
Council, and still less to the same degree as in a European cabinet.
The following is a list of the departments among which the central
administration is partitioned : — Financial, judicial, public, educational,
political, ecclesiastical, marine, legislative, petition, revenue, pension,
public works, railways, military.
The local or rural administration of Madras takes the District
or zild as its unit. Of these Districts there are 22 in all, including
the newly - created Anantapur District, the Nflgiris, and Madras
city. The two last - named occupy an exceptional position. Each
of the remaining Districts is under the jurisdiction of a Collector
and a Sessions Judge. The Collector combines the functions of a
fiscal and a judicial officer. Beneath him come Assistants and Sub-
Assistants who belong to the covenanted civil service, and Deputy-
Collectors who are of the uncovenanted service.
Each District is sub-divided into taluks or ialukus, numbering 158 in
all, under the charge of a taJisihidr. Each taluk comprises about 270
villages, which constitute the ultimate units for fiscal and administra-
tive purposes. The population of an average taluk is about 190,000,
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 65
its area about 880 square miles, and the land revenue it pays annually
^30,000. The hereditary officials, to be found in almost every Hindu
village, have ever been utilized to perform minor public offices, revenue
and judicial, being inadequately remunerated either by fees in grain
and other cesses levied from the villagers, or by a partial reduction in
their land assessment. The heads of villages and village accountants
(karnam) collect and account for all revenue, rates, and taxes within
their respective villages or townships.
In Madras, the village is the unit of taluk administration, and the
taluk the unit of District management. The establishment of a tahsil-
ddr, who administers the taluk, consists of a sheristadar, clerks, revenue
inspectors and servants. The sheristaddr is in immediate charge of the
taluk treasury, and of its accounts, abstracts, registers, and periodical
returns. The clerks prepare the accounts, bills, abstract cultivation
statements, season, crop, and other agricultural returns, attend to corre-
spondence, aid in magisterial work subordinately, and have charge of
the office records, which under the rayahvdri system are voluminous.
The revenue inspectors, of whom there are three or four, are in charge
of portions of taluks, and pass constantly from village to village, seeing
that the work of the village officer is properly performed, and conducting
such local inquiries as may be considered necessary by the tahsilddr.
In this capacity of revenue officer, the tahsilddr in Madras is assisted
by officers styled f deputy-ta/isilddrs,' who are established in important
towns and outlying parts of a taluk. Some of these deputy-tahsilddrs
are in charge of large estates which do not fall within the jurisdiction
of any tahsilddr. Each has a small office establishment. The yearly
cost of the tahsilddri establishment throughout the Presidency is returned
at ^146,000.
As the village is the unit of the taluk, and the taluk of the District
administration, so the District is the unit of State management. The
District officer, or as he is technically designated, the District Collector
and Magistrate, has a territorial charge averaging 6400 square miles,
and contributing a revenue of about ^370,000. The District Col-
lector has a general control over his sub-collectors and his assistants,
who are covenanted civil servants, and over his deputy collectors, who
are members of the uncovenanted civil service and in nearly every case
natives of the country. The daily duties of the Collector are onerous
and varied. He superintends all persons engaged in the administration
of the revenue. He is responsible for the District treasury to which the
taluk treasuries send their money, and for the large stock of stamps
kept in his treasury. He has to see that the revenues are punctually
realized. When arrears accrue, he has to direct proper processes of
recovery. He manages the estates of minors. He determines boundary
VOL. IX. E
C6 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
disputes. He tries cases of official malversation, and claims to village
offices. He hears and determines questions as to rent arising between
landlord and tenant. He plays an important part in the municipal
system which Act iii. of 1S71 initiated, and he supervises the Local
Funds raised for road and communications, primary education, hospitals,
and sanitation. In the maritime Districts, the Collector controls the
sea customs. He is expected to be thoroughly acquainted with the
state of public opinion and the feeling of native States within the limits
of his jurisdiction. He is, finally, the chief adviser of Government with
regard to police, public works, education, sanitation, and the miscel-
laneous matters which conduce to the welfare and happiness of the
District. The Collector has power to appoint all subordinate officers
within his charge below the rank of deputy-tansiZdd r. He nominates the
tahsilddr, the deputytaAsilddr, the head sher/sladdr, and the sheristaddrs
»i taluks. The Board of Revenue must sanction the sheristaddr appoint-
ments. The appointments of the tahsilddr and dcputy-lahsildar require
the sanction of the Madras Government. Suspensions and dismissals
of taluk officers are carried out as a rule under the orders of the Board
of Revenue, which is, in this as in most other matters, the Collector's
high controlling authority.
The Madras Board of Revenue consists of 3 members, with a secre-
tary and a sub-secretary, a sheristaddr, two assistants, and a manager.
The main duties of the Board are to secure the punctual collection
of the revenue ; to tabulate and record all statistics with regard to
population, agriculture, exports and imports, health, and the condition
and advancement of the country; to manage the expenditure of local
and special funds ; to take charge of the estates of minors as a Court
of Wards; to ensure the proper application of endowments; and to
decide the frequent appeals which result from a system in which the
Government is concerned directly with peasant proprietors.
Governors of Madras under British Rule. — The Madras factory
was under the jurisdiction of Bantam in Java from its foundation in
1639 till it was itself created a Presidency in 1653. In 1658, the
factories in Bengal were subordinated to Madras, and so remained
till 1681. Mr. Aaron Baker, who was the 'Agent' for the factory of
Madras in 1653, became the first Governor on Madras being created
.1 Presidency in that year. The following is a list of the Governors of
Madras from 1653 to 1885: — Mr. Aaron Baker (I653), Sir Thomas
Chamber (1659), Sir Edward Winter (1661), Mr. Oeorge Foxcroft
1 1'. oS). Sir William Langhom (1670), Mr. Streynsham Master (1678),
Mr. William Gyfford (1681), Mr. Elihu Yale (1687), Mr. Nathaniel
Higginson (1692), Mr. Thomas Pitt (1698), Mr. Gulston Addison
(1709), Mr. Edmund Montague (acting, 1709), Mr. William Frascr
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 67
{acting, 1709), Mr. Edward Harrison (171 1), Mr. Joseph Collet (171 7),
Mr. Francis Hastings {acting, 1720), Mr. Nathaniel Elwich (1721),
Mr. James Macrae (1725), Mr. George Morton Pitt (1730), Mr.
Richard Benyon (1735), ^r- Nicholas Morse (1743); — Madras having
been captured by the French on the 10th September 1746, the govern-
ment of the Settlement devolved on Mr. John Hinde, the Deputy-
Governor of Fort St. David; Mr. Charles Floyer (1747), Mr. Thomas
Saunders (1750); the seat of the government was re-established at
Madras on the 5th April 1752, four years after its restoration to the
English by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; — Mr. George Pigot (after-
wards Lord Pigot, 1755), ^r- Robert Palk (1763), Mr. Charles
Bourchier (1767), Mr. Josias Du Pre (1770), Mr. Alexander Wynch
(1773), Lord Pigot {second time, 1775), Mr. George Stratton (1776),
Mr. John Whitehill {acting, 1777), Sir Thomas Rumbold (1778), Mr.
John Whitehill {acting second time, 1780), Mr. Charles Smith {acting,
1780), Lord Macartney (1781), Mr. Alexander Davidson (1785), Sir
Archibald Campbell, K.B. (1786), Mr. John Holland {acting, 1789),
Mr. Edward Holland {acting, 1790), Major-General William Medows
(1790), Sir Charles Oakeley (1792), Lord Hobart (1794), Lieut. -
General George Harris {Commander-in-Chief, acting, 1798), Lord Give
(1798), Lord William Bentinck (1803), Mr. William Pelrie {acting,
1807), Sir George Hilaro Barlow, K.B. (1807), Lieut.-General The
Hon. John Abercromby {Commander-in-Chief and temporary Governor,
1 813), The Right Hon. Hugh Elliot (1 814), Sir Thomas Munro, K.C.B.
(1820), Mr. Henry Sullivan Graeme {acting, 1827), Mr. Stephen
Rumbold Lushington (1827), Sir Frederick Adam, K.C.B. (1S32), Mr.
George Edward Russell {acting, 1837), Lord Elphinstone (1837),
Marquis of Tweeddale, C.B. (1842), Mr. Henry Dickinson {acting,
1S48), Sir Henry Pottinger, G.C.B. (1848), Mr. Daniel Elliott {acting,
1S54), 'Lord Harris (1854), Sir Charles Edward Trevelyan, K.C.B
(1859), Mr. William Ambrose Morehead {acting, i860), Sir Henry
George Ward, G.C.M.G. (1S60), Mr. William Ambrose Morehead
{acting second time, i860), Sir William Thomas Dennison, K.C.B.
(1S61), Mr. Edward Maltby {acting, 1863), Lord Napier of Merchistoun
(1866), Mr. Alexander John Arbuthnot, C.S.L {acting, 1S72), Lord
Hobart (1872), Mr. William Rose Robinson {acting, 1875), The Duke
of Buckingham and Chandos (1S75), Right Hon. William Patrick
Adam (1SS0), Mr. William Hudleston, C.S.I, {acting, 1SS1), The Right
Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff, CLE. (1SS1).
local and Municipal Administration, including roads and communi-
cations, schools and primary education, public health and endowments,
together with the special taxation levied for any of these purposes, is
provided for by uniform legislation throughout the Presidency.
e>>
6S MADE AS PRESIDEXCY.
As respects population generally, entire Districts, or where these
are of unmanageable size, parts of Districts have been constituted
into Local Fund Circles, each under the management of a Board of
Commissioners. The Board is usually a mixed body, consisting of
official and non-official or representative members. To the Local
Fund Board thus constituted is entrusted, in the Madras Presi-
dency, the management of the above-named local interests, subject
to the submission of their annual budget of income and proposed
expenditure for the sanction of Government, and of an annual report
of the transactions of the Board for the year, at its close. The Govern-
ment confides to the management of the Local Fund Boards any
assignment made from the provincial treasury towards the various local
interests under their care. The 22 Districts of the Presidency
comprise 30 such Local Fund Circles. The sources of income at the
disposal of these Boards are the proceeds of a special land rate, not
exceeding 1 aiuia per rupee, or three-farthings in every shilling, of the
Government assessment on the land, tolls, school fees, local endowments,
and other minor special and miscellaneous funds placed by Government
at their disposal.
Municipal administration of the larger towns throughout the Pre-
sidency is also provided for by Boards of Town Commissioners,
somewhat similarly constituted as respects official and non -official
members, except that the principle of election by the ratepayers has
received of late an important extension (1884). Besides the above-
named local interests, the municipal Boards or Commissioners
manage the local sanitation and hospitals, registration of births and
deaths, lighting, etc., within their respective charges ; and raise the
subsidy (three-fourths of the entire cost) required, and maintain the
police of their towns.
In 1882-83, there were 47 municipal towns in Madras Presidency,
excluding Madras city, administered under the Act. The elective
system was in operation in 12 of the municipalities. The aggregate
receipts in 1882-83 were £"165,784; and the expenditure, .£143,937,
including .£10,345 paid to the imperial treasury on account of
licence tax. On public works, £30,910 was expended during the year,
including cost of establishment. The incidence of municipal taxation
varied from 5,:d. per head of municipal population in Palghat to
5s. in Utakamand. The average incidence was is. oid. per head.
The yearly income at the disposal of the municipal Commissioners
isisted of rates (not exceeding 10 per cent, of the rent value), on
houses and lands within the township, a tax on professions, callings,
and arts exercised therein (the ratepayers being classified at scheduled
rates), a wheel and animal tax, tolls and ferries, school and market
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 69
fees, and other miscellaneous sources. The aggregate population
of the 47 municipalities, excluding Madras city, in the Presidency,
was 1,323,970. Of the total number of municipal Commissioners
in 1S84 (754), Europeans and Eurasians numbered 248, and natives
506. Of the whole number, 314 were officials, and 440 non-officials.
For the figures of the municipality of Madras city, see Madras
City.
Under the administration of Local Fund and Municipal Boards, a
great impulse has been given to the development of roads and com-
munications, schools and primary instruction, dispensaries and hospitals
throughout the country.
Revenue and Expenditure, — The finances of the Presidency require to
be considered under four heads — Imperial, Provincial, Local, and Muni-
cipal. Down to the year 187 1, every branch of revenue and expenditure
throughout India was managed in all details by the Government ot
India, and practically the first head of finance alone existed. In
1 87 1, Lord Mayo introduced a scheme for decentralizing the finances,
and what are known as Provincial Funds were brought into existence.
By this decentralization scheme, the financial administration — under
rules framed by the Government of India — of the jail, police, and
educational services, together with certain branches of the medical,
sanitary, and other minor services, and the printing pertaining to each,
was transferred to the Government of Madras. A lump grant from
imperial funds equal to the aggregate of the budget grants of the previous
year (less 5 per cent.), for each of the services transferred, was assigned
at the same time, on condition that no further demand should be made
on the imperial treasury for any of the transferred services; while on the
other hand, the Local Government was at liberty to apply savings or
improved incomes, under the various heads of administration, to the
needful expansion and improvement of the services thus become
Provincial. The aggregate lump grant in 1875 amounted to about
,£835,000, and until 1883 constituted, with improved local income and
other miscellaneous revenue, the Provincial treasury of the Presidency,
applicable to the services transferred to local control.
From the commencement of 1S82-83, a revised decentralization
scheme was introduced throughout India. Under this new scheme,
instead of each Local Government receiving a fixed lump sum of money to
make good any excess of provincialized expenditure over provincialized
receipts, as was the case under the previous scheme, a proportion of the
imperial revenues of each Province is now devoted to this object. Certain
heads, as few in number as possible, are wholly or with minute local
exceptions reserved as Imperial ; others are divided in proportions
for the most part equal between Imperial and Provincial; the rest are
V7?
r f t Y
• * « « V.'Wv, ^w *
f&»w,v.
r V*t AiWilA V i • • •' t1 • .• X WAV*"
r r r r
70
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
wholly or with minute local exceptions made Provincial. The balance
of transfers being against the Local Governments is rectified by a fixed
percentage of the land revenue. The agreement with the Madras Presi-
dency provides as follows : — All receipts from tributes and gain by
exchange are wholly Imperial, those from customs, salt, interest, and
railways, are, with trifling exceptions, also Imperial. The receipts from
excise, assessed taxes, stamps, and registration, are divided equally
between Imperial and Provincial; those from forests, minor departments,
law and justice, police, marine, education, medical, stationery and
printing, are wholly Provincial ; while the receipts from pensions, mis-
cellaneous, irrigation and navigation, and other public works are, with
certain exceptions, also Provincial. The division of the charges is
roughly as follows : — All charges under interest on debt, interest on
service funds and other accounts, salt, ecclesiastical, allowances and
assignments, political, civil furlough and absentee allowances, railway,
and loss by exchange, are wholly, or with slight exceptions, Imperial.
The charges under excise, assessed taxes, stamps and registration, are
divided equally between Imperial and Provincial. Those under land
revenue, forest, customs, district post-office, law and justice, marine,
education, and medical are wholly Provincial ; while the charges under
administration, minor departments, police, superannuations, miscellane-
ous and other public works, are, with small exceptions, also Provincial.
Under refunds and drawbacks, each Government bears the amount
appertaining to its share of the revenues. Under stationery and
printing, the Imperial Government bears all the charges connected
with the purchase of stationery for central stores, while the Provincial
Government defrays the cost of all stationery supplied to public
departments, with the exception of the Postal and Telegraph depart-
ments.
The charges made Provincial under the scheme above described, being
in excess of the receipts made Provincial, a further grant was made
to the Provincial Government of a share of the land revenue receipts
sufficient to counterbalance this excess in the charges. The propor-
tion which the sum so transferred bore to ^4,510,000, the normal
land revenue of Madras, was 28 8 per cent. ; and a similar percentage
of the actual land revenue of each succeeding year becomes under the
scheme the Provincial share of the revenue, the Provincial Government
benefiting under this head as it does from all other heads in which it
shares by any increase in the receipts of the year. The effect of the
last decentralization scheme has been to hand over to the Madras
Government a growing revenue, amounting in the first year to the
climated sum of ^2,184,310, to meet an expenditure in the first year
of ,£2,161,910, and provide the surplus of ^22,400, which would have
MADRAS PRESIDE NC I :
7i
accrued to Provincial under the previous scheme. The Provincial
receipts and charges of the year 1882-83 were respectively ,£2,362,500
and £2,252,500, the resulting surplus of £110,000 being £87,500 in
excess of the standard surplus.
Legislative Acts have defined the sources of revenue of the Municipal
Commissioners throughout Madras, and established Local Funds with
Boards of administration in every rural circle. Revenue and expendi-
ture under these two last heads of finance are entirely at the disposal
and under the management of local authorities, together with any
subsidy from the provincial budget for the services under the manage-
ment of the Commissioners and Boards.
The following tables exhibit the main items of civil expenditure
and revenue in 1875-76 and in 1883-84. Considerable modifications
have since talcen place in the form of accounts; and the tables
for 1875-76 are not strictly comparable with the revenue and expendi-
ture at present. They are retained, however, as they throw light upon
the system which then prevailed. The figures for 1883-84 will
be summarized in the paragraph which follows them. Attention
should also be drawn to the fact that certain important headings of
expenditure, viz. army and imperial public works, are not given in
the tables for 1875-76, which deal only with the civil and general
administration : —
Finances of the Madras Presidency for 1875-76.
Table i. (Imperial).
revenue.
Land revenue,
Tribute, etc
Forests,
Excise,
Customs,
Salt, .
Stamps,
Post-office,
Law and justice,
Superannuation receipts,
Miscellaneous, .
Total,
EXPENDITURE.
• £4,545.013
Land revenue,
• £444.814
344,643
Forests,
43,oi8
42,772
Excise,
19./04
633,901
Customs,
18,728
307,962
Salt, .
187,038
1,353,789
Stamps,
13,673
501,971
Post-office, .
76,030
97,225
Administration,
122,444
43,379
Law and justice,
36i,958
244,234
Ecclesiastical,
56,275
Medical,
31. 25S
Political agencies,
11,940
Allowances and assignn
lcnts,
245,064
Superannuation, .
153,940
Loss by exchange,
30,564
Allotments for pro\
incia
services, .
835.?n
Miscellaneous,
136,800
£8,171,164
Total, ,
£2,770,918
MA DRAS PRESIDEXC Y.
Finances of the Madras Presidency for 1S75-76 (continued).
Table 11. (Provincial).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Imperial allotment,
• ^835,571
Jails, . .
• ^105,753
Jails, .
25,652
Registration.
26,656
.Registration,
38.053
Police,
• 357,991
Police,
.
3,768
Education, .
87,539
Education, .
2,870
Medical,
55.657
ical,
3,135
Printing,
24,636
Printing,
2,672
Contributions,
I22,IC)8
Miscellaneous,
•
23,766
Public works,
107.902
• •
Miscellaneous,
Total, .
■ 57.698
Total, .
/935-4S7
. /946.O3O
Table hi
, (Local).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Provincial allot
merit,
• /122,19s
Public works,
. ^472,204
Special funds,
35,792
Education, .
42,259
Land cess and tolls,
• 376,964
Dispensaries,
I4,l8o
School fees, .
. .
2,237
Vaccination,
7.895
Endowments,
.
30,275
Sanitation, .
28,730
Public works,
.
14,696
Markets, etc.,
20,963
Miscellaneous,
• ■
32,804
. £6 1 4,966
Miscellaneous,
Total, .
30.048
Total, ,
. £6l6,279
Taele iv. (Municipal).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Madras city,
,£55,S49
Madras city,
Other Municipalities —
•
,£65,091
Other Municipalities —
Provincial and local allot-
Public works,
Z35.748
ment,
^9,083
Education,
5.519
Tax on houses and lands,
30,832
Hospitals, etc.,
19.894
Tolls and ferries, .
33.971
Conservancy,
29.512
Profession tax.
4,116
Lighting,
6,597
J ax on vehicles, .
4,412
Supervision, etc., .
10,071
Tax on animals.
4,965
Miscellaneous,
8.477
2.109
24.149
Miscellaneous,
Total,
Grand total (municipal
,0115.81s
, Total,
/"3.637
Crand total (municipal), £169, 486
,/; 180,909
The above tables show a gross revenue for the Madras Presidency, under all heads,
"f ,£9.89 1,1 03 ; and a total expenditure on civil administration of/4, 514, 136. Put
there are items on both sides which are matters <>f account, or other than actual
taxation or outlay on administration.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
73
Finances of the Madras Presidency for 1SS3-S4,
Table i. (Imperial).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Land revenue,
• £4,741.399
Land revenue,
£619,202
Tribute,
344,643
Excise,
20,318
Excise.
661,19s
Customs,
31,240
Customs,
115,860
Salt, ....
206,485
Salt, ....
1,385,513
Stamps,
15020
Stamps,
562,486
Post-office, .
504,073
Post-office, .
465,260
Civil and political — Establish
Superannuation receipts,
36,940
ment and contingencies,
152,130
Registration,
63,207
Ecclesiastical,
34,222
Telegraph, .
65,796
Superannuation, .
183,822
Public works,
21,332
Registration,
48.263
Military,
209,222
Telegraph, .
118,404
Assessed taxes,
46,627
Refunds and drawbacks,
51-578
Miscellaneous,
20,131
Military, . f
2,648,863
Marine,
1,121
(Civil, .
48,064
Public works -i Military,
59,018
(irrigation,
474,447
• •
Lo=s by exchange,
Allotments for provincial ser
236,782
vices, .
1,519,576
Assessed taxes,
680
Miscellaneous,
Total, .
38,000
£7,011,808
Deduct provincial contributioi
1
to Imperial expenditure,
Net total,
187.671
Total, .
,£8,739,614
£6,824,137
Table ii. (Provincial).
REVENUE.
Imperial allotment, . . £\
,5J9,576
Education, ....
21,257
Medical, ....
10,816
Stationery and printing,
7,2S8
Purest, ....
95,i78
Law and justice, .
58,065
Police, ....
10.465
Marine, ....
545
Scientific and other minor
departments,
14,617
Public works and irrigation, .
20, 1 70
Superannuation and pensions,
2.328
Unfettered local funds,
23,709
Miscellaneous,
7,897
Total, . . . .£x
791. 9S1
EXPENDITURE.
Prisons,
Police,
Education, .
Medical,
• £78,905
364.530
113,975
108.453
Stationery and printing,
Provincial contribution U
85.113
Imperial expenditure,
187.671
Irrigation and navigation,
33- 324
Buildings, roads, and service
, 244,263
Judicial,
382,216
Famine relief,
.
Unfettered local funds.
26,053
Forests,
Refunds and drawbacks,
79,675
6,217
Miscellaneous,
Total, .
68,753
£1.782.414
74
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Finances of the Madras Presidencv for 1883-84 {continued).
Table hi
. (Local).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Local funds —
Local funds —
Rates and cesses on land
, ^435,742
Public works,
£390,006
Education, .
6,235
Education, .
65,638
Medical,
2,120
Hospitals and dispensaries, 52,443
Public works,
50,720
Sanitation, public and
Miscellaneous,
46,123
charitable institutions
46,018
( Hher funds —
Miscellaneous,
11,901
Village service,
333,992
Other funds —
Irrigation cess,
4,245
Village service,
313,660
Canal and ferry, .
16,175
Irrigation cess,
4,124
Police lodging,
2,325
Canal and ferry, .
4,445
]>i >ok depot, .
6,102
Police lodging,
2,465
Port and other funds, .
62,331
Book depot, .
5.333
Port and other funds,
55.5oi
Refunds and drawbacks,
Total, .
i,3i7
Total, . .
. £966,110
■ £952,S5i
Table iv. (Municipal).
REVENUE.
EXPENDITURE.
Madras city,
. £126,339
Madras city, .
• £140,451
Other Municipalities —
Other Municipalities —
Tax on houses and land
5, £44,846
Public works,
£39,oSo
Tolls and ferries, .
27,537
Education, .
15,033
Tax on vehicles and ani
Hospitals and dispensaries, 19,484
mals and registratioi
L
Conservancy,
37,50o
of carts,
",523
Lighting,
5,904
Licence fees.
1,908
Vaccination, .
1,310
Profession tax,
14,058
Registration of births
Miscellaneous,
40,751
and deaths,
838
Supervision, .
n,323
Miscellaneous,
Total,
13,424
Total,
£140,623
£143,^96
Add collection of imperia
I
Licence tax paid to Govern
licence tax,
9,473
menu.,
Total, .
8,S74
Total, .
£150,096
£152,770
Grand total (municipal),
£276,435
Grand total (municipal),
£293.221
The above tables show a gross revenue in 1S83-84 for the Madras Presidency,
under all heads, of ,£10,254,564; and a total expenditure on administration of
£8,333,047. The most important items of imperial receipts are — land revenue, salt,
stamps, excise, opium, sea customs, and assessed taxes. In 18S3 S4, the average
incidence of taxation per head of population derived from each of these sources of
revenue throughout the Presidency was — land revenue, 3s. id.; salt, 9Jd.; stain; -,
4{d.; excise, 4Jd.; opium, ojd.; sea customs, o;d.; and assessed taxes, <
The Madras Army is a relic of the days when India was apportioned
out between the three historical Presidencies. At the present time it
garrisons the Nizam's Dominions, the Central Provinces, and British
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 75
Burma ; while a Madras Native infantry regiment is usually stationed
at Doranda, in the Chutia Nagpur Division of Bengal, and another
at Cuttack in Orissa. The important cantonment of Bangalore, which
lies in Mysore State, was, on the rendition of that State, maintained.
The force under the Madras Commander-in-Chief consisted in 1882-83
of 2 regiments of European cavalry, 16 batteries of European artillery,
9 regiments of European infantry, and 1 regiment of European sappers.
The Native forces consist of 1 regiment of Native sappers and miners,
4 regiments of Native cavalry, and 32 regiments of Native infantry. In
1882-83, tne strength of the European army amounted to 434 officers
and 10,876 non-commissioned officers and men — total, 11,310. The
Native army included 341 European officers attached, 556 Native com-
missioned officers, 1455 non-commissioned officers, and 26,519 men —
total of Native army, 28,871 ; grand total, 40,181 officers and men.
The death-rate among the European troops during the 14 years
ending 1883 has averaged 1*56 per cent, of the total strength. The
death-rate in 1882-83 was 1*02 per cent. In the same year, 7
lock hospitals were open in the Presidency, with 2430 patients.
Gunpowder to the amount of 149,000 lbs. was manufactured in the
Presidency arsenals during the year. The total military expenditure
charged against Madras in 1876-77 was ^2,845,793 ; and in 1882-83,
^2,693,447.
The number of pensioners on the pension-roll of the Madras army
in 1883 was 32,175; amount of pensions paid, ^235,484. Bread
is supplied departmentally to the army at Bangalore, Madras,
Sikandarabad, Rangoon, Taunghu, and Thayet-rnyo ; at which places
there are Government bakeries. Indian tea is supplied to the
army at is. oid. a lb.; quantity used in 1S82-83, 139,947 Iks.
Horses are purchased for remounts, mostly in Australia, at an average
cost of ,£54 each. An attempt has been made to rear mules for the
army, but has not succeeded. The principal cantonments are Kampti
for Nagpur, Sikandarabad for Haidarabad, Bangalore, Bellary, and
Rangoon. St. Thomas' Mount, near Madras city, is an important
station for artillery. The Amrita Mahal or breeding establishment for
commissariat cattle, with herds averaging 10,000 head, is at Hunsiir in
Mysore ; the remount depot for cavalry and artillery is at Hosiir (Usiir),
in Salem District. The two sanitariums are Ramandriig, near Bellary,
and Jakatala or Wellington on the Nilgiri Hills.
Police. — The system of watch and ward which was found to prevail
throughout Southern India when the English rule first spread over
its Provinces, was the ancient hereditary Kavili system. Under it,
the tribes most likely to prey on their neighbours were employed to
protect the property of their less thievish countrymen, and had to
make good all losses incurred. The Kavilgars levied contributions
76 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
and taxes from all property to which they extended their forbearance,
or which they guaranteed against loss. A quota of all crops grown in
the village, a rate on houses, a tax on professions (the mutarfa tax was
originally a Kavili tax), a transit duty on articles transported by the
roads, etc., formed the bulk of their demands. In the larger part of
the Presidency, the Kavili system was in the main a village watch and
ward, but in the southern Tamil Districts the system had a far more
oppressive organization. The. heads of the Kcivili races, Pdlegars,
Men-Kavilgars, and the like, assumed the leadership of the Kavili
organization, and levied exactions of all kinds from their helpless and
timid fellow-countrymen over wide areas, proving a most lawless and
oppressive class in the system.
.Measures were taken, with more or less success, in the early stages
of English administration, to relieve these men of responsibilities, and
suppress their tyranny ; their indm lands were resumed, their levy of
contributions was interdicted, but many years passed before clandestine
oppression died out. The village watch (stala-kdvil) was everywhere
retained, and constitutes the village police of the country at the
present day, under whatever local appellation known. By the
Regulation of 1S66, the village police was placed under the head of
the village, and became practically the most useful (though somewhat
dishonest) agent of the Magistrate in the police administration of the
country. Since the reorganization of the general police, the village
police has been brought into effective co-operation with that body in
the maintenance of peace and order throughout the country.
The Madras police was reorganized in 1S60. In 1875-76, it con-
sisted of a total strength of 23,404 officers and men, being 1 man to 6
square miles of area, including waste and hill tracts, and to every 1527 of
the population. In 1882-S3, it numbered 23,696 officers and men,
maintained at a total cost of ,£386,721, almost entirely defrayed from
provincial funds. The proportion of police to population and area in
1882-83 was 1 man to 1470 people, and to each 6 square miles of area.
In towns, the proportion of police was (1882), 1 man to 592 people ; and
in the rural parts, 1 man to 1609 people. The average cost of a police-
man was £16, 17s. 4UI., or nearly 3d. per head of the population.
Taking the total strength by detail, there were in 1SS2-83, 20,556
District police, 1208 police of Madras town, 672 men of the salt pre-
ventive force, 224 officers connected with land customs, and 1036 jail
guards. Of the entire police force, 69 per cent, are able to read and
write. The death-rate averages 12 per thousand. Number of warrants
executed in 1882-83 by the police, 47,233; number of criminal sum-
mons served, 477,102 ; civil summons, 330,241. A list is kept by the
police authorities of 17,436 known depredators, 4167 suspected persons,
and 23,409 members of wandering gangs.
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 77
Criminal Statistics. — In 18S2, the number of offences reported to
the police, cognizable under the Penal Code, was 102,049, while the
number of offences reported to the police, under special local laws,
was 101,868. In the former class of cases, 34,611 convictions were
obtained, and 52 per cent, of the persons tried were convicted. In the
latter class of cases, 86,653 convictions were obtained, and 87-8 per
cent, of the persons tried were convicted. The amount of property
lost in 1882 was valued at ,£123,151, and ,£26,497, or 21 per cent, of
the value, was recovered by police agency. Criminal offences against
the person (including 252 murders) numbered 41,704. Convictions
were obtained in 5S per cent, of these cases. There were 8061 cases for
breach of the salt and revenue laws.
Jails. — In 1S82, there were 2>Z Ja^s in the Presidency, including
six central jails, the European prison, the penitentiary, and the debtors'
prison at Madras. Prisoners in these jails in 1882-83 numbered
23,317, the daily average being 8877. The total prison population
of the Presidency was 25.956 (inclusive of subsidiary lock-ups), of
whom 1675 were women. The total cost in 18S2-S3 under all items
amounted to £70,090, or an average of £7, 16s. nfd. per head. The
financial result of jail manufactures in 1875, after making allowance for
the value of goods supplied to Government, showed a net profit of
£"14,065, or an average of £"i, 14s. per manufacturing prisoner. In
1882-83, the profits from jail manufactures were £"8894. The total
number of deaths in jail in 1882-83 was 397, at the rate of 407 per
thousand. There are 304 subsidiary jails or lock-ups in the Presidency,
with an average daily population in 1882 of about 1000.
Education. — During the early days of British rule, education was left
to the voluntary activity of the missionaries and the indigenous village
schoolmasters. In 1852-53, the total amount expended by Govern-
ment on this account was only ,£4556. The present system dates
from 1855, in which year the Madras University was remodelled, a
staff of local inspectors was appointed, the system of grants-in-aid was
organized, and several private institutions were brought under the
Educational Department. In 1855, the number of institutions of all
kinds in the Presidency was 13,766, and the number of pupils in
attendance 204,856. The reforms of 1871 led to the establishment
of numerous elementary schools, supported by local taxation.
In 1882-83, tne toted number of institutions and schools of all kinds
in the Presidency was 17,494, attended by 446,324 pupils. These
figures, however, are exclusive of many unaided and uninspected
indigenous institutions. According to the Census of 1881, there were
in that year 514,872 boys and 39,104 girls under instruction in the
Presidency; besides 1,515,061 males and 94,013 females able to read
and write, but not under instruction.
7« MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
The Departmental institutions of the Madras Presidency in 1882
included 29 arts colleges (number of pupils, 21 12); 3 professional
colleges (number of pupils, 217); 94 high schools for boys (English)
(number of pupils, 6045) ; 720 middle schools for boys (number of pupils,
21,203) J J6 high schools for girls (number of pupils, 76) ; 107 middle
schools for girls (number of pupils, 900); 1558 English teaching primary
schools for boys (71,254 pupils) ; 14,284 vernacular primary schools for
boys (3 1 6,075 pupils) ; 1 1 1 English teaching primary schools for girls (5078
pupils); 522 vernacular primary schools for girls (21,592 pupils); 36
normal schools for masters (978 pupils) ; 4 normal schools for mistresses
(197 pupils) ; and 10 professional and technical schools, with 597
pupils. The school fee revenue under the Department has risen 50
per cent, in the decade since 1872, and in 1882 was ^16,229. The
school fee income of all public and private institutions was ^104,361
in 1882, against ,£61,110 in 1872.
During the ten years ending 1882-83, a total of 28,575 candidates
attempted the entrance examination of the Madras University, of whom
9715 passed ; 2153 passed the first arts examination, 896 graduated
B.A., and 22 M.A. with honours, 104 passed in law, 90 in medicine,
and 18 in civil engineering. The returns received for the first edition
of this work showed that out of 1250 students who matriculated in
1876-77, 744 were Brahmans, 329 Hindus of other castes, 19 Muham-
madans, 85 native Christians, 41 Eurasians, and 32 Europeans. In
1882, 7 candidates applied for the degree of M.A., and 2 passed the
tests. For the B.A. degree, 221 candidates were examined, and 120
passed. For the first arts examination there were 783 candidates, of
whom 279 passed. Eight out of 68 candidates passed in law; 4 in
medicine. The number of candidates registered for entrance in 1882
was 4686 ; and of these 1634 matriculated.
The number of female scholars in 1882-83 was returned at 43.671.
Primary instruction is in the main entrusted by Government, under
strict inspection, but very moderate subsidy, to the management of
Local Fund and Municipal Boards and private enterprise. All expan-
sion must be looked for from these authorities. The educational wants
of the Europeans and Eurasians of the Presidency are fairly provided
for. In 1882-83, 3381 boys and 2755 girls of these classes were under
instruction, total 6136, nearly equal to the school-going population of
the ordinary school age.
The expenditure of Government on education in the Madras Presi-
dency is devoted to direction and inspection, and the encouragement
of higher and middle education. The system has been eminently
successful. It has been calculated that about one and a quarter million
sterling had been expended by Government on higher education within
the Presidency between 1853 and 1883. No equal amount ever spent
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 79
in India has produced higher and more lasting results. A very great
deal, however, yet remains to be done. The most recent figures avail-
able, those of 1882-83, show the number of departmental schools at
17,500, and the number of all sorts of schools taken together as pro-
bably not exceeding 20,000. The population of the Presidency is over
31,000,000; so that at present there exists only one school on the
average for every 3100 people and every 8 square miles of area.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Madras varies in the different parts
of the Presidency, being determined by the very diverse geographical
conditions. The Nilgiri Hills enjoy the climate of the temperate zone,
with a moderate rainfall, and a thermometer rarely exceeding 8o° R,
and sometimes falling to freezing-point. In 1881, the mean annual
temperature in the shade at the sanitarium of Wellington was 60*9° F.
On the tropical Malabar coast, the south-west monsoon brings an exces-
sive rainfall, reaching 150 inches in the year at places. The rain-clouds
hanging on the slope of the Western Ghats sometimes obscure the sun
for several months. Along the eastern coast and on the central
table-lands, the rainfall is comparatively low, but the heat of the
summer months is excessive. At Masulipatam, the thermometer fre-
quently rises to above no" F. in the shade, and to 170° in the sun.
In 1882-83, the readings of heat maxima in the shade over the
Presidency varied from 1120 at Masulipatam to 8o° at Wellington.
The rainfall in the same year varied from 20 inches at Bellary to 154
at Mangalore, 165 at Cochin, and 203 at Merkara, the capital of
Coorg. Observations extending over a period of sixty-nine years give
an average of 487 inches of rain in the year at Madras city; but this
is considerably above the mean of the east coast generally. At Bellary
the average annual rainfall does not exceed 18 inches, of which 14
inches are brought by the south-west monsoon across the Ghats. The
12 stations of the Madras Meteorological Department are at Bangalore,
Bellary, Cochin, Coimbatore, Karnul, Madura, Masulipatam, Negapatam,
Salem, Sikandarabad, Trichinopoli, and Wellington. The whole
coast of the Bay of Bengal is liable to disastrous cyclones, which
not only wreck the shipping in the roads, but have repeatedly over-
whelmed the low-lying ports.
The most prevalent diseases are fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery and other
bowel complaints, cholera, and small-pox. It is invariably found that
the cold season is most fatal to natives. As a rule, mortality begins to
decline with the setting in of the hot, dry season, rises again with the
moisture of the south-west monsoon, and reaches its maximum in the
cold-weather months of November, December, and January. Registra-
tion of births and deaths has been in force throughout the Presidency
since 1S66. The famine caused a great repression of the normal
fecundity of the people, but there is reason to suppose that the effects
So MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
of the famine in this respect have now ceased. The returns cannot be
accepted as trustworthy, especially as regards births; but they show
s of improvement. In 1876, the total number of births registered was
325,531 males and 306,582 females— total, 632,113, or at the rate of
21*6 per thousand. In 1882, the total number of births registered was
751,104, or at the rate of 26-0 per thousand. The number of deaths
registered in 1875 (when the pressure of famine began) was 641,260;
and in 1S82, 470,700. The general death-ratio in 1882, as nominally
registered, was 16-2 per thousand. In towns, where registration is less
imperfect, the birth-rate was 33T per thousand. Of the total number
of deaths in 1882, 188,561 were assigned to fevers, 23.604 to cholera,
19,958 to bowel complaints, 20,159 to small-pox, 1487 to suicide, and
2373 to snake-bite, leaving 214,55s for all other causes. No deaths
from cholera or snake-bite were returned in 1882 as having occurred
among the European and Eurasian population, who numbered in all
32,734.
In 1SS2-83, the civil hospitals and dispensaries numbered 275,
affording relief to 1,538,576 patients. Among the in-patients, the
death-rate was 71-6 per thousand. The total income was ^81,106,
to which Native donations contributed ^1782. There were 3 lunatic
asylums — at Madras city, Vizagapatam, and Calicut — with a total of
617 inmates in 1882-S3, of whom 116 were criminal lunatics. The
death-rate in the same year was 10 per cent. The total expenditure
was ^759i-
Vaccination is now carried out as a branch of the sanitary depart-
ment. In 1882, the total number of vaccinations was 649,485,
of which 601,918, or 92-6 per cent., were successful. The greater
portion of the sanitary expenditure is provided from local and muni-
cipal funds, from which source almost all the hospitals and dispensaries
beyond the precincts of the city of Madras are provided and main-
tained, and their numbers yearly added to. The health of the British
and Native troops is well cared for, and is satisfactory. The death-
rate among the British troops averages 1 per cent. ; the death-rate of
the Native troops, i*i per cent.
The Botany and Zoology of Madras. — The wild and domestic animals
of the Madras Presidency have been briefly described from their
administrative aspects in an earlier section of this article ; and some
account has been given of the principal crops and agricultural products.
The following paragraphs are intended to furnish a more comprehensive
view of the Flora and Fauna of Southern India, and to take the place
of local descriptions in the District articles. They are reproduced from
official papers, prepared for the Madras Government, by Deputy
•n-Gcneral Bidie, copies of which have been kindly forwarded for
the use of this work.
MADRAS PRESIDE XC '1 '. 8 1
The earliest treatise on the Flora of Southern India is the ' Hortus
Malabaricus' of Van Rheede, a Dutch Governor of Malabar. That
work gives the vernacular names, descriptions, and excellent figure-.
of 794 plants, and was published at Amsterdam from 1686 to 1703
in 12 folio volumes. The culture of scientific, botany in the south,
however, began with Koenig, a Danish physician and pupil of
Linnaeus, who resided at Tranquebar in the latter end of the 18th
century. Stimulated by his example, a number of others began to
cultivate the science, amongst whom may be mentioned Buchanan-
Hamilton, Heyne, Rottler, and Roxburgh. The last-named was the
first to describe accurately and arrange in a systematic work the
vegetable riches of the peninsula. His ' Coromandel Plants,' a splendid
work, published by the Honourable East India Company from 1795
to 181 9, consists of three folio volumes, containing 300 coloured
plates. His ' Flora Indica,' which was left in manuscript at his death
in 1815, was subsequently published in 1832, and for terseness and
accuracy of description has never been surpassed. But the most
voluminous and distinguished author on the botany of this part of India
was Dr. Wight. The ' Prodromus Florae Peninsulas Indine Orientalis '
by Wight and Arnott, containing descriptions of nearly 1400 species,
appeared in 1834. This was followed by 'Illustrations of Indian
Botany,' which contain 182 coloured plates, with a great amount of
information on the natural orders, and were published in 2 quarto
volumes from 1838 to 1850. This. again was succeeded by the ' Icones
Plantarum Indise Orientalis,' which extend to 6 quarto volumes, and
give figures and descriptions of 2101 plants. He also produced the
'Spicilegium Neilgherrense,' containing coloured illustrations of the
more striking Nilgiri plants, and much valuable information regarding
the flora of that mountain range. Besides these, he published several
minor works and numbers of botanical papers in various periodicals.
Subsequent to Wight, the chief contributors to the literature of South
Indian Botany have been Sir Walter Elliot, Dr. Cleghorn, and Colonels
Drury and Beddome. In 1859, Sir Walter Elliot published his 'Flora
Andhrica,' a list with the botanical and vernacular names of the
plants growing in the Northern Circars. Dr. Cleghorn's chief work is
the ' Forests and Gardens of Southern India.' Colonel Drury compiled
a ' Handbook of the Indian Flora,' in 3 volumes Svo, and the ' Useful
Plants of India.' Beddome's works consist of the ' Flora Sylvatica.'
2 volumes 4to ; 'Ferns of Southern India,' 1 volume 4to ; ' Ferns of
British India,' 1 volume 4to ; and ' Icones Plantarum,' 1 volume 4to.
The labours of these distinguished pioneers having paved the way
towards a complete knowledge of peninsular plants, the ' Flora of
British India,' edited by Sir J. D. Hooker, now in course of publication,
gives a lucid summary of all existing knowledge, establishes the genera
VOL. IX. F
S2 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
and species on a sound and philosophical basis, unravels the hitherto
perplexing synonymy, and affords an admirable compact guide for the
working botanist.
Climate of Southern India as affecting Vegetation. — The conditions
which chiefly affect vegetation are temperature and moisture, the latter
being the more active agent as regards the distribution of plants.
Practically, the limits of the Madras Presidency may be said to lie
between S° and 200 north latitude, so that it is entirely within the
tropical zone. The normal mean temperature at the equator is under
8o° F.,and scarcely diminishes up to the 10th degree of north latitude;
but from io° to 200 there is a reduction of about 2Y F. From
March till the end of September, or during the summer months, the
southern portion of the peninsula is very hot ; and from October till
February, the winter months, it is comparatively cool. Two periodical
winds, viz. the south-west and north-east monsoons, chiefly influence
the rainfall. The south-west monsoon begins on the Malabar or
western coast about May, and ends about the autumnal equinox, and
being a sea wind, is very rainy. The north-east monsoon chiefly affects
the Coromandel coast, and sets in in October, but does not bring
much moisture, and the rain stops long before the end of the monsoon.
The hot season in Southern India has much the same effect on
vegetation as winter has in a temperate climate. Herbaceous plants
wither and disappear, trees and shrubs drop their leaves, and in many
cases the young foliage remains in the bud till quickened by rain.
When the rain does come, the effect is almost magical. In less than
24 hours the scorched brown plain is carpeted with green, and the bare
trees are quickly mantled with the young leaves, which sometimes, as
in the tamarind, are of a golden green, and in the morning light glorious
beyond description. At the same time animal life is stirred into activity.
Sportive insects hover over newly-opened flowers ; swarms of frogs
render night hideous by their incessant croaking, and every ditch and
pool teems with fish.
For the purposes of botanical description, the area of the peninsula
under the Government of Madras may be divided into a Dry, a Moist,
and a Very Moist Region. The dry region, with a rainfall under 30
inches, embraces some of the inland and coast taluks of Kistna District,
the northern portion of Xellore, a large section of Karmil, nearly
the whole of Cuddapah, all IJellary and Anantapur, parts of Salem
and Trichinopoli, most of Coimbatore, and the eastern portions of
Madura and Tinnevelli. In the Districts included in this region, rain
falls in both monsoons in occasional showers. The moist region, with
a rainfall of over 30 inches, embraces, except in a dry tract between
Bapatla and Ramapatam, the whole eastern coast from Ganjam in the
north to near the southern extremity of Madura, as well as inland
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. S3
Districts. It includes the whole of the Northern Circars, portions
of Kistna District, Cuddapah and Karm.il, most of Nellore, Chengalpat,
Xorth and South Arcot, Tanjore and parts of Salem, the eastern slopes
of the Nilgiris, Trichinopoli, and Madura. In the northern portions
of this region, the summer monsoon rains are moderate, the maximum
fall being in October. In the southern Districts, the summer monsoon
rains are light, the maximum being also in October inland, and during
November on the coast. The very moist region embraces the whole
of the western coast from South Kanara to near Cape Comorin, as
well as the western slopes of the Ghats. The rainfall below the Ghats
varies from no to 130 inches, and on the range from 150 to 200 or
more, and the rain falls from May to October, or during the south-west
monsoon.
General Character of the Flora. — India may be regarded as a huge
botanical garden, for it contains representatives of a very large number
of genera which more properly belong to other parts of the world. Its
flora is also remarkable for its affinities with the plants of surrounding
countries, and for the absence of marked special features. Within the
limits of the Madras Presidency there is, however, a great difference
between the vegetation of the dry zone and the very moist region. The
flora of the hill ranges differs from both. In the dry region, and through-
out much of the moist region, the wooded area consists to a large extent
of ' scrub jungle,' and the herbaceous flora is largely made up of plants
belonging to the orders Capparideae, Malvaceae, Tiliaceae, Leguminosa?,
Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Ficoideae, Amaranthacese, Composite,
Cucurbitaceae, Labiatae, Convolvulaceaa, Acanthaceae, Commelynaceae,
Gramineae, and Cyperaceae.
The very moist region of the west coast is characterized by lofty
forest, containing teak and other useful timbers and various palms. In
the shade of the forest, cardamoms, pepper, and moisture-loving ferns
flourish ; and Melastomads, etc., which are only seen at considerable
elevations on the eastern side of the Ghats, grow at sea-level. Along
the coast also, mangrove, Cycads, and Gnetum are common.
Dry Region. — As already indicated, the dry zone mainly occupies the
centre of the Presidency, extending southwards from Bellary through
Mysore and Coimbatore to Cape Comorin. Throughout the whole of
it the scanty rainfall is very precarious, and during the hot season
herbaceous vegetation is burned up, many trees are leafless, and the
aspect of the country is dreary in the extreme. The silence of the
sparse jungle is only broken by the discordant noise of the cicala, the
titk-tuk of the barbet (Xanthelasma indica), the screech of the kite, or
the melancholy whistle of the drongo-shrike. The characteristic shrubs
of the Districts comprehended in this section are the Carissa Carandas,
Calotropis gigantea, Opuntia Dillenii, Dichrostachys cinerea, Cassia
84 MADRAS PRESIDEXC \ '.
auriculata, Bauhinia racemosa, Celastrus paniculatus, Gymnosporia
montana, Euphorbia antiquorum, E. neriifolia, E. tirucalli, Azima tetra-
cantha, Capparis Roxburghii, C. horrida, Niebuhria linearis, Ixora
parviflora, Randia dumetorum, Vitex Negundo, Grewia (species), Rhus
mysorensis, Securinega Leucopyrus, Jatropha glauca.
The chief timber-trees of the dry region are Balanites Roxburghii,
Zizyphus Jujuba,Wrightea tinctoria, Acacia arabica, A. latronum, A. plani-
frons, A. leucophloea, A. Catechu, A. eburnea, Cassia Fistula, Pterocarpus
santalinus in certain tracts, Albizzia amara, A. Lebbek, Tamarindus indica,
Pongamia glabra, Morinda citrifolia, and Santalum album. A palm
(Phoenix sylvestris) is very common in the northern and central parts of
the dry region.
Teak is also found on some of the rocky hills, but it does not
attain the dimensions, or the quality as regards timber, of teak trees
growing in moister Districts. The other trees found on the low hills of
the northern parts of the dry zone are Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia
tomentosa, T. belerica, Diospyros melanoxylon, D. montana, Dolichan-
drone falcata, Erythroxylon monogynum, Buchanania latifolia, Phyllan-
thus Emblica, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Wendlandia tinctoria, Boswellia
serrata, Lagerstroemia parviflora, ErioLxna Hookeriana, Pterocarpus
Marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia, Careya arborea, Kydia calycina, Hard-
wickia binata, Elseodendron glaucum, Eugenia Jambolana, Schleichera
trijuga, Soymida febrifuga, Chickrassia tabularis, Stephegyne parvifolia,
Mimusops Elengi, Putranjiva Roxburghii, Ulmus integrifolia, and
Dendrocalamus strictus. Under the trees at the higher elevations of
hills in the north of the dry zone, there is a dense undergrowth of
Strobilanthes.
In the southern Districts of the dry zone there is much scrub jungle,
which consists largely of various species of Acacia, Dichrostachys cineria,
Canthium parviflorum, Randia dumetorum, Erythroxylon monogynum,
Albizzia amara, A. Lebhek, Melia Azadirachta, Alangium Lamarckii,
Atalantia monophylla, Bassia latifolia, B. longifolia, Cordia Rothii,
Cratxva religiosa, Pongamia glabra, and Ailanthus excelsa.
On the slopes of the hills up to a height of 3000 feet, there are exten-
sive tracts of jungle of the male bamboo (Dedrocalanms strictus), and at
higher elevations of Bambusa arundinacea. On the lower parts of the
hills the characteristic, trees are Boswellia serrata, Sterculia urens, S.
villosa, Dalbergia paniculata, Anogeissus latifolia, Chickrassia tabularis,
Chloroxylon Swietenia, Terminalia tomentosa, T. paniculata, T. Chebula,
Hardwickia binata, Acacia Catechu, Albizzia amara, Premna tomentosa,
Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Grewia, Lebedieropsis
orbicularis, Strychnos potatorum, Santalum album, Stryrhnos Nux-
lica, Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, Zizyphus glabrata, Sapindus emarginatus,
Stephegyne parvifolia, Wrightea tinctoria, Albizzia odoratissima, Proso-
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 85
pis spicigera, and Eugenia Jambolana. At higher elevations there are
evergreen forests containing Tetranthera laurifolia, Litseea zeylanica,
Cedrela Toona, Michelia Champaca, Mimusops Elengi, and the
handsome palm Caryota urens. Coffee and tea are also cultivated on
the higher parts of some of the hill ranges.
Moist Region. — The herbaceous plants and shrubs common in this
region are very much the same as those of the dry zone, but in addition
to the shrubs mentioned as pertaining to the latter, the following may
be enumerated, viz. Hugonia mystax, Ochna squarrosa, Memeclyon
(species), Ehretia (species), various Asclepiads, Webera asiatica, Scutia
indica, Toddalia aculeata, Dodoncea viscosa, Celastrus senegalensis,
Eugenia bracteata, Diospyros chloroxylon, Bauhinia racemosa, Acacia
Farnesiana, Gmelina Asiatica, Jasminum (species), Capparis horrida, C.
divaricata, Wendlandia Notoniana, Gardenia (species), Ventilago Mader-
aspatana, Salvadora persica, Zizyphus xylopyra, Z. GSnoplia, Hiptage
Madablota, Celastrus (species), Hemicyclia sepiaria, Glycosmis penta-
phylla, Helicteres Isora, Phcenix farinifera, etc.
Great changes have been made in some places along the coast by
planting dry tracts of drifting sand with Casuarina, which grows very
fast and is valuable for firewood. Not only do these plantations
improve the aspect of the country by clothing the arid sands with
luxuriant forest, but they also seem to have a beneficial effect on the
neighbouring climate and cultivation. The most important sand-
binding plants on the coast are, in the order of their value, Spinifex
squarrosus, Ipomaea pes-caprae, Eauna;a pinnatifida, Tridax procumbens,
Pupalia orbiculata, Canavalia obtusifolia, and a recently introduced
Australian plant, Flaveria Australasica.
It is not very easy to draw any sharp line of demarcation between the
forest trees of the dry and moist regions, and in most Districts the two
floras run into each other. In the north, the most characteristic tree is
sal (Shorea robusta), which does not extend south of the Godavari.
Other notable trees in the north are Xylia dolabriformis, Heterophragma
Roxburghii, Cordia Macleodii, Polyalthia cerasoides, Pithecolobium
umbellatum, Albizzia Julibrissin, Oroxylum indicum, Balanites Rox-
burghii, Gmelina arborea, Antidesma Ghresembilla, Ougeinia dalbergi-
oides, Grewia excelsa, Lebidieropsis orbicularis, Protium caudatum,
Chloroxylon Swietenia, Erythrina suberosa, Schleichera trijuga, Sacco-
petalum tomentosum, Soymida febrifuga, Chickrassia tabularis, Putran-
jiva Roxburghii.
Farther south in Madras we have instead of the sal, Shorea Turn-
buggaia and S. Talura, and Acacia Sundra, Vitex pubescens, Hemigyrosa
canescens, Albizzia Lebbek, Ailanthus (species), Terminalia Chebula, T.
tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Eugenia Jambolana, E. alternifolia,
Cochlospermum Gossypium, Odina Wodier, Diospyros melanoxylon, D.
86 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
chloroxylon, Cassia Fistula, Hardwickia binata, Dalbergia paniculata,
Erythrina {species), Bauhinia {species). Acacia latronum, Adina cordifolia,
Stephegyne parvifolia, Strychnos potatorum, S. Nux-vomica, Sapindus
emarginatus, Buchanania angustifolia, Melia Azadirachta, ./Egle Marme-
los, Thespesia populnea, Sterculia (species), Heritiera littoralis, Avicennia
officinalis, Maba buxifolia, Mimusops indica, Givotia rottleriformis,
Pterospermum suberifolium, Pterocarpus Marsupium, species of Ficus ;
and the palms Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabelliformis, and Areca Catechu
are largely cultivated. Here and there throughout this tract there
are low hills on which the characteristic trees are Eriolrena, species of
Sterculia, Bombax, Boswellia serrata, Buchanania latifolia, Butea
frondosa, Dalbergia (species), Careya arborea, Albizzia (species), Lager-
strcemia (species), Anogeissus latifolia, Tectona grandis, Gmelina arborea,
Terminalia (species), Phyllanthus Emblica, Mallotus philippinensis, Ulmus
integrifolia, Sponia orientalis, Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus
strictus, and Caryota urens.
At elevations over 6000 feet the flora of the Madras Presidency
becomes changed, and shows various affinities with the vegetation of
temperate regions of the world. Amongst the herbaceous plants, we find
Anemone, Ranunculus, Viola, Potentilla, Spergula arvensis, Anagallis
arvensis, Pimpinella, Gentiana, Pedicularis, Plantago major, Lilium,
Rumex, Pteris aquilina, Osmunda regalis, and Gleichenia dichotoma.
Balsams are especially represented and luxuriant, and ferns and certain
orchids are common. Two species of fern. viz. Lastrea scabrosa and
L. ferruginea, are peculiar to Southern India. Of the shrubs, the most
characteristic are Berberis, Rubus, Rosa, Cotoneaster, Gualtherin,
Ligustrum, and Lobelia excelsa. Species of Strobilanthes, too, are
exceedingly common. The most typical trees are Michelia,
Gardenia, Ilex, Meliosma, Photinia, Eugenia, Viburnum, Vaccinium,
Rhododendron, Symplocos, Salix, Cinnamomum, Tetranthera, Litsaea,
and Glochidion. In the shade of the forest, the shrubs consist mostly
of Strobilanthes, Rubiaceous shrubs, Sarcococca saligna, etc.
On the slopes of the hills, coffee and tea are largely cultivated ;
and on the plateau of the Nilgiris there are extensive Cinchona planta-
tions, consisting chiefly of crown and red barks. The culture of the
latter species is also carried on in Wainad, and to some extent in Coorg.
Apples, peaches, pears, and strawberries thrive fairly on the eastern
side of the Nilgiris, and walnuts fruit very well at Utakamand
(Ootacamund). The Australian Acacias and numerous species of
Eucalyptus have been introduced, and grow vigorously. Species of
Cupressus, Araucaria, Cryptomeria, Frcnela, and Pinus brought from
the Himalayas, Japan, etc., are also thriving.
Very Moist Region. — This embraces the entire Malabar coast, which
sists of a narrow hilly strip of land between the Western Ghats and
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 87
the sea, and of the western slopes of the Ghats. Owing to the perennial
humidity of the climate, the flora is very luxuriant. The cocoa-nut and
areca palms are largely cultivated, and Caryota urens and Corypha
umbraculifera are common. The other palms in this region are Arenga
Wightii and Bentinckia condapanna. The flora generally is very
similar in its characters to that of Ceylon, and many species are identical
The pepper vine and jack tree are largely cultivated, and so are
plantains. A conifer (Podocarpus latifolia) grows on the hills, and one
of the most conspicuous trees is Vateria indica, with its beautiful bright
green foliage and large panicles of white flowers. Other characteristic
plants are Garcinia Morella, G. Cambogia, G. indica, Alstonia scholaris,
Cerbera odollam, Pandanus, Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera, Diospyros
Embryopteris, Canarium strictum, Ailanthus malabarica, Oroxylum
indicum, Macaranga, Connarus monocarpus, Gnetum {species), Cycas
(species), Mussaenda frondosa, Litsaea zeylanica, shrubby Solanaceae, a
number of species of Eugenia, Ixora coccinea, Scasvola, Vitis lanata,
Calophyllum Wightianum, C. tomentosum, Ultriculariae, Osbeckia and
other Melastomaceae, Sphenoclea, and Acanthaceae.
The maritime slopes of the Ghats running down the western coast
are covered with dense forest, some of the trees towering to a
height of 200 feet. The typical trees here are Calophyllum, Mesua,
Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Vateria, Chickrassia, Canarium, Gomphandra,
Euonymus, Harpullia, Ormosia, Acrocarpus (Red-cedar), Saprosma,
Bassia, Myristica, Alseodaphne, Sarcoclinium, Ostodes, Artocarpus,
Laportea, and Gironniera. The undergrowth consists largely of
numerous species of Strobilanthes, and shrubs belonging to Rubiacere
and Euphorbiaceae. There are three reed bamboos, viz. Beesha,
Oxytenanthera, and Teinostachyum. The tree fern Alsophila latebrosa
is common, and the rarer A. crinita is also found. Epiphytic ferns,
mosses, balsams, and orchids cover the trunks and limbs of many of
the trees. Some of the orchids are of great beauty, and the genera
most largely represented are Oberonia, Dendrobium, Eria, Caelogyne,
Eulophia, Saccolabium, /Krides, and Habenaria. Cardamoms, Zingiber,
Hedychium, Alpinia, and other members of the same family flourish in
great perfection. The forests on these western slopes are evergreen,
and viewed from a height the great variety in the colour of the foliage
gives them quite a character and renders them remarkably beautiful.
Food Grains and Pulses. — The chief cereal in some parts of the
dry region is ragi (Eleusine corocana), but rice is also cultivated wherever
a sufficient water-supply is available. The pulses raised in this zone
are gram, Dolichos biflorus, and a pea, thovaray (Cajanus indicus). In
the northern parts of the moist region, cholam (Sorghum vulgare) is the
chief dry grain crop. Throughout the whole of this zone, however, the
staple food is rice, and a great number of varieties of it are cultivated.
88 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Various millets, species of Panicum, are also produced in small quantities.
The two pulses already mentioned are also cultivated here, and Bengal
gram (Cicer arietinum) and green gram (Phaseolus Mungo). Other
species of Phaseolus and Dolichos are also common. In the very moist
region the chief cultivated food-grain is rice, and some of the pulses
already mentioned.
Fauna of Southern India. — The peninsula of Southern India forms
part of the zoological region known as the 'Oriental' or 'Indian.'
The fauna of this region, more especially that of the purely Indian
section of it, has numerous afjinities with that of the Ethiopian or
African region, but both have well-marked distinctive peculiarities.
Amongst the mammals of Southern India, the only ones that can be
regarded as cosmopolitan are rats and mice, and some bats of the
family Vespertil ion idee. As might be expected, the number of birds
occurring in Southern India, which are more or less common to all
parts of the world, are more numerous. Some of these are hawks,
owls, crows, swallows, pigeons, grouse, partridge, snipe, plover, king-
fishers, herons, and rails.
Mammals. — The only handbook on the mammals of India is that
of Dr. Jerdon, and its nomenclature will accordingly be followed in the
following remarks : —
The mammalian fauna of Southern India is characterized by the
possession of a peculiar lemur, the little Loris. The other genera
found in Madras and characteristic of the oriental region are Presbytis
and Jlaeaeus, species of monkeys ; Viverricula, a civet cat ; Para-
doxurus, the toddy or tree cat ; Cyon, the wild dog ; Platacanthomys, a
spiny-mouse; Cervu/us, a muntjac ; Por/ax, the nilgai; letraceros, the
four-horned antelope; Antilope, the true Indian antelope; and a species
of E/ephas, the Indian elephant.
Quadra /nana. — South India is rich in quadrumana. It possesses
three species of Langut\ viz. the Madras, the Malabar, and the Nilgiri.
The most widely -distributed and best -known monkey is Macacus
radiatus, the species commonly led about for exhibition, on account of
its tricks and agility. The curious little loris gracilis is very common
in the eastern forests of the peninsula.
Cheiroptera. — The family of bats is represented by various genera,
and the best-known species is Ptcropus medius, the flying-fox.
InsecHwra. — A very common shrew is that improperly termed the
musk-rat, viz. Sorex aeruieseens, which is often found in houses, and
is useful, as it destroys cockroaches and other insects. A small hedge-
hog, Erinaeeus uiienpus, is rather common in some of the western
Districts; and a species of Tupaia, a Malayan genus, exists in the
Eastern Ohats.
Camivora, — One of the most common animals of this group is the
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 89
bear, Ursus labia t us ; and although it feeds chiefly on insects and
seeds, yet, when enraged, it is one of the most dangerous of all the
denizens of the jungle to human life. A somewhat uncommon animal
is the Indian badger, Mellivora indica ; but Otters and a Marten abound
in certain parts of the country. The most notable beasts of prey are
the tiger, the leopard, and cheetah. It seems probable also that the
lion at one time existed, as figures of it are common on Buddhist
sculptures executed about the dawn of the Christian era. The tiger,
Felis tigris, abounds throughout the whole of the peninsula, but is being
gradually pushed back by the extension of cultivation. Where game
abounds, the tiger does not usually destroy cattle ; and it is only in
exceptional cases that it becomes a man-eater and the terror of a
District. The average length of a tiger, from the nose to the tip of the
tail, is from 9 to gh feet; but some, are longer. The leopard, Felis
pardus, is more common than the tiger, and chiefly preys on game, wild
pig, and monkeys. It is not very destructive to human life, and its
victims are mostly old women and children. Its impudence is
unbounded, as it often enters villages and even houses and tents, to
carry off dogs or goats. A curious variety of the species is the black
leopard, — a beautiful but vicious beast. A distinct species, much less
common, is the cheetah or hunting leopard, Felis jubata. Several other
cats also exist, such as the leopard cat, the large tiger cat, the lesser leopard
cat, rusty spotted cat, and the common jungle cat. The Civets are
represented by the ubiquitous lesser civet cat, the Malabar civet cat, the
toddy cat, and the Ceylon brown Paradoxurus (from Kotagiri) ; and
the Ichneumons by the common mungoose and several hill species. Out
of seven species of Mungoose in India, five are peculiar to Madras.
The genus Paradoxurus is characteristically Asiatic, but Herpestes is
common to India and Africa. The other more notable carnivora are
the hyaena, Hycena striata ; and the members of the dog tribe, viz.
Cyon rut Hans, the wild dog; Canis pallipes, the Indian wolf; Cants
aureus, the universal jackal ; and Vulpes bengalensis, the Indian fox.
Rodentia. — The animals belonging to this order in Southern India are
squirrels, rats, hares, and porcupines. Sciuridce. The best known of
these is the common squirrel, Sciurus palmarum. The largest is the
Malabar squirrel, Sciurus malabaricus. One of the most remarkable of
the group is the flying-squirrel, Pteromys petaurista ; it lives in dense
forests, and by means of the parachute-like expansions of skin between
its fore and hind legs, is able to take prodigious leaps from tree to tree.
There is also another flying-squirrel, Sciuropierus, in Travancore. One
of the prettiest of the Muridcc is the jerboa-rat, Gerbillus indiais, which
lives on uncultivated sandy plains, and sits up on its hind legs like a
kangaroo. The largest of the group is the pig-like, vagabond bandicoot,
Mas bandicota. It swarms in towns and villages, and seems to take a
9o MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
special delight in wanton mischief. The European black and brown rats
are also common. The other more remarkable species are the mole rat
and the tree rats. Species of Golunda, Platacanthomys, and Leggada
are found in Madras ; and Platacanthomys, which has spines on its
back, is the only known species of its genus.
The largest of the rodents is the porcupine, Hystrix leucura, which
inhabits hilly districts, and is a great enemy to some cultivated plants,
such as the potato. There is one hare, the common Lepus nigricollis.
Edentata. — This order is represented by one species, Mam's penta-
dactyla, the Indian scaly ant-cater. It is widely diffused, living amongst
low rocky hills, but is not common. Owing to its powerful claws,
which it uses in scraping and tunnelling, it is very difficult to keep in
confinement. It is also difficult to feed, as it is nocturnal in its
habits, and will only eat ants.
The Proboscidea are represented by the elephant, Elephas indicus,
which inhabits the mountain forests of Coorg, Malabar, and Travan-
core. It differs from the African elephant in having relatively smaller
(.-.irs, 19 instead of 21 pairs of ribs, and 2>Z ta^ bones instead of 26.
The transverse spaces of the molar teeth are in the form of narrow
bands with nearly parallel finely-folded edges ; while in the African
elephant, the same spaces are broad and lozenge-shaped, and fewer in
number. The elephant is gregarious and very destructive to crops
and plantations. As a rule, it is timorous and avoids men ; but at
times, a single male becomes a ' rogue,' and attacks every living thing
that comes in its way. A few years ago, this noble animal was likely
to be exterminated by shooting and capture in pits ; but, under
existing protective rules, it is again multiplying, but can never do so
to an inconvenient degree, as plantations of various kinds have greatly
reduced the extent of the primeval forests, in which the elephant used
to breed and roam unmolested.
The Ungulata are represented in Southern India by the jungle-pig
or wild boar, Sus indicus, which is common on the plains and
also on hills at all elevations ; and by numerous ruminants — deer,
antelopes, wild goats, and wild cattle. The true deer with solid
deciduous horns found in the peninsula are the sdmbJiar, Rasa
aristotelis ; the spotted deer, Axis maculatus ; and the barking deer,
Cervulus aureus. The sdmb/iar is a magnificent animal, and its
pursuit is a favourite sport wherever it is found. It abounds both
on the plains and the hills, but has been gradually driven away
from some of its old haunts by shooting and extended cultivation.
The most remarkable, perhaps, of the deer family of Southern
India is the mouse-deer, Memimna indica, which is generally under
a foot in height and but 5 or 6 lbs. in weight. It lives in hill forests
up to 2000 feet, and is mostly found in rocky places. It belongs to
MADRAS PRESIDE NC Y. 91
the musk-deer group, and like the musk-deer has no horns, but the
male is furnished with canines.
The antelopes, together with the goats and cattle, belong to the
family Cavicornta, the members of which have permanent horns, con-
sisting of a bony core and a horny sheath. The antelope sub-family
embraces some of the most graceful of animals ; and two Indian
species, the nilgai and four-horned antelope, differ from any of the
African forms. The members of the group found in Southern India
are the large nilgai, Portax pictus ; the Indian antelope, Antilope
cervicapra ; and the four-horned antelope, Tetraceros quadricornis. No
capricorns or mountain antelopes extend to the peninsula ; but we have
the handsome Hemitragus hylocrius, the Nflgiri wild goat or ' ibex ' of
sportsmen.
Of wild cattle we have but one species, Gavccus gaurus, the gam-
ox ' bison ' of sportsmen. It abounds in the dense forests of the
Western Ghats, the Palm's and Anamalais, and is also found in Coorg,
Wainad, the Shevaroys, the hills about Vellore, the Baba Budan hills,
and north of the Kistna along the Eastern Ghats to Cuttack. The
bull is larger than the cow, and has a hump. The gaur is gregarious
and generally timid ; but sometimes a solitary bull becomes dangerous,
and a wounded bison will frequently charge.
Birds. — In referring to the avi-fauna of Southern India, it will be
impossible to do more than glance at its leading features, as it embraces
at least 380 species. Jerdon's 'Birds of India' is the only complete
handbook on the subject, but a great deal of information is also
scattered through the pages of ' Stray Feathers,' a periodical conducted
by Mr. Hume, late of the Bengal Civil Service.
Southern India, as regards its birds, possesses little or no zoological
affinity with neighbouring regions. A large number of the genera
represented consists of species which are either confined to, or very
prevalent in, the oriental region. The most striking families are the
gallinaceous birds, such as the peacock and jungle- fowl, splendid
pigeons, the parrots, embracing parrakeets and a lorikeet, the hornbills,
numbers of cuckoos, woodpeckers, and barbets, the bee-eaters, the sun-
birds, the mainds, the kingcrows, and babblers.
Rap/ores or Birds of Prey. — To this group belong vultures, eagles,
falcons, hawks, buzzards, harriers, and kites, the diurnal rapacious birds,
and the various owls, the nocturnal birds of prey. Of the former there
are about 40, and of the latter 15 species in Southern India. The
vultures are all foul-feeding scavengers ; and of the four species, the
black vulture, Otogyps calvus, and white scavenger vulture, Neophron
percnopterus, are well known. There are three species of the genus
Aquila, besides other members of the Aquilina:, including the serpent
eagle, Circaetus gallieus, and the osprey. Four falcons proper are
92 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
common, and three were species used for hawking when that noble
sport was pursued. Kestrels and hawks abound, and the Haliastur
Jndits, the Brahmini kite, and Milvus govinda are ubiquitous. Of owls
we have horned and hornless ; of the family the best known perhaps are
the little owlet, Athene Brama; the screech owl, Strix javanica ; and
the brown fish owl, Kctupa ceylonensis.
Passeres or Perching Birds. — The nocturnal fissirostral birds in Southern
India embrace five species of Caprimulgus^ the night-jar or goat-sucker.
The diurnal fissirostres are represented by swallows, trogons, bee-eaters,
rollers, kingfishers, and hornbills. Swallows and swifts are rather
numerous, and one of the most remarkable is the Collocalia unicolor,
the Indian edible-nest swiftlet, which frequents the West Coast and
Nilgiris. In all, some 14 species of Hirundinidae belong to Southern India.
Of the trogons, remarkable for their beauty, only one sober-coloured
species, the Malabar trogon, is known in the south. The bee-eaters,
also pretty birds, are more largely represented, there being three species
of Merops and one of Nyctiomis. There is but one roller, Coracias
indica, popularly known as the blue jay. Seven species of kingfisher
are known to inhabit the south, and the birds are common. Of the
curious hornbills there are four species, but as they are retiring forest
birds, they are, although common, rarely seen.
Scansores. — This tribe contains some birds of great beauty, viz. parrots,
woodpeckers, barbets, and cuckoos, all of which are represented in
Southern India. One familiar bird of the group is the rose-ringed
Parrakeet, Palaornis torquatns, a favourite domestic pet on account of
the facility with which it can be taught to imitate certain words.
Another well-known bird is a barbet, Xantholcema indica, called the
'coppersmith' on account of the metallic-like tuk-tuk-tuk which it
utters all day long, especially in the hot weather. Of the cuckoo
family we have the koct, Eudynamys orientalise the crow pheasant,
Centropus rufipennis ; and pied-crested cuckoo, Coecystes melanoleucos.
Tenuirostres. — Of tenuirostral birds, Madras contains some beautiful
examples, such as the brilliant little honey-suckers, nut-hatches, and the
hoopoe.
Dentirostres. — This tribe is represented by the well-known shrikes,
fly-catchers, thrushes, and warblers. Of the shrikes, one of the most
common is the bold kingcrow, Dicrurus macrocercus. One of the most
beautiful birds in India is the Paradise fly-catcher, Tchitrea paradisi.
Another handsome bird is the whistling thrush of Malabar, the notes
of which resemble the whistling of a boy who always seems to break
down in the tune. Two black birds inhabit the south, and the Nilgiri
one, Merula simii/ima, has quite as sweet a song as the European
species. Other well known dentirostral birds are the babblers or 'Seven
sisters,' Malacocircus griseus ; bulbuls, species of Bypsipetes and Pycnon-
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 93
otus, the orioles of golden plumage, and the fairy blue bird, Irena puella.
Then come the warblers, embracing Saxicoiinoe, stone chats ; Ruticillince,
redstarts and bush chats; grass-warblers, wren -warblers, including the
skilful tailor-bird, Orthotonus sutorins, tree-warblers, and Motacillina,
wagtails and pipits. To these follow tits and accentors.
Conirostres. — This tribe includes a host of familiar bird forms, such as
the crows, mainds, and starlings, sparrows, amadavads, and larks. Of
crows, the two best known species in the south are Corvus splendens, the
common crow, and Corvus culminates, the Indian corby. A remarkable
bird belonging to this species is Ploceus baya, the weaver-bird, whose
marvellous nest is the admiration of every one. The common maind,
Acridotheres tristis, and the hill maind, Eulabes reliogosa, are also familiar
objects. The sparrow, identical with that of Europe, also claims kin-
ship with this large family, and so do the larks. The larks that sing
best in confinement are Mirafra cantillans, a bush-lark abundant in the
Karnatik, and the large-crested lark, Galerida cristata.
We now come to the Columbidce or pigeons. Of tree pigeons the best
known is the green pigeon, Crocopus chlorigaster, and the Imperial
pigeon, Carpophaga insignis. Of ordinary pigeons and doves, the most
common are the blue-rock pigeon, Columba intermedia, various doves
belonging to the genus Turtur, and the ground dove Chalcophaps
indicus.
Gallince vel Rasores or Game Birds. — Asia is specially rich in gallina-
ceous birds, possessing the most typical groups, and the largest variety
of forms of any part of the world. The peninsular Rasores are divided
by Terdon into 4 families, viz. the Pteroclidre or sand-grouse, Phasianidcz
or pheasants, Tct7-aonidce or grouse, and Tinamidce. The true pheasants
are all confined to Northern India. Of the sand-grouse, or rock pigeons
as they are called by sportsmen, there are but two varieties found in the
south, both of which belong to the genus Pterocles. The Phasianid.r
embrace the following southern birds : — Pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, and spur-
fowl. Pavo cristatus is a royal bird, and found generally in wooded
districts. The red jungle-fowl of Bengal comes south to near the banks
of the Godavari, but is a poor bird compared with the southern jungle-
fowl, Gailus Sonneratii. Two species of Gallopcrdix, spur fowl, are
common. There are no true grouse in India, the Tetraonidce being
represented by partridges and quails. The painted partridge is rarely
seen, but the grey partridge, Ortygornis, is widely dispersed. Of quail,
including according to Jerdon both the true quails and the hemipodiine
quails, there are eight species belonging to four genera.
Grallatores. — This order contains the bustards, plovers, snipe, rails,
and herons. The bustard, Eupodotis Edwardsii, has now become
scarce, but the lesser floriken, another famous game bird, is still common
in certain Districts. Of plovers proper there are six species, including
94 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
the couriers, the double-banded plover confined to certain parts of
Nellore and Cuddapah, and the golden plover. Two lapwings are very
common, and we have a turn-stone and crab-plover. The sarus crane is
an occasional visitor, and we have the common and demoiselle cranes.
The woodcock is an annual visitor to some of our hill ranges, and the
wqpdsnipe is not uncommon. The common jack and painted snipes
are well known and common, and so are stints, sand-pipers, and
green-shanks. A water-hen and rail abound. There are four storks,
the most remarkable of which is the adjutant, Leptoptilos argalus, rare
in the south, but common in Calcutta, where it is protected as a
scavenger. There are various herons and egrets, including the paddy-
bird, Ardcola leucoptcra. The bittern of Europe, Botaurus stellaris, was
lately found near Adoni, and there are various species of ibis.
Natatores. — To this family belong ducks, flamingoes, geese, whistling
teal, grebes, gulls, terns, tropic-bird, pelican, cormorants, and the darter,
all of which are represented and most of them familiar birds.
Reptiles. — Of the lizards of the peninsula, the genera most charac-
teristic of the oriental region are Eublepharis and Draco. Of snakes, the
genera Cynephis and Passerita are peculiar to Southern India and Ceylon,
while the genera Naja, Bungarus, Simotes, Trimeresurus, and Lycodon
are all peculiarly oriental. But the most notable family is the Uropeltidce,
rough-tailed earth snakes, the members of which are confined to Southern
India and Ceylon.
Turtles, Lizards, etc. — The Chelonian reptiles are fairly represented
in the peninsula. The most notable of the land tortoises is Testudo
elegans, and the most common of the fresh-water species is the fetid
MeZanochelys trijuga. Emyda vitatta, a terrapin, which is eaten, abounds
in tanks and wells, and is supposed to purify the water. The best
known turtle is Chelonia virgata, the green or edible turtle, for which
the loggerhead, Caouna olivacea, is sometimes substituted. Thehawk's-
bill, Caretta squamata, which furnishes tortoise shell, also frequents the
coast.
Of reptiles, the most formidable are the aquatic Crocodilia. Three
species of them are found in Southern India, and all of them attain
a large size, and are very destructive to man and beast. On the eastern
side of the peninsula they are much less common than in former years,
but they still swarm in the rivers and back-waters of Malabar.
Of lizards, perhaps the most remarkable is the Monitor, Varanus
dracana, which attains a length of four feet, and is eaten by natives.
The Lacertidce, ground lizards, have representatives of two genera, viz.
Cii/'r/ta and Ophiops. The Geckos, the pretty little lizards, with viscous
or sticky lobes on the toes for adhesion to walls, some of which are
common in dwelling-houses, have representatives of at least four genera,
containing over 24 species, and all of them, except Eublepharis, can run
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 95
up smooth perpendicular surfaces. Of the genus Gymnodaciylus, there
are 1 7 species. One of the most curious of lizards is Draco Dussumieri,
which is furnished with a parachute sort of expansion of skin on each
side of the body, giving it the appearance of the fabulous dragon. This
parachute apparatus consists in the elongation of many of the posterior
ribs, which pass into and support the expansion of the skin on each
side of the body.. It is by the aid of this arrangement that the animal
executes its wonderful flights from tree to tree. The most common
lizards are those known under the popular term of blood-suckers. Most
of these belong to the genus Calotes. A true chameleon also exists,
but is not very common.
Snakes. — Although snakes are common and the number of species
considerable, fortunately the larger proportion of them are non-poisonous.
Out of about 70 species of land snakes belonging to Southern India,
only about 13 are poisonous, and some of these are small and not very
dangerous, and others comparatively rare. Of the sea snakes, some 40
are known to frequent the Bay of Bengal ; and it may be said in a word
that the whole of this family, the Hydrophida, are very venomous. Of
poisonous colubrine snakes, the most notable are the Cobra, the karait
{Bungarus caruleus), and Bungarus fascia tus. There are, further, three
poisonous species of Caliop/iis, all of which live in hill forests and are not
common. The carpet snake, Lycodoti aulicus, which resembles the karait,
is harmless, but it would be awkward to mistake a karait for a Lycodon.
Of the vipers, the most dangerous is the Russell's snake, Daboia
elegans, the tik polonga of Ceylon. It is a very sluggish snake, and
hisses loudly like a goose when enraged. The other viperine snakes
are the small Echis carinata, a common but not so deadly snake, in
which the scales are modified to serve as sound-producing organs ;
and hill species of Trimcresurus, Halys, and Hypnale. It will thus
be seen that poisonous species are not numerous, and that the native
and popular ideas on this head are very erroneous. Of the curious
subterranean blind snakes, Tvp/i/apidce, only one species is known
in Southern India, Onycocephalus acutus. The whole of the Indian
Uropeltidce, rough-tailed earth snakes, are, as already stated, peculiar to
Southern India and Ceylon ; and of Rhitiophis, Madras has two species;
of Silybura, seven species ; of Piectn/ri/s, six species ; and of Mdano-
phidium, three. Of the Ca/amariidcs, only one species belongs to the
peninsula, but of the Filleted ground snakes, Oligodontia^, there are eight
species belonging to Oligodon and Simotes. Of the active CoIuMdce,
12 species are South Indian, and belong to the genera Ablabes, Odonto-
mas, Cynophis, Ptyas, Tropidonotus, and Zamenis. The Ptyas or
Dahtnan is the 'female cobra' of the Tamil people, but it need hardly
be said that it is harmless and in no way related to the cobra. Of river
snakes there are two species, Cerberus and Hypsirhina. Of common
96 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
tree snakes we have two species, a Dendrophis and C/irysopelea; and of
long-nosed tree snakes, three. The most common of the latter is the
pretty and well-known, long-nosed, green Passerita mycterizans. There
are also two broad-headed tree snakes of the genus Dipsas. There is a
family (Lyeodonttdce), furnished with a fang-like tooth, but the four species
belonging to Lycodon are quite harmless.
Amphibians. — There are two apodous amphibians of the family
< ciliidce, viz. Ceecilia and Epicrium, which burrow in the ground like
earthworms ; also true frogs, tree frogs, and many toads. Of the frogs,
Ranidtc, the chief genus is Rana, but Pyxicephalus and others are repre-
sented. The bull-frog, Rana tigrina, is very common ; and one of the
most extraordinary species is Cacopus globulosus, which looks like a ball
with head and limbs projecting. Diplopelma ornatum is the small
frog which appears in great numbers after rain. The pretty tree frogs
belonging to the Discodadyles are very numerous and mostly pertain to
the following genera : — Pc/ypedates, Callula, Bylorana, Rhacophorus,
and Ixalus. To the last-named genus belongs the curious tinkling or
coppersmith frog of the Nilgiri plateau. Toads of the genus Biifo are
very abundant, and the common species is B. melanost ictus.
Fishes. — There are strong affinities between the African and Indian
fish faunas, and the Indian region also shows marked Malayan relation-
ships in some of its forms. The only complete work on the subject is
Day's ' Fishes of India,' but its price puts it out of the reach of ordinary
students. A great deal of valuable information regarding the geo-
graphical distribution of fishes, etc., will also be found in Gunther's
'Study of Fishes.'
In noticing the Ichthyology of the Presidency, it will be convenient
to refer to the fishes under three heads, viz. fresh-water fishes, brackish-
water fishes, and sea fishes.
Freshwater Fishes. — The true fresh-water fishes of the world belong
to 39 groups or families, containing 2269 species; and of these
9 groups with about 115 species are represented in Southern India.
The following is a list of the fresh-water fishes of this section of the
Indian zoological region: — (1) PercidiZ — Ambassis, 3. (2) Nandidce —
Nandus, 2. (3) Labyrinthici, 3 — Anabas, 1 ; Polyacanthus, 1 j Tricho-
gaster, 1. (4) Ophiocephalidce. — Ophiocephalus, 7. (5) Mastaeembelidce
— Mastacembelus, 2. (6) Chromides — Etroplus, 2. (7) Silurida — Silurus,
2; Pseudeutropius, 2; Macrones, 7; other genera, 4. (8) Cyprinodon-
lida. — Haplochilus, 2. (9) Cyprinidce — Cirrhina, 2; Labeo, 8; Barbus,
26; Rasbora, 2; Nuria, 2; Amblypharyngodon, 3 ; Danio, 3; Barilius,
5 ; Osteobrama, 3 ; Chela, 5 ; Nemachilus, 9 ; Cobitis, 1 ; other
genera, 7.
There arc thus, roughly speaking, about 115 species of fresh-water
fish in Southern India belonging to typical families, exclusive of some
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 97
belonging to hill ranges, and to families more properly marine, such as
Gobius, Beione, Megalops, and Murcenida. The groups most strongly
represented are, it will be observed, Cyprinoids and Siluroids, which are
therefore characteristic of this region.
Brackish-water Fishcs.—Oi the more notable of these, 5 belong to the
Percidce, viz. Lates, Liitianus, Ambassis, Therapoti, and Scice/ia. There
are 1 Polynemus, 5 Mullets (Mugil), 4 Clupeas, 1 Chanos, and 1
Rhynchobdella. Mullets and herrings therefore preponderate. At the
same time it must be stated that it is somewhat difficult to distinguish
brackish-water fish, as some of them at times live entirely in the sea,
while others are occasionally found in fresh water.
Sea Fishes. — These are very numerous, and only representatives of the
chief families can be referred to. Berycidce; Percidce represented by
Lates, Serranus, Genyoroge, Mesoprion, etc.; Pristipomatidce represented
by Therapon, Pristipoma, Diagram ma, Gerres, Scolopsis, Synagris, etc. ;
Mullidm ; Spar ides represented by Pagrus, Chrysophrys, etc. ; Squami-
pinnes represented by Chaetodon, Heniochus, Holacanthus, Scatophagus,
etc. ; Cirrhiiidce; Trig! idee represented by Pterois, Apistus, Minous,
Platycephalus, etc. ; Trachinidce represented by Uranoscopus, Sillago,
etc. ; Scicenidtc represented by Sciaena, Corvina, Otolithus, etc. ; Poly-
iiemidcB ; Scombridce. represented by Scomber, Thynnus, Cybium,
Stromateus, Coryphaena, etc. ; Carangid^e represented by Caranx,
Chorinemus, Trachynotus, Equula, etc. ; Xiphiidce represented by
Histiophorus ; Gobiidce ; Teuthididce ; Pomacentridce ; Labridee repre-
sented by Cossyphus, Julis, etc.; Pleuronectidie represented by Pseudo-
rhombus, Synaptura, Cynoglossus, etc. ; Sihtridee represented by Bagrus,
Arius, etc.; Scopelidce represented by Saurus and Saurida; Scombresocidce
represented by Belone, Hemiramphus, etc. ; Clupeiidce represented by
Clupea, Pellona, Elops, etc. ; Syngnathidee, represented by Syngnathus,
Hippocampus ; Sclerodermi represented by Triacanthus, Balistes, Mona-
canthus, and Ostracion; Gy»uiodontes represented by Tetradon, Diodon,
etc. ; CarehariidcB represented by Carcharias, Galeocerdo, Zygaena ;
Scylliida represented by Stegostoma, etc. ; Pristides represented by
Pristis ; Rhinobatidce. represented by Rhynchobatus, Rhinobatus ; Tar-
pedinidce represented by Narcine ; Rajidec represented by Platvrhina ;
Trygonidai represented by Trygon ; Myliobatida represented by Mylio-
batis, Rhinoptera, Ceratoptera, etc.
As regards edible species, the native population, as a rule, consume
nearly everything from sharks to perches, with the exception of some of
the Lophobranchii and Plectognathi. The favourite sea fishes at Euro-
pean tables in Madras are — Seer = Cybium guttatum, C. commersonii ;
Whiting = Sillago domina, S. sihama ; Pomfret = Stromateus atous,
S. niger ; Sole = Species of Liachirus, Synaptura, yEsopia, Plagusia, and
Cynoglossus ; Mullet = Mugil 3 species also found in brackish waters.
VOL. IX. g
98 MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Mollusca. — Our knowledge of the South Indian mollusca is not very-
extensive, there being no special manual on the subject to which the
student can be referred. On the Coromandel coast, the surf is
generally too heavy to admit of the existence of shell-fish, for it pounds
the delicate species to pieces. At Tuticorin the pearl oyster {Meleagrina
margaritiferd) has been fished for from time immemorial, and so has
the sacred sdnkh {Turbinella pyriwi). The land snail fauna of Southern
India is represented by numerous species of Helices, and the prevalence
of Bulimulus and Cyclophorus. In the fresh-waters the mollusca are
represented by snails of many genera, pulmonate and gill-bearing.
Also by bi-valves of the genera Unio, Corbicula, etc.
The Cephalopoda, represented by the cuttle-fishes, embrace but few
species, and the same may be said of the Pteropods which frequent the
ocean. Two species of Ianthina, an oceanic snail, are known. Of
the Gasteropods, consisting of sea and land snails, whelks, and limpets,
there are numerous species. The order Prosobranchiata, including
Siphonostomata or carnivorous gasteropods and Holostomata or sea
snails, contains Various South Indian species. The section Siphonosto-
mata contains such shells as Strombus, Murex, Conus, Oliva, Cypraea,
etc., and the Holostomata section, Natica, Cerithium, Melania,
Paludina, Turbo, etc.
Of the order Ophistobranchiata or sea-slugs, we have some six or
seven species belonging to Tornotella, Bulla, and Dolabella. In the
order Pulmonifera, which embraces all the land shells and other air-
breathing molluscs, there are numerous species belonging to Helix,
Bulimus, Cyclotus, Pterocyclos, Cyclophorus, Vitrina, Streptaxis,
Achatina, Cyathopoma, Jerdonia, etc. Helix ampulla and Cyclophorus
Nilagiricus are rare shells, and only found on the western slopes of the
Xilgiris. The bi-valve shells, constituting the Concliifera, contain
oysters, scallops, mussels, and cockles. The A siphonida group of these
embraces Ostrea, Avicula, Mytilus, Unio, etc. ; and Siphonida includes
Cardium, Tridacna, Cytherea, Circe, Tellina, Solen, Pholas, Teredo, etc.
With reference to the use of the words Pulmonata and Pu/moni/era,
the following facts should be borne in mind : —
Animals belonging to two totally different morphological types are
included under the term ' land-snails,' namely, the true Pulmonata (in
which the sexes are united in the same individual, and the mouth of
the shell, when this is present, is never defended by an operculum) ;
and the Cyclostomacea, in which the sexes are in distinct individuals,
and there is always an operculum to the shell. The latter are aquatic
snails which have left the water, acquired lungs, lost their gills, and
become completely habituated to a life on land. They are Pulmonate
in a physiological sense only. Among river snails and pond snails
also, two types are included, true Pulmonata and gill-breathing aquatic
MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 99
snails, some of which latter, as, for instance, the globular Amplnilarice
of Indian tanks and marshes, are amphibious, living sometimes on
land, sometimes in water, breathing at one time by means of lungs, at
another through gills. These are, in fact, intermediate between gill-
bearing aquatic snails and operculated land snails with lungs but
without gills. In all probability they disclose one of the steps by
which the latter have been evolved from the former.
Insects. — There is no handbook on Indian insects, and descriptions
of them are only to be found in incidental notices in general works
and periodicals. A manual on the Butterflies by Marshall and de
Xiceville is in course of publication, which, when completed, will be
of great assistance to those desirous of prosecuting this branch of
natural history.
Coleoptera. — The most characteristic families of Indian beetles are
the Cicindelidce or tiger-beetles, the Carabida or ground-beetles, the
Scarabczidce including lucanidce or stag-beetles, the Lo?igicortiia, and
the Buprestidce. Of the carnivorous tiger-beetles, there are several
species peculiar to Southern India ; the white-spotted ground-beetle,
Anthia 6-guttata, is found below trees everywhere. Various species of
large sombre-coloured Scarabceus beetles make themselves disagreeable
by flying on the table at night, and the Atlas beetle, a Dynastid, is at
times seen. Magnificent specimens of stag-beetles are not uncommon,
more especially in the western parts of the country. The species of
Longicoms are numerous, and one, the notorious coffee-borer (Xylotrc-
chus quadrupes), seemed likely to entirely put an end to coffee culture
in Madras, until it was pointed out by Dr. Bidie that the insect did not
thrive in coffee cultivated under shade. The most splendid of all the
Buprestidce are found in India, and the golden and green wing covers
of some species are used for ornamenting dresses and embroidery.
Elateridce are also represented by some fine species.
Orthoptera. — Troublesome members of this sub-order are the
cockroaches, species of Periplaneta and Blatta. The carnivorous
Mantidce or leaf-insects are very common, and some of them present
a most marvellous resemblance to leaves. Not less wonderful but
less common are the vegetarian Phasmidce, the stick-insects or spectres,
which simulate leafless twigs or bits of stick. Grasshoppers are very
common, and in certain seasons the locust, an Acridium (CEdipoda),
appears in vast hosts and causes great damage to crops. The noisy
crickets, and the mole-cricket (Gryt/ota/pa), are widely distributed.
One remarkable orthopterous insect of Southern India is Sckixodactylus
monstrosus. Splendid specimens of the dragon flies, Libcllulidie, may be
seen hovering over water, but the best known insects of this order are
the destructive Termites or white ants.
Hymenoptera. — Of this sub-order, perhaps the most familiar
xoo MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
members are the mason -wasp and carpenter-bee. The former
(Pe/opaus coromandelicus) at the beginning of the hot weather becomes
busy in houses building up cells of clay, in which it places its ova and
caterpillars, narcotized by being stung, on which the young wasps may
feed. The carpenter-bee, a species of Xylocopa, is very destructive to
timber by excavating a tunnel in which to deposit its eggs. The
honey bees of Southern India belong to four species and three varieties.
The most common species are Apis indica and A. floralis, and in some
districts, A. nigrocincta, all small bees. The minute mosquito-bee is
said to be a variety of A. nigrocincta. The large and irascible rock-bee
is A. dorsata or one of its two varieties testacea and zonata, the stings
of which often prove fatal to animals, and sometimes to men. Of
stinging ants (Myr/n kites), six species of Atta are found, one of which
(Aiia minutd) is common in the Karnatik. The other South Indian
species belong to Ocodoma, Eciton, and Myrmica, most of which are
widely distributed. The tribe Ponerites is represented by three genera,
— Odontomachus, Harpegnathos, and Ponera, embracing eight species.
Of the Formicites or true ants, there are at least twenty species
belonging to the genus Formica.
Lepidopicra. — This section of the insect fauna is very copious,
embracing a large number of species. Taking the specimens of an
industrious collector as indicative of the relative numbers of the several
families, the following may be adduced. The Danaidce are widely
distributed and common, and embrace a fair number of species.
Satyridce and Ely/nniidce are less common, and the Morphidce are not
represented. Nymphalidce. and Lycainidtz are very numerous, and so
are Papilionidce. In the last-named family there are some very
handsome species. The Hesperiidce are represented by at least twelve
species. Moths are also abundant, and some very fine specimens,
including the Death's-head, belong to the Sphingida. Of the
Zygcenidce, or burnets, Agaristidce, Uraniidcc or pages, and sEgeriida or
clear wings, there are various species. Of the silkworms, the most
common is the Tusser-moth (Ant/iercea mylitta), but its cocoons are not
collected or utilized, as they are in Northern India. Attacus atlas, the
magnificent Atlas-moth, is also found, though rarely. Actias selene,
also a large moth, is more common. It is of a milky blue colour, has
a long tail, and lives chiefly on the Odina JFodier trees.
Diptera or flies are very abundant. The ordinary house flies and
blue-bottles belong to the genus Musca. The mosquito is a Culex, and
the flea a Pulex. Little attention has been paid to this class of insects,
and there can be no doubt that a vast number of new species await
the industrious collector.
Rhynchota. — The shield and plant bugs are well known in
Southern India. Some of the former, such as the Callidea, are of
MADRA S PRESIDE NC Y. i o i
great beauty, their scutellium, which gives them the appearance of
beetles, showing brilliant metallic tints. The 'green bug,' which emits
an offensive odour when irritated, belongs to this family ; the bed-bug
is Acatithia lectularia. The Nepa, or water-scorpion, is a large-winged,
brownish, flat insect, which sometimes flies into houses at night. The
sub-order Homoptera includes some interesting Indian insects, such
as the Cicada or knife-grinder, the splendid Fulgora or lantern-fly, the
Aphid ida or plant-lice (to which belongs the terrible Phylloxera
vastatrix of France), Coccus Zacca, the lac-insect. The coffee-bug, a
destructive pest, is Lecanium Caffece.
Arachnida. — This class includes spiders, scorpions, mites, etc.
Some of the most formidable - looking of the spiders belong to the
genus Mygale, which prey on insects of various kinds, such as cock-
roaches, and even attack lizards, and, in some parts of the world, small
birds. The body of a large Mygale is as much as 3 inches in length.
Numerous web - making spiders {Epeiridce) live out of doors, and
some of them make very strong snares. The wandering Saltigrade
spiders (Saliicidce), which hunt their prey like a cat, are common j and
so are the wolf-spiders (Lycosidce), which attain a considerable size, and
carry their ova about with them in a globular bag attached to the
abdomen. Some of the crab-spiders, which frequent flowers, often
exhibit protective colours, and when alarmed feign death. They are
exceedingly common on tropical plants. The house-spider, a species
of Tegenaria, is well known, and so is the allied spider that spreads out
its web on the grass around a funnel-like tube which forms its den.
The latter probably belongs to the genus Agelena. A trap-door spider
is common about Gooty, and another has been found at Utakamand.
A beautiful small spider (Trombidium), belonging to the Acaridea or
mites, is common on plants at certain seasons ; on account of its
beautiful coat which simulates scarlet velvet, it is often supposed to
be a cochineal insect. Some species of this group {Trombidiidcc), such
as Phytopus and red spider (Tetranychus), are very injurious to plants.
A mite {Demodex folliculorum), which lives in the sebaceous follicles of
man, causes mange in the dog ; and the eyeless Sarcoptes scabiei, which
produces itch, is only too well known in the oriental region. A
curious insect, belonging to the Phalangidea or shepherd-spiders, is
seen in some parts of the country. It has a small body but very long
legs, and is generally found in clusters of fifty or more which look like a
bunch of hair. It belongs to the genus Phalangium. The insect called
jalamandalum by natives, to the bite of which they attribute highly
poisonous properties, appears to be in some districts a Mygale, and in
others a Solpuga, also a forbidding-looking and pugnacious arachnid.
A much maligned and ill-used insect is the Fish-poochie, a species
of Lepisma, so often seen in books, where in company with a Chclifer
102 MADRAS CITY.
it preys on the enemies of literature, being carnivorous. A remarkable
animal belonging to the Arachnidcc is the Thelyphonus. It looks like
a scorpion without a tail, and the bite of some of the South American
species is supposed to be poisonous.
True scorpions are common, especially in dry districts, such as Karnul.
The large black scorpion, common in most parts of the country, is the
Buthus afer. It sometimes attains a length of 6 inches ; and its sting,
if not fatal, as stated by natives, at any rate causes intense depression
bordering on collapse, and very severe pain. A considerable number
of deaths are sometimes said to occur in Karnul from the sting of a
middle-sized streaked brownish scorpion, Androctonus quinquestriatus.
The species of Androctonus, ' man-killer,' are chiefly African, and,
curious to say, the natives there entertain the belief that their sting is
fatal to life. The little red scorpion, which frequents houses, is a
species of Scorpio. Scorpions are not unmitigated evils, as they prey
on insects which they kill by stinging them.
Myriapoda. — Some of these, belonging to the Chilognatha or
millipedes, are quite harmless. To this section belong the species of
Juhis, large, hard-crusted, glistening, black-coloured animals, which
crawl about in gardens, and coil themselves up like a watch-spring
when touched. A number of species of ' myriapods ' belongs to the
Geop/ulidcs, which live in flower-pots and under stones, where they
prey on decomposing vegetable and animal matter. The most
formidable of the family are the Scolopendridce, or centipedes, the bite
of which is very venomous. One species of Scolopendra attains a
length of 10 or n inches, and smaller ones frequent dwellings.
Crustacea. — Of the Xiphura, there is one genus (Limuli/s), the
king-crab, which existed in the Oolitic period. The head and thorax
are united and protected by a large shield-like carapace. All the other
genera of this order are fossil. There is one genus (Squil/a), belonging
to the Stomatopoda, which looks somewhat like a big aquatic mantis.
The Decapoda have a number of genera in South India. To the
Macrura section of the order belong prawns, species of Poitrns, forms
of Scyl/a?-idcv, such as Tkerius and the beautiful craw-fish Palitiunts.
In the Anomura group we find Pagurus, the hermit-crab, JUppa, and
Dorippe. The Brachyura group embraces a number of genera, viz.
Dromia, Philyra, Leucosia, Ca/nppa, Adatuta, Plagusia, Grapsus, Ocypodc
and Cardisoma land-crabs, and various species of J.upa, J-'oMunus, and
Scylla, edible sea-crabs. The swift-footed sand-crab seen on the shore
is an Ocypode, and the 'calling crab,' a Gehisimus with one big arm
which it waves aloft, is common in the banks of canals.
Madras City. — Capital of the Madras Presidency, situated in lat
1 3° 4' 6" n., long. 8o° 17' 22" e. These are the bearings of the Madras
Observatory; but the town, with its suburbs, extends 9 miles along
MADRAS CITY. 103
the coast, and runs 3^ miles inland, covering an area (1881) of 27
square miles. According to the Census of 187 1, Madras contained
397>552 inhabitants, living in 51,741 houses. According to that
of 1 881, Madras contained 405,848 inhabitants, living in 48,286
houses.
History. — The derivation of the name is doubtful. Mandardj, or
Mandala Raj, both words implying ' Government,' and Madrissa, a
Muhammadan school, have been suggested as the etymology. Dr.
Burnell favours the latter. The native name is Chennapatnam or the
city of Chennappa, the brother of the local chief or Ndyak at the time
of its foundation. The name Madraspatnam seems to have been in
use almost from the same date. In March 1639, Mr. Francis Day,
Chief of the Settlement at Armagaon, obtained from the representative
of the Hindu power of Vijayanagar, Sri Ranga Rayal, Raja of Chand-
ragiri, a grant of the site of land on which Madras now stands. A
factory, with some slight fortifications, was at once constructed ; and,
induced by favourable terms, a gradually increasing number of native-
settled round the walls.
In 1653, Madras, which had previously been subordinate to the Chief
of Bantam in Java, was raised to the rank of an independent Presidency.
In 1702, Daud Khan, Aurangzeb's general, blockaded the town for a
few weeks; and in 1741, the Marathas attacked it, also unsuccessfully.
The fort was extended and strengthened in 1743, and by this time
the city had become the largest in Southern India. As early as 1690,
some attempt had been made to protect Black Town by a mud wall.
In 1702, the necessity of improving this was brought home to the
people by the advance of Daud Khan ; and a tax was raised for the
purpose. From time to time, when danger threatened, this tax was
re-enforced. But in periods of peace it was found difficult to draw contri-
butions from the people ; indeed, when it was attempted in 16S4 for
the fort defences, a riot ensued. The result of these imposts was a
masonry wall, or ' bound hedge,' round the north and west sides of the
town, with eleven bastions. Many traces of the wall still exist, ami
some of the bastions have been converted into police stations or tJidnds.
A curious monument of this defence is preserved in the name of the
street lying within the line of the west wall, which is popularly known
as ' Wall-tax Road ' to this day.
In 1746, the French commander La Bourdonnais bombarded ami
captured the Madras fort. It was restored to the English two years
later by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the Government of the
Presidency did not return to Madras till 1752. In 175S, the French
under Lally occupied Black Town and invested the fort. The siege,
which has been vividly described by Orme, was conducted on both sides
with great skill and vigour. After two months, the arrival of a British
io4 MADRAS CITY.
fleet relieved the garrison, and the besiegers retired with some precipi-
tation. With the exception of the threatening approach of Haidar
All's horsemen in 1769, and again in 1780, Madras has, since the
French siege, been free from external attack.
The town of Saint Thome, now an integral part of Madras city, was
founded and fortified by the Portuguese in 1504, and was held by the
French from 1672 to 1674. Sacked by Zulfikar Khan in 1698, it was
occupied in 1749 by the English, who expelled the French priests
as political emissaries.
Appearatice. — Although at first sight the city presents a disappointing
appearance, and possesses not a single handsome street, it has several
edifices of high architectural pretensions, and many spots of historical
interest. Seen from the roadstead, the fort, a row of merchants' offices,
a few spires and public buildings, are all that strike the eye. The site
is so low that it is difficult to realize that behind the first line of
buildings lies one of the largest cities in Asia. Roughly speaking,
Madras consists of(i) Black Town, an ill-built densely populated block,
about a mile square, within the old city wall, with more or less crowded
suburbs stretching three miles north of the Cooum river. This is the
business part of the town, and contains the banks, customs house,
High Court, and all the mercantile offices. Many of the latter are
handsome structures, and fringe the beach. On the sea face of Black
Town are the pier and the new harbour. The harbour is still (1885)
in course of construction, owing to the damage caused by the cyclone
and furious sea of November 1881.
Immediately to the south of Black Town there is (2) an open
space with a sea frontage of about two miles, and a depth of three-
quarters of a mile, which contains the fort, esplanade, brigade parade
ground (' the Island '), Government House, and several handsome
public buildings on the sea face. (3) West and south of this lung
of the city comes a series of crowded quarters known by various native
names — Chintadrapet, Tiruvaleswarampet, Pudupak, Rayapet, Kist-
nampet, and Mylapur, which bend to the sea again at the old town
of Saint Thome. (4) To the west of Black Town are the quarters
of Veperi and Pudupet, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians ; and the
suburbs of Egmore, Nangambakam, Chetpet, Parsibakam, and Peram-
bur, adorned with handsome European mansions, in spacious
1 compounds ' or parks. (5) South-west and south lie the European
quarters of Tanampet and the Adyar.
The city of Madras is thus spread over a large area ; and it is
only after some stay that one realizes the stately semi-suburban life
which distinguishes it from the more concentrated social activity of
Calcutta. In short, a very large proportion of the tract of country
comprised within the municipal limits of the city of Madras — covering
MADRAS CITY. 105
as it does an area of 27 square miles, with 14 villages — consists of
a poor rural district, more or less under cultivation, which surrounds
the fort and the native town and suburban villages. This suburban
and semi-rural characteristic explains the recurring difficulties of muni-
cipal administration, and the chronic inadequacy of its finances for
the services to be performed over so large an area. The moderate
resources furnished by a poor and partly rural population have to be
scattered over an area many-fold larger than that included under the
management of the wealthy corporations of Calcutta and Bombay,
with the inevitable result of apparent shortcoming in many details.
Efforts have been made by recent legislation to improve the municipal
resources.
The main thoroughfare of the town is the Mount Road, opened in
1795, which leads from Fort St. George to St. Thomas' Mount. This
is a fine avenue, but the houses along it for the two first miles are,
with a few exceptions, disappointing. The Cathedral Road, crossing it
at right angles, and the Mowbray Road, are also wide and well laid
out ; the latter possesses a magnificent avenue of banian trees.
The Adyar river flows at the southern extremity of Madras from
west to east, and falls very languidly into the sea south of Saint Thome.
This river is spanned by the Elphinstone Bridge, probably the largest
in Madras. The Cooum river falls into the sea within municipal limits.
Its course is short; and, except during the north-east rains, the
volume of water it carries is insufficient to keep open the discharge
into the sea. A backwater is thus formed round ' the Island,' skirting
the fort and Government House grounds, whose stagnant condition,
aided by the drainage of one or two suburban villages on its banks, has
proved at times a serious drawback to the sanitary condition of the
neighbourhood. The bar of sand at the mouth of the Cooum is
usually breached by the early floods of the north-east monsoon, and
open communication with the sea continues for some months. The
Cooum is in communication with the Pulicat backwater, the Cochrane
canal, and with the Adyar river and Southern canal system, by the
junction canal through Saint Thome.
South-west of the island formed by the circuitous course of the Cooum
river, stands Government House, the city residence of the Governor.
The chief entrance is from the Mount Road. Its Banqueting Hall
is supposed to be planned in imitation of the Parthenon at Athens.
A considerable area is kept open to the west and north by several
large tanks, while two parks and the horticultural gardens give additional
breathing space. The South Beach promenade and the People's Park,
containing a small zoological collection, are the principal recreation
grounds of the city. The latter has an area of 1 16 acres, and is dotted
with artificial lakes of various sizes.
io6 MADRAS CITY.
Among the buildings most deserving of notice for their architectural
features, are the Cathedral, Scotch Kirk, Government House, Patcheap-
pah's Hall, Memorial Hall (to commemorate the escape of Madras
from the effects of the Mutiny of 1857 in Upper India), Senate House,
Chepak Palace (Revenue Board), College, Central Railway Station, and
combined Telegraph and Post-office. The Cathedral and Scotch Kirk
were built in 1816 and 1818 by Major de Haviland. Both are, in
their general outline, Ionic ; and in both, the polished Madras chunam
work, which has very much the effect of marble, is to be seen in great
perfection.
Mr. Chisholm, the Government architect for Madras Presidency,
says : ' Until quite recently, the material for building consisted of inferior
brick plastered, the plaster being moulded to imitate any or every
kind of European detail. A trabeated form of Italian, with wooden
architraves, was the favourite style. The two buildings of note,
constructed during this " plaster period," are the Scotch Kirk and
Patcheappah's Hall ; the former on account of its boldness of con-
ception and constructive truthfulness, and the latter for its beauty and
purity of design. Since 1864, when stone from Cuddapah and Sho-
lingarh was introduced for building purposes, local architecture has
been slowly working towards an adaptation of the Hindu Saracenic.
The new Senate House, with the exception of the Byzantine termina-
tions, is wholly in that style.' The Chepak Palace, formerly the resi-
dence of the Nawab of Arcot, and now magnificently restored as
the office of the Board of Revenue, is a striking specimen of the
school referred to. The Chepak Park stands on the site of what was
formerly the domain of the Karnatik Nawabs. The Senate House,
the Chepak Palace as it now appears, and the College have all been
erected in the last fifteen years. The Madras Club is large, com-
fortable, and centrally situated, 2 miles south-west of the fort. The
principal public statues are those of Sir Thomas Munro, Lord Corn-
wallis, and General Neill.
Fort St. George, formerly known as ' White Town,' commenced in
March 1639 by Mr. Francis Day, originally consisted of a factory and
other buildings surrounded by a wall, with four slight bastions and
batteries, the whole being about 400 yards long by 100 deep. In
1643 'l had cost about ^3500, and was garrisoned by 100 men, the
number being reduced a few years later to 26. Between 1670 and
1680 some effort was made to improve and strengthen the position,
— a necessity forced on the Company by the successive retirement and
encroachment of the sea, by the presence of the French at Saint
Thome, and by the threatening advance of the Manitha leader Sivaji.
In 1702 the fort bore its first attack, when Daiid Khan blockaded it
for three months. In 1723 the Mint was built within its walls; and
MADRAS CITY. icj
in 1740, Mr. Smith submitted a scheme for making the fort defensible,
and for doubling its enclosed area. This was partially carried out, when
La Bourdonnais sat down before the place, and captured it after a short
bombardment (1746). When, three years later, the English re-entered
the fort, they found it greatly improved, the glacis to the north had
been made, and the bastions and batteries enlarged. Mr. Robins was
now deputed to complete the French work ; he adopted Mr. Smith's
plans, and for two years 4000 labourers were continuously employed.
Mr. Robins formed the glacis to the west, deepened the ditch, enlarged
the old bastions, formed four new ones to the west, to include the new
ground taken up on that side, and added new batteries. So that in
1758, when the French returned under Lally, the place, although far
from perfect, was fit for Pigott and Lawrence to defend. Immediately
after the siege, works were continued under Mr. Call and Colonel Ross,
till, in 1787, the fort was completed very much as it now stands.
Although suitable for the purpose for which it was designed, the
fort is not tenable against modern artillery, and its walls are in many
places in disrepair. Within it are nearly all the principal Government
offices — the Secretariat and Council Chamber, the military head-
quarters, arsenal, and barracks. The houses are almost all two or three
stories high, in compact blocks extending the entire length of streets
laid out in straight lines. Unlike the houses in the city generally,
the fort residences have no ' compounds ' or enclosures. The arsenal
contains many curious trophies of the Avars in which the Madras army
has been engaged. In St. Mary's Church are buried the missionary
Schwartz, Sir Thomas Munro, Sir Henry Ward, and Lord Hobart, a
former Governor. St. Mary's Church was commenced in 1678 and
finished in 1680. It is the first English Church in India, and the
oldest Protestant place of worship in the Madras Presidency.
As the seat of the Madras Government, and the head-quarters of the
Madras army, nearly all the most important offices of the Presidency,
and the head-quarters of every department, are located in Madras.
Apart from the head-quarters staff of the Madras army, those of the
Eastern military Division are also stationed here, with a garrison of 1
European and 2 Native infantry regiments, a half battery of garrison
artillery, and the body-guard of the Governor (100 sabres). At St.
Thomas' Mount are 2 field batteries, with a half battery of garrison
artillery and a detachment of Native infantry. Including these, the
garrison of Madras is about 3250 strong, of whom 1134 are Europeans.
Population. — The old estimates of the population of Madras were
curiously upset by the results of the Census of 187 1. In 1763 it was
calculated at nearly a million, and subsequently the official estimate fell
to 750,000. An enumeration in 1822 returned 470,000; another in
1866, 450,000; and the next in 187 1, 397,552 persons. The last
10S MADRAS CITY.
general Census of 1SS1 gave a total of 405,848 persons, of whom
200,170 were males and 205,678 females, the proportion of males
being a fraction under 50 per cent. Since 1871, therefore, there has
been an increase of 8296, or 2*09 per cent. Since 187 1, the number of
houses has increased nearly 25 per cent. The number of houses was
51,741 in 1 87 1, and 64,550 in 1881, of which 48,286 were occupied.
The area of the town being taken at 27 square miles, this gives
an average of 15,031 persons and 1788 occupied houses per square
mile. But as about 3^ square miles consist of parks, esplanades, etc.,
these figures understate the actual density of population, which varied
from 93,628 per square mile in the second division, to 2781 in the
fourth. The average number of occupants per house in 1881 was 8'3.
The proportion of males to females wras 493 to 507. Classified according
to age, there were — under 15 years of age, males 68,223, an^ females
67>954; total children, 136,177, or 33-5 per cent, of the population:
15 years and upwards — males 131,905, and females 137,663; total
adults, 269,568, or 66-4 per cent. : age not stated — males 42, and
females 61 ; total, 103.
Religions. — In 1881 the Hindu population of Madras (inclusive of
the lower castes, whose claim to be considered Hindus is doubtful)
consisted of 315, 527 individuals; of these 156,336 were males and 159,191
females: number of children under 10 years, 92,785. The next great
section of the community are the Musalmans. Their numbers, ascer-
tained by the Census of 1881, were 50,298, the proportion of the sexes
being 24,398 males and 25,900 females. Since 1863, if the returns of
that year are to be trusted, the Muhammadan population has decreased
by about 21 per cent. Christians numbered 39,631, namely, 19,182
males and 20,449 females. The mixed class of Eurasians was com-
posed of 12,659 persons, of whom 6100 were males and 6559 females.
The number of Europeans entered in the Census schedules is 3205,
viz. 2004 males and 1201 females. Out of every 1000 people in 1881
there were 777 Hindus, 124 Muhammadans, 98 Christians, and seven
' others.' The proportion of Christians is higher in Madras city than
elsewhere in the British Districts of the Presidency, and the proportion
of Muhammadans is higher than elsewhere except in Malabar. Since
1871, the Hindus have gained 2 per cent., and the Christians 7 per
cent. The Muhammadans have decreased by 1*33 per cent. In 1881
the population contained an admixture of 113 Jews, 129 Brahmos, 27
I'arsis, 51 Buddhists, and a few of no stated religion. The Europeans
since 187 1 have decreased by 11*3 percent, while the Eurasians have
increased by 5^3 per cent. Tamil is the language chiefly spoken, being
used by 239,396, or 58-9 per cent, of the whole population. Telugu is the
language of 94,478 persons ; Hindustani of 46,426 ; English of 17,110;
Marathi of 423S ; Kanarese of 1 186; and 'other tongues' of 3014 persons.
MADRAS CITY. 109
Distributed by castes, the Census of 1881 thus discriminates the
Hindu population : — Brahmans (priests), 13,469 ; Kshattriyas (warrior
caste), 6336; Shetties (traders), 22,005; Vellalars (agriculturists),
89,275; Idaiyars (shepherds), 11,167; Kammalars (artisans), 14,010:
Kannakan (writers and accountants), 2450; Kaikalars (weavers), 11,134;
Vannians (labourers), 33,176; Kushavans (potters), 854; Satanis (mixed
castes), 6397; Shembadavans (fishermen), 10,273; Shanans (toddy-
drawers), 9102; Ambattans (barbers), 3520; Vannans (washermen),
2556; Pariahs (outcastes), 54,706; and 'others not stated,' 25,097.
Although the number of Vellalars or agriculturists is high, there is
practically no agricultural work carried on in Madras city. The high
proportion of Vellalars therefore illustrates the extent to which castes
are departing from their hereditary occupations. The number of male
adult persons actually employed in cultivation is returned at under
10,000.
With reference to occupation, the Census distributes the adult male
population into the following six main groups : — (1) Professional class,
including State officials of every kind and members of the learned
professions, 17,424; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging keepers,
9321 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers,
etc., 18,488; (4) agricultural class, including shepherds, 7397; (5)
industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 36,870; and
(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising male children,
general labourers, and persons of unspecified occupation, 170,670.
In 1881, the number of persons of unsound mind in Madras city was
496; of blind, 901 ; of deaf and dumb, 132; and of lepers, 435.
Revenue. — The quit-rents of Madras town were originally collected by
the Conicopollies (a word derived from ' Kannakan,' the writer and
accountant class), and paid directly to the general treasury. Later,
when dues were charged on betel, tobacco, and other commodities
at the chmikis in the ' Bound Hedge,' an officer, called the ' Land
Customer,' was appointed to superintend collection of these dues, as
well as of the quit-rents, spirit revenue, and numerous other charges,
known by the generic name of mutarfa. In 1798, the 'home farms'
(certain villages of the Jdg'ir) were added to the charge of this officer,
who shortly afterwards was designated Collector of Madras. In 1S60,
the public revenue of Madras city (excepting sea customs) was trans-
ferred to Chengalpat (then called Madras) District. This arrangement
has, since 1870, been altered ; and all the Government revenues,
including sea customs, within municipal limits are now entrusted to
the Collector of Madras.
Municipal. — The earliest measure of municipal government consisted
of the appointment of watchmen and the imposition of a scavenger
cess, in 1678. At various periods, small cesses on trades and com-
no MADRAS CITY.
modifies appear to have been levied for town purposes, but whether at
any time the quit-rents were directly devoted to similar objects is not
clear. The ' Conicopollies1 Fund ' was assigned in 1735 for the mainten-
ance of bridges and roads, and a little later this was augmented by the
profits on public lotteries. From 1688 the Mayor and Corporation had
control of municipal work and funds. In 1793, an Act allowing the
imposition of municipal taxes was passed; and in 179S, a Committee
was appointed for the better administration of the town. Rules for
markets and public conveyances, and a provision tariff, were drawn up
by this body, and at the same time a portion of the excise revenue was
devoted to municipal purposes.
No trace of further municipal legislation for the town of Madras
is to be found till 1841 ; but since that date there have been numerous
enactments on the subject. Municipal Acts were passed in 1856
(when the functionaries administering the funds were first styled
Municipal Commissioners), 1865, 1867, 1871, 1878, and 18S4. In 1867,
the principle of representation was first asserted ; but the appointment of
the four Commissioners who were to represent each of the city's eight
divisions was made by Government. In 1878, it was laid down that
32 commissioners should be appointed for the whole city, of whom
16 were to be chosen by the ratepayers, and 16 by the Government.
The Commission now consists (1884) of a paid President (with other
officers), and 32 honorary Commissioners, three-fourths elected and
one-fourth nominated by the Governor in Council. There are two
vice-presidents, one in charge of public works, and the other of con-
servancy and sanitation. A special sanitary officer may be appointed
by Government when any epidemic or unusual mortality prevails. The
President is appointed by Government, and paid from municipal funds.
The municipal revenue of Madras city is derived from the follow-
ing sources: — (1) Tax on carriages, carts, and animals, about ^7000;
(2) tax on arts, professions, trades, etc., ^5000 ; (3) licence fees, ,£900 ;
(4) rents, ;£375o; (5) tolls, ^4200 ; (6) liquor licences, ^1350 ; (7)
house and land rate, not exceeding 10 per cent, of the average
annual gross rental, ^34,5°° \ (8) water-tax, ^13,400; (9) lighting-
tax, ^4200; (10) miscellaneous receipts, ^8700. The tax on
carriages and animals varies from 6d. half-yearly for asses to jQi
half-yearly for four-wheeled vehicles drawn by two horses. The cart-
tax is about 4s. each cart or vehicle without springs half-yearly.
The tax on licensed premises varies from jQ\, 4s. to £7, 10s. yearly.
The miscellaneous receipts include revenue from a water-tax on
houses, buildings, and lands not exceeding 4 per cent, of their gross
annual rent ; a lighting-tax not exceeding 2 per cent, on such rents ;
and tolls upon vehicles and animals entering municipal limits, varying
from 2d. to is. The total municipal income of Madras city in 1882-83
MADRAS CITY. in
was ,£85,404, of which £74,150 was derived from taxation. Average
incidence of taxation, 3s. 7|d. per head.
In 1882, a loan of £35,000 was raised by the municipality for
the purpose of commencing the drainage works of Black Town, and
completing the extension of a proper water-supply throughout the city.
A complete system of water-supply has not yet been carried out ; and a
new scheme for increasing the discharge from the head-waters at the
Red Hills, and its thorough infiltration, is under the consideration of
the Madras Government. The drainage works of Black Town have
now (1884) been brought into operation over a large area, and are being
pushed rapidly towards completion. The cost of conservancy in
Madras in 1882-83 was £24,669 ; the conservancy establishment con-
sisting of 1 2 19 coolies, 621 carts, and 5 canal barges. The cost of
lighting the town was in the same year £2998 ; the number of lamps,
2643. The expenditure is in the following proportions : — Establishment,
£10,400; sanitation, £26,500; roads, £10,400; lighting, £3600;
water-supply, £2500; medical, £39°°; education, £1500; interest
on debt and sinking fund, etc., £13,300 ; and miscellaneous, £10,500.
Notwithstanding its narrow means, the Municipal Commission has
given the city a pure water-supply at a cost of about £154,500. To
effect this work, two reservoirs of native construction were enlarged,
so as to contain 102 millions of cubic yards ; and their supply was
improved by constructing'an anicut or weir across the Cortelliar river,
with a supply channel to the upper part of the two reservoirs, and a
connecting channel between them. The upper reservoir is called the
Cholavaram tank. Its area is 1543 acres; and the depth of water
at the lowest sluice is 20 feet. The other reservoir is the Red Hills
tank, with an area of 4869 acres, and a maximum depth of 21 feet.
The water is conveyed to Madras in an open high-level channel, 7 miles
long, with strainers at both ends. This channel terminates with a
masonry shaft, from which the water is delivered at a level of 29^ feet
above mean sea-level into a distributing system of cast-iron pipes.
The pressure is sufficient to raise the water 8 or 10 feet above ground
level in all parts of the town. The annual consumption is about
5,000,000 cubic yards. In addition to supplying the city of Madras
with water, the Red Hills tank is largely drawn upon for irrigation ;
revenue to Government from this source in 1882-83, £4§4- In 1884,
the waters of the Red Hills tank rose and burst their barriers. Several
persons were drowned, and a water famine threatened the city.
Madras requires, among many wants, the complete re-sanitation of the
river Cooum. ' In 1882, 25 per cent, of the municipal expenditure was
devoted to conservancy, but even this proportion is insufficient.
Port Trade, etc. — Notwithstanding its exposed situation, Madras ranks
third among the ports in India, in respect of the number and tonnage
ii2 MADRAS CITY.
of vessels calling, and the value of its imports and exports. The
average annual value of the total external trade of Madras port,
exclusive of Government stores and Government treasure, for the five
years ending 1883-84, was— imports, ^4,758,782 ; exports, £4, 180,549;
total, .£8,939,331. In 1883-84, the total external trade was — imports,
^5»39o.742 ; exports, ^4,764,71 1; total, ,£10,155,453. The average
annual number of ships which entered and cleared Madras port for the
five years ending 1883-84 was 1391, of 1,302,469 tons, of which 717
were steamers, of 1,122,151 tons. In 1883-84, the number of ships
which entered and cleared Madras port was 1241, of 1,442,813 tons, of
which 756 were steamers, of 1,304,824 tons. During the famine year
(1876-77), the number of vessels which entered and cleared was 1685,
of 697,135 tons.
The port trades with every part of the world, exporting coffee, cotton,
grain, hides, indigo, oil-seeds, dye-stuffs, sugar, and horns ; and import-
ing piece-goods, iron and other metals, and all kinds of European
manufactures. It is regulated by legislative enactment, and adminis-
tered by a Master Attendant, with a deputy and two assistants.
Passengers and cargo were formerly landed or embarked by the
indigenous masi'da boats, built of mango wood, caulked with straw, and
sewn together with cocoa-nut fibre. The incoming vessel anchored in
the roads about a mile or half a mile from the shore : the masula boat
pulled alongside, received her freight of passengers or goods, and
was beached through the surf. Not seldom the boat was split on
reaching the beach. When the sea is running high, the rise and fall of
the masula boat at the ship's side is as much as 25 feet; so that dis-
embarking is generally difficult and sometimes dangerous. Ladies
used to be firmly secured in chairs, and thus gradually lowered into the
masula from the ship's yard-arm. In 1859, however, landing was
rendered less precarious by the erection of an iron pier, which was finished
in 1862, opposite the custom house and jutting out 300 yards into the
sea. The pier is 40 feet broad and 20 feet above sea-level ; has stairs
down to the water, rails, cranes for haulage, and other appliances.
The cost of building the pier was ;£i 10,000; and although but a poor
substitute for a harbour, it was found very useful during the famine of
1877—78, as many as 12,000 bags of rice having been landed there in
a single day. It has been twice breached by vessels drifting through
it, and repaired at a cost of ,£40,000. At present, the landing and
shipping of goods is effected partly by lighters to the pier-head, and
partly by the old masula boats. There are 60 of the former and 100
of the latter on the register.
There are special local difficulties in the way of making an artificial
harbour. The town of Madras itself lies low, from mean sea-level to
z.\ feet above it. The shore is sandy, and stretches almost in a straight
MADRAS CITY. 113
line for some miles, so that no creek affords the outline of a harbour.
An enclosed harbour, which had been commenced in 1876, was practi-
cally completed in September 1881, and opened to the shipping. The
whole of the rubble base of the harbour works was completed, the north
pier was brought to its full length, the south pier nearly finished, and
the open space between the two pier-heads had been brought to the
exact width for the harbour entrance, 550 feet. Nearly one million
(930,758) tens of stone had been deposited for surf banks and rubble
bases; the length of breakwater was 7836 feet: and the number of
concrete blocks laid, 13,309. The cyclone of 12th November 1881,
however, did serious damage to the works. Haifa mile of breakwater
was breached, the two top courses of concrete were thrown over into
the harbour, and the rubble base was lowered and spread out. The re
construction of the harbour is now (1884) under consideration. The
harbour, when completed, will be an almost enclosed basin formed by
running out two solid piers from the shore 500 yards north and south of
the iron pier, to a length of 1200 yards from the shore, into 7 A fathoms
water. At that point they turn or bend inwards to form an enclosure,
with an entrance in the centre 550 feet wide. These piers will enclose
a space 1000 yards long and 830 yards broad, with a maximum depth
of 7 fathoms of water. The area which will be thus available is
calculated to afford shelter to 13 ships of various sizes, ranging from
700 to 4000 tons. The harbour having now again sufficiently advanced
to be of considerable value to the trade of the port, it has been thought
necessary that ad interim arrangements should be made for the levy
of dues, in consideration of the advantages and facilities afforded.
Accordingly, harbour dues have been levied since April 18S4 under the
Madras Act vi. oi 1882. The lighthouse, a Doric column of granite
125 feet high, contains a first-class white flashing catadioptric light. It
was erected at a cost of ,£7500 in 1844, and is visible from a ship's
deck 15 miles at sea.
The roadstead of Madras, like the whole line of the western coast, is
liable to be swept by hurricanes of irresistible fury, which occur at
irregular intervals of years, generally at the beginning of the monsoons
in May and October. The first recorded cyclone was in October
1746, a few weeks after the fort had surrendered to La Bourdonnais. A
French fleet with its prizes then lay at anchor in the roads. Five large
ships foundered, with 1 200 men on board ; the Mermaid and Advice,
prizes, also went down ; and scarcely a single vessel escaped with its
masts standing. Yet the cyclone was not felt at Pondicherri on the same
coast, about 100 miles away. Other hurricanes causing serious loss of life
happened in 17S2, in 1807, and in 181 1. In the last the frigate Dover
was lost, and 90 country boats went down at their anchorage. Perhaps
the most destructive of these storms occurred in May 1872. On this
VOL. IX. 11
ii4 MADRAS CITY.
<" casion the registered wind pressure reached a maximum of 53 lbs. to
the square foot. The shipping in the roads did not receive sufficient
warning to allow them to slip their cables and put to sea. In the space
of a few hours, 9 English vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 6700
tons, and 20 native craft, were driven ashore. Fortunately, day broke
when the calamity was at its height ; and the rocket apparatus, skilfully
used, saved the lives of all except 19 men.' In May 1874, another
cyclone broke on the Madras coast, but the ships were warned in time
to put to sea and gain an offing. The most recent of these periodical
hurricanes were in May 1877, and November 1881. The last, as
already stated, did serious injury to the new harbour. A carefully
] prepared code for the guidance of all concerned on the occurrence of
a hurricane has been sanctioned by Government.
Industries. — The trade of the town does not depend on any special
local manufactures or produce. Such industries as once flourished —
weaving for instance — have decayed, and no others have grown up to
replace them. As elsewhere in India, spinning companies have recently
been formed, but their effect on local trade remains to be seen.
With the exception of banks, and enterprises connected with the
1 (reparation of produce for export, e.g. cotton - pressing and coffee-
cleaning, joint-stock undertakings have not prospered.
live Stock, Prices of Produce. — The number. of buffaloes in Madras city
in 1882-83 was 1890; of bullocks, 3692 ; of cows, 2390; of donkeys,
364 ; of elephants, 2 ; of goats, 780 ; of horses, 2330 : of mules and
ponies, 1886; of sheep, 2210; and of pigs, 315. Number of carts,
3510 ; of ploughs, 825 ; and of boats, 191. In the same year rice sold
at 4s. 8d. per maund of 80 lbs. ; ragi, 2s. 4id. ; cholam, 3s. 2^d. ; kambu,
2s. 6d. ; wheat, 5s. jhd. ; salt, 4s. 8d. ; sugar, 13s. 4d. ; linseed, 15s. ; jute,
j£i ; cotton, £1 ; indigo, ^18. In Madras city in 1882-83, a plough
bullock cost £2 ; a sheep, 4s. 6d. ; and fish, per lb., 6d. Skilled labour
is remunerated at the rate of 2s. a day; and unskilled labour at 9d. a
day. The rate of hire for a draught bullock per diem is is. ; of a horse,
4s. ; of a mule or pony, 3s. ; of a boat by sea, jQi ; of a boat by canal,
6s. ; and of a cart, 6d.
Sporting. — The neighbourhood of Madras city affords little attraction
to the sportsman. Large game is not obtainable, and small game is
scarce. During the cold weather, snipe and teal are found, although in
no great numbers, at Guduvancheri, a village 22 miles away. It is an
open but hilly country, with a travellers' bungalow on the high road
leading to Chengalpat. Bird Island, reached by way of the Buckingham
Canal, has a reputation for feathered game; and the Nagari Hills, 57
miles N.W. of Madras, are a resort of those in search of larger game.
The Madras sportsman, however, generally makes his way to the Nilgiris.
Communications. — As the capital of Southern India, Madras is the
MADRAS CITY. 115
centre on which all the great military roads converge. From the three
principal of these (No. I. running west, No. VI. north to Calcutta, No.
VIII. south to Cape Comorin) branch all the Great Trunk roads,
which, with their massive bridges and smooth hard wheel-ways, are
among the greatest monuments of English rule. Madras is also the
terminal station of two lines of railway, the Madras line and the Madras
and Tuticorin section 6f the South Indian Railway. The Madras
Railway, striking across the peninsula, links Madras with the west coast
at two points nearly 600 miles apart — Bombay and Beypur — and, by
branches, with Haidarabad, Bangalore, and the foot of the Nilgiri hills.
A projected branch of the Madras Railway will tap the Ceded Districts.
The South India Railway also starts from Madras, and brings the capital
within easy access of all the southern Districts. The original terminus
of the Madras Railway at Royapuram, a northern suburb of the city,
was opened for traffic in 1856. It has been used for offices and stores
since the present central station was opened in 1873. The South Indian
Railway from Madras to Tuticorin was opened for traffic on the 1st
September 1876, and completed throughout on the 1st July 1879.
The terminal station of this line at Madras is Egmore ; although the
line originally laid as far as the beach, to facilitate harbour works
operations, is also utilized for passenger and goods traffic. The telephone
has been recently introduced into the general system of public com-
munication in Madras. The city postal system is well arranged ;
number of pillar boxes, 47 ; daily deliveries, 3. Weekly communication
with Europe is maintained by P. and O. steamers and the vessels of
other lines.
The Buckingham Canal, which passes through an outlying part of the
city, connects South Arcot District with Nellore and the Kistna (Krishna)
and Godavari system of canal navigation. Its total length is about 253
miles. This long delayed project Avas undertaken as a famine work,
to connect the Adyar and the Cooum.
Education, etc. — According to the Census of 1871, over 18 per cent.,
and according to that of 1881 over 24 per cent, of the population of
Madras city could read and write, or were under instruction. In 1SS1,
97,796 persons were returned as educated or under instruction. The
proportion of educated females in 1S81 was 7*48 per cent.
Connected with the Education Department, there were in 1882-S3
within the city, 5 arts colleges, with 785 pupils; 3 colleges for profes-
sional training, with 217 pupils; 14 English high schools, with 1263
pupils; 55 English teaching middle schools, with 3461 pupils; and
3 vernacular middle schools, with S pupils; 154 English teaching
primary schools, with 9627 pupils; and 106 vernacular primary
schools, with 3510 pupils. There were, besides, 54 high schools
for girls, and 91 primary schools for girls ; the former contained 462
n6 MADRAS CITY.
pupils, and the latter 6322 pupils. Four normal schools had in the
same year 134 pupils. 'Special' schools numbered 6, with 445 pupils.
Total institutions, 495 ; total pupils, 26,234. The medical college
had 20S pupils in 1882-83, of whom 8 were females. In the same
year the number of engineering students was 70. The special institu-
tions include a School of Arts (with 106 pupils in 1882-83) ; an
Industrial School (40 pupils) ; and a school* for Ordnance artificers
(70 pupils).
In 1875-76, the total number of books published at Madras city was
781, of which 140 were original works, and 12.5 were in English. In
1882-83 the total number of books registered was 711, of which 153
were original works, and 97 were in English. Besides other periodicals,
9 English and 17 Native newspapers are published. In 1884, the
number of English printing presses was 36, and of Native presses, 66.
Madras city has 3 bishops (1 English and 2 Roman Catholic); 15
Anglican churches, including the Cathedral ; 2 Roman Catholic cathe-
drals, and 13 churches; 3 Scotch churches and 8 dissenting chapels,
besides numerous meeting-houses and mission school-rooms used for
prayer. There are also 10 Christian cemeteries. The first English
church, St. Mary's, in the fort, finished in 1680, has already been referred
to. The Cathedral has a fine organ, a good choir, and a peal of bells.
There are many missionary societies, including the London, the Church,
Wesleyan, Lutheran, American, 2 Scotch, and a Baptist Mission; Bible,
Gospel, Christian Knowledge, and other Book Societies.
Judicial. — In old Madras, all criminal and civil disputes were finally
referable to the Council ; but from the commencement of its history,
the 'Justices of the Choultry,' an unpaid Commission, consisting partly
of natives, had jurisdiction in larcenies, minor misdemeanours, and petty
civil causes. They also controlled the police. More serious cases were
reserved for the decision of the Chief and Council. In 1688, the
Mayor's Court was created with jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases.
It held sessions for cases remitted by the Justices, and appeals lay to
the Admiralty Court, created in 1684. In 1726, the powers of the
Mayor's Court were extended by Royal Charter, a Small Cause Court
was created, and for a few years was presided over by the Sheriff. In
1798, the Mayor's Sessions were replaced by a Recorder, and in 1801
by the Supreme Court. In the following year, the Sadr Faujddri
Court was established by Regulation as the chief court for all rases
beyond the limits of the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
In 1862, the Supreme and Sadr Courts were merged in the new
High Court, created by Royal Charter, which possesses appellate
jurisdiction, and also original jurisdiction, both civil and criminal,
throughout the Presidency. A final appeal in important civil cases
lies to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. The
MADRAS CITY. 1 1 7
Small Cause Court, and the Presidency magistrates, are the ordinary
local courts of first instance for civil cases (except those sufficiently
important to go before the High Court) and for all criminal business.
Police. — When the whole territory lay within the ' Bound Hedge,' the
peace of the city was confided, after the fashion of the villages of the
country, to hereditary watchmen paid by grants of land, thereafter
pertaining to the office. Pedda Nayak, the first of these ialidris, has
given his name to a large quarter of the town, built on his indm lands.
In 1640, he had to find 20 peons for police work; in 1659, the
number was raised to 50. In 1686, the Nayak or ' Madras Palegar,' as
he is styled in old papers, received a kaul, or grant, conferring increased
emoluments, including the right to tithes upon the produce of certain
trades, and a watch tax on houses, called the 'revenues from the sea-
gate, choultry, and bazar] in consideration whereof he had to furnish
an increased force, as well as to provide escorts for officials, and to
execute the processes of the justices. Except for a mention of the
Nayak riding at the head of his peons at the ceremony of installing
the Mayor in 1727, the history of the city police for 100 years is not
traceable. In 1 798, when a committee assembled to devise measures
of municipal reform, Mr. Tolton sat, ex officio, as secretary to the police
committee. It is therefore probable that the palegar had been for
some time under administrative control. His office was abolished in
1806 ; and a regular town police, which, however, retained most of
the methods and persons of the old system, was formed. This has
since given place to a remodelled force on the same lines as the pro-
vincial constabulary. The police force in 1882-83 consisted of a
commissioner, a deputy, an assistant commissioner, and 980 subordinate
officers and constables, including 8 mounted and 141 marine police.
Total cost of establishment in 1882-83, £>-AA^-
Institutions. — Besides those already mentioned, the following insti-
tutions deserve notice : — The Observatory, the Museum, the Literary
Society's Library, the Friend-in-Need Society, the Monegar Choultry,
and the hospitals. The Observatory, from whose meridian all India
takes its time, was established in 1792, Mr. Goldingham being the first
astronomer. It originated in a small private observatory started in
1787 by Mr. W. Petrie, a scientific member of Council. It now
contains a fine collection of instruments, including a large new
equatorial, and a very efficient transit circle. Besides the regular
meridional observations, the attention to casual phenomena, and the
maintenance of a meteorological register, this Observatory has con-
ducted much special work of permanent value in astronomical annals.
The Meteorological Department, in connection with the Observatory,
was established in 1867. In 1S74, the Department was brought under
the Meteorological Department of the Government of India.
nS MADRAS CITY.
Among the Madras public libraries, the Literary Society and auxiliary
branch of the Royal Asiatic Society possesses a library of over 17,000
volumes. In 185 1, the Society presented its collection of geological
specimens to Government. This formed the nucleus of what is now
known as the Government Central Museum. The natural history
sectiun embraces an extensive collection of birds, reptiles, fish, shells,
and insects ; besides a large herbarium and numerous mineralogical
and geological specimens. There is also a very interesting collection of
gold, silver, and copper coins ; with numerous specimens illustrating the
natural resources and manufactures of British India, and the manners,
customs, and antiquities of the country. Attached to the museum is
a reading-room and general library, and also a scientific library devoted
to natural history. Altogether, there are upwards of 7000 volumes,
besides a very extensive collection of patent office publications.
The Friend-in -Need Society of Madras, supported by voluntary
subscription, supplemented by a Government grant, discharges, for
destitute Europeans and Eurasians, the functions of a poor-rate. It
was founded in 1807, and has ever since been a useful and well-supported
institution, finding work for those able to do it, and gratuitous relief for
the old and infirm.
The Monegar Choultry is one of the oldest and most excellent of
the charitable institutions of Madras. Founded in 1808, the Choultry
has been maintained by private subscription and Government grants in a
state of great efficiency. It affords, without reference to caste, shelter,
food, and clothing to the native poor and infirm, and contains many
wards, named after their founders. It has at present accommodation
for 250 inmates, and beds for in in its infirmary, besides affording
out-door relief in 10,000 cases annually.
A small lying-in hospital was added to the Monegar Choultry in
1879, containing two wards for eight beds each. This hospital gives
relief on an average to 450 women annually, of which number 150 are-
women of caste. During the famine of 1876-77, the Choultry and
hospital afforded great help to Government by accommodating and
otherwise providing for the famine-stricken population who resorted to
Madras city for relief.
The General Hospital has wards containing 240 beds, exclusive
of 80 beds in the annexes for contagious cases, and possesses all the
appliances and accommodation of a first-class hospital. Its staff consists
of a physician and 2 surgeons (one of whom is resident), 5 medical
subordinates, a matron, [3 nurses, and about 40 attendants. Private
rooms are provided for invalids who can afford to pay. A lying-in
hospital, a hospital for women and children, a special asylum for
foundling and stray children, and several dispensaries, supplement the
fulness of the larger institution.
MADURA. 119
The SaicMpet Agricultural School, originally established as a Model
Farm by Government in 1870 with a view to stimulate improvements
in agriculture and farming throughout the Presidency, is situated on
the road leading to St. Thomas' Mount, near the Marmalong Bridge
and on the northern side of the Adydr. The agricultural school is
supplied with workshops, veterinary hospital, reading-room, library, and
an agricultural museum.
Climate, etc. — Madras is not ordinarily an unhealthy town, either for
natives or Europeans. Its sea-breeze and dry soil appear to fully com-
pensate for the lowness of the site. In the words of Dr. Cornish, the
Sanitary Commissioner, its climate is, on the whole, favourable to the
health of the native inhabitants. The temperature is high all the year
round, but there are fewer sudden alternations of heat and cold than
in most places in India. The mean temperature in the shade ranges
between 740 and 870 F. ; the extremes being 670 in January and 93° in
June. The death-rate averages 40 per thousand per annum. In 1883
it was 62, but in nine years out of ten it ranges between 30 and 44 per
thousand. In 1884 it was 39 per thousand. The mortality usually
increases during the cold and rainy seasons, and is at its minimum during
the dry hot months of April, May, and June. The registered birth-rate
(1884) is about 40 per mille. The population is liable to periodical
visitations of cholera and small-pox. The deaths from small-pox in 1884
were 1957, of whom 831 were infants under a year old. Elephantiasis
and leprosy are endemic diseases on the coast ; the former is generally
seen in the form known as ' Cochin ' or ' elephant leg.' The land
rises slightly as the distance from the sea increases, but in no part of
the municipal limits is the elevation more than 24 feet above the sea,
while in many thickly populated neighbourhoods, the levels are so low
as to offer serious obstacles to drainage. The rainfall of Madras varies
considerably. In 4878, the rainfall was 28 inches; in 1879, 54 inches ;
and in 1881, 49 inches. The average annual rainfall over the town
area, from observations taken over a period of 70 years, is 48'69 inches.
The greatest fall is in October and November, when the rainfall varies
from 10 to 13 inches each month. The chief outlets for the discharge
of excessive rainfall are the Cooum river, the main drain of Black
Town, and two minor channels between the Cooum and Saint Thome.
The heaviest rainfall usually occurs during the north-east monsoon, as
much as 18 inches having been known to fall within twenty-four hours.
The neighbouring country is liable to prolonged periods of drought, as
well as to heavy floods. The number of persons vaccinated in Madras
city in 1884 was 40,940, at a cost to the municipality of about 6£d.
per case.
Madura (MaePhttrd). — British District in the south of the Madras
Presidency, lying between 9° 4' and 10° 44' x. lat., and between 77° 14'
120 MADURA.
and 79° 20' k. long. Area, 8401 square miles. Population, according
to the Census of 1881, 2, 168,680 persons. In point of size it ranks fifth,
and in point of population third, among the Districts of the Presidency.
It is divided into six Government taluks; and it also contains the two
at zaminddris, or estates, of Ramnad and Sivaganga, which cover an
area of 3663 square miles. Madura is bounded on the north by the
Districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopoli, and Tanjore; on the east and
south-east by the waters of Palk Strait and the Gulf of Manar; on
the south and south-west by Tinnevelli District ; and on the west
by the State of Travancore. The administrative head-quarters are at
Maim k \ Town.
Physical Aspects. — Broadly speaking, Madura District consists of a
section of the plain stretching from the mountains east to the sea, coin-
c uling with the drainage basin of the Vaigai river. Along its south-
western border the District abuts on the range of the Western Ghats,
here known as the Travancore Hills, which separates south-west
Madura from the native State of Travancore. The boundary line then
crosses the eastern end of the highland plateau, which, lying south of the
1'alghat gap, comprises the continuation of the Western Ghats and
Vgamalla Hills (Malabar and Cochin) and the Anamalai (Coimbatore)
and Palm ranges. The latter is included within the District of Madura.
Trichinopoli and Tinnevelli Districts form the northern and southern
boundaries. Palk Straits on the north, and the Gulf of Manar on
the south of the Rameswaram Reef or Adam's Bridge, separate the
island of Ceylon from the mainland.
Madura District is chiefly a plain, sloping gradually to the south-east,
as indicated by the channel of the Vaigai river. This plain, however,
is broken in the west by the outlying spurs of the Ghats, and by a few
isolated hills and masses of rock scattered over the country. The most
important spur of the Ghats is that known to Europeans as the Palm
HILLS, but (ailed by the natives, Yaraha or 'Pig Mountains.' The
l'alnis project east-north-east across the District for a total distance of
about 54 miles. Their highest peaks attain an elevation of more than
8000 feet above sea level ; and they enclose a plateau about 100 square
miles in area, with an average height of 7000 feet. On this plateau, a
sanitarium for Europeans has recently been established at Kodaikanal,
and the business of coffee planting is rapidly extending. Farther east,
a confused group of hills, known as the Sirumalais, the Karunthamalais,
the Nattam and the Alagar Hills, clusters round the village of Nattam.
Their loftiest peak reaches an elevation of nearly 4400 feet. A sani-
tarium was planted on these hills also, in early times, but it has been
abandoned on account of the malignant fever which infects the entire
group. Among isolated ro< ks may be mentioned the precipitous fortress
Dindigal, and the Anemalai or 'Elephant Rock,' the Pasumalai or
MADURA. 121
'Cow Hill,' and the sacred Skandamalai— all three in the immediate
neighbourhood of Madura town.
The principal river is the Vaigai, which flows in a south-eastern
direction from the hills to the sea, passing by the town of Madura,
and dividing the District into two almost equal portions. Its chief
tributaries are the Suruli, Varahanadi, and Vattilla-gundu. The Gundu
and Varshalai are the only other rivers worthy of mention. All these
streams (the Vaigai included) are rather drainage channels than per-
manent rivers. In seasons of flood, when swollen by rains on the hills,
they come down in impetuous torrents, filling their sandy beds from
bank to bank. But for the rest of the year they dwindle into trickling
streams, whose water is intercepted by frequent dams for irrigation
before it reaches the sea.
The total area covered by hills and forests in Madura District is
1098 square miles, of which 3o6-5 square miles have been constituted
Government forest reserves. The cultivated plain is bare of trees,
except where a newly planted avenue marks the line of a main road.
Groves of palmyra and cocoa-nut palms flourish along the sea-coast and
the banks of the rivers. The summits of the hills are generally clothed
with long grass, but valuable timber is found on the slopes of the Palni
Hills, and in the Cumbum valley. Under the present system of
forest conservancy, indiscriminate felling has been stopped, and forest
trees grow in all the reserves. As many as 103 different kinds of ferns
have been enumerated in different parts of the District ; and among
the wild products of the Palnis are gall-nuts, cardamoms, cinnamon,
and pepper.
The wild animals of Madura are almost confined to the western hills,
where the tiger, leopard, bear, elephant, bison, ibex, sdmbhar deer, and
packs of wild dogs are still to be found. The tiger has been nearly
exterminated in recent years. Those occasionally seen are supposed to
have wandered across the Travancore frontier. The fidlegar dogs are a
fine breed, very scarce, and difficult to obtain by purchase. Most of the
other domestic animals — oxen, buffaloes, ponies, and sheep — are
undersized and miserable creatures. The improvement of their breed
is now receiving attention.
The predominant geological formation is granite, which is supposed
to everywhere underlie the surface soil, and which crops up to the Palm
Hills in the form of gneiss, quartz, and felspar. Syenite occurs in large
boulders. A gravelly bed of laterite runs across the District, and is
quarried for building purposes. Sandstone is said to extend along
the whole length of the sea-coast. Mineral products include saltpetre
and salt (which effloresce from the clay soils), lime, chalk, and graphite.
Iron in various forms is found in all parts of the District. It is
worked, though not very profitably, by the rude native processes in
122 MADURA.
Dindigal and in some other places. Gold is washed in some of the
streams that flow down from the Palni Hills. Among precious stones
are found several kinds of opal, chalcedony, jasper, garnet, and rock-
crystal.
History. — Madura boasts a more ancient and continuous history than
perhaps any other District of the Madras Presidency. Here was the
capital of the Pandyan monarchy, commemorated by Greek geographers,
which held its own from the earliest days until overthrown by the
Muhammadan invader. Here, in later days, was the kingdom of the
Nayaks, which extended its sway over all the surrounding Districts, and
culminated in the glorious reign of Tirumala (1623-59). This same
period saw the successful enterprise of the Jesuit missionaries, under
their great leaders Robert de Nobilis and John de Britto. Subsequently,
when the native dynasties of Southern India were falling to pieces on the
dissolution of the Mughal Empire, Madura became the scene of continual
warfare between the Muhammadans and the Marathas, until it passed to
the British in 1801.
The actual truth regarding the Pandyan period is obscured by the
mists of sacred legends, but the existence of such a period is attested by
a multiplicity of authorities. The author of the Periplus describes the
whole Malabar coast as under ' King Pandion.' The Greek geographer
Ptolemy, writing a century and a half after Christ, places ' Pandion ' on
the eastern side of Cape Comorin. Several rock-hewn inscriptions
and copper-plate grants are still in existence to prove the names and
attributes of some of the Pandyan kings. Local tradition is preserved
in the Madhura Sthala Furdna, a Sanskrit chronicle, to which Professor
Wilson assigned a probable antiquity of 800 years. This curious
document contains a considerable amount of information concerning
the primitive doctrines of the Sivaite sect, and unquestionably embalms
a few historical facts. The inductions of modern criticism seem to
show that the Pandyas were established in Madura as early as the
5th century before our era, and that their empire lasted until the end
of the nth century a.d. The last of the line, named Sundara l'dndya
in the Purdna, but known in Tamil legend as Kiin Pandya, is
said to have exterminated the Jains and conquered the neighbouring
kingdom of Chola; but Sundara was in his turn overthrown by an
invader from the north, who is plausibly conjectured to have been a
Muhammadan. About 1324 a Musalman army occupied Madura under
the command of Malik Naib Kafur.
Madura District became a province of the great Hindu empire of
Vijayanagar. Its history is confused and unimportant until the middle
of the 1 6th century, when Viswanath, the founder of the Nayak dynasty,
was sent from Vijayanagar as ruler to Madura, accompanied by a
famous general, Arya Nayak Muthali. Viswanath was not only the
MADURA. 123
j
head of a line of prosperous kings, but also the originator of a sort of
feudal system which gave all the local chieftains a place of honour and
responsibility under the central authority. The city of Madura had 72
bastions ; and each of these bastions was placed in charge of a parti-
cular chief, to whom a special tract of country was assigned on condition
of military service. Such was the origin of the 72 pdlegdrs or pdlaiya-
kdrans of Madura, some of whom have maintained their possessions to
the present day. Viswanath ruled at Madura from 1559 to 1563, and
so consolidated his conquests that they passed peacefully to a long
series of his descendants. The greatest of the line was Tirumala (1623-
1659), whose magnificence and military exploits are recorded in the
contemporary letters of the Jesuit missionaries. He adorned Madura
with many public buildings, which still exist in tolerable preservation ;
and extended his empire over the adjoining Districts of Tinnevelli,
Travancore, Coimbatore, Salem, and Trichinopoli. His gross revenue
is estimated to have amounted to more than one million sterling, the
greater part of which was derived from the crown lands. Emboldened
by his prosperity, he threw off the nominal allegiance which his
ancestors had always paid to the paramount Rajas of Vijayanagar, a step
which brought him into collision with the more powerful, although more
distant, Musalman Sultan of Bijapur. The Muhammadans, after the
lapse of many centuries, again invaded Madura, and compelled Tirumala
to pay them tribute. The last days of the old king were gratified by
a successful invasion of Mysore ; but his policy of fomenting disunion
among the Hindu Rajas was one of the chief causes which subsequently
led to the predominance of the Musalmans throughout Southern
India.
After the death of Tirumala, the kingdom of Madura fell to pieces.
Tanjore was overrun by the Marathas under Ekoji, a brother of Sivajf
the Great ; Mysore was consolidated by the ambitious policy of the
Hindu Wadeyars, and afterwards by the usurper Haidar Ah ; while
Muhammadan influence steadily advanced southwards in the name of
the Nawabs of the Karnatik. In 1740, Madura fell into the hands of
Chanda Sahib, and the line of the Nayaks was finally extinguished.
During the next twenty years, the country became an easy prey to each
successive band of invaders — Maratha or Musalman. In 1762, British
officers took charge of the District, in trust for Wallah Jah, the last
independent Nawab of the Karnatik, who finally ceded his rights of
sovereignty to the East India Company in 1801. The taluk of Din-
digal had been captured from Mysore, after many military vicissitudes,
in 1790.
The two large zaminddri estates of Ramnad and Sivaganga have
a subordinate history of their own. The coast-line of Ramnad, forming
the entire seaboard of the District, is the home of a race called
124 MADURA.
Maravars, who are supposed to be of aboriginal descent. Their
chief, known as the Sethupati, is the hereditary guardian of the
temple of Rameswaram, an office which he claims to have re-
ceived from the god Rama. It would seem that he always owed
allegiance to the Pandyan Rajas ; but the ascertained history of the
family begins in 1605, when a monarch of the Nayak line appointed
the Sethupati to be the first of his 7 2 pdlegdrs. So long as the Nayak
dynasty endured, they had no more faithful defenders than the Maravars
of Ramnad.
Amid the general anarchy which followed on the death of King
Tirumala in 1659, the Sethupati succeeded in maintaining the in-
tegrity of his ancestral dominions. But in the beginning of the 18th
century, a succession of famines desolated the country. These
were aggravated by internal dissensions; and in 1729, the kingdom of
Ramnad was dismembered. Three-fifths were left to the legitimate
heir, while two-fifths were assigned to a rebellious vassal, whose
descendant now bears the title of Raja of Sivaganga. In the early
days of British rule, both these zaminddris were centres of armed
disaffection. They were for a long time notorious for neglected
administration and backward agriculture, forming a marked contrast
to those portions of the District held under the ordinary rdyatwdri
tenure. The state of affairs of Sivaganga zaminddri still remains un-
satisfactory, owing to its distracted condition. The Ramnad estate has,
under the management of the Court of Wards, improved satisfactorily
in many ways ; and its young Raja is receiving a European education.
Population. — An enumeration, taken in 1850-51, returned the number
of the people at 1,744,587. The general Census of 1871 disclosed a
total population on an area corresponding to that of the present Dis-
trict (8401 square miles) of 2,266,615 persons. The next general
Census of 188 1 returned a population of 2,i68,6So, residing in 10 towns
and 3961 villages, and in 395,096 houses; number of occupied houses,
56,324. The total area, taken at 8401 square miles, gave the follow-
ing averages : — Persons per square mile, 258 ; villages per square mile,
o-47 ; average number of persons per village, 546 ; occupied houses per
square mile, 47 ; persons per occupied house, 5-5 — the average for the
Presidency.
Classified according to sex, there were 1,032,707 males and
1,135,973 females; proportion of males, 47-6 per cent. Classified
according to age, there were — under 15 years, 416,893 boys and
4'4>735 g'ds ; total children, 831,628, or 38-3 per cent, of the
population: above 15 years, males 615,716, and females 721,093; total
adults, 1,336,809, or 616 per cent, of the population: not stated,
males 98, females 145; total, 243. The religiods division shows
the following results: — Hindus, 1,942,820, or 89*59 Per cent.;
MADURA. 125
Muhammadans, 140,948, or 6-5 per cent.; Christians, 84,900, or 3-9
per cent.; Buddhists and Jains, 9; and 'others,' 3. Since 187 1
the Hindus have lost nearly 6 per cent., which the Muhammadans
appear to have gained. The Christians have increased 19*6 per cent.
The majority of the Hindus, in the proportion of 48 to 10, belong to
the Sivaite as opposed to the Vishnuite sect. The Sivaites numbered
(1SS1) 1,592,153, and the Vishnuites 332,616.
The Hindus include — Brahmans (priestly caste), 42,555 ; Kshattriyas
(warrior caste), 4123; Shetties (traders), 50,083; Vellalars (agri-
culturists), 498,014; Idaiyars (shepherds), 144,283; Kammalars
(artisans), 75,971; Kannakans (writers), 318; Kaikalars (weavers),
85,261 ; Vanniyans (labourers), 478,595 ; Kushavans (potters), 25,541 ;
Satanis (mixed and depressed castes), 33,508 ; Shembadavans (fisher-
men), 118,659 ; Shanans (toddy-drawers), 86,268 ; Ambattans (barbers),
33>675 ; Vannans (washermen), 28,300 ; other outcastes and castes
that follow no specified occupation, 237,666. As distributed into tribes,
the Muhammadans include: — Arabs, 5; Labbais, 600; Mughals,
20; Pathans, 573; Sayyids, 7,2; Shaikhs, 114; and 'others,' 77,384.
The Christians include 176 Europeans and 377 Eurasians; the re-
mainder (84,347) represent native converts (67,365 of them Roman
Catholics), who are more numerous than in any other District of
Madras, except Tinnevelli.
The history of Christianity in Madura yet remains to be completely
written.1 In the beginning of the 17th century, we find a Jesuit church
in Madura, where a Portuguese priest ministered to a poor congrega-
tion of fishermen, who had originally been converted by Francis Xavier.
In 1606, Robert de Nobilis visited Madura, and his soul was at
once fired with the ambition of becoming the apostle of the Hindus.
Having previously obtained the consent of the Archbishop of Cranga-
nore, he adopted the mode of life, diet, and garb of a sanydsi or
religious devotee. A little rice, a little milk, and a few bitter herbs
formed his single meal each day ; a long yellow linen robe, a veil, a
turban, and a pair of wooden sandals were his only dress. In token of
his religion and caste, he wore a cross hung from his neck by five
threads, three of gold to symbolize the Trinity, and two of silver to
typify the soul and body of the Saviour. Shutting himself up in the
strictest seclusion, in order to master the Tamil language, the fame of
his sanctity was noised abroad. Gradually the people crowded round
to learn who this strange teacher was, who gave out that he was no
1 The rise and progress of Christianity in Southern India is narrated in Chapter be.
of article India, volume vi. of the present work. The best account of the labours of
the Society of Jesus in Madura will be found in the Mbnoires Historiqucs sur Us
Mission1; ties Ordrer Religieux (i vol. 2nd ed., Paris, 1S62) ; and La Mission du
Maduri dapris des Documents Incdits (3 vols., Paris, 1S4S, 1S50, and 1S54).
i26 MADURA.
farangi or Portuguese, but a guru from Rome, 'meditating upon
God.' The success of his plan was very great.
Men began by wondering at his asceticism, the profundity of his
learning, the purity of his Tamil accent, the subtlety of his intellect.
They ended by becoming converts to his teaching, which allowed them
to retain not a few of the ceremonial observances of Hinduism. It
is currently said that the great king, Tirumala Nayak, heard him favour-
ably. After labouring for about forty years, Robert de Nobilis died
in 1660 in a village near Madras, in the same state of perfect poverty
as he had always lived. He left behind him a number of religious
works, written in Tamil on palm leaves. His greatest successor was John
de Britto, a Portuguese of illustrious birth and high education, who
devoted himself to the civilisation of the wild tribe of Maravars. He
was martyred in 1693, by order of the Sethupati. The last and most
learned of the Madura Jesuits was Beschi, who compiled the first
Tamil grammar, and whose Tamil writings are regarded by native
pandits as the high-water mark of their literature. In the time of
Robert de Nobilis the native converts were estimated at more than one
million souls.
The Roman Catholics of Madura in 1881 numbered 67,554, and
are under the charge of two missions — the Jesuits, and the Church of
Goa. The former maintain 14 European and 3 Native priests, who
perform service in 341 chapels throughout the District. The annual
expenditure is said to amount to only ^2500 a year, derived from
the parent society. The Protestant cause is ably represented by an
American mission, first established at Madura in 1834. In 1866 they
had ten stations, each under the charge of a missionary, usually assisted
by his wife. In that year there were 2439 baptized converts and 1164
communicants. In 1S83 they had n stations, with 5973 baptized
converts and 2886 communicants. The annual expenditure is about
^8000. The chief success of the Protestants lies in their schools.
The three characteristic castes, or rather tribes, among the Hindus
of Madura District are the Vellalars, the Maravars, and the Kallars.
The Velhilars (498,014) are the most numerous and the most respected
class of agriculturists. They are traditionally believed to be foreign
immigrants, introduced into the country by the Pandya dynasty ; but
they speak a pure Tamil dialect, and there is no reason to doubt that
they belong to a Dravidian stock. Under native rule, they were feudal
landlords, cultivating their estates by means of predial serfs. They are
the yeomen of this part of India Their religion is a strict form of Siva-
worship. The Maravars and Kallars (the Colleries of Orme) together
make up the Yannians (478,595). The Maravars chiefly inhabit the
two zamtnddri estates bordering the sea-coast. By their physical
appearance, not less than by their superstitious practices, they reveal
MADURA. 127
their aboriginal descent. Their hereditary chiefs are the Rajas of
Ramnad and Sivaganga. In early times they were renowned as bold
warriors, and they have more than once risen against British authority.
They follow the Dravidian custom of burying their dead and allowing
the remarriage of widows. The Kallars are a tribe of professional
robbers, whose head-quarters are in the tributary State of Pudukota.
In Orme, the Kallars appear as 'the Colleries,' whose lawless
spirit and personal bravery repeatedly led to sanguinary rebellions
against the British officers of the District. Their ethnical affinities are
unknown. Their only religion is a debased form of demon-worship.
Among their distinctive practices are polyandry and circumcision.
Externally, they may be known by the singular fashion in which they
distend the lobe of the ear.
Until the British rule, the District was constantly liable to dis-
turbances from the rival caste-factions of the 'Hands.' The be-
ginnings of the faction are obscure, but there is no doubt that the
influence of the right-hand and left-hand caste division was long felt
within the District. The right-hand faction comprised many of the
more respectable castes, assisted by the Pariahs or outcastes who called
their patrons the Valangei (right hand) friends. The left-hand fac-
tion or Idangei (= left hand) comprised the five sorts of smiths, the
leather -workers, and similar artisan castes. Brahmans and Muham-
madans stood neutral. The collisions between the rival factions were
often sudden, desperate, and destructive. In Madura, the women of
the Chakkili caste, or leather-workers, are said to belong to the left
hand, their husbands to the right hand. When a feud between the
factions is in progress, all intercourse, it is said, ceases between husband
and wife.
The principal towns in the District are — Madura City, population
(l88l) 73,807; DlNDIGAL, 14,182; PALNI, 12,974; KlLAKARAI,
11,887; Ramnad, 10,519; Aruppakotai, 10,831; Periyakulam,
16,446; Devikota, 8451 ; Parmagudi, 9287; Tirumangalam, 54S0 ;
and Sivaganga, 8343. The only municipalities are Madura and Din-
digal, which had in 1883-84 an aggregate municipal income of ^6645 >
the rate of taxation being is. o^d. per head in Madura, and iod. in
Dindigal.
The Census of 1881 distributes the male population into six main
groups: — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every
kind, and members of the learned professions, 19,402; (2) domestic
servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 4464 ; (3) commercial class,
including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 1 7,000 ; (4) agricultural
and pastoral class, including shepherds, 495,972 ; (5) industrial class,
including all manufacturers and artisans, 104,209 ; and (6) indefinite
and non-productive class, comprising labourers, male children, and per-
128 MADURA.
sons of unspecified occupation, 391,660. The unoccupied population
is returned at 41*25 of the whole, which is 4 per cent, less than the
Presidency average. Very little immigration or emigration takes place ;
97 per cent, of the population in 1881 were born in the District.
Of the 10 towns and 3961 villages within the District, 2055 in 1881
contained less than two hundred inhabitants; S67 from two to five
hundred; 518 from five hundred to one thousand; 303 from one to
two thousand; 112 from two to three thousand; 78 from three to
five thousand; 27 from five to ten thousand; 9 from ten to fifteen
thousand ; 1 from fifteen to twenty thousand ; and 1 upwards of fifty
thousand.
Agriculture. — The total area of Madura District is returned at 8401
square miles, of which, in 1882, 3663 square miles, or 43*6 per cent,
belong to the two great zam'indaris or permanently assessed estates of
Ramnad and Sivaganga, paying a revenue to Government of ^57,264.
J nam or grants held revenue-free, or at a low quit-rent, included in the
same year 340 square miles, or 217,899 acres, of which 177 square
miles, or 113,034 acres, were under cultivation, including 3474 acres
bearing two crops ; about the seventh part being irrigated. The total
area of the rdyatwdri or Government village lands under occupation in
18S2-S3 was 1,729,388 acres. The area of both Government and
indm lands actually cultivated in that year was 917,776 acres; the total
assessment was ^"238, 683. Of this amount, about 185,800 acres (includ-
ing land bearing two crops) were irrigated, and about 731,500 acres
unirrigated. The chief food crops are rice (Oryza sativa), cholam
(Sorghum vulgare), kambu (Holcus spicatus), ragi (Eleusine corocana),
varagu (Pennisetum typhoideum), samai (Panicum miliare), and several
kinds of pulses. Other crops include oil-seeds, tobacco of excellent
quality, grown in the neighbourhood of Dindigal, and a little indigo
and cotton.
No fewer than 29 different varieties of rice are enumerated, which
differ from one another considerably in respect of productiveness,
rapidity of growth, and quality of grain. The three most extensively
sown are samba, milagi, and sirumanain. Rice can be grown on
almost every description of land, provided that a constant supply of
water is obtainable, sufficient to cover the ground to a depth of 2
inches. In a favourable year, the ploughing is done in the months
of June and July after the early rains; the seed is sown in nurseries
by the beginning of August ; after about thirty days, the seedlings are
ready for transplanting ; in January, February, and March, the crop is
reaped. The principal harvest of the year is called kdlam. A second
( rop of rice or inferior grains is sometimes obtained from the same
Rice is, however, the diet only of the rich. The staple food supply
MADURA. 129
of the mass of the people is derived from the ' dry grain?/ i.e. those
which need no irrigation. These are pounded, and eaten in the form
of a thin porridge, with any condiment that can be got. In 1882-83,
of the 917,776 acres under actual cultivation, cereals occupied
681,587 acres, of which only 142 were under wheat ; ragi, 106,150
acres; rice, 134,373 acres; and millets much the greater part of the
rest. Pulses, including gram, peas, lentils, etc., occupied 86,563 acres;
orchard and garden produce, 11,391; tobacco, 2805; coffee, 19S7 ;
chillies and other spices, 4563; sugar-cane, 952; starches, 831; rape-
seed and other oil-seeds, 67,229; indigo, 342; and cotton, 59,374.
Prices of produce in the same year ranged as follows per mound (80
lbs.): — Rice, 4s. iod. ; ragi, 2s. 3-A-d. ; millets, 2s. ii-d. to 2s. 4M. ;
wheat, 7s. 9|d. ; gram, 2s. y\. ; salt, 5s. 90". ; sugar, 9s. 9d. ; oil-seeds,
3s. 8d. ; cotton, 18s. 2M. ; and tobacco, 5s. 6d.
The agricultural stock of the District of Madura was as follows : —
Horned cattle, 504,267, including 227,917 cows; sheep, 310,736;
goats, 219,565; donkeys, 7919; pigs, 5950; horses, 115; and ponies,
3199: ploughs, 126,494; carts, 17,738; and boats, 7. Skilled labour
earns from is. to is. 4d. ; unskilled, from 5^d. to 7d.
As regards tenures, the lands of the District may be divided into
two classes — (1) Lands paying tax to Government, and (2) lands not
paying tax to Government. Most of the lands in class (1) are held on
a rdyatwuri tenure, under which tax is paid immediately to a Govern-
mental officer without the intervention of a middleman of any sort.
The rainfall of Madura is small in amount and variable in its seasons.
Every possible means of storing up the surplus waters has been re-
sorted to from time immemorial. All the hill streams, and especially
the Vaigai, are crossed by frequent anicuts or dams, which lead off the
flood water into storage tanks, whence it is distributed over the fields
with the utmost care and ingenuity. Some of these tanks are very
large, and capable of supplying many hundred acres in a favourable
year. That at Raja-singh-mangalam, in the north of Ramnad, is said
to be 20 miles in circumference. Unfortunately, many have been
suffered to fall out of repair, especially in the coast zaminddris. The
restoration of these works has recently been undertaken, and is being
vigorously prosecuted. An important engineering project, known as
the Periyar Scheme, has long been under consideration, by which the
abundant rainfall on the farther slope of the Travancore Hills would be
diverted by a cutting or tunnel into the drainage basin of the Vaigai.
Natural Calamities. — In the famine period of 1S76-7S, Madura
District was situated on the southernmost limit of distress. The
deltaic rice tract of Tanjore was secure from scarcity : the southern
angle of Tinnevelli was also comparatively free, while the northern
hilly Districts of Salem and Goimbatore were severely afflicted. In
VOL. IX. I
no MADURA.
.■>
Madura itself about 60,000 persons, or nearly 3 per cent, of the
population, were in receipt of relief in August 1877, when the
famine was at its height. The South Indian line of railway, then
recently opened, did invaluable service by bringing rice from the port
of Tuticorin.
Manufactures, etc. — With the exception of salt, which is manufactured
at certain stations on the sea-coast by solar evaporation as a Govern-
ment monopoly, the industries of Madura are insignificant. Handsome
turbans fringed with gold cloth, and a peculiar kind of red cloth, are
specialities of Madura town. Turbans, also, and coarse chintz are
woven at Dindigal. Piece-goods, cotton twist, earthenware, and brass
vessels are made all over the District, in sufficient quantities to leave a
surplus for exportation. The saltpetre trade is languishing ; and the
iron-ores, though abundant, have been little utilized. A considerable
traffic is carried on by sea in native craft, though the inhospitable
coast-line is destitute of a single good harbour. By far the greater
share of the foreign trade is carried on with Ceylon. The principal
exports from the District are rice and other grains, dregs of gingelly
oil, spices, piece-goods, salt fish, red ochre, and earthenware. Tobacco
is despatched by land from Dindigal in large quantities to be made up
into Trichinopoli cheroots.
The average annual value of the total trade of the four ports (Ki'la-
karai, Devipatam, Pambam, and Tdndi) of Madura District, exclusive
of Government stores and Government treasure, for the five years ending
1882-S3 was — imports, .£107,046 ; exports, ,£73,485 : total, ^180,531.
The average annual value of the foreign trade, during these years, was —
imports, ^£20,739 ; exports, .£50,215: total, ^£70,954- The average
annual value of the coasting trade, during the same period, was —
imports, ,£86,307; exports, ^£23,270: total, ^109,577. In 1882-S3,
the total trade was — imports, ,£62,000; exports, .£46,428: total,
.£108,428. The foreign trade was — imports, ,£23,456; exports,
,£31,291 : total, ,£54, 747. The coasting trade was — imports, .£38,544 ;
exports, ,£15,137 : total, ,£53,681. The average annual number of
ships which entered and cleared the four ports of Madura District
for the five years ending 18S2-S3 was — 6618 of 314,119 tons, of which
32 were steamers of 9632 tons. In 1882-83, the number of vessels
which entered and cleared the same ports was — 6287 of 264,417 tons,
of which 72 were steamers of 10,017 tons.
Communications. — In 1882, there were 1125 miles of made road in
the District, and 78 of railway. There are no navigable rivers or
• .rnals. The chief means of internal communication is the South
Indian Railway, which runs across the District in a northerly direc-
tion from Tinnevelli to Trichinopoli. During the famine of 1877-78,
this little narrow-gauge line proved of inestimable service.
MADURA. 151
Administration. — In the year 1882-83, the total imperial revenue of
Madura District amounted to ,£306,454, of which the chief item was
the land revenue, ^"248,969. Other chief items are the salt duty,
abkari or excise duty, court fees, and stamps duty. In 1882, the
incidence of taxation on each inhabitant was — land revenue, 2s. 3^d.
per head ; excise, 2d. ; opium, |d. ; salt, ghd. ; stamps, 4^d. ; miscel-
laneous, fd. — total per head, 3s. 8£d. In the famine year (1876-77)
the revenue had fallen, under the influence of the famine, to ,£269,218,
being a decrease of 31 per cent, under the revenue of the preceding year.
Thirty-seven officials, including a District Magistrate and Collector,
carry on the civil, criminal, and revenue administration. The District
magistrate is assisted by 4 divisional magistrates. The maximum
distance by which any village is separated from the nearest court is 20
miles; average distance, 10 miles. The aggregate municipal income
of Madura and Dindigal towns, in 1883-84, was ^"6645. In 1882, the
daily average number of prisoners in the District jail was 262*8, of whom
n*2 were women. The total expenditure was ,£1556, or ^5, 18s. 4d.
per prisoner. The total police strength of the District in 1882 was
1 130 men, and the total cost ,£18,537. Comparing these figures with
those of area and population, there is one policeman to every 77 square
miles and to every 1982 persons.
Education has made rapid progress in recent years. In 1857 there
was only 1 school in the District, attended by 163 pupils. By 1867, the
number of schools had risen to 65, with 2330 pupils. In that year, 48
candidates went up for the matriculation examination of the Madras
University, of whom 16 passed. The educational statistics for 1881-82
show a total of 1076 Government or inspected schools and 26,445
pupils, being 1 school to every 7-S square miles, and 12 pupils to every
thousand of the population. Forty-one of the whole number are girls'
schools with 1 195 pupils; and one is a normal school with 51 pupils.
There is also an Arts College with 41 students. The Census Report
of 18S1 returned 41,263 boys and 1617 girls as under instruction,
besides 134,091 males and 4561 females able to read and write, but
not under instruction, in Madura District.
The language of the District is Tamil, with a little Kdnarese
spoken on the western boundary. English is now understood by a
considerable number of natives in the town of Madura. There are
seven printing-presses in the District — two in native hands, and the
press belonging to the American Mission, who publish a fortnightly
Tamil newspaper called the Sattiavartamani,
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Madura is described as hot, dry,
and variable. Its characteristics are, that there is no regular cold
season, and that the scanty rainfall is distributed over the greater part
of the year. During the 20 years ending 1881, the average rainfall
M2 MADURA TALUK AND TOJVX.
o
was 317 inches, of which 87 inches were brought by the south-
west or early monsoon, and 14*8 inches by the north-east monsoon,
which usually breaks in October. In 1S82, the rainfall was 32*06
inches; the year previous it had been as much as 44 inches. The
months from December to February are the coolest in the year, being
marked by heavy dews at night and fogs in the morning and evening.
Along the sea-coast the sultriness of the hot season is tempered by
sea-breezes. The maximum temperature in the shade in 1882 was
105*6° F., and the minimum 64-4° F. The climate on the Palni Hills
resembles the ' half-English air ' of the Nilgiris.
The District cannot be termed healthy, at least for natives. Besides
the usual diseases of India, Madura suffers from three special* scourges
— endemic fever, which sometimes rages with exceptional severity, as
when it burst over Coimbatore, Madura, and Tinnevelli in the fatal years
1 810 and 181 1 ; cholera, disseminated by pilgrims to the sacred temple
at Rameswaram ; and the well-known ' Madura foot.' This last complaint,
known to science as Morbus pedis e/itophyticus, is a species of fungus,
which spreads over the whole foot in a mass of tubercles. Its primary
local cause seems unknown. One theory would assign it to the effect
of a black cotton soil ; and a case in all respects similar to the cases in
Madura is represented as having occurred in Gujarat. The registra-
tion of deaths is by no means trustworthy. The returns for 1882 show
a death-rate of only 16*3 per thousand, which is probably about one-
half of the actual truth. The birth-rate per thousand in the same year
was 28-6. There were in 1882, 23 dispensaries in the District, with
average daily attendances ranging from 5 to 236*4. At these dispen-
saries 2597 in-door patients were treated during the year. The municipal
dispensary at Madura town gave relief in 1882-83 t0 a tota^ °f 3I>573
patients, of whom 698 were in-door patients. The American Mission
maintains two dispensaries at Madura and Dindigal, aided from muni-
cipal and local funds. The Madura municipal hospital cost, for the
year, ^1277. [For further information regarding Madura District, see
The Madura Country, by J. H. Nelson, M.A. (Madras, 186S); the
Madras Census Reports for 1S71 and 1SS1 ; and the several Madras
Administration and Departmental Reports up to 1884.]
Madura.— Taluk of Madura District, Madras Presidency. Area, 335
square miles. Population (18S1) 215,333, namely, males 104,850, and
females 110,483. There are 1 town and 273 villages in the taluk:
occupied houses, 35,454- Hindus numbered 199,702, or 927 per
cent.; Muhammadans, 11,353; Christians, 4276; and 'others,' 2. In
1883 there were, including the District head-quarters courts, 5 civil and
6 criminal courts ; police stations, 9 ; regular police, 335 men. Land
revenue, ,£21,637.
Madura (Afad7iurd). — Chief town of Madura District, Madras
MADURA TOWN. 133
Presidency ; situated on the south bank of the Vaigai river, 38 miles by
road south-south-east of Dindigal. Lat. 90 55' 16" N., long. 780 9' 44" e.
According to the Census of 1881, Madura is the third most populous
town in the Presidency, and has a total population of 73,807 persons,
of whom 37,238 are males and 36,569 females, dwelling in 10,324
houses. Hindus numbered 64,823; Muhammadans, 6701 ; Christians,
2281 ; and 'others,' 2.
Madura town was constituted a municipality as early as 1865, and
has shared in the development given to municipal institutions by more
recent Madras Acts. In 1883-84, the municipal income from taxation,
excluding imperial licences, amounted to ^"5642. The incidence of
taxation was is. ofd. per head within the municipal limits of Madura
town.
The history of the town is included in that already given for the
District. From time immemorial, Madura has been both the political
and religious capital of the extreme South. Its traditional line of
Pandyan kings dates back beyond the Christian era ; and in historical
times, it was the chosen residence of the powerful monarch Tirumala
Nayak, to whom all its architectural glories are assigned. The founda-
tion of the city and the sanctity of the great pagoda are described at
length in the Madhura Sthala Parana, with the usual amplifications
of Brahmanical legend. In conjunction with the temple at Rameswaram,
it is honoured by the personal presence of the great god Siva, whose
worship is predominant in Southern India, to the exclusion of the other
two members of the Hindu Trinity. At the present time, the two most
sacred shrines in the pagoda are those of Sundareswara and his wife
Minakshi.
In the first half of the 14th century, Madura was overrun by
Muhammadan invaders, who persecuted the Hindus with cruel
severity, and sentenced the great pagoda of the city to destruction.
They pulled down the outer wall with its 14 towers, and levelled the
numerous buildings which always cluster round a native temple. But
the two inmost shrines were miraculously preserved ; and on the expul-
sion of the Musalmans, the priests of Siva regained their revenues, and
rebuilt the four lofty gopurds or gateways which now stand in the outer
wall. The Madura pagoda has been elaborately described by Fergusson
{History of Indian Architecture). It forms a parallelogram, S47 feet
long from north to south, by 744 feet broad, surrounded by 9 gopurds
in all, one of which is 152 feet high. The principal structure is the
Sahasra-stambha-mantapam, or ' Hall of One Thousand Pillars ' (the
actual number being 997), which was built by Arya Nayak or Naik
Muthali, the general and minister of Viswanath, the founder of the
Nayak dynasty (circ. 1550). The whole is profusely ornamented both
with sculptures and paintings.
134 MADURA TOWN.
The other great buildings of Madura are all associated with the name
of Tirumala Nayak, who reigned from 1623 to 1659. The chief of
these is the celebrated palace, the most perfect relic of secular architec-
ture in the Madras Presidency. Its ruins cover a vast area of ground,
and have been utilized at one time or another by successive administra-
tions. The Collector's office was in one of the detached buildings, but
has now been located in the palace, towards the restoration of which
the British Government has devoted a large sum of money. The main
structure consists of two parts, an open court and a lofty hall. The style
of architecture is a mixture of the Hindu and the Saracenic ; but, as
in the Muhammadan capitals of Northern India, a fanciful tradition
relates that the native workmen were directed by a European master.
The courtyard is approximately 100 yards square, with high walls of
brick, forming long galleries surmounted by domes. One side is
constituted a hall ; and its lofty domed roof is supported by circular
pillars of granite, thickly coated with chunam or lime, and destitute of
ornament. The central area is said to have been the scene of
gladiatorial exhibitions. The other hall is of smaller dimensions, being
about 90 feet by 40 feet. It is covered by a pointed-arch roof of
brick, which is strengthened by granite ribs springing from columns
at the sides.
Only second in importance to the palace is the Vasanta or Puthu
matitapam, still in complete preservation. This is said to have been
built as a summer retreat for the god Sundareswara. It consists of a
hall about 100 yards long by 30 yards wide. In this case the roof is
flat, being composed of long slabs of granite, resting upon four rows of
pillars, each 20 feet high, and numbering 124 in all. The whole is
profusely ornamented with the characteristic emblems of the Hindu
religion, carved in high relief. In addition, there are ten groups of
sculptured effigies, some colossal and some small, representing Tirumala
and his nine predecessors, with their wives. On the farther bank of
the Vaigai stands the Tamakam, a two-storied building of quaint
architecture, said to have been erected as a kind of grand-stand, from
which to view spectacular combats. Lastly, the Teppu-kulam or great
tank, about a mile and a half east of the town, is also assigned to the
time of Tirumala. The tank is a perfect square, each side measuring
i 200 yards (Nelson). The banks are faced with hewn granite, and
surmounted with a handsome parapet, also of granite, beneath which
runs a continuous paved gallery. In the centre rises a square island,
with a lofty domed temple in the middle and a tiny shrine at each
corner. Once a year the banks of this tank are illuminated with a
idfch (100,000) of lamps; while the idols from the pagoda are drawn
round in a teppam or raft, from which the tank takes its name. The
tank always contains water (except in the famine year of 1S77), and
MADURA RIVER— MADURANTAKAM. 135
its neighbourhood is the favourite resort of European residents for an
evening drive.
Under British rule, the town of Madura has been greatly improved
by the laying out of wide streets and market-places. A large sum ot
money has been expended, although not with complete success, to
obtain a constant supply of water from the Vaigai. The chief modern
buildings are — the new jail; the civil and lying-in hospitals, standing on
a ruined gateway, which is all that remains of the old fort ; the District
school-house, founded in 1S56. The Jesuits, who were established in
Madura by the beginning of the 17th century, have several churches in
the town, and a small dispensary. The American Protestant Mission,
dating from 1834, possess a boarding-school and a very useful hospital.
The municipality also maintains 8 elementary schools, with accommoda-
tion for 550 pupils. The hospital, with a lying-in department attached,
was attended in 1882-83 by 698 in-door and 30,875 out-door patients.
Madura is an important station on the South Indian Railway.
Madura. — River in Cachar District, Assam ; tributary to the Barak
on its north or right bank. It takes its rise in the North Cachar Hills,
where it is known as the Bongpai. A popular legend in connection
with this river relates how a former Raja of Cachar, who had lost his
throne, was told in a dream that if he went to the Madura river the
next day he would see something approaching him against the current,
which he was to seize. On proceeding to the river the next morning,
he saw a huge serpent swimming towards him against the stream. This
he seized by the tail, whereupon it was transformed into a sword, by the
aid of which he succeeded in regaining his kingdom. The sword was
afterwards worshipped as the goddess Ranchandi (another name of
Diirga), and became the national deity of the Cacharis. It was always
kept at the seat of Government, and on the annexation of the country
was preserved by the ex-Rams at Barkhola. The sword, however, was
stolen from them a few years ago ; and it is conjectured that this loss of
their deity had some connection with a Cachari rising which took place
in the North Cachar Hills in January 1882.
Madurailtakam. — Tdluk in Chengalpat (Chingleput) District,
Madras Presidency. Area, 696 square miles. Population (1SS1)
223,067, namely, 112,239 males and 110,828 females. There are 525
villages; occupied houses, 30,725. Hindus number 215.422 ; Muham-
madans, 3444; Christians, 4199; and 'others,' 2. In 1SS3, the tdluk
contained 2 criminal courts ; police stations (J/ia>?js), 1 1 ; regular police,
80 men. Land revenue, ^"41,138. The tdluk is fairly fertile; the
principal crop is rice on ' wet ' lands, and on ' dry,' other cereals. The
Yedakeinad or 'left-hand land,' a strip of land along the coast,
separated from the mainland by backwaters, grows excellent cocoa-
nuts. The Kiliyar and Palar run through the region.
1 3 6 MAFUZ BANDAR— MA GA R TALA O.
Mafriz Bandar. — Town in Ganjam District, Madras Presidency. —
See Chicacole.
Magadi. — Taluk in Bangalore District, Mysore State. Area, about
320 square miles, of which 119 are cultivated. Population (1881)
49,882, namely, 47,304 Hindus, 2573 Muhammadans, and 5 Chris-
tians. Males numbered 24,581, and females 25,301. Revenue (1883),
,£10,566. The Arkavati runs through the south-eastern portion, but
cultivation gains little benefit from its waters. The highest peak is
Savandrug (4024 feet above the sea), offering a strong position, and
occupied by the remains of a hill fort. Bairandriig, another hill of
considerable elevation, was formerly fortified. The soil is a shallow
red mould, mixed with stones. Crops — ragit gram, avare, togari, and
tobacco. The taluk contains 1 criminal court ; police stations (tliauds),
7; regular police, 59 men; village watchmen (cliaukidars), 71. The
Chola dynasty, the kings of Vijayanagar, and the Gauda chiefs of
Bangalore, successively held sway over the taluk.
Magadi. — Village in Bangalore District, Mysore State ; head-
quarters of the Magadi taluk ; situated in lat. 12° 57' 20" n., and long.
770 16' 10" E. ; 28 miles by road west of Bangalore city. Population
(1881) 3078. Said to have been founded in 1139 by a Chola king.
In the 16th century it passed into the hands of Immadi Kempe
Gauda of Bangalore, who fixed his residence here. In 1728 it was
captured by the Hindu Raja of Mysore, and the chief was carried
prisoner to Seringapatam, where he died. The fort is now deserted,
the town being built on a slope to the north. The ruined temple of
Sameswara was erected by Kempe Gauda.
Maganand. — Mountain pass in Sirmur (Sarmor) State, Punjab,
over the Siwalik Hills, on the route from Sadhaura to Nahan ; 5 miles
south-west of the latter town, in lat. 300 32' n., long. 770 19' e. The
path leads up the valley of the Markanda, past the village of
Maganand. It formed the rendezvous of the British column for the
attack on Nahan during the Gurkha war in 18 15. Approximate
elevation of the crest above sea-level, about 2600 feet.
Magar Talao (Crocodile Tank, also called Magar Hr, or more
correctly, J'ir Matigho). — Tank, hot springs, and temple in Karachi
(Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated about 7 or 8
miles north of Karachi city, among very barren and rocky hills. Lat.
240 58' .v, long. 670 5' E. The following description of this curious
place is by Carless, who visited the spot many years ago, but whose
account applies, with but few exceptions, to its appearance at the
present day : —
' We came suddenly upon one of the most singular scenes I ever
witnessed. The accounts of my companions had prepared me for
something extraordinary, but the reality far surpassed their description.
MA GAR TALAO. 137
Before us lay a small swamp enclosed in a belt of lofty trees, which
had evidently been formed by the superfluous waters of the spring
close by flowing into a low hollow in the ground. It was not a single
sheet of water, but was full of small islets, so much so that it appeared
as if an immense number of narrow channels had been cut, so as to
cross each other in every direction. These channels were literally
swarming with crocodiles, and the islets and banks were covered with
them also.
'The swamp is not more than 150 yards long, by about 80 yards
broad ; and in this confined space I counted above 200 large ones,
from 8 to 15 feet long, while those of a smaller size were innumerable.
Our horses were standing within 4 or 5 yards of several reclining
on the bank, but they took no notice of them, and would not move
until roused by a stick. In a small pool, apart from the swamp, there
was a very large one, which the people designate the "chief," because
he lives by himself in a kind of state, and will not allow any of the
common herd to intrude upon his favourite haunt. It is worthy of
remark, that there were several buffaloes standing in the water in the
centre of the swamp, and that though the large crocodiles frequently
came in contact with them in swimming past, they never offered them
the least molestation. The natives say they never touch a buffalo, but
will instantly attack any other animal, however large. The appearance
of the place altogether, with its green, slimy, stagnant waters, and so
many of these huge, uncouth monsters moving sluggishly about, is
disgusting in the extreme ; and it will long be remembered by me as
the most loathsome spot I ever beheld. After gazing upon the scene
some time, we proceeded round the swamp to the temple, where the
priest had spread carpets for the party under the shade of some trees.
They told me it was a curious sight to see the crocodiles fed, and that
people of rank always gave them a goat for that purpose. Taking the
hint, I immediately ordered one to be killed for their entertainment.
1 The animal was slaughtered on the edge of the swamp ; and the
instant the blood began to flow, the water became perfectly alive with
the brutes, all hastening from different parts towards the spot. In the
course of a few minutes, and long before the goat was cut up, upwards
of 150 had collected in a mass on the dry bank, waiting with distended
jaws until their anticipated feast was ready. We stood within 3 yards
of them, and if one more daring than the rest showed any desire to
approach nearer, he was beaten back by the children with sticks.
Indeed they were so sluggish, and if I may use the expression, tame,
that I laid hold of one, about 12 feet long, by his tail, which I took
care, however, protruded to a safe distance beyond the mass. When
the meat was thrown among them, it proved the signal for a general
battle ; several seized hold of a piece at the same time, and bit and
i?8 MAGAR TALAO.
j
strucrsrled and rolled over each other until almost exhausted with the
desperate efforts they made to carry it off. At last all was devoured,
and they retired slowly to the water. . . .
1 The mosque is a neat white building, of a square form, surrounded
by a broad terrace, with a cupola and slender minarets at the corners,
erected on the summit of a rocky crag of limestone, and said to be 2000
years old. It is dedicated to Pir Haji Mangho, who is esteemed a saint
by both Hindus and Muhammadans, and is held in such high veneration
throughout Sind, that numbers of bodies are yearly brought from a great
distance to be interred near his shrine. The valley is, in consequence,
covered with burying-grounds, which are full of tombs, elaborately
carved and ornamented.
' The interior of the mosque contains a tomb surmounted by a
canopy of carved woodwork supported on slender pillars, the whole
prettily and neatly ornamented, and kept in excellent order, as are the
building and terrace, which are built of stone. On the side of the rock
looking towards the crocodiles' pool, the perpendicular face of the cliff
is covered with a coating of smooth chunam, and from the lower part
the principal spring gushes forth through a small fissure. The water
is received into two stone reservoirs, and then escapes through several
outlets to the swamp below. In one of them was a large crocodile, with
about a dozen young ones, which the inhabitants have named the
" Peacock " (or Mor), and they consider him to be the progenitor of
the whole race. The water of this spring is perfectly fresh and slightly
warm, but at another, a few yards from it, it is quite cold.
' On leaving the temple, we crossed the valley towards the salt spring,
which is situated on the eastern side at the base of a narrow ridge of
sandstone about 600 feet high. The water is extremely salt, and, after
forming two or three small pools, escapes in several streams, swarming
with small crocodiles, through an opening in the ridge, and is absorbed
in the sandy plain on the other side. The natives say the water in the
pools sometimes rises and falls, and they attribute this to the influence of
the ocean tides upon it ; but this cannot be the true cause, as the rise
only takes place at long intervals, and the plains, besides, ascend gradually
from the sea up to the spot, which I estimated to be about 150 feet
above its level. That there is a considerable rise in the water at times
is evident from the extent of ground about the spring which has been
overflowed, and which is covered with a saline incrustation to the depth
of 2 or 3 inches ; and it is probably produced merely by a sudden
increase in the body of water issuing from it, caused by a heavy fall of
rain among the mountains in the vicinity.'
The temperature of the water of the hot springs is 133° F. The
springs are considered by the natives to be efficacious in the cure of
every disease, and many bathe daily in the waters. Picnics are
MAGDAPUR—MAGHIANA. 139
frequently made here by parties from Karachi, when a goat or other
animal is bought and sacrificed for the crocodiles.
At the present time, a fairly constructed road runs from Karachi to
Magar Pir, and thence westerly to the Habb river ; and a rough track
also leads north to Shah Bilawal, in the Province of Las. There is a
dharmsdla at Magar Pir, as also a small bungalow erected by a Parsi,
where visitors can put up during their stay here. It is worthy of
remark, that the crocodiles at this place, which are now confined
within a small enclosure fed by the thermal springs, are altogether
different from the gharidl, or long-snouted kind, which abounds in the
Indus.
Magdapur. — Pargand of Kheri District, Oudh ; situated south of
Atwa Piparia, between the Kathna river on the east and the Gumti on
the west. Area, 56 square miles, of which 30 are cultivated. Population
(1881) 12,031, namely, Hindus, 10,093, and Muhammadans, 1938;
residing in 34 villages, of which 26 are held under tdlukddri tenure.
Government land revenue, ^1104. Magdapur was only created a
separate pargand at the time of the recent Settlement, prior to which
it formed a part of Barwar.
Maghar. — Village in Khalilabad fahsil, Gorakhpur District, North-
Western Provinces; situated in lat. 260 42' n., and long. 830 n' e., on
the river Ami, 27 miles east by south of Basti. Population (188 1) 2623.
Only noticeable as containing the tomb of Kabir, the famous religious
reformer, who is acknowledged as a prophet or saint both by Muham-
madans and Hindus. Just east of the village, the Gorakhpur and
Faizabad road crosses the Ami river bv a fine bridge.
Maghera. — Town in Muttra ta/isil, Muttra (Mathura) District,
North-Western Provinces; situated in lat. 270 34' n., and long. 770 37'
52" e. ; 15 miles north-west of Muttra town. Population (1SS1) 4719.
An agricultural town, of little or no commercial importance.
Maghiaiia. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of
Jhang District, Punjab. Lat. 31° 16' 40" N., long. 720 20' 55" e. Forms
a single municipality with J hang, which lies 2 miles north. The two
places are connected by two metalled roads, which start from the
east and west ends of Maghiana, cross each other in the middle, and
enter Jhang on the west and east respectively. The Chenab flows
at a distance of about 3 miles to the west, but in the hot weather
the Kharora branch of the river fills and runs close past the towns ;
and with its fine avenue of trees, 3 miles long, and handsome masonry
bathing ghats, adds a peculiar beauty to the neighbourhood. The
country round is well wooded ; fine gardens abound ; there are good
driving roads well shaded with trees, and passing through rich cultiva-
tion ; and altogether the towns and their environs form a beautiful oasis
in the desert waste by which they are surrounded. An inundation canal
1 4 o MA G OKI— MA GRA YA R.
leaves the Kharora branch of the Chenab near Jhang, and passing round
Maghiana, empties itself into the same branch after a course of 5 miles.
Maghiana proper contains a population (1881) of 12,574, namely,
Muhammadans, 6305; Hindus, 5917; and Sikhs, 352. The united
towns, constituting one municipality, have a population of 21,629,
namely, Muhammadans, 10,941; Hindus, 10,187; Sikhs, 495; and
Christians, 6. Municipal income, 1882-83,^2475 ; incidence, 2s. 3^d.
per head.
Maghiana. lies on the edge of the highlands, overlooking the alluvial
valley of the Chenab ; while the older town of J hang occupies
the lowlands at its foot. The Government offices and establish-
ments have now been removed to the higher site, and commerce has
almost deserted Jhang, which has now ceased to be, comparatively
speaking, a place of any importance. Maghiana, which was nothing
but a petty village twenty-five years ago, is now a rising commercial
town. Besides a considerable trade with Kandahar, it has large
exports of country cloth, and a fluctuating business in grain from
the fertile lowlands of the Ravi. The local manufactures include
soap, leather work, especially saddlery, and jars for gM, and oil ; and
brass work, especially imitation Chubb's locks, for which the town has
a reputation throughout the Punjab. The civil station lies to the east
of Maghiana, and consists only of a court-house and treasury, sessions
bungalow, jail, small church, and three or four residences of officials.
The principal institutions of Jhang and Maghiana are two middle
schools, one in each town, and an upper school half-way between the
towns; charitable dispensary; municipal hall, with reading-room, library,
and small museum ; also a dak bungalow, and a sardi (native inn).
Magori. — Petty State of Mahi Kantha, Bombay Presidency.
Population (1881) 3076 ; estimated revenue, ^593. Tribute of £9 is
paid to the Raja of Edar. The chief, Thakur Himat Singh, is a Rahtor
Rajput. The State contains 30 villages, with a total cultivated area
of 12,362 acres.
Magrah. — Town in Hugh' District, Bengal. Lat. 220 59' 5" n.,
long. 88° 25' E. ; a few miles west of Tribeni. Station on the East
India Railway, 29 miles from Howrah (Calcutta). Population (1S81)
1373. A municipal union, with an income in 1882-83 OI" ^55 >
average incidence of taxation, 6^d. per head of population (1762)
within municipal limits, Good bazar. Seat of considerable local trade.
MagTayar. — Pargand of Unao District, Oudh ; bounded on the
north by pargand Purwa, on the east by Panhan and Patan, on the
south by Ghatampur, and on the west by Harha. Area, 31 square
miles, of which only 10 are cultivated. Population (1881) 16,343,
principally Brahmans. Government land revenue, ^£2068, or an average
of 2s. 2d. per acre. Of the 31 villages comprising the pargand, 12 are
MAGURA—MAHABALESHWAR. 141
held under tdlukddri, 11 under zaminddri, and 8 under pattiddri
tenure.
MagTira. — Sub-division of Jessor District, Bengal, lying between 23°
15' 30" and 230 41' n. lat., and between 89° 17' 30" and 89° 43' 30" e.
long. Area, 425 square miles; villages, 877 ; occupied houses, 43,339.
Population (1872) 275,720; (1881) 293,303, namely, males 143,463,
and females 151,840. Total increase during nine years, 17,583, or
6*38 per cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 18S1 —
Muhammadans, 162,534; Hindus, 130,730; and Christians, 39.
Persons per square mile, 690; villages per square mile, 2-o6; houses
per square mile, 104 ; persons per house, 67 ; proportion of males
to total population, 48-9- This Sub-division contains (1883) 2 magis-
terial and 2 revenue and civil courts, with 3 police stations at
Magura, Muhammadpur, and Salikha; a regular police force of 47
men, besides 558 village watchmen.
Magura. — Town in Jessor District, Bengal, and head-quarters of
Magura Sub-division; situated in lat. 23° 29' 25" n., and long. 890 2S'
5" E., on the Nabaganga river, at the point where the Muchikhali
brings down into it the waters of the Garai and Kumar. Brisk export
of sugar, and import of rice. Sugar refineries. Extensive manufac-
ture of reed mats is carried on ; and oil is extracted from mustard
seeds. The town is divided into two parts — Magura proper, with the
bdzdr, and Dari Magura on the west. Protected from inundation by
the Nabaganga embankment. Dispensary.
Mahabaleshwar. — Principal sanitarium of the Bombay Presidency ;
situated in lat. 170 58' 5" n., and long. 730 42' 35" e., in the Jauli
Sub-division of Satara District. Mahabaleshwar occupies the pro-
longed, and in places almost level, summit of a range of the Western
Ghats, from which it takes its name ; with a general elevation of 4500
feet above sea-level, at points rising to 4700. It is reached from
Bombay by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway to Poona (119 miles),
and thence by post-carriage or on horseback (74 miles) by good road,
by the Katraj, Kamatki, and Pasarni g/idts. Rest-houses are estab-
lished along the route, and carriages can be driven right up the Pasarni
ghdt, although it is expedient to assist the horses by a dozen coolies,
or to perform that stage by mules. A more recent route (opened
March 1875) conveys travellers by steamboats from Bombay to Das-
gaon, near the mouth of the Savitri river, from which an old road
leads (35 miles) across the intermediate plain and up the ghdt to
Mahabaleshwar station. Permanent population, 324S in February 1881.
Mahabaleshwar combines all the conditions requisite for a first-class
sanitarium. Easy access for invalids from the great centres of Bombay
and Poona, ample level space for carriage exercise at the top of the
hill, an excellent water-supply, picturesque scenery, and proximity to
1 4 2 MA HABALESHWA R.
the fresh sea-breeze. It was established in 1828 by Sir John Malcolm,
the Governor of Bombay, who obtained the site from the Raja of
Satara in exchange for another patch of territory. The founder's
name still survives in the village of Malcolmpet. This name is
sometimes applied to the whole station, comprising an area of 5 miles
radius from the Frere Hall, and including the lands of sixty-five petty
hamlets of from four to twenty huts each. The superior elevation of
Mahabaleshwar (4500 feet) renders it much cooler than the rival sani-
tarium of Matheran in Thana District (2460 feet), but its heavy rainfall
makes it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season. The monsoon
strikes this outlying range of the ghdts with its full force, and deposits
on their slopes the main portion of its aqueous burden.
Mahabaleshwar forms the retreat usually during spring, and occa-
sionally in autumn, of the Governor of the Bombay Presidency, the
Commander-in-Chief of the Bombay Army, and the chief officers of
their head-quarters establishments. It is also a popular resort for
visitors from Bombay and Poona and the surrounding Districts. The
favourite season for visitors is from March to June, the object being
to escape from the intense heat of the plains. But this is not the
time of the year when Mahabaleshwar is most beautiful, as the streams
and waterfalls are dry, the verdure parched, and the magnificent
view obstructed by haze and glare. As soon as the first burst of the
summer monsoon occurs, about June, the visitors, residents, and shop-
keepers leave the station en masse, and only a few of the poorer classes
remain. On the cessation of the monsoon in October, visitors return
to Mahabaleshwar, which is then seen at its best. Beautiful ferns of
many varieties are in full leaf, and many spots are completely carpeted
with wild-flowers, moss, and grasses. The streams are at their fullest ;
the Yenna falls forming an imposing cascade, while the faces of
the cliffs are lighted up with innumerable silver rills and dazzling sprays.
Except during the south-west monsoon, Mahabaleshwar is at all times
most attractive, one of its principal charms being the excellent drives
and walks in all directions.
Mahabaleshwar proper is a municipality under the administrative
charge of a Superintendent, almost always a member of the Bombay
Medical Service. From the success attending the cultivation of cin-
chona on the Nilgiris and on some of the hill stations in Bengal, the
Government of India in 1864 established a garden, consisting of about
95 acres, on the eastern side of the hill; but this experimental cultivation
proving a complete failure, the land, with a bungalow erected thereon,
was in 1876 handed over to the Forest Department. The experiment
had cost ^6400. Mahabaleshwar has the usual public buildings of a
lir^t-class sanitarium — church, clubs, library, hotels, cemetery, telegraph
and post office, etc. The bdzdr or general market occupies a central
MAHABALIPUR. 143
position in the station, and supplies of every description can be ob-
tained. The Frere Hall, a handsome building, constructed in 1864,
contains a large reading-room with a well-assorted library. The
European residences consist of about 100 bungalows scattered over a
radius of 3 or 4 miles, nearly all being occupied during the season.
The population varies according to the time of the year ; but the per-
manent population of the 65 villages comprising Malcolmpet, including
Mahabaleshwar Hill, was returned in February 18S1 at 3248. No
returns are available showing the population at the height of the season.
Municipal revenue (1882-83), ^1510 — including a subsidy from
Government of ^640. An excellent medical institution is presided
over by the civil surgeon, who also acts as Superintendent of the station,
and Assistant to the Collector at Satara.
The average annual mean temperature of Mahabaleshwar Hill is
66*8° F. In November, December, and January, the coldest months,
the temperature averages 63-4 °, rising to a mean of 670 in February,
when the cold weather ends. The hottest time of the year is from
about the middle of March to the middle of April, when during the day
the temperature rises to a little over 900 F. Towards the end of April,
invigorating sea-breezes set in from the west, which gather strength as
the season advances. Occasional showers occur in May, and the mon-
soon usually sets in early in June, attaining its maximum force in July,
when 12 inches or even more of rainfall are occasionally registered in
a single day. During the twenty-four years ending 18S4, the rainfall
varied from 167*6 inches in 1S77 to 374*5 inches in 1882, the yearly
average being 263*8 inches.
Mahabalipur (' The City of the Great Bali '— ' The Seven Pagodas ;'
the vernacular name is also spelt Mahavellipur, Mavallipur, Ma/na-
laipur, Mamallapur, and Mallapur). — Village in Chengalpat (Chingle-
put) District, Madras; situated in lat. 120 36' 55" n., and long. So°
13' 55" e., 35 miles south of Madras. Population (1881) 9S7 ; number
of houses, 148.
This is one of the most interesting and, to archaeologists, one of the
most important spots in Southern India. The dispute as to its name
has been freely discussed in Major M. YV. Carr's work on the
' Seven Pagodas,' and Mr. Crole's Manual of the District. It is a
moot point, whether to the Malla family of the Chalukyas, or to Bali
of legendary greatness, belongs the honour of naming these wonderful
temples.
The antiquities of the place may be divided into three groups — (1)
the 5 raths to the south of the village, belonging probably to the latest
Buddhist period ; (2) the cave temples, monolithic figures, carvings,
and sculptures, west of the village, probably of the 6th or 7th century
a.d. (these contain some marvellous reliefs, ranking with those of
144 MAHABALIPUR.
Ellora and Elephanta) ; (3) the more modern temples of Vishnu and
Siva, the latter being washed by the sea. To these two, with five other
pagodas, buried (according to tradition) by the sea, the place owes its
English name. The following selections from Crole, Fergusson, and
Hunter, describe these antiquities. Mr. Crole writes : —
' The best, and by far the most important, of its class is the pastoral
group in the Krishna mantapam, as it is called. The fact is, that it
represents Indra, the god of the sky, supporting the clouds with his
left hand, to protect the cattle of Bala from the fury of the Maruts or
tempest demons. Near him, the cattle are being tended and milked.
To the right, a young bull is seen, with head slightly turned and fore-foot
extended, as if suddenly startled. This is one of the most spirited and
lifelike pieces of sculpture to be seen anywhere.
' A little to the north of this is the great bas-relief which goes by
the name of " Arjun's Penance." It covers a mass of rock 96 feet
in length and 43 feet in height, and is described by Fergusson as
"the most remarkable thing of its class in India." " Now," says he,
" that it is known to be wholly devoted to serpent-worship, it acquires
an interest it had not before, and opens a new chapter in Indian
mythology. There seems nothing to enable us to fix its age with
absolute certainty ; it can hardly, however, be doubted that it is anterior
to the 10th century, and may be a couple of centuries earlier." . . .
' Near the stone choultry by the side of the road, and a little to the
north of the rock last described, stands a well-executed group lately
exhumed, representing a couple of monkeys catching fleas on each other
after the manner of their kind, while a young one is extracting nourish-
ment from the female.
' Near this point, a spectator, looking southwards, may see, formed
by the ridges on which the caves are cut, the recumbent figure of a
man with his hands in the attitude of prayer or meditation. This figure
measures at least 1500 feet long, the partly natural resemblance having
been assisted by the rolling away of rocks and boulders. On the spot,
this is called the " Giant Raja Bali," but it is no doubt the work of Jains.
' The whole of this ridge is pitted with caves and temples. There are
14 or 15 Rishi caves in it, and much carving and figuring of a later
period. These are distinguished by the marked transition from the
representations of scenes of peace to scenes of battle, treading down
of opposition and destruction, the too truthful emblems of the dark
centuries of religious strife which preceded and followed the final
expulsion of the Buddhists. Their age is not more than 600 or 700
years ; and the art is poor, and shows as great a decadence in matter
as in religion. The representations are too often gross and disgusting,
and the carving stiff and unnatural — entirely wanting in ease and grace
and truth to nature.
MAHABALIPUR. 145
1 Behind this ridge, and near the canal, are two more of the
monolithic rat/is, and one similar in form, but built of large blocks of
stone.
' The last period is represented by the Shore Temple, the Varaha-
swami Temple in the village, and by some of the remains in a village
in a hamlet called Salewankuppen, 2 miles to the northward. In
the two former there is little distinguishable in construction and
general plan from similar buildings to be found everywhere in the
south.
' Looking at the place as a whole, its architecture, its sculptures, and
its inscriptions, we would seem to possess here a complete religious
history of the south carved in the imperishable rock ; and, with all
deference to the high authority of Mr. Fergusson (who, however, seems
to have confined his study almost entirely to the monoliths), it is difficult
to believe that the remains enumerated do not form a chapter in the
story anterior to his earliest one, which he dates about the 6th century
a.d. It would seem to be much more in accordance with the evidence
to accept these remains as the records left by the Buddhist faith, and
to assign to them an age nearly coeval with the zenith of Buddhist
architecture and sculpture, or a period commencing a couple of cen-
turies or so before the Christian era.' — (Crole.)
Mr. Fergusson writes : —
' The oldest and most interesting group of monuments are the so-
called five raths, or monolithic temples, standing on the sea-shore.
One of these, that with the apsidal termination, stands a little detached
from the rest. The other four stand in a line north and south, and
look as if they had been carved out of a single stone or rock, which
originally, if that were so, must have been between 35 feet and 40 feet
high at its southern end, sinking to half that height at its northern
extremity, and its width diminishing in a like proportion.
' The first on the north is a mere pansala or cell, 1 1 feet square
externally, and 16 feet high. It is the only one, too, that seems finished
or nearly so, but it has no throne or image internally, from which we
might guess its destination.
' The next is a small copy of the last to the southward, and measures
11 feet by 16 feet in plan, and 20 feet in height. The third is very
remarkable ; it is an oblong building with a curvilinear-shaped roof
with a straight ridge. Its dimensions are 42 feet long, 25 feet wide,
and 25 feet high. Externally it seems to have been completely
carved, but internally only partially excavated, the works being apparently
stopped by an accident. It is cracked completely through, so that
daylight can be seen through it, and several masses of the rock have
fallen to the ground. This has been ascribed to an earthquake and
other causes. My impression is that the explanation is not far to
VOL. IX. k
i46 MAHABALIPUR.
seek, but arose from unskilfulness on the part of workmen employed
in a first attempt. Having completed the exterior, they set to work
to excavate the interior, so as to make it resemble a structural build-
ing of the same class, leaving only such pillars and supports as were
sufficient to support a wooden roof of the ordinary construction. In
this instance, it was a mass of solid granite which, had the excavation
been completed, would certainly have crushed the lower storey to
powder. As it was, the builders seem to have taken the hint of the
crack, and stopped the further progress of the works.
' The last, however, is the most interesting of the series. Its dimen-
sions are 27 feet by 25 feet in plan, 34 feet in height. Its upper part
is entirely finished with its sculptures, the lower merely blocked out.
It may be that, frightened by the crack in the last-named rath, or from
some other cause, they desisted, and it still remains in an unfinished
state.
' The materials for fixing the age of this rath are, first, the palaeo-
graphic form of the characters used in the numerous inscriptions with
which it is covered. Comparing these with Prinsep's alphabets, allowing
for difference of locality, they seem certainly to be anterior to the 7th
century. The language, too, is Sanskrit, while all the Chola inscrip-
tions of the 10th and subsequent centuries are in Tamil, and in very
much more modern characters. Another proof of antiquity is the
character of the sculpture. We have on this rath most of the Hindu
Pantheon, such as Brahma and Vishnu ; Siva, too, appears in most
of his characters, but all in forms more subdued than to be found
elsewhere. The one extravagance is that the gods have generally four
arms — never more — to distinguish them from mortals; but none of
the combinations or extravagances we find in the caves here, as at
Ellora or Elephanta. It is the soberest and most reasonable version
of the Hindu Pantheon yet discovered, and consequently one of the
most interesting, as well, probably, as the earliest.
' None of the inscriptions on the raths have dates ; but from the
mention of the Pallavas in connection with this place, I see no reason
for doubting the inference drawn by Sir Walter Elliot from their in-
scriptions— " that the excavations could not well have been made later
than the 6th century." Add to all this, that these raths are certainly
very like Buddhist buildings, and it seems hardly to admit of doubt
that we have here petrifactions of the last forms of Buddhist archi-
tecture, and the first forms of that of the Dravidian.
'The want of interiors in these raths makes it sometimes difficult to
make this as clear as it might be. We cannot, for instance, tell whether
the apsidal rath was meant to reproduce a Chaitya hall, or vihdra.
From its being in several storeys, I would infer the latter; but the whole
is so conventionalized by transplantation to the south, and by the
MAHABALIPUR. 147
different uses to which they are applied for the purposes of a different
religion, that we must not stretch analogies too far.
' There is one other rath, at some distance from the others, called
" Arjun's Rath," which, strange to say, is finished, or nearly so, and
gives a fair idea of the form their oblong temples took before we have
any structural buildings of the class. This temple, though entered in
the side, was never intended to be pierced through, but always to
contain a cell. The large oblong rath, on the contrary, was intended
to be open all round ; and whether, consequently, we should consider
it as a choultry or a gopura is not quite clear. One thing, at all events,
seems certain — and it is what interests us most here — that the square
raths are copies of Buddhist vihdras, and are the originals from which
all the viswanas in Southern India were copied, and continued to be
copied nearly unchanged to a very late period. . . . On the other
hand, the oblong raths were halls or porticoes with the Buddhists, and
became the gopuras or gateways which are frequently, indeed generally,
more important parts of Dravidian temples than the viswanas them-
selves. They too, like the viswanas, retain their original features very
little changed to the present day.
'The other antiquities at Mahabalipur, though very interesting in
themselves, are not nearly so important as the raths just described.
The caves are generally small and fine architecturally, from the feeble-
ness and tenuity of their supports. The southern cave-diggers had
evidently not been grounded in the art like their northern compeers, the
Buddhists. The long experience of the latter in the art taught them that
ponderous masses were not only necessary to support their roofs, but
for architectural effect; and neither they, nor the Hindus who succeeded
them in the north, ever hesitated to use pillars of two or three diameters
in height, or to crowd them together to any required extent. In the
south, on the contrary, the cave-diggers tried to copy literally the
structural pillar used to support wooden roofs. Hence, I believe, the
accident to the long rath ; and hence certainly the poor and modern look
of all the southern caves, which has hitherto proved such a stumbling-
block to all who have tried to guess their age. Their sculpture is
better, and some of their best designs rank with those of Ellora and
Elephanta, with which they were, in all probability, contemporary.
Now, however, that we know that the sculptures in Cave No. 3 at
Badami were executed in the 6th century (579 a.o.), we are enabled
to approximate to the date of those in the Mahabalipur caves with very
tolerable certainty. The Badami sculptures are so similar in style with
the best examples there, that they cannot be far distant in date ; and if
placed in the following century it will not, probably, be far from the
truth.' — (Fergusson.)
' On the left side of the rock, which is divided by a deep natural
14S mahabalipur.
cleft, the chief figure in the upper part appears to be the giant Raja
Maria Bali Chakrabartti, with his attendant dwarfs, five Rajas with their
wives, four warriors, five ascetics, and a holy Rishi in his cave temple.
The lions, tigers, cheetahs, and deer, in different parts of the sculpture,
show that the people have travelled from a distance through the jungles.
' In the central part of the cleft, at the bottom, on the left, is a figure
seated, which I take to be Buddha, with his five disciples in front of
the cave temple, with the holy Rishi. The heads of three of the
disciples have been broken off. . . . In the deep recess formed by the
natural cleft in the centre of the rock sculpture, is the lower part of the
body and tail of the snake deity Vasuki, the Naga Raja ; and below
this is the entire figure of. Ulupi, his daughter, with a canopy of three
snakes rising over the head. The upper portion of the Naga deity had
been broken off, and was said to be buried in front of the sculptures.
I made search for it, found it, and got it dug up, set upright, and
photographed ; it is the figure of a man with his hands raised in prayer,
and a canopy of seven snakes rising over a pyramidal head-dress, and
with the usual emblems of the Buddhist religion. To the right of
these are several Rajas and men, each accompanied by his wife ; six
dwarfs ; and eight Barudas, or figures of men and women with the legs
of birds ; several monkeys ; a cat doing penance, while rats are running
near it ; two large and several small elephants ; lions, tigers, geese,
cocks, and hens. I thought at first that all the figures were coming to do
reverence or to worship the snake deity ; but when we first took photo-
graphs of this rock sculpture, the whole of the central cleft was over-
grown with trees and brushwood, and the five disciples of Buddha were
buried.
' Lord Napier, then Governor of Madras, visited the spot about a
week after the snake deity was dug up, and had excavations made to
the depth of 7 or 8 feet, which exposed a great number of figures and
animals, and showed that the old road must have passed in front of the
rock at a depth of 5 or 6 feet below the present level, the ground having
been filled up chiefly with broken bricks and earth, with here and there
large fragments of sculptured rocks, dressed stones, and cornices from
the adjoining temples. The broken tusk of the large elephant was
also found. To the left, and below the five disciples of Buddha, is a
deer, in a very natural attitude, scratching its nose with its hind foot.
The male and female elephants with their young behind them, and some
of the figures of crouching tigers and cheetahs, are in a very natural
and spirited style ; and there is a great look of natural animation,
movement, and bustle in the whole group, of which Buddha and his
five disciples appear to occupy the principal position and to attract the
greatest attention, while the snake deity and his daughter are, as it
were, in the background, and ascetics are scattered about in several
MAHABAN. 149
parts. . . . One point of great importance in these early large rock
sculptures is, that they represent scenes of peace with men and their
wives, a single wife accompanying each, and the animals, Barudas, and
birds in pairs, while the Raja Mahabali is accompanied by dwarfs, and
the other Rajas, whose rank is indicated by umbrella-bearers, have
each his wife beside him. The ascetics, of whom there are five or six,
have no wife. It appears to me that the story is one which represents
the establishment of the Buddhist religion, or one cf peace, goodwill,
toleration, and kindness to all men, and to animals and birds.
Mr. Fergusson, declared it to be, with the exception of the pagoda
at Tanjore, the finest and most important vimana in the south of
India. It is small, being not more than 30 feet square at base, and 60
feet high ; but it is free from all surrounding walls and gateways, which
so detract from the grandeur of other pagodas. The same authority
assigns the edifice to the 1 ith century, and the neighbouring excavations
to the 13th or 14th.
'It is to be regretted that the inscriptions of Mahdbalipur, as yet
deciphered, furnish no clue to the date or history of these remarkable
structures ; though Dr. Babington explains one line as conveying the
name of the founder, "Atirana Chanda (he who in battle is furious),
Lord of kings, built this place called Atiranachandeshwara." It is
equally a matter of doubt to what deity the sea-side pagoda was
originally dedicated. In the chamber next the sea is a gigantic lingam
of black polished stone, which would lead us to suppose it a temple of
Siva. On the other hand, there is a gigantic figure of Vishnu, in a
recumbent posture, in one of the verandahs. The uncertainty on
all these points may, perhaps, heighten the zest of inspection.' —
(Hunter.)
Mahaban. — Central southern tahsil of Muttra (Mathura) District,
North-Western Provinces ; lying wholly within the Doab, and consist-
ing for the most part of a fertile alluvial plain along the north bank of
the Jumna (Jamuna). The tahsil is of a straggling and irregular shape,
narrowing to a point in the extreme north and south, with a maximum
length of 32 miles, and spreading out in the centre to a maximum
breadth of 14 miles. The Jumna, with its series of sinuous bends,
forms throughout the western and southern boundary for nearly 50
miles. For a distance varying from one to three miles inland from the
river, the surface of the ground is broken up by ravines and sand-
hills, for the greater part uncultivated, but much used for grazing.
To the east, beyond the zone of sand and ravines, the country is
level, with an alluvial soil, like the rest of the Doab. Irrigation is
carried on principally from wells, but is conducted with difficulty owing
to the depth of the water beneath the surface. The area irrigated
from rivers, j/iils, and ponds is insignificant. There is at present
150 MAHABAN TO J I rN.
(1884) no canal irrigation, but the Math branch of the Ganges canal
will, if completed, pass down the whole length of the tahsil.
The most important of the autumn (kharif) crops are cotton and jodr ;
and of the spring (rabi) crops, wheat and barley. Sugar-cane, rice,
indigo, opium, and garden crops are very sparingly produced. The
total area of the ta/isil in 18S1-82 was 238*8 square miles, of which
194*4 square miles were cultivated, 237 square miles cultivable, and 207
square miles barren waste. Area assessed for Government revenue
or paying quit-rent, 2 14-9 square miles, of which 174*8 square miles
were cultivated. Population (1872) 143,955 ■> (1881) 116,829, namely,
males 64,037, and females 52,792 ; showing a decrease of 27,126,
or 1 8*8 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there
were in 1881 — Hindus, 110,029 ; Muhammadans, 6787 ; Jains, 2 * and
Christians, n. Of the 196 inhabited villages comprising the tahsil, 127
contained less than five hundred inhabitants ; 39 between five hundred
and a thousand ; and 30 upwards of a thousand. Amount of Govern-
ment land revenue or quit-rent (188 1-82), ^3 1,356, or with local rates
and cesses, ,£35,49°. Rental, including cesses, paid by the cultivators,
£SS^2>- In I*S83 the tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court,
with 3 police stations (thdnds). Strength of regular police, 38 men ;
village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 211.
Mahaban. — Ancient town and place of pilgrimage in Muttra (Mathura)
District, North- Western Provinces, and head-quarters of the Mahaban
tahsil; situated in lat. 270 25' 35" n., and long. 770 47' 30" e., on the
Jumna (Jamuna) river, about six miles below Muttra town, near the
opposite bank of the river. Population (1S72) 6930; (1881) 6182,
namely, Hindus, 4475; Muhammadans, 1704; and 'others,' 3. Area
of town site, about 100 acres. For conservancy and police purposes,
a small house-tax realized .£138 in 1882. Besides the ordinary sub-
divisional buildings, the town contains an Anglo-vernacular school,
post-office, and police station.
Mahaban first emerges into modern history in the year 1017 a.d.,
when it shared the fate of the neighbouring city of Muttra, and was
sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. The Hindu prince is said, when the
fall of the town became inevitable, to have solemnly slain his wife
and children, and then to have committed suicide. In 1234, a con-
temporary writer mentions Mahaban as one of the gathering places of
the imperial army sent by Shams-ud-din against Kalinjar. It is inci-
dentally referred to by the Emperor Babar in 1526. In 1804, Jaswant
Rao Holkar lied from the Doab after his defeat at Farukhabdd by a
ford a little west of Mahaban; and in 1805, Amir Khan, the Pathdn
freebooter, crossed and recrossed the Jumna by the same route.
It is not, however, from its appearances in modern history, that
Mahaban claims notice. The country round about it, although now
MAHABAN TO WN i 5 r
bare of wood?, appears to have once been a great forest, literally Mahd
ban. Even as late as 1634, the Emperor Shah Jahan held a hunt
here, and killed four tigers. This ancient woodland country, fringing
the sacred Jumna, was, from very early times, associated with religious
lesrends. The architectural remains still combine the Buddhistic and
Hindu forms. In Sanskrit literature it is closely associated with Gokul,
which lies about a mile off, overhanging the stream of the Jumna.
Indeed, the scenes of the youthful adventures of Krishna, which are
ascribed in the Puranas to Gokul, are actually shown at Mahaban, about
a mile from the river. Gokul seems to have been originally the common
name for the whole, although it is now restricted to what must have
been the water-side suburb of the ancient town.
The ruins of Mahaban rise as a hill of brick and mud covering about
thirty acres, the site of the old fort. The shrine of Syam Lala, a mean
cell, is perched on the highest point of the old fortifications, looking
towards the Jumna. The local legend relates that when Krishna was
born at Muttra, his uncle Kans, a wicked giant, knowing by prophecy
that his sister's son would slay him, commanded that if she brought
forth a male child, it should at once be killed. The nurse, however,
fled with the infant across the river to Mahaban. There, in the present
shrine of Syam Lala, Jasoda (wife of Nanda) had given birth to a girl ;
and the nurse, changing the infants, brought back the female child to
Muttra as the offspring of the giant's sister. How Krishna in the end
slew the giant is well known.
The most interesting relic at Mahaban is the so-called Palace of
Nanda, the foster-father of the changeling Krishna. This covered court
was re-erected by the Muhammadans in the time of Aurangzeb, from
ancient Hindu and Buddhist materials, to serve as a mosque. It is
divided into four aisles by five rows of sixteen pillars, eighty in all, from
which it takes its popular name of Assi Khamba or the Eighty Pillars.
Many of the capitals are curiously carved with grotesque heads and
squat figures. Some of the inner pillars are plain, others richly orna-
mented with arabesques. Four of them are supposed to represent by
their sculptures the four ages of the world. The pillar known as the
Surya Yug or Golden Age is covered with rich and beautiful carving ;
that known as the Dwapar Yiig or Second Age of the world is adorned
in almost equal profusion. The Treta Yiig or Third Age is more
scantily carved ; while the Kali Yug or present Iron Age of the world
is represented by a crude unsculptured pillar. The interior pillars
furnish examples of a much disputed form in Hindu architecture, and
consist of two short columns, set one on the top of the other. This
form is discussed with learning and insight by Mr. Growse, of the Civil
Service, in his District Memoir of Mathurd, pp. 253-255 (2nd edition,
18S0). Father Tieffenthaller, who visited Mahaban in the middle
152 MAHABAN— MALI ABAR.
of the last century, states that the edifice was used conjointly as a
Muhammadan mosque and as a Hindu temple.
In the Palace of Nanda are laid the scenes of Krishna's infancy.
His cradle, a coarse structure covered with red calico and tinsel, still
stands in the pillared hall, while a blue-black image of the sacred child
looks out from under a canopy against the wall. The churn in which
Krishna's foster-mother made butter for the household is shown, and
consists of a long bamboo sticking out of a carved stone. A spot in
the wall is pointed out as the place where the sportive milkmaids hid
Krishna's flute. One pillar is said to have been polished by his foster-
mother's hand, as she leant against it when churning, and others have
been equally polished by the hands of generations of pilgrims.
From the top of the roof the wayfarer looks down on mounds of
ruins, with the Jumna beyond showing its waters at intervals, amid an
expanse of sand, high grasses, and rugged ravines. Mahaban is still a
very popular place of pilgrimage among the Hindus. Thousands of
Vishnu-worshippers, with yellow-stained clothes, yearly visit the scenes
of the infancy of the child-god. But in addition to the steady stream
of devotees from distant parts, the pillared hall is resorted to by Hindu
mothers from the neighbouring Districts for their purification, on the
sixth day after child-birth, whence the building derives its local name
of the Chhatthi Pdlna or Place of the Chhatthi Puja, i.e. ' The Sixth Day
Worship.' The anniversary of Krishna's birth is also celebrated during
several days in the month of Bhadon by a vast concourse of people.
The riverside village of Gokul, a mile off on the Jumna, has few relics
of antiquity. Its shrines and temples are quite modern. It is approached,
however, by a lofty and beautiful flight of steps {ghat) from the river,
and for more than three centuries it has been the head-quarters of the
Vallabhacharya sect, orGokulasthaGosains. Many thousands of pilgrims,
chiefly from Gujarat and Bombay, yearly resort to this centre of their
faith, and have built numerous temples, generally of a rather tasteless
type. Vallabhacharya, the founder of the Vishnuite sect which bears
his name, was born in 1479, anc^ ms pleasure-loving religion still finds
favour with the well-to-do mercantile classes of Western India.
Mahaban {'Great Forest'). — Mountain in Vagistan, in the inde-
pendent territory on the Hazara-lYshawar border, at the east end of a
spur of the Ham range. It is situated on the right bank of the Indus,
and rises to a height of 7400 feet above the sea. The southern side
of the hill is thickly wooded (whence its name), and is inhabited by
I duns ; the north side is peopled by the Amazai Pathans. The hill
would be suitable for a sanitarium, but as a strategical point it is said
to be worse than useless.
Mahabar. — Range of hills in Hazdribdgh District, Bengal, com-
prising the feeders of the Sakri river on the west. These hills extend
MA HAD S UB-D1 VISION AND TOWN 153
in a general direction east and west for 14 miles ; their sides are steep,
but not entirely scarped ; the top undulates, with an average breadth
of about a mile. The general elevation above the Sakri valley
is 1600 feet, and the elevation above the sea at the eastern end,
where the Survey station is fixed, 2210 feet. A waterfall, called
Kokalhat (90 feet high), leaps down the northern face of the range in
Gaya District. An annual fair is held in February at this picturesque
spot.
Mahad. — Sub-division of Kokiba District, Bombay Presidency.
Bounded on the north by Mangaon and the Panth Sachiv territory;
on the east by the Panth Sachiv territory ; on the south by Satara Dis-
trict and the Khed Sub-division of Ratnagiri ; and on the west by the
Native State of Janjira and the Dapoli Sub-division of Ratnagiri.
Area, 459 square miles. Population (1872) 113.417; (1881) 109,391
(males, 54,552 ; females, 54,839), or a density of 238 persons per
square mile. One town and 245 villages; occupied houses, 21,467;
unoccupied, 1363. Hindus number 102,591, or 93^82 per cent, of
the whole; Muhammadans, 6725, or 6*14 per cent; Jains, 49;
Christians, 19; Beni-Israel Jews, 5; and Parsi's, 2. Brahmans number
1999.
Of the area (459 square miles), which has been surveyed in detail,
14-33 square miles are occupied by the lands of alienated villages.
Of the remainder, 172,573 acres are arable; 33,698 acres are forest
reserve ; and more than 2000 acres are under grass. The area of
Government land actually under tillage is 89,342 acres. In i88r-82
there were 17,078 holdings in the Sub-division. The average area
of a holding is 10 acres, and the average rent 16s. id. The land
revenue realizable in 18S0 was ^14,189, and the incidence of this
assessment on the population, 2s. 6d. per head. The survey rates
were fixed in 1866 for thirty years. Their average as follows : — For
rice land, 8s. 5|d. per acre ; garden land, 6s. 5d. ; uplands, 4§d. Of
the land actually under tillage (90,418 acres), grain crops occupied
85,675 acres, or 947 per cent. : 29,109 acres of the whole being
under nachni (Eleusine corocana), and 27,591 under rice (Oryza sativa).
Pulses occupied 2440 acres; oil-seeds, 2245 acres; fibres, 10 acres;
and miscellaneous crops, 48 acres.
The Sub-division is almost entirely of a wild and rugged character,
the eye being arrested by spurs of the Mahableshwar hills. The
Savitri flows through the region, and waters the rice and garden land.
There is little or no sea-breeze, and the changes of temperature are
great. Average rainfall, 123 inches. In 1883, the Sub-division con-
tained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts. Police stations {thands), 6 ;
regular police, 5 1 men. Head-quarters, Mahad.
Mahad. — Chief town of Mahad Sub-division, Kolaba District, Bombay
1 5 4 MAHADANAPURAM—MA HADE OPAHAR.
Presidency. Lat. i8° 6' n., and long. 730 29' e. ; 53 miles south by
east of Alibagh. Population (1881) 6804. Hindus numbered 5695 ;
Muhammadans, 10S6 ; Christians, 18 ; Jain, 1; Parsi, 1; and 'others,' 3.
Mahad lies on the right or north bank of the Savitri, 34 miles east
of Bankot. At high-water spring-tides vessels drawing up to 9 feet,
and canoes at all times of the tide, can pass a mile above the town.
Steam launches can only reach Dasgaon.
The Buddhist caves of Pale (dating from 100 a.d.) are 2 miles
north-west of Mahad. In 1538, De Castro mentions the place as
having a large trade in wheat. It is not far from Raigarh, Sivaji's
capital, and was often visited by the Maratha chief. In 1771, Forbes
found Mahad a fortified and well-peopled town. At Mahad was
concluded, in 1796, the treaty between the Konkan rebel Nana Farnavis,
Baji Rao the Maratha, and the English, which placed Baji Rao as
Peshwa on the throne at Poona, Nana becoming Minister. In 1802,
the Peshwa took refuge in Mahad, while Holkar seized his capital.
During the last Maratha war (1818) a force under Colonel Prother
occupied Mahad without opposition.
Mahad has still a large seaborne trade. The imports consist of salted
and fresh fish from Malabar, Goa, and the Southern Konkan ; and
dates, sugar, iron, kerosine, and piece-goods from Bombay. The ex-
ports, most of them sent to Bombay, are onions, garlic, potatoes, sugar,
and myrobalans. Rice is carried east through the Varanda pass to
the Deccan. The average river traffic is (1883) 25 tons down-stream
and 18 tons up-stream daily. During five years ending 1881, the average
yearly trade was— imports, ^49>353 ; exports, ^34,394- In the fine
weather, steamers run up the Savitri to Dasgaon, 5 miles below Mahad ;
and passengers for Mahableshwar use this route, subsequently ascend-
ing by the Fitzgerald ghat, which is passable for carriages. Land
communication is by the main Konkan road. Mahad is a municipality ;
income (1882-83), ^685 ; incidence of municipal taxation, is. o|d. per
head.
Mahadanapuram. — Town in Kulitalai taluk, Trichinopoli District,
Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 6191, dwelling in 1268 houses.
Hindus numbered 6134 ; Muhammadans, 50; and Christians, 7.
Mahadeo. — River in the south-east corner of the Garo Hills Dis-
trict, Assam ; in the bed of which a seam of good coal has been dis-
covered. In its upper course there are several picturesque gorges,
where the rocky cliffs' are clothed with tropical vegetation.
Mahadeopahar. — Group of hills in Hoshangabad District, Central
Provinces ; isolated from the main Satpura range' by scarps and pre-
cipitous ravines, and almost encircled by the Denwd and Sonbhadra
rivers, which rise in the valley to the south, and unite on the northern
side. In these hills, the 'Mahadeo sandstone' attains its greatest
MAHADE WA—MAHAMUNI. i
DO
development. On their southern face, where the hills rise in vertical
escarpments from the Denwa valley, the sandstone mass presents a
thickness of 2000 feet. On the north, the ascent is about 14 miles
long to Singanami, by an excellent new road bridged and metalled
throughout. A road has also been completed from the railway station
of Piparia to Singanami, which, with the exception of the river Denwa,
is also bridged. The plateau is varied, like a park, with glades and
clumps of trees ; while a stream winds down nearly its whole length,
and a rim of low rocks shelters it from the winds and storms. The
sanitarium of Pachmarhi, with an elevation of over 4000 feet, is
situated in the Mahadeopahar plateau, 32 miles from Piparia railway
station, with which it is connected by a road practicable in all seasons
for all descriptions of traffic.
Mahadewa. — Pargand of Gonda District, Oudh ; bounded on the
north by pargand Gonda, on the east by Nawabganj, on the south by
Nawabganj and Digsar, and on the west by Digsar and Gonda. Area,
90 square miles, or 58,154 acres, of which 36,801 acres are returned
as under cultivation. Population (1869) 48,166; (1SS1) 51,492, of
whom 10,03s are Brahmans. The land, however, is principally in the
possession of Rajputs, who hold 66 out of the 104 villages which
comprise the pargand. Government revenue demand, ^3655.
Mahagaon. — Estate or zamindari in Sakoli tahs'd on the southern
boundary of Bhandara District, Central Provinces, comprising 14 villages,
of which 1 1 are inhabited. Area, 30 square miles, of which about a tenth
partis cultivated. Population (1S81) 2289. The forests yield much
valuable timber, chiefly teak and sdj ; and the ample pasturage attracts
large numbers of cattle during the hot months. The pasturage is not
now so largely availed of by the villagers as formerly, owing to the recent
imposition of grazing dues. Mahagaon (lat. 200 44' n., long. So° 5' e.),
the only large village, where the zaminddr, who is a Rajput, resides,
has a Government village school, and contains the ruins of an ancient
fort. The famous hill fortress of Pratapgarh overlooks the village,
though beyond its limits. In the neighbourhood of the fort is a hill
with a large cave, in which water is found even in the hottest weather.
The cave is annually visited by large numbers of Hindu pilgrims, and
is venerated as a favourite residence of the god Siva.
Mahakalidurga {'Rock of the Great Goddess Kali '). — Hill in
Tumkiir District, Mysore State; 3610 feet above sea-level. Lat. 130
26' N., long. 770 34' e. Crowned with old fortifications.
Mahalingpnr.— Town in the Mudhol State, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 1 6° 23' 20" x., long. 75° 8' 50" e. Population (1SS1) 5206.
Hindus numbered 4772 ; Muhammadans, 420; and Jains, 14.
Mahamuni. — Buddhist temple in Chittagong District, Bengal ;
resorted to annually in April, on the festival of Bishit, by the
1 5 6 MAHAMUNI— MAHANA DL
Khyoungtha or Jiimia Maghs and Chakmas (tribes inhabiting the Hill
Tracts of Chittagong), to feast and make offerings at the shrine.
Mahamuni. — Pagoda in Akyab District, Arakan Division, British
Burma ; situated in lat. 20° 52' 40" n., and long. 93° 5' 30" e., to the
north-east of Mro-haung or Old Arakan. This edifice, once of great
celebrity, and still visited by numerous pilgrims, formerly enshrined an
image of Gautama Buddha, whose traditional visit to Burma must be
rejected as fabulous. According to sacred histories, Buddha, at the
request of San-da-thii-ri-ya (a monarch who ascended the Burmese
throne in 146 a.d.), consented to the construction of a colossal metal
statue of himself, on which he breathed seven times, saying : ' My
younger brother, Mahamuni, you remain here to be worshipped by
human beings, Nat and Brahma.' A temple was built on the Kyauk-
tawhill to contain the image ; and here it remained — the Palladium
of Arakan — till the conquest of the country by the Burmese in 1784,
when it was carried to Amarapura. There it was placed in a building-
called the Maha-myat-muni, which became the most popular place of
worship in the neighbourhood. The image is in the usual sitting
attitude on a 'Razapallin,' or throne used by the king in the State
audience hall. The figure is 12 feet high, with all the limbs in pro-
portion, and is thickly encrusted with gold leaf, the accumulated
offerings of thousands of votaries. The desire to possess the Maha-
muni image was one of the causes of the war which ended in the
subjugation of Arakan by the Burmese. An ancient metal bell
belonging to this pagoda was kept for many years in front of the
court-house at Akyab, but it has now been restored to its original
place.
Mahanadi. — Literally 'the Great River;' rises in lat. 200 10' n.,
and long. 820 e., in Raipur District, and after a course of 520 miles
through the Gentral Provinces and Tributary States of Orissa, falls
into the Bay of Bengal. The Mahanadi has an estimated catchment
basin of 43,800 square miles, and its rapid flow renders its maximum
discharge in time of flood second to that of no other river in India.
Thus the Ganges, with an estimated catchment basin of 391,100
square miles, has a maximum flood discharge of 1,800,000 cubic feet
per second ; while the estimated discharge of the Mississippi is only
1,500,000. The Mahanadi, with its comparatively smaller catchment
area, has a flood discharge of 1,800,000 cubic feet per second. Its
depth increases by 32 feet during the flood season; in the dry weather,
its discharge dwindles to n 25 cubic feet per second, while the least
discharge of the Ganges is estimated at 45,000 feet.
The Course of (he River. — The Mahanadi rises 25 miles south of
Raipur, on the outskirts of the wild mountainous region which bounds
the Chhatfsgarh plateau on the south, dividing its plateau from the
MAHANADI. 157
Bastar country. A pool on the lands of Sihoa village, on the elevated
plain of Raipur District, is pointed out as its actual source. Until it
reaches Seorfnarayan, it is an insignificant stream, rarely available for
boats ; but at this point it is joined by three affluents, — the Seonat or
Seo river, the Jonk, and the Hasdu. After passing the town of Malhar,
the Mahanadi becomes navigable during the greater part of the year,
and receives the Mand and Kelu rivers from the north. Near
Padmapur, the channel is divided by vast rocks, and rendered almost
unnavigable. After receiving the lb, it again struggles through masses
of rock till it reaches Sambalpur, and lower down receives the
Tel at Sonpur. Below Sonpur, the river forces its tortuous way
between ridges and ledges, broken up by rocks for many miles until it
reaches Dholpur in the Tributary States of Orissa. Boats shoot these
rapids at a great pace, and on their return journey are dragged up with
immense labour from the bank. During the rainy season, the water
covers the rocks, and suffices to float down huge rafts of timber. From
Dholpur the troubles from the Mahanadi rocks are at an end, and it
rolls its unrestrained waters straight for the outermost line of the Ghats.
This mountain line it pierces by a gorge about 40 miles in length, over-
looked by hills, and shaded by forests on either side. Its stream, here
deep and tranquil, is navigable at all seasons.
Having thus passed in a generally eastern direction through the
Central Provinces and the Tributary States, it pours down upon the
Orissa Delta through its narrow gorge at Naraj, about 7 miles west
of the town of Cuttack. After traversing Cuttack District from west to
east, and throwing off numerous branches, it falls into the Bay of
Bengal by several channels at False Point. The principal offshoots
of the Mahanadi, together with their minor distributaries, are as follow :
On the right or south bank, soon after entering the Cuttack
District, it throws off a large stream — (1) the Katjuri, which imme-
diately divides into two, of which the southern branch, under the
name of the Kovakhai, passes into Pun District. The Katjuri, after
a further short course, throws off the Surua, which re-unites with the
parent stream after a course of a few miles. A 'little lower down, the
Katjuri throws off two minor distributaries from its right bank, the
Large and Little Devi, which unite after a southerly course of about
20 miles ; and under the name of the Devi, the combined stream
passes into Puri District, and falls into the Bay of Bengal a few miles
below the southern boundary of Cuttack. A cross stream connects
the Mahanadi with the left bank of the Katjuri, which latter river
ultimately falls into the Bay of Bengal under the name of the Jotdar.
(2) The other important southern distributary of the Mahanadi is
the Paika, which branches off from the parent stream 10 miles below
Cuttack town, and rejoins it after a course of about 12 miles, along
i53 MAHANADI.
the country lying south of the parent stream. It again brandies off
from the northern bank, and running in a belt joins the Mahanadi
finally at Tikri opposite Taldanda.
Proceeding down the other side, the offshoots from the left or
north bank of the Mahanadi are the following : — (3) The Birupa
takes off opposite the town of Cuttack ; and after flowing in a north-
easterly direction for about 15 miles nearly parallel with the Calcutta
road, it throws off the Genguti from its right bank, which, after receiving
the waters of the Kelo, again falls into the Birupa. The latter river
afterwards joins the Brahmani, and its waters ultimately find their way
into the Bay of Bengal by the Dhamra estuary. (4) The Chitartala
branch leaves the parent stream about 10 miles below the Birupa
mouth. After flowing a few miles, the Chitartala bifurcates into the
Chitartala and the Nun. These streams unite after a course of about
20 miles ; and, under the name of the Nun, the united waters fall into
the Mahanadi estuary a few miles from the coast, and so into the Bay
of Bengal.
After a variety of interlacings, the Mahanadi forms two great estuaries,
one generally known as the Devi, with its connected channel, the
Jotdar, in the south-eastern corner of the District ; the other, bearing
the name of the parent river, the Mahanadi, at False Point, about half-
way down the coast.
Floods. — In 1858, Captain Harris, after a series of most careful
investigations, arrived at the following conclusions with regard to the
Mahanadi. During high floods, 1,800,000 cubic feet of water pour
every second through the Naraj gorge, 7 miles above Cuttack city,
while the total distributaries and channels, half-way between that point
and the Bay of Bengal, only afford accommodation for 897,4.49 cubic
feet, or less than one-half. During time of flood, about 250,000 cubic
feet per second, or from one-seventh to one-eighth of the total, strikes
into Pari District by means of the Koyakhai. The remaining six-
sevenths, or, in round numbers, a million and a half of cubic feet
per second, pour through the Katjuri, Birupa, and Mahanadi proper,
into Cuttack District. To get rid of this vast volume of water, the
Puri rivers have only the means of carrying off 111,755 cubic feet per
second, while all the distributaries in Cuttack District can only dispose
of 788,694 cubic feet. The remaining 900,000 cubic feet of its
maximum flood discharge — that is to say, about one-half — pours over
the delta, filling the swamps, inundating the rice-fields, and converting
the plains into a boundless sea. This, of course, only takes place in
seasons of unusual floods, when the elaborate embankments along the
lines of the Mahanadi and its distributaries prove altogether unable to
control their violence.
Canal System. — Efforts have been made to husband and utilize the
MAHANADI.
*59
vast water-supply thus thrown down on the Orissa Delta. An elaborate
system of canals starts from the Mahanadi with the design, in the first
place, to regulate the water-supply for irrigation ; and secondly, to
utilize it for navigation and commerce. From the point at which the
Mahanadi pours through the Naraj gorge upon the plains, the fall
averages 18 inches per mile across the delta to the sea. In the
Godavari District in Madras, the slope is said by the engineers to be
about 1 foot per mile ; but the fall in Orissa, as also in the case
of the Godavari, is easily overcome by locks. The first thing to be
effected was to secure a uniform and a trustworthy supply at the head
of the delta. To this end, a massive masonry weir 3800 feet long
has been erected across the mouth of the Katjuri, the southern bifur-
cation of the Mahanadi; another enormous weir, 6350 feet long, across
the Mahanadi proper at Jobra; and a third, 1980 feet long, across the
Biriipa at Chaudwar. The first two of these weirs are 12J- feet, and the
third 9 feet high. Each of the three branches into which the parent
stream splits at the delta head is therefore regulated by a weir. These'
works are pierced with two sets of scouring sluices, one of which is on
an improved self-raising principle. Their objects being to prevent the
accumulation of sand in the river bed, and to secure a supply of water
for the canals, the sluices are left open during the flood season, and
closed as the river subsides. Of the four canals which form the Orissa
irrigation system, two take off from the Biriipa weir, and one, with its
branch, from the Mahanadi weir.
On the 31st December 1S68, the Government took over the canal
works from the East Indian Irrigation Company for a payment of
,£941,368, since which time the gradual prosecution of the scheme
to completion has been sanctioned. On the 31st March 1871, the
capital account, including the original price paid to the Company,
amounted to ,£1,274,822 ; and on the 31st March 1S85, to ^2, 133,723,
exclusive of interest.
The canals thus taken over from the Company, and since completed,
or carried to an advanced stage of construction, are four in number,
viz. (1) The High-Level Canal ; (2) the Kendrapara Canal with its
extensions, namely, the Gobri Canal and the Patamundai Canal ; (3)
the Taldanda Canal, and (4) the Machhgaon Canal, with their respective
distributaries.
The High-Level Canal was designed to provide a navigable trade-
route between Cuttack and Calcutta, and also to irrigate the country
through which it passes. It starts from above the left flank of the weir
across the Biriipa, 1 mile below the departure of that river from the
main stream of the Mahanadi. It runs thence along the foot of
the hills, northwards through Cuttack and Balasor Districts ; and, as
originally intended, was to have been carried across the Bengal District
i6o MAHANAJDL
of Midnapur, till it debouched on the Hugh' river at Ulubaria, below
Calcutta — a total distance from its starting-point of 230 miles. The
section between Midnapur town and Ulubaria, 53 miles in length, was
opened throughout for traffic in 1873 ; but this is now regarded as an
independent work, distinct from the Orissa canal system.
General View of the Orissa Canals. — While, therefore, the now
completed portion of the High-Level Canal starts northward from the
Biriipa, and provides a navigable channel between that river and the
Brahmani, with irrigation for the upland country along the foot of the
hills, the Kendrapara Canal proceeds due east along the high banks of
the Chitartala, etc., and supplies water to the lower level of the delta.
It irrigates the southern edge of the tract between the Mahanadi (with
its subsequent distributaries, the Chitartala and the Xiin)and the Biriipa
(with its continuation the Brahmani). The Taldanda and the Machh-
gaon Canals will deal with that part of the delta which lies between
the Mahanadi and the Katjuri ; the Taldanda Canal supplying the
irrigation for the northern edge of this intermediate tract, and the
Machhgaon Canal providing for the southern edge. All the canals keep
on high levels. In the case of the High-Level Canal, the channel runs
along the uplands at the foot of the hills. In the case of the other
three, which are strictly speaking delta canals, the requisite elevation is
obtained by keeping their courses along the banks of the rivers, which
are always higher than the intermediate alluvial tracts.
Irrigation Capabilities. — The Orissa canals, when completed, are
designed to irrigate a total of 1,600,000 acres. The people, however,
are slow and averse to change ; and hitherto, even the present avail-
able supply is out of all proportion to the demand, and there is little
disposition to resort to irrigation for ordinary crops except when the
rainfall fails. The Orissa cultivator has been accustomed to use irrigation
only for the more costly sort of crops, such as pdn-ltsS, sugar-cane,
tobacco, and cotton. For such crops, afield is generally selected which
has the command of a natural watercourse ; and the highest form of
irrigation known in Orissa consists in throwing water, by means of
hollow palm-trees or basket scoops, from a tank or dammed-up stream,
on to the fields.
The East Indian Irrigation Company originally fixed the rates for
supplying water at Rs. 5 or 10s. an acre. This rate proved to be
too high, and a graduated scale was afterwards introduced, by which
for large areas were offered at reduced rates. Even this failed
to induce cultivators to buy the water ; and a further concession was
made, by which the separate husbandmen in a village might com-
bine to take a general lease for their aggregate lands at the reduced
rates. Much confusion and many abuses followed, and practically the
Company's rates were reduced to a uniform charge of Ks. 2. 8 or 5s.
MAHANADI. i6r
an acre. Even this failed to induce the cultivators to avail themselves
largely of the canal water, and the rates were afterwards reduced to
Rs. i. 8 or 3s. an acre.
The first year in which the cultivators availed themselves of canal
irrigation was 1866-67, when leases were executed for 667 acres at a
total charge of ^252. Of this, however, only ^62 could be collected,
and the rest had to be written off as a bad debt. Next year, 1867-68,
leases were executed for 1842 acres, at an aggregate charge of ^366 ;
but only ^175 could be collected, and the balance had again to be
written off. The remissions of these two years were rendered necessary
partly by the unfinished state of the works, which disabled the Company
from performing its share of the contract ; partly by the inexperience
of the Government officers ; and partly by disputes on the part of the
cultivators touching the validity of the leases. A large area was irrigated
by stealth, and the smallness of the returns was chiefly owing to the
difficulties incident to introducing anything new into Orissa. In
1S68-69, a drought at the end of the rains awoke the fears of the
husbandmen, and water was taken for 9378 acres at an aggregate charge
of ^2288. The popular apprehensions culminated in a panic; and
the demand for water became so urgent that it was found impossible to
comply with the usual forms, and irrigation was granted in many cases
without leases. In others, the husbandmen appropriated the water
wholesale on their own account. However, after some opposition, the
land which had actually received water was measured, and the people
paid on the whole very fairly for what they took.
In the following year, 1870-71, a long-protracted drought again
roused the cultivators to the folly of neglecting irrigation. Until
far on in October, it seemed that another famine in Orissa was
inevitable. Still, the rate of Rs. 2. 8 or 5s. an acre proved too high ;
and it was not till the Commissioner, Mr. Ravenshaw, by insisting
upon the terrible risks that the Province ran, induced Government to
temporarily bring down the rate of R. 1 or 2s. an acre, that water was
taken on a great scale. Between 98,000 and 100,000 acres were imme-
diately put under irrigation in Orissa and Midnapur ; and even this
amount of land, although insignificant compared with the future capa-
bilities of the canal, would have sufficed to take the extreme edge off
a famine.
But even this lesson failed to induce the cultivators to accept
the canal water on a great scale. During the years which have
since followed, some progress has been made, and additional facilities
have been given to the husbandmen. The water-rate is now fixed
at Rs. 1. 8 or 3s. per acre, and in 18S0-81 the area actually under
irrigation was 112,171 acres. The irrigated area varies greatly from
year to year according to the prospects of rain. In 18S2-83, the
VOL. IX. L
162
MAHANADI.
irrigated area was as high as 128,530 acres; in 18S4-S5 it fell as low
as 54, 18 1 acres. The Orissa canals, therefore, cannot yet be con-
sidered as a paying enterprise, although they furnish an important
guarantee against the famines, which, as recently as 1866, desolated the
Province.
Financial Aspects. — The following table exhibits the receipts from, and
expenses connected with, the Orissa canals for each of the 14 years
ending 1884-85. This table shows that during these 14 years the
total receipts from all sources amounted to Rs. 21,17,570; and the
total charges, including interest on invested capital, to Rs. 1,38,95,581,
leaving a deficiency of Rs. 1,17,78,011, or an average of Rs. 8,41,286
a year. Even exclusive of interest, which amounts to an average
of Rs. 7,33,977 a year, the excess of charges for maintenance and
establishment over the total receipts during the 14 years amounted to
Rs. 15,02,336, or an average of Rs. 1,07,310 a year. The total
capital expended on the Orissa canals during the 14 years amounted
to Rs. 1,13,10,708, or an average or Rs. 8,07,908 a year.
Financial Statistics of the Orissa Canals for the Years
1S71-72 to 18S4-85 : shown in Rupees.
1
Year.
Receipts.
Expenditure.
De-
ficiency.
Capital
Expended
during
Year.
Irriga-
tion
Assess-
ments.
Naviga-
tion
Tolls.
Total.
Charges of
Mainten-
ance and
Establish-
ment.
Interest on
Capital.
Total.
1871-72,
Rs.
29,085
Rs.
14.867
Rs.
43.95-*
Ks.
2,25.944
Rs.
at 4^ percent.
4.04.5O3
Rs.
6,9o,447
Rs.
6,46,495
Rs.
10,23,357
1872-73.
26,579
10,044
36,623
2,38,002
5,64,128
8,02,130
7,65,507
11,65,891
1873-71.
25.258
18,577
43.835
1,29,191
5,89,066
7,'S,25;
6,74,422
16,74 714
1874-75.
27,073
21,412
48,485
1,96,427
6,64,509
S,6o,936
8,1 2,45 t
16,05,553
1875-76,
29,113
16,377
45,490
2,07,618
7,24,7i8
9.32,336
8,86,846
10,56,173
1876-77,
31,676
22,88 1
74.557
2,14 661
7.63.049
9.77.710
9,03.i53
7,32,439
1877-73,
1,27,263
33.844
1,61,107
2,16,072
7,93,550
10,06,622
8,45,5i5
4,66,128
1878 79,
1,32,900
57,042
1,89,942
2,39,093
8,12,523
10,51,613
8,61,671
5,57,393
1879-80,
1,81,112
98,075
2,7?.iS7
3.67.779
8,34,392
12,02,171
9,22,984
4,67,756
18S0-81,
1881-82,
1,98,37°
1,39-945
71,402
83,206
2,69,778
. 2,23,151
3,06,068
3,28,660
8,55,055
at .1 per cent.
7,75,7"
11,61,123
11,04,381
8,9', 345
8,81,230
4,5o,592
3.33,011
1832-83,
2,11,537
1,80,473
3,20,010
3,4',54o
7,89,681
11,31,221
8,11,211
3,64.960
1833-84,
',27,71c
1,10,152
2,37,868
2,93,"7
8,09,762
11,02,879
8.65,011
6,39,152
1884-85,
Total,
63,783
79,80a
1,43.58;
3-'5,737
8,38,018
11,53,755
10,10,170
7.73.589
13.71.41C
7.46.154
2i,i7.57C
36,19,906
',02,75,675
i,38,95.58i
1,17,78,011
1, '3.10,708
M AH AN AD I RIVER— MAHANADI, LITTLE. 163
The total amount of capital invested in the Orissa canals up to the
31st March 1S85 amounted to Rs. 2,13,37,233, exclusive of interest.
The total financial deficit on these canals from the time of their first
opening till the 31st March 1885, is as follows : — Excess of current
charges over receipts, Rs. 15,52,496; interest, Rs. 1,09,25,941 ; grand
total deficit, Rs. 1,24,78,437.
With reference to the future prospects of this and other irrigation
schemes now in course of construction in Bengal, it may be well to
quote here a few sentences from the Bengal Administration Report for
187 1-72. In closing a review of the past history of irrigation in Bengal,
the Lieutenant-Governor remarked as follows : — ' If its progress has
been slow and the financial results unsatisfactory, there is, it is hoped,
less reason for extreme discouragement than might at first sight appear.
The amount of capital sunk in the expensive head-works and great lines
of canal has been out of all proportion to the area as yet irrigable, which
will be largely increased at a comparatively small expenditure on the
minor distributaries. The area commanded by the water will hence-
forth develop in a much higher ratio to the expenditure. The difficul-
ties presented by the prejudices and ignorance of the cultivators have
been aggravated by a defective system of revenue administration, which
was in many respects calculated to check rather than to promote
progress. The first essentials of financial success — moderation and
fixity of demand — were wanting ; and while ample facilities for illicit
irrigation and evasion of the just dues of the State were afforded to
the rdyat, he had no protection against unfair or illegal assessment.
From the new system better results may be anticipated, though the
progress of irrigation will probably still be slow, and the time when the
canals shall prove directly remunerative may be far distant.'
Physical Action of the River.- — The Mahanadi has been a principal
factor in the formation of the Orissa Delta. The Great River poured
itself through a region, half-mud, half-water, and all jungle, into the Bay
of Bengal. The shallowest parts were swamps, the deepest parts were
brackish lakes ; and from time to time the river writhed itself out of its
former bed into new channels, twisting backwards and forwards over the
delta in snake-like convolutions, turning deep lakes into fens, silting up
inland seas into shallow marshes, toiling slowly and ceaselessly, till the
firm earth stood up out of the waters, ready for man.
Mahanadi. — River rising in Daspalla State, Orissa, and joining the
Rushikiiliya at Aska in Ganjam District, Madras. On its banks are
Russellkonda and Giimsiir. — See Rushikuliva.
Mahanadi, Little. — River rising in Mandli District, Central Pro-
vinces, in lat. 23° 6' n., long. So° 41' E., and falling into the Son (Soane)
after a course of about 100 miles, during part of which it forms the
boundary between Rewa and Jabalpur. Sal forests clothe both sides
1 64 MAIIANANDA—MAHARAJGAKJ.
of the river ; and coal is found on its banks near Deorf, where there is
also a warm spring.
Mahananda. — River of Bengal ; rising in Mahaldiram, a hill in
the Himalayan range, Darjfling District, Bengal. From near the foot
of the hills it forms the boundary between Jalpaigurf and Darjfling
as far as Phansidewa in the extreme south-east of the latter District,
except close to Siliguri, where a small tract on the east of the river
bank is included in Darjfling. The Mahananda touches upon Jalpaigurf
District a short distance above Siliguri, at which place it receives the
waters of the New Balasan. The united stream then flows south-
wards as far as Titalya, where it passes into Purniah District. Its
chief tributaries here are the Dank, Pitanu, Nagar, Mechf, and Kankai;
the principal marts are Kaliaganj, Haldibari, Krishnaganj, and Barsoi.
After a tortuous course through Purniah, the Mahananda then enters Mal-
dah at its extreme north, and flows south-eastwards, dividing the District
into two nearly equal portions ; it receives as affluents the Tangan,
Purnabhaba, and Kalindrf. Twenty years ago it was nowhere fordable
in this portion of its course ; but it has now silted up and deteriorated,
and annually becomes almost dry in parts. Eventually it falls into the
Ganges or Padma in lat. 24° 28' 30" n., and long. 88° 20' 30" E., at the
southernmost corner of Maldah District, just above the police station
of Godagarf in Rajshahf District. It is a wide and deep stream, except
in the dry season, and easily navigable by cargo-boats of from 15 to 20
tons burthen as high up as Kaliaganj in Purniah. In the upper part of
its course, it flows with a very rapid current, and is subject to sudden
and heavy freshes, which render navigation impracticable. The banks
of the Mahananda are, as a rule, sloping, and in parts highly cultivated,
and very little subject to diluvion at the present day. Many centuries
ago, the Mahananda appears to have flowed close under the high land
on which Purniah town is built, but its waters gradually gravitated west-
wards, and it now flows between high banks, with an extensive low,
level tract between it and its old channel.
Maharajganj (or Basnauli Gangar). — Town situated in lat. 26° 6'
35" x., and long. 840 2' 36" E., in the centre of Saran District, Bengal ;
25 miles north-west of Chhapra, and 10 miles south-east of Sewan. Next
to Revelganj or Godna, Maharajganj is the largest bazar in the District,
especially for the export of grain and spices; imports of English and
native iron, salt, and piece-goods. Formerly a large saltpetre depot.
Population (1881) 3226. During the rains, the grain traffic is some-
times suspended, owing to the want of river-ways and the absence of
suitable roads. Police outpost.
Maharajganj.— Town and mart in Patna District, Bengal. One of
the large business quarters of Patna city; trade in the produce of
Patna, Gaya, and Shaluibad Districts — food-grains and oil-seeds.
MAHARAJGANJ TAHSIL— MAHARAJPUR. 165
Maharajganj. — Northern talisil of Gorakhpur District, North-
Western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Tilpur and Binayakpur,
and a portion of pargand Havili. The tract consists of a tardi or sub-
montane forest belt, inhabited by Gurkhas, Nepali's, or Tharus, the
only people who can live in its pestilential climate during the rainy
season. Area, 1224 square miles, of which 568 are cultivated.
Population (1872) 319,555; (1881) 365,702, namely, males 184,228,
and females 181,474; showing a total increase of 46,147 persons,
or 14-4 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there
were in 1881 — Hindus, 324,487; Muhammadans, 41,196; and 'others,'
19. Of 1151 villages comprising the pargand, 996 had less than five
hundred inhabitants, 119 from five hundred to a thousand, 33 from one
to two thousand, and 13 from two to five thousand inhabitants. Land
revenue, ^28,372; total Government revenue, including cesses, ,£31,856;
rental paid by cultivators, .£7 7,803. The tahsil contained 1 criminal
court in 1883, with 10 police stations (tkdnds); strength of regular
police, 104 men ; village watchmen (chaukiddis), 435.
Maharajganj. — Town in Gorakhpur District, North -Western
Provinces, and head-quarters of Maharajganj talisil. Situated 36 miles
north of Gorakhpur town. Owing to its isolation and the unhealthiness
of the surrounding country, Maharajganj is extremely unpopular as a
station amongst native officials. It became the head-quarters of the
tahsil about 1870, when the increased land revenue of the northern
pargands necessitated a station nearer the northern frontier bordering on
Nepal. The tahsili is a strong masonry building, and capable of defence
against a force unprovided with artillery. The other Government
buildings consist of a police station, post-office, and branch dispensary.
Maharajganj. — Town in Unao District, Oudh. — See Newalganj.
Maharajnagar. — Village in Sitapur District, Oudh; situated 16 miles
east of Sitapur town, on the road to Laharpur and Kheri. Founded by
Musalmans, and originally called Islamnagar; but about five genera-
tions ago, one Raja Tej Singh, a Gaur Rajput, siezed it, and changed
its name to Maharajnagar. The land is still owned by Gaurs. Popu-
lation (1881) 1737, principally Hindus. Bi-weekly market for the
sale of locally manufactured sugar and cotton rope. Government
school.
Maharajnagar. — Town in the Native State of Charakhari, Bundel-
khand, Central India. Population (1S81) 13,196, of whom 10,05s were
Hindus, 31 13 Muhammadans, and 25 'others.'
Maharajpur. — Large village in Mandla District, Central Provinces ;
situated opposite to Mandla town, in lat. 220 35' N., and long. 8o° 24' e.,
at the confluence of the Narbada (Nerbudda) and Ban jar. Formerly
called Brahmaputra, it derives its present name from Raja Maharaj
Sah, who founded the present village in 1737. It has a good school
c i t cai
t •„•
i •
ifiTTTl
' • • • • %.f
166
MAHAr.J PUR— MAHARASHTRA.
and on the opposite 1 > anjar, at the village of Purwa, a yearly
fair takes place.
Maharajpur — Villa in Rajmahal Sub-division, Santal Par.
Bengal, and station on le loop-line of the East India Railway, 210
miles from Calcutta. L. 25' 11' 45" n., long. f e.
Maharajpur.— VillaLin Gwalior State, Central India; situated in
lat. 260 29' n., and I Thornton), 15 miles north-west of
Gwalior fort. Notew of a victory over the Maratha
forces by the British Gough (aat 13)- Tne
Marathds were utterh guns and all their ammunition
waggons; and retre; Gwalior. A monument at
Calcutta, constructed fro tl d of the captured cannon, com-
memorates the victor} \i,ior.
Maharam.— Petty Sib in the Khisi Hills, Assam. — See Mah-ram.
Maharam.— Democr:- ntheKhasiH Jam. Population
(1872) 6157; revenue. The presiding title is
Stem, is named Andai The natural i>roducts include tezpat or
bay-leaves, black peppei cinnamon, caoutchouc, and horn Lime-
stone is quarried, am manufactured into implements of
native use.
Maharashtra. — One f the nine kingdoms of Southern India in the
time of Hiuen Tsiang, tl Chinese Pilgrim (640 ,\.i>.). The following
account is from Gener; Cunningham's Ancient iphy of I>
(PP- 553 sqq.) :—
'From Konkana, the grim proceeded to the north-west for 2400 to
2500 //" or upwards of jo miles, to Mo-ho-la-cha or Maharashtra.
The capital was 30 // < 5 miles in circuit, and on the west side
touched a large river. Inii this description alone I should be inclined
to adopt Paithan or Pnshthana, on the Godavari, as the capital of
Maharashtra in the 7 tl century. It is mentioned by Ptolemy as
Baithana, and by the autk of the Periplus as Plithana, which should
no doubt be corrected to'aithana.
'But the subsequent otance of 1000 //, or 167 miles, westward or
north-westward to Bharot (Broach) is much too small, as the actual dis-
tance between Paithan an Bharoch is not less than 250 miles. M. Vivien
Le Saint-Martin thinks at Devagiri accords better with the position
indicated ; but Devagiri not situated on any river, and its distance
from Bharoch is about 00 miles. I think it more probable that
Kalyani is the place innded, as we know that it was the ancient
capital of the Chalukya d)asty. Its position also agrees better with both
of Hiuen Tsiang's distares, as it is about 400 miles to the north-west
of Anagundi, and 1S0 1 190 miles to the south of Bharoch. To
the west of the city also 2>ws the Kailas river, which at this point is
stream. Kalyan Kalyani is mentioned by Kosmas Indiko-
■ •
a large
MAHARA SHTRA. 1 6 7
pleustes, in the 6th century, as the seat of a Christian bishopric, under
the name of Kalliana ; and by the author of the Perifilus, in the 2nd
century, as Kalliena, which had been a famous emporium in the time
of Saraganos the elder. The name of Kalyana also cccurs several
times in the Kanhari cave inscriptions, which date from the 1st and 2nd
centuries of the Christian era.
'The circuit of the Province is said to be 6000//, or 1000 miles,
which agrees with the dimensions of the tract remaining unassigned
between Mdlwa on the north, Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana
on the south, and the sea on the west. The limiting points of this tract
are Ddman and Yingorla on the sea-coast, and Idalabad and Haidar-
abad inland, which give a circuit of rather more than 1000 miles.
' On the eastern frontier of the kingdom there was a great mountain
with ridges rising one over another, and scarped crests. In former
days, the Arhat Achara had built a monastery, with rooms excavated in
the rock, and a front of two storeys in height facing a sombre valley.
The vihdr attached to it was 100 feet in height ; and in the midst of the
monastery there was a stone statue of Buddha about 70 feet high,
which was surmounted by 7 stone caps suspended in the air without
any apparent support. The walls of the vihdr were divided all round
into panels, in which were sculptured with minute detail all the great
events of Buddha's life. Outside the north and south gates of the
monastery there were stone elephants, both on the right hand and on
the left, which, according to the belief of the people, occasionally roared
so loudly as to make the earth quake. The description of the hill is
too vague to be of much use in identifying its position ; but if the
easterly bearing is correct, the hill of Ajayanti is most probably the
place intended, as its bluff ridges appear to answer better to the pilgrim's
account than the smoother slopes of Ellore (Elura). But with the
exception of the stone elephants, the account is too vague to enable us
to identify the place with any certainty. There are two stone elephants
outside the Kailas excavation at Ellore, but that is a Brahmanical
temple, and not a Buddhist vihdr. There is also an elephant close to
the Indrasabha at Ellore; but the animal is inside the courtyard, instead
of outside the gate as described by the pilgrim. Scenes from Buddha's
life formed the common subjects of Buddhist sculpture, and would
therefore offer no special assistance towards the identification of the
monastery. But though the pilgrim's account is vague, it is so minute
as to the positions of the elephants and the arrangement of the sculp-
tures that I am inclined to think he must have seen the place himself.
In this case I would read " western " frontier of the kingdom, and
identify his cave monastery with the well-known excavations of Kanhari
in the island of Salsette. Indeed, if I am correct in the identification
of Kalyani as the capital of Maharashtra in the 7th century, it is almost
i68 MAHASTHANGARH—MAHASU.
certain that the pilgrim must have visited the Buddhist establishments
at Kanhari, which are not more than 25 miles distant from Kalyani.
'The numerous inscriptions at Kanhari show that some of its excava-
tions must date as early as the 1st century before Christ, and the bulk
of them during the 1st and 2nd centuries after Christ. One of the inscrip-
tions is dated in the year 30 of the Sakadityakal, or 108 a.d. No remains
of stone elephants have yet been found at Kanhari ; but as the structural
facades in front of the excavated vihdrs have all fallen down, some elephant
torsos may yet be discovered amongst the ruins along the foot of the
scarped rock. Mr. E. West has already disinterred the remains of a stone
stupa with all its sculptured friezes from amongst these ruins, and further
research will no doubt bring to light many other interesting remains.'
Mahasthangarh. — Ancient shrine and scene of a fair in Bogra
District, Bengal ; situated in lat. 240 56' 40" n., and long. 890 24' E.,
7 miles north of Bogra town. The traditional capital of a monarch,
Parasurama, who ruled over 22 feudatory princes, and who is
identified by the Brahmans with the sixth incarnation of Vishnu. The
common people assign a much later date to this Parasurama of Mahas-
thangarh, and say that he was destroyed by a Muhammadan saint,
named Shah Sultan Hazrat Auliya. The place accordingly forms a
nucleus around which many legends of both Hindu and Musahnan
origin have gathered. Numerous remains connected with the two
religions mark its site, and it was for long a Muhammadan shrine of
great sanctity.
An ancient grant of about 650 acres from the Delhi Emperor,
subsequently confirmed by the Mughal Governor of Dacca in 1666,
still supports a fraternity of fakirs. Resumption proceedings, instituted
by Government in 1S36, were abandoned in 1844, on proof of the
great antiquity of the grant, although the original deed or sanad had
been lost. A fair held in April yields about ^60 to the shrine.
Coins, dating as far back as 1448 a.d., have been discovered on the
spot, and it affords a promising site for archaeological excavations.
In the local traditions, the oldest fables of Hindu mythology are
confused with comparatively recent events in the Muhammadan
conquest of Bengal. — (For details, see Statistical Account of Betigal,
vol. viii. pp. 192-196.)
Mahasu. — .Mountain near Simla, Punjab, on the confines of the
Kcunthal and Kothi States; one of the peaks in the sub-Himalayan
range. Lat. 310 6' N., long. 770 20' e. On the summit stands a small
temple of Chinese architecture, dedicated to Siva. Elevation above
sea-level, 9140 feet. Several houses, belonging to residents of Simla,
are situated on the ridge running between Mashobra and Mahasu peak.
North of the peak lies the Phagu dak bungalow or rest-house, a favourite
resort of visitors. The southern face of Mahasu hill has been
MA II A THAMAN—MAIIA TP UR. 169
acquired from the Rana of Kothi by the Simla municipality as a
water catchment area. The Simla water-supply is obtained from springs
at this place.
Mahathaman. — Township in Prome District, Pegu Division,
British Burma. Area, 556 square miles. Bounded north by Thayet-myo
District; and east, south, and west by the Shwe-lay, Paung-de, and
Shvve-daung townships respectively. The north and north-east portions
are undulating, and are covered with valuable forest. Farther to the
west, the country is to a great extent level and under cultivation, while
a considerable tract stretching to the south is waste land. This tract
skirts the hills forming the boundary between Mahathaman and Shwe-
daung townships. South of Prome, it is confined on the west by
undulating ground gradually passing into low hills covered with eng
(Dipterocarpus tuberculatus) forest, and extending southwards for
many miles. On the east, the lower spurs of the Yoma Hills bound
it ; while the centre of the plain is drained by the Zay, the head-
waters of the Myit-ma-ka, which receives all the water from the hilly
country east and west. On the hills to the north-east and north,
cotton is largely cultivated. There are two separate systems of
drainage, one in the north connected with the Irawadi, and one
in the south connected with the Hlaing or Rangoon river through
the Zay and Myit-ma-ka. The chief streams falling into the Irawadi
are the North and South Na-win, with their tributaries, the Gway,
In-gun, and Khaung-tsauk (Chaung-sank), the three last named being
un navigable.
The Great Northern Road from Rangoon runs through Mahathaman
township for a short distance, just south of Prome; there are fair-
weather roads in all portions. The principal villages are Lek-kop-pin,
Alo-daw-ya, and Da-kii. Four or five miles east of Prome is the
ruined site of the ancient Tharekhettara or Ya-thay-myo, once the
capital of the flourishing kingdom of Prome, whose sovereign ruled
(circa 100 a.d.) over the whole valley of the Irawadi.
Mahathaman township is divided into 10 revenue circles. Manufac-
tures of cutch and tari (toddy) sugar. Population (1877) 52,360; (1SS1)
61,581 ; gross revenue, ^"2574. Number of villages (1881-82), 73.
In the same year the land revenue was ^1483 ; capitation tax, ^942 ;
net tax, J~2 ; local cess, ^147. Area under cultivation, 94:1s acres,
mostly under rice. Agricultural stock — horned cattle, 5766; pigs,
103; ploughs, 1593; and carts, 1435.
Mahatpur. — Town and municipality in Nakodar Sub-division,
Jalandhar (Jullundur) District, Punjab. Lat 31° 3' N., long. 75° 31' E.
Population (1868) 6374; (1S81) 6011, namely, Muhammadans, 378a ;
Hindus, 2154; and Sikhs, 75. Number of houses, 1029. The town
is reputed to be of great antiquity, but now unimportant politically
1 7 o MA HA TWA R— MA HE.
or commercially, except as a local agricultural centre. Municipal
revenue in 1S75-76, ;£88 ; in 1883-84, ^191, or 7|d. per head of
population within municipal limits. Primary school, 2 girls' schools,
and 3 indigenous village schools.
Mahatwar (also called Sahatwdr). — Town in Bansdih tahsil,
Ballia District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 250 50' n., long. 840
21' E. Mahatwar is situated on the Reoti-Bansdih road, 6 miles
distant from Bansdih town, and 12 miles from Ballia. It is the largest
and most populous place in Bansdih tahsil, and is the headquarters of
the Kin war clan of Rajputs, who own more than three-fourths of the
town. It is quadrangular in shape, and is traversed by one good
road running east and west. The surrounding country is swampy, and
the roads which connect the town with Ballia, Bansdih, and Reoti are
not open for wheeled traffic in the rainy season. Notwithstanding
this serious disadvantage, Mahatwar possesses a considerable trade.
Sugar and indigo are exported to Agra and Calcutta, and coarse cloth
and shoes to Nepal ; the imports consist of cotton and salt from Agra
and Cawnpur, and tobacco and English cloth from Lower Bengal.
Bansdih forms a distributing centre for the surrounding country, and
its large bi-weekly market is well attended. During August, September,
and October, there is also a considerable sale of cattle every market
day. Two indigo factories are owned and worked by natives. Popula-
tion (1872) 8975; (18S1) 11,024, namely, Hindus, 10,137, and
Muhammadans, 887. Area of town site, 140 acres. A small house-tax
is levied for sanitary and police purposes, which in 1881 realized ^129.
As a rule, the people are well off, and live in substantially built houses.
The town contains a police outpost station, middle class school, and a
post-office.
Mahavinyaka. — Sacred peak of the Barunibunta Hills, Cuttack
District, Bengal ; visible from Cuttack city. Consecrated during ages
to Siva-worship by ascetics and pilgrims, who penetrated the surrounding
jungles, braving the wild Savars and other forest tribes. The Vaishnavs,
in later times, have built a monastery on the northern slope of the hill.
A massive piece of rock, 12 feet in circumference, still bears the name
of Mahavinyaka, the Great Ganesa or Vinyaka, from its resemblance to
the elephant-headed god. The right face of the rock is considered to
be his father Siva ; the left face has a knot over it, fancied to represent
the bound-up tresses of his mother, Gauri or Parvatf. The rock is
accordingly worshipped as the union of Siva, Gauri, and Ganesa. A
waterfall, 30 feet higher up, supplies the temple and its pilgrims.
Mahe" (J/a//i, a 'Fish'?). — French settlement within the limits of
Malabar District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 1 1° 41' 50" n.,
and long. 750 34' 25" E., to the south of the mouth of the river Mahe,
with a roomy harbour whose rocky bar admits vessels up to 70 tons.
MA HE J I. 171
The area is returned (1884) officially at 5909 hectares, or 2391 acres.
Population (1871) 8492; (1885) 8280, namely, 3915 males and 4365
females. According to the Census of 1881, the number of British
subjects in the settlement was 1513, of whom 618 were males and 895
females. The only French settlement on the west coast, and now of
little importance or commercial activity.
The place is thus described in an official report : —
'This little French settlement is about 4 miles to the south of
Tellicherri. The French first settled here with a view to acquiring a
share in the pepper trade, in 1722, having obtained the grant of a plot
of ground for a factory from the Raja of Kadattanad, or, as he was
styled, Boyanur (literally Vdlunavar, "ruler"); about the same time
they obtained the grant of a piece of land at Calicut from the Zamorin,
measuring about 6 acres, which is still in their possession (see Calicut).
In 1752 they acquired by purchase from the Raja of Chirakkal the
ports of Ramaturti, Kavai, Nileshwaram, and Mattalye ; and in 1754,
Mount Dilli, from the same potentate. But with the surrender of
Mahe in February 1761, all these possessions fell into the hands of the
English ; and, with the exception of the fort at Mount Dilli, which
was placed in charge of a European sergeant, all the other fortifications
were razed to the ground. Mahe was restored to the French in 1 765 ;
but it was, with its surrounding dependencies, again captured by the
English in 1779, to be once more restored in 1785. It was for a third
time taken in 1793, and was finally given back, along with the small
factory at Calicut, in 1S16. Mahe was at first a place of considerable
importance and trade, but having fallen so frequently into the hands
of the English, the settlement and its trade suffered; and in 17S2, its
fortifications were not only razed to the ground, but the town was
nearly entirely burnt.
' Mahe is new a decaying place, with most of its chief buildings
picturesquely situated on the bank close to the river mouth. The
site is hilly, but covered with a dense mass of cocoa-nut palms. It is
noted for the fertility of its soil and the salubrity of its climate. The
settlement is in charge of a chef-de-service subordinate to Pondicherri.
Revenue (1883), ^1790. It contains a Roman Catholic chapel, a
school, and British post-office ; and a long wooden bridge, maintained
by the British Government, gives access to the British territory on the
right bank. The coast road from Beypur (Bepur) railway terminus,
running northward through Tellicherri and the military station of
Cannanore, passes through Mahe.'
Maheji (or Chinchkhcd). — Town and municipality in Khandesh
District, Bombay Presidency ; and a station on the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway ; 240 miles north-east of Bombay, and 45 miles
east of Dluilia. Population (18S1) 2136; municipal income, ^144;
1 7 2 MAHENDRA GIRI—MAHESPUR.
incidence of taxation per head of population, is. 3d. The chief Hindu
fair of Khandesh is held here annually from January to March. The
fair is held in honour of Maheji, a woman of the agricultural class, who
became an ascetic 200 years ago. So great was her sanctity that vows
were paid to her during her lifetime. After a twelve years' stay in
the hamlet of Chinchkhed close by the site of the fair, Maheji buried
herself alive. The value of the goods sold at the fair in 1882 was
estimated at ^419,721. Lat. 200 46' n., long. 750 30' e. A horse
show and agricultural exhibition are held here annually, and a post-
office and dispensary are maintained during the continuance of the
fair.
Mahendragiri (Mahendra Malat). — Mountain peak in the Eastern
Ghats, Ganjam District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 18° 58' 10" N.,
long. 840 26' 4" e. ; 4923 feet above sea-level. The plateau is formed
of porphyritic gneiss embedding large crystals of felspar, but the highest
peaks are of granitic gneiss in huge prismatic blocks. There is a
bungalow near the summit commanding a magnificent view, as the
mountain is but 16 miles from the sea. Several temples of unknown
date and megalithic structures of doubtful origin are situated near
the summit, which is crowned by an ancient Sivaite temple, much
shattered by lightning.
Mahendratanaya. — Two rivers in Ganjam District, Madras
Presidency ; rising in the Mahendragiri hill, an outlier of the range of
Eastern Ghdts. One of the streams so called flows eastwards, and,
draining the zam'inddris of Budarasingi, Mandasa, and part of Jalantra,
falls into the sea at Barwa. The other and the larger stream flows
south-westward into the Parla Kimedi zaminddri, wherein it fills
several important reservoirs for irrigation, and passing the town of Parla
Kimedi, joins the river Vamsadhara.
Mahesar. — Town in Indore State, Central India. — 5"^ Maheswar.
Mahesh. — Village suburb of Serampur, Hiigli District, Bengal. Lat.
220 44' n., long. 88° 23' 45" e. Famous for the two great festivals of
Jagannath, the Snan-Jdtra or ' bathing of the god,' in May, and the Rath-
Jatra or 'car procession,' six days later. At the latter, the god is
dragged to the village of Ballabhpur, a mile distant, and brought back
after an eight days' visit, to the temple of Radhdballabh. An important
fair is held at Mahesh during the eight days, with an attendance of
about 8000 persons daily, and 100,000 people on the first and eighth
day, when the procession and return journey take place.
Mahesh-rekha. — Formerly a Sub-division of Hiigli District,
Bengal, recently abolished, and reconstituted as the Ulubaria Sub-
division of the magisterial District of Howrah. — See Uluraria.
Mahespur. — Town and municipality in Jessor District, Bengal.
Lat. 220 55' 55" n., long. 88° 56' 50" E, Estimated population within
MAHES WAR—MAHI. 1 7 3
municipal limits, 5000; municipal income (1883-84), ^"250; average
incidence of taxation, n§d. per head.
Maheswar (Mahesh Asura). — Town in Indore State, Central India
Agency; situated in lat. 22° n' n., and long. 750 37' e., on the north or
right bank of the Narbada (Nerbudda), which here rushes over a rocky
bottom between banks 60 to 80 feet high. The stream is about 2000
feet wide at this point, and the water is reached by a vast ghat or flight
of stone stairs reaching below the water at its lowest. It is the chief
town of Maheswar district, within Holkar's subah or governorship of
Nimar. Maheswar was formerly the residence of Ahalya Bai, widow
of Khanda Rao, son of the Maharaja Malhar Rao. A town of great
antiquity, and mentioned in the Puranas. Under the name of
Mahesvati, it was traditionally founded by Sehesra Arjuna, and formed
the first capital of the Indu or Lunar race.
In more modern times Maheswar has undergone many changes.
On one occasion an earthquake seems to have overturned the town,
for it is stated that in digging below the surface of the site, articles of
furniture are sometimes discovered lying upside down. It contains a
fort in bad repair, and a fine palace, built, about fifty years ago, of
grey basalt, and highly ornamented with sculptures. Thornton states
that the estimated population in 1820 was 17,500. No later figures
are available, for the town was not returned in the Census of 1881 as
having a population of over 5000. The cloth manufactures of
Maheswar are prized all over the country. They are of both cotton
and silk, with gold embroidery introduced in various designs and
degrees, according to the fancy and capacity of the purchasers. The
dhotis (waist-cloths) and saris (women's coverings) of Maheswar fetch
larger prices than those made at Benares, and they are undoubtedly of
better make. Large school, with 300 pupils.
Mahgawan. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated 9 miles
north of Sandila. Population (1881) 3256 persons, residing in 4S1
mud houses. Bi-weekly market. The inhabitants have a local reputa-
tion for honesty in conducting arbitrations.
Mahi. — River of the Bombay Presidency. The Mahi has a course
of from 300 to 350 miles in length, and a drainage area estimated at
from 15,000 to 17,000 square miles. After the Narbada (Nerbudda)
and Tdpti, it is the largest river of Gujarat, and the fifth largest in
the Bombay Presidency. The main branch of the Mahi rises about
1850 feet above sea-level in the Amjhera State, Malwa, in lat. 22° 52'
n., and long. 750 5' e. almost due east of the town of Cambay, and
distant from it in a straight line about 160 miles. The source of the
river is in the Mehad Lake, half-way between the town of Amjhera
and the village of Bhopdwar near the western extremity of the Vindhya
mountains, where, taking a sharp bend almost at right angles to the
1 74 mahl
line of their main range, they stretch northwards to meet the Aravalli
hills.
For 6 or 7 miles, the Mahi flows westward, then bending round
Bhopawar, it takes a northerly course parallel with the line of the
northern Vindhya Hills. Sunk in a deep valley between banks in
places more than ioo feet high, receiving as it passes many tributaries
from the east, but no stream of any size from the west, for 140 miles
the Mahi flows to the north till the boundary hills of Bagar force the
stream to take a sudden turn westward. For 25 miles it continues to
flow to the west, when, meeting the high mountains of Mewad, it
makes a further bend to the south-west, which direction it keeps until its
fall into the Gulf of Cambay, in lat. 220 14' n., and long. 720 38' e.
During the first part of its Gujarat course, the Mahi passes through
the lands of the Mahi Kantha and Rewa Kantha States. It then enters
British territory, and separates the District of Kaira on the right, from
the Panch Mahals and Baroda on the left. Farther to the west, and
for the rest of its course, its right bank forms the southern boundary
of the State of Cambay, and its left the northern limit of Broach Dis-
trict. At Bungra, 100 miles from its source, the Mahi is crossed by
the Baroda-Nimach (Neemuch) road, and here the bed is 400 yards
wide, with a stream of 100 yards and a depth of 1 foot. The Kaira
section is about 100 miles in length, the last 45 miles of the section
becoming tidal water. The limit of the tidal flow is Verakhandi,
where the stream is 120 yards across, and the average depth 18 inches.
About 30 miles nearer the sea, close to the village of Dehvan, the
river enters Broach District from the east, and forms an estuary. The
distance across its mouth from Cambay to Kavi is 5 miles.
During flood time, at spring-tides, a bore is formed at the estuary,
and a wall-like line of foam-topped water rushes up for 20 miles, to
break on the Dehvan sands. The bed of the Mahi lies so much below
the level of the land on either side of its banks, that its waters cannot
readily be made use of for irrigation. In fair weather the Mahi is
fordable at many places — at Dehvan, Gajna, Khanpur, and Ometa, for
instance.
According to the legend, the Mahi is the daughter of the Earth and
of the sweat that ran from the body of Indradyumna, the King of Ujjain.
Although, like other streams, it is held sacred, fear would seem
to be the prevailing feeling of the natives in their worship of the Mahi.
The height of its banks, and the fierceness of its floods ; the deep
gullies through which the traveller has to pass on his way to the river;
and perhaps, above all, the bad name of the tribes on its banks, explain
the proverb: 'When the Mahi is crossed, there is comfort.' Four
places on the Mahi are specially sacred and much visited by pilgrims
— Mingrar, Fazilpur, Angarh, and Yaspur.
MAH1GANJ—MAHI KANTHA, THE. 175
Mahiganj. — Town in Rangpur District, Bengal; situated in lat. 250
43' 30" n., and long. 890 20' e., in the vicinity of, and within the
municipal limits of, the civil station of Rangpur. Total population
of Rangpur municipality (18S1), 13,320; municipal revenue (1883-84),
^"1598, of which ^947 was derived from taxation; average incidence
of taxation, is. 5<i per head. Mahiganj was formerly a large seat of
commerce, but is now a place of declining importance, for trade is
gradually forsaking it for the bazar of Nawabganj, which is closer to
the civil station. Dispensary.
Mahi Kantha, The. — Group of Native States under a Political
Agency of the Government of Bombay. The territory is situated
between 230 14' and 240 28' N. lat., and between 720 40' and 740 5' e.
long. ; with an area of 11,049 square miles, and a population (1881) of
517,485 souls. It is bounded on the north-east by the Rajput States
of Udaipur (Oodeypore) and Dungarpur; on the south-east by Rewa
Kantha; on the south by the British District of Kaira; and on the
west by the Native State of Baroda, Ahmadabad District, and the
country under the Palanpur Agency. The Mahi Kantha territory
is subject to a number of chiefs, of whom the Raja of Edar (Idar) is
by far the most important. In May 1877, these chiefs were classified
into 7 divisions, according to their importance and the extent of their
jurisdiction.
The Native State of Edar covers nearly half the whole terri-
tory ; 1 1 other States are of some importance, and the remainder are
estates belonging to Rajput or Koli Thakurs, once the lawless
feudatories of Baroda, and still requiring the anxious supervision of
the Political Officer. The Raja of Edar is a First-Class chief, exer-
cising full powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal (in the case
of British subjects only with the consent of the Political Agent). The
chiefs of the Second Glass exercise jurisdiction in civil cases up to
^2000 ; and full jurisdiction in criminal cases, subject to confirmation
by the Political Agent in capital cases, and with the above limitation
in regard to British subjects. Chiefs of the Third Class exercise
jurisdiction in civil cases up to ^500, and in criminal cases up to a
penalty of two years' imprisonment and ^100 fine, with the above
limitation in regard to British subjects ; and so on for the remaining
four classes, with gradually decreasing powers. There are 2 States
of the Second Class — Pol and Danta ; 3 of the Third Class — Malpur,
Mdnsa, Mohanpur ; 9 of the Fourth Class — Warsora, Pethapur,
Ranasan, Punadra, Kharal, Ghorasar, Katosan, Ilol, Amalyara ; 9 of
the Fifth Class — Walasna, Dabha, Wasna, Sudasna, Rupal, Dadhalya.
Magori, Waragam, Sathamba ; 13 of the Sixth Class — Ramas, Derol,
Kherawara, Karoli, Waktapur, Prempur, Dedhrota, Tajpuri, Hapa,
Satlasna, Bhalusna, Likhi, llarol ; 15 of the Seventh Class— Maguna,
176 MAHI KANTHA, THE.
Bolandra, Tejpura, Visrora, Palej, Dehloli, Kassalpura, Mahmudpura,
Ijpura, Rampura, Ranipura, Gabat, Timba, Umbri, Motakotarna.
Physical Aspects. — Mahi Kantha includes tracts of land differing
widely in character and appearance. In the north and east, the country
is rough and wild, broken by ranges of steep well-wooded hills. To
the south and west the country is level, well wooded, and most of it
cultivated. The soil of Mahi Kantha is of two kinds, one light and
sandy, the other black ; both of them are rich.
With a well-marked fall from the north-east to the south-west, the
country is thoroughly drained. The Saraswati river, for about 40
miles, passes close to, and almost parallel with, the north-west
boundary of the Agency. The Sabarmati river flows through Mahi
Kantha for a distance of 60 miles ; for 40 miles crossing the Agency
from north-east to south-west, and for 20 miles skirting -its western
boundary. The Hathmati river passes through Mahi Kantha for
about 35 miles, and joins the Sabarmati below Ahmadnagar. The
Khari, the Meshwa, the Majam, the Vatrak, and other streams also
drain the country. The waters of only one of them, the Hathmati,
have been used for irrigation on any large scale. Between 1S69
and 1873 a weir was built across the Hathmati, close above
Ahmadnagar ; and so much of its water as was not wanted for the
people of Ahmadnagar and other places on its bank, was taken to
feed a canal for irrigating the Parantij Sub-division of Ahmaddbdd
District. Though with no natural lakes, Mahi Kantha is well
supplied with ponds and wells. The Rani Talao has an area of 94
acres, and greatest depth of 17 feet ; the Karmabawi Talao, area 134
acres, greatest depth 15 feet ; the Babsur Talao, area 182 acres, greatest
depth 15 feet.
History. — The earliest settlers were Bhi'ls and Kolis. These were
subdued by Sind Rajputs whom the advent of the Muhammadan drove
from their own country. In the 15th century, the Mahi Kantha (or
Banks of the Mahi) fell under the sway of the Ahmadabad Kings,
and on their decline under that of the Mughal Emperors. The
Mughals only collected occasional tribute by moving a large force into
the territory. The Marathas followed the Mughals, and every two or three
years sent their mu/kagiri or tribute-collecting army into the region. In
181 1, when the Maratha power was declining, the British Government
Stipulated to collect and pay over to the Gaekwar the yearly tribute. In
1820, the British Government finally took over management of the
Mahi Kantha territory. They agreed to collect and pay over the tribute
free of expense to Baroda ; while on its part Baroda pledged itself not
to send troops into the country, or in any way to interfere with the
administration. Since 1820, disturbances have occurred more than
once. From 1833 to 1S36 there were local tumults, which required
MAHI KANTHA, THE. 177
an armed force for their suppression. In 1S57-58 a display of force
became again necessary, when the registration of arms and the disarming
of part of the people took place. A smart engagement was fought at
Taringa Hill, and the town of Mondeti was carried by assault. In
1S67 a disturbance arose at Posina. Since then, peace remained
unbroken until iS8r, when the Bhils of Pol rose against their chief, and
extorted from him a settlement of their claims.
In 1838, Captain (afterwards Sir James) Outram instituted border
fmichdyats for the settlement of the numerous blood-feuds and disputes
between the wild Bhils on the Mahi Kantha and Rajputana frontier.
The system, which is one of money compensation for crime, has been
found very effective in preventing reprisals and maintaining peace. In
1873 tne rules were revised, providing for the regular assembling of
the courts under a British officer as president, aided by two assessors
from each of the States concerned. In 187S, arrangements were con-
cluded for the extradition of all criminals except Bhils, and of bJwpds
or witch-finders among the Bhils, between Mahi Kantha and Rajputana.
During the year 1S78-79, measures were taken in most of the Mahi
Kantha States for the suppression of illicit stills, in which the
mahud liquor is manufactured ; but the cheapness of this liquor is still
the curse of the Mahi Kantha States, as the Bhils and Koli's cannot
resist the temptation.
Population. — The Census of 1872 returned the population of the
territory at 447,056; the Census of 1S81 at 517,485; so that in the
intervening period of nine years an increase of 70,429 persons, or
15*7 per cent., seems to have taken place. Area in 1881, 11,049
square miles ; number of villages, 1S16; number of occupied houses,
117,112. The density is 46"8 persons to the square mile; villages
per square mile, 0*164 ; houses per square mile, 13*1 ; persons per
occupied house, 4*4. Of the total population, 266,566 are males and
250,919 females. During the period 1872-1SS1, the female population
shows an increase of 20 per cent., as against an increase of 11 per
cent, among the males. This disproportionate increase is probably
due in part to a more complete enumeration of the females in 1SS1.
Of the total population, 207,760, or 40 per cent., were returned as
under 15 years of age, namely, boys 108,222, and girls 99,53s. Adults
numbered 290,541, or 56 per cent, of the population, namely, males
147,813, and females 142,728.
Distributed according to religion, the Census of 1SS1 shows the
following figures : — Hindus, 461,974, or S9'2 per cent. ; Muham-
madans, 22,408, or 4*3 per cent. ; Jains, 13,905, or 26 per cent. ;
Parsis, 5 ; Jews, 5 ; Christians, 4; aboriginal tribes, 19,184. Ann
the Hindus, Brahmans number 27,885 ; Rajputs, 19.1S7 ; Kunbi's (culti-
vators), 80,32s ; Koli's (labourers), 146,567; Kumbhars (potters),
VOL. ix. M
178 MA II I KANTHA, THE.
10,890; Lobars (blacksmiths), 7475; Mahars (low castes), 19,233;
Sonars (goldsmiths), 1700; Chamars, 4803; Darji's (tailors), 536S ;
Sutars (carpenters), 6SS1 ; and Napits (barbers), 6476. The different
Muhammadan sects are not specified by the Census. The aboriginal
population (19,184) is returned entirely as Bhils.
The male population is grouped as regards occupation in the
following six main classes : — (r) Professional class, including State
officials of every kind and members of the learned professions,
5007 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging keepers, 1867 ; (3) com-
mercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 315 1 ;
(4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds, 109,909 ;
(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 30,829 ;
and (6) indefinite and unproductive class, comprising all general
labourers, male children, and members of unspecified occupations,
115,728.
Of the 18 1 6 villages in the territory, n 65 contained in 1881 a popu-
lation of less than two hundred inhabitants ; 394 contained between
two and five hundred ; 152 between five hundred and a thousand ; 79
between one and two thousand ; 16 between two and three thousand;
6 between three and five thousand ; 4 between five and ten thousand.
The Bhils are the most remarkable of the Mahi Kantha tribes.
They are hardy and enterprising, and as sagacious in daily conduct as
they are secret and speedy when on one of their robbing expeditions.
They speak a dialect composed of Hindi and Gujardti, which is extremely
difficult to understand ; worship stones covered with red lead and oil ;
believe firmly in witchcraft, and are much addicted to witch-swinging.
Ordinarily among the Mahi Kantha Bhils, the woman chooses her own
husband. At the Posina fair in the north, if a Bhil succeeds in taking
the woman he desires to marry across the river without being dis-
covered, the parents of both agree to the marriage. If he is found out
before he has crossed the river, the man is severely handled by the
father of the girl. The rer, or Bhil vendetta, usually takes the form
of cattle-lifting. No Bhil will disregard the kilki or cry which
proclaims that a tribesman is in trouble.
Some Bhils, taking the name of bhagats or ascetics, have become the
followers of a Bhil teacher, Kheradi Surmal. This teacher is a follower
of the Hindu god Rama (the seventh incarnation of Vishnu), and
forbids the killing of animals, the drinking of liquor, and the commit-
ting of offences. Like a high-caste Hindu, the bhagat does not partake
of food without bathing ; puts a red mark on the brow, and ties a yellow
strip of cloth round the turban. The Bhils formerly treated these
bhagats as outcasts, and caused them much annoyance. This the
authorities put a stop to. In 1880, the bhagats were estimated at 800,
and not one of their number had been accused of any crime.
MAHIM. 179
The Bhil villages are without means of defence ; there are no forts
in the territory ; and the hills, though well clothed with forest, can
be easily turned, and are not secure from the operations of regular
troops.
Agriculture, Trade, etc. — The soil is of two kinds, light and black.
The south and west of the Agency are level. In Rehvar and the valley
of the Saraswati there is a large irrigated area. Most of the tillage is for
khar'if or rainy-season crops. In 1881, the male agriculturists, including
landholders, cultivators, and agricultural labourers, numbered 109,909,
or 2i-2 per cent, of the population. The ordinary cost of irrigation,
chiefly from wells and ponds, per acre, is — for wheat, from 14s. to
21s. ; for barley, from jQi, 6s. to jQi, Ss. ; for opium, -£i, 10s. to -£2,
5s. ; and for sugar-cane, ^10 to ^15. Holdings vary in size from 6
to 60 acres. A set of agricultural implements for an average holding
costs ^3, 10s. A cart is worth ^10. In 1872 there were 506,375
horned cattle ; 98,624 goats ; 16,187 sheep; 781 1 asses; 4316 horses ;
and 1467 camels. Severe famines occurred in 1791 and 1S13 ;
scarcities in 1825 and 1S34.
There are nine chief lines of road. Post-offices are situated in the
five following towns — Edar, Ahmadnagar, Sadra, Mansa, and Pethapur.
The most important fairs are those at Samlaji and Brahmakhed.
Average annual value of merchandise sold at the Samlaji fair, ^60.000.
There is a tdlukddri school at Sadra, for the sons of the Rajas
and Thakurs who are unable to attend the Rajkumar College in
Kathiawar. The total number of schools in 1882-83 was 65 ; scholars,
366S. In 1SS2-S3, two new dispensaries were opened, and in the three
older dispensaries the average daily attendance varied from 43 to 62.
The hospital at Edar was enlarged. The people, excepting the Bhils,
have taken kindly to vaccination ; 11,402 operations were performed in
1882-83. 1° tne same )'ear registered deaths numbered 7752, and
births 11,07s.
The entire revenues of the 52 States of Mahi Kantha in 1S82-S3
were returned at ^97, 163. The total tribute payable by the different
States amounted in the same year to ^14,005, of which the Gaekwar
as superior overlord received ^12,751 ; the Chief of Edar, ^863 ; the
British Government, ^52 ; and other States (who receive tribute from
minor attached feudatories), ^339. The whole of the tribute is
collected by the British Government, and handed over to the superior
chiefs entitled to receive it.
Mahim. — Sub-division of Thana District, Bombay Presidency.
Area, 419 square miles, containing 1 town and 185 villages. Popula-
tion (1872) 71,974; (1881) 77,360, namely, 39,13- males and 3S,2jS
females, occupying 12,592 houses. Hindus numbered 73,038;
Muhammadans, 2335; and 'others,' 19S7. Land revenue (1SS2),
i8o MAHIM TOWN.
^12,527. The Sub-division lies in the west of Thana District. A
range of forest-clad hills divides it from north to south, and in the north-
east corner are high hills with jagged peaks, of which Asheri is the chief.
In the south-east, Takmak peak rises to 2000 feet above sea level. The
land to the west of the central range is low, flat, and broken by swamps
and tidal creeks. Climate pleasant on the coast ; but in the interior the
heat of the hot weather is intense, and there is much fever after the
rains. Water-supply fair. The Vaitarna river, which flows through the
Sub-division, is navigable for native craft of about 25 tons. Of the
area of 419 square miles, about 9 square miles are occupied by the lands
of alienated villages. The remainder contains 112,072 acres of cul-
tivable land ; 16,606 acres of uncultivable land ; 18,406 acres of land
under grass ; and 115,305 acres of village sites, roads, ponds, and
river beds. In 1880-S1, of 112,072 acres of Government cultivable
land, 42,749 acres were under actual cultivation, of which 532 acres
were twice cropped ; 34,681 acres were fallow. Grain crops occupied
40,232 acres; pulses, 1712 acres; oil-seeds, 48 acres; fibres, 28
acres; and miscellaneous crop, 1261 acres. In 1880 there were 6785
holdings, of an average area of 12^3 acres, paying an average
Government land-tax of j£i, 15s. i^d. In 1883, Mahim Sub-division
contained two criminal courts and one police station, with 34 men of
the regular police.
Mahim. — Chief town and port of the Mahim Sub-division, Thana
District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 190 1' 30" N., and long.
7 20 52' 50" E., about 5^ miles west of the Palghar station on the
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway, and 56 miles north of
Bombay. Population (1872) 7183 ; (1881) 7122. Hindus numbered
6947; Muhammadans, 146; Christians, 23; Jains, 5; and Parsfs, 1.
Famous for its palms, 'the Mahim woods.' The village of Kelve,
whose name is almost always joined with Mahim, lies on the opposite
side of a creek about 2^ miles to the south. The coast is very rocky
near the harbour, and a reef stretches for two miles from the shore.
A small island fort lies opposite the village of Kelve. Mahim town
is to a large extent occupied by gardens. Post-office, dispensary, and
two schools, with 351 scholars in 1883-84. In 1880, the dispensary
afforded relief to 34 in-door and 6774 out-door patients.
Delhi Musalmans had possession of Mahim in 1350; Gujarat
governors succeeded; in 1532 the Portuguese occupied it; and in
1 61 2 it was bravely held against the Mughals. The tomb of a
Portuguese nobleman has been unearthed, and its slab placed in the
Collector's garden at Thana.
Mahim is a municipal town, with an income in 1882-83 of ^235 ;
incidence of taxation. 7 .Id. per head. Average annual value of trade
during the five years ending 1S81-82 — imports, ^2958, and exports,
MAH1M TOWN— M ABM UD A BAD. 1S1
^6730. In 1881-82 the imports were valued at ^"2468, and the exports
at ^6763. Mahim is one of the seven ports included in the Tarapur
Customs division.
Mahim (MeJiim). — Ancient and decayed town in Rohtak tahsil,
Rohtak District, Punjab. Lat. 280 58' n., long. 76° 20' e. ; situated
20 miles west of Rohtak town. Population (1868) 6768 ; (1881) 7315,
namely, Hindus, 3903 ; Muhammadans, 3314 ; Jains, 94; and Sikhs, 4.
Number of occupied houses, 1055. Mahim bears traces of an importance
in former times greater than it now enjoys. The original town,
founded before the Muhummadan conquest, was destroyed by Shahal -
ud-din Ghori, but was restored in 1266 a.d. by one Peshora, a baniyd.
Akbar bestowed the town in jdgir upon Shahbaz Khan, an Afghan,
under whose descendants it attained great prosperity. During the
reign of Aurangzeb, however, Mahim was plundered in the course
of the desultory war waged against that Emperor by the Rajputs
under Durga Das. Although afterwards gradually re-peopled, it never
recovered its greatness. The chief relic of antiquity is a fine well
with steps, built in 1656 by Saidu Kalal, mace-bearer to Shah Jahan.
Several other interesting ruins surround the town, chiefly old tombs
and mosques of quaint design ; and the general view of the town,
with its high walls and brick houses, is somewhat picturesque. It has
no trade of any importance, and does not possess a municipality,
although a small conservancy establishment is maintained from the
proceeds of a house-tax. Police station, post-office, town school, and
rest-house.
Mahlog (Mdilog). — One of the Simla Hill States, under the
Government of the Punjab, lying between 30° 52' 30" and 310 5' N.
lat., and between 760 52' and 760 58' e. long. The Chief or Thakur
was ousted by the Gurkhas during their invasion in the early years of
the century, but was confirmed in his former possessions after the
Gurkhas were driven out of the country; the sanad dates from 1814.
The area of the State is 48 square miles, with 222 villages and 626
occupied houses. Population (18S1) 9169, namely, males 4966, and
females 4203; number of families, 1932. Hindus number 900S, and
Muhammadans 161. Estimated revenue, ^1000 per annum, out of
which tribute of ^145 is paid to the British Government. Principal
products, opium and grain. Raghunath Chand, the present (1SS5)
Thakur, succeeded his father Dhulip Chand in 1S80, and was born
about 1862. The family suffix is Chand. Sentences of death passed
by the Thakur require the confirmation of the Superintendent of the
Hill States. All other punishments are awarded by the Chief on his
own authority. A military force of 75 men is kept up.
Mahmudabad. — Pargand in Siddhauli tahsil, Sitapur District,
Oudh ; bounded on the north by Biswan, on the east by Sadrpur, on
1 8 2 MAIJMUDAB AD— MAHOBA.
the south by Bara Banki District, and on the west by Bari. A well-
cultivated level tract, producing rich crops. Area, 130 square miles,
or 83,097 acres, of which 57,962 acres were cultivated and 12,235
acres still available for tillage, at the time of the land settlement of
the District. Population (1869) 73,768 ; (1881) 78,002, namely,
males 41,023, and females 36,979. Government land revenue at time
of settlement, ,£11,346 ; average incidence, 2s. 8fd. per acre of total
area, 3s. 3^d. per acre of assessed area, and 3s. nd. per acre of
cultivated area. The tdlukddr, a Muhammadan Shaikh, owns 125 out
of the 197 villages comprising the pargand.
Mahmiidabad.— Town in Sitapur District, Oudh ; situated on the
high road from Sitapur town to Bahramghat. Lat. 270 17' 40" N., long.
8i° 9' 45" e. Population (1869) 6313; (18S1) 7335, namely, Muham-
madans, 4055 ; Hindus, 3195 ; and Jains, 85. Area of town site, 350
acres. With the exception of the temples and mosques, and the
tdlukddr's residence, a new and lofty three-storied mansion, there are
no masonry buildings in the town. Annual market sales, between
^11,000 andp£r2,ooo. Manufacture of brass utensils. Police station,
post-office, registration office, school, and travellers' rest-house. The
town was founded about 200 years ago by Mahmud Khan, ancestor
of the present tdlukddr.
Mahoba. — South-eastern tahsil of Hamirpur District, North-Western
Provinces ; consisting of a hilly and rocky tract, interspersed with the
famous artificial lakes formed by the ancient Chandcl princes. Area,
329 square miles, of which 13S square miles are cultivated. Popula-
tion (1872) 72,163; (1881) 70,626, namely, males 36,518, and females
34,108. Hindus number 66,784: Muhammadans, 3841 ; and 'others,'
1. Of the 92 villages comprising the tahsil, 51 contain less than
five hundred inhabitants. Land revenue, ^9047 ; total Government
revenue, ^10,239 ; rental paid by cultivators, ^15,318; incidence of
< iovernment revenue per acre, iojd. The tahsil contains 1 civil and
1 criminal court, with 3 thdnds or police circles, a regular police force
of 42 men, and a village police of 181 chaukiddrs.
Mahoba. — Ancient town in Hamirpur District, North-Western
Provinces, and head-quarters of Mahoba tahsil; lies in lat. 250 17'
40" n., and long. 790 54' 40" E., on the route from Banda to Sagar, 32
miles south-west of the former town ; also on that from Hamirpur to
Naugaon, 54 miles south of Hamirpur town. Population (1872) 6977 ;
(1881) 7577, namely, Hindus, 5842, and Muhammadans, 1735. Area
of town site, 162 acres. The town stands on the side of the Madan
ir Lake, constnn ted by the Chandel Rajas, and consists of three
distinct portions — one north of the central hill, known as the Old Fort ;
one on the top of the hill, known as the Inner Fort; and one to the
south, known as Dariba. Founded about Soo a.d. by Raja Chandra
MAHOLI. 183
Varmma, who performed a great sacrifice, from which the town derives
its name.
Architectural antiquities of the Chandel period abound through
out the neighbourhood. The Ram Kund marks the place where
Chandra Varmma, founder of the dynasty, died; and the tank is
believed to be a reservoir into which the united waters of all holy
streams pour themselves. The fort, now almost entirely in ruins,
commands a beautiful view over the hills and lakes. The temple ot
Munia Devi, partially renovated, has in front of its entrance a stone
pillar ascribed to Madana Varmma. Of the lakes, confined by mag-
nificent masonry dams, two have greatly silted up ; but the Kirat and
Madan Sagar lakes, works of the nth and 12th centuries, still remain
deep and clear sheets of water. The shores of the lakes, and the
islands in their midst (one of which, in the Madan Sagar, is connected
with the mainland by a stone causeway), are thickly covered with pillars,
broken sculpture, and other early remains. The numerous arms of the
lakes embrace rocky tongues of land, surmounted by picturesque ruins ;
while on the hills above are the remains of summer-houses, where the
ancient Rajas enjoyed the cool breezes from the water. Where the
town runs along the northern bank of the Madan Sagar, on the
artificial dam which hems it in, flights of granite steps lead down the
bank, while shrines overhang the edge. Relics of Jain temples also
occur.
The Chandels reigned at Mahoba for twenty generations, until
Parmal, the first to drop the suffix of Varmma or Brahm, was con-
quered by Prithwi Raj. About 1195 a.d., the town fell into the hands
of Kutab-ud-din. The existing monuments of Muhammadan date
include the tomb of Jalhan Khan, constructed from the fragments of
a Sivaite temple ; and a mosque, also built of Chandel materials, and
bearing an inscription in Persian, which assigns its foundation to the
year 1322, during the reign of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak. At a later
period, Mahoba became the head-quarters of a Banjara colony, who
supplied grain to Central India. The modern town contains a tahsili,
police station, post - office, school, dispensary, sardi, bazar, and
travellers' bungalow. Small trade in grain, English and country cloth,
and pan.
Maholi (AfaAMi).— Pargand in Misrikh tahs'il, Sitapur District,
Oudh ; bounded on the north by Kheri District, on the east by Sitapur
pargand, on the south by Misrikh pargand, and on the west by the
Kathna river, separating it from Chandra pargand. A fertile region,
with the exception of some sandy and raviny tracts in the vicinity ot
the Kathna river. Highly cultivated by Kurmis, who are skilled
agriculturists. Area, 797 square miles, or 5 1,057 acres, of which 28,029
acres are cultivated, 8861 cultivable, 82 7S rent-free, and 5S89 uncultivable*
i S4 MA HON A —MAHKAJ.
Incidence of Government land revenue, 2s. o|d. per acre of total area,
2s. 4|d. per acre of assessed area, and 3s. i|d. per acre of cultivated
area. Population (1S69) 33,678; (1881) 37,514, namely, males
19,965, and females 17,549. The pargand has repeatedly changed
hands, having been held successively by Pdsi's, Ahbans, and Gaurs.
An Ahban Raja held it at the time of the Mutiny, but his estates were
confiscated for rebellion, and conferred upon loyal grantees.
Mahona.— Pargand in Malihabrid tahsii, Lucknow District, Oudh ;
situated along the left bank of the Gumti river ; bounded on the north
by Si'tapur, on the east by Bara Banki, and on the south and west by
Lucknow taJis'il. One of the most fertile and best cultivated pargands in
the District; but along the banks of the Gumti, and for some distance
inland, the country is sandy, and dotted with marshes. The interior
consists of a large tract of jungle, still awaiting reclamation. Area, 147^
square miles, or 94,259 acres, of which 55,817 acres are cultivated and
20,806 acres available for cultivation. Government land revenue,
^£12,290; average incidence, 2s. 7^d. per acre of total area, 3s. 4^-d.
per acre of assessed area, and 3s. iod. per acre of cultivated area. Of
the 195 villages comprising the pargand, 129 are held by Rdjputs.
Population (1869) 71,518; (1S81) 65,24s, namely, males 34,180, and
females 31,068. Two towns contain upwards of 2000 inhabitants
(Itaunja and Mandiaon), and eight others between 1000 and 2000
Good road communication with Lucknow and other towns. Originally
held by the Bhars, these were ousted by Kurmi's, who in their turn
were driven out by Rajputs of the Ponwar and Chauhan tribes. The
two chief (dlukddrs are Ponwar Rajputs.
Mahona. — Town in Malihabad tahsi/, Lucknow District, Oudh ;
situated east of the Lucknow and Sitapur road, and about 15 miles
from Lucknow city. It was formerly the head-quarters town of the
pargand, and the residence of the Government officials. But the home-
stead of the village of Gobindpur adjoined it, and it is said that on one
occasion the Brahman proprietors of the latter village broke into the
Government fort and recovered a child that they had placed there as
hostage for revenue. The dtnil thereupon moved his fort to Bahddurganj,
a short distance off. The place has for a long time ceased to be of
any importance. Population (1869) 3594; but this includes the two
adjacent villages of Gobindpur and Kesarmau Kakin ; (1SS1) 3013,
namely, Mahona, 1586; Gobindpur, 611 ; and Kesarmau Kakin, 816.
Mahraj. — Town in Moga taJisil, Firozpur District, Punjab; an
aggregation of four large villages, the head-quarters of the Mahrajkian
Jats, a branch of the Phulkian clan, to which belong the Maharaja of
Patiila and the Rajas of Nabha and Jhi'nd. Lat. 30" 19' n., long. 750
14' 1;. A great excavation, from which was taken earth to build the
town, is regarded as a sacred spot, offerings being made monthly to the
MAHRAM—MAHUL. 185
guardian priest. The Mahrajkians, who own the surrounding country
as jdgirddrs, form a distinct community ; physically robust, but litigious,
insubordinate, and addicted to excessive opium-eating. Population
(1868) 5681; (1881) 5758, namely, Sikhs, 3190; Hindus, 1705; and
Muhammadans, 863. Number of houses, 863. Although a large
village, Mahrdj is of no importance from a commercial point of view,
and does not contain any regular bazar, the agricultural produce of the
village and neighbourhood being carried to Ludhiana for sale.
Mahram. — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam. Population, 7670 ;
revenue (1883-84), ,£92. The presiding chief, whose title is Siem, is
named U Kison Singh. The natural products include Job's tears
(Coix lachryma, Linn.), black pepper, chillies, tezpat or bay leaves,
honey, rice, sugar-cane, potatoes, ginger, millet, Indian corn, soh-phlang
(an edible root), cinnamon, and caoutchouc. Limestone and iron are
quarried, and the iron-ore is manufactured into implements of native
use.
Mahrauni. — Tahsil or Sub-division in Lalitpur District, North-
Western Provinces. — See Mihrauni.
Ma-htlin. — River in Thayet-myo District, Irawadi Division, British
Burma. — See Ma-tun.
Mahuagarhi. — The highest peak of a range of hills in the District of
the Santal Parganas, Bengal, in Naya Dumka Sub-District, and within
the Government forest reserve. The range rises to about 1500 feet
in the form of a long ridge of unequal height, with numerous flanking
spurs. One part is a table-land of considerable extent, on which it was
at one time proposed to form a sanitarium.
MaMdha. — Town in Nariad Sub-division, Kaira District, Bombay
Presidency; situated in lat. 22° 48' 30" n., and long. 73° 1' e. Population
(1881)9440. Hindus numbered 5806; Muhammadans, 3104; Jains,
529; and Parsis, 1. Post-office and dispensary. In 1883-S4 there
were 75 schools, with 671 pupils. Mahudha is said to have been
founded by a Hindu prince named Mandhuta, about 2000 years ago.
Mahudi. — Hill in the Karanpura pargand of Hazaribagh District,
Bengal ; situated about 8 miles from the southern face of the Hazari-
bagh plateau. Scarped all round, forming a natural fortress ; height of
scarp, 800 feet; elevation above sea, 2437 feet. Detached from the
northern face of the hill is a remarkable outwork (so to speak), shaped
like a crescent. A tea plantation has been established on this hill ;
area under mature plant in 18S1, 172 acres; approximate yield of
tea in that year, 16,765 lbs.; average yield per acre of land under
mature plant, 97 lbs.
Mahul. — Port in Thana District, Bombay Presidency. I.at. 190
o' 45" N., long. 720 56' 45" e. Situated 6 miles south of Kurla.
Average annual value of trade during the five years ending 1881-82
1 86 MAHUL TAHSIL—MAHULI.
—imports, ,£4049, and exports, ;£i4,57*- In 1881-82 the imports
were valued at .£1969, and exports at ^26,000. Mahul is one of the
six ports forming the Trombay Customs division.
Mahul. — North-western tahsil of Azamgarh District, North-Western
Provinces, consisting chiefly of an upland alluvial plain, and comprising
the pargands of Mahul, Atraulia, and Kauria. The principal products
are sugar-cane, indigo, and rice, although most of the common crops of
the North-Western Provinces are also grown. Sugar-cane is the most
important crop, and is the one to which the cultivator looks wherewith
to pay his rent. Indigo cultivation has extended considerably of late
years, and is exported to Calcutta; the sugar goes principally to
Mi'rzapur.
The principal landholders in Mahul pargand are the Raja of Jaunpur,
and a rich Muhammadan tdlukddr of Oudh, Bakr Husain. In Atraulia
and Kauria pargands, most of the resident zamitiddrs are Palwar
Rajputs. With a few exceptions, both the zaminddrs and the tenants
are said to be involved in debt, and living from hand to mouth, the
alleged causes being extravagance in living and love of litigation. The
Pal wars have always had the reputation of being turbulent, and took an
active part in the rebellion of 1857-58. The tahsil is fairly provided
with means of communication, there being three good second-cla?s
roads, and several of the third and fourth class. The Oudh and
Rohilkhand Railway just touches the west of Mdhul pargand.
The population of the tahsil in 1872 was returned at 273,126, and in
1881 at 312,146, namely, males 159,423, and females 152,723 ; showing
a total increase since 1872 of 39,020 persons. Classified according
to religion, there were in 1 881— Hindus 274,851, and Muhammadans
37,295. Of 941 inhabited villages, 762 contained less than five
hundred inhabitants. Total area in 1S81, 435-5 square miles, of which
244-2 square miles were cultivated, 81 -2 square miles cultivable, and
iio-i square miles uncultivable waste. Government land revenue,
^36,267 ; total Government revenue, including local rates and cesses
levied on the land, ,£42,824; rental paid by cultivators, including
cesses, ,£74,253. In 1883, the tahsil contained 1 criminal court, with
4 police stations (thd/ids) and 1 outpost station ; strength of regular
police, 59 men, besides 399 village chauklddrs.
Mahuli.— Pargand in Sitapur District, Oudh.— See Maholi.
Mahuli.— Celebrated hill fortress in the Western Ghdts, Shdhdpur
Sub-division, Thana District, Bombay Presidency. Situated on Mahuli
hill, about 2815 feet high. Towards the south end of the hill-top is a
huge cleft, probably 700 or 800 feet deep, in which stand gigantic basalt
pillars, and a sheer precipice of black basalt from 500 to 600 feet
high runs almost all round. There is also a small cleft right across the
hill, which according to local report was used as a dungeon. The old
MAHURIGA ON— MA IB AN G. 1 8 7
ascent was from the east by the Machi village. The gateway, which
stands at the head of a very steep ravine, and the battlements along the
crest of the ravine, are still perfect. The fortifications are said to have
been built by the Mughals, and on the top are the ruins of a place of
prayer and of a mosque. The hill has three fortified summits — Palasgarh
on the north, Mahuli in the centre, and Bhandargarh on the south.
Mahuli is the loftiest and largest, being upwards of half a mile long by
nearly as much broad, with a plentiful supply of water. Palasgarh and
Bhandargarh can be reached only up the heads of the narrow ravines
which separate them from Mahuli ; and from the country below Mahuli
is alone accessible. Mahuli fort was taken from the Mughals in 1670
by the Marathas, by whom it was held until ceded to the British under
the terms of the treaty of Poona, in 181 7.
Mahurigaon. — Port on the Baitaram, 2 miles above Chandbalf,
Cuttack District, Bengal. — For the details of the trade of Mahurigaon,
see Chandbali, its sister port.
Mahuwa. — Petty state in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 3 separate shareholders.
Three miles south-west of Rajkot. Area, 76 square miles. Popu-
lation (1SS1) 233. Estimated revenue in 1SS1, ^200; tribute of
^"12 is paid to the British Government, and ^3, 16s. to the Nawab
of Junagarh.
Mahuwa (Mhowa). — Town and port in Bhaunagar State, Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 21° 5' 15" N., and long. 710 48' 45"
e. Population (1872) 13,457; (1S81) 13,704, namely, 7523 males
and 6 181 females. Hindus numbered 9292; Muhammadans, 3339;
Jains, 1 05 1 ; Parsis, 17 ; and Christians, 5. The fort is 2 miles from
the mouth of the bay, the east side of which is formed by an island,
known on the east side as Jegri or Jigi bluff, with a two-fathoms' shoal
extending for nearly a mile. North of this shoal the water is deep.
The town is 2 miles to the north of the port, and is a large place, having
several buildings and a temple. Good water may be had at a well on
Jegri island. In the vicinity is a large swamp extending for several
miles to the north-east. The islands that front this swamp are about
60 feet high, and form a continuous line from the bay to Kutpur bluff,
12 miles distant from Jegri. Mahuwa (its ancient name was Moherak)
lies on the Malan, 55 miles south-west of Bhaunagar. Steam cotton
press. Dispensary. Two schools. Four fairs during the year, attended
by about 5000 people. On Jegri bluff is a lighthouse, 99 feet high,
with a fixed white catadioptric light of the fourth order ; visible for
13 miles.
Maibailg. — Ruins in North Cachar, Assam, between two spurs
of the Barail Hills, on the north side of the watershed. Capital of
the native Cachari dynasty during the 17th century, when the Cacharis
iSS MAIDANI—MAIHAR.
first came under Hindu influence. The site is now overgrown with
jungle ; but straggling fruit-trees and several small stone temples still
remain.
A petty outbreak of fanatical Cacharis occurred near Mdibang in
January 1882. A man named Sambhudan, who had set up as a worker
of miraculous cures, and as a directly inspired agent of the deity,
gathered together a small body of followers, and took up his residence
at Maibang, where he lived at free quarters on the forced contributions
of his neighbours, and became the terror of the country-side. The
Deputy Commissioner proceeded to Maibang with a force of armed
police, but on his arrival found the place deserted. Meanwhile,
Sambhudan with twenty followers had proceeded to Gunjong, the head
quarters of the North Cachar Sub-division, about six hours' journey from
Maibang, and burnt the place ; killing two servants and a policeman
They then returned to Maibang, where Major Boyd and his little force
had encamped for the night, and attacked him at daybreak the follow-
ing morning, the deluded marauders having been persuaded that
Sambhuddn's magical spells had rendered them invulnerable to bullets.
The attack was easily repulsed, and eight or nine Cacharis were killed.
Major Boyd, however, received a severe cut in the hand from a ddo
or hatchet, which being unskilfully treated in the absence of proper
medical assistance, resulted in his death from tetanus in a few days.
Sambhudan evaded capture for a time, but his hiding-place was after-
wards discovered. In attemping to escape from the cordon of police
which surrounded him, he received a wound in the leg, from the effects
of which he bled to death. A man named Man Singh who acted as a
sort of high priest to Sambhudan was sentenced to transportation for
life.
Maidani. {Loichd^ar). — Range of hills in Bannu District, 'Punjab ;
known also as the Shingarh or Chichali Hills. They shut in the Bannu
valley toward the east, and divide the basins of the Kuram and Gambila
from that of the Indus. The highest point, known as Sukha Zarat,
occurs about 16 miles west of Kalabagh, and has an elevation of 4745
feet above sea-level. The hill of Maidan, half-way down the range
(lat. 320 51' N., long. 710 10' 45" e.), rises to a height of 4256 feet.
The eastern face of the range forms a bold and almost impracticable
scarpment of cliffs. Beds of lignite and black shale (ro/), from which
latter alum is manufactured, are found throughout these hills. The
main road from Mianwali enters the Bannu valley by the Tang Darra
Pass, at the southern termination of the Maiddni chain.
Maihar. — Native State under the Baghelkhand Political Agency,
Central India. Bounded on the north by Nagod State; on the east
by Rewah State ; on the south by the British District of Jabalpur
(Jubbulpore) j and on the west by the State of Ajaigarh. The East
MA WAR. 189
Indian Railway, between Jabalpur and Allahabad, runs through the
State. Maihar was originally a dependency of Rewa ; but many
years before the establishment of British power in Baghelkhand, it had
fallen into the possession of the Bundela Raja of Panna, by whom the
territory was granted to the father of Thakur Durjan Singh. On the
British occupation, the Thakur was confirmed in his possession on his
executing a deed of allegiance. On Durjan Singh's death in 1826, his
two sons disputed the succession, and appealed to arms. The British
Government put an end to the feud by dividing the territory. Bishen
Singh received Maihar ; Prag Das, Bijeraghogarh. The latter territory
was confiscated in 1858, in consequence of the rebellion of the chief.
Bishen Singh's grandson, the present chief, Raja Raghbir Singh, is a
Hindu of the Jogi sect. The title of Raja, with a salute of 9 guns,
was conferred by the British Government on Raghbir Singh and his heirs,
on the occasion of the Imperial assemblage at Delhi on 1st January
1877, m recognition of the liberality displayed by him in remitting
transit-duties, and ceding land for railway purposes.
The area of Maihar State is about 400 square miles, containing
1 town and 182 villages; the population in 1881 was returned at
71,709. Hindus numbered 59,090, or 82*4 per cent. ; Muhammadans,
2029 1 Jains, 6; Christians, 5 ; Sikhs, 2 ; and aboriginal tribes, 10,577.
Among the Hindus, Brahmans numbered 7881 ; Rajputs, 1452; Ahirs,
2632 ; Baniyas, 1872 ; Chamars, 5492 ; Kachhfs, 6169 ; Kunbis, 9080 ;
Teh's, 2848. Of the 10,577 aboriginal tribes, Gonds numbered 3593,
and Kols 6984. Of the 1 town and 182 villages in the State, 171
villages contained less than one thousand inhabitants; 6 from one thou-
sand to two thousand ; 4 from two thousand to three thousand ; 1 from
three thousand to five thousand ; and 1 from five thousand to ten
thousand. The military force consists of 7 guns and 88 infantry and
police. The Raja, who was educated at the Agra College, exercises
jurisdiction in his own territory, independent of the British courts of law,
except in the case of crimes of a heinous nature, international cases, or
those in which Europeans are concerned. Revenue in 1881-82, ^7096.
Maihar. — Chief town of the State of Maihar, under the Baghelkhand
Agency, Central India. Lat. 240 16' n., long. So° 48' E. Population
(18S1) 6487, of whom 5347 are Hindus, 1129 Muhammadans, and 11
• others.' Maihar is a station on the Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) extension of
the East Indian Railway, distant 97 miles from Jabalpur, and 40 miles
from Rewa. The town is situated on the great Deccan road, and
contains a fort, built in the 16th century, where the Raja now resides.
The principal trade is in grain, timber, and other forest produce of
the State. There is a jhil or expanse of water to the north-west
of the town, and another to the south-west. School, dispensary, and
post-office.
1 90 MAIKAL r-MAIMAN SINGH.
Maikal. — Range of hills in Bilaspur and Mandla District, Central
Provinces ; running south-west from Amarkantak for about 70 miles,
and continuing thence by a similar range known as the Saletekri hills.
The Maikal range forms the eastern scarp of the great hill system
which traverses India almost from east to west, south of the Narbada
(Nerbudda) river. It rarely exceeds 2000 feet in height in Bilaspur
District, but a detached peak, called the Ldpha Hill, attains an
elevation of 3200 feet. The dahya or nomadic mode of cultivation has
greatly injured the magnificent forests of sal which once clothed the
heights ; but measures have now been taken to prevent further damage.
Mailapur (or Saint Thome). — Suburb of Madras. — See Mylapur.
Mailavaram. — Zaminddri estate in Bezwada taluk, Kistna Dis-
trict, Madras Presidency ; comprises portion of the old Kondapalli
pargand.
Mailavaram. — Town in Bezwada taluk, Kistna District, Madras
Presidency. Population (1S81) 3704; number of houses, 803.
Police station.
Mailog". — One of the Simla Hill States under the Government of
the Punjab. — See Mahlog.
Mailsi. — South-eastern tahsil of Multan (Mooltan) District, Punjab,
lying between 290 29' and 30° 16' N. lat., and between 710 31' 30" and 720
54' 30" E. long., and consisting for the most part of an almost desert
plain, stretching inward from the north bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj).
Area, 2076 square miles, with 44S towns and villages, and 24,513
houses. Population (18S1) 141,517, namely, males 77,827, and
females 63,690. Number of families, 24,450. Classified accord-
ing to religion, the population consists of — Muhammadans, 112,310;
Hindus, 28,815; Sikhs, 391; Christian, 1. Of a total assessed
area of 2076 square miles, or 1,328,480 acres, 432,751 acres were
returned as under cultivation in 1878-79 (according to the Punjab
Government's quinquennial agricultural return), of which 45,393 acres
were irrigated. Of the uncultivated area of 895,729 acres, 95,268 acres
were returned as grazing land, 719,882 acres as still available for
cultivation, and 80,579 acres as uncultivable waste. The principal
agricultural products are — wheat, jodr, bajra, barley, gram, indigo, and
cotton. Revenue of the tahsil, ,£15,754. The talisilddr is the only
local administrative officer, and he presides over 1 civil and 1 criminal
court. Number of police stations (thdnds), 4 ; strength of regular
police, 73 men, besides 113 village chaukiddrs.
Maimansingh (Mymensing).- — British District in the Dacca Division
of the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, lying between 230 56' and
250 25' n. lat., and between 890 43' and 910 18' E. long. Area, 6287
square miles. Population (1881) 3,051,966 persons. Bounded on the
north by the Giro Hills ; on the east by the Assam District of Sylhet j
MAIMANSINGH. 191
on the south-east by Tipperah District ; on the south by Dacca ; and
on the west by the river Jamuna, which separates it from the Districts
of Pabna, Bogra, and Rangpur. The administrative head-quarters are
at Maimansingh Town or Nasirabad, on the west bank of the
Brahmaputra.
Physical Aspects. — The District is for the most part level and open,
covered with well-cultivated fields, and intersected by numerous small
rivers and channels. To this general rule, the Madhupur jungle, or
Gar Guzah's, forms an exception. This is a slightly elevated tract,
extending from the northern part of Dacca District into the very
heart of Maimansingh, almost as far as the Brahmaputra ; its average
height is about 60 feet above the level of the plain, and it nowhere
exceeds 100 feet; it is about 45 miles in length, and from 6 to 16 miles
in breadth, with a total area of about 420 square miles. The jungle,
with which the tract is covered, is very dense, and contains abundance
of sal (Shorea robusta, Gcertn.), which is valuable both as timber and
for charcoal. This part of the District is very unhealthy, especially
during the hot weather and rains. During the cold season, the open
parts of the jungle afford grazing grounds for cattle. The only other
elevated tract in Maimansingh District is situated on the northern
border, where the Susang hills rise. They are for the most part
covered with thick thorny jungle, but are in some places barren and
rocky. They have long even ridges, and are accessible to beasts of
burthen. Their height has not been accurately ascertained.
The Jamuna, which forms the western boundary of Maimansingh,
touches the District near Daokoba in Rangpur, and, after a course of
94 miles from north to south, leaves it at Sah'mabad. It is navigable
for large boats throughout the year ; and during the rainy season it
expands in many places to 5 or 6 miles in breadth, overflowing a con-
siderable portion of the low-lying lands adjoining its left bank. Some
remarkable instances of alluvion and diluvion have taken place in
consequence of the rapidity of its current. The river is not fordable
at any period of the year. The Brahmaputra enters Maimansingh
at its north-west corner, near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south
through the centre of the District as far as Tok, whence it forms the
boundary between Maimansingh and Dacca as far as Bhairab Bazar, a
little below which it unites its waters with those of the Meghna. The
gradual formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its bed
has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel of the
Jamuna, and the latter river has in consequence become much more im-
portant than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna ranks third among
the Maimansingh rivers, but it only flows through a small portion of
the District in the south-east. Among the less important streams may
be mentioned the Jhinai, a tributary of the Jamund, not navigable in
1 92 MAIMANSINGH.
the dry season ; and the Kangsa, which is navigable throughout the
year by boats of considerable burthen.
The land of Maimansingh District may be divided into three classes
of soil, known as bd/ud, doras, and matiydr. The first of these is a
light sandy loam, principally found in the neighbourhood of the large
rivers, and well adapted for the growth of indigo and jute. The second
description occurs in marshy lands, in which the boro d/id/i or spring
rice crop is grown. The third class, which is the most valuable and fertile,
consists of a rich mould, producing an abundant crop. These varieties of
soil intermingle with each other, and are not confined to specific portions
of the District. A different kind of soil is found in the neighbourhood
of the Madhupur jungle, and in one or two other tracts, consisting of
a red clay strongly impregnated with iron.
The eastern and south-eastern parts of the District abound in
marshes, which contain quantities of fish ; but the only sheet of water
deserving the name of a lake is the Haoda" bil, in the northern part of
the Madhupur jungle, which varies in size according to the season.
Several varieties of long-stemmed rice are grown to a considerable
extent in the marshes, in water varying from thirteen to fifteen feet in
depth. Many of the Garos who live at the foot of the hills gain
a subsistence by pasturing cattle in the forest, or by collecting and
trading in jungle products, such as beeswax, honey, chircta, and a
coarse kind of yam [kachu).
The wild animals of Maimansingh are numerous. Tigers formerly
infested the char lands in the river beds in the north-west of the
District, but they are now far less common. Bears are found in the
Madhupur jungle. Leopards and deer of several kinds abound ; wild
buffaloes and boars, which were formerly plentiful, have of late years
become scarce. Elephants frequent the Garo and Susang hills, and
are yearly captured in considerable numbers. The sole right of
capturing elephants in the Susang hills was formerly possessed by
the Maharaja of Susang, but he has recently sold his monopoly to
Government for the sum of ^[5,000. Small game is abundant,
including pea-fowl, florican, jungle-fowl, partridges of several kinds,
and pheasants.
Population. — Prior to 1872, no systematic attempt was made at an
accurate enumeration of the population of Maimansingh. A rough
estimate between 1S50 and 1856 returned 947,240 persons, and another
calculation in 1866 made 1,197,823. The Census of 1872 showed
that this was little more than half the actual total. That Census
disclosed a total population of 2,348,753 on the area of the District as
at present constituted. At the last Census in 1881, the population of
Maimansingh District was returned at 3,051,966, showing an increase
of 703,213 persons, or 2993 percent, in nine years. This enormous
MAIMANSINGH. 193
increase is to a considerable extent more apparent than real, owing to
admitted deficiencies in the enumeration of 1S72. But there is no
doubt that the actual advance in population has been very large.
In no part of Bengal is the condition of the general population more
prosperous than in Maimansingh District. Rents are low, markets good,
and failure of the crops is unknown. Much waste land that a few years
ago was jungle and swamp has now been brought under cultivation ;
while the development of the jute industry has produced a prosperity
among the cultivating classes to which the inhabitants of less favoured
Districts are entire strangers. Under these favourable circumstances,
the tendency to a rapid increase in a population chiefly Muhammadan
is free from any check.
The results of the Census of 1SS1 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area, 6287 square miles, with 7 towns and 12,602 villages ;
number of houses, 426,572, of which 403,162 were occupied. Total
population, 3,051,966, namely, males 1,553,397, and females 1,498,569 ;
proportion of males, 50-8 per cent. Average density of population,
485*4 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 2-oi ; persons
per village, 242 ; houses per square mile, 67*8; inmates per occupied
house, 7*57. Classified according to age, there were — under 15 years,
males 661,362, and females 626,771 ; total children, 1,288,133, or
42*2 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males
892,035, and females 871,798; total adults, 1,763,833, or 57*8 per
cent, of the population. Classified according to religion, Muhamma-
dans numbered 2,038,505; Hindus, 987,355; Christians, 151; and
tribes professing aboriginal religions, 25,955.
The total number of aboriginal tribes and castes in the District,
including those who are returned as Hindus by religion, was 58,532,
the most numerous being the Kochs (31,997), who are all Hindus in
religion ; the Hajangs and the Garos, whose numbers are not separated
in the Census. The proper home of the Garos is the hilly country
to the north of the District known as the Garo Hills. The inhabitants
of this formerly semi-independent tract having been repeatedly guilty
of raids on the lowland villages, and of an attack on a British survey
party, it was in 1S72 annexed to Bengal. In 1S74, the Garo Hills
were incorporated with the new Chief Commissionership of Assam.
The Garos of Maimansingh dwell for the most part in villages of
their own at the foot of the hills, but some are found in the Madhupur
jungle and in other parts of the District. They are a hard-working
people, of unusually robust constitution ; they eat all kinds of flesh,
especially that of dogs ; and they are very fond of liquor, manufac-
turing for themselves a kind of rice-beer, of which they consume lai
quantities.
The Muhammadans of Maimansingh, who numbered 2,038,505, or
VOL. IX N
i94 MAIMAXS1XGII.
66-79 per cent, of the population, belong to the Sunni sect, the Shias
numbering only 7S3S. It is stated that in the days of Musalmdn
supremacy, the proportion of Muhammadans to Hindus was greater
than at present. Nearly all the rich Muhammadan landed families of
Maimansingh are said to have settled in the District subsequently to the
acquisition of the country by the British.
Of the Hindus, who numbered 9S7.355, or 32*35 per cent, of the
total population, the high castes were returned at 52,319, of whom
50.152 were Brahmans and 2167 Rajputs. The intermediate caste
of Kayasths or writers numbered 108,409. The chief agricultural
caste is that of the Kaibarttas, of whom there were 94,217. The
most numerous caste is the Chandal, a class of semi-Hinduized
aborigines numbering 148,380. They are cultivators, fishermen, day-
labourers, etc., and some of them are employed as servants in the
households of the upper classes ; but they are greatly despised, and
are not allowed by their masters to touch any vessel containing drinking
water, or article of food. The other Hindu low castes include the
following :— Xapits, 50,615 ; Sunn's, 44,3°8 5 Jugk- 43.393 5 Jaliyds,
32,011 ; Barhais, 28,724; Gwalas, 22,592; Mais, 21,920 ; Kumbhars,
17,804; Dhobfs, 17,419; Mali's, 17,381; Lobars, 14,865; Sudras,
13,802; Kapalis, 11,599; Chamars, 11,289; Baniyas, 11,207; Telis,
9528 ; Tanti's, S430 ; Baruis, 8343 : Madaks. 4943 ; and Kahars, 4264.
Caste-rejecting Hindus were returned at 18,115. The Hindus in the
south-eastern part of the District mostly belong to the Vaishnav sect.
This sect has its head-quarters in the neighbouring District of Sylhet ;
but it has also many monasteries and places of worship [akrds) in
Maimansingh.
The Christian population is very small, numbering only 151 in all. of
whom 31 were Europeans, 6 Eurasians, 107 natives of India, and 7
other Asiatics. The native Christians of Maimansingh District nearly
all reside at the civil station, and are chiefly employed as Government
clerks or as missionaries.
Rural and Town Population. — The population of the District is
almost entirely rural; only 5 towns contain more than 5000 souls,
with, including 2 smaller municipalities, an aggregate population of
73,956 in 1881. while 12,602 villages had a population of 2,967,034.
The boat or floating population numbered 10,976. The 5 largest towns
are Maimansingh or Nasirabad (population 10,561), Tangail
(18,124), Jamalpur (14,727), Kisoriganj (12,89s), and Sherpur
(8710). Maimansingh or Nasirabad, though neither the most popu-
lous nor the most important town in the District, is the civil station
and administrative head -quarters. Jamalpur was at one time a
military station, but troops are no longer stationed there ; Kisoriganj
is the scene of a large annual fair, held in July. The two minor
MAIMANSINGH. 1 9 5
municipalities are — Bajitpur (population 4641), and Muktagachha
(4295)-
Among minor towns may be mentioned — Ulakandi or Bhairab
Bazar, the most important river mart in the District, with a good school
and well-supplied cattle market ; Phatika, Biru or Datt's Bazar, Madar-
pur, Nalitabari, Sambhuganj, Gobindganj, Kah'achapra, and Mukta-
gachha, all trading villages with frequent markets ; Bangaon, with
several Hindu temples; Bajitpur, a village with a municipal police
force ; Char Garhjarifa, a small village containing the ruins of an old
mud fort, said to have been built by one of the independent Muham-
madan kings of Bengal ; Durgapur, the site of the large but dilapidated
palace of the Maharaja of Susang, and Purabdehola, a large village,
with an extensive sheet of beautifully clear water, called the Rajdehola
HI
The Census Report classifies the towns and villages according to
size, as follows: — As many as 7651 contain less than two hundred
inhabitants; 3514 from two to five hundred; 1143 from five hundred
to a thousand; 262 from one to two thousand ; 28 from two to three
thousand ; 6 from three to five thousand ; 1 from five to ten thousand ;
3 from ten to fifteen thousand ; and 1 from fifteen to twenty thousand.
As regards occupation, the male population were classified under the
following six main divisions:- — Class (1) Professional, including all
Government officials and professional persons, 20,915 ; (2) domestic
servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 36,481; (3) commercial,
including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 54, 162 ; (4) agri-
cultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 780,502 ; (5) manu-
facturers and artisans, 111,682; (6) indefinite and non-productive
(comprising 16,334 general labourers and male children), 549,655.
Agriculture. — The chief food staple of the District is rice, of which
three crops are cultivated — namely, the dus or autumn crop ; the dman
or winter rice ; and the boro or spring crop. Aus rice is sown from
February to April and even May, and reaped from the middle of May
till about the middle of September. Aman or winter rice, which forms
the main harvest of the year, is sown in April, May, and June, and
reaped in October, November, and December. Boro rice is sown in
November and December, and reaped in March, April, and May.
Among the other crops grown in the District are wheat, oats, maize,
peas and other pulses, linseed, mustard, HI, tobacco, a little sugar-cane,
pan, and jute.
Jute constitutes the chief commercial staple of Maimansingh. It is
cultivated throughout nearly the whole of the District, but particularly
in the rich alluvial tracts formed by the Brahmaputra between Ghaiar-
gdon in the south-east of Maimansingh and Bhairab Bazar in the north
of Dacca District. The river has here silted up a great deal of late
1 9 6 MAIMANSINGH.
years, and the alluvial accretions (chars) thus formed are found to be
exceedingly favourable to the growth of jute. The crop is generally
sown in April or May, after the cold-weather crops have been reaped
and the fields repeatedly ploughed. The ordinary quantity of seed
used is about 8 lbs. per acre. As a rule, seed is not bought and sold,
but is raised from the plant by the cultivator himself; when it is sold,
the usual price is about 5s. 5d. a cwt., but in very brisk years it rises
to -Q\, is. iod., or even jQi, 7s. 3d. a cwt. The crop is reaped from
about the middle of August to the middle of October. The best
time for cutting is said to be when the plant is in flower, and just
before the appearance of the pods ; the fibre being then of superior
quality. The fibre from plants which have not flowered is weak,
while that from plants in seed is harsh and wanting in gloss,
though heavier and stronger than the fibre of the flowering plant.
The estimated out-turn of jute in Maimansingh is from 17-j- to
19.J, cwts. an acre, worth from 4s. id. to 5s. 5d. a cwt. The value of
a good crop of jute, therefore, may be put down at ^4, 4s. an acre.
The total cost would be about £2, 16s. an acre if hired labour were
employed ; but this is rarely the case, the entire cultivation and pre-
paration being as a rule undertaken by the husbandman and his family.
The cultivators frequently form themselves into guilds or associations
on the principle of mutual co-operation, and undertake by turns the
cultivation of the field or the preparation of the fibre for the guild.
Jute is recognised to be a very exhausting crop; and, except in the
case of chars which are flooded annually, it is rarely grown on the
same land for more than three years consecutively. To remedy the
exhaustion of the soil, manure is applied, and the jute-fields in Maiman-
singh are allowed to lie fallow every third or fourth year.
The rapid extension of the jute trade of late years has materially
improved the condition of the agricultural classes. The Collector of
Maimansingh, writing on this subject, says : — ' In an economic point of
view, jute has been an immense boon to the inhabitants of the District.
It has enabled them to utilize lands which were previously of little
value, and it has poured in a supply of silver till the great bulk of the
people are decidedly raised above a condition of poverty. At the
same time, I am not of opinion that the production of cereals has been
diminished to any appreciable extent, if, indeed, it has been diminished
at all.' This crop is, in fact, as a rivle cultivated by the peasantry only
with a view to supplementing their regular crops of rice and seeds; and
very few, if any, devote themselves to it exclusively.
It was roughly estimated in 1871 that two-thirds of the entire District
were either actually under cultivation or capable of being brought
under tillage, while the remaining third was uncultivable waste. Of
the total area under cultivation (estimated in that year at about 3560
MAIMANSINGIL 197
square miles), it was calculated that 97 per cent, was under rice. The
out-turn of rice varies considerably ; but upon the whole, an average
out-turn from lands rented at 9s. an acre would be a total double
crop (rice and a second crop) of about 14 cwts. per acre, worth
about £2, 14s.; while from richer lands, paying 18s. per acre
rent, a double crop of 26 cwts., valued at ^5, 2s., would be a fair
average.
Rates of wages are at a high level, and have considerably increased
of late years ; and in towns wages are about one-third higher than in
the rural tracts. The rate varies according to the season of the year ;
unskilled labour, at harvest time or when agricultural operations are
active, commands from 12s. to £1 per month. The usual monthly
wage of agricultural day-labourers is about 12s.; skilled labourers
receive from iSs. to jQi, 16s. per month. The general prosperity of
the District is such that even landless labourers belonging to the lowest
classes, who exist on the margin of starvation in Western Bengal and
Behar, can here live comfortably without the necessity of working
every day. The demand for labour is met by immigrants from Behar
and Chutia Nagpur, who come in November, and return to their homes
after the winter rice harvest has been reaped. The works on the
Dacca and Maimansingh State Railway, now opened, afforded employ-
ment to a large number of immigrant labourers.
While the rate of wages has materially increased, the price of the
ordinary food of the people has remained stationary. In 1871, the
prices of rice were as follows: — Best cleaned rice, from 5s. 5d. to
6s. iod. and 8s. 2d. a cwt., varying according to the localities in which
it was grown; common rice, 4s. id. to 4s. 9d. ; best paddy (unhusked
rice), 4s. id.; and common paddy, 2s. to 2s. 4d. a cwt. The average
price of common rice for the four years ending 1883-84 was 4s. Sd.
per cwt. In 1883-S4, a year of deficient rainfall, the price of common
rice rose to 6s. 6d. per cwt., but without diminishing in any way the
prosperity of the people.
Natural Calamities. — The District suffers occasionally from blights
and floods, but never to any serious extent ; and nothing like a general
destruction of crops has occurred within the memory of the present
generation. Although the famine of 1866 did not directly affect
Maimansingh, prices rose in the District in that year, unhusked rice
reaching 5s. 5d., and cleaned rice us. 7<i a cwt. It has been officially
stated that the famine-point would be reached in the District if the
price of paddy should rise to 10s. 1 id., and that of rice to j£i, is. iod.
a cwt. Probably, however, these figures represent a degree of scarcity
beyond the famine-point. In some parts of the District, and particu-
larly towards the south, the people are in the habit of laying in a stock
of rice to guard against the contingency of high prices and the failure
1 9 8 MA 1 MAN SINGH.
of a particular harvest. While this reserve store lasted, prices would
not reach the above rates. When they did touch those rates, the
private stores might be held to have been exhausted, and immediate
famine would be imminent. If the price of paddy were as high as
4s. id. (rice, 8s. 2d.) per cwt. in January or February, after the gathering
in of the winter harvest, it would be prudent to anticipate the approach
of famine later in the year. In the rainy season, the water communica-
tion would be sufficient to make up in a large degree, by means of
importation, for the deficiency of the crops. The Dacca-Maimansingh
State Railway, now completed, removes the danger of isolation of the
District in time of scarcity.
Commerce, Trade, etc. — The chief articles of import are raw cotton,
betel-nuts, and chillies from Tipperah ; cattle from Western Bengal ;
cocoa-nuts from the southern Districts ; and refined sugar, piece-goods,
wheat, etc. chiefly from Calcutta via Narayanganj. The principal
exports are rice, jute, indigo, reed-mats, hides, brass and copper
utensils, cheese, ghi, etc. Tobacco and muslins are also exported to a
small extent. The value of the exports exceeds that of the imports, so
that the balance of trade is in favour of the District. The names of
the chief trading places have already been mentioned; the principal
fairs are held at Kisoriganj and Husainpur.
The District is not now the seat of any manufacturing industry on a
large scale. In former times, the muslins of Kisoriganj and Bajitpur
were of considerable note, and the East India Company had factories
at both places ; a little muslin is still made in this part of the District.
The fine sitalpdti mats are largely manufactured in the east and south-
eastern tracts, where the marshes furnish an abundant supply of reeds for
the purpose. Brass and copper utensils are manufactured in several
villages, both for local use and for export to the large mart at Sirajganj
in Pabna, and to other places. The only other manufactures of any
consequence are indigo, the description of cheese known as Dacca
cheese, and ghi or clarified butter. Charcoal-burning is carried on at
Barmi on the borders of Dacca, and also at Gabtali on the outskirts of
the Madhupur jungle. The women of the poorer classes weave a sort
of coarse silk cloth from the produce of silkworms, which they rear
themselves.
Roads and Means of Communication. — There are in the District about
146 miles of good road, and 124 miles of inferior tracks.
The Dacca and Maimansingh State Railway, on the metre gauge,
opened in February 1886, affords access from the interior to the rising
port of Narayanganj, near the junction of the Dhaleswari, Lakshmia,
and Meghn;i river.-, in Dacca District. The line runs northwards
from Narayanganj, passing Dacca city near the 10th mile, and
extends still in a northerly direction to Nasirdbad at the 85th
MA IMA N SINGH. 1 9 9
mile. It is in contemplation to extend the line from Nasirabad, 32
miles in a north-easterly direction, to Jamalpur, and perhaps even to
Sylhet.
Administration. — Both the revenue and the expenditure of the
District have steadily increased since the administration passed into
the hands of the British. In 1795, the first year for which records
exist, the net revenue amounted to ,£77,160, and the net expenditure
on civil administration to ,£12,028. By 1 82 1-22 the revenue had
increased to ,£92,908, and the civil expenditure to ,£14,521. In
1860-61 the figures were — revenue, ^132,051, and expenditure,
,£24,460; and in 1870-71 the net revenue had grown to ,£161,617,
and the civil expenditure to ,£49,574. Between 1795 and 1870, there-
fore, the net revenue of Maimansingh more than doubled itself, while
the expenditure had increased more than fourfold. It is a curious
circumstance that while the general revenue increased, as has been
shown, by 109 per cent, between 1795 and 1870, the land-tax remained
almost stationary during that period, the 'current demand' having
risen from ,£80, 605 in 1795^0 ,£84,593 in 1S70, or only 4-95 per
cent. In 1883-84, the revenue of Maimansingh District, from the six
main sources, amounted to ,£195,701, made up as follows: — Land
revenue, ,£84,508; excise, ,£29,047; stamps, ,£61,741; registration,
^£3087; road cess, ,£14,546; municipal, ,£2772.
In 1795, the number of estates on the rent-roll was 41 7S, held by
4308 registered proprietors; average payment by each estate, ,£19, 6s.,
and by each proprietor, ,£18, 14s. 2d. In 1870-71, the number of
estates had increased to 629S, and of proprietors to 7354; average
payment by each estate, ^£13, 8s. Sd., and by each proprietor, ,£1 1, 10s.
Since 1870, the subdivision of property has rapidly gone on, although
the number of separate estates has remained almost stationary. In
1883-84, while the number of estates had only increased to 6317, the
number of separate recorded shareholders or proprietors was returned
(approximately) at 30,000. Average Government revenue paid in
1883-84 by each estate, ,£13, 7s. 7d. ; by each individual shareholder,
^£2, 1 6s. 4d.
In 1S83-84, the District contained 15 civil and 13 criminal courts.
For administrative and police purposes, Maimansingh is divided into 5
Sub-divisions and 15 thdnds or police circles, as follows : — (1) Sadr or
head-quarters Sub-division, comprising the thdnds of Maimansingh or
Nasirabad, Phulpur, Gafargaon, and Iswariganj ; (2) Netrakona, com-
prising the thdnds of Netrakona and Durgapur or Susang ; (3) Jabalpur,
comprising the thdnds of Jamalpur, Diwanganj, and Sherpur ; (4) Atia,
comprising the thdnds of Atia or Pakula, Pingna, and Gopalpur ; and
(5) Kisoriganj, comprising the thdnds of Kisoriganj, Nikli or Agar-
sundar, and Bajitpur.
200 MAIMANSINGH.
The regular police force of Maimansingh District in 1883-S4 num-
bered 452 officers and men, besides a municipal or town police of 88
officers and men, maintained at a cost to the imperial revenues of
^10,238; total imperial and municipal police, 540 officers and men,
or an average of one policeman to every 1 1 '6 square miles of area, and
one to every 5651 of the population. In addition to the regular and
.municipal police there is a village watch or rural constabulary, number-
ing in 1S83, 6404 men, maintained by the landholders or villagers, or
by rent-free lands, at an estimated cost of ^30,739. The number
of criminal cases conducted by the police in the same year was 3762,
in which 3692 persons were placed on trial. Of these persons, 1864,
or 5°*5 Per cent., were convicted. Besides the District jail at the civil
station, there are subsidiary jails at each of the Sub-divisional head-
quarters. The daily average prison population of Maimansingh jail
in 1883 was 393*80, of whom 35374 were convicts, 3 1^27 under-trial
prisoners, and 879 civil prisoners. The four subsidiary jails had
a daily average of 13*8 prisoners. The net cost of the jail, excluding
cost of new buildings or repairs, and allowing for the proceeds of
prison labour, was ^1781, or an average of -£4, 10s. per head.'
Education has progressed rapidly during the last thirty years. In
1856-57 there were only 2 Government and aided schools in the
District, attended by 387 pupils. In 1860-61, the number of such
schools was 44, with 1S30 pupils; and by 1870-71, the number of these
schools had risen to 85, and the number of pupils attending them to
3474. Sir George Campbell's extension of the grant-in-aid system to
primary schools in 187 1 has resulted in a very rapid increase; and in
1872-73, the number of Government and aided schools was 174, with
6372 pupils. In addition, there were in that year 71 unaided schools
in the District, attended by 2425 pupils.
Since 1872, an enormous increase of State-inspected schools has
taken place, especially in 1882-83, owing to the inclusion in that year
of a large number of hitherto uninspected village schools (pdthsdlds) in
the Government system of education. Out of a total of 3204 schools
attended by 54,284 pupils in 1882-32, the lower primary schools
numbered 3144, with 51,412 pupils, being nearly double the returns
for the previous year. Female education advanced in a much higher
ratio, the number of girls under instruction being 5645 in 1SS2-83, as
against 150S in 1881-82, the increase being nearly fourfold. The
Census of 18S1 returned 36,917 boys and 878 girls as under instruction,
besides 67,283 males and 940 females able to read and write, but not
under instruction.
Medical Aspects, etc. — The climate of Maimansingh is not specially
unpleasant, except towards the end of the rains, when there is much
sickness both among Europeans and natives. During the remainder of
MAIMANSINGH SUB-DIVISION— MAIN/. 201
the year the District is fairly healthy. The principal endemic diseases
are malarious fevers (chiefly of the intermittent type), dysentery, rheum-
atism, and bronchitis. Sporadic cases of cholera occur throughout
the year, and the disease occasionally makes its appearance in an
epidemic form. Outbreaks of small-pox are common. The health of
the civil station has deteriorated of late, owing to a large char or sand-
bank covered with low jungle having been thrown up by the river in
front of the houses. Moreover, as the town lies below the level of the
river bank, the surface water, instead of draining into the river, collects
in filthy pools and ditches. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
town should be unhealthy. In 1883 there were 15 charitable dis-
pensaries scattered throughout the District, affording medical relief
to 353 in-door and 32,418 out-door patients. The average rainfall
for the 20 years ending 1881 was 9 7 '07 inches. In 1883, a year
of general deficient rainfall in Eastern Bengal, only 5 7 "43 inches fell;
but although the price of rice ranged high, no pressure was felt by
any class of the people. [For further information regarding Maiman-
singh District, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter,
vol. v. pp. 383-480 (London, Triibner & Co., 1875). Also History and
Statistics of the Dacca Division (Calcutta, 186S); the Bengal Census
Report for 1881, and the several Provincial and Departmental Reports
for 1870 and 1872, and from 1S80 to 1884.]
Maimansingh. — Sub-division of Maimansingh District, Bengal, lying
between 240 7' and 250 n' n. lat., and between 910 2' and 91° 9' e.
long. Area, 1S49 square miles, with 2 towns and 3337 villages ; occupied
houses, 90,136. Population (1S72) 571,367 ; (1SS2) 744,524, namely,
males 387,183 and females 357,341, showing a total increase of popu-
lation in nine years of 173,157, or 30*3 per cent. Average number of
persons per square mile, 402*6; villages per square mile, i"Si ; persons
per village, 223; houses per square mile, 50-3; persons per house,
8-26. Classified according to religion, the population consists of —
Muhammadans, 516,645; Hindus, 218,120; Christians, 77; and
• others,' 9682. The Sub-division comprises the 4 police circles (thdnas)
of Maimansingh, Ghafargaon, Iswariganj, and Phulpur. In 1SS3 it
contained 15 magisterial, revenue, and civil courts (including the
head-quarters courts) ; the regular police consisted of 245 men, the
village watch of 1678 men.
Maimansingh. — Administrative head - quarters of Maimansingh
District, Bengal. — See Nasirabad.
Maini {Mdyani). — Town and municipality in Satara District, Bom-
bay Presidency ; situated 40 miles south-east of Satara town, in lat.
170 29' N., and long. 740 34' e. Population (1SS1) 2997; municipal
revenue (1SS2), ^43; incidence of municipal taxation, 3d. per head.
The small stream on which the town stands has had a dam thrown
202 MAI NP URL
across it about a mile to the east, for increasing the water-supply of
the town, as well as for irrigation purposes. Post-office.
Mainpuri. — British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the
North-Western Provinces, lying between 260 52' 30" and 270 30' n. lat.,
and between 780 27' 45" and 79° 28' 30" e. long. Area, 1697 square
miles. Population in 1881, 801,216 souls. Mainpuri is a District of
the Agra Division. It is bounded on the north by Etah District ; on
the east by Farukhabad District ; on the south by Etawah District and
the Jumna (Jamuna) river ; and on the west by Agra and Muttra
(Mathura) Districts. The administrative head-quarters are at the town
of Mainpuri, which is also the chief centre of commerce and popula-
tion in the District.
Physical Aspects. — Lying in the central plateau of the Doab, with
only a small portion of its western borders abutting upon the Jumna,
Mainpuri exhibits even more than the usual monotony of the Indian
plains. From north to south it consists of an almost unbroken level,
intersected at places by tributaries of the two main rivers, but unvaried
by any greater elevations than a few undulating sand-ridges in the
west of the District, and in the neighbourhood of the Kali Nadi and
Isan rivers, and by the ravines along the banks of the Jumna. A belt
of jungle once stretched across its very centre ; but with the advance
of cultivation under British rule, only some stray patches of dhdk forest
or coarse grass now mark its former path. The District, however, is
wooded throughout with mango and shisham groves, while isolated
clumps of babul trees occasionally relieve the bareness of its saline usar
plains.
The great natural soil divisions of Mainpuri, as in the other Dis-
tricts of the middle Doab, are matiyar or clay, /'/////- or sand, diimot
or loam, and piliya or light loam. The only noticeable physical
features are the natural or artificial bodies of water which have turned
the level expanse of Mainpuri into a green sea of cereals, cotton, and
sugar-cane. Shallow lakes or marshes (jhils) abound over the whole
area, but are most thickly scattered about the central table-land. On
the south-western boundary, the Jumna flows in a deep alluvial bed,
sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which overhang its valley,
and at others leaving room for a narrow strip of fertile soil between the
river and the upland plain. From the low-lying lands thus formed, a
belt of ravines stretches inland for some two miles, often covered with
jungle, and incapable of cultivation, but affording good pasturage for
cattle, as well as safe retreats for the lawless herdsmen or Ahfrs.
Moving north-eastward from this point, we encounter in rapid succession
the shallow channels of the Sarsa, the Aganga, the Sengar, the Rind,
the Isan, and the Kali Xadi, most of which supply water to a small tract
on either side, besides giving origin to rich deposits of cultivable silt.
MAINPURL 2C3
The Ganges Canal sweeps through the District in two long curves,
passing in the direction of its greatest length from north-west to south-
east. The Etawah branch waters the country between the Sengar and
the Rind, while the Cawnpur branch supplies the watershed between
the latter stream and the Isan. In addition to these means of
irrigation, the Lower Ganges Canal traverses the north-eastern angle of
the District, and gives off distributaries to the country along the Kali
Nadi.
There are but few wild animals in the District. Antelope occur
in some numbers, and nilgai (Portax pictus) in the dhdk jungles.
Leopards and hyaenas are found in the Jumna ravines, and wolves all
over the District. Pigeons, water-fowl, and quail are occasionally
snared by the jungle tribe of Bahelias for sale. Pea-fowl are numerous,
but they are looked upon as sacred birds, and are unmolested by the
people. Many varieties of fish are found in the District, and they
largely enter into the diet of the people, with the exception of Brah-
mans, Jains, and some sections of the Baniya caste. The right of
fishing in the rivers and tanks is often leased to Kahars, who some-
times pay high prices for the privilege.
History. — Tradition traces back the origin of Mainpuri to the
mythical epoch of the Pandavas ; and the discovery of Buddhist remains
amongst the mounds which mark the sites of ancient cities leaves little
doubt that the District has been the seat of a flourishing civilisation
from a very early period. It formed part, apparently, of the great
kingdom of Kanauj ; and after the fall of that famous State, it was
divided into a number of petty principalities, of which Rapri and
Bhongaon were the chief. The earliest historical inhabitants were
Meos, Bhars, and Chirars, most of whom were supplanted by the
Chauhan Rajputs in the 15th century. At a still earlier date, the
warlike Ahirs had swarmed over the ravines of the western regions,
where they remain by far the most numerous tribe to the present
day.
The first precise notice of the District, however, is found in the
records of its Muhammadan invaders. In 11 94, Rapri was made the
seat of a Musalman governor, and continued to be the local head-
quarters under many successive dynasties. During the vigorous reign
of Sultan Bahlol (1450-8S), Mainpuri and Etawah formed a debatable
ground between the powers of Delhi and Jaunpur, to both of which
they supplied mercenary forces. After the firm establishment of the
Lodi princes, Rapri remained in their hands until the invasion of the
Mughals. Babar occupied it in 1526, and the wild District of Etawah
also came into his hands without a blow. Mainpuri was wrested from
the Mughals for a while by the Afghan, Kutab Khan, son of Slier
Shah, who adorned it with many noble buildings, the remains of which
2o4 MAINPURI.
still exist. On the return of Humaviin, the Mughals once more
occupied MampurL Akbar included it in his sarkdrs of Kanauj
and Agra. The same vigorous ruler also led an expedition into the
District for the purpose of suppressing the robber tribes by whom it
was infested. During the long ascendancy of the dynasty of Babar,
the Musalmans made little advance in Mainpuri. A few Muhammadan
families obtained possessions in the District, but a very small propor-
tion of the native inhabitants accepted the faith of Islam. Under
the successors of Akbar, Rapri fell into comparative insignificance,
and the surrounding country became subordinate to Etawah.
Like the rest of the lower Doab, Mainpuri passed, towards the
end of the last century, into the power of the Mardthas, and finally
became a portion of the Province of Oudh. When the neighbouring
region was ceded to the British by the Wazfr in the year 1801, the
town became the head-quarters for the extensive District of Etawah.
With the exception of a raid by Holkar in 1804, which was repulsed
by the provincial militia, Mainpuri has few events of importance to
recount during the early years of British supremacy. Its unwieldy size
was gradually reduced by the formation of Etah and Etawah as separate
Districts, and the jurisdiction of the authorities at Mainpuri was limited
to the n pargands which lie around the town itself. The Chauhan
Raja of Mainpuri was recognised by Government as tdlukddr or fiscal
farmer of a large portion of the District. Throughout the whole territory
measures were adopted for reducing to obedience the turbulent Rajput
landowners, most of whom for the first time felt the strong hand of
the law under British rule. The construction of the Ganges Canal
was the only striking event between the cession and the Mutiny of
1857.
News of the massacre at Meerut (Merath) reached Mainpuri on the
1 2th of May; and on the 22nd, after tidings of the Aligarh revolt had
arrived at the station, the 9th Native Infantry broke into open mutiny.
The few Europeans at Mainpuri gallantly defended the town till the
29th, when the arrival of the Jhansi rebels made it necessary to abandon
the District entirely. The Magistrate and his party were accompanied
as far as Shikohabad by the Gwalior troopers, who then refused to
obey orders, but quietly marched off home without molesting their
officers. The fugitives reached Agra in safety. Next day, the Jhdnsi
force attacked the town, but were beaten off by the well-disposed
inhabitants. The District was then taken in hand by the Raja of
Mainpuri, who held it till the re -occupation, when he quietly
surrendered himself, and order was at once restored. Since 1858,
nothing has occurred to interfere with the peaceful course of civil
administration.
Population, — The rapid increase of population in Mainpuri affords
MAINPURI. 205
the best proof of its steady progress. The Census of 1853 was the first
attempt to arrive at the number of inhabitants by actual enumeration,
all previous inquiries having been based upon a mere estimate or
average calculation. It disclosed a total population, in the pargan&s
which constitute the present District, of 634,087 persons, or 414 to the
square mile. By 1865, the number had increased to 700, 22o,or 420 to the
square mile. The Census of 1872 showed a further increase to the total
of 765,845, giving a density of 452 to the square mile. The last Census
of 188 1 showed Mainpuri to be still steadily increasing in population,
and the returns disclose a total of 801,216 souls, giving a density of
472 persons to the square mile. The above figures (assuming those
for the earlier years to be as exact as the last enumeration) show
that the population of Mainpuri between 1853 and 1881 increased by
167,129 persons, or 26-3 per cent., in twenty-eight years ; while between
1872 and 1881, the increase was 35,371, or 4-6 per cent., in nine
years.
The results of the Census of 18S1 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of District, 1697 square miles, with 5 towns and 1374
villages, and 102,037 occupied houses. Total population, 801,216,
namely, males 442,094, and females 359,122 ; proportion of males, 55*2
per cent. This preponderance of males is doubtless due, in part at
least, to the prevalence of female infanticide, some remarks upon which
subject are given in a later paragraph. Average density of the popu-
lation, 472 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, -8i ;
persons per village, 587 ; houses per square mile, 6o-i ; inmates per
house, 7*8. Classified according to age, there were, under 15 years —
males 163,004, females 129,063; total children, 292,067, or 36*45
percent. : above 15 years — males 279,090, and females 230,059; total
adults, 509,149, or 63*55 per cent.
As regards religious distinctions, Hindus numbered 749,139, or 93-5
per cent, of the total population; Muhammadans, 45,06s, or 5*6 per
cent. ; Jains, 6861 ; Sikhs, 2; and Christians, 146.
Of the higher caste Hindus, Brahmans numbered 64,803 persons,
most of whom belong to the ancient Kanaujiya sub-division. They are
large landed proprietors, owning over 18 per cent, of the total area, and
are continually adding to their possessions out of the profits of money-
lending. The chief of the Kanaujiya Brahmans, although a resident of
Farukhabad, is one of the largest and most influential landholders of
this District. The Rajputs were returned at 63,141, amongst whom
the Chauhans form the largest clan, numbering 26,851 ; the next most
numerous clan are the Kirars, with 7538 members. Many great
Thakur families still retain their hereditary estates in Mainpuri, where
they have long formed the aristocratic class ; but much of their landed
property is passing into the hands of the mercantile classes, by sale or
2o6 MAINPURI.
mortgage. However, in 1872, the Rajputs still held 44 per cent, of
the total area. The Baniyas or traders were meagrely represented by
19,713, about one-half of whom are Jains. The Kayasths or writer
caste numbered 9312.
The other castes of the Census amounted to an aggregate of
592,170 persons, comprising the great majority of the population.
The Ahirs are the most important, both in numbers and influence,
numbering 136,563, and owning over 12 per cent, of the soil. For
many centuries this tribe consisted of lawless robber hordes, who held
the fastnesses of the Jumna ravines ; and though they have now been
reduced to a comparatively industrial life, they still continue to afford
the local authorities much trouble and anxiety. The Chamars, who
head the list in most of the Doab Districts, sink to the second place
in Mainpuri, with a total of 106,770. As usual, they are mere hewers
of wood and drawers of water for the landowning classes, who held
them in absolute serfdom before the period of British rule.
Amongst other Hindu castes, the most numerous are — the Kachhis,
excellent cultivators and gardeners, numbering 74,643 ; Lodhas, found
all over the District, also cultivators and some of them landholders,
56,501; Gadarias, shepherds, 29,787; Kahars, palanquin -bearers,
water-carriers, and fishermen, 24,018; Korfs, weavers, 17,022; Nais,
barbers, 16,223; Barhais, carpenters, 16,142; Dhanuks, village mes-
sengers and watchmen, 14,814; Dhobi's, washermen, 13,139 ; Teh's, oil-
makers, 12,835; Kumbhars, potters, 10,994; Kayasths, clerks and
writers, 9312; Bhangis, sweepers, 9876; Kalwars, distillers, 5962 ; and
Bhurjfs, grain-parchers, 5396.
Of the Muhammadans, who number 45,068, or 5*6 per cent, of the
population, about one-half are found in Shikohabad and Mustafabad
pargands. They are almost entirely Sunnfs by sect, and are for the
most part poor and without social influence. Although a Christian
mission has been established in the District for many years, Christianity
makes no progress. Of the 146 Christians, 2>Z are Europeans, it
Eurasians, and 102 natives.
Town and Rural Population. — The population of the District is
almost entirely rural, and only 5 towns are returned as containing
upwards of five thousand inhabitants. These are — Mainpuri (20,236),
Shikohabad-Rukanpur (11,826), Karhal (7885), Bhongaon (6778),
and Kokawai.i (6776). The urban population thus disclosed amounts
to only 53,501, or 67 per cent, of the total population of the District,
leaving 747,715 for the rural population. The only municipality in the
I tUtrict is Mainpuri ; but from the four other towns above mentioned
a small house-tax is levied for conservancy and police purposes. A
similar house-tax is levied from the minor towns of Sirsaganj, Daya-
ganj, and Pharha. The Census Report classifies the 1379 towns and
MAINPURI. 207
villages of the District, according to size, as follows : — 390 contain less
than two hundred inhabitants ; 507 from two hundred to five hundred ;
295 from five hundred to a thousand ; 129 from one to two thousand ;
39 from two to three thousand ; 1 1 from three to five thousand ; 6 from
five to ten thousand ; and 2 from ten thousand upwards.
As regards occupation, the male population is divided as under : —
(1) Professional class, including Government officials, 7983 ; (2)
domestic class, 1812; (3) commercial class, including merchants,
traders, and carriers, 11,301; (4) agricultural and pastoral class,
207,000; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, 56,856; (6) inde-
finite and non-productive class, including male children, 157,142.
Infanticide. — Mainpuri is one of the Districts in which the practice of
female infanticide has long engaged the attention of Government. In
1842, measures were introduced for the supervision of the Chauhan
Rajputs and the Phatak Ahirs, amongst whom the practice was com-
monest. Every female birth was reported and authenticated, and a
statement of the child's health was required a month later. Illness
was immediately announced to the police authorities, who thereupon
investigated the case. These rules remained in force until supple-
mented by those of the Infanticide Act of 1870. In 1843 there was
not a single female child amongst the Chauhan Rajputs ; in 1847 there
were 299. In spite of this partial success, the question remained a
difficult one to grapple with, owing to the want of any sympathy or co-
operation amongst the people themselves. In 1S51, a convention of
the heads of clans was held at Saman, when a body of rules was drawn
up and subscribed to. These rules, however, were never observed, as
Thakur fathers were so anxious to obtain good marriages for their
daughters that they paid extravagant dowers, and so made the possession
of female children an expensive luxury.
In 1865, Mr. Colvin took a census of the Chauhan and Phatak
villages, and found six of the former without a single female infant. In
some cases, a daughter had never been known in the village. One
such community was selected, and a strong police force quartered upon
it. Up to 1870 some progress was made, but a large number of
villages still remained under the imputation of infanticide. Fresh
measures were taken under the Act of 1870; and inquiries instituted
in connection with the Census of 1872 revealed the fact that many
other tribes were equally implicated in the guilty practice. In 1875,
though a large proportion had so far reformed as to be exempted from
special supervision, there were still 276 villages on the 'proclaimed
list,' under the surveillance of an organized police, the cost of whose
maintenance was defrayed by a tax levied on the guilty communities.
In 1881, the Census returns showed that among the suspected Rajput
clans, the females still formed only 41 'SS per cent., and among the
2oS MAINPURL
Ahi'rs, 43*63 per cent, of the population. The total population under
suspicion of infanticide in 1881 was 201,132, namely — Ahi'rs, 136,561 ;
Rajputs, 63,141 ; Jats, 1255 ; Gujars, 170; and Minas, 5. The villages
under surveillance in 1881 numbered 228.
Agriculture. — Mainpuri contains comparatively little waste, almost
every acre of available soil having been already brought under
tillage. The cultivated area, at the date of the last Settlement of the
land revenue, was returned at 607,991 acres, distributed as follows: —
Kharif or rain crops — cotton, 48,901 acres ; jodr, 120,497 acres ; bdjra,
74,02s acres ; indigo, 5369 acres; with maize, rice, hemp, etc., bringing
up the total to 299.850 acres: Rabi or spring crops — wheat, 108,488
acres ; barley, 60.443 acres ; the two mixed together, 66,488 acres ; with
gram, poppy, etc., making a total of 282,376 acres. There were also
17,523 acres under sugar-cane. In 1881-82, the total cultivated area
was 587,849 acres, or including two-crop land, 689,325 acres. The
area under the principal crops was,- — Kharif— jodr, 91,665 acres;
bdjra, 68,414 acres; Indian corn, 33,357 acres; cotton, 46,380 acres;
and indigo, 38,200 acres: Rabi — wheat, 142,394 acres; barley,
120,500 acres; wheat and barley mixed, 38,540 acres; and gram,
18,461. Sugar-cane occupied 10,611 acres. In 1883-84, out of
a total assessed area of 1,086,577 acres, 581.659 acres were returned
as under cultivation, or including land yielding two crops, 682,404
acres.
Cultivation has been spreading rapidly of late, and has now almost
reached its utmost margin. The use of manure is general, but one
application is considered sufficient in most cases for two or even three
successive crops. Irrigation is widely spread, and has been recently
further increased by the opening of the Lower Ganges Canal. In
1883-S4, 349,762 acres, or 58*4 per cent, of the cultivated area, were
artificially supplied with water. Of this total, 126,725 acres were irri-
gated from canals, 198,231 acres from wells, and 24,806 acres from
other sources. Rotation of crops is thoroughly understood. The
average out-turn of wheat on the best irrigated land is 1600 lbs. per
acre ; that of barley, in similar circumstances, reaches the same amount,
and on 'dry' land is about one-half. The yield of cotton is 92 lbs.
of cleaned fibre per acre, or 50 lbs. in excess of the average throughout
the North-Western Provinces.
Two-thirds of the land is held by tenants with rights of occupancy,
and only one-third by tenants-at-will. Of the total male agricultural
population in 1S81, 13,380 were returned as landholders, 2208 estate
agents, 168,002 cultivators, and 22,502 agricultural labourers; total,
206,092, giving an average of 2*94 cultivated acres to each. The total
agricultural population, however, dependent on the soil, amounted to
505,014, or 63^03 per cent, of the District population. Of the total
MA1NPURL 209
District area of 1697 square miles, 1695 square miles were assessed for
Government revenue in 1SS1. Of these, 9467 square miles were culti-
vated, 244'3 square miles cultivable, and 504 square miles uncultivable
waste. Total amount of Government assessment, including local rates
and cesses levied on land, ^144,823, or an average of 4s. 2d. per
cultivated acre. Amount of rental actually paid by cultivators, includ-
ing rates and cesses, ^244,589, or an average of 8s. of d. per cultivated
acre. Statements of rent-rates, however, without specification of caste,
are misleading, as they depend more upon the rank or position of
the tenant than on the nature of the soil. Kachhis, who are skilful
and industrious cultivators, pay the highest rates ; while Brahmans
have a prescriptive right to low rentals, in consideration of their sacred
character ; and Alms, by banding together against enhancement, manage
to keep down all encroachments on the part of the zaminddrs.
Wages have risen of late years. In 1883, masons, carpenters,
blacksmiths, and tailors received about 5^d. per diem; and
coolies, 3d. per diem. Prices have also been on the increase. From
1859 to 187 1, the average prices of food-stuffs were as follows: —
Wheat, 25 sers the rupee, or 4s. 6d. per cwt. ; barley, 35 sers the rupee,
or 3s. 2 id. per cwt. ; j 'oar, 33 sers the rupee, or 3s. 4|d. per cwt.;
bdjra, 32 sers the rupee, or 3s. 6d. per cwt. The average rates of food-
grains in 18S4 were returned as follows : — Wheat, 19 sers the rupee, or
5s. 1 id. per cwt. ; barley, 26 sers per rupee, or 4s. 4d. per cwt. ; and
bdjra and jodr, 24 sers the rupee, or 4s. 8d. per cwt.
Natural Calamities. — Mainpuri suffers little from floods, nor are the
ravages of insects specially destructive. But in former years, the Dis-
trict had been severely visited by drought, and the famine which follows
in its wake. In 1837-38 it was desolated beyond the ordinary misery
of that calamitous season; and in 1S60-61 another failure occurred,
which, however, was greatly mitigated by the extensive relief operations
undertaken by Government. Work was found for 4000 able-bodied
persons daily, while gratuitous aid was afforded to an average of 4605
persons per diem, at a total cost of ^2966. A sum of ^2011 was also
advanced to cultivators for the purchase of seed and cattle. In the
drought of 1868-69, when the neighbouring tracts suffered so severely,
Mainpuri District escaped with comparative impunity. Rain fell in Sep-
tember, just in time to bring up the spring crops to three-fourths of their
average yield ; and though prices ruled high, in consequence of large
exportations southward, there was no serious pressure of local scarcity.
The highest quotation for wheat during the period of dearth was 9 sers
1 chhatak per rupee, or about 12s. 5d. per cwt. The value of canals in
seasons of drought is well shown by the fact, that in 1S6S-69 the canal-
irrigated area rose from an average of 54,016 acres to a total of 102,060
acres during the dry weather. In 1SS3-S4 (an ordinary year), the
VOL. ix. o
zio MAJNPURI.
canal-irrigated area had increased to 126,725 acres. The communica-
tions of Mainpuri, added to its large and increasing irrigation system,
are now probably sufficient to protect it from the extremity of distress
in years of famine.
Commerce and Trade, etc. — The trade of Mainpuri is of the same
rural character as that of the other Doab Districts. The exports consist
chiefly of cotton, grain, indigo,,?///, and miscellaneous agricultural pro-
duce ; while the imports are confined to metals, English cloth-goods,
sugar, pedlars' wares, tobacco, and rice. Cotton-thread is manufactured
to a large extent, and there is some trade in bangles, Iiukas or pipes,
inlaid woodwork, and similar fancy articles. The only industry carried
on under European superintendence is the manufacture of indigo.
Saltpetre is refined at several factories scattered over the District, which
export considerable quantities of. the finished crystal. The principal
trading marts are Mainpuri, Sarsaganj, Shikohabad, Karhal, and
Pharha. Sarsaganj is noted for its trade in cattle, cereals, sugar, salt,
cotton, and leather.
Means of Communication. — Mainpuri is thoroughly supplied with
means of communication. The East Indian Railway runs for 23
miles through the south-western angle, with stations at Shikohabad
and Bhadan ; the navigable branch of the Ganges and Lower Ganges
Canals supplies water-carriage to the central plateau ; the natural high-
way of the Jumna skirts the District to the south, affording water
communication for 66 miles ; and good metalled roads connect all the
principal towns and villages in every direction ; total length of roads in
1S84, S9°h uiiles.
There was 1 printing-press within the District in 1884. It printed
only in the vernacular.
Administration. — The administrative staff of Mainpuri District con-
sists of a Civil Judge, a Native Subordinate Judge, and 2 munsifs ; a
Magistrate and Collector, an Assistant Magistrate and Collector, and
2 Deputy Magistrates. There are also 5 tahsilddrs, who have both
magisterial and revenue powers, and three Deputy Magistrates in
the Canal Department; besides the usual educational, medical, and
minor fiscal officials. The total revenue of the District amounted in
1875-76 to ^127,616, which by 1883-84 had increased to ,£169,976.
The chief items of revenue in the latter year were as follow : — Land
revenue ,£129,057, stamps ^14,430, excise ^3220, provincial rates
,£15,173, assessed taxes ,£2250, registration ^803. The total cost of
the civil administration, as represented by the pay of officials and police
in 1SS3-S4, was ;£ 12, 01 7.
In the year 1883-84 there were 14 magisterial and 14 civil courts
in Mainpuri District. The regular police, including the town and
municipal forces, numbered 534 men of all grades in 1883-84, main-
MA1NPURL 2 1 1
tained at a total cost of ^5723, of which ,£4999 was paid from pro-
vincial funds, and ^724 from ether sources. They were supplemented
by 1840 village watchmen or chaukiddrs, the estimated cost of whose
maintenance amounted to ^6672. The whole machinery, there-
fore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 2374
officers and men, or 1 policeman to every 07 square mile and every
337 inhabitants; while the expenditure on the entire force amounted
to ,£12,395, or 3:>d- Per head of the population. The jail and lock-up
at Mainpuri contained an average number of 300*97 prisoners in
1883, of whom 9*25 were females.
Education has made considerable advances of late years in Main-
puri District. In 1860-61 there were 256 schools aided and
unaided, with a roll of 5363 pupils, while the sum expended upon
them amounted to ;£iS6o. By 1874-75 the number of schools of
all kinds had increased to 328, the total of pupils to 6872, and the
cost of maintenance to ^3542. In 1883-84 there were 131 State-
inspected schools in the District, attended by 4081 pupils, but no
returns are available showing the number of private and uninspected
indigenous schools in that year. The Census Report for 1881 returns
5492 boys and 153 girls as under instruction, besides 16,142 males and
287 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The
indifference of the powerful Ahir and Rajput tribes on the subject of
education has proved a great barrier to its wider spread.
The District is divided into 5 tahs'ils or Sub-divisions and 1 1 parganas.
It contains only 1 municipality, Mainpuri ; the revenue of which in
1883-84 amounted to ^1491, while the expenditure was ,£1697 ;
incidence of municipal taxation, is. if d. per head of population.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Mainpuri does not differ from that
of the Doab generally. It is warm, but not excessively sultry, during
the summer months, and damp or foggy during the cold-weather rains.
The average annual rainfall for a period of 35 years ending 1881 was
28*43 inches, the rainfall in 1881 being 43*50 inches, or 15*07 inches
above the average. The lowest recorded rainfall was in 1868-69, tne
year of scarcity, when only 10*9 inches fell. No thermometrical
returns are available. The chief endemic disease is malarial fever.
The total number of deaths recorded in 18S3 was 21,993, or 28*59 per
thousand of the population; and of these no fewer than 18,216 were
assigned to fever, while 2178 were the result of small-pox. This was
an unusually healthy year, as the average registered death-rate for the
five previous years was 35*73 per thousand. During 18S3-S4, 438
in-patients and 19,362 out-patients were relieved at the two charitable
dispensaries of the District. [For further information regarding Main-
puri District, see the Gazetteer of the North- We stern Provinces, by Mr.
E. T. Atkinson, C.S., vol. iv. pp. 405-641 (Government Press, Allah-
212 MAINPURI TAHSIL AXD TOWN.
abad, 1S76). Also the Settlement Report of the District, by Messrs. M.
A. M'Conaghey and D. M. Smeaton, C.S. (1876) ; the Census Report of
the North- Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881 ; and the several
Provincial and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.]
Mainpuri. — Central northern tahsil of Mainpuri District, North-
Western Provinces ; comprising the pargands of Mainpuri, Ghfror, and
Karauli, and consisting of an alluvial upland plain, intersected by the
rivers Rind and Isan, and watered by the Cawnpur and Etawah
branches of the Ganges Canal. Area, 396 square miles, of which 178
square miles were cultivated in 1882. Population (1872) 176,897;
(18S1) 183,334, namely, males 101,783, and females 81,551. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 171,197; Muham-
madans, 10,529; Jains, 1481 ; 'others,' 127. Land revenue in 1882,
^22,567, or including rates and cesses levied on the land, .£25,275 ;
rental paid by cultivators, ,£37,369 ; incidence of Government revenue
per acre, is. iod. In 1883 the tahsil contained 3 civil and 6 criminal
courts ; 4 police circles (thdnds), with a regular police of 7 1 men,
besides 456 village chaukid&rs.
Mainpuri. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters
of Mainpuri District, North-Western Provinces. Situated in lat. 270
14' 15" n., and long. 79° 3' 5" e., on the Agra branch of the Grand
Trunk Read, which connects the town with Shikohabad station on the
East Indian Railway, distant 36 miles south-west. The town consists
of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper and Mukhamganj. The
former town existed, according to tradition, in the days of the
Pandavas, and derived its name from one Main Deo, whose image may
still be seen in one of the suburbs. The Chauhans emigrated hither
from Asauli in 1363, and built a fort round which a city sprung up.
Raja Jaswant Singh founded Mukhamganj in 1S03. The civil station
for Etawah District (since separated) was placed at Mainpuri in 1S02.
Holkar plundered and burnt part of the town in 1S04, but was
repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation, the
population has rapidly increased, and many improvements have been
carried out in the town.
The population (1872) was 21,177; (1881) 20,236, namely, males
11,333, an(J females 8903; area of town site, 264 acres. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1S81 — Hindus, 15,572; Muham-
madans, 3822 ; Jains, 793 ; and Christians, 49. The Grand Trunk
Road runs through the centre, and forms a wide street, lined on either
side by shops, which constitute the principal bazar. At the eastern
entrance stand the tahsili and police station, while the dispensary and
mission buildings lie a little off the road. Next comes Raikesganj, a
large sardi and grain market, built by Mr. Raikes about 1849. The
Etawah road runs north and south, crossing the Grand Trunk Road ;
MAI PA RA—MAJHA U LIS A LI MP UP. 2 1 3
and aids much in ventilation. The Mainpuri portion of the town lies
north of the Agra road, and contains many brick houses, beyond which
lie pleasant gardens, stretching out to the Raja's fort and old town.
The main street in this quarter, which derives its name of Laneganj
from a recent Collector, contains many shops, a market-place, bathing
tank, and schools. The civil station stands on the opposite bank of
the Isan river, crossed by a good bridge. Opium warehouses, jail,
post-office, dispensary, zild and tahsili schools, American Presbyterian
mission, church, reading-rooms, and 2 public gardens. Considerable
trade in cotton, indigo seed, country produce, and iron. Manufacture
of wooden articles inlaid with wire. Municipal revenue (1883-84),
^1491 ; from taxes, ^13 12, or is. ifd. per head of population
(22,736) within municipal limits.
Mainpuri town has but little modern history apart from that of the
surrounding country. The local events of the Mutiny of 1857 have
therefore been narrated in the article on Mainpuri District.
Maipara. — River in Cuttack District, Bengal ; the southern outlet
by which the waters of the Brahmani find their way into the Bay of
Bengal, the northern being known as the Dhamra. The Bansgarh, a
tidal creek of the Maipara, runs southward, almost parallel to the coast,
till it falls into the sea about 6 miles north of False Point Harbour.
The mouth of the Maipara presents the usual obstacles of bars and high
surf ; and from its position to the south of Palmyras promontory, it is
inadequately sheltered from the monsoon. But from November to
March, native craft from the Madras coast engaged in the rice trade
frequent the river. Just outside the entrance to the Maipara river lies
a small island of the same name (lat. 20° 41' 30" x., long. 870 6'
I5" E.).
Mairwara. — Tract of country in Rajputana. — See Merwara.
Maisaram. — Village in Haidarabad taluk, Nizam's Dominions ;
situated 10 miles south of Haidarabad city. The head-quarters of a
regiment of the Nizam's infantry. Maisaram is chiefly remarkable as
containing the ruins of some Hindu temples which were destroyed by
Aurangzeb after the capture of Colconda, and from the materials
of the largest of which a handsome mosque was constructed. Pieces
of black polished basalt, which formed portions of the supports
of the doorway of the temple, were removed to the Mecca Masjid at
Haidarabad.
Maisur. — State, District, town, and taluk in Southern India. — See
Mvsore.
Majhauli-Salimpur. — Two adjacent villages in Deoria talisil,
Gorakhpur District, North- Western Provinces, situated on either
bank of the Little Gandak river, 53 miles north-east of Gorakhpur
town. The two villages may be considered as one town, of which
2 1 4 MAJIIA URA—MAJITHIA.
Majhauli is the Hindu, and Salimpur the Muhammadan quarter.
United population (1872) 4850; (1881) 5599, namely, Hindus 4437,
and Muhammadans 1162. The more ancient of two villages is
Majhauli, which rises on the north or left bank of the Little Gandak.
Here is the residence of the Majhauli Rajas, the most important of the
Hindu landed families of Gorakhpur, although from improvidence and
continued bad administration, very little is now left of their former
greatness, and they have been stripped of much of their ancient
possessions. Majhauli also contains four Sivaite temples and a pargand
school. In Salimpur, on the opposite bank of the river, are an Imperial
post-office, two mosques, and a bdzdr, at which markets are held every
Wednesday and Saturday. For the sanitation and police protection of
the united villages, a small house-tax is raised under the provisions of
Act x\. of 1856.
Majhaura. — Pargand in Akbarpur to//.«7(Fyzabad) District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Amsin, on the east by Akbarpur and
Aldemau, on the south by Aldemau and Sultanpur, and on the west by
Pachhimrati parganas. Intersected by two small rivers, the Madha
and Biswi, which unite at the village of Baizpur. The combined stream
henceforward takes the name of the Tons. The point of confluence,
known as Dohte, is considered a place of great sanctity, as having been
the residence of a holy hermit in the time of the Rdmdyana. An
annual fair held here is attended by 5000 or 6000 persons. Area
of the pargand, 129 square miles, of which 76 are cultivated. Popula-
tion (1869) 45,203 ; (1881) 72,535, namely, males 36,847, and females
35,688. Trade insignificant, carried on in three small villages.
Government land revenue, ^9068, being at the rate of 3s. ad. per
arable acre. Of the 245 villages comprising the pargand, 159 are held
under tdlukddri and 86 under zam'uiddri tenure.
Majhgaon. — Town in Banda District, North-Western Provinces. —
See Rajapur.
Majithia. — Town and municipality in Amritsar tahsil, Amritsar
(Umritsur) District, Punjab, situated in lat. 310 45' 30" N., and long. 750
1' e., 10 miles north-east of Amritsar city, with which it is connected
by an unmetalled road. Founded by Madu Jitha, a Jat, whose descend-
ants, the Majithia Sardars, held posts of honour under Ranjit Singh,
and still possess large landed property in the neighbourhood. The
head of the family has residences both here and at Amritsar. Popula-
tion (1868) 6608 ; (1881) 6053, namely, Muhammadans, 2866 ; Hindus,
2202 ; Sikhs, 979 ; and 'others,' 6. Number of occupied houses, 11 75.
Minor trade mart; large Government school. Missionary school, and
dispensary maintained out of town funds. Municipal revenue in
1SS3-84, ^171, or 6fd. per head of population.
The main branch of the Pari Dual) Canal runs between Majithia and
MAKHAD—MAKSUDANGARH. 2 1 5
the village of Kathii Nangal, a station on the Amritsar and Pathankot
Railway, four miles to the north.
Makhad. — Town in Rawal Pindi District, Punjab. — See Mokhad.
Makhanpur.— Village in Bilhaur tahsil, Cawnpur District, North-
western Provinces; situated in lat. 26° 54' N., and long. 8o° 1' 20" e.,
two miles off the road from Cawnpur city to Fatehgarh, 40 miles north-
west of the former. Population (1881) 3055. The tomb of Madar, a
Musalman saint, annually attracts a large concourse of pilgrims. A
large horse and cattle fair is held in February to March at the time of
the Holi festival.
Makhi. — Town in Unao District, Oudh ; situated 9 miles north of
Unao town, with which it is connected by two unmetalled lines of road.
Population (1881) 4521, viz. Hindus 4357, and Musalmans 164. Two
weekly markets. Small manufacture of pottery and silver ornaments.
The village was founded about 1000 years ago by a Lodh chief named
Makhi, who gave it his own name. After the Lodhs had been expelled,
400 years since, Raja Isri Singh, from Mainpuri, took possession of
the place, which is still owned by his descendants.
Makrai. — Petty Native State in Hoshangabad, District, Central Pro-
vinces. Area, 215 square miles, with 59 villages and 3380 occupied
houses. Population (1881) 16,764, namely, males 8521, and females
8243 ; average density, 77-9 persons per square mile. Fstimated gross
revenue, ^2200. The territory was formerly much larger, and included
Kalibhit and Charwa ; but the greater part was annexed by the Peshwa
and Sindhia. The Raja, who is a Gond, pays no tribute. He exer-
cises civil, criminal, and executive jurisdiction, subject to the general
control of the British Government. The succession is by primogeni-
ture. Makrai itself (lat. 220 4' n., long. 770 7' 30" e.) is an insignificant
place, lying round a hill fort, which the Raja inhabits ; but there are
some rich villages in the low-lying portion of the State. Wheat, gram,
and rice, gum, mahud, chironji, and archar form the chief products.
There are no manufactures; and though iron -ore exists, it is not
regularly worked.
Maksudabad. — City in Bengal. — See Murshidabad.
Maksiidangarh. — Petty State under the Bhopal Agency, Central
India; a tributary of Gwalior. It lies on the right bank of the ri\Lr
Parbati. Area, about 81 square miles, containing 78 villages; popula-
tion (1SS1) 13,924, namely, 7620 males and 6304 females. Hindus
numbered 11,841; Muhammadans, 449; and aboriginal tribes,
1634. Of these last, Bhils numbered 320; Gonds, 41; Minis,
204; and Deswalis, 1069. The State contained 77 villages with
less than one thousand inhabitants, and 1 village with from one
thousand to two thousand. Revenue, about ,£3100. The chief pro-
ducts are opium and grain. The chief, Raghunath Singh, is a Khichi
216 MAKUM— MALABAR.
Rajput. The State has been under British superintendence since
1880.
Maktim. — Village in North Lakhimpur Sub-division, Lakhimpur
District, Assam, on the Buri Dihing river, about 20 miles east of
Jaipur. In the neighbourhood are valuable deposits of coal and
petroleum. The bed of coal (which is of great thickness, being in one
place 70 feet thick, with two small strata of shale intervening) has been
traced for a distance of 13 miles; and it has been estimated that the
marketable out-turn is 9 million tons. The quality is good, and water-
carriage is readily available. In 1866, free grants for working both the
coal and the petroleum were made by the Government to a Mr.
Goodenough, who devoted much capital to the enterprise. But the
undertaking was suspended some years ago on the death of that
gentleman. A concession for working the mines was subsequently
granted to a private association, the Assam Railway and Trading
Company, on a 20 years' lease. A metre-gauge light railway has
been constructed from Dibrugarh to Makiim, a distance of 38^ miles,
with a branch line to Sadiyd, and another branch to the head-quarters
of the company's mining operations at Margherita. The line was
opened in the middle of 1S84, but sufficient time has not elapsed to
show whether these fields can be worked so as to compete with
Raniganj coal. The company has also a concession for the petroleum
beds at and in the neighbourhood of Makum, but up to 1884 no steps
had been taken for working the deposits.
Makiirti. — Peak in the Kunda range, Nflgiri Hills District, Madras
Presidency. Pat. n° 22' 15" n., long. 760 ^ 3°" E- ; elevation above
sea-level, 8403 feet. A favourite point for excursions. The ascent of
Makiirti is by a zig-zag path cut on its eastern face. Its western face is
an almost unbroken wall-like precipice, several thousand feet in depth.
The spirits of men and buffaloes are supposed by the Todas to take a
leap together into Hades from this peak.
Malabar. — British District in the Madras Presidency, lying between
10° 15' and 12° iS' x. lat., and between 750 14' and 760 52' E. long.
Bounded on the north by the District of South Kanara ; east by Cooig,
Mysore State, the Nilgiris, and the District of Coimbatore ; south by
the Native State of Cochin ; and west by the Arabian Sea. Area, 5765
square miles ; population (1S81) 2,365,035. The administrative head-
quarters of the District are at Calicut Town.
Derivation <<f Name. — The ancient name of the Malayalam country,
including the Native States of Cochin and Travancore, was Chf.ra and
KERALA ; the latter term, by which a large portion of the tract has been
known for centuries, being a dialectal (Kdnarese) form of the more ancient
name of Chera. The earliest mention of the modern name of Malabar
or Malayalam (' the mountain region ') is found in the MaAc of the later
MALABAR. 217
Greeks. Cosmas Indicopleustes (545 a.d.) speaks of ' Male, whence
the pepper comes.' The full name Mala-bar seems to have been given
by the Arabs. Ibn Batuta has Mulaibar ; Marco Polo, Melibar.
Lassen explains the affix bar as from the Sanskrit vara, 'a region.'
Bishop Caldwell prefers Colonel Yule's view, that the termination is the
Persian bar (Arabic barr, suggested by Gundert) of Zanzibar ; it is,
however, perhaps ultimately identical with the final syllable of Marwar,
Dharwar, etc., 'continent,' or 'coast.'
Jurisdiction. — By the treaty of Seringapatam, concluded on the 18th
March 1 792, Malabar along with other tracts was ceded to the East India
Company, and placed under the Bombay Presidency. Several chiefs
who had been in quasi-political relations with the Company previous
to the cession, were continued in the position of feudatories for a few
years, and exercised more or less independent authority within their
own limits. This led to difficulties culminating in the Kotiote Palassi
(Pychi) rebellion. In 1796, a Commission was appointed, consisting
of 4 members, with which the Supervisorship was incorporated. The
feudatories were deprived of all administrative authority, their lands
being secured to them in full proprietary right, and a special allowance
(malikdna) made to them. The two Superintendentships were abolished
in 1S00, and several European Collectors were appointed, one to every
division or taluk. At the end of that year, Malabar was transferred
to the Madras Presidency.
The Commission was finally abolished in September 1801, and the
District placed under a principal Collector and 3 Subordinate
Collectors, who are now respectively designated Sub-collector, Head
Assistant Collector, and Special Assistant Collector. Besides these
officers, there are now one or more European Assistants, one Deputy
Collector in charge of the treasury at the saa'r (head-quarters) station,
and 3 Deputy Collectors in charge of the Wainad, Ponani, and Cochin
taluks.
In 1803, 2 zila or District courts were established at Tellicheri and
Calicut, with a provincial or circuit court presided over by 3 Judges,
whose jurisdiction extended from North Kanara to Cochin. In 1S27,
the zild court of North Malabar was converted into an auxiliary court,
and one of the same designation established at Cochin. These courts
were abolished in 1843, t0 make room for the civil courts. The Dis-
trict is now divided into 2 zilds of North and South Malabar, under a
District Judges. A special Assistant Collector for the Mappilla country
has his head-quarters at Malapuram, the military outpost; while a
European Deputy Collector has charge of the mountainous taluk of
Wainad, and resides at Manantavadi (Manantoddy).
Physical Aspects. — Malabar is singularly diversified in its configura-
tion. The great range of the Western Ghats, only interrupted by the
2i8 MALABAR.
Pal-hat gap, looks down from the east on a country broken by long
spurs, extensive ravines, dense forests, and tangled jungles. Stretching
westward, gentler slopes, rolling downs, and gradually widening valleys,
closely cultivated, succeed the forest-clad uplands. Nearer the sea-
board, the low laterite table-lands shelve into rice plains and backwaters
fringed with cocoa-nut palms. Numerous rivers have hollowed out for
themselves long valleys to the coast, where, meeting the sea currents,
they discharge into a line of backwaters.
The District extends along the coast for 145 miles ; its breadth
varies from 25 miles on the north to 70 miles on the south. The coast
runs in a south-easterly direction, and forms a few headlands and small
bays, with a natural harbour in the south at Cochin.
The seaboard is for the most part open and unprotected, except
to the north-west, where stand the island and hill of Mount Dilli (885
feet), a bold eminence of laterite and gneiss, and a conspicuous land-
mark to mariners. In the south there is a considerable extent of
t.ible-land; but generally the fall of the hills is steep, with ledges of
rocks along the crest. The rocks are chiefly gneiss, and the geological
formation primary. The mountains of the Western Ghats, varying
from 3000 to 5000 feet above sea-level on the Coorg and YVainad
slopes, and reaching 7000 and even higher on the Kunda face, run
almost parallel to the coast. Here and there they branch off to the
westward, forming large valleys, while abreast of Calicut they recede to
the eastward, and form with the Wayat Hills (Camel's Hump) the
valleys of Ernad. On the north, the Ghats join the higher mountains
on the western face of the Kundas. The portion of the range
eastward from the Kundas, as far as the lofty mountains north
of Palghat, is comparatively low ; it encloses a tract of 200 square
miles known as the Attapadi valley, where rise the headwaters of the
Bhawani river.
Perhaps one of the most striking features in the country is the
Palghat gap, a complete opening, some 25 miles across, in the great
backbone of the Peninsula. Here, by whatever natural agency the
break occurred, the mountains appear thrown back and heaped up, as
if some overwhelming torrent had burst through, sweeping them to left
and right. On either hand tower the giant Nilgiris and Anamalais,
overtopping the chain of Ghdts by several thousand feet ; while through
the gap the south-west winds bring pleasant air and grateful showers
to the thirsty plains of Coimbatore. The unique character — as a
phenomenon of physical geography — of this gap in an otherwise un-
broken wall of high mountains, 600 miles long, is equalled by its
economic value to the countries lying on either hand of it. Several
ghdts or passes connect the coast with Mysore, Coorg, the Wainad,
and Cochin.
MALABAR. 219
The District is intersected by many rivers and minor streams,
navigable for a few miles above tidal influence, and all having their
sources in the Western Ghats. The chief of these are — the Belia-
patam (Valarpatanam), rising in Coorg, and falling into the sea below
Beliapatam ; the Darmapatam, rising in the Wainad ; the Kota, navig-
able from the sea for a distance of 20 miles ; the Mahe ; the Beypur
river, which breaks through the Ghats to the north of Karkiir
in a long succession of cataracts, and enters the sea at Beypur ; the
Kadalvandi, and the Ponani. The last-named river, flowing through a
rocky country, is much broken by rapids ; but in time of flood the
volume of water is sufficient to float large timber down to the coast, a
purpose for which this stream is largely used.
One of the most characteristic features of Malabar is the all but
continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying parallel to the coast,
which have been formed by the action of the waves and shore currents
in obstructing the waters of the numerous rivers. Of these back-
waters, the most important are — the Kavai and Beliapatam (Valar-
patanam) in the north ; the Payangadi, Quilandi, and Elatiir in the
middle of the coast line ; and the Chetwai and Kodungaliir in the
south. There are two fresh-water lakes — one at Tamir, comparatively
unimportant; but the other, the Trichur or Enamakal Lake, of great
value, and deserving notice for the perpetual struggle of human industry
against the forces of Nature, which the cultivation of its bed demands.
At the close of the rains, the water in this lake — which is protected
from tidal influences by a dam — rapidly subsides, and every foot of
ground is planted with rice seedlings, as soon as the flood recedes.
As the dry weather advances, the bed of the lake presents a magnificent
expanse of the most luxuriant crops. With the early thunder-storms
of the south-west monsoon in April, commences the struggle with the
slowly but steadily rising floods. The low earth-banks which enclose
convenient areas are repaired, and numberless Persian wheels bristle in
their wooden frameworks. Thousands of the population, including
many Nair (Nayar) women of good caste, are seen perched high above
the scene on these machines, continuing the day and night contest
for the preservation of their crops. The bulwarks of the advanced
fields are frequently breached, and the immature crop is drowned.
Often a large area has to be reaped by simply heading the stalks from
boats ; but, as a rule, an enormously rich crop rewards this remarkable
industry.
The inland navigation is so extensive that the trade of the country
is in a great measure conducted by water. The chief commodities are
firewood, rice, pepper, dry grains, country vegetables and condiments,
jack, plantain, and mango. Teak and other timber and bamboos are
floated down from Irikur, the Anamalais, and Nilambur to the coast
220 MALABAR.
depots. The affluents of the Cochin backwater also bring down
timber for export from that town. The castes living by fishing
number more than 16,000. No revenue has ever been derived from
leasing fisheries, but a flourishing trade in fishcuring is carried on at
the seaports. The value of the exports of salt-fish to Ceylon is about
^17,000 per annum. The forests of Malabar are extensive and of
great value, but they are almost entirely private property. The few
tracts conserved have come into Government hands by escheat or by
contract. Wild animals include elephant, bison, sdmbhar, spotted
deer, tiger, leopard, hog, Nilgiri ibex, hyrena, and bear. Small game
is very abundant, and there are many varieties of fish.
History. — The early history of Malabar is inseparable from that of
the adjoining State of Travancore. Identical in people, language, laws,
customs, and climate, the whole seaboard from the Chandragiri river
to Cape Comorin, and between the western mountains and the sea —
the ancient Chera, in fact— is homogeneous in every respect, except
in the accident of a divided political administration. To trace the
successive waves — it may have been of invasion, or of peaceful
colonization — which are now represented by the Cherumars, Tiyars,
Nairs, and Nambiiris, overlying one another in social strata, or to
examine the physical justification for the legendary origin of th's
interesting country, is beyond the scope of this article.
But it is probable that the later flood of immigration, which gave
to Kerala or Chera its Nairs (Nayars) and Nambiiris, was part of a
general movement southward, which in prehistoric times brought the best
of its people, and its Brahmanism, to Southern India. It is also likely
that the physical formation of Kerala was due to some natural process
— gradual or convulsive — which gave rise to the local legend of its
having been the gift of the ocean. In very ancient times a traffic
sprang up between the Mediterranean ports and the roadsteads of
Malabar. The Phoenicians came by way of the Persian Gulf, and after-
wards by the Red Sea. Possibly the Jews made the same voyage in
the reigns of David and Solomon. The Syrians under the Seleucidas ;
the Egyptians under the Ptolemies; the Romans under the Emperors ;
the Arabs after the conquest of Egypt and Persia ; the Italians, more
especially the Republics of Venice, Florence, and Genoa, have each in
turn maintained a direct trade with the western ports of the Madras
Presidency.
In the early political history of Malabar, the first figure that
emerges distinctly from the mist of tradition is Cheruman Perumal,
the last of the sovereigns of Chera. Cheruman Perumdl is repre-
sented as voluntarily resigning his throne, sub-dividing his king-
dom, and retiring to Mecca to adopt Muhammadanism. The date
of Cherumdn has been the subject of much discussion, but recently
MALABAR.
221
information has been received that his tomb still exists at Safhai on
the Arabian coast, and the dates on it are said to indicate that
he reached that place a.h. 212 (a.d. 827), and died there a.h. 216
(a.d. 831). His departure from Malabar may possibly have taken
place on 25th August 825, which is the first day of the Kolam era
prevalent on the coast. The epoch usually assigned to him is about
the middle of the 4th century. It is probable that, if the resignation
and partition actually occurred, they were forced on the ruler by the
growing power and turbulence of his feudatory chiefs, and by the
encroachments of the western Chaliikya dynasty. From this time,
Malabar remained divided among numerous small chieftains, of whom
Kolattiri or Cherakkal in the north, and the Zamorin (or Samuri)
in the south, were the most conspicuous. It was with these last two,
and with the Cochin Raja, that the early Portuguese adventurers first
entered into relations.
Vasco da Gama visited Malabar in 149S ; and his successors speedily
established themselves at Cochin, Calicut, and Cannanore. In 1656,
the Dutch appeared in the Indian seas, to compete with the Portuguese
for the trade of the country. They first conquered Cannanore ; and in
1663 captured the town and fort of Cochin, as well as Tangacheri,
from their rivals. In 171 7 they secured the cession of the island of
Chetwai from the Zamorin. But in the next half-century their power
began to wane ; Cannanore was sold to the Cannanore family (Bibi),
represented at that time by Bamali Raja in 1 77 1 ; Chetwai was con-
quered by Haidar in 1776, and Cochin captured by the English in 1795.
The French first settled in 1720 at Mahe ; in 1752 they obtained a
footing at Calicut, and in 1754 acquired Mount Dilli, and a few out-
posts in the north, all of which fell into the hands of the English in
1 761. Their frequent wars with the English ended in the destruction
of their commerce in the East, Mahe having been thrice taken and
restored. The English had established themselves in 1664 at Calicut,
in 1683 at Tellicheri, and by 1714 at Anjengo, Chetwai, and other
commercial factories. Tellicheri became their chief entrepot for the
pepper trade ; and so rapid was the extension of their power and
influence, that in 1727 the English factors mediated a peace between
the princes of Kanara and Kolattiri. They obtained the exclusive
privilege of purchasing the valuable products of the country, viz.
pepper, cardamoms, and sandal-wood.
For nearly a century the Maratha pirates under Angria and other
chiefs infested the coast, and ravaged even inland towns, by sailing up
the rivers of Beypur, Ponani, etc., till 1756, when they were destroyed
by a British expedition. The Ikeri or Bedmir Raja, in 1736 and
1 75 1, invaded the country of Kolattiri, and imposed fines on the
northern division. The Palghat State, after a dismemberment by the
222 MALABAR.
Rajas of Calicut and Cochin, sought the alliance of Mysore, then ruled
by its Hindu Raja, who stationed a subsidiary force in Palghat. It
was this connection which afforded Haidar All, when he became
Regent of Mysore, a pretext for invading Malabar in defence of his
ally, the Palghat Achchan. In 1760, Haidar sent an army to Palghat,
and descended the ghdts through Coorg, in person. Again, in 1766,
at the instigation of Ah' Raja, the Mappilla chieftain of Cannanore,
he made an easy conquest of the whole country, the Rajas flying
into the jungles or taking refuge in the English settlement of Telli-
cheri. They, however, took advantage of the war between Haidar
and the English invi768 to reinstate themselves, until 1774, when
Haidar again passed down the ghdts with two armies, and completely
subjugated the country, the Hindu chiefs retiring to Travancore and
Tellicheri.
On war breaking out bet veen the English and French in 1778, Haidar
resented the asylum granted by the former to refugees in 1769, and
commenced hostilities by investing the Tellicheri fort. The siege was
prosecuted in a fitful manner for two years, till reinforcements arrived
from Bombay, when it was raised by a sortie, whose success was so
complete as practically to annihilate the besieging army. Peace inter-
vened between 1784 and 1788, when Tipu Sultan, son and successor
of Haidar, descended the ghdts, and commenced a religious persecution
of the people. This produced a rebellion ; and on the breaking out of
the war between him and the British in 1790, the refugee chiefs were
encouraged by proclamation to join the British cause. The contest
terminated in the cession of Malabar (except Wainad) to the Com-
pany by the treaty of peace dated 18th March 1792. The Commis-
sioners appointed by the Bombay Government immediately reinstated
the Rajas and chiefs in their possessions, and made a settlement
with them for the revenue. The measures taken for the introduction
of a civil Government have already been detailed ; but for some years
the peace was persistently broken by the Kotiote Rdja in the north,
and by Mappilla leaders in the south. For ten years (1795-1805) these
rebels and other turbulent chiefs kept the military regularly employed.
Since that time, save occasional Mappilla outbreaks, the peace of the
District has been undisturbed.
Mappilla outrages, which now generally originate in mixed motives,
partly agrarian and partly fanatical, have long been a distinct feature in
Malabar history. Lawlessness and violence had characterized the dis-
position and conduct of the inland Mappillas during the latter epoch of
Tipii's ascendancy, and the earlier years of British rule ; and successful
measures of repression are associated with the name of ' Manjeri
Watson ' (so called from the military station he occupied), and his
local Xair (Nayar) levies. The turbulent spirit, however, remained, and
MALABAR. 223
incentives for its occasional outburst have not been wanting. The more
recent instances have generally taken the form of resentment against
some unreasonable Hindu (Kafir) landlord, or against hostile wit-
nesses in our civil courts. The assassination of one of these sur-
rounds the murderer with sympathizing co-religionists ; and as, besides
wreaking their fanatical vengeance on its primary object, they invari-
ably contemplate selling their lives in a contest with the representatives
of (in their eyes) an infidel Government, these outbreaks have assumed
a serious aspect. The fatal resolve once taken, these pseudo-martyrs
(shahid) meet in a sacrificial feast (maitliid), divorce their wives, and
spend an interval in religious observances. Once they have struck the
first blow, they set the law at defiance, often committing further murders,
and burning and defiling Hindu temples and houses, till they encounter
troops sent to repress them; upon these they throw themselves
with the desperation of fanaticism, selling their lives as dearly as
possible.
Experience has shown that native sepoys cannot be relied on to
deal with these outbreaks with the firmness which the circumstances
demand. A special police force organized in 1851 was also found
unequal to the work. Since the very serious outbreak near Man-
jeri in 1S49, when sixty-four fanatics were destroyed in hand-to-hand
encounter with a detachment of H.M.'s 94th Regiment, the employ-
ment of European troops has been found necessary. The gallant
Wyse, his subahdar, and others were killed on this occasion. In 1S51,
another serious disaster occurred at Kolatur ; and in the same year,
a detachment of British infantry was established at Malapuram, the
centre of the most menaced districts, which is still maintained.
In 1852, the spirit of outrage spread to North Malabar; and a
dreadful tragedy occurred at Mattanur, near Tellicheri, involving the
destruction of thirty to forty lives. In the following year, the ' Mappilla
Outrage Act' was passed, providing a system of fining all the Mappilla
inhabitants of the amsams in which outbreaks should occur; but,
unhappily, it was not at once brought into force.
The fanatical Arab high priest or tangal of Tiruvangadi, Sayvid Fazl,
was suspected of fomenting these outbreaks ; and he certainly conferred
his blessing on the murderous projects of his disciples {intends). Under
measures taken by Mr. Conolly, the Magistrate, in 1S53, this man had
to leave the country, never to return. Two years later, when Mr.
Conolly was sitting in his verandah in the evening, a body of well-known
fanatics, who had recently escaped from the Calicut jail, rushed in, and
hacked him to pieces in his wife's presence. Then, for the first time,
the Mappilla Act was put in force, and heavy fines exacted. Another
serious outbreak (also at Kolatur) occurred in 1S73, when a gang, nine
in number, charged a detachment of the 43rd (Queen's), and were all
224 MALABAR.
shot down, and heavy fines were again imposed on the Mappilla
inhabitants of the implicated atnsams. Quite recently (1885) another
serious outbreak occurred.
The amsam, though now the usual territorial subdivision of Malabar,
is not of local origin ; nad (country) and desam (village) are the local
divisions of the coast Districts. The latter is in some respects the
Hindu village, but the population of these Districts is not collected
together in clusters of houses. Their dwellings are scattered over their
cultivated land, along roadsides, and the like. On the introduction of
the land revenue system after the Muhammadan conquest in 1784, the
country was, after Mysore model, divided into hoblis. These were
found too large for the English rdyatwdri and tdlukwdri administration,
and were divided so as to constitute 424 atnsams, comprising upwards
of 2000 desa»is or hamlets.
Population. — In 1802, the population was estimated at 465,594; in
1823, at 927,705; in 1837, at 1,165,489; and in 1861-62, at 1,709,081.
In 187 1, a careful Census disclosed a total of 2,261,250. The general
Census of February 17, 1881, returned a total population of 2,365,035
persons, or 1,174,274 males and 1,190,761 females; so that in
the period of nine years since the previous Census an increase of
103,785 persons, or 4-6 per cent., has taken place. The area of the
District is 5765 square miles, distributed into ten taluks or Sub-
divisions. The Census figures include the population of the Lacca-
dive Islands, now attached to the District, but do not include their
area.
Classified according to age, there were — under 15 years, males
487,332, and females 463,090; total children, 954,422, or 40*1 percent,
of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 686,942, and females
727,671 ; total adults, 1,414,613, or 59*9 per cent, of the population.
The following are the subsidiary statistical facts revealed by the
Census. The density of population was 410 to the square mile in
1 88 1, as compared with 377 in 187 1. In this respect Malabar is
the fourth most densely peopled District of the Presidency. The
number of towns is 7; villages or atnsams, 429; occupied houses,
404,968; unoccupied, 63,857. Towns and villages per square mile,
0*076; occupied houses per square mile, 70; persons per occupied
house, 5 "8, the Presidency average in this last respect being 5-5.
In regard to religion, the population is thus distributed — Hindus,
1,669,271, or 70*58 percent.; Muhammadans, 652,198, or 27*5 percent. ;
Christians, 43, 196, or 1*82 per cent. ; Jains, 157 ; Buddhists, 54; Jews,
30; Pdrsis, 46; and 'others,' 83. Hindus since 1871 have increased
1*9 per cent.; Muhammadans, 12-1 per cent.; and Christians, 373
pet cent. : 82 per cent, of the Christian population are Roman
Catholics. The remarkable increase in the case of the Muhammadans
MALABAR. 225
is largely owing to the quickly -spreading conversion of low-caste
Hindus to the tenets of the Hindu-sprang Muhammadans, the Map-
pillas. The inferior caste of Cherumars, numbering 99,009 in 1871,
are in particular disposed to accept ' the honour ' of Islam in order to
raise themselves in the social scale. They have decreased since 187 1
by 34*63 per cent., instead of the increase of 571 per cent, observed
generally in the District. Nearly 50,000 Cherumars and other Hindus
have joined Muhammadanism. This tendency of low-caste Hinduism
to embrace the more liberal forms of Muhammadanism is not confined
to Malabar or even to the Madras Presidency. The Europeans of the
District are returned at 1558 and the Eurasians at 1524, but these
numbers are certainly understated. The majority of the Hindus, in
the proportion of 120 to 1, profess the Sivaite as opposed to the
Vishnuite faith. The Sivaites numbered 1,627,651, and the Vishnuites
i3o-38.
Distributed according to caste, the Hindus include Brahmans,
47,683; Kshattriyas (warrior-caste), 1509; Shetties (traders), 22,044;
"Vellalars (agriculturists), 348,169; Idaiyars (shepherds), 4991; Kam-
malars (artisans), 90,051 ; Kanakkan (writers), 890 ; Kaikalar (weavers),
42,606; Vanniyan (labourers), 50,624; Kushavans (potters), 11,770;
Satanis (mixed castes), 7627; Shembadavan (fishermen), 16,191;
Shanan (toddy-drawers), 572,231 ; Ambattan (barbers), 13,902; Vannan
(washermen), 37,556; 'others' (Pariahs, unspecified, etc.), 401,427.
The Muhammadan population is thus distributed in tribes — Arabs, 246;
Lubbais, 318; Mappillas, 495,248; Pathans, 2916; Sayyids, 124;
Shaikhs, 44; and other Muhammadans, 153,302.
As regards occupation, the Census distributes the male population
into the following six main groups: — (1) Professional class, including
State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions,
37,^37 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 5793 ;
(3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc.,
49,267 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds,
359,950; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans,
216,645; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising all
persons of unspecified occupation, male children, and general labourers,
505,482. Nearly 47 per cent, of the population are returned as workers
on whom the remainder depended. Of the male population, 59*43 per
cent, and of the female 3473 per cent., were workers.
The arrangement of the towns and villages of Malabar is different
from that in the other Districts of the Presidency. The amsam or
parish is the unit of distribution, and of these amsams there were in
1 88 1, exclusive of five in the Laccadive Islands, 424. The Census
of 1SS1, treating the amsam as a village, including the five municipal
towns of the District, the towns of Axjentgo and Taxgacheri, and
VOL. IX. p
226 MALABAR.
five amsams of the Laccadive Islands, and excluding the Karar limits
of Cannanore, and the two amsams of Kacheri and Nagaram which
have been included in the returns as within the municipal limits of
Calicut, affords the following figures : — Villages or amsams with less than
two hundred people, i ; with from five hundred to one thousand, i ;
from one to two thousand, 15 ; from two to three thousand, 35 ; from
three to five thousand, 174 ; from five to ten thousand, 195 ; from ten
to fifteen thousand, 10; from fifteen to twenty thousand, 1; from
twenty to fifty thousand, 3 ; and with more than fifty thousand, 1.
The five municipal towns of the District contain 161,918 persons, or
6*8 per cent, of the whole population of the District.
The early history of the Mappillas (converts to Islam from various
castes), like that of the Labbais of the eastern coast, is not accurately
known. The best account is given in the Tahafat-ul-Mujahidin,
written in the 16th century. It corroborates the traditions current on
the coast, of Cheraman PerumaTs conversion to Islam, of his setting
out for Mecca, of his landing at Shahr on the Arabian coast, of his pro-
ceeding thence to Safhai, where he died. Before his death he had
papers prepared and directed to the chiefs of Malabar; and with
these credentials, Malik Ibn Dinai set sail for the coast, and was
received cordially by the chiefs to whom the letters were addressed.
The first mosque is said to have been erected at Kodangallur (Cranga-
nore), the late PerumaTs head-quarters ; the next at Kollam (Quilon)
in Travancore ; the third at Mount Dilli (probably Payangadi), the
head-quarters of the Kolattiris. The two mosques next erected are
said to have been at Barkur and Mangalore (both in the present
District of South Kanara). The sixth was placed at Jaifattan (named
by Ibn Batuta 13th century a.d.), which is believed to be the place
now known on the maps as Surrukundapuram in the Cherakal taluk
of Malabar. The seventh was built at Darmapatam near Tellicheri ;
the eighth at Pantharini, or the northern Kollam, near the modern
Quilandy ; and the ninth and last at Chaliam, close to the Beypur
terminus of the south-west line, Madras Railway. Some of these
mosques still retain their ancient endowments.
It was the policy of the Zamorin to encourage trade with foreign
countries ; and in course of time the settlers, their descendants and
converts, became a power in the land. Hindus found an easy refuge
from their own stringent caste laws, which debarred them from sea-
faring pursuits, in the open arms of Islam. It is known, from the
Dutch records, that in the 16th and 17th centuries the Zamorin en-
couraged the work of conversion. From the Moslem ranks alone
could his war-boats be manned, and change of faith was the simplest
means of providing sailors to cope with the Portuguese at sea. When this
political need had passed away, the Mappillas remained and increased,
MALABAR.
227
adding much by their industry to the material wealth of the country,
and not a little to its social and political difficulties. To the arrogance
of the strictly honest and austerely religious Vellalar or Xair, the Map-
pilla — ignorant, bigcted, priest-ridden — opposed fanatical hatred, and,
when driven beyond bearing, open outrage and murder. Things are
better now than they were. English rule has done much ; the sword
perhaps something; but more than all has special legislation con-
tributed to bring about outwardly peaceful relations between the two
classes. But the relations between Nair (Nayar) landlord and Mappilla
tenant are still in many localities most unsatisfactory. They present
features not without anxiety for the future.
The marriage customs of the Nairs are in many respects peculiar.
For a long time it has been supposed that polyandry was a national
practice among them ; but a recent writer on Malabar law and custom
asserts that although the issue of a Nair (Nayar) marriage are still
children of their mother rather than of their father, polyandry is
almost extinct, and marriage may be defined as a contract based on
mutual consent and dissoluble at will. He states that it has died out in
North Malabar, and only traces of it are found in South Malabar. It
still survives in parts of Cochin and Travancore. In Malabar the form
that exists is found only where Brahman or Namburi influence is strong,
namely, in Nedunganad or Cherpulsherri. Even there no woman
has more than two husbands; in Travancore she may have several.
Formerly there was no difference as regards number between Native
States and British Malabar, and a Malayalam drama is extant
which describes with great humour the quarrels between the five
husbands of a Nair lady in British Malabar, and their subsequent
reconciliation.
Of such a woman the iarivad (or residence of all the descendants
in the female line from a common ancestor) is the home. Here
she receives any man she pleases, the only restriction being that her
lover should not be of lower caste than her own. In British Malabar
two brothers never marry the same woman — a connection thought not
incestuous among the polyandrists of Tibet ; neither may a man marry
his deceased brother's wife on pain of expulsion from caste ; nor
may he marry two sisters. In North Malabar, the tarwad women
generally live with their husbands throughout the year, only occasionally
visiting their tarwad homes. In South Malabar, among the less
wealthy families, the women live with their husbands for only half the
year, spending the other half in the tarwad home. In the case of a
Raja or petty chief, the wife does not leave the tarwad at all. She is
visited there by the husband. The Nairs maintain an extraordinary
respect for relationship by descent through females. Caste excom-
munication would inevitably follow marriage between the children of
2 2S MALABAR.
sisters, or indeed between relations in the female line who are members
of the same tar-wad.
Christians. — A full account of Christianity in Malabar and Southern
India will be found in volume vi. of this work. The native Christians
of Malabar now comprise four classes: — (i) Jacobites or Syrians; (2)
Roman Catholics of the Syrian rite ; (3) Roman Catholics of the Latin
rite ; (4) Protestants. The Christian Church .of Malabar was founded
in the first centuries of our era, by missionaries and traders from
Babylonia or the Red Sea. Until the end of the sixteenth century it
professed the Nestorian faith, obtained its Bishops from Persia, and
acknowledged the supremacy of the Patriarch ofAntioch. A series of
forcible attempts at conversion by the Portuguese ended with the Synod
of Diamper in 1599, and the inclusion of the Malabar Christians within
the fold of Rome. Haifa century later, the Malabar Christians threw
off the papal allegiance. After a period of confusion, a section of them
obtained a Jacobite Bishop from Asia : their descendants are the
Malabar Syrian Jacobites of the present day. Another section were
won back to Rome by the efforts of Carmelite friars, and became
the Roman Catholics of the Syrian rite. The Roman Catholics of the
Latin rite are the descendants of converts made from the native religions
by the Jesuits and Carmelites. The Protestants chiefly date from the
labours of the Basel mission. The work of the Jesuits in Southern
India has been fully narrated in volume vi.
The Carmelite mission was founded by that Order in 1656. The
work of the Carmelites was taken up afresh by the Jesuits in 1879.
Nearly the whole of Malabar forms part of the jurisdiction of the
Bishopric of Mangalore, while the remainder is under the See ofVerapoli
(Varapula), an inland village of Travancore. Besides primary schools,
the Christian Brothers have three convents — at Cannanore, Calicut,
and Cochin. From Cochin to Kavai, in the north, there are native
Catholic communities, whose chief occupation is fishing and cultivating
vegetables. The Protestant Basel Mission, established in 1839, has
founded churches and schools at Cannanore, Tellicheri, Calicut, and
Palghat, with branch establishments at Chombala, south of Tellicheri,
and Kodak;!!, near Vettattapudiangacli. A steady increase is observable
in the native Christian population ; thus in 1856-57, it was 23,614; in
1861-62, 27,539; in 1866-67, 30,435; and in 1871-72, 41,642. The
Census Report of 1881, however, returns the number of native
Christians at only 20,172. Under the heading 'not stated,' there are
19,942 Christians, and of these no doubt a considerable proportion are
native converts.
There are 5 municipalities in Malabar — namely, Cannanore, the
most northern seaport, and a military cantonment, with a population
(1881) of 26.3S6; Tellicheri, 26,410; Calicut, the capital, with
MALABAR. 229
57,085 inhabitants; Cochin, 15,698; and Palghat, the largest inland
town of Malabar, 36,339, — all of which see separately. The income
from taxation of the five municipalities in 1883-84 amounted to ^9782;
the incidence of taxation varied from 6d. to is. 4-id. per head of popu-
lation. Other towns and villages of importance are also described in
separate articles, but the populations given of these places are not those
of the actual towns and villages, but of the amsams or parishes in
which they are respectively situated.
Forests. — Malabar District is divided into two forest divisions, each
under a District forest officer. One consists of Wainad and Palghat,
and the other of the Nelambur teak plantations and the surrounding
natural forests. The most important forests are those of the Wainad,
which contain teak, backwood or rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), vengai
(Pterocarpus Marsupium), karamarad (Terminalia tomentosa), red and
white cedar, and large quantities of trees of superior description. In
the forests of Wainad, the pun (Calophyllum tomentosum) and the
black and white dammer trees (Canarium strictum and Vateria indica)
are noticeable features. The Palghat forest contains fine timber trees
similar to those enumerated in the forests of Wainad, to which may be
added irumbogam (Hopea parviflora), the Indian guttapercha tree, the
iron-wood (Xylia dolabriformis), benteak (Lagerstrcemia microcarpa),
coppice teak, blackwood, Acacia, Albizzia, and Zigyphus. The chief
feature of the Nelambur forest is the magnificent teak plantations, which
extend over 3368 acres, have cost ^1 11,904, yielded ^£,85,577, and will,
it is estimated, be worth ^£900,000 in 1900. Experimental planting
of the mahogany, Cedra, Hevea, Landolphia rubbers, Ipecacuanha,
saf>pan, and several varieties of bamboo has been undertaken with fair
prospect of success. The forests are rich in minor produce — cardamoms,
ginger, cinnamon, dammer, gums, resins, gall-nuts, honey, wax, etc.
The area of reserved forests at the close of 18S2-83 was 3524 square
miles. During 1S82-S3 the total expenditure amounted to ^5156,
and the receipts to ,£9371.
Agriculture. — The statistical returns of 1SS3-84 disclose that 938,026
acres were cultivated, of which 110,293 were twice cropped; and
2,856,362 acres were cultivable. The area assessed was 803,55s acres ;
the assessment amounted to ^181,716. Cereals occupied 597>525
acres, of which 581,085 acres were under rice; pulses, 9794 acres, of
which 4152 acres were under peas ; orchard and garden produce,
279>737 acres; drugs and narcotics, 28,647 acres, of which 26,822
acres were under coffee; condiments and spices, 12,807 acres, of
which 7044 acres were under pepper and 4122 acres under ginger;
sugars, 291 acres, of which 2S0 acres were under palm or palmyra ;
oil-seeds, 9174 acres, of which 8006 acres were under gingelly; and
fibres occupied 51 acres. Rice {art) forms the staple crop of the
230 MALABAR.
District, and is also largely imported. Ragi and chdnna are grown,
but not largely ; gingelly seed, castor-oil seed, gram of several kinds,
coffee, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, garlic, cocoa-nut, areca-nut, and
cinnamon arc the chief products.
As soon as the first showers have fallen in March or April, agricul-
tural operations commence. The fields are manured after a slight
ploughing with ashes, leaves (decayed and green), and in some places
salt mud. No system of irrigation is practised beyond diverting over
the fields the stream flowing down each valley. Some of the most fertile
lands in the District are thus brought under ' wet ' cultivation. But
the abundant and never-failing rainfall places the Malabar farmer beyond
the necessity of artificial irrigation. Rice is sometimes sown broadcast,
but is usually transplanted from nursery beds. The first or kanni crop
is sown in April and May, and cut in August and September. The
second or makaram crop is sown in September and October, and reaped
in January and February. These are the principal rice harvests, but
there are intermediate crops in some places ; and a third, known as
punja, is sown in February, and reaped in April or May. The greater
portion of the land, however, bears only one crop. Within the
last twenty years, rice cultivation has considerably extended, but
very little improvement has taken place in the quality of the rice,
although experiments have been tried in the District with Carolina
seed.
Cocoa-nut gardens form one of the greatest sources of commercial
wealth in the District. The value of exported cocoa-nut products is
estimated at nearly a million sterling annually. Pepper and spices
yield over a quarter of a million. Of ' dry ' cultivation, rice grown on the
uplands, oil-seeds (ellu), ragi (Eleusine corocana), and various pulses are
the most extensively grown. The ellu (Sesamum indicum) and modem
are subject to a special land-tax. JPunam (elsewhere known as kumari
ox jam) cultivation, by burning the forests, is taxed on the area culti-
vated ; and coffee land in the Wainad pays 2 rupees (4s.) per acre.
In 1 88 1, the agricultural population of Malabar District was
returned at 575,499- or 24 per cent, of the total. Amount of Govern-
ment assessment, including local rates and cesses, ^212,378, or an
average of 5s. 2]d. per cultivated acre. Total amount of rent actually
paid by cultivators, including rates and cesses, ^2 17,479, or an
average of 5s. 3d. per cultivated acre. In 1882, the prices of
produce were as follows, per maund of 80 lbs. : — Rice, 5s. ; ragi,
3s. lod. ; maize, 2s. lJ.d. ; gram, 5s. 8]d. ; wheat, 8s. 5& ; pepper,
£1, 19s. iod. ; salt, 5s. 8d. ; sugar, £1, 5s. 4ld. ; gingelly, 9s. 4d. j
oil-seeds, 6s. ; coffee, £2, 6s. ; tobacco, £1, 4s. ; cotton, £1, 16s. 3d.
The agricultural stock in the same year was— horned cattle, 858,106;
goats, 58,543 ; sheep, 1175; pigs, 820; elephants, 401; horses and
MALABAR. 231
ponies, 846 ; donkeys, 265; ploughs, 162,378; carts, 5442; and boats,
3290.
The peasantry of Malabar are no exception to the general rule
dividing this class into those who borrow and those who lend. The
borrowers among the actual cultivators are much more numerous than
the lenders • and borrowing, owing to certain characteristics in the
prevailing tenure, is rapidly on the increase. The wages of artisans
and labourers have been steadily rising. Coolies, who in 1800
earned xhd., and in 1850, 3d., made in 1876-77, "jhd. a day; and
skilled workmen, whose wage in 1850 varied from jhd. to od., earned
in 1876-77 from is. to is. 3d. In 1882-83, the rates were, for skilled
labour, as low as 8|d., and for unskilled, 4^d. Agricultural labourers
are always paid in kind, at the daily rate of about 5 lbs. of rice for a
man and 4. lbs. for a woman.
Coffee and Tea Plantations. — In 1797, a plantation was opened by
Government on the waste lands at Randattarra, a small tract lying
between Cannanore and Tellicheri, for the cultivation of special pro-
ducts, such as coffee, pepper, cinnamon, cassia, cotton, sugar-cane, etc.
The cinnamon plantation, the only one in the District, is still in exist-
ence ; but the estate was laid waste by the Palassi (Pychi) rebels in
1803, and was subsequently sold by the Company. After the termina-
tion of the rebellion in 1805, and the pacification of the country, the
Sub-Collector, Mr. H. Baber, turned his attention to coffee-planting in
Wainad ; and by 1840, this important industry was fairly established.
Since 1850 it has increased greatly, and continues to prosper. In
1883 the coffee plantations numbered 13,568, covering 52,965 acres,
of which 23,919 acres were under mature plants, 2903 acres under
immature plants, and 26,143 acres were taken up for planting but not
yet planted. The approximate yield was 3,813,958 lbs., or an average
of 159 lbs. per acre of mature plants. The cultivation of tea has
recently been introduced into the District. In 1883 the tea-gardens
numbered 5, covering an area of 66 acres, of which 62 were under
mature plants ; the yield was i860 lbs., or an average of 30 lbs. per acre
of mature plants.
Land Tenure. — Until recently the opinion prevailed that all land in
Malabar was, by immemorial inheritance, private property in fee-simple
(jantnam) ; and that no more absolute proprietary right, or more
indefeasible title, could well be conceived than that of the Malabar
janmi. An inquiry, however, since made by a Commissioner specially
deputed to investigate the grievances of the Mappilla tenants, has
revealed the fact that the Malabar proprietary right, supposed to be
vested in the Janmi, is to a great extent a creation of the British courts
of justice. Fee -simple titles according to European ideas did not
exist before the advent of the British. The people lived divided into
232 MALABAR.
classes, of whom the janmis corresponded pretty nearly to the zaminddrs
of the rest of India. They were entitled to their fixed customary share
of the produce and to no more. The real power in the land was vested
at that time in the nad kuttams or popular assemblies ; and it was on
the content and well-being of the classes beneath him, that the janmi
relied for his wealth and position. If the janmi provoked the enmity
of his kdnakkdrs (supervisors or protectors), they simply transferred
their allegiance, and also the janmVs customary share of the produce,
to some one else. This often happened, and the idea that the
kdnam holder had a right to do so has not yet even quite died out.
The courts at the same time preserved the principle, that a holder
subordinate to a janmi was entitled to compensation for improve-
ments, if evicted from his holding. Such subordinate holders, even
the meanest and lowest of them, have still also the power to sub-
divide, sublet, or sell the whole or portions of their holdings. These
two principles have descended to them from the ancient local
organization, in which classes or castes were told off each to perform
certain well-understood customary functions in the body politic. In
the exercise of these functions they were allowed the greatest possible
liberty, and could sell amongst themselves the fruits of their labours.
Below the janmam, or proprietary right, as now understood by the
courts, numerous sub-tenures of graduated value are found — from a
permanent leaseholder on a peppercorn rent to a rackrented tenant-
at-will. There are many varieties of these tenures, each with its own
name and conditions ; and they are all confirmed by documents of
traditional form. But the system is changing now.
Natural Calamities. — The District has hitherto enjoyed immunity
from extensive natural calamities, such as blight, flood, or drought ;
and such a disaster as an entire failure of the south-west monsoon
has been unknown to the present or preceding generation. When,
however, the neighbouring Districts to the east suffer from scarcity,
as in 1866-67 ar>d 1877-78, Malabar, which ordinarily disposes of
some of its produce in exchange for grain, is affected by the prevalence
of high prices. Scarcity was felt in 1866 in the early part of the year,
when the prices of ail articles of food rose abnormally high. Towards
the end of 1876, owing to the scanty fall of rain, the season was most
unfavourable ; and there was a serious failure of the makaram or second
rice crop, which, with the demand from outside, materially affected
prices, though the import trade in grain was unusually active in supply-
ing, not only Malabar, but (through Malabar) several of the famine-
stricken Districts to the eastward.
Means of Communication. — The District is fairly supplied with main
lines of communication. In 1882-83 there were 1574 miles of good
made roads, 5S7 miles of navigable river, and 50 miles of navigable
MALABAR. 233
canals. An extensive seaboard, with backwaters running parallel to it,
affords easy means of transit. The artificial canals made to connect
these backwaters give a continuous water communication along
the coast of 77 miles in length from Cochin to the Tirur station on
the south-west line of the Madras Railway, of 43 miles in length
from Beypur to Badagara, and again of 22 miles from Beliapatam
to the frontiers of South Kanara. The Sultan's canal, connecting
the Kavai and Pyangadi rivers, is about 2 miles long, cut through
low rice ground. It was made by Ali Raja of Cannanore, when
he had the management of the Cherakal country under Haidar
Ali in 1766, to secure inland navigation from the village of Kakad,
2 miles north-east of Cannanore, to Nileshwar in South Kanara.
Previously all boats had to round Mount Dilli, a route impracticable
during the monsoons. The canals are on an average between 10 to 12
feet broad, and 1 or 2 to 3 and 4 feet deep at low water, and are
intended only for small boats. None of them is in a state of efficiency
at all times, and 8 miles of cutting are required to connect the Tamir
Canal with the Kadalvandi and Beypur rivers. It is, however, in
contemplation to complete a good navigable canal from Tirur to
Cochin, and push the work on eventually from Badagara to Mahe,
Tellicheri, and Cannanore. The south-west line of the Madras Railway
traverses the southern part of the District for a total distance of 90
miles, from Walliar to Beypur.
Manufactures and Trade. — Except the manufacture of cloth, tiles,
bricks, etc., in the German mission establishments at Calicut and
Cannanore, and that of coarse cloth and mats at Palghat, there are
no local manufactures deserving of mention. The weaving of calico,
which derived its name from Calicut, seems to have altogether died
out, while unsuccessful attempts have been made to manufacture
canvas at Beypur, and silk at Palghat. The trade of the District is
carried on chiefly at permanent markets ; and the principal seats of
commerce are Cannanore, Tellicheri, Badagara, Calicut, Pal-
ghat, and Cochin. The annual average value of imports for the five
years ending 1882-83 into the eleven ports of Malabar was £1,434,869,
and of exports, £2,699,159; giving a total annual average value of
sea-borne trade, ,£4, 134,028. In 1882-83, the value of imports was
£"1,449,183, and of exports, .£2,693,564; total value of sea-borne trade,
£4,142,747. No native banking establishments exist in the District ;
but every Malayali is either lender or borrower, and the trading com-
munity readily avail themselves of the European banks at Calicut,
Cochin, and Tellicheri. The pepper trade is older than the Arabian
Nights, and probably dates from before the Christian era.
Administration. — Malabar has been, from time to time, subject to
certain special revenue arrangements, including a tobacco monopoly,
234 MALABAR.
a land-tax on pepper, and a Government faim of cardamoms, gold
washing, and the like. All these have now been abolished i The
tobacco monopoly, which lasted for forty-six years, and yielded at one
time ;£8o,ooo per annum, was given up in 1853, as it led to much
smuggling, lawlessness, and loss of life. The pepper land tax was
surrendered in 1806, as the spice already paid a very heavy transit
duty, which was abolished in 1846; and the minor farms followed in
1S6S.
In 1S82, the gross revenue of the District was ^282,732. The
principal source of revenue is the land-tax, which yielded in 1860-61,
,£175,137 ; in 1S70-71, ,£191,832 ; and in 1882-83, ^183,831.
The judicial courts consist of the 2 District courts of North and
South Malabar, 3 sub-courts, 18 District munsifs\ 1 District Magistrate's,
2 Joint Magistrates', 3 Assistant Magistrates', 4 Deputy Magistrates',
32 Sub- Magistrates' (including taluk sheristadar Magistrates), and 5
Benches of Magistrates. The average distance of each village from
the nearest court is 17 miles. There is a central prison at Cannanore,
besides 3 District jails, at Tellicheri, Calicut, and Cochin, and 22
lock-ups. At Cannanore prison in 1882 the daily average jail popula-
tion was 603. At the District jails 1220 prisoners were received
during the year. The chief District jail is at Cochin, and here in 1882
the daily average of prisoners was 222-3. The total cost of thejail depart-
ment to Government in 1882-83 was ^7492. The aggregate strength
of the police in 1882 was 1407 men, costing ^23,809, giving 1
constable to every 4 square miles and to every 1680 inhabitants.
In 1874-75, the District contained a total of 473 schools, with
21,351 pupils. In 1S82-83, the number of schools, Government, aided
and unaided, was 941, and the average number of scholars, 39,327.
Of these schools, 41 were for girls, with 1388 pupils. The Census of
1881 returned 45,532 boys and 9550 girls as under instruction,
together with 115,072 males and 20,009 females able to read and write.
The high-class institutions are the Government College at Calicut, the
Brennen Zila School at Tellicheri, the Palghat High School, and the
• Kerala Vidya Sala,' recently established by the Zamorin, for the
instruction of the young noblemen of his family, and of other influential
persons in the District. Nearly 200 schools are exclusively confined
to Mappillas, There are 14 printing presses at Calicut, Tellicheri,
Manantavadi, and Cochin, and at the latter town are published two
English and one Malayalam newspapers.
Medical Aspects. — Malabar, like the rest of South-Western India, is
characterized by a heavy rainfall, a humid climate, and a moderate
temperature. The south-west monsoon sets in early in May, bring-
ing with it heavy clouds, which bank up against the Ghdt range.
This is the hottest time of the year; the air is close and heavy and
MALAGARIL
-oo
frequently overcharged with electricity. Early in June 'the monsoon
breaks,' and for three to four months the rains are frequent, heavy,
and often continuous for several days. The rainfall in June, July, and
August averages 80 inches, or two-thirds of the total fall for the year.
The temperature improves, and the climate during the rains is pleasant
and healthy. During the six years ending 1881-82, the average rain-
fall was 156-6 inches, of which 136-4 inches were brought by the south-
west or early monsoon, and 20*2 inches by the north-east monsoon.
By October the rains have slackened, and the north-east monsoon sets
in, bringing cool breezes from the wet table-land of Mysore and Coorg,
and reducing the temperature. In December the thermometer some-
times falls to 60° F. in the shade. The hot weather commences as
the north-east monsoon fails (about February), and continues till
May. In March and April there are frequent thunderstorms, betoken-
ing the coming of the south-west monsoon. The thermometer in
the hot weather rises to 93° F. in the shade. The maximum in
1881 was 93'8o; and the minimum in the same year, 65'4°. On the
whole, the climate is healthy. The principal diseases are small-pox,
dysentery, and fever. The registered death-rate, not a very trustworthy
source of information, was in 1882-S3, 18-1 per thousand; the registered
birth-rate, 23-8 per thousand. Cattle suffer from murrain and foot and
mouth disease, but no epidemic rinderpest has been recorded. [For
further information regarding Malabar, see Dr. Francis Buchanan's
Journey through Mysore, Kdnara, and Malabar in 1S00-1801 (2 vols.,
second edition, Madras, 1870); Report on the Land Tenures of
Malabar, by R. Logan, Esq., C.S. ; the Madras Census Report for
1S80-81 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports
of the Madras Presidency from 1S80 to 1884.]
Malagarh.— Village in Bulandshahr District, North- Western Pro-
vinces, belonging to the Nawab of Chhatari. Distant from Delhi 38
miles south-east ; from Bulandshahr town 4 miles north. Large grain
depot; village school. Formerly known as Rathora, and owned by
Gaur Rajputs. Population (1881) 1657. Before the Maratha supre-
macy, Hakdad Khan, Amil of Baran, purchased the Rajput rights,
built a mud fort and market, and changed the name to Malagarb, in
honour of a local Muhammadan saint. The Marathas occupied the
place in 1792. On the British occupation, Madhu Rao, the Maratha
fdgirddr, opposed the new Government, and ordered Colonel Skinner
to leave thejdgir. Skinner refused, and the Maratha leader attacked
him, but was repulsed with the loss of almost all his infantry. Skinner
next invested the fort, and Madhu Rao surrendered. liahadur Khan.
son of Hakdad Khan, then received from the British Government a
lease of this and 35 other villages, which lapsed on his death in 1S24.
His son, Walida'd Khan, obtained a small allowance, which he held
2ZG MALAI-SOH-MA T— MALANGARH.
till 1S57. Meanwhile, Waliddd's niece had married a son of the
King of Delhi; and on this account, when the Mutiny broke out, he
was appointed subahddr of Baran (Bulandshahr) and Koil (Aligarh) by
the rebel king. Walidad Khdn proved one of the most turbulent and
dangerous insurgent leaders ; but on the fall of Delhi, Colonel Great-
hcd's column defeated his forces, and razed to the ground the fort of
Malagarh. During the operations necessary for blowing up the walls,
Lieutenant Home, the hero of the Kashmir Gate at Delhi, lost his life :
his tomb is in the Bulandshahr cemetery.
Malai-soh-mat (or Malaichamat). — Petty State in the Khasi Hills,
Assam. Population (1881)450; revenue, ,£35, chiefly from dues on
lime-quarries. The presiding chief, whose title is siew, is named U
Shongnam Singh. The principal products are rice, millet, tezp&t or
bay-leaves, ginger, chillies, turmeric, betel-nut, and oranges. Limestone
is quarried, and mats are manufactured.
Malancha. — Estuary in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas,
Bengal. One of the principal arms of the Bay of Bengal. Lat. 210
42' N., long. 89° 26' e. This name is given to the combined stream
of the Kabadak and Kholpetua as it approaches the sea. The
Malancha is situated from 4 to 6 miles eastward of the Raimangal
estuary, and has a channel running to seaward in a south-westerly
direction, with a depth of 6 or 7 fathoms near the land, decreasing
to 3J or 4 fathoms. The yet unfathomed 'Swatch of No-ground' lies
due south of this river.
Malangarh {B&wa Malang). — Hill fortress in Thana District,
Bombay Presidency; situated 10 miles south of Kalydn. Known also
as the Cathedral Rock. Like most of the chief Thana hill forts,
Malangarh rises in a succession of bare stony slopes, broken by walls
of rocks and belts of level woodland. It is most easily reached from
Kalydn across a rough roadless tract of about 8 miles, ending in a
climb of a perpendicular height of about 700 feet. Connected with the
base of the hill is a forest-covered table-land, upon which is the tomb
of the Bdwa Malang, and a few huts for the use of the garrison,
l-'rom this table-land the ascent to the lower fort is very steep, and
upwards of 300 feet high. The latter part is by an almost perpen-
dicular rock-hewn staircase, at the top of which is a strong gateway
covered by two outstanding towers, which even with the smallest
garrison make the place impregnable. From the lower to the upper
fort there is a perpendicular ascent of 200 feet by means of a narrow
flight of rock-hewn steps, on the face of a precipice so steep as to make
the ascent at all times most difficult and dangerous. The upper fort,
a space of 200 yards long by about 70 broad, is nothing more than the
top, as it were, of the third hill. It has no fortifications, but there are
traces of an enclosure and of the walls of an old building. The water-
MALAPUR AM— MALAY ALIS. 237
supply is from a range of five cisterns, and a copper pipe is used to
carry water to the lower fort.
Malapuram {Maliydpuram, Malleapooram). — Town (more correctly
a group of hamlets) in Ernad taluk, Malabar District, Madras
Presidency. Lat. 11° 3' 2" N., long. 75° 51' 21" E. Population
(1881) 6501; number of houses, 1335. Hindus numbered 2324;
Muhammadans, 3863; and Christians, 314. Notable as the centre,
for many years, of the Mappilla fanatical outbreaks (see Malabar
District). In consequence of two such risings in 1841 and 1843,
native troops were sent here ; but as they proved useless during the
outbreaks of 1849 and 1851, a special Assistant Collector and a
detachment of European troops have since been stationed in the place.
In 1873 they were employed against a gang of religious fanatics and
murderers. Another outbreak occurred recently (1885). On more
than one occasion special corps have been raised in Malapuram to
deal with local outrages, but this work is now done by the regular
constabulary. Malapuram is 30 miles south-east of Calicut, with which
place it is connected by a good road. It is fairly healthy. The
chief buildings are the special Assistant Collector's court, and the
barracks.
Malassers. — Tribe inhabiting the Anamalai Hills, Coimbatore
District, Madras Presidency. They were a low -caste people of the
plains, who took refuge in the hills in olden times. They are principally
found in the lower ranges and along the foot of the Anamalais, and live
by thieving, hiring themselves out as herdsmen, etc. They occasionally
take to cultivation, and adopt settled habits. Number not returned
separately in the Census Report of 188 1.
Malaun. — Hill fort in Hindur State, Punjab; situated in lat. 31° 12'
n., long. 76° 52' e., on the crest of a ridge bearing the same name, and
rising from the left bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj) to the sub-Himalayan range.
The fort occupies a narrow hog's-back, only 30 yards in width, sloping
down rapidly some 2000 feet on either side toward the Gamrara and the
Gambhar. In i8i5,the Gurkha forces under Amar Singh were shut up
in Malaun, after being driven from all other posts in the western hills
by General Ochterlony. The British engineers constructed a road
practicable for heavy artillery up the difficult heights; and, a battery
being planted close to the fort, the Gurkhas surrendered at once, and
evacuated, by the terms of capitulation, all the hill States west of the
river Kali. Elevation above seadevel, 4448 feet.
Malayagiri. — One of the principal peaks in Orissa, Bengal, in the
State of Pal Lahara, in lat. 210 22' 20" n., long. 850 18' 41" E. A
magnificent mountain, 3895 feet high, towering above the lesser ranges,
with building space and water on its summit.
Malayalis. — Tribe inhabiting the hill ranges of North and South
23S MALAYA LIS.
Arcot and Salem Districts, Madras Presidency. A timid and harmless
people, engaged chiefly in pastoral and agricultural pursuits; never
appearing in the courts, and rarely quarrelling. The Census of 188 1
returned them as numbering 69,396.
The Malayalis, according to their traditions, originally emigrated from
Conjevaram about 600 years ago, on account of religious persecution.
The account given by the Malayalis of North Arcot is that, in 1132
a.d., some of the Vedars of Kangundi asked that wives should be given
to them by the Kondekatti Vellalars of Conjevaram. They were
refused, and in anger kidnapped seven young Vellakir maidens. To
recover them seven YellaUirs set out, with seven dogs, leaving instruc-
tions with their wives that, if the dogs returned alone, then they should
be considered as having perished, and their funeral ceremonies should
be performed. Arrived at the Palar, they found that river in flood, and
with difficulty crossed it; but their dogs, after swimming half-way,
turned back and returned to Conjevaram. The seven men continued
their journey, killed the Vedars who had taken away the maidens, and
returned home to find that they had been given up as lost. Their
wives had beconie widows, their funeral ceremonies had been performed,
and they were in consequence outcastes. Under these circumstances,
they contracted marriages with some Vedar women, and retired to the
Jawadi hills. This account has been preserved by the Malayalis in a
small palm-leaf book, which none of them can read, as all are ignorant
of letters.
The Malayalis inhabiting the different hill ranges tenaciously cling to
their common origin, and shrink from alliances with the people of the
plains. In features and physical appearance and dress they scarcely
differ from the inhabitants of the adjoining country, and speak the same
language (Tamil) somewhat corrupted. Yet they differ among them-
selves in certain customs and observances.
In Arcot District, their worship is peculiar, and is kept a mystery.
Their chief deity is the goddess Kali, in whose honour they celebrate a
feast once a year, lasting 15 days. During this time no one from the
plains ventures near them. Even the Malayali women are studiously
debarred from witnessing the rites ; and the men who take part in them
are not permitted to speak to any female, even to their own wives.
The ceremonies are celebrated in the open air, at a particular spot on
the hills. In the villages they worship small images which are
carefully concealed in caskets, and not allowed to be seen by people of
other < astes.
Marriage < crcmonies are performed without the intervention of Brah-
ma ns, and without the recital of mantras or sacred formulae. The
marriage tie appears to be a loose one; and infidelity within caste limits,
on the part of either sex, is not punished by excommunication. The
MALA YALIS. 239
traces of ancient polyandric institutions still survive. A wife may desert
her lawful husband and live with any other man of the same caste, but
all her children are considered to be those of her husband alone. The
sons of Malayah's, when mere children, are married to mature women, and
the father-in-law of the bride assumes the performance of the procreative
function, thus assuring for himself and his son a descendant. When the
putative father comes of age, and his wife's male children are married,
he performs for them the same office which his father did for him.
In certain localities it is imperative on a widow to marry again.
Even at 80 years of age a widow is not exempted from this rule, which
nothing but the most persistent obstinacy on her part can evade. If a
widow be not remarried at once, the guru or priest sends for her to his
house, and, to avoid this fate, the widow usually consents to remarriage.
In the Uttankarai taluk of Salem District a curious custom prevails
with regard to the marriage ceremonies. On the wedding day, the
Malayali bride is the common property of all the men of her village,
except the person chiefly interested, but after that date she belongs to
her husband exclusively.
In some localities when a stranger approaches a village, the first man
who sees him salutes, and then relieves him of the bamboo staff which
all carry. He then conducts the stranger to his house, and places the
staff in a corner, as a sign that the visitor shall receive hospitality
in that house alone. Should, however, the visit be particularly intended
for another villager, the staff is handed over to the desired host, who sets
it up in a corner of his hut, for where the staff is the owner must feed.
In South Arcot, the Malayah's keep a tally of the payments made by
them on account of Government revenue, by tying a knot in a string
for every rupee paid. These strings are preserved with as much care
as if they were title-deeds. Recently, certain Malayah's lodged a com-
plaint against the village revenue officer for having levied more than he
ought, on finding that there were more knots in the current year's
string than in that of the previous year. Some of them have to pay
tribute to the hill pdlegars, and they never question the correctness of
the kill&k sent to them, which killdk consists merely of a leaf with as
many marks made on it by the thumb nail of the pd/egdr as there are
rupees to be paid. They believe firmly that their god would punish the
messenger if he tampered with the leaf. Nor would they dare, for the
same reason, to tie an extra knot in their strings.
The Malayali houses are long, low, thatched structures, with the roofs
secured against the high winds of the hills by long bamboos pegged
down at intervals. Each hut stands in a yard surrounded by a palisade
of wattled bamboos. The village precincts are regarded as sacred ; and
even Brahmans are desired to walk barefoot along their alleys. In
certain districts their villages resemble clusters of enlarged beehives, the
24o MALCOLMPET—MALDAH.
houses being circular, and raised on wooden piles about two feet high.
The walls are of split bamboo coated with mud. The roof is conical
and thatched with long coarse grass.
Malcolmpet. — Sanatarium and village in Satara District, Bombay
Presidency. — See Mahabaleshwar.
Maldah. — British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal,
occupying an eastern projection of the Bhagalpur Division, to which
it was transferred from the Rajshahi Division in 1876. It lies
between 240 29' 50" and 250 32' 30" N. lat., and between 870 4S'
and 88° 33' 30" e. long., the Ganges river forming the continuous
western and south-western boundary. Area, 1891 square miles.
Population (1SS1) 710,448 souls. The administrative head-quarters
are at English Bazar, on the right bank of the Mahananda.
Physical Aspects. — The District is divided into two nearly equal
portions by the Mahananda river, flowing from north to south. The
western tract, between the Mahananda and the main stream of the
Ganges, is a low-lying alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility.
Old channels of the Ganges are numerous, and around the ruins of
Gaur stretch many artificial lakes and wild wastes of swamp and jungle.
The eastern half is an elevated region, known as the ' Barin ' or
Barendra country, which begins on the east bank of the Mahananda.
It is broken by the deep valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers,
and their tributary streams. The soil of this tract is a hard red clay ;
and most of it is overgrown with thorny tree jungle, locally known as
kdtdl. The chief agricultural staple of the District, the a man or winter
rice crop, is grown in this tract, and large numbers of immigrants
annually visit the District at the time of the cold-weather harvest in
search of employment. Agricultural prosperity centres along the
Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of mulberry
land fringe continuously both banks of the river.
The Ganges only skirts the District, forming a natural boundary from
the north - west corner to the extreme south. Its flood waters, as
deflected from the hills of Rajmahdl, are perpetually exercising a dilu-
viating influence on the Maldah bank, which is everywhere low and
composed of loose sand. Among many former channels and deserted
backwaters, the little winding stream of the Bhagirathf deserves mention,
as being the historical river-bed that defended the city of Gaur, and as
still retaining its ancient sanctity. The Mahananda flows in a deep,
well-defined channel through the centre of the District, and joins the
Ganges at the southern corner. Its tributaries are, on the right bank,
the Kalindri, which anastomoses with the Ganges near the river mart of
Haiatpur; and, on the left bank, the Tangan and Purnabhaba, which
bringdown the drainage of Dinajpur, and are crowded with country
boats during the brief rainy season.
MALDAH. 241
History. — The area now included within Maldah District supplied
two great capitals to the early Muhammadan kings of Bengal ; and at
the present day the sites of Gaur and Panduah exhibit the most
interesting remains to be found in the lower Gangetic valley. The ruins
of Gaur, lying between the Mahananda and the Ganges, are scattered
over an area of more than 20 square miles. The foundation of this
city is referred back to the remotest antiquity. It was the Hindu
metropolis of Bengal before the Musalman conquest, and continued to
be the capital of the Afghan invaders for at least three centuries. Its
downfall is assigned to the period when the Mughal Emperor Akbar
established his supremacy over the Province of Bengal, and his Viceroys
transferred the seat of Government across the Ganges to Rajmahal.
According to the received account, a pestilence fell upon the city in
1575 a.d., the year of its first occupation by the Mughals ; thousands
died every day, and the survivors fled, never to return to their deserted
homes. Such is the tragic story of the Muhammadan chroniclers, and
its leading incident is borne out by the malarious character of the
neighbourhood at the present day.
Panduah or Peruah, which lies about 20 miles north-east from
Gaur beyond the Mahananda, superseded the latter city as the seat
of Government during the reigns of five successive Afghan monarchs,
towards the close of the 14th century. Its site does not offer any
attractions beyond a natural inaccessibility ; and to this same cause is,
doubtless, due the comparatively good condition of the ruins. Here
is to be seen the most perfect example of Pathdn architecture in all
India, as represented by the Adinah Masjid. It is noteworthy that
all the buildings at Panduah are constructed with stones which show
by their carving that they have been torn from earlier Hindu temples ;
whereas, in GaUr itself, the use of brick predominates, and ancient
carved stones are nowhere now to be seen. Even after the capital
was removed back to Gaur, Panduah appears to have maintained its
position as the occasional residence of royalty, and especially as the seat
of ecclesiastical power. At the present day, the monuments of Mukdam
and Kutab, two religious advisers of the early Afghan kings, enjoy large
endowments, and are among the most popular places of Musalman
pilgrimage in Bengal, In succession to Gaur and Panduah, a third
Muhammadan capital of Bengal, variously called Tandan, Tondah, or
Tangra, lay somewhere on the western frontier of Maldah District. The
very site is now unknown, having possibly been washed away by changes
in the course of the Ganges. It seems to have been an important
place for about one hundred years after the depopulation oi Gaur ; and
in its neighbourhood was fought the decisive battle in which the rebel
Shuja Shah was defeated by the generals of Aurangzeb.
The connection of the East India Company with Maldah dates from
VOL. ix. Q
242 MALDAH,
a very early period. As far back as 1686 there was a silk factory here.
In 1770, English Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency ; the
buildings of which, strongly fortified after the fashion of those days, exist
to the present day, supplying both public offices and the private resi-
dence of the Collector. As an administrative unit, the District of
Maldah only began to exist in 18 13. In that year, in order to secure
a closer magisterial supervision, various police circles were detached
from the Districts of Rajshahi, Dinajpur, and Purniah, and placed in
charge of a Joint Magistrate and Deputy Collector, who was stationed
at English Bazar. A separate treasury was first opened in 1832 ; and
it was not till 1859 that a full Magistrate-Collector was appointed to
the District. This gradual growth to independence has left traces in
the confusion which recently existed in the boundaries of the fiscal,
civil, and criminal jurisdictions. As these jurisdictions were acquired
at different times, and under different circumstances, a perplexing
absence of uniformity prevailed both in geographical area, and in the
exercise of administrative functions. But changes that have taken
place since 1870 have done much to simplify the boundaries, and unite
all duties at a single centre.
Population. — No trustworthy information exists with regard to the
population of the District in early times. The Census of 1872 returned
the total number at 676,426 persons, residing in 2100 maiizas or
villages and in 129,579 houses. In 18S1, the Census returned the
population of the District at 710,448, showing an increase of 34,002, or
5-02 per cent., over that of 1872.
The results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as
follows : — Area, 1S91 square miles, with 3250 towns and villages,
and 126,202 houses. Population 710,448, namely, males 346,998,
and females 363,450; proportion of males, 48'8 per cent. Average
density of population, 375-7 persons per square mile; villages per
square mile, 172; persons per village, 219; persons per house, 5-6.
Classified according to sex and age, there were in 18S1 — under
15 years of age, males 146,182, and females 149,261; total children,
285,443, or 40*1 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards,
males 201,816, and females 223,189; total adults, 425,005, or 59*9 per
cent.
.Maldah presents the ethnical characteristics of a border District,
in which are met the semi-aborigines of the Bengal delta and the
Behar valley, and the wild tribes from the foot of the Himalayas and
the Chutia Nagpur Hills. It was one of the surprises revealed by the
( t-nsus that the Musalmans form a minority of the inhabitants, even
m the neighbourhood of their ancient capitals of Gaur and Panduah.
-sified according to religion, the population in 188,1 consisted of —
Hindus, 379,153, or 53-4 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 329,525, or 46-4
MALDAH.
243
per cent. ; Christians, 26 ; Brahmos, 3 ; Jews, 7 ; and Santals professing
their aboriginal religion, 1734.
Besides the aborigines still professing their primitive faiths, the
Census returns a total of 70,044 aborigines among the Hindu popu-
lation. The three cognate tribes of Koch, Pali, and Rajbansi,
number collectively 60,700 souls, or six-sevenths of the whole. This
race, which has attained some degree of civilisation in its original
home in Kuch Behar, is content in Maldah to lead a wild life amid
the jungles which cover the eastern half of the District. The other
Hinduized aboriginal tribes include the Binds, 7578 ; Kharwars, 4182 ;
Kols, 897 ; Santals, 833 ; and Bhuiyas, 259. The Chains, a local
Behar tribe ; and the Dhangars, although not returned in the Census,
are also aboriginal tribes. The latter are immigrants from the further
bank of the Ganges, who have been attracted by the indigo industry.
Among Hindus proper, the Brahmans number 12,001 ; the
Rajputs, 5104; the Kayasths, 4656; and the Baniyas, 6963. The
most numerous caste is the Kaibartta, with 23,756 members; next
come the Gwala, 16,875; Tior, 15,736; Han, 11,788; Teli, 9005;
Napit, 8046 ; Chamar, 7718; Tanti, 6493 ; Lohar, 6202 ; Sunn, 5943 :
and Dhanuk, 5057. The number of Hindus rejecting caste was
returned at 9860, of whom 9569 were Vaishnavs.
The Muhammadan community, divided according to sect, consists
of Sunnis, 302,816 ; Shias, 16,521; and unspecified, 10,188. A large
proportion of the Musalmans are known to belong to the reformed
Faraizi sect; and in 1869, there were several State prosecutions in
Maldah for Wahabi disaffection. Xo Wahabfs or Faraizis, however,
were returned as such in the Census of 1SS1.
Urban and Rural Population. — The population is almost entirely
rural. Only 4 places were returned as towns in 1SS1, with a total urban
population of 17,124 persons, of which only one, English Bazar or
Angrazabad (12,430), had a population exceeding five thousand. The
people show no tendency whatever to gather even into large villages.
Out of a total of 3250 towns and villages, as many as 2960 contained
less than five hundred inhabitants in 1SS1, while 220 had from five
hundred to a thousand, and 70 upwards of one thousand inhabitants.
The most important centres of commerce are Haiatpur on the Ganges,
where there is a junction with the stream of the Kalindri ; and Rohan-
pur on the Purnabhaba, just above the confluence of that river with the
Mahananda. The ruins of Gaur and Panduah are described under
separate headings.
The Material Condition of the People varies very much in the
different portions of the District. To the westward of the Mahananda,
and along both banks of that river, the cultivators are very prosperous.
The cultivation of the mulberry is extremely profitable ; and the
244 MALDAH.
mango orchards also, which abound in this part, help considerably
towards paying the rent. On the eastern side of the Mahananda, and
especially towards the north, the population is chiefly composed of
semi-Hinduized aboriginals, Pah's and Kochs. Their houses are built
of grass matting, and are rarely close enough together to constitute a
village. There is little doubt that such wants as they have are
abundantly satisfied in the jungle, and they are a contented-looking
race. To the south-east of the District, on the borders of Rdjshahi,
the villages become larger, and the cultivation is better, but the level
of comfort is not equal to that in the tract first described.
As regards occupation, the male population were divided by the
Census of 1S81 into the following six classes: — (i) Professional,
including officials and professional persons, 5728 ; (2) domestic
servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 3792 ; (3) commercial,
including bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 13,320; (4) agricultural and
pastoral class, including gardeners, 139,568 ; (5) manufacturing and
artisan class, 30,803 ; and (6) indefinite and non-productive, comprising
general labourers and male children, 153,787.
Agriculture. — Rice constitutes the staple crop throughout the District.
Of the total food-supply, it is estimated that the dman or winter crop,
grown on low lands, forms about 29 per cent. ; the dus, bhadai, or
autumn crop, grown on high lands, 16 per cent. ; and the boroox spring
crop, grown in marshes, 8 per cent. The remainder is made up by
cold-weather food crops, 39 per cent. ; and other food crops, 7 per cent.
These cold-weather crops consist of pulses and oil-seeds of various
sorts, wheat, maize, and inferior cereals. They are sown when the dus
rice crop has been taken off the land. Among miscellaneous crops
are — indigo, covering about 30,000 acres, chiefly on the sandy deposits
near the Ganges ; mulberry, grown in little raised plots along the banks
of the Mahananda ; and the mango tree, which here yields the most
valued fruit in all Bengal. Manure is only used on mulberry lands ;
and irrigation is not necessary, except for the boro rice crop, which
can be easily watered from the neighbouring river or marsh. The
principle of the rotation of crops is not known, but fields are occa-
sionally allowed to lie fallow. Spare land is still to be found in most
parts of the District ; but the limit of cultivation is steadily advancing,
especially over the ruins of Gaur.
The average produce of an acre of good rice land, renting at 7s. 6d.,
is about 24 cwts. If a second crop could be raised from the same
field, it would amount to an additional 13 cwts. The total value is
returned by the Collector at more than £6, but his estimate appears
to be too high. The lowest rate of rent is 9d. an acre, paid for dma//
rice lands ; 7s. 6d. per acre is paid for land yielding three crops a
year; while mulberry and mango gardens pay from 6s. to 18s. Alto-
MALDAH. 245
gether, the average rate of rent may be put at over 4s. an acre. It is
stated that there has been no excessive enhancement in recent years.
There is little that is peculiar in the land tenures of the District, ex-
cept the existence of several large lakhirdj estates, granted as endow-
ments to Muhammadan fakirs. Among cultivating tenures, the hdl
hdsild deserves notice, according to which the annual rent varies,
both according to the amount of land put under cultivation and
to the nature of the crop raised. This tenure is most common in
the backward parts of the District, and one of its incidents is that it
allows a certain proportion of the village lands always to lie fallow.
The number of tenants who have established rights of occupancy is
thought not to exceed 15 per cent. ; the remainder are mere tenants-
at-will.
Both the ordinary rate of wages and the price of food-grains have
approximately doubled within the past twenty years. A coolie now
receives about 5d. a day; an agricultural labourer, 3d., with an addi-
tional payment in kind; a smith or carpenter, from 8d. to is. In
1873, the price of common rice was 4s. 9d. per cwt. ; of barley, 3s. id. ;
of wheat, 6s. The highest price reached by rice in 1866, the year of
the Orissa famine, was us. per cwt.
Maldah is liable, to some extent, to both the calamities of flood and
drought. The Ganges occasionally overflows the eastern portion,
especially in the neighbourhood of Haiatpur; and the other rivers
annually come down swollen with the melted snows of the Himalayas.
These inundations often cause considerable suffering, but they do not
seriously injure the general harvest of the District. The drought of
1873, on the other hand, would have resulted in a widespread famine,
had it not been for the prompt intervention of Government. Means
of communication by the rivers are sufficiently ample to prevent
scarcity from intensifying into acute distress.
Manufactures. — The two staple manufactures of the District are silk
and indigo. The weaving of silk is said to date back to the Hindu
kingdom of Gaur, and the peculiar cloth known as maldahi has been
for generations a speciality of external commerce. The English had
a factory at Maldah at least as early as 16S6 ; and the production is
locally reported to have been stimulated by French enterprise. Dr.
Buchanan-Hamilton, in the beginning of the present century, described
with great detail the processes used in silk-weaving, and in the ancillary
business of dyeing. Even at that time, however, the trade was
languishing, and it has since continued to decline. The total export
is now estimated at not more than ^"600 a year. Silk-winding, on
the other hand, is in a flourishing condition. The total out-turn of
raw silk from seven European concerns, and from a large number of
native filatures, is estimated to amount to more than 15,000 cwts.
246 MALDAH.
The value of this, added to the value of exported cocoons, would
reach about ^iSo,ooo a year; and a large proportion of this sum
finds its way to the rearers of mulberry and silk-worms, who are described
as being in most prosperous circumstances. The cultivation of indigo
is not so flourishing as it was twenty years ago. At the present time
there are upwards of 20 factories at work, belonging to 7 different con-
cerns, with an average out-turn of about 2000 cwts., valued at ^60,000.
Prass-ware of an excellent quality is manufactured at Nawabganj, and
paper in certain villages.
River traffic is brisk in all parts of the District. Haiatpur, on the
Ganges, is a great trading centre in connection with the railway on the
Opposite bank of the river. At Rohanpur, on the Purnabhaba, is
collected the surplus rice of Dinajpur; and all down the banks of the
Mahananda there are busy markets. The principal exports are rice
(largely consigned towards the North-West), silk, indigo, brass-ware,
and mango fruit. The imports comprise cotton cloth, salt, sugar,
spices, betel-nuts, and cocoa-nuts. The registration returns for 1876-77
show a total export from the District valued at ^32 1,619, against
imports valued at ^275,680. The chief exports are — rice, 500,500
maunds, and paddy, 96,900 maunds, valued together at ^"110,790;
wheat, 108,800 maunds, valued at ,£21,760 ; gram and pulse, 155,200
maunds, valued at ,£27,160 ; jute, 74,049 maunds, valued at ,£22,214 ;
gunny bags, 601,160 in number, valued at ,£13,225; indigo, 1051
maunds, valued at ^21,020; raw silk, 364 maunds, valued at
;£i 8,200. The imports comprise European piece-goods, ^9780
(this must be exclusive of the consignments from the railway at
Rajmahal, at which station ^"184,580 was received from Calcutta
during the year under notice); salt, 174,800 maunds, valued at
£^87,400; sugar, refined, 30,500 maunds, and unrefined, 171,200
maunds, valued together at ,£105,480. Among the local marts,
Maldah town stands first with exports, valued at ,£97,331, and im-
ports, valued at .£199,629 ; Haiatpur exported .£37,395, and imported
,£21,341; Rohanpur exported .£39,685, and imported .£7716.
Owing to an alteration in the system of registration no trade statistics
of a later date than those given above are available. About three-
fourths of the rice, and a large portion of the gunny bags, are con-
ned up the Ganges to the North-YVestern Provinces, in return for
which the large imports of sugar are received from Ghazipur. The
wheat is sent to Calcutta, either direct by country boat, or by the railway
through the Santal Pargands.
No line of railway crosses the boundary of the District ; but both
the East Indian loop-line at Rajmahal and Sahibganj, and the new
Northern Pengal State Railway in the neighbouring District of Raj-
shahi, are near enough to exercise a direct influence upon the course
MALDAH. 247
of commerce. In 1870, the total length of roads in Maldah was re-
turned at 177 miles, and the cost of maintenance at ,£368. But the
real means of communication are the rivers, especially after the
autumnal rains, when every little ndld becomes navigable.
Administration. — In 1870-71, the net revenue of Maldah District
amounted to ,£59,493, towards which the land-tax contributed ,£32,323,
or 54 per cent. ; the net expenditure was .£15,291, or little more than
one-fourth of the revenue. In 1883-84, the net revenue of the Dis-
trict, from the following six main sources, amounted to ,£69,435, as
follows :— Land revenue, ,£42,757 5 excise, ,£13, 499 5 stamps, ,£8700 ;
registration, ,£575 ; road cess, ,£2947; and municipal taxes, ^957.
In the same year, there were 2 covenanted civil servants stationed in
the District, and 6 magisterial, 3 civil, and 5 revenue courts were open.
For police purposes, the District is divided into 9 police circles or
t hands. In 1883, the regular and municipal police numbered 262 men
of all ranks, maintained at a total cost of ,£45 60. In addition, there
was a rural police or village watch of 160 1 men. The total machinery,
therefore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 1863
officers and men, giving r man to every roi square mile of the area
or to every 381 persons in the population. The estimated total cost
was .£12,192, averaging ,£6, 8s. iod. per square mile and 4d. per head
of population. In that year, the total number of persons convicted
of any offence, great or small, amounted to 907, or one in every 772
of the population. By far the greater number of the convictions
were for petty offences. The District contains 1 jail, at English Bazar.
In 1883, the average daily number of prisoners was 71*42, of whom
3-58 were females ; the labouring convicts averaged 55. These figures
show 1 person in jail to every 9950 of the population. The total
cost amounted to .£695, or ,£9, 14s. 6d. per prisoner.
Education has widely spread of recent years, owing to the changes
by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules has been extended, first
to the vernacular middle class schools, and ultimately to the village
schools or pdthsdlds. In 1856 there were only 2 schools in the
District, attended by 117 pupils. By 1870 these numbers had risen
to 18 schools and 9S6 pupils; and in 1S72, when Sir G. Campbell's
reforms came into operation, the schools had increased to 179, and
the pupils to 4207. By 1883-84 there were 441 primary schools under
inspection, attended by 8608 boys. The English higher-class school
at English Bazar was attended in 18S3-84 by 147 pupils. The Census
Report of 1881 returned 8447 boys and 99 girls as under instruction
in Maldah District, besides 15,247 males and 146 females able to
read and write, but not under instruction.
The sub-divisional system of administration has not yet been ex-
tended to Maldah. The District contains 8 police circles, and 49
24S MALDAH—MALDIVE ISLANDS.
pargands or fiscal divisions, with an aggregate of 595 revenue-paying
estates in 1S83-S4, owned by 1624 separate shareholders. In 18S3
there was 1 civil judge and 6 stipendiary magistrates; the maximum
distance of any village from the nearest court was 50 miles, the average
distance 26 miles. According to the Census Report of 1881, there are
two municipalities in the District,— English Bazar and Maldah town,
— with a total population of 17,054 souls; the municipal income in
i8S3-S4was returned at ^1419, the average rate of taxation being
is. ifd. per head.
Medical Aspect. — The climate of Maldah is considered somewhat
less unhealthy than that of the neighbouring Districts. The rainy
season lasts from the middle of June to the middle of October. The
average rainfall is returned at 55*26 inches ; the mean annual tempera-
ture at 56-66° F. The chief epidemic diseases are malarious fever,
cholera, and small-pox. Outbreaks of fever annually coincide with the
cessation of the rains. Cholera is always heard of first in the outlying
parts of the District ; and it has been repeatedly observed to spread
from religious fairs in all directions. Small-pox is propagated by the
popular practice of inoculation. There was, in 1881, only one charit-
able dispensary in the District, at English Bazar, at which both
in-door and out-door patients were treated. [For further information
regarding Maldah District, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by
W. W. Hunter, vol. vii. pp. 1-152 (London, Trubner & Co., 1876);
Geographical and Statistical Report on the District of Maldah, by Mr.
J. J. Pemberton, Revenue Surveyor, dated October 1852. Also the
Bengal Census Report of 1881 ; and the several Provincial and Depart-
mental Reports from 1880 to 1884.]
Maldah or Old Maldah. — Town in Maldah District, Bengal ;
situated at the confluence of the Kalindri with the Mahananda, in lat.
25° 2' 30" x., and long. 88° 10' 51" E. Population (1872) 5262; (1S81)
4694. Municipal revenue (1883), ^295 ; rate of taxation, is. o|d. per
head of population. This town is admirably situated for river traffic,
and probably rose to prosperity as the port of the Muhammadan
Panduah. During the last century it was the seat of thriving cotton
and silk manufactures, and both the French and Dutch had factories
here. But in 18 10, Maldah, according to Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton's
statement, was already beginning to lose its prosperity ; and it now
shows signs of poverty and decay. Trade is still carried on in food
stuffs.
Maldive Islands. — A number of islands, grouped together in clusters
called Atolls, lying between 42' s. to 70 6' n. lat., and between 72° 11
and 73° 44' e. long. The larger islands are generally inhabited ; but
many of the smaller are mere sandbanks or barren rocks. There are
1 ') Atolls in all, with several detached islands or rocks in the channels
MALD1VE ISLANDS. 249
that separate them. Mali, or King's Island, the capital of the Maldive
group, situated in lat. 40 io' N., and long. 73° 30' E., is about 1 mile
in length, and f mile in breadth. It contains a population of upwards
of 1500 persons, and is the residence of the Sultan and the seat of
Government. The political connection of the Maldives is with Ceylon,
and not with British India. The Sultan sends an annual embassy to the
Governor of Ceylon, claiming the protection and favour of the British
Government, and presenting a tribute of cowries, fish, and cakes. The
Governor in return stipulates for succour to Europeans shipwrecked on
the islands.
Our early knowledge of the Maldives is mainly derived from the
Travels of Ibn Batuta, who visited the group circ. 1340 a.d., and married
a daughter of one of the Wazirs ; and from the Adventures of Pyrard,
a Frenchman, who suffered shipwreck on the Malosmadu Atoll in
1602, and was detained as a captive for five years. In recent times,
Lieutenant Christopher, R.N., when officially engaged on the Indian
Survey, remained on the islands from June 1S34 to September 1835.
The results of his observations, as published in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. vi. O.S., form the basis of all subsequent accounts.
An interesting comparison of his vocabulary with that given by Pyrard
will be found in the fournal R.A.S., vol. x., N.S., part ii.
The native name is Mahaldib, from malt, the chief Atoll, and dunpa,
the Sanskrit for island. The number of Atolls or groups is, for political
purposes, reckoned at 13. The total of separate islands is popularly
reported to be 12,000, a vague figure, which in Maldive arithmetic
corresponds to the 10,000 {lakh) of Hindus. The Sultan's title is
Dolos Assa Ral Tera Alholo/i, or 'King of 13 Provinces and 12,000
Islands.' The following is the list of the 13 Atolls, in order from the
north, with the number of inhabited islands in each group, as derived
from the Admiralty charts (1868) : — (1) Tilladumati, with 17 inhabited
islands; (2) Milladumadu, 32; (3) Paddipholo, 2; (4) Malosmadu,
30; (5) Ari, 13 ; (6) Mali or Male, 8; (7) Phalidu, 5; (8) Moluk. 8;
(9) Nillandu, 13; (10) Collomandu, n; (n) Adumati, 12; (12)
Suadiva, 17 ; (13) Addu, 7 ; total of inhabited islands, 175. The total
number of inhabitants is entirely unknown ; estimates vary between
20,000 and 200,000. The latter is probably nearest the actual truth.
From time immemorial, the Maldives have been in some sense de-
pendent upon Ceylon. The early Greek, Chinese, and Arab travellers
agree in describing Ceylon as ruling over an indefinite number of
adjacent islands. The language of the inhabitants at the present day,
and still more in the time of Pyrard, has many points of resemblam :e
to the modern Singhalese ; and a few traces have been preserved of a
common Buddhism. An inscription seen by Ibn Batuta would place
the conversion to Muhammadanism in about the year 1200. The
2 5o MALDIVE ISLANDS.
Portuguese" discovered the Maldives in 1506, and acquired the same
sort of vague supremacy that is now exercised by the British.
.Most of the materials for the following paragraphs are condensed
from Captain Horsburgh and Commander Dundas Taylor's Sailing
Directions.
People. — Pyrard places the colonization of the Maldives at about
1200 A.D., but the date must be put back several centuries. Pappus
of Alexandria (end of the 4th century a.d.) reckoned 1370 islands
as dependencies of Ceylon. Fa-Hian (in the 5th century a.d.) says :
1 On every side (of Ceylon) are small islands, perhaps amounting to
one hundred in number. They are distant from one another ten or
twenty li, and as much as two hundred //'. All of them depend on the
great island. Most of them produce precious stones and pearls.'
Ptolemy and Cosmos also gave their readers to understand that the
islands were inhabited, and Cosmos wrote in the 6th century. Suleiman,
writing in the 9th century, calls them Dybadjat, and mentions that they
had a queen to govern them, and that ' a brisk trade was carried on in
cowries, amber, and coir.' Al Biruni (nth century) calls the people
J 'yvah, and distinguishes the group into the Cowrie and Coir Islands,
from their chief products.
Mr. A. Gray, of the Ceylon Civil Service, in an interesting mono-
graph upon the Maldives, points out that they disclose abundant
evidence of demon-worship, ball- worship, and of Singhalese supersti-
tions generally ; but the traces of Buddhism are curiously faint. At
present the islanders profess Muhammadanism, which is said to have
been introduced by a man from Persia about 400 years ago, whose
tomb at Mali is held in great veneration. Mr. Gray observes with
regard to the religion of the parent stock and the islanders whom
it sent out as colonists, that while the Singhalese have held to the
cosmopolitan principles and the simple worship of the Buddhist faith,
the Mai dive islanders have adopted the exclusive and monotheistic
faith of Muhammad. Strangely enough, the Maldive word for
'image' is budii ; and Ibn Batuta calls an idol temple by the term
boudh-khdna. The tradition current is that a Maghrebin, Aboul
Berecat of Berber, brought the Maldive Sultan, his court and people,
r to Islam by exorcising, through the efficacy of the Kuran, a sea
demon, who played havoc among the island maidens.
The whole Maldive group is inhabited by a civilised race of people,
who carry on a considerable trade with the British possessions in India,
more particularly with Bengal, Chittagong, Ceylon, and the Malabar
coast. They are expert navigators and sailors ; schools for teaching
navigation are found on some of the islands. The people are inoffensive
and timid, and there appears to be far less crime among them than with
more polished nations. Murder has been seldom known; and theft
MALDIVE ISLANDS. 251
and drunkenness are very uncommon. The men in appearance are of
a dark copper colour, rather short, and in person not unlike the natives
of Ceylon and the Malabar coast ; but at Mali, many exhibit in their
physical conformation an admixture of African blood, doubtless derived
from the Zanzibar slaves occasionally brought by Maskat vessels. The
women are not pretty, and are extremely alarmed at the sight of
strangers. These islanders have several times been more than kind in
their hospitality to shipwrecked mariners.
In Pyrard's time (17th century) a wreck became the property of
the Sultan ; a similar law applied to a ship whose captain died at
the islands, and it is even said that such an occurrence was nefariously
hurried on. At the present time the feeling lingers that after the wreck
of a ship the captain has lost all right to its goods and cargo. When
the ship Liffey was wrecked in 1877, the people could not be induced
to lend any assistance to recover the cargo ' without the express leave
of the Sultan.'
Productions.- — The cocoa-nut palm is most extensively planted ; rows
of them line the roads. The palm grows to a height of 70 to 90 feet,
and the nut is esteemed superior to the produce of India. Many kinds
of fruit-yielding trees are found. Millet and cotton are grown to a
small extent. Cowrie shells (the small money of the islands) are found
in myriads. Game birds are plentiful ; wild ducks, which come over
in great numbers during November, are caught in nets, and considered
excellent food. The bonito fishery is the chief employment of the
islanders, that fish being the principal article of food as well as of
commerce; sometimes 1000 are caught by one boat in a day, but 600
or 700 is the ordinary take.
Trade. — The whole of the foreign export and import trade of
this group of islands is conducted at Mali, whither the produce
of all the Atolls is brought, the dealers from each carrying back
the produce of other parts to supply the wants of their islands. The
external trade of Mali consists of two branches, one carried on by
traders from Chittagong, Point-de-Galle, the Malabar coast, and occa-
sionally from Maskat in the Persian Gulf; the other by the islanders
themselves in their own vessels.
The foreign traders call regularly once a year, arriving about
March and leaving about July. They barter principally for bonito
fish, of which two or three millions are shipped off every season.
Tortoise-shell, cocoa-nuts, coir-yarn, cowries, and a kind of sweetmeat
form the other articles of export. That part of the external trade
which is conducted by the natives themselves, is carried on chiefly with
Calcutta, in boats of from 100 to 200 tons burden. They leave the
islands annually in August or September, and return in December.
The imports are rice, dates, salt, leaf-tobacco, areca-nuts, coarse white
252 MALDIVE ISLANDS.
cloth, cotton, red and white check cotton handkerchiefs, curry stuff,
ghi, china-ware, Indian pottery, and coarse brown sugar; and,(in small
quantities, steel, brass wire, thread, and waist-cloths of various colours.
Mr. A. Gray, Ceylon Civil Service, writing in 1S78, says the trade of
the Maldives is in a state of decline; that the cultivation of fruit and
vegetables is neglected ; and that the supply of grain, most of
which is imported, is precarious and insufficient.
Government. — The Maldive islands are governed by a Sultan, whose
title and rank are hereditary. Under him are 6 Wazirs or ministers of
State, of whom the first in rank is styled Durimind, the chief or general
of the army ; but above these, and second only to the Sultan, is the
Fandiari, the head priest and judge. The Hindigeri or custom-master
and public treasurer, and the Amfr-el-bahr or harbour-master, are also
great men. All these functionaries reside at Mali or King's Island.
Every Atoll pays a certain fixed revenue — a portion of its produce —
to the Government at Mali, and nobody is allowed to trade with
foreigners except at the capital, where the dues are exacted. The
Indian rupee is the current coin of the islands, and is used in all money
transactions. Of cowries, 12,000, constituting one kota or gulah, can
be purchased at the bazar of Mali for 1 rupee.
Language. — Three different kinds of written characters are found on
Maldive walls and tombstones. The most ancient are called Dewehi
Hakura, which were probably used by the first inhabitants, and are-
still retained in the South Atolls. The next is the Arabic character,
written from right to left. The third, also written from right to left,
and called Gabali-Tana, is the common dialect throughout all the
Atolls. In consequence of intercourse with traders from Bengal and
other parts, the language is intermixed with many foreign words.
Letters of the alphabet are used as numerals, reckoning by twelves
instead of by tens.
Climate. — The climate of the Maldives, which is very unhealthy,
forms the great obstacle to foreign intercourse and internal improve-
ment. The cause of strangers losing their health is partly the
lagoons and marshes throughout the islands, and partly the unvarying
temperature of the atmosphere. The principal diseases are a species
of bowel complaint and beri-beri. Ague and intermittent fever also
prevail, and are difficult to be got rid of. The thermometer ranges
from 750 to 850 F. in the shade.
Channels. — Amongst the different Atolls, there are good channels
for ships, some of which are intricate, and only fit for steamers, as the
currents run strong through them to east or west, according to the
season. There are also numerous openings and gateways, which are
very deep, and used by the Maldive boats in passing from one Atoll to
another. Some of these will admit the very largest ships.
MALEGAON SUB-DIVISION AND TOWN 253
Malegaon. — Sub-division of Nasik District, Bombay Presidency.
Area, 775 square miles, containing 1 town and 143 villages. Population
(1872) 68,419; (1881) 78,49s, namely, 40,136 males and 38.362
females. Hindus number 60,921; Muhammadans, 8081; and
'others,' 9496. Bounded on the north and east by Sub-divisions of
Khandesh District ; on the south-east and east by Nandgaon and
Chandor ; and on the west by Kalvan and Baglan. Chief town,
Malegaon.
The physical aspect of the region is in the north hilly and in the
south flat. Three ranges traverse the Sub-division, and are crossed
into Khandesh and adjoining Sub-divisions by numerous cart tracks.
The most southerly range is crossed by a section of the great Bombay-
Agra high road. The Sub-division is healthy and well watered. Chief
rivers, the Girna in the centre with its tributaries, and the Bori in the
north. The Girna passes close to Malegaon town. During the twelve
years ending 1881, the average yearly rainfall was 22*6 inches.
Of the total area (775 square miles), 35 square miles are occupied by
the lands of alienated non-revenue paying villages. The rest contains
348,117 acres of cultivable land, 55,728 of uncultivable waste, 53,809
acres of grass, and i5,8So of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. In
1880-S1 there were 7446 holdings, with an average area of 31^ acres,
paying an average assessment of ^2, us. i^d. Of 222,397 acres held
in 1880-81 for tillage, 19,619 acres were fallow or under grass. Of the
remaining 202,778 acres, 1083 acres were twice cropped. Grain crops
occupied 162,689 acres; pulses, 14,001 acres; oil-seeds, iS, 140 acres;
fibres, 7619 acres (all of them under cotton) ; and miscellaneous crops,
141 2 acres. In 1S83 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 3 criminal
courts. There was one police circle (thdnd), with 58 regular police and
180 village Watchmen or cJiaukiddrs. Land revenue (1881), ,£19,971.
Malegaon. — Chief town of the Sub-division of Malegaon in Nasik
District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 200 32' iS" x., and long. ~t\
36' 51" e., on the trunk road from Bombay to Agra ; distant 154 miles
north-east of Bombay, and 24 miles north-east of the Manmad junction
station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population of town
(1S72) 9701; (1SS1) 10,622; of cantonment (iSSj) 37S0; total
(18S1), 14,402, namely, 7024 males and 737S females. Hindus
number 80S6 ; Muhammadans, 5S70; Jains, 215; Christians, 51;
Parsis, 15; and 'others,' 165. Malegaon is a cantonment and a
municipality, and the head-quarters of the chief revenue and police
officers of the Sub-division. Municipal revenue (1SS2-S3), ^1051:
incidence of taxation, is. 9d. Government telegraph office, post-office,
five schools with 535 pupils in 18S3-S4, and dispensary. In 1881,
the dispensary relieved 67 S 7 patients.
Malegaon was occupied by Arab troops during the Pindari war,
254 MALER KOTLA.
and its capture by Colonel M'Dowall in May 1S1S was attended
by a loss of life of upwards of 200 to the British force. When
the Arabs were dispersed after the capture of the fort, many of
them were escorted to Surat and there shipped to their native
country ; others retired to Cutch, Kathiawar, and the Deccan. The
fort is said to have been built in 1740 by Narushankar, a daring Arab
leader ; other authorities refer its construction to an engineer sent
from Delhi.
Maler Kotla. — Native State, under the political superintendence
of the Government of the Punjab; situated between 300 24' and 30'
41' n. lat., and between 750 42' and 75° 59' 15" e. long. Area, 164
square miles; population (1881) 71,051 souls.
History. — The Nawab is of Afghan descent ; his family originally
came from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in the Sirhind Pro-
vince under the Mughal Emperors. They gradually became indepen-
dent, as the Mughal Empire sank into decay in the course of the 18th
century. In 1732, the then Chief of Maler Kotla, named Jamil Khan,
joined the commander of the imperial troops stationed in the Jalandhar
dodb in an unsuccessful attack on Raja Ala Singh, the Sikh Chief of
Patiala; and again in 1761, Jamal Khan afforded valuable aid against
his Sikh neighbours to the lieutenant whom Ahmad Shah, the Durani
conqueror, had left in charge of Sirhind. The consequence of this
was a long-continued feud with adjacent Sikh States, especially with
Patiala. After the death of Jamal Khan, who was killed in battle,
dissensions ensued among his sons, Bhikan Khan ultimately becoming
Nawab.
Soon after Ahmad Shah had left India for the last time, Raja
Amar Singh of Patiala determined to take revenge on Bhikan
Khan. He attacked him, and seized some of his villages, when
at last the Maier Kotla Chief found that he was unable to resist so
powerful an enemy, and a treaty was negotiated which secured peace
for many years between these neighbouring States. During this peace
the forces of Maler Kotla on several occasions assisted the Patiala Rajas
when in difficulties ; and in 1787, Raja Sahib Singh of Patiala returned
these kindnesses by aiding Maler Kotla against the powerful Chief
of Bhadaur, who had seized some of the Nawab's villages. In 1794, a
religious war was proclaimed against the Muhammadans of Maler
Kotla by the Bedi Sahib Singh, the lineal descendant of Baba Nanak,
the first and most revered of the Sikh Curus. This man, who was half-
fanatic and half-impostor, inflamed the Sikhs against the cow-killers of
M;iler Kotla, and a great many Sikh Sirdars joined him. The Nawab
and his troops were defeated in a pitched battle, and compelled to flee
to the capital, where they were closely besieged by the fanatical Bedi.
Fortunately for the Nawab, his ally of Patiala again sent troops to help
MALER KOTLA TOWN. 255
him ; and ultimately the Bedi was induced to withdraw across the
Sutlej, by the offer of a sum of money by the Patiala Raja.
From the year 1788, the Marathas became predominant in this part
of India; in the campaign of General Lake against Holkar in 1805,
the Nawab of Maler Kotla joined the British army with all his followers.
After the victory of Laswari, gained by the British over Sindhia in
1803, and the subjugation and flight of Holkar in 1805, the English
Government succeeded to the power of the Marathas in the Districts
between the Sutlej and the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was
formally extended to Maler Kotla, as to the other cis-Sutlej States, against
the formidable encroachments of Ranjit Singh, the Lion of Lahore.
In the campaigns of 1806, 1807, and 1808, Ranjit Singh had made
considerable conquests across the Sutlej; and in 1S0S he occupied
Faridkot, marched on Maler Kotla, and demanded a ransom of
;£ 10,000 from the unfortunate Nawab, in spite of the protests of Mr.
(afterwards Lord) Metcalfe, who was then an envoy in Ranjit's camp.
This led to the resolute interference of the British, who advanced
troops under Colonel Ochterlony, and at the same time (December
1808) addressed an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, declaring the cis-Sutlej
States to be under British protection. Finally the Raja of Lahore
submitted ; Colonel Ochterlony formally reinstated the Nawab of
Maler Kotla in February 1809; and in April of that year the final
treaty between the British Government and Lahore, which affirmed the
dependence of the cis-Sutlej States on the former, was signed by Mr.
Metcalfe and Ranjit Singh.
Population, etc. — Maler Kotla State has an area of 164 square miles,
with 115 villages, and 12,964 houses. Population, 71,051 (1SS1),
namely, males 38,550, and females 32,501. Average density of the
population, 433 persons per square mile ; persons per village, 620 ;
houses per square mile, 54-8 ; persons per house, 4"2S. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1881 — Sikhs, 28,931 ; Hindus,
16,178; Muhammadans, 24,616; Jains, 1323; Christians, 3.
Products, Administration, etc. — The chief products of the State are
cotton, sugar, opium, aniseed, tobacco, garlic, and grain ; estimated gross
revenue, ^28,400. The present Nawab, Muhammad Ibrahim AH
Khan, was born in 1857 ; he has exercised complete jurisdiction in his
State since the death of his relative, Ghulam Muhammad Khan, in May
1S77. The Nawab receives compensation from the Government of
.£250 per annum in perpetuity, on account of loss of revenue caused
by the abolition of customs duties. The military force of the State
consists of 76 cavalry and 200 infantry, 8 field-guns, and 16 artillery-
men. The chief receives a salute of 1 1 guns.
Maler Kotla.— Chief town of Maler Kotla State, Punjab ; situated
3.0 miles south of Ludhiana town, in lat. 30° 31' n., and long. 75' 59 e.
2 5 6 MA L E TIR1KE-BE TTA—MALIA.
Population (iSSi) 20,621, namely, Muhammadans, 14,46s; Hindus,
45S4; Jains, 1243; Sikhs, 324; and Christians, 3.
Maletirike-betta. — Large rounded hill above Virajendrapet in
Coorg, Southern India.
Malgin. — Salt mine in Kohat District, Punjab ; one of the series
occurring in the hills which bound the valley of the Teri Toi. Lat.
330 19' 30" n., long. 710 34' e. Derives its name from the Pushtu
word mdlga (salt). Its quarries — in which, as at the other neighbour-
ing mines, the mineral crops out in masses, and is simply excavated
from surface workings, without shafts — have been visited from time
immemorial; but Shahbaz Khan of Teri (17S0 a.d.) first made them a
source of income. His representatives, the Khans of Teri, and the
neighbouring villagers, have ancient proprietary rights in the mines.
The workings extend over a space of 1 mile, and the salt is excavated
by blasting. Khattaks, Afrfdi's, and Bangashes chiefly resort to this mine,
and convey the salt on bullocks and donkeys to Peshawar, Swat, Bonair,
and Pakhli. The salt depot stands 4 miles from the quarries ; its
officials include a daroga, a moharrir, a jamdddr, 20 Sepoys, and a
weighman. Average annual gross income for the six years ending
1881-82, ^2419.
Malhargarh. — Town in the Native State of Jaora, Central India,
situated in lat. 240 16' N., and long. 75 ° 4' e., on the route from
Xfmach (Neemuch) to Mau (Mhow), 16 miles south of the former
and 148 miles north-west of the latter. Bazar and plentiful supply
of water. Also a station on the Malwa line of the Rajputana-Malwa
State Railway. Population (1881) 2337.
Malia. — Native State in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Gujarat,
Bombay Presidency. Area, 103 square miles. Population (1872)
10,519; (1881) 11,224. Number of villages, 12. The country is flat,
and the climate hot and dry ; water is obtained from wells, ponds, and
rivers. The usual grains, sugar-cane, and cotton arc grown. Malia
ranks as one of the ' fourth-class ' Kathiawar States ; the Thakur, or
chief, having been raised from the fifth to the fourth class, to give him
greater hold over the Miyanas, a predatory tribe which infests this part
of the country. He is a representative of the elder branch of the Cutch
family, and executed the usual engagements in 1807. The present
(1881-82) ruler is Thakur Modji, a Hindu of the Jarejd Rajput caste.
He was educated at the Yirpur school, and administers the affairs of
his State in person. Estimated gross revenue, ^6796. The chief
pays tribute of ^136, 14s. jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the
Xawab of Junagarh, and maintains a military force of 62 men. He
holds no sanad authorizing adoption ; succession follows the rule of
primogeniture. There are 2 schools, with 172 pupils. Transit dues
are not levied in the State.
MALIA—MALIHABAD. 2 5 7
Malia. — Capital of Alalia State, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 23° 4' n., long. 70° 46' e. Situated 22 miles north-west of Morvi.
Population (1S81) 4082.
Malihabad. — Tahsil or Sub-division of Lucknow District, Oudh ;
situated between 260 52' and 270 9' 30" n. lat., and between 8o° 36'
and 8i° 7' e. long. Bounded on the north by Sandila and Mahmud-
abad, on the east by Ramnagar and Bara Banki, on the south by
Lucknow, and on the west by Mohan tahsils. Area, 334 square miles,
of which 203 are cultivated. Population (1869) 158,834; (1881)
I53>°45? namely, males 80,085, an^ females 72,960. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 131,844; Muham-
madans, 21,200; Jain, 1. Of the 378 villages in the tahsil, 285 con-
tained less than five hundred inhabitants. This tahsil comprises the
2 pargands of Malihabad and Mahona. In 1883 it contained 1 criminal
court, 2 police circles (thdnds), with a regular police force of 48 officers
and men, besides a rural police of 464 chmikiddrs.
Malihabad. — Pargand in Lucknow District, Oudh; bounded on
the north by Hardoi District, on the east by Mahona pargand, on the
south by Kakori pargand, and on the west by Mohan Auras pargand in
Unao. In general fertility, this is stated to be one of the best pargands
in the District ; and while the percentage of cultivated area is higher
than in any other, the density of population is lower. The unculti-
vated land only amounts to 3 7 '47 Per cent, of the total area; and
of this one-half is taken up by homesteads, roads, and tanks, the
remainder chiefly consisting of barren tracts along the course of the
small streams, Barti, Jhandi, and Akrahdi, tributaries of the Giimti,
which flows through the pargand in a south-easterly direction. Area,
187 square miles, of which 116 square miles are cultivated. Govern-
ment land revenue, ^13,861 ; being at an average rate of 3s. io|d.
per acre of cultivated area, 2s. 9|d. per acre of assessed area, and
2S. 4|d. per acre of total area. Population (1881) 87,797, namely,
45,905 males and 41,892 females. The Oudh and Rohilkhand Rail-
way intersects the pargand, and there are also several fairly good lines
of road.
Malihabad. — Town in Lucknow District, Oudh ; situated on the
Lucknow and Sandila road, in lat. 2 6° 54' 50" n., and long. 8o° 45' e.
An important town and a station on the Oudh and Rohilkhand
Railway. Population (1869) S026 ; (1881) 7276, namely, Hindus 3761,
and Muhammadans 3515. The principal residents are Musalmans, the
two tdlukddrs being Afridi Pathans. Under native rule, the armed
retainers, maintained by every landholder throughout Oudh, were com
monly recruited from the Pathan families of Malihabad. Police station,
tahsil, post-office, registration office, 2 boys' and 2 girls' schools. For
police and conservancy purposes a small house-tax is levied.
VOL. IX. R
2 5 3 MA L TMBI-BE TTA—MALKAPUR.
Malimbi-betta. — Mountain in the Yelusavirashime taluk in the north
of Coorg, Southern India; 4488 feet above the sea. The summit has
a graceful conical shape, conspicuous from every part of Coorg. Distant
34 miles from Merkara.
Malinagar. — Town in Darbhangah District, Bengal ; situated in lat.
25° 59' 3° N-> and long. 850 42' 30" e., on the north bank of the Little
Gandak, on the main road from Pusa to Darbhangah. Population (1S81)
4225. Contains a temple to Mahadeo, completed in 1844. A meld or
fair, called Rdmndvami, is held annually from 1st to 5th of April in
honour of Rama, and is attended by from 2000 to 4000 persons. This
fair is, as usual, partly of a religious and partly of a commercial character.
Malipur {Maliyapuram). — Town (more correctly a group of hamlets)
in Malabar District, Madras Presidency. — See Malapuram.
Ma-li-won.— Sub-division of Mergui District, Tenasserim Division,
British Burma ; situated in the extreme south of the Province. It
includes many of the islands in Mergui Archipelago, and also Victoria
Island off the mouth of the Pakchan river. The western boundary of
Ma-h'-won is the Bay of Bengal ; the coast-line is for the most part
fringed with mangrove swamps. The country consists chiefly of undu-
lating grassy plains, and of stretches of dense evergreen virgin forest ;
towards the north and south-east rise ranges of low tree-clad hills, spurs
of the main dividing chain. The area brought under cultivation is very
small ; the chief product of the Sub-division is tin, obtained by washing
the gravel lying immediately below the alluvial deposits in the valley.
Population (1877) 5561 ; (1881) 2559 — Siamese, Chinese, Malays, and
a few Burmese. The Siamese confine themselves to cultivation, and
the Chinese to mining. The gross revenue in 1881 was ^"280. Tin
mines were for some time worked here by a European company, but
were not found sufficiently productive.
Maliyas.— Hill Tracts in Ganjam and Vizagapatam Districts,
Madras Presidency; for particulars of which see the articles on those
] listricts, and the article Kandhs.
Malkangiri (or Malkaugirt). — Taluk in the Jaipur zaminddri,
Agency Tracts, Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency. A wild
forest-clad region, watered by the Sabari and Sileru, and sloping from
the Tulasi Dangiri Hills, which separate it on the north from the
Ramgiri tdluk, to the Godavari. The tdluk contains 390 villages, with
5425 houses, and (1881) 22,558 inhabitants, chiefly Kandhs and Kois;
all, except 14, were returned as Hindus. Area, about 4000 square miles;
average elevation above the sea, 1200 feet. There are some splendid
sdl and teak forests, and the whole tract abounds with large game. The
town of Malkangiri, with a ruined mud fort, is situated in lat. 18° 19' n.,
and long. 8i° 53' e. Population (1S81) 586 ; number of houses, 126.
Malkapur. — Tdluk of Buldana District, Berar. Area, 790 square
MALKAPUR TOWN.
259
miles; contains 2 towns and 297 villages. Population (1867) 145,015;
(1881) 168,508, namely, 86,478 males and 82,030 females, or 213*3
persons per square mile. Number of houses, 31,911. Hindus
numbered 154,036, or nearly 91 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 13,316 ;
Jains, 1 1 19; Sikhs, 19; Christians, 9; and Parsis, 9. Two towns,
Malkapur and Nandura, contain over 5000 inhabitants. Area occupied
by cultivators, 445,140 acres. Total agricultural population, 123,319.
In 1883, the taluk had 1 civil and 3 criminal courts; police stations
(thdnds), 3; regular police, 101 men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs),
443. Total revenue of the taluk, ,£51,351 ; land revenue, ,£40,621.
Malkapur. — Town and railway station in Buldana District, on the
western frontier of Berar ; situated in lat. 20' 53' n., and long.
760 23' 20" e., on the Nalganga river ; elevation above the sea,
900 feet. Population (1S81) 8152, of whom 5330 were Hindus, 2654
Musalmans, T50 Jains, 11 Sikhs, 4 Parsis, and 3 Christians.
Two band/is or dams cross the Nalganga, the smaller of which is said
to have been constructed about 200 years ago, as a means of com-
munication between the pet or suburb, on the other side, and the town.
During the rainy season, the river surrounds the town on three sides ;
and the larger dam was intended to render the fourth side unapproach-
able except by water, and thus secure it against the Pindaris. A now
dilapidated rampart of dressed stone — 2350 yards in circuit with 5
gates and 28 bastions — surrounds the town ; and in the west quarter
there is a fort of earthwork. The Nagpur branch of the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway runs 300 yards north of the town, and about the
same distance east and north-east lie the Government buildings. The
town is divided into 4 principal paras or quarters.
The present town of Malkapur is said to have been founded 400
years ago by a Muhammadan prince of the Farukhi house, who was led
by a miracle to select the present site, to which he transferred the
people of Patur, which stood to the north-west, beyond the river, where
the foundations can yet be traced. The new town was called Malkapur,
after the prince's daughter. Malkapur is mentioned in theAin-i-Akbari,
and was long the head-quarters of a tdlukddr. In 1761 a.d. it was
rich enough to pay Rs. 60,000 (say ^6000), for exemption from plunder,
to the army of Peshwa Raghunath Rao. The tdluk of Malkapur being
on the Nizam's frontier, and near the Satpura hills, a large force (stated
at 20,000 men) was generally quartered there. Daulat Rao Sindhia
and the Nagpur Bhonsla were encamped near Malkapur when the
British envoy, Colonel Collins, after presenting General Welleslev's
enforced acceptance of war, quitted Sindhia's camp on the 3rd August
1803.
There were once large gardens here, the trees and ruined wells
of which still remain. An Assistant Commissioner holds his court at
26o MALLAI— MALLANI.
Malkapur, and there is a tahslli. Excellent school, police station, and
post-office. A mosque near the Kazi's house is said to be older than
the town.
Mallai (also known as Majorganj and Halakhaura). — Market town in
Muzaffarpur District, Bengal; situated in lat. 260 45' N., and long. 850
28' 30" e., on the main road from Maniari ghat to Sonbarsa. Site of a
British cantonment during the Nepalese war in 18 14. Population (1881)
1840. Police outpost station ; vernacular school.
Mallangur. — Fortified hill in the Yelgandal District, Haidarabad
State (Nizam's Dominions), Southern India. Lat. 180 17' 59" n., long.
790 22' 22" e. The hill rises 690 feet above the plain, and is 1701
feet above mean sea-level. On the west side of the hill is a precipice
200 feet high. The east is the only side by which the. hill could be
ascended, and that is strongly fortified. It is not garrisoned.
Mallani. — Division of Jodhpur State, Rajputana ; bounded on the
north by Jaisalmer (Jeysulmere) State and the Marwar Division of
Jodhpur ; on the east and south by Marwar ; and on the west by
Thar and Parkar District of Sind, and Marwar. Area, about 18,000
square miles. Population not returned separately in the Census Report
of 1881.
A salient feature of the country is its sandhills. The whole of
the northern and western portions forms part of the desert stretching
into Sind and Jaisalmer. The sandhills in some places rise to an
altitude of 300 to 400 feet. For ages, these wastes have been the
grazing-ground of camels, cattle, goats, and sheep, tended by the hardy
Baluch tribes, who combined this occupation with cattle-lifting. Water
is found at 150 to 300 feet below the surface ; but it is usually brackish,
and in some spots deadly to man or beast. Wells and pools which are
drinkable after the rains become noxious after March, and drinking
water is then exceedingly scarce. Wherever a wholesome well exists,
a village or hamlet springs up around it ; to which the herdsmen
flock in summer and pay dues for the use of the water. The people
have a superstitious prejudice against the construction of new wells, and
seek for old wells to repair. This prejudice has lately been strengthened
by the fact that five new wells dug by Rajput shareholders turned out
to be salt and useless.
The only river is the Luni. The Barmer portion of Mallani contains
three jhils or marshes; in Takhtabdd and Setras portions are 35 to 40
marshes. In favourable seasons, wheat is grown in their beds ; and
when the marshes become dry, wells arc dug and a plentiful supply of
water is procured. A few solitary hills and ranges are scattered over
.Malldni. No forests or large trees occur. Multdni matti, or fuller's
earth, is found in considerable quantities, and exported to Umdrkot in
Sind, and to Jodhpur and Bikaner. Ravine deer are seen all over the
MALLANPUR. 261
country; antelope only in the neighbourhood of Jasol. Hares are
occasionally seen. Among game birds are the large bustard, the grey
partridge, the grey quail, and the large, the common, and the painted
sand-grouse.
Malteni claims to be the home of the Rahtor race. When Kanauj
fell before the Muhammadan arms, Asthan, the great-grandson of the
last Raja of that State, emigrated to Marwar with a body of his
followers. In a.d. 1181 he established himself as ruler over Kher, a
town near the banks of the Liini, and the adjoining tract of Mewo (now
called Mallani). After the conquest of Kher, the Rahtors do not
appear to have acquired further territory in Malldni until the time of
Mallinath, when the portions now known as Giira and Nagar were
conquered. In the 14th century a separation took place in the Rahtor
tribe. One section founded the principality of Jodhpur, while the
remainder continued to occupy their former position at Mewo or
Mallani. The law of equal division among the sons of the property of
the father at his death, created dissensions and blood-feuds, and led
to the assistance of the neighbouring chiefs of Jodhpur being frequently
solicited. This gave rise to an interference, on which the Jodhpur
Raja grounds his right of sovereignty over Mallani. No treaty or
formal contract between the parties can be produced.
For many centuries past, Mallani was a continual scene of anarchy
and confusion, and the inhabitants savage and lawless. The ruler of
Jodhpur, when called upon to repress their excesses, acknowledged his
inability to coerce them. Under these circumstances, the British
Government, about 1836, found itself compelled to interfere. After the
occupation of Mallani by the British, the principal chiefs were removed
as prisoners, but they were subsequently released, on furnishing security
for their good conduct. The sovereignty of Jodhpur over Mallani was
subsequently recognised, although the country is still administered by
a British political officer. The surplus revenues are handed over to the
Maharaja of Jodhpur.
The principal crops of the country are bdjra, viug, jodr, til, and
cotton. Manufactures of wool and cotton cloth. Chief towns — Banner,
Jasol, Sindari, and Nagar. Mallani suffered most severely during the
Rajputana famine of 186S-69, and it has been computed that the loss
of life caused by famine in those years amounted to one-fourth of the
total population.
Mallanpur.— Town in Sitapur District, Oudh ; situated 41 miles
north-east of Sitapur town, with which it is connected by a good
road. Founded about 400 years ago by a Kurmi named Mallan, but
subsequently taken possession of by Raikwars, who still hold it Popu-
lation (1SS1) 3482, residing in mud houses, the only masonry building
being the residence of the tdlukddr. Good bi-weekly market ; boys' school.
*Gz MALLANIVAN PARGANA AXD TOWN.
Mallanwan. — Pargand in Hardoi District, Oudh. Bounded on the
north by pargand Bangar ; on the east by Sandfla and Balamau, the Sai
river forming the boundary line ; on the south and south-west by Ban-
garmau and Kachhandan ; and on the north-west by Bilgram. Area,
136 square miles. Population (1869) 77,681 ; (1881) 72,792, namely,
males 38,472, and females 34,320. The most numerous caste are
Kurmfs. The castes next in number are Brahmans, Chamars, Ahirs,
and Rajputs. Of the 123 villages comprising the pargand, 29 are
held by Muhammadans, 48 by Rajputs, and 21 by Brahmans. The
tenure is mainly zaminddri. The Government land revenue demand,
excluding cesses, is .£10,229, equal to a rate of 3s. n^d. per cultivated
acre, or 2s. 4^d. per acre of total area. The area under cultivation is
returned at 6079 per cent, of the whole, besides 4*89 per cent, under
groves; 16-21 per cent, is cultivable, and iS'ii per cent, uncultivable
waste. The principal crops are barley and bdjra, covering about half
the cultivated area ; wheat occupies about one-sixth ; jodr and gram
another sixth ; while the remainder is mainly occupied with rice, ar/iar,
sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, tobacco, and poppy. The pargand is well
provided with road communication ; and several villages contain aided
and primary schools.
Mallanwan seems to have been originally in the hands of the
Thatheras, who were expelled by Rajput immigrants at some unknown
period before the Muhammadan conquest of Kanauj. It afterwards
fell within the track of the invasion of Sayyid Salar Masaud (1033
a.d.). The tomb of one of his companions is pointed out in the town
of Mallanwan ; and the Shaikhs claim to have sprung from an early
Muhammadan settlement made at the time of this inroad. Tradition
also connects Mallanwan with Jai Chand, the Rajput king of Kanauj,
who is said to have quartered his wrestlers (nidi) here. Many persons
derive the name Mallanwan from this fact. A more popular account,
however, is that when the Ghori invader marched through on his
triumphant return from Kanauj, certain Ahirs conciliated him with an
offering of cream (ma/di), which pleased him so much that he forthwith
ordered a colony to be settled here, which he called Mallanwan in
memory of the event.
Mallanwan.— Town in Hardoi District, Oudh, and head-quarters
of Mallanwdn pargand ; situated 21 miles south of Hardoi town, on
the road from Hardoi to Unao. Lat. 270 2' 10" n., long. 8o° n' 30" e.
Population (1869) 11,670; (1881) 10,970, dwelling in 180 brick and
1366 mud houses. Hindus number 8604, and Muhammadans 2366.
The town is divided into 6 wards or mahallas.
Under native rule, Mallanwan possessed considerable political im-
portance ; and at the time of the British annexation of Oudh, it was
selected as the civil head-quarters of what now forms Hardoi District,
MALLIA—MALPUR. 263
the site being removed from Mallanwan to Hardoi upon the re-occu-
pation of the Province after the Mutiny. The town has but little
commerce, the grain trade of the neighbourhood being carried on at
Madhuganj, 5 miles distant. A deserted indigo factory occupies the
site of the old fort. The manufacture of saltpetre has been recently
introduced. Bi-weekly market, and manufacture of brass utensils.
The principal buildings are — 4 mosques ; the dctrgah or tomb of a
famous Muhammadan saint, Makhdum Shah; 2 imdmbdras ; 14 Hindu
temples ; and a mud sardi or travellers' rest-house.
Mallia. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency. — See Malia.
Malligaon. — Town in the Bidar District, Haidarabad State (Nizam's
Dominions), Southern India. Lat. 180 39' 8" n., long. 77° 4' 8" e.
Malligaon is celebrated for its annual horse fair, which is held usually
in November or December. Upwards of 4000 horses and ponies are
disposed of at the fair for prices ranging from ^5 to £60. In addition
to horses and horned cattle, piece-goods, cloth of all kinds, hardware,
and household utensils of all descriptions are sold.
Malnipahar. — Hot spring in Monghyr District, Bengal, forming the
source of the Anjana river. It is situated about 7 miles east and north
from Bhimbandh, and issues from the bottom of Malnipahar, a part of
the central cluster of the Monghyr Hills. A space of about 20 yards
in length and 20 feet in width is covered with fragments of rock, under
which the water may be heard running, and in some places seen through
the crevices, until it comes to the lower side and forms into little
streams that soon unite. The stones from among which the water
issues are a kind of jasper, stained with red. The temperature of the
water varies from about 1450 to 1500 F.
Malondi. — Town in the Bassein Sub-division of Thana District,
Bombay Presidency. Part of the modern town of Bassein has been
built on lands of Malondi. Population not separately returned in the
Census Report of 1881.
Malot. — Ancient ruins in Pind Dadan Khan ta/isil, Jehlam (Jhelum)
District, Punjab ; standing in lat. 320 56' 45" N., and long. 730 39' 15" e.,
about 12 miles south-east of the similar remains at Katas, and attri-
buted like them to the earliest heroic period of Hindu history. The
place formed, according to tradition, the capital of Raja Mai', mythical
ancestor of the Janjuah tribe, and a contemporary or descendant of the
Mahdbh&rata heroes. The village contains a temple, finer and probably
older than that of Katas, with remarkable Ionic columns. Crowns the
edge of one of the highest precipices in the Salt Range, and commands
an extensive view over the valleys of the Jehlam and the Chenab. A
fort built by Ranjit Singh's father occupies the crest of the hill.
Malpur. — Native State under the Political Superintendency of
Mahi Kantha, Gujarat (Guzenit), Bombay Presidency; situated in the
264 MALPUR TOU'N—MALSIRAS.
south-eastern portion of Mahi Kantha. Population (1S72) 10,303;
(1881) 14,009. The boundary marches with the State of Lunawara
and Ahmadabad District. The country is hilly and wild, and its exact
area has not been ascertained. The principal agricultural products are
bdjra (millet), wheat, and other grains. The Malpur family is an
offshoot of that of the Rio of Edar (Idar). Virajmal, younger son of
Kirat Singhji, 7th Rao of Edar, was provided for by a grant of lands,
and in 1344 his grandson, Khanaji, established himself at Man.
Khanajfs grandson, Randhfr Singhji, moved from Man to Morasa;
and it was not till 1466 that Rawal Wagh Singhji, great-grandson of
Randhir Singhji of Morasa, and eighth in descent from Virajmal, finally
settled at Malpur. At that time, Malpur was ruled by a Bhfl chief
named Malo Kant. A certain Brahman of Malpur had a beautiful
daughter with whom Malo Kant had fallen in love. The Brahman
fled to Morasa, and begged the assistance of the ruling chief, Wagh
Singhji, who shortly afterwards attacked and conquered Malpur, where
his descendants have ruled as Rawals ever since. In 1780, during the
reign of Indar Singhji, Fateh Singh, then Gaekwar of Baroda, attacked
and captured Malpur and took away its gates ; and since then the
Rawals of Malpur have paid an annual tribute to the Gaekwar. It
was during the rule of Rawal Takht Singh, in 181 6, that the chief of
Edar stayed at Malpur ; and since then the Rawals have paid tribute to
Edar. The present (1881-82) chief is Rawal Dip Singhji, a Hindu of
the Rahtor Rajput caste, who reckons twenty-three generations from
Kirat Singhji. He manages his estate in person, but has no sanad
authorizing adoption ; in matters of succession, the rule of primo-
geniture is followed. Estimated gross annual revenue, ^1163. The
chief pays an annual tribute of ^"43 to the British Government, ^39
to the Rdo of Edar, and ^28 to the Gaekwar of Baroda. There is
one school, with a total of 96 pupils. Transit dues are levied in the
State.
Malpur.— Chief town of Malpur State, in Mahi Kdntha, Gujarat,
Bombay Presidency. Lat. 230 21' 20" N., long. 73° 28' 30" e. Popu-
lation (1881) 15 13.
Malpura.— Chief town in M.&\p\xm jpargand, Jaipur State, Rajputana.
]'< >p ulation ( 1 881) 8212. Hindus number 6087 ; Muhammadans, 1676 ;
and 'others,' 449.
Malsian. — Town in Jalandhar (Jullundur) District, Punjab. Lat.
310 8' N., long. 75° 23' 15" 1;. Population (1868) 6286, namely, 1665
Hindus, 4399 Muhammadans, and 222 Sikhs. Population not returned
separately in the Census Report of 1881.
Malsiras. — Sub-division of ShoMpur District, Bombay Presidency.
Area,574 square miles, containing 69 villages. Population (1872) 55,084;
(1881)58,332, namely, 29,357 males and 28,975 females, occupying
MALS1RAS HEAD-QUARTERS— MALUR. 265
7960 houses. Hindus numbered 55,831 ; Muhammadans, 1945 ; and
'others,' 556. Malsiras is mostly flat and bare of trees, except in the
west, where is a chain of hills. Water is not plentiful. The chief
rivers are the Nira and Bhima. Most of the soil is good black. The
climate is dry and hot, and the rainfall scanty and uncertain. The
detail survey of the Sub-division had not in 1883 been finished. In
1882-83, including alienated lands, the total number of holdings was
3766, with an average area of about 70 acres. Of 214,794 acres held
in 1881-82 for tillage, 36,560 were fallow or under grass. Of the
remaining 178,234 acres, 4077 acres were twice cropped. Grain crops
occupied 153,533 acres; pulses, S080 acres; oil-seeds, 18,080 acres;
fibres, 813 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 1805 acres. In 1883 the
Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police stations
(thdnds),^ ; regular police, 38 men; village watchmen {chaukiddrs), 200.
Land revenue (1882), ^15,322.
Malsiras. — Head-quarters of Malsiras Sub-division, Sholapur Dis-
trict, Bombay Presidency. Population (1881) 3087. Situated on the
Poona- Sholapur road about 70 miles north-west of Sholapur town.
Post-office, and Tuesday weekly market.
Malthon. — Chief town of a tract of the same name in Sagar (Saugor)
District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 240 19' n., and long. 780
34' e., about 40 miles north of Sagar town, on the southern slope of the
Narat ghdt or pass. The ascent is gentle, and is commanded by the
fort. About 1748, Prithwi Singh of Garhakota took possession of the ■
village in the name of the Peshwa, and altered its site to where it now
stands; he also built the fort. In 181 1, his descendant Raja Arjun
Singh made over Malthon and Garhakota to Sindhia, in return for his
assistance in expelling the army of the Raja of Nagpur from Garhakota.
In 1820, shortly after the cession of Sagar District by the Peshwa,
Malthon was assigned by Sindhia to the British in exchange for other
territory. During the disturbances of 1857, two companies of the 31st
Native Infantry were despatched to Malthon; but finding the Rajas of
Shahgarh and Banpur were approaching with a large force, they returned
to Sagar. The town and fort were then occupied by the Raja of
Shahgarh, who traced his descent from Prithwi Singh ; but in January
1858 he decamped on learning the defeat of the Raja of Banpur at
Barodia Naunagar. Population (18S1) 2219, namely, Hindus, 1791;
Jains, 348 ; and Muhammadans, 80. A weekly market is held at
Malthon. The road from Sagar to Lalitpur and Jhansi runs through
the town, and there is a travellers' bungalow near the fort. A boys'
school and one for girls have been established.
Malur. — Tdluk in Kolar District, Mysore State. Area, 154 square
miles, of which in are cultivated. Population (187 1) 56,581 ; (1881)
42,915, namely, 20,99s males and 21,217 females. Hindus numbered
266 MALUR VILLAGE— MALWA.
40,876 ; Muhammadans, 2025 ; and Christians, 14. Land revenue
returned at ^8369, or 2s. 5d. per cultivated acre. The taluk lies along
the watershed separating the valleys of the Palar and South Pinakini.
The Bangalore branch of the south-west line of Madras Railway
traverses the taluk.
Malur. — Village in Kolar District, Mysore State ; 18 miles south-
west of Kolar, and a station on the Bangalore branch of the south-west
line of the Madras Railway. Head-quarters of the Malur tdluk. Lat.
130 43' 20" N., long. 750 22' 35" E. Population (1881) 2875. Originally
called Mallikapura or 'jasmine town.' Held in the 16th century by the
Gauda chiefs of Hoskote. Successively passed under the power of the
Muhammadans of Bijapur and the Marathas, until annexed to Mysore
by Haidar AH. "Weekly fair on Thursdays. Roads to Hoskote, Masti,
and Hosur in Salem District.
Malur (or Molur). — Village in Magadi tdluk, Bangalore District,
Mysore State. Pat. 13' 5' n., long. 770 58' 20" e. Population (1881)
1952, of whom the majority are Sn'-Vaishnava Brahmans. Known as
Mukunda-nagar or Mankundapatna in the 7 th century, and the residence
of two of the Ganga kings, whose capital was at Talkad. The sage,
Vijnaneswara Yogi, here composed his celebrated bhdshya or commen-
tary on the code called Yajnavalkhya Smriti. There are several ruined
temples, but the large temple of Aprameya-swami is still maintained in
good order.
Malvalli. — Tdluk in Mysore District, Mysore State. Area, 383
square miles. Population (1871) 74,985; (1881) 83,045, namely,
40,890 males and 42,155 females, of whom 80,347 are Hindus, 2692
Muhammadans, and 6 Christians. Land revenue (1874-75), excluding
water rates, ^5740, or is. 7d. per cultivated acre. Sheep-breeding is
extensively carried on by the Kuniba and Golla castes, and iron is
manufactured in the tdluk. The Kaveri (Cauvery) forms the southern
boundary, and receives the Shimsha, which drains the country. Neither
of these rivers is used for irrigation, which is carried on only by means
of tanks.
Malvalli. — Town in Mysore District, Mysore State ; situated in lat.
120 23' 10" n., and long. 770 5' 50" e., 28 miles by road east of Mysore
city. Population (1881) 5078, of whom 451 1 are Hindus, 561 Muham-
madans, and 6 Christians. Granted by Haidar Ali to his son Tipu in
f'dgir. The old fort, built of mud and stone, is now in ruins. Two
miles off is the scene of the only battle between the British army under
( reneral Harris and Tipu Sultan in 1799, when the former was marching
to the attack on Seringapatam. 1 lead-quarters of the Malvalli tdluk.
Malwa. — A political province of Central India, forming the southern
portion of the Central India Agency, exclusive of the districts south
of the Vindhya range. Malwa is the richest part of Central India,
MALWA AGENCY, WESTERN. 267
and has never in historical times been known to suffer from famine
caused by drought. The principal States in Malwa are, Indore, Bhopal,
Dhar, Ratlam, Jaora, Rajgarh, Narsinghgarh, and the Nimach (Xeemuch;
District of the State of Gwalior. [See separate articles.]
In pre-historic times, the capital was at the ancient city of UjJAiN
(Oojjein), associated in Hindu legend with the great king Vikramaditya,
the date of whose accession (57 B.C.) has given the Samvat era to all
India. The Muhammadan chronicler, Ferishta, describes Malwa as
the kingdom of an independent Raja, when Mahmud of Ghazni
invaded India in the beginning of the nth century. It appears to
have first fallen into the hands of the Muhammadans in about 1309,
during the reign of the Delhi Emperor Ala-ud-dfn. When the
Tughlak dynasty was weakened by the repeated attacks of the Mughals,
their viceroy in Malwa succeeded in establishing his independence.
The first Muhammadan king of Malwa was Dilawar Khan Ghori, of
Afghan origin, who ruled from 1387 to 1405, and placed his capital at
Mandu. He was succeeded by his son Hoshang Ghori, to whom are
attributed most of the magnificent buildings, ruins of which are still to
be seen at Mandu. In 1526 the Ghori dynasty came to an end, being
overthrown by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat; and in 1570 Malwa was,
on the conquest of Gujarat by the Emperor Akbar, incorporated in the
Mughal dominions.
On the decay of the Delhi Empire of the Mughals, in the iSth
century, Malwa was one of the first Provinces overrun by the Marathas.
In 1737 the Peshwa exacted chauth, or one-fourth of the revenue;
and at a later date, the two great military chiefs, Sindhia and Holkar,
carved out for themselves kingdoms, which their descendants still
retain. But the Marathas set up no organized government, so that
Malwa, besides its native population of predatory Bhils, became the
refuge of all the mercenary bandits of the Peninsula. In the beginning
of the present century, the depredations of these bandits or Pindaris
led to what is sometimes known as the fourth Maratha war of 1 Si 7,
under the Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings. As the result, the
Pindaris were extirpated ; and under the rule of Sir John Malcolm,
the Bhils were tamed and the jungles cleared of wild beasts. Many of
the Bhils have been enlisted as British soldiers ; and the head-quarters
of the Malwa Bhil Corps (about 400 strong) is at Sardarpur. At the
present day, Malwa is best known as giving its name to the opium
which is annually exported from Bombay, to the amount of about
37,000 chests.
Malwa Agency, Western. — A group of native States, forming a
Political Agency in Central India, comprising the States of Jaora,
Ratlam, Sillana, and Sitamau (all of which see separately), and as
regards intercriminal jurisdiction, the Districts of UjJAiN, Shahjahan-
k r r r r r r f f t • i
r~f t r r f f f ( t M
Vrr Vf r .r r r t •
r / f rjf.f. JJJJ-*
r r r
f * r r
t
264
MALPUR
south-eastern portion of M.
(1881) 14,009. The bound
and Ahmadabad District
area has not been ascertainec
bdjra (millet), wheat, and
offshoot of that of the Rao
Kirat Singhji, 7th Rdo of .
and in 1344 his grandson]
Kha.najTs grandson, Randh
and it was not till 1466 thj
Randhir Singhji of Morasa,
settled at Malpur. At that)
named M£lo Kant. A
daughter with whom M
fled to Morasa, and begged
Singhji, who shortly afterwat
his descendants have ruled
reign of Indar Singhji, Fate
and captured Malpur and
Rawals of Malpur hav<
was during the rule of Ra>
Edar stayed at Malpur ;
Edar. The present (r 88 1<
the Rahtor Rajput caste, .
Kirat Singhji. He ma
authorizing adoption ; in
geniture is followed. Estiu
chief pays an annual tril
to the Rdo of Edar, and
one school, with a total
State.
Malpur.— Chief town
Bombay Presidency. Lat
lation (1881) 1513.
Malpura.— Chief towi
Population (1881)8212.
and 'others,' 449.
Malsian— Town in
3i°8'N., long. 750 23' 4
Hindus, 4399 Muhan
separately in the Cens
Malsiras.— \
Area, 5 74
(1881J
1
MALWA AGENCY, WESTERN. 269
resisting the effects of weather and decomposition. It is extensively
found in the Malwa uplands, and is well exposed at Agar. Coralline
limestone, a good building stone, is quarried at Chirakan. Here are
still visible the ancient quarries from which was obtained the stone
employed in building the historical city of Mandu on Mandogarh. It
was the discovery of fossiliferous limestone among the ruins of Mandu
that led to the disclosure by Colonel Keating of the fossiliferous
beds of Chirakan and Bag. The alluvial deposits of the Narbada
(Nerbudda) near Mandlesar and Maheswar occupy a large area.
This area is in many places covered with rich black soil, said to
be here derived from the decomposition of the trap. The best iron
worked is of the Bijawar formation. An attempt was made by
Government to smelt iron on a large scale at Burwaha, and with fair
success. Unfortunately, before the experiment was completed, it was
abandoned.
Population, Agriculture, etc. — The races inhabiting the Western Malwa
country are Sondiahs, Rajputs, Bhils, Kuturis, Anjnas, and Ahirs — all of
them cultivators. The Moghias, a scattered, scanty, and thievish race,
are immigrants from Mewar (Meywar) or Udaipur. The Ahfr and
Anjna cultivators are as a rule prosperous. The general physique is
good. The food of the people is extremely simple — principally con-
sisting of the flour of jodr, made into thick cakes and eaten with the
dried leaves of the opium plant. In times of scarcity, between harvests
mostly, they live on the korinda berry, eaten whole and uncooked.
The ordinary dress is a dhoti or waist-cloth, a jacket, and a sheet.
The better classes wear sleeves. Gold ear-rings are worn by all well-
to-do classes. The typical house is built of mud. The roof is flat, and
made of palm-leaves overlaying palm-tree beams. In many parts,
however, the roofs are beginning to be tiled and gabled. In order
to have as little ventilation as possible, there is usually only one
door. The average expenses of the middle-sized household of a
fairly prosperous tradesman are about jP.\ monthly ; of a fairly pros-
perous cultivator's family, about 12s. The peasantry are generally in
debt.
The staple crop is jodr ; subsidiary but important crops are wheat,
barley, bdjra, pulses (chola, gram, peas, linseeds), fibres (hemp, cotton),
sugar-cane, dl (Morinda, var. 1st citrifolia, Roxb.), and opium. Jodr
is sown in June or July, and harvested in January. Pan (Piper
betle, Linn.) is raised in the neighbourhood of Ratlam. Opium is
sown in November on irrigated land only; it requires eight waterings,
and is gathered in February— March. Prices are as follows for
agricultural stock— a pair of bullocks, ^7, 10s. ; milch buffalo, jT± ;
cow, £1, 10s.; goat, 6s.; sheep, 4s. The capitalized value of the
stock and implements of an average holding is about ^16. Prices
270 &ALWA AGENCY, WESTERN.
current : — Rice, 24 lbs. per rupee (2s.) ; jodr, So lbs. per rupee ; wheat,
44 lbs. per rupee ; salt, 16 lbs. per rupee ; Indian corn (maize), 90 lbs.
per rupee; sugar-cane, id. per cane; fermented liquor (from the
mahud), 6d. or 9c!. the English quart bottle. There are no standard
weights, solid or liquid measures, but weights and measures vary in
different localities. Distance is measured by the kos, nominally 2 miles.
The bighd is the unit of land measurement, but it also varies with the
locality. Generally speaking, the bighd contains 100 /nit/is, each hath
(from the elbow to the finger tips) being reckoned at 20 inches. Women
and children of all classes (except of the Brahman and Baniya castes)
work in the fields, and are paid in kind 2 lbs. or 4 lbs. of grain daily,
as wages fall and rise.
There are several descriptions of tenure. In Sindhia's territory the
settlement is with lambardars, who are accountable for the revenue,
and receive in return for the responsibility certain amounts of land
rent-free, never less than 8 or 9 acres. In Holkar's territory, the
villages are subjected to a system of farming the revenues for short
periods. Elsewhere it is a common custom for the landholder to let
his land on condition of supplying half the seed and receiving half the
crop, out of which the assessment is paid. It is calculated that an
ordinary cultivator under this system never earns more than 10s.
monthly. Eor irrigated land the highest rent is ^3, iSs. per acre, and
the lowest £1, 10s. ; the average rent for irrigated land is £2, 7s. per
acre; for unirrigatedyWr land, from 6s. 3d. to is. 7d. per acre. About
17 tons of manure are required annually for an acre of irrigated land.
When manure fails, hemp is grown and the blossom ploughed into the
soil. There is no rotation of crop on manured and irrigated land :
on dry crop, or mdl land, the rotations are cotton and oil-seed, or j 'odr
(a cereal) and gram (a pulse). Crops are sometimes injured by
excessive rain or by excessive rain followed by bright sun for several
davs; and from these two causes, though not from drought, scarcities
have occurred. A scarcity occurred in 1864 owing to excessive rains
in the years preceding, commencing with the year 1S59 ; in 1S64, the
normal price of jodr being 2s. for 80 lbs., the same sum only
purchased 16 lbs. In the rainy season, too, prices annually rise
owing to impeded transport from Bhopal, whence surplus supplies,
particularly of wheat, are imported. Scarcity begins when jodr can
only be procured at the rate of 32 lbs. fur 2s. ; it becomes very intense
when 2s. will only buy 20 lbs.
Communications, Tradi Relations, etc. — The main roads, few in num-
ber, connect Indore with Ni'mach (Xeemuch), and Indore with Agra;
but of late years the traffic on the former has lessened owing to the
ning of the Malwa line of the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway.
Cross communications are particularly wanting. Till recently the only
MALWA AGENCY, WESTERN. 271
minor roads consisted of a short line, 23 miles long, between Ujjain
and Dewas on the Agra high road, and another, 41 miles long, linking
Agar with the railway station at Ujjain. The development of the
railway system is now improving this backward state of things.
Opium and cotton are the sole manufactured exports of Malwa, but
the export of opium, besides being the most important of the two, is
a main item among the exports of India to China. The trade in
opium is carried on at those marts in Malwa where opium scales have
been established, and where Government receives the opium duty and
grants an opium pass. These stations are at Mandsaur, Jaora, Ratlam,
Ujjain, and Indore. There is also an export trade in cattle with
Gujarat and the Deccan. The fairs for this trade are held at Jhalra and
Tarana in Indore, at Sitamau, Shahjahanpur, and Baragaon in Gwalior.
A horse fair has recently been established at Agar. The out-turn of
opium in Jaora and Sailana, two of the most important opium districts,
was, in 1881-82, 269,200 lbs., and of cotton, 102,560 lbs. No grain
is exported. The exports and imports are about equal in total value
for the Province.
There appears to be little desire to accumulate wealth. The first
thing thought of by a cultivator or tradesman who can afford it is a
visit to Onkar on the Narbada or to Soronghat on the Ganges, to
deposit at either place the bones of his deceased ancestors. On his
return he gives a feast, and to each guest he presents a brass plate in
commemoration, with the name of the donor and the date engraved
upon it. As there is small thrift, the husbandman lives much on
credit. Advances are made to him by the village baniya or shop-
keeper for the support of his family from the commencement of cultiva-
tion in June until September, when the Indian corn crop is ripe.
In November, when the jodr is ripe, the debt is repaid in kind with 25
per cent, interest. Any balance due the baniya is paid from the
surplus, if any, of the next year. But the balance, no matter how con-
siderable, that becomes due owing to a succession of bad seasons, is
considered to be cleared completely by the payment of four times
the original quantity of grain or money advanced. The annual rates
of interest on money lent vary. On the security of jewellery, money
may be had for from 9 to 13^ per cent. ; on personal security the rate
of interest never falls below 9 per cent. ; the lowest interest among
bankers in their mutual dealings is 6 per cent. There is little traffic
in land, but land is frequently taken in mortgage. The return expected
is 24 per cent. Loans to the members of the great mass of culti-
vators are conducted through the village shopkeeper, who in turn
borrows from the larger banking firms. A cultivator pays as interest
on money borrowed never less than 12 and rarely more than 24 per
cent.
2 ; 2 MAL IVAN SUB-DIVISION AXD TO WN.
The most important towns in Western Malwa are — Agar (6193), with
a British cantonment and the head-quarters of the Central India Horse ;
Bhanpura, where Jeswant Rao Holkar died after his flight from the
Punjab; Barnagar (790S) ; Jawud, a banking centre; Jaora (19,902),
with opium scales and railway station ; Mehidpur (8908), where in
1817 Sir John Malcolm defeated Holkar; Mandsaur (22,596), with a
large opium trade; Nimach (Neemuch), (13,069), with a British
cantonment ; Ujjain (32,932), one of the holiest and most historic
cities of the Malwa region; Rampura, the cradle of the Chand-
rawat Rajputs; Ratlam (31,066), a great opium centre; Sailana ;
Shahjahanpur (9247); Sitamau (5764); and Tarana, with a trade in
wheat.
Malwan. — Sub-division of Ratnagiri District, Bombay Presidency.
Bounded on the north by Deogarh Sub-division ; on the east by
Sawantwari State ; on the south by the Karli creek ; and on the west
by the Arabian Sea. Area, 238 square miles. Population (1S72)
123,273; (1SS1) 84,663, namely, 39,662 males and 45,001 females.
Hindus numbered 82,166; Muhammadans, 1391 ; and 'others,'
1 106. There are 57 villages and 1 town; occupied houses, 14,015;
unoccupied, 3259.
The Malwan Sub-division forms a considerable stretch of the Ratna-
giri seaboard, intersected by the Kolamb and Kalavali creeks. The
interior is a series of rugged hills and rich valleys. Rice and sugar-
cane are grown along the Karli and Kalavali creeks. The headland of
Rajkot at Malwan offers a secure harbourage to small steamers and
country craft which anchor in Malwan Bay. The bay is dangerous to
vessels without a pilot. The climate is on the whole healthy. The
annual rainfall averages about 85 inches. The supply of water, for
drinking and other purposes, is abundant. The Karli and Kalavali
creeks are navigable by small craft for 20 miles.
The chief ports on the Malwan seaboard are Deogarh, Achra,
and Malwan, forming the Malwan customs division. The annual
average value of the imports at these ports for the five years ending
1882-83 amounted to .£52,153, and of the exports to ^41,174. In
1882-83 the imports were valued at ,£50,550, and the exports at
^39,623.
Of the 62,449 acres under tillage in 1S7S, grain crops (mainly
rice) occupied 73*2 per cent. ; pulses, 7*3 per cent. ; oil-seeds, 5*1
per cent. ; fibres (mostly Bombay hemp), 0-65 per cent. ; and miscel-
laneous crops, 8481 acres. In 1883, the Sub-division contained 1 civil
and 2 criminal courts; police stations {(/idnds), 4; regular police,
50 men.
Malwan. — Chief town of the Malwan Sub-division of Ratnagiri Dis-
trict, Bombay Presidency; situated 70 miles south. of Ratnagiri town, in
MAM DOT. 27
/ j
lat. i6° 3' 20" N., and long. 730 30' 10" E. Population (1872) 13,955 5
(1881) 15,565, namely, 7394 males and 81 71 females. Hindus
numbered 14,593 5 Muhammadans, 407 ; Christians, 535 ; and Parsis,
30. In a bay almost entirely blocked by rocky reefs, there were
formerly three islands. On the larger of the two outer islands was the
famous fort of Sindhudrug, and on the smaller the ruined fort of
Padmagarh. Sindhudrug, or the Ocean Fort, built by Sivaji, was very
extensive, little less than 2 miles round the ramparts. On what was
once the inner island, now part of the mainland, is situated, almost
hidden in palms, the old town of Malwan. The modern town of
Malwan has spread far beyond the limits of the former island. Within
the boundaries of the town, on rising ground surrounded on three sides
by the sea, is Rajkot Fort. Malwan was formerly a stronghold of the
Maratha pirates, but in 181 2 it was, under the treaty of Karvir, ceded
to the British Government by the Raja of Kolhapur. Towards the
close of 181 2, Colonel Lionel Smith completely extirpated the pirates.
Vengurla has of late become the outlet for the trade of Belgaum,
instead of Malwan. Iron-ore of good quality has been found in the
neighbourhood, and salt is made near the town. Average annual value
of trade at the port of Malwan for the five years ending 1881-82 —
imports, ^36,660 ; exports, ^25,090. Sub-judge's court, post-office,
and six schools, with 716 pupils in 1883-84.
Mamdot. — Fortified town in Firozpur (Ferozepore) District, Punjab,
and former capital of a Native State. Situated in lat. 30° 53' n., and
long. 740 26' e., on the open plain, about 2 miles south of the left
bank of the Sutlej. The walls rise to a height of 50 feet, and have a
rectangular form, with a round tower at each corner, and in the middle
of each face. More than two-thirds of the fort was carried awav in
1877-78 by the Sutlej, and a branch of that river now flows under the
walls of the remainder. Anciently known as Muhammadot, it formed
the centre of the ildka, which became depopulated during the Mughal
period, and was occupied by the Dogars about 1750. Shortly after-
wards, the Dogars made themselves independent, but were soon sub-
jected by Sardar Subha Singh, a Sikh chieftain. With the assistance of
the Rai of Raikot, they expelled the Sikhs ; but the Rai made himself
supreme at Mamdot, and the Dogars then revolted with the aid of Nizam-
ud-di'n and Kutab-ud-din of Kasiir. Ranjit Singh deprived Kutab-ud-
di'n, the surviving brother, of his trans-Sutlej possessions, but gave him
in lieu ajagir in Gugaira, and permitted him to retain Mamdot. His
son, Jamal-ud-din, though opposed by his cousin, who laid claim to
the principality, allied himself with the British during the war of
1 S45-46, and having rendered good service to our cause, received the
title of Nawab, with a confirmation in his existing possessions.
At a later period, the Nawab acted with great cruelty towards the
vol. ix. s
a 7 4 MA N—MANANTA VADI.
Dogars, on account of their former opposition to his father and him-
self ; and an inquiry having been demanded on their behalf, a series of
most oppressive acts was proved. Government accordingly resolved to
depose Jamal-ud-din, and attach his territory to Firozpur District,
signing two-thirds of the revenue to the support of the family.
Nawab Jamal-ud-din died in 1S63. His brother Jalal-ud-din, who
succeeded him, died in 1875, and was succeeded by his son Nizam-ud-
din Khan, the present chief, who attained his majority in 1883.
Man. — Sub-division of Satara District, Bombay Presidency. Area,
649 square miles, containing 1 town and 77 villages. Population (1872)
62,918; (1SS1) 52,111, namely, 26,073 males and 26,038 females;
occupying 6913 houses. Hindus number 50,714; Muhammadans,
1 127; and 'others,' 270. The Sub-division in 1SS3 contained 1 civil
and 2 criminal courts ; police stations (t/uinds), 1 ; regular police, 5S
men; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 141. Land revenue, ^8425.
The head-quarters of Man Sub-division are at Dahivadi. Lat. 170 42'
x., and long. 740 36' E. Situated on the right bank of the Man
river, 40 miles east of Satara. Population (1881) 2049. Besides the
Sub-divisional revenue and police offices, Dahivadi contains a sub-
judge's court, vernacular school, post-office, and weekly market.
Mana. — Pass in Garhwal District, North-Western Provinces, over the
crest of the main Himalayan range, dividing British territory from the
Chinese Empire. The route lies up the Mana valley, along the course
of the Vishnuganga, past a village of the same name. Lat. 300 47' x.,
long. 790 35' e. Though very lofty, it is one of the easiest passes into
Chinese Tartary from the south, and is therefore usually followed by
Hindu pilgrims in their journeys to Lake Manasarowar. Elevation of
Mana village above sea-level, 10,492 feet ; of the pass, iS,ooo feet.
Managoli (or Mangoli). — Town in Bagewadi Sub-division, Bijapur
District, Bombay Presidency; situated 40 miles north by east of
Kaladgi, and 15 miles south-east of Bijapur town, in lat. 16° 40' x., and
1,Jllbr- 75° 54' E- Population (1S81) 5126, of whom 42S4 are Hindus,
829 Muhammadans, and 13 Jains. Post-office, and school, with 163
scholars in 18S3-84.
Manantavadi (corjuptly Manantoddi). — Town (or more correctly
roup of hamlets) in Malabar District, Madras Presidency. Lat. n°
w, long. 76' 2 55" E. Population (1881) 8989 ; number of houses,
1235. Chief town of the important Wainad coffee district, and the
head-quarters of a sub-divisional officer. The population given above
is that of the amsam or parish. The actual bdzdr is inhabited by about
2000 persons ; around it has grown up a considerable population of
fee-planters, their families, and employe's. The introduction in
s of the coffee-seed into the Wainad by Major Brown from Angara-
kandi, was the beginning of the plantations about Manantavadi. Besides
MAN A PAD POINT— MANAR GULF. 275
several Government offices, the town contains a good club. Early in
the century it was a military outpost, and in 1802 the garrison was
massacred by the Kotiote rebels.
Manapad Point. — ■ Promontory in Tenkarai taluk, Tinnevelli
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 23' n., and long. 780 3' e. ; about
30 miles south of Tuticorin. A high sandy promontory, based on rock,
jutting boldiy into the sea, and having a small white-washed church on
its summit, visible in clear weather for 12 or 13 miles. The breakers
extend 3 or 4 miles to the north-east of this Point, and about one mile
to the south-east. The port of Kulasekharapatnam may be known by
the ruins of a large church half-buried in sand, and the mouth of a
small river, too shallow for internal navigation, opening into the bay to
the north of Manapad Point.
A dangerous shoal has its nearest part 5 miles south-west from
Manapad Point. A depth of 12 fathoms is found all round this
extensive shoal. It extends east-north-east and west-south-west 10
miles, having an average breadth of one mile. From its centre, a tongue
projects in a northerly direction.
Manar Gulf. — A portion of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west
by the coast of Tinnevelli and Madura Districts of the Madras Presi-
dency, on the north by the ledge of rocks and islands called Adam's
Bridge, and on the east by the coast of Ceylon. The extreme breadth
of Manar Gulf — from Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of the
peninsula of India, to Point de Galle, the southernmost point of
Ceylon — is about 200 miles. The length of the Tinnevelli and Madura
coast to Adam's Bridge is 135 miles. A current sets into the Gulf
during the south-west monsoon. During December and January the
north-east monsoon blows strong out of the Gulf. About the changes
of the monsoons, westerly winds often prevail between Cape Comorin
and Ceylon, accompanied at times by a current setting into the Gulf.
A bank has been formed in the Gulf, by the accumulation of sand
carried out from the Malabar coast. Due south of Comorin it stretches
45 miles off shore.
Pearl fisheries are carried on in the Gulf of Manar, both along the
coast of Ceylon and off Tinnevelli and Madura. Care has of late been
bestowed upon the pearl oysters of this Gulf. They occasionally dis-
appear from the old banks, and migrate to more favourable situations.
The oyster possesses locomotive powers, the exercise of which is
indispensable to its safety when obliged to search for food, or to escape
from local impurities. New beds are thus formed from time to time
in positions ascertained to be suitable for its growth and protection.
The pearl-divers are chiefly Tamils and Muhammadans, trained for the
trade by diving for shanks, the shells used by the people of India to be
sawn into bangles and anklets. The apparatus employed to assist
276 MANAS— MANASARO WAR.
the pearl-diver's operations are exceedingly simple; consisting of a
stone, about 30 pounds in weight, to accelerate the rapidity of his
descent ; and a network basket, which he takes down to the bottom,
and fills with the oysters as he collects them. This, on a concerted
signal, is hauled to the surface. The divers do not ordinarily remain
a full minute below water, and the most expert cannot continue
at the bottom over 90 seconds, nor work at a greater depth than 13
fathoms. 'The Gulf of Manar abounds with sharks ; but hardly more
than one accident is known to have occurred from these creatures
during any pearl fishery since the British have had possession of
Ceylon.' — Commander Taylor's Sailing Directory (London, 1874),
P- 415-
Manas. — River of Assam, which takes its rise far up in the Bhutan
Hills, and flows south into the Brahmaputra. It is navigable up to the
foot of the hills by native craft all the year round, and might be
navigated by river steamers of light draught. Like all the neighbour-
ing streams, its course in the plains is liable to great and frequent
changes. The main channel forms the boundary between the Eastern
Dwdrs of Goalpara District on the west or right bank, and Kamrup
District on the east. It enters the Brahmaputra in lat. 26° 15' n., and
long. 90° 41' E., just opposite Goalpara town. Its chief tributaries are
— on the right bank, the Ai, Biiri-Ai, the Gabiir, Kanamakra, and the
Dolani \ on the left bank, the complex river system of which the
Chaul-khoya is now the chief drainage channel. The Manas is nowhere
fordable in the plains, but it is crossed by 8 ferries situated at different
points.
Manasa (Monassa). — Town in Indore State, Central India ; situated
in lat. 240 27' N., and long. 75 ° 13' e., on the route from Guna (Goona)
to Nimach (Neemuch), 162 miles west of the former and 18 east of the
latter. Elevation above the sea, 1440 feet.
Manasabal. — Lake in Kashmir State, Punjab ; celebrated for its
picturesque beauty. Lat. 340 13' n., long. 74" 58' e. The remains of
a palace built by Nur Jahan, the queen of Emperor Jahangir,
stand upon its northern bank. The lake lies on the main Srinagar
road, and is three miles in length by one broad. Unruffled water
and a quiet solitude characterize the place. The lake discharges its
waters into the Jehlam (Jhelum) upon its right bank.
Manasarowar {Mdnasa-sarovara). — Lake in Tibetan territory
beyond the great southern wall of the Himalayas, in about 300 8' n. lat.,
and 8i° 53' E. long. Manasarowar lies to the south of the sacred Kailas
mountain, and, like that celebrated peak, occupies an important place
in Hindu mythology. The Varju Parana relates that when the ocean
fell from heaven upon Mount Meru, it ran four times round the moun-
tain, then it divided into four rivers which ran down the mountain, and
MANA UNG—MANBHUM. 2 7 7
formed four great lakes — Arunoda on the east, Siloda on the west,
Maha-bhadra on the north, and Manasa on the south. This legend
may dimly represent the fact that the Kailas mountain forms a great
water-parting to the north of the southern range of the Himalayas.
The Indus starts eastward from its northern slope ; the Sutlej takes off
to the south-west from its ' southern side, and the San-pu, or Brahma-
putra, flows eastwards from its eastern base. The Sanskrit mycologists
believed that the Ganges issued from the sacred lake Manasarowar. This,
of course, was a pure conjecture, and an erroneous one. Geographers
held that the Sutlej took its rise in the lake, but the true origin of that
river is ascribed by Moorcroft to the Ravana-brada lake, close to the
west of the Manasarowar, and perhaps connected with it. The Mana-
sarowar lake formed a beautiful feature of the Elysium of the Hindus,
or Siva's paradise on the Kailas mountain. It is one of the four lakes of
which the gods drink.
Manaung. — Island and town in Kyauk-pyu District, Arakan Division,
British Burma. — See Cheduba.
Manawadar. — Chief town of Bantwa State, in the Sorath division
of Kathiawar, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency ; 4 miles east of Bantwa
and 22 south-west of Junagarh. Population (1881) 24S2. The estate
consists of 52 villages. — See Bantwa.
Manawao. — Petty State in the Sorath division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency, consisting of 1 village ; 20 miles south of Amreli
and 12 south-west of Kundla. Area, 5 square miles. Population
(1881) 528. Estimated revenue in 1881, ^150 ; tribute of^i4, 18s. is
paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and ^2, 6s. to the Nawab of Junagarh.
Manbhum. — British District in the Lieutenant - Governorship of
Bengal, lying between 220 37' and 24° 3' n. lat., and between 850
51' and 870 16' e. long. Area (1881), 4147 square miles. Popula-
tion, according to the Census of 1SS1, 1,058,228 souls. Manbhum
District forms the eastern part of the Chutia Nagpur Division. It is
bounded on the north by the Districts of Hazaribagh and the Santal
Parganas ; on the east by Bardwan and Bankura ; on the south by
Singbhum and Midnapur ; and on the west by Lohardaga and Hazari-
bagh. A considerable portion of the northern and north-eastern
boundary is marked by the Barakhar and Damodar rivers ; while, on
the west and south, the Subarnarekha river divides the District from
Lohardaga and Singbhum. The administrative head-quarters are at
Purulia.
Physical Aspects. — Manbhum forms the first step of a gradual descent
from the table-land of Chutia Ndgpur to the delta of Lower Bengal.
The undulations which are so characteristic of Chutia Xagpur here
become less pronounced, and follow each other at longer intervals than
in the other Districts of the Division, while level tracts of considerable
278 MANBHUM.
extent nrc of frequent occurrence. In the northern and eastern portions
of the District, the country is open, and consists of a series of rolling
downs, dotted here and there with isolated conical hills. The soil is
for the most part composed of hard, ferruginous gravel, but many
of the lower levels are filled with good alluvial soil, which yields a fine
rice crop. During the hot weather, the dry red soil and the scarcity of
trees give to this part of the country a scorched and dreary appearance ;
but in the rains, the fresh green of the young rice, and the varying
foliage of the low jungle, form contrasts of colouring with the soil,
and the scenery assumes that 'park-like aspect' remarked by Dr.
Hooker. In the western and southern portions of Manbhiim, the
country is more broken, and the scenery much more picturesque.
The principal hills of the District are — Dalma (3407 feet), the
crowning peak of a range of the same name, a long rolling ridge rising
gradually to its highest point and sinking as gradually to the level of
the smaller hills which surround it; Gangabari or Gajboru (2220 feet),
the highest peak of the Baghmiindi range, situated about 20 miles
south-west of Purulia; and Princhkot or Panchet (1600 feet), at the
foot of which stands the old palace of the Rajas of Panchet. These hills
are all covered with dense jungle. The principal river of Manbhiim is
the Ka<;ai (Cossye), which flows through the District from north-west
to south-east, the total length of its course being about 171 miles. As
it leaves Manbhiim, it turns almost due south, and passes into Midna-
pur District. A considerable floating trade in timber, chiefly sal, is
carried on during the rains between Raipur, the southernmost pargana
of Manbhiim, and Midnapur. Just above Raipur the Kasai forms
rapids and several picturesque waterfalls of no great height. The
Damodar flows through Manbhiim in an easterly direction with a
slight inclination to the south. Its chief tributary, the Barakhar, has
already been mentioned as forming part of the northern and north-
eastern boundary of the District ; and the Subarnarekha, as dividing it
on the west and south from Lohardaga and Singhbhiim. The only other
rivers of any importance are the Dhalkisor, which rises in the east of
Manbhiim, and after a short south-easterly course enters Bankura;
and the Sildi, also rising in the east of the District, and flowing south-
east into Midnapur. The latter river is subject to destructive floods,
and the village of Simlapdl on its north bank is inundated almost
every year.
The useful timber found in Manbhiim is limited in quantity, forest
covering but a small portion of the area ; and it was reported in
1876 that at the rate at which sal was then being cut for railway
sleepers, the supply could not last for many years. Although sal is
the only timber cut for exportation, about 30 species of trees, yielding
either ornamental or durable woods, occur in tolerable abundance.
MANBHUM. 279
The jungle products of Manbhiim are the same as those of the adjoin-
ing District of Hazaribagh. Tigers, leopards, bears, wolves, and
jackals are not uncommon, while various kinds of deer abound, and the
bison is occasionally heard of in the south of the District. Elephants
come every year from the south-east into the hilly country between
Manbhiim and Singhbhiim. The short-tailed mam's (Manis crassicaudata
z^/pentadactyla), which, owing to its peculiar habits, is one of the least
known quadrupeds in India, is occasionally found in the jungles
bordering on Singhbhiim. This curious animal has been described by
Lieutenant R. S. Tickell in the Journal of the Asiatic Society for 1842,
and his account of it is quoted in the Statistical Account of Bengal,
vol. xvii. pp. 266-268.
Administrative History. — The territory comprised in the present
District of Manbhiim was acquired by the British, with the grant of the
dizcdni of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, in 1765, and was occupied by us
some time within the following five years. Up to 1805 the estates
which now belong to Manbhiim were attached, some to Birbhiim, and
some to Midnapur; but in that year they were formed, with a few
others, into a separate District, called the Jungle Mahals. In 1833
that District was broken up, all the estates included in it, except
Senpahari, Shergarh, and Bishnupur, being withdrawn from the regular
system of administration, and placed under an officer called the Agent
to the Governor-General for the South-West Frontier. These, with
the estate of Dhalbhiim, detached at the same time from Midnapur,
constituted the District of Manbhiim. In 1846, owing to a press of
criminal work, Dhalbhiim was transferred to Singhbhiim District ; and
in 187 1, the boundaries of the District, as they at present exist, were
finally rectified, and the civil, criminal, and revenue jurisdictions made
conterminous. In 1854, the designation of the Province was changed
from the South-West Frontier Agency to that of Chutia Nagpur, and
the title of the superintending officer from Governor-General's Agent to
Commissioner.
Population. — In 1867, at the conclusion of the Revenue Survey of
Manbhiim, the population of the District was estimated at 694,498, the
calculation being based on the ascertained number of houses, allowing
an average of 4.V persons per house. In 1872, it was hoped that, as
Manbhiim contains a large proportion of Bengalis, and is more civilised
than the other Districts of the Chutia Nagpur Division, a simultaneous
Census might be effected, as throughout Bengal generally. This, how-
ever, was found impracticable, and a gradual enumeration was made
by a special salaried agency. The Census disclosed a population of
820,521, upon an area corresponding to that of the present District. At
the last Census in 1881, taken simultaneously throughout the District
on the night of the 17th February, the population of Manbhiim District
2 So MANBHUM.
was returned at 1,058,228, namely, males 525,328, and females 532,900.
The total population thus disclosed shows an increase of 237,707, or
2S-97 per cent., in nine years. This increase, however, is in a large
degree more apparent than real, and it is computed that 15 per cent,
of it is due to defective enumeration in 1872.
The results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of the District, 4147 square miles, with 3 towns and
6144 villages, and 178,494 occupied houses. Total population,
1,058,228, namely, males 525,328, and females 532,900. Average
density of population, 2T5*i8 persons per square mile; villages per
square mile, i'48; persons per village, 472 ; houses per square mile,
43*87; inmates per house, 5*93. Manbhum is nearly twice as thickly
populated as any other District of the Chutia Nagpur Division, and its
population is on the whole evenly distributed. Classified according to
age, there are, under 15 years old, 233,977 boys and 222,467 girls; total
children, 456,444, or 43*13 per cent, of the District population; above
15 years, males 291,351, and females 310,433 ; total adults, 601,784, or
56*87 per cent, of the population. The proportion of children, as usual
in Districts in which the aboriginal element is strong, is abnormally
large. The excessive proportion of male children is explained by the
fact that here, as elsewhere in India, natives consider that girls attain
womanhood at an earlier age than boys reach manhood, and many girls
were thus entered as women.
Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 946,247,
or 89*4 per cent, of the population; Muhammadans, 45,453, or 4*3
per cent.; Christians, 552; Buddhists, 23; Brahmos, 3 ; Jews, 2; and
'others,' nearly all professing aboriginal religions, 65,948, or 6*2 per
cent. The most numerous aboriginal tribe is that of the Santals, who
number 129,103; namely, 86,403 returned as Hindus, and 42,700 as
non-Hindus. Of Bhiimij Kols there are 97,695, of whom all but 489
are returned as Hindus. The Bhars and Rajbhars come next to the
Kols, but are not returned separately in the Census Report. Other
aboriginal tribes include Kharwars 9017, and Gonds 107 1. Amongst
the semi-Hinduized aborigines, the Bauris number 69,207, the
Bhiiiyas 26,164, and Kochs 862, all professing Hindus. Including
aborigines by race as well as by religion, the Census Report returns a
total of 307,592 as representing the aboriginal population.
The Bhiimij Kols (numbers given in last paragraph) are the
characteristic aboriginal race of Manbhum, as the Hos are of Singh-
bhum, and the Mundas and Unions of Lohardagd. Colonel Dalton,
in his Ethnology of Bengal, roughly describes them as being located in
the country between the Kasai and Subarnarekha rivers. They had
once large settlements to the north of the former river, but they were
dislodged by Aryans, who, as Hindus of the Kurmi caste, now occupy
MANBHUM. 28 r
their old village sites. The Bhumij Kols of Western Manbhum are
pure Mundas. They inhabit the tract of the country which lies on both
sides of the Subarnarekha river ; bounded on the west by the edge of
the Chutia Nagpur plateau, on the east by the hill range of which
Ajodhya is the crowning peak, on the south by the Singhbhum Hills,
and on the north by the hills forming the boundary between Lohar-
daga, Hazaribagh, and Manbhum Districts. This region contains an
enormous number of Mundari graveyards, and may fairly be considered
one of the very earliest settlements of the Munda race. On the
eastern side of the Ajodhya range, which forms a complete barrier to
ordinary communication, all is changed. Both the Mundari language
and the title of Munda have dropped out of use, and the aborigines of
this tract have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming Hindus.
. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals were once the terror of the
surrounding Districts, disturbing the peace of the country by constant
lawless outbreaks. It does not appear that on any occasion they rose
simply to redress their own wrongs. It was sometimes in support of a
turbulent chief, sometimes to oppose the Government in a policy which
they did not approve, though they may have had very little personal
interest in the matter. They are now a more peaceable tribe, though
they have lost to a great extent the simplicity and truthfulness of
character for which their cognates are generally distinguished. This
degeneration is probably attributable to their connection with the
Bengali Hindus. An interesting account of the manners and customs
of the tribe is contained in Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal
(quoted in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvii. pp. 278-284),
from which the above facts are taken. Some account of the Santals
will be found in the article on the Santal Parganas. There is a con-
siderable emigration to the tea Districts of Cachar, Sylhet, and the
Assam valley, as well as to the neighbouring District of Singhbhum.
The Brahmans of Manbhum number 49,190; Rajputs, 15,942;
Baniyas, 26,836; and Kayasths, 6506. The number of Goalas, the
chief pastoral caste, is 29,081 ; and amongst agricultural castes, the
principal one is that of the Kurmi's (of whom there are 168,385), the
most numerous caste in the District. The other principal Hindu
castes are the following: — Kumbhars, 31,569; Lohars, 26,915:
Kalus, 24,164; Rajwars, 19,125; Doms, 18,943; Madaks, 18,450;
Sunn's, 17,737; Napits, 15,269; Tanti's, 11,976; Han's, 11,371:
Chamars, 9439 ; Dhobi's, 9048 ; Telis, 8218; Barm's, 7499'- Kahirs,
6970; Bagdi's, 6497 ; Kaibarttas, 5140; and Ghatwals, 4449-
The Hindus, as roughly grouped together on the basis of religion,
number 946,247, or 89-4 per cent, of the population, including persons
in every grade of social position ; the number is continually being
increased by the gradual inclusion of semi-aboriginal tribes in the
282 MANBHUM.
general mass of Hindus. Muhammadans form 4-3 per cent, of the
population, numbering 45,453. The Christian community number
552. Most of them are engaged in agriculture. A branch of the
German Mission at Ranch! is at work in the District, with stations at
Telkupi on the Damodar, and at Matgudha.
Manbhum is a thoroughly rural District, and no towns in the proper
sense of the word have yet developed. Two municipalities have a
population of over 5000 — namely, Purulia and Raghunathpuk,
with an aggregate population of 15,420. Three other towns, Jhalida,
Kasi'pur, and Manbazar, are estimated to contain more than 2000
inhabitants each. The 6147 towns and villages are classified as follows,
according to the population. No less than 4448 contain less than two
hundred inhabitants ; 1373 from two hundred to five hundred; 269
from five hundred to a thousand ; 45 from one to two thousand ;
9 from two to three thousand ; 1 from three to five thousand ; and
2 from five to ten thousand inhabitants. The only objects of interest
in the District are ruins of Jain temples near Purulia, and at several
points along the banks of the Kasai, Damodar, and other rivers. The
most noteworthy of these will be found mentioned in the articles on
Budhpur, Dalmi, and Palma. At the foot of the Panchkot Hill are the
ruins of the ancient residence of the Panchet Rajas. The remains are
extensive, and some of the buildings appear to have been once double-
storied. They are now embedded in dense jungle, though the place
has not been deserted for more than a hundred years. Above the
palaces, some 200 or 300 feet up the hillside, are the remains of two
stone Hindu temples, well built and highly- ornamented.
The Material Condition of the People. — The demand for labour
consequent on the establishment of the railway, with the opening
of the coal mines at Raniganj and the extended operations of the
Public Works Department, has of late years ameliorated the condition
of the people in the eastern parts of Manbhum District. The mass of
the population are, of course, poor ; but their wants being few, and
supplied for the most part by the produce of their own fields, those who
have a sufficient quantity of land are tolerably well off. There is,
however, a large miscellaneous population, consisting of Bauris, Bhuiyas.
Doms, and other semi-aboriginal tribes, who have little or no land, and
find it hard to live when food is dear. The classes in this condition
number about one-fourth of the entire population of the District.
As regards occupation, the Census divides the male population into —
(1) Professional class, including all Government officials, 7532; (2)
domestic class, 5656 ; (3) commercial class, 6085 ; (4) agricultural class,
210,062 ; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, 32,779 j (6) indefinite,
comprising general labourers and male children, 263,214.
Agriculture. — It has already been stated that the surface of the
MANBHUM. 283
District consists of a succession of rolling uplands, with intervening
hollows, along which the drainage runs off to join the larger streams.
The lower slopes of these uplands, and the swampy ground between,
supply the only ground on which a wet rice crop can be grown. The
system of rice cultivation, by terracing the sides of these slopes, has
been described in the article on Hazaribach District.
Three principal crops of rice are grown — namely, gord d/idti (sown
broadcast early in May on table-lands and on the tops of ridges), niitin
(the autumn crop, sown in April and May, on the middle and higher
levels of the terrace slopes, and reaped in the end of September or
beginning of October), and haimantik or dman (the winter crop). The
dma/i rice is the principal crop of the District, and is cultivated on the
lowest levels of the terraced slopes, and on moist land lying beneath
the embankments of tanks. It is sown in a nursery after the first
showers of rain at the end of May and the beginning of June, and
is subsequently planted out in the fields. The grain is harvested in
December and January. Of these three rice crops, 44 principal varieties
are named.
The other crops of Manbhum include wheat, barley, Indian corn,
ar/iar, peas, beans, til, mustard, linseed, jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo
(very little), pdn, and tobacco. Tobacco is grown only on high land,
and the entire area under this crop is roughly estimated at 265 acres.
It is chiefly consumed locally, but a little is exported to Singhbhiim.
Virginia tobacco has been recently introduced, and gives a yield double
that obtained from the indigenous plant.
The rent for ordinary land is about 9s. an acre, and an average
out-turn would be from 24 to 30 mounds of unhusked rice an acre.
Superior land, renting at iSs. an acre, should yield from 48 to 60 mounds.
Wages and prices have risen steadily of late years. Agricultural
labourers, who formerly received iid. a day, now earn 3d., and the daily
wages of a blacksmith have risen from \)A. to 6d. Wages are,
however, said to be, on the whole, lower than in any other part of
Bengal. The price of rice in 1S70 varied from 6s. a cwt. for the best
husked quality, to is. iod. per cwt. for common unhusked paddy.
The average price of common rice in 1SS2 was returned at 30^ sers
per rupee, or 3s. 7 hd. per cwt., and of wheat, 13 sers per rupee, or Ss. ;d.
per cwt. Rotation of crops is practised to a limited extent, and
manure is generally used throughout the District for all crops to which
the cultivator can afford to apply it.
Natural Calamities. — Blights occur occasionally on a small scale;
and in 1S65 a flight of locusts passed over the District, without, howe\
doing serious damage to the harvest. Owing to the completeness ot
the natural drainage of the country, floods are unknown ; but the same
physical conformation which saves the District from floods, renders
2S4 MANBHUM.
it peculiarly liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. General
droughts occurred in 185 1 and 1865, the distress caused in the latter
year being very severe. Partial droughts are common ; and, to provide
against them, the husbandmen resort to tanks and high-level reser-
voirs to irrigate their fields. The famine of 1866, following on the
local drought of 1865, was felt with great severity in most parts of
Manbhum, the distress being most intense in the pargands of Bara-
bhum, Manbhum, and Raipur, in the south and south-east of the
District The highest price then reached for ordinary rice was £if
ns. 3d. per cwt. When the price of ordinary rice rises to us. 2d.,
it may be assumed that famine is at hand. In ordinary years, the
District grows more than sufficient grain to meet its local wants ; but
the means of communication are imperfect, and the south-western
portion of Manbhum is in danger of isolation in time of scarcity.
Commerce, Trade, etc. — The trade of Manbhum is principally carried
on by means of permanent markets, the chief of which are at Jhalida,
Purulia, Manbazar, Ichagarh, Raghunathpur, Chas, Gobindpur, and
Barabhum. There are also periodical fairs, but these have declined in
importance of late years, as everything in demand can now be bought
at the permanent markets. The principal articles of export are oil-
seeds, pulses, ghi, lac, indigo, tasar silk cocoons, timber, resin, coal,
and (in good seasons) rice and paddy. The imports consist chiefly of
salt, piece-goods, brass utensils, and unwrought iron. The weaving of
cotton cloth in hand-looms is carried on all over the District as a
domestic industry, and a little silk cloth is woven for export at
Raghunathpur, Singhbazar, and Gopinathpur. A fair quantity of tasar
silk is annually produced in Manbhum ; and there is no doubt that if
the commercial demand for this article were to increase, the industry
might be very largely developed. Coal is found at Jharia, in the
pargand of the same name. The field is situated a few miles south
and south-east of Parasnath Hill, and an account of it will be found in
its proper alphabetical place. The total length of roads in Manbhum is
returned at about 500 miles.
Administration. — The administrative history of Manbhum has been
sketched in a previous section. Owing to the total loss of the District
Records in the Mutiny, the details of revenue and expenditure for
earlier years cannot now be ascertained. In i860, the revenue of the
District was ,£35,660, and the expenditure, ,£22,662. In 1870, the
revenue had fallen to .£30,493, and the expenditure to ,£i8,SS8, the
decrease in revenue being attributed partly to a difference in the system
of accounts in the two years, and partly to a falling off in the excise
returns, owing to the substitution of central distilleries for the out-still
system. In 1882-83, tr,e revenue of Manbhum District from the six
main sources amounted to ,£29,366, made up as follows : — Land
MANBHUM. 285
revenue, .£8201 ; excise, ^7922 ; stamps, ,£9090 ; registration, ,£560 ;
road cess, ^2631 ; and municipal, ^962. Total cost of police and
officials, ,£13,524.
The land-tax does not yield so large a proportion of the revenue in
Manbhum as in other Districts of Bengal. The Permanent Settlement
was extended to the District at a time when it was unprepared for such
a measure, and the assessment is disproportionately light. In 1870-71
there were 37 estates, held by 35 proprietors, paying a total land
revenue of ^9215, or an average payment of ,£249 from each estate
and .£263 from each individual proprietor. By 1883 the number oi
estates had decreased to 26, paying an average revenue to Government
of ^316. A peculiar feature in the land revenue administration of
the District, is the standing order that landed property shall not be
sold in satisfaction either of a private debt or a State demand without
the sanction of the Commissioner of the Division. This restriction
was originally imposed as a political measure. The old landed pro-
prietors were extremely improvident, but possessed great feudal influence
over their tenants, and it was feared that the transfer of ancient estates
might lead to disaffection. When a landholder becomes so involved
that his creditors are obliged to apply to Government for aid to recover
their dues, the estate is attached by the authorities and managed as
economically as possible by them, an allowance being made to the
proprietor, and the surplus devoted to the liquidation of debts.
For police purposes, the District is divided into 10 t hands or police
circles. In 1882, the Government and municipal police force numbered
319 men of all ranks, maintained at a total cost of ^6204. There
was also a rural police or village watch of 5556 men, costing in money
or lands an estimated sum of ^8499. The total machinery, therefore,
for the protection of person and property consisted of 5875 officers and
men, giving 1 man to every 07 square mile of the area or to every
180 of the population. The total cost was ,£15,703, or an average of
£3, 15s. 9d. per square mile, and 3 .Id. per head. There is a principal
jail at Purulia, and a sub-divisional lock-up at Gobindpur.
The progress of education in Manbhum has, till within the last few-
years, been very slow. In 1S60 there was only 1 Government school
in the District; by 1S70-71 the number of Government and aided
schools had increased to 23, attended by 960 pupils. In 1872—73,
owing to the creation of a number of primary schools under Sir G.
Campbell's grant-in-aid scheme, the number of Government and aided
schools was 183, and of pupils, 5271. In 1S77 the number of such
schools was 392, with 9616 pupils, or 9*65 pupils to every 1000 of the
population. By 1883 -there were in all 431 Government - inspected
schools, including 3 girls' schools, with a total of 10,563 pupils. The
Census Report of 1881 returned 10,176 boys and 208 girls as under
2S6 MANCHENHALLI-MANCHHAR.
instruction, besides 20,511 males and 390 females able to read and
write but not under instruction. Of the boys of school-going age 1
in every 6-S is at school. The District is divided for administrative
purposes into 2 Sub-divisions, with their head-quarters at Purulia and
Gobindpur. The number of fiscal divisions {pargands) is 45.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Manbhum is fairly healthy. The
prevailing diseases are intermittent and remittent fevers, diarrhoea, and
dvsentery ; cholera and small-pox frequently occur in an epidemic form.
The temperature is thus returned :— in January 71° F., in April 101°,
and in August 8o°. Average annual rainfall, 497 inches; rainfall in
1883, 647 inches. [For further information regarding Manbhum,
see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. xvii. pp.
253-374 (London, Triibner & Co., 1877). Also the Bengal Census
Report for 1SS1, and the several Provincial and Departmental Reports
from 1880 to 1884.]
Manchenhalli.— Village in Kolar District, Mysore State; on the
right bank of the North Pinakini. Population (1881) 1708. The car
festival of Venkataramana-swami, held for two days at the full moon
of the month of Phalgun (February — March), is annually attended by
2000 persons.
Manchhar. — Fake in Sehwan Sub-division, Karachi (Kurrachee)
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between 260 22' and 260
28' N. lat., and between 670 37' and 67° 47' e. long. It is formed by
the expansion of the Western Nara and the Aral streams. The first
flows into it from the north, and the latter from the Indus westward
at a distance of about 12 miles; but the supply from the Nara is
trifling in quantity when compared with that from the Aral. It is,
however, this latter stream which affords a means of discharge for the
redundant waters of the lake. During the period of inundation, the
Manchhar may be estimated at from 15 to 20 miles in length, with a
breadth of about 10 miles; but when the water is low, this area is
greatly contracted, and is then probably not more than 10 miles in
diameter. The space left uncovered by the receding water is sown
with grain, especially wheat, yielding magnificent crops.
Although shallow at the sides, the lake has a considerable depth of
water in the middle ; and so great is the quantity of fine fish that
hundreds of men and boats are employed. The fish are taken chiefly
by spearing, the great profusion of weed preventing the employment of
nets. In the season when the lotus is in blossom, the lake presents a
very beautiful appearance, as its surface, farther than the eye can reach,
is covered with an unbroken succession of blossom and leaves. Within
the last 14 or 15 years, the Indus, which formerly flowed close to the
town of Sehwan, has left it 3 miles inland, and the Aral before reaching
the Indus falls into a marsh, producing a bar of mud which prevents it
MANDA—MANDALAY. 287
from acting as an efficient source of drainage to the lake. The conse
quence of this has been that from 4000 to 5000 acres of the best land
in the lake are now (1876) never exposed, and cannot any longer be
cultivated. The question of removing this bar has been under the
consideration of the Public Works Department, and a steam dredge
from England, which has not been lately used, did much towards
enabling the Aral to again become an efficient drainer of the super-
abundant waters of the Manchhar Lake.
The fisheries of the lake yield an annual revenue of about ^250,
the rule being that one-third of the fish caught becomes the property of
Government. The principal fish, in addition to the pala, which may be
considered the finest in Sind, are — the dambhro (or chelri), a reddish-
coloured fish, often attaining an enormous size, and ranking, according
to native taste, next to the pala in excellence ; the viordko ; the ganda>;,
a long, sharp, and very bony fish, of a silver colour, in length from 3
to 5 feet ; the shakur, the murrel of the Deccan ; the jerkho, the
largest fish in Sind ; goj and lor, or eels ; khag^o, or catfish ; the popri,
the dohi, the theli; ga/igat, or prawns; the damn; and the singdri. A very
interesting description of the methods of catching fish in the Manchhar,
and of netting the wild-fowl which frequent the lake in myriads during
the winter months, will be found in Mr. Hughes' Gazetteer of Sind (2nd
edition, pp. 696 sqq.), from which work this article has been compiled.
Manda. — Village in Rajshahi District, Bengal ; situated in lat. 24"
46' 10" x., and long. 88° 41' 30" e., on the west bank of the Atrai river.
Seat of an annual fair in honour of Rama (the seventh incarnation of
Vishnu), on the occasion of the Hindu festival Sri Nabami, held in
March or April. The fair is attended by about 15,000 people from all
parts of the District.
Mandal. — Town in Ahmadabad District, Bombay Presidencv :
situated 15 miles north-west of the Viramgaum station on the Bombav,
Baroda, and Central India Railway, in lat. 23° 17' n., and long. 71° 5S'
E. Population (18S1) 6979. Post-office; school with 201 pupils in
18S3-84.
Mandal. — Town in the Native State of Udaipur, Rajputana. Situated
about 70 miles to the north-east of the capital, and the head-quarters of
the Mandal pargand. It possesses a fine artificial lake, which irrigates
a large extent of rice land. A column of victory, supposed to have
been raised by Visaladeva or Bisaldeo of Ajmere, in memory of a
victory over the Gehlots, is said to have formerly stood on an island in
the lake.
Maildalay. — Capital of Upper Burma; situated in lat. 21° 59' 4 n..
and long. 96° 8' e., about 2 miles from the left bank of the Irawadi
(Irrawaddy), in a level plain at the foot of an isolated hill 600 feet in
height, from which the city takes its name. The father of the recentiv
2S8 MA NBA LA Y.
deposed King Thebau transferred the seat of Government to Mandalay
from the neighbouring city of Amarapura in i860. From that year
until the 1st January 1886, Mandalay formed the capital of Indepen-
dent Burma, and lay beyond the scope of this work. The following
article had been kindly supplied by General Fytche, C.S.I., late Chief
Commissioner of British Burma. While it was passing through the
press, the conquest of Upper Burma by General Prendergast's force,
and the annexation of the country to the British Empire, took place.
But the few weeks which have elapsed since the annexation (1st
January 1886) and the date when this article had to be printed off,
render it impossible to add substantially to the materials supplied by
General Fytche.
The city proper is laid out in a square, each side of which is a little
over a mile in length. It is enclosed by a brick wall 26 feet high
and 3 feet thick, crenelated at the top. In the rear of the wall is an
earthen parapet 30 feet thick at its base, rising to a banquette 6 feet
broad, and reaching within 4 feet of the upper surface of the wall,
so as to allow of fire being opened through the indentations. The
flanking defences are provided for by slightly projecting turrets placed
200 feet apart. At the four angles, two of these meet together and
form one large bastion. The wall is pierced with 1 2 gates, 3 on each
side, covered by masonry barbicans or traverses. The gateways are not
arched over, but are surmounted, as also the turrets and bastions, with
wooden pavilions or watch-towers having double and triple roofs. A
deep moat, 100 feet broad, with its escarp 60 feet from the walls, extends
along all four sides, and is always kept full of water. It is crossed by
five bridges, two on the west or river face, and one on each of the other
three sides. No provision has been made for the defence of these
bridges, except that afforded from the walls ; but being framed of timber,
they could easily be removed or destroyed on the approach of an
enemy. There is no glacis or any other advanced work beyond the
moat.
The palace of the king occupies the central space in the city ; the
walls of its enclosure are laid symmetrically with those of the city, and
each face is about 370 yards in length. The outermost enclosure con-
sists of a stockade of teak -wood posts 20 feet high, and within it are
three successive enclosures, bounded by brick walls. The main entrance
to the palace is in the centre of the eastern face. The palace is built
within the inner enclosure ; and its front, which faces the east, contains
the Great Hall of Audience, 260 feet long, composed of teak timber,
elaborately carved and gilded, erected on a terrace of brickwork 10 feet
high. It is in the form of a colonnade, the central part running back,
forming a nave with two side aisles. At the extremity of this nave is a
space like a chancel (said to be the exact centre of the city), where
MANDALA Y. 289
stands the throne, over which a grand shiue-pya-that or gilded spire rises
in light, graceful diminishing stages, visible from all parts of the city
and surrounding country. Behind this hall is the Bye-doik or Privy
Council Chamber, and other offices ; and to the westward are the
private apartments and the pleasure-grounds.
In the same enclosure also stand the treasury, arsenal, powder magazine,
mint, stables of the white elephant, and the lofty campanile, where the
water-clock is placed, which gives the time to the palace and the city.
In the other two enclosures stand the Hlaut-dau or Hall of the Supreme
Council, the Yun-daic or High Court, and barracks and guard-houses
for the troops. Around the palace walls a wide space has been laid out
as an esplanade, on the farther margin of which are situated most
of the houses of the princes, ministers of State, and court officials.
These are extensive timber structures, with panelled wooden walls, or of
bamboo-mat panels framed in teak-wood. The roofs are single, double,
and triple, with carved eaves and gable-ends. The character of the
house, and especially of the roof, is a matter of regulation depending
upon the rank of the occupant.
The city of Mandalay may be said to consist of two parts, mural and
extra-mural-; the streets in the former run parallel with the walls, divid-
ing the building sites into rectangular blocks. The great majority of the
houses, both within and without the walls, are constructed of bamboos
and bamboo-matting, slightly raised from the ground on posts; here and
there brick and wooden buildings, generally the property of Mughal
and Chinese settlers, are to be found. The streets inside the city are
very wide, the principal ones being lined with tamarind trees. At a
distance of a few feet from the house-fronts run enclosures of bamboo
lattice-work, which are whitewashed, and often gracefully festooned with
creepers and flowering shrubs. In the suburbs, the roads are laid out
with something of the same regularity as in the city, but of less width,
with the exception of the principal road, the Kulahdan or foreign quarter,
inhabited chiefly by Armenians, Mughals, and the few European
residents. The number of houses in the city and suburbs is said to be,
in round numbers, 12,000; and the population is roughly estimated at
65,000. Monasteries and pagodas are dotted about in open spaces
both within and without the walls. The former are of the same style
of architecture as the houses of the princes and chief nobles, but
frequently are even more elaborately carved and gilded. The normal
shape of the Burmese tsc-di or pagoda is that of a cone or circular
pyramid of solid brickwork, supported on a square base, and crowned
by a tapering spire of gilt ironwork,, formed in three crowns, called a
ht'i, and typical of the Buddhist triad.
Trade and Manufactures. — The great highways by which trade is
conducted between Mandalay and the British possessions are the rivers
VOL. IX. T
290 J/AXDALAV.
Irawadi(Irrawaddy)and Sittang(Tsit-taung). The entire value of the river
traffic, as recorded at the British frontier custom-houses of Thayet-myo
and Taung-ngu* in the year 1S76-77 amounted to £3,070,465 — namely,
imports, .£1,589,762, and exports, £"1,480,703. The tonnage then
employed in carrying this trade consisted of 11 steamers of the Irawadi
Flotilla Company, 4 belonging to the King of Burma, and 20,161 native
boats. The capacity of the latter amounted to 2oi,"oS6 tons. In
1SS2-S3, the value of the river traffic on the Irawadi and Sittang
amounted to £3,106,853 — namely, imports, ,£1,557,584, and export.-,
£"1,549.270. Besides this river trade, a considerable traffic is carried
on by numerous land routes, on which a systematic attempt to super-
vise and collect statistics is now being carried out. The value of the
land traffic by way of Thayet-myo and Taung-ngu in 1SS2-83 was
,£207,919 — namely, imports, ,£152,428; exports, ;£55<49I- The
principal imports consist of rice, piece-goods, cotton twist and yarn,
raw silk, areca-nut, vga-pi and dried fish, salt, and crockery ; the
principal exports are raw cotton, teak timber, petroleum, cutch, jaggery
and molasses, hides, horns, ivory, stick-lac, wheat and pulse, tobacco,
dyes, and pickled tea. The recent annexation of Upper Burma to the
British Empire will probably lead to a great development of the trade
of Mandalay.
The overland traffic with China is an interesting branch of Burmese
trade. The exports include raw cotton (the chief staple), British manu-
factures, salt, edible birds'-nests and fish maws, jade stone, amber and
rubies ; and the imports — silk, gold-leaf, copper, quicksilver, vermilion,
velvet, drugs, tea, fresh and dried fruits. No trustworthy statistics have
ever been obtained of the value of this trade, and it has been variously
estimated at from £"500,000 to ,£800, 000. The export of silk from
Mandalay into British Burma is decreasing, owing to the competition of
European manufactures; value of the export in 1882-83, .£63.338.
A number of bazars or markets are scattered throughout the city and
suburbs, and well supply the wants of the people. Artisans and trailers
in the same article cluster together in groups and give their names to
wards, but are not strictly confined to one locality as is the case in most
eastern cities.
The principal manufacture is weaving in silk. Manchester imports
are gradually displacing home-made cloth ; but the native silk manu-
facture, notwithstanding its patterns having been imitated to suit
Burmese taste, still holds its own, and is infinitely preferred for strength
of fabric and the permanence and beauty of its dyes. The repoussil
gold and silver work is very beautiful and finished in execution ; and
the ivory and wood carvings, in clear and bold alto-reliei'o, are artistic
in composition and design. The Burmese have a great love for bells
and gongs, and are very expert in casting them. Some rude cutlery
MA NDAL GARH—MANDA PE TA. 2 9 r
and dhas, or native swords, are made. King Thebau's father established,
a gun manufactory, but the guns cast are of a very inferior description.
Administration. — King Thebau succeeded his father on the throne
in October 187S, being the eleventh in succession from Alompra, the
founder of the dynasty. The Burmese kings claimed to be descended
from an old Aryan clan — the tribe of the Sakyas— the family to which
Gautama, the last Buddha, belonged ; and the earliest date in Burmese
history, or rather in the story which the Burmese mix up with their
own, appears to be 691 B.C., the grand epoch fixed by Arjuna, King
of Kapilavasta. The assumption of this ancient pedigree by the
royal family was, however, entirely without foundation. They are
descended from the hunter Alompra, who usurped the throne only
a little more than a century ago. Their administration was absolute
despotism. The king was under no restraint whatever, saving his volun-
tary respect for Buddhist rules and precepts ; otherwise he was lord
and master of the life and property of every one of his subjects.
There was no hereditary rank in the kingdom, and the so-called nobles
were only officials appointed or dismissed at will. King Thebau com-
menced his rule by remitting several royal monopolies and vexatious
taxes which tended to paralyze commerce, and by promises of a more
liberal form of government than had hitherto existed. But his palace
massacres, the commotions of his court, his persistent ill-treatment of
British subjects, and his intrigues with foreign powers, form the prac-
tical events of his reign. His despotism and removal to India, and
the annexation of his territories to the British Empire on the 1st
January 1886, can be but barely referred to here.
Medical Aspects. — The general sturdy and vigorous appearance of the
Burmese is a good criterion of the healthiness of the climate. The
greatest heat is felt in April and May, before the setting in of the
periodical rains, when the thermometer rises occasionally as high as
95° F. The transitions of the seasons are sudden, and earthquakes
are not infrequent, and often usher in and conclude the wet season.
The most prevalent complaints are fever, d\sentery, and hepatic
diseases.
Mandalgarh. — Fort in the Native State of Udaipur, Rajputana ;
situated about 96 miles to the north-east of Udaipur city, and about
the same distance south by east from Ajmere. It extends to the length
of half a mile, with a low rampart wall and bastions encircling the crc>:
of the hill on which it stands. It originally belonged to the Balnot
Rajputs, a branch of the Solankis, but was granted in 1699 by the
Emperor Aurangzeb to a Rahtor chief of Pisangan, who was again
expelled by the Rana of Udaipur.
Mandapeta {Mundapett). — Town in Ramachandrapuram /.
Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 16° 50' N., long. Sic 5$ 1 .
2 9 2 MANDAR— MANDA WAR.
Population (1881) 5914; number of houses, 1244. Hindus numbered
5S65, and Muhammadans 49. Situated 1 mile south of the Manda-
petta Canal, which connects the Coconada and Coringa Canals. The
canal derives its name from the town.
Mandar {Mandargiri). — Hill in Bhagalpur District, Bengal. Lat.
24 50' 25" N., long. 870 4' 41" e. ; upwards of 700 feet in height;
situated about 30 miles south of the town of Bhagalpur. This
mountain, which possesses great sanctity in Hindu mythology, consists
of a huge mass of granite, overgrown near its summit with low jungle.
Numerous small artificial tanks have been cut in the sides of the solid
rock ; and the figure of a huge serpent, carved in relief on its surface,
has been made to coil around it. For about two-thirds of its height,
the hill can be ascended by steps hewn in the rock. Mandar hill is
first mentioned in the account of the Great Deluge, when Vishnu
floated on the waters in a profound slumber. Besides being a place of
pilgrimage, this spot abounds in interesting ruins and natural curiosities
of interest to the antiquary. For details, see Statistical Accoutit of
Bengal^ vol. xiv. pp. 95-102.
Mandaripur. — Sub-division and town in Fan'dpur District, Bengal.
— See Madaripur.
Mandasa (Pathapatanam). — Town in Ganjam District, Madras
Presidency. Population (1881) 4671. Situated two miles west of
Haripuram, a village on the high road from Madras to Calcutta.
Mandasa is the chief town of Mandasa zdminddri.
Mandawar. — Ancient town in Bijnaur iahsil, Bijnaur (Bijnor)
District, North -Western Provinces. Lat. 29° 28' 50" N., long. 78° 10'
25" e. ; situated near the right bank of the Malin river, 8 miles north
of Bijnaur town. Mandawar dates back to a remote antiquity, and it
has been suggested that its population may have been the Mathae
mentioned by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, arc 300 B.C. It
has also been identified with the Madipur (Mo-ti-pu-/o) of Hiuen
Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim of the 7th century A.D. He describes
Madipur as the capital of a separate kingdom nearly 1000 miles (6000 //')
in circumference, ruled over by a Hindu Sudra king, but with about
half the population professing Buddhism. Madipur appears to have
been a stronghold of the faith, for it could boast of ten Buddhist
monasteries containing 800 monks. Mandawar next emerges into
history as a heap of ruins in the forest. About 1 1 14, some enterprising
Vgarwala Baniyas from Meerut District crossed the Ganges into Bijnaur,
and repeopled the site. Their descendants still flourish in Mandawar
pargand and town. At the time of the second invasion of Shahab-ud-
i\in (Muhammad of Ghor) in 1193, Mandawar was included within the
dominions of the Hindu king Prithwi Raj, and shared in the overthrow
of that monarch. In the reign of Akbar, the town had become, as
MANDESAR—MANDHATA. 293
now, the capital of a pargand. In 1805 it was sacked by the Pindari
freebooter, Amir Khan, and during the Mutiny of 1857 suffered from
the attacks of Jat marauders.
The more ancient part of the site of the ruined city consists of a
mound about half a mile square, raised some 10 feet above the rest of
the town, which flanks it on its western and northern sides. In its
midst is a ruined fort, and in its south-eastern corner stands the
principal mosque {Jama Masjid), said to have been built on the site,
and out of the materials, of an older Hindu temple. The town has no
modern edifice of any interest or beauty, being built chiefly of mud,
with two or three substantial brick-built houses, in one of which lives
the descendant of the ancient Baniya family, mentioned above as having
settled here in the 12th century. Population (1872) 7622; (1S81) 7125.
namely, Muhammadans, 4329; Hindus, 2786; and Christians, 10.
For police and conservancy purposes a small house -tax is levied,
and the inhabitants are said to pay more attention to sanitary matters
than those of most other towns in the District. Markets are held twice
a week, and a small manufacture is carried on of papier-mache boxes,
trays, and paper knives. The only public buildings are a police station
and post-office.
Mandesar. — Town in Gwalior State, Central India. — See Mand-
saur.
MandgaOIl. — Town in Hinganghat tahsi/, Wardha District, Central
Provinces, near the river YVana; 19 miles south-west-west of Wardha
town. Population (1881) 3199, namely, Hindus, 2921 ; Muhammadans,
127; Jains, 42; and aboriginal tribes, 109. Mandgaon has a town
schoolhouse ; and at the market, held every Tuesday, a good trade in
cattle takes place.
Mandhata. — Island in the Narbada (Nerbudda) river, attached to
Nimar District, Central Provinces ; famous for its numerous temples,
including the great shrine of Omkar, a form of Siva. The word is
derived from the mystic syllable ' Om,' which is employed in the
beginning of all prayers, and comprehends all the gods, the Vedas,
and the three spheres of the world. According to the Narmada
Khand, which professes to be a portion of the Skanda Purana, the
inland was originally called Baidurya Mani Parvat ; but its name was
changed to Mandhata as a boon from Omkar to the Raja Mandhatri,
seventeenth of the Solar race, who performed a great sacrifice to the
god.
The island covers an area of about five-sixths of a square mile ; and
a deep ravine runs through it from north to south. Towards the
north, the ground slopes gently to the water ; but the southern
and eastern faces terminate in bluff precipices, 400 or 500 feet high.
At this point, the southern bank of the Narbada is equally steep ;
294 MANDHATA.
and between the cliffs the river forms an exceedingly deep and silent
pool, full of crocodiles and large fish, many of which are so tame as to
take grain off the lower steps of the sacred ghats. The northern
branch of the Narbada is styled the Kaveri ; and the belief is that
a stream of that name, which enters the Narbada about a mile
higher up, passes unmixed through its waters, and again leaves it
at Mandhata, thus making at this favoured spot a double sangam
or junction of two holy rivers. On both sides of the Narbada, the
rocks are of a greenish hue, very boldly stratified, and probably of
hornstone slate.
Mandhata was a seat of Siva-worship at an early age. The shrine of
Omkar in the island, and the shrine of Amreswar (Lord of the Immortals)
on the southern bank of the river, are two of the twelve great Lingas
which existed in India when Mahmiid of Ghazni demolished the temple
of Somnath in 1024 a.d. The Brahmans who now officiate at the shrine,
however, wish to exclude Omkar from the twelve lingas styled A'di or
first, and the Narmadd Khanrf supports their view. The Kdsi A7ia;idand
other Sivaite writings are against them ; and pilgrims who have vowed to
visit the Bara Jyoti Lingas, offer their adorations both to Omkar and
Amareswar. Regarding the latter, however, they are avowedly left by
the Brahmans under a pious mistake. During the wars of the 17th
and 1 8th centuries, the south banks were deserted and overgrown
by jungle: and when, "towards the end of the iSth century, the
Peshwa desired to rebuild the temple, neither the Linga nor its temple
could be found. A new temple was, however, built, together with
a group of smaller ones. Some time afterwards, the old Linga was
accidentally discovered, standing on four arghds, one above the other,
which show that it had existed through the four ages of the world.
Moreover, the Benares pandits recognised it as the true Linga, since it
was situated in a line with Omkar and the Kapila Sangam, where a
small stream joins the Narbada. Rao Daulat Singh, the late Raja of
Mandhdta, built a temple over it ; but its honours, and even its name,
had been appropriated by its younger rival, and it is now known as the
Viswa Nath.
The Raja of Mandhata, who is hereditary custodian of all the
modern temples, is a Bhitala, claiming to be twenty-eighth in descent
from a Chauhan Rajput named Bharat Singh, who took Mandhata
from Nathii Bhil in n 65. Probably he only married the daughter
of the Bhil chief, as Nathii's descendants are still the hereditary
custodians of the ancient temples on the top and north side of the hill.
At that time, a Gosain, named Daryao Nath, was the only worshipper
of Omkar on the island, which pilgrims could not visit for fear of a
terrible god called Kal Bhairava, and his consort Kali Devi, who fed
on human flesh. At last, Daryao Nath, by his austerities, shut up Kali
MANDHATA. 295
Devi in a cave, the mouth of which may yet be seen, appeasing her
by erecting an image outside to receive worship; while he arranged
that Kal Bhairava should in future receive human sacrifices at regular
intervals. From that time, devotees have dashed themselves over the
Birkhala cliffs, at the eastern end of the island, on to the rocks by the
river brink, where the terrible god resided; till, in 1824, the British
officer in charge of Nimar witnessed the last such offering to Kal
Bhairava. The disciples of Daryao Nath still enjoy lands on account
of the worship of Omkar.
The old temples about Mandhata have suffered greatly from the
iconoclastic zeal of the Muhammadans, who ruled the country from
about 1400. Every dome has been overthrown, every figure mutilated.
The walls of the four forts are formed of uncemented blocks of stone,
partly the basalt of the hill itself, and partly a yellow sandstone, which
must have been brought from a considerable distance. Fine carvings
and statues of gods ornament the horizontal gateways. The oldest of
the Sivaite temples is probably that on the Birkhala rocks. Unlike the
other temples, which present the ordinary shrine and porch, it consists
cf a courtyard, with a verandah and colonnades supported on massive
pillars, boldly carved in rectilineal figures.
On the hill stand the ruins of a very fine temple, now called
Sidheswar Mahadeva. To each of the four sides of the shrine was
added a projection containing a doorway ; and before every doorway
was a porch resting on fourteen pillars, elaborately carved, and about
14 feet high. The whole building stood upon a plinth or platform,
rismg about 10 feet from the ground, and projecting 10 or 12 feet
beyond the porches, before each of which was a flight of ten steps.
A frieze of elephants nearly 5 feet high, and carved in relief with
singular correctness on slabs of yellow sandstone, was continued round
the plinth. Only two of the elephants, however, remain in any per-
fection. Of another and probably older temple, on the north bank of
the island, only the porch remains. The temple of Gauri Somnath
appears to be an old shrine rebuilt with lime. Somnath himself is a
gigantic tinga, now black, but once white, as his name denotes. The
Muhammadan leader who destroyed old Mandhata, was told that this
linga had the property of revealing to the inquirer the object into which
his soul would pass at his next metempsychosis. He questioned it as
to his own fate; when, mirrored upon the linga, the soldier of Islam
beheld a pig. In his wrath he cast the linga into the fire, and since
then it has assumed its jet - black hue. An immense Xandi (Siva's
bull), of a fine green stone, lies headless in front of the shrine, and
about 100 yards farther on is an overthrown pillar nearly 20 feet in
length.
On the island itself, every temple is dedicated to Siva or his asso-
296 MANDHATA.
c iatc deities ; but the north bank of the river opposite, in addition to
Sivaite ruins, contains several old structures devoted to Vishnu, and a
whole group of Jain temples. Where the Narbada bifurcates are the
remains of some gateways, and a large shapeless building containing
twenty-four figures of Vishnu and his various avatars, carved in good
style in a close-grained green stone. Among them is a large vardha
or boar avaiar, covered with the same panoply of sitting figures os
that at Khandwa. The date 1346 a.d. appears on an image of Siva in
the same building. Farther down the bank, in a small ravine called
the Rawana ndld, is found a prostrate figure J Si feet in length, rudely
carved in bold relief on four basalt slabs laid end to end. It has
ten arms, all holding clubs and pendent skulls, but only one head. On
its chest is a scorpion, and at its right side a rat, while one foot rests on
a smaller prostrate human figure. The people call it Ravana, the
demon king of Ceylon, who carried off Sita, the wife of Rama ; but
probably it represents the consort of Siva in her more terrible form of
Mahakali. It was evidently intended to be placed in a colossal temple
which was never completed. The bed of the ravine is covered with
huge basalt blocks, slightly carved in some places, which doubtless had
the same destination. Numbers of these stones have been removed to
build the modern town of Mandhata, and the dry bed of the Narbada
has been strewn with them in the transit.
The Jain temples stand on an elevation overlooking, but a little
retired from, the river. The largest building, raised on a plinth of
basalt blocks 5 feet high, was perhaps a monastery. It consisted of
a quadrangle 53 feet by 43 feet, surrounded by four rows of pillars about
10 feet high. The eastern wall is still complete, decorated with geo-
metrical figures rudely carved in yellow sandstone. The building was
apparently devoid of external ornament. On each side of the doorway
is a figure carved on slabs about 2 feet high, with Sivaite and Jain
emblems curiously intermixed. To the north stood the temple proper,
built in a pyramidal shape, with numerous smaller spires. The porch
is still erect, but the shrine has been buried beneath the ruins of the
dome. The third building was a smaller temple, 19 feet square, raised
on a pyramid of basalt blocks about 25 feet high. The sitting figures
over its doorways and the other carvings resemble those in the two
larger buildings.
The hills near these temples, as well as the island of Mandhata itself,
are covered with remains of habitations ; but nowhere is there a trace
of lime in the building. Probably this region was once thickly popu-
lated ; at present only the Raja's people and the temple officials occupy
it. The great fair of Omkarji, held on the 15th of Kartik (end of
October), is attended by about 15,000 persons; and a good bridle-
road of about 7 miles makes the place easily accessible from the Barwai
MANDI. 297
travellers' bungalow. There is also a good road of about 7 miles from
the Mortakka station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway. The southern
bank has, during the present century, become the site of numerous
temples and monasteries of Godar (whence its name of Godarpura) and
other devotees, raised by the piety of various Maratha chiefs. The
Bhavishya Purdna contains a prophecy that, after 5000 years of the
Kah'yuga, the sanctity of the Ganga river will expire, and the Narbada
will be left without a rival. The Mandhata Brahmans anxiously expect
this important event, which a few years will now determine.
Mandi. — Native State, under the political superintendence of the
Commissioner of Jalandhar, representing the Government of the
Punjab, lying between 310 23' 45" and 320 4' n. lat, and between 760 40'
and 770 22' 30" e. long. ; bounded on the east by Kulu, on the south
by Suket, and on the north and west by Kangra. Estimated area, 1000
square miles. Population (1881) 147,017. Approximate revenue,
^36,000. Tribute is paid to the British Government of ,£10,000.
Physical Aspects. — The country is very mountainous, being inter-
sected by two parallel ranges, from which smaller hills and spurs
diverge. The loftier of these two great ranges, known as the Goghar
ka Dhar, attains a height of about 7000 feet ; it is well wooded and
fertile, and abounds in game. The second range, known as Sikandra
ka Dhar, rises at one point to a height of 6350 feet, but its average
altitude is about 5000 feet.
History. — The ruling family in Mandi is Rajput, of the Chandra
Bansi clan, and is known as Mandial. Sen is the name borne by the
ruling Chief, whilst the younger members of the family are called Singh.
The Mandi family is an ancient offshoot of the chiefs of Suket. About
1200 a.d., Bahu Sen, a younger brother of the Chief of Suket, having
quarrelled with his elder brother, left Suket to seek his fortunes else-
where. He went to Kulu, and settled at Manglaur, where his posterity
lived for eleven generations. Bano, who was so called from the
accident of his having been born under a ban tree whilst his mother
was a fugitive, succeeded in killing the Rana of Sakor, and ruled for
some years at Sakor. Thence he transferred his residence to Bhin,
about four miles above Mandi, on the Bias. Finally, Raja Ajbar Sen,
nineteenth in descent from Bahu Sen, founded the town of Mandi in
1527 a.d., and may be considered the first Raja of Mandi. Between
this chieftaincy and that of Suket there were numerous wars, and
incessant rivalry.
Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Guru Govind Singh,
the tenth of the Sikh Gurus, visited Mandi, being miraculously
conveyed thither, according to Sikh legend, in a flying iron cage, in
which he had been imprisoned by the Raja of Kulu. During the
rule of Raja Isri Sen, 17 79-1826, Mandi was successively under the
29S MANDI.
power of the Katoch Raja, of the Gurkhas, and finally of Ranjit Singh
of Lahore. Tribute was regularly paid to Lahore, until 1840, when
the State was taken possession of by General Ventura for the Maha-
raja of Lahore, Kharrak Singh (son of Ranjit Singh). The famous
fortress of Kamlagarh was reduced by the Sikh forces after an arduous
siege. The Raja was compelled to submit to the most extortionate
demands of the Lahore authorities, and naturally looked for protection
to the British power. After the battle of Sobraon, he formally tendered
his allegiance to the British Government. The State came into posses-
sion of Government by the Treaty of Lahore in 1846 ; and the
sovereignty was conferred on the father of the present Raja under
certain conditions, of which the chief were that he should construct
good roads in his territory, and should levy no tolls on exports or
imports.
Population. — The Census of 188 1 returned the area of Mandi State
at 1000 square miles, with 4559 towns and villages, and 24,331 occupied
houses. Total population, 147,017, namely, males 75,588, and females
71,429; average density of population, 147 persons per square mile;
number of families, 28,619. Classified according to religion, the popu-
lation in 1881 consisted of — Hindus, 144,621; Muhammadans, 2335;
Sikhs, 49; and Christians, 12.
Products^ Climate, Administration, etc. — The valleys between the hill-
ranges are very fertile, and produce all the ordinary grains, besides
more valuable crops of rice, sugar-cane, maize, poppy, and tobacco.
The climate is cool, except at the capital, which is shut in by the hills,
and in the western portion of the country, which does not rise more
than 2000 feet above the plains. There are salt-mines at Giimah and
1 >rang, where the mineral is dug from the face of the cliff or from
shallow open cuttings. The salt produced here furnishes about one-
fourth of the revenue of the State, nearly half the total revenue being
derived from the land-tax. Iron is also found in places, but generally
only in small particles. Gold is also obtained in small quantities by
washing. The present (1885) Raja, named Biji Sen, was born about 1846.
The military force consists of 700 infantry and 25 cavalry. The Raja
is entitled to a salute of 11 guns. Considerable sums have been
expended of late years by this State on important public works. Of
these the chief are a post-office and a schoolhouse at Mandi; a good
mule-road over the Bhabbu Bass from Baijnath to Sultanpur; and the
most notable of all, a handsome suspension bridge over the Bcas (Bias)
at Mandi, of 240 feet clear span. This bridge is most valuable both
lor convenience and for trade; it was opened by the Raja in 1S78,
and named by him 'The Empress bridge of Mandi.' The Raja has
more recently spent large sums in constructing a road from Bajaura in
Kiiki, over the Dulchi Bass, to Mandi town, and thence over the Sikandra
MANDITOWN—MANDLA. 299
Dhar into Kangra District, to join a road made by the Government
from the Phagwara station on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway.
Mandi. — Chief town of the Native State of that name, situated in
310 43' n. lat., and 76° 58' E. long., on the banks of the Beas (Bias).
The river here is a swift torrent, and is spanned by the new ' Empress '
bridge. The banks are high and rocky. M. Lepel Griffin {Punjab
Rdjds, 1870, p. 626) says, 'The effect of the melting of the snow in
the neighbouring mountains is seen each day in the river, which during
the hot season rises every evening, continues to increase in volume
during the night, and declines again towards morning, when the amount
of water in its bed is perhaps one-third less than at midnight.' Popu-
lation (18S1) 5030, namely, Hindus, 4807; Muhammadans, 202 : Sikhs,
14; and Christians, 7. Elevation of Mandi above the sea, 2557 feet.
Mandiaon. — Town in Lucknow District, Oudh ; situated a short
distance north of Lucknow city, on the road to Sitapur. The site of
the old Lucknow cantonments previous to the outbreak of the Mutiny
in 1857, built by Saadat Ali Khan, 6th Nawab of Oudh, in whose time
three regiments of the Company's troops were stationed here. The
buildings have now disappeared, with the exception of a gateway or
two, and the gable end of the church, which stands out among the
growing crops. Mandiaon is at present a place of no importance.
Population (1881), Hindus, 1856; Muhammadans, 444; total, 2300,
residing in 445 houses, mostly of mud. The town is said to derive its
name from an ancient Hindu hermit, Mandal Rikh, who here performed
his solitary devotions in the midst of a large forest. The Bhars after-
wards effected a settlement, but were eventually driven out by Malik
Adam, one of Sayyid Salar's lieutenants, in whose honour an annual
festival is held. A colony of Shaikhs, the relic of the invasion, is said
to have held the village for 150 years, when they were exterminated
by Raja Singh, one of the Raksela Chauhans of Bhaulf. This leader
conferred the lands half on Brahmans and half on Kayasths, servants
of his own ; whose descendants hold shares in the village at the
present day.
Mandla. — British District in the Jabalpur Division of the Chief
Commissionership of the Central Provinces, lying between 220 14' and
230 22' n. lat, and between 8o° and 8i° 48' e. long. Bounded on the
north-east by the State of Rewa ; on the south-east by Bilaspur Dis-
trict; on the south-west by Balaghat District ; and on the west by Sev-ni
and Jabalpur Districts. Area, 4719 square miles; population in 1881,
301,760 persons. The administrative head-quarters of the District are
at the town of Mandla.
Physical Aspects. — Mandla consists of a wild highland region, broken
up by the valleys of numerous rivers. The traveller makes his way
across a succession of inhospitable plateaux, along narrow footpath?,
300 MANDLA.
bordered on either side with jungle and long grass, the haunt of tigers ;
yet at times a glimpse is caught of the head of some valley, where the
hills seem to open out into a rolling prairie, diversified here and there
with belts of forest, or perhaps a patch of cultivated ground intersected
by a river, with a fringe of green trees on its banks. Trap covers the
whole of the area, except in the south-west, where a formation of
crystalline rocks occupies a small tract. To the south-east, though
granite, syenite, and limestone frequently appear on the banks of
streams, and form the sides of hills, yet almost everywhere, even to
the tops of the highest peaks, trap is the uppermost rock. In the low-
lands there is abundance of rich black cotton-soil ; patches of which
are surrounded, as the land rises towards the hills, with a red gravelly
earth, usually covered with masses of stones and flints. In the less
favoured valleys, a light friable sandy soil is found, which bears the
name of sehar.
The Narbada (Nerbudda) river, after forming for some distance the
boundary between Mandla and Rewa, bends to the west, and flows
through the centre of the District. At the beginning of its course it
receives the waters of many tributaries, which take their rise in the
Maikal heights, and flow northward along valleys hemmed in by low
spurs of hills jutting out from the main range, and chiefly covered with
sal forests. Many of these rivers never run dry ; and, with the natural
springs which abound, they afford an ample supply of water to the
eastern portion of the District. As the Narbada rolls on towards the
west, its waters are increased by those of the Banjar, the Halon, and
numerous other streams. Most of these rivers flow at a great depth
below the general level, and can rarely be utilized for irrigation. In
their valleys to the east and south of the town of Mandla, all the best
cultivation of the District is comprised. The richest are the Harwell
lands, formed by irregular spurs, projecting northward from the Bhainsa
Ghat towards the Narbada, and watered by the Banjar, an affluent of
the Narbada, and by the Than war, which falls into the Wainganga.
Between these streams stretches a range of low hills, crowned by an
extensive plateau, where some of the best Gond villages lie, each within
its fringe of jungle. To the west of Mandla town, the country becomes
still more wild and difficult ; though at places it opens into valleys,
down which, after the rains, the mountain torrents force their way to
the Narbada. The spurs and ridges which occupy the greater part of
the District, for the most part have the same character. An abrupt
ascent leads to a line plateau, with a general slope to the east.
The Maikal range, almost entirely of laterite formation, and densely
clothed with sdl forests, forms part of the great watershed between
Eastern and Western India. Its wildest section is in Shahpur, north
of the Narbada, where the hills reach to a great height, rising pre-
MANDLA. 301
cipitously from the valley of the Johila, which flows in a deep bed
below. From these heights the Ganjar and the Ganjari descend by
a series of falls from one plateau to another, till they mingle with the
Johila. The highest cascade is about 60 feet; and behind it are some
vast caverns of unknown extent, which are carefully avoided by the
Gonds who dwell amid the jungle, as being the homes, not only of
wild beasts, but of evil spirits, who have tenanted them ever since the
time of the Pandavas. All these hills are deemed to be under the
special protection of Mahadeva, or Siva. The loftiest mountain of the
Maikal range is Chauriadadar, which is computed to be 3400 feet above
sea-level. On its summit an open plateau extends for 6 square miles,
so abundantly supplied with water, and so well adapted to catch every
cooling breeze, that, were it not for its inaccessibility, it would be
admirably suited for a sanitarium. Amid the wild and desolate
country which covers so large a part of the District, tigers and
other wild beasts abound ; and though their ravages have been
exaggerated, the proportion of deaths from wild beasts is consider-
ably greater in Mandla than in any other District of the Central
Provinces.
History. — The names of the dynasty under which Mandla became
known as the chief seat of the Gond kingdom, were found engraved
in Sanskrit on a stone in the temple at Ramnagar. The list begins
with Jadhava Raya, who, influenced by a dream and the advice of
a holy Brahman, entered the service of the Gond Raja Nagdeva.
Nagdeva gave him his only child in marriage, and, in obedience to a
sign from heaven, named his son-in-law as his successor. On ascending
the throne, the Rajput Jadhava Raya made the Brahman, Sarbhi
Pathak, his prime minister ; and while the descendants of the one
reigned from 358 a.d. down to the Maratha conquest in 17S1, the
descendants of the other discharged the duties of prime minister for
the same long period. It was not, however, till 634 that Mandla
itself was added to the dominions of the Gondwana princes by Gopal
Sa, tenth of his line. After his reign, the whole kingdom became
known as Garha Mandla. From Gopal Sa a succession of 3S princes
brings us down to Sangram Sa, under whom the Garha-Mandla dynasty
attained its maximum of power. Before his death in 1530, he had
made himself master of 52 gar/is or provinces, comprising the present
Districts of Mandla, Jabalpur (Jubbulpore), Damoh, Sagar (Saugor),
Narsinghpur, Seoni, and part of Hoshangabad, together with the
principality of Bhopal.
In 1564, Asaf Khan, the Mughal viceroy at Kara Manikpur on the
Ganges, invaded the Gondwana kingdom at the head of a consider-
able force. At that time the country was under the regency of the
widow of Dalpat Sa, the beneficent Rani Durgavati, whose name yet
302 MAN D LA.
lives in the grateful recollection of the people. After sustaining a
defeat near Singaurgarh, in Jabalpur District, she retired upon Garha,
and finally upon Mandld, where she took up a strong position in a
narrow defile. The first day the queen was victorious ; but the next
day Asaf Khan brought up his artillery, and renewed the battle.
The queen, though severely wounded, still defended the pass in
person, when suddenly the river in her rear, which before the action
was nearly dry, began to rise. The Gondwana troops, finding their
retreat cut off, gave way in confusion. Then Rani Durgavati snatched
a dagger from her elephant-driver, and plunged it into her bosom, thus
crowning a useful life with a heroic death. By this victory, Asaf
Khan acquired immense booty, including a thousand elephants. Soon
after his departure, the kingdom suffered its first diminution in the
loss of ten provinces, afterwards formed into the State of Bhopal,
which were ceded to the Emperor Akbar, to obtain his recognition of
the succession of Chandra Sa.
From this time, the Garha-Mandla princes admitted the supremacy
of the imperial power. The Bundela invasion, two generations later,
and the contests and foreign interventions caused by a series of dis-
puted successions, gradually stripped the Gondwana kingdom of
territory, so that when Maharaj Sa succeeded in 1731, only 29 of
the 42 provinces remained. Mandla itself, however, had progressed
during this period, especially in the reign of Hirde Sa, under whom
large numbers of Lodhis settled in the District ; and much of its land
was brought under cultivation. In 1742, the Peshwa invaded the
country, and, after defeating and killing Maharaj Sa, placed the dead
king's son, Seo Raj Sa, on the throne, on condition of paying chautJi
or tribute of one -fourth, estimated at 4 lakhs of rupees (say
^40,000). This invasion laid waste the whole country east of
Jabalpur, and Mandla has never recovered from its effects. Further
cessions of territory to the Raja of Nagpur and to the Peshwa
followed ; until the Gond kingdom lay at the mercy of the Maratha
rulers of Sdgar, who represented the Peshwa's authority.
At length, in 1781, the last of a line which had ruled for over four-
teen centuries was deposed, and his territories added to the Sagar
principality. The country was ruled from Sagar for 18 years, but only
one of the Sdgar chiefs, Vdsudeva Pandit, has left any mark on the
District. He is said to have done more in a few months towards the
ruin of Mandla than internal dissensions or Pindari raids could have
effected in as many years. In 1799, Mandla was annexed by the
Bhonsla Rajas of Nagpur; and during the following years the town of
Mandla was fortified against the Pindaris, who never succeeded in
taking it, though they freely pillaged the rest of the country.
In 181S, on the conclusion of the third and last Mardtha war,
MANDLA.
3°3
Mandla was transferred to the British. The Maratha garrison in the
fort, however, refused to surrender ; and it was necessary for General
Marshall to take the place by assault on the 24th March 18 18. A
severe famine marked the first year of British rule, together with the
first outbreak of cholera ever known in the country. At the time
of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the chiefs of Ramgarh, Shahpur, and
Sohagpur rebelled. When order was restored, Sohagpur was made
over to the Raja of Rewa, and the estates of Ramgarh and Shahpur
were confiscated. Some further attempts at insurrection in 1858 were
easily suppressed, and the British administration has ever since been
firmly established in Mandla.
Population. — A rough enumeration in 1866 returned the population
of Mandla District at 202,549. The Census of 1872 disclosed 213,01s.
The latest enumeration in 1S81 returned the population at 301,760,
showing an increase of 88,742, or 41*66 per cent., since 1872. This
increase is, however, to a large extent only apparent, and arises from
defective enumeration at the time of the previous Census. The
Deputy-Commissioner accounts for 40,000 of the increase, or about
13 per cent, of the population in 1882, as owing to omissions in 1872.
There has, however, been an extensive immigration into Mandla from
Rewa State since 1872, and about i5-2 per cent, of the population
in 1 88 1 were persons born beyond the District. The increase of
registered births over registered deaths since 1872 is returned at 4*59
per cent.
The results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as
follows : — Area, 4719 square miles, with 1751 towns and villages, and
68,978 houses, of which 61,779 were occupied and 7199 unoccupied.
Total population, 301,760, namely, males 153,542, and females
148,218. Average density of population, 63^9 persons per square
mile ; villages per square mile, "37 ; number of persons per village, 171 ;.
inmates per occupied house, 4"88. Classified according to age, there
were — under 15 years, males 69,873, and females 65,310; total chil-
dren, 135,183, or 447 per cent, of the total population: 15 years
and upwards, males 83,669, and females 82,90s ; total adults, 166,577,
or 55-2 per cent. Classified according to religion, the Census reports
the bulk of the population, namely, 167,746, or 55*5 per cent., as still
following their primitive aboriginal forms of religion. Hindus proper
number 123,793, or 41 per cent.; Kabfrpanthfs, 56S6; Satnamis, 76;
Jains, 284; Muhammadans, 404S ; and Christians, 127.
The total aboriginal population, including those now ranked as
Hindus, numbers 184,548, of whom Gonds comprise 164,969 ; Baigas,
11,493 5 Rols, 7308 ; and other Kolarian tribes, 778. In no District
of the Central Provinces do the aboriginal or hill tribes constitute so
large a proportion of the population ; and nowhere, except in the
304 MANDLA.
feudatory State of Bastar, can the habits of the Gonds, with the
l'radhans (who act as bards at their births, deaths, and marriages) and
the Bdigas (who unite the professions of priest and huntsman), be
better studied. (See Central Provinces.)
Among the Hindus in 1881, Brahmans numbered 6149 and Raj-
puts, 5520. The bulk of the Hindu population consists of Ahi'rs, the
most numerous caste, 21,520; Pankas, 11,908; Mohras, 9687;
Dhimars, 6712 ; Kiirmi's, 5198 ; Teh's, 5020 ; Lodhi's, 4565 ; Kachhis,
2898, etc. Of the 127 Christians, 12 were Europeans, 2 Eurasians,
10S Natives, and 5 unspecified.
Mandla is still the most thinly populated part of the Central Pro-
vinces. The want of inhabitants is felt especially in the eastern portion
of the District; though since 1842 much land has there been brought
under cultivation by a colony of Mahto Telis. These industrious
husbandmen, who were originally resident at Maihir, forsook their
hereditary profession of oil-pressing, under the guidance of Rahtor Teh',
and devoted themselves to agriculture. Though occasionally turbulent,
they prove excellent cultivators. The prevailing languages in the
District are Hindi, Urdu, and Mardthi.
Division into Town and Country. — The only town in the District
with more than 3000 inhabitants is Mandla Town, with a population
(1881) of 4732. There are 2 villages with from two thousand to three
thousand inhabitants ; 3 from one thousand to two thousand ; 42 from
five hundred to a thousand ; 444 from two hundred to five hundred ;
while 1259 villages contained less than two hundred inhabitants.
The only municipality is Mandla, with a total income during the
year 1882-83 °f ;£6i2, almost entirely derived from taxation (2s. 4^.
per head).
Occupations. — The Census of 1881 returned the male population
under the following six main headings : — Class (1) Professional, including
civil and military, 2302 ; (2) domestic class, 982 ; (3) commercial class,
including bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 1885 ; (4) agricultural and
pastoral class, including gardeners, 76,827 ; (5) industrial class, includ-
ing manufacturers and artisans, 10,927 ; (6) indefinite and non-produc-
tive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 60,619.
Agriculture. — Of the total area of 4719 square miles, only 59S were
cultivated in 1883, and of the portion lying waste, 2488 square miles
were returned as cultivable. Of the cultivated land, 1057 acres were
irrigated by private enterprise. In 1883, 79,703 acres were devoted to
the production of rice ; 72,000 acres to wheat ; while other food-grains
occupied 201,713 acres, and oil-seeds 24,857 acres. The cultivation
of cotton has not increased in late years, in spite of the favourable
character of the soil ; and in 1883 was confined to 525 acres. Fibres
and sugar-cane are produced in considerable quantities. The magni-
MANDLA. 305
ficent sal forests which formerly clothed the highlands of the District
have suffered greatly from the ddhya system of cultivation practised
by the hill tribes, who cut down and burn the wood on the hillsides,
and sow their crops in the ashes. Of late years, however, measures
have been taken to prevent further damage to the forests. Notwith-
standing the fine pastures to be found in parts of the District, and
especially in the Pratapgarh taluk, the number of cattle is said to have
seriously diminished since 1S73. The agricultural stock and imple-
ments in 18S3 were returned as follows : — Cows, bullocks, and buffaloes,
251,347; horses, 83; ponies, 2258; donkeys, 68; sheep and goats,
27>558 ; pigs, 5299 5 cai'ts, 464 5 and ploughs, 27,222.
The Census of 1881 returned a total of 1000 landed proprietors.
The tenant cultivators numbered 100,270, of whom 8012 had either
absolute or occupancy rights, while 29,758 were tenants - at - will.
The remainder consist mostly of assistants in home cultivation,
cultivators on sharing tenures, etc. Agricultural labourers numbered
39,214. The total adult agriculturists, male and female, numbered
140,989, or 467 per cent, of the District population, the average area
of cultivated and cultivable land being 14 acres for each adult agri-
culturist. Amount of Government assessment, including local rates
and cesses levied on land, ,£9517, or an average of 5fd. per cultivated
acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, including cesses, ^"17,754, or
an average of io^d. per cultivated acre. In 1SS3 the average rates
of rent per acre were as follows : — Land suited for rice, is. 7 id. ; for
wheat, is. 7 id. ; for inferior grain, 8|d. ; for sugar-cane, is. io^d. The
produce per acre averaged — rice, 360 lbs. ; wheat, 475 lbs. ; inferior
grain, 300 lbs. ; cotton, 52 lbs. ; and sugar {gur), 535 lbs. The prices
of produce per cwt. in the same year (1883) were returned as follows : —
Rice, 5s. 5d. ; wheat, 3s. 6d. ; cotton, lis. 7c!. ; and raw sugar (gur),
jQi, ios. 9d. Ninepence per diem is the average wage of a skilled
labourer ; that of an unskilled labourer, 3d.
Commerce and Trade. — No manufacture exists in the District beyond
the ordinary weaving of cotton cloth ; and in 1SS1, the total number
of merchants and traders only numbered 465. In many villages,
bazars or markets are held, but none of them has any real trade,
either export or import. In the eastern portion of the District, the
traffic in grain is entirely dependent on foreign traders, who travel
through the country with large herds of pack-bullocks, and to a great
extent command their own prices. Iron-ore abounds throughout the
Maikal Hills. The most valuable metal is produced in the mines near
Ramgarh. Those in Mowai, however, supply most of the neighbour-
hood with axe-heads, ploughshares, and the like. The backward state
of Mandla must be mainly attributed to the want of means of com-
munication. Conveyance by water is nowhere available ; and the only
VOL. ix. u
30 6 M AND LA.
made road in the District is that from Jabalpur to the town of Mandla.
This road brings the District into direct communication with the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway.
Admi?iistration. — In 1861, Mandla was formed into a separate Dis-
trict under the British Government of the Central Provinces. It is
administered by a Deputy Commissioner, with Assistants and ta/isi/dars.
Total revenue in 1868-69, ^8914, of which the land revenue yielded
^5651. Total revenue in 1876-77, ^"16,105, of which the land yielded
^9324. Total cost of District officials and police in the latter year,
£7021. By 1883-84, the total revenue had increased to ^26,817,
while the land revenue remained stationary at ^9416. Total cost of
officials and police (1883-84), ^7779. Number of civil and revenue
judges of all sorts within the District, 4 ; magistrates, 5. Maximum
distance from any village to the nearest court, 61 miles — average dis-
tance, 25 miles. Number of regular police, 310 men, costing ^4089 ;
being 1 policeman to about every 15 square miles and to every 983 in-
habitants. There is also a rural police or village watch, numbering 974
in 1883. The daily average number of convicts in prison in 1883 was
48*51, of whom 3'2i were females. The number of Government or
aided schools under Government inspection in the District in 1883 was
21, attended by 1009 pupils. The last return shows some progress ;
since in 1872 only 284 children under 12 years, 2 of whom were
females, and only 1038 persons above that age, 6 of whom were females,
were returned as able to read and write, or under instruction. The
Census of 1881 returned 772 boys and 26 girls as under instruction,
besides 1751 males and 25 females able to read and write, but not
under instruction. Mandla is still the most backward District in the
Central Provinces as regards education, and there only exists 1 school
to every 1096 boys of a school-going age.
Medical Aspects. — The climate throughout the District is exceed-
ingly variable. The hottest time of the year is at the break of the
monsoon in June, just before the rains begin, and in September, when
they cease. The cold weather extends from October or November
till the end of February or March. At Mandla" town in 1872, the
average temperature in the shade at 2 v. si. was as follows: — May,
112-9° F. ; July, 95-3° ; December, 81 -S\ No later thermometrical
returns are available. During the monsoon, the rainfall is heavy, the
annual average being from 56 to 60 inches. In 1S72 it amounted to
01 7 inches, while in 1876 it was as low as 41 'io inches, and in 1883
44 inches. Storms are frequent ; and at times the hailstorms are so
violent, that whole fields are swept of their crops as if they had been
reaped. In March, the hailstones are sometimes as large as pigeons'
;s, and, when heaped together in a shady place, will often remain
unmelted during the whole of two days. Mandla has, throughout its
MAN D LA TAHSIL—MANDLADAI. 307
length and breadth, a very bad name for fever. The local type is
unusually virulent, and does not yield easily to quinine. Strangers are
peculiarly liable to it. Cholera visits the country occasionally, and
small-pox carries off large numbers. Of late, however, vaccination has
made considerable progress. In 1S83, the registered death-rate per
thousand of the population amounted to 27-69; the rate the previous
five years was 35"26 per thousand. In 1883, the charitable dispensaries
at Mandla and Ramgarh afforded medical relief to a total of 6959
patients. [For further information regarding Mandla, see the Ce7itral
Provinces Gazetteer, by Mr. (now Sir) Charles Grant (Xagpur, 1870) ;
also the Settlement Report of Mandla District, by Captain H. E. C.
Ward (1869) ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports
of the Central Provinces from 1880 to 1883.]
Mandla. — The south-western tahs'il or revenue Sub-division of
Mandla District, Central Provinces. Area, 2042 square miles ; villages,
960; houses, 34,986. Total population (1881) 171,798, namely,
males 86,988, and females 84,810; persons per square mile, 84"i3.
Total adult agriculturists, male and female, 78,571, or 457 percent,
of the Sub-divisional population, the average area of cultivated and
cultivable land being n acres for each adult. Total amount of
Government assessment, including local rates and cesses levied on
land, ^6009, or an average of 6£d. per cultivated acre ; total rental
actually paid by cultivators, ^12,364, or an average of is. ojd. per
cultivated acre. In 1SS3, Mandla Sub-division contained 3 civil and 4
criminal courts, 23 police stations and outposts; strength of regular
police, 104 men, besides 648 village watchmen (chaukUdrs).
Mandla. — Administrative head-quarters and principal town of
Mandla District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 220 35' 6" N., and
long. 8o° 24' e., 1770 feet above sea-level, on the Narbada (Xerbudda)
river, which surrounds it on three sides. Population (18S1) 4732,
namely, Hindus, 3726; Muhammadans, 744; Kabirpanthis, 23;
Christians, 83; and aboriginal tribes, 156. Municipal revenue
(18S2-83), ;£6i2. The town was made the seat of government in
1680 by Narendra Sa, the 57th Raja of the Garha-Mandla line, who
constructed a fort by the river, within which he built a large palace.
In 1739, Mandla was taken by the Peshwa, Balaji Bajf Rao, from whom
the gate on the Jabalpur road, by which he entered, received its name
(Fateh Darwaza). The Marathas strengthened the open side of the
town by a wall, with bastions and gates. In 18 18, General Marshall
took the town by storm. Thirty-seven temples, raised between 16S0
and 1858, decorate the river bank. The only manufacture is of bell-
metal vessels, made from an alloy of zinc and copper.
Mandladai. — Hill in Seoni District, Central Provinces ; 20 miles
north-east of the town of Seoni. Height, 2500 feet above sea-level.
308 MANDLANA—MANDOGARH.
Mandlana. — Town in Rohtak District, Punjab. — See Mundlana.
Mandlesar. — Town in Indore State, Central India ; situated on the
right bank of the Narbada (Nerbudda), in lat. 22° 11' n., and long.
750 42' e., on the old route from Mhow (Mau) to Asfrgarh, 30 miles
south of the former and 83 miles north-west of the latter. Population
(18S1) about 2500. The surrounding country is elevated about 650
feet above the level of the sea, and is more than 1600 feet below the
Jam ghat of Malwa. The Narbada is at this point about 500 yards
wide, and unfordable except in spring ; even then it is only crossed
with difficulty. There is a ferry. The town is surrounded by a mud
wall, and has a small well-built masonry fort. Once a cantonment, and
the residence of a British functionary, known as the ' Political Assistant
to the Resident at Indore.' This official had charge of the British
tracts in Nimar, and of the possessions of Holkar under British
management. Mandlesar was transferred to Holkar in 1867 in part
exchange for his domains in the Deccan. It is now the head-quarters
of Holkar's District of Nimar, and the fort is used as a jail for con-
victs under long sentences. What importance the town has, it owes to
Colonel Keatinge, who directed most of its modern improvements.
Post-office.
Mandogarh (Jlfandu). — Extensive deserted town in Dhar State,
Central India, the ancient capital of the Muhammadan kingdom of
Malwa ; situated in lat. 22° 21' N., and long. 750 26' e., 15 miles north
of the right bank of the Narbada (Nerbudda) ; distant from Mhow
(Mau) 30 miles south-west, from Dhar 20 miles, and from Indore
38 miles south-west. The city, 1944 feet above sea-level, occupies 8
miles of ground, extending along the crest of the Vindhyas ; and is
separated from the table-land, with which it is on a level, by a valley
between 300 and 400 yards broad and about 300 feet deep. According
to Malcolm, Mandogarh was founded in 313 a.d. ; and the same writer
says that the circuit of the ramparts is 37 miles. It is not probable,
however, that the whole of this space was inhabited.
Among the buildings of which ruins yet remain are — the Jama
Masjid, or Great Mosque, less injured than any of the others, and said
to be the finest and largest specimen of Afghan architecture extant in
India ; the marble mausoleum of Hoshang Ghori, King of Malwa, who
raised the city to great splendour ; and the palace of Baz Bahadur,
another King of Malwa. These must at one time have been magni-
ficent buildings, and are still, in their ruined state, very striking on
account of their massive proportions. The fortifications were con-
structed by Hoshang Ghori, who reigned in the beginning of the 15th
century, and in whose time the city attained its greatest splendour. In
1526, Mandogarh was taken by Bahadur Shah, ruler of Gujarat, and
annexed to his dominions, of which it remained part until their conquest
MAXDOR—MANDU MAHAL SIRGIRA. 309
by Akbar in 1570. Of late years measures have been taken for the
preservation of some of the most interesting ruins. — See Malwa.
Mandor. — Ruined town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana ; situated in
lat. 260 21' n., and long. 73° 5' E. It was taken from a Purihar
prince by Chanda, chief of the Rahtor Rajputs, in 1381 a.d., and was
the capital of the Rahtor territory until 1459, when the seat of
government was transferred to Jodhpur, 3 miles distant. The town
is placed upon a commanding eminence, and was surrounded by a wall
with massive bastions built of huge blocks of stone. Much of the
material of the wall has been removed to build the new capital ; but
the ruins within are of great interest, comprising gigantic figures of
the gods and heroes of Indian antiquity. There are also some Bud-
dhist and Jain remains, and several modern buildings, conspicuous
among which is the stone palace of Ajit Singh (died 1724), now
uninhabited save by swarms of bats. Mandor contains the cenotaphs
of the ruling chiefs of the country. Every Monday, a number
of devotees come to Mandor from Jodhpur, to pay their devotions
at the numerous shrines. The fixed population of the place is very
small.
Mandot. — Town in Firozpur District, Punjab. — See Mamdot.
Mandra. — Town in the Torawati District of Jaipur State, Rajputana.
Population (18S1) 5567. Hindus number 5411 ; Muhammadans, 124;
and ' others,' ^2.
Mandrak. — Village in Koil tahsil, Aligarh District, North-Western
Provinces ; situated on the Agra road, 7 miles south of Koil. Popu-
lation (1881) 1506. Noticeable for the spirited defence of the Man-
drak Indigo Factory by Mr. Watson and ii Europeans against 1000
Musalman rebels on the 1st of July 1857. — See Aligarh District.
Mandsaur. — Town in Gwalior State, Central India ; situated
on a tributary of the Chambal, 31 miles south of Ni'mach (Xeemuch),
and about 80 miles north-west of Ujjain (Oojein). Population
(1881) 22,596, namely, 11,856 males and 10,740 females. Hindus
numbered 14,660; Muhammadans, 7077; and 'others,' 853. Mand-
saur is famous as giving name to the final treaty between Holkar and
the British Government in 1S1S, at the end of the Maratha-Pindan
war. A station on the Malwa line of the Rajputana-Malwa State
Railway.
Mandu. — Extensive deserted town in Dhar State, Central India. —
See Mandogarh.
Mandu Mahal Sirgira.— Small estate or zaminddri attached to
Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, 42 miles south-west of Sam-
balpur town. Population (1SS1) 1381, entirely agricultural, residing in
4 villages ; area, 6 square miles. Chief product, rice. The zaminddr
took part in the disturbances of 1S5S, but was afterwards amnestied,
3io MA ND URDA—MAND VI.
and the estate restored in 1862. Sirgira village, the residence of the
zaminddr, situated on the Utali stream, has a population of 537 souls.
Mandurda (or Mendardd). — Town in the Sorath division of Kathia-
war, Bombay Presidency ; situated on the outskirts of the Gir forest,
15 miles south of Junagarh. Considerable trade in ghi. Population
(1S81) 5406. Hindus numbered 4246; Muhammadans, 817; and
Jains, 343.
Mandvi {Mdndavt). — Seaport in the State of Cutch (Kachchh),
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 220 50' 30" n., and long. 690 31'
45" e., on the coast of the Gulf of Cutch, 36 miles south-west of Bhiij,
the capital of the State. Population (1872) 35,988; (18S1) 35,980,
namely, 17,285 males and 18,695 females. Hindus numbered 18,685 ;
Muhammadans, 13,809; Jains, 3472; and 'others,' 14. Mandvi, or
the mart, also called Maska Mandvi, in old times was known as Raipur
or Riyan. Two suburbs, Old and New Saraya, inhabited by traders
and seafaring men, stand outside the town walls. Vessels of 70 tons
can come within 500 yards. Port of call weekly for British India
steamers. The mualims (pilots) are noted throughout Cutch. Light-
house with a dioptric light of the fourth order.
Mandvi. — Sub-division of Surat District, Bombay Presidency.
Bounded on the north and east by the Baroda and Rajpipla territories ;
on the south-east by the Bardoli Sub-division of Surat District ; and on
the south and west by Baroda territory. Area, 280 square miles.
Population (1872) 48,367 ; (1881) 50,810, of whom 25,546 are males
and 25,264 females. There are 140 villages and 1 town , occupied
houses, 9509 ; unoccupied, 1174. Hindus number 13,876; Muham-
madans, 3417 ; and 'others,' 33,517.
The western part of the Sub-division is the most fertile and pros-
perous ; in the east the population gradually becomes scanty and
unsettled, and cultivation disappears. The climate is the worst in Surat
District. Average rainfall, 47-6 inches. The river Tapti forms the
southern boundary. Staple crops — rice, cotton, and Jodr.
In 1871-72, the year of settlement, there were 9560 holdings with
an average area of 9 acres, and paying an average rental of £1, 9s.
Of the total area of 280 square miles, 22 square miles are occupied by
the lands of alienated villages. The remainder contains 88,905 acres
of occupied land ; 34,142 acres of cultivable waste ; 1595 acres of waste ;
31,159 acres of forests ; and 9421 acres of village sites, roads, tanks, and
rivers. In the total of 123,047 acres there are 6S63 acres of alienated
land in Government villages. Of the cultivated area in 1874 (70,167
acres), 21 per cent, was fallow or under grass. Of the remaining
55,250 acres, grain crops occupied 36,229 acres; pulses, 6692 acres;
oil-seeds, 5615 acres; fibres, 8978 acres (of which 8236 acres were
under cotton) ; and miscellaneous crops, 409 acres. In 1883, the Sub-
MAND VI TO WN—MANERANG. 3 1 i
division contained 2 criminal courts, 1 police station (thdnd), 62 regular
policemen, and a village watch (chaukiddrs) 526 strong. Land revenue.
.£15,184.
Mandvi. — Chief town of the Mandvi Sub-division of Surat District.
Bombay Presidency, lying in lat. 210 18' 20" n., and long. 73° 22' 30"
e. Population (1881) 4744; municipal income (1882-83), £461;
incidence of municipal taxation, is. 8id. Post-office, dispensary, and
five schools with 370 scholars in 1883-84.
Mandwa. — Petty State in Sankheda Mehwas group, Rewa Kantha,
Bombay Presidency. Area, i6?7 square miles, containing 16 villages ;
estimated revenue in 1881, ,£3500; tribute of £196 is paid to the
Gaekwar of Baroda.
Mandwa. — Seaport in the Ah'bagh Sub-division of Kolaba District,
Bombay Presidency. Population (1881) 234. Average annual value
of trade for five years ending 1881-82 — imports, £437 ; exports,
,£7749. The road from Mandwa to Ah'bagh and Rewa Bandar is
passable for wheeled traffic, and steamers touch daily at the latter place,
and sometimes stop off Mandwa itself.
Mandya. — Tdiuk in Mysore District, Mysore State. Area, 357
square miles. Population (1871) 89,673; (1881) 72,915, namely,
35,442 males and 37,473 females. Hindus numbered 71,212;
Muhammadans, 1642; and Christians, 61. Land revenue (1874-75),
exclusive of water rates, £5679, or 2s. 5d. per head. The tdluk con-
tains 2 criminal courts; police stations (tMnds), 10; regular police, 77
men; village watch (chaukidars), 424. Revenue, £1 3,489. Sheep-
breeding is extensively carried on, and fine blankets are manufactured.
Mandya. — Village in Mysore District, Mysore State, and head-
quarters of the Mandya tdluk; 28 miles by road north-east of the city
of Mysore. Lat. i2°32' 10" n, long. 760 55' 50" e. Population (1SS1)
3770. According to local legend, while the country was yet primeval
jungle, a rishi or devotee settled here, and the spot has ever since been
sacred. It remained a sarva/iid/iyan village for Brahmans, until Tipu
Sultan withdrew the endowments. A station on the Mysore State
Railway.
Maner. — Town and municipality in Patna District, Bengal ; situated
in lat. 250 38' 40" n., and long. 840 55' 10" e., a few miles below the
junction of the Son (Soane) with the Ganges. Population (1SS1) 5769,
namely, Hindus 4169, and Muhammadans 1600 ; municipal income
(1883-84), £123; rate of taxation, 4^1. per head of population;
police force, 24 men.
Manerang.— Mountain pass in Kashmir State, over the Damak Shu
range of the Himalayas, which divides Kunawar from Ladakh. Lat.
31° 56' n., long. 780 24' e. The ascent from the Kunawar side lies up
the Darbang river to its source amid the perpetual snows, 15,000 feet
J
1 2 MANGAHPETT— MANGALDAI.
above sea-level. The pass is open during about four months of the
year. Gerard visited the spot, which he describes as arduous and
wild. Elevation of the crest of the pass, 18,612 feet above sea-level.
Mangahpett {Mangampet). — Town in the territory of the Nizam,
Haidarabad (Hyderabad), Deccan ; situated in lat. 180 13' n., and long.
8o° 35' E., on the right bank of the Godavari river ; distant from
I laidarabad 150 miles north-east. Remarkable for a series of standing
stones, over 20 feet in height, and arranged in circles. These pillars
are cut out of sandstone, which is abundant in this part of the country.
There is a small mud fort at Mangahpett.
Mangal. — One of the petty Hill States under the political superin-
tendence of the Government of the Punjab, lying between 310 iS' and
31° 22' x. lat., and between 76° 55' and 770 1' e. long. Area, 12 square
miles, with t>j villages, 209 houses, and a population of 1060, of
whom Hindus number 1058, and Sikhs 2. Revenue, ^70; tribute
°f £,1 1S P^id to the British Government. The State was an ancient
dependency of Kahlur, but was declared independent on the expulsion
of the Gurkhas in 1S15. The principal products are grain and opium.
The Rana, Jit Singh, is a Rajput of the Atri tribe, and was born about
1S30. The family originally came from Marwar.
Mangalagiri (or Pdtamangalagiri, Hill of Happiness). — Town in
Gantur tdluk, Kistna District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 160
26' N., and long. 8o° 36' E., about 7 miles south of Bezwada. Population
(1SS1) 5617; number of houses, 1260. Hindus number 5169, and
Muhammadans 44S. Contains 2 famous shrines to Narasingha-swami'
(Vishnu), one a two-storied rock-cut temple of great antiquity, the
second of more modern date, with a fine gopura. Large and deep
reservoir, drained in 1S32 during a time of famine, and found to
contain nearly 10,000 matchlocks. Sub-magistrate's court, post-office,
travellers' bungalow, and police station.
Mangaldai. — Sub-division in Darrang District, Assam, with head-
quarters at Mangaldai village. Area, 1320 square miles, with 1036
villages and 31,256 houses. Population (1S81) 160,229, namely,
Hindus, 146,464 ; Muhammadans, 13,443 ; and ' others,' 322. It con-
tains the 3 thdnds or police circles of Mangaldai, Kaligaon, and Chatgari.
Mangaldai. — Village in Darrang District, Assam; situated in lat.
26° 27' x., and long. 920 5' E., near the north or right bank of the
Brahmaputra, about 60 miles west from Tezpur. Population (1881)
692. As the head-quarters of the Sub-division of the same name,
Mangaldai has recently been greatly improved by the erection of
masonry buildings, with roofs of tile or corrugated iron, in substitution
for the old thatched wooden houses. It is an important centre of
trade. The river steamers stop to collect tea and to distribute piece-
goods and salt at Rangamati ghdt, 9 miles from Mangaldai.
MANGALKO T— MANGA LORE. 3 1 3
Mangalkot. — Village in Bard wan District, Bengal. Lat. 230 31' 50"
N., long. 870 56' 30" e. Population under 5000. Police station.
Mangalore. — T&luk of South Kanara District, Madras Presidency.
Area, 620 square miles. Population (18S1) 249,049, namely, 124,313
males and 124,736 females; density, 402 persons per square mile.
Number of villages, 306; towns, 2; houses, 42,805. Hindus number
184,118, or 74 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 25,475 ; Christians, 34,254;
and 'others,' 5202. The taluk contains 3 civil and 5 criminal courts;
police stations [ihdnds), 10; regular police, 251 men. Land revenue,
^34,Sio.
Mangalore [Mdngala, 'Fortunate;' the native name is Kodiydl ;
the Mangahir, Maiijarur, and Mangaruth, according to the Greek
writer Cosmos (6th century), of Arab travellers ; Nitricz Emp. — Yule.
The name Mangalur is perhaps derived from the temple of Mangala-
Devi to the south-east of the town]. — Chief town of South Kanara
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 120 51' 40" n., long. 74° 52' 36" E.
Population (1871) 29,712; (1881) 32,099, namely, 16,539 males and
15,560 females, occupying 4979 houses. Hindus number 18,590;
Muhammadans, 5S96 ; Christians, 7568; and ' others,' 45. A seaport,
municipality, and military station, with courts, churches, custom-house,
and military offices ; post and telegraph station.
Mangalore, which in the 16th century had been three times sacked
by the Portuguese, was, subsequent to 1640, a stronghold of the Ikeri
or Bedniir Rajas. When that dynasty succumbed to Haidar Ali (1763),
Mangalore became the head -quarters of his new navy. In 1768
the English held Mangalore for a short time ; and in 1783 the fort was
gallantly defended by an English garrison against overwhelming odds,
but, after a nine months' siege, was taken (1784) by Tipu. In 1799,
Mangalore became British territory ; and since that time it has only
once been disturbed by the appearance of an enemy — namely, during
the Coorg insurrection in 1837, when the rebel tribe of Gaudas entered
the town, burnt the public offices, and then retired.
The town is picturesque, clean, and prosperous. The native houses
are laid out in good streets, and the European quarter is particularly
pleasant. Like all the towns on the Malabar coast, Mangalore is
buried amid groves of cocoa-nut palms. Situated on the backwater
formed by the convergent mouths of the Netnivati and Gurpur rivers,
it has water on three sides of it. Large vessels cannot cross the bar
into the harbour; but Arabian bagdlds and country craft enter in con-
siderable numbers. Mangalore cleans and exports a large portion of
the coffee of Coorg, and the greater portion of that of Mysore, and
trades directly with Arabia and the Persian Gulf. In 1875, 3600 ships
of 264,000 tons entered. The exports in that year were valued at
^505, Soo, and the imports at ^272,704. The average annual value
3 1 4 MANGALSI—MANGAL VED HA.
of the exports for the five years ending in 18S2-83 was ^534,602 ;
and of imports, ^251,770. In 1882-83 the exports were valued at
,£499.983, and the imports at ^207,110. In 1882-83, 1433 ships of
163,881 tons entered. The lighthouse is merely a harbour light, \\
miles e.n.e. of the river entrance. Boats of large size are safely carried
as far as Bantwal or Pani Mangalore up the Netravati.
Mangalore is the only municipal town in the South Kanara District.
The municipality had in 1883-84 an income from taxation of ^2391 ;
incidence of taxation, is. 4.W. per head. The municipal Commissioners
have done much towards improving the place, and have recently estab-
lished a handsome market.
There is a large native Roman Catholic population in Mangalore,
with a European bishopric, several churches, a convent, and a college,
for which an imposing building is in course of erection. The Basel
Lutheran Mission has its head-quarters here, and has done much
good in teaching trades, etc. Good cloth is woven at their establish-
ment ; the making of roof-tiles, printing, and binding is also taught.
The Provincial School, a fine building, is well attended, as is also the
Roman Catholic College now held in a temporary building. The
garrison consists of one Native infantry regiment, about 700 strong.
Mangalsi. — Pargand in Faizabad tahsil, Faizabad (Fyzabad)
District, Oudh ; occupying the north-west corner of the District,
between the Gogra and the Madha rivers, which respectively form its
northern and southern boundaries. It is perhaps the most fertile and
the best cultivated portion of the District. It is well wooded, and the
scenery, though as a rule monotonous and tame, is often pretty. In
shape, the pargand is long and narrow. Near its western end, a broad
belt of sandy soil runs nearly across the whole. This is, as might be
expected, broadest towards the river ; and the country there breaks into
Lrrcat swelling downs, which form an agreeable change in the prospect.
Near the eastern end, a ravine, which debouches on the Gogra, cuts
far back into the jpargand, and its sides are for a considerable distance
sandy and bleak. With these exceptions, the soil is generally of first-
rate quality. Marshes are common, tanks abundant, and well-water is
found near the surface. The pargand has recently received consider-
able additions of area from the neighbouring tracts of Pachhimraih
and Rudauli in Para Banki District It now contains an area of 116
square miles, and a population (18S1) of 91,954 persons, residing in
1 14 villages. Of these, 71 are held under fd/i/kddri, 41 under mufrdif,
and 2 under rent-free tenures. Government land revenue demand,
,£10,129.
Mangalvedha. — Town in the Native State of Sangli, Kolhapur
Agency, Bombay Presidency; situated in 170 30' 42" n. lat., and 75'
29' 19" e. long. Population (1SS1) 9156. Hindus number 8241 j
MANGAON SUB-DIVISION AND TOWN 315
Muhammadans, 849 ; Jains, 65; and Christians, 1. Mangalvedha was
founded before the Muhammadan period by a Hindu prince named
Mangal, whose capital it was. Judging from the remains of an old temple,
the place must have been of some importance and wealth. After its
destruction by the Muhammadans, the materials were used in building
the fort in the centre of the town. There are 3 schools, and the town
is governed by a municipality.
Mangaon. — Sub-division of Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency.
Bounded on the north by Roha ; on the east by the Panth Sachiv
territory and Mahad ; on the south by Mahad ; and on the west by
Janjira. Area, 353 square miles. Population (1872) 72,733; (18S1)
81,085, namely, 40,299 males and 40,786 females; density, 229
persons per square mile. There are 225 villages, containing 15,549
houses. Hindus number 76,078, or 93-S per cent. ; Muhammadans,
4833 ; and 'others' (mostly Beni-Israels), T74.
The Mandad river flows through the north and west of the Sub-
division. Except in the south, the country is broken by a number of
detached hills. Besides the Mandad, the Ghod river waters the region.
In 1881-82, the number of wells was 465. Average rainfall during
fifteen years ending 18S1, 118 inches.
The Sub-division contained 13,450 holdings in 1881, with an average
area of 9^- acres, and paying an annual average rent of £1, 2s. The
survey rates were fixed under the Bombay settlement in 1863-66 for a
period of 30 years. The average rent paid on an acre of rice land
is 8s. 1 id. ; on garden land, 7s. 7^d. ; on average upland, 5d. Of the
total area of 353 square miles, nearly three-fourths of a square mile are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder contains
126,654 acres of cultivable land; 30,380 acres of uncultivable waste :
490 acres of grass ; 22,420 acres of forest; 54,508 acres of village
sites, roads, rivers, and streams. Of 126,654 acres of cultivable land,
456 acres are alienated lands in Government villages. The area of
land held for tillage in 18S0 was 123,609 acres, of which nearly 24 per
cent, lay fallow, or was under grass. Of the remaining 94,087 acres,
451 acres were twice cropped. Of 94,538 acres under actual tillage,
grain crops occupied 84,355 acres ; pulses, 71 15 acres; oil-seeds, 1591 ;
fibres, 1439 acres (all of them under brown hemp) ; and miscellaneous
crop, 38 acres.
In 1S83, the Sub-division contained 2 criminal courts ; police circles
(//hbids), 4 ; regular police, 37 men. Land revenue (18S1), ,£14,965.
Mangaon. — Village in Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency; the
head-quarters of Mangaon Sub-division. Population (1SS1) 464.
Mangaon is situated on the left bank of the Kal river, here crossed by a
fine masonry bridge of six 50-feet spans, built in 1S71. Fifteen miles from
the historic Raigarh hill. Sub-divisional offices, and vernacular school.
3 1 6 MANGLA UR—MANGROL.
Manglaur.— Town in Riirkf tahsil, Saharanpur District, North-
Western Provinces; situated in kt. 29°47'iiffN., and long. 7 7°54'48"e.,
6 miles south of Riirkf, and 22 miles south-east of Saharanpur town.
Founded, according to tradition, by Raja Mangal Sain, a Rajput
feudatory of Yikramaditya. Traces of an old fortress may still be
noticed near the town. Population (1872) 9202 ; (1881) 9990, namely,
Hindus, 3067 ; Jains, 83 ; and Muhammadans, 6840. A house-tax
raised for police and conservancy purposes yielded ^310 in 18S1-82.
The Musalman inhabitants consist chiefly of weavers, now much im-
poverished ; some of the Hindu zaminddrs are wealthy. No trade ;
many shops out of repair. Brick-built houses, surrounded by mud huts,
and embedded among groves or luxuriant crops. The sanitary arrange-
ments are very defective, and the people suffer much from ague,
enlarged spleen, and other malarious diseases. The place was once
celebrated for carpentry, but the best workmen died during the fever
epidemic of 1S68-69. The industry is now, however, reviving.
Government has set on foot considerable local improvements. Police
station, post-office, school, and dispensary.
Malleoli.— Town in Bijapur (formerly Kaladgi) District, Bombay
Presidency. — See Maxagoli.
Mangor.— Fortified village in Gwalior State, Central India ; situated
in Lit. 260 6' n., and long. 780 6' E., at the base of a high range of hills.
The scene of an engagement, on the 29th December 1843, between the
British under General Grey and the Marathas. The latter were driven
with great loss from all points of their position, and all their artillery
and ammunition were captured.. The British had 35 men killed and
182 wounded.
Mangrol {Mangarol Bandar, apparently the Monoglossum of Ptolemy).
—Seaport town in Junagarh State, Sorath/ra/;/ or division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; situated in Lit. 21° 8' n., and long. 700 14' 30" l.,
on the south-west coast, a mile and a half north-east from the bandar,
which is washed by the Arabian Sea. Population (1872) 15,341 ;
(1SS1) 12,123, namely, 5666 males and 6457 females. Hindus num-
ber 5190; Muhammadans, 5765; and Jains, 1168. The mosque
here is the finest in Kathiawar. A tablet in one part of the building
records the date of its foundation, 1383 a.d. The town belongs to a
petty Musalman chief, styled the Shaikh of Mangrol, who pays an annual
tribute of ,£1150 to the Xawab of Junagarh. The harbour is much
exposed, being open to all but north-east and north-west winds, and
will not admit more than three or four kotiyeJis or native vessels at a
time. Soundings regular, over a muddy but rocky bottom, from 1 to
1^ mile off shore. Manufacture of ivory and sandal-wood inlaid boxes.
Mangrol is famous for its musk melons. Post-office, vernacular and
girls* school. At Mangrol is a country lantern set on a square house,
MANGE OL TOWN— MANIA fi. 317
60 feet high and 400 yards from die landing-place; gives a white fixed
light seen 8 miles at sea.
Mangrol. — Town in Kotah State, Rajputana ; situated in lat. 25°
17' n., and long. 760 35' 15" e., on one of the principal trade routes
between Gwalior territory and Kotah, and distant 46 miles east of Kotah
town. Population (1S81) 5906. Hindus numbered 4608; Muham-
madans, 1 173 ; and 'others,' 125. Mangrol is the site of a battle
fought on the 1st October 1821, between the army of Maharao Kishore
Singh, the ruler of Kotah, and Zalim Singh, the minister of the State,
assisted by a detachment of British troops. Kishore Singh was utterly
defeated, and his brother Prithwi Singh killed. Two British officers,
Lieutenants Clarke and Read, of the 4th Regiment Bengal Light
Cavalry, were also killed in this engagement ; and a monument erected
to their memory is situated outside the town.
MangTOta. — Town in Sangarh tahsil, Dera Ghazi Khan District,
Punjab. Situated on the Sangarh stream, 45 miles north of Dera
Ghazi Khan, and near the mouth of the Sangarh pass. Formerly head-
quarters of a tahsil, but abandoned in favour of a more central situation
at Tounsa. Contains a fort, held by a detachment of cavalry and
infantry from Dera Ghazi Khan. Perennial irrigation is afforded by
the Sangarh stream.
Mangriil. — Taluk of Basim District, Berar. Area, 634 square
miles ; contains 208 villages. Population (1867) 64,249; (1881)
76,142, namely, 39,426 males and 36,716 females; density of population,
120*1 persons per square mile. Number of houses, 13,26s. Hindus
number 71,276; Muhammadans, 4156; Jains, 685; Sikhs, 23;
and Christians, 2. Area occupied by cultivators, 254,721 acres.
Total agricultural population, 58,325. The taluk in 1883 contained
1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (tluuias), 6 ; regular
police, 58 men ; village watch, 113. Total revenue, ,£15,278, of which
,£12,305 was derived from land.
MangTlil. — Town in Amraoti District, Berar. Population (1SS1)
6122, of whom 5675 were Hindus, 422 Musalmans, and 25 Jains.
Mangriil Pir. — Town in Basim District, Berar. Lat. 200 19' x.,
long. 770 24' 20" e. Population (1SS1) 4900, of whom 1642, or 33-5
per cent., were Muhammadans. Chief town of Mangriil taluk. It owes
its affix Pir, which distinguishes it from several other Mangriils, to the
dargahs or burial shrines of Badar-ud-din Sahib and Shunam Sahib,
said to be about 400 years old. The principal of these is enclosed by
a substantial bastioned wall, and is well endowed. Old mosques and
other buildings show that this was once a favourite Musalman town,
and its population still consists largely of Muhammadans.
Mailiar (Munir). — Town in Bansdih talisil, Ballia District, North-
western Provinces; situated on the right bank of the Gogra river.
3i3 MANIARI—MANIKAR CHAR.
7 miles from Bansdih town, in lat. 25° 59' 12" n., long. 840 13' 36" e.
Population (1872) 5285; (i88r) 8600, namely, Hindus 7952, and
Muhammadans 648. The houses of Ma mar cluster round high artificial
mounds, formerly the sites of the fortified residences of the principal
zaminddrs, but now lying waste and bare. It has no main thoroughfare,
nor does it possess any public building worthy of notice. Its importance
is derived from its grain market, which is the largest in the District.
The manufactures consist of sugar -refining and cloth - weaving. A
small house-tax provides for the watch and ward and conservancy of
the town.
Mailiari. — River in Bilaspur District, Central Provinces. Rising in
the Lormi Hills, it flows south and west past the towns of Lormi and
Takhtpiir, forming the boundary between the Mungeli and Bilaspur
tahsils, and, after a circuitous course of 70 miles, falls into the Seonath
(lat. 210 53' n., long. 820 5' e.) in the Tarenga taluk. Some of its
reaches are utilized for irrigation.
Manierkhal. — Outpost in Cachar District, Assam. — See Monier-
khal.
Manikapur. — Pargand in Utraula tahsil, Gonda District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by pargands Gonda and Sadullanagar, on the
east by Sadullanagar and Babhnipair, on the south by Nawabganj and
Mahddewa, and on the west by Gonda. Area, 127 square miles, of
which 42 per cent, is cultivated, 43 per cent, cultivable but not under
tillage, and 15 per cent, uncultivable waste. Population (1869)
41,656; (1881) 46,887, namely, males 24,087, and females 22,800.
Brahmans form the most numerous caste (10,263) ; followed by
Ron's (6405), Kurmi's (5031), Ahirs (4926), Rajputs (2326), and
Muraos (1107). Total Government land revenue, ^"5147. Of the
total number of 196 villages, 170 are held under tdlukddri tenure,
and 26 under zaminddri tenure. The pargand, which is only inter-
sected by one line of road, contains 7 small village schools. The
tract was originally in the possession of Tharus. These were dis-
placed by the Bhars, a chief of whom, called Makka, cleared the
jungle and founded the village of Mdnikpur. After ruling for six
generations, the Bhars were in turn subdued by Newdl Sah, a Chan-
drabansi or Bandalghoti Rajput, whose family held it for twelve
generations, till on the death of the last of the line without issue his
mother adopted a nephew, her sister's husband, the son of the Bisen
Rdja of Gonda. The Bisen clan have held the pargand ever since,
the present head of the family being Rdni Sultdnat Kunwar, whose
estate comprises 159 villages, yielding a revenue of ^2854. The
little village of Manikapur, the chief place in the pargand, contained
only 490 inhabitants in 1881.
Manikar Char. — Village in the extreme south of Godlpdrd District,
MANIKGANJ—MANIKIA LA. 319
Assam ; on the left or east bank of the Brahmaputra, about 40 miles
west of Tura station in the Garo Hills. The village contains a large
bazar, and also a bi-weekly hat or market, where a considerable trade
is carried on in cotton and other products of the Garo Hills, as well
as in jute of superior quality, which commands a higher price than that
grown elsewhere. Manikar Char contains a police outpost station,
rest-house, and Government-aided school.
Manikganj.— Sub-division of Dacca District, Bengal, lying between
230 32' and 240 2' n. lat, and between 890 12' and 900 16' E. long.
Area, 489 square miles; towns and villages, 1457; houses, 87,465.
Population (1881), males 208,410, and females 218,807; total,
427,217. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number
262,085; Hindus, 165,042; Christians, 2; and 'others,' 88. Density
of population, 874 persons per square mile; villages per square
mile, 2-97; persons per village, 293; persons per house, 4*9. This
Sub-division comprises the 3 police circles {thdfids) of Manikganj,
Jafarganj, and Harirampur. In 1S83 it contained 3 civil courts,
besides an honorary magistrate's bench, and 1 criminal court. The
police force consisted of 66 regular police and a rural police or village
watch numbering 772 men.
Manikganj. — Town and head-quarters of Manikganj Sub-division
in Dacca District ; situated on the west bank of the Dhaleswari river,
in lat. 230 52' 45" n., and long. 900 4' 15" e. The bazar extends
over an area of about 2 square miles ; chief articles ot trade — mus-
tard-oil and tobacco. Fair held here, chiefly for religious purposes.
Communication by boat, except in the dry season. Population (1881)
11,289, namely, Hindus, 5860, and Muhammadans, 5429. Municipal
revenue (1883-84), ^445 ; rate of taxation, 9§d. per head of popula-
tion. Dispensary.
Manikiala.— Village and group of ruins in Rawal Pindi tahsil, Rawal
Pindi District, Punjab, lying in lat. 330 27' 30" n., and long. 730 17' 15 " e.,
about midway between Hasan Abdal and Jehlam (Jhelum). The remains
consist of a great tope or stupa south of the modern village, together
with 14 smaller buildings of the same class, 15 monasteries, and many
isolated massive stone walls. Local tradition connects these ruins
with the name of an eponymous Raja, Man or Manik, who built the
great stupa. According to the current legend, an ancient city named
Manikpur stood upon the site, inhabited by seven Rakshasas or
demons. Rasalu, son of Salivahana, Raja of Sialkot, was the enemy
of these demons, who daily devoured by lot one of the people of
Manikpur. Accordingly, Rasalu once took the place of the victim,
went out to meet the demons, and slew them all save one, who still
lives in the cavern of Gandgarh.
This legend General Cunningham identifies as a Hinduized version
32o MANIKPUR.
of the Buddhist story, in which Sakya offers up his body to appease
the hunger of seven tiger cubs. Hiuen Tsiang places the scene of
this legend 33$ miles south-east of Taxila or Shahderi, which is the
exact distance and bearing of Manikiala from the latter ruins. At
this spot stood the famous stupa of the body-offering, one of the four
great topes of North- Western India. The stupa was explored by
General Court in 1834, and General Cunningham states that the in-
scription on it twice makes mention of the sacrifice of Buddha's
body.
All the existing remains present the appearance of religious buildings,
without any trace of a city or fortress. The people point to the high
ground immediately west of the great stupa as 'the site of Raja Man's
palace, because pieces of plaster occur there only among the ruins ;
but the Satraps of Taxila may very probably have taken up their resi-
dence upon this spot when they came to worship at the famous shrine.
A town of 1500 or 2000 houses may also have extended north-
ward, and occupied the whole rising ground now covered by the village
of Manikiala. But the place must be regarded as mainly an ancient
religious centre, full of costly monasteries and shrines, with massive
walls of cut stone. The people unanimously affirm that the city was
destroyed by fire, and the quantity of charcoal and ashes found
amongst the ruins strongly confirms their belief. Manikiala is one of
the sites for which is claimed the honour of being the burial-place ot
Alexander's horse Bucephalus.
Manikpur. — Pargand in Behar tahsil, Partabgarh District, Oudh.
A small but fertile tract along the left or north bank of the Ganges
between Bihar and Salon pargand s. Area, 83^} square miles, or 53,916
acres, of which 25,147 acres, or rather less than one-half, were returned
as under cultivation in 1883. Population (1869) 50,849; (1881)
55,474, namely, males 27,444, and females 28,030. Hindus numbered
48,920, and Muhammadans 6554. Of the total number of 120 villages,
46 are held under talukddr'i tenure, belonging to the Rampur estate
of Raja Rampal Singh of the Bisen clan. The remaining 74 are held
under mufrdd tenure, and, with the exception of 8, are all in the hands
of Musalmans. Total Government land revenue, at the time of the
revised land settlement in 1871, ,£5441, being an average of is. xi^il.
per acre of total area, 3s. 2^d. per acre of assessed area, and 4s. 5^].
per acre of cultivation.
Manikpur and the surrounding country is rich in historical associa-
tions. The foundation of the place is variously ascribed to Man Deo,
a younger son of Raja Bal Deo of Kanauj, and to Manik Chand, a
younger brother of the celebrated Raja Jai Chand of Kanauj. Its
population of Muhammadan Shaikhs claims to be descended from a
settlement of Musalmans at the time of Sayyid Salar's invasion
MANIKPUR TOWN AND VILLAGE. 32 r
(1032-33). It became permanently a part of the Muhammadan con-
quests on the overthrow of the Kanauj dynasty in 1193-94; but for
long, from its border situation, formed the scene of numerous struggles
between the rival Muhammadan powers in this part of India. It was
incorporated with the Delhi empire on the overthrow of the Jaunpur
kingdom by Bahlol Lodi ; but upon this monarch's division of his
dominions at his death, the country was again given over to inter-
necine strife, until Akbar finally established the Mughal sovereignty.
At the time of his famous territorial distribution of his dominions,
Manikpur was included as one of the sarkdrs or Districts of the
Allahabad subah or Province.
During the reigns of the next three Mughal emperors, Manik-
pur was at the height of its prosperity, being the residence and court
of a succession of the highest nobles of the empire. It was visited by
Aurangzeb when on a journey to Agra ; and a mosque, still existing,
is pointed out as having been erected in the course of a single night,
for the emperor to perform his morning devotions in. During the
declining years of the Mughal power, Manikpur suffered much. It
was threatened by the Rohillas in 1 75 1, and successfully overrun and
plundered by the Marathas in 1760-61. On the defeat of the
Marathas, and the establishment by Shuja-ud-daula of his inde-
pendence as Nawab Wazir of Oudh in 1762, Manikpur sarkdr was
incorporated with his dominions, and has since formed a part of
the Province, although now split up into many smaller divisions or
pargands.
Manikpur. — Town in Partabgarh District, Oudh, and head-quarters
of Manikpur fargand ; situated on the north bank of the Ganges, 16
miles from Salon, and 36 from both Partabgarh town and Allahabad.
Lat. 250 46' N., long. 8i° 26' e. The history of the town has been
given in that of the pargand of the same name (711'de supra). Popula-
tion (1S81) 1798, namely, 901 Muhammadan?, and 897 Hindus.
Manikpur is now merely a picturesque ruin of an ancient city situated
amongst numerous groves, every garden containing some graceful and
more or less decayed ruin, a mosque or a tomb. The stones of many
of the ancient palaces have been carried away to form newer buildings,
notably some magnificent carvings by Akbar's governor, Nawab Abdul
Samad Khan, which nearly two centuries afterwards were removed to
Lucknow, where they now grace the large inambdra. Two annual re-
ligious fairs are held at Manikpur, one in the month of Ashar (June —
July) in honour of Jawala Devi ; and the other in Kartik (October —
November) on the occasion of a bathing festival in the Ganges. Tin
gatherings are attended by from 70,000 to 100,000 persons.
Manikpur. — Milage and railway station in Panda District, North-
western Provinces. Lat. 250 3' 30" n., long. Si° S' 20" E, Distant
VOL. IX. x
2 2 2 JA LAVA' WARA— MANIPUR.
from Allahabad 62 miles south-west by rail ; from Bdnda town 61 miles
south-cast. Situated on the Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) branch of the East
Indian Railway, and the chief station in Bdnda District. Small market,
which promises to increase into a considerable trading centre. A
large traffic in lime is carried on by rail. Police station, post-office,
school.
Manikwara. — Head-quarters of Sorath prdnt or division of
Kathia'war, Bombay Presidency; situated 22 miles south-west of Jetpur
and 2S east of Junagarh, 16 miles from the Kunkawar station on the
branch line of the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Dispensary, school,
post-office, dak bungalow, library, and the offices of the Assistant
Political Agent who resides here. A road leads to Junagarh and also
to Jetpur. Population (1881) S77.
Mani Majra. — Town in Kharar ta/is'i/, Ambdla District, Punjab ;
situated in lat. 300 42' 48" n., and long. 76° 53' 48" Enclose to the foot
of the hills, 23 miles north of Ambdla city. Population (1868) 6045,
namely, Hindus, 4303; Muhammadans, 1679; and Sikhs, 63. Mani
Majra has recently decreased in importance, and is not returned sepa-
rately in the Census Report of 1881. Nothing is known of the town
prior to the Sikh period. After the break-up of the Mughal empire about
1762, Ghan'b Dds, a Sikh leader, seized upon 84 villages which his
father had held as revenue officer under the Muhammadans, and fixed
his capital at Mani Majra. He further extended his principality by
occupying the fortress of Pinjaur, which, however, was afterwards
wrested from him by the Rdja of Patidla. Ghan'b Das died in 17S3 ;
and his eldest son, Gopdl Singh, after doing excellent service for the
British in 1809, and again during the Gurkha campaign of 1814, re-
ceived from our Government, at his own request, the title of Raja, in
lieu of other reward. He died in 1S16. The last representative of
the family, Rdja Bhagwdn Singh, held in jdgir estates worth ^3000 a
year until his death, when the estate lapsed to Government. The
shrine of Mansa Devi, near Mani Majra, attracts large numbers of wor-
shippers. The shrine was removed hither from Nahan State, through
an opportune dream of the Raja of Mani Majra, on the occasion of
some hillmen cutting off the water-supply of the original shrine. The
Raja was rewarded for his piety by realizing a considerable profit from
the annual fair. Manufactures of bamboo articles and millstones.
Small trade with the hills in country produce, ginger, and spices.
Manipur (the Kasseox Kathi of the Burmese). — Native State in North-
tern India, lying between 240 35' and 24" 48' 30" n. lat., and between
930 and 940 40' iclong. The relations of Manipur with the British Govern-
ment are conducted through a Political Agent, who is under the control
of the Chief Commissioner of Assam, and who is appointed from among
the District officers of the Province.
MAX I PUR. 323
Manipur is bounded north by the Naga Hills District, and unex-
plored hill tracts inhabited by Naga tribes : west by the British
District of Cachar ; east by a part of Upper Burma ; on the south
the boundary is undefined, and abuts on the country inhabited by
various tribes of Lushais, Kukis, and Sutis. Owing to the constant
aggressions of the Burmese on the eastern frontier of the State, the
British Government appointed a Commission in 1881 to lay down a
definite boundary to replace the imaginary line drawn northwards from
the Kubo valley in 1834, and known as ' Pemberton's line.' The
Commission, finding that this line was incorrect, as it neither agreed
with the actual condition of things nor carried out the terms of the
treaty of 1834, laid down a line more in accordance with the treaty, and
following a good natural boundary along the crest of the Angoching
hills to the Shiroi-ferar peak.
Manipur State consists principally of an extensive valley, situated in
the heart of the difficult and mountainous country which stretches
between Assam, Cachar, Burma, and Chittagong. The total area of
the territory is about 8000 square miles, that of the valley proper about
650 square miles. Number of villages, 954; houses, 45,322; total
population (1881) 221,070.
Physical Aspects. — The hill ranges in Manipur generally run north and
south, with occasional connecting spurs and ridges of lower elevation
between. Their greatest altitude is attained in the north, about four
days' journey from the Manipur valley, where hills are found upwards of
8000 feet above the level of the sea. From this point south, until the
sea-coast is reached towards Chittagong and Arakan, there is a steady
decrease in the height of the hill ranges ; northwards, again, as far as
the Assam valley, the same gradual decrease in height is noticeable.
The general aspect of the hill ranges is that of irregular serrated ridges,
occasionally rising into conical peaks and flattened cliffs of bare rock.
Sometimes, as in the western range of hills overlooking the Manipur
valley, the summit of the hills presents a more open and rolling
character ; and facing the valley is an extent of hill land comparatively
flat and of considerable size.
Looking down the valley, the object which first prominently presents
itself is the Logtak Lake, lying in front and to the right, with the low
bare hills which skirt it reflected on its surface. To the south of the
Logtak Lake, as far as the boundary of hills in that direction, the
valley is almost entirely uncultivated, and covered with grass jungle,
scarcely a tree being visible. To the north and cast, villages are seen ;
and in the distance, to the north, in a corner under the hills, lies the
capital, Manipur. Here the country is well wooded, and more popu-
lous than in any other part. Several rivers from the north and west
enter the Logtak Lake, from which one river emerges. This stream,
324 MA XI PCJR.
uniting with others, flows from the valley to the south. The general
shape of the valley is that of an irregular oval ; its length is about 36
miles, and its greatest breadth about 20. The ground falls from the
north, where the capital is situated, towards the Logtdk Lake, to the
south and south-west of which it again rises. The conformation is that
of a shallow saucer, the lowest part of which is the lake.
The universal prevalence of dense forests in the mountain ranges has
restricted geological observations to those portions which have been laid
bare by the action of torrents, or to some few of the more conspicuous
peaks and ridges. In that portion of the tract which extends between
Manipur and Cachar, a light and friable sandstone, of a brown colour,
and a red ferruginous clay are found to prevail on the lower heights.
On reaching the more lofty elevations, these are succeeded by slate of
so soft and friable a nature as in many instances to be little more than
an indurated clay ; it is distinctly stratified in very thin layers, which
generally dip slightly to the southward. Petrifactions of -the different
species of woods growing on the borders of the rivers and streams are
numerous. Among the central ranges west of Manipur, limestone has .
been found.
The rocks on the hills between Manipur and the Kubo valley are, on
the Manipur side, composed of different varieties of sandstone and slate,
more or less compact in structure ; on the Kubo side, hornblende and
ironstone are found, with large quantities of fuller's earth, which is dug
from the ground not far from Moreh at the extreme south-east of the
valley. North of Manipur, the rocks become more solid and compact ;
and the great central ridge, where the Gramei tribe dwells, is composed
of hard grey granular slate, having about its base boulders of granite.
That coal of an inferior quality exists in the hills to the north-east of
the Manipur valley is apparently certain, but the nature of the deposits
is unknown. Iron, the only metal yet ascertained to exist in Manipur,
is obtained principally from the beds of small streams south of Thobal
and the hills near Langatel ; it has also been found underneath the hills
to the north, at a place called Kameng. Nearly the whole of the salt
consumed by the Manipuris is obtained from salt wells situated in the
valley, the chief of these being at the foot of the hills to the north-east,
about 14 miles from the capital. The only important lake in the State
is the Logtak. This irregular sheet of water is of considerable size, but
is yearly growing smaller.
The opinion of intelligent observers as to the formation of the Manipur
valley is, that in former ages it consisted of a large lake basin, which
has gradually contracted in size, until what remains of it is seen in the
1 Ogtak. Other sheets of water exist in various parts of the valley,
chiefly towards its northern extremity; but in no case, the Logtak
ex< epted, does any large stream drain into them.
MANIPUR.
o-o
The rivers of the valley are insignificant. They take their rise in the
hills to the north and north-west, eventually falling into the Ningthi or
Chindwin river in Upper Burma. The chief rivers crossed in the
hills lying between Manipur valley and Cachar are the Jiri, the Mukru,
the Barak, the Erung, the Lengba, and the Leimitak. The Jiri forms
the boundary between British territory and Manipur, and is about 40
yards wide where it is crossed by the Government road ; it is fordable
in dry weather, and crossed by a ferry during the rains. The Mukru
runs nearly parallel with the Jiri ; it has a very clear stream, with a
rapid current in the rains ; during the dry season it becomes fordable.
The Barak is the largest and most important river in the Manipur Hill
territory ; it receives the Mukru, the Erung, the Tipai river, which flows
north from the Lushai country, and finally the Jiri. It is said to be
navigable for canoes for about one day above its junction with the
Tipai. In dry weather the Barak is fordable, with the water thigh-deep.
Almost all the rivers of Manipur are well stocked with fish, chiefly
mahsir.
The whole of the hill ranges lvinsr between the valleys of Cachar
and Manipur, and far to the north and south, are densely clothed
to their summits with tree jungle. Almost the only exceptions to
this are the hill slopes facing the Manipur valley, which have been
denuded of their timber. The forest trees are of great variety ; and
in the ranges lying west of the Manipur valley, there are large forest
tracts comprising ndgeswar (Mesua ferrea, Unn.),jan't/ (Lagerstreemia
Flos-Reginae, Retz.), india-rubber, tun (Cedrela Toona, Ro.xb.), oak,
ash, etc. Fir-trees do not seem to exist in the hills immediately adjoin-
ing the Government road; they are, however, found in the Hirok range,
and are common in the south. Bamboo jungle is everywhere plentiful.
Towards the north, in the valleys dividing the hill ranges from one
another, the forest trees attain immense sizes and heights ; and where
this kind of forest exists, the bamboo is uncommon. The tea plant is
found wild in the Hirok range between Manipur and. Burma, also on
the hills to the north. Teak is common on the slope overlooking the
Kubo valley. The only parts of the immense tracts of forest which
are utilized, are those on the Jiri, and the hill slopes lying nearest to
the capital.
In the valley, but few wild animals are found; in the hill territory,
however, elephants exist in large herds, and the tiger, leopard, wild cat,
and bear are found. Of deer, there is a variety of sambhar (Rusa
aristotelis) said to be peculiar to Manipur, the ravine deer, barking deer
(Arvulus aureus), and a small red deer. The rhinoceros is found only
in the hills to the east and south; the wild buffalo only in the south of
the valley. The metna (Bos frontalis) or hill cow is now rare in a wild
state, and is found in the south only ; it is peculiar to the hills bordering
32 5 MANIPUR.
on the north-east frontier of India, and in shape resembles the buffalo, the
horns being short, however, like those of the cow, and thick at the base.
The wild goat is rare, the wild hog common. Flying lemurs are said
to be not uncommon. There are two species of otters. The huluk
monkey is found everywhere, and the lang&r in the north. There are
the usual varieties of game and other birds; black eagles have been
seen, it is said, on the highest peaks.
Manipur appears to be singularly free from poisonous snakes. The
cobra does not seem to exist in the valley, but the boa-constrictor is
found in the dense forests to the south, and is said frequently to attain
a large size. The marshes in the vicinity of the Logtak also afford a
retreat to serpents of a formidable size. Other places in the valley are
infested by the serpent tribe ; some of them are exceedingly active and
bold, as the tanglei. This snake is fond of ascending bamboos, along
the branches of which it moves with great velocity ; if enraged, it
throws itself from an extraordinary height upon the object of its
anger. The bite is said to be mortal. This, added to its great activity
ancl fierceness, makes the tanglei an object of much terror.
History. — The origin of the Manipuri people is obscure; and the written
records, having been mainly composed since they became Hindus, are
not worthy of much credit. From the most trustworthy traditions, the
valley appears originally to have been occupied by several tribes, which
came from different directions. Although the general facial character-
istics of the Manipuris are Mongolian, there is great diversity of feature
amongst them, some showing a regularity approaching the Aryan type.
The kingdom of Manipur first emerges from obscurity as a neighbour
and ally of the Shan kingdom of Pong, which had its capital at Mogaung.
The regalia of the royal family are said to have been bestowed by
King Komba of Pong. The history of Manipur contains nothing of
special interest until about the year 1714 A.D. In that year a Naga
named Pamheiba became Raja of Manipur, and adopted Hinduism,
taking the name of Gharib Nawaz. His people followed his example,
and since that date have been conspicuous for the rigidity with which
they observe the rules of caste and ceremonial purity.
Gharib Nawaz made several successful invasions into Burma, but no
permanent conquest. After his death, the Burmese invaded Manipur ;
and the ruler, Jai Singh, having sought the aid of the British, a treaty
of alliance was negotiated in 1762. The force sent to assist Manipur
was, however, recalled ; and after this, little communication passed
between the British Government and the State for some years. On the
outbreak of the first Anglo-Burmese war in 1824, the Burmese invaded
Cachar and Assam, as well as Manipur ; and Gambhir Singh of Manipur
asked for British aid, which was granted. A force of Sepoys and
artillery being sent towards Cachar, and a levy of Manipuris being
MA XI PUR. 327
formed under British officers, the Burmese were not only expelled from
the Manipur valley, but to the State was added Kubo valley down to the
Ningthi river, situated to the east of the old boundaries of the State,
and peopled by Shans. In 1826, peace was concluded with Burma,
and Manipur was declared independent. Until 1834, when Gambhir
Singh died, the country remained quiet and prosperous. On his death,
his son, the present Raja, being at the time only one year old, Nar
Singh, his uncle, and great-grandson of Gharib Nawaz, was appointed
regent. In 1834, the British Government decided to restore the
Kubo valley to Burma, the Government of which had never ceased to
remonstrate against its separation from that country. The valley was
given back, and a new boundary laid down by an agreement dated
9th January 1834. The British Government at the same time bound
itself to pay to the Raja of Manipur an annual allowance of ,£637, in
compensation for the loss of Kubo valley.
An unsuccessful attempt was made on Nar Singh's life in 1844, and
the Raja's mother, being implicated, fled with her son to Gachar. Nar
Singh upon this assumed the Raj, which he retained until his death in
1850. In 1835, a Political Agent was appointed to act as a medium of
communication between the State and the British Government. On
Nar Singh's death, Debendra Singh, his brother, was recognised as Raja
by the British Government. Three months afterwards, Chandra Kirti
Singh, the present ruler, invaded Manipur ; and Debendra Singh, who
was unpopular, fled towards Cachar. Chandra Kirti Singh, having
established his authority, was, in February 185 1, recognised by the
British Government. Since that time there have been many attempts
on the part of other members of the royal family to head a rebellion ;
but all have been defeated, and their leaders either killed, imprisoned,
or placed under surveillance in British territory. The last of these
raids was perpetrated in 1866.
One of the most important events of recent years in the history
of Manipur has been the loyal assistance rendered by the Maharaja
to the British Government in the Naga war of 1879. The force
furnished by him and led by the Political Agent, Colonel Johnstone,
raised the siege of Kohima by the Nagas, and prevented a great
catrastophe. In recognition of this service the Government of
India bestowed upon the Maharaja Chandra Kirti Singh the dignity
of K.C.S.I.
In 1881-S2, the boundary north of Kubo valley, between Burma and
Manipur, was defined and demarcated. The raiding Kiikis, who were
favoured hitherto in their enterprise by the uncertainty of the frontier,
have been found to be settled within Manipur territory ; and some of
them (the Chasads of Tonghu chief) have been induced to move farther
in, and have thus been brought under stricter control. Another chief,
32S MANIPUR.
Thohowpa, with all his people, voluntarily immigrated, and in July
1S83 took up his abode in Manipur State.
During the Burma expedition of 1885, which ended in the annexa-
tion of King Thebau's dominions, a small force under Colonel
Johnstone, Resident at Manipur, succeeded in rescuing a number of
British subjects and Europeans in Northern Burma.
Population. — In Manipur State, the counting for the Census of 1881
was not done in one day, but extended over a period of six weeks, the
whole being concluded by the 17th February. The enumeration of
Manipur valley, it is believed, was fairly done, and the results are, on
the whole, as accurate as might be expected. The population of the
hill tribes has been estimated from a list, believed to be pretty complete,
of all villages, and the number of houses in each village, which is kept
by the Manipur Durbar for the purpose of apportioning work to be
done, or supplying coolie labour. The census of a certain number of
villages was accurately taken, in the same manner as that for Manipur
valley; and this showed that four persons, on an average, were to be
found in each house, and that the males and females were equally
balanced. Thus, for the Census of 1SS1, the population was esti-
mated at 221,070, namely, 109,557 males and 111,513 females, scattered
over 954 villages, and dwelling in 45,322 houses. The above figures
represent 27 persons and 5-66 houses to the square mile, and show an
average of 4-87 persons to a house.
Classified according to religion, the population consisted of — Hindus,
130,892; Muhammadans, 4881 ; hill tribes, 85,288; Buddhists, 2 ; and
Christians, 7. The seven Christians consist of the Political Agent, his
family, and one visitor. It is clear that the religion of the Manipuris
is Hinduism ; and this will probably always be the case, owing to
the system which obtains, under which 'any hillman can become a
Hindu, and any low -caste man rise in the social scale.' Muham-
madanism in Manipur arose from Manipun men having taken as wives
Muhammadan women before the regular introduction of Hinduism.
On the introduction of that religion, they, with their descendants,
were obliged to become Muhammadans. The present Muham-
madans are the descendants of the few who escaped being
captured by the Burmese when they devastated the country and
carried into captivity all sections of the Manipun community. The
Muhammadans are divided into four principal divisions — namely,
Sepoys, gardeners, turners, and potters. They are under a Kazi,
who is appointed by the Raja for services rendered as a partisan
or a menial servant, and not on account of his knowledge of the
laws which ought to govern Muhammadans. This is attended with
no inconvenient e, as the whole of the Muhammadan population are
ignorant of the creed they profess. The Manipun Muhammadans
MANIPUR. 329
are industrious — ' indeed the most industrious portion of the population
of Manipur.'
As regards occupation, the Census distributes the population into the
following six main groups: — (1) Professional class, including State
officials of every kind and members of the learned professions — males
12,169, and females 2858; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-
house keepers — males 7324, and females 7672; (3) commercial class,
including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc. — males 572, and females
14,861 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds — males
51,057, and females 52,880; (5) industrial class, including all manu-
facturers and artisans — males 2125, and females 917; (6) indefinite
and non-productive class, comprising all persons of unspecified occupa-
tion, children, and general labourers — males 36,310, and females 32,325.
In classes 2, 3, and 4, the women outnumber the men. 'The women
in Manipur, married or unmarried, are not confined in zandnas, as in
Bengal and Hindustan ; all classes are alike in this respect ; neither do
they cover their faces before strangers. They are very industrious; in
this respect the opposite of the men, who are lazy and indolent. Most
part of the work of the country, except the harvest, is performed by
them, and they are consequently the mainstay of the family circle. All
marketing is done by women ; as well as all the work of buying, selling
in public, and the carrying to and fro of the articles to be sold. At home
they are busily employed in weaving and spinning. It would be difficult
to find a more industrious woman in India than the Manipuri.' The
commercial class of the Census, representing 6-98 per cent, of the
population, are nearly all women, of whom 14,770 keep shops or stalls,
and 91 are boat-women.
Although the people of the Manipur valley profess chiefly Hinduism,
they have not given up their ancient worship, and above 300 deities are
still propitiated by appropriate sacrifices of things abhorrent to real
Hindus. They have a caste system which differs from that of
Bengal in some respects, and seems to be chiefly founded on what is
known as the system of lallup or forced labour. This is based on the
assumption that it is the duty of every male between the ages of seven-
teen and sixty to place his services at the disposal of the State for a
certain number of days in each year. To different classes of people,
different employments are assigned; thus there are four great divisions
— Laiphum, Kaphum, Ahulhip, and Nihariip, which are again sub-
divided. There are eight principal castes, the principal being the
Kshattriya caste, to which the bulk of the Manipuris profess to belong.
The Loi or ' subdued' caste are the most hard-working and useful people
in the valley. The Lois have a separate language, ami one village of them,
called Sengmai, speak a language only understood by themselves. This
language is said to have an affinity with the Burmese. The hillmen who
33° MAX! PUR.
inhabit the mountainous tract of country under Manipui rule, although
amongst themselves divided into innumerable clans and sections, with
slight differences in language, customs, or modes of dress, may be con-
sidered generally under the two great divisions of Naga and Kiiki.
Although no sharp boundary can be drawn between the tracts of
country occupied by these two races, it may be said that the Nagas are
principally found to the north, and the Kiikis to the south, of a line
running east from Cachar to the Manipur valley in about 240 70' N.
lat, or about a day's journey south of the Government road from
Cachar. There are several well-marked distinctions between the races.
The Nagas wear their hair cut in various ways, sometimes very short;
the Kiikis, on the other hand (with one exception, the Chiru clan),
wear their locks long, and tucked in behind. The Naga wears no
pagri or head-covering on ordinary occasions ; the Kiiki (again except-
ing the Chirus) always does. The ear ornaments of the Nagas are
various ; the Kiiki generally confines himself to a single red pebble
bead, suspended from the lobe by a string or two large discs of per-
forated silver with a broad flange, by which the holes in the ears are
often enormously distended. This ornament is confined to the Kiikis,
and is never seen among the Naaa tribes.
The Maring Nagas, a race differing essentially from the Nagas to the
north in facial and other characteristics, are distinguished by wearing
the hair long, and confined in a bunch like a horn, rising from the front
of the head.
The purely Mongolian caste of features is rare among these hill
tribes, although the peculiar oblique eye is perhaps the most per-
sistent characteristic, being found in the Manipuris as well as the
hillmen. Amongst both Nagds and Kiikis the stature varies con-
siderably, the Nagas being generally the taller of the two. The
languages of these two races are entirely different ; and among the hill-
men in Manipur territory, or on its borders, there are said to be upwards
of twenty different dialects. The hill tribes all recognise one supreme
being of a benevolent nature, and numerous inferior deities and evil
spirits inhabiting the inaccessible heights. They all seem also to
believe in a future state, though their ideas on the subject vary greatly.
Marriage is entered upon by both sexes after they have arrived at
puberty, and is a matter of inclination on both sides, as a rule.
Adultery is considered a very heinous offence, and is punished with
death to the male offender, the woman escaping without punishment.
Polygamy is but rarely practised ; polyandry is quite unknown.
In the hills,////// cultivation is common. The rice crop, which forms
the staple food of the population, is ready for cutting about September.
The crop having been cut, is beaten out on the field, and the grain
deposited in the granary close by the village. In the carrying the
MAN1PUR. 33i
whole village joins, receiving as recompense a certain -portion of the
load carried, and their drink. The crops raised in the hill territory
comprise rice, cotton, oil-seeds, pepper, tobacco, ginger, vegetables of
various kinds, sweet potatoes of a superior quality, Indian corn, etc.
In the valley, no fewer than nineteen varieties of rice are grown ;
these may be divided into early crops, cut about September, and late
crops, cut in November. Several kinds of pulse are grown, as well as
English and other vegetables. Wheat is grown in the cold season in
small quantity, and thrives very well. Plantains, pine-apples, and
mangoes are cultivated : and plums, peaches, and apples are also grown,
but of inferior quality. Throughout the valley and neighbouring hills,
the bramble and wild raspberry are common. English fruit-trees have
been lately introduced, with a view to their acclimatization. Dogs are
seldom kept, being looked upon as unclean ; but they are eaten as a
delicacy by some of the Naga tribes in the hills.
The breed of ponies is similar to that of Burma ; they are generally
small, under 12 hands high, but strong and hardy. The game ot
hockey on horseback was formerly almost peculiar to Manipur, but has
now become popular in India and England under the name of polo.
In Manipur, seven players on each side are the number usual in an
important match. In some of these matches, particularly those which
follow the yearly boat races in September, great interest is taken, and
the scoring is carried on from year to year. In the first day's game, a
member of the royal family usually heads either side. A good polo
pony is very valuable. As it was found that the ponies were deterio-
rating from want of care in breeding, more pains are now being taken
in this respect, and the export of stallions and mares has recently been
prohibited.
The land system starts from the assumption that all the land belongs
to the Raja, and is his to give away or retain as he pleases. The head-
man of each village looks after the cultivation, and is responsible for
the realization of the tax payable in kind by each cultivator ; he holds
no interest in the land, and is merely an agent of the Raja. The mode
of cultivation differs little from that of Eastern Bengal. The soil
throughout the valley is nearly all of excellent quality, and of great
depth. It is a blackish loam near the hills; but on the hills themselves
it is reddish, and of inferior quality.
Communications. — The chief road is that leading from Manipur to
the District of Cachar, which was constructed by the British Govern-
ment after the first Anglo-Burmese war between 1832 and 1S42. and was
kept in repair by it until 1S65, when, by mutual arrangement, the main-
tenance was undertaken by the Manipur Raja. It has been recently
repaired, and is said to be in good condition, and in a fit state for pack-
bullocks in the cold weather. Another trade route leads into Cachar
oo-
M A XI PUR.
to the north of the Government road, known as the Aqui route ; it is
still used, though not frequently, by the hill people. The valley is well
supplied with tolerable roads, which, though not metalled, are quite
fit for the traffic of the country. The chief difficulty in road-making is
the bridging of streams, for which the rough and ready methods of the
Manipurfs are good in ordinary weather, but the bridges generally
require repair yearly after floods. A good bridle road was constructed
in 1SS3 from Manipur to Mao, the extreme northerly outpost of the
nd about iS miles from Kohima, the head-quarters of the Xaga
Hills District.
Commerce. — The trade is small in amount, owing chiefly to the want
of means of transport ; none of the roads are fitted for carts, and
could not be made so except at great expense. The internal trade
of Manipur is carried on by means of numerous open hats (markets) at
various intervals along the main roads. The sellers at these hats are
almost exclusively women. Vegetables, fish, cloth, and sweetmeats are
the principal articles sold. Rice is rarely seen at these places, as each
family grows just enough for its own consumption. The chief medium
of exchange at these markets is the small coin called sel, weighing
about 16 grains, made of bell-metal at the Manipur mint, of which
six go to the pice. The British and Burmese rupee both representing
the same value, and smaller silver of the Indian mint, are also commonly
used ; but the sel is the only copper coin of the markets. The chief imports
from Cachar consist of areca-nuts, calicoes, broadcloths, brass vessels,
hookahs, tobacco, spices, tools and implements, woollen manufactures,
and various small articles of luxury. The principal exports are por.
cloth, silk, hockey sticks, beeswax, tea seed, ivory, and india-rubber.
A small trade is carried on with the Xaga Hills, in which ponies, iron,
spirit, salt, and cloth are exported, and brass vessels and carnelians are
imported. Beeswax, oilseed, cotton, and cloths are also brought in
different tribes. The trade with Burma, which on account of the
unsatisfactory condition of frontier affairs had of late years been very
small, is now (1S85) at a standstill. The passes are closed, and inter-
course between the two countries has ceased. With the recent annexa-
tion of Upper Burma, it is hoped that commercial intercourse will be
soon reopened.
illustration. — Apart from payments in kind, the money revenue
of the State, including the compensation of ^"037 a year, paid by
the British Government for the surrender to the Burmese of the Kubo
valley, is estimated at from ^5000 to ^6000 annually from all sources.
Manipur pays no tribute to the British Government.
There are two chief courts of justice, the Chirap and the Military
Court. The Chirap consist of 13 senior members, all of whom are
jinted by the Raja. The military court consists of the S senior
MANIPUR. ziz
officers of the army, named generals, colonels, and majors, and other
officers. In this court, all cases in which sepoys are concerned are
heard. There is also a court called Paja, or women's court, in which
all cases of family dispute in which women are concerned, wife-beating,
adultery, etc., are in the first instance heard ; serious cases may after-
wards come before the Chirap. There are also minor courts for cattle
disputes, etc. Species of village clubs under the head of the village
adjudicate in minor cases; and in the event of a villager falling into
extreme poverty, they supply him with food ; in sickness, they look
after him ; and in the case of his death, provide wood, etc. for his
cremation. In this way, although many of the inhabitants are very
poor, actual starvation or fatal neglect is rendered impossible. The jail
is situated within the Raja's enclosure, and is calculated to contain ioo
prisoners, who are freely employed on the roads, etc. outside. The
punishments most in vogue, especially in cases of assault and theft,
consist of flogging and exposure in the bdzdr.
The military force of Manipur consists of a species of militia, who
are liable to be called out for service when required. Their numbers
in 1S83-84 are put at 5349 infantry, 501 artillery, 400 cavalry,
and 700 Kuki irregulars. The Manipur troops, when formed into a
levy under British officers in 1825, and the following years, did good
service against the Burmese. In 1835, tne British support in pay was
withdrawn from the force constituting the Manipur levy.
A school was established a few years ago in Manipur, at the suggestion
of the Political Agent, and is fairly well attended. Some of the highest
officials can neither read nor write. The Manipun's possess a written
character of their own, which seems to be a modification of the Nagari ;
but of late years, the Bengali character has entirely superseded it. A
regular post-office was established at Manipur in 1S82-S3, with excellent
results. Besides the convenience to the public, the treasury had bene-
fited in 1883-84 by the issue of money orders to the amount of ^3045,
and it is no longer necessary to make remittances to pay the establish-
ment at Manipur ; while the post-office has earned an average monthly
income of ^7, ics. The dispensary in 1S83-S4 treated 7014 Mani-
puris and 886 persons belonging to the hill tribes.
Medical Aspects. — The Manipur valley, being 2500 feet above the
sea, enjoys a temperate climate. The following is the average monthly
temperature at 3 p.m. throughout the year 186S-69 : — January, 64° F. ;
February, 750 j March, 76'; April, So° ; May, 79°; June. 83"; July,
Si°; August, 82°; September, Si°; October, 7S0 ; November, 710;
December, 650 F. At the hottest season, the nights and mornings are
always cool. In the cold weather, fogs are common in the valley.
Hoar-frost is usual, but ice does not form on the pools. The rainfall
in the valley was 3674 inches in 1S72-73, when there was a general
334 MAXJADIKARA— MAN/ARAB AD.
complaint of superabundance; but in 1876-77, the registered rainfall
was 46-24 inches; in 1877-78, 54*30 inches; and in 1883-84, 74 inches,
when the rice crop suffered severely. The prevailing wind is from the
south-west, and blows with remarkable steadiness, seldom varying
all the year round. The valley is much subject to slight earth-
quakes, but, except in 1869, there has been no serious convulsion of
this kind so far as is known.
Manjadikara. — Trading town in Travancore State, Madras; situated
in lat. 90 26' x., and long. 76' 35' e., between Madura and Kotayam.
Population (1871) 6572; number of houses, 1293. Not returned sepa-
rately in the Census Report of 18S1.
Mailjarabad ('Abode of Fog'). — Taluk in Hassan District, Mysore
State, with head-quarters at Sakleshpur. Area, 457 square miles, of
which %^\ are cultivated. Population (1871) 69,817 ; (1881) 52,555,
namely, 27,408 males and 25,147 females. Hindus numbered 50,386;
Muhammadans, 1469; Christians, 699; and Jews, 1. Land revenue
(1881-82), exclusive of water rates, ^12,199, or 4s. 5d. per cultivated
acre. In 1883 there were 8 police circles {thdnds) and 1 criminal
court; regular police, 67 men. Revenue, ,£15,140.
A wild tract below the Western Ghats, which has always enjoyed
an independent history. Originally called Balam, or ' Strong,' it is said
to have been colonized by the Vijayanagar monarchs in the 14th
century. To them is attributed the institution of the patels or head-
men, who still retain hereditary feudal powers. In 1397 the country
was made over to a line of pdlegdrs, who maintained their authority
until the beginning of the present century. The last of the dynasty,
Yenkatadri Xayak, attempted to extend his territory after the capture
of Seringapatam by the British in 1799; two years later, he was
captured and hanged. The taluk is divided into 4 ndds, and sub-
divided into 28 uiaudes. Over each mande\% a head-man ; and the fore-
most six of these, the patels, who also preside over the ndds, are persons
of great local influence. Their houses are generally fortified, and within
their walls they exercise many of the attributes of a mediaeval baron.
In physical appearance and in dress, the inhabitants present a marked
contrast to the people of the low country. They always go armed with
a matchlock and a knife. The hills of Manjarabad afford some of the
most beautiful scenery in India. Forests of magnificent timber are
broken by green glades, and overhung by precipitous rocks. The
soil is fertile, and rice is grown in abundance on the terraced slopes of
the valleys. Coffee was introduced about a quarter of a century ago ;
there are now 175 estates in the taluk owned by Europeans, occupying
15,328 acres, with a revenue of ^872, and 12,446 native holdings,
covering 24,064 acres, with a revenue of ^1277. Expenditure on
tahsil administration in 1S81-S2, ^1375.
MANJERI—MANJHANPUR. 335
Manjeri. — Town (more correctly a group of hamlets) in Ernad Sub-
division, Malabar District, Madras Presidency. Lat. n5 6' 30" x.,
long. 76° 9' 50" e. Population (1881) 8944; number of houses, 171 7.
Hindus number 4523 ; Muhammadans, 43S9 ; and Christians, 32.
Notable as the scene of one of the worst Mappilla outrages in 1S49.
The native troops sent against the fanatics were routed, and their
officers killed ; and it was not till European troops were brought up
that the rising was suppressed. Contains courts, dispensary, etc.
Manjhand. — Tdluk in the Sehwan Sub-division of Karachi District,
Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between 250 48' and 26° 19' x. lat.,
and between 670 53' 30" and 68° 21' e. long. Area, 581 square miles,
containing 1 town and 28 villages. Population (1872) 18,551 ; (1881)
18,952, namely, 10,419 males and 8533 females, occupying 2747 houses.
Hindus numbered 2453; Muhammadans, 15,352; Sikhs, 1082; abori-
ginal tribes, 52 ; and Christians, 13. Total revenue (1S81-82), ^"5096.
The area under actual cultivation in 1882-S3 was 22,317 acres;
assessed to land revenue, 24.300 acres. In 1884 the tdluk contained
2 criminal courts; police stations (t/nitids), 7 ; regular police, 33 men.
Manjhand. — Town in Manjhand tdluk, Karachi District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 25° 54' 45" x., and long. 6S° 16'
30" E., close to the Indus, 88 feet above sea-level, 43 miles north of
Kotri, and about the same distance south of Sehwan. Head-quarters
of a m&khtiarkdr; containing the usual public buildings, school with
134 pupils in 18S3-84, post-office, etc. Population (18S1) 2654;
municipal revenue (1881-82), ^131. Manufacture of coarse cloth and
shoes. Station on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway.
Manjhanpur. — South-western tahsil of Allahabad District, North-
western Provinces ; comprising the pa r^a /ids of Karari and Atharban,
and consisting of an alluvial strip of upland in the Doab, lying along
the north bank of the Jumna, and much cut up by ravines leading
down to the river.
Area of the tahsil, according to the latest official statement (1SS1),
2737 square miles, of which 1769 square miles are cultivated, 39
square miles cultivable, and 57-8 square miles uncultivable.
Population (1S72) 116,217; (1881) 120,283, namely, males 60,216,
and females 60,067 ; increase in the nine years, 4066, or 37 per
cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus,
108,221; Muhammadans, 12,062. Of 269 villages, 187 had less
than 500 inhabitants, and only 2 upwards of 3000. Land revenue
(1881), ^23,826, or including local rates and cesses levied on the
land, ^27,877. Amount of rent, including local cesses paid by culti-
vators, ^38,751. Among the proprietors in pargand Karari, the
Muhammadan element is strong, three families holding between them
16 per cent, of the area, and paying nearly one-fifth of the land
33^ M. \XJHANPUR-PATA-MANKERA.
revenue of the parsraftd. The cultivators nearly all belong to Hindu
castes. Atharban is a Rajput pargand. In their own villages, the
Rajputs cultivate largely with their own hands, or else sublet their
fields at high rates to men of the recognised agricultural castes. In
1SS3, Manjhanpur tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court; with
3 police stations (i/id/ids), a regular police force numbering 45 men, and
a village watch of 291 chaukiddrs.
Manjhanpur-Pata. — Town in Allahabad District, North-Western
Provinces; situated 31 miles west of Allahabad city, in lat. 250 31' 12"
x., and long. 8i° 25' 12" e. Population (1SS1) 3143, the principal
inhabitants being Banivas and Musalmans of the Shia sect. Bi-weekly
market on Mondays and Fridays. Imperial post-office, police station,
and Anglo-vernacular school.
Manjhi. — Town and police station in Saran District, Bengal, on the
Gogra (Ghagra). Lat. 250 50' 10" x\, long. 840 37' 20" e. Population
(1SS1) 6068, chiefly engaged in river traffic. Hindus number 5059,
and Muhammadans 1009.
Manjhia. — Town in Hardoi District, Oudh ; situated 4 miles south-
east of Pihani, on the road to Gopamau. A prosperous little trading
village of 542 houses, with bi-weekly market. Population (1881) 3910.
Village school. The population principally consists of Chamars, but
the proprietors are Chauhan Rajputs.
Manjira. — Old village site in the Melghat division of Ellichpur
District, Berar ; nearly opposite to which, on the face of a hill to the
west of the valley, are two small rock-cut temples or monasteries. One
of these is completely closed up with rubbish, but the other is accessible
by a short flight of steps leading to a low doorway. It is about 16 feet
square inside, and 7 or 8 feet high ; 2 rows of square pillars, roughly
hewn, extend inwards, those of the inner row being only half finished.
On the plateau, not far off, is a never-failing spring of excellent water,
received in a rock-cut basin about 5 feet square and 6 feet deep.
1 "nderneath the basin, the rock has been cut away, rude pillars only
being left as supports. Two similar reservoirs in the immediate neigh-
bourhood are choked up.
Mankapur.— Pargand and village in Gonda District, Oudh. — See
Manikapur.
Mankapur.— Town in Unao District, Oudh ; situated on the road
from Baksar (Buxar), 2 miles north of Bhagwantnagar, and 27 miles
south-east of Unao town. Population (1881) — Hindus 1726, and
Muhammadans 231 : total, 1957, residing in 507 mud huts. Founded
by a Dais chief .Man Kewal Khas, about 600 years ago. No market or
fair, but a little goldsmiths' and carpenters' work is carried on.
Mankera. — Village in Dera Ismail Khan District, Punjab; situated
in lat. 310 23' 15" x., and long. 71' 2S' 45" e., south-east of the head-
MANKUR—MAXXAR G UDF. 3 3 7
quarters station, in the heart of the thai or prairie uplands between the
beds of the Indus and the Jehlam, and 27 miles east of the old left bank
of the Indus. At present an agricultural hamlet of no importance, but
famous as having been the capital of Nawab Muhammad Khan,
ancestor of the present Nawabs of Dera Ismail Khan. Shah Zaman,
ruler of Khorasan, conferred the government of the northern Derajat
in 1792 upon Muhammad Khan, Sadozai, a relative of Muzaffar Khan
of Multan. The new grantee advanced against the actual holder,
Abdul Nabi, one of the Kalhora family of Sind, and, defeating him at
Leiah, took possession of his territory. Muhammad Khan afterwards
made himself master of all the trans-Indus portion of Dera Ismail
Khan District, except Tank ; and fixing his capital at Mankera, died in
1S15, after a prosperous reign of twenty-three years. His grandson,
Sher Muhammad Khan, succeeded to the principality; but in 182 1,
Ranjft Singh led a Sikh army against Mankera. The late Nawab had
strongly fortified his chief town, surrounding it with a cordon of 12
forts, within whose circle he had permitted no wells to be sunk, so as
to cut off the water-supply of any invader. The Sikh Maharaja, how-
ever, moved straight upon Mankera, sinking wells as he advanced, and
invested the fort, which surrendered after a siege of twenty-five days.
The young Nawab retired across the Indus to Dera Ismail Khan :
and the subsequent history of his family will be found in the article on
that place.
Mankur. — Town in Bardwan District, Bengal. Lat. 230 25' 40" n.,
long. 870 36' 30" e. Station on the chord line of the East Indian
Railway, 90 miles distant from Calcutta. Seat of considerable trade.
Annual fair in January.
Manmad. — Town in the Chandor Sub-division of Nasik District,
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 20° 14' 50" N., and long. 740 28'
40" e., on the Jabalpur or north-eastern line of the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway, 45 miles north-east of Nasik town. Manmad is the
junction station of the Dhond and Manmad State Railway with the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Much cotton from Khandesh and
Malegaon takes rail here. Population (1SS1) 4137. Post-office, and
school with 77 scholars in 1883-S4. A remarkable pyramidal hill near
Manmad, about 750 feet high, is notable for a tall, obelisk-like rock, at
least 60 feet high, at the top of it ; at the back of this hill are the
peaks known as Ankai and Sankai.
Mannargudi. — Taluk in Tanjore District, Madras Presidency.
Area, 284 square miles. Population (1S71) 161,264; (1SS1) 181,650,
namely, 88,213 males and 93,437 females; town, 1; villages, 299;
houses, 31,647. Hindus number 169,069; Muhammadans, 837 2 :
Christians, 4022; and 'others,' 187. The taluk in 1883 contained
1 civil and 3 criminal courts; police stations, 7; regular police, 91.
VOL. IX. v
338 MANNARGUDI TOWN— MANOR A.
Land revenue, ,£41,391- The Negapatam branch of the South Indian
Railway crosses the northern portion of the Sub-division. In the
violent hurricane of March 1S53 this tract suffered severely.
Mannargudi. — Town in Mannargudi Sub-division, Tanjore District,
Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 10° 40' 10" n., and long. 79° 29'
30" e., 20 miles south-east of Tanjore city. Population (1871) 17,703 ;
(1SS1) 19,409, namely, 9424 males and 9985 females, occupying 3055
houses. Hindus number 18,277; Muhammadans, 643; Christians,
323; and 'others,' 166. There is a fine pagoda with a popular car
festival ; and the town is the chief seat of the Wesleyan Mission in the
District. Active trade in cloth of local manufacture and metal ware.
Municipal income from taxation in 1883-84,^1652 ; incidence of taxa-
tion, is. per head. Dispensary, with a lying-in ward and a midwifery
class; patients in 1881, 10,434.
Manohar (Manohargarli). — Fort in Sawantwari State, Khandesh
Political Agency, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 160 2' 45" n., long. 740 1'
e. Situated 14 miles north-east of Sawantwari town, and on the
south of the Rangna pass. Manohar is a solid mass of rock about
2500 feet high. Said to have been fortified since the time of the
Pandavas. In the disturbances of 1844, the garrison of Manohar
espoused the cause of the Kolhapur insurgents. In the beginning
of 1845, Manohar was taken by General Delamotte. When the
rebellion was quelled, the fortress and its revenues were made over to
Sawantwari.
Manoli. — Town in Belgaum District, Bombay Presidency ; situated
42 miles east of Belgaum town, and 6 miles north-west of Hubli, in
lat. 16° 16' N., and long. 740 40' e. Population (1881) 4621. There
is a considerable industry in dyeing yarns. Manoli is famous as the
spot where General Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, overtook
the notorious freebooter Dhind-deva Wagh (better known as Dhundia),
after a long pursuit from the Mysore territory. The freebooter with
his followers had encamped on the banks of the river Malprabha,
opposite the town, where he was surprised by General Wellesley at the
head of a body of cavalry. Post-office. The town contains 8 temples •
dedicated to Panchalinga-Deva, built of coarse-grained stone, without
any remarkable carving.
Manora. — Cape in Karachi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay
Presidency, and lighthouse, with a fixed light 120 feet above sea-level,
and visible upwards of 1 7 miles, but only from 7 to 9 miles during the
south-west monsoon. Lot. 24° 47' 15" n., long. 67° 1' e. Manora
forms one of the quarters of the Karachi municipality, and is the
station of the Master Attendant, who lives in the fort, which is said to
have been built in 1797. The Port and Pilot Establishments, the
Superintendent of the Harbour Improvement Works, and a portion of
MANOR/— MANPUR. 339
the Indo-European Telegraph Establishment are also resident here.
Manora contains European and Eurasian schools, church (St. Paul's,
built in 1864-65), library, billiard-room, etc. An annual fair is held
in March in honour of a pir or saint, said to be buried here under
miraculous circumstances. Manora hill is a very healthy place, and
an occasional resort for invalids from Karachi; it is 100 feet high at
its east end, descending to 40 feet at the west end. At the distance
of 2310 feet to the east of Manora is a breakwater, which forms the
protection of the entrance to the harbour in that direction. At the
north end of this breakwater is the landing-place, with three jetties on
the island of Kiamari, the Commissariat, the Passenger and the Customs
jetty. About 3 miles from the jetties, towards the Frere Statue, on
the right of the railway line, is an island on which is a meteorological
observatory.
Manori. — Port in Thana District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 19*
12' 30" n., long. 72° 50' e. Situated 5 miles from Borivli station on
the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway. The town contains
a Portuguese church to Our Lady of Help, built in 1559; burnt by the
Maratha's ; and rebuilt in 181 5. Average annual value of trade for five
years ending 1881-82 — imports, ^"5869; and exports, ;£i 1,275. In
1881-82, the imports were valued at ^5092, and the exports at
.£14,91 t. Manori is one of the six ports included in the Ghorbander
Customs Division.
Man-OUng". — Island and town in Kyauk - pyu District, Arakan
Division, British Burma. — See Cheduba.
Manpur. — Parga?id under the Bhopawar Agency, Central India ;
originally formed part of the old Subah or Province of Malwa.
Situated on the top of the crest of the Vindhya range ; bounded
on the north, south, and east by Holkar's territory (Indore); and on the
west by the Bhumiat of Jamnia, 12 miles south of Mhow. A peak
near the eastern boundary of the pargana, 2S99 feet above sea-
level, was one of the Trigonometrical Survey Stations in the Vindhyas.
Area, 71 square miles, containing 31 villages with 956 houses.
Population (1881) 5239, of whom 2730 were Hindus, 2295 Bhils, 203
Muhammadans, and 11 Jains.
The pargana is picturesquely placed, looking out over the valley of
the Narbada (Nerbudda). The Vindhyas temper the storms of the
south-west monsoon that dash with violence against the southern scarp
of the range. The geological formation is trap ; the soil, black loam with
gravelly patches. Seven of the 31 villages are held under a 20 years'
settlement made in 1867. Bhils predominate among the population,
and cultivation is therefore backward, for the Bhils are poor husbandmen.
Of late years, however, wells have been dug for irrigation, and agricul-
tural prospects are improving. Products — wheat, gram, jodrt Max;
340 MANSA—MANSAHRA.
little cotton is grown ; the cultivation of poppy for opium is com-
mencing. Exports are opium, ghi, seeds, molasses ; imports, cloth,
spices, sugar, etc. Grain is exported when prices rise in neighbouring
States. Tigers have died out of the pargand, but other game abounds.
Average annual rainfall, 45 inches.
The pargand came into British possession by the treaty with Gwalior
of November i860. Previous to British supremacy in these parts it
had lain desolate for upwards of thirty years. It is now under the
nt to the Governor-General for Central India ; and the Deputy
Bhfl Agency had till 18S2 its head-quarters at the chief town, Manpur.
\t the close of 1882, the Deputy Bhfl Agency was amalgamated with
the Bhopawar Agency. Land revenue, ^570. There are 4 schools,
with an average daily attendance of 80 pupils. The dispensary at
Manpur in 1882-83 treated 2907 patients; vaccinations, 129. The
Agra-Bombay trunk road, which passes through the region, has greatly
developed both agriculture and trade. Population of Manpur town
(1SS1), 1522. About two miles south of the town are some caves.
Mansa. — Native State within the Political Agency of Mahi Kantha,
in the Province of Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. It is situated in the
Sabar Kantha division, and is surrounded by the GaekwaYs territory.
Population (1872) 11,893; (1881) 13,299. The principal agricultural
products are millet, pulse, and wheat. The chief is descended from
the Chaura dynasty, one of whom founded Anhilwara Patan in 746-
942 a.d. On the downfall of the house of Patan, an assignment of
land appears to have been given to the ancestors of the chief of
Mansa, but the date cannot be ascertained. The present (1881-82)
ruler is Thakur Raj Singhji, a Hindu of the Chaura Rajput caste. He
manages his estate in person, and enjoys an estimated gross yearly
revenue of ^4600. A tribute of ^1 1 75 is paid to the Gaekwar of
Baroda. The succession to the chiefship follows the rule of primo-
geniture. There is 1 school, with 256 pupils. Transit dues are levied
in the State.
Mansa. — Chief town of Mansa State, Mahi Kantha Agency, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 230 26' x., long. 720 43' 10" e. Population
(1881) 7898, namely, 6930 Hindus, 319 Muhammadans, and 649
Jains. Mansa has a large and wealthy community of merchants, and
is considered the richest town in Mahi Kantha.
Mansahra. — Northern tahsil of Ha/.ara District, Punjab, comprising
the deep glen of Kaghdn, and the wild mountain country at its
foot. Area, 1455 square miles, with 268 towns and villages, 18,388
houses, and 24,166 families. Population (1S81) 123,013, namely,
males 65,975, and females 57,038; average density of population,
85 persons per square mile. Muhammadans number 119,682;
Hindus, 3323; and Sikhs, 8. Of a total assessed area of 1455
MANSAHRA TOWN—MANSURNAGAR. 341
square miles, or 930,640 acres, 132,036 acres were returned as under
cultivation in 1878-79 (according to the latest quinquennial agri-
cultural statistics of the Punjab Government), of which 10,822 acres
were irrigated from private works. Of the uncultivated area of 798,604
acres, 118,948 acres were returned as grazing land, 18,336 acres as
cultivable, and 661,320 acres as uncultivable waste. Average area
under crops for five years ending 1881-82, 187,472 acres. Principal
agricultural products — Indian corn, 94,065 acres ; wheat, 37,684 acres;
barley, 19,590 acres; rice, 16,325 acres; and cotton, 4937 acres. The
administrative staff consists of a tahsilddr and two honorary magis-
trates, presiding over 3 civil and 3 criminal courts. Number of police
stations {thdnds), 5 ; strength of regular police, 93 men, with a village
watch of 144 chaukiddrs.
Mansahra. — Town in Hazara District, Punjab, and head-quarters
of Mansahra tahsil. Situated in lat. 340 20' 10" n., and long. 730 14'
30" e., on the right bank of an affluent of the Sirhan, north of Abbott-
abad ; on the main District road from Kalak-ka-Sarai to the Kashmir
border. Population (1881) 3503. Small number of resident Khattri
traders do a considerable business in grain and country produce.
lahsili, police station, post-office.
Mansiirkota. — Village in Barhampur taluk, Ganjam District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 190 17' n., long. 840 58' e. Situated
about three miles to the north-east of Gopalpur. Population (1881)
252 ; number of houses, 59. From this village Gopalpur took its old
name Mansiirkota. Under Muhammadan rule, Mansiirkota was once
an administrative centre.
Mansiimagar. — Pargand in Shahabad tahsil, Hardoi District,
Oudh ; bounded on the north by Alamnagar and Pihani, on the east
by Gopamau, and on the south and west by South and North Sara.
Area, 26 square miles, of which only 9 are under cultivation. Although
backward, it is readily capable of improvement. The soil is generally
good, though not so fertile as in the adjacent pargands of North and
South Sara. Hogs, nilgai, and a few wild cattle infest the jungle, and
damage the crops. The population numbers (1881) 7902, namely,
males 4230, and females 3672 ; or only 304 persons per square mile,
this being the most sparsely inhabited pargand in the District. Of
the 25 villages comprising the pargand, 15 are held in zaminddri tenure,
1 in tdlukddri, and 9 in imperfect pattiddri. The Chauhans hold the
proprietary right of 4 villages; the Chaudhari Gaurs, 6; Gautamas,
£ a village ; Sayyids, 4 ; Pathans, 3^ ; Brahmans, 4 ; Kayasths, 2 ;
and Government, 1. Tillage is fair, especially in the Chauhan villages,
whose proprietors are industrious and enterprising. Wheat, barley,
and millet are the chief crops, and occupy more than three-fifths of the
cultivated area. Gram, bdjra, and mas occupy more than another fifth ;
342 MANTRALA KANAMA— MANWAN.
the remainder being taken up with indigo, tobacco, sugar-cane, and
opium. The Government land revenue, excluding cesses, amounts
to ;£iii2, equal to an average of 3s. 8|d. per cultivated acre, or is. 4d.
per acre of total area. No markets or fairs are held in the pargand,
and there is only a single small school, at the village of Mansurnagar.
The pargand dates from 1806, when Rai Mansa Ram, the chaklad&r of
Muhamdi, took some villages from Sara and Gopamau and formed them
into a new fiscal division.
Mantrala Kanama. — Pass in the Nallamallai Hills, Karnul
(Kurnool) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 150 54' n., long. 78"
58' e.
Mantreswar. — Village and police station in Bardwan District,
Bengal. Lat. 230 25' 30" n., long. 88° 9' e. Population under 5000.
Manwan. — Pargand in Siddhauli tahsil, Sitapur District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Bari pargand, on the east and south by
Lucknow District, and on the west by the Gumti and Sarayan rivers.
Area, 69 square miles, or 44,075 acres ; of which, 28,044 acres are
cultivated, 8184 cultivable but not under tillage, and 7847 acres
uncultivable waste. Population (1868) 30,553 ; (1881) 31,821, namely,
males 16,681, and females 15,140. The incidence of the Government
land assessment is at the rate of 4s. ofd. per acre of cultivated area, 3s. 4d.
per acre of assessed area, and 2s. 8|d. per acre of total area. Of the 69
villages comprising the pargand, 39 are held under tdlukddri, and 30
under zaminddri tenure. Of these 69 villages, 65 are owned by Panwar
Kshattriyas. Three Panwar brothers are said to have come from
Gwalior in Akbar's reign, and to have invaded and seized Itaunja and
Mahona in Lucknow District, and Saraura Nilgaon in Sitapur. Their
descendants still hold these estates, with the exception of Mahona,
which was confiscated for its owner's complicity in the rebellion of
1857.
Manwan. — Village in Sitapur District, Oudh, and head-quarters of
Manwan pargand; situated on the Sarayan river, 1 mile west of the
Lucknow and Sitapur high road, and 4 miles south of Bari town.
Population (18S1) 1122. The village is of interest merely on account
of its great antiquity. It is traditionally said to have been founded
5000 years ago by Raja Mandhata, a monarch of the Ajodhya Solar
race, but to have relapsed into jungle on his death. Subsequently, an
Ahi'r settled on the eastern, and a Musalman named Mustafa Khan on
the western, portion of the ruins, and rebuilt the old town, which
received the name of Manpur Mustafabad. The remains of Raja
Mandhata's fort are still extant. It was apparently a massive structure,
placed on high ground overlooking the river, covering an area of 30
acres. The old bricks are used by the natives for building purposes
in the village.
MA O-BEH-LARKAR— MAPUSA. 343
Mao-beh-larkar. — Village in the Khasi Hills, Assam; about 18
miles from Shillong, and 5000 feet above sea-level. Coal-beds are
worked to a small extent, sufficient to supply the inhabitants of Shillong
with fuel for domestic purposes. The word ' Mao ' in this and other
Khasi names signifies ' stone' or 'monolith.'
Mao-don. — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam. Population
(i88r) 305. The presiding chief, whose title is Sarddr, is named U
Lah Singh. The natural products include millet, tezpdt or bay-leaves,
pine-apples, oranges, betel-nut, and chillies. Limestone is quarried,
and coal has been found 400 feet above sea-level. There is a regular
market here, for trade with Sylhet.
Mao-long (or Mdo-yang). — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam.
Population (1881) 1651 ; revenue ^31, chiefly from dues on lime-
quarries. The presiding chief, whose title is Stem, is named U Jit
Singh. The natural products include rice, millet, soh-phlang (an edible
root), cotton, beeswax, and honey. Mats are manufactured, and lime
is quarried.
Mao-phlang. — Mountain plateau in the Khasi Hills, with a village
of the same name 14 miles west of Shillong. Highest peak, 5931 feet
above sea-level. The village is connected with Shillong by a good
cart-road. The Welsh Calvinistic Mission has a settlement at
Mao-phlang village under the Rev. Dr. Griffiths, a medical missionary,
with a dispensary and hospital. A mission school has been established
in the village, and others are stationed in the neighbourhood.
Mao-san-ram. — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam, on a moun-
tain range of the same name. Population (1881) 1102 ; revenue, ^33.
The presiding chief, whose title is Stem, is named U Ramman. The
natural products include millet, potatoes, turmeric, ginger, and honey.
Mats are manufactured ; and lime, coal, and iron are found. The highest
peak of the mountain range is 5810 feet above sea-level, and coal is
found at an elevation of 4000 feet.
Mao-thad-rai-shan. — Mountain range in the Khasi Hills, Assam ;
highest peak, 6297 feet above sea-level.
Mapusa. — Chief town in Bardez District, Goa, Portuguese territory.
Lat. i5°36'n., long. 73°52'e. Situated about 8 miles north of Panjim.
Population (1881) 10,286, dwelling in 2285 houses. Celebrated from
ancient times for the great weekly fair of Fridays. Mapusa takes its
name, according to some, from map, measure, and so, to fill up, that is,
the place of measuring or selling goods. Mapusa is now one of the
most important commercial places in the territory of Goa. The
Mapusa church to Our Lady of Miracles was built in 1594, and is
held in great veneration not only by the Christian converts but also by
Hindus. On the feast of Our Lady of Miracles men of every class
and creed come in crowds, bringing offerings to the Virgin. On the same
344 MA RAHRA—MARDAN.
occasion a fair is held, which lasts five days. Besides the church,
Mapusa contains six chapels, an asylum for the poor and destitute,
town hall, and jail. To the west of Mapusa are military barracks, where
a regiment was stationed from 1S41 to 1874, when it was disbanded.
The barracks are now occupied by the police force, post-office, and
schools.
Marahra (or Mdrhard). — Town and municipality in Etah tahs'd,
Etah District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 27° 44' n., long. 7 8° 36'
45" e. Spread over an extensive site, 12 miles north of Etah town.
Population (1872) 9214; (1881) 9271, namely, Hindus, 4822; Mu-
hammadans, 4441; and 'others,' 8. The Muhammadans form the
most important section of the population, and have great influence
throughout the District. One wide drained and metalled road inter-
sects the town from north to south. The smaller lanes are narrow,
tortuous, and undrained. There are two bazars, both metalled and
drained. Close to the town lies the suburb of Miyan-ke-basti, the
principal Sayyid quarter, surrounded by high walls, with corner towers
and gateways, and owned by the descendants of Sayyid Shah Barkat-
ulla, a Musalman saint, whose tomb and a beautiful mosque at its side
form the most attractive features of the town. Considerable trade in
cotton and indigo-seed. Police station, post-office, sarai, and an
Anglo-vernacular school. Municipal revenue in 1883-84, ^429 ; from
taxes, ,£403, or io|d. per head of population within municipal limits.
Mara-mamai (meaning the ' dead ' or old bed of the Mar-nadi
river). — River of Assam, rising in the independent Daphla hills, and
flowing south into the Pichola river, a tributary of the Lohit branch of
the Brahmaputra. The course of the Mara-marnai within British
territory marks the boundary between the Districts of Darrang and
Lakhimpur.
Marang Barn (or Bardgdi).— Hill on the edge of the plateau of
Hazaribagh District, Bengal; situated in lat. 230 32' 45" n., and long.
85 ° 29' 45" e., on the boundary line between Hazaribagh and Lohar-
daga Districts. It rises 2400 feet above the valley of the Damodar,
1300 feet above the Chutia Nagpur plateau, and attains an extreme
elevation above the sea of 3445 feet.
Mara (or 'dead') Tista. — An old and now deserted river bed of
the Tista, a river of Bengal.
Marble Rocks. — On the banks of the Narbada (Nerbudda) river in
Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) District, Central Provinces. — See Bheraghat.
Mardail. — Tahsil of Peshawar District, Punjab; situated in the
centre of that portion of the District lying to the east of the Swat and
Kabul rivers. Area, 632 square miles; number of towns and villages,
1 10; houses, 11,194; families, 14,900. Total population (1881)
^3>939> namely, males 44,863, and females 39,076. Density of
MARDAN TO II 'N-MARIADEH. 3 4 5
population, 133 persons per square mile. Classified according
to religion, the population consists of — Muhammadans, 78,926;
Hindus, 4582 ; Sikhs, 405 ; and Christians, 26. Of the no towns and
villages, 60 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 21 from five
hundred to a thousand; and 31 from one to five thousand inhabitants.
Of the total area, 406 square miles are returned as under cultivation,
the principal crops being wheat, barley, Indian com, j'odr, moth, cotton,
and sugar-cane. Revenue of the tahsil, ^67 80. The administrative
staff consists of an Assistant Commissioner, and a tahs'ilddr, presiding
over 2 civil and 2 criminal courts ; number of police circles (thdiids),
3 ; strength of regular police, 43 men ; village watch or rural police
{chaukiddrs), 131.
Mardail. — Town in Peshawar District, Punjab. — See Hoti Mardan*.
Margao. — Town in Salsette District, Goa, Portuguese India.
Lat. 150 18' n., long. 740 1' e. Population (1881) 11,794, dwelling
in 2522 houses. Situated in a beautiful plain in the centre
of Salsette District, on the bank of the Sal river, and about
16 miles south-east of Panjim. Margao, according to tradition, was
one of the early seats of the Aryan settlers of Goa, and the site of the
chief matha or convent, whence its name Mathagrdma, or the village
of the convent, corrupted into Margao. Though for some time exposed
to the incursions of Muhammadans and Marathas, Margao was inhabited
by many rich families. Of late many public and private buildings have
been erected. Christianity was introduced into Margao in 1560,
and the first church was built in 1565. The Jesuits had in 1574
built a college, which was subsequently removed to Rachol, a village
about 6 miles north-east of Margao. Margao contains town hall,
Government schools, theatre, and asylum. The military barracks,
built in 181 1, were formerly occupied by a regiment; but at present
by the police, a small military detachment, and the post-office.
Margram. — Town in Rampur Hat Sub-division, Birbhiim District,
Bengal. Lat. 240 8' 45" n., long. 870 53' 30" e. ; situated about
4 miles south-east of Rampur Hat town, and 20 miles due west of
Barhampur, near the Dwarka river. Population (1S81) 6008, namely,
Muhammadans 3203, and Hindus 2805. Silkworm -rearing is ex-
tensively followed ; silk is also woven into satis and pieces, and sent
to Murshidahad for sale.
Mariadeh.— Village in Hatta tahsil, Damoh District, Central Pro-
vinces ; situated in lat. 240 16' n., and long. 79° 42' e., on the Jogidabar
?id/d, 10 miles north of Hatta town. The Bundela Rajas of Charkhari
built the fort, which encloses a building called the Baradari, where they
resided when they visited Maraideh. Their game preserve or ramnd
is near the village. In i860 they made over the place to the British
in exchange for certain territory in Hamirpur District. Population
346 MARIAHU— MARIAS, THE.
(1S81) 23S4, namely, Hindus, 2269; Muhammadans, 94; and Jains,
2i. Coarse cloth is manufactured at Mariadeh, which contains a
police station, District post-office, and school.
Mariahu. — Southern ta/isil of Jaunpur District, North-Western
Provinces ; co-extensive with Mariahu pargand, and consisting of a
level plain, intersected by numerous small and shallow lakes. The
Bisahi tiadi, flowing from north-west to south-east, divides the tahsil
into two nearly equal portions. It is also skirted on the north-east by
the Sai river, which separates it from pargand Havili. The Jaunpur-
Mfrzipur metalled road traverses the tahsil from north to south, while
from east to west it is crossed by the important but unmetalled road
from Benares to Partabgarh. Area, according to the latest official
statement (1881), 329 square miles, of which 215 square miles
are cultivated, 81-3 square miles cultivable, and 32-6 square miles
uncultivable waste. Population (1S72) 205,373; (1881) 242,940,
namely, males 123,575, and females 119,365. Total increase since
^72, 37^567, or i8'2 per cent, in the nine years. Classified according
to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 230,376, and Muhammadans,
12,564. The majority of the agriculturists consists of Brahmans,
Rajputs, Koen's, Ahirs, and Chamars. Of 668 inhabited villages in
1S81, 509 contained less than five hundred, and only 1 town had
upwards of 3000 inhabitants. Government land revenue, ,£32,238;
or including local rates and cesses levied on the land, .£36,785. Total
rental paid by cultivators, ,£48,169. In 1884, the tahsil contained
1 criminal and 1 civil court, with 2 police stations (thdnds), a regular
police force of 31 men, and a village police of 274 chaukiddrs.
Mariahu. — Town in Jaunpur District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Mariahu tahsil; situated in lat. 250 36' 8" N., and
long. 820 38' 40" e. On the metalled road to Mi'rzapur, 12 miles
south-west of Jaunpur town. Mariahu consists of a long main street
along the high road, and cultivation extends right up to the houses.
Population (1SS1) 3821, principally Hindus, and nearly all agricul-
turists. The place was formerly celebrated for its weavers, but these
have now migrated elsewhere. Tahsili, munsif's court, Anglo-vernacular
school, post-ofhce, police station, and a military encamping ground.
The market days are Tuesday and Friday. For police and conservancy
purposes a small house-tax is levied, which realized ,£60 in 1882-83.
Mariao. — Petty State in the Khisi Hills, Assam. Population
(1881) 3682; revenue, .£12. The presiding chief, whose title is Stem,
is named U Ji Singh. The principal products are rice, millet, Indian
corn, and sugar-cane. Mats are manufactured.
Marias, The. — A tribe or sub-division of lapsed Muhammadans in
A^sam. For an account of these curious people, see article Assam,
ante, vol. i. p. 358.
MA RJA—MARMA GAO. 347
Marja. — Pass in Bashahr State, Punjab, lying in lat. 31° 16' x..
and long. 780 27' e. (Thornton) ; elevation, between 16,000 and 17,000
feet. One of four passes which, within the space of little more
than a mile, cross the Himalayan range which bounds Kunawar to the
south. Only practicable from May to the beginning of August.
Marjata (or Kdgd). — Estuary in the District of Khulna, Bengal ;
situated in lat. 21° 44' n., long. 890 32' e., two and a half or three
leagues to the eastward of Patni Island. It has a wide entrance, with
the channel stretching from the land on the east side nearly south by
west, and shoaling gradually from the land to three or three and a half
fathoms outside. The Parbhanga Islands, two in number, lie 4 or
5 miles inside the entrance of the river ; on the southernmost there is
said to be a tank of fresh water. On the reefs bounding the channel
leading to the Marjata, in about lat. 210 30' n., the ship Berkshire was
lost in 1 77 1.
Markandi. — Village in Chanda District, Central Provinces ; situated
in lat. 190 41' n., and long. 790 52' e., on the left bank of the Wain-
ganga. The village derives its name from a beautiful group of temples
which stand on a high bluff overlooking a bend in the river. This
group comprises a monastery, built of purple stone, and is enclosed
in a quadrangle, with entrances on three sides, and a row of cells along
the fourth side. Among the ancient sculptures are several of warriors
with sword or battle-axe, and bow and arrows, all wearing anklets.
The centre temple is entirely covered with modern carving of rare
excellence, consisting mainly of human figures about 2 feet high, and
apparently representing scenes in a continuous tale. This temple has
recently been seriously injured by lightning. The village of Markandi
is said to have been founded in the 14th century by Vyankat Rao. a
Gond chief of Arpalli ; but, owing to the yearly inundations, it now con-
tains only 25 houses. A fair held every February is not well attended.
The islets in the river near Markandi supply excellent stone for mills.
Markapur.— Tdluk in Karmil District, Madras Presidency. Area,
1 no square miles. Population (188 1) 84,04s, namely, 42,245 males
and 41,803 females. Number of villages, 80 ; houses, 16,543.
Hindus number 74,455, or 88-5 per cent.; Muhammadans, 4S24 ;
Christians, 4767; and 'others,' 2. In 1883, the tdluk contained 2
criminal courts ; police stations (thdnds), 1 1 ; regular police, 70 men.
Land revenue, ^8332.
Marmagao. — Peninsula, village, and port in Salsette District, Go.i,
Portuguese territory. The peninsula of Marmagao is situated on the
southern side of the harbour of Goa, on the left bank of the Zuaxj
river. It is connected with the mainland by a narrow strip of
sand about a quarter of a mile broad, and elevated some 10 feet
above the sea. The whole peninsula is composed of laterite, and
348 MAROLI—MARRI.
the shore is fringed with heavy boulders, which have crumbled and
fallen from the cliff. The summit of the peninsula is a table-land, about
i So to 200 feet high, composed of bare laterite covered with loose
stones, with patches of grass. The slopes of the hill, which are steep,
and present a bold appearance seaward, are covered with thick jungle
and scrub.
The village and port of Marmagao are situated at the eastern ex-
tremity of' the peninsula, about five miles south of Panji'm. Popu-
lation of Marmagao (1SS1) 1387, mostly Christians. In the last
half of the 17th century, the Portuguese Viceroy, the Count of Alvor,
resolved to abandon Goa, and to transfer the seat of the government to
the peninsula of Marmagao. In 1684-85, the foundations of a new
capital were laid at Marmagao, and the work progressed favourably.
In 1686 the works were stopped by his successor. During the next
fifteen years, orders were repeatedly received from Portugal to demolish
the public Ifuildings of Goa, and to apply the materials to the construc-
tion of new ones at Marmagao, while the Viceroys were directed to
transfer their residence to that place. During the Viceroyalty of
Caetano de Mello e Castro, the works were pushed on with vigour, and
several buildings were completed, among which may be mentioned the
palace and hospital. The Viceroy himself resided at Marmagao for a
few months in 1703. Suddenly the works were stopped by the Royal
letter of 8th March 1712. In 1-739, when Goa was in danger of falling
into the hands of the Marathas, the nuns and other helpless portion of
the population sought refuge at Marmagao.
The Government buildings are now mere heaps of ruin. The only
relic of importance is a fine old church. The fortress has been converted
into a convict establishment. Marmagao is to be the western terminus
of the railway now under construction in Portuguese territory in con-
tinuation of the Southern Manitha Railway system. In anticipation of
the trade which, it is hoped, will be developed, measures are being taken
to improve the harbour.
Maroli. — Port in Thana District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 200 18'
x., long. 7 20 46' e. Average annual value of trade for five years
ending 18S1-82 — imports, ^23, and exports, ^812.
Marpha.— Ruined fort in Banda District, North-Western Provinces.
Formerly capital of a Bdghel Raja, tributary to the Panna princes ; but
the last of the line fell in the battle of Chachariya, about 1780, since
which period the fort has fallen into decay. Afterwards occupied by
predatory chieftains, whom Colonel Meiselback ousted in 1804. Four
gates give access to the fort, and it contains several unpublished
inscriptions.
Marri.— Tahsi/, town, and hills, in Rdwal Pindi District, Punjab. —
See Murree.
MARSAGHAI—MARTABAN. 349
Marsaghai— Town in Cuttack District, Bengal; situated in lat.
20° 24' N., and long. 86° 37' e., 23 miles from False Point Harbour.
Connected with Cuttack city, 42 miles distant, by the Kendrapara
Canal, which drops into tidal waters at Marsaghai. An extension of
this canal for 15 miles farther towards False Point, as far as the Jambu
mouth of the Mahanadi, was completed in 1S83-84, and is regularly
open for navigation by steamers and boats.
Martaban. — Township in the Tha-ton Sub-division of Amherst
District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma; bounded on the west
by the Bay of Bengal. Traversed from south-east to north-west
and then north by a range of hills culminating in the Zin-gyaik
peak, 3500 feet above sea-level. To the east of this main chain the
country is forest-clad, and but little cultivated ; on the west lie
extensive and fertile plains, intersected by numerous streams and creeks,
which afford an easy outlet for the large quantities of rice grown in the
tract. The principal rivers are the Bhin-laung and *Rin-gnyeim,
flowing west to the sea, and the Da-rein and Ka-daing, tributaries
of the Da-ray-bauk. The extreme west of Martaban township is, in
parts, liable to damage from the entry of the sea-water through the
various rivers ; the south coast is protected from inundation by silt-
covered sea-drift. The chief town is Martaban. The township,
which, with Tha-ton and Pa-gat, was transferred from Shwe-gyin to
Amherst District in 1S65, contains 9 circles. Population (1881) 45,442 ;
land revenue, ^19,225; capitation tax, ^4018; gross revenue,
,£25,233. In 1S81-S2, the area under cultivation was 95,215 acres,
mostly occupied by rice. The agricultural stock consisted of 19,331
horned cattle, 455 goats, 967 pigs, 7902 ploughs, 2601 carts, and 1354
boats. Martaban township is the stronghold of the Taking language.
In several of its villages, Talaing is taught in the monasteries, and
Burmese is almost unknown.
Martaban. — Small town in Amherst District, Tenasserim Division,
British Burma ; situated in lat. 160 32' n., and long. 97° 38' E., on the
right bank of the Salwin, immediately opposite Maulmain, between the
river and a range of hills stretching up north-west, and crowned by
white pagodas. Population (1881) 1781. For several years Martaban
was the head-quarters of the township, and contained a court-house.
There is a good circuit-house here, and below it a wooden wharf ; on
the bank of the Salwin is an ancient pagoda, the Mya-thein-dan, which
has been recently repaired. In Martaban is an old bell with a Talaing
(15th century) inscription by King Dhammaceti, the fellow of which was
found on the platform of a pagoda at Maulmain. Martaban is said to
have been built in 576 A.D., by Tha-ma-la, the first King of Pegu, and
was afterwards enlarged by the King of Burma in the middle of the
13th century. For some time after the capital was transferred to
35o MARTOLI—MASAR.
Pegu (1323), the seat of Government seems to have remained at
Martaban. During the subsequent wars between the Peguans, the
Siamese, and the Burmese, the place was several times besieged and
captured ; and was, on more than one occasion, the last stronghold of
the reigning sovereign. The Portuguese historian, Manuel de Faria-y-
Souza, describes it as being, in 1540, 'the metropolis of a great and
flourishing kingdom ;' but in stating that the treasure 'amounted to 100
millions of gold,' he gives a doubtless very much exaggerated account
of its wealth.
Towards the end of the 16th century, Martaban was taken by the
King of Siam, who appointed a governor over it and the surrounding
country. Its history after this is somewhat obscure. It seems
frequently to have changed hands; and during the 17th and 18th
centuries was the seat of governors elected by the monarch, Peguan
or Burmese, who happened to rule the country. In the first Anglo-
Burmese war the place was besieged and taken (29th November 1824),
and it figured again conspicuously in the second Anglo-Burmese war.
It was captured on the 5th of April 1852, and an attempt made by the
Burmese to recover it a few weeks later was frustrated.
Martoli. — Village in Kumaun District, North-Western Provinces,
among the wild northern mountains; situated in lat. 300 21' n., long.
8o° 13' e., on the route to Hundes or Chinese Tibet by the Juhar Pass.
Thornton states that the people, who are Bhutiyas, carry on a flourish-
ing trade with Hundes. During the winter the whole population (909
in 1 881) migrates to the lower valleys. Elevation above sea-level,
11,352 feet.
Marttan (or Mdrtand). — Ruined temple in Kashmir State, Northern
India. — See Matan.
Mariifganj. — Mart in Patna District, Bengal ; the most important
of the business quarters of Patna City. Extensive river traffic. Im-
ports— salt, rice, cotton, timber, and sugar; exports — wheat, barley,
oil-seeds, ,s,r///, and iron.
Marwar. — State in Rdjputana. The modern name of the State is
taken from that of the chief city, Jodhpur. — See Jodhpur.
Masan. — A tributary of the Little Gandak river, Bengal, rising in
the Sumeswar range, close to Fort Sumeswar in Champaran District.
It drains a large tract of country, receiving almost all the flood-water of
the Dun. It only flows during floods and rains, and soon dries up
when the rain ceases. Bed and banks, sandy.
Masar. — Village inShdhabdd District, Bengal ; situated a little to the
south of the East Indian Railway, about 6 miles west of Arrah. It has
been identified with Mo-ho-so-lo of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang;
and from his account must then have stood close to the Ganges, which
now flows 9 miles to the north, traces of the high banks of its old channel
MASHOBRA—MASTI. 351
still, however, remaining. The old name of Masar, as proved by seven
inscriptions in the Jain temple of Parasnath, was Mahasara ; but the
original name was Sonitpur, famous as the residence of Banasar, whose
daughter Ukha was married to a grandson of Krishna. There is a
Jain temple here, with several Brahmanical images. It bears an in-
scription dated 1386 a.d. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton discovered some
Buddhist idols in a heap of mud and bricks immediately west of the
village, and assigns them to Cheriis. The town contains 14 fine old
wells and numerous tanks. The population of the old town has been
estimated at about 20,000. At present it is only a straggling village,
half a mile long by a third of a mile broad. A colossal image found at
Masar was in 1882 removed to Arrah, and the fragments being pieced
together, it was set up in the public garden at that place.
Mashobra. — Village and hill in Kothi State, Punjab, situated in lat.
310 8' N., and long. 77° 7' e., a few miles from Simla on the old line of
the Great Hindustan and Tibet Road. A small village, but the neigh-
bourhood is much frequented during the summer season by visitors
from Simla ; and many residents of Simla have built themselves suburban
residences here. Hotel.
Masjidkur. — In Jessor District, Bengal ; site of an old mosque,
still used as a place of worship, and attributed to Khan Jahan, the
builder of the Sat-gambaz or 60-domed mosque in the same District.
This ruined edifice has 9 domes and 4 towers at its 4 corners, the roof
is supported by 4 pillars of greystone. Masjidkur (literally, ' The digging
out of a mosque') lies in lat. 220 28' 45" n., and long. 890 19' 30" E.,
6 miles south of Chandkhali on the Kabadak ; and was so called by
the pioneers of cultivation in the Sundarbans, who came upon it while
clearing away the jungle along the banks of the Kabadak.
Maskhal (Mdhesh Khdl). — Island lying off the south of Chittagong
District, Bengal. Lat. (centre) 210 36' n., long. 910 57' e. Through
the centre, and along the east coast-line, runs a range of low hills, of
which Garamchori, 288 feet, is the highest ; the west and north sides
are fringed with a belt of mangrove swamps and creeks. There is a
ferry under Government management, across Maskhal channel. The
jurisdiction of the Maskhal police circle (thdnd) includes this island,
and also that of Kutabdia.
Mastgarh. — Fortress in Bashahr State, Punjab. Lat. 31° 20' x.,
long. 770 39' E. According to Thornton, it stands on the crest of a
lofty ridge, which proceeds northward from the Moral-ki-kanda, a
south-westerly spur of the Himalayas. Held by the Gurkhas during
their occupation of Bashahr. Elevation above sea-level, about 9000 feet.
Masti. — Milage in Malur tdluk, Kolar District, Mysore State. Lat.
ii° 52' 30" N., long. 780 2' 25" e. Population (1881) 1612. . Founded
by a petty chief in the 16th century. Weekly fair on Wednesdays.
35 2 MASUDA—MASULIPA TAM.
Masiida. — Town in Ajmere Sub-division, Ajmere-Merw£ra District,
Rajputana. Lat. 26° 5' N., long. 74° 32' e. Estimated population,
4296. Distant from Ajmere city 29 miles. Chief town of the
pargand of Masiida, and the residence of the istimrdrddr, Water-
supply good. Post-office and dispensary.
Masulipatam {Machli-patnam, or ' Fish Town.' This is the received
etymology of the name, but according to Colonel Yule it is erroneous.
He thinks that the coast is almost certainly the Mcesolia of the Greek
geographers, and he believes the name to be a relic of that word). — Chief
town and principal seaport of Kistna District, Madras Presidencv.
215 miles north of Madras city, in 16° 9' 8" N. lat., and 8i° ti'38"
E. long. Population (1871) 36,188; (1881) 35,056, namely, 16,831
males and 18,225 females, occupying 6971 houses. Hindus number
3°>377 ; Muhammadans, 4288; Christians, 390; and 'others,' 1.
Municipal revenue (1876-77), ^2124 ; incidence of taxation, nd. per
head. In 1882-83, the municipal income from taxation was ^2520 ;
incidence of taxation, iofd.
Machli-patnam (the Metchli-patam of early writers) is properly the
name of the native quarter or pet, which lies nearly 3 miles distant
from the fort on the sea-coast, which latter is called Machli-bandar,
or ' fish port,' abbreviated by all classes into Bandar. The fort
contains the barracks and arsenal, which have been suffered to fall
into decay since the withdrawal of the garrison in 1865 ; the Pro-
testant and the Roman Catholic churches. All round stretches an
expanse of waste land, swampy in the rainy season, and deep with
sand during the remainder of the year. About 2 miles to the north-
west rise some sand ridges on which are the houses of the European
residents. On a lower elevation stands the pet or native quarter, which
is fairly well laid out with streets and brick houses. In this quarter is
the site of the French factory — a patch about 300 yards square — still
claimed by France. The road where the residents ride and drive long
possessed an interesting memorial of former days in ' Eliza's tree,' so
called from Mrs. Draper, the famous correspondent of Sterne. The
tree was washed away in the great cyclone of 1864. In the centre of
the native quarter, where two principal streets cross, there formerly
stood a collection of upright slabs, exquisitely carved with figures in
alto-relievo, which were brought from Amravati. Offices of Collector
and Judge, jail, and several schools.
Masulipatam is still the principal port of Kistna District, thouyh
it has few natural advantages, and suffers in addition from com-
petition with Coconada, on the Godavari, with which the Kistna
delta now has inland communication by water. The sea deepens so
gradually that large ships cannot anchor nearer than 5 miles from
the shore ; and during the monsoon, from October to December,
MA S ULIPA TAM. 353
communication is sometimes suspended. Barges and native craft
come up the river and go on by canal to Bezwada, on the main
channel of the Kistna, but they can only cross the bar at high
tide. The export trade is partly to Europe ; imports are chiefly local.
In 1874-75, the number of ships which called (including steamers) was
235, of 106,000 tons burden. In 1882-S3 the number of ships was
265, of 125,903 tons. The average annual value of the imports for
the five years ending 1882-83 was ,£122,739 ; exports, ^197,177. In
1882-83, tne imports were valued at £108,328; and the exports at
£152,814. The harbour light is a white fixed dioptric, on a white
flagstaff 12 feet high.
History. — There is little reference to Masulipatam in the period of
Hindu rule. The people were chiefly pastoral, and did not pay much
attention to the advantages of a sea-borne trade. Orme has mention
of a tradition that the port was founded in the 14th century by the
Arabs who may have rounded Ceylon during one of their ventures to
Southern India. The first reliable date in Masulipatam annals is 1425
a.d., when the Hindu Rajas of the Karnatak, who were fighting the
Muhammadan Bahmani kings of the Deccan by the aid of mercenary
Musalman soldiery, gave permission for the erection of a Muhammadan
mosque. In 1478, the Bahmani king, Muhammad 11., entered Masuli-
patam. The Bahmanis sank before the rising power of the Orissa
Rajas, who in turn yielded possession of the place to the Muhammadan
king of Golconda, Sultan Kutub-Shah. Golconda kings held Masuli-
patam for a century and a half. It was during this period that the
commercial prosperity of Masulipatam began to grow. Under the Gol-
conda reign European traders first established themselves, and from the
date of their arrival in the early years of the 17th century, Masulipatam
possesses its modern and particularly English interest.
Masulipatam was one of the earliest English settlements on the
Coromandel coast. Failing at Pulicat, the English established an
agency here in 161 1, under Captain Hippon, who commanded the
Globe on what is known as the ' seventh voyage ' of the East India
Company. A fragment of a journal kept on the voyage by Peter
Floris, a Dutch sailor in the English Company's service, is preserved
among the mss. at the India office, and has recently been published.
In 1622, the English traders, driven by the Dutch from the Spice
Islands, and also from Pulicat, succeeded in establishing their factory
at Masulipatam. In 1628 they were driven out for four years,
but they returned under a farmdn from the Muhammadan king
of Golconda, which is known as the 'Golden Firman.' The station
then became the centre of English trade in these parts, and was
managed by a Chief and Council. Long before the Dutch had also
established a factory; and the French followed in 1669. In 16S6,
VOL. ix. z
354 MASULIPATAM.
upon some real or fancied affront by the king of Golconda, the Dutch
quietly took possession of the government of the town, forbidding the
English to trade outside the town so long as satisfaction was withheld
by the Golconda king. This hardly-veiled attempt to crush the English
factors did not last long, for, three years later, Zulfikar Khan, one of
the Mughal Aurangzeb's generals, seized the factory, and in 1690 the
full right of trade in Masulipatam was obtained for the English bjfarmdn
from the Mughal emperor. From this time until the Wars of the
Karnatak there appear to have been no events of importance at Masuli-
patam. In 1750, Masulipatam was, with the surrounding country, given
to the French by the Nizam; and from 1753 to 1759 the English were
excluded. In the latter year Colonel Forde carried the fort by storm ;
and in 1766, the 'Northern Circars' were assigned to the English.
It was to promote the export of cotton goods that Europeans first
settled on the Coromandel coast. Up to the present day, weavers form a
large portion of the inhabitants of Masulipatam, though their trade has
greatly declined since the beginning of this century. Their operations,
besides weaving, include printing, bleaching, washing, and dressing. In
former days, the chintzes of Masulipatam had a great reputation abroad
for the freshness and permanency of their dyes, the colours becoming
brighter after washing than before. There is still a small demand for
these articles in Burma, the Straits, and the Persian Gulf; but steam
machinery has nearly beaten the hand-loom out of the field. Another
speciality was metapollams or kerchiefs for the head, generally called
madapollams, after a weaving town of that name in Godavari District,
where they were made ; but this industry was ruined by the refusal of
the West Indian negroes to wear these kerchiefs after their emancipa-
tion. Tartans, ginghams, towels, and table-linen are still manufactured
to a small extent.
In modern times, Masulipatam has acquired a new interest as a centre
of missionary labour in the Telugu country. In 1S41, the Church
Missionary Society established a station here under Fox and Noble,
the latter of whom died in 1865, after an uninterrupted sojourn
of twenty -four years. His work and name are commemorated in
the Noble College, which is intended to impart a thorough English
education to boys of the higher castes. This school, founded in
1843, is supported partly by subscriptions from England, and is
also aided and inspected by Government. It ranks as a Collegiate
School, and was in 1876-77 attended by 234 pupils, of whom
13 matriculated at the Madras University, and 2 passed the
First Arts examination. In 1883-84 it was attended by 62 pupils, of
whom 10 matriculated, and 4 passed the First Arts examination.
Instruction is given daily in the Bible ; but the school is not intended
to be directly a proselytizing agency. The active work of conversion
MASULIPATAM. 355
is carried on chiefly through a boarding school for low-caste girls,
which was managed for 31 years by Mrs. Sharkey, the wife of a Eurasian
missionary. The progress of the school received a temporary check in
1864, when the storm-wave of that year drowned 2>Z out °f its 65
pupils.
The number of converts in the neighbourhood of Masulipatam
has increased rapidly in recent years, the majority having been won
from the out-caste tribes of Malas (pariahs) and Madigas (leather-
workers). In 185 1 the number of adherents was only 60, but the
returns show 260 in 1861, 1717 in 1871, and 4013 in 1878. In the
last year there were also 1 1 European and 3 native missionaries, and
82 schools, with 2459 pupils. The total number of Christians in the
town of Masulipatam returned by the Census of 1881 was 390.
The importance of Masulipatam is now on the decline. Her manu-
factures and trade have decayed, from causes which probably will not
be reversed. Her garrison was withdrawn in 1865 ; and the reliefs from
Secunderabad to Rangoon no longer pass this way, since the opening
of the Madras Railway. But the heaviest blow was given by the storm-
wave of 1864, which swept over the entire town, and is reported to have
destroyed 30,000 lives. As happened also in 1679, tn's disaster
occurred at night, so that many were drowned in their beds. Even in
the European quarter, the survivors owed their lives to being warned in
time from the fort, so that they were able to escape to the upper
storeys of their houses. Mr. Gordon Mackenzie gives the following
sketch of the occurrence: — 'The north-east monsoon on this coast
usually breaks about the 15th of October; but there was a cyclone near
Calcutta on October 5, 1864, and this appears to have upset the usual
course of the season, for the last fortnight of October was bright and
clear, so that fears were entertained lest the rice crops in the delta
should wither for want of water. It was therefore with pleasure that
the people of Masulipatam, on the morning of November 1 (All Saints'
Day), saw the sky overcast with dull leaden clouds, presaging speedy
rain, and none surmised that a cyclone was approaching, although
some did remark that the wind was from the north-west and not from
the north-east as it ought to be at this season. About 8 a.m. the Master
Attendant noticed that the barometer was rapidly falling, and at noon
rain set in with violent gusts of wind. By 3 p.m. it was growing very
dark, and the sky was no longer of a uniform dull leaden colour, but
ragged masses of indigo-coloured clouds were driving before the gale.
Mr. Noble dismissed his school, as there was no light to read by.
It was quite dark before 6 p.m. Mr. Thornhill, the Collector, did
not leave office until half-past six, and drove home with much difficulty,
while the unfortunate clerks, who had to find their way to the town,
were in still worse plight. At 8 p.m. the barometer had fallen to
356 MASULIPATAM.
29-50, and the wind began to shift to the east of north, increasing in
violence, so that trees were blown down and roofs lifted off houses.
'At 10 p.m. the gale was east-north-east, which gave the Master Atten-
dant hopes that the cyclone was passing inland to the south of Masuli-
patam ; but now came another danger, more to be dreaded than the wind.
It was new moon, and the tide was full on the bar at 9b. 20m., and at
the tidal lock about 10 p.m. Thus the sea, driven into this bight of the
coast before the storm, came at the very moment of high spring-tide,
and an enormous wave, 13 feet above ordinary high-water level, was
borne inland by the gale. The gates of the tidal lock were wrenched
off, and of the six lascars stationed there, only two lived to tell the tale.
(One of them clung first to a palmyra beam, and afterwards to a boat,
and was carried 14 miles inland!) Had the ramparts been still intact,
they could have broken the force of the wave ; but meeting with no
obstacle, it rushed through the Fort. There were more than 2000
people living in the Fort ; and of all the native houses, nothing was
left but a few posts. The Commissariat go-downs fell, and casks of
porter and arrack strewed the country for miles inland. The shops of
Messrs. Fruvell and Maiden fell, burying the inmates, and so also did the
house of Major Jackson of the Nizam's service ; but Messrs. Jackson and
Maiden escaped from the ruins with their lives, how, they themselves
could hardly tell. Captain Maiden, the Master Attendant, with his
family, were saved, as their house had been substantially built by the
Dutch, and withstood the flood. The little chapel of St. Catherine did
not fall ; and two priests saved their lives by climbing on the brick arch
above the altar, one of them holding above the flood the consecrated
host which had been reserved in the tabernacle on the altar. On the
east of the Fort, between it and the sea, lay the village of Gilkadinde,
with a population of about 2000 fishermen and shipwrights. This
village was completely swept away, nothing being left to show its site.
' The flood was at its height at the Fort between half-past ten and
eleven, and in Masulipatam town about half-an-hour later. The scene
in the town was worse than at the Fort, because there were more
houses to fall and more people to lose their lives. The houses with
mud walls soon fell, and crushed their inmates. The wind was so
fierce that a strong man could not stand against it. Many who
attempted to make their way to any substantially built houses (such as
that of the Nawab) were at once swept away by the swirling flood, and
drowned. Large logs of timber, cargo boats, and fragments of wrecked
vessels, with beams from fallen roofs, were washed about the streets,
injuring buildings which might otherwise have escaped. The Brahman
suburb of Sivagangapett especially suffered. Nothing was left stand-
ing, except the pagoda ; and out of 700 inhabitants of that quarter,
inly 70 saved their lives.
MASURA—MA T. 357
' Before midnight the water began to subside in the town, and then it
seemed that, if possible, the horrors of this woful night increased. It
is familiar to all who have watched the action of surf on a beach,
that the receding wave seems to make more noise and to tear up gravel
with more violence than does the quick rush of the incoming surge.
So this enormous wave, 13 feet above high-water, which was probably
still pursuing its course inland, — it penetrated 17 miles from the coast,
— now receded with a continued roar, uprooting and carrying every-
thing before it towards the sea. Huge blocks of masonry on the
causeway between the Fort and the town were moved to a distance of
60 feet.'
A similar calamity is related to have befallen Masulipatam in the
days of Dutch occupation.
Mas*dra. — Town in Ratnagiri District, Bombay Presidency ; situated
in lat. 1 6° 10' n., and long. 730 32' 30" e., 8 miles north-east of
Malwan. Population in 188 1 under 5000. Has been identified as
the Muziris of Ptolemy and the Periplus, then one of the chief marts
of Western India ; but the identification is disputed. Post-office, and
school, with 215 scholars in 1883-S4.
Masiiri. — Town and sanitarium in Dehra Dun District, North-
western Provinces. — See Mussooree.
Mat. — North-easterly tahsil of Muttra (Mathura) District, North-
western Provinces; lying along the east bank of the Jumna (Jamuna),
and conterminous with the pargand of Mat. The tahsil is a long
narrow tract of country bordered on the west by the Jumna river, with
an extreme length of 28 miles, and an average breadth of 7 miles.
There are two considerable lakes in the tahsil, the Noh jhil in the
north, about six miles in length by a mile broad ; and the Moti jhil in
the south, about two miles long by three hundred yards broad. The
greater part of both is brought under cultivation for the rabi or spring
crops before they are flooded by the rains. The prevailing soil is a
rich sandy loam, the sand somewhat predominating over the clay; but
in almost all the villages there are veins of a richer, firmer soil, equalling
diunat in productiveness. The khddar or lowlands in the neighbour-
hood of the river and jhils is purely alluvial, and varies from a sticky
clay to a rich ditmat with some traces of sand. In the north, one of
the chief features of the country is a low ridge of sandhills or ridges
rising from 20 to 30 feet above the general level. The spring crops
consist of wheat, barley, gram, and mustard, the latter generally sown
along with wheat. The principal rain crops are joar, Ihijra, Indian
corn, and cotton. Sesamum (///), arhar, pulse, and hemp are also
grown, but ordinarily in the same field with jodr. .Very little sugar-
cane or rice is raised.
The total area of the tahsil is 221 square miles, of which 175*4 square
3 5 8 MA T TO WN—MA TAB HANG A.
miles are cultivated, 31 square miles cultivable, and 14/6 square miles
uncultivable waste. Population (1872) 100,248; (1881) 95,446,
namely, males 50,978, and females 44,468; showing a decrease of 4802,
or 47 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there
were in 1881 — Hindus, 89,346, and Muhammadans, 6100. Amount of
(Government land revenue, ,£27,252 ; or including local rates and
cesses, ,£30,657. Amount of rent, including cesses, paid by the culti-
vators, ,£46,487. In 1883, Mat tahsil contained 1 criminal court, with
3 police circles (thdnds), a regular police force of 38 men, and a
village watch of 211 chaukiddrs.
Mat. — Town in Muttra (Mathura) District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of M£t tahsil / situated in lat. 270 35' 42" N., long.
77° 44' 56" E. Although the head-quarters of the tahsil, it is a small
and unimportant place, with a population in 1881 of only 2550.
Mat is a station of Hindu pilgrimage, and is said to derive its name
from the milk-pans {mat) upset by Krishna in his childish play. The
tahsili and police station are situated within the enclosure of an old
mud fort ; post-office ; weekly market.
Matabhanga (or Hduli). — One of the three great ' Nadiya" rivers,'
the other two being the Bhagirathi and Jalangi. All three rivers
are offshoots of the Padma (the main channel of the Ganges), and
from the head-waters of the Hugli River (a.v.). The Matabhanga
leaves the parent stream about 10 miles below the point where the
Jalangi diverges from it. It flows first in a south-easterly, and after-
wards in a tortuous south-westerly direction to Krishnaganj, due east
of Krishnagar, the District head-quarters.
The Matabhanga has its principal offtake from the Ganges near
Maheshkunda, about 40 miles below the Bhairab mouth, and 83 miles
below that of the Bhagirathi. At present it is the south-easternmost
of the Hugh' head-waters. During the first 40 miles after leaving the
( Ganges, it is known as the Hiulf or Kumar river. At about the 40th
mile, the true Kumar river, locally known as the Pangdsi, branches off
to the east, and carries away four-fifths of the waters to the Sundar-
bans. The remaining fifth flows down the lower Matabhanga, which
here takes the name of the Churni river, till it joins the Bhagirathi near
Chagdah. The offtake of the upper Matdbhanga" or Hauliah from the
Ganges is subject to the same shifting and changing as the Bhagirathi.
Within the recollection of the present Superintending Engineer, its
offtake from the Ganges has moved down ten miles. The whole length
of the Matabhringd, upper and lower, from its present offtake at
Maheshkunda, is 121 miles to its junction with the Bhagirathi at
Chagdah.
The Matabhanga' is a comparatively narrow stream, with well-defined
banks throughout. It presents more the appearance of a canal than a
MATAIKHAR—MATAK. 359
river to the traveller passing along it by boat, the width from high bank
to high bank being only a few hundred feet. During the past 65 years
it has undergone many vicissitudes. Up to 1820, the Kachikata river
drew off most of the Matabhanga waters to the eastwards into the Garai.
In 1820-21 the Kachikata was closed, and for a short time it seemed
that the Matabhanga might become an enormous distributary of the
Ganges. But shortly afterwards, the Pangasi or true Kumar river,
opened up into a wide channel, which carried off four-fifths of the
Matabhanga waters. From time to time, however, the Kumar or
Pangasi mouth has, in its turn, showed signs of silting up. The history
of the Matdbhanga in the dry season during the 63 years from 1822
inclusive to 1884, may be summarized as follows: — Closed, 54 years;
open to a minimum depth of one and a half to two feet, 6 years ;
opened to minimum depth of two to three feet, 3 years. During the
rainy season the Matabhanga rises to about the same extent as the
Jalangi, and is passable for large boats and river steamers.
Mataikh&r. — Forest reserve in Kamrup District, Assam, on one of
the lowest spurs of the Khasi Hills. Area, 2240 acres, or 3*5 square
miles. The soil is a sandy loam ; the trees are chiefly sal (Shorea
robusta, Gcertn.), but none are of large growth. The timber depot is at
Kukurmara on the Kulsf river.
Matak. — Tract of country in Lakhimpur District, Assam, lying
along the south or left bank of the Brahmaputra; bounded on the
south by the Buri Dihing river, and on the east by the Singpho Hills.
During the later years of the Aham dynasty, this region acquired
considerable historical importance. It was chiefly inhabited by the
Mataks (also known as Moamarias or Marans), a rude tribe of Ahams
who early adopted a Vishnuite form of Hinduism. On more than one
occasion they rose in rebellion against the attempts of the Aham Rajas
to impose upon them the worship of the goddess Durga. In the reign
of Gaurinath they even invaded Lower Assam, and were only driven
back from Gauhati by the intervention of a British force. They suc-
ceeded, however, in establishing their own independence under a chief,
with the title of Bar Senapati. In 1825, on the expulsion of the
Burmese from Assam, the native chief of Matak was recognised by the
British. But on his death in 1839, no agreement was come to with his
successor ; and Matak was forthwith placed under direct British
administration, together with the rest of Lakhimpur District. The
Mataks have now almost completely merged in the general population of
Assam ; and the territorial distinction is no longer preserved, the tract
formerly known as the Matak country being now divided into ordinary
revenue divisions (mauzds). The name ' Marin ' is applied to those
Mataks who live in the more jungly tracts, dwellers in the open country
being called simply 'Mataks,' while the term 'Moamaria' designates
360 MA TAMURF—MA TAN.
the religious sect of the Mataks or Marans, of whom the Tiphuk Gosain
is the spiritual chief.
Matamuri.— One of the chief rivers of the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bengal. Rises in the range of mountains dividing Arakan from Chitta-
gong, near the Sangu, to which river the Matamuri runs parallel for
about 67 miles on the other side of a chain of hills, and ultimately falls
into the Bay of Bengal. Captain Lewin thus describes the scenery on
the Twine Kyaung, one of its tributaries : ' The stream ran briskly in a
narrow pebbly bed, between banks that rose nearly perpendicularly,
and so high that the sun only came down to us by glints here and
there. Enormous tree ferns hung over our heads some 50 feet up,
while the straight stems of the gar j an tree shot up without a branch,
like white pillars in a temple; plantains, with their broad drooping
fronds of transparent emerald, broke at intervals the dark-green wall of
jungle that towered up in the background ; and, from some gnarled
old forest giant here and there, the long curving creepers threw across
the stream a bridge of nature's own making. Sometimes we came upon
a recess in the bank of verdure which rose on either hand ; and there
the tinkling of a cascade would be heard behind the veil, its entry into
the stream being marked by a great grey heap of rounded rocks and
boulders, tossed about in a way that showed what a sweep the water
comes down in the rains. Scarlet dragon-flies and butterflies of purple,
gold, and azure flitted like jewels across our path ; while silvery fish,
streaked with dark-blue bands, flew up the stream before us like flashes
of light, as we poled along.'
Matail (Martian^ Mdriand). — Ruined temple in Kashmir (Cash-
mere) State, Northern India. Lat. 330 42' n., long. 750 21' e. ; in an
isolated and deserted position, some way up the table-land that looks
over the valley of Kashmir. It is mentioned in the Rdjdtarangiri (B. 3,
v. 462), where it is called Ramapuraswami, and according to tradition
a large city once stood near it. It is a temple in honour of Marttana
(the sun), and General Cunningham dates its construction from 370 a.d.
Vigne says of it that ' it deserves, on account of its solitary and massive
grandeur, to be ranked not only as the first ruin of its kind in Kashmir,
but as one of the noblest amongst the architectural relics of antiquity
that are to be seen in any country.' Captain Bates describes it as over-
looking 'the finest view in Kashmir, and perhaps in the known world.'
Hiigel attributes its foundation to the Pandu dynasty, who reigned in
the mythical age long anterior to Christ. The temple consists of a
lofty central edifice, with a small detached wing on each side, the whole
enclosed in a large quadrangular portico of fluted pillars, 220 by 142
feet. Cunningham calls it a majestic temple, the most striking in size
and situation of all the existing remains of Kashmirian grandeur. The
slight eminence on which the ruins stand rises from the western ex-
MA TAR— MA TAR I. 361
tremity of a table-land between the town of Islamabad and the hills
which bound the valley to the east. The existing remains consist of
huge figures and columns in massive black marble, embellished with
exquisite carving. A celebrated spring issues close to the temple.
Matar. — Sub-division of Kaira District, Bombay Presidency.
Bounded on the north by Daskroi and Mehmadabad ; on the east by
Nariad ; on the south by Cambay ; and on the west by the Sabarmati
river. Besides the main body of the Sub-division, are some isolated
villages cut off from the rest by belts of Baroda and Cambay territory.
Area, 217 square miles. Population (1872) 78,673; (1881) 78,279,
namely, 41,246 males and 37,033 females, dwelling in 81 towns and
villages, containing 18,946 houses. Hindus number 69,374; Muham-
madans, 7SS4; and 'others,' 102 1.
The taluk lacks natural drainage, so that the climate is feverish during
the rains. Rice lands are found in many parts. In 1862-63, when the
assessment was fixed, there were 15,086 holdings, with an average area of
6\ acres, paying an average assessment of £1, 12s. Of the total area of
217 square miles, 16 square miles are occupied by the lands of alienated
villages. The remainder contains 99,888 acres of occupied land; 14,352
acres of cultivable waste; 8235 acres of uncultivable waste ; and 6296
acres of roads, ponds, rivers, and village sites. In 114,240 acres there
are 59,499 acres of alienated land in Government villages. In 1876-77,
of 37,901 acres, the total area held under tillage, 195 1 acres were fallow
or under grass. Of the remaining 35,950 acres, 35S4 acres were twice
cropped. Grain crops occupied 33,542 acres; pulses, 1780 acres ; oil-
seeds, 841 acres ; fibres, 669 acres (of which 665 acres were under
cotton); and miscellaneous crops, 2702. In 1883, there were in the
Sub-division 2 criminal courts ; police circles (f/idfids), 1 ; regular police,
49 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 299. Land revenue, ^26,368.
Matar. — Chief town of Matar Sub-division, Kaira District, Bombay
Presidency. Lat. 220 42' n., long. 720 59' e. Population (1881) 48S9.
Sub-divisional revenue and police offices. Post-office. Srawak or Jain
temple. One school, with 247 pupils in 1882-83.
Matari. — Town in Hala Sub-division, Haidarabad (Hyderabad)
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated on a slight eminence,
in lat. 25° 35' 30" N., and long. 68° 28' 30" E., 20 miles south from
Hala town, and 16 miles north of Haidarabad. Population (1881)
5054. Muhammadans numbered 4245; Hindus, 717; and 'others,'
92. Head -quarters of a iappdddr ; contains a staging bungalow,
dharmsdla, Government vernacular school, police lines, etc. Municipal
revenue (1882-83), ^303; incidence of taxation, is. 2-J-d. per head.
Local trade in grain, oil-seeds, cotton, silk, piece-goods, and sugar.
The transit trade is valued at nearly 1 Idkh of rupees (,£10,000).
Matari is said to have been founded in 1322, and possesses besides a
3 6 2 MA TA UNDJI—MA THE RAN.
fine Jama Mas/id, now about a century old, the tombs of two saints
of renowned sanctity. At these shrines annual fairs are held in
September and October, and each is attended by from 2000 to 3000
Muhammadans.
Mataundh. — Town in Banda tahsil, Banda District, North-Western
Provinces. Distant from Banda town 12 miles west. Population (1872)
5990; (1881)6258. Hindus number 5969, principally Rajputs ; and
-Muhammadans, 289. Market on Mondays and Thursdays ; trade in
tobacco, salt, grain, cotton, and leather. According to tradition, the
scene of a battle between Chhatar Sal and a Jain Guru. A Rajput
zaminddr, named Murli, sheltered here some European fugitives from
Xaugaon during the Mutiny, and obtained as a reward a grant of land.
School, police station, and sub-post-office.
Matheran {The Wooded Bead, ox The Mothers Wood).— Hill sani-
tarium in Thana District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 180 58'
50" n., and long. 730 18' 20" e., 2460 feet above sea-level, about 30
miles east of Bombay. Population, exclusive of hillmen, 2201 in
February 1882. The hill was explored in May 1850 by Mr. Hugh
Malet, of the Bombay Civil Service, and to him belongs the credit
of making its advantages known. Matheran is delightfully situated
on an outlier of the Western Ghats, commanding noble views of the
plain which separates the mountain chain from the sea.
The traveller proceeds from Bombay by the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway to Narel or Neral Station (54 miles), at the north-east
foot of the hill, and thence to Matheran (7 miles) by palanquin
or pony. The road winds upwards through rich forests, and
though broad enough for two ponies is unfit for carriages or carts.
From the railway station it passes through the village of Neral,
and runs for the first mile along the foot of the rocky spur, skirting
a belt of rice lands. For the second mile it goes along the western
face of the spur, and at a quarter of a mile beyond the second
milestone tops the crest of the spur and runs along the plateau that
stretches to the body of the hill. A little beyond the fifth milestone
stands the toll, on the neck between the high headlands of Governor's
Hill to the north and Garbat Hill to the south.
The summit, which has an area of about 8 square miles, consists of a
main central block and two smaller side ridges or wings thickly wooded,
and affording good riding ground. The central block has an average
breadth of about half a mile, and stretches nearly north and south, from
the narrow ridge of Hart Point to the rounded bluff of Chauk in the
south. It may be roughly divided into three parts, a north, middle,
and south section. For about a mile from Hart Point to the Church
plateau, the northern section is thinly peopled, with only a broken line
of houses separated by stretches of wood. On the Church plateau the
MATHER AN. 363
houses stand closer together, and along the edge of the eastern cliff,
groups of huts and small shops cluster round the market-place. The
slopes of the central portion are the thickest peopled part of the hill,
with rows of closely-grouped houses stretching across nearly the whole
breadth of the hill. The southern section, except the Chauk hotel and
a few private dwellings, is almost without houses.
The peculiar charm of Matheran is its Points. These form, as it
were, rocky promontories jutting into mid-air, from which the spectator
looks down upon the valleys more than 2000 feet below. In the
morning the mist lies between himself and plains, and, as it gradually
melts before the rising sun, discloses one by one the villages and fields
which it has concealed beneath. The six leading Points or Headlands
are the Hart at the north, and Chauk at the south of the central hill ;
Panorama Point at the north and Garbat at the south of the east wing ;
and Porcupine Point at the north and Louisa at the south of the west
wing ; in addition to these, three other spots are known as the Artist,
Sphinx, and Bartle Points. Of the several smaller bluffs the seven most
important are, Alexander, Little Chauk, One Tree Hill, Danger, Echo,
Landscape, and Monkey.
A very striking view is obtained, especially in the evening light,
from Panorama Point. The level plain extends from the foot of the
hill to the broken coast-line, about 40 miles off. The great city of
Bombay, with its towers and shipping, lies under the sunset, and the
ocean stretches beyond. Besides the beauty of the summit and of its
views, a great charm in Matheran is the plateau or terrace that almost
encircles the hill from two to three hundred feet below its crest. This
belt has a rich soil, yearly freshened by mould swept down from the
higher land. The hill-sides are scarred by several small streams, which,
though dry during the greater part of the year, bear in their clean-
swept rocky channels traces of the strength of their monsoon floods.
The rides through the woods have a special freshness from the sea-
breeze ; and, although the elevation is not lofty enough to counteract
the heats of summer, it suffices to render Matheran a cool and salu-
brious retreat for the citizens of Bombay during the spring and autumn
months.
In spite of the heavy rainfall of about 200 inches, even the largest
streams cease to flow soon after Christmas. Of eleven springs, only
two, Harrison's on the east, and Malet's on the west, of the main
hill-top, last throughout the year. The latter has never been known to
fail in its supply, and is the only drinking water used by European
visitors. Matheran is singularly free from malaria ; there is no marsh
on any part of the hill, every stream bed is a bare rock, and in
almost all seasons the forest can be entered without risk. It is this
freedom from malaria that makes Matheran so healthy a place to most
364 MATHURA.
visitors. The returns for the 14 years ending 1881 show an average yearly
rainfall of 244-30 inches. The thermometer readings for the six years
ending 1881 show that, on an average, December and January are the
coldest months, with a mean maximum of 69*9° F. ; and May and June
the warmest, with a mean of 81-5°.
According to the Census of 1SS1, the total number of strangers,
exclusive of the local hillmen, was 2201, namely, 1307 Hindus, 766
Muhammadans, 107 Christians, 20 Parsfs, and 1 Chinaman. Almost
all the visitors to Matheran are Europeans, of whom the greatest number
come from Bombay. As a place of resort Matheran has two seasons,
after the rains in October and November, and from the 1st of April to
the middle of June. The management of the station is entrusted to the
civil surgeon, who, with the title of superintendent, has, within station
limits the powers of a third-class magistrate. Subject to the Collector
of Thana, he has the entire management of the station, looking after the
repairs of roads, settling the charges of palanquin-bearers, pony-keepers,
and porters, and regulating the use of water, the conservancy arrange-
ments, and the market. He holds office for two years, and has under
him a first-class hospital assistant, and 4 constables, who, besides their
dispensing and police duties, attend to the general work of his office.
For the convenience of visitors, a telegraph office is open from
October to June, and throughout the season there are two daily
postal deliveries.
The chief public buildings are the post and telegraph offices, the
superintendent's residence, the police lines, the rest-house, the hotels,
market, the library, gymkhana, a church and Catholic chapel. The
leading points on the hill-top may be comfortably seen in three rides or
walks from one of the hotels. Excursions may also be made to Prabal
Point, where there is a fort of the same name which signifies ' Mighty.'
For this place the excursionist starts from Louisa Point, which overlooks
a majestic cliff, whence in the rainy season a cataract descends 100 feet in
width, falling into the valley below by a single leap of 1000 feet. Houses,
of which there are about 85, are generally let from 1st March to 15th
June, and from 1st October to 31st December. The conservancy
arrangements are good, and the hotel accommodation is on an unpre-
tending but adequate scale. Until within the last thirty-five years,
Matheran Hill was inhabited solely by wild forest races of non-Aryan
origin and predatory habits — Dhangars, Thakurs, and Kathkaris. These
still linger in the woods, but their little communities are now believed
to be dying out. An interesting account of Mathera'n has been
published by J. Y. Smith, M.D. (Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart,
1871).
Mathura. — District and town, North- Western Provinces. — See
Muitra.
MATHURA TOWN— MATLA. 365
M&thura. — Town in Gonda District, Oudh ; situated 2 miles north
of the Rapti river, 6 miles from Ikauna, and 15 from Balrampur, with
both of which towns it is connected by road. Population (1881) 307c.
Chief seat of retail trade in the neighbourhood. Bazar, with 85 shops.
The principal buildings are a double-storied brick house, the property
of the Maharaja of Balrampur, 3 Hindu temples, a mosque, and a
village school. A handsome Muhammadan dargah, erected by Nawab
Asaf-ud-daula, is situated about a mile to the north of the village. It
is in charge of a. fakir of peculiar sanctity, who, on the occasion of the
annual Bakr 'Id festival, receives the donations of several thousand
devotees.
Mathwar. — Petty State under the Bhopawar Agency, Central
India. Area, 140 square miles, containing 36 villages. Population
(1881) 2630, occupying 525 houses. Hindus numbered 2207 ; Muham-
madans, 14; and aboriginal tribes (Bhils), 409. The petty State of
Mathwar is bounded north by the State of Rajpur (All Rajpur) ;
east by the Holkar's parga?ui of Chikalda ; south by the Narbada
river ; and west by Chhota Udaipur State, Rewa Kantha Agency.
The country is wholly jungle and hills, inhabited by Bhils and Bhilalas.
The Census must have included many of them among Hindus. The
revenue is estimated at ^380 ; the State pays no tribute. The Thakur,
Ranjit Singh, was educated at the Indore Residency School.
Matiakhar. — Forest reserve in Kamrup District, Assam, on one of
the lowest spurs of the Khasi Hills. — See Mataikhar.
Matiana. — Village and dak bungalow in Keunthal State, Punjab ;
lies in lat. 31° 11' n., long. 770 27' e. (Thornton), on the route from
Simla to Kotgarh, about 30 miles north-east of the former station by
the winding Great Hindustan and Tibet mountain road. Elevation
above sea-level, about 8000 feet.
Matin. — Zaminddri estate in the north of Bilaspur District, Central
Provinces. Area, 569 square miles, with 65 villages and 1683 occupied
villages. Population (1881) 5950, namely, males 312S, and females
2822. With the exception of the Ahiri estate in Chanda District,
Matin is the most sparsely populated tract in the Central Provinces,
having a density of only 10*4 persons per square mile. The estate lies
entirely in the hill country, and is infested to some extent with wild
elephants. The chief is a Kunwar. Near Matin rises the sacred hill
called Matin Deva.
Matla (or R&imatlS). — River in the District of the Twenty-four
Parganas, Bengal. The name given to the united streams of the
Bidyadhari, Karatoya, and Atharabanka, which flow southward
through the Sundarbans into the Bay of Bengal, affording the
means of navigation for shipping to within 28 miles from Calcutta.
The Matla estuary is about 30 miles east of Sagar Island, and is
366 MATLA VILLAGE— MA-TUN.
separated from the Jamira river by Balchari Island and flats. It is
above a league wide at the entrance, the channel leading in a northerly
direction. The depths at the entrance are 9 to 10 fathoms; the
southern extremity of the land, on the eastern side, is situated in lat.
210 32' N., with a shoal bank projecting a considerable distance farther
to seaward. The Matla has several branches at its mouth, the western-
most of which extends to the salt-water lake near Calcutta, and contains
never less than 3 fathoms of water. The main stream of the river is
easily navigable as far as the town of Matla" or Port Canning (now
abandoned), situated about 50 or 60 miles from the river's mouth, and
28 miles by railway from Calcutta.
Matla. — Village in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal.
— See Port Canning.
Matra Timba.— Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 2 separate share-
holders. Population (1881) 433. Area, 6 square miles. Situated 17
miles west - north - west of Botad station on the Bhaunagar - Gondal
Railway. Estimated revenue in 1881, ^"120; from which tribute of
^26 is paid to the British Government, and jQ-j, 4s. to the Nawab of
Junagarh.
Mattod. — Village in Chitaldrug District, Mysore State. The popu-
lation which in 1871 was returned at 1416, was in 1881 only 598.
The seat of a line of Nayak pdlegars, who were distinguished for their
hereditary beauty and stature. The fort was built in 1710; and the
chiefs maintained their independence until 1777. The place is cele-
brated for its glass-works, at one time more extensive than now. At
present only two furnaces are in good repair, built against the inside
wall of the fort. All the materials are found in the neighbourhood.
They consist of soda, quartz, or compact ironstone, compact specular
iron-ore, and copper. The articles made consist entirely of bangles
and wrist-rings for women, in five different colours — black, green, red,
blue, and yellow.
Mattra {Mathurd). — District and town, North-Western Provinces.
— See Muttra.
Ma-tuil. — River in Thayet-myo District, Irawadi Division, British
Burma ; rises near the lofty Myin-ka-dek Peak of the Arakan Yoma
Hills ; flows south, and 8 miles from its source enters British territory.
It then crosses the Min-dun and Ka-ma townships, and falls into the
Irawadi just above Ka-ma, about 50 miles in a direct line from where
it enters the District. The course of the Ma-tun is so winding, that the
actual distance traversed by it in British Burma is about 150 miles.
The scenery throughout its whole length is exceedingly picturesque.
Large quantities of the produce of its fertile valley — rice, cotton, cutch,
timber, etc. — are floated down and rafted at its mouth. Ma-tun has no
MA U TO WN AND TAIISIL. 3 6 7
important tributaries, most of its affluents being merely mountain
torrents.
During the dry season the fields on the high banks, which are some-
times 30 feet above the level of the water, are irrigated by means of a
simple but ingenious self-acting under-shot water wheel, driven by the
current. This machine has been in use here time out of mind, and is
not found elsewhere in Burma ; yet no tradition exists as to the period
of its introduction, or the person by whom it was invented. At the
spot where the wheel is to work, common jungle-wood posts, generally
eight in number, are driven into the ground in two lines of four posts
each parallel to the course of the river, one line close under the bank
and the other some distance out in the stream. A strong bar is
securely fastened along the top of each line, and on these two bars, at
right angles to the course of the river, rests the shaft of the wheel,
which thus revolves between the two lines of posts which support it
The whole of the wheel, with the exception of the shaft, which is of
some hard wood, is constructed of bamboo. Attached to the outer
ends of the spokes, in a similar position to that of the floats of the
paddle of a steamer, are flaps or paddles of coarse bamboo mat-work.
Alternately with these floats, on either side of the wheel, are placed the
buckets, which are joints of bamboo closed at one end by the natural
knot of the wood. These buckets, of which there are thus twice as
many as there are floats or flaps, are so arranged that as the wheel turns
they dip into the water above the wheel, and rise from it below at an
angle of about 450. The current acting on the floats, the wheel revolves,
dipping each pair of buckets successively ; these passing under water
and filling, retain on rising from two to four pints each, which, on
arriving at the top, they discharge into troughs that carry the water into
the fields, and re-descend to bring up a fresh supply. The diameter of
the wheel, which is sometimes as much as 18 feet, is regulated by the
height of the bank, and the shaft is placed at such a distance above the
level of the stream that each float in turn passes completely under, and
the whole of its surface is acted upon by the current. If it should so
happen that the force of the water is not sufficient, dams are constructed
higher up, and after two or three days or less, as may be necessary, the
dam is cut, and the stored water turned on to the wheel.
Mau. — Town and British cantonment in Indore State, Central India.
— See Mhow.
Mau. — South-eastern tahsil of Jhansi District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, intersected by spurs of the Vindhyan range, and much intermixed
with portions of Orchha State. Area, 441 square miles, of which 193
are cultivated. Population (1872) 104,281; (1881) 107,151, namely,
males 54,931, and females 52,220. Classified according to religion,
there were in 1SS1 — Hindus, 101,506; Muhammadans, 4439; Jains,
368 MAU TOWN.
1205; and Christian, 1. Number of villages, 164. Government
land revenue, ;£i 0,496, or including local rates and cesses levied
on the land, ,£11,672. Total rental paid by cultivators, ^30,029. In
1S84, the tahsil contained 3 civil and 3 criminal courts, with 9 police
circles (thdnds), a regular police force of 91 men, and a village police of
2 1 7 chaukiddrs.
Mau. — Town in Mau tahsil, Jhansi District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, and the principal commercial centre of the District ; situated
40 miles south-east of Jhansi civil station, on the Orai and Sagar road,
in lat. 25° 14' 40" n., long. 79° 10' 45" e. The town is connected with
Jhansi and Garotha by District roads. It is also known as Mau-
Ranipur, from the town of Ranfpur situated about 4 miles to the west,
with which it forms one municipality. Population of Mau proper
(1872) 16,428; (1881) 15,981, namely, males 7805, and females 8176.
Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 14,316;
Muhammadans, 1485; Jains, 179; and Christian, 1. The municipal
income of the two towns, with a total population of 22,827 m 1881,
amounted in 1883-84 to ^1459, of which ^1229 was derived from
taxation, mostly octroi; average incidence of taxation, is. o^d. per
head.
Mau is a remarkably picturesque town ; its houses are well built,
with deep eaves between the first and second stories, and hanging
balcony windows of unusual beauty. Trees line many of the streets,
and handsome temples ornament the town, although much hidden
behind enclosing walls. The principal temple is that of the Jains (who
form an important commercial body), which stands by itself, and
presents a noble appearance with its two solid spires and many
enclosures. The principal thoroughfare runs from east to west — at first
a narrow way, but opening out into a wide metalled roadway leading
up to the ganj or market, a large open space lined on two sides by
masonry shops ; on a third, by an old brick-built fort with bastions,
containing the tahsili buildings, police station, and post-office ; and on
the fourth, by two thdkiirdwaras. Westward of the market, the wide
and well-made main road passes with a winding course to the bard (or
principal bdzdr), consisting of three or four streets of well-made shops.
During the Manithd rule, Mau was partially fortified with a high stone
wall, never apparently completed ; but this wall has now been thrown
down to a great extent, and the stones used for bridge-making and
other useful purposes in and about the town.
Mau has only risen into a place of commercial importance within the
last 100 years, having been previously merely a small agricultural village.
The exorbitant demands of the Raja' of the neighbouring State of
Chhatarpur caused an influx of merchants into Jhansi, who settled
down at Mau, which is now the most important commercial centre in
MAU TAHSIL— MAU AIM A. 369
Bundelkhand. The town is renowned for the manufacture of kharud
cloth, which is exported to all parts of India, and which forms the
staple trade of Jhansi District. The wealthy merchants and bankers
of the town carry on trade with Amraoti in the Berars, Mfrzapur,
Nagpur, Farukhabad, Hathras, Cawnpur, and Delhi. The imports
consist of sugar, English piece-goods, silk, metals, coffee, and a large
variety of other articles, of an estimated annual value of £\ 10,000 ; the
exports of dyed and undyed cloth are estimated at an annual value of
^140,000. *
Mau (also known as Chibit). — South-eastern tahs'il of Banda District,
North-Western Provinces ; lying along the south bank of the Jumna
(Jamuna), intersected by outlying spurs of the Vindhyan Hills, which
here nearly abut upon the river, and crossed by the Jabalpur branch of
the East Indian Railway. The jungles and forest of the tahsil are
decreasing in area, owing to the export trade in firewood and timber
with Allahabad ; and the margin of cultivable waste land is yearly
diminishing. Numerous villages, scattered along the chain of the
Vindhya Hills, possess fertile plains of small extent. Area of the tahsil,
3165 square miles, of which 159-3 square miles are cultivated. Popu-
lation (1881) 74,622, namely, males 37,948, and females 36,674.
Hindus number 72,465; Muhammadans, 2149; Jains, 6; and
'others,' 2. Number of villages, 156. Government land revenue,
,£10,935, or including local rates and cesses, ^13,819 ; rental paid by
cultivators, ^19,946. In 1884 the tahsil contained 1 criminal court,
with 3 police circles {thdnds), a regular police force of 43 men, and a
village watch of 224 chaukiddrs.
Mau.— Town in Banda District, North-Western Provinces, and
head-quarters of Mau tahsil ; situated on the right bank of the Jumna,
30 miles distant from Allahabad city, and 9 miles from the Bargarh
station on the East Indian Railway. Population (1872) 2944;
not returned separately in the Census Report of 1S81. Anglo-
vernacular school, and police station. Market on Sundays and
Fridays.
Mau. — Town in Muhammadabad tahsil, Azamgarh District, North-
western Provinces. — See Mau Natbhanjan.
Mau Aima. — Town in Soraon tahsil, Allahabad District, North-
western Provinces ; situated in the trans-Gangetic portion of the
District, in lat. 250 41' 43" N., and long. 8i° 57' 50'' E., 8 miles north-
east of Sordon, and 21 miles north of Allahabad city. Population
(1872) 6189 ; (18S1) 8423, namely, Muhammadans, 4627, and Hindus.
3796. The local market has a considerable trade with Oudh and
Jaunpur in grain, cloth, tobacco, gur, and cotton. The place was
formerly celebrated for its cloth manufactures, but they have been
almost entirely driven out of the field by European fabrics. A small
VOL. IX. 2 A
3 7 o MA- UBIN—MA ULMAIN.
house-tax for police and conservancy realized ;£n6 in 18S1-82. Post-
office and police station.
Ma-iibin. — -Head-quarters of Thonegwa (Thun-kwa) District, Irawadi
Division, British Burma. Lately built on low land in the delta of the
Irawadi, the highest portions, towards the north and east, being barely
an inch above the level of high-water mark in the Irawadi during the
rains. In the south and west are fisheries, and the ground here
becomes one large swamp for a great part of the year. Ma-iibin contains
court-houses, a small jail, police station, charitable dispensary, and
market. Population (1881) 1569; local revenue, in addition to the
imperial and provincial revenue, ^"597.
Maudha. — Eastern tahs'il of Hamirpur District, North - Western
Provinces, conterminous with Maudha pargand, and consisting chiefly
of a level alluvial plain, on the west bank of the river Ken. Area, 232
square miles, of which 145 square miles are cultivated. Population
(1881) 49,905, namely, males 25,313, and females 24,592. Hindus
numbered 42,275, and Muhammadans 7630. Number of villages, 82.
Government land revenue, ,£10,239, or including local rates and
cesses levied on land, ^11,472 ; total rental paid by the cultivators,
including cesses, ^20,518. In 1883, the tahs'il contained 1 civil and
1 criminal court, with 2 police circles {ihdnds), a regular police fofce
of 28 men, and a village watch of 167 chauk'nidrs.
Maudha. — Town in Hamirpur District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Maudha tahsil ; situated in lat. 25° 40' 30" n.,
long. 8o° 9' 25" e., about a mile from the Mahoba road, and about 20
miles from Hamirpur town. Founded, according to tradition, by
Madan Pae, a Purihar Rajput, in 713 a.d. The tomb of Dalir Khan,
the son of the Mughal Governor of Allahabad, who was slain here in
1730, attracts a considerable number of votaries. The fort was built
by Khuman Singh and Guman Singh of Charkhari, on the site of which
All Bahadur of Banda afterwards erected a stone fortress, now the
nucleus of a separate village. Population (1872) 6025; (1881)6116,
namely, Muhammadans, 3234, and Hindus, 2S82. Area of town site,
1 10 acres. Of the Muhammadan population, the great majority
are descendants of converts, and in manners and customs are probably
more than half Hindus. Tahsili, police station (in the fort), Anglo-
vernacular school, and post-office. The town contains several mosques
and tanks, now much out of repair. No manufactures; little trade.
I )urirg the Mutiny, a body of rebels sent by the Marat ha" leader,
IJhaskar Rao, attacked the fort, but were beaten off with the aid of a
few men from Charkhari.
Maudhunkhalla. — Village and mutta in Vizagapatam District,
Madras Presidency. — Set MONDEMKHALLU.
Maulmaill (or Moulmein). — Town and head-quarters of Amherst Dis-
MAULMAIN. 37 r
trict, and of the Tenasserim Division, British Burma; situated on the left
bank of the Salwin, at its junction with the Gyaing and Attaran rivers, in
lat. 1 6° 30' n., long. 97° 38' e. Immediately to the west is Bilu-Gywon,
a large island, which protects the town from the monsoon, but shuts out
all sea view. To the north, on the opposite bank of the Salwin, is Marta-
ban, once the capital of a Burmese kingdom, but now an unimportant
hamlet. Low hills, forming the northern extremity of the Taung-ngu
range, run north and south through Maulmain, dividing it into distinct
and very dissimilar portions, which touch each other at the northern
base of the hills on the bank of the Gyaing. These are crowned
at intervals with pagodas, in various stages of decay. The town
is parcelled out into five ' divisions,' of which four lie to the west ;
and in this portion are situated the public buildings, the military canton-
ments, the merchants' offices and warehouses, and the majority of the
houses of the European residents. The inhabitants here are almost
entirely Europeans, Eurasians, Chinese, and natives of India. The
fifth ' division ' of Maulmain is behind the hills, in the Attaran valley,
and is inhabited mainly by Burmese and Talaings.
The population numbered in 1857, 23,683; in 1872, 46.472; in
1881, 53,107, representing almost every nationality. Of the total
population, males number 32,895, and females 20,212. The area
over which the town spreads, about 14 square miles, contains 9340
houses, or 690 houses to the square mile, each house containing
5*6 persons on an average. The majority of the inhabitants (28,276)
in point of religion are Buddhists; 12,853 are Hindus; 7258 Sunni
Muhammadans ; 85 1 Shia Muhammadans ; 4 Wahabf Muhammadans ;
and 1 194 Muhammadans of unspecified sects; 24 Jews; 5 Jains; and
2 Parsis. Christians number 2640, of whom 383 are European British
subjects, 53 Americans, 1034 Eurasians, and 11 70 Burmese. Of the
total population of 53,107, 3041 were in 600 boats and 18 ships.
The principal buildings are — Salwin House, originally a private
residence, but now Government property ; the hospital ; the jail ; the
Protestant and Roman Catholic churches ; the custom-house, and other
public offices ; the barracks for the garrison of Madras Native infantry.
There is also a telegraph office.
When this part of the Province was ceded by the treaty of Yandabu
(1826), Amherst was first designated as the capital of the newly acquired
territory, but Maulmain was chosen afterwards as being the best site
strategically, and also on account of its being well supplied with water.
In a few years, Maulmain, from being a waste, developed into a thriving
commercial town. It has the usual gold and silver smiths and makers
of niello work ; the gold ornaments, as is generally the case in Burma,
being fashioned from the metal procured by melting down English
sovereigns. A large trade in teak (of which there are extensive forests
3 7 2 MA UNA GAR— MA U NA TBI1A XJA N.
in Amherst District) in a little time sprang up, and for many years
timber proved the only article of export. The revenue realized from
this source alone, in 1855-56, was ,£20,635. With the gradual settle-
ment of the country and increase in agriculture, rice and cotton began
to be also exported. Besides these, the other staple exports are hides,
horns, lead, copper, yellow orpiment, and stick-lac. The principal imports
are cotton-twist and yarn, cotton and woollen piece-goods, wines, beer
and spirits, sugar, and areca-nuts. Salt manufactured in the District
holds its own here as it does nowhere else in the Province.
Total value of exports (1876-77), ^921,379— of imports, ^"994,296 ;
total duty realized on exports and imports, .£35,556. In 1881-82, the
figures were — total value, exports, ,£1,390,837; total value, imports,
.£1,003,976 ; total duty realized on exports and imports, .£39,360. The
average annual value of the exports for the five years ending 1882-83,
was ;£i, 395, 245; and of the imports, ^986,5 28. The number of vessels
visiting the port in 1875-76 was 1115, with a gross burthen of 521,555
tons; in 1881-82, the figures were — ships, 1131, tonnage, 554,272.
Shipbuilding, commenced in Maulmain as early as 1830, forms an
important industry of the town. Burmese female education is particu-
larly advanced in Maulmain, 872 out of every 10,000 women and girls
are learning, and 1063 of each 10,000 can read and write. The jail in
1882 held a daily average of 1074 prisoners, the cost of maintenance
being ^6648. There are four printing presses. The municipal revenue
amounted in 1881-82 to .£11,721 ; rate of taxation, about 4s. 4|d. per
head of population. The dispensary and hospital in 1882-83 afforded
relief to 696 in-door and 8515 out-door patients. The conservancy
system of Maulmain could not be more faulty or dangerous than it is at
present. Maulmain town forms a separate jurisdiction distinct from
Amherst District. A bi-weekly steam service connects Maulmain with
Shwe-gon on the Salwin, and with Duyinseik on the Dondami river.
Maunagar (or Kant). — Town in Amroha tahsil, Moradabad District,
North-'Western Provinces; situated in lat. 290 3' 30" N., long. 78° 40'
15" E., 17 miles north-west of Moradabdd town, and 2 miles east
of the Gdngan river. Population (1872) 7030; (1881) 6936, namely,
Hindus, 4078; Muhammadans, 2S51 ; and Jains, 7. Number of
houses, 1212, on an area of 126 acres. Noted for its manufacture of
cotton cloth, in which there is a large local trade. Market days,
Mondays and Fridays. A small house-tax raised for police and con-
servancy purposes realized ,£146 in 1880-81.
Mau Natbhailjan. — Town in Muhammadabad tahsil, Azamgaih
District, North-Western Provinces; situated in lat. 250 57' 5" n., and
long. 830 35' 40" k., on the right bank of the Tons river, 14 miles
from Muhammadabad town. The place is of greater antiquity than
Azamgarh, the District capital, but the date of its settlement has not
MA UNDA—MA UNG-DA IV. 373
been ascertained. It is mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari as the head
quarters of a pargand ; and during the reign of Shah Jahan, that
Emperor bestowed the town upon his daughter Jahanara Begam, and it
received in a special degree the royal favour. At that time it is said
to have contained 84 muhallds or wards, and 360 mosques. A great
manufacturing industry in cotton cloth was carried on. At the time of
the cession to the British, Mau Natbhanjan was held in jdgir by one of
the Faizabad Begams ; but the town had suffered severely from previous
misrule, and has never regained its former prosperity. A Commercial
Resident was appointed for Mau and Azamgarh in 1802 ; and in addition
to the ordinary country traffic, investments in Mau cloths, chiefly in the
kind of long cloth known as sahan, were made for many years on behalf
of the Company. Private enterprise kept up the trade for a time after
the abolition of the Company's monopoly ; but the introduction of
English-made thread and cloth has given a great blow to it.
The population of Mau Natbhanjan in 1865 was returned at 10,271 ;
in 1872, at 13,765; and in 1S81, at 14,945, namely, males 7612, and
females 7333. Area of town site, 261 acres; number of houses,
2144. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus,
8019, and Muhammadans, 6926. The population still consists largely
of weavers, although numbers of them have taken to shopkeeping and
petty trading in addition to their hereditary occupation. The thread
that is made in Mau is mostly disposed of at Benares, being used
in the mixed silk and cotton manufactures of that place. Considerable
quantities of cloth are still made, both for local use and for export
chiefly to Western and Central India. In all except the coarsest cloths,
however, English thread is used. Silk and tasar cloths are manufactured
to a small extent. The public buildings include a police station, post-
office, Anglo-vernacular school and girls' school, and a military encamp-
ing ground. A daily market is held. For police and conservancy
purposes, a small house -tax is raised, which realized ,£230 in
1881-82.
Maunda (Monda). — Village in Ramtek ta/isit, Nagpur District,
Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 210 8' n., and long 790 22' e., on the
Kanhan river, half-way between Nagpur and Bhandara. The surround-
ing estate belongs to Yaswant Rao Giijar, who has a fort in the village.
Population (1881) 3^2, namely, Hindus, 2966; Muhammadans,
156; Jains, 35; aboriginal tribes, 15. Maunda has a large market-
place, Government school -house, and police office. The population
is chiefly employed in manufacturing cotton cloth.
Maung-daw.— Head-quarters of the Naaf township, Akyab District,
Arakan Division, British Burma. Contains a court-house, Government
cess-school, telegraph office, market-place, and police station. A ferry--
boat plies between this town and Chittagong District. Population
374 MA UXG-MA-GAN—MA VALIKARA.
( i SSi ) 642. During the first Anglo-Burmese war, Maung-daw was
occupied by the British on the 1st of February 1S25.
Maung-ma-gan.— Group of islands off the coast of Tavoy District,
British Burma. — See Moscos.
Mail Ranipur. — Two towns in Mau tahs'il, Jhansi District, North-
western Provinces, but forming a single municipality. — See articles Mau
and Raxipur.
Mauranwan. — Pargand in Pdrwa tahsil, Unao District, Oudh. The
most easterly pargand in -the District, separated from Rai Bareli by the
Sai river. Soil good, producing excellent rice crops, and well wooded.
Population (1869) 90,464; (1881) 80,919, dwelling in in villages;
average density, 473 persons per square mile. Area, 173 square miles,
or 1 10,538 acres, held as follows : — Tdlukddri, 69,363 acres ; aa/ninddrl,
15,355 acres; pattiddri, 25,820 acres. Land revenue, .£12,190, equal
to an average rate of 3s. 6d. per acre of total area. The late tdlukddr,
Raja Gauri Sankar, a Bais Rajput, received his title and estates (which
had escheated from previous members of the family) for loyal service
during the Mutiny.
Mauranwan. — Town in Unao District, Oudh, and head-quarters of
the pargand of the same name; situated 6 miles from Purwa, and 26
from Unao town. Lat. 26° 25' 45" n\, long. 8o° 55' 30" e. Population
(1881) 7163, of whom Hindus number 5575, and Muhammadans 1588.
Noted for its jewellery and carpentry work. Two mosques and 9 Hindu
temples. Bi-weekly markets, attended by about 2000 persons. At an
annual fair, sales are made to the extent of about ^7000- Police
station, sardi, school. The town, which is surrounded by groves of
mango and mahud trees, is connected by road with Unao and Rai
Bareli, and with Lucknow by a cart track leading to the main road.
Maureswar. — Village in Bfrbhiirn District, Bengal, and head-
quarters of a thdnd; situated in lat. 23° 59' 5" N., and long. 870 48' 20"
v., on the road from Suri to Murshidabad. The inhabitants are
principally- engaged in rearing silk-worms, and in silk-spinning and
weaving.
Mavalikara. — Tdluk in Travancore State, Madras Presidency.
Area (including Chengenur), 1164 square miles. Mavalikara con-
tains 145 karas or villages. Population (1875) 109,191 ; (1881)
111,731, namely, 55,604 males and 56,127 females, occupying 23,769
houses. Hindus numbered 91,468; Muhammadans, 4524 ; and
( Christians, 15,739.
Mavalikara. — Chief town (or more correctly a group of hamlets) of
the Mavalikara tdluk, Travancore State, Madras Presidency; situated
in lat. 90 14' 32" n\, and long. 76° 35' n" e., 25 miles north of Quilon,
and 8} miles from the coast. Population (1871)4468; number of houses,
950. Not returned separately in the Census Report of 1SS1. It bears
MA WAI—MA WAL. 375
signs of having once been a place of some consequence ; and has a
large and regular fort, built of red stone and mud, about 2 miles in
circumference, with 24 bastions, each side having a gateway in the centre.
The interior is laid out in neat streets, crossing at right angles, and lined
with the gardens and houses of the Nairs, who form a considerable
section of the population. In the centre of the fort stands an ancient
pagoda. On the east side are several buildings used as public offices ;
on the south is a spacious kotdram where some members of the present
Raja's family reside ; towards the north-east, a short distance from the
fort, runs a long street of houses, inhabited by Syrian Christians, who
have a church at the eastern extremity.
Mawai. — Town in Ram Sanehi ghat tahsil, Unao District, Oudh ;
situated 15 miles south-east of Purwa town. Population (1881) — Hindus,
4031, and Muhammadans, 196; total, 4227, residing in 946 houses.
A place of little importance, with no manufactures or trade. Founded
about two centuries ago by a Rajput named Man Singh. Two temples ;
village school.
Mawai Maholara. — Pargand in Ram Sanehi ghat tahsil, Bara Banki
District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Rudauli and Basorhi, on the
east by Khandansa in Faizabad (Fyzdbad) District, on the south by the
Gumti river, and on the west by the Kalyani. Area, 71 square miles,
or 45,440 acres, of which 23,897 acres are cultivated. Population (1881)
— Hindus, 32,258 ; Muhammadans, 4781; and 'others,' 1 : total, 37,040,
dwelling in 51 villages and 7136 houses; average density, 203 persons
per square mile. Of the 5 1 villages, 46 are held under zaminddri tenure,
4 under pattiddri, and only 1 under tdlukdari. Government land
revenue, ^5601.
Mawai. — Sub-division of Poona (Puna) District, Bombay Presidency;
situated between 18° 36' and 180 59' n. lat., and 730 26' and 73° 51' E.
long. Area, 385 square miles, containing 2 towns and 163 villages.
Population (1872) 56,844; (1881) 62,383, namely, 31,839 males and
30,544 females, occupying 11,747 houses. Hindus number 58,847:
Muhammadans, 1976; and ' others,' 1560. Three leading spurs from
the Sahyadri hills cross the Sub-division. The largest passes east and
west across its whole length in the south ; a second penetrates to the
centre, and the third forms the north-eastern boundary for about 20 miles.
The Sub-division is fairly wooded. Red and gray are the principal
soils; black soil is found only on the banks of rivers and large streams,
of which the chief are the Indrayani and the Andhra. Rice grows
throughout the Sub-division. The rainfall varies greatly in different
parts. It is heavy close to the Sahyadris, and considerably lighter near
the eastern boundary. Hot winds are almost unknown, and the climate
is generally cooler than in the east.
In 1881-82, 111,050 acres were held for tillage, of which 47. 1 25
3 7 6 MA WAN A— MA I AKONDA.
acres were fallow or under grass, and 27 acres were twice cropped.
The principal crops were — grain crops, 54,846 acres; pulses, 3613
acres ; and oil-seeds, 5403 acres. The husbandmen are Kunbis, Mhars,
Mangs, Dhangars, Kolis, and Malis. Most of their houses are poor,
the walls made of hardened earth occasionally mixed with stone, with
sloping roofs generally tiled, and sometimes thatched with reeds and
leaves. Nearly 70 per cent, of the cultivating classes are small pro-
prietors, 20 per cent, are mere labourers, and the rest proprietors with
sub-tenants. The south-east line of the Great Indian Peninsula Rail-
way and the Bombay road both cross the Sub-division. The villages
along or at a short distance from the road derive considerable advan-
tage from the sale of grass for the numerous droves of cart and pack
bullocks that daily halt at the different stages. In 1883 the taluk con-
tained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (t hands), 1 ; regular
police, 47 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 51. Land revenue, ,£7631.
The head-quarters of the Sub-division are at Khadkala, a small village
near the Khadkala station on the south-east line of the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway, 30 miles north-west from Poona.
Mawana (Muwdnd). — Tahsil of Meerut (Merath) District, North-
western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Kithor and Hastina-
pur. Area, according to the latest official statistics, 440-53 square
miles, of which 264*4 square miles are cultivated. Population (1872)
145,496; (1881) 159,832, namely, males 85,575, and females 74,257;
total increase between 1872 and 1881, 14,336, or 9'8 per cent, in nine
years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus,
122,200; Muhammadans, 37,486 ; Jains, 145; Christian. 1. Number
of villages, 255. Total Government land revenue, ^26,852, or
including local rates and cesses levied on the land, ^31,303 ; rental
paid by cultivators, ^55,060. The tahsil contained in 1884, 1
criminal court, with 5 police circles (thdnds), a regular police force
of 58 men, and a village watch of 340 chaukiddrs.
Mawana (or Mawana Kaldn). — Town in Meerut (Merath) District,
North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Mawana tahsil. Lies in
lat. 29° 6' n., long. 770 57' 55" e., on the Dodb upland, 16 miles north-
east of Meerut (Merath) city, in the midst of country watered by the
Ganges Canal. Population (1872) 6714; (1881) 7219, namely, Muham-
madans, 3643, and Hindus, 3576. Agricultural town; bi-weekly
market ; tahsil/, post-office, police station, village school, sardi. Large
Itrick-built tank; ruins of another, on whose bank stands a handsome
old temple. Pools of water surround the town, and fever prevails after
the rains.
Mayakonda. — Milage in Davangere tdluk, Chitaldrug District,
.Mysore State. Lat. 14° 17' 15" N., long. 760 7' 25" e. Population
(1 881) 1308. The scene of a decisive battle, fought in 1748 between
MA YAM— MA YO MINES. 377
Madakeri Nayak, the pdlegdr of Chitaldriig, and the confederate forces
of Bednur, Raidurga, Harpanhalli, and Savanur. The pdlegdr was
utterly defeated and himself killed; and his ally Chanda Sahib, the
claimant to the Nawabship of Arcot, whose cause was advocated by
Dupleix, was taken prisoner. In the neighbourhood is some cotton
cultivation.
Mayani. — Town in Satara District, Bombay Presidency. — See Maixi.
Mayapur. — Village in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas,
Bengal; situated in lat. 22° 26' 15" n., and long. 88° 10' 50" e., a short
distance below Achipur, on the Hugh. There is a powder magazine
here, where all ships passing up the river are compelled to land any
gunpowder they may have on board.
Mayavaram. — Taluk in Tanjore District, Madras Presidency.
Area, 332 square miles, containing 2 towns and 341 villages. Popula-
tion (1871) 219,358; (r88i) 238,994, namely, 115,909 males and
123,085 females, occupying 42,114 houses. Hindus numbered 218,569;
Muhammadans, 10,881; Christians, 9531; and 'others,' 13. In 18S3
the taluk contained 2 civil and 3 criminal courts; police stations (thdnds),
9; regular police, 112 men. Land revenue, ,£59,005. A sum of
,£5260 is paid as rent for toddy-farms. The South Indian Railway
passes through the tdluk.
Mayavaram (correctly Mayurdm; Mayur, 'a peacock'). — Town and
municipality in Tanjore District, Madras Presidency ; situated in lat. 11"
6' 20" n., and long. 790 41' 50" e., on the banks of the Kaveri (Cauvery).
A station of the South Indian Railway, and place of pilgrimage Popu-
lation (1S71) 21,165; (1881) 23,044, namely, 11,304 males and
11,740 females, occupying 4067 houses. Hindus number 21,933;
Muhammadans, 484; Christians, 625; and 'others,' 2. The munici-
pality was constituted in 187 1, and includes the large town of Kornad
on the west. Municipal income from taxation (1SS3-84), ,£1790 ;
incidence of taxation, is. 2^d. per head. Four municipal schools, with
305 male and 25 female scholars ; average annual cost per pupil, 6s. 6d.
Dispensary, which in 1882 afforded relief to 61 in-door and 3065 out-
door patients; 615 persons were vaccinated. The suburb of Kornad
is noted for the manufacture of cloth, known throughout Madras
Presidency as Kornad cloth, worn by native women of the better
classes.
Mayo Mines (K/wura). — Extensive salt mines in Pind Dadan Khan
ta/isil, Jehlam (Jhelum) District, Punjab. Lat. 320 39' 30" n., Ion.;.
730 3' e. The mineral occurs in the chain of hills known as the Salt
Range, the beds cropping out from the red marls and sandstones of
the Devonian group, on the southern escarpment of the hills. They
run throughout the whole length of the system in layers of considerable
thickness, sometimes standing out in the form of solid salt cliffs, as at
373 MAYO MIXES.
Kalabagh on the Indus, in Bannu District. The Mayo Mines — so
called after the Viceroy in 1870 — are in the neighbourhood of the
village of Kheura, a few miles north - east of Pind Dadan Khan.
Excavations existed upon the spot as far back as the reign of Akbar.
Under Sikh rule, the salt was worked at each available spot ; but after
annexation, the British Government restricted the number of mines,
and took up the working as a source of State revenue. In 1S69-70,
owing to the wasteful manner in which the extraction had been previously
carried on, the salt beds were made over to the care of the Imperial
Customs Department ; and in the following year an experienced
engineer was placed in charge of the Mayo Mines.
The salt occurs in inexhaustible masses as a solid rock, embedded
in strata of brick-red gypsum, which crops out at the base of the hills,
and in the gorges, and is the indicator of the salt formation all over
the Salt Range. There are enormous quantities of brick-red gypsum
at Kheura, not only low down in the gorges, but high up towards the
summit of the hills, indicating the enormous riches of salt within them.
The mines now worked at Kheura are called the Baggf and Sujawal
mines. The next largest excavations are the Pharwdla and Makhad
mines, neither of which are worked, but they are open, and have been
surveyed. There are several other old mines in the immediate neigh-
bourhood. Great improvements have been lately effected in the
drainage and ventilation of the mines, and in the mode of quarrying
the rock. A horizontal shaft has also been dug connecting the Baggi
and Sujawal mines, 466 feet in length, passing through pure salt, with
the exception of about 60 feet of marl.
The construction of a steam tramway from the mines to the bank of
the Jehlam, and a ferry across that river to the great salt depot at Mi am
in Shahpur District, together with the opening of the Punjab Northern
State Railway, with a branch to Miani, have enormously developed the
demand for the salt of the Jehlam mines, placing it in competition, in
every part of Northern India, with inferior salt, which was formerly
able, on account of the cost of carriage, to undersell it. The total
quantity of salt extracted from the Mayo Mines during the 35 years
ending 1883-84, or since the mines have been worked by the British
Government, amounts to 40,712,943 maunds, or nearly \\ million tons,
yielding a total revenue in the shape of duty of ,£8,103,984. In 1883-S4,
the out-turn of salt from the Mayo Mines was 1,332,633 maunds, or
about 48,780 tons, yielding a revenue of ^266,526. The supply
is practically inexhaustible. The construction of a permanent bridge
over the Jehlam at or near Pind Dadan Khan, now under con-
sideration, will bring the Mayo Mines into direct railway communi-
cation with the rest of India, and avoid the delay and loss at
; resent caused by transhipment. [For other details regarding these
MA YU—MEEAN MEER. 3 7 9
and the other mines in the Salt Range, see the separate article under
that heading.]
Mayu. — River in Arakan, British Burma ; rises in the hills near
the northern boundary of Akyab District, and flows with a general
northerly and southerly direction into the Bay of Bengal to the north-
west of Akyab Island, between the Naaf and Kuladan rivers. Its
mouth is about 3 miles broad, but entrance is rendered dangerous by
numerous rocks and shoals. The passage used by native boats is in-
shore on the northern side.
Mazagon. — Northern suburb of Bombay city, noteworthy as con-
taining the docks and workshops of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company. Lat. 180 56' N., long. 720 53' e. From their
pier, the Company sends on mail days a small steamer with homeward-
bound passengers for the mail-steamer. There is a large Portuguese
and Hindu population, with a considerable sprinkling of Europeans.
Two churches, one Protestant and the other Catholic ; also a Catholic
school.
Mechi. — River of Bengal, rising under the Rangbang spur in the
Singalila range on the frontier of Nepal. This range forms the water-
shed between the Mechi in Darjfling District, and the Jangba in Nepal.
The Mechi forms the western boundary of Darjfling District from its
source, flowing south till it passes into Purniah. Banks sloping and
well cultivated ; bed sandy in the plains, and stony in the hills.
Fordable throughout the year, except after heavy floods.
Medak. — Town in Haidarabad State (Nizam's Dominions). Lat.
18* 2' 44" n., long. 78° 17' 47" e. Population (1881) 7026. Medak
is built on the northern and eastern sides of a high hill which was
at one time strongly fortified. The fortification consisted of two lines
of wall, one at the base and the other around the summit of the hill.
They are said to have been originally built by one of the Warangal
Rajas, from whom the place was afterwards taken by the Bahmani
rulers.
Meeanee.— Village and Battle-field in Haidarabad District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency. — See Miani.
Meeanee. — Town and municipality in Hushiarpur District, Punjab.
— See Miani.
Meeanee. — Town and municipality in Shahpur District, Punjab. —
See Miani.
Meean Meer (Mian Mir). — Cantonment and head-quarters of the
Lahore military division, in Lahore tahsil, Lahore District, Punjab ;
situated in lat. 310 31' 15" n., and long. 740 25' 15" E., 3 miles east of
the civil station of Lahore, the troops having been removed hither in
1S5 1-52 from Anarkalli (in Lahore city) on account of the unhealthiness
of the latter site, although Meean Meer itself has always been a con-
3 So MEERUT.
spicuously unhealthy station. The population, which in t868 numbered
13,757, had increased by 1881 to 18,409, namely, males 12,637, and
females 5772. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 —
Hindus, 8919; Muhammadans, 6024; Sikhs, 1436; and 'others' (mainly
European troops), 2030. The ordinary garrison of Meean Meer consists
of 2 batteries of Royal Artillery, 1 regiment of British infantry, t
regiment of Bengal cavalry, 1 regiment of Native infantry, and 1 regiment
of Punjab pioneers. The fort of Lahore is. garrisoned by detachments
of artillery and infantry from Meean Meer. The cantonments stand
on an open and dreary arid plain, originally bare of trees, but now
gradually growing greener as canal irrigation extends, and the avenues
of trees now planted along the road-side grow up. Meean Meer is
said to have been at one time named Haslimpur. Prince Dara Shikoh,
brother of Aurangzeb, who was put to death by that Emperor on
his ascending the throne, was a disciple of a famous Muhammadan
saint or//;-, Mullan Shah, alias Mian Mir. He purchased the village
of Haslimpur, and made it over to his religious preceptor, after whom
it was re-named, and has ever since been called Meean Meer. The
mausoleum of the holy man is a handsome domed building of white
marble and red Agra sandstone, with a mosque in the courtyard.
Meean Meer is comprised within the limits of Lahore city, but is not
included within the municipality. It has two railway stations, one to
the east on the line from Lahore to Delhi, and another on the west on
the line from Lahore to Miiltan.
Meerut [Merath). — Division or Commissionership in the Lieutenant-
Governorship of the North-Western Provinces, lying between 270 38'
and 300 57' n. lat., and between 770 7' and 780 42' e. long., and com-
prising the 6 Districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
Mkerut, Bulandshahr, and Aligarh, each of which see separately.
It is bounded on the north by the Siwalik hills ; on the east by the
Ganges ; on the south by the Muttra and Etah Districts of the
Agra Division ; and on the west by the Jumna (Jamuna). Area,
11,320 square miles, with 68 towns and 8206 villages, and 593,215
houses. Total population (1881) 5,141,204, namely, males 2,772,522,
and females 2,368,682 ; proportion of males, 53*9 per cent. Density
of the population, 454*1 persons per square mile; villages per square
mile, 73; persons per village, 621; houses per square mile, 52*4;
inmates per house, 8'6. Classified according to religion, Hindus
numbered 3,960,753, or 77'o8 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 1,135,357,
or 22*08 per cent., being a larger number and proportion of Musal-
mans than in any other Division in the Lieutenant-Governorship except
Rohilkhand ; Jains, 35,920, or '69 per cent. ; Sikhs, 817; Christians,
8339; Tarsi's, 15; ami Brahmos, 3. Among .the Hindu high castes,
Brazilians numbered 435,453, and Rajputs 283,758. The most numerous
MEER UT DISTRICT. 3 8 1
caste in the Division, however, are the despised Chamars, 828,285 ;
the other important castes according to numerical superiority being —
Jats, 366,736 ; Baniyas, 212,899; Gujars, 199,349; Kahars, 179,463;
Bhangis, 177,898; Lodhi's, 102,086; and Koris, 73,746.
The six principal towns in the Division, with their population, are —
Meerut city and cantonment, 99,565 ; Koil or Aligarh, 61,730 ;
Saharanpur, 59,194; Khurja, 27,190; Hathras, 25,656; and
Deoband, 22,116. The total number of towns with upwards of 5000
inhabitants is 68, with an urban population of 800,642, or 15-5 per
cent, of the total divisional population. Of the minor towns and
villages, 5302 contained less than five hundred inhabitants ; 1829 from
five hundred to a thousand ; 797 from one to two thousand ; and 27S
from two to five thousand.
The male adult agricultural population in 1881 numbered 1,000,530 ;
of whom 212,686 were returned as landholders, 10,132 as estate agents,
565,384 as cultivators, and 212,328 as agricultural labourers. The total
agricultural population dependent on the soil is returned at 2,700,795,
or 52*53 per cent, of the entire inhabitants of the Division. Of the
total area, 11,320 square miles, 1493 square miles are held rent-free.
Of the 9827 square miles assessed for Government revenue, 6738 square
miles are returned as under cultivation, 1681 square miles as culti-
vable, and 1408 square miles as uncultivable waste. Total Govern-
ment land revenue, including local rates and cesses levied upon the
land, ,£944,520, or an average of 4s. 4§d. per cultivated acre. Total
rental paid by the cultivators, ,£1,597,255, or an average of 7s. 2Jd.
per cultivated acre.
The total Government revenue of Meerut Division in 1S83-S4
amounted to ,£1,127,383, the principal items being — Land revenue,
,£800,558 ; stamps, .£91,601 ; excise, ,£52,363 ; provincial rates,
,£98,745; assessed taxes, ,£26,336; and irrigation and navigation,
,£ 1 0,1 95. The total cost of civil administration, as represented by
the salaries of all officials and police, in 1S83-84 was ,£134,990.
Protection to person and property was afforded by 74 civil and revenue
judges, and 122 magistrates.
Meerut (or more correctly, Meratli). — British District in the
Lieutenant - Governorship of the North-Western Provinces, lying
between 280 28' 15" and 290 18' n. lat., and between 770 10' 30" and
780 14' e. long. Area, 2379 square miles. Population (18S1) 1,313,137.
Meerut is a District in the Division of the same name. It is bounded
on the north by Muzaffarnagar District ; on the west by the Jumna
(Jamuna) river, separating it from the Punjab ; on the south by
Bulandshahr District ; and on the east by the Ganges, which separate
it from Bijnaur and Moraddbad Districts. The administrative head-
quarters are at the city of Meerut.
3 8 2 MEER UT DISTRICT.
Physical Aspects. — The District of Meerut forms a portion of the
long and narrow plain lying between the Ganges and the Jumna, and
known as the Doab ('Two Rivers'). Like most other Districts
of that fertile plateau, it stretches in an almost unbroken level from
one great river to the other, with only a gentle slope from north
to south. The average elevation above the sea is 730 feet. Though
well wooded in places, and abundantly supplied with mango groves,
there are but few patches of jungle or waste land to break the general
expanse of cultivated soil. Sandy ridges run along the low water-
sheds which separate the minor channels, and some uneven ground is
to be met with in the sunken and shifting beds of the boundary rivers
themselves ; but with these exceptions, the whole District is one con-
tinuous expanse of careful and prosperous tillage. The barren usar
plains, covered with a white saline efflorescence, which prove so great
a pest in other regions of the Doab, are here comparatively rare. The
eastern portion of the District, however, near the banks of the Ganges,
is characterized by rolling sand-dunes, which continually change their
position before the prevailing wind.
Besides the boundary streams of the Ganges and Jumna, Meerut
District is intersected by the Hindan, which is only navigable by
boats in the rains. The present fertility of Meerut is largely due to
the system of irrigation canals, which intersect it in every direction.
The Eastern Jumna Canal runs through the whole length of the
District, and supplies the rich tract between the Jumna and its
affluent ' the Hindan, with a network of distributary streams. The
main branch of the Ganges Canal sweeps across the centre of
the plateau in a curve, and waters the midland tract. The Aniip-
shahr branch supplies irrigation to the Ganges slope. In addition
to these natural and artificial channels, the country is every-
where cut up by small watercourses, most of which are dry, except
in the rainy season. The Biirh Ganga, or ancient bed of the Ganges,
lies at some distance from the modern stream ; and on its bank
stood the abandoned city of Hastinapur, the legendary capital of
the Pandavas. Few remains now mark the site of this Indian Troy,
which is said to have been deserted many centuries before the Chris-
tian era, owing to the encroachments of the river. But the mythical
history of the Mahdbhdrata centres in the town and its neighbourhood,
thus giving a peculiar interest to the whole tract in which it stands.
The city of Meerut itself, which is also of great though not of equal
antiquity, is placed in the very centre of the District, and is con-
nected by railway and road with Delhi, and with all parts of
the surrounding country. It has a large European quarter, with
extensive cantonments, and a strong military establishment. The
District as a whole, however, is rather agricultural than' urban,
MEER UT DISTRICT. 3$3
and the progress of irrigation has made it one of the richest in the
Doab.
History. — Xo portion of India has a history extending back to so
remote a period as the country around Meerut. Even at the early
time when the Mahdbhdrata was composed, Hastinapur was already an
ancient city, the capital of the Lunar race ; and after the great war
which forms the main theme of that poem, it was ruled by a long line
of the descendants of Parikshit, whose annals are civen in the Vishnu
Ptirdna. Passing on from these heroic ages to the first dawn of
authentic history, we learn from the evidence of a pillar, now standing
at Delhi, that the town of Meerut was inhabited in the 3rd century
before Christ ; and the discovery of P>uddhist remains leaves no doubt
of its great antiquity. But as little reliance can be placed here as
elsewhere on any details previous to the first Musalman invasion. It is
probable that until the nth century of our era, the District was mainly
in the hands of predatory native tribes, such as the Jats and Dors ;
and Hardatta, the Dor Raja of Baran, in the adjoining District of
Bulandshahr, seems to have had a fort at Meerut. He was attacked,
according to some accounts, by Mahmiid of Ghazni in 1017, and forced
to embrace the faith of Islam, besides paying a large sum of money
as tribute.
The first undoubted Muhammadan invasion was that of Kutab-
ud-din, the general of Muhammad Ghori, in 1191, when the city
of Meerut was taken, and all the Hindu temples were converted into
mosques. Under succeeding Sultans we hear little of the District,
which may therefore De considered to have escaped any notable mis-
fortune, until the Mughal invasion in 1398. Timiir swooped down upon
Meerut with more than ordinary Mughal barbarity, and was met with
equal Hindu obstinacy. At the fort of Loni, many of the Rajputs
burnt their own houses, with their women and children within, and then
went out to sell their lives as dearly as they could. After the capture,
Timiir ordered the massacre of all the Hindu prisoners in his camp,
whom he himself represents as numbering 100,000 persons. He then
went on to the sack of Delhi, and returned to the town of Meerut,
then ruled by an Afghan chief named Ilias. Timiir first made his
approaches by mining, and on the second day carried the walls by
storm. All the males were put to the sword, and the fortifications and
houses of the Hindus razed to the ground. Thence his army passed
northward along the two great rivers, taking every fort, town, and
village they passed.
The firm establishment of the Mughal dynasty in the 16th centurv,
and the immediate neighbourhood of their court, gave Meerut a
period of internal tranquillity and royal favour. The valley of the
Jumna became a favourite hunting resort for the imperial family and
3 S 4 MEER UT DISTRICT.
their great officers. Pleasure gardens and game preserves were estab-
lished in the low-lying tract just opposite Delhi ; while it was for the
purpose of watering one of these that the Eastern Jumna Canal was
first designed. After the death of Aurangzeb, Meerut was exposed to
the same horrors of alternate Sikh and Maratha invasions which
devastated the other Provinces of the Upper Doab ; while the Jats
and the Rohillas occasionally interposed, to glean the remnant
of plunder which remained from the greater and more fortunate
hordes.
From 1707 till 1775, Meerut was the scene of one perpetual strife ;
and it was only rescued from anarchy by the exertions of a European
military adventurer, Walter Reinhardt, one of the many soldiers of
fortune who were tempted to try their destinies in Upper India during
the troubled decline of the Delhi dynasty. Reinhardt established
himself at Sardhana, one of the northern pargands of Meerut ; and on
his death in 1778, left his domains to his widow, generally known as
the Begam Samru, from the assumed name of her husband. This
remarkable woman was of Arab descent, and originally followed the
trade of a dancing girl. After her marriage with Reinhardt, she
was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, to which she became
a considerable benefactress. Meanwhile, the southern portion of
the District still remained in its anarchic condition under Mardtha
rule, until the fall of Delhi in 1803, when all the country between
the Jumna and the Ganges was ceded by Sindhia to the British.
The Begam, who had up till that time given active assistance to
Sindhia, thereupon made submission to the new Government, to
which she remained constantly faithful till her death in 1836.
The pa rga /ids now constituting the District of Meerut were at first
divided amongst the surrounding Districts, but were afterwards attached
to Saharanpur. In 1818, Meerut was formed into a separate District,
which was further sub-divided in 1824 by the removal of Bulandshahr
and Muzaffarnagar. With the exception of these administrative
changes, Meerut has few historical incidents to show during the early
British period. But it has been rendered memorable by the active
part which it took in the Mutiny of 1857, being the place where the
first outbreak occurred. From the beginning of the year, disquieting
rumours had been afloat amongst the native troops, and the greased-
cartridge fiction had spread widely through their ranks. In April, a
trooper named Brijmohan informed his comrades that he had usul
the new cartridges, and that all would have to do so shortly ; but
within a few days, Brijmohan's house was set on fire, and from that
time acts of incendiarism became common. On the 9th of May, some
men of the 3rd Bengal cavalry, who had refused to use the cartridges,
were condemned to ten years' imprisonment. Next day, Sunday, May
MEER UT DISTRIC T. 385
the 10th, their comrades took the fatal determination to mutiny; and
at 5 p.m., the massacre of Europeans in the city began.
The subsequent events belong rather to imperial than to local
history, and could not be adequately summed up in a brief resume. It
must suffice to say that, throughout the Mutiny, the cantonments
remained in the hands of the British forces, and the District was on the
whole kept fairly clear from rebels. Meerut was more than once
threatened by YValidad Khan, the rebellious chieftain of Malagarh in
Bulandshahr District, but his demonstrations were never very serious.
Indeed, it is a noticeable fact that the very city where the Mutiny broke
out, and where the first massacre took place, was yet held by a small
body of Europeans, surrounded by hundreds of thousands of disaffected
natives, under the very shadow of Delhi, from the beginning to the end
of that desperate struggle.
Population. — The first enumeration of the people which can be
employed for purposes of comparison was that taken in the year 1853,
all previous statistics being rendered useless by subsequent administra-
tive changes. The population was then returned at 1,135,072. At the
Census of 1S65, the number was stated as 1,211,281, or 513 persons
to the square mile. In 1S72 the population numbered 1,276,167, or
541 persons to the square mile. The last Census in 1SS1 returned
the population of Meerut District at 1,313,137, showing an average
density of 551 -q per square mile. The foregoing figures (assuming the
data for the earlier years to be as correct, or nearly so, as the last
enumeration) show that the population of Meerut District increased by
76,209, or 6*3 percent., in the twelve years between 1853 and 1865 ;
by 64,886, or 5-1 per cent., in the seven years between 1S65 and 1872 ;
and by 36,970, or 2-8 percent., in the nine years between 1S72 and
1881. Total increase between 1853 and 1SS1, 178,165, or 15-6 per
cent, in twenty-eight years.
The results of the Census of 1S81 may be briefly summarized as
follows : — Area of District, 2379 square miles, with 21 towns and 1517
villages, and 150.259 houses. Average density of population, 5519
persons per square mile; towns or villages per square mile, "64;
persons per town or village, 853 ; number of houses per square mile,
63; inmates per house, 87. Total population, 1,313,137, namely,
males 705,437, and females 607,700; proportion of males, 53*87 per
cent. The excessive proportion of males is doubtless due to the
prevalence of female infanticide ; but the Act of 1870 has been put in
force in certain villages of the District, and is working well for the
suppression of this practice. Classified according to age, there were,
under 15 years of age — boys 246,964, and girls 204,997 ; total children,
451,961, or 34-4 per cent, of the District population : above 15 years
— males 458,473, and females 402,703; total adults, 861,176, or 65-6
VOL. IX. z B
3S6 MEERUT DISTRICT.
per cent. As regards religious distinctions, the population was classified
as follows in 1881 : — Hindus, 997,812, or 75-9 per cent.; Muham-
madans, 294,656, or 22-4 per cent.; Jains, 16,453; Christians, 4063;
Sikhs, 152 ; and Parsi, 1.
Of the four great classes into which the Hindus are divided, the
Brahmans are numerous and important. In 1881 they numbered
103,862, and held 76 villages as zam'inddrs. By far the greater portion
of them belong to the Gaur division of the sacred class. The Rajputs
amount in all to 44,371 ; but they enjoy great social distinction as land-
owners. The Hindu Rajputs are zam'uiddrs in 194 villages; while
Musalman families of the same stock hold 48 more. Their principal
sub-divisions in Meerut are the Chauhans, Gahlots, and Tuars. The
third great class, that of the Baniyas or traders, is returned at 51,162.
A large number of them are Jains in religion. They now hold
considerable landed property, being zam'inddrs of 136 villages.
The great mass of the population belongs to those lower tribes
classed together in the Census reports as 'other castes.' These
show an aggregate of 798,417, or 80 per cent, of the total Hindu
inhabitants. The Chamars are the most numerous caste, amount-
ing to 204,828 persons, for the most part agricultural labourers.
The Jats, who are returned at 144,034, are the most industrious and
enterprising class of cultivators, both in Meerut itself and throughout
the Division, and they have influenced the character of the neighbour-
ing country more than any other caste. They hold no fewer than 4S8
villages in this District. The Gujars, a tribe of unsettled habits, having
a taste for jungle life and pastoral occupations, with which they are
said to combine a little plundering and cattle-lifting, number 63,113,
and hold 209 villages. Their hereditary character of robber clans is
passing away under the influence of canal irrigation and agricultural
improvement. The other chief Hindu castes are the Tagas (42,563),
Kahars (40,357), Bhangis (54,097), Kumbhars (25,172), Nais (19,546),
Ahirs (16,428), Mails (17,333), Gadarias (15.170), Ron's (12,175),
Darhais (11,685), Sonars (7742), Lodhfs (74S9), Kathiks (6886),
Gosains (5946), Kachhis (5719), and Lobars (52SS).
The Musalmans, who number 294,656, or 22-4 per cent, of the
I )i strict population, are for the most part the descendants of converted
Hindus, holding altogether 337 villages in Meerut. These converted
Muhammadans include 19,374 Rajputs by race, 12,350 Tagas, 159S
Mewatis or Meos, 1458 hits, and 167 Gujars. The District also con-
tained 2162 European residents in 1 S3 1, and 780 Eurasians. The
number of native Christians is returned at 1121; many of them are
Roman Catholics, who were converted in the household of Begam
Samru.
Division of the Tcopk into Town and Country. — The Census returns
MEER UT DISTRICT. 3S 7
the following 20 towns as containing upwards of five thousand inhabit-
ants : — Meerut city and cantonment, 99,565; Sardhaxa, 13,313;
Hapur, 13,212; Ghaziabad, 12,059; Baraut, 7956; Garhmukh-
tesar, 7305; Muwana, 72T9; Bhagpat, 7205; Khekra, 6972;
Shahdera, 6552; Tikri, 6274; Chaprauli, 61 15; Baoli, 5990;
Pilkuwa, 5661; Kirthal, 55 16 ; Nirpara, 5524; Sarurpur, 5374;
Lawar, 5258; Parichhatgarh, 5182; and Phalanda, 5163. These
towns contain an aggregate population of 237,415, or 18 per cent, of
the total District population, leaving 1,075,722, or 82 per cent., as
representing the rural population. The Census Report thus classifies
the 1 5 18 minor towns and villages : — 303 contain less than two hundred
inhabitants; 473 from two to five hundred; 40S from five hundred to
a thousand; 243 from one to two thousand; 61 from two to three
thousand ; and 30 from three to five thousand inhabitants. As regards
occupation, the male population are divided into the following six
classes : — (1) Professional class, including all Government officials,
18,324; (2) domestic class, including inn and lodging-house keepers,
3S7 7 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders, and carriers,
13,736; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 262,128;
(5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 137,435;
(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers,
men of rank and property without occupation, and male children,
269,937.
Agriculture. — Meerut is one of the most flourishing and best tilled
Districts of the Doab. Of a total area of 2379-2 square miles, 1670
square miles are returned as under cultivation; 356*4 square miles as
available for cultivation, but not under tillage; 300-4 square miles
as uncultivable waste; and 52-4 square miles as non-assessed or
revenue-free. At the beginning of the present century, the poorer
crops, such as millets and pulses, formed the staple agricultural pro-
ducts ; but these have now been largely abandoned for the superior
cereals, besides sugar-cane, cotton, and indigo. The year is divided into
the usual rain and khar'if harvests. The rabi or spring crops comprise
wheat, barley, oats, gram, arhar, channa, safflower, mustard - seed,
tobacco, oil-seeds, and a variety of vegetables and other garden produce.
The khar'if or autumn harvest include Indian corn, jodr, bd/'ra, urd,
moth, cotton, sugar-cane, rice, til, san, etc. The staple khar'if crop is
sugarcane. The crop area of the two great harvests is about equally
divided. The area under each in 1883 is returned as follows : — R
or spring harvest — food crops, 639,830 acres; non-food crops, 11,625
acres: total, 651,455 acres. Kharif or autumn harvest — food crops,
323,958 acres; non-food crops, 299,435 acres: total, 623,393. Extra
crops, belonging to neither harvest, 7369 acres. Grand total of crop
area, 1,282,217 acres. Deducting from this total 198,592 acres for
388 MEER UT DIS TRICT.
land bearing a double harvest in the year, there remain 1,083,625 acres
as representing the area actually cultivated.
In irrigated land, producing two crops a year, about one-third of each
holding lies fallow for one of the two agricultural seasons ; but in un-
irrigated land, only a single crop a year is produced from each plot.
The average out-turn of grain is from Sh to 10 maurids, or from 6 to
cwts. per acre, valued at jQi, 16s. ;. that of cotton is 3^ maunds, or 2A-
cwts. per acre, valued at jQi, 6s. Manure is very generally applied,
and the supply is ample. Irrigation is carried almost to its utmost
profitable limit, 197,673 acres having been watered from wells, 5227
acres from tanks, and 321,724 acres from canals in 1SS1. There was
thus a total irrigated area of 524,624 acres, leaving a margin of only
559,00 r acres dependent upon the precarious rainfall; and it is doubt-
ful whether any good results would ensue from supplying the sandy
tracts which compose the latter portion with a flush of water.
The condition of the agricultural labourers has greatly improved of
late years ; from being mere serfs attached to the soil, they have risen
to the position of an independent peasantry. Many of them are, how-
ever, never out of debt from the time they make their start in life to
their death, owing to the enormous rate of interest exacted by the
mahdjans. Artisans and workmen in the towns have also bettered their
condition, though in the villages they are less well off than formerly.
Of the total male adult agricultural population in 18S1, 75,257 were
returned as landholders, 436 as estate agents, 141,175 as cultivators,
and 41,353 as agricultural labourers; total, 258,221, giving an average
of 4*22 acres of cultivated land to each. The total agriculturists, how-
ever, dependent on the soil, number 685,501, or 52^40 per cent, of the
District population. The land tenures are of the same kinds as in
other Doab Districts, namely, zaminddri, pattiddri, and the minutely
sub-divided bhdyachdra. The only taluk, or large estate, in the
District is that of Parichhatgarh, comprising six villages in pargand
Kithor. About one-half the soil is cultivated by the proprietors them-
selves ; the remainder is almost equally divided between tenants-at-will
and those with rights of occupancy. Many of the labouring class also
till small patches of land on their own account, and only hire them-
selves out to eke out the resources of their own cultivation. Women
and children are largely employed in field labour. The Jat women,
with their families, work on their husband's lands, and to this the
flourishing condition of the Jats as a community is to be attributed.
The total amount of the Government land assessment, including
local rates and cesses levied on the land, is returned at ^254,125, or
an average of 4s. id. per cultivated acre; total amount of rental
actually paid by cultivators, ^433,872, or an average of 7s. n Ad. per
cultivated acre. Rents are paid in money, and depend greatly on the
MEERUT DISTRICT. 389
facility of irrigation ; the best canal-watered lands bring as much as
183. iod. per acre, while ' dry' lands let at as little as 2s. 5-id. per acre;
the average of all soils may be taken at about 8s. Wages and prices
are both greatly on the increase. Coolies earn more than double
the ordinary rates in 1858. Agricultural labourers are chiefly paid in
kind; when paid in money, they get from Rs. 3 to Rs. 4, or 6s. to 8s.
a month. Women and children receive wages at half rates. Brick-
layers receive from 6d. to 7 Jd. ; carpenters and blacksmiths, 7^d. ;
and unskilled artisans, 3d. to 3fd. per diem. In 1876, prices ruled as
follows : — Wheat, 26 sets per rupee, or 4s. 4d. per cwt. ; barley, 33 sets
per rupee, or 3s. 5d. per cwt. ; gram, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d. per
cwt. In 1883-S4, prices ruled as follows : — Wheat, 18 sets per rupee,
or 6s. 3d. per cwt. ; barley, 26^ sets per rupee, or 4s. 3d. per cwt. ;
gram, 25^ sets per rupee, or 4s. 5d. per cwt. ; bdjrd, 23 sets per rupee,
or 4s. iod. per cwt. ; jodr, 26 sets per rupee, or 4s. 4d. per cwt.
Natural Calamities. — The District of Meerut may be considered safe
from the extreme miseries of famine, so far as human calculation can
foresee, owing to its very perfect system of irrigation, and the complete-
ness of its communications by road and railway. During the last great
drought in 1868-69, Meerut was able not only to supply its own
domestic wants, but also to export an amount of grain estimated at
about half a million of maunds, or 360,000 cwts., for the relief of the
distressed Districts. Though the quantity of food-stuffs thus abstracted
naturally caused a great rise in prices, there was no conspicuous suffer-
ing in Meerut ; and the people showed their comparative security by
the fact that they did not apply for employment at the relief works
experimentally established by Government in various local centres.
The highest prices reached during the scarcity were quoted in December
1869, when wheat sold at 10 sets the rupee, or ns. 2-|d. per cwt., and
rice at 9 sers the rupee, or 12s. 5Jd. per cwt. Floods occasionally
cause damage in the low-lying lands near the great boundary rivers, but
their extent is inconsiderable.
Commerce and Trade, etc. — The exports of Meerut consist mainly of
the raw products of the country; grain, cotton, and indigo being the
chief items. The imports are English hardware, Manchester goods,
tobacco, drugs, and spices. The manufactures are few and of merely
local importance, with the exception of the indigo dye, which is pro-
duced in very large quantities. Meerut and Ghaziabad are the principal
commercial centres, but the sugar trade is concentrated at Bagpat.
The District is admirably supplied with means of communication by
which its surplus agricultural produce can be exchanged for the manu-
factured articles of other regions. Besides the great water-ways of the
Ganges, the Jumna, and the navigable canals, the East Indian Railway
enters the District on the south, and has its terminus at Ghazidbud,
390 MEERUT DISTRICT.
whence a branch line runs to Delhi ; while the Punjab and Delhi
Railway continues the central trunk line past Meerut city and canton-
ments into the District of Muzaffarnagar, having a total length of 57
miles within the District, with four stations. In addition to these great
connecting trunks, the District has 541 miles of roads of all classes,
the first-class roads being metalled and the others bridged throughout.
Navigable rivers and canals afford 48 miles of water communication.
There are 23 printing presses in the District, 4 of which are in the
cantonments. In 1S84, 7 newspapers were printed in Urdu at native
presses in Meerut — namely, the Lawrence Gazette, Jalwdtur^ Akbar
Alain, Jut-i-Hind, Isldmid Akbar, Shdhna Bind, and Weekly Adver-
tiser.
Administration. — The ordinary administrative staff of Meerut com-
prises the Commissioner of the Meerut Division, a Civil and Sessions
judge, a Magistrate and Collector, with three covenanted Assistants,
2 Deputy Collectors, 6 tahsilddrs, subordinate judge, 2 niunsifs, super-
intendent of police, superintendent of central jail, cantonment magis-
trate, civil surgeon, inspector of education, chaplain, and 4 honorary
magistrates, besides a very large military establishment.
In 1804, the total revenue of the District was ,£25,074, and the
expenditure ,£14,110. By 1S60, the revenue had risen to ,£245,948.
while the expenditure amounted to ,£113,675. In 1870, the receipts
were returned at ^320,502, of which ^"211,810, or nearly two-thirds,
was derived from the land-tax. By 18S4, the total revenue of the
District had slightly decreased to ,£308,411, while the land revenue had
slightly risen to 219,665. The other chief items of receipt in 1S83-84
were — stamps, ^24,290; excise, ^18,230 ; provincial rates, ^"26,894;
assessed taxes, ,£7091 ; and registration, ,£1973. In 1S83, the District
was in charge of 4 covenanted civilians, and contained 23 magisterial and
76 civil courts. In 1883, the regular police numbered 1382 men of all
ranks, of whom 511 were municipal and 153 cantonment police, main-
tained at a total cost of ,£13,316, of which ,£8530 was paid from
imperial, and ,£4786 from other sources. This force was supplemented
by 2260 village watchmen or chaukiddrs, the cost of whose maintenance
amounted to ^£8258. The total machinery, therefore, for the
protection of person and property consisted of 3642 men, being 1
man to every 360 inhabitants and every "65 square mile ; and the
sum expended upon the establishment was ,£21,574, or 3^d. per head
of the population. Meerut contains 2 jails, one of which is central,
while the other is special to the District. The central jail contained
an average daily number of 866-69 prisoners in 1883 ; the average
cost per prisoner being ,£8, 16s., while the average earnings ot
each inmate were ,£1, 9s. 4 .Id. The District jail contained 237^86
prisoners; the cost per prisoner was ,£4, us. i!d., and the average
MEERUT DISTRICT. 391
earnings, £2, 4s. i^d. The Meerut lock-up or subsidiary prison in the
same year contained a daily average of 50-25 inmates.
Education is making steady advances. In 1S60, there were
413 schools, Government and private, with a total of 7567 pupils,
maintained at a cost of ,£3336. By 1870, while the number of
such schools had declined to 370, their increased efficiency was
shown by the return of pupils, which stood at 7919; and the cost
of their maintenance had risen to ,£5363. In 1875, the number
of schools had increased to 416, the pupils numbered 9616, and
the total cost was ^5954. In 1883-84, there were 209 State-
inspected schools in the District, attended by 7221 pupils; but no
returns are available showing the number of private and uninspected
indigenous schools in that year. The Census Report for 18S1,
however, returns a total of 10,011 boys and 561 girls as under
instruction, besides 39,139 males and 972 females able to read
and write, but not under instruction. The District is divided into
6 tahsils and 16 fiarga?ids, with an aggregate in 1870 of 2046
estates, owned by 94,208 registered proprietors or coparceners; the
average land revenue paid by each estate being ^88, 4s. 4-id., and
that contributed by each coparcener, j£i, 18s. 3|d. In 1883-84,
the number of separate estates was 2201, each paying an average land
revenue assessment of ^99, us. 7d. There are 8 municipal towns
in the District — namely, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bagpat, Barut, Shah-
dara, Hapur, Pilkhua, and Sardhana. In 1883, their aggregate
income amounted to ^18,854; the incidence of municipal taxation
was at the rate of is. 4M. per head of their population.
Medical Aspects. — The comparatively high latitude and elevated
position of Meerut make it one of the healthiest Districts in the plains
of India. From November to March, the weather is cool and invigo-
rating, hoar-frost being frequently found in January at an early hour ot
the day. The hot westerly winds begin in April, and the rains set in
about the end of June ; during their continuance, the weather is sultry
and exhausting. Mean temperature — January, 570 F. ; February, 670 ;
March, 73J ; April, 820 ; May, 86° ; June, 87° ; July, S40 ; August, 840 ;
September, 85°; October, 790 ; November, 690 ; December, 590 :
annual mean, 767°. In 1883-84, the maximum temperature at
Meerut was iii"6° in May; minimum, 35*7° in February: mean,
75*1° F. The average annual rainfall for a period of 30 years
ending 1S81 was 28-13 inches. In 1SS3-84, a year of deficient
rainfall, only 13*60 inches fell, or 14*53 inches below the average.
The only endemic disease in the District is malarial fever; but
small -pox and cholera occasionally visit it as epidemics. The
number of deaths recorded in 1883 was 39.630, of which 33,947 were
assigned to fever. The death-rate was 30*77 per thousand in 1SS3, as
39? MEERUT TAHSIL AND CITY.
against an average of 46-46 per thousand for the previous five years.
Eight hospitals and charitable dispensaries afforded medical relief to
1 4 1 4 in-door and 71.517 out-door patients during the year 1SS4.
[For further particulars regarding Meerut, see the Settlement Report of
the District, by Mr. Forbes, C.S., and Mr. J. S. Porter, C.S. (1874).
Also the Gazetteer of the North- Western Provinces, volume hi.
Meerut Division, part ii. 195-438, by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, C.S.
(Allahabad Government Press, 1876) ; the Census Report of the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh for 1SS1 ; and the several Administration
and Departmental Reports from 18S0 to 18S4.]
Meerut (Merath). — Central northern tahsil of Meerut District,
North-Western Provinces, co-extensive with Meerut pargana\ and con-
sisting of a level cultivated plain, watered by the Ganges Canal, and
traversed by the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway. The Kali Nadi
intersects the tahsil from north to south. The soil is generally of
a remarkably fertile quality. Water lies close to the surface, and
wells are made at a trilling cost. The Ganges Canal flows through
the west of the tahsil.; and the whole tract between the Hindan, which
forms the western boundary of the tahsil, and the Kali Nadi, is more
or less completely irrigated from it. The opening of the canal has
given an immense impetus to the cultivation of sugar-cane. No less
than 10 per cent, of the whole cultivated area is under sugar; 31 per
cent, is under wheat, and 7 per cent, is sown with cotton. Area,
366^56 square miles, of which 264*2 square miles are cultivated.
Population (1872) 277,089; (18S1) 291,170, namely, males 158,590,
and females 132,580; total increase since 1872, 14,081, or 4-8 per
cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in
1881— Hindus, 206,798; Muhammadans, 79,826; Jains, I2i9;and
'others,' 3327. Number of towns and villages, 280, of which 132
contained less than five hundred inhabitants. Government land
revenue, ^41,044, or including rates and cesses levied on land,
^"47,870. In 1884, the tahsil contained 4 civil and 10 criminal
courts (including the District head-quarters courts), 6 police circles
(Jhdnds), a regular police force 105 strong, and a village police of 571
chaukiddrs.
Meerut (Merath). — City, military cantonment, municipality, and
administrative head-quarters of Meerut District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, being the sixth town in order of population of all the towns in
those Provinces, or the seventh including Lucknow in Oudh. It is
situated in lat. 29" o' 41" x., and long. 770 45' 3" e., about half-way
between the Ganges and the Jumna, distant 25 miles east of the former
and 29 miles west of the latter. Approached by the ( J rand Trunk Road,
and by the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, which has stations at the
city and cantonments. The city proper lies south of the cantonments,
MEERUT CITY. 393
and was originally surrounded by a wall and ditch, pierced with nine
gates, eight of which possess considerable antiquity.
Though a very ancient town, dating back as far as the period
of the Buddhist Emperor Asoka (one of whose monolithic columns,
originally erected here, now stands on the Ridge at Delhi),
Meerut owes its principal importance to its selection by the British
Government as the site of a great military station. In 1S05, it is
mentioned as 'a ruined depopulated town, and a place of no trade.'
In 1S06, cantonments were first established ; and the population rose
rapidly to 29,0 r4 in 1S47, and 82,035 m 1&53' I'1 18S1, the popula-
tion of Meerut city, exclusive of cantonments, was 60,948, namely,
Hindus, 31,957 ; Muhammadans, 28,140 ; Jains, 613 ; Christians, 225 ;
and 'others,' 13. The cantonment contained a population of 38,61 7,
namely, Hindus, 24,231 ; Muhammadans, 11,003 ; Jains, 404; Chris-
tians, nearly all European troops, 2864; and 'others,' 115. Total
population of city and cantonments, 99,565, namely, Hindus, 56,iSS ;
Muhammadans, 39,143; Jains, 1017; Christians, 30S9 ; and 'others,'
128. Area of city site, 5912 acres, and of cantonment, 2S15 acres.
Among the antiquarian remains of Meerut may be mentioned — the
Suraj Kund, or 'Sun tank,' constructed in 17 14, and surrounded
by numerous small temples, sanctuaries, and sati pillars : the Dargah
of Shah Fir, a fine structure of red sandstone, erected about 1620 by
Nur Jahan, wife of the Emperor Jahangir ; the Jama Masjid, or ' chief
mosque,' built in 1019 by Hassan Mahdi, Wazir of Mahmiid of
Ghazni, and repaired by Humayiin, near which the remains of a
Buddhist temple have recently come to light ; and the mausoleums
of Abu Muhammad Kamboh (165S), Salar Masaiid Ghrizi (1194),
and Abu Yar Khan (1577). Most of the streets have a poor appear-
ance, due to the hasty manner in which they were erected. The
cantonments stand north of the city, at a little distance, and con-
tain 5 bazars. The Meerut church, completed in 1S21, is the most
remarkable building, having a handsome high spire, which can be seen
from the outer spurs of the Himalayas. There are also a Roman
Catholic church and mission chapel, an asylum for the relief of Euro-
peans and Christians in distress, and a club. The Mall is one of the
finest drives in India.
In 1883 the garrison consisted of 3 batteries of horse artillery, 2
batteries of field artillery, 1 regiment of European cavalry, 1 of
European infantry, 1 of Native cavalry, and 1 of Native infantry.
Meerut forms the military head-quarters of a Division, comprising the
garrisons at Delhi, Agra, Fatehgarh, Muttra, Dehra Dun, Landaur,
Riirki, and Chakrata. The health of the city and cantonments, though
good, has apparently suffered from the rise of water level due to the
Ganges Canal. The town possesses considerable trade, but cannot be
3Q2 ME E RUT TAHSIL AND CITY.
against an average of 46 "46 per thousand for the previous five years.
Eight hospitals and charitable dispensaries afforded medical relief to
1414 in-door and 71.517 out-door patients during the year 1SS4.
[For further particulars regarding Meerut, see the Settlement Report of
the District, by Mr. Forbes, C.S., and Mr. J. S. Porter, C.S. (1874).
Also the Gazetteer of the North - Western Provinces^ volume hi.
Meerut Division, part ii. 195-438, by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, C.S.
(Allahabad Government Press, 1S76) ; the Census Report of the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh for 1SS1 ; and the several Administration
and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 18S4.]
Meerut (Merath). — Central northern tahsil of Meerut District,
North- Western Provinces, co-extensive with Meerut pargand, and con-
sisting of a level cultivated plain, watered by the Ganges Canal, and
traversed by the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway. The Kali Nadi
intersects the tahsil from north to south. The soil is generally of
a remarkably fertile quality. Water lies close to the surface, and
wells are made at a trifling cost. The Ganges Canal flows through
the west of the tahsil ; and the whole tract between the Hindan, which
forms the western boundary of the tahsil, and the Kali Xadi, is more
or less completely irrigated from it. The opening of the canal has
given an immense impetus to the cultivation of sugar-cane. No less
than 10 per cent, of the whole cultivated area is under sugar; 31 per
cent, is under wheat, and 7 per cent, is sown with cotton. Area,
366-56 square miles, of which 264-2 square miles are cultivated.
Population (1872) 277,089; (18S1) 291,170, namely, males 158,590,
and females 132,580; total increase since 1872, 14,081, or 4'8 per
cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in
1881 — Hindus, 206,798; Muhammadans, 79,826; Jains, I2i9;and
'others,' 3327. Number of towns and villages, 280, of which 132
contained less than five hundred inhabitants. Government land
revenue, ,£41,044, or including rates and cesses levied on land,
,£47,870. In 1884, the tahsil contained 4 civil and 10 criminal
courts (including the 1 )istrict head-quarters courts), 6 police circles
(f hands), a regular police force 105 strong, and a village police of 571
chaukid&rs.
Meerut (Merath). — City, military cantonment, municipality, and
administrative head-quarters of Meerut District, North- Western Pro-
vinces, being the sixth town in order of population of all the towns in
those Provinces, or the seventh including Lucknow in Oudh. It is
situated in lat. 29° o' 41" x., and long. 770 45' 3" e., about half-way
between the Ganges and the Jumna, distant 25 miles east of the former
and 29 miles west of the latter. Approached by the Grand Trunk Road,
and by the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, which has stations at the
city and cantonments. The city proper lies south of the cantonments,
MEERUT CITY. 393
and was originally surrounded by a wall and ditch, pierced with nine
gates, eight of which possess considerable antiquity.
Though a very ancient town, dating back as far as the period
of the Buddhist Emperor Asoka (one of whose monolithic columns,
originally erected here, now stands on the Ridge at Delhi),
Meerut owes its principal importance to its selection by the British
Government as the site of a great military station. In 1805, it is
mentioned as 'a ruined depopulated town, and a place of no trade.'
In 1806, cantonments were first established ; and the population rose
rapidly to 29,014 in 1S47, and 82,035 m 1853. In iSSi, the popula-
tion of Meerut city, exclusive of cantonments, was 60,948, namely,
Hindus, 31,957 ; Muhammadans, 28,140; Jains, 613 ; Christians, 225 ;
and 'others,' 13. The cantonment contained a population of 38,617,
namely, Hindus, 24,231 ; Muhammadans, 11,003 j Jains, 404; Chris-
tians, nearly all European troops, 2864; and 'others,' 115. Total
population of city and cantonments, 99,565, namely, Hindus, 56,188 ;
Muhammadans, 39,143 ; Jains, 1017 ; Christians, 30S9 ; and 'others,'
128. Area of city site, 5912 acres, and of cantonment, 2815 acres.
Among the antiquarian remains of Meerut may be mentioned — the
Suraj Kund, or 'Sun tank,' constructed in 17 14, and surrounded
by numerous small temples, sanctuaries, and sati pillars ; the Dargah
of Shah Fir, a fine structure of red sandstone, erected about 1620 by
Nrir Jahan, wife of the Emperor Jahangir ; the Jama Masjid, or ' chief
mosque,' built in 1019 by Hassan Mahdi, Wazir of Mahmiid of
Ghaznf, and repaired by Humayiin, near which the remains of a
Buddhist temple have recently come to light; and the mausoleums
of Abu Muhammad Kamboh (1658), Salar Masaud Ghdzi (1194),
and Abu Yar Khan (1577). Most of the streets have a poor appear-
ance, due to the hasty manner in which they were erected. The
cantonments stand north of the city, at a little distance, and con-
tain 5 bazars. The Meerut church, completed in 1S21, is the most
remarkable building, having a handsome high spire, which can be seen
from the outer spurs of the Himalayas. There are also a Roman
Catholic church and mission chapel, an asylum for the relief of Euro-
peans and Christians in distress, and a club. The Mall is one of the
finest drives in India.
In 1883 the garrison consisted of 3 batteries of horse artillery, j
batteries of field artillery, 1 regiment of European cavalry, 1 of
European infantry, 1 of Native cavalry, and 1 of Native infantry.
Meerut forms the military head-quarters of a Division, comprising the
garrisons at Delhi, Agra, Eatehgarh, Muttra, Dehra Dun, Landaur,
Rurki, and Chakrata. The health of the city and cantonments, though
good, has apparently suffered from the rise of water level due to the
Changes Canal. The town possesses considerable trade, but cannot be
394 MEG II. 1 S. 1 XI— ME GHNA.
regarded as a great commercial centre, being mainly employed in
ministering to the wants of the troops and European residents. A
large fair, said to be one of the best of its kind in the North-Western
Provinces, is held at Meerut in the spring, a week after the Holi
festival. Municipal revenue in 1875-76, ^6867 ; from taxes, ^3558,
or is. 4Jid. per head of population (51,991) within municipal limits.
By 1S83-84, the municipal revenue had increased to ,£9810, of which
^7965 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation,
2s. 7^d. per head of population (60,948) within municipal limits.
Meghasani {'The Seat of Clouds'). — One of the chief mountain
peaks in the Native State of Morbhanj, Bengal. Lat 210 37' 5S" N.,
long. 86* 23' 30" e. : height, 3S24 feet.
Meghna. — The great estuary of the Bengal Delta, which conveys
to the sea the main volume of the waters of both the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra. The name is properly applied only to the channel of
the old Brahmaputra, from Bhairab bazar downwards, after it has
received the Surma or Barak from Sylhet ; but some maps mark the
head-waters of the Meghna as a small stream meandering through the
centre of Maimansingh District, and joining the Brahmaputra near
Bhairab bazar. At the present time, the main streams of the Brahma-
putra or Jamuna and of the Ganges or Padma unite at Goalanda, and
enter the estuary of the Meghna opposite Chandpur. The Meghna
proper, throughout its entire course, which runs almost due south, con-
stitutes an important political boundary between the two halves of
Eastern Bengal. On the right or west bank, proceeding down stream,
lie the Districts of Maimansingh, Dacca, Fan'dpur, and Bakarganj ;
on the left or east, the Districts of Tipperah and Noakhalf. It nowhere
flows within clearly defined banks ; and it enters the sea by four
principal mouths, enclosing the three great islands of Dakshin
Shahbazpur, Hatia, and Sandwip.
The general characteristics of the Meghna- are everywhere the same
• — a mighty rolling river, of great depth and turbidness, sometimes
split up into half a dozen channels by sandbanks of its own formation,
sometimes spreading out into a wide expanse of water which the eye
cannot see across. It is everywhere subject to tidal action, and exhibits
the phenomenon of the 'bore' on a grand scale. It is navigable by
native boats of the largest burthen, and also by river steamers all the
year through ; but the navigation is difficult and sometimes dangerous.
At low tide, the bed is obstructed by shifting sandbanks and by ' snags'
or trees stuck fast in the bottom. When the tide is high, or when
the river is in flood, and especially when the monsoon is blowing,
the surface often becomes too boisterous for heavy-laden river craft to
float in safety. The most favourable season for navigation is between
November and February ; but even in those months the native boatman
MEHAR. 395
fears to continue his voyage after nightfall. Alluvion and diluvion
are constantly taking place, especially along the seaboard, where the
antagonistic forces of river and ocean are ever engaged in the process
of land-making. In Noakhali District, the mainland is said to have
advanced seawards 4 miles within twenty-three years ; while the islands
fringing the mouth are annually being cut away and re-deposited
in fresh shapes. For some years past, the Meghna has shown a
tendency to shift its main channel gradually towards the west.
The tidal phenomena of the Meghna surpass those of any other
Indian river. The regular rise of the tide is from 10 to 18 feet; and
at springs, or at every full and new moon, the sea rushes up in a single
wave, known as the 'bore.' On the Meghna, the 'bore' is no mere
spectacle for admiration, but a justly dreaded danger to boatmen.
It may be witnessed in its greatest development at the time of the
equinoxes, when navigation is sometimes impeded for days together,
especially when the wind blows from the south. Before anything can
be seen, a noise like thunder is heard seawards in the far distance.
Then the tidal wave is suddenly beheld, advancing like a wall topped
with foam, of the height of nearly 20 feet, and moving at the rate of
15 miles an hour. In a few minutes, all is over; and the brimming
river has at once changed from ebb to flood tide.
A still greater danger than the ' bore ' is the ' storm-wave,' which
occasionally sweeps up the Meghna in the wake of cyclones. These
' storm-waves,' also, are most liable to occur at the break of the
monsoons in May and October. In the cyclone of May 1867, the
island of Hatia was entirely submerged by a wave which is estimated
to have reached a height of 40 feet. But the greatest of these disasters
within the memory of man is that which occurred on the night of 31st
October 1876. Towards evening of that day, the wind had gradually
risen till it blew a gale. Suddenly, at about midnight in some places,
and nearer dawn in others, the roar of the ' bore ' was heard, drowning
the noises of the storm. Two and three waves came on in succession,
flooding in one moment the entire country, and sweeping before them
every living thing that was not lucky enough to reach a point of vantage.
The destruction of human life on that memorable night is credibly
estimated at 100,000 souls in the mainland portion of Noakhali District
and the two islands of Sandwip and Hatia, or about 19 per cent, of
the total population. As usually happens in such cases, the mortality
subsequently caused by cholera and a train of dependent diseases
equalled that due directly to drowning. A full account of this calamity
will be found in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. vi., Appendix.
Mehar. — Sub-division of Shikarpur District, Sind, Bombay Presi-
dency; situated between 260 52' and 270 26' 30" x. Int., and between
670 n' and 6S° 15' e. long. Area, 1525 square miles. Population
Kww«'"#Vi-«-« .
r r
I
I ■
■?
So
I
• I
V..V.
396 MEIIAR.
(1SS1) 152.320. Bounded on the north by Larkhana ; on the east by
tl e Indus; south by the Sehwan Sub-division of Karachi (Kurrachee)
District; and west by Khelat. Extreme length, 45 miles; breadth,
Z- miles.
Physical Aspects. — With the exception of the extreme western
portion, which is mountainous and contains peaks 6000 feet high, the
country is a flat plain intersected by the Western Nara Canal. The
tract between this stream and the Indus is very fertile, and fairly
wooded. Patches ofka/arox saline waste occur at places. The Indus
supplies all the canals in this Sub-division, the principal of which are —
the Western Nara, 71 miles long; the Wahurwah, 30 miles long,
tapping the Indus at Ghana, and joining it again near Sfta ; the Marui,
Kudan, and other minor branches. Numerous hill torrents are also
utilized for irrigation purposes. Under the hills, the land is very
favourable for cotton; and it is estimated that 300,000 acres are suitable
for the cultivation of this important staple. The only Government
forest is the Magsi, with an area of 1483 acres. Babul, nim, sissu,
almond, and medlar trees abound. Alum is found in the Khirthar
range to the west of Mehar.
Population. — The total population of Mehar Sub-division was returned
in 1S72 at 142,305. In 1SS1 the population numbered 152,320,
namely, 81,665 males and 70,655 females, dwelling in 274 towns and
villages, and occupying 23,623 houses. Muhammadans numbered
I3°)°85; Hindus, 10,387; Sikhs, 11,782; Christians, 36; Jews, 4;
and aboriginal tribes, 26. The average of persons per square mile is
99'8. The chief towns are Mehar and Khairpur Natheshah. Eight
fairs are held in the Sub-division, that of Nango Shah being the most
numerously attended.
There are two sanitaria in Mehar, viz. Dhar Yaro and the Danna
Towers. The former is situated in lat. 270 20' n., and long. 67° 17' E.,
on the Khirthar range, distant 70 miles west from Larkhana. It is
surrounded by lofty peaks, and sheltered on all sides; but the hot
winds which blow in the plains during the summer would make the
journey extremely hazardous for an invalid. The Danna Towers stand
at an elevation of 4500 feet, on a plateau of the Khirthar mountains,
about 50 miles south-west of Mehar town. The scenery is highly
pi« turesque About 3 miles to the south-west is the little river Hcrar,
containing abundant supplies of water. The lofty crags overhanging
the valley are studded with flowers and ferns. The general aspect of
the hills is wild and barren, but thousands of sheep and goats find
among the stunted vegetation. The atmosphere is very clear
and buoyant, and the climate uniform. The only hot months are June
and July. The present accommodation at the Towers is inadequate.
iiulturc. — The /'//(////crops, sown in June and reaped in October,
MEHKAR TO U\X— MEHMADABAD. 399
Mehkar. — Chief town of Mehkar taluk, Buldana District, Berar ;
situated in lat. 20° 9' 30" x., and long. 760 37' e., on rising uneven
ground on the high road from Jalna Nagpur. Population (1881) 4373.
Mehkar is said to take its name from Meghan Kara, a demon, who,
after a combat, was put to death by Sharangdhar, an incarnation of
Vishnu. Outside the town are the ruins of an ancient edifice of solid
masonry attributed to Hemar Panth, and said to be over 2000 years
old. In 1769 a.d., the Peshwa Madhu Rao, accompanied by Sindhia
and Rukan-ud-daula, the Nizam's minister, encamped here, with the
intention of punishing the Nagpur Bhonsla, who had assisted Raghunath
Rao's insurrection. General Doveton also encamped here with his army
in 181 7 on his march to Nagpur against Apa Sahib Bhonsla, who had
broken the treaty of Deogaon. Mehkar formerly contained many
weavers, Hindu and Muhammadan. The latter, about 400 years ago,
were so rich that they not only undertook to fortify the place, but could
afford to build up the fallen rampart, as appears from an inscription
on the Momins' gate still standing. Pindari inroads reduced the town
to great distress ; and its ruin was completed by the great famine of
1803, after which, it is said, not more than 50 inhabited huts remained.
Till quite recently, Mehkar was famous for its excellent dhotis (waist-
cloth';), but the cheapness of European fabrics has lessened the demand
for these. Mehkar possesses two Government schools, one of which
is for Muhammadans; a dispensary, a post-office, and a public library
or reading room. Weekly market.
Mehmadabad. — Sub-division of Kaira District, Bombay Presidency
Bounded on the north by Baroda (the Gaekwar's) territory ; on the
north-east, east, and south by other Sub-divisions of Kaira District; on
the west and north-west by Daskroi Sub-division, Ahmadabad Dis-
trict. Area, 174 square miles, with 2 towns, 58 villages, and 22,107
houses. Population (1881) SS,936, namely, males 46,018, and females
42,918. Hindus number 78,617; Muhammadans, 7483; and 'others,'
2836.
The Sub-division consists of a rich level plain, mostly open and
thinly wooded. The land is poor, light, and sandy, but a portion is
fit for rice cultivation. The rivers Meshvo and Vatrak are shallow
streams running south-west.
The Sub-division was settled for 30 years in 1859-63. At the time
of survey there were 12,341 holdings, with an average of 7 acres each,
piying an average Government assessment of jQi, 15s. 2d. In 1S76-77,
48,305 acres were under cultivation, of which 2541 were fallow or under
grass, and 1876 twice cropped. Mehmadabad Sub-division contained,
at the time of Settlement, 86,928 acres of occupied land ; 6925 ac
of cultivable waste ; 39SS acres of barren waste ; 6405 acres of roads,
rivers, ponds, and village sites, and lands of alienated villages. Grain
4oo ME JIM AD A BAD TOU'X—MEHU'AS.
crops occupied 41,507 acres; pulses, 3627 acres; oil-seeds, 450 acres;
fibres, 631 acres, mostly cotton; and miscellaneous crops, 1425 acres.
In 1SS3 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 6 criminal courts; police
circles (/hands), 2; regular police (including Kaira head -quarters'
police), 212 men; village watch {chaukiddrs), 165.
Mehmadabad. — Chief town of the Mehmadabad Sub-division,
Kaira District, Bombay Presidency ; and a station on the Bombay,
Baroda, and Central India Railway; 17 miles south of Ahmadabad.
Situated in lat. 220 49' 30" _\\, and long. 720 48' E. Population (1881)
8173, namely, 4153 males and 4020 females, of whom 6535 are Hindus,
1592 Muhammadans, 33 Jains, 9 Christians, and 4 Parsi's. Meh-
madabad is a municipality, with an income (1882) of ^437 ; incidence
of municipal taxation, 6d. per head. It was founded in 1479 by Mahnuid
Begara, who ruled in Gujarat from 1459 to 15 13. It was improved by
Mahnuid in. (1536-54), who built a deer park with an enclosure six
miles long. At each corner of the park was a palace with gilded walls
and roof. On the right-hand side of the gates leading to the palaces
were placed bdzdrs. Of the objects of interest, the most notable are
two tombs about a mile to the east of the town, built in 1484 in honour
of Mubarak Sayyid, one of the ministers of Mahnuid Begara, and of
his wife's brothers. Post-office; dispensary. In 1SS3-84, the town
contained 4 schools with 540 pupils.
Mehsi. — Village in Madhubani Sub-division, Champaran District,
Bengal; situated on the main road from Muzaffarpur to Motihari.
Population (1881) 3334. Mehsi is supposed to have been the sadr
or chief station in North Behar, when the Company first acquired the
Province. It is noted for a strong-flavoured tobacco, the seed of which
is said to have been imported long ago by the European officer formerly
stationed here.
Mehwas. — Group of six States under the Khandesh Political
Agency, Bombay Presidency ; situated in the extreme west of Khan-
desh, partly among the western extremities of the Satpuras, and partly
on the low ground below the hills, spanning the interval between the
Xarbada and Tapti rivers. Population about 7000 ; estimated gross
yearly revenue, ^5000. The tract is broken and wild, and more or less
covered with forests. Abundantly watered by mountain streams flowing
into the Xarbada and Tapti rivers. Inhabited chiefly by Bhils, who
appear to be superior in intelligence and physical development to those
of the Dang tract, and are far more turbulent and warlike. All over the
States there is a great deal of rich black soil ; but only scattered
patches close to the villages are cultivated. As the supply of grain does
not meet the local demand, the people eke out a living on fruits, roots,
and other forest produce. The Political Agent has not, by efforts long
continued, been able entirely to put a stop to the practice of killing
MEJA—MELAGIRIS. 401
persons supposed to be witches. The six States are Chikhli, Nal-
Singpur, Nawalpur, Gawholi, and Kathi. The chiefs of the three last-
named are minors, and their States are under Government manage-
ment. The only trade is in timber.
Meja. — South-eastern tahsil of Allahabad District, North-Western
Provinces, conterminous with Kairagarh pargand, and comprising the
large estates {taluks) of Chaurasi, Manda, Daiya, Kohrar, Barskhar,
and Kharka. In the north, the country is densely populated and
well cultivated, with a fine alluvial soil. The central tract has
a band of good level loam, but the east and south consists of low,
stony hills, scantily populated, and very little cultivated. Area of
the tahsil, according to the latest official statement, 66o'8 square
miles, of which 638-5 square miles are assessed for Government
revenue, the remainder being held rent-free. Of the assessed area,
349-5 square miles are cultivated, 107-4 square miles cultivable, and
1 Si -6 square miles uncultivable waste.
Population of the tahsil (1872) 171,423; (18S1) 192,205, namely,
males 96,461, and females 95,744; total increase since 1872, 20,782,
or i2*i per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion,
there were in iSSr — Hindus, 181,839; Muhammadans, 10,166; Jains,
195; 'others,' 5. Number of villages, 581, of which 478 contained
less than five hundred inhabitants. The principal proprietary classes
are Brahmans, Rajputs, Kiirmis, and Muhammadans, the cultivating
classes consisting of Brahmans, Rajputs, Ahirs, Kiirmis, Kachhis,
Kewats, Kayasths, Muhammadans, and Baniyas. The difference in
soil and climate between the northern and southern portions of the
tahsil affects not only the number but the condition of the tenantry. In
the north, with a good climate and soil, there is a dense population,
ample irrigation, high cultivation, and a fairly well-to-do peasantry.
In the south, on the other hand, the poorness of the soil necessitates
frequent fallows; irrigation is, as a rule, impracticable, except in favoured
spots ; holdings are large, crops scanty, cultivation slack, and the
people badly off. The Government land revenue of the tahsil in iSSr
amounted to .£29,774, or including local rates and cesses levied on
the land, £"35,409. Total rental, including cesses, .£56.479. In
1884, the tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court, 5 police circles
(thdnds), a regular police force 5S strong, and a village watch of 410
chaukiddrs.
Melagiris. — Mountain range in Salem District, Madras Presidency,
lying between 12° 10' and 120 30' n. lat, and between 770 38' and 7S 2'
E. long., and occupying the south and south-east of Osiir taluk. Average
elevation, about 3500 feet ; highest point, Ponasiheta, 4969 feet. The
hills are inhabited by Malayali hillmen, and are thickly covered with
bamboo. There are also some sandal wood forests. Water is bad
vol. ix. 2 c
4 o 2 MELA O—MEL GHA T.
and scarce, and the whole tract is very malarious, fever of a severe
type being common.
Melao. — Town in Baroda State, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. Lat.
220 34' x., long. 72° 52' E. Population (1881) 5377.
Melapalaiyam. — Town in Tinnevelli taluk, Tinnevelli District,
Madras Presidency ; situated about three miles from Tinnevelli town.
Population (1881) 6875, of whom 1S60 are Hindus, 4972 Muhamma-
dans, and 43 Christians. Number of houses, 1628. Police station and
post-office.
Melapavur. — Town in Tinnevelli District, Madias Presidency.
Population (1SS1) 5262, namely, Hindus, 5033; Christians, 17.3; and
Muhammadans, 56.
Melghat (sometimes called Gangrd). — - Taluk and hill tract of
Ellichpur District, Berar, lying between 210 11' and 21° 46' n. lat., and
between 760 40' and 77° 40' e. long. Bounded on the north by the
Central Provinces and the Tapti river ; on the east by the Tapti and
Nimari ; on the south by Ellichpur taluk ; and on the west by the
Central Provinces. Area, 1649 square miles, with 313 villages and
791 x houses. Population (1867) 40,666; (1881) 42,655, namely,
22,2 [7 males and 20,438 females, or 25-S6 persons per square
mile. Hindus number 41,118; Muhammadans, 1522; Jains, 7;
Sikhs, 2 ; Christians, 5 ; and Pirsis, 1. Area occupied by cultivators,
69,742 acres. Total agricultural population, 30,10s. Melghat is a
section of the Satpura range, extremely rugged, and broken into a suc-
cession of hills and valleys. The main ridge or watershed of the range,
rising to 39S7 feet above sea-level at Bairat, runs from east to west,
almost parallel to, and a few miles from, the plain of Berar on the south.
This ridge terminates towards the south very abruptly, in some cases in
sheer scarps of trap rock, over 1000 feet high, forming round the station
of Chikalda magnificent cliffs, which characterize its scenery. The
northern ranges, on the other hand, gradually descend by gently
sloping plateaux to the valley of the Tapti. In the Melghat, the crest
of the Satpuras attains an average elevation of 3400 feet above sea-
level, while the highest of the lower hills bordering on the Tapti is
1650 feet.
The chief passes are Mallana on the east, Dulghdt on the west, and
Bingara on the extreme west. The two first have roads practicable for
wheeled carriages. From time immemorial, forests have covered the
highlands, clearings for cultivation existing here and there. Teak and
tiwas (Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth.) abound in parts, together with
many other valuable timber-trees. The trunks of some of these —
notably the sdj (Terminalia toroentosa, //'. and A.), hardu (Adina
rdifolia, J look. f. and Bth.\ lendia (Lagerstrcemia parviflora, Hook.),
and behera (Terminalia belerica, Roxb.) — run up to a height of 60 or
MELGHAT. 403
70 feet without a branch. The bamboo is abundant. The forests are
now under Government conservancy. Various dyes, gums, fibres,
beeswax, and honey are among the forest produce. Large deer and
smaller game abound in the forests, and tigers are also found.
Numerous streams rise in the Satpuras. Seven of the most important
flow south into the Prima affluent of the Tapti, while some drain the
country northwards, carrying their waters direct to the Tapti, which
skirts in its course about 30 miles of the northern boundary of Melghat.
Towards the hot season, all these streams dry up, save where, in the
upper hills, deep cavernous basins are found, large enough to hold a
supply till the next monsoon. Lower down, the water lies in lar_;e
sheets, one of which, at a village on the Sipna, is above a mile long, and
about 100 yards wide, and of considerable depth. The climate of the
higher ranges is healthy and invigorating ; the lower valleys are
malarious and enervating, except during the hot season. The mean
temperature at Chikalda is 71" F. The tea-plant thrives in Melghat;
and as the rains approach, orchids and polypods spring into life. Among
the few gay flowers in the cold months are those of the downy Grislea,
and the sweet Clematis gouriama, whose odour hangs on every hill,
where its plant is seen entwining its leafy tendrils from branch to
branch, in snowy wreaths.
The Melghat contains no town ; but in this tract are situated the
remarkable forts of Gawilgarh and Narnala, and the pleasant hill
station of Chikalda, 3777 feet above sea-level. Darni, the largest of
the villages, contains fewer than Soo inhabitants; the only others
worthy of note are Dewa and Bairagarh, where annual fairs are held.
Large numbers of horned cattle are kept, and the trade in gh'i is
considerable. In 1883, the taluk of Melghat contained 1 civil and 1
criminal court; police circles (thdnds), 6; regular police, Si men; village
watch, 4. Total revenue, ^5660, of which ,£3496 was derived from
land.
More than four-fifths of the population are aborigines and hill tribes,
of whom the Korkus are the most numerous. The report of the
Census of 18S1 returned the Korkus as numbering in Berar 28,450,
namely, 14,443 males and 14,007 females. Of these, 26.781 were found
in Melghat taluk. The Korkus belong to the Kolarian stock, who
are believed to have entered India on the north-east, making their
way along the outskirts of the Himalayas. In language and general
type, they are said to be almost identical with the Koi.s and
Santals. The Korkus are slightly taller than the Gonds, well-built
and muscular, but with unpleasing features. They worship, in addition
to Mahadeo and other Hindu gods, their male and female ancestors ;
they hold a ceremony called phuljagni, at which they place the departed
spirits at rest. The village priest is expected to ward off and cure
4o4 MELUKOTE—MELUR.
diseases, and to defend them from wild beasts. The belief in magic
and supernatural powers is universal. Whenever a Korku dies, a slab
of sacred teak-wood is set up in the village cemetery. Of the 28,450
Korkus, the Census returned 28,400 as professing Hinduism.
The Korkus who first came to Berar found the Nihals in possession
of Melghdt Gradually the Nihals lost their power, and became
the village drudges of the Korkus. The Nihals are now fast losing
their language also ; the younger generation speak only Korku. The
two tribes are friendly ; they smoke together, but the Nihals generally
sit apart, yielding the higher or better position to the Korkus. The
Nihals were once much addicted to cattle-lifting, but they have held this
propensity in check of late years. About one-third in each sex are
unemployed ; the remainder are chiefly agriculturists. The Nihals of
Berar are found almost exclusively in Melghat. The Census of 188 1
returned them as numbering 2483, all professing Hinduism.
Melukote (Me/kot, literally ' Superior Fort'). — Sacred village and
municipality in Attikuppa taluk, Hassan District, Mysore State. Lat.
120 40' N., long. 760 43' E. Population (1881) 2267, of whom the
majority are Sri-Vaishnav Brahmans. Municipal revenue (1881-82),
^"ioo ; incidence of taxation, ioj-d. per head. Formerly a great city, of
which only the ruins now remain. In the 12th century, the Vishnuite
reformer, Ramanuja, lived here for fourteen years, having fled from the
persecution of the Choki king. It thus became the chief seat of the
Sri-Vaishnav Brahmans, who converted to their sect the Ballala dynasty,
and obtained rich endowments. In 1771 the town was sacked by the
Marathas. The principal temple, dedicated to Krishna under the
name of Cheluva-pulle Raya, was under the special patronage of the
late Maharaja of Mysore, and possesses a valuable collection of jewels.
\ more striking building is the temple of Narasimha, situated on a
rocky eminence. The Vaira Mudi festival is annually attended by
10,000 persons. The guru or priest of the Sri-Vaishnav Brahmans has
his residence here ; and about 400 priests are attached to the great
temple, of whom some are men of learning. There are special indus-
tries of cotton-weaving, and the manufacture of ornamental fans out of
the fragrant roots of khas-khas grass. A white clay called ndma, found
in the neighbourhood, which has been formed by the decomposition of
schistose mica, is used by the Sri-Vaishnavs for painting the sectarian
mark on their foreheads, and is exported for this purpose as far as
Benares.
Meliir. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Madura District, Madras Presi-
dency. Area, 628 square miles. Population (18S1) 132,537, namely,
63,169 males and 69,368 females, dwelling in 93 villages, containing
29,354 houses. Hindus number 124,322; Muhammadans, 7506; and
Christians, 709. In 1883, the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts;
MELUR VILLAGE— MENGNI. 405
police circles (thdnds), 7; regular police, 57 men. Land revenue,
,£18,113.
Mellir. — Village in Bangalore District, Mysore State. Population
(1881) 629. A large cattle fair is held annually for fourteen days from
the full-moon in the month of Chaitra (March — April), in connection
with the Gangadevi parishe, which is attended by 10,000 persons.
Memadpur. — Native State within the British Agency of Mahi
Kantha, Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency. Population (1881)
644. Tribute of ^"18 is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. Gross annual
revenue, £160.
Memari. — Town in Bardwan District, Bengal ; station on the East
Indian Railway. Manufacture of silk saris and dhut'is.
Mendarda. — Town in Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency. — See Max-
durda.
Mendhawal. — Town in Khalilabad tahsil, Basti District, North-
western Provinces; situated in lat. 260 58' 45" n., and long. 83° 9' 10"
f.., 5 miles from the right bank of the river Rapti, and 2 from the north
shore of the Bakhira Tal, 20 miles north-west of Gorakhpur cantonment,
and 29 miles north-east of Basti town. Population (1872) 8124 ; (1881)
11,592, namely, Hindus, 9372, and Muhammadans, 2220. Area of
town site, 207 acres. The town consists chiefly of mud huts irregularly
grouped about a winding road, which is crossed at intervals by minor
lanes. The square or principal market-place is in the centre of the
town at the junction of the chief thoroughfares, and is lined with fairly
well-built shops. Mendhawal is the largest and commercially the most
important town in Basti District. Its trade consists chiefly in the
exchange of goods from the Nepal hills for goods in the Ganges plain.
The weekly market days are supplemented by three annual religious
fairs. The people are well dressed and prosperous in appearance.
The town contains a post-office, dispensary, school, and sardi or native
inn.
Mendi-khali. — A navigable arm of the Meghna river, Bengal ;
communicating with the Brahmaputra at Kakiar Tek in Dacca
District.
Meng-bra. — Township in Akyab District, Arakan Division, British
Burma. — See Minbra.
Meng-dun. — Township and town in Thayet-myo District, Ira wad i
Division, British Burma. — See Mindux.
Meng-gyi. — Township and town in Tharawadi District, Pegu
Division, British Burma. — See MiN-GYl.
Meng-hla. — Township in Tharawadi District, Pegu Division, British
Burma. — See Min-hla.
Mengni. — Petty State in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency ; consisting of S villages. Area, 34 square miles. Popula-
406 MER AND SER—MERGU1.
tion of Mengni village (iSSt) 1329 ; of the petty State, 3454. Situated
15 miles south of Rajkot; soil fertile, and water near the surface.
Estimated revenue in 1SS1, ^2000; tribute of ^341, 4s. is paid to
the British Government.
Mer and Ser. — Mountain peaks of the Himalayan system, 50 or
C>o miles east of the Kashmir (Cashmere) frontier, Northern India.
Probable situation, lat. 34° N., long. 760 10' e. Thornton states that
these two mountains rise to a great height above the surrounding peaks,
and exactly resemble one another in their regular conical form, though
one is completely white and the other uniformly black — a peculiarity of
which no explanation has been given, as both appear to rise above the
level of perpetual snow. Hiigel saw them from Wazirabad, in the
Gujranwala plain, 140 miles distant, overtopping all the hills of Kashmir
and many other intervening heights.
Meratur (Mirrittir). — Town in Tanjore taluk, Tanjore District,
Madras Presidency ; situated about 10 miles north-east of Tanjore
town, in lat. 10° 50' n., long. 79° 23' e. Population (188 1) 7494, of
whom 7067 are Hindus, 17 Muhammadans, and 410 Christians.
Number of houses, 1477.
Mercara. — Taluk and town in Coorg.— See Merkara.
Mergui. — District in Tenasserim Division, occupying the southern-
most portion of British Burma; lying between 90 58' and 13° 24' N.
lat, and between 900 15' and 9S0 35' e. long. Area (including Tavoy
Island, added in 1875), 7810 square miles. Population in 1872, 47,192
persons; in 1881, 56,559. Bounded on the north by Tavoy District ;
east by the Yoma Mountains, the Pak-chan river, and Siam ; south by
Lower Siam ; and west by the Bay of Bengal. Its length is 206 miles,
and its mean breadth (excluding Mergui Archipelago) 40 miles. The
head-quarters of the District are at Mergui Towx.
Physical Aspects. — Two principal ranges cross the District from north
to south in a nearly north-west and south-east direction, running almost
parallel to each other for a considerable distance, with the river Tenas-
serim winding between them, till it turns south and flows through a
narrow rocky gorge in the westernmost range to the sea. Amidst
these mountain ranges and their subsidiary spurs are several plains, the
largest and most productive of which lies on the western side of the
District, stretching from lat. 11° 28' to 120 58' N. That enclosed
between the two main ranges (100 miles in length and 10 in breadth)
possesses a rich alluvial soil, but at present is almost entirely covered
with forest, except in the patches cleared by the Karens and Siamese.
In the south is the valley of the Pak-chan; and extending for 30
miles along the right bank of that river is a third plain, of which the
soil is suitable for the cultivation of all kinds of tropical produce.
'1 he entire face of the country is densely clothed with vegetation.
MERGUI. 407
Indeed, the whole District, from the water's edge to the loftiest mountain
ridge may be regarded as an unbroken forest, only S3 square miles
being under cultivation. The timber-trees found towards the interior,
and on the more elevated situations, are of great size and beauty ; the
most valuable being teak, thin-gan (Hopea odorata, Roxb.), ka-gnyin
(Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb.), etc. The coast-line, studded with islands,
of which within the District limits there are 207, is much broken, and
for several miles inland very little raised above sea-level, and drained
by numerous muddy tidal creeks. Southwards of Mergui, it consists
chiefly of low mangrove swamps alternating with small fertile rice
plains. After passing the mangrove limits, the ground to the east
gradually rises till it becomes mountainous, even to the banks of the
rivers, and finally culminates in the grand natural barrier dividing
Burma from Siam.
The four principal rivers in the District are the Tenasserim, the
Pak-chan, the Le-gnya, and the Pa-lauk, all navigable for some distance
of their course, excepting the last. The first has its sources north ot
Mergui, which it traverses from north to south in a narrow valley as far
as the town of Tenasserim, where it is joined by a tributary, the Little
Tenasserim ; the united stream then turns suddenly westwards, and
empties itself into the Bay of Bengal. The Le-gnya rises in the main
range in about lat. 13° 45' n., and has a general northerly course for
some 60 miles past Le-gnya town, when it turns west, and falls into the
Bay of Bengal. The Pak-chan also rises in the main range, and flows
in a southerly direction for 78 miles to Victoria Point ; the breadth at
its mouth is 2^ miles. The Pa-lauk is a small stream in the north,
which is only 700 yards broad at its mouth ; its course is obstructed by
rapids and falls.
There are several mountain passes in the District. The most northern,
across the main range into Siam, is by the Saw-yaw, but this is only used
by Karens. Seventy-six miles farther south is another pass, at the source
of the Thien-khwon stream, called by the Burmese Maw-daung (' Tired
Hill'), and by the Siamese Khow-maun ('Pillow Mountain'). This
forms the chief line of communication between Mergui and the southern
Provinces of Siam. The other four principal passes have the Nga-wiin
for a common base, the mountains being crossed by following up its
eastern affluents. Coal is found in the District ; but the most serious
objection to its profitable working is the rapid dip of the beds, and the
consequent depth to which all shafts would have to be sunk. The
principal localities are situated on the banks of the Tenasserim and its
tributaries. Gold, copper, iron, and manganese are also found in
various parts of the District. In the Pa-lauk valley are several thermal
springs, in the hottest of which the thermometer registers 196° F.
Tigers, leopards, rhinoceros, and elephants abound, as well as several
4oS MERGUI.
kinds of deer and wild hog. The animal and vegetable products are
again referred to in the section on the trade of the District.
History, etc. — Of the early history of Mergui but little is known. Ralph
Fitch and Caesar Frederic (1569 a.d.) both mention it as an important
trading country, and in the 17th century it probably formed a portion of
the Siamese dominions. Tenasserim town is said to have been founded
in 1373 a.d. by the Siamese, from whom it was wrested at the end of
the 1 8th century by Alaung-paya. It remained in the possession of
the Burmese up to the time of the first Anglo-Burmese war; but during
this interval the country was in a chronic state of anarchy. In 1824,
Sir Archibald Campbell despatched a force which, after capturing Tavoy,
appeared before Mergui on the 6th of October of that year. The town
speedily yielded, and the stockade was carried by assault. Early in
1825, a Siamese force ravaged the country about Tenasserim, but was
soon routed ; and from that period Mergui has remained in undisturbed
possession of the English.
The only architectural remains in the District of any historical
interest are the ruins of the walls of old Tenasserim, in which place
there is a pagoda called Wot-tshin, built in 1350, but of no great
sanctity. The Ze-da-wiin pagoda, on a hill on the banks of the
Tenasserim river, is alleged to have been founded by King Na-ra-
pa-di'-sf-thu in 120S, and is annually visited by large numbers of
pilgrims.
Population, etc. — From the notices of early travellers, it appears that
•Mergui, when under Siamese rule, was a rich and densely populated
country. On the occupation of the District by the British, it was
found to be almost depopulated — the result of the border warfare
already mentioned, and of the cruelties exercised by the Burmese
conquerors. The number of inhabitants at that time was only 10,000.
In 1872, it had risen to 47,192; in 1876-77, to 51,846; and in 1881,
to 56>559- Males in 1881 numbered 29,319; females, 27,240. Number
of towns, 1 ; villages, 199; occupied houses, 10,159; unoccupied, 340.
The density of population was only 7*24 persons per square mile;
villages per square mile, '025 ; houses per square mile, 134 ;
persons per occupied house, 5*57. Classified according to age, there
were under 15 years — 11,850 males and 11,075 females; total, 22,925,
or 40-5 per cent.; 15 years and upwards, there were, 17,469 males and
[6,165 females: total adults, 33,634, or 59-5 per cent. Classified
according to religion, there were — Hindus, 273 ; Muhammadans, 4130;
Buddhists (including Karens), 47,523; Christians, 1795; and Nat-
worshippers, or persons of non-Buddhist indigenous religion, 2S3S.
Christians are further divided into 10 European British subjects, 39
rasians, and 1746 native converts. Of the last, 1625 are Baptists.
The Muhammadans are thus sub-divided — Shias, 52; Sunni's, 3S70 ;
ME R GUI. 409
Farazis, 156 ; 'others,' 52. According to language, there were in 1SS1 —
37,457 persons speaking Burmese (including Arakanese) ; 9210 speaking
Karen; 5936 speaking Shan; 14 speaking Taungthoo; 954 speaking
Chinese; 1459 speaking Malay; 894 speaking Salone or Selung; 351
speaking Hindustani; 33 speaking Bengali; and a very few speaking
French and Portuguese. The excess of males over females may be
ascribed to the immigration of males from Siam, China, India, and the
Straits, who rarely bring their wives or families with them.
The chief aboriginal tribe of this District, the Selungs, are very low
in the scale of civilisation, but are gradually becoming more settled in
their habits. Their chief occupations are fishing, collecting sandal-
wood and sea-slugs. The total number of agriculturists in Mergui
(18S1) was 20,285 5 °f non-agriculturists, 36,274. The population is
distributed by the Census of 1881 into the following six main groups: —
(1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind and the
learned professions — males 719, and females 65; (2) domestic servants,
inn and lodging keepers — males 114, and females 137 ; (3) commercial
class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc. — males 1045, and
females 845 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including shepherds
— males 12,166, and females 8261 ; (5) industrial class, including all
manufacturers and artisans — males 181 7, and females 3942 ; and (6) inde-
finite and non-productive class, comprising children, general labourers,
and persons of unspecified occupation — males 13,458, and females
13,990. The Census of 18S1 returned the boat population of British
Burma; people who in the dry season travel about the numerous creeks •
and rivers, live in their boats, and are engaged in trades of various
kinds. In Mergui District the boat population numbered 1428, or 2-5
per cent, of the whole population, namely, 919 males and 504 females,
living in 2S2 boats. The District contains only one town with more
than 5000 inhabitants. The head-quarters station, Mergui, has a
population of 8633; Pa-law, 973; Tenasserim, 577. The remaining
villages, 197 in number, are small, and of no importance; 106 contain
less than 200 inhabitants, 78 between 200 and 500. and 13 between
500 and 1000.
Agriculture. — The District is far more important from its mineral
than from its agricultural wealth, only 83 square miles of the total area
of 7810 being under tillage. In 1882-83 there were 2992 miles returned
as cultivable waste. Rice is grown in the plains and in the hill taungyas,
and small quantities are exported from the coast towns. The area thus
cultivated is slowly but steadily increasing. Sugar-cane, tobacco, and
sesamum are also produced to some extent ; the dhani (Nipa fruticans,
Witrmb.) is found in great perfection here, and from it a coar>e kind of
sugar is extracted. It is in fruits and vegetables, however, that Mergui
is agriculturally richest. Dorians, mangosteens, jack, cccoa-nuts, guavas,
4io MERGUI.
mulberries, oranges, pine-apples, yams, gourds, cucumbers, etc., are
grown extensively ; and the frequent steam communication with Ran-
goon and Maulmain facilitates their export. The area under the chief
crops in 1881-82 was — rice, 36,875 acres; dhani palms, 431 2 ; cocoa-nuts,
137 ; areca-nuts, 40; plantains, 628 ; the area planted with mixed fruit-
trees was 4012 acres. The soil is poorer than in any other part of the
Province, the average out-turn of rice being only 1072 lbs. per acre.
The price per maund of 80 lbs. of rice was 5s. \\c\. ; of sugar, £1, 13s.
3d. ; of tobacco, £4. The daily wage of a skilled labourer in 1881-82
was 2s. ; of an unskilled workman, is. The average holding of each
cultivator is about 570 acres.
Manufactures, etc. — The principal manufactures in the District are
sugar-boiling and tin-smelting. Sugar is made chiefly in Tenasserim,
Le-gnya, and the villages round Mergui Island. Jaggery or crude sugar
is obtained from the Nipa palm. The cost of smelting tin is estimated
at 3s. per 100 lbs. of ore, which yield on an average 66 lbs. of pure metal.
In 1881-82 only 20 out of the 29 mines in Mergui were worked, in the
usual desultory manner, chiefly by the Chinese. It was proposed in
18S3-84 to make a thorough inquiry into the tin-mining industry, with
a view to its establishment on a more satisfactory footing. A lease of
lead-mining was granted to Mr. Law of Maulmain. As yet (1883-S4)
the success of the enterprise is not assured. The early importance
of the commerce of Mergui has been already alluded to. The District
has a flourishing trade with Rangoon, Bassein, and the Straits Settle-
ments. The agricultural stock in 1883-84 were — horned cattle, 34,080 ;
horses, 3 ; sheep and goats, 513 ; pigs, 2060 ; elephants, 23 ; carts, 82 ;
ploughs, 2384 ; and boats, 3065. The chief articles of export are rice,
rattans, torches, dried fish, areca-nuts, sesamum seeds, molasses, sea-
slugs, edible birds' nests, and tin. Sea-slugs, shark-lins, and edible
birds' nests are sent mainly to Singapore and Penang ; and rice is some-
times carried to the Nicobar Islands, whence are brought in exchange
tortoiseshell, and occasionally wreckage. The staple imports are piece-
goods, tobacco, cotton, earthenware, tea, and sugar. Value of exports
(1876-77), ^44,307; ofimports,^49,o57. The average annual value of
exports for the \'wc years ending 1882-83 was ^54.o8i ; and of imports,
/,"44,2i5. In 1882-83 tne figures were, exports, ^49,458 ; imports,
^45,996. Fostal communication is carried on by the steamers of
the British India Steam Navigation Company, which call once a week on
their passage between Calcutta and the ports of British Burma ; also by
the Maulmain Steam-tug Company, whose steamers run from Mergui
to Maulmain once a month. Total length of water communication, 1 78
5 ; of roads, 79 miles.
/uremic, etc. — During the 16th century, the Peguan sovereigns
received from Mergui an annual revenue of ,£39,000, 30 elephants, and
MEN GUI TOWN. 4'*
all the custom dues of the port ; but when this District was first occupied
by the British, the revenue derived was very small, and in 1853-54,
twenty-seven years later, amounted to only ^"5650. In 1S66-67, the
revenue had risen tO;£i 3.517; in 1876-77, to ,£18,208; and in 1881-82,
to^2i,577. Customs offices were established in 1855-56; and ini86i-
62, the turtle banks were first leased out for a term of years. During
the last twenty-six years the revenues have nearly quadrupled, while the
land revenue and capitation tax have increased by 342 and 328 per
cent, respectively. In addition to this imperial revenue, a local one is
raised, which in 1881-82 amounted to ^997. Mergui is administered
by a Deputy Commissioner, 5 extra-Assistant Commissioners, and a
Superintendent of Police. The District is divided into the 5 town-
ships of Mergui, Pa-law, Tenasserim, Le-gnya, and Ma-li-wox.
The number of criminal, civil, and revenue courts is 6, and their average
distance from a village 32 miles. The police force consists of 21 officers
and 199 men, of whom 5 are boatmen and 14 are paid from municipal
funds. The largest number of prisoners confined in the District jail at
Mergui town, during the five years ending 1SS1, was 25 ; all long-term
convicts are sent to Maulmain. The hospital and charitable dispensary
are also in the head-quarters station ; number of patients treated (1881),
4900. Until late years, the education of the District was carried on
chiefly by the Buddhist priests and by the Roman Catholic and Ameri-
can Baptist missionaries; but in 1S71 the State opened a school at
Mergui. In 1881-82, the number of pupils on the rolls (all learning
through the English language) was 22 ; the average daily attendance,
13. Besides this, there are in the District 21 other schools aided by
Government and inspected by the State officers, but the standard attained
in them is not high. The Census Report of 188 1 returned 2324 boys
and 634 girls as under instruction ; besides 8387 males and 433 females
able to read and write, but not under instruction.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Mergui is remarkably healthy, as
the great heat arising from its tropical situation is moderated by
land and sea breezes. The variation of temperature is small. The
most obvious peculiarity of the atmosphere is its humidity ; the rainfall
in 1881 amounted to 181 67 inches. The prevalent diseases are
remittent and simple fevers, bronchitis, rheumatism, and small-pox.
Reported number of deaths per 1000 of population for the five years
ending 18S1, 17-01. [For further information regarding Mergui, see
The British Burma Gazetteer, compiled by authority (Rangoon Govern-
ment Press, 1879), vol. ii. pp. 383-415. Also the British Burma
Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Administration and Depart-
mental Reports from 18S0 to 1SS4.]
Mergui. — Chief town of Mergui District, Tenasserim Division,
British Burma; situated in lat. 120 11' N., and long. 98' 3S' e., on
4 1 2 MERGUI AR CHIPELA GO- MERKARA.
an island in the principal month of the Tenasseriin river, which falls
into the Bay of Bengal about two miles to the north of the town.
The harbour admits vessels drawing 18 feet of water. Rising almost
from high-water mark is a low range of hills, on which stand the
court-houses and the old barracks. The town lies to the north, east,
and west. The other buildings are the treasury and police office, in
the same masonry building as that in which the courts are held, the
circuit-house on the northern crest of the hill, and the charitable
dispensary somewhat lower down ; on the beach is the market with a
masonry causeway to the sea, covered at high tides. The population
in 1 88 1 was 8633, consisting of many races — Talaings, Burmese,
Malays, Bengalis, Madrasis, Siamese, and Chinese. Mergui was
tormerly a penal station for Bengal. The present town is modern,
having replaced a flourishing city mentioned by more than one of the
early travellers, and of which, in the middle of last century, only a few
fishing hamlets marked the site. The place was taken during the first
Anglo-Burmese war by Colonel Miles, and has since remained British.
A considerable trade is carried on with the other ports of British
Burma and with the Straits Settlements. Chief exports — rice, timber,
dried fish, etc. ; imports — -cotton piece-goods, silk, and tea. Value of
imports (18S2-83), ^49,458 \ exports, ^"45, 996 : total, ,£95,454-
Mergui Archipelago. — A large group of islands, which, com-
mencing in the north with Tavoy Island, in about 130 13' N. lat.,
stretches southwards beyond the limits of British territory in Burma.
They have been described as 'a cluster of islands and islets with
bays and coves, headlands and highlands, capes and promontories,
high bluffs and low shores, rocks and sands, fountains, streams and
cascades, mountain, plain, and precipice, unsurpassed for their wild
fantastic and picturesque beauty.' The most westerly are composed of
granite and porphyry ; those nearer the shore, of sandstone and con-
glomerate. Some of these islands are 3000 feet in height. Maingay
Island, in lat. 120 32' n., and long. 9s0 7' e., can be seen for n miles,
and the southern peak of St. Matthew's, in lat. io° 52' N., and long.
98° 1:., for 13 miles. They are but sparsely inhabited, and are the
resort of a peculiar race, the Sellings, who rarely leave them to visit
the mainland. The principal products are edible birds' nests and
btcht de mer (Holothuria; Sp. tripang, or sea-slug), collected by the
Selungs, who exchange them with Burmese and Malays for rice and
spirits. The caoutchouc tree is said to grow in great abundance, and
the gum is extracted by Malays from Singapur. The islands are
inf< sted by snakes and wild animals — tiger, rhinoceros, and deer.
Meriah. — Term applied to the victim in Kandh human sacrifices. —
See Kandhs.
Merkara {Mercara).—Tdluk or Sub-division of Coorg, Southern
ME R KARA TOWN. 413
India, with administrative head-quarters at Merkara town. Area, 216
square miles; number of villages, 61 ; number of houses, 3141. Popu-
lation (1871) 32,123 ; (18S1) 25,703, namely, 15,473 males and 10,230
females, of whom 20,944 are Hindus, 1465 Muhammadans, 14 Jains,
435 Christians; there are 2847 native Coorgs. Merkara taluk occupies
a table-land in the centre of Coorg, about 3500 feet above sea-level.
The country is much broken by hill ranges and ravines. The chief
passes are those leading east to Fraserpet and Siddapur, and west
to Sampaji. The area is divided into 5 nads or hill tracts. The
jungles yield valuable timber, including teak, sandal-wood, and bamboo.
The American aloe (Agave americana, Linn.) is found, but its fibre is
not utilized. The cultivation of cinchona (Cinchona succirubra, Pavon.\
for the preparation of quinine, has been successfully carried on since
1863.
Thirty-four square miles of forest have been reserved in the east of the
taluk. This region is known as the Dubbare. The Merkara plateau
was supposed to be well adapted to the cultivation of coffee, which
was first attempted by Mr. Fowler in 1854; but though the soil is
favourable, high wind and irregularity of rainfall, frequently drought
during the blossoming time, and excess of rain during the monsoon,
have depressed the industry. Some of the coffee estates on the
slopes of the Sampaji valley have proved especially unsuccessful.
The coffee estates round Haleri and Tuntikopa are still prosperous.
The plants are grown on the slope of the hills, where they do not
require to be protected by artificial shade. The chief trouble of the
planter is to prevent the light surface soil from being washed away by
the excessive rainfall. This object is attained by cutting terraces and
drains, or by a judicious system of weeding.
Merkara (Mddaukeri, or Mahddeva-pet). — Chief town and adminis-
trative capital of the territory of Coorg, Southern India. Situated in
lat. 120 26' 50" N., and long. 750 46' 55" e., on a table-land 3S09 feet
above the sea, 155 miles south-west from Bangalore, 72 miles north-
east from Cannanore, and 86 miles east from Mangalore, by the great
trunk roads. Population (1S81) within municipal limits, 6227, and in
cantonment, 2156 ; total, S383, namely, 4800 males and 35S3 females,
occupying T676 houses. Hindus numbered 5760; Muhammadans,
18S6; Christians, 713; and 'others,' 24. Municipal revenue (1881),
^793 ; rate of taxation, is. of A per head. Merkara is said to have
been founded in 1681 by Madhu Raja, the first of the Coorg Rajas
whose history is given in the R&jendra-name or Royal Chronicle. The
original seat of the family had been at Haleri ; but henceforth
Merkara has continued to be the capital of the State up to the present
day.
The fort is situated on an eminence commanded by neighbouring
4'4 MERKARA TOWN.
hills. The walls of stone, still in fair preservation, were built by Tipii
Sultan during the brief period of Muhammadan domination in Coorg.
The shape is an irregular hexagon, with a ditch all round, and a glacis
on the north. Within are the palace, the English church, and the
arsenal. The offices of the administration and residence of the Com-
missioner are situated within the eastern gateway. The palace was
erected in 1S12 by Linga Rajendra Wodeyar, and has recently been
put into thorough repair. It covers an area of 200 square feet, with an
open court in the centre. The ground plan is that of a Coorg house,
two stories high, with a superstructure in European style. The whole
is handsomely built of brick and mortar, and is used mostly as public
offices.
From the centre of the town there is a fine view of the western range
of Ghats, known as the Nalknad, and bounded by the Brahmagiris,
the southern limit of Coorg. The mountain peaks of Kotebetta
and Pushpagiri are visible on the north. The principal buildings
in the native quarter of the town are the mausoleums of Dodda Yira
Rajendra, the hero of Coorg independence, Linga Rajendra, and their
favourite queens. These are all enclosed within a high embankment ;
they are built in a Muhammadan style of architecture, with a central
dome and minarets at the corners. The tombstones are covered with
a white cloth, and flowers renewed daily. A lamp is kept continually
burning, and the Lingayat attendants are endowed by Government
with an annual grant of ,£200. The chief Hindu temple is that called
the Omkareswara Devastana, built in the same style as the mausoleums.
The Brahman priests of this temple receive an endowment of ^"485 a
year.
The central school occupies the site of a handsome building,
erected by Dodda Vira Rajendra as a reception-house for English
visitors. In 1S83-84 this school was attended by 306 pupils, of whom
237 were native Coorgs. The boarding-house in connection with
it had 92 inmates. In addition, there were a normal, a Kanarcse, and
a Hindustani school In 1882-83, the number of in-door patients
relieved at the dispensary was 278, and of out-door patients, 5500.
The Basel .Mission has a station here with 2 missionaries. A girls'
school is attached to the mission. As compared with the plains of
India, the climate of Merkdra is cold and damp. The average annual
temperature is in May 72' F., and in September, 64°. The average
annual rainfall for five years ending 1882-83 was 139-8 inches, of which
10375 inches fell in the monsoon months between June and Sep-
tember. The climate is not unfavourable to European health, but
natives who have recently arrived from the low country suffer much
. fever and bowel complaints.
The principal events in the history of Merkdra may be thus sum-
MER TA —MER WA RA. 415
marized — the driving out of Haidar's Muhammadan garrison in 17S2,
the capitulation of Tipii Sultan's general to Dodda Vira Rajendra
in 1790; and the unopposed occupation by the British in 1S34, when
the Raja was deposed and the territory of Coorg annexed to British
India.
Merkara has ceased to be a military station. A weekly fair is
held on Fridays, and a fair for coolies on Sunday. A tile manufactory
turns out tiles and pipes similar to those made at Mangalore.
Merta {Mirta). — Town in Jodhpur (Marwar) State, Rajputana;
situated in kit. 260 39' n., and long. 740 5' 35" e., on the route from
Jodhpur city to Ajmere, 76 miles north-east of the former. Popula-
tion not returned separately in the Census Report for 18S1. The
town stands on high ground, and hns a striking appearance. It is
surrounded by a wail, the eastern side of which is of good masonry,
while on the western side it is of mud. Numerous temples and a
large mosque. Water abundant, but brackish. The plain of Merta
was the scene of the great battle of 1754, in which Vijaya Singh of
Jodhpur was defeated by the Marathas under Sindhia ; this led to
the acquisition of Ajmere by the Marathas, under the Frenchman
de Boigne, and their permanent hold on Rajput territory. The
country round has many stone pillars erected to the memory of former
battles.
Mertigudda (or Kalasd). — Mountain in Chikmagalur taluk, Kadiir
District, Mysore State, 5451 feet above sea-level. Lat. 130 iS'n., long.
750 26' e. The sides are clothed with forest trees, among which the
champak (Michelia Champaca, Linn.) is conspicuous, and broken by
occasional terraces of rice cultivation, and numerous gardens of areca-
nut. The ascent is very steep. The view from the summit is described
as magnificent.
Merwara. — Hill Sub-division in the isolated British District of
Ajmere-Merwara, Rajputana, lying between 250 24' and 260 12' N. lat.,
and between 730 48' and 740 31' E. long. Area, 640-8 square miles.
Population (1872) 69,234; (1876) 86,417; and (1881) 101,434.
Bounded north by Jodhpur (Marwar) and Ajmere ; east by Udaipur
(Mewar) and Ajmere; south by Udaipur; west by Jodhpur. The
Sub-division comprises a narrow strip of territory, 70 miles in length, but
varying in breadth from 1 to 15 miles. Scenery hilly and greatly varied ;
the highest peaks attain an elevation of 2855 feet above the sea ;
average level of valleys, 1800 feet. Naturally dry and unproductive,
but rendered comparatively fertile by numerous tanks (formed by
embanking gorges or torrents), most of which have been constructed
since the introduction of British rule.
The Sub-division of Merwara is divided into British Merwara. area,
302-3 square miles; population (1876) 48,363; (1SS1) 57.309:
4i 6 MERWARA.
Mewar-Merwara, area, 266-3 square miles; population (1876) 33,049;
(1SS1) 38,514: and Marwar-Merwara, area, 72-2 square miles; popu-
lation (1876) 5005; (1881) 561 1. The whole territory, comprising an
area of 640*8 square miles, and a population of 101,434 souls, is under
British administration ; the surplus revenues of the Mewar tract being
paid to the Maharana of Udaipur, and those of the Marwar tract to
the Maharaja of Jodhpur.
The present inhabitants of Merwara are promiscuously designated
Mers, or hillmen, a name derived from ' Mer,' which signifies a hill.
The two main tribes or clans are the Chita and Barar. According to
the Census of 17th February 1881, the total population (101,434) was
distributed into 56,175 males and 45,259 females, dwelling in one town
and 329 villages, and inhabiting 13,577 houses. Average density of
population, 158 persons per square mile. Roughly, every two square
miles of area has its village; number of houses per square mile, 25 ;
persons per house, 7*4. In point of religion, Hindus numbered
81,973, or 8o-8 percent.; Muhammadans, 12,624, or I2'4 per cent.;
Jains, 6502; Christians, 328; and Parsis, 7. Of the Hindus, 1869
were Brahmans, 1181 Rajputs, and 18,395 castes of good social
position, such as Aganvala, Oswal, Khattris, Gujars, Jats, Mallis,
and other respectable artisan or guild castes. Inferior castes,
mostly the lower class of artisans, numbered 6250 ; impure castes
(Chamcirs, Kolis, Aheris), 15,994; aboriginal tribes (Mers, Menus,
Minas, Rawats, Bhils), 44,786. The Muhammadans, divided into
tribes, were thus distributed : — Shaikhs, 2417; Sayyids, 174; Mughals,
104; Pathans, 741 ; Musalman Merats, 8339; and others (fakir and
mendicant tribes), 849. Of the Christians, 317 were Presbyterians,
all the native converts (313) being of this sect. Only 1388 males and
66 females were returned in 1881 as under instruction, besides 4660
males and 137 females not under instruction, but able to read and write.
Of the 330 towns and villages of Merwara returned in the Census,
14 are now deserted. Of the remainder, 201 contain less than two
hundred inhabitants; 77 between two and five hundred; 22 between
the hundred and one thousand; 12 between one and two thousand;
^ between two and three thousand; and 1 between fifteen and twenty
thousand. Beawab, the head-quarters town, is a municipality, and
contained a population of 15,829 in 1881.
Merwara was originally inhabited by a predatory race of half-naked
aborigines, careless of agriculture, and engaged in constant plundering
expeditions into the surrounding States. Up to 1818 its history is a
blank. In March 1819, after the Pritish occupation of Ajmere, a force
from Nasirabad (Xusseenibad) was despatched to subdue these wild hill-
men, who, in spite of treaty engagements, had made several raids into our
territory. Their villages were taken, but the inhabitants escaped into
MERWARA. 417
the impenetrable jungle which then clothed the country. Strong
police posts were accordingly stationed in the chief villages. In
November 1820 a general insurrection broke out, and the police were
massacred. Thereupon a second force was despatched, which in three
months thoroughly subjugated the country, and the ringleaders of the
rebellion were punished. The tract was at first divided between
Ajmere and the States of Udaipur and Jodhpur, Captain Tod, the his-
torian of Rajputana, being placed in charge of the Mewar or Udaipur
portion ; but this triple government proving weak and ineffectual, the
British authorities entered into an arrangement with the two Rajput
States in May 1823 and March 1824 for the management of the whole
territory. Colonel Hall was the first officer appointed. A strong per-
sonal administration, adapted to the needs of a people only just
emerging from predatory life, was rigorously and successfully imposed.
Civil and criminal justice was administered by panchayat or arbitra-
tion among the elders of the village. If two-thirds of the panchayat
were agreed, their decision settled the question. The revenue was
collected by an estimate of the crops, and, generally speaking, the
share of the State was one-third. In 185 1, a regular settlement was
effected by Colonel Dixon.
Shortly after British occupation, a native force, known as the Merwara
Battalion, transformed the wild mountaineers into brave and disciplined
soldiers, whose influence on the pacification of the country cannot be
overvalued. Meanwhile, facilities for the adoption of an industrial
system were afforded by the construction of numerous tanks, and the
foundation of Beawar or Nayanagar, the commercial and administra-
tive capital of the tract. Merwara rapidly underwent a great social
change. The ancient hill villages of the robber tribe, perched upon
lofty and inaccessible peaks, were deserted for commodious agricultural
centres in the cultivated valley beneath. The character of the people
has kept pace with their altered circumstances, and habits of honest
industry have replaced the old plundering proclivities. Until 1842,
Merwara formed a separate District; but in that year it was incorporated
with Ajmere, under the management of a Deputy Commissioner
(see Ajmere- Merwara). It now constitutes a Sub -division of the
Ajmere- Merwdra District, and forms the charge of an Assistant Com-
missioner. The inhabitants consider themselves Hindus, but pay
little respect to the prejudices of their co-religionists, and are ignorant
of the most common tenets of Hinduism. Even the Brahmans cat
meat, and drink spirits freely. The Merats, who are aborigines con-
verted to Islam, number 8339. Like the aborigines who have adopted
Hinduism, they are absolutely ignorant of the rules and religion of
Muhammadanism. Beawar, the only town in Merwara, was the creation
of Colonel Dixon.
VOL. IX. 2D
4i S MESANA—MEWAT.
Mesana. — Town in the Mesana Sub-division of Baroda territory,
Bombay Presidency. Lat. 230 42' n., long. 72° 36' 30" e. Population
(1S81) 8791, namely, 4450 males and 4341 females. Station on the
Rajputana-Malwa Railway, 43 miles north of Ahmadabad.
Mettapolliem (Mettupalay&m). — Town in Coimbatore District,
Madras Presidency, and the terminus of the Nflgiri Branch South-West
Line, Madras Railway; situated in lat. 11° 19' N., and long. 760 59' E.,
on the Bhavdni river. Population (1881) 652, inhabiting 242 houses.
Revenue from tolls on the traffic to the Nilgiris, ^630.
Mevli. — Petty State in the Pandu Mehwas group, Rewa Kantha,
Bombay Presidency. Area, 5 square miles, containing one parent village
and four hamlets. Four shareholders. The Karad river divides the
estate into two nearly equal parts. The part north of the river is rich ;
that south of the river is uncultivated, growing only grass. Esti-
mated revenue in 1S81, ^235 ; tribute of ^150, 2s. is paid to the
1 idekwar of Baroda.
Mewar (Meywar, the Middle Country). — State in Rajputana. — See
Udaipur.
Mewasa. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency; consisting of 6 villages, with two separate shareholders.
Area, 24 square miles. Population of Mewasa village (1881) 293 ; of
the petty State, 1 1 75. Situated 36 miles south-west of Wadhwan station,
the north terminus of the Bhaunagar- Gondal Railway. Estimated
revenue, ^"620; tribute of ,£44, 10s. is paid to the British Govern-
ment, and ,£11, 8s. to the Gaekwar of Baroda.
Mewat.— An historical province of India, lying south of Delhi, and
including parts of the British Districts of Muttra (Mathura) and Gurgaon,
and a considerable portion of Alwar (Ulwur) and some of Bhartpur.
It was for many centuries famous for the predatory character of its in-
habitants, who at all times gave great trouble to their Pathan and Mughal
neighbours at Delhi. In Mughal times, Mewdt formed a part of the
Subah of Agra, Its most famous towns were Ndrnaul, Ulwur (Alwar),
Tijdra, and Kewdri. Rdjd Mangal of Mewat, a Jadiin Rajput, married
the famous Prithwi Raja's wife's sister. The Emperor Balban thoroughly
conquered this wild country, and established police outposts in various
parts. During the troubled times of Timur's invasion, Bahddur Ndhar
Mewdti was one of the most powerful chiefs in this part of India ; and
he was the founder of the Khdn/.dda race, famous in the history of the
Delhi Empire, and long the rulers of Mewat. At the time of Babar's
invasion, Hasan Khan Khdn/;ida, thief of Mewat, was ruling at Alwar,
his family having moved thither from Tijdra. Both Rajputs and
Mewdtis were defeated by Udbar at the battle of Fatehpur Sfkri;
Hasan Khan fell, and his son hastened to submit to the conqueror.
Herau, the great vvazir ol Adfl Shah, who was defeated at the battle oi
MEW AT. 4r9
Pam'pat in 1556, was a Mewati of Machari ; and this place, after the
death of Hemu, opposed a stout resistance to Akbar's armies. Mewat,
however, was once more subdued ; and for a long time the Khanzidas
were distinguished soldiers in the imperial armies. About 1720 a.d.,
in the reign of Muhammad Shah, the Tat freebooters first appeared in
Mewat; and between 1724 and 1763 they completely overran the
country. In 1755, however, the fort of Alwar was taken from the Jats
by Raja Partap Singh, the ancestor of the present Maharao Raja of
Alwar ; and from this time the historv of Mewat merges in that of
Alwar and Bhartpur.
The ruling class in Mewat were called Mewatis, or (since the time
of Bahadur Nahar mentioned above) Khanzadas. But by far the most
numerous part of the population consisted of Meos, a tribe of obscure
origin. The Meos themselves claim descent from the Rajput clans of
Jadan, Kachhwaha, and Tunwar, and they may possibly have some
Rajput blood in their veins. But they are probably, like many
similar tribes, a combination from various stocks and sources ; and
there is reason to believe them very nearly allied to the Mi'nas, who
are certainly a tribe of the same characteristics. The Meos have
52 clans, of which the 12 largest are called pals, the first six of which
are identical in name, and claim the same descent as the first 6 clans of
the Mi'nas. The smaller clans are called gots. Intermarriage between
Meos and Mi'nas was the rule till the time of Akbar, when, owing to
an affray at the marriage of a Meo with a Mina, the custom was dis-
continued. Finally, their mode of life is, or was, similar, as both tribes
were notoriously predatory.
It is probable that the original Meos, together with other castes,
became converts to Islam at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni in
the eleventh century. They have a mixture of both Musalman and
Hindu customs ; they practise circumcision, nika, burial of the dead.
They make pilgrimages to the tomb of the famous Sayyid Salar
Masatid in Bahraich in Oudh, and consider the oath taken on his
banner the most binding ; they also make pilgrimages to shrines in
India, but never perform haj. Among Hindu customs they observe
the Holi and Diwdli festivals ; their marriages never take place in the
same got, and their daughters never inherit ; they call their children
indiscriminately by both Musalman and Hindu names. They are
almost entirely uneducated, but have bards and musicians, to whom
they make large presents. Songs, called ratwdi, on pastoral and
agricultural subjects, are common. The dialect is harsh and unpolished,
so that no difference can be made when addressing a male or female,
or with respect to social distinctions. They are given to the use of
intoxicating drink, are very superstitious, and have great faith in omens.
The dress of the men and women resembles that of the Hindus.
4 20 ME IVA T—MHO II \l.
Infanticide was once common, but this is said to have entirely died
out. They were formerly robbers by avocation ; and although improved,
they are still noted cattle-lifters. The only approach to caste among
them is that the descendants of Lai Singh (who became a fakir, and
is said to have performed miracles) call themselves sdM, cook with
a ckauka, and keep their food and water separate from the other
Meos, but intermarry and adopt the other manners and customs of the
tribe.
Mewat. — Range of hills in Delhi and Gurgaon Districts, Punjab,
forming the farthest north-eastern escarpment of the great Rajputana
table-land in the ancient Province of the same name. Runs in irregular
lines through the two Districts, and finally terminates in the Ridge at
Delhi, where a wide stony plateau abuts on the bank of the Jumna,
and forms the extreme outlier of the system. Average elevation
above the surrounding alluvial plain, 500 feet. The summit of the
plateau consists of a barren expanse covered with masses of coarse
sandstone, almost entirely unrelieved by verdure. The whole range
may be regarded as the boundary between the elevated Rajputina
desert and the low-lying valley of the Jumna, rather than as a separate
hill system.
Mhaswad. — Town and municipality in Satara District, Bombay Pre-
sidency; situated 51 miles east of Satara town on the road to Pandhar-
pur, in lat. 170 38' n., and long. 740 49' 50" e. Population (1881)
55S1. Hindus numbered 5242 ; Muhammadans, 227 ; and Jains,
112. Municipal income (1882-83), .£238; incidence of taxation,
6£d. The Rajwadi, a large tank for irrigation purposes, lies at a dis-
tance of about 6 miles from the town. Large fair held in December, at
which cattle and blankets are sold. Post-office, dispensary, and two
schools with 142 pupils in 1883-84.
Mhow (M/uw). — British cantonment in the Indore State, Central
India. Head-quarters of a Division of the Bombay Army, and a
station on the Malwa line of the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway :
situated in lat. 220 33' n., and long. 750 46' e., on an elevated ridge
between the (iambhir and Santer rivers; distant from Indore city 13',
miles, from Khandwa 76 miles, and from Nimach (Neemuch) 163 miles.
The cantonment is situated about 1 mile to the south-east of the village
from which it takes its name; elevation above the sea, 1919 feet.
Population (1881) 27,227, namely, 15,536 males and 11,691 females.
Hindus numbered 17,143 ; Muhammadans, 6849 ; and 'others,' 3235.
A considerable force is stationed here, in accordance with the terms
of the treaty of Mandsaur. Church, three chapels, lecture-room, large
library, arsenal, and theatre.
Mhowa. — Port and town on the south-east coast of the peninsula
of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency. — Sec Maiiuwa.
MIANA—MIANI. 421
Miana. — Pargand of the Gwalior State, held in j&gir, under the
Guna (Goona) Sub-Agency in Gwalior territory, Central India.
Mian All. — Village and ruins in Gujranwala District, Punjab. — See
Asarur.
Mianganj. — Village in Mohan tahsil, Unao District, Oudh; situated
on an unraetalled road from Lucknow to Safipur, 12 miles west of
Mohan town, and 18 miles north-east of Unao. Lat. 26" 48' n., long.
8o° 2>Z e. A decayed town, built in 1771 by Mian Almas Ah, finance
minister to the Nawabs Asaf-ud-daula and Saadat Ali Khan. Lord
Valentia in 1S03 described it as a prosperous town \ but Bishop Heber
in 1823 found 'trees, towers, gates, and palaces sinking fast into
rubbish and forgetfulness.' Population (18S1) 3132, namely, 2069
Hindus and 1063 Musalmans. Two masonry sardis for travellers, 13
mosques, and 4 Hindu temples. The village was the scene of a defeat
of the mutineers in 1857.
Miani (Meea/iee). — Town and municipality in Dasuya tahsil,
Hushiarpur District, Punjab ; situated about 1 mile from the Beas
(Bias) river, in lat. 31° 42' 15" n., and long. 750 36' 15" E., 4 miles
from Tanda, and about 23 miles from Hushiarpur town. Popula-
tion (1881) 6499, namely, Muhammadans, 51S9; Hindus, 1253;
Jains, 32; and Sikhs, 25. Number of houses, 1038. The proprietors
of the town are a few families of Mohmand Pathans, but the
greater part of the land is cultivated by Arain or Jat tenants with a
right of occupancy. Miani is a considerable centre of local trade
in cattle, hides, wheat, and sugar. Municipal revenue in 18S3-84,
,£152, or 5^d. per head of population.
Miani {Meeanee). — Town, municipality, and centre of salt trade in
Bhera tahsil, Shahpur District, Punjab. Lat. 32° 31' 48" N., long. 73"
7' 30" e. Situated on the left bank of the Jehlam (Jhelum) river,
opposite Pind Dadan Khan. From time immemorial Miani has been
an important mart for salt from mines on the other side of the river.
The original town called Shamsabad, having been swept away by a
flood, Asaf Khdn, father-in-law of Shah Jahan, founded the present
one. Plundered by Niir-ud-din, general of Ahmad Shah in 1754;
restored in 1787 by Maha Singh, father of Ranji't Singh, who re-opened
the salt malt. The town consists of an ill-built collection of narrow-
lanes and bazars, the upper storeys of the houses almost touching one
another. Population (1868) 6857; (1881) 8069, namely, Hindus,
4059; Muhammadans, 3822; Sikhs, 184; Jains, 2; and 'others,' 2.
Number of houses, 1270. The town carries on an enormous trade
in salt from the Mayo mines, which has been greatly increased
of late years owing to the extension of the Northern Punjab State
Railway to Miani. Ghi is collected from neighbouring villages, and
is also exported in large quantities. The imports consist ofgiir, refined
422 MIANI VILLAGE— MIANWALI.
- ar, and rice. Police station, town hall, school, sardi or rest-house.
Municipal revenue in 18S3-84, ^525, or is. 3H. per head of population
within municipal limits.
Miani (Meeanee, Midno, ' central ; ' Miani, ' fishing village '). — Village
in the Haidarabad (Hyderabad) taluk of Haidarabad District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency ; 6 miles north of Haidarabad city. It was here
that Sir Charles Napier, on the 17th of February 1S43, with a force
of 2S00 men and 12 pieces of artillery, encountered a Baliich army
numbering 22,000, strongly posted on the banks of the Fuleli. The
enemy were totally routed, 5000 men being killed and wounded, and
the whole of their ammunition, standards, and camp taken, with con-
siderable stores and some treasure. A monument marks the scene of
this great action, and on the eastern side of the pillar are inscribed
the names of the officers, and the number of rank and file, who fell
in battle. The spot is enclosed, and a well-kept garden laid out
in alleys surrounds the memorial. This exquisite piece of cultivation
strikes the eye with a double refreshment after the dusty drive of seven
miles from Haidarabad city to the battle plain. The greenest grass in
Sind is the plot which grows over the gallant soldiers who fell at Miani.
Miani was at one time the head-quarters of the Sind Camel Baggage
Corps.
Miani. — Seaport of great antiquity, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency ;
situated on an estuary of the Vartu river. Perhaps the celebrated
Minnagar. Population (1881)627. A sandbar now chokes the mouth
of the harbour, and the trade is therefore small. Imports (1882-83),
£175.
Mian Mir. — Cantonment in Lahore District, Punjab. — See Meean
Mi i.k.
Mianwali. — Eastern tahsil of Bannu District, Punjab ; comprising
the whole cis-Indus portion of the District, and forming a rough semi-
circle, with its base resting upon the river. A considerable portion of
the tahsil, namely, the whole of the south-western portion, consists of
a level waste, with a light soil, most of it sandy, and suitable only for
grazing purposes. This tract is known as the thai, and contains very
few villages in its 415 square miles, of which 145 square miles are
(lOvernment forest reserves. All this area will be brought under irri
tion on the completion of the Sind Sdgar Dodb Canal. The total area
of the tahsil is returned at 1479 square miles, of which only 20S square
miles were cultivated in 1877-78, the total average area under crops
for the five years 1877 to 1881 being 16S square miles. Area avail-
able for cultivation, but not yet brought under tillage, 665 square
miles. Total population (1881) 90,291, namely, males 46.804, and
females 43,487 ; total number of towns and villages, 64 ; number of
houses, 14,687; number of families, 21,300. Classified according to
MIANWALI TOWX—MIDNAPUR. 423
religion, there were in 1SS1 — Muhammadans, 81,331; Hindus, 8S20 :
and Sikhs, 140. Principal crops — wheat. bdjra, barley, jodr, gram,
and cotton. Revenue of the tahsil, ;£i 2,450. The administrative
staff consists of an Assistant Commissioner and a tahsilddr, presiding
over 2 civil and 2 criminal courts. Number of police circles
(thdnds), 4 ; strength of regular police, 46 men, with a village watch of
140 chaukiddrs.
Mianwali. — Town in Bannu District, Punjab, and head-quarters of
Mianwali tahsil. Lat. 320 34' 30" x., long. 71° 32' 50" e. Situated on
high left bank of the Indus, 655 feet above sea-level. Residence of
a notable Sayyid family, the Mians of Mianwali, descendants of a local
Musalman saint, and themselves possessing a great reputation for
sanctity. Mianwali is not a separate town, but only that portion of
the town of Ballokhel in which the Mians reside. Tahsili, police
station, Assistant Commissioner's court, dispensary, sardi.
Michlli. — Fort in Peshawar District, Punjab ; situated on the left
bank of the Kabul river close to where it issues from the hills, and 15
miles north of Peshawar city. Lat. 34° 11' 10" x., long. 710 30' E.
The fort, which commands an important ferry over the Kabul river,
was constructed in 1851-52 on account of the numerous raids on
British territory by Mohmands from beyond the frontier. Ordinary
garrison, about 130 cavalry and infantry, with 2 guns. Lieutenant Boul-
nois, in command of the party constructing the fort, was murdered here
by Mohmands in January 1852. In March 1S73, the commandant of
the post was murdered while walking in the vicinity with a brother officer.
There is no village of Michni, but the Tarakzai Mohmands have settle-
ments all round. Those on the south side of the river are in British
territory. The other settlements are independent, and are infested by
refugees who have fled from punishment for crimes committed within
our borders. Michni fort is under the command of a field officer,
subordinate to the Brigadier-General at Peshawar. The garrison con-
sists of 39 non-commissioned officers and men of Bengal cavalry, and
95 non-commissioned officers and men of Native infantry. The
Census of 1881 returned the population of the fort at 205 males and 3
females.
Midagesi. — Village in Madgiri taluk, Tiimkiir District, Mysore
State, at the eastern base of the Midagesi-diirga. Lat. 13° 50' n., long.
770 14' e. Population (1881) 76S. Said to be named after a
princess, who committed sati, and queens of the same family continued
to govern it for some time. The place afterwards passed into the
possession of the pdlegdrs of Madgiri, and suffered much during the
wars between Haidar All and the Marathas.
Midnapur. — District in the Lieutenant - Governorship of Bengal,
lying between 21° 37' and 220 57' n. lat., and between 86° 35' 45
424 MIDNAPUR.
and SS° 14' e. long. Area, 5082 square miles. Population (1SS1),
2,517,802 souls. Midnapur forms the southernmost District of the
Bardwan Division. It is bounded on the north by Bankura and
Bardwan Districts; on the east by the Districts of Hiigli and Howrah
and by the river Hiigli ; on the south by the Bay of Bengal ; on the
south-west by the District of Balasor, on the west by the Native
State of Morbhanj and the District of Singhbhiim, and on the north-
west by Manbhiim District. The administrative head-quarters are at
Midnapur town.
Physical Aspects. — Midnapur exhibits the threefold characteristics
of a seaboard, a deltaic, and a high -lying District. Its general
appearance is that of a large open plain, of which the greater part
is under cultivation. In the northern portion the soil is poor,
and there is little wood. The country along the western boundary,
known as the Jungle Mahals, is undulating and picturesque; it is
covered with extensive jungle, and is very sparsely inhabited. The
eastern and south-eastern portions of Midnapur are swampy and richly
cultivated, the Hijili division (consisting of the tract of land along the
coast from the mouth of the Riipnarayan to the northern boundary of
Balasor) being specially productive. This tract, which covers an area
of more than a thousand square miles, is well watered, and produces
large quantities of rice ; close to the sea - coast there is a fringe of
coarse grass. The chief rivers of the District are the Hugli and
its three tributaries, the Rupnarayan, the Haldi, and the Rasulpur.
The Riipnarayan joins the Hiigli opposite Hugh' Point ; its chief
tributary is the Silai, which flows in a very tortuous course through
the northern part of the District. The Haldi rises within Midnapur,
and falls into the Hiigli near Nandigaon tlidnd, in the Tamliik Sub-
division; it receives on its north bank two principal tributaries, the
Kaliaghai and the Rasai, the latter a very tortuous stream, on which
Midnapur town is situated. The Rasulpur river rises in the south-
west of the District, and flows east and south-east till it joins the Hiigli
below Cowcolly Lighthouse, a little above where that river empties
itself into the Bay of Bengal.
The Midnapur High Level Canal is designed both for the
purposes of navigation and irrigation. It runs almost due east and
west, extending from the town of Midnapur to Ulubaria on the Hugh',
16 miles below Calcutta, and affords a continuous navigable channel
53 miles in length. A full account of the canal will be found in The
Statistical Account of Bengal (vol. iii. pp. 29-36); and in the subse-
quent article, Midnapur High Level Canal. There is also a
tidal canal for navigation 26 miles in length, extending from Geon-
khali at the mouth of the Riipnarayan to the Rasulpur river in the
Hijili portion of the District. The jungles in the west of Midnapur
MID NA PUR. 425
yield lac, fasarsilk, wax, resin, firewood, charcoal, etc., and give shelter
to large and small game — among the former being tigers, leopards,
hycenas, bears, buffaloes, deer, and wild hogs ; and among the latter,
wild geese and ducks, snipes, ortolans, teal, hares, etc. Snakes are
numerous.
History. — The early history of Midnapur centres round the ancient
town of Tamluk, which was in the beginning of the 5th century an
important Buddhist settlement and maritime harbour. In the middle
of the 7th century, Hiuen Tsiang, the celebrated pilgrim from China,
describes Tamluk as a great port, with ten Buddhist monasteries, a
thousand monks, and a pillar by King Asoka 200 feet high. According
to the earliest Hindu legend, it was distant from the coast about 8
miles ; and so steadily has the process of land-making at the mouth of
the Hugh gone on, that at present it is fully 60 miles from the sea.
The earliest kings of Tamluk belonged to the Peacock dynasty, and
were Kshattriyas by caste. The last of this line, Nisankha Narayan,
died childless ; and at his death the throne was usurped by a powerful
aboriginal chief named Kalu Bhuiva, who was the founder of the line
of Kaibartta or fisher-kings of Tamluk. The Kaibarttas are generally
considered to be descendants of the aboriginal Bhuiyas, who have
embraced Hinduism. The present Kaibartta Raja is the twenty-fifth
in descent from the founder.
Midnapur District, including western and southern Hijili, coincides
almost entirely with the Muhammadan sarkdr of Jaleswar. That
sarkdr paid to the Mughal Emperor a revenue of 12-^ lakhs of
rupees (say ^1,250,000), and had for its capital the town of the
same name, which is now situated in Balasor District.
The first connection of the English with the District dates from 1760.
In that year, the East India Company deposed Mir Jafar Khan, whom
they had placed on the throne of Bengal three years before (after the
battle of Plassey), and elevated his son-in-law, Mir Kasim Khan, to
the Governorship. As the price of his elevation, Mir Kasim ceded to
the Company the three Districts of Midnapur, Chittagong, and Bard-
wan, which were then estimated to furnish a third of the whole revenue
of Bengal.
The position of the District rendered it specially liable to invasion
by the Marathas from Orissa, and to predatory raids by the landhoh
of the jungle tracts in the west. These jungle zamindars, who called
themselves Rajas, gave our early officers much trouble. They were
described in 1778 as 'mere freebooters, who plunder their neighbours
and one another ; and their tenants are banditti, whom they chiefly
employ in their outrages. These depredations keep the zaminddrs and.
their servants continually in arms ; for after the harvest is gathered.
there is scarcely one of them who does not call his tenants together,
4?6 MID NAP UR.
either to defend his own property or to attack his neighbour.' Jales-
war town was for many years maintained as a frontier fort, to check
the depredations of the Marathas and of these robber Rajas ; and
even in the 'quiet and more civilised parts of the District, most of
the wealthy landholders possessed fortified strongholds, which were
necessary as places of retreat on occasion of the incursions of the
Marathas or the jungle chiefs.
One of the most troublesome of these chiefs was the Raja of
Morbhanj, who held a pargand in the Jungle Mahals of Midnapur
in addition to, and quite distinct from, his independent territory.
The Government manuscript records contain frequent references to
raids committed by him upon cultivators in the more settled parts
of the District; and in 1783, soon after the rejection by the Governor-
General of a territorial claim preferred by the Raja, the latter was
reported to be raising, in conjunction with another insurgent chief, an
army for the invasion of the Company's Districts. A plan of joint
hostilities was accordingly concerted with the Maratha Governor of
Orissa against the Morbhanj Raja, who soon made his submission, and
agreed to pay the yearly rental of ^320 for his estate in Midnapur.
Many changes of jurisdiction have taken place. Hijili, which had
up to 1836 been a separate Collectorate, was in that year annexed to
Midnapur District, of which it has ever since remained part. Pro-
posals have been made to separate it again ; but, on the abolition of
the Government salt monopoly, these were finally negatived. In 1872,
the pargands of Chandrakona and Barda were transferred from Hugh'
to Midnapur. In 1S76, a transfer of 45 villages was made from Singh-
bhiim to Midnapur.
Population. — Several attempts have been made to ascertain the
population of Midnapur. One of the earliest was in 1802, when the
population of the District as then constituted was estimated at a
million and a half. The first real Census was taken in 1872, when
it was found that the population, corrected according to the present
area of the District, numbered 2,545,179 souls, or a density of 500 to
the square mile. The last enumeration in 1881 returned the popula-
tion of Midnapur District at 2,517,802, or a density of 495*4 per square
mile, showing a decrease since 1872 of 27,377 persons, or 1*07 per
tent, in nine years. The decrease in population is due to the rava.
of the ' Bardwan fever,' an epidemic which first appeared in the Metro-
politan District of the Presidency Division in 1862, and spread
gradually throughout the western Districts of the Bardwan Division, on
the opposite side of the Hugh', where it prevailed with the greatest
virulence till 1S74. Midnapur escaped lightly, as compared with other
Districts of the Division, but it reached its maximum here in 1873;
and it is estimated to have slain in this single District no less than a
MID NA PUR. 427
quarter of a million, out of the two million victims of the dise
throughout the Division.
The results of the Census of 18S1 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of District, 5082 square miles; 6 towns and 13,870
villages; number of houses, 445.191, of which 417,062 are returned as
inhabited, and 28,129 as uninhabited. Total population, 2,517,802,
namely, males 1,244,274, and females 1,273,528; proportion of males,
49"4 per cent. Density of population, 495^4 persons per square mile;
towns and villages per square mile, 273 ; persons per town or village,
181; houses per square mile, 87-6; inmates per house, 6-o4. The
population varies, as regards density, very considerably in the different
parts of the District, ranging from 1108 per square mile in Daspur
and 1039 in Tamkik i/nind, to 259 per square mile in the jungle tract
of Salbani, north of Midnapur town. Classified according to age, the
population consisted of — children under 15 years of age, males
488,110, and females 443,341 ; total children 931,451, or 36-9 per cent,
of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 756,164, and females
830,187 ; total adults, 1,586,351, or 63T. per cent.
Classified according to religion, the population comprised — Hindus,
2>235>535> or 92-36 per cent.; Muhammadans, 164,003, or 6-51 per
cent.; Sikhs, 44; Buddhists, 36; Christians, 740; Brahmos, 6 ; Parsis,
2 ; and tribes professing aboriginal religions, 117,436, of whom 112,062
were Santals.-
The aboriginal tribes found in Midnapur belong chiefly to the
jungles and hills of Chutia Nagpur and Bankura, and dwell for the
most part in the west and south-west of the District ; the most
numerous of them are the Santals enumerated above. Besides the
aborigines by religion quoted above, the Census returns a total of
78,715 aborigines among the Hindu population. These Hinduized
aborigines are thus classified — Bhumi'js, 25,258; Bhuiyas, 21,128;
Khanvars, 3S47 ; Kochs, 2523; Santals, 565; and 'others,' 25,394.
Of high-caste Hindus, the Census returns show 136,987 (of whom
117,414 are Brahmans and 19,573 Rajputs); the number of Kayasths
is given as 92,178; and the Baniyas or chief trading castes as
23,507. Among the semi-Hinduized aborigines, the most numerous
are the Bagdis, a tribe of cultivators, fishermen, and day-labourers, who
number 74,497, and the Baun's, who number 12,746. Belonging to
agricultural castes, there are in Midnapur 753,435 Kaibarttas, who are
the most numerous caste in the District, and form 337 per cent, of the
Hindu population. The next great agricultural caste, the Sadgops,
number 126,260, or 5-6 per cent, of the Hindu population. The other
principal Hindu castes include — Tanti, 97,562 ; Teh', 68,239; Owala,
53>994 5 Napit, 46,072 ; Kiirmi, 45,290; Dhobi, 41,607 ; Loha.3S.741;
Kumbhar, 30,650; Chandal, 27,826; Hari, 25,573; Jaliya, 20,179;
428 MIDNAPUR.
Doni, 16,549; Barhai, 14,933; P°d> x3>66o; Chamar, 13,387; Tam-
buli, 11,332; and Raj war, 10,265. Caste-rejecting Hindus number
82,935, of whom 81,888 are returned as Vaishnavs.
The Christian community consisted in 18S1 of 68 Europeans and
Americans, 23 Eurasians, 646 natives, and 3 ' others.' By religion, the
Church of England numbered 134 adherents; Roman Catholics, 165 ;
tists, 242; Church of Scotland, 91; Protestants, sect not stated,
40; Syrian Church, 10; Independents, 8 ; and 'others,' 44. The
American Baptist Mission has a station in the District, and there
are two small well-to-do native Christian communities, engaged in
agriculture. The mission has established several village schools, a
central training school in Midnapur town, and a printing press, at which
the Bible was for the first time printed in Santalf.
Town and Rural Population. — The population of Midnapur District
is almost entirely rural. Six towns are returned as containing upwards
of five thousand inhabitants — namely, Midnapur, 33,560; Ghatal,
12,638; Chandrakona, 12,257; Ramjibanpur, 10,909; Khirpai,
6295 ; and Tamluk, 6044. These towns, which are all municipalities,
contained a total of 81,703 inhabitants in 1881, the urban population
being thus only 3^2 per cent, of that of the District. Total municipal
income in 18S3-84, ^4914, of which ^3852 was derived from taxation ;
average incidence of taxation, 1 1 ^d. per head of the town population. Of
the 13,876 towns and villages comprising the District in 1881, no less
than 10,272 contained less than two hundred inhabitants ; 271 1 had from
two to five hundred 5712 from five hundred to a thousand 5157 from one
to two thousand ; and 24 upwards of two thousand inhabitants.
Tamluk, which is now little more than a village, was in ancient times
a famous city, and figures in the sacred writings of the Hindus as a
kingdom of great antiquity. The earliest historical mention of the place
is in the writings of the Chinese travellers Ea Hian and Hiuen Tsiang,
to which reference has already been made. Even after the overthrow
of Buddhism, it remained a place of great maritime importance
and wealth. Among the objects of note at Tamluk are a temple of
great sanctity and of much architectural interest, dedicated to Barga-
bhima or Kali, and a Yishnuite shrine. Two seaside villages, Birkui,
and CHANDPUR, the former 26 and the latter 14 miles from the sub-
divisional station of Contai (Kanthi), have been proposed as watering-
places and sanitaria for the people of Calcutta during the hot-weather
.ilis; but beyond the erection of a small rest-house at Chandpur,
nothing has yet (1885) been done to provide suitable accommodation
fur visitors.
iculturc. — Rice forms the staple crop of the District. It is of
six kinds — (1) dus, the principal autumn crop ; (2) kdkri and (3)
jh&njly also reaped in the autumn; (4) haimantik or do/an, and (5)
MIDNAPVR. 429
nuan, winter crops ; and (6) boro, or spring rice. Of these, 79 varieties
are named. The other crops of the District are wheat, barley, peas,
linseed, mustard, til, flax, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, mulberry,
and pan. The greater part of the area of the District is cultivated,
chiefly with rice. Previous to the transfer of certain portions of Hugh' to
Midnapur District in 1872, the area was returned at 4836 square miles,
of which 4302 square miles were under cultivation, 156 were unculti-
vated but cultivable, and 378 square miles were returned as uncultivable
jungle land. No later agricultural returns are available. The area
under indigo was estimated in 1877 at about 20,000 acres; the crop is
cultivated largely in Bagri and Bahadurpur, and the pargands in the
Jungle Mahals. A fair average out-turn from an acre of ordinary rice
land, paying a rental of 9s., is about 26 cwts. of paddy, valued at
£2, 8s. The same land would also yield a second crop of pulses or oil-
seeds, valued at 15s. an acre; and the value of the straw may be set down
as about 12s. ; so that the total value of the produce would be ^3, 15s.
Superior rice land, producing only one crop, and paying a rent of iSs.
an acre, might give an out-turn of 70 cwts. of paddy per acre, worth
;£6, 6s. Rents of land vary according to the quality of the soil, posi-
tion, etc. ; the lowest rate for rice land is io|d., and the highest about 18s.
an acre. For sugar-cane land, rents vary from 3s. 6d. to jQi, 1 8s. an acre.
Irrigation is common in the District, and is chiefly effected from
the High Level Canal, for which see the separate article, Midnapur
High Level Canal.
Wages and prices have risen considerably of late years. In
i860, coolies and agricultural labourers received iid. to i|d. a day;
now they earn 2|d. to 2^d. Smiths and carpenters, who formerly
received 3d. a day, now get 4^d., and the wage for bricklayers has
risen from 2-j-d. to 3d. and 3^d. The ordinary bazar rate for the
best cleaned rice is 6s. 9d. a cwt., and for common rice, 4s. 4<L a
cwt. ; in i860 the rates were about 25 per cent, cheaper. Among the
tenures of land peculiar to this District may be mentioned jdlpdi,
pdikdn, and drzi piyddd 's jdgirs. Jdlpdi lands are those which chiefly
supplied fuel for boiling the brine from which salt was manufactured
in the olden time. When Government monopolized the salt manu-
facture, it took these and other lands from the landholders, granting
them remissions of rent and compensation for the loss of profits. The
total area oi jdlpdi lands in the District is 76,835 acres. Pdikdn lands
are granted to pails or village watchmen, and held either at a low
quit-rent, or free of all rent except that represented by the service done
by the holders to the zamind&rs. Arzi piyddd' s jdgirs are lands held
revenue free, in lieu of salary, by the messengers and bailiffs attached
to the Collector's office ; the tenure is a very ancient one. A complete
description of these, as well as of the more usual tenures prevalent in
43o MIDNATUR.
the District, will be found in The Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. iii.
>. 86-1 oo.
Natural Calamities. — Midnapur occasionally suffers from drought,
but this is not, as a rule, of a serious character. On the other hand,
floods, caused by the sudden rise of the rivers as well as by heavy
rainfall, are common in the southern and eastern portions of the Dis-
trict, and are very disastrous in their results. Severe inundations
occurred in 1823, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1S4S, 1850, 1864, 1866,
1868, and 1 88 1. Some idea may be formed of the desolation occa-
sioned, when it is stated that in the flood of 1834 more than half of the
crops were swept away, over 7000 people — half the population of the
flooded tract — were drowned, and 865 villages were inundated. The
famine of 1866 was felt with greater severity in Midnapur than in any
other part of Bengal proper. In 1864 the District had been devastated
by a great cyclone, which swept away more than 33,000 of the popu-
lation. The following year was one of extreme and protracted drought,
and about half of the principal rice crop was lost. In October, the
Deputy Magistrate reported that unless rain fell soon, 'he had no
doubt there would be a famine, the like of which had not been seen
or heard of for many years.' This gloomy forecast was unhappily
fulfilled; and the great famine of 1866 literally decimated the popula-
tion of the District. No accurate statistics of the mortality are avail-
able, but it was estimated by the Collector at about 50,000, or a tenth of
the population in the tracts specially affected. The number of relief
centres established in the District from first to last was 23, and the
average number of persons relieved daily was — in June, 5155 ; in July,
7442; in August, 9606; in September, 8752; in October, 6476; and
in November, 4247. A sum of ,£14,700 was expended on relief to the
starving poor, in addition to nearly £"15,000 spent on relief works.
Rice reached, during the famine, the price of jQi, is. iod. a cwt., and
unhusked rice, 10s. nd.
Commerce and Trade, etc. — The commerce of the District is chiefly
conducted by means of permanent markets, but a considerable local trade
also goes on at fairs and religious gatherings. The principal exports are
rice, silk, and sugar; the principal imports, cotton cloth and twist of
Kuropean manufacture. The value of the exports and the imports is
approximately equal.
The chief manufactures are indigo, silk, mats, and brass and copper
utensils. The indigo of Midnapur, and specially that produced in
the Jungle Mahals, is of first-rate quality. The manufacture is almost
entirely in the hands of Messrs. R. Watson & Company. The
average indigo out-turn of the District was estimated in 1877 at about
1800 mounds, valued at Rs. 200 to Rs. 275 (£"20 to .£27) per ma and.
The manufacture of salt was carried on by the Government until
MIDNAPUR. 431
1 86 1, when the State relinquished the monopoly, leaving the manu-
facture to private persons, subject to a payment of salt duty. This
duty amounted in 1873 to 8s. iod. a cwt. The manufacture has
greatly declined, the introduction of Liverpool salt, which is brought
out to Calcutta at very low rates, having driven the native article nearly
out of the market. In 1786, the manufacture of salt in Hijili was
estimated at over 31,116 tons.
There were in 187 1, 482 miles of road in Midnapur, of which 252
miles were maintained from imperial and 230 miles from local funds.
There are no railways in Midnapur, and the only means of com-
munication besides the roads and large rivers is the High Level
Canal already referred to, by means of which Midnapur town is
] Laced in direct communication with Calcutta; and the coast canal
from the Rupnarayan to the Rasulpur river.
Two vernacular newspapers are printed in the District, besides the
publications of the Mission Press. Public libraries exist at Midnapur,
Ghatal, and Tamliik.
Administration. — In 1790, the net revenue of Midnapur, exclusive
cf Hijili, which then formed a separate Collectorship, was ,£160,316;
and the total civil expenditure, ,£36,681. In 1S39-40, shortly after
the addition of Hijili with its land revenue of ,£35.193 to Midnapur
District, the total net revenue was ,£219,472; and the expenditure,
,£34,246. In 1S70-71, the total net revenue amounted to ^£262,578,
and the expenditure to ,£53,777- In 1S83-84, the revenue of
Midnapur District, from six principal sources, amounted to ,£344.096,
made up as follows: — Land revenue, ,£259,945; excise, ,£21,431 :
stamps, ;£40,6t3; registration, ,£347* ; road ces>, ,£14.784; and
municipal taxes, ,£3852. Sub-division of property has gone on rapidly
under British rule. In 1790, the District, which was then smaller than
it is now, contained 999 estates, held by 1043 proprietors or copar-
ceners, paying a total land revenue of ,£80,791, or an average payment
by each proprietor of ,£77, 9s. By 1870-71, the number of estate
had increased to 2S0S, and of proprietors to 6358; the average land
revenue demand from each proprietor being ,£31, 15s. 70". In 1SS3-S4,
the number of estates had increased to 2956, and the individual pro-
prietors to 21,932 ; the average land revenue demand from each share-
holder being £\\, 17s.
In 1805 there were only 2 magisterial courts and 2 covenanted
English officers in the District; in 1SS3 there were 15 magisterial
and 14 civil and revenue courts, and 6 European officers. For
police purposes Midnapur is divided into 25 police circles {t/ni/nis). In
1883, the regular and municipal police force numbered 964 men of
all ranks, maintained at a total cost to the State of ,£15,601. There
was also a village watch of 89:4 men, maintained by grants of land and
432 MIDNAPUR.
contributions from the people, at an estimated total cost, including
both sources, of ^17,291. The total machinery, therefore, for the pro-
tection of person and property consisted of 9888 officers and men, or 1
man to every half square mile of the area, or to every 235 of the popula-
tion. The estimated total cost was ^32,892, equal to an average of £6,
9s. 5Jd. per square mile, or 3d. per head of the population. The total
number of cases conducted by the police in the same year was 78SS,
in which 7782 persons were placed on trial, and 4556 finally convicted.
Dakditi or gang-robbery is still not uncommon in the District; 17 cases
occurred in 1883. In the same year there were 113 cases of salt
smuggling, in which in persons were arrested, of whom 97 were
finally convicted. There are 3 subsidiary lock-ups in the District,
besides the central jail at Midnapur. In 1883, the daily average prison
population was 814.
Education has spread with great rapidity of late years. In 1856-57,
there were in the District only 14 Government and aided schools, with
1340 pupils ; by 1870-71, the number of such schools had risen to 223,
attended by 8125 pupils. In addition to these, there were in the latter
year 1732 private and unaided schools, with an estimated attendance
of 19,413 pupils. By 1883-84, nearly all the hitherto uninspected and
unaided indigenous village schools had been received within the Govern-
ment system of State education. In 1883, there were in all 4434
schools in Midnapur District, attended by a total of 80,591 pupils. Of
the total boys of a school-going age, 1 in every 2*2 is at school. The
principal educational institution is the Midnapur College with its
attached Collegiate School, attended in 1883 by 307 pupils. The
American missionaries have a Normal School for the training of teachers,
at Bhfmpur, consisting of both a male and female department, and
attended in 1883 by 57 male and 29 female students. The passed
students find employment in the jungle village schools. The Census
Report in 1SS1 returned 76,864 boys and 1019 girls as under instruc-
tion in that year, besides 140,790 males and 1655 females able to
read and write, but not under instruction.
Midnapur District is divided into 4 administrative Sub-divisions —
namely, (1) the sadr or head-quarters Sub-division; (2) Tamliik; (3)
Contai (Kanthi); and (4) Ghatal. These again are sub-divided into
25 police circles (thdnds), and 109 fiscal divisions (pargands).
.\Ldical Aspects. — The climate of Midnapur does not differ from that
of the Twenty-four Pargands. The average mean temperature is about
8o° F., and the average annual rainfall about 66 inches. The prevail-
ing diseases of the District are fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and
small-pox. Cholera is said to be endemic in the town of Midnapur;
and in the epidemic form the disease is of frequent occurrence, generally
breaking out in the hot season. A very serious epidemic of small-pox
MID NAP UR SUB-DIVISION AND TOWN 433
immediately followed the famine of 1S66, and the inhabitants of Midna-
pur town suffered very severely. Another epidemic occurred in 1S79.
Epidemic fever, similar to that generally known as the Bard wan fever, also
visits Midnapur; and in 1S72 it assumed a very serious type. Between
October of that year and the end of March 1S73, the number of
persons treated in the famine-stricken villages of Ghatal, Daspur,
Xarajol, and Shahpur was 24,007, of whom 236 died. A detailed
account of the fever is given in the Statistical Account of Bengal '(vol.
iv. pp. 179-190). The fever prevailed, with more or less virulence, as an
epidemic for several years in Midnapur, during which time it is estimated
to have cost a quarter of a million of lives in this single District. The
total number of registered deaths in 1883 was returned at 51,846, equal
to a ratio of 20-59 Per thousand of the population. The District contains
9 charitable dispensaries, at which medical relief was afforded to 696
in-door and 40,885 out-door patients in 1S83. A serious outbreak of
cattle plague, which proved fatal to three-fourths of the animals affected,
occurred in Midnapur in 1868. [For further information regarding
Midnapur, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter
(Triibner & Co., London, 1S76), vol. iii. pp. 17-247; Mr. H. Y.
Bay ley's Memorandum on Midnapur ; the Bengal Census Report for
1 88 1 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports from
18S0 to 1S84.]
Midnapur. — Sadr or head -quarters Sub -division of Midnapur
District, Bengal, lying between 210 46' 15" and 220 4S' 30" n. lat., and
between 86° 35' 45" and 870 53' 30" e. long. Area, 3296 square miles ;
townships or villages, 8939; houses, 232,686. Total population
(1S72) 1.289,509; (1SS1) 1,269,255, showing a decrease of 20.254
since 1S72, or 1-57 per cent, in nine years. This decrease is attributed
to the ravages of epidemic fever, which prevailed between 1S72 and
1S75. Classified according to sex, males numbered 629,370 in 1881,
and females 639,885. Hindus numbered 1,074,04c ; Muhammadans,
77,304; Christians, 514; Buddhists, 35; Brahmo, 1; Santals following
aboriginal religions, 111,987; other aborigines and unspecified, 5374.
Proportion of males in total population, 49-6 per cent. ; average
density of population, 385-1 persons per square mile; average
number of villages per square mile, 2-71 ; persons per village, 147 :
houses per square mile, 74-7 ; persons per house, 5-5. This Sub-
division comprises the n police circles of Midnapur. Xanivangarh,
Dantun, Gopiballabhpur, Jhargaon, Bhimpur, Salhani. Kespur, Debra,
Garhbeta, Sabang. In 1S83 it contained 5 civil and 11 magisterial
courts ; the regular and municipal police consisted of 346, and the
rural force of 5715 men.
Midnapur. — Chief town and administrative head-quarters of
Midnapur District, Bengal ; situated on the north bank of the Kas
VOL. IX. j e
434 M1DXAPUR HIGH LEVEL CAXAL.
river, in lat. 220 24' 4S" n., and long. 870 21' 12' 1:. Formally
declared the head-quarters station of the District in 17S3. Estimated
population in 1S37, 12,839; m 1869, 27,676; as ascertained by
the Census of 1872, 31,491, and by the Census of 1881, 33.560,
namely, males 16,927, and females 16,633. Classified according to
religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 25,930; Muhammadans, 722 2 .
' others,' 408. Area of town site, 3968 acres. The town has a
large bazar, with commodious public offices, and handsome European
fences, some of them old and stately. It is dry, well supplied
with water, and has some charming views in the immediate neighbour-
hood.
An American Mission maintains an excellent training school,
together with a printing press, and has founded village schools in the
1 'strict. Its efforts have been particularly successful among the Santals,
and some of the earliest and most valuable works on that language have
issued from the Midnapur Mission press. A brisk manufacture of
brass and copper utensils takes place in the town ; and it forms the
local centre of a large indigo and silk industry, conducted by Messrs.
Watson <\r Co. in the surrounding Districts. It is connected with
Calcutta by a navigable canal and by a road to Ulubaria on the Hugh,
and thence by river or road to Calcutta, 68 miles distant. The high
road from Calcutta to Orissa passes through Midnapur town, where
there is a travellers' rest-house. A church, built in 1851, was conse-
crated in 1855 ; a charitable dispensary, established in 1835, afforded in
1S84 relief to 502 in-door and 10,998 out-door patients. The Govern-
ment and aided schools, English and vernacular, are numerously
attended, and supply an excellent education at a small cost to the
citizens. Midnapur has been constituted, a municipality; municipal
income (1883-S4), ^2799, of which ^2425 was derived from taxation ;
rate of taxation, is. 5Jd. per head of population within municipal
limits.
Midnapur High Level Canal.— A navigable and irrigation canal,
extending from Midnapur town to Ulubaria on the Hugh, 16 miles
below Calcutta. The navigable channel has a length of 53 miles
nearly due cast and west, inclusive of the crossings of the rivers Ki
Riipnarayan, and Damodar. Exclusive of these crossings, the total length
of canal cutting is 4S miles. The canal commences in lat. 22 24' n.,
and long. 87° 23' 1:., and joins the Riipnarayan river in lat. 22° 26' v,
and long. 87" 55' 30" E. The canal is used for both irrigation and
navigation. The Calcutta Steam Navigation Company maintains a daily
steamer service between Midnapur and Calcutta; a daily service between
Midnapur and l'anchkura; and a bi-weekly service to Ghatal. Steamers
belonging to native firms ply daily to Panchkura and Ampta, and twice
a week to Ghatal. In 1883-84, the total revenue was as follows: —
MIHXDI1A WAL—M1HRPUR. 435
From water rates, ^13,100; navigation receipts, ,£'12,058; and mis-
cellaneous, ^1299: total, ^£26,457. The working expenses (direct
charges) in 1SS3-84 were ,£21,564, leaving a net profit of .£4893.
The total capital expenditure up to the end of 1883-S4 amounted to
.£815,835. Apart from the steamers of the Calcutta Steam Navigation
Company, which carried during the year 151,400 passengers and 35S2
inaands of goods, the canal was navigated by 51,642 boats of an
aggregate burthen of 383,979 tons, carrying cargo to the value of
;£i,795,3So, and paying .£10,903 in tolls. [For full details regarding
the construction and various works connected with the canal, see
The Statistical Account of Bengal^ vol. iii. pp. 29-36.]
Mihndhawal. — Town in Basti District, North- Western Provinces. —
See Mendhawal.
Mihrauni {Mahrauni). — Eastern tahsil of Lalitpur District, North-
Western Provinces; comprising the pargands of Mihrauni, Banpur, and
Mdhraura, and consisting of a poor and unfertile plain, stretching down
from the Vindhyan range towards the south, and much broken by stony
hill and scrub jungle. Area, 88S square miles, of which only 230
square miles are cultivated. Population (1872) 93,664; (18S1)
110,572, namely, males 57,193, and females 53,379. Total increase
since 1872, 16,908, or 15-3 per cent, in nine years. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1SS1 — Hindus, 103,860 ; Jains,
4705; Muhammadans, 1994; and 'others,' 13. Number of villages,
294, of which 231 contained less than five hundred inhabitants, 42
from five to a thousand, and 21 from one to five thousand inhabitants.
Land revenue, .£7205 ; total Government land revenue, including
cesses, .£8832 ; rental paid by cultivators, including rates and
cesses, .£16,578. In 1SS4, the tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal
court, 8 police stations (/hands), with 5 outposts (chaukis), a regular
police force of 117 officers and men, with a village watch of 228
chaukidars.
Mihrauni. — Village in Lalitpur District, North-Western Provinces,
and head-quarters of Mihrauni tahsil ; situated in lat. 240 22' 50" x.,
and long. 78° 50' 35" e., 24 miles from Lalitpur town. Population
(1872) 2534; (1SS1) 2987. Mihrauni is connected by fair-weather
roads with the neighbouring villages, but is of no commercial or other
importance save as the sub-divisional head-quarters. The Government
buildings include the usual tahsili courts and offices, police station,
Anglo-vernacular school, and post-office. For police and conservancy
purposes a small house-tax is levied.
Mihrpur (Meherpur). — Sub-division of Nadiyl District, Bengal,
lying between 23' 36' and 240 n' n. lat., and between SS° 20' and
88° 55' e. long. Area, 632 square miles; towns and villages, 596;
houses, 59.559. Population (1881) 338,554, namely, males 163.3;:,
456 MIHRPUR TOWN—MIKIR HILLS AND TRIBE.
and females 175,212; proportion of males in total population, 48-2
per cent. Hindus number 127,910; Muhammadans, 207,245; and
Christians, 3399. Number of persons per square mile, 536 ; villages
per square mile, 0-94; houses per square mile, 99; persons per
village, 56S ; inmates per house, 57. This Sub-division comprises the
4 tMnds or police circles of Tehata, Mihrpur, Karimpur, and Gangni.
In 1S83 it contained 2 civil and 3 magisterial courts; the regular
police was 59 strong, and the village watch 716.
Mihrpur {Meherpur). — Town in Nadiya District, Bengal, and head-
quarters of Mihrpur Sub-division ; situated on the Bhairab river, in lat.
23° 46' 35" N., and long. 88° 40' 15" E. Population (1SS1) 5731,
namely, Hindus, 3824; Muhammadans, 1905; and •' others,' 2. Muni-
cipal income (1883-84), .£287; rate of taxation, ii^d. per head of
population. Manufacture of brass utensils ; dispensary. Mihrpur is
the centre of an important branch of the Church Missionary Society.
Mikir Hills and Tribe. — Tract in the Nowgong District, Assam, to
the north of the Na'ga Hills proper, chiefly occupied by the aboriginal
tribe of Mikirs. The Mikir Hills constitute a very remarkable out-
lying block of the main range, reaching from the Garo Hills to the Patkai
range in the Naga Hills, but are completely cut off from it by the valleys
of the Dhansiri (Dhaneswari) on the east, and by those of the Diyang,
Jamuna, and Kopili rivers on the south-west. The Mikir communities
extend from Nowgong to Cachar, and are said to have originally
migrated or been driven into the Assam valley from the Jaintia Hills.
Their head-quarters is in Nowgong District, where they number 47,497
persons; and Sibsagar, where they number 15,548 out of a total of
67,516 in the Assam valley. Large numbers are still found in their
original settlements along the foot of the Jaintia Hills (5546), and in
Cachar, nearly all in the north Sub-division (3704); making in all
77.765 returned in 1S81 as the total number of the Mikir race.
The Mikirs are universally described as the most pacific and
industrious of all the hill tribes of Assam. They do not claim
relationship with any other race, and the name by which they call
themselves, Arleng, means simply 'a man.' They are divided into
four tribes, known as Dumrali, Chintong, Ronghang, and Amri ; each
of which is again sub-divided into four clans or phouis, within each of
which marriage is interdicted. Each little hamlet manages its own
affairs. In their own hills, the Mikirs cultivate cotton and summer
rice, according to the nomadic system of agriculture known as ju//i,
in forest clearings made mostly on the slopes of the hills. Their
implement is the hoe; cattle are not kept, and milk is regarded as
impure. In the plains, however, they are giving up this prejudice and
learning to cultivate winter rice with the plough. A Mikir village, or
chdng (so called from the high platforms on which the houses are
Ml KIR HILLS AND TRIBE. 437
raised ten or twelve feet above the ground), consists of single houses
or disconnected groups scattered about the jungle, and constantly liable
to change as their inhabitants shift their dwellings in search of fresh
lands. Usually all the members of a family, however numerous, and
sometimes more than one family, occupy a single house, which may
thus be of very considerable size. This, however, is said to be due to
the desire to evade the house-tax of Rs. 2. 4. per house. The houses
are very strongly put together. Under the platforms live the pigs and
fowls which contribute victims to the Mikir ?ods.
The principal deity of the Mikirs is Arnam Kethe, i.e. the great god,
whom the western Mikirs are said to call Hajai. His victim is usually
a pig. The sacrificial ground is a cleared space near every village, and
the principal times for worship are the first days of the Hindu months
of Mdgh, Baisdkh, and Kdrtik. The ground is swept clean and spread
with leaves of wild plantain and wild cardamom (tora), upon which are
placed offerings of flowers and rice. The pig is then introduced to
Arnam Kethe by the medicine-man (se kara kli), who addresses the
god in words to this effect : ' We have come here to offer to you all
the things you see, and we hope in return that you will keep us safe.'
The blood and some of the cooked food are offered to the god before
the company eat. Once a year at least, all the people of a chdng
meet together for this solemnity. Propitiatory offerings have also to
be constantly made by individuals to evil spirits whose names and
numbers are indefinite. Some are demons of the higher hills, of the
streams, and even of large bils, or collections of water; and some
are household devils, as Mukrang and Peng, who are worshipped
in-doors by the family once or twice a month byway of disarming their
malice. The list may be increased at any time by the discovery of
new devils. In the case of sickness, meeting a tiger, or any other
mischance, the medicine-man is called upon to divine the particular
devil in fault, who is thenceforth propitiated by his new worshipper
with yearly offerings of a fowl or goat.
The manes of the dead are also reckoned among the powers of evil.
Mikirs burn their dead. The funeral service is held either at the time,
or afterwards over the burnt bones, and consists in the offering of a
victim to the spirit of the departed, followed by drinking, singing, and
dancing, often kept up for several nights in succession, and always
running into excesses which a more civilised people would consider
shameful. Those who can afford it, set up an upright stone (Jong4) as a
memorial of the deceased, with a flat horizontal stone (longp&t) before
it, to serve as a table for the offerings of rice occasionally supplied as
food to the dead man.
Mikirs never marry before maturity. Polygamy is permitted if the
man can afford it ; on the other hand, a man too poor to support
433 MILAM— MIND UN
a wife is not supposed to marry at all. Betrothal by parents seems
to be unknown. If a man takes a fancy to a girl, he calls on her
parents with a present of rice-beer, and if approved of by the young
woman, he wins her by serving in her father's house for a term agreed
on — usually two years — after which he carries off his bride to his own
home. Social intercourse between the sexes is entirely unrestrained,
and the women take an equal part in all the occupations, ceremonies,
and diversions of the men. The Mikirs carry on a brisk traffic
with the Hindus of the plains, bartering cotton and jungle products
for salt and piece-goods ; though they have hitherto yielded but little
to the religious influence of Hinduism. The Mikirs were found very
useful as coolies in the Lushai Expedition of 1871-72.
Milam (or Juhdr), — Large village in Juhar pargand, Kumdun
District, North-Western Provinces, the nearest village to the Juhar pass
over the main Himalayan range into Tibet. Lat. 300 25' 30" N., long.
8o° 10' i5"e. According to Thornton, it is inhabited by Bhutias, who,
however, have to a great extent adopted the Hindu customs and religion.
Elevation of the crest above sea-level, 17,270 feet. Population (1SS1)
1865.
Milmillia. — Forest reserve of sal trees (Shorea robusta) in Kamrup
District, Assam, on the left bank of the Kulsi river. Area, 3558 acres,
<»r 5-61 square miles. The new line of District road passes through the
reserve.
Milur. — Taluk of Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Melur.
Minachal. — Taluk or Sub-division in Travancore, Madras Presi-
dency. Area, 312 square miles. Minachal contains 90 karas or
villages. Population (1875) 53,140; (1881) 57,102, namely, 29,120
males and 27,982 females, occupying 1 1,843 houses. Hindus numbered
28,822; Muhammadans, 13C0; and Christians, 26,920.
Minbra. — Township in Akyab District, Arakan Division, British
Burma. Divided into 12 revenue circles, and adjoins Kyauk-pyu
I 'istrict, to which were added, a few years ago, several circles from
this township. In the south, the soil is good, cultivation extensive, and
the country is much intersected by navigable creeks, which serve as
means of communication. Portions of this tract are liable to inundation
at high tides. Population (1877) 26,893 5 (1881) 28,816 ; villages, 233.
In 1881-S2, land revenue was ^6790; capitation tax, ^3270; net
,nx> £45 ', local cess, ^675. Gross revenue, ^10,778. Area under
cultivation, 34,825 acres, mostly rice. Agricultural stock in 1881-82
mprised 4552 horned cattle, 103S pigs, 267 goats, 4455 ploughs,
239 carts, and 1667 boats.
Mindun (or Minpon — ' Prince's hiding-place,' so called from an
incident in the early history of Burma). — Township in Thayet-mvu
District, Irawadi Division, British Burma; situated between 190 5' and
MINDUN—MIRAJ. 439
1 90 30' N. lat., and between 940 30' and 94° 45' e. long. Area, 708
square miles. Bounded north by Upper Burma ; east by Thayet
township ; south by Ka-ma ; and west by the Arakan mountains.
Population (1877) 26,039; (1881) 30,072, chiefly Burmese. Revenue
in 18S1-S2, ^42,672. The present township of Mindun includes
Mindat. During the last two centuries, under the Burmese government,
it was the residence of a Provincial governor of high rank, with full
power of life and death, having jurisdiction over the tract known as the
' Seven Districts along the Hill.' The last Myo-sa or governor of Min-
dun was the late king of Burma, who, as enjoying the revenues of this
tract which he never visited, received the title of ' Mindun ' Prince, by
which he was known previous to his accession. The township contains
45 registered village tracts. Total area under cultivation in 1881-82,
15,415 acres, of which 10,980 were under rice.
Mindun. — Head-quarters of the Mindun township, Thayet-myu
District, Irawadi Division, British Burma ; situated among the hills at
a bend of the Mahtun river, in lat. 190 20' n., long. 940 44' e. Popula-
tion (1881) 705, engaged chiefly in agriculture. Police station.
Min-gyi. — Township of Tharawadi District, Pegu Division, British
Burma ; situated on the east bank of the Irawadi river, extending
eastwards to the Pegu Yoma.
Min-gyi. — Head-quarters of Min-gyi township, Tharawadi District,
Pegu Division, British Burma. An important mart, from which the
produce of the neighbouring country, principally rice and cutch, is
exported down the Irawadi (Irrawaddy) ; situated 2 miles inland, eastward
of the Irawadi. Population (1881) 1022. Police station.
Min-hla. — Township in Tharawadi District, British Burma. Hilly
and forest-covered country towards the east; in the south is a good
deal of rice cultivation. It includes the six revenue circles of Min-hla,
Mataungda, Pauktaw, Lwin-byin, Senitwya, and Kyet-taik. Population
(1876)33,191 ; (1881) 50,309 ; villages, 262. In 1S81-S2, land revenue
was ^8560; capitation tax, ^4358; fishery revenue, ^7 13 ; net
tax, ^21; local cess, ^938. Gross revenue, ^14,590. Area under
cultivation, 44,632 acres, mostly rice. Agricultural stock comprised
19,430 horned cattle, 597 pigs, 68 goats, 6547 ploughs, 5412 carts,
3569 sledges, and 61 boats.
Miraj (Sexior Branch). — Native State under the Political Agency
of the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency. It consists of
three divisions — a group of villages in the valley of the Kistna (Krishna) ;
a second group in the south of Dharwar District ; and a third in the
midst of villages of Sholapur District. Area, 340 square miles, con-
taining 2 towns and 55 villages. Population (1872) 82,201 ; (1SS1)
69,732, namely, 34,354 males and 35,37s females, occupying 12,299
houses. Hindus numbered in 18S1, 59,309 ; Muhammadans, 7473 ; and
4-P MIRAJ STATE.
'others,' 2950. The portion of the State which is watered by the
Kistna is flat and very rich ; the remaining parts lie low, and are
surrounded by undulating lands, and occasionally intersected by ridges
of hills. The prevailing soil is black. Irrigation is carried on from
rivulets, tanks, and wells. As in the rest of the Deccan, the climate
is always dry, and is oppressively hot from March to May. The
principal products are millet, wheat, gram, sugar-cane, and cotton.
Coarse country cloth and native musical instruments are the chief
manufactures. Cholera and small-pox are prevalent.
Miraj was a grant by the Peshwa to a member of the Patwardhan
family. In 1820 it was, with the sanction of the British Government,
divided into four shares, and the service of horsemen was proportioned
to each. Two of these shares lapsed in 1842 and 1845, from failure
of male issue ; the two others remain. The whole area of the State
lias been surveyed and settled. The present (1881-82) chief of the
Senior Branch is Gangadhar Rao Ganpat, a Brahman. He was edu-
cated at the Rajkumar College at Indore, and ranks as a first-class
Sardar in the Southern Maratha country. He has power to try his
own subjects only for capital offences, without the express permis-
sion of the Political Agent. Revenue (1882-83), £3*,2°°- The chiei
pays tribute of ,£1256 to the British Government, and maintains a
military force of 554 men. The family holds a sanad authorizing
adoption, and follows the rule of primogeniture in matters of succession.
Miraj and Lakshmeshwar are municipalities. There are 30 schools
in the State, with a total of 2146 pupils, besides 16 indigenous
schools. The police force numbers 328 men, maintained (1882-83)
at a cost of ,£1730. Dispensary at Miraj town, affording relief, in
1882-83, to 9245 persons. In the same year 1762 persons were
vaccinated.
Miraj (Junior Branch). — Native State under the Political Agency
of the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency. It consists of
three divisions — a group of villages adjoining the Bankapur Sub-
division of Dharwar District ; a second near the Tasgaon Sub-division
of Satara District ; a third near the Pandharpur Sub-division of Shola-
pur District, which includes four indtn villages in Poona District.
Area, 208 square miles, containing 35 villages. Population (1S72)
35,601; (18S1) 30,541, namely, 15,215 males and 15,326 females, occu-
pying 5375 houses. Hindus numbered in 1SS1, 27,516; Muhammadans,
1667 ; and ' others,' 1358. The soil is generally black. Indian millet,
wheat, gram, and cotton are the chief products ; and coarse country
h is the principal manufacture. The history of this branch of the
family is the same as that of the Senior Branch (vide supra). The
present (1S81-82) chief of Miraj (Junior Branch), Lakshman Rao
Harihar, is a Brdhman. He ranks as a first-class Sardar in the Southern
MI RAJ TOWN— MIR ATH. 441
Maratha country, and has power to try his own subjects only for capital
offences, without the express permission of the Political Agent. He is
a minor, and the affairs of his State are managed by joint adminis-
trators under superintendence of the Political Agent. He enjoys an
estimated gross yearly revenue of ^16,300; pays tribute of ,£641 to
the British Government ; and maintains a military force of 270 men.
Strength of police, 219 men. The family holds a sanad authorizing
adoption, and follows the rule of primogeniture in matters of succession.
There are iS schools in the State, attended by 916 pupils. Dispensary
at Budgaon, which in 1882 afforded relief to 3651 persons. In the
same year 951 persons were vaccinated.
Miraj. — Town in the State of Miraj (Senior Branch) in the Political
Agency of the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency ; resi-
dence of the Chief; situated in lat. 160 49' 10" n., and long. 740 41' 20"
e., near the Kistna (Krishna) river, a few miles south-east of Sangli.
Population (1S72) 22,520; (1S81) 20,616, namely, 9902 males and
10,714 females. Hindus numbered 15,931; Muhammadans, 40SC ;
Jains, 604; and Christians, 1.
Miranpur. — Town in Muzaffarnagar District, North-Western Pro-
vinces; situated 20 miles south-east of Muzaffarnagar town, in lat. 290
17' 15" n., long. 77° 59' 25" e. The town stands in the midst of
country watered by the Ganges Canal. Population (1872) 5924;
(1881) 7276, namely, Hindus, 4400; Muhammadans, 2800; and
Jains, 76. Area of town site, 119 acres. A small house-tax is levied
for police and conservancy purposes. Famous family of Sayyids,
descendants of Haidar Khan. Miranpur was attacked by the Bijnaur
rebels on 4th February 1S58, but successfully defended by the British
troops.
Miranpur Katra. — Town in Tilhar tahsil, Shahjahanpur District,
North-Western Provinces ; situated on the metalled road from Shah-
jahanpur to Bareilly, iS miles from Shahjahanpur town, and 6 from
Tilhar, in lat. 28° 1' 30" n., long. 79° 43' 30" e. Population (1S72)
6529; (1881) 5949, namely, Hindus 3478, and Muhammadans 2471.
Area of town site, 105 acres. A small house-tax is levied for police
and conservancy purposes. The town, which is also a station on the
Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, with a large traffic, contains two mud-
built sarais or native inns, a post-office, police station, and dispensary.
Market days on Sundays and Thursdays. In 1774, the British army
lent to Shuja-ud-daula, Nawab of Oudh, defeated the Rohillas at this
spot.
Miranzai. — Tahsil and town in Kohat District, Punjab. — S
Hangu.
Mirath. — Division, District, tahsil, and town in the North-Western
Provinces. — See Meerut.
442 MIRGANJ TAI1SIL AND VILLAGE.
Mirganj. — North-western tahsil of Bareli (Bareilly) District, North-
Western Provinces, bordering on the Rampur State, and comprising the
old pargands of Ajaon, North Sarauli, and Shahi, the former occupying
the west, Shahi the east, and Sarauli a small portion of the south-west
of the tahsil. At the last assessment of the land revenue of the District
(1872), however, these three pargands were amalgamated into the
single pargand of Mirganj, the area of which is co-extensive with the
present tahsil. Mirganj is a level, well-cultivated plain, studded with
groves, and traversed or bounded by several rivers or watercourses.
Area, 153I square miles, or 98,340 acres, of which 82,452 acres
are under cultivation, 15,393 acres cultivable but not under tillage,
5794 acres revenue-free, and 10,040 acres uncultivable waste. Of the
cultivated area, 437 per cent, is returned as loam (diimat), 37*4 per
cent, as clay {matiydr), and i8-9 per cent, as sand {bluer). The
greater portion of the fields lie low, and are kept naturally moist by
accumulations of rain. It is only the more valuable crops on the
higher levels which require artificial irrigation. Mirganj is a purely
agricultural tract, with hardly any manufactures. Rice, maize, and
bdjra are the chief staples of the autumn, and wheat of the spring
harvest. Numerous market villages are available for the distribution of
the surplus produce, the chief of which are Mirganj, the present, and
Dunka, the old head-quarters of the tahsil.
The population of Mirganj tahsil in 1872 was returned at 97,551 ;
and in 1S81 at 100,939, namely, males 52,907, and females 48,032.
Total increase since 1872, 3388, or 3*5 per cent, in the nine years.
Density of population, 658 persons per square mile. Classified accord-
ing to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 82,956, or 82T per
cent.; Muhammadans, 17,971, or 17*8 per cent.; and 'others,' 12.
Number of villages, 158, of which 73 contained less than five hundred
inhabitants. The landed classes are chiefly Rajputs, Brahmans,
Kayasths, Shaikhs, and Pathans ; while among the tenantry, Kisans,
Kiirmi's, Brahmans, Rajputs, Muraos, and Chamars are the most
numerous classes. The average size of each cultivated holding,
including lands cultivated by the proprietors themselves, is 4^9 acres.
About three-fourths of the cultivated area is held by tenants with rights
of occupancy. The Government land revenue at the time of the last
Settlement (1872) was fixed at ;£i 3,489, or including local rates and
cesses levied on the land, ^14, 925. Total rental paid by cultivators,
including cesses, ^"24,682. Mirganj tahsil contained in 1883, 1 criminal
court, with 2 police circles (/hands), a regular police force numbering
36 men, and a village police of 166 chaukiddrs.
Mirganj. — Village in Bareli (Bareilly) District, North-Western Pro-
vinces, and head-quarters of Mirganj tahsil; situated on the metalled
Bareli and Moradabad road, 21 miles north-west of Bareilly city. The
MIR GANJ VILLA GE—MIRI
t-tj
place is a mere village, with a population consisting principally of
Pathans. The public buildings consist of the usual tahslli courts and
offices, police station, post-office, elementary school, and mud -built
sardi or native inn. Outside the village, on the north-west, is an
encamping ground for troops, in the neighbourhood of which the
market is held twice a week.
Mirganj. — Trading village and produce depot in Rangpur District,
Bengal. Chief trade — rice, jute, and tobacco.
Miri. — An aboriginal tribe, or rather the most important section
of the Abar group of tribes, inhabiting the mountains between the
Assam valley and Tibet, and also settled to some extent (especially
the Mi'ris) in the valley Districts, where they follow a system of
nomadic cultivation. The other tribes, or branches of the same
race, are the Abars, Akas, and Daphlas, a brief description of which
will be found, ante, vol. i. p. i, and p. 135, and vol. iv. p. 119.
The language spoken by all sections of the race is practically one and
the same. In geographical order, beginning from the eastern borders
of Assam, the location of these tribes is as follows : — Akas, a tribe
closely allied to the Daphlas, but who have hitherto made no settle-
ments in the plains; then the Daphlas; next the hill Min's; and finally
the Abars, at the eastern end of the valley.
The Miri tribe ranks first in point of importance among these tribes,
and is the only one which has effected any considerable settlements in
the Assam Districts. In 1872, the number of Mi'ris in British territory
was returned at 13,917 ; and in 1SS1 at 25,636, inhabiting the Districts
of Lakhimpur (11,687), Sibsagar (10,836), and Darrang (31 13). The
increase is mainly due to the settlement of new colonies of immigrants
since 1872. The following description of these people is taken, in a
condensed form, from the Assam Census Report of 1881, and Colonel
E. T. Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1S72) :—
The Miris are divided among themselves into two mutually exclusive
sections, known as the Baragam, or twelve-clan, and Dahgam, or ten-
clan Mi'ris. The Mi'ris now settled in the plains of Assam are claimed
by the Abars as runaway slaves ; and they themselves, while not actually
confessing this, admit that hostilities with the Abars were the cause of
their leaving the hills. Many of the Miri clans have been established
in Assam for ages, and one of their settlements on the Dikrang is
known as that of the khalds or freed Miris. With the exception of the
clan called Chutia Miris, the traditions of all of them take them back
to the valley of the Dihong. It is probable they had advanced from
the north, and made settlements in the country now occupied by the
Abars, and that the latter people, of the same race but more powerful,
following on their footsteps, pushed them down into the plains. They
are of the yellow Mongolian type, tall and powerfully framed, but with
444 MIRI.
a slouching gait and sluggish habits. For a long period under the
Assam Government, the Miris managed to keep to themselves the
entire trade between Assam and the Abars ; and as being thus the only
medium of communication between the two peoples, they obtained this
name Mfri, which means mediator or go-between.
The principal crops raised by the Miris are — summer rice, mustard,
maize, and cotton, sown in clearances made by the axe and hoe in the
forest or reed jungle. Their villages, usually placed on or near the
banks of a river, consist of a few houses built on platforms four or five
feet from the ground, presenting a strong contrast to the ordinary
Assamese village, with its orchards of betel, palm, and plantain, and its
embowering thicket of bamboos. Under the houses live the fowls and
] iigs which furnish the village feasts ; and the more prosperous villages
keep herds of buffaloes, although the Miris, like others of the non-
Aryan tribes of Assam, eschew milk.
The Miris are a strong, well-nourished race, who eat all descriptions
of animal food, although some of the settlements in the plains have
abandoned the use of beef since they have come into contact with the
Hindus. Child-marriage is unknown among them. betrothal may
take place at childhood, but marriage is deferred until the young
couple are able to set up house for themselves. Often the bridegroom-
elect has to serve for his wife, perhaps several years, in the house of his
father-in-law. The women weave their own petticoats of coarse cotton
cloth in stripes of grey colours wrought with dyes obtained (as the}
say) from the Khamptis. Another article of domestic manufacture is
the Miri rug (Jim), made of cotton ticking on a backing of thick cloth.
Upon the men alone devolves the labour of first clearing the jungle or
felling the forest; but the use of the long Mfri hoe is familiar to both
sexes, and the women certainly take their full share of field labour.
The Miris bury their dead.
The religion of the Miris is of a very rude and vague character.
Nekiri Nekiran (or Mekiri and Mekiran) seem to be the departed spirits
of their male and female relatives, who require to be propitiated on the
occasion of any small or great mischance. They also reverence the
sun (doinya), the heaven {talang), and the earth (mobdshine). The
intermediary between these deities and mankind is the Mibi or Miinlua,
a kind of sacrificial priest or medicine-man. The function is so far
hereditary that one of the sons of a Mimbua will usually be a Mimbtia;
but the election depends upon the deity, who may just as easily choose
an outsider. The process of vocation is thus described. About the
age of eighteen, the favourite of the god is driven by the spirit into the
jungle, where he remains for many days unsupported by any food
except what he finds there. He comes home a changed person, able
thenceforth to commune with the invisible world, and to answer all
MIRL 445
manner of questions by intuitive knowledge ; he also possesses the gifts
of prophecy and of healing by prayer. The Baragam Miris, as older
residents of the valley, have partly fallen away from their old religion.
Nekiri and Nekiran serve them well enough for small domestic occa-
sions, but in public worship (bo r khewd) they invoke Sankar and Param-
eswar ; and though it is still the Mimbua who officiates, the ordeal of
vocation has been dispensed with or forgotten. Whatever the deity,
the essentials of worship are the same, consisting of the sacrifice of a
fowl, a pig, or on great occasions a buffalo, and the drinking of rice-
beer.
The Mi'ris, like other wild tribes, are distinguished by the Assamese
into bhakatia and abhakatia, according as they are or are not followers
of a Gosain, or spiritual teacher. Their Gosains are chiefly those of
Sibsagar District, on the south bank of the Brahmaputra, though the
great majority of the Miri settlements are on the north bank or in the
island of Majhuli, itself the seat of some of the chief Gosains in
Assam. Their connection with the Gosain, however, is rather temporal
than spiritual. It is worth their while to secure him as their friend by
presents of a few annas yearly, and a portion of mustard and pulse,
according to each man's means and inclination ; but they have no
Brahmans, nor do they adore any idol. In some places, however, they
had been prevailed on to leave off eating buffalo's flesh. That they are
sinking into the mass of the Hindu population, however slowlv, is
proved by the existence of the class known as mdti or ground Miris,
who have given up their national custom of platform-houses and taken
to living on the ground, — a change which signifies also a departure
from many other national customs, religion included.
The hill Miris, living beyond British territory and along the upper
waters of the Subansiri river, include numerous clans, the best known
of which are the Ghy-ghasi, the Sarak, the Panibotia, and the Tarbotia
Miris. These tribes having, under the native government of Assam,
obtained a sort of prescriptive right to levy black-mail on the Lakhim-
pur villages skirting their hills, now receive annually from the British
Government an equivalent in the form of a money payment. In
language and in many of their customs they resemble, and are no doubt
of common stock with, the Abars ; but they differ from them greatly in
form of government, and in many social observances and customs.
The following description of the hill Miris, their system of Govern-
ment, customs, cultivation, etc., is quoted from Colonel Dalton's
Ethnology of Bengal ; — 'They' (the hill Miris) 'live in small communi-
ties under hereditary chiefs, and in some instances one family has
obtained sufficient influence to be acknowledged as chief over clusters
of communities. They have no morang or common hall, in which the
elders meet and consult during the day ; nor do the youths, armed for
44<3 MIRI.
the protection of the village, keep watch by night. They have no
regulation for the safety of the commonwealth, like the Abars ; nor
does each settlement consist of only one family, as amongst the Tain
Mfshmfs. The village consists of ten or a dozen houses of as many
families, built pretty closely together, in some position difficult of
access ; and it is left to the chief to look after its safety as best he
can. . . .
• The chief who befriended me in my excursion to the hill Miri
villages was Tema, the head of the Panibotia clan. After a journey of
three days and a half from Patalipan in canoes up the river, I met him
and his people at the point called Siplumukh, and thence proceeded by
land. Two long marches over a most difficult road, impracticable for
any quadruped except a goat, and equally impracticable for a biped
who had not the free use of his hands as well as his feet, brought us to
the settlement. My baggage was nearly all carried on the heads of
sturdy-limbed hill lasses, who merrily bounded like roes from one
slipping rock to another, laughing at my slow progress. I found the
villages situated on hills to the north of the great range seen from the
Lakhimpur station, which I had crossed. They were small, consisting
each of not more than ten or a dozen houses, and two or three miles
apart. Every village had its gam or chief, but my friend Tema was
looked upon as head of the clan. On the arrival of the first British
officer ever seen in the hills, fowls were killed in every village by
augurs, with the view of ascertaining, from the appearance of the
entrails, if the visit boded them good or ill. Fortunately the omens
were all pronounced favourable, and the people vied with each other in
treating me and my party with kindness and hospitality.
' A description of Tenia's house will suffice for all, and show how
they live. It is 70 feet long; the flooring is of split bamboos on a
very substantial framework of timber raised several feet from the
ground ; the roof has gable ends, and is thatched with leaves ; under
the gable, a cross sloping roof covers an open balcony at each end.
The interior consists of one long apartment 60 feet by 16, from whit h
a passage at one side, extending the entire length, is partitioned off in
the large apartment down the centre. Four fires burn on hearths of
earth. On one side, neatly ranged, were the arms, pouches, marching
equipments; another portion of the hall was decorated with trophies of
the chase; in the centre, between the fires, frames of bamboos sus-
pended from the roof served as tables, on which various domestic
nsils were deposited. In the passage partitioned off there was
nothing but a row of conical baskets lined with plantain leaves, in
which the grain was undergoing it> process of fermentation for the pro-
duction of their favourite beverage. The liquor slowly percolated into
earthen vessels placed underneath, and was removed for use as they
MIRL 447
filled. In the large apartment, the whole family eat, drink, and sleep ;
Tenia and his two wives at the upper end or first fire, his sons and
daughters round the next, and servants and retainers round the third
and fourth. Fearful of being pillaged by the Abars, they do not
venture to display much property in their houses. Their stores of
grain are kept in houses apart from the village, and their valuables
buried. The latter consist chiefly of large dishes and cooking vessels
of metal, and of great collections of Tibetan metal bells called deogantas,
which appear to be prized as holy things, and are sometimes used for
money. The Mirfs pretend that they cannot now obtain these bells,
and that those they possess are heirlooms. They are valued at from
4 dnnds to Rs. 12 (6d. to £1, 4s. od.) each, according to shape, size,
and ornaments. Those with inscriptions inside and out are most highly
prized. Those without inscriptions are little valued ; and as the in-
scriptions are nothing more than repetitions of the shibboleth, "Om
Mani padmi om," of the Tibetans, it is easy to see that the Mirfs must
have been inspired by that people to treat them with such veneration.
The superstition regarding them should be compared with the venera-
tion of the Garos for the vessels called diokoras, also, it is believed, of
Tibetan manufacture.
' The costume of the ladies of this clan is elaborate and peculiar.
A short petticoat extending from the loins to the knees is secured to
a broad belt of leather, which is ornamented with brass bosses. Out-
side this they wear a singular crinoline or petticoat of cane-work. The
upper garment consists of a band of plaited cane-work girding the body
close under the arms, and from this in front a fragment of cloth
depends, and covers the breasts. This is their travelling and working
dress ; but at other times they wrap themselves in a large cloth of end
silk of Assamese manufacture, doubled over the shoulders and pinned
in front like a shawl. They have bracelets of silver or copper, and
anklets of finely plaited cane or bamboo. Their hair is adjusted with
neatness, parted in the centre and hanging down the back in two
carefully plaited tails. In their ears they wear most fantastic ornaments
of silver. A simple spiral screw of this metal, winding snake-like
round the extended lobe of the ear, is not uncommon amongst
unmarried girls; but this is only an adjunct of the complicated ear
ornaments worn by married ladies. They wear round their necks an
enormous quantity of large turquoise-like beads made apparently of fine
porcelain, and beads of agate, cornelian, and onyx, as well as ordinary
glass beads of all colours.
'The men of the Miri clan have fine muscular figures ; many of them
are tall, at least over five feet eight inches. In feature they generally
resemble the Abars ; but they have admitted Assamese into their
fraternity, and the expression of some is softened by this admixture of
44S MIRL
race. Tliey gather the hair to the front, where it protrudes from the
forehead in a large knot secured by a bodkin. Round the head a band
of small brass or copper knobs linked together is tightly bound. Chiefs
wear ornaments in their ears of silver, shaped like a wine glass, and
quite as large. A cap of cane or bamboo work with a peak behind is
worn when travelling, and over this a piece cut out of a tiger or leopard
skin, including the tail, which has a droll appearance hanging down
the back. Their nether garment is a scarf between the legs fastened to
. irdle of cane-work ; and their upper robe, a cloth wrapped round
the body and pinned so as to resemble the Abar's sleeveless coat.
\s a cloak and covering for their knapsack, they wear over the
shoulders a half cape made of the back hairy fibres of a palm tree,
which at a distance looks like a bear's skin. Their arms are the bow
and arrow and long straight sword, the arrows being generally poisoned.
They also make shafts from a species of bamboo, which is said to be
naturally poisonous.
' The time of the men is chiefly occupied in journeys to the plains,
with loads of manj'it and other produce, or in hunting. They have
various methods for entrapping animals of all kinds, from an elephant
to a mouse, and all is food that comes to their net. The flesh of a
tiger is prized as food for men ; it gives them strength and courage.
It is not suited for women; it would make them too strong-minded.
' Polygamy is practised to a great extent by the chiefs. There is no
limit, but his means of purchase, to the number of wives a man may
possess ; and (as amongst the Mfshmis) when he dies, his son or heir
will become the husband of all the women except his own mother. . . .
• With the poorer classes, a man has to work hard to earn the means
of buying a wife ; and from this, the practice of polyandry results in a
few instances.
' . . . The Mil i women make faithful and obedient wives. . . . They
are trained never to complain or give an angry answer; and they appear
to cheerfully bear the hard burden imposed on them, which includes
nearly the whole of the field labour, and an equal share of the carrying
work of their journeys to the plains.
1 Every village has a certain extent of ground to which their cultiva-
tion is limited, but not more than one-fifth of this is under cultivation
each season. They cultivate each patch two successive years, then suffer
it to lie fallow four or five years, taking up instead the land that has
been longest fallow. They have, like the Abars, a superstition which
deters them from breaking up fresh ground so long as their available
fallow is sufficient, — a dread of offending the spirits of the woods by
unn< ily cutting down trees. Their crops are — aus rice, millets,
Indian corn, yams, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and red-pepper; but they
barely grow sufficient for their own consumption, and would often be
M1RI. 449
very hard pressed for food if it were not for the large stock of dried
meat they take care to have always on hand. Not less than two-thirds
of the Panibotia Miris spend several months of the year in the plains ;
and their main occupation whilst there is to procure meat and fish, dry
it, and carry it back to the hills.
' There are no people on the face of the earth more ignorant of arts
and manufactures than the Miri tribe. They are decently clad, because
they can exchange the wild produce of their hills for clothes, and they
purchase cloth with the money received from Government as black-
mail commutation ; but they cannot make for themselves any article of
clothing, unless the cane bands and bamboo crinolines can be so called.
The most distant tribes, their cognates, manufacture coarse cotton
cloths ; but though the Miris are in constant communication with them,
as well as with the people of the plains, they have not the remotest idea
of weaving. They cannot journey two or three days from their village
without having to cross a considerable river. If it be not fordable, a
rough raft of kdku bamboos (Bambusa gigantea) is hastily constructed ;
but though constantly requiring them, and annually using them in their
journeys to the plains, they have never yet attempted to construct a
canoe. This is the more strange as the Abars of the Dihong river
make canoes for use and for sale.
' The religious observances of the Miris are confined to the slaughter
of animals in the name of the sylvan spirits, and vaticination by the
examination of the entrails of birds when the deities have been invoked
after such sacrifices. They profess a belief in a future state, and have
an indefinite idea of a god who presides in the region of departed
souls ; but as they call this god Jam Raja, he is believed to be the
Hindu Yama.
' They, however, bury their dead as if they were sending them on a
long journey, fully clothed and equipped with arms, travelling-pouch,
and caps, in a deep grave surrounded by strong timbers to prevent the
earth from pressing on them ; nor do they omit to supply the departed
with food for his journey, cooking utensils, and ornaments, according
to the position he enjoyed in life, in order that Jam Raja may know
whom he has to deal with. They attach great importance to their dead
being thus disposed of, and buried near the graves of their ancestors.
If a man of rank and influence die in the plains, his body is immedi-
ately conveyed to the hills to be so interred, should the disease of
which he died be not deemed contagious.
' Of migrations, or their own origin, the hill Miris can only say that
they were made for the hills and appointed to dwell there ; and that
they were originally much farther north, but discovered Assam by
following the flights of birds, and found it to their advantage to settle
on its borders. There can be no doubt that the hill Miris do their
VOL. IX. 2 F
45o MIRK. IS. \RAI— MIRPUR BA TORO.
utmost to deter the people of the wild clans to the north from visiting
plains ; but the north-men occasionally creep down bearing heavy
loads of man/it, and, beyond looking more savage and unkempt, they
are undistinguishable from the poorer class of Mi'ris. They are
described, however, as living in detached houses, as, whenever they
have' attempted to form into a society, fierce feuds and summary
vengeance, or the dread of it, soon break up the community. Thrown
on their own resources, they have acquired the art of forging their own
ddos, which the Mi'ris know not, and their women weave coarse narrow
cloths.'
Mirkasarai. — Town and police station {thdnd) of the head-quarters
Sub-division, Noakhali District, Bengal; recently transferred to this
District from Chittagong. Situated in lat. 22° 46' 4" n., and long. 91°
37' 10" e., on the old Imperial High Road from Dacca to Chittagong.
Population (1881) under 5000.
Mirpur. — Idluk in Rohri Sub-division, Shikarpur District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency; situated between 27° 19' and 280 S' N. lat., and
between 690 13' and 700 11' e. long. Area, 17207 square miles.
mlation (1872) 42,127; (1881) 39,112, namely, 21,169 males and
17,943 females, dwelling in 84 villages and 7172 houses. Hindus
number 4230; Muhammadans, 31,898; Sikhs, 976; and aboriginal
tribes, 2008. Gross revenue (1881-82), ^8361. In 1882-83, the area
assessed to land revenue was 44,515 acres, and the area actually culti-
vated 38,174 acres. In 1884, the taluk contained 3 criminal courts;
police stations (thanas), 7 ; regular police, 38 men.
Mirpur. — Town in Rohri Sub-division, Shikarpur District, Sind,
Pom bay Presidency, and head - quarters of the mukhtiarkdr of
Mirpur taluk ; 55 miles north-east of Rohri town. Lat. 280 1' 15" k.,
long. 69° 35' E. Contains a court-house and treasury, and a tappdddr's
office ; also a travellers' bungalow, post-office, and police lines.
Population inconsiderable. Small trade in grain and ghi. The town
was founded by Mir Musti Khan Talpur about 1739 A-D-> and is a
station on the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway.
Mirpur. — Town in the Frontier District, Upper Sind, Bombay
Presidency; situated in the Thai taluk, 20 miles east of Jacobabad, in
lat 28° 11' N., long. 6S° 46' e. It has a thdnd or police circle, and
is the head-quarters of a tappdddr. Considerable trade in grain, and
a manufacture of embroidered shoes.
Mirpur Batoro. — Tdluk in Shahbandar Sub-division, Karachi
(Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between
24 28' and 25 N. lat, and between 68° 12' and 68° 27' E. long.
Area, 268 square miles. Population (1872) 31,645; (18S1) 32,179,
namely, 17,92.1 males and 14,255 females, dwelling in 1 town and
-\ villages, with 6298 houi Hindus number 3727; Muham-
MIRPUR BATORO—MIRPUR SAKRO. 451
madans, 27,865 ; Sikhs, 229; aboriginal tribes, 354; and Christians, 4.
Gross revenue (1881-82), ^"6743. In 1882-83, the area assessed
to land revenue was 66,252 acres, and the area actually cultivated
27,372 acres. In 1SS4, the taluk contained 1 civil and 2 criminal
courts ; police stations, 5 ; regular police, 43 men.
Mirpur Batoro. — Chief town and municipality of the Mirpur
Batoro taluk in Shahbandar Sub-division, Karachi District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 240 44' n., and long. 68° 17'
30' e., on the Fatiah Canal, 13 miles north-east of Sujawal, and 26
north of Mugalbhin. Head-quarters of a mukhtidrkdr and a iappdddr.
Contains a bazar, dharmsala, etc. Population (1881) 3102. Municipal
income (18S1-S2), ^437; incidence of taxation, is. iofd. Large
export of grain ; transit trade in cloth, ghi, and miscellaneous articles.
The main industries of the place are dyeing, and the manufacture of
country liquor.
Mirpur Khas. — Taluk of Hala Sub-division, Haidarabad (Hyder-
abad) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated between 25° 12'
45" and 25° 48' n. lat., and between 68° 54' and 69° 17' 30" e. long.
Area, 561*4 square miles. Population (1872) 22,449; (1S81) 24,979,
namely, 13,737 males and 11,242 females, dwelling in 39 villages,
with 5128 houses. Hindus number 4367; Muhammadans, 17,222;
Sikhs, 697 ; and aboriginal tribes, 2693. Gross revenue (1880-81),
,£6587. In 18S2-S3, the area assessed to land revenue was 66,518
acres, and the area actually cultivated 22.935 acres. In 18S4, the
taluk contained 2 criminal courts ; police stations (tlidtids), 4 ; regular
police, 25 men.
Mirpur Khas. — Chief town of the Mirpur Khas taluk, Hala
Sub-division, Haidarabad District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; situated
in lat. 250 31' 45" N.j and long. 690 3' e., on the Letwah Canal, and
also on the high road to Haidarabad and Umarkot, 38 miles south-east
of Hala, and 41 miles east-north-east of Haidarabad vid Alahyar-jo-
Tanda (17 miles distant). Contains a staging bungalow and the usual
public offices. Population (1 881) below 2000. Local trade in grain,
cotton (said to be the finest in Sind), and piece-goods, valued at ^4200.
The annual value of the transit trade is estimated at ,£5700. Mirpur
is a comparatively modern town, having been built in 1806 by Mir All
Murad Talpur. It was the capital of Mir Sher Muhammad Khan
Talpur, whose army was defeated in 1843 by Sir Charles Napier at
Dabba (Dabo) near Haidarabad.
Mirpur Sakro. — Taluk in Jerruck (Jhirak) Sub-division, Karachi
(Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. Area, 110S square
miles. Population (1S72) 22,614; (1SS1) 21,711, namely, 11.S09
males and 9902 females, dwelling in 16 villages, with 4290 houses.
Hindus numbered 1959; Muhammadans, 19,531; and Sikhs, 221.
452 MIRTA— MIRZAPUR.
Gross revenue (1SS3), .£3759. The town of Mfrpur Sakro lies in Iat.
24° -^i N., and long. 670 40' E. In 18S2-83, the area assessed to
land revenue was 28,271 acres, and the area actually cultivated 13,457
acres. In 1883, the taluk contained 2 criminal courts; police circles
{{hands), 5 ; regular police, 35 men.
Mirta. — Town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana. — See Merta.
Mirzapur. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the North-
western Provinces, lying between 230 51' 30" and 25 ° 31' N. Iat., and
between S20 9' 15" and 83° 36' e. long. Area, 5223 square miles.
Population (1881) 1,136,796 persons. Mirzapur forms the southern-
most District of the Benares Division. It is bounded on the north
by Jaunpur and Benares ; on the east by the Bengal Districts of
Shahabad and Lohardaga ; on the south by the Sargujd. Tributary
State ; and on the west by Allahabad District and the territories of the
Maharaja* of Rewa. The administrative head-quarters are at the city
<f Mirzapur.
Physical Aspects. — The District of Mirzapur extends over a larger
area than any other in the North-Western Provinces, and exhibits a
corresponding diversity of natural features. It has an extreme length
of 102 miles from north to south, and an average width of 52 miles
from east to west. The mountain ranges of the Vindhyas and the
Kaimur, crossing it in the last-named direction, mark out the country
into several well-defined physical divisions. The tract north of the
Vindhyas forms part of the alluvial valley of the Ganges, and extends
across either bank of the sacred river. The portion on its left or
northern bank consists of a perfectly level plain, presenting the usual
characteristics of the Gangetic lowlands. From its southern bank the
District slopes upward gradually to the Vindhyan Hills, whose sand-
stone spurs descend to the river near Bindachal and at Chanar
(Chunar), while projections and ravines run down into the plain along
its whole southern boundary.
The high plateau between the Vindhyas, which overlook the Ganges,
and the Kaimur range, which overhangs the valley of the Son (Soane)
to the south, has a length of about 70 miles, with a breadth varying
from 20 to 30 miles. It consists of a table-land with an elevation of
from 300 to 500 feet above the plain, or from 600 to 800 feet above
sea-level. The Karamnasa takes its rise in this middle region, but
does not become a considerable river until it debouches upon the
^etic plain near Kera Mangraur. The eastern portion of the
plateau comprises the southern half of Kera Mangraur pargatid, a
revenue-free estate, forming a portion of the family domains of the
Maharaja of Benares, which has been set apart as a vast preserve
for deer and large game shooting. This tract, which is known as
taluk Naugarh, is intersected everywhere by low-wooded ridges, with
MIRZAPUR. 453
intervening valleys watered by hill torrents, which find their way, some
to the Karamnasa, some to the Chandraprabha, and so to the plains
and the Ganges beyond. The whole taluk, nearly 300 square miles
in extent, is a vast forest, with here and there a few clearings, each
containing one or more villages interspersed at wide intervals over its
surface. The scenery is among the wildest and most beautiful in the
District. The tract called the Daman-i-Koh, where the hills meet the
plains, is specially picturesque. The Karamnasa reaches the plains
by a succession of leaps, including two falls known as the Deodari
and the Chhanpathar, which, from their height and beauty, are
deserving of special notice. The lesser stream of the Chandraprabha
leaves the plateau at Purwadari by a single cascade, 400 feet in height,
whence it passes through a gloomy and precipitous gorge, 7 miles in
length, to the open country beyond.
After passing the crest of the Kaimur hills, a more rugged,
imposing, and elevated range than the Vindhyas, an abrupt descent of
400 or 500 feet leads down into the third tract, the valley of the Son
(Soane) and its tributaries. The valley is reached by several more or
less practicable passes, the finest and easiest of which is the Kiwai ghat
above Markundi, on the Chanar-Sarguja road. The basin of the main
river itself lies at the foot of the Kaimur chain, and comprises a strip of
alluvial land stretching about 4 miles on either side of its bed. Next,
as the traveller moves southward, come the transverse valleys of its
affluents, the Rehand and Kanhar, flowing at right angles to the Son,
and separated from one another by low hill ridges. Finally, in the
extreme south, the Singrauli basin, between the Rehand and the
Pangan, consists of a low-lying depression, composed of metamorphic
rocks, overlaid in part by glacial boulder beds and coal strata. Alluvial
deposits of black loam fill in the centre of the basin. The Son is
navigable during the rainy season, when rafts of wood and bamboos are
floated down to Patna, near its mouth.
The eastern portion of the plateau has extensive tracts of low
jungle, interspersed with larger trees ; while the Son valley is widely
covered with forest, and presents beautiful scenery, deep and thickly
wooded gorges from the Kaimur range penetrating far into the
hollow beneath, forming a fine contrast with its flat and tame appear-
ance. Mirzapur is the only District of the North-Westem Provinces
which stretches to any great extent from the alluvial Gangetic plain
into the central rock-area of India ; and its geological features comprise
most of the characteristic formations of the peninsula. Tigers, leopards,
and bears occur commonly in the southern jungles ; while sambhar,
hyaenas, wolves, wild hog, spotted deer, nilgai, and antelopes abound in
many parts. As a rule, game birds are very scarce in Mirzapur, and
the aquatic species particularly so.
454 MIRZAPUR.
History. — Mirzapur has always formed part of the Benares Province,
and its annals under the Rajas of Benares belong rather to the account
of that District. To this day, the whole of the Bhadohi and Kera
Mangraur pargands are included among the family domains of the
Maharaja, who exercises considerable revenue powers.
The earlier chronicles of the District centre around the towns of
Mirzapur and Chanar. The latter stronghold, perched upon a project-
ing sandstone outlier of the Vindhyan range, derives its name from the
footprint of a deity, who descended upon the spot during the heroic
period. Long afterwards, Bharti Nath, King of Ujjain, a younger brother
of the famous hero Vikramaditya, became a religious devotee, and settled
upon this hill. His shrine still remains one of the holiest places in
India.
At a more historic date, Prithwi Raj took up his abode at Chanar
(Chunar), and brought the surrounding tract under cultivation. After
his death, Khair-ud-din Sabuktagin conquered the country from his
successor, and a mutilated inscription over the gateway of Chandr fort
commemorates its ransom from the hands of a Musalman invader. It
fell once more before a general of Muhammad Shah, who appointed a
Bahelia as governor of the fort. The family of the Bahelias retained
the office, with a permanence very rare in Indian history, till the
surrender of the fortress to the British after the battle of Buxar (Baksar)
in 1764. Sher Khan, the Rohilla, obtained possession of Chanar in
1530 by marrying the widow of its late commandant; and two years later,
Humayiin besieged and captured the place. In 1575, the Mughals
again took Chanar, and settled the neighbouring country. About
1750 it came into the hands of Raja Balwant Singh of Benares.
Unsuccessfully besieged by Major Munro in 1763, Chanar passed
under British rule after the victory of Buxar in the succeeding year.
In 1 781, Warren Hastings, when trying to coerce Raja Chait Singh of
Benares, had to take refuge at Chanar from August 21st to September
30th; when Chait Singh fled to Gwalior, after a vain resistance to Major
Popham's force at Latifpur.
After the establishment of Mahip Narayan Singh as Raja" of Benares
in the place of his rebellious kinsman, the District disappears from
history till the date of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1S57. At first only a Sikh
guard had charge of the treasury at Mirzapur, but after the outbreaks
at Benares on the 1st and at Jaunpur on the 5th of June, Colonel Pott
arrived with part of the 47th Native Infantry. The Sikhs were called
in to Allahdbdd on the 8th ; and next day, strong rumours of intended
attacks by the rebels being current, all the officers, except Mr. Tucker,
retired to Chanar. On the 10th, Mr. Tucker attacked and defeated the
insurgents; and on the 13th, a detachment of the 1st Madras Fusiliers
arrived at Mirzapur, and destroyed Gaura, a stronghold of the river
MIRZAPUR. 455
dakdits. In Ehadohi pargand, Adwant Singh, head of the Thakurs,
rebelled, but was captured and hanged. The Thakurs vowed
vengeance, attacked Mr. Moore, Joint-Magistrate of Mirzapur, at Pali
factory, and murdered him, together with two planters, while endeavour-
ing to make his escape. On the 26th June, the Banda and Fatehpur
fugitives arrived and passed on to Allahabad. On the nth August, the
Dinapur mutineers entered the District, but were put to flight by three
companies of the 5th, and left Mirzapur at once. Kuar Singh, the
rebel zaminddr of Shahabad District, made an incursion on the 8th
September after his defeat at Arrah, but the people compelled him
to pass on to Banda. On the 16th, when the 50th Native Infantry
mutinied at Nagod, the officers and 200 faithful men marched through
Rewa to Mirzapur. No further disturbance occurred till Mr. Tucker
made an expedition against Bijaigarh in January 1858, drove the
rebels across the Son, and re-established order, which was not again
disturbed.
Population. — The Census of 1853 returned the total number of
inhabitants at 1,104,315. By 1865 the number had decreased to
1,055,735, showing a decrease of 48,580, or 4*6 per cent., although the
area had increased meanwhile by 48 square miles. The enumeration
of 1872 disclosed a further fall to 1,015,826, being a decrease of 39,909
persons, or 3*9 per cent, although the area had again increased by 17
square miles. The total decrease for the 19 years ending in 1872
amounted to 88,489 persons, or 87 per cent., in spite of an increase
of area amounting to 65 square miles, or 1*2 per cent. The density
of population, which was 214 persons per square mile in 1853, fell to
203 in 1865, and to 195 in 1872. No apparent reason for these facts
can be alleged, except the decadence in the commercial prosperity
of Mirzapur city. In 1881, however, the Census showed an increase,
and returned the total population above that of 1853. In 1881 the
population of Mirzdpur District numbered 1,136,796, showing a density
of 217*6 persons per square mile, as against 214 per square mile in
1853, 203 per square mile in 1865, and 195 per square mile in 1S72.
The total increase between 1872 (on an area corresponding with that of
the present District) and 1881 was 120,970, or 11*97 per cent, in the
nine years.
The results of the Census of 1S81 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of District, 5223 square miles; towns, 3; and villag
4352; density of population, 217*6 persons per square mile; villa_
per square mile, *8 ; persons per town or village, 261 ; houses per
square mile, 33*8 ; inmates per house, 6*4. Total population,
1,136,796, namely, males 567,304, and females 569,492; proportion
of males, 49*9 per cent. Classified according to age, there were —
under 15 years of age, males 226,306, and females 210,45s; total
456 MIRZAPUR.
children, 436.764, or 3S4 per cent, of the District population : 15
years and upwards, males 34.0,998, and females 359,034; total adults
700,032, or 6 1 "6 per cent.
As regards religion, the District still remains almost exclusively
Hindu, the adherents of that creed numbering 1,061,998, or 934. per
cent. ; as against 73,507 Muhammadans, or 6-4 per cent. Sikhs
numbered 3S8 ; Jains, 200; Christians, 701 ; and Brahmos, 2. The
ethnical division of the Hindus yielded the following results : —
The higher castes comprised — Brahman, 165,489, the most numerous
caste in the District; Rajput, 51,065; Kayasth, 12,404; and Baniya,
25,606. The other important Hindu castes, according to numerical
superiority, are returned as follows: — Chamar, skinners and field
labourers, 142,826; Ahfr, cowherds, 111,156; Mallah, boatmen,
80,40s ; Kurmi or Kunbi, landholders and cultivators, 67,429 ; Kachhi,
landholders and cultivators, 41,834 ; Kahcir, palanquin-bearers, water-
carriers, andlabourers, 28,751 ; Telf, oilmen, 24,388; Lohar, blacksmiths,
23'^37 ; Gadaria, shepherds, 22,771 ; Pasi, village watchmen, labourers,
and cultivators, 21,937 ; Kalwar, distillers, 18,094 ; Kumbhar, potters,
17,684; Nai, barbers, 15,873; Bayar, cultivators, 13,092 ; Loniya, salt-
workers, 11,671; Dhobi, washermen, 11,094; Halwai, confectioners,
7943 ; Bansphor, workers in bamboo, 71 16; Sonar, goldsmiths, 5438 ;
and Bhurji, 5292. The Bhars, or representatives of the aboriginal
tribe once dominant in the North-west, are now represented in Mfrza-
pur by only 3169 low -caste labourers and cultivators. The other
aboriginal and semi-aboriginal tribes include — Kol, 31,970; Khanvar,
14,280; Bind, 8376; and Cheru, 4307. These aboriginal and quasi-
aboriginal tribes are all returned as Hindus in religion.
The Muhammadan population, 73,507 in number, are almost
entirely of the Sunni or orthodox sect; only 1090 being returned as
Shias, and there are no representatives of other sects. By race or
family, the Muhammadans include Shaikhs, Sayyids, Mughals, Pathans,
and 349 Muhammadan Rajputs belonging to the Gaharwar family in
Kera Mangraur. The Christian population of Mirzapur, 701 in number,
include 433 Europeans, 46 Eurasians, and 222 natives, representing,
according to sect, the Churches of England and Rome, Presbyterians,
Baptists, Wesleyans, Syrians, Congregationalists, and Evangelicals.
Besides the Christians in Mirzapur town, there are small Christian
communities at Chanar, Ahraura, Diidhi, and in one or two other
villages.
Urban and Rural Population. — The population of Mirzapur District
is almost entirely rural, the Census Report returning only three towns
1 ontaining upwards of five thousand inhabitants, namely, Mirzapur,
56,378 j Ahraura, 11,332; and Chanar, 9148. These three towns
represent an urban population of 76,858, or 67 per cent., leaving
MIRZAPLR. 457
I>°S9)938, or 93*3 per cent., as the rural population. Of 4355 towns
and villages, 2597 are mere hamlets of less than two hundred inhabitants
each; 1253 villages contain between two hundred and five hundred;
395 between five hundred and a thousand ; 88 between one and two
thousand; 12 between two and three thousand; and 10 upwards of
three thousand inhabitants. The population in the tract south of the
Kaimur range is very rude and uncivilised ; and the villages, which are
of the smallest, are few and far between.
As regards occupation, the Census of 1881 distributes the male popu-
lation into six great classes, as follows : — The first or professional class
number 8884, amongst whom are included 5102 persons engaged in
civil government service, 222 military, and 3560 in professions, litera-
ture, art, and science. The second or domestic class number 2183,
comprising all private servants, washermen, water-carriers, barbers,
sweepers, innkeepers, etc. The third or commercial class number
15,716, including all shopkeepers, money-lenders, bankers, brokers,
etc., 4823; and pack-carriers, cart-drivers, etc., 10,893. Of" the fourth
or agricultural class, besides the 253,432 males engaged in agriculture,
arboriculture, and horticulture, the Census returns include 3321 persons
engaged in pastoral pursuits, making a total of 256,753. The fifth or
industrial class number 50,811, including all persons engaged in the
industrial arts, and mechanics, such as dyers, masons, carpenters,
perfumers, etc., 1841 ; weavers, tailors, cotton-cleaners, etc., 17,243;
grain-parchers, confectioners, etc., 10,397 ; and dealers in all animal
1117, vegetable 7415, and mineral 12,798 substances. The sixth or
indefinite class number 232,957, including labourers, 29,915, and male
children and persons of no specified occupation, 203,042.
Agriculture. — Of a total surveyed area of 52233 square miles, no
less than 2280 square miles are unassessed for Government revenue.
This unassessed area comprises the Government estate of pargand
Dudhi, the large revenue-free estates of the Maharaja of Benares, the
Raja of Singrauli, and the Raja of Kantit. Of the remaining area
(2942-8 square miles) paying Government revenue or quit-rent, 1264-4
square miles are returned as under cultivation, 409 square miles as
cultivable but not cultivated, and 1269-4 square miles as uncultivable
waste. The part of Mirzapur which lies in the Ganges valley north
of the Vindhyas, is very highly cultivated and thickly populated on
both sides of the river, like other. Districts of the Benares Division ;
but the tract south of the Vindhyas, including the central plateau and
the country beyond the Kaimur Hills, consists largely of ravines and
forests, with a very sparse population. The soil of the Ganges valley
is exceedingly fertile, except where the sandstone rocks jut out from
the Vindhyan plateau. The fine black soil which fills the hollow of
the central table-land also produces good crops of rice, wheat, barley,
45 S MIRZAPUR.
and gram. The two usual harvests, kharif in autumn, and rain in
spring, have their ordinary staples of rice, millets, and moth, or of wheat,
barley, linseed, and pulses respectively. In both harvests, much land
is occupied by mixed crops. Barley grows over the whole District,
even in the wildest parts. The rains are usually so abundant as to
supersede the necessity of irrigation for the autumn harvest; but the
spring crops require artificial watering, which they obtain from the
numerous tanks and wells.
The total male adult agricultural population of Mirzapur District in
3 1 was returned at 253,432, with an average of 3*98 acres of cultivated
land for each. Landed proprietors numbered 7549 ; estate agents or
servants, 1146; cultivators, 169,507; and agricultural labourers, 75,230.
The total agricultural population of all ages and both sexes, dependent
on the soil, however, amounted to 780,549, or 68-66 per cent, of the
District population. The total of the Government land revenue assess-
ment in 1881, including local rates and cesses, amounted to ,£96,256,
or an average of 2s. 3|d. per cultivated acre. Total amount of rental
paid by cultivators, including cesses, .£291,919, or an average of
5s. g}2d. per cultivated acre.
The District being a permanently settled one, no statistics are avail-
able regarding the area under each description of crop. It may, how-
ever, be stated that rice covers fully a third of the total kAarif area.,
with j'odr and bdjra next in importance. Of the rain, the wheat and
barley together make up considerably more than half, and the pulses
and oil-seeds about one-eighth each. The area under opium in 1 88 1-82
was 4100 acres. The usual vegetables, both indigenous and acclima-
tized, are grown ; and in the neighbourhood of Ghorawal, the raising of
pdn (Piper betle, Linn.) is an extensive industry.
The prevailing land tenure in the Government assessed lands is that
known as imperfect pattiddri, a tenure by which part of the land is
held in common, and part in severalty ; Government revenue and
village expenses are paid from a common stock ; and any deficiency is
made up according to a rate levied on the cultivation of each member
of the community. Of the 4352 villages included in the District, 1485
are within the domains of the Maharaja of Renares. These are partly
held by sub-proprietors, known as manziiriddrs, who differ from zanun-
ddrs under Government in little else but the smaller proportion (about
20 per cent.) of the gross assets which they enjoy. The remaining or
na-manzuri villages are those in which no sub-proprietors have been
recognised, or in which their rights have lapsed. These are usually
farmed. The great estates of Kantit and Agori-Barhar account for
734 more villages, in only about 50 of which sub-proprietary tenures
exist.
The general condition of the cultivating classes is above the average,
MIRZAPUR. 459
except in a few of the more densely peopled parts of the Gangetic
plain. In the upland there is still much land waiting for hands to till
it; and in these parts the demand for labour, and the unlimited
pasturage, add to the means of the poorer classes. But there is little
thrift, and with harvests almost entirely dependent on the rainfall, a bad
season brings with it a good deal of distress.
Wages have risen within the last twenty years. Between 1850 and
1880, those of bricklayers have increased from 3d. to jhd. per diem ;
of blacksmiths, from 4W. to 6d. or yd. ; of agricultural labourers, from
i^d. to 3d. or 4d. Price of food-grains ruled as follows in 1876: —
Wheat, 23 sers per rupee, or 4s. iod. per cwt. ; rice, n sers per rupee,
or 10s. 2d. per cwt. ; jodr, 31 sers per rupee, or 3s. 7d. per cwt. ; bdjra,
29 sers per rupee, or 3s. iod. per cwt. The average rate for food-grains
in 1883-84 was returned as follows: — Wheat, i6h sers per rupee, or
6s. iod. per cwt. ; barley, 26 sers per rupee, or 4s. 4d. per cwt. ; bajra,
23 sers per rupee, or 4s. iod. per cwt. ;jodr, 25 sers per rupee, or 4s. 6d.
per cwt. ; gram, 23 sers per rupee, or 4s. iod. per cwt. ; and common
rice, 12^ sers per rupee, or 8s. nd. per cwt.
Natural Calamities. — Although the northern part of the District
suffered severely from the famine of 1783, none of the droughts within
the present century have seriously affected its prosperity. Even the
disastrous season of 1 868 -69, which proved so calamitous to the
Benares Division generally, was mitigated in Mirzapur by a timely fall
of rain in September. In 1864 and 1865 the rains were scanty, and
most of the rice crop perished; but Government suspended one-fifth
of the revenue demand for the year, and during the succeeding pros-
perous seasons most of the cultivators recovered their position. The
south of the District, however, suffered severely in the drought of 1S73.
Hail and blight often affect the spring harvest. The Ganges valley is
not liable to inundation within the borders of Mirzapur.
Commerce and Trade, etc. — The city of Mirzapur formerly carried on a
flourishing business in cotton, grain, and other raw materials ; but since
the opening of the through railway to Bombay via Jabalpur (Jubbul-
pore), and the rise of Cawnpur to commercial importance, much of its
trade has migrated elsewhere. Considerable manufactures of shell-lac,
brass-ware, and carpets still exist. The Ganges forms one of the main
channels for merchandise, but a large quantity of goods are sent south-
ward towards the Deccan. The East Indian Railway traverses the
northern portion of the District, from cast to west, running close to
the right bank of the Ganges throughout its course. It has a total
length of 53 miles within the borders of Mirzapur, with stations at
Ahraura Road, Chandr, Pahari, Mirzapur city, and Gaipura. The Grand
Trunk Road also traverses the District for 23 miles. The Great
Deccan Road, once of the first importance, but now comparatively
460 MIRZAPUR.
deserted, leaves Mirzapur city at its southern extremity, and crosses the
Vindhyas by a pass at Tara Ghat. Numerous other roads connect
the smaller towns and villages. Total length of road communication,
1014 miles.
Administration. — The District staff ordinarily comprises a Collector-
Magistrate, a Joint Magistrate, an Assistant Magistrate, a Deputy
Magistrate and Collector, and a Deputy Superintendent for the domains
of the Maharaja of Benares, together with the usual medical, fiscal, and
constabulary officials. Mirzapur forms the head-quarters of a civil and
sessions judge, whose jurisdiction does not extend beyond this District.
The whole amount of revenue, imperial, municipal, and local, raised
within the District in 1S76 was ,£114,377, out of which sum the land-
tax contributed ,£84,503. In 1SS3-84, the total revenue of Mirzapur
was ^153,802, of which ^94,146 was derived from the land revenue.
The District contains 19 magistrates and 14 civil and revenue judges
of all sorts. The maximum distance of any village from the nearest
court is 60 miles, the average distance being 40 miles. The total
regular police force in 18S3 numbered 521 officers and men, and the
municipal or town police, 270, maintained at a total cost of ^8133,
of which ,£635 7 was defrayed from provincial revenues, and ^1776
from other sources. This gives 1 policeman to every 6-6o square miles
of the area, and every 1437 of the population. The regular and town
police was further supplemented by a body of 1362 chaukiddrs or village
watchmen, maintained at a cost of ,£4942. The District jail at Mirzapur
contained during the same year a daily average of 194 prisoners, of
whom 179 were males and 15 females. Education was afforded in
1883 by means of 159 schools (9 of which were for girls), with an
aggregate roll of 590S pupils, being at the rate of 5*1 pupils to every
thousand of the population. For fiscal and administrative purposes,
the District is sub-divided into 3 tahsi/s, n pargandst 4 tappds, 2 tdluks.
Municipalities have been formed at Mirzapur city and Chanar. Their
legate revenue in 1S83-S4 amounted to ^7755; from taxes,
.£6056, or is. 2.:,M. per head of the population (98,296) within muni-
cipal limits.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Mirzapur is slightly warmer and
damper than that of Districts farther north and west. The hilly
southern tract especially suffers from excessive heat, and Chanar has
also a bail character as a summer station. The rainfall exceeds the
average of the North-Western Provinces, owing probably to the forests
and hill ranges with which the District abounds. The mean annual
rainfall for a period of upwards of 30 years ending 1S81 amounted to
4 i '84 inches; the maximum during that period being 54*1 inches in
1870—71, and the minimum 25*5 inches in 1864-65. The total
number of deaths recorded in 1883 was 27,012, or 25 per thousand;
MIRZAPUR TAHSIL AXD CITY. 461
the average death-rate for the previous five years was returned at 28-94
per thousand ; but these figures cannot be implicitly accepted. Six
Government charitable dispensaries — at Mirzapur, Narghat, Diidhi,
Korh, Robertsganj, and Chanar — afforded relief in 1SS3 to 56,791
persons, of whom 736 were in-patients. [For further information
regarding Mirzapur, see the Gazetteer of the North- Western Provinces,
vol. xiv. part ii. pp. 1-229 (Allahabad Government Press, 1883); the
Census Report of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881 : and
the several Administration and Departmental Reports from 1SS0 to
1884.]
Mirzapur. — Western tahsll of Mi'rzapur District, North-Western
Provinces ; stretching on either side of the river Ganges, and extend-
ing southward as far as the Vindhyan range, comprising par^ands
Upraudh, Chaurasi, Chhianavf, and Kon, and taluk Majhwa, the
three first named being to the south, and the two last to the north of
the Ganges. The total area, according to the latest official statement,
was 1 1667 square miles. The area assessed for Government
revenue is 1 156*9 square miles, of which 534*1 square miles are culti-
vated, 145*9 square miles are cultivable but under tillage, and 4769
square miles are uncultivable waste. Population (1S72) 361,54s ;
(1881) 377,346, namely, males 186,154, and females 191,192; total
increase since 1872, 15,798, or 4*2 per cent, in nine years. Classified
according to religion, there were in 18S1 — Hindus, 352,100; Muham-
madans, 24,793; Jains, 187; and 'others,' 266. Number of villages,
1056, of which 875 contained less than five hundred inhabitants.
Amount of Government land revenue, .£32,623, or including local rates
and cesses, .£35,489. Total amount of rent, including cesses, paid by
the cultivators, ,£84.481. The tahs'd contained in 1SS3, 7 criminal
and 5 civil courts; number of police circles, 16; with a regular police
force of 221 men, and a village police of 773 chaukiddrs.
Mirzapur. — City, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of
Mirzapur District, North-Western Provinces. Situated in lat. 250 9' 43 '
x., and long. 820 38' 10" e., on the south or right bank of the Ganges,
56 miles below Allahabad, and 45 miles (by railway) above Benares.
Population (1S72) 67,274; (1881) 56,378, namely, males 27,607,
and females 28,771. Hindus number 46,194 ; Muhammadans, 10,017 \
Jains, 140; Christians, 10; 'others,' 17. Area of town site, 673 acres.
Up to recent years, Mirzapur was the largest mart in Hindustan for
grain and cotton ; but of late its commercial importance has rapidly
decreased, owing to the establishment of through railway communi-
cation with Bombay via Jabalpur, and the rise of Cawnpur to the
position of a mercantile centre. The town has a handsome river front,
lined with stone ghats or flights of stairs, and exhibiting numerous
mosques, Hindu temples, and dwelling-houses of the wealthier mer-
462 MISIIMI HILLS AND TRIBE.
chants, with highly decorated facades, and richly carved balconies and
door-frames. Large wells, of tasteful architecture, occur in the prin-
cipal streets. The suburbs contain the residences of the wealthier
classes. The view from below, looking up the river along its lofty and
rugged bank, crowned in the distance by the city with its great mosque
and temples, is very striking.
The civil station stretches along a single road to the north-
east of the city, parallel with the river. In addition to the houses
of the official and private European residents, there are die church,
schools, and orphanage of the London Mission ; the public offices,
station church, etc. Beyond the civil station were once the canton-
ments, but of these no vestige remains but the parade ground (now
utilized as a race -course, rifle range, and camping ground), and
one or two of the old military bungalows, now occupied by civil
residents. No regiment has been stationed at Mirzapur since the
Mutiny, the military element being represented by only a small detach-
ment of volunteers. Manufacture of shell-lac, giving employment to
about 4000 persons ; also of brass-ware and carpets, and a large trade
in stone. Imports of grain, sugar, cloth, metals, fruit, spices, tobacco,
lac, salt, and cotton ; exports of the same articles, with manufactured lac-
dye, shell-lac, and, v///. Station on East Indian Railway. Government
offices, District jail, hospital, charitable dispensary, etc. Municipal
revenue in 1883-84, ^6997 ; from taxes, ^5540, or is. 3UI. per head
of city and suburban population (85,362) within municipal limits.
Mishmi Hills and Tribe. — Tract of country on the eastern frontier
of Assam, and extending to the confines of Tibet, occupied by the
hill tribe known as Mishmis. Their settlements are estimated to
extend from 270 40' to 28" 40' N. lat., and from 960 to 97° 30' E. long.
They are found as far south as the Nemlang river, a tributary of the
Irawadi; thence their colonies sweep round to the east of the great
mountain called the Dapha Bhiim, across the Brahmaputra valley,
north to the confines of Tibet, and west to the Dihong river. Colonel
Dalton conjectures that the Mishmis are connected with the Mian-tze,
the aborigines of Vunan in Western China. They are a short, sturdy
1 u e, with a fair complexion and features of a softened Mongolian type.
Their dress is made of striped cloth; their armour consists of helmet,
sword, and spear ; and the women wear ornaments of beads and silver.
They are devoted to a pastoral life rather than to agriculture, and are
all keen traders. The Mishmis, situated to the west of the I)u river,
an affluent of the Brahmaputra above the Brahmakund, trade with the
British possessions, and are quiet and inoffensive, and in the habit of
constant intercourse with British officers at the frontier stations. Those
beyond the Du river trade with Tibet, and have hitherto shown them-
es hostile to the visits of British officers, until quite recently, when
MISHMI HILLS AND TRIBE. 463
in 1885 a party of three English gentlemen passed through the Mishmi
country, and were hospitably received. The Mishmis are divided into
many clans, of which that called Tain is settled nearest to the British
frontier.
The more remote clans of the interior were first visited by Captain
Wilcox in 1827, who, however, was forced to return after having
penetrated a short distance into the country. In 1836, the friendly
villages as far as the Dilli were visited by Dr. Griffiths. Lieutenant,
afterwards Colonel, E. A. Rowlatt, penetrated in 1845 to the Du, and
up that river in a northerly direction to the village of Tapang, where
he met some Lamas, as all Tibetans in this locality are called.
In 185 1, the French missionary, Monsieur Krick, accompanied by a
Khamti chief from the neighbourhood of Sadiya, started on his mission
to Tibet. After passing through the friendly villages, he appears to
have been so guided as to avoid the hostile clans, and he reached in
safety the Tibetan village of Oualong, where he was well received.
Proceeding onward from that village, he found himself in a country
presenting a strong contrast to the grand but uncultivated tracts he
had recently been struggling through. The valley of the Brahmaputra
expanded, presenting a succession of well -cultivated fields. The
inhabitants, their houses, and the general appearance of the country
assumed a more cheerful aspect. Pine forests covered the hills. The
alluvial soil below, watered by numerous small streams, is described as
producing groves of bamboos, orange trees, citron, peach trees, and laurel.
Two marches through such scenery brought him to Sommeu. This
village is composed of about a dozen houses irregularly grouped on a hill
in the midst of evergreen trees, half a mile from the bank of the Brah-
maputra. As far as the eye could see, the view up the valley disclosed
a succession of cultivated fields, herds of oxen, horses, asses, and mules ;
and three miles to the north, Rima, the residence of a Tibetan Governor,
was discovered.
Unfortunately, Monsieur Krick's resources were exhausted in making
his way through the Mishmi country ; and finding the people, when
the novelty was over, disinclined to support him gratuitously, he was
under the necessity of returning in March 1852. In 1S54, Monsieur
Krick started on a second expedition, accompanied by a colleague and
escorted by a friendly Mishmi chief, and reached in safety the
Tibetan villages he visited in 1852 ; but in crossing the mountains the
two priests were treacherously murdered by an independent Mishmi
chief, Kaisa. A small military expedition sent to avenge their fate in
1855, captured the chief with many members of his family and followers ;
since which time the interior Mishmi country remained unvisited by
Europeans until 1S85. In that year a party of three English gentlemen
succeeded in crossing the Mishmi country, where they met with a
464 MISHMI HILLS AND TRIBE.
friendly reception. They advanced into Tibetan territory as far as the
town of Rima mentioned above. They did not succeed in entering
the town however, but were, with many excuses and apologies, civilly
escorted back over the frontier.
The Mishmf settlements south of the Brahmaputra are scattered and
mixed up with Khamti and Singhpo settlements. The north bank of
the 1'rahmaputra as far as the Digaru river, and both banks of the
river thence to the Tibetan frontier, the Mishmis have all to themselves.
The Mishmi hamlets consist of a few houses, sometimes of only one ;
but each house is capable of holding all the members of a family,
besides numerous slaves and retainers. Dr. Griffiths describes the
house of Gallom (Jam, one of the chiefs he visited, as of great length
(Wilcox gives the dimensions as 130 feet by 11), built of bamboos raised
high from the ground, divided into twelve compartments, and contain-
ing one hundred men, women, and children. The house of Krosha,
another chief, is described as considerably larger, and divided into
twenty compartments. On the right-hand side of the passage were
ranged the skulls of the cattle the chief had killed, including mithuns
(Bos frontalis), deer, and hog. On the other side were the domestic
utensils. It is considered shabby for a chief to retain in his show-
room the skulls of animals killed by his predecessors. Each compart-
ment contains a fireplace, over which hangs a tray for the meat that it
is desired to smoke. This one manor-house is the head-quarters of the
settlement. The storehouses for grain are at some distance and out of
sight.
The Mishmis are constantly moving about on their trading expedi-
tions, and are rich in flocks and herds. They purchase cattle every
year in Assam, and have, besides, large herds of the fine hill ox, the
mithun, which they call cha. The possession of these animals is, next
to the number of their wives, the chief indication of their wealth. They
are not used for agricultural purposes or for their milk, but on great
occasions one is slaughtered and eaten, and they are given in exchange
for brides. They are allowed to remain almost in a wild state, roving
through the forests as they please, but they are fed with salt by
their master ; and when he calls, they know his voice. The chief
sources of wealth to the Mishmis are the poisonous root, Aconitum
ferox, which grows in their hills at high elevations; the valuable
medicinal plant, Coptis teeta or mishmi titd ; and the musk bags of the
musk deer, also a native of these hills in the higher ranges. With
these, and a few articles of hardware and woollen goods obtained from
Tibet, they carry on a profitable trade with the people of Assam and
the neighbouring hill tribes. Everything that a Mishmi trader carries
about him, to his last garment, can be bought.
The Chalikata, or crop-haired Mishmis, so called by the Assamese
M1SRIKH. 465
from their habit of cropping the front hair on their foreheads, but
whose proper tribal name is Midhi, occupy the country to the north of
Sadiya in Lakhimpur District, and their villages extend across the sub-
Himalayan range to the borders of Tibet. The hills being loftier, their
country is more rugged and difficult of access than that of the Tain
Mishmi's. One route to the plains traversed by the Chalikatas is along
the cliffs of the Dibong river, the path being generally a narrow ledge
winding round a precipice ; but in one place there is no ledge, only holes
in the face of the rock for the hands and feet. The Chalikafa Mishmis
were formerly much dreaded by their neighbours in the plains as kid-
nappers of women and children ; but they have lately been brought
into closer connection with the British, by their fear of the Abars and
their desire to cultivate friendly relations which may avail to protect
them. Some of their outlying villages have recently been visited by
our officers. The Digaru Mishmis farther east are a more attractive
people in manner. They are the guardians of the shrine of Brahma-
kund, and carry loads for the pilgrims proceeding thither.
Misrikh. — Pargand in Sitapur District, Oudh. Bounded on the
north by Maholf ; on the east by Sitapur, Ramkot, and Machhrehta ;
on the south by Kurauna and Aurangabad pargands ; and on the
west by the Kurauna and Gumti rivers. Area, 126 square miles,
or 81,153 acres, of which 40,754 acres are under cultivation, 26,921
acres cultivable, 3696 acres rent free, and 9782 acres barren.
Misrikh contains 142 demarcated villages, of which 3 are waste land
grants. Population (1881) 41,561, namely, males 22,167, and females
i9>394-
With the exception of a sandy tract along the banks of the Kurauna
and Gumti rivers, the soil of the pargand is, on the whole, good. Like
the rest of the District, it is a well-wooded plain, without lakes, hills, or
forests. The incidence of the Government land revenue demand is at the
rate of 3s. 2§d. per acre of cultivated area, is. n|d. per acre of assessed
area, and is. 8|d. per acre of total area. Means of communication
are afforded by two roads which intersect the pargand, and by the
Gumti river. Bi-weekly markets in 3 villages. Misrikh contains
139 Government villages, of which 108 are held under zaminddri
tenure, thus distributed: — Panwars, 35; Gaurs, 45; Kayasths, ic :
Brahmans, 6 ; Gosains, 3 ; Musalmans, 8 ; and Ahban, 1. The remain-
ing 31 villages form the tdlukddri estates of Mfrza Ahmad Beg of
Kutabnagar and Raja Shamsher Bahadur of Aut.
The pargand derives its name from the town {vide infra). The original
proprietors were Ahban Rajputs, whose dynasty expired 200 years
ago, on the death of Raja Man Singh. The founder of the estate was
Sopi Chand, whose brother, Gopi Chand, founded Gopamau in Hardoi
District. Sopi made his head-quarters at Pataunja, now an inconsider-
VOL. IX. 2 G
466 MISRIKH TAHSIL AND TOWN.
able village, but formerly an extensive city. At present, the site of one
of its gates is pointed out 3 miles to the north-west of Misrikh town,
in the village of Sultan-nagar, where is an ancient Hindu temple. The
Ahbans were succeeded by Pan wars, Kayasths, Brahmans, Musalmans,
and others, whose descendants are still in possession of their forefathers'
acquisitions.
Misrikh. — Tahsil ox Sub-division in Si'tapur District, Oudh ; situated
between 270 12' and 27° 48' 30" n. lat., and between 80° 21' and
8o° 52' e. long. Bounded on the north by Muhamdi tahsil in Kheri
District ; on the east by Si'tapur and Bari tahsils ; and on the south and
west by Sandila and Hardoi tahsils in Hardoi District, from which it is
separated by the Gumti river. The tahsil comprises the 7 pargands of
Misrikh, Chandra, Mahiili, Machhreta, Kurauna, Aurangabad, and
Gundlamau. Area, 613 square miles, of which 385 were under cultiva-
tion at the time of the last revenue settlement of the District (1872).
Population (1869) 201,367; (1881) 213,671, namely, males 113,710,
and females 99,961 ; total increase since 1869, 12,304, or 57 per cent.
in twelve years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 —
Hindus, 196,552; Muhammadans, 17,108; Jains, 4; and 'others,' 7.
Number of villages, 638, of which 508 contained less than five hundred
inhabitants. In 1883, Misrikh tahsil contained 1 civil and 2 criminal
courts, presided over by an honorary Assistant Commissioner, and a
tahsilddr ; number of police circles (t hands), 2 ; regular police force,
57 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 751.
Misrikh. — Town in Si'tapur District, Oudh, and head-quarters of
Misrikh tahsil and pargand; situated 13 miles south of Si'tapur town,
on the Hardoi and Si'tapur road. Lat. 270 25' 50" n., long. 8o° 34'
20" E. One of the most ancient towns in Oudh, and numerous legends
connect its foundation with the mythological Raja Dadhich.
name is said to be derived from the Sanskrit misrita, meaning ' mixed ' ;
because the waters of all the holy places in India are supposed to have
been brought together and mixed in the tank mentioned below.
The legend is thus given by Colonel Sleeman: — 'Misrikh is celebrated
as the residence of a very holy sage named Dadhich. In a great battle
between the deotas and the giants, the dcotas were defeated. They went
to implore the aid of the god Brahma upon his snowy mountain-top.
He told them to go to Misrikh, and arm themselves with the bones of
the old sage Dadhich. They found the sage alive, and in excellent
health ; but they thought it their duty to explain to him their orders.
He told them that he should be proud to have his bones used as arms
in so holy a cause ; but he had unfortunately vowed to bathe at all the
sacred shrines in India before he died, and must perform his vow.
(Irievously perplexed, the dcotas all went and submitted their case to
their leader, the god India. Indra consulted his chaplain, Brispati,
MIT A ULI—MITHANKO T. 467
. who told him that there was really no difficulty whatever in the case ;
that the angels of all the holy shrines in India had been established at
and around Nimsar by Brahma himself, and the deotas had only to take
water from all the sacred places over which they presided, and pour it
over the old sage to get both him and themselves out of the dilemma.
They did so, and the old sage, expressing himself satisfied, gave up his
life. In what mode it was taken, no one can tell. The deotas armed
themselves with his bones, attacked the giants forthwith, and gained an
easy and complete victory.'
The town itself is a very poor one, with a population (1881) of 2037,
namely, 1763 Hindus (chiefly Brahmans), 267 Musalmans, and 7
' others.' The tank above mentioned is apparently of very ancient
construction, local tradition asserting that the sacred pool was first
enclosed with a masonry facing by Vikramaditya nineteen centuries
ago. In more modern times, 125 years ago, a Maratha princess repaired
the damages which time had occasioned in the ghats or stairs ; and it
is now a fine specimen of a Hindu tank. On its bank stands an old
temple sacred to Raja Dadhich above mentioned, who seems to have
been not only a secular prince, but also a great spiritual leader or
Rishi. A large fair is held near the tank on the occasion of the Holi
festival, at which a brisk trade is carried on ; the annual value of the
sales is returned at ^3942. Besides the usual sub-divisional court-
offices, the town contains a police station, post-office, registration office,
and boys' and girls' schools. There is no sardiox travellers' rest-house,
as the Brdhmans entertain all strangers. Good camping ground outside
the town.
Mitauli. — Town in Kheri District, Oudh ; situated 2 miles east of
the Kathna river on the road from Lakhimpur to Maikalganj, and
surrounded by large groves of mango trees and well-cultivated fields.
Population ( 1881 ) 2753, namely, 2431 Hindus and 322 Musalmans.
The village was the residence of Raja Lon Singh, whose estates were con-
fiscated for complicity in the rebellion of 1857-58. It is now owned
by Raja Amir Hassan Khan, tdhikdar of Mahmudabad.
Mithankot. — Town and municipality in Rajanpur tahs'il, Dera
Ghazi Khan District, Punjab ; situated on the high bank of the
Indus (a short distance below its confluence with the Panjnad, 12
miles south of Rajanpur, and 85 from Dera Ghazi Khan), in lat. 280
55' 20" n., and long. 700 25' e. Formerly the seat of an Assistant
Commissioner, now stationed at Rajanpur. The station was abandoned
in 1862, when the old town was destroyed by an encroachment of the
Indus. The new town was built 5 miles from the then bed, but, being
so far from the river, speedily lost the commercial importance of its
predecessor. The river has still continued its encroachments west-
wards, and has now (1S84) approached to within half a mile of the
46S MITHA TIWANA—MITTI.
town, which is again threatened with destruction. Population (186S)
4447; (1SS1) 3353, namely, Muhammadans, 2168; Hindus, 1167;
and Sikhs, 18. Municipal income (1883-84), ,£275, or is. 7$& per
head of the population. The town contains a fine wide bazar, running
north and south, and there are also several side and cross streets.
The public buildings consist of a police station, District bungalow for
travellers, sardi or native inn, school-house, and municipal committee
house. Two or three gardens, with fine mango trees, are situated
outside the town. Export trade in grain and oil.
Mitha Tiwana. — Town in Kushab taksil, Shahpur District, Punjab ;
situated on the uplands of the Sind Sagar Dodb, on the road to Dera
Ismail Khan. Lat. 320 14' 40" N., long. 72° 8' 50" e. Population
(1881) 4893. Chiefly noticeable as the head-quarters of an important
local family, the Maliks of Mitha Tiwana, who long held out against
the Sikh power, and proved useful allies to the British during the
Multan rebellion. Being then rewarded for their loyalty, they again
deserved well of our Government for their services in the Mutiny of
1S57, for which they obtained pensions, with the honorary title of Khan
Bahadur. The place is noted for its manufacture of handsomely
embroidered country saddles.
Mitranwali.— Town and municipality in Daska tahsil, Sialkot Dis-
trict, Punjab. Mitranwali is rather an overgrown village than a town,
and was only classed as a town in the Census, because it possesses a
municipality. Population (1S81) 3730, namely, Muhammadans, 2743,
and Hindus, 987. Number of houses, 536. Municipal income
(1883-84), £106. The houses are almost all built of mud in narrow
streets and lanes, some of which are paved with brick. The principal
trade is in local produce and country cloth. School ; post-office.
Mitti. — Taluk in the Thar and Parkar District, Sind, Bombay
Presidency. Population (1872) 22,039 > (1881) 22,611, namely, 12,070
males and 10,541 females, dwelling in 5 towns and villages and 4023
houses. Hindus number 5498; Muhammadans, 10,092 ; Sikhs, 15; and
aboriginal tribes, 7006. Gross revenue (1881-82), ^1817. Ini8S2-83,
the whole area, namely, 33,046 acres, assessed to land revenue, was
actually cultivated. In 1884 the taluk contained 2 civil and 2 criminal
courts, 6 police stations (tliands), and 30 regular police.
Mitti. — Town in Mitti taluk, Thar and Parkar District, Sind,
Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 240 44' n., and long. 69° 51' E.,
about 60 miles south from Umarkot. Head-quarters of a »iuklitidrkdr,
with civil and criminal courts, dispensary, Government school, with 170
pupils in 1S83-84, post-office, etc. Population (1881) 2594; municipal
revenue (1S82-S3), ^231 ; incidence of taxation, is. 6jd. per head.
Local and transit trade in grain, cotton, cattle, camels, gki, dyes,
hides, oil, piece-goods, sugar, tobacco, and wool.
MODEMKHALLA—MOGINAND. 469
Modemkhalla. — Village in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presi
dency. — See Mondemkhallu.
Moga. — Tahsil or Sub-division in the south-east of Firozpur (Feroze-
pur) District, Punjab, lying between 300 41' 45" and 30° 54' N. lat.,
and between 740 58' 15" and 750 26' 15" e. long. Area, 811 square
miles, of which 733 square miles were returned as under cultivation in
1877—78, and only 48 square miles were available for cultivation.
The average area under crops for the five years 1877-1881 was 711
square miles. Population (1868) 183,223; (1881) 221,169, namely,
males 121,076, and females 100,093. Total increase since 186S,
37,946, or 207 per cent, in thirteen years. Number of towns
and villages, 199; number of houses, 26,537; number of families,
47,528. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Sikhs,
105,025; Hindus, 66,936; Muhammadans, 49,096; Jains, 107; and
Christians, 5. The average area under the principal crops for the
five years 1877 t0 1881 is returned as under — Gram, 119,646 acres;
jodr, 92,743 acres; wheat, 82,291 acres; barley, 53,073 acres ; moth,
51,437 acres; bdjra, 9138 acres; and Indian corn, 3407 acres.
Revenue of the tahsil, ,£19,107. The administrative staff consists of
a tahsilddr and honorary magistrate, who preside over 3 civil and 2
criminal courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 6 ; regular police,
82 men ; village watchmen (chaukiddrs), 217.
Moga. — Town and municipality in Firozpur (Ferozepore) District,
Punjab, and head-quarters of Moga tahsil. Situated near the Grand
Trunk Road, 35 miles from Firozpur town. Population (1868) 4844;
(1881) 6430, namely, Sikhs, 2218; Hindus, 2108; and Muham-
madans, 2104. Number of houses, 8S5. Municipal income (1883-S4),
^"ioo. Mogd is a large agricultural village rather than a town. Its
central position in the midst of the grain-producing part of the District,
on the main line of road between the two great trading towns of
Ludhiana and Firozpur, has contributed much to its prosperity of late
years, which will doubtless be still further increased on the completion
of the proposed Ludhiana-Firozpur Railway.
Moghia. — Aboriginal tribe in Rajputana and Central India. For an
account of this tribe, and of the operations which are now going on with
a view to its amelioration, see article Rajputana. Until the date
of these operations, the Moghias were one of the most persistently
predatory tribes in Central India.
Moginand (Moganand). — Village in Sirmur (Sarmor) State, Punjab,
and a low pass across the Siwalik range, on the route from Sadhaura
to Nahan, 5 miles south-west of the latter town, in lat. 300 32' N.,
long. 770 19' E. The path leads up the valley of the Markanda, past
the village of Moginand. This village formed the rendezvous of the
British column for the attack on Nahan during the Gurkha war in
4 : o MO- GNYO— MOHAN.
1S15. Approximate elevation of the crest of the pass, 2600 feet above
sea-leveL
Mo-gnyo. — Township in Tharawadi District, Pegu Division, British
Burma. Hilly and forest-clad in the east, level and well cultivated in
west and central portions ; traversed from north to south by the Myit-
ma-kaor Hlaing river. This township includes the 4 revenue circles of
Mo-gnyo, Saduthirit, Peindaw, and Ye-gin. Population (1876) 45,792 ;
(1881) 35,728. Gross revenue, ^"9583. The township contains 99
villages. The revenue in 1881-82 was made up as follows: — Land
revenue, ^3504 ; capitation tax, ^3485 ; fishery revenue, ^1844 ; net
tax, ^176 ; local cess, ^574. The area under cultivation was 19,561
acres, of which 11,626 were under rice, 2994 under sesamum, 754 under
tobacco, and 105 under cotton and indigo. In 1883, the agricultural
stock comprised 11,055 horned cattle, 452 pigs, 53 goats; ploughs,
j 369; carts, 2607; sledges, 848; and boats, 306.
Mo-gnyo. — Chief town of a revenue circle, and head-quarters of
the Mo-gnyo township in Tharawadi District, British Burma. Lat. 170
58' 20" N., long. 950 33' 20" E. Population (1881) 725; number of
houses, 138. Police station.
Mogul Sarai. — Town in Benares District, North-Western Provinces.
— See Mughal Sarai.
Mogultur. — Town in Narsapur taluk, Godavari District, Madras ;
situated in lat. 160 24' n., and long. 8i° 43' e., 14 miles south-east of
Narsapur. Population (1881) 5265; number of houses, 1072. Hindus
numbered 5165; Muhammadans, 90; and Christians, 10. The town
contains the fort of a pensioned zaminddr, whose ancestor was here
defeated by Sitaram Rai of Vizianagaram in 1763. Mogultur was
formerly a sadr station ; it is at present noteworthy only for its salt manu-
facture. The Narsapur Canal is navigable to Mogultiir. The zaminddri
of Mogultur was annexed in 1791, the Raja having died without issue.
Mohan. — Tahsil or Sub-division of Unao District, Oudh ; bounded
on the north by Sandila tahsil of Hardoi District, on the east by
Malihabad tahsil of Lucknow, on the south by Piirwa, and on the west
by Unao and Safipur tahsils. The tahsil comprises the 4 pargands of
Mohan Auras, Asiwan, Jhalotar Ajgain, and Gorinda Parsandan. Area,
437 square miles, of which 238 are cultivated. Population (1SS1)
238,650, namely, males 125,109, and females 113,541. Hindus
numbered 219,777; Muhammadans, 18,871; and 'others,' 2. The
most thickly populated tahsil in the District, the average density being
546 persons per square mile. Number of villages or townships, 487,
of which 342 contain less than five hundred inhabitants. In 1884,
the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts, 2 police
( ircles (tha/ias), a regular police force of 57 men, and a village police
of 592 chaukidars.
MOHAN TO U'N—MOHAX A URAS. 4 7 «
Mohan.— Town in Unao District, Oudh, and head-quarters of Unao
tahsil; situated in lat. 2 6° 46' 55" N., and long. 8o° 43' e., on the
banks of the Sai river, 18 miles from Lucknow city, with which it is
connected by a good unmetalled road. A Muhammadan town of con-
siderable importance in the days of native rule, but it has now no
trade, and not even a market is held here. Population (1881) 5858,
namely, 3754 Hindus and 2104 Muhammadans. The town consists
of 1 117 houses, and contains one or two streets well paved with brick.
Many of the Musalman inhabitants belong to good families, who,
under the native Government, found service in Lucknow city or at
court, but who now live on the produce of their groves. Mohan has
always been celebrated for its Muhammadan physicians, and mimics
and actors. In addition to the Lucknow road, the town is intersected
by the road from Auras and Malihabad to Bani bridge on the Lucknow
and Cawnpur road, and by others running westwards across the Sai
into Unao. A little below the town, the Sai is crossed by a fine massive
bridge, built by Maharaja Newal Rai, the minister of the Nawab Safdar
Jang. Near the bridge is a high mound, which seems to have been
the site of an ancient fort, now surmounted by an old tomb of a
Muhammadan saint.
Mohan. — River of Oudh, forming for some distance the boundary
line between Kheri District and Nepal. It commences as a rivulet in
Nepal territory, issuing from swamps, with a bed much below the
surface of the neighbouring country. It receives a number of tribu-
taries on its north bank, the principal being the Kathni and Gandhra.
Below Chandan Chauki, the Mohan becomes a considerable stream,
with a minimum discharge of 140 cubic feet of water per second ;
average breadth about 90 feet, with a depth in the centre of about 2
feet ; the banks are steep, and from 20 to 30 feet above the water.
The river falls into the Kauriala immediately above Ramnagar, in
Kheri District. The Mohan is one of the few streams in Oudh in
which good mahsir fishing is to be had.
Mohan Auras. — Pargand in Unao District, Oudh; bounded on
the north by Hardoi and Lucknow Districts ; on the east by Lucknow ;
on the south by Jhalotar Ajgain pargand; and on the west by Asfwan
RasiiLibad pargand. The river Sai runs through the pargand from
north-west to south-east, passing under the town of Mohan. On the
north side of the river, much of the country is occupied by extensive
iisar or saline plains, completely bare of trees and of all vegetation ;
but to the south, the pargand is cultivated and fertile. Area, 196
square miles, of which 102 are cultivated. Population (1SS1) 99.350.
namely, 91,171 Hindus and 8188 Muhammadans. The Government
land revenue is levied at the rate of 4s. i|d. per cultivated acre, 3s.
per acre of assessed area, and 2s. i|d. per acre of total area. The
472 MOHAND—MOHANLALGANJ.
pargand is well supplied with road communication, and contains 4
towns with a population exceeding 3000.
Mohand. — Pass in Dehra Dun District, North-Western Provinces,
through the Siwalik range, by which the road from Saharanpur to
1 >ehr£ traverses the hills.
Mohanganj. — Pargand in Digbijaiganj tahsil, Rai Bareli District,
Oudh ; bounded on the north by Simrauta and Jagdispur, on the east
by Gaura Jamiin, on the south by Rokha Jais, and on the west by
Hardoi pargand. Area, 79-J- square miles, or 50,898 acres, of which
24,636 acres are cultivated, 5925 available for cultivation, and 20,334
waste. Population (1881) 47,652, namely, 42,672 Hindus and 4980
Muhammadans. Land revenue demand, ^928 1, being at the rate of
3s. 2|d. per acre. Of the 75 villages comprising the pargand, 47 are
held under tdlukddri, 4 under zaminddri, and 24 under pattiddri
tenure. The landholding class are the Kanhpuria Rajputs, who made
some of their earliest settlements in this pargand. They hold all the
tdlukddri) and all but 8 of the zaminddri villages.
Mohanlalganj.— Tahsil or Sub-division of Lucknow District, Oudh ;
bounded on the north by Lucknow and Bara Banki fahsi/s, on the
east by Haidargarh, on the south by Maharajganj, and on the west
by Purwa. Area, 272 square miles, of which 147 are cultivated. Popu-
lation (1869) 150,854; (1881) 129,209, namely, males 65,893, and
females 63,316. Decrease of population since 1869, 21,645, or T4'3
] >er cent, in twelve years. Classified according to religion, there were
in 1881 — Hindus, 117,014; Muhammadans, 12,180; and 'others,'
15. Average density of population, 475 persons per square mile;
number of villages, 226, of which 140 contain less than five hundred
inhabitants. This tahsil comprises the 2 pargands of Mohanlalganj and
Nigohan Sissaindi. In 1884 the Sub-division contained 1 tahsilddr's
court, 2 police circles (thdnds), a regular police force of 48 men, and a
village police of 464 chaukiddrs.
Mohanlalganj. — Pargand in Lucknow District, Oudh. Bounded
on the north by Bara Banki District, from which it is separated by the
Gumtf river ; on the east by Haidargarh pargand of Bara Banki District ;
on the south by Nigohan pargand ; and on the west by Bijnaur and
Lucknow pargands. A compact, square-shaped pargand, with an area
of 200 square miles, of which 107 are cultivated. The large quantity
of waste land (46 per cent) is due to extensive saliferous plains, which
cross the centre of the pargand from east to west. In other respects
the country is fertile and well wooded. Its jhils or marshes, with
seasonable rains, afford an ample supply of water. The proportion of
irrigation amounts to 45 per cent, of the cultivated land, and water is
everywhere found within 20 feet of the surface. All the principal
cereals are grown, as also sugar-cane and poppy, and vegetables in the
MOHANLALGANJ TOWN. 473
neighbourhood of villages. The rice crops grown on the margin of the
jlills near Nagram are specially fine. Population ( 1 88 1) 96,878, namely,
49,406 males and 47,472 females. Government land revenue demand,
,£17,380, being at the rate of 5s. per cultivated acre, 3s. 4^d. per acre
of assessed area, and 2s. 7 Jd. per acre of total area. Five towns contain
between 2000 and 5000, and one, Amethi, has over 5000 inhabitants.
The pargand is unanimously asserted to have been originally held
by the aboriginal Bhars ; and the country abounds in old Bhar dihs,
which appear to be the sites of their villages and forts. These are
sometimes of great elevation and extent. They are quite deserted,
and the only signs of ancient habitations are the broken bricks which
lie scattered over the mounds, and sometimes a hut on the summit
devoted to some deified hero, who is worshipped under the title of
Bi'r. There are no fewer than twenty of these Bhar dihs in the pargand.
The Bhars are said to have ruled from Bahraich, and Amethi was one
of their outposts. Popular tradition asserts that the Hindu monarch
of Kanauj in vain tried to wrest the country from them. The Muham-
madan invasion of Sayyid Salar Masaud (1032 a.d.) failed to make any
permanent conquest, and it was not till the end of the 14th century
that the Bhars were driven out by the Amethi Rajputs of the Chamar-
Gaur tribe. These in turn were expelled about the close of the 15th
century by a family of Shaikhs, who made themselves masters of the
whole pargand. The village of Salimpur, in the north of the pargand,
was founded by this family ; and the present tdlukddr who holds the
estate of Salimpur is descended from it. Of the 271 villages now
comprising the pargand, 120 are in the hands of Musalmans, and 151
belong to Hindus. The principal Hindu landed proprietors are Janwar
Rajputs.
Mohanlalganj. — Town in Lucknow District, Oudh. and head-
quarters of Mohanlalganj tahsil and pargand ; situated on the Lucknow
and Rai Bareli road, 14 miles from Lucknow city, in lat. 260 40' 45" N.,
and long. 8i° 1' 30" E. The village itself was formerly called Mau, and
was founded by Janwar Rajputs, who held undisputed possession of
this and neighbouring villages undisturbed during the rule of the
Nawabs. It was eventually conferred on the present tdlukddr, Raji
Kasi Prasad, who in 1859 built a ganj or market, which he named
Mohanlalganj after an ancestor. This name has now been given to the
pargand, which was formerly called Amethi, and to the whole tahsil.
The ganj is now a thriving centre of traffic, and a large trade is carried
on, chiefly in grain and country cotton stuffs. Population (1S81) 2781,
almost entirely Hindus. Inside the ganj is a fine sardi or travellers'
rest-house, and outside are the tahs'ili buildings, police station, and 1
military camping ground. Large and imposing Sivaite temple, erected
by the tdlukddr. Two Government schools.
4 7 4 MO HA NP UR—MOHGA ON.
Mohanpur. — Native State under the Political Agency of Mahi
Kantha, in the Province of Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. Population
(1872) 14,011 ; (1881) 14,677. The principal agricultural products are
millet, wheat, maize, and oil-seeds. Talc is found in Arpodra. The
Chief is descended from the Raos of Chandrawati, near Mount Abu.
His ancestor, Jaspal, emigrated from Chandrawati to Harol in Mahi
Kantha in 1227 ; and thence, in the 13th generation, Thakur Prithwi
Raj moved to Ghorwara, having received in jag'ir that and neighbouring
tracts, which in the course of time were divided among the different
branches of the family. The present ruler, Thakur Himat Singh,
a Rehwar Rajput, succeeded his father Umed Singh, who died in
October 1S82. He is a Hindu of the ancient Rajput clan called
Pramara; and being a minor, the State is managed by the Agency. He
enjoys an estimated gross yearly revenue of ^2429, and pays tribute
of ,£475 to the Gaekwar of Baroda, ,£225 to the Raja of Edar, and
15s. to the British Government. The family of the Chief follow the
rule of primogeniture in matters of succession. There are 4 schools,
with a total number of 187 pupils.
Mohanpur. — Chief town of the State of Mohanpur under the Mahi
Kantha Political Agency, Bombay Presidency. Population (1881)
1051.
Mohar.— Mountain range in the Punjab. — See Shaikh Budin.
Moharbhanj. — One of the Orissa Tributary Hill States. — See
MORBHANJ.
Mohari. — Town and municipality in Bhandara District, Central
Provinces; situated in lat. 210 19' n., and long. 790 42' E., on the
affluent of the Siir river, 10 miles north of Bhandara. Population
(1881) 5142, namely, Hindus, 4601 ; Kabirpanthis, 69 ; Muhammadans,
411; Jains, 10; aboriginal tribes, 51. Municipal income (1882-83),
^285 ; average incidence of taxation, is. o|d. per head. Mohari is
reckoned healthy, though the well-water is scanty and brackish. The
cotton cloth manufactured in the town commands a good sale, although
the trade shows signs of falling off; and some trade is done in grain.
Large Government school, police office, and District post-office.
Mohgaon. — Town in Chhindwara District, Central Provinces ;
situated in lat. 210 38' N., and long. 780 E., on an affluent of the Jam
river, 38 miles south of Chhindwara town. On either side of the river
stands a large Hindu temple, one of which, sacred to Mahadeva, is
said to be three centuries old. Population (1881) 5180, many of
whom are traders. Hindus numbered 3845 ; Kabirpanthis, 945 ;
Muhammadans, 651 ; Jains, 122; aboriginal tribes, 67. Municipal
income (1882-83), ^76, 12s. ; average incidence of taxation, 3d. per
head. The town contains a vernacular school, with an average attend-
ance of over 80 pupils ; and a police outpost station.
MO HI— MOHMANDS, THE. 475
Mohi. — Town in Unao District, Oudh ; 15 miles south-east from
Piirwa. Lat. 26° 26' N., long. 8i° 2' e. Population (1869) 4995,
namely, 4802 Hindus and 193 Musalmans, residing in 946 mud houses.
Not returned in the Census of 18S1. Founded about 500 years ago
by a Rajput, Man Singh. Two temples; village school.
Mohim. — Town in Rohtak District, Punjab ; (2) town in Thana
District, Bombay. — See Mahim.
Mohmands, The. — Independent tribe in Afghanistan. The tribe
inhabits the network of hills between the Kabul and Swat rivers,
connecting the Safed Koh with the Hindu Kiish. The Mohmand
country is bounded on the north by the hills of Bajaur ; on the north-
east and east by British territory ; and on the west and south by
the Kunar and Kabul rivers. The settlements of the tribe divide
naturally into two parts — those that lie along the rich alluvial banks of
the Kabul river, extending from Jalalabad to Lalpura ; and those that
nestle in the glens and valleys radiating from the mountains of Tartara
south of the Kabul and the mountains of Hazain north of the Kabul
river. The aspect of the Mohmand hills is exceedingly dreary. The
eye is everywhere met by barren ravines and long rows of crags. Want
of water, intolerable heat in summer, and a general sterility that
characterizes the whole region, are gradually driving this portion of
the Mohmand population to join their kindred of the Peshawar
District in the plains below.
History. — The Mohmands, originally related to the Yusafzais about
Kabul and Ghazni, settled in their present country between the 13th
and 15th centuries. Almost from the beginning, a feud has been kept
alive between the Mohmands and their neighbours the Shinwaris. In
one battle was lost the Mohmand fetish, an enormous kettle-drum,
captured from Aurangzeb, and never beaten unless in the most critical
circumstances, when its notes are said to resound through Shinwari
territory to the terror of its inhabitants. The Mohmands rose against
the English after the disasters at Kabul in 1841. In 1S51, and again
in 1854, it was found necessary to level the villages of the Michni
Mohmands. In 1864, a British force of 1200 infantry and 460
infantry dispersed a Mohmand gathering of 5500 men, of whom 40
were killed in the action. Major Macdonald, Commandant of Fort
Michni, was murdered by the Mohmands in 1873, and a fine of ^1000
was imposed on the Michni clan. In the Afghan war of 1S7S-79, the
Mohmands were arrayed against the British.
Population. — There are no Mohmand towns. A large Mohmand
village contains from 1500 to 3000 people. The largest villages are
Lalpura, Sangar Sarai, and Yakhdond. The main divisions of the
tribe are the Tarakzai, the Halimzai, the Baizai, and the Khwazai.
Private blood-feuds are common. The long-standing custom of periodi-
4 7 6 MO II X A R- -MO IIP A.
cally distributing tribal lands has ceased of late years. The Mohmand
tribesman is characteristically haughty and insolent. Travellers have
attributed to him treachery, cruelty, and cowardice. An infamous
traffic in kidnapped women is also said to exist.
Trade, etc. — The through trade of the Mohmand country is consider-
able. Through the Mohmand limits come to India wood-rafts from
Chitral, Kunar, and Laghman on the Kabul, and from Dir and Swat on
the Swat river; wax, hides, ghi, and rice, from Kunar; iron from Bajaur
in lumps and bars — good ore, but badly smelted ; gold-dust, hawks,
and falcons from Kdfiristan and Chitral. The Mohmand exports are
firewood, grass, charcoal, ropes, fine mats, honey, and cattle. Chief
imports — salt, cloth, tea, indigo, and miscellaneous articles of European
manufacture. By means of the transit dues and the small sums earned
as carriers to and from Peshawar, Jalalabdd, Pesh Bolak, Lalpura, and
Shihkadar, the inhabitants eke out a subsistence. The opening of the
Khaibar (Khyber) Pass to traffic has minimized the importance of the
I )acca-Peshawar route through Mohmand territory. The transit duties
levied by the local Khans vary from 8s. to ^4, according to the kind
of merchandise and carriage.
Administration. — The Khan of Lalpura is the chief of most considera-
tion among the Mohmands. His total annual income varies from
;£io,ooo to ;£i 2,000. The government of the Amir at Kabul is
suzerain to the Mohmand tribes ; but except in military matters, or
during the continuance of a war, the tribal administration is an unre-
stricted following of local custom.
Mohnar. — Town in Muzaffarpur District, Bengal ; situated 20 miles
south-east of Hajipur, a short distance north of the Ganges, on the
Hajipur and Mahi-ud-dfn-nagar road. Population (1881) 7447, namely,
Hindus, 6222, and Muhammadans, 1225. Municipal income (1S83-84),
^£126; average incidence of taxation, 4d. per head of the population.
Police outpost station, and a distillery under the jurisdiction of the
sub-divisional officer at Hajipur. Large bazar, with trade in linseed,
food-grains, and saltpetre. Two pathsdlas or indigenous schools.
Mohne. — Fortress in Bashahr (Bussahir) State, Punjab; situated,
according to Thornton, on the southern slope of the Raldang mountain
in Kunawar, in lat. 31° 26' N., and long. 78" 19' E. Thornton states
that it contains a famous Hindu temple, dedicated to Badrinath, and
crowned by a ball of pure gold said to weigh 15 or 20 lbs.
Mohpa (Muhpa). — Town in Nagpur District, Central Provinces;
situated in lat. 210 19' n., and long. 780 52' e., on the river Chandra-
bhdga, 20 miles from Nagpur city. Population (1881) 5515, chiefly
agricultural Hindus numbered 5256; Muhammadans, 257; and
aboriginal tribes, 2. The Mdlf caste are numerous, and by their
industry most of the rich land is cultivated and irrigated like a garden.
MOHTUR—MOKHER. 477
Mohpa is the chief place in a small but valuable estate belonging to
the Nawab Hasan All Khan. The new road through Kalmeswar to
Sa\vargaon will pass through the town. A good school-house has lately
been built.
Mohtiir. — Plateau in Chhindwara District, Central Provinces. — See
Motur.
Mojarh. — Town in Bahawalpur State, Punjab ; situated in lat. 29° 1'
N., and long. 720 11' f.., on the route from Bahawalpur to Jodhpur, 37
miles south-east of the former town. Stands in the midst of a desert
upland plain, surrounded by low sandy eminences, at too great a dis-
tance (according to Thornton) to permit of light guns commanding
the place. Brick-built walls, 50 feet in height and 2h feet in thick-
ness ; numerous bastions ; outworks protect the entrance. ' A mosque
conspicuously surmounts the gateway, and a little to the north is
a Muhammadan tomb, with a cupola profusely ornamented with
coloured glazed tiles.' Large tank without the walls. Several good
wells within.
Mojpur. — Village in Alwar (Ulwar) State, Rajputana. Population
(1881) 3519; number of houses, 669. Three miles west of Lachman-
garh, and situated on the road connecting Lachmangarh with the
Rajputana-Malwa, Railway station at Mala-Khera ; also connected by
road with Rajgarh.
Mokameh. — Town in Patna District, Bengal, and a station on the
East India Railway. — See Mukama.
Moka Paginu Muwadu. — Petty State in the Pandu Mehwas
group, Rewa Kantha Agency, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. Area, five-
eighths of a square mile. Two shareholders. Estimated revenue
(1882), ^23. Tribute of ,£12, 10s. is paid to the Gaekwar of
Baroda.
Mokhad {Makhad). — Town and municipality in Pindigheb tahsil,
Rawal Pindi District, Punjab ; situated on the left bank of the Indus,
in the extreme south-west corner of the District, at the point where
the river begins to be navigable for large vessels. The town was
formerly the terminus of the Indus Steam Flotilla, whose ships plied
between this port and Kotri. The flotilla has now been superseded by
the railway, but one vessel still remains at the personal service of the
Lieutenant-Governor. Population (1881) 4195, namely, Muham-
madans, 3635, and Hindus, 560. Number of houses, 743. Con-
siderable trade with Afghanistan, principally in English piece-goods and
indigo, in the hands of the Paracha tribe. Municipal revenue (1S83-S4),
^290, or is. 5d. per head.
Mokher. — Town in Chindwara tahsil, Chindwara District, Central
Provinces. Population (1881) 2240, namely, Hindus, 1661 ; Muham-
madans, 456 ; Jains, 104 ; Kabirpanthi's, 2 ; and aboriginal tribes, 17.
4 ; 8 MOKUND URRA—MONGII \ 'R.
Mokundurra. — Village and pass in Kotah State, Rajputana. — See
M UK AND WAR A.
Molakalmuru. — Village in Dodderi taluk, Chitaldrug District,
Mysore State. Lat. 14° 43' 50" N., long. 760 46' 40" e. Population
( 1 88 1) 17 1 1. An ancient place, once the residence of a line oip&leg&rs.
Above the town is a large reservoir, near which a fine echo is obtained
from the kuguva bande or ' shouting-stone.'
Molim. — Petty State in the Khasi Hills, Assam. — See Myllim.
Mohir. — Village in Bangalore District, Mysore State. — See
Malur.
Monassa. — Town in Indore State, Central India. — See Manasa.
Monda. — Town in Ramtek tahsil, Nagpur District, Central Pro-
vinces. Population (1881) 3172, namely, Hindus, 2966; Muham-
madans, 156 ; Jains, 35 ; and aboriginal tribes, 15.
Mondemkhallu. — Village and muttd or petty estate in Vizaga-
patam District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 180 55' n., long. 830 45' 30".
Village population (1881) 637 ; number of houses, 157. Population of
muttd, 8538, occupying 1903 houses.
Mong (or Mung). — Village in Phalian tahsil, Gujrat District, Punjab ;
identified by General Cunningham with the city of Nikoea, built by
Alexander the Great upon the site of his battle with Porus, after the
passage of the Jehlam (Jhelum). Stands in lat. 320 39' n., and long.
73' 33' e., 35 miles from Gujrdt town, on an old ruined mound, the
modern houses being built of large ancient bricks. Greek and Indo-
Scythian coins occur profusely among the ruins, many of them bearing
the monogram NIK. Tradition assigns the origin of the mound to
Raja Moga, whom General Cunningham identifies with the Moa or
Manas of the coins.
Monghyr {Munglr). — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of
bengal, lying between 240 22' and 25 ° 49' n. lat., and between 850 40'
and 86° 55' e. Area, 3921 square miles. Population, according to the
Census of 188 r, 1,969,774 souls. Monghyr is bounded on the north by
the Districts of Bhagalpur and Darbhangah ; on the east by Bhdgalpur ;
on the south by theSantal Parganas and the District of Hazaribagh; and
on the west by the Districts of Gaya, Patna, and Darbhangah. The
chief town and administrative head-quarters of the District are at
Monghyr.
Physical Aspects. — The river Ganges divides the District into two
portions, of unequal size and of very different character.
The northern and smaller portion is intersected by the Buri Gandak
and Tiljuga, two important tributaries of the Ganges, and is always
liable to inundation during the rainy season. This is a rich, flat, wheat
and rice growing country, and supports a large 1 ovulation. A con-
siderable area, immediately bordering the banks of the rivers, and
MONGHYR. 479
always liable to inundation, is devoted to permanent pasture. This
tract, which is estimated to cover about 200 square miles, is covered by
the rank pod grass and the graceful pampas, with a scanty undergrowth
of the more succulent kinds, such as dub. Immense quantities of
buffaloes are sent every hot season to graze on these marshy prairies ;
and the ghi, or clarified butter, made from their milk, forms an import-
ant article of export to Calcutta. The charge levied by the landowners
is about 8 annas (is.) per head for the season from June to January.
To the south of the Ganges, the country is dry, much less fertile, and
broken up by fragmentary ridges. The soil consists of quartz, mixed in
varying proportions with mica. Ranges of hills intersect this part of the
District, and in the extreme south form conical peaks, densely covered
with jungle, but of no great height. The principal are the Kharakpur
hills, which form a distinct watershed, the Keul river draining the
western, and the Man the eastern portion of the range, both rivers falling
into the Ganges.
The Ganges itself intersects the District from west to east for 70
miles. It is navigable at all seasons by river steamers and the largest
native boats. The Little Gandak, Tiljuga, and Keul are also navigable
all the year round. The other water communications are a number
of khdls or connecting channels, mainly in the north of the District,
which are only navigable in the rains. By keeping to them, boats of
twenty tons burthen can get within a short distance of the great inun-
dated tract extending from Tilkeswar to the eastern boundary of the
District, about 32 miles in length, by about 14 miles in width. The
most important of these are the Khargaria, Baghmati, and Chanda
khdls. Changes in the river courses have been almost confined to the
Ganges, the main channel of which has several times shifted to the
north or south of several islands that lie in the bed of the river west of
Monghyr town. At present it passes directly under the fort, and a
great piece of land called the Binda didrd, with an area of 22 square
miles, has been formed in the south of pargand Pharkiya. The
changes in the Little Gandak and Tiljuga have been unimportant.
Irrigation is necessary throughout the section lying on the south of
the Ganges, in order to secure the harvest, and is generally resorted to
by the cultivators after their simple and inexpensive methods.
The minerals found in Monghyr District are almost entirely confined
to the tract lying south of the Ganges. The more important are the
following: — Galena, a sulphuret of lead, containing a small quantity of
silver, found in the hill tracts of pargand Chakai. Minium or protoxide
of lead is found in the bed of the Kharakpur hill streams. A rich iron-
ore is quarried in the Kharakpur hills near Bhfmbandh ; actynotite is
found in the same neighbourhood. The hematite or peroxide of iron is an
impure or earthy species of iron oxide combined to some extent with
4S0 M0XGJ1YR.
alumina, silica, and a trace of alkali ; found principally in the Kharak-
pur hills. The percentage of pure iron oxide is about 60 per cent. It
would be valuable for smelting purposes, if limestone as a flux, and
coal or other fuel, were cheap. As it is, however, it is only used as a
cheap pigment for painting. Felspar fit for the manufacture of porce-
lain is met with in great abundance in the south of. the District.
Corundum is obtained from the hills near Jamui, but the precious forms
are not met with. Travertine is found near Gidhaur, and in the
Kharakpur hills. Kankar or nodular limestone, principally used for
metalling the roads, is found more or less in all parts of the District,
mostly in the older tertiary formations of alluvial origin. There are
also stone and slate quarries in the District.
The forest tracts of Monghyr District are estimated to cover an area
of 427 square miles, mostly in the south, and in the Kharakpur estate
of the Maharaja of Darbhangah. Owing, however, to the absence of
any system of forest conservancy, all large timber has long since dis-
appeared. The principal trees are — the sal, locally known as the
sakna (Shorea robusta) ; abnus, or ebony (Diospyros Melanoxylon) ;
tun (Cedrela Toona) ; sitsdl, or black-wood (Dalbergia latifolia); kantal
(Artocarpus integrifolia); bij-sdl (Pterocarpus Marsupium) ; sissu (Dal-
bergia sissoo) ; dm, or mango (Mangifera indica) ; mahud (Bassia lati-
folia) ; bat, or banyan (Ficus bengalensis) ; pipal (Ficus religiosa) ;
pdkur (Ficus infectoria) ; baddm (Terminalia Catappa) ; somi (Prosopis
spicigera) ; sondlu (Cassia Fistula); gab (Diospyros embryopteris) ;
kadam (Anthocephalus Cadamba) ; tetul (Tamarindus indica) ; simul
( Hombax malabaricum) ; hara (Terminalia Chebula) ; pansaura (Grewia
multiflora).
Of jungle products, the most important is the mahud, the flower and
fruit of the Bassia latifolia, both on account of the extent of country
over which it grows, and for the value and usefulness of its products. It
is found in large forests in the hilly country in the south of the District.
Thousands of tons of the petals are collected annually by the jungle
tribes ; and when mixed with grain, form a cheap and nutritious article
of food. Also, about 100,000 gallons of a strong spirit are annually
distilled from the flowers, under Government supervision. The fruit
yields a valuable oil, used in sweetmeats, for burning, and also for the
adulteration of ghi exported to Calcutta. The wood is hard, and suit-
able for the naves of cart wheels. The bark is used medicinally as an
astringent and tonic. Frankincense, obtained from the Boswellia flori-
bunda, is gathered to some extent, as is also the gum called gugal from
the Balsomodendron Mukul, and which is described as having a
fragrance equal to that of the finest myrrh. The gum is difficult of
collection, as it is very watery, and rapidly evaporates, leaving only a
minute portion of gum, which is not tenacious or elastic like myrrh. A
MONGHYR. 481
gum called dhuna, much used as incense, is gathered from the sal tree.
Gums are also obtained for ordinary purposes from many trees, but
they generally contain a large percentage of earth and dirt. The
myrabolan of commerce, the fruit of the Terminalia Chebula, is
abundant in the forests, and makes a very good dye mixed with sulphate
of iron or alum. Rope is made in large quantities from a jungle
creeper, the Bauhinia Vahlii, and also from a coarse grass called sabi.
Lac is collected to some extent for exportation, and for making brace-
lets, toys, etc. The insects are found on the small branches and
petioles of the palds tree (Butea frondosa). This tree also affords a
valuable gum, and its leaves a yellow dye of considerable permanence.
Honey, though occasionally collected, does not appear to be a general
article of trade.
Wild Animals. — Tigers are not common in Monghyr, as the Govern-
ment reward for their destruction is sufficient inducement for Santal
hunters to destroy them, which they do usually by means of traps set
with bows and arrows in the paths which they frequent. The black
bear is found generally throughout the hilly portion of the District, but
is not common now. It is much sought after, both for the sake of the
Government reward, and for the excellence of its flesh. The Santals of
the southern hills watch the animal as it comes to feed on the flowers
of the viahitd ; and, concealed in the branches of the tree, shoot it
with poisoned arrows. Leopards, formerly numerous, are now being
gradually exterminated. Hyasnas are found in the hills, in caves which
have been tenanted by them from time immemorial. Wild pigs are
found sparingly all over the District ; and wild buffaloes are occasionally
met with in the north in pargand Pharkiya. Of deer, the sambhdr is
occasionally killed. The spotted deer abounds towards the south, and
often does serious injury to the crops. The swamp deer or bard singhd
is not uncommon. Two species of monkeys are found in a few places,
from which apparently they never migrate. The marshes in the north
of the District form the home of myriads of geese and ducks during the
cold season. The Gangetic porpoise or susn abounds in the river, and
is occasionally captured and eaten, the oil being sold in the bazar for
preserving leather and other purposes. Crocodiles abound in the
north of the District, and many varieties of poisonous snakes are found.
The fisheries of the District are very extensive on the Ganges and
Gandak rivers, with their tributaries, and are very valuable. The supply
of fish is abundant at most seasons of the year, but diminishes at the
time of high floods. The value of the Monghyr fisheries is estimated
at about ^100,000 a year. A considerable trade is carried on in shells
of the fresh-water mussel and of the marsh snail. They are collected
in tons in the Pharkiya marshes, and on being burnt, yield a very pure
lime, worth from -Q2 to £2, 10s. per ton.
VOL. IX. 2 H
482 MONGHYR.
The Modern History of Monghyr has been given in the account of
Bhagalpur District, within which it was included in the earlier days
of English administration. The local records do not give the date
of the establishment of the District as a subsidiary executive centre,
but this change appears to have been effected about the beginning of
this century. In 1832, Monghyr was made an independent Deputy
Collectorship and Joint Magistracy, and the title of Magistrate and
Collector was subsequently given to the District officer. The magisterial
and revenue jurisdiction of Monghyr is therefore now quite separate
from Bhagalpur ; but the civil and the higher criminal or assize juris-
diction is still vested in the Judge of Bhagalpur, who, once in two
months, visits Monghyr to try serious cases and inspect the civil courts
and jail.
T/ie Earlier History of Monghyr has a special interest. It was one
of the principal centres of the Muhammadan administration. The
fort, of which an account is given in the article on the town of
Monghyr, is of great natural strength ; and its value as a military
position was recognised by Musalman governors from the time of
Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, in 1195 a.d., up to that of Mir Kasim
in his conflicts with the English in the last century. According
to the Ain-i-Akbari, or Domesday Book of India, compiled by Todar
Mall, the sarkdr or Province of Monghyr was divided in 31 mah&ls
or fiscal divisions, paying an aggregate revenue of 109,625,981 ddms,
40 ddms being equal to 1 Akbarshahi rupee. In addition, the sarkdr
was required to furnish 2150 horsemen and 50,000 foot. The pargand
of Monghyr itself was assessed at 808,907^ ddms. The figures, how-
ever, were probably nominal, as the greater part of the country, especially
to the south of the Ganges, was then in the hands of semi-independent
chieftains.
The most powerful of these local chiefs was the Raja of Kharak-
pur, who ruled over 24 pargands. The founder of this family was
a Rajput soldier of fortune, who overthrew the original Kshetauri
proprietors by an act of gross treachery. His son and successor
strengthened his position by turning Muhammadan in the reign of
the Emperor Jahangfr, and taking a wife from the imperial zandna.
The downfall of the line dates from the British occupation, when the
ancestral estates were rapidly sold one alter another for arrears of
revenue, a large portion being bought by the Raja of I )arbhangah,
who now allows a small pension to the representative of the original
( hie£ Another ancient family is that of the Rajas of Rharkiya, who
trace their descent from a Rajput who first brought the lawless tribe
<>f Dosadhs under subjection in the reign of the Emperor Humayun,
and received a grant of the zaminddri in 1494. The property still
tinuea in his family, but has been much broken up by sub-division
MONGHYR. 483
and alienation. At the present day, the principal landowner in the
District is the Maharaja Seoprasad Singh, son of the Maharaja Sir
Jai Mangal Singh, K.C.S.I., of Gidhaur, noted for his loyalty to the
English, and the twenty-third in descent from the first occupant of the
estate.
Population. — The first complete Census of the whole District was
effected in 1872. The results disclosed a total population of 1,814,538
persons, dwelling in 2457 villages and in 328,174 houses, on an area
corresponding to that of the present District, namely, 3921 square miles,
the average pressure of population on the soil being 463 persons to the
square mile. In 1881 the Census returned the population at 1,969,774,
showing an increase of 155,236, or 8*55 per cent, in the nine years
since 1872, an increase which, in the absence of immigration, represents
the natural growth of the population by births over deaths. The
most densely populated parts of the District are the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Monghyr town and the tracts of country to the north of
the Ganges. In these parts, the population varies from 536 per square
mile in Surajgarha police circle, to 839 per square mile in the police
circle of Monghyr. In the purely urban police circle of Jamalpur,
with its 15 towns and villages on an area of 4 square miles, the
average density is as high as 4956 per square mile. South of the
Ganges, the police of Kharakpur, with 397 to the square mile, begins
to show a marked diminution, which reaches its lowest point in the
jungle and waste lands in the extreme south of the District, where
the density is only 226 to the square mile in the police circles of Jamui
and Chakai.
The results of the Census of 1SS1 may be briefly summarized as
follows: — Area of District, 3921 square miles, with 4 towns, 6444
villages, and 289,847 houses, of which 280,234 were occupied and
9613 unoccupied. Total population, 1,969,774, namely, males 969,124,
and females 1,000,650; proportion of males, 49-2 per cent. Average-
density, 502*37 persons per square mile; towns and villages per square-
mile, 1 "64; persons per town or village, 305; houses per square mile,
73'93 j inmates per occupied house, 7 "03. Classified according to
age, there were — under 15 years of age, boys 402,626, and girls 389,75s ;
total children, 792,384, or 40*2 per cent, of the population: 15 years
and upwards, males 566,498, and females 610,892 ; total adults,
i>177>39°> or 59"8 Per cent-
Religion. — The great majority of the people are Hindus by
religion, that faith being professed by 1,774,013 persons, or 90-1 per
cent.; Muhammadans number 187,517, or 9^5 per cent.; Christians,
1091 ; and Santals and Kols, professing aboriginal religions, 7153;
total, 1,969,774. In the above total are included 5 1S6 'others,' who
are returned as Hindus, making up the total aboriginal population to
4S4 MONGHYR.
12,339 m iSSr, as against 21,672 returned in the Census of 1872.
The semi- Hinduized aborigines, who inhabit the jungles in the
southern parts of the District, were returned at 327,017 in 1872 ; but in
the Census of 1881 they are not classified separately, and are included
in the general Hindu population.
Among the high castes in 1881, Brahmans numbered 57,291, and
Rajputs 56,067. The Babhans, another high caste, call for special
notice. In the Begu Sarai Sub-division, to the north of the Ganges,
they are twice as numerous as the whole Musalman community, and
form a fifth part of the entire population. The Babhans are neither
Rajputs nor Brahmans, but resemble both, though claiming to rank as
Brahmans. It is stated that they were originally a low Aryan race, who
were brought into close contact with the Rajputs, probably in some of
their struggles for supremacy ; and who, not being allowed to inter-
marry, or form one people with them, have acquired a respectability of
their own by pretending that they are Brahmans. This rank, however,
is not conceded to them by other castes. The total number of Babhans
in Monghyr District is 175,195. Other respectable castes are the
Rayasths or writers, 23,044 in number, and the Baniyas or traders,
48,831.
Among lower-caste Hindus are the Goalas, who are cattle-dealers,
herdsmen, and dairymen, and chiefly inhabit the tract north of the
Ganges. They are the most numerous caste in the District, and are
returned in the Census of 1881 as numbering 217,616. Other Hindu
castes, arranged according to numerical superiority, and not according
to status, include the following : — Musahar, 123,337 ; Dhanuk, 1 18,940 :
Dosadh, 108,433; Roeri, 92,652; Kandu, 59,864; Teh', 56,632;
Tanti, 54,011; Chamar, 52,634; Rahar, 47,408; Napit, 39,106;
Riirmi, 38,610; Tatwa, 34,449; Rumbhar, 31,007; Barhai, 27,016;
Mallah, 22,294; Dhobi, 20,061; Tior, 19,235; Sonar, 18,167 ; Madak,
15,901; Barui, 14,087; Pasf, 13,996; Dora, 12,910; Ralwa>, 11,956;
and Bind, 10,080. Caste-rejecting Hindus numbered 6495, of whom
2 759 were Hindus.
The Christian community, numbering 1091, comprises 393 Europeans,
358 Eurasians, 200 natives, and 140 'others.' The Church Mission
Society and the Baptist Mission have stations both at Monghyr and
Jamdlpur, and Church of England and Roman Catholic churches exist
at Jamalpur, where there is a considerable European and Eurasian com-
munity, employed in connection with the East Indian Railway work-
shops. The native Christians belong principally to the poorer classes,
but are rather better off than ordinary natives in the same position.
Converts from the country villages almost invariably find their way to
the towns and settle in them.
Town and Rural Population. — The population of the District is
MONGHYR. 485
almost entirely rural. The Census Report of 1881 returns seven towns
containing upwards of five thousand inhabitants, namely — Monghyr,
the chief town and administrative head-quarters of the District, 55,372 ;
Jamalpur, containing the iron workshops, foundries, etc., of the East
Indian Railway, the largest workshops of the kind in India, 13,213;
Shaikhpura, 12,517; Barhiva, 11,679; Barbigha, 7904; Khutha,
5095 ; and Mathurapur, 5130. These seven towns contained a total
of 1 10,910 inhabitants, or 5-6 per cent, of the District population, leaving
1,858,864, or 94"4 per cent., as forming the rural population. The
Census Report of 188 1 thus classifies the 6448 villages and towns: — ■
As many as 3733 contained less than two hundred inhabitants; 1610
between two and five hundred; 773 between five hundred and a
thousand; 283 between one and two thousand; 34 between two and
three thousand ; 8 between three and five thousand ; 3 between five and
ten thousand ; 3 between ten and fifteen thousand ; and 1 with upwards
of fifty thousand inhabitants.
As regards occupation, the Census Report divides the male population
into six classes : — (1) Professional class, including Government servants,
11,329; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc.,
43,943 ; (3) commercial class, including merchants, bankers, traders,
carriers, etc., 36,755 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including
gardeners, 315,845; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, 62,685;
(6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers,
male children, and persons of unspecified or of no occupation, 498,567.
Agriculture. — The cultivation of rice is the principal occupation of
the people. Wheat and Indian corn are the two next important crops.
The area under cultivation with wheat is rapidly increasing. The other
important crops are indigo and opium, which are grown and manufactured
under Government supervision, Monghyr forming a Sub-Agency sub-
ordinate to the Patna Agency of the Government Opium Department.
In the southern part of the District, where the land lies high, irrigation
is general. The most important works for the purpose of irrigation are
those on the Kharakpur estate of the Maharaja of Darbhangah. This
property was for several years under the management of the Court of
Wards, during the minority of the Maharaja; and one of the results of
this management is the completion of a work which will irrigate, when
necessary, an area of more than 70,000 acres. The cultivated area is
largely held under the tenure known as bhdoli-jot, by which the tenant
pays rent, in money or kind, according to the out-turn of his crops in
each year. It is popular with the tenantry, and of ancient standing.
Nearly all the cultivators are tenants-at-will ; and where the rents are
fixed, the rates are higher than those usual in Bengal for similar classes
of land.
According to the Revenue Survey, which was concluded in Sep-
436 MONGHYR.
tember 1847, the total cultivated area in the District was given at
1,311.768 acres, the uncultivable area at 284,365 acres, and the uncul-
tivated at 539,178 acres. More recent figures cannot be relied on;
hut it is known that cultivation has largely extended during the past
thirty years. A holding of over 25 acres of land would now be con-
sidered an unusually large farm, though holdings of 33 to 100 acres are
to be found ; less than 4 acres would be looked upon as very small.
A farm of 12 acres can comfortably support a husbandman. The
people are poor, and the wages of labour and the price of food, although
they have increased of late years, are still low. The daily wage for
which coolies and road-labourers can be engaged is from 2^d. to 3d. a
day. The price of the common qualities of rice is ordinarily about 5s.
a cwt., and of wheat about 9s. a cwt. In 1883-84, a year of deficient
harvest, the average price of common rice throughout the year was 6s.
per cwt., and of wheat 7s. 3d. per cwt. It is reported that the sale of
rice at 7s. a cwt. in January and February — at a time of year when the
harvest has just been reaped and prices are lowest — would be a warning
of the approach of famine.
Natural Calamities in Monghyr District are mainly due to drought,
and in a less degree to flood. But any noteworthy scarcity has been of
rare occurrence ; and it is said that the only droughts of such severity
as to deserve special notice have occurred of late years — that is to say,
in 1865 and 1873 — resulting in the famines of 1866 and 1S74. The
famine of 1865-66 was most severely felt in the south-west of the
District, where rice forms the staple crop. Prices first rose to excessive
rates in October 1865, when gratuitous distribution of food was begun
in the town of Monghyr. The reaping of the scanty winter harvest
diverted the indigent population for a season ; but in May 1S66, it was
found necessary to undertake relief operations on a large scale. The
month of greatest suffering was September, when rice rose to 16s. per
cwt. The highest daily number of persons receiving relief was 3450.
As usually happens, cholera and other diseases greatly increased the
mortality. According to police returns, the total number of deaths
from starvation in the year 1866 was 642 ; and from diseases engendered
by want, 605. The threatened famine of 1873-74 may be said to have
been altogether averted by the prompt intervention of Government,
and by the facilities afforded by the railway for importation. On this
occasion it was again the rice crop which failed, especially in the
south-west and north-east of the District ; while the spring crops turned
out well. The total amount of grain imported through the agency of
Government was 8125 tons; and the total expenditure on all heads
was ,£233,000, of which the larger portion was applied in advances,
subsequently recovered.
Manufactures and Trade, etc. — The name of Monghyr is famous
MONGHYR. 487
throughout India as that of the Indian Birmingham, though its manu-
factures of iron are now on the decline. Fire-arms, swords, and iron
articles of every kind are still produced in abundance, but marked by
cheapness rather than quality. A serviceable double-barrel gun can be
obtained at Monghyr for £2, and a large double-barrel pistol for £1.
The art of inlaying sword-hilts and other articles with gold or silver
affords employment to about 20 families. The entire process of iron
manufacture, from smelting the ore to hammering out delicate orna-
ments, is carried on in the District. The ore is principally brought from
the hills of Kharakpur. At the present day, the manufacture of indigo,
by European capital and under European supervision, is by far the
most important industry in Monghyr. The total area under indigo is
estimated at about 10,000 acres, with an average out-turn of 2900 cwts.
of dye. There are also extensive slate quarries at Abhciipur under
European management. Among minor industries may be mentioned
weaving, dyeing, cabinet -making, and boot -making, at the town of
Monghyr; soap-boiling; making water-bottles of clay; carving tingas
or emblems of Siva out of chlorite ; and basket-weaving and straw-
work.
The District, being favourably situated for trade both by river and
rail, exports large quantities of agricultural produce to Calcutta. When
the Ganges is in flood, carriage by boat is preferred ; but the native
merchants are always ready to use the railway when immediate despatch
becomes of importance. Trade is chiefly in the hands of immigrants
from Lower Bengal of the Teh' and Sonarbaniya castes ; but Musal-
mans monopolize the export of hides, and the traffic up-stream is con-
ducted by Marwaris from the North-West. The registration returns for
1876-77 show a total of exports valued at ^"430,000, against imports
valued at ^3 14,000. Nearly two-thirds of the exports were sent by
river, whereas more than half the imports came by rail. The principal
river ports are Monghyr town, Khargaria, and Surajgarha ; the railway
stations with most traffic are Monghyr, Barhiya, Lakhi-sarai (Luckee-
serai), Kajra, Jamiii, and Jamalpur. Among the exports, the following
were the chief items in 1876-77 : — Oil-seeds, ^"132,000; wheat,
,£75,000; gram and pulse, ,£70,000; indigo, ,£29,000; rice, £28,000;
gki, £26,000; hides, £22,000 ; and tobacco, £11,000. The imports
were mainly confined to European piece-goods, £144,000 ; salt (also
from Europe), £111,000; and sugar from the North-West, £21,000.
Later trade statistics are not available, owing to an alteration in the
system of registration.
Administration. — It is not practicable to institute any comparison
between the present revenue and expenditure of Monghyr District and
the figures for years earlier than 1850. The land, excise, and other
revenue was for the most part paid into the Bhagalpur treasury, and the
4SS MONGHYR.
accounts were not separately kept. In 1850-51, the net revenue of
Monghyr District was ^107,710 ; in 1S60-61, it was ^£109,389 ; and
in 1S70-71, it had risen 10^131,228 net. These figures exclude mere
matters of account and purely local receipts, and also imperial charges
which are not expenditure on the District administration. In 1883-84,
the revenue of Monghyr District from six main sources of revenue
amounted 10^164,955, made upas follows: — Land tax, ^88, 616; excise,
^37,156 ; stamps, .£18,518 ; registration, £2075 ; road cess, £14,225 ;
municipal taxes, ,£4365. In 1874-75, there were 4053 estates of all
kinds on the revenue roll, and the total land revenue of the District was
returned at £94,034, or an average payment by each estate of £23, 4s.
Sub-division of property is still going on ; and in 1S83-84, the number of
estates had increased to 5838, held by 48,616 proprietors, while the
land revenue had decreased to £88,616; average payment by each
estate, £15, 3s. 5d. ; by each proprietor, £1, 16s. 5d.
The means of affording protection to person and property have been
steadily increased of late years. In 1832, the year after the District
was first constituted, there was 1 magisterial, 1 civil and revenue court,
and 1 covenanted officer stationed in Monghyr District ; in 1S84, there
were 7 magisterial and 4 civil judges' courts, and 4 European covenanted
officers. The District and town police force, according to the returns
of 1883, consisted of 2 superior European officers, 63 subordinate
native officers, and 423 constables; and the total annual cost of
maintenance was £8541. The rural or village police numbered 3636
men, maintained at an estimated cost in money and lands of £9379.
The police, therefore, of all sorts consisted of a total of 4124 officers
and men, equal to an average of 1 man to every 478 of the population.
The aggregate cost was £17,920, or about equal to a charge of 2-]d. per
head of the population. In the jail at Monghyr, and the subordinate
lock-ups at Jamiii and Begu Sarai, the average daily number of prisoners
in 18S3 was 180*25, of whom 10 were females.
The progress of education has been very rapid in Monghyr of
late years. The number of Government and aided schools was 8 in
1856-57, and 15 in 1870-71, while the increase in the number of pupils
was from 439 to 627. But under the operation of Sir George Campbell's
educational reforms, by means of grants in aid, the number of Govern-
ment and aided schools increased in 1874-75 to 229, and the number
of pupils to 6675 ; while in 1882-83, when that system had obtained
its full development, the number of schools had risen to 2800, with
30,617 pupils. There were also 4 girls' schools, for which no returns of
pupils are given. There is one higher-class English school in the
District, situated at Monghyr town, with 344 pupils in 1882-83. Two
towns only in the District have been placed under municipal govern-
ment, the town of Monghyr itself and Jamalpur. In Monghyr, the
MONGHYR HEAD-QUARTERS AND TOWN. 489
gross municipal income amounted in 1S83-84 to ^3392, and the rate
of municipal taxation was is. 2f& per head of the population. In
Jamalpur, the income amounted in the same year 10^1521, and the
rate of taxation was 2s. 3d. per head of the population. This exception-
ally heavy rate in Jamalpur is occasioned by the inclusion of the house-
tax, levied on the premises of the East Indian Railway Company.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Monghyr is dry, and considered
healthy. The temperature is high in the hot weather, reaching 107" F.
in the month of May ; but the cold weather is cool and pleasant, and
generally agreeable to Europeans, who frequently resort to Monghyr
for change and rest after labour in the Bengal plains. The rains are
not heavy, the annual average for a period of twenty years ending 1SS1
being 45*9 inches. Malarial fever is, under the favourable conditions
of climate, comparatively uncommon ; cholera, however, is epidemic.
Elephantiasis Graecorum, a form of leprosy, is very common both in its
tubercular and in its anaesthetic or atrophic type. A special account of
the pathology of this disease, written by the Civil Surgeon of the District
in 1863, in answer to a series of interrogatories from the London College
of Physicians, will be found in The Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xv.
pp. 192 sqq. There are three dispensaries in the District, which afforded
relief in 1883-S4 to 715 in-door and 23,667 out-door patients. [For
further information regarding Monghyr, see The Statistical Account of
Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. xv. pp. 1-2 15 (Triibner & Co., London,
1S77). Also the Bengal Census Report for 1881 ; and the several
annual Bengal Administration and Departmental Reports of the Bengal
Government.]
Monghyr. — Sadr or head-quarters Sub-division of Monghyr District,
Bengal, lying between 240 57' and 25° 49' n. lat., and between 850 57'
30" and 86° 55' e. long. Area, 1559 square miles ; towns and villages,
23S4; houses, 118,314. Population (1881) 834,376, of whom 753,034
were Hindus, 78,758 Muhammadans, 926 Christians, 1632 Santals, and
26 Kols. Proportion of males in total population, 49-4 per cent. ;
average density of population, 535 persons per square mile ; villages per
square mile, 1*53 ; persons per village, 350 ; houses per square mile, 79 ;
inmates per house, 7. This Sub-division comprises the five thdnds (police
circles) of Monghyr, Jamalpur, Surajgarha, Kharakpur, and Gogri. In
1 SS3 it contained 7 magisterial and 2 civil courts ; the regular police
consisted of 345 men, and the rural force or village watch of 1410.
Monghyr (Mungh). — Chief town and administrative head-quarters
of Monghyr District, Bengal ; situated on the south bank of the Ganges,
in lat. 25" 22' 32" n., and long. S6° 30' 21" k. Population in 1SS1,
55>372 persons; area of town site, 4S76 acres.
General Description. — Monghyr has been a place of considerable
importance since the earliest days of the English occupation of Bengal,
490 MONGHYR TOWN,
although it did not become a civil station until 1812. The old
Musalman fort was once occupied by a regiment belonging to the East
India Company. At present, Monghyr is a purely civil station, and in
some respects one of the most picturesque in Bengal. It consists of two
distinct portions — the fort, within which are situated the public offices
and residences of the Europeans ; and the native town stretching away
from the former eastward and southward along the river. The fort is
formed by a great rampart of earth enclosing a rocky eminence, which
projects some distance into the Ganges, and is faced with stone. It was
probably at one time a strong fortification. Towards the north, the
river comes up to the walls, forming a natural defence ; to the landward,
a deep, wide ditch surrounds and protects the fort. On entering from
the railway station by the Lai Darwaza or Red Gate, the principal
entrance, Monghyr presents a very pretty appearance. The main road
runs southwards between two large tanks, behind each of which rise low
hills. On one of these stands the Kama Chaura house, the property of
the Maharaja of Vizianagaram ; and on the other, a fine building known
as the palace of the Shah Sahib, and now the residence of the Collector,
behind which is the residence of Shah Shuja, son of Akbar, which
has been converted into a jail. Between the hills lie the Govern-
ment gardens, with trim hedges and neat wire-fencing. Beyond the
gardens, and usually on low eminences, are the houses of the other
Europeans.
Population. — Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton in 181 1 estimated the popula-
tion of Monghyr town at 30,000. An experimental Census in 1869
showed 53,891 persons, living in 13,179 houses; while the regular
Census of 1872 returned the inhabitants of the town at 59,698, in-
habiting 10,265 houses. The last enumeration in 1881 showed 55,372,
namely, males 26,051, and females 29,321. Hindus numbered 42,636;
Muhammadans, 12,49s; 'others,' 238. The municipal income of
Monghyr town in 1883-84 was ^3392, the average incidence of taxation
being is. 2^d. per head of the population.
Origin of the Name. — The origin of the name of Monghyr is very
uncertain. It is said that the place was formerly called Madgalpurf
or Madgalasram, from its having been the abode of Madgal Muni,
a hermit saint, who lived in the early ages of the world. Another
explanation, founded on the authority of the Ilaribafisa, derives the
name from a certain Madgal Raja, one of the sons of Viswalmitra, son
nt a Gadhi Raja, who received this part of his father's dominions. Dr.
Buchanan -Hamilton states that on an inscription, seven or eisj,ht
centuries old, found at Monghyr, and perhaps more ancient than the
Haribansa, the name is written Madgagfra, or the hill of Madga, and
not Madgalpurf, or the abode of Madgal. The existence, therefore,
both of the saint and prince is very doubtful. Probably the name has
MONIERKHAL— MONS. 4 9 1
a much more humble origin, as madga is the Sanskrit word for a kind of
pulse, the Phaseolus mungo of Linnaeus.
History. — A copper plate found on the site of the fort in 1780 con-
tains an inscription in antique characters of uncertain date, recording
that the armies of Raja Deb Pal of Patna here crossed the Ganges by
a bridge of boats. To the Pal dynasty is assigned a date coming
down to the nth century a.d. Shortly afterwards, in 1195, Mon-
ghyr appears to have been taken by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji,
the first Musalman conqueror of Bengal. Henceforth it is often
mentioned by the Muhammadan chroniclers as a place of military
importance, and was chosen as the seat of the local Government.
Prince Danyal, son of Husain Shah, the Afghan king of Gaur, repaired
the fortifications in 1497, and built a vault over the tomb of Shah
Nafah, the Muhammadan patron of the town, as is shown by an
inscription still extant. In 1590, when the Mughal Emperor Akbar
succeeded in establishing his supremacy over the Afghan chiefs of
Bengal, Monghyr was long the head-quarters of the imperialist general
Todar Mall, who again restored the walls. Monghyr also figures pro-
minently during the rebellion of Sultan Shuja against his brother,
Aurangzeb. In more recent times, when the Nawab Mir Kasim was
already contemplating the assertion of his independence against the
English, he selected Monghyr as his residence and the centre of his
military preparations. The fame of Monghyr armourers is said to date
from the arsenal which he established. A spot by the side of the fort is
still pointed out as the scene of the memorable outrage, when the two
Seths, the great Hindu bankers of Murshidabad, were thrown into the
Ganges, on the charge of favouring the English cause. After his defeat
at Udhanala in 1763, Mir Kasim retreated up the river towards Patna,
and the fort of Monghyr no longer figures in history.
Monierkhal. — Village and frontier outpost in Cachar District, Assam ;
on the Sonai river, near the frontier of Manipur and the Lushai Hills.
In January 187 1, the small garrison of Sepoys stationed here was fiercelv
attacked by a body of Lushais for two days and two nights, but success-
fully held out until relieved. This attack was an incident in the raid
which led to the retributive Lushai expedition in the following cold
season. Monierkhal is now connected by a good road with Nagdirgram,
and so with Silchar town, 24 miles distant. In the neighbourhood arc
a few tea-gardens. Monierkhal is eight miles distant as the crow flies
from Mainadhar, an outpost station on the Barak, manned by frontier
military police, but the Bhuban range (elevation 2600 feet) intervenes.
Monierkhal itself is garrisoned by a detachment of the native infantry
regiment whose head-quarters are at Silchar town. It forms one of the
links in the southern line of defence against raids by the Lushais.
Mons. — Aboriginal race of Burma. — See Talaings.
492 MONTGOMER \ '.
Montgomery. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the
Punjab, lying between 290 5S' and 31° $5 N. lat, and between 72°
29' 30" and 740 10' 30" e. long. Area, 5574 square miles. Population
in 1SS1, 426,529 persons. Montgomery forms the north-eastern Dis-
trict of the Miiltan Division. It is bounded on the north-east by
Lahore District; on the south-east by the river Sutlej (Satlaj), which
separates it from Bahawalpur State ; on the south-west by Miiltan
District ; and on the north-west by Jhang District. Montgomery stands
fifth in order of area, and twenty-third in order of population among
the Districts of the Punjab, comprising 5-23 per cent, of the total area,
and 2-26 per cent, of the total population of the Province. The shape
of the District is that of a rough parallelogram, the sides running at
right angles to the Sutlej and Ravi rivers forming its breadth, and those
running parallel to them its length. The extreme length of the District,
from Thatha Suratan on the Lahore border, to Bub on the Ravi where
that river enters Miiltan, is about 90 miles. The extreme breadth, from
Sahibwala on the Sutlej to the Marri (Murree) road at the Jhang boundary,
is 74 miles. Of the four tahsils or Sub-divisions comprising the Dis-
trict, Montgomery lies to the north-west, Gugaira to the north-east,
Dipalpur to the south-cast, and Pak Pattan to the south-west. Not
much more than one-third of the whole area of the District is included
within village boundaries ; the remaining two-thirds, which constitute
the great grazing grounds of the bar, are the property of the Govern-
ment. The administrative head-quarters are at the town of MONT-
GOMERY, upon the Lahore and Miiltan Railway.
Physical Aspects. — The District of Montgomery, formerly known as
Gugaira, occupies a wide extent of the Bari Dodb, or wedge of land
between the Sutlej (Satlaj) and the Ravi, besides stretching across the
latter river into the adjoining Rechna Doab. In the former tract,
a fringe of cultivated lowland skirts the bank of either great boundary
stream ; but the whole interior upland, beyond the fertilizing influence
of their waters, consists of a desert plateau, partially overgrown with
brushwood and coarse grass, which are interrupted at places by an
impenetrable jungle, impassable alike for man or horse. On the farther
side of the Ravi, again, the country at once assumes the same desert
aspect, which continues across the whole Rechna Doab, till the land
dips once more into the valley of the Chenab, in the neighbouring
District of JHANG. This portion of Montgomery, known as the bdr>
exactly resembles the Jhang desert, being quite devoid of water in the
dry season, but covered alter the rains with scanty vegetation, which
affords pasture to large herds of cattle, under the charge of a few
scattered nomad families. Glose to the Ravi, a few acres have been
brought into cultivation by means of inundation channels cut from the
river.
MONTGOMER Y. 493
In the Bari Doab, an elevated ridge or backbone, known as the
Dhaya, with an average breadth of 10 miles, forms the watershed
between the Sutlej and Ravi rivers throughout the entire length of the
District from north-east to south-west. The slope is generally gradual,
especially on the northern or Ravi side. On the southern or Sutlej
side, the slope is more marked ; and towards the Lahore border it becomes
very abrupt, and is cut into deep chasms by the rain-water running
down into the valley beneath. The Sutlej runs at an average distance
of 25 miles from the centre of the ridge, the Ravi nowhere at a greater
distance than 16 miles, while from Chichawatni to the Miiltan border
the foot of the ridge forms the left bank of the Ravi. The central
plateau is entirely uncultivated. The soil is generally inferior and
saline, in places remarkably so. With a plentiful supply of water and
careful cultivation, the greater portion of the land could be brought to
bear fair crops. When the rains have been favourable, grass grows
abundantly. But even in the best seasons, there are vast stretches of
land where not a blade of grass is to be seen, and where even the hardy
/ana plant is unable to live. WTater lies from 60 to 70 feet below the
surface; sometimes of very good quality, but sometimes so brackish as
to be undrinkable.
The country between the ridge and the rivers on either side is of a
more hospitable character. The soil is generally of good quality; saline
tracts are rare and of no great extent ; water is generally sweet and
near the surface ; vegetation is more abundant, and a considerable
portion of the country is under cultivation.
Rivers and Cana/s.- — The Sutlej, which, as before stated, forms the
south-eastern boundary of the District, runs a tolerably straight but
very changeable course on the borders of Dipalpur and Pak Pattan
tahslls. It is impossible to say what may be the course of the river in
any one year. Whole villages, and even clusters of villages, are one
week on the right, and next week on the left bank of the river. This
capriciousness is the cause of considerable expense in keeping open the
heads of the inundation canals, and sometimes leads to the failure of
the water-supply in them when most needed. During the rains, the
Sutlej is broad, deep, and rapid, and often very destructive in its course.
It is about a mile broad and 4 feet in mean depth, though deep channels
are to be found in places with from 10 to 20 feet of water. It has a
mean velocity of 4 feet, and a discharge of about 100,000 cubic feet \ xr
second. Large islands are formed in the bed of the river, which is
nowhere fordable within the limits of Montgomery District. A con-
siderable traffic to and from the marts of Firozpur and Fazilka is carried
on in large native boats of sometimes between 30 and 40 tons burthen.
The Sutlej runs along the borders of Montgomery District continuously
for 109 miles. The Ravi, which intersects the District, is a much
494 MONTGOMER \ \
smaller river than the Sutlej, but has an exceedingly tortuous course
of 165 miles through alluvial flats in Montgomery. Its banks are
generally well defined, its bed is less sandy than the Sutlej, and the
soil deposited by its floods is of good quality. The river carries
down a large volume of water in the rains, but is of very moderate
size in the cold weather. It is fordable in many places, and in
some parts is not more than fifty yards across. The traffic on the
Ravi is inconsiderable. The only other important watercourse is the
Degh, a small rivulet rising in the Jamu hills; after flowing through
Sialkot, Gujranwala, and Lahore, it enters Montgomery District at
Thatha Suratan, and after a course thence of about 35 miles, falls
into the Ravi at Ghatta Phakni Hithar. Irrigation is largely carried
on from this river ; but the demands made upon its scanty water-
supply often cause it to run dry before reaching Montgomery Dis-
trict.
The old historical beds of the Ravi and Beas (Bias) rivers, which
formerly united their waters much lower down than at present, may be
traced through a great portion of the Doab which they once bounded,
and numerous pools (jhi/s) still mark their original channels. Four
inundation canals afford means of irrigation. One, from the Ravi,
called the Nikki, is managed by the Deputy Commissioner ; the remain-
ing three — the Khanwah, the Upper Sohag, and the Lower Sohag — are
under the control of the Canal Department, and form part of the Upper
Sutlej Inundation Canal System. Besides these four canals, there are a
number of irrigation cuts from the rivers. These are the work of the
people of the villages to which they supply water, and are under their
own control.
The Mineral Products of Montgomery District are few and unimportant.
Kankar, or calcareous concrete, is found principally on the right bank
of the Ravi in the shape of small nodules scattered over the surface of
the ground. Saltpetre is manufactured from a saline earth called kat/ar,
found on the sites of deserted villages, and in the streets and on the
walls of old towns. It is mainly used as a top-dressing by agriculturists
The District is very indifferently wooded, and there are not more than
half-a-dozen species of trees of spontaneous growth, although there is a
considerable variety of grasses and stunted shrubs. Near the rivers,
however, there is a good deal of timber ; and along the Khanwah canal,
and in the villages adjoining it, especially to the south, there is a fine
belt of trees, while the old civil station of Gugaira presents specimens
of most trees found in the plains of Upper India. The trees most
commonly met with are the ukhdn or fardsh (Tamarixarticulata, Valil.) ;
kikar (Acacia arabica, WMd.)\ ber (Capparis spinosa, Linn.); wana
(Vitex Negundo, J. inn.); karil (Capparis aphylla, Roth.), and pilchi or
jhau (Tamarix gallica, Linn.).
MONTGOMERY. 495
Wild animals generally are rare. The tiger, although occasionally
found in the neighbourhood of the Sutlej a few years ago, is now exter-
minated in Montgomery District. Wolves and wild cats (bdr-billt)
are the most dangerous beasts of prey. Jackals are common ; wild hog
have been somewhat reduced in numbers by the extension of cultiva-
tion into the jungle tracts along the rivers. Ravine deer are fairly
numerous ; but nilgai and antelope are confined to a small tract
near the Lahore border. Bustard, fioriken, partridges, grey and black
sand-grouse and quail are found ; and waterfowl of various kinds,
from the goose to the snipe, frequent the rivers in the cold weather.
Kunj visit the District in the cold weather; and tilydr, a small bird
with black back and brown breast, is one of the worst enemies of the
farmer. Crocodiles bask on the sandbanks of the Sutlej, and now and
then one appears in the Ravi. Fish of many kinds abound in the rivers.
Snakes, and especially cobras, are by no means rare.
History. — From time immemorial, the Rechna Doab has formed the
home of a wild race of pastoral Jats, who have constantly maintained a
sturdy independence against the successive rulers of Northern India.
At the date of Alexander's invasion, a tribe whom his historians name
KathDsans held the northern portion of the modern District ; while the
Malli, with their capital at Multan, had possession of the southern
tract. The Kathaeans probably had their metropolis at Sangala in
Jhang District; and the chief towns of the Malli within the limits of
Montgomery appear to have occupied the sites of Kot Kamalia and
Harappa, where mounds of large antique bricks and other ruins mark
the former existence of a considerable population. Many other remains
of ancient cities or villages lie scattered along the river banks or dot the
now barren stretches of the central waste, clearly showing that at some
earlier period, under different conditions of water-supply, Montgomery
consisted of a cultivated plain, as thickly covered with towns as the
most flourishing Districts of the northern Punjab at the present day.
Pak Pattan, Dipalpur, Akbar, and Satgarha also contain many interest-
ing relics of antiquity, whose history, however, has eluded the iearned
research of General Cunningham. The pastoral tribes of this barren
expanse do not appear to have paid more than a nominal allegiance to
the Musalman rulers. The greater part, if not the whole, of the District
was probably comprised in the Dipalpur sarkdr of the Multan subah or
governorship ; but little more than this solitary fact has come down to
us from the annalists of the Mughal dynasty.
When the Sikh reaction took place, the chiefs of the Bhangi mis/ 'or
confederacy overran the Bari Doab, but did not succeed in permanently
establishing their supremacy over the half-nomad Jats of Montgomery.
Under Ranjit Singh, however, the Sikh kingdom was extended to
Multan ; and Montgomery, like the rest of the Multan Province,
496 MONTGOMERY.
fell successively under the administration of Sawan Mall and his son
Miilraj. But this wild upland received little attention from the
Sikh governors, being too poor to yield a regular revenue, and too
wide to harry for arrears in any of their periodical raids. The country
accordingly remained for the most part in a chronic state of rebellion ;
and although Sawan Mall did much to tranquillize it by light assess-
ments and stipends to the chieftains, yet these measures only extended
to the lowland tracts along the river banks, and it was not until after
the introduction of our settled rule that the tribes of the interior first
felt the effects of regular government. British influence extended to
the District for the first time in 1847, when an officer, under orders
from the Resident at Lahore, effected a summary settlement of the
land revenue. Direct British rule was introduced on the annexation
of the Punjab in 1849. '^ne District at once assumed its existing
dimensions, but bore the name of Gugaira from its original head-
quarters town, upon the military road from Lahore to Miiltan, about
30 miles north of the present civil station. On the opening of the
railway, however, in 1864, the head-quarters were shifted to the village
of Sahiwal, which received its present name in compliment to the
Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, Sir R. Montgomery.
During the Mutiny of 1857, the District formed the scene of the
only rising which took place north of the Sutlej. Before the end
■ if May, emissaries from Delhi crossed the river from Sirsa and
Hissar, where open rebellion was already rife, and met with a ready
reception from the Kharrals and other wild Jat clans. The District
authorities, however, kept down the threatened rising till the 26th of
August, when the prisoners in jail made a desperate attempt to break
loose. At the same time, Ahmad Khan, a famous Kharral leader,
who had been detained at Gugaira, broke his arrest, and though
apprehended, was released on security, together with several other
suspected chieftains. On the 16th of September they fled to their
homes, and the whole country rose in open rebellion. Kot Kamadia
was completely sacked, and Major Chamberlain, moving up with a
small force from Miiltan, was besieged for some days at Chfchawatni
on the Ravi. The situation at the civil station remained critical till
Colonel Paton arrived with substantial reinforcements from Lahore.
An attack which took place immediately after their arrival was repulsed.
Several minor actions followed in the open field, until finally the rebels,
driven from the plain into the wildest jungles of the interior, were at
length utterly defeated and dispersed. Our troops then inflicted severe
punishment on the insurgent clans, destroying their villages, and seizing
large numbers of cattle for sale.
ulation. — The Census of 1855 returned the total number of
inhabitants in Montgomery District at 308,020, on an area of 5574
MONTG OAIER Y. 497
square miles. The Census of 1868 returned the population at
360,445 on the same area, showing an increase of 52,425, or 17
per cent., since 1S65. At the last Census in 1881, with the area of
the District still unchanged, the population of Montgomery was ascer-
tained to be 426,529, showing a further increase of 66,084, or 18*3 per
cent., in the thirteen years since 1868. The general results of the
Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as follows: — Area, 5574
square miles, with 2 towns and 16 14 villages; number of houses,
98,812, of which 74,830 were occupied, and 23,982 unoccupied;
number of families, 85,585. Total population, 426,529, namely,
males 232,947, and females 193,582; proportion of males, 54*6 per
cent, (an unusually high ratio). Classified according to age, there
were — under 15 years of age, males 95,769, and females 83,302 ; total
children, 179,071, or 42 per cent, of the population: 15 years and
upwards, males 137,178, and females 110,280; total adults, 247,458,
or 58 per cent.
Religion. — As regards religion, Muhammadanism forms the faith of
the great majority of the population. In 1881, the Musalmans num-
bered 330,495, or 77-5 per cent, of the population; Hindus, 83,974,
or 197 per cent; Sikhs, 11,964, or 2*6 per cent.; Christians, 93;
Parsfs, 2; and Jain, 1. The ethnical division yields the following
results: — Hindus and Sikhs — Brahmans, 3168; Khattris, 4491;
Aroras, 51,156; Rajputs and Jats, 2425: Muhammadans — Sayyids,
4225; Mughals, 1620; Pathans, 1987; Baluchis, 13,513; Rajputs,
55,476; Jats, 41,381; and Gujars, 361. This classification, however,
seems inaccurate, as under the head of Jats ought to be placed most,
if not all, of the pastoral clans inhabiting the District. They bear
collectively the name of the ' Great Ravi ' tribes, in contradistinction
from the purely agricultural classes, who are contemptuously nicknamed
the ' Little Ravi.' Their principal sub-divisions include the Khattias,
who have been identified with the Kathseans of Arrian ; the Kharrals,
the most turbulent and courageous of all the clans ; together with the
Fatehana, Murdana, Vainiwal, Baghela, Wattu, and Johia. The ' Great
Ravi Jats ' possess a fine physique, and have handsome features ; they
lay claim to a Rajput origin, and look down upon all who handle the
plough. In former days they exercised practical sovereignty over the
agricultural tribes of the lowlands.
Town and Rural Population. — Montgomery District contains only
two towns with a population exceeding five thousand inhabitants,
namely, Kamalia, 7594, and Pak Pattan, 5993. Montgomery, the
head-quarters station, is still a mere village, with only 3178 inhabitants
in 1881 ; while Dipalpur had 3435 ; and Sayvidwala, 33S9. These
five towns are all municipalities, and contain a total urban population
of 23,589, leaving 402,940, or no less than 94-5 per cent., as forming
VOL. IX. 2 1
493 Montgomery.
the rural population. Of the 1616 towns and villages comprising the
District, 1031 are returned as having less than two hundred inhabitants;
3S1 from two to five hundred; 132 from five hundred to a thousand;
64 from one to two thousand ; 3 from two to three thousand ; 3
from three to five thousand ; and 2 upwards of five thousand in-
habitants.
As regards occupation, the Census Report of 1881 returned the
adult male population under the following seven classes: — (1) Pro-
fessional class, including all Government servants, civil and military,
41S6; (2) domestic and menial class, 2184; (3) commercial class,
including merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 3630 ; (4) agricultural and
pastoral class, including gardeners, 65,422; (5) industrial and manu-
facturing class, 36,229; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, includ-
ing labourers, 15,193; (7) unspecified, 10,334.
Agriculture, — Out of a total assessed area of 3.567.750 acres in
1SS3-84, only 365,975 acres were returned as under cultivation. Of
the remaining 3,201,775 acres, 3,052,490 acres were returned as cultiv-
able, and 149,285 acres as uncultivable waste. Wheat forms the staple-
crop of the District, and includes in different tracts from 38 to 80 per
cent, of the total area under tillage. Rice grows abundantly upon the
banks of the Degh and the Khanwah Canal, and bears a good reputa-
tion in the Lahore market, whither it finds its way in large quantities,
(ham flourishes on the alluvial lowlands, and forms the principal crop
along the Degh ; but it will only grow on inundated land, artificial
irrigation being positively injurious to it. The local consumption of
gram is trilling, but it forms the chief item of export trade to Miiltan.
Patches of cotton appear in the lands of almost every village.
1 cept in the irrigated tracts, the rabi or spring harvest is much
more important than the kharif or autumn crop; in many places no
kharif zX. all is sown. The area under the different crops in 1SS3-84
(including lands bearing two crops), for the two great harvests of the
year, is returned as follows: — Rabi — wheat, 194.346 acres; gram,
38,010 ; jour, 38,714; barley, 13,064; peas, 11,099; masur, 1763; oil-
seeds (mustard), 19,144; drugs and spices, 1565; vegetables, 4740;
and miscellaneous, 2045 acres. Kharif — rice, 7122 acres; Indian corn,
4970; kangni, 3975; bdfra, 475; china, 1270; mash, 2275; moth,
1045; mug, 810; drugs and spices, 96; ///, 7890; cotton (the m
important non-food crop), 14,168; hemp, 156; sugar-cane, 192; and
miscellaneous, 1065 acres. The average out-turn per acre of the chief
staples is — rice, 1065 lbs.; wheat, 890 lbs.; inferior grains, 647 lbs.;
oil-seeds, 482 lbs. ; and cotton, 27S lbs. per acre.
Irrigation is practised from rivers, canals, and wells. Inundation
from rivers forms by far the most important of these agencies, being the
mainstay of the largest and most thriving villages. Pour inundation
MONTGOMER \ \ 499
canals also fertilize portions of the District, three of which — the
Khanwah, and the Old and New Sohag — derive their supply from the
Sutlej in Lahore District, while the fourth takes its origin from the
Ravi, and waters part of the Gugaira tahsil. Since the British annexa-
tion, the canals have undergone great alterations and improvements at
the hands of Government officials. The total area irrigated by public
works in 1SS3-S4 amounted to 84,702 acres, and by private works to
191,091 acres. Of the cultivated area, only 90,182 acres remained
unirrigated. Manure is but sparingly used. There is no regular
system of fallows or rotation of crops, although land is frequently forced
to remain fallow owing to want of cultivators to till the land ; and in
rice lands, a crop of gram is made to succeed rice, and vice versa.
The desert uplands are only of use economically for the scattered
herds of the Great Ravi Jats, and for the manufacture of an impure
carbonate of soda (saj'ji) from the alkaline plants with which they
abound. The agricultural stock of Montgomery District was returned
in 1883 as comprising — Cows and bullocks, 249,316; horses, 646;
ponies, 1369; donkeys, 12,034; sheep and goats, 426,162; camels,
10,874; carts, no; and ploughs, 44,585.
The village tenures fall under the three ordinary Punjab types, of
zam'mddri, pattiddri, and bhaydchdra, of which the former prevails in
a large majority of cases. At the time of the last settlement of the
District in 1874, out of 2168 villages, 1481 were returned as held under
zam'mddri, 370 under pattiddri, and 317 under bhaydchdra tenure. By
far the greater portion of the cultivated land in Montgomery District is
held by tenants paying rent in kind by an actual division of the crops.
At the time of the settlement, 3239 tenants holding 18,063 acres paid
cash rentals, while 22,854 tenants with 249,157 acres paid in kind.
The share of the produce paid by the tenant varies in different parts of
the District, being larger along the Ravi than in the Sutlej tracts. In
Montgomery tahsil, the proprietor's share amounts in places to as much
as one-half of the crop, while in Dipalpur tahsil it falls as low as one-
seventh. Besides his share of the ripe produce, the owner is entitled
to a certain amount of green fodder each harvest, which also varies
according to locality. On the other hand, the tenant is allowed to
grow fodder for his well-cattle, and pays no rent for land so occupied.
The common way of dividing the crop is to separate off from the heap
of cleaned grain as much as is considered sufficient to defray the
charges for which both proprietor and tenant are responsible, such as
the kamins or common village servants. The remainder is then divided
according to the rate agreed upon. Day-labourers are very seldom
employed in agriculture, except at harvest. In the canal villages
they may be engaged to clean out the watercourses, but this work is
generally done by contract. Labourers employed in weeding and
5oo MONTGOMERY.
hoeing receive 3d. per day, and in places 3! d. When cleaning water-
courses, they receive 4W. per day. Farm servants, not daily labourers,
are of two kinds, called kdma and ddhjogya. The wages of the former
usually consist of a shilling a month in cash, two meals of grain a day,
and two suits of clothing a year, with two pairs of boots and a blanket.
The ddhjogya is not paid in money, but by a share in the produce. In
towns, unskilled labour is paid for at the rate of from 4-J-d. to 6d., and
skilled labour at from 9d. to is. 3d. a day. Prices of food-grains ruled as
follows on the 1st January 1884 — wheat, 18 sers per rupee, or 6s. 3d. a
cwt. ; flour, 15 sers per rupee, or 7s. 6d. a cwt. ; barley, 28 sers per
rupee, or 4s. a cwt. ; gram, 33 sers per rupee, or 3s. 5d. a cwt. ; Indian
corn, 26 sers per rupee, or 4s. 4d. a cwt. ; jodr, 28 sers per rupee, or 4s.
a cwt. ; and rice, 6 sers per rupee, or 18s. 8d. a cwt.
Commerce, Trade, etc. — The commercial staples of the District include
wheat, rice, gram, millets, cotton, wool, ghi, hides, and sajji ; the last
four items being the produce of the jungle country. Large numbers of
camels are bred for exportation to Lahore, Amritsar (Umritsar), and
Gujrdnwala. The imports comprise sugar, salt, oil, English piece-
goods, metals, indigo, and fruits. Country cloth is woven in all the
villages, both for home consumption and for exportation. Pak Pattan
is famous for its lacquered wood-work, and has also a large manufacture
of cotton and coarse striped silk. Interesting experiments in silk-
rearing have been carried on at Gugaira, but hitherto with little result.
Formerly, large numbers of weavers lived at Pak Pattan ; and although
a succession of bad years has driven many away, the silk and cotton
cloth woven in the town are much esteemed, and find a ready sale in
the markets of Lahore, Miiltan, and Amritsar. The chief trading
towns are Kamalia, Sayyidwada, and Pak Pattan. The Lahore and
Mtiltan Railway runs from end to end of the District for a length of
82 miles, following the high dorsal ridge of the^ Bari DoaL>, with five
stations at Akhara, Pdk Pattan, Montgomery, Harappa, and Chicha-
watni. A line of telegraph runs along its side. The District contains
no metalled roads; but good unmetalled highways traverse it in every
direction for a total length of 1054 miles, the principal being those which
cross it from north-west to south-east, and connect Afghanistan and the
Derajat with Delhi. Twenty-six ferries exist upon the Ravf and four
on the Sutlej (Satlaj). Total length of navigable water communications,
210 miles.
Administration. — The District staff ordinarily comprises a Deputy
Commissioner, Assistant and extra-Assistant Commissioners, besides
the usual fiscal, medical, and constabulary officials. Each tahsil is in
charge of a ta/isi/ddr, assisted by a naib. There is only one mi/nsif or
civil judge, stationed at Montgomery town, with jurisdiction over the
whole District. The sessions judge is the Divisional Commissioner of
MONTG OMER Y. 501
Miiltan. The imperial revenue in 1851-52 amounted to ,£34,823 ; in
1871-72 it had risen to .£47,954, of which sum the fixed land-tax
contributed ,£29,574, and a fluctuating and miscellaneous land revenue,
consisting mainly of additional revenue derived from water advantages,
fluctuating assessments on river lands, grazing dues, etc., of ,£12, 153.
Total revenue derived from land, ,£41,727. In 1881-82, the total
imperial revenue amounted to .£58,732, of which ^28,306 was derived
from fixed, and ,£24,877 from fluctuating ' and miscellaneous land
revenue; total revenue derived from land, .£53,185. The imperial
revenue is also supplemented by local rates raised for purely local
purposes, which amounted to ,£2082 in 1871-72, and to .£4345 in
1881-82. The number of courts in 1881-82 was 17, and the number
of magistrates 14. The total police force, imperial, municipal, and
special, in the same year, numbered 488 men, being at the rate of 1
policeman to every n "4 square miles of area and to every 874 of the
population. The District jail at Montgomery contained a daily average
of 354 inmates in 1882, of whom 4 were females. Education was carried
on in 1881-82 by 30 State-inspected schools, with a total of 1407 pupils,
besides a large number of uninspected indigenous village schools.
For fiscal and administrative purposes, the District is sub-divided into 4
tahsils, having their head-quarters at Gugaira, Dipalpur, Pak Pattan,
and Montgomery. The 5 municipal towns of Montgomery, Kamalia,
Pak Pattan, Sayyidwala, and Dipalpur, had an aggregate revenue
in 1881-82 of ,£1709, or an average of is. 5-^d. per head of the popu-
lation (23,589) within municipal limits.
Medical Aspects. — The local rainfall varies greatly from year to
year, and is generally very deficient. The annual register at Mont-
gomery town for the seventeen years ending 18S2-83 is as follows: —
1866-67, 4'2 inches; 1S67-6S, 4-9 inches; 1S6S-69, 7*2 inches;
1869-70, 23^ inches; 1S70-71, 10 inches; 1871-72, 8 inches;
1S72-73, 92 inches; 1873-74, 7^5 inches; 1874-75, 9*4 inches;
1S75— 76, r"4 inch; 1S76-77, 20-8 inches; 1877-7S, S'S inches;
1878-79, 187 inches; 1879-S0, 5 inches; 1S80-S1, n-6 inches;
1881-82, n*4 inches; and 1882-S3, 12*2 inches. Annual average for
seventeen years, 10*3 inches. Average number of rainy days in the
year, 15. No thermometrical returns are available. From May to the
middle of October the heat during the day is intense, but the nights
are fairly cool. During the remaining four months, from November to
February, the days are pleasant, and the nights cold with frequent
frosts.
The prevailing endemic diseases include fever, small-pox (for which the
District has the reputation of being one of the worst in the Punjab),
bowel complaints, bronchitis, and pneumonia. Cholera appeared
during the summer of 1872. The total number of deaths reported in
502 MONTGOMERY TAIISIL AND TOWN.
that year amounted to 9065, of which 5490 were assigned to fevers, and
1 1 76 to small-pox. In 18S1, the total registered deaths in Montgomery
was 994S, or an average of 23*3 per thousand. Of the total number of
deaths, 7070 were assigned to fever alone. The Government charitable
dispensaries at Montgomery, Kamdlia, Dipdlpur, Gugaira, and Pale
Pattan, gave relief in 1S81 to 22,472 persons, of whom S40 were in-
patients. [For further information regarding Montgomery, see the
Gazetteer of Montgomery District, compiled and published under
the authority of the Punjab Government (Lahore, 1SS4) ; the Land
Settlement Report of Montgomery District, by Messrs. C. A. Roe and
W. G. Purser, B.C.S. ; the Punjab Census Report for 1881 ; and the
several annual Administration and Departmental Reports of the Punjab
Government]
Montgomery. — Eastern tahsil of Montgomery District, Punjab ;
consisting mainly of a desert upland in the Pari Doab. Lat. 300 16' 30"
to 310 n' n., and long. 720 30' to 730 47' e. Area, 1815 square
miles; number of towns and villages, 384; houses, 15,466; number
of families, 31,362. Total population (1868) 76,408; (1881)94,127,
namely, males 52,852, and females 41,275. Total increase in
population since 1S81, 17,719, or 22*2 per cent, in thirteen years.
Classified according to religion, there were — Muhammadans, 73,562 ;
Hindus, 19,117; Sikhs, 1369; Christians, 76; Parsi's, 2; and Jain, 1.
Of the 384 villages and towns, 342 are mere hamlets with less than
five hundred inhabitants, and only 12 places in the tahsil contain
a population of upwards of one thousand. The average area under
cultivation for the five years 1877-78 to 1 88 1-82, is returned at 98^-
square miles or 63,153 acres, the area under the principal crops
being as follows — wheat, 37,715 acres; gram, 9543 acres; and cotton,
2094 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, .£10,675. 1 ne administrative staff,
including head-quarters officials, consists of a Deputy Commissioner, 2
Assistant or extra-Assistant Commissioners, 1 iahsilddr, and 1 uiunsif,
who preside over 5 civil and 4 criminal courts. Number of police
circles (thands), 5 ; strength of regular police, 81 men, besides a village
watch or rural police of 78 chaukiddrs.
Montgomery. — Town and administrative head-quarters of Mont-
gomery District, Punjab; situated in lat. 3o°5S'N.,and long. 730 21' i.,
on the Lahore and Miiltan Railway, mid-way between those cities,
in the midst of an arid region on the central ridge of the Bdri Doab.
Montgomery is a mere creation of British rule, and had no existence as
a town in 1855. The head-quarters of the District were originally at
Gugalrd, 26 miles to the north; but, on the opening of the railway in
1864, it was thought desirable to transfer the civil station to some
place on the line, and the new village of Sahiwal was selected from its
central position. In the succeeding year it received its present name
MOXWEL—MORA. ko
5uj
out of compliment to Sir R. Montgomery, then Lieutenant-Governor of
the Punjab. Population (1868) 2416; (1881) 3178, namely, Muham-
madans, 1943 ; Hindus, 936; Sikhs, 265; and 'others,' 34. Number
of houses, 4S9. Municipal income (1883-84), ^512, or an average
of 3s. 2|d. per head. The situation is almost unequalled for dust,
heat, and general dreariness. Offices, public buildings, and houses
stand dotted about a waterless and treeless plain. At present com-
mercially unimportant, but likely to advance if irrigation be extended
to the surrounding tract. Court-house, treasury, police station, tahs'di*
jail, dispensary, school, staging bungalow, sardi, church. There is also
an encamping ground outside the town.
Monwel. — Petty State in the Sorath prant or division of Kathiawar,
Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 3 villages, with two separate share-
holders. Area, 31 square miles. Population of Monwel village (18S1)
1928; of the petty State, 2785. Situated 9 miles south-east of
Manikwada. Estimated revenue in 1SS1, ^2000; tribute of ^31, 5s.
is paid to the Gaekwar.
Monze (or Monza). — Frontier cape of Sind, forming the eastern
promontory at the mouth of the Hab river. — See Ras Muari.
Moodkee (Mudki). — Village and battle-field in Firozpur (Feroze-
pore) District, Punjab. — See Mudki.
Moodoon. — Village, Amherst District, British Burma. — See Mu-dux.
Mooltan. — Division, District, and City, Punjab. — See Multax.
Mor (or Maureksha). — River of Bengal, rising in the District of the
Santal Parganas in the Tior Hill, a little east of Deogarh. After a
general south-easterly course, the Mor enters Birbhiim in lat. 23° 59' x.,
and long. S70 29' 30" e., near the village of Haripur ; flows through
Bfrbhum District from west to east, and leaves it below Sahora to
pass into Murshidabad, where it takes a north-easterly course and joins
the Dwarkd, which flows into the Bhagirathi, a branch of the Ganges.
The Mor is occasionally navigated during the rains, but only by
descending boats. For some miles from its source in the Tior Moun-
tain, the Mor is called the Motihara. At the summit of the hill, the
people point out some roughly-arranged blocks of rude stone, as the
remains of the fort of one Khusial Singh, a Rajput adventurer who
established himself here as Raja of the hill people during the last
century, and was slain in battle at the foot of the hills by the Kshattriya
Raja of Handua, in a spot still known as 'Rajamara.'
Mora. — Port of the town of Uran, in Thana District, Bombay Presi-
dency. There are here 22 distilleries, supplying Bombay, Thana,
and Koldba with liquor, the still -head duty on which amounted
in 1SS0-81 to ^"115,429 at the distilleries. Much of the salt from
the very extensive salt • works at Uran is shipped from this port.
Average annual value of trade during five years ending iSSi-Sj
504 MORADABAD.
— imports, .£46,613, and exports, .£352,700. In 1SS1-S2 the imports
were valued at ^43,492, and exports at ,£462,185. Mora is one of
the three ports forming the Uran Customs Division.
Moradabad (Murdddbdd). — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship
of the North-Western Provinces, lying between 280 20' and 290 15' 45"
N. lat., and between 780 7' and 79° 2' 45" E. long. Area, 2281 square
miles. Population in 1881, 1,155,173 persons. Moradabad forms one
of the north-western Districts of Rohilkhand Division. It is bounded
on the north by Bijnaur (Bijnor) and the Tarai Districts; on the east
by the Native State of Ram pur ; on the south by the Budaun District ;
and on the west by the river Ganges, separating it from Bulandshahr
and Meerut (Merath) Districts. The administrative head-quarters are
at the city of Moradabad.
Physical Aspects. — The District of Moradabad lies wholly within the
great Gangetic plain, and displays throughout the usual characteristics
of that level expanse. The rivers Ramganga and Sot demarcate the
country into three minor sub-divisions, all of which resemble one
another in their general appearance, though differing in points of small
detail. The eastern tract, beyond the Ramganga, bordering on the
Tarai, consists of a submontane country, with an elevation slightly
greater than the plain below, and traversed by a large number of
streams, which descend from the Himalayas and fall into the Ram-
ganga on its left bank. An alluvial lowland fringes the main river on
either side, and produces excellent crops of grain. The central portion
of the District between the Ramganga and the Sot comprises a level
Doab, descending at each end into the valleys of its boundary rivers.
The western tract, between the Sot and the Ganges, has a gentle slope
toward the latter river on the west, and dips rapidly into the khddir
or narrow Gangetic lowlands a few miles from the actual bank.
The District is well wooded throughout, and mango groves abound
in the neighbourhood of the flourishing villages which cluster thickly
over its whole surface. Cultivation has spread over almost every part,
patches of jungle rarely occurring, and only a few stray pieces of sandy
soil or tear waste being found at intervals among the uplands. Shallow
lakes {jhlls) are scattered at places throughout the District, and are in
every case utilized for irrigation. The highest point, at Raghuwala, in
the eastern portion beyond the Ramganga, has an elevation of 766 feet
above sea-level ; the lowest point, at Chaharpur, has an elevation of 598
feet, the average being 670 feet. The District as a whole consists of a
well-tilled and somewhat monotonous alluvial plain, unrelieved by any
striking natural features.
The three principal rivers of Moradabad arc — (1) The Ganges,
which forms the natural western boundary of the District for a distance
of nearly forty miles, flowing nearly north and south till it enters
MORADABAD. 505
Budaun District. Ln the lower reaches of its course, the Ganges has
recently cut into Moradabad District by new channels, which frequently
cause disastrous inundations. (2) The Sot, the next river to the east-
ward, takes its rise in a pond in the north-west of the central northern
tahsiloi Amroha, flowing in a general south and south-easterly direction
through Moradabad till it passes into Budaun District. The river
runs in a spongy bed, and has a considerable volume of water at all
seasons, but is not navigable. The valley of the Sot is noted for its
insalubrity, and malarious fever is so common that the people are
often too weak to reap their harvest, and fields of grain are left to rot
in the mud. (3) The Ramganga is the chief river of the District
proper, entering Moradabad from Bijnaur on the north, and after
flowing a south-easterly course through Thakurdwara and Moradabad
tahsiis, past Moradabad town, enters Rampur State, and finally joins
the Ganges in Hardoi District of Oudh, nearly opposite Kanauj.
Numerous smaller streams and watercourses, tributaries of the above
rivers, intersect the District ; but the Ganges and Ramganga are the
only two navigable channels, although they are not used for that
purpose to any great extent.
In the bush jungles in the northern tahsiis of Thakurdwara and
eastern Amroha, tigers and leopards are occasionally met with. Spotted
deer, hog-deer, nilgai, and wild hog are also found in the same tracts.
The wolf, fox, badger, otter, weasel, porcupine, and monkey are found
more or less throughout the District. The commoner game birds
include the quail, grey and black partridge, wild duck of many varieties,
bustard, snipe, wild goose, etc. Fish of many varieties are found in the
rivers, and form an important element in the food-supply of the people,
affording employment to about 5000 families of fishermen.
History. — Rohilkhand in the earliest times formed part of the Aher
or Ahir kingdom of Panchala, and to the present day Ahars still hold the
south-eastern pargands of the modern District of Moradabad. Ahichhatra
in Bareli appears to have been their capital, though Sambhal in Moradabad
early rose to importance. Hiuen Tsiang visited Kasipur and Ahichhatra
in the 7th century, but does not mention Sambhal. From the beginning
of the Muhammadan supremacy, however, that town was selected as
the head-quarters of the local government. In 1266, Ghiyas-ud-din
Balban invaded the District, and attacked Amroha, where he ordered
a general massacre. In 1365, Firoz Tughlak invaded Kather or
Kathar, as Rohilkhand was then called, to punish a chief named Rai
Kakara, who had murdered the Musalman governor. Rai Kakara fled
to Kumaun, whereupon the Emperor plundered the country, and left
Malik Khitab as governor. In 1403, Ibrdhim, the famous Sultan of
Jaunpur, conquered Sambhal, and placed his own deputy in the town ;
but four years later, Muhammad Tughlak, Emperor of Delhi, expelled
506 MORADABAD.
the intruder, and replaced his own officials. In 1473, under Sultan
Husain, the Jaunpur dynasty once more established itself for a while in
SambhaL In 1498, the Emperor Sikandar Lodi recovered the District
for the Delhi throne, and resided at Sambhal for four years. Thence-
forward the surrounding country remained a permanent fief of the
imperial court.
In the middle of the 16th century, Ahya Maran, Governor of Sambhal,
rebelled against Sultan Muhammad Adil, and defeated a force sent against
him by the Emperor. In the succeeding year, Raja Mittar Sen, Kathariya,
seized Sambhal, and Ahya Maran attacked him. A fierce battle ensued
at Kundarkhi, in which the Raja sustained a crushing defeat. Under
Humayun, All Kuli Khan was Governor of Sambhal, and repelled an
incursion of the still independent Kathariyas. In 1566, some Mirzas,
descendants of Timiir, rebelled, and seized Akbar's officers, whom
they confined in the fort of Sambhal. Husain Khan marched against
them, and they fled to Amroha. On his following them up to their
retreat, they finally escaped across the Ganges. The Emperor Shah
Jahan appointed Rustam Khan, Governor of Kathar ; and he founded
Moradabad about 1625, calling it first after his own name, but altering
it at a later period in honour of Murad Shah, one of the imperial
princes, who was afterwards murdered by Aurangzeb. On the
death of that Emperor, and subsequent decline of the central power,
the Kathariyas revolted, becoming independent for a time, and the
Musalman governor removed his head-quarters to Kanauj. In 1735,
however, Muhammad Shdh recovered the Province, and replaced his
deputy at Moradabad. Eor eleven years Rohilkhand remained nomin-
ally subject to the Delhi Emperors ; but its Rohilla chieftains really
maintained a state of all but complete independence.
Like the rest of the surrounding plain, Moradabad fell to the Wa/i'r
of Oudh in 1744, and to the British in 1801 (see Bareli [Bareilly]
District). Thenceforward it possesses no history until the outbreak
of the Mutiny in 1857. News of the Meerut rising arrived on the 12th
of May in that year, and on the iSth the Muzaffarnagar rebels were
captured. Next day, however, the 29th Native Infantry mutinied,
and broke open the jail; but on the 21st they united with the artillery
ill repelling a Rampur mob. On the 31st, the Rampur cavalry, which
had gone to Bulandshahr, returned ; and on the succeeding day, news
of the Bareli (Bareilly) and Shahjahanpur outbreaks arrived. On the
3rd of June, the 29th Native Infantry tired on the officials, who then
abandoned the station, and reached Meerut in safety on the 5th. Ten
days later, the Bareli Brigade arrived at Moradabad, and shortly after-
wards marched on for 1 >elhi, taking with them the local mutineers. At
the end of June, the Nawab of Rampur took charge of the District for
the English ; but he possessed little authority, and a rebel named Majju
MORADABAD. 507
Khan was the real ruler of Moradabad, till the arrival of General Jones'
brigade on 25th April 1858, when he was hanged. Early in May, the
District was occupied by the Judge of Moradabad, with a body of troops,
and order was restored.
Population. — The Census of 1853 returned the total number of
inhabitants of Moradabad District, upon its present area of 2281 square
miles, at 1,052,248, excluding the cantonment of Moradabad, or includ-
ing the cantonment, 1,053,462. At the next Census in 1865, the
total population, including the cantonment, European and Eurasian
inhabitants, was 1,023,257, showing a decrease of 30,205, or 2-8 percent.,
in the twelve years since 1S53, mainly due to the disturbing influences
of the Mutiny. By 1872 the population had more than recovered
itself, and in that year was returned at 1,122,357, showing an increase
of 99,100, or 97 per cent., since 1865. The last enumeration in 1881
showed that the population of Moradabad had reached the stationary
stage, being returned at 1,153,173, giving an increase of 32,816, or 2*9
per cent., for the nine years from 1872 to 18S1.
The results of the Census of 1881 may be briefly summarized as
follows : — Area of District, 2 28i-8 square miles, with 13 towns and 2433
villages, and 143,631 houses. Total population, 1,155,173, namely,
males 610,291, and females 544,882 ; proportion of males in total
population, 52^8 per cent. The excessive proportion of males is due in
a large degree to the practice of female infanticide among certain
castes, such as Rajputs, Jats, Gujars, Ahfrs, Tagas, etc., and which
has not yet been quite stamped out. In seven clans suspected
of this practice, and as such proclaimed under the Criminal Tribes
Act, the Census of 18S1 returned their total number at 161,148, the
proportion of males being as high as 56-2 per cent. Average density
of the population, 506 persons per square mile ; towns and villages
per square mile, 17; number of persons per town or village, 472 ;
houses per square mile, 62*9; inmates per house, 8-o. Classified
according to sex ami age, the population consists of — under 15 years
of age, boys 237,249, and girls 203,665; total children, 440,914, or
38-1 per cent, of the total population: 15 years and upwards, males
373,042, and females 341,217 ; total adults, 714,259, or 61*9 per cent.
In classifying the population according to religion, the Census
Report shows that Moradabad contains a larger number and pro-
portion of Muhammadans than any other District of the North-West
Hindus number 767,844, or 66-4 per cent, of the total population ;
Muhammadans, 384,713, or ^yT, per cent.; Christians, 1877; Jains,
571 ; Sikhs, 165 ; and Parsi's, 3. Among the higher castes of Hindus,
Brahmans number 47,616; Rajputs, 33,503; Baniyas, 30,458; and
Kayasths, 10,370. Of the lower or Siidra castes, the most important
from a numerical point of view, are — Chamar, 179,56s; Mali, 63,650 ;
5°S MORADABAD.
Jat, 50,424; Ahar, 37,306; Kahar, 30,777 ; Bhangi, 24,721 ; Gadadir,
23>7°3; Kumbhar, 22,026; Ahir, 16,567; Kachhf, 14,849; Lodhi,
'-•734; Giijar, 12,163; Taga, 10,559; Nai, 10,038; Dhobi, 6671;
Sonar, 6278; and Barhai, 6043.
The Muhammadans are divided according to religion into Sunni's
(the orthodox sect), 375,150; Shias (followers of Ah'), 9561; and un-
specified, 2. Details also of certain tribes of Muhammadanized Hindus
are given by the Census. These comprise, Muhammadan Rajputs,
5136; Tagas, 6714; Mewatis, 934; Gujars, 348; and Jits, 78.
The Christian population (1877) consists of — Europeans, 373;
Eurasians, 109 ; Armenian, 1 ; and native converts, 1394. The American
Episcopalian Mission has four stations in the District, at Moradabad,
Chandausi, Sambhal, andAmroha, and maintained, in 18S2, 7 churches,
free from debt, and 45 schools, with 66 teachers and 1328 pupils, of
whom 1086 were non-Christians.
Town and Rural Population. — The population shows a marked
tendency to gather into considerable towns, of which the District
contained in 1881 as many as thirteen with a population exceeding
5000, namely — Moradabad, 67,387; Amroha, 36,145; Chandausi,
27,521 ; Sambhal, 21,373; Sarai Tarni, 11,585; Hasanpur, 9142 ;
Bachhraon, 7046 ; Kant, or Mauxagar, 6936 ; Sirsa, 5947 ;
Thakurdwara, 6511; Dhanawra, 5304; Aghwanpur-Mughalpur,
5277; and Narauli, 5069.
The total urban population thus disclosed amounts to 215,243, or
iS-6 per cent, of the District population, leaving 939,930, or 8i'4 per
rent., as forming the purely rural community. Of the total of 2446
towns and villages comprising the District, 890 are returned as contain-
ing less than two hundred inhabitants; 972 from two to five hundred ;
439 from five hundred to a thousand; 106 from one to two thousand ;
14 from two to three thousand ; 12 from three to five thousand ; 8 from
five to ten thousand ; 1 from ten to fifteen thousand ; 3 from twenty to
fifty thousand ; and 1 upwards of fifty thousand inhabitants.
As regards occupation, the Census Report distributes the male popu-
lation among six great classes, as follow : — The first or professional class
numbers 9779, amongst whom are included 3766 persons engaged in
the general government of the country, 665 engaged in the defence of
the country, and 5348 engaged in the learned professions or in literature,
art, and science. The second or domestic class numbers 3427, and
comprises all males employed as private servants, washermen, water-
carriers, barbers, sweepers, innkeepers, etc. The third or commercial
class numbers 1 1,617, ar>d amongst these are all persons who buy or sell,
keep or lend money and goods of various kinds, such as shopkeepers,
money-lenders, bankers, brokers, etc., 2596 ; and persons engaged in
conveyance of men, animals, or goods, such as pack-carriers, cart-
MORADABAD. 509
drivers, etc., 9021. Of the fourth or agricultural class, besides the
268,674 males engaged in agriculture, the Census returns include 2499
persons engaged about animals, making a total of 271,173. The fifth
or industrial class contains 79,123 members, including all persons
engaged in industrial arts and mechanics, such as dyers, masons,
carpenters, perfumers, etc., 4981 ; those engaged in the manufacture of
textile fabrics, such as weavers, tailors, cotton-cleaners, etc., 36,014 ;
those engaged in preparing articles of food, such as grain-parchers,
confectioners, etc., 13,951 ; and lastly, dealers in all animal, vegetable,
or mineral substances, 24,177. The sixth or indefinite class numbers
235,172, including general labourers, 18,067 ; and persons of independent
means, male children, and unspecified, 217,105.
Agriculture. — The total area under cultivation in 1872 amounted to
753>258 acres, and in 18S3-84 it was returned at 1,013,767 acres.
The staple crops of the District are millets, wheat, pulses, and sugar-
cane. There are no Government irrigation works in Moradabad, but
116,936 acres were returned in 1S84 as irrigated by private individuals,
nearly all from wells. The year is divided into the usual seasons of
Upper India — the rabi or spring harvest, and the kharif or autumn
harvest. The area under each crop in 1883-84 was returned as follows:
— Rabi — wheat and barley, 393,029; pulses, 34,547; oil-seeds, 1991 ;
and miscellaneous, 7055 : Kharif— -rice, 128,557; cotton, 57,240; millet?,
3I7>731; oil-seeds, 1252; and miscellaneous, 138,894 acres. The staples
belonging to neither season were — sugar-cane, 39,835 acres; vegetables,
3646 acres; and fruit-trees. About 64 lbs. of wheat are sown to the acre,
and the total cost of production amounts to £2, 2s. ; the out-turn being
about 2560 lbs., worth from £2, 8s. to £6, 8s. The cultivation of sugar-
cane costs about ^5, 1 6s. an acre, and the expense of cutting and
pressing adds about £1, 4s. ; so that the total outlay reaches ^7, while
the yield averages 16,000 lbs., valued at ^12, 10s. The last-named
industry has largely increased, both in area and value, of late years.
The people are fairly well off, and live better than the peasantry cf
many other parts. The village communities hold their land upon the
ordinary tenures of the North- Western Provinces. Rents are paid both
in money and in kind, and in some cases both systems prevail, cash
rents being paid for certain special crops, while for others the land-
lord still takes his rent on the sharing principle. The total male adult
agricultural population in 18S1 was returned at 268,674, consisting
of 11,877 landed proprietors, 2879 estate agents, 215,162 cultivators,
and 38,756 agricultural labourers. Average area cultivated by each
male agriculturist, 3*63 acres. The population entirely dependent on
the soil, however, numbered 774,561, or 67*05 per cent, of that of the
whole District. Of the total area of 2281*8 square miles in jSSi, 360*6
square miles were held revenue-free, and the remaining 1921*2 square
5io MO RAD AB AD.
miles were assessed for Government revenue. Of the assessed area,
1292*2 square miles were returned as under cultivation; 478*2 square
miles as cultivable; and 150*8 square miles as uncultivable waste.
Total Government assessment, including local rates and cesses levied
upon land, ^175,184, or an average of 4s. i£d. per cultivated acre.
Total rental paid by cultivators, including cesses, ^342,581, or an
average of 7s. oW. per cultivated acre. About three-sevenths of the culti-
vators possess hereditary rights ; the remainder hold as tenants-at-will.
Wages have risen of late years. Day-labourers received, in 1850,
from iid. to 3d. per diem ; in 1872, from 3d. to 3|d. : blacksmiths,
in 1850, 4UI. per diem; in 1S72, 6d. : bricklayers, in 1850, 3d. to
4^d. per diem; in 1S72, 6d. to yhd. The rates of wages at present
(1884) current are about the same as those given for 1872. Prices of
food-grains ruled as follows in 1SS4: — Wheat, 2o| sers per rupee, or
5s. 6d. per cwt. ; jodr, 28 sers per rupee, or 4s. per cwt. ; bdj'ra, 26J sers
per rupee, or 4s. 2 id. per cwt. ; common rice, 14 sers per rupee, or 8s.
per cwt.
Natural Calamities. — Floods upon the Ganges and Rdmgangd often
cause much damage to the crops in the lowlands ; but the great danger
which overshadows the District is famine, resulting from drought.
Scarcity from this or other causes has occurred five times since the
introduction of British rule. The first famine, in 1803, directly after
the cession, was due, not to the calamities of nature, but to the devas-
tation and losses caused by the Maratha invasions and the raids of the
Pindarf freebooter, Amir Khan. The second famine, in 1S25, was
aggravated by the practices of rackrenting and throwing lands out of
cultivation — the latter resorted to by the landholders in view of the
approaching settlement. In the famine of 1837-38, Moraddbdd
suffered less than the southern Districts of the North-Western Provini
and, indeed, Rohilkhand generally escaped with comparatively slight
injury. The fourth famine, in 186 1, overtook the people before they
had recovered from the depredations of the Mutiny, aggravated by the
dry weather experienced since the middle of 1858 ; and the distress was
such, that the people were driven to the use of mango-stones for food.
Government relief measures were speedily set on foot, and Moraddbdd
was not among the Districts where the suffering was most intense. The
famine in 1868-69 was due to failure of the rains during the summer
of the former year, and the absence of showers during the cold weather.
Temporary wells proved impossible to construct in the sandy soil, and
the distress was heightened by the influx of starving immigrants from
Rajputdna and the south. Nevertheless, by the aid of Government, the
difficulty was tided over without serious losses. Severe distress occurred
in 1877-78, which again necessitated the establishment of poorhouses
and of relief works. It did not amount to actual famine, but only to
MORADABAD. 5 1 1
scarcity and clearness of prices, in consequence of which large numbers
of people had an insufficient allowance of nutritious food.
Commerce and Trade, etc. — The whole District, except the Moradabad
tahsil, exports large quantities of grain ; while the excepted tahsil exports
200,000 mannds of sugar, and imports grain for local consumption.
The principal imports are salt, tobacco, metals, and piece-goods. The
number of traders, and the scale of their transactions, have increased of
late years. The balance of trade stands in favour of the District, but
accumulations are not hoarded after the fashion common in India, being
rather invested in increasing the business of their owners. Besides
Moradabad city, Chandausi and Dhanaura are large marts for the
sugar trade. The main line of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway crosses
the District from south to north, entering from Bareli, with stations
at Chandausi, Bilari, Kundarkhi, Kharakpur, Moradabad, Bhatauli,
Mugalpur, Mustapapur, and Kant, thence passing into Bijnaur District.
From Chandausi junction, the Aligarh branch of the same rail-
way diverges south-westward, with stations at Bajhoi and Dhanari.
Total length of railway lines in the District in 1S84, 41 miles. The
District has also 131 miles of metalled and 518 miles of unmetalled
roads. The principal routes are those from Meerut (Merath) to Bareli
(Bareilly), through Moradabad, and from Moradabad to Anupshahr and
to Naini Tal.
Adviinistralion. — The District staff ordinarily comprises a Collector-
Magistrate, 2 Joint Magistrates, 1 Assistant Magistrate, and 2 Deputy
Magistrates, together with the usual fiscal, medical, and constabularv
officials. Moradabad is the seat of a civil and sessions judge, whose
jurisdiction extends to the neighbouring District of Bijnaur (Bijnor).
The total revenue, imperial, municipal, and local, raised in the District
during the year 1875-76 amounted to .£198,915, of which sum
the land-tax contributed ,£127,725. Total Government revenue in
1883-84, £212,622, of which the principal items were — Land revenue,
;£i50>XI3; stamps, ,£23,598; excise, £9292; provincial rates, ,£20,448 ;
assessed taxes, .£3549 ; registration, £1456. The total strength of the
regular District and town police in 18S3-84 was returned at 956 men,
being at the rate of 1 policeman to every 2'3S square miles and to every
1208 of the population. The cost of their maintenance amounted to
£9084. The District jail in the same year contained a daily average
number of 414 prisoners, of whom 393 were males and 21 females.
Education in 1883-84 was carried on by means of 176 State inspected
and aided schools, with an aggregate of 5744 pupils; being at the rate
of 1 school to every 771 square miles of area, and 4*9 pupils to every
thousand of the population. Of these institutions, 150 are lor boys and
26 for girls. The principal is the Government High School at Morad-
abad town. The total expenditure on education amounted to £3937,
5i2 MORADABAD TAHSJL.
provided by the Provincial treasury. The foregoing figures do not
include private and uninspected schools, of which there are many in
the District ; nor several of the American Mission schools, only some
of which receive aid from Government. The Census of 1881 returned
a total of 8038 males and 512 females as under instruction, besides
20,372 males and 510 females able to read and write, but not under
instruction. For fiscal and administrative purposes, Moraddbdd is
sub-divided into 6 tahsih and 6 pargands. The District contained, in
1SS3-84, 5 municipal towns — namely, Moraddbdd, Dhanaura, Chan-
dausi, Amroha, and Sambhal. Their aggregate income amounted in
that year to ^"10,098 ; from taxes, ^9044, or is. oid. per head of the
population (171,553) within municipal limits. Eight other towns,
although not ranking as municipalities, are subject to local taxation in
the shape of a house-tax for police and conservancy purposes.
Medical Aspects. — The climate of Moraddbad is generally healthy,
except in the submontane tract which borders on the Tardi, and in
the lowlands of the Ganges and Sot. It is neither very dry nor
very moist, and showers ordinarily occur in every month of the
year. During the thirty-two years ending 1881, the average annual
rainfall amounted to 40-35 inches; the maximum in that period being
49-3 inches in 1867-68, and the minimum 20-4 inches in 1868-69.
The annual mean temperature is about 74*5° F. ; the lowest monthly
mean being about 560 in January, and the highest 86° in June. The
total number of deaths reported in 1883 was 35,128, or 3075 per
thousand ; the average death-rate during the previous five years being
returned at 36-81 per thousand. Five Government charitable dispen-
saries— at Moraddbad, Chandausi, Bildri, Amroha, and Sambhal —
afforded relief during 1884 to 84,951 persons, of whom 1380 were
in-door patients. [For further information regarding Moraddbdd Dis-
trict, see the Gazetteer of the North- Western Provinces, vol. ix., by Mr.
F. H. Fisher, C.S. (Allahdbdd, 1883); the Land Settlement Report of
Moraddbdd District, by Mr. E. B. Alexander, C.S. (1880); the North-
Western Provinces and Ointh Census Report for 1881 ; and the several
annual Administration and Departmental Reports of the North-Western
Provinces Government.]
Moraddbdd. — North-eastern tahsil of Moraddbdd District, North-
Western Provinces ; conterminous with Moraddbdd pargand, and con-
sisting mainly of a level plain adjoining the State of Rdmpur, and
watered by the Rdmgangd and several minor streams. The tahsil is,
on the whole, decidedly fertile in character, and admits in most places
of the construction of earthen wells, the water being seldom more than
13 or less than 8 feet from the surface. Area, 312-14 square miles, of
which 34-70 square miles are returned as revenue free. Of the total
Government assessed area of 277-44 square miles, 178-61 square miles
MORADABAD TOWN. 513
are returned as under cultivation, 6174 square miles as cultivable, and
37*09 square miles as barren. Population (1872) 231,100; (1881)
231,863, namely, males 121,656, and females 110,207. Classified
according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 134,209, or 57*9
percent.; Muhammadans, 96,616, or 41-6 per cent.; Jains, 162; and
'others,' 876. Of the 307 villages comprising the tahsil, 183 had
less than five hundred inhabitants, while only 2 towns had upwards of
five thousand. Total Government land revenue, ^26,178, or with
local rates and cesses, .£29,717. Rental paid by cultivators, including
cesses, ,£53,756. In 1885, Moradabad tahsil contained 2 civil and 3
criminal courts (apart from head-quarter courts) ; 3 police circles
(thdnds), with 109 regular police and 360 chaukiddrs.
Moradabad. — Town, municipality, cantonment, and administrative
head - quarters of Moradabad District, North - Western Provinces.
Situated in lat. 280 49' 55" NT., and long. 78° 49' 30" e., on the right
bank of the river Ramganga, 10 miles from the Rampur border, and a
station on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway. Founded, in 1625,
by Rustam Khan, and named after Prince Murad Bakhsh, son of the
Emperor Shah Jahan. Fort, founded by Rustam Khan, overhangs the
bank of the Ramganga; Jama Masjid, or chief mosque, a handsome
building erected in 1634; tomb of Nawab Azmat-ulla Khan, Governor
of Moradabad. Population (1872) 62,417; (1881) 67,387, namely,
males 34,584, and females 32,803. Classified according to religion,
Muhammadans number 34,383; Hindus, 32,609; Jains, 141; Chris-
tians, 202; and 'others,' 52. Number of houses, 11,080. The town
is a large centre of trade for country produce, and has risen considerably
in importance since the opening of the railway. Principal imports —
grain, sugar, ghi, animals for slaughter, oil and oil-seeds, European and
native cloth, metals, etc. Moradabad is noted for its metal-work, and
especially for inlaid work of brass and tin, which affords employment
to several thousands of persons. Chintzes and cotton cloth are also
manufactured in the city.
The town is built on a ridge forming the right bank of the Ram-
ganga, and is naturally well drained into that river. Great improve-
ments have been recently made in its conservancy and sanitary
arrangements. The native quarter is intersected by several good
thoroughfares, and is divided into no muhallas or wards. The principal
buildings in the native quarter are the Jama Masjid, municipal hall
and literary institute, lahsi/i, mission church, high school, dispensary,
post-office, and jail. Beyond the jail, to the north-west of the town,
are the cantonments and civil station, situated among luxuriant trees,
and extending from the race-course, a large circular expanse of turf,
until it almost touches the Meerut (Merath) road. The Collector's
offices and civil courts are situated between the native quarter and
VOL. IX. 2 K
5 1 4 MORAL-KA-KUNDA—MORAR.
the cantonments. The railway station lies to the south of the canton-
ments. The Station Club comprises a library, billiard-room, swimming-
bath, racquet court, and garden. The military force in cantonments
ordinarily consists of a full Native Infantry regiment, and a detachment
of a European regiment.
The income of the Moradabad municipality in 1883-84 amounted to
^5074, of which ^4581 was derived from the octroi tax; average
incidence of taxation, is. 4^d. per head of the town population. A
brief account of the Mutiny as it affected Moradabad town will be found
in the historical section of the District article.
Moral-ka-kunda. — Mountain range in Bashahr (Bussahir) State,
Northern India; situated between 310 10' and 31° 29' N. lat, and
between 770 and 770 49' e. long. Stretches in a south-westerly direction
from the Himalayan chain, which bounds Kunawar on the south, to
Urki in the State of Baghal. Forms the watershed between the
Sutlej (Satlaj) on the north-west, and the tributaries of the Jumna
(Jamuna) on the south-east.
Moramarnai. — River in Darrang District, Assam. — See Mara-
MARNAI.
Moral*. — Formerly the British cantonment of Gwalior, and head-
quarters of the Gwalior Division of the Bengal Army ; situated in the
State of Gwalior, Central India, in lat. 26° 13' 40" n., long. 780 16' 30"
e., on the river Morar, an affluent of the Sind river. Population (1881)
24,022, namely, 15,418 males and 8604 females. Hindus numbered
16,630 ; Muhammadans, 4846; and 'others,' 2546.
In March 1886, the fortress of Gwalior, with the cantonment of
Morar, w*ere restored to the Maharaja Sindhia, after having been held
by British troops since the suppression of the Mutiny in 185S. The
Ilritish troops have been removed to Jhansi, which is to be the future
head-quarters of the military division.
Morar stands on a slightly concave plain of alluvial soil of no great
depth, covering the eastern edge of the sandstone rocks which culminate
in the fortress of Gwalior. Morar is connected with the fortress by a
good level road, about 3^ miles long, shaded by an avenue of fine
trees. This road branches, within easy range of the fortress guns, on
the north to Agra, and on the south to the ancient city of Gwalior,
the residence of the Maharaja Sindhia.
The British cantonments lay along the right or easterly bank of the
M'»rdr river, which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge. The civil
lines lay on the Gwalior side; and here resided the civil and political
staff of the Gwalior Agency, who were under the control of the Govern-
ment of India, exercised through the Agent to the Governor-General for
Ltral India, whose head-quarters are at Indore. The Brigadier and
his staff looked to the same central political authority in all matters not
MORAS A. 515
purely military, regarding which latter they reported to the Commander-
in-Chief. The public works or engineering branches, outside the can-
tonment limits, were under the control of the Agent to the Governor-
General, with a public works secretary and chief engineer at Indore.
The Brigadier-General commanded the fortress, the Jhansi force, and
the outlying stations of Pipri and Salitpur.
The garrison of the fortress used to comprise a few companies of
Europeans, with a sufficient number of artillerymen to work the
batteries, which were heavily armed. The force in 1881-82 consisted
of 352 Native cavalry, 3 batteries of artillery with a strength of 318
men, 964 European infantry, and 1135 Native infantry. In canton-
ments, the Native infantry lines lay along an upper reach of the river,
to the south or right front of the force, and also to the north close to
the band ; while below, or to the north of the Native infantry, were the
lines of the European officers, stretching along a broad reach of the
river, which was here once dammed up so as to form a considerable
lake, to afford bathing for the troops.
Nearly twenty years ago, the Government began the demolition
of the unhealthy and unsightly hut-barracks hastily run up after the
Mutiny, and erected large barracks, built of the fine sandstone of the
Gwalior Hills, echeloned along the plain east of the officers' lines.
No expense was spared to make these in all respects sanitary and
commodious, and as comfortable as the climate admits. These
handsome barracks, with all other buildings in the fort and canton-
ments, have now been made over to the Maharaja Sindhia. Trees and
gardens, irrigated by an abundant supply of good water, have effected
an entire change on this bleak and barren plain. The climate and
topography are fully treated of under Gwalior.
The story of Morar during the Mutiny is a melancholy one ; and the
defects then noticed in its purely native garrison and surroundings (for
it has twice proved seriously false to both the British and Native
Governments) have been kept steadily in view in its new organization.
The battle-fields of Panniar to the south of Gwalior, and Maharajpur
to the north, tell alike of the inflammable materials here situated, and
also of the bravery and skill displayed by our Indian army against great
odds.
Morasa. — Town in Parantij Sub-division, Ahmadabad District,
Bombay Presidency; situated 52 miles north-east of Ahmadabad city,
in lat. 23° 27' 45" n., and long. 73° 20' 45" e. Population (1SS1)
7031, namely, 3745 Hindus, 3160 Muhammadans, and 126 Jains.
Municipal income (1882-83), ^422 ; incidence of municipal taxation,
n£d. Morasa or Modasa is situated on the river Majham, and
occupies an important strategical position between Gujarat and the
hilly tracts constituting the Native States of Edar and Dungarpur.
5i6 MORBHAKJ.
Industries — dyeing, calico-printing, and oil-pressing. Ma hud (Bassia
latifolia, Roxb.) oil is exported for soap. Has a through camel traffic
in raw cotton and opium with Mahva. Post-office, dispensary; two
schools, 447 pupils.
Morbhanj (including BdmangdH). — The most northerly of the
Native States of Orissa, Bengal, lying between 21° 17' and 22° 33'
46" n. lat., and between 850 42' 30" and 870 13' 55" e. long. Area,
4243 square miles. Population (1881) 385,737. Bounded on the
north by the Districts of Singhbhum, Manbhum, and Midnapur; on
the east by Balasor District ; on the south by the State of Nilgiri and
Pun District ; and on the west by the State of Keunjhar.
Physical Aspects. — Morbhanj State presents every variety of soil and
scenery. It abounds in rich valleys ; but a vast extent still remains
clothed with primeval jungle, of which a large proportion might be
cleared for tillage. In the southern portion of the State, the
Meghasani Hill attains a height of 3824 feet above the sea. Large
herds of elephants roam through the mountains and forests of
Morbhanj, and very successful khedd operations have been carried on
during the last few years. Morbhanj State is divided into three
parts — Morbhanj proper, Uper-bagh, and Bamanghati ; the last was
formerly under British management, and Uper-bdgh under surveillance,
a body of police being quartered there at the Raja's expense. At
present (1884), however, all direct Government connection with
Bamanghati and Uper-bagh has entirely ceased. Chief villages, Bari-
pada, in lat. 210 56' 5" N., and long. 86° 45' 41" e. ; and Daspur, in lat.
210 57' 40" n., and long. 86° 7' 11" e.
Population. — Of the total population of 258,680 persons, 94,526
were returned in the Census of 1872 as inhabiting the Bamanghati
tract, and 164,154 Morbhanj proper with Uper-bagh. In Bamanghati
the Hindus numbered 23,500, or 24*9 per cent, of the population ;
Muhammadans, 479, or 0*5 per cent.; 'others' (including aboriginal
tribes, etc.), 70,547, or 74*6 per cent. In Morbhanj proper the number
<»f Hindus was 64,714, or 39*4 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 748 ; 'others'
(including the aboriginal tribes, chiefly Santals and Kols), 98,692.
In 1881, the total population of Morbhanj Tributary State, including
the Bamanghati and Uper-bagh tracts, numbered 385,737, namely,
males 194,827, and females 190,910. Average density of population,
90*91 persons per square mile; number of villages, 3097; houses,
71,228. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus,
1X9,294: Muhammadans, 2250; aboriginal tribes still professing their
primitive faiths, 194,119; and Christians, 74.
Administration, etc. — Morbhanj yields an estimated revenue of
^20,500 to its chief, and pays an annual tribute to the British Govern-
ment of ,£106. The militia is returned at 972, and the police force
MORCHOPNA—MORO. 517
at 483 men. The late chief, Kisori Chandra Bhanj, obtained the title
of Maharaja in recognition of his public spirit and liberality. He died
in 1882. His son, the present (1884) chief, is a minor, about 14 years
of age, and the State is under the management of the Court of Wards.
Native chronicles relate that the principality of Morbhanj was founded,
more than two thousand years ago, by a relative of the Raja of Jaipur
in Rajputana. The chiefs emblem of signature is a pea-fowl, from a
tradition that the family originally sprang from a pea-fowl's egg ; and
the killing of this heraldic bird is strictly prohibited throughout the
State.
Morchopna. — Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar,
Gujardt, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village. Area, 88 square
miles. Population (1881) 729. Estimated revenue in 1881, ,£70;
tribute of ,£15, 8s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and 18s. to the
Nawab of Junagarh.
Mori. — Hill in the Daman-i-koh tract of the Godda Sub-division of
the Santal Parganas, Bengal. One of the principal peaks in the
northern section of the Rajmahal Hills, overlooking the great central
valley.
Morna (Miima). — River in Berar ; flows through the town of Akola,
where 2 dams maintain a fine sheet of water, over 4 miles in length.
This lasts throughout the year, and is of essential service to the towns-
people. The Morna is a tributary of the Puma.
Moro. — Tdluk in Naushahro Sub-division, Haidarabad (Hyderabad)
District, Sind, Bombay Presidency, lying between 2 6° 24' ami 2 6° 54'
n. lat, and between 670 51' and 68° 42' e. long. Area, 704 square
miles. Population (1872) 45.551; (1881) 44,443, namely, 23,616
males and 20,827 females, dwelling in 1 town and 76 villages ; number
of houses, 7904. Hindus, 4402 ; Muhammadans, 36,627 ; Sikhs, 3189 ;
Christians, 6; and aboriginal tribes, 219. Gross revenue (18S0-81),
^11,104. In 1884, the taluk contained 2 criminal courts; police
stations {t/uinds), 5 ; regular police, 37 men. In 18S2-83, the area
assessed to land revenue was 41,759 acres; and the area actually
cultivated, 33,801 acres.
Moro. — Town and head-quarters of Moro tdluk ; situated in lat. 26"
40' n., and long. 68° 2' e., on the main road from Haidarabad to
Rohri ; 15 miles south-west from Naushahro. Head-quarters of a
miikhtiydrkdr, with the usual public buildings. Population (18S1)
2067; municipal revenue (1882-83), £lS^\ incidence of taxation,
is. i|d. Manufactures — soap, ornamental armlets, and coarse cloth.
Considerable transit trade conducted by kdfilas or caravans from
Khorasan. Moro is said to have been founded, about two hundred
years ago, by one Bazid Fakir, of the Moro tribe. Post-office, and
school with 79 pupils in 1883-S4.
5 1 8 MORP UR—MOR VI.
Morpur. — Fort and village to the east of the Barda range, Kathiawdr,
Bombay Presidency. The vicinity was once a famous cover for lions,
but the lions abandoned the hills, when artillery was fired in the Vaghar
Expedition of i860. Population (1881) 548.
Morrelleranj. — Town and port in Jessor District, Bengal ; situated
in lat. 220 27' 35" N., and long. 890 54' E., on the Panguchi, 2\ miles
above its confluence with the Baleswar or Haringhata, of which it is a
feeder. The town is the property of Messrs. Morrell & Lightfoot,
who converted this part of the country from impenetrable jungle into
a prosperous rice-growing tract, dotted with thriving villages (1872).
The river is a fine fresh-water one, about a quarter of a mile broad,
with deep water from bank to bank, affording good holding ground
for ships, and possessing a well - sheltered anchorage. Morrellganj
was formally declared a port by the Government of Bengal in
November 1869, and buoys were laid down in the following month.
The project of developing an entrepot for sea-going trade at Morrell-
ganj has not, however, been attended with success. The English land-
holder, Mr. Morrell, who conceived the idea, died after spending a large
sum of money, which did not yield the return expected from it. The
position of Morrellganj on a fine navigable river, commanding a rich
rice country, still, however, renders the place a centre of local trade.
For long its very existence seemed to depend upon the energy and
capital of the individual Englishmen who reclaimed it from the jungle.
Morsi. — Taluk of Amraoti District, Berar. Area, 622 square miles ;
contains 4 towns and 208 villages. Population (1867) 129,385 ; (1881)
129,688, namely, 66,563 males and 63,125 females, or 208-5 persons
per square mile. Number of houses, 22,656. Hindus number 121,262 ;
Muhammadans, 7480; Jains, 921; and Sikhs, 25. Area occupied
by cultivators, 313,186 acres. Total agricultural population, 85,222.
Total revenue of the taluk (1883), ,£50,568, of which ^42?°73 was
derived from land. The td/uk contains 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ;
police circles (tkdnds), 3 ; regular police, 76 men ; village watch
(i/iaukiddrs), 331.
Morsi. — Town in Amraoti District, Berar; situated in lat. 210 20' N.,
and long. 780 4' 1:., in the centre of the Morsi td/uk, about 40 miles
east of Ellichpur, on the banks of the Narka river. Population (1881)
5592, of whom 4791 were Hindus, 798 Musalmans, and 3 Jains.
Head-quarters of the tahsilddr. Small market on Tuesdays. The
police station and tahsili are located in one building. Government
school, an Assistant Commissioner's court, and sardi.
Morvi. — Native State in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Gujarat,
Bombay Presidency, lying between 22° 23' and 230 6' 30" n. lat., and
between 700 30' and 710 3' 300 E. long. Area, 821 square miles.
Population (1S72) 90,016; (1SS1) 89,964, namely, 46,547 males and
MO R VI TOWN. 519
43,417 females, dwelling in 2 towns and 134 villages, containing 17,242
houses. Hindus number 73,926; Muhammadans, 11,942; 'others,'
4096. The country is generally flat. Water is obtained from wells
and rivers. The river Machhu, on which the chief town of Morvi
stands, is never dry. An excellent bridge has recently been built over
the river. The climate near the coast is good, but fever is common
throughout the State. Chief products — grain, sugar-cane, and cotton.
Salt and coarse cloth are manufactured. The port of Wawania, on
the Gulf of Cutch, belongs to this State. Land communication is kept
up by carts and pack-bullocks. A good road is being made to join
Morvi and Rajkot.
The present (1881-82) chief, Thakur Sahib Waghji, is a Hindu of
the Jareja Rajput caste. He was educated at the Rajkumar College ;
has been on a European tour ; and administers the affairs of his
State in person. Morvi claims to be directly descended from the
Cutch (Kachchh) line, and not through the Nawanagar family, and it
possesses a small sub-division in Cutch, with a port at Jangi. Many
disputes have arisen with the Rao of Cutch regarding this port and the
sea-borne trade. The differences which exist between the two States find
a vent in obstructions offered to traders. The value of exports has fallen
from ,£141,300 in 1881-82 to ^123,400 in 1882-83. Negotiations
were in progress (1882-83) for a complete severance of the interests of
Cutch and Morvi. The fourth-class State of Malia is an offshoot
from Morvi. Tradition represents the chief of Morvi as the descendant
of the eldest son of the Rao of Cutch, who, in the latter part of
the 17th century, was murdered by a younger brother, and whose
family thereupon fled to this place, then a dependency of Cutch.
Their possession of Morvi was subsequently sanctioned by the Cutch
ruler.
Morvi is officially ranked as a 'second-class' State. The chief
entered into the same engagements as the other Kathiawar chiefs in
1807. He has power to try his own subjects for capital offences
without the express permission of the Political Agent. He enjoys an
estimated gross yearly revenue of ,£83,585; pays a tribute of ^6156
jointly to the British Government, to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and to
the Nawab of Junagarh ; and maintained in 1882-S3 a military force
of 417 men. He does not hold a sanad authorizing adoption; the
succession of his house follows the rule of primogeniture. There are at
present 26 schools in the State, with a total of 1247 pupils. Transit
duties are not levied in the State.
Morvi.— Chief town of Morvi State in the Halar front or division
of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 220 49' N., and long.
700 53' e., on the river Machhu, which, 22 miles farther north, enters
the Gulf of Cutch. Population (1S72) 12,872; (1SS1) 15,353, namely,
5 2 o MOR WAR A—MO Tiff ART.
7746 males and 7607 females. Hindus number 10,019; Muham-
madans, 3530; Jains, 1779; Christians, 19; and Parsfs, 6. Distant
from Rdjkot, 35 miles.
Morwara. — State and town in the Palanpur Agency, Bombay
Presidency. — See Thar ad.
MOSCOS. — Group of islands off the coast of Tavoy District,
Tenasserim Division, British Burma ; extending in a chain parallel to
the shore, from lat. 13° 47' to 140 28' n., and distant from it from
3 to 5 leagues. There is a safe channel between, with soundings
varying from 10 to 15 fathoms, deepening generally near the islands.
The Moscos are divided into 3 groups, the Northern, Middle, and
Southern, called in Burmese Hein-se, Maung-ma-gan, and Laung-lon
respectively. The south and middle groups contain the largest and
highest islands, between which are safe channels.
Motakotarna. — Native State within the British Agency of Mahi
Kantha, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency. Population (1881) 595. The
chief pays no tribute, and does not hold a patent of adoption. The
family follows the rule of primogeniture. Transit dues are levied in the
State. Gross annual revenue, ,£90.
Moth (Ma with). — Central tahsil of Jhansi District, North- Western
Provinces ; consisting of a level plain, dotted with hills, and intersected
by the river Betwa. The soil is largely composed of mar or black
cotton lands, and is very fertile, with the exception of a strip along the
high bank of the Betwa, where the rainfall is slight and capricious.
Area, 247 square miles, of which 137 are cultivated. Population (1872)
55)39 J j (1881) 57,208, namely, males 29,139, and females 28,069.
Hindus in 1881 numbered 54,777 ; Muhammadans, 2285 ; and Jains,
146. Number of villages, 119, of which 86 contain less than five
hundred inhabitants. Land revenue, ,£11,247; total Government
revenue, ,£12,662; rental paid by cultivators, ,£23,957; incidence of
Government revenue per acre, is. 5^d. In 1884 the tahsil contained
1 civil and 1 criminal court, 7 police circles (thdnds), a regular police
force of 81 men, and a village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs) of 217
men.
Moth (Maunth). — Town in Jhansi District, North-YVestern Provinces,
and head-quarters of Moth tahsil ; situated on the Jhansi and Cawnpur
road, 32 miles from Jhansi town. Population (1881) 3395. Besides
the usual tahsili courts and offices, the town contains a boys' and girls'
school, police station, post-office, and travellers' bungalow. A small
house-tax is levied for police and conservancy purposes.
Motihari. — Sadr or head-quarters Sub-division of Champaran Dis-
trict, Bengal, lying between 260 14' 30" and 27° N. lat., and between
^4° 32' 3°" ar,d 850 21' E. long. Area, 1518 square miles; number
of villages, 4594; houses, 153,842. Population (1SS1) 1,017,556, of
MOTIHARI TOWN—MOTUPALLI. 521
whom S 7 9,8 1 2 were Hindus, 137,633 Muhammadans, and 111 Chris-
tians. Average number of inhabitants per square mile, 670; persons
per village, 221; villages per square mile, 3*03; houses per square
mile, 106; persons per house, 6"6; proportion of males in total popula-
tion, 50-4 per cent. This Sub-division consists of the 6 police
circles of Motihari, Adapur, Dhaka-Ramchandra, Kesariya, Madhuban,
and Govindganj. In 1SS3 it contained 3 magisterial and revenue
courts ; a regular police 215 strong, besides n 73 village watchmen.
Motihari. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of
Champaran District, Bengal. Lat. 260 39' 46" N., long. 840 57' 29" e.
Population (1872) 8266; (18S1) 10,307, namely, Hindus, 7492;
Muhammadans, 2771 j 'others,' 44. Area of town site, 2222 acres.
The town is situated along the east bank of a lake, known as the
Motihari Lake. Small bazar, jail, civil offices, indigo factory, dis-
pensary, opium office, school, and telegraph office. Municipal income
in 1883-84, ^685, or iod. per head of the population. Good roads
run to Bettia, Dhaka, Seraha, Motipur, ScMavglidt, and Govindganj.
Motijharna.— Waterfall in the Daman-i-koh tract of the Rajmahal
Sub-division of the Santal Parganas, Bengal ; picturesquely situated at
an angle where two hill ranges meet, in the north-eastern corner of the
District, close to the Maharajpur station on the loop-line of the East
Indian Railway. The fall is formed by the waters of a small hill
stream, which leaps over two successive ledges of columnar basalt.
The base of the lower ledge is being gradually eaten away into the
form of a cave behind the fall. An annual fair is held here in
February.
Moti-talao (' Lake of Pearls '). — Large tank in Ashtagram taluk,
Mysore District, Mysore State, formed by a dam carried across the
gorge where several hill streams unite. Lat. 13° 10' x., long. 780 25' E.
The embankment is said to have been constructed by the Vishnuitc
reformer Ramanujachari, who lived at the neighbouring town of
Melukot. Irrigation is effected by means of a channel, command-
ing about 4 square miles of country. The tank, if full, would contain
two years' supply for this area.
Motupalli. — Small seaport town (identified with the Mutfili of Marco
Polo) in Baptala taluk, Kistna District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 15'
43' 40" n., long. 8o° 20' e. Population (1881) 944 ; number of houses,
215. Motupalli is now only an obscure fishing village, but if it is to
be identified with the site of Mutfili it must once have been of con-
siderable importance. Here in 1290 (the time of Marco Polo's visit)
Queen Rudramma, one of the many meritorious female rulers of India,
must have had her court. Colonel Yule's edition of Marco Polo's
travels has the following passage : — ' When you leave Maabar and
go about a thousand (some copies have five hundred) miles in a
5 2 2 MO TUR—MO WAR.
northerly direction, you come 'to the kingdom of Mutfili. This was
formerly under the rule of a king, and since his death, some forty
years past, it has been under his queen, a lady of much distinction,
who, for the love she bore him, never would marry another husband.
And I can assure you that during all the space of forty years she
administered her realm as well as ever her husband did, or better ; and
as she was the lover of justice, of equity, and of peace, she was more
beloved by those of her kingdom than ever was lord or lady of theirs
before. ... In this kingdom also are made the best and most delicate
buckrams, and those of the highest price ; in sooth they look like the
tissue of a spider's web. There is no king or queen in the world
but might be glad to wear them.' Motupalli was prominently brought
into notice about 1770 as the port used by the French troops in
Guntiir.
Motlir (Mohtur). — Plateau in Chhindwara District, Central Pro-
vinces ; situated in lat. 220 17' N., and long. 780 37' E., 35 miles north-
west of Chhindwara, 3500 feet above sea-level. The plateau is open
and free from jungle, and during the hottest months of the year the
climate is temperate. Motur has been tried as a sanitarium for
European troops from Kamthi (Kamptee), but its inaccessibility and
the distaste of the soldiers for so lonely a spot rendered the experiment
a failure.
Moulmein. — Town in Amherst District, British Burma. — See
Maulmain.
Moung-daw. — Head-quarters of the Naf township, Akyab District,
Arakan Division, British Burma. — See Maung-DAW.
Moung-ma-gan. — Group of islands off the coast of Tavoy, in
British Burma. — See Moscos.
Mowa. — Town in Jaipur (Jeypore) State, Rajputana; situated in
lat. 2 70 3' n., and long. 760 59' E., on the route from Agra to Ajmere
(Ajmi'r), 70 miles west of the former and 158 east of the latter. It
contains a mud fort, with bastions. Population (1881) 4765. The
metalled road from Agra to Ajmere passes through Mowa, running
east and west ; while another metalled road from Hindaun road station
on the Rajputana -Malwa Railway. 11 miles distant, runs through
Mowa to Hindaun, and thence (unmctalled) on to Karauli. The
travellers' bungalow where these roads intersect is kept up by the
Jaipur State.
Mowa.— Port in KathiawAr, Bombay Presidency.— See MUHUWA.
Mowana.— Tahsil and town in Meerut (Merath) District, North-
Western Provinces. — See Mawana.
Mowar.— Town and municipality in Katol tahsil, Nagpur District,
Central Provinces, on the Wardha" river, 6 miles north of Jalalkherd;
surrounded by a fertile country, covered with gardens and groves.
MO YAR—MRO-HA UNG. 523
Population (18S1) 4054, namely, Hindus, 3690; Muhammadans, 315 ;
Jains, 40; aboriginal tribes, 7; and 'others,' 2. Municipal income
(1882-83), ^262, of which ,£253 was derived from taxation ; average
incidence of taxation, is. 3d. per head. The inhabitants are principally
engaged in cultivation or the manufacture of ordinary cotton cloth.
Mowar has a good bazar, and school and police buildings. Two large
dams have been made to restrain the river from flooding the town
during the monsoons. The place does a good trade ; but is reckoned
unhealthy.
Moyar. — The most important stream of the Nflgiri plateau, rising
on Makiirti Peak, Nilgiris District, Madras Presidency, in lat. n° 35"
n., and long. 76° 37' e. After receiving the drainage of two large
valleys, it flows past Paikara and Nediwattam, and enters the plains at
the north-west corner of the range. It joins the Bhavani at Denai-
kankotai. The Moyar is remarkable among hill streams for its long
reaches or pools, divided from each other by rocky rapids. In these
pools are now to be found trout and other fish, the ova of which were
imported from England by the late Mr. W. G. M'lvor.
Mro-haung1 (or Myo-haung, ' Old Town '). — Township in Akyab
District, Arakan Division, British Burma. So named from containing
Old Arakan, the capital of the ancient Arakanese kingdom ; the
Arakanese name was Myauk-u. It is situated on the Ku-la-dan river.
On the north and east are forest-clad hills ; but below and to the west of
these the country is rich and fertile, and towards the south, much
intersecte'd by creeks, which serve as means of communication. The
township is divided into 16 revenue circles. Population (1876-77)
24>3X6; (1881) 38,055. The township contains 260 villages. In
1882 the gross revenue was .£15,782, of which ^io,oco was derived
from land, £4538 from capitation-tax, £96 from fishery revenue, and
,£30 from net-tax. The local cess contributed ^1018. The area
under cultivation was 49,932 acres, mostly rice. Agricultural stock —
22,781 horned cattle, 424 goats, 794 pigs, 6277 ploughs, 1364 carts,
and 2373 boats.
Mro-haung" (formerly called Arakan). — Ancient capital of Arakan,
and now head-quarters of Mro-haung township, Akyab District, British
Burma. Lat. 20° 44' n., long. 930 26' e. It appears to have been
known to the geographer Ptolemy under the name of Triglyphon,
which is probably derived from the cognizance of the town — once a
famous seat of Buddhism — the sacred Buddhist triglyph or trident,
the three prongs of which represent Buddha, the Law, and the Con-
gregation, the uniting line at the base representing their unity. Mro-
haung is built on a rocky plain, at the head of a branch of the Ku-la-
dan river, about 50 miles from its mouth, and almost at the extreme
limit of tidal influence. The ruins of the ancient fort still exist ; they
524 MUA TTAPALAI—Ml 'BARAKPUR.
consist of three square enclosures, one within the other, surrounded by
masonry walls of considerable thickness. Traces of the massive outer
< ity wall may yet be seen ; the platform, on which stood the palace,
also remains, and within the sacred precincts stand the court-house and
police lines.
On the conquest of Arakan by the Burmese in 1784, the town made
no resistance, and became shortly afterwards the capital of one of
the four Districts into which the country was divided. During the
first Anglo-Burmese war, the British troops under General Morrison
attacked Arakan, which was found to be strongly fortified, and was
only taken after a severe contest. The capture of this stronghold led
to the immediate retirement of the whole Burmese army from the
Province ; and General Morrison cantoned the greater portion of his
forces in the town. As soon as the rains commenced, early in May,
disease broke out in the cantonments, and carried off more victims
than in any other portion of the country in which British troops were
quartered ; indeed, it may be said without exaggeration that the Araka-
nese army was almost destroyed by it. This excessive mortality was
due to the unhealthiness of the place, which Dr. Mason describes thus
in the 2nd vol. of the Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of
Calcutta : — ' Its site is such as one would at first sight pronounce to be
prolific of those noxious exhalations, whatever they may be, that are
generally allowed to engender intermittent fever. It lies on the banks
of a muddy river, or rather ramifications of a river, buried among hills
at a distance of nearly 40 miles from the sea, and surrounded on every
side by jungle and morass. The tide overflows the flat borders of the
river to a considerable extent ; its reflux converts these into a noisome
swamp, and in this swamp, strange to say, a great part of Arakan is
built.' It can only be a cause for wonder that such a place should
have remained for 350 years the capital of a kingdom. Soon after
the close of the war the troops were removed, and the head-quarters
of the Division placed at Akyab. From this time, Mro-haung gradually
sank in importance, and in 1881 contained a population of only
3065 persons. Market and a Government school.
Muattapalai. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Travancore State, Madras
Presidency. Area, 312 square miles, containing 162 haras or villages.
Population (1875) 91,674; (1881) 95,460, namely, 47,395 males and
48,065 females, occupying 18,817 houses. Hindus numbered 50,606 ;
Christians, 39,288; and Muhammadans, 5566.
Mubarakpur. — Town in Muhammadabad lahsil, Azamgarh District,
North-Western Provinces; situated in lat. 26° 5' 15" N., long. 83° 20' E.,
7 miles from Muhammadabad town. Mubarakpur is said to have been
formerly (ailed Kasimabad, and to have (alien into decay before it
was resettled under the name of Raji Mubarak by the ancestor of
MUDAK-D OR—MUDDEBIHAL. 5 2 5
the present Shaikh landholders. Population (1881) 13,157, namely,
males 6507, and females 6650. Muhammadans number 9066, and
Hindus 4091. Area of town site, 276 acres. Mubarakpur contains
an imperial post-office, police outpost station, and school. Retail
markets for miscellaneous commodities are held four times a week.
The inhabitants are chiefly weavers, and there is also a small manu-
facture in sugar-refining. Serious conflicts have occurred between
the Muhammadan and Hindu inhabitants of the town, especially in
18 1 3 and 1842. The ill-feeling between the two religions is said to
■be still smouldering, and liable to break out on small provocation. A
small house-tax for police and conservancy purposes realized ,£142 in
1881-82.
Mudak-dor. — Sacred hill on the bank of the Kaveri (Cauvery)
river, near Talkad in Mysore District, Mysore State. The jdtra, or
festival of the god Mallikarjuna, held for 15 days in January or
February, is annually attended by 10,000 persons.
Miidbidri. — Ruined town in South Kanara District, Madras Presi-
dency. Lat. 130 4' 10" n., long. 750 2' 30" e. A very old Jain city,
which, to judge from the deserted streets with their moss-grown house
sites, probably once contained many thousands of inhabitants. There
are no fewer than 18 Jain bastis or stone pagodas in the town. These
are maintained by old endowments and subscriptions from Jains
throughout the District, and contain some superb carving, and many
valuable inscriptions. They bear witness to the marvellous industry
and devotion of the Jains.
Muddebihal. — Sub-division of Bijapur District, Bombay Presi-
dency. Area, 564 square miles, containing 1 town and 148 villages.
Population (1872) 83,848; (1881) 65,024, namely, 31,766 males and
33,258 females, occupying 11,897 houses. The decrease of 22*4 per
cent, is due to the mortality and emigration during the famine of
1876-77. Hindus numbered 57,371; Muhammadans, 7211: and
' others,' 442. In the north of the Sub-division is the rich valley of
the Don. The central plateau of sandstone and limestone is fairly
fertile. The south and south-east is a barren tract of metamorphic
granite, fertile only close to the Kistna The soil varies greatly.
The Don forms the northern boundary of Muddebihal, and the Kistna
the southern boundary. Ponds are few, but every village has good
wells. The detail survey of the Sub-division was not completed up
to 1883. In 1881-82, of 185,948 acres held for tillage, 10,054
acres were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 175,894 acres,
grain crops occupied 118,454 acres; pulses, 6098 acres; oil-seeds,
4179 acres ; fibres, 46,651 acres (46,507 of them under cotton) ; and
miscellaneous crops, 512 acres. The Sub-division contains 1 civil and
2 criminal courts; 7 police circles (t/uinds); 41 regular police; and
526 MUDDEBIHAL TOU'X—MUDHOL.
316 village watch {chaukiddrs). Schools in 1SS2-S3 numbered 15.
Land revenue (1S82), ;£i 4,048.
Muddebihal. — Town in Muddebihal Sub-division, Bijapur District,
Bombay Presidency ; situated 48 miles east by north of Kaladgi, in
lat. 160 20' 25" x., and long. 76° 10' 20" E. Population (1881) 2S41.
Sub-judge's court, dispensary, post-office, and school with 167 pupils in
1883-84.
Mudgal (or Mudugat). — Town and fort in Nizam's Dominions.
Lat. 1 6° o' 34" x., and long. 760 29' 47" e. Population, 31S2. The
fort is four and a half furlongs from north to south, and three and a
half from east to west. The northern part is situated on the plain ; the
southern portion ascends and includes the highest ridge of a rocky
hill. Mudgal was, in a.d. 1249-50, the seat of one of the Governors of
the Yadavas. The fort subsequently came into the possession of the
Warangal Rajas, and was taken from them by the Muhammadans early
in the 14th century. When Muhammad Tughlak's Deccan governors
rebelled and established the Bahmani dynasty at Kulbarga, Mudgal
became one of the frontier forts of the new kingdom. During the rule
of the Bahmani kings, Mudgal contained a considerable garrison. In
1364, the Raja of Vijayanagar slaughtered the whole of the Bahmani
garrison. After the dissolution of the Bahmani dynasty, Mudgal
came into the possession of the kings of Bijapur. After the fall of
Bijapur, the Emperor Aurangzeb took the fort. At Mudgal there is
a small Roman Catholic colony, originally converted by one of St.
Francis Xavier's missionaries from Goa. The colony was endowed
by several kings of Bijapur, and has retained their grants through all
revolutions.
Mudgiri. — Taluk of Kadur District, Mysore State. Area, 400
square miles. Population (1S81) 45,266, namely, 24,190 males and
21,076 females. Hindus, 43,307; Muhammadans, 1609; and Chris-
tians, 350. In 1S83, the taluk contained 1 criminal court; police
circles (thdnds), 5 ; regular police, 39 men : village watch (chaukiddrs),
162. Total revenue, £1 1,162.
Mudhol. — Native State under the Political Agency of the Southern
Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency ; situated between 160 6' 50" and
160 26' 45" n. lat., and between 750 4' 21" and 75° 31' 56" e. long. Area,
362 square miles. Population (1872) 58,921 ; (1881) 52,163, namely,
25,771 males and 26,392 females. Towns, 2; villages, 77; houses,
10,478. Hindus number 48,273 ; Muhammadans, 3710 ; and 'others,'
180. Bounded on the north by Jamkhandi State ; on the east by the
dkot Sub-division ; on the south by Bijapur and Belgium Districts
and the Kolhapur State ; and on the west by the Gokak Sub-division
of Belgaum District. The general aspect of the country is flat, with
slight undulations. The scenery is monotonous, and, except during
MUDHOL. 527
the rainy weather, the country presents a parched and barren aspect.
There are no large mountains, the small hill ranges not being more
than 150 feet high. The greater portion of the soil is black, the
remainder being the inferior description of red and stony land known
as mal. The only river passing through the State is the Ghatprabha,
which is navigable during the monsoons by boats of less than a ton
burden ; but it is never used as a means of communication for
travelling or trade. It waters in its course about half the villages
of the State, and irrigates by its annual floods a considerable area of
land. Irrigation is also carried on by damming up small rivulets,
and turning off the water in the direction required ; by drawing water
from wells and pools by means of leather bags ; and where the elevation
of the bed of a reservoir is sufficient, by leading channels into the neigh-
bouring fields. As in other parts of the Deccan, the climate is very
dry, the heat from March to May being oppressive. The chief diseases
are malarious fevers, which generally increase in the months of June
and July, and eye diseases. The principal agricultural products are
Indian millet (jodr), wheat, gram, and cotton. Cotton cloth and articles
of native female apparel are the chief manufactures.
The chief of Mudhol State belongs to the Bhonsla family, of Kshat-
triya origin, descended, according to tradition, from a common ancestor
with Sivaji the Great. This name, however, has been entirely super-
seded by the second designation of Ghorpade, which is said to have
been acquired by one of the family who managed to scale a fort
previously deemed impregnable, by fastening a cord around the bodv
of a ghorpad or iguana. All that is authentically known of the history
of the family is that it held a high position at the court of Bijapur,
from which it received the lands it still holds. The Mudhol chiefs
were the most determined opponents of Sivaji during his early con-
quests ; but on the overthrow of the Muhammadan power they joined
the Marathas, and accepted military command from the Peshwa. The
grandfather of the present ruler (who died in 1S54) was the first who
became a feudatory of the British Government. The present (18S1-S 2 )
chief is Venkatrao Balwant Rao Raja Ghorpade, a Hindu of the
Maratha race. He administers his estate in person, and enjoys an
estimated gross yearly revenue of ^23,800, and pays a tribute of
^267, 4s. to the British Government. He is officially recognised as a
' first-class ' Sardar in the Southern Maratha Country, and maintains a
military force of 444 men. There is one civil court. An appeal lies to
the chief, who has power to try his own subjects for capital offences
without the express permission of the Political Agent. The family
of the chief hold a title authorizing adoption, and follow the rule of
primogeniture in matters of succession. There are 21 schools in the
State, with 1038 pupils. Three municipalities.
528 MUD1I0L TOWN— MUG B A LB BIN
Mudhol. — Chief town of Mudhol State, Bombay Presidency;
situated in lat. i6° 19' 50" N., and long. 750 19' 20" E. Population
(1881) 6060, of whom 4985 are Hindus, 1010 Muhammadans, and
65 Jains. Dispensary; patients in 1882-83, 734-8; number of persons
vaccinated, about 2000.
Mtidivedu. — Town in Madanapalli taluk, Cuddapah (Kadapa)
District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 140 1' 30" n., long. 780 44' 10" E.
Population (1881) 4120; number of houses, 1043.
Mtidki {Moodkec). — Village in Firozpur (Ferozepore) District,
Punjab; situated in lat. 30° 47' n., long. 740 55' 15" e., on the old
road between Firozpur and Karnal, memorable for the battle fought
on the 18th December 1845, between the Sikhs and the British on the
plain 26 miles south of the Sutlej (Satlaj). Two days before this battle,
which inaugurated the first Sikh war, the enemy crossed the boundary
river at Firozpur. They were met by a much smaller British force at
Miidki, and driven from their position, with the loss of 17 guns, after
a hard contest, in which the British lost a large proportion of officers.
Monuments have been erected on the battle-field in honour of those
who fell. Miidki village contains a sardi or rest-house, and a large
masonry tank.
Mu-dun (Moo-doon). — Chief village in the Mu-dun revenue circle,
Zaya township, Amherst District, Tenasserim Division, British Burma ;
9 miles distant from Maulmain. Contains a court-house, a Public
Works Department inspection bungalow, and a police station. In the
neighbourhood are some ornamental pieces of water, generally known
as the 'Sacred Lakes.' Population (1881) 2483.
Mugdai. — Spring and cavern in the Perzagarh Hills, Chanda
District, Central Provinces. The ascent leads to a rocky platform,
beyond which rises a smooth sheer precipice, 100 feet high, of sandstone
rock, now blackened by exposure. Over this, in the rains, plunges a
broad cascade, reduced in the driest weather to a trickling stream,
which falls into a small cleft in the platform below, where through the
year is an unvarying depth of 7 feet of water. A few yards off is a
large shallow cavern, sacred to the Mana goddess. Mugdai. On this
platform the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages found a refuge
from the l'indaris ; and a small fair is still held here.
Mughalbhin. — Chief town in the Jati taluk, Shahbandar Sub-
division, Karat hi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ;
situated in lat. 240 22' N., and long. 68° 18' 30" 1:., on the banks of
the ( amgro, a portion of the Pinyari branch of the Indus. Connected by
good roads with Mfrpur Batoro, distant 26 miles north ; with Shdhbandar,
30 miles south-east; and with Belo, t>Z miles north-west. Mughalbhin
stands on the highway to Cutch (Kachchh) from Sind, and is 48 miles
from Lakhpat on the Kori creek, over which is a ferry. Head-quarters of
MUGHALPUR—MUHAMDI. 5 2 9
a mukJitiydrkdr, with the usual public offices. Population (18S1) under
2000 About 2 miles south of Mughalbhin is an embankment 200
yards long by 13 i broad, lined with a fine avenue of babul trees ; the
fresh-water channel above is called the Gungro, and below is the old
salt-water channel of the Pinyari. Trade in grain and coarse cloth.
Rice is extensively grown in the neighbourhood. A large fair is held
annually in February in honour of a Muhammadan//r or saint, whose
tomb is then visited by about 5000 persons.
Mughalpur. — Town in Moradabad tahsil, Moradabad District,
North-Western Provinces; situated in lat. 28° 55' 43" n., long. 780 45'
55" E., on the open plain, 7 miles north-west of Moradabad town, and
1 mile west of the Ramganga river. Population (1881)5277, namely,
Muhammadans 3003, and Hindus 2274. Number of houses, 689. An
old fort is still standing near the town.
Mughal Sarai {Mogul Serai). — Town in Benares District, North-
Western- Provinces. Lat. 250 16' 30" n., long. 830 10' 45" e. Popula-
tion (1881) 1 1 18. Station on the East Indian Railway, 470 miles from
Calcutta (Howrah), and 6 miles from Benares. Branch railway to the
Ganges opposite Benares city. Police station and post-office.
Mughia (Moghia). — Aboriginal tribe in Rajputana and Central
India. For an account of this tribe, and of the measures which are
being taken with a view to its amelioration, see article Rajputana.
Until the date of these recent measures the Mughias were one of the
most persistently predatory tribes in Central India.
Mugori. — State in the Mahi Kantha Agency, Bombay Presidency. —
See Magori.
Muhamdi.— Tahsil ox Sub-division of Kheri District, Oudh; lying
between 270 41' and 280 10' n. lat., and between 8o° 4' 30" and 80° 41'
e. long. Bounded on the north and east by Kheri tahsil ; on the south
by Sitapur and Hardoi tahsils ; and on the west by Shahjahanpur
District in the North-Western Provinces. The tahsil comprises the 7
fiargands of Muhamdi, Pasgawan, Aurangabad, Kdsta, Haidarabdd,
Magdapur, and Atwa Piparia. Area, 666 square miles, of which 304
are cultivated. Population (1S69) 204,255 ; (1881) 232,909, namely,
males 125,194, and females 107,715. Total increase since TS69,
28,654, or 14 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion,
there were in 1881 — Hindus, 203,341; Muhammadans, 29,262; and
' others,' 306. Land revenue, ,£25,530. In 18S3 the teAwV contained
1 civil and 1 criminal court, 3 police circles (thdnds), a regular police
force of 69 men, and a village watch or rural police of 1092 chaukictdrs.
Muhamdi. — Pargand in Kheri District, Oudh ; bounded on the
west by the Gumtf, which separates it from Magdapur and Atwa
Piparia, and on the south by a tributary of the same river, which
divides it from Pasgawan. Along the banks of the Gumti, the land is
vol. ix. 2 L
530 MUHAMDI TOWN— MUHAMMADABAD.
high and sandy for a short distance ; it then rather suddenly sinks into
a loamy flat of high fertility and fair cultivation. Good crops of cereals
and sugar-cane are produced. Area, 116 square miles, of which 66 are
under cultivation. Population (1881) 55,333, namely, 48,482 Hindus and
6S51 Musalmans. Of the 136 villages comprising the pargand, 49^ are
owned by Muhammadans, 26 by Rajputs, 21 by Brahmans, and 16 by
Government. Land revenue, ^5860.
Muhamdi was settled as a pargand centuries ago. The town which
bears that name was not then founded, but the country was fiscally
organized by the Sayyids of Barwar long before the end of the 17th
century. They held Muhamdi and 17 other pargands in a position of
.some independence during the decline of the Mughal Empire. Some
four or five generations back, their representative was displaced by a
Sombansi Rajput of Hardoi, who had been captured and converted
to Islam, and married to a slave girl of the Sayyid chief ; he ousted his
master's son from the estate and title about 1743 a.d. This family
retained possession until 1793, when the then representative was seized
as a rebel and defaulter, and the estate broken up. The pargand of
Muhamdi is now owned principally by small proprietors.
Muhamdi. — Town in Kheri District, Oudh, and head-quarters of
Muhamdi tahs'il and pargand ; situated 3 miles west of the Gumti river,
on the road from Lakhimpur to Shahjahanpur, in lat. 270 57' 15" N.,
and long. 8o° 15' E. Formerly the head-quarters of the District, which
were removed to Kheri upon the reoccupation of the country after the
suppression of the Mutiny. Population (1869) 4729; (1881) 6635,
namely, Hindus 3909, and Muhammadans, 2726. A small house-tax
is levied for police and conservancy purposes. A daily and a bi-weekly
market. Sugar manufacture and Government distillery. Besides the
usual sub-divisional court buildings, the town contains a police station,
Anglo-vernacular school, and charitable dispensary.
Muhammadabad. — Tahsil of Ghazipur District, North-Western
Provinces; lying on the north bank of the Ganges, and consisting
chiefly of alluvial lowland. — See Kurantadih.
Muhammadabad. — South-eastern tahsil of Azamgarh District, North-
Western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Karydt Mittu, Chiriakot,
Muhammadabad, and Mau Natbhanjan, and watered by the Tons and
Chhota Sarju rivers, as well as by a number of swamps and marshes,
which spread out into large temporary lakes in the rainy season, and
wholly or in great part dry up between October and June. The
eastern portion of the tahsil is traversed by the Ghazipur and Gorakh-
pur road via Mau and Dohrighat ; and the eastern portion by the road
from Ghazipur to Azamgarh, passing through Chiriakot and Jahdniganj.
A second-class road runs from the one last named, at about two miles
south of Azamgarh to Muhammadabad, and thence south-east to Mau.
MUHAMMADAB AD— MUHAMMAD KHAN'S TANDO. 531
Third-class roads run from Muhammadabad to Sultanipur, to Shihganj
via Mubarakpur, to Juanpur, Ghosi, and Kopaganj.
The total area of Muhammadabad tahsil in 18S1 was 426-8 square
miles, of which 259*2 square miles were cultivated, 65-3 square miles
cultivable, and 102*3 square miles uncultivable waste. Population
(1872) 275,559; (1881) 327,017, namely, males 166,750, and females
160,267. Increase of population since 1872, 51,458, or i8-6 per cent,
in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 —
Hindus, 273,720; Muhammadans, 53,293; and 'others,' 4. Of the
887 towns and villages comprising the tahsil, 697 were mere hamlets
with less than five hundred inhabitants. Government land revenue,
.£36,197, or including local rates and cesses, ,£42,787. Amount of
rent, including cesses, paid by the cultivators, ^"77,167. In 1881,
Muhammadabad tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court, 4 police
circles (thdnds), and 2 outpost stations, a regular police force of 60
men, and a village watch or rural police of 539 chaukidars.
Muhammadabad. — Town in Azamgarh District, North-Western
Provinces, and head-quarters of Muhammadabad tahsil. Population in
1 88 1, 9154, namely, 5266 Muhammadans and 38SS Hindus. The
bulk of the population consists of landholders, agriculturists, petty
bankers and traders, shopkeepers, weavers, and other artisans.
Markets for miscellaneous commodities are held four times a week
in different parts of the town and suburbs, There are about 300
looms, and a few sugar refineries. Besides the usual Sub-divisional
courts and offices, the town contains a police station, post-office, and
village school. A small house-tax levied for police and conservancy
purposes yielded ^"82 in 1882-83.
Muhammadgarh. — Native State under the Bhopal Agency of
Central India; lying between Bhflsa and Rahatgarh. Area, about 27
square miles; containing T9 villages with 766 houses. Population
(1881) 5347. Hindus number 4300; Muhammadans, 896; and
aboriginal tribes, 151, of whom Gonds numbered 79, and Moghias
72. Estimated revenue, jQl°°- No tribute is paid. Muhammadgarh
originally formed part of Kurwai State ; but on the death of Nawab
Muhammad Dalil Khan of Kurwai, the latter State was divided
between his two sons, Muhammadgarh and Bcisouda falling to the
younger, Asan-ulla Khan. On the death of the last-named, the State
was further divided, Bakht-ulla-Khan taking Basouda, and Muhammad
Khan, Muhammadgarh. In 1819, Sindhia seized a portion of the State,
but it was restored through the intervention of the British Government.
The present chief, Hafiz Kiili Khan, is a Pathan, and holds the rank of
Nawab. The chief products of the State are opium and grain. Chief
town, Muhammadgarh ; lat. 230 39' n., long. 780 12' E.
Muhammad Khan's Tando. — Sub-division of Haidarabad (Hyder-
5 3 2 MUHAMMADPUR— MUJPUR.
abad) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. — See Tando Muhammad
Khan.
Muhammadpur. — Milage and produce depot in Saran District,
Bengal. Population (iSSi) 437S. One of the principal rice-importing
marts of the District.
Muhammadpur. — Town in Patna District, Bengal. Lat. 250 30' x.,
long. 850 46' E. It forms in reality a suburb of Barh. Population
(1872) 6089; (1881) 8479, namely, Hindus, 6868; Muhammadans,
1590; 'others,' 21. Area of town site, 991 acres. Municipal income
(1SS3-84), ^160; rate of taxation, 4M. per head of population.
Municipal police, 15 men.
Muhammadpur. — Village on the right bank of the Madhumati
river, in Jessor District, Bengal; lying in lat. 230 23' 45" N., and long.
890 38' 30" e., 14 miles south-east of Magura. A large town at the
time of our occupation, but desolated between 1S36 and 1843 by an
epidemic fever ; it now survives as a small market village, with a purely
local trade, except in the rains, when large numbers of hilsd fish are
exported to Calcutta. Muhammadpur was founded towards the end of
the 1 7th century, and is ascribed to Sftaram Rai, landholder of Bhushnd,
east of Muhammadpur on the Barasia river. A quadrangular fort,
many fine tanks and other ancient remains bear witness to its former
importance. For details concerning these, and the legend of the
foundation of the town, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. ii. pp.
213-216.
Muhammadpur. — Pargand in Bara Banki District, Oudh; bounded
on the north by Sitapur District, on the east by the Chauka river, on
the south by Ramnagar pargand, and on the west by Sitapur District.
Area, 62 square miles, of which 44 are cultivated. Population (1881)
29,814, namely, 27,090 Hindus and 2724 Musalmans. Government land
revenue, ^40 70. Of the 83 villages comprising the pargand, 46 are
held in td/ukddr'i, 3 in zam'inddri, and 34 in pattiddri tenure. The
principal idlukddr is Raja Sarabjit Singh, who owns 32 villages.
Muhammadpur. — Town in Faizabad (Fyzabad) District, Oudh;
situated 24 miles west of Faizabad town, on the road from Milkipur to
Rudauli. Population (1881) 316S, namely, 3108 Hindus and 60
Muhammadans.
Muhpa. — Town in Nagpur District, Central Provinces. — See Mohpa.
Mujnai.- River of Jalpaigurf District, Bengal; rises in the southern
slope of the Bhutan Hills, and flows in a winding southerly direction
into Kuch Behar State. Its tributaries in Jalpaigurf District are the
Titi, Angorijhora, Dabdhub, Birpiti, Halong. In Kuch Behar, the
Mujnai falls into the Jaldhaka, in lat. 260 26' 30" n., and long. 890 14'
15" 1;., after that river has joined the Dharla or Torsha.
Mujpur (or Munjpur). — Petty State in the Jhcilawar prant or
MUKAMA—MUKERIAN. 533
division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of one village,
with 3 shareholders. Estimated revenue in 1881,^322; tribute of
^"60, 6s. is paid to the British Government. Area, 3 square miles.
Population (1881) 548. Situated three miles south-west of Wadhwan
city station on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway.
Mukama (Mbkameh). — Town in Patna District, Bengal ; situated on
the right bank of the Ganges, in lat. 250 24' 25" n., and long. S50 55'
26" e. Population (1872) 10,715; (1881) 13,052, namely, males 6350,
and females 6702. Hindus number 10,830; Muhammadans, 21S1 ;
and 'others,' 41. Municipal income (1883-84), ,£319; rate of
taxation, 5^-d. per head of population. Police force, 30 men. A
town of recent growth, with a considerable trade in country produce.
Mukama is a station on the East Indian Railway, distant from
Calcutta (Howrah) 283 miles by the 'chord' line. Since 1883 it has
also been a junction for passengers proceeding by the Tirhiit State
Railway.
Mukandwara (Mokundurra). — Village in Kotah State, Rajputana ;
situated in lat. 240 4S' 50" N., and long. 760 4' 50" e., on the route
from Nfmach to Kotah, 90 miles north-east of the former and 32 south-
west of the latter. Mukandwara is situated in a long and narrow
valley, formed by two ridges of hills running north-west and south-east
between the Chambal and Kali Sind rivers. Population (1881) 339. The
Mukandwara Pass (the dwdra or pass of Mukand), called after Mukand
Singh, eldest son of Maharao Madhu Singh, the first ruler of Kotah,
situated to the south-west of Kotah, is of great importance, as being
the only defile practicable for carriages for a considerable distance
between the two rivers Chambal and Kali Sind. Mukand Singh built
the gates and the palace situated in the pass. Mukandwara Pass is
the scene of endless legends of the valiant Khichi and Hara clans of
Rajputs. Amongst the nobles of Kotah, the office of Ghata-Rdicat, or
' Lord of the Pass,' was a coveted honour. This pass is famous in
British Indian history as the route of Colonel Monson's retreat before
Jaswant Rao Holkar in July 1804.
Mukerian. — Town in Dastiah iahs'd, Hushiarpur District, Punjab ;
situated in lat. 310 56' 50" N., and long. 770 38' 50" e., about 10
miles north of Dasiiah, and 35 miles from Hushiarpur. Population
(1SS1) 41 16, namely, Hindus, 2089; Muhammadans, 1763; Sikhs,
173; Jains, 86; and 'others,' 5. Number of houses, 830. Muni-
cipal income (1883-84), ^227, or an average of is. i|d. per head.
The local trade is principally in grain and cotton goods. The public
buildings include a police station, rest-house, and a good Government
middle-class school. A fine tank, and a large masonry sara'i, with a
room for European travellers, has been constructed by Sardai Bur
Singh, an honorary magistrate.
534 MUKIMPUR—MUKTSAR.
Mukimpur. — Town in Faizabad (Fyzabad) District, Oudh. — See
Shahganj.
Mukri-betta. — Prominent peak on a spur of the Western Ghats in
Coorg, Madras Presidency. Situated five miles from Somwarpett.
Muktsar. — TahslI in Firozpur District, Punjab, lying between 300
8' and 300 45' 30" n. lat., and between 74° 17' 15" and 740 54'
30" e. long., and comprising all the western portion of the District.
Area (1881), 946 square miles, with 323 towns and villages, 11,882
houses, and 22,697 families. Population (1868) 94,837; (1881)
111,634, namely, males 60,830, and females 50,804. Increase of
population since 1868, 16,797, or 177 per cent, in thirteen years.
Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Muhammadans,
51,938; Hindus, 36,560; Sikhs, 22,917 ; and Jains, 219. Of the 323
towns and villages, 265 are mere hamlets with less than five hundred
inhabitants; while only 15 places contain a population exceeding a
thousand. The average area under cultivation for the five years
1877-78 to 1881-82 is returned at 628 square miles, or 402,190 acres;
the area under the principal crops being as follows -.—jodr, 106,775
acres; bdjra, 64,614 acres; gram, 77,335 acres; barley, 56,203 acres;
wheat, 45,590 acres; and moth, 21,529 acres. Revenue of the tahsi/,
^83 24. One civil and one revenue court; police circles (t hands), 5 ;
strength of regular police, 5 1 men ; village watch or rural police
(chauk'iddrs), 161.
Muktsar. — Town in Firozpur (Ferozepore) District, Punjab, and
head-quarters of Muktsar tahs'd ; situated in lat. 300 28' 30" n., long.
740 33' 15" E., about 35 miles south of Firozpur town, and about 20
miles from the Sutlej river. Population (1881) 3125, namely,
Muhammadans, 1164; Hindus, 1098; and Sikhs, 863. Number of
houses, 434. Municipal income (1883-84), ^228, or an average of
is. 5^d. per head. Muktsar is the largest town and principal trade
mart in the west of Firozpur District. Apart from its commercial
importance, the town is chiefly noticeable for a great Sikh festival,
which takes place in January. It lasts for three days, and commemorates
a battle fought in 1705-06 by Guru Har Govind against the pursuing
Imperialist forces. Large tank, in which pilgrims bathe ; commenced by
the Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and continued and completed by the chiefs
of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, and Faridkot. A grant of ^250 per annum
from Government is spent in keeping up a langar kkand or public
food-house, where every day poor men and travellers are fed. Muktsar
has a single bdzdr mostly of masonry shops, without any wall round
the town. There is a school-house, municipal committee house,
dispensary, taJisil'i, thand, and sard/ with camping-ground, and good
well. Two rooms on each side in the sardi are set apart for European
travellers. Recently buildings have been erected by the railway authori-
MUL HILL RANGE AND TOWN. 535
ties In anticipation of the construction of the line between Muktsar
and Kot-Kapiira.
Mul. — Hill range in Chdnda District, Central Provinces, 3 miles west
of Mul town; extending 18 miles north and south, and 13 miles east
and west ; covered with forests, which contain many large bijesdl trees,
and, under the southern slopes, abundance of young teak. The
numerous perennial streams along the foot dot the forest with patches
of cultivation. The valleys of Dhoni and Jhiri on the south, and
Kholsa on the west, were once immense artificial lakes, with large
trading villages on the hill slopes. Now only a few Gond huts
occupy the former bed of the water. In the driest weather, the
grass in these valleys is brilliantly green, and their streams bright and
limpid ; but the spring water of the Dhoni valley should be boiled
before it is used. The chills produce a kind of snowdrop, of which
the Gonds eat the Leaves. Under the southern slope is a large
excavation where the Gond hunters entrapped the elephants which
formerly abounded.
Mul. — Southern tahsil or Sub-division of Chanda District, Central
Provinces. Area, 5098 square miles, 881 towns and villages, 53,367
houses, and a total population (1881) of 215,784, namely, males
108,384, and females 107,400. Average density of population, 42-33
persons per square mile. Of the total area of the tahsil, more than
one-half, or 2870 square miles, are comprised in the five revenue-
free estates or zam'mddris of Ahi'rf, Pawimulanda, Gilgaon Potegaon,
and Chandala. Even within the Government (khdlsd) portion of the
Sub-division (2228 square miles), no less than 1342 square miles pay
neither revenue nor quit-rent, leaving 886 square miles assessed for
Government revenue. Of these, 309 square miles are returned as under
cultivation, 470 square miles as cultivable but not under tillage, and 107
square miles as uncultivable waste. Total amount of Government
assessment, including local rates and cesses,*^8o2 7, or an average of
9fd. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, including
cesses, ,£13,75 1, or an average of is. 4§d. per cultivated acre. In
1883 the tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court, with 5 police
circles (thduds), and 15 out-stations {chaukis) ; strength of regular
police, 167 men, besides a village watch of 89 chaukiJdrs.
Mill. — Town in Chanda District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat.
20° 4' n., and long 790 43' e., 30 miles north-east of Chanda town.
Population (1881) 3844, namely, Hindus, 3493; Muhammadans, no;
Christian, 1 ; aboriginal tribes, 240. Three-fourths of the population are
Telingas. Chief manufactures, coloured cotton cloth, and native shoes
and sandals. Rice and sugar-cane are grown in the neighbourhood.
A tahsilddr is stationed at Mul ; which contains a town school for boys,
police station house, dispensary, and post-office.
53^ MULA.
Mula (Mit/oh; also called the Ganddva Pass). — Pass over the Brahuik
range, by which access is gained from Kachh Gandava to the table-land
of Jhalawdn in Baluchistan. It has three entrances — (i) at Pir Chatta,
9 miles from Kotri ; (2) the Taphoi entrance, leading from Jhal, 9 miles
south of Kotri ; and (3) the Gatti entrance, a very difficult road. The
halting-places are — Kuhau, 12 miles from Pir Chatta (elevation, 1250
feet); Hatdchi, 16 miles; Nar (2850 feet), 16 miles; Peshtar Khan
(3500 feet), i2 miles; Patki (4250 feet), \o\ miles; Pisi Bent (4600
feet), 12 miles; Bapau (5000 feet), 12 miles. Twelve miles farther
on to the source of the Mula stream ; and near the village of Angira,
the top of the pass is reached at an elevation of 5250 feet above sea-
level.
The Mula Pass is thus in all about 102 miles in length from its
entrance in the low country to the source of the river, the average rise
being about 45 feet in the mile. It was formerly considered, on the
whole, to be preferable as a military pass to the Bolan, the road being
better, the ascent easier and more gradual, and some supplies, at least,
being obtainable in it. At the close of 1839, General Willshire's force,
after storming Khelat, returned to Sind by this route ; but the guns
brought down on that occasion were only light field-pieces. Masson, who
traversed this pass, remarks that in a military point of view the route,
presenting a succession of open spaces, connected by narrow passages
or defiles, is very defensible, at the same time affording convenient spots
for encampment, an abundance of excellent water, fuel, and more or
less forage. It is level throughout, the road either following the bed of
the stream or running near its left bank. It is not only easy and safe,
but may be travelled at all seasons, and is the only camel route through
the hills intermediate between Sarawdn and Jhalawdn and Kachhi from
the latitude of Shal (where the line of intercourse is by the route of
the Bokin river) to Khozdar, from which a road leads into Middle
Sind. Danger from predatory bands is not even to be apprehended ;
and in this respect alone it has an immense advantage over the Boldn
Pass.
Dr. Bellew, who passed in 1872 over a portion of the Mula Pass
leading to Khozddr, says that in a distance of about 50 miles, extending
from Pir Chatta to Gaz, it presents a succession of basins, connected
by narrow straits that are very crooked. The basins are those of Pir
Chatta, Kuhau, P;ini-wat, Jah, Hatdchi, Fazzan, Pir Lakka, Hassna,
and Xar. Each of these is more or less cultivated, contains abundant
water and fuel, but very little or no pasture, and limited camping
surface. The rainy season is in July and August. During these
months, violent storms occur on the mountains, and the pass often
omes suddenly flooded by swift torrents that sweep all before
them.
MULA G UL—AIULI. 5 3 7
Mulagul (or MoldgMt). — Village and police station in Sylhet
District, Assam ; situated at the foot of the Khasi Hills, on the bank
of the Luba river. The weekly bazar is largely attended by traders
from the Jaintia Hills. Mulagul has given its name to a mahdl or
reserve for elephant-hunting.
Mulajmapura. — Native State within the British Political Agency of
Mahi Kantha, Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency. Population
(1881) 221. Tribute of £2, 5s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda.
Mulantir. — Town in Dharapuram Sub-division, Coimbatore District,
Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 45' 30" N., long. 77° 46' e. Population
(1881) 6421, namely, 6415 Hindus and 6 Muhammadans. Number of
houses, 1426.
Mulbagal. — Taluk in Kolar District, Bangalore Division, Mysore
State. Area, 241 square miles, of which 108 are cultivated. Popula-
tion (1871) 58,051; (1881) 44,137, namely, 21,872 males and 22,265
females, of whom 41,648 are Hindus, 2404 Muhammadans, and 85
Christians. Revenue (1883), ^11,953. The rice and the sugar-cane are
of fine quality. In 1883 the taluk contained 1 criminal court; police
circles (thdnds), 5; regular police, 45 men; village watch (cliaukiddrs),
218.
Mulbagal (or Mudla-bdgalu — literally, ' Eastern Gate,' so called
from commanding the pass from the table-land of Mysore to the temple
of Tirupati). — Town in Kolar District, Mysore State; 18 miles east-
north-east of Kolar town ; head-quarters of Mulbagal taluk. Lat. 13° 9'
40" N., long. 780 26' 30" E. Population (1881) 4441, namely, 3290
Hindus and 1151 Muhammadans. An ancient town, having been the
seat of government under the Vijayanagar dynasty. Some old temples
exist in the neighbourhood ; and the tomb of a Musalman saint annually
attracts many pilgrims on the anniversary of his death. There is also
a large temple dedicated to Anjaneyaswami or Hanuman, the idol being
of gigantic proportions. All Hindu pilgrims to Tirupati from the west
must pass through Mulbagal, where they are required to undergo a
ceremony of purification.
Mulgund. — Town in Gadag Sub-division, Dharwar District, Bombay
Presidency; situated 12 miles south-west of the town of Gadag, in lat. 150
17' N., and long. 75° 36' e. Population (1SS1) 5386. Hindus number
4395 > Muhammadans, 965; and Jains, 26. Till 1S4S, when through
failure of heirs it lapsed to the British Government, Mulgund belonged
to the chief of Tasgaon. Post-office; two schools with 345 pupils in
1883-S4.
Muli. — Native State in the Jhalawar prant or division of Kathiawar,
Gujarat, Bombay Presidency, lying between 220 2>c> 45" and 22° 46'
45" N. lat., and between 710 25' and 710 38' 15" e. long. Area, 133
square miles. Population (1872) i7,S6i; (1SS1) 19,832. Number of
533 MULI TOWN—MULTAI.
villages, 19. The country is generally flat, with low rocky ridges; the
climate is hot and dry. The usual grains and cotton are grown. The
nearest port is Dholera. Muli is officially ranked as a 'fourth-class'
State, and is the only Pramara chiefship in Kathiawar. Though there
is one nominal head or Thakur (who owns but 2 of the 19 villages), the
State is divided among a number of sharers of almost equal influence,
by whom the usual engagements have been executed. The present
(1881-82) chief is Pramara Sartansinghji, a Hindu of the ancient Rajput
clan called Pramara. He has been privately educated, and administers
the State in person. He maintained a military force of 222 men in
1882-83. He enjoys an estimated gross yearly revenue of ^10,000,
and pays a tribute of ^£935, 8s. jointly to the British Government and
to the Nawab of Junagarh. No sanad authorizing adoption is held
by the chief; the succession follows the rule of primogeniture. There
are 6 schools in the State, with a total attendance of 425 pupils. Transit
dues are not levied.
Muli. — Chief town of Muli State, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency.
Lat. 220 38' n., long. 710 30' e., 13 miles south-west of Wad h wan, on
the Bhogava. Population (18S1) 6357. Hindus numbered 5585; Jains,
497 ; Muhammadans, 268 ; and Pdrsis, 7. Famous for its saddle-cloths.
Muli contains a temple of the Swami Nardyan sect. School ; dispensary.
Mulila Deri. — Petty State in the Halar division of Kathiawar, Bombay
Presidency; consisting of 7 villages, with 2 shareholders. Area, 15
square miles. Population (1881) of Mulila Deri town, 1430; of the
estate, 2510. Estimated revenue (1881), ^1400, from which tribute of
^127, 18s. is paid to the British Government, and ,£17, 10s. to the
Nawab of Junagarh.
Mulki. — Town in South Kanara District, Madras Presidency; situated
in lat. 1 30 5' 15" n., and long. 74° 49' 35" e., on an inlet of the sea, 19
miles north of Mangalore. The water is too shallow to admit large
vessels, but small fishing and coasting craft find shelter here. Opposite
the mouth of the inlet is a group of islets known as the Mulki or
Prcmeira Rocks. The average annual value of imports for the five years
ending 1882-83 was ^10,176, and of exports ^26,476. In 1881-82
the imports were valued at ^7352, and the exports at ,£18,554.
Mullama Konda. — Mountain in Cuddapah (Kadapa) District,
Madras. — See Horsley Konda.
Multai. — Southern tahsil or Sub-division of Betiil District, Central
Provinces. Area, 961 square miles ; number of villages, 310 ; occupied
houses, 17,904. Population (1881) 93,168, namely, males 47,023,
ami females 46,145. Average density of population, 96-95 persons per
square mile. Of the total area of the tahsil, 285 square miles are held
revenue-free, leaving the assessed area at 676 square miles. Of these, 485
square miles are returned as under cultivation, 119 square miles as
MULTAI TOWN. 539
cultivable but not under tillage, and 72 square miles as uncultivable
waste. Total adult agricultural population (male and female), 38,347,
or 41 "i 6 per cent, of the whole population. Average area of culti-
vated and cultivable land for each adult cultivator, 1 1 acres. Total
Government land revenue, including local rates and cesses, levied on
the land, ^7366, or an average of 5§d. per cultivated acre. Total
rental, including cesses paid by the cultivators, ,£13,396, or an average
of iof-d. per acre of cultivated land. In 1883, Multai tahsil contained
1 criminal and 2 civil courts ; number of police circles (t/uinds), 5 ;
strength of regular police, 59 men, besides a village watch of 408
chaukid&rs.
Multai. — Town and municipality in Betul District, Central Provinces,
and head-quarters of Multai tahsil ; situated in lat. 21° 46' 26" n., and
long. 780 18' 5" e., 28 miles east of Bedmir. Population (18S1) 3423,
namely, Hindus, 2929; Muhammadans, 436 ; Satnamis, 2; Jains, 44 ;
Christians, 2; and aboriginal tribes, 10. Municipal income (1882-83),
,£130, of which ;£8i was derived from taxation ; average incidence of
taxation, 5yd. per head. The large tank, ornamented with several
temples, is reverenced by Hindus as the source of the river Taptf.
Multai has a tahsili and police station, a Government school and
a charitable dispensary; and does some trade in the opium and
unrefined sugar produced in the neighbourhood. The English burial-
ground is now disused.
END OF VOLUME IX.
AND GIUB, EDINBURGH,
PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONLKY OFFICE.
9
BINDING SECT. AUG 5
DS
-405
H8
1885
v.9
Cat.Dept,
Hunter, (Sir) William Wilson
The Imperial Gazeeteer of
India
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