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II 


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THE 


IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 
OF  INDIA 


VOL.    XV 


KARACHI 


TO 


KOTAYAM 


NEW  EDITION 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  HIS  MAJESTY'S 
SECRETARY  OF  STATE  FOR  INDIA  IN  COUNCIL 


MICROFORMED  BY 
PRESERVATION 


DATE 


SERVOS 

MAR  0  2  1987, 


OXFORD 

AT   THE   CLARENDON   PRESS 

1908 


HENRY  FROYYDE,  M.A. 

PUBLISHER   TO   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  OXFORD 

LONDON,   EDINBURGH 

NEW  YORK   AND   TORONTO 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTES 

Notes  on   Transliteration 

Vowel-Sounds 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  woman.' 
a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  father.' 
e  has  the  vowel-sound  in  'grey.' 
i  has  the  sound  of  i  in  '  pin.' 
I  has  the  sound  of  i  in  '  police.' 
o  has  the  sound  of  o  in  '  bone.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  it  in  '  bull.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  u  in  '  flute.' 
ai  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  mine.' 
au  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  house.' 

It  should  be  stated  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish 
between  the  long  and  short  sounds  of  e  and  o  in  the  Dravidian 
languages,  which  possess  the  vowel-sounds  in  '  bet '  and  '  hot '  in 
addition  to  those  given  above.  Nor  has  it  been  thought  necessary 
to  mark  vowels  as  long  in  cases  where  mistakes  in  pronunciation 
were  not  likely  to  be  made. 

Consonants 

Most  Indian  languages  have  different  forms  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonants, such  as  d,  t,  r,  &c,  marked  in  scientific  works  by  the  use 
of  dots  or  italics.  As  the  European  ear  distinguishes  these  with 
difficulty  in  ordinary  pronunciation,  it  has  been  considered  undesir- 
able to  embarrass  the  reader  with  them ;  and  only  two  notes  are 
required.  In  the  first  place,  the  Arabic  k,  a  strong  guttural,  has 
been  represented  by  k  instead  of  q,  which  is  often  used.  Secondly, 
it  should  be  remarked  that  aspirated  consonants  are  common ;  and, 
in  particular,  dh  and  th  (except  in  Burma)  never  have  the  sound  of 
th  in  '  this  '  or  'thin,'  but  should  be  pronounced  as  in  'woodhouse' 
and  '  boathook.' 


iv  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

Burmese   Words 

Burmese  and  some  of  the  languages  on  the  frontier  of  China  have 
the  following  special  sounds  : — 

aw  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  law.' 
6  and  ii  are  pronounced  as  in  German, 
gy  is  pronounced  almost  like/'  in  'jewel.' 
ky  is  pronounced  almost  like  ch  in  '  church.' 
th  is  pronounced  in  some  cases  as  in  'this,'  in  some  cases  as  in 

'thin.' 
w  after  a  consonant  has  the  force  of  uw.     Thus,  ywa  and  pwe 
are  disyllables,  pronounced  as  if  written  ymva  and  picwe. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that,  whereas  in  Indian  words  the  accent 
or  stress  is  distributed  almost  equally  on  each  syllable,  in  Burmese 
there  is  a  tendency  to  throw  special  stress  on  the  last  syllable. 

General 
The  names  of  some  places — e.  g.  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
Cawnpore — have  obtained  a  popular  fixity  of  spelling,  while  special 
forms  have  been  officially  prescribed  for  others.  Names  of  persons 
are  often  spelt  and  pronounced  differently  in  different  parts  of  India ; 
but  the  variations  have  been  made  as  few  as  possible  by  assimilating 
forms  almost  alike,  especially  where  a  particular  spelling  has  been 
generally  adopted  in  English  books. 

Notes  on  Money,  Prices,  Weights  and  Measures 

As  the  currency  of  India  is  based  upon  the  rupee,  all  statements 
with  regard  to  money  throughout  the  Gazetteer  have  necessarily  been 
expressed  in  rupees,  nor  has  it  been  found  possible  to  add  generally 
a  conversion  into  sterling.  Down  to  about  1873  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  (containing  165  grains  of  pure  silver)  was  approximately 
equal  to  2s.,  or  one-tenth  of  a  £  ;  and  for  that  period  it  is  easy  to 
convert  rupees  into  sterling  by  striking  off  the  final  cipher  (Rs.  1,000 
=  £100).  But  after  1873,  owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  as 
compared  with  gold  throughout  the  world,  there  came  a  serious  and 
progressive  fall  in  the  exchange,  until  at  one  time  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  dropped  as  low  as  is.  In  order  to  provide  a  remedy  for 
the  heavy  loss  caused  to  the  Government  of  India  in  respect  of  its 
gold  payments  to  be  made  in  England,  and  also  to  relieve  foreign 
trade  and  finance  from  the  inconvenience  due  to  constant  and 
unforeseen  fluctuations  in  exchange,  it  was  resolved  in  1893  to  close 
the  mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  thus  force  up  the  value  of 
the  rupee  by  restricting  the  circulation.     The  intention  was  to  raise 


■  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES  v 

the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee  to  is.  <\d.,  and  then  introduce  a  gold 
standard  (though  not  necessarily  a  gold  currency)  at  the  rate  of  Rs.  15 
=  £1.  This  policy  has  been  completely  successful.  From  1899  on- 
wards the  value  of  the  rupee  has  been  maintained,  with  insignificant 
fluctuations,  at  the  proposed  rate  of  is.  <\d. ;  and  consequently  since 
that  date  three  rupees  have  been  equivalent  to  two  rupees  before  1873. 
For  the  intermediate  period,  between  1873  and  1899,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  to  adopt  any  fixed  sterling  value  for  a  constantly  changing 
rupee.  But  since  1899,  if  it  is  desired  to  convert  rupees  into  sterling, 
not  only  must  the  final  cipher  be  struck  oflf  (as  before  1873),  but 
also  one-third  must  be  subtracted  from  the  result.  Thus  Rs.  1,000 
=  £100  — -|  =  (about)  £67. 

Another  matter  in  connexion  with  the  expression  of  money  state- 
ments in  terms  of  rupees  requires  to  be  explained.  The  method  of 
numerical  notation  in  India  differs  from  that  which  prevails  through- 
out Europe.  Large  numbers  are  not  punctuated  in  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands and  millions,  but  in  lakhs  and  crores.  A  lakh  is  one  hundred 
thousand  (written  out  as  1, 00,000),  and  a  crore  is  one  hundred  lakhs 
or  ten  millions  (written  out  as  1,00,00,000).  Consequently,  accord- 
ing to  the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee,  a  lakh  of  rupees  (Rs.  1,00,000) 
may  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of  £10,000  before  1873,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  (about)  £6,667  after  1899  ;  while  a  crore  of  rupees 
(Rs.  1,00,00,000)  may  similarly  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of 
£1,000,000  before  1873,  and  as  the  equivalent  of  (about)  £666,667 
after  1899. 

Finally,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  rupee  is  divided  into 
16  annas,  a  fraction  commonly  used  for  many  purposes  by  both 
natives  and  Europeans.  The  anna  was  formerly  reckoned  as  i\d. ; 
it  may  now  be  considered  as  exactly  corresponding  to  id.  The 
anna  is  again  subdivided  into  12  pies. 

The  various  systems  of  weights  used  in  India  combine  uniformity 
of  scale  with  immense  variations  in  the  weight  of  units.  The  scale 
used  generally  throughout  Northern  India,  and  less  commonly  in 
Madras  and  Bombay,  may  be  thus  expressed  :  one  maund  =  40  seers  ; 
one  seer  =16  chittaks  or  80  tolas.  The  actual  weight  of  a  seer 
varies  greatly  from  District  to  District,  and  even  from  village  to 
village;  but  in  the  standard  system  the  tola  is  180  grains  Troy 
(the  exact  weight  of  the  rupee),  and  the  seer  thus  weighs  2-057  lb., 
and  the  maund  82-28  lb.  This  standard  is  used  in  official  reports 
and  throughout  the  Gazetteer. 

For  calculating  retail  prices,  the  universal  custom  in  India  is  to 
express  them  in  terms  of  seers  to  the  rupee.  Thus,  when  prices 
change,  what  varies  is  not  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid  for  the 


vi  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

same  quantity,  but  the  quantity  to  be  obtained  for  the  same  amount 
of  money.  In  other  words,  prices  in  India  are  quantity  prices,  not 
money  prices.  When  the  figure  of  quantity  goes  up,  this  of  course 
means  that  the  price  has  gone  down,  which  is  at  first  sight  perplexing 
to  an  English  reader.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  quantity 
prices  are  not  altogether  unknown  in  England,  especially  at  small 
shops,  where  pennyworths  of  many  groceries  can  be  bought.  Eggs, 
likewise,  are  commonly  sold  at  a  varying  number  for  the  shilling. 
If  it  be  desired  to  convert  quantity  prices  from  Indian  into  English 
denominations  without  having  recourse  to  money  prices  (which  would 
often  be  misleading),  the  following  scale  may  be  adopted— based 
upon  the  assumptions  that  a  seer  is  exactly  2  lb.,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  rupee  remains  constant  at  is.  \d. :  1  seer  per  rupee  =  (about) 
3  lb.  for  2S. ;  2  seers  per  rupee  =  (about)  6  lb.  for  2s. ;  and  so  on. 

The  name  of  the  unit  for  square  measurement  in  India  generally 
is  the  bigha,  which  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
But  areas  have  always  been  expressed  throughout  the  Gazetteer  either 
in  square  miles  or  in  acres. 


MAP 

KashmIr to  face  p.  138 


IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 
OF    INDIA 

VOLUME    XV 

Karachi  District. — District  in  Sind,  Bombay,  lying  between  23°  35' 
and  260  22'  N.  and  66°  42"  and  68°  48"  E.,  with  an  area  of  11,970 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Larkana ;  on  the  east 
by  the  Indus  and  Hyderabad  I  )istrict  :  on  the  south  by  the  sea  and 
the  Kori  river;  and  on  the  west  by  the  sea  and  the  State  of  Las 
Bela  (Baluchistan),  the  river  Hab  forming  for  a  considerable  distance 
the  line  of  demarcation.  The  District,  which  covers  a  large  tract  of 
land  stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the 
Baluchi  boundary,  differs  considerably  in  appearance  asoects 

from  the  general  level  of  Sind  by  its  possession  of 
a  hilly  western  region,  lying  in  the  mahal  of  Kohistan  and  the  tali/ka 
of  Karachi.  Numerous  lateral  ranges  of  considerable  height  here  push 
forward  into  the  plain  from  the  Kirthar  mountains,  and  diversify 
the  usually  monotonous  aspect  of  the  arid  surface  by  their  spurs  and 
offshoots.  From  this  lofty  and  barren  tract,  intersected  by  deep  and 
wide  valleys,  the  general  aspect  of  the  country,  as  it  runs  south-east- 
ward in  a  vast  sloping  plain,  becomes  more  and  more  level,  until  in 
the  extreme  south  the  Indus  delta  presents  a  broad  expanse  of  low, 
flat  alluvium,  stretching  away  to  the  horizon  in  one  unbroken  sheet, 
varied  only  by  the  numerous  creeks  communicating  with  the  ocean. 
Large  forests  of  babul  and  other  trees  fringe  the  river  banks,  and  impart 
a  somewhat  fresher  appearance  to  the  otherwise  dreary  landscape. 
Elsewhere,  however,  the  features  of  the  Sind  delta  stand  unrelieved 
in  their  naked  monotony. 

Apart  from  the  Indus  and  the  Hab  rivers,  there  are  only  a  few 
minor  torrents  in  the  District.  These  take  their  rise  in  the  western 
hills,  but  consist  of  dry  watercourses  for  the  greater  portion  of  the  year, 
filled  only  on  the  rare  occasions  when  heavy  rains  fall  on  the  higher 
ranges  in  which  they  have  their  sources.  The  Hajamrb  and  Baghar 
are  offshoots  of  the  Indus,  the  former  now  constituting  the  chief 
channel  to  the  sea.     At  PlR   Mangho  there  are  hot  springs,  situated 


2  KARACHI  DISTRICT 

among  barren  and  rocky  hills,  and  famous  for  their  healing  qualities, 
as  well  as  for  the  crocodiles  in  an  adjacent  enclosure.  Other  hot 
sulphur  springs  are  to  be  found  at  Lakhi  in  the  Kotri  taluka,  which 
attract  a  number  of  pilgrims  every  year. 

In  Karachi  District  the  highly  interesting  geological  series  of  Sind 
is  most  completely  developed.  It  consists  of  upper  and  lower  Manch- 
har  beds  of  upper  and  middle  miocene  age,  corresponding  with  the 
Siwaliks  of  Baluchistan  and  of  the  Himalayas;  and  the  Gaj  group  con- 
taining highly  fossiliferous  marine  beds,  whose  age  is  lower  to  middle 
Miocene.  A  second  series  is  the  upper  Nari  or  oligocene,  consisting 
of  alternating  fresh-water  and  marine  strata;  and  this  gives  way  in  places 
to  the  lower  Nari  or  upper  eocene,  a  highly  fossiliferous  Nummulitic 
limestone,  and  to  the  upper  limestone  and  shales  of  the  Nummulitic 
Kirthar  group,  of  middle  eocene  age,  which  corresponds  with  the 
Splntangi  and  Ghazij  of  Baluchistan.  One  also  finds  a  lower  limestone 
and  shale  group,  likewise  Nummulitic  and  classed  as  Kirthar,  but  not 
known  outside  of  Sind,  to  which  nearly  all  the  Kirthar  outcrops  in 
Karachi  District  belong.  The  upper  Ranikot,  another  highly  fossili- 
ferous marine  group,  containing  in  its  upper  beds  the  oldest  Nummulitic 
strata  known  in  India,  is  approximately  on  the  same  horizon  as  the 
London  Clay,  and  alternates  with  the  lower  Ranikot — fluviatile  beds 
with  lignites  and  fossil  remains  of  plants.  Other  features  of  the  series 
are  representatives  of  the  Deccan  trap  basalts  ;  the  Cardita  beaumonti 
beds,  which  are  lowermost  eocene  or  uppermost  Cretaceous;  and  lastly 
the  hippuritic  limestone.  All  these  rocks  outcrop,  each  in  turn,  in 
a  succession  of  gentle  synclinal  and  anticlinal  folds,  whose  structure 
recalls  that  of  the  Jura  mountains.  There  is  scarcely  another  part  of 
the  world  that  contains  so  complete  a  development  of  the  Tertiary.  The 
southern  part  of  the  District  is  covered  by  the  Indus  alluvium. 

Among  fruit  trees,  which  are  not  numerous,  the  mango,  ber,  apple,  date, 
lig,  plantain,  and  pomegranate  are  noticeable.  The  timber  is  almost 
entirely  babul ;  and  the  timur  or  mangrove,  found  near  the  salt  creeks, 
provides  firewood  for  steamers  and  fodder  for  camels.  Of  maritime 
plants,  the  chawara  and  kaudel  are  common  on  the  coast.  The  tama- 
risk grows  in  patches  which  are  peculiarly  dense  in  portions  of  the 
Shahbandar  taluka ;  while  the  casuarina  has  been  planted  with  some 
success  at  Karachi. 

The  wild  animals  found  in  the  hilly  portions  are  the  leopard,  hyena, 
wolf,  jackal,  fox,  ibex,  antelope,  and  gad  or  wild  sheep.  Crocodiles  are 
found  at  Magar  Talao  ;  and  they  are  also  numerous  in  the  pools  of  the 
1  tab  river,  in  the  Indus,  and  in  some  of  the  large  canals  and  mountain 
torrents. 

The  climate  of  Karachi  city  and  the  neighbouring  country,  which  is 
in  every  direction  open  to  the  sea-breeze,  possesses  a  great  superiority 


HISTORY  3 

over  that  prevailing  throughout  the  remainder  of  Sind.  The  hill 
country  of  Kohistan  is  also  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter 
than  is  the  case  in  the  plains.  In  the  north,  on  the  other  hand,  near 
the  barren  Lakhi  range  of  hills,  the  heat  often  becomes  insupportable. 
The  hot  season  commences  about  the  middle  or  end  of  March,  reaches 
its  maximum  in  the  month  of  July,  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  August, 
when  the  temperature  once  more  becomes  tolerably  cool.  The  annual 
temperature  averages  790.  The  rainfall  at  Karachi  is  slight  and  fluctu- 
ating, the  annual  average  hardly  exceeding  5  inches.  Sometimes  one 
or  two  years  pass  with  scarcely  a  shower.  The  average  maximum  rain- 
fall elsewhere  is  9  inches  in  the  Karachi  tah/ka,  and  the  minimum  5 
inches  at  Manjhand. 

Alexander  the  Great,  towards  the  close  of  his  Indian  expedition, 
dispatched  Nearchus,  doubtless  from  some  point  (suggested  to  be  at 
Tatta)  in  this  District,  to  explore  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  date  713  marks  the  first  Arab  invasion  of  the 
District,  which  later  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  local  Arab  princi- 
pality of  Mansura,  nearly  corresponding  with  modern  Sixd.  Between 
1 019  and  1026,  the  invasions  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  took  place  and 
paved  the  way  for  the  supremacy  of  the  Sumra  dynasty,  whose  founder 
was  a  titular  vassal  of  the  Ghaznivids ;  and  in  1333  the  Samma  tribe 
from  Cutch  settled  first  at  Sehwan  in  Larkana  District  and  afterwards 
at  Tatta.  Close  under  the  Makli  hills  stood  Samui,  the  capital  of  the 
Samma  princes,  originally  a  Hindu  or  Buddhist  race.  Converted  to 
the  faith  of  Islam  about  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  con- 
tinued to  retain  their  practical  autonomy,  in  spite  of  a  nominal  allegi- 
ance tendered  to  Firoz  Tughlak  of  Delhi ;  and  the  town  of  Tatta, 
where  they  generally  resided,  became  in  after  years  the  chief  centre  of 
population  and  commerce  for  the  whole  of  Sind. 

In  1 52 1  Shah  Beg,  founder  of  the  Arghun  dynasty,  completely 
defeated  the  last  Samma  prince,  and  established  his  own  claim  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  lower  Indus  valley  ;  but,  after  a  continuance  of  only 
thirty-four  years,  the  Arghun  line  became  extinct  in  the  person  of  Shah 
Hasan,  son  of  the  founder,  who  died  childless  in  1554.  Mirza  Jam 
Beg,  the  last  local  ruler  of  Tatta,  was  defeated  by  an  army  of  the 
Mughal  emperor  Akbar  in  1592;  and  the  District,  together  with  the 
rest  of  Sind,  became  incorporated  with  the  Multan  Subah  in  the  imperial 
organization.  The  country  of  Tatta,  however,  was  made  over  to  Jam 
Beg,  who  entered  the  Mughal  service  after  his  defeat,  and  compromised 
for  his  independence  by  accepting  his  former  territories  in  jCiglr. 
Continued  struggles  for  the  governorship  of  Tatta  led  Jahanglr  to 
abolish  the  hereditary  viceroyalty,  and  to  appoint  instead  special  lieu- 
tenants holding  office  during  the  imperial  pleasure.  The  town  of 
Karachi  appears  to  have  attained  little   importance  under  either  the 


4  KARACHI   DISTRICT 

native  dynasties  or  the  Mughal  administration.  Its  rise  into  notice 
began  with  the  period  of  the  Talpur  Mirs,  in  succession  to  the  Kalhora 
princes,  who  had  usurped  power  on  the  break-up  of  the  Mughal  empire. 
They  were  the  first  to  recognize  the  value  of  the  harbour  for  commerce, 
and  in  1792  recovered  Karachi  from  the  Khan  of  Kalat  :  but  soon 
afterwards  they  divided  into  three  branches,  each  ruling  independently 
in  a  separate  part  of  Sind.  The  British  endeavoured  to  enter  into 
friendly  treaties  with  the  Mirs ;  but  their  jealousy  and  mistrust  of  the 
motives  of  the  Government  prevented  any  cordial  understanding,  and 
in  1838  they  offered  considerable  opposition  to  the  march  of  British 
troops  on  their  way  to  the  first  Afghan  War.  After  Shah  Shuja  was 
placed  on  the  throne,  the  Mirs  were  required  to  pay  the  arrears  of 
tribute  due  to  the  Afghan  ruler  and  to  permit  the  establishment  of 
a  British  force  in  Sind.  Failure  having  been  made  in  payment  of  the 
stipulated  tribute,  the  Mirs  were  required  to  cede  certain  territory. 
The  army,  however,  resisted  this  loss  of  independence,  and  attacking 
the  Hyderabad  Residency  precipitated  the  conflict  which  ended  in  the 
annexation  of  Sind  to  the  British  dominions.  The  District  passed  to 
the  British  in  1843.  Karachi  town  grew  rapidly  under  the  new  admin- 
istration, and  became  the  principal  port  of  North-western  India.  The 
District,  as  at  first  constituted,  did  not  embrace  the  same  area  as  at 
present;  in  1861  a  portion  of  the  Indus  delta,  composing  the  present 
Shahbandar  taluka,  was  added  to  it  from  Hyderabad,  while  in  1901 
three  talukas  were  taken  from  it  to  form  part  of  the  new  District  of 
Larkana. 

Among  the  remains  of  interest  in  the  District  may  be  mentioned 
those  situated  in  the  town  of  Tatta.  The  town  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  possesses  a  number  of  tombs,  inscriptions,  mosques,  and  a  fort. 
The  Jama  Masjid  is  decorated  with  coloured  tile-work  of  the  well- 
known  Multan  type.  The  design  and  shades  of  colour  are  very  beauti- 
ful. The  Dabgar  Masjid  has  a  fine  central  mihrab,  carved  with  delicate 
surface  tracery.  The  old  fort  at  Tatta  was  commenced  about  1699, 
but  was  never  completed.  The  ruined  city  of  Bhambore  is  an  inter- 
esting archaeological  relic.  In  the  delta  of  the  Indus  are  numerous 
sites  of  ruined  cities,  such  as  Lahori,  Kakar,  Bukera,  Samui,  Fathbagh, 
Kat  Bambhan,  Jun,  Than,  Badin,  and  Tur,  as  well  as  the  remains  of 
Daro  and  Lohan.  Among  ruined  forts  once  of  importance  are  those 
of  Charlo  Chakar  and  Raniji. 

In   1872   the  population   was  442,177;   in    18S1,  495,860;    in  1891, 

571,951  ;   and    in  1901,  607,828.     Since  the  date  of  the  last  Census, 

-       ,    .  a  new  District  has  been  created  by  the  transfer  of 

Population.  .       _,  .      ,         ,.,.,_  ,.;...  TA. 

certain  ialukas  from  Shikarpur  and  Karachi  Districts. 

The  population  of  the  present  area  of  Karachi  District  (446,513)  shows 

an  increase  of  8  per  cent,  over  the  population  of  the  same  area  in  1891. 


POPULATION  5 

The    population    is   distributed,  as  follows,  in  nine   talukas    and    the 
Kohistan  tract : — 


Number  of 

fed 

■s.si- . 

c 

3 

r.,p 

<»    0 

0 

is 

4;      _  0  ~ 

"0.2*28 

5  a  «  £ 

Taluka  01 

. 

Mahal. 

—  C 

tn 

c 

"5 

■SS 

S|js8-S 

■5  [A-rj'u 

~   =   rt   i 

rt  ~ 

js 

rt 

3  3 

0  >-  3  ?•  c 

=  0  s 

u 

u 

< 

0 

H 
2 

> 

0- 

C   tr. 

«  >  O  ** 

i-        •* 
koln* 

1,485 

62 

57-530 

39 

+         2 

-•,287 

Kohistan  mahal 

i,8or) 

•  • . 

2 

12,877 

7 

—      20 

141 

Karachi    . 

1.678 

1 

14 

136,297 

Si 

+       10 

9-59° 

Tatta 

1,229 

1 

35 

4**745 

34 

+      12 

1,425 

Mirpur  Sakro    . 

i,i37 

74 

27,600 

24 

+        6 

354 

( ihorabari 
Keti  mahal 

!  ««i 

1 

51 
42 

26,237 
8,499 

}0, 

+      14 

431 

Mirpur  Batoro  . 

269 

62 

37,i '6 

'38 

+      5 

583 

Sujawal     . 

267 

65 

33,251 

125 

+    '3 

53° 

Jati  . 

2,145 

117 

31-752 

15 

+    '4 

310 

Shahbandar 
District  total 

1,388 

5 

104 

33,69 

24 

37 

+    M 

323 

11,970 

628 

446,5i3 

+      8 

15-974 

*  Including  the  Manjhand  mahal,  for  which  separate  statistics  are  not  available. 

There  are  5  towns,  Karachi,  the  capital  of  the  province  and  head- 
quarters of  the  District,  Keti,  Kotri,  Manjhand,  and  Tatta  ;  and 
628  villages.  The  density  of  population  varies  according  as  the  tract 
concerned  happens  to  be  desert,  barren  hill,  or  cultivable.  Of  the 
population,  77  per  cent,  are  Musalmans,  21  per  cent.  Hindus,  and 
1  per  cent.  Christians.  Sindi  is  spoken  by  340,837  persons,  or  76  per 
cent,  of  the  total. 

The  Muhammadans  consist  mainly  of  Sindi  tribes,  of  whom  half 
(112,000)  returned  themselves  as  Sammas  and  9,000  as  Sumras,  sug- 
gesting some  connexion  with  the  once-powerful  dynasties  known  by 
those  names.  The  Muhanas  or  fishermen  number  31,000.  Of  foreign 
tribes,  the  Baluchis  are  represented  by  28,000,  and  the  Brahuis  by 
10,000.  There  are  17,000  Jats.  Among  Hindus,  the  trading  caste 
known  as  Lohana  or  Euvana  is  alone  of  numerical  importance,  with 
35,000.  Brahmans,  Rajputs,  and  Bhatias  scarcely  number  3,000  each. 
The  low  castes  are  represented  by  8,000  Dheds.  Agriculture  supports 
45  per  cent,  of  the  population ;  industries,  commerce,  and  the  profes- 
sions 24,  2,  and  2  per  cent,  respectively. 

Of  the  2,707  native  Christians  in  1901,  more  than  2,500  were  Roman 
Catholics  and  129  belonged  to  the  Anglican  communion.  Karachi  is 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Church  of  England  Mission,  the  Church 
of  England  Zanana  Mission,  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission. 
The  first-named  society  maintains  three  boys'  schools  :  the  second, 
nine  girls'  schools  and  a  small  orphanage ;  the  third,  four  boys'  schools 
and  four  girls'  schools,  including  two  poor  schools;  the  fourth,  two  boys' 


K.  I  A.  I  CHI  DISTRICT 


schools.     The  Roman  Catholic  and  Zanana  Missions  have  branches  at 
KotrT  and  Jherruck  respectively. 

In  the  Karachi  taluka  cultivation  exists  only  on  a  few  isolated  spots, 
and  depends  upon  wells,  springs,  or  natural  rainfall.  Here  the  chief 
crops  are  jowar,  bajra,  barley,  and  sugar-cane,  grown 
chiefly  on  the  Malir  plain,  distant  about  12  miles 
from  Karachi  city,  and  easily  accessible  by  rail.  In  the  delta  tdlukas 
of  Tatta  and  Shahbandar,  where  numerous  creeks  and  channels  inter- 
sect the  alluvial  flats,  rice  forms  the  staple  crop  ;  but  wheat,  sugar-cane, 
millets,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  also  grown.  In  the  barren  hills  of 
Kohistan,  agriculture  is  but  little  practised,  except  within  embankments 
erected  to  impound  the  scanty  rainfall  or  along  watercourses  fed  by 
small  hill  streams ;  and  the  nomad  population  devotes  itself  almost 
entirely  to  grazing  cattle  in  the  southern  plains,  where  abundance  of 
forage  springs  up  spontaneously  after  the  slightest  fall  of  rain. 

The  chief  statistics  of  cultivation   in  1903-4  are  shown   below,  in 
square  miles : — 


Taluka. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 
51 

Waste. 

Forests. 

Kotri 

3,305 

329 

79 

56 

Karachi 

1,678 

63 

0 

84 

Tatta 

1,215 

68 

32 

6j 

51 

Mirpur  Sakro 

1,137 

104 

35 

IOO 

Ghorabari  . 

566 

102 

47 

240 

II 

Mirpur  Batoro    . 

269 

ICO 

63 

65 

39 

Sujawal 

267 

82 

53 

69 

47 

Jati     . 

M45 

97 

5° 

132 

Shahbandar 

Total 

1,388 

158 

49 

1,05  5 

8 

1 1 ,970* 

1,103 

380 

1,889 

212 

*  According  to  the  latest  information. 


Of  the  area  cropped,  22  square  miles  were  under  wheat,  13  under 
barley,  245  under  rice,  and  100  under  millets  {jowar  and  bajra).  Rice 
is  the  principal  crop,  except  in  the  Kohistan  tract  and  the  tdlukas  of 
Karachi  and  Kotri.  Millets  take  the  place  of  rice  in  Kotri.  Among 
the  pulses  mung  is  an  important  crop.  During  the  decade  ending 
1903-4  nearly  9  lakhs  was  advanced  to  cultivators  under  the  Land 
Improvement  Loans  Act  and  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act,  out  of 
which  i-8  lakhs  was  lent  in  1 899-1 900,  and  1-3  lakhs  in  each  of  the 
years  1900-1  and  1901-2.  The  money  is  usually  employed  on  erecting 
embankments  (bands)  and  clearing  canals. 

The  chief  domestic  animals  are  camels,  buffaloes,  and  cattle.  The 
buffaloes  are  commonest  in  the  deltaic  swamps,  and  produce  ghl  famous 
all  over  Western  India.  The  Karachi  cows  are  noted  as  good  milkers, 
and  many  of  them  are  shipped  to  Bombay  for  sale.     The  best  of  these 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  7 

cattle  are  bred  within  a  radius  of  30  or  40  miles  from  Karachi  city, 
chiefly  in  the  hill  tracts. 

Of  the  total  cultivated  area  of  1,103  square  miles,  380  square  miles, 
or  34  per  cent,  were  irrigated  in  1903-4.  The  chief  sources  of  irriga- 
tion are:  Government  canals,  118  square  miles;  private  canals,  206; 
and  other  sources,  56.  Throughout  Sind  nearly  every  canal  is  fed  by 
the  Indus ;  and  in  1903-4  nearly  34  per  cent,  of  the  total  irrigated  area 
of  the  District  was  supplied  by  the  Pinjari  canal,  fed  by  the  Shahbandar 
embankment  of  the  Indus.  The  Baghar,  a  small  canal  on  the  right 
bank,  irrigated  nearly  43  square  miles,  the  Kotri  24,  and  the  Kokwari 
23  square  miles.  Of  the  irrigated  land,  87  per  cent,  is  sown  for  the 
Marl/  or  autumn  harvest.  There  are  only  twenty-seven  wells  in  the 
District  used  for  irrigation. 

Sea-fishing  is  carried  on  by  the  Muhana  tribe  of  Musalmans,  who 
reside  for  the  most  part  in  hamlets  near  Karachi.  The  principal  fish 
caught  on  the   coast  are   sharks,   rays,  and   skates.  . 

The  pearl  oyster  is  found  at  several  places,  and  the 
Mlrs  conducted  pearl  operations  on  their  own  account.  Under  British 
rule,  the  right  has  been  let  for  a  small  sum,  but  the  pearls  are  very 
inferior  in  size  and  quality,  so  that  the  industry  has  greatly  declined 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years.  At  present  practically  no  pearl  fish- 
ing is  carried  on.  Considerable  fisheries  also  exist  in  the  river  Indus, 
chiefly  for  the  fish  known  as  palla,  which  are  annually  leased  out  by 
Government  for  about  Rs.  20,000. 

The  forest  lands  include  tracts  in  the  Jherruck  forest  division,  south 
of  Kotri,  producing  timber  and  fuel,  with  an  area  of  212  square  miles 
in  charge  of  a  divisional  forest  officer.  A  portion  of  the  Hyderabad 
forest  division,  measuring  48  square  miles  and  situated  north  of  Kotri, 
also  lies  within  Karachi  District.  The  forest  lands  are  situated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Indus,  for  the  most  part  in  the  Shahbandar  taluka. 
The  principal  trees  are  the  babTd  and  tamarisk,  the  latter  being  found 
chiefly  in  the  Shahbandar  jungles.  Forest  receipts  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  Rs.  52.  Good  building  stone  occurs  among  the  arenaceous  lime- 
stones of  the  Gaj  group  near  Karachi. 

Local  manufactures  are  confined  to  cotton  cloth,  silk  scarves,  carpets, 
rugs,  and  the  ordinary  metal  and  earthenware.     Besides  a  few  factories 
in  Karachi  city,  there  are  few  industries  of  importance. 
Tatta  is  noted  for  tungfs,  used  by  women  as  robes  or  c^munications. 
shawls.    Extensive  salt  deposits  of  the  purest  descrip- 
tion occur  in  the  Shahbandar  taluka,  on  the  Sirganda  creek,  a  branch  of 
the  Indus,  accessible  for  small  craft  of  from  50  to  60  tons  burden.    Salt 
is  manufactured  from  salt  water  by  artificial  means  at  the  Maurypur 
works  on  the  sea-coast,  a  few  miles  from  Karachi.     Out  of  1 5  factories, 
5   are  cotton-gins  and  presses,  employing   356  persons,  and  the  rest 


8  KARACHI    DISTRICT 

include  2  metal  foundries,  2   hone-mills,  an  arsenal,  a  printing  press, 
and  a  railway  workshop. 

The  traffic  centres  mainly  in  the  city  and  port  of  Karachi.  The 
staple  exports  consist  of  grain,  principally  wheat,  cotton,  wool,  hides 
and  skins ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  sugar,  kerosene,  piece-goods, 
liquor,  and  metals.  Karachi  District  contains  three  seaports  :  namely, 
Karachi,  Keti,  and  Sirganda.  The  average  value  of  the  foreign  trade, 
which  is  practically  confined  to  Karachi  port,  for  the  five  years  ending 
1902-3  was:  imports,  505  lakhs;  exports,  712  lakhs;  total,  1217 
lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  value  of  the  imports  was  591  lakhs,  and  of  the 
exports  1345  lakhs;  total,  1936  lakhs,  or  719  lakhs  above  the  average 
of  the  previous  five  years.  The  average  value  of  the  coastwise  trade  for 
all  ports  for  the  five  years  ending  1902-3  was:  imports,  340  lakhs; 
exports,  251  lakhs;  total,  591  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  coastwise  trade 
was  returned  as  follows  :  imports,  375  lakhs  ;  exports,  188  lakhs;  total, 
563  lakhs,  or  28  lakhs  below  the  average  of  the  previous  five  years, 
which  resulted  from  a  decrease  in  the  exports  to  Bombay  of  raw  cotton, 
wheat,  and  rapeseed.  The  coast-borne  trade  includes  reimports  and 
re-exports  from  and  to  Karachi,  which  are  included  in  the  values  of 
the  foreign  trade  given  above. 

Besides  being  the  port  of  call  of  various  steamer  lines,  chief  among 
which  is  the  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company,  Karachi  is  con- 
nected with  two  important  railway  systems  and  a  number  of  trade  routes 
from  Afghanistan,  Kalat,  and  Central  Asia.  The  North-Western  Rail- 
way links  the  District  with  the  Punjab  and  the  United  Provinces,  while 
the  Jodhpur-Bikaner  Railway  supplies  railway  communication  with  the 
Thar  and  Parkar  District  and,  by  a  circuitous  route,  with  Bombay. 
A  line  running  for  54  miles  from  Hyderabad  town  to  Badin,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Badin  taluka  of  Hyderabad,  was  opened  in  1904.  This 
line  is  to  form  part  of  the  proposed  direct  railway  between  Sind  and 
Bombay,  which  will  run  through  Karachi  District  and  pass  either 
through  Cutch  or  through  the  Thar  and  Parkar  District.  Three  im- 
portant trade  routes  converge  at  Karachi,  placing  it  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  interior  of  Sind,  with  Las  Bela,  and  with  Kalat.  The 
total  length  of  metalled  roads  in  the  District  outside  the  municipal 
towns  is  7  miles,  and  of  unmetalled  roads  1,321  miles.  The  total  cost 
of  their  maintenance  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  19,631,  of  which  Rs.  16,700 
was  paid  from  Local  funds.  Avenues  of  trees  are  maintained  along 
185  miles. 

The  District  has  three  subdivisions,  comprising  nine  talukas  and  three 
ma/ia/s,  in  charge  of  two  Assistant  Collectors  and  a   Deputy-Collector. 

The    nine    talukas   are    each   under    a    vii/khtiarkar, 
Administration.  ,.  .  _     ,   .,_         ..    .,        .,       , 

corresponding    to    the    niamlatdar    01    the    Bombay 

Presidency  proper.    The  three  mahah  are  Keti  Bandar,  Manjhand,  and 


ADMINISTRATION  9 

Kohistan.  The  city  of  Karachi  forms  a  separate  charge  under  the 
City  Deputy-Collector. 

The  functions  of  the  former  District  and  Sessions  Judge  are  now- 
performed  by  two  Additional  Judicial  Commissioners,  who,  together  with 
the  Judicial  Commissioner,  compose  the  Chief  Court  in  Sind.  Sub- 
ordinate to  them  are  a  Judge  of  the  Small  Cause  Court  and  a  Sub- 
ordinate Judge,  sitting  at  Kotri.  The  city  is  under  the  separate  charge 
of  a  City  Magistrate,  and  there  is  a  Cantonment  Magistrate  for  the 
Karachi  and  Manora  cantonment.  Magisterial  work  in  the  District 
is,  as  usual,  carried  on  by  the  administrative  staff.  Cattle-lifting  is  a 
very  prevalent  form  of  crime,  and,  as  in  other  Districts,  blood-feuds 
arising  from  intrigues  with  women  are  common  among  the  hill  tribes. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  present  settlement  rates  into  all  talukas 
between  1876-7  and  1889-90,  there  were  only  two  rates  of  land  revenue 
levied  in  the  District :  that  is  to  say,  garden  and  '  dry-crop '  rates,  the 
former  at  R.  1  and  the  latter  at  8  annas  per  acre.  The  present  revenue 
system  of  Karachi  is  adapted  to  the  system  of  cultivation,  depending 
almost  entirely  upon  irrigation.  The  irrigation  settlement  (j^Sind)  is  in 
force  in  all  talukas  of  the  District,  and  is  fixed  for  a  term  of  ten  years. 
Kohistan  is  settled  under  a  special  lease  system,  which  expires  in  1909, 
but  the  lease  has  been  extended  for  another  five  years.  Under  this 
system  the  landholder  is  allowed  to  cultivate  on  payment  of  a  fixed 
annual  rent,  amounting  to  about  8  annas  per  acre.  Owing  to  the  pre- 
carious water-supply  of  this  tract,  which  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
rainfall,  the  irrigation  settlement  has  not  been  introduced  into  Kohistan. 
The  average  land  revenue  rates  per  acre  in  the  District  are  :  garden 
land,  Rs.  3-9  (maximum  Rs.  4,  minimum  Rs.  2-10);  rice  land,  Rs.  2-14 
(maximum  Rs.  3-8,  minimum  Rs.  2-4) ;  and  '  dry  '  land,  Rs.  2-0 
(maximum  Rs.  2-8,  minimum  Rs.   1-4). 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been   in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1 3..0.5 
33-01 

IQOO-I. 

I903-4. 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue  . 

7,2' 
22,29 

12,02 
69.22 

8,53 
60.  oC> 

There  are  live  municipalities  in  the  District  :  namely,  Karachi, 
Kotri,  Manjhand,  Tatta,  and  Keti  Bandar.  Elsewhere,  local 
affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  and  tdluka  boards,  the  total  re- 
ceipts of  which  in  1903-4  were  nearly  i|  lakhs,  the  principal  source 
of  income  being  the  land  cess.  The  expenditure  in  the  same  year 
amounted  to  one  lakh,  of  which  Rs.  30,000  was  spent  upon  roads  and 
buildings. 


io  KARACHI  DISTRICT 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  two  Assistants  and  seven 
inspectors.  There  are  nineteen  police  stations  in  the  District.  The 
total  number  of  police  in  1904  was  1,142,  of  whom  23  were  chief  con- 
stables, 184  head  constables,  and  935  constables.  The  District  contains 
a  District  jail  (at  Karachi),  n  sub-jails,  and  6  lock-ups.  The  daily 
average  number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  254,  of  whom  2  were  females. 
A  new  jail  with  accommodation  for  374  prisoners  is  under  construction. 

Of  the  total  population,  y^  per  cent.  (5-6  males  and  0-5  females)  are 
literate.  As  in  other  Sind  Districts,  education  is  backward  as  compared 
with  the  Presidency  proper,  and  such  advance  as  has  been  made  is 
more  observable  in  Karachi  city  than  in  the  towns  and  villages  in  the 
interior.  The  least  backward  talukas  are  Kotri  and  Tatta.  In  1 880-1 
there  were  65  schools,  attended  by  4,581  pupils.  The  number  of 
pupils  rose  to  13,856  in  1891  and  to  16,602  in  1901.  In  1903-4  there 
were  297  educational  institutions,  public  and  private,  including  an  Arts 
college  at  Karachi  city,  6  high  schools,  8  middle  schools,  2  training 
schools,  2  special  schools,  and  186  primary  and  elementary.  These 
institutions  were  attended  by  13,605  pupils,  including  3,028  girls.  Of 
the  205  institutions  classed  as  public,  2  were  managed  by  Government, 
69  by  the  local  boards  and  municipalities,  while  134  were  aided.  The 
great  majority  of  the  pupils  are  in  primary  schools.  Attempts  have  re- 
cently been  made  by  the  Muhammadan  community  to  encourage  educa- 
tion, and  a  society  has  been  formed  to  promote  this  object.  The  total 
expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was  2-|  lakhs,  of  which  about 
Rs.  50,000  was  derived  from  fees.  Of  the  total,  55  per  cent,  was 
devoted  to  primary  education. 

The  District  has  2  hospitals  and  13  dispensaries  and  other  institu- 
tions, containing  accommodation  for  186  in-patients.  The  existing  civil 
hospital  at  Karachi  is  being  replaced  by  a  more  modern  building.  In 
these  institutions,  104,000  cases  were  treated  in  1904,  of  whom  1,928 
were  in-patients,  and  3,473  operations  were  performed.  The  expendi- 
ture was  Rs.  64,000,  of  which  Rs.  30,000  was  met  from  Local  and 
municipal  funds. 

The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  12,359, 
representing  a  proportion  of  27  per  1,000,  which  exceeds  the  average 
for  the  Presidency.     Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  Karachi  city. 

[A.  W.  Hughes,  Gazetteer  of  the  Province  of  Sind  (1876,  new  edition 
in  the  press).] 

Karachi  Taluka. — South-western  taluka  of  Karachi  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  lying  between  240  46'  and  250  39'  N.  and  66°  42'  and  670  53' 
E.,  with  an  area  of  1,678  square  miles.  It  contains  one  city,  Karachi 
(population,  116,663),  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  of  the 
taluka  ;  and  14  villages.  The  population  increased  from  124,274  in  1891 
to  136,297  in  1 90 1.     The  density  is  81  persons  per  square  mile.     The 


KARACHI  CITY  n 

land  revenue  and  cesses  in    1903-4  amounted  to   Rs.   32,010.     The 

aspect  of  the  taluka,  excepting  the  portion  bordering  on  the  sea,  is 

hilly,  especially  towards  the  north  and  west  where  ranges  of  lofty  and 

barren  hills  run  from  north  to  south,  with  wide  valleys  between  them. 

A  small  chain  of  hills  runs  within  the  taluka  for  some  miles  parallel  to 

the  Hab  river,  terminating  in  the  headland  of  Ras  Muar  or  Cape  Monze, 

a  landmark  for  sailors  making  the  port  of  Karachi.     After  a  heavy 

fall  of  rain  these  hills  afford  abundant  pasturage.     The  taluka  contains 

no  canals,  but  is  drained  by  several  mountain  torrents,  the  chief  of  which 

are  the  Malir  and  Layari.     Salt  marshes  occur  along  the  sea-coast,  and 

abound  with  mangroves  and  other  trees.     Much  of  the  fertile  portion 

of  the  taluka  is  devoted  to  raising  vegetables  and  fruit  for  the  Karachi 

market.      Agriculture   depends    chiefly   upon    wells   and    springs,   the 

principal  crops  being  jowdr,  bajra,  barley,  and  sugar-cane,  which  are 

chiefly  grown  at  Malir. 

Karachi  City. — Capital  of  Sind,  Bombay,  and  head-quarters  of  the 

District  and  taluka  of  the  same  name,  situated  in   240  51'  N.  and 

670  4'  E.,  at  the  extreme  northern  end  of  the  Indus  delta,  near  the 

southern   base   of  the  Pab   mountains   and   close   to   the    border   of 

Baluchistan.     It  is  993  miles  distant  from  Bombay  by  rail,  the  distance 

in  nautical  miles  being  483.     Two  routes  connect  the  city  with  Lahore, 

by  Sukkur,  and  by  the  Kotri-Rohri  railway,  the  distance  by  each  being 

about  800  miles.     Population  has  increased  rapidly : 

f  /  r,     \  j       Population. 

(1872)   56,753,  (1881)   73,560,  (1891)  105,199,  and 

(1901)  1 16,663,  of  whom  8,019  resided  in  the  cantonment.     Muhamma- 

dans  number  60,003,  Hindus  48,169,  Christians  6,158,  and  Parsis  1,823. 

The  bay  of  Karachi  is  formed  by  the  projecting  point  of  Manora 

Head,  the  extremity  of  a  reef  10  miles  in  length,  which   supplies  a 

natural  barrier  against  the  Arabian  Sea.     The  open-  . 

„    ,       ,        °  _ ,  ,     .  .  Description, 

ing  of  the  bay  between  Manora  and  the  opposite 

sanitarium  of  Clifton  has  a  width  of  about  3^  miles  ;  but  the  mouth  is 

blocked  by  a  group  of  rocky  islets,  known  as  the  Oyster  Rocks,  as  well 

as  by  what  was  formerly  the  larger  island  of  Kiamari,  now  part  of  the 

mainland  owing  to  the  action  of  sand-drifts.     The  harbour  stretches  for 

5  miles  northward  from  Manora  Head  to  the  narrows  of  the  Layari 

river,  and  about  the  same  distance  from  the  old  town  of  Karachi  on 

the  eastern  shore  to  the  extreme  western  point.     Only  a  small  portion 

of  this  extensive  area,   however,  is  capable  of  accommodating  large 

vessels.    Manora  Head,  the  first  object  visible  to  a  voyager  approaching 

Karachi  from  the  sea,  is  crowned  by  a  lighthouse,  having  a  fixed  light 

148  feet  above  sea-level,  and   visible  for   20  miles  around  in   clear 

weather.     The  point  was  formerly  guarded  by  a  fort,  said  to  have  been 

first  erected  in  1797;    but  this  has  now  yielded  place  to  a  modern 

fortification,    the    port    and     pilot    establishment,    the     buildings    in 

VOL.  xv.  B 


i2  KARACHI   CITY 

connexion  with  the  harbour  improvements,  and  a  portion  of  the  Indo- 
European  Telegraph  department.  Besides  a  library,  billiard-room,  and 
European  school,  Manora  possesses  an  English  church,  intended  for 
the  crews  of  vessels  frequenting  the  harbour.  It  has  recently  been 
made  a  cantonment,  and  is  shortly  to  be  constituted  a  military 
sanitarium  in  place  of  Ghizri,  lately  abandoned. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  mouth,  Kiamari  forms  the  landing-place 
for  all  passengers  and  goods  bound  for  Karachi,  and  has  three  piers. 
A  road  running  along  the  Napier  Mole,  three  miles  long,  connects  the 
island  with  the  city  and  mainland,  and  is  traversed  by  the  East  India 
Tramway.  The  North-Western  Railway  also  extends  to  Kiamari  ;  but 
instead  of  following  the  mole,  it  takes  a  more  circuitous  route,  to  the 
south,  by  the  edge  of  a  large  lagoon,  the  waters  of  which  are  passed 
through  the  mole  by  a  screw-pile  bridge,  1,200  feet  in  length,  erected 
in  1865  at  a  cost  of  about  5  lakhs,  so  as  to  allow  them  to  flow  uninter- 
ruptedly into  the  harbour  as  a  means  of  scouring  the  channel.  At  the 
northern  extremity  of  this  bridge,  and  running  in  a  westerly  direction, 
stands  the  native  jetty,  built  of  stone  at  an  expense  of  4A  lakhs.  At 
the  end  of  the  mole,  on  the  mainland  side,  the  custom-house  runs  right 
across  the  road,  which  pierces  it  by  five  arches,  thus  intercepting  all 

traffic. 

Two  principal  thoroughfares    lead   from    the   custom-house    to    the 
Karachi    cantonment,    known    respectively    as    the    Bandar    and    the 
McLeod  Roads,  at  the  junction  of  which  stands  a  handsome  clock- 
tower,  the  public  memorial  to  Sir  William  Merewether.      The  oldest 
portion  of  the  town  is  situated  along  the  former  route,  close  to  the 
harbour,  containing  the  most  thickly  populated   quarter  in   Karachi. 
The  municipality  has  widened  and  paved  the  streets,  and  effected  other 
improvements  which  must  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  chiefly   Hindu  and   Muhammadan  merchants.     The  Layari, 
a  river  merely  in  name,  as  it  contains  water  only  three  or  four  times 
a  year,  separates  this  quarter  from  the  Layari  suburb.     On  the  McLeod 
Road  are  situated  the  Chief  Court,  the  Bank  of  Bombay,  the  National 
Bank  of  India,  the  city   railway  station,  the  general  post  office,  the 
telegraph  office,  the  Mansfield  import  yard,  Messrs.  Herman  &  Co.'s 
ironworks,   and    three    important    cotton-presses — the    McLeod    Road 
presses,  owned  by  the  Sind  Press  Company,  capable  of  turning  out 
daily  350  pressed  bales  of  cotton  ;  the  Tyabjl  presses,  erected  in  1865 
at  a  cost  of  2\  lakhs,  and  turning  out   250  bales  ;   and  the  Albert 
Presses,  leased  to  the  Sind  Press  Company,  and  turning  out  390  bales. 
This    quarter    also    contains    the    Edalji    Dinsha    dispensary,    several 
schools,   the  Sind  College,  a  new   Hindu  temple,  and  most  of  the 
offices  belonging  to  European  merchants.     The  Afghan  sarai,  intended 
for  the  use  of  caravans  from  Kandahar,  and  rebuilt  by  the  municipality 


DESCRIPTIOX  13 

in  1873  at  a  cost  of  R.S.  20,000,  covers  an  area  of  about  3  acres. 
Nearer  to  the  cantonment,  a  number  of  bungalows  stand  on  the  inter- 
vening space,  while  the  civil  lines  skirt  the  cantonment  itself  to  the 
eastward.  The  military  quarter,  which  is  situated  to  the  north  and 
east  of  the  city  proper,  consists  of  three  portions  :  the  depot  lines,  the 
artillery  lines,  and  the  European  infantry  lines.  The  depot  lines  are 
the  oldest  military  portion  of  Karachi,  and  were  originally  intended  to 
supply  accommodation  to  troops  passing  up-country  from  the  sea  or 
vice  versa.  Here  also  is  the  arsenal.  The  public  garden,  distant  about 
half  a  mile  from  cantonments,  covers  an  area  of  40  acres,  neatly  laid  out 
with  trees  and  shrubs,  and  contains  an  excellent  zoological  collection. 

The  architecture  of  Karachi  is  essentially  modern  and  Anglo-Indian. 
The  Anglican  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  situated  just  outside  the 
cantonments.     It  stands  in  a  large  open  space,  15  acres  in  extent,  and 
consists   of  a  heavy,   ungainly   Italian  nave,   with  an  ugly  tower,   the 
upper    portion    of    which    has    recently    been    removed    as    unsafe. 
St.    Patrick's   Roman   Catholic    school,    formerly    a    church,   is    a    fine 
stone  building,  capable  of  accommodating  40  boarders  and  200  day- 
scholars.      The  European  and  Indo-European   school,  known   as   the 
Karachi   Grammar  School,  founded   in   1854,   under  the  auspices    of 
Sir  Bartle  Frere,  then  Commissioner  of  Sind,  occupies  a  handsome 
stone  structure  in  the  depot  lines.      The  other  chief  modern  institutions 
include  a  Muhammadan  college,  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  St.  Andrew, 
Christ  Church  and  the  Anglican  Mission  schools,  the  Napier  Barracks,  the 
Sind  Club,  the  Empress  market,  the  ParsI  Virbaiji  school,  and  the  post 
office.      The  Frere  Hall,  a  municipal  building,  stands  near  the  Sind 
Club.      It  was  opened   in  a  somewhat   unfinished  state  in   October, 
1865,  up  to  which  date  if  lakhs  had  been  expended  upon  its  erection. 
This  hall,  which  is  a  comparatively  good  specimen  of  slightly  adapted 
Venetian  Gothic,  contains  the  Karachi  general  library.      A  fine  statue 
of  the  Queen-Empress  Victoria,  erected  by  public  subscription  in  the 
grounds  of  Frere  Hall,  was  unveiled  by  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  March,  1906.      Government  House,  the  residence  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Sind,  is  situated  in  the  civil  quarter,  and  consists  of 
a  central  building  with  two  wings,  approached  by  five  separate  carriage 
drives.     Though  commodious  and  comfortable  in  its  interior  arrange- 
ments, the  exterior  can  lay  no  claim  to  architectural  beauty.     It  was 
originally  built  by  Sir  Charles  Napier  when  governor  of  the  province, 
and  has  now  been  improved  and  fitted  with  an  electric  light  and  fan 
installation. 

The  climate  of  Karachi,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  sea-breezes 
during  eight  months  of  the  year,  is  more  healthy  than  any  other  in 
Sind.  The  low  situation  of  the  city,  and  the  near  neighbourhood  of 
marsh  land,   render  the  atmosphere  moist  and  warm  :    but  the   heat 


14  KARACHI  CITY 

during  the  hottest  months  cannot  compare  with  that  experienced  in 
the  interior.  The  mean  annual  temperature,  calculated  from  data  for 
twenty-five  years  ending  1901,  may  be  stated  at  650  in  January,  850  in 
May,  and  750  in  November.  The  hottest  weather  occurs  in  April, 
May,  and  June,  though  September  and  October  are  also  often  close 
and  sultry.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  about  5  inches.  The  first 
case  of  plague  occurred  early  in  December  of  1896,  the  locality 
attacked  being  the  old  town  quarter,  and  nearly  3,400  persons  died 
in  the  first  year.  The  total  mortality  from  plague  until  the  end  of 
March,   1904,  was  19,010. 

Karachi  came  into  British  possession  in  1843.     The  town  may  be 
regarded  as  almost  a  creation  of  British  rule,  its  extensive  commerce, 

splendid   harbour    works,  and  numerous  flourishing 
History.  .      .         ,      .         ,,  , 

institutions  having  all  sprung  up  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  settled  administration.  Before  1725  no  town  whatever  appears 
to  have  existed  on  the  site ;  but  a  place  named  Kharak,  with  a  con- 
siderable commerce,  is  mentioned  as  lying  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Hab  river  at  the  confluence  of  the  river  and  the  sea.  The  entrance 
to  Kharak  harbour  having  become  blocked  with  sand,  a  migration  was 
made  to  a  spot  near  the  present  head  of  Karachi  harbour,  and  at  that 
time  (1729)  called  Kalachi  Kun  ;  and  in  time,  under  Jam  Daria  Khan 
Jokia,  trade  began  to  centre  upon  the  convenient  harbour.  Cannon 
brought  from  Muscat  protected  the  little  fort,  and  the  name  of  Karachi, 
supposed  to  be  a  corrupt  form  of  Kalachi,  was  bestowed  upon  the  rising 
village.  The  hopeless  blocking  up  of  Shahbandar  harbour  shortly 
afterwards  drove  much  of  its  former  trade  and  population  to  Karachi. 

Under  the  Kalhora  princes,  the  Khan  of  Kalat  obtained  a  grant  of 
the  town,  which  he  garrisoned  from  his  own  territory.  Within  the  short 
period  1792-5,  three  Baloch  armies  appeared  before  the  town;  but 
only  on  the  third  occasion  did  the  Talpur  chief  of  Hyderabad,  who  led 
the  Baloch  troops,  gain  possession  by  force  of  arms.  A  fort  was  built 
at  Manora,  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour.  The  Talpur  chiefs  made 
considerable  efforts  to  increase  the  trade  of  Karachi,  so  that  in  1838 
the  town  and  suburbs  had  a  population  of  14,000,  half  of  whom  were 
Hindus.  The  houses  were  all  flat-roofed,  and  built  of  mud,  very  few 
of  them  having  more  than  one  storey  :  each  house  had  its  badgir  or 
wind-catcher  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation.  The  government  under 
tin  Mirs  was  vested  in  a  civil  and  military  official,  the  Nawab,  who 
ruled  despotically  over  the  town  and  neighbourhood. 

Even  before  the  period  of  British  rule,  the  commerce  of  Karachi  had 
attained  to  some  importance,  owing  to  the  value  of  the  river  Indus  as 

a  channel  of  communication.    Nevertheless,  the  sparse 

population  of  the  country,  combined  with  the  short- 
sighted policy  of  its  rulers,  prevented  it  from  reaching  its  proper  develop- 


COMMERCE  1 5 

ment.  Under  the  Talpur  Mlrs,  all  imports  were  subjected  to  a  4  per 
cent,  and  all  exports  to  a  z\  per  cent.  duty.  In  1809  the  customs 
revenue  amounted  to  Rs.  99,000  ;  by  1837  it  had  risen  to  Rs.  1,74,000. 
In  the  latter  year  the  whole  trade  of  the  port  was  valued  at  about  40 
lakhs,  the  following  being  the  principal  items :  imports— English 
silk,  broadcloth,  chintz,  &c,  Bengal  and  China  raw  silk,  slaves,  dates, 
sugar,  ivory,  copper,  spices,  and  cotton;  exports— opium,  gki,  indigo, 
wheat,  madder,  wool,  raisins,  and  salted  fish.  Slaves  came  chiefly 
from  Muscat,  and  consisted  of  negroes  or  Abyssinians.  Opium  to  the 
extent  of  500  camel-loads  came  from  Marwar,  and  was  exported  to  the 
Portuguese  town  of  Daman.  Almost  all  the  goods  imported  into  Sind 
were  then  consumed  within  the  province,  only  Rs.  1,50,000  worth  being 
sent  across  the  frontier. 

In  1843-4,  the  first  year  of  British  rule,  the  trade  of  Karachi,  includ- 
ing Keti  and  Sirganda,  had  a  total  value  of  about  12  lakhs,  due  to 
a  decline  in  the  opium  trade,  which  had  steadily  fallen  since  1837,  when 
its  value  was  estimated  at  16  lakhs.  The  second  year  of  British  rule 
saw  a  rise  to  23,  the  third  to  35,  and  the  fifth  to  44  lakhs.  By  1852-3 
the  total  value  had  risen  to  81  lakhs.  In  1857-8  the  exports  nearly 
overtook  the  imports,  the  two  standing  respectively  at  107  and  108 
lakhs.  The  American  Civil  War  gave  an  enormous  impetus  to  the 
trade  of  Karachi,  by  the  high  demand  for  Indian  cotton  which  it 
created  in  European  markets  ;  and  in  1863-4  the  total  value  of  the 
trade  amounted  to  no  less  than  6  crores  :  namely,  imports  2  and  exports 
4  crores.  The  restoration  of  peace  in  America,  however,  brought  about 
a  lower  price  for  cotton  in  Lancashire,  and  the  trade  of  Karachi  gradu- 
ally returned  to  what  was  then  considered  its  normal  level.  The  total 
value  sank  to  4  crores  in  1867-8,  and  3^  crores  in  1873-4;  but  by 
1882-3  it  had  risen  again  to  7  crores,  and  in  1S92-3  to  11  crores. 

In  1903-4  the  trade  of  Karachi  port,  exclusive  of  Government  stores 
and  treasure,  had  increased  in  value  to  24-9  crores  (of  which  5-5  repre- 
sented coasting  trade):  namely,  imports  9-6  crores,  and  exports  15-2 
crores.  The  main  cause  of  the  growth  is  due  to  the  annually  increas- 
ing exports  of  wheat  and  other  food-grains,  and  oilseeds,  which  are 
brought  by  rail  from  irrigated  tracts  of  Sind  and  the  Punjab.  The 
following  were  the  chief  articles  of  foreign  import,  with  their  values,  in 
1903-4:  apparel,  14  lakhs;  cotton  piece-goods,  2  crores;  cotton  twist 
and  yarn,  ro  lakhs  ;  manufactures  of  wool,  20  lakhs  ;  hardware  and 
cutlery,  13  lakhs  ;  wines  and  liqueurs,  9  lakhs  ;  spirits,  11  lakhs  :  metals, 
wrought  and  unwrought  (chiefly  copper,  iron,  and  steel),  43  lakhs  ;  pro- 
visions, 19  lakhs  ;  sugar,  102  lakhs  :  machinery  and  mill-work,  10  lakhs: 
mineral  oil,  22  lakhs;  and  treasure,  44  lakhs.  Total  imports  from 
foreign  ports  (including  treasure),  5-9  crores. 

From  the  United   Kingdom   Karachi   imports   cotton   manufactures, 


r6  KARACHI   CITY 

railway  materials,  liquors,  coal  and  coke,  machinery,  metals,  provisions, 
apparel,  drugs,  and  medicines ;  from  Bombay,  cotton  piece-goods  and 
twist,  treasure,  metals,  silk,  sugar,  tea,  jute,  spices,  dyes,  woollen  manu- 
factures, coco-nuts,  manufactured  silk,  liquors,  fruit,  and  vegetables ; 
from  the  Persian  Gulf,  dried  fruits,  treasure,  wool,  grain,  and  horses  ; 
from  the  coast  of  Makran,  wool,  provisions,  grain,  and  pulses ;  from 
Calcutta,  jute,  grain,  and  pulses ;  and  from  Russia,  mineral  oil. 

The  following  list  shows  the  value  of  the  exports  to  foreign  ports  in 
1903-4:  raw  cotton,  2f  crores  ;  grain  and  pulses,  7!  crores,  of  which 
7^  crores  represented  wheat ;  hides  and  skins,  47  lakhs ;  oilseeds, 
chiefly  rape  and  ///,  one  crore  ;  raw  wool,  52 \  lakhs  ;  bones,  17  lakhs. 
Total  value  of  exports  (including  treasure),  13^  crores. 

To  the  United  Kingdom  Karachi  exports  cotton,  wool,  wheat,  seeds, 
skins,  and  bones  ;  to  France,  wheat,  cotton,  bones,  hides,  gram,  gingelly, 
and  rapeseed  ;  to  Germany,  wheat,  cotton,  hides,  bones,  and  seeds  ;  to 
Japan,  cotton  ;  to  Russia,  indigo  and  cotton  ;  to  Bombay,  Cutch,  and 
Gujarat,  cotton,  grain,  indigo,  seeds,  skins,  fish-maws  and  shark-fins  ;  to 
Mauritius,  grain  and  pulses  ;  to  Persia,  rice  ;  to  Madras,  rice  and  skins  ; 
and  to  China,  raw  cotton. 

The  inland  trade  of  Karachi  includes  wheat  from  the  Punjab  and  the 
United  Provinces,  cotton  from  the  Punjab,  a  large  quantity  of  wool, 
dried  fruits,  and  horses  from  Kandahar  and  Kalat ;  while  camels, 
bullocks,  and  donkeys  bring  in  firewood,  grass,  ghl,  palm-leaves,  hides, 
&c,  from  Las  Bela  and  Kohistan. 

The  harbour  of  Karachi  during  the  period  of  the  Talpur  Mirs,  and 
for  the  first  few  years  after  British  annexation,  was  capable  of  accommo- 
dating only  small  native  craft.  Steamers  and  large  ships  anchored 
outside  Manora  Point,  whence  men  and  stores  were  conveyed  in  boats 
up  the  river,  as  far  as  the  tide  permitted,  and  then  transferred  into 
canoes,  which  carried  them  through  a  sea  of  liquid  mud  to  a  spot  near 
the  site  of  the  existing  custom-house.  In  process  of  time,  however,  it 
became  apparent  that  the  bar  did  not  interpose  so  great  an  obstacle 
as  was  originally  supposed,  and  that  square-rigged  vessels  of  a  certain 
draught  could  cross  it  with  safety.  In  1854,  under  the  Commis- 
sionership  of  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  the  Napier  Mole  road  or  causeway, 
connecting  Karachi  with  the  island  of  Kiamari,  was  completed,  which 
offered  additional  inducements  to  ships  for  visiting  the  harbour. 

In  1856  a  scheme  for  improving  the  harbour  by  deepening  the  water 
on  the  bar  was  submitted  for  the  opinion  of  Mr.  James  Walker,  an 
eminent  London  engineer,  who  estimated  the  cost  of  works  to  provide 
an  ample  width  of  passage,  with  a  depth  of  25  feet  at  neap  tides, 
at  29  lakhs.  After  much  debate  and  intermissions,  owing  to  partial 
failures,  the  principal  part  of  the  works — the  Manora  breakwater,  1,503 
feet  in  length — was  commenced  in   1869,  and  completed  in   1873  at 


COM  MERCK  17 

a  cost  of  7  lakhs.  It  affords  complete  shelter  to  the  entrance  channel 
(eastern)  over  the  bar  during  the  south-west  monsoon,  and,  combined 
with  other  works,  has  already  led  to  the  deepening  at  the  entrance  to 
20  feet  at  low- water  spring  tides.  The  rise  and  fall  is  about  8  feet. 
Further  progress  was  ensured  by  the  creation  in  1880  of  a  Harbour 
Board,  for  the  purpose  of  levying  shipping  dues,  which  eventually  was 
transformed  into  the  Port  Trust  by  Act  VI  of  r886.  Among  the  works 
carried  out  by  the  board  are  the  Kiamari  and  East  Channel  groynes  or 
stone  banks,  which  direct  and  confine  into  one  channel  the  tidal  flow  ; 
extensive  dredging,  boring,  and  submarine  blasting  operations ;  the 
Merewether  Pier,  opened  in  1882,  to  accommodate  one  steamer  and 
provide  facilities  for  trooping  ;  the  Erskine  wharf,  2,000  feet  long,  and 
the  James  wharf,  1,900  feet  long,  which  can  together  accommodate  ten 
large  steamers  and  are  linked  for  cargo  purposes  with  the  North- Western 
Railway  by  a  commodious  railway  yard  ;  a  special  pier  for  oil-steamers, 
to  serve  the  four  bulk-oil  installations  at  Kiamari  ;  and  the  Mansfield 
import  yard,  with  warehouse  accommodation  for  all  goods  landed  at  the 
wharves.  In  the  harbour  entrance,  within  shelter  of  the  breakwater, 
there  is  a  minimum  depth  of  24^  feet  of  water,  which  is  maintained  and 
will  eventually  be  improved  by  dredging  during  the  fair  season.  Further 
developments  are  under  consideration,  while  the  reclamation  of  a  large 
area  and  the  construction  of  two  new  steamer  berths,  with  a  minimum 
depth  of  28  feet,  are  now  being  carried  out. 

In  1847-8  the  number  of  vessels  which  entered  the  harbour  was  891, 
all  native  craft,  with  a  total  burden  of  30,509  tons.  In  1903-4,  384 
vessels  (of  which  174  were  steam-vessels)  entered  Karachi  harbour  with 
cargoes  from  foreign  ports:  gross  tonnage,  301,109  tons.  In  the  same 
year  515  vessels  (of  which  344  were  steam-vessels)  cleared  with  cargoes 
for  foreign  ports  ;  gross  tonnage,  720,919  tons.  From  the  ports  on  the 
coasts  of  India  and  Burma  1,311  vessels  entered  Karachi  laden  with 
cargoes  ;  tonnage,  567,436  tons.  For  the  ports  on  the  coasts  of  India 
and  Burma  1,177  vessels  left  Karachi  laden  with  cargoes;  tonnage, 
392,463  tons.  The  affairs  of  the  port  are  managed  by  the  Karachi  Port 
Trust,  the  income  of  which  in  1903-4  was  about  19  lakhs  and  the 
expenditure  13  lakhs.  During  the  three  years  ending  1904-5,  the 
average  income  expanded  to  more  than  2 1  lakhs  and  the  expenditure 
to  15^  lakhs.  The  surplus  is  devoted  to  paying  off  the  debt  of  66 
lakhs,  which  has  now  been  reduced  to  58^  lakhs.  The  principal  steam- 
ship lines  are  the  Ellerman,  Wilson,  Strick,  Hansa,  Austrian  Lloyd, 
British  India,  and  Bombay  Steam  Navigation  Company. 

The  Karachi  municipality  was  established  in  1S52,  and  had  an 
income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  about  12  lakhs.  In  1903-4 
the  income  was  15  lakhs  and  the  expenditure  14  lakhs.  The  chief 
heads  of  municipal  revenue  are:  octroi  (10  lakhs,  excluding  refunds  of 


i8  KARACHI  CITY 

6  lakhs),  tax  on  houses  and  lands  (Rs.  53,000),  and  rents  (Rs.  27,000) ; 
and  the  chief  items  of  expenditure  are  administration  and  collection 
charges  (7  lakhs),  water-supply  and  drainage  (Rs.  62,000),  conservancy 
(Rs.  1,50,000),  hospital  and  dispensary  (Rs.  15,000),  public  works 
(Rs.  1,63,000),  and  education  (Rs.  49,000).  The  management  of  the 
cantonment  is  in  the  hands  of  a  committee,  which  had  an  income  and 
expenditure  of  about  Rs.  18,500  in  1903-4.  The  normal  strength  of 
the  Karachi  garrison  is  1,300,  and  of  the  volunteer  forces  800. 

The  difficulty  of  water-supply  long  formed  one  of  the  chief  drawbacks 
to  Karachi,  most  of  the  wells  being  too  brackish  for  drinking  purposes. 
Formerly  the  supply  was  mainly  derived  from  wells  tapping  a  subter- 
ranean bed  of  the  Layari.  The  inhabitants  of  Kiamari,  and  the  ship- 
ping in  the  harbour,  obtained  water  from  carts,  which  brought  it  up 
from  '  camp  V  For  the  purposes  of  ice  manufacture,  water  was  for- 
merly imported  by  rail  from  Kotri.  A  scheme  for  constructing  an 
underground  aqueduct,  18  miles  in  length,  from  the  Malir  river  at 
a  cost  of  5  lakhs  was  completed  in  1882,  and  Karachi  is  now  in 
possession  of  a  pure  water-supply.  The  capital  outlay  on  this  under- 
taking, including  pipes  for  distributing  the  water  to  the  city,  Kiamari, 
and  the  cantonment,  amounted  to  1 7  lakhs  ;  and  the  annual  charges 
are  3  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  32,600  represents  maintenance  charges. 

Education  is  carried  on  by  the  Sind  College,  the  Government  high 
school,  Anglo-vernacular  schools,  the  Government  vernacular  school,  and 
several  female  and  other  minor  establishments.  The 
total  number  of  boys'  schools  is  48,  with  a  daily 
attendance  of  6,239,  and  of  girls'  schools  20,  with  an  attendance  of 
1,861.  The  Dayaram  Jethmal  Sind  Arts  College  was  established  in 
1887.  It  is  attended  by  120  scholars,  some  of  whom  are  accommo- 
dated in  a  hostel  attached  to  it.  A  law  class  prepares  students  for  the 
first  LL.B.  The  Narayan  Jagannath  high  school  prepares  students 
for  the  matriculation  and  school  final  examination.  It  is  managed  by 
Government,  and  Rs.  10,000  is  annually  contributed  from  Provincial 
revenues.  Among  the  special  schools  may  be  mentioned  the  Muham- 
madan  high  school  (Madrasat-ul-Islani),  the  normal  class  for  the  training 
of  mistresses,  and  the  engineering  class.  Newspapers  or  periodicals 
published  at  Karachi  include  four  English  (the  Sind  Gazette,  the  Sind 
Times,  the  P/ioe/iix,  and  the  Karachi  Chronicle)  and  four  native  (in 
Sindl,  Gujarat!,  and  Persian). 

The  city  possesses  a  civil  hospital,  a  Dufferin  hospital  for  females, 

and    four   dispensaries.      These    institutions    afforded   relief  in    1904 

to  70,155   persons,  of  whom   1,543  were   in-patients 

treated  in  the  civil  hospital.     The  Dufferin  hospital, 

'  The  portion  of  Karachi  comprising  the  Sadr  bazar,  civil  lines,  &c.  is  locally 
known  a^  'camp,'  a*  opposed  to  the  old  town  proper  and  Kiamari. 


KARAD    TOWN  19 

built  by  Mr.  Edalji  Dinsha  in  1901,  treated  10,017  patients  in  1904, 
of  whom  206  were  in-patients.  A  sick  hospital,  now  called  the  military 
hospital,  was  established  in  1869,  in  connexion  with  the  cantonment, 
and  in  1901  the  cantonment  hospital  was  opened  in  the  Preedy  quarter 
of  the  city.  Adjacent  to  the  barracks  is  a  third  hospital,  known  as  the 
followers'  hospital,  where  camp  servants  are  treated. 

[A.  F.  Baillie,  Kurrachee,  Past,  Present  and  Ft4ture  (1890) ;  Official 
Compendium  of  Military  Information  regarding  Karachi  (Bombay, 
1896);  Karachi  Harbour  Works  (Bombay,  1867);  An  Account  of  the 
Port  of  Karachi  (Karachi,  1892).] 

Karad  Taluka.—  Taluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  lying  between 
1 70  5'  and  170  30'  N.  and  740  and  74'  18'  E.,  with  an  area  of  378  square 
miles.  There  is  one  town,  Karad  (population,  11,499),  tne  head- 
quarters; and  98  villages,  including  Kale  (5,077).  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  134,947,  compared  with  154,383  in  1891.  The  den- 
sity, 357  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  above  the  District  average. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2-9  lakhs,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  24,000.  The  taluka  is  a  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Kistna  river, 
which  runs  30  miles  from  north  to  south  between  two  parallel  chains  of 
hills.  The  western  chain  is  broken  half-way  by  the  Koyna,  which  joins 
the  Kistna  at  Karad.  The  land  is  generally  flat  and  open,  but  becomes 
rougher  as  it  rises  towards  the  hills.  Gardens  and  groves  and  several 
charming  river  reaches  lend  a  picturesque  appearance  to  the  country. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile.  In  the  cold  season  the  days  are 
warm  and  the  nights  bitterly  cold,  and  in  the  hot  season  Karad  is 
one  of  the  hottest  parts  of  the  District.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
30  inches. 

Karad  Town  (Karhdd,  originally  Karahdkadd). — Head-quarters 
of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name  in  Satara  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  170  17'  N.  and  740  11/  E.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Koyna 
and  Kistna,  on  the  Bombay-Madras  high  road,  31  miles  south-south- 
east of  Satara  town,  and  about  4  miles  south-west  of  Karad  Road  on 
the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway.  Population  (1901),  11,499.  The 
town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1885.  During  the  decade 
ending  1901  the  income  averaged  Rs.  10,500.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  12,000.  It  is  referred  to  in  ancient  writings  as  Karahakada, 
and  has  given  its  name  to  a  subdivision  of  Brahmans.  In  the  north- 
east is  an  old  mud  fort  containing  the  mansion  of  the  Pant  Pratinidhi, 
the  most  noteworthy  objects  in  which  are  an  audience-hall  with  an  orna- 
mental ceiling  of  teak  and  iron,  built  about  1800,  and  a  curious  step- 
well.  The  mosque  of  Karad  is  interesting,  as  it  contains  nine  Arabic 
inscriptions.  One  of  these  shows  that  it  was  built  during  the  reign  of 
the  fifth  Bijapur  king,  AH  Adil  Shah  (1557-79),  by  one  Ibrahim  Khan. 
About  3  miles  to  the  south-west  is  a  group  of  54  Buddhist  caves  of 


20  KARA  I)    TOWN 

a  very  plain  and  early  type.  The  town  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's 
court,  a  dispensary,  and  an  English  school. 

Karadge. — Village  in  the  Chikodi  taluka  of  Belgaum  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  i6°  n'  N.  and  740  30'  E.  Population  (1901), 
5,138.  The  village,  which  is  purely  agricultural,  contains  a  boys' 
school  with  66  pupils. 

Karagola.—  Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Purnea 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  250  24'  N.  and  870  28'  E..  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ganges.  Karagola  is  on  the  old  route  from  Calcutta  to  Darjeelin^. 
and  is  a  place  of  call  of  the  Ganges  Dispatch  Service,  though  the 
steamer  now  touches  2  miles  below  the  village.  The  fair  held  here 
was  formerly  one  of  the  largest  in  Bengal,  but  has  recently  lost 
much  of  its  importance.  It  takes  place  at  the  time  of  the  full  moon  in 
the  month  of  Magh  (about  February)  ;  and  a  brisk  trade  is  carried  on 
in  nuts  and  spices,  as  well  as  in  tents,  carpets,  and  wooden  furniture 
imported  from  Monghyr. 

Karaia. — Village  in  the  Gwalior  Gird  district  of  Gwalior  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  250  54'  N.  and  780  1/  E.  Population  (1901), 
4,989.  The  place  is  held  by  a  family  of  Ponwar  Thakurs  on  a  quit- 
rent.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1564,  but  nothing  is  known 
of  its  early  history.  In  1852  it  fell  to  Sindhia,  and  until  1868  was  in 
a  prosperous  condition.  It  afterwards,  however,  became  notorious  for 
the  depredations  committed  by  the  Ponwars,  their  excesses  reaching 
such  a  pitch  as  to  necessitate  the  forcible  depopulation  of  the  place  in 
1893.     It  has  since  then  been  slowly  recovering  its  position. 

Karaikkudi. — Town  in  the  Tiruppattur  tahs'il  of  the  Sivaganga 
estate,  Madura  District,  Madras,  situated  in  io°  4'  X.  and  780  47'  E. 
The  population  has  rapidly  increased,  and  numbered  11,801  in 
1901,  compared  with  6,579  m  1891.  The  town  is  chiefly  noted  as 
one  of  the  centres  of  the  Nattukottai  Chettis,  an  enterprising  class  of 
merchants  and  money-lenders  ;  and  the  many  handsome  residences 
which  these  people  have  constructed  within  it  have  added  greatly  to 
its  appearance. 

Karajgaon. — Town  in  Amraoti  District,  Berar.     See  Karasgaon. 

Karajgi.— Eastern  taluka  of  Dharwar  District,  Bombay,  lying  between 
r4°  44'  and  15°  5'  N.  and  750  17'  and  750  44'  E.,  with  an  area  of  441 
square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Hayeri  (population,  7,974),  the 
head-quarters;  and  127  villages.  The  population  in  1901  was  104,342, 
compared  with  90,206  in  1891.  The  density,  237  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  slightly  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2.09  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  16,000. 
Except  in  the  south-west,  where  it  is  broken  by  hills,  the  country  is 
flat.  It  is  crossed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Varada,  a  tributary  of 
the  Tungabhadra.     In  the  north  and  east  the  soil  is  black  and  in  the 


KARAMUNGl  21 

south  and  west  mostly  red,  with  an  occasional  plot  of  black.  The  plain 
of  Karajgi  is  broken  at  Deogiri,  Kanvali,  and  Kabur  by  short  ranges 
of  hills.     The  annual  rainfall  averages  30  inches. 

Karakat. —  Tahsll    in   Jaunpur    District,    United    Provinces.       See 

K  IRAK  AT. 

Karamnasa  (Kara?n?iashd,  '  the  destroyer  of  religious  merit '  :  the 
Kommenases  of  Arrian). — River  of  Northern  India,  rising  near  Sarodag 
in  the  Kaimur  Hills  (24°  32'  N.,  830  26'  E.),  18  miles  west  of  Rohtas- 
garh  in  Bengal.  It  first  flows  north-west,  and  near  Darihara  begins  to 
form  the  boundary  between  the  Districts  of  Shahabad  (Bengal)  and 
Mirzapur  (United  Provinces).  It  then  flows  north  for  about  15  miles 
across  Mirzapur,  after  which  it  turns  north-east  and  separates  Shahabad 
from  Benares  and  Ghazipur,  until  it  falls  into  the  Ganges  near  Chausa, 
after  a  total  course  of  about  146  miles.  Its  tributaries  are  the  DurgautI 
and  Dharmauti,  two  small  streams  on  the  right  bank.  In  the  hills,  the 
bed  of  the  Karamnasa  is  rocky  and  its  banks  abrupt  ;  but  as  it  de- 
bouches upon  the  plains,  it  sinks  deeply  into  a  rich  clay,  very  retentive 
of  moisture.  During  the  rains  small  boats  can  ply  as  high  as  the  con- 
fluence of  the  DurgautI.  There  are  two  falls,  called  Deo  Dharl  and 
Chhanpathar,  which  attract  attention  from  their  height  and  beauty. 

Two  legends  account  for  the  ill  repute  of  the  river.  One  tells  how 
Raja  Trisanka  of  the  Solar  race  had  killed  a  Brahman  and  contracted 
an  incestuous  marriage.  He  was  purged  from  these  sins  by  a  saint  who 
collected  water  from  all  the  sacred  streams  of  the  world  and  washed 
him.  The  bath  took  place  at  the  spot  where  the  river  issues,  and  this 
bears  for  ever  the  taint  of  his  guilt.  The  other  legend  makes  Trisanka 
attempt  to  ascend  into  heaven  by  means  of  long  austerities.  Half-way 
he  was  suspended  head  downwards  by  the  gods,  and  a  poisonous  mois- 
ture exudes  from  his  mouth  into  the  river.  The  real  cause  of  its  ill 
fame  is  probably  the  fact  that  the  Karamnasa  was  the  boundary  of  the 
eastern  kingdom  of  Magadha,  which  is  treated  with  contempt  in  San- 
skrit literature  because  its  inhabitants  were  not  Aryans.  Hindus  living 
on  its  banks,  except  those  of  the  highest  castes,  are  not  defiled  by  it, 
and  carry  more  scrupulous  travellers  over  it  for  a  consideration.  There 
is  no  regular  irrigation  from  the  Karamnasa. 

Karamsad.—  Patiddr  village  in  the  Anand  taluka  of  Kaira  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  220  33'  N.  and  72°  54'  E.,  and  one  of  the  thirteen 
kulin  villages  of  the  District.  Population  (1901),  5,105.  It  contains 
a  middle  school  with  38  pupils. 

Karamungi. — Crown  taluk  in  Bldar  District,  Hyderabad  State. 
The  population  in  1901,  including  jdgirs,  was  51,808,  and  the  area 
was  362  square  miles.  In  1891  the  population  had  been  60,341,  the 
decrease  being  due  to  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900.  The  taluk  contains 
130  villages,  of  which  19  are  jdgir\  and  Janwada  (population,  2,105) 


22  KARAMUNGI 

is  the  head-quarters.  Since  1905  the  taluk  has  included  the  old  taluk 
of  Aurad,  which  had  an  area  of  189  square  miles,  a  population  of 
19,301,  and  65  villages  in  1901.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  1-7 
lakhs.  The  Manjra  river  flows  through  the  taluk.  The  paigah  taluk 
of  Narayankher  (population,  42,972)  lies  south  of  this  taluk,  and  con- 
sists of  106  villages.  Farther  south  again  is  the  paigah  taluk  of  Hasan- 
abad  (population,  21,563),  with  45  villages. 

Karangarh. — Hill,  or  more  properly  plateau,  in  the  head-quarters 
subdivision  of  Bhagalpur  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  250  15'  N.  and  86° 
56'  E.,  near  Bhagalpur  town,  and  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Kama, 
a  pious  Hindu  king.  The  plateau,  which  is  locally  known  as  the  kila 
or  fort,  is  believed  to  be  the  site  of  one  of  the  famous  pre-Buddhist 
forts  in  Bengal ;  the  lines  of  several  bastions  and  the  ditch  in  the  west 
can  still  be  traced.  In  more  modern  times  it  contained  the  lines  of  the 
Hill  Rangers,  a  body  of  troops  raised  in  1780  from  among  the  hill 
people  by  Augustus  Clevland,  Collector  of  the  District,  for  the  paci- 
fication of  the  lawless  jungle  tribes.  The  corps  was  disbanded  in  1863 
on  the  reorganization  of  the  Native  army.  The  only  objects  of  interest 
are  Saiva  temples  of  some  celebrity.  These  consist  of  four  buildings 
{maths),  with  square  bases  and  the  usual  pointed  pinnacles.  One  is 
several  hundred  years  old,  the  others  being  modern.  Numbers  of  Hin- 
dus, though  not  usually  worshippers  of  Siva,  pay  their  devotions  here 
on  the  last  day  of  the  month  of  Kartik.  The  temples  contain  several 
of  the  so-called  seats  of  Mahadeo  or  Siva,  one  of  which  is  made  of 
stone  from  the  Narbada.  There  are  also  two  monuments  erected  to 
the  memory  of  Clevland — one  by  Government,  and  the  other  by  the 
landholders  of  the  District.  The  Bidyasagar  Memorial  Sanskrit  to  I 
occupies  a  fine  building  in  the  fort  compound. 

Karanja. — Peninsula,  village,  and  petty  division  (petha)  in  the  Pan- 
vel  taluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  51'  N.  and 
720  57'  E.,  in  the  south-east  of  Bombay  harbour,  and  about  6  miles 
south-east  of  the  Carnac  Bandar  of  Bombay.  On  a  clear  day  the 
peninsula  can  be  distinguished  plainly,  and  apparently  but  a  mile  or 
two  distant,  from  Bombay.  It  is  8  miles  long  and  4  broad.  The 
peninsula  consists  of  two  rocky  hills,  between  which  stretch  grass 
and  rice  lands,  wooded  with  mango-trees  and  palms.  The  creek  to 
the  east  is  broken  up  into  several  salt-pans,  the  officers  connected 
with  which  are  stationed  at  the  town  of  Uran  close  by.  Besides  its 
rice  crop,  which  is  of  considerable  value,  the  two  special  exports  of 
Karanja  Island  are  salt  and  liquor  made  from  the  mahua  or  from 
the  date-palm.  The  chief  industry  of  the  people,  however,  is  fishing. 
The  great  area  of  the  salt-works,  about  3,000  acres,  the  shining  white 
pans,  regular  boundaries,  and  heaps  of  glistening  salt,  produce  a  curi- 
ous effect  to  the  eye.     The  salt  pans  are  not  of  recent  date ;  reference 


KARANJIA  23 

is  made  to  them  in  1638,  and  in  1820  they  are  noted  as  having  pro- 
duced 20,000  tons  of  salt.  During  the  year  1903-4  the  salt  export 
was  about  2,000,000  maunds,  and  the  revenue  therefrom  29  lakhs. 
There  are  19  distilleries  at  Mora  on  the  island  of  Uran,  all  owned 
by  Parsis.  The  malum  flowers  distilled  in  these  are  brought  through 
Bombay  from  the  Panch  Mahals,  and  the  annual  revenue  is  about  35 
lakhs.  The  water-supply  is  good,  being  derived  from  reservoirs,  and 
from  many  ponds  and  wells  which  hold  water  for  several  months  after 
the  rains. 

Karanja  has  passed  under  every  form  of  rule  and  suffered  every 
species  of  vicissitude.  Under  the  Silaharas,  in  the  twelfth  century, 
the  island  was  prosperous,  with  many  villages  and  gardens.  It  formed 
part  of  Bassein  province,  under  the  Portuguese,  from  1530  to  1740; 
was  fortified  with  two  strongholds,  one  at  Uran,  the  other  on  the  top 
of  its  southern  peak;  and  100  armed  men  were  maintained  as  garrison. 
At  the  present  day  may  still  be  seen  the  ruins  of  Portuguese  hermitages 
and  churches.  In  1535  the  island  was  in  charge  of  the  Franciscans. 
In  1613  it  was  the  scene  of  a  great  riot.  In  1670  it  was  plundered 
by  a  Maratha  freebooter.  In  1737  the  Marathas  finally  occupied  the 
place,  and  held  it  until  1774,  when  the  English  took  possession. 

The  most  noteworthy  ruins  are  on  the  summit  of  Dronagiri,  the 
southern  of  the  two  hill  peaks,  including  the  Portuguese  fort,  guard- 
house, church,  rock-temple,  and  reservoir.  On  the  east  face  of  Khar- 
avli  (the  north  hill  peak)  is  a  Buddhist  rock-cut  chapel ;  at  Uran  town, 
the  old  Portuguese  fort  and  churches  ;  in  the  village  of  Sheva,  a  ruined 
church,  of  which  the  broken  walls  of  the  graveyard  are  the  only  trace. 

Karanja. — Town  in  the  Murtazapur  taluk  of  Akola  District,  Berar, 
situated  in  200  29'  N.  and  770  32'  E.  Population  (1901),  16,535. 
Karanja  is  a  place  of  some  commercial  importance.  It  is  said  to  take 
its  name  from  a  Hindu  saint,  Karinj  RishI,  who,  being  afflicted  with  a 
grievous  disease,  invoked  the  aid  of  the  goddess  Amba.  She  created 
for  him  a  tank,  still  existing  opposite  the  temple  of  the  goddess,  in 
which  he  bathed  and  became  clean.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  an 
old  wall,  now  dilapidated.  It  is  known  as  Karanja  Bibi,  owing,  it 
is  said,  to  its  having  once  formed  part  of  the  dowry  of  Daulat 
Shah  Begam  (see  Badnera).  The  municipality  was  created  in  1895. 
The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1900-1 
averaged  Rs.  14,000  and  Rs.  13,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  18,000,  mainly  derived  from  taxes  and  cesses;  and  the  expendi- 
ture was  Rs.  15,000,  chiefly  devoted  to  conservancy  and  education 
Karanja  is  connected  with  Murtazapur  (20  miles)  by  a  metalled  road. 

Karanjia. — Village  in  Mayurbhanj,  one  of  the  Orissa  Tributary 
States,  Bengal,  situated  in  210  44'  N.  and  86°  6'  E.  Population 
(1901),    732.      Karanjia    is    the    head-quarters   of   the    Panchplr   sub- 


24  KARANJIA 

division   of  the  State,   and  is   connected   with    Baripada,    the    capital, 
by  a  metalled  road. 

Karasgaon. — Town  in  the  Ellichpur  taluk  of  Amraoti  District, 
Berar.  situated  in  210  20'  X.  and  770  39'  E.  Population  (1901), 
7,456.  A  fort  of  fine  sandstone,  now  in  ruins,  was  built  here  by 
Vithal  Bhag  Deo,  a  talukdar  in  the  Ellichpur  j'dgfr  in   1806. 

Karatoya.— Old  river  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  which  rises 
in  the  Baikuntpur  jungle  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  Jalpaigurl 
District  in  260  51'  N.  and  88°  28'  E.,  and  meanders  through  Rangpur, 
until,  after  a  course  of  214  miles,  it  joins  the  Halhalia,  in  the  south 
of  Bogra  District,  in  240  38'  N.  and  89°  29"  E.  The  united  stream 
is  known  as  the  Phuljhur,  and  it  eventually  finds  its  way  into  the 
Jamuna  (3).  The  Karatoya  bore  in  ancient  times,  as  we  learn  from 
the  Puranas,  a  high  character  for  sanctity ;  and  its  mermaid  goddess, 
whose  image  has  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Mahasthan,  was 
widely  worshipped,  and  this  place  is  even  now  a  favourite  place  of 
pilgrimage.  The  river  is  mentioned  in  the  Jogini  Tantra  as  the 
western  boundary  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Kamarupa,  which  it 
separated  from  Pundra  or  Paundravardhana,  the  country  of  the  Pods, 
whose  capital  was  at  Mahasthan.  It  was  along  its  right  bank  that 
Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar  Khilji,  the  Muhammadan  conqueror  of  Bengal, 
marched  upon  his  ill-fated  invasion  of  Tibet  in  1205  ;  and  in  the 
narrative  of  that  expedition  the  Karatoya  is  described  as  being  three 
times  the  width  of  the  Ganges.  It  was  no  doubt  the  great  river  crossed 
by  Hiuen  Tsiang  on  his  way  to  Kamarupa  in  the  seventh  century,  and 
by  Ala-ud-din  Husain  on  his  invasion  of  the  same  country  in  1498. 

The  topography  of  the  river  is  attended  with  numerous  difficulties  ; 
changes  of  name  are  frequent,  and  its  most  recent  bed,  which  ultimately 
joins  the  Atrai  some  30  miles  east  of  Pabna,  is  known  indifferently 
as  the  BurhT  ('old')  Tista  and  the  Karto  or  Karatoya.  It  appears 
that  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Ganges  and  the 
Brahmaputra  were  still  150  miles  apart,  the  Tista  united  with  the 
other  Himalayan  streams  to  form  one  great  river.  The  elevated  tract 
of  stiff  clay  known  as  the  Barind,  which  spreads  over  a  considerable 
part  of  the  modern  Districts  of  Rajshahi,  Dinajpur,  Malda,  and  Bogra, 
formed  an  obstacle  which  could  not  be  so  easily  pierced  as  the  more 
recent  alluvium  round  it,  and  the  outlet  of  the  Himalayan  streams  was 
thus  diverted  to  one  side  or  the  other.  Sometimes  when  the  trend 
of  the  rivers  was  eastwards,  they  flowed  down  the  channel  of  the 
Karatoya,  which  is  shown  in  Van  Den  Broucke's  map  of  Bengal 
{circa  1660)  as  flowing  into  the  Ganges,  and  was,  in  fact,  before  the 
destructive  floods  of  1787,  the  main  stream  which  brought  down  to 
the  Ganges  the  great  volume  of  Tista  water.  South  of  the  Padma 
there  is  now  no  trace  of  any  river  bearing  this  name  ;  and,  since  the 


KARAULI  STATE  25 

main  stream  of  the  Tista  broke  away  to  the  east  in  1787,  the  Karatoya 
has  gradually  silted  up,  and  it  is  at  the  present  day  a  river  of  minor 
importance,  little  used  for  navigation. 

Karaudia.  -Thakurat  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 
Karauli  State. — State  in  the  east  of  Raj pu tana,  lying  between 
260  3'  and  260  49'  N.  and  76°  34'  and  77°  24'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
1,242  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Bharatpur;  on 
the  north-west  and  west  by  Jaipur;  on  the  south  and  south-east  by 
Gwalior;  and  on  the  east  by  Dholpur.  Hills  and  broken  ground 
characterize  almost  the  whole  territory,  which  lies 
within  a  tract  locally  termed  the  Dang,  a  name  given  ysica 

to  the  rugged  region  immediately  above  the  narrow 
valley  of  the  Chambal.  The  principal  hills  are  on  the  northern  border, 
where  several  ranges  run  along,  or  parallel  to,  the  frontier  line,  forming 
somewhat  formidable  barriers.  There  is  little  beauty  in  these  hills  ; 
but  the  military  advantages  they  present  caused  the  selection  of  one 
of  their  eminences,  Tahangarh,  1,309  feet  above  the  sea,  as  the  seat 
of  Jadon  rule  in  early  times.  Along  the  valley  of  the  Chambal  an 
irregular  and  lofty  wall  of  rock  separates  the  lands  on  the  river  bank 
from  the  uplands,  of  which  the  southern  part  of  the  State  consists. 
From  the  summits  of  the  passes  the  view  is  often  picturesque,  the 
rocks  standing  out  in  striking  contrast  to  the  comparatively  rich  and 
undulating  plain  below.  The  highest  peaks  in  the  south  are  Bhairon 
and  Utgir,  respectively  1,565  and  1,479  feet  above  the  sea.  Farther 
to  the  north  the  country  falls,  the  alluvial  deposit  is  deeper,  level 
ground  becomes  more  frequent,  and  hills  stand  out  more  markedly, 
while  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  the  low  ground  is  cut  into 
a  labyrinth  of  ravines. 

The  river  Chambal  forms  the  southern  boundary,  separating  the 
State  from  Gwalior.  Sometimes  deep  and  slow,  sometimes  too  rocky 
and  rapid  to  admit  of  the  safe  passage  of  a  boat,  it  receives  during 
the  rains  numerous  contributions  to  its  volume,  but  no  considerable 
perennial  stream  flows  into  it  within  the  boundaries  of  the  State.  The 
Banas  and  Morel  rivers  belong  more  properly  to  Jaipur  than  to 
Karauli ;  for  the  former  merely  marks  for  some  4  miles  the  boundary 
between  these  States,  while  the  latter,  just  before  it  joins  the  Banas, 
is  for  only  6  miles  a  river  of  Karauli  and  for  another  3  miles  flows 
along  its  border.  The  Panchnad,  so  called  from  its  being  formed 
of  five  streams,  all  of  which  rise  in  Karauli  and  unite  2  miles  north  of 
the  capital,  usually  contains  water  in  the  hot  months,  though  often 
only  a  few  inches  in  depth.  It  winds  away  to  the  north  and  eventually 
joins  the  Gambhir  in  Jaipur  territory. 

In  the   western   portion   of  the  State  a  narrow  strip   of  quartzites 
belonging  to  the   Delhi   system  is   exposed   along   the   Jaipur   border, 


26  KARAULI  STATE 

while  Upper  Vindhyan  sandstones  are  faulted  down  against  the  quartz- 
ites  to  the  south-east,  and  form  a  horizontal  plateau  extending  to  the 
Chamal  river.  To  the  north-west  of  the  fault,  some  outliers  of  Lower 
Vindhyan  rocks  occur,  consisting  of  limestone,  siliceous  breccias,  and 
sandstone,  which  form  two  long  synclinals  extending  south-west  as 
far  as  Naraoli. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  small  game,  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  nilgai, 
sambar,  and  other  deer  are  fairly  numerous,  especially  in  the  wooded 
glens  near  the  Chambal  in  the  south-west. 

The  climate  is  on  the  whole  salubrious.  The  rainfall  at  the  capital 
averages  29  inches  a  year,  and  is  generally  somewhat  heavier  in  the 
north-east  at  Machilpur  and  the  south-east  at  Mandrael.  Within 
the  last  twenty  years  the  year  of  heaviest  rainfall  has  been  1887 
(45-!  inches),  while  in   1896  only  a  little  over  17  inches  fell. 

The  Maharaja  of  Karauli  is  the  head  of  the  Jadon  clan  of  Rajputs, 
who  claim  descent  from  Krishna.  The  Jadons,  who  have  nearly  always 
remained  in  or  near  the  country  of  Braj  round 
Muttra,  are  said  to  have  at  one  time  held  half  of 
Alwar  and  the  whole  of  Bharatpur,  Karauli,  and  Uholpur,  besides  the 
British  Districts  of  Gurgaon  and  Muttra,  the  greater  part  of  Agra  west 
of  the  Jumna,  and  portions  of  Gwalior  lying  along  the  Chambal.  In 
the  eleventh  century  Bijai  Pal,  said  to  have  been  eighty-eighth  in 
descent  from  Krishna,  established  himself  in  Bayana,  now  belonging 
to  Bharatpur,  and  built  the  fort  overlooking  that  town.  His  eldest 
son,  Tahan  Pal,  built  the  well-known  fort  of  Tahangarh,  still  in  Karauli 
territory,  about  1058,  and  shortly  afterwards  possessed  himself  of 
almost  all  the  country  now  comprising  the  Karauli  State,  as  well  as  a 
good  deal  of  land  to  the  east  as  far  as  Dholpur.  In  11 96,  in  the  time 
of  Kunwar  Pal,  Muhammad  Ghorl  and  his  general,  Kutb-ud-din, 
captured  first  Bayana  and  then  Tahangarh ;  and  on  the  whole  of  the 
Jadon  territory  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  invaders,  Kunwar  Pal  fled 
to  a  village  in  the  Rewah  State.  One  of  his  descendants,  Arjun  Pal, 
determined  to  recover  the  territory  of  his  ancestors,  and  about  1327 
he  started  by  capturing  the  fort  of  Mandrael,  and  gradually  took 
possession  of  most  of  the  country  formerly  held  by  Tahan  Pal.  In 
1348  he  founded  the  present  capital,  Karauli  town. 

About  a  hundred  years  later  Mahmud  I  of  Malwa  is  said  to  have 
conquered  the  country,  and  to  have  entrusted  the  government  to  his 
son,  Fidwi  Khan.  In  the  reign  of  Akbar  (1 556-1 605)  the  State 
became  incorporated  in  the  Delhi  empire,  and  Gopal  Das,  probably 
the  most  famous  of  the  chiefs  of  Karauli,  appears  to  have  been  in 
considerable  favour  with  the  emperor.  He  is  mentioned  as  a  com- 
mander of  2,000,  and  is  said  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Agra 
fort  at  Akbar's  request.     On   the  decline  of  the   Mughal  power  the 


HISTORY  27 

State  was  so  far  subjugated  by  the  Marathas  that  they  exacted  from 
it  a  tribute  of  Rs.  25,000,  which,  after  a  time,  was  commuted  for 
a  grant  of  Machilpur  and  its  dependencies.  By  the  treaty  of  November  9, 
1817,  with  the  East  India  Company,  Karauli  was  relieved  of  the 
exactions  of  the  Marathas  and  taken  under  British  protection  ;  no 
tribute  was  levied,  but  the  Maharaja  was  to  furnish  troops  according 
to  his  means  on  the  requisition  of  the  British  Government.  In  1825, 
when  the  Burmese  War  was  proceeding,  and  Bharatpur  was  preparing 
for  resistance  under  the  usurpation  of  Durjan  Sal,  Karauli  undoubtedly 
sent  troops  to  the  aid  of  the  latter  ;  but  on  the  fall  of  that  fortress 
in  1826  the  Maharaja  made  humble  professions  of  submission,  and  it 
was  deemed  unnecessary  to  take  serious  notice  of  his  conduct. 

The  next  event  of  any  importance  was  the  celebrated  Karauli 
adoption  case.  Narsingh  Pal,  a  minor,  became  chief  in  1850,  and  died 
in  1852,  having  adopted  a  day  before  his  death  a  distant  kinsman, 
named  Bharat  Pal.  It  was  first  proposed  to  enforce  the  doctrine  of 
'  lapse,'  but  finally  the  adoption  of  Bharat  Pal  was  recognized.  In  the 
meantime  a  strong  party  had  been  formed  in  favour  of  Madan  Pal, 
a  nearer  relative,  whose  claim  was  supported  by  the  opinions  of  several 
chiefs  in  Rajputana.  An  inquiry  was  ordered ;  and  it  was  ascertained 
that  the  adoption  of  Bharat  Pal  was  informal,  by  reason  of  the  minority 
of  Narsingh  Pal  and  the  omission  of  certain  necessary  ceremonies. 
As  Madan  Pal  was  nearer  of  kin  than  Bharat  Pal  and  was  accepted  by 
the  Ranis,  by  nine  of  the  most  influential  Thakurs,  and  by  the  general 
feeling  of  the  country,  he  was  recognized  as  chief  in  1854.  During  the 
Mutiny  of  1857  he  evinced  a  loyal  spirit  and  sent  a  body  of  troops 
against  the  Kotah  mutineers  ;  and  for  these  services  he  was  created 
a  G.C.S.I.,  a  debt  of  1-2  lakhs  due  by  him  to  the  British  Government 
was  remitted,  a  dress  of  honour  conferred,  and  the  salute  of  the 
Maharajas  of  Karauli  was  permanently  increased  from  15  to  17  guns. 
The  usual  satiad  guaranteeing  the  privilege  of  adoption  to  the  rulers 
of  this  State  was  granted  in  1862,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  last 
seven  chiefs  have  all  succeeded  by  adoption. 

Maharaja  Bhanwar  Pal,  the  present  ruler,  was  born  in  1864,  was 
installed  in  1886,  obtained  full  powers  in  1889,  and,  after  receiving 
a  K.C.I. E.  in  1894,  was  made  a  G.C.I.E.  in  1897.  The  nobles  are 
all  Jadon  Rajputs  connected  with  the  ruling  house,  and,  though  for 
the  most  part  illiterate,  are  a  powerful  body  in  the  State,  and  until 
quite  recently  frequently  defied  the  authority  of  the  Darbar.  The  chief 
among  them  are  Hadoti,  Amargarh,  Inaiti,  Raontra,  and  Barthun, 
and  they  are  called  Thekanadars.  The  Rao  of  Hadoti  is  looked 
upon  as  the  heir  to  the  Karauli  gaddi,  when  the  ruling  chief  is  without 
sons. 

The  only  places  of  archaeological  interest  are  Tahangarh,  already 

vol.  xv.  c 


w° 


28 


KARAULI  STATE 


mentioned,  and  Bahadurpur,  8  miles  south  of  the  capital  :  both  are 
now  deserted  and  in  ruins. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  State  is  437,  and  the 
population  at  each  of  the  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  148,670, 
(1891)  156,587,  and  (1901)  156,786.  The  smallness 
pu  a  10n*  of  the  increase  during  the  last  decade  is  ascribed  to 
famines  in  1897  and  1899.  The  territory  is  divided  into  five  tahsils: 
namely,  Karauli  (or  Sadr\  Jirota,  Machilpur,  Mandrael,  and  Utgir,  the 
head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from  which  it  is  named,  except 
in  the  case  of  Jirota  and  Utgir,  the  head-quarters  of  which  are  at 
Sapotra  and  Karanpur  respectively.  The  only  town  in  the  State  is  the 
capital,  a  municipality. 

The  following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Tahsil. 

Number  of 

Population. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

eft 

i 

0 

H 

Villages. 

Karauli 
Jirota  . 
Machilpur    . 
Mandrael 
Utgir    . 

State  total 

I 
I 

128 
80 
84 

58 
86 

67,581 
32,646 
24,015 
19,665 
12,879 

+  IO-8 
+      \2 

-  3-8 
-15.0 

—  19-0 

2,546 

54  2 

184 

227 

107 

436 

156,786 

+     CI 

3,6o6 

Nearly  94  per  cent,  of  the  total  are  Hindus,  the  worship  of  Vishnu 
under  the  name  of  Krishna  being  the  prevalent  form  of  religion,  and 
more  than  5  per  cent,  are  Muhammadans.  The  languages  mainly 
spoken  are  dialects  of  Western  Hindi,  including  DangI  and  Dangbhang. 

The  principal  tribe  is  the  Minas,  who  number  32,000,  or  more  than 
20  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  are  the  leading  agriculturists  of  the 
country  ;  next  come  the  Chamars  (23,000),  who,  besides  working  in 
leather,  assist  in  agriculture.  Brahmans  number  20,000,  and  are 
mostly  petty  traders,  village  money-lenders,  and  cultivators  ;  while 
the  Gujars  (16,000),  formerly  noted  cattle-lifters,  are  now  very  fair 
agriculturists. 

Agricultural  conditions  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  In  the 
highlands  of  the  Dang  the  soil  is  clayey,  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills  are 
embanked  into  successive  steps  or  terraces,  only 
a  few  yards  broad  ;  here  rice  is  grown  abundantly, 
and  after  it  has  been  reaped  barley  or  gram  is  sometimes  sown.  The 
fields  are  irrigated  from  tanks  excavated  on  the  tops  of  the  hills. 
The  lowlands  of  this  tract  are  surrounded  by  hills  on  two  or  three 
sides  and  are  called  antri.  The  soil  is  of  two  kinds  :  the  first  is 
composed  of  earth  and  sand  washed  down  the  hill-sides  by  the  rain- 


Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURE  29 

fall,  and  is  of  very  fair  quality,  while  the  second  is  hard  and  stony 
and  is  called  kci7ik?-lh.  The  crops  grown  here  are  mostly  bdjra  and 
moth,  though  the  better  of  these  two  soils  produces  fair  spring  crops 
where  irrigation  from  wells  is  possible.  On  the  banks  of  the  Chambal 
the  soil  is  generally  rich,  and  the  bed  of  the  river  is  cultivated  to  the 
water's  edge  in  the  cold  season.  The  principal  crops  here  are  wheat, 
gram,  and  barley.  Elsewhere,  outside  the  Dang,  the  soil  is  for  the 
most  part  light  and  sandy,  but  in  places  is  associated  with  marl. 
Excellent  crops  of  bdjra,  moth,  and  jowar  are  produced  in  the  autumn  ; 
and  by  means  of  irrigation,  mostly  from  wells,  good  crops  of  wheat, 
barley,  and  gram  in  the  spring. 

No  very  reliable  agricultural  statistics  are  available,  but  the  area 
ordinarily  cultivated  is  about  260. square  miles,  or  rather  more  than 
one-fifth  of  the  total  area  of  the  State.  The  principal  crops  are  bdjra 
and  gram,  the  areas  under  which  are  usually  about  58  and  57  square 
miles  respectively;  moth  occupies  36  square  miles,  wheat  about  25, 
barley  nearly  20,  rice  18,  and  jowdr  about  14  square  miles.  Cotton, 
poppy,  and  sugar-cane  are  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent,  and  san-hemp 
is  extensively  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital. 

Karauli  does  not  excel  as  a  cattle-breeding  country ;  the  animals  are 
small  though  hardy,  and  attempts  to  introduce  a  larger  kind  have  not 
succeeded  as  they  do  not  thrive  on  the  rock-grown  grass.  The  goats 
alone  are  really  good,  and  many  are  exported  from  the  Dang  to  Agra 
and  other  places. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated,  61  square  miles,  or  about  2$  per  cent., 
are  generally  irrigated.  Well-irrigation  is  chiefly  employed  in  the 
country  surrounding  the  capital.  The  total  number  of  wells  is  said 
to  be  2,813,  °f  which  1,645  are  masonry;  leathern  buckets,  drawn  up 
with  a  rope  and  pulley  by  bullocks  moving  down  an  inclined  plane,  are 
universally  used  for  lifting  the  water.  Tanks  are  the  principal  means 
of  irrigation  in  the  rocky  and  hilly  portions;  there  are  said  to  be  379 
tanks  of  sorts  in  the  State,  but  only  81  of  them  have  masonry  dams. 
From  tanks  and  streams  water  is  raised  by  an  apparatus  termed  dhenkli, 
consisting  of  a  wooden  pole  with  a  small  earthen  pot  at  one  end  and 
a  heavy  weight  at  the  other. 

There  are  no  real  forests  in  the  State  and  valuable  timber  trees  are 
scarce.  Above  the  Chambal  valley  the  commonest  tree  is  the  dhao 
(Anogeissus  pendala),  but  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  shrub ;  other 
common  trees  are  the  dhdk  (Butea  frondosd),  several  kinds  of  acacia, 
the  cotton-tree  (Bombax  malabaria/m),  the  sal  (Shorea  robusta),  the 
garjan  (Dipterocarpus  alatus),  and  the  mm  [Melia  Azadirachta).  Near 
the  Chambal  in  the  Mandrael  tahsll,  and  again  in  a  grass  reserve  20 
miles  north-east  of  the  capital,  a  number  of  shlsham  trees  (Da/bergia 
Sissoo)  are  found  together ;  but  they  are,  it  is  believed,  not  of  natural 

c  2 


3o  KARAULI  STATE 

growth.  The  so-called  forest  area  comprises  about  200  square  miles, 
and  is  managed  by  a  department  called  the  Bagar,  whose  principal 
duties  are  to  supply  grass  for  the  State  elephants  and  cattle,  find  and 
preserve  game  for  the  chief  and  his  followers,  and  provide  a  revenue  by 
exacting  grazing  dues.  The  forest  revenue  averages  about  Rs.  6,400 
a  year,  derived  mainly  from  grazing  fees,  and  to  a  small  extent  from 
the  sale  of  grass  and  firewood,  while  the  annual  expenditure  is  about 
Rs.  3,000. 

Red  sandstone  abounds  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  State, 
and  in  parts,  especially  near  the  capital,  white  sandstone  blends  with 
it.  Other  varieties  of  a  bluish  and  yellow  colour  are  also  found,  the 
former  near  Machilpur,  and  the  latter  in  the  south  and  west.  Iron  ore 
occurs  in  the  hills  north-east  of  Karauli ;  but  the  mines  would  not  pay 
working  expenses,  and  the  iron  manufactured  in  the  State  is  smelted 
from  imported  material. 

Manufactures  are  not  of  importance.      There  is  a  little  weaving  and 

dyeing ;   and  a  few  wooden  toys,  boxes,  and  bed-legs  painted   with 

coloured  lac,  and  some  pewter  and  brass  ornaments 

.     ..         are  turned  out.     The  tat  or  s:unny-cloth  of  Karauli  is 
communications.  &.       } 

well-known  in  the  neighbouring  marts,  and  a  good 
deal  is  exported  ;  it  is  made  from  san-hemp  grown  near  the  capital. 

The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  g/n,  opium,  zlra  (cumin  seed),  rice 
and  other  cereals,  while  the  chief  imports  are  piece-goods,  sugar,  gur 
(molasses),  salt,  and  indigo.  The  trade  is  mainly  with  the  neigh- 
bouring States  of  Jaipur  and  Gwalior  and  with  Agra  District. 

There  is  no  railway  in  the  State,  the  nearest  stations  being  Hindaun 
Road  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  line,  52  miles  north  of  the  capital,  and 
Dholpur  on  the  Indian  Midland  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railway,  about  65  miles  to  the  east.  Apart  from  a  few  metalled  streets 
in  Karauli  town,  the  only  metalled  road  in  the  State  is  about  9  miles 
long.  It  runs  north  from  the  capital  in  the  direction  of  Hindaun  Road 
as  far  as  the  Jaipur  border,  and  was  completed  in  1886  at  a  cost  of 
Rs.  37,000.  The  rest  of  the  roads  are  mere  fair-weather  tracks,  some 
passable  by  bullock-carts,  and  others  only  by  camels  and  pack-bullocks. 
The  Chambal  river  is  crossed  by  means  of  small  boats  maintained  by 
the  State,  and  the  fare  per  passenger  is  usually  about  a  quarter  of  an 
anna,  the  transit  of  merchandise  being  specially  bargained  for.  There 
are  five  British  post  offices  in  the  State  (four  having  been  opened 
in  January,  1905),  and  that  at  the  capital  is  also  a  telegraph  office. 

The  State  has  been  fairly  free  from  famines,  but  has  had  its  share  of 

indifferent  years.      In   1868-9  tne  rains  crops  failed,  and  there  was 

considerable  distress  ;  but  the  Maharaja  did  his  best 

to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  the  poor  by  establishing 

kitchens  and  poorhouses  and  starting  public  works.     A  sum  of  2  lakhs 


ADMIXISTRA  TION  3 T 

was  borrowed  from  the  British  Government ;  the  price  of  grain  went  up 
to  8  seers  per  rupee,  and  there  was  scarcity  of  fodder,  especially  in  the 
highlands  of  the  Dang,  where  nine-tenths  of  the  cattle  are  said  to  have 
perished.  The  years  1877-8,  1883-4,  1886-7,  and  1896-8  were 
periods  of  scarcity  and  high  prices.  In  1897  locusts  did  much  damage  ; 
and  in  the  following  year  a  pest  called  kata,  akin  to  the  locust,  almost 
entirely  destroyed  the  autumn  crops  in  parts  of  the  State.  In  1899- 
1900  distress  was  confined  to  a  comparatively  small  area  of  254  square 
miles,  and  never  amounted  to  famine.  Nevertheless,  about  268,000 
units  were  relieved  on  works  ;  and  the  total  expenditure,  including 
loans  (Rs.  23,800)  and  land  revenue  remitted  (Rs.  46,000)  and  sus- 
pended (Rs.  28,600),  exceeded  a  lakh. 

The  State  is  governed  by  the  Maharaja,  assisted  by  a  Council  of  five 
members.  His  Highness  is  President  of  the  Council  and  has  exercised 
full  powers  since  1889.  Each  of  the  five  tahsils  is 
under  a  tahslldar,  and  over  the  latter  is  a  Revenue 
Officer  or  Deputy-Collector.  In  every  village  there  is  a  State  servant 
called  a  tahsi/ia,  who  is  subordinate  to  the  patwari  of  the  circle  in 
which  the  village  is  situated. 

In  the  administration  of  justice  the  Karauli  courts  follow  generally 
the  British  Indian  enactments ;  but  certain  sections  have  been  added  to 
the  Penal  Code,  including  one  declaring  the  killing  of  cows  and  pea- 
fowl to  be  offences.  The  lowest  courts  are  those  of  tahsl/ddrs,  who 
can  try  civil  suits  the  value  of  which  does  not  exceed  Rs.  50,  and  on 
the  criminal  side  can  punish  with  imprisonment  up  to  one  month  and 
with  fine  up  to  Rs.  20,  or  both.  The  court  of  the  Judicial  Officer, 
besides  hearing  appeals  against  the  orders  of  tahsl/ddrs,  can  try  any 
civil  suit,  and  on  the  criminal  side  can  sentence  up  to  three  years' 
imprisonment  and  fine  up  to  Rs.  500,  or  both ;  it  can  also  pass  a 
sentence  of  whipping  not  exceeding  36  stripes.  The  Council  is  the 
highest  court  in  the  State  ;  it  hears  appeals  against  the  orders  of  the 
Judicial  Officer,  tries  criminal  cases  beyond  his  powers,  and,  when 
presided  over  by  the  Maharaja,  can  pass  sentence  of  death. 

The  revenue  courts  are  guided  by  a  simple  code  of  law,  introduced 
in  1 88 1-2,  and  amended  by  circulars  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Council  to  meet  local  requirements.  Petty  suits  are  decided  by 
tahslldar s  subject  to  appeal  to  the  Revenue  Officer,  who  can  also  take 
up  rent  and  revenue  suits  of  any  value  or  nature.  As  on  the  civil  and 
criminal  side,  the  highest  revenue  court  is  the  Council. 

The  normal  revenue  of  the  State  is  about  5  lakhs,  of  which  2-S  lakhs 
is  derived  from  land,  one  lakh  from  customs,  and  Rs.  23,000  as  tribute 
from  jdglrdars.  The  normal  expenditure  is  about  44  lakhs,  the  mam 
items  being  cost  of  army  and  police  (1-3  lakhs),  gifts  and  charities  (Rs. 
70,000),  cost  of  stables  (Rs.  33,000),  allowance  to  relatives  (Rs.  29,000), 


32  KARA U LI  STATE 

and  personal  expenses  of  the  chief  (Rs.  28,000).  The  State,  owing  to 
a  series  of  years  of  scarcity,  is  in  debt  to  the  extent  of  nearly  5  lakhs, 
which  is  being  paid  off  by  annual  instalments  of  Rs.  55,000. 

The  State  had  till  quite  recently  a  silver  and  copper  coinage  of  its 
own,  and  it  is  believed  that  coins  were  first  struck  by  Maharaja  Manak 
Pal  about  1780.  The  distinctive  mint-marks  are  the  jhdr  (spray)  and 
the  katdr  (dagger),  and  since  the  time  of  Madan  Pal  (1854-69)  each 
chief  has  placed  on  his  silver  coins  the  initial  letter  of  his  name.  The 
Karauli  rupee,  which  in  1870  was  worth  half  an  anna  more  than  the 
British,  subsequently  fell  slightly  in  exchange  value,  and  the  Darbar 
resolved  to  introduce  British  currency  as  the  sole  legal  tender  in  the 
State.     The  conversion  operations  have  just  been  completed. 

There  are  two  main  kinds  of  tenure  in  Karauli :  namely,  khdlsa, 
under  which  the  State  itself  possesses  all  rights  and  privileges  over  the 
land ;  and  muafi,  under  which  the  State  has,  subject  to  certain  con- 
ditions, conferred  such  rights  and  privileges  on  others.  Of  the  436 
villages  in  the  State,  204  are  khdlsa  and  232  are  muafi.  The  latter 
tenure  is  of  several  kinds.  The  Thakurs  or  nobles  pay  as  tribute 
{khandt)  a  fixed  sum,  which  is  nominally  one-fourth  of  the  produce  of 
the  soil,  but  really  much  less ;  and  this  tribute  is  in  lieu  of  constant 
military  service,  which  is  not  performed  in  Karauli,  though,  when 
military  emergencies  arise  or  State  pageants  occur,  the  Thakurs  come 
in  with  their  retainers,  who  on  such  occasions  are  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  Darbar.  No  tax  is  ordinarily  exacted  in  addition  to 
the  tribute,  except  in  cases  of  disputed  succession,  when  nazardna  is 
levied.  This  tenure  is  known  as  bdpoti ;  and  such  estates  are  not 
permanently  resumed  except  for  treason  or  serious  crime,  though  in  the 
past  they  were  frequently  sequestrated  for  a  time  when  the  holders  gave 
trouble.  Another  form  of  muafi  tenure  is  known  as  panarth  or  religious 
grant.  Under  it  land  is  granted  in  perpetuity  free  of  rent  and  taxes. 
Other  lands  are  granted  on  the  ordinary  jdglr  tenure,  while  lands  are 
also  set  apart  to  meet  zandna  expenses.  In  the  khdlsa  area  the 
cultivating  tenures  of  the  peasantry  are  numerous.  In  some  villages 
a  fixed  sum  is  paid,  varying  according  to  the  kind  of  crop  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  village  expenses  may  be  either  included  or 
excluded  ;  in  other  villages  an  annual  assessment  is  made  by  the 
tahsllddr,  and  the  land  revenue  is  paid  sometimes  in  cash  and  some- 
times in  kind  ;  in  other  villages  again  the  State  merely  takes  a  share, 
varying  from  one-fifth  to  one-half,  of  the  actual  produce ;  and  lastly, 
under  the  thekadari  or  lambarddri  system  a  village,  or  a  part  of  one,  is 
leased  for  a  term  of  five  or  ten  years  to  the  headman  or  some  individual 
for  a  fixed  sum  payable  half-yearly.  Land  revenue  is  nowadays  mostly 
paid  in  cash,  and  the  assessment  varies  from  Rs.  15  per  acre  of  wheat, 
sugar-cane,  or  poppy,  to  1 2  annas  per  acre  of  moth  or  HI.     There  is  no 


ADMINISTRATION  33 

complete  revenue  survey  and  settlement  in  Karauli,  but  one  has  been 
in  progress  since  1891. 

No  salt  is  manufactured  in  the  State,  nor  is  any  tax  of  any  kind 
levied  on  this  commodity.  By  the  agreement  of  1882  the  Maharaja 
receives  Rs.  5,000  annually  from  the  British  Government  as  compen- 
sation, as  well  as  50  maunds  of  Sambhar  salt  free  of  cost  and  duty. 
The  liquor  consumed  is  mostly  made  from  the  flowers  of  the  mahua 
(Bassi'a  latifolid).  The  right  to  manufacture  and  sell  country 
liquor  is  sold  annually  by  auction,  and  brings  in  from  Rs.  1,600  to 
Rs.  1,800;  similarly  the  right  to  sell  intoxicating  drugs,  such  as  gd?ija, 
bhang,  &c,  yields  about  Rs.  1,200.  The  revenue  derived  from  the 
sale  of  court-fee  stamps  is  about  Rs.  6,000. 

The  only  municipality  is  described  in  the  article  on  Karauli  Town. 

There  is  a  Public  Works  department  called  Kamthdnd,  but  it  is 
not  now  under  professional  supervision.  A  British  officer  was,  however, 
usefully  employed  in  1885-6.  The  expenditure  during  recent  years 
has  averaged  about  Rs.  12,000;  and  the  principal  works  have  been 
tne  metalled  road  to  the  Jaipur  border  in  the  direction  of  Hindaun 
Road  (Rs.  37,000),  the  Neniaki-Gwari  tank  (about  Rs.  23,000),  a 
couple  of  bridges  (costing  respectively  Rs.  17,000  and  Rs.  30,000), 
and  a  building  for  a  school  (about  Rs.  45,000). 

The  military  force  consists  of  2,053  men.  The  cavalry  number 
260,  of  whom  171  are  irregular;  the  infantry  number  1,761  (1,421 
irregular) ;  and  there  are  32  artillerymen.  Of  the  56  guns,  10  are 
said  to  be  serviceable. 

The  State  is  divided  into  seven  police  circles  or  thdnas,  besides  the 
kotwdli  at  the  capital.  The  police  force  consists  of  358  men  of  all 
ranks,  and  there  is  in  addition  a  balai  in  each  village  who  performs 
duties  similar  to  those  of  the  chaukiddr  in  British  India.  The  only 
jail  is  at  the  capital. 

According  to  the  Census  of  1901,  about  2-3  per  cent,  of  the  people 
were  able  to  read  and  write  :  namely,  4  per  cent,  of  the  males  and 
0-2  per  cent,  of  the  females.  The  State  maintains  seven  schools  : 
namely,  a  high  school  and  a  girls'  school  at  the  capital,  and  primary 
schools  at  Mandrael,  Karanpur,  Sapotra,  Kurgaon,  and  Machilpur. 
These  are  attended  by  nearly  400  pupils.  Education  is  free,  the 
annual  expenditure  being  about  Rs.  4,000.  In  addition,  several  private 
schools  are  attended  by  about  200  boys. 

The  State  possesses  five  hospitals  :  namely,  two  at  the  capital  (one 
exclusively  for  females),  and  three  in  the  districts,  at  Machilpur, 
Mandrael,  and  Sapotra.  They  contain  accommodation  for  36  in- 
patients;  and  in  1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  31,909,  of 
whom  136  were  in-patients,  and  2,150  operations  were  performed. 

Vaccination    is  nowhere   compulsory.      Three   vaccinators    under  a 


34  KARAULI  STATE 

native  Superintendent  are  employed;  and  in  1904-5  the  number  of 
persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  5,865,  or  more  than  37  per  1,000 
of  the  population. 

[P.  W.  Powlett,  Gazetteer  of  Karauli  (1874,  under  revision); 
H.  E.  Drake-Brockman,  Gazetteer  of  Eastern  Riijputana  States  (Ajmer, 
1905) ;  Administration  Reports  of  Karauli  (annually  from  1894-5).] 

Karauli  Town.  —  Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Rajputana,  situated  in  260  30'  N.  and  770  2'  E.,  equidistant  (about 
75  miles)  from  Muttra,  Gwalior,  Agra,  Alwar,  Jaipur,  and  Tonk.  It  is 
also  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sadr  tahsil  It  was  founded  in  1348  by 
Raja.  Arjun  Pal,  and  was  originally  called  Kalyanpuri  after  the  temple 
to  Kalyanji  built  about  the  same  time.  It  is  connected  with  the 
Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  at  Hindaun  Road  by  a  metalled  road  52 
miles  long.  The  population  in  1901  was  23,482,  of  whom  76  per  cent, 
were  Hindus  and  22  per  cent.  Muhammadans. 

Viewed  from  some  points  whence  the  palace  is  seen  to  advantage, 
the  town  has  a  striking  appearance.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  red 
sandstone,  and  is  also  protected  on  the  north  and  east  by  a  network 
of  ravines.  To  the  south  and  west  the  ground  is  comparatively  level ; 
but  advantage  has  been  taken  of  a  conveniently  situated  watercourse 
to  form  a  moat  to  the  town  wall,  while  an  outer  wall  and  ditch, 
defended  by  bastions,  has  been  carried  along  the  other  bank,  thus 
forming  a  double  line  of  defence.  These  fortifications,  though  too 
strong  for  the  desultory  attacks  of  the  Marathas,  would  be  far  less 
formidable  to  regular  troops  than  were  the  mud  walls  of  Bharatpur. 
The  town  wall,  in  spite  of  its  handsome  appearance,  is  unsubstantially 
built,  being  composed  of  ill-cemented  stones  faced  by  thin  slabs  after 
the  fashion  which  prevails  throughout  the  State.  The  circumference 
of  the  town  is  somewhat  less  than  i\  miles,  and  there  are  six  gates  and 
eleven  posterns.  The  streets  are  rather  narrow  and  irregular,  but  since 
1884  most  of  them  have  been  flagged  with  the  local  stone,  and  they 
can  easily  be  cleansed  as  the  natural  drainage  is  excellent.  There 
are  several  costly  houses  and  a  few  handsome  temples ;  of  the  latter 
the  most  beautiful  is  perhaps  the  Pratap  Saroman  temple,  built  by 
Maharaja  Pratap  Pal  (1837-50)  in  the  modern  Muttra  style.  The 
palace  is  about  200  yards  from  the  eastern  wall  of  the  town  ;  it  was 
founded  by  Arjun  Pal  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  little  or  nothing 
of  the  original  structure  can  now  be  traced.  In  its  present  state  it  was 
erected  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  Raja  Gopal 
Singh,  who  adopted  the  Delhi  style  of  architecture  with  which  his 
residence  in  that  city  had  made  him  familiar.  The  whole  block  of 
buildings  is  surrounded  by  a  lofty  bastioned  wall  in  which  there  are 
two  fine  gates. 

A   municipality  was    constituted  in    18S4,    and  the   committee  has 


•  KARENNI  35 

successfully  looked  after  the  paving  and  lighting  of  the  streets  and  the 
general  conservancy  of  the  town.  Indeed,  Karauli  is  one  of  the 
cleanest  towns  in  Rajputana.  The  income  of  the  municipality  varies 
from  Rs.  7,000  to  Rs.  9,000,  derived  mainly  from  a  small  octroi  duty 
on  cereals ;  and  the  expenditure  is  somewhat  less.  The  jail  has 
accommodation  for  77  prisoners,  who  are  employed  on  cotton  cloth 
and  carpet-weaving  ;  attached  to  the  jail  is  a  small  printing  press,  in 
which  some  of  the  prisoners  occasionally  work. 

Besides  a  few  private  schools  in  which  only  plain  ciphering  and 
letter-writing  are  taught,  and  a  girls'  school,  the  town  possesses  a  high 
school  teaching  up  to  the  matriculation  standard  of  the  Allahabad 
University,  with  an  Oriental  department  affiliated  to  the  Punjab 
University,  and  a  patwari  class.  This  institution  costs  the  State  about 
Rs.  3,000  a  year  and  education  is  free ;  the  daily  average  attendance 
in  1904  was  227.  Since  the  high  school  was  established  in  1889, 
6  students  have  passed  the  matriculation  at  the  Allahabad  University 
and  39  have  passed  various  Oriental  examinations  of  the  Punjab 
University.  There  are  two  hospitals,  a  general  and  a  female.  The 
latter,  which  was  opened  as  a  dispensary  for  out-patients  in  1891,  is 
maintained  from  municipal  funds. 

Karchana. — The  central  of  the  three  trans-Jumna  tahsils  of  Allah- 
abad District,  United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of 
Arail,  lying  between  250  9'  and  250  26'  N.  and  8i°  44'  and  820  5'  E., 
with  an  area  of  257  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  134,818  in 
1 89 1  to  127,327  in  1 90 1.  There  are  338  villages  and  one  small  town. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,64,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  42,000  ;  but  the  revised  settlement  has  reduced  the  revenue 
to  Rs.  2,39,000.  The  density  of  population,  495  persons  per  square  mile, 
is  below  the  District  average.  The  tahsil  is  bounded  on  the  north-east 
by  the  Ganges,  on  the  north-west  by  the  Jumna,  and  on  the  south  and 
east  by  the  Tons.  Bordering  on  the  rivers  are  tracts  of  high  sandy 
soil  much  cut  up  by  ravines,  except  towards  the  Ganges.  The  central 
portion  consists  of  a  fertile  loam,  which  changes  in  the  west  to  clay, 
where  coarse  rice  is  the  staple  crop.  Though  situated  south  of  the 
Jumna,  the  country  resembles  the  Doab,  but  facilities  for  irrigation 
are  not  good.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  174  square 
miles,  of  which  28  were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  about  two-thirds  of 
the  irrigated  area,  and  j/il/s  the  remainder. 

Karenni. — The  country  of  the  Red  Karens,  Burma,  lying  on  both 
banks  of  the  Salween,  between  180  50'  and  190  55'  N.  and  970  io'  and 
970  50'  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Shan  States,  on  the 
south  by  Salween  District,  on  the  east  by  Siam,  and  on  the  west  by 
Toungoo  District.  At  Loikaw,  a  village  of  2,042  inhabitants  towards 
the  north  of  the  tract,  an  Assistant  Superintendent   of  the  Shan  States 


36  KARENM 

is  posted  as  Agent  of  the  British  Government,  with  a  military  police 
guard  under  an  assistant  commandant,  and  control  is  exercised  by  him 
and  the  Superintendent  at  Taunggyi  over  the  chiefs.  The  tract  is 
divided  in  a  general  way  into  eastern  and  western  Karenni,  the  former 
consisting  of  the  single  State  of  Gantarawadi  (2,500  square  miles),  the 
latter  of  the  four  small  States  of  Kyebogyi  (350  square  miles),  Bawlake 
(200  square  miles),  Nammekon  (50  square  miles),  and  Naungpale 
(30  square  miles).  The  north-western  portion  is  an  open,  fairly  level 
plain,  well  watered  and  in  some  parts  swampy.  It  lies  in  the  basin 
of  the  Nam  Pilu  or  Balu  stream,  which  drains  the  Inle  Lake,  and,  after 
flowing  past  Loikaw,  sinks  into  the  ground  to  the  south-east  of  that 
village  before  joining  the  Nam  Pawn.  The  rest  of  the  Karenni 
country  is  mountainous,  with  occasional  fertile  valleys,  but  for  the 
most  part  arid.  It  is  watered  by  the  Salween  and  its  tributary  the 
Nam  Pawn,  which  are  separated  by  a  ridge  5,000  feet  in  height. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  Karenni  States  prior 
to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  During  the  latter  part  of 
that  century  they  were  the  scene  of  constant  hostilities,  occasioned  by 
incursions  from  the  Shan  States  and  by  intestinal  disputes.  Certain 
features  of  their  history  since  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma  are 
given  in  the  article  on  the  Southern  Shan  States.  Gantarawadi 
was  heavily  fined  for  the  disturbances  which  Sawlapaw  had  occasioned 
in  1888,  and  Sawlawi  undertook  to  pay  a  tribute  of  Rs.  5,000  to  the 
British  Government.  This  chief  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Sawbwa 
in  1 90 1.  The  other  four  chiefs  were  formally  recognized  as  feudatories 
in  1892,  and  appointed  Myozas.  Kyebogyi,  Bawlake,  and  Nammekon 
pay  a  tribute  of  Rs.  100  each,  and  Naungpale  Rs.  50.  The  population 
of  Karenni  was  estimated  in  1901  at  45,975,  distributed  as  follows 
over  the  different  States :  Gantarawadi,  26,333  I  Kyebogyi,  9,867  ; 
Bawlake,  5,701;  Nammekon,  2,629;  anc*  Naungpale,  1,265.  ^ne 
inhabitants  are  said  to  have  decreased  considerably  of  late,  owing  to 
the  diminution  of  water  in  the  Nam  Pilu  valley,  the  most  cultivated 
part  of  the  country.  More  than  half  are  Red  Karens,  who  are  at 
a  low  stage  of  civilization,  and  very  far  from  clean  in  their  persons 
and  habits.  Other  people  represented  are  Shans,  Taungthus,  Bres, 
Padaungs,  and  White  and  other  Karens.  The  chief  wealth  of  the 
country  is  teak  timber,  rich  forests  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Salween,  on  both  banks  of  the  Nam  Pawn,  and  in  the  north-western 
States.     The  total  revenue  of  the  States  in  1893-4  was  Rs.  37,000. 

Karens. — A  collection  of  Indo-Chinese  tribes,  the  representatives 
in  Burma  of  one  of  the  smaller  immigration  waves  that  entered  the 
country  from  the  direction  of  South-Western  China  during  prehistoric 
times.  The  arrival  of  the  Karens  in  the  country  in  all  probability  pre- 
ceded that  of  the  Tai  (Shans),  and  may  possibly  have  been  earlier  than 


KARENS  37 

that  of  the  Burmans.  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  they  appeared 
after  the  latter,  and  in  any  case  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  were 
later  comers  than  the  representatives  of  the  Mon-Anam  races.  The 
Karens  may  be  divided  into  three  main  divisions  :  the  Sgaw,  the  Pwo, 
and  the  Bghai.  The  Sgaw  and  Pwo  are  generally  looked  upon  as  the 
Karens  proper.  They  are  found  down  the  whole  of  the  eastern  border 
of  Lower  Burma,  from  Toungoo  to  Mergui,  in  the  delta  of  the  Irra- 
waddy,  and  in  the  Pegu  Yoma ;  in  fact  it  is  only  in  the  Arakan  Division, 
in  Rangoon,  and  in  the  Districts  of  Prome  and  Thayetmyo  that  they  do 
not  form  an  important  section  of  the  community  in  the  Lower  province. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  the  Districts  of  Thaton,  Myaungmya,  and 
Toungoo.  In  1901,  86,434  persons  were  returned  as  Sgaw-Karens,  and 
174,070  as  Pwo-Karens,  a  total  of  457,355  having  been  shown  as  Karens 
with  no  division  specified.  These  last  were  practically  all  either  Sgaw 
or  Pwo,  probably  more  of  the  former  than  of  the  latter. 

The  Karens  are  for  the  most  part  hill-dwellers,  but  a  very  consider- 
able proportion  of  them  are  now  permanently  settled  in  the  plains. 
The  Sgaw  plain-dwellers  are  often  known  as  Burmese  Karens,  and  the 
Pwo  as  Talaing  Karens.  In  physique  there  is  no  great  difference 
between  the  Karens  of  Lower  Burma  and  their  Burman  and  Talaing 
neighbours ;  they  are  not  exceptionally  flat-faced,  and  sharp  features 
are  frequently  met  with.  Their  eyes  are  not  oblique,  like  those  of  the 
Chinese.  In  dress  they  have  to  some  extent  adopted  the  style  of  the 
people  in  whose  neighbourhood  they  live.  The  typical  Karen  garment, 
where  the  national  dress  is  still  worn,  is  the  thindaing  or  smock,  a  long, 
sleeveless  or  almost  sleeveless  garment,  which  is  slipped  over  the  head 
and  falls  away  from  the  neck,  leaving  a  V-shaped  opening  in  front  and 
behind.  Where  this  is  worn  it  forms  the  sole  upper  garment  of  the 
men,  boys,  and  unmarried  girls.  In  the  case  of  married  women  the 
thindaing  is  shorter,  is  often  highly  decorated,  and  is  worn  over  a  skirt. 
Clan  distinctions  were,  and  to  a  certain  extent  still  are,  indicated  by 
differences  in  dress,  as  for  instance  in  the  embroidery  on  the  hem  of 
the  men's  smocks.  The  typical  hill  Karen  house,  like  that  of  the 
Kachin,  is  far  longer  and  larger  than  that  built  by  the  people  of  the 
plains.  The  Karens  practise  agriculture,  their  cultivation,  when  resi- 
dent in  the  hills,  being  of  the  ordinary  taungya  description.  They  are 
excellent  foresters,  and  ever  since  the  annexation  of  Pegu  their  relations 
with  the  Forest  department  have  been  intimate.  The  original  religion 
of  the  Karens  was  spirit-worship,  and  a  considerable  number  still  hold 
by  their  old  faith ;  but  some  have  embraced  Buddhism  and  a  large 
proportion  of  them  have  become  Christians.  In  their  spontaneous 
readiness  to  accept  Christianity  they  are  probably  unique  among  the 
more  backward  races  of  Asia.  The  Karens  have  been  enlisted  to  some 
extent  in  the   Burma   military  police.     At  one   time  a  battalion  was 


3  8  KARENS 

recruited  entirely  from  the  Karens  ;  but  a  riot  that  occurred  in  its  ranks 
in  1899  led  to  its  abolition  as  a  separate  unit,  and  to  the  distribution  of 
the  companies  of  which  it  was  composed  over  other  battalions.  The 
two  main  divisions  of  the  Karens  proper  have  dialects  of  their  own 
which  differ  very  considerably.  It  is  probable  that  the  Sgaw  dialect 
will  in  time  supersede  the  Pwo  for  educational  purposes.  The  lan- 
guage is  tonal,  and  belongs  to  the  Siamese-Chinese  sub-family  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  family. 

Of  the  Bghai  division  of  the  Karen  race,  the  Red  Karens  of  Karenni 
have  hitherto  been  the  best  known.  Other  representatives  of  this 
division  are  called  Padaungs,  Bres,  Zayeins,  Sawngtiing  Karens,  Loilong 
Karens,  White  Karens,  and  the  like.  The  Bghai  inhabit  the  south- 
western corner  of  the  Shan  States,  between  180  30'  and  200  30'  N. 
They  were  found  mostly  in  the  'estimated'  areas  in  1901,  and  the 
precise  strength  of  the  different  tribes  is  not  exactly  known.  The  total 
of  Red  Karens  would  appear,  however,  to  be  above  29,000,  that  of  the 
Padaungs  between  9,000  and  10,000,  and  that  of  the  Bres  about  3,500. 
Most  of  the  Zayeins  live  in  territory  that  was  regularly  enumerated  ;  they 
aggregated  4,440.  The  Bghai  tribes  vary  considerably  in  language,  cus- 
toms, and  dress.  The  male  costume  consists  as  a  rule  of  short  trousers 
and  a  jacket  or  blanket ;  the  female  costume,  of  a  short  kilt  with  either 
a  short  smock  or,  in  the  case  of  the  Red  Karen  women,  of  a  single  piece 
of  cloth,  draped  over  the  upper  portion  of  the  body.  Leg  and  neck 
ornaments  are  common  among  the  women,  the  former  being  specially 
noticeable  in  Karenni  in  the  shape  of  beaded  garters,  the  latter  in  the 
Padaung  country,  where  the  women  lengthen  their  necks  artificially  by 
means  of  a  succession  of  brass  rings  which  is  added  to  year  by  year. 
All  the  Bghai  are  spirit-worshippers,  and  the  majority  of  them  are  at 
a  lower  stage  of  civilization  than  the  Karens  of  Lower  Burma.  The 
Bghai  dialects,  though  differing,  are  probably  all  variants  of  a  common 
speech. 

Karhal  Tahsil. — Central  southern  tahsil  of  Mainpun  District, 
United  Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Karhal  and  Barnahal, 
and  lying  between  260  56'  and  270  9'  N.  and  780  46'  and  790  io'  E., 
with  an  area  of  218  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  100,297  in 
1891  to  98,398  in  1 901.  There  are  189  villages  and  one  town,  Kar- 
hal (population,  6,268),  the  tahsil  head-quarters.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,75,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  28,000. 
The  density  of  population,  451  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  lowest  in 
the  District,  and  this  is  the  only  tahsil  which  lost  in  population  between 
1 89 1  and  1 90 1.  The  Sengar,  flowing  from  north-west  to  south-east, 
divides  the  tahsil  into  two  parts.  The  eastern  portion  forms  part  of  the 
great  central  loam  tract ;  and  its  fertility  is  interrupted  only  by  patches 
of  barren  land  called  usar,  and  great  swamps  from  which  are  formed 


KARIKAL  39 

the  Puraha  and  Ahneya  streams,  flowing  into  Etawah.  Although  the 
west  is  more  sandy  it  contains  no  usar;  this  tract  suffered  during  the 
scarcity  of  1896-7.  In  1901-2  the  area  under  cultivation  was  no 
square  miles,  of  which  roi  were  irrigated.  The  Etawah  branch  of  the 
Lower  Ganges  Canal  serves  the  tract  east  of  the  Sengar,  supplying 
about  half  of  the  irrigated  area ;  and  wells  irrigate  most  of  the  re- 
mainder. 

Karhal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in 
Mainpurl  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  270  N.  and  780  57'  E., 
on  the  road  from  Mainpurl  town  to  Etawah.  Population  (1901),  6,268. 
The  town  contains  a  bazar  of  poor  shops,  but  has  some  substantial 
brick-built  houses.  A  Saiyid  family,  some  of  the  members  of  which 
are  reputed  to  possess  miraculous  powers,  resides  here.  The  tahslll 
and  dispensary  are  the  chief  public  buildings.  Karhal  is  administered 
under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,400.  Trade 
is  local.     The  tahsih  school  has  about  90  pupils. 

Kariana. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Karikal  (Kdraikka/,  '  fish  pass ' ;  the  Carical  Cariukalla  of  Barto- 
lomeo).  —  Erench  Settlement  and  town  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  lying 
between  the  taluks  of  Mayavaram,  Nannilam,  and  Negapatam  in  the 
Tanjore  District  of  Madras  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  town  is 
situated  in  io°  55'  N.  and  790  50'  E.  The  Settlement  is  divided  into 
three  communes,  containing  no  villages  in  all,  and  covering  an  area 
of  53  square  miles,  and  is  governed  by  an  Administrator  subordinate 
to  the  Governor  at  Pondicherry.  The  population  has  been  rapidly 
decreasing.  In  1883  it  was  93,055;  in  1891,  70,526;  and  in  1901, 
56,595  ;  but  the  density  is  still  very  high,  being  1,068  persons  per  square 
mile.  Kumbakonam  is  the  only  taluk  in  Tanjore  District  which  has 
a  higher  density.  Each  of  the  three  communes — namely,  Karikal,  La 
Grande  Aldee,  and  Nedungadu — possesses  a  mayor  and  council.  The 
members  are  all  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  but  in  the  municipality 
of  Karikal  half  the  number  of  seats  is  reserved  for  Europeans  or  their 
descendants.  The  country  is  very  fertile,  being  irrigated  by  seven 
branches  of  the  Cauvery :  namely,  the  Nandalar,  Nattar,  Arasalar, 
Tirumalarajanar,  Mudikondanar,  Vanjiar,  and  Nular,  besides  many 
smaller  channels. 

The  capital  of  the  Settlement  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Arasalar,  about  \\  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  has  a  brisk  trade  in  rice 
with  Ceylon  and  to  a  less  extent  with  the  Straits  Settlements.  In  1904 
it  had  no  commerce  whatever  with  France,  and  very  little  with  other 
French  colonies.  The  total  imports  amounted  to  £49,000,  of  which 
£1,600  came  from  the  French  colonies.  The  total  exports  were  valued 
at  £106,000,  out  of  which  only  £600  went  to  the  French  colonies. 
The  port  is  merely  an  open  roadstead,   provided  with  a  lighthouse 


4o  KARIKAL 

142  feet  high,  the  light  in  which  has  a  range  of  from  8  to  10  miles. 
Indian  labourers  emigrate  from  Karikal  to  the  French  colonies  in  large 
numbers.  Inland  customs  are  governed  by  a  convention  with  the 
Madras  Government,  and  all  salt  consumed  in  French  territory  is  by 
treaty  purchased  from  the  British  on  payment  of  an  annual  indemnity 
of  Rs.  20,748.  In  1899  Karikal  was  connected  with  Peralam  on  the 
Tanjore  District  Board  Railway.  The  line  is  i4§  miles  long  and  is 
owned  by  the  French  Government,  but  worked  by  the  South  Indian 
Railway. 

Karikal  was  promised  to  the  French  in  1738,  in  return  for  their  assis- 
tance, by  Sayajl,  the  exiled  Raja  of  Tanjore.  He  did  not.  however, 
keep  his  promise ;  and  it  was  only  by  the  assistance  of  Chanda  Sahib, 
then  at  war  with  Sayajl,  that  a  grant  of  the  town  was  obtained  in  the 
following  year.  An  additional  cession  of  81  villages  was  obtained  in 
1749  under  a  like  pressure  and  with  the  same  assistance,  when  the 
French  and  Chanda  Sahib  were  besieging  Tanjore.  The  latter  grant 
was  confirmed  by  treaty  in  1754.  The  town  and  fort  were  besieged 
by  an  English  force  under  Major  Monson  in  1760,  and,  after  a  gallant 
defence  of  ten  days,  surrendered  on  April  15.  They  came  into  British 
possession  again  on  three  subsequent  occasions  (see  French  Posses- 
sions), and  were  finally  restored  to  the  French  on  January  14,  181 7. 

Karimganj  Subdivision. — Subdivision  in  the  south-east  of  Sylhet 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  240  15' and  250  N. 
and  920  2'  and  920  36'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,048  square  miles.  It 
contains  one  town,  Karimganj  (population,  5,692),  the  head-quarters ; 
and  924  villages.  The  northern  portion  of  the  subdivision  is  a  level 
plain,  but  to  the  south  it  is  much  broken  by  hills.  The  Saraspur  and 
Patharkandi  ranges  project  into  the  valley  from  the  Lushai-Tippera 
system  ;  and  a  third  range  of  low  hills,  which  intervenes  between  them, 
separates  the  valleys  of  the  Langai  and  Singla  rivers.  The  lower  hills 
have  been  largely  taken  up  for  tea,  but  the  upper  valleys  of  these  two 
rivers  are  still,  to  a  great  extent,  covered  with  jungle.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  colonize  this  tract ;  but  they  have  only  met  with  a  qualified 
measure  of  success,  as  it  is  very  inaccessible,  and  much  of  the  land  is 
not  well  adapted  for  cultivation.  At  the  extreme  end  of  this  valley  are 
located  the  only  forest  Reserves  in  the  District,  which  cover  an  area  of 
103  square  miles.  The  population  of  Karimganj  in  1891  was  384,638, 
and  by  1901  had  risen  to  410,460,  an  increase  of  nearly  7  per  cent. 
Like  the  rest  of  Sylhet,  the  subdivision  is  densely  peopled  ;  and,  in  spite 
of  the  large  tracts  of  waste  land  in  the  south,  the  density  in  1901  was 
392  persons  per  square  mile,  which  is  but  little  below  the  figure  for  the 
District  as  a  whole.  The  rainfall  at  Karimganj  town  is  as  much  as 
160  inches  in  the  year,  but  in  the  Langai  valley  it  is  about  50  inches 
less.     The  staple  food-crop  is  sail  or  transplanted  winter  rice,  and  the 


KARIMNAGAR  DISTRICT  41 

dense  groves  of  areca  palms  surrounding  the  villages  are  a  special 
feature  in  the  landscape.  The  cultivation  of  tea  is  an  important  indus- 
try ;  in  1904  there  were  35  gardens  with  21,413  acres  under  plant, 
which  gave  employment  to  51  Europeans  and  24,126  natives.  Karlm- 
ganj  is  almost  invariably  in  charge  of  a  European  magistrate,  and  for 
administrative  purposes  is  divided  into  the  two  thanas  of  Karlmganj 
and  Jaldhub.  The  demand  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,24,000. 

Karlmganj  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Sylhet  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  240  52'  N. 
and  920  2  2r  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kusiyara.  river.  The  town  is 
favourably  situated  for  trade,  as  it  is  a  port  of  call  for  the  river  steamers, 
and  has  a  station  on  the  Assam-Bengal  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
5,692.  The  public  buildings  include  the  Magistrate's  and  Munsifs 
courts,  a  subsidiary  jail  with  accommodation  for  35  persons,  a  hospital 
with  6  beds,  and  a  high  school  with  an  average  attendance  of  176  boys. 
The  Subdivisional  Officer  is  almost  invariably  a  European,  and  there  is 
a  branch  of  the  Welsh  Presbyterian  Mission  in  the  town.  Most  of  the 
offices  are  located  on  low  hills  which  command  a  fine  view  across  the 
dense  groves  of  areca  palm,  with  which  the  neighbourhood  abounds, 
to  the  hills  of  North  Cachar.  There  is  a  considerable  export  trade  to 
Bengal  in  unhusked  rice,  mustard,  linseed,  bamboo  mats,  and  timber. 
The  principal  imports  are  cotton  piece-goods,  grain  and  pulse,  kerosene 
and  other  oils,  salt,  sugar,  and  spices.  The  majority  of  the  merchants 
are  natives  of  the  District,  but  there  are  a  few  Ma.rwa.ris  from  Rajputana. 

Karlmganj. — Village  in  the  Kishorganj  subdivision  of  Mymensingh 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  240  28"  N.  and  900 
52'  E.,  9  miles  east  of  Kishorganj.  Population  (1901),  136.  It  is  a 
large  bazar  and  reed  and  jute  mart,  and  has  given  its  name  to  a  well- 
known  variety  of  jute. 

Karimnagar  District. — District  in  the  Warangal  Division  of  the 
Hyderabad  State,  formerly  known  as  Elgandal.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Adilabad  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Bastar  State  of  the  Central 
Provinces  ;  on  the  south  by  Warangal ;  and  on  the  west  by  Medak  and 
Nizamabad.  In  consequence  of  the  changes  made  in  1905,  its  area  has 
been  reduced  to  5,369  square  miles,  including  jdgirs.  A  range  of  hills 
extends  in  a  north-easterly  direction  between  Gurrapalli  and  Jagtial, 
terminating  at  Vemalkurti  near  the  Godavari.  A  second  range,  running 
parallel  to  the  former,  stretches  from  Sunigram  to  Mallangur.  A  third 
range  starts  in  the  south-western  corner  of  the  District  from  the  valley 
of  the  Maner  river,  runs  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  and,  after  inter- 
secting the  Sunigram  range,  passes  beyond  RamgTr  and  terminates  near 
the  Godavari.  The  principal  river  is  the  Godavari,  which  flows  through 
the  northern  portion,  forming  the  northern  and  eastern  boundary,  and 


42  KARIMNAGAR   DISTRICT 

partially  separating  the  District  from  Adilabad  in  the  north  and  from 
Bastar  in  the  east.  The  next  important  river  is  the  Maner,  a  tributary 
of  the  Godavari,  which  traverses  the  District  from  west  to  east  as  far 
as  Karlagunta,  and  thence  flows  due  north,  till  it  falls  into  the  Godavari 
in  the  Mahadeopur  taluk.  The  Peddavagu  and  Chelluvagu  are  minor 
tributaries  of  the  Godavari. 

The  geological  formations  are  the  Archaean  gneiss,  and  the  Cuddapah, 
Sullavai,  and  Gondwana  series.  Gneiss  occupies  most  of  the  District, 
the  remaining  formations  occurring  in  the  east. 

The  flora  of  the  ,  District  includes  teak,  mango,  custard-apple, 
tamarind,  ebony,  black- wood,  satin-wood,  tarvar  (Cassia  auriculata), 
babul  (Acacia  arabica),  ?iallamaddi  (Tcrminalia  tomentosa),  and  eppa 
(Hardivickia  binatd). 

Karlmnagar  is  covered  with  a  large  extent  of  jungle  and  fprest, 
which  give  cover  to  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  hyenas,  wolves,  wild  hog, 
and  wild  dogs,  while  in  the  plains  sambar,  spotted  deer,  and  nilgai  are 
met  with  everywhere. 

With  the  exception  of  Mahadeopur  and  parts  of  Sirsilla  and  Jagtial, 
the  District  is  healthy.  The  temperature  at  Karlmnagar  and  Jamikunta 
in  May  rises  to  no°,  and  in  the  remaining  taluks  it  ranges  between 
roo°  and  1050.  In  December  it  falls  to  6o°.  The  annual  rainfall 
averages  about  3$  inches. 

The  population  of  the  area  of  the  present  District  in  1901  was 
861,833.  It  comprises  seven  taluks:  Karlmnagar,  Jamikunta, 
Sultanabad,  Jagtial,  Sirsilla,  Mahadeopur,  and  Parkal.  The 
chief  towns  are  Jagtial,  Manthani,  Koratla,  KarImnagar,  and 
Vemalwada.  About  96  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Hindus  ;  90 
per  cent,  speak  Telugu,  and  6  per  cent.  Urdu. 

The  land  revenue  demand  of  the  District  as  at  present  constituted 
is  about  22-6  lakhs. 

Karlmnagar  Taluk. —  Taluk  in  Karlmnagar  District,  Hyderabad 
State,  with  an  area  of  1,012  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901, 
including  jdgirs,  was  138,591,  compared  with  170,676  in  1891,  the  de- 
crease being  due  to  famine  and  cholera.  The  taluk  contains  one  town, 
KarImnagar  (population,  5,752),  the  District  and  taluk  head-quarters; 
and  186  villages,  of  which  26  are  jdglr.  The  land  revenue  in  1901 
amounted  to  4-3  lakhs.  Rice  is  largely  raised  with  irrigation  from 
tanks  and  wells.  The  Maner  river  flows  through  the  taluk  from  west 
to  east. 

Karlmnagar  Town. —  Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of 
Karlmnagar,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  180  26'  N.  and  790  8'  E.,  on 
the  Maner  river,  6  miles  east  of  Elgandal.  Population  (1901),  5,752. 
Besides  the  District  and  taluk  offices,  it  contains  the  District  civil 
court,  two  dispensaries,  one  of  which  provides  yundni  treatment,  a  post 


KARKALA  43 

office,  local  board  and  municipal  offices,  several  State  schools,  a  mission 
school,  a  female  mission  hospital,  a  District  jail,  and  a  tannery.  The 
town  is  noted  for  its  fine  filigree  work. 

Karjat  (i). — Southern  taluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  i8°  20'  and  180  50'  N.  and  740  43'  and  750  13'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  565  square  miles.  It  contains  81  villages,  including  Karjat,  the  head- 
quarters. The  population  in  1901  was  35,619,  compared  with  48,828 
in  1 89 1.  The  decrease,  which  is  greater  than  in  any  other  taluka, 
is  primarily  due  to  emigration  to  the  Nizam's  Dominions  and  other 
regions,  consequent  upon  famine.  It  is  the  most  thinly  populated  in 
the  District,  with  a  density  of  only  63  persons  per  square  mile. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  80,000  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  6,000.  A  chain  of  low  hills  with  flat  summits  traverses  the  taluka 
from  north-west  to  south-east,  dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts.  The 
streams  from  the  eastern  slope  flow  into  the  Sina  river,  and  from  the 
western  into  the  Bhima.  The  country  presents  a  dismal  appearance, 
owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  rocky  and  unprofitable  ground,  almost 
destitute  of  vegetation.  There  are  a  few  level  tracts,  some  of  con- 
siderable extent,  where  the  soil  is  deep  and  rich.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  hills  the  soil  is  of  the  poorest  description.  The  rainfall  is 
extremely  uncertain,  and  good  harvests  are  rare.  It  suffered  severely 
in  the  famines  of  1876-7  and  1 899-1 901,  when  many  villages  were 
deserted.  The  cultivators,  owing  to  a  succession  of  bad  harvests,  are 
nearly  all  in  debt. 

Karjat  (2). — North-eastern  taluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  180  45'  and  190  8'  N.  and  730  n'  and  730  33'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  359  square  miles,  including  the  petty  subdivision  (petha)  of 
Khalapur.  There  are  270  villages,  the  head-quarters  being  at  Karjat. 
The  population  in  1901  was  87,415,  compared  with  85,288  in  1891. 
The  density,  243  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District 
average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  r,6r,ooo, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  10,000.  Karjat  may  be  described  as  a  rough  hilly 
tract,  lying  between  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  hills  of  Matheran.  On 
its  northern  side  dales  and  valleys  diversify  the  surface ;  the  lowlands 
are  divided  into  rice-fields,  while  the  higher  grounds  are  clothed  with 
teak,  ain,  and  black-wood.  In  the  east  the  woodlands  become  a  forest. 
The  Ulhas  and  other  streams  which  rise  in  the  Western  Ghats  flow 
through  the  taluka,  but  become  dry  channels  in  the  hot  season.  The 
rainfall  is  fairly  plentiful,  and  failure  of  the  rice  crop  rare.  Drinking- 
water  is  scarce.  The  rice  soil  is  black,  and  the  upland  soil  reddish. 
The  climate  varies  greatly  with  the  season.  In  January  and  February 
the  nights  are  extremely  cold.  The  rainfall  during  the  ten  years 
ending  1903  averaged   130  inches. 

Karkala. — Village  in  the  Udipi  taluk  of  South   Kanara   District, 

VOL.  XV.  D 


44  KARKALA 

Madras,  situated  in  130  13'  N.  and  74°  59'  E.  Population  (1901), 
5,364.  It  was  once  a  populous  Jain  town  and  the  seat  of  the  Bhairarasa 
Wodeyars,  a  powerful  Jain  family  of  which  no  representatives  are  now 
left.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  many  Jain  remains.  The  most 
remarkable  is  the  monolithic  statue  of  Gomata  Raya,  erected  by  the 
ruling  prince  in  a.d.  1431.  It  stands  in  an  enclosure  on  the  summit 
of  a  rocky  hill  south  of  the  town  overlooking  a  picturesque  lake,  and 
is  41  feet  5  inches  high,  with  the  traditional  form  and  lineaments  of 
Buddha.  Once  in  sixty  years  Jains  from  all  parts  gather  and  bathe  the 
statue  with  coco-nut  milk.  To  the  north,  on  the  summit  of  a  smaller 
hill,  stands  a  square  temple  with  projecting  porticoes  facing  each  of  the 
four  quarters,  its  columns,  pediments,  and  friezes  being  alike  richly 
carved  and  ornamented.  Within,  facing  each  entrance,  stand  groups 
of  three  life-sized  figures  in  burnished  copper,  counterparts  of  the  great 
statue  above.  At  Haleangadi,  close  by,  is  the  finest  Jain  stambha 
(pillar)  in  the  District.  It  has  a  monolithic  shaft  7,7,  feet  high  in  eight 
segments,  each  beautifully  and  variously  ornamented,  supporting  an 
elegant  capital  and  topped  by  a  stone  shrine  containing  a  statue.  The 
total  height  is  about  50  feet.  Karkala  is  situated  on  one  of  the 
principal  roads  leading  to  Mysore,  in  the  centre  of  a  fertile  tract  con- 
taining many  fine  areca  gardens.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  rice 
and  other  local  produce,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of  a  deputy- fa /isi/ddr. 

Karkamb. — Town  in  the  Pandharpur  talaka  of  Sholapur  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  170  52'  N.  and  750  18'  E.,  13  miles  north  of 
Pandharpur  town.  Population  (1901),  5,571.  Karkamb  has  a  large 
weaving  and  thread-dyeing  industry,  with  about  500  looms,  chiefly 
producing  cheap  cloth  for  women's  robes.  About  1,500  persons  are 
employed  in  the  weaving  industry,  which  has  an  output  of  the  annual 
value  of  if  lakhs.  The  establishments  for  thread-dyeing  number  11. 
The  betel-vine  is  largely  grown.  Weekly  markets  are  held  on  Mondays, 
when  cattle,  grain,  and  cloth  are  sold.  The  town  contains  two  schools, 
one  of  which  is  for  girls. 

Karli  (Karla). — Village  in  the  Maval  taluka  of  Poona  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  180  45'  N.  and  730  29'  E.,  on  the  road  between 
Bombay  and  Poona.  Population  (1901),  903.  Some  celebrated  caves 
are  2\  miles  from  the  Karli  and  5  from  the  Lonauli  station  on  the 
Poona  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  The  principal 
cave  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  J.  Fergusson  in  his  History  of  Eastern 
and  Indian  Architecture  : — 

'  It  is  certainly  the  largest  as  well  as  the  most  complete  chaitya  cave 
hitherto  discovered  in  India,  and  was  excavated  at  a  time  when  the 
style  was  in  its  greatest  purity.  In  it,  all  the  architectural  defects  of 
the  previous  examples  are  removed  ;  the  pillars  of  the  nave  are  quite 
perpendicular.      The  screen    is   ornamented   with   sculpture — its    first 


KARLI  45 

appearance  apparently  in  such  a  position — and  the  style  had  reached 
a  perfection  never  afterwards  surpassed. 

'  In  the  cave  there  is  an  inscription  on  the  side  of  the  porch,  and 
another  on  the  lion-pillar  in  front,  which  are  certainly  integral,  and 
ascribe  its  excavation  to  the  Maharaja  Bhuti  or  Deva  Bhuti,  who, 
according  to  the  Puranas,  reigned  78  B.C.  ;  and  if  this  is  so,  they  fix  the 
age  of  this  typical  example  beyond  all  cavil. 

'  The  building  resembles,  to  a  very  great  extent,  an  early  Christian 
church  in  its  arrangements,  consisting  of  a  nave  and  side  aisles,  ter- 
minating in  an  apse  or  semi-dome,  round  which  the  aisle  is  carried. 
The  general  dimensions  of  the  interior  are  126  feet  from  the  entrance 
to  the  back  wall,  by  45  feet  7  inches  in  width.  The  side  aisles,  however, 
are  very  much  narrower  than  in  Christian  churches,  the  central  one 
being  25  feet  7  inches,  so  that  the  others  are  only  10  feet  wide,  includ- 
ing the  thickness  of  the  pillars.  As  a  scale  for  comparison,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  its  arrangement  and  dimensions  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  choir  of  Norwich  Cathedral,  or  of  the  Abbaye  aux 
Hommes  at  Caen,  omitting  the  outer  aisles  in  the  latter  building. 
The  thickness  of  the  piers  at  Norwich  and  Caen  nearly  corresponds 
to  the  breadth  of  the  aisles  in  the  Indian  temple.  In  height,  however, 
Karli  is  very  inferior,  being  only  42  feet,  or  perhaps  45  feet  from  the 
floor  to  the  apex,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained. 

'  Fifteen  pillars  on  each  side  separate  the  nave  from  the  aisles ;  each 
pillar  has  a  tail  base,  an  octagonal  shaft,  and  a  richly  ornamented 
capital,  on  which  kneel  two  elephants,  each  bearing  two  figures, 
generally  a  man  and  a  woman,  but  sometimes  two  females,  all  very 
much  better  executed  than  such  ornaments  usually  are.  The  seven 
pillars  behind  the  "altar"  are  plain  octagonal  piers,  without  either  base 
or  capital,  and  the  four  under  the  entrance  gallery  differ  considerably 
from  those  at  the  sides.  The  sculptures  on  the  capitals  supply  the 
place  usually  occupied  by  frieze  and  cornice  in  Grecian  architecture ; 
and  in  other  examples  plain  painted  surfaces  occupy  the  same  space. 
Above  this  springs  the  roof,  semicircular  in  general  section  but  some- 
what stilted  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  make  its  height  greater  than  the 
semi-diameter.  It  is  ornamented  even  at  this  day  by  a  series  of 
wooden  ribs,  probably  coeval  with  the  excavation,  which  prove  beyond 
the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  the  roof  is  not  a  copy  of  a  masonry  arch, 
but  of  some  sort  of  timber  construction  which  we  cannot  now  very 
well  understand. 

'  Immediately  under  the  semi-dome  of  the  apse,  and  nearly  where  the 
altar  stands  in  Christian  churches,  is  placed  the  ddgoba,  in  this  instance 
a  plain  dome  slightly  stilted  on  a  circular  drum.  As  there  are  no 
ornaments  on  it  now,  and  no  mortices  for  woodwork,  it  probably  was 
originally  plastered  and  painted,  or  may  have  been  adorned  with  hang- 
ings, which  some  of  the  sculptured  representations  would  lead  us  to 
suppose  was  the  usual  mode  of  ornamenting  these  altars.  It  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  Tee,  and  on  this  still  stand  the  remains  of  an  umbrella 
in  wood,  very  much  decayed  and  distorted  by  age. 

'  Opposite  this  is  the  entrance,  consisting  of  three  doorways,  under 
a  gallery  exactly  corresponding  with  our  rood-loft,  one  leading  to  the 
centre  and  one  to  each  of  the  side  aisles  ;  and  over    the  gallery  the 

d  2 


46  KARLI 

whole  end  of  the  hall  is  open,  as  in  all  these  chaitya  halls,  forming 
one  great  window,  through  which  all  the  light  is  admitted.  This  great 
window  is  formed  in  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  and  exactly  resembles 
those  used  as  ornaments  on  the  facade  of  this  cave,  as  well  as  on  those 
of  Bhaja,  Bedsa,  and  at  Nasik.  Within  the  arch  is  a  framework  or 
centring  of  work  standing  free.  This,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  is,  like 
the  ribs  of  the  interior,  coeval  with  the  building ;  at  all  events,  if  it  has 
been  renewed,  it  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  original  form,  for  it  is  found 
repeated  in  stone  in  all  the  niches  of  the  facade,  over  the  doorways,  and 
generally  as  an  ornament  everywhere,  and  with  the  Buddhist  "  rail," 
copied  from  Sanchi,  forms  the  most  usual  ornament  of  the  style. 

'The  outer  porch  is  considerably  wider  than  the  body  of  the  building, 
being  52  feet  wide,  and  is  closed  in  front  by  a  screen  composed  of  two 
stout  octagonal  pillars,  without  either  base  or  capital,  supporting  what  is 
now  a  plain  mass  of  rock,  but  once  ornamented  by  a  wooden  gallery 
forming  the  principal  ornament  of  the  facade.  Above  this,  a  dwarf 
colonnade  or  attic  of  four  columns  between  pilasters  admitted  light  to 
the  great  window ;  and  this  again  was  surmounted  by  a  wooden  cornice 
or  ornament  of  some  sort,  though  we  cannot  now  restore  it,  since  only 
the  mortices  remain  that  attached  it  to  the  rock. 

'  In  advance  of  this  screen  stands  the  lion-pillar,  in  this  instance 
a  plain  shaft  with  thirty-two  flutes,  or  rather  faces,  surmounted  by 
a  capital  not  unlike  that  at  Kesariya,  but  at  Karli  supporting  four  lions 
instead  of  one ;  they  seem  almost  certainly  to  have  supported  a  chakra, 
or  Buddhist  wheel.  A  similar  pillar  probably  stood  on  the  opposite 
side,  but  it  has  either  fallen  or  been  taken  down  to  make  way  for  the 
little  [Hindu]  temple  that  now  occupies  its  place. 

'  The  absence  of  the  wooden  ornaments  of  the  external  porch,  as  well 
as  our  ignorance  of  the  mode  in  which  this  temple  was  finished  later- 
ally, and  the  porch  joined  to  the  main  temple,  prevent  us  from  judging 
what  the  effect  of  the  front  would  have  been  if  belonging  to  a  free- 
standing building.  But  the  proportions  of  such  parts  as  remain  are  so 
good,  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  so  pleasing,  that  there  can  be  little 
hesitation  in  ascribing  to  such  a  design  a  tolerably  high  rank  among 
architectural  compositions. 

'  Of  the  interior  we  can  judge  perfectly,  and  it  certainly  is  as  solemn 
and  grand  as  any  interior  can  well  be,  and  the  mode  of  lighting  the 
most  perfect — one  undivided  volume  of  light  coming  through  a  single 
opening  overhead  at  a  very  favourable  angle  and  falling  directly  on  the 
"altar"  or  principal  object  in  the  building,  leaving  the  rest  in  comparative 
obscurity.  The  effect  is  considerably  heightened  by  the  closely-set 
thick  columns  that  divide  the  three  aisles  from  one  another,  as  they 
suffice  to  prevent  the  boundary  walls  from  ever  being  seen  ;  and  as  there 
are  no  openings  in  the  walls,  the  view  between  the  pillars  is  practically 
unlimited. 

'  These  peculiarities  are  found  more  or  less  developed  in  all  the  other 
caves  of  the  same  class  in  India,  varying  only  with  the  age  and  the 
gradual  change  that  took  place  from  the  more  purely  wooden  forms  of 
these  caves  to  the  lithic  or  stone  architecture  of  the  more  modern 
ones.  This  is  the  principal  test  by  which  their  relative  ages  can  be 
determined,    and    it   proves    incontestably   that    the    Karli    cave    was 


KARAT  A  LA    TOWN  47 

excavated  not  very  long  after  stone  came  to  be  used  as  a  building 
material  in  India.' 

Karmad. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Karmala  Taluka. —  Taluka  of  Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  170  58'  and  180  33'  N.  and  740  48'  and  750  26'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  772  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Karmala  (population, 
7,301),  the  head-quarters;  and  123  villages.  The  population  in  1901 
was  67,558,  compared  with  93,353  in  1891.  The  great  decrease  is  due 
to  mortality  and  emigration  during  the  famine  of  1899-1901.  The 
taluka  is  one  of  the  most  thinly  populated  in  the  District,  with  a  density 
of  only  88  persons  per  square  mile.  The  demand  for  land  revenue 
in  1903-4  was  1-7  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  11,000.  Karmala  is  in  the 
north  of  the  District,  between  the  Bhima  on  the  west  and  the  Slna  on 
the  east.  Except  the  hills  near  Kem  and  the  dividing  ridge,  forming 
the  watershed  between  the  two  rivers,  the  country  is  fiat  ;  towards  the 
north  it  is  rough  and  broken,  crossed  by  many  streams.  About  half 
consists  of  rich  black  soil,  and  the  rest  is  red  and  gravelly.  The 
seasons  are  uncertain— a  really  good  one,  as  a  rule,  not  occurring 
oftener  than  once  in  three  or  four  years,  when,  however,  the  harvest  is 
exceedingly  abundant.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  23  inches.  Weekly 
fairs  are  held  at  eight  towns  and  villages  ;  and  at  Sonari  an  annual  fair 
in  April  is  attended  by  about  6,000  persons. 

Karmala  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  24'  N.  and  750  12'  E.,  11 
miles  north  of  the  Jeur  station  on  the  south-east  section  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  7,301.  Karmala  was 
originally  the  seat  of  a  branch  of  the  Nimbalkar  family.  The  founder 
began  and  his  son  finished  a  fort,  which  still  exists  and  is  used  for  the 
taluka  offices.  This  fort,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  Deccan,  extends  over 
a  quarter  of  a  square  mile,  and  contains  about  a  hundred  houses. 
Karmala  grew  and  became  a  large  trade  centre,  being  a  crossing  station 
for  the  traffic  from  Balaghiit  through  Barsi  to  Poona,  and  between 
Ahmadnagar  and  Sholapur.  Most  of  this  traffic  has  now  passed  to  the 
railway,  but  Karmala  is  still  a  large  mart  for  cattle,  grain,  oil,  and  piece- 
goods.  A  weekly  market  is  held  on  Friday,  and  the  town  has  a  small 
weaving  industry.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from  wells  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  to  the  south,  the  water  being  carried  through  an  earthenware 
conduit  to  dipping  wells  in  the  town.  An  annual  fair  is  held  here,  last- 
ing four  days.  The  town  possesses  a  large  temple  of  Amba  Bai.  The 
municipality,  established  in  1867,  had  an  average  income  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  8,800.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  9,100. 
Karmala  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  three  schools,  includ- 
ing one  maintained  by  the  American  Congregational  Mission,  and 
a  dispensary. 


4§  KARMGARH 

Karmgarh. — A  nizamat  or  administrative  district  of  the  Patiala 
State,  Punjab,  lying  between  290  23'  and  300  27'  N.  and  750  40'  and 
760  36'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,834  square  miles.  It  had  a  population 
in  1901  of  500,635,  compared  with  500,225  in  1891,  dwelling  in  four 
towns— Patiala,  Samana,  Sunam,  and  Sanaur— and  665  villages. 
The  head-quarters  are  at  Bhawanigarh  or  Dhodan,  a  village  in  the 
Bhawanigarh  tahsil.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  9-5  lakhs.  The  nizamat  consists  of  a  fairly  compact  area  in  the 
south-east  of  the  main  portion  of  the  State,  and  is  divided  into  four 
tahslh — Patiala,  Bhawanigarh,  Sunam,  and  Narwana — of  which  the 
first  three  lie  in  that  order  from  east  to  west,  partly  in  the  Pawadh  and 
partly  in  the  Jangal  tract,  on  the  north  of  the  Ghaggar  river,  while  the 
fourth  tahsil,  Narwana,  lies  on  its  south  bank  in  the  Bangar. 

Karnal  District. — District  in  the  Delhi  Division  of  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  290  ir/  and  300  15'  N.  and  760  11'  and  770  17'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  3,153  square  miles,  including  36  outlying  villages  scattered 
throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Patiala.  The  District  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Patiala  State  and  Ambala  District ;  on  the 
east  by  the  Jumna,  which  separates  it  from  the  Districts  of  Saharan- 
pur,  Muzaffarnagar,  and  Meerut  in  the  United  Provinces ;  on  the 
south  by  the  Punjab  Districts  of  Delhi  and  Rohtak  ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  States  of  Patiala  and  Jind.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
low  ridge  which  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  To  the  east  of  this  ridge  along  the  Jumna  lies  the 
khadar,  a  strip  of  low-lying  land  from  5  to   10  miles 

aspects  W1(^e  '  tnouSh  lt:  1S  not  so  thickly  wooded  as  the  rest 

of  the  District,  date-palms  abound,  and  in  places 
a  thick  jungle  skirts  the  river  bank.  West  of  the  ridge  lies  the  bangar, 
an  upland  plain  watered  throughout  by  the  Western  Jumna  Canal,  and 
stretching  parallel  to  the  khddar  for  the  whole  length  of  the  District. 
These  two  tracts  fill  up  practically  the  whole  of  the  southern  tahsil  of 
Panipat  ;  but  in  Karnal  and  Kaithal,  the  central  tahslh,  the  bangar 
rises  with  a  perceptible  step  into  the  Nardak ',  a  high  and  once  arid 
country,  now  traversed  by  the  Sirsa  branch  of  the  Western  Jumna  Canal. 
In  the  north  of  the  District  nearly  the  whole  of  Thanesar  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  Kaithal  tahsil  are  intersected  by  mountain  torrents 
which  drain  the  Lower  Himalayas,  and  include  large  tracts  of  wild 
country  covered  with  forests  of  dhak  (Rutea/rondnsa). 

The  Jumna  forms  the  entire  eastern  boundary  for  a  distance  of  81 
miles.  Its  bed  varies  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  of  which  the 
stream  occupies  only  a  few  hundred  yards  in  the  cold  season.  The 
most  important  of  the  torrents  which  traverse  the  northern  portion  are 

1  The  Nardak  is  properly  another  name  for  Kurukshetra,  but  it  is  extended  to 
include  all  the  hiyh  tract. 


KARXAL    DISTRICT  49 

the  Ghaggar,  with  its  tributaries  the  Umla  and  SaraswatI,  the 
Chautang,  and  the  Markanda  and  Puran,  the  last  an  old  bed  of 
the  Ghaggar.  Minor  drainage  channels  are  the  Nai  or  '  new  '  Nadi, 
the  Burhi  or  '  old '  Nadi,  and  the  Rakshi. 

Karnal  District  offers  nothing  of  geological  interest,  as  it  is  situated 
entirely  on  the  alluvium.  The  flora  of  the  upper  Gangetic  plain  is  well 
represented  in  the  eastern  portion  ;  in  the  west  there  is  an  approach  to 
the  desert  vegetation  ;  while  the  Jumna  valley  produces  a  few  temperate 
types,  e.  g.  a  rose,  a  kind  of  scurvy  grass  {Coch/earid),  both  of  which  are 
found  again  in  Lower  Bengal,  and  a  crowfoot  {Ranunculus  pennsylvani- 
cus),  which  extends  to  Ludhiana,  but  is  absent  from  the  Himalayas 
Relics  of  a  former  Deccan  flora,  of  which  a  wild  cotton  is  the  most 
interesting,  survive,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Thanesar.  In- 
digenous trees,  except  the  dhak,  are  uncommon  ;  in  the  Jumna  khadar 
a  low  palm  abounds,  which  is  often  taken  for  a  wild  form  of  the  date- 
pain-!,  but  is  almost  certainly  a  distinct  species. 

The  Nardak  was  a  favourite  hunting-ground  of  the  Mughal  emperors, 
and  as  late  as  1827  Archer  says  that  lions  were  sometimes  seen  within 
20  miles  of  Karnal,  while  tigers  were  exceedingly  common.  Xow,  how- 
ever, even  the  leopard  is  found  only  rarely,  but  wolves  are  still  common. 
Antelope,  nilgai,  'ravine  deer'  (Indian  gazelle),  and  hog  deer  are  fairly 
plentiful  where  there  is  suitable  cover.     Small  game  is  abundant. 

Fever  is  particularly  prevalent  in  the  Naili  (Nali)  tract,  flooded  by 
the  SaraswatI,  and  in  the  canal-irrigated  portions  of  the  District.  Owing 
to  the  faulty  alignment  of  the  canal  and  the  swamping  caused  thereby, 
fever  used  to  be  terribly  prevalent,  and  in  consequence  the  canton- 
ments were  removed  from  Karnal  town ;  but  recent  improvements  have 
greatly  diminished  the  evil.  The  climate  of  Kaithal  resembles  that  of 
the  plains  of  the  Punjab  proper,  but  the  Jumna  tahsils  are  not  subject 
to  the  same  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  30  inches  at  Karnal,  23  at  Panlpat,  and 
18  at  Kaithal,  rapidly  decreasing  as  one  goes  west  or  south.  The 
khadar  receives  the  most  plentiful  and  frequent  rain,  as  many  local 
showers  follow  the  bed  of  the  river.  Of  the  rainfall  at  Karnal,  27-4 
inches  fall  in  the  summer  months  and  2-4  in  the  winter. 

The  early  legendary  history  of  the  District  will  be  found  in  the 
account  of  Kurukshetra  or  the  holy  plain  of  the  Hindus,  which 
occupies  its  north-western  portion.  The  number  of  History 
Indo-Scythian  coins  found  at  Polar  on  the  SaraswatI 
would  seem  to  show  that  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  the 
District  was  included  in  the  Indo-Scythian  empire.  In  or  about  a.  d. 
400  it  was  traversed  by  the  Chinese  pilgrim  Fa  Hian  and  in  639  by 
Hiuen  Tsiang,  the  latter  finding  a  flourishing  kingdom  with  its  capital 
at  Thanesar.     Though  Thanesar  was  sacked  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in 


5o  KARNAL   DISTRICT 

1 014,  the  country  remained  under  Hindu  rule  until  the  defeat  of 
Prithwl  Raj  at  Tirawari  in  1192.  Thereafter  it  was  more  or  less  firmly 
attached  to  Delhi  till  after  the  invasion  of  Timur,  who  marched  through 
it  on  his  way  to  the  capital.  It  then  belonged,  first  to  the  ruler  of 
Samana,  and  then  to  the  Lodi  kings  of  the  Punjab,  and  during  the 
century  and  a  half  that  separated  Akbar  from  Tlmur  was  the  scene  of 
numerous  battles,  of  which  the  most  important  were  two  fought  at 
PanIpat.  For  two  centuries  Karnal  enjoyed  peace  under  the  Mughals, 
broken  only  by  the  raid  of  Ibrahim  Husain  Mirza  in  1573,  the  flight  of 
prince  Khusru  through  the  District  in  1606,  and  the  incursion  of  Banda 
Bairagi  in  1709.  During  this  period  a  canal  was  constructed  from  the 
Tumna  and  the  imperial  road  put  in  repair.  In  1738  Nadir  Shah  de- 
feated Muhammad  Shah  near  Karnal,  and  in  1761  occurred  the  third 
great  battle  of  Panipat,  in  which  the  Marathas  were  routed  by  the 
Afghan  army.  A  terrible  period  of  anarchy  followed,  during  which 
the  tract  formed  a  sort  of  no-man's-land  between  the  Sikh  and  Maratha 
powers,  coveted  by  both  but  protected  by  neither,  and  the  prey  of  every 
freebooter  that  chanced  to  come  that  way.  On  annexation,  in  1803, 
the  greater  part  of  the  country  was  held  by  Sikh  chiefs  or  by  con- 
federacies of  Sikh  horsemen  ;  and  the  District  was  gradually  formed 
out  of  their  territories  as  they  escheated.  The  most  important  were  the 
petty  principalities  of  Kaithal,  Thanesar,  and  Ladwa,  of  which  the  first 
two  lapsed  between  1832  and  1850,  while  Ladwa  was  confiscated  owing 
to  the  conduct  of  its  chief  during  the  first  Sikh  War.  In  1849  tne 
District  of  Thanesar  was  formed,  but  in  1862  it  was  broken  up  into 
the  two  Districts  of  Ambala  and  Karnal.  During  the  Mutiny  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  disorder,  but  no  serious  outbreak  occurred.  Great 
assistance  was  given  by  the  Rajas  of  Patiala  and  Jind  in  preserving 
order.  The  Pehowa  thana  was  transferred  from  Ambala  to  the  Kaithal 
tahsil  of  the  District  in  1888,  and  the  rest  of  the  Pipli  fa/isl/ (now 
Thanesar)  was  added  to  it  in  1897. 

The  chief  relics  of  antiquity  are  to  be  found  at  Karnal,  Panipat, 
Thanesar,  and  Pehowa.  At  the  village  of  Slta  Mai  in  the  Nardak  is 
a  very  ancient  shrine  of  Slta,  and  several  of  the  great  sarats  built  along 
the  old  imperial  road  still  remain. 

The  District  contains  7  towns  and  1,383  villages.  Its  population  at 
the  last  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  820,041,  (1891)  861,160,  and 
(1901)  883,225.  It  increased  by  2-6  per  cent,  during 
the  last  decade,  the  increase  being  greatest  in  the 
Panipat  tahsil  and  least  in  Karnal.  In  the  Thanesar  tahsil  the  popula- 
tion decreased  0*9  per  cent,  in  the  twenty  years  ending  1901,  owing  to 
the  unhealthiness  of  the  tract ;  while  Kaithal  increased  by  20  per  cent, 
in  the  same  period,  owing  to  the  development  of  canal-irrigation.  The 
District  is  divided  into  the  four  tahslls  of  Karnal,  Panipat,  Kaithal, 


POPULATION 


5i 


and  Thanesar,  the  head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from 
which  it  is  named.  The  chief  towns  are  the  municipalities  of  Karnal 
(the  District  head-quarters),  PanIpat,  Kaithal,  Shahabad,  Thanesar, 
and  Ladwa. 

The   following    table    gives    the    chief   statistics    of    population   in 
1901  :  — 


Tah  si l 

V 
u 

3     . 

a*  'n 
V)    V 

C-- 

< 

Nu 

nber  of 

Population. 

Populationper 
square,  mile. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 

> 

5 
H 

I 

3 
1 
2 

V 

> 

Karnal 
Thanesar   . 
Panipat 
Kaithal 

District  total 

836 

559 
462 

i,2S8 

380 
418 
172 

4' 3 

248,544 
173,208 
[96,284 
265,189 

297-3 
309-S 
424.9 
205.9 

+  2-9 

-  2-4 
+   6-2 

+  3-o 

6,117 
4,36l 

6,377 
4-34o 

3,'53 

7 

1,383 

883,225 

280-1 

+    2-6 

2V95 

Note. — The  figures  for   the  areas  of  /a/islls  are  taken  from  revenue  returns.    The 
total  District  area  is  that  given  in  the  Census  Report. 

Hindus  number  623,597,  or  over  70  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Monastic 
communities  of  Bairagis  own  a  good  deal  of  land  and  exercise  con- 
siderable influence  in  the  District.  Muhammadans  (241,412)  form  27 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  Saiyids  of  the  District  belong  to 
the  Shiah  organization  known  as  the  Bara  Sadat,  which  was  founded 
by  Saiyid  Abdul  Farsh  WasTti,  a  follower  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni. 
Sikhs  number  12,294.  Hindi  is  spoken  by  96  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  Punjabi  in  the  scattered  villages  surrounded  by  Patiala 
territory. 

The  Jats  or  Jats  are  the  most  numerous  tribe,  numbering  120,000,  or 
14  per  cent,  of  the  total.  They  own  15^  per  cent,  of  the  land,  and  are 
mostly  Hindus,  only  8,000  being  Sikhs  and  3,000  Muhammadans. 
Their  principal  clans  are  the  Ghatwa.1,  Deswal,  Sindhu,  Pawania,  Man, 
Katkhar,  and  Jaglan.  The  Rajputs  (83,000)  own  32  per  cent,  of  the 
land  ;  67,000  are  Muhammadans,  known  as  Ranghars.  Their  principal 
clans  are  the  Chauhan,  Mandhar,  Ghorewaha,  and  Tonwar.  The  Rors 
(42,000)  own  17^  per  cent,  and  are  almost  all  Hindus;  they  seem 
originally  to  have  held  their  lands  as  dependants  of  the  Rajputs. 
Giijars  (30,000)  are  mostly  Hindus,  though  8,000  are  Muhammadans. 
Their  reputation  is  no  better  here  than  in  other  parts  of  the  Division. 
The  Tagas  (4,000)  claim  to  be  a  Brahman  race,  which  has  abandoned 
the  priestly  profession  and  taken  to  agriculture  ;  half  of  them  in  this 
District  are  Muhammadans.  Of  Brahmans  (71,000),  the  Bias  or 
GujratI  and  the  Dakaut  are  important  and  interesting  clans.  The 
Saiyids  (6,000)  trace  their  descent  from  settlers  left  by  Mahmud, 
Timur,  and  other  Muhammadan  invaders.     Of  the  Shaikhs  (19,000), 


52  KARXAL    DISTRICT 

besides  the  few  properly  so  called  and  the  large  number  of  converts 
who  have  taken  that  name,  there  are  in  many  villages  one  or  two 
families  of  a  menial  tribe  from  which  the  village  watchmen  are  drawn, 
who  are  said  to  be  the  relics  of  the  old  policy  of  the  emperors  of 
settling  one  or  two  Muhammadans  in  every  village.  The  Malis  (26,000) 
have  of  late  years  immigrated  in  considerable  numbers  into  the  District, 
especially  the  irrigable  tracts  of  the  Thanesar  tahsll,  where  they  have 
purchased  estates.  Kambohs  number  14,000.  Of  the  commercial 
classes,  the  chief  are  the  Banias  (52,000).  Among  the  menial  classes 
may  be  mentioned  the  Chamars  (leather-workers,  79,000),  Chuhras 
(scavengers,  45,000),  Jhmwars  (water-carriers,  44,000),  Kumhars  (pot- 
ters, 19,000),  and  Tarkhans  (carpenters,  20,000).  About  58  per  cent, 
of  the  population  are  supported  by  agriculture,  19  are  industrial, 
3  commercial,  and  2  professional. 

There  is  a  curious  division  of  the  non-Rajput  tribes  into  the  Dehia 
and  Haulania  factions,  apparently  dating  from  a  time  when  the 
Haulanias  under  the  leadership  of  the  Ghatwal  Jats  were  called  in 
by  one  of  the  emperors  to  help  to  coerce  the  Mandhar  Rajputs,  and 
were  opposed  by  the  Dehia  Jats,  who  from  jealousy  of  the  Ghatwal 
supremacy  joined  the  Mandhars.  The  leading  families  of  the  District 
are  those  of  the  Nawab  of  Kunjpura,  the  Mandals  of  Karnal,  and  the 
Bhais  of  Arnauli  and  Siddhuwal. 

The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  carries  on  mission 
work  at  Karnal,  Kaithal,  and  Panipat.  Its  operations  include  zanana 
teaching,  girls'  schools,  and  a  hospital  and  dispensary  for  women  and 
children.  There  are  also  Methodist  Episcopal  missions  at  Karnal  and 
Panipat,  and  a  Presbyterian  Mission  at  Thanesar  (founded  in  1895) 
and  Kaithal,  to  which  the  village  of  Santokh  Majra  has  been  leased 
for  a  Christian  colony.  In  1901  the  District  contained  225  native 
Christians. 

The  soil  of  the  khddar  is  light,  and  water  lies  close  to  the  surface. 

The  Jumna  floods  are,  however,  not  fertilizing,  and  the  best  lands  are 

.     .  those  which   lie  bevond  their  reach.      The  eastern 

Acricu.lt  urc 

hangar  is  almost   entirely   watered  by  the  Western 

Jumna  Canal;  the  soil  is  a  fertile  and  easily  worked  loam,  and  the 

tract  forms  for  the  most  part  a  sheet  of  cultivation.     The  soil  of  the 

Kaithal  hangar  is  a  strong  intractable  loam,  chiefly  irrigated  by  the  new 

Sirsa  branch  of  the  Western  Jumna  Canal,  which  also  supplies  most  of 

the   Kaithal   Nardak.      The   Thanesar  tahisll  is  a  rich  alluvial   tract 

watered  by  the  Markanda  and  Umla,  but  in  the  flooded  tracts  crops 

are  very  precarious,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  floods.    On  the 

SaraswatI  two-thirds  of  the  crops  belong  to  the  spring  harvest,  chiefly 

gram  :  on  the  Umla  coarse  rice  is  often  the  only  crop. 

The  District  is  held  almost  entirely  by  small  peasant  proprietors, 


AGRICULTURE 


53 


large  estates  covering  only  about  160  square  miles  and  lands  leased 
from  Government  4,000  acres. 

The  area  for  which  details  are  available  from  the  revenue  record  of 
1903-4  is  3,147  square  miles,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Kurnal 
Thanesar     . 
Panlpat 
Kailhal 

Total 

838 

559 
461 

1,289 

450 

335 
288 

724 

164 

37 
192 
20S 

263 

'51 

74 
416 

3,M7 

1.797 

601 

904 

The  staple  products  of  the  spring  harvest  are  wheat  and  gram,  sown 
on  338  and  265  square  miles  respectively  in  1903-4.  Barley  covered 
only  19  square  miles.  In  the  autumn  harvest  great  millet  covered  256 
square  miles,  and  rice  and  spiked  millet  97  and  94  square  miles 
respectively.  Cotton  covered  66  square  miles,  maize  72,  and  sugar- 
cane 30. 

During  the  thirteen  years  ending  1904,  the  cultivated  area  rose  from 
1,637  square  miles  to  more  than  1,797,  or  DY  IO  Per  cent.,  the  increase 
being  chiefly  due  to  the  extension  of  canal-irrigation.  This  has  been 
accompanied  by  an  extended  cultivation  of  maize,  cotton,  and  sugar- 
cane, as  well  as  of  the  more  valuable  spring  crops  ;  and  the  use  of 
manure  is  said  to  be  increasing.  Loans  for  the  construction  of  wells 
are  fairly  popular.  In  the  five  years  ending  1903-4,  Rs.  57,000  was 
advanced  under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  and  2  lakhs  for 
the  purchase  of  bullocks  and  seed. 

Cattle-raising  used  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  economy  of  the 
Nardak  before  the  construction  of  the  Sirsa  canal,  and  the  cattle  of 
the  District  are  still  noted  for  their  excellence.  The  local  breed  of 
horses  is  of  no  particular  importance.  A  remount  depot,  established  at 
Karnal  in  1889,  was  abolished  in  1902,  and  its  lands  are  now  used 
as  a  military  grass  farm.  The  District  board  maintains  three  horse 
and  five  donkey  stallions.  Large  flocks  of  goats  and  sheep  are  kept  in 
parts,  the  sheep  being  all  of  the  small  black-tailed  breed.  There  is 
a  fine  breed  of  pigs  at  Karnal,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  old 
cantonment. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  601  square  miles,  or  ^  Per 
cent.,  were  classed  as  irrigated.  Of  this  area,  230  square  miles  were 
irrigated  from  wells,  364  square  miles  from  canals,  32  acres  from  wells 
and  canals,  and  4,581  acres  from  streams  and  tanks.  The  District 
possessed  10,931  masonry  wells,  besides  223  unbricked  wells,  lever 
wells,    and   water-lifts.      In   the   khadar,    although    little   irrigation    is 


54  KARNAL   DISTRICT 

necessary,  wells  worked  by  Persian  wheels  are  numerous.  The  new 
main  line  of  the  Western  Jumna  Canal  enters  the  Thanesar  tahsll, 
and  within  this  District  gives  off  the  Sirsa,  Hansi,  and  New  Delhi 
branches,  which  irrigate  the  greater  portion  of  the  Nardak  and  bangar, 
except  in  Thanesar,  where  the  percolation  from  the  main  canal  and  the 
stoppage  of  the  natural  drainage  keep  the  land  so  moist  that  it  suffers 
from  excess  of  water  rather  than  from  drought.  The  total  area 
irrigated  from  the  Western  Jumna  Canal  is  2,493  acres.  The  bangar 
in  the  Kaithal  tahsll  is  also  supplied  by  the  Saraswat!  canal  (an 
inundation  canal  made  and  worked  by  the  District  board),  and  some 
of  the  Nardak  villages  are  also  watered  by  floods  from  the  Chautang. 
The  few  wells  in  these  tracts  are  on  the  rope-and-bucket  system. 
The  northern  part  of  the  District  is  irrigated  by  floods  from  the  hill 
torrents,  and  for  the  most  part  suffers  from  capricious  water-supply, 
being  waterlogged  one  year  and  parched  the  next.  Except  in  the  more 
favoured  tracts,  wells  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  floods  and  are  little 
used.  The  villages  scattered  through  Patiala  territory  are  irrigated 
from  the  Sirhind  Canal. 

The  District  contains  17  tracts  of  unclassed  forest,  with  a  total  area 
of  24  square  miles,  in  charge  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner ;  but  these 
are  not  true  forests,  being  covered  only  with  scrub  and  small  trees. 
About  2-6  square  miles  of  'reserved'  forest  are  under  the  Military 
department. 

Sal-ammoniac  has  from  ancient  times  been  manufactured  by  the 
potters  of  the  Kaithal  tahsll.  About  84  tons,  valued  at  Rs.  3,400,  are 
produced  annually,  and  sold  to  merchants,  who  mostly  export  it.  It  is 
prepared  by  burning  bricks  made  of  the  dirty  clay  found  in  certain 
ponds,  and  subjecting  the  substance  that  exudes  from  them  to  sub- 
limation in  closed  vessels.  The  District  has  four  saltpetre  refineries. 
The  only  other  mineral  product  is  kankar,  or  nodular  limestone. 

Karnal  town  used  to  have  a  name  for  shoe-making,  but  the  industry 
is  said  to  be  declining  from  want  of  capital.  Panlpat  is  famous  for  glass- 
blowing,    the    chief   product    being    silvered    globes 

communications.  which>  vvnen  broken  up,  are  used  for  mirror-covered 
walls,  or  sewn  on  phulkaris  ;  the  glass  retorts  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  sal-ammoniac  are  also  made.  The  town  is 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  brass  vessels,  small  fancy  wares  in  various 
metals,  and  silver  beads.  The  District  possesses  three  cotton-ginning 
factories,  at  Panlpat,  Kaithal,  and  Dhatrat  ;  a  cotton-press  at  Panlpat ; 
and  two  combined  ginning  and  pressing  factories,  at  Panlpat  and 
Kaithal.  The  total  number  of  employes  in  1904  was  702.  Silver- 
work  and  musical  instruments  are  made  at  Shahabad.  Some  good 
lacquered  woodwork  is  also  produced. 

The  chief  exports   are   wheat,  cotton,  gram,   fine   rice,  ghl,  brass 


FAMINE  55 

vessels,  glass,  sal-ammoniac,  and  saltpetre  j  and  the  chief  imports  are 
salt,  oil  and  oilseeds,  iron,  and  piece-goods.  Cotton  and  wheat  go 
chiefly  to  Delhi  and  Ambala  ;  glii  and  hides  to  Delhi ;  oil  and  oilseeds 
come  from  the  Punjab  and  the  Doab ;  timber  from  Ambala  ;  iron  and 
piece-goods  from  Delhi  j  and  salt  from  Bhiwani,  Delhi,  and  Ambala. 
Karnal  town  and  Panlpat  on  the  Delhi-Umballa-Kalka  Railway  are  the 
chief  marts,  and  a  good  deal  of  trade  goes  through  Kaithal,  which  is 
on  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Punjab  Railway.  The  local  trade  is  prin- 
cipally conducted  through  the  village  dealers  ;  but  a  very  considerable 
traffic  is  carried  on  by  the  cultivators  themselves,  especially  by  Jats 
from  Rohtak,  who  in  the  hot  season  earn  a  good  deal  by  plying  their 
carts  for  hire. 

The  Delhi-Umballa-Kalka  Railway  runs  through  the  District  side  by 
side  with  the  grand  trunk  road,  and  Kaithal  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
of  the  Southern  Punjab  Railway.  The  new  main  line  and  the  Delhi 
and  Hansi  branches  of  the  Western  Jumna  Canal  are  navigable,  as  is 
also  the  Jumna  during  the  rains.  The  District  has  145  miles  of 
metalled  roads,  and  684  miles  of  unmetalled  roads,  of  which  129  miles 
of  metalled  and  67  of  unmetalled  roads  are  under  the  Public  Works 
department,  the  rest  being  maintained  by  the  District  board.  Metalled 
roads  connect  Karnal  town  and  Kaithal,  Thanesar  and  Ladwa,  and  the 
grand  trunk  road  traverses  the  District  from  north  to  south  ;  but  the 
unmetalled  roads  are  bad,  especially  in  the  Nardak,  and  in  the  flooded 
tract  bordering  on  the  Saraswati  and  Ghaggar  the  tracks  are  often 
impassable  for  weeks  together  during  the  rains. 

Including  the  chatisa  famine  of  1783,  the  District  has  been  visited  by 

famine  thirteen  times  in   120  years,  one  of  the  most  terrible  perhaps 

being  that  of  18*3.     Relief  works  seem  first  to  have         _ 

°  °°  ...  Famine, 

been  established  in  the  famine  of  1861,  when  22,237 

persons  were  relieved  in  one  month.     In  1869  the  famine  was  more 

severe  in  Karnal  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Punjab,  and  hundreds 

of  people   were  reduced  to  semi-starvation.     The  expenditure  was  1-7 

lakhs,  and  the  highest  daily  average  of  persons  relieved  was    13,934. 

Cattle  to  the  number  of  65,000  died.    From  1875  to  1877  there  was 

not  a  single  good  harvest,  and,  though  the  scarcity  hardly  deepened  into 

famine,  the  cattle  suffered  terribly.     There  was  another  grass  famine  in 

1883-4.     In  1896-7  the  highest  daily  average  relieved  was  12,361,  and 

the  expenditure  barely  2  lakhs.     The  areas  affected  were  the  Nardak 

tracts   of  Karnal   and    Kaithal    and    the    Naili    tract   of  Kaithal.     In 

1 899-1 900  the  Nardak  in   Karnal  and  part  of  that  in   Kaithal  were 

protected  by   the    Nardak  irrigation   channel,  constructed    as  a  relief 

work  in   1897  ;  the  tracts  affected  were  chiefly  the  Naili  and   bangar 

tracts  of  Kaithal   and  parts  of  Thanesar.     The  highest  daily  average 

relieved  was  14,075,  and  the  expenditure  was  2-6  lakhs. 


J 


6  KARNAL   DISTRICT 


The  District  is  divided  into  the  four  tahsils  of  Karnal,  Panipat, 
Thanesar,  and  Kaithal,  each  under  a  tahsildar  and  a  naib-tahsllddr. 

Administration  In  the  laSt'  the  sub"/a^7  of  Gula  is  also  in  charge 
of  a  naib-tahsildar.  The  tahsll  of  Kaithal  forms 
a  subdivision.  The  Deputy-Commissioner  holds  executive  charge  of 
the  District,  aided  by  three  Assistant  or  Extra- Assistant  Commissioners, 
of  whom  one  is  subdivisional  officer  in  charge  of  Kaithal  and  one  in 
charge  of  the   District  treasury. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Magistrate  is  responsible  for 
the  criminal  justice  of  the  District,  and  civil  judicial  work  is  under 
a  District  Judge.  Both  officers  are  supervised  by  the  Divisional  and 
Sessions  Judge  of  the  Delhi  Civil  Division.  There  is  one  Munsif,  who 
sits  at  head-quarters.  There  are  also  six  honorary  magistrates.  Cattle- 
stealing,  the  normal  crime  of  the  District,  is  now  less  prevalent  than 
formerly,  owing  to  the  increase  of  cultivation  made  possible  by  the 
development  of  the  canals.  Formerly  heads  of  families  of  respectable 
birth  would  demur  to  giving  a  daughter  in  marriage  to  a  man  who  had 
not  proved  his  ability  to  support  a  family  by  cattle-lifting. 

The  tract  which  passed  to  the  British  in  1803,  and  formed  part  of 
the  old  Panipat  District,  was  summarily  assessed  in  the  years  1817-24, 
with  the  exception  of  the  estates  assigned  to  the  Mandal  family  in 
exchange  for  the  lands  they  held  in  the  United  Provinces.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  the  time,  the  summary  settlement  was 
oppressive,  and  the  methods  of  assessment  and  collection  were  vexa- 
tious and  extortionate  ;  a  revision  of  assessments  was  necessitated  by 
the  famine  of  1824,  and  by  degrees  a  more  reasonable  system  was 
evolved.  The  regular  settlement,  made  in  1842,  was  both  moderate 
and  fairly  distributed.  In  the  khadar  the  assessment  on  the  whole 
worked  well ;  in  the  hangar  the  deterioration  of  soil  caused  by  the 
canal  brought  absolute  ruin  to  many  villages,  and  in  1859-60  large 
reductions  of  revenue  were  made  and  principles  laid  down  for  annual 
relief  to  be  afforded  when  necessary.  Meanwhile,  in  the  Mandal 
estate,  the  assignees  struggled  to  realize  their  revenue  in  kind  from 
a  lawless  and  independent  Rajput  peasantry  till  1847,  when  their 
oppression  and  mismanagement  necessitated  the  tract  being  brought 
under  settlement.  The  assessment  was  revised  in  1852  and  again  in 
1856.  The  revised  settlement  of  1872-80  comprised  both  these 
tracts;  the  revenue  rate  for  irrigated  land  varied  from  Rs.  1-14  to 
Rs.  2-14,  and  for  unirrigated  land  from  8  annas  to  Rs.  1-12  ;  pasture 
was  rated  at  8  pies  an  acre  ;  and  canal  lands  were  assessed  at  '  dry ' 
rates  varying  from  Rs.  1-5  to  Rs.  1-13. 

The  rest  of  the  District,  comprising  the  tahsils  of  Kaithal,  Thanesar, 
and  the  Indri  tract  of  Karnal,  formed  part  of  the  territories  of  the 
Cis-Sutlej  chiefs,  who  were  taken  under  protection  by  the  proclamation 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


57 


of  1809.  These  territories  as  they  escheated  were  summarily  assessed. 
Thanesar  and  Indri  were  regularly  settled  in  1848-56  and  Kaithal  in 
1853-6.  The  whole  of  this  portion  of  the  District  came  under  the 
Karnal-Ambala  revision  in  1882-9.  The  average  assessment  on  '  dry' 
land  is  R.  0-14-3  (maximum  Rs.  1-6,  minimum  R.  0-6-6),  and  on 
'wet'  land  Rs.  2-14  (maximum  Rs.  3-12,  minimum  Rs.  2).  The 
total  demand  for  1903-4,  including  cesses,  was  12  lakhs.  The  average 
size  of  a  holding  cultivated  by  the  owner  is  5-3  acres.  The  whole 
District  came  under  settlement  in  1904,  the  present  assessment 
expiring  in  1908. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  alone  and  of  total  revenue  are  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  :  — 


1 880- 1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

190.5-4- 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

6,36 

7.65 

6,95 

8,88 

8,20 
12,68 

8,29 
'3,45 

The  District  contains  six  municipalities :  Karnal,  Panipat,  Kai- 
thal, Shahabad,  Thanesar,  and  Ladwa.  Outside  these,  local  affairs 
are  managed  by  the  District  board,  whose  income  amounted  to  nearly 
\\  lakhs  in  1903-4.  The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  1-2  lakhs, 
education  forming  the  largest  item. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  683  of  all  ranks,  including 
147  municipal  police,  under  a  Superintendent,  assisted  by  4  inspectors. 
Village  watchmen  number  1,540.  The  District  contains  22  police 
stations,  1  outpost,  and  5  road-posts.  The  Sansis,  Balochs,  and 
Tagas  are  proclaimed  under  the  Criminal  Tribes  Act ;  and  55  Sansis, 
447  Balochs,  and  237  Tagas  were  registered  in  1903  under  the  Act. 
The  District  jail  at  head-quarters  has  accommodation  for  155  prisoners. 

Karnal  is  the  most  backward  District  in  the  Province  in  the  matter 
of  education,  and  in  1901  the  proportion  of  literate  persons  was  only 
2-4  per  cent.  (4*3  males  and  o-i  females),  as  compared  with  3-6  for 
the  whole  Province.  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was  : 
1,961  in  1880-1,  2,242  in  1890-1,  5,902  in  1900-r,  and  5,365  in 
1903-4.  In  the  last  year  the  District  contained  9  secondary  and 
90  primary  (public)  schools,  besides  12  advanced  and  62  elementary 
(private)  schools,  with  53  girls  in  the  public  and  72  in  the  private 
schools.  The  only  high  school  is  at  Karnal.  The  indigenous  Arabic 
school  at  Panipat,  supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  wealthy 
Muhammadans,  is  attended  by  about  50  boys,  chiefly  from  the  middle- 
class  Muhammadan  families  of  the  town.  The  District  has  three 
primary  schools  for  girls,  and  the  ladies  of  the  Karnal  branch  of  the 
Zanana  Mission  teach  women  and  children   in  the  town.     The  total 


58  KARXAL   DISTRICT 

expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  47,000,  the  greater  part 
of  which  was  met  from  Local  funds,  though  Government  contributed 
nearly  Rs.  1,600,  and  fees  brought  in  Rs.  10,000. 

Besides  the  Karnal  civil  hospital  the  District  has  9  dispensaries,  one 
at  Karnal  and  8  at  out-stations,  at  which  117,370  out-patients  and 
1,626  in-patients  were  treated  in  1904,  and  6,849  operations  performed. 
The  income  and  expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  21,000,  Local  and 
municipal  funds  contributing  Rs.  11,000  and  Rs.  9,000  respectively. 
The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  also  maintains  a  female 
hospital  at  Karnal. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  20,090) 
representing  23  per  1,000  of  population. 

[A.  Kensington,  Customary  laiv  of  Ambala  District  (1893)  (for  the 
Thanesar  tahsil)  \  J.  M.  Douie,  District  Gazetteer  (1890),  Settlement 
Report  of  Karnal -Ambala  (1891),  and  Riwaj-i-am  of  Tahsil  Kaithal 
and  Pargana  Indri,  District  Karnai '(1892)  ;  D.  C.  J.  Ibbetson,  Settle- 
ment Report  of  the  Pdnlpat  Tahsil  and  Karnal  Pargana  (1883).] 

Karnal  Tahsil. — Central  tahsil  of  Karnal  District,  Punjab,  lying 
between  290  26'  and  300  o'  N.  and  760  40'  and  770  13'  E.,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Jumna,  with  an  area  of  838  square  miles.  The  population 
in  1901  was  248,544,  compared  with  241,369  in  1891.  It  contains 
the  town  of  Karnal  (population,  23,559),  tne  head-quarters;  and 
380  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
3-2  lakhs.  On  the  east  lie  the  Jumna  lowlands,  fertile  but  unhealthy, 
and  varying  in  width  from  5  to  10  miles.  The  western  boundary  of 
this  tract  is  the  old  high  bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  from  the  crest  of  this 
bank  the  country  slopes  imperceptibly  away  into  the  Nardak.  The 
upland  portion  of  the  tahsil  is  irrigated  by  the  Western  Jumna  Canal ; 
but  in  the  Nardak  the  people  have  not  entirely  abandoned  their  pas- 
toral traditions,  and  still  retain  ample  grazing -grounds  for  their  cattle. 

Karnal  Town. —  Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Karnal, 
Punjab,  situated  in  290  41'  N.  and  760  59'  E.,  on  the  old  bank  of  the 
Jumna,  about  7  miles  from  the  present  course  of  that  river,  and  on 
the  Delhi-Umballa-Kalka  Railway  ;  distant  1,030  miles  by  rail  from 
Calcutta,  1,056  from  Bombay,  and  895  from  Karachi.  Population 
(1901),  23,559.  Its  name  is  derived  from  Kama,  the  rival  of  Arjuna 
in  the  epic  of  the  Mahabharata,  by  whom  it  is  said  to  have  been 
founded.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  a  place  of  little  impor- 
tance in  early  historical  times,  as  no  mention  of  it  occurs  until 
towards  the  end  of  the  Pathan  period.  Karnal  was  plundered 
in  1573  by  Ibrahim  Husain  -Mirza  in  his  revolt  against  Akbar, 
and  its  neighbourhood  laid  waste  by  Banda  Bairagi  in  1709.  In 
1739  it  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Muhammad  Shah  by  Nadir 
Shah.     After  the  fall  of  Sirhind  in  1 763  the  town  was  seized  by  Gajpat 


KARNALI  59 

Singh,  Raja  of  Jlnd,  but  in  1775  it  was  recovered  by  Najaf  Khan, 
governor  of  Delhi.  It  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  Gajpat  Singh,  but 
his  son  Bhag  Singh  lost  it  to  the  Marathas  in  1787,  and  it  was  sub- 
sequently made  over  by  them  to  George  Thomas.  It  then  came  into 
the  hands  of  Gurdit  Singh  of  Ladwa,  from  whom  the  British  took  it  in 
1805.  A  cantonment  was  formed  at  Karnal,  which  was  abandoned 
in  1 84 1  owing  to  the  unheal thiness  of  the  station.  The  place  is  still 
unhealthy,  though  drainage  and  sanitation  have  done  much  to  improve 
its  condition.  There  is  a  fine  marble  tomb,  built  by  the  emperor 
Ghiyas-ud-dln  to  the  memory  of  the  saint  Bu-All  Kalandar.  The 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  has  a  mission  at  Karnal. 
The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  and  expenditure 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  32,500  and  Rs.  32,100 
respectively.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  33,800,  mainly  derived 
from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  33,500.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  country  cloth  for  local  consumption,  and  shoes.  The 
principal  educational  institution  is  the  Anglo-vernacular  high  school, 
managed  by  the  Educational  department.  There  is  a  civil  hospital, 
with  a  branch  in  the  town.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  also  maintains  a  female  hospital  and  dispensary. 

Karnala  (or  Funnel  Hill). — Fort  and  hill  in  the  Panvel  talukd  of 
Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  53/  N.  and  730  7'  E.,  a  few 
miles  north-west  of  the  Vegavati  river,  and  8  miles  south  of  Panvel  : 
elevation  1,560  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (190 1),  1,327.  Karnala 
commands  the  high  road  between  the  Bor  pass  and  the  Panvel  and 
Apta  rivers.  The  hill  has  an  upper  and  lower  fort.  In  the  centre  of 
the  upper  fort  is  the  '  funnel,'  an  almost  inaccessible  basalt  pillar  about 
125  feet  high,  locally  known  as  the  Pandu's  tower.  From  the  south- 
west of  the  hill  can  be  seen  the  island-studded  harbour  of  Bombay. 

The  fort  was  often  taken  and  retaken  during  the  turbulent  period 
of  Indian  history.  Under  the  Muhammadans,  Karnala  was  garrisoned 
to  overawe  the  North  Konkan.  Troops  from  Ahmadnagar  took  it  in 
1540.  The  Portuguese  captured  it  soon  after,  but  gave  it  up  on 
receiving  a  ransom  of  Rs.  17,500  a  year.  SivajT,  the  Maratha  leader, 
seized  it  in  1670,  driving  out  the  Mughals.  On  the  death  of  SivajT, 
Karnala  was  recaptured  by  Aurangzeb's  generals,  and  was  held  by  the 
Mughals  till  at  least  1735.  Shortly  afterwards  it  must  have  again 
come  into  the  hands  of  the  Marathas,  for  in  1740  the  Peshwas  power 
was  established  over  the  whole  of  the  Deccan.  In  181S  the  fort  was 
captured,  and  passed  into  British  possession,  together  with  the  whole 
remaining  territory  held  by  the  Peshwa.     It  is  now  in  ruins. 

Karnali. — River  of  Nepal  and  the  United  Provinces.  See 
Kauriala. 

Karnali. — Village  in  the   Baroda  prant,  llaroda  State,  situated  in 

VOL.  XV.  E 


6o  KARXALI 

2i°  59'  N.  and  730  28'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Narbada  at  its 
junction  with  the  Orsarig  river.  Population  (1901),  1,126.  Thousands 
of  pilgrims  repair  annually  to  this  holy  place  in  order  to  perform  their 
ablutions  in  the  Narbada. 

Karnaphuli. — River  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  It  rises  in 
a  lofty  range  of  hills  beyond  the  border  of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts, 
in  220  53'  N.  and  920  27'  E.,  and,  after  following  a  generally  south- 
westerly course  of  121  miles,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  220  iV  N. 
and  910  47'  E.,  12  miles  below  the  town  and  port  of  Chittagong,  which 
is  situated  on  its  right  bank.  As  far  up  as  Chittagong  it  is  navigable 
by  sea-going  vessels,  and  by  shallow-draught  steamers  as  high  as 
Rangamati,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts.  Large 
native  boats  go  up  as  high  as  Kasalang,  while  small  craft  ply  14  miles 
farther  up  to  the  Barkal  rapids.  In  the  Hill  Tracts  it  is  known  as  the 
Kynsa  Khyoung.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Kasalang,  Chingri, 
Kaptai,  and  Rankhiang  rivers  in  the  Hill  Tracts,  and  the  Halda  in 
Chittagong  District ;  the  latter  empties  itself  into  the  main  river  from 
the  north,  and  is  navigable  by  native  boats  for  24  miles  throughout  the 
year.  Besides  those  already  mentioned,  the  principal  river-side  villages 
are  Chandraghona  and  Rangonia.  The  Karnaphuli  is  largely  used  for 
floating  cotton  and  forest  produce  from  the  Hill  Tracts  to  Chittagong. 
The  approaches  to  the  mouth  are  lit  by  lighthouses  at  Kutubdia  and 
Norman's  Point,  and  the  channels  are  buoyed  by  the  Port  Com- 
missioners of  Chittagong. 

Karnaprayag. — One  of  the  five  sacred  confluences  of  the  Alak- 
nanda,  where  this  river  is  joined  by  the  Pindar  (see  Pindari)  in 
Garhwal  District,  United  Provinces.  The  village  is  situated  at  a  height 
of  2,300  feet  above  the  sea,  in  300  i6/  N.  and  790  15'  E.  Population 
(1901),  243.  It  contains  a  number  of  temples  and  also  a  dispensary, 
and  during  the  summer  a  police  station. 

Kama  Suvarna. — Ancient  kingdom  in  Bengal,  which  lay  west  of 
the  Bhaglrathi  river,  and  comprised  the  modern  Districts  of  Burdwan, 
Bankura,  Western  Murshidabad,  and  Hooghly.  The  best-known  king 
was  Sasanka  or  Narendra,  the  last  of  the  Guptas,  who  was  a  fanatical 
worshipper  of  Siva.  He  invaded  Magadha,  and  cut  down  the  sacred 
bodhi  tree,  early  in  the  seventh  century.  The  capital  of  this  kingdom 
was  probably  at  Rangamati  in  Murshidabad  District. 

Karnatak. — Tract  in  Peninsular  India.     See  Carnatic. 

Karnul. — District,  subdivision,  and  town  in  Madras.    See  Kurnool. 

Karol. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Karond. — Native  State  in  Bengal.     See  Kalahandi. 

Karor. — Former  name  of  the  parga?ia  and  tahsll,  now  called 
Bareilly.     See  Bareilly  Tahsil. 

Karor. — Town  in  Multan  District,  Punjab.     See  Kahror. 


KARUNGULI  61 

Karor  Lai  Isa  (Kahror). — Town  in  the  Leiah  talistt  of  Mianwali 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  310  13'  N.  and  700  57"  E.,  on  the  high 
bank  of  the  Indus  east  of  that  river.  Population  (1901),  3,243. 
Founded  by  Makhdum  Lai  Isa,  Kureshi,  a  descendant  of  Bah3wal 
Hakk,  the  saint  of  Multan,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  town  still 
preserves  the  massive  tomb  of  its  founder,  and  a  large  fair  is  held 
yearly  in  his  honour.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  as  included  in 
the  government  of  Multan  under  Sultan  Husain  in  1469.  The  muni- 
cipality was  created  in  1887.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending 
1902-3  averaged  Rs.  3,600,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  3,900.  The  in- 
come in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,400,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi  ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  3,600.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  a  muni- 
cipal board  school  (primary),  a  private  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school, 
and  two  municipal  girls'  schools. 

Karsiang.— Subdivision  and  town  in  Darjeeling  District,  Bengal. 
See  Kurseong. 

Kartarpur. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahs'il  of  Jullundur,  Punjab, 
situated  in  310  26'  N.  and  750  30'  E.,  on  the  North-Western  Railway 
and  grand  trunk  road,  9  miles  from  Jullundur  town.  Population  (1901), 
10,840.  Founded  by  Arjun,  the  fifth  Sikh  Guru,  it  is  a  place  of  great 
sanctity,  as  the  seat  of  the  line  of  Gurus  descended  from  him,  and  as 
possessing  his  original  Adi  Granth  or  scripture.  It  was  burnt  by  Ahmad 
Shah  in  1756.  Kartarpur  is  a  flourishing  grain  mart,  with  a  market 
outside  octroi  limits.  Chairs,  boxes,  tables,  and  native  flutes  are  made  ; 
also  cotton  twill  (susi).  The  cantonment  established  here  after  the  first 
Sikh  War  was  abolished  in  1854.  The  municipality  was  created  in 
1867.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged 
Rs.  7,500,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,900.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  7,300,  mainly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  10,600. 
The  town  has  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school,  maintained  by  the 
municipality,  and  a  Government  dispensary. 

Karunguli. — Village  in  the  Madurantakam  taluk  of  Chingleput  Dis- 
trict, Madras,  situated  in  120  32'  N.  and  790  54'  E.,  on  the  South  Indian 
Railway  and  on  the  southern  trunk  road,  48  miles  from  Madras  city. 
Population  (1901),  4,065.  It  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  from 
1795  to  1825,  and  subsequently  continued  for  some  years  to  be  the  head- 
quarters of  a  taluk.  Karunguli  fort  was  occupied  as  a  strategic  point 
during  the  wars  between  the  English  and  the  French,  being  regarded 
as  an  outpost  of  Chingleput,  from  which  it  is  15  miles  distant  to  the 
south-west.  These  two  places,  with  Wandiwash  and  Uttaramerur,  formed 
a  sort  of  quadrilateral  on  the  line  of  attack  between  the  seats  of  the 
two  Governments  of  Madras  and  Pondicherry.  As  early  as  1755  it  was 
a  point  of  dispute.  In  1757  it  was  evacuated  by  the  English  in  the  face 
of  advancing  French  troops.     The  following  year  the  English  attempted 

K  2 


62  KARUNGUL1 

to  recover  it  by  surprise,  but  were  repulsed  with  loss,  a  failure  which 
was  repeated  in  1759.  But  some  months  later  Colonel  Coote,  after 
a  few  days'  bombardment,  captured  the  fort.  This  was  the  first  de- 
cisive action  in  the  successful  campaign  of  1759-60,  which  led  to  the 
victory  at  YVandiwash.  The  circumference  of  the  fort  is  1,500  yards, 
enclosing  the  remains  of  what  were  apparently  huge  granaries  for  the 
storage  of  grain,  the  tribute  to  the  Muhammadan  government  out  of 
the  produce  of  the  neighbourhood.  The  Karunguli  tank,  which  is  fed 
from  the  overflow  of  the  Madurantakam  tank,  usually  receives  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  water.  A  travellers'  bungalow  stands  in  the  village,  a 
handsome  old  building  in  a  grove  of  fine  mango-trees. 

Karur  Taluk. — South-eastern  taluk  of  Coimbatore  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  io°  38'  and  n°  6'  N.  and  770  45'  and  780  14'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  612  square  miles.  It  is  an  open  and  undulating  plain, 
with  no  hills  or  forests  of  note,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cauvery 
river  and  traversed  by  the  Amaravati.  It  is  poorly  wooded  and  suffers 
from  an  unusually  trying  hot  season.  It  has  one  town,  the  municipality 
of  Karur  (population,  12,769),  the  head-quarters;  and  95  villages. 
The  population  in  1901  was  220,843,  compared  with  211,794  in  1891, 
the  increase  having  been  slower  than  elsewhere  in  the  District.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,49,000. 
The  soil  is  mostly  of  an  inferior  red  or  grey  variety,  and  is  generally 
lightly  assessed.  The  area  irrigated  by  channels  is  larger  than  in  any 
taluk  except  Satyamangalam.  These  lead  from  the  Amaravati  and  the 
Cauvery,  and  this  is  the  first  taluk  in  the  Presidency  in  which  the  water 
of  the  latter  is  used  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  rainfall  (averaging 
26  inches  annually)  is  fairly  plentiful  and  regular,  and  the  crops  are 
generally  good.     Cambu  is  by  far  the  most  common  cereal. 

Karur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Coimbatore  District,  Madras,  situated  in  io°  58'  N.  and  780  6'  E.,  on 
the  South  Indian  Railway,  48  miles  from  Trichinopoly,  and  on  the 
Amaravati  river  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Cauvery.  Population 
(1901),  12,769.  The  town  is  called  Tiruvanilai  or  Pasupati  ('the  place 
of  the  sacred  cow')  in  vernacular  writings.  The  name  Karur  means 
'  embryo  town,'  and  is  said  to  have  been  given  because  Brahma  began 
his  work  of  creation  here.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  often  called 
Brahmapurl  in  legendary  records.  It  was  apparently  a  place  of  some 
importance  as  far  back  as  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  for 
coins  of  the  emperors  Augustus,  Tiberius,  and  Claudius  were  found 
near  by  in  1806.  Situated  near  the  point  where  the  territories  of  the 
rival  Chera,  Chola,  and  Pandya  dynasties  met,  it  probably  played  a 
part  in  their  ancient  struggles.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Vijayanagar 
empire  in  1565,  Karur  fell  under  the  Naiks  of  Madura;  but  it  was 
frequently  attacked  and  occupied  by  the  Mysore  armies,  and  towards 


KARVAX  63 

the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  finally  annexed  to  the  latter 
kingdom  and  became  its  most  important  frontier  post.  In  1639  the 
Jesuits  established  a  mission  here.  In  later  years  the  place  constantly 
changed  hands.  In  1736  Chanda  Sahib  besieged  it  unsuccessfully. 
In  1760  it  was  captured  by  the  British,  in  revenge  for  the  assistance 
given  by  Haidar  to  the  French.  Orme  describes  the  siege  in  detail. 
Karur  was  held  by  them  till  1768,  when  it  was  retaken  by  Haidar, 
whose  possession  was  confirmed  by  treaty  in  the  following  year.  In 
1783  Colonel  Lang  took  and  held  the  fort  for  a  few  months.  There 
is  a  monument  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  to  the  British  troops  who 
fell  in  this  siege.  It  was  a  third  time  captured  in  1790  by  General 
Medows,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  1792.  It  was  garrisoned  by  the 
Company  as  a  military  station  until  1801,  and  portions  of  the  old  fort 
still  remain. 

Karur  was  formerly  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sub-Collector.  Besides 
the  tahsi/dar,  a  District  Munsif  and  a  stationary  sub-magistrate  are  now 
stationed  here.  Being  on  the  railway  and  at  the  junction  of  several 
roads,  it  possesses  a  considerable  trade.  Its  chief  drawback  is  its 
crowded  site,  which  is  surrounded  entirely  by  rice-fields  and  the  river. 
The  only  industry  worth  mention  is  the  manufacture  of  brassware  on 
a  small  scale.  There  are,  however,  two  tanneries  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  principal  temple  is  a  considerable  edifice  of  some  antiquity, 
containing  numerous  inscriptions  on  stone. 

Karur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1874.  During  the  ten  years 
ending  1903  the  annual  income  and  expenditure  averaged  about 
Rs.  20,000.  In  1903-4  the  receipts  and  expenditure  were  Rs.  29,000 
and  28,000  respectively,  the  former  being  chiefly  derived  from  school 
fees,  the  house  and  land  taxes,  and  tolls.  It  is  a  station  of  the 
Wesleyan  Mission,  which  maintains  two  industrial  schools  here,  one 
for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls.  A  drainage  scheme  estimated  to  cost 
Rs.  95,850  has  been  framed  for  this  municipality  ;  but  its  execution 
has  been  postponed  pending  the  introduction  of  a  proper  water-supply, 
plans  for  which  are  still  under  preparation. 

Karvan. — Village  in  the  Baroda  prant,  Baroda  State,  situated  in 
220  5'  N.  and  730  15'  E.,  with  a  station  on  the  Dabhoi-Mivagam  State 
Railway.  In  olden  times  it  was  probably  very  important  as  a  place 
of  pilgrimage.  The  local  tradition  is  that  the  sage  Vishvanritra,  in 
consequence  of  a  dispute  with  Vasishta,  desired  to  create  another 
Benares  in  this  village.  He  therefore  fashioned  a  thousand  tingams 
and  then  wrestled  to  bring  the  Ganges  here,  till  Vishnu  was  weary 
of  his  importunities.  The  god  was  forced  to  make  himself  visible  to 
the  saint,  who  then  ceased  from  vexing  him,  and  in  return  Vishnu 
promised  that  the  village  should  be  as  holy  as  Benares.  Many  temples, 
some  old,  some  in  ruins,  are  to  be  seen  at  this  sacred  spot. 


64  KARVETNAGAR  ZAMINDARI 

Karvetnagar  Zamindari. — Ancient  zamindari  in  the  north-east 
of  North  Arcot  District,  Madras,  lying  between  130  2'  and  130  35'  N. 
and  790  14''  and  790  49'  E.  Area,  943  square  miles  ;  number  of 
villages,  667;  population  (1901),  341,240.  It  is  held  on  permanent 
tenure  under  a  sanad  (grant)  issued  by  the  British  Government  in  1802. 
The  whole  of  the  zamindari  is  hilly  except  the  south-east ;  penetrating 
the  hills  run  numerous  picturesque  ravines  or  konas,  which  are  well 
wooded  and  fairly  stocked  with  game.  One  of  the  most  charming 
of  these  is  the  Sadasiva  ko/ia,  about  10  miles  north-east  of  the  Puttur 
station  on  the  Madras  Railway.  Here  a  perennial  stream  flows  east- 
wards by  a  succession  of  cascades,  by  the  sides  of  which  tree-ferns  and 
other  species  of  water-loving  plants  grow  in  profusion.  The  principal 
streams  which  drain  the  zamindari  are  named  after  the  towns  of 
Narayanavanam,  Nagari,  and  Tiruttani,  by  which  they  flow.  They 
are  dry  except  during  the  rains,  but  have  excellent  underground 
springs,  the  water  of  which  is  tapped  by  means  of  channels  and 
irrigates  considerable  areas  on  both  banks.  The  soil  of  the  estate 
is  fertile  ;  but  much  of  it  is  covered  with  hill  and  jungle,  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  area  is  uncultivable,  only  about  130,000  acres  being 
under  the  plough.  Indigo  is  still  largely  cultivated,  but  of  late  years 
the  market  for  the  dye  has  been  depressed  owing  to  the  competition 
of  its  new  chemical  rival.  From  the  forests  of  the  zamindari  much 
fuel  is  exported  to  Madras  by  rail.  The  total  peshkash  (or  permanent 
revenue  paid  to  Government)  is  1-7  lakhs,  and  the  cesses  in  1903-4 
were  an  additional  Rs.  50,000.  The  gross  income  of  the  whole 
estate  averages  between  6  and  7  lakhs,  but  it  is  heavily  encumbered. 
Some  of  the  villages  have  been  sold  in  satisfaction  of  decrees  of  the 
Civil  Courts  and  now  form  separate  properties ;  and  the  estate  is  so 
involved  in  debt  that  it  was  taken  under  the  management  of  the  Court 
of  Wards  for  a  time.  It  has  now  been  handed  back  to  the  proprietor. 
Karvetnagar,  7  miles  from  Puttur  railway  station,  is  the  chief  town  and 
the  residence  of  the  zaminddr,  who  has  the  hereditary  title  of  Raja. 
Puttur,  Narayanavanam,  Nagari,  and  Tiruttani  are  other  important 
places. 

Karwar  Taluka. — North-westernmost  tdluka  of  North  Kanara 
District,  Bombay,  lying  between  140  44'  and  150  4'  N.  and  740  4'  and 
740  32'  E.,  with  an  area  of  281  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town, 
Karwar  (population,  16,847),  the  tdluka  and  District  head-quarters; 
and  54  villages.  The  population  in  1901  was  58,460,  compared  with 
53,278  in  1891.  The  density,  208  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much 
above  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4 
was  1-09  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  7,000.  The  KalinadI  flows  from 
east  to  west  through  the  centre,  and  as  it  enters  the  sea  throws  up 
a  bar  of  sand  impassable  to  any  but  small  craft.     Along  both  banks 


KARWAR   TOWN  65 

of  the  river  broad  belts  uf  rice  land,  broken  by  groves  of  palms  and 
other  fruit  trees,  stretch  east  to  near  the  Western  Ghats.  The  soil 
on  the  plains  is  sandy,  and  near  the  hills  is  much  mixed  with  granite. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Kalinadi,  and  along  the  seashore,  are  large  tracts 
covered  with  a  black  alluvial  deposit,  charged  with  salt  and  liable  to 
be  flooded  at  high  tides.  To  bring  such  land  under  tillage,  a  strong 
and  costly  wall  must  be  built  to  keep  out  the  sea.  A  heavy  rainfall 
is  required  to  sweeten  the  land,  and  then,  without  much  manure  and 
with  due  care,  rich  crops  can  be  raised.  Throughout  the  taluka  the 
houses  are  not  gathered  into  villages,  but  are  scattered  along  narrow 
lanes,  standing  in  shady  coco-palm  gardens,  some  tiled  and  some 
thatched,  each  with  its  well,  bathing-place,  and  cattle-shed.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  heavy,  amounting  at  Karwar  town  to  nearly  no  inches. 

Karwar  Town  (Kadvdd). — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same 
name  and  of  North  Kanara  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  140  49'  N. 
and  740  8'  E.,  50  miles  south-east  of  Goa  and  295  miles  south-east 
of  Bombay.  Population  (1901),  16,847,  including  suburbs.  The 
municipality,  established  in  1864,  had  an  average  income  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  13,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.   12,000. 

Old  Karwar,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kalinadi,  3  miles  to  the  east  of 
the  new  town,  was  once  an  important  place  of  commerce.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  15 10  as  Caribal,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  to 
Cintacora  or  Chitakul.  During  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Karwar  revenue  superintendent,  or  desai,  was  one  of  the  chief 
officers  of  the  Bijapur  kingdom,  of  which  it  formed  a  part.  In  1638 
the  fame  of  the  pepper  of  Sonda  induced  Sir  William  Courten's 
Company  to  open  a  factory  at  Karwar.  In  1660  the  factory  was 
prosperous,  exporting  the  finest  muslins  in  Western  India  j  the  weaving 
country  was  inland  to  the  east,  at  Hubli  and  other  centres,  where  as 
many  as  50,000  weavers  were  employed.  Besides  the  great  export  of 
muslin,  Karwar  provided  pepper,  cardamoms,  cassia,  and  coarse  blue 
cotton  cloth  (diaigan).  In  1665  SivajT,  the  founder  of  the  Maratha 
power,  exacted  a  contribution  of  Rs.  1,120  from  the  English.  In  1673 
the  faujddr,  or  military  governor  of  Karwar,  laid  siege  to  the  factory. 
In  1674  Sivaji  burnt  Karwar  town;  but  the  English  were  treated  civilly, 
and  no  harm  was  done  to  the  factory.  In  1676  the  factory  suffered 
from  the  exactions  of  local  chiefs,  and  the  establishment  was  withdrawn 
in  1679.  It  was  restored  in  1682  on  a  larger  scale  than  before.  In 
1684  the  English  were  nearly  driven  out  of  Karwar,  the  crew  of  a  small 
vessel  having  stolen  and  killed  a  cow.  In  1685  the  Portuguese  stirred 
the  desais  of  Karwar  and  Sonda  to  revolt.  During  the  last  ten  years  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch  made  every  attempt  to  depress  the 
English  pepper  trade;  and  in  1697  the  Marathas  laid  Karwar  waste. 


66  KARWAR    TOWX 

In  i  715  the  old  fort  of  Karwar  was  pulled  down,  and  Sadashivgarh  was 
built  by  the  Sonda  chief.  The  new  fort  seriously  interfered  with  the 
safety  of  the  English  factory ;  and  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  Sonda 
chief,  the  factory  was  removed  in  1720.  The  English,  in  spite  of  their 
efforts  to  regain  the  favour  of  the  Sonda  chiefs,  were  unable  to  obtain 
leave  to  reopen  their  factory  at  Karwar  till  1750.  The  Portuguese 
in  1752  sent  a  fleet  and  took  possession  of  Sadashivgarh.  As  the 
Portuguese  claimed  the  monopoly  of  the  Karwar  trade,  and  were  in 
a  position  to  enforce  their  claim,  the  English  agent  was  withdrawn. 
In  1 80 1  Old  Karwar  was  in  ruins.     Very  few  traces  of  it  remain. 

The  new  town  dates  from  after  the  transfer  of  North  Kanara  District 
to  the  Bombay  Presidency,  before  which  it  was  a  mere  fishing  village. 
The  present  town  and  neighbouring  offices  and  residences  are  in  the 
lands  of  six  villages,  and  within  the  municipal  limits  of  the  town  are 
nine  villages.  A  proposal  was  strenuously  urged  in  Bombay  to  connect 
Karwar  by  a  railway  with  the  interior,  so  as  to  provide  a  seaport  for  the 
southern  cotton  Districts.  Between  1867  and  1874  the  hope  that 
a  railway  from  Karwar  to  Hubli  would  be  sanctioned  raised  the  value 
of  building  sites  at  Karwar,  and  led  to  the  construction  of  many  ware- 
houses and  dwellings.  The  scheme  was  finally  abandoned  in  favour 
of  the  line  through  Portuguese  territory  to  Marmagao.  The  trade  of 
Karwar  has  markedly  decreased  since  the  opening  of  this  railway. 

Karwar  is  the  only  safe  harbour  between  Bombay  and  Cochin  during 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  In  the  bay  is  a  cluster  of  islets  called  the 
Oyster  Rocks,  on  the  largest  of  which,  Devgad  island,  a  lighthouse 
has  been  built.  There  are  two  smaller  islands  in  the  bay  (138  and 
t  20  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea),  which  afford  good  shelter  to  native 
craft  and  small  vessels  during  the  strong  north-west  winds  that  prevail 
from  February  to  April.  From  the  Karwar  port-office,  on  a  white 
flagstaff,  60  feet  from  the  ground  and  65  feet  above  high  water,  is 
displayed  a  red  fixed  ship's  light,  visible  three  miles  ;  with  the  light 
bearing  east-south-east  a  vessel  can  anchor  in  3  to  5  fathoms.  About 
5  miles  south-west  and  2  miles  from  the  mainland,  the  island  of 
Anjidiv  rises  steep  from  the  sea,  dotted  with  trees  and  the  houses 
of  its  small  Portuguese  settlement.  Coasting  steamers  belonging  to 
the  Bombay  Steam  Navigation  Company  call  twice  a  week  at  Karwar 
throughout  the  fair-weather  season.  These  steamers  generally  make 
the  trip  between  Karwar  and  Bombay  in  thirty-six  hours.  The  value 
of  the  trade  at  Karwar  port  during  the  year  1903-4  is  returned  as 
follows  :  imports  3-34  lakhs  and  exports  Rs.  82,000.  Karwar  bay  is 
remarkable  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  It  possesses  a  fine  grove  of 
casuarinas,  beneath  which  the  sea  breaks  picturesquely  on  the  long 
stretch  of  white  sand,  from  the  mouth  of  the  KallnadI  to  the  sheltered 
inlet  of  Baitkal  cove.     Besides  the  chief  revenue  and  judicial  offices, 


KARWI   TOWN  67 

the  town  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  jail,  a  hospital,  a  high 
school  with  237  pupils,  2  middle  schools,  and  8  other  schools. 

Karwl  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Banda  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, consisting  of  the  Kamasin,  KarwI,  and  Mau  tahsils. 

Karwi  Tahsil. — South-eastern  tahsil  of  Banda  District,  United 
Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  Tarahuwan,  lying  between 
24°  53'  and  250  19/  N.  and  8o°  45'  and  8i°  16'  E.,  with  an  area  of  567 
square  miles.  Population  fell  from  87,687  in  1891  to  78,410  in  1901. 
There  are  189  villages  and  two  towns,  including  Karwi,  the  tahsil 
head-quarters  (population,  7,743).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  77,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  15,000.  The  density  of 
population,  138  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  lowest  in  the  District. 
Roughly  speaking,  about  half  the  tahsll  lies  in  the  plain,  while  the 
other  half  is  situated  on  a  plateau  between  the  crest  of  the  first  range 
of  the  Vindhyas  and  the  scarp  beyond  which  extends  to  the  still  higher 
plateau  of  Rewah.  The  latter  portion  presents  beautiful  scenery  and  is 
clothed  with  forest.  Near  the  west  the  PaisunI  river  forms  part  of  the 
border  and  then  strikes  across  the  tahsil.  In  1903-4  the  area  under 
cultivation  was  126  square  miles,  of  which  only  3  were  irrigated. 

Karwi  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  and  tahsil  of  the 
same  name,  in  Banda  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  250  12'  X. 
and  8o°  54'  E.,  near  the  PaisunI  river  and  on  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  7,743.  Karwi  was 
a  British  cantonment  from  1805  to  18 16  :  and  in  1829  it  became  the 
principal  residence  of  a  Maratha  chieftain  who  lived  in  almost  regal 
state,  and  built  several  beautiful  temples  and  large  wells.  Numerous 
traders  from  the  Deccan  were  thus  attracted  to  Karwi.  During  the 
Mutiny,  Narayan  Rao,  after  the  murder  at  Banda  of  the  Joint-Magis- 
trate of  Karwi,  assumed  the  government,  and  retained  his  independence 
for  eight  months  amid  the  subsequent  anarchy.  The  accumulations  of 
his  family  constituted  the  great  treasure  afterwards  famous  as  'the 
Kirwee  and  Banda  Prize  Money.'  The  Bara,  a  large  building  which 
formed  the  palace  of  Narayan  Rao's  family,  was  confiscated,  with  most 
of  the  other  property,  and  now  serves  as  a  tahsili,  police  station,  and 
school.  The  other  public  buildings  are  a  jail  and  dispensary.  A  Joint- 
Magistrate  and  an  Assistant  District  Superintendent  of  police  are 
stationed  at  Karwi,  which  also  contains  branches  of  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  and  the  American  Methodist  Mission. 
The  town  is  administered,  together  with  the  adjacent  village  of 
Tarahuwan,  under  Act  XX  of  1856.  Karwi  declined  for  a  time  after 
the  Mutiny;  but  the  railway,  opened  in  1899,  has  caused  it  to  become 
the  most  important  trade  centre  in  the  District.  Cotton,  grain,  ghi, 
and  other  produce  are  largely  exported.  A  cotton-gin,  opened  in  1900, 
employed   1S0   hands  in    1903,   and   there    is   a   small   manufacture  o! 


68  KARWI  TOWN 

embroidered  plush.  There  are  three  schools,  with  170  boys  and 
25  girls. 

Kasalpura. — Petty  State  in  MahI  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Kasaragod  Taluk. — Southernmost  taluk  of  South  Kanara  Dis- 
trict, Madras,  lying  between  12°  7'  and  120  57'  N.  and  740  52' and  75? 
26' E.,  with  an  area  of  762  square  miles.  It  contains  114  villages. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  2.42,000.  The  population  in  1901  was  231,280,  compared  with 
210,323  in  1 89 1,  showing  an  increase  of  10  per  cent.  Much  of  the 
surface  consists  of  a  bare  treeless  plateau ;  but  the  valleys  are  deep, 
well-watered,  and  very  fertile,  and,  especially  in  the  northern  half  of  the 
taluk,  admirably  adapted  for  areca  cultivation.  The  chief  products  are 
rice,  coco-nuts,  and  areca-nuts.  In  the  coast  villages  in  the  south  a 
considerable  amount  of  tobacco  is  raised  by  the  Mappilla  cultivators. 
In  eighteen  survey  villages  adjoining  Coorg  and  Malabar  the  shifting 
system  of  cultivation  known  as  kumri  is  still  carried  on,  the  crop  being 
usually  a  mixed  one  of  hill  rice,  pulse,  and  cotton.  The  jungle  on 
selected  spaces  on  the  hill  slopes  is  cut  down,  usually  in  December, 
and  burned  when  dry  three  or  four  months  later.  The  seed  is  sown 
in  the  ashes,  sometimes  without  ploughing,  when  the  rains  come,  and 
in  good  years  fine  crops  are  secured  with  little  further  trouble.  .V 
catch-crop  is  sometimes  raised  the  following  season ;  and  the  spot 
is  then  abandoned  for  a  period  of  from  seven  to  ten  years  till  there 
is  sufficient  fresh  growth,  when  the  process  is  repeated. 

Kasarghat. — Pass  in  Thana  District,  Bombay.     See  Thalghat. 

Kasauli. — Hill  station  and  cantonment  in  the  Punjab,  situated  in 
3°°  53'  N.  and  760  58'  E.,  entirely  surrounded  by  Native  States,  but 
attached  for  administrative  purposes  to  the  Kharar  tahsll  of  Ambala 
District.  It  stands  on  the  summit  of  the  long  ridge  overlooking  Kalka, 
at  an  elevation  of  6,335  feet  above  the  sea,  and  nearly  4,000  feet  above 
Kalka,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  9  miles.  Population  (1901),  2,192. 
Kasauli  was  founded  in  1842  as  a  military  station,  and  now  serves  as 
a  convalescent  depot.  It  has  during  the  summer  months  a  considerable 
civil  population,  for  whose  accommodation  hotels  have  been  built. 
Owing,  however,  to  its  nearness  to  the  plains,  it  is  the  least  attractive 
in  climate  of  the  Punjab  hill  stations.  The  management  of  the  station 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  Cantonment  Magistrate  assisted  by  a  cantonment 
committee  ;  the  Cantonment  Magistrate  proceeds  on  tour  for  ten  days 
in  each  month  of  the  hot  season,  and  is  relieved  of  the  charge  of  the 
treasury  by  the  Assistant  Commissioner  in  charge  of  the  Rupar  sub- 
division. The  Deputy-Commissioner  of  Ambala  also  resides  at  Kasauli 
during  part  of  the  hot  season.  There  is  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle 
school.  The  Lawrence  Military  Asylum  at  Sanawar  is  3  miles  away, 
in  a  portion  of  territory  attached  to  Simla  District.     The  income  and 


KASGAXJ  TAHSlL  69 

expenditure  of  cantonment  funds  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  13,000. 

The  Pasteur  Institute  at  Kasauli  was  established  in  1901  for  the 
treatment  of  persons  bitten  by  rabid  animals,  and  now  treats  patients 
from  all  parts  of  Northern  India.  In  1906  a  central  Research  Institute 
was  founded,  which  will  provide  means  for  the  scientific  study  of  the 
etiology  and  nature  of  disease  in  India,  in  addition  to  the  preparation 
of  curative  sera  for  the  diseases  of  man  and  the  training  of  scientific 
workers.  The  institution  is  in  charge  of  a  Director,  with  a  staff  of 
assistants.  Kasauli  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  Punjab  Nursing 
Association,  and  contains  a  dispensary.  There  is  a  brewery  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

Kasba. — Old  name  of  J  essore  Town,  Bengal. 

Kasba. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Purnea  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  25°  51/  N.  and  870  32'  E.,  on  the  road  from  Purnea 
town  to  Araria,  about  9  miles  from  the  former.  Population  (1901), 
7,600.  Kasba,  which  lies  on  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  is  the 
chief  centre  of  the  rice  trade  in  Purnea  District,  the  paddy  being  col- 
lected from  the  north  of  the  District  and  the  submontane  portions  of 
Darjeeling  for  export  to  Calcutta.  It  has  also  become  a  large  centre 
of  the  jute  trade,  the  annual  sales  amounting  to  over  1  o  lakhs  ;  and 
a  European  firm  has  an  agency  there. 

Kasegaon. — Village  in  the  Valva  taluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  170  8'  N.  and  740  14'  E.,  close  to  the  Satara-Kolhapur  road, 
1 1  miles  south  of  Karad  and  4  miles  north  of  Peth.  Population  (1901), 
5,482.  This  is  one  of  the  most  thriving  places  in  the  taluka.  It  is 
inhabited  by  well-to-do  merchants,  who  traffic  with  the  coast  in  local 
produce,  chiefly  tobacco,  pepper,  and  sugar-cane.  The  inhabitants 
have  an  unenviable  character  for  crime  and  litigiousness— mischief 
to  crops,  cattle  poisoning,  and  arson  having  been  very  frequent  for 
many  years. 

Kasganj  Tahsil.— Northern  tahsil  of  Etah  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Ulai,  Bilram,  Pachlana,  Soron, 
Sidhpura,  Sahawar-Karsana,  and  Faizpur-Badaria,  and  lying  between 
270  33'  and  280  2'  N.  and  780  29'  and  7S0  59'  E.,  with  an  area  of  492 
square  miles.  Population  increased  from  191,625  in  1891  to  265.216 
in  1 90 1.  There  are  468  villages  and  six  towns,  the  largest  of  which  are 
Kasganj  (population,  19,686),  the  tahsil  head-quarters,  Soron  (12,175), 
and  Sahawar  (5,079).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  2,91,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  44,000.  The  new  settlement  will  raise 
the  demand  for  revenue  to  Rs.  3,26,000,,  and  for  cesses  to  Rs.  53.000. 
The  density  of  population,  539  persons  per  square  mile,  is  above  the 
District  average.  Population  increased  by  nearly  2S  per  cent,  between 
1891  and  1900,  a  higher  rate  of  increase  than  in  any  other  tahsil  in  the 


7o  KASGANJ  TAHSlL 

United  Provinces.  The  tahsll  is  bounded  on  the  north-east  by  the 
Ganges  and  on  the  south-west  by  the  Kali  Nadl.  It  thus  lies  entirely 
in  the  tarai  and  in  the  central  dodb,  which  are  the  most  precarious 
tracts  in  the  District.  Heavy  rain  in  1884-6  led  to  extensive  water- 
logging, and  the  land  which  fell  out  of  cultivation  was  overgrown  with 
kans  (Saccharum  spontaneum).  Extensive  reductions  of  revenue  were 
made,  and,  to  prevent  further  deterioration,  the  drainage  was  improved. 
The  Biirhiganga,  which  lies  below  the  old  high  bank  on  the  southern 
edge  of  the  tarai,  has  been  deepened  and  straightened.  In  1898-9  the 
area  under  cultivation  was  347  square  miles,  of  which  108  were  irrigated. 
The  tarai  is  so  moist  that  irrigation  is  not  usually  required,  and  the 
upland  area  is  served  by  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal  and  its  Fatehgarh 
branch.    Wells  supply  about  half  the  irrigated  area. 

Kasganj  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in 
Etah  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  270  48'  N.  and  780  39'  E., 
on  the  Cawnpore-Achhnera  Railway,  and  also  on  the  road  from  Muttra 
to  Bareilly.  A  short  branch  railway  connects  Kasganj  with  Soron  near 
the  Ganges,  and  an  extension  to  Bareilly  is  under  construction.  This 
is  the  chief  trade  centre  of  the  District,  and  population  is  increasing  : 
(1891)  16,050,  (1901)  19,686.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Yakut  Khan,  a  eunuch  in  the  service  of  Muhammad  Khan,  Nawab 
of  Farrukhabad.  It  afterwards  came  into  the  hands  of  Colonel  James 
Gardner,  who  was  in  the  employ  of  the  Marathas,  and  later  in  British 
service.  He  raised  a  regiment,  now  known  as  Gardner's  Horse,  and 
acquired  a  large  property  which  was  dissipated  by  his  descendants. 
Part  of  the  property  fell  into  the  hands  of  Dilsukh  Rai,  once  an  agent 
to  the  Gardner  family,  and  one  of  his  descendants  has  built  a  magnifi- 
cent residence  near  the  town.  Kasganj  stands  on  an  elevated  site,  its 
drainage  flowing  towards  the  Kali  Nadl,  which  runs  about  a  mile  south- 
east of  the  town.  A  new  drainage  scheme  has  recently  been  completed. 
The  town  contains  two  fine  bazars  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 
At  the  junction  a  fine  octagonal  building,  consisting  of  shops,  forms 
a  suitable  centre  to  the  town.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  town 
hall,  dispensary,  tahsill,  and  munsifi.  There  are  also  branches  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  American  Methodist  Mission. 
Close  to  the  railway  station  is  a  considerable  colony  of  railway  employes. 
The  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1868.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  15,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  22,000,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi 
(Rs.  16,000);  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  23,000.  Kasganj  is 
becoming  an  important  centre  for  the  collection  and  distribution  of 
country  produce,  especially  grain,  sugar,  and  cotton.  Sugar-refining 
is  a  growing  industry,  and  there  were  two  cotton-gins  and  a  cotton- 
press    which    employed    788   hands    in    1903,    while    another   ginning 


KASHMIR   AND  JAMMV  71 

factory  was  opened  in  1904.     The  town  school  has  about   190  pupils, 
and  16  other  schools  aided  by  the  municipality  have  420  pupils. 

Kashipur  Tahsil. — South-western  tahsll  and  subdivision  of  NainI 
Tal  District,  United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the 
same  name,  lying  between  290  7'  and  290  22'  N.  and  780  43' and  79°  4' 
E.,  with  an  area  of  189  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  73,168  in 
1891  to  55,632  in  1901,  the  rate  of  decrease  being  the  highest  in  the 
District.  There  are  147  villages  and  two  towns  :  Kashipur  (popula- 
tion, 12,023),  the  fa hsil  head-quarters,  and  Jaspur  (6,480).  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  90,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  11,000. 
The  density  of  population,  294  persons  per  square  mile,  is  also  the 
highest  in  the  District.  The  tahsll  resembles  the  adjoining  parts  of 
Rohilkhand.  It  lies  entirely  in  the  plains,  and  is  not  so  damp  as  the 
Tarai.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  69  square  miles,  of 
which  10  were  irrigated,  almost  entirely  from  canals. 

Kashipur  Town.  —  Head-quarters  of  the  Kashipur  tahs'u  of 
NainI  Tal  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  290  13'  N.  and  78°  58' 
E.,  on  a  road  from  Moradabad  :  a  railway  from  the  same  place  has  been 
projected.  Population  (1901),  12,023.  Near  the  town  are  extensive 
ruins  of  forts  and  temples,  which  were  identified  by  General  Cunning- 
ham with  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Govisana,  visited  by  the  Chinese 
pilgrim  in  the  seventh  century.  There  are  several  tanks  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, one  of  which  is  called  after  Drona,  the  tutor  of  the  Pandava 
brothers.  A  brick  inscribed  in  characters  of  the  third  or  fourth  century 
a.  D.  was  recently  found  here.  The  modern  town  is  named  after  its 
founder,  KashI  Nath,  the  governor  of  the  pargana  in  the  sixteenth  or 
seventeenth  century.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  Nand 
Ram,  the  governor,  became  practically  independent  of  the  Chand  Raja 
of  Almora  ;  and  his  nephew,  Shib  Lai,  was  in  possession  at  the  date  of 
the  cession  to  the  British  in  1801.  Kashipur  contains  a  fair-sized  bazar 
with  brick-built  houses  ;  but  outside  of  this  the  houses  are  chiefly  of 
mud.  The  largest  building  is  the  residence  of  the  Raja,  who  is 
descended  from  an  illegitimate  branch  of  the  Chand  Rajas  of  Almora. 
Besides  the  usual  courts  there  is  a  dispensary.  Kashipur  has  been 
a  municipality  since  1872.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  in- 
come and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  14,000,  chiefly  from  tolls  (Rs.  5,000)  and  a  tax  on  circumstances 
and  property  (Rs.  3,000);  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  12,000.  There 
is  a  flourishing  trade  in  cloth,  metal  vessels,  and  hill  produce.  The 
municipality  supports  a  school  with  75  pupils. 

Kashkar.— Capital  of  Chitral  State,  North-West  Frontier  Province. 
See  Chitral. 

Kashmir  and  Jammu.  —  The  territories  of  the  Maharaja  of 
Kashmir  and  Jammu   may  be  roughly  described  in  the  words  of  the 


72  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

treaty  of  March  16,  1S46,  as  'situated  to  the  eastward  of  the  river 
Indus  and  westward  of  the  river  Ravi.'  This  country,  known  to  the 
English  as  Kashmir  and  to  the  Indians  as  Jammu,  covers  an  area  of 
80,900  square  miles,  extending  from  320  17'  to  360  58'  N.  and  from 
730  26'  to  8o°  30'  E.     It  may  be  likened  to  a  house  with  many  storeys. 

The  door  is  at  Jammu,  and  the  house  faces  south, 
aspects  looking   out    on    the    Punjab    Districts    of  Jhelum, 

Gujrat,  Sialkot,  and  Gurdaspur.  There  is  just  a 
fringe  of  level  land  along  the  Punjab  frontier,  bordered  by  a  plinth 
of  low  hilly  country  sparsely  wooded,  broken,  and  irregular.  This  is 
known  as  the  Kandi,  the  home  of  the  Chibs  and  the  Dogras.  Then 
comes  the  first  storey,  to  reach  which  a  range  of  mountains,  8,000  feet 
high,  must  be  climbed.  This  is  a  temperate  country  with  forests  of 
oak,  rhododendron,  and  chestnut,  and  higher  up  of  deodar  and  pine, 
a  country  of  beautiful  uplands,  such  as  Bhadarwah  and  Kishtwar, 
drained  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Chenab  river.  The  steps  of  the 
Himalayan  range  known  as  the  Pir  Panjal  lead  to  the  second  storey, 
on  which  rests  the  exquisite  valley  of  Kashmir,  drained  by  the  Jhelum 
river.  Up  steeper  flights  of  the  Himalayas  we  pass  to  Astor  and 
Baltistan  on  the  north  and  to  Ladakh  on  the  east,  a  tract  drained  by 
the  river  Indus.  In  the  back  premises,  far  away  to  the  north-west, 
lies  Gilgit,  west  and  north  of  the  Indus,  the  whole  area  shadowed  by 
a  wall  of  giant  mountains  which  run  east  from  the  Kilik  or  Mintaka 
passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  leading  to  the  Pamirs  and  the  Chinese 
dominions  past  Rakaposhi  (25,561  feet),  along  the  Muztagh  range  past 
K  2  (Godwin  Austen,  28,265  feet\  Gasherbrum  and  Masherbrum 
(28,100  and  25,660  feet  respectively)  to  the  Karakoram  range  which 
merges  in  the  Kuenlun  mountains.  "Westward  of  the  northern  angle 
above  Hunza-Nagar  the  mighty  maze  of  mountains  and  glaciers  trends 
a  little  south  of  east  along  the  Hindu  Kush  range  bordering  Chitral, 
and  so  on  into  the  limits  of  Kafiristan  and  Afghan  territory. 

At  the  Karakoram  pass  (18,317  feet)  the  wall  zigzags,  and  to  the 
north-east  of  the  State  is  a  high  corner  bastion  of  mountain  plains  at 
an  elevation  of  over  17,000  feet,  with  salt  lakes  dotted  about.  Little 
is  known  of  that  bastion ;  and  the  administration  of  Jammu  and 
Kashmir  has  but  scanty  information  about  the  eastern  wall  of  the 
property,  which  is  formed  of  mountains  of  an  elevation  of  about 
20,000  feet,  and  crosses  lakes,  like  Pangkong,  lying  at  a  height  of 
nearly  14,000  feet.  The  southern  boundary  repeats  the  same 
features — grand  mountains  running  to  peaks  of  over  20,000  feet  ;  but 
farther  west,  where  the  wall  dips  down  more  rapidly  to  the  south,  the 
elevation  is  easier,  and  we  come  to  Bhadarwah  (5,427  feet)  and  to 
the  still  easier  heights  of  Basoli  (2,170  feet)  on  the  Ravi  river.  From 
Madhopur,  the  head-works  of  the  Bari  Doab   Canal,    the  Ravi  river 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  73 

ceases  to  be  the  boundary,  and  a  line  crossing  the  Ujh  river  and  the 
watershed  of  the  low  Dogra  hills  runs  fairly  straight  to  Jammu.  A 
similar  line,  marked  by  a  double  row  of  trees,  runs  west  from  Jammu 
to  the  Jhelum  river.  From  the  south-west  corner  of  the  territories  the 
Jhelum  river  forms  an  almost  straight  boundary  on  the  west  as  far  as 
its  junction  with  the  Kunhar  river,  14  miles  north  of  Kohala.  At  that 
point  the  western  boundary  leaves  the  river  and  clings  to  the  moun- 
tains, running  in  a  fairly  regular  line  to  the  grand  snow  scarp  of  Nanga 
Parbat  (26,182  feet).  Thence  it  runs  almost  due  north  to  the  crossing 
of  the  Indus  at  Ramghat  under  the  Hattu  Pir,  then  north-west,  sweep- 
ing in  Punial,  Yasin,  Ghizar,  and  Koh,  the  Mehtarjaos  or  chiefs  of 
which  claim  the  Tangir  and  Darel  country,  and  linking  on  to  the  Hindu 
Kush  and  Muztagh  ranges  which  look  north  to  Chinese  territory  and 
south  to  Hunza-Nagar  and  Gilgit. 

It  is  said  of  the  first  Maharaja  Gulab  Singh,  the  builder  of  the  edifice 
just  described,  that  when  he  surveyed  his  new  purchase,  the  valley  of 
Kashmir,  he  grumbled  and  remarked  that  one-third  of  the  country  was 
mountains,  one-third  water,  and  the  remainder  alienated  to  privileged 
persons.  Speaking  of  the  whole  of  his  dominions,  he  might  without 
exaggeration  have  described  them  as  nothing  but  mountains.  There 
are  valleys,  and  occasional  oases  in  the  deep  canons  of  the  mighty 
rivers  ;  but  mountain  is  the  predominating  feature  and  has  strongly 
affected  the  history,  habits,  and  agriculture  of  the  people.  Journeying 
along  the  haphazard  paths  which  skirt  the  river  banks,  till  the  sheer 
cliff  bars  the  way  and  the  track  is  forced  thousands  of  feet  over  the 
mountain-top,  one  feels  like  a  child  wandering  in  the  narrow  and 
tortuous  alleys  which  surround  some  old  cathedral  in  England. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  limit  of  this  article  to  deal  in  detail  with 
the  nooks  and  corners  where  men  live  their  hard  lives  and  raise  their 
poor  crops  in  the  face  of  extraordinary  difficulties.  There  are  interest- 
ing tracts  like  Padar  on  the  southern  border,  surrounded  by  perpetual 
snow,  where  the  edible  pine  and  the  deodar  flourish,  and  where  the 
sunshine  is  scanty  and  the  snow  lies  long.  It  was  in  Padar  that  were 
found  the  valuable  sapphires,  pronounced  by  experts  the  finest  in  the 
world.  Farther  east  across  the  glaciers  lies  the  inaccessible  country  of 
Zaskar,  said  to  be  rich  in  copper,  where  the  people  and  cattle  live 
indoors  for  six  months  out  of  the  year,  where  trees  are  scarce  and  food 
is  scarcer.  Zaskar  has  a  fine  breed  of  ponies.  Farther  east  is  the 
lofty  Rupshu,  the  lowest  point  of  which  is  13,500  feet ;  and  even  at 
this  great  height  barley  ripens,  though  it  often  fails  in  the  higher  places 
owing  to  early  snowfall.  In  Rupshu  live  the  nomad  Champas,  who 
are  able  to  work  in  an  air  of  extraordinary  rarity,  and  complain  bitterly 
of  the  heat  of  Leh  (11,500  feet). 

Everywhere  on  the  mass  of  mountains  are  places  worthy  of  mention. 


74  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

but  the  reader  will  gain  a  better  idea  of  the  country  if  he  follows  one 
or  more  of  the  better-known  routes.  A  typical  route  will  be  that  along 
which  the  troops  sometimes  march  from  Jammu,  the  winter  capital,  past 
the  Summer  Palace  at  Srlnagar  in  Kashmir  to  the  distant  outpost  at 
Gilgit.  The  traveller  will  leave  the  railway  terminus  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Tawi,  the  picturesque  river  on  which  Jammu  is  built.  From 
Jammu  (1,200  feet)  the  road  rises  gently  to  Dansal  (1,840  feet),  passing 
through  a  stony  country  of  low  hills  covered  with  acacias,  then  over 
steeper  hills  of  grey  sandstone  where  vegetation  is  very  scarce,  over 
the  Laru  Lari  pass  (8,200  feet),  dropping  down  again  to  5,150  feet  and 
lower  still  to  Ramban  (2,535  feet),  where  the  Chenab  river  is  crossed, 
then  steadily  up  till  the  Banihal  pass  (9,230  feet)  is  gained  and  the 
valley  of  Kashmir  lies  below. 

So  far  the  country  has  been  broken,  and  the  track  devious,  with 
interminable  ridges,  and  for  the  most  part,  if  we  except  the  vale  of  the 
Bichlari,  the  pine  woods  of  Chineni,  and  the  slopes  between  Ramban 
and  Deogol  (Banihal),  a  mere  series  of  flat  uninteresting  valleys, 
unrelieved  by  forests.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  pass  from  the  scenery  of  the 
outer  hills  into  the  green  fertile  valley  of  Kashmir— the  emerald  set  in 
pearls.  The  valley  is  surrounded  by  mountain  ranges  which  rise  to 
a  height  of  18,000  feet  on  the  north-east,  and  until  the  end  of  May 
and  sometimes  by  the  beginning  of  October  there  is  a  continuous  ring 
of  snow  around  the  oval  plain.  Leaving  the  Banihal  pass — and  no 
experienced  traveller  cares  to  linger  on  that  uncertain  home  of  the 
winds — the  track  rapidly  descends  to  Vernag  (6,000  feet),  where  a 
noble  spring  of  deep-blue  water  issues  from  the  base  of  a  high  scarp. 
This  spring  may  be  regarded  as  the  source  of  Kashmir's  great  river 
and  waterway,  commonly  known  as  the  Jhelum,  the  Hydaspes  of  the 
ancients,  the  Vitasta  in  Sanskrit,  and  spoken  of  by  the  Kashmiris  as 
the  Veth.  Fifteen  miles  north  the  rive/  becomes  navigable;  and  the 
traveller,  after  a  march  of  no  miles,  embarks  at  Khanabal  in  a  flat-bot- 
tomed boat  and  drops  gently  down  to  Srlnagar,  the  capital  of  Kashmir. 

Looking  at  a  map  of  Kashmir,  one  sees  a  white  footprint  set  in 
a  mass  of  black  mountains.  This  is  the  celebrated  valley,  perched 
securely  among  the  Himalayas  at  an  average  height  of  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  approximately  84  miles  in  length  and  20  to  25  miles  in 
breadth.  North,  east,  and  west,  range  after  range  of  mountains  guard 
the  valley  from  the  outer  world,  while  in  the  south  it  is  cut  off  from 
the  Punjab  by  rocky  barriers,  50  to  75  miles  in  width.  The  mountain 
snows  feed  the  river  and  the  streams,  and  it  is  calculated  that  the 
Jhelum  in  its  course  through  the  valley  has  a  catchment  area  of  nearly 
4,000  square  miles.  The  mountains  which  surround  Kashmir  are 
infinitely  varied  in  form  and  colour.  To  the  north  lies  a  veritable 
sea  of  mountains  broken   into  white-crested  waves,   hastening  away  in 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  75 

wild  confusion  to  the  great  promontory  of  Nanga  Parbat  (26,182  feet). 
To  the  east  stands  Haramukh  (16,903  feet),  the  grim  mountain  which 
guards  the  valley  of  the  Sind.  Farther  south  is  Mahadeo,  very  sacred 
to  the  Hindus,  which  seems  almost  to  look  down  upon  Srlnagar ;  and 
south  again  are  the  lofty  range  of  Gwash  Brari  (17,800  feet),  and  Ihe 
peak  of  Amarnath  (17,321  feet),  the  mountain  of  the  pilgrims  and  very 
beautiful  in  the  evening  sun.  On  the  south-west  is  the  Panjal  range 
with  peaks  of  15,000  feet,  over  which  the  old  imperial  road  of  the 
Mughals  passes;  farther  north  the  great  rolling  downs  of  the  Tosh 
Maidan  (14,000  feet),  over  which  men  travel  to  the  Punch  country  ; 
and  in  the  north-west  corner  rises  the  Kajinag  (12,125  feet),  the  home 
of  the  markhor. 

On  the  west,  and  wherever  the  mountain-sides  are  sheltered  from 
the  hot  breezes  of  the  Punjab  plains,  which  blow  across  the  intervening 
mountains,  there  are  grand  forests  of  pines  and  firs.  Down  the  tree- 
clad  slopes  dash  mountain  streams  white  with  foam,  passing  in  their 
course  through  pools  of  the  purest  cobalt.  "When  the  great  dark 
forests  cease  and  the  brighter  woodland  begins,  the  banks  of  the 
streams  are  ablaze  with  clematis,  honeysuckle,  jasmine,  and  wild  roses 
which  remind  one  of  azaleas.  The  green  smooth  turf  of  the  woodland 
glades  is  like  a  well-kept  lawn,  dotted  with  clumps  of  hawthorn  and 
other  beautiful  trees  and  bushes.  It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  the 
colours  that  are  seen  on  the  Kashmir  mountains.  In  early  morning 
they  are  often  a  delicate  semi-transparent  violet  relieved  against  a 
saffron  sky,  and  with  light  vapours  clinging  round  their  crests.  The 
rising  sun  deepens  the  shadows,  and  produces  sharp  outlines  and 
strong  passages  of  purple  and  indigo  in  the  deep  ravines.  Later  on 
it  is  nearly  all  blue  and  lavender,  with  white  snow  peaks  and  ridges 
under  a  vertical  sun ;  and  as  the  afternoon  wears  on  these  become 
richer  violet  and  pale  bronze,  gradually  changing  to  rose  and  pink  with 
yellow  or  orange  snow,  till  the  last  rays  of  the  sun  have  gone,  leaving 
the  mountains  dyed  a  ruddy  crimson,  with  the  snows  showing  a  pale 
creamy  green  by  contrast.  Looking  downward  from  the  mountains 
the  valley  in  the  sunshine  has  the  hues  of  the  opal ;  the  pale  reds  of 
the  karezvas,  the  vivid  light  greens  of  the  young  rice,  and  the  darker 
shades  of  the  groves  of  trees  relieved  by  sunlight  sheets,  gleams  of 
water,  and  soft  blue  haze  give  a  combination  of  tints  reminding  one 
irresistibly  of  the  changing  hues  of  that  gem.  It  is  impossible  in  the 
scope  of  this  article  to  do  justice  to  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the 
mountains  of  Kashmir,  or  to  enumerate  the  lovely  glades  and  forests, 
visited  by  so  few.  Much  has  been  written  of  the  magnificent  scenery 
of  the  Sind  and  Liddar  valleys,  and  of  the  gentler  charms  of  the  Lolab, 
but  the  equal  beauties  of  the  western  side  of  Kashmir  have  hardly  been 
described.  Few  countries  can  offer  anything  grander  than  the  deep-green 

vol.  xv.  F 


7 6  KASHMIR   AND  jAMMU 

mountain  tarn,  Konsanag,  in  the  Panjal  range,  the  waters  of  which 
make  a  wild  entrance  into  the  valley  over  the  splendid  cataract  of  Arabal, 
while  the  rolling  grass  mountain  called  Tosh  Maidan,  the  springy  downs 
of  Raiyar  looking  over  the  Suknag  river  as  it  twines,  foaming  down  from 
the  mountains,  the  long  winding  park  known  as  Yusumarg,  and  lower 
down  still  the  little  hills  which  remind  one  of  Surrey,  and  Nilnag  with 
its  pretty  lake  screened  by  the  dense  forests,  are  worthy  to  be  seen. 

As  one  descends  the  mountains  and  leaves  the  woodland  glades,  cul- 
tivation commences  immediately,  and  right  up  to  the  fringe  of  the 
forests  maize  is  grown  and  walnut-trees  abound.  A  little  lower  down, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  7,000  feet,  rice  of  a  hardy  and  stunted  growth 
is  found,  and  the  shady  plane-tree  appears.  Lower  still  superior  rices 
are  grown,  and  the  watercourses  are  edged  with  willows.  The  side 
valleys  which  lead  off  from  the  vale  of  Kashmir,  though  possessing  dis- 
tinctive charms  of  their  own,  have  certain  features  in  common.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  valley  lies  the  wide  delta  of  fertile  soil  on  which  the  rice 
with  its  varying  colours,  the  plane-trees,  mulberries,  and  willows  grow 
luxuriantly  ;  a  little  higher  up  the  land  is  terraced  and  rice  still  grows, 
and  the  slopes  are  ablaze  with  the  wild  indigo,  till  at  ajbout  6,000  feet 
the  plane-tree  gives  place  to  the  walnut,  and  rice  to  millets.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  mountain  river  endless  forests  stretch  from  the  bottom  of 
the  valley  to  the  peaks  ;  and  on  the  right  bank,  wherever  a  nook  or 
corner  is  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  the  hot  breezes  of  India,  the  pines 
and  firs  establish  themselves.  Farther  up  the  valley,  the  river,  already 
a  roaring  torrent,  becomes  a  veritable  waterfall  dashing  down  between 
lofty  cliffs,  whose  bases  are  fringed  with  maples  and  horse-chestnuts, 
white  and  pink,  and  millets  are  replaced  by  buckwheat  and  Tibetan 
barley.  Soon  after  this  the  useful  birch-tree  appears,  and  then  come 
grass  and  glaciers,  the  country  of  the  shepherds. 

Where  the  mountains  cease  to  be  steep,  fan-like  projections  with  flat 
arid  tops  and  bare  of  trees  run  out  towards  the  valley.  These  are 
known  as  karewas.  Sometimes  they  stand  up  isolated  in  the  middle  of 
the  valley,  but,  whether  isolated  or  attached  to  the  mountains,  the 
kareivas  present  the  same  sterile  appearance  and  offer  the  same  abrupt 
walls  to  the  valley.  The  karewas  are  pierced  by  mountain  torrents  and 
seamed  with  ravines.  Bearing  in  mind  that  Kashmir  was  once  a  lake, 
which  dried  up  when  nature  afforded  an  outlet  at  Baramula,  it  is  easy  to 
recognize  in  the  karewas  the  shelving  shores  of  a  great  inland  sea,  and 
to  realize  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  old  cities,  the  traces  of  which  can 
be  seen  on  high  bluffs  and  on  the  slope  of  the  mountains,  had  no  other 
choice  of  sites,  since  in  those  days  the  present  fertile  valley  was  buried 
beneath  a  waste  of  water. 

Kashmir   abounds   in   mountain   tarns,    lovely  lakes,   and    swampy 
lagoons.     Of  the  lakes  the  Wular,  the  Dal,  and  the  Manasbal  are  the 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  77 

most  beautiful.  It  is  also  rich  in  springs,  many  of  which  are  thermal. 
They  are  useful  auxiliaries  to  the  mountain  streams  in  irrigation,  and 
are  sometimes  the  sole  sources  of  water,  as  in  the  case  of  Achabal, 
Yernag,  and  Kokarnag  on  the  south,  and  Arpal  on  the  east.  Islamabad 
or  Anantnag,  '  the  place  of  the  countless  springs,'  sends  out  numerous 
streams.  One  of  these  springs,  the  Maliknag,  is  sulphurous,  and  its  water 
is  highly  prized  for  garden  cultivation.  The  Kashmiris  are  good  judges 
of  water.  They  regard  Kokarnag  as  the  best  source  of  drinking-water, 
while  Chashma  Shahi  above  the  Dal  Lake  stands  high  in  order  of  merit. 
It  is  time  now  for  the  traveller  who  has  been  resting  in  Srinagar  to 
set  out  on  the  great  northern  road  which  leads  to  Gilgit.  He  will  have 
admired  the  quaint,  insanitary  city  lying  along  the  banks  of  the  Jhelum, 
with  a  length  of  3  miles  and  an  average  breadth  of  1^  miles  on  either 
side  of  the  river.  The  houses  vary  in  size  from  the  large  and  spacious 
brick  palaces  of  the  Pandit  aristocrat  and  his  500  retainers,  warmed  in 
the  winter  by  hammams,  to  the  doll  house  of  three  storeys,  where  the 
poor  shawl-weaver  lives  his  cramped  life,  and  shivers  in  the  frosty 
weather  behind  lattice  windows  covered  with  paper.  In  the  spring  and 
summer  the  earthen  roofs  of  the  houses,  resting  on  layers  of  birch-bark, 
are  bright  with  green  herbage  and  flowers.  The  canals  with  their 
curious  stone  bridges  and  shady  waterway,  and  the  great  river  with  an 
average  width  of  eighty  yards,  spanned  by  wooden  bridges,  crowded 
with  boats  of  every  description,  and  lined  by  bathing  boxes,  are  well 
worth  studying.  The  wooden  bridges  are  cheap,  effective,  and  pictur- 
esque, and  their  construction  is  ingenious,  for  in  design  they  appear  to 
have  anticipated  the  modern  cantilever  principle.  Old  boats  filled  with 
stones  were  sunk  at  the  sites  chosen  for  pier  foundations.  Piles  were 
then  driven  and  more  boats  were  sunk.  When  a  height  above  the  low- 
water  level  was  reached,  wooden  trestles  of  deodar  were  constructed  by 
placing  rough-hewn  logs  at  right  angles.  As  the  structure  approached 
the  requisite  elevation  to  admit  of  chakwdris  (house-boats)  passing  be- 
neath, deodar  logs  were  cantilevered.  This  reduced  the  span,  and  huge 
trees  were  made  to  serve  as  girders  to  support  the  roadway.  The  foun- 
dations of  loose  stones  and  piles  have  been  protected  on  the  upstream 
side  by  planking,  and  a  rough  but  effective  cut-water  made.  The  secret 
of  the  stability  of  these  old  bridges  may,  perhaps,  be  attributed  to  the 
skeleton  piers  offering  little  or  no  resistance  to  the  large  volume  of  water 
brought  down  at  flood-time.  It  is  true  that  the  heavy  floods  of  1893 
swept  away  six  out  of  the  seven  city  bridges,  and  that  the  cumbrous 
piers  tend  to  narrow  the  waterway,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  old  bridges  had  weathered  many  a  serious  flood.  Not  long  ago  two 
of  the  bridges,  the  Habba  Kadal  and  the  Zaina  Kadal,  had  rows  of 
shops  on  them  reminding  one  of  Old  London  Bridge  ;  but  these  have 
now  been  cleared  away. 

F    2 


78  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

The  distance  by  road  from  Srinagar  to  Gilgit  is  228  miles,  and  the 
traveller  can  reach  Bandipura  at  the  head  of  the  Wular  Lake  by  boat  or 
by  land.  The  Gilgit  road,  which  cost  the  Kashmir  State,  in  the  first 
instance,  15  lakhs,  is  a  remarkable  achievement,  and  was  one  of  the 
greatest  boons  ever  conferred  on  the  Kashmiri  subjects  of  the  Maharaja. 
Previous  to  its  construction  supplies  for  the  Gilgit  garrison  were  carried 
by  impressed  labourers,  many  of  whom  perished  on  the  passes,  or 
returned  crippled  and  maimed  by  frost-bite  on  the  snow  or  accident  on 
the  goat  paths  that  did  duty  for  roads.  The  journey  to  Gilgit  before 
1890  has  been  aptly  compared  with  the  journey  to  Siberia.  Now,  sup- 
plies are  carried  on  ponies  and  the  name  Gilgit  is  no  longer  a  terror  to 
the  people  of  Kashmir. 

From  Bandipura  a  steep  ascent  leads  to  the  Raj  Diangan  pass  (11,800 
feet),  a  most  dreaded  place  in  the  winter  months,  when  the  cold  winds 
mean  death  to  man  and  beast.  Thence  through  a  beautifully  wooded 
and  watered  country,  past  the  lovely  valley  of  Gurais,  down  which  the 
Kishanganga  flows,  the  traveller  has  no  difficulties  till  he  reaches  the 
Burzil  pass  (13,500  feet),  below  which  the  summer  road  to  Skardu 
across  the  dreary  wastes  of  the  Deosai  plains  branches  off  to  the  north- 
east. This  is  a  very  easy  pass  in  summer,  but  is  very  dangerous  in  a 
snowstorm  or  high  wind. 

Descending  from  the  Burzil  the  whole  scene  changes.  The  forests 
and  vegetation  of  Kashmir  are  left  behind,  the  trees  are  few  and  of  a 
strange  appearance,  and  the  very  flowers  look  foreign.  It  is  a  bleak  and 
rugged  country,  and  when  Astor  (7,853  feet)  is  left  the  sense  of  desola- 
tion increases.  Nothing  can  be  more  dreary  than  the  steep  descent 
from  Doian  down  the  side  of  the  arid  Hattu  Plr  into  the  sterile  waste  of 
the  Indus  valley.  It  is  cool  at  Doian  (8,720  feet);  it  is  stifling  at  Ram- 
ghat  (3,800  feet),  where  one  passes  over  the  Astor  river  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  The  old  construction  was  a  veritable  bridge  of  sighs  to  the 
Kashmir  convicts  who  were  forced  across  the  river  and  left  to  their  fate 
—starvation  or  capture  by  the  slave-hunters  from  Chilas.  A  little 
cultivation  at  Bunji  relieves  the  eye  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  cheer  the 
traveller  until  the  Indus  has  been  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge,  and  30  miles 
farther  the  pleasant  oasis  of  Gilgit  is  reached. 

The  Indus  valley  is  a  barren  dewless  country.  The  very  river  with 
its  black  water  looks  hot,  and  the  great  mountains  are  destitute  of 
vegetation.  The  only  thing  of  beauty  is  the  view  of  the  snowy  ranges, 
and  Nanga  Parbat  in  the  rising  sun  seen  from  the  crossing  of  the  Indus 
river  to  Gilgit  sweeps  into  oblivion  the  dreadful  desert  of  sands  and 
rock.  Gilgit  (4,890  feet)  itself  is  fertile  and  well  watered.  The  moun- 
tains fall  back  from  the  river,  and  leave  room  for  cultivation  on  the 
alluvial  land  bordering  the  right  bank  of  the  Gilgit  river,  a  rare  feature 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Maharaja  s  dominion. 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  79 

Another  route  giving  a  general  idea  of  the  country  runs  from  west  to 
east,  from  Kohala  on  the  Jhelum  to  Leh,  about  5  miles  beyond  the 
Indus.  A  good  road  from  Rawalpindi  brings  the  traveller  to  Kohala, 
where  he  crosses  the  Jhelum  by  a  bridge,  and  enters  the  territories  of 
Jammu  and  Kashmir.  The  cart-road  passes  from  Kohala  to  SrTnagar, 
a  distance  of  132  miles,  by  easy  gradients.  As  far  as  Baramula  the 
road  is  close  to  the  river,  but  for  the  most  part  at  a  great  height  above 
it,  and  the  scenery  is  beautiful.  At  Muzaffarabad  the  Kishanganga 
river  joins  the  Jhelum,  and  here  the  road  from  Abbottabad  and  Garhi 
Hablb-ullah  connects  with  the  Kashmir  route.  The  road  runs  along 
the  left  bank  of  the  Jhelum,  through  careful  terraced  cultivation,  above 
which  are  pine  forests  and  pastures.  It  carries  a  very  heavy  traffic,  but 
owing  to  the  formation  of  the  country  it  is  liable  to  constant  breaches, 
and  is  expensive  to  keep  in  repair. 

From  Uri  a  road  runs  south  to  the  country  of  the  Raja  of  Punch,  the 
chief  feudatory  of  the  Maharaja,  crossing  the  Haji  pass  (8,500  feet). 
At  Baramula  the  road  enters  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  and  runs  through 
a  continuous  avenue  of  poplars  to  SrTnagar.  In  bygone  days  this  route, 
known  as  the  Jhelum  valley  road — now  the  chief  means  of  communica- 
tion with  India — was  little  used.  The  Bambas  and  Khakhas,  who  still 
hold  the  country,  were  a  restless  and  warlike  people ;  and  the  numerous 
forts  that  command  the  narrow  valley  suggest  that  the  neighbourhood 
was  unsafe  for  the  ordinary  traveller.  The  construction  of  the  road 
from  Kohala  to  Baramula  cost  the  State  nearly  22  lakhs. 

From  Srinagar  to  Leh  is  243  miles.  The  first  part  of  the  journey 
runs  up  the  Sind  valley,  perhaps  the  most  exquisite  scenery  in  Kashmir. 
Fitful  efforts  are  made  from  time  to  time  to  improve  this  important 
route,  but  it  still  remains  a  mere  fair-weather  track.  The  Sind  river 
thunders  down  the  valley,  and  the  steep  mountains  rise  on  either  side, 
the  northern  slopes  covered  with  pine  forest,  the  southern  bare  and 
treeless.  At  Gagangir  the  track  climbs  along  the  river  torrent  to 
Sonamarg  (8,650  feet),  the  last  and  highest  village  in  the  Sind  valley, 
if  we  except  the  small  hamlet  of  Nilagrar  some  2  miles  higher  up. 
Sonamarg  is  a  beautiful  mountain  meadow  surrounded  by  glaciers  and 
forests.  It  is  a  miserable  place  in  the  winter  time,  but  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  encourage  a  resident  population.  The  chief  staples  of 
cultivation  are  grim,  or  Tibetan  barley,  and  buckwheat.  It  is  good  to 
turn  loose  the  baggage  ponies  to  graze  on  the  meadow  grasses  ;  for  in 
a  few  more  marches  one  passes  into  a  region  like  the  country  beyond 
the  Burzil  on  the  road  to  Gilgit,  a  land  devoid  of  forests  and  pastures, 
'a  desert  of  bare  crags  and  granite  dust,  a  cloudless  region  always  burn- 
ing or  freezing  under  the  clear  blue  sky.'  The  Zoji  La  (11,300  feet)  is 
the  lowest  depression  in  the  great  Western  Himalayas  which  run  from 
the  Indus  valley  on  the  Chilas  frontier.     Over  this  high  range  the  rains 


8o  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

from  the  south  hardly  penetrate,  and  the  cultivation,  scanty  and  diffi- 
cult, depends  entirely  on  artificial  canals.  The  ascent  to  the  Zoji  La 
from  Kashmir  is  very  steep,  the  descent  to  the  elevated  table-land  of 
Tibet  almost  imperceptible.  For  five  marches  the  route  follows  the 
course  of  the  Dras  river,  through  a  desolate  country  of  piled  up  rocks 
and  loose  gravel.  At  Chanagund  the  road  to  Skardu  crosses  the  Dras 
river  by  a  cantilever  bridge,  4  miles  above  the  junction  of  the  Dras  and 
Suru  rivers,  and  about  8  miles  farther  on  the  Indus  receives  their 
waters.  But  the  steep  cliffs  of  the  Indus  offer  no  path  to  the  traveller, 
and  the  track  leaves  the  Dras  river,  and  turns  in  a  southerly  direction 
to  Kargil,  a  delightful  oasis.  Then  the  road  abandons  the  valleys  and 
ascends  the  bare  mountains.  The  dreary  scenery  is  compensated  by 
the  cloudless  pale  blue  sky  and  the  dry  bracing  air  so  characteristic  of 
Ladakh.  Through  gorges  and  defiles  the  valley  of  Shergol  is  reached, 
the  first  Buddhist  village  on  the  road.  Thenceforward  the  country  is 
Buddhist,  and  the  road  runs  up  and  down  over  the  Namika  La  ( 1 3,000  feet) 
and  over  the  Fotu  La  (13,400  feet),  the  highest  point  on  the  Leh  road. 
Along  the  road  near  the  villages  are  Buddhist  monasteries,  mam's  (walls 
of  praying  stones)  and  chortens,  where  the  ashes  of  the  dead  mixed  with 
clay  and  moulded  into  a  little  idol  are  placed,  and  at  Lamayaru  there 
is  a  wilderness  of  monuments.  Later,  the  Indus  is  crossed  by  a  long 
cantilever  bridge ;  and  the  road  runs  along  the  right  bank  through  the 
fertile  oasis  of  Khalsi,  then  through  the  usual  desert  with  an  occasional 
patch  of  vegetation  to  Leh  (11,500  feet),  the  capital  of  Western  Tibet 
and  of  Western  Buddhism,  and  the  trade  terminus  for  caravans  from 
India  and  from  Central  Asia.  It  is  a  long  and  difficult  road  from  Leh 
to  Yarkand,  482  miles,  over  the  Khardung  La,  the  Sasser  La,  and  the 
Karakoram  pass  of  between  17,000  and  19,000  feet  altitude,  where  the 
useful  yak  (Bos  grunniens)  relieves  the  ponies  of  their  loads  when  fresh 
snow  has  fallen,  or  serves  unladen  to  consolidate  a  path  for  the  ponies. 
A  brief  description  may  be  given  of  one  more  of  the  many  routes 
that  follow  the  rivers  and  climb  the  mountains — the  route  from  Leh 
through  Baltistan  to  Astor  on  the  Gilgit  road.  At  Khalsi,  where  the 
Srlnagar-Leh  road  crosses  the  Indus,  the  track  keeps  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Indus,  and  passing  down  the  deep  gorge  of  the  river  comes  to 
a  point  where  the  stupendous  cliffs  and  the  roaring  torrent  prevent 
farther  progress.  There  the  traveller  strikes  away  from  the  Indus  and 
ascends  the  mountains  to  the  Chorbat  pass  (16,700  feet),  covered  with 
snow  even  in  July.  From  the  pass,  across  the  valley  of  the  Shyok  river, 
the  great  Karakoram  range,  some  50  miles  away,  comes  into  view.  An 
abrupt  descent  carries  the  traveller  from  winter  into  hot  summer ;  and 
by  a  difficult  track  which  in  places  is  carried  along  the  face  of  the  cliff 
by  frail  scaffolding  (pari),  following  the  course  of  the  Shyok  river, 
smoothly  flowing  between  white  sands  of  granite,  and   passing  many 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  81 

pleasant  oases,  one  conies  to  the  grateful  garden  of  Khapallu,  a  paradise 
to  the  simple  Baltis.  Crossing  the  united  waters  of  the  Shyok  and  the 
Indus  on  a  small  skin  raft,  the  traveller  arrives  at  Skardu  (7,250  feet), 
the  old  capital  of  Baltistan.  Here  the  mountains  on  either  side  of  the 
Indus  recede,  and  the  sandy  basin,  about  5  miles  in  breadth,  is  partially 
irrigated  by  water  from  the  pretty  mountain  lake  of  Satpura  and  care- 
fully cultivated.  Looking  across  the  Indus  to  the  north,  the  Shigar 
valley,  the  garden  of  Baltistan,  with  its  wealth  of  fruit  trees  is  seen. 
There  the  cultivator  adds  to  his  resources  by  washing  gold  from  the 
sands  of  the  river.  From  Skardu  the  direct  route  to  Gilgit  follows  the 
Indus,  which  is  crossed  at  Rondu  by  a  rope  bridge  so  long  as  to  be 
most  trying  to  the  nerves,  but  a  fair-weather  track  over  the  Banak  pass 
lands  the  traveller  on  the  Gilgit  road  at  Astor. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  general  idea  of  a  country  so  diversified  as 
Kashmir  and  Jammu.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  section  on  History,  a 
strange  destiny  has  brought  people  of  distinct  races,  languages,  and 
religions,  and  countries  of  widely  different  physical  characteristics, 
under  the  rule  of  the  Maharaja. 

The  Kashmir  territory  may  be  divided  physically  into  two  areas  :  the 
north-eastern,  comprising  the  area  drained  by  the  Indus  with  its  tribu- 
taries; and  the  south-western,  including  the  country  drained  by  the 
Jhelum  with  its  tributary  the  Kishanganga,  and  by  the  Chenab.  The 
dividing  line  or  watershed  is  formed  by  the  great  central  mountain  range 
which  runs  from  Nanga  Parbat,  overhanging  the  Indus  on  the  north- 
west, in  a  south-easterly  direction  for  about  240  miles  till  it  enters 
British  territory  in  Lahul. 

The  south-western  area  may,  following  the  nomenclature  of  Mr.  Drew, 
in  its  turn  be  geographically  divided  into  three  sections :  the  region  of 
the  outer  hills,  the  middle  mountains,  and  the  Kashmir  Valley. 

Approaching  Kashmir  from  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  the  boundary 
is  not  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  but  embraces  a  strip  of  the  great  plains 
from  5  to  15  miles  wide,  reaching  from  the  Ravi  to  the  Jhelum.  As  is 
generally  the  case  along  the  foot  of  the  Western  Himalayas,  this  tract 
of  flat  country  is  somewhat  arid  and  considerably  cut  up  by  ravines 
which  carry  off  the  flood-water  of  the  monsoon.  A  fair  amount  of  cul- 
tivation is  found  on  the  plateaux  between  these  ravines,  though,  being 
entirely  dependent  on  the  rainfall,  the  yield  is  somewhat  precarious. 
The  height  of  this  tract  may  be  taken  at  from  1,100  to  1,200  feet  above 

sea-level. 

Passing  over  the  plain  a  region  of  broken  ground  and  low  hills  is 
reached,  running  mainly  in  ridges  parallel  to  the  general  line  of  the 
Himalayan  chain.  These  vary  in  height  from  2,000  to  4.000  feet,  and 
are  largely  composed  of  sandstone,  being  in  fact  a  continuation  of  the 
Siwalik  geological  formation.     Lying  between  these  parallel  ridges  are 


82  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

a  series  of  valleys  or  duns,  fairly  well  populated,  in  the  east  by  Dogras 
and  in  the  west  by  Chibs.  These  hills  are  sparsely  covered  with  low 
scrub  bushes,  the  chlr  (Pinus  longifolid)  gradually  predominating  as  the 
inner  hills  are  reached.  Beyond  these  lower  hills  rise  the  spurs  of  a 
more  mountainous  district. 

The  scope  of  this  region,  as  defined  by  Mr.  Drew,  has  been  some- 
what extended,  and  includes  the  range  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Kashmir  Valley,  known  as  the  Panjal  range,  and  its 
continuation  eastwards  beyond  the  Chenab.  This  tract  is  about 
1 80  miles  long  and  varies  in  width  from  25  to  35  miles.  The  portion 
lying  between  the  Jhelum  and  Chenab  is  formed  by  the  mass  of  moun- 
tainous spurs  running  down  from  the  high  Panjal  range  which  forms  its 
northern  limit.  The  Panjal  itself,  extending  from  Muzaffarabad  on  the 
Jhelum  to  near  Kishtwar  on  the  Chenab,  is  a  massive  mountain  range, 
the  highest  central  portion  to  which  the  name  is  truly  applied  having 
a  length  of  80  miles,  with  peaks  rising  to  14,000  and  15,000  feet. 
From  the  southern  side  a  series  of  spurs  branch  out,  which  break  up 
the  ground  into  an  intricate  mountain  mass  cut  into  by  ravines  or 
divided  by  narrow  valleys. 

The  elevation  of  these  middle  mountains  is  sufficient  to  give 
a  thoroughly  temperate  character  to  the  vegetation.  Forests  of  Hima- 
layan oak,  pine,  spruce,  silver  fir,  and  deodar  occupy  a  great  part  of  the 
mountain  slopes ;  the  rest,  the  more  sunny  parts,  where  forest  trees  do 
not  flourish,  is,  except  where  rocks  jut  out,  well  covered  with  herbage, 
with  plants  and  flowers  that  resemble  those  of  Central  or  Southern 
Europe.  East  of  the  Chenab  river  rises  a  somewhat  similar  mass 
of  hills,  forming  the  district  of  Bhadarwah,  with  peaks  varying  from 
9,000  to  14,000  feet  in  height.  These  culminate  in  the  high  range 
which  forms  the  Chamba  and  Ravi  watershed  in  Chamba  territory. 

The  third  section  of  the  south-western  area  bears  a  unique  char- 
acter in  the  Himalayas,  consisting  of  an  open  valley  of  considerable 
extent  completely  surrounded  by  mountains.  The  boundaries  are 
formed  on  the  north-east  by  the  great  central  range  which  separates 
the  Jhelum  and  Indus  drainage,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Panjal  range 
already  described.  The  eastern  boundary  is  formed  by  a  high  spur 
of  the  main  range,  which  branching  off  at  about  750  30'  E.  runs  nearly 
due  south,  its  peaks  maintaining  an  elevation  of  from  12,000  to  14,000 
feet.  This  minor  range  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Jhelum 
and  Chenab,  separating  the  Kashmir  from  the  YVardwan  valley.  It 
eventually  joins  and  blends  with  the  Panjal  range  about  16  miles  west 
of  Kishtwar.  On  the  north  and  west,  the  bounding  ranges  of  the 
valley  are  more  difficult  to  describe.  A  few  miles  west  of  the  spot 
from  which  the  eastern  boundary  spur  branches  near  the  Zoji  La, 
another  minor  range  is  given  off.     This  runs  nearly  due  west  for  about 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  83 

100  miles  at  an  elevation  of  from  12,000  to  13,000  feet,  with  a  width 
of  from  15  to  20  miles.  It  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Jhelum 
on  the  south  and  its  important  tributary  the  Kishanganga  on  the  north. 
After  reaching  740  15'  E.  the  ridge  gradually  curves  round  to  the  south, 
until  it  reaches  the  Jhelum  abreast  of  the  western  end  of  the  Panjal 
range.  The  valley  thus  enclosed  has  a  length,  measured  from  ridge 
to  ridge,  of  about  115  miles  with  a  width  varying  from  45  to  70  miles, 
and  is  drained  throughout  by  the  Jhelum  with  its  various  tributaries. 
The  fiat  portion  is  much  restricted,  owing  to  the  spurs  given  off  by 
the  great  central  range,  which  run  down  into  the  plain,  forming  the 
well-known  Sind  and  Liddar  valleys.  On  the  southern  side  the  spurs 
from  the  Panjal  range  project  10  to  16  miles  into  the  plain. 

The  north-eastern  section  is  comprised  between  the  great  central 
chain  on  the  south  and  the  Karakoram  range  and  its  continuation  on 
the  north.  It  is  drained  by  the  Indus  and  its  great  tributaries,  the 
Shyok,  the  Zaskar,  the  Suru,  and  the  Gilgit  rivers.  The  chief  charac- 
teristic of  this  region,  more  especially  of  the  eastern  portion,  is  the 
great  altitude  of  the  valleys  and  plains.  The  junction  of  the  Gilgit 
and  Indus  rivers  is  4,300  feet  above  sea-level.  Proceeding  upstream, 
80  miles  farther  east  at  the  confluence  of  the  Shyok  and  Indus,  the 
level  of  the  latter  is  7,700  feet;  opposite  Leh,  130  miles  farther  up 
the  river,  its  height  is  10,600  feet,  while  near  the  Kashmir-Tibet 
boundary  in  the  Kokzhung  district  the  river  runs  at  the  great  height 
of  13,800  feet  above  sea-level. 

Between  the  various  streams  which  drain  the  country  rise  ranges 
of  mountains,  those  in  the  central  portions  attaining  an  elevation  of 
16,000  to  20,000  feet,  while  the  mighty  flanking  masses  of  the  Kara- 
koram culminate  in  the  great  peak  Godwin  Austen  (28,265  feet).  The 
difference  of  the  level  in  the  valleys  between  the  eastern  and  western 
tracts  has  its  natural  effect  on  the  scenery.  In  the  east,  as  in  the 
Rupshu  district  of  Ladakh,  the  lowest  ground  is  13,500  feet  above 
the  sea,  while  the  mountains  run  very  evenly  to  a  height  of  20, coo  or 
21,000  feet.  The  result  is  a  series  of  long  open  valleys,  bounded  by 
comparatively  low  hills  having  very  little  of  the  characteristics  of  what 
is  generally  termed  a  mountainous  country.  To  the  west  as  the  valleys 
deepen,  while  the  bordering  mountains  keep  at  much  the  same  eleva- 
tion, the  character  of  the  country  changes,  and  assumes  the  more 
familiar  Himalayan  character  of  massive  ridges  and  spurs  falling  steeply 
into  the  deep  valleys  between. 

The  central  chain  commences  in  the  west  at  the  great  mountain 
mass  rising  directly  above  the  Indus,  of  which  the  culminating  peak 
is  Nanga  Parbat.  From  this  point  it  runs  in  a  south-easterly  direction, 
forming  the  watershed  between  the  Indus  and  the  Kishanganga.  It 
quickly  falls  to  an  altitude  of  14,000  to  15,000  feet,  at  which  it  con- 


84  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

tinues  for  50  or  60  miles.  It  is  crossed  by  several  passes,  the  best 
known  of  which  are  the  Burzil  on  the  road  from  Kashmir  to  Gilgit, 
and  the  Zoji  La  of  1 1,300  feet,  over  which  runs  the  road  from  Srlnagar 
to  Dras  and  Leh.  From  the  Zoji  La  the  mountains  rapidly  rise  in 
elevation,  the  peaks  attaining  an  altitude  of  18,000  to  20,000  feet, 
culminating  in  the  Nun  Kun  peaks  which  rise  to  a  height  of  over 
23,000  feet.  Owing  to  their  altitude  these  mountains  are  under  per- 
petual snow,  and  glaciers  form  in  every  valley.  The  range  keeps  this 
character  throughout  Kashmir  territory  for  a  distance  of  150  miles  to 
the  Bara  Lacha  (pass),  where  it  passes  into  Spiti. 

The  Karakoram  range  is  of  a  far  more  complicated  character. 
Broadly  speaking,  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  and  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Central  Asian  drainage  and  the  streams 
flowing  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  From  its  main  ridge  lofty  spurs  extend 
into  Kashmir,  separating  the  various  tributaries  of  the  Indus,  the  result 
being  a  stupendous  mountain  mass  220  miles  long,  with  a  width  on  the 
south  side  of  the  watershed  of  30  to  60  miles,  with  peaks  averaging 
from  21,000  to  23,000  feet,  culminating  on  the  west  in  the  well-known 
Rakaposhi  mountain,  north  of  Gilgit,  over  25,500  feet  high,  and  in  the 
mighty  group  of  peaks  round  the  head  of  the  Baltoro  glacier  dominated 
by  the  second  highest  mountain  in  the  world,  Godwin  Austen,  whose 
summit  is  28,265  feet  above  the  sea.  The  head  of  every  valley  is  the 
birthplace  of  a  glacier.  Many  of  these  are  of  immense  size,  such  as 
the  Baltoro,  the  Biafo,  and  Hispar  glaciers,  the  two  latter  forming  an 
unbroken  stretch  of  ice  over  50  miles  long.  This  great  mountain 
barrier  is  broken  through  at  one  point  by  the  Hunza  stream,  a  tributary 
of  the  Gilgit  river,  the  watershed  at  the  head  of  which  has  the  com- 
paratively low  elevation  of  about  15,500  feet.  The  next  well-known 
pass  lies  150  miles  to  the  east,  where  the  road  from  Leh  to  Yarkand 
leads  over  the  Karakoram  pass  at  an  altitude  of  about  18,300  feet. 

A  description  of  this  mountainous  region  would  be  incomplete  with- 
out a  reference  to  the  vast  elevated  plains  of  Lingzhithang,  which  lie 
at  the  extreme  north-eastern  limit  of  Kashmir  territory.  These  plains 
are  geographically  allied  to  the  great  Tibetan  plateau.  The  ground- 
level  is  from  16,000  to  17,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  such  rain  as  falls 
drains  into  a  series  of  salt  lakes.  Of  vegetation  there  is  little  or  none, 
the  country  being  a  desolate  expanse  of  earth  and  rock.  The  northern 
border  of  this  plateau  is  formed  by  the  Kuenlun  mountains,  the 
northern  face  of  which  slopes  down  into  the  plains  of  Khotan. 

An  account  of  the  geology  will  be  found  in  the  memoir  by  Mr.  R. 
Lydekker,  The  Geology  of  the  Kashmir  and  Chamba  Territories  and 
the  British  District  of  Khagan.  Mr.  Lydekker  differs  from  Mr.  Drew, 
also  an  expert  in  geology,  who  held  that  some  of  the  gravels  at 
Baramula  were  of  glacial  origin,  indicating  the  existence  of  glaciers  in 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS 


85 


the  valley  at  a  level  of  5,000  feet  ;  but  he  has  no  doubts  as  to  their 
existence  on  the  Pir  Panjal  range  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
various  margs  or  mountain  meadows  which  surround  the  valley.  The 
question  of  the  glaciation  and  the  evidences  of  relative  changes  of  level 
within  a  geologically  recent  period  is  fully  discussed  for  the  Sind  valley 
by  Mr.  R.  D.  Oldham  in  Records,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xxxii, 
part  ii. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  that  igneous  or  volcanic  agencies  were 
actively  at  work,  as  is  proved  by  the  outpouring  of  vast  quantities 
of  volcanic  rocks  ;  but  these  are  not  known  to  have  been  erupted 
since  the  eocene  period.  Subterraneous  thermal  action  is,  however, 
indicated  by  the  prevalence  of  numerous  hot  springs.  The  burning 
fields  at  Soiyam,  of  which  an  account  is  given  by  Sir  VV.  Lawrence, 
Valley  of  Kashmir,  pp.  42-3,  point  to  the  same  conclusion,  and  the 
frequency  of  earthquakes  suggests  subterranean  instability  in  this  area. 

The  following  table  of  geological  systems  in  descending  order  is 
given  by  Mr.   Lydekker  for  the  whole  State: — 


Alluvial  system : 

Low-level  alluvia,  &c.  ...... 

High-level  alluvia,  glacial,  lacustrine,  and  kareiva  series 

Tertiary  system : 

Siwalik  series 


Outei 
Inner 


Sirmiir  series 


t  Murree  group 
■j  Sabathu  group 
(  Indus  Tertiaries 


oup     ) 


Zaskar  system  : 
Chikkim  series 
Supra-Kuling  series 
Ruling  series 

Panjal  system  : 

Not  generally  subdivided 

Metamorphic  system  : 

Metamorphosed  Panjals,  &c. 
Central  gneiss 


European 
equivalents. 


Prehistoric. 
Pleistocene. 


Pliocene. 

Miocene. 
Eocene. 


Cretaceou-. 
Jura  and  Trias. 
Carboniferous. 


Silurian. 
Cambrian. 

Palaeozoic  and 
Archaean. 


Under  the  first  of  these  systems,  Mr.  Lydekker  has  discussed  the 
interesting  question,  whether  Kashmir  was  once  covered  by  a  great 
lake.  In  this  discussion  the  karewas  already  described  play  an  impor- 
tant part,  and  the  only  explanation  of  the  upper  karewas  is  that 
Kashmir  was  formerly  occupied  by  a  vast  lake  of  which  the  existing 
lakes  are  remnants.      Mr.  Drew  estimated  that  at  one  period  this  lake 


S6  KASHMIR   AXD  JAMMU 

must  have  reached  a  level  of  nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  present 
height  of  the  valley,  hut  this  estimate  is  considered  far  too  high  by 
Mr.  T.ydckker.  No  very  satisfactory  conclusions  can  be  drawn  at 
present  as  to  the  barrier  which  dammed  the  old  lake,  or  as  to  the 
relative  period  of  its  existence. 

A  full  account  of  the  flora  of  Kashmir  is  given  by  Lawrence,  Valley 
of  Kashmir,  chap.  iv.  The  valley  has  an  enormous  variety  of  plants, 
and  the  Kashmiri  finds  a  use  for  most  of  them.  Among  condiments 
the  most  important  is  the  zlra  siydh  (Carum  sp.),  or  carraway.  Under 
drugs,  Cannabis  sativa,  the  hemp  plant,  and  Artemisia  or  teiwan  may 
be  mentioned.  Asafoetida  is  found  in  the  Astor  tahs'il.  Numerous 
plants  yield  dyes  and  tans,  of  which  Datisca  cannabina,  Rubia 
cordifolia,  and  Geranium  nepalense  are  the  most  familiar.  Kashmir 
is  rich  in  fibres,  and  the  people  make  great  use  of  them.  The  two 
best  are  the  Abutilon  Avicennae  and  the  Cannabis  sativa.  Burza 
{Betula  uti/is),  the  paper  birch,  is  a  most  important  tree  to  the  natives. 
The  bark  is  employed  for  various  purposes,  such  as  roofs  of  houses, 
writing  paper,  and  packing  paper.  Many  of  the  ancient  manuscripts 
are  written  on  birch  bark.  The  Kashmiri  neglects  nothing  which  can 
be  eaten  as  fodder.  The  willow,  the  Indian  chestnut,  the  cotoneaster, 
the  hawthorn,  and  the  poplar  are  always  lopped  to  provide  fodder  for 
cattle  and  sheep  in  the  winter. 

Excellent  grasses  abound,  and  the  swamps  yield  most  nutritious 
reeds  and  other  plants.  There  is  an  abundance  of  food-plants,  too 
numerous  to  be  enumerated  here.  Euryale  ferox,  Xymphaea  stei/ata, 
N.  alba,  Nelumbium  speciosum,  the  exquisite  pink  water-lily,  Acorus 
Calamus,  and  Typha  sp.,  the  reed  mace,  all  contribute  to  the  Kashmiri's 
sustenance.  Wild  fruits  are  in  profusion,  and  many  fungi  are  eaten  by 
the  people.  The  mushroom  is  common,  and  the  morel  (More/iella  sp.) 
abounds  in  the  mountains  and  forms  an  important  export  to  India. 
There  are  plants  that  are  useful  for  hair-washes,  and  the  herbs  with 
medicinal  properties  are  almost  innumerable.  Macrotomia  Benthami 
is  one  of  these  peculiarly  esteemed  by  the  Kashmiris  as  a  remedy  for 
heart-affections.  Among  the  scents  may  be  noted  Gogal  dhup  {Jurinea 
macrocephala),  which  is  largely  exported  to  India,  where  it  is  used  by 
Hindus.  The  most  important  of  the  aromatic  plants  is  the  Saussurea 
Lappa.  This  grows  at  high  elevations  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet. 
The  root  has  a  scent  like  orris  with  a  blend  of  violet.  It  is  largely 
exported  to  China,  where  it  is  used  as  incense  in  the  joss  houses. 
It  has  many  valuable  properties,  and  is  a  source  of  considerable 
revenue  to  the  State.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  trees,  but  the  oak, 
the  holly,  and  the  Himalayan  rhododendron  are  unknown.  Among 
the  long  list  of  trees  may  be  noticed  the  deodar,  the  blue  pine,  the 
spruce,  the  silver  fir,  the  yew,  the  walnut,  and  the  Indian  horse-chestnut. 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  87 

In  the  valley  itself  the  exquisite  plane-tree,  the  mulberry,  the  apricot, 
and  the  willow  are  perhaps  the  most  familiar. 

Kashmir  offers  great  attraction  to  the  sportsman,  and  for  its  size  the 
valley  and  the  surrounding  mountains  possess  a  large  and  varied  animal 
kingdom.  A  full  account  of  the  animals  and  birds  will  be  found  in 
The  Valley  of  Kashmir,  chap.  v.  Since  that  book  was  written  game 
preservation  has  made  great  strides,  and  has  prevented  the  extinction 
of  the  bdrasingha  {Cervus  duvaiueli)  and  the  hangal  or  Kashmir  stag 
(C.  cashmirianus).  Among  the  Cervidae,  the  musk  deer  [Moschus 
moschiferus)  is  common  and  its  pod  is  valuable.  Of  the  family  Ursidae, 
the  black  bear,  or  bomba  hdpat  (Ursus  torquatus),  is  very  common, 
being  a  great  pest  to  the  crops  and  a  danger  to  the  people.  The 
brown  bear,  or  lal  hdpat  {Ursus  arctus  or  isabellinits),  is  still  far  from 
rare.  It  is  partly  herbivorous  and  partly  carnivorous.  Of  the  family 
Bovidae,  the  markhor  ( Capra  falconeri)  and  the  ibex  ( C.  sibirica )  are 
still  to  be  met  with.  The  Kashmir  markhor  has  from  one  to  two  com- 
plete turns  in  the  spirals  of  its  horns.  The  tahr  or  jagla  (Hemitragus) 
is  found  on  the  Pir  Panjal.  and  the  serow  or  ramu  {Nemorhaedus 
bubalinus)  is  fairly  common.     The  goral  (Cemas  goral)  also  occurs. 

There  is  a  considerable  variety  of  birds.  The  blue  heron  (Ardea 
cinerea)  is  very  common,  and  fine  heronries  exist  at  several  pla< 
The  heron's  feathers  are  much  valued,  and  the  right  to  collect  the 
feathers  is  farmed  out.  Among  game-birds  may  be  noticed  the  snow 
partridge  (Zerwa  lerwa),  the  Himalayan  snow  cock  {Tetraogallus 
himalayensis),  the  chikor  partridge  (Caccabis  chukar),  the  large  grey 
quail  (Cotur/iix),  the  monal  pheasant  (Lophophorus  refulge/is),  the  Simla 
horned  pheasant  (Tragopan  melanocephalum),  and  the  Kashmir  Pucras 
pheasant  (Pucrasin  biddulphi).  The  large  sand-grouse  {Pterocles  aren- 
arius)  is  occasionally  seen.  Pigeons,  turtle-doves,  rails,  grebes,  gulls, 
plovers,  snipe,  cranes,  are  common,  and  storks  are  sometimes  seen. 
Geese  are  found  in  vast  flocks  on  the  ^  'ular  Lake  in  the  winter,  and 
there  are  at  least  thirteen  kinds  of  duck.  The  goosander  and  smew 
are  also  found  on  the  \\  ular  Lake.  There  are  six  species  of  eagles, 
four  of  falcons,  and  four  of  owls.  Kingfishers,  hoopoes,  bee  eaters, 
night-jars,  swifts,  cuckoos,  woodpeckers,  parrots,  crows  in  great  variety, 
choughs,  starlings,  orioles,  finches  (12  species),  buntings,  larks,  wag- 
tails, creepers,  tits,  shrikes,  warblers  (14  species),  thrushes  (20  species), 
dippers,  wrens,  babbling  thrushes,  bulbuls,  fly-catchers,  and  swallows 
are  all  familiar  birds. 

Among  the  reptiles  there  are  two  poisonous  snakes,  the  gunas  and 
the  pohur,  the  bite  of  which  is  often  fatal. 

Fish  forms  an  important  item  in  the  food  of  the  Kashmiris.      Yigne 
noticed  only  six  different  kinds,  but  Lawrence  enumerated  thirteen. 

As  the  elevation  varies  from  1,200  feet  at  Jammu  and  3,000  in  the 


SS  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

Indus  valley  at  Bunji  and  Chilas  to  25,000  and  26,000  feet  on  the 
highest  mountain  peaks,  the  State  presents  an  extraordinary  variety  of 
climatic  conditions.  The  local  variations  of  temperature  depend  chiefly 
upon  situation  (i.  e.  whether  in  a  valley  or  on  the  crest  of  a  mountain 
range),  elevation,  and  the  amount  of  the  winter  snowfall  and  the  period 
and  depth  of  the  snow  accumulation.  The  effect  of  position  in  a  valley 
or  a  mountain  crest  is  shown  by  comparing  the  temperatures  of  Murree 
and  Srinagar.  The  Murree  observatory  is  about  1,200  feet  higher  than 
the  Srinagar  observatory.  The  mean  maximum  day  temperature  in 
January  at  Murree  is  70  higher  than  at  Srinagar,  and  the  mean  minimum 
night  temperature  90  higher.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  hottest  month 
(June)  the  maximum  day  temperature  is  i°  lower  at  Murree  than  at 
Srinagar,  while  the  minimum  night  temperatures  are  almost  identical. 
The  diurnal  range  is  2°  less  in  January,  70  less  in  June,  and  140  less  in 
October  at  Murree  than  at  Srinagar.  The  slow  movement  of  the  air 
from  the  higher  elevations  into  valleys  more  or  less  completely  shut  in 
by  mountains  tends  to  depress  temperature  at  valley  stations  both  by 
day  and  night  considerably  below  that  at  similar  elevations  on  the  crest 
of  the  Outer  Himalayas,  and  to  increase  the  diurnal  range  most  largely 
in  the  dry  clear  months  of  October  and  November,  when  the  sinking 
down  of  the  air  from  the  adjacent  mountains  has  its  greatest  effect,  and 
is  supplemented  by  rapid  radiation  from  the  ground.  The  effect  of 
snow  accumulation  in  valleys  in  reducing  temperature  is  very  marked. 
At  Dras  and  Sonamarg,  where  the  accumulation  is  usually  large,  the 
solar  heat  on  clear  fine  days  in  winter  is  utilized  in  melting  the  snow 
and  hence  exercises  no  influence  on  the  air  temperature.  At  Leh, 
where  the  ground  is  only  occasionally  concealed  under  a  thin  covering 
of  snow,  the  sun  even  in  winter  usually  warms  the  ground  surface 
directly  and  thence  the  air.  The  cooling  influence  of  snow  accumula- 
tion at  Dras  and  Sonamarg  is  largely  increased  by  the  rapid  radiation 
from  the  surface.  The  mean  daily  temperature  is  lowest  in  January 
and  highest  in  June  or  July.  At  Srinagar  the  mean  temperature  of 
January  is  33-1°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  hottest  month  (July) 
at  Srinagar  is  74-6°.  The  mean  temperature  in  January  and  August 
ranges  from  25-3°  to  750  at  Skardu,  from  3-4°  to  64-5°  at  Dras,  from 
17-7°  to  6j.8°  at  Leh,  and  from  36-6°  to  850  (in  July)  at  Gilgit.  The 
most  noteworthy  features  of  the  annual  variation  are  the  very  rapid 
increase  in  March  or  April  at  the  end  of  the  winter,  and  an  equally 
rapid  decrease  in  October,  when  the  skies  clear  after  the  south-west 
monsoon.  The  diurnal  range  is  least  at  Gilgit  (19-8°)  and  Srinagar 
(22-4°)  on  the  mean  of  the  year,  and  greatest  at  Dras  (31-4°)  and 
Leh  (26-3c). 

The  precipitation  is   received  during  two  periods,  the  cold  season 
from  December  to  April,  and  the  south-west  monsoon  period  from  June 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  89 

to  September.  The  rainfall  in  October  and  November  is  small  in 
amount,  and  November  is  usually  the  driest  month  of  the  year.  The 
cold-season  precipitation  from  December  to  March  is  chiefly  due  to 
storms  which  advance  from  Persia  and  Baluchistan  across  Northern 
India.  These  disturbances  occasionally  give  very  stormy  weather  in 
Kashmir,  with  violent  winds  on  the  higher  elevations  and  much  snow. 
The  fall  is  large  on  the  Pir  Panjal  range,  being  heaviest  in  January  or 
February.  In  the  valley  and  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  north  and 
east  this  is  the  chief  precipitation  of  the  year,  and  is  very  heavy  on  the 
first  line  of  permanent  snow,  but  decreases  rapidly  eastwards  to  the 
Karakoram  range.  The  largest  amount  is  received  at  Srinagar,  Dras, 
and  Anantnag  in  January.  In  the  Karakoram  region  and  the  Tibetan 
plateau  the  winter  fall  is  much  later  than  on  the  outer  ranges  of  the 
Himalayas,  namely  from  March  to  May,  and  the  maximum  is  received 
in  April.  The  average  depth  of  the  snowfall  at  Srinagar  in  an  ordinary 
winter  is  about  8  feet.  The  snowfall  at  Sonamarg  in  1902  measured 
13  feet  and  in  1903  about  30  feet.  In  April  and  May  thunderstorms 
are  of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  valley  and  surrounding  hills,  giving 
light  to  moderate  showers  of  rain.  This  hot-season  rainfall  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  for  cultivation  in  the  valley.  From  June  to 
November  heavy  rain  falls  on  the  Pir  Panjal  range,  and  in  Jammu 
chiefly  in  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September.  The  rainfall  at 
Jammu  and  Punch  is  comparable  with  that  of  the  submontane  Districts 
of  the  Punjab.  It  is  more  moderate  in  amount  in  the  valley,  which 
receives  a  total  of  9-4  inches,  as  compared  with  35-7  inches  at  Punch 
and  26-8  inches  at  Domel.  The  precipitation  is  very  light  to  the  east 
of  the  first  line  of  the  snows  bordering  the  valley  on  the  east,  and  is 
about  2  inches  in  total  amount  at  Gilgit,  Skardu,  Kargil,  and  Leh. 
Thus  the  south-west  monsoon  is  the  predominant  feature  in  Jammu 
and  Kishtwar,  while  in  Ladakh,  Gilgit,  and  the  higher  ranges  the  cold- 
season  precipitation  is  more  important.  Tables  I  and  II  on  p.  144 
show  the  average  temperature  and  rainfall  at  Srinagar  and  Leh  for 
a  series  of  years  ending  with   1905. 

Earthquakes  are  not  uncommon,  and  eleven  accompanied  by  loss  of 
life  have  been  recorded  since  the  fifteenth  century.  In  1885  shocks 
were  felt  from  the  end  of  May  till  the  middle  of  August,  and  about 
3,500  people  were  killed  ;  fissures  opened  in  the  earth,  and  landslips 
occurred.  Hoods  are  also  frequently  mentioned  in  the  histories  of 
the  country,  the  greatest  following  the  obstruction  of  the  Jhelura  by 
the  fall  of  a  mountain  in  a.d.  879.  The  great  flood  of  [841  in  the 
Indus  caused  much  loss  of  life  and  damage  to  property.  In  1893  ver> 
serious  floods  took  place  in  the  Jhelum  owing  to  continuous  rain  for 
52  hours,  and  much  damage  was  done  to  Srinagar.  An  inundation  of 
a  yet  more  serious  character  occurred  in  1903. 


90  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

The  early  history  of  Kashmir  lias  been  preserved  in  the  celebrated 

Rajatarangini,  by  the  poet  Kalhana,  who  began  to  write  in  1148.     He 

_.  .  gives  a  connected  account  of  the  history  of  the  valley, 

History.  °,  .  ,  ,  ,  f  ,  ,    ■" 

which  may  be  accepted  as  a  trustworthy  record  from 

the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  onwards.  Kalhana's  work  was  con- 
tinued by  Jonaraja,  who  brought  the  history  through  the  troubled  times 
of  the  last  Hindu  dynasties,  and  the  first  Muhammadan  rulers,  to  the 
time  of  the  great  Zain-ul-abidln,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1420. 
Another  Sanskrit  chronicler,  Srivara,  carries  on  the  narrative  to  the 
accession  of  Fateh  Shah  in  i486  ;  and  the  last  of  the  chronicles,  the 
Rajavalipataka,  brings  the  record  down  to  1586,  when  the  valley  was 
conquered  by  Akbar. 

The  current  legend  in  Kashmir  relates  that  the  valley  was  once 
covered  by  the  waters  of  a  mighty  lake,  on  which  the  goddess  Parvati 
sailed  in  a  pleasure-boat  from  Haramukh  mountain  in  the  north  to  the 
Konsanag  lake  in  the  south.  In  her  honour  the  lake  was  known  as 
the  Satisar,  or  '  lake  of  the  virtuous  woman.'  The  country-side  was 
harassed  by  a  demon  popularly  known  as  Jaldeo,  a  corruption  of 
Jalodbhava.  Kasyapa,  the  grandson  of  Brahma,  came  to  the  rescue, 
but  for  some  time  the  amphibious  demon  eluded  him,  hiding  under  the 
water.  Vishnu  then  intervened  and  struck  the  mountains  at  Baramula 
with  his  trident.  The  waters  of  the  lake  rushed  out,  but  the  demon 
took  refuge  in  the  low  ground  near  where  Srlnagar  now  stands,  and 
baffled  pursuit.  Then  Parvati  cast  a  mountain  on  him,  and  so  de- 
stroyed the  wicked  Jaldeo.  The  mountain  is  known  as  Hara  Parbat, 
and  from  ancient  times  the  goddess  has  been  worshipped  on  its  slopes. 
When  the  demons  had  been  routed,  men  visited  the  valley  in  the 
summer ;  and  as  the  climate  became  milder  they  remained  for  the 
winter.  Little  kingdoms  sprang  up  and  the  little  kings  quarrelled 
among  themselves,  with  the  usual  result  that  a  bigger  king  was  called 
in  to  rule  the  country. 

The  Rajataranginl  opens  with  the  name  of  the  glorious  king  of 
Kashmir,  Gonanda,  '  worshipped  by  the  region  which  Kailasa  lights  up, 
and  which  the  tossing  Ganga  clothes  with  a  soft  garment.'  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  founder  of  the  dynasty,  though  the  genealogists  of  Jammu 
trace  a  direct  descent  from  Gonanda  to  the  present  ruler.  Mention  is 
made  of  the  pious  Asoka  and  of  his  town,  Srlnagar,  with  its  ninety-six 
lakhs  of  houses  resplendent  with  wealth.  This  town  probably  stood  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Takht-i-Sulaiman.  Next  come  the  three 
kings,  Hushka,  Jushka,  and  Kanishka,  to  be  identified  with  Huvishka, 
Vcisudeva,  and  Kanishka,  the  Kushan  rulers  of  Northern  India  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  According  to  the  chronicles,  in 
the  days  of  these  kings  Kashmir  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Buddhists, 
and  Buddhist  tradition   asserts    that  the  third  great   council  held  by 


HISTORY  QI 

Kanishka  took  place  in  Kashmir.  The  Buddhist  creed  and  the  Brah- 
manical  cult  seem  to  have  existed  peaceably  side  by  side  ;  but  five 
hundred  years  later  Hiuen  Tsiang  found  the  mass  of  the  people  Hindu, 
and  the  monasteries  few  and  partly  deserted.  There  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  Kashmiris  were,  from  the  earliest  period,  chiefly 
Saivas. 

About  a.d.  528,  Mihirakula,  the  king  'cruel  as  death,'  ruled  over 
Kashmir.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  White  Huns  or  Ephthalites.  The 
people  still  point  to  a  ridge  on  the  Plr  Panjal  range,  Hastlvanj,  where 
the  king,  to  amuse  himself,  drove  one  hundred  elephants  over  the 
precipice,  enjoying  their  cries  of  agony.  King  Gopaditya  was  a 
pleasing  contrast  to  the  cruel  king,  and  did  much  to  raise  the  Brah- 
mans,  and  to  advance  their  interests. 

Pravarasena  II  reigned  in  the  sixth  century  and,  returning  from  his 
victorious  campaigns  abroad,  built  a  magnificent  city  on  the  site  of  the 
'present  capital  of  Kashmir.  The  city  was  known  as  Pravarapura,  and 
is  mentioned  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  at  the  time  of  his  visit  (a.d.  631)  as  the 
'new  city.'  The  site  chosen  has  many  advantages,  strategic  and  com- 
mercial, but  it  is  liable  to  floods.  Many  subsequent  rulers  endeavoured 
to  move  the  site  of  the  capital,  but  their  efforts  failed.  Among  these 
was  the  celebrated  Lalitaditya,  who  ruled  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century,  and  received  an  investiture  from  the  emperor  of  China.  A 
great  and  victorious  soldier,  he  subdued  the  kings  of  India  and  invaded 
Central  Asia.  After  twelve  years  of  successful  campaigning  he  returned 
to  Kashmir,  enriched  with  spoil  and  accompanied  by  artisans  from 
various  countries,  and  built  a  magnificent  city,  Paraspur  (Parihasapura). 
To  give  this  new  town  pre-eminence,  he  burnt  down  Pravarapura. 
Lalitaditya  also  built  the  splendid  temple  of  Martand.  Before  leaving 
for  further  conquests  in  Central  Asia,  from  which  he  never  returned, 
the. king  gave  his  subjects  some  excellent  advice.  He  warns  them 
against  internal  feuds,  and  says  that  if  the  forts  are  kept  in  repair  and 
provisioned  they  need  fear  no  foe.  In  a  country  shut  in  by  mountains, 
discipline  must  be  strict,  and  the  cultivators  must  not  be  left  with  grain 
more  than  sufficient  for  a  year's  requirements.  Cultivators  should  not 
be  allowed  to  have  more  ploughs  or  cattle  than  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary, or  they  will  trespass  on  their  neighbours'  fields.  They  should 
be  repressed,  and  their  style  of  living  must  be  lower  than  that  of  the 
city  people,  or  the  latter  will  suffer.  These  words  spoken  some  1,200 
years  ago  have  never  been  forgotten  ;  and  rulers  of  various  races  and 
religions  have  followed  Lalitaditya's  policy,  and  sternly  subordinated 
the  interests  of  the  cultivators  to  the  comfort  of  the  city. 

Sankara  Varman  (883-902)  was  another  great  conqueror;  and  it  is 
stated  that,  though  Kashmir  had  fallen  off  in  population,  he  was  able 
to  lead  out  an  army  of  900,000  foot,  300  elephants,  and  100,000  horse. 

vol.  xv.  G 


92  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

Sankara  Yarman  was  avaricious  and  profligate.  He  plundered  Paraspur 
in  order  to  raise  the  fame  of  his  own  town,  now  known  as  Pattan. 

There  were  signs  of  decay,  and  the  last  of  the  strong  Hindu  rulers 
was  queen  Didda  (950-1003).  Then  followed  the  Lohara  dynasty. 
Central  authority  was  weakened,  the  country  was  a  prey  to  civil  war 
and  violence,  and  the  Damaras,  skilled  in  burning,  plundering,  and 
fighting,  harassed  the  valley.  The  last  of  this  line  was  Jaya  Simha, 
or  Simha  Deva  (n 28);  and  in  his  reign  the  Tartar,  Khan  Dalcha, 
invaded  Kashmir,  and  after  great  slaughter  set  fire  to  Srinagar.  He 
subsequently  perished  in  the  passes  on  his  retreat  from  Kashmir,  over- 
taken by  snow.  Ram  Chand,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Kashmir 
army,  had  meanwhile  kept  up  some  semblance  of  authority  in  the 
valley,  and  had  routed  the  Gaddis  from  Kishtwar.  With  Ram  Chand 
were  two  soldiers  of  fortune,  Rainchan  Shah  from  Tibet  and  Shah 
Mirza  from  Swat. 

Rainchan  Shah  quarrelled  with  Ram  Chand,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Ladakhis  attacked  and  killed  him.  He  married  Kuta  Rani, 
the  daughter  of  Ram  Chand,  and  embracing  Islam  became  the  first 
Muhammadan  king  of  Kashmir,  but  died  after  a  short  reign  of  two 
and  a  half  years.  At  this  juncture  Udayanadeva  appeared,  who  was 
the  brother  of  Raja  Simha  Deva  and  had  fled  to  Kishtwar.  He 
married  the  widow,  Kuta  Rani,  and  reigned  for  fifteen  years.  On  his 
death  Kuta  Rani  assumed  power  for  a  short  time,  and  committed 
suicide  rather  than  marry  Shah  Mirza,  who  now  declared  himself  king. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  line  known  as  Salatln-i- Kashmir,  and  took  the 
name  of  Shams-ud-dln.  In  1394  Sultan  Sikandar,  known  for  his  fierce 
zeal  as  JButshikan  or  '  iconoclast,'  was  king  of  Kashmir.  He  was 
a  gloomy  fanatic,  and  destroyed  nearly  all  the  grand  buildings  and 
temples  of  his  Hindu  predecessors.  To  the  people  he  offered  death, 
conversion,  or  exile.  Many  fled ;  many  were  converted  to  Islam  ; 
many  were  killed,  and  it  is  said  that  Sikandar  burnt  seven  maunds 
of  sacred  threads  worn  by  the  murdered  Brahmans.  By  the  end  of 
his  reign  all  Hindu  inhabitants  of  the  valley,  except  the  Brahmans, 
had  probably  adopted  Islam. 

In  1420  Zain-ul-abidln  succeeded.  He  was  wise,  virtuous,  and 
frugal,  and  very  tolerant  to  the  Brahmans.  He  remitted  the  poll-tax 
on  Hindus,  encouraged  the  Brahmans  to  learn  Persian,  repaired  some 
of  the  Hindu  temples,  and  revived  Hindu  learning.  Hitherto  in 
Kashmir  Sanskrit  had  been  written  in  Sarada,  an  older  sister  of  the 
Devanagarl  character.  The  introduction  of  Persian,  as  the  official 
language,  divided  the  Brahmans  into  three  subdivisions  :  the  Karkuns, 
who  entered  official  life  ;  the  Bachabatts,  who  discharged  the  function 
of  the  priesthood  ;  and  the  Pandits,  who  devoted  themselves  to 
Sanskrit  learning.     Towards  the  end  of  this  good  and  useful  reign  the 


HISTORY  93 

Chakks  sprang  into  mischievous  prominence.  Zain-ul-abidin  drove 
them  cut  of  the  valley,  but  in  the  time  of  his  weak  successors  they 
returned  and  eventually  seized  the  government  of  Kashmir.  Turbulent 
and  brave,  the  Chakks  were  not  fitted  for  administration.  Yakub 
Khan,  the  last  of  the  line,  offered  a  stubborn  resistance  to  Akbar,  and 
with  the  help  of  the  Bambas  and  Khakhas  routed  the  Mughal  on  his 
first  attempt  on  the  valley  (1582).  But  later,  not  without  difficulty 
and  some  reverses,  Kashmir  was  finally  conquered  (1586) ]. 

Akbar  visited  the  valley  three  times.  He  built  a  strong  fort  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Hara  Parbat,  paying  high  wages,  and  dispensing  with 
forced  labour.  His  revenue  minister,  Todar  Mai,  made  a  very  summary 
record  of  the  fiscal  conditions  of  the  valley.  Jahanglr  was  greatly 
attached  to  Kashmir.  He  laid  out  lovely  pleasure-gardens  ;  around 
the  Dal  Lake  were  777  gardens,  yielding  a  revenue  of  1  lakh  from  roses 
and  bed  musk.  Much  depended  on  the  character  of  the  governors. 
All  Mardan  Khan,  the  best  of  these,  built  a  splendid  series  of  sarais 
on  the  Plr  Panjal  route  to  India,  and  grappled  with  a  famine  with 
energy  and  success.  Aurangzeb  visited  the  valley  only  once ;  but  in 
that  brief  time  he  showed  his  zeal  against  the  unbelievers,  and  his  name 
is  still  execrated  by  the  Brahmans.  Then  followed  the  disorder  of 
decay,  and  in  1751  the  Subah  of  Kashmir  was  practically  independent 
of  Delhi. 

From  the  following  year  the  unfortunate  Kashmiris  experienced  the 
cruel  oppression  of  Afghan  rule,  the  short  but  evil  period  of  the 
Durranis.  Governors  from  Kabul  plundered  and  tortured  the  people 
indiscriminately,  but  reserved  their  worst  cruelties  for  the  Brahmans, 
the  Shiahs,  and  the  Bambas  of  the  Jhelum  valley.  In  their  agony  the 
people  of  Kashmir  turned  with  hope  to  the  rising  power  of  Ranjit 
Singh  of  Lahore.  In  18 14  a  Sikh  army  advanced  by  the  Plr  Panjal, 
Ranjit  Singh  watching  the  operations  from  Punch.  This  expedition 
miscarried;  but  in  1819  Misr  Diwan  Chand,  Ranjit  Singh's  great 
general,  accompanied  by  Gulab  Singh  of  Jammu,  overcame  Muhammad 
Azim  Khan,  and  entered  Shupiyan.  In  comparison  with  the  Afghans, 
the  Sikhs  came  as  a  relief  to  the  unfortunate  Kashmiris,  but  their  rule 
was  harsh  and  oppressive. 

Sher  Singh,  the  reputed  son  of  Ranjit  Singh,  was  a  weak  governor, 
and  his  name  is  remembered  in  connexion  with  the  terrible  famine 
which  visited  the  valley.  The  best  of  the  Sikh  governors  was  Colonel 
Mian  Singh  (1833),  wno  is  still  spoken  of  with  gratitude,  and  did  his 
best   to   repair   the   ravages   of  the   famine.      He    was   murdered  by 

1  Kashmir  had  been  attacked  from  the  side  of  Ladakh  by  Mirza  Haidar  (the  author 
of  the  Tarikh-i-Rashldl)  in  1532,  and  again  invaded  from  the  south  in  1540,  and 
ruled  by  him  (nominally  on  behalf  of  the  emperor  Humayun)  until  his  death  eleven 
years  later. 

G  2 


94  KASHMIR  AXD  JAMMU 

mutinous  soldiers,  and  was  succeeded  by  Shaikh  Ghulam  Muhl-ud-din 
in  1842.  During  his  government  the  Bambas,  under  Sher  Ahmad, 
inflicted  great  losses  on  the  Sikhs.  In  1845  Imam-ud-dfn  succeeded 
his  father  as  governor. 

The  history  of  the  State,  as  at  present  constituted,  is  practically  the 
history  of  one  man,  a  Dogra  Rajput,  Gulab  Singh  of  Jammu.  Lying 
off  the  high  roads  of  India,  and  away  from  the  fertile  plains  of  the 
Punjab,  the  barren  hills  of  the  Dogras  had  not  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  Mughal  invaders  of  India.  Here  lived  a  number  of  petty  Rajas, 
and  it  appears  that  from  very  early  times  the  little  kingdom  of  Jammu 
was  locally  of  some  importance.  Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  power  of  the  Jammu  ruler  had  extended  east  as  far  as  the 
Ravi,  and  west  to  the  Chenab ;  but  the  power  waned  and  waxed 
according  to  the  fortunes  of  petty  and  chronic  warfare.  To  the  east, 
at  Basoli  and  Kishtwar,  were  independent  Rajput  chiefs,  while  to  the 
north-west  were  the  Muhammadan  rulers  of  Bhimbar  and  Rajaori, 
descendants  of  Hindu  Rajputs.  These  two  states  lay  on  the  Mughal 
route  to  Kashmir,  and  so  came  under  the  influence  of  Delhi.  Up  the 
Jhelum  valley,  the  country  was  held  by  small  independent  Muham- 
madan chiefs,  whose  title  of  Raja  suggests  their  Hindu  origin. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Raja  Ranjlt  Deo  was 
the  ruler  of  Jammu.  He  was  a  man  of  some  mark,  and  his  capital 
flourished;  but  at  his  death  about  1780,  his  three  sons  quarrelled. 
The  Sikhs  were  invoked,  and  Jammu  was  plundered.  From  RanjTt 
Deo's  death  to  1846,  the  Dogra  country  became  tributary  to  the  Sikh 
power.  Gulab  Singh,  Dhyan  Singh,  and  Suchet  Singh  were  the  great- 
grandsons  of  Surat  Singh,  youngest  brother  of  Ranjlt  Deo.  They  were 
soldiers  of  fortune,  and  as  young  men  sought  service  at  the  court  of 
RanjTt  Singh  of  Lahore.  They  rapidly  distinguished  themselves ;  and 
Gulab  Singh,  for  his  service  in  capturing  the  Raja  of  Rajaori,  who 
was  fighting  the  Sikhs,  was  created  Raja  of  Jammu  in  1820.  Dhyan 
Singh  obtained  the  principality  of  Punch,  a  hilly  country  between  the 
Jhelum  and  the  Plr  Panjal  range,  north  of  Rajaori ;  while  Suchet  Singh 
received  Ramnagar,  west-by-north  of  Jammu. 

Ranjlt  Singh  had  found  that  the  control  of  the  Dogra  country  was 
a  difficult  task,  and  his  policy  of  enlisting  the  services  of  able  Dogras 
was  at  once  obvious  and  prudent.  The  country  was  disturbed,  each 
man  plundered  his  neighbour,  and  Gulab  Singh's  energies  were  taxed 
to  the  utmost  in  restoring  order.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary 
power,  and  very  quickly  asserted  his  authority.  His  methods  were 
often  cruel  and  unscrupulous,  but  allowances  must  be  made.  He 
believed  in  object-lessons,  and  his  penal  system  was  at  any  rate 
successful  in  ridding  the  country  of  crime.  He  kept  a  sharp  eye  on 
his  officials,  and  a  close  hand  on  his  revenues.     Rapidly  absorbing  the 


HISTORY  9? 

power  and  possessions  of  the  feudal  chiefs  around  him,  after  ten  years 
of  laborious  and  consistent  effort  he  and  his  two  brother-  became 
masters  of  nearly  all  the  country  between  Kashmir  and  the  Punjab, 
save  Rajaori.  Bhadarwah  fell  easily  into  the  hands  of  Gulab  Singh 
after  a  slight  resistance.  In  Kishtwar,  the  minister,  Wazlr  Lakhpat, 
quarrelled  with  the  Raja  and  sought  the  assistance  of  Gulab  Singh, 
who  at  once  moved  up  with  a  force,  and  the  Raja  surrendered  his 
country  without  fighting. 

His  easy  successes  in  Kishtwar,  which  commanded  two  of  the  roads 
into  Ladakh,  probably  suggested  die  ambitious  idea  of  the  conquest 
of  that  unknown  land.  The  difficulties  of  access  offered  by  mountains 
and  glaciers  were  enormous:  but  the  brave  Dogras  under  Gulab 
Singh's  officer,  Zorawar  Singh,  never  hesitated,  and  in  two  campaigns 
the  whole  of  Ladakh  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Jammu  State.  It  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  the  Dogras  did  not  pillage  the  rich  monastery 
of  Himis,  which  saved  itself  by  allowing  the  army  in  ignorance  of 
its  locality  to  pass  the  gorge  leading  to  the  Himis  valley,  and  then 
sending  a  deputation  with  an  offer  of  free  rations  while  in  ladakh 
territory.     The  agreement  made  was  respected  by  both  parties. 

A  few  years  later,  in  1S40.  Zorawar  Singh  invaded  Baltistan,  captured 
the  Raja  of  Skardu,  who  had  sided  with  the  Ladakhis,  and  annexed 
his  country.  The  following  year  ( 184 1)  Zorawar  Singh  while  invading 
Tibet  was  overtaken  by  winter,  and,  being  attacked  when  his  troops 
were  disabled  by  cold,  perished  with  nearly  all  his  army.  Whether 
it  was  policy  or  whether  it  was  accident,  by  1840  Gulab  Singh  had 
encircled  Kashmir. 

In  the  winter  of  1S45  war  broke  out  between  the  British  and  the 
Sikhs.  Gulab  Singh  contrived  to  hold  himself  aloof  till  the  battle  of 
Sobraon  (1846),  when  he  appeared  as  a  useful  mediator  and  the 
trusted  adviser  of  Sir  Henry  Lawrence.  Two  treaties  were  concluded. 
By  the  first  the  State  of  I^ahore  handed  over  to  the  British,  as  equiva- 
lent for  one  crore  of  indemnity,  the  hill  countries  between  the  rivers 
Beas  and  the  Indus ;  by  the  second  the  British  made  over  to  Gulab 
Singh  for  75  lakhs  all  the  hilly  or  mountainous  country  situated  to  the 
east  of  the  Indus  and  west  of  the  Ravi.  Kashmir  did  not,  however, 
come  into  the  Maharaja's  hands  without  fighting.  Imam-ud-din,  the 
Sikh  governor,  aided  by  the  restless  Bambas  from  the  Jhelum  valley, 
routed  Gulab  Singh's  troops  on  the  outskirts  of  Srlnagar,  killing  Wazlr 
Lakhpat.  Owing,  however,  to  the  mediation  of  Sir  Henry  Lawren 
Imam-ud-din  desisted  from  opposition  and  Kashmir  passed  without 
further  disturbances  to  the  new  ruler.  At  Astur  and  Gilgit  the  I  >oura 
troops  relieved  the  Sikhs,  Nathu  Shah,  the  Sikh  commander,  taking 
service  under  Gulab  Singh.  Not  long  afterwards  the  Hunza  Raja 
attacked  Gilgit  territory.     Xathu  Shah  retorted  by  lead    _  .1  force  to 


96  KASHMIR   AXD  JAMMU 

attack  the  Hunza  valley  ;  he  and  his  force  were  destroyed,  and  Gilgit 
fort  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Hunza  Raja,  along  with  Punial,  Yasln, 
and  Darel.  The  Maharaja  sent  two  columns,  one  from  Astor  and  one 
from  Baltistan,  and  after  some  fighting  Gilgit  fort  was  recovered.  In 
1852,  partly  by  strategy,  partly  by  treachery,  the  Dogra  troops  were 
annihilated  by  the  bloodthirsty  Gaur  Rahman  of  Yasln,  and  for  eight 
years  the  Indus  formed  the  boundary  of  the  Maharaja's  territories. 

Gulab  Singh  died  in  1857  :  and  when  his  successor,  Ranbir  Singh, 
had  recovered  from  the  strain  caused  by  the  Mutiny,  in  which  he  had 
loyally  sided  with  the  British,  he  determined  to  recover  Gilgit,  and  to 
rehabilitate  the  reputation  of  the  Dogras  on  the  frontier.  In  i860 
a  force  under  Devi  Singh  crossed  the  Indus,  and  advanced  on  Gaur 
Rahman's  strong  fort  at  Gilgit.  Gaur  Rahman  had  died  just  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Dogras.  The  fort  was  taken  ;  and  since  then  the 
Maharajas  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir  have  held  it,  to  their  heavy  cost 
and  somewhat  doubtful  advantage. 

Ranbir  Singh  was  a  model  Hindu  :  devoted  to  his  religion  and  to 
Sanskrit  learning,  but  tolerant  of  other  creeds.  He  was  in  many  ways 
an  enlightened  man,  but  he  lacked  his  father's  strong  will  and  deter- 
mination, and  his  control  over  the  State  officials  was  weak.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  darkened  by  the  dreadful  famine  in  Kashmir, 
1877-9;  an(l  in  September,  1885,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
the  present  Maharaja  Pratap  Singh,  G. C.S.I.  He  bears  the  hereditary 
title  of  Maharaja,  and  receives  a  salute  of  19  guns,  increased  to  21  in 
his  own  territory. 

Through  all  these  vicissitudes  of  government  and  changes  in  religion 
the  Kashmiri  has  remained  unaltered.  Mughal,  Afghan,  Sikh,  and 
Dogra  have  left  no  impression  on  the  national  character ;  and  at  heart 
the  people  of  the  valley  are  Hindus,  as  they  were  before  the  time  of 
Sikandar  Shah.  The  isolation  from  the  outer  world  accounts  for  this 
stable  unchanging  nationality,  and  passages  in  the  Rajataranginl  show 
that  the  main  features  of  the  national  character  were  the  same  in  the 
early  period  of  Hindu  rule  as  they  are  now. 

The  valley  of  Kashmir  is  holy  land,  and  everywhere  one  finds 
remains  of  ancient  temples  and  buildings  called  by  the  present  inhabi- 
tants, though  without  historical  foundation,  Pandavlari,  '  the  houses  of 
the  Pandavas.'  These  ancient  buildings,  though  more  or  less  injured  by 
iconoclasts,  vandal  builders,  earthquakes,  and,  as  Cunningham  thinks, 
by  gunpowder,  are  composed  of  a  blue  limestone  capable  of  taking  the 
highest  polish,  and  of  great  solidity.  They  defy  weather  and  time, 
while  the  later  works  of  the  Mughals,  the  mosques  of  Aurangzeb  and 
the  pleasure-places  of  Sallm  and  Nur  Mahal,  are  crumbling  away  and 
possess  little  or  none  of  their  pristine  beauty. 

The    Hindu    buildings   of   Kashmir   have   been    described   bv  Sir 


HISTORY  97 

Alexander  Cunningham  and  Mr.  F.  S.  Growse1.  They  exhihit  traces 
of  the  influence  of  Grecian  art,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  graceful 
elegance  of  their  outlines,  by  the  massive  boldness  of  their  parts,  and 
by  the  happy  propriety  of  their  decorations.  Characteristic  features 
are  the  lofty  pyramidal  roofs,  trefoiled  doorways  covered  by  pyramidal 
pediments,  and  the  great  width  of  the  space  between  columns. 

Among  the  numerous  temples  two  may  be  noticed — Martand  and 
Payech — the  first  for  its  grandeur,  and  the  second  for  its  excellent 
preservation.  Martand,  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  stands  on  a  sloping 
karewa,  about  3  miles  east  of  Islamabad,  overlooking  the  finest  view 
in  Kashmir.  The  great  structure  was  built  by  Lalitaditya  in  the  eighth 
century.  Kalasa  came  here  at  the  approach  of  death  and  expired  at 
the  feet  of  the  sacred  image  (1089).  In  the  time  of  Kalhana  the 
chronicler,  the  great  quadrangular  courtyard  was  used  as  a  fortification, 
and  the  sacred  image  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  Sikandar,  the 
iconoclast. 

The  building  consists  of  one  lofty  central  edifice,  with  a  small 
detached  wing  on  each  side  of  the  entrance,  the  whole  standing  in  a 
large  quadrangle  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  eighty-four  pillars  with 
intervening  trefoil-headed  recesses.  The  length  of  the  outer  side  of 
the  wall,  which  is  blank,  is  about  90  yards ;  that  of  the  front  is  about 
56  yards.  The  central  building  is  63  feet  in  length  by  36  feet  in 
width,  and,  alone  of  all  the  temples  of  Kashmir,  possesses,  in  addition 
to  the  cella  or  sanctuary,  a  choir  and  nave,  termed  in  Sanskrit  the 
antarala  and  arddho.maiuiapa ;  the  nave  is  18  feet  square.  The 
sanctuary  alone  is  left  entirely  bare,  the  two  other  compartments  being 
lined  with  rich  panellings  and  sculptured  niches.  As  the  main  build- 
ing is  at  present  entirely  uncovered,  the  original  form  of  the  roof  can 
be  determined  only  by  a  reference  to  other  temples  and  to  the  general 
form  and  character  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Martand  temple  itself. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  roof  was  pyramidal,  and  that  the 
entrance  chamber  and  wings  were  similarly  covered.  There  would 
thus  have  been  four  distinct  pyramids,  of  which  that  over  the  inner 
chamber  must  have  been  the  loftiest,  the  height  of  its  pinnacle  above 
the  ground  being  about  75  feet. 

The  interior  must  have  been  as  imposing  as  the  exterior,  ^n 
ascending  the  flight  of  steps,  now  covered  by  ruins,  the  votary  entered 
a  highly  decorated  chamber,  with  a  doorway  on  each  side  covered  by 
a  pediment,  with  a  trefoil-headed  niche  containing  a  bust  of  the  Hindu 
triad,  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  main  entrance,  as  well  as  on  those  oi 
the  side  doorways,  were  pointed  and  trefoil  niches,  each  of  which  held 
a  statue  of  a  Hindu  deity.  The  interior  decorations  of  the  roof  can 
only  be  determined  conjecturally,  as  there  do  not  appear  to  be  any 

1   Calcutta  Review.  No.  CVIL 


98  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

ornamented  stones  that  could  with  certainty  be  assigned  to  it.  Baron 
Hugel  doubts  whether  Martand  ever  had  a  roof ;  but  as  the  walls  of  the 
temple  are  still  standing,  the  numerous  heaps  of  large  stones  that  are 
scattered  about  on  all  sides  suggest  the  idea  that  these  belonged  to 
the  roof.     Fergusson,  however,  thought  that  the  roof  was  of  wood. 

Payech  lies  about  19  miles  from  Srinagar  under  the  Naunagri 
karewa,  about  6  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Jhelum  river.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  village,  situated  in  a  small  green  space  near  the  bank 
of  the  stream  surrounded  by  a  few  walnut  and  willow  trees,  stands  an 
ancient  temple,  which  in  intrinsic  beauty  and  elegance  of  outline  is 
superior  to  all  the  existing  remains  in  Kashmir  of  similar  dimensions. 
Its  excellent  preservation  may  probably  be  explained  by  its  retired 
situation  at  the  foot  of  the  high  table-land,  which  separates  it  by  an 
interval  of  5  or  6  miles  from  the  bank  of  the  Jhelum,  and  by  the  mar- 
vellous solidity  of  its  construction.  The  cella,  which  is  8  feet  square, 
and  has  an  open  doorway  on  each  of  the  four  sides,  is  composed  of  only 
ten  stones,  the  four  corners  being  each  a  single  stone,  the  sculptured 
tympanums  over  the  doorways  four  others,  while  two  more  compose 
the  pyramid  roof,  the  lower  of  these  being  an  enormous  mass,  8  feet 
square  by  4  feet  in  height.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  Sir  Alexander 
Cunningham,  on  grounds  which,  in  the  absence  of  any  positive 
authority  either  way,  may  be  taken  as  adequate,  to  Narendraditya, 
who  reigned  from  483  to  490.  Fergusson;  however,  considered  that 
the  temple  belongs  to  the  thirteenth  century.  The  sculptures  over 
the  doorways  are  coarsely  executed  in  comparison  with  the  artistic 
finish  of  the  purely  architectural  details,  and  are  much  defaced,  but 
apparently  represent  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Siva,  and  the  goddess  Durga. 
The  building  is  said  to  be  dedicated  to  Vishnu  as  Surya  or  the  Sun- 
god.  Inside  the  cupola  is  rayed,  so  as  to  represent  the  sun ;  and  at 
each  corner  of  the  square  the  space  intervening  between  the  angle  and 
the  line  of  the  circle  is  filled  up  with  a.  jinn  or  attendant,  who  seems 
to  be  sporting  at  the  edge  of  its  rays.  The  roof  has  been  partly 
displaced,  which  is  said  to  have  been  the  result  of  an  attempt  made  to 
take  it  down  and  remove  it  to  the  city.  The  interior  is  still  occupied 
by  a  large  stone  lingcm. 

Table  III  at  the  end  of  this  article  (p.  145)  shows  the  distribution  of 

population  in   1901.     An  estimate  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  was 

_.      ,    .  made  in  187s,  but  the  first  regular  Census  was  taken 

Population.  _  J°\  ,  &  .     . 

in  1891.     In  that  year  the  population  was  2,543,952, 

and  it  rose  to  2,905,578  in  1901,  or  by  14  per  cent.    To  a  considerable 

extent  the  increase  was  due  to  improved  enumeration,  as  for  example 

in  Gilgit,  where  the  number  recorded  rose  from  16,769  to  60,885.    The 

increase  amounted  to  22  per  cent,  in  the  Kashmir  province,  compared 

with  only  6  per  cent,  in  Jammu.     The  density  of  population  in  the 


POPULATION  99 

whole  State  is  36  persons  per  square  mile.  Details  of  the  area  of  sub- 
divisions are  not  available,  but  the  density  per  square  mile  of  land 
under  cultivation  varies  from  64  in  Muzaffarabad  district  to  1,295  m 
Gilgit,  where  cultivable  land  is  scarce.  There  are  only  two  towns  of 
any  size,  Jammu  (36,130)  and  Srinagar  (122,618) ;  but  the  State  con- 
tains 8,946  villages.  Nearly  half  the  total  population  live  in  villages 
with  a  population  of  less  than  500  each.  Formerly,  considerable  num- 
bers of  Kashmiris  emigrated  to  the  Punjab,  but  the  census  results  in 
that  Province  show  that  only  83,240  persons  born  in  Kashmir  were 
enumerated  there  in  1901,  compared  with  111,775  in  l8Sl-  Statistics 
of  age  are,  as  usual,  unreliable,  and  need  not  be  referred  to  in  detail. 
In  the  whole  State  there  are  884  females  to  1,000  males,  the  pro- 
portion being  highest  in  the  frontier  tracts  (933)  and  lowest  in  Kashmir 
province  (876).  These  results  point  to  defective  enumeration  of 
females.  Marriage  is  comparatively  late,  and  less  than  1  per  cent, 
of  the  males  under  fifteen  years,  and  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  females 
of  the  same  age,  are  married.  Taking  the  whole  population,  n  per 
cent,  of  males  and  39  per  cent,  of  females  are  married.  Polyandry 
is  prevalent  in  Ladakh.  About  34  per  cent,  of  the  population  speak 
Kashmiri,  and  15  per  cent.  Dogri,  while  Punjabi  is  the  tongue  of 
nearly  30  per  cent.  A  great  variety  of  languages  are  used,  in  various 
parts  of  the  State,  by  comparatively  small  numbers.  Agriculture  sup- 
ports 54  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  weaving  and  allied  arts  2  per  cent. 

The  total  population  includes  2,154,695  Muhammadans,  689,073 
Hindus,  25,828  Sikhs,  and  35,047  Buddhists.  The  Hindus  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Jammu  province,  where  they  form  rather  less  than  half 
the  total.  In  the  Kashmir  province  they  represent  only  524  in  every 
10,000  of  population,  and  in  the  frontier  wazarats  of  Ladakh  and 
Gilgit  only  97  out  of  every  10,000  persons. 

Among  the  Hindus  of  the  Jammu  province,  who  number  626,177, 
the  most  important  castes  are  the  Brahmans  (iS6,ooo),  the  Rajputs 
(167,000),  the  Khattris  (48,000),  and  the  Thakkars  (93,000).  Each 
caste  is  subdivided  into  many  sub-castes ;  but  fur  practical  purposes 
the  Dogra  Rajputs  do  not  regard  the  finer  divisions  of  the  ethnologist, 
but  draw  a  broad  distinction  between  the  Mian  Rajputs  who  engage  in 
neither  trade  nor  agriculture,  and  the  other  Rajputs  who  have  con- 
descended to  work  for  their  living.  The  Mians  will  marry  the  daughters 
of  the  latter  class,  but  will  not  give  their  own  daughters  in  marriage 
to  them.  They  have  territorial  names,  such  as  Jamwal  and  Jasrotia, 
signifying  that  the  family  is  connected  with  Jammu  and  Jasrota.  They 
mostly  hold  land  on  pepper-corn  rents,  cultivated  by  others,  who  take 
a  share  of  the  crops.  The  Mian  Rajput  gladly  serves  as  a  soldier,  In- 
choice  in  the  cavalry,  and  if  there  is  not  room  for  him  in  the  Maharaja's 
forces,  he  will  enlist  in  the  Indian  army.    In  the  Hun/a  Nagar  campaign 


ioo  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

and  at  Chitral  the  Dogra  Rajput  worthily  maintained  his  ancient  repu- 
tation. As  a  soldier  he  is  admirable,  but  as  a  landowner  evil  days  are 
in  store  for  him.  The  agriculture  of  the  Dogra  country  is  uncertain, 
and  not  over-profitable ;  and  in  the  course  of  years  the  proud,  gallant, 
and  thriftless  Rajput  will  be  ousted  by  the  sturdy  Thakkars  and  Jats 
(Musalman,  123,000;  Hindu,  25,000).  The  Rajputs  are  a  handsome 
race,  wiry  and  active.  They  observe  caste  rules  very  strictly.  Female 
infanticide  was  the  common  rule  in  the  memory  of  men  still  middle- 
aged,  and  the  sail  of  Raja  Suchet  Singh's  ladies  is  still  remembered  by 
the  old  men.  The  Khattrls  are  an  important  people,  keen  and  clever. 
They  are  the  financiers  and  officials  of  the  State,  and  some  of  the  best 
servants  of  the  Maharaja  have  been  Dogra  Khattrls. 

The  origin  of  the  word  '  Dogra '  is  commonly  stated  by  the  people 
themselves  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the  cradle  of  the  Dogra 
race  lies  between  the  two  holy  lakes,  Saroin  Sar  and  Man  Sar,  not  far 
from  Jammu.  Drigartdesh,  or  the  'country  of  the  two  hollows,' was 
corrupted  into  Dugar,  and  Dugra  became  Dogra.  From  Jammu 
stretching  east  along  the  plains  of  the  Punjab  the  country  is  Dogra ; 
and  all  who  live  in  that  tract,  whether  they  be  Hindus,  Musalmans, 
or  Sikhs,  whether  high-born  Rajputs  or  low-born  menials,  are  known 
as  Dogras,  and  have  certain  national  characteristics  and  a  common 
tongue,  which  differentiate  them  from  any  of  the  other  peoples  of  India. 
Some  authorities  doubt  this  derivation,  and  say  that  Dogra  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Rajasthani  word  for  '  hills '  {dungar),  and  that  when 
the  Rajputs  forced  their  way  up  north  they  gave  this  name  to  the 
hilly  country. 

The  Dogras  hold  the  tract  of  lowland  country  along  the  British 
border,  and  the  outer  ranges  of  hills  from  the  Manawar  or  Malikani 
Tawi  on  the  west  to  the  Ravi  river  on  the  south-east,  which  is  bounded 
towards  the  higher  mountains  by  a  line  drawn  along  the  hills  to  the 
south  of  the  Budil  ilaka  through  Batoti  and  thence  to  the  Ravi  river 
north-east  of  Basoli.  From  the  Manawar  Tawi  to  the  Jhelum  is  the 
country  known  as  Chibhal,  the  home  of  the  Chibs.  The  Chibs  are 
mostly  Musalman,  but  there  are  Hindu  Chibs  as  well.  Both  trace 
their  origin  to  a  Rajput  chief,  named  Jassu.  Dharam  Chand,  a 
descendant  of  Jassu,  was  versed  in  medicine,  and  was  summoned 
to  Delhi  to  attend  Jahangir.  The  fee  in  case  of  success  was  the 
emperor's  daughter.  Dharam  Chand  was  successful  ;  he  married 
the  Mughal  princess,  and  was  known  henceforth  as  Shadi  Khan. 
But  he  longed  for  his  country  and  left  his  bride,  and  the  next  year 
the  Mughals  invaded  his  country  and  slew  Shadi  Khan. 

The  Hindu  Chibs  are  descended  from  Shadi  Khan  by  his  Hindu 
wife,  while  the  Muhammadan  Chibs  are  the  progeny  of  his  family 
subsequent  to  their  acceptance  of  Islam.     Both   Hindu  and   Musal- 


POPULATION  i  or 

man  Chibs  repair  annually  to  the  tomb  of  Shadi  Khan  at  a  place  in 
the  Kali  Dhar  hills  in  the  Naoshera  tahsil.  Like  the  Dogra  Rajputs, 
the  Chibs  look  upon  service  as  the  sole  career  for  a  man,  but  both 
Hindus  and  Musalmans  till  the  soil.  They  are  a  fighting  people,  and 
the  spirit  of  adventure  takes  them  out  of  their  own  country.  They 
follow  the  caste  rules  of  the  Hindu  Rajputs,  but  are  perhaps  stronger 
and  more  muscular  than  the  Dogras  to  the  east.  Besides  the  Chibs, 
there  are  Musalman  Rajputs  to  the  west  of  the  Chenab — the 
Jarals,  the  Bhaos  (unfavourably  known  in  Akhnur),  the  Gakhars, 
and  many  others.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  Hindu  Chibs  give 
their  daughters  in  marriage  to  the  ruling  family  of  Jammu  and 
Kashmir. 

Drew,  in  his  book.  Jam  nut  a  nd  Kashmir  Territories,  suggests  that  the 
Bambas  and  Khakhas  of  the  Jhelum  valley  might  be  classed  under  the 
head  Chibhali.  Very  little  is  known  as  to  when  these  people  migrated 
into  Muzaffarabad  and  Uri  districts,  or  whence  they  came ;  but  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  they  had  a  foreign  origin.  It  is  probable  that 
the  Khakhas  have  occupied  the  country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Jhelum 
for  300  years  or  more,  and  that  the  Bambas,  who  live  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  came  in  yet  earlier.  The  Khakhas,  who  enjoy  the  proud 
title  of  Raja,  are,  like  the  Chibs,  Musalman  Rajputs,  and  trace  their 
descent  to  Raja  Mai  Rathor.  They  regard  themselves  as  belonging  to 
the  Janjuah  tribe.  The  Bambas,  who  are  styled  Sultans,  deprecate 
a  Hindu  origin.  They  claim  to  belong  to  the  Kureshi  tribe,  and  say 
that  the  name  Bamba  is  a  corruption  of  Bani-Hashim,  and  that  they 
are  descended  from  All,  the  son-in-law  of  Muhammad.  The  Khakhas 
and  Bambas  have  a  privileged  status  in  the  Jhelum  valley,  and  their 
power  has  varied  according  to  the  weakness  or  strength  of  the  central 
authority.  Under  the  Afghans,  the  Khakhas  and  Bambas  paid  little 
to  their  overlord,  and  were  practically  independent.  The  Sikhs  tight- 
ened their  hold  over  the  Jhelum  valley,  but  the  Khakhas  and  Bambas 
retained  certain  privileges. 

Numerically  the  Gujars  are  of  some  importance,  both  in  Jammu, 
where  they  number  151,700,  and  in  Kashmir,  where  they  are  returned 
at  125,650.  Some  of  them  have  settled  down  to  agriculture;  but  the 
great  majority  are  herdsmen,  and  in  the  summer  months  move  up  to 
the  splendid  grazing-grounds  above  the  forests  with  their  buffaloes  and 
goats.  They  are  Musalmans  by  religion,  and  many  of  the  Gujar  tribes 
speak  a  dialect  of  their  own  known  as  Parimu.  They  are  a  fine  tall 
race  of  men,  with  rather  stupid  faces  and  large  prominent  teeth.  They 
sacrifice  every  consideration  for  their  buffaloes,  and  even  in  their  culti- 
vation, chiefly  maize,  their  first  thought  is  for  these  animals.  They  are 
ignorant,  inoffensive,  and  simple,  and  their  good  faith  is  proverbial. 
Kashmir  and  its  mountains  have  especial  attractions  for  the  Gujars  ; 


io2  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

but  as  forest  conservancy  extends,  these  born  enemies  of  the  forest  will 
find  Kashmir  less  attractive. 

Another  pastoral  semi-nomad  people  are  the  Gaddis  (5,927)  of 
Kishtwar.  They  graze  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  moving  up  the 
mountains  as  the  summer  draws  on,  and  returning  to  the  low  country 
when  the  first  snow  falls.  Their  homes  are  in  the  high  pastures,  but 
they  are  for  most  part  of  the  year  roving,  though  in  some  places  there 
are  regular  settled  villages  of  Gaddis.  They  are  Hindus.  They  wear 
duffel  clothes  and  a  very  peculiar  hat  of  stiff  cloth.  All  speak  well  of 
the  Gaddis,  and  they  are  a  popular  people,  welcome  everywhere. 

In  the  Kashmir  province,  out  of  a  total  population  of  i,i57,394> 
Muhammadans  number  1,083,766,  Hindus  60,682,  and  Sikhs  12,637. 
The  Census,  however,  was  taken  in  the  winter,  when  many  of  the 
resident  population  were  away  working  in  the  Punjab. 

The  Kashmiri  is  unchanged,  in  spite  of  the  splendid  Mughal,  the 
brutal  Afghan,  and  the  bully  Sikh.  Warriors  and  statesmen  came  and 
went ;  but  there  was  no  egress,  and  no  wish  on  the  part  of  the  Kash- 
miris in  normal  times  to  leave  their  home.  The  outside  world  was  far, 
and  from  all  accounts  inferior  to  the  pleasant  valley,  and  at  each  of  the 
gates  of  the  valley  were  soldiers  who  demanded  fees.  So  the  Kashmiris 
lived  their  self-centred  life,  conceited,  clever,  and  conservative. 

Islam  came  in  on  a  strong  wave,  on  which  rode  a  fanatical  king  and 
a  missionary  saint,  and  history  records  that  the  Kashmiris  became 
Musalmans.  But  close  observers  of  the  country  see  that  the  so-called 
Musalmans  are  still  Hindus  at  heart.  Their  shrines  are  on  the  exact 
spots  where  the  old  Hindu  sthans  stood,  and  these  receive  an  attention 
which  is  not  vouchsafed  to  the  squalid  mosques  and  the  mean  mullas. 
The  Kashmiris  do  not  flock  to  Mecca,  and  religious  men  from  Arabia  have 
spoken  in  strong  terms  of  the  apathy  of  these  tepid  Musalmans.  There 
are  many  shrines,  shrines  of  the  Rishis,  the  Babas,  and  the  Makhdum 
Sahib  Plrzadas,  known  as  the  Wami  or  'national,'  as  distinguished  from 
the  Saiyids  and  Saiyid  Plrzadas  who  are  foreigners.  And  as  in  religion, 
so  in  social  evolution,  there  has  been  little  change  up  to  recent  times 
in  the  people  of  Kashmir.  Peculiarities  noticed  in  the  Rajatarangini 
still  mark  the  national  character.  Witchcraft  and  sorcery  are  rampant 
now  as  they  were  in  the  times  of  the  Hindu  kings. 

The  Musalmans  of  Kashmir  may  be  divided  into  four  divisions : 
Shaikhs,  Saiyids,  Mughals,  and  Pathans.  The  Shaikhs,  who  are  by  far 
the  most  numerous,  arc  the  descendants  of  Hindus,  but  have  retained 
none  of  the  caste  rules  of  their  forefathers.  They  have  clan  names 
known  as  kram ;  but  a  man  of  the  Tantre  kram  may  marry  a  girl  of  the 
same  kram,  or  a  maiden  of  some  other  kram,  provided  she  be  one 
of  the  agricultural  families.  The  only  line  drawn  is  that  a  man  of  the 
Shaikh  kram  may  not  marry  a  Saiyid  girl,  nor  must  he  demean  himself 


POPULATIOX  T03 

by  an  alliance  with  the  daughter  of  a  market-gardener  or  a  menial. 
Some  hold  that  the  krams  known  as  Pandit,  Kol,  Bat,  Aitu,  Rishi, 
Mantu,  and  Ganai  are  descended  from  the  Brahmans,  and  that  the 
Magres,  Tantres,  Dars,  Dangars,  Rainas,  Rathors,  Thakurs,  and  Naiks 
are  sprung  from  a  Kshattriya  origin.  The  Lon  kram  is  assigned  a 
Vaisya  descent,  and  the  Damars  are  connected  with  Sudras.  There 
may  be  some  foundation  for  these  theories ;  but  the  krams  are  now 
mixed,  and  confusion  is  increasing  owing  to  the  fashion  of  the  lower 
castes  who  arrogate  the  krams  of  the  respectable  families.  Thus  the 
Dums,  the  gardeners,  and  the  butchers  have  begun  to  call  themselves 
Ganais,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  the  true  Ganais.  And  the  boatmen, 
a  most  disreputable  community,  have  appropriated  the  kram  name  of 
Dar.  The  social  system  is  very  plastic,  and  prosperity  and  a  very  little 
wealth  soon  obliterate  a  humble  origin. 

The  Saiyids  may  be  divided  into  those  who  follow  the  profession  of 
religion  and  those  who  have  taken  to  agriculture  and  other  pursuits.  In 
appearance,  manners,  and  language  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  them 
from  other  Kashmiri  Musalmans.  Their  kram  name  is  Mir.  While 
a  Saiyid  retains  his  saintly  profession  Mir  is  a  prefix  ;  if  he  has  taken  to 
agriculture,  Mir  is  an  affix  to  his  name. ,  The  Saiyid  Makar  fraternity 
are  fraudulent  fakirs  who  pretend  to  be  Saiyids  and  wander  about 
Kashmir  and  India,  cheating  the  public.  Many  have  now  taken  to 
trade.     They  intermarry  among  themselves. 

The  Mughals  are  not  numerous.  Their  kram  names  are  Mir  (a  cor- 
ruption of  Mirza),  Beg,  Bandi,  Bach,  and  Ashaye. 

The  Pathans  are  more  numerous  than  the  Mughals,  and  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  south-west  of  the  valley,  where  Pathan  colonies  have  from 
time  to  time  been  founded.  The  most  interesting  of  these  colonies  is 
that  of  the  Kuki-Khel  Afrldis  at  Dranghaihama,  who  retain  all  the  old 
customs  and  speak  Pashtu.  They  wear  a  picturesque  dress,  and  carry 
swords  and  shields.  They  pride  themselves  on  their  bravery,  and  in 
the  absence  of  the  nobler  foe  engage  the  bear  on  foot  with  the  sword 
or  spear  him  from  their  plucky  little  ponies.  The  Afrldis  and  the 
Machipurias  who  belong  to  the  Yusufzai  tribe  are  liable  to  military 
service,  in  return  for  which  they  hold  certain  villages  free  of  revenue. 
The  Pathans  chiefly  came  in  under  the  Durranis,  but  many  were 
brought  by  Maharaja  Gulab  Singh  for  service  on  the  frontier.  They 
are  rapidly  adopting  Kashmiri  habits. 

Several  villages  are  held  by  fakirs  or  professional  beggars.  They 
work  as  agriculturists  in  the  summer,  and  beg  in  the  winter.  They  are 
proud  of  their  profession  and  are  liked  by  the  people.  They  intermarry 
with  other  beggar  families  or  Bechamvols.  These  various  tribes  are  scat- 
tered broadcast  over  the  valley  and  possess  no  marked  distinctive  features. 

The  dividing  line  in  society  is  between  the  zamitiddrs  or  agricultural 


io4  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

families  and  the  taifadars,  that  is,  the  market-gardeners,  herdsmen, 
shepherds,  boatmen,  minstrels,  leather-workers,  and  the  menial  servants 
of  the  villagers.  No  zatnlndar  would  intermarry  with  a  taifadar.  For 
the  most  part  it  is  difficult  to  trace  any  difference  in  physiognomy 
between  the  two  classes,  though  there  is  often  a  difference  in  dress. 
But  the  Dum,  the  Galawan,  and  the  Batal  or  Watal  are  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish from  other  tribes.  They  have  a  darker  skin,  and  the  Dum 
has  the  restless,  furtive  eye  so  characteristic  of  the  thief. 

The  Dums  are  a  very  important  people  in  Kashmir,  for  they  are  the 
watchmen  of  the  villages  and  formerly  used  to  look  after  the  State 
share  of  the  crops.  As  a  private  citizen  the  Dum  is  not  an  admirable 
person,  and  he  loses  no  opportunity  of  annoying  the  villagers,  by  whom 
he  is  feared  and  disliked.  But  as  officials  they  are  trustworthy,  and 
have  never  been  known  to  steal  the  State  treasure  which  passes  through 
their  hands.  The  Dums  claim  descent  from  a  Hindu  king,  who  from 
fear  of  his  numerous  sons  scattered  them  over  the  valley,  but  some  say 
that  they  are  descendants  of  the  Chakks,  mentioned  under  History. 

The  Galawans  or  horse-keepers  are  also  credited  with  a  descent 
from  the  Chakks,  and  their  violent  restless  character  may  be  hereditary. 
Originally  they  earned  their  lining  by  grazing  ponies,  but  found  it  more 
lucrative  to  steal  them.  At  last  they  became  an  established  criminal 
tribe,  and  during  Sikh  rule  were  a  terror  to  the  country.  Khaira 
Galawan,  the  hero  of  many  a  legend,  was  killed  by  the  Sikh  governor 
Mian  Singh.  Gulab  Singh  hunted  down  the  tribe,  and  their  end  was 
transportation  to  Bunji. 

The  Batals  or  Watals  have  been  called  the  gipsies  of  Kashmir,  and 
are  a  peculiar  people  with  a  patois  of  their  own.  They  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes.  Those  who  abstain  from  eating  carrion  and  are 
admitted  to  the  mosque  and  to  the  Musalman  religion  form  the  first 
class ;  those  who  eat  the  flesh  of  dead  animals  and  are  excluded  from 
the  mosque  form  the  second.  They  are  wanderers,  and  though  they 
sometimes  settle  in  wattled  huts  on  the  outskirts  of  a  village,  they  soon 
move  on.  Their  chief  occupation  is  the  manufacture  of  leather.  The 
first  class  make  boots  and  sandals ;  the  second  class  make  winnowing 
trays  of  leather  and  straw,  and  do  scavenger's  work.  They  also  rear 
poultry  and  rob  hen-roosts.  Their  women  are  of  fine  stature  and  hand- 
some, and  they  often  drift  into  the  city,  where  they  become  singers  and 
dancers.  Once  a  year  the  Batals  from  all  parts  of  the  valley  flock  to 
Lala  Bab's  shrine  near  the  Dal  Lake,  and  many  matters  affecting  the 
tribe  are  then  settled. 

The  Bhands  or  minstrels  are  a  peculiar  people.  They  combine  the 
profession  of  singing  and  acting  with  that  of  begging ;  and  they  travel 
great  distances,  often  visiting  the  Punjab,  where  they  perform  to 
Kashmiri  audiences.      They  are  excellent  actors,  clever   at   improvi- 


POPULATION  io5 


sation  and  fearless  as  to  its  results.  They  are  a  very  pleasant  people, 
and  their  mirth  and  good  humour  form  an  agreeable  contrast  to 
the  chronic  gloom  of  the  Kashmiri  peasant. 

The  Hanz  or  boatmen  claim  a  Vaisya  origin,  and  even  now  when 
blaming  one  of  the  crew  for  his  bad  paddling  the  captain  will  say  : 
'  You  are  a  Sudra.'  They  always  claim  Noah  as  their  ancestor ;  but 
some  accounts  point  to  a  gipsy  origin.  The  father  of  the  family  is  an 
autocrat,  and  his  discipline  on  board  is  often  of  a  violent  character. 
There  are  many  sections  of  the  tribe.  First  rank  the  half-amphibious 
paddlers  of  the  Dal  Lake  (Demb  Hanz),  who  are  really  vegetable 
gardeners,  and  the  boatmen  of  the  Wular  Lake,  who  gather  the  singhara 
nut  (Gari  Hanz).  Next  in  status  come  the  men  of  the  large  barges 
known  as  bahats  and  war,  in  which  cargoes  of  800  maunds  of  grain  or 
wood  are  carried.  Then  the  Dunga  Hanz,  who  paddle  the  passenger 
boats,  not  a  respectable  class,  for  they  prostitute  their  females  ;  next 
the  Gad  Hanz,  who  net  fish,  and  are  said  to  surpass  even  the  Dunga 
Hanz  in  their  power  of  invective ;  and  last  the  Hak  Hanz,  who  collect 
drift-wood  in  the  rivers.  The  Hanz  or  Hanjis  are  a  hardy  muscular 
people,  but  are  quarrelsome  and  mendacious.  Half  the  stories  to  the 
discredit  of  Kashmir  and  its  inhabitants  are  due  to  the  fertile  imagina- 
tion of  the  Hanji,  who  after  the  manner  of  the  Irish  car-driver  tells 
travellers  quaint  scandals  of  the  valley  and  its  rulers.  The  Hanji 
ashore  is  a  great  rascal,  and  European  travellers  would  be  wise  to  leave 
him  in  his  boat.  The  chief  kram  names  of  the  Hanjis  are  Dangar, 
Dar,  and  Mai. 

The  menial  servants  (Nangar)  of  the  villages  are  carpenters,  black- 
smiths, potters,  weavers,  butchers,  washermen,  barbers,  tailors,  bakers, 
goldsmiths,  carriers,  oil-pressers,  dyers,  milkmen,  cotton-cleaners,  and 
snuff-makers.  Many  of  the  Nangars  have  taken  to  agriculture,  and 
most  of  them  are  extremely  independent  of  their  so-called  masters. 
The  only  class  of  menials  who  apparently  cannot  take  to  agriculture 
are  the  weavers.  Their  soft  hands  and  weak  knees  make  field-work 
an  impossibility. 

The  Hindus  are  with  few  exceptions  Brahmans,  and  are  commonly 
known  as  Pandits.  They  fall  into  three  classes  :  astrologers  (Jyotis/ii), 
priests  (Guru  or  Bachabatf),  writers  and  clerks  {Karkun).  The  priest 
class  do  not  intermarry  with  the  others,  but  the  Jyotishl  and  Karkun 
classes  intermarry. 

The  astrologers  are  learned  in  the  shdstras  and  expound  them,  and 
they  draw  up  the  calendars  in  which  prophecies  are  made  as  to  the 
events  of  the  coming  year.  The  priests  perform  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Hindu  religion.  But  the  vast  majority  of  the  brahmans 
belong  to  the  Karkun  class.  Formerly  they  obtained  employment 
from  the  State,  but  recently  they  have  taken  to  business,  and  some 


io6  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

work  as  cooks,  bakers,  confectioners,  and  tailors.  The  only  occupa- 
tions forbidden  to  a  Pandit  are  those  of  the  cobbler,  potter,  corn-frier, 
porter,  boatman,  carpenter,  mason,  and  fruit-seller.  Many  Pandits 
have  taken  to  agriculture ;  but  the  city  Brahmans  look  down  on  any 
profession  save  that  of  writing,  and  they  would  never  think  of  marrying 
a  daughter  to  a  Pandit  cultivator.  They  have  no  real  aptitude  for 
business,  or  they  might  have  found  great  openings  in  trade  at  Srlnagar 
under  the  new  regime.  They  cling  to  the  city,  and  if  they  obtain 
employment  outside  they  leave  their  wives  and  families  behind  them. 
They  are  a  handsome  race  of  men,  with  fine  well-cut  features,  small 
hands  and  feet,  and  graceful  figures.  Their  women  are  fair  and  good- 
looking,  more  refined  than  the  Musalmans.  The  children  are  extremely 
pretty. 

The  Pandits  are  broken  up  into  numerous  gotras ;  but  though  the 
Pandit  repeats  the  name  of  his  gotra  seven  times  as  he  performs  his 
ablutions,  the  outside  world  knows  him  only  by  his  kram.  Marriage 
within  the  gotra  is  forbidden,  and  the  Kashmiri  Pandits  do  not  inter- 
marry with  the  Brahmans  of  India.  Among  the  leading  krams  may  be 
mentioned  the  following  :  Tiku,  Razdan,  Kak,  Munshi,  Mathu,  Kachru 
Pandit,  Sapru,  Bhan,  Zitshu,  Raina,  Dar,  Fotadar,  Madan,  Thusu, 
Wangnu,  Mujju,  Hokhu,  and  Dulu.  The  descendants  of  the  Brahmans, 
said  to  be  only  eleven  families,  who  survived  the  persecutions  of 
Sikandar  Shah  and  remained  in  the  valley,  are  known  as  Malmas.  The 
others,  descended  from  returned  fugitives,  are  called  Banamas. 

There  are  a  few  Khattrls,  known  as  Bohras  in  Srlnagar,  engaged  in 
trade  and  shop-keeping.  They  enjoy  no  caste  fellowship  with  the 
Pandits,  though  in  old  days  instances  are  known  of  a  Khattrl  being 
admitted  to  caste  by  the  Brahmans. 

The  Sikhs  of  Kashmir  were  probably  Punjabi  Brahmans  who 
embraced  Sikhism  when  the  valley  passed  into  the  hands  of  Ranjit 
Singh,  but  the  Sikhs  of  Trahal  declare  that  their  ancestors  came  to 
Kashmir  in  the  time  of  Afghan  rule.  They  are  not  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  They  look  to  service  as  their  chief  means  of  livelihood, 
and  are  not  good  cultivators.  They  are  ignorant  and  troublesome, 
and  quarrel  with  the  Musalman  Kashmiris  and  very  often  among 
themselves. 

In  1901  the  State  contained  202  native  Christians,  but,  although 
converts  are  so  few,  important  work  has  been  done  by  various  missions. 
Chief  among  these  is  the  Church  Missionary  Society  at  Srinagar, 
established  in  1865,  which  maintains  an  excellent  hospital.  Owing  to 
its  example,  the  first  State  dispensary  and  school  were  opened.  Other 
missions  have  been  founded  by  the  Moravians  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
at  Leh. 

The  beautiful  turf  and  greensward  of   Kashmir  are   so   suggestive 


AGRICULTURE  107 

of  splendid  playgrounds  that  one  naturally  expects  to  find  some 
national  game  in  the  valley,  and  the  legendary  feast  of  roses  conjures 
up  a  vision  of  a  happy  laughing  people  who  were  skilled  in  the  battle 
of  flowers  long  before  modern  Europe  dreamed  of  such  carnivals.  But 
in  reality  there  is  no  game  and  no  pastime  in  Kashmir  proper. 
Baltistan,  Gilgit,  and  Astor  are  the  homes  of  polo,  and  Ladakh  has 
its  devil-dance  ;  but  Kashmir  has  nothing  distinctive  save  its  actors, 
the  Bhands  or  Bhagats,  already  referred  to.  Sometimes  we  find  in  the 
villages  a  wandering  minstrel  (Shair),  who  sings  to  the  accompaniment 
of  a  guitar,  or  recites  verses,  often  extempore,  full  of  local  allusions 
and  usually  full  of  flattery,  if  an  official  or  person  of  influence  be 
present.  Like  most  Orientals,  the  Kashmiris  regard  amusement  as 
passive  rather  than  active.  They  are  glad  to  look  on  at  a  race  or 
a  game,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  induce  them,  athletic  and 
powerful  as  they  are,  to  take  a  part  in  any  sport.  They  are  not 
altogether  to  blame.  In  former  days  pastime  was  at  a  discount,  and 
small  mercy  would  have  been  shown  to  the  serf  who  suggested  that 
life  should  not  be  all  labour.  Even  in  the  pampered  city  of  Srinagar 
the  effervescence  of  youth  was  checked  by  Gulab  Singh,  who  sternly 
repressed  the  old  ward  fights  with  slings  and  stones.  The  professional 
shikaris  are  often  keen  sportsmen  ;  and  the  boatmen  of  Kashmir  will, 
when  challenged,  paddle  till  they  drop  rather  than  be  beaten  by 
a  rival  crew. 

As  already  explained,  the  Jammu  province  consists  of  a  fringe  of 
level  land  bordering  on  the  Punjab  Districts  of  Jhelum,  Sialkot,  and 
Gurdaspur,  gradually  rising  by  a  succession  of  ranges  .  .  . 
of  hills  to  the  high  uplands  bounded  by  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Himalayan  range,  beyond  which  lie  Kashmir,  Baltistan,  and 
Ladakh.  The  variations  of  climate  are  great,  and  the  staples  cultivated 
naturally  vary  to  some  extent  with  the  climate.  Thus  the  lower  tracts 
yield  all  the  usual  crops  of  the  Punjab,  while  in  the  higher  tracts 
saffron,  buckwheat,  and  mountain  barley  are  grown.  In  the  warmer 
parts  the  mango  and  shisham  are  found  in  large  quantities ;  but  these 
give  place  to  apple  and  pear-trees,  to  the  picturesque  deodar  and  shady 
Oriental  plane  (chinar)  in  the  colder  parts. 

The  province  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  main  divisions. 
The  plains  and  kandi  hills  consist  of  the  tahslls  of  Kathua,  Jasmirgarh, 
Samba,  Ranblrsinghpura,  Jammu,  Akhnur,  Manawar,  and  Mirpur.  In 
the  hot  moist  tracts,  such  as  those  irrigated  from  the  Ravi  and  Ujh 
in  the  Jasrota  district  to  the  south-west,  malaria  is  so  rampant  that 
the  resident  population  is  too  small  for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil, 
which  is  chiefly  tilled  by  udarach  cultivators — men  from  the  low 
hills  who  descend  to  the  plain  for  short  periods  to  sow,  tend,  and  reap 
crops,  and  return  again  to  their  healthier  homes. 

VOL.  XV.  H 


ioS  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

North  of  this  lie  the  thirsty  lowlands,  sheltered  by  the  hills  from  the 
cooler  inland  breezes,  seamed  with  many  channels  (kad/is),  which  carry 
off  the  drainage  of  the  uplands  and  become  roaring  torrents  for  a  few 
hours  after  heavy  rainfall,  but  at  other  times  are  broad  stretches  of 
burning  sand.  This  tract  depends  for  a  full  harvest  on  timely  and 
well-distributed  rainfall. 

The  parched  kandi  hills  are  composed  of  a  red  loam,  thickly  strewn 
with  round  stones  and  covered  with  stunted  growth  of  garna  sanatan 
and  bahaikar  bushes,  broad-leaved  species  of  trees,  acacias,  and  in 
parts  bamboos.  The  tor  {Euphorbia)  is  used  to  hedge  the  fields  and 
cobble-paved  paths,  and  to  keep  the  ?ulgai  from  damaging  the  crops. 
The  soil  is  thirsty  and  dries  quickly,  as  the  land  slopes  and  drainage 
is  rapid.  Frequent  rainfall  is  necessary  to  ripen  the  crops,  chiefly 
wheat,  barley,  and  sarshaf  (rape)  in  the  spring,  and  millet  and  maize 
(on  manured  land)  in  the  autumn ;  but  rain  washes  away  the  soft  earth 
and  leaves  the  surface  of  the  soil  a  mass  of  stones. 

Where  the  kandi  hills  end,  and  before  the  first  limestone  ridge  is 
crossed,  there  is  a  narrow  belt  of  cool  land  lying  in  the  valleys  traversed 
by  the  clear  streams  which  carry  the  drainage  of  the  middle  hills  on 
the  lower  side.  When  the  depth  of  soil  is  sufficient,  excellent  crops 
are  raised  and  much  of  the  land  is  irrigated ;  but  on  the  slopes  where 
the  depth  of  earth  is  small,  and  the  limestone  crops  up  to  the  surface 
{prat),  cultivation  is  precarious.  Too  much  rain  causes  the  soil  to 
become  waterlogged,  as  percolation  is  stopped  by  the  rock  bed  ;  and 
during  a  continued  spell  of  hot  weather  the  rock  surface  becomes  so 
heated  as  to  burn  the  roots  of  the  crops,  which  wither. 

In  this  portion  of  the  province  wells  are  few,  owing  to  their  cost. 
Except  in  the  lowland  bordering  on  the  streams  deep  boring  is  neces- 
sary, and  it  is  common  to  find  that  the  water  is  from  70  to  100  feet 
below  the  surface.  The  cultivators  are  not  as  a  rule  sufficiently  well-to- 
do  to  undertake  the  expenditure  necessary  to  sink  such  wells,  and  risk 
the  failure  of  finding  water.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  regular 
settlement,  the  Darbar  has  done  much  to  encourage  the  sinking  of 
wells  by  the  grant  of  advances  on  easy  terms. 

In  this  tract,  however,  are  found  the  only  considerable  areas  pro- 
tected by  irrigation.  The  natural  difficulties  to  be  overcome  are  great, 
as  the  lie  of  the  land  makes  projects  costly  and  difficult  to  execute. 
The  lines  of  irrigation  have  to  cross  the  drainage  of  the  country,  and 
it  is  not  easy  to  secure  the  channels  against  damage  from  the  kadhs 
when  in  flood.  Owing  to  this  difficulty,  the  more  ambitious  projects 
of  former  days — the  Kashmir  canal  taking  off  from  the  Ravi  above  the 
Madhopur  weir,  the  Shahi  Nahr  taking  off  from  the  left  bank  of 
the  Chenab  opposite  Akhnur,  and  the  Katobandi  or  Dalpat  Nahr 
taking   off   from    the    Chenab  on    the   right   bank — failed    to   render 


AGRICULTURE  ro9 

permanent  help  to  the  country.  Something  has  recently  been  done 
to  remedy  the  apathy  displayed  in  the  past.  Two  old  irrigation  works 
taking  off  from  the  Tawi  in  the  Jammu  tahsil — the  Jogi  Darwaza  canal 
irrigating  the  land  immediately  below  Jammu  city,  and  the  Satwari 
canal  irrigating  the  villages  round  Satwari  cantonment — have  been 
realigned  and  put  in  order  ;  and  the  Dalpat  canal,  taking  off  from 
the  right  bank  of  the  Chenab  and  irrigating  a  large  portion  of  the 
Akhnur  tahsil  immediately  north  of  the  Bhajwath  Andar,  has  been 
reconstructed. 

Under  agreement  with  the  Government  of  the  Punjab  the  right  of 
the  State  to  take  water  from  the  Ravi,  above  the  Madhopur  weir,  for 
the  irrigation  of  spring  crops  in  the  Kathua  tahsil  has  been  surrendered 
in  consideration  of  an  annual  payment  of  Rs.  5,000.  The  restoration 
of  the  old  Kashmir  canal,  which  takes  off  above  the  weir,  is  thus  not 
financially  attractive.  Probably  the  low-lying  portion  of  the  Mirpur 
tahsil,  known  as  the  Khari  ilaka,  could  be  irrigated  from  the  Jhelum  ; 
but  this  source  of  irrigation  has  not  been  tapped. 

There  are  many  drawbacks  to  agriculture.  The  administration  in 
the  past  was  bad  and  shortsighted.  There  are  practically  no  roads, 
and  in  the  kandi  tract  even  drinking-water  is  obtained  with  difficulty. 
Much  damage  is  done  by  nilgai,  hog,  and  monkeys,  the  first-named 
animal,  though  an  antelope,  being  regarded  as  sacred  like  the  cow. 
Cattle  turned  loose,  either  as  likely  to  die  and  of  no  further  use,  or 
devoted  to  the  deity,  have  become  quite  wild  and  do  much  damage  to 
crops. 

Above  the  first  limestone  range  lies  a  country  of  wide  valleys  and 
high  hills,  consisting  of  Basoli,  Ramnagar,  Udhampur,  Naoshera,  and 
part  of  Riasi.  This  has  a  more  temperate  climate  than  the  tract  just 
described.  The  supply  of  water  from  perennial  streams  is  constant,  but 
the  stream  beds  are  deep  and  irrigation  is  not  easily  effected.  Being 
nearer  the  Himalayan  range,  rainfall  is  usually  heavy  and  fairly 
regular,  so  that  the  people  do  not  trouble  themselves  much  about  irri- 
gation, except  where  this  can  be  contrived  at  little  expense.  The  crops 
are  much  the  same  as  in  the  plains,  but  bdjra  gives  way  to  maize,  and 
sugar-cane  and  turmeric  disappear.  The  seasons  are  shorter.  The 
areas  of  prdti  land,  where  the  limestone  bed  penetrates  or  approaches 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  are  considerable.  Communications  are  back- 
ward and  prices  generally  rule  low.  Trade  is  carried  on  by  Telis,  who 
keep  droves  of  pack-bullocks  or  ponies.  Grazing  is  good  and  the  tract 
is  frequented  by  Gujars,  goatherds,  and  shepherds.  A  considerable 
export  of  ghi  takes  place.  Wild  hog  and  monkeys  do  damage,  but  no 
antelope  are  found.     Autumnal  fevers  are  very  rare. 

The  higher  uplands,  including  Bhadrawar,  Kishtwar,  Ramban,  part 
of  Riasi,  and  Rampur  Rajaori,  have  a  really  cold  climate,  and  in  the 

H  2 


no  KASHMIR   AXD  JAMMU 

winter  snow  falls.  The  cultivators  are  a  different  class  from  those  in 
the  plains  and  lower  hills,  and  Kashmiri  settlers  are  found.  Here  the 
mango-tree  gives  place  to  the  apple ;  and  the  pear,  the  Oriental  plane 
(chinar),  and  the  deodar  are  found.  The  climate  approximates  to  that 
of  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  and  cultivation  is  on  much  the  same  lines. 
The  specialities  are  saffron  in  Kishtwar,  and  poppy  in  Dodar,  Kishtwar, 
and  Bhadrawar.  This  tract  is  healthy,  and  only  in  the  more  shut-in 
valleys  do  fevers  trouble  the  people.  Irrigation  is  general  and  the 
rainfall  heavy.  Grazing  lands  are  plentiful  and  Gujars  numerous. 
Early  snowfall  and  cold  winds  from  the  mountains  affect  the  crops  in 
the  parts  adjoining  the  Himalayan  range,  and  prevent  these  coming  to 
maturity  in  certain  years.     Bears,  hog,  and  monkeys  do  some  damage. 

Owing  to  its  system  of  rivers,  Kashmir  proper  possesses  a  large  area 
of  alluvial  soil,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  the  new  alluvium, 
found  in  the  bays  and  deltas  of  the  mountain  rivers ;  and  the  old  allu- 
vium, lying  above  the  banks  of  the  Jhelum  and  extending  as  far  as  the 
karewas.  The  first  is  of  great  fertility,  and  every  year  is  renewed  and 
enriched  by  silt  from  the  mountain  streams.  Up  to  the  present,  in 
spite  of  the  lax  system  of  forest  conservancy,  the  silt  of  the  mountain 
streams  is  rich  and  of  dark  colour  :  but  the  Sind  river  brings  down  an 
increasing  amount  of  sandy  deposit,  which  is  partly  due  to  the  reckless 
felling  of  trees  in  its  valley. 

The  Kashmiris,  so  far,  have  considered  no  crop  worthy  of  attention 
save  rice ;  by  irrigation  and  manuring  an  artificial  mould  has  been  ob- 
tained for  the  rice-fields,  and  it  is  rare  to  hear  anything  said  about  the 
original  soil.  But  they  recognize  four  classes  which  require  peculiar 
treatment  when  under  rice  cultivation.  These  are  known  as  grutu, 
bahil,  sekil,  and  dazanlad.  Grutu  soil  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
clay.  It  holds  water,  and  in  years  of  scanty  rainfall  is  the  safest  land 
for  rice.  But  if  the  rains  be  heavy,  the  soil  cakes  and  the  out-turn  of 
rice  is  poor.  Bahil  is  a  rich  loam  of  great  natural  strength  ;  and  there 
is  always  a  danger  that  by  over-manuring  the  soil  will  be  too  strong, 
and  the  plant  will  run  to  blade.  Sekil  is  a  light  loam  with  a  sandy 
subsoil ;  and  if  there  be  sufficient  irrigation  and  good  rains,  the  out-turn 
of  rice  is  always  large.  Dazanlad  soil  is  chiefly  found  in  low-lying 
ground  near  the  swamps,  but  it  sometimes  occurs  in  the  higher  villages. 
Special  precautions  are  taken  to  run  off  irrigation  water  when  the  rice 
plant  shows  signs  of  a  too  rapid  growth  ;  and  if  these  are  taken  in  time, 
the  out-turn  in  dazanlad  land  is  sometimes  very  heavy.  A  peculiarity 
of  this  soil  is  that  the  irrigation  water  turns  red  in  colour.  Near 
the  banks  of  the  Jhelum,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Wular  Lake, 
is  found  a  rich,  peaty  soil  (nambal),  which  in  years  of  fair  rainfall 
yields  enormous  crops  of  rapeseed  and  maize.  This  will  not  pro- 
duce  rice  and  requires  no  manure.     It  is,  however,  the   custom    to 


AGRICULTURE 


1 1  r 


bum  standing  weeds  and    the  stubble  of  the  last  year's  crop  before 
ploughing. 

The  curious  plateaux  known  as  karewas,  which  form  so  striking  a 
feature  in  the  scenery,  are  for  the  most  part  of  grutu  soil,  with  varieties 
distinguished  by  colour.  The  most  fertile  is  the  dark  blackish  soil 
known  as  surhzamhi,  the  red  grutu  is  the  next  best,  while  yellow  soil 
is  considered  the  worst  of  all.  Other  classes  are  recognized,  and  there 
are  many  local  names. 

The  Kashmiris  are  fortunate  in  possessing  ample  manure  for  their 
fields,  and  are  not  compelled,  like  the  natives  of  India,  to  use  the 
greater  part  of  the  cattle-dung  for  fuel.  The  rule  is  that  all  dung, 
whether  of  sheep,  cattle,  or  horses,  dropped  in  the  winter,  when  the 
animals  are  in  the  houses,  is  reserved  for  agriculture,  while  the  summer 
dung  is  dried,  and  after  being  mixed  with  chinar  leaves  and  willow  twigs 
is  kept  for  fuel.  But  the  ashes  are  carefully  stored  and  the  fires  are 
chiefly  fed  with  wood,  the  dung  aiding  and  regulating  combustion. 
The  dung-heaps  which  one  sees  in  early  spring  show  that  the  Kashmiri 
wastes  nothing  that  is  useful  in  agriculture  ;  but  he  has  other  resources. 
When  the  flocks  commence  to  move  towards  the  mountains,  the  sheep 
are  folded  on  the  fields,  and  the  Kashmiri  considers  turf  clods  to  be 
a  far  more  effectual  renovator  of  rice-fields  than  farmyard  manure. 
These  are  cut  from  the  sides  of  watercourses  and  are  rich  in  silt ;  and 
a  dressing  of  clods  will  strengthen  a  field  for  three  years,  whereas  farm- 
yard manure  must  be  applied  every  year.  The  strongest  farmyard 
manure  is  that  of  poultry,  and  this  is  reserved  for  onions.  The  next 
best  is  the  manure  of  sheep,  which  is  always  kept  for  the  rice  nurseries. 
Next  comes  cattle-dung,  and  last  of  all  horse-dung.  The  value  of  night- 
soil  is  thoroughly  understood.  Near  Srlnagar  and  the  larger  villages 
the  garden  cultivation  is  excellent,  and  the  only  manure  used  is  pou- 
drette,  or  night-soil  mixed  with  the  dust  of  the  city  alleys  and  pulverized 
by  the  action  of  the  sun. 

Agriculture  in  the  valley  practically  depends  on  irrigation.  Thanks 
to  the  formation  of  the  country,  this  is  easy  and  in  ordinary  years  abun- 
dant. If  normal  snows  fall  in  the  winter  and  the  great  mountains  are 
well  covered,  the  water-supply  for  the  rice  will  be  sufficient.  The  snows 
melt  into  various  mountain  streams,  which  rush  down  to  the  Jhelum. 
From  both  sides  of  the  river  the  country  rises  to  the  mountains  in  bold 
terraces,  and  the  water  passes  quickly  from  one  village  to  another  in 
years  of  good  snowfall.  At  convenient  points  on  the  mountain  streams 
temporary  weirs  or  projecting  spurs  are  constructed  ;  and  the  water  is 
taken  off  in  main  channels,  which  pass  into  a  network  of  small  ducts 
and  eventually  empty  themselves  into  the  Jhelum,  or  into  the  large 
swamps  which  lie  along  its  banks.  Lower  down,  where  the  streams 
flow  gently,  dams  are  erected.     All  villages   which  depend   for  their 


it2  KASHMIR   AXD  JAMMU 

irrigation  on  a  certain  weir  are  obliged  to  assist  in  its  construction 
and  repair.  The  weir  consists  of  wooden  stakes  and  stones,  with 
grasses  and  willow  branches  twisted  in  between  the  stakes,  the  best 
grass  for  this  purpose  being  the  fikaL  The  channel  often  has  to  be 
taken  over  ravines  and  around  the  edges  of  the  karewa  cliffs,  and 
irrigation  then  becomes  very  difficult.  In  former  days,  when  the  State 
took  a  share  of  the  crop,  it  was  to  the  interest  of  the  Darbar  to  look 
after  irrigation  and  to  assist  in  repairs.  But  since  1880,  when  an 
attempt  was  made  to  introduce  a  fixed  assessment,  the  villagers  have 
had  to  attend  to  repairs  themselves,  and  where  the  channel  passes 
through  difficult  ground  the  irrigation  has  become  very  uncertain.  If 
a  ravine  has  to  be  crossed,  a  flat-bottomed  boat,  similar  to  those  in 
ordinary  use,  is  erected  on  high  trestles,  and  the  water  flows  over  in  a 
quaint-looking  aqueduct.  When  a  kareiva  has  to  be  passed  or  skirted, 
a  tunnel  will  sometimes  be  made  ;  but  as  a  rule  the  channel  is  cut  along 
the  face  of  the  cliff,  and  great  loss  is  caused  by  the  frequent  breaches. 
In  old  days  over  every  main  channel  there  was  a  mlrab — one  of  the 
villagers — whose  duty  was  to  see  to  repairs  and  to  call  out  labour. 
The  mirdbs  had  not  received  pay  for  years,  and  the  channels  had  fallen 
into  great  disorder ;  but  the  office  has  now  been  revived.  The  system 
of  distribution  is  rough  and  simple  ;  but  it  has  the  advantage  that  quar- 
rels between  villages  rarely  arise,  and  disputes  between  cultivators  of 
the  same  village  are  unknown.  Besides  the  irrigation  derived  from  the 
mountain  streams,  an  important  auxiliary  supply  is  obtained  from  nume- 
rous springs.  Some  of  these  afford  excellent  irrigation,  but  they  have 
two  drawbacks.  Spring  water  is  always  cold,  and  it  does  not  carry  with 
it  the  fertilizing  silt  brought  down  by  the  mountain  streams,  but  bears 
a  scum  which  is  considered  bad  for  rice.  The  Jhelum  in  its  long, 
gentle  course  through  the  valley  gives  no  irrigation  at  present,  but  as 
the  population  increases  water  will  probably  be  lifted  by  the  Persian 
wheel.  The  only  lift-irrigation  at  present  takes  the  form  of  the  simple 
and  inexpensive  pot  and  lever  {d/iefikll),  and  in  Srlnagar  and  the  small 
towns  some  splendid  garden  cultivation  depends  wholly  on  this  system. 
On  some  of  the  karewas  the  spring-level  is  not  very  deep;  and  when  all 
the  land  commanded  by  flow-irrigation  has  been  taken  up,  it  is  hoped 
that  wells  may  be  sunk.  The  bucket  and  rope  will  be  found  more 
suitable  than  the  Persian  wheel,  as  the  spring-level  is  more  than  18  feet 
in  depth.  In  the  north-west  of  the  valley  there  are  a  few  tanks,  and 
tank-irrigation  might  be  introduced  into  many  parts. 

The  agricultural  implements  are  few  and  simple.  The  plough  is  of 
necessity  light,  as  the  cattle  are  small,  and  is  made  of  various  woods, 
the  mulberry,  the  ash,  and  the  apple  being  perhaps  the  most  suitable 
materials.  The  ploughshare  is  tipped  with  iron.  For  clod-breaking 
a  wooden  mallet  is  used  and  the  work  is  done  in  gangs.     Sometimes 


AGRICULTURE  rr. 

a  log  of  wood  is  drawn  over  the  furrows  by  bullocks,  the  driver  standing 
on  the  log.  But  as  a  rule,  frost,  snow,  water,  and  the  process  known  as 
khushaba  are  considered  a  sufficient  agency  for  the  disintegration  of 
clods.  The  spade  is  made  of  wood,  has  a  narrow  face,  and  is  tipped 
with  iron.  It  is  chiefly  employed  by  the  cultivator  for  digging  out  turf 
clods  and  for  arranging  his  fields  for  irrigation.  For  maize  and  cotton, 
a  small  hand  hoe  is  used  to  extract  weeds  and  to  loosen  the  soil.  The 
pestle  and  mortar  for  husking  rice  and  pounding  maize  must  also  be 
mentioned.  The  mortar  is  made  of  a  hollowed-out  bole  of  wood.  The 
pestle  is  of  light,  hard  wood,  and  the  best  and  hardest  of  woods  for  the 
purpose  is  the  hawthorn. 

Agricultural  operations  are  carefully  timed  so  as  to  fall  within 
a  certain  period  before  or  after  the  naitroz,  the  spring  day  of  the 
Musalmans,  and  the  mezan,  or  commencement  of  autumn.  If  the 
period  is  exceeded  there  will  be  a  certain  failure  in  the  crop,  which 
is  calculated  in  a  most  precise  manner.  The  circumstance  which 
interferes  with  punctuality  in  ploughing  and  sowing  is  the  absence 
of  irrigation  water  at  the  right  time ;  and  in  the  spring  there  is  great 
excitement  among  the  villages  if  water  is  stopped  by  some  natural 
cause,  such  as  the  late  melting  of  snow,  or  by  other  reasons,  such  as 
the  greediness  of  some  privileged  person  who  defies  the  local  official 
and  takes  more  than  his  just  share  of  water.  Up  to  recent  times, 
the  cultivator  was  often  seized  for  forced  labour  and  could  not  plough 
or  sow  at  the  proper  time.  And  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  rice 
ought  to  be  sown  within  forty  days  after  the  nauroz,  sowing  often 
continues  up  to  the  middle  of  June. 

In  March  the  rice-fields,  which  have  remained  undisturbed  since  the 
last  crop  was  cut,  are  hard  and  stiff.  The  soil  has  perhaps  been  worked 
by  the  frosts  and  snow  ;  but  if,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  no  snow  has 
fallen,  it  will  be  difficult  work  for  the  plough-bullocks,  thin  and  poor 
after  the  long  winter,  to  break  up  the  soil.  If  rain  does  not  fall,  a  special 
watering  must  be  given  and  ploughing  then  commences.  In  certain 
villages  the  soil  is  so  damp  that  ploughing  has  to  be  done  perforce 
while  the  soil  is  wet,  and  the  out-turn  is  always  poorer  than  from  fields 
where  the  soil  is  ploughed  in  a  dry  condition.  All  the  litter  of  the 
village  and  the  farmyard  manure  is  carried  out  to  the  fields  by  women 
and  ploughed  in,  or  is  heaped  in  a  place  through  which  the  irrigation 
duct  passes  and  so  reaches  the  fields  as  liquid  manure.  Sometimes 
manure  is  placed  in  heaps  on  the  fields,  and  when  the  field  is  covered 
with  water  it  is  scattered  about  by  hand.  Later  on  in  April,  as  the 
weather  opens,  turf  clods  are  cut  from  the  banks  of  streams  and  irri- 
gation channels,  and  flung  broadcast  over  the  wet  fields.  When  four 
ploughings  have  been  given  and  the  clods  have  been  crumbled  with 
mallets,  the  soil  is  watered  and  sowing  can  commence  in  April.     The 


ii4  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

rice  seed,  which  has  been  carefully  selected  at  threshing-time  and  has 
been  stored  away  in  grass  bags,  is  again  examined  and  tested  by  win- 
nowing. It  is  then  put  back  into  the  grass  bags  and  immersed  in 
water  until  germination  commences.  Sometimes  the  seed  is  placed 
in  earthen  vessels  through  which  water  is  passed.  Rice  is  grown  up 
to  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet ;  and  in  the  higher  villages  it  is  convenient 
to  sow  earlier  than  in  the  lower  villages,  as  the  cold  season  comes  on 
quicker  and  it  is  essential  to  harvest  the  crop  before  snow  falls.  In 
certain  lower  villages  also,  where  it  is  the  custom  to  sow  rice  earlier 
than  ordinary,  the  out-turn  is  always  heavy.  The  ploughing  for  maize 
and  the  autumn  millets  is  not  so  careful  as  for  rice,  and  two  or  three 
ploughings  are  considered  ample.  A  watering  is  sometimes  given  to 
maize-fields  to  start  the  seed,  but  no  manure  is  put  in.  Cotton  alone 
receives  manure  in  the  form  of  ashes  mixed  with  the  seed.  All  Kash- 
miris recognize  that  the  greater  the  number  of  ploughings  the  greater 
will  be  the  out-turn  of  the  crop,  but  holdings  are  large  and  the  cattle 
are  small  and  weak. 

In  June  and  July  barley  and  wheat  are  cut  and  threshed.  The  ears 
are  trodden  out  by  cattle  or  sometimes  beaten  by  sticks,  and  when 
there  is  no  wind  a  blanket  is  flapped  to  winnow  the  grain.  Anything 
is  good  enough  for  the  spring  crops,  which  are  regarded  by  the  Kash- 
miris as  a  kind  of  lottery  in  which  they  generally  lose  their  stakes.  At 
the  same  time  comes  the  real  labour  of  rice  weeding,  the  khushaba, 
a  word  for  which  there  is  no  English  equivalent.  It  involves  putting 
the  rice  plants  in  their  right  places,  and  pressing  the  soft  mud  gently 
around  the  green  seedling.  No  novice  can  do  the  work,  as  only  an 
expert  can  detect  the  counterfeit  grasses  which  pretend  to  be  rice,  and 
khushaba  must  be  learnt  young.  The  operation  is  best  performed  by 
hand,  but  it  may  be  done  by  the  feet  (/at),  or,  in  a  fashion,  by  cattle 
splashing  up  and  down  the  wet  fields  of  mud  (gupan  nind).  Sometimes 
when  the  rice  is  two  feet  high  the  whole  crop  is  ploughed  up  (se/e). 
When  rice  has  bloomed  and  the  grain  has  begun  to  form,  the  water  is 
run  off  the  fields,  and  a  short  time  before  harvest  a  final  watering  is 
given  which  swells  the  ears.  Often,  while  the  rice  is  standing,  rapeseed 
is  cast  into  the  water.  No  ploughing  is  given,  and  a  crop  of  rape  is 
thus  easily  obtained.  Before  the  harvest  of  the  autumn  crops  com- 
mences, about  the  first  half  of  September,  rain  may  fall  and  it  is  very 
beneficial.  It  improves  the  rice  crop,  and  it  also  enables  the  cultivator 
to  plough  and  sow  for  the  spring  crops.  Such  rain  is  known  as  kambar 
ha,  and  there  is  great  rejoicing  when  these  timely  showers  occur.  Before 
September,  if  rain  has  fallen,  a  large  area  of  land  will  be  ploughed  up 
and  sown  with  rapeseed;  and  both  this  and  the  early  sowings  for  barley 
and  wheat  are  of  importance,  as  they  come  at  a  time  when  the  culti- 
vator and  his  cattle  have  some  leisure,  for  then  the  khushaba  is  over 


AGRICULTURE  Tr5 

and  harvest  has  not  commenced.  There  are  no  carts  in  the  valley, 
save  in  the  flat  plain  around  the  Wular  Lake,  where  a  primitive  trolly 
is  used ;  and  as  the  Kashmiris  will  not  use  plough-bullocks  for  carriage, 
the  sheaves  of  rice  and  of  other  crops  are  slowly  and  laboriously  carried 
by  men  to  the  threshing-floor.  When  the  ricks  are  thoroughly  dry, 
threshing  commences.  Seizing  a  bundle  of  rice  plants  in  his  two 
hands,  the  cultivator  beats  them  over  a  log  of  wood  and  detaches  the 
ears  from  the  stalk.  The  straw  is  carefully  stored,  as  it  is  considered 
the  best  fodder  and  the  best  thatching  straw  of  all. 

When  the  weather  is  favourable,  from  October  to  December,  the 
cultivator  is  busy  ploughing  'dry'  land  for  wheat  and  barley;  but 
by  the  end  of  December  ploughing  must  cease,  and  the  Kashmiris 
occupy  themselves  with  threshing  and  husking  the  rice  and  other  crops 
and  with  domestic  work,  such  as  the  tending  of  sheep  and  cattle  and 
the  weaving  of  blankets.  It  is  difficult  in  mid-winter  to  tempt  a  Kash- 
miri out  of  his  reeking  house.  The  ploughings  for  wheat  and  barley 
are  very  few  and  very  slovenly.  For  wheat  three  at  the  most,  for 
barley  two,  are  considered  sufficient.  No  labour  is  spent  in  weeding 
or  manuring,  and  the  standing  crops  of  wheat  and  barley  would  shock 
a  Punjabi  farmer.  The  fields  are  choked  with  weeds,  and  it  is  wonder- 
ful that  there  should  be  any  crop  at  all.  Two  years  of  barley  or  wheat 
would  ruin  any  land,  and  the  Kashmiris  have  the  sense  to  follow  a 
spring  crop  by  an  autumn  crop.  Some  day  more  attention  may  be 
paid  to  their  barley  and  wheat,  but  two  facts  prevent  either  of  these 
crops  being  largely  produced  in  the  valley.  The  rainfall  is  scanty  and 
very  uncertain,  and  if  irrigation  were  attempted  the  water  in  the  spring- 
time would  prove  too  cold  for  plant  growth. 

The  principal  crops  are  rice,  maize,  cotton,  saffron,  tobacco,  hops, 
millets,  amaranth,  buckwheat,  pulses,  and  sesamum  in  the  autumn  ; 
and  wheat,  barley,  poppy,  rape,  flax,  peas,  and  beans  in  the  spring. 

The  most  important  staple  is  rice,  and  the  cultivator  devotes  all  his 
energy  to  this  crop.  The  soil  is  porous,  and  water  must  be  kept 
running  over  the  fields  from  sowing  time  almost  to  harvest ;  for  if  once 
the  land  becomes  hard  and  caked,  the  stalks  are  pinched  and  the  plant 
suffers,  while  the  work  of  khushaba  is  rendered  impossible.  It  is 
dangerous  to  leave  the  fields  dry  for  more  than  seven  days,  and  the 
cultivator  should  always  be  present  to  watch  the  water.  The  growth 
of  weeds  is  very  rapid ;  and  once  they  get  ahead  of  the  rice,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  repair  the  injury  caused  and  to  eradicate  the 
grasses,  which  none  but  an  expert  can  distinguish  from  the  rice.  There 
are  two  systems  of  cultivation.  Under  the  first  the  rice  is  sown  broad- 
cast ;  under  the  second  it  is  first  sown  in  a  nursery  and  then  planted 
out.  The  broadcast  system  gives  the  best  out-turn  per  acre,  but  the 
labour  entailed  is  far  heavier  than  that  required  in  the  nursery  system. 


n6  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

Two  khushabas  are  sufficient  for  the  latter,  while  four  khushabas  are 
essential  in  broadcast  sowings.  Provided  the  soil  is  good  and  irrigation 
is  fairly  abundant,  the  cultivator  will  choose  the  broadcast  system,  but 
in  certain  circumstances  he  will  adopt  the  nursery  method.  If  water 
comes  late,  rice  can  be  kept  alive  in  the  nursery  plots,  and  the  young 
seedling  need  not  be  planted  out  till  forty  days  after  sowing. 

Just  as  there  are  two  methods  of  sowing  the  rice,  so  there  are  two 
methods  of  preparing  the  soil.  The  one  is  known  as  tao,  the  other 
as  kenalu.  An  old  proverb  says  that  for  rice  cultivation  the  land 
should  be  absolutely  wet  or  absolutely  dry.  In  tao  cultivation  the  soil 
is  ploughed  dry ;  and  when  the  clods  are  perfectly  free  from  moisture 
and  do  not  lose  weight  when  placed  over  the  fireplace  at  night,  irriga- 
tion is  given  and  the  seed  is  sown.  In  kenalu  cultivation  the  soil  is 
ploughed  wet  ;  and  when  three  ploughings  are  made  and  the  soil 
is  half  water  and  half  mud,  the  out-turn  of  kenalu  is  sometimes  equal 
to  that  of  tao.  But  as  a  rule  the  tao  system  gives  the  better  results  and 
kenalu  involves  the  heavier  labour. 

The  rices  are  infinite  in  variety.  In  one  tahsll  fifty-three  varieties 
have  been  counted.  They  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  white  and  the  red.  As  a  food  the  white  rice  is  the  more  esteemed, 
and  the  best  of  the  white  rices  are  basmati  and  kanyun.  These  germi- 
nate very  quickly  and  ripen  more  rapidly  than  any  other.  But  they 
are  very  delicate  plants  and  cannot  stand  exposure  to  cold  winds. 
They  give  a  small  crop  and  require  very  careful  husking.  The  white 
rice,  though  esteemed  as  a  food,  is  from  a  cultivator's  point  of  view 
less  popular  than  the  red  rice,  which  is  more  hardy,  gives  a  larger 
out-turn,  can  be  grown  at  higher  elevations,  and  is  less  liable  to 
damage  from  wild  animals. 

For  a  good  rice  harvest  the  following  conditions  are  necessary : 
heavy  snows  on  the  mountains  in  the  winter  to  fill  the  streams  in  the 
summer  ;  good  rains  in  March  and  the  beginning  of  April ;  clear, 
bright,  warm  days  and  cool  nights  in  May,  June,  July,  and  August, 
with  an  occasional  shower  and  fine  cold  weather  in  September.  All 
Kashmiris  assert  that  sirdana,  or  full  grains,  depend  on  cold  dew 
penetrating  the  outer  husk  and  swelling  and  hardening  the  forming 
grain. 

Next  in  importance  comes  maize.  The  best  soil  is  reclaimed  swamp, 
and  enormous  crops  are  raised  in  good  years  from  the  black  peaty 
land  which  lies  under  the  banks  of  the  Jhelum.  In  the  high  villages 
occupied  by  the  Gtijar  graziers  very  fine  crops  of  maize  are  grown, 
and  the  out-turn  is  due  to  the  heavy  manuring  given  to  the  field  by 
buffaloes  and  cattle.  But  with  this  exception  maize  receives  no 
manure,  and  the  system  of  harvesting  renders  it  unnecessary.  A  large 
part  of  the  stalk  is  left  on  the  fields,  and  in  the  winter  the  stalks  rot 


AGRICULTURE  IT? 

with  the  snow  and  rain  into  the  soil.  Ordinarily  two  to  three  plough- 
ing* are  given,  and  a  final  ploughing  covers  over  the  seeds.  A  month 
after  sowing,  when  the  maize  is  about  a  foot  high,  women  weed  the 
fields  with  a  small  hand  hoe  and  loosen  the  soil  about  the  roots.  As 
a  rule,  maize  is  grown  on  '  dry '  land,  and  it  is  rare  to  find  it  irrigated. 
For  a  really  good  crop  of  maize  fortnightly  rains  are  required,  but 
in  the  swamp-lands  the  natural  moisture  of  the  soil  produces  fair  crops 
even  if  the  rains  are  delayed. 

Kangni  or  shot  (Setaria  italica)  is  an  extremely  useful  plant  ;  and 
when  it  is  apparent  from  the  lock  of  the  mountains  that  snow  water 
will  be  scarce,  a  large  area  of  rice  land  is  at  once  sown  with  it.  The 
land,  if  a  good  crop  is  hoped  for,  must  be  carefully  ploughed  about 
four  times,  and  the  seed  is  sown  in  April  and  May  about  the  same 
time  as  rice.  Some  weeding  is  done,  but  as  a  rule  the  crop  is  left 
until  it  ripens  in  September.  China  or  ping  {Panicum  miliaceuni) 
is  very  like  rice  in  appearance,  but  is  grown  on  '  dry '  land.  The  field 
is  ploughed  three  times,  and  after  sowing  cattle  are  turned  on  to  the 
land  to  tread  the  soil  down.  The  seed  is  sown  in  June,  and  the  crop 
is  harvested  in  September.  It  is  occasionally  weeded  ;  but  like  kangni, 
with  which  it  is  always  associated  as  a  cheap  food-stuff,  china  does  not 
receive  much  attention. 

The  most  beautiful  of  all  the  crops  is  the  ganhar,  or  amaranth,  with 
its  gold,  coral,  and  crimson  stalks  and  flowers.  It  is  frequently  sown 
in  rows  among  the  cotton-fields  or  on  the  borders  of  maize  plots,  and 
the  sulphur  blooms  of  the  cotton  and  the  coral  of  the  ganhar  form 
a  delightful  combination  of  colour.  Ganhar  is  sown  in  May  after  two 
or  three  ploughings.  No  manure  or  irrigation  is  given,  and  with  timely 
rains  a  large  out-turn  is  harvested  in  September.  The  minute  grain 
is  first  parched,  then  ground  and  eaten  with  milk  or  water.  It  is  con- 
sidered a  heating  food  by  the  people,  and  Hindus  eat  it  on  their  fast- 
days.  The  stalks  are  used  by  washermen,  who  extract  an  alkaline 
substance  from  the  burnt  ashes. 

Trumba,  or  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentuni),  is  a  most  useful 
plant,  as  it  can  be  sown  late  in  almost  any  soil,  and  when  the  cultivator 
sees  no  hope  of  water  coming  to  his  rice-fields  he  will  at  once  sow 
the  sweet  trumba.  There  are  two  varieties.  The  sweet  trumba.  which 
has  white,  pinkish  flowers,  is  often  grown  as  a  substitute  for  rice  when 
water  is  not  forthcoming  ;  it  can  be  sown  up  to  the  middle  of  July, 
and  with  good  rains  it  gives  a  fair  crop.  The  bitter  trumba,  which 
has  yellow  flowers,  is  not  a  mere  makeshift,  but  in  the  higher  villages 
often  forms  the  only  food-grain  of  the  people.  The  unhusked  grain 
is  black  in  colour,  and  is  either  ground  in  mills  and  made  into  bread 
or  is  eaten  as  porridge.  The  sweet  trumba  is  said  to  be  a  good  food 
for  horses  and  for  poultry. 


n8  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

Pulses  are  not  considered  of  much  importance  by  the  people,  and 
Punjabis  do  not  regard  the  Kashmir  dal  in  a  favourable  light.  Gram 
is  unknown,  and  the  best  pulse  is  mung  (Phaseolus  Mungd).  The  land 
is  ploughed  three  times  and  the  seed  is  sown  in  May.  No  irriga- 
tion is  given,  and  mung  is  often  sown  in  rice  lands  which  require 
a  rest.  The  roots  run  deep  and  air  the  soil.  The  other  pulses  are 
mah  [Phaseolus  radiatus)  and  mothi  {P.  aconitifolius). 

The  oilseeds  of  Kashmir  are  of  some  importance,  and  now  that 
Kashmir  is  linked  with  the  outer  world  they  are  assuming  a  greater 
value  as  a  trade  staple.  The  Kashmiris  do  not  use  ghl  (clarified 
butter)  in  their  food,  but  they  require  vegetable  oils  ;  and  at  present 
they  use  these  for  lighting  as  well  as  for  cooking,  owing  to  the  expense 
of  mineral  oil. 

The  chief  oilseed  is  rape,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties.  The 
first  is  tilgoglu,  which  is  sown  in  September  and  October  on  '  dry  '  lands, 
and  especially  on  the  soft  reclaimed  swamp  land.  As  a  rule  there 
is  no  weeding,  except  where  the  wild  hemp  is  very  vigorous.  Timely 
rains  from  February  to  May  are  required,  and  the  crop  is  harvested 
in  May  and  June.  The  second  variety  is  known  as  taruz  or  sarshaf, 
and  is  sown  in  the  spring.  It  ripens  at  the  same  time  as  the  tilgoglu, 
but  gives  a  smaller  amount  of  oil  from  its  seed.  Three  maunds  of 
seed  per  acre  would  be  an  average  yield  for  tilgoglu.  The  other 
varieties  of  rape  give  less.  The  third  kind  is  known  as  sandiji,  and 
is  sown  in  the  standing  rice  when  the  last  watering  is  being  given.  It 
yields  a  small  crop,  but  as  no  labour  is  expended  the  cultivator  counts 
even  the  small  crop  as  gain. 

Linseed  is  cultivated  all  over  the  valley,  but  the  best  fields  are  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The  land  is  ploughed  twice,  and 
a  third  ploughing  is  given  when  the  seed  is  sown  in  April.  The  crop 
is  harvested  towards  the  end  of  July.  Timely  rains  are  required  in 
May  or  the  plant  withers.  The  crop  is  said  to  exhaust  the  land.  An 
average  yield  would  be  i^  to  2  maunds  of  linseed  per  acre,  but  with 
proper  cultivation  the  produce  could  be  increased.  No  manure  is 
given  and  the  fields  are  not  weeded,  and  as  a  rule  the  linseed  crop  has 
a  very  dirty  and  slovenly  appearance.  As  one  ascends  the  slopes  of 
the  mountains  the  plant  has  a  longer  stem,  and  some  time  ago  a  fitful 
attempt  was  made  to  grow  flax  for  fibre.  Like  other  excellent  schemes 
for  introducing  new  staples  and  industries  into  Kashmir,  the  experiment 
failed  as  there  was  no  one  to  supervise  or  encourage  the  cultivators. 

Til  (Sesamum  indicum),  which  is  a  very  common  crop,  is  sown  in 
April.  The  land  is  ploughed  four  times,  and  a  fifth  ploughing  is  given 
at  sowing.  No  manure  is  applied,  but  til  requires  a  rich  soil  and 
gentle  and  timely  rains.  The  crop  is  weeded  with  the  hand  hoe, 
and  is  more  carefully  looked  after  than  any  of  the  other  oilseed  plants. 


AGRICULTURE  Iig 

The  plant  is  very  delicate  and  is  injured  by  cold  winds.  The  crop 
ripens  shortly  after  rice,  and  blankets  are  spread  under  the  plants  at 
harvest-time  to  catch  the  seeds,  which  fall  out  of  the  pods  with  the 
slightest  movement.  In  Kashmir  the  oil,  which  is  sweet,  is  valued  as 
an  ointment.  An  average  yield  would  be  about  if  maunds  of  seed 
per  acre. 

This  will  be  a  convenient  place  to  give  a  brief  description  of  oil 
production.  Formerly  oil  was  taken  by  the  State  in  payment  of 
revenue  ;  but  this  practice  has  now  ceased,  and  the  cultivator  either 
sells  his  oilseeds  to  Punjabi  traders  or  expresses  oil  for  his  own 
consumption  or  for  sale.  There  are  Telis  or  professional  oil-pressers 
all  over  the  valley ;  and  they  charge  for  their  services  a  small  amount 
of  oil  and  keep  the  whole  of  the  oil-cake,  which  they  sell  to  the  villagers 
for  cattle-food.  The  press  is  made  of  plane-wood,  and  is  worked  by 
a  single  bullock,  blindfolded,  the  driver  sitting  perched  up  at  a  great 
height  on  the  beam  which  crushes  the  seed  and  is  carried  backwards. 
The  press  is  fed  with  seed  by  a  man  who  stands  below.  The  Kash- 
miris say  that  rapeseed  gives  the  best  oil  for  lighting  purposes,  and 
linseed  for  eating;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  one  never  gets  a  pure  oil 
from  the  press,  as  the  various  seeds  are  mixed  by  the  oil-presser,  and 
kernels  of  the  walnut  and  apricot  are  added.  The  natives  give  as 
a  reason  for  mixing  the  various  seeds,  that  a  much  larger  amount  of 
oil  is  obtained  by  crushing  together  various  sizes  and  kinds  of  seed 
than  could  be  obtained  from  crushing  each  separately.  The  walnut 
is  an  important  oil-producer,  but  this  and  the  apricot  are  not  con- 
sidered to  give  good  oils  for  lighting.  Walnut  oil  is  said  to  clog,  and 
does  not  give  half  the  burning  power  of  other  oil. 

Cotton  is  grown  all  over  Kashmir  up  to  a  certain  elevation  ;  and,  as 
a  rule,  where  the  white  rices  cease  to  be  cultivated  owing  to  the  cold- 
ness of  the  air,  there  too  the  cotton  plant  disappears.  It  is  cultivated 
on  the  karewas,  and  also  in  low-lying  land  which  is  irrigable  but 
requires  a  rest  from  rice.  The  soil  should  be  ploughed  frequently, 
and  never  less  than  three  ploughings  are  given,  after  which  the  clods 
are  well  pulverized  by  mallets.  The  seed  is  soaked  in  water  and  mixed 
with  ashes  before  sowing,  but  the  plant  receives  no  manure.  Sowing 
takes  place  at  the  end  of  April  and  in  May,  and  the  fields  are  often 
watered  at  sowing  time. 

Wheat  and  barley  are  the  two  spring  crops  of  the  valley,  and  of  these 
the  barley  crop  is  the  more  important,  if  area  alone  be  considered. 
The  barley  commonly  grown  in  the  valley  is  not  of  a  good  quality,  and 
no  pains  are  taken  in  its  cultivation.  One  ploughing  is  given,  and  when 
the  seed  is  sown  from  October  to  December  the  land  is  again  ploughed. 
The  fields  are  neither  weeded  nor  manured,  and  probably  have  not  their 
match  in  the  world  for  bad  and  slovenly  cultivation.     It  is  sometimes 


120  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

difficult  to  distinguish  the  barley  in  the  mass  of  chirman  weed  (Ranun- 
culus sp.).  The  grain  is  not  esteemed  as  a  food,  but  is  very  often  mixed 
by  millers  with  wheat.  In  the  higher  villages,  at  an  elevation  of  7,000 
feet,  there  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  barley  known  as  grim,  or  Tibetan  barley, 
which  is  an  important  food-staple  among  the  mountain  people.  The 
villagers  always  speak  of  it  as  'bastard  wheat.'  The  grain  has  not  the 
chaff  scales  adhering  to  it,  but  is  naked  like  wheat.  The  people  say 
that,  if  this  is  grown  at  a  lower  altitude,  it  reverts  to  the  type  of  ordi- 
nary barley.  It  is  sown  in  May  and  June,  and  ripens  in  August  and 
September. 

Wheat  receives  better  treatment  than  barley,  but  two  ploughings, 
with  a  third  at  seed-time,  are  considered  sufficient.  The  land  is  neither 
manured  nor  weeded,  and  as  a  rule  no  irrigation  is  given.  Seed  is 
sown  in  September  and  October,  and  the  crop  ripens  in  June.  The 
common  variety  is  a  red  wheat  with  a  small  hard  grain,  and  Punjabis 
consider  the  flour  to  be  very  inferior.  Just  as  the  grain  of  barley,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  the  grain  of  wheat,  are  looked  down  upon  as  a  food 
by  the  rice-eating  Kashmiri,  so  too  the  valuable  straw  of  these  cereals 
is  neglected  as  a  cattle-food,  and  it  is  common  to  see  large  ricks  of 
wheat-straw  left  to  rot  on  the  land.  On  the  other  hand,  rice-straw, 
which  is  not  used  for  fodder  until  all  else  fails  in  Northern  India,  is  the 
most  popular  fodder  in  Kashmir.  It  may  be  that  the  high  elevation 
renders  the  rice-straw  less  flinty  and  more  succulent  here  than  in 
India. 

The  saffron  (Crocus  sativus)  of  Kashmir  is  famous  for  its  bouquet, 
and  is  in  great  request  as  a  condiment  and  as  a  pigment  for  the  sect- 
marks  of  Hindus.  Various  substitutes,  such  as  turmeric,  are  now  used 
for  the  latter  purpose  by  Kashmiri  Pandits ;  but  if  a  man  can  afford  it 
he  will  use  the  bright  saffron  colour,  mixed  with  red  lead  and  pounded 
with  a  piece  of  deodar-wood..  The  cultivation  is  peculiar,  and  the 
legend  about  its  introduction  shows  at  any  rate  that  it  is  an  ancient 
industry. 

At  present  cultivation  is  extending  as  fast  as  the  local  method  of 
seed-production  will  allow.  But  that  this  method  is  slow  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that,  at  measurement  of  a  total  area  of  4,527 
acres  of  saffron  land,  only  132  acres  were  actually  cultivated  with  the 
crocus.  In  former  days '  the  saffron  cultivation  was  a  large  source  of 
revenue  to  the  State  ;  but  in  the  famine  the  people  in  their  distress  ate 
up  the  bulbs,  and  although  seed  has  been  imported  from  Kishtwar,  and 
every  year  land  is  set  apart  for  the  production  of  seed,  the  process  of 
reproduction  is  slow.  For  seed  purposes  a  particular  aspect  and  sloping 
ground  is  required,  and  it  takes  three  years  before  the  bulbs  can  be 

1  'There  are  10,000  or  20,000  bighas  of  land  covered  with  saffron,  which  afford 
a  prospect  that  would  enchant  those  who  are  most  difficult  to  please.' — Ain-i-Akbarl. 


AGRICULTURE  r2I 

planted  out  in  the  small  square  plots  where  the  saffron  is  to  be  grown. 
These  plots  must  remain  fallow  for  eight  years,  and  no  manure  can  be 
applied  to  them  and  no  assistance  given  in  the  way  of  water.  When 
once  the  bulb  has  been  placed  in  the  square  it  will  live  for  fourteen 
years  without  any  help  from  the  cultivator,  new  bulbs  being  produced 
and  the  old  ones  rotting  away.  The  time  for  planting  out  is  in  July 
and  August ;  and  all  that  the  cultivator  has  to  do  is  to  break  up  the 
surface  gently  a  few  times,  and  to  ensure  the  proper  drainage  of  the 
plot  by  digging  a  neat  trench  on  all  four  sides.  The  flowers  appear 
about  the  middle  of  October ;  and  the  purple  blooms  and  the  delicious 
though  somewhat  overpowering  scent  of  the  saffron  turn  the  dry,  unin- 
viting plateau  above  Pampur  into  a  rare  and  wonderful  garden.  Saffron 
is  at  present  limited  to  the  karewas  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pampur, 
but  there  is  no  peculiar  property  in  the  soil  there  which  does  not  exist 
in  other  karewas,  though  it  is  of  exceptionally  good  quality. 

In  former  days  men  came  from  all  parts  to  cultivate  saffron  on  the 
Pampur  karewas  ;  but  now,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  people  from 
Srinagar,  the  industry  is  in  the  hands  of  local  cultivators.  At  harvest- 
time  the  whole  flower  is  picked  and  put  into  bags  and  then  taken  to 
the  farmer,  who  takes  one  bag  for  himself  and  gives  the  other  bag 
to  the  cultivator.  The  bags  are  never  opened,  and  it  has  been  found 
by  experience  that  the  cultivator  never  attempts  to  foist  a  bad  bag  on 
the  farmer.  When  the  flowers  have  been  collected  the  real  work  of 
extracting  saffron  commences.  The  flowers  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
the  three  long  stigmas  are  picked  out  by  hand.  The  stigma  has  an 
orange-red  tip,  and  this  tip  forms  the  shdhi  zafardn,  the  first  quality 
saffron.  The  long  white  base  of  the  stigma  also  makes  saffron,  but  it 
is  of  inferior  quality  to  the  tips.  The  article  thus  collected  in  a  dry 
condition  is  known  to  the  trade  as  mongla,  and  sells  for  one  rupee  per 
lola.  When  the  mongla  saffron  has  been  extracted,  the  sun-dried 
flowers  are  beaten  lightly  with  sticks  and  winnowed.  Then  the  whole 
mass  is  thrown  into  water,  when  the  petals  swim  and  the  essential  parts 
of  the  flower  sink.  The  parts  which  have  sunk  {niwal)  are  collected, 
and  those  which  have  risen  to  the  top  are  dried  and  again  beaten  with 
sticks  and  then  plunged  into  water.  The  process  is  repeated  three 
times,  and  each  time  the  niwal  becomes  poorer.  One  form  of  adul- 
teration is  to  mix  niwal  of  the  third  with  niwal  of  the  first  procc 
The  saffron  obtained  in  this  way  is  lighter  in  colour  and  of  fainter 
scent  than  the  mongla,  and  is  known  to  the  trade  as  lacha,  and  sells  at 
12  annas  per  tola.     The  saffron  when  made  is  exported  by  post. 

Next  to  the  saffron  cultivation  in  interest  come  the  floating  gardens 
of  the  Dal  Lake,  which  resemble  the  'chinampas'  of  Old  .Mexico. 
The  whole  cultivation  and  vegetation  of  the  lake  is  full  of  interest  and 
of  great  importance  to  the  people.     The  radii  or  floating  gardens  are 


122  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

made  of  long  strips  of  the  lake  reed,  with  a  breadth  of  about  six  feet. 
These  strips  can  be  towed  from  place  to  place,  and  are  moored  at  the 
four  corners  by  poles  driven  into  the  lake  bed.  When  the  rddh  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  bear  the  weight  of  a  man,  heaps  of  weed  and  mud 
are  extracted  from  the  lake  by  poles,  formed  into  cones,  and  placed  at 
intervals  on  the  rddh.  The  cones  are  known  a.sJ>okar,  and  each  cone 
accommodates  two  seedlings  of  melons  or  tomatoes,  or  four  seedlings 
of  water-melons  or  cucumber.  Everything  that  plant  life  requires  is 
present.  A  rich  soil  and  ample  moisture,  with  the  summer  sun,  help 
to  produce  vegetables  in  surprising  abundance  and  of  excellent  quality. 
Not  inferior  to  the  floating  gardens  in  fertility  are  the  demb  lands,  which 
are  formed  along  the  sides  and  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  the  lake 
when  the  water  is  shallow.  The  cultivator  selects  his  site,  and  plants 
willows  and  sometimes  poplars  along  its  four  sides.  Inside  these  he 
casts  boatloads  of  weed  and  mud  until  his  land  is  above  the  flood-level, 
and  year  by  year  he  adds  a  new  dressing  of  the  rich  lake  weed  and  mud. 
Around  the  demb  plot  run  little  water-channels  from  the  lake,  so  that 
moisture  is  always  present ;  and  on  the  demb  a  great  variety  of  crops 
are  raised.  Rapeseed,  maize,  tobacco,  melons  and  other  Cuairbitaceae, 
potatoes,  onions,  radishes,  turnips,  egg-plants,  white  beans,  peaches, 
apricots,  and  quinces  flourish  on  this  rich  soil  ;  and  if  it  were  not  for 
the  constant  liability  to  forced  labour,  and  for  the  curious  system  under 
which  revenue  is  collected  daily  from  the  half-amphibious  dwellers  on 
the  Dal  Lake,  the  cultivators  of  the  demb  lands  might  be  the  most 
prosperous  people  in  Asia.  The  system  is  of  importance,  as  it  is  not 
confined  to  the  Dal  Lake ;  all  over  Kashmir  the  people  who  live  by  the 
great  swamps  have  begun  to  construct  these  curious  oblong  patches. 

Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  many  parts,  but  is  chiefly  grown  in  and 
around  Srlnagar  and  the  smaller  towns.  The  ordinary  cultivator  does 
not  grow  the  plant,  and  it  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
gardener  class  which  exists  in  the  city  and  the  towns.  The  plant 
yielding  the  most  esteemed  tobacco  grows  in  one  part  of  Srlnagar,  and 
is  known  as  breivari  {Nicoticuia  Tabacum).  It  has  pinkish  flowers,  and 
its  product,  which  is  of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  is  extremely  mild  and  less 
pungent  than  the  chilCxsi  variety,  introduced  from  the  Punjab.  The 
childsi  is  N.  rustica,  a  plant  with  pale  yellow  flowers.  Tobacco  is  sown 
in  April,  and  is  picked  about  the  end  of  August.  It  requires  very  rich 
soil,  and  is  irrigated  by  the  pot  and  lever  system.  Formerly  the  State 
took  tobacco  as  revenue  and  allowed  a  high  commutation  rate  for  the 
crop ;  but  of  late  years  tobacco  has  not  been  accepted  in  payment  of 
revenue,  and  it  is  thought  that  the  cultivation  is  not  increasing.  The 
local  use  of  tobacco  passed  out  of  fashion  at  the  great  famine,  and  the 
narcotic  is  now  chiefly  taken  in  the  form  of  snuff,  which  is  imported 
from  Peshawar. 


AGRICULTURE  I23 

In  the  same  rich   land,  black  with  poudrette,  which  the  gardener 
class  of  the  city  and  towns  cultivate  so  carefully  and  well,  the  opium 
poppy  is  raised,  and  its  dried  capsules  are  used  in  medicine.     Ajwain 
and  kala  zira  (Carum  sp.)  are  two  garden  spring   crops,  cultivated 
for  local  use   as  condiments    for  improving  the   condition  of  hoi 
and  cattle.     They  are  largely  exported  to  India,  Ladakh,  and  Afghan- 
istan.    Vegetables  are  of  great  importance,  and  every  villager  has  his 
small  garden  plot,  where  he  raises  a  wealth  of  food  with  very  small 
effort.     In  the  neighbourhood  of  Srlnagar  some  care  is  taken  in  the 
selection  of  seed,  and  the  villager  often  buys  his  seed  from  the  city ; 
but  in  the  remote  corners  of  the  valley  very  little  attention  is  paid  to 
this  class  of  cultivation,  and  the  vegetables  are  poor,  fibrous,  and  small. 
The  national  vegetable  is  the  knol-kohl.     It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  in 
years  of  favourable  rains  large  crops  are  raised  without  much  labour. 
The  green  variety  is  the  commonest;   in  the  summer  the  leaves  arc- 
eaten  as  spinach,  while  the  root  is  kept  for  the  winter.     Next  in  impor- 
tance is  the  turnip,  which  is  largely  cultivated.     The  root  is  cut  into 
slices  and  dried  for  the  winter.     Vegetable  marrows  abound,  and  they 
too  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  festooned  on  ropes  for  winter  use.     They 
are  grown  in  raised  cones  of  earth,  through  which  the  air  passes  easily 
to   the  roots.     Tomatoes  are  a  popular   vegetable,   but  the  plant   is 
allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground,  and  the  fruit  is  small  and  ugly.     It  is 
cut  into  rings  and  dried  in  the  sun  for  winter  use.     Chillies  are  chiefly 
grown  by  the  regular  gardening  cultivators,  and  very  large  crops  are 
raised  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  and  the  towns.     Cucumbers  of 
a  large  size  are  grown  in  abundance  on  the  Dal  Lake,  but  they  are  not 
common  elsewhere.     The  egg-plant  is  well-known  in  the  valley  ;  and 
last,   but  not  least,  the  potato  is  gradually  extending.     On   the   hill 
slopes  of  the  Trahal  ilaka,  in  Naubug,  and  in  one  or  two  other  places, 
excellent  potatoes  are  raised ;  and  now  that  the  old  fear  that  anything 
good  would   either  be  seized  or  would  lead   to  an  enhancement  of 
revenue  is  passing  away,  they  will  be  a  common  crop  throughout  the 
valley.     The  soil  of  the  valley  is  well  drained,  friable,  and  loamy,  and 
every  condition  requisite  to  successful  potato  cultivation  is  present. 
Nature  is  so  bountiful  that  the  Kashmiri  cares  little  for  vegetables  in 
the  spring  or  the  summer,  and  his  one  idea  is  to  grow  something  that 
will  last  him  through  the  winter. 

Various  herbs  are  eaten  as  vegetables  in  the  spring  and  summer : 
thistles,  nettles,  the  wild  chicory,  the  dandelion— in  fact,  every  plant 
which  is  not  poisonous  goes  into  the  cooking-pot,  and  even  the  stalk 
of  the  walnut  catkin  is  not  despised.  In  the  hills  a  dainty  dish  of  the 
wild  asparagus  can  be  easily  obtained,  and  wild  rhubarb  cooked  in 
honey  has  its  charms. 

Kashmir  is  a  country  of  fruits  ;  and  perhaps  no  country  has  greater 

vol.  xv.  i 


i24  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

facilities  for  horticulture,  as  the  indigenous  apple,  pear,  vine,  mulberry, 
walnut,  hazel,  cherry,  peach,  apricot,  raspberry,  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
strawberry  can  be  obtained  without  difficulty  in  most  parts  of  the  valley. 
The  fruits  are  a  great  help  to  the  people  as  a  food,  and  they  come  in 
a  pleasant  and  changing  succession.  When  the  first  days  of  summer 
arrive,  the  mulberry-trees  are  surrounded  by  villagers  with  their  out- 
spread blankets,  and  by  cattle,  ponies,  and  dogs,  who  all  munch  the 
sweet  black  or  white  fruit.  There  are  grafted  varieties,  the  best  of 
which  is  shahtut,  purple  and  juicy,  and  much  esteemed  as  a  preserve. 
With  an  eye  to  the  winter  the  provident  cultivator  stores  away  the  mul- 
berries which  he  cannot  eat,  and  they  retain  their  sweetness  long.  The 
apricot  ripens  next,  and  they  too  are  quickly  eaten  or  stored  away  for 
the  winter ;  but  the  Kashmiri  looks  on  the  apricot  as  intended  to  give 
oil  rather  than  fruit.  This  fruit  is  also  used  by  the  silversmith  for  clean- 
ing his  metal,  and  by  dyers  as  an  astringent.  The  cherry  is  usually  of 
the  black  morella  variety,  sour  in  taste,  yet  appreciated  by  the  people  ; 
but  in  places  the  delicious  whiteheart  (an  introduction  from  Europe  via 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan)  is  cultivated.  Its  Kashmiri  name, 
gt'/as,  is  a  corruption  of  Cerasus.  People  say  that  it  is  indigenous,  and 
it  is  found  in  places  where  one  might  almost  imagine  it  was  self-grown. 
The  wild  plums  are  excellent,  and  the  cultivated  plums  are  often  very 
fine.  The  peach  that  has  extended  its  area  from  cultivation  is  small 
but  refreshing,  and  a  wild  raspberry  is  as  good  and  as  delicate  in  flavour 
as  the  cultivated  raspberry  of  England.  The  gooseberry  is  small  and 
flavourless,  but  the  wild  strawberry  and  black  currant  are  excellent. 

The  most  popular  apple  is  the  anbru  or  amri,  which  has  a  large 
round  red  and  white  sweet  fruit,  ripening  in  October  and  keeping  its 
condition  for  a  long  time.  This  is  exported  in  large  quantities,  and  it 
finds  favour  with  the  natives  of  India  for  its  sweetness  and  handsome 
appearance.  To  an  English  taste  it  would  seem  woolly  and  flavourless. 
The  mohi  amri  is  like  the  amri,  but  is  more  acid  and  redder.  It  is 
largely  exported.  The  khuddu  sari  apple  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced from  Kabul.  It  is  long  in  shape,  and  is  juicy  and  rather  acid, 
ripening  early  and  not  keeping.  But  the  best  apple,  so  far  as  flavour 
goes,  is  the  little  trel,  which  abounds  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sopur. 
There  are  three  common  kinds  :  the  nabadi  trel,  which  is  yellow  ;  the 
jambasi  trel,  which  turns  red ;  and  the  sil  trel,  which  is  rather  larger 
than  the  nabadi  and  jambasi,  and  of  a  deep  red  colour.  When  ripe 
these  little  apples  have  the  most  delicious  taste,  half  sour,  half  sweet, 
and  when  they  rot  they  are  exactly  like  the  medlar  in  flavour.  From 
this  variety,  when  picked  at  the  right  time,  excellent  cider  has  been 
made.  A  superior  variety  of  the  trel  is  the  khatoni  trel,  which  is  larger 
but  possesses  all  the  flavour  of  the  smaller  kind.  There  are  many  other 
kinds,  but  the  Kashmiri  would  give  the  palm  to  the  dud  amri,  which 


AGRICULTURE  ,,5 

is  the  sweetest  and  finest  of  the  amri.     Many  of  the  wild  apples,  such 
as  the  tet  shakr  and  malmu,  are  very  refreshing,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  orchards  consist  entirely  of  wild  tr< 
About  the  beginning  of  September  the  people  pick  the  wild  apples 
and  the  irel  apples,  and  having  cut  them  in  half  dry  them  in  the  sun. 

The  pear  is  as  yet  of  secondary  importance,  and  does  not  form 
a  large  article  of  export.  But  several  very  good  pears  are  cultiva- 
the  best  of  which  are  the  nak  satanvati,  which  has  a  beautiful  shape 
and  a  sweet  juicy  flesh,  and  the  nak  gulabi>  which  has  a  pretty  red  skin 
and  is  a  very  pleasant  fruit.  The  Kashmiris,  though  they  think  it 
essential  to  peel  an  apple,  never  peel  pears.  They  also  hold  that  it  is 
dangerous  to  eat  pears  in  the  winter.  Cold  in  the  head  and  t; 
is  the  result  of  such  indulgence.  The  early  pear  is  known  as  the  gosh 
bug  and  is  very  refreshing,  and  the  later  fruit  is  called  tang.  None  of 
these  will  keep  for  long,  and  late  pears  are  required.  From  the  State 
nurseries  a  splendid  French  pear  has  been  sent  out  all  over  the  valley, 
but  unless  these  are  most  carefully  packed  and  quickly  transported  they 
cannot  reach  India.  The  wild  pear  is  found  all  over  the  valley,  and 
it  often  resembles  the  perry  pear  of  Herefordshire. 

The  quinces,  sour  and  sweet,  are  famous,  and  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Dal  Lake  splendid  specimens  of  this  fruit  are  to  be  seen.  The  tree- 
is  grown  for  its  seed,  which  is  exported  to  the  Punjab.  Pomegranates 
are  common,  but  are  not  of  any  especial  merit. 

In  old  days  Kashmir  was  celebrated  for  its  grapes ;  but  now,  if  a  few 
vineyards  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sind  valley  be  excluded,  it  is  difficult 
to  obtain  a  good  dessert  grape  in  the  country.  Everywhere  one  see> 
giant  vines  climbing  up  poplars  and  other  trees,  but  they  are  often  wild, 
and  their  fruit  is  poor  and  tasteless.  The  people  say  that  they  cut 
down  their  good  vines  in  order  to  avoid  the  exactions  of  officials.  The 
grapes,  white  and  red,  from  the  State  vineyard  at  Raipur  in  the  Sind 
valley  are  delicious,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  reproduce  the  Raipur 
vines  in  other  parts  of  the  valley.  With  the  decline  of  the  eating  grape 
there  has  been  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  wine  grape,  and  at  present 
there  are  389  acres  of  vineyards  on  the  shore  of  the  Dal  Lake.  The 
vines  were  introduced  from  Bordeaux  in  Maharaja  Ranbir  Singh's  time. 
and  no  expense  was  spared  to  make  the  scheme  a  success,  Perhaps 
the  vines  of  Burgundy  would  have  been  more  suitable.  Costly  dis- 
tillery plant  was  imported  and  set  up  at  Gupkar  on  the  Dal  Lake,  and 
wines  of  the  Medoc  and  Barsac  varieties,  as  well  as  brand),  have  been 
manufactured  year  by  year.  The  only  market  at  present  is  Srinagar,  .1- 
the  long  road  carriage  and  the  duties  levied  at  the  frontier  make  it 
difficult  to  deliver  wine  in  India  at  a  moderate  price.  In  1900-1  the 
gross  receipts  were  Rs.  33,000,  and  the  net  profit  had  averaged  about 
Rs.  11,000  during  the  preceding  four  years. 

1  2 


r26  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

Hops  were  also  introduced  by  Maharaja  Ranblr  Singh,  and  the  hop 
garden  at  Dubgam  below  Sopur  yields  a  handsome  return  to  the  State. 
In  1900-1  the  total  produce  was  25,000  lb.  The  crop  is  sold  at  from 
12  annas  to  a  rupee  per  pound,  and  fetched  Rs.  21,000,  while  the 
expenses  were  only  Rs.  5,600. 

The  walnut-tree  is  indigenous  to  the  country,  and  is  known  by  the 
vernacular  name  vont  dun  ('hard  walnut'),  as  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances one  is  unable  to  break  the  shell.  The  fruit  is  useless,  but  the 
bark  used  to  be  a  large  export  to  the  Punjab.  The  fruit  of  the  culti- 
vated tree  is  an  important  aid  to  the  villagers,  though  they  seem  to 
be  somewhat  indifferent  to  its  reproduction.  The  tree  is  found  all 
over  the  valley,  from  an  elevation  of  about  5,500  feet  to  7,500  feet. 
It  is  propagated  from  seed ;  and  although  grafting  is  not  uncommon, 
the  general  idea  seems  to  be  that  the  three  varieties — the  kaghazi,  the 
hurzal,  and  the  wantu — reproduce  themselves  from  seed.  Hitherto 
walnuts  have  been  grown  for  oil  and  not  for  eating,  and  the  wantu, 
in  spite  of  its  thick  hard  shell,  is  the  largest  fruiter  and  gives  the  most 
oil.  The  burzal  stands  half-way  between  the  kaghazi  and  the  wantu, 
and  is  like  the  ordinary  walnut  of  England.  Some  of  the  trees  reach 
an  enormous  size,  and  the  finest  specimens  are  to  be  found  as  one 
ascends  the  mountain  valleys.  In  former  times  the  State  accepted 
walnut  oil  in  payment  of  revenue,  and  it  was  more  profitable  to  the 
villager  to  give  oil  as  revenue  than  to  sell  the  nuts  to  Punjabi  traders. 
Now  no  oil  is  taken  as  revenue,  and  the  export  of  walnuts  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  Kashmiris  do  not  care  for  the  nut  as  a  food,  as  it  is 
heating,  but  it  always  forms  part  of  the  New  Year's  presents  among 
Hindus  and  Musalmans.  Not  long  ago  the  walnuts  were  exposed  to 
a  very  serious  danger.  In  Paris  there  was  a  demand  for  the  huge  warts 
which  grow  on  the  walnut  stem,  the  wood  of  which  is  used  by  cabinet- 
makers for  veneer  work,  and  a  Frenchman  obtained  from  the  State  the 
right  to  saw  off  these  warts.  Countless  trees  were  destroyed,  for  life 
went  with  the  wart.  Another  danger  to  which  walnuts,  like  other  fruit 
trees,  are  liable  is  the  occurrence  of  the  hit  kushu,  an  icy  mist  which 
settles  over  the  valley  in  severe  winters,  and  freezes  out  the  life  of 
the  trees. 

Large  almond  orchards  are  scattered  over  the  valley,  and  many  of 
the  hill-sides  might  easily  be  planted  with  this  hardy  and  profitable 
tree.  It  is  a  somewhat  uncertain  crop,  but  very  little  attention  is  paid 
to  its  cultivation,  and  as  a  rule  the  almond  orchards  are  unfenced. 
There  are  two  kinds,  the  sweet  and  the  bitter ;  the  former  is  worth 
double  the  latter  in  the  market.  Ruined  almond  gardens  in  all  parts 
of  the  valley  attest  the  fact  that  State  enterprise  cannot  succeed  in 
horticulture. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  singhdra  (Trapa  bispinosa),  but  all 


AGRICULTURE  127 

seem  to  have  white  flowers  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  on 
stems  supported  by  air  vessels.  When  the  fruit  ripens,  the  nuts  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  singhara  is  found  on  the  Dal  Lake 
and  in  other  localities,  but  its  home  is  the  Wular  Lake.  Of  the  chief 
varieties  the  best  is  called  basmati,  in  honour  of  the  rice  of  that  name. 
This  is  a  small  nut  with  a  thin  skin,  and  gives  one-third  of  kernel  for 
two-thirds  of  shell.  The  dogru  is  a  larger  nut  with  a  thicker  shell ;  and 
the  hangar  has  a  very  thick  shell  with  long  projecting  horns,  and  gives 
the  least  kernel  of  all.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  propagate  the 
bdsmati,  but  it  is  found  that  after  one  year  the  inferior  varieties  assert 
themselves. 

The  cattle  of  Kashmir  are  small  but  hardy,  rather  bigger  than  Brit- 
tany cattle.  They  have  humps,  and  their  prevailing  colour  is  black  or 
grey.  Very  little  attention  is  paid  to  selection  in  breeding,  but  a  strain 
of  Punjab  blood  has  entered  the  valley,  and  the  dairymen  favour  cows 
of  this  type.  The  improvement  of  the  local  breeds  has  been  recently 
considered  by  a  committee.  As  summer  approaches,  all  cattle,  save 
the  requisite  plough-bullocks  and  the  cows  in  milk,  are  driven  off  to  the 
mountain  pastures,  returning  in  the  autumn  to  the  villages.  Great  pains 
are  taken  to  store  fodder  for  the  winter,  and  there  are  many  excellent 
grasses  and  fodder  trees.  The  Gujars,  who  live  on  the  fringe  of  the 
forests,  keep  a  large  number  of  buffaloes  and  produce  a  considerable 
quantity  of  glu. 

Sheep  are  largely  kept.  They  supply  warmth,  clothing,  and  manure, 
and  are  of  great  importance  to  the  villagers.  As  the  days  grow  warmer, 
the  sheep  move  up  to  the  grand  pastures  above  the  forests,  and  return 
in  the  autumn.  The  sheep  are  made  over  to  professional  shepherds 
when  they  go  to  the  mountains.  In  the  winter  they  are  penned 
beneath  the  dwelling-rooms  of  the  villagers,  and  much  of  the  Kash- 
miri's comfort  in  the  cold  months  depends  on  the  heat  given  out  by 
the  sheep.  The  wool  is  excellent,  but  it  varies  in  quality.  Roughly 
speaking,  the  finest  wool  is  found  in  the  north  of  the  valley  where  the 
grasses  are  good.  For  winter  fodder  the  Kashmiri  depends  on  willow 
leaves  and  the  sweet  dried  leaves  of  the  flag  (Iris).  Salt  is  always 
given  to  the  sheep. 

Goats  are  not  numerous  in  the  valley,  but  every  year  enormous 
flocks  are  brought  up  to  the  mountains.  They  do  much  injury  to 
the  forests. 

The  ponies  are  small,  but  wiry  and  of  great  endurance.  Every 
village  has  its  brood  mares,  but  no  care  is  taken  in  the  selection  ot 
sires.  There  is  a  great  future  for  rational  breeding,  and  also  for  mule- 
breeding. 

Poultry  is  abundant.  The  best  breed  of  fowls  is  found  in  the  Lolib 
valley.     Geese  and  ducks  are  common,  and  there  is  a  lame  export  ot 


i28  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

the    latter    to    the    Punjab.      Turkeys    have    not    yet    succeeded    in 
Kashmir. 

Honey  is  produced  in  the  higher  villages  of  the  valley.  One  house 
will  often  contain  many  hives,  and  in  a  good  year  a  hive  will  give  8 
seers  of  comb.  The  hive  consists  of  two  large  concave  clay  plates  let 
into  the  wall  of  the  house,  and  in  the  outer  plate  there  is  a  small  hole 
through  which  the  bees  enter.     The  honey  is  clear  and  excellent. 

It  is  believed  that  the  silk  industry  of  Kashmir  is  of  very  ancient 
date,  and  that  the  valley  furnished  part  of  the  Bactrian  silk  which 
found  its  way  to  Damascus.  In  1869  Maharaja  Ranblr  Singh,  who 
was  an  enthusiast  in  new  industries,  organized  sericulture  on  a  very 
large  and  expensive  scale.  But  the  industry  was  unpopular,  as  it  was 
conducted  on  purely  official  lines  in  which  coercion  played  a  great 
part.  There  was  no  real  skilled  supervision ;  disease  attacked  the 
silkworms,  and  the  enterprise  languished.  But  in  spite  of  mistakes 
and  failure,  it  was  proved  that  Kashmir  could  produce  a  silk  of  high 
quality.  In  the  Kothar  valley  to  the  south  the  industry  lingered  on, 
and  the  Settlement  officer,  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Walter  Lawrence,  fostered 
it,  but  avoided  any  large  outlay.  Excellent  silk  was  produced  in  1894, 
and  was  placed  on  the  English  market  with  satisfactory  results.  Later, 
in  1897,  an  expert  was  employed,  and  the  State  started  sericulture 
on  approved  European  principles  with  Italian  reeling  machinery.  All 
attempts  to  raise  local  seed  were  abandoned,  and  seed  was  imported 
annually  on  a  large  scale.  The  results  have  been  surprising.  The 
industry  is  no  longer  confined  to  Kothar,  but  has  spread  all  over  the 
valley,  and  its  further  progress  depends  on  the  maintenance  and 
extension  of  mulberry-trees. 

Ten  filatures  have  been  built,  containing  1,800  basins  for  reeling 
cocoons,  fitted  with  Italian  machinery  and  giving  employment  to  over 
5,000  people  in  Srlnagar.  The  quality  of  the  silk  steadily  improves, 
and  it  now  commands  a  price  very  slightly  below  Italian  silk.  In 
1897  only  406  ounces  of  eggs  were  imported,  while  in  1906  the  import 
was  27,500  ounces.  The  number  of  zamlndars  taking  seed  has  risen 
in  the  same  period  from  150  to  14,000,  and  the  weight  of  cocoons 
reared  from  375  to  21,400  maunds,  while  the  payments  to  the  rearers 
increased  from  Rs.  4,300  to  Rs.  3,28,500,  all  the  eggs  and  mulberry 
leaf  being  given  free  of  cost.  The  total  production  in  1905-6  was 
109,072  lb.  of  raw  silk,  and  43,349  lb.  of  silk  waste.  The  profits 
since  1897,  when  the  industry  was  started  on  a  scientific  basis,  have 
been  15-4  lakhs,  of  which  4-6  lakhs  was  made  in  1905-6.  The  total 
capital  outlay  has  been  Rs.  7,25,000,  while  the  working  expenses  are 
about  7  lakhs  a  year. 

The  forests  of  the  State  are  extensive  and  valuable,  and  their 
conservation    is    of  great   importance  in   the  interests  of  the   country 


FORESTS 


129 


drained  and  irrigated  by  the  rivers  passing  through  them.  Including 
the  Bhadarwah  jdgir,  which  contains  the  finest  quality  of  timber, 
the  area  is  reported  as  2,637  square  miles  of  all 
kinds,  comprising  deodar,  firs,  pines,  and  broad- 
leaved  species.  This  may  be  divided  into  the  drainage  areas  of  the 
Jhelum  (1,718  square  miles),  Chenab  (806),  and  Ravi  (113).  The 
deodar,  which  is  the  most  valuable  species,  extends  between  5,000  and 
9,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  at  its  best  between  6,000  and  9,000 
feet.  The  blue  pine  appears  at  about  6,000  feet,  and  extends  to  nearly 
10,000  feet,  the  finest  specimens  being  found  mixed  with  deodar. 
A  zone  between  8,000  to  ir,ooo  feet  is  occupied  by  silver  fir,  which 
occurs  pure  in  dense  forests  at  the  lower  elevation  and  is  mixed  at 
greater  heights,  first  with  maple  and  then  with  birch.  Tree  vegetation 
above  11,000  feet  consists  of  dwarf  rhododendron  and  juniper. 

The  total  area  under  deodar  is  about  543  square  miles.  In  the 
Kashmir  Valley  it  is  found  principally,  indeed  almost  entirely,  in  the 
north-west — that  is,  the  district  known  as  Kamraj — and  the  largest 
areas  are  in  the  Utr  Machipur  tahsll.  In  Udhampur  district,  which 
includes  the  Kishtwar  and  Padar  tahslls,  there  are  198  square  miles  of 
deodar-bearing  tracts  situated  on  the  Chenab  and  its  affluents.  These 
forests  are  of  a  very  good  class,  containing  many  fine  trees  of  12  to  18 
feet  girth,  and  the  reproduction  is  mostly  good.  In  the  Muzaffarabad 
district,  which  contains  the  valley  of  the  Kishanganga.  river  and  that 
of  the  Jhelum  from  Kohala  nearly  up  to  Baramula,  there  are  estimated 
to  be  158  square  miles  of  deodar  forest.  Ramnagar,  formerly  the  jdg'ir 
of  the  late  Sir  Raja  Ram  Singh,  K.C.B..  contains  a  very  small  propor- 
tion of  deodar  forest,  and  it  has  been  generally  overworked.  Finally, 
the  Jasrota  district,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ravi  river, 
contains  a  small  area  of  deodar  in  the  Basoli  tahsil  These  forests  also 
were  formerly  held  in  Jdgir  and  were  practically  denuded  of  all  mature 
trees,  so  that  no  fellings  can  take  place  for  many  years  to  come. 

Fines  and  firs  occupy  about  1,100  square  miles,  and  chil  {Pitn/s 
longifolia)  473  square  miles.  The  last  is  found  in  lower  altitudes 
below  the  blue  pine  and  deodar,  existing  in  practically  pure  forests  in 
Muzaffarabad,  Bhimbar,  Ramnagar,  Udhampur,  Jammu,  and  Jasrota. 
The  Kashmir  Valley,  having  a  lowest  elevation  of  5,200  feet  above 
sea-level,  contains  no  chil.  The  Bhimbar  Forest  division  (and  district) 
has  the  greatest  area  under  chil  {220  square  miles),  situated  principally 
in  the  Kotli  and  Naoshera  tahslls.  Some  of  these  forests  are  of  very 
fine  quality,  and  will  in  time  give  a  large  number  of  mature  trees  for 
sale,  but  at  present  they  are  not  being  worked.  Next  to  this  comes 
the  Ramnagar  division,  which  includes  part  of  the  Jammu  district  ;  but 
these  forests  are  badly  stocked  and  have  been  overfelled,  and  will  take 
many  years  before  they  can  be  of  much  value  as  a  commercial  asset. 


i3o  KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 

The  Chenab  division,  which  also  comprises  part  of  the  Jammu  district, 
has  some  forest  of  poor  quality.  In  Udhampur  most  of  the  forest  is 
too  far  from  a  market  to  be  profitable.  When  good  cart-roads  or  light 
railways  have  been  made,  it  may  be  possible  to  utilize  the  Bhimbar 
and  Jammu  chil  forests  for  the  distillation  of  turpentine,  but  at  pre- 
sent the  cost  of  carriage  is  prohibitive. 

Next  come  the  fir  forests.  Owing  to  their  altitude,  it  would  natu- 
rally cost  more  to  extract  their  timber  ;  and  the  selling  price  of  fir 
being  very  low,  these  forests  are  unworkable  except  in  the  Kashmir 
Valley,  where  the  timber  is  used  as  firewood  mainly  for  the  silk  factory 
at  Srlnagar.  Perhaps  in  the  future,  when  artificial  preservation  of  the 
timber  in  the  form  of  sleepers,  &c,  by  creosoting,  has  been  resorted 
to,  these  forests  will  prove  of  great  value. 

Lastly,  there  are  the  forests  of  broad-leaved  species,  and  these  are 
at  present  only  of  value  in  the  Kashmir  Valley  for  the  supply  of  fire- 
wood to  the  city  of  Srlnagar.  Bamboos  are  found  mainly  in  the 
Jasrota  district  on  the  Ravi  river,  where  there  are  about  3,200  acres 
of  mixed  forest  which  contain  the  so-called  male  kind  (Dendrocalamus 
Strictus).  They  are  saleable  at  a  good  price,  but  are  at  present  subject 
to  much  injury  from  the  Gujar  tribes,  who  hack  them  for  fodder  for 
their  cattle.  The  grass  areas  are  mostly  blanks  inside  deodar  and 
other  forests,  which  are  used  as  grazing-grounds  by  the  villagers. 

In  the  Kashmir  Valley  the  forests  supply  timber  and  firewood  for 
local  use  and  also  logs  for  export.  During  the  past  few  years  deodar 
sleepers  have  been  exported  down  the  Jhelum  river,  the  sleepers  paying 
very  well,  though  the  quality  is  not  so  good  as  in  other  districts.  Little 
deodar  is  used  in  Srlnagar  in  comparison  with  blue  pine,  which,  being 
both  very  durable  and  cheaper  than  deodar,  is  the  favourite  building 
material.  From  Udhampur  both  logs  and  sleepers  of  deodar  are 
exported  down  the  Chenab  to  Wazlrabad.  The  trees  being  of  better 
quality,  higher  prices  are  obtained  for  the  produce  than  for  that  of 
Kashmir.  From  Muzaffarabad  timber  in  the  log  and  sawn  into 
sleepers  is  exported  down  the  Jhelum.  The  sleepers  are  entirely 
of  deodar,  but  logs  of  both  blue  and  long-leaved  pine  are  also  sent 
down  in  small  quantities.  These  three  districts,  Kamraj,  Udhampur, 
and  Muzaffarabad,  give  the  greater  part  of  the  forest  revenue,  which 
in  1904-5  amounted  to  9-8  lakhs,  while  the  expenditure  was  3  lakhs. 

Up  to  the  present,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  forest  establishment, 
little  has  been  done  in  the  matter  of  artificial  reproduction  of  deodar, 
nor  is  it  necessary.  Owing  to  the  protective  measures  already  taken,  the 
three  important  species — deodar,  blue  pine,  and  the  long-leaved  pine  — 
.are  rapidly  filling  up  blanks  in  the  forests.  The  reproduction  of  deodar 
by  natural  means,  whether  in  Kashmir,  Udhampur,  or  any  other  district, 
is  remarkable,  nor   is   the  blue   pine   at   all   backward,  while   in   the 


MINES  AND  MINERALS  131 

Kotli  and  Naoshera  tahstls  of  Bhimbar  district  the  restocking  of 
blanks  inside  and  outside  the  forests  is  all  that  can  be  desired.  Since 
the  last  great  seed  year  of  1897  myriads  of  self-sown  chil  have  appeared 
and  are  now  fine  healthy  plants,  ranging  from  6  to  9  inches  in  height, 
so  that  unless  destructive  fires  occur  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  be 
done  in  the  matter  of  restocking  denuded  areas  or  blanks.  So  far 
fire  protection  has  been  unnecessary  and  hardly  anything  has  been 
expended  on  it,  and  the  only  parts  protected  are  the  Kotli  tahsll 
forests.  The  greatest  need  at  present  is  protection  from  the  damage 
done  by  graziers. 
1  About  three-quarters  of  the  State  forests  have  been  demarcated  ;  but 
before  really  scientific  forestry  can  be  introduced,  it  will  be  necessary 
that  a  regular  survey  should  be  made  and  a  settlement  of  the  forests 
effected,  and  the  great  task  of  drawing  up  working-plans  for  future 
guidance  must  be  undertaken. 

Before  1891  there  was  no  proper  management  of  the  forests,  and 
much  damage  was  done  by  allowing  traders  to  cut  in  the  forests  on 
payment  of  royalty  without  any  supervision,  while  villagers  also  did 
immense  injury  to  the  forests  in  various  ways,  the  State  gaining  little 
or  no  revenue.  In  1891  the  first  attempts  were  made  to  put  matters 
on  a  proper  basis,  with  the  result  that,  while  most  forms  of  forest  injury 
except  grazing  have  ceased,  the  profits  have  increased  largely.  Thus 
the  net  revenue  in  1904-5  was  6  lakhs,  while  before  1891  it  hardly 
exceeded  2  lakhs.  The  Forest  department  is  under  the  control  of 
a  European  Conservator,  assisted  by  a  staff  of  subordinates. 

Some  authorities  have  held  that  there  is  not  much  hope  of  mineral 

wealth  in  the  State  ;  and  among  the  reasons  given  is  the  fact  that,  as 

a  rule,  where  valuable  minerals  exist,  the  natives  of 
,  ,  r   ,     •  ,.,,,      ,r     1      -  •  Mines  and 

the  country  know  of  their  existence.     I  he  Kashmiris,         minerals. 

however,  have  excellent  reasons  for  reticence  on  the 

subject  of  minerals;  and  the  find  of  valuable  sapphires  in  Padar  in 

1882,  and  the  more  recent  discovery  of  coal  at  Ladda  and  Anji  in  the 

Udhampur   district   of  Jammu   territory,    give   hopes    for   the   future. 

Vast  fields  have  been  found,  in  two  sections  of  which  it  is  estimated 

that  there  are  1 1  million  tons  of  workable  coal.     The  coal  is  extremely 

friable,  dirty,   and   dusty.     Some  of  it  cokes  strongly  if  subjected  to 

great  heat.     It  is  held  by  competent  authorities  that  the  washed  and 

briquetted  coal  of  these  fields  will  have  a  value  equal  to,  if  not  greater 

than,    Bengal    coal.      Exploration    for   minerals    has   not    yet    been 

attempted  on  sound  or  business-like  lines.     Excellent   iron   has  been 

obtained  at  Sof  in  the  south  of  Kashmir  ;  good  limestone  is  available 

in  large  quantities ;  gypsum  is  abundant ;   and   a  recent  discovery  of 

gold  has  been  made  at  Gulmarg,  the  chief  summer  resort  of  European 

visitors  to  Kashmir. 


132  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

The    industries    connected    with     sericulture,    oil-pressing,    and  the 

manufacture  of  wine  and  brandy  have  already   been  mentioned,  but 

the   State  is  still  more  celebrated  for  its  arts.     The 

T.  a.n  most  important  of  these  is  described  in  the  article 

manufactures.  _    r 

on  Srinagar,  but  other  places  also  possess  consider- 
able reputation  for  various  classes.  Wood-carving  is  practised  at  many 
places,  and  that  turned  out  at  Bijbihara  is  especially  noted.  The  work 
is  artistic,  but  suffers  from  the  fact  that  the  Kashmiri  is  a  bad  carpenter. 
Lacquered  wood-work  is  produced  at  Kulgam.  'Woollen  cloth  (pattu) 
is  woven  all  over  the  State,  the  best  work  being  produced  in  the  north, 
while  the  finished  product  of  the  south  is  especially  famous.  Blankets 
are  made  in  many  places,  and  sometimes  fetch  Rs.  25  a  piece.  The 
blacksmiths  are  very  skilful,  and  some  have  been  able  to  make  surgical 
instruments  and  repair  gun-locks.  The  city  of  Srinagar  is  noted  for 
its  silver,  copper,  wood-carving,  and  lacquer.  The  shawl  and  paper 
industries  are  almost  extinct,  but  many  of  the  shawl-workers  have 
become  expert  weavers  of  carpets  or  have  taken  to  embroidering  felts. 
Good  embroidery  is  also  turned  out  at  Islamabad.  An  industry  started 
very  recently,  in  connexion  with  the  development  of  sericulture,  is  the 
weaving  of  silk  cloth.  In  1906  about  100  looms  of  improved  pattern 
were  imported  and  set  up. 

Up  to  quite    recent  times    Kashmir   was   almost   a    self-supporting 

country,  and  the  chief  imports — piece-goods,  metals,  salt,  sugar,  tea,  and 

tobacco — were  of  modest   dimensions.     Before   the 

^"trade*  ^  °Penin8  of  the  cart-road  from  Rawalpindi  to  Bara- 
mula  in  1S90,  the  trade  was  carried  by  Kashmiris 
who  went  down  every  winter  to  work  in  the  Punjab,  and  brought 
back  domestic  requisites,  or  by  the  professional  muleteers,  or  by 
Punjabi  bullock-drivers.  There  were  three  trade  routes.  The  most 
direct  crossed  the  Banihal  pass  and  ran  to  Jammu,  the  railway  terminus  ; 
the  most  popular  route  followed  the  old  imperial  road  over  the  Plr 
Panjal,  reaching  the  railway  at  Gujrat :  and  the  third  was  known  as  the 
Jhelum  valley  road,  which  is  now  the  cart-road  and  the  main  line  of 
communication  with  the  Punjab. 

In  1892-3  the  total  imports  from  India  were  valued  at  48-7  lakhs. 
In  1902-3  the  imports  reached  118  lakhs,  but  the  trade  of  that  and 
later  years  was  greatly  impaired  by  the  prevalence  of  plague  in  the 
Punjab.  In  1904-5  the  total  value  was  115  lakhs.  The  table  on  the 
next  page  shows  the  value  of  the  more  important  imports  in  the  years 
chosen  for  comparison. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Kashmir  has  increased  enormously 
in  prosperity  of  late  years.  The  land  revenue  settlement  has  turned 
the  agricultural  classes  from  serfs  into  well-to-do  peasants,  and  their 
wealth  is  reflected  in  their  increased  purchases.     The  increase  in  the 


COMMERCE   AXD    TRADE 


*33 


import  ot  salt  is  especially  satisfactory,  as  in  1892  it  was  shown  that  the 
annual  average  of  consumption  in  Kashmir  was  exactly  half  of  that 
prevailing  in  the  Punjab. 


1892-3. 

1902-3. 

'904-5- 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Piece-goods  :  — 

European            .... 

76,688 

34, 7  2:934 

35>92.556 

Indian        ..... 

21,572 

9,60,185 

7,86,485 

Metals  : — 

Brass  and  copper 

1,33,143 

1,42,410 

99,888 

Iron 

1,31,27° 

4,92,020 

1,19.567 

Salt 

4=83>293 

8,69,761 

9,32,601 

Sugar : — 

Kenned     ..... 

4,82,584 

9,21,872 

8,28,675 

Unrefined           .... 

i,i5,433 

2,47,686 

3,43,76i 

Tea : — 

Indian        ..... 

i,73,73o 

3,57,638 

5.22.871 

foreign      ..... 

2,030 

1,360 

3,615 

Tobacco        ..... 

1,01,253 

2,32,302 

3,91,960 

Petroleum     ..... 

56,112 

81,795 

1,84,164 

In  1892-3  the  total  exports  were  valued  at  53-3  lakhs.  In  1902-3 
the  value  reached  99-6  lakhs,  and  in  1904-5,  192  lakhs. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  more  important  exports 
in  the  years  selected  :— 


1892-3. 

1902-3. 

1904-5. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Drugs,  not  intoxicating 

1,60.625 

5,06,192 

5-7s-4-5 

Dyes 

2.74,826 

95,533 

48,023 

Fruits  ...... 

2,38,683 

4.58,702 

7,48,883 

Hides 

1,86,594 

2,97.617 

7,98,160 

Skins    ...... 

1,39.386 

3,43,35o 

5,63,065 

Ghl 

16,50,172 

20,05,849 

,-,0.02,974 

Linseed         ..... 

1,335 

''•55,674 

73  -952 

Wool  :  — 

Manufactured  piece-goods 

5,9r.439 

7,5i,365 

10-75,°47 

Shawls       ..... 

2,19,275 

35,6oo 

1.000 

The  value  of  fruits  exported  is  increasing  steadily,  and  would  expand 
further  with  more  rapid  communications.  Ghl  also  is  a  very  important 
export.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  remarkable  increases  is  that  in  linseed, 
which  possessed  very  little  value  before  the  opening  of  the  cart-road. 
The  trade  in  shawls  was  practically  dead  before  1892-3.  An  important 
new  staple  not  included  in  the  list  must  be  noticed.  Raw  silk  produced 
in  the  Kashmir  Valley  has  been  exported  in  rapidly  increasing  quantities 
and  values,  and  there  are  indications  that  it  will  become  one  o\'  the  most 
important  products  of  the  country.  The  value  increased  from  R>.  7,000 
in  1897-8  to  13-6  lakhs  in  1902-3  and  nearly  21  lakhs  in  1004-5. 


i34  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

Another  item  of  some  importance  is  the  trade  which  passes  through 
Kashmir  between  India,  Chinese  Turkistan,  and  Tibet  via  Leh.  In 
1904-5  the  total  value  of  this  trade  was  61-2  lakhs.  It  is  subject  to 
considerable  fluctuations,  owing  to  great  physical  difficulties,  the  keen 
rivalry  of  Russia,  and  the  passive  obstruction  of  Tibet.  During  the 
ten  years  ending  1901  the  average  value  was  44-3  lakhs,  the  maximum 
being  62-2  lakhs  in  1895-6,  and  the  minimum  30-1  lakhs  in  1891-2. 
The  imports  from  Central  Asia  into  Ladakh  amounted  to  17-8  lakhs. 
Of  this,  about  14  lakhs  came  from  Chinese  Turkistan  and  the  balance 
from  Tibet.  Goods  to  the  value  of  11-3  lakhs  found  their  way  to  the 
Punjab  via  Kashmir,  others  going  via  Kulu.  The  chief  articles  were 
raw  silk  (5-9  lakhs),  Russian  gold  coins  (4-3  lakhs),  raw  wool  (3  lakhs), 
and  chat-as  (2-2  lakhs).  The  exports  from  Ladakh  to  Central  Asia 
amounted  to  11-4  lakhs.  Of  this,  goods  to  the  value  of  10  lakhs  went 
to  Chinese  Turkistan  and  the  remainder  to  Tibet.  The  more  impor- 
tant articles  of  export  were  :  European  cotton  piece-goods  (3-4  lakhs) ; 
coral  (1-2  lakhs) ;  silk  goods,  European  (i-8  lakhs),  Indian  (Rs.  54,000)- 
The  value  of  trade  passing  from  India  to  Ladakh  was  14-3  lakhs. 

The  nature  of  the  country  renders  communications  difficult.  In  the 
valley  proper  the  Jhelum  forms  a  great  waterway,  but  other  rivers  are 
not  navigable.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
State  the  roads  are  chiefly  fair-weather  tracks  and 
are  not  used  for  wheeled  traffic.  A  cart-road  has,  however,  been  con- 
structed from  Srinagar,  through  Baramula  and  down  the  Jhelum  valley, 
to  Abbottabad  in  the  North- West  Frontier  Province  and  to  Murree  in 
the  Punjab,  while  another  cart-road  is  being  constructed  from  Srinagar 
to  Udhampur.  The  principal  roads  within  the  State  lead  from  Srinagar 
to  Islamabad  and  Jammu  over  the  Banihal  pass  (9,200  feet) ;  to 
Shupiyan,  Bhimbar,  and  Gujrat  in  the  Punjab  over  the  Pir  Panjal 
(11,400);  to  Gandarbal  and  Ladakh  over  the  Zoji  La  (11,300);  and  to 
Gilgit  over  the  Rajdiangan  (11,700),  and  Burzil  (13,500),  or  Kamri 
(13,100).  Much  has  been  done  in  recent  years  to  improve  these 
routes  and  a  number  of  smaller  roads,  such  as  that  from  Srinagar  to 
Gulmarg,  which  is  practicable  for  tongas.  A  road  cess  amounting  to 
2 1  per  cent,  on  the  revenue  has  been  imposed,  in  place  of  the  forced 
labour  which  used  to  be  exacted.  The  Jhelum  is  crossed  by  several 
wooden  bridges  on  the  cantilever  principle  at  Srinagar,  and  over  the 
hill  torrents  swing  frail  suspension  bridges  consisting  of  cables  made  of 
plaited  twigs  or  buffalo-hide.  The  latter  sometimes  reach  a  span  of 
300  feet,  and  are  renewed  every  three  years,  if  they  have  not  been 
carried  away  meanwhile  by  floods. 

The  only  railway  at  present  is  a  short  length  of  16  miles,  constructed 
at  the  cost  of  the  State,  which  is  included  in  a  branch  of  the  North- 
western  State    Railway    from    Wazlrabad    through    Sialkot.      It   cost 


FAMINE 


'35 


9-6  lakhs,  and  has  usually  earned  a  net  profit  of  i  to  i\  per  cent.,  in 
addition  to  the  rebate  allowed  from  traffic  exchanged  with  the  North- 
Western  Railway.  A  line  has  been  surveyed  along  the  Jhelum  valley 
route,  and  it  is  proposed  to  work  this  by  electricity  derived  from  the 
river. 

The  State  is  included  for  postal  purposes  in  the  circle  administered 
by  the  Postmaster-General  of  the  Punjab  and  North-West  Frontier 
Province.  Formerly  Kashmir  had  its  own  postal  service  and  used  its 
own  postage  stamps,  but  as  far  back  as  1876  there  were  British  p 
offices  in  Srlnagar  and  Leh.  The  State  stamps  were  used  only  for  local 
purposes,  and  letters  and  other  postal  articles  passing  between  the  State 
post  offices  and  British  India  were  charged  with  both  Kashmir  and 
Indian  postage.  In  1894  the  State  posts  were  entirely  amalgamated 
with  the  Indian  postal  system.  The  following  statistics  show  the 
advance  in  postal  business  since  1 880-1  : — 


1S80-1. 

1890-1. 

1 900-1. 

<-4- 

Number  of  post  offices 

2 

2 

81 

;- 

Number  of  letter  boxes 

'99 

207 

Number  of  miles  of  postal  communica- 

tion         .         . 

[,588 

1,678 

Total   number   of  postal   articles  de- 

livered :  — 

Letters 

48,126 

138,216 

1,414,140 

1.519,674 

Postcards     .          .          .         .         - 

3.4o6 

26,S58 

I,209,lS2 

1,639.430 

Packets 

832 

16,146 

96,356* 

166,400 

Newspapers          .... 

42,978 

70,226 

193,414+ 

246,9:4 

Parcels         ..... 

i,742 

4.9M 

32,786 

77.4°2 

Value  of  stamps  sold  to  the  public    Rs. 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

81,030 

1,06,02s 

Value  of  money  orders  issued       .    Rs. 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

3»I°:59I 

i6,37>787 

*  Including  unregistered  newspapers.  t  Registered  as  newspapers  in  the  Post  Office. 

♦  The  figures  are  included  in  those  of  the  Punjab. 

The  accounts  of  early  famines  are  vague,  but  it  is  known  that  famines 
occurred.  While  Sher  Singh  was  governor  (183 1-3)  severe  distress  was 
felt  and  many  people  fled,  but  the  next  governor,  Famine. 

Mian  Singh,  did  much  to  restore  prosperity  by  im- 
porting grain.  It  is  said  that  the  population  was  reduced  to  a  quarter  in 
that  famine.  In  1877-9  a  worse  disaster  was  experienced  and  the  loss 
of  life  was  enormous.  Famines  in  Kashmir  are  not  caused  by  drought. 
as  in  India,  because  the  rice  crop  is  generally  protected  by  irrigation. 
The  greatest  distress  is  due  to  the  fall  of  rain  or  snow  while  the  rice 
and  maize  are  ready  for  harvest.  The  famine  of  1832  was  caused  by 
early  snow,  and  was  aggravated  by  the  floods  which  followed.  In  1877 
rain  fell  almost  continuously  for  three  months,  and  the  old  system  oi 
collecting  revenue  in  kind  prevented  cultivators  from  gathering  their 
crops  when  opportunity  served.     Food-grains  were  not  to  be  had  :  and 


1 36  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

when  imports  were  made  at  the  expense  of  the  State,  the  corrupt 
officials  were  the  chief  persons  to  profit.  It  is  improbable  that  such 
distress  can  be  experienced  again,  owing  to  the  construction  of  a  cart- 
road,  and  the  change  in  the  method  of  collecting  revenue. 

The  State  is  in  direct  relationship  with  the  Government  of  India,  who 
is  represented  by  an  officer  of  the  Political  department,  styled  the 
Resident.  His  head-quarters  are  at  Srinagar.  At  Gilgit  a  Political 
Agent  exercises  some  degree  of  supervision  over  the  Wazir  Wazarat,  and 
is  directly  responsible  to  the  Government  of  India  for  the  administration 
of  the  outlying  petty  States.  A  British  officer  is  stationed  at  Leh  to 
assist  in  the  supervision  of  Central  Asian  trade. 

On  his  accession  to  the  gaddi  in  1885,  the  present  Maharaja  was 

entrusted  with  the  administration  of  the  State,  aided  by  two  ministers  ', 

.,    .   .  .     ,.        but  in  1887,  at  his  own  request,  he  was  relieved  from 
Administration.  .    "  .    .         ?        ' 

all  part  in  the  administration,  which  was  then  placed, 

subject   to  the  control  of  the   Resident,  in  the   hands   of  a  Council 

consisting  of  His  Highness's  brother  and  two  selected  officials  from  the 

British  service.     In  1891  the  Maharaja  assumed  the  presidentship  of 

the  Council,  while  his  brother,  Raja  Sir  Amar  Singh,  K. C.S.I. ,  became 

vice-president.     The  Council  was  abolished  in   1905,  and  its  powers 

were  conferred  on  the  chief  himself.     Under  the  new  arrangements  the 

Maharaja  administers  the  State.    There  are  three  ministers,  in  charge  of 

the  revenue,  judicial,  and  home  departments  ;  but  business  requiring  the 

orders  of  the  Maharaja  is  laid  before  him  by  the  chief  minister,  Raja. 

Sir  Amar  Singh.     For  some  time   past  the   departments  of  finance, 

revenue  settlement,  forests,  and  public  works  have  been  in  charge  of 

British  officers,  whose  services  have  been  temporarily  placed  at  the 

disposal  of  the  Darbar. 

The  four  chief  executive  officers  are  :  the  governor  or  Hakim-i-Ala  of 
Jammu,  the  governor  of  Kashmir  (each  aided  by  a  general  assistant), 
the  Wazir  Wazarat  of  Gilgit,  and  the  Wazir  Wazarat  of  Ladakh. 

In  Jammu  there  are  five  districts,  each  in  charge  of  a  Wazir  Wazarat, 
an  official  whose  average  salary  is  Rs.  250  a  month.  Under  the  Wazir 
Wazarat  are  tahsildars  and  sometimes  subdivisional  officers.  All  these 
officers  exercise  revenue,  civil,  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  with  regular 
stages  of  appeal.  In  revenue  cases  the  appeal  lies  to  the  governor,  and 
from  him  to  the  revenue  minister.  In  civil  and  criminal  judicial  cases 
the  appeal  lies  to  the  Chief  Judge  of  Jammu.  From  him  there  is  an 
appeal  to  the  judicial  minister,  who  is  virtually  the  final  court,  and  it  is 
only  on  rare  occasions  that  an  appeal  is  made  from  him  to  the  Maharaja. 
All  death  sentences  passed  by  the  Chief  Judge  require  the  confirmation 
of  the  Maharaja.  In  1900-1  there  were  eighty-one  courts  of  all  grades, 
of  which  eight  exercised  criminal  jurisdiction  only.  Although  there  is 
a  centralized  form  of  government,  as  in  British  India,  the  real  power 


F7XAXCE  i37 

rests  with  the  fa/isl/dar,  and  distance  and  the  absence  of  easy  communi- 
cations are  practical  checks  on  the  use  or  abuse  of  appeals. 

Before  1892,  when  the  law  of  limitation  was  introduced  into  Jammu, 
litigation  was  not  very  heavy  and  the  people  frequently  settled  their 
differences  out  of  court.     The  improvement   in   the 

courts,  and  the  effects  of  this  alteration  in  the  law,    Leeislation  and 

justice 
are  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  suits  for 

money  or  movable  property  increased  from  an  average  of  3,735  during 

the  ten  years  ending   1890  to   10,766  in  the  next  decade,  and   was 

12,160  in  1900-1.     The  system  of  registration  for  deeds  resembles  that 

in  British  India.     In  1 900-1  the  number  of  documents  registered  was 

i,348. 

Crime  is  not  serious  in  the  Jammu  province  ;  but  there  has  been  an 
increase  in  cases  of  theft,  hurt,  and  mischief,  due  to  the  greater  activity 
of  the  police  force,  which  is  being  gradually  assimilated  to  the  rules  and 
procedure  prevailing  in  British  India.  In  the  whole  State  17,320 
persons  were  brought  to  trial  in  1900-1,  of  whom  2,169,  or  13  per  cent., 
were  convicted. 

In  Kashmir  the  tahsils  in  the  valley  are  superintended  by  the 
governor  himself,  while  those  of  the  Muzaffarabad  district  are  in  charge 
of  a  Wazlr  YVazarat  subject  to  the  governor  and  the  Chief  Judge,  whose 
offices  are  in  Srlnagar. 

The  finances  of  the  State  are  immediately  controlled  by  an  accountant- 
general,  who  for  some  years  has  been  lent  by  the  British  Government. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  for  1895-6,  1 900-1,  and 

1  r,,  ,  ,       ttt        1  -tV  1  1  Finance. 

1905-6  are  shown  in    lables  IV  and  V  at  the  end 

of  this  article  (pp.  146  and  147).      In  the  last  year  the  total  revenue 

was  93  lakhs,  the  chief  items  being  land  revenue  (38-9  lakhs),  for. 

(13  lakhs),  customs  and  octroi  (9-2    lakhs),  and  scientific  and  minor 

departments  (2-2  lakhs).    The  expenditure  of  one  crore  included  public 

works  (30-8  lakhs),  military  (13-8  lakhs),  privy  purse  and  courts  (10-9 

lakhs),  scientific  and  minor  departments  (2-1  lakhs),  and  land  revenue 

(6-r  lakhs).     The  State  is  very  prosperous,  and  has  more  than  40  lakhs 

invested  in  securities  of  the  Government  of  India. 

The  British  rupee  is  now  the  only  rupee  used  in  the  State.  Pre- 
viously three  coins  were  current  :  namely,  the  khdm  rupee,  value 
8  annas,  bearing  the  letters  J.  H.  S.  (these  letters  have  given  rise  to  many 
stories,  but  they  were  really  a  mint-mark  to  indicate  Jammu,  Hari 
Singh);  the  chilki  rupee,  value  10  British  annas;  the  Nanak  shdhi 
rupee,   value   12-16   British  annas. 

The  kharwar  or  ass-load,  which  has  for  centuries  past  been  the 
standard  of  weight,  is  equivalent  to  177I  lb.  The  word  is  usually 
abbreviated  to  khar.  Land  measures  are  calculated  not  by  length  and 
breadth,  but  by  the  amount  of  seed  required  by  certain  areas  of  rice 


r3S  KASHMIR   AXD  JAMMU 

cultivation.  It  has  been  found  by  measurements  that  the  khanvar  of 
land — that  is,  the  rice  area  which  is  supposed  to  require  a  khanvar's 
weight  of  rice-seed — exactly  corresponds  to  4  British  acres.  For  length, 
the  following  measure  is  used  : — 

1  gira   =  j\  inches. 
1 6  giras  =  1  gaz. 
20  giras  =  1  gaz,  in  measuring pashmlna  cloth. 

There  is  no  sealed  yard  measure  in  Srlnagar,  but  from  frequent  experi- 
ment it  was  found  that  the  gaz  of  16  giras  is  about  half  an  inch  longer 
than  the  British  yard. 

The  land  revenue  system  has  been  described  as  '  ryotwari  in  ruins.'  It 
is  probable  that  the  methods  of  administration  introduced  under  Akbar 
led  to  a  fictitious  joint  responsibility,  but  this  was 
never  fully  accepted.  The  land  was  regarded  as  the 
absolute  property  of  the  State,  and  the  cultivators  were  merely  tenants 
holding  from  year  to  year,  with  no  rights  in  the  waste  land.  Within  the 
village,  however,  the  cultivators  recognized  the  acquisition  of  what  may 
be  called  a  right  of  occupancy  acquired  by  long  prescription  {minis). 
At  the  settlement  which  commenced  in  1887  this  custom  was  accepted 
by  the  State,  and  permanent  hereditary  rights  were  conferred  on  persons 
who  agreed  to  pay  the  assessment  fixed  on  the  land  entered  in  their 
names.  The  right  is  not  alienable  by  sale  or  mortgage,  and  the  holder 
is  called  an  asami.  Besides  the  ordinary  village  occupants  there  were 
grantees,  but  these  have  gradually  been  converted  into  asdmts. 

Under  the  local  Sultans  the  State  share  of  produce  was  reckoned  at 
one-half,  and  this  was  increased  to  three-quarters  by  the  Mughals.  In 
the  absence  of  any  survey  or  record  of  rights,  the  revenue  administration 
was  harsh  and  corrupt.  Land  agents  called  kardars  were  appointed 
who  parcelled  out  the  land  annually,  the  area  of  land  allotted  to  each 
family  being  regulated  by  the  number  of  individuals  it  contained.  The 
State  took  three-fourths  of  rice,  maize,  millets,  and  buckwheat,  and  nine- 
sixteenths  of  oilseeds,  pulses,  and  cotton.  In  i860  the  share  was 
reduced  to  one-half,  and  villages  were  made  over  to  contractors  called 
chakladdrs,  who  robbed  the  cultivators  and  the  State.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  1873  t0  introduce  a  ryoiwari  settlement  for  three  years,  but 
the  interests  of  the  chakladars  and  corrupt  officials  were  too  strong  to 
allow  such  an  innovation.  Abul  Fazl,  in  the  Ain-i-Akbarj,  notes  that 
revenue  was  chiefly  paid  in  kind  in  Kashmir,  and  it  was  not  till  1880 
that  a  so-called  cash  assessment  was  introduced.  This  was  made  by 
taking  the  average  collections  for  the  previous  three  years  in  each  vil- 
lage, and  adding  a  considerable  proportion,  never  less  than  30  per 
cent.  ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  left  to  an  official  to  decide  how 
much  revenue  should  be  taken  in  cash,  and  how  much  in  kind.  There 
was  no  pretence  of  inspecting  villages,  or  of  distributing  the  demand 


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MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE  139 

fixed  for  a  whole  village  over  separate  holdings,  and  the  dislocation 
caused  by  the  famine  of  1877-9  added  to  the  evils  of  such  summary 
procedure.  Two  years  later  a  system  of  auctioning  villages  was  intro- 
duced, which  led  to  even  greater  abuses,  while  the  commutation  rates 
for  grain  were  altered,  so  as  to  injure  the  cultivators. 

In  1887  a  regular  settlement  was  commenced  in  the  valley  by 
a  British  officer,  lent  by  Government.  It  was  preceded  by  a  complete 
survey,  and  the  revenue  was  fixed  for  ten  years.  Villages  were  classified 
according  to  their  position,  and  standard  out-turns  of  produce  were  cal- 
culated. In  estimating  the  produce,  allowance  was  made  for  walnut- 
trees,  fruit  trees,  apricots,  and  honey.  The  assessment  was  also  checked 
by  considering  the  collections  in  previous  years  and  reports  made  by 
former  contractors.  Its  moderation  and  even  distribution  are  attested 
by  the  return  of  the  cultivators  who  had  fled  during  the  disastrous 
famine.  When  the  settlement  was  completed  in  1893,  it  had  cost  3-4 
lakhs  and  had  raised  the  revenue  by  1-9  lakhs  annually.  A  revision 
was  commenced  in  1898  and  completed  in  1905,  the  methods  employed 
being  similar  to  those  followed  at  the  first  regular  settlement.  This  has 
further  raised  the  revenue  in  the  valley  from  13-4  to  17  lakhs,  or  by  27 
per  cent.  The  incidence  of  revenue  varies  from  about  10  annas  to 
Rs.  12  per  acre,  and  represents  an  all-round  rate  of  about  30  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  produce.  Regular  settlements  have  also  been  completed  in 
other  parts  of  the  State,  such  as  Gilgit,  Jammu,  and  Baltistan.  The 
total  receipts  from  land  revenue  in  1905-6  amounted  to  38-9  lakhs. 

The  Excise  department  of  the  State  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the 

manufacture  and  sale  of  liquor,  including   wine   and   brandy,  at    the 

Gupkar   distillery.     In  1900  the  administration  was 

examined  by  an  officer  lent  by  the  British  Govern-     Mi*"!!^!0US 
'  '  revenue. 

ment,  and  as  a  consequence  private   distilleries   in 
the  province  of  Jammu  were  entirely  closed.     The  total  receipts  in 
1 900- 1  were  only    Rs.   50,000,    but    by    1905-6    they    had   risen    to 
Rs.  1,37,000. 

In  1905-6  the  total  revenue  from  stamps  was  2-22  lakhs,  of  which 
i-6  lakhs  represented  receipts  from  judicial  stamps. 

A  considerable  revenue  is  derived  from  customs  and  octroi  levied 
on  the  trade  which  passes  into  the  State.  The  receipts  amounted  to 
9-2  lakhs  in  1905-6. 

Cesses  are  levied,  amounting  to  \2\  per  cent,  on  the  land  revenue, 
for  the  following  objects  :  payments  to  lambardars  (village  headmen), 
5  per  cent.  ;  patwaris  and  zailddrs,  4^  per  cent. ;  education,  ^  per 
cent.  ;  and  roads,  z\  per  cent. 

There  are  two  municipal  committees  in  the  State :  one  at  Srinagar, 
and  the  other  at  Jammu,  presided  over  by  the  chief  medical  officer, 
Kashmir,  and  the  governor  of  the  Jammu  province,  respectively.     The 

vol.  xv  k 


i4o  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

members  are  nominated  by  the  Darbar  as  representatives  of  different 
communities.    There  is  no  separate  municipal  fund  ;  the  State  provides 
the    expenditure    for    municipal    and    sanitary    pur- 
Local  and         p0Ses,  while  the  receipts,  such  as  octroi,  are  likewise 
credited  to  the  general  revenues.     The  expenditure 
in  1905-6  was  Rs.  92,000,  of  which  Rs.  6,400  was  met  from  fees  and 
taxes  and  the  balance  by  a  grant  from  the  State.      In  other  towns  con- 
servancy establishments  are  maintained,  which  are  under  the  municipal 
committee   of  the   province   in   which   the   town    is    situated.     Great 
improvements  have  lately  been  made  in  the  drainage  system  of  Jammu 

town. 

The  expenditure  on  public  works  in  1905-6  was  30-8  lakhs,  and  will 

always  be  heavy.     The  maintenance  of  long  lines  of  communication 

between  Kashmir  and  India  and  between  Kashmir, 

Public  works.  G[lg^  and  Ladakh,  the  cost  of  buildings  in  Srlnagar 
and  Jammu,  and  the  enormous  losses  which  have  to  be  repaired  when 
great  floods  and  earthquakes  occur  render  a  large  annual  outlay  inevi- 
table. The  road  from  Kohala  to  Baramula  alone  cost  22  lakhs  to 
construct,  and  the  road  from  Kashmir  to  Gilgit  cost,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, 15  lakhs.  In  1901  the  construction  of  a  cart-road  from  Jammu 
to  Udhampur  was  sanctioned.  In  1905-6  the  utilization  of  the  Jhelum 
river  for  a  great  electric  power  scheme  was  taken  in  hand,  and  4-6  lakhs 
was  spent  on  it.  The  State  Engineer  is  usually  an  officer  lent  by  the 
British  Government ;  and  the  State  is  divided  into  eight  divisions, 
known  as  Kashmir,  Jammu,  the  Jhelum  valley,  Gilgit,  Udhampur  cart- 
road,  Palace,  Jhelum  power,  and  Jammu  irrigation. 

The  expenditure  on  the  army  is  heavy,  amounting  to  nearly  14  lakhs 
in  1905-6,  but  the  administration  is  sound  and  economical,  and  there 
is  considerable  efficiency.  The  State  has  splendid 
materials  for  an  army,  as  the  Dogras  are,  in  the 
opinion  of  competent  authorities,  second  to  none  in  martial  qualities. 
The  commander-in-chief  up  to  the  year  1900  was  assisted  by  a  British 
officer  as  military  adviser.  The  first  military  adviser  was  Colonel  (after- 
wards Sir)  Neville  Chamberlain,  to  whose  energy  and  tact  the  State 
owes  its  present  efficient  and  well-equipped  force.  The  army  consists 
of  two  mountain  batteries,  one  horse  artillery  and  one  garrison  battery, 
one  squadron  Kashmir  Lancers,  one  troop  body-guard  cavalry,  7  regi- 
ments of  infantry,  and  4  companies  of  sappers  and  miners,  with  a  total 
strength  of  6,283.  Out  of  this  the  State  maintains  a  force  of  3,370 
Imperial  Service  troops,  the  remainder  being  called  regular  troops. 
Jammu,  the  winter  capital,  has  a  strong  garrison.  Imperial  Service 
troops  are  stationed  at  Satwari  cantonment,  about  5  miles  from  Jammu, 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Tawi  river.  Two  regiments  of  regular 
infantry  and  a  garrison   battery  are   stationed  at  Srinagar,  and  small 


EDUCATION  141 

detachments  of  infantry  are  detailed  from  this  garrison  for  Bandipura, 
Leh,  Skardu,  Padar,  and  various  other  posts.  The  troops  in  Gilgit,  the 
northernmost  part  of  the  State,  consist  of  two  regiments  of  Imperial 
Service  infantry,  a  battery  of  four  mounted  guns,  and  two  companies  of 
the  Kashmir  sappers  and  miners.  Detachments  of  infantry  are  supplied 
to  the  frontier  posts  of  Gupis,  Chilas,  &c,  and  the  battery  is  stationed 
at  Bunji  and  Ruttoo.  The  troops  at  the  Gilgit,  Ladakh,  and  Skardu 
frontiers  are  relieved  biennially.  The  Imperial  Service  infantry  regi- 
ments are  armed  with  Lee-Metford  rifles,  and  the  regular  regiments  with 
Enfield-Sniders.  The  mountain  batteries  are  equipped  with  2-5-inch 
guns,  and  the  cavalry  are  armed  with  lances  and  carbines.  A  num- 
ber of  forts  partially  armed  are  scattered  all  over  the  country.  The 
State  army  is  commanded  by  General  Raja  Sir  Amar  Singh,  K.C.S.I., 
younger  brother  of  the  Maharaja. 

Serious  crime  is  rare,  and  the  force  of  regular  police  is  comparatively 
small.     It  includes  3  assistant  superintendents,  9  inspectors,  297  sub- 
ordinate officers,  and  1,213  constables,  costing  about 
2-2  lakhs  annually.     The  force  is  controlled  by  two  °  j^jifn 

Superintendents  for  the  chief  provinces  of  Jammu 
and  Kashmir.  Police  duties  in  the  villages  are  performed  by  the 
chaukiddrs,  who  are  generally  Dums  in  the  Jammu  province,  and  are 
paid  by  the  villagers.  The  responsibility  of  the  headman  for  reporting 
crime  is  insisted  on.  A  training  school  for  regular  police  is  main- 
tained, and  the  system  of  identifying  convicts  by  thumb  impressions 
has  been  introduced.  In  1904-5  only  2,076  cognizable  cases  were 
reported,  of  which  640,  or  30  per  cent.,  ended  in  conviction. 

Central  jails  are  maintained  at  Jammu  and  at  Srlnagar,  and  seven 
small  jails  in  outlying  places.  Both  the  Central  jails  are  usually  over- 
crowded, the  daily  average  number  of  prisoners  in  1904-5  being  543. 
The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  47,000  on  the  Central  jails, 
and  Rs.  3,600  on  the  others;  and  in  1905-6  a  total  of  Rs.  54,000. 
Convicts  are  employed  in  printing,  paper-making,  and  other  minor 
industries  in  the  Srlnagar  jail,  and  in  printing,  weaving,  and  manu- 
facturing industries  at  Jammu.  The  receipts  from  jail  manufactures  in 
1905-6  were  Rs.  18,000. 

The  Census  of  1901  showed  how  little  attention  was  formerly  paid 
to  education.  In  that  year  only  2  per  cent,  of  the  population  could 
read  and  write.  Among  males  the  proportion  rises  to  _, 
3-8  per  cent.,  while  among  the  total  female  popula- 
tion only  1,260  were  literate.  Hindus  appear  to  be  much  better 
educated  than  Muhammadans.  In  1900-1  the  State  maintained  87 
schools,  attended  by  6,197  boys.  By  1905-6  the  number  of  State 
schools  had  risen  to  154,  including  two  high  schools,  a  normal  school, 
7  Anglo-vernacular  and  12  vernacular  middle  schools,  and  133  primary 

k  _• 


1 42  KASHMIR   AND  JAMMU 

schools.  Besides  these,  3  girls'  schools  are  maintained  by  the  State 
at  Srmagar ;  and  there  are  one  aided  girls'  school  at  Jammu,  two  aided 
high  schools  and  an  aided  middle  school  at  Srinagar,  and  an  aided 
middle  school  at  Jammu.  Sanskrit  schools  attached  to  the  State  high 
schools,  one  at  Jammu  and  the  other  at  Srinagar,  teach  up  to  the 
Shastri  standard.  The  total  number  of  pupils  in  all  the  schools  was 
11,460.  The  department  is  under  the  control  of  the  foreign  minister, 
who  is  aided  by  an  inspector  and  two  assistant  inspectors  of  schools. 
There  being  no  State  college,  17  scholarships  are  annually  granted 
by  the  Darbar  to  students  for  prosecuting  their  studies  at  colleges 
at  Lahore.  Two  scholarships  of  Rs.  4,000  each  have  also  been  sanc- 
tioned for  training  State  subjects  abroad  in  useful  arts,  &x.  Ten 
stipends  of  the  value  of  Rs.  8  a  month  are  granted  in  the  Srinagar 
normal  school,  and  thirteen  of  the  value  of  Rs.  1,944  are  awarded  to 
students  sent  up  for  training  in  the  normal  school  and  training  college 
at  Lahore,  while  two  teachers  are  annually  sent  to  the  latter  on  the 
full  pay  of  their  appointments.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in 
1905-6  was  1-05  lakhs,  compared  with  only  Rs.  45,000  in  1 900-1. 

An  Arts  college  was  opened  at  Srinagar  in  1905  by  the  trustees 
of  the  Central  Hindu  College,  Benares,  in  connexion  with  the  Hindu 
high  school,  and  the  Maharaja  has  sanctioned  a  grant-in-aid  of 
Rs.  15,600  per  annum  for  the  college  and  school  from  the  year  1906. 

The  State  maintains  at  Srinagar  two  hospitals,  two  dispensaries 
with  accommodation  for  in-patients,  and  a  leper  asylum,  and  at  Jammu 
two  hospitals  for  the  civil  population,  besides  mili- 
tary hospitals  at  Jammu  and  at  Satwari  cantonment. 
In  1904-5,  besides  these,  43  dispensaries  were  maintained  in  the 
State.  Two  chief  medical  officers  are  in  charge  of  the  Jammu  and 
Kashmir  provinces,  and  the  Agency  Surgeon  supervises  work  in  Gilgit. 
The  Medical  department  of  the  State  is  under  the  control  of  a  Super- 
intending Surgeon.  In  1904-5  the  total  number  of  patients  treated 
was  401,120,  of  whom  4,338  were  in-patients,  and  11,830  operations 
were  performed.  The  expenditure  was  1-5  lakhs.  In  addition  to  the 
State  institutions,  valuable  work  is  being  done  by  the  Medical  Mission, 
which  has  a  large  hospital  at  Srinagar  and  a  hospital  at  Anantnag. 
The  leper  asylum  referred  to  above  is  also  managed  by  them  for  the 
Darbar. 

The  staff  for  vaccination  consists  of  eighteen  men,  who  work  in  the 
province  of  Jammu  in  winter,  and  in  that  of  Kashmir  in  summer. 
Vaccination  is  not  compulsory,  but  a  good  deal  of  work  is  done  by 
the  exercise  of  tact  and  moral  persuasion.  In  1904-5  the  number 
of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  both  provinces  was  33,784,  while 
4,200  vaccinations  were  also  carried  out  in  Gilgit.  The  people  of 
Ghizar,  Yasln,  Ashkuman,  and  Chilas  districts  formerly  refused  vaccina- 


MEDICAL  143 

tion,  but  are  now  accepting  it.  The  total  expenditure  in  1905-6  was 
Rs.  5,685.  Inoculation  is  practised  by  the  people  in  the  frontier 
districts,  but  not  elsewhere. 

[F.  Bernier  :  Voyages  (1699). — G.  T.  Vigne  :  Travels  in  Kashmir, 
Ladak,  Iskardo  (1842). — A.  Cunningham  :  An  Essay  on  the  Arian 
Order  of  Architecture  as  exhibited  in  the  Temples  of  Kashmir  ^1848). — 
J.  Biddulph  :  Tribes  of  the  Bind u  Koosh  (1880). —  Drew:  Jammu  and 
Kashmir  Territories  (1875). —  E.  F.  Knight:  J  J 'here  Three  Empires 
meet  (1S93). — W.  R.  Lawrence  :  The  Valley  of  Kashmir  (1895V — 
Kalhana's  Rajatarangini,  a  Chronicle  of  the  Kin^s  of  Kashmir,  trans- 
lated by  M.  A.  Stein,  2  vols.  (1900).] 


144 


KASHMIR  AND  JAMMU 


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146 


KASHMIR   AND  J  A  MAW 


TABLE  IV 
Principal  Sources  of  Revenue,  Kashmir 

(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


1895-6. 

1900-1. 

1 905-6. 

Opening  balance        .... 
Land  revenue 

29-53 

41,12 

38,26 

35,73 

38,78 

38,9! 

Customs  and  octroi    .... 

4,22 

7,61 

9,18 

Grazing  fees       ..... 
Excise        ...... 

2,37 
37 

3,33 
50 

4,84 
i,37 

Receipts  from  State  property  in  India 
Stamps      ....          .         . 

Courts  of  law     ..... 

1,91 

i,37 
27 

42 

i,75 

3° 

36 

2,22 

32 

Jails 

Post  Office 

5 
1 1 

/ 

'9 

Telegraphs         ..... 
Scientific  and  minor  departments 

3 

7.7i 

6 

2,70 

8 
2,22 

Sericulture          ..... 

7 

2,67 

14,02 

Interest      ...... 

81 

i,49 

2,98 

Forests      ...... 

8,09 

8,83 

13,01 

Military 

25 

29 

35 

Public  works      ..... 

M 

48 

58 

Miscellaneous    ..... 

Total 
Debt  and  remittance. 

Grand  total 

3,9° 

5.2S 

2,36 

67,40 

74,56 

92,99 

1,42,70 

i,77,04 

3,6i,73 

2,39,63 

2,92,72 

4,92,98 

TABLES 


'47 


TABLE  V 


Principal  Items  of  Expenditure,  Kashmir 
(In  thousands  of  rupees) 


i 

1895-6. 

1900-1. 

1905-6. 

Land  revenue     .                             .          . 

3.15 

4,77 

6,12 

Customs    . 

75 

i,3° 

Forests 

2,55 

2,95 

3,98 

Post  Office 

16 

,  , 

... 

Telegraphs 

77 

26 

29 

Privy  purse  and  court 

9,24 

8,46 

10,87 

General  administration 

i>7s 

2,49 

3,27 

Courts  of  law     . 

68 

88 

1,22 

Jails 

32 

47 

54 

Police 

i;4S 

i,97 

2,05 

Education 

37 

5° 

1,05 

Medical     . 

82 

i,39 

!,57 

l'olitical    . 

J,74 

2,36 

9,38 

Scientific  and  minor  depart 

ment: 

72 

I;°5 

2,11 

Sericulture 

>5 

4A3 

7,53 

Pensions  and  gratuities 

1,10 

',34 

1,32 

Stationery  and  printing 

20 

64 

48 

Stables,  &c. 

i, 01 

i,54 

'•47 

Refunds     . 

36 

25 

54 

Military    . 

*3,44 

11,69 

I3,S2 

Public  works     . 

12,62 

15,80 

3°,So 

Miscellaneous    . 

8,57 

1 ,33 

!,7! 

Total 
Debt  and  remittance  .... 

Total 

61,23 

65,52 

1,01,42 

i>54>27 

1,81,52 

3,57,03 

2,15,5° 

2,47,04 

4,58,45 

Closing  balance  ..... 

24,13 

45,68 

34,53 

Gr 

AND  ' 

rOTA] 

L 

2,39,63 

2,92,72 

4,92,98 

r48  KASHMOR 

Kashmor. —  Tdluka  of  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  lying  between  280  4'  and  280  29'  N.  and  690  15'  and  690 
47'  E.  In  190 1  the  area  was  500  square  miles.  The  population  in 
1 90 1  was  38,179,  compared  with  35,763  in  1891.  The  density,  77 
persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The 
tdluka  contained  65  villages,  of  which  Kashmor  is  the  head-quarters. 
The  land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  in  1903-4  to  1-2  lakhs.  Owing 
to  the  vagaries  of  the  Indus,  the  present  area  of  the  tdluka  is  508 
square  miles,  of  which  about  37  square  miles  are  covered  by  forests. 
A  large  area  of  land  is  still  unoccupied  and  available  for  cultivation. 
Irrigation  depends  upon  floods  and  upon  the  Desert  and  Dingro  Wah 
Canals  and  canals  from  the  Kashmor  Band. 

Kas.ia.  —  Subdivision  of  Gorakhpur  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  Padrauna  Tahsil.  The  subdivision  takes  its  name 
from  the  village  of  Kasin,  at  which  the  head-quarters  of  the  sub- 
divisional  officer  are  situated.  Population  of  the  village  (1901),  t,688. 
The  village  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Deoria-Padrauna  and 
Gorakhpur-Pipraghat  roads,  near  the  bank  of  the  Rama  Bhar  lake, 
and  contains  a  dispensary  and  a  town  school  with  114  pupils.  A  short 
distance  away,  in  the  village  of  Bishanpura,  is  situated  the  important 
group  of  ruins  which  was  long  supposed  to  mark  the  site  -of  Kusa- 
nagara,  where  Gautama  Buddha  died.  The  ruins  include  a  large  stupa 
and  many  small  ones,  the  remains  of  a  monastery,  and  a  temple  which 
enshrines  a  colossal  statue  of  the  dying  Buddha,  20  feet  in  length. 
It  has  now  been  recognized  that  the  buildings  on  this  site  do 
not  agree  with  the  description  of  Kusanagara  given  by  the  Chinese 
pilgrims. 

[A.  Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vols,  xviii  and  xxii ; 
V.  A.  Smith,  The  Remains  near  Kasid  (1896),  and  in  Journal,  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  1902,  p.  139;  W.  Hoey,  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal,  1900,  p.  83.] 

Kasimbazar. — Decayed  town  in  Murshidabad  District,  Bengal. 
See  Cossimbazar. 

Kasipur-Chitpur. — Town  in  the  District  of  the  Twenty-four  Par- 
ganas,  Bengal.     See  Cosstpore-Chitpur. 

Kasla  Pagina  Muvada.— Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Kasumpti.— Suburb  of  Simla  station,  Punjab.  It  lies  within  the 
territory  of  the  Raja  of  Keonthal,  but  being  practically  part  of  Simla 
was  leased  from  the  Raja  in  1884,  and  constituted  a  separate  munici- 
pality, whose  functions  are  performed  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner 
of  Simla.  The  municipal  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  5,600.  In  t 903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  6,200,  chiefly  from  taxes  on  houses  and  lands  ;  and  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  6,300.     Population  (March,  1901),  170. 


KASUR    TOWN  149 

Kasur  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Lahore  District,  Punjab, 
consisting  of  the  Kasur  and  Chunian  tahsils. 

Kasur  Tahsil. —  South-eastern  tahsil  of  Lahore  District,  Punjab, 
lying  between  300  54/  and  310  27'  N.  and  740  13'  and  740  58'  E.,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  with  an  area  of  8r6  square  miles,  of  which 
two-thirds  belong  to  the  tract  known  as  the  Manjha  and  the  remainder 
to  the  lowlands  beneath  the  old  bank  of  the  Beas.  The  Manjha 
portion  is  irrigated  by  the  Pari  Doab  Canal,  and  the  southern  low- 
lands by  the  Katora  Inundation  Canal.  The  population  in  1901  was 
311,690,  compared  with  280,647  ,n  1891.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
the  town  of  Kasur  (22,022) ;  and  it  also  contains  the  towns  of  Khem 
Karan  (6,083)  and  Patti  (8,187),  and  345  villages.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,71,000.  The  battle- 
field of  Soeraon  lies  in  this  tahsil. 

Kasur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  and  tahsil  of  the 
same  name  in  Lahore  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  310  8"  N.  and 
740  28'  E.,  upon  the  north  bank  of  the  old  bed  of  the  Beas,  on  the 
North-Western  Railway  and  on  the  Ferozepore  road,  34  miles  south- 
east of  Lahore  city  ;  distant  by  rail  from  Calcutta  1,209  miles,  from 
Bombay  1,237,  and  from  Karachi  778.  Population  (1901),  22,022,  of 
whom  5,327  are  Hindus  and  16,257  Muhammadans.  Tradition  refers 
its  origin  to  Kusa,  son  of  Rama,  and  brother  of  Loh  or  Lava,  the 
founder  of  Lahore.  It  is  certainly  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and 
General  Cunningham  identified  it  with  one  of  the  places  visited  by 
Hiuen  Tsiang  in  the  seventh  century  a.d.  A  Rajput  city  seems  to 
have  occupied  the  modern  site  before  the  earliest  Muhammadan 
invasion ;  but  Kasur  does  not  appear  in  history  until  late  in  the 
Muhammadan  period,  when  it  was  settled  by  a  Pathan  colony  from 
the  east  of  the  Indus.  These  immigrants  entered  the  town  either  in 
the  reign  of  Babar  or  in  that  of  his  grandson  Akbar,  and  founded 
a  considerable  principality,  with  territory  on  both  sides  of  the  Sutlej. 
When  the  Sikhs  rose  to  power,  they  experienced  great  opposition  from 
the  Pathans  of  Kasur ;  and,  though  the  chiefs  of  the  Bhangi  con- 
federacy stormed  the  town  in  1763,  and  again  in  1770,  and  succeeded 
for  a  while  in  holding  the  entire  principality,  the  Pathan  leaders  re- 
established their  independence  in  1794,  and  resisted  many  subsequent 
attacks.  In  1807,  however,  Kutb-ud-dfn  Khan,  the  last  chieftain,  was 
forced  to  give  way  before  Ranjlt  Singh,  and  retired  to  his  property 
at  Mamdot,  beyond  the  Sutlej.  The  town  of  Kasur  was  then  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Lahore.  It  consists  of  an  aggregation  of 
fortified  hamlets,  standing  on  the  upland  bank  and  overlooking  the 
alluvial  valleys  of  the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej.  The  Pathan  element  has 
now  declined.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income 
during   the   ten  years   ending  1902-3   averaged  Rs.  52,800,  and  the 


150  KASUR    TOWN 

expenditure  Rs.  50,900.  In  1903-4  the  income  and  expenditure 
were  Rs.  60,400  and  Rs.  54,500  respectively.  The  chief  source  of 
income  was  octroi  (Rs.  50,000),  while  the  main  items  of  outlay  were 
conservancy  (Rs.  4,000),  education  (Rs.  8,500),  hospitals  and  dispensaries 
(Rs.  6,300),  and  administration  (Rs.  18,800).  Kasiir  is  now,  next  to 
Lahore,  the  most  important  town  in  the  District.  It  is  the  centre  of  local 
trade,  and  exports  grain  and  cotton  to  the  annual  value  of  ro  lakhs. 
Harness  and  other  leathern  goods  are  manufactured,  and  there  are 
4  cotton-ginning  and  2  cotton-pressing  factories,  which  in  1904  em- 
ployed 436  hands.  The  chief  educational  institution  is  the  Anglo- 
vernacular  high  school  maintained  by  the  municipality.  An  industrial 
school  formerly  existed,  but  is  now  extinct.  The  town  also  contains 
a  hospital,  and  since  1899  has  been  an  out-station  of  the  American 
Presbyterian  Mission. 

Katak. — District,  subdivision,  and  town  in  Bengal.     See  Cuttack. 

Katakhal.— River  in  Cachar  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Dhaleswari. 

Katas. —  Sacred  pool  in  the  centre  of  the  Salt  Range,  in  Jhelum 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  320  43'  N.  and  720  59'  E.,  15  miles  north 
of  Pind  Dadan  Khan,  at  an  elevation  of  over  2,000  feet.  The  pool  lies 
at  the  head  of  the  Ganlya  nullah,  a  small  ravine  between  low  stony 
hills,  and  is  fed  by  springs.  From  it  issues  a  small  stream  which  flows 
past  Choa  Saidan  Shah  into  the  Gandhala  valley.  It  is  visited  every 
year  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  who  come  to  bathe  in  its  waters.  The 
Brahmanical  story  is  that  Siva  being  inconsolable  at  the  death  of  his 
wife  Sari,  'the  true  one,'  tears  rained  from  his  eyes  and  formed  the  two 
pools  of  Katas  or  Kataksha,  '  raining  eyes,'  and  Pushkar  near  Ajmer. 
The  pool  is  partly  artificial,  the  rock  having  been  cut  away  to  enlarge 
the  natural  basin  in  the  bed  of  the  ravine.  Just  above  it  once  stretched 
a  strong  masonry  wall  which  dammed  up  the  stream,  so  as  to  enclose 
a  large  lake  ;  but  the  water  now  escapes  through  the  broken  rocks  and 
ruins  of  the  embankment.  About  800  feet  below  the  pool  the  Ganlya 
nullah  passes  between  two  low  flat-topped  hills,  on  which  the  ancient 
town  is  said  to  have  stood.  At  the  foot  of  Kotera,  the  west  hill,  are 
the  remains  of  twelve  temples  clustered  in  a  corner  of  an  old  fort. 
These  are  called  the  Sat-Ghara,  or  '  seven  temples,'  and  are  popularly 
attributed  to  the  Pandavas,  who  are  said  to  have  lived  at  Katas  during 
a  portion  of  their  seven  years'  wanderings.  Their  style  is  that  of  the 
Kashmir  architecture  which  prevailed  from  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  they  comprise  a  group  of  six  small  temples  placed  in 
pairs  at  regular  distances  around  one  large  central  temple.  Facing 
this  to  the  east  is  the  basement  of  a  great  structure,  which  was  in 
all  probability  a  Buddhist  stupa. 

South-west  of  the  village  of  Choa  Saidan  Shah,  which  lies  2  miles 


KATHA  DISTRICT  t5i 

due  east  of  Katas,  extends  the  Gandhala  valley,  itself  2,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  separated  by  lofty  cliffs  from  Katas  on  the  north.  On  the 
bank  of  the  Katas  stream,  which  flows  through  the  valley,  lies  the  hill 
of  Murti,  rising  on  a  base  of  solid  sandstone  to  about  100  feet  above 
the  stream,  its  level  top  being  225  feet  long  by  190  broad.  On  this 
plateau  is  a  small  mound,  the  remains  of  a  stupa  ;  and  close  to  it  once 
stood  a  small  Jain  temple,  from  the  debris  of  which  a  considerable 
quantity  of  highly  ornamented  architectural  fragments  (now  in  the 
Lahore  Museum)  were  recovered  by  Dr.  Stein's  excavations  in  1890. 
The  temple  has  been  identified  with  a  famous  Jain  shrine  where 
Mahavira  was  supposed  to  have  obtained  his  enlightenment.  The 
locality  is  also  identified  with  Singha-pura,  the  Sang-ho-pu-lo  of  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Hiuen  Tsiang,  and  described  by  him  as  the  capital 
of  a  dependency  of  Kashmir  about  a.  d.  630. 

[Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  ii,  pp.  88  and  90  ;  A.  Cunning- 
ham, Ancient  Geography  of  India,  pp.  124-8  ;  Vienna  Oriental  Journal, 
vol.  iv  (1890),  pp.  80  and  260.] 

Katha  District. — District  in  the  Mandalay  Division  of  Upper 
Burma,  lying  between  230  30'  and  250  f  N.  and  950  6'  and  960  42'  E., 
for  the  most  part  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  with  an  area 
of  6,994  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Upper 
Chindwin  and  Myitkyina  Districts  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Kaukkwe  river 
as  far  as  its  junction  with  the  Irrawaddy  ;  thence,  by  the  State  of 
Mongmit  (Momeik)  and  the  Shweli  river  to  its  mouth,  and  southwards 
of  this  point  by  the  Irrawaddy.  The  southern  boundary  abuts  on  the 
Ruby  Mines  and  Shwebo  Districts,  and  the  western  on  the  Upper 
Chindwin. 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  east  of  the  Irrawaddv,  the  greater 
part  of  Katha  is  a  mass  of  hill  country.     Three  main  ranges  traverse 
the  District,  roughly  from  north  to  south,  separating 
its  principal  streams,  but  they  are  of  no  very  great  snecfcf 

height.  Of  these,  the  easternmost  is  the  Gangaw 
range,  which  runs  southwards  from  the  north-east  corner  of  the 
District  to  meet  the  Irrawaddy  at  Tigyaing.  Its  course  is,  in  the 
main,  parallel  to  that  of  the  stream,  and  its  highest  point  is  4,400  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  principal  pass  crossing  it  is  at  Petsut,  12  miles 
west  of  Katha,  over  which  a  small  branch  line  runs  from  Katha  to 
Naba  on  the  main  line  of  the  railway,  at  a  height  of  about  500  feet 
above  the  surrounding  country.  West  of  the  Gangaw  Hills  is  the 
Minwun  range,  starting  from  the  extreme  northern  limit  of  Katha,  east 
of  the  Taungthonlon  hill,  and  running  down  the  centre  of  the  District 
to  its  southern  boundary,  where  the  Irrawaddy  flows  about  5  or  6  miles 
east  of  the  hills.  The  principal  pass  over  this  ridge  is  the  Mawgun- 
daing,  crossed  east  and   west  by  the  road  from  Tigyaing  to  Wuntho, 


i<52  KATHA   DISTRICT 


about  12  miles  west  of  Tigyaing,  at  a  height  of  about  1,500  feet. 
There  is  a  gap  in  the  hills  near  Mawteik,  through  which  the  Meza 
river  has  cut  from  west  to  east.  The  Sagaing-Myitkyina  railway  on  its 
way  north  climbs  the  range  by  way  of  a  gorge  between  Bonchaung  and 
Nankan.  The  third  main  range,  the  Mangin,  passes  through  the 
Wuntho  subdivision  to  the  east  of  the  Mu  river.  Its  most  elevated 
point  is  Maingthon,  5,450  feet  above  sea-level,  a  little  west  of  the 
centre  of  the  District.  This  is  the  highest  peak  actually  within  the 
District,  though  the  Taungthonlon,  on  the  north-western  border,  is 
a  little  higher.  All  three  hill  ranges  are  covered  with  dense  jungle, 
and  contain  much  teak  and  other  valuable  timber,  besides  considerable 
quantities  of  bamboo. 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Kaukkwe,  the  Shweli, 
the  Meza,  the  Mu,  and  the  Namyin  (or  Mohnyin).  The  Irrawaddy 
enters  Katha  about  half-way  down  its  eastern  side,  and  as  far  south  as 
the  mouth  of  the  Shweli  separates  the  greater  part  of  the  District  from 
a  small  level  tract  on  its  eastern  bank.  South  of  the  Shweli  it  forms 
the  eastern  boundary  for  about  25  miles.  It  runs  with  a  south-westerly 
course  in  what  is  for  the  most  part  a  wide  channel  interspersed  with 
numerous  slands,  and  is  navigable  all  through  the  year  by  all  sizes 
of  river-craft.  The  Shweli  flows  into  the  Irrawaddy  on  its  left  bank, 
in  the  south-east  of  the  District,  separating  Katha  from  the  Ruby 
Mines'  District  for  about  25  miles.  In  these  lower  reaches  it  is  a  wide 
waterway  on  which  boats  can  ply.  The  Kaukkwe  stream,  winding 
southwards  into  the  Irrawaddy  from  Myitkyina,  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  from  its  confluence  with  the  main  stream  up  to  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  District.  It  can  be  used  by  light-draught  launches 
as  far  as  Thayetta  (20  miles),  and  by  small  river-craft  right  up  into 
Myitkyina.  Separated  from  the  Irrawaddy  valley  by  the  Gangaw 
range  is  the  malarious  Meza  valley.  The  Meza  rises  in  the  Taung- 
thonlon hill  on  the  north-west  border  of  the  District,  and,  with  its 
numerous  affluents,  waters  nearly  all  the  Banmauk  subdivision.  Follow- 
ing a  southerly  course,  it  passes  through  a  gap  in  the  Minwun  range, 
and  enters  the  Indaw  township  near  Mawteik,  and  thence  flows 
southwards  between  the  Gangaw  and  Minwun  ranges,  emptying  itself 
eventually  into  the  Irrawaddy,  immediately  below  Tigyaing.  The 
valley  between  the  two  eastern  hill  ranges,  followed  by  the  railway 
for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  through  the  District,  is  drained  in 
the  far  north  by  the  Namyin  (Mohnyin),  a  southern  tributary  of  the 
Mogaung  river  in  Myitkyina  District.  In  the  south-western  quarter 
of  the  District,  lying  west  of  the  Mangin  range,  is  the  Mu,  which  rises 
in  the  south-west  of  the  Banmauk  subdivision  and  flows  in  a  southerly 
direction,  through  the  middle  of  the  Pinlebu  township,  into  Shwebo 
District,  but  is  not  navigable  within  the  limits  of  Katha.      Its  tributary 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  153 

on  the  east,  the  Daungyu  chaung,  rises  in  the  Wuntho  township,  waters 
the  entire  Kawlin  township,  and  from  its  mouth  eastwards  for  more 
than  30  miles  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the  District. 

The  Indaw  Lake  is  the  only  considerable  sheet  of  water  in  Katha. 
It  lies  close  to  the  railway,  5  miles  west  of  Naba  junction  near  the 
centre  of  the  District.  It  is  more  than  3  miles  long  and  a  mile  broad, 
and  is  a  fishery  of  some  importance.  A  curious  feature  of  the  lake  is 
the  absence  of  any  streams  flowing  either  into  or  out  of  it. 

The  Mangin  range  of  hill  consists  of  trap,  with  veins  of  gold-bearing 
quartz,  while  the  eastern  part  of  the  District  is  occupied  by  crystalline 
palaeozoic  rocks,  of  which  little  is  known.  West  of  these,  a  portion  of 
the  country  is  covered  by  Tertiary  sandstones  and  clays,  in  which  coal 
has  been  found  near  Wuntho.  West  of  this  again,  a  large  area  of 
eruptive  diorite,  associated  with  volcanic  ash,  has  been  laid  bare  by 
the  denudation  of  the  Tertiary  sandstones.  The  diorite  contains 
veins  of  auriferous  pyrites,  the  same  metal  being  found  also  dissemi- 
nated in  the  ash-beds.  The  Minwun  range  is  principally  sandstone, 
and  the  Gangaw  range  consists  of  mica  schist  in  the  south  and  of 
granite  in  the  north.     Limestone  also  occurs  in  parts. 

The  most  noticeable  features  of  the  vegetation  are  touched  upon 
under  the  head  of  Forests  below.  The  flora  is  rich  and  varied,  but 
has  not  been  studied  scientifically. 

The  wild  animals  usually  found  in  Upper  Burma  are  plentiful. 
Tigers,  leopards,  elephants,  bison,  and  tsine  or  hsaing  [Bos  sondaicus) 
roam  the  jungles  in  considerable  numbers,  while  bears  are  common  in 
the  more  hilly  parts.  Thamin  (brow-antlered  deer)  are  fairly  numerous 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  Wuntho  subdivision.  Wild  hog  are 
plentiful  everywhere,  and  do  much  damage  to  the  crops.  The 
Khedda  department  are  at  present  working  in  the  District,  and  have 
effected  considerable  catches  of  elephants,  but  many  of  these  died  of 
anthrax. 

Katha  has  a  bad  reputation  for  malarial  and  other  fevers.  The 
tarai  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  is  undoubtedly  very  unhealthy  at  all 
times ;  in  the  hot  months  the  heat  all  over  the  District  is  great, 
and  the  absence  of  wind  at  this  season  and  in  the  rains  adds  to  the 
discomfort  of  the  residents,  while  even  the  cold  season  is  made  un- 
healthy by  fogs  near  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  other  streams.  The 
temperature  has  not  been  regularly  recorded ;  but  it  has  been  found 
to  range  roughly  from  450  at  night  to  750  in  the  day  in  the  winter, 
from  700  to  90"  in  the  rains,  and  from  8o°  to  105°  in  the  hot  season. 
In  the  cold  season  there  are  heavy  dews.  The  annual  rainfall  aver- 
ages 58  inches  at  Katha,  and  varies  in  the  other  portions  of  the 
District  from  42  inches  at  Tigyaing  in  the  plains  to  67  inches  at 
Banmauk  in  the  hilly  areas.      The    Meza  valley  between  the    Indaw 


1 54  KATHA   DISTRICT 

Lake  and  Meza  railway  station  is  subject  to  inundation.  The  most 
notable  flood  of  recent  years  occurred  in  1901,  when  considerable 
damage  was  done  to  the  railway  and  to  other  property. 

Few  details  of  the  early    history  of  the  District  are  known.     It  is 
said  that  during  the  eleventh  century  Anawrata,  who  was  then  king 
,  of  Pagan,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  China  in  search  of 

relics  of  Buddha.  This  led  to  an  endeavour  to 
define  the  boundary  of  his  territory  with  China ;  and  from  this  time 
onwards  the  tribes  to  the  north,  including  those  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  what  is  now  known  as  Katha,  are  said  to  have  acknowledged 
Burmese  suzerainty.  The  Kachins  are  reputed  at  one  time  to  have 
inhabited  a  large  area  in  Katha  and  to  have  been  gradually  pushed 
back  to  the  northern  hills  by  the  Shans  and  Burmans,  but  this 
seems  doubtful ;  in  fact,  everything  points  to  the  pressure  having 
been  from  the  north,  and  to  have  been  applied  by  the  Kachins, 
who  have,  so  far  as  appears,  not  given  ground  again.  A  Chinese 
army  is  said  to  have  overrun  the  District  in  one  of  the  invasions 
from  the  north,  but  its  stay  was  of  brief  duration.  It  established 
itself  at  Tigyaing,  where  portions  of  the  old  fort  walls  are  still  visible, 
but  it  was  soon  driven  out.  In  1883  the  northern  part  of  the  District 
was  invaded  by  Kachins  from  the  north,  who  burnt  many  villages 
and  ravaged  a  great  portion  of  the  country. 

Katha  was  first  occupied  by  the  British  early  in  1886,  and  gave  some 
trouble  during  that  and  the  following  year.  In  course  of  time  the 
troops,  British  and  Native,  were  gradually  replaced  by  military  police. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  commencement  of  the  year  1890  that 
the  assistance  of  the  regulars  could  be  wholly  dispensed  with.  The 
character  of  the  country  rendered  the  breaking  up  of  the  rebel  and 
dacoit  gangs,  many  of  which  were  headed  by  ex-Burmese  officials 
and  professional  brigands,  no  easy  or  expeditious  matter,  and  the 
malarious  climate  caused  the  loss  of  many  lives.  The  District,  known 
in  the  early  years  after  the  annexation  as  Myadaung,  was  always  noted 
for  its  turbulence  ;  and  it  is  gravely  recorded  that  the  local  village 
officials  (myothugyis  and  shwehmus)  were  formerly  compelled  to  live  in 
specially  high  houses,  and  to  sleep  in  coffin-like  troughs  of  wood  of 
sufficient  thickness  to  resist  a  gunshot  or  the  lunge  of  a  spear. 

Chief  among  those  who  indirectly  opposed  the  British  after  the 
annexation  was  Maung  Aung  Myat,  the  Sawbwa  of  Wuntho,  a  so- 
called  Shan  State  lying  between  Katha  District  and  the  Upper 
Chindwin.  This  chieftain  seized  the  opportunity  to  increase  both 
his  power  and  the  area  of  his  State.  By  various  means  he  succeeded 
in  driving  out  a  number  of  officials  on  his  borders,  and  by  promises 
of  loyalty  and  obedience  to  the  British  Government  he  obtained 
permission  to  retain  as  part  of  the  Wuntho  State  a  portion  of  the 


POPULATION  155 

territory  thus  acquired.  It  was  long,  however,  before  he  would  meet 
British  officials,  and  eventually  in  1891  a  rebellion  broke  out  at  his 
instigation  among  the  Wuntho  people.  The  first  signal  act  of  insur- 
rection was  the  seizure  of  Banmauk  in  February.  This  was  followed 
by  an  attack  upon  Kawlin  and  the  burning  of  the  subdivisional  head- 
quarters. Other  acts  of  violence  were  committed  and  much  damage 
was  done  to  property.  The  rebels  were,  however,  defeated  at  Kawlin, 
at  the  Kyaingkwin  hill  between  Kawlin  and  Wuntho,  and  at  Okkan  in 
the  Ye-u  country ;  and  the  rising  was  suppressed  before  the  end  of  the 
hot  season,  at  the  cost,  however,  of  a  European  officer  and  a  number 
of  men.  Its  immediate  result  was  the  incorporation  of  Wuntho  State 
in  Katha  District.  The  Sawbwa  escaped  to  China,  where  he  is 
believed  to  be  still  living. 

The  most  notable  sacred  edifices  are  the  Myazedi,  the  Shwegugyi, 
the  Aingtalu,  the  Myatheindan,  and  the  Shwebontha  pagodas.  The 
Myazedi  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  Katha  town,  and  forms  the  land- 
mark dividing  the  northern  from  the  southern  quarter.  It  is  said  to  be 
one  of  84,000  pagodas,  each  no  bigger  than  a  cotton  basket,  built  by 
a  king  of  Patna,  known  to  the  Burmese  as  Thiridhammathawka  Min  of 
Patayipotpyi.  U  Pathi,  a  myothugyi  of  Katha,  enlarged  the  pagoda  to 
its  present  size  and  shape  in  1832.  In  1883  it  was  greatly  damaged  by 
the  wild  Kachins  who  occupied  the  town  during  the  raid  referred  to 
above,  and  what  almost  amounts  to  a  new  shrine  has  now  been  built 
on  the  old  site  in  the  most  modern  style  of  Burmese  architecture. 
The  Shwegugyi  pagoda,  built  by  king  Bodawpaya,  stands  in  the  northern 
quarter  of  Katha  town.  The  Shwebontha  pagoda,  situated  at  Bilumyo, 
is  also  said  to  be  one  of  the  84,000  works  of  merit  aforesaid.  Near  it 
are  the  ruins  of  an  old  fortified  city.  The  Aingtalu  pagoda  stands 
about  2  miles  north-east  of  Aleywa  (Moda),  on  a  hill  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Irrawaddy.  It  appears  to  be  a  very  ancient  structure,  and  is 
much  broken  down,  and  for  many  years  was  completely  hidden  by 
jungle  growth.  The  Myatheindan  pagoda  stands  on  the  end  of  the 
Gangaw  range  above  the  Irrawaddy  at  Tigyaing.  The  remains  of 
the  old  wall  erected  by  the  Chinese  when  they  invaded  this  part  of  the 
country  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Tigyaing. 

The  population  of  Katha  in  1891  was  90,548  (not  including  the 

Wuntho  State,  annexed  in  that  year),  and  in  190 1 

'  ../....  Population, 

amounted  to  176,223.     Its  distribution  in  the  latter 

year  is  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

There  are  no  towns  of  importance,  and  very  few  large  villages.  The 
last  few  years  have  seen  a  rapid  increase  of  population  in  the  country 
lying  along  the  railway;  but  it  has  not  extended  to  the  riverain  portions 
of  the  District,  where,  it  is  said,  development  has  been  arrested  by  the 
cost  of  transit.     Immigration  has  taken  place  largely  from  Shwebo,  and 

vol.  xv.  1. 


i56 


KATHA   DISTRICT 


to  a  lesser  extent  from  Mandalay  District.  Rather  more  than  95  per 
cent,  of  the  people  are  Buddhists.  Burmese  is  the  language  of  about 
123,000.  Kadu  is  spoken  in  the  west,  and  Shan  and  Kachin  in 
the  north. 


Township. 


Katha  . 
Tigyaing 
Mawlu  . 
Indaw 
Wuntho  . 
Kawlin  . 
Pinlebu  . 
Banmauk 

District  total 


e 

Number  of 

(fl 

T* 

c 

fcJ) 

0 

0 

~m  '. 

< 

H 
1 

> 

1,152 

.78 

352 

... 

116 

I,344 

281 

416 

... 

15' 

592 

3oi 

536 

... 

239 

1,367 

.  •  • 

362 

1,235 

... 

338 

6,994 

1 

i,y66 

s 


20,062 
16,046 

17,178 

14,208 

2  2,934 
28,114 

29,321 

28,360 


176,223 


5,I27 
4,448 
2,564 
3,o49 
5,5°8 
7,56i 
4,593 
3,43i 


36,281 


*  The  last  four  townships  belonged  in  1891  to  the  State  of  Wuntho. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1901,  Burmans  numbered  82,800;  Shans, 

49,4005   Kadus,  34,200;    and  Kachins,  5,900.     The  first  named  are 

settled  over  the  greater  part  of  the  District ;  but  while  the  Tigyaing 

and   Wuntho   townships   are   almost   exclusively   Burmese,    there   are 

comparatively  few  Burmans  in  the  Banmauk  and  Mawlu   townships. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  Burmese  element  is  strongest  in  the  south,  and 

grows  weaker  towards   the  north,  where  Shans,  Kadus,  and  Kachins 

preponderate.      The  Kadus  inhabit  the  western  townships — Banmauk, 

Pinlebu,  and  Indaw;  the  Shans  occupy  the  north,  being  most  numerous 

in  the  Mawlu  township,  but  they  are  well  represented  also  in  Katha, 

Indaw,   Pinlebu,   and  Banmauk,   particularly  in   the   last    two.      The 

Kachins   are    found   in   greatest    numbers    in   the  hills  of  Mawlu   in 

the  north  of  the  District,  and  in  the  north  of  the  Katha  township. 

In  1 90 1  Musalmans  numbered  940  and  Hindus  1,240  :    of  these  450 

Musalmans  and  180  Hindus  lived  in  Katha  town.     A  large  number 

of  the  Indian   residents  are  Government  or  railway  employes.     The 

number  of  Christians  in   1901  was  only   153,  mostly  Europeans  and 

Eurasians.     Nearly  half  of  them  were  residents  of  Katha  town.     In  1901 

about  77  per  cent,  of  the  population  were  engaged  in  or  dependent  on 

agriculture,  about  one-sixteenth  of  these  being  supported  by  tau/igya 

(shifting)  cultivation  alone. 

The  District  is  composed  mainly  of  hills,  between  which  lie  scattered 

patches  of  cultivated  land,  where  the  silt  brought  down  by  the  streams 

.     .     ,.  from  the  hill-sides  has  been  deposited  so  as  to  form 

Agriculture.  .  „  .       ,     ,       ,    .     l  .  ,  .  T 

a  surface  sufficiently  level  for  rice  cultivation.      In 

the  higher  valleys  the  soil  is,  as  a  rule,  very  fertile,  the  most  common 


AGRICULTURE  157 

type  being  a  rich  grey  loam  known  us  myetna.  Another  kind  is  a  thick 
heavy  clay,  hard  to  work,  and  very  liable  to  become  waterlogged,  a 
defect  which  is  common  more  or  less  to  all  the  soils  of  the  District. 
In  the  lower  valleys  the  ground  is  often  similar  to  that  described  above, 
but  in  many  cases  it  appears  to  have  been  formed  of  matter  washed 
down  from  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills.  These  are  as  a  rule  composed 
of  indaing  or  laterite,  and  the  low  land  is  therefore  often  very  sandy  and 
of  poor  quality.  Plains  of  moderate  extent  stretch  southwards  from 
Wuntho  to  the  boundary  of  Shwebo  District,  and  from  Mohnyin  in  a 
north-easterly  direction  to  Myitkyina.  Taungya-culXmg  is  practised 
in  parts,  but  there  is  little  or  no  permanent  ya  (high  land)  cultivation. 
The  taungya-cutters  are  recognized  as  the  poorest  members  of  the 
agricultural  community,  and  it  is  always  their  ambition  to  become 
possessed  of  ordinary  plain  rice  land,  though  they  seem  somewhat 
reluctant  to  migrate  in  search  of  it. 

The  land  tenures  prevailing  are  of  considerable  interest.  Officers 
have  from  time  to  time  been  placed  on  special  duty  in  connexion  with 
this  question,  but  a  comprehensive  inquiry  has  only  recently  been 
made  by  the  Settlement  officer.  From  his  report  it  appears  that  the 
southern  part  of  the  District  includes  small  portions  of  the  old  Pyinsala- 
nga-myo  and  Mvedu  zvun-sbips.  In  these  tracts  the  tenures  are  similar 
to  those  prevailing  in  other  parts  of  Upper  Burma.  In  the  rest  of  the 
District  the  tenures  are  found  to  have  been  of  a  communal  nature. 
Land  within  a  village  or  tkugyi-ship  could  be  held  only  by  a  resident, 
and  sales  or  mortgages,  where  permitted  at  all,  were  allowed  only  to 
another  resident.  If  a  landholder  removed  to  another  village  he 
forfeited  his  land,  though  in  some  cases  he  was  entitled  to  recover 
it  on  his  return.  This  system  was  enforced  most  stringently  in  the 
old  Wuntho  State,  where  no  mortgages  or  sales  were  permitted,  and 
where  the  thugyi,  as  head  of  the  commune,  allotted  available  lands 
to  residents,  and  might  in  certain  cases  redistribute  land  already 
occupied  or  subdivide  an  existing  holding  to  provide  land  for  a  new- 
comer. In  what  is  known  as  the  S/nve  country,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
District,  the  power  of  the  thugyi  was  more  restricted. 

The  principal  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given  in  the  table 
on  the  next  page,  the  areas  being  in  square  miles. 

Of  the  total  cultivated  area,  rice  covered  223  square  miles,  and 
sesamum  3,300  acres.  Tea  and  tobacco  are  grown,  but  only  to  a  small 
extent.  The  former  is  produced  on  the  hills  in  the  Banmauk  township 
in  the  north-west  of  the  District.  The  area  under  garden  cultivation 
was  only  800  acres,  composed  mostly  of  plantain  groves. 

Cultivation  is  extending  gradually  and  normally,  and  in  several  areas 
it  is  still  susceptible  of  considerable  expansion.  Its  growth  is  most 
marked  in  the  plains  around   Mohnyin.     This  part  of  the  country, 

l  2 


i58 


KATHA   DISTRICT 


which  was  ravaged  by  the  Kachins  in  1883,  is  now  being  rapidly 
repopulated,  and  much  of  the  old  cultivated-  land  is  being  cleared 
afresh.  There  is  little  indebtedness  among  the  local  husbandmen. 
The  ancient  systems  of  land  tenure  are  still  maintained,  and  these 
being  of  a  communal  or  quasi-communal  character  strictly  forbid  the 
alienation  of  land  to  persons  living  outside  the  community.  Govern- 
ment advances  for  agricultural  purposes  have  been  freely  made  since 
1888-9.  The  amount  advanced  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  18,000.  No 
difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  the  recovery  of  the  loans. 


Township. 

Total  aiea. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Forests. 

Katha      . 
Tigyaing 
Mawlu     . 
Indaw 
Wuntho  . 
Kawlin    . 
Piulebu    . 
Banmauk 

Total 

1,152 

352 

x.-344 
416 

592 
536 

1,367 
1,235 

]  I 
16 
IS 
18 
41 
7° 
35 
23 

5 
7 

"s 

23 

4 

\  4,000 

6,994 

232 

47 

4,oco 

There  are  no  special  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  Buffaloes  are 
more  generally  used  than  kine,  and  those  suitable  for  timber-dragging 
fetch  the  highest  prices.  Ponies  are  imported  principally  from  the 
Shan  States  through  Bhamo,  and  are  generally  small-sized.  Generally 
speaking,  goats  are  kept  only  by  natives  of  India. 

A  good  deal  of  the  rice  land  is  irrigated  in  some  way  or  other,  as  the 
conformation  of  the  country  lends  itself  to  such  processes.  To  secure 
the  required  water,  the  many  hill  streams  and  rainy  season  drainage 
channels  are  dammed,  and  their  contents  diverted  on  to  the  fields. 
Most  of  the  dams,  however,  supply  only  small  areas,  sometimes  only 
a  single  holding.  The  most  important  irrigation  scheme  is  at  Wuntho, 
where  two  weirs  on  the  Daungyu  water  a  considerable  area,  dowered 
with  a  fertile  soil  and  productive  of  good  crops.  A  fairly  extensive 
area  also  is  irrigated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Indaw  Lake.  On 
the  Meza  the  water-wheel  known  as  the  yit  is  used  to  lift  water  on 
to  the  fields.  The  total  area  returned  as  irrigated  in  1903-4  was  47 
square  miles.  The  most  important  inland  fishery  is  in  the  Indaw  Lake. 
Fishing  is  carried  on  in  sections  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Meza, 
known  as  the  Myityo  fisheries,  and  in  the  swamps  adjoining  the 
former  river.     The  fishery  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  70,000. 

The  District  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  Katha  Forest  division, 
as  well  as  portions  of  the  Mu  and  Upper  Chindwin  divisions.  The 
Katha  division  lies  close  to  the  Irrawaddy,  and  includes  the  area 
drained  by  the  Meza  river.     The  Mu  division  comprises  as  much  of 


MINERALS  159 

the    District   as    is    drained    by   the   Mu   river   and    its  tributary   the 

Daungyu.      A   portion    of    the    Banmauk    township    falls    within    the 

drainage  area  of  the  Chindwin,  and  is  included  in  the 

.  ...  Forests. 

Upper  Chindwin  Forest  division.     The  total  forest 

area  exceeds  4,000  square  miles  in  extent,  and  includes  1,119  square 

miles  of  '  reserved '  forests.     Reservation  is  not  yet  complete,  but  some 

areas  have  already  been  notified,  and  others  will  probably  be  proposed 

shortly.     Teak  is  the  predominant  species  of  timber  tree  ;  in  fact,  in 

many  places  it  may  be  said  to  grow  almost  like  a  weed.     Pad  auk 

(Pterocarpus  sp.)  and  pyingado  (Xylia  dolalwiformis)  are  found  in  the 

south    of    the    District,    where    the    climate    is    drier.      Considerable 

quantities  of  '  unreserved '  woods  are  extracted,  principally  from  un- 

classed  forests  ;   of  these  the  most  important  are  in  (Dipterocarpus 

tuberculatum  ingyin   {Pentacme  siamensis),   kanyinbyu   (Dipterocarpus 

alatus),  and  yamane  {Gmelina  arbored).     Bamboos  and  canes  are  also 

obtained  in  large  quantities.     The  minor  forest  produce  consists  of 

shaiv  (Sterculia  sp.),  indwe,  and  pwenyet.     A  little  cutch  is  extracted  in 

the  south,  and  small  quantities  of  lac  are  found  near  Banmauk. 

Owing  to  the  accessibility  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Meza  forests,  most 
of  the  valuable  teak  was  extracted  from  them  before  annexation. 
Large  trees  are  now  scarce  in  these  areas,  and  where  found  prove 
difficult  of  extraction,  and  in  many  of  the  Reserves  the  growing  stock 
consists  mainly  of  coppice  or  stool  shoots  springing  from  the  old 
stumps.  There  are  some  teak  taungya  plantations  and  a  little  experi- 
mental cultivation  of  rubber  in  the  Mohnyin  Reserve. 

The  total  forest  receipts  in  1903-4  amounted  to  about  4!  lakhs.  It 
is  impossible  to  give  exact  figures  of  either  the  revenue  or  the  area 
of  unclassed  forests,  in  consequence  of  the  fact  that  the  District 
boundaries  and  those  of  forest  divisions  do  not  coincide. 

Gold,  copper,  iron,  and  lead  are  found.     A  gold-mine  was  worked 

for  some  years  at  Kyaukpazat  by  an  English  company,  but  the  reef 

has  been  worked  out  and  the  mine  is  now  closed.         ...        , 

Minerals. 
The  company  had  a  capital  of  Rs.  12,000,  and  used 

the  cyanide  process,  with  a  crushing  plant  of  ten  stamps.  Gold- 
washing  is  still  carried  on  locally  in  the  beds  of  streams  in  many  parts 
of  the  Wuntho  subdivision,  and  in  some  places  in  Banmauk.  Little 
is  known  as  to  the  return  obtained,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  small. 
This  part  of  the  country  was  formerly  known  as  the  Skive  ('golden') 
country,  three  divisions  of  which  were  recognized  :  the  Shwe  Ashe 
Gyaung,  the  Shwe  Ale  Gyaung,  and  the  Shwe  Anauk  Gyaung,  the  two 
first  being  within  Katha  District.  They  were  not  continuous  tracts, 
but  included  many  scattered  villages  where  revenue  used  to  be  paid 
in  gold,  and  whose  tkugyis  were  called  shwehmus.  Iron  is  found  in 
small   particles   in    the   beds   of  streams   at   Thanthonda,    Gananma, 


i6o  KATHA   DISTRICT 

Gananbwa,  and  Taman  in  the  Wuntho  subdivision,  but  there  is  little 
or  no  trade  in  local  iron  now.  Lead  occurs  at  Mawka,  Mawhaing,  and 
Mawkwin,  and  used  to  be  dug  out  of  pits  from  20  to  60  feet  deep, 
which  are,  however,  not  worked  at  present.  Copper  is  found  at 
Sigadaung  and,  like  lead,  was  at  one  time  extracted,  but  the  mines 
have  been  closed  for  many  years.  Jade  occurs  at  Mawlu,  and  soap- 
stone  of  inferior  quality  in  the  Katha  township.  A  small  quantity 
of  salt  is  produced,  principally  from  brine-wells  in  the  Mawlu  and 
Pinlebu  townships. 

Katha  possesses  no  arts  or  manufactures.     The  greater  part  of  the 

population  are  dependent  on  agriculture,  supplementing  their  earnings 

by  other  kinds  of  manual  labour  in  the  dry  season. 

Irade  and        jrrom  Pinlebu  and  Banmauk  a  considerable  number 
communications. 

of  persons  go  every  year  to  work  at  the  jade- 
mines.  After  agriculture  the  extraction  of  timber  is  the  most  important 
industry.  Three  European  firms  are  at  present  engaged  in  the  timber 
business  in  different  parts  of  the  District,  in  addition  to  a  number 
of  minor  contractors.  A  steam  saw-mill  at  Kalon,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Irrawaddy,  22  miles  south  of  Katha  town,  employs  about  twenty-two 
persons.  The  only  other  industrial  enterprise  which  employed  steam- 
power  was  the  Kyaukpazat  gold-mine,  now  closed.  Pickled  tea  of  two 
kinds,  known  respectively  as  paungthi  and  pyaokthi,  is  made  in  the 
west ;  gold-washing  and  salt-boiling  are  both  practised  on  a  small 
scale  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  cart-wheels  and  the  making  of  sandals 
and  straw  hats  are  other  minor  industries. 

Timber,  bamboos,  cane  and  other  minor  forest  produce,  and  paddy 
are  the  principal  exports.  The  trade  in  timber  consists  of  teak,  in,  and 
ingyin,  and  a  few  other  '  unreserved '  woods,  which  are  rafted  down 
the  Kaukkwe,  Meza,  and  Shweli  streams  into  the  Irrawaddy,  and  go 
by  this  route  to  Mandalay,  the  railway  being  utilized  occasionally  from 
Kadu,  about  5  miles  along  the  line  south-west  of  Mohnyin.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  paddy  are  exported  by  Burmese  brokers  by 
rail  and  river,  principally  to  Mandalay,  for  milling.  The  collecting 
centres  on  the  railway  are  Wuntho,  Kawlin,  and  Mohnyin,  which  are 
within  easy  reach  of  the  large  rice-growing  areas  :  namely,  Tigyaing 
on  the  Irrawaddy  and  Kywegawgyi  on  the  Meza.  Timber  in  rafts 
and  paddy  in  boats  are  also  sent  down  the  Mu  from  Pinlebu ;  and  a 
fair  amount  of  cured  and  dried  fish  from  the  riverain  villages  leaves 
Katha  by  rail  for  Mogaung  and  the  jade-mines,  and  by  road  for  the 
west  of  the  District  and  the  Upper  Chindwin.  A  small  trade  in  pickled 
tea  is  carried  on  in  the  Wuntho  subdivision,  where  it  is  grown  and 
manufactured.  The  main  imports  are  hardware  for  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  house-building  purposes,  cotton  twist  and  yarn,  cotton  piece- 
goods,  silk  and  cotton  waistcloths  and  handkerchiefs  of  both  European 


A  DMINISTRA  TIOX  i 6 1 

and  Burmese  manufacture,  Japanese  umbrellas,  crockery  and  plated 
ware,  jaggery,  til  or  gingelly  and  kerosene  oil,  and  salt  of  both 
European  and  Shwebo  manufacture. 

The  Sagaing-Myitkyina  railway  cuts  through  the  District  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  for  115  miles,  traversing  the  most  important  rice- 
growing  tracts,  with  stations  at  Kawlin,  Wuntho,  Indaw,  Mawlu, 
Mohnyin,  and  other  places.  A  branch  line,  15  miles  long,  runs  from 
Naba  south-eastwards  to  Katha,  connecting  the  main  line  with  the 
Irrawaddy. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  District  the  Irrawaddy  forms  the  chief 
means  of  communication.  The  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company  runs 
regular  services  of  mail  and  cargo  steamers  up  and  down  the  river, 
and  a  daily  ferry  steamer  between  Katha  and  Bhamo  connects  with 
the  railway  at  Katha. 

The  Public  Works  department  maintains  185  miles  of  road,  mostly 
unmetalled.  The  principal  tracks  are :  Indaw  to  Mansi,  passing 
through  Banmauk,  61  miles,  unmetalled;  Wuntho  to  Pinlebu,  41 
miles,  unmetalled  ;  Kawlin  to  Tawma,  30  miles,  metalled  in  places 
only;  Wuntho  to  Singon,  17  miles,  and  Wuntho  to  Taungmaw,  n 
miles,  metalled  in  places  only.  The  District  fund,  which  is  small, 
maintains  only  one  unmetalled  road,  from  Tigyaing  to  Manle. 

For  purposes  of  administration  the  District  is  divided  into  three 
subdivisions :  Katha,  comprising  the  townships  of  Katha,  Tigyaixg, 
Mawlu,  and  Indaw  ;  Wuntho,  comprising  the  town-  Administration# 
ships  of  Wuntho,  Kawlin,  and  Pinlebu  ;  and  the 
subdivision  and  township  of  Banmauk.  Subordinate  to  the  township 
officers  are  530  village  headmen.  In  addition  to  the  subdivisional 
and  township  officers,  the  Deputy-Commissioner  is  assisted  by  a 
treasury  officer,  who  is  also  sub-registrar,  an  akunwun  (in  subordi- 
nate charge  of  the  revenue  administration),  and  a  superintendent  of 
land  records,  who  has  under  him  5  inspectors  and  34  surveyors. 
The  Public  Works  department  is  represented  by  an  Assistant  Engineer 
under  the  Executive  Engineer  in  charge  of  the  Myitkyina  division. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner,  subdivisional  officers,  and  township 
officers  preside  over  the  District,  subdivisional,  and  township  courts. 
Under  the  Kachin  Hill  Tribes  Regulation,  1895,  which  is  in  force 
in  the  hill  tracts  of  the  District,  the  District  Magistrate  is  Sessions 
Tudge.  Crime  generally  is  infrequent  and  no  class  of  offence  is 
exceptionally  common.  In  the  Kachin  Hills,  however,  a  good  deal 
of  opium  smuggling  takes  place,  which  is  difficult  to  check,  and  a 
few  large  seizures  of  opium  brought  in  from  China  through  Bhamo 
have  been  made  in  recent  years.  The  opium  habit  is  prevalent  in  most 
parts  of  the  District,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  malarious  tracts. 

The  revenue  system  is  at  present  at  a  stage  of  transition.     On  culti- 


l62 


KATHA   DISTRICT 


vated  land  which  has  been  surveyed,  land  revenue  is  for  the  present 
assessed  at  rates  varying  from  4  annas  to  Rs.  1-8-0  per  acre,  the 
average  assessment  being  about  10  annas.  On  unsurveyed  land, 
revenue  is  assessed  at  one-eighth  of  the  gross  produce,  commuted  at 
rates  which  are  fixed  annually.  The  incidence  of  this  form  of  taxation 
is  slightly  heavier  than  that  by  acre  rates.  In  the  surveyed  portions 
the  average  size  of  a  holding  is  a  little  over  4  acres.  A  special  survey 
is  now  being  made  which  will  include  most  of  the  unsurveyed  but 
cultivated  land.  The  settlement  is  in  progress,  and  the  operations 
have  by  now  reached  an  advanced  stage. 

'  The  following  table  shows,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  fluctuations 
in  the  revenue  since  1891-2,  the  first  year  for  which  statistics  for 
the  District  as  now  constituted  are  available :— 


1891-2. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue   . 

66 
4,86 

i,73 

6,28 

1,69 
6,48 

Thathameda  brought  in  Rs.  3,65,000  in  1903-4,  and  till  the  settle- 
ment rates  have  been  introduced  will  continue  to  be  the  main  source 
of  revenue. 

The  District  fund,  administered  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner 
for  the  upkeep  of  roads,  <^?/£-bungalows,  &c,  had  an  income  of  Rs. 
15,700  in  1903-4,  the  chief  item  of  expenditure  being  public  works 
(Rs.  5,400).     No  municipalities  have  been  constituted. 

The  civil  police  force  is  in  charge  of  a  District  Superintendent,  and 
is  divided  into  three  subdivisional  charges  corresponding  with  the 
civil  administrative  subdivisions,  Katha,  Wuntho,  and  Banmauk.  The 
first  is  an  Assistant  District  Superintendent's  subdivision,  the  two  latter 
are  inspectors'  charges.  An  inspector  is  also  attached  to  the  force  at 
District  head-quarters.  There  are  9  police  stations  and  9  outposts. 
The  sanctioned  strength  of  the  force,  excluding  the  superior  officers, 
is  7  head  constables,  23  sergeants,  and  268  constables.  This  includes 
2  Kachin  police,  who,  while  nominally  attached  to  the  police  stations, 
actually  live  in  the  hills. 

The  military  police  are  a  detachment  of  the  Shwebo  battalion,  under 
an  assistant  commandant,  who  has  his  head-quarters  at  Katha  town. 
The  strength  is  368  men,  of  whom  128  are  stationed  at  Katha,  the 
remainder  being  distributed  at  the  various  township  head-quarters. 

The  District  jail  at  Katha  has  accommodation  for  87  prisoners. 
The  principal  industries  carried  on  are  grinding  wheat  for  the  military 
police,  and  carpentry  and  cane-work  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  various 
Government  offices.  There  is  no  public  demand  for  jail-made  articles, 
but  the  surplus  produce  of  the  jail  garden  is  sold  in  the  bazar. 


KATHA    TOll'X  16 


o 


The  standard  of  education  is,  all  things  considered,  fairly  high.  In 
1 90 1  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  2  per  cent,  of  the  females 
enumerated  were  able  to  read  and  write,  the  proportion  for  both  sexes 
being  21  per  cent.  Of  the  309  schools  in  the  District  in  1904,  2  were 
secondary,  53  primary,  and  254  elementary  (private);  and  the  total 
attendance  was  4,142  pupils,  of  whom  224  were  girls.  All  are  purely 
vernacular  schools,  and  none  is  entirely  supported  by  Government  or 
municipal  funds.  The  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  2,400,  derived  entirely  from  Provincial  funds. 

There  are  2  civil  hospitals,  with  accommodation  for  42  in-patients. 
In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  15,970,  including  699  in- 
patients, and  227  operations  were  performed.  The  income  was  made 
up  of  Rs.  4,900  from  Provincial  funds  and  Rs.  850  from  subscriptions. 
Out-patients  are  treated  in  3  military  police  hospitals,  the  total  for  1903 
being  2,341.  There  are  also  2  railway  dispensaries.  Quinine  in  pice 
packets  is  sold  only  by  the  post  offices,  sales  through  the  agency  of 
village  headmen  having  been  a  failure. 

Vaccination  is  not  compulsory  in  any  part  of  the  District,  and  makes 
but  little  progress.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  vaccinated  was 
onlv  2,315,  or  13  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

Katha  Subdivision. — Eastern  subdivision  of  Katha  District,  Upper 
Burma,  containing  the  Katha,  Tigvaing,  Mawlu,  and  Indaw  town- 
ships. 

Katha.  Township. — North-eastern  township  of  Katha  District, 
Upper  Burma,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Irrawaddy,  between  23°  53' 
and  240  56'  N.  and  960  10'  and  960  42'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,152 
square  miles.  The  population  was  18,783  in  1891,  and  20,062  in 
1901,  distributed  in  178  villages  and  one  town,  Katha  (population, 
2,931),  the  head-quarters.  The  greater  portion  of  the  township  is 
covered  with  dense  forests  abounding  in  game.  The  inland  villages 
obtain  water  for  their  rice  lands  from  the  network  of  small  creeks 
covering  the  low-lying  levels.  The  hilly  parts  to  the  north  and 
west  are  inhabited  by  Kachins,  who  practise  taungya  cultivation. 
The  cultivated  area  under  supplementary  survey  in  1903-4  was  n 
square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs. 
52,100. 

Katha  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name  in 
Upper  Burma,  situated  in  240  io'  N.  and  960  210  E.,  close  to  the  edge 
of  the  hills  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy  ;  70  miles  below  Bhamo, 
and  nearly  200  above  Mandalay.  Population  (1901^,  2,931.  The  town 
is  unimportant  historically,  and  has  only  come  into  prominence  since 
the  advent  of  the  British.  It  contains  a  bazar  and  the  usual  public 
buildings,  and  is  laid  out  along  five  principal  roads  running  north  and 
south  parallel  with  the  river,  covering  an  area  about  half  a  mile  long 


1 64  KATHA    TOWN 

and  a  quarter  broad.  The  houses  in  the  native  quarter  are  for  the 
most  part  unpretentious.  A  branch  line,  taking  off  from  the  Sagaing- 
Myitkyina  railway  at  Naba.  Junction  (15  miles  in  length),  terminates 
on  the  river  bank  close  to  the  courthouse,  giving  easy  access  to  the 
steam  ferry  to  Bhamo  and  the  boats  of  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company 
plying  between  that  station  and  Mandalay.  The  town  contains  a  civil 
hospital  with  23  beds,  maintained  by  Provincial  funds.  Katha  is 
one  of  the  District  head-quarters  in  Burma  which  have  not  yet  been 
constituted  municipalities. 

Kathaun. — Thakurat  in  the  Gwalior  Residency,  Central  India. 

Kathgodam  ('  Timber  depot '). — Village  in  the  Bhabar  tract  of 
Naini  Tal  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  290  16'  N.  and  790 
33'  E.,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Rohilkhand  and  Kumaun  Railway. 
Population  (1901),  375.  The  place  has  only  become  of  importance 
since  the  railway  was  extended  from  HaldwanT,  the  former  terminus. 
It  is  now  the  starting-point  for  the  ascent  to  the  hill  stations  of  Naini 
Tal,  Ranlkhet,  and  Almora.  Kathgodam  is  administered  together  with 
Ranlbagh,  three  miles  away  on  the  tonga  road,  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
the  income  being  about  Rs.  800.  Ranlbagh  (population,  624)  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  tonga  road  with  bridle-paths  to  various 
places  in  the  hills.  It  is  an  important  stage  in  the  trade  route  to  the 
interior. 

Kathi. — Estate  in  Khandesh  District,  Bombay.  See  Mehwas 
Estates. 

Kathiawar  (or  Surashtra). — The  peninsula  or  western  portion  of 
the  province  of  Gujarat,  Bombay,  lying  between  200  41'  and  230 
8'  N.  and  68°  56"  and  720  20'  E.  The  extreme  length  of  the  peninsula 
is  about  220  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  about  165  miles,  its  area  about 
23,445  square  miles,  and  its  population  (1901)  2,645,805.  Of  these 
totals,  about  1,245  square  miles,  with  173,436  persons,  belong  to  the 
Gaikwar ;  about  1,298  square  miles,  with  128,559  persons,  belong  to 
Ahmadabad  District  ;  about  20  square  miles,  with  14,614  persons, 
belong  to  the  Portuguese  possession  of  Diu  ;  while  the  remainder  (area 
20,882  square  miles  and  population  2,329,196)  is  the  territory  form- 
ing the  Political  Agency  subordinate  to  the  Government  of  Bombay, 
established  in  1822,  having  under  its  control  193  separate  States, 
great  and  small,  whose  chiefs  divide  among  themselves  the  greater 
portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar. 

The  Kathiawar  Agency  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into 
four  pnuits  or  divisions — Jhalawar,  Halar,  Sorath,  and  Gohelwar— 
and  the  States  have  since  1863  been  arranged  in  seven  classes.  The 
first-class  States  number  8,  second-class  6,  third-class  8,  fourth-class  9, 
fifth-class  x6,  sixth-class  30,  seventh-class  5,  and  the  remaining  11 1  are 
combined  into  thana  circles. 


KATHIAWAR 


165 


General  Statistics  for  each  State  and  Taluka  in  Kathiawar 


0    . 

no 

— 

Revenue 

(1903-4). 

Tribute. 

Caste,  tribe, 

'id    = 

r;   "-" 

State. 

or  race  of  the 

V    O 

-^ 

~  0 

3  cr, 

ruling  chief. 

tfl 

t> 

—  - 

a. 

From 
land. 

Total. 

Amount. 

To  whom 
payable. 

Gohetwar  Print. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

*i  Bhaunagar.    . 

Gohel  Rawal 
Rajput. 

2,860 

666 

412,664 

25,00,861 

39.53.602 

1,54,500     British, Gaik- 
war, and  Ju- 
nagarh. 

2  Palitana  .     .     . 

Gohel  Rajput 

200 

9i 

52.856 

5,11-277 

6.40.91 1 

10.364     Gaikwarand 

3  Jasdan     .     .     . 

Kathi    .     .    . 

283 

56 

25.727 

1-14-715 

1.22.921 

10.661 

Junagarh. 
British     and 

Gaikwar. 

3  \  ala     .     .     .     . 

Gohel   Rawal 

100 

40 

13,285 

2,10,000 

?,oco 

c.202     Gaikwar  and 

4  Lathi    .... 

Rajput. 

42 

9 

8,831 

',21,957 

r-37,5" 

Junagarh. 

i,857 

|6Bhad!i      .     .    . 

Kathi    .     .     . 

16 

2,988 

12,000 

16,000 

1.357     British     and 

Junagarh. 

0  Itana  .... 

,» 

2 

506 

2,800 

3,coo 

355 

6  Kotra  Pitha      . 
6  Yankia     .     .     . 

;» 

13 

6,772 

44.500 

70,000 

5-578 

■• 

3 

947 

4,745 

5-051 

524 

•• 

7  KariSna  ■     .     . 

,. 

9 

2,265 

1 6,000 

20,000 

MS? 

Akadia    .    .     . 

Chavada  Raj- 
put. 
Gohel  Rajput 

1 

102 

1,025 

1.025 

154 

I, 

Alampur  .     .     . 

» 

497 

4,000 

4,500 

'•397 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Babra  .... 

Kathi    .      .     . 

6 

7.417 

48,921 

69,683 

— 

— 

Bhandaria   . 

Kamalia  AhTr 

'.  '. 

1 

449 

3,750 

4,000 

322 

Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

Bhoiavadar  .     . 

Gohel  Rajput 

1 

764 

5,000 

5.300 

550 

.] 

Bildi   .... 

Sindi     .     .     . 

1 

388 

35i 

749 

— 

— 

Boda-no-nes 

Kamalia  AhTr 

1 

136 

1,000 

1,200 

112 

Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

Chamardi     .     . 

Gohel  Rajput 

1 

2,168 

9,000 

10,000 

858 

., 

Chiroda  .     .     . 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 
Gohel  Rajput 

1 

247 

2,250 

2.500 

"35 

" 

Chitravav     .     . 

1 

246 

2,000 

2,200 

529 

.. 

Chok  .... 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 

2 

1,213 

6,500 

6,800 

417 

Datha       .     .     . 

jj 

6g 

24 

9-452 

25,339 

31-339 

5.39S 

Dedarda  .     .     . 

., 

.    . 

j 

783 

4.200 

4,5oo 

103 

Gaikwar. 

Derdi-Janbai    . 

Charan      .     . 

• 

1 

492 

4,338 

4,870 

— 

— 

Dhola.     .     .     . 

Gohel  Rajput 

1 

261 

1,800 

1,800 

Gaikwarand 

Junagarh. 

Gadhali   .     .     . 

,, 

3 

'iSS? 

9,000 

10,000 

2,000 

n 

Gadhoola     .     . 

» 

1 

366 

2,800 

3.000 

196 

-• 

Gandhol  .     .     . 

j> 

1 

J37 

i,foo 

2,000 

in 

-- 

Iavej    .... 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 

2 

979 

5,000 

5,200 

290 

** 

Jaiia  Amaraji  . 

» 

1 

444 

2,300 

2.500 

136 

11 

Jalia  Manaji     . 

. " 

1 

236 

2,000 

2,200 

31 

Gaikwar. 

Juna  Padar .     . 

Khasia  Koll . 

1 

143 

850 

900 

50 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Kamadhia    .     . 

Mir  Muham- 
madan. 

1 

496 

4,079 

5,611 

377 

British. 

Kanjarda     .     . 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 

1 

313 

I.;  CO 

i,6oo 

128 

Gaikwar. 

Katodia  .    .    . 

Gohel  Rajput 

1 

347 

2.COO 

3,ooo 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Khijadia .     .     . 

Saiyid      Mu- 
hammadan. 

1 

391 

3,000 

3.100 

— 

— 

KhijadiaDosaji 

Gohel  Rajput 

' 

361 

2.500 

2,600 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Limbda    .    .     . 

>. 

4 

2,194 

26.0CO 

28.000 

1,212 

Morchopna  .     . 

Kamalia  AhTr 

I 

375 

1,500 

'  " 

163 

u 

Nilvala   .     .     . 

Kathi   .     .     . 

1 

457 

3,083 

3-735 

e65 

British     and 
Junagarh. 

Pachhegam 

Gohel  Rajput 

•  • 

,1 

3-655 

23.SOO 

25,000 

- 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

*  This  and  other  numbers  in  the  first  column  denote  the  class  of  the  chiefs. 


i66 


KATHTAWAR 


State. 


Gohehvar  Pi  ant 
— contd. 

Pah     ...  . 

Panchavada 

Rajpara  .     .  . 

Ramanka     .  . 

Randhia  .     .  . 


Caste,  tribe, 
or  race  of  the 
ruling  chief. 


RanTgam 


Ratanpur  Dha- 

manka. 
Rohisala      .     . 

Samadhiala 
Samadhiala 

(Chabharia). 
Samadhiala 

(Charan). 
Sanala      .     .     . 

Sata-no-nes.  . 
Shevdivadar  . 
Songadh .  . 
Toda  Todi  .  . 
Vadal  .... 
Vadod     .     .     . 

Vangadhra  .  . 
VavdiDharvala 
VavdiVachhani 
Vija-no-nes .     . 


Halar  Prant 
i  Gondal     . 

i  Morvi .    . 

1  Navanagar 

2  Dhrol  .     . 

2  Rajkot     . 

2  Wankaner 

4  Kotda  Sangan 

4  Malia  .     . 

4  Vlrpur 

5  Gadhka   . 
5  Gavridad 
5  Talia  Devani 
5  Kotharia 

5  Mengni    . 
5Pfd.     . 

6  Bhadva   , 

6  Rajpara  . 
6  Shahpur . 


<  2 


Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 


Gohel  Rajput 

Saiyid  Mu- 
hammadan. 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put and  Ka- 
thi. 

Gohel  Rawal 
Rajput. 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 


Gohel  Rajput 

Sarvaiya  Raj- 
put. 
Kamalia  AhTr 
Khasia  KulT 
Gohel  Rajput 

», 
Kamalia  AhTr 
Gohel  Rajput 


Khasia  KolT  , 


Total 


Jadeja  Rajput 


Jhala  Rajput 
Jadeja  Rajput 


4,21° 


1,024 

822 

3.791 

283 
282 

4i5 

74 
103 

67 

23 
27 
36 


35 
22 


-£  = 


1,003 


'74 
141 
669 

68 
61 

102 

:'.o 
17 

13 

5 

6 

10 

6 


.3  O 

3     ON 

a  " 
o 

0, 


273 

287 

552 
470 

693 

793 


651 

411 

617 
i,273 

195 
416 

240 

177 

2.031 

380 

320 

814 

582 

2,007 

490 

193 


Revenue  (1903-4). 


577,757 


162,859 

87,496 

33fi,779 

21,906 
49,795 

27,383 
3,835 
9,°75 

6,152 

1,636 
1,916 
2,444 
2,156 

3,354 
i,359 

1,051 
1,862 
1,156 


From 
land. 


Rs. 

2,500 

1,500 

2,COO 
3,000 

6,779 
9,cpo 

4,200 

2,500 

5,000 
6,500 

2,500 

3,000 

1,000 
1,000 
2,000 

3>5°o 
2,750 
3,000 

2,200 

10,500 

3,000 

700 


38,27,670 


12,15,842 

4,43,25o 

19,00,719 

62,622 

2,91.343 

1,80,0^4 
74.568 
69,874 

52,279 

8,720 
18,500 
14.966 
22,712 

25,465 
9,983 

13,375 
10,732 

6,948 


Total. 


Tribute. 


2,600 

1,700 
2,150 
3,200 
6,779 

9,400 


4,200 

2,650 

5,200 
7,000 

2,700 

3,200 

1,200 
1,100 
2,600 
3,800 
3,000 
3,200 

2,400 

11,000 

3,3oo 

75° 


55,27,787 


15,00,000 

7,10,044 

24,84,210 

1,07,175 
3,60,150 

2,18,925 

91,586 

1,55,994 

65,363 

12,633 
24,126 
16,230 
25,930 

29,847 
17,836 

15.532 

13,654 
15,233 


Amount. 


Rs. 


7M 

9°3 
in 

518 
2,280 


322 

109 
60 

572 

i75 

154 

1,102 

104 

i,53o 

334 

3' 


To  whom 
payable. 


319 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

241 

,. 

274 

»» 

672 

,, 

Gaikwar. 


Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 


2,25,248 


1,10,721 

6i,559 
1,20.093 

10,231 

21,321 

18,879 

11,616 

1,367 

4,"4 

845 
1,621 

i,552 
1,246 

3.412 

1.647 

1,632 

3,»63 
610 


Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 


Gaikwar. 
Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 


Gaikwar. 


British  and 
Junagarh. 

British  and 
Gaikwar. 

British, Gaik- 
war, and 
Junagarh. 

Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

British  and 
Junagaih. 


Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

British  and 
Junagarh. 


Gaikwar. 
British     and 

Junagarh. 
British. 
British     and 

Junagarh. 


•     1  his  is  the  actual  area  of  the  prant.     No  details  are  available  for  small  States. 


GENERAL   STATISTICS 


167 


tr. 

lM 

■ 

V 

O         . 

.2 

Revenue 

(1903-4). 

Tribute. 

State. 

Caste,  tribe, 
or  race  of  the 

0>    V 

g.2 

1? 

3    c 

ruling  chief. 

<1 

0 

0.  h 

From 
land. 

Total. 

Amount. 

To  whom 
payable. 

Hilar  Print — 

contd. 

Rs. 

R>. 

Rs. 

7  Khirasra .     .    . 

Jadeja  Rajput 

13 

3>"7 

11,000 

15,432 

2,716 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

7  Lodhika  .     .     . 

i) 

12 

4.554 

24,554 

34,73o 

1,692 

.. 

7  Vadiili      .     .     . 

i] 

I 

409 

5,109 

6,435 

324 

,, 

Amrapur .     .     . 

Shaikh     Mu- 
hammadan. 

2 

1,240 

8, 000 

8,000 

5" 

British. 

Bhalgam     Bal- 

Kathi    .     .     . 

I 

617 

8,471 

9,168 

262 

British     and 

dhoi. 

Junagarh. 

Drafa  .     .     .     . 

Jadeja  Rajput 

24 

8,456 

50,000 

70,000 

4,871 

„ 

Kanksifdi     .     . 

jj 

I 

224 

2,102 

2,538 

in 

,, 

Kanpar     Ish- 

Kathi    .     .     . 

2 

1.365 

15,457 

16,135 

347 

,» 

waria. 

Kotda  Nayani . 

Jadeja  Rajput 

I 

1,000 

9,313 

11,065 

637 

Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

Mowa.     .    .     . 

jj 

I 

247 

2.977 

3,3" 

158 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Mulila  Deri      . 

n 

7 

2,350 

9,845 

12,488 

i,454 

„ 

Satodad-Vavdi 

)j 

4 

2,790 

9,000 

12,500 

!,927 

,■ 

Sisang  Chandli 

)) 

2 

1.756 

15,324 

17,014 

946 

„ 

Virvao          .    . 
Jhalaivar  Pra  nt. 

Total 

1 

193 

1,515 

1,540 

193 

„ 

"7.477 

1,394 

755.532 

45.94.6i9 

60,84,835 

3,91,828 

1  Dhrangadhra   . 

Jhala  Rajput 

M5° 

134 

70,880 

2,59,398 

4,43,76i 

44.677 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

2  Limbdi     .     .     . 

,, 

344 

47 

31.287 

1,76,409 

2,02,264 

4 -.534 

„ 

2  Wadhwan    .     . 

,, 

236 

32 

34.851 

3,28,094 

3,95,954 

28,692 

,, 

3  Chuda      .     .     . 

,, 

78 

14 

12,005 

i,o7.479 

1,19,277 

7.143 

,, 

3  Lakhtar  .     .     . 

,, 

248 

5i 

15,114 

55,"o 

70,250 

7.351 

,, 

3  Sayla  .... 

,, 

222 

39 

11,661 

62,000 

66,550 

15.5" 

,, 

4  Bajana     .     .     . 

Jat  Malek 

183 

27 

10,279 

46,326 

7",335 

7.938 

,, 

4  Muli    .... 

Parmar    Raj- 
put. 

J33 

20 

15.136 

31,263 

80,000 

9.354 

„ 

4  PStdi  .... 

Kunbi  .     .     . 

39 

7 

2,190 

85,950 

88,278 

3.219 

British. 

5  Vanod     .     .     . 

Jat  Malek      . 

57 

13 

3.9H 

26,833 

30,924 

1.953 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

6  Anandpur     .     . 

Kathi    .     .     . 

34 

5.o6i 

29,652 

31,902 

920 

,, 

6  Bhoika     .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

3 

3.013 

19,500 

20,000 

2,132 

Britishjuna- 
<jarh,  and 
Sukhdi. 

6  Chotila    .     .     . 

32 

6,635 

3°,3i3 

41,150 

898 

British  and 
Sukhdi. 

6  Dasada    .     .     . 

Malek  .     .     . 

120 

22 

10,941 

1,80,331 

2,08,354 

12,991 

„ 

6  Rai-Sankli   .     . 

2 

427 

6,254 

6,579 

938 

British  and 
Gaikwar. 

6  Rajpur    .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

3 

1,718 

20,427 

26,883 

2,598 

British     and 

Junagarh. 

6  Sanosra   .     .     . 

Kathi    .     .     . 

3 

667 

4,i33 

4,963 

237 

British,  Ju- 
nagarh, and 
Sukhdi. 

6Vadod      .    .    . 

Jhala  Rajput 

3 

1,264 

12,356 

12,356 

1,530 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Ankevalia     .     . 

,, 

3 

1,497 

19,500 

2 1 ,000 

1,526 

„ 

Bamanbore  . 

Kathi    .     .     . 

4 

847 

4,015 

4,229 

76 

British     and 

Sukhdi. 

Bhadvana     .     . 

a 

•     • 

2 

400 

4,225 

4,225 

1,081 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Bhalala    .     .     . 

j> 

.     . 

I 

265 

1,424 

1,424 

474 

British. 

Bhalgamda  .    . 

)> 

3 

1,588 

7,000 

8,000 

1,505 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Bharejda      .     . 

i) 

1 

421 

1,283 

1,702 

126 

ltriti-h  and 
Sukhdi. 

Bhathan  .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

1 

405 

1,500 

1,800 

701 

British  and 
J  unagarh. 

Bhimora  .    .    . 

11 

1,204 

10,241 

!o,555 

371 

11 

This  is  the  actual  area  of  ihzptant.     No  details  are  available  for  small  States. 


i68 


KATHIAWAR 


err 

O       • 

c 
0    . 

Revenue 

(1903-4). 

Tribute. 

State. 

Caste,  tribe, 
or  race  of  the 

15 

£0 

5  0- 

ruling  chief. 

<  1 

0 

From 
land. 

Total. 
Rb. 

Amount. 

To  whom 
payable. 

Jlialawar  Print 

■ — contd. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Chachana     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

1 

459 

5,000 

5,000 

318 

British. 

Chhalala       .     . 

n 

I 

557 

4.517 

5,017 

1,122 

British,  Ju- 
nagarh,and 
Sukhdi. 

Chobari   .     .     . 

Kathi    .     .     . 

3 

280 

4,401 

4,556 

199 

British  and 
Sukhdi. 

Darod      .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

I 

IS' 

2,500 

3,000 

416 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Devlia      .     ,     . 

M 

2 

494 

2,240 

2,240 

S23 

.. 

Dudhrej  .     .     . 

11 

2 

2,026 

20,000 

25,000 

1,199 

.. 

Gedi    .     .     .     . 

JJ 

2 

574 

4,000 

4,500 

r>339 

.. 

Gundiali  .     .     . 

11 

2 

1.465 

12,262 

17,865 

1,408 

British. 

Jakhan    .     .     . 

n 

I 

441 

2,300 

2.500 

288 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Jamar       .     .     . 

w 

I 

289 

3.960 

3,960 

464 

British. 

Jhampodad .     . 

11 

I 

45i 

3,200 

3,4°° 

138 

.. 

Jhinjhuvada  in- 

Koll    .     .    . 

i6s 

18 

"i732 

67,989 

74,343 

11,074 

». 

cluding  Rozva. 

Kamalpur     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

I 

670 

4,200 

4,500 

776 

.. 

Kantharia    .     . 

n 

2 

1.573 

10,000 

11,000 

1,788 

British,  Ju- 
nagarh, and 
Sukhdi. 

Karmad  .     .     . 

11 

I 

465 

8,ooo 

8,200 

231 

British  and 
Sukhdi. 

Karol.     .     .    . 

ii 

2 

981 

1^.935 

11,000 

796 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Kesria      .     .     . 

>i 

I 

146 

1,900 

1,900 

278 

British. 

Khambhlav .     . 

ii 

2 

852 

1,400 

1,500 

869 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Khandia  .     .     . 

» 

I 

627 

4,000 

4,000 

900 

British,  Ju- 
nagarh, and 
Sukhdi. 

Kherali    .     .     . 

it 

2 

1,638 

24,600 

25,880 

678 

British. 

Laliyad    .     .     . 

ii 

I 

755 

6,000 

6,000 

362 

H 

Matra  Timba   . 

Kathi   .     .     . 

I 

352 

2.591 

2,727 

362 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Mevasa    .     .     . 

.. 

6 

619 

5,085 

6,796 

559 

British  and 
Sukhdi. 

Munjpur .     .     . 

Parmar  Rajput 

1 

436 

10,000 

10,000 

603 

British. 

Palali.     .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

2 

320 

600 

650 

403 

British     and ' 
Junagarh. 

Paliyad    .     .     . 

Kathi   .     .     . 

17 

6,970 

38,055 

43,699 

1.213 

.. 

Ramparda    .     . 

11 

1 

299 

607 

625 

75 

British  and 
Sukhdi. 

Sahuka    .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

1 

801 

9,000 

9,200 

584 

British  and 
Junagarh. 

Samla .... 

ii 

2 

916 

8,000 

8,000 

1,063 

.. 

Sejakpur .     .     . 

Kathi  .    .     . 

4 

864 

2,052 

3,600 

433 

.. 

Sudamda-Dhan- 

,, 

27 

5.359 

22,208 

24,746 

3,124 

.. 

dhalpur. 

Talsana    .     .     . 

Jhala  Rajput 

7 

1,691 

10,000 

10,500 

1,052 

.. 

Tavi    .... 

), 

1 

5°9 

2,000 

2,000 

335 

.. 

Untdi.     .     .     . 

)) 

1 

240 

1,100 

2,000 

539 

" 

Vana   .... 

., 

3 

2,749 

26,000 

26,000 

3.993 

„ 

Vanala     .     .     . 

,, 

1 

3" 

2,100 

2,300 

396 

British. 

Yithalgadh  .     . 

Kayasth  Pra- 

26 

6 

'.  174 

7,226 

7,659 

— 

— 

S  or  at  !i  Piant. 

bhu. 

Total 

*3,978 

641 

293,883 

19,27.044 

23.59.580 

2,39.376 

i  Junagarh      .     . 

Muhammadan 

3>283 

818 

395.428 

18,91,616 

26,22,753 

65,604 

British    and  1 
Gaikwar. 

i  Porbandar    .     . 

Jethwa  Rajput 

636 

97 

82,640 

2,94,168 

9,74.734 

48,504 

British,Gaik-l 
war,  and  Ju- 
nagarh. 

*  This  is  the  actual  area  of  the praut.     No  details  are  available  for  small  States. 


GENERA  L  STA  TISTICS 


169 


1 

Caste,  tribe, 

1>    v 

1— 
0  A 
Si  v 

e 
.2   • 

Revenue 

(1903-4). 

Tribute. 

State. 

or  race  of  the 

|8f 

£  5 

ruling  chief. 

5" 

0," 

0 

From 
land. 

Total. 

Amount. 

To  whom 
payable. 

Sorath  Print 

— contd. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

1  Jafarabad     .     . 

Habsi   .     .     . 

42 

12 

12,097 

22,905 

61,800 

__ 

_ 

3  Bantva  •  Mana- 

Babi  Muham- 

90 

23 

14,478 

1,50,951 

=,35,447 

14,821     British. 

vadar. 

madan. 

3-7  Jetpur  .     .     . 

Kathis  .     .     . 

724 

148 

107,049 

7>94,5o9 

9,29,683 

59,223 

British.Gaik- 
war,  and  Ju- 

5 Bantva  (Gidad). 

Babi  Muham- 

madan. 
Kathi  -  Babe- 

132 

33 

24,374 

1,65,674 

2,28,178 

14,820 

nagarh. 
British. 

5  Dedan      .     .     . 

5° 

12 

4,394 

30,950 

59,405 

4,181 

Gaikwar  and 

ria-Kotila. 

Unamamuli 

fl22=). 

5  Vasavad  .     .     . 

Xagar  Brah- 
man. 

«7 

4 

5,i37 

1 2,000 

18,000 

766  t  British. 

6  Bagasra   .     .     . 

Kathi   .     .    . 

'7 

17,339 

'.13.932 

1,20,759 

4,098     Gaikwar  and 

6  Kuba  .... 

Nagar    Brah- 
man. 

3 

1 

396 

3,220 

3,34o 

Junagarh. 

6  Vinchhavad 

11 

4 

1 

414 

4,000 

4,100 

__ 

Charkha  .     .     . 

2 

1,519 

25,000 

27,000 

541     Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Dahida    .     .     . 

11 

3 

915 

13,000 

13,500 

— 



Dholarva      .     . 

1  » 

i 

460 

8,000 

8,300 

126 

Gaikwar  and 

Gadhia     .     .     . 

H 

2 

528 

4,200 

4,500 

295 

Junagarh. 

Garmali  Moti   . 

1) 

1 

385 

4,500 

4,700 

220 

Garmali  Nani  . 

,, 

1 

34o 

2,300 

2,400 

194 

Gaikwar. 

Gigasaran     .     . 

»1 

1 

582 

6,500 

6,600 



Halaria    .     .     . 

1 ) 

4 

1,268 

12,000 

12,500 

179 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Jamka      .     .     . 

)) 

1 

601 

6,000 

15,000 

185     Gaikwar. 

Kaner      .     .     . 

I) 

1 

261 

2,300 

2,400 

J95               „ 

Kathrota      .     . 

M 

1 

138 

2,200 

2,300 

52 

KhijadiaNajani 

») 

1 

156 

2,700 

2,800 

52 

Lakhapadar 

11 

1 

544 

2,700 

3,000 

178 

Gaikwar  and 

Junagarh. 

Manavav      .     . 

)) 

1 

400 

4,000 

4,100 

172 

Monvel    .     .     . 

Ji 

3 

1,967 

18,000 

18,200 

3i3 

Gaikwar. 

Silana .... 

)> 

1 

774 

6,000 

6,250 

102 

Vaghvadi     .     . 

11 

1 

109 

1,400 

1,450 

154 

Gaikwar  and 
Junagarh. 

Vekaria   .     .    . 

Civil      Stations 

it 

Total 

•     • 

1 

595 

6,000 

6,150 

55 

Gaikwar. 

*S>2i7 

'.193 

675,288 

36,10,725 

53,99,349 

2,15,030 

11 

26,736 

and  other  vil- 

lages.t 
Grand  Total 

J20.882 

4,242 

2,329,196 

1,39,60,058 

i,93,7i,55i 

§10,71,48.' 

*  This  is  the  actual  area  of  the  print.     No  details  are  available  for  small  States. 

t  The  total  number  of  villages  and  population  according  to  the  Census  of  1901  are  respectively  4,242  and 
2,329,196:  of  the  former,  11  (three  civil  stations  and  the  rest  villages  of  insignificant  tilukdars  who  do  not  pay 
tribute)  with  an  aggregate  population  of  26,736,  have  been  omitted  from  the  print  totals.  They  are  :  Rasnal, 
Pipalva  (Vithalgadh)  (1,811),  Ranparda  (459),  Hathasni  (939),  and  Noghanvadar  (113),  in  Gohilwar  ;  RSjkol  Civil 
Station  (8,992),  and  Hadala  (468),  in  Halar;  Wadhwan  Civil  Station  (11,255),  in  Jhalawar  ;  and  Jetalsar  Ci\il 
Station  (463),  Dhasa  (1,473),  and  Shapur  (763),  in  Sorath  print. 

X  Separate  figures  for  tilukas  under  thina  circles  are  not  available.  The  areas  of  the  whole  thana 
circles,  in  square  miles,  are — 

Biibra .        .        .    299    !    Chok.        .        .     104    J    Wadhwan  thana     197        Paliyad      .        .     227 
Songadh      .  82    I    Lodhika    .         .     265         Chotila        .         .     368         Lakhapadar       .     137 

Chamardi    .  72    |    Dhrafa      .         .     208    |     Bhoika        .         .     179         Bagasra     .         .       89 

§  The  total  amount  of  tribute  of  all  kinds  is  Rs.  10,79,371,  according  to  Aitchison's  Treaties.  To  this  sum 
Rs.  1,225  on  account  of  Unamamuli  paid  by  Dedan  has  been  added  ;  while  Rs.  9,114,  the  amount  of  tribute  and 
zorialbi  paid  by  the  Amreli  mahal  of  the  Gaikwar,  has  been  omitted. 


170  KATHIAWAR 

Formerly  Kathiawar  was  divided  into  ten  prants  :  namely,  Jhalawar 
in  the  north ;  Machhukantha,  west  of  Jhalawar ;  Halar,  in  the  north- 
west ;  Okhamandal,  in  the  extreme  west,  belonging  to  Baroda ;  Barda 
or  Jethwar,  along  the  south-west  coast ;  Sorath,  in  the  south  ;  Babriawar, 
a  hilly  tract  in  the  south-east ;  Kathiawar,  a  large  district  near  the 
middle ;  Undsarviya,  situated  along  the  Shetrunji  river ;  and  Gohelwar 
in  the  east,  along  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  so  named  from  the 
Gohel  Rajputs  who  are  the  ruling  race  in  it.  In  this  last-named 
division  is  situated  the  Gogha  mahal  of  Ahmadabad  District. 

A  square  peninsula,  standing  boldly  out  into  the  Arabian  Sea  be- 
tween the  smaller  projection  of  Cutch  and  the  straight  line  of  the  Gujarat 

coast,  its  physical  features  suggest  that  it  may  once 
Plivsic3.1  • 

as      ts  have  been  an  island  or  a  group  of  islands  of  volcanic 

origin.    Along  its  northern  border  stretch  the  shallow 

waters  or  the  salt-encrusted  surface  of  the  Rami.    On  the  east,  between 

Kathiawar  and  the  mainland,  a  belt  of  salt  lands  and  the  long  lagoon 

of  the  Nal  mark  the  line  of  the  depression,  which,  unless  the  evidence 

of  travellers  is  unusually  at  fault,  formed  until  recent  times  during  the 

rains  a  connecting  link  between  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  and  the  Little  Rann. 

Three  travellers  of  authority,  all  of  whom  visited  Cambay,  speak  of 
Kathiawar  as  an  island.  The  first  of  these,  Varthema,  1503-8  (Badger's 
edition,  p.  105),  says  that  the  city  of  Cambay  lies  3  miles  inland  close 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  Baldaeus,  1672  (Churchill's  Voyages,  vol.  iii, 
p.  566),  states  that  Cambay  stands  on  one  of  the  largest  channels  of  the 
Indus;  Alexander  Hamilton,  1690-1721  {New  Account,  vol.  i,  p.  131), 
states  that  one  of  the  largest  branches  of  the  Indus  running  into  the  sea 
at  Cambay  makes  Gujarat  an  island.  Still  more  difficult  to  consider 
a  mistake  is  Captain  MacMurdo's  statement  in  18 13  {Journal,  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  vol.  i,  p.  41),  that  a  tract  similar  to  the  Rann  and  known 
partially  by  the  same  name  connects  the  Gulf  of  Cutch  and  Cambay, 
forming  an  island  off  the  peninsula  of  Gujarat  for  six  months  in  the 
year.  From  the  coast  Kathiawar  rises  to  a  central  table-land  where  all 
the  rivers  of  the  peninsula  take  their  rise.  The  silt  of  the  old  eastern 
branch  of  the  Indus  and  of  the  rivers  Luni,  Banas,  SaraswatI,  and 
Rupen,  gradually  filling  the  sea-bed,  with  some  help  possibly  from  the 
great  upheaval  of  1820,  has  joined  north-east  Kathiawar  with  the  main- 
land of  Gujarat. 

Kathiawar  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  name  of 
^uvpuaTp^vt]  •  the  Muhammadans  called  it  by  the  prakritized  name 
of  Sorath,  and  to  this  day  a  large  division  in  the  south-west,  100  miles 
in  length,  retains  that  title.  Another  tract,  quite  as  large,  to  the  east 
of  the  centre,  however,  has  long  been  known  as  Kathiawar,  from  having 
been  overrun  by  the  Kathis,  who  entered  the  peninsula  from  Cutch  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.     In  the  fifteenth  century  the 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS 


r?i 


whole  tribe  was  driven  out  of  Cutch,  and  in  that  and  the  following 
century  conquered  a  considerable  territory.  The  Marathas  who  came 
into  contact  with  them  in  their  forays,  and  were  sometimes  successfully 
repelled  by  them,  extended  the  name  of  Kathiawar  to  the  whole  pro- 
vince, and  from  them  has  been  borrowed  the  appellation  in  its  wider 
sense ;  but  by  Brahmans  and  the  natives  generally  it  is  still  spoken  of 
as  Surashtra. 

The  surface  of  Kathiawar  is  for  the  most  part  undulating,  with  low 
ranges  of  hills  running  in  very  irregular  directions.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Thanga  and  Mandav  hills,  in  the  west  of  Jhalawar,  and  some 
unimportant  hills  in  Halar,  the  northern  portion  of  the  country  is  flat ; 
but  in  the  south,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Gogha,  the  Glr  range  runs 
nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  20  miles  from 
it,  along  the  north  of  Babriawar  and  Sorath  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Girnar.  Opposite  this  latter  mountain  is  the  solitary  Osam  hill,  and 
still  farther  west  is  the  Barda  group,  between  Halar  and  Barda,  run- 
ning about  20  miles  north  and  south  from  Ghumli  to  Ranawao.  The 
Girnar  clump  of  mountains  is  an  important  granitic  mass,  the  highest 
peak  of  which  rises  to  3,500  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  principal  river  is  the  Bhadar,  which  rises  in  the  Mandav  hills 
and,  flowing  south-west,  falls  into  the  sea  at  Navibandar,  in  Barda, 
after  a  course  of  about  no  miles,  everywhere  marked  by  highly 
cultivated  lands  bordering  its  course.  From  the  same  hills  rises 
another  Bhadar,  known  as  the  Sukha  Bhadar,  flowing  eastward  into 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  Other  rivers  are  the  Aji,  Machhu,  Bhogava,  and 
Shetrunji,  the  latter  remarkable  for  wild  and  romantic  scenery. 

Of  salt-water  creeks  the  most  important  are  Hansthal,  connecting  the 
outer  and  inner  Gulf  of  Cutch ;  Bhaunagar,  forming  the  channel  between 
that  town  and  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  ;  the  Sundrai,  8  miles  north  of 
Bhaunagar ;  the  Bavliali,  2  miles  north  of  the  Sundrai  creek ;  and  the 
Dholera,  leading  from  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  10  miles  inland  to  the  town 
of  Dholera. 

Notwithstanding  its  extent  of  coast,  Kathiawar  has  no  really  good 
harbour  except  Beyt,  at  the  north-east  corner  of  Okhamandal.  The 
principal  ports  are  Vavania,  Jodiya,  Berli,  and  Salaya  in  the  Gulf  of 
Cutch  ;  Dholera,  Bhaunagar,  and  Gogha  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay ;  and 
Mahuva,  Jafarabad,  Diu,  Veraval,  Mangrol,  Navibandar,  and  Porbandar 
on  the  south  and  west  coasts.  Of  these,  Vavania,  Jodiya,  Bedi, 
Salaya,  Navibandar,  Mahuva,  Bhaunagar,  and  Dholera  are  on  creeks, 
and  communication  with  them  depends  on  the  tide  ;  while  the  rest  are 
little  better  than  open  roadsteads. 

The  chief  islands  are  Piram  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay ;  Chanch,  Shial, 
and  Diu  off  the  south  coast ;  Beyt  in  the  west ;  and  the  Chanka  islets 
in  the  Gulf  of  Cutch. 

VOL.  XV,  M 


1 72  KATHIAWAR 

The  peninsula  contains  few  lakes  larger  than  village  reservoirs.  The 
most  remarkable  are  the  Nal  at  the  head  of  the  Rann  of  Cambay,  and 
the  Gheds  on  the  south-west  coast  near  Madhavpur. 

With  the  help  of  the  Nal,  two  ranns  or  salt  wastes  nearly  encircle  the 
east  and  north-east  of  Kathiawar,  the  little  Cutch  Rann  and  the  Rann 
of  Cambay  stretching  about  35  miles  north  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Sabarmatl.  From  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hansthal  creek,  the  Little  Rann,  covering  an  area  of  about 
1,600  square  miles,  stretches  north-east  for  about  60  miles,  varying 
from  5  to  30  miles  in  breadth,  and  connecting  with  the  Great  Rann. 
In  the  south-west  corner  are  the  Kharaghoda  salt-works. 

The  Rann  of  Cambay,  a  long,  shallow,  rocky  channel  or  dry  estuary, 
extends  north-west  about  35  miles  from  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Sabarmatl  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  The  lower  part 
is  rich  in  marine  silt,  and  joins  the  Nal  during  the  south-west  monsoon, 
forming  a  connected  sheet  of  water  which  spreads  over  the  neighbouring 
tracts  of  the  Bhal  and  the  Nalkantha,  turning  the  villages  into  islands 
and  cutting  off  communication  with  Ahmadabad.  The  upper  end  of  the 
Rann  is  now  crossed  by  the  railway  between  Viramgam  and  YVadhwan. 

Basalt  beds  belonging  to  the  Deccan  trap  formation  occupy  the 
greater  portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar.  They  lie  almost  hori- 
zontally, and  have  been  deeply  denuded,  so  that  countless  numbers  of 
intrusive  dikes,  filling  the  fissures  through  which  the  molten  material 
was  injected,  have  become  visible  in  every  district.  These  dikes  are 
remarkable  for  their  columnar  structure,  consisting  of  huge  hexagonal 
prisms  loosely  stacked  upon  one  another  and  arranged  horizontally. 
They  exert  a  pronounced  influence  upon  the  underground  drainage, 
a  circumstance  well-known  to  the  agriculturists,  who  persistently  sink 
their  irrigation  wells  along  the  dikes,  tracing  out  their  course  with  great 
assiduity,  and  are  almost  invariably  rewarded  by  the  presence  of  water 
at  a  depth  of  15  to  20  feet.  In  some  instances  apparently  the  joints 
and  cracks  in  the  dike  rock  communicate  with  some  deep-seated  water- 
bed  ;  in  other  cases  the  dikes  seem  to  wall  up  and  keep  in  on  one  side 
the  water  of  the  adjoining  strata.  The  Girnar  mountains,  and  probably 
the  Barda  hills  north-east  of  Porbandar,  appear  to  be  great  intrusive 
masses  of  the  same  age  as  the  basalt  flows  and  columnar  dikes ;  they 
may  represent  the  inner  cores  of  great  volcanoes  now  denuded  of  the 
volcanic  ejectamenta  that  formerly  covered  them.  The  rocks  of  Girnar 
contain  the  somewhat  uncommon  mineral  alaeolite,  and  some  of  them 
belong  to  the  exceptional  class  of  rocks  known  as  monchiquites.  The 
basaltic  formation  has  a  very  low  dip  from  north  to  south,  perhaps 
original,  in  consequence  of  which  some  of  the  older  underlying  rocks 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  some  of  the  newer  super- 
incumbent strata,  are  exposed.     The  older  rocks  in  the  northern  part 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  x 


/  o 


belong  to  two  different  series  :  the  Umia  beds,  which  are  of  neocomian, 
that  is,  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  age  ;  and  the  Lameta  beds,  which  are 
Upper  Cretaceous  (cenomanian).  The  Umia  beds  (which  take  their 
name  from  a  village  in  Cutch)  are  principally  exposed  about  Dhran- 
gadhra  and  farther  south-west.  They  consist  chiefly  of  sandstone, 
open,  imperfectly  cemented,  and  unevenly  stratified,  with  coarse  and 
gritty,  or  even  conglomeratic  runs  and  layers.  There  are,  however, 
some  thick  beds  of  fine  texture  among  them,  and  a  few  subordinate 
bands  of  shale.  The  Lameta  beds  occur  principally  round  Wadhwan, 
where  they  are  locally  known  as  the  Wadhwan  sandstones.  Beds 
newer  than  the  basalts  and  overlying  them  run  along  the  southern 
seaboard  of  the  peninsula  from  Dwarka  on  the  west  to  Bhaunagar 
on  the  east.  They  include  sandstones  and  pure  limestones  with 
marine  fossils  identical  with  those  of  the  Gaj  group  in  Sind,  overlaid 
by  sandstones  and  conglomerates  of  fluviatile  origin  corresponding 
in  age  with  the  Siwalik.  These  fluviatile  beds  contain  an  older  series, 
sometimes  with  abundant  remains  of  terrestrial  animals,  as  for  instance 
in  the  island  of  Piram,  corresponding  with  the  Lower  or  Middle  Siwaliks; 
and  a  newer  series  known  as  the  Dwarka  beds,  corresponding  with  the 
Upper  Siwaliks.  Laterite  sometimes  intervenes  between  the  basalt  and 
the  overlying  Tertiary  beds. 

A  belt  of  recent  alluvium  follows  the  southern  coast,  and  there  are 
large  alluvial  areas  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula  near  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay  and  in  its  northern  part  where  the  alluvium  merges  into  the 
silt  of  the  Little  Rann.  Raised  beaches  occur  at  some  places  along 
the  sea-coast.  The  somewhat  low  rainfall  allows  to  a  certain  extent  the 
accumulation  of  wind-borne  deposits  ;  the  finer  particles  of  the  sand  on 
the  sea-beach,  consisting  principally  of  the  minute  shells  of  foraminifera, 
are  blown  all  over  the  land,  where  they  accumulate  to  form  the  curious 
calcareous  rock  known  as  miliolite.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  coast  this  wind-formed  miliolite  merges  into  the  raised  beaches. 
The  well-known  '  Porbandar  stone,'  which  is  largely  quarried  and 
shipped  to  Bombay,  is  a  variety  of  miliolite1. 

Except  in  the  Gir  forest,  Ka.thia.war  is  thinly  wooded  ;  and  even  there 
the  timber  is  of  little  value.  The  mangrove  abounds  along  the  shores 
of  the  peninsula  and  is  largely  used  as  fuel.  The  coco-nut  grows 
rapidly  and  bears  steadily  all  along  the  south  coast,  and  the  wild  date 
is  met  with  in  most  parts  of  the  peninsula.  Excellent  mangoes  are 
grown  in  Mahuva  from  Bombay  grafts. 

1  F.  Fedden,  Memoirs,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xxi,  pt.  ii ;  J.  W.  Evans, 
Quarterly  Journal,  Geological  Society  of  London,  vol.  lvi  (1900),  pp.  559-83,  and 
vol.  lvii  (1900),  pp.  38-54.  Descriptions  of  the  fossil  bones  from  the  Island  of  Pcrim 
(Piram)  have  been  published  by  H.  Falconer  in  vol.  i  (1854)  of  the  Quarterly  Journal, 
Geological  Society  of  London,  and  by  R.  Lydekker  in  Series  X  of  the  Palaeoniologia 
Indica. 

M  2 


T74  KATHIAWAR 

The  principal  wild  animals  include  the  lion  (found  in  the  Gir  range), 
leopard,  hunting  cheetah,  antelope,  hog,  hyena,  wolf,  jackal,  wild  cat, 
fox,  porcupine,  and  smaller  vermin.  Of  reptiles,  the  Indian  python, 
the  cobra,  the  whip-snake,  and  others  abound,  and  the  crocodile  and 
land  tortoise  are  common. 

The  lion  was  formerly  common  all  over  the  Kathiawar  peninsula, 
extending  into  Gujarat  and  Central  India.  It  is  now  found  only  in  the 
Gir  forest,  and  rarely  on  the  Girnar  mountain.  Its  mane  is  shorter 
and  its  colour  lighter  than  that  of  the  African  lion.  Approximating  in 
size  to  the  tiger,  it  is  somewhat  heavier  in  bulk  and  stronger.  It  seeks 
the  loneliest  spot  for  its  midday  sleep,  and  when  disturbed  does  not 
try  to  conceal  its  escape  like  the  tiger,  but  walks  boldly  away.  It  used 
to  avoid  man  more  than  either  the  tiger  or  leopard,  and  never  lived 
near  a  village  or  hamlet;  but  since  the  last  famine  these  habits  have 
changed.  Of  a  gregarious  disposition,  it  moves  in  family  parties, 
comprising  occasionally  three  generations.  Careful  preservation  of 
these  lions  has  resulted  in  an  appreciable  increase  of  their  number, 
which  at  present  must  be  from  60  to  70.  Since  the  last  famine  they 
have  done  considerable  damage  to  cattle,  and  cases  of  attack  upon  men 
have  also  been  reported  from  outlying  villages. 

The  climate  of  Kathiawar  is  in  general  pleasant  and  healthy.  January, 
February,  and  March  are  marked  by  heavy  dews  and  thick  fogs.  The 
hot  season,  which  is  the  healthiest  period  of  the  year,  begins  in  April 
and  lasts  until  the  rain  falls  in  June.  The  hot  wind  is  most  felt  in  the 
south.  From  September  to  the  first  part  of  November  the  climate  is 
unhealthy  for  both  Europeans  and  natives.  A  violent  bilious  attack, 
lasting  for  four  or  five  days  and  followed  by  ague  and  fever,  is  the  only 
special  Kathiawar  disease. 

The  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  peninsula  occurs  at  Junagarh  (42  inches), 
in  the  Sorath  prant ;  at  Rajkot,  in  the  Halar  prdnt,  the  average  yearly 
fall  is  30  inches  ;  at  Wadhwan,  in  Jhalawar,  21  inches.  The  monsoon 
begins  in  June  and  ends  in  October,  the  wettest  months  of  the  year 
being  July  to  September. 

During  the  last  century  Kathiawar  suffered  several  times  from  earth- 
quakes. On  April  29,  1864,  a  shock  occurred  in  many  parts  of  the 
peninsula  a  little  after  n  a.m.  It  was  preceded  by  a  low  rumbling 
noise  followed  by  a  vibration  for  six  seconds,  causing  widespread  panic 
and  excitement.  On  Nov.  27,  1881,  at  midnight  a  shock  of  earth- 
quake was  felt  at  Rajkot.  In  September  and  October,  1898,  shocks 
of  earthquake  were  felt  in  the  northern  districts,  and  in  other  years 
lesser  shocks ;  but  none  of  them  caused  any  damage. 

At  a  very  early  period  Surashtra  was  doubtless  brought  under  the 
influence  of  Brahmanical  civilization,  and,  from  its  position  on  the 
coast,  was  most  accessible  to  influences  from  the  west.     The  edicts 


HISTORY  i75 

of  Asoka  (265-231  B.C.)  were  inscribed  by  that  monarch  on  a  huge 
granite  boulder  between  Junagarh  and  Girnar.  The  Saraostos  of 
Strabo  is  not  improbably  identical  with  Surashtra  ; 
and  if  so,  the  peninsula  was  included  in  the  con- 
quests of  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  {circa  190-144  B.C.).  Its  shores 
were  well-known  to  the  Alexandrian  merchants  of  the  first  and  second 
centuries,  but  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  identifying  the  places 
mentioned  by  them. 

Of  the  early  history  of  the  country  we  have  but  scanty  notice. 
Mauryas,  Greeks,  and  Kshatrapas  probably  held  it  in  succession,  and 
were  followed  for  a  brief  space  by  the  Guptas  of  Kanauj,  who 
apparently  governed  by  senapatis.  The  later  senapatis  became  kings 
of  Surashtra,  who  placed  their  lieutenants  at  Vallabhi-nagar  (identified 
with  the  buried  city  at  Yala,  18  miles  north-west  of  Bhaunagar).  When 
the  Gupta  empire  fell  to  pieces,  the  Yallabhi  kings,  whose  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Bhattaraka,  a  Gupta  commander,  extended  their  sway  over 
Cutch  and  defeated  the  Mers,  who  appear  to  have  gained  considerable 
authority  in  Ka.thia.war  between  470  and  520.  It  was  in  the  reign 
of  Dhurvasena  II  (632-40)  that  the  Chinese  pilgrim  Hiuen  Tsiang 
visited  Va-la-pi  (Vallabhi  ?)  and  Su-la-ch'a  (Surashtra),  the  inhabitants 
of  which,  he  says,  are  indifferent  and  not  given  to  learning,  but  profit 
by  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  engage  much  in  trade  and  barter. 
The  people  he  described  as  numerous  and  wealthy,  and  he  remarked 
many  convents  established  for  the  benefit  of  recluses  engaged  in  the 
contemplative  piety  of  Buddhism. 

How  Vallabhi  fell  is  not  known,  but  possibly  it  was  subverted  by 
Muhammadan  invaders  from  Sind.  The  seat  of  government  was  then 
moved  farther  north  beyond  the  borders  of  Kathiawar,  and  remained 
at  Anhilvada  from  746  to  1298,  during  which  time  various  petty  king- 
doms arose,  and  the  Jethwas  became  a  powerful  tribe  in  the  west  ot 
Surashtra.  Anhilvada  was  sacked  by  the  Muhammadans  in  11 94,  and 
finally  conquered  in  1298.  The  Jhalas  are  said  to  have  been  settled 
in  Northern  Kathiawar  by  the  Anhilvada  kings.  The  Gohels  (now  in 
Eastern  Kathiawar)  came  from  the  north  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
retreating  before  the  tide  of  Muhammadan  conquest,  and  were  enabled 
by  the  decadence  of  Anhilvada  to  conquer  new  seats  for  themselves. 
The  Jadejas  and  the  Kathis  came  from  the  west,  through  Cutch.  The 
sack  of  Somnath,  in  Southern  Kathiawar,  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in 
1026,  and  the  capture  of  Anhilvada  in  1194,  were  the  prelude  10 
occasional  Muhammadan  invasions  of  Kathiawar.  In  1324  Zafar  Khan 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Somnath.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Muham- 
madan kings  of  Gujarat,  who  reigned  in  prosperity  from  1396  to  1535, 
and  in  decadence  to  the  close  of  1572,  when  Gujarat  was  conquered 
by  Akbar.     The  Ahmadabad  kings,  who  held  the  tributary  chiefs  of 


176  KATHIAWAR 

Kathiawar  in  subjection,  carefully  fostered  commerce,  and  developed 
the  ports  of  Mangrol,  Veraval,  Diu,  Gogha,  and  Cambay. 

About  1509  the  coast  was  threatened  by  the  Portuguese.  Bahadur, 
defeated  by  Babar's  son  Humayun,  sought  safety  in  Diu,  and  afterwards 
permitted  the  Portuguese  adventurers  to  build  a  factory,  which  they 
turned  into  a  fort,  after  having  treacherously  killed  Bahadur  (1537). 
The  island  and  fort  of  Diu  are  still  a  Portuguese  possession.  Gujarat, 
after  its  conquest  by  Akbar  in  1572,  was  ruled  by  viceroys  from  the 
court  of  Delhi,  until  the  Marathas  supplanted  the  imperial  power.  In 
1705  the  Marathas  entered  Gujarat,  and  by  1760  had  firmly  established 
their  rule  ;  but  the  following  half-century  was  a  time  of  little  ease  for 
the  tributaries  in  Kathiawar,  and  petty  wars  were  frequent.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  according  to  Musalman  and 
Maratha  custom,  the  Gaikwar,  partly  for  himself  and  partly  for  his 
overlord  the  Peshwa,  sent  yearly  a  revenue-collecting  army  {mu/k-giri) 
to  collect  contributions  from  the  chiefs  of  Western  and  Northern 
Gujarat.  As  this  armed  expedition  caused  much  waste  and  confusion, 
the  British  Government  agreed  to  associate  itself  with  the  Gaikwar  in 
recovering  the  Maratha  tribute  from  the  Kathiawar  States. 

In  1803  some  of  the  weaker  talukddrs  applied  to  the  British  Resident 
at  Baroda  for  protection,  offering  to  cede  their  territory  to  the  Com- 
pany. They  were  then  independent  of  the  Peshwa  and  the  Gaikwar,  with 
the  exception  of  being  bound  to  furnish  contributions.  In  1807  the 
forces  of  the  Company  and  the  Gaikwar  advanced  into  Kathiawar,  and 
the  chiefs  entered  into  engagements  to  pay  a  fixed  tribute  to  their  over- 
lords, to  keep  the  peace  towards  each  other,  and  to  maintain  order 
within  their  own  limits.  In  return,  they  were  secured  from  the  visita- 
tions of  the  mulk-giri  force,  which  usad  to  appear  at  harvest-time  and 
in  default  of  payment  ravaged  the  crops  and  fired  the  villages.  Internal 
warfare  and  resistance  to  the  supreme  authority  were  ended  in  1807-8 
by  the  settlement  effected  by  Colonel  Walker,  one  great  feature  of 
which  was  that  the  tributes  were  fixed,  and  the  work  of  collection 
was  undertaken  by  the  British  Government,  which  also  acquired  the 
Peshwa's  rights  in  Kathiawar  after  the  Satara  proclamation  in  1818. 
In  1820  the  Gaikwar  agreed  to  have  his  share  collected  and  paid  by 
the  British  Government. 

Under  the  ruling  houses  there  are  numerous  petty  Rajput  lairds  and 
yeomen,  representatives  of  old  houses  long  ruined  and  supplanted,  or 
of  the  younger  brothers  of  chiefs  who  have  received  their  girds  or 
portions  from  the  estate. 

Kathiawar    has    many   notable   antiquities,   which    have    been    fully 
described  by   Dr.   James   Burgess1.     Besides   the   famous  inscription 
of  Asoka  already  referred  to,  there  are  a  number  of  rock-cut  Buddhist 
1  Archaeological  Survey  of  Western  India,  vols,  ii  and  viii. 


AGRICULTURE  i77 

caves  and  temples  at  Junagarh,  mentioned  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  in  the 
seventh  century,  and  some  fine  Jain  temples  on  Mount  Girnar  and 
the  Shetrunja  hills  at  Palitana.  At  Ghumli,  a  former  capital  of  the 
Jethwas,  there  are  extensive  ruins. 

The  Political  Agency  of  Kathiawar  has  (190 1  )a  population  of  2,329,196. 
The  population  in  1872,  188 1,  and  189 1  was  2,318,642, 
2>343>899>  and  2,752,404.      During  the  last  decade 
there  was  a  decrease  of  423,208,  due  to  the  famine  of  1899-1901. 

Natives  of  Kathiawar  are  largely  represented  in  Bombay  city,  where 
45,000  immigrants  were  enumerated  at  the  recent  Census.  A  similar 
number  were  found  in  Ahmadabad  city.  The  more  adventurous 
Musalman  traders  in  the  coast  towns  travel  in  considerable  numbers 
to  South  Africa  and  Natal,  and  the  seafaring  population,  once  notorious 
for  piracy,  now  furnishes  numerous  lascars  to  ocean-going  steamers. 
The  last  detected  case  of  piracy  from  Kathiawar  occurred  as  recently 
as  1903.  The  distribution  of  the  population  among  the  numerous 
States  of  the  Agency  has  been  given  above  (pp.  165-9).  They  contain 
52  towns  and  4, 1631  villages,  with  an  average  density  of  112  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  principal  towns  are  Bhaunagar,  Navanagar, 
Junagarh,  Rajkot,  Dhoraji,  Porbandar,  Gondal,  Morvi,  Mahuva, 
Veraval,  and  Wadhwan.  Hindus  form  81  per  cent,  of  the  total, 
Musalmans  14  per  cent.,  and  Jains  5  per  cent. 

The  most  interesting  caste  is  the  Rajput,  numbering  113,000,  and 
including  the  ruling  families  of  the  majority  of  the  States.  The  Kathis, 
from  whom  the  peninsula  derives  its  name,  number  21,700.  Among 
castes  of  100,000  and  over  are  Kunbls  (358,000),  Kolis  (249,000), 
Brahmans  (158,000),  traders,  including  Vanls  and  Lohanas  (135,000), 
and  Dhers  (116,000).  Of  the  Brahmans,  more  than  half  are  of  the 
Audich  sub-caste  (90,000).  Modhs,  Nagars,  and  Srimalis  are  other 
subdivisions  of  this  caste  of  local  importance.  The  traders  are  mainly 
Lohanas  (64,000).  Ahirs,  an  immigrant  caste  of  shepherds  who 
entered  the  peninsula  at  an  early  date  and  also  spread  southward  to 
Khandesh,  number  74,000.  Among  Musalmans,  the  most  numerous 
sections  are  the  Memons  (68,000),  who  are  traders ;  Khojas  (29,000), 
also  traders ;  and  Ghanchis,  or  oil-men  (24,000). 

Of  the  total  population,  41-6  per  cent,  depend  on  agriculture;  com- 
merce supports  5-6  per  cent.,  industry  27-6  per  cent.,  and  various 
employments  25-2  per  cent. 

Kathiawar  has  the  essential  features  of  a  prosperous  agricultural 
country.     The  climate  is,  on  the  whole,   temperate,  . 

the   rainfall   moderate,   streams  abound,   ponds  and 
wells  are  fairly  numerous,  and  there  is  much  variety  in  the  texture, 

1  Besides  these  there  are  27  villages,  which,  being  unpopulated  at  the  time  of  the 
Census,  were  not  returned. 


i7S  KATHIAWAR 

quality,  and  depth  of  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  peninsula  is  thinly 
peopled ;  cultivators  take  up  more  land  than  they  can  till,  and  the  style 
of  farming  is  slovenly.  The  soil  is  of  two  main  classes,  black  or  red, 
the  red  being  considered  the  less  valuable.  Of  the  first  class  is  the 
deep  black  soil  known  as  kampal,  suitable  for  the  growth  of  cotton, 
while  the  better  kinds  of  red  soil  favour  the  production  of  irrigated 
wheat  and  barley.  A  saltish  earth,  impregnated  with  clay  and 
impervious  to  water,  is  not  uncommon. 

Some  of  the  richest  tracts  lie  along  the  course  of  the  Bhadar  river, 
and  at  Mahuva  and  Lilia,  where  excellent  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
grown.  Sugar-cane  is  grown  with  success  in  the  same  locality.  In 
Sorath,  Chorwad  is  noted  for  its  betel-vines.  Gondal  cotton  is  famous- 
In  the  northern  and  eastern  districts  of  Jhalawar  much  cotton  is  grown. 
Halar  in  the  west  yields  excellent  Jozvdr,  bdjra,  wheat,  and  other  grains, 
and  Sorath  in  the  south  is  rich  both  in  cotton  and  in  grain.  In 
Limbdi,  and  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Kathiawar  bordering  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  wheat,  cotton,  and  grain  are  produced  from  a  rich  silt 
which  requires  no  manure.     Turmeric  and  mug  are  common  products. 

The  chief  cultivating  classes  are  :  among  Hindus,  Kunbls,  Sathvaras, 
Rajputs,  Ahirs,  Mers,  and  Kolls ;  and  among  Musalmans,  Memons, 
Ghanchis,  Bohras,  Sindis,  Jats,  and  Mianas.  Of  these  the  most  expert 
are  the  Kunbls. 

During  recent  years  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  irriga- 
tion, by  the  construction  of  storage  tanks  wherever  the  natural  features 
of  the  country  render  them  possible.  At  least  ten  of  these  tanks  with 
a  systematic  control  of  the  water-supply  have  been  constructed  during 
the  last  ten  years.  Prominent  among  these  are  the  Lalpuri  tank  at 
Rajkot,  Alansager  at  Jasadan,  Paneli  in  Gondal,  and  Champa  and  Moldi 
tanks  in  the  Chotila  Thana  circle.  The  successive  bad  years  have 
also  been  the  cause  of  an  increase  in  the  number  of  wells  for  irrigation 
purposes. 

The  total  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  8,074  square  miles,  dis- 
tributed as  follows  :  cotton  (2,446),  millet  (2,00%),  Jozvdr  (1,866),  wheat 
(406),  gram  (178),  mftg  (16),  udld  (16),  and  'others'  (1,138). 

The  numerous  petty  courts  and  their  people  form  a  large  body  of 
rich  resident  landholders,  spending  their  rents  on  their  estates ;  and 
the  ministers,  officials,  and  landholders,  of  various  stations  and  wealth, 
contribute  to  impart  a  brisk  vitality  to  the  progress  and  general  well- 
being  of  the  country.  A  large  proportion  of  the  public  business  of 
Kathiawar  is  conducted  by,  and  at  the  cost  of,  native  Darbars. 
Bhaunagar  has  taken  the  lead  in  the  material  development  of  her 
resources,  and  was  the  first  State  in  the  Bombay  Presidency  to 
construct  a  railway  at  her  own  expense  and  risk. 

Horses,  formerly  of  excellent  repute,  are  bred  in  large  quantities. 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  179 

The  peninsula  is  suitable  for  the  raising  of  stock,  the  central  portion 

being  famous  as  a  breeding-ground.     Most  of  the  States  maintain  stud 

farms.     In  1903-4  nine  of  the  States  maintained  56  stallions,  which 

covered  791   mares.     Milch  cows  and  buffaloes  are  reared  in  the  Gir, 

camels  in  the  Rann,  and  asses  in  Halar  and  Jhalawar.    The  buffaloes  of 

the  Gir,  as  also  the  cows,  are  famed  as  good  milkers  and  are  sold  to 

dairymen  in  various  parts  of  the  Presidency,  particularly  in  Bombay 

city.     A    good    buffalo   yields   about    32    quarts   of  milk    daily,    and 

a   good   cow    1 2    quarts.     Sheep  are  plentiful    in    some  parts  :    their 

wool    forming,   together  with   cotton    and   grain,   the  chief  article    of 

export. 

Besides   the  Gir   with   its    1,500  square  miles   of  forest,   there   are 

important    wooded    tracts    in    Kathiawar.      In    Yankaner    and    the 

Panchal  lands  have  been  set  aside  for  the  growth 

Forests 
of  timber,  and    in    Bhaunagar,  Morvi,  Gondal,  and 

Manavadar  babul  plantations  have  been  formed.     Palms,  mangoes,  and 

casuarina  have  been  specially  planted  and  cared  for  in  Bhaunagar ; 

trunk  and  feeder  roads  are  being  gradually  planted  with  trees  along 

their  entire  length  ;  and  several  minor  estates  and  villages  are  paying 

attention  to  forest  conservancy. 

Kathiawar  abounds  in  minerals  and  is  particularly  rich  in  building 

stone.      The    principal    metal    is    iron,    which    in    former    days    was 

worked  in  Barda  and  Khambhaliya  districts.     Near        __.        . 

Ivliiier3.1s 
Porbandar  a  valuable  description  of  building  stone 

is  extracted  from   the  hills  and  sent  to  Bombay  in  large  quantities. 

Pearls  of  good  quality,  but  inferior  in  lustre  to  those  of  the  Persian 

Gulf,  are  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Cutch  within  Navanagar  limits.     A  few 

are  also  found  in  Junagarh  and  Bhaunagar  near  Bherai  and  Chanch. 

White  coral  of  no  market  value  is  common.     Red  coral  is  sometimes 

found  in  small  quantities  at  Mangrol  and  Sil.     Bloodstone  and  agate 

are  common  near  Tankara  in  Morvi. 

The  Kathiawar  region  is  a  wealthy  one.     The  land,  though   not  of 

extraordinary  richness,  is  generally  of  fair  quality  and  is  amply  watered. 

The  cotton  exported  supplies  one-sixth  of  the  total 

amount  of  cotton  shipped  from  Bombay  to  foreign  communicati0ns. 

countries,  and  a  large  import  of  bullion  and  grain 

is  yearly  received  by  Kathiawar  as  part  of  the  price.    Cotton  cloth,  sugar, 

and  molasses  are  largely  imported.     The  total  value  of  the  sea-borne 

trade   in    1903-4   was  378^  lakhs  :    exports    197   lakhs,    and    imports 

i8i|  lakhs.     The  exports  of  cotton  alone  were  more  than  126  lakhs  in 

value,  and  of  wool  5 \  lakhs.     The   imports  of  grain  vary  according  to 

the  season.     Railways  have  absorbed  a  great   portion  of  the  expert 

trade  from  the  smaller  ports  on  the  coast-line,  and  concentrated  it  at 

Wadhwan  in    the   north-east  and  Bhaunagar  in   the  south-east,   while 


i8o 


KATHIAWAR 


the  import  trade  on  the  contrary  is  drawn  towards  the  minor  ports. 
Private  enterprise  has  established  three  cotton-weaving  mills  and 
steam  cotton-press  factories,  and  there  is  a  prosperous  trade  in  timber. 
The  chief  handicrafts  are  gold  and  silver  thread-making,  weaving  of 
silk  and  brocades,  the  making  of  red  powders,  of  fragrant  oils,  of 
perfumed  sticks  and  powder,  of  rose  and  other  essences,  inlaying 
ivory,  and  carving  sandal-wood. 

In  the  matter  of  roads,  great  progress  has  been  made  of  late  years. 
Where  there  was  not  a  single  mile  of  road  in  1865,  there  are  now 
more  than  600  miles,  for  the  most  part  bridged  and  metalled.  Two 
great  lines  of  trunk  roads  intersect  the  peninsula,  one  proceeding  from 
Wadhwan  to  Junagarh  and  Veraval,  and  the  other  from  Bhaunagar  to 
Jodiya,  crossing  at  Rajkot,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Agency.  The 
Junagarh  line  has  a  branch  bifurcating  at  Jetpur  towards  Porbandar, 
while  the  Jodiya  line  has  a  similar  branch  going  towards  Navanagar. 
These  main  lines  have  various  feeders  to  connect  the  capitals  and 
other  important  towns  of  the  numerous  States. 

Since  1880  communication  has  been  improved  by  the  introduction 
of  railways,  principally  at  the  cost  of  Native  States.  The  first  entry 
of  the  railway  into  Kathiawar  took  place  in  1872,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway  Company.  The 
terminus  was  at  Wadhwan,  and  the  length  of  the  line  within 
Kathiawar  limits  39^  miles.  A  line  constructed  at  a  cost  of  96  lakhs, 
shared  by  Bhaunagar  and  Gondal  in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds  and 
one-third,  was  opened  in  1880.  The  total  length  of  this  line  was 
192  miles.  In  1886  Junagarh  constructed  at  a  cost  of  37  lakhs 
a  line  69  miles  long,  passing  from  Jetalsar  through  the  capital  to 
the  port  of  Veraval.  The  Wadhwan-Morvi  Railway  was  opened  in 
1887  and  the  extension  to  Rajkot  completed  in  1889.  The  Jetalsar- 
Rajkot  Railway  was  opened  in  1S93. 

The  total  length  of  railways  in  Kathiawar  in  1904  was  577-09  miles, 
of  different  gauges,  namely  :  — 

Bhavnagar-Goridal-Junagarh-1'oi bandar  Railway 
Jetalsar-Rajkot  Railway  .... 

Jamnagar  Railway 
Dhrangadhra  Railway 


Rajputana-Malwa  Railway 
Morvi  (metre-gauge)  Railway . 
Morvi  (2  feet  6  inches)  Railway 


334-  J9 
46*21 
54.22 
20-83 
32.00 
73-94 
15-7° 
Total     577-09 


The  conversion  to  the  metre  gauge  from  the  standard  gauge  of  the 
section  between  Viramgam  to  Wadhwan  since  December,  1902,  has 
given  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  access  to  Wadhwan  junction,  and 
Kathiawar  thus  possesses  through  connexion  with  the  whole  of  Upper 


ADMINISTRATION  181 

India.  The  gross  earnings  of  the  (i)  Bhavnagar-Gondal-Junagarh- 
Porbandar,  (2)  Jetalsar-Rajkot,  (3)  Jamnagar,  and  (4)  Dhran- 
gadhra  railways  in  1904  amounted  to  22-3  lakhs,  and  the  working 
expenses  to  10-5  lakhs.  The  gross  earnings  of  the  Morvi  Railway 
amounted  to  nearly  3-5  lakhs,  and  the  working  expenses  to  i-6  lakhs, 
representing  a  return  of  7-71  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost. 

Besides  248  British  post  offices,  private  internal  postal  arrange- 
ments are  made  by  the  State  of  Junagarh.  People  from  villages  where 
there  is  no  British  post  office  or  postal  box  send  their  letters 
through  the  State  post,  and  are  required  to  affix  stamps  issued  by 
the  State. 

The  first  famine  of  which  records  are  available  occurred  in  1559. 

Since  then  the  most  notable  famines  have  occurred  in  1632,  in  17 19, 

in    1 7 32,  in    1747,   and   in   1791.      The  famine   of  _ 

o  j     -j  j        t        o  Famine. 

1077-9  was  severe  and  widespread.      In   1899- 1902 

the  peninsula  again  suffered  severely  from  famine.  Relief  measures 
were  commenced  in  October,  1899,  and  closed  in  October,  1902. 
The  highest  number  in  receipt  of  relief  exceeded  300,000  in  May, 
1900.  More  than  15  lakhs  were  spent  on  relief.  The  States  con- 
tracted loans,  partly  from  Government  (65  lakhs)  and  partly  in  the 
open  -market  (41  lakhs),  amounting  to  106  lakhs  to  meet  the  cost 
of  this  famine.  Of  this  sum  36  lakhs  was  borrowed  by  Bhaunagar, 
16  lakhs  by  Navanagar,  and  7^  lakhs  by  Dhrangadhra.  The  mortality 
was  heavy,  the  Agency  losing  15-37  per  cent,  of  its  population  from  this 
and  other  causes. 

The  year  1 814-5  was  called  the  'rat  year,'  from  the  famine 
produced  by  the  ravages  of  these  animals.  Captain  Le  Grand  Jacob 
remarked  of  this  pest : — - 

'They  appear  suddenly  in  dense  masses  past  all  counting,  as  it 
springing  from  the  earth,  about  the  harvest  season.  Nothing  can 
stop  them  .  .  .  fires,  ditches,  have  been  tried  in  vain  ;  they  move 
along,  a  mighty  host,  eating  up  all  that  comes  in  their  way.  All 
at  once  they  vanish  as  if  by  magic,  and  for  years  not  one  is  to  be 
seen;  they  are  about  double  the  size  of  a  common  rat,  and  are  of 
a  reddish  sandy  colour.' 

A  similar  swarm  took  place  after  the  recent  famine. 

Since  1822  political  authority  in  Kathiawar  has  been  vested  in  the 
Political    Agent    subordinate    to    the    Government    of    Bombay.       In 
1903    the    designations    of  the  Political  Agent  and    Administration- 
his  Assistants   were  changed  to  those   of  Agent  to 
the  Governor  and  Political  Agents  of  the  prints. 

Before  1863,  except  for  the  criminal  court  of  the  Agent  to  the 
Governor,  established  in  1S31,  to  aid  the  Darbars  of  the  several 
States   in  the   trial  of  heinous    crimes,  interference  with  the   judicial 


182  KATHIAWAR 

administration  of  the  territories  was  diplomatic,  not  magisterial  ;  and 
the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  first  and  second-class  chiefs  alone 
was  defined.  In  1863,  however,  the  country  underwent  an  important 
change.  The  jurisdiction  of  all  the  chiefs  was  classified  and  denned  : 
that  of  chiefs  of  the  first  and  second  classes  was  made  plenary  ;  that  of 
lesser  chiefs  was  graded  in  a  diminishing  scale.  Four  Political  Agents 
of  the  prants,  resident  in  the  four  divisions  of  Kathiawar,  now  exer- 
cise residuary  jurisdiction  with  large  civil  and  criminal  powers.  Each 
Political  Agent  of  a  prdnt  has  a  deputy  who  resides  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  prant  or  division,  and  exercises  subordinate  civil  and 
criminal  powers.  Serious  criminal  cases  are  committed  by  the  deputies 
to  the  court  of  the  Agent  to  the  Governor,  to  whom  also  civil  and 
criminal  appeals  lie.  The  Agent  to  the  Governor  is  aided  in  this 
work  by  an  officer  known  as  the  Political  Agent  and  Judicial  Assistant, 
who  is  usually  a  member  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service.  Appeals  from 
his  decisions  lie  direct  to  the  Governor  of  Bombay  in  Council  in 
his  executive  capacity.  An  officer  styled  the  Superintendent  of 
Managed  Estates,  who  is  ex  officio  an  Assistant  Political  Agent,  and 
two  Deputy-Assistants  also  help  the  Agent. 

In  each  division  are  several  subdivisional  thanaddrs,  holding  petty 
magisterial  powers  over  a  circle  of  villages  contiguous  to  their  stations 
or  thdnas.  These  thanaddrs  administer  146  tdlukas  out  of  the  193 
territorial  divisions  of  Kathiawar  ;  they  possess  certain  powers  of  general 
administration  as  well  as  judicial  authority.  But  as  the  larger  prin- 
cipalities occupy  more  than  15,000  square  miles  of  the  total  area  of 
20,882  square  miles,  the  Agency  through  its  Assistants,  Deputy- 
Assistants,  and  thanaddrs  cannot  be  called  upon  to  administer  more 
than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  area.  There  are  12  thdnas  in  the  penin- 
sula. The  tdlukddrs  are  poor,  ignorant,  and  in  debt,  and  have  only  the 
semblance  of  authority.  \xAex-tdlukddr  relations  are  characterized  by 
petty  squabbles,  small  jealousies,  and  endless  subdivision  of  estates. 

The  law  administered  by  the  darbdri  tribunals  of  the  State  is  the 
customary  law :  namely,  the  Hindu  and  Muhammadan  religious  law 
as  modified  by  local  or  tribal  usage.  The  larger  States  have  procedure 
and  penal  codes  based  on  those  in  use  in  British  India.  To  meet 
a  particular  class  of  land  disputes,  however,  a  special  court  was  estab- 
lished in  1873.  This  was  the  Rajasthanik  Court,  constituted  with  the 
assent  and  at  the  cost  of  the  chiefs.  It  decided,  under  the  presidency 
of  a  British  officer,  all  disputes  as  to  girds  or  hereditary  estates,  between 
the  chiefs  and  the  bhdydds  and  mulgirdsias,  who  are  for  the  most  part 
the  kinsmen  of  the  chiefs  or  the  descendants  of  earlier  holders  who 
have  been  deprived  of  their  estates.  It  surveyed  and  mapped  out  the 
girdsia's  estate,  fixed  his  miscellaneous  dues,  and  defined  his  relation 
to  his  chief  by  laying  down  the  extent  of  his  obligations.     The  court 


ADMTXIR  TR.  1 TION  1 83 

was  originally  established  for  three  years ;  but  it  was  continued  for 
a  succession  of  short  periods,  and  was  eventually  abolished  on  April  1, 
1899.  Since  its  establishment  the  peace  of  Kathiawar  has  seldom 
been  broken  by  the  more  unruly  members  of  the  chiefs'  families  ;  but 
a  real  or  fancied  grievance  may  still  produce  a  body  of  outlaws ;  and  as 
recently  as  1892  a  band  of  these  baharwattias  was  not  captured  until 
they  had  caused  the  death  of  the  British  officer  in  charge  of  the  pur- 
suing troops.  At  the  present  time  disputes  between  the  first  four 
classes  of  chiefs  are  usually  referred  to  the  State  courts,  and  are  dealt 
with  by  the  Agent  to  the  Governor  in  appeal.  Similar  disputes  between 
the  talukdars  of  other  classes  are  decided  by  the  Judicial  Assistant, 
subject  to  the  control  of  the  Agent  to  the  Governor,  according  to  rules 
published  in  1898. 

As  each  tribe  of  Rajputs  invaded  the  peninsula,  its  chiefs  bestowed 
on  their  relations  portions  of  the  land  they  had  won.  This  share  was 
named  kapal  girds,  and  passed  to  the  descendants  of  the  original  grantees. 
The  more  enterprising  girasias  continued  to  acquire  fresh  lands  from 
their  neighbours,  until  they  found  themselves  sufficiently  strong  to  set 
up  as  independent  rulers.  Others,  less  enterprising,  surrendered  the 
greater  portion  of  the  land  to  a  neighbouring  chief  in  return  for  pro- 
tection, and  fell  into  the  position  of  mnlgirdsias  or  'original  sharers.' 
When  a  girdsia  succeeded  in  gaining  his  independence  he  became 
a  tdh/kddr,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Thakur,  Raval,  Rana,  or  Raja. 
As  he  rose  in  the  social  scale,  the  landed  proprietor  became  anxious 
to  leave  his  possessions  intact  to  his  eldest  son ;  at  the  same  time  the 
custom  of  the  country  compelled  him  to  set  aside  a  portion  of  his 
estates  for  each  of  his  younger  sons,  and  these  in  turn  became  girasias 
owing  submission  to  the  head  of  the  family,  but  otherwise  independent. 
Thus  in  Kathiawar  landed  property  has  been  minutely  subdivided,  and 
the  process  still  continues,  so  that  some  estates  not  larger  than  a  single 
village  have  upwards  of  a  hundred  shareholders.  As  a  rule,  the  revenue 
control  of  these  estates  has  been  left  to  the  shareholders,  except  during 
minority,  &c.  In  addition  to  the  landed  estates  held  by  talukdars  and 
girasias,  many  villages  or  portions  of  villages  are  held  hereditarily  as 
religious  and  service  grants.  Another  large  class  of  proprietors  are 
jivaiddrs,  or  holders  of  estates  as  maintenance  or  on  service  tenure. 
They  have  not  the  position  or  privileges  of  girasias,  and  possess  neither 
civil  nor  criminal  jurisdiction.  Some  of  them  are  life  tenants.  Common 
forms  of  service  tenure  are  lands  held  by  village  headmen,  watchmen, 
or  scavengers,  or  by  tribes  such  as  the  Mers  who  pay  a  hearth-tax  and 
a  plough-tax  for  cultivation,  though  in  some  cases  holding  rent  free. 
The  talukdars  of  Kathiawar  have  absolute  power  over  property  in  their 
private  or  khdlsa  land.  The  landlord's  rent  or  raj  bhdg  is  a  fixed  share 
of  the  produce.     In  practice  this  share  is  supplemented  by  numerous 


i84  KATHTAWAR 

petty  cesses,  some  of  which  are  taken  by  the  proprietor,  while  others 
are  devoted  to  village  expenses. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  considerable  improvements  have  been 
introduced  into  the  revenue  system.  Previously  whole  subdivisions 
were  farmed  to  the  highest  bidders,  who  in  turn  sublet  villages  or 
shares  of  villages.  The  farming  system  has  now  been  almost  com- 
pletely abandoned,  and  a  scientific  revenue  survey  has  been  introduced 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  peninsula. 

In  Kathiawar  the  organization  of  the  village  community  has  still 
considerable  vitality.  The  prevalence  of  a  system  of  revenue  collection 
in  kind  imposes  a  special  demand  on  the  watchfulness  of  the  headman 
and  his  subordinates.  Even  the  smallest  villages  have  their  patel, 
havildar,  and  pctgl,  who,  like  the  priest,  carpenter,  tailor,  and  scavenger, 
are  remunerated  for  their  services  by  payment  in  kind.  Under  recent 
arrangements,  the  village  police  under  the  Agency  thana  circles  are 
paid  in  cash  and  not  in  kind. 

The  table  given  on  pages  165-9  shows  that  in  1903-4  the  total 
revenue  of  the  Agency  was  estimated  at  194  lakhs,  while  the  tribute 
amounted  to  nearly  11  lakhs,  about  7  lakhs  payable  to  the  British, 
2-9  lakhs  to  the  Gaikwar,  and  Rs.  92,400  to  Junagarh,  compared  with 
165A  lakhs  and  11  lakhs  respectively  in  1880.  Of  the  193  States, 
12  pay  no  tribute,  105  are  tributary  to  the  British  Government,  and 
79  to  the  Gaikwar  of  Baroda,  while  134  pay  tribute  also  to  the  Nawab 
of  Junagarh.  As  the  financial  accounts  of  the  States,  except  those 
temporarily  under  management,  are  never  submitted  to  the  Agency, 
the  revenue  entered  in  the  table  above  referred  to  must  be  considered 
only  approximately  correct.  A  large  share  of  the  revenue  is  never 
brought  to  book  in  the  State  accounts,  being  credited  to  the  private 
income  of  the  chief  or  of  the  members  of  his  family.  Villages  are 
assigned  in  maintenance  or  alienated,  and  taxes  are  farmed  and  their 
proceeds  carried  to  some  private  account.  The  greater  part  of  the 
revenue  in  every  State  is  derived  from  the  land,  the  general  rule  being 
to  take  a  fixed  share  of  the  crops,  supplemented  by  cash  cesses,  the 
total  averaging  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  crops.  The  States 
which  possess  a  seaboard  levy  an  export  duty  on  all  field  produce 
leaving  the  State  limits  by  any  land  route,  in  order  to  turn  trade  to 
their  own  ports.  The  maritime  States  not  only  levy  import  and  export 
duties,  but  have  also  a  monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of  salt,  a  branch 
of  revenue  of  increasing  importance.  All  jurisdictional  States  also 
retain  the  monopoly  of  the  sale  of  opium,  and  are  entitled  to  two-thirds 
of  the  value  of  all  smuggled  opium  seized  within  their  territories. 
Other  items  of  revenue  are  house  taxes  levied  on  artisans  and  shop- 
keepers, and  taxes  on  labourers,  shepherds,  &c.  Stamp  duties  and 
fees   are   levied  on  various  judicial  processes.     Under  the  authority 


ADMINISTRATION  185 

of  Government,  an  improvement  cess  of  two  annas  per  acre  has  been 
imposed  on  subordinate  landholders  for  the  last  thirty  years.  There 
is  no  regular  classification  of  land.  Assessment  is  levied  chiefly  in 
kind,  but  it  works  out  at  about  Rs.  2  to  Rs.  2-8  per  acre  for  'dry  crops' 
and  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  6  for  irrigated  crops. 

The  British  rupee  is  current  throughout  the  peninsula.  There  is 
a  local  mint  at  Junagarh,  of  which  the  coins  are  current  in  that  State 
alone.  The  silver  coins  are  koris  and  hatf-ioris,  the  copper  coins  being 
known  as  dhinglas,  dokdas,  and  trambia.  The  Bhaunagar  mint  was 
closed  in  1840  under  an  arrangement  with  the  Bombay  Government. 

Municipal  taxes  are  levied  in  many  of  the  large  towns.  Since  1879 
a  certain  amount  has  been  contributed  by  each  State  and  landed 
proprietor  in  Kathiawar,  and  credited  to  a  general  Local  fund  adminis- 
tered by  the  Agent  to  the  Governor.  All  expenses  connected  with 
the  improvements  of  the  Agency  are  met  from  this  fund,  which  has  an 
income  of  i-8  lakhs,  with  a  balance  in  1904  of  5  lakhs. 

Imperial  service  troops  are  maintained  at  Bhaunagar,  Junagarh,  and 
Jamnagar,  which  each  equip  a  small  force  of  cavalry.  The  British 
troops  at  Rajkot  consisted  in  1905  of  a  regiment  of  Native  infantry. 

There  is  no  general  police  force  in  Kathiawar.  The  chiefs  are  bound 
by  stipulation  to  preserve  order  and  indemnify  losses  through  crime 
committed  in  their  territory.  In  1903-4  the  Agency  police,  which 
is  employed  at  a  cost  of  2-4  lakhs  in  thanas  and  civil  stations, 
numbered  998  men ;  while,  so  far  as  information  can  be  obtained, 
the  several  States  maintained  a  stipendiary  police  force  aggregating 
5,378  men,  at  a  cost  of  7-7  lakhs.  In  that  year  6,114  offences 
were  reported  and  7,479  persons  were  arrested,  of  whom  4,218  were 
convicted  and  2,820  acquitted.  Conviction  is  generally  sought  through 
the  agency  of  an  informer.  The  daily  average  of  prisoners  in  the 
Rajkot  jail  was  103.  At  the  present  time  life  and  property  are  as 
safe  in  Kathiawar  as  in  the  Districts  of  British  India. 

Of  the  total  population,  9-7  per  cent.  (17-7  males  and  1-3  females) 
could  read  and  write  in  1901.  Education  has  made  rapid  strides  of 
late  years.  In  1858  there  were  59  schools  and  1,909  pupils,  increasing 
in  1881  to  599  schools  with  33,000  pupils:  in  1891  the  numbers 
further  rose  to  939  schools  and  59,804  pupils.  In  1903-4  the  number 
of  institutions,  including  224  private  schools,  was  1,200,  attended  by 
80,041  pupils,  of  whom  10,108  were  girls.  These  include  2  Arts 
colleges,  1 1  high  schools  (including  the  Rajkumar  College  and  the 
Gondal  Girasia  School),  42  middle  schools  (including  the  Talukdari 
Girasia  School),  and  2  training  schools.  At  the  Rajkumar  College 
and  the  Girasia  Schools  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  education  are 
enjoyed  by  many  of  the  chiefs  during  their  minority.  The  total 
amount  spent  on  education  in  1903-4,  including  the  amount  spent  on 


1 86  KATHIAWAR 

the  Rajkumar  College  (Rs.  45,000)  and  Girasia  Schools  (Rs.  33,000), 
was  8-3  lakhs,  of  which  Provincial  funds  contributed  0-4  per  cent., 
the  revenue  of  the  States  78-7  per  cent.,  and  other  sources  2-7  per  cent., 
while  1 8-6  per  cent,  was  recovered  as  fees. 

There  are  124  hospitals  and  dispensaries  in  Kathiawar.  The 
patients  treated  at  these  institutions  in  1903-4  numbered  739,000, 
of  whom  15,813  were  in-patients.  Nearly  54,000  persons  were  vac- 
cinated in  the  same  year. 

Kathor. — Town  in  the  Kamrej  taluka,  Navsari  prant,  Baroda  State, 
situated  in  210  i7/N.  and  720  59'  E.,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Tapti 
river,  about  22  miles  from  Navsari  and  10  miles  from  Surat.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  4,407.  The  town  possesses  a  Munsif's  court,  a  dis- 
pensary, vernacular  schools,  an  industrial  school,  and  public  offices. 
The  place  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  Musalmans,  of  whom  there- 
are  no  fewer  than  2,444.  They  are  chiefly  Bohras  of  the  Sunni  persua- 
sion ;  and  being  people  of  great  enterprise  they  repair  in  great  numbers 
to  Mauritius,  China,  Natal,  and  other  distant  places,  where  they  stay  for 
long  periods,  and  return  to  Kathor  after  amassing  sufficient  wealth  to 
enable  them  to  settle  permanently  at  home.  The  principal  articles  of 
trade  in  the  town  are  grain,  printed  calicoes,  and  cotton  cloth. 

Kathiwara. — Thakurat  in  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India. 

Kathoria. — Bhumiat  in  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India. 

Kathrota. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Kathua. — Overgrown  village  in  the  Jasrota  district,  Jammu  pro- 
vince, Kashmir,  situated  in  320  22'  N.  and  750  32'  E.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ravi  and  between  it  and  the  Ujh  river.  Population  (1901), 
5,801.  Kathua  possesses  no  points  of  interest.  The  buildings  are 
mean  and  dilapidated,  and  the  place  has  no  past  and  no  future.  The 
climate  is  unhealthy,  and  the  water-supply  scanty  and  bad. 

Kathumar. — Head-quarters  of  a  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Alwar,  Rajputana,  situated  in  270  19'  N.  and  770  5'  E.,  about 
35  miles  south-east  of  Alwar  city,  and  9  miles  north-east  of  Kherll 
station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway.  The  town  is  said  to  be  800 
years  old  ;  it  possesses  a  fort,  a  post  office,  and  a  vernacular  school. 
The  population  in  1901  was  3,388.  The  tahsll  is  situated  in  the  south- 
east of  the  State,  and  in  1901  contained  78  villages,  with  a  population 
of  41,152,  of  whom  90  per  cent,  were  Hindus.  Under  Mughal  rule  it 
was  attached  to  the  province  of  Agra,  but,  from  its  proximity  to  Jaipur, 
was  generally  held  as  a  fief  by  the  Jaipur  chief.  From  1778  to  1784 
the  Mughals  held  direct  possession,  but  in  the  latter  year  the  Marathas 
overran  and  occupied  it.  Their  oppressions  aroused  the  local  popu- 
lation, who  invoked  the  aid  of  Maharao  Raja  Bakhtawar  Singh  about 
1802.  The  latter  sent  a  strong  force,  which  expelled  the  Marathas  and 
occupied  the  fort  of  Kathumar;   but  in   1803  the  Maratha  troops,  in 


KATMANDU  187 

their  retreat  before  Lord  Lake,  bombarded  the  town  and  fort  and 
expelled  the  Alwar  garrison.  It  was  this  army  which  was  annihilated 
three  days  later  at  Laswari.  Just  before  the  battle  the  tahsil  of 
Kathumar  had  been  granted  to  the  Maharaja  of  Bharatpur ;  but  as  he 
broke  his  engagements  with  the  British,  it  was  resumed  in  1805  and 
ceded  to  Alwar. 

Katiadi. — Village  in  the  Kishorganj  subdivision  of  Mymensingh 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  240  15'  N.  and  go° 
48'  E.  Population  (1901),  1,472.  It  is  one  of  the  most  frequented 
bazars  in  the  south  of  the  District. 

Katihar. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Purnea  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  250  34'  N.  and  870  35'  E.  Population  (1901),  9,761. 
Katihar,  which  was  formerly  known  as  Saifganj,  is  an  important  railway 
junction,  at  which  the  Bengal  and  North- Western  Railway  meets  the 
Bihar  section  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway.  The  latter  is 
continued  to  Maniharl  Ghat  on  the  Ganges,  whence  a  steamer  plies  to 
Sakrigali,  establishing  communication  also  with  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
There  is  a  large  export  of  rice  and  mustard  seed.  The  town  is  the 
head-quarters  of  the  sheep-breeding  trade,  and  rough  blankets  are 
manufactured  by  a  colony  of  Gareris  settled  there. 

Katmandu. — Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Nepal,  situated  towards 
the  western  side  of  the  Nepal  Valley,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Vishnu- 
mati  river,  at  its  junction  with  the  Baghmati ;  approximate  position, 
2 70  42'  N.,  850  iV  E.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  Nepal,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation which  is  roughly  estimated  at  from  70,000  to  80,000.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Newars,  of  whom  about  two-thirds  are  Buddhists. 
Katmandu  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Raja  Giinakamadeva  about 
a.d.  723.  The  earliest  name  by  which  the  city  was  known  was  Manju 
Patan,  after  the  Buddhist  saint  Manjusri.  Tradition  asserts  that  the 
plain  of  Katmandu  was  covered  by  a  great  lake,  till  the  saint  cut  the 
dam  with  his  sword  and  so  released  the  water. 

The  general  shape  of  the  city  is  very  irregular,  and  is  supposed  by 
the  Hindus  to  resemble  the  khara  or  sword  of  the  goddess  Devi,  while 
the  Buddhist  Newars  declare  it  to  have  been  built  after  the  shape  of  the 
sword  of  Manjusri.  Its  modern  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  an 
ancient  building  which  stands  in  the  heart  of  the  city  near  the  royal 
palace,  and  which  is  still  known  as  Katmandu  from  kdf,  'wood'  (of 
which  material  it  is  chiefly  composed),  and  mandi  or  mandon,  'an 
edifice.'  This  building  was  erected  by  Raja  Lachmina  Singh  Mai,  in 
1596,  as  a  house  of  accommodation  for  religious  mendicants.  Prior  to 
the  Gurkha  conquest  of  the  country  in  1769,  Katmandu  was  the  seat 
of  government  of  Newar  kings  who,  with  the  princes  of  the  neighbour- 
ing towns  of  Patan  and  Bhatgaon,  reigned  over  the  Valley  of  Nepal 
and   adjacent   country   (see   Nepal).      Of  the  high  walls,    with  their 

VOL.  XV.  N 


1 88  KATMANDU 

numerous  gateways,  which  once  surrounded  the  city,  considerable 
portions  have  been  demolished  or  have  fallen  into  disrepair. 

The  town  is  a  labyrinth  of  narrow  streets,  most  of  which  are  im- 
passable for  carriage  traffic  and  indescribably  filthy.  The  buildings 
on  cither  side  are  densely  crowded,  and  are  usually  from  two  to  four 
storeys  high.  They  are  made  of  brick,  and  tiled,  and  are  built  in  the 
form  of  hollow  squares,  opening  off  the  streets  by  low  doorways,  the 
central  courtyards  serving  as  receptacles  for  rubbish  of  every  sort.  In 
contrast  to  this  dirt  and  squalor  is  the  wealth  of  wood-carving  which 
ornaments  the  facades  of  the  houses.  Most  of  these  have  projecting 
wooden  windows  or  balconies,  elaborately  carved  in  beautiful  designs. 
The  streets  generally  lead  to  the  tols  or  squares,  of  which  there  are 
many  throughout  the  city.  These  are  open  spaces,  paved,  like  the 
streets,  with  brick  and  stone,  in  which  the  various  markets  are  held. 
The  largest  and  most  important  building  is  the  royal  palace  or  Darbar. 
This  covers  a  considerable  extent  of  ground.  On  the  west  it  faces  an 
open  square  which  contains  many  temples  and  a  monolithic  pillar. 
Opposite  the  north-west  corner  of  the  Darbar  stands  a  large  semi- 
European  building  called  the  Khot,  which  is  famous  as  having  been 
the  scene  of  the  massacre  in  1846  of  almost  all  the  leading  men  of  the 
country,  by  which  Sir  Jang  Bahadur  established  himself  in  power. 
The  Darbar  is  now  used  only  for  ceremonial  purposes,  as  a  residence 
for  various  relations  of  the  king,  and  as  public  offices.  The  king,  the 
Minister,  and  most  of  the  nobles  in  the  country  have  long  since  given 
up  living  within  the  city,  and  have  built  themselves  imposing  palaces 
and  houses  in  European  style  outside  it. 

Katmandu,  though  a  filthy  city,  presents  an  exceedingly  picturesque 
appearance.  This  is,  in  a  great  measure,  due  to  the  Chinese  style  of 
architecture  which  predominates.  Many  of  the  temples  are  like 
pagodas,  of  several  storeys  in  height,  and  profusely  ornamented  with 
carvings,  paintings,  and  gilding.  The  roofs  of  many  of  them  are 
entirely  of  brass,  or  copper  gilt,  and  along  the  eaves  of  the  different 
storeys  are  hung  numerous  little  bells  which  tinkle  in  the  breeze.  At 
some  of  the  doorways,  which  are  often  copper  gilt,  are  placed  a  couple 
of  large  stone  lions  or  griffins,  with  well-curled  manes.  Immediately 
outside  the  city  is  a  fine  parade-ground  nearly  a  mile  in  length, 
surrounded  by  an  avenue  of  trees  and  ornamented  with  modern 
equestrian  statues  of  various  Ministers. 

A  good  water-supply  was  introduced  in  1892,  and  lately  drainage 
works  have  been  started.  There  are  two  hospitals — one  for  women, 
the  other  for  men — a  school,  and  a  free  library. 

A  British  Resident,  with  a  small  staff  and  escort,  is  stationed  at 
Katmandu.  The  Residency  is  situated  about  a  mile  out  of  the  city  on 
the  north  side,  in  what  was  formerly  a  barren  patch  of  ground,  supposed 


KATRA  189 

to  be  haunted  by  demons,  but  now  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  best- 
wooded  parts  of  the  Valley.  Within  the  grounds  is  a  British  post  office 
under  the  control  of  the  Resident. 

Katni.— Railway  junction  in  the  Murwara  tahsil  of  Jubbulpore 
District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  230  50'  N.  and  8o°  24/  E.,  on  the 
East  Indian  Railway,  673  miles  from  Bombay  and  727  from  Calcutta, 
adjoining  the  town  of  Murwara.  It  is  connected  with  Bilaspur  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  system  by  a  link  of  168  miles,  and  with 
Bina  on  the  Midland  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway 
from  Itarsi  to  Agra  by  one  of  163  miles.  These  two  connecting  lines 
may  eventually  form  part  of  the  through  route  from  Calcutta  to 
Karachi. 

Katodia. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Katoi  Tahsil. — Western  tahsil  of  Nagpur  District,  Central  Provinces, 
lying  between  210  2'  and  210  31'  N.  and  780  15'  and  78°  59/  E.,  with 
an  area  of  800  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  162,588, 
compared  with  157,100  in  1891.  The  density  is  200  persons  per 
square  mile.  The  tahsil  contains  five  towns — Katol  (population, 
7,313),  the  head-quarters,  Narkher  (7,726),  Kelod  (5,141),  Mohpa 
(5,336),  and  Mowar  (4,799) — and  356  inhabited  villages.  Excluding 
56  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  77  per  cent,  of  the  available 
area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was 
540  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was 
Rs.  2,57,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  22,000.  The  tahsil  contains  tracts  of 
very  fertile  land  in  the  valleys  of  the  Wardha  and  Jam  rivers,  and  some 
hilly  and  stony  country  to  the  south.  It  is  one  of  the  great  cotton- 
growing  areas  of   the  Province. 

Katol  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name, 
Nagpur  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  210  17'  N.  and  7  8°  36'  E., 
on  the  Jam  river,  36  miles  west  of  Nagpur  city  by  road.  Population 
(1901),  7,313.  The  suburb  of  Budhwara  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river  has  recently  been  included  in  its  limits.  Within  the  town  are 
the  ruins  of  an  old  fort,  and  a  curious  temple  of  very  early  date  built 
entirely  of  layers  of  sandstone  with  many  grotesque  carvings.  Katol  is 
not  a  municipality,  but  a  town  fund  is  raised  for  sanitary  purposes.  It 
is  one  of  the  important  cotton  markets  of  the  Province,  and  contains 
4  ginning  factories  with  160  gins  and  3  cotton-presses,  having  a 
total  capital  of  about  5  lakhs.  The  mangoes  grown  locally  have  some 
reputation.     Katol  has  an  English  middle  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Katosan. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Katra  (or  Miranpur  Katra). — -Town  in  the  Tilhar  tahsil  of  Shah- 
jahanpur  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  280  2'  N.  and  790  40'  E., 
on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,209. 
The  town  generally  is  built  of  mud,  and  contains  a  police  station,  a 

N   2 


190 


KA  TRA 


dispensary,  and  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist  Mission.  Between 
this  place  and  Fatehganj  East  in  Bareilly  District  was  fought  the  battle 
in  which  the  united  British  and  Oudh  forces  defeated  the  Rohillas  under 
Rahmat  Khan,  and  effected  the  annexation  of  Rohilkhand  to  Oudh. 
Ratra  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about 
Rs.  1,500.  There  is  a  considerable  export  of  local  produce  by  railway. 
The  middle  school  has  128  pupils. 

Katumbar.  —  Tahsil  and  head-quarters  thereof  in  Alwar  State, 
Rajputana.     See  Kathumar. 

Katwa  Subdivision. — North-eastern  subdivision  of  Burdwan  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  lying  between  230  26'  and  230  50'  N.  and  870  44'  and 
88°  17'  E.,  with  an  area  of  404  square  miles.  The  subdivision  is  a  flat 
alluvial  tract,  and  in  the  east,  along  the  banks  of  the  Bhagirathi,  the 
soil  is  waterlogged  and  swampy.  The  population  in  1901  was  248,806, 
compared  with  230,227  in  1891,  the  density  being  616  persons  per 
square  mile.  It  contains  two  towns,  Katwa  (population,  7,920),  its 
head-quarters,  and  Daixhat  (5,618) ;  and  465  villages.  Large  annual 
fairs  are  held  at  Agradwlp  and  Dadia.  The  manufacture  of  tasar  silk 
is  an  important  industry. 

Katwa  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name 
in  Burdwan  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  230  39'  N.  and  88°  8'  E.,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Bhagirathi  and  Ajav  rivers.  Population  (1901), 
7,220.  Katwa  was  at  one  time  considered  the  key  to  Murshidabad 
when  that  town  was  the  capital  of  Bengal,  and  an  old  fort  here  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Marathas  by  AH  Yard!  Khan.  It  is 
held  sacred  by  the  Vaishnavas,  as  having  been  the  place  where  their 
apostle  Chaitanya  entered  upon  the  life  of  an  ascetic.  Steamers  used 
to  visit  it  the  year  round,  but  owing  to  the  silting  up  of  the  Bhagirathi 
and  the  opening  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  its  commercial  importance 
has  greatly  declined  ;  it  is  now  proposed  to  construct  a  branch  railway 
from  Hooghly.  Katwa  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1869.  The 
income  during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  7,800,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  7,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10.200, 
half  of  which  was  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and 
the  expenditure  was  Rs.  8,300.  The  town  contains  the  usual  public 
offices  ;  the  subsidiary  jail  has  accommodation  for  24  prisoners. 

Kauriala  (also  called  Karnali). — River  of  Northern  India,  rising  in 
Tibet,  not  far  from  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Sutlej,  in  300  40'  N.  and 
8o°  48'  E.  After  leaving  Tibet  by  the  Takla  Khar  or  Yari  pass,  it 
flows  through  Nepal,  generally  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  till  it 
emerges  from  the  lower  range  of  the  Himalayas  through  a  deep  pictur- 
esque gorge  known  as  Shlsha  PanI  ('glass  water').  The  stream  here 
is  about  300  yards  broad  and  of  great  depth,  with  a  slow  current,  closely 
shut  in   by  precipitous  cliffs   2,500  feet  high.    A  little  below  Shlsha 


KAVERI  191 

Pani  the  channel  widens,  with  a  steeper  and  rockier  descent,  causing 
magnificent  rapids  nearly  half  a  mile  broad.  Lower  down  the  river 
divides  into  two,  the  western  branch  retaining  the  name  of  Kauriala  or 
Karnali,  the  eastern  being  called  the  Girwa.  Formerly  the  latter  was 
an  insignificant  stream,  but  its  volume  has  gradually  increased  till  it  is 
now  considerably  larger  than  that  of  the  Kauriala.  They  are  both  rapid 
rivers,  with  pebbly  beds  and  fords  which  an  elephant  can  generally  cross 
without  difficulty.  Eighteen  miles  from  its  point  of  exit  from  the  hills 
the  Kauriala  enters  British  territory,  at  the  point  where  it  receives  the 
Mohan,  and  marks  the  boundary  between  the  Oudh  Districts  of  Kheri 
and  Bahraich.  It  now  receives  on  the  east  bank  its  former  offshoot, 
the  Girwa,  and  on  the  west  the  Suhell,  Dahawar,  and  Chauka,  all 
branches  of  the  Sard  a  river.  From  the  point  of  confluence  with  the 
Chauka  the  united  rivers  become  the  Gogra,  which  ultimately  falls 
into  the  Ganges  on  its  left  bank,  a  little  above  Dinapore.  The  Kauriala 
is  navigable  by  large  boats  of  about  17  tons  burden  beyond  the  limits 
of  British  territory.  The  principal  traffic  is  the  export  of  grain,  and  of 
timber,  ginger,  pepper,  ghl,  and  catechu  from  Nepal.  Gold-washing  is 
carried  on  by  a  caste  called,  after  their  occupation,  Sonahis.  The  river 
abounds  in  fish. 

Kavali  Taluk. — Taluk  of  Nellore  District,  Madras,  lying  between 
140  40'  and  150  4'  N.  and  790  36'  and  8o°  f  E.,  and  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Its  area  is  548  square  miles,  about  one- 
third  of  which  is  shrotriem  and  zamindari.  The  population  in  1901 
was  87,015,  compared  with  83,109  in  1891.  It  contains  77  villages, 
besides  the  head-quarters,  Kavali  (population,  8,635).  The  demand 
on  account  of  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  2,41,000.  The  taluk  is  generally  flat,  but  contains  a  few  isolated 
hills,  while  to  the  west  and  north-west  are  extensive  low  jungles,  in  parts 
very  dense.  The  soil  is  poor,  and  large  beds  of  laterite  are  frequently 
met  with.  The  taluk  is  drained  by  the  Upputeru  (an  affluent  of  the 
Manneru),  the  Gundalavagu,  Ubbalivagu,  and  Pillivagu.  There  are 
35  tanks  under  the  charge  of  the  department  of  Public  Works,  and 
31  minor  irrigation  works.  With  a  few  exceptions  these  are  rain-fed, 
and  the  supply  is  therefore  not  very  certain.  Irrigation  from  the 
Sangam  dam  across  the  Penner  has  been  extended  to  two  villages. 
1  Wet '  cultivation  is  most  common  in  the  eastern  portion.  The  con- 
sumption of  rice  has  much  increased  of  late  years.  Along  the  sea-coast 
large  tracts  have  been  planted  with  palmyra  palms  and  casuarina. 

Kavali  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Nellore  District,  Madras,  situated  in  140  55'  N.  and  8o°  E.  Population 
(1901),  8,635.  ^  contains  a  District  Munsifs  court  and  the  usual 
offices. 

Kaveri. — River  of  Southern  India.     See  Cauvery. 


192  KAVERIPAK 

Kaveripak. — Village  in  the  VValajapet  taluk  of  North  Arcot  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  120  54/  N.  and  79°  28'  E.  Population  (1901), 
5,566.  It  is  known  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  victory  gained  by 
Clive  over  Raja  Sahib  and  his  French  allies  in  1752.  It  is  a  flourishing 
place,  lying  to  the  south  of  the  embankment  of  the  large  tank  to  which 
it  gives  its  name.  A  small  fort  formerly  stood  near,  but  this  has  been 
destroyed.  The  tank  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  District,  its  embank- 
ment being  about  4  miles  long.  Upon  this  is  built  a  little  bungalow, 
with  a  view  over  the  water  towards  the  Sholinghur  hills.  Wild  duck 
and  other  water-fowl  are  abundant.  The  tank,  which  is  fed  by  a 
channel  from  the  Palar,  is  rarely  dry,  but  has  much  silted  up  in  the 
course  of  years. 

Kaveripatnam. — Village  in  the  Krishnagiri  taluk  of  Salem  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  120  26'  N.  and  780  13'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ponnaiyar,  7  miles  from  Krishnagiri.  Population  (1901),  4,954. 
The  place  was  regarded  as  of  some  strategical  importance  in  the  Mysore 
Wars,  as  it  commanded  the  entrance  to  Dharmapuri  taluk  and  the 
Carnatic,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  In  1767  the  English  took  it  from 
Haidar  All;  but  the  latter  almost  immediately  recaptured  it,  and  used  it 
as  a  support  in  the  next  campaign  until  his  withdrawal  above  the  Ghats. 
Colonel  Wood  then  took  the  place,  and  in  1790  Colonel  Maxwell  made 
it  his  head-quarters  before  advancing  against  Tipu. 

Kavlapur. — Town  in  the  State  of  Sangli,  Bombay,  situated  in 
1 6°  89'  N.  and  740  72'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,127.  The  town, 
formerly  called  Shingnapur  and  Kavandanyapur,  is  built  on  stony 
undulating  ground,  and  lies  5  miles  north-east  of  Sangli  town,  near 
a  small  stream  which  rises  in  the  Dandoba  hills  and  falls  into  the 
Kistna.  This  stream  supplies  the  town  with  drinking-water,  the  well- 
water  being  brackish  and  unhealthy.  The  town  contains  a  substantial 
schoolhouse,  with  accommodation  for  100  boys,  a  Jain  basti,  a  Muham- 
madan  dargah,  and  fourteen  Hindu  temples,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  that  of  Siddheshwar. 

Kawa.-  South-eastern  township  of  Pegu  District,  Lower  Burma, 
lying  between  160  58'  and  170  26'  N.  and  960  17'  and  960  53'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  514  square  miles.  It  is  a  flat  area  producing  rice,  and  lying 
for  the  most  part  between  the  Pegu  river  and  the  mouth  of  the  Sittang. 
In  1 90 1  it  contained  206  villages,  with  a  population  of  79,057,  its 
inhabitants  in  1891  having  numbered  60,435.  The  head-quarters  are 
at  Kawa  (population,  1,866),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pegu  river,  not  far 
from  Tongyi  railway  station.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  345 
square  miles,  paying  Rs.  6,59,800  land  revenue. 

Kawahi. — River  in  Sylhet  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Khowai. 

Kawardha.  —  Feudatory    State    in    the    Central    Provinces,    lying 


K AWARD  HA  193 

between  210  50'  and  220  3c/  N.  and  8o°  5c/  and  8i°  26'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  798  square  miles.  It  lies  on  the  border  of  the  eastern  range  of 
the  Satpura  Hills,  between  the  Districts  of  Balaghat,  Drug,  Bilaspur, 
and  Mandla.  The  western  half  of  the  State  consists  of  hill  and  forest 
country,  while  to  the  east  is  an  open  plain.  Kawardha  (population, 
4,772),  the  head-quarters,  is  54  miles  from  Tilda  station  on  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  name  is  believed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Kabirdham  or  '  the  seat  of  Kablr,'  and  Kawardha  is  the  official  head- 
quarters of  the  mahcuits  of  the  Kabirpanthl  sect.  At  the  village  of 
Chhapri,  1 1  miles  to  the  west  of  Kawardha,  is  situated  the  fine  old 
temple  of  Bhoram  Deo.  It  is  highly  decorated,  contains  several  in- 
scriptions, and  is  assigned  to  the  eleventh  century.  The  Kawardha 
family  are  Raj  Gonds  and  are  related  to  the  zamlndars  of  Pandaria 
in  Bilaspur,  the  Kawardha  branch  being  the  junior.  In  the  event  of 
failure  of  heirs,  a  younger  son  of  the  Pandaria  zamlndar  succeeds. 
The  estate  was  conferred  for  military  services  by  Raghuji  Bhonsla. 
The  present  chief,  Jadunath  Singh,  succeeded  in  1891  at  the  age  of 
six  years.  He  is  being  educated  at  the  Rajkumar  College,  Raipur,  and 
during  his  minority  the  State  is  administered  through  the  Political 
Agent  for  the  Chhattisgarh  Feudatory  States.  The  State  contains  346 
inhabited  villages,  and  the  population  in  1901  was  57,474.  It  decreased 
by  37  per  cent,  in  the  preceding  decade,  during  which  Kawardha  was 
severely  affected  by  famine  in  several  years.  The  density  is  72  persons 
per  square  mile.  Gonds,  Chamars,  Kurmis,  and  Telis  are  the  principal 
castes,  and  the  Chhattisgarhl  dialect  of  Hindi  is  universally  spoken. 

In  the  open  country  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  good  black 
soil.  Included  in  Kawardha  are  the  three  subordinate  zamindari 
estates  of  Bona,  Bhonda,  and  Rengakhar,  with  an  estimated  total  area 
of  405  square  miles.  These  have  not  been  surveyed,  and  no  statistics 
for  them  are  available.  Of  the  remaining  area,  which  has  been 
cadastrally  surveyed,  242  square  miles  are  occupied  for  cultivation,  of 
which  222  are  under  crop.  The  cropped  area  has  considerably  de- 
creased in  recent  years  owing  to  the  unfavourable  seasons.  The 
principal  crops  are  kodon,  which  covers  100  square  miles,  wheat  ^^, 
rice  35,  and  cotton  54.  Only  165  acres  are  irrigated,  from  wells.  About 
452  square  miles,  or  more  than  half  the  total  area  of  the  State,  are 
forest.  The  forests  consist  mainly  of  inferior  species,  and  sal  (S/iorea 
robustd)  is  the  principal  timber  tree.  The  State  contains  36  miles  of 
gravelled  and  74  miles  of  embanked  roads,  constructed  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Engineer  of  the  Chhattisgarh  States  division.  The 
principal  routes  are  those  from  Dongargarh  to  Pandaria,  and  from 
Kawardha  to  Simga. 

The  revenue  of  the  State  in  1904  amounted  to  Rs.  1,10,000,  of 
which  Rs.  70,000  was  derived  from  land,  Rs.  13,000  from  forests,  and 


194  KA  WARD  HA 

Rs.  10,000  from  excise.  The  system  of  land  revenue  assessment  is  the 
same  as  in  British  territory,  but  the  headmen  of  villages  have  no  pro- 
prietary rights.  Excluding  the  zamlndari  estates,  which  pay  a  revenue 
of  Rs.  1,630,  the  incidence  of  land  revenue  is  8  annas  9  pies  per  culti- 
vated acre.  The  usual  cesses  are  realized  with  the  land  revenue.  The 
expenditure  in  1904  amounted  to  Rs.  1,12,000,  the  principal  items 
being  Government  tribute  (Rs.  32,000),  allowances  to  the  ruling 
family  (Rs.  13,500),  public  works  (Rs.  9,000),  general  administration 
(Rs.  9,600),  and  police  (Rs.  6,000).  The  tribute  is  liable  to  periodical 
revision.  Since  1893  the  State  has  allotted  Rs.  1,60,000  to  public 
works,  which  has  been  mainly  expended  in  the  construction  of  the 
roads  already  mentioned  and  of  buildings  for  the  State  offices.  The 
expenditure  on  education  in  1904  was  Rs.  2,900,  from  which  12  schools 
with  about  900  pupils  are  maintained.  Only  879  persons  were  returned 
as  literate  in  1901,  the  proportion  of  the  male  population  able 
to  read  and  write  being  3  per  cent.  A  dispensary  has  been  estab- 
lished at  Kawardha,  at  which  15,000  persons  were  treated  in  1904. 
The  relations  of  the  State  with  Government  are  in  charge  of  a 
Political  Agent,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Commissioner,  Chhattls- 
garh  Division. 

Kawkareik  Subdivision. — Subdivision  consisting  of  the  eastern 
half  of  Amherst  District,  Lower  Burma,  with  head-quarters  at  Kaw- 
kareik.    It  contains  two  townships,  Kawkareik  and  Kvaikmaraw. 

Kawkareik  Township. — North-eastern  township  of  Amherst  Dis- 
trict, Lower  Burma  (formerly  known  as  the  Haungtharaw  township), 
lying  between  150  37'  and  170  2'  N.  and  970  59'  and  980  51/  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,963  square  miles,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Haungtharaw, 
and  on  the  east  by  Thaungyin  and  by  Siamese  territory.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  very  hilly  and  very  sparsely  inhabited.  The  population  was 
22,512  in  1891,  and  35,111  in  1901,  distributed  in  r62  villages  and 
one  town,  Kawkareik  (population,  3,919),  the  head-quarters.  The 
area  cultivated  has  more  than  doubled  during  the  past  ten  years.  In 
1903-4  it  reached  an  aggregate  of  50  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  39,300 
land  revenue. 

Kawkareik  Town. —  Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Amherst  District,  Lower  Burma,  situated  in  160  35'  N.  and 
980  14'  E.  The  town  lies  in  the  north-cast  of  the  District,  nearly 
50  miles  due  east  of  Moulmein,  stretching  along  both  banks  of  the 
Kawkareik,  a  stream  which  flows  from  the  western  slopes  of  the  Dawna 
range  into  the  Haungtharaw  river,  and  is  navigable  up  to  Kawkareik 
during  the  rains  by  boats  of  fairly  heavy  burden.  The  town  is  an 
important  trade  centre  on  the  main  caravan  route  between  Moulmein 
and  Siam.  Population  (1901),  3,919.  In  1884-5  Kawkareik  was 
placed  in  charge  of  a  town  committee,  which  was  reconstituted  in  1903. 


KA  YANKULAM  195 

The  income  administered  by  the  town  authorities  was  Rs.  8,700  in 
1903-4,  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  9,000,  devoted  chiefly  to  public 
works.  The  town  possesses  a  civil  hospital,  with  eight  beds,  which  is 
supported  by  the  town  fund. 

Kawlin. — Southernmost  township  of  Katha  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  between  230  30'  and  230  54'  N.  and  950  20'  and  960  E.,  on  either 
side  of  the  Sagaing-Myitkyina  railway,  with  an  area  of  536  square  miles. 
It  was  annexed  in  1891  with  the  rest  of  the  former  YVuntho  State. 
The  population  in  1901  was  28,114  (practically  all  Burmans),  dis- 
tributed in  239  villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Kawlin  (population, 
813)  on  the  railway,  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  exciting  episodes 
in  the  Wuntho  rebellion.  The  surveyed  area  under  cultivation  in 
1903-4  was  70  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda 
amounted  to  Rs.  1,05,400. 

Kayal. — Village  in  the  Srivaikuntam  taluk  of  Tinnevelly  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  8°  40'  N.  and  780  5'  E.,  near  the  sea,  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Tambraparni  river.  It  was  once  a  famous  port, 
and  was  visited  in  1292  by  Marco  Polo,  who  calls  it  'a  great  and  noble 
city,'  and  notices  it  at  length  (Col.  Yule's  translation,  vol.  ii,  p.  305). 
A  similar  glowing  account  of  the  place  is  given  by  two  Persian 
historians  quoted  by  Colonel  Yule.  Kayal  sprang  into  existence  after 
Kolkai,  but  the  silt  of  the  Tambraparni  ruined  both  places  as  ports 
and  has  now  turned  them  into  inland  villages.  Relics  of  the  ancient 
greatness  of  Kayal  are,  however,  still  discoverable  in  the  shape  of 
broken  tiles  and  remnants  of  pottery.  There  are  also  two  old  temples 
with  inscriptions.  An  interesting  and  detailed  account  of  the  place 
will  be  found  in  Bishop  Caldwell's  History  of  Tinnevelly. 

Kayalpatnam. — A  small  port  in  the  Srivaikuntam  taluk  of  Tin- 
nevelly District,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  34'  N.  and  7  8°  8'  E.,  a  few 
miles  to  the  south  of  the  Tambraparni  river  and  18  miles  south  of 
Tuticorin  ;  not  to  be  confounded  with  Kayal.  It  is  a  Union,  with 
a  population  (1901)  of  11,746.  Its  sea-borne  trade,  which  is  chiefly 
in  rice  and  coco-nuts  with  Ceylon  and  in  timber  and  areca-nuts  with 
Travancore,  is  carried  on  by  the  Musalman  tribe  of  Labbais.  There 
is  also  some  trade  in  palmyra-leaf  boxes  and  jaggery  (coarse  sugar), 
and  a  large  salt  factory  is  at  work. 

Kayankulam. — Town  on  the  backwater  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Kartikapalli  taluk  of  Travancore  State,  Madras,  situated  in  y°  11'  N- 
and  76°  30'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,745.  Formerly  capital  of  an 
independent  principality  known  as  Onad,  it  held  an  equal  position  with 
Venad,  or  Travancore.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  an  important 
harbour  where  the  Portuguese  had  a  factory.  The  Onad  Raja,  was  the 
earliest  Malabar  ally  of  the  Dutch.  After  a  protracted  war,  he  sub- 
mitted to  Travancore  in  1746.     In  a.  o.  S29  one  of  the  earliest  Syrian 


196  KAYANKULAM 

Churches  was  founded  here.     The  place  has  a  well-attended  market 
and  a  magistrate's  court. 

Kedarnath. — Famous  temple  and  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Garhwal 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  300  44'  N.  and  790  E.,  imme- 
diately below  the  snow  peak  of  Mahapanth,  at  an  elevation  of 
11,753  feet  above  sea-level.  It  marks  the  spot  where  Sadasiva,  a  form 
of  Siva,  in  his  flight  from  the  Pandavas,  assumed  the  form  of  a  buffalo 
and  attempted  to  dive  into  the  earth  to  escape  his  pursuers,  but  left 
his  hind  quarters  on  the  surface.  A  rock  is  still  worshipped  as  part 
of  the  deity,  and  the  remaining  portions  of  his  body  are  reverenced 
elsewhere  :  at  Tungnath,  Rudranath,  Madhyamaheshwar,  and  Kalpesh- 
war.  Four  miles  from  the  temple  on  the  way  to  the  Mahapanth  peak 
is  a  precipice  known  as  the  Bhairab  Jhamp,  where  devotees  formerly 
committed  suicide  by  flinging  themselves  from  the  summit ;  but  the 
British  Government  suppressed  this  practice  shortly  after  annexation. 
The  Raival  or  chief  priest  of  Kedarnath  is  always  a  Jangama  from 
Mysore  or  some  other  part  of  Southern  India.  Large  numbers  of 
pilgrims  annually  visit  Kedarnath. 

Kedgeree  (Khejri). — Village  in  the  Contai  subdivision  of  Midnapore 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  210  52'  N.  and  87°  59'  E.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Hooghly  river.  Population  (1901),  1,457.  This  was 
formerly  an  important  anchorage,  and  close  by  is  an  old  English 
burial-ground  containing  numerous  graves  of  Europeans  who  died 
on  shipboard  off  the  coast. 

Kehsi  Mansam  (Burmese,  Kyithi  Bansan). — State  in  the  eastern 
division  of  the  Southern  Shan  States,  Burma,  lying  between  210  48'  and 
220  15'  N.  and  97°4o'  and  980  22'  E.,  with  an  area  of  632  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Northern  Shan  States  of  Hslpaw  and 
South  Hsenwi ;  on  the  east  by  Kenglon,  Manglon,  and  Monghsu  ;  on 
the  south  by  Mongnawng  and  Mongkiing ;  and  on  the  west  by  Mong- 
kiing.  In  early  days  Kehsi  Mansam  formed  part  of  North  Hsenwi,  but 
was  made  a  Myozaship  in  i860.  The  State  consists  chiefly  of  open 
rolling  country,  nowhere  rising  to  any  great  height.  Around  the  capital 
and  to  the  east  of  it  are  almost  treeless  downs.  Between  the  Nam 
Pang  and  the  border  of  Manglon  are  two  circles,  undulating  like  the 
rest,  but  covered  with  scrub  jungle.  To  the  north  and  west  the  downs 
become  low  hills,  as  yet  untouched  by  the  taungya  cultivator;  in  the 
valleys  between  these  hills  most  of  the  '  wet '  rice  of  the  State  is  grown. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Nam  Heng,  which  separates  the  State  from 
Hslpaw  and  joins  the  Nam  Pang.  Rice  is  grown  in  both  irrigated 
fields  and  taungyas,  the  other  crops  being  cotton,  tobacco,  and  sesa- 
muni.  Kehsi  Mansam  is,  however,  a  commercial  rather  than  an  agri- 
cultural State.  A  good  deal  of  business  is  clone  with  Tawngpeng  in 
tea  :  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  agricultural  implements  and 


KELOD  197 

bamboo  hats  (the  Burmese  kamauk),  which  are  made  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State.  The  population  in  1901  was  22,062  (distributed  in 
378  villages),  of  whom  about  19,500  were  Shans,  and  about  2,500  Yins 
(Vanglam).  Kehsi  Mansam  (population,  .618),  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State,  on  the  Nam  Heng,  is  a  trading  centre  of  some  importance, 
and  was  once  a  large  town.  The  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  15,000  (mainly  from  thalhamedd) ;  the  chief  items  of  expenditure 
were  Rs.  8,000  tribute  to  the  British  Government,  Rs.  4,000  general 
administration  charges,  Rs.  2,000  privy  purse,  and  Rs.  1,000  public 
works. 

Kekri. — Town  in  Ajmer-Merwara,  Rajputana,  and  the  head-quarters 
of  an  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner,  situated  in  250  25'  N.  and  750 
13'  E.  Population  (1901),  7,053,  including  5,472  Hindus,  1,193 
Muhammadans,  and  364  Jains.  Kekri  was  formerly  a  thriving  com- 
mercial town,  but  has  of  late  years  declined  in  importance.  The 
municipal  income  in  1902-3  was  about  Rs.  14,000.  The  water-supply 
is  scarce  and  bad.  Kekri  possesses  three  hydraulic  cotton-presses 
and  a  ginning  factory. 

Keladi.— Village  in  the  Sagar  taluk  of  Shimoga  District,  Mysore, 
situated  in  140  13'  N.  and  750  i'  E.,  4  miles  north  of  Sagar  town. 
Population  (1901),  1,595.  It  was  the  place  of  origin,  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  of  the  chiefs  who  became  kings  of  the  whole  of 
the  north-west  of  Mysore,  and  of  the  Kanarese  districts  below  the 
Ghats,  and  continued  in  power  till  overthrown  by  Haidar  All  in  1763. 
They  were  at  first  tributary  to  Vijayanagar,  but  assumed  independence 
after  the  fall  of  that  empire.  The  capital  was  first  removed  to  Ikkeri, 
and  eventually  to  Bednur. 

Kelapur  Taluk. — Taluk  of  Yeotmal  District  (formerly  known  as 
Wun),  Berar,  lying  between  190  50'  and  200  29'  N.  and  780  2'  and  780 
51'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,080  square  miles.  The  population  fell  from 
105,926  in  1891  to  103,657  in  1901,  the  density  being  96  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  taluk  contains  310  villages,  but  no  town.  The 
head-quarters  are  at  Pandharkawada  (population,  1,992),  near  the  small 
village  of  Kelapur,  from  which  the  taluk  takes  its  name.  The  taluk 
contains  a  larger  proportion  of  Gonds  than  any  other  in  Berar.  It 
marched  with,  and  probably  at  times  formed  part  of,  the  Gond  kingdom 
of  Chanda.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,35,000, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  8,000.  The  taluk  lies  in  the  Balaghat  or  southern 
plateau  of  Berar,  but  possesses  fertile  tracts  in  the  valleys  of  the  Wardha 
and  Penganga  rivers,  which  bound  it  on  the  north  and  south. 

Kelat-i-Ghilzai. — Fort  in  Kandahar  province,  Afghanistan.  See 
Kalat-i-Ghilzai. 

Kelod.— Town  in  the  Katol  tahsil  of  Nagpur  District,  Central 
Provinces,  situated  in  2ic  27'  N.  and  780  53'  E.,  28  miles  from  Nagpur 


i98  KELOD 

city  on  the  Chhindwara  road.  The  name  is  probably  an  abbrevia- 
tion from  keljhar,  'a  plantain- tree,'  as  plantain  groves  were  formerly 
numerous  here.  Population  (1901),  5,141.  The  town  contains  an  old 
fort.  It  is  not  a  municipality,  but  a  town  fund  is  raised  for  sanitary 
purposes.  A  cotton-ginning  factory  has  recently  been  opened.  The 
chief  local  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  large  brass  water-vessels. 
There  is  a  vernacular  middle  school. 

Kelve-Mahim. — Head-quarters  of  the  Mahim  taluka  of  Thana  Dis- 
trict, Bombay,  situated  in  190  36'  N.  and  720  44'  E.,  about  5^  miles  west 
of  the  Palghar  station  on  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway, 
and  56  miles  north  of  Bombay.  Population  (190 1),  5,699.  The  village 
of  Kelve,  whose  name  is  thus  joined  with  Mahim,  lies  on  the  opposite 
side  of  a  creek  about  2\  miles  to  the  south.  The  coast  is  very  rocky 
near  the  harbour,  and  a  reef  stretches  for  2  miles  from  the  shore.  A 
small  island  fort  lies  opposite  the  village  of  Kelve.  Near  the  two 
creeks  which  form  the  harbours  of  Mahim  and  Kelve  are  two  small 
forts,  forming  links  in  the  chain  built  by  the  Portuguese  along  the  coast 
of  the  taluka.  The  town  is  to  a  large  extent  occupied  by  gardens,  and 
has  a  fair  trade  in  plantains,  sugar-cane,  ginger,  and  betel-leaf.  Delhi 
Musalmans  had  possession  of  Mahim  in  1350;  Gujarat  governors  suc- 
ceeded; in  1532  the  Portuguese  occupied  it;  and  in  1612  it  was 
bravely  held  against  the  Mughals.  The  tomb  of  a  Portuguese  noble- 
man has  been  unearthed  and  its  slab  placed  in  the  Collector's  garden 
at  Thana.  Kelve-Mahim  has  been  a  municipal  town  since  1861. 
During  the  decade  ending  1901  the  income  averaged  Rs.  8,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  7,700.  Kelve  village  was  included  in  the 
Mahim  municipality  in  1890.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  and 
6  schools  for  boys  with  356  pupils  and  one  for  girls  with  51  pupils. 

Kelwara.— Head-quarters  of  the  Kumbhalgarh  pargana  in  the 
State  of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  250  7'  N.  and  730  36'  E.,  in 
the  heart  of  the  Aravalli  Hills,  about  2\  miles  south  of  the  Kumbhal- 
garh fort  and  38  miles  north  of  Udaipur  city.  Population  (1901),  1,204. 
It  was  in  Kelwara  that  Rana  Ajai  Singh  found  refuge  when  his  father, 
Rana  Lakshman  Singh,  and  his  seven  brothers  had  been  killed  defending 
Chitor  against  Ala-ud-din  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Ken  (or  Kayan ;  Skt.  Kamdvati;  the  Kainas  of  Arrian). — River  of 
Bundelkhand.  It  rises  in  the  north-western  slopes  of  the  Kaimur 
Hills  (230  54'  N.,  8o°  io'  E.),  and  flowing  north-east  through  Damoh 
and  Panna  enters  Banda  District  in  the  United  Provinces  near  Bilharka. 
After  a  course  of  more  than  100  miles  along  the  border  of  and  through 
Banda,  it  joins  the  Jumna  near  Chilla,  on  the  road  from  Banda  to 
Fatehpur,  230  miles  from  its  source.  The  river  flows  in  a  deep,  well- 
defined  bed,  and  is  navigable  for  small  boats  as  far  as  Banda  town ;  but 
there  is  not  much  traffic.     At  Banda  the  bed  is  sandy,  but  pebbles  and 


KENGHKAM  199 

fragments  of  quartz  and  other  rocks  are  found  in  it,  which  are  polished 
and  made  into  ornaments.  Above  Banda  the  bed  becomes  more  rocky, 
and  the  scenery  near  KharaunI  is  singularly  beautiful.  A  canal  taking 
off  from  the  river  near  Bariarpur  in  the  Ajaigarh  State  has  recently  been 
completed.  At  present  it  is  designed  to  irrigate  only  a  part  of  Banda 
District :  namely,  the  area  between  the  Ken  and  Baghain,  of  which  it 
will  command  about  half,  or  374,000  acres.  The  reservoir  formed 
in  connexion  with  this  project  will  impound  about  182  million  cubic 
feet  of  water  in  the  valley  of  the  river. 

Kendrapara  Subdivision. — -North-eastern  subdivision  of  Cuttack 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  200  18'  and  200  48'  N.  and  86°  15'  and 
870  i'  E.,  with  an  area  of  977  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  467,081,  compared  with  429,770  in  1891.  The  subdivision  is  a 
deltaic  alluvial  tract,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and 
intersected  by  numerous  rivers  and  streams.  The  strip  along  the  coast 
is  very  sparsely  populated,  but  the  density  rises  towards  the  west,  and 
the  average  for  the  whole  subdivision  is  478  persons  per  square  mile. 
It  contains  one  town,  Kendrapara  (population,  15,245^,  its  head- 
quarters; and  1,338  villages. 

Kendrapara  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Cuttack  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  200  30'  N.  and  86°  25'  E. 
Population  (1901),  15,245.  Its  position  on  the  Kendrapara  Canal  in 
the  heart  of  a  rich  rice-producing  country  gives  it  a  considerable  trade  ; 
and  it  is  connected  by  road  with  Cuttack,  Jajpur,  and  Chandbali.  It 
was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1869.  The  income  and  expenditure 
during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  8,000.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  11,200,  of  which  Rs.  6,700  was  derived  from  a  tax 
on  persons  (or  property  tax);  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,100. 
Besides  the  usual  public  buildings,  Kendrapara  possesses  a  good  school 
and  dispensary,  and  a  public  library  has  lately  been  opened  for  the 
circulation  of  English  and  vernacular  literature.  The  sub-jail  has 
accommodation  for  twelve  prisoners. 

Kenduli. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Blrbhum  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  23°  38'  N.  and  870  26'  E.,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Ajay  river.  Population  (1901),  774.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Jayadeva,  the  author  of  the  celebrated  Glta  Gobinda,  a  Sanskrit  poem 
in  praise  of  Krishna  Chaitanya,  who  was  a  disciple  of  the  Vaishnav 
reformer.  An  annual  fair  in  honour  of  Jayadeva  is  held  in  the  village 
on  the  last  day  of  Pus  (the  middle  of  January),  which  is  attended  by 
50,000  persons. 

Kenery. — Island  near  the  entrance  of  Bombay  harbour,  off  the 
mainland  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay.     See  Khanderi. 

Kenghkam  (Burmese,  Kyaingkan). — Small  State  in  the  eastern 
division  of  the  Southern  Shan  States,  Burma,  lying  between  200  50'  and 


200  KENGHKAM 

2i°  i'  N.  and  980  2c/  and  98°  37'  E.,  with  an  area  of  167  square  miles. 
It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Nam  Pang,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Mongnawng  and  a  detached  portion  of  Mongnai ;  on  the  east  by  a 
detached  portion  of  Mongnawng  and  by  the  Salween  river  ;  and  on  the 
south  and  west  by  Mongnai.  Rice  is  cultivated  in  the  plain  lying  along 
the  western  bank  of  the  river  and  on  the  hills  to  the  west,  but  owing  to 
the  loss  of  population  a  large  number  of  paddy-fields  are  fallow.  The 
population  of  the  State  in  1901  was  5,458,  practically  all  Shans,  distri- 
buted in  52  villages.  The  residence  of  the  Myoza  is  at  Kenghkam 
(population,  1,203),  a  picturesquely  situated  village  on  the  Nam  Pang, 
a  few  miles  north  of  the  point  where  that  stream  flows  into  the  Salween. 
The  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  4,000  (mostly  from  thatha- 
medd),  and  the  tribute  to  the  British  Government  is  Rs.  2,000. 

Kenglon  (Burmese,  Kyainglon). — Small  State  in  the  eastern  division 
of  the  Southern  Shan  States,  Burma,  lying  geographically  within  the 
borders  of  Kehsi  Mansam,  but  abutting  in  the  south-east  on  Monghsu. 
It  is  situated  between  210  51'  and  220  2'  N.  and  980  2'  and  980  13'  E., 
with  an  area  of  43  square  miles.  Kenglon  used  at  one  time  to  form 
part  of  North  Hsenwi.  The  country  is  undulating  on  the  whole,  and 
the  land  is  fertile.  The  main  crop  is  lowland  rice ;  and  the  people, 
who  in  1 90 1  numbered  4,259  (practically  all  Shans),  export  a  good 
deal  of  rice.  The  population  was  distributed  in  69  villages,  of  which 
the  largest  is  Kenglon,  the  residence  of  the  Myoza  (population,  341), 
west  of  a  chain  of  low  hills  towards  the  north  of  the  State.  The 
revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  4,000,  and  the  tribute  to  the  British 
Government  is  Rs.  1,500. 

Kengtung  (Burmese,  Kvai/igton). — A  division  of  the  Southern  Shan 
States,  Burma,  and  a  State  under  a  Sawbwa,  residing  at  the  capital, 
Kengtung.  It  is  the  largest  Native  State  in  Burma,  having  an  area 
of  about  12,000  square  miles,  and  is  situated  between  200  4'  and 
220  10'  N.  and  98°  28'  and  1010  9'  E.,  lying,  with  the  exception  of 
a  small  area  between  the  mouth  of  the  Nam  Hka  river  and  the  Takaw 
ferry,  entirely  east  of  the  Salween.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the 
newly  drawn  Chinese  frontier ;  on  the  east  by  China ;  on  the  south  by 
the  French  Lao  territory  and  Siam  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Southern 
Shan  States  of  Mongpan,  Mongnai,  and  Mongnawng,  and  the  Northern 
Shan  State  of  Manglon,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Nam 
Hka  river.  It  includes  the  dependencies  of  Hsenyawt,  Hsenmawng, 
Monghsat,  Mongpu,  and  Western  Kengcheng.  A  good  deal  of  the 
early  history  of  Kengtung  is  purely  legendary.  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  the  State  has  suffered  much  in  the  past  at  the  hands  of  the 
Siamese  and  the  Chinese,  both  of  whom  invaded  it  several  times  be- 
tween the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
Century.     Some  of  the  main  features  of  the  history  of  Kengtung  since 


KENGTUNG    TOWN  20 t 

the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma  are  given  in  the  article  on  the 
Southern  Shan  States.  The  country  is  broken  and  mountainous, 
the  hill  ranges  having  a  general  north  and  south  tendency  ;  about 
two-thirds  of  it  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Mekong,  and  about  one-third 
in  the  basin  of  the  Sahveen,  the  watershed  being  a  hill  range  varying 
from  5,000  to  7,000  feet  in  height.  The  climate  in  the  valleys  is 
extremely  enervating  during  the  rains  ;  dense  fogs  prevail  in  the  cold 
season,  and  the  valleys  are  much  hotter  than  their  altitude  would  lead 
one  to  expect,  while  the  daily  range  of  temperature  is  large.  Rice 
is  the  staple,  but  fruit  of  all  kinds  is  cultivated  in  the  gardens,  while 
on  the  uplands  cotton  is  the  main  crop.  On  the  highest  hills  poppy  is 
grown  in  addition  to  taungya  rice  and  sesamum,  and  tea  is  cultivated 
for  local  consumption.  There  are  rich  forests,  the  revenue  from  which 
amounted  in  1904  to  Rs.  34,000.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1901 
was  190,698,  of  whom  139,735  were  returned  as  Buddhists  and  50,039 
as  Animists.  The  people  are  Shans  (Hkiin  and  Lii),  or  belong  to 
a  variety  of  hill  tribes,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Kaws  or 
Akhas,  the  Muhsos,  and  the  Was  (Tai  Loi,  Sec).  Divided  by- 
languages,  57,058  persons  spoke  Shan,  42,160  Hkiin  (the  language 
of  the  Kengtung  valley),  27,652  Akha,  19,380  Lii  (the  language  of  the 
valley  between  Kengtung  and  the  Mekong),  and  44>448  other  ver- 
naculars, such  as  Palaung,  Kachin,  and  Lisaw.  The  population  in 
1901  was  distributed  in  2,338  villages,  the  only  urban  area  of  any 
size  being  the  capital,  Kengtung  (population,  5,695).  The  revenue, 
chiefly  from  tkathameda,  amounted  in  1903-4  to  i-i  lakhs.  The 
expenditure  included  Rs.  30,000  paid  as  tribute  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment, Rs.  24,000  spent  on  miscellaneous  administrative  charges,  Rs. 
33,500  devoted  to  the  salaries  of  officials,  Rs.  18,000  to  the  privy- 
purse,  and  Rs.  4,350  to  public  works. 

Kengtung  Town. — Capital  of  Kengtung  State  in  the  Southern 
Shan  States,  Burma,  situated  in  210  18'  N.  and  990  45'  E.,  towards 
the  southern  end  of  the  central  valley  of  the  State.  The  town,  which 
lies  on  low,  undulating  ground,  was  built  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  in  1901  had  a  population  of  5,695.  It  is  a  straggling 
area,  containing  a  few  brick  buildings  and  the  Sawbwa's  haw  or  palace 
of  timber  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall.  Kengtung  has  till  recently  been 
the  head-quarters  of  an  Assistant  Superintendent.  It  was  a  post  of 
importance  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was  fortified  strongly  by 
Alaungpaya  with  a  thick  wall  and  a  moat.  It  is  still  an  important 
trading  centre.  The  present  station  of  Kengtung  is  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  away,  and  contains  the  quarters  of  the  police.  The  cantonment 
is  about  7  miles  west  of  the  town.  The  place  is  very  unhealthy,  and 
a  site  for  a  new  station  has  been  found  on  a  spur  (Loi  Mwe)  at  an 
altitude  of  5,500  feet,  12  miles  south-east  of  Kengtung  town.     There  is 


202  KENGTUNG    TOWN 

room  here  for  both  the  civil  station  and  the  cantonment,  and  a  good 
supply  of  drinking-water  is  obtainable.  The  garrison  of  Kengtung  has 
recently  been  replaced  by  military  police. 

Keonjhar  State. — One  of  the  Tributary  States  of  Orissa,  Bengal, 
lying  between  210  1'  and  220  io'  N.  and  850  n/  and  86°  22'  E.  It  is 
the  second  largest  of  the  Orissa  States,  having  an  area  of  3,096  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Singhbhum  District ;  on  the 
east  by  the  State  of  Mayurbhanj  and  Balasore  District ;  on  the  south 
by  Cuttack  District  and  the  State  of  Dhenkanal ;  and  on  the  west  by 
the  States  of  Pal  Lahara  and  Bonai.  Keonjhar  is  divided  into  two 
widely  dissimilar  tracts,  Lower  Keonjhar  being  a  region  of  valleys  and 
lowlands,  while  Upper  Keonjhar  includes  the  mountainous  highlands. 
The  latter  consist  of  great  clusters  of  rugged  crags,  which  in  troublous 
times  afforded  a  safe  retreat  to  its  inhabitants.  The  mountain-tops 
appear  from  the  lowlands  to  be  sharply  ridged  or  peaked,  but  in  reality 
they  have  extensive  table-lands  on  their  summits,  fit  both  for  pasture 
and  for  tillage.  The  BaitaranI  river  takes  its  rise  in  the  hilly  north- 
western division.  The  principal  peaks  are  Gandhamadan  (3,479  feet), 
Thakurani  (3,003  feet),  Tomak  (2,577  feet),  and  Bolat  (1,818  feet). 

Keonjhar  originally  formed  part  of  Mayurbhanj,  but  about  200 
years  ago  the  local  tribes  thr^v  off  their  allegiance  to  that  State  and 
chose  a  brother  of  the  Raja  as  their  king.  Since  that  time  thirty-six 
chiefs  have  ruled.  The  late  chief  rendered  good  service  during  the 
Mutiny  of  1857,  in  recognition  of  which  his  tribute  was  reduced  and  he 
was  made  a  Maharaja.  He  died  in  1861  without  legitimate  issue;  and 
on  Government  nominating  his  natural  son,  the  present  chief,  to  the 
gaddi,  a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  succession,  culminating  in  an  insur- 
rection of  the  Bhuiya  and  Juang  tribes,  which  was  suppressed  only 
with  the  aid  of  British  troops.  The  hill  tribes  again  rebelled  in  1891 
as  a  protest  against  the  oppressions  of  the  minister,  and  the  aid  of 
British  troops  had  again  to  be  invoked  before  the  rising  could  be 
put  down.  The  State  has  an  estimated  revenue  of  3  lakhs,  and  pays 
a  tribute  of  Rs.  1,710  to  the  British  Government.  The  population 
increased  from  248,101  in  1891  to  285,758  in  1901,  but  is  still  very 
sparse,  the  density  in  the  latter  year  being  only  92  persons  per  square 
mile.  There  is  one  town,  Keonjhar  (4,532),  and  1,937  villages,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  Anandpur,  situated  on  the  BaitaranI  river. 
Of  the  total  population,  246,585  are  Hindus  and  38,567  Animists,  the 
most  numerous  castes  being  Pans  (31,000),  Khandaits  (29,000),  Gaurs 
(28,000),  Hos  (24,000),  Bhuiyas  (20,000),  Kurmls  (17,000),  Gonds 
(16,000),  Bathudis  (13,000),  and  Khonds  (12,000).  The  old  Midna- 
pore-Sambalpur  road  runs  through  Keonjhar  town,  and  a  few  metalled 
roads  have  been  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  head-quarters. 
A  new  and  important  fair-weather  road  has  lately  been  completed, 


KERUR  203 

connecting  Keonjhar  town  with  Bhadrakh  station  in  Balasore  on  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  (84  miles)  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
with  Jaintgarh  on  the  borders  of  Singhbhum  District  (36  miles). 
For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  divided  into  subdivisions : 
namely,  the  head-quarters,  Anandpur  or  Lower  Keonjhar,  and  Cham- 
peswar  or  Nuagarh.  The  State  maintains  3  charitable  dispensaries, 
2  middle  English,  7  upper  primary,  and  84  lower  primary  schools. 

Keonjhar  Town  (or  Nijgarh).  —  Head-quarters  of  the  Orissa 
Tributary  State  of  the  same  name,  Bengal,  situated  in  210  38'  N. 
and    850   36'   E.,   on    the    Midnapore-Sambalpur    road.      Population 

(i9°0>  4,532- 

Keonthal  {Kiunthal). — One  of  the  Simla  Hill  States,  Punjab,  lying 
between  300  55'  and  310  13'  N.  and  770  10'  and  770  25'  E.  The  main 
block  of  territory  adjoins  Simla  station.  It  has  an  area  of  116  square 
miles,  divided  into  22  villages,  and  the  population  in  1901  was  22,499. 
The  revenue  in  1903  was  estimated  at  Rs.  66,000.  The  principal 
products  are  grain  and  opium.  The  present  Raja  is  Bijai  Sen,  a  Rajput 
by  caste,  who  succeeded  his  father  Balblr  Sen  in  1901.  The  chief 
of  Keonthal  was  formerly  styled  Rana,  but  was  raised  by  the  British 
Government  to  the  higher  rank  of  Raja  in  1857.  After  the  Gurkha 
War  a  portion  of  the  territory  of  Keonthal,  which  had  been  occupied 
by  the  Gurkhas,  was  sold  to  the  Maharaja  of  Patiala.  In  consideration 
of  this,  no  tribute  is  paid  by  the  Keonthal  Raja  for  the  remainder 
of  his  State,  which  was  restored  to  him  by  sanad  in  1815,  on  the 
expulsion  of  the  Gurkhas  from  the  country.  The  Raja  holds  another 
sanad,  dated  September,  181 5,  conferring  on  the  Keonthal  chief  and 
his  heirs  for  ever  paramount  authority  over  the  petty  states  of  Theog, 
Koti,  Ghund,  and  Madhan,  the  chiefs  of  which,  with  their  descendants, 
are  bound  to  regard  the  chief  of  Keonthal  as  their  liege,  and  to  pay 
him  tribute.  Ratesh  also  is  a  fief  of  Keonthal.  A  third  sanad  was 
granted  to  the  Raja,  conferring  Punnar  on  him  and  his  heirs.  It  is 
dated  1823,  though  the  transfer  was  authorized  in  1S16.  The  reasons 
given  for  this  measure  were  the  isolated  position  of  Punnar,  the 
turbulent  character  of  its  inhabitants,  the  indisposition  of  Government 
to  extend  its  territories  in  the  hills,  and  a  desire  to  benefit  Keonthal. 

Kerakat. —  Tahsil  in  Jaunpur  District,  United  Provinces.  See 
Kirakat. 

Kerala. — Ancient  kingdom  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Madras 
Presidency.     See  Chera. 

Kerowlee. — State  and  capital  thereof  in  Rajputana.     See  Karauli. 

Kerur. — Village  in  the  Badami  tdli/ka  of  Bijapur  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  160  i'  N.  and  75°  33'  E.,  n  miles  north-west  of  Badami. 
Population  (1901),  5,353.  This  is  a  fortified  place  on  the  Sholapur- 
Hubli  road.     The  fort  stands  on  a  gentle  slope  about  300  yards  south- 

vol.  xv.  o 


204  RERUR 

west  of  the  village.  As  the  village  increased,  a  new  market  was  built 
to  the  east  of  the  fort,  and  a  colony  of  weavers  established  themselves 
in  a  market  to  the  south,  where  they  formerly  carried  on  a  flourishing 
trade.  The  village  and  fort  contain  several  temples  and  a  large 
reservoir. 

Kesabpur. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Jessore 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  2 2°  55'  N.  and  890  13'  E.,  on  the  Harihar 
river,  about  18  miles  south  of  Jessore  town.  It  is  a  large  centre  of  the 
sugar  trade.  An  import  trade  in  rice  is  carried  on,  and  large  quantities 
of  earthen  pots  and  vessels  are  manufactured  in  connexion  with  the 
sugar  industry.     Another  local  manufacture  is  brass-work. 

Kesariya. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Champaran 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  2 6°  21'  N.  and  84°  53'  E.  Population 
(1901),  4,466.  Kesariya  contains  a  lofty  brick  mound,  1,400  feet  in 
circumference,  supporting  a  solid  tower  or  stupa  of  the  same  material, 
62  feet  high  and  68  feet  in  diameter,  which  was  supposed  by  General 
Cunningham  to  have  been  erected  to  commemorate  one  of  the  acts 
of  Buddha.  The  brick  tower  is  said  to  date  from  a.  d.  200-700;  but 
the  mound  is  of  an  earlier  period,  being  associated  with  the  name 
of  Raja  Ben  Chakrabartti,  a  traditional  emperor  of  India. 

Keshorai  Patan. — Head-quarters  of  the  talisil  of  the  same  name 
in  the  State  of  Bundi,  Rajputana,  situated  in  250  17'  N.  and  750  57'  E., 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Chambal,  about  1 2  miles  below  Kotah 
town  and  22  miles  south-east  of  Bundi  town.  Population  (1901),  3,773. 
The  place  claims  a  very  remote  antiquity,  local  historians  affecting  to 
trace  its  traditions  back  to  the  mythological  period  of  the  Mahabharata. 
In  old  days  it  was  a  wild  jungle,  known  as  Jambu  Karan  from  the 
number  of  Jdmun-tvees  (in  Sanskrit  jambu)  and  of  jackals  (in  Sanskrit 
jambuk)  found  there.  The  original  name  of  the  town  was  Rantideo 
Patan,  after  Raja  Rantideo,  chief  of  Maheshwar  and  cousin  of  Raja 
Hasti,  the  founder  of  Hastinapur.  The  oldest  inscriptions  found  are 
in  a  couple  of  sati  temples  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  which  are 
supposed  to  bear  dates  a.d.  35  and  93  ;  it  is  also  stated  that,  long 
before  this  period,  one  Parasram  built  the  Jambu  Margeshwar  or 
Keshwar  temple  sacred  to  Mahadeo.  The  building  gradually  fell  into 
decay  and  was  reconstructed  in  the  time  of  Rao  Raja  Chhatarsal 
(1631-58),  to  whom  also  is  due  the  erection  of  the  larger  temple  of 
Keshorai,  for  which  the  town  is  now  famous,  though  the  foundations 
were  actually  laid  in  the  time  of  his  predecessor.  This  temple  contains 
an  image  of  Keshorai,  a  name  for  Vishnu,  and  attracts  yearly  a  large 
crowd  of  worshippers.  It  possesses  no  marked  architectural  beauties, 
and  has  been  so  incessantly  covered  with  fresh  coats  of  whitewash  that 
it  looks  not  unlike  a  huge  piece  of  fretwork  in  wax  or  sugar  which  the 
heat  or  moisture  has  partially  melted.      The  tahsil  of  Patan,  one  of 


KHACHROD  205 

the  most  fertile  in  the  State,  was  ceded  to  the  Peshwa  in  the  eighteenth 
century  for  assistance  rendered  in  expelling  a  usurper,  and  was  by  him 
transferred,  two-thirds  to  Sindhia  and  one-third  to  Holkar.  Under  the 
treaty  of  18 18  the  portion  held  by  Holkar  was  restored  to  Bundi,  while 
under  the  treaty  of  i860  with  Sindhia  the  sovereignty  of  the  remainder 
of  the  tract  was  transferred  to  the  British  Government,  who  made  it 
over  in  perpetuity  to  Bundi  on  payment  of  Rs.  80,000  a  year. 

Kesria. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Keti  (or  Keti  Bandar). — Port,  town,  and  municipality  in  the  Ghora- 
bari tdluka  of  Karachi  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  240  8'  N. 
and  6  70  30'  E.,  close  to  the  sea,  on  the  Hajamro  branch  of  the  Indus. 
Population  (1901),  2,127.  Keti  is  the  chief  port  in  the  Indus  delta 
for  river  and  sea-going  boats,  and  has  taken  the  place  of  Ghorabari, 
a  little  farther  inland  on  the  same  branch,  which  was  formerly  the 
principal  commercial  town  of  the  surrounding  tract.  In  1848  the 
Hajamro  capriciously  receded,  and  Ghorabari  immediately  dwindled 
into  comparative  insignificance.  The  trade  of  the  deserted  port  then 
betook  itself  to  the  first  Keti,  nearer  the  sea;  but  about  1853  the  place 
was  swept  away  by  a  flood,  and  a  new  site  was  chosen  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. This  second  Keti,  the  existing  town  and  harbour,  now 
about  fifty  years  old,  soon  attracted  the  river  trade,  and  at  present 
ranks  next  to  Karachi  among  the  ports  of  Sind.  Exports  to  the 
Bombay  and  Madras  Presidencies,  to  Sonmiani,  and  Makran,  comprise 
grain,  pulses,  oilseeds,  wool,  cotton,  drugs,  dyes,  saltpetre,  and  firewood. 
Imports,  from  the  same  places  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  include  coco-nuts, 
cotton  piece-goods,  metals,  sugar,  spices,  coir,  and  shells.  The  value 
of  the  sea-borne  trade  of  Keti  in  1903-4  amounted  to  6-8  lakhs: 
exports,  5-3  lakhs;  imports,  1-5  lakhs.  During  the  prevalence  of  the 
south-west  monsoon  trade  remains  at  a  standstill,  vessels  being  unable 
to  make  the  harbour  from  seaward.  In  the  brisk  season,  from  70  to 
90  boats  of  various  sizes  may  be  seen  lining  the  bandar.  Sea-borne 
goods  for  transit  up  the  Indus  must  here  be  transferred  to  river  boats. 
The  town  has  several  times  been  in  danger  of  floods,  but,  owing  to 
its  slightly  elevated  position,  has  hitherto  escaped  the  fate  of  its  pre- 
decessor. It  communicates  by  road  with  Tatta,  60  miles  south-west ; 
with  Mlrpur  Sakro,  36  miles  south-west;  and  with  Ghorabari,  13  miles. 
The  municipality  was  established  in  1854,  and  had  an  average  income 
during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  6,400.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  6,100.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  and  one  school  for 
boys,  with  an  average  daily  attendance  of  88  pupils. 

Keunjhar. — Native  State  and  town  in  Orissa,  Bengal.     See  Keon- 
jhar. 

Khachrod  (Khachraud). — Town  in  the  Ujjain  district  of  Gwalior 
State,  Central  India,  situated  in  230  26'  N.  and   750  20'  E.,  on  the 

o  2 


206  KHACHROD 

Ratlam-Godhra  branch  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India 
Railway,  1,700  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1901),  9,186.  The 
town  is  mentioned  in  the  Aiu-i-Akbarl  as  the  head-quarters  of  a  mahal 
in  the  Ujjain  sarkar  of  the  Subah  of  Malwa.  It  is  a  place  of  increasing 
commercial  importance  owing  to  the  opening  of  the  railway,  and  will 
be  still  further  benefited  by  the  extension  of  the  line  to  Muttra,  now 
under  construction.  It  is  famous  for  its  painted  woodwork  and 
tobacco.  A  school,  a  post  office,  and  an  inspection  bungalow  are 
situated  in  the  town. 

Khadal. — Petty  State  in  MahI  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Khadki. — Town  in  the  Haveli  tahtka  of  Poona  District,  Bombay. 
See  Kirkee. 

Khaga. — Eastern  tahsil  of  Fatehpur  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parganas  of  Dhata,  Ekdala,  Hathgaon,  and  Kutila,  and 
lying  between  250  26'  and  260  1'  N.  and  8ic  o'  and  8i°  20'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  481  square  miles.  Population  fell  slightly  from  224,605  in  1891 
to  224,348  in  1 90 1.  There  are  493  villages  and  one  town,  Kishanpur 
(population,  2,354).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  3,80,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  61,000.  The  density  of  population, 
466  persons  per  square  mile,  is  above  the  District  average.  North  and 
south  the  tahsil  is  bounded  by  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  while  the  centre 
is  drained  by  a  shallow  channel  called  the  Sasur  Khaderl.  Near  the 
Ganges  the  soil  is  sandy,  while  towards  the  Jumna  ravines  and  poor 
soil  retard  cultivation.  The  central  portions  are,  however,  fertile.  In 
1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  269  square  miles,  of  which  112 
were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  more  than  half,  and  tanks  or  jhlls  are 
the  next  most  important  source.  The  Fatehpur  branch  of  the  Lower 
Ganges  Canal,  which  was  opened  in  1898,  is  extending  its  operations. 

Khagan.— Mountain  valley  in  Hazara  District,  North-West  Frontier 
Province.     See  Kagan. 

Khagaria. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Monghyr 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  30'  N.  and  86°  29'  E.,  on  the  Gandak. 
Population  (190 1),  11,492.  Khagaria  is  a  station  on  the  Bengal  and 
North-Western  Railway  and  possesses  a  large  trade. 

Khagaul. — Town  in  the  Dinapore  subdivision  of  Patna  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  250  35'  N.  and  85°  3'  E.,  a  short  distance  to  the 
south  of  Dinapore.  Population  (1901),  8,126.  The  Dinapore  railway 
station  is  just  outside  the  town,  which  has  only  grown  into  importance 
since  the  opening  of  the  railway.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  a  company 
of  East  Indian  Railway  volunteers. 

Khaibar. —Historic  pass  leading  from  Peshawar  District  in  the 
North-West  Frontier  Province  into  Afghanistan.     See  Khyber. 

Khair. — North-western  tahsil  of  Aligarh  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  J>arga?ias  of  Khair,  Chandaus,  and  Tappal,  and  lying 


KHAIRAGARH  STATE  207 

between  270  51'  and  2 8°  n'  N.  and  770  29'  and  7 8°  i"  E.,  with  an  area 
of  407  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  150,656  in  1891  to 
178,867  in  1901.  There  are  272  villages  and  three  towns,  none  of 
which  has  as  many  as  5,000  inhabitants  ;  Khair,  the  tahsll  head- 
quarters, has  a  population  of  4,537.  The  density,  439  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  4,11,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  66,000. 
The  tahsll  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Jumna,  and  has  a  con- 
siderable area  of  khadar  land  in  which  nothing  grows  but  coarse  grass 
and  tamarisk,  the  haunt  of  innumerable  wild  hog.  Large  herds  of 
cattle  are  grazed  by  the  Gujar  inhabitants  of  this  tract,  who  are 
inveterate  cattle-thieves.  The  Mat  branch  of  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal 
provides  irrigation.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  292 
square  miles,  of  which   119  were  irrigated. 

Khairabad. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahsll  of  Sitapur,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  270  32'  N.  and  8o°  46'  E.,  on  the  Lucknow- 
Bareilly  State  Railway.  Population  (1901),  13,774.  It  was  formerly 
a  place  of  importance,  and  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one 
Khaira,  a  Pasi,  in  the  eleventh  century.  It  is,  however,  more  probable 
that  the  name  was  given  by  Muhammadans  to  an  older  town  on  the 
same  site  ;  and  it  has  been  identified  with  Masachhatra,  an  ancient  holy 
place.  A  governor  was  stationed  here  by  the  early  kings  of  Delhi,  and 
under  Akbar  it  was  the  capital  of  a  sarkar.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  Khairabad  was  the  head-quarters  of  an  Oudh 
nizamat;  and  after  annexation  a  Division  took  its  name  from  the  town, 
though  the  head-quarters  of  the  Commissioner  were  at  Sitapur.  A 
number  of  temples  and  mosques  are  situated  here,  some  of  them  dating 
from  the  reign  of  Akbar,  but  none  is  of  much  interest.  Khairabad 
contains  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist  Mission.  It  has  been 
a  municipality  since  1869.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the 
income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  7,500.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  9, too,  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  5,300)  ;  and  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  12,300.  Trade  has  suffered  owing  to  the  rise  in  importance 
of  Sitapur  ;  but  there  is  a  daily  market,  and  a  small  industry  in 
cotton-printing  survives.  A  large  fair  is  held  in  January.  There 
are  five  schools,  including  two  for  girls,  with  about  300  pupils  ;  and  two 
dispensaries. 

Khaira  Gali. — Small  cantonment  in  Hazara  District,  Xorth-West 
Frontier  Province,  situated  in  330  55'  N.  and  730  20'  E.,  on  the  road 
between  Abbottabad  and  Murree.  During  the  summer  months  it  is 
occupied  by  one  of  the  British  mountain  batteries  which  are  stationed 
at  Rawalpindi  in  the  winter. 

Khairagarh  State. — Feudatory  State  in  the  Central  Provinces* 
lying  between  210  4'  and  210  34'  N.  and  8o°  27'  and  8i°  12'  E.,  with 


208  KHAIRAGARH  STATE 

an  area  of  931  square  miles.  The  State  consists  of  three  separate 
sections,  and  is  situated  on  the  western  border  of  Drug  District,  with 
which,  and  with  the  States  of  Chhulkhadan,  Kawardha,  and  Nandgaon, 
its  boundaries  interlace.  Of  these  three  sections,  the  small  pargana  of 
Khuhva  to  the  north-west  was  the  original  domain  of  the  chiefs  of 
Khairagarh;  Khamaria  on  the  north-east  was  seized  from  the  Kawardha 
State  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  lieu  of  a  small  loan ;  while 
of  the  main  area  of  the  estate  in  the  south,  the  Khairagarh  tract  was 
received  at  an  early  date  from  the  Mandla  Rajas,  and  that  of  Don- 
gargarh  represents  half  the  estate  of  a  zamlndar  who  rebelled  against 
the  Marathas,  and  whose  territory,  when  the  rebellion  was  crushed  by 
the  chiefs  of  Khairagarh  and  Nandgaon,  was  divided  between  them. 
The  head-quarters  are  at  Khairagarh,  a  village  of  4,656  inhabitants, 
situated  23  miles  from  both  the  Dongargarh  and  Raj-Nandgaon  stations 
on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  western  tracts  of  the  State  are 
hilly,  but  those  to  the  east  lie  in  a  level  black-soil  plain  of  great 
fertility.  The  ruling  family  are  considered  to  be  Nagvansi  Rajputs, 
and  to  be  connected  with  the  house  of  Chota  Nagpur.  Their  pedigree 
dates  back  to  a.d.  740.  The  present  chief,  Kamal  Narayan  Singh, 
was  installed  in  1890  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  years,  and  the  here- 
ditary title  of  Raja  was  conferred  on  him  in  1898.  He  conducts  the 
administration  of  the  State  with  the  advice  of  a  Dlwan  appointed  by 
Government,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Political  Agent  for  the 
Chhattisgarh  Feudatory  States.  The  population  in  1901  was  137,554, 
showing  a  decrease  of  24  per  cent,  in  the  previous  decade,  during  which 
the  State  was  severely  affected  by  famine.  There  are  497  inhabited 
villages,  and  one  town,  Dongargarh  (population,  5,856).  The  density 
of  population  is  147  persons  per  square  mile.  Gonds,  Lodhls,  Chamars, 
and  Ahirs  are  the  most  important  castes  numerically ;  the  people 
belong  almost  entirely  to  Chhattisgarh,  and  the  local  dialect  of  Eastern 
Hindi  named  after  that  tract  is  universally  spoken. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  State  is  a  fertile  expanse  of  black  soil,  while 
in  the  west  the  land  is  light  and  sandy.  In  1904  nearly  543  square 
miles,  or  58  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  were  occupied  for  cultivation, 
and  nearly  486  square  miles  were  under  crop.  Kodon  covers  41  per 
cent,  of  the  cropped  area,  rice  21  per  cent.,  and  wheat  22  per  cent. 
The  cultivated  area  has  decreased  by  about  70  square  miles  since  1894. 
There  are  224  irrigation  tanks,  by  which  about  3,000  acres  are  pro- 
tected. About  165  square  miles  are  covered  with  forest,  the  principal 
species  being  teak,  bljasal  (Pferocarpi/s  Marsi/pii/m),  and  bamboos. 
Brass  vessels  and  wooden  furniture  are  made  at  Khainlgarh  town,  and 
carpets  of  a  good  quality  are  produced  in  the  jail.  The  rolling  of 
native  cigarettes  gives  employment  to  a  considerable  number  of  per- 
sons.    The  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  passes  through  the  south  of  the 


KHAIRAGARH   TAHSIL  209 

State,  with  the  stations  of  Bortalao,  Dongargarh,  and  Musra  within  its 
limits.  About  63  miles  of  embanked  and  57  miles  of  unembanked 
roads  have  been  constructed,  the  most  important  being  those  from 
Dongargarh  through  Khairagarh  to  Kawardha,  and  from  Khairagarh 
to  Raj-Nandgaon.  Exports  of  produce  are  taken  to  Raj-Nandgaon 
and  Dongargarh  railway  stations. 

The  total  revenue  of  the  State  in  1904  was  Rs.  3,03,000,  Rs.  1,84.000 
being  realized  from  land  revenue,  Rs.  29,000  from  forests,  and  Rs. 
21,000  from  excise.  The  incidence  of  land  revenue  is  R.  0-10-5  Per 
occupied  acre.  A  regular  cadastral  survey  has  been  carried  out,  and 
the  method  of  assessment  is  that  prescribed  for  British  Districts.  The 
revenue  is  settled  with  the  headmen  of  villages,  who  are  allowed 
a  commission  of  20  or  30  per  cent,  of  the  'assets,'  but  have  no  pro- 
prietary rights.  The  rents  of  the  cultivators  are  also  fixed  at  settle- 
ment. The  expenditure  in  1904  was  Rs.  3,18,000,  the  principal  items 
being  Government  tribute  (Rs.  70,000),  private  expenses  of  the  ruling 
family  (Rs.  90,000),  general  administration  (Rs.  21,000),  public  works 
(Rs.  20,000),  education  (Rs.  9,000),  and  medical  relief  (Rs.  4,000). 
Some  arrears  of  tribute  and  Government  loans  were  also  repaid  in  that 
year.  In  respect  of  tribute  Khairagarh  was  treated  by  the  Marathas  as 
an  ordinary  estate,  and  the  revenue  was  periodically  raised  on  a  scrutiny 
of  the  '  assets.'  It  is  now  fixed  by  Government  for  a  term  of  years. 
During  the  twelve  years  ending  1905  nearly  3-84  lakhs  has  been 
expended  on  the  improvement  of  communications  and  the  erection 
of  public  buildings.  The  State  maintains  26  schools,  including  a  high 
school  at  Khairagarh,  middle  schools  at  Khairagarh,  Dongargarh,  and 
Khamaria,  and  a  girls'  school  at  Dongargarh,  with  a  total  of  1,931 
pupils.  At  the  Census  of  1901  the  number  of  persons  returned  as  able 
to  read  and  write  was  2,064,  the  proportion  of  male  literates  being  2-9 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  Dispensaries  are  maintained  at  Khairagarh 
town  and  Dongargarh,  in  which  12,000  persons  were  treated  in  1904. 

Khairagarh  Tahsil. — South-western  tahsil  of  Agra  District,  United 
Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name,  lying 
between  260  45'  and  270  4'  N.  and  770  26'  and  780  7'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  309  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  123,893  in  1891  to 
127,692  in  1901.  There  are  155  villages  and  one  town,  Jagnair 
(population,  4,051).  Khairagarh,  the  tahsil  head-quarters,  is  a  small 
village.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,85.000, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  35,000.  The  density  of  population,  413  persons 
per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  tahsil  is 
divided  into  two  portions  by  the  Utangan.  The  tract  south-west  of 
that  river  is  a  spur  of  British  territory  almost  surrounded  by  the  Native 
States  of  Bharatpur  and  Dholpur,  with  a  range  of  the  Yindhyas  along 
the   northern   boundary   and    isolated    hills    scattered    farther    south. 


210  KHAIRAGARH  TAHSIL 

These  hills  are  of  red  sandstone,  which  is  valuable  for  building 
purposes.  Near  the  hills  the  soil  is  sandy,  but  after  passing  a  tract 
of  infertile  clay  a  richer  soil  is  reached.  East  of  the  Utangan  the 
ordinary  loam  is  found,  stretching  up  to  the  Khari  Nadl,  which  forms 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  lahsll  and  is  bordered  by  deep  and 
precipitous  ravines.  There  is  no  canal-irrigation,  and  in  1903-4  the 
irrigated  area  was  only  34  square  miles  out  of  206  under  cultivation. 
Wells  are  the  sole  source  of  supply,  but  owing  to  the  faulty  substrata 
they  cannot  be  made  in  many  places. 

Khairi-Murat. — Mountain  range  in  the  Fatahjang  tahsil  of  Attock 
District,  Punjab,  midway  between  the  Sohan  river  and  the  Kala-Chitta 
range.  It  rises  about  30  miles  from  the  Indus,  and  runs  eastward  for 
about  24  miles,  a  barren  ridge  of  limestone  and  sandstone  rock, 
extending  from  720  37'  to  720  56'  E.  and  from  330  25'  to  330  30'  N. 
North  of  the  range  lies  a  plateau  intersected  by  ravines ;  while  south- 
ward a  waste  of  gorges  and  hillocks  extends  in  a  belt  for  a  distance  of 
5  miles,  till  it  dips  into  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Sohan,  one  of  the 
richest  tracts  in  Rawalpindi  District.  The  Khairi-Murat  was  formerly 
covered  with  jungle ;  but  it  is  now  completely  destitute  of  vegetation, 
except  where  the  hill  has  been  formed  into  a  '  reserved '  forest  and 
closed  to  grazing.  In  these  parts  the  trees  are  rapidly  springing  up 
again.  The  hills  run  nearly  parallel  to  the  Kala-Chitta,  about  10  miles 
to  the  south.  The  formation  is  chiefly  limestone,  edged  with  sandstone 
and  earthy  rocks  whose  vertical  and  contorted  strata  indicate  intense 
disturbance.  The  southern  portion  of  the  range  is  extremely  dreary, 
being  formed  of  rocky  ravines  and  stony  hillocks,  gradually  sinking 
into  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Sohan. 

Khairpur  State. — State  in  Sind,  Bombay,  lying  between  2  6°  10' 
and  2  70  46'  N.  and  between  68°  20'  and  700  14'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
6,050  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Sukkur  District;  on 
the  east  by  Jaisalmer  State  in  Rajputana  ;  on  the  south  by  Hyderabad 
and  Thar  and  Parkar  Districts  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  river  Indus. 
Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  120  miles,  and  its  breadth 
from  north  to  south  about  70  miles. 

Like  other  parts  of  Sind,  Khairpur  consists  of  a  great  alluvial  plain, 
the  part  bordering  directly  upon  the  Indus  being  very  rich  and  fertile, 
though  much  of  it  is  used  as  moharis  or  hunting- 
Physical  grounds.  With  the  exception  of  the  fertile  strip 
watered  by  the  Indus  and  its  canals,  and  of  a 
narrow  strip  irrigated  by  the  Eastern  Nara,  the  remainder  or  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole  area  is  a  continuous  series  of  sandhill  ridges 
covered  with  a  stunted  brushwood,  where  cultivation  is  altogether 
impossible.  The  country  generally  is  exceedingly  arid,  sterile,  and 
desolate  in  aspect.     In  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  is  a  small 


K HAIR  PUR   STATE  211 

ridge  of  limestone  hills,  being  a  continuation  of  the  low  range  known 
as  the  Ghar,  which  runs  southward  from  Rohri  for  a  distance  of 
about  40  miles.  On  a  western  outlying  spur  of  this  ridge  is  situated 
the  fort  of  Diji. 

The  State  of  Khairpur  is  mostly  occupied  by  Indus  alluvium  and 
desert  formations.  The  Kirthar  limestone  (middle  eocene)  forms  a 
range  of  hills  in  the  north-eastern  portion,  between  the  Mir  Wah  and 
the  Nara  river.  On  the  top  of  the  range  are  found  oyster,  cockle, 
and  numerous  other  kinds  of  marine  shells. 

The  trees  and  shrubs  are  identical  with  those  found  in  Sukkur 
District,  and  good  timber  is  to  be  met  with  in  different  game  preserves 
bordering  on  the  Indus.  The  kandi-txee  grows  luxuriantly  in  the 
valleys,  and  the  tali  is  largely  grown  by  cultivators. 

The  wild  animals  found  in  Khairpur  include  the  hyena,  wolf,  jackal, 
fox,  wild  hog,  deer,  gazelle,  and  antelope.  The  birds  and  water-fowl 
are  those  common  to  Sind  generally,  such  as  bustard,  wild  geese,  snipe, 
partridges  (both  black  and  grey),  and  various  kinds  of  wild  duck  (which 
arrive  in  the  cold  season).     Snakes  abound,  as  in  other  parts  of  Sind. 

The  climate  of  Khairpur  is  agreeable  during  four  months  of  the  year, 
when  the  minimum  temperature  falls  to  400,  but  is  fiercely  hot  during 
the  remaining  eight,  when  the  maximum  rises  to  1130.  The  rainfall  is 
slight,  but  dust-storms  are  frequent  and  have  the  effect  of  cooling  the 
atmosphere  to  some  extent. 

The  present  chief  of  Khairpur  belongs  to  a  Baloch  family  called 
Talpur ;  and,  previous  to  the  accession  of  this  family,  on  the  fall  of  the 
Kalhora  dynasty  of  Sind  in  1783,  the  history  of 
Khairpur  belongs  to  the  general  history  of  Sind. 
In  that  year  Mir  Fateh  All  Khan  Talpur  established  himself  as  Rais 
or  ruler  of  Sind  ;  and  subsequently  his  nephew,  Mir  Sohrab  Khan 
Talpur,  founded  the  Khairpur  branch  of  the  Talpur  family.  The 
dominions  of  Mir  Sohrab  Khan  were  at  first  confined  to  the  town 
of  Khairpur  and  a  small  adjacent  tract  of  country  ;  but  by  conquest 
and  intrigue  he  managed  to  enlarge  them,  until  they  extended  to 
Sabzalkot  and  Kashmor  on  the  north,  to  the  Jaisalmer  desert  on  the 
east,  and  to  the  borders  of  Cutch  Gandava  on  the  west.  About 
the  year  181 3,  during  the  troubles  in  Kabul  incidental  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Barakzai  dynasty,  the  Mirs  were  able  to  withhold  the 
tribute  which  up  to  that  date  had  been  somewhat  irregularly  paid 
to  the  rulers  of  Afghanistan.  Two  years  earlier,  in  181 1,  Mir  Sohrab 
had  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Mir  Rustam.  But  he  appears  to 
have  endeavoured  to  modify  this  arrangement  subsequently  ;  and 
ultimately  the  jealousy  between  the  two  brothers,  Mir  Rustam  and 
All  Murad,  was  one  of  the  factors  in  the  crisis  that  caused  the  inter- 
vention of  the  British  power. 


212  KHAIRPUR   STATE 

In  1832  the  individuality  of  the  Khairpur  State,  as  separate  from  the 
other  Talpur  Mirs  in  Sind,  was  recognized  by  the  British  Government 
in  a  treaty,  under  which  the  use  of  the  river  Indus  and  the  roads  of 
Sind  were  secured  to  the  British.  When  the  first  Kabul  expedition 
was  decided  on,  the  Sind  Mirs  were  required  to  assist  the  passage  of 
the  British  through  their  territories,  and  allow  of  the  occupation  of 
Shikarpur.  Most  of  the  princes  showed  great  disinclination  to  comply 
with  these  demands.  But  in  Khairpur,  All  Murad,  who  gradually 
succeeded  in  establishing  his  hold  on  the  raisat,  or  chiefship,  cordially 
supported  the  British  policy;  and  the  result  was  that,  after  the  battles 
of  Miani  and  Daba  had  put  the  whole  of  Sind  at  the  disposal  of 
the  British  Government,  Khairpur  was  the  only  State  that  was  allowed 
to  retain  its  political  existence  under  the  protection  of  the  paramount 
power.  In  1866  a  sanad  was  granted  to  the  Mir,  under  which  the 
British  Government  promised  to  recognize  any  succession  to  the  chief- 
ship  that  might  be  in  accordance  with  Muhammadan  law.  Mir  All 
Murad  died  in  1894,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mir  Faiz 
Muhammad  Khan,  who  is  entitled  to  a  personal  salute  of  17  guns. 
The  ordinary  salute  is  15  guns. 

The  State  contains  one  town  and  153  villages.  The  population 
was:  (1872)  126,962,  (1881)  125,919,  (1891)  128,611,  and  (1901) 
Population  T99,3i3-  The  density  is  33  persons  per  square 
mile.  Distributed  by  religion,  there  are  36,000 
Hindus  and  163,000  Muhammadans.  The  Hindus  are  almost  entirely 
Lohanas  (33,000),  traders  and  clerks.  Among  the  Muhammadans 
of  foreign  extraction,  Arabs  number  12,000;  Baluchis,  chiefly  of  the 
Rind,  Burdi,  Chandia,  Dombki,  Jatoi,  and  Marri  tribes,  24,000  ; 
Jats,  4,000  ;  and  the  fishermen  or  Mohanos,  5,700.  Sindls  include 
12,000  Sumras,  58,000  Sammas,  and  41,000  returned  as  SindTs  un- 
specified. Agriculture  supports  69  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 
About  95  per  cent,  of  the  Muhammadan  males  and  about  one-fourth 
of  the  Hindus  follow  agricultural  pursuits.  The  rest  are  engaged  in 
trade  and  other  callings.  Sindl,  Persian,  SiraikI,  and  Baluchi  are 
the  languages  chiefly  spoken. 

The  soil  of  Khairpur,  especially  in    the  strip  adjoining  the  Indus, 

is  very    productive.      The    tract   lying  between    the    Mir  Wah  Canal 

.     .  and  the  Indus  is  the  richest  part  of  the  State  ;  but 

Agriculture.  .  .  ,  .     . 

cultivation  even  there  is  by  no  means  so  extensive 

as    it    might    be,  though    of   late    years    the    area    under    tillage  has 

greatly  increased.     The  area  of  cultivable  land  in   1903-4  was   1,550 

square    miles,  and    fallow  lands    covered   1,226    square    miles.      The 

principal    crops   are  joivar,    bdjra,   wheat,    gram,   various  pulses,  and 

cotton.      Indigo  is  also  cultivated,  but  the  area  is  decreasing.      The 

fruit  trees  are  the    mango,  mulberry,  apple,    pomegranate,    date,  &c. 


TRADE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS  213 

Recently  cultivation  has  been  greatly  extended,  owing  to  the  con- 
struction of  new  canals  and  the  improvement  of  old  ones.  Advances 
are  made  to  agriculturists,  free  of  interest. 

The  domestic  animals  comprise  the  camel,  horse,  buffalo,  bullock, 
sheep,  donkey,  and  mule.  The  State  maintains  both  horse  and  donkey 
stallions  for  breeding  purposes. 

Cultivation  is  dependent  on  irrigation  from  the  Indus  river  by 
canals.  The  largest  and  most  important  of  these  is  the  Mir  Wah,  ex- 
cavated by  Mir  Sohrab,  with  its  feeder  the  Sathio  Wah.  The  latter, 
with  the  Abdul  Wah,  was  excavated  in  the  time  of  Mir  All  Murad. 
Under  the  rule  of  the  present  Mir  a  canal  department  has  been 
formed  and  the  following  important  branch  canals  excavated  :  Faiz 
Wah,  Faiz  Bakhsh,  Faiz  Ganj,  Faiz  Bahar,  and  Faiz  Manj.  The 
Sathio  has  been  improved,  so  as  to  ensure  a  supply  at  all  seasons. 
Forced  labour  in  the  clearance  of  canals  is  now  entirely  abolished. 
The  Eastern  Nara  flows  through  the  desert  along  an  abandoned 
course  of  the  river,  and  there  is  a  small  area  of  cultivation  along 
it.  The  area  irrigated  by  the  State  canals  in  1903-4  was  246  square 
miles.  About  20  square  miles  of  land  were  supplied  from  wells 
and  tanks  in  the  same  year. 

The  State  possesses  331  square  miles  of  forests,  of  which  200 
square  miles  are  reserved  for  game  by  the  Mir.  They  are  in  charge 
of  a  Forest  officer,  appointed  by  the  State,  and  a  small  staff.  The 
forest  trees  are  the  tali,  bahan,  babul,  and  kandi.  The  bush  jungle 
consists  principally  of  tamarisk ;  reed  grasses  are  abundant.  The 
game  preserves  bordering  on  the  Indus  supply  good  timber.  The 
valleys  produce  fair  kandi  wood.  In  1903-4  the  revenue  from 
forests  amounted  to  Rs.  26,000. 

In  the  desert  portion  of  Khairpur  are  pits  of  natron — an  impure 
sesquicarbonate  of  sodium,  always  containing  sulphate  and  chloride 
of  sodium.  It  is  generally  obtained  by  means  of  evaporation.  The 
natron  pits  are  a  source  of  income  to  the  Mir,  yielding  about 
Rs.  25,000. 

The    manufactures   comprise  cotton    fabrics,  such  as  woven  sheets 

and  coloured  cloth,  silk  fabrics,  silver-ware  of  different  kinds,  lacquered 

woodwork,    boots,    shoes,    horse-trappings,    swords, 

matchlocks,    and     earthen    potterv     for   local    use.  „__„_j„*i„_ 
'  r         j  communications. 

Gambat   is  noted  for  bed-sheets   called   ktiais,    and 

Khairpur    for    cloth-dyeing.      Khairpur    town    possesses    one   carpet 

factory,  attached  to  an  industrial  school. 

The  trade  of  the  State  resembles  that  of  the  adjoining  British  towns 
and  villages — the  chief  exports  being  cotton,  wool,  grain,  indigo, 
hand-made  cloth,  hides,  tobacco,  &c.  The  only  product  which  is 
peculiar  to  Khairpur  and  is  not  common  to  the  surrounding  British 


214  KHAIRPUR   STATE 

territory — the  Thar  and  Parkar  District  excepted— is  carbonate  of 
soda,  which  is  chiefly  bought  by  Bombay  merchants.  The  value 
of  the  articles  annually  exported  from  Khairpur  to  British  Sind  and 
the  Native  State  of  Jaisalmer  has  been  approximately  estimated  at 
about  6  lakhs,  and  that  of  the  imported  articles  at  somewhat  more 
than  6  lakhs.  Of  the  annual  fairs,  that  of  Ranipur,  45  miles  from 
Rohri,  is  the  most  important. 

The  railway  from  Hyderabad  to  Rohri  runs  through  the  whole  length 
of  the  State.  In  addition  to  the  main  trunk  road  between  the  same 
towns,  which  passes  through  Khairpur  at  a  distance  of  about  20  miles 
from  the  Indus,  and  another  road  connecting  them  by  a  somewhat 
more  direct  route,  there  are  several  roads  connecting  tahtka  head-quar- 
ters with  Khairpur  town  and  Kot  Diji.  Ten  post  offices  are  maintained 
in  the  State.     There  are  six  ferries,  chiefly  on  the  Indus. 

The  rule  of  the  Mir  is  patriarchal,  but    many   changes  have  been 

made   introducing   greater   regularity  of  procedure   into    the  adminis- 

.  ,    .  .  .     ..         tration.      The    State    is    divided    into    five    talukas, 

Administration.  ._  ,    .       ' 

each  under  a  mukhtiarkar.      These  are :    Khairpur 

and  Gambat  (forming  the  Khairpur  subdivision),  Mir  Wah,  Faiz 
Ganj,  and  Naro  (forming  the  Mir  Wah  subdivision).  Each  sub- 
division is  under  a  naib-wazir.  The  Wazir,  an  officer  lent  from  British 
service,  conducts  the  administration  under  the  Mir.  The  Collector 
of  Sukkur  is  ex-officio  Political  Agent  for  the  State.  The  Mir  himself 
exercises  the  powers  of  a  High  Court,  but  cannot  try  British  subjects 
for  capital  offences  without  the  Political  Agent's  permission.  The 
Wazir  is  District  Magistrate  and  District  and  Sessions  Judge.  The 
naib-wazirs  are  subdivisional  magistrates  and  first-class  sub-judges, 
and  criminal  and  civil  powers  are  also  exercised  by  the  mukhtiarkars, 
as  well  as  by  two  near  relatives  of  the  chief.  The  Indian  Penal 
Code  and  the  Criminal  Procedure  Code  have  been  adopted.  There 
is  also  a  Court  of  Elders  on  the  lines  of  the  British  Frontier  Tribes 
Act.  Steps  have  recently  been  taken  to  remedy  the  indebtedness  of 
the  agriculturists  by  the  introduction  of  a  Relief  Act.  Civil  cases 
are  largely  decided  by  arbitrators,  but  a  more  fixed  procedure  is  being 
introduced.  In  1903-4,  765  offences  were  reported  to  the  police, 
mostly  grievous   hurt  and  thefts  of  cattle  and  property. 

The  revenue  is  collected  almost  entirely  in  kind  according  to  the 
primitive  bated  system,  the  Mir  receiving  a  third  of  the  produce  of 
the  land,  which  yields  on  an  average  Rs.  58  per  acre  of  cultivation. 
The  gross  revenue,  which  amounted  in  1882-3  t0  5*7  lakhs,  had 
increased  by  1902-3  to  13  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  gross  receipts 
amounted  to  only  8-3  lakhs,  the  decrease  being  due  to  large  stocks 
of  grain  remaining  unsold,  untimely  rain,  and  the  presence  of  locusts. 
Of  the  total  receipts,  which  average  about  13  lakhs,  about  Rs.  1,85,000 


KHAIRPUR    TOWN  215 

represents  the  share  of  jdglrddrs  and  other  alienees.  The  former  are 
chiefly  the  Mlr's  sons  and  the  ladies  of  his  family.  The  gross  receipts 
in  1903-4  included  land  revenue  6  lakhs,  excise  about  Rs.  90,000, 
miscellaneous  taxes  Rs.  58,000,  and  forests  Rs.  26,000.  The  land 
revenue  amounts  on  the  average  to  10  lakhs  a  year;  but  as  it  is  chiefly 
paid  in  kind,  considerable  fluctuations  occur  in  accordance  with  the 
character  of  the  harvest.  The  total  expenditure  in  1903-4  was  11 -6 
lakhs,  of  which  more  than  2  lakhs  was  spent  on  public  works,  such 
as  canals,  buildings,  roads,  bridges,  wells,  and  tanks.  Until  the  end  of 
1902  coins  of  local  issue  were  current  in  the  State,  but  they  have  now- 
been  replaced  by  the  British  silver  currency.  No  tribute  is  payable 
by  the  Mir. 

No  salt  is  manufactured,  the  British  Government  supplying  it  at 
a  reduced  rate.  Poppy  is  cultivated  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand  for 
local  consumption.  Liquor  is  manufactured,  but  may  not  be  taken 
into  British  territory. 

The  military  force  consists  of  377  men,  of  whom  163  are  mounted. 
The  total  strength  of  the  police,  including  officers,  in  1903-4  was  220, 
and  a  preventive  service  to  check  opium  smuggling  from  Jaisalmer 
State  has  recently  been  organized.  The  Central  jail  is  situated  at 
Kot  Uiji,  and  a  sub-jail  at  Khairpur.  The  daily  jail  population  in 
1903-4  averaged  214. 

Though  recent  years  have  shown  some  progress,  Khairpur  is  very 
backward  in  education.  In  1881  there  were  6  schools  in  the  State, 
with  an  attendance  of  2,387  pupils.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  schools 
was  95,  attended  by  4,586  pupils,  of  whom  387  were  girls.  Of  the 
total  number  of  pupils,  4,242  were  in  primary,  83  in  secondary  schools, 
and  the  remainder  in  an  industrial  school.  Persian  is  taught  by  mu/ias, 
who  receive  one  pice  weekly  from  the  parents  of  each  child.  At  the 
industrial  school,  carpentry,  smith-craft,  embroidery,  turnery,  carpet- 
making,  and  tailoring  are  taught. 

The  State  possesses  3  hospitals  and  3  dispensaries.  In  1903-4  the 
number  of  cases  treated  was  160,640,  of  whom  1,292  were  in-patients; 
and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  19,678.  About  6,200  persons  were  vacci- 
nated in  the  same  year. 

[A.M.Hughes,  Sind  Gazetteer  (1876);  E.  A.  Langley,  Narrative 
of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  Mir  All  Murad,  2  vols,  (i860); 
C.  M.  Aitchison,    Treaties,  E?igagements,  and  Sanads.] 

Khairpur  Town  (1). — Capital  of  the  State  of  Khairpur,  Sind, 
Bombay,  situated  in  270  31'  N.  and  68°  48'  E.,  on  the  Mir  Wah  canal, 
about  15  miles  east  of  the  Indus,  and  17  miles  south  of  Rohri. 
The  nearest  railway  station  on  the  Kotri-Rohri  section  of  the  North- 
western Railway  is  Khairpur  Mir,  situated  about  2  miles  to  the  south- 
east of  the  town.    Population  (1901),  14,014,  mainly  Musalmans.    The 


216  KHAIRPUR    TOWN 

town,  which  is  irregularly  built,  consists  of  a  collection  of  mud  hovels, 
intermingled  with  a  few  houses  of  a  better  class.  The  palace  is  seldom 
used  by  the  ruler,  who  lives  at  Kot  Diji,  but  there  is  a  handsome  guest- 
house. Outside  the  town  stand  the  tombs  of  three  Muhammadan 
saints — Plr  Ruhan,  Zia-ud-din,  and  Haji  Jafar  Shahid.  The  town 
contains  two  hospitals,  one  of  which  is  for  women. 

During  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Talpur  dynasty,  Khairpur  is  said 
to  have  possessed  not  less  than  15,000  inhabitants,  but  the  place  has 
decreased  in  importance  since  the  conquest  of  Sind.  The  manufactures 
comprise  the  weaving  and  dyeing  of  cloths  of  various  kinds,  goldsmith's 
work,  and  the  making  of  firearms,  swords,  &c.  A  carpet  factory  has 
recently  been  opened,  the  workers  being  under  instruction  by  a  teacher 
brought  from  the  Punjab.  The  trade  is  principally  in  indigo,  grain, 
and  oilseeds,  which  form  the  chief  articles  of  export ;  the  imports  are 
piece-goods,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  metals,  <xx.  On  the  present  site  of  the 
town,  which  owes  its  rise  to  Mir  Sohrab  Khan  Talpur,  there  stood, 
prior  to  the  year  1787,  the  village  of  Boira  and  the  zamindari  or 
estate  of  the  Phulpotras.  It  was  selected  as  the  residence  of  the  chief 
Mirs  of  Northern  Sind  ;  and  for  some  time  during  Talpur  rule  a 
British  Resident  was  stationed  here,  in  terms  of  the  treaty  of  April  20, 
1S38,  concluded  between  the  British  Government  and  the  Mirs  of  Sind. 

[E.  A.  Langley,  Narrative  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  Mir  All 
Murdd,  2  vols,  (i860).] 

Khairpur  Tahsll. —  Tahsil  in  the  Minchinabad  nizamat,  Bahawalpur 
State,  Punjab,  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  between  280  49' 
and  300  N.  and  720  7'  and  730  18"  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,300  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  81,871,  compared  with  74,732  in 
1 89 1.  It  contains  the  towns  of  Khairpur  (population,  5,013),  the 
head-quarters,  and  Hasilpur,  which  was  created  a  municipality  in  1902  ; 
and  199  villages.  The  Hakra  depression  passes  through  the  southern 
portion  of  the  tahsll,  the  remainder  of  which  is  divided  between  the 
central  uplands  and  the  riverain  tract  along  the  Sutlej.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1905-6  amounted  to  2-2  lakhs. 

Khairpur  Town  (2). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name 
in  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  290  35'  N.  and  720  18'  E., 
38  miles  north-east  of  Bahawalpur  town  on  the  Southern  Punjab  Rail- 
way. Population  (1901),  5,013.  It  is  a  decaying  town,  as  the  sand 
from  the  desert  of  Cholistan  has  for  years  been  encroaching  on  it,  but 
contains  a  school  and  a  dispensary.  The  municipality  had  an  income 
in  1903-4  of  Rs.  6,200,  chiefly  from  octroi. 

Khairpur  (3). — Town  in  the  Alipur  tahsil  of  Muzaffargarh  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  290  20'  N.  and  700  49'  E.,  57  miles  south  of 
Muzaffargarh  town,  close  to  the  junction  of  the  Indus  and  Chenab. 
Population   (1901),   2,257.     It   was   founded  early  in  the  nineteenth 


KHAJRAHO  2 1 7 

century  by  Khair  Shah,  a  Bukhari  Saiyid,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name. 
The  town  lies  low,  and  is  protected  from  inundation  by  an  embank- 
ment built  at  considerable  cost  and  5  miles  in  circumference.  The 
municipality  was  created  in  1873.  1  ne  income  during  the  ten  years 
ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  3,100,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  3,300. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  2,300,  chiefly  from  octroi  ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  2,800.  The  inhabitants  are  enterprising  traders, 
and  their  trade  with  Sukkur  (Sind),  Multan,  and  other  places  at  a  dis- 
tance is  larger  than  that  of  any  other  town  in  the  District.  The  exports 
consist  principally  of  wool,  cotton,  and  grain  ;  the  imports,  of  cloth 
and  sundries. 

Khajraho. — Village  in  Chhatarpur  State,  Central  India,  famous 
for  its  magnificent  collection  of  mediaeval  temples,  and  situated  in 
24°  51'  N.  and  790  56'  E.,  25  miles  from  the  town  of  Chhatarpur. 
Population  (1901),  1,242. 

The  old  name  as  given  in  inscriptions  was  Khajjuravahaka.  By  the 
bard  Chand  it  is  called  Khajurapuraor  Khajjinpura.  Tradition  ascribes 
the  origin  of  the  name  to  two  golden  khajitr-txees  (date-palms)  with 
which  the  city  gates  were  ornamented,  but  it  was  more  probably  due  to 
the  prevalence  of  this  tree  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  place  was  in 
early  days  of  some  importance,  being  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jijhoti,  which  practically  corresponded  with  modern  Bundelkhand. 

The  earliest  supposed  reference  to  Khajraho  is  in  the  account  of  the 
travels  of  Hiuen  Tsiang,  who  visited  the  country  of  Chi-ki-to,  which 
has  been  identified  with  Jijhoti.  The  Chinese  pilgrim  does  not  men- 
tion any  chief  town  by  name,  but  notes  that  there  were  in  the  country 
a  number  of  sangharamas  (monasteries)  with  but  few  priests,  and  also 
about  ten  temples. 

There  are  no  Buddhist  remains  on  the  spot,  except  a  colossal  Buddha 
inscribed  with  the  usual  creed  in  characters  of  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century.  Abu  Rihan,  who  accompanied  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in  his 
campaign  against  Kalinjar  in  102 1,  notices  'Kajuraha'  as  the  capital 
of  Jijhoti.  Ibn  Batuta,  who  visited  the  place  about  1335,  calls  it 
'  Kajura,'  and  describes  the  lake,  about  a  mile  long,  round  which  there 
were  idol  temples  frequented  by  a  tribe  of  Jogis,  with  long  and  matted 
hair,  to  whom  even  Muhammadans  resorted  in  order  to  learn  magic. 
The  place  must,  therefore,  at  this  time  have  still  been  in  the  possession 
of  the  Hindus,  and  important  as  a  religious  centre.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  partial  demolition  of  its  temples  and  consequent  loss  of  impor- 
tance dates  from  1494-5,  when  Sikandar  Lodi,  after  his  expedition  into 
Panna  and  Baghelkhand,  retreated  through  this  region  and  sacked  the 
country  as  far  as  Banda. 

Its  present  importance  lies  solely  in  its  magnificent  series  of  temples, 
which,   with  two  exceptions,  were  all  built  between   950  and    1050. 


2i8  KHAJRAHO 

The  epigraphical  records   contained   in   them  are  of  great  historical 
value. 

The  temples  fall  into  three  main  groups  :  the  western,  northern,  and 
south-eastern,  each  group  containing  a  principal  shrine  or  cathedral  and 
several  smaller  temples.  The  western  group  consists  entirely  of  Brah- 
manical  temples,  both  Saiva  and  Vaishnava.  The  northern  group 
contains  one  large  and  some  small  temples,  all  Vaishnava,  and  several 
heaps  of  ruins.  The  south-eastern  group  consists  entirely  of  Jain 
temples.  All  the  temples,  with  the  exception  of  the  Chaunsat  Jogini 
and  Ghantai,  are  constructed  of  sandstone,  and  are  in  the  same  style. 
Even  the  Jain  temples  in  the  south-eastern  group  show  none  of  the 
peculiarities  commonly  found  in  the  temples  of  this  religion,  and 
externally  they  are  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Hindu  edifices.  The 
spire  is  here  of  more  importance  than  the  porch,  there  are  no  court- 
yards with  circumambient  cells,  and  no  prominent  domes. 

The  oldest  temple  in  the  western  group  is  that  known  as  the  Chaun- 
sat Jogini.  All  that  now  remains  is  a  celled  courtyard,  the  cells  being 
of  very  simple  design.  Fergusson  was  of  opinion  that  there  had 
originally  been  a  central  shrine  of  wood  which  has  disappeared. 
Unlike  the  other  temples,  this  is  built  entirely  of  gneiss.  It  is 
assigned  to  the  end  of  the  eighth  or  early  part  of  the  ninth  century. 
Of  the  remaining  temples,  the  Kandarya  Mahadeo  is  by  far  the  finest. 
Its  construction  is  curious,  as  the  sanctuary  does  not  occupy  the  full 
breadth  of  the  building,  a  passage  being  left  round  the  sanctuary  for 
the  circumambulation  of  the  image,  and  the  outer  wall  pierced  by 
three  porticoes  to  admit  light  to  the  passage.  This  gives  the  temple 
the  unusual  form  of  a  double  instead  of  a  single  cross.  The  carving 
is  exceedingly  rich  and  covers  every  available  inch  of  space,  but  many 
of  the  figures  are  highly  indecent,  not  a  usual  defect  in  Saiva  temples. 
The  other  large  temple  in  this  group  is  the  Ramachandra  or  Laksh- 
manjT,  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  which  in  plan  and  decoration  is  similar  to 
the  Kandarya  Mahadeo.  It  contains  an  inscription  of  the  Chandel 
dynasty,  dated  in  954.  The  Vishvanath  temple,  also  in  this  group, 
contains  Chandel  inscriptions  of  1001  and  1 1 17,  and  one  of  a 
feudatory,  dated  1000. 

The  northern  group  includes  one  large  temple  dedicated  to  the 
Vamana  or  dwarf  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  It  is,  however,  very  inferior 
in  decoration  to  the  best  in  the  western  group,  and  the  remaining 
temples  in  this  group  are  small.  The  heaps  of  ruins  or  mounds  in  this 
portion,  which  General  Cunningham  considered  to  be  the  remains  of 
the  sangharamas  mentioned  by  Hiuen  Tsiang,  are  situated  near  the 
large  temple. 

The  south-eastern  group  contains  Jain  remains  only.  The  oldest 
temple  in  this  group  is  the  Ghantai,  now  a  mere  skeleton,  consisting  of 


KHAJUHA    TOWN  219 

a  set  of  exquisitely  delicate  pillars  still  bearing  the  architraves.  The 
pillars  are  of  sandstone,  but  the  walls  were  of  gneiss  and  quite  plain. 
The  remains  of  this  temple,  which  is  assigned  to  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century,  are  very  similar  to  those  at  Gyaraspur.  The  cathedral 
of  this  group  is  the  temple  to  Jinanath,  Its  design  is  unusual,  consist- 
ing of  a  simple  oblong  with  an  open  pillared  vestibule  and  sanctuary, 
and  the  interior  decoration  is  very  fine.  A  Chandel  inscription  of 
954  exists  in  it. 

On  the  Kurar  Nala,  not  far  from  the  village  of  Khajraho,  stands  the 
magnificent  temple  known  as  the  Kunwar  Nath,  which,  though  inferior 
in  size  to  some  of  those  in  the  three  groups,  is  quite  equal  to  them  in 
design  and  the  profuseness  of  its  decoration.  At  the  village  of  Jatkari, 
\\  miles  away,  stands  another  temple  which  is  traditionally  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Suja,  sister  of  the  famous  Banaphar  hero,  Alha,  who 
figures  so  prominently  in  popular  traditions  of  the  wars  between  the 
Chandels  and  Prithwi  Raj  of  Delhi. 

[A.   Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey   Reports,    vol.   ii,    p.    412  ; 
vol.  vii,  p.  5  ;  vol.  x,  p.  16  ;  vol.  xxi,  p.  55  ;    Epigraphia  Indica,  vol.  i, 
p.  121  ;  Archaeological  Survey  of  Western    India    Progress   Report  to 
June,  1904.] 

Khajuha  Tahsil. — Western  tahsil  of  Fatehpur  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the parganas  of  Bindkl,  Kora,  Kutia  Gunlr,  and 
Tappa  Jar,  and  lying  between  250  51'  and  260  16'  N.  and  8o°  14'  and 
8o°  47'  E.,  with  an  area  of  504  square  miles.  Population  fell  from 
206,711  in  1891  to  199,223  in  1901,  the  rate  of  decrease  being  the 
highest  in  the  District.  There  are  385  villages  and  three  towns,  the 
largest  being  BindkT  (population,  7,782).  Khajuha,  the  tahsil  head- 
quarters, has  a  population  of  2,944.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  4,42,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  71,000.  The  density  of 
population,  395  persons  per  square  mile,  is  below  the  District  average. 
The  tahsil  extends  from  the  Jumna  to  the  Ganges,  and  is  crossed  by 
the  Rind.  A  considerable  area  is  covered  by  the  ravines  of  the  Jumna 
and  Rind,  which  are  absolutely  waste,  though  they  provide  grazing  for 
herds  of  cattle.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  276  square 
miles,  of  which  83  were  irrigated.  The  Fatehpur  branch  of  the  Lower 
Ganges  Canal  at  present  serves  about  one-third  of  the  irrigated  area,  but 
is  likely  to  take  a  larger  share.     Wells  supply  most  of  the  remainder. 

Khajuha  Town, — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
Fatehpur  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  2 6°  3'  N.  and  8o°  32' 
E.,  on  the  old  Mughal  road  from  Agra  to  Allahabad,  21  miles  west  of 
Fatehpur  town.  Population  (1901),  2,944.  A  town  was  founded  in 
the  village  of  Khajuha  by  Aurangzeb  to  commemorate  his  victory  over 
Shuja  in  1659,  and  was  called  Aurangabad,  but  the  old  name  has  sur- 
vived the  new.     The  sarai  and  hdradarl,  built  at  the  same  time,  are 

vol.  xv.  p 


2  2o  KHAJUHA    TOWN 

fine  buildings  which  have  been  restored.  In  17 12  Farrukhsiyar  de- 
feated his  cousin,  Azz-ud-din,  near  here,  and  proceeded  on  his  victorious 
march  to  Delhi.  The  town  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  600.  The  trade  of  the  place  has  largely 
been  diverted  to  Bindkl ;  but  brass  vessels  are  still  made  in  some  quan- 
tities, and  the  playing-cards  made  here  have  some  reputation.  There 
is  a  school  with  50  pupils. 

Khajuri. — Thakurdt  in  the  Bhopal  Agency,  Central  India. 

Khalilabad. — South-eastern  tahsll  of  Basti  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Maghar  (East)  and  Mahuli  (East), 
and  lying  between  260  25'  and  270  5'  N.  and  820  50'  and  83°  13'  E., 
with  an  area  of  564  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  380,486 
in  1891  to  394,675  in  1901.  There  are  1,388  villages  and  only  one 
town,  Mehndawal  (population,  10,143).  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,75,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  70,000.  The 
density  of  population,  700  persons  per  square  mile,  is  above  the  District 
average.  The  tahsll  lies  entirely  in  the  fertile  upland  tract  which  ex- 
tends northwards  from  the  Gogra.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Kuwana,  Ami, 
and  several  smaller  streams.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was 
394  square  miles,  of  which  234  were  irrigated.  Tanks  and  swamps 
supply  more  than  half  the  irrigated  area,  and  wells  about  one-third. 

Khambhaliya. — Fortified  town  in  the  State  of  Navanagar,  Kathi- 
awar,  Bombay,  situated  in  220  12"  N.  and  69°  50'  E.,  at  the  confluence 
of  two  small  streams,  the  Teli  and  Ghi,  flowing  into  the  Salaya  creek, 
about  10  miles  east  of  the  port  of  Salaya.  Population  (1901),  9,182. 
After  Navanagar,  it  is  the  most  important  town  in  the  State.  It  was 
formerly  a  possession  of  the  Vadhels,  from  whom  it  was  conquered  by 
Jam  Rawal,  and  was  the  residence  of  the  Jam  or  chief  until  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Aurangzeb.  It  contains  several  old  temples.  The  iron- 
smiths  of  the  town  are  renowned  for  their  skill,  and  the  gunsmiths  are 
capable  of  making  breech-loading  firearms.  A  tax  is  levied  on  all  pil- 
grims passing  through  to  Dwarka  and  Pindtarak,  a  seaport  under 
Khambhaliya  which  contains  a  celebrated  shrine.  It  is  said  that  the 
remains  of  several  ancient  temples,  now  covered  by  the  sea,  are  visible 
at  extremely  low  tides.  Khambhaliya  is  the  head-quarters  of  a  mahal 
or  revenue  division  of  the  Navanagar  State. 

Khambhtav. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Khamgaon  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Buldana  District,  Berar, 
consisting  of  the  taluks  of  Jalgaon  and  Khamgaon. 

Khamgaon  Taluk. —  la/nk  of  Buldana  District,  Berar,  lying 
between  200  26'  and  20°  55'  N.  and  760  32'  and  760  48'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  443  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  99,785  in  1891  to 
102,948  in  1 901,  the  density  in  the  latter  year  being  232  persons  per 
square  mile.     The  taluk  contains  134  villages  and  two  towns,  Kham- 


KHAMTI  HILLS  221 

GAON  (population,  18,341),  the  head-quarters,  and  Shegaon  (15,057). 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,04,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  23,000.  The  Khamgaon  State  Railway,  connecting  Kham- 
gaon  with  Jalam  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  lies  within  the 
taluk,  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Mun  river  and  on  the  north 
by  the  Puma.  The  taluk  formerly  belonged  to  Akola  District,  and 
was  transferred  to  Buldana  in  1905. 

Khamgaon  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  and  taluk  of 
the  same  name  in  Buldana  District,  Berar,  situated  in  200  43'  N.  and 
760  38'  E.  Population  (1901),  18,341.  Khamgaon  was  the  largest 
cotton  market  in  Berar  before  Amraoti  outstripped  it.  Its  cotton  trade 
dates  from  about  the  year  1820,  when  a  few  merchants  opened  shops 
and  began  to  trade  in  gin,  raw  thread,  and  a  little  cotton ;  and  it  now 
has  several  cotton-presses  and  ginning  factories.  A  state  railway, 
8  miles  in  length,  connects  the  town  with  the  Nagpur  branch  of  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  at  Jalam  station.  The  weekly  market 
is  held  on  Thursdays,  and  during  the  busy  season  it  is  very  largely 
attended.  The  town  has  also  a  special  cotton  market.  The  munici- 
pality was  created  in  1867.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the 
ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  35,000  and  Rs.  39,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  34,000,  derived  chiefly  from  taxes  and 
cesses;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  25,000,  the  principal  heads  being 
conservancy  and  education.  The  town  is  supplied  with  water  from 
a  tank  about  i|  miles  distant,  and  several  gardens  produce  good  oranges 
and  vegetables. 

Khammamett.— Southern  taluk  of  Warangal  District,  Hyderabad 
State,  with  an  area  of  990  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901,  in- 
cluding Jagzrs,  was  154,540,  compared  with  154,159  in  1891.  The 
taluk  contains  195  villages,  of  which  13  are  Jagir,  and  Khammamett 
(population,  3,001)  is  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  in  190 1 
was  4-6  lakhs.  Rice  is  largely  grown  and  irrigated  from  tanks  and 
wells.  The  Nizam's  Guaranteed  State  Railway  runs  through  the  taluk 
from  north  to  south. 

Khamti  Hills. — A  hilly  country  on  the  frontier  of  Assam,  lying  at 
the  eastern  end  of  the  Brahmaputra  Valley  and  inhabited  by  the  Kham- 
tis,  a  tribe  of  Shan  origin,  who  are  said  to  have  migrated  northwards  to 
the  hills  near  the  upper  waters  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Mekong  when 
Mogaung  was  conquered  by  the  Burmese  king,  Alaungpaya,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  section  of  the  tribe  moved 
on  into  Assam  and  settled  near  Sadiya,  and  their  leader  succeeded 
in  establishing  his  position  as  the  feudal  chief  of  the  surrounding 
country.  He  was  recognized  by  the  British  when  they  took  over  the 
territories  of  the  Ahom  prince ;  but  his  son  declined  to  abide  by  the 
decisions  of  the  local  British  officer,  and  was  deprived  of  his  office  and 

p  2 


222  KHAMTI  HILLS 

dignities.  The  Khamtis  then  rose,  raided  the  settlement  at  Sadiya, 
and  killed  the  commanding  officer,  Colonel  White,  in  1839.  The  rising 
was,  however,  quickly  suppressed,  and  no  trouble  has  since  been  given 
by  the  tribe. 

Bor  Khamti,  the  principal  stronghold  of  this  people,  consists  of  the 
valley  of  the  Namkiu  (the  western  branch  of  the  Irrawaddy)  with  the 
surrounding  hills.  It  can  be  reached  via  the  Patkai  and  the  Hukawng 
valley,  or  by  a  route  running  south-east  from  Sadiya  up  the  valley  of  the 
Diyun,  over  the  Chaukan  pass,  which  is  8,400  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  distance  from  Sadiya  to  Putau,  the  principal  Bor  Khamti 
village,  is  197  miles.  After  Bishi  the  path  is  very  difficult  in  places, 
running  through  dense  forests  where  there  are  no  villages  and  no  means 
of  obtaining  supplies.  Oaks,  rhododendrons,  and  beeches  grow  freely 
on  the  hills,  and  large  game,  such  as  elephants  and  rhinoceros,  are 
common.  Putau  is  situated  in  a  valley,  shut  in  on  every  side  except  the 
south  by  hills,  which  in  the  winter  are  crowned  with  snow.  The  valley 
is  about  25  miles  long  by  15  broad,  and  is  about  1,500  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  villages  are  surrounded  with  a  palisade  about  12  feet  high, 
made  of  split  trees  interlaced  with  bamboo.  The  houses  are  large,  com- 
modious structures  built  on  piles,  and  the  audience  chamber  in  the 
Raja's  house  is  50  feet  in  length  by  40  wide.  Rice  is  the  staple  crop 
grown  in  the  valley,  but  pulse  and  poppy  are  also  cultivated,  the  Kham- 
tis being  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  opium.  The  people  are  much 
more  civilized  than  most  of  the  hill  tribes  on  the  north-east  frontier, 
and  near  Putau  there  is  a  brick-built  temple  95  feet  high  with  a  gilded 
cupola.  Some  of  the  images  of  Buddha  in  this  temple  are  of  consider- 
able artistic  merit.  The  Khamtis  seem  to  stand  in  some  awe  of  the 
Singphos,  who  adjoin  them  on  the  west,  and  also  of  the  Khakus,  said  to 
be  of  the  same  race  as  the  Singphos,  who  occupy  the  hills  on  the  east. 
Little  is  known  about  the  geology  of  the  tract,  but  pyrite,  calcho-pyrite, 
and  galena  have  been  found. 

[An  account  of  the  Khamtis  will  be  found  in  Colonel  Dalton's 
Ethnology  of  Bengal, ,] 

Khana. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Burdwan  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  230  20'  N.  and  870  46' E.  Population  (1901), 
1,600.  Khana  is  an  important  junction  on  the  East  Indian  Railway, 
where  the  chord-line  branches  off  from  the  loop-line. 

Khanakul. — Village  in  the  Arambagh  subdivision  of  Hooghly  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  220  43'  N.  and  870  52'  E.,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Kana  Nadl.  Population  (1901),  886.  There  is  some  trade,  in 
brass-ware,  and  cotton  fabrics  of  a  superior  quality  are  manufactured 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Vegetables  are  extensively  grown  for  the 
Calcutta  market.     A  large  temple  to  Siva  stands  on  the  river  bank. 

Khanapur  Taluka  (1). — Southernmost  taluka  of  Belgaum  District, 


KH AND  ALA  223 

Bombay,  lying  between  150  22'  and  150  47'  N.  and  740  5'  and  740  44' 
E.,  with  an  area  of  633  square  miles.  It  contains  217  villages,  includ- 
ing Nandgad  (population,  6,257).  The  population  in  1901  was 
81,902,  compared  with  85,596  in  1891.  The  density,  129  persons 
per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average,  and  it  is  the  most 
sparsely  peopled  taluka  in  the  District.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
Khanapur.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-45  lakhs, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  11,000.  In  the  south  and  south-west  the  country  is 
covered  with  hills  and  dense  forest ;  the  inhabitants  are  few  and 
unsettled ;  and,  except  in  patches,  tillage  disappears.  In  the  north- 
west the  hills  are  especially  lofty.  In  the  centre,  north-east,  and  east, 
the  country  is  an  open,  well-tilled,  black-soil  plain,  with  many  rich  and 
populous  villages.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthy  during  the 
hot  months,  but  feverish  in  the  cold  season  and  during  the  south- 
west rains.  The  annual  rainfall,  averaging  71  inches,  is  heavier  than 
in  other  tdlukas. 

Khanapur  Taluka  (2). —  Taluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  170  8'  and  170  27'  N.  and  740  14'  and  740  51'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  510  square  miles.  It  contains  91  villages,  including  Khanapur 
(population,  5,229)  and  Vita  (5,035),  the  head-quarters.  The  population 
in  1901  was  86,049,  compared  with  95,931  in  1891.  The  density,  169 
persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  i-6  lakhs,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  13,000.  Khanapur  is  an  upland,  rising  more  than  200  feet  above 
the  Karad  valley  on  the  west  and  the  great  plain  of  the  Man  on  the 
east.  It  is  sparingly  wooded,  except  near  the  feeders  of  the  Yerla  river, 
which  crosses  the  taluka  from  north  to  south  on  its  way  to  join  the 
Kistna.  The  climate  is  fairly  temperate,  save  for  occasional  hot  winds  ; 
but  the  rainfall,  which  measures  only  24  inches  annually,  is  uncertain, 
and  water  is  often  scarce  in  the  hot  season.  The  soil  is  either  black  or 
grey  murrain  with  its  intermediate  varieties. 

Khanapur  Village. — Village  in  the  taluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Satara  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  170  15'  N.  and  740  43'  E., 
about  10  miles  east  of  Vita.  Population  (1901),  5,229.  From  its 
proximity  to  the  fort  of  Bhopalgarh  it  was  probably  in  early  times  the 
administrative  head-quarters  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  town 
has  stone  and  mud  walls,  now  much  decayed,  and  gates  at  the  north- 
west and  east  flanked  with  bastions.  Within  the  village  is  an  old 
mosque,  containing  the  tomb  of  a  female  saint,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  daughter  of  one  of  the  Bijapur  Sultans.  The  mosque  contains  two 
inscriptions,  in  Arabic  and  Kanarese. 

Khandala. — Sanitarium  in  the  Maval  taluka  of  Poona  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  180  46'  N.  and  730  22'  E.,  on  the  Western  Ghats, 
about  41  miles  north-west  of  Poona  city.     It  is  a  favourite  retreat  of 


224  KH AND  ALA 

the  inhabitants  of  Bombay  during  the  summer  months.  Population 
(1901),  2,322.  A  much-admired  waterfall,  distant  about  half  a  mile, 
consists  in  the  rainy  season  of  two  cataracts,  divided  into  an  upper  and 
a  lower  fall.  The  upper  cataract  has  a  sheer  fall  of  300  feet.  Khan- 
dala owes  its  importance  entirely  to  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railway,  on  which  it  is  a  station.  The  climate  is  temperate  in  the  hot 
season,  owing  to  the  cool  sea-breezes.  There  are  a  hotel  for  Euro- 
peans, a  convalescent  home,  and  a  dispensary.  Khandala  contains 
4  schools  with  175  boys  and  65  girls,  three  of  which  are  supported  by 
missions.  One  is  a  Roman  Catholic  Mission  school,  connected  with 
the  St.  Mary's  College  in  Bombay,  the  second  is  St.  Peter's  Protestant 
High  School,  and  the  third  is  maintained  by  the  All  Saints'  Community 
of  Bombay.  Several  bungalows  have  been  built  by  native  merchants  of 
Bombay,  who  resort  hither  during  May  and  October.  In  the  vicinity 
are  many  fine  views  of  the  Ghat  range,  which  runs  north  and  south 
in  lines  of  great  natural  beauty.  Khandala  is  a  military  sanitarium 
in  the  Poona  division  of  the  Western  Command. 

Khandela. — Principal  town  of  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Torawati  nizdmal  of  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  270  37' 
N.  and  750  30'  E.,  about  55  miles  north-by-north-west  of  Jaipur  city. 
Population  (1901),  9,156.  The  town  has  a  local  reputation  for  its 
lacquered  articles  and  toys,  and  possesses  a  fort  and  three  indigenous 
schools  attended  by  155  pupils.  The  Khandela  estate  is  held  by  two 
Rajas,  who  pay  a  tribute  of  Rs.  72,550  to  the  Jaipur  Darbar. 

Khanderi  (or  Kenery). — Small  island  in  the  Alibag  taluka  of 
Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  42'  N.  and  720  49'  E.,  near 
the  entrance  of  Bombay  harbour,  11  miles  south  of  Bombay  and 
6  north-west  of  Alibag.  It  lies  2\  miles  from  the  Kolaba  mainland  and 
1  \  miles  from  its  sister  island  of  Underi.  Population  (1901),  130. 
The  island  is  a  mile  and  a  half  long  by  half  a  mile  broad.  A  lighthouse, 
which  was  built  in  1867,  stands  on  the  highest  part.  It  is  an  octagonal 
masonry  tower  78  feet  high  on  the  centre  of  a  flat-roofed  house,  the 
centre  of  the  lantern  being  1,581  feet  above  the  level  of  high- water. 
The  light  is  a  catadioptric  of  order  1,  and  is  a  single  light  with  groups 
of  flashes  showing  white  with  red  sector.  The  period  of  revolution  is 
ten  seconds,  and  it  is  visible  for  18  miles.  A  flagstaff  200  feet  high 
stands  north-east-by-north  from  the  light  tower. 

In  1679  SivajT,  whom  no  advantage  escaped,  sent  300  soldiers  and  as 
many  labourers,  with  arms  and  materials,  to  Khanderi,  and  began  to 
raise  breast-works  at  the  landing-places.  The  island  had  never  before 
been  inhabited,  and  its  only  produce  was  fuel,  which  had  formerly  been 
sent  to  Bombay.  When  they  heard  of  SivajT's  works  on  Khanderi,  the 
English  claimed  it  as  part  of  Bombay,  the  Portuguese  as  an  old  settle- 
ment.    Two  attempts  to  turn  out  the  Marathas  failed  ;  and  even  after 


KHANDESH  DISTRICT  225 

a  naval  battle  in  which  the  British  fleet  of  eight  ships  put  to  flight  50 
sail,  the  English  were  not  able  to  prevent  the  Marathas  strengthening 
their  forces  on  Khanderi.  The  Sidi,  as  Mughal  admiral,  joined  the  Eng- 
lish with  a  strong  fleet;  but  the  English  commander  found  that  the  Sidi 
did  not  mean  to  give  up  the  island  if  he  took  it,  and  held  aloof.  The 
Sidi  continued  to  batter  Khanderi  and  then  suddenly  fortified  Underi. 
Daulat  Khan,  SivajI's  admiral,  tried  to  stop  this,  bringing  guns  on  the 
mainland  opposite.  But  he  was  defeated  and  severely  wounded,  his 
small  open  boats  not  being  able  to  stand  against  the  Sldi's  stronger  and 
larger  vessels.  For  several  years  after  this  there  were  constant  struggles 
between  the  Sidi  and  the  Marathas  for  the  possession  of  these  islands. 
In  1693  Khafi  Khan  mentions  '  Kalaba  and  Gandiri'  as  the  strongest 
of  SivajI's  newly  built  forts  on  the  sea-shore.  In  1695  Gemelli  Careri 
calls  them  Underin  and  Canderin,  two  forts  on  the  island  and  continent, 
a  rock  with  some  dwellings  of  SivajT,  who  was  at  war  with  the  Great 
Mughal  and  consequently  in  action  against  the  Sidi.  About  1706  Mr. 
Strutt,  Deputy-Governor  of  Bombay,  described  Khanderi  as  strongly 
fortified  by  Angria  and  covered  with  houses.  Khanderi  was  one  of  the 
ten  forts  and  sixteen  fortified  places  of  less  strength  which,  in  17 13, 
Kanhoji  Angria  obtained  on  siding  with  Raja  Sahu.  In  October,  1718, 
the  English  tried  to  take  Khanderi  and  failed.  This  failure  is  said  to 
have  been  due  to  the  treachery  of  one  Rama  Ka.ma.ti  who  held  a  con- 
fidential post  under  Governor  Boone,  while  a  year  later  a  Portuguese 
captain,  who  lay  on  one  quarter  of  it  with  some  war-vessels  to  hinder 
relief  coming  to  it,  betrayed  his  trust,  and  let  some  boats  pass  in  the 
night  with  provisions  and  ammunition  which  the  island  greatly  needed. 
About  1740  it  was  settled  between  the  English  and  the  Sidi  that,  if 
Khanderi  was  taken,  it  should  be  delivered  with  all  its  guns  and  stores 
to  the  English.  The  cession  of  Khanderi  to  the  English  was  again  pro- 
posed in  1755.  It  was  not  actually  ceded  until  1775  under  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  Surat,  and  shortly  after  was  taken  back  under  the 
Treaty  of  Purandhar.  Khanderi  was  then  held  by  the  Marathas  till  it 
passed  to  the  British  in  1  Si 8  as  part  of  the  Peshwa's  dominions. 

Khandesh  District1. — District  in  the  Central  Division  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  lying  between  200  16'  and  220  2'  N.  and  730  35' 
and  760  24/  E.,  with  an  area  of  10,041  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Satpura  Hills  and  the  Narbada  river ;  on  the  east  by 
Berar  and  the  Nimar  District  of  the  Central  Provinces  ;  on  the  south 
by  the  Satmala,  Chandor,  or  Ajanta  hills  ;  on  the  south-west  by  the 

1  In  1906  the  District  was  divided  into  two  new  Districts  called  West  and  East 
Khandesh,  with  head-quarters  at  Dhulia  and  Jalgaon.  The  former  contains  7  tahikas 
and  on&petha,  with  an  area  of  5,497  square  miles,  a  population  of  469,654,  and  a  land 
revenue  of  15-7  lakhs.  The  latter  contains  10  tdlukas  and  3  pcthas,  with  an  area  of 
4,544  square  miles,  a  population  of  957.7-S,  and  a  land  revenue  of  27-4  lakhs. 


226  KHANDESH  DISTRICT 

District  of  Nasik ;  and  on  the  west  by  Baroda  territory  and  the  petty 
State  of  Sagbara  in  the  Rewa.  Kantha  Agency. 

Khandesh  forms  the  most  northerly  section  of  the  Deccan  table-land. 
The  chief  natural  feature  is  the  river  Tapti,  which,  entering  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  District,  flows  in  a  westerly 
asDects  direction,  dividing   it  into   two   unequal    parts.     Of 

these,  the  larger  lies  towards  the  south,  and  is 
drained  by  the  rivers  Girna,  Bori,  and  Panjhra.  Here  is  the  long 
central  plain  of  Khandesh — an  unbroken  stretch  of  150  miles,  from 
the  border  of  Nimar  to  Nandurbar,  comprising  an  extensive  area  of 
rich  alluvial  soil.  In  this  tract  large  and  prosperous  towns  and  villages, 
surrounded  by  mango  groves  and  gardens,  are  numerous.  Except 
when  blasted  by  the  hot  winds  of  the  dry  season,  the  fields  are  clothed 
with  a  harvest  of  various  crops.  Northwards  beyond  the  alluvial  plain 
the  land  rises  towards  the  Satpura  Hills.  In  the  centre  and  east,  save 
for  some  low  ranges  of  barren  hills,  the  country  is  level,  and  has  in 
general  an  arid,  infertile  appearance.  Towards  the  north  and  west, 
the  plain  rises  into  a  difficult  and  rugged  country,  thickly  wooded, 
and  inhabited  by  tribes  of  Bhlls,  who  chiefly  live  on  the  wild  fruits 
of  the  forest  and  are  supported  by  the  profits  of  wood-cutting.  The 
drainage  of  the  District  centres  in  the  Tapti,  which  receives  thirteen 
principal  tributaries  in  its  winding  course  of  180  miles  through  Khan- 
desh. None  of  the  rivers  is  navigable,  and  the  Tapti  flows  in  too 
deep  a  bed  to  be  made  use  of  for  irrigation.  Its  banks  rise  high 
and  bare  at  a  distance  of  from  240  to  400  yards  across.  Except  for  two 
waterfalls,  one  above  and  the  other  below  the  Bhusawal  railway  bridge, 
the  river  rolls  over  long  sandy  stretches  for  forty  miles  till  it  meets  the 
waters  of  the  Vaghar.  During  the  rainy  season  the  Tapti  is  not  ford- 
able  ;  the  only  bridge  across  it  is  the  railway  bridge  at  Bhusawal.  The 
Narbada  skirts  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District  for  45  miles. 
It  occasionally  serves  to  carry  timber  to  the  coast.  Khandesh  District 
on  the  whole  may  be  said  to  be  fairly  well  supplied  with  surface  water, 
for,  besides  the  rivers  that  flow  during  the  whole  year,  the  channels 
of  many  of  the  smaller  streams  are  seldom  entirely  without  water. 
The  four  principal  mountain  ranges  are  :  in  the  north,  the  SATPURA 
Hills,  dividing  the  valleys  of  the  Tapti  and  the  Narbada,  including  the 
peak  of  Panchu-Pandu  (3,000  feet)  and  plateau  of  Turanmal  (3,300 
feet),  the  starting-point  of  Khandesh  history ;  in  the  south-east,  the 
Hatti ;  in  the  south,  the  Satmala,  Chandor,  or  Ajanta  range,  sepa- 
rating Khandesh  from  the  Deccan  table-land,  and,  speaking  roughly, 
from  the  Nizam's  Dominions  ;  on  the  west,  between  Khandesh  and 
Gujarat,  is  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Western  Ghats.  The  Arva 
and  Galna  hills  divide  Khandesh  from  Nasik. 

The  geology  of  Khandesh    has  been  examined  only  as  far  south 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  227 

as  the  Tapti.  The  strip  of  varying  breadth  between  the  Tapti  and 
Satpura  Hills  is  chiefly  covered  with  alluvium.  Basalt  of  the  Deccan 
trap  group  is  the  only  other  formation,  composing  the  hills  and  showing 
here  and  there  in  the  deeper  ravines.  Basalt  probably  occurs  in  the 
bed  of  the  Tapti,  as,  in  many  places  to  the  south,  it  rises  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  stream  ;  and  though  alluvium  stretches  north  for 
15  miles,  rock  appears  near  Bhusawal  at  the  point  where  the  railway 
bridge  crosses  the  Tapti.  About  5  miles  from  Burhanpur,  and  about 
a  mile  north-east  of  Chulkhan  village,  there  is  a  singular  patch  of  lime- 
stone, about  50  feet  long.  It  shows  no  sign  of  crystallization  and 
appears  to  contain  no  fossils.  At  one  end  there  is  white  sandy  rock, 
like  decomposed  gneiss,  standing  upright  as  if  part  of  a  vertical  bed. 
The  presence  of  rounded  grains  points  to  its  being  sandstone ;  and 
the  whole  rock  is  evidently  part  of  an  infra-trappean  formation,  either 
Lameta  or  Bagh,  brought  up  by  a  dike  or  included  in  a  lava-flow.  The 
Deccan  trap  in  the  north  of  Khandesh  shows  signs  of  disturbance  sub- 
sequent to  its  original  formation.  The  beds  are  in  some  places  hori- 
zontal, as  in  the  Aner  valley  and  near  Uaulet,  north  of  Chopda,  and 
also  westward  as  far  as  the  Bombay-Agra  road,  where,  on  the  top 
of  the  ascent  to  Sindwa,  the  beds  stretch  in  horizontal  terraces.  The 
traps  of  Turanmal  are  nearly  horizontal,  but  in  the  low  rises  from 
Burhanpur  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Raver  the  beds  appear  to  dip 
northwards.  North-west  of  Turanmal  is  a  low  east-north-east  dip 
which  continues  as  far  as  the  Udai  river.  The  trap  along  the  north 
boundary  of  Khandesh  has  a  low  irregular  northerly  dip.  There  are 
four  hot  springs,  three  in  Chopda  and  one  in  Shirpur1. 

Khandesh  is  usually  considered  a  separate  botanical  province  of  the 
Presidency,  including  the  valley  of  the  Tapti  and  the  western  half 
of  the  Satpura  Hills.  The  former  is  generally  well  wooded,  and  the 
latter  is  clothed  with  dense  forests.  In  the  east  of  the  Khandesh 
Satpuras  anjan  and  salai  (Boswe/iia  serratd)  predominate.  In  Chopda 
and  Shirpur  teak  is  found  in  all  the  valleys.  The  Shahada  forests  are 
chiefly  khair,  and  in  Akhrani  anjan  reappears  on  the  banks  of  the 
Narbada.  On  the  west  the  spurs  of  the  Ghats  are  remarkable  for 
the  growth  of  anjan,  and  about  Savda  on  the  east  the  country  has 
quite  a  park-like  appearance.  In  the  south-east  the  forest  area  is  small, 
yielding  only  a  small  quantity  of  anjan.  The  chief  trees  are  the  banyan, 
mango  {Mangifera  indiai),  mahud  (Bass/a  latifolia),  plpal  (Fiats  reli- 
giosa),  pa/as  (Bttiea  jroudosa),  umbar  {Fiats  glomerata\  and  temburni 
(Diospyros  melanoxylori).  The  chief  flowering  plants  are  the  Hibiscus, 
Sida,  Indigojera,  Crotalaria,  Buica,  Cassia,  Echinops,  Trichodesma, 
Cummelina,  Ipomoca,  and  Celosia. 

1  W.  T.  Blaniord,  •  Geology  of  the  Tapti  and  Lower  Narbada  Valleys,  &c.,' 
Memoirs,  Geological  Survey  oj India,  vol.  vi,  pp.  286-90  and  344-51. 


2  28  KHANDESH  DISTRICT 

Wild  beasts  are  numerous,  comprising  the  tiger,  leopard,  hunting 
cheetah,  bear,  lynx,  wolf,  bison,  sdmbar  deer,  spotted  deer,  nilgai, 
antelope,  '  ravine  deer '  (gazelle),  and  the  four-horned  deer.  Up  to  the 
seventeenth  century  the  hilly  tracts  to  the  north  of  the  District  were  a 
breeding-ground  for  wild  elephants.  At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of 
British  rule,  and  for  many  years  after,  tigers  and  leopards  were  found 
in  every  part  of  the  District.  As  late  as  1858,  tigers  were  numerous; 
but  since  then  they  have  been  very  closely  hunted,  and  are  now  rare. 

Owing  to  differences  of  elevation,  the  climate  varies  greatly  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  District.  In  the  western  hills  and  forests  and  in  the 
Satpuras  the  rainfall  is  heavy ;  but  over  much  of  the  centre  and  south 
it  is  scanty.  Nevertheless  the  District  has  till  quite  recently  been 
considered  safe  from  famine.  The  town  of  Dhulia,  which  may  be 
taken  to  illustrate  the  average,  has  an  annual  rainfall  of  22  inches. 
In  the  District  it  varies  from  20  to  45.  In  the  cold  season  (October 
to  January),  except  on  cloudy  days,  the  climate  is  pleasant  and  bracing. 
During  the  hot  months  the  air  is  extremely  dry.  At  Dhulia  the 
temperature  falls  as  low  as  520  in  January,  rising  to  no0  in  May,  when 
the  heat  is  excessive.  The  general  health  of  the  people  is  best  in  the 
hot  and  worst  in  the  cold  season.  Malaria  is  rife  at  the  beginning  of 
the  latter,  when  the  ground  commences  to  dry  after  the  rains.  In  the 
east  and  centre,  the  climate  is  trying  to  Europeans,  but  healthy  to  the 
natives.  In  the  west,  all  periods  except  the  hot  season  are  injurious 
to  native  and  European  alike. 

The  early  history  of  Khandesh  extends  from  150  B.C.,  the  date  of 
the  oldest  rock  inscription  yet  discovered  and  deciphered,  to  the  year 
a.d.  1295,  when  the  Musalman  emperor  Ala-ud-dln 
suddenly  appeared  from  Delhi.  The  mythical  annals 
of  the  Hindu  period  may  be  said  to  commence  with  the  mention  in 
the  Mahabharata  of  the  hill  forts  of  Turanmal  and  Asirgarh  :  the  ruler 
of  Turanmal  is  recorded  as  having  fought  against  the  Pandavas ;  the 
fort  of  Asirgarh  is  named  as  a  place  of  worship  to  Ashvatthama.  Local 
tradition  asserts  that,  from  a  time  long  previous  to  Christianity,  the 
dynasty  in  power  was  that  of  a  Rajput  chief  whose  ancestors  had  come 
from  Oudh.  The  first  line  of  which  distinct  record  remains  is,  how- 
ever, that  of  the  Andhras.  The  Andhras  were  temporarily  displaced 
by  the  Western  Satraps;  in  the  fifth  century  a.d.  the  Chalukya  dynasties 
rose  to  power;  local  chiefs  followed;  and  Khandesh  was  under  the 
Chauhan  ruler  of  Asirgarh  when   Ala-ud-dln  appeared. 

Muhammadan  rule  lasted  until  the  Marathas  captured  the  stronghold 
of  Asirgarh  in  1760.  In  the  interval,  until  the  Farukis,  Khandesh  was 
subject  to  successive  governors  from  Delhi,  sent  by  the  different 
dynasties  that  rose  in  that  city.  Under  Muhammad  bin  Tughlak,  from 
1325  to  1346,  Khandesh  was  administered   from   Ellichpur  in  Berar. 


HISTORY  229 

From  1370  to  1600  the  Arab  dynasty  of  the  Farukis  administered  the 
District,  and,  though  nominally  subject  to  the  Sultans  of  Gujarat,  were 
practically  independent.  The  last  year  of  the  sixteenth  century  (1599) 
saw  the  coming  of  the  Mughals.  In  that  year  Akbar  in  person  overran 
Khandesh  at  the  head  of  an  army,  captured  Asirgarh,  and  sent  the 
reigning  prince,  Bahadur  Khan,  to  Gwalior  for  safe  keeping.  Khandesh 
then  became  incorporated  into  the  Delhi  empire.  Its  name  was 
changed  for  a  time  to  Dandesh  in  honour  of  its  new  governor,  prince 
Daniyal.  In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  highly  pros- 
perous. From  1670  Maratha  raids  commenced,  and  it  was  for  more 
than  a  century  given  up  to  every  species  of  calamity,  internal  and 
external.  In  that  year  Sivaji,  after  his  second  sack  of  Surat,  sent  an 
officer  to  demand  chanth  in  Khandesh.  The  Marathas  captured  and 
held  Salher  fort,  and  afterwards  Khande  Rao  Dabhade  established 
himself  in  the  western  hills.  Thenceforward  the  District  was  the 
scene  of  numerous  plundering  raids.  Sivaji,  Sambhajl,  and  the 
emperor  Aurangzeb  ravaged  it  in  turn.  In  1720  Nizam-ul-mulk  an- 
nexed Khandesh  and  held  it  throughout  his  life.  His  son  was  ousted 
by  the  Marathas  in  1760.  The  Peshwa,  on  recovering  the  District, 
granted  portions  of  it  to  Holkar  and  Sindia. 

In  1802  the  country  was  ravaged  by  Holkar's  army.  For  two 
seasons  the  land  remained  uncared  for,  the  destruction  and  ruin 
bringing  on  a  severe  famine.  In  the  years  that  followed,  Khandesh 
was  further  impoverished  by  the  greed  and  misrule  of  the  Peshwa. 
The  people,  leaving  their  peaceful  callings,  joined  together  in  bands, 
wandering  over  the  country,  robbing  and  laying  waste.  It  was  in  this 
state  that,  in  1818,  the  District  passed  into  British  hands.  For  many 
years  after  annexation  the  Bhll  tribes  gave  trouble  by  outbreaks  of 
lawlessness,  and  were  only  brought  into  submission  under  the  kindlier 
measures  adopted  in  the  time  of  Elphinstone  (1825),  who  entrusted 
the  work  of  pacification  to  the  skilful  hands  of  Outram,  the  founder 
of  the  Bhll  Corps.  A  serious  riot  occurred  in  1852,  and  in  1857  the 
Bhils  broke  out  under  the  leadership  of  Bhagoji  and  Kajarsing  Naik ; 
but  these  disorders  were  easily  suppressed. 

Generally  distributed  over  Khandesh,  as  well  as  in  Ahmadnagar  and 
the  Central  Deccan,  are  the  stone-built  temples,  reservoirs,  and  wells 
locally  known  as  Hemadpanti,  or  in  Khandesh  as  Gauli  Raj.  The 
term  'Hemadpanti'  is  derived  from  Hemadpant  or  Flemadri,  the 
minister  (inantri)  of  Ramchandra  ( 1 2  7 1 )  the  Yadava  ruler  of  Deogiri, 
but  is  now  applied  to  any  old  stone  building.  The  local  Khandesh  term 
'Gauli  Raj'  probably  also  refers  to  the  Yadava  kings.  In  Khandesh 
thirty-nine  Hemadpanti  buildings  are  found,  thirty-one  of  them  being 
temples,  six  step-wells,  and  two  stone-lined  reservoirs.  Some  may  be 
of  greater  age,  but   most   of  them  were  probably  built   in   either  the 


230 


KHAXDESH  DISTRICT 


twelfth  or  the  thirteenth  century.  These  Hemadpanti  buildings  are 
all  of  blocks  of  cut  stone  carefully  joined  and  put  together  without 
mortar.  In  some  the  stones  are  so  large  as  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
saying  that  they  are  the  work  of  giants. 

Besides  the  Hemadpanti  remains,  the  District  possesses  some  Musal- 
man  buildings,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  mosque  at  Erandol. 
Pitalkhora  glen  in  the  Chalisgaon  tdluka  contains  a  ruined  chaitya  and 
vihara,  very  early  Buddhist  works,  probably  dating  from  two  centuries 
before  Christ.  In  the  valley  beneath  is  the  deserted  city  of  Patna, 
where  there  are  old  carved  temples  and  inscriptions,  while  on  the  hill 
opposite  are  other  and  later  caves.  The  temple  of  Krishna  in  Vaghali, 
built  200  years  before  Hemadpant  lived,  contains  three  fine  inscribed 
slabs  in  the  inner  wall  of  the  hall. 

There  are  31  towns  and  2,614  villages  in  the  District.  The  Census 
of  1901  disclosed  a  total  population  of  1,427,382,  or  an  increase 
of  40  per  cent,  in  the  last  thirty  years.  In  previous 
years  the  numbers  were:  (1872)  1,030,106,  (1881) 
1,237,308,  and  (1891)  1,434,802.  The  increase  of  20  per  cent,  in  1881 
was  due  to  immigration,  attracted  by  the  large  area  of  unoccupied 
fertile  land  available  for  cultivation.  The  population  decreased  by 
0-5  per  cent,  in  190 1  owing  to  a  succession  of  bad  harvests  (1896-1901)- 
The  distribution  by  talukas  is  as  follows  :  — 


Population. 


square 

ES. 

Number  of 

ion  per 
mile. 

age  of 
ion  in 
ion  be- 
1891 
901. 

er  of 
able  to 
ami 
ie. 

Talukas. 

—"5 

r.  - 

CO 

c 

be 

_2 

S 

a. 

-  - 

—  — 

cent 
riat 
ulat 
een 
nd  1 

ons 
cad 

wrii 

< 

0 

H 
1 

> 

0 

Taloda 

i.-1 77 



*93 

33,881 

29 

-40 

1,080 

Shahada 

479 

2 

155 

59,758 

25 

-    8 

3,162 

Xandurbar . 

,,      Navapur/^a 

}    992  { 

I 

203 
81 

67:369 
20.06S 

}88{ 

—  1 

-  34 

2,8l8 
271 

Sindkheda  . 

5°5 

2 

141 

76,811 

152 

+    5          2,963 

Shirpur 

651 

I 

99 

SO--1/? 

77 

-  10         2,045 

Chopda 

368 

2 

9i 

75.-55° 

205 

+     4         2,763 

Yaval. 

250 

2 

75 

82,299 

329 

+     2         4,614 

Raver. 

481 

2 

106 

80.368 

67 

+    5         4,667 

i'lmpalner   . 

933 

151 

56,638 

61 

-    5          2,000 

Dhulia 

760 

2 

*54 

104.952 

13S 

+    7        6,435 

Amalner 

}     *28l 

I 

164 

73,083 

}-( 

+     4 

2:453 

„     Yaxola.  pelha    . 

I 

64 

38,210 

-    4 

1  -s93 

Erandol 

458 

3 

'95 

105,840 

-3' 

6,435 

Jalgaon 

3'9 

2 

89 

85,15' 

269 

+     1 

5:5'6 

Bbusawal    . 

}    57o| 

3 

105 

76.943 

}l92{ 

-     2 

5-387 

,,      lidalabad  pelha 

75 

32,372 

-    9 

'.-163 

Jamner 

527 

2 

i55 

91:739 

174 

+    5 

3,343 

Pachora 

,,     Bhad^aon  pet  ha 

}    542  { 

2 
1 

121 

65 

80.724 
44>6'2 

}23l{ 

+     1 

+     7 

3-934 
2,244 

Chalisgaon . 

I  Strict  total 

5°i 

1 

132 

9°.s37 

l8l 

+  21 

3:5*2 

10,041 

3i 

2,614 

1,427,38a 

I42 

-0-5       68,773 

POPULATION  231 

The  chief  towns  are  :  Dhulia  (the  head-quarters  of  the  new  District 
of  West  Khandesh),  Bhtjsawal,  Dharangaon,  Nasirabad,  Nandur- 
bar,  Chalisgaon,  Bhadgaon,  Jamxer,  Adavad,  Chopda,  Jalgaon 
(the  head-quarters  of  the  new  District  of  East  Khandesh),  Parola, 
Erandol,  Amalner,  Faizapur,  Pachora,  Nagardevla,  and  Bodvah. 
The  average  density  is  142  persons  per  square  mile,  but  the  western 
portion  of  the  District  is  on  the  whole  more  thinly  populated  than  the 
east.  Shahada  and  Taloda  are  the  tahtkas  of  smallest  density,  and 
Yaval  and  Jalgaon  are  the  most  densely  populated.  Of  the  total 
population,  90  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  8  per  cent.  Musalmans,  12,298 
or  0-9  per  cent.  Jains,  and  11,600  or  o-8  per  cent.  Animists ; 
Christians  number  1,398.  Gujarat!  is  in  use  among  the  higher  classes 
of  husbandmen  to  the  north  of  the  Tapti,  and  it  is  the  language  of 
trade  throughout  the  District ;  but  MarathI,  the  speech  of  the  people  in 
the  south  and  west,  is  the  language  of  Government  offices  and  schools, 
and  is  gradually  gaining  ground.  In  their  homes  the  majority  of  the 
people  speak  a  dialect  known  as  Khandesh!  or  AhiranI,  a  mixture  of 
Gujarat!,  MarathI,  Nemadl,  and  Hindustani,  in  which  Gujarat!  pre- 
dominates. 

The  important  castes  are:  Kunbl,  330,000;  Bhll,  167,000  (of  whom 
10,000  are  Musalmans);  Mahar,  107,000;  Maratha,  94,000;  Mall 
(gardener),  60,000;  KolT,  57,000;  Brahman,  50,000;  Vani,  47,000 
(chiefly  Gujars) ;  Rajput,  40,000  ;  Dhangar,  39,000  ;  Vanjari,  32,000  ; 
Teli  (oil-men),  27,000;  Sonar  (goldsmith),  24,000;  Nhavi  (barber), 
21,000;  Chamar  (leather-worker),  20,000;  Sutar  (carpenter),  16,000; 
Shimpi  (tailor),  16,000;  and  Mang,  13,000.  Of  the  thirteen  divisions 
of  Brahmans  in  the  District,  three  understand  but  do  not  speak 
MarathI ;  the  remaining  ten  use  that  language.  As  a  rule,  the  main 
divisions  eat  together  but  do  not  intermarry ;  the  subdivisions  as  a  rule 
do  both.  Deshasths  (32,546)  are  most  numerous.  The  others  are  the 
descendants  of  Brahmans  from  every  part  of  India  who  found  their 
way  to  Khandesh.  The  Prabhus,  a  section  of  the  'writer'  class,  are 
scattered  over  the  District,  most  of  them  in  the  service  of  Government. 

Besides  the  general  body  of  cultivators,  who  are  Kunbis  by  caste, 
large  numbers  of  Pardhls  (5,150),  a  low  caste  of  wandciing  hunters  and 
snarers,  and  Rajputs  have  long  been  settled  in  the  District.  Another 
class  of  cultivators  worthy  of  notice  are  the  Gujar  Varus,  the  most 
industrious  and  well-to-do  of  the  agricultural  population.  Their  name, 
and  their  habit  of  speaking  Gujarat!  among  themselves,  show  that  they 
are  immigrants  from  Gujarat.  Most  of  the  traders  are  foreigners : 
Banias  from  Marwar  and  Gujarat,  and  Bhatias,  recent  comers  from 
Bombay.  Wandering  and  aboriginal  tribes  form  a  large  section  of  the 
population.  Many  of  the  Bh!ls  are  employed  on  police  duties  and  as 
village  watchmen.     But  though  most  have  settled  down  to  peaceable 


232  KHANDESH  district 

ways,  they  show  little  skill  in  farming.  Since  the  introduction  of 
British  rule  into  Khandesh,  the  efforts  made,  by  kindly  treatment  and 
the  offer  of  suitable  employment,  to  win  the  Bhlls  from  a  disorderly  life 
have  been  most  successful.  With  the  Mahars  they  form  the  labouring 
class  in  nearly  all  the  villages  of  Khandesh.  The  Nirdhls  dwell  along 
the  foot  of  the  Satmalas.  In  former  times  they  were  much  dreaded. 
During  seasons  of  revolt  the  most  atrocious  acts  were  invariably  the 
work  of  the  Nirdhls.  Vanjaris  or  Lamanis,  the  pack-bullock  carriers 
of  former  and  the  gipsies  of  present  times,  have  suffered  much  from 
the  increased  use  of  carts  and  the  introduction  of  the  railway.  A  few 
are  well-to-do  traders ;  but  most  of  them  live  apart  from  the  villages,  in 
bands  or  tandas,  each  with  its  own  leader  or  naik.  Forced  to  give  up 
their  old  employment,  they  now  live  chiefly  by  grazing,  and  cutting 
grass  and  wood.  The  majority  of  the  Musalmans  are  converts  from 
Hinduism  and  are  styled  Shaikhs  (55,787).  In  1901,  18,504  Pathans, 
descendants  of  the  Musalman  invaders,  were  found  in  the  District. 
More  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  agriculturists,  and  various 
industries  support  22  per  cent. 

Of  the  821  native  Christians  in  the  District  in  1901,  440  were  Roman 
Catholics  and  132  Anglicans.  There  are  Roman  Catholic  chapels  at 
Dhulia,  Bhusawal,  and  Dharangaon.  For  missionary  purposes  the 
District  is  divided  into  three  parts,  the  western  portion  being  occupied 
by  the  Scandinavian-American  Mission,  the  centre  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  and  the  east  by  the  American  Alliance  Mission. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  first-named  society  are  at  Nandurbar,  of  the 
second  at  Dhulia,  while  the  Alliance  Mission  has  stations  along  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  at  Bhusawal,  Jalgaon,  Pachora,  and 
Chalisgaon.  Besides  these,  there  are  two  smaller  semi-independent 
missions :  the  Tapti  Valley  Railway  Industrial  Mission  at  Navapur, 
which  works  chiefly  among  the  Bhlls,  and  the  Peniel  Mission  at 
Dharangaon.  The  majority  of  the  Christian  population  reside  at 
Nandurbar,  Dhulia,  Bhusawal,  and  Dharangaon. 

The  soils  are  composed  of  all  grades,  from  the  deep  rich  black 

of  the  Tapti  valley  to  the  poor  stony  red  and  white  of  the  low  trap 

ranges.      The  local  husbandmen   divide   them    into 

four  classes :  kali  (black),  pandhari  (white),  khdra?i 

(salt),  and  burki  (white  and  salt). 

The  District  is  chiefly  ryotwdri,  only  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area  being  held  on  udhiid  tenure  and  3  per  cent,  as  inam  land.  The 
chief  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the 
next  page,  in  square  miles. 

Jowar  and  bdjra  are  both  largely  grown  in  Khandesh,  the  areas 
under  these  crops  being  667  and  929  square  miles  respectively. 
Joivar   is    chiefly   grown   as   a  kharif  crop,   in    rotation    with    cotton. 


AGRICULTURE 


1 1  ■> 
-jj 


Bajra  everywhere  holds  a  far  more  important  place.  Wheat, 
with  an  area  of  182  square  miles,  is  grown  throughout  the  District, 
though  most  common  along  the  Tapti  valley  and  in  the  west.  The 
chief  pulses  are  titr,  gram,  udid,  kulitk,  and  mug,  which  together 
occupied  581  square  miles  in  1903-4.  Til  and  linseed  are  the 
principal  oilseeds,  covering  250  and  63  square  miles  respectively.  The 
former  is  considered  the  more  profitable  crop.  The  area  under  the 
latter  varies  considerably  according  to  the  nature  of  the  late  rains. 
Cotton,  long  one  of  the  chief  crops,  occupied  2,013  square  miles.  It 
is  seldom  grown  oftener  than  once  in  three  years  in  the  same  field, 
and  the  local  variety  has  been  supplemented  by  Hinganghat  and 
Dharwar  seed. 


Talnka. 

Total 
area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forest. 

Taloda 

I-I77 

IOO 

I 

IS 

*5 

Shah ad a 

482 

284 

I 

16 

74 

Nandurbar 

992 

243 

3 

69 

49 

Sindkheda 

505 

377 

4 

20 

34 

Shirpnr 

678 

201 

■ . . 

17 

27 

Chopda 

368 

228 

. . . 

16 

M 

Yaval 

249 

214 

5 

I 

*> 
0 

Raver 

480 

205 

3 

12 

12 

Pimpalner 

932 

344 

9 

163 

299 

Dhulia 

759 

412 

7 

55 

199 

Amalner 

52S 

409 

8 

9 

33 

Erandol 

458 

366 

3 

8 

27 

Jalgaon 

3T9 

228 

2 

5 

36 

Bhusawal 

57o 

379 

3 

23 

106 

Jamner 

527 

37o 

1 

39 

65 

Pachora 

542 

388 

3 

17 

44 

Chalisgaon 

504 

306 

3 

16 

95 

Total 

10,070* 

5,°54 

56 

504 

1.132 

*  For  2,530  square  miles  of  this  area  statistics  are  not  available.  There  have 
been  changes  since  1900  in  the  areas  of  several  /ainkas,  owing  to  the  introduction 
of  the  revision  survey. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made,  dating  from  1829,  to  reclaim  the 
Pal  lappa,  a  waste  tract  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Satpura  Hills, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  formerly  well  inhabited.  At  the  time  of 
the  British  occupation  in  181 8,  this  was  a  deserted  jungle,  excessively 
unhealthy,  and  infested  with  wild  beasts.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
deserted  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  owing  to 
famine  ;  and  the  remains  of  ancient  buildings  show  that  the  village  of 
Pal  was  formerly  of  considerable  importance.  Special  efforts  to  improve 
the  staple  of  the  local  cotton  have  been  made  for  many  years,  but  the 
cultivation  of  exotic  varieties  has  not  spread  ;  it  is  found  that  the 
exotics  speedily  deteriorate  in  quality  and  give  an  inferior  yield  to  that 
of  the  local  variety.  In  1903-4  a  small  plot  of  land  was  acquired 
by  Government  at  Dhulia,  and  several  varieties  of  cotton  and  jowar, 


234  KHANDESH  DISTRICT 

new  to  the  District,  were  sown.  The  experiment  is  reported  to  be  more 
promising  than  previous  attempts,  but  definite  results  have  not  been 
arrived  at.  Sugar-cane  is  grown  in  small  areas  where  irrigation  is 
available.  Chillies,  fennel,  and  coriander  are  the  principal  condiments 
and  spices.  The  cultivation  of  betel-vines  is  carried  on  with  consider- 
able success  in  garden  lands. 

The  cultivators  of  Khandesh  have  availed  themselves  freely  of  the 
Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts,  and  nearly  25  lakhs 
was  advanced  during  the  decade  ending  1904.  Of  this  sum,  nearly 
20  lakhs  represents  advances  made  during  the  famine  years  1899-1900, 
1 900-1,  and  1901-2. 

The  District  contains  many  fine  cows  and  bullocks,  brought  chiefly 
from  Nimar  and  Berar.  The  Thilari  herd  of  cattle  of  West  Khandesh 
has  a  good  reputation  in  the  Deccan  ;  but  the  greater  number  of  the 
cattle  are  small  and  poor,  reduced  during  the  hot  season  to  the  most 
wretched  condition.  The  horses  also  are  small  and  of  little  value. 
To  improve  the  breed,  the  Civil  Veterinary  department  maintains 
two  pony  stallions  at  Dhulia  and  Chalisgaon,  which  are  not,  however, 
fully  utilized. 

Irrigation  is  practised  mainly  from  dams  thrown  across  the  streams, 
particularly  on  the  Girna  and  Panjhra  rivers,  and  there  are  lakes 
and  reservoirs  which  also  serve  for  irrigation.  The  area  under  various 
classes  of  irrigation  is  56^  square  miles,  or  a  little  more  than  one  per 
cent,  of  the  total  cultivated  area  of  the  District.  Government  canals 
supply  16  square  miles,  private  canals  one,  wells  38,  and  other  sources 
\\  square  miles.  The  dams  must  at  one  time  have  been  very 
numerous.  In  the  west  there  is  scarcely  a  stream  of  any  size  without 
traces  of  them.  Of  works  carried  out  by  the  Irrigation  department 
the  chief  are :  lower  Panjhra  river  works,  the  Hartala  tank,  the  Jamda 
canals,  and  the  Mhasva  lake.  The  first  two  are  old  works  improved 
and  extended  ;  the  others  are  new.  The  lower  Panjhra  water-works, 
which  are  estimated  to  command  nearly  20  square  miles,  supply  about 
4  square  miles  in  Dhulia  and  Amalner.  The  Jamda  canals  on  the 
Girna,  one  of  the  earliest  Government  water-works,  which  are  esti- 
mated to  command  72  square  miles,  water  about  2  square  miles, 
mostly  in  Chalisgaon  and  Pachora.  The  Hartala  lake  in  the  Bhusawal 
talnka  commands  an  area  of  600  acres,  but  did  not  supply  water  in 
1903-4.  The  Mhasva  lake  in  the  petty  subdivision  (pet/id)  of  Parola 
in  Amalner  irrigated  a  total  area  of  181  acres,  and  is  estimated 
to  command  4,600  acres.  Over  most  of  the  District  water  is  found 
near  the  surface.  But  near  the  Satpuras  and  within  8  or  10  miles  of 
the  Tapti,  wells  have  sometimes  to  be  dug  as  deep  as  100  feet. 
For  drawing  water  the  leathern  bag  or  mot  is  in  almost  universal  use. 
Each  bag   waters  a   quarter  of  an  acre  daily.     In   1903-4,   83  other 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  235 

irrigation  works  (including  the  Parsul  tank,  irrigating  668  acres)  watered 
19,500  acres.     Wells  numbered  27,031,  and  minor  tanks  12. 

Khandesh  is  the  most  important  forest  District  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency after  Kanara.     The  absence  of  conservancy  rules  in  the  past  and 

the  destructive  habits  of  the  hill  tribes  have  robbed  „ 

Forests 
the  jungles  of  most  of  their  valuable  timber.      The 

forest  Reserves  now  cover  more  than  2,168'  square  miles,  and  the  area 
of  fodder  reserves  and  pasture  land  under  the  control  of  the  Revenue 
department  is  284  square  miles.  They  lie  chiefly  on  the  hills  to  the 
west  and  south-west,  but  much  of  the  hilly  land  unsuited  for  cul- 
tivation may  eventually  be  reserved  for  forest.  In  spite  of  its  large 
area,  Khandesh  uses  more  timber  than  it  grows.  The  most  impor- 
tant minor  produce  is  the  mahud  flower.  Myrabolams  and  mahua 
seed  are  collected  in  the  west.  Teak,  babul,  and  black-wood  are  of 
common  occurrence.  The  gross  forest  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
2 -3  lakhs.  The  District  is  divided  into  two  forest  divisions,  which 
are  in  charge  of  divisional  Forest  officers  aided  by  two  subdivisional 
officers. 

Khandesh  has  little  mineral  wealth.  Building  stone  occurs  every- 
where, the  best  quarry  being  in  the  bed  of  the  Vaghur  river  near 
Bhusawal.  Kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is  found  in  all  black  soil 
and  yields  good  lime,  while  clay  suitable  for  brick-making  is  obtain- 
able in  all  parts  of  the  District. 

The  crafts  and  industries  are  of  some  importance.      Cotton-pressing 
and  ginning  is  carried  on  in  36  presses  with  2,228 
operatives.     The  weaving  of  coarse  woollen  blankets  commun;cations 
is  common  all  over  the  District.     There  is  a  cotton- 
spinning  and    weaving  mill  at  Jalgaon,    started    in   1874,    under   the 
name  of  the    Khandesh  Spinning  and   Weaving   Company.      It  has 
425  looms  and  20,948  spindles,  and  employs  1,185  hands.     The  out- 
turn is  over  2  million  pounds  of  yarn  and  \\  million  pounds  of  cloth, 
and  the  paid-up  capital  *\\   lakhs.     The   cloth  is  sold    in  Khandesh, 
Berar,  and  the   Nizam's  Dominions.     There  are  railway  workshops  at 
Bhusawal. 

The  most  important  article  of  export  is  cotton.  The  Bombay 
Bhatias  buy  it  from  local  dealers  and  growers,  and  press  it  for  direct 
shipment  by  sea.  Of  late  years  many  Bombay  mercantile  houses 
have  established  agencies  in  Khandesh,  and  towards  the  east  in  the 
rich  Tapti  valley.  Jalgaon  and  Bhusawal  are  rising  into  important 
centres  of  trade.  The  other  chief  exports  are  food-grains,  oilseeds, 
butter,  indigo,  wax,  and  honey.     Of  imports  the  chief  articles  are  salt, 

1  This  figure  differs  from  that  in  the  table  on  p.  233,  owing  to  the  omission  of  forest 
statistics  of  certain  villages  in  the  Shahada  taluka  and  to  the  non-inclusion  in  the 
revenue  returns  of  the  forest  area  of  the  Mehwas  estates. 

VOL.  XV.  (J 


236  KHANDESH  DISTRICT 

spices,  metals,  piece-goods,  yarn,  and  sugar.  The  internal  trade  is 
carried  on  by  means  of  weekly  markets  and  a  succession  of  fairs  and 
religious  feasts. 

At  the  beginning  of  British  rule  there  were  no  made  roads.  The 
first  to  be  constructed  was  the  Bombay-Agra  road,  which  runs  via 
Malegaon,  Dhulia,  and  Shirpur  through  the  District.  Since  then  road- 
making  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  some  of  the  passes 
through  the  hills  have  been  opened  to  cart  traffic.  Besides  the 
Bombay-Agra  road,  the  chief  roads  are  those  from  Dhulia  to  Surat 
and  from  Dhulia  to  Mhasawad.  The  total  length  of  roads  is  955 
miles,  of  which  325  are  metalled.  Of  these,  300  miles  of  metalled 
roads  and  252  miles  of  unmetalled  roads  are  maintained  by  the 
Public  Works  department.  Avenues  of  trees  are  planted  on  about 
950  miles.  The  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway  runs  for  137  miles 
through  the  south  of  the  District  from  Naydongri  to  Bhusawal,  where 
it  divides,  one  branch  going  to  Jubbulpore  and  the  other  to  Nagpur. 
Branches  from  Jalgaon  to  Amalner,  35  miles  long,  and  from  Chalisgaon 
to  Dhulia,  35  miles  in  length,  were  opened  in  1900.  The  Tapti  Valley 
Railway  from  Surat  to  Amalner,  running  for  108  miles  through  the 
central  portion  of  the  District  from  east  to  west,  was  opened  in  March, 
1900,  and  has  ten  stations  within  its  limits. 

The  Tapti  and  lesser  streams  are  liable  to  sudden  and  disastrous 

rising  of  their  waters.     Six  great  floods  caused  more  or  less  injury  in 

_      .       „  the    District    during    the    nineteenth    century.      In 

Famine,  &c.         n  n         ..,  .    ,      ,  .    , 

1822    sixty-five   villages  were   entirely  destroyed   by 

the  Tapti,  and  fifty  were  partly  washed  away,  causing  a  loss  in  money 
value  of  z\  lakhs.  In  1872  the  Girna  and  Panjhra  rose  45  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  river-bed,  the  latter  sweeping  away  five  hundred  houses 
in  the  town  of  Dhulia.  A  whole  village  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  suddenly  disappeared.  One  hundred  and  fifty-two  villages  were 
damaged,  and  property  to  the  value  of  16  lakhs  destroyed.  Over  one 
thousand  persons  were  on  this  occasion  relieved  by  public  and  private 
charity. 

Besides  the  Durga-devi  famine,  which  is  said  to  have  greatly  reduced 
the  population  of  Khandesh,  the  only  scarcity  mentioned  before  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  was  in  1629.  In  that  year,  following 
the  ravages  of  war,  there  was  a  total  failure  of  rain  which  caused 
widespread  distress.  A  severe  famine  was  recorded  in  1802-4,  when 
the  selling  price  of  grain  is  reported  to  have  risen  to  one  seer  per 
rupee.  Great  numbers  died,  and  extensive  tracts  were  left  deserted 
and  waste.  This  famine  was  due,  not  to  any  natural  causes,  but  to 
the  ravages  of  Holkar's  army,  which  during  two  years  (1802-3)  spread 
desolation  and  famine  throughout  the  District.  Scarcities  not  amount- 
ing to  famine  occurred  in  1824,   1833-6,  1845,   1876-7,  and  1896-7. 


ADMIXIST&A  TION  z  3  7 

In  1896  the  population  suffered  from  a  general  rise  in  the  prices  of 
food.  The  early  rains,  however,  were  excellent,  and  the  kliarif  did 
not  fail.  The  hill  tribes  therefore  suffered  little,  and  West  Khan- 
desh  was  free  from  the  pinch  of  the  high  prices.  Relief  works  were 
maintained  for  fourteen  months,  the  workers  reaching  a  maximum 
of  36,560  in  April,  1897.  In  1899  the  failure  of  the  rains  affected 
all  parts  of  the  District,  and  the  distress  lasted  for  fourteen  months. 
The  kharif  crop  was  a  total  failure  and  the  rabi  area  was  not  sown, 
except  in  irrigated  lands,  there  being  no  late  rains.  As  early  as 
October,  1899,  the  number  on  relief  works  exceeded  33,000.  It 
advanced  steadily  till  in  March  of  1900  it  was  257,000,  while  the 
number  on  gratuitous  relief  was  13,000.  From  this  it  fell  to  553 
in  February,  1901,  rising  again  to  42,000  in  July,  1901,  and  falling 
to  1,800  in  September.  It  is  calculated  that  79,000  deaths  occurred 
in  excess  of  the  normal  during  the  period,  and  that  385,000  cattle 
died.  The  total  cost  was  about  76  lakhs.  Remissions  amounted 
to  17  lakhs,  and  nearly  20  lakhs  was  granted  in  loans  to  agri- 
culturists. 

Locusts  have  sometimes  visited  Khandesh,  but  seldom  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  do  much  harm.  In  1869  a  large  cloud  crossed  the  Dis- 
trict from  north  to  south,  and  in  1873  and  1878  they  did  some  injury 
to  the  late  crop.  Rats  in  1847-8,  1 8  78-9,  and  in  190 1-2  caused  much 
havoc. 

The  District  is  divided 'into  seventeen  talukas,  in  charge  of  three 
covenanted  Civilians  and  two  Deputy-Collectors.  Of  the  three  cove- 
nanted Civilians,   one  is  Personal  Assistant  to  the  .  . 

Administration. 
Collector,   who  has  also  an  extra   Deputy-Collector 

as  daftardar.  There  are  four  petty  subdivisions  or  pethas :  Parola, 
Bhadgaon,  Navapur,  and  Edalabad,  in  the  talukas  of  Amalner,  Pachora, 
Nandurbar,  and  Bhusawal  respectively.  The  formation  of  two  separate 
Districts  is  referred  to  in  the  note  on  p.  225.  The  Mehwas  estates  are 
included  in  the  District  for  administrative  purposes. 

The  District  and  Sessions  Judge  at  Dhulia  is  aided  for  civil  business 
by  ten  Subordinate  Judges.  Criminal  justice  is  administered  by  50 
Magistrates,  including  the  District  Magistrate.  The  commonest  forms 
of  crime  are  theft,  house-breaking,  and  dacoity. 

On  occupation  by  the  British,  1,146  Government  villages  were  found 
entirely  deserted,  besides  413  which  were  uninhabited  but  partly  tilled 
by  persons  living  in  the  neighbouring  villages ;  only  1,836  villa 
were  inhabited.  The  establishment  of  order  and  the  advent  of  high 
prices  soon  caused  a  rapid  increase  in  tillage  and  revenue.  But  a  sub- 
sequent fall  in  prices  checked  improvement,  and  progress  was  slow  for 
several  years.  After  1832  the  improvement  began  to  be  more  marked, 
and  continued  steadily  up  to  1852.     One  of  the  first  measures  of  im- 


23S 


KHANDESH  DISTRICT 


provement  was  the  withdrawal  from  the  hereditary  officials  of  powers 
the  possession  of  which  by  them  was  found  to  be  a  source  of  oppression 
to  the  people.  The  settlement  of  the  revenue  was  then  made  direct 
with  the  cultivators  and  not  with  the  headmen  of  the  villages.  The 
revenue  was  fixed  on  the  average  payments  of  ten  previous  years. 
Gradually,  inequalities  of  measurement  were  reduced  to  a  common 
standard.  About  1830  it  was  found  that  the  assessments  were  too 
high,  leaving  no  margin  to  the  cultivator  for  improvements.  Great 
reductions  were  then  made  in  the  rates  on  irrigated  lands ;  the  rates 
on  '  dry-crop '  lands  were  also  reduced,  wherever  this  was  found  to  be 
necessary,  and  liberal  remissions  were  made.  Still  progress  was  slow; 
and  no  attempt  was  made  until  1852  to  introduce  a  survey,  which,  it 
was  felt,  would  be  very  costly.  In  that  year,  as  it  appeared  that  the 
rates  in  Khandesh  were  higher  than  in  other  Districts,  it  was  determined 
to  carry  out  a  survey  on  a  plan  suited  to  a  country  where  so  much  of  the 
land  was  waste.  The  objects  of  it  were  misunderstood,  and  troops  had 
to  be  called  out.  But,  on  the  leaders  being  seized,  the  opposition  died 
away  and  the  work  was  carried  out  between  the  years  1854  and  1870. 
Since  then  the  District  has  made  a  most  marked  advance.  Its  popu- 
lation has  largely  increased  and  the  area  under  cultivation  has  nearly 
trebled.  Cultivation  has  been  pushed  to  the  base  of  the  hills  ;  and 
only  in  a  few  parts  can  good  land  now  be  found  untilled,  while  wild 
beasts  have  been  driven  from  the  plain  to  the  hills  and  the  ravines. 
This  remarkable  development  is,  no  doubt,  in  great  measure  due  to  the 
facilities  offered  by  the  railway  for  the  export  of  produce  to  better 
markets,  and  to  the  great  demand  for  cotton,  which  Khandesh  is  in 
a  position  to  satisfy.  The  revision  survey  settlement  was  commenced 
in  1886  and  completed  (with  the  exception  of  a  small  area,  chiefly  in 
Nandurbar,  originally  settled  in  1901-3)  in  1904.  The  new  survey 
found  an  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  of  4  per  cent,  over  the  amount 
shown  in  the  accounts,  and  the  settlement  enhanced  the  total  revenue 
from  31  to  40  lakhs.  The  average  assessment  per  acre  of  '  dry '  land  is 
Rs.  1-6  ;  of  rice  land,  Rs.  1-10  ;  and  garden  land,  Rs.  2-14. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880- 1. 

1890-1.         1900-1. 

i9°3-4- 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue 

34,13 
46,27 

1 

39,76          50,3-! 
57,4°          64,72 

4S,6o 
67,59 

The  District  has  21  municipalities:  namely,  Amalner,  Parola, 
Erandol,  Dharangaon,  Bhadgaon,  Chopda,  Shirpur,  Sindkheda, 
Betwad,   Savada,  Yaval,    Bhusawal,   Jalgaon,    Dhulia,   Songir, 


KHANDGIR1  239 

Taloda,  Shahada,  Prakasha,  Nandurbar,  Faizpur,  and  Raver. 
The  total  receipts  of  these  average  nearly  3  lakhs.  The  District  board 
and  17  taluka  boards  had  an  income  in  1903-4  of  4J  lakhs.  The 
principal  source  of  income  is  the  land  cess.  The  expenditure 
amounted  to  4^  lakhs,  including  nearly  2  lakhs  devoted  to  the  main- 
tenance and  construction  of  roads  and  buildings. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  aided  by  three  Assistant 
Superintendents,  one  probationary  Assistant  Superintendent,  and  four 
inspectors.  There  are  altogether  37  police  stations.  The  force  in  1904 
numbered  1,636  :  namely,  23  chief  constables,  335  head  constables, 
and  1,278  constables.  The  mounted  police  number  62  under  8  daffa- 
dars.  In  addition  to  the  District  jail  at  Dhulia,  with  accommodation  for 
450  prisoners,  there  are  23  subsidiary  jails  and  21  lock-ups  which  can 
accommodate  408  and  202  prisoners  respectively.  The  daily  average 
number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  493,  of  whom  16  were  females. 

Khandesh  stands  twelfth  as  regards  literacy  among  the  twenty  four 
Districts  of  the  Presidency.  The  Census  of  1901  returned  4-8  per  cent, 
of  the  population  (9-3  males  and  0-2  females)  as  able  to  read  and  write. 
Education  has  made  great  progress  of  late  years.  In  1881  there  were 
only  317  schools,  attended  by  18,656  pupils.  The  number  of  pupils  rose 
to  29,346  in  1891  and  to  30,293  in  1901.  In  1903-4  the  schools  num- 
bered 538  (including  122  private  schools  with  1,713  pupils),  attended 
by  22,181  pupils,  of  whom  845  were  girls.  One  is  a  high  school,  12  are 
middle  schools,  401  primary,  one  is  a  training  school,  and  one  an  indus- 
trial school.  Three  are  maintained  by  Government,  332  by  local  boards, 
70  by  municipalities,  and  1 1  are  aided.  The  training  school  and  the 
industrial  school  are  at  Dhulia.  The  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  2\  lakhs,  of  which  Local  funds  contributed  Rs.  73,000 
and  Rs.  24,000  was  recovered  as  fees.  Of  the  total,  nearly  80  per 
cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  contains  twenty  dispensaries,  one  hospital,  and  two  other 
medical  institutions,  accommodating  167  in-patients.  In  these  institu- 
tions 114,213  persons,  including  1,229  in-patients,  were  treated  in  1904, 
and  3,797  operations  performed.  The  total  expenditure  was  over 
Rs.  39,000,  of  which  Rs.  16,940  was  contributed  by  Local  and  muni- 
cipal funds. 

The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was 
39,000,  representing  a  proportion  of  27  per  1,000  of  population,  which 
exceeds  the  average  for  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Bombay  Gazetteer,  vol.  xii  (1880);  A.  F.  David- 
son, Settlement  Report  (1854).] 

Khandgiri. — Hill  in  the  Khurda  subdivision  of  Purl  District,  Ben- 
gal, situated  in  200  16'  N.  and  850  47'  E.,  about  4  miles  west  of 
Bhubaneswar.     It  consists  of  two  separate  peaks,  the  northern  one  of 


24o  KHANDGIRI 

which  is  called  Udayagiri  and  the  southern  Khandgiri,  the  last  name 
being  also  applied  to  the  entire  group.  The  caves  on  this  hill  were 
occupied  by  monks  of  the  Jain  sect,  and  not,  as  is  usually  stated,  by 
Buddhists.  The  earliest  of  them  go  back  to  the  time  of  king  Khara- 
vela,  whose  large  but  mutilated  inscription  over  the  Hathi  Gumpha 
cave  is  dated  in  the  year  165  of  the  Maurya  era,  or  155  B.C.  ;  and  there 
are  also  short  inscriptions  of  his  queen  and  immediate  successors. 
Various  mediaeval  Jain  carvings  and  inscriptions  show  that  the  Jains 
continued  to  occupy  the  caves  till  about  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  there  still  exist  later  Jain  temples,  one  of  which,  on  the  top 
of  the  Khandgiri  peak,  is  annually  visited  by  Jain  merchants  from  Cut- 
tack.  Of  the  oldest  caves  the  most  interesting  are  the  following :  On 
the  Udayagiri  peak,  (1)  the  Ran!  Gumpha,  comprising  two  storeys  with 
open  verandas.  The  frieze  of  the  upper  veranda  contains  a  series  of 
relief  carvings,  evidently  representing  one  connected  story,  in  which 
occurred  a  fight  with  wild  elephants,  the  rape  of  a  female,  and  a  hunt 
after  a  winged  antelope  :  the  legend  to  which  it  refers  has  not,  however, 
been  traced.  (2)  The  Ganesh  Gumpha,  with  a  carved  frieze  represent- 
ing the  same  story  as  in  the  Rani  Gumpha  ;  the  steps  of  the  cave  are 
flanked  by  the  figures  of  two  elephants.  (3)  The  Hathi  Gumpha,  with 
the  famous  inscription  of  king  Kharavela,  a  purely  historical  record  of 
the  principal  events  of  his  life.  Unfortunately  it  has  been  badly  muti- 
lated, but  it  has  recently  been  protected  by  a  shade  to  preserve  it  from 
further  destruction.  (4)  The  Bagh  Gumpha,  shaped  like  the  head  of 
a  tiger ;  and  (5)  the  Svarga  Gumpha,  (6)  the  Maujapuri,  and  (7)  the 
Patal  Gumpha,  three  caves  raised  one  above  the  other  and  consequently 
now  explained  as  a  representation  of  heaven,  earth,  and  hell.  On  the 
Khandgiri  peak,  the  most  notable  of  the  old  caves  are  the  Ananta 
Gumpha,  with  carved  panels  over  its  gates,  representing  Lakshmi,  the 
sun-god,  an  elephant,  and  the  worship  of  a  sacred  tree  ;  the  Tentuli 
Gumpha,  so  called  from  a  tamarind-tree  close  to  it ;  and  the  Tantua 
Gumpha  I  and  Tantua  Gumpha  II,  one  above  the  other.  The  name 
tantua  means  a  diving-bird  and  has  been  given  to  these  caves  on 
account  of  the  figures  of  birds,  with  their  heads  bent  down  as  if  in  the 
act  of  diving,  which  have  been  carved  over  the  arches  of  the  doors. 
The  best  specimens  of  mediaeval  caves  are  :  the  Navamuni  cave,  with 
an  inscription  dated  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  king  Uddyota  Kesari, 
who  preceded  the  Ganga  kings  and  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  so- 
called  Somavansi,  or  kings  of  the  lunar  race,  who  ruled  over  Orissa 
in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  ;  and  the  Satghara  cave,  which  has 
numerous  mediaeval  Jain  figures  carved  over  its  walls. 

[Refort  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  of  India  for  1002-3  (Calcutta, 
1904).] 

Khandia. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 


KHANDWA    TOWN  241 

Khandpara. — One  of  the  Tributary  States  of  Orissa,  Bengal,  lying 
between  200  11'  and  20°  25'  N.  and  850  o'  and  850  22'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  244  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  MahanadI 
river,  which  separates  it  from  the  States  of  Narsinghpur  and  Baramba  ; 
on  the  east  by  Cuttack  and  Purl  Districts ;  on  the  south  by  Purl 
and  the  State  of  Nayagarh ;  and  on  the  west  by  Daspalla  State.  The 
State  originally  formed  part  of  Nayagarh,  and  was  separated  from  it 
about  200  years  ago  by  a  brother  of  the  Nayagarh  Raja,  who  estab- 
lished his  independence.  The  State  has  an  estimated  revenue  of 
Rs.  30,000,  and  pays  a  tribute  of  Rs.  4,212  to  the  British  Government. 
The  land  is  very  fertile,  and  the  State  is  one  of  the  best  cultivated  in 
Orissa.  Fine  sal  timber  (Shorea  robi/sta)  abounds  in  the  hilly  tracts, 
and  magnificent  banyan  and  mango  trees  stud  the  plain.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Kuaria  and  Dauka  rivers,  small  tributaries  of  the 
MahanadI.  The  population  increased  from  63,287  in  1891  to  69,450 
in  1 90 1.  The  number  of  villages  is  325,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  Kantilo,  a  large  mart  on  the  MahanadI.  The  density  is  284  per- 
sons per  square  mile.  The  State  maintains  a  charitable  dispensary, 
a  middle  vernacular  and  30  lower  primary  schools. 

Khandwa  Tahsil. —  North-western  tahsll  of  Nimar  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  210  31'  and  220  20'  N.  and  760  4'  and  760 
59'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,046  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  181,684,  compared  with  163,003  in  1891.  The  density  is  89 
persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsil  contains  one  town,  Khandwa 
(population,  19,401),  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsll \  and 
437  inhabited  villages.  Excluding  671  square  miles  of  Government 
forest,  58  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation. 
The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  713  square  miles.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  1,67,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  18.000.  The  tahsll  consists  of  an  undulating  plain,  forming  the 
valleys  of  the  Abna  and  Sukta  rivers,  and  fringed  by  low  hills  towards 
the  north  and  west. 

Khandwa  Town. — Head-quarters  of  Nimar  District,  Central  Pro- 
vinces, situated  in  210  50"  N.  and  760  22"  E.,  on  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  Railway,  353  miles  from  Bombay,  and  forming  the  junction 
for  the  metre-gauge  Rajputana-Malwa  branch  line  to  Mhow.  The 
town  stands  at  an  elevation  of  1,007  feet,  on  a  sheet  of  basalt  rock 
covered  with  shallow  surface  soil  \  and,  because  of  the  proximity  of  the 
rock  to  the  surface,  there  is  a  noticeable  absence  of  trees.  The  popu- 
lation at  the  last  four  enumerations  was:  (1872)  14,119,  (1881) 
15,142,  (1891)  15,589,  and  (1901)  19,401. 

Khandwa  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity.  Owing  to  its  situation 
at  the  junction  of  the  two  great  roads  leading  from  Northern  and 
Western  India  to  the  Deccan,  it  must  have  been  occupied  at  an  early 


242 


KHANDWA   TOWN 


period,  and  Cunningham  identifies  it  with  the  Kognabanda  of  Ptolemy. 
It  is  mentioned  by  the  geographer  Albiruni,  who  wrote  early  in  the 
eleventh  century.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  a  great  seat  of  Jain 
worship ;  and  many  finely  carved  pillars,  cornices,  and  other  stone- 
work belonging  to  old  Jain  temples  may  be  seen  in  the  more  modern 
buildings.  The  town  has  four  old  tanks  with  stone  embankments.  A 
new  Jain  temple,  constructed  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  75,000,  is  now  approach- 
ing completion.  Khandwa  is  mentioned  by  the  historian  Firishta  as 
the  seat  of  a  local  governor  of  the  kingdom  of  Malwa  in  15 16.  It  was 
burnt  by  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar  in  1802,  and  again  partially  by  Tantia 
Topi  in  1858. 

Khandwa  was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal 
receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  one 
lakh.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  1,07,000,  the  main  heads  of 
receipt  being  octroi  (Rs.  65,000),  markets  and  slaughter-houses 
(Rs.  5,000),  and  conservancy  (Rs.  3,000) ;  while  the  expenditure, 
which  amounted  to  Rs.  1,04,000,  included  refunds  of  duty  on  goods 
in  transit  (Rs.  34,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  8,000),  education  (Rs.  10,000), 
and  general  administration  and  collection  of  taxes  (Rs.  8,000).  The 
town  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  adjoining  Mohghat  reservoir. 
The  catchment  area  of  the  tank  has  been  increased  by  the  construction 
of  a  canal  3!  miles  in  length  to  Ajanti,  and  is  now  about  9  square 
miles,  the  daily  supply  being  calculated  at  450,000  gallons.  The 
works  were  opened  in  1897  at  a  cost  of  4  lakhs.  The  maintenance 
charges  amount  to  about  Rs.  5,000,  to  meet  which  a  water  rate  has 
recently  been  imposed.  Cotton  is  an  important  crop  in  Nimar  District, 
and  Khandwa  is  a  centre  for  the  export  of  the  raw  product.  It  now 
contains  9  ginning  and  5  pressing  factories,  which  have  a  total  capital 
of  about  d\  lakhs  and  employ  1,000  operatives.  Seven  out  of  the 
fourteen  factories  have  been  opened  within  the  last  eight  years.  An 
oil-pressing  and  timber-sawing  factory  has  also  been  erected.  The 
depot  for  the  supply  of  ga?tja  {Cannabis  sativd)  to  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces is  situated  at  Khandwa,  the  crop  being  grown  under  licence 
in  Nimar  District.  A  rest  camp  for  troops  is  maintained  during  the 
trooping  season.  There  is  a  printing  press,  which  issues  a  weekly  paper 
in  Marathl.  The  educational  institutions  comprise  a  high  school, 
with  46  pupils,  two  English  middle  schools,  and  four  branch  schools. 
The  Roman  Catholic  and  Methodist  Episcopal  Churches  carry  on  mis- 
sion and  educational  work  in  Khandwa,  and  maintain  schools  and  an 
orphanage.  The  town  has  three  dispensaries,  one  of  which  is  a  police 
hospital  and  another  is  maintained  by  the  railway.  A  veterinary 
dispensary  has  recently  been  opened. 

Khangah  Dogran  Tahsll.  —  Tahsll  of  Gujranwala  District,  Punjab, 
lying  between  310  31'  and  310  59'  N.  and  73°  14'  and  740  5'  E.,  with 


KHANIADHANA  243 

an  area  of  873  square  miles.  This  tahsil  was  formed,  mainly  out  of 
the  unwieldy  tahsil  of  Hafizabad,  in  1893.  The  population  in  1901 
was  237,843.  It  contains  239  villages,  including  Khangah  Dogran 
(population,  5,349),  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,41,000.  The  tahsil  consists  of  a  uni- 
form Bar  tract  with  a  soil  of  good  loam.  Three-fourths  of  it  are  now- 
irrigated  by  the  Chenab  Canal. 

Khangah  Dogran  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the 
same  name  in  Gujranwala  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  310  49'  N.  and 
730  41'  E.  Lying  in  the  heart  of  the  Bar,  it  was  until  recently  famous 
only  for  a  number  of  Muhammadan  shrines  at  which  a  fair  is  held  in 
June.  In  1893  it  was  made  the  head-quarters  of  the  newly  constituted 
tahsil  named  after  it ;  and  as  it  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  tract  brought 
under  irrigation  by  the  Chenab  Canal,  it  is  rapidly  growing  in  impor- 
tance, as  is  testified  by  the  increase  of  its  population  from  877  in  1881 
and  1,646  in  1891  to  5,349  in  1901.  The  village  is  administered  as 
a  'notified  area.'  It  contains  a  cotton-ginning  factory,  which  in  1904 
employed  34  hands. 

Khangarh. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Muzaffargarh,  Pun- 
jab, situated  in  290  55'  N.  and  710  io'  E.,  n  miles  south  of  Muzaffar- 
garh town  and  4  miles  west  of  the  Chenab,  on  the  road  leading  to 
Sind.  Population  (1901),  3,621.  It  was  built  by  Khan  Bibi,  sister 
of  Muzaffar  Khan,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  was  an 
Afghan  post ;  but  the  town  has  now  outgrown  the  dimensions  of  the 
circular  fortification  which  originally  enclosed  it.  At  annexation  in 
1849  it  became  the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  but  was  abandoned 
in  1859  on  account  of  floods  from  the  Chenab.  The  municipality  was 
created  in  1873.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  6,200,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,400.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  6,400,  chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  5,600.  The  town  contains  a  small  cotton-ginning  and  rice-husking 
factory,  which  gave  employment  in  1904  to  25  persons;  but  it  owes 
such  importance  as  it  possesses  to  its  being  the  agricultural  centre 
for  a  fertile  tract. 

Khaniadhana. — Small  sanad  State  in  the  Central  India  Agency, 
under  the  Resident  at  Gwalior.  It  has  an  area  of  about  68  square 
miles,  lying  round  the  town  of  the  same  name.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Jhansi  District  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  on  all  other 
sides  by  Gwalior  State.  Although  the  State  is  situated  politically  in 
the  Gwalior  Residency,  it  lies  geographically  in  Bundelkhand,  and 
until   1888  was  included  in  the  Political  Charge  of  that  name. 

Khaniadhana  was  originally  a  part  of  Orchha  ;  but  in  1724  it  was 
granted  by  Maharaja  Udot  Singh  of  Orchha  to  his  son  Amar  Singh, 
together   with   the    villages   of   Mohangarh    and    Ahar.      On   the  dis- 


244  KHANIADHANA 

memberment  of  the  Orchha  State  by  the  Marathas  a  sanad  was  granted 
to  Amar  Singh  by  the  Peshwa  in  1751,  confirming  him  in  his  grant. 
The  question  of  suzerainty  was,  from  this  time  onward,  always  a  subject 
of  contention  between  the  chiefs  of  Orchha  and  of  the  Maratha  State 
of  Jhansi.  On  the  lapse  of  the  latter  State  in  1854,  the  Khaniadhana 
chief,  PirthTpal  Bahadur  Ju  Deo,  claimed  absolute  independence.  It 
was,  however,  ruled  that  he  was  dependent  on  the  British  Government 
as  successor  to  all  the  rights  previously  exercised  by  the  Peshwa  ;  and 
a  sanad  was  accordingly  granted  in  1862  confirming  him  in  his  posses- 
sion, a  sanad  of  adoption  being  granted  at  the  same  time.  The  chiefs 
of  Khaniadhana  are  Bundela"  Rajputs  of  the  Orchha  house,  and  bear 
the  title  of  Jagirdar.  The  present  chief,  Chitra  Singh,  who  succeeded 
in  1869,  obtained  the  title  of  Raja  as  a  personal  distinction  in 
1877. 

The  population  has  been:  (1881)  13,494,  (1891)  14,871,  and  (1901) 
15,528.  Hindus  number  13,548,  or  87  per  cent. ;  and  Animists,  1,208, 
or  8  per  cent.,  chiefly  Saharias.  The  population  has  increased  by  4  per 
cent,  since  1891,  and  its  density  is  243  persons  per  square  mile.  The 
chief  dialect  is  BundelkhandT.  Only  one  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are 
literate.  The  principal  castes  are  Thakurs  (Bundela)  and  other  Raj- 
puts, and  the  population  is  almost  entirely  supported  by  agriculture. 
The  State  contains  49  villages. 

The  country  is  rocky,  belonging  to  the  Bundelkhand  gneiss  area. 
In  the  valleys,  where  intrusive  dikes  of  trap  are  met  with,  good  soil 
is  produced  by  its  disintegration,  bearing  fair  crops  of  all  the  ordinary 
grains.  Of  the  total  area,  21  square  miles,  or  32  per  cent.,  are  under 
cultivation,  of  which  13  are  irrigated.  About  27  square  miles  are 
capable  of  cultivation,  the  rest  being  rocky  and  irreclaimable.  The 
chief  exercises  full  powers  in  all  general  administrative  matters.  In 
criminal  cases  he  is  required  to  report  all  heinous  crimes  to  the 
Resident  at  Gwalior.  The  total  revenue  is  Rs.  22,000,  of  which 
Rs.  18,000  is  derived  from  the  land.  The  British  rupee  was  made 
legal  tender  in  1886.  There  are  two  schools  in  the  State  and  one 
dispensary. 

The  chief  place  is  Khaniadhana,  situated  in  250  2'  N.  and  780  8'  E. 
Population  (1901),  2,192.  It  contains  a  small  fort  in  which  the  chief 
lives,  and  also  a  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Khanna.— Town  in  the  Samrala  tahstl  oi  Ludhiana  District,  Punjab, 
situated  in  300  42'  N.  and  760  13'  E.,  on  the  North-Western  Railway, 
27  miles  from  Ludhiana  town.  Population  (1901),  3,838.  The  town 
possesses  two  cotton-ginning  factories,  with  a  flour-mill  attached  to  one 
of  them.  The  number  of  employes  in  the  factories  in  1904  was  145, 
and  in  the  mill  30.  Khanna  is  a  depot  for  the  agricultural  produce 
of  the  neighbourhood.     It  contains  an  Anglo-Sanskrit  middle  school 


KHANUA  245 

(unaided)  and  a  Government  dispensary.  The  municipality  was  created 
in  1875.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged 
Rs.  6,400,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,100.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  6,600,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  5,900. 

Khanpur  Tahsll. — Head-quarters  tahsll  of  the  Khanpur  nizci)nat, 
Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab,  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  between 
270  43'  and  290  4'  N.  and  700  27'  and  700  53'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
2,415  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  120,810,  compared 
with  115,112  in  1 89 1.  It  contains  the  towns  of  Khanpur  (population, 
8,611),  the  head-quarters,  Garhi  Ikhtiar  Khan  (4,939),  and  Ghaus- 
pur,  which  was  created  a  municipality  in  1903:  and  52  villages.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Hakra  depression,  south  of  which  comes  the  desert.  To 
the  north  lie  the  central  tract  of  barren  soil  and  the  fertile  lowlands 
along  the  Indus.  The  tahsll  is  famous  for  its  date-palms,  and  is,  after 
Allahabad,  the  most  fertile  in  the  State.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1905-6  amounted  to  i-8  lakhs. 

Khanpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  nizamat  and  tahsll  of  the 
same  name  in  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  280  39'  N.  and 
700  41/  E.,  on  the  North-Western  Railway,  63  miles  south-west  of 
Bahawalpur  town.  Population  (1901),  8,611.  Founded  in  1S06  by 
Nawab  Bahavval  Khan  II  as  a  counterpoise  to  Garhi  Ikhtiar  Khan, 
which  lies  6  miles  to  the  west,  the  town  is  now  the  chief  centre  of  the 
trade  in  agricultural  produce  in  the  State,  and  contains  three  steam 
rice-husking  mills,  in  one  of  which  cotton-ginning  is  carried  on  as  well. 
It  possesses  a  middle  school  and  a  dispensary.  The  municipality  had 
an  income  in  1903-4  of  Rs.  12,800,  chiefly  from  octroi. 

Khanpur. — Name  once  given  to  Gujranwala  Town  in  Gujranwala 
District,  Punjab. 

Khanspur. — Part  of  the  Ghora  Dakka  cantonment  in  Hazara  Dis- 
trict, North-West  Frontier  Province,  situated  in  34°  2'  X.  and  730 
30'  E.  During  the  summer  months  it  is  occupied  by  a  detachment 
of  British  infantry. 

Khanua. — Village  in  the  Rupbas  tahsll  of  the  State  of  Bharatpur, 
Rajputana,  situated  in  270  2'  N.  and  770  33'  E.,  close  to  the  left  bank 
of  the  Banganga  river,  and  about  13  miles  south  of  Bharatpur  city. 
Population  (1901),  1,857.  Here,  in  March,  1527,  was  fought  the  great 
battle  between  Babar  and  the  confederated  Rajputs  under  Rana 
Sangram  Singh  of  Mewar.  In  the  preliminary  skirmishes  the  latter 
were  successful,  and  the  emperor,  deeming  his  situation  serious, 
resolved  to  carry  into  effect  his  long-deferred  vow  and  nevermore  drink 
wine.  The  gold  and  silver  goblets  and  cups  were  broken  up  and  the 
fragments  distributed  among  the  poor.  In  the  final  battle  (March  12, 
1527)  the  Rajputs  were  completely  defeated;  the  Rana  was  wounded 


246  KHANUA 

and  escaped  with  difficulty,  while  among  the  slain  was  Rawal  Udai 
Singh  of  Dungarpur. 

Khapa. — Town  in  the  Ramtek  tahsll  of  Nagpur  District,  Central 
Provinces,  situated  in  210  25'  N.  and  790  2'  E.,  on  the  Kanhan  river, 
22  miles  north  of  Nagpur  city,  and  6  miles  from  the  Chhindwara 
road.  Population  (1901),  7,615.  The  town  is  built  on  a  site  high 
above  the  river  and  immediately  overhanging  it,  while  on  the  land  side 
it  is  completely  shut  in  by  fine  groves.  Khapa  was  constituted  a 
municipality  in  1867.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901 
averaged  Rs.  6.500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  9,000,  octroi  being 
the  principal  head  of  receipt.  Thirty  years  ago  Khapa  was  described 
as  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in  the  District,  and  its  decrease  in 
population  is  to  be  attributed  to  changes  in  the  course  of  trade.  Hand 
cotton-weaving,  the  principal  local  industry,  is  now  declining  owing  to 
the  competition  of  the  mills.  Khapa  is  not  favourably  situated  for  the 
location  of  ginning  and  pressing  factories,  and  is  therefore  being  sup- 
planted by  its  younger  rivals  in  the  centre  of  the  cotton  area.  Cotton 
cloths  in  various  colours  for  women  are  principally  woven.  Two 
weekly  markets  are  held  here,  and  the  town  contains  a  vernacular 
middle  and  a  girls'  school,  and  a  dispensary. 

Kharaghoda. — Village  in  the  Viramgam  taluka  of  Ahmadabad 
District,  Bombay,  situated  in  230  N.  and  710  50'  E.,  on  the  border  of 
the  Little  Rann  of  Cutch.  Population  (1901),  2,108.  At  the  time 
when  Ahmadabad  passed  to  the  British,  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Little 
Rann  contained  five  large  salt-works  in  the  possession  of  petty  chiefs. 
These  were  gradually  acquired  by  purchase  between  1822  and  1840, 
and  were  subsequently  closed  in  1875  in  favour  of  a  single  manufactory 
at  Kharaghoda.  This,  however,  proved  unequal  to  meeting  the  con- 
stantly increasing  demand  for  salt;  and  in  188 1-2  new  salt-works  were 
opened  at  Ooru,  which  is  6  miles  north  of  Kharaghoda  and  is  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  line  of  rail.  In  1904-5  the  total  out-turn  of  salt 
from  these  two  works  was  2,545,521  maunds,  of  which  2,313,965 
maunds  were  sold.  Kharaghoda  is  the  head-quarters  of  two  Assistant 
Collectors  of  Salt  Revenue,  one  of  whom  is  in  charge  of  the  works  and 
the  other  of  the  preventive  establishment  which  patrols  a  line  extend- 
ing from  Dhanduka  to  Jamaiya.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary, 
a  library,  a  dharmsala,  and  a  market;  and  water  is  supplied  by  pipes 
from  a  tank  built  at  a  cost  of  2-|  lakhs  about  a  mile  to  the  north 
of  the  town. 

Kharagpur. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Monghyr 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  250  7'  N.  and  86°  33'  E.  Population 
(1901),  2,442.  The  parga/ia  named  after  it  now  forms  part  of  the 
estates  of  the  Maharaja  of  Darbhanga.  The  village  is  best  known  for 
its  irrigation  works.     These  consist  of  a  dam  across   the  river  Man, 


KHAR  AX  247 

by  which  its  water  is  banked  up  in  a  valley  in  the  hills,  and  about 
28  square  miles  in  the  possession  of  the  Raj  tenants  are  irrigated. 

Kharakpur. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Midnapore 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  220  20'  N.  and  870  21'  E.  Population 
(1901),  3,526.  It  is  an  important  junction  on  the  Bengal-Xagpur 
Railway,  from  which  the  East  Coast  section  runs  south  to  Madras, 
while  the  main  line  connects  Calcutta  with  Bombay,  and  a  branch  runs 
north  to  Bankura  and  Jherria.  Kharakpur  is  8  miles  from  Midnapore 
town,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  road.  In  the  village  is  the  shrine 
of  Pir  Lohani,  which  is  venerated  by  Hindus  as  well  as  by  Muham- 
madans. 

Kharakvasla. — Artificial  reservoir  in  Poona  District,  Bombay. 
See  Lake  Fife. 

Kharan. — A  quasi-independent  tribal  area  of  the  Kalat  State, 
Baluchistan,  lying  between  26°  52'  and  290  13'  N.  and  62"  49'  and 
66°  4'  E.,  with  an  area  of  14,210  square  miles.  It  consists  of  a  wide 
plain,  irregularly  quadrilateral  in  shape,  and  varying  in  elevation  from 
2,500  feet  on  the  north-east  to  1,600  feet  on  the  west.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Ras  Koh  hills  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Siahan  range  ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Garr  hills  of  the  Jhalawan  country  :  while  on  the 
west  the  boundary  runs  with  Persia.  The  country  is  generally  regarded 
as  entirely  desert ;  in  reality,  however,  considerable  tracts  of  cultivated 
land  are  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  and  along  the  courses  of  the 
Baddo  and  Mashkel  rivers.  Most  of  the  remainder  of  the  country  is 
covered  by  immense  stretches  of  sand.  The  hydrography  of  the 
plain  is  peculiar.  Torrents  drain  into  it  from  the  surrounding  moun- 
tains, but  find  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  Besides  the  Mashkel  and  Baddo. 
the  only  streams  of  importance  are  the  Garruk  or  Sarap  and  the 
Korakan. 

The  only  part  of  Kharan  that  has  been  geologically  examined  is  the 
Ras  Koh  range,  the  mass  of  which  may  be  divided  into  three  zones, 
the  northern  consisting  mainly  of  intrusive  rocks,  the  central  of  shales, 
and  the  southern  of  tall  limestone  ridges.  The  plain  is  covered  in 
parts  with  alluvial  deposit  and  elsewhere  with  sand.  The  botany  of 
the  country  has  never  been  studied.  Trees  are  scarce,  but  the  ravines 
contain  quantities  of  tamarisk,  of  Hah.xylon  ammodendrdft,  and  in 
years  of  good  rainfall  many  grasses.  Among  the  latter  may  be  men- 
tioned magher  (Rumex  vesicarius),  the  seed  of  which  is  eaten  as  a 
famine  food  and  is  also  exported.  Another  famine  food  consists  of 
kulkusht^Citrullus  Colocynthis),  the  seeds  of  which  are  made  into  bread. 
The  surrounding  hills  produce  asafoetida.  Sind  ibex  and  mountain 
sheep  inhabit  the  hills,  and  'ravine-deer'  (gazelle)  their  skirts.  Herds 
of  wild  asses  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Mashkel  river. 
Snakes  are  numerous. 


248  KHAR  AN 

The  climate  is  dry  but  healthy.  Severe  dust-storms  are  experienced 
throughout  the  year,  being  especially  trying  from  June  to  September. 
The  heat  in  summer  is  great,  but  the  nights  are  always  cool.  The 
winter  is  cold.  Most  of  the  small  amount  of  rain  that  falls  is  received 
between  January  and  March. 

Little  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  country  previous  to  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  Ibrahim  Khan,  the  Nausherwani  chief 
of  Kharan,  served  the  Ghilzai  dynasty  of  Kandahar,  except  that  it 
appears  to  have  formed  part  of  the  Persian  province  of  Kirman.  The 
Nausherwani  chiefs,  round  whom  local  history  centres,  claim  descent 
from  the  Kianian  Maliks,  and  have  always  been  a  race  of  strong-willed, 
bold,  and  adventurous  men,  taking  full  advantage  of  their  desert-pro- 
tected country  for  organizing  raiding  expeditions  against  their  neigh- 
bours, and  professing  a  fitful  allegiance  to  Persia,  to  Kalat,  and  to 
Afghanistan  in  turn.  The  most  famous  were  Purdil  Khan,  against 
whom  Nadir  Shah  had  to  send  an  expedition  about  1734;  and  Azad 
Khan,  who  died  in  1885.  There  is  evidence  that,  in  the  time  of  Nadir 
Shah,  Kharan  was  still  included  in  Kirman  ;  but  Naslr  Khan  I  appears 
to  have  brought  it  under  the  control  of  Kalat,  and  the  country  remained 
under  that  State  until  quarrels  between  Mir  Khudadad  Khan  and  Azad 
Khan  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  threw  the  latter  into  the 
arms  of  Afghanistan.  In  1884  Sir  Robert  Sandeman  visited  Kharan, 
and  succeeded  in  settling  the  chief  points  of  difference  between  the  chief 
and  Khudadad  Khan.  Kharan  was  brought  under  the  political  control 
of  the  British,  and  an  allowance  of  Rs.  6,000  per  annum  was  given  to 
the  chief.  The  only  Europeans  who  had  previously  visited  Kharan 
were  Pottinger,  who  marched  through  the  whole  length  of  the  country 
in  1 8 10  ;  and  Macgregor,  who  crossed  the  western  end  in  1877. 

The  principal  objects  of  archaeological  interest  are  tombs,  attributed 
to  the  Kianian  Maliks,  bearing  large  brick  slabs  on  which  are  engraved 
rough  representations  of  camels,  horses,  and  other  animals,  the  best 
preserved  being  at  Gwachig  in  Dehgwar.  Inscriptions,  presumably 
Kufic,  have  been  found  in  Jalwar  and  Kallag. 

The  normal  population  is  about  19,000  persons,  but  it  is  estimated 
that  5,500  have  recently  emigrated.  Almost  all  are  nomads  living  in 
mat  huts  and  blanket  tents.  The  permanent  villages  number  twenty. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  country  are  at  Shahr-i-Karez  or  Kharan  Kalat, 
which  possesses  a  population  of  1,500.  Baluchi  is  the  language  of  the 
majority,  but  in  the  east  Brahul  is  also  spoken.  The  name  usually 
applied  by  the  people  to  themselves  is  Kakhshani ;  but  this  term  is 
strictly  applicable  only  to  the  groups  forming  the  majority,  the 
remainder  being  Muhammad  Hasnis,  and  miscellaneous  groups  such 
as  Kambranis,  Gurgnaris,  Chhanals,  Loris,  and  servile  dependants. 
The   dominant    class,    the    Nausherwanis,    consists   of    nine   families. 


KHAR  AN  249 

Other  Nausherwanis  live  in  Makran,  where  their  quarrels  with  the 
Gichkis  have  long  been  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Makran  adminis- 
tration. Camel-breeding  and  flock-owning  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions, in  addition  to  agriculture.  Felts,  rugs  in  the  dari  stitch,  and 
sacking  are  made  by  the  women  for  home  use.  By  religion  the  people 
are  Sunni  Muhammadans. 

The  country  is  divided  into  six  niabats  :  Kharan  with  Sarawan, 
Gwash,  Shimshan  with  Salambek,  Hurmagai  including  Jalwar,  Mashkel, 
and  Washuk  with  Palantak.  Raghai  and  Rakhshan  in  Makran  also 
belong  to  the  Kharan  chief,  and  he  holds  lands  in  Panjgur,  Mashkai, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Jhalawan  country. 

The  greater  part  of  the  cultivable  area  is  '  dry  crop,'  dependent  on 
flood  irrigation.  Four  dams  have  been  constructed  in  the  Baddo  river, 
and  one  each  in  the  Korakan  and  the  Garruk.  The  niabats  of  Kharan 
with  Sarawan,  Gwash,  and  Washuk  with  Palantak  possess  a  few  irri- 
gated lands.  The  alluvial  soil  is  fertile  when  irrigated.  The  spring 
harvest  consists  of  wheat  with  a  little  barley.  In  summer  jowar  and 
melons  are  grown.  Washuk  and  Mashkel  contain  large  date-groves. 
The  system  of  planting  the  date-trees  is  peculiar,  the  root-suckers  being 
placed  in  pits,  dug  to  the  depth  of  the  moisture-bearing  strata,  which 
are  kept  clear  of  the  wind-blown  sand  until  the  suckers  have  taken 
root,  when  the  pits  are  allowed  to  fill.  Camels,  sheep,  and  goats  form 
the  live-stock  of  the  country,  and  are  sold  in  Afghanistan  and  many 
parts  of  Baluchistan.  About  100  horses  are  kept  by  the  chief. 
Bullocks  are  few  in  number.  Good  salt  is  obtained  from  Wad-i-Sultan 
and  Wadian  in  the  Hamun-i-Mashkel. 

Since  the  recent  development  of  Nushki,  much  of  the  trade  finds  its 
way  to  that  place.  Trade  is  also  carried  on  with  Nal  in  the  Jhalawan 
country  and  Panjgur  in  Makran.  The  exports  consist  of  gM  and  wool, 
and  the  imports  of  piece-goods,  tobacco,  and  grain,  the  latter  chiefly 
from  the  Helmand  valley.  Sheep  and  goats  are  sent  to  Quetta  and 
Karachi.  Tracks,  possessing  a  moderate  supply  of  water  from  wells, 
connect  Shahr-i-Karez  with  Ladgasht  and  thence  with  Panjgur ;  with 
Nal  via  Beseima  ;  and  with  Panjgur  via  Washuk. 

Long  periods  of  drought  are  common,  causing  the  people  to  migrate. 
That  such  migrations  were  not  unknown  in  former  days  also  is  indicated 
by  a  sanad  from  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani,  which  is  still  extant,  permitting 
the  Kharan  chief  to  collect  his  scattered  people  from  the  adjoining 
countries.  In  recent  years  the  rainfall  has  been  constantly  deficient 
and  much  emigration  has  taken  place.  The  chief  always  keeps  the 
granaries  in  his  niabats  full,  and  when  scarcity  occurs  makes  advances 
in  grain  without  interest,  which  are  recovered  at  the  next  harvest. 
This  system  is  quite  exceptional  for  Baluchistan. 

In  1884  the  chief  consented  to  sit  in  Kalat  darbdrs  with  the  Sarawan 


250  KHAR  AN 

division  of  the  Brahuis  ;  but  since  then  he  has  acquired  a  position  of 
quasi-independence,  and  is  directly  controlled  by  the  Political  Agent  in 
Kalat.  Each  of  the  niabats  already  mentioned  is  in  charge  of  a  naib, 
whose  business  is  to  collect  the  revenue,  pursue  raiders  and  offenders, 
and  report  cases  after  inquiry  to  the  chief  or  to  his  agent,  known  as 
the  shahghasi.  Civil  cases  are  decided  either  by  the  chief  or  his  agent, 
or  by  the  kazl  at  Kharan  Kalat  in  accordance  with  Muhammadan  law. 
Order  is  maintained  by  a  force  of  about  450  men,  armed  with  swords, 
matchlocks,  and  breechloaders.  About  1 70  of  these  form  the  garrison 
of  Dehgwar,  to  prevent  raids  by  the  Damanis  of  the  Persian  border, 
and  69  are  stationed  in  Raghai  and  Rakhshan.  In  addition,  all  the 
tribesmen  are  liable  to  military  service,  when  called  upon.  Those 
living  near  Shahr-i-Karez  and  all  sepoys  must  always  keep  ready  for 
emergencies  a  skin  of  water,  a  pair  of  sandals,  and  a  bag  containing 
about  8  lb.  of  flour.  The  chief  possesses  three  muzzle-loading  cannon 
and  a  mortar. 

Besides  an  allowance  of  Rs.  6,000  from  the  Government,  the  chief's 
revenue  consists  of  his  share  of  grain  in  kind ;  a  poll-tax  on  some 
households ;  a  goat,  sheep,  or  felt  from  others  ;  the  equivalent  of  the 
price  of  one  or  two  camels  from  certain  groups ;  fines ;  unclaimed 
property  ;  and  transit  dues.  The  aggregate  income  from  local  sources 
fluctuates  with  the  character  of  the  agricultural  seasons,  but  probably 
amounts  to  about  a  lakh  of  rupees  in  a  good  year.  The  land  revenue 
is  levied  at  the  rate  of  one-fourth  to  one-tenth  of  the  produce.  The 
chiefs  own  lands  are  cultivated  by  his  dependants  and  servants,  who 
receive  a  share  of  the  produce,  generally  one-fifth.  The  largest  items 
of  expenditure  are  incurred  on  the  maintenance  of  the  chief's  per- 
manent force,  which  is  estimated  to  cost  about  Rs.  2,000  a  month,  and 
on  the  entertainment  of  guests,  the  system  of  Baloch  hospitality 
obliging  the  chief  to  keep  his  house  open  to  all  comers. 

Kharar. —  Tahsil  of  Ambala  District,  Punjab,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas,  between  300  34'  and  300  56'  N.  and  760  22' and  760  55'  E., 
with  an  area  of  370  square  miles,  and  forming  part  of  the  Rupar  sub- 
division. The  population  in  1901  was  166,267,  compared  with  176,298 
in  1 89 1.  It  contains  369  villages,  of  which  Kharar  is  the  head-quarters. 
The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  3-1  lakhs.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  hill  station  of  Kasauli  (population,  2,192) 
and  the  town  of  Kalka  (7,045)  are  included  in  this  tahsil.  The 
northern  part  lies  in  the  Siwaliks.  Between  the  hills  and  the  Ghaggar, 
in  the  east,  is  an  unhealthy  tract  of  jungle  and  rice-fields.  The  soil  in 
the  centre  and  west  is  a  fertile  loam,  which  in  the  south  stiffens  into 
clay.  Communications  are  everywhere  rendered  difficult  by  the  torrent- 
beds  which  intersect  the  country. 

Kharar. — Town  in  the  Ghatal  subdivision  of  Midnapore  District, 


KHARGOX  251 

Bengal,  situated  in  220  40' N.  and  870  44'  E.  Population  (1901), 
9,508.  Brass  and  bell-metal  wares  are  extensively  manufactured. 
Kharar  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888.  The  income  and 
expenditure  during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  3,500 
and  Rs.  3,600  respectively.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  4,800, 
derived  mainly  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax)  ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  4,100. 

Kharari.— Town  in  Sirohi  State,  Rajputana.     See  Abu  Road. 

Kharda. — Town  in  the  Jamkhed  taluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  18°  38'  N.  and  750  29'  E.,  56  miles  south-east  of 
Ahmadnagar  city.  Population  (1901),  5,930,  including  a  hamlet  of 
798.  In  1795  an  engagement  took  place  near  here  between  the 
Marathas  and  the  Nizam.  The  general  of  the  latter,  being  defeated, 
retreated  to  Kharda,  where  he  was  completely  hemmed  in,  and 
constrained  to  accede  to  an  ignominious  treaty.  The  town  contains 
upwards  of  500  substantial  merchants,  shopkeepers,  and  money-lenders, 
many  of  whom  carry  on  a  large  trade  in  grain,  country  cloth,  and  other 
articles.  Kharda  belonged  to  the  Nimbalkar,  one  of  the  Nizam's 
Maratha  nobles,  whose  handsome  mansion  in  the  middle  of  the  town 
is  now  in  ruins.  In  1745  the  Nimbalkar  built  a  fort  to  the  south-east 
of  the  town.  The  fort  is  square,  in  good  repair,  being  built  with  cut 
stone  walls  25  or  30  feet  high,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  now  in 
ruins.  The  walls  have  a  massive  gateway,  and  two  gates  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  The  cattle  market  on  Tuesday  is  the  largest  in  the 
District.  The  municipality,  which  was  constituted  in  1890,  had  an 
average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  2,400.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  also  Rs.  2,400. 

Khardah.  — Village  in  the  Barrackpore  subdivision  of  the  District  of 
the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°44'N.  and  88°  22' 
E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hooghly  river.  Population  (1901),  1,777. 
Khardah  is  a  favourite  place  of  pilgrimage  for  Vaishnavas,  who  visit  it 
in  honour  of  Nityananda,  one  of  the  disciples  of  Chaitanya,  who  took 
up  his  residence  here.  His  descendants  are  regarded  as  gurus,  or 
spiritual  guides,  by  the  Vaishnavas.  There  is  a  line  temple,  containing 
the  image  of  Syam  Sundar,  a  name  for  the  god  Krishna.  The  village 
lies  within  the  South  Barrackpore  municipality,  and  is  a  station  on  the 
Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway.  Shoe-brushes  and  bricks  are  manu- 
factured on  a  large  scale. 

Khargon. — Head-quarters  of  the  Nimar  district,  Indore  State,  Cen- 
tral India,  situated  in  210  50'  N.  and  75°  37'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Kundi  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Narbada.  Population  (1901),  7,624. 
Khargon  appears  to  have  been  founded  under  the  Mughals.  It  was  the 
chief  town  of  a  tnahal  in  the  Bijagarh  sarkar  of  the  Subak  of  Malwa, 
and  later  on  became  the  chief  town  of  the  sarkar.     Its  importance  in 

VOL.  XV.  R 


252  KHARGON 

those  days  is  shown  by  the  remains  of  large  houses  and  numerous 
tombs.  Besides  the  district  and  pargana  orifices,  a  jail,  a  school,  a  dis- 
pensary, a  public  library,  and  a  State  post  office  are  situated  in  the 
town.  Local  affairs  are  managed  by  a  municipality,  with  an  income  of 
Rs.  500,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi  and  other  taxes. 

Kharia. — River  of  Bengal,  another  name  for  the  JalangT. 
Kharian. — Tahsil  of  Gujrat  District,  Punjab,  lying  between  320  31' 
and  i>£  *'  N.  and  730  35'  and  74°  12'  E.,  with  an  area  of  646  square 
miles.  The  Jhelum  river  divides  it  on  the  north-west  from  Jhelum  Dis- 
trict, while  on  the  north-east  a  fixed  boundary  has  now  been  laid  down 
between  this  tahsil  and  Kashmir  territory.  The  greater  part  consists 
of  a  slightly  undulating  plain,  well  wooded,  highly  cultivated,  and  inter- 
sected by  nullahs,  especially  towards  the  east.  The  Pabbl  Hills  run 
north-east  and  south-west,  roughly  parallel  to  the  Jhelum  river.  The 
southern  face  of  the  range  is  steep,  but  towards  the  river  the  slope  is 
more  gradual.  The  population  in  1901  was  242,687,  compared  with 
248,076  in  1891.  It  contains  the  town  of  Dinga  (population,  5,412) 
and  507  villages,  including  Kharian,  the  head-quarters.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-9  lakhs.  Lala  Musa 
railway  junction  is  situated  in  this  tahsil. 

Kharsawan. — Feudatory   State   of  Chota   Nagpur,    Bengal,   lying 

between  220  41'  and  220  53'  N.  and  850  38'  and  850  55'  E.,  with  an 

area  of  153  '  square  miles.     It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Districts 

of  Ranchi  and  Manbhum  ;  on  the  east  by  the  State  of  Saraikela  ;  and 

on  the  south  and  west  by  Singhbhum  District.     The  river  Sonai  flows 

through  the  State  from  north-west  to  south-east.     The  country  on  the 

north  and  the  Kolhan  pir  on  the  south  of  this  river  consist  of  long 

ranges  of  jungle-clad  hills,  attaining  in  one  place  an  elevation  of  2,529 

feet.     The  depressions  between  them  are  terraced  for  cultivation.    The 

rest  of  the  State  is  a  lowland  tract,  dotted  here  and  there  with  isolated 

small  hills.     In  this  part,  almost  the  whole  of  the  cultivable  area  has 

been   cleared  of  forest  and  turned  into  rice  lands.     Iron  is  found  in 

a  nodular  form  in  most  of  the   hilly  ranges.     Gold  is  found  in  very 

small  quantities  in  the  sands  of  the  Sonai  river.     Copper  must  once 

have  been  extracted  on  a  very  large  scale  in  Kharsawan,  and  traces  of 

ancient  mines  can  be  seen  at  intervals  throughout  the  whole  breadth 

of  the  State  for  a  length  of  15  miles;  the  most  extensive  were  in  the 

neighbourhood  of  Lopso.     Recent  prospecting  operations  indicate  that 

the  supply  of  copper  is  still  far  from  exhausted,  and  it  is  probable  that 

in   the  near  future  the  State   may  once  more  become  an  important 

mining  centre.    Nodular  limestone,  a  stalagmitic  deposit  called  asurhad, 

slate,  and   potstone  are  found  in  the  hilly  tracts.     About  40  square 

1  This  figure,  which  differs  from  the  area  shown  in  the  Census  Report  of  1901,  was 
supplied  by  the  Surveyor-General. 


KHARSAWAN  253 

miles  of  the  State  are  covered  with  forest,  containing  chiefly  sal  {Shorea 
robusta),  dsan  (Terminalia  tomentosa),  gamhar  (Gtnelina  arborea), 
kusum  (Schleichera  trijuga),  pidsal  (Rterocarpus  Alarsnpium),  kend 
{Diospyros  melanoxylon),  jamuii  {Eugenia  Jambolaua),  and  bamboos. 
Minor  jungle  products  comprise  lac,  tasar  cocoons,  and  myrabolams. 
Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  several  kinds  of  deer,  hares,  and  peafowl  abound 
in  the  forests.    Snakes  of  several  kinds  are  common  everywhere. 

The  chief  of  Kharsawan  belongs  to  a  junior  branch  of  the  Porahat 
Raja's  family.  Some  generations  before  the  establishment  of  British 
rule,  Kunwar  Bikram  Singh,  a  younger  brother  of  the  Raja,  obtained 
from  him  as  a  maintenance  grant  the  eleven  plrs  which  constitute  the 
present  States  of  Saraikela  and  Kharsawan.  Bikram  Singh  by  his  two 
wives  left  five  sons.  The  eldest  succeeded  to  Saraikela,  and  the  second 
son,  from  whom  the  present  chief  is  directly  descended,  to  Kharsawan. 
The  State  first  came  under  the  notice  of  the  British  in  1793,  when,  in 
consequence  of  disturbances  on  the  frontier  of  the  old  Jungle  Mahals, 
the  Thakur  of  Kharsawan  and  the  Kunwar  of  Saraikela  were  compelled 
to  enter  into  certain  agreements  relating  to  the  treatment  of  fugitive 
rebels.  The  chief  is  bound,  when  called  upon,  to  render  service  to  the 
British  Government,  but  he  has  never  had  to  pay  tribute.  His  present 
sanad  was  granted  in  1899.  He  exercises  all  administrative  powers, 
executive  and  judicial,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner of  Singhbhum  and  the  Commissioner  of  Chota  Nagpur, 
and  is  empowered  to  pass  sentences  of  imprisonment  up  to  five  years 
and  of  fine  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  200.  Sentences  of  imprisonment  for 
more  than  two  years  require  the  continuation  of  the  Commissioner. 
Heinous  offences  calling  for  heavier  punishment  are  dealt  with  by  the 
Deputy-Commissioner  of  Singhbhum.  The  present  chief,  Sri  Ram 
Chandra  Singh  Deo,  being  a  minor,  the  State  is,  for  the  time  being, 
under  direct  British  administration. 

The  population  increased  from  35,470  in  1891  to  36,540  in  1901, 
the  density  being  239  persons  per  square  mile.  The  inhabitants 
dwell  in  263  villages,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Kharsawan, 
the  head-quarters  of  the  State.  Hindus  number  19,854  and  Animists 
16,277,  tne  tLos  being  the  most  numerous  tribe.  About  78  per  cent, 
of  the  population  are  supported  by  agriculture.  The  principal  crops 
grown  in  the  State  in  order  of  importance  are  rice,  maize,  pulses, 
mustard,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco.  Coarse  cotton  cloths  and  iron 
cooking  utensils  are  manufactured  for  local  use,  and  in  some  villages 
leaf  mats  are  made.  The  chief  exports  are  rice,  pulses,  oilseeds,  stick- 
lac,  tasar  cocoons,  and  iron ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  salt,  cottun 
thread,  cotton  piece-goods,  tobacco,  and  brass  cooking  utensils.  Trade 
has  been  stimulated  by  the  opening  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway, 
which  runs  through  1 2  miles  of  the  State  boundary ;  a  station  at  Amua 

K  2 


254 


KHARSA  WAN 


is  3  miles  from  its  head-quarters.  The  State  contains  8  miles  of 
metalled  and  28  miles  of  unmetalled  roads.  The  total  revenue  is 
Rs.  42,000,  of  which  Rs.  17,000  is  derived  from  the  land.  The  police 
force  consists  of  4  officers  and  13  constables,  and  there  is  a  jail  with 
accommodation  for  n  prisoners.  The  State  also  maintains  a  dis- 
pensary, a  middle  English  school,  and  two  lower  primary  schools. 

Kharsi.  —Thakurat  in  the  Bhopal  Agency,  Central  India. 

Kharsiang. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Darjeeling  District,  Bengal. 
See  Kurseong. 

Khasi  and  Jaintia  Hills. — District  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam, 
lying  between  240  58'  and  260  f  N.  and  90°  45'  and  920  51/  E.,  with 
an  area  of  6,027  square  miles.  The  District,  which  forms  the  central 
section  of  the  watershed  between  the  valleys  of  the  Brahmaputra  and 
the  Surma,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Kamrup  and  Nowgong  ;  on 
the  east  by  Nowgong  and  Cachar ;  on  the  south  by  Sylhet ;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Garo  Hills.  To  the  north  the  hills  rise  gradually 
from  the  Brahmaputra  Valley  in  a  succession  of 
ysica  low   ranges,   covered   with    dense   evergreen   forest ; 

but  on  the  south  the  Khasi  Hills  spring  immedi- 
ately from  the  plain  to  a  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  form  a  level  wall 
along  the  north  of  the  Surma  Valley.  The  Jaintia  Hills  slope  more 
gently  to  the  plain,  but  these  also  have  no  low  outlying  ranges.  The 
southern  and  central  portions  of  the  District  consist  of  a  wide  plateau 
between  4,000  and  6,000'  feet  above  sea-level,  the  highest  point  of 
which,  the  Shillong  peak,  rises  to  6,450  feet.  On  the  north  towards 
Kamrup  are  two  similar  plateaux  of  lower  elevation.  The  general 
appearance  of  these  table-lands  is  that  of  undulating  downs.  They 
are  covered  with  short  grass,  but  destitute  both  of  the  dense  forest  and 
of  the  high  jungle  with  one  or  other  of  which  waste  land  in  Assam  is 
almost  invariably  covered.  Here  and  there  are  to  be  seen  clumps  of 
oak  and  pine,  the  hills  are  broken  up  with  deep  gorges  and  smiling 
valleys,  and  the  scenery  is  not  unlike  that  found  in  many  parts  of 
England.  A  considerable  number  of  rivers  rise  in  the  hills,  but  are 
of  little  importance  as  a  means  of  communication  within  the  boun- 
daries of  the  District.  The  largest  streams  flowing  towards  the  north 
are  the  Kapili,  Barpani,  Umiam  or  Kiling,  and  Digru,  all  of 
which  fall  either  direct  or  through  other  channels  into  the  Kalang  in 
Nowgong  ;  and  the  Khri,  which  is  called  the  Kulsi  in  Kamrup.  To 
the  south  the  best-known  rivers  are  the  Lubha,  Bogapani,  and 
Kynchiang  or  Jadukata.  Where  they  flow  through  the  plateau,  the 
larger  rivers  have  cut  for  themselves  deep  gorges  of  great  beauty,  whose 
precipitous  sides  are  generally  clothed  with  forest. 

The  Shillong  plateau  consists  of  a  great  mass  of  gneiss,  which  is  bare 
on  the  northern  border,  but  in  the  central  region  is  covered  by  tran- 


KHASL  AXD  JAINTlA  HILLS  255 

sition  or  sub-metamorphic  rocks.  To  the  south,  in  contact  with  the 
gneiss  and  sub-metamorphic,  is  a  great  volcanic  outburst  of  trap,  which 
is  stratified  and  brought  to  the  surface  south  of  Cherrapunji.  Still 
farther  south  are  Cretaceous  and  Nummulitic  strata,  which  contain 
deposits  of  coal  and  lime. 

The  characteristic  trees  of  the  central  plateau  are  those  of  a  tem- 
perate zone.  At  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  the  indigenous  pine  (Pinus 
Khasya)  predominates  over  all  other  vegetation,  and  forms  almost  pure 
pine  forests.  The  highest  peaks  are  clothed  with  fine  clumps  of  oak, 
chestnut,  magnolia,  beech,  and  other  trees,  which  superstition  has 
preserved  from  the  axe  of  the  wood-cutter.  Azaleas  and  rhododen- 
drons grow  wild,  and  many  kinds  of  beautiful  orchids  are  found  in 
the  woods. 

Wild  animals  include  elephants,  bison  (Bos  gai/rus),  tigers,  bears, 
leopards,  wild  dogs,  wild  buffaloes  in  the  lower  ranges,  and  various 
kinds  of  deer. 

The  climate  is  cool  and  pleasant.  In  the  hottest  weather  the  ther- 
mometer at  Shillong  rarely  rises  above  8o°,  and  in  the  winter  ice 
often  forms.  Snow  seldom  falls,  but  this  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  little  or  no  precipitation  of  moisture  in  the  cold  season. 
Malaria  lurks  in  the  low  ranges  of  hills  on  the  north,  but  the  climate 
of  the  high  plateau  is  extremely  healthy,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to 
European  constitutions. 

There  is  no  station  in  India  where  the  recorded  rainfall  is  as  heavy 
as  at  Cherrapunji,  on  the  southern  face  of  the  Khasi  Hills.  The 
average  annual  fall  at  this  place  is  458  inches  ;  but  the  clouds  are 
rapidly  drained  of  their  moisture,  and  at  Shillong,  which  is  less  than 
30  miles  away,  it  is  only  82  inches.  At  Jowai,  which  lies  at  about  the 
same  distance  south-east  of  Shillong,  the  average  annual  fall  is  237 
inches.  The  rainfall  has  never  been  recorded  in  the  northern  hills, 
but  it  is  probably  between  80  and  90  inches  in  the  year.  The  District 
has  always  been  subject  to  earthquakes,  hut  all  previous  shocks  were 
thrown  into  insignificance  by  the  catastrophe  of  June  12,  1897.  The 
whole  of  Shillong  was  levelled  with  the  ground,  masonry  houses 
collapsed,  and  roads  and  bridges  were  destroyed  all  over  the  District. 
The  total  number  of  lives  lost  was  916.  Most  of  these  casualties 
occurred  in  the  cliff  villages  near  Cherrapunji,  and  were  due  to  the 
falling  of  the  hill-sides,  which  carried  villages  with  them  or  buried 
them  in  their  ruins. 

On  ethnological  grounds  there  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  the 
Khasis  and  Syntengs  have  been  established  in  these  hills  for  many 
centuries ;    but,   living  as  they   did    in    comparative 
isolation    in    their    mountain    strongholds,    little    is 
known  of  their  early  history.     At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 


256  KNASL  AND  JALNTLA   HILLS 

they  harried  the  plains  on  the  north  and  south  of  the  District,  and 
their  raids  were  thus  described  by  Pemberton  in  1835  : — 

'Thev  descended  into  the  plains  both  of  Assam  and  Sylhet,  and 
ravaged  with  fire  and  sword  the  villages  which  stretched  along  the  base 
of  this  lofty  region.  Night  was  the  time  almost  invariably  chosen  for 
these  murderous  assaults,  when  neither  sex  nor  age  were  spared1.' 

The  Khasi  Hills  were  first  visited  by  Europeans  in  1826,  when 
Mr.  David  Scott  entered  into  arrangements  with  the  chiefs  for  the 
construction  of  a  road  through  their  territory  from  Assam  into  Sylhet. 
Work  was  begun;  but  in  1829  the  Khasis  took  alarm  at  the  threats 
of  a  Bengali  chaprasi,  who  declared  that  the  hills  were  to  be  brought 
under  taxation.  The  tribes  suddenly  rose  and  massacred  two  Euro- 
pean officers,  Lieutenants  Bedtngfield  and  Burlton,  near  Nongkhlao, 
with  about  60  of  their  native  followers.  Military  operations  were  at 
once  commenced,  but  were  protracted  through  several  seasons,  and 
it  was  not  till  1833  that  the  last  of  the  Khasi  chiefs  tendered  his  sub- 
mission. Engagements  were  then  entered  into  with  the  heads  of  the 
various  Khasi  States.  Their  independence  was  recognized,  Govern- 
ment abstained  from  imposing  any  taxation  upon  their  subjects,  and 
their  territories  were  held  to  be  beyond  the  borders  of  British  India. 
Since  that  date  the  history  of  the  Khasi  States  has  been  one  of  peace- 
ful development,  only  checked  by  the  great  earthquake  of  1897.  The 
Jaintia  Hills  lapsed  to  the  British  Government  in  1835,  when  the  Raja 
was  deprived  of  the  Jaintia  Parganas  in  the  District  of  Sylhet,  on 
account  of  his  complicity  in  the  murder  of  three  British  subjects.  For 
the  next  twenty  years  the  Syntengs,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  Jaintia 
Hills  are  called,  were  left  almost  entirely  to  their  own  devices.  The 
administration  was  entrusted  to  their  own  headmen,  who  were  un- 
doubtedly corrupt ;  but  the  only  tax  levied  was  that  dating  from  the 
Raja's  time,  which  consisted  of  one  male  goat  from  each  village.  In 
i860  a  house  tax  was  imposed,  as  in  the  other  hill  tracts  of  the 
Province,  and  within  a  few  months  the  people  rose  in  open  rebellion. 
Fortunately,  a  large  force  of  troops  was  close  at  hand,  and  before  the 
revolt  could  make  headway  it  was  stamped  out.  Scarcely,  however, 
had  the  agitation  subsided  when  the  income  tax  was  introduced  into 
the  hills.  The  total  amount  assessed  was  only  Rs.  1,259,  and  the 
highest  individual  assessment  Rs.  9  ;  but  this  was  enough  to  irritate 
a  people  who  had  never  been  accustomed  to  pay  anything  but  the 
lightest  of  tribute  to  their  own  princes,  and  who  had  never  been  taught 
by  conquest  the  extent  of  the  British  resources.  In  January,  1862, 
a  revolt  began  ;  and,  though  apparently  crushed  in  four  months,  it  broke 
out  again,  and  it  was  not  till  November,   1863,  that  the  last  of  the 

1  Report  on  the  Eastern  Frontier  of  British  India,  by  Captain  R.  1$.  Pemberton, 
p.  221  (Calcutta,  1835). 


POPULATIOX 


257 


leaders  surrendered,  and  the  pacification  of  Jaintia  could  be  said  to 
be  complete.  Since  that  date  a  British  officer  has  been  posted 
in  the  Jaintia  Hills,  and  the  people  have  given  no  trouble.  Cherra- 
punji  was  originally  selected  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  hills,  but  the 
rainfall  was  found  to  be  so  excessive  that  the  District  officer  moved 
to  Shillong  in  1864;  and  Shillong  was  constituted  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Administration  when  Assam  was  formed  into  a  separate  Province 
ten  years  later. 

The  population  of  the  District,  as  returned  at  the  last  four  enumera- 
tions, was:  (1872)  140,356,  (1881)  167.804,(1891)  197,904,  and  (1901 ) 

202, 2  ;o.     The  slow  rate  of  increase  which  occurred       „       ,    . 

J  Population. 

during  the  last  decade  was  due  to  the  unfavourable 

conditions  prevailing  after  the   earthquake   of    1897.     The    first   two 

enumerations  were  probably  incomplete.     The    District   contains   two 

subdivisions,   Shillong  and  Jowai,   with   head-quarters  at   places  of 

the  same  names.     Shillong  (population,  8,384)  is  the  only  town,  and 

there  are  1,839  villages. 

The  following  table  gives  for  each  subdivision  particulars  of  area, 

population,  &c.,  according  to  the  Census  of  1901  :— 


Area  in  square 
miles. 

Xumlx-r  of 

§• 

Population  per 

square  mile. 

-    -    X    - 

txe  g & 0 
g'Sg  1  \ 

v  >  5"— 

0 

Subdivision. 

I 

go 

fie 

> 

Number 

persons  al 

1  ead  ai 

write 

Shillong 
Jowai 

3,94' 
2,086 

1,199 
64O 

1 34;  ?>2  9 
67.921 

34 
33 

+  c-7 
+  5'2 

j  "-4P 

District  total 

6.027 

I 

'.839 

202.250 

34 

+    2-2 

»,478 

About  88  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  1901  were  still  faithful  to 
their  tribal  religion,  3  per  cent,  were  Hindus,  and  nearly  all  the 
remainder  Christians.  The  female  element  in  the  population  is  very 
large,  and  there  were  1,080  women  to  every  1,000  men  enumerated 
in  1 90 1,  a  fact  which  is  probably  connected  with  the  independent 
position  enjoyed  by  women.  Of  the  total  population,  59  per  cent, 
spoke  Khasi,  a  language  which  belongs  to  the  Mon-Anam  family,  and 
27  per  cent.  Synteng.  The  principal  tribes  were  Khasis  (107,500), 
Syntengs,  a  cognate  tribe  in  the  Jaintia  Hills  (47,900),  and  Mikirs 
(12,800).  The  proportion  of  the  population  supported  by  agriculture, 
76  per  cent.,  is  comparatively  low  for  Assam  ;  but  the  Khasis  are  keen 
traders,  and  ready  to  earn  money  in  any  honest  way. 

The  Khasis  and  Syntengs,  like  the  other  tribes  of  Assam,  are 
descendants  of  the  great  Indo-Chinese  race,  whose  head-quarters  are 
supposed  to  have  been  in  North-Western  China  between  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Ho-ang-ho  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang.     They  are.  however, 


258  KHASI  AND  JAINTIA    HILLS 

thought  to  belong  to  one  of  the  earliest  bands  of  immigrants,  and  their 
language  is  quite  unlike  any  other  form  of  tribal  speech  now  found  in 
Assam,  but  is  connected  with  the  Mon-Khmer  language  used  by 
various  tribes  in  Anam  and  Cambodia.  While  the  rest  of  the  horde 
pressed  onwards  towards  the  sea,  the  Khasis  remained  behind  in  their 
new  highland  home,  and  for  many  centuries  have  maintained  their 
nationality  intact,  though  surrounded  on  every  side  by  people  of 
a  different  stock.  The  tribe  is  subdivided  into  a  large  number  of 
exogamous  clans,  which  are  in  theory  composed  of  persons  descended 
from  the  same  female  ancestor.  Each  clan  possesses  distinctive 
religious  rites,  and  a  special  place  in  which  the  uncalcined  bones 
are  buried  after  cremation.  Politically,  they  are  divided  into  a  large 
number  of  petty  States,  most  of  which  are  ruled  by  a  chief,  or  Siem, 
and  some  of  which  have  less  than  1,000  inhabitants.  The  Siemship 
usually  remains  in  one  family,  but  the  succession  was  originally  con- 
trolled by  a  small  electoral  body,  constituted  from  the  heads  of  certain 
priestly  clans.  Of  recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  broaden 
the  elective  basis,  and  the  constitution  of  a  Khasi  State  has  always 
been  of  a  very  democratic  character,  a  Siem  exercising  but  little  control 
over  his  people. 

In  personal  appearance  the  Khasis  are  short  and  sturdy,  with  great 
muscular  development  of  the  leg.  The  features  are  of  a  distinctly 
Mongolian  type,  with  oblique  eyes,  a  low  nasal  index,  and  high  cheek 
bones.  They  are  of  a  cheerful,  friendly  disposition,  but,  though 
peaceful  in  their  habits,  are  unused  to  discipline  or  restraint. 

Among  many  of  the  north-east  frontier  tribes  there  is  little  security 
of  life  and  property,  and  the  people  are  compelled  to  live  in  large 
villages  on  sites  selected  for  their  defensive  capabilities.  The  Khasis 
seem,  however,  to  have  been  less  distracted  by  internal  warfare,  and 
the  villages,  as  a  rule,  are  small.  The  houses  are  low,  with  roofs  nearly 
reaching  to  the  ground,  and  are  usually  made  of  wooden  planks. 
They  are  not  built  on  platforms,  as  is  commonly  the  case  with  the 
hill  tribes  ;  but  the  floor  is  often  made  of  boards,  and  the  roofs  of 
the  well-to-do  are  covered  with  corrugated  iron  or  oil  tins  beaten  flat. 
The  interior  is  generally  divided  into  two  compartments. 

The  men  usually  wear  a  sleeveless  cotton  shirt,  a  loin-cloth,  and 
a  wrap,  and  on  their  heads  a  turban,  or  a  curious  cloth  cap  with  a  peak 
over  the  forehead.  The  women  are  well  clad  in  chemises  and  body- 
cloths,  and  both  sexes  often  wear  stockings  with  the  feet  cut  off.  The 
costumes  brought  out  on  gala  days  are  most  elaborate.  The  men  wear 
silk  loin-cloths  and  finely  embroidered  coats,  while  the  women  appear 
in  really  handsome  silk  cloths  of  different  colours.  The  jewellery 
is  massive,  but  handsome,  consisting  of  silver  coronets  and  pendants 
and    heavy    necklaces    of   coral    and   lac  overlaid    with    gold.     Their 


POPULATION  259 

weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  with  which  they  are  always  practising, 
swords,  and  shields.  Their  staple  diet  is  dried  fish  and  rice  ;  but  they 
eat,  when  they  can  afford  it,  pork,  beef,  and  any  kind  of  game.  Dog, 
however,  they  avoid,  as,  according  to  their  legends,  he  was  created  to 
be  the  companion  of  man  and  his  assistant  in  the  chase.  They  drink 
large  quantities  of  liquor,  prepared  from  rice  and  millet,  both  fer- 
mented and  distilled,  and  continually  chew  pd?i. 

At  a  marriage  the  parties  are  pronounced  man  and  wife  in  the 
presence  of  their  friends,  and  a  feast  usually  follows.  The  essential 
part  of  the  ceremony  consists  in  the  mixing  of  liquor  from  two  different 
gourds,  representing  the  two  contracting  parties,  and  the  eating  by  the 
bride  and  groom  out  of  the  same  plate.  The  bride  at  first  remains  in 
her  mother's  house,  where  she  is  visited  by  her  husband ;  but  when 
children  are  born,  the  parents,  if  they  continue  satisfied  with  one 
another,  set  up  housekeeping  together.  This  union  between  the  sexes, 
however,  can  be  terminated  by  mutual  consent ;  and  as  the  initial 
ceremony  costs  but  little,  a  man  is  not  deterred  from  changing  his  wife 
by  the  expense  of  obtaining  a  new  partner.  Divorce  is  very  common, 
and  is  effected  by  a  public  declaration,  coupled  with  the  presentation 
by  the  man  to  the  woman  of  five  cowries  or  copper  coins,  which  she 
returns  to  him  with  five  similar  coins  of  her  own.  He  then  throws 
them  away.  The  public  proclamation  is  occasionally  dispensed  with, 
and  the  marriage  dissolved  by  the  simple  tearing  of  a  pan  leaf.  The 
facility  with  which  divorce  can  be  obtained  renders  adultery  or  inter- 
course prior  to  marriage  uncommon.  Marriage,  in  fact,  is  merely  a 
union  of  the  sexes,  dissoluble  at  will,  and  the  people  have  no  tempta- 
tion to  embark  on  secret  intrigues.  A  woman  who  commits  adultery 
is,  moreover,  regarded  with  extreme  disfavour  ;  and,  according  to  the 
Khasi  code  of  morals,  there  is  only  one  thing  worse,  and  that  is  to 
marry  in  one's  own  clan.  A  widow  is  allowed  to  remarry,  but  not  into 
the  family  of  her  late  husband,  a  practice  exactly  the  converse  of  that 
prevailing  in  the  Garo  Hills,  to  the  west. 

The  Khasis  burn  their  dead,  each  clan  or  family  having  its  own 
burning-ground.  Two  arrows  are  shot,  one  to  the  east  and  the  other 
to  the  west,  to  protect  the  dead  man,  and  a  cock  is  sacrificed,  which  is 
supposed  to  show  the  spirit  the  way  to  the  other  world,  and  to  wake 
him  at  dawn  so  that  he  may  pursue  his  journey.  The  bones  are 
subsequently  collected  from  the  pyre  and  removed  to  the  common 
burial-place  of  the  tribe.  The  stones  erected  to  the  memory  of  the 
dead  form  a  special  feature,  being  very  numerous  and  often  of  great 
size;  the  largest  are  as  much  as  27  feet  in  height  with  an  average 
breadth  of  nearly  7  feet.  These  monuments  are  of  two  kinds,  some 
being  tall  upright  monoliths,  others  flat  slabs  resting  on  smaller  stones 
about  18  inches  high.     The  monoliths  are  generally  placed  in  rows, 


2no 


KHAST  AND  JAINTIA   HILLS 


the  central  stone  being  erected  in  memory  of  the  maternal  uncle  and 
one  on  either  side  in  honour  of  the  deceased  and  the  deceased's  father. 
As  with  all  monuments,  these  stones  are  erected  near  villages  and 
paths,  where  they  will  be  most  often  seen.  The  matriarchal  theory 
is  in  full  force,  and  inheritance  goes  through  the  female  line.  A  Siem 
is  usually  succeeded  by  his  uterine  brothers,  and  failing  them  by  his 
sisters'  sons.  If  he  has  no  such  nephews,  the  succession  falls  to  his 
first  cousins  or  grandnephews,  but  only  to  such  as  are  cognates, 
his  own  sons  and  his  kinsmen  through  the  male  line  having  no  claim 
at  all  to  the  inheritance.  So  long  as  a  man  remains  in  his  mother's 
house,  whether  married  or  unmarried,  he  is  earning  for  his  mother's 
family,  and  his  mother  or  sisters  and  their  children  are  his  heirs. 
If,  however,  he  is  living  separately  with  his  wife,  she  and  her  daughters 
are  entitled  to  succeed. 

The  natural  religion  of  the  Khasis,  like  that  of  most  of  the  hill 
tribes,  is  somewhat  vague  and  ill  defined.  They  believe  in  a  future 
state,  but  do  not  trouble  themselves  much  about  it.  Misfortunes  are 
attributed  to  evil  spirits,  and  steps  are  at  once  taken  to  ascertain  who 
is  offended,  and  how  he  best  may  be  propitiated.  One  of  their  most 
curious  superstitions  is  that  of  the  thlen.  The  tradition  runs  that  there 
was  once  in  a  cave  near  Cherrapunji  a  gigantic  snake  or  t/iku,  which 
caused  great  havoc  among  men  and  animals.  At  last,  one  man  took 
with  him  to  the  cave  a  herd  of  goats,  and  offered  them  one  by  one  to 
the  monster.  The  snake  soon  learnt  to  open  its  mouth  to  be  fed  at 
a  given  signal,  and  the  man  then  made  a  lump  of  iron  red  hot,  threw  it 
into  its  mouth,  and  thus  killed  it.  The  body  was  then  cut  up  and 
eaten,  but  one  small  piece  remained,  from  which  sprang  a  multitude  of 
thlens.  These  thlens  attach  themselves  to  different  families,  and  bring 
wealth  and  prosperity,  but  only  if  they  are  from  time  to  time  fed  on 
human  blood.  To  satisfy  this  craving  a  human  being  must  be  killed, 
and  the  hair,  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  a  little  blood  offered  to  the 
snake.  Many  families  are  known  or  suspected  to  be  ri  f/i/en,  or 
keepers  of  the  thlen,  and  murders  are  not  unfrequently  committed  in 
consequence  of  this  awful  superstition. 

The  people  have  shown  themselves  extremely  receptive  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  have  little  taste  for  Hinduism.  One  of  their  chief  char- 
acteristics is  a  dislike  of  all  restraint,  including  the  restraint  of  tradition, 
which  is  of  such  binding  force  among  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East.  There  are  few  people  less  conservative  than  the  Khasis,  and 
they  are  ever  ready  to  take  up  a  noveltv.  To  this  healthy  spirit  of 
enterprise  is  due  the  marked  progress  they  have  made  in  the  develop- 
ment of  material  comfort,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  have  outstripped 
the  other  tribes  on  the  north-east  frontier  in  their  progress  towards 
civilization. 


AGRICULTURE  261 

The  Syntengs  are  very  closely  allied  to  the  Khasis  in  language, 
religion,  and  customs.  They  are,  however,  less  sturdily  built  and 
have  darker  complexions,  the  result,  in  all  probability,  of  closer  con- 
nexion with  the  plains.  They  owned  allegiance  to  the  Jaintia  Raja, 
whose  local  representatives  were  twelve  dollois  or  headmen  ;  but  he 
received  little  in  the  way  of  tribute,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  his 
influence  in  the  hills  was  ever  very  strong. 

The  Welsh  Presbyterian  Mission,  which  has  been  established  in 
these  hills  since  1841,  has  met  with  a  large  measure  of  success.  The 
schools  of  the  District  are  under  the  management  of  this  society,  which 
has  succeeded  not  only  in  converting,  but  in  imparting  the  elements  of 
instruction  to,  a  large  proportion  of  the  animistic  population.  In  1903 
they  had  nine  centres  in  the  hills,  at  which  twenty-one  missionaries 
were  employed.  Of  recent  years  a  Roman  Catholic  mission  has 
started  work.  The  total  number  of  native  Christians  in  the  District 
at  the  Census  of  1901  was  17,125. 

The  soil  of  the  Khasi  Hills  consists  of  a  stiff  clay,  often  indurated 

with   particles   of  iron,   which   in   its   natural   state   is   far  from  fertile. 

Manure  is  accordinsrlv  much  prized,  and  cow-dung  .     fi 

c  11  ,.         1  j         ^  r         Agriculture. 

is    carefully    collected    and    stored.        1  owards    the 

east,    the    land    becomes    more    fertile,    and    is    often   a   rich    black 

loam,  and  manure  is  not  so  necessary.      In  the   more  level  valleys, 

in  which  the  central  plateau  abounds,  rice  is  grown  in  terraces  and 

irrigated  ;    and   such   fields   are   also   found    on    the    northern    margin 

of  the  District,   wherever  the  conformation  of  the  surface  admits  of 

them.      Water  is  run  on   these  fields  in  winter,  to  keep  the  soil  soft 

and  free  from  cracks.     Elsewhere,  the  crop  is  raised  on  the  hill-side. 

Turf  and  scrub  are  dug  up,  arranged  in  beds  and  burnt,  and  seed  is 

sown  in  the  ashes  which  serve  as  manure.     In  addition  to  rice,  the 

principal  crops  are  maize,  job's-tears  (Coix  Lacrymct),  various  kinds  of 

millet  and  pulse,  and  a  leguminous  plant  called  sohphlang  (Flemingia 

vestitd),  which  produces   large  numbers  of  tubers  about   the   size  of 

pigeons'  eggs  among  its  roots.     Cotton  is  grown  in  the  forest  clearings 

to  the  north,  and  oranges,  bay  leaves,  areca-nut,  and  pine-apples  on  the 

southern  slopes  of  the  hills.      This  portion  of  the  District  was  much 

affected  by  the  earthquake  of  1897,  and  many  valuable  groves  were 

destroyed  by  deposits  of  sand. 

There  are  no  statistics  to  show  the  area  under  cultivation  ;  but  the 

Khasis  are  energetic  and  enterprising  farmers,  and  readily  adopt  fresh 

staples  that  seem  likely  to  yield  a  profit.     Potatoes  were  first  introduced 

in  1830,  and  were  soon  widely  cultivated.      In  1882  nearly  5,000  tons 

of  this  tuber  were  exported  from  the  hills,  but  a  few  years  later  blight 

appeared,  and  there  has  since  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  exports. 

An  experimental  farm  has  been  started  near  Shillong,  and  new  varieties 


262  KHAST  AND  JAINTIA   HILLS 

of  potato  introduced,  which  have  been  readily  adopted  by  the  Khasis. 
Peach-  and  pear-trees  are  grown  in  the  higher  hills,  and  efforts  have 
recently  been  made  to  acclimatize  various  kinds  of  English  fruit. 
A  serious  obstacle  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  the  heavy  rainfall  of 
May  and  June,  and  only  early-ripening  varieties  are  likely  to  do  well. 

The  cattle  are  fat  and  handsome  little  animals,  much  superior  to 
those  found  in  the  plains.  The  cows  yield  little  milk,  but  what  they 
give  is  very  rich  in  cream.  The  Khasis  do  not  milk  their  cows,  and  in 
many  places  do  not  use  the  plough,  cattle  being  chiefly  kept  for  the 
sake  of  the  manure  they  yield,  and  for  food.  Ponies  are  bred,  which 
in  appearance  and  manners  are  not  unlike  the  sturdy  little  animals  of 
Bhutan.  Pigs  are  kept  in  almost  every  house,  and  efforts  have  been 
recently  made  to  improve  the  breed  by  the  introduction  of  English 
and  Australian  animals. 

Two  square  miles  of  pine  forest  near  Shillong  have  been  formally 
reserved,  and  there  is  a  '  reserved  '  forest  50  square  miles  in  area  at 
Saipung  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Jaintia  Hills.  This  forest  is 
said  to  contain  a  certain  quantity  of  nahor  (Mesua  ferrea)  and  sam 
(A?-focarj)t/s  Chaplasha),  but  up  to  date  it  has  not  been  worked.  Pine 
and  oak  are  the  predominating  trees  in  the  higher  plateaux  ;  but  this 
portion  of  the  District  is  very  sparsely  wooded,  the  trees  having  been 
killed  out  by  forest  fires  and  shifting  cultivation.  The  ravines  on  the 
southern  face  of  the  hills  and  the  low  hills  to  the  north  are,  however, 
clothed  with  dense  evergreen  forest.  The  area  of  these  forests  is  not 
known,  but  there  is  very  little  trade  in  timber. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  District  consists  of  coal,  iron,  and  lime- 
stone.    Iron  is  derived  from  minute  crystals  of  titaniferous  iron  ore, 
M.        .  which  are  found  in  the  decomposed  granite  on  the 

surface  of  the  central  dike  of  that  rock,  near  the 
highest  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  iron  industry  was  originally  of 
considerable  importance,  but  is  now  almost  extinct.  Cretaceous  coal 
is  found  at  Maobehlarkhar,  near  Maoflang,  which  is  worked  by  the 
villagers  in  a  primitive  way  for  the  supply  of  the  station  of  Shillong. 
Another  outcrop  occurs  at  Langrin  on  the  Jadukata  river.  Nummulitic 
coal  is  found  at  Cherrapunji,  Lakadong,  Thanjinath,  Lynkerdem, 
Maolong,  and  Mustoh.  The  Maolong  field,  which  is  estimated  to 
contain  15,000,000  tons  of  good  workable  coal,  has  lately  been  taken 
on  lease  by  a  limited  company.  Limestone  is  found  all  along  the 
southern  face  of  the  hills  as  far  as  the  Hari  river,  but  it  can  only  be 
economically  worked  where  special  facilities  exist  for  its  transport  from 
the  quarries  to  the  kiln.  Altogether  thirty-four  limestone  tracts  are 
separately  treated  as  quarries.  The  most  important  are  those  situated 
on  the  Jadukata  and  Panatirtha  rivers,  the  Dwara  quarries,  the  Sheila 
quarries  on  the  Bogapani,  the   quarries  which   lie  immediately  under 


ADMINISTRATION  263 

Cherrapunji,  and  the  Utma  quarries  a  little  to  the  east  on  an  affluent 
of  the  Piyain.  The  stone  is  quarried  for  the  most  part  during  the  dry 
months,  and  rolled  down  to  the  river  banks.  When  the  hill  streams 
rise,  it  is  convtyed  in  small  boats  over  the  rapids,  which  occur  before 
the  rivers  issue  on  the  plains.  Below  the  rapids  it  is  generally  reloaded 
on  larger  boats  and  carried  down  to  the  Surma  river,  on  the  banks  of 
which  it  is  burnt  into  lime  during  the  cold  season.  The  earthquake 
of  1897  considerably  increased  the  difficulties  of  transport,  and  the 
lime  business  has  of  recent  years  been  suffering  from  a  depressed 
market.  The  output  in  1904  amounted  in  round  figures  to  123,000 
tons.  The  quarries  are  worked  by  private  individuals,  usually  them- 
selves Khasis,  employing  local  labour.  Stone  quarries  are  also  worked 
in  the  Jaintia  Hills.  Government  realized  in  royalties  in  1903-4  about 
Rs.  12,000  from  lime,  and  Rs.  1,600  from  coal. 

The  manufactures  of  the  District  are  not  important.  Handsome  but 
rather  heavy  jewellery  is  made  to  order,  and  the  Khasis  manufacture 
rough  pottery  and  iron  hoes  and  daos,  or  hill  knives. 

Cloths  and  jackets  are   woven  in   the    Taintia  Hills  a  e-  a?- 

J  J  communications. 

from  thread  spun  from  the  en  silkworm,  and  from 

cotton  grown  in    the  jhums.      Bamboo    mats  and  cane  baskets  and 

sieves  are  also  made. 

The  hillmen  are  keen  traders,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
people  earn  their  living  by  travelling  from  one  market  to  another. 
The  chief  centres  of  business  are  at  Cherrapunji,  Laitlyngkot,  Shillong, 
Jowai,  and  a  market  on  the  border  of  Sylhet  near  Jaintiapur.  The 
principal  exports  are  potatoes,  cotton,  lac,  sesamum,  oranges,  bay- 
leaves,  areca-nuts,  and  lime.  The  imports  are  rice  and  other  food- 
grains,  general  oilman's  stores,  cotton  piece-goods,  kerosene  oil, 
corrugated  iron,  and  hand-woven  cotton  and  silk  cloths  from  the 
plains.  There  are  a  few  Marwari  merchants  at  Shillong,  but  they 
have  no  shops  in  the  interior  of  the  District,  where  trade  is  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  Khasis  and  Syntengs. 

An  excellent  metalled  cart-road  runs  from  Gauhati  to  Cherrapunji, 
via  Shillong,  a  distance  of  97  miles.  The  gradients  between  Shillong 
and  Gauhati  have  been  most  carefully  adjusted,  and  a  tonga  and 
bullock-train  service  is  maintained  between  these  two  towns.  Except 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Shillong,  few  roads  are  suitable 
for  wheeled  traffic;  but  in  1903-4  there  were  altogether  356  miles  of 
bridle-paths  in  the  District. 

The  District  is  divided  into  two  subdivisions,  Shillong  and  Jowai. 

Shillong  is   the  head-quarters    of  the   Deputy-Commissioner  and    the 

summer    head-quarters    of   the    Local    Government. 

rpi       7        •       1  j 1  r       t-  Administration. 

I  he  Jowai  subdivision  is  in  charge  of  a  European 

Subordinate  Magistrate.     In  addition  to  these   officers,    an    Assistant 


264 


KHASI  AND  JAINTIA   HILLS 


Magistrate  is  stationed  at  Shillong,  and  an  Engineer  who  is  also  in 
charge  of  Kamrup  District.  The  Jaintia  Hills,  with  Shillong,  and  34 
villages  in  the  Khasi  Hills,  are  British  territory.  The  rest  of  the  Khasi 
Hills  is  included  in  twenty-five  petty  Native  States,  which  have  treaties 
or  agreements  with  the  British  Government.  These  States  vary  in 
size  from  Khyrim,  with  a  population  of  31,327,  to  Nonglewai,  with 
a  population  of  169.  Nine  of  these  States  had  a  population  of  less 
than  1,000  persons  in   1901. 

The  High  Court  at  Calcutta  has  no  jurisdiction  in  the  hills,  except 
over  European  British  subjects.  The  Codes  of  Civil  and  Criminal 
Procedure  are  not  in  force,  and  the  Deputy-Commissioner  exercises 
powers  of  life  and  death,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  Petty  criminal  and  civil  cases,  in  which  natives  of  the 
District  are  concerned,  are  decided  by  the  village  authorities.  Serious 
offences  and  civil  suits  in  which  foreigners  are  concerned  are  tried  by 
the  Deputy-Commissioner  and  his  Assistants.  There  is,  on  the  whole, 
very  little  serious  crime  in  the  District,  but  savage  murders  are 
occasionally  committed. 

Land  revenue  is  assessed  only  on  building  sites  and  on  flat  rice  land 
in  the  Jaintia  Hiils,  which  pays  Rs.  1-14  per  acre.  The  principal 
source  of  revenue  in  British  territory  is  a  tax  of  Rs.  2  on  each  house. 

The  revenue  from  house-tax  and  total  revenue  is  shown  in  the 
following  table,  in  thousands  of  rupees  :  — 


1880-1.       1890-1. 

1 900-1. 

1903-4. 

Revenue  from  house-tax  .           15 
Total  revenue .          .         .          71* 

1  ~ 

'>>5 

27 
i,35 

28 
',44 

Exclusive  of  forest  revenue. 

There  are  police  stations  in  the  hills,  at  Shillong,  Cherrapunji,  and 
Jowai,  and  an  outpost  at  Nongpoh,  half-way  between  Shillong  and 
Gauhati.  The  force  has  a  sanctioned  strength  of  23  officers  and  183 
men,  who  are  under  the  immediate  charge  of  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner, but  ordinary  police  duties  are  discharged  by  the  village 
officials.  The  only  jail  in  the  District  is  at  Shillong ;  it  has  accommo- 
dation for  78  prisoners. 

Thanks  to  the  efforts  of  the  Welsh  Presbyterian  Mission,  education 
has  made  considerable  progress,  and  in  1901  the  proportion  of  literate 
persons  (5-7  per  cent.)  was  higher  than  that  in  any  District  in 
Assam.  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  in  1880-1,  1890-i, 
1900-1,  and  1903-4  was  2,670,  3,582,  6,555,  and  7,275  respectively. 
The  Khasi  Hills  owes  its  position  to  the  spread  of  female  education, 
3-4  per  cent,  of  the  women  being  able  to  read  and  write,  as  compared 
with    0-4    per    cent,    in  Assam    as    a   whole.      In    1903-4   there   were 


KHATAO  265 

348  primary,  8  secondary  schools,  and  one  special  school  in  the  District. 
The  number  of  female  scholars  was  2,395.  The  great  majority  of 
the  pupils  under  instruction  were  only  in  primary  classes.  Of  the  male 
population  of  school-going  age  28  per  cent,  were  in  the  primary  stage 
of  instruction,  and  of  the  female  population  of  the  same  age  14  per 
cent.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  was  Rs.  1,21,000,  of  which 
Rs.  7,000  was  derived  from  fees;  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  direct 
expenditure  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  possesses  two  hospitals  and  four  dispensaries,  with 
accommodation  for  23  in-patients.  In  1904  the  number  of  cases 
treated  was  25,000,  of  whom  200  were  in-patients,  and  500  operations 
were  performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  10,000,  the  greater  part  of 
which  was  met  from  Provincial  revenues. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  Shillong  town,  and  has  been 
somewhat  neglected  in  the  District.  In  1903-4  only  28  per  1,000  of 
the  population  were  protected,  as  compared  with  44  per  1,000  in 
Assam  as  a  whole. 

[A.  Mackenzie,  History  of  the  Relations  of  the  Government  with  the 
Hill  Tribes  of  the  North-East  Frontier  of  Bengal  (Calcutta,  1 884)  ; 
VV.  J .  Allen,  Report  on  the  Administration  of  the  Cossyah  and  Jynteah 
Hill  Territory  (Calcutta,  1858);  J.  D.  Hooker,  Himalayan  Journals 
(1854);  B.  C.  Allen,  District  Gazetteer  of  the  Khdsi  and  Jaintia  Hills 
(1906)  ;  Major  P.  R.  T.  Gurdon,  The  Khdsis  (1907).] 

Khaspur. — Village  in  the  Silchar  subdivision  of  Cachar  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  240  55'  N.  and  920  57'  E.,  near 
the  southern  face  of  the  Barail  range.  This  was  the  capital  of  the 
Rajas  of  Cachar  from  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the 
death  of  the  last  Raja  in  1830.  While  living  here  the  Kaeharis  came 
under  the  influence  of  Hinduism,  and  in  1790  the  Raja  and  his 
brother  entered  the  body  of  a  copper  image  of  a  cow  and  emerged  as 
Kshattriyas.  The  only  traces  of  the  former  capital  are  to  be  found 
in  the  remains  of  four  temples,  two  other  buildings,  and  three  tanks. 
The  village  is  no  longer  of  any  importance. 

Khatao. —  Tdluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  lying  between  170  18' 
and  1 70  48'  N.  and  740  14'  and  740  51'  E.,  with  an  area  of  501  square 
miles.  There  are  85  villages,  but  no  town.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
Vaduj.  The  population  in  1901  was  96,416,  compared  with  95,223  in 
189L  The  density,  241  persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost  equal  to 
the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-4 
lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  12,000  Khatao  is  a  northerly  continuation 
of  the  Khanapur  plateau,  and  consists  of  the  valley  of  the  Verla,  which, 
rising  at  the  northern  point  of  the  tdluka,  flows  southward  through  it. 
Of  the  two  ranges  of  hills  which  enclose  the  valley,  the  western  range  is 
the  higher,  while  the  eastern  rises  but  little  above  the  Khatao  upland. 


266 


KHATAO 


The  rainfall,  which  averages  20  inches  annually  at  Vaduj,  is  scanty  and 
fitful  ;  but  the  climate  is  fairly  healthy. 

Khatauli. — Town  in  the  Jansath  taJis'd  of  Muzaffarnagar  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  290  17'  N.  and  770  44'  E.,  on  the  North- 
western Railway  and  on  the  road  from  Meerut  to  Roorkee.  Popu- 
lation is  increasing  steadily,  and  was  8,695  m  i9°i-  The  town  is  of 
some  age,  and  contains  four  large  Jain  temples  and  a  large  sarai  built 
by  Shah  Jahan.  It  first  became  of  importance  during  the  Bihar  famine 
of  1874,  when  all  the  surplus  grain  in  the  District  was  exported  from 
the  railway  station.  The  streets  have  recently  been  paved  and  masonry 
drains  constructed.  Khatauli  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  3,000.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  connected  with 
the  export  of  grain  and  sugar,  and  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  Jain 
merchants.  The  tahslll  school  has  64  pupils,  and  an  aided  Jain 
school  38. 

Khatmandu.— Capital  of  Nepal.     See  Katmandu. 

Khed  Taluka  (1). — Tdluka  of  Poona  District,  Bombay,  including  the 
petty  subdivision  (petha)  of  Ambegaon,  and  lying  between  180  37'  and 
1 90  13'  N.  and  730  31'  and  740  10'  E.,  with  an  area  of  876  square  miles. 
There  are  two  towns,  Khed  (population,  3,932),  the  head-quarters, 
and  ALANDr  (2,019);  and  242  villages,  including  Ghod  (5,720)  and 
Manchar  (5,300).  The  population  in  1901  was  156,275,  compared 
with  162,391  in  1891.  The  density,  179  persons  per  square  mile,  is 
slightly  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  2-3  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  18,000.  There  are  two  large 
chains  of  hills,  one  in  the  north  and  the  other  in  the  south.  The  east 
is  a  series  of  table-lands  crossed  by  mountains  and  hills,  the  country 
becoming  rapidly  more  rugged  as  it  approaches  the  Western  Ghats. 
Most  of  the  soil  is  red  or  grey.  The  Maval  or  west  has  little  '  dry- 
crop'  tillage.  Khed  contains  the  largest  forest  area  in  the  District. 
The  climate  is  generally  good.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  about 
26  inches. 

Khed  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name  in 
Poona  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  51'  N.  and  73°  53'  E.,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Bhlma  river,  26  miles  north  of  Poona  city.  Population 
(1901),  3,932.  Khed  has  an  area  of  upwards  of  20  square  miles, 
within  which  limits  are  at  least  three  places  of  interest  from  an  archi- 
tectural or  archaeological  point  of  view  :  namely,  the  tomb  and  mosque 
of  Dilawar  Khan,  an  old  Hindu  temple  of  Siddheswar  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bhlma  river,  and  a  temple  of  Tukai-devi  some  centuries  old 
a  few  yards  to  the  right  of  the  Poona-Nasik  road.  The  mosque  is  a 
graceful  specimen  of  Musalman  carved  stone-work.  The  town  con- 
tains a  Sub- Judge's  court,  a  dispensary,  and  one  school  with  171  boys 
and  25  girls.      The  municipality  was  established  in   1863.       For  the 


KHEM  KARAN  267 

decade  ending  1901  the  average  income  was  Rs.  3,000.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  3,500,  chiefly  derived  from  a  house  tax.  A  branch  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  stationed  here,  carries  on  evangelistic 
work  in  the  taluka. 

Khed  Taluka  (2). — North-eastern  taluka  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bom- 
bay, lying  between  170  33' and  i7°54/N.  and  730  20'  and  73°42/E.,  with 
an  area  of  392  square  miles.  It  contains  146  villages,  including  Khed 
(population,  5,053),  the  head-quarters  ;  but  no  town.  The  population  in 
1901  was  95,594,  compared  with  100,550  in  1891.  The  decrease  is 
ascribed  to  a  virulent  cholera  epidemic  and  considerable  emigration 
during  the  fair  season.  The  density,  244  persons  per  square  mile,  is 
much  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  86,000,  and  cesses  Rs.  6,ooo.  The  taluka  consists  cf 
a  rugged  and  hilly  surface,  with  patches  of  poor  land.  The  north-west 
is  much  broken  by  ravines  ;  in  the  north-east  are  three  hills,  Mahipat- 
garh,  Sumargarh,  and  Rasalgarh,  detached  from  the  Western  Ghats 
by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jagbudi.  The  principal  passes  across  the 
Ghats  are  the  H allot  and  the  Amboli,  the  latter  passable  by  pack- 
bullocks.  The  village  sites  are  protected  by  shade-giving  trees  ; 
near  the  villages  are  numerous  sacred  groves.  The  river  Jagbudi  is 
navigable  by  small  craft  as  far  as  Khed.  The  greater  part  of  the  taluka 
lies  beyond  the  influence  of  the  sea-breeze,  and  is  consequently  very 
hot  during  March,  April,  and  May.  The  annual  rainfall  is  heavy, 
averaging  about   143  inches. 

Khed  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name  in 
Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  170  43'  N.  and  730  24'  E.,  at 
the  head  of  the  Jagbudi  river,  and  surrounded  by  hills.  Population 
(1901),  5,053.  A  cart-road  connects  Khed  with  the  port  of  Harnai,  26 
miles  distant.  Boats  of  light  draught  work  up  from  Dabhol  and  Anjan- 
vel  to  Khed.  East  of  the  village  are  three  small  rock  temples.  The 
place  contains  a  dispensary,  and  two  schools  with  150  boys  and  9  girls. 

Kheda. —  District  and  town  in  Bombay.     See  Kaira. 

Khejri. — Village  in  Midnapore  District,  Bengal.     See  Kedgeree. 

Khekra. — Town  in  the  Baghpat  tahstl  of  Meerut  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  280  52'  N.  and  770  17'  E.,  26  miles  west  of 
Meerut  city.  Population  (1901),  8,918.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  1,600  years  ago  by  AhTrs,  who  were  ousted  by  Jats  from 
Sikandarpur.  In  the  Mutiny  the  owners  rebelled,  and  the  land  was 
confiscated.  The  place  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with 
an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,000.  It  is  rising  in  importance  as  a  centre 
of  the  grain  and  sugar  trade.     There  is  a  primary  school  with  60  pupils. 

Khelat. — State  and  town  in  Baluchistan.    See  Kalat. 

Khem  Karan. — Town  in  the  Kasur  tahsiloi  Lahore  District,  Punjab, 
situated  in  310  9'  N.  and  740  34'  E.,  7  miles  from  Kasur  town,  on  the 

VOL.   XV.  3 


268  KHEM  KARAX 

North-Western  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,083.  The  Kasur  branch 
of  the  Bari  Doab  Canal  flows  near  the  town,  and  the  population,  which 
is  mainly  agricultural,  is  well-to-do.  The  municipality  was  created  in 
1867.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged 
Rs.  5,200,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  4,800.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  5,700,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  6,200.  The  town  has  a  vernacular  middle  school,  maintained 
by  the  municipality. 

Kherali. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Kheralu  Taluka. — North-eastern  taluka  of  the  Kadi  prant,  Baroda 
State,  with  an  area  of  246  square  miles.  The  population  fell  from 
98,682  in  1891  to  76,463  in  1901.  The  taluka  contains  three  towns, 
Kheralu  (population,  7,617),  the  head-quarters,  Vadnagar  (13,716), 
and  Umta  (5,242);  and  88  villages.  It  is  level  throughout,  and  is 
fairly  well  wooded.  The  surface  soil  is  for  the  most  part  sandy,  but 
there  is  a  little  black  soil.  The  Khari  flows  through  it  from  east  to 
west.     The  land  revenue  in  1904-5  was  Rs.  42,000. 

Kheralu  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name, 
Kadi prdnt,  Baroda  State,  situated  in  230  54'  N.  and  72°39/  E.,  on  the 
Gaikwar's  State  line  from  Mehsana  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway. 
Population  (1901),  7,617.  The  town  contains  a  magistrate's  court, 
a  dispensary,  two  dlia?-msalas,  local  offices,  and  a  vernacular  school,  and 
is  celebrated  for  the  temple  founded  by  the  Vaishnavite  reformer 
Vallabhacharya,  who  is  said  to  have  dwelt  here.  It  is  administered 
by  a  municipality,  which  receives  an  annual  grant  of  Rs.  1,600  from 
the  State. 

Kheravada  {Khedavada).—Ve\Xy  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Kheri  District  (K/iiri).— Northern  District  of  the  Lucknow  Division, 
United  Provinces,  lying  between  270  41'  and  280  42'  N.  and  8o°  2' 
and  8i°  19'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,963  square  miles.  In  shape  it  is 
roughly  triangular,  the  flattened  apex  pointing  north.  The  District  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Mohan,  separating  it  from  Nepal ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Kauriala  river,  separating  it  from  Bahraich ;  on  the 
south  by  Sitapur  and  Hardol  Districts  ;  and  on  the  west  by  PllJbhlt 
and  Shahjahanpur.  An  old  bed  of  the  Sarda  or  Chauka,  called  the 
Ul,  which  again  joins  that  river,  divides  Kheri  into 
aspects  tw0  Portlons-      ^he  area  lying  north-east  of  the  Ul 

is  a  wild  tract  of  country,  which  forms  practically 
a  vast  river-bed  in  which  the  Sarda  has  worn  several  channels.  The 
widely  scattered  village  sites  are  perched  on  the  highest  ground  avail- 
able, and  in  the  north  stretch  large  areas  of  forest.  During  the  rains 
the  old  channels  fill  with  water,  and  the  courses  of  the  rivers  vary  from 
year  to  year.  The  greatest  volume  of  water  is  carried  by  the  Sarda  or 
Chauka,  which  divides  into  two  branches  on  the  southern  border.     One 


KHERI  DISTRICT  269 

of  these,  called  the  Dahawar,  forms,  for  a  short  distance,  the  boundary 
between  Kheri  and  Sitapur,  and  flows  into  the  Kauriala.  North  of  the 
Sarda  lies  an  old  bed  called  the  Sarju  or  SuhelT,  which  also  discharges 
into  the  Kauriala  and  receives  many  small  tributaries  from  the  north. 
The  portion  of  the  District  lying  south-west  of  the  Ul  is  drier  and  more 
stable,  but  is  also  traversed  by  a  number  of  streams,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  Sarayan,  Kathna,  and  Gumti,  while  the  Sukheta  flows 
along  the  south-west  border.  The  District  is  studded  with  many  lakes, 
which  in  the  north-east  take  the  form  of  deep  pools  marking  the  beds 
of  old  channels  of  the  rivers,  while  in  the  south-west  they  are  large 
shallow  swamps  or  sheets  of  water,  drying  up  in  the  hot  season. 

The  District  exposes  nothing  but  alluvium,  and  kankar  or  nodular 
limestone  is  the  only  stony  formation. 

Kheri  contains  the  luxurious  vegetation  found  in  the  damp  submon- 
tane tract.  Besides  the  forests,  which  chiefly  produce  sal  and  will  be 
described  separately,  groves  of  mangoes  are  common,  and  there  are 
a  few  areas  of  dhak  (Bitteafrondosa)  and  other  scrub  jungle. 

The  large  forest  area  gives  shelter  to  many  wild  animals.  Tigers, 
bears,  and  wolves  are  not  rare,  while  leopards,  wild  dogs,  hyenas, 
jungle-cats,  and  jackals  are  more  common.  Five  species  of  deer  are 
found,  the  swamp  deer  being  the  commonest,  and  a  fair  number  of 
antelope,  and  great  quantities  of  nilgai  and  hog.  Game-birds  are  in 
abundance.  Fish  are  plentiful,  and  mahseer  are  caught  in  all  the 
large  rivers. 

South-west  of  the  Ul  the  country  is  generally  healthy.  The  strip  of 
jungle  along  the  Kathna  is  still  malarious,  but  is  gradually  being  re- 
claimed. North-east  of  the  Ul,  and  especially  beyond  the  Chauka,  the 
climate  is  exceedingly  damp  and  feverish.  The  District  generally  is 
comparatively  cool,  and  enjoys  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  about  790. 

The  rainfall  is  high ;  the  annual  average  amounts  to  46  inches,  the 
south-west  receiving  less  than  the  north-east.  Variations  from  year  to 
year  are  considerable,  and  the  total  has  fluctuated  from  70  inches  to  24. 

Traditions  point  to  the  inclusion  of  this  tract  in  the  realm   of  the 

Lunar  race   of   Hastinapur,    and   several   places   are   associated    with 

episodes  in  the  Mahabharata.     The  early  history  is,  _.  . 

,  •    ,  ,  rr„  ,  History, 

however,  entirely  unknown,      lhe  northern  part  was 

held  by  Rajputs  in  the  tenth  century,  and  tradition  relates  that  they 
dispossessed  the  Pasis  and  other  aboriginal  tribes.  Musalman  rule 
spread  slowly  to  this  remote  and  inhospitable  tract ;  and  it  was  pro- 
bably not  before  the  fourteenth  century  that  a  chain  of  forts  was  con- 
structed along  the  northern  frontier,  to  prevent  the  incursions  of 
marauders  from  Nepal.  Under  Akbar  the  District  formed  part  of 
the  sarkdr  of  Khairabao  in  the  Subah  of  Oudh.  The  later  history 
is    merely  that  of  the  rise  and  decline   of  individual  families,  and  is 

S  2 


>7° 


KlfF.RI  DISTRICT 


of  purely  local  importance.  When  Rohilkhand  was  ceded  to  the 
British  in  1801  part  of  this  District  was  included  in  the  cession,  but 
it  was  restored  to  Oudh  after  the  Nepalese  War  of  1814-6.  On  the 
annexation  of  Oudh  in  1856  the  west  of  the  present  area  was  formed 
into  a  District  called  Muhamdi  and  the  east  into  Mallanpur,  which  also 
included  part  of  Sitapur.  A  year  later  Muhamdi  became  one  of  the 
chief  centres  of  disaffection  in  northern  Oudh.  The  refugees  from 
Shahjahanpur  reached  Muhamdi  on  June  2,  and  two  days  later  that 
place  was  abandoned  ;  but  the  whole  party,  with  few  exceptions,  were 
shot  down  on  the  way  to  Sitapur,  and  the  survivors  died  or  were 
murdered  later  at  Lucknow.  The  British  officials  at  Mallanpur,  with 
a  few  who  had  fled  from  Sitapur.  escaped  to  Nepal,  where  most  of 
them  died.  No  real  attempt  to  recover  the  District  was  made  till 
October,  1858,  but  peace  was  restored  before  the  end  of  that  year. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  single  District  then  formed  were  moved  to 
Lakhlmpur  shortly  afterwards. 

Many  villages  contain  ancient  mounds  in  which  fragments  of 
sculpture  have  been  found,  Balmiar-Barkhar  and  Khairlgarh  being  the 
most  remarkable.  A  stone  horse  found  near  Khairlgarh  bears  an 
inscription  of  Samudra  Gupta,  king  of  Magadha,  dated  in  the  fourth 
century  a.d.     Gola  possesses  a  celebrated  temple. 

There  are  5  towns  and  1,659  villages.  Population  is  increasing 
steadily.    At  the  four  enumerations  the  numbers  were  :  (1869)  738,089, 

(1881)    831,922,     (1891)    903,615,    (1901)    905,138. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  tahslls — Muhamdi, 
Nighasan,  and  Lakhimpur  —  each  named  after  its  head-quarters. 
The  municipality  of  Lakhimpur,  the  'notified  area'  of  Muhamdi, 
and  the  town  of  Gola  are  the  principal  places.  The  following 
table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  190T  : — 


Population. 


Tahsil. 


Muhamdi 
Nighasan . 
Lakhimpur 

District  total 


Number  of 

i"s 

cr: 

V 

■-e 

& 

be 

V 

0 

^; 

u 

< 

H 

1 

> 

651 

607 

L237 

2 

3S6 

L075 

2 

5 

666 

2,963 

', 659 

3 

D. 


257,989 
28l,I23 
366,026 


905,I3§ 


!  u 

1      4)      • 

0  t 

'Z  v 
|| 

S-  — 
0  '^ 

396 

;  227 
,  34° 

1  3°r 

Percentage  of 

variation  in 
population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

—  0-2 
+   0.6 

+    O-I 

5,296 

3,609 
7,326 

+    0.2 

16,231 

About  86  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  are  Hindus  and  nearly 
14  per  cent.  Musalmans.  Between  1891  and  1901  the  District 
suffered  both  from  floods  and  from  droughts,  and  the  rate  of  increase 
was  thus  smaller  than  in  previous  decades.      The  density  of  population 


AGRICULTURE 


271 


is  the  lowest  in    Oudh.     Eastern  Hindi  is  the  language  principally 
spoken. 

Kheri  is  remarkable  for  the  small  proportion  of  high-caste  Hindus 
found  in  it.  Brahmans  number  only  65,000  and  Rajputs  30,000.  The 
most  numerous  castes  are  Chamars  (tanners  and  cultivators),  104,000  ; 
Kurmis  (agriculturists),  82,000  ;  Pasis  (toddy-drawers  and  cultivators), 
69,000 ;  Ahirs  (graziers  and  cultivators),  60,000 ;  Lodhas  (cultivators), 
44,000  ;  and  Muraos  (market-gardeners),  34,000.  Among  Musalmans 
are  Julahas  (weavers),  20,000;  Pathans,  16,000;  Rajputs,  12,000; 
Shaikhs,  11,000;  and  Behnas  (cotton-carders),  11,000.  The  Banjaras 
of  this  District  number  6,800,  found  only  in  the  submontane  tracts. 
They  are  largely  carriers  of  grain.  Kurmis,  Brahmans,  Rajputs, 
Muraos,  Chamars,  and  Pasis  are  the  principal  cultivators.  Agriculture 
supports  as  many  as  77  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 

Out  of  417  native  Christians  in  1901,  337  were  Methodists.  The 
American  Methodist  Mission,  opened  in  1862,  has  a  number  of 
branches  in  the  District. 

Kherl  is  divided  by  its  rivers  into  four  tracts  of  varying  conditions. 
The  south-west  corner  between  the  Sukheta  and  the  Gumtl  consists  of 
fertile  loam,  which  turns  to  sand  along  the  Gumtl. 
Between  the  Gumtl  and  the  Kathna  lies  a  high  sandy 
tract  called  the  Parehar,  in  which  cultivation  is  extremely  precarious, 
but  which  is  celebrated  as  a  breeding-ground  for  cattle.  The  richest 
part  of  the  District  is  included  between  the  Kathna  and  the  Ul,  where 
the  soil  is  a  rich  loam.  Beyond  the  Ul,  cultivation  shifts  over  wide 
tracts.  The  floods  of  the  Kauriala  usually  deposit  coarse,  infertile 
sand,  while  the  Sarda  and  Dahawar  bring  down  finer  silt  in  which  rice 
can  be  grown. 

The  tenures  in  Kheri  are  those  commonly  found  in  Oudh.  Of 
the  total  area,  71  per  cent,  is  held  by  talukddrs,  but  only  a  very  small 
area  is  sub-settled.  Most  of  the  rest  is  included  in  zamliidari  mahals. 
The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given  below,  in  square 
miles  : — 


Agriculture. 


Ta/isil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Muhamdl 
Nighasan 
Lakhimpur     . 

Total 

651 
1,237 

1,075 

406 
439 
529 

99 

* 

161 
297 
2I5 

2,963 

i>374 

176 

673 

Wheat  is  the  crop  most  largely  grown,  covering  343  square  miles  or 
25  per  cent,  of  the  area  cropped.  Rice  (230),  maize  (208),  barley 
(157),  gram  (151),  kodon  (148),  and  pulses  (138)  are  also  important. 
Sugar-cane  (49)  and  oilseeds  (50)  are   the  chief  non-food  crops. 


272  KHERI  DISTRICT 

The  District  was  very  backward  at  the  time  of  the  first  regular 
settlement,  but  in  thirty  years  the  cultivated  area  had  increased  by 
1 8  per  cent.  A  series  of  bad  seasons  from  1892  to  1896  reduced 
cultivation  considerably  ;  but  in  1903-4  the  area  was  25  per  cent, 
greater  than  it  had  been  fort)'  years  before.  There  has  also  been 
a  rise  in  the  area  double  cropped.  The  area  under  sugar-cane, 
wheat,  and  rice  has  increased  to  some  extent,  but  the  improvement 
in  the  kind  of  staple  grown  is  not  so  marked  as  elsewhere.  The 
demand  for  advances  under  the  Land  Improvement  and  Agricul- 
turists1 Loans  Acts  is  small,  except  in  unfavourable  years.  Only 
Rs.  88,000  was  lent  during  ten  years  ending  1900,  and  half  of  this 
sum  was  advanced  in  the  famine  year,  1897.  Practically  no  loans 
have  been  given  since  1900. 

Kherl  is  the  most  -  important  centre  for  cattle-breeding  in  the 
United  Provinces.  It  supplies  a  large  number  of  draught  bullocks 
to  the  whole  of  Oudh  and  the  Gorakhpur  Division.  The  most 
distinctive  breed  is  called  Parehar,  from  the  tract  of  country  where 
it  is  found.  The  bullocks  are  small,  but  fiery  tempered,  fast  movers, 
and  very  enduring.  Other  breeds  are  the  Bhur,  Khairlgarh,  Majhra, 
Singahl,  and  Dhaurahra,  which  are  larger  and  coarser.  During  the 
hot  season  cattle  are  taken  in  large  numbers  to  graze  in  the  jungles 
of  Nepal.  Ponies  are  numerous,  but  of  a  very  inferior  type,  and  are 
chiefly  kept  as  pack-animals.  Sheep  and  goats  are  kept  for  meat,  and 
for  their  wool  and  hair. 

Only  176  square  miles  were  irrigated  in  1903-4,  of  which  109  were 
supplied  by  wells,  60  by  tanks  or  jhlls,  and  7  by  other  sources. 
Irrigation  is  practically  confined  to  the  south-west  of  the  District, 
excluding  the  Parehar  tract,  in  which  there  is  hardly  any.  The 
spring-level  is  high,  and  the  dhenkli  or  lever  is  used  to  raise  water  from 
wells.     Irrigation  from  JM/s  is  carried  on  by  the  swing-basket. 

'  Reserved '  forests  cover  an  area  of  443  square  miles  in  the  north  of 
the  District.  The  chief  timber  tree  is  sal  {S/iorca  robustd)  ;  but  the 
forests  also  contain  asaina  {Terminalia  tomentosa\  haldu  (Adina  cordi- 
folia),  khair  {Acacia  Catechu),  and  other  valuable  species.  The  minor 
products  include  fuel,  thatching-grass,  and  grass  used  as  fibre.  In 
1903-4  the  total  revenue  from  forest  produce  was  2-6  lakhs,  the 
receipts  from  timber  being  the  most  important  item.  The  forests  arc 
included  in  the  Kherl  division  of  the  Oudh  circle. 

Kaiikar  is  the  only  mineral  product,  and  is  used  for  making  lime 
and  metalling  roads.  It  is,  however,  scarce  and  of  poor  quality,  as  is 
usual  in  the  submontane  Districts. 

The  most  important  industry  is  sugar-refining,  and  this  is  only  carried 
on  south-west  of  the  Gumti.  Cotton  cloth  for  local  use  is  woven  at  a 
few  places,  and  at  Oel  there  is  a  small  manufacture  of  brass  utensils. 


ADMIXISTRATIOX  273 

The  District  exports  grain,   sugar,  forest  produce,  .cattle,  and  ghi, 

while  the  chief  imports  are  piece-goods,  metals,  and  salt.    There  is  also 

some  trade  with  Nepal,  from  which  timber,  rice,  and 

spices  are  received.      The  principal  trading  centres        Trade  and 

til-  Ari         1-        1  ^1  ,  communications, 

are  Lakhimpur,  Muhamdi,  and  Gola. 

The  Lucknow-Bareilly  State  Railway  (managed  by  the  Rohilkhand 
and  Kumaun  Railway)  crosses  the  District  south-west  of  the  Ul.  From 
MailanI  a  branch  strikes  off  through  the  forest  to  Marauncha.  Ghat  on 
the  Sarda,  which  is  crossed  by  a  temporary  bridge,  the  line  being 
continued  from  the  opposite  bank  to  Sonaripur.  A  short  branch  of 
this  line  from  Dudhwa  to  the  Nepal  frontier,  opened  in  1903,  is  used 
chiefly  for  the  export  of  grain  and  forest  produce.  The  whole  line 
from  MailanI  is  open  only  from  January  to  June.  The  Pawayan 
steam  tramway,  which  connects  MailanI  with  Shahjahanpur,  has  a 
short  length  in  the  District. 

Communications  by  road  are  very  poor.  Only  40  miles  are  metalled 
out  of  a  total  length  of  656.  About  250  miles  are  maintained  by  the 
Public  Works  department,  but  the  cost  of  all  but  17  miles  is  charged  to 
Local  funds.  The  chief  metalled  road  is  that  from  Sitapur  to  Shah- 
jahanpur, which  passes  through  the  south-west  corner  of  the  District, 
and  the  other  metalled  roads  are  merely  short  lengths  of  feeder-roads 
to  railway  stations.  The  improvement  of  communications,  and  in 
particular  the  construction  of  bridges,  is  rendered  difficult  by  the 
vagaries  of  the  streams  which  intersect  the  District.  Avenues  of  trees 
are  maintained  on  only  8  miles. 

Owing  to  the  natural  moisture  of  the  soil  and  the  rarity  of  a  serious 
failure  of  the  rainfall,  scarcity  from  drought  is  not  severely  felt  in  this 
District.  Distress  was  experienced  in  1769,  and 
tradition  relates  that  in  1783  there  was  severe  famine 
and  many  deaths  occurred  from  starvation.  Scarcity  was  again  felt  in 
1865,  1869,  and  1874.  In  1878  relief  works  and  poorhouses  were 
opened,  but  were  not  much  resorted  to.  Up  to  that  time  the  difficulties 
of  transport  had  added  to  the  distress  caused  by  a  local  failure  of 
the  crops;  but  the  railway,  opened  in  1887,  now  makes  it  possible 
to  import  grain  when  needed.  From  1892  to  1895  excessive  rain 
injured  the  crops  in  the  low-lying  parts  of  the  District.  The  drought 
of  1896  thus  caused  an  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  north-east  of 
the  Ul,  though  it  was  followed  by  a  contraction  in  the  area  under 
spring  crops  in  1897.  Relief  works  and  poorhouses  were  opened,  but 
famine  was  not  severe. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  assisted  by  a  staff  of  three   Deputy- 
Collectors  recruited  in  India,  and  a  tahsilddr  resides 
at  the  head-quarters  of  each  tahsil.      A  Deputy-Con- 
servator of  Forests  is  stationed  at   Lakhimpur. 


2  74 


KI/ERI  DISTRICT 


The  civil  courts  are  those  of  the  Munsif  and  Subordinate  Judge, 
and  the  District  is  included  in  the  Civil  and  Sessions  Judgeship  of 
Sltapur.  Crime  is  generally  light,  though  thefts  and  burglaries  are 
common,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  houses  in  many  parts  are  simply 
wattle  sheds.  The  jungle  along  the  Kathna  formerly  had  a  bad 
reputation  for  sheltering  criminals.  An  attempt  has  been  made,  with 
only  partial  success,  to  reclaim  the  criminal  tribe  known  as  Bhatus 
or  Sansias  by  settling  them  on  the  land.  Female  infanticide  was 
formerly  rife,  but  is  no  longer  suspected. 

The  records  of  the  first  summary  settlement  made  after  annexation 
perished  in  the  Mutiny.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  under  it  the  tdluk- 
ddrs  lost  few  villages.  After  the  Mutiny  a  second  summary  settlement 
was  made  on  the  basis  of  the  accounts  under  native  rule,  the  demand 
amounting  to  4-9  lakhs.  A  survey  was  commenced  in  1864  and 
a  regular  settlement  followed,  which  was  completed  by  1872.  The 
assessments  were  based  on  estimates  of  produce  and  on  selected  rent 
rates,  while  they  also  anticipated  a  great  extension  of  cultivation 
and  proved  too  high.  The  necessity  for  revision  was  increased  by  a 
succession  of  bad  years,  and  the  whole  settlement  was  again  examined 
between  1872  and  1877,  with  the  result  that  the  demand  was  reduced 
from  12-2  to  8  lakhs.  The  settlement  officers  sat  as  civil  courts  to 
determine  claims  to  rights  in  land,  but  their  work  was  lighter  here  than 
in  most  Districts  of  Oudh.  A  new  settlement,  preceded  by  a  resurvey, 
was  made  between  1897  and  1900,  and  was  characterized  by  speed 
and  economy.  Rents  are  payable  in  kind  over  a  large  area,  and  the 
valuation  of  this  portion  of  the  District  was  made  by  ascertaining 
the  actual  receipts  over  a  series  of  years.  In  some  cases  rents  are  paid 
by  cash  rates  on  the  area  actually  cultivated  in  each  harvest,  and  for 
the  finer  staples  cash  rents  are  invariably  paid.  The  demand  fixed 
amounted  to  10-3  lakhs,  which  represented  46  per  cent,  of  the  estimated 
net  'assets.'  In  different  parts  of  the  District  the  incidence  varies 
from  Rs.  2  to  R.  0-4,  the  average  being  R.  0-7. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880  I.    1890-1. 

1900-1. 

9>°3 
12,42 

1903-4- 

Land  revenue      .        .      7,44       8,30 
Total  revenue      .         .       8,39       11,02 

9,86 
J4,47 

The  District  contains  one  municipality,  Lakhimpur,  one  'notified 
area,'  MuHAMDl,  and  two  towns  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856. 
Local  affairs  beyond  the  limits  of  these  are  managed  by  the  District 
board,  which  in  1903-4  had  an  income  and  expenditure  of  i-i  lakhs 


KHERWARA  275 

About  halt'  the  income  is  derived  from  rates,  and  the  expenditure 
included  Rs.  58,000  spent  on  roads  and  buildings. 

The   District  Superintendent  of   police  has  under   him  a  force  of 

3  inspectors,  85  subordinate  officers,  and  256  constables,  distributed  in 
12  police  stations;  and  there  are  also  44  municipal  and  town  police, 
and  1,762  rural  and  road  police.  The  District  jail  contained  a  daily 
average  of  286  prisoners  in   1903. 

Kherl  is  one  of  the  most  backward  Districts  in  the  United  Provinces 
in  regard  to  education,  and  only  i«8  per  cent,  of  the  population 
(7,-^  males  and  0-2  females)  could  read  and  write  in  1901.  The 
number  of  public  schools  increased  from  95  with  3,430  pupils  in 
1880-1  to  116  with  4,046  pupils  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4  there  were 
162  such  schools  with  5,676  pupils,  of  whom  189  were  girls,  besides 

4  private  schools  with  61  pupils.  Three  schools  are  maintained  by 
Government  and  89  are  managed  by  the  District  and  municipal  boards. 
The  total  expenditure  on  education  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  40,000, 
of  which  Rs.  34,800  was  provided  from  Local  funds  and  Rs.  4,400 
by  fees. 

There  are  8  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
39  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  46,000, 
including  415  in-patients,  and  1,988  operations  were  performed.  The 
expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  10,000,  chiefly  met  from  Local  funds. 

About  13,000  persons  were  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4,  repre- 
senting a  proportion  of  34  per  1,000  of  population.  Vaccination  is 
compulsory  only  in  the  municipality  of  Lakhlmpur. 

[S.  H.  Butler,  Settlement  Report  (1901)  ;  H.  R.  Nevill,  District 
Gazetteer  (1905).] 

Kherl  Town  (Khiri). — Town  in  the  Lakhlmpur  tahsil  of  Kherl 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  54'  N.  and  8oc  48'  E.,  on 
the  Lucknow-Bareilly  State  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,223.  Kheri 
is  a  place  of  some  antiquity,  and  contains  a  tine  tomb  built  over  the 
remains  of  Saiyid  Khurd,  who  died  in  1563.  It  is  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  800.  Though  giving 
its  name  to  the  District,  it  is  of  small  importance.  A  daily  market 
is  held,  and  the  town  contains  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist 
Mission  and  a  school  with   144  pupils. 

Kheri-Rajapur. —  Thakurat  in  the  Malwa  Agencv,  Central  India. 

Kherwara  (1). — Cantonment  included  in  the  fifth  or  Mhow  division 
of  the  Western  Command  of  the  Indian  army,  and  situated  in  23°  59'  N. 
and  730  36'  E.,  in  the  south-west  corner  of  the  State  of  Udaipur, 
Rajputana,  about  50  miles  south  of  Udaipur  city.  It  stands  in  a  valley 
1,050  feet  above  the  sea,  and  on  the  banks  of  a  small  stream  called  the 
Godavari.  Population  (1901),  2,289.  Kherwara  is  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Mewar  Bhil  Corps,  which  was  raised  between  1840  and  1844, 


2'/6 


K1IER  WAR  A 


with  the  objects  of  weaning  a  semi-savage  race  from  its  predatory 
habits,  giving  them  honourable  employment,  and  assisting  the  Me  war 
State  in  preserving  order.  The  uniform  of  the  Bhll  sepoy  of  those 
early  davs  was  a  scanty  loin-cloth  (he  would  wear  no  other) ;  his  arms 
were  a  bow  and  arrows  :  and  his  distrust  and  suspicion  was  such  that 
he  would  serve  for  daily  pay  only,  deserting  if  that  were  withheld. 
Throughout  the  Mutiny  of  1857  the  corps  remained  staunch.  At  that 
time  a  squadron  of  Bengal  cavalry  was  stationed  here,  and  left  in 
a  body  for  Nimach  after  endeavouring  to  persuade  the  Bhlls  to  join 
them.  The  latter  followed  up  the  squadron,  killed  every  man,  and 
brought  back  their  horses  and  accoutrements  to  Kherwara.  A  detach- 
ment operated  against  Tantia  Topi's  adherents  in  Banswara  and  Partab- 
garh,  and  gained  the  Mutiny  medal.  The  corps  received  its  colours  in 
1862,  and  was  placed  under  the  Commander-in-Chief  in  1897.  It  con- 
sists of  eight  companies  (seven  of  Bhlls  and  one  of  Hindustanis),  and 
furnishes  detachments  at  Kotra,  Udaipur  city,  and  the  town  of  Dungar- 
pur.  Much  good  has  been  effected  by  the  enlistment  of  these  hill- 
men  ;  and,  through  the  influence  of  those  in  the  service  and"  of  the 
numerous  pensioners  in  the  districts,  the  Bhlls  have  largely  forsaken 
their  predatory  habits.  During  the  famines  of  i899-i90oand  1901-2 
the  corps  did  excellent  work  in  hunting  down  dacoits  and  keeping 
order  generally.  Besides  the  regimental  school  and  hospital,  the 
cantonment  contains  a  school  maintained  by  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  which  has  a  branch  here,  and  a  hospital  with  accommodation 
for  10  in-patients,  which  is  kept  up  from  private  subscriptions  and  a 
grant  from  the  Darbar.  The  commandant  of  the  Bhll  Corps  is  also 
Political  Superintendent  of  the  Hilly  Tracts,  a  wild  country,  com- 
prising the  two  bhumidts  or  districts  of  Kherwara  and  Kotra,  con- 
taining altogether  361  villages  and  34,296  inhabitants,  almost  all  of 
whom  are  Bhlls.  The  villages  are  for  the  most  part  held  by  petty 
Girasia  chiefs,  who  pay  a  small  tribute  or  quit-rent  to  the  Mewar 
Darbar.  The  principal  chiefs  in  the  Kherwara  district  are  the  Raos 
of  Jawas,  Para,  and  Madri. 

Kherwara  (2). —  Thakurat  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Khetri. — Head-quarters  of  the  chiefship  of  the  same  name  in  Jaipur 
State,  Rajputana,  situated  in  280  N.  and  750  47'  E.,  about  80  miles 
north  of  Jaipur  city.  Population  (1901),  8,537.  The  town  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  in  the  midst  of  hills,  and  is  difficult  of  access,  there 
being  only  one  cart-road  and  two  or  three  bridle-paths  into  the  valley  in 
which  it  stands.  It  is  commanded  by  a  fort  of  some  strength  on  the 
summit  of  a  hill  2,337  feet  above  sea-level.  In  the  town  the  Raja 
maintains  an  Anglo-vernacular  high  school  attended  by  66  boys, 
a  Hindi  school  attended  by  112  boys,  and  a  hospital  with  accom- 
modation for  6  in-patients.     There  are  also  5  indigenous  schools,  and 


KHILCHIPUR   STATE  277 

a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office.  In  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood are  valuable  copper-mines,  which,  about  1854,  yielded  an  income 
of  Rs.  30,000,  but  which,  owing  to  the  absence  of  proper  appliances  for 
keeping  down  the  water  and  a  scarcity  of  fuel,  have  not  been  worked 
for  many  years.  Nickel  and  cobalt  have  been  found  ;  but  these  minerals 
are  quarried  principally  at  Babai,  about  7  miles  to  the  south,  the  ore 
being  extensively  used  for  enamelling  and  exported  for  this  purpose  to 
Jaipur,  Delhi,  and  other  places.  The  chiefship,  which  lies  partly  in  the 
Shekhawati  and  partly  in  the  Torawati  nizamat,  consists  of  3  towns  — 
Khetri,  Chirawa,  and  Kot  Putli— and  255  villages;  and  the  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  131,913,  Hindus  forming  nearly  92  per  cent,  and 
Musalmans  8  per  cent.  In  addition,  the  Raja  has  a  share  in  26 
villages  not  enumerated  above,  and  possesses  half  of  the  town  of  Six- 
ghaxa.  The  town  and  pargana  of  Kot  Putli  are  held  as  a  free  grant 
from  the  British  Government,  while  for  the  rest  of  his  territory  the  Raja 
pays  to  the  Jaipur  Darbar  a  tribute  of  Rs.  73,780.  The  normal  income 
of  the  estate  is  about  5-3  lakhs,  and  the  expenditure  3-5  lakhs. 

Khetur. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Rajshahi  Dis- 
trict, Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  240  24'  N.  and  88°  25'  E. 
Population  (1901),  440.  It  enjoys  a  high  repute  for  sanctity  from  its 
having  been  visited  by  Chaitanya,  the  great  Hindu  religious  reformer 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  whose  honour  a  temple  has  been  erected 
in  the  village.  A  religious  fair  held  annually  in  October  is  attended 
by  25,000  persons. 

Khewra. — Salt  mines  in  Jhelum  District,  Punjab.  See  Mayo  Mine. 

Khiaoda. —  Thakurat  in  the  Gwalior  Residencv,  Central  India. 

Khiching.— Village  in  Mayurbhanj,  one  of  the  Orissa  Tributary 
States,  Bengal,  situated  in  210  55'  N.  and  85°  50'  E.  Population 
(1901),  269.  It  contains  archaeological  remains,  such  as  statues,  pillars, 
mounds,  and  the  ruins  of  several  brick  and  stone  temples.  A  group  of 
temples  adjoining  the  village  is  of  great  interest.  One  of  the  temples 
(to  Siva)  seems  to  have  been  repaired  in  the  time  of  Man  Singh, 
Akbar's  Hindu  general,  to  whom  another  (unfinished)  temple  should 
probably  be  ascribed. 

[Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  xiii,  pp.  74-6.] 

Khijadia. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Khijadia  Dosaji. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Khijadia  Najani.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Khilchipur  State. — Mediatized  chiefship  in  Central  India,  under 
the  Bhopal  Agency,  lying  between  230  52'  and  24°  17'  N.  and  76°  26" 
and  760  42'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about  273  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Kotah  State  of  the  Rajputana  Agency  ;  on  the  east 
by  Rajgarh ;  on  the  west  by  Indore  ;  and  on  the  south  by  Narsingh- 
garh.     The    State    is    situated    in    the    district    of    Malwa    known    as 


278  KHILCHIPUR   STATE 

Khichiwara,  mainly  in  the  Deccan  trap  area,  but  over  its  more  northern 
portion  sandstones  of  the  Kaimur  and  other  allied  series  are  exposed. 
The  climate  is  temperate,  the  annual  rainfall  averaging  about  32  inches. 

The  chiefs  are  Khichl  Rajputs,  a  section  of  the  great  Chauhan  clan. 
This  State  was  founded  in  1544  by  Ugrasen,  who  was  forced  by  family 
dissensions  to  migrate  from  the  Khichi  capital  of  Gagraun.  A  grant  of 
land  was  subsequently  made  to  him  by  the  Delhi  emperor,  which 
included  the  adjoining  Zirapur  and  Machalpur  parganas,  now  a  part  of 
Indore  State,  and  Shujalpur,  now  in  Gwalior.  This  territory  was  lost  in 
1770,  when  Abhai  Singh  was  obliged  to  make  terms  with  Sindhia.  At 
the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Malwa  in  18 19  a  dispute  existed  regarding 
the  succession,  which  at  the  request  of  the  Gwalior  Darbar  was  settled 
by  the  mediation  of  the  British  authorities,  Diwan  Sher  Singh  succeed- 
ing as  a  boy  of  five.  He  was  followed  in  1869  by  his  nephew  Amar 
Singh,  who  received  the  hereditary  title  of  Rao  Bahadur  in  1873.  In 
1884  he  abolished  all  transit  duties  in  the  State,  except  those  on  opium. 
The  present  chief,  Bhawani  Singh,  succeeded  in  1899.  The  Rao 
Bahadur  of  Khilchipur  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  9  guns. 

The  population  was  :  (1881)  36,125,  (1891)  36,302,  and  (1901) 
31,143,  giving  a  density  of  114  persons  per  square  mile.  The  State 
contains  one  town,  Khilchipur  (population,  5,121),  the  capital;  and 
283  villages.  Hindus  number  29,258,  or  94  per  cent. ;  Musalmans, 
1,051,  or  3  per  cent.  ;  and  Animists,  796,  mostly  Bhils.  The  chief 
castes  and  tribes  are  Sondhias,  4,900;  Dhakads,  3,800;  Deswalis 
(allied  to  Sondhias),  3,070;  Chamars,  2,550;  Dangls,  2,520;  Lodhas, 
2,340;  and  Rajputs,  2,210. 

The  soil  in  the  south-west  is  of  the  fertile  black  variety,  bearing  good 
crops  of  all  the  ordinary  grains  ;  but  the  northern  portions  are  covered 
with  a  rough  stony  soil  of  little  agricultural  value.  Of  the  total  area,  84 
square  miles,  or  31  per  cent.,  are  cultivated,  of  which  5  square  miles 
are  irrigable ;  80  square  miles  are  under  forest ;  46  square  miles,  or  1 7 
per  cent.,  are  cultivable  but  not  cultivated ;  and  the  rest  is  waste. 
Joivar  occupies  38  square  miles,  or  44  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area ; 
cotton,  4  square  miles  :  poppy,  2  square  miles  ;  and  wheat,  1  square 
mile. 

The  State  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  three  /ahsils, 
each  under  a  tahslldar.  The  chief  has  full  powers  in  civil  and  revenue 
matters,  but  all  serious  cases  of  crime  are  dealt  with  by  the  Political 
Agent  in  Bhopal.  The  total  revenue  amounts  to  about  i-i  lakhs,  of 
which  Rs.  85,000  is  derived  from  land,  Rs.  11,000  from  tdnka,  and 
Rs.  10,000  from  customs  dues,  including  Rs.  2,000  from  opium.  The 
principal  heads  of  expenditure  are :  Rs.  7,000  on  the  chiefs  establish- 
ment, Rs.  4,000  on  general  administration,  Rs.  10,000  on  army  and 
police,  and  Rs.  3,000  on  public  works.     A  tribute  of  Rs.  12,625,  formerly 


KHOJAK  279 

made  direct  to  Sindhia,  has  been  since  1844  paid  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment through  the  Political  Agent,  in  adjustment  of  Sindhia's  contribu- 
tion towards  the  local  corps  in  Malwa.  The  land  revenue  is  farmed 
out  and  is  realized  in  British  coin,  which  has  been  legal  tender  since 
1898.  The  State  keeps  up  a  small  force  of  regular  infantry,  161  strong, 
as  a  body-guard  to  the  chief.  There  are  also  25  horse  and  288  foot, 
who  act  as  police,  and  serve  4  guns.  A  British  post  office,  a  school, 
and  a  hospital  are  maintained  at  the  chief  town. 

Khilchipur  Town. — Chief  town  of  'the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Central  India,  situated  in  240  3'  N.  and  760  35'  E.,  about  1.400  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  rugged  country  at  the  foot  of  the  arm 
of  the  Vindhyas  which  strikes  eastwards  from  Chitor  to  Chandeii.  The 
name  was  originally  Khichipur  ;  and  the  corruption  may  be  due  to  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Muhammadan  rulers  to  substitute  KhiljTpur, 
the  name  under  which  the  town  is  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbarl. 
Population  (1901),  5,121.  A  British  post  office,  a  jail,  a  school,  and 
a  hospital  are  situated  in  the  town.  Khilchipur  is  connected  with 
the  Agra-Bombay  high  road  by  a  feeder-road,  25  miles  long,  whence 
traffic  passes  to  Guna  station  on  the  Blna-Baran  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  53  miles  distant. 

Khipro. —  Taluka  of  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  lying 
between  250  26'  and  260  15'  N.  and  690  3'  and  700  16'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  2,249  square  miles.  Population  in  1901  was  54,681,  compared  with 
47,199  in  1 89 1.  The  density,  24  persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost 
equal  to  the  District  average.  The  taluka  contains  125  villages,  the 
head-quarters  being  at  Khipro.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  nearly  2  lakhs.  Excepting  the  desert  portion,  known  as 
Rana.hu  tafia,  the  taluka  is  irrigated  by  the  Mithrao  Canal  and  the 
Dhoro  Naro. 

Khirasra. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Khirpai. — Town  in  the  Ghatal  subdivision  of  Midnapore  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  220  43'  N.  and  870  37'  E.  The  population  in  190 1 
was  5,045,  compared  with  8,046  in  1872.  The  decrease  is  due  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Burdwan  fever.  Khirpai  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1876.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  decade  ending 
1901-2  averaged  Rs.  2,300.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  4,100, 
mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  3,450. 

Khojak  (Kozhak). — An  historic  pass  across  the  Khwaja  Amran  off- 
shoot of  the  Toba-Kakar  mountains  in  the  Quetta-Pishln  District, 
Baluchistan.  It  lies  in  300  51'  N.  and  66°  34"  E.,  70  miles  from  Quetta 
by  rail.  From  Kila  Abdullah,  on  the  south,  there  is  a  gradual  ascent 
to  Shelabagh,  whence  the  summit  (7,457  feet)  is  reached  in  3!  miles. 
A  cart-road  through  the  pass  connects  Kila  Abdullah  with  Chaman.  At 


2  So  KHOJAK 

Shelabagh  the  railway  runs  through  the  Khojak  tunnel,  which  is  just 
under  z\  miles  long,  and  cost  rather  less  than  70  lakhs  of  rupees,  or 
about  Rs.  530  per  lineal  foot.  It  was  constructed  between  1888  and 
1891.  Lying  on  the  route  from  Kandahar  to  India,  the  Khojak  Pass 
has  been  crossed  and  recrossed  for  centuries  by  conqueror,  soldier,  and 
merchant ;  and  its  passage  was  twice  effected  by  the  British  arms,  in 
1839  and  in  1879. 

Khojankhera. —  Thakurat  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Kholapur. — Town  in  the  District  and  taluk  of  Amraoti,  Berar, 
situated  in  200  57'  N.  and  770  ^  E.,  18  miles  west  of  Amraoti  town. 
Population  (1901),  5,373.  Its  silk  trade  was  once  considerable.  In 
1809  Vithal  Bhag  Deo,  Subahdar  of  Ellichpur,  demanded  a  contribu- 
tion of  Rs.  1,00,000.  On  payment  being  refused  he  captured  the  town, 
which  was  then  protected  by  walls,  and  it  was  sacked  by  his  troops. 
Its  rapid  decadence  is  partly  attributable  to  the  annual  fights  which 
formerly  occurred  between  the  Musalmans  and  the  Rajputs,  when 
the  victorious  party  always  took  occasion  to  plunder  at  least  part  of 
the  town. 

Khond  (Ka/id/i). — A  Dravidian  tribe  mostly  found  in  the  Tributary 
States  of  Orissa,  and  in  the  adjoining  Agency  tract  of  Ganjam  District, 
Madras.  The  total  number  of  Khonds  or  Kandhs  (including  Konda 
Dora)  returned  at  the  Census  of  1901  was  701,198,  of  whom  no  less 
than  517,771  retained  their  animistic  faith,  while  494,099  still  spoke 
Kandh  or  Kul.  The  following  description  chiefly  relates  to  the  103,000 
Khonds  in  the  Orissa  State  of  Kalahandi,  a  large  tract  of  which  is 
known  as  the  Kondhan  :  — 

The  Khonds  call  themselves  Kuiloka  or  Kuienju,  which  may  possibly 
be  derived  from  ko  or  ku,  meaning  a  'mountain'  in  Telugu.  Their 
own  traditions  as  to  their  origin  are  of  no  historical  value.  They  were, 
however,  probably  in  possession  of  the  country  before  the  Oriya 
immigration,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Raja  of  Kalahandi  was 
accustomed  until  recently  to  sit  in  the  lap  of  a  Khond  on  his  accession, 
while  his  turban  was  tied  on  and  he  received  the  oaths  of  fealty.  The 
Rajas  were  also  accustomed  to  take  a  Khond  girl  as  one  of  their  wives, 
while  many  of  the  zanundars  or  large  landholders  in  Kalahandi.  Patna, 
and  Sonpur  are  Khonds. 

There  is  no  strict  endogamy  in  the  Khond  tribe.  It  has  two  main 
divisions  :  the  Kutia  Khonds,  who  are  hill-men  and  retain  their  primi- 
tive tribal  customs  ;  and  the  plain-dwelling  Khonds,  who  have  acquired 
a  tincture  of  Hinduism.  The  latter  have  formed  several  divisions 
which  are  supposed  to  be  endogamous,  though  the  rule  is  not  strictly 
observed.  Among  these  are  the  Raj  Khonds,  Dal,  Taonla,  Porkhia, 
Kandharra,  Ciouria,  Nagla,  and  others.  The  Raj  Khonds  are  the 
highest,  and  are  usually  landed  proprietors.     Unless  they  have  land  they 


KHOXD  281 

are  not  called  Raj  Khonds,  and  if  a  Raj  Khond  marries  in  another 
division  he  descends  to  it.  The  Dais,  also  called  Balmudia  or  '  shaven,' 
may  have  been  soldiers.  The  Porkhias  eat  por,  or  buffalo  ;  the  Kan- 
dharras  grow  turmeric  ;  the  Gourias  graze  cattle  ;  and  the  Nagla,  or 
'  naked,'  are  apparently  so  called  because  of  their  paucity  of  clothing. 
The  divisions  therefore  are  mainly  due  to  differences  of  social  practice. 
The  Kutia  or  hill  Khonds  are  said  to  be  so  called  because  they  break 
the  skulls  of  animals  when  they  kill  them  for  food.  Traditionally  the 
Khonds  have  thirty-two  exogamous  septs,  but  the  number  has  now 
increased.  The  septs  are  further  divided  into  sub-septs,  which  are 
also  exogamous,  and  are  usually  totemistic.  The  same  sub-sept  is 
found  in  different  septs,  and  a  man  may  not  marry  a  girl  belonging  to 
the  same  sept  or  sub-sept  as  himself.  But  there  is  no  restriction  as 
to  marriage  on  the  mother's  side,  and  he  can  marry  his  maternal 
uncle's  daughter. 

Marriage  is  adult,  and  a  price  is  paid  for  the  bride,  which  was 
formerly  from  12  to  20  head  of  cattle,  but  has  now  been  reduced  in 
some  localities  to  two  or  three,  and  a  rupee  in  lieu  of  each  of  the 
others.  A  proposal  for  marriage  is  made  by  placing  a  brass  cup  and 
three  arrows  at  the  girl's  door.  If  these  are  not  removed  by  her  father 
in  token  of  refusal,  the  terms  are  discussed.  The  wedding  procession 
goes  from  the  bride's  to  the  bridegroom's  house.  At  the  marriage  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  come  out,  each  sitting  on  the  shoulders  of  one 
of  their  relatives.  The  bridegroom  pulls  the  bride  to  his  side,  when 
a  piece  of  cloth  is  thrown  over  them,  and  they  are  tied  together  with 
a  piece  of  new  yarn  wound  round  them  seven  times.  A  cock  is 
sacrificed,  and  the  cheeks  of  the  couple  are  singed  with  burnt  bread. 
They  pass  the  night  in  a  veranda,  and  next  day  are  taken  to  a  tank, 
the  bridegroom  being  armed  with  a  bow  and  arrows.  He  shoots  one 
through  each  of  seven  cow-dung  cakes,  the  bride  after  each  shot  wash- 
ing his  forehead  and  giving  him  a  green  twig  for  a  toothbrush,  and 
some  sweets.  This  is  symbolical  of  their  future  course  of  life,  the 
husband  procuring  food  by  hunting,  while  the  wife  waits  on  him  and 
prepares  his  food.  Sexual  intercourse  before  marriage  between  a  man 
and  girl  of  the  tribe  is  condoned,  so  long  as  they  are  not  within  the 
prohibited  degrees  of  relationship.  A  trace  of  polyandry  survives  in 
the  custom  by  which  the  younger  brothers  are  allowed  access  to  the 
elder  brother's  wife  till  the  time  of  their  own  marriage. 

On  the  sixth  day  after  a  male  child  has  been  born,  his  mother  takes 
a  bow  and  arrows,  and  stands  with  the  child  facing  successively  to 
the  four  points  of  the  compass.  This  is  to  make  the  child  a  skilful 
hunter  when  he  grows  up. 

The  dead  are  usually  buried,  but  the  practice  of  cremating  the  bodies 
of  adults  is  increasing.     When  a  body  is  buried  a  rupee  or  a  copper 


282  KHOXD 

coin  is  tied  in  the  sheet,  so  that  the  deceased  may  not  go  penniless  to 
the  other  world.  Sometimes  the  dead  man's  clothes  and  bows  and 
arrows  are  buried  with  him.  On  the  tenth  day  the  soul  is  brought 
back.  Outside  the  village,  where  two  roads  meet,  rice  is  offered  to 
a  cock,  and  if  it  eats,  this  is  a  sign  that  the  soul  has  come.  The  soul 
is  then  asked  to  ride  on  a  bow-stick  covered  with  cloth,  and  is  brought 
to  the  house  and  placed  in  a  corner  with  those  of  other  relatives. 
The  souls  are  fed  twice  a  year  with  rice.  In  Sambalpur  a  ball  of 
powdered  rice  is  placed  under  a  tree  with  a  lamp  near  it,  and  the  first 
insect  that  settles  on  the  ball  is  taken  to  be  the  soul,  and  is  brought 
home  and  worshipped. 

The  Khond  pantheon  consists  of  eighty-four  gods,  of  whom  DharnI 
Deota,  the  earth-god,  is  the  chief.  He  is  usually  accompanied  by 
Bhatbarsi  Deota,  the  god  of  hunting.  The  earth-god  is  represented 
by  a  rectangular  piece  of  wood  buried  in  the  ground,  while  Bhatbarsi 
has  a  place  at  his  feet  in  the  shape  of  a  granulated  piece  of  stone. 
Three  great  festivals  are  held  annually,  marking  the  dates  from  which 
the  new  mahua  flowers  and  rice  may  be  first  eaten.  Once  in  four  or 
five  years  a  buffalo  is  offered  to  the  earth-god,  in  lieu  of  the  human 
sacrifice  which  was  formerly  in  vogue.  The  animal  is  predestined  for 
sacrifice  from  its  birth,  and  is  allowed  to  wander  loose  and  graze  on 
the  crops  at  its  will.  The  stone  representing  Bhatbarsi  is  examined 
periodically,  and  when  the  granules  on  it  appear  to  have  increased  it  is 
decided  that  the  time  has  come  for  the  sacrifice.  In  Kalahandl  a  lamb 
is  sacrificed  every  year,  and  strips  of  its  flesh  distributed  to  all  the 
villagers,  who  bury  it  in  their  fields  as  a  divine  agent  of  fertilization, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  flesh  of  the  human  victim  was  formerly  buried. 
The  Khond  worships  his  bows  and  arrows  before  he  goes  out  hunting, 
and  believes  that  every  hill  and  valley  has  its  separate  deity,  who  must 
be  propitiated  with  the  promise  of  a  sacrifice  before  his  territory  is 
entered,  or  he  will  hide  the  animals  within  it  from  the  hunter,  and 
enable  them  to  escape  when  wounded.  They  apparently  believe  that 
the  souls  of  the  departed  are  born  again  in  children.  Some  boys  are 
named  Majhian  Budhi,  which  means  an  'old  headwoman,'  whom  they 
suppose  to  have  been  born  again  with  a  change  of  sex.  Children  are 
weaned  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  are  then  made  to  ride  a  goat  or 
pig,  as  a  mark  of  respect,  it  is  said,  to  the  ancestor  who  has  been 
reborn  in  them.     Names  usually  recur  after  the  third  generation. 

The  Khond  traditionally  despises  all  occupations  except  those  of 
husbandry,  hunting,  and  war.  They  are  considered  very  skilful  culti- 
vators in  places,  but  usually,  like  other  forest  tribes,  they  are 
improvident  and  fond  of  drink. 

In  1882  occurred  an  armed  rising  of  the  Khonds  of  Kalahandl, 
as  a  result  of  their  grievances  against  members  of  the  Kolta  caste,  who 


KHONDMALS  2  8  3 

had  ousted  them  from  some  of  their  villages,  and  reduced  many  of 
their  headmen  to  a  hopeless  condition  of  debt.  A  number  of  Koltas 
were  murdered  and  offered  to  temples,  the  Khonds  calling  them  their 
goats,  and  in  one  case  a  Kolta  was  offered  as  the  meriah  sacrifice  to 
the  earth-god.  The  rising  was  promptly  suppressed  by  a  Political 
officer  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  State. 

The  Khond  or  Kandh  language,  called  Kui  by  the  Khonds  them- 
selves, is  spoken  by  32  per  cent,  of  the  members  of  the  tribe  in  Kala- 
handl.  It  is  much  more  nearly  related  to  Telugu  than  is  Gondi,  and 
has  no  written  character.  Further  information  about  the  Khonds  will  be 
found  in  the  articles  on  the  Khondmals,  Angul  District,  and  Maliahs. 

Khondmals. — Subdivision  of  Angul  District,  Bengal,  lying  between 
200  13'  and  200  41'  N.  and  830  50'  and  840  36'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
800  square  miles.  The  population  fell  from  66,352  in  1891  to  64,214 
in  1 90 1,  the  decrease  being  due  to  the  prevalence  of  cholera  and  other 
diseases,  and  to  short  crops  in  1896  and  1899  which  stimulated  emigra- 
tion. The  density  in  1901  was  80  persons  per  square  mile.  The 
subdivision  consists  of  a  plateau  1,700  feet  in  height,  intersected  by 
circular  ranges  of  hills.  Heavy  forest  still  covers  much  of  the  area, 
and  the  cultivated  lands  lie  in  scattered  clearings  on  the  hill-sides  and 
in  the  valleys  below.  A  range  of  hills  3,000  to  3,300  feet  in  height 
separates  the  Khondmals  from  Ganjam,  forming  the  southern  watershed 
of  the  Mahanadl.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Phulbani,  and  there  are 
995  other  villages.  The  Khonds,  a  Dravidian  tribe,  here  survive  as 
a  distinct  nationality  with  a  history,  a  religion,  a  language,  and  a  system 
of  law  and  landed  property  of  their  own.  The  villages  are  divided 
from  each  other  by  rugged  peaks  and  dense  forests  ;  but  a  regular 
system  of  government  on  the  aboriginal  plan  is  maintained,  the  hamlets 
being  distributed  into  muthas  each  under  the  supervision  of  its  own 
chief.  Throughout  this  wild  tract  the  Khonds  claim  an  indefeasible 
right  in  the  soil.  At  no  time  were  they  more  than  nominally  subject 
to  the  Baud  Raja,  who  was  totally  unable  to  control  or  coerce  them. 
They  first  came  into  prominence  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  owing  to  the  prevalence  among  them  of  human  sacrifices  and 
female  infanticide.  The  human  sacrifice  was  a  propitiatory  offering  to 
the  earth-god,  and  the  flesh  of  the  victims  was  buried  in  the  field 
to  ensure  good  crops ;  it  was  firmly  believed  that  turmeric  could  not 
have  a  deep-red  colour  without  the  shedding  of  blood.  The  victims, 
or  meriahs  as  they  were  called,  were  purchased,  as  an  ancient  rule 
ordained  that  the  meriah  must  be  bought  with  a  price.  The  duty  of 
providing  them  rested  with  the  Pans,  who  are  attached  to  every  Khond 
village  as  serfs,  and  who  either  kidnapped  them  from  the  plains  or 
purchased  them  locally.  These  human  sacrifices  were  suppressed  with 
difficulty  by  the  British  Government. 
vol.  xv.  T 


284  KHONDMALS 

The  Khonds  hold  their  lands  directly  under  the  Government  and 
pay  no  rent  or  tax,  except  a  contribution  of  3  annas  per  plough  for  the 
improvement  of  communications.  Infant  and  adult  marriages  are  both 
common  ;  in  the  former  case,  the  girl  is  often  older  than  the  boy. 
The  Khonds  of  the  Khondmals  recognize  two  principal  gods,  Saru 
Pennu  and  Taru  Pennu,  of  whom  Saru  Pennu  may  be  described  as 
the  god  of  the  hills  and  Taru  Pennu  as  the  earth-god. 

[H.  H.  Risley,  Tribes  and  Castes  of  Bengal  (1891).] 

Khonoma. — A  large  and  powerful  AngamI  Naga  village  in  the 
Naga  Hills  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  250  39'  N. 
and  940  i'  E.  In  1879  Mr.  Damant,  the  Political  officer,  was 
treacherously  attacked  here,  and  was  killed,  together  with  thirty-five 
of  his  escort.  Khonoma  was  besieged  and  taken  in  November,  1879; 
but  two  European  officers  lost  their  lives  in  the  assault,  and  the  de- 
fenders retreated  to  a  very  strong  position  above  the  village  on  a  spur 
of  Mount  Japvo,  where  they  maintained  themselves  till  the  end  of  the 
campaign.  In  January,  1880,  a  party  of  these  Nagas,  though  their 
village  was  at  that  very  time  occupied  by  our  troops,  made  a  daring 
raid  on  the  Baladhan  garden  in  Cachar,  more  than  80  miles  distant, 
where  they  killed  the  manager,  Mr.  Blyth,  and  sixteen  coolies. 

Khowai. — River  of  Assam,  which  rises  in  the  State  of  Hill  Tippera, 
and,  after  flowing  north-west  through  the  Habiganj  subdivision  of 
Sylhet  District,  falls  into  the  Barak  near  Habiganj.  The  river  passes 
by  numerous  local  centres  of  trade,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
Muchikandi  and  Habiganj,  and  is  largely  used  as  a  trade  route. 
During  the  rains  boats  of  4  tons  burden  can  proceed  as  far  as  Balla 
Bazar  in  Hill  Tippera,  and  even  in  the  dry  season  a  vessel  half  that 
size  can  nearly  reach  the  frontier  of  the  District.  The  total  length  of 
the  river  is  84  miles. 

Khudabad. — Ruined  town  in  the  Dadu  talnka  of  Larkana  District, 
Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  260  4c/  N.  and  670  46''  E.,  16  miles  north- 
east of  Sehwan  on  the  North-Western  Railway.  Thornton  writes  of  it 
as  follows  :  — 

'  Little  more  than  thirty  years  ago  it  rivalled  Hyderabad  in  size  and 
population  ;  yet  now  not  one  habitable  dwelling  remains.  It  was  a 
favourite  residence  of  the  Talpur  chiefs  of  Sind,  and  the  remains  of 
many  of  them  rest  here  in  tombs  of  neat  but  plain  construction.' 

At  present  the  chief  objects  of  interest  are  the  Masjid,  built  in  17 10, 
and  decorated  with  coloured  tiles ;  and  the  tomb  of  Yar  Muhammad 
Kalhora,  about  a  mile  away,  which  is  similarly  decorated.  The  tomb 
is  in  fair  repair,  but  the  mosque  has  been  greatly  damaged  and  is 
falling  into  ruin. 

Khudaganj. — Town  in  the  Tilhar  tahsil  of  Shahjahanpur  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  280  8'  N.  and  790  44'  E.,  24  miles  north- 


KHULNA   DISTRICT  285 

west  of  Shahjahanpur  city.  Population  (1901),  6,356.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  as  a  market  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  under  British  rule  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  tahsil  as 
late  as  1850.  Khudaganj  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,000.  It  is  a  thriving  place,  with  a 
considerable  trade  in  agricultural  products.  The  middle  school  has 
95  pupils. 

Khudian. — Town  in  the  Chunian  tahsil  of  Lahore  District,  Punjab, 
situated  in  300  59"  N.  and  740  17'  E.,  on  the  Multan-Ferozepore  road, 
12  miles  south-west  of  Kasur.  Population  (1901)  3,401,  chiefly  agricul- 
turists. The  Katora  Inundation  Canal  of  the  Upper  Sutlej  system 
runs  close  to  the  town.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1875.  The 
income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged 
Rs.  2,300.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  2,700,  derived  chiefly 
from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  2,400.  The  town  contains 
a  dispensary. 

Khuldabad  Taluk  (or  Rauza). — '  Crown '  taluk  in  the  north-west 
of  Aurangabad  District,  Hyderabad  State,  with  an  area  of  129  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1901,  including  jdgirs,  was  14,512,  com- 
pared with  16,353  in  1891,  the  decrease  being  due  to  the  famines  of 
1897  and  1899-1900.  The  taluk  contains  38  villages,  of  which  9  are 
jaglr,  and  Khuldabad  (population,  2,845)  *s  trie  head-quarters.  The 
land  revenue  in  1901  was  Rs.  43,300.  The  country  is  hilly  towards 
the  east  and  north. 

Khuldabad  Village  (or  Rauza). — Village  in  the  Khuldabad  taluk 
of  Aurangabad  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  200  1/  N.  and 
750  12'  E.,  2,732*  feet  above  sea-level  and  500  feet  above  the  plains, 
14  miles  north-west  of  Aurangabad  city.  Population  (1901),  2,845. 
Khuldabad  contains  the  tombs  of  Aurangzeb  and  of  his  son  Azam 
Shah  ;  of  Asaf  J  ah,  the  founder  of  the  Hyderabad  State  ;  of  Nasir  Jang, 
Nizam  Shah,  king  of  Ahmadnagar ;  of  Malik  Ambar,  the  Nizam  Shahr 
minister  ;  of  Tana  Shah,  the  last  of  the  Kutb  Shahi  kings  ;  and  of 
several  Musalman  saints.  The  former  name  of  the  place  was  Rauza, 
which  was  changed  to  Khuldabad  in  consequence  of  the  title  of  KhulJ 
Makan  conferred  on  Aurangzeb  after  his  death.  The  extensive  ruins 
of  the  ancient  Hindu  city  of  Buddravanti  are  situated  on  an  adjoining 
table-land.  In  addition  to  the  taluk  office,  Khuldabad  contains  a 
post  office,  a  school,  a  police  amiris  office,  and  a  police  station.  It  is 
largely  resorted  to  as  a  sanitarium. 

Khulna.  District. — District  of  the  Presidency  Division,  Bengal, 
lying  between  210  38'  and  230  1'  N.  and  88°  54'  and  890  58'  E.  Its 
area,  exclusive  of  2,688  square  miles  in  the  Sundarbans  on  the  south, 
is  2,077  square  miles.  It  occupies  the  south  central  portion  of  the 
delta  between  the  Hooghly  and  Meghna  estuary,  and  is  bounded  on 

t  2 


236  KHULNA   DISTRICT 

the  north  by  Jessore  District ;  on  the  east  by  Backergunge ;  on  the 
west  by  the  Twenty-four  Parganas;  and  on  the  south  by  the  Bay  of 
Bengal. 

The  general  shape  of  the  District  is  an  irregular  parallelogram,  and 
it  may  be  divided  into  four  parts  :  the  north-western  portion,   where 
the  land  is  well  raised  ;   the  north-eastern  portion, 
aspects  from  tne  Jessore  boundary  down  to  the  latitude  of 

Bagherhat,  where  the  land  is  low  and  covered  with 
swamps  ;  the  central  portion,  also  low-lying  but  now  brought  under 
cultivation ;  and  the  southern  portion,  which  forms  the  Khulna  Sun- 
darbans,  a.  tangled  network  of  swamps  and  rivers,  in  the  greater  part  of 
which  tillage  is  impossible  and  there  is  no  settled  population.  The 
whole  District  forms  an  alluvial  plain  intersected  by  rivers  flowing  from 
north  to  south  ;  their  banks,  as  in  all  deltaic  tracts,  rise  above  the 
adjacent  country,  and  the  land  slopes  away  from  them,  thus  forming 
a  depression  between  the  main  lines  of  the  rivers.  They  have,  how- 
ever, with  the  exception  of  the  MadhumatI,  which  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  District,  ceased  to  be  true  deltaic  streams  owing  to 
the  silting  up  of  their  heads.  The  MadhumatI,  with  its  continuation 
the  Baleswar  and  its  estuary  the  Haringhata,  still  brings  down  a  great 
quantity  of  Ganges  water  to  the  sea.  The  other  rivers  are  connected 
by  numerous  cross-channels,  and  are  known  by  a  confusing  multiplicity 
of  names  in  different  portions  of  their  courses.  The  most  important 
are  the  Ichamati  (2),  the  Jamuna  (2),  and  the  Kabadak,  which  discharge 
into  the  sea  by  the  Raimangal  and  Malancha  estuaries  respectively ; 
and  the  Bhairab,  now  a  tributary  of  the  MadhumatI,  though  a  great  deal 
of  its  water  finds  its  way  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  through  the  Rupsa 
river.  There  are  no  lakes  ;  but  the  District  is  studded  with  marshes, 
the  largest  of  which,  the  Bayra  Bll,  extends  over  40  miles,  but  has  to 
a  great  extent  been  brought  under  cultivation. 

The  District  is  covered  by  recent  alluvium,  consisting  of  sandy  clay 
and  sand  along  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  fine  silt  consolidating  into 
clay  in  the  flatter  parts  of  the  river  plain,  while  beds  of  impure  peat 
commonly  occur. 

In  the  north-west  of  the  District  there  are  extensive  groves  of  date- 
palms  {Phoenix  acaulis),  especially  on  the  outskirts  of  villages.  The 
north-east  and  centre  of  the  District  are  generally  inundated  during 
the  rainy  season,  only  the  river  banks  and  the  artificial  mounds  on 
which  habitations  are  situated  rising  above  the  water.  These  elevated 
embankments  are,  where  not  occupied  by  gardens,  densely  covered 
with  a  scrubby  jungle  or  semi-spontaneous  species,  from  which  rise 
bamboos,  betel-nut  and  coco-nut  palms,  with  a  few  taller  trees,  the 
commonest  being  the  Odina  Wodier,  and  the  most  conspicuous  the  red 
cotton-tree  {Bombax  ?nalabaricum).     The  surface  of  the  marshes  shows 


POPULATION  287 

either  huge  stretches  of  inundated  rice  or  is  covered  with  matted 
floating  islets  of  sedges  and  grasses  and  various  water-lilies,  the  most 
striking  of  these  being  the  maka?ia  (Euryale  ferox).  The  forests  of 
the  Sundarbans  in  the  south  produce  many  kinds  of  timber  and  an 
abundant  supply  of  firewood. 

The  same  forests  also  abound  in  tigers,  leopards,  wild  buffaloes,  hog, 
swamp  deer,  spotted  deer,  hog  deer,  barking-deer,  porcupines,  otters, 
and  monkeys.  Tigers  are  very  numerous,  and  their  ravages  often 
interfere  with  the  extension  of  cultivation.  Crocodiles  are  common  in 
the  MadhumatI  and  Bhairab  and  in  all  the  rivers  in  the  Sundarbans. 
Snakes  of  various  kinds  infest  the  whole  District. 

Statistics  of  temperature  are  not  available.  Rainfall  commences 
early,  and  the  annual  fall  averages  65  inches,  of  which  6-5  inches  fall 
in  May,  12-6  in  June,  12-8  in  July,  n-8  in  August,  8-8  in  September, 
and  4-9  in  October.  Serious  floods  occurred  in  1885,  1890,  and  1900, 
but  they  are  less  now  than  they  were  before  the  MadhumatI  had 
opened  out  its  present  channel  and  the  other  rivers  had  silted  up  at 
their  heads.  A  cyclone  accompanied  by  a  storm-wave  occurred  in 
the  Bagherhat  subdivision  in   1895. 

In  ancient  times  the  District  formed  part  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Banga 
or  Samatata,  and  subsequently  of  the  Bagri  division  of  Bengal  con- 
stituted by  Ballal  Sen.  The  earliest  traditions  are, 
however,  associated  with  the  name  of  Khanja  All, 
who  came  to  the  District  four  and  a  half  centuries  ago.  He  obtained 
a  jaglr  from  the  king  of  Gaur  and  made  extensive  clearances  in  the 
Sundarbans,  where  he  appears  to  have  exercised  all  the  rights  of  sove- 
reignty till  his  death  in  1459.  He  covered  the  country  with  numerous 
mosques  and  tombs,  the  remains  of  some  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  at 
Bagherhat  and  Masjidkur.  Vikramaditya,  one  of  the  chief  ministers 
of  Daud  Khan,  the  last  king  of  Bengal,  obtained  a  grant  in  the  Sun- 
darbans when  that  monarch  rebelled  against  the  king  of  Delhi,  and 
established  at  Iswaripur  a  city  from  which  the  District  of  Jessore  took 
its  name.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pratapaditya,  the  popular  hero 
of  the  Sundarbans,  who  gained  pre-eminence  over  the  twelve  chiefs 
or  Bhuiyas  then  holding  possession  of  Southern  Bengal,  but  was  eventu- 
ally defeated  and  captured  by  Man  Singh,  Akbar's  Hindu  general. 
The  present  District  of  Khulna  was  formed  in  1882  out  of  the  Khulna 
and  Bagherhat  subdivisions  of  Jessore  and  the  Satkhira  subdivision  of 
the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  and  its  history  after  the  British  accession 
to  the  dlivani  is  comprised  in  the  accounts  of  those  Districts. 

The  population  has  grown   rapidly   since    1872,   the    figures   being 

1,046,878  in   1872,   1,079,948  in  1881,  1,177,652   in 

•  rj,,  ■    A  Population. 

1891,  and  1,253,043  in  1901.     1  he  increase  is  due  to 

a  large  expansion  of  cultivation  in  the  south,  central,  and  south-west 


2S8 


KHULNA   DISTRICT 


portions  of  the  District,  and  a  steady  but  less  rapid  growth  in  the 
marshy  country  to  the  north-east,  on  the  confines  of  Fandpur.  There 
has  been  a  decrease  of  population  in  the  north-western  corner,  and  also 
in  a  narrow  strip  of  country  running  from  it  first  in  a  southerly  and 
then  in  a  south-easterly  direction ;  in  this  tract  fever  is  very  prevalent. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  Satkhira  subdivision  the  drainage  is  bad, 
there  are  numerous  swamps,  and  malaria  is  always  present.  The  other 
northern  thanas  are  also  low-lying,  but  though  there  are  numerous 
marshes,  the  country  is  more  open ;  and  there  is  less  jungle,  while  the 
stagnant  pools  and  tanks  which  are  so  common  in  North  Satkhira  are 
rarely  to-  be  seen.  Dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery  are  common 
when  the  river  water  becomes  brackish,  and  cholera  sometimes  breaks 
out  in  an  epidemic  form.  The  chief  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901 
are  given  below : — 


Subdivision. 


Khulna    . 
Bagherhat 
Satkhira  . 

District  total 


V 
u 

Number  of 

id 

Ijj 

a  — 

to 

V- 

•-  a 

c 

fcj) 

rt  - 

■i 

o 

0 

i  ; 

< 

H 

> 

649 

I 

929 

679 

•  • . 

1,045 

749 

2 

3 

1,467 

2,077* 

3,441 

a 
o 


401,785 
363,041 
488,217 


1,253,043 


V     . 

§1 

— .   c3 

3  3 

C   cfl 


619 

535 
652 


603" 


bl 


Ph 


e  u  - 

a  coo  o 
.2.2  "  o 

>  o  - 


+  177 

+   6-6 

— 

'•5 

+   6-4 


oJi-o 

*2  ai-o'C 
a  c  ca  s 

30JJ' 

Z.  - 
tl 


24,6l5 
3i,279 
30,49! 


86,385 


*  These  figures  exclude  2,688  square   miles  in  the  Sundarbans.     If  this  area  be 
included,  the  density  for  the  whole  District  is  263  persons  per  square  mile. 

The  three  towns  are  Khulna,  the  head-quarters,  .Debhata,  and 
Satkhira.  There  is  a  large  immigration  from  the  Districts  of  Backer- 
gunge,  Jessore,  and  Farldpur,  which  supply  many  of  the  cultivators 
on  new  clearances  in  the  Sundarbans  ;  some  of  these  have  settled 
permanently,  but  many  are  still  domiciled  elsewhere.  The  dialects 
spoken  are  Eastern  Bengali,  or  Musalmanl,  and  East  Central  Bengali. 
Hindus  (619,123)  and  Muhammadans  (632,216)  are  almost  equally 
divided. 

The  great  majority  of  the  Muhammadans  are  Shaikhs  (292,000)  and 
Ajlafs  (285,000),  while  of  the  remainder  the  weaving  caste  of  Jolahas 
(27,000)  is  the  most  largely  represented.  Probably  most  of  these  are 
descended  from  local  converts  from  Hinduism,  and  chiefly  from  the 
Chandals  (Namasiidras)  and  Pods,  who  still  number  191,000  and 
105,000  respectively.  Of  other  castes,  Kayasths  (39,000),  Kaibarttas 
(36,000),  and  Brahmans  (31,000)  are  the  most  numerous.  Agriculture 
supports  77  per  cent,  of  the  population,  industries  11-7  per  cent,  and 
the  professions  i-8  per  cent. 

Christians  in  1901  numbered  1,275,  including  1,228  native  Christians, 


AGRICULTURE  289 

the  most  important  mission  at  work  being  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  which  has  18  churches  and  24  schools,  mostly  among  the 
cultivating  classes  in  the  Sundarbans.  The  Oxford  Mission  has 
a  station  at  Shelaburia  on  the  Pusur,  about  30  miles  south  of  Khulna ; 
and  some  Roman  Catholics  at  Malgachi,  also  in  the  Sundarbans,  are 
visited  occasionally  by  their  priests. 

The  clay  land  of  the  river  plain  {mathial)  is  most  suitable  for  rice, 
while  cold-season  crops,  such  as  pulses,  oilseeds,  and  the  betel-vine 
{Piper  Betle),  grow  best  on  the  sandy  clay  known  as 
doashia.  In  the  decomposed  vegetable  deposits  of 
the  marshes  winter  rice  of  the  coarsest  sort  is  the  only  crop  grown. 
Except  in  the  higher  land  and  in  the  north  of  the  Sltkhira  subdivision, 
partial  failure  of  crops  is  not  uncommon  owing  to  the  deposits  of  salt 
left  by  the  tide.  The  south-west  of  the  District  suffers  especially  from 
this  cause ;  elsewhere  the  salt  is  as  a  rule  annually  washed  away  during 
the  rainy  season,  and  the  soil  is  renovated  by  the  deposits  left  by 
the  overflow  of  the  rivers.  The  cultivators  in  some  places  put  up  small 
embankments,  known  locally  as  bheris,  to  keep  out  the  salt  water.  It 
is  estimated  that  1,343  square  miles  were  cultivated  in  1903-4,  and 
that  the  cultivable  waste  amounted  to  334  square  miles  ;  separate 
statistics  for  the  subdivisions  are  not  available. 

Rice  is  the  staple  food-grain,  covering  1,213  square  miles.  The 
principal  crop  is  the  winter  variety,  for  which  the  reclaimed  portions 
of  the  Sundarbans  are  famous ;  the  soil  is  here  new  and  unexhausted, 
and  the  out-turn  is  abundant.  In  the  Sundarbans  this  crop  is  sown 
broadcast  in  the  early  part  of  July  and  reaped  in  January.  Elsewhere 
it  is  sown  in  nurseries  during  April  and  May,  transplanted  about  July, 
and  reaped  in  November  and  December ;  in  low  lands,  however,  it  is 
occasionally  sown  broadcast.  Oilseeds,  principally  mustard,  are  grown 
on  100  square  miles,  while  jute  covers  14  and  tobacco  8  square  miles. 
Date-palms  (Phoenix  acaulis)  and  betel-nut  palms  (Areca  Catechu)  are 
also  largely  grown.  Fisheries  are  plentiful,  and  fishing  constitutes  an 
important  industry. 

Cultivation  is  being  steadily  extended  into  the  shallow  bils  which 
form  so  marked  a  feature  of  this  part  of  Bengal.  In  the  south  progress 
is  being  made  in  pushing  back  the  jungle  of  the  Sundarbans,  where  the 
new  clearances  attract  cultivators  not  only  from  other  parts  of  the  Dis- 
trict, but  also  from  Nadia,  Jessore,  Faridpur,  and  elsewhere.  There 
was  some  scarcity  in  1896-8,  when  Rs.  69,000  was  advanced  under  the 
Agriculturists'  Loans  Act ;  the  annual  average  of  the  sums  advanced 
under  that  Act  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901-2  was  Rs.  7,000,  while 
the  sums  advanced  under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act  averaged 
Rs.  5,000  per  annum. 

There  is  little  real  pasture  land  in  the  District,  and  fodder  is  scarce. 


29o  KHULNA   DISTRICT 

No  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  breed  of  cattle,  which 
is  very  poor. 

The  Forest  department  administers  2,081  square  miles  of  'reserved' 
forests  in  the  Sundarbans,  but  this  area  includes  533  square  miles  of 
water  channels ;  large  quantities  of  forest  produce  are 
exported  to  the  adjoining  Districts.  The  principal 
trees  are  sundri  (Heritiera  littoralis),  pasur  ( Carapa  moluccensis),  amiir 
(Amoora  cucullata),  keora  (Sonneratia  apetala),  garan  (Ceriops  Can- 
dot Veana),  and  geod  (Excoecaria  Agallocha).  The  minor  produce  con- 
sists of  golpata  (JVipa  frutescens),  hantdl  {Phoenix  paludosa),  nal  or 
thatching-grass,  honey,  wax,  and  shells.  The  gross  revenue  from  the 
forests  in  1903-4  was  3-33  lakhs. 

The  chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  molasses  from 
the  juice  of  the  date-palm,  but  for  some  years  it  was  seriously  affected 

by  the  competition  of  imported  sugar.     The  out-turn 

Trade  and  c  ■  r  b  ,         ,      , 

communications.  of  su§ar  in    J9°3~4  was   19,000  maunds  valued  at 

1-96  lakhs,  and  of  molasses  68,000  maunds  valued 

at  1-83  lakhs.     The  earthen  pottery,  cutlery,  and  horn  industries  of 

Kallganj  are  of  considerable  importance.      Coarse   cotton  cloths   are 

manufactured   on   hand-looms,  and  are   said  to   be   preferred   by  the 

poorer  classes  to  machine-made  goods  on  account  of  their  durability ; 

but  the  industry  is  not  flourishing. 

The  chief  exports  are  rice  and  paddy  to  Calcutta,  the  Twenty-four 
Parganas,  Nadia,  and  Jessore ;  and  gram,  pulses,  oilseeds,  jute,  tobacco 
(unmanufactured),  sugar  (unrefined),  firewood,  timber,  minor  forest 
produce,  pan  leaf,  betel-nuts,  coco-nuts,  and  fish  to  Calcutta.  The 
chief  imports  are  raw  cotton,  cotton  twist,  European  cotton  piece-goods, 
hardware,  glassware,  sugar  (refined),  shoes,  English  liquors,  kerosene 
oil,  coal  and  coke,  lime,  and  tobacco.  The  chief  trade  centres  are 
Khulna,  Daulatpur,  Phultala,  Allpur,  Kapilmuni,  Chaknagar,  Chalna, 
Talma,  Dumria,  and  Kutlrhat,  all  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  ; 
Bagherhat,  Faklrhat,  Mausha,  Jatrapur,  Kachua,  Chitalmari,  Gaur- 
ambha,  and  Morrelganj  in  the  Bagherhat  subdivision ;  and  Baradal, 
Patkelghata,  Kalfganj,  Kalaroa,  Debhata,  Chanduria,  Basantpur, 
Asasuni,  Tala,  and  Naobanki  in  the  Satkhira  subdivision.  The 
principal  castes  engaged  in  trade  are  Kayasths,  Telis,  Baruis,  Sahas, 
Malos,  Baniks,  Namasudras,  and  Muhammadans. 

The  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  connects  Khulna  with  Jessore 
and  Calcutta.  In  1903-4  the  District  contained  490  miles  of  roads,  of 
which  only  12  miles  were  metalled,  in  addition  to  1,031  miles  of  village 
tracks.  The  principal  roads  are  those  connecting  Khulna  with  Jessore 
and  Bagherhat. 

The  larger  rivers  are  for  the  most  part  tidal  and  navigable  by  large 
boats  throughout  the  year,  and  they  carry  a  great  amount  of  traffic 


FAMINE  291 

Some  of  the  connecting  channels  form  portion  of  a  very  important 
system  of  waterways  connecting  Calcutta  with  the  eastern  Districts, 
and  also  with  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra  systems  (see  Cal- 
cutta and  Eastern  Canals).  The  central  mart  of  the  Sundarbans  is 
the  town  of  Khulna,  towards  which  all  the  boat  routes  converge.  The 
chief  route,  after  reaching  the  junction  of  the  Kabadak  with  the 
Morirchap  river,  proceeds  by  the  latter  as  far  as  its  junction  with 
the  Betua  and  the  Kholpetua,  where  it  divides  into  two  channels.  The 
large  boats  pass  along  the  Kholpetua,  Galghasia,  Banstala,  and  Kank- 
siali  channels  to  Kallganj,  while  the  smaller  boats  enter  the  Sovnali 
at  its  junction  with  the  Kholpetua  and  proceed  to  Kallganj  by  the 
Guntiakhali,  Habra  Sltalkhali,  Jhapjhapia,  and  Kanksiali ;  the  route 
through  the  Sltalkhali  has  been  shortened  since  the  opening  of  the 
Gobinda  Canal,  and  boats  of  all  sizes  now  pass  through  it.  From 
Kallganj  the  route  proceeds  through  the  Jamuna  as  far  as  Basantpur, 
where  it  again  divides,  forming  an  inner  and  an  outer  passage.  The 
outer  passage  enters  the  Twenty-four  Parganas  through  the  Kalindri 
river  and  the  Sahibkhali  and  Barakulia  Khals,  while  the  inner  passage 
proceeds  by  the  Jamuna  from  Basantpur  to  Husainabad,  where  it 
enters  a  channel  called  the  Husainabad  or  Dhansara  Khal.  From 
Khulna  routes  branch  off  north,  east,  and  south ;  the  chief  northern 
route  proceeds  up  the  Atharabanki,  Madhumatl,  and  Garai  into  the 
Padma  or  main  channel  of  the  Ganges,  and  carries  the  river  trade 
not  only  of  Northern  Bengal  but  also  of  Bihar  during  the  season  when 
the  Nadia  rivers  are  closed.  In  recent  years,  the  silting  up  of  this 
route  has  led  to  its  abandonment  by  steamers.  The  eastern  route 
from  Khulna  passes  down  the  Bhairab,  and  then  by  Barisal  through 
Backergunge  District  to  Dacca.  The  main  southern  route  connects 
Khulna  with  Morrelganj. 

In  addition  to  the  Cachar-Sundarbans  dispatch  service,  which  plies 
from  Calcutta  through  the  Sundarbans  to  Barisal,  Chandpur,  Narayan- 
ganj  and  Assam,  there  are  services  of  steamers  between  Khulna  and 
Muhammadpur,  Khulna  and  Binodpur,  and  (during  the  rains)  Magura 
and  Khulna  and  Madanpur  via  the  Madhumatl  Bil  route  (see  Faridpur 
District).  There  is  also  a  service  on  the  Kabadak  between  Kapilmuni 
in  Khulna  and  Kotchandpur  in  the  Jessore  District,  which  taps  the 
railway  at  Jhingergacha. 

The  famine  of  1897-8  affected  parts  of  the  Khulna  and  Satkhira  sub- 
divisions.    The  rainfall  was  deficient  in  1895-6,  and  a  cyclonic  storm 

drove  salt  water  over  the  fields  and  destroyed  the  _ 

1  r™  •   r  ,1  •  1  Famine, 

young  plants.     The  rainfall  was  again  very  short  in 

1896-7,  and   the   out-turn   of  the   great   rice  area  bordering  on  the 

Sundarbans  barely  amounted  to  an  eighth  of  the  normal  crop.     An 

area  of  467  square  miles  with  a  population  of  276,000  was  affected,  but 


2 92  KHULNA   DISTRICT 

the  number  requiring  relief  never  exceeded  16,000.  The  relief  works 
were  closed  at  the  end  of  September,  but  poorhouses  were  maintained 
till  a  month  later.  The  total  expenditure  was  1-74  lakhs,  of  which 
Rs.  61,000  was  spent  on  relief  works  and  Rs.  75,000  on  gratuitous  relief. 
Apart  from  this,  Rs.  48,000  was  advanced  under  the  Land  Improvement 
Loans  Act  and  Rs.  69,000  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  three  sub- 
divisions, with  head-quarters  at  Khulna,  Bagherhat,  and  Satkhira. 
The  Magistrate-Collector  is  assisted  at  head-quarters 
Administration.    ^  ^  ^^  q{  four  Deputy_Magistrate-Collectors,  and 

the  Bagherhat  and  Satkhira  subdivisions  are  each  in  charge  of  a  Deputy- 
Magistrate-Collector  assisted  by  a  Sub-Deputy-Collector.  A  Deputy- 
Conservator  of  forests  and  two  Extra-Assistant  Conservators  attached  to 
the  Sundarbans  division  are  also  stationed  at  Khulna. 

For  the  disposal  of  civil  judicial  work,  in  addition  to  the  District  and 
Sessions  Judge,  who  is  also  Judge  of  Jessore,  two  Munsifs  and  a  Sub- 
ordinate Judge  sit  at  Khulna  and  three  Munsifs  at  each  of  the  other 
subdivisional  head-quarters.  There  are  in  all  twelve  criminal  courts, 
including  the  court  of  an  Additional  Sessions  Judge,  who  also  sits  at 
Jessore  for  a  portion  of  the  year.  The  most  common  cases  are  those 
arising  out  of  land  disputes. 

The  early  land  revenue  history  of  the  District  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Jessore  and  the  Twenty-four 
Parganas,  of  which  until  recently  it  formed  part.  At  the  time  of  the 
Permanent  Settlement,  most  of  the  present  District  was  divided  into 
a  few  large  zaminddris,  including  portions  of  the  Isafpur  and  Saidpur 
estates  (see  Jessore  District).  Of  979  estates  in  1903-4  with  a  current 
demand  of  6-9  lakhs,  756  with  a  demand  of  5-1  lakhs  were  permanently 
settled.  There  are  no  tenures  peculiar  to  the  District.  Uibandi 
tenants  pay  rent  only  upon  the  land  actually  cultivated  during  the  year 
(see  Nadia  District).  Korfd  ryots  hold  under  a  middleman  such  as 
&  gdtithlddr  or  jotddr,  middi  ryots  are  liable  to  ejectment  after  a  fixed 
period,  kistkdri  ryots  are  tenants-at-will,  while  the  occupants  of  jula 
jama  and  dhdnya  kardri  holdings  pay  rent  in  kind.  For  the  whole 
District  the  incidence  of  rental  is  Rs.  4-3-2  per  cultivated  acre ;  but 
rents  vary  greatly,  ranging  from  Rs.  4-8  to  Rs.  9  per  acre  in  the  Khulna 
subdivision,  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  18  in  Bagherhat,  and  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  7 
in  Satkhira.  Pan  and  garden  lands  bring  in  between  Rs.  6  and  Rs.  9 
in  Bagherhat,  and  between  Rs.  9  and  Rs.  18  in  Khulna,  while  in 
Satkhira  as  much  as  Rs.  30  is  occasionally  paid  for  garden  and  Rs.  52 
for  pan  land.  In  a  settlement  of  a  small  tract  which  was  made  in 
1 90 1-2  the  rate  of  rent  was  found  to  vary  from  Rs.  2-13  to  Rs.  6  per 
cultivated  acre,  the  average  rate  being  Rs.  4-6-6,  and  the  average 
'holding  of  each  tenant  12-28  acres. 


ADMIKISTRA  TION 


29; 


The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  of 
total  revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1890-1. 

1900-1. 

J  903-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

6,44 
1 1, 4S 

6,69 

I3>21 

6,86 
I4>23 

Outside  the  municipalities  of  Khulna,  Satkhira,  and  Debhata, 
local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  with  subordinate  local 
boards  in  each  subdivision.  In  1903-4  the  income  of  the  District 
board  was  Rs.  1,95,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,03,000  was  derived  from  rates  ; 
and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  1,56,000,  including  Rs.  98,000  spent  on 
public  works  and  Rs.  35,000  on  education. 

The  District  contains  13  police  stations  and  9  outposts ;  and  in  1903 
the  force  subordinate  to  the  District  Superintendent  consisted  of  3 
inspectors,  35  sub-inspectors,  36  head  constables,  and  394  constables, 
including  41  water  constables  and  57  town  police.  In  addition,  there 
was  a  rural  police  of  239  daffaddrs  and  2,155  chaukiddrs.  The  District 
jail  at  Khulna  has  accommodation  for  49  prisoners,  and  subsidiary 
jails  at  Satkhira  and  Bagherhat  have  accommodation  for  47. 

In  respect  of  education  Khulna  is  less  advanced  than  would  be 
expected  from  its  proximity  to  Calcutta,  and  in  1901  only  6-9  per  cent, 
of  the  population  (12-4  males  and  o-8  females)  could  read  and  write. 
The  total  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  fell  from  38,000  in  1892-3 
to  34,000  in  1 900-1.  In  1903-4  there  were  34,000  boys  and  3,000 
girls  at  school,  being,  respectively,  34-7  and  3-4  per  cent,  of  the  children 
of  school-going  age.  The  number  of  educational  institutions,  public 
and  private,  in  that  year  was  1,009,  including  an  Arts  college,  91 
secondary,  909  primary,  and  8  special  schools.  The  expenditure  on 
education  was  i-8  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  2r,ooo  was  met  from  Provincial 
funds,  Rs.  34,000  from  District  funds,  Rs.  1,000  from  municipal  funds, 
and  Rs.  96,000  from  fees. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  it  dispensaries,  of  which  3  had 
accommodation  for  41  in-patients.  At  these  the  cases  of  79,000  out- 
patients and  500  in-patients  were  treated  during  the  year,  and  2,000 
operations  were  performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  15,000,  of  which 
Rs.  1,100  was  met  by  Government  contributions,  Rs.  7,000  from  Local 
and  Rs.  2,000  from  municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  4,000  from  subscriptions. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  municipal  areas.  In  1903-4  the 
number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  32,000,  or  26-28  per 
1,000  of  the  population. 

[Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal,  vols,  i  and  ii  (1875) ; 
Sir  J.  YVestland,  Report  on  Jessore  (Calcutta,  1874)  ;  F.  E.  Pargiter, 
Revenue  History  of  the  Sundarbans  from  1765  to  1870  (Calcutta,  1SS5).] 


294  KHULNA   SUBDIVISION 

Khulna  Subdivision. — Head-quarters  subdivision  of  Khulna  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  lying  between  210  41'  and  230  i'  N.  and  890  14'  and 
890  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  649  square  miles.  The  subdivision  is  an 
alluvial  tract,  merging  to  the  south  in  the  Sundarbans ;  the  general 
features  are  the  same  as  in  the  lower  delta  through  which  the  rivers  of 
Bengal  find  their  way  to  the  sea.  Its  population  in  1901  was  401,785, 
compared  with  341,493  in  1891,  the  density  being  619  persons  per 
square  mile.  It  contains  one  town,  Khulna,  its  head-quarters  (popu- 
lation, 10,426) ;  and  929  villages.  Khulna  town  is  the  chief  centre  of 
trade  ;  but  Alaipur,  Daulatpur,  Dumria,  Phultala,  and  Kapil- 
muni  are  also  important  marts. 

Khulna  Town. — Head-quarters  of  Khulna  District,  Bengal,  situated 
in  220  49'  N.  and  890  34'  E.,  at  the  point  where  the  Bhairab  river 
meets  the  Sundarbans.  Population  (1901),  10,426.  Khulna  may  be 
described  as  the  capital  of  the  Sundarbans,  and  has  been  for  more  than 
a  hundred  years  a  place  of  commercial  importance.  It  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  salt  department  during  the  period  of  the  Company's  salt 
manufacture.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  central  section  of  the  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway,  and  all  the  great  river  routes  converge  on  the 
town,  it  being  connected  by  steamer  with  Narayanganj,  Barisal, 
MadarIpur,  Muhammadpur,  and  Binodpur.  Rice,  sugar,  betel-nuts, 
and  coco-nuts,  the  produce  of  the  vicinity,  are  collected  here  for  export 
to  Calcutta,  and  the  trade  in  salt  is  also  large.  Khulna  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1884.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending 
1901-2  averaged  Rs.  22,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  20,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  19,000,  including  Rs.  4,600  derived  from 
a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax),  Rs.  3,500  from  a  tax  on  houses  and 
lands,  and  Rs.  4,600  from  a  conservancy  rate  ;  and  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  17,000.  The  municipality  has  recently  undertaken  a  scheme 
for  improving  the  drainage.  The  town  contains  the  usual  civil,  criminal, 
and  revenue  courts,  District  jail,  circuit-house,  hospital,  and  schools. 
The  jail  has  accommodation  for  49  prisoners  ;  the  principal  industries 
are  oil-pressing,  wheat-grinding,  paddy-husking,  mat-making,  aloe- 
pounding,  and  rope-making.  The  Woodburn  Hospital  was  com- 
pleted in   1 90 1  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  18,000. 

Khunti  Subdivision.— South-eastern  subdivision  of  Ranchl  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  lying  between  220  38'  and  230  iS'  N.  and  840  56'  and 
850  54'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,140  square  miles.  The  subdivision, 
which  was  created  in  1905,  is  an  elevated  table-land  ;  but  to  the  south 
the  surface  is  broken  and  the  undulating  ridges  and  valleys  give  place 
to  steep  hills  and  ravines,  terminating  in  a  comparatively  open  plain  to 
the  south-east  towards  Manbhum.  It  had  a  population  in  1901  of 
225,407,  compared  with  198,730  in  1891,  the  density  being  198 
persons   per   square   mile.     It    contains    one    town,  Bundu    (popula- 


KHURDA    SUBDIVISION  295 

tion,  5,469),  and  599  villages,  one  of  which,  Khunti,  is  the  head- 
quarters. 

Khunti  Village.— Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Ranch!  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  230  5'  N.  and  850  16'  E. 
Population  (1901),  1,446.  It  is  a  trade  centre  of  some  importance  on 
the  road  from  Ranchl  to  Chaibasa. 

Khurai  Tahsil  {Kierai). — North-western  tahs'd  of  Saugor  District, 
Central  Provinces,  lying  between  230  51'  and  240  27'  N.  and  780  4' 
and  7  8°  43'  E.,  with  an  area  of  940  square  miles.  The  population 
decreased  from  126,004  in  1891  to  93,788  in  1901.  The  density  in 
the  latter  year  was  100  persons  per  square  mile,  which  is  below  the 
District  average.  The  tahsil  contains  two  towns,  Khurai  (population, 
6,012),  the  head-quarters,  and  Etawa  (6,418);  and  470  inhabited 
villages.  Excluding  124  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  45  per 
cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  cultivated 
area  in  1903-4  was  238  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue 
in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  77,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  8,000.  The  tahsil 
is  an  open  undulating  plain,  with  a  stretch  of  hilly  and  stony  land  in 
the  north,  and  belts  of  forest  on  the  borders  of  the  Blna  and  Betwa 
rivers. 

Khurai  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
Saugor  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  240  3'  N.  and  7  8°  20'  E., 
on  the  railway  line  towards  Blna,  33  miles  from  Saugor  town.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  6,012.  An  old  fort  is  now  used  as  the  tahsil  office. 
Khurai  contains  a  considerable  colony  of  Jains  and  a  number  of  fine 
Jain  temples.  It  was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal 
receipts  during  the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  15,300.  In 
1903-4  the  receipts  were  Rs.  8,000,  mainly  derived  from  fees  on  the 
registration  of  cattle.  The  town  is  a  collecting  centre  for  local  trade. 
A  large  weekly  cattle  market  is  held  here,  and  dried  meat  is  prepared 
for  export  to  Burma.  Khurai  contains  an  English  middle  school,  two 
branch  and  two  girls'  schools,  one  of  which  is  supported  by  the 
Swedish   Lutheran  Mission,  and  a  dispensary. 

Khurda  Subdivision. — Western  subdivision  of  Purl  District,  Ben- 
gal, lying  between  190  41'  and  200  26'  N.  and  840  56'  and  850  53'  E., 
with  an  area  of  971  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was 
359,236,  compared  with  331,423  in  1891,  the  density  being  370 
persons  per  square  mile.  The  subdivision  adjoins  the  south- 
eastern fringe  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  and  detached  hills  of 
gneiss  occur,  the  plains  between  them  consisting  of  laterite  and 
alluvium.  It  contains  1,212  villages,  one  of  which,  Khurda,  is  its 
head-quarters  ;  but  no  town.  At  Bhubaneswar  are  situated  the  cele- 
brated Lingaraj  temple  and  numerous  other  temples,  and  the  Khand- 
giri  and  Udayagiri  hills  contain  many  caves  and  rock  temples. 


296  KHURDA   SUBDIVISION 

Khurda  was  the  last  portion  of  territory  held  by  the  independent 
Hindu  dynasty  of  Orissa.  The  Maratha  cavalry  were  unable  to  overrun 
this  jungle-covered  and  hilly  tract;  and  the  ancient  royal  house  retained 
much  of  its  independence  till  1804,  when  the  Raja  rebelled  against  the 
British  Government  and  his  territory  was  confiscated.  A  rising  on  the 
part  of  the  peasantry  took  place  in  181 7-8,  due  chiefly  to  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  minor  Bengali  officials.  The  insurrection  was  speedily 
quelled,  reforms  were  introduced  and  grievances  redressed  ;  and  at  the 
present  day  Khurda  is  a  profitable  and  well-managed  Government 
estate,  the  cultivators  being  a  contented  and  generally  prosperous 
class.  The  current  settlement  dates  from  1897,  when  the  demand  was 
assessed  at  3-77  lakhs.  The  present  Raja  of  Khurda  is  hereditary 
superintendent  of  the  temple  of  Jagannath,  but  has  delegated  all  his 
powers  as  such  for  five  years  to  an  experienced  Deputy-Magistrate- 
Collector. 

[J.  Taylor,  Settlement  Report  (Calcutta,  1900).] 

Khurda  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Purl  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  200  11'  N.  and  850  38'  E., 
on  the  high  road  from  Cuttack  to  Ganjam  in  Madras,  and  connected 
by  road  with  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  Population  (1901),  3,424. 
Between  1818  and  1828  Khurda  was  the  head-quarters  of  Purl  Dis- 
trict, transferred  in  the  latter  year  to  Purl  town.  It  contains  the  usual 
public  offices;  the  sub-jail  has  accommodation  for  10  prisoners. 

Khuria. — Plateau  in  the  Jashpur  State,  Central  Provinces,  occupying 
the  north-western  portion  of  the  State,  and  lying  between  230  o'  and 
230  14'  N.  and  830  30'  and  830  44'  E.  It  consists  of  trap-rock  topped 
with  volcanic  laterite,  overlying  the  granite  and  gneiss  which  form  the 
surface  rocks  at  lower  elevations.  The  plateau  affords  excellent 
pasturage,  and  Ahirs  or  cowherds  from  Mirzapur  and  elsewhere  drive 
in  large  herds  of  cattle  to  graze ;  many  such  Ahirs  have  settled  here 
permanently. 

Khurja  Tahsil. — Southern  tahsll  of  Bulandshahr  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Jewar,  Khurja,  and  Pahasii,  and 
lying  between  280  4'  and  280  20'  N.  and  770  29'  and  780  12'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  462  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  221,137  in 
1891  to  266,838  in  1901.  There  are  348  villages  and  seven  towns,  the 
largest  of  which  are  Khurja  (population,  29,277),  the  tahsll  head- 
quarters, Jewar  (7,718),  Pahasu  (5,603),  Chhatari  (5,574),  and 
Rabupura  (5,048).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  5,05,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  82,000.  The  tahsil  is  drained  by 
the  East  Kali  Nadi,  the  Karon  or  Karwan,  and  the  Patwai  or  Patwaha 
Bahu,  all  which  have  been  deepened  and  straightened  to  improve 
the  drainage.  The  Jumna  flows  along  the  western  border.  East  of 
the  Kali  Nadi  and  west  of  the  Patwai  are  tracts  of  light  sandy  soil ; 


KHUSHAB   TAHSIL  297 

but  the  central  portion  is  highly  fertile,  and  is  well  supplied  by  irri- 
gation from  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal  and  the  Mat  branch  of  the  same 
work.  Cotton  is  more  largely  grown  in  this  tract  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  District.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  345 
square  miles,  of  which  152  were  irrigated.  Well-irrigation  supplies 
about  one-third  of  the  total,  and  is  chiefly  important  in  the  area 
between  the  canals. 

Khurja  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
Bulandshahr  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  2 8°  15'  N.  and  770 
51/  E.,  near  the  grand  trunk  road,  and  4  miles  from  Khurja  station  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway.  Population  (1901),  29,277,  of  whom  15,878 
are  Hindus  and  12,923  Musalmans.  The  town  is  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  kharija  ('revenue  free'),  as  it  was  built  by  the  Bhale  Sultan 
Rajputs  on  a  revenue-free  grant  made  by  Firoz  Shah  Tughlak.  The 
descendants  of  the  original  grantees  retained  possession  of  their  hold- 
ings till  they  were  resumed  partly  by  Suraj  Mai,  Raja  of  Bharatpur, 
in  1740,  and  partly  by  Daulat  Rao  Sindhia  towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  There  is  only  one  ancient  building,  the  tomb  of 
Makhdum  Sahib,  near  the  grand  trunk  road,  which  is  about  400  years 
old.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  tahslli,  dispensary,  and  town 
hall.  The  principal  inhabitants  are  Kheshgi  Pathans  and  Churuwal 
Banias ;  the  latter,  who  are  Jain  by  religion,  are  an  enterprising  and 
wealthy  class,  carrying  on  banking  all  over  India  and  taking  a  leading 
share  in  the  trade  of  the  place.  Thirty  years  ago  they  built  a  magni- 
ficent domed  temple,  which  cost  more  than  a  lakh  and  is  adorned  with 
a  profusion  of  stone  carving  of  fine  execution.  The  interior  is  a  blaze 
of  gold  and  colour,  the  vault  of  the  dome  being  painted  and  decorated 
in  the  most  florid  style  of  indigenous  art.  The  market-place,  bazar,  and 
dharmsala,  all  adorned  with  handsome  gateways  of  carved  stone,  also 
owe  much  to  the  munificence  of  the  Jain  traders.  There  are  branches 
of  the  American  Methodist  and  the  Zanana  Bible  and  Medical  Missions. 

Khurja  has  been  a  municipality  since  1866.  The  receipts  and 
expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  27,500. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  38,000,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi 
(Rs.  28,000);  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  42,000.  The  town  is  the 
chief  commercial  centre  of  the  District,  and  contains  seven  cotton-gins 
and  presses,  which  employed  444  hands  in  1903.  Cotton-ginning  by 
hand  is  important,  and  there  is  a  very  large  export  of  grain,  besides 
a  smaller  trade  in  indigo,  sugar,  and  gkl.  The  pottery  of  Khurja 
resembles  that  made  at  Multan  and  in  the  Rampur  State,  and  has 
some  reputation.  English  cotton  cloth,  metals,  and  brass  utensils  are 
the  chief  articles  imported.  There  are  eight  schools  with  about  600 
pupils. 

Khushab  Tahsil. —  Tahsil oi  Shahpur  District,  Punjab,  lying  between 


298  KHUSHAB   TAHSIL 

310  32'  and  320  42'  N.  and  710  37'  and  720  38'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
2,536  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Jhelum  river. 
The  population  in  1901  was  161,885,  compared  with  151,627  in  1891. 
The  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Khushab  (population,  11,403). 
The  number  of  villages  is  206.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  2-4  lakhs.  The  Salt  Range  runs  through  the  north  of  the 
tahsll,  culminating  in  the  peak  of  Sakesar.  The  fertile  southern  slopes 
sink  into  a  salt-impregnated  plain,  which  in  turn  gives  place  to  the  sand- 
hills of  the  Thai.    Along  the  Jhelum  lies  a  narrow  strip  of  fertile  lowland. 

Khushab  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in 
Shahpur  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  320  18'  N.  and  720  22'  E.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Jhelum  river,  and  on  the  Sind-Sagar  branch  of  the 
North- Western  Railway.  Population  (1901),  11,403.  It  has  an  exten- 
sive trade,  exporting  cotton,  wool,  and  ghl  to  Multan  and  Sukkur ; 
cotton  cloth  to  Afghanistan  and  the  Derajat ;  and  wheat  grown  in  the 
Salt  Range,  which  is  considered  particularly  suitable  for  export,  princi- 
pally to  Karachi.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  12,100,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  11,500,  chiefly 
from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,000.  The  town  possesses 
an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school,  maintained  by  the  municipality, 
and  a  Government  dispensary. 

Khutahan. — Northern  tahsll  of  Jaunpur  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parganas  of  Ungli,  Ran  {talnka  Badlapur),  Karyat 
Mendha,  and  Chanda,  and  lying  between  250  50'  and  260  12'  N.  and 
820  21'  and  820  46'  E.,  with  an  area  of  362  square  miles.  Portions  of 
the  tahsll  form  enclaves  in  Partabgarh  and  Sultanpur  Districts.  Popu- 
lation fell  from  286,832  in  1891  to  269,438  in  1901.  There  are  700 
villages  and  only  one  town,  Shahganj  (population,  6,430),  the  tahsll 
head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs. 
2,27,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  50,000.  The  density  of  population,  744 
persons  per  square  mile,  is  below  the  District  average.  Several  small 
drainage  channels  exist ;  but  the  Gumtl,  which  crosses  the  south-west 
of  the  tahsll,  is  the  only  considerable  river.  Khutahan  contains  a  large 
area  of  good  rice  land,  and  also  a  number  of  barren  usar  tracts.  The 
area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  288  square  miles,  of  which  129 
were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  about  seven-eighths  of  the  irrigated  area, 
and  tanks  and  jhlls  most  of  the  remainder. 

Khuzdar. — The  principal  place  in  the  Jhalawan  division  of  the 
Kalat  State,  Baluchistan,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  Native  Assistant 
and  of  the  Khan  of  Kalat's  nail),  situated  in  270  48'  N.  and  66°  37'  E. 
It  is  known  to  the  Sindls  as  Kohiar,  and  is  a  long  narrow  valley,  at  the 
upper  end  of  which  a  fort  was  constructed  in  1870.  Khuzdar  owes  its 
importance  to  its  central  position  at  the  point  of  convergence  of  roads 


KHYBER 


299 


from  Kalat  on  the  north,  Karachi  and  Bela  on  the  south,  Kachhi  on 
the  east,  and  Makran  and  Kharan  on  the  west.  It  is  unhealthy  in 
summer.  The  garrison  consists  of  7  artillerymen  with  one  gun  and 
45  irregular  levies.  The  Native  Assistant  has  a  small  escort  of  20 
levies.  The  niabat  of  Khuzdar  includes  land  in  Baghwana,  Zidi,  the 
valley  of  the  Kolachi  river,  Karkh,  and  Chakku. 

Khyber  (Khaibar). — Historic  pass  leading  from  Peshawar  District 
in  the  North-West  Frontier  Province  into  Afghanistan,  the  centre  of 
the  pass  lying  in  340  6'  N.  and  710  5'  E.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  range  of  hills  through  which  the  pass  runs.  The  Khyber  moun- 
tains form,  indeed,  the  last  spurs  of  the  Safed  Koh,  as  that  mighty 
range  sinks  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Kabul  river.  The  elevation  of 
the  connecting  ridge  is  3,400  feet,  but  it  rises  to  6,800  feet  in  the 
Tartara  peak.  On  either  side  of  it  are  the  sources  of  two  small  streams, 
one  flowing  north-west  to  the  Kabul  river,  the  other  south-south-east 
towards  Jamrud.     The  beds  of  these  streams  form  the  Khyber  defile. 

The  Khyber  Pass  is  the  great  northern  route  from  Afghanistan  into 
India,  while  the  Kurram  and  Gonial  Passes  form  intermediate  com- 
munications, and  the  Bolan  Pass  is  the  great  southern  passage.  The 
pass  begins  near  Jamrud,  \o\  miles  west  of  Peshawar,  and  twists 
through  the  hills  for  about  33  miles  in  a  north-westerly  direction  till 
it  debouches  at  Dakka.  The  most  important  points  en  ?-oate  are  All 
Masjid,  a  village  and  fort  10^  miles  from  Jamrud;  Landi  Kotal,  the 
summit  of  the  pass,  10  miles  farther;  and  Tor  Kham,  at  which  point 
the  pass  enters  Afghan  territory,  about  6  miles  beyond  Landi  Kotal. 
The  plains  of  Peshawar  District  stretch  from  the  eastern  mouth  of  the 
pass,  and  those  of  Jalalabad  from  the  western.  Outside  the  eastern 
gate  is  the  remarkable  collection  of  caves  at  Kadam,  and  beyond  its 
western  limits  are  many  interesting  remains  of  Buddhism  and  of 
ancient  civilization.  The  pass  lies  along  the  bed  of  a  torrent,  chiefly 
through  slate  rocks,  and  is  subject  to  sudden  floods,  especially  in  July, 
August,  December,  and  January.  The  gradient  is  generally  easy, 
except  at  Landi  Khana,  and  the  road  is  in  good  condition. 

The  elevation,  in  feet,  at  various  points  of  the  pass  is  :  Jamrud, 
1,670;  All  Masjid,  2,433;  Landi  Kotal,  3,373;  Landi  Khana,  2,488; 
Dakka,  1,404.  The  ascent  over  the  Landi  Khana  pass  is  narrow, 
rugged,  steep,  and  generally  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  road.  Guns 
could  not  be  drawn  here  except  by  men,  and  then  only  after  the 
improvement  of  the  road ;  the  descent  is  a  well-made  road,  and  not 
so  difficult.  Just  beyond  All  Masjid  the  road  passes  over  a  stretch 
of  uneven  and  slippery  rock,  which  is  extremely  difficult  for  laden 
animals.  The  Khyber  can  be  turned  by  the  Mullagori  road,  which 
enters  the  hills  about  9  miles  north  of  Jamrud,  and  either  joins  the 
Khyber  road  or  keeps  to  the  north  of  the  range  and  emerges  at  Dakka. 

vol.  xv.  u 


300  KHYBER 

The  Khyber  has  always  been  one  of  the  gateways  into  India.  Alex- 
ander of  Macedon  probably  sent  a  division  under  Hephaistion  and 
Perdiccas  through  the  Khyber,  while  he  himself  followed  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Kabul  river,  and  thence  crossed  the  Kunar  valley  into 
Bajaur  and  Swat.  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  only  once  used  the  Khyber 
route,  when  he  marched  to  encounter  Jaipal  in  the  Peshawar  valley. 
The  Mughal  emperors  Babar  and  Humayun  each  traversed  it  more 
than  once.  Nadir  Shah,  advancing  by  it  to  attack  Nasir  Khan,  Subah- 
ddr  of  Kabul  under  the  Mughal  government,  was  opposed  by  the 
Pathans ;  but  he  led  his  cavalry  through  Bazar,  took  Nasir  Khan 
completely  by  surprise,  and  overthrew  him  near  Jamrud.  Ahmad 
Shah  Durrani  and  his  grandson  Shah  Zaman,  in  their  invasions  of 
the  Punjab,  also  followed  the  Khyber  route  on  several  occasions. 
The  Mughal  emperors  attached  great  importance  to  the  control  of  the 
Khyber,  but  were  singularly  unsuccessful  in  their  attempts  to  keep 
the  route  open.  Then,  as  now,  it  was  held  by  the  Afridi  Pathans, 
a  race  implacably  hostile  to  the  Mughals. 

Jalalabad,  first  fortified  by  Humayun  in  1552,  was  further  strength- 
ened by  his  son  Jalal-ud-dln  Akbar,  after  whom  it  was  named ;  and 
the  latter  emperor  so  improved  the  road  that  wheeled  carriages  could 
traverse  it  with  ease.  But  even  in  his  reign  the  Khyber  was  infested 
by  the  Roshania  sectaries,  who  wielded  great  influence  over  the  Afghan 
tribes ;  and  the  Rajput  general  Man  Singh  had  to  force  the  pass  in 
1586,  when  Akbar  desired  to  secure  possession  of  Kabul  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Mirza  Muhammad  Hakim.  In  1672,  under  Aurangzeb, 
the  tribes  waylaid  the  Subahdar  of  Kabul,  Muhammad  Amln  Khan, 
in  the  pass,  and  annihilated  his  army  of  40,000  men,  capturing  all  his 
treasure,  elephants,  women,  and  children. 

The  first  British  advance  into  the  Khyber  was  in  1839,  when 
Captain  Wade  was  deputed  to  conduct  Shahzada  Timur  to  Kabul  via 
Peshawar,  while  his  father  Shah  Shuja  was  escorted  thither  by  the 
army  of  the  Indus  via  the  Bolan  Pass  and  Kandahar. 

During  the  first  Afghan  War  the  Khyber  was  the  scene  of  many 
skirmishes  with  the  Afrldis  and  of  some  disasters  to  our  troops. 
Captain  Wade,  with  from  10,000  to  11,000  of  all  arms,  including  the 
Sikh  contingent,  moved  from  Jamrud  on  July  22,  1839,  to  Gagri ; 
here  he  halted  a  day  and  entrenched  his  position ;  on  July  24  he 
again  marched  to  Lala  China;  on  the  25th  he  moved  to  the  attack 
of  All  Masjid,  sending  a  column  of  600  men  and  2  guns,  under 
Lieutenant  Mackeson,  to  the  right,  and  n  companies  of  infantry, 
one  6-pounder  gun,  and  one  howitzer  to  the  left,  while  below  a  column 
was  placed  to  watch  the  mouth  of  Shadi  Bagadi  gorge.  Both  columns 
drove  the  enemy  before  them,  the  right  meeting  with  some  opposition, 
and  the  left  getting  into  a  position  to  shell  the  fort.     On  the  26th  all 


KHYBER  301 

the  enemy's  outposts  were  driven  in,  and  on  the  27th  they  evacuated 
the  fort.  The  enemy  had  509  jazaikhis,  or  musket-men,  and  were 
supported  by  several  hundred  Afridis.  The  British  loss  was  22 
killed  and  158  wounded.     After  this  there  was  no  further  opposition. 

A  strong  post  was  left  in  All  Masjid  and  a  detachment  near  Lala 
China  to  maintain  communication  with  Peshawar,  and  a  post  of 
irregulars  under  Lieutenant  Mackeson  was  placed  near  Dakka.  The 
post  near  Lala  China  was  attacked  during  the  operations.  It  was 
garrisoned  by  Yusufzai  auxiliaries,  whose  numbers  had  been  thinned 
and  the  survivors  worn  down  by  continued  sickness,  when  the  Afridis, 
estimated  at  6,000  strong,  attacked  their  breastwork.  They  were  long 
kept  at  bay,  but  the  marauders  were  animated  by  the  lust  of  plunder, 
and  persevered  in  their  attacks.  They  were  aware  that  the  devoted 
garrison  had  recently  received  their  arrears  of  pay,  and  that  a  sum  of 
Rs.  12,000  was  buried  on  the  spot.  Finally,  they  carried  the  weak 
fieldwork,  and  put  to  the  sword  400  of  its  defenders.  They  did  not 
keep  possession  of  it,  but,  after  repeating  their  vain  attempts  on  All 
Masjid  and  the  posts  in  the  valley,  retired  to  their  mountains. 

When  Jalalabad  was  blockaded,  it  was  proposed  to  send  a  force 
through  the  Khyber  to  its  relief,  and  as  a  preliminary  measure  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Moseley  was  detached  to  occupy  All  Masjid  with  two 
regiments  of  native  infantry.  He  marched  on  the  night  of  January  15, 
1842,  and  reached  the  place  with  little  opposition  the  next  morning. 
Through  some  mismanagement,  however,  only  a  portion  of  the  pro- 
visions requisite  for  the  two  regiments  accompanied  them.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  to  forward  the  residue  without  delay ;  and  Briga- 
dier Wilde  advanced  from  Jamrud  with  the  remaining  two  regiments 
(the  60th  and  30th  Native  Infantry)  and  4  Sikh  guns.  But  the  appear- 
ance of  Colonel  Moseley's  detachment  had  alarmed  the  Afridis,  who 
now  rose  and,  closing  the  pass,  prepared  to  resist  Brigadier  Wilde's 
entrance.  The  brigadier  nevertheless  pushed  onwards  on  January  19, 
and  encountered  the  enemy  at  the  mouth  of  the  pass  ;  but,  owing 
to  the  uselessness  of  the  Sikh  guns  and  the  inadequacy  of  his  force 
with  so  powerful  a  body  of  the  enemy  advantageously  placed  in  his 
front,  his  attempt  to  reach  All  Masjid  totally  failed.  The  situation  of 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Moseley,  shut  up  in  All  Masjid,  with  scarcely  any 
provisions,  now  became  desperate ;  but  he  was  successful  in  forcing 
his  way  back  to  Jamrud. 

The  next  occasion  on  which  the  Khyber  was  used  as  a  great  military 
road  was  when  General  Pollock  advanced  on  April  6,  1842.  On  his 
return  to  India  the  British  army  marched  through  the  Khyber  in  three 
divisions.  The  first,  under  General  Pollock,  passed  through  with  no 
loss.  The  second,  under  General  M'Caskill,  was  not  equally  fortunate. 
One  brigade  being  overtaken  by  night  left  two  mountain-train  guns 

u  2 


302  -     KHYBER 

with  the  rear-guard,  which  was  suddenly  attacked,  and  the  guns  were 
taken,  but  recovered  next  day.  The  rear-guard  of  General  Nott's  force 
was  also  attacked  on  November  5  and  6  between  Landi  Khana  and 
Lalabagh,  and  again  on  leaving  All  Masjid. 

It  was  at  All  Masjid  in  1878  that  Sir  Neville  Chamberlain's  friendly 
mission  to  the  Amir  Sher  Air  Khan  was  stopped  and  repelled  with 
threats.  An  ultimatum  was  therefore  handed  to  the  Amir's  general,  Faiz 
Muhammad,  in  All  Masjid;  and  the  day  specified  having  passed  without 
the  return  of  an  answer,  Afghanistan  was  invaded  by  three  British 
columns,  one  of  which  started  from  Jamrud  at  the  mouth  of  the  Khyber. 

On  the  second  day  of  the  campaign  the  fortress  of  All  Masjid  was 
brilliantly  captured  by  the  British  troops  under  General  Browne.  The 
successful  passage  of  the  Khyber,  and  the  unopposed  occupation,  first 
of  Dakka  at  the  western  mouth  of  the  pass,  and  then  of  Jalalabad  in 
the  plains  beyond,  immediately  followed.  The  treaty  which  closed  the 
war  in  May,  1879,  ^ft  the  Khyber  tribes  for  the  future  under  British 
control.  From  that  date  the  history  of  the  Khyber  Pass  is  bound  up 
with  that  of  the  Khyber  Political  Agency,  which  includes  Mullagori 
country  north  of  the  Khyber,  Tlrah  of  the  Afridis,  and  the  country  on 
both  sides  of  the  Khyber  Pass.  None  of  it  is  administered,  but  the  pass 
is  kept  open  and  is  picketed  twice  a  week  for  the  passage  of  caravans. 

The  Khyber  Political  Agency  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Kabul 
river  and  the  Safed  Koh  ;  on  the  east  by  Peshawar  District ;  on  the 
south  by  the  Aka  Khel  and  Orakzai  countries ;  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Chamkanni  and  Masuzai  countries,  and  the  Safed  Koh.  The  Khyber 
Pass  between  Jamrud  and  Landi  Kotal  originally  belonged  to  the  Shin- 
waris,  Zakka  Khel,  Kuki  Khel,  and  the  Orakzai  only.  At  the  time 
of  the  extension  of  Sikh  rule  to  Jamrud  the  Orakzai  were  ousted  by  the 
Afridis,  and  the  only  trace  of  their  presence  is  a  ruined  village  near 
Jam.  The  Sikh  rule  never  extended  beyond  Jamrud.  When  Captain 
Mackeson  was  negotiating  with  the  Afridis  in  1840,  the  Malikdln 
Khel  Maliks  of  Chora  forced  their  wray  between  the  Zakka  Khel  and 
Kuki  Khel,  and  established  a  small  village  at  Katta  Kushta  near  All 
Masjid.  The  Sipah  Kambar  Khel  and  Kamrai  Khel  also,  seeing  the 
advantages  of  a  footing  in  the  Khyber,  stepped  in,  and  were  admitted 
to  a  share  in  the  Khyber  allowance. 

After  the  Sikh  War  the  Afridis  took  service  in  large  numbers  in  the 
Indian  army,  and  when  the  Mutiny  of  1857  broke  out  they  did  exceed- 
ingly well.  From  1857  to  1878  the  Afridis  were  subsidized  by  the 
Afghan  government,  who-  kept  a  garrison  of  Afghan  troops  at  All 
Masjid.  The  Afridis  were,  however,  never  on  good  terms  with  the 
Afghans.  They  very  often  visited  the  British  officers  of  Peshawar 
District ;  but  relations  with  them  were  maintained  through  the  KhaliL 
and  Mohmand  Arbabs  of  Peshawar  District,  who  were  generally  of  an 


KHYBER  303 

intriguing  disposition,  and  very  seldom  did  any  real  service.  Their 
main  object  was  to  keep  those  tribes  in  a  state  of  unrest,  and  thus 
enhance  their  own  importance.  A  year  or  two  before  the  second 
Afghan  War  Amir  Sher  All  summoned  the  jirgas  of  all  the  Afrldis 
and  Shinwaris,  and  distributed  about  5-,ooo  rifles  among  them.  When 
war  broke  out,  and  All  Masjid  was  attacked  and  turned,  the  Afghans 
and  Afrldis  fled  in  great  disorder,  and  the  Afghans  were  robbed  of  their 
clothes  and  rifles  by  the  Afrldis  in  the  Khyber  and  in  Bazar.  The 
Afrldis,  and  especially  the  Bazar  Zakka  Khel,  subsequently  harassed 
the  passage  of  the  British  troops  through  the  Khyber,  and  a  force  was 
sent  against  them  in  December,  1878. 

By  the  Gandamak  Treaty  of  1879  between  the  British  and  Amir 
Yakub  Khan,  it  was  agreed  that  the  British  Government  should  retain 
the  control  of  the  Khyber  Pass ;  and,  in  pursuance  of  this  agreement, 
allowances  were  fixed  for  the  Afrldis,  aggregating  Rs.  87,540  per 
annum.  The  management  of  the  pass  was  entrusted  to  the  tribesmen 
themselves  through  their  ma/iks,  who  executed  a  formal  agreement  by 
which  they  undertook  to  guard  it  with  their  tribesmen.  Some  local 
levies  called  jazailchis  (which  afterwards  became  the  Khyber  Rifles\ 
numbering  about  400  men,  were  also  raised  for  escorting  caravans 
through  the  Khyber.     These  were  eventually  increased  to  600  strong. 

In  1897  disturbances  broke  out  all  along  the  frontier.  The  Afrldis 
remained  quiet  for  some  time,  but  in  August  they  attacked  the  Khyber 
posts  and  sacked  the  fortified  sarai  at  Landi  Kotal.  They  met  with 
opposition  from  the  Khyber  Rifles,  but  the  garrison  could  not  hold  out 
owing  to  want  of  water.  To  punish  the  Afrldis  for  this  violation  of 
their  engagements,  a  force  was  sent  into  Tirah  under  Sir  W.  Lockhart, 
and  a  fine  of  Rs.  50,000  and  800  breech-loading  rifles  was  recovered 
from  them  by  April,  1898.  In  October  of  the  same  year  a  fresh  settle- 
ment was  made  with  the  Afrldis,  by  which  they  undertook  to  have  no 
intercourse  with  any  power  except  the  British,  and  to  raise  no  objection 
to  the  construction  of  railways  or  roads  through  the  Khyber.  On  these 
conditions  the  allowances  were  restored,  with  a  small  increase  of 
Rs.  250  for  the  Kambar  Khel.  The  Khyber  Rifles  were  augmented 
to  two  battalions  of  600  each,  50  of  the  total  being  mounted,  and  were 
placed  under  British  officers. 

The  chief  subdivisions  of  the  Afrldi  tribe  are  as  follows  : — 

Section.  Habitat.  Strength  {estimated}. 

I    4,500  fighting  men. 
600 

Kuki  Khel  .     .  j  Jjyarsjid;  Tan;rad 

Malik  Din  Khel      .        Mardan     . 

Sepaiah  (Sipah)      .        Bara  Valley  and  Kajuri  Flain 


T,      1       T-i-  i  (  Maidan,  Bara  Vallev  . 

Kambar  Khel         .  r  --j  v.11. 

(  Kajun  Valley     . 

Kamrai  .         .  Bara  Valley 


4,000 

5,000 
1,200 


Zakka  Khel    .         .       Khyber,  Bazar,  and  Bara  Valley       4.500 


304  KHYRIM 

Khyrim  (Khairam  or  Nongkhrem). — Petty  State  in  the  Khasi  Hills, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  The  population  in  1901  was  31,327,  and 
the  gross  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  12,161.  The  principal  products  are 
potatoes,  rice,  millet,  maize,  lac,  oranges,  and  cotton  ;  and  the  chief 
manufactures,  silk,  cloth,  and  iron  hoes  and  billhooks.  Deposits  of 
lime,  coal,  and  iron  exist  in  the  State,  but  they  are  not  worked. 

Kiamari. — -Formerly  an  island,  now  owing  to  the  action  of  sand- 
drifts  a  portion  of  the  mainland  on  the  farther  side  of  Karachi  harbour, 
Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  240  49'  N.  and  670  2'  E.,  and  forming  one 
of  the  municipal  quarters  of  Karachi  City,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  tramway  road  called  the  Napier  Mole,  3  miles  long,  constructed  in 
1854  by  the  North-Western  Railway.  Kiamari  is  the  landing-place  for 
passengers  and  goods  destined  for  Karachi  or  dispatch  up-country,  and 
contains  the  Merewether  Pier,  called  after  a  former  Commissioner  in 
Sind,  the  foundation-stone  of  which  was  laid  by  Lord  Ripon  in  1880, 
the  Erskine  Wharf,  the  James  Wharf,  and  an  oil  pier.  There  are  here 
a  commissariat  store,  a  customs  house,  a  dispensary,  &c.  Kiamari  is 
a  station  on  the  North-Western  Railway. 

Kichhaunchha  (or  Ashrafpur-Kichhaunchha). — Town  in  the  Tanda 
tahsll  of  Fyzabad  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  260  25'  N.  and 
820  47'  E.,  on  the  bank  of  a  small  stream  called  the  Tonri.  Population 
(1901),  2,325.  This  place,  with  the  neighbouring  villages  of  Bashkari 
and  Rasulpur,  is  celebrated  as  having  belonged  to  a  famous  saint, 
named  Makhdum  Ashraf,  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth  century,  or  to 
his  descendants,  who  received  rent-free  grants  from  the  Mughal  em- 
perors. The  saint's  tomb  is  built  on  rising  ground  in  the  village  of 
Rasulpur,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by  pilgrims,  especially  in  the  month 
of  Aghan  (November-December).  A  visit  is  believed  to  be  very  effi- 
cacious for  persons  possessed  by  devils.  Kichhaunchha  is  admin- 
istered under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  Rs.  300.  A  school 
has  95  pupils. 

Kidderpore. — A  quarter  of  Calcutta  containing  the  docks.  See 
Calcutta. 

Kiggatnad. — Southern  taluk  of  Coorg,  Southern  India,  lying  be- 
tween n°  56'  and  120  18'  N.  and  750  50"  and  760  12'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  410  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  37,235,  compared  with 
31,230  in  1891.  The  taluk  contains  68  villages,  of  which  Ponnampet 
is  the  head-quarters.  The  west  rests  upon  the  Western  Ghats,  covered 
with  evergreen  forest ;  the  south  is  bounded  by  the  Brahmagiri  or 
Marenad  range,  from  which  ridges  of  hills  branch  off  throughout  the 
taluk  ;  the  east  is  a  continuous  stretch  of  deciduous  forest,  through 
which  flows  the  LakshmantTrtha. 

Kila  Didar  Singh. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahsll  of  Gujranwala, 
Punjab,  situated  in  32°  7'  N.  and  74°  5'  E.,  10  miles  south-west  of 


KILIMANUR  305 

Gujranwala  town,  on  the  road  to  Hafizabad.  Population  (1901),  2,705. 
The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  2,900,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  2,800. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  2,800,  chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  3,000. 

Kilakarai. — Seaport  in  the  Ramnad  tahsil  of  the  Ramnad  estate, 
Madura  District,  Madras,  situated  in  90  14'  N.  and  780  48'  E.,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar,  ro  miles  south  of  Ramnad  town,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  wide  morass,  all  but  impassable  in  the  rainy  season.  It 
is  an  untidy  and  dreary  looking  town,  surrounded  by  sandy  wastes  and 
a  little  low  scrub.  The  population  (11,078  in  1901)  consists  mainly 
of  Labbais,  a  Musalman  trading  community.  Its  commerce,  which 
is  chiefly  in  grain,  is  carried  on  mainly  with  Cocanada  and  Ceylon. 
The  Labbais  are  experts  in  diving  for  sanhh-sheWs  (Ttirbinella  rapa), 
which  are  obtained  principally  opposite  Devipatam,  Tirupalakudi,  and 
Rameswaram. 

Kila  Saifulla. —  Tahsil  of  the  Upper  Zhob  subdivision  of  the 
Zhob  District,  Baluchistan,  situated  between  300  32'  and  310  43'  N. 
and  68°  9'  and  690  18'  E.  It  lies  along  the  central  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  Zhob  river,  and  also  includes  part  of  the  Toba-Kakar 
range  known  as  Kakar  Khorasan.  Its  area  is  2,768  square  miles,  and 
population  (1901)  19,229.  The  land  revenue,  including  grazing  tax, 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  44,000.  The  head-quarters  station  is  Kila 
Saifulla,  and  the  tahsil  contains  60  villages.  The  majority  of  the 
people  are  Sanzar  Khel  Kakars,  who  combine  flock-owning  with  agri- 
culture. They  cultivate  considerable  '  rains-crop '  areas.  The  Jogizais, 
once  the  ruling  family  in  Zhob,  live  in  this  tahsil.  Earth-salt  is  manu- 
factured, and  traces  of  coal  have  been  found.  A  small  trade  is  done  in 
fox-skins. 

Kila  Sobha  Singh. — Town  in  the  Pasrur  tahsil  of  Sialkot  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  320  14'  N.  and  740  46'  E.,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Dengh  torrent.  Population  (1901),  3,338.  It  was  founded  in  the 
eighteenth  century  by  the  Sikh  chief  Bhag  Singh,  Ahluwiilia,  who  built 
a  fort  here  and  called  it  after  his  son  Sobha  Singh.  It  contains  a 
colony  of  Kashmiri  weavers  who  weave  pashmlna  shawls.  Vessels  of 
white  metal  are  also  made,  but  both  industries  have  much  decayed  of 
late  years.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  and 
expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  3,900. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  1,400,  chiefly  from  octroi;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  3,700.  A  vernacular  middle  school  is  maintained 
by  the  District  board. 

Kilimanur. — An  idavagay,  or  petty  principality,  in  the  Chirayinkll 
taluk  of  Travancore  State,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  46'  N.  and  760  52'  E. 
Population  (1901),  3,053.     It  is  a  freehold  estate  belonging  to  the  Koil 


306  KILIMANUR 

Tampurans,  who  are  allied  by  marriage  to  the  Ranis  of  Travancore  and 
thus  to  the  reigning  family.  The  estate  was  granted  about  1728,  in 
recognition  of  the  bravery  with  which  a  Koil  Tampuran  saved  a  Rani 
and  heir  apparent  to  the  throne  of  Travancore  from  their  enemies. 

Kiling. — River  in  Nowgong  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Umiam. 

Kinchinjunga  (Kanchenjunga). — A  mountain,  second  only  to  Everest 
in  elevation,  situated  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas,  on  the  Sikkim-Nepal 
boundary  (270  42'  N.,  88°  9'  E.),  its  summit  attaining  an  altitude  of 
28,146  feet  above  sea-level. 

'  The  geological  position  of  Kanchenjunga  is  obviously  in  the  main 
axis  of  the  Himalayas,  although  that  mountain  lies  considerably  to  the 
south  of  the  line  of  water-parting  between  the  Tibetan  plateau  and 
India,  and  on  a  spur  which  runs  at  right  angles  to  this  line,  so  that 
even  the  drainage  of  its  northern  slopes  flows  directly  down  into  the 
Indian  plains.  .  .  .  The  name  Kanchenjunga  is  Tibetan,  and  means, 
literally,  "  The  Five  Repositories  of  the  Great  Glaciers,"  and  it  is  phy- 
sically descriptive  of  its  five  peaks.  .  .  .  The  Lepcha  name  of  this 
mountain  is  Kong-lo-chu,  or  "The  Highest  Screen  or  Curtain  of 
Snows.'"     (Waddell,  Amojig  the  Himalayas,  1899.) 

Kindat  Subdivision. — Central  subdivision  of  the  Upper  Chin- 
dwin  District,  Upper  Burma,  containing  the  Kindat  and  Tamu 
townships. 

Kindat  Township. — Central  township  of  the  Upper  Chindwin 
District,  Upper  Burma,  stretching  across  the  Chindwin  river  from  the 
Yoma  in  the  west  to  Shwebo  District  in  the  east,  between  230  25'  and 
230  58'  N.  and  940  18'  and  950  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,715  square 
miles.  It  is  covered  with  forest,  thinly  populated,  and,  except  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Chindwin,  hilly.  The  population  was 
11,429  in  1891,  and  13,946  in  1901,  distributed  in  117  villages  and  one 
town,  Kindat  (population,  2,417),  the  head-quarters.  The  area  culti- 
vated in  1 903-4  was  2 1  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thatha- 
meda  amounted  to  Rs.  42,000. 

Kindat  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  Upper  Chindwin  District, 
Upper  Burma,  situated  in  230  44'  N.  and  940  26'  E.,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Chindwin  river,  about  200  miles  from  the  point  at  which  that 
stream  flows  into  the  Irrawaddy.  Population  (1901),  2,417.  The 
town  is  well  wooded,  but  low-lying  and  in  many  ways  unfavourably 
situated,  as  in  the  dry  season  it  is  separated  by  a  wide  expanse  of  sand 
from  the  river  channel  and  the  steamer  ghat,  and  during  the  rains  it 
occupies  a  narrow  strip  of  land  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  stream  and 
on  the  other  by  a  large  jhil  and  swampy  ground.  It  is  faced  across 
the  stream  by  low  wooded  hills,  but  on  its  own  side  of  the  river  the 
immediate  surroundings  are  flat  and  uninteresting.     The  native  quarter 


KIR  AOL  I  307 

stretches  for  some  distance  along  the  bank  ;  the  civil  station  lies  at  its 
northern  end ;  the  jail  occupies  the  farther  end  of  the  civil  station,  and 
the  military  police  lines  are  located  to  the  north  again  of  the  jail. 
The  civil  station,  which  is  protected  by  embankments  from  the  en- 
croachment of  the  river  on  one  side  and  of  the  jhll  on  the  other, 
contains  the  District  court  and  circuit  house,  the  residences  of  the  local 
officials,  and  the  club.  The  civil  hospital  and  the  post  and  telegraph 
offices  are  in  the  native  quarter.  Kindat  was  a  frontier  post  of  some 
importance  in  Burmese  times,  but  has  never  succeeded  in  attracting 
much  trade,  and  is  still  nothing  more  than  a  village.  The  hospital 
contains  16  beds,  and  there  is  a  small  Anglo-vernacular  school. 
Kindat  is  not  a  municipality,  and  can  boast  of  little  in  the  way  of 
roads  or  other  public  improvements. 

Kinu. — Eastern  township  of  Shwebo  District,  Upper  Burma,  extending 
from  the  Irrawaddy  to  the  Mu  river,  between  220  38'  and  220  55'  N.  and 
950  27'  and  960  o'  E.,  with  an  area  of  244  square  miles.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  a  level  plain,  with  a  low  rainfall.  The  population  was  28,107 
in  1891,  and  31,499  in  1901,  distributed  in  120  villages,  Kinu  (popula- 
tion, 2,223),  about  12  miles  north  of  Shwebo  on  the  railway,  being  the 
head-quarters.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  39  square  miles, 
and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  75,900. 

Kinwat. — Taluk  in  Adilabad  District,  Hyderabad  State,  constituted 
in  1905  out  of  the  northern  villages  of  the  former  Narsapur  and  Nirmal 
taluks.     The  head-quarters  are  at  Kinwat  (population,  1,514). 

Kirakat.— Eastern  tahsil  of  Jaunpur  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parga?ias  of  Daryapar  and  Bialsl  and  tappas  Chandwak, 
Pisara,  and  Guzara,  and  lying  between  250  32'  and  250  46'  N.  and 
820  47'  and  830  5'  E.,  with  an  area  of  244  square  miles.  Population 
fell  from  201,546  in  1891  to  187,128  in  1901.  There  are  455  villages 
and  only  one  town,  Kirakat  (population,  3,355),  the  tahsil  head-quarters. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903—4  was  Rs.  180,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  36,000.  The  density  of  population,  767  persons  per  square 
mile,  is  almost  equal  to  the  District  average.  Kirakat  is  bisected  by 
the  Gumtl,  which  flows  from  north-west  to  south-east  in  a  very  winding 
course.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  161  square  miles, 
of  which  95  were  irrigated.  There  are  few  tanks  or  Jhlls,  and  irrigation 
is  supplied  almost  exclusively  by  wells. 

Kiraoli. — North-western  tahsil  of  Agra  District,  United  Provinces, 
conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  Fatehpur  Sikri,  lying  between  270  o' 
and  2 70  17''  N.  and  770  30'  and  770  55'  E.,  with  an  area  of  272  square 
miles.  Population  increased  from  106,977  in  1891  to  123,812  in  1901. 
There  are  171  villages  and  two  towns,  Fatehpur  Sikri  (population, 
7,147)  and  Achhnera  (5,375).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  2,51,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  31,000.     The  density  of 


3oS  KIRAOLI 

population,  455  persons  per  square  mile,  is  below  the  District  average. 
The  Utangan  flows  close  to  the  southern  border,  while  the  Kharl  Nadi 
crosses  the  centre.  The  eastern  portion  is  level,  but  in  the  western 
half  there  are  hills,  the  most  important  being  the  range  on  which  the 
town  of  Fatehpur  Slkri  stands.  A  much  shorter  and  lower  range  of 
hills  runs  parallel  to  this,  north  of  the  Kharl  Nadi.  Both  ranges  consist 
of  red  sandstone.  The  area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  210 
square  miles,  of  which  67  were  irrigated.  About  one-third  of  the 
irrigated  area  is  served  by  the  Agra  Canal,  and  extensions  are  con- 
templated. Wells  supply  the  rest,  but  in  many  parts  the  water  is  so 
brackish  that  without  good  rains  it  cannot  be  used. 

Kiratpur. — Town  in  the  Najibabad  tahsll  of  Bijnor  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  290  30'  N.  and  780  13'  E.,  10  miles  north  of 
Bijnor  town.  Population  (1901),  15,051.  There  are  two  quarters 
of  the  town,  Kiratpur  Khas  and  Basl.  The  former  was  founded  in 
the  fifteenth  century  during  the  reign  of  Bahlol  LodI,  and  the  latter 
in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Pathans,  who  built  a  fort.  The  walls  are 
still  standing  near  the  gateway,  and  within  is  a  handsome  mosque. 
Kiratpur  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of 
about  Rs.  3,600.  Trade  is  insignificant,  but  lacquered  chairs  and 
boxes  are  made.  The  District  board  school  has  112  pupils,  and  six 
aided  schools  216  pupils.  The  American  Methodist  Mission  has 
a  branch  here. 

Kirkee  {Kirki  or  Khadki).— Town  in  the  Haveli  taluka  of  Poona 
District,  Bombay,  situated  in  180  34'  N.  and  730  51/  E.,  on  the  south- 
east branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  116  miles  south- 
east of  Bombay  and  4  north-west  of  Poona  city.  Population  (1901), 
10,797.  On  November  5,  181 7,  the  first  of  three  battles  which  led  to 
the  collapse  of  the  Maratha  power  was  fought  near  Kirkee,  then  a  mere 
village.  The  British  force  under  Colonel  Burr  was  2,800  strong,  of 
whom  800  were  Europeans.  The  Peshwa's  force  under  Bapu  Gokhale 
numbered  18,000  horse  and  8,000  foot,  with  an  immense  train  of 
ordnance.  The  Peshwa  Baji  Rao  witnessed  the  battle  and  his  own 
defeat  from  Parbati  hill,  one  mile  south  of  Poona.  Kirkee  is  the 
principal  artillery  station  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  four  field  batteries 
being  quartered  here.  It  contains  an  arms  and  ammunition  factory, 
employing  about  2,000  operatives.  The  average  income  of  the  canton- 
ment fund  during  the  decade  ending  1901  was  Rs.  22,000.  In  1903-4 
it  was  Rs.  28,000,  and  the  expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  22,000.  The 
town  contains  an  English  school.  A  branch  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  stationed  here,  carries  on  evangelistic  work  in  the  taluka. 

Kirli. — Petty  State  in  the  Dangs,  Bombay. 

Kirthar  Range. — Mountain  range  forming  the  boundary  between 
Sind  and  the  Jhalawan  country  in  Baluchistan,  between  2 6°  13'  and 


KISHANGANJ  TOWN  309 

280  36'  N.  and  670  11/  and  670  40'  E.  From  the  point  where  the 
Mula  river  debouches  into  the  Kachhi  plain,  the  range  runs  almost 
due  south  for  a  distance  of  190  miles  in  a  series  of  parallel  ridges  of 
bare  rocky  hills.  At  intervals  similar  ranges  run  athwart  them.  The 
offshoots  tail  off  south-eastwards  into  Karachi  District,  but  a  single  line 
of  low  hills  extends  as  far  as  Cape  Monze.  The  greatest  breadth  is 
about  60  miles.  The  highest  point  is  the  Zardak  peak  (7,430  feet), 
and  another  fine  peak  is  the  Kuta-ka-kabar,  or  Kuta-jo-kabar,  i.  e.  '  the 
dog's  tomb'  (6,878  feet).  The  principal  offshoot  is  the  Lakhi  range. 
The  Kirthar  hills  are  pierced  by  the  Kolachi  or  Gaj  river  in  a  fine 
gorge,  and  the  chief  passes  are  known  as  the  Harbab,  Phusi,  Rohel, 
and  Garre.  These  hills  give  their  name  to  the  Kirthar  geological  group 
of  Nummulitic  limestone,  which  is  found  on  their  crests,  overlaid  by 
Tertiary  rocks  of  Nari  and  Gaj  beds,  the  former  being  soft  sandstone 
and  the  latter  a  hard  dark-brown  limestone  exposed  on  the  Gaj  river. 
The  tribes  residing  in  the  Kirthar  are  the  Marri  and  Jamali  Baloch, 
Jamot  and  Chuta  Jats,  and  some  Khidrani  and  Sassoli  Brahuis.  They 
subsist  chiefly  by  tending  flocks,  and  by  exporting  the  dwarf- 
palm  (Namwrhops  Ritchieand).  Sind  ibex  and  mountain  sheep  are 
fairly  plentiful,  and  both  black  bears  and  leopards  are  occasionally 
met  with. 

Kishanganj  Subdivision. — North-eastern  subdivision  of  Purnea 
District,  Bengal,  bordering  on  Nepal  and  lying  between  250  54'  and 
260  35'  N.  and  870  37'  and  88°  32'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,346  square 
miles.  The  subdivision  is  a  fertile  alluvial  tract  stretching  southwards 
from  the  Nepal  tarai.  The  population  in  1901  was  619,476,  compared 
with  651,039  in  1 89 1.  It  contains  one  town,  Kishanganj  (population, 
7,671),  the  head-quarters;  and  1,227  villages.  The  public  offices  are 
at  present  situated  at  the  village  of  Bhariadangi,  4  miles  north-west 
of  the  town ;  but  the  courts  will  shortly  be  removed  to  Kishanganj 
town,  where  buildings  are  under  construction.  The  subdivision  is 
the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  District,  and  is  more  densely  populated 
than  the  rest,  supporting  460  persons  to  the  square  mile.  It  is  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  North  Bengal  than  to 
Bihar,  and  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Rajbansi  (Koch) 
origin,  though  most  of  them  are  now  converts  to  Islam.  The  chief 
markets  are  at  Kishanganj  town,  Phulbaria,  Bibfganj,  Gandharbdanga, 
and  Islampur. 

Kishanganj  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name  in  Purnea  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  260  7'  N.  and  870 
56'  E.,  on  the  Ganges-Darjeeling  road,  east  of  the  Mahananda  river. 
Population  (1901),  7,671.  Kishanganj  is  a  large  exporting  centre 
for  rice  and  jute.  It  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1887.  The  in- 
come during  the  decade  ending  1 901-2  averaged  Rs.  7,500,  and  the 


310  KISHANGANJ  TOWN 

expenditure  Rs.  6,800.  In  1903-4  the  income,  which  is  mainly  derived 
from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax),  was  Rs.  12,000,  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  8,ooo.  The  public  offices  are  at  present  situated 
about  4  miles  from  the  town,  but  new  courts  are  being  built  at  Kishan- 
ganj ;  the  sub-jail  has  accommodation  for  23  prisoners.  The  town 
contains  the  head  office  of  the  Khagra  Ward's  estate;  a  great  fair  is 
held  annually  under  the  auspices  of  the  estate,  which  is  attended  by 
some  100,000  persons.  A  great  number  of  elephants,  camels,  ponies, 
sheep,  and  cattle  are  sold,  and  much  general  merchandise  changes 
hands ;  the  camels  are  in  great  demand  for  sacrifice  by  Musalmans 
at  the  Bakr-Id  festival.  Cart-wheels  are  largely  manufactured  in  the 
neighbouring  village  of  Chakla,  which  are  used  throughout  the  District 
and  are  also  exported. 

Kishangarh  State. — A  State  lying  almost  in  the  centre  of  Rajpu- 
tana,  between  250  49/  and  260  59'  N.  and  700  40'  and  750  11'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  858  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north- 
west by  Jodhpur ;  on  the  east  by  Jaipur ;  on  the  west  and  south-east  by 
the  British  District  of  Ajmer;  and  on  the  extreme  south  by  the  Shah- 
pura  chiefship.  Leaving  out  of  account  five  small 
ascect^  isolated  patches  which  contain  but  a  village  or  two 

each,  the  territory  consists  of  two  narrow  strips  of 
land,  separated  from  each  other,  which  together  are  about  80  miles  in 
length  from  north  to  south,  and  have  a  breadth  varying  from  20  miles  in 
the  centre  to  about  2  at  the  southern  extremity.  The  northern  and 
larger  of  these  two  tracts  is  for  the  most  part  sandy,  and  is  crossed  by 
three  parallel  ranges  of  hills,  running  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
which  form  part  of  the  Aravallis,  the  highest  peak  being  2,045  ^eet 
above  the  sea ;  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  is  generally  flat  and 
fertile.  A  few  streams  contain  water  during,  and  immediately  after, 
the  rains.  The  Rupnagar,  after  a  north-easterly  course,  empties  itself 
into  the  Sambhar  Lake,  while  the  Mashi  (with  its  tributary,  the  Sohadra) 
and  the  Dain  flow  east  and  eventually  join  the  Banas. 

The  hill  ranges  and  intervening  valleys  in  the  north  consist  of  an 
ancient  series  of  highly  metamorphosed  sediments  known  as  the 
Aravalli  system,  among  the  varied  strata  of  which  the  crystalline  lime- 
stones constituting  white  and  coloured  marbles  are  especially  valuable. 
The  plain  in  the  south-east  and  south  consists  principally  of  gneiss. 
Numerous  igneous  intrusions  penetrate  this  rock,  and  most  of  them 
are  granitic  pegmatites,  sometimes  with  plates  of  mica  of  marketable 
size.  Near  the  capital  the  intrusions  belong  to  the  exceptional  group 
of  the  eleolite  syenites,  and  are  remarkable  for  containing  an  extraor- 
dinary variety  of  sodalite,  acquiring,  when  kept  in  the  dark  for  some 
weeks,  a  vivid  pink  tinge,  which  disappears  in  a  few  seconds  on  ex- 
posure to  light,  the  mineral  becoming  once  more  colourless  until  again 


KISHANGARH  STA  IE  311 

protected.  Near  Sarvvar  in  the  south  is  a  considerable  outcrop  of  mica 
schists,  containing  an  abundance  of  garnets  remarkable  for  their  size, 
transparency,  and  beautiful  colouring. 

In  addition  to  antelope,  '  ravine  deer '  (gazelle),  and  the  usual  small 
game,  there  are  wild  hog  and  nilgai  {Boselaphus  tragocamehis)  in  the 
northern  and  central  portions  of  the  State,  and  leopards,  hyenas,  and 
occasionally  wolves  in  the  hills. 

The  climate  is  dry  and  healthy,  but  malarious  fevers  are  prevalent  in 
October  and  November.  The  annual  rainfall  at  the  capital  averages 
between  20  and  21  inches,  ranging  from  over  36  inches  in  1892  to 
about  4^  inches  in  1899.  There  is  usually  less  rain  to  the  north  and 
slightly  more  to  the  south  of  the  capital. 

The  chiefs  of  Kishangarh  belong  to  the  Rathor  clan  of  Rajputs,  and 
are  descended  from  Raja  Udai  Singh  of  Jodhpur.  The  latter's  second 
son,  Kishan  Singh,  born  in  1575,  remained  in  the 
country  of  his  birth  till  1596,  when,  in  consequence 
of  some  disagreement  with  his  elder  brother,  Sur  Singh,  then  Raja  of 
Jodhpur,  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Ajmer.  Obtaining  an  introduction  to 
Akbar,  he  received  from  him  the  district  of  Hindaun,  now  in  Jaipur;  and 
subsequently,  for  services  rendered  in  recovering  imperial  treasure  car- 
ried off  by  the  Mers,  he  obtained  a  grant  of  Setholao  and  certain  other 
districts.  In  16 11  he  founded  the  town  of  Kishangarh  close  to  Setholao, 
which  is  now  in  ruins,  and  from  that  time  the  State  began  to  be  called  by 
its  present  name.  In  Akbar's  time  Kishan  Singh  was  styled  Raja,  but 
according  to  the  State  records  JahangTr  gave  him  the  title  of  Maharaja. 
He  died  in  16 15  and  has  been  followed  by  sixteen  successors.  The 
fourth  of  these,  Rup  Singh  (1644-58),  was  a  favourite  of  the  emperor 
Shah  Jahan,  for  whom  he  fought  well  and  gained  several  victories.  He 
thrice  accompanied  an  expedition  to  Afghanistan,  and  was  rewarded 
with  a  command  of  5,000  and  several  estates,  including  the  fort  and 
district  of  Mandalgarh,  now  in  Udaipur.  Raj  Singh,  the  seventh  chief 
of  Kishangarh  (1706-48),  fought  in  the  battle  of  Jajau  on  the  side  of 
Shah  Alam  Bahadur  Shah  against  Azam  Shah,  and  was  wounded ;  he 
received  a  grant  of  the  districts  of  Sarwar  and  Malpura,  the  latter  of 
which  now  belongs  to  Jaipur.  His  successor,  Sawant  Singh,  gave  half 
the  State  to  his  younger  brother,  Bahadur  Singh,  and  himself  ruled  at 
Rupnagar  in  the  north.  He  was  a  religious  recluse,  and  soon  retired 
to  Brindaban,  where  he  died  in  1764.  His  son,  Sardar  Singh,  ruled 
for  two  years  only;  and,  his  successor  being  a  minor,  Bahadur  Singh 
actually  governed  the  whole  territory  till  his  death  in  1781. 

The  thirteenth  chief  was  Kalyan  Singh  (1797-1832),  and  in  his  time 
(1818)  Kishangarh  was  brought  under  British  protection.  He  soon 
began  to  behave  in  a  manner  which  argued  either  insanity  or  a  total 
absence  of  principle.     Becoming  involved  in  disputes  with  his  nobles, 


3i2  KISHANGARH  STATE 

he  fled  to  Delhi,  where  he  busied  himself  in  buying  honorary  privileges 
from  the  titular  sovereign,  such  as  the  right  to  wear  stockings  in  the 
royal  presence.      Meanwhile  affairs  grew  worse  at   Kishangarh,  and, 
British  territory  having  been  violated  by  the  disputants,  the  leaders  of 
both  parties  were  called  upon  to  desist  from  hostilities  and  to  refer 
their  grievances  to  the  mediation  of  the  Government.     The  Maharaja 
was  at  the  same  time  warned  that,  if  he  did  not  return  to  his  capital 
and  interest  himself  in  the  affairs  of  his  State,  the  treaty  with  him  would 
be  abrogated,  and  engagements  formed  with  the  insurgent  Thakurs. 
This  threat  brought  Kalyan  Singh  back  to  Kishangarh,  but,  finding 
himself  unable  to  govern  the  State,  he  offered  to  lease  it  to  Govern- 
ment.    This  offer  was  refused,  and  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ajmer. 
The  nobles  then  proclaimed  the  heir  apparent  as  Maharaja,  and  laid 
siege  to  the  capital,  which  they  were  on  the  point  of  capturing  when 
Kalyan  Singh  accepted  the  mediation  of  the  Political  Agent,  through 
whom  matters  were  for  the  time  adjusted.     The  reconciliation  with  the 
nobles,  however,  did  not  prove  sincere,  and  in   1832  Kalyan    Singh 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  Mohkam  Singh.     The  latter  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1840  by  his  adopted  son,  Prithwi  Singh,  who  carried  on  the 
administration  with  prudence  and  more  than  average  ability.     In  1867 
a  sum  of  Rs.  20,000  a  year  was  granted  by  the  British  Government  as 
compensation  for  the  loss  of  transit  dues  owing  to  the  introduction  of 
the  railway;  in  1877  he  received  an  addition  of  two  guns  to  his  salute 
for  life  ;  and  in  1879  a  further  sum  of  Rs.  25,000  a  year  was  granted  as 
compensation  for  suppressing  the  manufacture  of  salt  and  abolishing 
customs  duties  of  every  kind  on  all  articles  except  spirits,  opium,  and 
intoxicating  drugs.     Maharaja  Prithwi  Singh  died  in   1879,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Sardul  Singh,  who  continued  the  enlight- 
ened policy  of  his  father.     During  his  rule  many  valuable  reforms  in 
almost  every  department  were  introduced  and  carried  to  a  successful 
issue,  and  in  1892  he  was  created  a  G.C.I.E.     On  his  death  in  1900 
his  only  son,  Madan  Singh,  the  present   Maharaja,  succeeded.     His 
Highness,  who  is  the  seventeenth  chief  of  the  State,  was  born  in  1884, 
was  for  some  time  an  under-officer  in  the  Imperial  Cadet  Corps,  and 
was  invested  with  powers  in  1905.     The  Maharaja  of  Kishangarh  is 
entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns,  and  in  1862  the  usual  sanad  was  granted 
guaranteeing  the  privilege  of  adoption. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  State  in  1901  was  221,  and 
the  population  at  each  of  the  three  enumerations  was  :  (1881)  112,633, 

„      ,    .  (i8qi)   121^16,  and  (1901)  90,970.     The  decrease 

Population.        \     ■        ,      \        \        ,       c  -k  a 

during  the  last  decade  of  over  27  per  cent,  is  ascribed 

to   emigration   during   the   famine   of    1 899-1 900,    and    to    excessive 

mortality  from  fever  in  the  autumn  of  1900.     The  State  is  divided  into 

the  five  districts  or  hukumats  of  Arain,  Bandar  Sindri,   Kishangarh, 


AGRICULTURE 


3*3 


Riipnagar,  and  Sarwar.  The  first  four  form  the  northern  portion  of 
the  territory,  with  an  area  of  650  square  miles,  while  Sarwar  is  the 
detached  tract  on  the  south.  All  the  three  towns  (Kishangarh, 
Rupnagar,  and  Sarwar)  are  municipalities. 

The  following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  area  and  population 
in  1901  : — 


Hnkiimat. 

u 
s 

5f  <» 

-a 

V 
u 

Number  of 

Population. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

C 
O 

H 

HI 

be 
> 

Arain          .... 
Bandar  Sindri  ) 
Kishangarh       \ 
Rupnagar  .... 
Sarwar        .... 

State  total 

196 
260 

194 

208 

I 

I 

I 

5° 
76 

36 
56 

1  7.994 

35.655 
17,409 
19,912 

-  25-8 

-  25-2 

-  29-3 

-  310 

648 

2,230 

642 
682 

858 

3 

218 

90,970 

-  27-5 

4,202 

At  the  Census  of  1901,  Hindus  numbered  79,670,  or  more  than 
87  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Musalmans,  7,169;  and  Jains,  4,081.  The 
majority  of  the  Hindus  are  said  to  be  Vaishnavas,  and  the  religious 
head  of  the  Nimbarak  Sampradaya  (a  sect  of  Vaishnavas)  resides  at 
Sallmabad  in  the  Rupnagar  district.  The  language  mainly  spoken  in 
the  State  is  a  form  of  Dhundarl,  but  in  the  north  many  speak  Marwarl. 

The  most  numerous  caste  is  that  of  the  Jats,  who  number  16,000,  or 
more  than  17  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Next  come  the  Mahajans  (7,600) ; 
the  Brahmans  (7,100);  the  Gujars  (6,100);  and  the  Rajputs  (5,100), 
more  than  half  of  whom  are  of  the  ruling  clan.  The  main  occupation 
of  the  people  is  agriculture ;  nearly  45  per  cent,  live  solely  by  the  land, 
and  there  are  many  others  who  are  partially  agriculturists.  About 
18  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  industries  such  as  cotton-weaving  and 
dyeing,  pottery,  work  in  precious  stones,  &c. ;  and  nearly  6  per  cent,  in 
commerce. 

Of  the  31  Christians  enumerated  in  1901,  all  but  one  were  natives, 
but  their  denomination  was  not  returned.  The  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  Mission  has  a  small  branch  at  the  capital,  and  a  native 
pastor  of  the  American  Methodist  Church  resides  at  Rupnagar. 

Agricultural  conditions  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  State.     In  the 

north,  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  the  rainfall  less  than  elsewhere,  there 

is  practically  but  one  harvest,  the  kharlf.  and  the  .     , 

.     .     .       J  ...         .      _  ,  ..         Agriculture, 

principal  crops  are   bajra,  joivar,  mung,  and   moth. 

In  the  centre  the  soil,  though  still  poor,  is  firmer,  the  rainfall  heavier, 

and  there  are  several  irrigation  works.     Maize  and  til  take  the  place 

of  bajra  in  the  kharif,  while  the  rabi  or  spring  crops  consist  of  barley, 


3i4 


KISHANGARH  STATE 


wheat,  gram,  and  cotton.  The  southern  portion  of  the  State  is  in  every 
way  the  most  favoured,  and  excellent  crops  are  gathered  in  both 
autumn  and  spring. 

Agricultural  statistics  are  available  from  1 900-1,  but  only  for  the 
khalsa  area,  or  land  paying  revenue  direct  to  the  State.  This  area 
is  estimated  at  one-third  of  the  total,  or  about  286  square  miles. 
Returns  exist  for  about  200  square  miles,  and  the  net  area  cropped  in 
1903-4  was  153  square  miles.  The  areas  under  principal  crops  were, 
in  square  miles,  approximately :  jowar,  40 ;  barley,  25  ;  maize,  23  ; 
bajra,  17;  til,  17;  cotton,  11;  gram,  7;  and  wheat,  5.  A  few  acres 
were  also  under  tobacco,  poppy,  linseed,  and  a  coarse  kind  of  rice. 

The  local  cattle  are  described  as  of  the  Gujarati  type,  being  of 
medium  size  but  capable  of  hard  work.  Efforts  are  being  made  to 
improve  the  breed  by  importing  bulls  from  Hissar  and  Nagaur.  A 
cattle  fair  is  held  yearly  in  August  at  Sursara,  near  Rupnagar.  Mule- 
breeding  was  started  on  a  small  scale  in  1901,  but  is  not  popular. 
Sheep  and  goats  are  kept  in  considerable  numbers  to  provide  wool, 
meat,  milk,  and  manure. 

Of  the  net  area  cropped  in  1903-4,  73  square  miles,  or  48  per  cent, 
were  irrigated  :  namely,  30  from  tanks,  38  from  wells,  and  5  from  other 
sources.  The  subject  of  irrigation  has  for  the  last  forty  years  received 
the  special  attention  of  the  Darbar,  and  very  few  sites  for  tanks  now 
remain  in  the  central  and  southern  districts.  In  the  khalsa  area  alone 
there  are  175  tanks  and  2,500  wells  available  for  irrigation. 

There  are  no  real  forests,  but  several  blocks  of  scrub  jungle  and 
grass,  having  a  total  area  of  41  square  miles,  are  protected.  The  sale 
of  timber,  grass,  and  minor  produce  brings  in  about  Rs.  18,000  a  year, 
and  the  annual  expenditure  is  about  Rs.  4,000. 

The  principal  minerals  now  worked  are  garnets  near  the  town  of 
Sarwak.  The  Silora  stone  quarries  near  the  capital  yield  slabs 
excellent  for  roofing  and  flooring,  and  are  managed  by  the  State  Public 
Works  department.  The  yearly  out-turn  is  about  40,000  cubic  feet, 
valued  at  Rs.  10,000.  The  white  marble  quarries  at  Tonkra  will  supply 
material  for  the  proposed  Victoria  Memorial  Hall  at  Calcutta  ;  a  pink 
variety  is  found  at  Narwar,  west  of  the  capital,  and  a  black  at  Jhak  and 
other  places  in  the  north.  A  black  mineral  paint,  discovered  in  1886, 
has  been  successfully  tried  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  and  Jodhpur- 
Bikaner  Railways  and  on  ocean  steamers. 

The  indigenous  industries  consist  of  the  manufacture  of  chintzes  and 

coloured  cloths,  lace,  and  drinking  vessels  and  bottles  made  from  khas- 

khas  grass  {Andropogoti  muricatus).     The  establish- 

communications    ment  °f  mihs  and   factories  as  joint-stock  concerns 

with  limited  liability  under  a  local  Company  Act  has 

been   encouraged.      There   are    two    steam    hydraulic    cotton-presses 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3 1 5 

worked  by  the  State,  which  in  1903-4  employed  an  average  of  182 
hands  and  pressed  about  520  tons  of  cotton  and  wool.  One  of  these 
is  at  the  capital,  where  also  there  is  a  spinning-  and  weaving-mill  and 
a  soap  factory. 

The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  wool,  caraway,  and  g/il,  while  the  chief 
imports  are  sugar,  salt,  piece-goods,  and  cereals.  A  good  deal  of 
the  cotton  is  exported  to  Agra,  Allgarh,  Cawnpore,  and  Hathras. 

Since  1875  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  has  traversed  the  northern 
portion  of  the  State  from  south-west  to  north-east ;  its  length  within 
Kishangarh  territory  is  about  13  miles,  and  there  is  one  station — at  the 
capital.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  35  miles,  and  of  un- 
metalled  roads  So  miles.  The  Government  of  India  maintains  28 
miles  of  the  metalled  roads  :  namely,  ro  miles  of  the  Agra-Ahmad- 
abad  road  and  18  miles  of  the  Nasirabad-Deoli  road. 

There  are  four  British  post  offices  in  the  State,  three  of  which  are 
also  telegraph  offices.  The  Darbar  has  also  its  own  postal  system  and 
postage  stamps,  maintaining  thirteen  local  post  offices  and  ten  runners 
over  a  length  of  65  miles.  The  postal  income  and  expenditure  are 
about  Rs.  2,400  and  Rs.  1,000  respectively. 

The  State  has  suffered  from  constant  scarcities.  In  1755-6  the  fort 
at  the  capital,  and  in  1783-4  the  town  walls,  were  built  as  relief  works. 
The  records  show  that  there  was  famine  in  1803-4, 
in  1848-9,  and  more  or  less  continuously  between 
1868  and  1872.  In  1891  the  rainfall  was  less  than  8  inches;  the  crops 
failed,  and  fodder  was  very  scarce.  One-fifth  of  the  people  emigrated, 
and  more  than  42,000  cattle  died.  The  average  number  relieved  daily 
for  a  period  of  eight  months  was  1,400,  and  the  total  expenditure, 
including  loans  to  agriculturists,  was  i-8  lakhs.  The  worst  famine  of 
which  there  is  any  detailed  account  was  that  of  1899-1900.  The 
preceding  two  years  had  been  indifferent  ones ;  the  rainfall  in  1899  was 
barely  4^  inches,  the  kharif  crop  failed  entirely,  and  the  whole  State 
was  affected.  The  measures  adopted  by  the  Darbar  were  wise  and 
humane,  and  the  relief  was  both  effective  and  economical.  The  works 
were  mainly  irrigation  projects,  but  the  garnet  quarries  also  afforded 
useful  and  congenial  employment.  More  than  five  million  units  were 
relieved  on  works,  or  gratuitously,  and  the  total  expenditure  exceeded 
3-5  lakhs.  Owing  1o  scarcity  of  fodder  and  water,  70  per  cent,  of  the 
cattle  are  said  to  have  perished.  There  was  again  famine  in  1901-2, 
and  one  million  units  were  relieved  at  a  cost  (including  remissions  of 
land  revenue)  of  about  1-7  lakhs. 

The   administration  is  carried  on    by  the  Maharaja,  assisted    by  a 

Council  of    two    members,    the  senior  of  whom  is     AJ    . 

,    ,  _  _,     ,       ,  ...        r  ,r-  \  Administration. 

styled  Dlwan.     The  head-quarters  district  ot  Kishan- 
garh is  directly  under  the  Revenue  Commissioner,  while  each  of  the 

vol.  xv.  x 


3i6  KISHANGARH  STATE 

remaining  hukumats  is  under  an  official  called  hakim.  In  each  district 
are  several  tahsilddrs  and  naib-tahsllddrs,  who  are  purely  revenue 
officers. 

For  the  guidance  of  its  judiciary  the  State  has  its  own  Codes  and 
Acts,  based  largely  on  those  of  British  India.  Of  the  four  hakims,  one 
has  the  powers  of  a  third-class  magistrate,  and  the  rest  are  second-class 
magistrates,  while  all  of  them  can  try  civil  suits  of  any  value  arising 
in  their  respective  districts.  Criminal  cases  beyond  their  powers  are 
heard  by  the  Sadr  Faujdari  Court,  the  presiding  officer  of  which  has 
the  powers  of  a  first-class  magistrate  and  is  also  magistrate  for  the 
Kishangarh  district.  The  civil  work  of  the  latter  district  is  disposed 
of  partly  by  the  Small  Cause  Court,  and  partly  by  the  Sadr  Dlwani,  or 
chief  civil  court.  The  next  tribunal  is  the  Appellate  Court,  which, 
besides  hearing  all  appeals  (civil  and  criminal),  has  the  powers  of 
a  Sessions  Judge.  The  Council  is  the  highest  court  in  the  State  ;  it 
hears  special  appeals,  exercises  general  supervision,  and  when  presided 
over  by  the  Maharaja  can  pass  death  sentences. 

The  normal  revenue  of  Kishangarh  is  about  4-6  lakhs,  and  the 
expenditure  4-2  lakhs.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  :  land  (in- 
cluding irrigation),  1-5  lakhs;  customs  (including  Rs.  45,000  received 
as  compensation  from  the  British  Government),  Rs.  60,000  ;  cotton- 
mill  and  presses,  &c,  Rs.  25,000  ;  and  judicial  (including  stamps), 
Rs.  21,000.  The  main  items  of  expenditure  are:  administrative  staff 
(civil  and  judicial),  2-6  lakhs;  palace  and  privy  purse,  Rs.  70,000; 
army  and  police,  Rs.  40,000 ;  and  public  works  (including  irrigation), 
Rs.  33,000.  The  financial  position  is  sound ;  for  while  there  are  no 
debts,  there  is  a  considerable  cash  balailce  and  a  further  sum  of  about 
2-8  lakhs  is  invested  in  Government  securities  and  the  local  cotton- 
presses,  mills,  &c. 

The  State  has  its  own  coinage,  and  there  have  been  several  issues 
since  the  mint  was  started.  The  rupee  now  most  common  is  known 
as  the  Chaubisania  (twenty-fourth  year) ;  once  worth  about  thirteen 
British  annas,  it  now  exchanges  for  barely  eleven,  and  it  is  proposed 
to  convert  the  local  currency  when  the  rate  becomes  more  favourable. 

The  land  tenures  are  the  usual  jdgir,  mudfi,  and  khdlsa.  The 
jdglrdars  have  to  serve  with  their  quota  of  horsemen,  or  make  a  cash 
payment  in  lieu,  and  ordinarily  attend  the  Maharaja  on  his  birthday 
and  certain  festivals.  Their  estates  descend  from  father  to  son,  or, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  Darbar,  to  an  adopted  son,  but  are  liable 
to  resumption  for  serious  offences  against  the  State.  Mudfi  grants, 
or  lands  held  by  individuals  such  as  Brahmans,  Charans,  and  Bhats, 
or  by  charitable  and  religious  institutions,  are  rent  free,  inalienable, 
and  may  be  resumed  on  failure  of  heirs.  In  the  khdlsa  area  or 
crown    lands    the    cultivators   are    for    the    most    part   tenants-at-will, 


KISHANGARH   TOWN  317 

liable  at  any  time  to  be  dispossessed,  though  they  are  rarely  evicted. 
The  land  revenue  is  generally  paid  in  kind,  the  Darbar's  share  vary- 
ing from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  produce.  In  some  parts,  how- 
ever, and  in  the  case  of  such  crops  as  cotton,  poppy,  maize,  tobacco, 
and  spices,  the  revenue  is  collected  in  cash,  the  rates  varying  from 
Rs.  6  to  Rs.  18  per  acre.  Special  concessions  are  made  to  those 
who  bring  new  land  under  cultivation  or  sink  new  wells  ;  they  pay 
the  Darbar  one-ninth,  or  sometimes  one-eleventh,  of  the  gross  pro- 
duce the  first  year,  one-eighth  or  one-tenth  in  the  second  year,  and 
so  on  till  the  usual  one-third  is  reached. 

The  military  force  consists  of  220  regulars  (84  cavalry  and  136 
infantry)  and  1,739  irregulars  (836  cavalry  and  903  infantry).  The 
irregular  cavalry  are  supplied  by  the  jaglrdars.  There  are  65  guns, 
serviceable  and  unserviceable,  and  35  artillerymen. 

Police  duties  are  performed  by  a  force  of  511  of  all  ranks,  in- 
cluding 1 87  Rajput  sepoys  from  the  irregular  infantry,  and  91  village 
cliauk'idars.  There  are  nine  police  stations  and  numerous  outposts, 
the  latter  being  mostly  manned  by  the  jagir  militia.  Besides  the 
Central  jail  and  a  small  prison  for  persons  under  trial  at  the  capital, 
there  are  three  district  jails — at  Arain,  Rupnagar,  and  Sarwar — in 
which  persons  sentenced  to  one  month  or  less  are  confined.  These 
five  jails  have  accommodation  altogether  for  153  prisoners. 

In  the  literacy  of  its  population  Kishangarh  stands  fourth  among 
the  twenty  States  and  chiefships  of  Rajputana,  with  4-6  per  cent. 
(8-4  males  and  0-4  females)  able  to  read  and  write.  There  are  now 
29  educational  institutions  in  the  State,  attended  by  about  1,000 
pupils,  of  whom  70  are  girls.  Of  these  schools,  17  are  maintained 
by  the  Darbar  at  a  cost  of  about  Rs.  6,500  a  year,  2  by  the  United 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission,  and  the  rest  by  private  individuals. 
The  only  secondary  school  is  the  Maharaja's  high  school  at  the 
capital.  An  education  cess  calculated  at  1  per  cent,  of  the  land 
revenue  has  been  imposed  since  1902. 

The  State  possesses  one  hospital  and  three  dispensaries  ;  and  in 
1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  25,584,  of  whom  95  were 
in-patients,  and  655  operations  were  performed.  The  total  expendi- 
ture was  about  Rs.  5,000. 

Vaccination  is  backward.  In  1904-5  the  number  of  persons 
successfully  vaccinated  was  i,S8o,  or  about  21  per  1,000  of  the 
population. 

Kishangarh  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Rajputana,  situated  in  260  34'  N.  and  740  53'  E.,  on  the  Rajputana- 
Malwa  Railway,  about  18  miles  north-east  of  Ajmer  city,  and  257 
miles  south-west  of  Delhi.  It  takes  its  name  from  Kishan  Singh, 
the  first  chief,  who  founded  it  in  161 1.     Population  (1901),   12,663. 

x  2 


3i8  KISHANGARH   TOWN 

The  town  and  fort  occupy  a  picturesque  position  on  the  banks  of  an 
old  lake,  over  a  square  mile  in  extent,  called  Gundolao,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  small  garden  known  as  the  Mohkam  Bilas.  The 
Maharaja's  palace  is  in  the  fort  and  commands  a  fine  view  of 
the  surrounding  country.  The  principal  industrial  occupations  of  the 
people  are  cloth-weaving,  dyeing,  the  cutting  of  precious  stones,  and 
the  manufacture  of  drinking  vessels  and  betel-nut  boxes  from  khas- 
khas  grass.  A  municipal  committee,  established  in  1886,  attends  to 
the  lighting,  conservancy,  and  slaughter-house  arrangements.  The 
town  possesses  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office ;  a  couple  of 
jails,  with  accommodation  for  123  prisoners;  a  hospital,  with  beds 
for  1 2  in-patients ;  and  1 1  schools,  attended  by  about  400  boys  and 
50  girls.  Of  these  schools,  three  are  maintained  by  the  State  and 
two  by  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission.  The  Maha- 
raja's high  school  is  affiliated  to  the  Allahabad  University,  and 
teaches  up  to  the  middle  standard  in  both  English  and  vernacular ; 
the  number  on  its  rolls  is  294,  and  the  daily  average  attendance 
270.  About  a  mile  and  a  half  north  of  the  town  and  close  to  the 
railway  station,  a  flourishing  suburb,  called  Madanganj  after  the 
present  chief,  has  sprung  up.  It  contains  a  steam  hydraulic  cotton- 
press,  and  a  spinning-  and  weaving-mill.  The  latter,  which  was  opened 
in  1897,  has  10,348  spindles  and  employs  about  500  hands.  In  1904 
the  total  out-turn  exceeded  685  tons  of  yarn,  and  the  receipts  were 
about  4-6  lakhs. 

Kishenganj. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Purnea  District,  Bengal. 
See  Kishangaxj. 

Kishorganj  Subdivision.  — South-eastern  subdivision  of  Mymen- 
singh  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  240  2'  and 
240  38"  N.  and  900  35'  and  910  r6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  985  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  719,184,  compared  with  643,381 
in  1 89 1.  It  contains  two  towns,  Kishorganj  (population,  16,246), 
the  head-quarters,  and  Bajitpur  (10,027);  and  1,661  villages.  It 
is  an  alluvial  tract,  intersected  by  marshes,  and  is  subject  to  annual 
inundations  and  deposits  of  fertilizing  silt  from  the  Meghna  and  its 
tributaries.  It  is,  after  Tangail,  the  most  populous  subdivision  in  the 
District,  the  density  being  730  persons  per  square  mile,  against  an 
average  of  618  for  the  whole  District.  There  are  important  markets 
at  Bhairab  Bazar,  KarImganj,  and  Katiadi. 

Kishorganj  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Mymensingh  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in 
240  26'  N.  and  900  46'  E.,  on  the  Kundali  Khal,  13  miles  east  of  the 
Brahmaputra.  Population  (1901),  16,246.  An  annual  fair  is  held  here 
during  the  Jhulanjatra,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Krishna  lasting  for  a 
month  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August.     Kishorganj 


KISTNA   DISTRICT  319 

is  connected  with  the  Brahmaputra  by  a  road  and  also  by  the  Kundali 
Khal,  which  is  navigable  during  the  rainy  season.  The  town  was 
formerly  noted  for  its  muslin  manufactures,  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany had  a  factory  here.  Kishorganj  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1869.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged 
Rs.  6,500,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,200.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  8,000,  of  which  Rs.  4,600  was  obtained  from  a  property  tax;  and 
the  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,800.  The  town  contains  the  usual  public 
offices;    the  sub-jail  has  accommodation  for  22  prisoners. 

Kistna  District  {Krishna). — District  on  the  north-eastern  coast 
of  the  Madras  Presidency,  lying  between  150  37'  and  170  9'  N.  and 
790  14'  and  8i°  i>2>   E.,  with  an  area  of  8,498  square  miles1. 

It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Nizam's  Dominions  and  Kurnool  District ;  and  on  the  north  and  south 
by  the  Districts  of  Godavari  and  Nellore  respectively.  It  is  named  after 
the  great  river  which  flows  along  much  of  its  western  boundary,  and 
then,  turning  sharply,  runs  right  across  it  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  and  forms  its  most  striking  natural  Physical 
feature.  On  the  extreme  west  the  District  consists 
of  stony  uplands,  dotted  with  rocky  hills  or  crossed  by  low  ranges ;  the 
centre  and  north  are  a  level  plain  of  black  cotton  soil ;  but  the  eastern 
portion  is  made  up  of  the  wide  alluvial  delta  of  the  Kistna  river,  an 
almost  fiat  expanse,  covered  with  irrigated  rice-fields,  and  containing 
some  of  the  most  fertile  land  in  the  Presidency.  These  three  tracts 
form  three  sharply  differentiated  natural  divisions.  The  coast  is  fringed 
with  a  wide  belt  of  blown  sand,  sometimes  extending  inland  for  several 
miles.  Along  the  shore  the  dunes  rise  to  the  height  of  from  30  to  50 
feet.  The  only  hills  of  any  note  are  those  in  the  west  of  the  District- 
They  are  outliers  of  the  great  chain  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  and  the 
Palnad  taluk  is  almost  surrounded  by  them.  Besides  the  Kistna,  there 
are  no  rivers,  except  a  few  fitful  hill  torrents  and  three  or  four  minor 
tributaries  of  the  great  river.  The  Gundlakamma,  which  rises  in 
Kurnool,  traverses  a  corner  of  the  Vinukonda  taluk  from  west  to  east 
and  then  passes  into  Nellore.  The  Colair  Lake  (Kolleru)  lies  within 
the  District. 

The  broad  central  belt  of  low-lying  country,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  Eastern  Ghats  and  sloping  towards  the  sea,  is  covered  by  Archaean 
gneisses.     These  consist  of  a  thinner-bedded  schistose  series  (which 

1  While  this  woik  was  under  preparation  the  area  oi  the  District  was  changed,  the 
taluks  of  Ellore,  Yernagiidem,  Tanuku,  Bhimavaram,  and  Narasapur  (excluding 
Nagaram  Island)  being  added  to  it  from  Godavari  District,  and  those  of  Tenali, 
Guntur,  Sattanapalle,  Palnad,  Bapatla,  Narasaraopet,  and  Vinukonda  being  formed 
(with  the  Ongole  taluk  of  Nellore)  into  a  new  Guntur  District.  The  present  article 
refers  to  the  Distiict  as  it  stood  before  these  alterations 


320  KISTNA   DISTRICT 

includes  mica  and  chloritic  schists  with  quartzites),  and  of  more  massive 
granitoid  gneisses,  all  much  interbanded  and  disturbed.  They  are  also 
pierced  by  occasional  younger  dioritic  dikes,  granite,  felsite,  and  quartz 
veins.  North-west  of  this  Archaean  belt  comes  the  more  elevated, 
often  plateau-like,  country  of  the  Cuddapah  and  Kurnool  series  of  the 
Purana  group.  This  is  an  enormous  series  (aggregating  over  20,000 
feet  thick)  of  unfossiliferous,  but  little  altered,  sedimentary  strata, 
gently  inclined  as  a  whole.  They  comprise  repetitions  of  quartzitic 
and  shaly  sub-series,  with  occasional  conglomerates  and  limestones, 
and  interbedded  traps  near  the  base.  The  Kurnools  overlie  the 
Cuddapahs  unconformably,  forming  numerous  plateaux,  and  possess 
a  basal  diamantiferous  conglomerate.  South-east  of  the  Archaean 
band  are  a  few  scattered  outliers  of  the  much  younger  Upper  Gond- 
wanas,  with  plant-beds  and  Jurassic  marine  shells,  a  double  sandstone 
series  with  shales  between  ;  and  these  in  turn  underlie  a  little  sub- 
recent  Cuddalore  sandstone,  and  great  stretches  of  coastal  and  deltaic 
alluvium  with  a  few  patches  of  lateritic  rock. 

The  flora  of  the  District  presents  no  special  characteristics,  the 
plants  being  mainly  the  usual  cultivation  weeds  of  the  Coromandel 
coast.  Along  the  sandy  shore  are  found  the  usual  sand-binders, 
Spinifex  sqtiarrosus  and  Ipomoea  ;  and  cashew-nut  trees  (Anacardium 
occidentale)  occur  in  scattered  nooks.  The  principal  crops  and  forest 
trees  are  referred  to  later.  Generally  speaking,  the  District  is  very 
bare  of  tree-growth. 

Wild  animals  are  far  from  plentiful.  Tigers  and  sambar  are  found 
in  the  Palnad  and  Vinukonda  jungles,  on  the  Medasala  Durga  ridge, 
and  on  the  Kondapalli  and  Kondavid  hills.  Leopards  and  an  occa- 
sional bear  lurk  in  the  rocky  eminences  of  some  of  the  inland  taluks. 
A  few  antelope  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Bapatla  taluk,  and  wild  hog  are 
not  uncommon  in  various  parts.  Bird  life  is  more  prominent.  Almost 
every  species  of  South  Indian  feathered  game,  except  the  woodcock 
and  hill  partridge,  is  to  be  found  in  the  District.  Snipe,  duck,  and 
teal  abound  in  the  season  ;  and  the  Colair  Lake  is  the  home  of  almost 
all  the  known  inland  aquatic  birds.     It  is  also  fairly  stocked  with  fish. 

The  climate  of  the  District,  although  in  parts  trying  owing  to  the 
great  heat,  may  be  set  down  as  healthy.  Fever  is  on  the  whole 
uncommon.  Masulipatam  (the  head-quarters),  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  82°,  a  recorded  maximum  of  1170,  and  a  minimum  of  580, 
possesses  perhaps  the  most  equable  climate ;  and  on  the  coast  gener- 
ally, except  for  a  short  time  in  the  month  of  May,  the  heat  is  never 
unbearable.  The  temperature  of  the  Palnad,  Sattanapalle,  Nandigama, 
and  Tiruvur  taluks  during  November,  December,  and  January  resembles 
that  of  the  Mysore  plateau,  the  thermometer  falling  to  650 ;  but  the 
temperature  becomes  extremely  high  during  May  and  June. 


HISTORY  321 

Of  the  rainfall,  nearly  two-thirds  is  usually  registered  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  the  first  showers  of  which  begin  to  fall  in  May. 
The  remainder  of  the  supply  is  received  in  the  three  last  months  of 
the  year,  but  the  fall  in  October  and  November  is  as  a  rule  much  more 
irregular  than  in  the  earlier  months.  It  is  at  times  exceedingly  heavy, 
owing  to  the  cyclones  that  often  visit  the  coast.  The  annual  rainfall 
for  the  District  as  a  whole  during  the  thirty  years  from  1870  to  1899 
averaged  33  inches.  But  this  is  not  evenly  distributed ;  as  elsewhere 
along  this  coast,  the  fall  in  the  coast  tracts,  ■  such  as  Masulipatam, 
Tenali,  and  Bapatla,  is  considerably  heavier  than  that  in  the  inland 
taluks  of  Palnad,  Sattanapalle,  and  Narasaraopet.  Scarcity  has  been 
known  in  one  or  two  bad  years,  but  the  pinch  of  real  famine  has  not 
been  felt  since  the  Kistna  irrigation  system  was  completed.  Floods, 
however,  are  frequent.  In  1874,  1875,  1882,  1895,  1896,  and  1903 
they  did  damage  which  was  sometimes  very  great.  All  of  them  were 
due  to  the  Kistna  overflowing  its  banks.  The  highest  flood  on  record 
in  the  river  was  in  1903,  when  the  water  breached  the  bank  of  the 
main  canal  and  submerged  much  of  the  delta.  Masulipatam,  the 
District  head-quarters,  has  twice  been  visited  by  disastrous  tidal  waves. 
In  1779  the  sea  flowed  12  feet  deep  through  the  Dutch  factory,  a  great 
part  of  the  town  was  washed  away,  and  at  least  20,000  persons  were 
drowned  and  lay  unburied  in  the  streets.  In  1864  an  even  worse 
wave  inundated  the  place.  The  sea  penetrated  17  miles  inland,  sub- 
merging 780  square  miles  and  drowning  as  many  as  30,000  people. 

The  earliest  known  rulers  of  the  District  were  the  Buddhist  dynasty 

of  the  Andhras,  who  built  the  stupa  at  Amaravati  and  whose  curious 

leaden  coins  are  still  occasionally  found.     Following 

,  ....  r     ,  l  History. 

them    came,    about    the    beginning    ot    the   seventh 

century  A.D.,  the  Brahmanical   Eastern  Chalukyas,  the  excavators   of 

the  cave  temple  at  Undavalle  and  other  rock-cut  shrines.     About 

999  they  in  their  turn  were   supplanted  by  the  Cholas.     The  latter 

some   two    centuries   later  gave  place  to  the    Ganpatis   of  Warangal, 

during  whose  rule  Marco  Polo  landed   in  the  District  at  Motupalle, 

now  an  obscure  fishing  village  in  the  Bapatla  taluk.     The  District  then 

came  under  a  dual  sway,  the  kings  of  Orissa  ruling  the  northern  part, 

while  the  south  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  line  of  cultivators  who  rose  to 

considerable  power  and  are  known  to  history  as  the  Reddi  kings.     The 

ruins  of  their  fortresses  at  Kondavid,  Bkllamkonda,  and  Kondapalli 

are   still    to  be  seen.     In    15 15    king   Krishna   Deva   of  Vijayanagar 

wrested  the  north  of  the  District  from  the  Gajapati  kings  of  Orissa; 

and  it  passed,  on  the  fall  of  the  Vijayanagar  empire  in   1565,  to  the 

Kutb  Shahi  line  of  Golconda,  and  was  eventually  absorbed  (on  the 

destruction  of  that  dynasty  in  1687)  in  the  empire  of  Aurangzeb. 

In  161 1  the  English  founded  their   second  settlement  in  India  at 


322 


KISTNA   DISTRICT 


Masulipatam,  which  continued  to  be  their  head-quarters  until  these 
were  finally  removed  to  Madras  in  1641.  Three  years  after  the  found- 
ing of  the  English  settlement  came  the  Dutch,  and  in  1669  the  French 
followed.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  year  1750  that  any  of  the 
European  powers  exerted  any  political  influence  in  the  District.  Two 
years  after  that  date  the  Subahdar  of  the  Deccan  granted  the  whole  of 
the  Northern  Circars  to  the  French,  and  it  was  from  them  that  this 
tract  finally  passed  to  the  English.  On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in 
1758,  Colonel  Forde,  who  was  sent  by  Clive  from  Bengal  to  attack 
the  French  in  the  Northern  Circars,  defeated  them  at  Condore  in 
Godavari  District,  and  following  them  to  Masulipatam  besieged  them 
there.  Faced  by  a  strong  garrison  in  front  and  hemmed  in  behind  by 
the  Subahdar  of  the  Deccan,  the  ally  of  the  French,  his  ranks  rapidly 
thinning  with  disease,  Forde,  as  a  counsel  of  despair,  at  length  made 
an  almost  desperate  night  attack  upon  the  Masulipatam  fort  and 
captured  it.  As  a  consequence  of  this  victory,  first  the  divisions  of 
Masulipatam,  Nizampatam,  and  part  of  Kondavid,  and  later  the  whole 
of  the  Circars,  passed,  by  a  grant  from  the  Subahdar  of  the  Deccan 
(confirmed  by  the  emperor  Shah  Alam  in  1765),  to  the  Company. 
With  the  cession  of  the  Palnad  in  1801  by  the  Nawab  of  Arcot, 
the  entire  District  finally  became  British  territory.  At  first  it  was 
administered  by  a  Chief  and  Council  at  Masulipatam,  but  in  1794 
Collectors  directly  responsible  to  the  Board  of  Revenue  were 
appointed  at  Guntur  and  Masulipatam.  In  1859  these  two  Collec- 
torates  (except  two  taluks  of  the  latter)  were  amalgamated  into  one 
District. 

The  most  interesting  archaeological  remains  in  the  District  are  its 
Buddhist  antiquities,  and  the  chief  of  these  is  the  great  stupa  at  Ama- 
ravati  in  the  Sattanapalle  taluk.  This  was  discovered  in  1796,  and  a 
portion  of  the  sculptured  marble  rails  of  the  processional  circle  was  sent 
by  Sir  Walter  Elliot  to  England,  where  it  now  lines  one  of  the  staircase 
walls  in  the  British  Museum.  The  Government  Museums  at  Madras 
and  Calcutta  contain  other  pieces  of  the  work.  From  inscriptions  it  is 
evident  that  the  temple  of  Amareswara  in  the  same  village  was  origin- 
ally a  Buddhist  or  Jain  sanctuary,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  are  several 
mounds  which  may  perhaps  contain  other  relics  of  these  faiths.  In 
the  Tenali  taluk  are  the  ruins  of  Chandavolu,  a  place  of  great  antiquity 
containing  a  temple  and  Buddhist  mound  ;  and  Buddhist  stiipas  exist 
at  Jaggayyapeta  and  Gudivada.  Gold  coins  have  been  found  at 
Chandavolu,  and  in  1874  some  workmen  came  upon  several  masses  of 
molten  gold  as  large  as  bricks.  There  was  formerly  a  fine  Buddhist 
stupa  at  Bhattiprolu.  Here  a  curious  relic,  consisting  of  a  piece  of 
bone  (supposed  to  have  been  one  of  Buddha's  bones)  enclosed  in 
a   crystal  casket  lodged  in  a  soapstone  outer  case,  was  found  a  few 


POPULATION 


323 


years  ago.     In  the  Vinukonda  taluk  stone  circles   (dolmens)  abound 
and  inscriptions  are  numerous. 

Kistna  comprises  the  thirteen  taluks  and  tahsils  of 
which  statistical  particulars  are  given  below  : — 


Population. 


1) 

u 

Number  of 

c 

U 

0    Cj;    M 

0 

3   . 

0 

g'i 
'■as 

li'~          C\~ 

Taluk  or  Tahsil. 

c 

0! 

3 

"o.c  -  5 

umbo 
onsal 
ead  a 
write 

u 

< 

0 
I 

> 

PLt 

O  w 

1-  c*  a,?  cd 

2  t  - 

tSezwada 

422 

I07 

124,170 

295 

+  16.6 

8,189 

Tiruvur 

33S 

. . . 

89 

69,219 

2  05 

+  13-3 

2,291 

Xuzvid 

789 

I 

23: 

l88,76l 

240 

+    22-0 

7.427 

Nandigama 

677 

I 

169 

1  39.958 

206 

+    IO.5 

5.555 

Gudivada  . 

595 

I 

212 

l5I,9l6 

256 

+    2S-4 

6,751 

Bandar 

740 

I 

191 

2I4,3l6 

29O 

+      8-0 

15,44° 

Guntur 

500 

2 

109 

2°3.557 

402 

+    20-2 

13.083 

Sattanapalle 

7M 

. . . 

16S 

159.645 

224 

+   i;.j 

6,803 

Tenali 

644 

I 

150 

288,127 

44S 

+  29-3 

12,860 

Xarasaraopet 

7J3 

I 

114 

168,547 

237 

+     7.8 

7,270 

Palnad 

1,041 

96 

153.638 

I48 

+      S-2 

5.979 

Vinukonda 

646 

I 

7i 

S2.493 

128 

+      0-1 

3.741 

Bapatla 

District  total* 

679 

3 

11 1 

213.456 

315 

+     i-73 

12,050 

8,498 

13 

1,818 

-..'54,So3 

254 

+  16-1 

i°7.439 

*  The  area  of  the  new  Kistna  District  is  5,899  square  miles,  and  its  population  1,744,138. 

The  head-quarters  of  the  Bandar  taluk  are  at  Masulipatam,  of 
Nuzvid  at  Gannavaram,  and  of  Palnad  at  Guruzala.  Those  of  the 
other  ten  taluks  are  at  the  places  from  which  they  are  named.  The 
population  of  the  District  in  1871  was  1,452,374;  in  1881,  1,548,480; 
in  1891,  1,855,582  ;  and  in  1901,  2,154,803.  During  the  last  thirty 
years  it  has  increased  by  48  per  cent.,  which,  excluding  the  exceptional 
case  of  the  Nilgiris,  is  the  highest  rate  for  any  District  in  the  Presidency  : 
and  in  the  decade  ending  1901  its  growth  was  at  the  rate  of  16  per  cent., 
which  was  more  rapid  than  in  any  other  District.  Of  the  nine  taluks 
in  the  Presidency  which  showed  the  highest  rates  of  increase  in  that 
period,  four — namely,  Tenali,  Gudivada,  Xuzvid,  and  Guntur — are  in 
Kistna.  Some  of  this  growth  is  due  to  immigration,  chiefly  from 
Nellore  and  Vizagapatam.  It  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  delta  ;  but 
even  there,  except  in  Tenali,  the  density  of  the  population  is  still  much 
less  than  in  the  neighbouring  delta  of  the  Godavari,  and  the  rates  of 
increase  will  probably  continue  to  be  high  in  future.  The  chief  towns 
are  the  municipalities  of  Masulipatam,  Bezwada,  and  Guntur,  while 
ChIrala  and  Tenali  are  the  two  most  populous  Unions.  Of  the  total 
population,  1,912,914,  or  89  per  cent.,  are  Hindus;  132,053,  or  6  per 
cent.,  Musalmans ;  and  101,414,  or  5  per  cent.,  Christians.  The 
number  of  these  last  almost  trebled  during  the  twenty  years  ending 
1 90 1,  and  between  1891  and  1901  advanced  by  nearly  33,000,  a  larger 


324  KISTNA    DISTRICT 

increase  than  in  any  other  District.  In  1901  Christians  formed  a 
higher  proportion  of  the  population  than  in  any  other  District  north 
of  Madras  City. 

Five  per  cent,  of  the  people  speak  Hindustani.  Telugu  is  the 
vernacular  of  practically  all  the  rest,  and  is  the  prevailing  language 
in  every  taluk.  A  peculiarity  of  the  population  is  that  it  comprises 
fewer  females  than  males,  there  being  976  of  the  former  to  every  1,000 
of  the  latter.  This  characteristic  occurs  also  in  six  other  Districts 
which  form,  with  Kistna,  a  fairly  compact  block  of  country  in  the 
centre  of  the  Presidency. 

Of  the  Hindus,  97  per  cent,  belong  to  Telugu  castes.  The  Kammas 
(311,000)  and  Telagas  (cultivators,  148,000)  are  in  greater  strength 
than  in  any  other  District ;  as  also  are  the  Madigas  (leather-workers, 
142,000),  the  Telugu  Brahmans  (106,000),  and  the  Komatis  (traders, 
81,000).  Brahmans  of  all  classes  number  nearly  6  per  cent,  of  the 
total  Hindu  and  Animist  population,  which  is  an  unusually  high 
proportion.  Among  other  castes  which  are  commoner  in  Kistna  than 
elsewhere  may  be  mentioned  the  Bogams  (dancing-girls),  and  the  three 
beggar  communities  of  the  Bandas,  Budubudukalas,  and  Vipravi- 
nodis.  The  latter  beg  only  from  Brahmans,  and  will  only  do  their 
juggling  tricks,  for  which  they  are  famous,  if  a  Brahman  be  present. 
Of  the  Musalmans,  an  overwhelmning  majority  returned  themselves 
as  Shaikhs,  but  Pathans  and  Saiyids  are  fairly  plentiful,  while  Mughals 
are  more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  in  any  other  District. 

The  occupations  of  the  people  differ  singularly  little  from  the  normal. 
Agriculture,  as  usual,  enormously  preponderates. 

At  the  Census  of  1901  there  were  101,414  Christians  in  Kistna 
District,  of  whom  100,841  were  natives.  The  most  numerous  sect  is 
that  of  the  Baptists  (39,027).  The  Lutheran  and  allied  denominations 
number  34,877  ;  while  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  communions 
are  fairly  equal  in  strength,  possessing  14,511  and  11,157  members 
respectively. 

The  pioneers  of  Christianity  in  the  District  belonged  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  being  Jesuits  who  came  out  to  India  after  the  found- 
ing of  the  well-known  mission  at  Madura.  Little  is  now  on  record 
regarding  their  operations,  but  it  is  clear  that  their  efforts  were  less 
continuous  and  strenuous  than  in  Districts  farther  south.  The 
suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1773  almost  entirely  checked 
their  enterprise,  and  for  many  years  few  priests  were  left  in  the  District, 
and  some  of  the  converts  went  back  to  Hinduism.  In  1874  matters 
revived,  four  priests  coming  out  from  Mill  Hill ;  and  since  then  more 
has  been  done. 

The  Protestant  missions  are  of  much  more  recent  origin.  The  best 
known  of  their  missionaries,  the  Rev.  Robert   Noble,  came  to  Masuli- 


AGRICULTURE 


325 


Agriculture. 


patam  in  1841  under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
and  worked  there  without  intermission  for  twenty  years,  founding  the 
college  at  Masulipatam  which  bears  his  name.  The  American  Lutheran 
Mission  was  started  at  Guntur  in  1842.  Its  converts  are  chiefly  from 
the  lower  castes,  and  it  works  at  Guntur  and  Narasaraopet.  The  Bap- 
tists began  operations  in  1866,  but  their  converts  outnumber  those  of 
any  other  denomination. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  the  District  consists  of  three  dissimilar  areas  : 
namely,  the  Palnad  and  the  neighbouring  tracts,  where  much  of  the 
soil  is  formed  of  detritus  from  the  hills  ;  the  wide 
plain  of  the  rest  of  the  uplands,  where  it  is  black 
cotton  soil ;  and  the  delta,  which  is  for  the  most  part  alluvial.  Agri- 
cultural practice  naturally  differs  according  to  the  soil,  the  lighter  land 
requiring  only  slight  showers,  the  cotton  country  needing  a  thorough 
soaking,  and  the  delta  having  to  wait  until  the  floods  come  down  the 
river.  There  are  three  general  classes  of  crop,  corresponding  more  or 
less  to  the  seasons  :  namely,  the  punasa,  or  early  crop,  sown  just  after 
the  first  burst  of  the  monsoon  in  May  or  June  ;  the  pedda,  or  big  crop, 
between  July  and  September  ;  and  the  paira,  or  late  crop,  put  down  in 
November.  The  sowing  of  the  '  wet '  land  is  principally  done  from 
July  to  October,  by  the  middle  of  which  month  more  than  four-fifths 
of  it  should  have  been  completed. 

As  much  as  one-fourth  of  the  District  consists  of  zamlnddri  and 
indin  lands.  For  the  former  of  these  no  detailed  particulars  are  on 
record.  The  area  for  which  accounts  are  kept  is  6,487  square  miles, 
details  of  which,  for  1903-4,  are  appended  : — 


Think. 

Area  shown 
in  accounts. 

Forests. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Bezwada 

232 

5° 

4 

I46 

33 

Nuzvld 

4 

0 

2 

Nandigama  . 

437 

41 

4 

346 

12 

Gudivada 

523 

I 

JI4 

325 

222 

Bandar 

437 

103 

129 

158 

41 

Guntur 

497 

13 

3 

4'3 

10 

Sattanapallc  . 

7'5 

129 

16 

4*4 

3 

Tenali  . 

645 

45 

5' 

4's5 

3J5 

Narasaraopet 

696 

45 

24 

545 

9 

Palnad  . 

1,041 

354 

89 

502 

6 

Vinukonda     . 

57i 

'73 

44 

309 

7 

Bapatla 

Total 

O89 

6;487 

47 

67 

484 

117 

1,001 

545 

4,200 

777 

The  staple  crop  is  rice,  which  in  1903-4  occupied  800  square 
miles,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  under  cultivation.  This  is 
of  two  main  kinds  :  white  paddy,  which  is  irrigated  and  transplanted  ; 
and    black    paddy,  which   grows   with   the  help  of  rain   alone.      The 


326  KISTNA   DISTRICT 

latter  is  found  only  in  two  or  three  Districts  besides  Kistna,  and  is 
largely  exported  to  Jaffna.  Cholam  {Sorghum  vulgare),  which  occupied 
590  square  miles  in  1903-4,  is  the  principal  '  dry '  cereal  crop,  and 
next  in  importance  is  rambu  {Pennisetum  typhoideum).  Of  industrial 
crops,  cotton,  which  is  chiefly  produced  in  Palnad  and  Sattanapalle, 
occupied  377  square  miles.  The  area  under  indigo  has  fallen  from 
180  square  miles  in  1896-7  to  40  square  miles  in  1903-4,  the 
decline  being  attributable  to  the  competition  of  the  synthetic  dye. 
Tobacco,  which  is  largely  exported  to  Burma,  was  grown  on  28,000 
acres.  Castor  occupied  39,000  acres,  but  the  cultivation  and  trade 
in  this  product-  are  gradually  falling  off. 

During  the  period  of  thirty-one  years  from  1872-3  to  1903-4, 
an  increase  of  12  per  cent,  occurred  in  the  total  extent  of  holdings. 
The  most  noticeable  advance  was  in  the  'wet'  cultivation,  the 
extent  of  which  has  more  than  doubled  ;  the  increase  in  '  dry  '  hold- 
ings was  comparatively  small.  In  point  of  quality,  cultivation  has 
probably  receded  rather  than  improved  since  the  introduction  of 
irrigation  from  the  Kistna.  The  delta  ryot  finds  that  he  can  grow 
a  crop  sufficient  for  his  needs  with  little  trouble,  and  ploughing  is 
done  in  a  perfunctory  fashion,  while  weeding  is  not  necessary  under 
the  transplantation  system.  Little  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the 
Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  the  amount  advanced  in  sixteen 
years  ending  1903-4  being  only  Rs.  28,000.  Most  of  this  was,  as 
usual,  spent  in  digging  or  repairing  wells. 

The  large  extent  of  pasture  in  the  upland  regions  affords  exceptional 
facilities  for  rearing  stock.  Excellent  cattle  of  the  Nellore  breed  are 
found  in  the  Palnad,  Narasaraopet,  and  Vinukonda  taluks.  These 
animals,  though  very  powerful  and  useful  for  heavy  draught,  are  slow, 
and  deteriorate  quickly  if  called  on  to  work  where  the  grass  is  not 
as  good  as  in  their  native  places.  In  the  delta  the  want  of  fodder 
is  severely  felt,  and  the  cattle  are  generally  of  poor  quality.  Sheep 
are  fairly  plentiful.  They  have,  as  a  rule,  short,  coarse,  red  or  brown 
hair,  and  are  extremely  leggy. 

The  total  area  irrigated  in  the  District  is  777  square  miles,  as  shown 
in  the  table  given  above.  Practically  the  whole  of  it  is  in  the  delta 
taluks  of  Tenali,  Gudivada,  Bapatla,  and  Bandar,  where  it  depends 
upon  the  Kistna  river.  Nearly  90  per  cent,  of  the  irrigated  area  is 
supplied  from  Government  canals,  only  7  per  cent,  from  tanks,  and 
only  \\  per  cent,  from  wells.  The  Kistna  irrigation  is  led  from  the 
great  dam  across  the  river  at  Bezwada,  which  is  3,714  feet  long  and 
rises  about  20  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream.  It  was  finished  in 
1854,  and  feeds  the  ten  main  canals  which  irrigate  the  delta  and 
branch  off  into  smaller  and  smaller  channels  until  they  cover  every 
part   of  it.      Vast  as  is  the    quantity   of  water  utilized  by  this  great 


AGRICULTURE  327 

system,  a  large  amount  of  flood-water  still  runs  to  waste  over  the  dam  : 
but,  as  the  river  is  not  filled  by  the  rains  of  the  north-east  monsoon, 
there  is  little  water  in  it  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  area  that  grows 
two  crops  is  therefore  so  small  as  to  be  negligible.  A  project  to  form 
an  enormous  reservoir  higher  up  the  river,  where  it  runs  between  very 
steep,  high  banks,  has  accordingly  been  investigated ;  this  would  not 
only  supplement  the  supply  at  the  dam  at  Bezwada,  but  would  also 
command  large  areas  in  the  upland  taluks  above  that  dam.  It  is 
estimated  that  by  this  means  the  irrigable  area  might  be  doubled. 
Even  under  existing  conditions  the  value  of  the  irrigated  crops  is 
estimated  at  215  lakhs  annually,  the  greater  part  of  this  representing 
the  value  of  the  rice  crop. 

Among  minor  irrigation  works  may  be  mentioned  a  dam  built  across 
the  Muneru  at  Polampalli,  by  which  3,400  acres  were  watered  in 
1903-4.  A  dam  has  also  been  constructed  across  the  Palleru  at 
Katchavaram  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  which  is  at  present  held  on 
lease  by  private  individuals.  All  the  area  supplied  from  it,  which  is 
not  very  great,  lies  within  British  territory.  In  the  uplands  irrigation  is 
from  tanks,  but  none  of  them  is  of  any  great  size  and  the  total  area 
commanded  is  inconsiderable.  A  scheme  to  irrigate  50,000  acres  in 
the  Divi  Island  in  the  delta  by  steam  pumping  has  recently  been 
started. 

There  is  now  very  little  real  forest  within  the  limits  of  the  District, 
although  the  hills  in  the  Palnad  and  those  to  the  north-west  of  Yinu- 
konda  are  said  to  have  once  been  covered  with  trees.  The  '  reserved ' 
forests  cover  about  1,000  square  miles,  of  which  more  than  a  third  is  in 
the  Palnad,  and  much  of  the  remainder  in  Vinukonda  and  Sattanapalle. 
The  most  notable  species  are  Pterocarfius,  Terminalia^  Anogeissus,  and 
Lagerstroemia.  Casuarina  has  been  planted  by  private  enterprise  on 
considerable  areas  of  the  sandy  wastes  along  the  coast.  On  the 
Kondapalli  hills  is  found  a  light  wood  known  as  ponuku  (Gyrocarpus 
Jacquini),  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  well-known  Konda- 
palli toys.  In  1903-4  the  forest  receipts  amounted  to  Rs.  1,49,000, 
and  the  working  expenses,  inclusive  of  establishment  charges,  to 
Rs.  74,000. 

Except  building  stones,  among  which  the  marble  used  in  the 
Amaravati  stupa  deserves  special  mention,  the  District  contains  few 
minerals  of  economic  value.  Iron  occurs  in  small  quantities  and  was 
formerly  smelted  by  native  methods  ;  and  copper  used  to  be  found  in 
Vinukonda.  The  most  interesting  mining  operations  which  have  been 
conducted  were  those  in  search  of  diamonds,  before  the  country  came 
into  British  hands.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  when 
the  Sultans  of  Golconda  ruled  over  Kistna,  this  mining  was  carried  on 
extensively  at  Malavalli  and  Gollapalli  in  the  Nuzvid  country,  at  Kolliir 


328  KISTNA    DISTRICT 

in  Sattanapalle,  and  at  Partiala  west  of  Kondapalli.  The  first  two  of 
these  mines  were  still  being  worked  in  1795  when  Dr.  Heyne  visited 
the  spot.  The  earliest  trustworthy  account  of  the  industry  is  that  of 
Tavernier,  the  French  jeweller,  who  visited  the  Kollur  mines  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  says  that  60,000  men  were  at  work  in  them  ; 
and  this  would  account  for  the  ruins  of  extensive  habitations  which 
are  still  to  be  seen  on  what  is  now  a  most  desolate  spot.  He  speaks 
of  a  great  diamond  900  carats  in  weight  being  found  there  and  sent 
to  the  emperor  Aurangzeb.  This  gem  is  supposed  by  some  authors 
to  be  the  famous  Koh-i-nur.  The  Pitt,  or  Regent,  diamond  (now 
among  the  French  crown  jewels)  is  said  in  one  account  to  have 
been  found  at  Partiala,  but  Governor  Pitt  always  kept  the  history  of 
this  stone  a  close  secret. 

Kistna  is  of  importance  from  an  agricultural  rather  than  an  industrial 

point  of  view,  and  the  arts  and  manufactures  in  it  are  few.     All  over 

the   District  the  weaving  of  coarse  cloth    from  the 

communications.  w°o1  of  s^eeP  and  goats  is  carried  on,  but  the  market 
for  the  product  is  purely  local.  Tape  for  cots  is 
made  in  the  Palnad  and  Vinukonda  taluks.  Rough  carpets  are  manu- 
factured at  Vinukonda,  and  mats  at  Ainavolu.  In  former  years  fine 
carpets  were  exported  to  England  from  Masulipatam.  The  price 
charged  by  the  exporters  ranged  from  Rs.  8  to  Rs.  10  per  square  yard. 
The  industry  has  now  fallen  into  decay,  the  few  carpets  that  are  made 
being  of  very  poor  quality.  A  tannery  in  the  town  employs  about  fifty 
hands  and  sends  out  skins  to  the  value  of  about  Rs.  50,000  a  year, 
while  in  a  rice  mill  some  twenty  to  thirty  persons  are  engaged.  The 
silk-weaving  industry  of  Jaggayyapeta  was  once  flourishing,  but  has 
fallen  off  in  late  years,  trade  now  following  the  line  of  the  Nizam's 
Railway.  The  weavers  (who  number  about  fifty  families)  obtain  raw  silk 
from  Mysore  and  dye  it  themselves.  An  inferior  description  of  cloth 
for  women's  saris  is  largely  exported  to  Ellore  and  surrounding  towns. 

At  Bezwada  the  Public  Works  department  workshops  employ  a  daily 
average  of  about  180  hands,  the  maximum  rising  to  300.  At  GuntOr 
there  are  three  steam  cotton-presses  and  two  hand  presses,  each 
employing  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  hands.  A  fourth  steam  press  is 
about  to  be  erected.  Five  cotton-ginning  factories  in  the  town  employ 
about  150  persons,  and  there  are  seven  ginning  factories  in  other  parts 
of  the  District.  At  Kondapalli,  toys  are  largely  manufactured  from 
a  specially  light  wood  (Gyrocarpus  Jacqitini)  found  on  the  hills.  Paper 
used  to  be  made  at  Kondavid,  but  the  industry  has  practically  died  out 
since  1857,  when  the  Government  offices  ceased  to  use  the  paper. 

Kistna  possesses  two  seaports,  Masulipatam  and  Nizampatam.  The 
latter  is  unimportant,  and  the  trade  of  the  former  has  declined  since 
the  opening   of  the  railway  from   Hyderabad  to   Bombay  made  that 


TRADE   AND  COMMUNICATIONS  329 

city  the  port  for  the  Nizam's  Dominions.  The  completion  of  through 
railway  connexion  between  Madras  and  Calcutta  was  a  further  blow ; 
nor  has  Masulipatam  ever  fully  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  great 
inundation  of  1864.  The  sanctioned  railway  from  Bezwada  to  Masuli- 
patam may  revive  its  trade  to  some  extent ;  but  the  port  cannot  be 
called  a  good  one,  large  ships  being  unable  to  approach  within  five 
miles  of  the  shore.  In  1903-4  its  exports  were  valued  at  Rs.  11,85,000 
and  its  imports  at  Rs.  7,57,000.  A  large  proportion  both  of  the  export 
and  the  import  trade  was  with  foreign  countries.  Of  the  former,  goods 
to  the  value  of  Rs.  8,17,000  (mainly  rice)  were  sent  thither;  and  of 
the  latter,  merchandise  valued  at  Rs.  5,48,000  came  from  that  source, 
the  largest  item  being  European  piece-goods. 

Cotton  is  the  main  export  from  the  District  by  rail.  In  1 900-1  the 
presses  at  Guntur  sent  19,000  bales  (of  400  lb.  each)  of  cotton  to 
Cocanada  and  Madras,  of  a  value  ranging  from  Rs.  66  to  Rs.  48  per 
250  lb.  In  the  following  year  29,000  bales  were  dispatched,  but  the 
highest  price  obtainable  was  Rs.  50  and  the  lowest  Rs.  44J.  The 
largest  total  of  any  year  during  the  period  1 882-1 902  was  that  of  1899- 
1900,  when  39,000  bales  were  sent  out  ;  and  the  smallest  that  of 
1886-7,  namely,  17,408  bales.  This  cotton  consists  of  two  grades, 
known  in  the  market  as  fair  red  and  machine-ginned  red  Cocanada. 
It  is  especially  suitable  for  manufacture  into  dyed  fabrics,  its  natural 
colour  taking  the  dye  more  easily  than  the  white  variety.  In  addition 
to  its  use  for  weaving,  it  finds  a  market  for  making  string,  &c. 

In  1901  the  East  Coast  Railway  carried  from  Bezwada  27,500  tons 
of  rice,  principally  to  Madras  city  and  stations  along  the  Madras  and 
South  Indian  Railways.  Bezwada  does  a  large  trade  in  hides-  and 
skins,  the  sales  of  which  amount  at  times  to  a  thousand  per  day. 
Practically  all  of  these  are  first  roughly  dressed  with  salt  and  then  sent 
to  Madras.  Other  exports  of  the  District  are  castor-seeds,  chillies,  and 
tobacco  ;  and  among  imports  are  jaggery  (coarse  sugar),  refined  sugar 
and  spirits  from  the  Samalkot  distillery,  piece-goods  from  Madras,  and 
kerosene  oil  from  the  same  city  and  from  Cocanada.  The  chief 
mercantile  caste  are  the  Komatis,  but  the  skin  trade  of  Bezwada  is 
carried  on,  as  elsewhere,  by  the  Labbais,  a  mixed  race  of  Musalmans. 

The  most  important  railway  in  the  District  is  the  East  Coast  line 
of  the  Madras  Railway  (standard  gauge),  which  enters  it  from  Nellore 
at  its  southern  corner  at  Chinna  Ganjam,  runs  through  it  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  for  93^  miles,  and  then  passes  on  into  Godavari. 
The  section  from  Nellore  to  Kistna  Canal  junction  was  opened  in  1897, 
that  on  to  Bezwada  in  1898,  and  that  from  Bezwada  to  Kovvur  in 
1893.  It  crosses  the  Kistna  river  just  below  the  anicut  on  a  girder- 
bridge  of  twelve  spans  of  300  feet  each.  Bezwada  is  also  the  terminus 
of  the  Nizam's  Guaranteed  State  Railway  and  of  the  Southern  Mahratta 


330  KISTNA   DISTRICT 

Railway.  The  former  line,  which  was  opened  in  1889,  crosses  the 
District  frontier  at  Gangineni,  2\\  miles  from  Bezwada.  It  is  also  on 
the  standard  gauge.  The  section  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway 
(metre  gauge)  from  Cumbum  to  Tadepalli  was  opened  in  1889,  and 
that  from  Tadepalli  to  Bezwada  in  1894.  The  length  of  the  line  within 
the  District  is  79  miles.  A  line  is  under  construction  from  Bezwada 
to  Masulipatam ;  and  other  lines  have  been  projected  from  Guntur  to 
Repalle  via  Tenali,  and  from  Phirangipuram  on  the  Southern  Mahratta 
Railway  to  Guruzala,  by  way  of  Sattanapalle. 

The  length  of  the  metalled  roads  is  709  miles,  and  of  unmetalled 
roads  449  miles.  With  the  exception  of  22  miles  of  the  latter,  which 
are  under  the  charge  of  the  Public  Works  department,  all  are  main- 
tained by  the  local  boards.  There  are  avenues  of  trees  along  694  miles. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Kistna  river  the  two  chief  roads  are  that 
from  Masulipatam  to  the  Hyderabad  frontier  via  Bezwada  and  Nandi- 
gama,  and  that  from  Masulipatam  to  Nuzvld  via  Gudivada;  and  these 
are  connected  by  various  branches,  partly  metalled  and  partly  not.  On 
the  western  side  of  the  river  there  are  five  principal  lines,  chief  of  which 
is  the  great  northern  road  which  runs  from  Sltanagaram  to  Madras  via 
Guntur  and  Chilkalurpet.  The  southern  portion  of  this  part  of  the 
District,  including  portions  of  the  Tenali  and  Bapatla  taluks,  is  badly 
in  need  of  metalled  roads,  and  attempts  are  being  made  to  remedy 
this  defect. 

Since  the  District  came  under  British  administration  only  one  serious 

famine  has  been  recorded,  in  1833.     This  affected  other  areas  also, 

but  is  known  as  the  Guntur  famine  in  consequence  of 

Famine.  .^  sever|ty  m  the  ol(j  Quntur  District,  which  formerly 

occupied  the  south  of  Kistna  District.  There  150,000  persons  were 
estimated  to  have  died  from  want,  and  the  loss  of  revenue  was  very 
great  in  1833  and  the  succeeding  years.  In  the  great  famine  ot 
1876-8  Kistna  suffered  but  little  in  comparison  with  tracts  farther 
south.  The  average  number  of  persons  on  relief  was  only  about  5,000. 
Including  remissions  of  revenue,  the  distress  cost  the  state  l\  lakhs. 
Since  the  irrigation  system  from  the  Kistna  was  completed,  the  delta 
has  not  only  been  free  from  famine  itself  but  has  supplied  other  Dis- 
tricts with  its  surplus  grain.  In  the  upland  tract,  however,  severe 
distress  may  still  be  caused  locally  by  the  failure  of  the  seasonal  rains. 
In  1900  a  few  relief  works  were  opened  in  the  Vinukonda  and 
Narasaraopet  taluks,  but  no  serious  scarcity  occurred. 

For  purposes  of  administration  Kistna  is  divided  into  four  subdivi- 
sions: namely,  Guntur,  Bezwada,  Narasaraopet,  and  Masulipatam1. 

1  Since  the  limits  of  the  District  were  altered  (see  p.  319),  the  number  of  subdi- 
visions is  now  five— Ellore,  Bezwada,  Nartvsapur,  Gudivada,  and  Masulipatam 
— as  shown  in  the  several  articles  on  them. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3  3 1 

Of  these,  the  two  former,  which  comprise  respectively  the  Guntur, 
Bapatla,  Tenali,  and  Sattanapalle  taluks  and  the  Bezwada,  Nuzvid, 
Nandigama,  and  Tiruvur  taluks,  are  ordinarily  in  the  . 

charge  of  Covenanted  Civilians.  Narasaraopet,  which 
is  made  up  of  the  Vinukonda,  Narasaraopet,  and  Palnad  taluks,  is 
under  a  Deputy-Collector  ;  and  the  Masulipatam  subdivision,  which 
contains  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  the  residence  of  the 
Collector,  and  comprises  the  Bandar  and  Gudivada  taluks,  is  also 
under  a  Deputy-Collector.  There  is  a  tahsildar  at  the  head-quarters 
of  each  taluk  with  the  exception  of  Tiruvur,  where  a  deputy-laksilddr 
is  posted ;  and,  except  at  Tiruvur,  Vinukonda,  and  Nandigama,  there 
is  a  stationary  sub-magistrate  at  each  of  these  stations.  Deputy-/a/m7- 
dars  are  also  stationed  at  Repalle,  Ponnuru,  Mangalagiri,  Macherla, 
Kaikalur,  Avanigedda,  and  Jaggayyapeta.  The  superior  staff  of  the 
District  consists  of  the  usual  officers,  but  in  addition  to  the  District 
Medical  and  Sanitary  officer  (whose  head-quarters  are  at  Masulipatam) 
a  Civil  Surgeon  is  stationed  at  Guntur. 

Civil  justice  is  administered  by  seven  District  Munsifs,  stationed  at 
Tenali,  Guntur,  Bapatla,  Narasaraopet,  Gudivada,  Masulipatam,  and 
Bezwada ;  a  Sub-Judge  at  Masulipatam  ;  and  the  District  Court  at  the 
same  place.  The  District,  especially  the  Bezwada  subdivision,  abounds 
in  zam'indaris,  and  consequently  the  number  of  rent  suits  is  large. 
House-breaking,  ordinary  theft,  and  cattle  theft  are  the  commonest 
offences,  but  Kistna  is  not  in  any  way  notoriously  criminal.  Dacoities 
are  perhaps  somewhat  more  numerous  than  in  the  adjoining  Districts. 
In  1 90 1,  at  Jaggarlamudi  in  the  Bapatla  taluk,  more  than  a  lakh  of 
rupees  worth  of  property  (chiefly  cash)  was  stolen  from  the  house 
of  a  Komati  woman  by  a  large  gang  of  robbers.  Crime  is  usually 
the  work  of  the  wandering  gangs  of  criminal  tribes,  which  consist 
chiefly  of  Kuravans  and  Lambadis.  Latterly  scarcity  has  prevailed 
for  a  number  of  years  in  Hyderabad,  and  this  has  had  the  effect 
of  driving  a  number  of  bad  characters  from  that  State  into  British 
territory. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  system  of  revenue  administration  followed  by 
the  Hindu  rulers  of  the  country  before  the  Muhammadan  conquest 
is  very  limited.  Then,  as  now,  there  was  a  headman  in  each  village 
to  collect,  and  an  accountant  to  record,  the  items  of  revenue,  but  how 
the  assessments  were  calculated  is  obscure.  Under  the  Muhammadans, 
who  acquired  the  country  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  revenues  were 
at  first  for  the  most  part  collected  and  accounted  for  by  Hindu 
officials,  save  in  the  case  of  the  haveli  land,  or  tracts  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  military  posts  intended  for  the  maintenance  of  troops 
and  Muhammadan  officers.  When  the  Muhammadan  rule  became 
lax,  these  Hindu  officials,  whose  posts  were  usually  hereditary,  began 

vol.  xv.  v 


332  KISTNA   DISTRICT 

to  call  themselves  zamindars  and  to  act  as  if  they  were  independent 
princes,  and  in  the  course  of  time  they  compounded  the  revenue 
demand  against  their  respective  charges  for  a  fixed  sum.  The  Com- 
pany's officers,  who  found  these  zamindars  in  possession  when  they 
took  over  the  country,  fell  into  the  mistake  of  regarding  them  as 
holders  of  feudatory  estates,  paying  a  tribute  to  their  suzerain,  and 
furnishing  troops  in  times  of  war.  They  left  them  undisturbed,  and 
much  mismanagement  and  oppression  resulted. 

In  1802,  when  the  permanent  settlement  was  introduced  into  the 
District,  the  peshkash  or  amount  to  be  paid  by  each  zaminddr  was  fixed 
at  two-thirds  of  half  the  gross  profits  of  the  land,  this  half  being 
supposed  to  be  the  share  paid  them  by  the  cultivators.  The  haveli 
land  was  divided  into  estates,  which  were  sold  and  similarly  brought 
under  the  permanent  settlement.  The  Palnad  taluk,  which,  as  has 
been  mentioned  above,  was  not  acquired  till  later,  was  treated 
differently,  the  villages  being  rented  out  for  terms  of  years  until  1820, 
when  this  system  gave  place  to  a  partial  ryotwdri  settlement. 

The  zamlndari  system  proved  an   utter  failure  ;    extravagance  and 
litigation  on  the  part  of  the  zamindars,  and  in  some  cases  the  fixing 
of  the  peshkash  at  too  high  a  figure,  led  first  to  the  Collector  being 
compelled    to   assume  the  management  of  many    of  the  estates,   and 
then  to  these  being  sold  and  bought  in  by  Government.     By  1850  the 
greater  portion  of  the  country  was  no  longer  under  zamlndari  tenure. 
In  the  estates  in  the  south  of  the  District  four  different  revenue  systems 
obtained:  namely,  (1)  ijdra,  or  rent  by  auction;  (2)  makta,  or  fixed 
village  rents ;  (3)  the  sharing  system  ;  and  (4)  a  system  partly  makta 
and  partly  sharing.     The  endeavours  of  Government   were   directed 
towards  the  extension  to  all  parts  of  the  makta  system,  by  which  the 
village  demand  was  fixed  on  a  consideration  of  the  average  collections 
of  former  years,  the  ryots  themselves  arranging  the  proportion  of  the 
total  demand  that  each  should  bear.     The  result,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  was  unsatisfactory  and  the  country  deteriorated.     In  1857 
the  ryotwdri  system,  which  had  already  been  adopted  in  Palnad,  was 
introduced  in  a  partial  fashion   for  the  'dry'  lands  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  District.     Between  1866  and  1874  a  systematic  survey 
and  a  settlement  were  made,  and  the  ryotwdri  tenure  brought  into 
force  in  all  Government  land.     The  survey  showed  that  the  areas  of 
the  holdings  were  understated  in  the  accounts  by  7  per  cent.,  and  the 
settlement  enhanced  the  revenue  by  16  per  cent.     The  settlement  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  District  is  now  under  revision.     In  this  the 
'  dry '  rates  vary  at  present  from  4  annas  to  Rs.  4-4  per  acre,  and  the 
'wet'  rates  from  Rs.  1-12  to  Rs.  7-8,  a  uniform  water  rate  of  Rs.  5 
per  acre  being  charged  in  addition.     The  average  assessment  here  on 
'  dry '  land  is  Rs.  2  and  on  '  wet '  land  Rs.  5  per  acre.     In  the  northern 


ADMINISTRA  TION  335 

half  of  the  District  the  average  assessments   are  respectively  Rs.  1-4 
and  Rs.  4  per  acre. 

The  revenue  from  land  and  the  total  revenue  in  recent  years  are 
given  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880--1. 

1 890- 1. 

1900-1. 

i9°3-4- 

67.34 
95,06 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

49.37 
55.35 

59.50 
69-r3 

75,94 
95,15 

Owing  to  territorial  changes,  the  land  revenue  demand  is  now  about 
Rs.  65,70,000. 

There  are  three  municipalities  in  the  District :  namely,  Guntur  and 
Masulipatam,  both  established  in  1866,  and  Bezwada,  in  1888.  Out- 
side these  towns  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board 
and  the  four  taluk  boards  of  Masulipatam,  G\mtur,  Bezwada,  and 
Narasaraopet,  the  areas  in  charge  of  which  correspond  with  the 
revenue  subdivisions  above  mentioned.  The  total  expenditure  of  these 
bodies  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  7,81,000,  much  of  which  was  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  and  construction  of  roads  and  buildings.  The  chief  source 
of  income  is  the  land  cess.  The  local  affairs  of  twenty-five  smaller 
towns  are  managed  by  Unions  established  under  Act  V  of  1884.  Ten 
of  these  Unions  are  within  the  limits  of  the  Guntur  subdivision,  while 
Bezwada  contains  six,  Masulipatam  five,  and  Narasaraopet  four. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  his  head-quarters  at 
Masulipatam,  and  an  Assistant  Superintendent  is  stationed  at  Guntur. 
There  are  84  police  stations,  and  the  number  of  constables  is  970, 
working  under  16  inspectors.  The  reserve  police  at  Masulipatam  con- 
sists of  85  constables  and  9  head  constables.  The  total  strength  of  the 
force  is  1,107.  The  number  of  talaiydris,  or  rural  police,  is  now  1,628  ; 
but  it  is  proposed  to  reduce  them  to  1,478  at  the  forthcoming  revision 
of  the  village  establishments. 

Kistna  contains  no  District  jail,  convicts  being  sent  to  the  Central 
jail  at  Rajahmundry  ;  but  there  are  twenty  subsidiary  jails,  with  accom- 
modation for  341  prisoners. 

The  Census  of  1901  showed  that  9-2  per  cent,  of  the  males  and 
0-7  per  cent,  of  the  females  of  Kistna  were  able  to  read  and  write. 
Of  the  total  population,  5  per  cent,  possessed  this  accomplishment,  and 
the  District  takes  the  thirteenth  place  in  the  Presidency  in  the  literacy 
of  its  people.  Education  is  most  widely  diffused  in  Bandar,  the  head- 
quarters taluk,  and  in  Guntur.  The  actual  number  of  educated  persons 
in  Vinukonda  and  Tiruvur  is  small,  but  in  proportion  to  the  population 
the  proportion  is  not  lower  than  in  the  other  taluks.  In  1 880-1  the 
total  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  in  the  District  was  16,536;  in 
1890-1,  36,735;  in  1900-1,  46,837;  and  in  1903-4,  54,181,  of  whom 

Y   2 


334  KISTNA    DISTRICT 

10,346  were  girls.  On  March  31,  1904,  there  were  in  the  District  1,895 
educational  institutions,  of  which  1,628  were  classed  as  public  and  267 
as  private.  Of  the  former,  1,586  were  primary  schools,  secondary  schools 
numbering  31,  and  training  and  other  special  schools  9.  There  was  an 
Arts  college  at  Masulipatam  and  another  at  Guntur.  Nineteen  schools 
were  under  the  control  of  Government,  the  municipalities  and  the  local 
boards  managing  respectively  22  and  242.  Aid  from  public  funds  was 
granted  to  817  schools,  while  528  were  unaided  but  conformed  to  the 
rules  of  the  department.  Of  the  boys  of  school-going  age  on  March  31, 
1904,  22  per  cent,  were  receiving  primary  instruction;  and  of  the  girls 
of  similar  age,  6  per  cent.  For  Musalmans  alone  the  corresponding 
percentages  were  42  and  12  respectively.  In  the  same  year  5,309  Pan- 
chama  scholars  were  receiving  instruction  in  584  schools  specially  kept 
up  for  them.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in  the  District  in 
1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,36,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,14,000  was  derived 
from  fees.  Of  the  total,  Rs.  2,07,000  was  devoted  to  primary  instruc- 
tion. 

Kistna  possesses  14  hospitals  and  8  dispensaries.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  hospitals  at  Bezwada,  Musulipatam,  and  Guntur,  and  the 
dispensary  for  women  and  children  at  Masulipatam,  which  are  municipal 
undertakings,  all  these  institutions  are  supported  from  Local  funds. 
Accommodation  is  provided  for  148  in-patients,  and  in  1903  there  were 
1,793  sucri  cases,  the  average  daily  number  in  hospital  being  80. 
Counting  both  in-  and  out-patients,  the  number  of  persons  treated  was 
257,494,  and  the  number  of  operations  performed  was  6,990.  The 
total  expenditure  was  Rs.  56,000,  of  which  practically  the  whole  was 
defrayed  from  Local  and  municipal  funds. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  23  per 
1,000  of  the  population,  the  mean  for  the  Presidency  being  30.  Vacci- 
nation is  compulsory  in  the  three  municipalities,  and  has  been  made  so 
in  seven  Unions  since  the  beginning  of  1903. 

[For  further  particulars  see  the  Manual  of  the  Kistna  District,  by 
Gordon  Mackenzie  (1883).] 

Kistna  River  (Sanskrit,  Krishna,  'the  black'). — A  great  river  of 
Southern  India,  which,  like  the  Godavari  and  Cauvery,  flows  almost 
across  the  Peninsula  from  west  to  east.  In  traditional  sanctity  it  is 
surpassed  by  both  these  rivers,  and  in  actual  length  by  the  Godavari ; 
but  the  area  of  its  drainage,  including  its  two  great  tributaries,  the 
Bhima  and  Tungabhadra,  is  the  largest  of  the  three.  Its  total  length 
is  about  800  miles,  and  the  total  area  of  its  catchment  basin  about 
97,000  square  miles. 

The  Kistna  rises  about  40  miles  from  the  Arabian  Sea(i7°  59'  N. 
and  730  38'  E.)  in  the  Western  Ghats  just  north  of  the  hill  station  of 
Mahabaleshwar,  and  flows  southwards,  skirting  the  eastern  spurs  of  the 


KISTNA   RIVER  335 

hills,  past  Karad  (Satara  District),  where  it  receives  on  the  right  bank 
the  Koyna  from  the  western  side  of  the  Mahabaleshwar  hills,  and 
Sangli,  where  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Varna,  also  from  the  west, 
until  it  reaches  Kurundvad,  when  the  Panchganga  joins  it,  again  on  the 
right  bank.  The  river  then  turns  eastward  and  flows  through  Belgaum 
District,  the  States  of  the  Southern  Maratha  Agency,  and  Bijapur,  into 
the  Nizam's  Dominions,  after  a  course  of  about  300  miles  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency.  In  Bijapur  District  it  is  joined  on  the  right  bank 
by  the  Ghatprabha  and  Malprabha  from  the  Western  Ghats.  Near 
the  hills  the  channel  is  too  rocky  and  the  stream  too  swift  for  naviga- 
tion, but  its  waters  are  largely  used  for  irrigation  in  Satara  District  and 
in  the  more  open  country  to  the  south-east.  In  Belgaum  and  Bijapur 
its  banks  of  black  soil  or  laterite  are  20  to  50  feet  high,  especially 
on  the  south  side,  and  the  stream  forms  many  islands  covered  with 
babul  bushes. 

On  entering  the  Nizam's  Dominions  (at  Echampet  in  Raichur 
District)  the  Kistna  drops  from  the  table-land  of  the  Deccan  proper 
down  to  the  alluvial  doabs  of  Shorapur  and  Raichur.  The  fall  is  as 
much  as  408  feet  in  about  3  miles.  In  time  of  flood  a  mighty  volume 
of  water  rushes  with  a  great  roar  over  a  succession  of  broken  ledges 
of  granite,  dashing  up  a  lofty  column  of  spray.  The  first  of  the  doabs 
mentioned  above  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Bhima,  which 
brings  down  the  drainage  of  Ahmadnagar,  Poona,  and  Sholapur  ;  the 
second  by  the  confluence  of  the  Tungabhadra,  which  drains  the  north 
of  Mysore  and  the  '  Ceded  Districts '  of  Bellary  and  Kurnool.  At  the 
point  of  junction  with  the  Tungabhadra  in  the  eastern  corner  of  Raichur 
District,  the  Kistna  again  strikes  upon  British  territory,  and  forms  for 
a  considerable  distance  the  boundary  between  the  eastern  portion  of 
Hyderabad  and  the  Kurnool  and  Guntur  Districts  of  Madras.  Its  bed 
is  here  for  many  miles  a  deep,  rocky  channel,  with  a  rapid  fall,  winding 
in  a  north-easterly  direction  through  the  spurs  of  the  Nallamalai  range 
and  other  smaller  hills.  At  Wazirabad  in  Nalgonda  District  it  receives 
its  last  important  tributary,  the  Musi,  on  whose  banks  stands  the  city 
of  Hyderabad.  The  total  course  of  the  river  within  and  along  the 
State  of  Hyderabad  is  about  400  miles. 

On  reaching  the  chain  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  the  river  turns  sharply 
south-eastwards  and  flows  for  about  100  miles  between  the  Kistna  and 
Guntur  Districts  (formerly  the  Kistna  District)  of  Madras  direct  to  the* 
sea,  which  it  enters  by  two  principal  mouths.  It  is  in  this  last  part  of 
its  course  that  the  Kistna  is  for  the  first  time  largely  utilized  for 
irrigation.  From  the  point  where  it  turns  southwards  the  rate  of  fall  of 
its  channel  drops  rapidly  from  an  average  of  3^  feet  a  mile  to  r^  feet, 
and  eventually,  as  it  nears  the  sea,  to  as  little  as  from  7  to  9  inches. 
The  enormous  mass  of  silt  it  carries — which  has  been  estimated  to  be 


336  KISTNA   RIVER 

sufficient  in  flood-time  to  cover  daily  an  area  of  5  square  miles  to  a 
depth  of  r  foot — has  consequently  in  the  course  of  ages  been  deposited 
in  the  form  of  a  wide  alluvial  delta  which  runs  far  out  into  the  sea  and 
slopes  gradually  away  from  either  bank  of  the  river,  with  an  average  fall 
of  18  inches  to  the  mile.  At  Bezwada,  at  the  head  of  this  delta,  the 
Kistna  runs  through  a  gap  1,300  yards  in  width  in  a  low  range  of 
gneissic  hills,  and  here  a  great  masonry  dam  has  been  thrown  across 
the  river  and  turns  its  waters  into  a  network  of  irrigation  channels  which 
spread  throughout  the  delta.  (See  Kistna  Canals.)  Immediately 
below  the  dam  the  river  is  also  crossed  by  the  East  Coast  line  of  the 
Madras  Railway  on  a  girder-bridge  of  twelve  spans  of  300  feet.  The 
flood  velocity  of  the  Kistna  at  this  point  is  about  6^  miles  an  hour,  and 
the  flood  discharge  has  been  estimated  to  reach  the  enormous  figure 
of  761,000  cubic  feet  a  second. 

The  Kistna  is  too  rapid  for  navigation  above  the  dam,  but  between 
Bezwada  and  its  mouth  sea-going  native  craft  ply  upon  it  for  about  six 
months  in  the  year.  The  main  irrigation  canals  are  also  navigable, 
and  connect  Kistna  District  with  its  northern  neighbour  Godavari, 
and,  by  means  of  the  Buckingham  Canal,  with  the  country  to  the 
southwards  and  the  city  of  Madras. 

Kistna  Canals. — The  canal  system  of  the  Kistna  delta  depends 
upon  the  masonry  dam  which  has  been  thrown  across  the  river  at  the 
head  of  the  delta  at  Bezwada  in  Kistna  District,  Madras,  where  the 
stream  flows  through  a  gap  1,300  yards  wide  in  a  low  range  of  hills. 
This  point  is  about  45  miles  from  the  sea  in  a  direct  line,  and  below  it 
the  river  flows  in  a  channel  which  is  at  a  somewhat  higher  level  than  the 
surrounding  country.  The  dam  was  begun  in  1853,  subsequent  to  that 
across  the  Godavari,  and  was  finished  in  1854.  Its  length  from  wing 
to  wing  is  3,714  feet,  or  between  5  and  6  furlongs,  and  it  rises  20  feet 
above  the  bed  of  the  river.  It  is  built  on  masonry  wells,  is  vertical  on 
the  down-stream  side  and  slopes  gradually  upwards  on  the  other.  At 
the  top  it  is  6  feet  wide  and  has  a  coping  of  cut  stone.  Below  it  is  an 
apron  of  rough  stone  250  feet  wide,  part  of  which  is  held  in  place  by 
a  retaining  wall  built  right  across  the  stream.  On  either  flank  are 
scouring  sluices  to  keep  free  from  silt  the  heads  of  the  canals  which 
take  off  from  the  dam.  The  system  includes  ten  principal  canals,  and 
they  and  their  branches  lead  to  every  part  of  the  delta,  and  connect  on 
the  north  with  the  Godavari  Canals  and  on  the  south  with  the 
Buckingham  Canal.  There  are  372  miles  of  main  canal,  307  of  which 
are  navigable,  and  1,630  miles  of  smaller  distributaries.  In  1903-4 
616,760  acres,  or  964  square  miles,  of  Government  land  (in  addition  to 
a  large  area  in  zamhidaris,  for  which  there  are  no  accurate  statistics) 
were  irrigated  by  this  system.  The  total  capital  cost  amounted  to  149 
lakhs  and  the  net  revenue  was  19  lakhs,  representing  an  interest  on 


KOD  337 

the  capital  of  nearly  13  per  cent.  Full  particulars  will  be  found 
in  Mr.  G.  T.  Walch's  Engineering  Works  of  the  Kistna  Delta  (Madras, 
1899). 

Kittur. — Village  and  fort  in  the  Sampgaon  taluka  of  Belgaum 
District,  Bombay,  situated  in  150  36'  N.  and  740  48'  E.,  26  miles  south- 
east of  Belgaum  town.  Population  (1901),  4,922.  A  stone  in  a  temple 
at  this  place  preserves  an  interesting  record  of  a  trial  by  ordeal  in  11 88. 
The  Desais  of  Kittur  were  descended  from  two  brothers  who  acted 
as  bankers  with  the  Bijapur  army  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  For  their  services  they  obtained  a  grant  of  Hubli,  and  their 
fifth  successor  established  himself  at  Kittur.  On  the  fall  of  the  Peshwa, 
the  place  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  But  in  181 8,  when 
General  Munro  was  besieging  the  fort  of  Belgaum,  the  Desai  of  Kittur 
gave  great  assistance,  and  in  return  was  allowed  to  retain  possession  of 
the  village.  The  Desai  died  in  1824  without  issue.  An  attempt  was 
subsequently  made  to  prepare  a  forged  deed  of  adoption,  which  led  to 
an  outbreak,  in  which  the  Political  Agent  and  Collector,  Mr.  Thackeray, 
was  killed  and  his  two  Assistants  imprisoned.  The  prisoners  were 
afterwards  released,  but  the  fort  was  not  surrendered  until  it  had  been 
attacked  and  breached,  with  a  loss  of  3  killed  and  25  wounded. 
Among  the  killed  was  Mr.  Munro,  Sub-Collector  of  Sholapur,  and 
a  nephew  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro.  Kittur  then  finally  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  British,  although  another  rising  occurred  in  1829,  which 
was  not  suppressed  without  difficulty.  Bi-weekly  markets  are  held  here, 
at  which  cotton,  cloth,  and  grain  are  sold.  Weaving  and  glass  bangle 
making  are  the  sole  industries.  The  fort  is  still  standing,  though  in 
a  ruined  condition.  Kittur  contains  3  boys'  schools  with  222  pupils 
and  2  girls'  schools  with  104. 

Kiunthal. — One  of  the  Simla  Hill  States,  Punjab.     See  Keoxthal. 

Klangdong. — Upper  reaches  of  the  Dhaleswari  river,  in  Assam. 

Koch. — Tribe  in  Cooch  Behar  State,  Bengal.     See  Cooch  Behar. 

Kod. — Southernmost  taluka  of  Dharwar  District,  Bombay,  lying  be- 
tween 140  17'  and  i4°43/  N.  and  750  10'  and  750  38'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  400  square  miles.  There  are  176  villages,  but  no  town.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  96,245,  compared  with  84,427  in  1891.  The  density, 
241  persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost  equal  to  the  District  average. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2-03  lakhs,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  15,000.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Hirekerur.  The  taluka  is  dotted 
with  small  hills  and  ponds.  A  considerable  portion  is  well  watered, 
and  covered  with  sugar-cane  fields  and  areca  palms.  The  soil  is  chiefly 
red,  black  soil  occurring  in  a  few  villages  in  the  east.  The  north  and 
west  are  studded  with  small  hills  and  knolls,  and  the  south  is  also  hilly. 
The  Tungabhadra  touches  a  few  villages  in  the  south-east  corner ;  the 
Kumadvati,  rising  in  Mysore,  flows  east  across  the  taluka.    Kod  is  cool 


338  KOD 

and  healthy  in  the  hot  months,  but  very  malarious  during  the  cold 
season.  The  Madag  tank,  fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Kumadvati  river, 
once  a  work  of  first-class  importance  but  now  fallen  into  disrepair, 
irrigates  922  acres. 

Kodachadri. — Mountain  in  the  Nagar  taluk  of  Shimoga  District, 
Mysore,  situated  in  130  51'  N.  and  740  52'  E.,  4,411  feet  high.  It 
rises  more  than  2,000  feet  above  the  villages  below,  and  is  clothed  with 
splendid  forests.  The  top  of  the  hill  is  a  narrow  ridge,  only  12  feet 
across  in  many  places,  and  with  a  precipice  on  either  side.  On  the  west 
the  hill  descends  almost  perpendicularly  for  4,000  feet,  with  the  Kanara 
forests  spread  out  below.  The  sea  appears  quite  close,  and  the  bay 
and  town  of  Coondapoor  lie  opposite.  On  the  hill  is  a  temple  to  the 
Huli  Deva  or  'tiger-god,'  whose  image  is  provided  with  thirty-two  arms. 

Kodagu. — Vernacular  name  of  Coorg. 

Kodaikanal  Taluk. — Minor  taluk  in  the  Dindigul  subdivision 
of  Madura  District,  Madras.  Its  limits  correspond  roughly  with  the 
Palni  Hills,  but  their  exact  area  has  not  been  ascertained.  The 
head-quarters  are  the  hill  station  of  Kodaikanal  (population,  1,912), 
and  the  taluk  contains,  in  addition,  15  small  hill  villages.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  19,677,  compared  with  18,380  in  1891.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs- 
42,000.  Cultivation  is  carried  on  along  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  and 
in  some  places  presents  a  most  picturesque  appearance,  owing  to  the 
numerous  terraces  which  have  been  formed  down  the  slopes  of  the 
hills,  either  to  obtain  sufficiently  level  ground  or  to  render  the  hill 
torrents  available  for  irrigation.  Among  special  products  may  be 
mentioned  wheat,  garlic,  coffee,  and  cardamoms.  The  rice  produced 
is  of  a  coarse  quality  and  takes  between  eight  and  ten  months  to  ripen. 
Plantains  are  largely  cultivated  in  the  villages  among  the  lower  Palnis, 
and  numerous  herds  of  cattle  are  tended  by  the  villagers  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  range.  Education  is  backward  among  the  people,  and  is 
promoted  almost  entirely  by  the  Jesuit  and  American  Missions.  The 
sanitation  of  the  villages  is  more  than  usually  defective. 

Kodaikanal  Town  ('Forest  of  creepers'). — Head-quarters  ot  the 
taluk  of  the  same  name  in  Madura  District,  Madras,  situated  in 
io°  14'  N.  and  770  29'  E.,  on  the  Palni  Hills.  Formerly  an  insig- 
nificant hamlet  of  Vilpatti  village,  it  is  now  one  of  the  largest  sanitaria 
in  the  Presidency.  The  population  according  to  the  Census  of  1901 
was  only  1,912;  but  this  enumeration  was  made  in  the  cold  season, 
before  the  influx  of  the  numerous  hot-season  visitors  and  their  following 
had  begun.  Kodaikanal  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1899.  The 
municipal  receipts  and  expenditure  in  1903-4  were  Rs.  10,700  and 
Rs.  9,900  respectively,  most  of  the  former  being  derived  from  the  taxes 
On  land  and  houses.     A  scheme  for  supplying  the  place  with  water,  at 


KODANGAL    TALUK  339 

a  cost  of  Rs.  63,000,  is  under  consideration.  The  station  contains 
three  churches,  a  school  for  European  boys  and  girls  managed  by  the 
American  Mission,  and  a  municipal  hospital. 

The  sanitarium  stands  about  7,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  houses 
of  the  European  residents  are  picturesquely  grouped  about  a  natural 
theatre  of  hills  surrounding  an  artificial  lake  which  has  been  constructed 
at  the  bottom  of  a  beautiful  little  valley,  or  on  the  cliff  which  overhangs 
the  ghat  road  leading  up  from  the  low  country  from  Periyakulam. 
The  temperature  of  the  station  is  similar  to  that  of  Ootacamund,  but 
somewhat  milder ;  and,  as  the  rainfall  is  lighter  and  the  atmospheric 
conditions  more  equable  than  those  of  the  Nilgiris,  the  climate  of  the 
place  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  India.  Round  about 
Kodaikanal  are  grassy  rolling  downs,  with  beautiful  little  woods  nestling 
in  their  hollows  and  perennial  streams  flowing  through  them,  very 
similar  to,  though  somewhat  steeper  than,  those  about  Ootacamund. 
The  place  is  thus  capable  of  considerable  extension,  and  its  develop- 
ment is  at  present  mainly  retarded  by  the  lack  of  easy  means  of 
communication  with  the  low  country  and  the  railway.  The  journey 
from  the  nearest  railway  station,  Ammayanayakkanur  on  the  South 
Indian  line,  to  the  foot  of  the  hill  where  the  bridle-path  up  the  ghat 
begins,  a  distance  of  33  miles,  is  made  in  bullock-carts.  The  bridle- 
path makes  an  ascent  of  about  6,000  feet  in  n  miles,  and  is  quite 
impracticable  for  any  wheeled  vehicles.  Visitors  have  either  to  ride 
or  be  carried  up  in  chairs.  The  want  of  a  cart-road  also  occasions 
difficulties  in  bringing  up  articles  from  the  low  country.  A  driving 
road  through  the  lower  Palnis  and  a  light  railway  through  the 
Periyakulam  valley  have  been  suggested  as  means  of  improving  these 
communications,  and  a  trace  for  a  ghat  road  from  the  Palni  side  has 
been  made  out.     Want  of  funds  has  prevented  its  execution. 

Near  the  station  is  the  Kodaikanal  Observatory,  which  is  placed 
7,700  feet  above  sea-level.  Under  the  scheme  for  the  reorganization  of 
Indian  observatories  which  came  into  operation  in  1889,  the  chief  part 
of  the  Madras  Observatory  was  transferred  to  Kodaikanal,  the  place 
being  preferred  to  Ootacamund  on  account  of  its  greater  freedom  from 
mist  and  cloud,  and  the  former  Government  Astronomer  became 
Director  of  the  Kodaikanal  and  Madras  Observatories.  The  appliances 
and  powers  of  this  observatory  are  now  directed  to  the  prosecution 
of  inquiry  in  the  sciences  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  meteorology,  and 
seismology,  and  to  astronomical  observations  for  the  purpose  of  time- 
keeping, but  chiefly  to  the  important  subject  of  solar  physics. 

About  1,000  feet  below  Kodaikanal,  at  Shembaganur,  is  a  Jesuit 
college  containing  65  students,  who  undergo  a  course  of  training  for 
seven  years  in  preparation  for  the  priesthood. 

Kodangal  Taluk. — Eastern  taluk  of  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad 


340  KODANGAL    TALUK 

State,  with  an  area  of  211  square  miles  and  population  in  1901  of 
62,091,  including  jagirs,  compared  with  67,983  in  1891.  It  had 
three  towns,  Kodangal  (population,  5,099),  the  head-quarters,  Tandur 
(5,930),  and  Kosgi  (8,228);  and  95  villages,  of  which  35  are  jagir. 
The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  t-i  lakhs.  In  1905  the  taluk  was 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  59  villages  from  Gurmatkal  and  15  from 
Koilkonda  in  Mahbubnagar,  while  it  lost  21  villages  to  Chincholi. 
Rice  is  grown  largely  by  tank-irrigation.  The  two  jagir  taluks,  Tandur 
and  Kosgi,  with  62  and  11  villages,  and  23,725  and  15,344  inhabitants 
respectively,  lie  to  the  north  and  south-east.  Tandur  and  Kosgi  are 
their  head-quarter  towns,  while  their  areas  are  202  and  25  square  miles 
respectively. 

Kodangal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name 
in  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  170  7'  N.  and 
770  38'  E.,  12  miles  south  of  Tandur  station  on  the  Nizam's  State 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  5,099.  Besides  the  tahsil  office,  the 
office  of  the  police  inspector,  a  taluk  post  office,  and  a  vernacular  upper 
primary  school  with  232  pupils  are  located  here.  Kodangal  has  a 
mosque  said  to  be  300  years  old. 

Kodangibetta  ('  Elk  hill  ')•— Peak  in  the  east  of  the  Yedenalknad 
taluk  of  Coorg,  Southern  India,  situated  in  120  16'  N.  and  750  58'  E. 

Kodaung. — A  hilly  tract  in  the  north-east  of  the  Mongmit  State,  at 
present  administered  by  a  civil  officer  under  the  control  of  the  Deputy- 
Commissioner  as  a  township  of  the  Ruby  Mines  District,  Upper  Burma. 
It  lies  between  230  5'  and  230  49'  N.  and  960  49'  and  970  38'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  760  square  miles.  It  is  a  mass  of  hills  rising  in  places  to 
a  height  of  7,000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  but  though  the  country  is  rugged, 
communications  are  fairly  good,  for  there  are  usually  mule-tracks  con- 
necting the  villages.  At  one  time  Kodaung  was  entirely  populated  by 
Palaungs ;  but  the  Kachins  began  to  oust  these  hill  people  about  a 
hundred  years  ago,  and  of  the  total  population  (22,127)  in  1901  half 
were  Kachins  and  half  Palaungs.  There  are  303  villages,  the  head- 
quarters being  at  Molo,  on  the  Shweli.  The  law  in  force  is  that  of  the 
Kachin  Hill  Tribes  Regulation,  1895. 

Kodinar. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name,  Amreli 
prant,  Baroda  State,  situated  in  200  47'  N.  and  700  42'  E.  Population 
(1901),  6,664.  It  is  a  walled  town,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Singavada  river,  about  3  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  admin- 
istered by  a  municipality,  which  receives  an  annual  grant  from  the  State 
of  Rs.  1,400 ;  and  it  possesses  Munsif's  and  magistrate's  courts,  a  dis- 
pensary, a  vernacular  school,  and  public  offices.  Trade  is  carried  on 
by  sea  with  Bombay,  Karachi,  Porbandar,  and  Mangrol,  the  principal 
exports  being  cotton,  grain,  and  ghi.  The  imports  are  wheat,  joivar, 
clothes,  spices,  and  dry  goods. 


KOHAT  DISTRICT  341 

Kohat  District.— Central  District  of  the  North-West  Frontier 
Province,  lying  between  320  48'  and  330  45'  N.  and  700  30'  and  720  i'  E.> 
with  an  area  of  2,973  square  miles.  The  District  has  the  shape  of  an 
irregular  rhomboid,  with  one  arm  stretching  north-east  towards  the 
Khwarra-Zira  forest  in  Peshawar  District.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Peshawar  District,  and  by  the  hills  inhabited  by  the  Jowaki  and 
Pass  Afrldis ;  on  the  north-west  by  Orakzai  Tirah  ;  on  the  south- 
west by  Kabul  Khel  territory  (Wazlristan)  :  on  the  south-east  by 
Bannu  and  the  Mianwall  District  of  the  Punjab  ;  and  on  the  east 
by  the  Indus.  Its  greatest  length  is  104  miles,  and  its  greatest 
width  50  miles. 

The  District  consists  of  a  succession  of  ranges  of  broken  hills,  whose 
general   trend  is  east  and  west,  and   between  which  lie  open  valleys, 
seldom   more  than  4  or   5   miles   in   width.     These 
ranges  are  of  no  great  height,  though  several  peaks  aspects 

attain  an  altitude  of  4,700  or  4,900  feet.  As  the 
District  is  generally  elevated,  Hangu  to  the  northward  being  2,800  feet 
and  Kohat,  its  head-quarters,  1,700  feet  above  sea-level,  the  ranges  rise 
to  only  inconsiderable  heights  above  the  plain.  The  general  slope  is 
to  the  east,  towards  the  Indus,  but  on  the  south-west  the  fall  is  towards 
the  west  into  the  Kurram  river.  The  principal  streams  are  the  Kohat 
and  Teri  Tois  ('  streams  '),  both  tributaries  of  the  Indus,  and  the  Shkalai 
which  flows  into  the  Kurram.  The  Kohat  Toi  rises  in  the  Mamozai 
hills.  It  has  but  a  small  perennial  flow,  which  disappears  before  it 
reaches  the  town  of  Kohat,  but  the  stream  reappears  some  miles  lower 
down  and  thence  flows  continuously  to  the  Indus.  The  Teri  Toi 
has  little  or  no  perennial  flow,  and  the  Shkalai  is  also  small,  though 
perennial.  The  most  fertile  part  is  the  Hangu  tahsl/,  which  comprises 
the  valley  of  Lower  and  Upper  Miranzai.  The  rest  of  the  District 
consists  of  ranges  of  hills  much  broken  into  spurs,  ravines,  and  valleys, 
which  are  sometimes  cultivated,  but  more  often  bare  and  sandy. 

The  rocks  of  the  District  belong  chiefly  to  the  Tertiary  system,  and 
consist  of  a  series  of  Upper  and  Middle  Tertiary  sandstones  with  inliers 
of  Nummulitic  limestone.  The  limestones  occur  chiefly  in  the  north, 
while  sandstone  is  more  prominent  to  the  south.  Below  the  Num- 
mulitic beds  is  found  the  most  important  mineral  of  the  District, 
namely,  salt.  It  occurs,  with  bands  of  gypsum  and  red  clay,  below 
the  eocene  rocks  at  various  localities,  but  is  found  in  greatest  quantity 
at  Bahadur  Khel,  where  rock-salt  is  seen  for  a  distance  of  about  8  miles 
and  the  thickness  exposed  exceeds  r,ooo  feet.  The  salt  is  very  pure, 
and  differs  remarkably  in  colour  from  that  of  the  Salt  Range,  being 
usually  grey,  while  that  of  the  latter  area  is  red  or  pink.  There  is  no 
definite  evidence  as  to  its  age,  which  is  usually  regarded  as  Lower 
Tertiary ;  but  the  underlying  rocks  are  not  exposed,  and  it  has  been 


342  KOHAT  DISTRICT 

classed  with  the  overlying  eocene  on  account  of  the  apparent  absence 
of  any  unconformity l. 

The  vegetation  is  composed  chiefly  of  scrub  jungle,  with  a  secondary 
element  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  more  common  plants  are  :  Flacourtia 
sapida,  F.  sepiaria,  several  species  of  Grewia,  Zizyphus  nummularia, 
Acacia  Jacquemontii,  A.  leucophloea,  Alhagi  camelorum,  Crotalaria 
Burliia,  Prosopis  sp/cigera,  several  species  of  Tatnarix,  Nerium  odorinn, 
Rhazya  stricta,  Calotropis  procera,  Periploca  ap/iy//a,  Tecoma  undulata, 
Lycium  europaeum,  Withania  coagi/lans,  W.  somnifera,  Nannorhops 
Ritchieandy  Fagonia,  Tribulus,  Pegamtm  Harma/a,  Calligonum  poly- 
gonoides,  Polygo?atm  aviculare,  P.  plebejam,  Rumex  vesicarii/s,  Chrozo- 
phora  plicata,  and  species  of  Aristida,  Anthistiria,  Cenchrus,  and 
Pennisetum. 

Game  of  all  kinds  is  scarce ;  leopards  are  occasionally  shot  in  the 
hills,  and  twenty  years  ago  were  quite  common.  There  are  practically 
no  deer.  Bears  occasionally  come  down  from  the  Samana  range  to 
Mlranzai  when  the  corn  is  ripe.  Chikor  and  partridges  abound  in 
Mlranzai  and  the  Teri  tahsll,  and  fish  are  abundant  in  the  Kurram  and 
the  Indus. 

The  District  as  a  whole  lies  high  ;  and  the  hot  season,  though  oppres- 
sive, is  short,  and  the  spring  and  autumn  months  are  pleasant.  The 
winter  is  very  cold,  and  a  cutting  west  wind,  known  as  the  '  Hangu 
breeze,'  blows  down  the  Mlranzai  valley  to  Kohat  for  weeks  together. 
Owing  to  the  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  pneumonia  is  common, 
but  malarial  fever  is  the  chief  cause  of  mortality. 

The  monsoon  rains  do  not  usually  penetrate  as  far  as  Kohat,  and  the 
rainfall  is  very  capricious.  The  annual  fall  at  Kohat  averages  18  inches, 
while  the  greatest  fall  since  1882  was  48  inches  at  Fort  Lockhart  on 
the  Samana  in  1900-1,  and  the  least  5  inches  at  Kohat  in  1891-2. 
The  distribution  of  the  rain  is  equally  uncertain,  villages  within  the 
distance  of  a  few  miles  suffering,  some  from  drought  and  some  from 
floods,  at  the  same  time. 

The  first  historical  mention  of  the  District  occurs  in  the  memoirs  of 

the  emperor  Babar.     The  District  was  then,  as  now,  divided  between 

the  Bangash  and   Khattak  branches   of  the  Pathan 
History.  .  °    _  ,  .         .       _,_  _       .       „ 

race,   the    Bangash    occupying   the   Miranzai  valley, 

with  the  western  portion  of  Kohat  proper,  while  the  Khattaks  held  the 
remainder  of  the  eastern  territory  up  to  the  bank  of  the  Indus.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition  the  Bangash  were  driven  from  Gardez  in  the  Ghilzai 
country,  and  settled  in  the  Kurram  valley  about  the  fourteenth  century. 
Thence  they  spread  eastward,  over  the  Mlranzai  and  Kohat  region, 
fighting  for  the  ground  inch  by  inch   with  the   Orakzai,  whom   they 

1  Wynne,  'Trans-Indus  Salt  Region  in  the  Kohat  District,'  Memoirs,  Geological 
Stavey  oj  India,  vol.  xi,  part  ii. 


HISTOR  Y  343 

cooped  up  at  last  in  the  frontier  hills.  The  Khattaks  are  said  to  have 
left  their  native  home  in  the  Sulaiman  mountains  about  the  thirteenth 
century  and  settled  in  Bannu.  Owing  to  a  quarrel  with  the  ancestors 
of  the  Bannuchis,  they  migrated  northward  two  hundred  years  later 
and  occupied  their  present  domains. 

Babar  made  a  raid  through  the  District  in  1505,  being  attracted  by 
a  false  hope  of  plunder,  and  sacked  Kohat  and  Hangu.  The  Mughal 
emperors  were  unable  to  maintain  more  than  a  nominal  control  over 
the  tract.  One  of  the  Khattak  chiefs,  Malik  Akor,  agreed  with  Akbar 
to  protect  the  country  south  of  the  Kabul  river  from  depredations,  and 
received  in  return  a  grant  of  territory  with  the  right  of  levying  tolls  at 
the  Akora  ferry.  He  was  thus  enabled  to  assume  the  chieftainship  of 
his  tribe,  and  to  hand  down  his  authority  to  his  descendants,  who  ruled 
at  Akora,  among  them  being  the  warrior  poet  Khushhal  Khan. 

Kohat  became  part  of  the  Durrani  empire  in  1747,  but  authority  was 
exercised  only  through  the  Banga'sh  and  Khattak  chiefs.  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  Kohat  and  Hangu  formed  a  governorship  under 
Sardar  Samad  Khan,  one  of  the  Barakzai  brotherhood,  whose  leader, 
Dost  Muhammad,  usurped  the  throne  of  Afghanistan.  The  sons  of 
Sardar  Samad  Khan  were  driven  out  about  1828  by  the  Peshawar 
Sardars,  the  principal  of  whom  was  Sultan  Muhammad  Khan.  In  the 
Teri  tahsll,  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the  power  of  Ahmad 
Shah  Durrani,  it  became  the  custom  for  a  junior  member  of  the  Akora 
family  to  rule  as  sub-chief  at  Teri.  This  office  gradually  became 
hereditary,  and  sub-chiefs  ruled  the  western  Khattaks  in  complete 
independence  of  Akora.  The  history  of  affairs  becomes  very  confused  : 
the  Akora  chiefs  were  constantly  interfering  in  Teri  affairs ;  there  were 
generally  two  or  more  rival  claimants  ;  the  chiefship  was  constantly 
changing  hands,  and  assassinations  and  rebellion  were  matters  of  every- 
day occurrence. 

The  Sikhs,  on  occupying  the  country,  found  themselves  unable  to 
levy  revenue  from  the  mountaineers.  Ranjit  Singh  placed  Sultan 
Muhammad  Khan  in  a  position  of  importance  at  Peshawar,  and  made 
him  a  grant  of  Kohat,  Hangu,  and  Teri.  One  Rasul  Khan  became 
chief  of  Teri,  and  on  his  death  in  1843  was  succeeded  by  his  adopted 
son,  Khwaja  Muhammad  Khan.  Meanwhile,  Sultan  Muhammad  Khan 
continued  to  govern  the  rest  of  the  District  through  his  sons,  though 
the  country  was  generally  in  a  disturbed  state,  and  the  upper  Mlranzai 
villages  were  practically  independent.  When  the  Sikh  troops  took  up 
arms  at  Peshawar  on  the  outbreak  of  the  second  Sikh  War,  George 
Lawrence,  the  British  officer  there,  took  refuge  at  Kohat ;  but  Sultan 
Muhammad  Khan  played  him  false,  and  delivered  him  over  as  a 
prisoner  to  the  Sikhs.  At  the  close  of  the  campaign,  Sultan  Muham- 
mad Khan  and  his  adherents  retired  to  Kabul,  and  the  District  with 


344  KOHAT  DISTRICT 

the  rest  of  the  Punjab  was  annexed  to  the  British  dominions.  Khwaja 
Muhammad  Khan  had  taken  the  British  side  and  continued  to  manage 
the  tahsll,  which  was  made  a  perpetual  jdgir.  In  1872  Khwaja  Mu- 
hammad obtained  the  title  of  Nawab  and  was  made  a  K.C.S.I.  He  died 
in  1889  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Khan  Bahadur  Abdul  Ghafur  Khan. 

At  annexation  the  western  boundary  was  left  undefined ;  but  in 
August,  185 1,  Upper  Miranzai  was  formally  annexed  by  proclamation, 
and  an  expedition  was  immediately  dispatched  up  the  valley  to  establish 
our  rule.  There  was  no  fighting,  beyond  a  little  skirmishing  with  the 
Wazlrs  near  Biland  Khel.  The  lawless  Miranzai  tribes,  however,  had 
no  desire  to  be  under  either  British  or  Afghan  rule.  They  were  most 
insubordinate,  paid  no  revenue  and  obeyed  no  orders,  while  incursions 
from  across  the  frontier  continued  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  new 
District.  At  last,  in  1855,  a  force  of  4,000  men  marched  into  the 
valley,  enforced  the  revenue  settlement,  and  punished  a  recusant  vil- 
lage at  the  foot  of  the  Zaimukht  hills;  The  people  of  Miranzai  quickly 
reconciled  themselves  to  British  rule;  and  during  the  Mutiny  of  1857 
no  disturbance  of  any  sort  took  place  in  the  valley,  or  in  any  other  part 
of  the  District.  In  March,  1858,  it  was  finally  decided  that  the  Kurram 
river  was  to  form  the  western  boundary  of  the  District,  thus  excluding 
the  Biland  Khel  on  the  opposite  bank. 

The  construction  of  the  road  from  Kohat  to  Peshawar  was  under- 
taken immediately  after  annexation,  and  at  once  brought  the  British 
into  conflict  with  the  border  tribes,  while  the  construction  of  the  road 
to  Bannu  by  Bahadur  Khel  was  also  the  occasion  of  outbreaks  in  which 
the  salt  mines  were  seized  by  the  insurgents. 

Kohat  District  contains  one  town  and  298  villages.     The  population 

at  the  last  three  enumerations  was:    (1881)  174,762,  (1891)  195,148, 

_       ,    .  and  (1901)  217,865.     It  increased  by  n-s  per  cent. 

Population.        ,.,,,,       ,      •  ,    • 

during  the  last  decade,  the  increase  being  greatest  in 

the  Kohat  tahsll  and  least  in  Teri.     The  increase,  though  partly  due 

to  the  presence  of  coolies,  &c,  employed  in  making  the  Khushalgarh- 

Kohat  Railway,  was  mainly  the  result  of  increased  tranquillity  on  the 

border.     The  District  is  divided  into  three  tahsl/s,  the  chief  statistics  of 

which,  in  1901,  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

The  head-quarters  of  these  are  at  the  places  from  which  each  is 

named.     The  only  town  is  Kohat,  the  administrative  head-quarters  of 

the  District.     The  District  also  contains  the  military  outposts  of  Thal 

and  Fort  Lockhart.     The  density  of  the  population  is  low,  and  the 

population  is  too  small  in  some  villages  to  cultivate  all  the  land.     Mu- 

hammadans  number  199,722,  or  more  than  91  per  cent,  of  the  total; 

Hindus,  14,480  ;  and  Sikhs,  3,344.    The  language  commonly  spoken  is 

Pashtu ;  the  Awans  and  Hindus  talk   Hindkl,   a  dialect  of  Punjabi, 

among  themselves,  but  know  Pashtu  as  well. 


AGRICULTURE 


345 


Tahiti. 

Area  in  square 
miles 

Number  of 

Population. 

Population  per 
square  mile. 

=  c    -  -     . 

Z 

en 

tr. 
V 

be 
> 

Percentag 

variation 

population 

tween  18 

and  190 

Number 

persons  a!> 

read  an 

write. 

Kohat 
Ten 

Hangu     . 

District  total 

Sll 

1,616 

546 

1 

89 

]66 

43 

79,601 
94,363 
43,9QI 

II4 
62 

S7 

+  13-7 
+   10-4 
+  io-6 

5,243 
2,221 
1,629 

2,973 

1 

298 

217.865 

80 

+   n-5 

9,°93 

The  most  numerous  tribe  in  the  District  are  the  Pathans,  who  num- 
ber 134,000,  or  61  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  They  are  divided 
into  two  main  branches :  the  Bangash,  who  occupy  the  Miranzai  valley 
with  the  western  portion  of  the  Kohat  tahsil ';  and  the  Khattaks,  who 
hold  the  eastern  part  of  Kohat  and  the  Teri  tahsil  up  to  the  Indus. 
The  Khattaks  are  inferior  as  cultivators  but  make  better  soldiers  than 
the  Bangash.  Next  in  importance  to  the  Pathans  come  the  Awans 
(22,000),  who  live  along  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  are  probably  im- 
migrants from  Rawalpindi  District.  Saiyids  number  8,000.  Of  the 
commercial  and  money-lending  classes,  the  Aroras  (8,000)  are  the  most 
important,  the  Khattris  numbering  only  3,000,  and  Parachas  (carriers 
and  pedlars)  2,000.  The  Shaikhs,  who  mostly  live  by  trade,  number 
3,000.  Of  the  artisan  classes,  the  Tarkhans  (carpenters,  4,000),  Lohars 
(blacksmiths,  4,000),  and  Mochis  (shoemakers  and  leather-workers), 
Kumhars  (potters),  and  Julahas  (weavers),  each  returning  2,000,  are 
the  most  important ;  and  of  the  menials,  only  the  Nais  (barbers,  3,000) 
and  Chuhras  or  Kutanas  (sweepers,  2,000)  appear  in  any  numerical 
strength.  In  1901  the  District  contained  145  native  Christians,  but 
no  mission  has  been  established.  Agriculture  supports  68  per  cent, 
of  the  population. 

In  the  low-lying  tracts  along  the  bottom  of  the  main  valleys  the 
soil  is  generally  a  good  loam,  fertile  and  easily  worked.  The  silt 
brought  down  by  the  mountain  torrents  is  poor 
and  thin,  but  the  land  is  as  a  rule  well  manured. 
In  the  western  portion  of  the  Hangu  tahsil  there  are  stretches  of 
a  rich  dark  loam,  which  yields  good  autumn  crops  in  years  of 
seasonable  summer  rains.  But  the  predominant  soil  in  the  Dis- 
trict is  clay,  varying  from  a  soft  and  easily  ploughed  soil  to  a  hard 
one,  which  is  useless  without  a  great  deal  of  water.  The  clay  is  often 
brick-red  in  colour,  and  this,  too,  is  found  both  soft  and  hard.  The 
soft  red  clay  is  an  excellent  soil,  holding  water  well,  and  needing  no 
manure  if  cropped  only  once  a  year.  Towards  the  Indus  the  level 
land,  which  alone  can  be  cultivated,  has  a  thin  sandy  soil  covered  in 
many  places  almost  entirely  with  stones ;  these  help  to  keep  the  soil 


Agriculture. 


346 


KOHAT  DISTRICT 


cool,  and  without  them  crops  could  not  live  on  the  thin  surface  soil. 
Agricultural  conditions,  however,  depend  chiefly  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  water.  The  spring  crop,  which  in  1903-4  occupied  58  per 
cent,  of  the  area  harvested,  is  sown  from  October  to  January ;  the 
autumn  crop  mainly  in  June,  July,  and  August,  though  cotton  and 
great   millet  are  often  sown  in  May. 

The  following  table  shows  the  main  statistics  of  cultivation  accord- 
ing to  the  revenue  returns  for  1903-4,  the  areas  being  in  square 
miles  : — 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Not  available 

for 
cultivation. 

Kohat 
Teri    . 
Hangu 

Total 

8ll 
I,6l6 

546 

107 
300 

54 

43 

3 

15 

186 
182 

54 

518 

M34 
438 

2=973 

461 

61 

422 

2,090 

The  chief  food-crops  arc  wheat,  covering  173  square  miles,  or  44  per 
cent,  of  the  cultivated  area,  and  bajra,  102  square  miles,  or  26  per  cent. 
Smaller  areas  are  occupied  by  gram  (30),  maize  (24),  barley,  pulses,  and 
wivar.     Very  little  rice  or  cotton  is  produced. 

The  cultivated  area  has  apparently  decreased  by  3  per  cent,  since 
the  previous  settlement,  as  the  lightness  of  the  revenue  demand  afforded 
no  inducement  for  keeping  the  poorer  soils  under  the  plough,  and  no 
improvements  have  been  made  in  agricultural  methods.  There  is, 
however,  room  for  expansion  of  cultivation,  especially  in  Miranzai.  Ad- 
vances for  the  repair  of  embankments  and  watercourses  are  in  some 
demand,  and  Rs.  36,100  was  lent  during  the  five  years  ending  1903-4 
under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act.  During  the  same  period 
Rs.  31,500  was  advanced  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act  for  the 
purchase  of  seed  and  bullocks. 

The  cattle  bred  locally  are  of  poor  quality,  and  animals  are  largely 
imported  from  the  Punjab.  Camels  are  bred  in  large  numbers.  Both 
the  fat-tailed  and  ordinary  breeds  of  sheep  are  found,  and  large  flocks 
of  goats  are  kept.  The  local  breed  of  horses  is  fair.  Two  pony 
and  two  donkey  stallions  are  maintained  by  the  municipality  and  the 
District  board. 

Out  of  the  total  cultivated  area  of  461  square  miles,  only  61  square 
miles,  or  1 2  per  cent.,  were  irrigated  in  1903-4.  Of  this  area,  3-4  square 
miles  were  supplied  by  wells  and  53-8  square  miles  by  streams  and 
tanks,  in  addition  to  which  4  square  miles  are  subject  to  inundation 
from  the  Indus.  There  were  413  masonry  wells  worked  by  bullocks 
with  Persian  wheels,  and  175  unbricked  wells  and  water-lifts.  The 
most  effective  irrigation  is  from   perennial   streams ;   but  agriculture, 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  347 

especially  in  Mlranzai,  is  much  benefited  by  the  building  of  tanks  and 
embankments  to  hold  up  rain-water. 

The  District  contains  74  square  miles  of  unclassed  forest  and  Gov- 
ernment waste  under  the  management  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner. 
Parts  of  the  hill  tracts  are  covered  with  dwarf-palm  (mazri).  The 
District  as  a  whole  is  not  well  wooded,  though  where  water  is  obtain- 
able roadside  avenues  have  been  planted,  in  which  the  mulberry,  Per- 
sian lilac  (bakain),  willow,  and  shlsham  are  preponderant.  Elsewhere 
the  palosl  {Acacia  modesta)  and  other  species  of  acacia,  and  the  wild 
olive,  are  the  commonest  trees.  The  summit  of  the  Samana  has  been 
almost  denuded  of  trees,  but  in  sheltered  places  ilex,  walnut,  and  Scotch 
fir  are  found. 

The  salt-producing  areas,  from  which  salt  has  been  excavated  from 
time  immemorial,  occupy  a  tract  about  50  miles  long  with  a  nearly 
uniform  width  of  20  miles.  The  Kohat  Salt  Quarries  at  present 
worked  are  at  Jatta,  Malgln,  Kharak,  and  Bahadur  Khel,  of  which  the 
last  presents  perhaps  the  greatest  amount  of  exposed  rock-salt  to  be 
seen  in  the  world.  The  average  sales  of  salt  for  the  three  years  ending 
1903-4  exceeded  15,307  tons.  The  District  contains  three  petroleum 
springs,  which  would  yield  perhaps  half  a  gallon  a  day  if  the  oil  was 
gathered  daily,  but  it  is  only  occasionally  taken.  Sulphur  is  found  in 
the  hills  to  the  south  of  the  Kohat  Toi,  and  limestone  and  sandstone 
all  over  the  District,  but  they  are  not  regularly  quarried. 

The  District  possesses  very  few  handicrafts  and  no  manufactures. 
Kohat  used  to  be  celebrated  for  its  rifles,  in  which  a  high  degree  of 
excellence  was  attained,  considering  the  rude  nature 
of  the  appliances ;   but  the  industry  not  being  en-  CQ  J^icarions. 
couraged    has    now    departed    to    the    independent 
villages  of  the  Kohat  pass,  where  it  flourishes.     Coarse  cotton  cloth  is 
made  throughout  the  District,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply 
even  the  local  demand.     Turbans  of  excellent  texture  and  colour  are 
woven  of  both  silk  and  cotton  at  Kohat  and  the  adjoining  villages,  and 
coloured  felt  mats  are  made ;  woollen  camel-bags  and  leathern  sandals 
are  also  produced.     The  dwarf-palm  is  used  to  a  very  large  extent  for 
the  manufacture  of  sandals,  ropes,  mats,  matting,  and  baskets. 

A  large  and  increasing  trade  with  Tirah  and  Kabul  passes  through 
the  District  by  the  Khushalgarh-Kohat-Thal  Railway,  but  the  imports 
and  exports  apart  from  this  through  traffic  are  not  large.  Salt,  agricul- 
tural produce,  and  articles  made  of  the  dwarf-palm,  which  grows 
plentifully  throughout  the  District,  are  the  principal  exports ;  and 
piece-goods  and  iron  are  the  principal  imports.  Kohat,  Thai,  and 
Naryab  are  the  chief  trade  centres. 

The  District  is  traversed  by  the  2  feet  6  inches  gauge  railway  from 
Khushalgarh  to  Thai,  opened  in  1903.     The  line  at  once  came  into 

vol.  xv.  z 


34S  KOHAT  DISTRICT 

universal  use  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and  goods,  and  has 
proved  an  unexpected  commercial  success.  It  is  being  converted  to 
the  broad  gauge,  which  will  be  opened  on  the  completion  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Indus  at  Khushalgarh.  Mails  and  passengers  are  conveyed 
by  tonga  from  Peshawar  to  Kohat  over  the  Kohat  pass  and  on  to 
Bannu.  There  are  179  miles  of  Imperial  metalled  roads,  and  509 
miles  of  unmetalled  roads.  Of  the  latter,  131  miles  are  Imperial,  and 
378  belong  to  the  District  board.  Besides  the  Peshawar-Kohat-Bannu 
road,  the  most  important  routes  are  those  from  Khushalgarh  through 
Kohat  to  the  Kurram  at  Thai  and  from  Khushalgarh  to  Attock.  There 
is  little  traffic  on  the  Indus,  which  has  a  very  swift  current  in  this 
District ;  it  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats  at  Khushalgarh,  now  being 
replaced  by  a  bridge  which  both  road  and  rail  will  cross. 

The  District  was  classed  by  the  Irrigation  Commission  as  one  of 
those  secure  from  famine.  The  crops  that  matured 
in  the  famine  year  of  1 899-1 900  amounted  to  as 
much  as  77  per  cent,  of  the  normal  out-turn. 

The  District  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  three  tahsils, 

each  under  a  tahslldar  and  naib-tahsllddr.     The  Deputy-Commissioner 

. .    .  .        .         has  political  control  over  the  trans-border  tribes  in 
Administration.       ,.   .   .  ■  ,        ,       T        ,  •         ,    t-> 

adjoining   territory :    namely,   the  Jowaki   and    Pass 

Afridis,  the  Sepaiah  Afridis  (Sipahs),  the  Orakzai  Zaimukhts,  the  Biland 
Khel  and  Kabul  Khel  Wazlrs.  Under  him  are  two  Assistant  Com- 
missioners, one  of  whom  is  in  charge  of  the  Thai  subdivision  and 
exercises  political  control,  supervised  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner, 
over  the  tribes  whose  territories  lie  west  of  Fort  Lockhart  on  the 
Samana  range.  Two  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  one  of  whom 
is  in  charge  of  the  District  treasury,  complete  the  District  staff.  One 
member  of  the  staff  is  sometimes  invested  with  the  powers  of  an 
Additional  District  Magistrate. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Magistrate  is  responsible  for 
criminal  justice,  and  in  his  capacity  of  District  Judge  has  charge  of  the 
civil  judicial  work.  He  is  supervised  by  the  Divisional  Judge  of 
the  Derajat  Civil  Division,  and  has  under  him  a  Subordinate  Judge, 
whose  appellate  powers  relieve  him  of  most  of  the  civil  work,  a  Munsif 
at  head-quarters,  and  an  honorary  civil  judge  at  Teri.  Crime  is  still 
very  frequent  and  serious  offences  preponderate ;  but  the  advance  in 
law  and  order  during  late  years,  especially  since  the  Mlranzai  expedition 
of  1 89 1,  has  been  considerable. 

The  early  history  of  Kohat,  fiscal  as  well  as  political,  is  vague  and 
uncertain.  Under  the  Mughals  and  Afghans  leases  were  granted  in 
favour  of  the  Khans,  but  few  records  remain  to  show  even  the  nominal 
revenue.  In  1700  the  emperor  Aurangzeb  leased  Upper  and  Lower 
Mlranzai  to  the  Khan  of  Hangu  for  Rs.  12,000.     In  1810  the  Kohat 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


349 


tahs'd  was  leased  for  Rs.  33,000.  In  1836  Ranjlt  Singh  assigned  the 
revenue  of  the  whole  of  the  present  District  to  Sultan  Muhammad 
Khan,  Barakzai,  in  return  for  service.  This  revenue  was  estimated  at 
\\  lakhs. 

After  annexation  four  summary  settlements  were  made  of  the  Kohat 
and  Hangu  tahslls,  which  reduced  the  demand  from  one  lakh  to  Rs. 
75,000.  In  1874  a  regular  settlement  of  the  Kohat  and  Hangu  iahslls 
was  begun,  excluding  three  tappas  which  were  settled  summarily.  The 
rates  fixed  per  acre  varied  from  Rs.  6-8  on  the  best  irrigated  land  to 
3  annas  on  the  worst  '  dry '  land ;  and  the  total  assessment  was  Rs. 
1,08,000  gross,  an  increase  of  18  per  cent,  on  the  previous  demand. 
So  large  a  sum  was  granted  in  frontier  remissions  and  other  assign- 
ments that  the  net  result  to  Government  was  a  loss  of  Rs.  5,000  in 
land  revenue  realizations.  The  object  of  the  settlement,  however,  was 
not  so  much  to  increase  the  Government  demand  as  to  give  the  people 
a  fair  record-of-rights.  The  increasing  peace  and  security  along  this 
part  of  the  border,  culminating  in  the  complete  tranquillity  which  has 
characterized  it  since  1898,  has  worked  an  agricultural  revolution  in 
Upper  Mlranzai. 

The  Teri  tahsll,  which  forms  half  the  District,  has  a  distinct  fiscal 
history.  The  Khan  of  Teri  has  always  paid  a  quit  rent,  which  was 
Rs.  40,000  under  the  Barakzai  rulers,  and  was  fixed  at  Rs.  31,000  on 
annexation.  Since  then  it  has  been  gradually  lowered  to  Rs.  20,000, 
at  which  it  now  stands.  During  the  Afghan  War  the  Khan's  loyalty  to 
the  British  exceeded  that  of  his  people,  who  resented  the  forced  labour 
then  imposed  upon  them  by  the  Khan.  Consequently  at  the  close  of 
the  war  a  veiled  rebellion  broke  out  in  Teri.  It  was  therefore  decided 
that  the  tract  should  be  settled,  and  a  settlement  was  carried  out  in 
1 89 1-4,  the  chief  object  being  to  place  on  a  satisfactory  footing  the 
relations  between  the  Khan  and  the  revenue-payers. 

In  1900  the  first  regular  settlement  of  Upper  Mlranzai  and  the 
revision  of  settlement  in  the  rest  of  the  District  was  begun.  This  was 
completed  in  1905  and  resulted  in  a  net  increase  of  Rs.  59,000  in  the 
revenue  demand,  which  amounted  to  Rs.  1,28,000.  The  rates  of  the 
new  settlement  per  acre  are  :  '  dry  '  land,  maximum  Rs.  1-12,  minimum 
3  annas;  and  'wet'  land,  maximum  Rs.  7-12,  minimum  R.  1. 

The  total  collections  of  revenue  and  of  land  revenue  alone  have  been 
as  follows,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880- 1. 

1 890-1. 

1900-1. 

'903-4- 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

90 
93 

79 
90 

85 
94 

74 
S3 

The  District  contains  only  one  municipality,  Kohat  Town.    Outside 


z  2 


350  KOHAT  DISTRICT 

this  town,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  a  District  board,  whose  income 
is  mainly  derived  from  cesses.  In  1903-4  the  income  amounted  to 
Rs.  14,100,  and  the  expenditure  to  Rs.  16,300,  education  forming  the 
largest  individual  charge. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  527  of  all  ranks,  of  whom  44 
are  municipal  police.  The  village  watchmen  number  265.  There  are 
12  police  stations.  16  road-posts,  and  4  out-posts.  The  border  military 
police,  who  are  amalgamated  with  the  local  militia  (the  Samana  Rifles), 
are  under  a  commandant,  assisted  by  a  British  adjutant  and  quarter- 
master, all  of  whom  are  officers  of  the  regular  police  force.  The 
control  of  the  commandant  is  exercised  subject  to  the  orders  of  the 
Deputy-Commissioner.  The  force,  which  numbers  1,023  of  all  ranks, 
garrisons  23  posts  for  maintaining  watch  and  ward  on  the  border. 
The  District  jail  at  head-quarters  can  accommodate  nearly  300 
prisoners. 

Only  4-2  per  cent,  of  the  population  (7-2  males  and  0-3  females) 
could  read  and  write  in  1901.  The  proportion  is  markedly  higher 
amongst  Sikhs  (39-1  per  cent.),  and  Hindus  (29-5),  than  among  the 
agricultural  Muhammadans  (i-6  per  cent.).  Owing  to  the  difficulties 
of  communication  and  the  poverty  of  the  District  board,  education  con- 
tinues to  be  very  backward,  and  the  percentage  of  literacy  compares 
unfavourably  with  that  of  the  Province  generally.  The  number  of 
pupils  under  instruction  was  375  in  1880-1,  536  in  1890-1,  908  in 
1 900-1,  and  1,260  in  1903-4.  In  the  last  year  there  were  2  secondary 
and  28  primary  (public)  schools,  and  55  elementary  (private)  schools, 
the  number  of  girls  being  90  in  the  public  and  230  in  the  private 
schools.  The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  16,000,  of  which  fees  brought 
in  Rs.  2,400,  the  District  fund  contributed  Rs.  5,000,  the  municipality 
Rs.  6,800,  and  Imperial  revenues  Rs.  2,600. 

Besides  the  civil  hospital  at  Kohat,  and  a  branch  in  the  town  for 
females,  the  District  possesses  two  dispensaries,  at  Hangu  and  Teri. 
The  hospitals  and  dispensaries  contain  57  beds.  In  1904  the  number 
of  cases  treated  was  53,499,  including  1,106  in-patients,  and  2,100 
operations  were  performed.  The  income  was  Rs.  10,800,  Government 
contributing  Rs.  3,800  and  municipal  and  District  funds  Rs.  7,000. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  951,  repre- 
senting 44  per  1,000  of  the  population.  The  Vaccination  Act  has 
been  in  force  in  Kohat  since  1903. 

[District  Gazetteer,  1879  (under  revision).] 

Kohat  Tahsil.— Tahsll  of  Kohat  District,  North-West  Frontier 
Province,  lying  in  two  portions  between  $??  22'  and  33°  45'  N.  and 
710  5'  and  710  40'  E.,  and  between  330  3'  and  330  20'  N.  and  710  27' 
and  710  46'  E.,  with  a  total  area  of  811  square  miles.  The  tahsil 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  separated  by  an  extension  of  the  Teri  tahsil 


KOHAT  TOWN  351 

reaching  to  the  foot  of  the  Afridi  hills,  by  which  the  District  is 
bounded  on  the  north.  The  western  portion,  which  contains  the 
town  and  cantonment  of  Kohat,  consists  of  the  valley  of  the  Kohat 
Toi,  after  its  issue  from  Lower  Mlranzai  and  the  adjacent  hills.  The 
other  part  is  a  strip  of  barren  and  fairly  level  country  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Indus  north  of  Khushalgarh.  The  population  in  1901 
was  79,601,  compared  with  69,984  in  1891.  It  contains  the  town  of 
Kohat  (30,762),  the  District  and  iahsll  head-quarters ;  and  89  villages. 
The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  90,000. 

Kohat  Salt  Quarries. — The  Kohat  District  of  the  North-West 
Frontier  Province  possesses  important  salt  quarries  at  Jatta  (or  Jatta 
Ismail  Khel),  MalgTn,  Kharak,  and  Bahadur  Khel,  lying  in  the  east 
and  centre  of  the  District.  Bahadur  Khel,  on  the  Bannu  border,  con- 
tains about  forty  quarries  and  Jatta  sixteen.  At  the  former  place  a  mass 
of  rock-salt  crops  out  between  two  hills,  8  miles  long  by  \  mile- 
broad,  the  quarries  worked  lying  in  a  small  part  of  this  area.  Kohat 
salt  is  grey  to  black  in  colour,  and  less  esteemed  than  that  of  the 
Salt  Range,  though  analysis  shows  it  to  be  of  good  quality.  It  is 
purchased  by  traders  direct  from  the  miners  under  the  supervision 
of  the  preventive  establishment,  which  consists  of  two  superintendents 
at  Bahadur  Khel  and  Jatta,  an  assistant  superintendent  at  Malgln, 
5  inspectors,  and  334  subordinates.  Numerous  outcrops  have  to  be 
watched.  The  quantity  excavated  in  1903-4  was  16,493  tons,  paying 
a  duty  of  Rs.  6,73,961.  The  gross  income  during  the  six  years  ending 
1902-3  averaged  Rs.  6,63,825.  The  salt  is  largely  exported  beyond 
the  border  and  to  Afghanistan,  but  it  also  supplies  the  four  Districts 
of  the  Province  which  lie  west  of  the  Indus.  The  export  trade  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Ghilzai,  Mohmand,  Afridi,  and  other  trans- 
border  traders. 

Kohat  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsll  of  the 
same  name,  North-West  Frontier  Province,  situated  in  330  35'  N.  and 
710  26'  E.,  on  the  Khushalgarh-Thal  branch  of  the  North- Western 
Railway,  30  miles  from  Khushalgarh.  Population  (1901),  30,762,  of 
whom  19,807  are  Muhammadans,  7,833  Hindus,  and  2,832  Sikhs. 
The  population  in  the  cantonment,  included  in  the  above  total,  was 
12,670.  The  present  town  of  Kohat  has  sprung  up  since  annexation. 
It  lies  in  an  amphitheatre  of  hills  at  some  distance  from  the  site  of 
the  old  town,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Bangash 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  It  is  built  on  undulating  ground  with 
excellent  natural  drainage.  The  cantonment  and  civil  station  stand 
on  high  ground  to  the  east  and  north-east  of  the  native  town.  The  gar- 
rison consists  ordinarily  of  a  mountain  battery,  some  frontier  garrison 
artillery,  one  native  cavalry  regiment,  and  three  native  infantry  regi- 
ments.     The    municipality   was    constituted    in     1873.      The    income 


352  KOH  AT  TOWN 

during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  40,700,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  36,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  50,500, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  83,400.  This 
sum  includes  an  investment  of  Rs.  30,000  in  Government  securities. 
The  receipts  and  expenditure  of  cantonment  funds  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  5,600  and  Rs.  5,500  respectively. 
The  chief  public  institutions  are  the  Anglo-vernacular  high  school 
maintained  by  the  municipality,  a  civil  hospital,  and  a  female  hospital. 
The  town  is  of  no  commercial  importance,  but  has  a  small  manufacture 
of  lungls  or  turbans.  Rifles  used  to  be  made  at  the  neighbouring 
village  of  Jangal  Khel,  but  the  industry  is  now  quite  extinct. 

Koh-i-Baba. — A  long  mountain  range  stretching  from  east  to  west 
(340  42'  to  350  20'  N.  and  68°  15'  to  6i°  io'  E.)  across  the  centre  of 
Afghanistan,  and  forming  part  of  the  great  backbone  of  the  country. 
It  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a  continuation  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  and  is 
so  in  fact,  though  the  ends  of  the  ranges  overlap  and  are  united  by 
a  flat,  open  watershed,  known  as  the  Shibar  pass.  From  this  point 
the  Koh-i-Baba  runs  in  a  westerly  direction  to  the  south  of  Yak 
Walang,  where  it  breaks  into  four  branches.  The  southernmost, 
which  is  known  as  the  Band-i-Duakhwan,  the  Band-i-Baian,  and  by 
other  names,  continues  along  the  south  of  the  Hari  Rud  valley  to  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Herat,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Band-i- 
Bor.  The  next  branch  is  called  the  Safed  Koh.  North  of  this,  the 
Siah-Bubak,  Band-i-Baba,  or  Koh  Siah  runs  along  the  north  of  the 
Hari  Rud  valley,  parallel  to  the  Band-i-Baian,  and  forms  the  water- 
shed between  the  Hari  Rud  and  Murghab.  The  fourth  branch  strikes 
north-west,  enclosing  the  basin  of  the  Upper  Murghab,  and  dividing  it 
from  the  deep  valley  and  gorges  of  the  Rud-i-band-i-Amlr.  Branching 
right  and  left,  it  forms  the  mass  of  mountains  which  are  the  natural 
boundary  of  this  part  of  Afghan-Turkistan.  The  western  half  of  these 
mountains  is  called  the  Band-i-Turkistan ;  the  eastern  half  has  no 
special  name. 

In  physical  features  the  western  portion  of  the  range  actually  called 
the  Koh-i-Baba,  of  which  the  highest  peaks  rise  to  over  16,000  feet, 
bears  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Hindu  Kush.  To  the  south  of 
the  Koh-i-Baba  lies  the  Besud  district  of  the  Hazarajat,  a  hilly  region 
of  great  elevation.  North  is  the  great  plateau  of  Afghanistan,  extend- 
ing for  140  miles  in  the  direction  of  the  Oxus.  As  to  the  many  passes 
which  cross  the  Koh-i-Baba,  there  is  no  reliable  information,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Irak  (about  13,000  feet),  the  Hajigak  (about  12,000), 
and  the  Zard  Sang  (about  13,000). 

Kohima  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  the  Naga  Hills  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  240  42'  and  260  34'  N.  and 
930  7'  and  940  26'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,337  square  miles.     The  whole 


KOHISTAN  353 

of  the  subdivision  consists  of  hilly  country  inhabited  by  various  tribes 
of  Nagas,  of  whom  the  most  numerous  and  important  are  the  Angamls 
and  Lhotas.  The  average  rainfall  at  Kohlma  is  only  76  inches,  but  at 
Wokha,  farther  north,  it  exceeds  100  inches.  Population  fell  from 
70,221  in  1S91  to  68,619  in  1901,  giving  a  density  of  29  persons  per 
square  mile.  The  subdivision  contained  one  town,  Kohima  (popula- 
tion, 3,093),  the  District  head-quarters;  and  224  villages.  A  pecu- 
liarity of  the  subdivision  is  the  terraced  cultivation  of  the  Angami 
Nagas.  This  powerful  and  warlike  tribe  cut  out  the  slopes  of 
the  hill-side  into  terraces  built  up  with  stone  retaining  walls,  which 
are  skilfully  irrigated  by  channels  distributing  the  water  over  the 
whole  series.  This  system  enables  them  to  grow  good  rice  at  an 
elevation  at  which  rice  sown  broadcast  does  not  thrive.  The  principal 
source  of  revenue  is  house  tax,  which  in  1903-4  was  assessed  at 
Rs.  34,000. 

Kohlma  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Naga  Hills  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  250  41/  N.  and  940  7'  E.,  about  5,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  cart-road  from  Dimapur  in  the  Brah- 
maputra Valley  to  Manipur  passes  through  the  town.  Population 
(1901),  3,093.  The  rainfall  averages  76  inches,  and  the  climate  is 
cool  and  pleasant.  The  head-quarters  of  the  District  were  first  located 
at  this  place  in  1878,  with  the  object  of  bringing  the  powerful  tribe  of 
Angami  Nagas,  in  whose  territory  it  is  situated,  more  completely  under 
control.  The  station  is  situated  on  a  spur  of  the  hill  near  the  large 
Naga  village  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  contains  a  small  jail 
with  accommodation  for  32  persons  and  a  hospital  with  10  beds.  The 
garrison  consists  of  two  companies '  of  native  infantry  and  a  battalion 
of  military  police. 

Kohlr.— Former  taluk  of  Bldar  District,  Hyderabad  State.  See 
BIdar  Taluk. 

Kohir.— Town  in  the  District  and  taluk  of  Bldar,  Hyderabad  State, 
situated  in  170  36'  N.  and  770  43'  E.,  24  miles  south-east  of  Bldar 
town.  Population  (1901),  6,379.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  two  well- 
known  Musalman  saints,  besides  numerous  mosques;  the  Jama  Masjid, 
erected  during  the  reign  of  the  Bahmani  kings,  is  a  building  of  note. 
The  town  contains  a  middle  and  girls'  school,  a  post  office,  and  the 
police  inspector's  office.     Kohir  is  celebrated  for  its  mangoes. 

Kohistan.— The  local  name  of  a  barren  and  hilly  tract  of  country 
in  Karachi  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  composed  of  outlying  spurs  from 
the  Kirthar  Range.  The  southern  portion  merges  into  extensive  plains, 
separated  by  low  lines  of  hills,  which  afford  abundant  grazing  for  herds 
of  cattle  after  rain.  The  Kohistan  is  entirely  dependent  on  rainfall, 
and  cultivation  is  possible  only  where  the  rainfall  has  been  impounded, 
or  on  one  of  the  numerous  watercourses.     Some  of  these  streams, 


354  KO  HI  STAN 

known  as  uai's,  are  of  considerable  size,  the  chief  being  the  Baran, 
which  flows  into  the  Indus  below  Kotri. 

The  Kohistan  is  a  mahal  or  petty  subdivision,  with  a  population 
(1901)  of  12,877.  The  revenue  is  Rs.  3,900.  The  population  is 
nomadic  and  fluctuating,  consisting  chiefly  of  Sindis  and  Baluchis, 
formerly  given  to  internal  feuds,  but  now  content  to  earn  a  frugal  living 
by  grazing  herds  of  camels,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 

Kohlu. —  Tahsil  of  the  Sibi  subdivision  in  the  District  of  Sibi, 
Baluchistan,  lying  between  290  43'  and  300  2'  N.  and  68°  58'  and 
690  32'  E.  Its  area  is  362  square  miles,  and  the  population  (1901), 
1,743.  It  forms  a  triangular  plateau  about  3,900  feet  above  sea-level 
and  has  a  pleasant  climate.  The  head-quarters  bear  the  same  name 
as  the  tahsil.  Villages  number  nine.  The  land  revenue  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  14,154.  On  lands  acquired  by  the  Marris  previous 
to  1892  revenue  at  the  rate  of  one-twelfth  of  the  produce  is  taken, 
an  equal  share  being  paid  by  the  cultivator  to  the  Marri  chief.  On 
other  lands  revenue  is  levied  at  the  rate  of  one-sixth. 

Koil. — Name  of  the  head-quarters  town  and  tahsil  of  Allgarh 
District,  United  Provinces,  usually  called  AlIgarh  Town  or  Tahsil 
in  official  correspondence. 

Koilkonda. — Former  taluk  in  Mahbubnagar  District,  Hyderabad 
State,  with  an  area  of  546  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901, 
including  jaglrs,  was  58,031,  compared  with  54,802  in  1891.  The 
land  revenue  in  1901  was  Rs.  64,000.  In  1905  the  taluk  was  divided 
between  Kodangal  in  Gulbarga  District,  and  Pargi  and  Mahbubnagar 
in  Mahbubnagar  District. 

Koilkuntla. — Central  taluk  of  Kurnool  District,  Madras,  lying 
between  14°  57'  and  150  29'  N.  and  770  59'  and  780  33'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  572  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  88,147,  com- 
pared with  86,544  in  1 89 1.  Koilkuntla  is  more  thickly  populated  than 
any  other  taluk  in  the  District  except  Ramallakota.  It  contains 
85  villages,  but  no  town.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,10,000.  The  'dry'  lands  of  the  villages 
on  both  sides  of  the  Kunderu  river,  which  flows  through  the  eastern 
half  of  the  taluk,  are  the  richest  in  the  District,  consisting  of  fertile 
black  cotton  soil.  The  annual  rainfall  is  22  inches,  but  the  western 
portion  receives  only  1 7  inches.  The  people  are  more  prosperous  and 
robust  than  their  neighbours,  and  are  regarded  as  the  most  factious 
and  litigious  in  the  District,  land  disputes  often  leading  to  riots 
accompanied  with  bloodshed.  The  taluk  is  very  badly  provided  with 
communications. 

Koilpatti. — Station  on  the  South  Indian  Railway  in  the  Sattur 
taluk  of  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras,  situated  in  90  io'  N.  and  770 
52'  E.     It  is  an  inam  village  (that  is,  held  on  favourable  tenure)  and 


KOLABA   DISTRICT  355 

a  Union,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  3,415,  and  possesses  a  dry 
healthy  climate.  There  is  a  cotton-spinning  mill  under  native  manage- 
ment, and  a  Government  experimental  farm  has  recently  been  opened. 

Kol. — A  generic  name  applied  by  Hindus  to  the  Munda,  Ho,  and 
Oraon  tribes  of  Bengal. 

Kolaba  District. — District  in  the  Southern  Division  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  lying  between  170  51'  and  190  8'  N.  and  720  51/  and 
730  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,131  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Bombay  harbour  and  the  Kalyan  and  Murbad  talukas  of 
Thana  District ;  on  the  east  by  the  Western  Ghats,  the  Bhor  State, 
and  the  Districts  of  Poona  and  Satara ;  on  the  south  and  south-west  by 
Ratnagiri ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Janjira  State  and  the  Arabian  Sea. 

Kolaba  District  is  a  rugged  belt  of  country  from   15  to  30  miles 

broad,  stretching  south  from  Thana  and  Bombay  harbour  to  the  foot 

of    the    Mahabaleshwar    hills,    75    miles   south-east. 

Situated  between  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  sea,         Physical 
„.  '  aspects. 

the  District  contains  spurs  of  considerable  regularity 

and  height,  running  westwards  at  right  angles  to  the  main  range,  as 

well  as  isolated  peaks  or  lofty  detached  ridges.     A  series  of  minor 

ranges  also  run  north  and  south  between  the  main  range  and  the  sea. 

The  great  wall  of  the  Western  Ghats  forms  the  chief  natural  feature. 

Of  other  ranges,  the  chief  is  the  line  of  hills  that  from  near  the  foot 

of  the  Bor  pass  stretches  north-west  in  the  flat  tops  of  Matheran  and 

Prabal.     Running  north  and  south  through  the  centre  of  the  Panvel 

taluka  is  the  broken  spur  which  ends  southwards  in  Karnala  or  Funnel 

hill.     Farther  west  is  the  lower  line  of  the  Parshik  hills,  and  in  the 

south  the  long  ridges  that  centre  in  the  precipitous  fortified  peak  of 

Manikgarh   (1,800  feet).      South    of  Bombay  harbour  a  well-marked 

rugged  belt  rising  in  bare  rocky  slopes  runs  south  and  south-east,  with 

the   two  leading   peaks  of  Kankeshwar   (1,000  feet)    in   the  extreme 

north  and  Sagargarh  (1,164  feet)  about  6  miles  farther  south.    The  most 

famous  peak  in  the  District  is   Raigarh,  on  a  spur  of  the  Western 

Ghats,  where  Sivajl  built  his  capital. 

The  sea  frontage  of  the  District  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 

length  is  fringed  by  a  belt  of  coco-nut  and  areca-nut  palms.     Behind 

this  belt  is  situated  a  stretch  of  flat  country  devoted  to  rice  cultivation. 

In  many  places,  along  the  banks  of  the  salt-water  creeks,  there  are 

extensive  tracts  of  salt  marsh-land,  some  of  them  reclaimed,  some  still 

subject  to  tidal  inundation,  and  others  set  apart  for  the  manufacture 

of  salt.     A  few  small   rivers,   rising   in  the  hills   to  the  east   of  the 

District,  pass  through  it  to  the  sea.     The  chief  of  these  are  the  Ulhas, 

Patalganga,  Amba,  Kundalika,  Mandad,  and  Savitri.     Tidal  inlets,  of 

which  the  principal  are  the  Ulva  or  Panvel,  the  Patalganga  or  Apta, 

the  Amba  or  Nagothana,  the  Kundalika,  Roha  or  Chaul,  the  Mandad, 


356  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

and  the  Savitri  or  Bankot  creek  in  the  south,  run  inland  for  25  or 
30  miles,  forming  highways  for  a  brisk  trade  in  rice,  salt,  firewood,  and 
dried  fish.  These  inlets  have  of  late  years  silted  up  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  it  seems  possible  that  their  value  as  highways  may  in  future 
decline  on  this  account.  The  creek  of  the  Pen  river  is  navigable  to 
Antora,  2  miles  from  Pen,  by  boats  of  7  tons  during  ordinary  tides, 
and  by  boats  of  35  tons  during  spring-tides.  Near  the  coast  especially, 
the  District  is  well  supplied  with  reservoirs.  Some  of  these  are  hand- 
somely built  of  cut  stone,  but  of  no  great  size,  and  only  a  few  hold 
water  throughout  the  year. 

The  rock  formation  is  trap.  In  the  plains  it  is  found  in  tabular 
masses  a  few  feet  below  the  soil  and  sometimes  standing  out  from  the 
surface.  In  the  hills  it  is  tabular  and  is  also  found  in  irregular  masses 
and  shapeless  boulders,  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in 
diameter.  In  many  places  the  surface  of  the  trap  has  a  rusty  hue 
showing  the  presence  of  iron.  Kolaba  has  three  hot  springs,  at  Unheri 
near  Nagothana  and  at  Son  and  Kondivti  in  Mahad. 

The  forest  areas  of  Kolaba  contain  a  variety  of  trees,  of  which  the 
commonest  are  teak,  mango,  ain  {Terminalia  tometitosa),  jamba  {Xyha 
dolabriformis),  and  kinjal  {Terminalia  paniculata).  The  leaves  of  the 
apta  {Bauhinia  racemosa),  which  is  too  small  to  yield  timber,  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  native  cigarettes ;  cart-wheels  are  made  from  the 
timber  of  the  khair  {Acacia  Catechu) ;  and  the  fruit  of  the  tamarind 
(chi?ich)  is  largely  utilized  as  medicine  and  spice.  The  gorak  chinch 
or  baobab  {Adansonia  digitafa),  though  growing  to  an  enormous  size, 
is  not  utilized.  Fuel  is  provided  chiefly  by  the  mangrove  and  tivar 
{Sonneratia  acida),  which  grow  in  the  salt  marshes,  and  by  such 
creepers  and  shrubs  as  the  phalsi  {Greivia  asiatica),  kusar  {Jasminum 
latifolmm),  kaneri  {Nerium  odorum),  and  garudvel  {Entada  scandens). 
Other  creepers  are  the  nmtur  {Atylosia  lawii),  matisul  {leonotis 
nepetifolia),  and  sdpsan  {Aristo/ochia  indica),  which  are  used  medici- 
nally, and  the  shikakai  {Acacia  concinna),  which  bears  a  nut  of  cleansing 
properties. 

For  a  hilly  and  wooded  District,  Kolaba  is  poorly  stocked  with 
game.  Tigers  and  leopards  are  occasionally  found,  especially  in  the 
Sagargarh  range,  and  bears  on  the  Western  Ghats.  Hyenas  and  jackals 
abound.  Bison,  sdmfiar,  and  chital  have  been  shot,  but  are  very  rare. 
Of  game-birds,  the  chief  is  the  snipe.  Duck  are  neither  common  nor 
of  many  kinds.  The  other  game-birds  are  partridge,  quail,  plover, 
lapwing,  curlew,  peafowl,  grey  jungle-fowl,  red  spur-fowl,  and  the 
common  rock  and  green  pigeons.  Snakes  are  numerous  but  of  no 
great  variety,  and  the  cobra,  though  common,  does  not  cause  any  large 
number  of  deaths.  In  the  coast  villages,  the  fishermen  cure  large 
quantities  of  fish  for  export  to  Bombay  by  the  inland  creeks.     The  sea 


HISTORY  357 

fisheries,  especially  of  the  Allbag  villages,  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, affording  a  livelihood  to  6,800  fishermen  in  the  District ;  but  the 
latter  are  gradually  spoiling  their  own  prospects  by  the  use  of  nets  so 
constructed  that  small  fry,  as  well  as  half-grown  fish,  are  exterminated 
before  they  attain  a  marketable  size.  The  chief  species  caught,  mostly 
by  means  of  stake-nets,  are  pomphlet,  bamelo  or  bombil,  and  halwa. 

There  are  four  distinct  climatic  periods — the  rains  from  June  to 
October  ;  the  damp  hot  season  in  October  and  November  on  the 
cessation  of  the  rains ;  the  cold  season  from  December  to  March ;  and 
the  dry  hot  season  from  March  to  June.  In  the  region  about  Allbag 
there  is  always  a  sea-breeze.  Mahad  is  almost  entirely  cut  off  from  the 
sea-breeze,  and  is  subject  to  much  greater  changes  of  temperature  than 
most  of  the  District.  In  the  hot  months  the  heat  is  very  oppressive 
in  Karjat,  except  on  the  hill-tops.  The  temperature  varies  from  650  in 
January  to  920  in  May,  with  an  average  of  8o°.  The  rainy  season 
is  considered  the  healthy  period  of  the  year.  The  rainfall  in  the 
inland  subdivisions  is  much  heavier  than  on  the  coast,  amounting  to 
130  inches.  The  annual  fall  at  the  District  head-quarters  averages 
88  inches. 

Hindu,  Muhammadan,  Maratha,  and  British  rulers  have,  as  through- 
out most  of  the  Peninsula,  in  turn  administered  the  District  of  Kolaba. 
But  it  is  the  rise,  daring,  and  extinction  of  the  pirate 
power  of  the  Maratha  Angria  that  vests  the  history 
of  this  part  of  the  Konkan  with  a  peculiar  interest.  The  early  rulers 
were  most  probably  local  chiefs.  Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  Andhra  dynasty,  whose  capital  was  Kolhapur,  were 
the  overlords  of  Kolaba.  About  this  time  (a.d.  135  to  150),  the 
Greek  geographer  Ptolemy  describes  the  region  of  Kolaba  under  the 
name  of  Symulla  or  Timulla,  probably  the  Chaul  of  later  days.  In 
Ptolemy's  time  the  Satavahanas  or  Andhras  were  ruling  in  the  Kon- 
kan as  well  as  in  the  Deccan ;  and  for  many  years  the  ports  on  the 
Kolaba  seaboard  were  the  emporia  of  a  large  traffic,  not  only  inland, 
over  the  Western  Ghats  across  the  Peninsula,  but  by  way  of  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia.  In 
the  sixth  century  Kolaba,  with  all  the  Northern  Konkan,  came  under 
the  sway  of  the  Chalukyas,  whose  general,  Chana-danda,  sweeping  the 
Mauryas  or  local  rulers  before  him  '  like  a  great  wave,'  captured  the 
Maurya  citadel  Purl,  '  the  goddess  of  the  fortunes  of  the  western  ocean.' 
In  the  thirteenth  century,  by  which  time  the  rule  of  the  Chalukyas  had 
passed  away,  the  District  was  held  by  the  Deogiri  Yadavas. 

Immediately  prior  to  the  appearance  of  the  Muhammadans,  tradition 
assigns  to  Kolaba  a  dynasty  of  Kanarese  kings,  probably  the  rulers 
of  Vijayanagar.  Nothing,  however,  is  known  about  them.  The 
Bahmanis,  who  ruled  from  1347  to  1489,  reduced  the  whole  Konkan 


358  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

to  obedience,  and  held  Chaul  as  well  as  other  posts  in  Kolaba  District. 
The  Bahmani  dynasty  was  followed  by  kings  from  Gujarat.  A  period 
of  Portuguese  ascendancy  established  at  Chaul  (1507-1660)  preceded 
the  rise  of  the  Angrias,  and  was  partly  contemporaneous  with  the 
conquest  of  all  the  rest  of  the  District  by  the  Mughals  and  Marathas. 
The  Mughals,  who  acquired  the  sovereignty  in  1600,  were  in  1632 
ousted  by  ShahjT  Bhonsla,  a  servant  of  the  Bijapur  kings  and  father  of 
Sivajl,  who  founded  the  Maratha  power.  Sivaji  built  two  small  forts 
near  Ghosale  and  Raigarh  ;  repaired  the  strongholds  of  Suvarndrug  and 
Vijayadrug,  which  stand  on  the  coast-line  below  Bombay;  and  in  1674 
caused  himself  to  be  enthroned  at  Raigarh.  Nine  years  after  SivajI's 
death  in  1680,  the  seizure  of  Raigarh  restored  control  of  the  country 
to  the  Mughals.  The  period  of  the  Angrias,  who  terrorized  the  coast 
while  the  Muhammadans  were  powerful  inland,  lasted  for  150  years — 
from  1690  to  1840,  when  Kanhojl  II  died  in  infancy  and  the  country 
was  taken  over  by  the  British. 

Kanhojl,  the  first  of  the  Angrias,  was  in  1698  the  admiral  of  the 
Maratha  fleet,  having  his  head-quarters  at  Kolaba,  an  island-fort  close 
to  Alibag  and  within  20  miles  of  the  present  city  of  Bombay.  From 
here  he  had  long  harassed  shipping  on  the  coast  from  Malabar  to 
Bombay;  in  17 13  he  threw  off  his  allegiance  on  Raja  Shahu,  and 
having  defeated  and  captured  the  Peshwa,  set  up  an  independent 
rule  in  ten  forts  and  sixteen  minor  posts  along  the  Konkan  coasts. 
Having  conquered  the  Sidis  of  Janjira,  his  rivals  in  buccaneering, 
Kanhojl,  with  a  considerable  fleet  of  vessels,  ranging  from  150  to  200 
tons  burden,  swept  the  seas  from  his  fort  of  Vijayadrug.  In  1 7 1 7  his 
first  piracies  against  English  trade  occurred.  In  retaliation  the  English 
assaulted  Vijayadrug,  but  the  assault  was  beaten  off.  On  two  occasions 
within  the  next  four  years,  Kanhojl  withstood  the  combined  attacks  of 
the  English  and  Portuguese.  On  his  death  in  1731  the  Angria  chief- 
ship  was  weakened  by  division  between  Kanhoji's  two  sons,  of  whom 
Sambhoji  Angria  was  the  more  enterprising  and  able.  Sambhoji  was 
succeeded  in  1 748  by  Tulaji ;  and  from  that  date  until  the  fall  of 
Vijayadrug  before  the  allied  forces  of  the  Peshwa  and  the  British  at 
Bombay,  both  British  and  Dutch  commerce  suffered  severely  from 
the  Angria  pirates. 

In  1756  the  fort  of  Vijayadrug  was  captured  by  Admiral  Watson  and 
Colonel  (afterwards  Lord)  Clive,  who  commanded  the  land  forces. 
Fifteen  hundred  prisoners  were  taken,  eight  English  and  three  Dutch 
captains  were  rescued  from  the  underground  dungeons  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  fortress,  and  treasure  to  the  value  of  \2\  lakhs  was 
divided  among  the  captors.  Vijayadrug  was  handed  over  to  the 
Peshwa,  under  whom  Manaji  and  Raghuji,  the  descendants  of  an 
illegitimate  branch  of  the  first  Angrias,  held  Kolaba  fort  as  feudatories 


POPULATION 


359 


of  Poona.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Peshwa's  rule  in  1818,  the  allegiance 
of  the  Angrias  was  transferred  to  the  British.  In  1840  the  death  of 
Kanhoji  II,  the  last  representative  of  the  original  Angrias,  afforded  an 
opportunity  to  the  Bombay  Government  to  annex  the  forts  of  Suvarn- 
drug,  Vijayadrug,  and  Kolaba.  The  District  has  since  enjoyed  un- 
broken peace. 

Kolaba  District,  with  the  exception  of  the  taluka  of  Allbag,  formed 
part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Peshwa,  annexed  by  the  British  in  18 18, 
on  the  overthrow  of  Bajl  Rao.  Allbag  lapsed  in  1840.  Kolaba  island 
has  still  an  evil  reputation  with  mariners  as  the  scene  of  many  wrecks. 
Full  nautical  details  regarding  it  are  given  in  Taylor's  Sailing  Directions. 
Many  houses  in  the  town  are  built  from  the  driftwood  of  vessels  which 
have  gone  ashore.  Ships  are  sometimes  supposed  to  be  intentionally 
wrecked  here ;  the  coast  near  Allbag  presents  fair  facilities  for  the 
escape  of  the  crews. 

The  most  interesting  remains  in  the  District  are  the  Buddhist  caves 
at  Pa.1,  Kol,  Kuda,  Kondane,  and  Ambivli,  and  the  Brahmanical  caves 
at  Elephanta.  There  are  numerous  churches  and  forts  built  by  the 
Portuguese.  The  former  strongholds  of  the  Marathas  and  the  Angrias 
are  imposing  rock-built  structures,  the  chief  being  Raigarh,  where 
Sivaji  was  crowned ;  Kolaba  fort,  the  stronghold  of  Angria  in  the 
eighteenth  century  ;  Birvadi  and  Lingana,  built  by  Sivaji  to  secure  his 
share  of  Kolaba  against  his  neighbours  ;  Khanderi,  and  Underi. 

The  population  of  the  District  was  returned  at  524,269  in   1872  and 

^64,802  in  1881.     It  rose  to  594,872  in  1891,  and  to       _ 

•  ^,      r  ,,      •  1 ,      ,  1      j-  Population. 

605,566  in  1 90 1.     The  following  table  shows  the  dis- 
tribution of  population  by  tdlukas  according  to  the  Census  of  1901  : — 


1* 

Number  of 

U 

'o   -  •> 

0 

id 

c 

CL  CJ 

■-&  r  • 

'o   VT3 

3 

0 

ga 

«o  3-u, 

u"S  a" 

Taluka. 

V 

be 

"3 
0. 

■Is 

u  .2—  ir.  - 

U   u    3   t    C 

■S  K-^'= 

3  S  ^ 

U 
U 

< 

O 

H 
2 

> 

£ 

C    X 

Q. 

Panvel     . 

272 

226 

"2. 515 

4I4 

+  6 

6,386 

Karjat 

359 

... 

270 

87,415 

243 

+  2 

4,253 

AlTbag     . 

193 

3 

177 

8.3,647 

433 

+  7 

5.91? 

Pen 

293 

1 

I9S 

76,559 

261 

+  3 

4-524 

Roha 

203 

1 

133 

47,780 

2  35 

+  4 

2,194 

Mangaon 

352 

... 

2  26 

83,4'5 

237 

—  5 

1,899 

Mahad     . 
District  total 

459 

1 

246 

"4,235 

249 

-  4 

3,178 

2.I31 

8 

1,476 

605,566 

284 

+  2 

28,351 

The  Allbag  and  Panvel  tdlukas  being  naturally  well  placed  and  close 
to  Bombay,  the  density  of  population  is  higher  than  in  the  rest  of  the 
District.  The  chief  towns  are  Uran,  Panvel,  Pen,  and  Alibag. 
Classified  according  to  religion,  Hindus  form  94  per  cent,  and  Musal- 


360  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

mans  5  per  cent,  of  the  total.     The  language  of  the  District  is  Marathi, 
which  is  spoken  by  more  than  99  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

Among  Hindus,  the  most  important  classes  are  the  Brahmans 
(24,000),  chiefly  Konkanasths  (14,000),  who  own  large  gardens  and 
palm  groves  along  the  coast.  In  the  south  they  are  the  landlords  or 
khots  of  many  villages,  holding  the  position  of  middlemen  between 
Government  and  the  actual  cultivators.  As  in  Thana,  they  and  Prabhus 
(6,000)  form  an  influential  element  in  the  population.  The  Vanis 
(8,000)  are  traders.  Agrls  (113,000)  are  tillers  of  salt  land  and  makers 
of  salt.  Marathas  and  Kunbls  (210,000)  are  rice  cultivators.  Kolls 
(25,000)  are  principally  fishermen  and  sailors.  Bhandaris  (6,000)  are 
toddy-drawers,  and  Malls  (14,000)  are  gardeners. 

The  hill  tribes  include  the  Thakurs  and  Kathkaris  ;  and  the  unset- 
tled tribes,  the  Vaddars  and  the  Vanjaras.  The  Thakurs  (18,000)  are 
small  squat  men,  with  hard  irregular  features,  in  some  degree  redeemed 
by  an  honest  kindly  expression.  They  speak  Marathi,  are  harmless  and 
hard-working,  the  women  doing  as  much  work  as  the  men.  When 
not  employed  on  land  cultivation,  they  find  stray  jobs  or  gather  fire- 
wood for  sale.  The  Kathkaris  (30,000)  are  cultivators,  labourers,  and 
firewood  sellers,  and  were  originally,  as  the  name  implies,  cutch  {kath) 
boilers.  Their  women,  tall  and  slim,  singularly  dirty  and  unkempt, 
are  hard  workers,  and  help  the  men  by  hawking  head-loads  of  firewood. 
Kathkaris,  as  a  rule,  are  much  darker  and  slimmer  than  the  other 
forest  tribes ;  they  rank  among  the  lowest  of  the  low,  their  very 
touch  being  thought  to  defile.  They  eat  every  sort  of  flesh,  except  the 
cow  and  the  monkey.  They  are  poor,  and  much  given  to  drinking. 
In  1902  they  were  granted  large  areas  of  forest  for  dalhi  cultivation, 
with  the  object  of  inducing  them  to  follow  more  sober  habits ;  but  the 
object  has  not  been  wholly  successful,  owing  to  their  ignorance  of 
agriculture.  The  Vaddars  (400)  are  rude,  intemperate,  and  unsettled 
in  their  habits,  gathering  wherever  building  is  going  on.  They  are 
quarry-men,  and  make  grindstones,  handmills,  and  rolling-pins. 

The  Bani-Israil,  or  Indian  Jews,  numbering  about  2,000,  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  seaboard  tracts.  They  are  of  two  classes,  the  white  and 
black ;  the  white,  according  to  their  own  story,  are  descended  from  the 
original  immigrants,  while  the  black  are  descendants  of  converts  or  of 
women  of  the  country.  A  considerable  number  of  them  enlist  in  the 
native  army,  and  are  esteemed  as  soldiers.  They  maintain  the  rite  of 
circumcision,  and  faithfully  accept  the  Old  Testament.  Their  home 
language  is  Marathi,  but  in  the  synagogues  their  scriptures  are  read  in 
Hebrew.  The  Jews  monopolize  the  work  of  oil-pressing  to  so  great 
an  extent  that  they  are  generally  known  as  oilmen  or  telis.  The  late 
Dr.  Wilson  was  of  opinion  that  the  Bani-Israil  are  descended  from 
the  lost  tribes,  founding  his  belief  upon  the  fact  that  they  possessed 


A  GRICUL  TURE  36 1 

none  of  the  Jewish  names  which  date  from  after  the  Captivity,  and 
none  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  or  writings  after  that  date.  Some  of  the 
Musalmans  are  the  descendants  of  converted  Hindus ;  others  trace 
their  origin  to  foreign  invaders  ;  and  a  few  are  said  to  represent  the 
early  Arab  traders  and  settlers.  The  last  named  form  no  distinct 
community,  but  consist  of  a  few  families  that  have  not  intermarried 
with  Musalmans  of  the  country.  The  percentage  of  the  population 
supported  by  agriculture  is  72.  The  industrial  class  numbers  71,000 
in  all. 

Of  the  1,202  native  Christians  in  1901,  more  than  500  were  Roman 
Catholics  and  270  were  Congregationalists.  The  former  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Karanja  island  of  the  Uran  petha.  As  early  as  1535 
there  were  three  churches  in  the  island.  The  United  Free  Church 
Mission  of  Scotland  and  an  American  Mission  have  establishments  in 
the  District.  The  former  maintains  a  high  school,  three  primary 
schools  for  the  depressed  classes,  and  two  girls'  schools. 

There  are  four  descriptions  of  soil.  The  alluvial  tract  is  composed 
of  various  disintegrated  rocks  of  the  overlying  trap  formation,  with 
a  larger  or   smaller   proportion   of    calcareous    sub-  . 

stance.  This  is  by  far  the  richest  variety,  and 
occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the  District.  The  slopes  of  the 
hills  and  plateaux  are  covered  with  soil  formed  by  the  disintegra- 
tion of  laterite  and  trap.  Though  fitted  for  the  cultivation  of 
some  crops,  such  as  nagli,  van,  and  i^-hemp,  this  soil,  owing  to  its 
shallowness,  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  has  to  be  left  fallow  for 
a  few  years.  Clayey  mould,  resting  upon  trap,  is  called  kharapat  or 
1  salt  land.'  Soil  containing  marine  deposits,  a  large  portion  of  sand, 
and  other  matter  in  concretion,  lies  immediately  upon  the  sea-coast, 
and  is  favourable  for  garden  crops.  Rice  is  grown  on  saline  as  well 
as  on  sweet  land.  Between  December  and  May  the  plot  of  ground 
chosen  for  a  nursery  is  covered  with  cow-dung  and  brushwood ;  this 
is  overlaid  with  thick  grass,  and  earth  is  spread  over  the  surface  ;  the 
whole  is  then  set  on  fire  on  the  leeward  side,  generally  towards 
morning,  after  the  heavy  dew  has  collected.  In  June,  after  the  land 
has  been  sprinkled  by  a  few  showers,  the  nursery  is  sown  before  being 
ploughed.  The  plants  shoot  up  after  a  few  heavy  falls  of  rain.  In  the 
beginning  of  July  the  seedlings  are  planted  out,  and  between  October 
and  November  the  reaping  commences.  On  saline  land  no  plough  is 
used,  and  the  soil  is  not  manured.  In  the  beginning  of  June,  when 
the  ground  has  become  thoroughly  saturated,  the  seed  is  either  sown 
in  the  mud,  or,  where  the  land  is  low  and  subject  to  the  overflow 
of  rain-water,  the  seed  is  wetted  and  placed  in  a  heap  until  it  sprouts 
and  is  then  thrown  on  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  No  transplanting 
takes  place,  but  the  crop  is  thinned  when  necessary.      Should  a  field 


362 


KOLABA   DISTRICT 


by  any  accident  be  flooded  by  salt  water  for  three  years  in  succession, 
the  crops  deteriorate. 

The  District  is  chiefly  ryotwari.  Khots  and  izdfatddrs  own  733  and 
17  square  miles  respectively,  while  inam  lands  cover  about  7  square 
miles.  The  chief  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4  are  shown  below, 
in  square  miles  : — 


Taluka. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Panvel  . 
Karjat    . 
Alibag  . 
Pen    '    .       . 
Roha     . 
Mangaon 
Mahad    . 

Total 

272 

359 
193 
292 

204 

358 
459 

I46 
184 
102 
122 
98 
219 
300 

I 
2 

52 
58 
32 
41 
32 
83 
103 

58 

85 

46 

104 

63 

45 

47 

*2,i37 

1,171 

3 

401 

448 

*  Statistics  are  not  available  for  72  square  miles  of  this  area.     These  figures  are 
based  on  the  latest  information. 

Rice,  the  chief  staple  of  the  District,  holds  the  first  place  with  391 
square  miles  or  33  per  cent,  of  the  total  cultivated  area.  The  two  main 
kinds  are  red  and  white  rice.  Red  rice  is  inferior,  and  is  grown  only 
in  the  salt  low-lying  lands  near  creeks.  The  poorer  kinds  of  grain 
called  nagli  (90  square  miles),  vari  (69),  harik  (27),  which  form  the 
chief  food-supply  of  the  people,  are  also  grown  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, especially  on  the  flat  tops  and  terraced  sides  of  the  hills.  Veil 
occupied  14  square  miles  and  ndld  9  square  miles.  The  latter  is  grown 
chiefly  in  Mahad,  Mangaon,  Karjat,  and  Roha.  Of  other  pulses,  tur 
and  mug  are  grown  in  Mahad,  Mangaon,  and  Roha,  and  gram  in 
Mangaon,  Panvel,  and  Karjat.  Sesamum,  occupying  6  square  miles,  is 
raised  mostly  in  Mangaon  and  Mahad.  Niger-seed  occupied  3  square 
miles.  Cotton  is  now  rarely  grown,  but  was  cultivated  with  consider- 
able success  during  the  great  development  of  the  production  of  Indian 
cotton  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  San-hemp  is  grown 
in  Mangaon.  The  betel-vine  and  the  areca-nut  palm  are  grown  in 
many  gardens.  The  special  garden  produce  is  pineapple,  which  is 
cultivated  in  large  quantities  in  Chaul  and  Revadanda. 

The  most  interesting  feature  in  the  agriculture  of  Kolaba  District, 
especially  in  Alibag  and  in  Pen,  is  the  large  area  of  salt  marsh  and 
mangrove  swamps  reclaimed  for  the  growth  of  rice.  These  tracts, 
situated  along  the  banks  of  tidal  creeks,  are  locally  known  as  kharapat 
or  'saline  land.'  Most  of  the  shilotris  or  embankments,  which  save  the 
land  from  tidal  flooding,  are  said  to  have  been  built  between  1755  and 
1780  under  the  Angrias  by  men  of  position  and  capital,  who  undertook, 
on  the  grant  of  special  terms,  to  make  the  embankments  and  to  keep 


FORESTS  363 

them  in  repair.  In  several  cases  the  agreements  were  never  fulfilled ; 
and  as  the  matter  escaped  notice,  the  foreshore,  which  should  rightly 
have  lapsed  to  Government,  still  remains  in  possession  of  the  original 
grantees.  For  many  years  these  reclamations  were  divided  into  rice- 
fields  and  salt-pans.  The  salt-pans  were  gradually  closed  between  1858 
and  1872  ;  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  area  formerly  devoted  to  salt- 
making  has  now  been  brought  under  tillage.  Each  reclamation  has 
two  banks,  an  outer  and  an  inner.  In  the  outer  bank  are  sluice-gates 
which  are  kept  closed  from  October  to  June,  but,  as  soon  as  the  rains 
set  in,  are  opened  to  allow  the  rain-water  to  escape.  Two  years  after 
the  embankment  is  completed,  rice  is  sown  in  the  reclaimed  land, 
in  order  that  the  decayed  straw  may  offer  a  resting-place  and  supply 
nourishment  to  grass  seeds.  Five  years  generally  elapse  before  any 
crop  is  raised.  More  than  14,000  acres  have  been  reclaimed  in  this 
way.  The  reclamation  of  saline  land  is  encouraged  by  no  revenue 
being  levied  for  the  first  ten  years,  and  full  revenue  only  after  thirty 
years.  Under  the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts 
advances  have  been  made  to  cultivators  amounting,  during  the  decade 
ending  1903-4,  to  2  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  61,000  was  advanced  in  1896-7 
and  Rs.  33,000  and  Rs.  37,000  in  1895-6  and  1899-1900  respectively. 

Except  the  Gujarat  bullocks  kept  by  a  few  traders  and  large 
landowners,  almost  all  the  cattle  of  the  District  are  of  local  breed. 
The  Kolaba  buffaloes  are  smaller,  blacker,  and  smoother-skinned 
than  those  of  Gujarat.  Sheep  are  usually  imported  from  the  Deccan. 
Goats  are  kept  by  some  Musalmans  and  lower-class  Hindus,  chiefly 
for  milk.  Ponies  are  brought  from  the  Deccan  by  Dhangars  and 
Vanjaras. 

Of  the  total  area  of  cultivated  land,  only  3  square  miles  or  0-5  per  cent, 
were  irrigated  in  1903-4.  The  sources  are  wells  and  tanks,  irrigating 
respectively  1,300  and  15  acres,  and  other  sources  478  acres.  The  only 
part  of  Kolaba  where  there  is  much  irrigation  is  along  the  west  coast 
of  Alibag  in  a  belt  known  as  the  Ashtagar  or  'eight  plantations.' 
This  tract  includes  the  lands  of  eight  villages  covering  14  square  miles, 
all  of  them  with  large  areas  of  closely  planted  coco-nut  gardens  and 
orchards,  irrigated  from  wells.  There  are  numerous  river  dams. 
The  wells,  whose  brackish  water  is  especially  suited  to  the  growth  of 
coco-nut  palms,  are  fitted  with  Persian  wheels  or  rahats. 

Kolaba  is  fairly  rich  in  forest,  the  teak  and  black-wood  tracts  being 
especially  valuable.  The  Kolaba  teak  has  been  pronounced  by  com- 
petent judges  the  best  grown  in  the  Konkan,  and  in-  Forests 
ferior  only  to  that  of  Malabar.  Considerable  damage 
has  been  done  to  the  forests  in  past  years  by  indiscriminate  lopping  ; 
but  the  villagers  are  now  commencing  to  realize  the  need  of  measures 
of  conservancy.    The  value  of  the  forests  is  increased  by  their  proximity 

vol.  xv.  a  a 


364  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

to  Bombay,  for  they  may  be  said  to  He  around  the  mouth  of  the 
harbour.  The  curved  knees  are  particularly  adapted  for  the  building 
of  small  vessels.  The  timber  trade  of  the  District  has  two  main 
branches — an  inland  trade  in  wood  for  building  purposes,  and  a  coast 
trade  in  firewood  and  crooks  for  sbip-building.  The  total  area  of  forest 
in  1903-4  was  about  458  1  square  miles,  of  which  449  square  miles  were 
'  reserved,'  chiefly  in  Pen  and  Nagothana.  The  revenue  in  the  same 
year  was  Rs.  83,750. 

Except  patches  of  mangrove  along  the  river  banks,  the  forests  of 
Kolaba  are  all  on  the  slopes  and  tops  of  hills.  In  the  northern  talukas 
Karjat  has  valuable  Reserves  in  both  the  Western  Ghats  and  the 
Matheran-Tavli  range.  Panvel  also  has  a  considerable  forest  area,  but 
much  of  it,  except  the  teak-coppiced  slopes  of  Manikgarh,  is  of  little 
value.  Each  of  the  central  talukas — Pen,  Allbag,  and  Roha — has  large 
rich  forests,  while  the  less  thickly  wooded  southern  talukas  of  Mangaon 
and  Mahad  have  few  Reserves.  Teak  is  the  most  widely  spread  and 
the  most  valuable  tree.  Next  come  the  mango,  sisu,  black-wood ; 
dhaura  [Anogeissus  latifolia),  once  plentiful  but  now  rather  scarce  ;  and 
the  three  principal  evergreen  hill-forest  trees — ain,  a  valuable  and 
common  tree  for  house-building  and  tool-making,  Jamba,  and  kitijal 
{Terminalia  paniculatd).  The  apta  {Bauhinia  racemosa),  though  of 
almost  no  use  as  timber,  supplies  leaves  for  country  cigarettes  or  bldis. 
Nut-yielders  include  the  avla  (Phyllanthus  Emblica),  the  tamarind,  and 
the  hirda  {Terminalia  Chebuld) ;  and  liquor-yielders  the  mahua,  the 
coco-nut,  the  palmyra,  and  the  wild  thick-stemmed  palm.  Minor 
forest  produce  consists  of  fruits,  gums,  and  grass. 

The  only  mineral  known  to  occur  in  Kolaba  is  iron,  of  which  traces 
are  found  in  laterite  in  different  parts  of  the  District.  Aluminium 
occurs  in  the  form  of  transcite  in  the  hills  around  Matheran.  Good 
building  stone  is  everywhere  abundant ;  sand  is  plentiful  in  the  rivers ; 
and  lime,  both  nodular  and  from  shells,  is  burnt  in  small  quantities. 

Salt  is  extensively  made  by  evaporation,  and  its  production  furnishes 

profitable  employment  in  the  fair  season,  when  the  cultivators  are  not 

engaged  in  agriculture.     It  is  produced  in  large  quan- 

^J?^ie;ln+?,^c   tities  in  the   Pen  and   Panvel  talukas,  but  the  Pen 
communications. 

trade  is  falling  off.  The  District  contains  155  salt- 
works, which  produce  nearly  2\  million  maunds  of  salt  yearly.  The  weav- 
ing of  silk,  a  relic  of  Portuguese  times,  is  practised  at  Chaul ;  but  the 
manufacture  has  declined  since  1668,  about  which  time  a  migration  of 
weavers  took  place  and  the  first  street  was  built  in  Bombay  to  receive 
them.  The  extraction  of  oil  from  sesamum,  the  coco-nut,  and  the 
ground-nut,  and  the  preparation  of  coco-nut  fibre,  also  support  many 
families.  The  manufacture  of  cart-wheels  at  Panvel  is  a  large  industry. 
1  This  figure  is  taken  from  the  Forest  Administration  Report  for  1903-4. 


FAMIXE 


365 


The  preparation  of  spirits,  a  business  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Parsis, 
is  restricted  to  Uran,  where  there  are  numerous  large  distilleries. 

The  principal  trade  centres  of  the  District  are  Pen,  Panvel,  Karjat, 
Xagothana,  Revadanda,  Roha,  Goregaon,  and  Mahad.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  are  rice,  salt,  firewood,  grass,  timber,  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  dried  fish.  The  supply  of  vegetables  of  various  sorts  to  Bombay 
from  the  Allbag  and  Panvel  talukas  has  increased  on  a  remarkably 
large  scale,  and  also  the  provision  of  fuel  from  the  Allbag,  Pen,  and 
Roha  talukas.  Grass  is  sent  to  Bombay  in  large  quantities  from  the 
Panvel  and  Pen  talukas.  The  imports  consist  of  Malabar  teak,  brass 
pots  from  Poona  and  Nasik,  dates,  grain,  piece-goods,  oil,  butter,  garlic, 
potatoes,  turmeric,  sugar,  and  molasses.  The  District  appears  on  the 
whole  to  be  well  supplied  with  means  of  transporting  and  exporting 
produce,  a  great  portion  being  within  easy  reach  of  water-carriage. 
There  are  five  seaports  in  the  District.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1902-3  the  total  value  of  sea-borne  trade  averaged  nearly  177  lakhs, 
being  imports  about  31  lakhs  and  exports  about  146  lakhs.  In  1903-4 
the  imports  were  valued  at  32  lakhs  and  the  exports  at  121  lakhs ;  total 
value,  153  lakhs.  Minor  markets  and  fairs  are  held  periodically  at  thirty 
places  in  the  District.  Banias  from  Marwar  and  Gujarat  are  the  chief 
shopkeepers  and  money-lenders. 

The  District  is  served  by  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Raihvay,  which 
passes  through  the  Karjat  taiuka  and  the  Khalapur  petha.  In  addition 
to  a  steamer  ferry  between  Bombay,  Dharamtar,  and  Ulva,  there  is 
direct  steamer  communication  for  passengers  and  freight  between 
Bombay  and  the  coast  ports  during  the  fair  season.  There  are  three 
main  roads  over  the  Bor,  the  Fitzgerald,  and  the  Varandha  ghats, 
which  connect  the  District  with  the  interior  and  are  available  for  traffic 
all  the  year  round.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  87  miles, 
and  of  unmetalled  roads  160  miles.  The  Public  Works  department 
maintains  78  miles  of  the  former  and  85  miles  of  the  latter.  Avenues 
of  trees  are  planted  along  37  miles. 

The  largest  bridge  is  one  of  56  spans  at  Mangaon  across  the  Nizam- 
pur-Kal.  At  Nagothana  there  is  a  masonry  bridge,  built  in  15 So  at 
a  cost  of  3  lakhs  to  facilitate  the  march  of  the  Ahmadnagar  king's 
troops  into  Chaul. 

The  oldest  scarcity  of  which  local  memory  remains  was  the  famine  of 
1803.  The  distress  caused  by  want  of  rain  and  failure  of  crops  was  in- 
creased by  the  influx  of  starving  people  from  the  Deccan. 
Many  children  are  said  to  have  been  sold  for  food.  The 
price  of  rice  rose  to  about  a  seer  for  a  rupee.  To  relieve  distress, 
entire  remissions  of  revenue,  during  periods  varying  from  eight  months 
to  two  years,  were  granted.  In  181 7-8  there  was  a  great  scarcity  of 
food,  approaching  to  a  famine.    In  1S4S,  in  the  old  Sankshi  division,  pan 

a  a  2 


3  66  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

of  the  rice  crop  on  saline  land  was  damaged  by  unusually  high  spring- 
tides.    Remissions  were  granted   to  the  amount  of   Rs.  37,750.      In 

1852  heavy  rain  damaged  grain  and  other  produce  stacked  in  the  fields. 
In  1854  an  exceedingly  good  harvest  was  the  outcome  of  a  most  favour- 
able rainfall ;  but  on  November  1  a  terrible  hurricane  completely 
destroyed  every  sort  of  field  produce,  whether  standing  or  stacked, 
felling  also  coco-nut  and  areca-nut  plantations.  Remissions  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  Rs.  12,000  were  granted.  In  1871  there  was  a 
serious  drought,  particularly  in  the  southern  half  of  the  District.  In 
1875-6  and  in  1876-7  floods  did  much  damage  to  the  same  tract.  In 
1878-9  the  cold-season  crops  were  damaged  by  locusts. 

The  District  is  divided  into  seven  talukas,  Alibag,  Pen,  Panvel, 
Karjat,  Roha,  Mangaon,  and  Mahad,  usually  in  charge  of  one 
.  .  member  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service  and  a   Deputy- 

Collector  recruited  in  India.  The  Khalapur,  Uran 
or  Karanja,  and  Nagothana  pethas  are  included  in  the  Karjat,  Panvel, 
and  Pen  talukas.  The  Collector  is  ex-officio  Political  Agent  for  the 
Janjlra  State. 

The  District  is  under  the  sessions  division  of  Thana,  and  the  District 
Judge  of  Thana  disposes  of  civil  appeals  from  Kolaba.  During  the 
monsoon  the  District  Magistrate  is  invested  with  the  powers  of  a 
Sessions  Judge.  There  are  five  Subordinate  Judges.  The  District 
Judge  of  Thana  acts  as  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  Subordinate  Judges, 
who  decide  all  original  suits,  except  those  in  which  Government  is 
a  party  and  applications  under  special  Acts.  There  are  twenty-five 
officers  to  administer  criminal  justice.  The  commonest  form  of  crime 
is  petty  theft ;  but  cases  of  homicide,  hurt,  and  rioting  occasionally 
occur  and  are  usually  ascribable  in  the  first  instance  to  drink,  to  which 
a  large  majority  of  the  population  are  addicted.  In  years  of  scarcity 
dacoities  are  sometimes  committed  by  immigrants  from  the  Deccan  ; 
but  as  a  rule  this  form  of  crime  is  unknown. 

The  District  was  first  included  in  Ratnagiri  and  then  in  Thana.     In 

1853  it  was  made  a  sub-collectorate  and  in  1869  a  separate  District. 
After  annexation  in  1818,  the  practice  of  paying  revenue  in  grain  was 
for  some  time  continued ;  and  during  the  period  of  depressions  in 
prices,  1823-34,  the  District  fared  better  than  Thana,  where  money 
payments  were  taken.  From  1834  to  1854  the  country  improved, 
population  increased,  and  reductions  were  made  in  the  Government 
demand.  Between  1854  and  1866  survey  rates  were  introduced,  and 
as  this  occurred  in  some  parts  before  the  rapid  rise  of  prices  in  that 
period,  the  cultivators  became  extremely  prosperous.  Other  parts 
were  settled  under  the  influence  of  high  prices,  and  for  a  time  their 
condition  was  depressed,  but  on  the  whole  cultivation  and  revenue 
have  both  advanced.     The  revision  survey  settlement  was  carried  out 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


367 


in  the  whole  of  the  District  between  1889  and  1904.  The  revision 
found  an  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  of  0-3  per  cent,  and  enhanced 
the  total  revenue  from  11  to  13  lakhs.  The  average  assessment  per 
acre  of  'dry'  land  is  5  annas,  of  rice  land  Rs.  4-1 1,  of  garden  land 
Rs.  9-8. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1 890-1. 

IQOO-I. 

I903-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

7,28 
10,44 

10,03 
20,79 

13,90 
23,14 

13,58 
24,63 

A  peculiarity  of  Kolaba  District  is  the  khoti  tenure,  which  exists  in 
445  villages.  The  khot  was  originally  a  mere  farmer  of  the  revenue 
from  year  to  year,  but  this  right  to  act  as  middleman  became  hereditary, 
although  there  was  no  proprietary  right.  Under  the  settlement,  the 
khot,  as  peasant  proprietor,  pays  the  survey  rates,  while  the  actual 
cultivators  pay  rent  to  the  khot,  not  exceeding  an  excess  of  50  per  cent, 
above  the  Government  demand,  which  constitutes  the  profit  of  the  khot. 
Most  of  the  present  khots  are  representatives  of  the  original  farmers,  but 
in  some  cases  they  have  sold  or  mortgaged  their  rights. 

The  District  has  seven  municipalities :  namely,  Alibag,  Pen,  Roha 
Ashtami,  Mahad,  Panvel,  Uran,  and  Matheran.  Outside  their 
limits,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board  and  seven  tahika 
boards.  The  total  receipts  in  1903-4  were  1-33  lakhs  and  the  expendi- 
ture 1 -44  lakhs.  The  principal  source  of  income  is  the  land  cess. 
Over  Rs.  52,000  was  devoted  to  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
roads  and  buildings. 

The  police  force  is  under  the  control  of  the  District  Superintendent, 
assisted  by  one  inspector.  There  are  twelve  police  stations,  with  a 
total  of  555  police,  including  8  chief  constables,  103  head  constables, 
and  444  constables.  There  are  nine  subsidiary  jails  and  one  lock-up 
in  the  District,  with  accommodation  for  230  prisoners.  The  daily  aver- 
age number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  24,  of  whom  2  were  females. 

Kolaba  stands  thirteenth  among  the  24  Districts  of  the  Presidency 
in  regard  to  the  literacy  of  its  population,  of  whom  4-7  per  cent.  (9  males 
and  0-3  females)  could  read  and  write  in  1901.  In  1881  the  number 
of  schools  was  76,  with  4,520  pupils.  The  pupils  increased  to  9,481 
(exclusive  of  1,117  m  68  private  schools)  in  i89i,and  further  to  11,130 
(including  1,256  in  85  private  schools)  in  1901.  In  1903-4  there  were 
242  schools  attended  by  9,277  pupils,  including  1,021  girls.  Of  the 
193  institutions  classed  as  public,  one  is  a  high  school,  188  are  primary, 
and  4  middle  schools  ;  139  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  24  by 
municipalities,  and  30  are  aided.     The  total  expenditure  on  education 


36S  KOLABA   DISTRICT 

in  1903-4  was  Rs.  87,000,  of  which  Rs.  16,000  was  derived  from  fees. 
Of  the  total,  83  per  cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  contains  2  hospitals  and  6  dispensaries,  with  accommo- 
dation for  52  persons.  In  these  institutions  62,000  cases,  including 
178  in-patients,  were  treated  in  1904,  and  902  operations  were  per- 
formed. The  expenditure  was  Rs.  18,500,  of  which  nearly  Rs.  9,300 
was  met  from  Local  and  municipal  funds. 

The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  14,573, 
representing  a  proportion  of  24  per  1,000  of  population,  which  is 
slightly  below  the  average  of  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Gazetteer  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  vol.  vi 
(1883) ;  Major  J.  Francis,  Settlement  Report  of  the  Koldba  District 
(1863).] 

Kolachel. — Seaport  in  the  Eraniel  taluk  of  Travancore  State, 
Madras,  situated  in  8°  n'  N.  and  770  18'  E.  Population  (1901), 
about  1,000.  From  15  to  20  steamers  and  40  to  50  native  craft  touch 
here  annually  during  the  shipping  season,  September  to  April.  The 
principal  exports  are  jaggery  (coarse  sugar),  coffee,  salted  fish,  palmyra 
fibre,  coir,  and  timber  ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  rice,  Bengal  gram, 
crockery,  and  iron.  It  was  once  the  site  of  an  indigo  factory.  The 
place  is  referred  to  by  Bartolomeo  as  a  safe  harbour  well-known  to 
the  ancients,  and  was  occupied  for  a  time  by  the  Danes  ;  the  Dutch 
sustained  a  signal  defeat  here  at  the  hands  of  Rama  Ayyan  Dalawa, 
commander  of  the  Travancore  forces,  in  1 740,  from  which  date  began 
the  decline  of  their  power  on  the  west  coast. 

Kolair. — Lake  in  Kistna  District,  Madras.    See  Colair. 

Kolar  District. — District  in  the  east  of  the  State  of  Mysore,  lying 
between  120  46'  and  130  58'  N.  and  770  22'  and  780  35'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  3,180  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Anantapur  and  Cuddapah  Districts  of  Madras  ;  on  the  east  by  the 
Cuddapah  and  North  Arcot  Districts  of  Madras ;  on  the  south  by 
the  Salem  District  of  Madras ;  and  on  the  west  by  Bangalore  and 
Tumkur  Districts. 

The  District  borders  on  the  Eastern  Ghats,  but  touches  them  only 

on  the  north-east  and  south,  between  these  points  receding  to  about 

15  miles  from  the  range.     The  main  part  comprises 

asoects  tne   nea(^  °f  tne   Palar  nver  system   on  the  south, 

and  that  of  the  Penner  on  the  north,  separated 
by  an  imaginary  line  from  Chik-Ballapur  to  Srinivaspur.  In  and 
around  Nandidroog  in  the  north-west  are  the  sources  of  the  following 
rivers,  radiating  in  all  directions  :  the  Arkavati,  Penner,  Chitravati, 
Papaghni,  Palar,  and  Ponnaiyar.  The  principal  chain  of  mountains 
is  the  range  running  north  from  Nandidroog  (4,851  feet),  the 
highest  point,  to  Penukonda.     Through   the  middle  of  the   District, 


KOLAR  DISTRICT  369 

separated  by  intervals,  the  Tyakal  and  Vokkaleri  hills,  the  Kolar  hills 
(highest  point  4,026  feet),  Rahmangarh  (4,227  feet)  and  Ambajidurga 
(4,399  feet),  with  the  Dokkalakonda,  run  north  to  the  frontier.  There 
are  other  lines  of  low  hills  in  the  east,  those  in  the  north-east  inclining 
to  a  circular  arrangement,  enclosing  elevated  valleys,  occupied  by 
villages.  The  central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  District,  forming  the 
valley  of  the  Palar,  are  undulating  and  well  cultivated.  A  considerable 
depression  occurs  in  the  valley  of  the  Penner  towards  Goribidnur,  in 
the  north-west.  The  outlying  parts  along  the  northern  frontier  mark 
with  alternate  rise  and  fall  the  descent  to  the  level  of  the  Anantapur 
country.  On  the  east  the  Mugli  and  Naikaneri  passes  to  the  plains  of 
the  Carnatic  are  some  distance  beyond  the  boundary. 

The  rocks  of  the  District  are  for  the  most  part  similar  to  those  of 
the  adjoining  District  of  Bangalore,  being  composed  of  gneiss,  but 
with  a  smaller  admixture  of  mica  and  a  paler  felspar.  The  rock  of 
Nandidroog  is  almost  a  solid  monolithic  mass  of  granite,  rising  1,800 
feet  above  the  plain.  The  low  hills  which  lie  across  the  course  of  the 
Palar  and  run  south  through  the  Bowringpet  taluk  are  composed  of 
a  soft  ferruginous  clay  slate.  They  have  flat  tops  and  are  mostly 
barren,  though  the  soil  about  them  is  composed  of  fine  argillaceous 
red  earth.  The  Kolar  auriferous  band  of  schists  runs  north  and  south 
for  about  40  miles,  with  a  maximum  width  of  about  4  miles.  In  the 
southern  portion  are  situated  the  Kolar  Gold  Fields.  The  band  is 
composed  essentially  of  hornblende  rocks,  usually  schistose,  and  some 
well-marked  layers  of  ferruginous  quartz  rocks.  Recent  opinion  favours 
the  view  that  the  hornblende  schists  which  form  the  main  mass  of  the 
band  are  metamorphosed  basic  lava-flows.  There  is  evidence  tending 
to  show  that  the  surrounding  granites  and  gneisses  are  largely  intrusive 
with  regard  to  the  schists. 

The  indigenous  flora  is  similar  to  that  of  Bangalore  District.  The 
numerous  fine  tanks  are  favourable  to  aquatic  genera.  Partly  in  and 
partly  out  of  the  water  are  found  many  species  of  reeds.  Clinging  to 
the  tank  embankments  and  upper  level  margins  are  Pongatnia  glabra 
and  other  moisture-loving  plants.  The  hill  flora  is  well  represented  on 
the  Nandidroog  range.  Nearly  all  the  plants  in  the  plain  ascend  the 
slopes  of  the  hill  to  varying  heights,  some  to  the  very  summit.  These 
are  intermixed  with  species  rarely  or  never  found  in  the  plain.  The 
plateau  on  the  top,  enclosed  by  the  fort  walls,  contains  a  peculiarly 
mixed  flora  of  Maidan,  Malnad,  and  domesticated  plants.  Quite  the 
commonest  tree  is  Eugenia  Jambolana,  and  there  are  some  fine 
specimens  of  Michelia  Champaca.  Eucalyptus  and  casuarina  have 
grown  well.  The  Gold  Fields  are  situated  between  low  ranges  of 
stony  hills,  the  valley  being  naturally  bleak  and  dreary  in  appearance, 
with  the  poorest  vegetation.     But  since  mining  operations  were  started, 


370  KOLAR  DISTRICT 

avenues  of  trees,  such  as  various  species  of  Ficus,  Melia,  &c,  have 
been  planted,  and  gardens  well  stocked  with  flowering  plants  usual 
among  English  residents  have  sprung  into  existence.  The  most  suc- 
cessful, however,  are  those  formed  in  soil  laid  down  for  the  purpose. 

The  climate  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  Bangalore 
District,  but  the  rainfall  is  somewhat  less,  and  depends  more  on  the 
north-east  monsoon  than  on  the  south-west.  The  country  is  generally 
healthy,  remarkably  so  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chik-Ballapur  and 
Kolar,  but  plague  has  been  severe  in  the  former.  Cholera  and  other 
epidemics  which  used  frequently  to  prevail  in  the  District,  owing  to 
crowds  of  travellers  and  especially  pilgrims  to  and  from  Tirupati 
constantly  passing  through,  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the 
diversion  of  this  traffic  to  the  railway.  The  dangers  arising  from 
the  recent  large  influx  of  labourers  to  the  gold-mines  are  kept  well 
under  control  by  the  Sanitary  Board.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
nearly  29  inches,  n  inches  of  the  total  falling  in  September  and 
October.  Chik-Ballapur  and  Mulbagal  get  more  than  the  average, 
and  Bagepalli  less.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  750,  with 
a  maximum  of  950  in  April  and  May,  and  a  minimum  of  570  in 
February. 

The  earliest  rulers  of  whom  there  is  an  authentic  account  were  the 
Mahavalis  or  Banas,  who  held  the  east  of  the  District.  They  claim 
descent  from  Maha  Bali,  or  '  Bali  the  Great,'  a  Daitya 
king  who  by  his  penance  had  acquired  such  power 
that  he  defeated  Indra  and  dominated  the  world.  In  order  to  put  him 
down  Vishnu  assumed  the  Vamana  or  Dwarf  incarnation.  Bana,  or 
Banasura,  was  Bali's  son,  and  had  a  thousand  arms.  His  daughter 
was  seduced  by  Krishna's  grandson,  and  a  war  ensued.  Siva  guarded 
the  gates  and  fought  for  Banasura,  who  worshipped  him  with  his 
thousand  hands.  But  Krishna  found  means  to  overthrow  Siva,  and 
having  taken  the  city,  cut  off  Banasura's  hands,  except  two,  with  which 
he  obliged  him  to  do  homage.  The  Mahavalis  may  have  been  con- 
nected with  Mahabalipur,  known  as  the  Seven  Pagodas,  on  the  coast 
south  of  Madras.  They  continued  in  power,  being  also  called  Banas, 
till  the  tenth  century,  but  for  a  long  time  had  the  Pallavas  as  over- 
lords. Their  later  capital  was  Paduvipuri  (perhaps  Padavedu  in  North 
Arcot).  During  their  time  Avani  was  an  important  sacred  place,  the 
seat  of  a  Brahman  community.  The  Vaidumbas  also  appear  in  a  few 
inscriptions  in  the  north.  The  Pallavas  were  rulers  over  the  whole  of 
the  Telugu  country  and  over  the  Tamil  country  as  far  as  Trichinopoly. 
Their  capital  was  originally  at  Vengi,  but  from  an  early  period  was 
established  at  Kanchi  (Conjeeveram).  From  the  second  to  the 
eleventh  century  all  the  west  of  the  District  was  included  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  Gangas,  who  had  the  titles  '  Lord  of  Kuvalala-pura ' 


HISTORY  371 

(Kolar)  and  '  Lord  of  Nandagiri '  (Nandidroog).  They  were  suc- 
ceeded about  998  by  the  Cholas,  who  gave  the  District  the  name  of 
Nikarilichola-mandala.  About  n  16  the  Cholas  were  driven  out  of 
the  Mysore  country  by  the  Hoysalas,  the  eastern  boundary  of  whose 
kingdom  was  at  Nangali.  When  in  1254  a  partition  of  the  Hoysala 
territories  took  place  between  the  two  sons  of  Somesvara,  Kolar 
District  went  with  the  Tamil  country  to  Ramanatha.  But  the  kingdom 
was  again  united  in  the  next  reign  under  the  Hoysala  king,  Ballala  III. 
During  the  Vijayanagar  dominion  Mulbagal  was  the  seat  of  government 
for  the  District.  At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  Saluva  Narasimha, 
a  powerful  chief  of  Karnata  and  Telingana,  and  general  of  the  Vijaya- 
nagar forces,  stopped  in  Kolar  District  the  invasion  of  the  Bahmani 
Sultan,  who  was  overrunning  the  whole  of  the  Vijayanagar  territories. 
Narasimha  himself  then  usurped  the  throne  of  Vijayanagar.  Under 
the  later  Vijayanagar  kings,  Tamme  Gauda,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Avati  family,  established  himself  at  Sugatur,  and  for  his  military 
services  gained  the  title  of  Chikka  Rayal  and  the  possession  of  the 
east  of  the  District.  Another  of  these  chiefs  in  1476  founded  the 
Chik-Ballapur  State  in  the  west,  which  was  supported  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  Morari  Rao,  the  Maratha  chief  of  Gooty.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  District  was  subdued  by  Bijapur,  and  made  part  of 
the  jagir  of  ShahjI.  The  Mughals  afterwards  held  it  for  seventy  years, 
attaching  it  to  the  province  of  Sira.  During  this  period  Fateh  Muham- 
mad, the  father  of  Haidar  AH,  became  Faujdar  of  Kolar.  It  next 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Marathas,  of  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah, 
and  then  of  Basalat  Jang,  chief  of  Adoni  and  brother  of  the  Nizam. 
He  in  1761  ceded  Kolar  and  Hoskote  to  Haidar  All.  Mulbagal  and 
Kolar  were  held  for  a  time  by  the  British  in  1768.  In  1770  the 
Marathas  again  seized  the  District,  but  it  was  recovered  by  Haidar. 
In  1 791  it  was  a  second  time  taken  by  the  British,  but  restored  to 
Mysore  at  the  peace  of  1792. 

Avani,  Betmangala,  and  Tekal  contain  memorials  of  antiquity.  At 
Nonamangala,  south  of  Malur,  were  discovered  in  1897  the  foundations 
of  a  Jain  temple,  with  inscribed  plates  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
and  a  number  of  images,  musical  instruments,  and  other  articles.  The 
ancient  temples  of  Nandfsvara  at  Nandi  and  Kolaramma  at  Kolar  are 
of  interest.  There  is  some  fine  carving  in  the  former.  In  their  present 
form  they  are  of  the  Chola  period,  dating  from  early  in  the  eleventh 
century.  At  Kolar  is  also  the  Imambara  or  mausoleum  of  Haidar 
All's  family.  The  numerous  inscriptions  of  the  District  have  been 
translated  and  published. 

The  population  was  646,837  in  1871,  481,191  in  18S1,  591,113  in 
1891,  and  723,600  in  1901.  The  fall  in  1881  was  due  to  the  famine  of 
1876-8.    By  religion,  in  1901,  there  were  663,940  Hindus,  43,149  Musal- 


372 


KOLAR  DISTRICT 


mans,  9,605  Christians,  6,019  Animists,  880  Jains,  and  7  'others.'    The 

.  density  of  population  was  228  per  square  mile,  that 

for  the  whole  State  being  185.     The  Kolar  Gold 

Fields  (population,  38,204)  is  the  only  place  with  more  than  20,000 

inhabitants.     The  head-quarters  of  the  District  are  at  Kolar  Town. 

The  following  are  the  principal  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


V 

u 

Number  of 

u 

O 

ed 

B 

p-JB 

°.E^2    "      . 

0  ^-O 

C  ,A 

S'p 

ore  c=C  n 

uJ?  C    . 

Taluk. 

to   » 

c~ 

-a 

V 

t- 

< 

09 

C 
5» 
O 

H 
I 

DJ 

W 

— 

> 

"5 

O 

.2 

Percenta 
variatio 

populatio 
tween  i 
and  19 

Numbe 

persons  a 

reatl  a 

write 

Kolar 

2  S3 

334 

75,648 

267 

+     4-1 

4,747 

Mulbagal  . 

327 

I 

35i 

66,899 

205 

+  17-6 

3,112 

Bowringpet 

337 

2 

409 

128,193 

3«i 

+  8o-6 

9,532 

Malur 

267 

I 

374 

61,908 

232 

+  14-3 

2,598 

Sidlaghatta 

329 

I 

353 

70,022 

213 

+  176 

3,074 

Chik-Ballapur   . 

250 

I 

266 

56,057 

224 

+     8.7 

2,697 

Goribidnur 

343 

I 

26S 

83,296 

243 

+  15-7 

3.731 

Bagepalli  . 

447 

2 

372 

65.621 

H7 

+  i3-° 

2,169 

Chintamani 

272 

I 

34i 

57, H4 

210 

+  !9-9 

2,724 

Srlnivaspur 
District  total 

325 

1 

12 

34i 
3,409 

58,812 

181 

+  23.8 

2,521 

3,180 

723,600 

228 

+    22-4 

36,905 

The  Wokkaligas  or  cultivators,  181,000,  are  the  most  numerous 
caste;  the  outcaste  Holeyas  and  Madigas  number  91,000  and  48,000  ; 
Bedas,  variously  employed,  56,000 ;  Banajigas  or  traders,  46,000 ; 
Kurubas  or  shepherds,  39,000 ;  and  Woddas  or  stonemasons,  30,000. 
Brahmans  number  26,000,  and  Lingayats  11,000.  Of  Musalmans, 
26,000  are  Shaikhs,  7,300  Saiyids,  and  6,000  Pathans.  Nomad 
Koracha  and  Korama  number  3,700,  and  Lambanis  1,000.  Accord- 
ing to  occupations,  13  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  engaged  in 
unskilled  labour  not  agricultural,  nearly  a  third  of  them  at  the  Gold 
Fields  ;  1 1  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  the  preparation  and  supply  of 
material  substances;  and  62  per  cent,  in  agriculture  and  pasture. 

The  number  of  Christians  is  9,600,  of  whom  7,000  are  at  the  Gold 
Fields.  French  Jesuits  opened  a  Telugu  mission  in  Chik-Ballapur 
and  other  places  in  1702,  and  the  Italian  miners  at  the  Gold  Fields 
are  mostly  Roman  Catholics.  There  are  also  Anglican  and  Wesleyan 
churches  for  the  mining  population.  Of  Protestant  missions,  the 
London  Mission  has  stations  at  Chik-Ballapur,  Malur,  and  other 
places  ;  and  the  American  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission  has  a  station 
at  Kolar  town,  where  they  have  a  large  industrial  school. 

The  soil  on  the  high  grounds  is  red  and  gravelly,  with  rocks  of  gneiss 
or  granite,  of  little  cohesion,  very  often  appearing  on 
the  surface.  The  lower  parts  of  these  high  grounds 
are  intersected  by  nullahs   or  deep  ravines,  torn  by  the  torrents  of 


Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURE 


373 


water  precipitated  from  the  heights  in  the  rainy  season.  The  tops 
of  the  ridges  are  usually  very  barren,  producing  nothing  but  small 
jungle.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  a  good  loamy  mixture,  formed  of 
the  finer  particles  of  the  decomposed  rocks,  washed  down  and  deposited 
during  the  rains.  On  the  first  ascent  from  the  valley  the  soil  is  of 
a  middling  quality,  suited  for  '  dry  crops,'  being  a  mixture  of  loam, 
sand,  and  oxide  of  iron,  with  a  proportion  of  vegetable  and  animal 
matter.  Higher  up,  towards  the  top  of  the  ridge,  a  siliceous  sand 
prevails  in  the  soil,  which  is  on  that  account  adapted  only  for  horse- 
gram.  Below  the  superficial  soil  there  is  commonly  a  bed  of  gravel, 
which  immediately  covers  a  gneissic  or  granitic  rock,  very  often  in 
a  state  of  disintegration  considerably  advanced. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4,  in  square 
miles  :  — 


Taluk. 

Area  shown  in  the  revenue  accounts. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Forests. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Kolar 
Mulbagal 
Bowringpet    . 
Malur     . 
Sidlaghatta     . 
Chik-Ballapur 
Goribidnur 
Bagepalli 
Chintamani     . 
Srinivaspur     . 

Total 

236 
291 
282 
213 

285 
217 

314 

429 

256 
3" 

79 

87 
98 

83 

78 
60 

103 

128 
67 
82 

19 
17 
13 
J5 
13 
IO 
28 
32 
67 
20 

3 

24 

31 
6 

4 

70 

1 

50 
44 

15 

36 
28 
1 1 

*9 

27 
60 

44 

15 

18 

2,834 

865 

234 

233 

273 

The  cultivated  products  are  similar  to  those  of  Bangalore  District, 
but  owing  to  the  large  number  of  tanks  there  is  a  greater  proportion  of 
'  wet '  and  garden  cultivation.  The  following  are  the  areas,  in  square 
miles,  occupied  by  the  principal  crops  in  1903-4:  nlgi,  430;  rice, 
96;  gram,  83;  other  food-grains,  170;  oilseeds,  38;  sugar-cane,  18. 
Potatoes  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Chik- 
Ballapur  and  Sidlaghatta  taluks.  Poppy  cultivation,  now  prohibited, 
was  formerly  a  source  of  great  profit  to  the  ryots.  A  little  coffee  is 
grown  at  Nandidroog,  and  mulberry  in  the  Chik-Ballapur,  Sidlaghatta, 
and  Kolar  taluks. 

During  the  twelve  years  ending  1904  loans  for  land  improvement 
amounted  to  Rs.  9,500.  For  irrigation  wells  1-85  lakhs  was  advanced, 
and  Rs.  8,500  for  field  embankments. 

There  are  3  square  miles  supplied  by  channels,  171  by  tanks  and 
wells,  and  60  irrigated  from  other  sources.  The  number  of  tanks  is 
3,861,  of  which  483  are  'major.' 


374  KOLAR  DISTRICT 

The  area  occupied  by  State  forests  in  1903-4  was  135  square  miles, 
by  'reserved'  lands  80,  and  by  plantations  18.  The  forest  receipts 
amounted  to  Rs.  47,000,  the  principal  items  being  firewood  and 
charcoal. 

The  gold-mines  in  the  Bowringpet  taluk  of  Kolar  District  yield 
nearly  all  the  gold  produced  in  India.  There  were  1 1  mines  in  opera- 
tion in  1904,  the  produce  for  the  year  being  607,500  ounces,  valued 
at  more  than  2A  millions  sterling.  The  prevailing  gneissose  stone  is 
quarried  for  building,  and  for  road  metal.  Near  Sidlaghatta  is  a  special 
kind  of  laterite.  At  Rahman  Garh  there  is  an  exudation  of  earth-oil  at 
a  certain  season. 

Apart  from  industries  connected  with  the  gold-mines,  there  is  a  sugar 

factory  at  Goribidntir,  and  a  good  industrial  school  with  workshops  at 

Kolar,  belonging  to  the  American  Methodist  Epis- 

comm^icTtfons.  C0Pal  Mission.     The  silk  industry  is  general  among 

Muhammadans  in  the  Kolar,  Sidlaghatta,  and  Chik- 

Ballapur  taluks.     There  are  reported  to  be  248  small  works  for  reeling 

silk,  2,192  looms  for  cotton  cloth,  1,421  for  blankets,  and  61  for  other 

fibres.     Wood-works  number   242,  iron-works    174,  brass  and  copper 

48.     There  are  also   293   oil-mills,  and   209  sugar  and  jaggery  mills. 

Mulbagal  is  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  sugar. 

The  greatest  commercial  centres  are  the  Gold  Fields,  and  Bowringpet 
connected  with  them.  Their  large  population,  both  European  and 
native,  gives  rise  to  considerable  trade.  Next  to  gold,  the  most  valuable 
articles  of  export  are  sugar,  sugar-candy,  jaggery,  and  molasses ;  then 
cotton  cloths  and  native  blankets.  Apart  from  machinery  and  articles 
for  the  gold-mines,  the  principal  imports  are  salt,  ropes,  baskets,  and 
paper. 

The  Bangalore  branch  of  the  Madras  Railway  runs  through  the  Dis- 
trict from  west  to  east  to  Bowringpet,  and  then  south-east,  with  a  length 
of  56  miles.  From  Bowringpet  the  Gold  Fields  Railway  runs  for  10 
miles  east  and  south  through  the  mining  properties.  A  light  railway 
has  been  projected  from  Bangalore  to  Chik-Ballapur.  The  length  of 
Provincial  roads  is  193  miles,  and  of  District  fund  roads  385  miles. 

Since  the  great  famine  of  1876-8  scarcity  has  prevailed  on  various 
occasions,  as  in  1884-5  and  1891-2.  In  1896-7  prices  of  food-grains 
rose  abnormally  high,  owing  to  large  exports  to  the 
neighbouring  British  Districts  where  there  was  wide- 
spread distress.  Half  the  assessment  on  waste  '  wet '  lands  was  re- 
mitted as  a  measure  of  relief.  In  1900  test  works  were  started  in  the 
Bagepalli  taluk,  but  the  necessity  for  them  soon  disappeared.  The 
south-east  taluks  and  Bagepalli  were  affected  by  drought  in  1905, 
the  cattle  suffering  most. 

The  District  is  divided  into  ten  taluks :  Bagepalli,  Bowringpet, 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


375 


Administration. 


Chik-Ballapur,  Chintamani,  Goribidnur,  Kolar,  Malur,  Mulba- 
gal,  Sidlaghatta,  and  Srinivaspur.  The  Deputy- 
Commissioner  is  the  head  of  the  District,  and  under 
him  the  following  three  groups  of  taluks,  in  charge  of  Assistant  Com- 
missioners, were  formed  in  1903  :  Kolar,  Chintamani,  and  Srinivaspur, 
with  head-quarters  at  Kolar  ;  Chik-Ballapur,  Goribidnur,  Bagepalli,  and 
Sidlaghatta,  with  head-quarters  at  Chik-Ballapur ;  Bowringpet,  Malur, 
and  Mulbagal,  with  head-quarters  at  Kolar. 

The  District  and  Subordinate  Judge's  courts  at  Bangalore  have  juris- 
diction over  Kolar  District,  and  there  are  Munsifs'  courts  at  Kolar,  at 
the  Gold  Fields,  and  at  Chik-Ballapur.  The  District  is  comparatively 
free  from  serious  crime. 

The  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  are  shown  below,  in  thousands 
of  rupees : — 


1880-1. 

1 890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

8,63 
9,69 

11,02 
i5>47 

13,45 
22,92 

14,16 
24,38 

The  revenue  survey  and  settlement  were  introduced  in  the  west  and 
north  between  1880  and  1885,  and  in  the  east  and  south  between  1887 
and  1890.  The  incidence  of  land  revenue  per  acre  of  cultivated  area 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2-1-11.  The  average  assessment  per  acre  on 
'dry'  land  is  Rs.  1-5-5  (maximum  scale  Rs.  2-12-0,  minimum  scale 
Rs.  1-1-0)  ;  on  'wet'  land,  Rs.  5-10-10  (maximum  scale  Rs.  9,  mini- 
mum scale  Rs.  8);  and  on  garden  land,  Rs.  5-12-9  (maximum  scale 
Rs.  16,  minimum  scale  Rs.  2). 

In  1903-4  there  were  eleven  municipalities — namely,  Kolar,  Sidla- 
ghatta, Mulbagal,  Chik-Ballapur,  Malur,  Srinivaspur,  Bowringpet, 
Goribidnur,  Chintamani,  Gudibanda,  and  Bagepalli — with  a  total  income 
of  Rs.  54,000  and  an  expenditure  of  Rs.  51,000,  besides  the  Special  Sani- 
tary Board  for  the  Gold  Fields.  Outside  the  areas  administered  by 
these,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  and  taluk  boards,  which 
had  an  income  of  Rs.  82,000  in  1903-4,  chiefly  derived  from  a  share  of 
the  Local  fund  cess,  and  which  spent  Rs.  75,000,  including  Rs.  47,000 
on  roads  and  buildings. 

The  special  police  force  for  the  Gold  Fields  is  described  under 
Kolar  Gold  Fields.  Its  authority  extends  over  the  Mulbagal,  Malur, 
and  Bowringpet  taluks.  The  District  police  includes  2  superior  officers, 
18  subordinate  officers,  and  359  constables.  There  are  12  lock-ups, 
containing  a  daily  average  of  41  prisoners. 

In  1901  the  percentage  of  literate  persons  was  12-2  in  the  Gold 
Fields  and  4-7  in  the  District  (9-3  males  and  0-7  females).  The 
number   of   schools    rose   from    358    with    11,101    pupils   in    1 890-1 


376  KOLAR  DISTRICT 

to  453  with  13,689  pupils  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4  there  were  413 
schools  (320  public  and  93  private)  with  12,046  pupils,  of  whom  1,853 
were  girls. 

Besides  the  hospitals  at  Kolar  town  and  the  Gold  Fields,  there  were 
7  dispensaries  in  1904,  in  which  126,000  patients  were  treated,  in- 
cluding 875  in-patients,  there  being  30  beds  available  for  men  and 
28  for  women.     The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  38,000. 

The  number  of  persons  vaccinated  in  1904  was  10,110,  or  14  per 
1,000  of  the  population. 

Kolar  Taluk. — Central  taluk  of  Kolar  District,  Mysore,  lying 
between  130  2'  and  130  18'  N.  and  770  56'  and  780  17'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  283  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  75,648,  compared 
with  72,543  in  1 89 1.  The  taluk  contains  one  town,  Kolar  (popula- 
tion, 12,210),  the  head-quarters;  and  334  villages.  The  land  revenue 
demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,71,000.  The  Palar  river  runs  along  the 
eastern  border,  while  the  west  is  occupied  by  the  Kolar  and  Vokkaleri 
hills.  The  taluk  is  generally  well  cultivated,  even  the  table-land  on 
the  Kolar  hills.  There  are  numerous  large  tanks  and  wells,  especially 
in  the  south.  The  '  dry-crop '  soil  is  mostly  red,  mixed  with  sand.  In 
the  north-east  is  some  black  soil.  Silkworms  are  reared  in  many  of 
the  villages. 

Kolar  Gold  Fields. — City  in  the  south-east  of  Kolar  District, 
Mysore  State,  situated  on  a  branch  railway  (10  miles  long)  from 
Bowringpet,  between  120  50"  and  130  o'  N.  and  780  18'  and  780  21'  E., 
to  the  east  of  a  low  ridge  of  hills,  of  which  Betarayan  (3,199  feet) 
is  the  most  conspicuous  point.  Area,  15  square  miles;  population 
(1901),  38,204.  In  1891  the  population  was  only  7,085,  and  the  entire 
city  has  come  into  being  since  1887. 

The  existence  of  gold  in  this  region  had  long  been  known,  and  there 
are  traces  of  old  workings.  Mining  was  attempted,  but  without 
success,  in  the  time  of  Tipu  Sultan,  and  in  1802  Lieut.  Warren 
examined  and  reported  upon  this  gold  tract.  In  1873  Mr.  M.  F. 
Lavelle  obtained  from  the  Mysore  government  exclusive  mining  rights 
for  twenty  years,  and  sank  a  shaft  near  Urigam  in  1875.  But  finding 
that  large  capital  was  needed  for  carrying  on  the  work,  he  transferred 
his  rights  in  1876,  with  the  approval  of  the  government,  to  a  syndicate 
known  as  the  Kolar  Concessionaires,  to  whom  20  square  miles  were 
leased  for  thirty  years  on  more  favourable  terms.  In  1881  the  aid  was 
secured  of  Messrs.  John  Taylor  &  Sons,  mining  engineers  in  London ; 
and  Captain  B.  D.  Plummer,  a  miner  of  great  experience,  commenced 
operations  at  the  Nundydroog  mine.  These  came  to  an  end  for  want 
of  funds  in  1883,  and  the  outlook  for  the  whole  field  was  of  the 
gloomiest.  The  Mysore  mine  still  had  £13,000  left.  On  the  strong 
advice  of  Mr.  John  Taylor,  Captain  Plummer  was  sent  out  as  a  forlorn 


KOLAR   GOLD  FIELDS  377 

hope  in  December,  1883,  to  do  the  best  he  could  with  this  amount. 
Before  long  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  discover  the  Champion  lode, 
and  by  1885  the  success  of  the  Kolar  gold-field  had  been  established. 
Many  changes  had  meanwhile  been  made  in  the  terms  of  leases,  which 
had  the  effect  of  both  encouraging  the  industry  and  giving  the  State 
a  legitimate  share  in  the  profits.  The  Kolar  Gold  Fields  now  yield 
nearly  all  the  gold  produced  in  India,  and  some  of  the  mines  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world.  To  the  end  of  1904  the  total  value 
of  gold  produced  was  21  millions  sterling,  and  there  had  been  paid  in 
dividends  9  millions,  and  in  royalty  to  the  Mysore  State  one  million. 
The  nominal  capital  of  the  eleven  companies  at  work  at  the  end  of 
1904  was  2\  millions  sterling,  valued  in  the  London  market  at  about 
9^  millions.  Of  these  companies,  five  (Mysore,  Champion  Reef, 
Ooregum,  Nundydroog,  and  Balaghat)  paid  dividends,  and  five  pro- 
duced gold  but  paid  no  dividends.  The  dividends  paid  by  the  first 
five  averaged  74  per  cent,  on  their  paid-up  capital,  but  for  individual 
companies  it  came  to  145  per  cent,  for  the  first  and  169  for  the  second. 
The  number  of  persons  employed  in  1904  was  510  Europeans,  415 
Eurasians,  and  27,000  natives.  The  wages  paid  in  the  year  amounted 
to  70^  lakhs  or  £470,000. 

The  following  improvements  have  been  carried  out  by  the  State  for 
the  promotion  of  the  Gold  Fields.  In  1894  was  opened  the  branch 
railway  from  Bowringpet  junction,  passing  through  the  mines.  In  1899 
a  Sanitary  Board  was  formed,  composed  of  three  ex-officio  and  four 
non-official  members,  the  latter  nominated  by  the  Mining  Board  and 
approved  by  the  State.  The  Special  Magistrate  is  ex-officio  president. 
In  1900  the  Gold  Fields  were  formed  into  a  separate  police  district, 
together  with  the  Bowringpet,  Maliir,  and  Mulbagal  taluks.  A  number 
of  Sikhs  and  Punjabis  have  been  recruited,  and  in  1904  the  force  con- 
sisted of  a  European  Superintendent,  50  subordinate  officers,  and  726 
constables.  The  number  of  grave  crimes  reported  was  4S8,  of  which 
70  per  cent,  were  detected.  Co-operating  with  this  force,  especially  for 
prevention  of  gold  thefts,  are  also  6  European  supervisors,  with  315 
native  watchmen  under  them,  and  4  Punjabi  jemadars,  with  125  Pun- 
jabi watchmen.  In  the  middle  of  1902  the  Cauvery  power  scheme 
commenced  supplying  electric  power  to  the  mines  from  the  Cauvery 
Falls  at  Sivasamudram,  92  miles  distant.  Since  August,  1902,  there 
has  been  uninterrupted  transmission  of  4,is5  horse-power.  So  satis- 
factory have  been  the  results  that  a  further  supply  of  2,500  horse- 
power, applied  for  by  the  mining  companies,  was  installed  in  1905, 
and  2,000  additional  to  this  is  being  arranged  for.  The  power  is  also 
being  applied  to  the  working  of  saw-mills  at  the  mines.  A  scheme 
for  an  efficient  water-supply,  drawn  from  the  Betmangala  tank  on  the 
Palar  river,  6  miles  to  the  east,  was   finished  in   1905.     The  water, 


378  KOLAR   GOLD  FIELDS 

filtered  by  the  Jewel  system,  is  pumped  to  a  reservoir  at  the  new  town, 
and  each  mine  can  draw  its  supply  from  the  main  laid  through  the 
fields.  The  State  undertakes  to  supply  a  million  gallons  a  day  to 
the  mines,  and  an  additional  half-million  if  found  necessary.  Churches, 
a  club,  an  hotel,  large  shops,  &c,  had  been  erected  at  various  times, 
but  since  1895  the  necessity  of  laying  out  a  new  town  for  the  popula- 
tion of  the  Gold  Fields  was  recognized.  Roads  and  wells  were 
gradually  made,  and  land  acquired.  In  1901  a  final  plan  was  adopted 
for  the  town  (since  named  Robertsonpet,  after  a  former  Resident), 
which  extends  north  and  south  to  the  east  of  the  Gold  Fields.  Con- 
nected with  it  are  cooly  colonies,  providing  sanitary  dwellings  for  the 
workpeople.  Between  the  residential  and  bazar  sites  has  been  reserved 
an  open  space  for  a  park  or  public  garden. 

Kolar  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of  Kolar, 
Mysore,  situated  in  130  8'  N.  and  7 8°  8'  E.,  11  miles  north  of  Bowring- 
pet  railway  station.  Population  (1901),  12,210.  Kolar  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity,  but  little  now  remains  in  it  that  is  ancient.  The 
original  form  of  the  name  was  Kuvalala,  contracting  to  Kolala.  The 
Gangas  from  early  in  the  Christian  era  bore  the  title  '  Lord  of 
Kuvalala.'  The  present  Kolaramma  temple  was  erected  by  Rajendra 
Chola  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  Cholas  over- 
threw the  Ganga  power.  Early  in  the  next  century  Kolala  was  taken 
by  the  Hoysala  king,  who  drove  the  Cholas  out  of  Mysore.  When  the 
Hoysala  dominions  were  partitioned  for  a  time  in  the  second  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  Kolar  went  with  the  Tamil  districts  to  Rama- 
natha.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  under  Vijayanagar,  Tamme  Gauda, 
with  the  title  of  Chikka  Rayal,  obtained  authority  to  repair  the  fort. 
The  Sultan  of  Bijapur  next  subdued  the  place,  and  in  1639  it  was  a  part 
of  the  jdglr  given  to  Shahji,  father  of  Sivajl.  The  Mughals  took  it 
fifty  years  later,  and  about  1720  Fateh  Muhammad,  father  of  Haidar 
All,  became  Faujdar  of  Kolar  under  the  Subahdar  of  Slra.  After 
various  fortunes,  Kolar  was  ceded  to  Haidar  Ah  in  1761.  In  1768 
it  was  taken  by  the  British,  in  1770  by  the  Marathas,  in  1791  again 
by  the  British,  and  at  the  peace  of  1792  restored  to  Mysore.  The 
Makbara,  or  tomb  of  Haidar  All's  father,  is  one  of  the  principal  old 
buildings,  and  is  maintained  by  an  endowment.  The  fort  walls  were 
levelled  some  years  ago  and  the  ditch  was  filled  up.  Many  new  streets 
were  laid  out  at  the  same  time.  Before  the  opening  of  the  railway 
in  1864,  Kolar  was  the  great  place  of  passage  to  and  from  Madras. 
Scorpions  abound,  and  a  pit  under  the  entrance  to  the  Kolaramma 
temple  is  kept  full  of  them.  A  silver  scorpion  is  one  of  the  customary 
offerings.  Mulberry  is  grown  for  the  rearing  of  silkworms.  Turkeys 
are  reared  in  large  numbers  for  export  to  Bangalore  and  other 
European  centres.    Coarse  woollen  blankets  are  woven.    The  Methodist 


KOLHAN  379 

Episcopal  Mission  has  an  orphanage  and  industrial  school.  The 
municipality  dates  from  1870.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  4,000.  In  1903-4  they  were 
Rs.  12,000. 

Kolhan.— Government  estate  in  Singhbhum  District,  Bengal,  lying 
between  210  58'  and  220  43'  N.  and  850  21'  and  86°  3'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,955  square  miles.  The  Kolhan  is  a  low  plateau,  varying  in 
elevation  from  750  feet  above  sea-level  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chai- 
basa  to  upwards  of  1,000  feet  in  the  south.  On  the  north,  east,  and 
south,  the  country  is  for  the  greater  part  open  and  gently  undulating ; 
it  is  covered  with  prosperous  villages  and  is  well  cultivated,  the  depres- 
sions between  the  ridges  being  invariably  sown  with  rice  and  some 
portion  of  the  uplands  with  cereals,  pulses,  or  oilseeds.  In  the  south- 
east the  surface  is  very  rocky  and  covered  with  jungle ;  and  in  the  west 
and  south-west  are  mountainous  tracts  thickly  covered  with  jungle  and 
very  sparsely  inhabited.  The  villages  here  are  mere  hamlets  scattered 
on  the  hill  slopes,  and  an  area  of  529  square  miles  has  been  formed 
into  forest  Reserves. 

The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hos,  and  British  relations  with 
them  date  from  1820.  At  that  time  the  tract  was  a  refuge  for  fugitive 
offenders  from  Chota  Nagpur,  and  plundering  excursions  were  fre- 
quently made  by  the  Hos  into  the  neighbouring  territories.  They  thus 
became  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Raja  of  Porahat  and  of  the  other 
chiefs  in  the  north  of  Singhbhum.  The  British  Government,  wishing 
to  put  an  end  to  the  plundering  excursions,  formed  relations  with  the 
Raja  of  Porahat,  and  assisted  him  and  the  Saraikela  and  Kharsawan 
chiefs  in  bringing  the  Hos  into  submission.  The  chiefs,  however,  were 
unable  to  keep  them  in  order,  and  in  1837  the  British  Government 
resolved  to  take  their  territory  under  its  direct  control.  Colonel 
Richards  entered  the  country  with  a  strong  force  and  secured  their 
submission,  after  which  23  Ho  pirs  or  parganas  were  detached  from 
the  control  of  the  Singhbhum  chiefs  and  4  from  Mayurbhanj  and 
formed  into  the  Kolhan  Government  estate.  There  was  no  further 
trouble  until  1857,  when  the  Hos  joined  the  mutinous  Raja  of  Porahat, 
and  a  long  and  troublesome  campaign  took  place,  which  terminated 
with  the  surrender  of  the  Raja  in  1859. 

The  indigenous  village-system  of  the  Kols,  based  upon  a  federal 
union  of  villages  under  a  single  divisional  headman,  which  is  gradually 
dying  out  elsewhere  in  Chota.  Nagpur,  still  survives  in  this  tract.  The 
whole  estate  is  divided  into  groups  of  from  5  to  20  villages.  Each 
village  has  its  own  munda  or  headman,  all  of  whom  are  subject  to 
the  authority  of  the  mdnki  ox  divisional  headman.  Every  munda  is  re 
sponsible  for  the  payment  of  the  revenue,  and  for  the  detection  and 
arrest  of  criminals  in  his  village,  to  the  mdnki,  who  is  in  his  turn 
vol.  xv.  B  b 


38o  KOLHAN 

responsible  to  Government.  For  acting  as  revenue  collectors,  the 
mankis  receive  a  commission  of  10  per  cent,  and  the  mundas  16  per 
cent,  of  the  revenue  which  passes  through  their  hands.  Besides  these 
duties,  the  mankis  and  mundas,  each  in  his  degree,  have  certain  informal 
powers  to  decide  village  disputes  and  questions  of  tribal  usage.  Per- 
sons other  than  Hos  are  not  allowed  to  settle  in  the  estate  without 
the  permission  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  The  last  settlement  was 
effected  in  1897,  when  the  gross  rental  was  fixed  at  Rs.  1,77,000,  sub- 
ject to  a  deduction  of  Rs.  49,000  on  account  of  commission  to  mankis, 
mundas,  and  tahsildars  (as  the  village  accountants  are  here  called).  A 
uniform  rate  of  12  annas  per  acre  was  charged  for  embanked  rice  culti- 
vation, and  2  annas  for  uplands.  New  dikkus  or  non-Hos  were  assessed 
at  double  these  rates.  Of  the  total  area,  525  square  miles  were  culti- 
vated, 450  square  miles  were  cultivable,  and  219  square  miles  unculti- 
vable  waste  5212  square  miles  were  '  protected  '  forest,  529  square  miles 
'  reserved '  forest,  and  20  square  miles  lakhiraj  or  revenue  free.  Chai- 
basa,  the  head-quarters  of  Singhbhum  District,  which  lies  within  the 
estate,  is  assessed  under  a  separate  settlement. 

[J.  A.  Craven,  Final  Report  on  the  Settlement  of  the  Kolhan  Govern- 
ment Estate  (Calcutta,  1898).] 

Kolhapur. — Town  in  Amraoti  District,  Berar.     See  Kholapur. 

Kolhapur  State  (or  Karavira,  or  Karvir). — State  in  the  Kolhapur 
and  Southern  Maratha  Political  Agency,  Bombay,  lying  between 
150  50'  and  170  11'  N.  and  730  43'  and  740  44'  E.  *,  with  an  area  of 
3,165  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Varna, 
which  separates  it  from  the  District  of  Sa.ta.ra  ;  on  the  north-east  by 
the  river  Kistna,  separating  it  from  Sangli,  Miraj,  and  Kurandvad ; 
on  the  east  and  south  by  the  District  of  Belgaum ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Western  Ghats,  which  divide  it  from  Savantvadi  on  the  south- 
west and  Ratnagiri  on  the  west.  Kolhapur  comprises  portions  of  the 
two  old  Hindu  divisions  of  Maharashtra  and  Carnatic,  a  distinction 
which  is  still  marked  in  the  language  of  the  people,  part  of  whom  speak 
Marathi  and  the  remainder  Kanarese. 

Subordinate  to  Kolhapur  are  nine  feudatories,  of  which  the  following 
five  are  important :  Vishalgarh,  Bavda,  Kagal  (senior),  Kapsi,  and  Ichal- 
karanji.  The  general  statistics  of  all  of  these  are  shown  in  the  table 
on  the  next  page. 

Stretching  from  the  heart  of  the  Western  Ghats  eastwards  into  the 
plain  of  the  Deccan,  Kolhapur  includes  tracts  of  widely  different  cha- 
racter and  appearance.     In  the  west,  along  the  spurs 
aspects  °*"  tne  mam  cnam>  are  situated  wild  and  picturesque 

hill  slopes   and  valleys,   producing  timber,  myrabo- 
lams,  &c,  and  covered  with  forests.     The  central  belt,  which  is  open 

1  These  spherical  values  do  not  include  certain  outlying  tracts,  like  Torgal. 


KOLHAPUR   STATE 


38i 


and  fertile  in  parts,  is  crossed  by  several  lines  of  low  hills  running 
east  and  west  at  right  angles  to  the  main  range.  Farther  east,  the 
land  becomes  more  open,  and  presents  the  unpicturesque  uniformity  of 
a  well-cultivated  and  treeless  plain,  broken  only  by  an  occasional  river. 
Among  the  western  hills  are  perched  the  forts  of  Panhala,  Vishalgarh, 
Bavda,  Bhudhargarh,  and  Rangna,  ancient  strongholds  of  the  Kolhapur 
chieftains.  The  State  is  watered  by  eight  streams  of  considerable  size  ; 
but  though  navigable  during  the  rainy  months  by  trading  boats  of 
2  tons,  none  is  so  large  that  it  cannot  be  forded  in  the  hot  season. 
The  only  lake  of  any  importance  is  that  of  Rankala,  near  the  city  of 
Kolhapur.  It  has  lately  been  improved  at  a  considerable  cost.  Its 
circumference  is  about  3  miles,  and  its  mean  depth  3$  feet.  Except 
in  the  south,  where  there  are  some  ridges  of  sandstone  and  quart/ite 
belonging  to  the  Kaladgi  (Cuddapah)  formation,  Kolhapur  comes  within 
the  area  of  the  great  Deccan  trap  fields. 


Subdivisions  and  Feudatories. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Villages. 

Population, 
1 901. 

Revenue, 

in  thousands 

of  rupees, 

1903-4. 

Kolhapur  Proper. 

Petha  Karvlr          .... 

311 

I42 

164,351 

v.     i> 

Petha  Panhala,  including  Chan  wad  maha 

I         46S 

202 

"S,08^ 

JZ 

Petha  Alte 

219 

49 

1 13.585 

Petha  Shirol,  including  Raybag  mahal 

328 

64 

88,828 

!> 

Gad-Hinglaj,  including  Katkol  mahal 

487 

166 

124,342 

1  i 

Petha  Bhudhargarh 

Tota 
Feudatory  Jagirs. 

489 
[      2,302 

193 

94,761 

ll 

816 

698,952 

43,91 

Vishalgarh     ..... 

235 

66 

35,258 

2,02 

Bavda    . 

243 

69 

44,400 

1,44 

Kapsi    . 

32 

10 

'3,754 

60 

Kagal  Senior 

112 

40 

49>233 

3,26 

Kagal  Junior 

■  •  • 

67 

Ichalkaranji  . 

241 

;s 

68,414 

3,29 

Torgal  . 

•  .  . 

•  •  • 

44 

Himmat  Bahadur  . 

85 

Sarlashkar  Bahadur 

... 

... 

69 

Tota 

1           863 

263 

211,059 

13,26 

( 

j  ram 

tota 

1      3,l65 

1,079 

910,01 1 

57, '7 

The  chief  trees  are  the  ai/i,  nana,  hirda,  kinja/,  jambitl,  and  bava  : 
minor  products  are  bamboos,  myrabolams,  and  gra.s-.  Tigers  ami 
leopards  are  found  in  the  hills.  Bison,  bears,  and  wild  dogs  are 
occasionally  met  with. 

At  an  elevation  of  about  1,800  feet  above  the  sea,  Kolhapur  enjoys 
on  the  whole  a  temperate  climate.     In  the  west,  with  its  heavy  rainfall 

b  b  2 


3*2 


KOLHAPUR   STATE 


and  timber-covered  hills  and  valleys,  the  air  keeps  cool  throughout  the 
year ;  but  in  the  dry  tracts  below  the  hills,  suffocating  easterly  winds 
prevail  from  April  to  June.  During  the  hot  months  the  hill  forts,  rising 
about  1,000  feet  above  the  plain,  afford  a  pleasant  retreat.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  heaviest  at  Bavda,  where  it  reaches  207  inches,  and  least  at 
Shirol,  where  it  is  only  21  inches.  Kolhapur  and  Ajra  record  an  average 
fall  of  38  and  77  inches.  Plague  first  appeared  in  the  State  in  1897, 
and  caused  more  than  62,000  deaths  by  the  end  of  1903-4. 

The  members  of  a  branch  of  the  Silahara  family,  which  was  settled 
above  the  Western  Ghats,  possessed  the  territory  lying  round  Kolhapur 
and  in  the  north-west  of  Belgaum  District  from  about 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century  to  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  About  121 2  the  country  passed  to  the  Deogiri  Yadavas.  The 
ancient  Hindu  dynasty  was  subverted  by  the  Bahmani  kings  of  the 
Dcccan,  and  the  country  afterwards  came  under  the  rule  of  Bijapur. 
In  1659  SivajT  obtained  possession  of  the  forts  which,  though  taken  and 
retaken  many  times,  finally  remained  with  the  Marathas  on  the  death 
of  Aurangzeb. 

The  present  Rajas  of  Kolhapur  trace  their  descent  from  Raja  Ram, 
a  younger  son  of  SivajT,  the  founder  of  the  Maratha  power.  After  the 
death  of  Raja  Ram  in  1700,  his  widow  placed  her  son  Sivaji  in  power 
at  Kolhapur.  But  in  1707,  when  Shahu,  the  son  of  Sambhajl,  SivajT's 
elder  son,  was  released  from  captivity,  he  claimed  the  sovereignty  over 
all  the  possessions  of  his  grandfather  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Satara. 
Disputes  between  the  two  branches  of  the  family  continued  for  several 
years,  till  in  1730  a  treaty  was  concluded,  under  the  terms  of  which  the 
younger  branch  agreed  to  yield  precedence  to  Shahu,  and  to  abandon  all 
claims  to  the  country  north  of  the  Varna  and  east  of  the  Kistna,  and 
Shahu  of  the  elder  branch  recognized  Kolhapur  as  an  independent  prin- 
cipality. On  the  death  of  Raja  Ram's  younger  son  in  1 760,  the  direct 
line  of  Sivaji  became  extinct ;  and  a  member  of  the  family  of  the 
Bhonslas  was  adopted  under  the  name  of  Sivaji  III.  The  prevalence 
of  piracy  from  the  Kolhapur  port  of  Malvan  compelled  the  Bombay 
Government  to  send  expeditions  against  Kolhapur  in  1765,  and  again 
in  1792,  when  the  Raja  agreed  to  give  compensation  for  the  losses 
which  British  merchants  had  sustained  since  1785,  and  to  permit  the 
establishment  of  factories  at  Malvan  and  Kolhapur.  Internal  dissen- 
sions and  wars  with  the  neighbouring  States  of  the  Patvardhans, 
Savantvadi,  and  Nipani,  gradually  weakened  the  power  of  Kolhapur. 
In  181 2  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  British  Government,  by  which, 
in  return  for  the  cession  of  certain  forts,  the  Kolhapur  chief  was 
guaranteed  against  the  attacks  of  foreign  powers ;  while  on  his  part  he 
engaged  to  abstain  from  hostilities  with  other  States,  and  to  refer  all 
disputes  to  the  arbitration  of  the  British  Government. 


POPULATION  383 

Daring  the  war  with  the  Peshwa  in  181 7,  the  Raja  of  Kolhapur  sided 
with  the  British.  In  reward,  the  tracts  of  Chikodi  and  Manoli,  formerly 
wrested  from  him  by  the  chief  of  Nipani,  were  restored.  But  these 
tracts  did  not  long  remain  a  part  of  the  State.  They  were  resumed  by 
the  British  Government  in  1829,  owing  to  the  serious  misconduct  of 
the  Raja.  Shahajl,  alias  Bava  Sahib,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1822, 
had  proved  a  quarrelsome  and  profligate  ruler ;  and,  in  consequence  of 
his  aggressions  between  1822  and  1829,  the  British  were  three  times 
obliged  to  move  a  force  against  him.  On  his  death  in  1837  a  council 
of  regency  was  formed  to  govern  during  the  minority  of  Sivaji  IV. 
Quarrels  arose  among  the  members  of  this  council,  and  the  consequent 
anarchy  led  to  the  appointment  by  the  British  Government  of  a  minister 
of  its  own.  The  efforts,  however,  which  he  made  to  reform  the  adminis- 
tration gave  rise  to  a  general  rebellion,  which  extended  to  the  neigh- 
bouring State  of  Savantvadi.  After  the  suppression  of  this  rising,  all 
the  forts  were  dismantled,  and  the  system  of  hereditary  garrisons  was 
abolished.  The  military  force  of  the  State  was  disbanded  and  replaced 
by  a  local  corps.  In  1862  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Sivaji  IV,  who 
was  bound  in  all  matters  of  importance  to  be  guided  by  the  advice  of 
the  British  Government.  In  1866,  on  his  death-bed,  Sivaji  was  allowed 
to  adopt  a  successor  in  his  sister's  son,  Raja  Ram.  In  1870  Raja  Ram 
proceeded  on  a  tour  in  Europe,  and,  while  on  his  return  journey  to  India, 
died  at  Florence  on  November  30,  1870.  Sivaji  Maharaja  Chhatra- 
pati  V  succeeded  Raja  Ram  by  adoption.  In  1882  he  became  insane, 
and  Government  was  compelled  to  appoint  a  council  of  regency,  headed 
by  the  chief  of  Kagal  as  regent.  Sivaji  V  died  on  December  25,  1883, 
and  having  no  issue,  was  succeeded  by  adoption  by  Jaswant  Rao,  alias 
Baba  Sahib,  under  the  name  of  Shahajl,  who  still  rules.  The  Maharaja 
of  Kolhapur  holds  a  patent  authorizing  adoption,  and  succession  follows 
the  rule  of  primogeniture.     He  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  19  guns. 

The  population  of  Kolhapur  and  its  feudatories  was  804,103  in  1872,-* 

800,189  m   1881,  903,131  in   iSgr,  and  910,011  in   1901,  residing  in 

9  towns  and  1,070  villages.     The  towns  are  Kolha-       „       ,    . 

>  ,     .  f    ,  .    ,    T  _       Population. 

pur  (population,  54,373),  the  capital,  Ichalkaranji 

(12,920),  Shirol  (7,864),  Kagal  (7,688),  Gad-Hinglaj  (6,373),  \\'ai>- 

gaon  (5,168),   Hatkalangda    (3,680),   Katkol   (4,562),   and    Malkapur 

(3>3°7)'      rl'ne  density   is  319   persons  per  square   mile.      About  90 

per  cent,  are  Hindus ;  and  of  the  remainder,  38,533  are  Musalmans, 

50,924   Jains,    and    2,517    Christians.     The   chief   Hindu    castes   are 

Brahmans  (33,000),  of  whom  two-thirds  are  Deshasths  (22,000),  while 

Konkanasths  number  5,000.     Marathas  (432,000)  form  the  majority  o( 

the  Hindu  population,  and  are  largely  cultivators,  describing  themselves 

as  Kunbls.     The  Dhangar  or  shepherd  caste  numbers  36,000,  mostly 

nomads.     Lingayats,   who   are   chiefly   found    in    the   south,   number 


384  KOLHAPUR   STATE 

79,000,  largely  traders  and  shopkeepers.  Mahars  (74,000),  Mangs 
(17,000),  and  Sutars  or  carpenters  (15,000)  are  the  remaining  castes  of 
numerical  importance.  Kolhapur  is  remarkable  for  the  large  number 
of  Jain  cultivators  (36,000),  who  are  evidence  of  the  former  predo- 
minance of  the  Jain  religion  in  the  Southern  Maratha  country.  They 
are  a  peaceable  and  industrious  peasantry.  The  Musalmans  chiefly 
describe  themselves  as  Shaikhs  (31,000).  Native  Christians  numbered 
2,462  in  1 901 ;  and  of-  these  1,087  were  Roman  Catholics,  1,048  Pro- 
testants, and  100  Presbyterians.  Nearly  71  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population  are  supported  by  agriculture,  while  13  per  cent,  belong  to 
the  industrial  classes. 

The  soil  is  of  four  kinds  :  namely,  kali  or  black,  tdmbdi  or  red,  mali 
or  ntalav,  the  alluvial  land,  and  khari  or  pandhari  or  white.     Of  these, 

.     .     ,.         „       the  black  and  red  soils  are  the  most  valuable.     About 

Agriculture,  &c.  ...   ,      .    .  ,  ,  .  ,       

one-third  of    the  arable  area   is  good  soil  yielding 

garden  crops  ;  but  the  remainder  is  mediocre,  or,  in  the  hilly  parts, 
poor.  Of  the  2,354  square  miles  of  cultivable  land,  2,019  square  miles 
have  been  brought  under  cultivation.  In  1903-4  the  area  actually 
cultivated  was  1,591  square  miles,  the  remaining  428  square  miles 
being  current  fallows.  Jowar  occupied  470  square  miles,  rice  262, 
nachni  171,  and  bajra  108  square  miles.  Other  crops  are  sugar-cane, 
tobacco,  cotton,  chillies,  kusumba,  and  ground-nuts.  A  few  coffee  and 
cardamom  plantations  yield  a  small  out-turn.  Irrigation  is  rare,  and  is 
carried  on  chiefly  from  wells  or  pools  dug  in  stream  beds.  The  area  of 
'reserved'  forest  is  341  square  miles,  while  182  square  miles  are  pro- 
tected ;  the  forest  products  are  teak,  sandal,  black-wood,  myrabolams, 
grass,  and  honey.  The  hollows  of  rocks  and  decayed  trees  contain  the 
comb  of  the  pova  bee,  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

Iron  ore  of  three  varieties  is  found  in  Kolhapur  territory.  It  is  most 
plentiful  in  Vishalgarh,  Panhala,  B-hiidargarh,  and  Kolhapur  proper, 
near  the  main  range  of  the  Western  Ghats.  In  these  places  it  is  gene- 
rally found  near  the  surface,  in  laterite.  Formerly  the  smelting  of  iron 
was  an  industry  of  some  importance  ;  but,  owing  to  the  cost  of  manual 
labour,  the  increased  price  of  fuel,  and  the  low  rates  of  freight  from 
England,  the  Kolhapur  metal  cannot  compete  with  that  imported 
from  Europe.  Stone  is  the  only  other  mineral  product  of  the  State. 
There  are  several  good  quarries,  especially  one  in  a  place  known  as 
Jotiba's  Hill,  with  a  fine-grained  basalt,  that  takes  a  polish  like  marble. 

Rosha  oil  is  manufactured  in  the  State.     Other  manufactures  are 

pottery,  hardware,  coarse  cotton,  woollen  cloth,  felt,  liquor,  perfumes, 

__  ,        .        and  lac  and  glass  ornaments.     Coarse  sugar,  tobacco, 

communications.  cotton>  and  grain  are  the  chief  exports ;  and  refined 

sugar,   spices,   coco-nuts,  piece-goods,  silk,  salt,  and 

sulphur  are  the  principal  imports.     The  most  noteworthy  centres  of 


ADMINISTRA  TJON  3  8  5 

local    track-    with    permanent    markets   are    Kolhapur   city,   Shahupur, 

Wadgaon,  IchalkaranjI,  and  Kagal.     The  Southern   Mahratta  Railway 

passes  through   the  State,  being   connected  with   Kolhapur   city  by  a 

branch  opened  in  1891,  the  property  of  the  State.     Six  principal  lines 

of  road  pass  through  Kolhapur  territory,  the  most  important  being  that 

from  Poona  to  Belgaum,  which  crosses  the  State  from  north  to  south. 

The  total  number  of  post  offices  is  42,  of  which  9  are  situated  in  the 

feudatory  jagirs. 

Kolhapur,  with  its  good  rainfall  and  rich  land,  is  less  liable  to  famine 

than  the  adjacent   Deccan  Districts.     Distress  occurred  in  the  years 

1876-7,  1891-2,  1896-7,  and  1899-1900,  and  relief 

,  .  „.  Famine, 

measures   were  necessary  on  each   occasion.      The 

highest  daily  attendance  of  persons  in  receipt  of  relief  was  164,344  in 
1876-7,  6,200  in  1891-2,  61,616  in  1896-7,  and  7,000  in  1899-1900. 
About  3  lakhs  were  spent  on  relief  in  1876-7,  Rs.  40,000  in  1 891-2, 
7  lakhs  in  1896-7,  and  Rs.  51,000  in  1899-1900. 

The  nine  feudatory  estates  are  administered  by  their  holders.    Kolha- 
pur proper  is  divided  into  six  pethas  or  talukas  and    .  ,    .  .  .    A. 
,  ,_,  ,  ■  ,   ,       ,      ,,,_-._•,     Administration, 

three  f/ia/ia/s,  and  is  managed  by  the  Maharaja  with 

the  advice  of  the  Political  Agent,  Kolhapur  and  Southern  Maratha  Jagirs. 

The  Maharaja  exercises  full  powers  in  criminal  and  civil  matters, 
including  the  power  of  life  and  death ;  but  he  cannot  try  British 
subjects  for  capital  offences  without  the  permission  of  the  Political 
Agent.  The  State  contains  64  criminal  courts  with  varying  powers 
from  Sessions  Judge  to  third-class  magistrate.  The  feudatory  chiefs 
have  in  most  cases  power  to  imprison  up  to  seven  years  and  the 
civil  powers  of  a  District  Judge.  During  their  minority,  their 
karbharis  exercise  jurisdiction  as  magistrates  and  sub-judges.  The 
commonest  forms  of  crime  are  theft  and  hurt. 

There  are  municipalities  at  Kolhapur,  Narsoba  Vadi,  Ichai.kar  an.iT, 
Wadgaon,  Hatkalangda,  Shirol,  Gad-Hinglaj,  Katkol,  and  Malkapur. 
The  income  of  the  Kolhapur  municipality  exceeds  Rs.  60,000,  while 
that  of  the  remaining  eight  amounts  in  all  to  about  Rs.  23,000.  The 
Kolhapur  municipality  was  suspended  in  1904,  owing  to  maladminis- 
tration. 

The  land  revenue  administration  is  controlled  by  an  officer  styled  the 
Chief  Revenue  Officer,  corresponding  to  the  Commissioner  of  a  British 
Division.  The  Kolhapur  land  tenures  belong  to  three  main  classes  : 
namely,  alienated  or  indmt,  State  or  sheri,  and  personal  or  ryotwari. 
Of  these,  the  alienated  are  subdivided  into  personal,  religious,  and 
political  grants,  and  grants  for  non-military  service,  most  of  the  aliena- 
tions having  been  made  between  16 18  and  1838.  State  or  sheri  lands 
are  the  Maharaja's  personal  holdings,  and  are  managed  by  the  revenue 
officers,  who  let  them  to  the  highest  bidder  for  a  term  of  vears.     The 


386  KOLHAPUR   STATE 

chief  varieties  of  the  ryotwari  tenure  are  :  the  mirasi,  under  which  the 
payment  of  a  fixed  rental  prevented  the  holder  from  eviction  ;  the  upri, 
under  which  land  can  be  given  to  a  fresh  holder  after  one  or  two  years ; 
the  dial  khand,  under  which  the  holder  pays  a  little  more  or  less  than 
the  fixed  rate  ;  and  the  vata/ii,  under  which  hereditary  village  officers 
hold  lands  for  less  than  the  usual  assessment.  The  survey  settlement, 
first  introduced  in  1886,  is  at  present  under  revision.  The  assessment 
rates  per  acre  in  force  are  :  '  dry  crop,'  from  R.  1  to  Rs.  4-4 ;  rice  land, 
from  Rs.  5-1  to  Rs.  10;  garden  land,  from  Rs.  8  to  Rs.  10.  The 
revision  survey  up  to  the  end  of  1903  enhanced  the  total  assess- 
ment by  Rs.  91,771,  or  ni  per  cent. 

The  Kolhapur  State  proper  had  in  1903-4  a  revenue  of  44  lakhs, 
chiefly  derived  from  land  (12  lakhs),  excise  (if  lakhs),  and  Local  funds 
(i|  lakhs).  The  expenditure  amounted  to  43  lakhs,  of  which  nearly 
3  lakhs  was  devoted  to  the  Maharaja's  private  expenses,  3  lakhs  was 
spent  on  public  works,  and  2  on  the  military  department.  The  revenue 
of  the  jdgirs  is  given  in  the  table  on  p.  381.  Opium,  excise,  and  salt 
are  under  the  control  of  the  State.  Since  1839,  when  the  Kolhapur 
mint  was  abolished,  the  British  rupee  has  been  the  only  current  coin. 

The  Maharaja  maintains  a  military  force  of  710  men.  The  strength 
of  the  police  is  873  men,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  80,000.  The 
Central  jail  at  Kolhapur  had  an  average  daily  population  of  243  in 
1903-4,  the  cost  per  prisoner  being  Rs.  74.  There  are  seventeen 
subordinate  jails. 

Of  the  total  population  4  per  cent.  (7-7  males  and  0-2  females)  could 
read  and  write  in  1901.  Excluding  a  few  missionary  institutions,  there 
were  250  schools  in  1903-4,  including  a  college,  a  high  school,  and 
a  technical  school.  The  total  number  of  pupils  on  the  rolls  was  8,823, 
and  the  expenditure  on  education  was  about  1^  lakhs.  The  State 
possesses  15  libraries,  of  which  the  largest  is  in  Kolhapur  city,  and 
8  local  newspapers.  It  also  contains  a  hospital  and  15  dispensaries, 
which  treated  nearly  168,000  patients  in  1903-4,  a  lunatic  asylum  with 
18  patients,  and  a  leper  asylum  with  93  inmates.  In  the  same  year 
21,000  persons  were  vaccinated. 

Kolhapur  City  (or  Karavira,  or  Karvir). — Capital  of  Kolhapur 
State,  Bombay,  situated  in  160  42'  N.  and  740  16'  E.,  opposite  a  gap  in 
the  Western  Ghats ;  terminus  of  the  Kolhapur  State  Railway,  which 
joins  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  at  Miraj.  Population  (1901), 
54,373.  Hindus  number  47,140,  Muhammadans  5,311,  Jains  1,401, 
and  Christians  511.  Much  has  recently  been  done  to  improve  the 
sanitation  of  the  city  and  to  adorn  it  with  handsome  edifices.  Some  of 
the  new  public  buildings  challenge  comparison  with  the  most  successful 
efforts  of  modern  Indian  architecture.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned 
the  college,  the  high   school,  the  technical  school,  the  hospital,  and 


KOLIS  387 

a  dispensary.  The  municipality,  which  has  recently  been  suspended 
for  maladministration,  had  an  income  in  1903-4  of  nearly  Rs.  63,000. 
The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  56,000,  of  which  nearly 
Rs.  37,000  was  devoted  to  lighting  and  conservancy  and  Rs.  6,400  to 
public  works. 

Kolhapur  has  long  been  held  in  high  esteem  for  the  antiquity  of  its 
sacred  shrines  ;  and  all  current  legends  state  that  the  present  capital 
originally  existed  as  a  purely  religious  settlement,  of  which  the  great 
temple  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Mahalakshmi  remains  to  mark  the  site. 
The  cloisters  formerly  surrounding  this  great  temple  now  lie  buried 
many  feet  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  appears  to  have 
undergone  at  no  distant  period  a  serious  convulsion.  The  extreme 
antiquity  of  Kolhapur  is  borne  out  by  the  numerous  Buddhist  remains 
that  have  been  discovered  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  notably 
a  crystal  relic  casket  found  in  a  large  st/i/>a,  about  1880,  bearing  on  its 
lid  an  inscription  in  Asoka  characters  of  the  third  century  B.C.  Small 
temples  are  frequently  brought  to  light  by  excavations.  It  is  believed 
that  Karavira  is  the  older  and  more  important  capital  of  the  State,  and 
that  the  transfer  of  the  political  capital  from  Karavira  to  the  originally 
religious  settlement  of  Kolhapur  was  probably  necessitated  by  some 
convulsion  of  nature,  of  which  there  are  so  many  evidences  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Kolhapur.  The  ancient  Karavira  is  now  a  petty 
village  on  the  north  side  of  Kolhapur  city. 

Kolkai  (Korkhei,  Kolchei,  Kolchot). — Village  in  the  taluk  of  Srivai- 
kuntam,  in  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  40'  N.  and  780 
5'  E.,  12  miles  east  of  Srivaikuntam  town.  Population  (1901),  2,518. 
Tradition  asserts  that  it  was  the  earliest  seat  of  Dravidian  civilization, 
and  the  spot  where  Chera,  Chola,  and  Pandya,  the  legendary  pro- 
genitors of  the  three  famous  South  Indian  dynasties,  ruled  in  common 
before  the  two  first  founded  kingdoms  of  their  own  in  the  west  and 
north.  It  eventually  became  the  capital  of  the  Pandyan  line,  and  was 
known  to  the  early  European  geographers  as  one  of  the  most  important 
trading  marts  in  India.  It  is  mentioned  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus 
(a.d.  80)  as  a  celebrated  place  for  pearl-fishing,  and  is  also  referred  to 
by  Ptolemy  (130).  The  sea  gradually  retired  from  Kolkai,  owing  t<> 
the  deposit  of  the  silt  of  the  Tambraparni  on  the  shore  in  front,  and 
in  consequence  a  new  emporium  (Kayal)  arose  between  Kolkai  and 
the  sea.  This  in  its  turn  met  with  a  similar  fate,  and  is  now  a  small 
village  5  miles  inland.  Further  interesting  particulars  about  Kolkai  are 
given  in  Bishop  Caldwell's  History  of  Tinnevelly. 

Kolis. — The  various  tribes  that  bear  this  name  differ  very  greatly  111 
character  and  origin.  They  are  chiefly  found  in  the  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, throughout  Gujarat,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Deccan 
and  Konkan,  and  also    in  the  States  of  Hyderabad,   Rajputana,  and 


388  KOLlS 

Central  India.  In  the  Punjab  and  United  Provinces  large  numbers  of 
Koris  or  KolTs  are  found,  who  are  chiefly  weavers  or  labourers.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  these  are  connected  in  any  way  with  the  Kolis 
of  Western  and  Central  India.  At  the  Bombay  Census  of  1901 
1,714,921  persons  returned  themselves  as  KolTs,  and  many  of  the 
castes  that  bear  other  names  have  a  strain  of  Koli  blood ;  whereas 
in  Western  Gujarat  the  Kolis  have  so  strong  an  infusion  of  northern 
blood  as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable  from  Rajputs.  In  the  east  of 
Gujarat  no  very  clear  line  can  be  drawn  between  them  and  the  Bhils  ; 
and  in  the  Konkan  the  Koli  passes  into  the  Kunbl  by  insensible 
gradations.  No  satisfactory  history  or  derivation  of  the  name  Koli  has 
yet  been  given.  The  Kolas  or  Kohsarpas  of  Sanskrit  epic  poetry  are 
probably  the  Kols  of  the  eastern  Vindhyas,  and  the  Kaulika  of  the 
Panchatantra  is  a  weaver  like  the  Koris  of  Northern  India.  The  name 
Koli  does  not  seem  to  occur  before  the  Musalman  period,  and  is  dis- 
liked by  the  tribe  in  Rajputana  and  Northern  Gujarat.  These  facts 
lend  colour  to  the  suggestion  that  it  is  derived  from  the  TurkI  word 
kuleh,  a  'slave.'  But,  whatever  be  the  origin  of  the  name,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  oldest  element  in  the  caste  represents  the  aborigines 
of  the  open  country  and  the  coast,  as  distinguished  from  the  primi- 
tive tribes  of  the  hills  and  forests. 

In  Gujarat  there  are  four  leading  divisions  of  Kolis,  which  do  not  as 
a  rule  eat  together  or  intermarry.  Of  these,  the  highest  and  most  widely 
spread  are  the  Talabdas,  also  called  Dharalas,  who  not  infrequently 
intermarry  with  Rajputs,  and  are  reputed  peaceable  and  skilful  hus- 
bandmen. Next  to  them  come  the  Chunvaliyas  of  Viramgam,  whose 
leaders  are  sometimes  recognized  as  Rajputs,  while  the  rank  and  file 
differ  but  little  from  Bhils.  Though  now  mostly  settled,  they  were 
known  down  to  1825  as  daring  plunderers.  The  Khants  also  differ 
little  from  Bhils,  and  had  their  first  home  in  Rewa  Kantha,  whence 
a  large  body  was  transported  to  Girnar  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
Patanvadiyas  of  the  district  round  Old  Anhilvada  are  looked  down 
upon  by  the  other  sections  because  they  eat  buffalo  meat,  and  closely 
resemble  Bhils  and  Vaghris.  The  strain  of  northern  blood  is  strongest 
in  Kathiawar,  where  the"  Kolis  differ  hardly  at  all  from  the  Babrias, 
Mers,  Ravalias,  and  Mahiyas,  and  join  in  the  worship  of  the  Baloch 
goddess  Hinglaj.  There  is  a  functional  sub-caste  of  Koli  fishers  and 
boatmen,  settled  all  along  the  coasts  of  Kathiawar  and  Gujarat,  which 
is  sometimes  classed  as  separate  from,  and  sometimes  as  a  subdivision 
of,  the  Machhis  or  the  Kharvas.  All  these  sections  of  Kolis  are  sub- 
divided into  exogamous  clans,  many  of  which  bear  Rajput  names. 
Gujarat  Kolis  eat  fish,  flesh,  and  opium,  drink  liquor,  and  smoke 
tobacco.  They  worship  chiefly  the  gods  Indra  and  Hatmal  and  the 
goddesses  Hinglaj  and  Khodiar,  and  the  river  Mahi,  and  have  a  strong 


KOLIS  389 

belief  in  ghosts  and  omens.     Children  are  not  married  before  twelve 

years  of  aye.  Marriages  are  arranged  by  the  parents,  who  pay  great 
respect  to  certain  omens.  Widows  may  remarry,  and  so  may  un- 
widowed  wives  with  the  first  husband's  consent.  In  some  parts 
marriage  of  a  widow  with  her  husband's  younger  brother  is  not  un- 
common. Divorce  is  allowed.  The  dead,  except  infants,  are  burnt, 
and  on  the  eleventh  day  after  death  worship  is  paid  to  a  stone  into 
which  the  ghost  is  supposed  to  have  entered. 

The  Marathl-speaking  Kolls  of  the  Konkan  and  Deccan  also  have 
four  endogamous  divisions.  Of  these  the  Son-Kolls  are  confined  to 
the  coast  tract,  and  are  fishermen  and  sailors.  They  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Agris,  and  have  a  sar pdtel  or  chief  headman  who  lives 
at  Allbag.  The  men  affect  a  cap  of  red  cloth  scalloped  over  the  fore- 
head, and  the  married  women  wear  glass  bangles  on  the  left  arm  only, 
those  of  the  right  arm  being  thrown  into  the  sea  at  marriage  to  save 
the  husband  from  the  dangers  of  the  deep.  The  Malhari  Kunam  or 
Panbhari  Kolls  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  Thana  District,  where 
they  are  husbandmen,  and  more  sparsely  in  the  Deccan,  where  they 
are  boatmen,  water-carriers,  and  ministers  in  the  temples  of  Mahadeo. 
They  eat  with  Kunbis,  from  whom  in  the  Konkan  they  can  hardly 
be  distinguished.  The  Raj,  Dongari,  or  Mahadeo  Kolls  claim  to  have 
come  about  1300  from  the  Nizam's  country,  where  they  are  strong. 
The  chief  of  Jawhar  in  Thana  belongs  to  this  section,  which  is  more 
warlike  than  the  others,  and  has  often  made  itself  notorious  for  turbu- 
lence and  gang-robberies.  Above  the  Ghats  their  chief  centre  was 
formerly  at  Junnar.  They  are  now  as  a  rule  husbandmen.  The  Dhor 
Kolls  are  looked  down  upon  by  the  other  sections  because  they  eat 
beef,  and  are  altogether  of  a  lower  type.  Each  of  the  three  higher 
sections  is  divided  into  a  number  of  exogamous  family  stocks  (kut). 
They  claim  descent  from  the  sage  Yalmiki,  who  composed  the  Ram- 
ayana.  Infant  marriage  is  practised  chiefly  by  the  Raj  Kolls.  All 
sections  allow  the  remarriage  of  widows,  but  only  at  night,  and  with 
maimed  rites.  A  widow  must  marry  out  of  her  first  husband's 
Ml.  Divorce  is  allowed  only  by  Raj  Kolls.  All  sections  worship 
various  forms  of  Siva,  and  in  the  Konkan  also  the  local  gods  and 
ghosts  known  as  Hirva,  Chita,  Vaghdeo,  &c,  with  offerings  of 
fowls,  goats,  and  liquor.  They  believe  firmly  in  witchcraft  and  omens. 
The  marriage  rites  are  conducted  by  Brahmans.  The  dead,  except 
in  cases  of  cholera,  are  burnt,  but  the  Raj  Kolls  sometimes  bury, 
and  employ  rivals  in  the  funeral  rites.  Offerings  are  made  to  the 
dead  from  eleven  to  thirteen  days  after  death,  and  yearly  in  the  month 
of  Bhadrapada. 

In  Central  India  the  Kolls  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  Malwa 
side.     They  live  as  a  rule  by  agriculture  and  differ  little  from   the 


39° 


KOLIS 


ordinary  Kunbi.     The  Census  of  1901  shows  the  following  distribution 
(jf  the  tribe  throughout  India : — 


Bombay 

Baroda 
Hyderabad    . 
Central  India 
Rajputana     . 
Other  Provinces 


1,714,921 

281,326 

2  3o,598 
32,268 
103,060 
57,3<" 
Total     2,419,474 


Kollaimalais. — Hill  range  in  the  Namakkal  and  Atur  taluks  of  Salem 
District,  Madras,  lying  between  n°  io'  and  n°  27'  N.  and  780  18'  and 
780  30'  E.  Unlike  the  Shevaroys,  the  Kollaimalais  rise  abruptly  from 
the  plains,  and  present  the  appearance  of  a  flat-topped  mass  of  moun- 
tain. But  far  from  being  a  level  plateau,  the  upper  surface  is  cut  up 
by  numerous  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  which  render  the  scenery  all 
along  the  17  miles  of  its  length  variegated  and  picturesque.  From  the 
bold  crag  which  rises  on  the  north  to  a  height  of  over  4,000  feet  and 
overlooks  the  fertile  plains  of  Atur,  the  eye  travels  over  long,  gently- 
sloping,  sheltered  glades  down  its  north-east  flank,  and  rests  on  the 
concentric  terraces  of  vivid  green  in  the  basin  below.  Farther  south, 
across  ridges  whose  sides  are  furrowed  by  deep  ravines,  by  grassy 
meadows  dotted  with  the  glossy  jack  and  the  tall  sago,  along  rocky 
passes  and  narrow  defiles  and  wooded  glens,  is  seen  the  great  gorge 
which  opens  from  the  central  basin  towards  the  Turaiyur  valley,  and 
at  its  head  the  shrine  in  Valapurnad  where  Arapileswaran  presides 
over  the  clear  waters  of  the  Aiyar  before  they  descend  precipitously  into 
the  low  country  at  Puliyanjolai.  Near  the  high  ridge  at  the  southern 
extremity,  commanding  a  vast  view  of  the  Cauvery  in  the  foreground, 
and  of  the  distant  Anaimalais  and  the  Palnis  beyond,  are  the  ruins  of 
an  old  bungalow,  testifying  to  the  evil  reputation  for  malaria  which  the 
Kollaimalais  have  long  (perhaps  not  altogether  deservedly)  enjoyed 
among  European  settlers.  The  population  of  the  hills  consists  chiefly 
of  the  same  Malaiyalis  who  are  found  on  the  Shevaroys,  the  Pachai- 
malais,  and  the  Kalrayans.  They  cultivate  considerable  areas,  but  have 
ruined  the  forests,  which  were  formerly  of  value,  by  promiscuous  felling. 

Kollangod. — Town  in  the  Palghat  taluk  of  Malabar  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  io°  37'  N.  and  760  41'  E.  Population  (1901), 
9,800.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  Nambidi  of  Kollangod,  a  landed 
proprietor  who  owns  estates  in  the  Nelliampathi  and  Anaimalai 
Hills  ;  and  it  has  a  high  school  maintained  by  the  Nambidi,  and 
a  weekly  market.  About  2  miles  to  the  south  is  a  large  Hindu  temple 
known  by  the  name  of  Kachankurichi.  Since  the  opening  of  the  coffee 
estates  in  the  Kollangod  and  Nelliampathi  Hills  the  trade  of  the  place 
has  improved. 


KONARAK  39i 

Kollegal  Taluk.— Northern  subdivision  and  taluk  of  Coimbatore 
District,  Madras,  lying  between  n°  46'  and  120  18'  N.  and  76°  59'  and 
77°  47r  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,076  square  miles.  The  Cauvery  river 
bounds  it  on  three  sides,  forming  at  its  north-west  angle  the  famous 
Sivasamudram  island  and  Falls.  The  population  in  1901  was  96,563, 
compared  with  88,533  in  1891.  There  are  122  villages,  and  only  one 
town,  Kollegal  (population,  13,729),  the  head-quarters.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,16,000. 
Kollegal  is  the  most  sparsely  peopled  taluk  in  the  District,  its  popula- 
tion, which  is  mainly  Kanarese  as  in  the  adjoining  State  of  Mysore, 
numbering  only  90  persons  per  square  mile,  while  the  average  for  the 
District  is  280.  Unlike  the  rest  of  Coimbatore,  Kollegal  benefits 
considerably  from  the  south-west  monsoon,  and  its  annual  rainfall 
(35  inches)  is  the  heaviest  in  the  District.  The  southernmost  spurs 
of  the  Eastern  Ghats  run  through  it,  forming  on  the  west  a  well- 
marked  minor  range  called  the  Biligiri-Rangan  hills  ;  and  it  is  on  a 
higher  level  than  the  remainder  of  the  District  and  really  forms  part 
of  the  adjoining  Mysore  plateau,  the  climate  and  temperature  of  which 
it  shares.  More  than  half  of  the  taluk  consists  of  '  reserved  '  forest  ;- 
but  this  is  chiefly  useful  as  a  grazing  ground  for  cattle,  for  the  Kollegal 
ryot  is  more  often  a  raiser  of  stock  than  a  cultivator  of  arable  land. 
The  well-known  Alambadi  breed  of  draught-cattle  comes  from  here. 

Kollegal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name 
in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras,  situated  in  120  io'  N.  and  770  7'  E., 
in  the  extreme  north-west  corner  of  the  District.  Population  (1901), 
13,729.  It  is  well-known  for  its  gold-laced  cloths  and  kerchiefs. 
Some  of  the  silk  cloths  made  here  cost  as  much  as  Rs.  300  each,  or 
even  more,  according  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  gold  and  silver 
embroidery,  which,  in  the  highest  priced  cloths,  is  woven  in  intricate 
and  elegant  designs  into  the  texture  of  the  cloth  while  still  on  the  loom. 

Kollern. — Lake  in  Kistna  District,  Madras.     See  Colair. 

Komulmair. — Fort  in  Udaipur  State,  Rajputana.      See  Kumbhal- 

GARH. 

Konarak.  —  Ruined  temple  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of 
Purl  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  190  53'  N.  and  86°  6'  E.,  about  ii 
miles  from  the  sea  and  21  miles  east  of  Purl  town.  The  temple  was 
built  and  dedicated  to  the  Sun-god  by  Narasingha  Deva  1  of  the 
Ganga  dynasty  of  Orissa,  who  ruled  from  1238  to  1264.  Konakona 
appears  to  have  been  the  ancient  name,  and  the  modern  name  thus 
stands  for  Konarka,  meaning  'the  arka  (Sun  god)  at  Kona.'  It  con- 
sisted of  a  tower,  probably  a  little  over  180  feet  in  height,  and  of  a  porch 
or  mandap  in  front  of  it,  about  140  feet  high.  The  principal  gate  was 
to  the  east,  and  was  flanked  by  the  figures  of  two  lions,  mounted  upon 
elephants.     The  northern  and  southern  gates  were  sculptured  with  the 


392  KONARAK 

figures  of  two  elephants,  each  lifting  up  a  man  with  his  trunk,  and  of 
two  horses,  richly  caparisoned  and  led  by  warriors.  Each  gate  was 
faced  by  exquisite  chlorite  carvings,  of  which  those  of  the  eastern 
gate  are  still  in  perfect  preservation.  Above  this  gate  was  an  enormous 
chlorite  slab,  bearing  the  figures  of  the  nine  planets,  which  is  now 
lying  a  little  distance  from  the  temple  and  has  become  an  object  of  local 
worship ;  and  above  this  slab  there  was  originally  a  statue  of  the  Sun- 
god,  seated  cross-legged  in  a  niche.  Along  the  plinth  are  eight  wheels 
and  seven  horses,  carved  in  the  stone,  the  temple  being  represented  as 
the  car  of  the  Sun-god  drawn  by  his  seven  chargers.  East  of  the 
mandap,  or  porch,  stands  a  fine  square  building  with  four  pillars  inside, 
which  evidently  was  used  as  a  dancing-hall,  as  the  carvings  on  its 
walls  all  represent  dancing-girls  and  musicians.  The  wall  of  the 
courtyard  measures  about  500  by  300  feet ;  and  it  originally  contained 
a  number  of  smaller  shrines  and  out-houses,  of  which  only  the  remains 
can  now  be  traced.  The  entire  courtyard  till  recently  was  filled  with 
sand  ;  but  since  1902  Government  has  carried  on  systematic  excava- 
tions, which  have  brought  to  light  many  hidden  parts  of  the  temple 
itself  and  of  other  structures.  The  great  tower  of  the  temple  collapsed 
long  ago,  and  at  the  present  day  forms  a  huge  heap  of  debris  west  of 
the  porch  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  about  one-third  of  it  will  be  found 
intact  below  the  broken  stones,  as  soon  as  they  have  been  removed. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  porch,  it  has  been  filled  up  with  broken  stones 
and  sand,  and  is  now  entirely  closed  from  view  ;  its  interior  was  plain 
and  of  little  interest.  In  spite  of  its  ruinous  state,  the  temple  still 
forms  one  of  the  most  glorious  examples  of  Hindu  architecture.  Even 
the  fact  that  many  of  the  carvings  around  its  walls  are  repulsive  to 
European  notions  of  decency  cannot  detract  from  the  beauty  of  an 
edifice  of  which  Abul  Fazl  said  that  '  even  those  whose  judgement  is 
critical  and  who  are  difficult  to  please,  stood  astonished  at  its  sight.' 

[Rajendralala  Mitra,  The  Antiquities  of  Orissa  (Calcutta,  1875, 
1 880) ;  and  the  Reports  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  of  India  for 
1902-3  and  1903-4  (Calcutta,  1904,  1906).] 

Kondalwadi. — Head-quarters  of  the  paigdh  taluk  of  Kotglr  in 
Nizamabad  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  r8°  48'  N.  and 
770  46'  E.,  28  miles  north-west  of  Nizamabad  and  9  miles  west  of  the 
confluence  of  the  Godavari  and  Manjra  rivers.      Population  (1901), 

6,557- 

Kondane. — Village  in  the  Karjat  taluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  180  49'  N.  and  730  24'  E.,  about  4  miles  south-east  of 
Karjat  on  the  south-eastern  line  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Rail- 
way, and  at  the  base  of  Rajmachi  hill.  Population  (1901),  158. 
Kondane  has  a  group  of  early  Buddhist  caves  (250  b.  c.-a.d.  100)  of 
considerable  interest.     There  are  four  caves,  including  the  chaitya  or 


KONGNOLI  393 

shrine  ;  and  an  inscription  on  one  of  them,  attributed  to  the  second 
century  b.  c,  runs  :  '  Made  by  Balaka,  the  pupil  of  Kanha  (Krishna).' 
The  caves  are  fully  described  in  the  Thana  District  Gazetteer. 

Kondapalli.  —  Town  and  hill-fortress  in  the  Bezwada  taluk  of 
Kistna  District,  Madras,  situated  in  i6°  37'  N.  and  8o°  33'  E.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  4,799.  The  place  is  now  unimportant,  but  was  formerly 
a  fortress  of  considerable  strength  and  the  capital  of  one  of  the  five 
Northern  Circars.  Built  about  a.d.  1360  by  the  Reddi  kings  of 
Kondavid,  it  became  the  centre  of  numerous  struggles.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Bahmani  Sultan  in  147 1  from  the  Orissa  kings,  and  in  1477 
from  a  revolted  garrison.  Falling  once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Orissa 
kings,  it  was  again  captured  by  Krishna  Deva  of  Vijayanagar  about 
1515,  and  by  Sultan  Kuli  Kutb  Shah  in  1531.  It  surrendered  to 
the  troops  of  Aurangzeb  in  1687,  and  in  1766  was  taken  by  General 
Caillaud  from  the  Nizam.  A  small  British  garrison  was  stationed  here 
till  1859.  The  ruined  outworks,  some  miles  in  circumference,  are  now 
overgrown  with  jungle  or  covered  with  corn-fields  ;  but  the  citadel  on 
the  rock  overhanging  them  is  still  a  striking  object.  At  Kondapalli 
there  is  a  special  industry — the  manufacture  of  small  figures  and  toys 
from  a  light  wood  which  grows  on  the  hills. 

Kondavid. — ■  Village  and  hill-fortress  in  the  Narasaraopet  taluk  of 
Guntur  District,  Madras,  situated  in  160  16'  N.  and  8o°  16'  E.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  1,979.  It  was  once  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  extending  from  the  Kistna  river  to  the  Gundlakamma. 
The  fortress,  constructed  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  seat  of  the 
Reddi  dynasty  from  1328  to  1482.  It  was  taken  by  Krishna  Deva 
Raya  of  Vijayanagar  about  1516,  and  by  the  Sultans  of  Golconda  in 
1531,  1536,  and  1579.  The  Musalmans  called  it  Murtazanagar.  The 
French  obtained  the  province  in  1752,  and  it  passed  to  the  English  in 
1788.  The  fortifications,  erected  upon  the  crests  of  a  small  range  of 
hills,  are  extensive  and  strongly  built  with  large  stones.  They  are 
many  miles  in  circumference  and  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation.  A 
description  of  them  will  be  found  in  the  Indian  Antiquary,  vol.  i, 
p.  182.  The  interior  of  the  fort,  which  is  overgrown  with  thick  jungle, 
contains  the  ruins  of  numerous  storehouses  and  magazines.  The  hill, 
the  highest  point  of  which  is  1,701  feet  above  the  sea,  was  once  used 
as  a  sanitarium  by  the  officers  at  Guntur. 

Kondka. — Native  State  in  Central  Provinces.     See  Chhuikhadan. 

Kongnoli.  —  Village  in  the  Chikodi  taluka  of  Belgaum  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  160  33'  N.  and  740  20'  E.,  on  the  Belgaum-Kolha- 
pur  road,  in  the  extreme  north-west  corner  of  the  District.  Population 
(1901),  5,597.  The  village  has  a  large  trade,  sending  rice  to  Belgaum 
and  various  places  in  Kolhapur,  and  importing  cloth,  dates,  salt,  spices, 
and  sugar.      A  weekly  market  takes  place  on  Thursday,  when  cotton 


394 


KONGNOLI 


yarn,  grain,  molasses,  tobacco,  and  from  2,000  to  3,000  cattle  are 
disposed  of.  Weaving  of  women's  saris,  waist-cloths,  and  inferior 
blankets  are  the  only  industries.  Paper  for  packing  purposes  and  for 
envelopes  was  manufactured  to  a  large  extent  before  the  famine  of 
1876-7,  but  during  the  famine  the  paper-makers  deserted  the  village. 
It  contains  a  boys'  school  with  90   pupils. 

Konkan. — A  name  now  applied  to  the  tract  of  country  below  the 
Western  Ghats  south  of  the  Damanganga  river,  including  Bombay,  the 
Districts  of  Thana,  Kolaba,  Ratnagiri,  the  coast  strip  of  North  Kanara, 
the  Native  States  of  Janjira,  Savantvadi,  and  the  Portuguese  territory  of 
Goa,  with  an  area  of  3,907  square  miles.  Population  (1901),  5,610,432. 
The  term  '  Konkan '  seems  to  be  of  Dravidian  origin,  but  has  not  so 
far  been  satisfactorily  explained.  The  language  of  the  Konkan  was 
probably,  at  a  remote  period,  Kanarese,  but  is  now  mainly  Marathi. 
Mention  is  made  of  the  people  of  the  Konkan  in  the  Mahabharata, 
Harivamsa,  and  Vishnu  Purana,  as  well  as  in  the  work  of  Varaha 
Mihira,  the  geographer  of  the  sixth  century,  and  in  the  Chalukya 
inscriptions  of  the  seventh  century.  The  tract  is  found  referred  to 
under  the  name  of  Aparanta  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  and  the  second 
century  a.  d.  Late  Sanskrit  works  apply  the  name  Konkan  to  the 
whole  western  coast  of  India  from  about  Trimbak  to  Cape  Comorin, 
and  mention  seven  divisions,  the  names  of  which  are  variously  given, 
but  Konkan  proper  is  always  one  of  these  and  seems  to  have  included 
the  country  about  Chiplun.  The  Konkan  does  not  seem  at  any  time 
to  have  been  a  political  unit.  The  Arab  geographers  of  the  ninth  to 
the  fourteenth  century  were  familiar  with  it  in  its  present  signification. 
In  history  it  appears  either  as  a  number  of  petty  states  or  as  part  of 
a  larger  whole  as  in  the  early  days  of  Maratha  power,  when  the  Konkan 
Ghat  Matha,  or  '  spurs  of  the  Ghats,'  were  linked  with  such  territory  in 
the  Deccan  as  from  time  to  time  came  into  the  possession  of  Sivaji  and 
his  successors. 

The  coast  strip  of  the  Konkan  is  a  fertile  and  generally  level  tract, 
watered  by  hill  streams  and  at  parts  intersected  by  tidal  backwaters, 
but  has  nowhere  any  great  rivers.  A  luxuriant  vegetation  of  palms  rises 
along  the  coast,  the  coco-nut  plantations  being  an  important  source  of 
wealth  to  the  villagers.  In  the  southern  portions  the  Ghats  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  are  covered  with  splendid  forest.  The  crops  are 
abundant ;  and  owing  to  the  monsoon  rainfall  being  precipitated  upon 
the  Ghats  behind,  the  Konkan  is  exempt  from  drought  or  famine. 
The  common  language  is  a  dialect  of  Marathi  known  as  KonkanI,  in 
which  a  Dravidian  element  is  traceable. 

The  history  of  the  Konkan  can  best  be  gathered  from  a  perusal  of 
the  historical  portions  of  the  articles  on  the  included  States  and  Dis- 
tricts.     The  earliest  dynasty  which  can  be  connected  with  this  tract  is 


KONNUR  395 

that  of  the  Mauryas,  three  centuries  before  Christ;  but  the  only 
evidence  of  the  connexion  rests  on  an  Asoka  inscription  discovered  at 
the  town  of  Sopara  in  Thana  District.  The  principal  dynasties  that 
succeeded  were  the  following,  in  their  order,  so  far  as  order  is  ascertain- 
able :  the  Andhras  or  Satavahanas,  with  their  capital  at  Paithan  in  the 
Deccan  ;  the  Mauryas,  of  Purl ;  the  Chalukyas  ;  the  Rashtrakutas  ; 
the  Silaharas,  whose  capital  was  perhaps  the  island  of  Elephanta  in 
Bombay  harbour ;  the  Yadavas,  with  their  capital  at  Deogiri,  the 
modern  Daulatabad  ;  the  Muhammadans  (Khiljis,  Bahmanis,  Bijapur 
and  Ahmadabad  kings,  and  Mughals) ;  Portuguese  (over  a  limited 
area) ;  Marathas  ;  and  British.  The  Konkan  coast  was  known  to 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  Ptolemy  (a.  d.  150)  and  the  author  of 
the  Periplus  (247)  afford  evidence  that  Greek  traders  from  Egypt 
dealt  with  the  Konkan  ports. 

The  arrival  of  the  Bani-Israil  and  the  Parsls  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  are  important  incidents  in  Konkan  history.  The  Bani-Israil, 
in  whom  some  trace  the  descendants  of  the  lost  tribes,  are  now- 
scattered  over  the  Bombay  Presidency,  but  mostly  in  the  North 
Konkan.  The  descendants  of  the  first  Parsls,  who  landed  in  Thana 
about  the  seventh  century,  now  crowd  the  streets  and  markets  of 
Bombay,  engross  a  large  part  of  the  city's  wealth  and  principal 
trading  operations,  and  have  their  agents  in  all  important  provincial 
towns. 

The  Portuguese  reached  Malabar  in  1498.  In  15 10  Goa  was 
seized,  and  soon  afterwards  Chaul  and  Bassein  became  the  head- 
quarters of  their  naval  dominion.  During  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Portuguese  shared  the  rule  of  the  Konkan  with  the  Muhammadan 
kings  of  Ahmadnagar  and  Bijapur.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  pirate 
power  of  the  Angrias,  who  from  1700  to  1756  harassed  English, 
Dutch,  and  native  shipping  alike,  mark  a  disastrous  period  of  Konkan 
history.  In  the  seventeenth  and  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Konkan  had  an  unenviable  notoriety  on  account  of  these  pirates, 
who  were  known  as  the  '  Malabars,'  and  infested  the  numerous 
creeks  and  harbours.  The  strongholds  of  these  marauders  are  still 
to  be  seen  on  the  coast.  Their  chief  ports  were  Revadanda,  Suvarn- 
drug,  and  Gheria  or  Vijayadrug. 

Since  the  British  administration  was  established  in  1818  on  the 
overthrow  of  the  Peshwa,  the  peace  of  the  whole  area,  if  some 
disturbances  in  Savantvadi  in  1844  and  1850  be  excepted,  has 
remained  unbroken. 

Konnur  (the  Kondanuru  of  inscriptions). — Village  in  the  '  iokak 
taluka  of  Belgaum  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  160  n'  X.  and 
740  45'  E.,  on  the  Ghatprabha  river,  about  5  miles  north-west  of 
Gokak.     Population  (1901),   5,667.     It  contains  a  boys'  school   with 

VOL.   XV.  C  C 


396  KONNUR 

81  pupils.     Near  the  Gokak  Falls  on  the  Ghatprabha,  within  the  limits 
of  Konnur  village,  are  several  ruined  temples  of  about  the  eleventh 
century.      To  the  south,  close  to  the  foot  of  some  sandstone  hills,  are  a 
number  of  the  slab-walled  and  slab-roofed  cell-tombs  or  kistvaens  which 
have  been  found  near  Hyderabad  in  the  Deccan  and  in  other  parts  of 
Southern  India,  and  which  have  a  special  interest  from  their  likeness  to 
the  old  stone  chambers  in  England.     The  most  interesting  feature  is 
a  group  of  fifty  more  or  less  perfect  rooms.      All  the  stone  slabs  used 
as  walls  and  roofs  are  of  the  neighbouring  quartzite  sandstone.     They 
show  no  signs  of  tooling,  but  seem  to  have  been  roughly  broken  into 
shape.     The  cell  or    kistvaen  is  formed  of  six    slabs  of  flat  unhewn 
stone.     From  an  opening  in  the  south  face  a  small  passage  is  usually 
carried  at  right  angles  to  the  chamber.     Over  each  cell-tomb  a  cairn  of 
small  stones  and  earth  seems  originally  to  have  been  piled,  probably 
forming  a  semi-spherical  or  domed  mound  about    8    feet  high.      In 
almost  every  case  remains  of  these  mounds  or  covers  are  seen.      Many 
of  the  chambers  are  ruined,  and  of  some  only  a  few  stones  are  left,  the 
large  slabs  having  probably  been  taken  for  building.      Some  of  the 
better-preserved  chambers  were  surrounded  by   a   square  rough-hewn 
stone  kerb,  which  in  some  instances  is  in  fair  order.     This  kerb  was 
probably  a  plinth  on  which  the  covering  mound  rested,  which  in  some 
cases  seems  to  have  been  carefully  built  of  rough  stone  boulders  set  in 
mud.     An  examination  of  the  magnetic  bearing  of  the  axes  of  these 
chambers  showed  that  of  forty-eight  chambers  in  the  main  group  the 
axes  of  ten  pointed  due  north,  of  thirty-two  pointed  west  of  north,  in 
one  case  as  much  as  340  west,  but  most  were  much  nearer  north  than 
west.     The  remaining  six  pointed  east  of  north,  one  as  much  as  270 
east  and  the  rest  only  a  few  degrees  east.      The  people  call  these 
erections  '  Pandavas'  houses,'   and   say  the  Pandavas    built   them   as 
shelters.      The  complete  or  almost  complete  weathering  away  of  the 
mounds  of  earth  and  stones    which   originally  covered   these   burial- 
rooms  shows  that  they  must  be  of,  great  age.     As  koiuie  is  the  Kanarese 
for  '  room '  and   uru  for  '  village,'  it  seems  probable  that  the  village 
takes  its  name  from  its  cell-tombs  or  burial-rooms,  and  that  Konnur 
means  '  the  room-village.'     One  of  the  most  perfect  tombs  contained 
fragments  of  a  human  tooth  and  bones,  and  some  pieces  of  pottery. 
Konrh. — Tahsll  in  Mirzapur  District,  United  Provinces.    See  Korh. 
Kooshtea.— Subdivision  and  town  in  Nadia  District,  Bengal.     See 

KUSHTIA. 

Kopaganj.  —  Town  in  the  Ghosi  tahsll  of  Azamgarh  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  1'  N.  and  830  34'  E.,  on  the  metalled 
road  from  Ghazipur  to  Gorakhpur,  and  also  connected  by  road  with 
Azamgarh  town.  It  is  a  junction  on  the  Bengal  and  North- Western 
Railway  from  Gorakhpur  to  Benares,  at  which  branches  converge  from 


KOPPA 


397 


Dohrighat  and  from  Ballia.  Population  (1901),  7,039.  The  town 
was  founded  on  an  ancient  site  by  Iradat  Khan,  Raja  of  Azamgarh, 
about  1745;  but  a  Hindu  inscription  on  a  small  Hindu  temple  is 
dated  as  early  as  1472.  It  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,300.  It  contains  a  small  saltpetre  . 
refinery,  and  cotton  cloth  is  woven,  employing  500  looms.  The  finest 
products  are  turbans,  woven  with  silk  borders.  There  is  also  some 
trade  in  sugar  and  grain.     The  town  has  two  schools,  with  156  pupils. 

Kopargaon.  —  Taluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  190  35'  and  190  59'  N.  and  740  15'  and  740  45'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  519  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Puntamba  (popula- 
tion, 5,890),  and  122  villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Kopargaon. 
The  population  in  1901  was  73,539,  compared  with  89,339  m  1891. 
The  decrease  is  attributed  to  famine  and  consequent  migration.  The 
density,  142  persons  per  square  mile,  is  slightly  above  the  District 
average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2-4  lakhs,  and 
for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  The  Godavari  river. enters  at  the  extreme  north- 
west corner,  traverses  the  taluka,  and  forms  for  a  short  distance  the 
eastern  boundary.  The  bed  of  the  river  is  considerably  below  the 
general  level  of  the  country,  and  the  high  black-soil  and  clay  banks  are 
deeply  fissured  by  numerous  minor  streams.  Kopargaon  consists  of 
a  black-soil  plain,  having  a  gentle  slope  from  both  sides  towards  the 
Godavari.  In  most  of  the  villages  the  people  are  dependent  on  wells 
for  their  water-supply,  as  all  but  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Godavari 
run  dry  shortly  after  the  monsoon  rains  have  ceased.  The  cultivators 
are  in  an  impoverished  condition,  attributable  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  bad  seasons.  Sudden  and  violent  showers, 
which  deluge  the  country,  are  often  succeeded  by  a  long  and  continued 
drought. 

Kopili. — River  in  Nowgong  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Kapili. 

Koppa. — Western  taluk  of  Kadur  District,  Mysore,  including  the 
Yedehalli  sub-taluk  and  the  Sringeri  jagir,  and  lying  between  13°  15' 
and  1 30  46'  N.  and  750  5'  and  750  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  701  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  65,483,  compared  with  62,343  in 
1891.  The  taluk  contains  three  towns,  Sringeri  (population,  2,430). 
Yedehalli  (2,266),  and  Koppa  (1,018),  the  head-quarters;  and  427 
villages.  The  land  revenue  demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,85,000. 
Koppa  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Western  Ghats.  The  Tunga 
flows  through  the  west,  and  the  Bhadra  forms  the  eastern  boundary. 
The  whole  is  purely  Malnad,  full  of  grand  and  picturesque  scenery. 
It  is  a  network  of  lofty  hills  and  sunken  valleys,  the  former  densely 
covered  with  forests,  which  shelter  a  continuous  belt  of  coffee  planta- 
tions, formed  by  Europeans  in  the  last  thirty  years,  the  latter  occupied 

c  c  2 


39§ 


KOPPA 


by  steeply  terraced  rice  flats  and  areca  gardens.  The  annual  rainfall 
averages  120  inches.  The  most  open  part  is  the  Sringeri  valley. 
Cardamoms  are  valuable  products  on  the  Ghats.  There  is  not  much 
'  dry '  cultivation.  Rice  is  the  staple  '  wet  crop,'  nourished  by  the 
rainfall,  and  sugar-cane  is  much  grown  around  Danivasa  in  the  north- 
east. Conspicuous  among  the  mountains  is  the  superb  Merti  peak 
(5,451  feet).  The  Sringeri  math,  founded  in  the  eighth  century  by 
Sankaracharya,  lies  in  the  west,  and  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Smarta 
Brahmans.  At  Balehalli  in  the  east  is  one  of  the  principal  maths  of 
the  Lingayats. 

Koppal. — Old  hill-fort  and  town  in  Raichur  District,  Hyderabad 
State,  situated  in  150  21'  N.  and  7  6°  10'  E.,  on  the  Southern  Mahratta 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  8,903.  It  was  occupied  by  Tipu  Sultan 
in  1786,  who  had  the  lower  fortress  rebuilt  by  his  French  engineers. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  British  and  the  Nizam's  forces  for  six  months 
in  1790,  before  it  was  finally  carried.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857, 
Bhlm  Rao,  a  rebel,  obtained  possession  of  it,  but  was  slain  with  many 
others  of  his  party,  and  the  rest  surrendered.  The  fortifications  consist 
of  two  forts ;  the  upper  fort  is  situated  on  the  lofty  and  insulated 
summit  of  a  hill,  and  is  400  feet  above  the  plains.  Sir  John  Malcolm 
described  it  as  the  strongest  place  he  had  seen  in  India.  It  is  now  the 
chief  town  in  a  jdgir  of  Sir  Salar  Jang's  family,  and  contains  a  State 
post  office  and  a  vernacular  school  maintained  by  the  estate. 

Kora. — Ancient  town  in  the  Khajuha  tahsll  of  Fatehpur  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  260  7'  N.  and  8o°  22'  E.,  on  the  old 
Mughal  road  from  Agra  to  Allahabad,  29  miles  west  of  Fatehpur  town. 
Population  (1901),  2,806.  The  town  was  for  centuries  held  by  the 
Gautam  Rajas  of  Argal,  and  became  the  head-quarters  of  a  province 
under  the  Muhammadans.  In  Akbar's  time  it  was  the  capital  of 
a  sarkdr  in  the  Sitbah  of  Allahabad.  It  still  contains  many  old  and 
substantial  houses,  but  most  of  them  are  ruinous  and  desolate  in 
appearance.  A  massive  and  handsome  baradarl  in  a  large  garden 
surrounded  by  high  walls  and  a  magnificent  tank  are  the  chief  relics 
of  native  rule,  and  these  were  constructed  late  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  Separated  from  Kora  by  the  Mughal  road  stands  another 
town,  called  Jahanabad,  which  is  more  flourishing  and  contains  4,379 
inhabitants.  Jahanabad  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with 
an  income  of  about  Rs.  900.  A  school  in  Jahanabad  has  no  pupils, 
and  a  smaller  school  in  Kora  23. 

Korabar. — Estate  and  head-quarters  thereof  in  Udaipur  State, 
Rajputana.     See  Kurabar. 

Korangi. — Village  in  Godavari  District,  Madras.     See  Coringa. 

Korapula. — River  in  Malabar  District,  Madras,  32  miles  long,  but 
shallow  and  of  small  commercial  importance.     It  forms  the  boundary 


KOREA  3gg 

between  North  and  South  Malabar,  a  division  still  of  importance  in  the 
social  organization  of  the  country.  A  Nayar  woman  of  North  Malabar 
may  not  cross  it. 

Koraput  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Vizagapatam  District, 
Madras,  consisting  of  the  zamlndari  iahsih  of  Koraput,  Nowranga- 
pur,  Jeypore,  Pottangi,  Malkangiri,  and  Padwa,  which  are  all  in 
the  Agency  tract. 

Koraput  Tahsil.— Agency  tahsil  in  Vizagapatam  District,  Madras, 
lying  above  the  Ghats,  with  an  area  of  671  square  miles.  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  73,818  (chiefly  hill  tribes),  compared  with  74,476  in 
1891.  They  live  in  611  villages.  The  head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  are 
at  Koraput  Village.  The  country  is  hilly  but  extensively  cultivated, 
most  of  the  forest  having  been  destroyed.  It  belongs  to  the  Raja  of 
the  Jeypore  estate. 

Koraput  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  oi  tin-  same  name  in 
Vizagapatam  District,  Madras,  situated  in  180  48'  N.  and  820  44'  E. 
It  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Koraput  subdivision,  and  the  residence 
of  the  Special  Assistant  Agent  and  the  Superintendent  of  police, 
Jeypore,  as  well  as  of  several  German  missionaries.  Population  (1901), 
1,560.  There  is  a  police  reserve  here,  besides  the  usual  head-quarters 
offices  and  buildings. 

Koratla. — Town  in  the  Jagtial  taluk  of  Karlmnagar  District,  Hyder- 
abad State,  situated  in  180  49'  N.  and  780  43'  E.  Population  (1901), 
5,524.  Paper  of  a  coarse  texture  is  made  here,  which  is  largely  used 
by  the  patwaris  for  their  account  books. 

Korea.. — Tributacy  State  in  the  Central  Provinces,  lying  between 
220  56'  and  230  48'  N.  and  8i°  56'  and  820  47'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
1,631 '  square  miles.  Till  1905  it  was  included  in  the  Chota  Nagpur 
States  of  Bengal.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Rewah  State  :  on  the 
east  by  Surguja ;  on  the  south  by  Bilaspur  District ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  States  of  Chang  Bhakar  and  Rewah.  It  consists  of  an  elevated 
table-land  of  coarse  sandstone,  from  which  spring  several  abruptly 
scarped  plateaux,  varying  in  height  and  irregularly  distributed  over  the 
surface.  The  general  level  of  the  lower  table-land  is  about  1,800  feet 
above  the  sea.  On  the  east  this  rises  abruptly  into  the  Sonhat  plateau. 
with  an  elevation  of  2,477  feet.  The  north  of  the  State  is  occupied  by 
a  still  higher  table-land,  with  a  maximum  elevation  of  3,367  feet.  In 
the  west  a  group  of  hills  culminates  in  the  Deogarh  Pkak  (3,370  feet), 
the  highest  point  in  Korea.  The  lofty  Sonhat  plateau  forms  the  water 
shed  of  streams  which  flow  in  three  different  directions  :  on  the  west 
to  the  river  Gopath,  which  has  its  source  in  one  of  the  ridges  of  the 
Deogarh  peak  and  divides  Korea  from  Chang  Bhakar:  on  the  north- 

1  This  figure,  which  differs  from  the  area  shown  in  the  Census  A\y.  [901,  was 

supplied  by  the  Surveyor-General. 


400 


KOREA 


east  to  the  Son  ;  while  the  streams  of  the  southern  slopes  feed  the 
Heshto  or  Hasdo,  the  largest  river  of  Korea,  which  runs  nearly  north 
and  south  throughout  the  State  into  Bilaspur  District  and  eventually 
falls  into  the  Mahanadi.  Its  course  is  rocky  throughout,  and  there 
is  a  fine  waterfall  near  Kirwahi.  In  the  past  tigers  and  wild  elephants 
used  to  commit  serious  depredations  and  caused  the  desertion  of  many 
small  villages,  but  their  numbers  have  been  considerably  reduced. 
Bison,  wild  buffaloes,  sambar  (Cerims  unicolor),  nilgai  (Boselaphus 
tragocamelus\  'ravine  deer'  {Gaze/fa  frennetti),  hog  deer,  mouse  deer, 
and  bears  are  common. 

The  State  was  ceded  to  the  British  Government  in  1818.  In  early 
times  there  had  been  some  indefinite  feudal  relations  with  the  State 
of  Surguja,  but  these  were  ignored  by  the  British  Government.  The 
chiefs  family  call  themselves  Chauhan  Rajputs,  and  profess  to  trace 
back  their  descent  to  a  chief  of  the  Chauhan  clan  who  conquered 
Korea  several  centuries  ago.  The  direct  line  became  extinct  in  1897, 
and  the  present  chief,  Raja  Seo  Mangal  Singh  Deo,  belongs  to 
a  collateral  branch  of  the  family.  The  country  is  very  wild  and  barren, 
and  is  inhabited  mainly  by  migratory  aborigines  ;  the  population 
decreased  from  36,240  in  1891  to  35,113  in  1901,  the  density  being 
only  22  persons  per  square  mile.  The  State  contains  250  villages, 
one  of  which,  Sonhat,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Sonhat  plateau  and  on 
its  northern  edge,  is  the  residence  of  the  chief.  On  the  highest  table- 
land, which  stretches  for  nearly  40  miles  to  the  borders  of  Chang 
Bhakar,  there  are  only  37  hamlets  inhabited  by  Cheros,  who  practise 
jhuming  and  also  carry  on  a  little  plough  cultivation  on  their  home- 
stead lands.  Hindus  number  24,430  and  Animists  10,395.  There 
are  10,000  Gonds  ;  and  Goalas,  Kaurs,  and  Rajwars  number  3,000 
each.  The  people  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  agriculture  for 
a  livelihood,  but  the  aboriginal  tribes  are  accustomed  to  supplement 
the  meagre  produce  of  their  fields  with  various  edible  fruits  and 
roots  from  the  jungles. 

Korea  contains  extensive  forests  consisting  chiefly  of  sal  (Shorea 
robustd),  and  bamboos  are  also  abundant.  Some  forests  in  the  western 
part,  which  lie  near  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  have  been  leased  to 
timber  merchants  ;  but  in  the  remainder  of  the  State  the  forests  contain 
no  trees  of  any  commercial  value.  The  minor  jungle  products  include 
lac  and  khair  {Acacia  Catechu),  besides  several  drugs  and  edible  roots. 
In  the  forests  there  is  good  pasturage,  which  is  used  extensively  by 
cattle-breeders  from  the  Rewah  State  and  elsewhere,  on  payment  of 
certain  fixed  rates.  Iron  is  found  everywhere,  but  mineral  rights  belong 
to  the  British  Government.  Traders  from  Mirzapur,  Bilaspur,  and 
Benares  import  sugar,  tobacco,  molasses,  spices,  salt,  and  cloths,  and 
export  stick-lac,  resin,  rice,  and  other  food-grains.     The  State  contains 


KOREA  4oi 

footpaths  but  no  regular  roads,  and  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
pack-bullocks. 

The  relations  of  the  chief  with  the  British  Government  are  regulated 
by  a  sanad  granted  in  1899,  and  reissued  in  1905  with  a  few  verbal 
changes  due  to  the  transfer  of  the  State  to  the  Central  Provinces. 
Under  this  sanad  the  chief  was  formally  recognized  and  permitted  to 
administer  his  territory  subject  to  prescribed  conditions,  and  the  tribute 
was  fixed  for  a  further  period  of  twenty  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
it  is  liable  to  revision.  The  chief  is  under  the  general  control  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Chhattisgarh  as  regards  all  important  matters  of 
administration,  including  the  settlement  and  collection  of  land  revenue, 
the  imposition  of  taxes,  the  administration  of  justice,  arrangements 
connected  with  excise,  salt,  and  opium,  and  disputes  in  which  other 
States  are  concerned.  He  cannot  levy  import  and  export  duties  or 
transit  dues,  unless  they  are  specially  authorized  by  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner ;  and  he  has  no  right  to  the  produce  of  gold,  silver,  diamond, 
or  coal  mines  in  the  State  or  to  any  minerals  underground,  which 
are  the  property  of  the  British  Government.  He  is  permitted  to  levy 
rents  and  certain  other  customary  dues  from  his  subjects,  and  is 
empowered  to  pass  sentences  of  imprisonment  up  to  five  years  and 
of  fine  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  200  ;  but  sentences  of  imprisonment  for 
more  than  two  years  and  of  fine  exceeding  Rs.  50  require  the  con- 
firmation of  the  Commissioner.  Heinous  offences  calling  for  heavier 
punishment  are  dealt  with  by  the  Political  Agent,  Chhattisgarh  Feuda- 
tories, who  exercises  the  powers  of  a  District  Magistrate  and  Assistant 
Sessions  Judge  ;  the  Commissioner  occupies  the  position  of  a  Sessions 
Court  in  respect  of  such  cases,  while  the  functions  of  a  High  Court 
are  performed  by  the  Chief  Commissioner. 

The  total  revenue  of  the  State  from  all  sources  in  1904-5  was 
Rs.  18,500,  of  which  Rs.  6,600  was  derived  from  land  and  Rs.  5,000 
from  forests.  The  total  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  17,350, 
including  Rs.  3,300  spent  on  administration  and  Rs.  8,660  on  domestic 
charges.  The  tribute  to  the  British  Government  is  Rs.  500  per 
annum.  The  zamhidars  hold  immediately  under  the  chief  and  pay 
annual  rents,  which  in  most  cases  are  fixed  permanently,  besides  cer- 
tain cesses.  The  cultivators  have  no  permanent  rights  in  their  land, 
but  are  allowed  to  hold  it  as  long  as  they  pay  their  rents  and  cesses 
and  render  customary  service  {begdr)  to  the  State.  Besides  the 
village  chaukidars  and  gorai/s,  who  are  remunerated  in  kind  or  hold 
grants  of  land,  there  is  a  salaried  police  force  of  3  officers  and  10  men. 
The  State  maintains  a  small  jail  with  accommodation  for  7  prison)  rs, 
in  which  prisoners  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  two  years  or  less  arc 
confined.  There  is  no  school  in  the  whole  State,  and  in  1901  only 
84  persons  of  the  total  population  could  read  and  write.     Up  to  the 


402 


KOREA 


present  no  dispensary  has  been  established  ;  2,260  persons  were 
successfully  vaccinated  in  1904-5. 

Koregaon  Taluka. —  Taluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  170  28'  and  180  1/  N.  and  740  and  74°  18'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
346  square  miles.  It  contains  74  villages,  including  Rahimatpur 
(population,  6,735).  The  head-quarters  are  at  Koregaon.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  83,375,  compared  with  92,254  in  1891.  The 
density,  241  persons  per  square  mile,  is  nearly  equal  to  the  District 
average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  2-2  lakhs,  and 
for  cesses  Rs.  19,000.  The  country  is  comparatively  flat  in  the  south, 
but  everywhere  slopes  gently  from  the  hills.  The  eastern  portion  is 
generally  raised  and  more  barren.  The  climate  is  healthy,  but  the 
rainfall,  which  measures  30  inches  annually  at  Koregaon,  is  precarious. 

Koregaon  Village. — Village  in  the  Sirur  taluka  of  Poona  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  180  39'  N.  and  740  4'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Bhima,  16  miles  north-east  of  Poona  city.  Population  (1901),  689. 
This  was  the  scene  of  the  last  of  the  three  battles  in  the  neighbourhood, 
which  led  to  the  collapse  of  the  Peshwa's  power,  fought  on  January  1, 
181 8.  Captain  Staunton,  on  his  march  to  strengthen  Colonel  Burr, 
arrived  at  Koregaon  in  the  morning  after  a  fatiguing  night  march  with 
a  detachment  of  500  Bombay  native  infantry,  300  irregular  horse,  and 
2  six-pounders  manned  by  24  Madras  artillerymen.  He  found  the 
whole  army  of.  the  Peshwa,  some  20,000  strong,  encamped  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Bhima  river.  The  Maratha  troops,  mostly  Arabs, 
were  immediately  sent  across  against  the  exhausted  handful  of  soldiers, 
destitute  of  both  provisions  and  water.  The  engagement  was  kept  up 
throughout  the  day,  and  resulted  in  the  discomfiture  and  retreat  of  the 
Marathas.  The  remarkable  feature  of  this  engagement  was  that  the 
British  troops  were  all  natives,  without  any  European  support,  excepting 
the  24  artillerymen,  of  whom  20  were  killed  and  wounded.  Of  7  officers 
engaged,  4  were  killed  and  1  wounded;  total  casualties,  276  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing.  This  gallant  fight  is  now  commemorated  by 
a  stone  obelisk.     Koregaon  contains  a  small  school  with  32  boys. 

Korh  (or  Bhadohl). — North-western  tahsil  of  Mirzapur  District, 
United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  Bhadohl  pargana,  lying  be- 
tween 250  9'  and  250  32'  N.  and  820  14'  and  820  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
396  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  291,218  in  1891  to  285,240 
in  1901,  the  rate  of  decrease  being  the  lowest  in  the  District.  There 
are  1,076  villages  and  one  town,  Goplganj  (population,  4,005).  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,73,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  12,000.  Korh  lies  entirely  north  of  the  Ganges  and  is  very  thickly 
populated,  the  density  being  720  persons  per  square  mile.  Its  northern 
boundary  is  formed  by  the  Barna  river.  The  tahsil  forms  part  of  the 
Benares  Estate,  and  is  a  uniform  plain,  highly  cultivated  and  well 


KORKU  403 

wooded,  with  but  little  waste  or  jungle.  The  area  under  cultivation  in 
1903-4  was  250  square  miles,  of  which  112  were  irrigated,  almost 
entirely  from  wells. 

Korku.— A  primitive  tribe  in  the  Central  Provinces.  Out  of 
140,000  Korkus  enumerated  in  India  in  1901,  nearly  100,000  belonged 
to  the  Central  Provinces  and  the  remainder  to  Berar  and  Central 
India.  They  dwell  almost  exclusively  on  the  west  of  the  Satpura  range 
in  the  Districts  of  Hoshangabad,  Nimar,  and  Betul.  The  word  Korku 
simply  signifies  '  men  '  or  'tribesmen,'  kor  meaning  '  man'  and  ku  being 
a  plural  termination.  The  Korkus  have  been  identified  with  the 
Korwas  of  Chota  Nagpur,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  are  an 
offshoot  of  this  tribe,  who  have  a  legend  giving  the  Mahadeo  or 
Pachmarhi  hills  as  their  original  home.  The  Raj  Korkus  now  claim 
to  be  descended  from  Rajputs,  and  say  they  came  from  Dharanagar, 
the  modern  Ujjain,  whence  their  ancestors  were  led  to  the  Pachmarhi 
hills  in  the  pursuit  of  a  samba?-  stag.  This  legend  is  of  the  usual 
Brahmanical  type,  and  has  no  importance. 

They  have  four  endogamous  divisions  :  the  Mowasis  and  Bawarias  in 
a  higher  rank,  and  the  Rumas  and  Bondoyas  in  a  lower  one.  The 
Mowasis  and  Bawarias  are  Raj  Korkus  occupying  the  status  of  cultiva- 
tors, and  Brahmans  will  take  water  from  them.  The  term  Mowasi 
means  a  resident  of  Mowas,  the  name  given  to  the  western  Satpura 
Hills  by  the  Marathas,  and  signifying  the  '  troubled  country,'  a  reminis- 
cence of  the  time  when  the  Korkus  were  notorious  robbers  and  free- 
booters. Bawaria  means  a  resident  of  Bhowargarh,  in  Betul.  Each 
division  has  thirty-six  exogamous  septs,  which  are  mainly  named  after 
trees  and  animals,  and  are  totemistic.  The  Korkus  have  generally 
forgotten  the  meaning  of  the  sept  names,  and  pay  no  reverence  to  their 
totems,  except  in  one  or  two  cases. 

Ten  of  the  septs  consider  the  regular  marriage  of  girls  inauspicious, 
and  simply  give  away  their  daughters  without  the  performance  of  any 
ceremony.  Among  the  others,  several  formalities  precede  the  marriage 
ceremony.  A  proposal  for  marriage  is  in  the  first  place  made  by  the 
father  of  the  boy  to  the  father  of  the  girl,  and  the  latter  is  bound 
by  etiquette  to  continue  refusing  the  suggested  alliance  for  a  period 
varying  from  six  months  to  two  years,  and  averaging  about  a  year. 
The  father  always  receives  a  sum  of  about  Rs.  50  for  the  loss  of  his 
daughter's  services;  and  if  the  girl  is  once  betrothed,  the  payment 
is  due  even  should  she  die  before  marriage.  Before  the  wedding 
procession  starts,  the  bridegroom  and  his  elder  brother's  wife  are  made 
to  stand  on  a  blanket  together  and  embrace  each  other  seven  times. 
This  is  possibly  a  survival  of  the  old  custom  o(  fraternal  polyandry 
still  existing  among  the  Khonds.  The  bridegroom  receives  a  knife  or 
a  dagger  with  a  lemon  spiked  on  the  blade  to  scare  away  evil  spirit-.. 


4°4 


KORKU 


and  the  party  then  proceeds  outside  the  village,  where  the  boy  and  his 
parents  sit  under  a  ber-Xxzo.  (Zizyphus  Jujubd).  The  Bhumka  or  caste 
priest  ties  all  three  with  a  thread  to  the  tree,  to  which  a  chicken  is  then 
offered  in  the  name  of  the  sun  and  moon,  whom  the  Korkus  consider 
to  be  their  ultimate  ancestors.  On  reaching  the  bride's  village  the 
progress  of  the  wedding  procession  is  barred  by  a  leathern  rope 
stretched  across  the  road  by  the  bride's  relatives,  who  have  to  receive 
a  bribe  of  two  pice  each  before  it  is  allowed  to  pass.  The  marriage 
is  completed  by  an  imitation  of  the  bhanwar  ceremony  or  walking 
round  the  sacred  pole. 

After  death,  ceremonies  must  be  performed  in  order  to  cause  the 
soul  of  the  deceased  person  to  take  up  its  residence  with  the  ancestors 
of  the  tribe,  who  are  supposed  to  pass  a  colourless  existence  in  a  village 
of  their  own.  Corpses  are  buried,  two  pice  being  thrown  into  the  grave 
to  buy  the  site.  No  mourning  is  observed,  but  some  days  after  death 
the  members  of  the  family  repair  to  the  burial-place  carrying  with  them 
a  piece  of  turmeric.  This  is  sliced  up  and  put  into  a  leaf  cup  and 
water  poured  over  it.  A  piece  is  then  laid  on  the  tomb,  and  the 
remainder  brought  back  tied  up  in  a  cloth,  and  placed  under  the  main 
beam  of  the  house  which  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the  ancestors.  A 
second  ceremony  called  the  sedoli  may  be  performed  at  any  time  within 
fifteen  years.  Each  sept  has  a  separate  place  for  its  performance, 
where  a  stake  called  munda  is  set  up  for  every  one  whose  rites  are 
separately  performed,  while  in  the  case  of  poor  families  one  stake 
does  for  several  persons.  On  the  stake  are  carved  images  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  a  spider  and  a  human  ear,  and  a  figure  representing 
the  principal  person  in  whose  honour  it  is  put  up,  on  horseback,  with 
weapons  in  his  hand.  For  the  performance  of  the  ceremony  the  stake 
is  taken  to  the  house,  and  the  pieces  of  turmeric  previously  tied  up 
are  untied,  and  they  and  the  post  are  besmeared  with  the  blood  of 
a  sacrificial  goat.  After  the  stake  has  been  placed  in  the  ground,  the 
pieces  of  turmeric  are  carried  to  a  river,  made  into  a  ball,  and  allowed 
to  sink,  the  Korkus  saying,  '  Ancestors,  find  your  home.'  If  the  ball 
does  not  sink  at  once,  they  consider  that  it  is  due  to  the  difficulty 
experienced  by  the  ancestors  in  the  selection  of  a  house,  and  throw 
in  two  pice  to  assist  them.  After  this  ceremony  the  spirits  of  the 
ancestors  are  laid,  but  before  its  performance  they  may  return  at  any 
time  to  vex  the  living. 

The  Korkus  generally  call  themselves  Hindus,  and  profess  venera- 
tion for  Mahadeo,  of  whose  shrine  in  the  Pachmarhl  hills  two  Korku 
land-owners  are  hereditary  guardians.  They  also  worship  a  number 
of  tribal  deities,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Dongar  Deo,  the  god 
of  the  hills  ;  Mutha  or  Mutwa  Deo,  the  general  deity  of  disease,  who 
is  represented  by  a  heap  of  stones  outside  the  village ;  Kunwar  Deo, 


KOR  WAI 


405 


the  god  who  presides  over  the  growth  of  children  ;  and  others.  They 
have  caste  priests  called  Bhumkas,  who  are  members  of  the  tribe ;  the 
office  is  sometimes  but  not  necessarily  hereditary,  and  if  it  be  vacant 
a  new  Bhumka  is  chosen  by  lot.  The  Bhumka  performs  the  usual 
functions  and  has  special  powers  for  the  control  of  tigers. 

The  Korkus  are  well-built  and  muscular,  slightly  taller  than  the 
Gonds,  a  shade  darker,  and  a  good  deal  dirtier.  They  are  in  great 
request  as  farm-servants,  owing  to  their  honesty  and  simplicity.  They 
are  as  a  rule  very  poor,  and  wear  even  less  clothing  than  the  Gonds, 
and  where  the  two  tribes  are  found  together  the  Gonds  are  more 
civilized  and  have  the  best  land. 

The  tribe  have  a  language  of  their  own,  called  after  them  Korku, 
which  belongs  to  the  Munda  family.  It  was  returned  by  88,000 
persons  in  1901,  of  whom  59,000  belonged  to  the  Central  Provinces. 
The  number  of  Korku  speakers  is  59  per  cent,  of  the  total  of  the  tribe, 
and  has  greatly  decreased  during  the  last  decade. 

Korwai  {Kurzvai). — A  mediatized  chiefship  directly  dependent  on 
the  British  Government,  in  Central  India,  under  the  Bhopal  Agency, 
lying  between  24°  1/  and  240  14'  N.  and  780  2'  and  780  9'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  about  in  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces on  the  north  and  east,  and  by  parts  of  Gwalior  State  on  the 
remaining  sides.  It  is  situated  on  the  edge  of  the  Malwa  plateau, 
partly  in  the  Bundelkhand  gneiss  area.  The  Betwa  flows  through  its 
western  section. 

In  1 7 13  Muhammad  Diler  Khan,  an  Afghan  adventurer  from  Tirah, 
belonging  to  the  Flroz  Khel,  seized  Korwai  and  some  of  the  sur- 
rounding villages.  Later,  in  return  for  certain  services,  he  obtained 
a  grant  of  31  parganas  from  the  emperor.  During  the  decline  of  the 
Mughal  empire  the  State  was  equal  in  extent  to  Bhopal,  if  not  larger  ; 
but  during  the  Maratha  period  it  rapidly  declined,  although  it  has 
always  remained  independent,  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  chief  to 
Colonel  Goddard  in  1778  especially  marking  it  out  as  an  object  of 
Maratha  persecution.  In  181 8  the  Nawab  was  hard  pressed,  and 
applied  to  the  Political  Agent  at  Bhopal  for  aid  against  Sindhia,  which 
was  granted.  In  1820,  after  the  establishment  of  British  supremacy, 
the  State  was  seized  by  Akbar  Khan,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  previous 
ruler.  Iradat  Muhammad  Khan,  the  rightful  heir,  applied  for  assis 
tance  to  the  British  Government  ;  but  it  was  not  considered  advisable 
to  disturb  arrangements  which  existed  previous  to  the  establishment 
of  our  supremacy,  and  Iradat  Khan  received  a  pension  on  abandoning 
his  claims.  Muhammad  Yakub  All  Khan  succeeded  in  1X05,  and  died 
in  1906.     He  was  succeeded  by  Sarwar  AH  Khan,  the  present  Nawab. 

The  population  was:  (1881)  24,631,  (1891)  -M.jS;,  and  (1901) 
13,634,  giving  a  density  of  122  persons  per  square  mile.     The  decn 


406 


KORWAI 


of  37  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade  is  due  mainly  to  the  famine 
of  1S99-1900.  Hindus  number  11,285,  or  83  per  cent.;  and  Musal- 
mans,  1,824.  The  State  contains  85  villages.  The  Malwi  dialect  of 
Rajasthani  is  the  prevailing  form  of  speech.  Agriculture  supports 
43  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  general  labour  9  per  cent. 

About  23  square  miles,  or  16  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  are  culti- 
vated, of  which  only  93  acres  are  irrigated  ;  78  square  miles  are 
cultivable  but  uncultivated ;  1 1  square  miles  are  forest ;  and  the  rest 
is  waste.  Of  the  cropped  area,  jowar  occupies  9  square  miles,  gram  6, 
wheat  2,  and  maize  456  acres. 

Two  metalled  roads  in  the  State  have  been  constructed  by  the 
British  Government,  one  to  Kethora  and  the  other  to  Bamora  stations 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway. 

The  chief  exercises  the  powers  of  a  magistrate  of  the  first  class,  cases 
beyond  his  powers  being  tried  by  the  Political  Agent.  The  British 
Indian  codes  are  used  in  the  courts.  The  control  of  the  finances 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Political  Agent.  The  total  revenue  is 
Rs.  37,000,  of  which  Rs.  23,000  is  derived  from  land  and  Rs.  2,200 
from  customs.  The  incidence  of  the  land  revenue  demand  is  Rs.  1-9 
per  acre  of  cultivated  land. 

The  capital  is  Korwai,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Betwa. 
Population  (1901),  2,256.  A  fort  built  of  the  gneiss  rock  which 
abounds  in  the  neighbourhood  stands  on  a  small  hill  to  the  east  of  the 
town  ;  the  houses  are  also  for  the  most  part  built  of  this  material 
and  roofed  with  big  slabs.  Korwai  contains  a  British  post  office  and 
a  hospital. 

Kosala  (from  kits  ha/a,  '  happy '). — Two  tracts  of  this  name  are 
known  in  Hindu  literature.  That  north  of  the  Vindhyas  corresponded 
roughly  to  Oudh.  In  the  Ramayana  it  is  the  country  of  Dasaratha 
and  Rama,  with  its  capital  at  Ajodhya,  and  it  then  extended  to  the 
Ganges.  It  was  part  of  the  holy  land  of  Buddhism,  and  in  Buddhist 
literature  kings  of  Kosala  ruled  also  over  Kapilavastu.  Sravasti,  the 
site  of  which  is  disputed,  was  the  capital  of  Uttara  Kosala,  the  northern 
portion,  over  which  Lava,  son  of  Rama,  ruled  after  his  father's  death. 
Southern  or  Great  Kosala  (Dakshina  or  Maha  Kosala),  which  fell  to 
Kusa,  the  other  son  of  Rama,  lay  south  of  the  Vindhyas.  In  the 
seventh  century  Hiuen  Tsiang  describes  it  as  bounded  by  Ujjain  on 
the  north,  Maharashtra  on  the  west,  Orissa  on  the  east,  and  Andhra 
and  Kalinga  on  the  south.  It  thus  lay  in  Chhattisgarh  about  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Mahanadl  and  its  tributaries,  from  Amarkantak  on  the 
north  to  Ranker  on  the  south,  and  may  at  times  have  extended  west 
into  Mandla  and  Balaghat  Districts,  and  east  into  Sambalpur.  From 
about  the  year  1000  the  tract  was  absorbed  in  a  new  kingdom  called 
( 'hcdi  (eastern). 


KOSI  407 

[For  Northern  Kosala,  sec  Lassen,  InJ.  Alt.,  vol.  i,  p.  129,  and 
authorities  quoted  there;   Rhys  Davids's  Buddhist  India,  passim.     For 

Southern  Kosala,  see  Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  Reports, 
vol.  xvii,  p.  68,  and  map  ;  and  Coins  of  Mediaeval  India,  p.  73.] 

Kosam. — The  name  of  two  villages,  distinguished  as  Kosam  Inam 
and  Kosam  Khiraj,  in  the  Manjhanpur  tahsil  of  Allahabad  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  250  20'  N.  and  8i°  24'  E.,  on  the  bank 
of  the  Jumna.  Population  (1901),  2,374.  For  many  years  the  ancient 
remains  buried  beneath  these  villages  were  believed  to  be  the  site 
of  the  city  of  Kausambhi,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  ancient 
India  to  both  Hindu  and  Buddhist.  If  the  distances  recorded  by 
Hiuen  Tsiang  are  correct,  Kausambhi  must  be  looked  for  at  some 
distance  south  or  south-west  of  Kosam,  and  the  most  recent  writer  has 
located  it  at  Gurgi  in  the  State  of  Rewah.  The  remains  at  Kosam 
include  those  of  a  vast  fortress  with  earthen  ramparts  and  bastions, 
four  miles  in  circuit,  with  an  average  height  of  30  to  35  feet  above  the 
general  level  of  the  country.  Near  the  centre  is  a  small  modern  Jain 
temple,  and  a  large  collection  of  Jain  sculptures  of  the  eleventh  century 
were  dug  up  close  by.  A  large  stone  monolith  stands  at  an  angle  in 
a  mOund  of  brick  ruins,  bearing  inscriptions  by  pilgrims  dating  from 
the  fifth  or  sixth  century.  An  inscription,  dated  in  1564,  mentions 
the  name  of  Kausambhi.  Numerous  terra-cotta  figures,  stone  carvings, 
and  coins  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  latter  ranging  over  the 
whole  period  of  Indian  numismatics.  One  variety  of  coins  found  here 
bears  the  names  of  a  series  of  kings  who  appear  to  have  reigned  in  the 
first  or  second  century  B.C.  Three  miles  north-west  of  the  fort  stands 
a  rocky  hill  called  Pabhosa,  high  on  the  face  of  which  is  a  cave  where 
important  inscriptions  have  been  found. 

[Cunningham,  Archaeological  Reports,  vol.  i,  pp.  301-12  ;  vol.  x, 
pp.  1-5  ;  vol.  xxi,  pp.  1-3  ;  Coins  of  Ancient  India,  p.  73  ;  Major  Vost, 
Journal,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1903,  p.  583.] 

Kosgi. — Head-quarters  of  the  estate  of  the  same  name  belonging 
to  Sir  Salar  Jang's  family,  in  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad  State, 
situated  in  160  59'  N.  and  770  43'  E.  Population  (1901),  S,228.  The 
town  contains  a  dispensary,  a  police  station,  a  school  with  50  pupils, 
all  maintained  by  the  estate,  and  three  private  schools  with  140  pupils. 
Silk  and  cotton  saris  are  extensively  made  here,  there  being  1,500 
looms  at  work. 

Kosi  (or  Kusi).— River  of  Nepal  and  North  Bengal,  rising  among 
the  eastern  Nepal  Himalayas  (260  27'  N.  and  870  6'  E.),  in  the  country 
known  as  the  Sapt  Kosikl,  or  'country  of  the  seven  Kosis,'  of  which 
the  most  important  and  best  known  is  the  San  Kosi.  It  first  takes 
a  south-westerly  course  for  about  60  miles,  then  flows  south  and  south- 
east for  r6o  more,  during  which  it  receives  on  its  left  bank  us  two  great 


4o8  KOSI 

tributaries,  the  Aran  and  Tambar.  It  leaves  the  mountains  at  Chatra. 
in  260  44'  N.  and  870  6'  E.,  in  a  series  of  cataracts  and  rapids,  and 
after  a  southerly  course  touches  upon  British  territory  in  the  extreme 
north-east  of  Bhagalpur  District,  in  260  35'  N.  and  870  5'  E.,  at  which 
point  it  is  a  large  river  nearly  a  mile  wide.  It  here  assumes  the 
character  of  a  deltaic  stream,  and  runs  south  with  many  bifurcations 
and  interlacings,  till,  after  receiving  another  considerable  tributary, 
the  Ghugri,  on  its  left  bank,  it  finally  falls  into  the  Ganges  in  250 
22'  N.  and  870  17'  E.,  in  Purnea  District,  after  a  course  within 
Bengal  of  about  84  miles. 

According  to  Hindu  legend,  this  river  is  Kausiki,  the  daughter  of 
Kusik  Raja,  king  of  Gadhl.  Although  the  daughter  of  a  Kshattriya, 
she  was  the  wife  of  a  Brahman  ;  and,  on  giving  birth  to  a  son  who 
preferred  the  warlike  exploits  of  his  mother's  race  to  the  sacred  duties 
of  his  father's,  she  became  a  river. 

The  Kosi  is  notorious,  even  among  Bengal  rivers,  for  its  vagaries, 
and  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its  stream,  the  dangerous  and 
uncertain  nature  of  its  bed,  and  the  desolation  caused  by  its  floods. 
Tracts  inundated  by  it  lapse  into  sand  and  jungle,  and  in  this  way 
it  has  made  a  wilderness  of  about  half  the  Madhipura  subdivision  of 
Bhagalpur.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  river  passed 
below  Purnea  town,  but  it  has  since  worked  westwards,  across  about 
50  miles  of  country,  as  indicated  by  now  deserted  channels.  The  Kosi 
carries  a  small  amount  of  boat  traffic  in  the  lower  half  of  its  course 
through  Purnea ;  but  navigation  is  at  all  times  of  the  year  a  matter 
of  much  difficulty,  as  the  channels  are  constantly  changing,  new  ones 
being  yearly  opened  up  and  old  ones  choked  by  sandbanks,  while  the 
bed  is  full  of  sunken  trees  or  snags.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  great 
velocity  of  the  current,  boats  have  frequently  to  wait  several  days  for 
a  favourable  wind  to  drive  them  up  some  of  the  reaches,  and  they 
require  a  pilot  to  precede  them  and  select  the  channel  to  be  followed. 
The  Kosi  has  recently  been  spanned  by  a  fine  railway  bridge  near 
Katihar,  and  is  also  crossed  higher  up  by  a  ferry  from  Anchra  Ghat 
to  Khanwa.  Ghat  on  the  west  bank,  both  of  which  connect  the  Bengal 
and  North-Western  Railway  with  the  Bihar  section  of  the  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway. 

Kosi. — Town  in  the  Chhata  tahsil  of  Muttra  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, situated  in  270  48'  N.  and  770  26"  E.,  on  the  Agra-Delhi  road. 
Population  (1901),  9,565.  It  contains  a  fine  sarai  ascribed  to 
Khwaja  Itibar  Khan,  governor  under  Akbar.  During  the  Mutiny  the 
District  officials  took  refuge  at  Kosi  for  a  time,  but  were  compelled 
to  flee  by  the  defection  of  the  Bharatpur  force.  There  is  a  dispensary, 
and  the  Baptist  Mission  has  a  station  here.  The  town  lies  low,  and 
is  surrounded   by  hollows  containing  stagnant  water  which  had  most 


KOT  4o9 

injurious  effects  on  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  A  main  drain  has 
now  been  constructed.  Kosi  became  a  municipality  in  1867.  During 
the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged 
Rs.  12,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  17,000,  chiefly  derived 
from  octroi  (Rs.  8,000)  and  rents  (Rs.  3,000);  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  23,000.  The  municipality  has  Rs.  10,000  invested.  There  i.-. 
a  considerable  trade  in  the  collection  of  grain  and  cotton  for  export 
to  Muttra,  and  six  cotton-gins  and  presses  employed  580  hands  in 
1903.  Kosi  is,  however,  chiefly  known  for  its  large  cattle  market,  one 
of  the  most  important  in  this  part  of  India,  where  more  than  30,000 
head  of  cattle  are  sold  annually.  There  are  four  schools  with  about 
240  pupils. 

Kosigi.— Town  in  the  Adoni  taluk  of  Bellary  District,  Madras, 
situated  in  150  51/  N.  and  770  15'  E.,  on  the  north-west  line  of  the 
Madras  Railway.  Population  (1901),  7,748.  It  is  built  close  under 
a  hill  between  400  and  500  feet  high,  the  sides  of  which  are  covered 
with  huge  blocks  of  granite  lying  piled  one  upon  the  other  in  an 
absolute  confusion,  which  can  have  been  brought  about  by  nothing 
short  of  severe  earthquakes.  The  many  rocky  hills  round  about  the 
town  are  conspicuous  for  the  great  size  of  the  granite  blocks  which 
form  them  :  and  on  one,  just  west  of  the  railway  about  3  miles  south 
of  Kosigi  station,  stands  a  tor  which  is  perhaps  the  finest  in  Southern 
India.  It  consists  of  a  huge  tower-like  mass,  on  the  top  of  which  are 
perched  two  upright,  tall,  thin  blocks  of  granite,  the  whole  being  80  feet 
high.  It  is  conspicuous  for  miles  in  every  direction,  and  is  known 
to  the  natives  as  Akkachellalu  ('  the  sisters ').  Round  the  lower  part 
of  the  hill  under  which  Kosigi  is  built  run  ruined  lines  of  fortifications. 
In  the  old  turbulent  days  the  place  was  the  stronghold  of  a  local 
chief,  one  of  whose  descendants  is  now  its  headman.  Like  others  with 
similar  pedigrees,  he  keeps  his  womankind  gosha.  The  doings  of  his 
ancestors  are  commemorated  on  half  a  dozen  of  the  viraAa/s,  or  stones 
recording  the  deeds  of  heroes  which  are  common  all  over  the  District, 
of  more  than  ordinary  size  and  elaboration.  About  a  mile  south  of  the 
town,  in  a  corner  between  three  hills,  are  five  stone  kistvaens.  Only 
one  is  now  intact.  It  is  larger  than  such  erections  usually  are.  The 
industries  include  a  tannery  and  the  weaving  of  the  ordinary  cotton 
cloths  worn  by  the  women  of  the  District.  Kosigi  was  very  severely 
affected  by  the  famine  of  1877,  and  in  1881  its  population  was  27  per 
cent,  less  than  in  1871.  But  during  the  next  decade  its  inhabitants 
increased  at  the  abnormal  rate  of  44  per  cent.,  and  it  is  now  a  fairly 
flourishing  place. 

Kot.— Estate  in  the  Fatahjang  tahs'il  of  Attock  District,  Punjab, 
with  an  area  of  88  square  miles.  The  (ihebas,  a  tribe  which  claims 
alliance  with  the  Sials  and  Tiwanas,  had    long    maintained    a    semi- 


4TO 


KOT 


independence  in  the  wild  hill-country  between  the  Indus  and  Sohan 
rivers,  and  acknowledged  only  the  nominal  supremacy  of  the  Sikhs. 
Rai  Muhammad,  the  Gheba  chief,  rendered  good  service  in  1830  to 
Ranjit  Singh  against  Saiyid  Ahmad,  the  fanatical  Muhammadan  leader 
in  Hazara;  and  in  1848-9  and  1857  his  son,  Fateh  Khan,  stood  by  the 
British  and  received  substantial  rewards.  Rai  Fateh  Khan  wielded 
great  influence  in  the  country  round  Kot.  On  his  death  at  an 
advanced  age  in  1894  he  was  succeeded  by  Sardar  Muhammad  All 
Khan,  who  died  in  1903.  The  present  chief,  who  holds  a  jaglr  worth 
about  Rs.  4,400  a  year  and  owns  27  villages,  is  a  minor,  and  his  estate 
is  under  the  Court  of  Wards.  The  chiefs  of  Kot  are  great  horse- 
breeders,  and  their  stud  is  now  systematically  managed  by  the  Court 
of  Wards. 

Kotagiri. — Hill  station  and  planting  centre  in  the  Coonoor  taluk 
of  the  Nilgiri  District,  Madras,  situated  in  n°  26'  N.  and  760  52'  E., 
at  the  north-east  of  the  Nilgiri  plateau,  18  miles  from  Ootacamund 
and  12  from  Coonoor.  Population  (1901),  5,100.  The  tahslldar  of 
Coonoor  holds  fortnightly  criminal  sittings  here.  The  station  wTas 
founded  in  1830,  and  has  grown  but  slowly.  Its  climate  is  preferred 
by  many  to  that  of  Ootacamund,  as  it  is  warmer  and  less  exposed  to 
the  south-west  monsoon.  It  is  connected  with  Mettupalaiyam  on  the 
plains  in  Coimbatore  by  a  good  road,  20  miles  in  length,  with  a  uniform 
gradient  of  i  in  18.  The  abandoned  military  sanitarium  of  Dimhatti 
lies  just  outside  its  limits.     The  Basel  Mission  has  a  station  here. 

Kotah  State. — State  in  the  south-east  of  Rajputana,  lying  between 
240  Y  and  250  51'  N.  and  750  37'  and  770  26'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about 
5,684  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Jaipur  and  the 
Allgarh  district  of  Tonk ;  on  the  west  by  Bundi  and  Udaipur ;  on. the 
south-west  by  the  Rampura-Bhanpura  district  of  Indore,  Jhalawar,  and 
the  Agar  tahsil  of  Gwalior ;  on  the  south  by  Khilchipur  and  Rajgarh ; 
and  on  the  east  by  Gwalior  and  the  Chhabra  district  of  Tonk.  In 
shape  the  State  is  something  like  a  cross,  with  a  length  from  north 
to  south  of  about  115  miles,  and  a  greatest  breadth  of  about  no  miles. 
The  country  slopes  gently  northwards  from  the  high  table-land  of 
Malwa,  and  is  drained  by  the  Chambal  and  its  tributaries,  all  flowing 
in  a  northerly  or  north-easterly  direction.  The  Mukandwara  range  of 
hills  (1,400  to  1,600  feet  above  sea-level),  running  across  the  southern 
portion  of  the  State  from  north-west  to  south-east,  is  an  important 
feature  in  the  landscape.  It  has  a  curious  double  formation  of  two 
separate  ridges  parallel  at  a  distance  sometimes  of  more  than  a  mile, 
the  interval  being  filled  with  dense  jungle  or  in  some  parts  with 
cultivated  lands.  The  range  takes  its  name  from  the  famous  pass 
in  which  Colonel  Monson's  rear-guard  was  cut  off  by  Holkar  in  1804. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  covered  with  stunted  trees  and  thick  under- 


KOTAH  STATE  4n 

growth,  and  contains  several  extensive  game  preserves.  There  are  hills 
(over  1,500  feet  above  the  sea)  near  Indargarh  in  the  north,  and  also 
in  the  eastern  district  of  Shahabad,  where  is  found  the  highest  [joint 
in  the  State  (1,800  feet).  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Chambal,  Kali 
Sind,  and  Parbati.  The  Chambal  enters  Kotah  on  the  west  not  far 
from  Bhainsrorgarh,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  forms  the 
boundary,  first  with  Bundi  on  the  west  and  next  with  Jaipur  on  the 
north.  At  Kotah  city  it  is,  at  all  seasons,  a  deep  and  wide  stream 
which  must  be  crossed  either  by  a  pontoon-bridge,  removed  in  the 
rainy  season  because  of  the  high  and  sudden  floods  to  which  the  river 
is  subject,  or  by  ferry;  and  very  occasionally  communication  between 
its  banks  is  interrupted  for  days  together,  as  no  boat  could  live  in  the 
turbulent  rapids.  Ferries  are  maintained  at  several  other  places.  The 
Kali  Sind  enters  the  State  in  the  south,  forms  for  about  35  miles 
the  boundary  between  Kotah  on  the  one  side  and  Gwalior,  Indore, 
and  Jhalawar  on  the  other,  and,  on  being  joined  by  the  Ahu,  forces  its 
way  through  the  Mukandwara  hills,  and  flows  almost  due  north  till  it 
joins  the  Chambal  near  the  village  of  Piparda.  The  Parbati  is  also 
a  tributary  of  the  Chambal.  Its  length  within  Kotah  limits  is  about 
40  miles,  but  for  another  47  or  48  miles  it  separates  the  State  from 
the  Chhabra  district  of  Tonk  and  from  Gwalior.  It  is  dammed  near 
the  village  of  Atru,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  AndherT,  and  the  waters 
thus  impounded  are  conveyed  by  canals  to  about  40  villages  and 
irrigate  6,000  to  7,000  acres.  Other  important  streams,  all  subject  to 
heavy  floods  in  the  rainy  season,  are  the  Parwan  and  Ujar,  tributaries 
of  the  Kali  Sind,  the  Sukri,  Banganga,  and  Kul,  tributaries  of  the 
Parbati,  and  the  Kunu  in  the  Shahabad  district. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  State  is  covered  by  the  alluvium  of  the 
Chambal  valley,  but  at  Kotah  city  Upper  Vindhyan  sandstones  are 
exposed  and  extend  over  the  country  to  the  south. 

The  wild  animals  include  the  tiger,  leopard,  hunting  leopard  or 
cheetah,  black  bear,  hyena,  wolf,  wild  dog,  &c. ;  also  sdnibar  (Cervus 
unicolor),  chltal  {Cervus  axis),  nilgai  (Bose/aphus  tragocamelus),  ante- 
lope, and  '  ravine  deer '  or  gazelle.  The  usual  small  game  abound  ;  and 
the  rivers  contain  mahseer  [Barbus  for),  rohu  (Labeo  rohita),  lanchi, 
gunch,  and  other  fish. 

From  November  to  February  the  climate  is  pleasant ;  in  March  it 
begins  to  get  hot,  and  by  the  middle  of  June  it  is  extremely  sultry. 
The  rains  usually  break  during  the  first  half  of  July,  and  from  then  till 
the  middle  of  October  the  climate  is  relaxing  and  very  malarious. 
The  average  mean  temperature  at  the  capital  is  about  820.  In  1905 
the  maximum  temperature  was  1150  in  May,  and  the  minimum  49° 
in  December. 

The   rainfall    varies "  considerably   in   the    different   districts.      The 

vol.  xv.  u  d 


4i2  KOTAH  STATE 

annual  average  for  the  whole  State  is  about  31  inches,  while  that  for 
Kotah  city  (since  1880)  is  between  28  and  29  inches,  of  which  about 
19  inches  are  received  in  July  and  August  and  about  7  in  June  and 
September.  In  the  districts,  the  fall  varies  from  about  25  inches  at 
Indargarh  in  the  north  and  Mandana  in  the  west,  to  37  at  Baran  in  the 
centre,  and  to  over  40  at  Shahabad  in  the  east  and  at  several  places  in 
the  south.  The  heaviest  rainfall  recorded  in  any  one  year  exceeded 
71  inches  at  Ratlai  in  the  south  in  1900,  and  the  lowest  was  14!  inches 
at  Mandana  in  1899. 

The  chiefs  of  Kotah  belong  to  the  Hara  sept  of  the  great  clan  of 
Chauhan  Rajputs,   and  the   early  history  of  their   house   is,   till    the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  identical  with 
that  of  the  Bundi   family  from  which   they  are  an 
offshoot.     Rao  Dewa  was  chief  of  Bundi  about  1342,  and  his  grandson, 
Jet  Singh,  first  extended  the  Hara  name  east  of  the  Chambal.    He  took 
the  place  now  known  as  Kotah  city  from  some  Bhlls  of  a  community 
called  Koteah,  and  his  descendants  held  it  and  the  surrounding  country 
for  about  five  generations  till  dispossessed  by  Rao  Suraj  Mai  of  Bundi 
about  1530.     At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Ratan  Singh 
was  Rao  Raja  of  Bundi,  and  is  said  to  have  given  his  second  son, 
Madho  Singh,  the  town  of  Kotah  and  its  dependencies  as  a  jagir. 
Subsequently   he   and   this   same   son   joined    the    imperial    army    at 
Burhanpur    at    the    time    when    Khurram    was    threatening    rebellion 
against  his  father,  JahangTr  ;    and  for  services  then  rendered  Ratan 
Singh  obtained  the  governorship  of  Burhanpur,  while  Madho  Singh 
received  Kotah  and  its  360  townships,  yielding  2  lakhs   of  revenue, 
to  be  held  by  him  and  his  heirs  direct  of  the  crown,  a  grant  sub- 
sequently confirmed,  it  is  said,  by  Shah  Jahan.     Thus,  about  1625, 
Kotah   came   into   existence  as  a  separate  State,  and  its  first  chief, 
Madho  Singh,  assumed  the  title  of  Raja.     He  was  followed  by  his 
eldest  son,  Mukand  Singh,  who,  with  his  four  brothers,  fought  gallantly 
at  the  battle  of  Fatehabad  near  Ujjain  in  1658  against  Aurangzeb.     In 
this  engagement  all  the   brothers    were   killed   except   the    youngest, 
Kishor  Singh,  who,  though  desperately  wounded,  eventually  recovered. 
The  third  and  fourth  chiefs  of  Kotah  were  Jagat  Singh  (1658-70),  who 
served  in  the  Deccan  and  died  without  issue,  and  Prem  (or  Pern)  Singh, 
who  ruled  for  six  months,  when  he  was  deposed  for  incompetence. 
Then  came  three  chiefs,  all  of  whom  lost  their  lives  in  battle.     Kishor 
Singh  I,  who  ruled  from  1670  to  1686,  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
of  Aurangzeb's  commanders    in   the    South,  distinguished  himself  at 
Bijapur,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Arcot.    His  son,  Ram  Singh  I, 
in  the  struggle  for  power  between  Aurangzeb's  sons,  Shah  Alam  Bahadur 
Shah  and  Azam  Shah,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter  and  fell  in  the 
battle  fought  at  Jajau  in  1707.     Lastly,  Bhlm  Singh  was  killed  in  1720 


HISTORY  4I3 

while  opposing  Nizam-ul-Mulk  in  his  advance  upon  the  Deccan.  Bhim 
Singh  was  the  first  Kotah  chief  to  bear  the  title  of  Maharao,  and,  by 
favouring  the  cause  of  the  Saiyid  brothers,  he  obtained  the  dignity  of 
panj  hazdri  or  leadership  of  5,000 ;  he  also  considerably  extended  his 
territories,  acquiring,  among  other  places,  Gagraun  fort,  Baran,  Mangrol, 
Manohar  Thana,  and  Shergarh.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sons,  Arjun 
Singh,  who  died  without  issue  in  1724,  and  Durjan  Sal,  who  ruled  for 
thirty-two  years,  successfully  resisted  a  siege  by  the  Jaipur  chief  in  1744, 
and  added  several  tracts  to  his  dominions.  Then  came  Ajit  Singh 
i1 756-9)  and  Chhatarsal  I  (1759-66).  In  the  time  of  the  latter  (1761) 
the  State  was  again  invaded  by  the  Jaipur  chief,  with  the  object  of 
forcing  the  Haras  to  acknowledge  themselves  tributaries.  An  encounter 
took  place  at  Bhatwara  (near  Mangrol),  when  the  Jaipur  army,  though 
numerically  superior,  was  routed  with  great  slaughter.  In  this  battle 
the  youthful  Faujdar,  Zalim  Singh  (see  Jhalawar  State),  who  after- 
wards as  regent  shaped  the  destinies  of  Kotah  for  many  years,  first 
distinguished  himself.  Maharao  Chhatarsal  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Guman  Singh  (1766-71),  and  shortly  afterwards  the  southern 
portions  of  the  State  were  invaded  by  the  Marathas.  Zalim  Singh, 
who  had  for  a  time  been  out  of  favour,  again  came  to  the  rescue  and 
by  a  payment  of  6  lakhs  induced  the  Marathas  to  withdraw. 

Guman  Singh  left  a  son,  Umed  Singh  I  (1771-1819);  but  through- 
out this  period  the  real  ruler  was  Zalim  Singh,  and  but  for  his  talents 
the  State  would  have  been  ruined  and  dismembered.  As  Tod  has 
put  it : — 

'When  naught  but  revolution  and  rapine  stalked  through  the  land, 
when  State  after  State  was  crumbling  into  dust  or  sinking  into  the 
abyss  of  ruin,  he  guided  the  vessel  entrusted  to  his  care  safely  through 
all  dangers,  adding  yearly  to  her  riches,  until  he  placed  her  in  security 
under  the  protection  of  Britain.' 

Zalim  Singh  was  celebrated  for  justice  and  good  faith  ;  his  word  was 
as  the  bond  or  oath  of  others,  and  few  negotiations  during  the  years 
from  1805  to  181 7,  the  period  of  anarchy  in  Rajputana,  were  contracted 
between  chiefs  without  his  guarantee.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history 
of  the  State  a  settled  form  of  government  was  introduced,  an  army 
formed,  and  European  methods  of  arming  and  drilling  were  adopted. 
A  new  system  of  land  revenue  assessment  was  initiated,  and  the 
country  was  gradually  restored  to  prosperity.  In  181 7  a  treaty  w.i> 
made  through  Zalim  Singh  by  which  Kotah  came  under  British  pro- 
tection ;  the  tribute  formerly  paid  to  the  Marathas  was  made  payable 
to  the  British  Government,  and  the  Maharao  was  to  furnish  troops 
according  to  his  means  when  required.  A  supplementary  article  (dated 
February,  1818)  vested  the  administration  in  Zalim  Singh  and  his  heirs 
in  regular  succession  and  perpetuity,  the  principality  being  continued 

d  d  2 


4i4  KOTAH  STATE 

to  the  descendants  of  Maharao  Umed  Singh.  Up  to  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1819  no  inconvenience  was  felt  from  this  arrangement,  by 
which  one  person  was  recognized  as  the  titular  chief  and  another  was 
guaranteed  as  the  actual  ruler  ;  but  Maharao  Kishor  Singh  II  (1819-28) 
attempted  to  secure  the  actual  administration  by  force,  and  British 
troops  had  to  be  called  in  to  support  the  regent's  authority.  In  the 
battle  that  ensued  at  Mangrol  (1821)  the  Maharao  was  defeated  and 
fled  to  Nathdwara  (in  Udaipur),  where  in  the  following  month  he 
formally  recognized  the  perpetual  succession  to  the  administration  of 
Zalim  Singh  and  his  heirs,  and  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  capital. 
The  old  regent — '  the  Nestor  of  Rajwara,'  as  Tod  calls  him — died  in 
1824  at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Madho 
Singh,  who  was  notoriously  unfit  for  the  office,  and  who  was  in  his  turn 
followed  by  his  son,  Madan  Singh.  About  the  same  time  the  Maharao 
died  and  his  nephew,  Ram  Singh  II  (1828-66),  ruled  in  his  stead. 
Six  years  later,  the  disputes  between  him  and  his  minister,  Madan 
Singh,  broke  out  afresh  ;  there  was  danger  of  a  popular  rising  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  latter,  and  it  was  therefore  resolved,  with  the  consent 
of  the  chief  of  Kotah,  to  dismember  the  State  and  create  the  new 
principality  of  Jhalawajr  as  a  separate  provision  for  the  descendants 
of  Zalim  Singh. 

This  arrangement  was  earned  out  in  1838  and  formed  the  basis  of 
a  fresh  treaty  with  Kotah,  by  which  the  tribute  was  reduced  by 
Rs.  80,000  and  the  Maharao  agreed  to  maintain  an  auxiliary  force  at 
a  cost  of  not  more  than  3  lakhs  (reduced  in  1844  to  2  lakhs).  This 
force,  known  as  the  Kotah  Contingent,  mutinied  in  1857;  it  is  now 
represented  by  the  42nd  (Deoli)  Regiment.  The  State  troops  likewise 
mutinied  and  murdered  the  Political  Agent  (Major  Burton)  and  his 
two  sons,  as  well  as  the  Agency  Surgeon ;  they  also  bombarded  the 
Maharao  in  his  palace.  The  chief  was  believed  not  to  have  attempted 
to  assist  the  Political  Agent,  and  as  a  mark  of  the  displeasure  of 
Government  his  salute  was  reduced  from  17  to  13  guns.  Ram  Singh, 
however,  received  in  1862  the  usual  sanad  guaranteeing  to  him  the 
right  of  adoption,  and  he  died  in  1866.  For  some  years  before  his 
death  the  affairs  of  Kotah  had  been  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition  ;  the 
administration  had  been  conducted  by  irresponsible  and  unprincipled 
ministers,  and  the  State  debts  amounted  at  his  death  to  27  lakhs.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Chhatarsal  II  (1866-89),  to  whom  Govern- 
ment restored  the  full  salute  of  1 7  guns.  A  few  years  later,  the  affairs 
of  State  fell  into  greater  confusion  than  before,  and  the  debts  increased 
to  nearly  90  lakhs.  At  last,  the  Maharao,  despairing  of  being  able  to 
effect  any  reform,  requested  the  interference  of  the  British  Government, 
and  intimated  his  willingness  to  receive  any  native  minister  nominated 
by  it.     Accordingly,  in  1874,  Nawab  Sir  Faiz  All  Khan  of  Pahasu  was 


POPULATION  4r5 

appointed  to  administer  the  State,  subject  to  the  advice  and  control  of 
the  Governor-General's  Agent  in  Rajputana  ;  and  on  his  retirement 
in  1876  the  administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  British  Poli- 
tical Agent  assisted  by  a  Council.  The  arrangement  continued  till 
ChhatarsaTs  death  in  1889,  and  during  this  period  many  reforms  were 
introduced,  and  the  debts  had  been  paid  off  by  1885.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  adopted  son,  Umed  Singh  II,  who  is  the  seventeenth 
and  present  chief  of  Kotah.  His  Highness  is  the  second  son  of 
Maharaja  Chaggan  Singh  of  Kotra,  an  estate  about  40  miles  east  of 
Kotah  city.  He  succeeded  to  the  gaddi  in  1889,  received  partial 
ruling  powers  in  1892,  and  full  powers  in  1896.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Mayo  College  at  Ajmer  (1890-92),  -vvas  created  a  K. C.S.I,  in  1900, 
and  was  appointed  an  honorary  major  in  the  42nd  (Deoli)  Regiment  in 
1 903.  The  most  important  event  of  his  rule  has  been  the  restoration, 
on  the  deposition  of  the  late  chief  of  the  Jhalawar  State,  of  fifteen 
out  of  the  seventeen  districts  which  had  been  ceded  in  1838  to  form 
that  principality.  Other  events  deserving  of  mention  are  the  con- 
struction of  the  railway  from  the  south-eastern  border  to  the  town  of 
Baran  ;  the  great  famine  of  1899-1900;  the  adoption  of  Imperial 
postal  unity ;  the  conversion  of  the  local  rupees  and  the  introduction 
of  British  currency  as  the  sole  legal  tender  in  the  State.  The  annual 
tribute  payable  to  Government  by  the  treaty  of  181 7  was  2-9  lakhs.  A 
remission  of  Rs.  25,000  was  sanctioned  in  1819,  and,  on  the  formation 
of  the  Jhalawar  State  in  1838,  a  further  reduction  of  Rs.  80,000  was 
granted;  but  since  1899,  when  the  fifteen  Jhalawar  districts  were 
restored  to  Kotah,  the  tribute  was  raised  by  Rs.  50,000  and  now  stands 
at  2-3  lakhs,  in  addition  to  the  annual  contribution  of  2  lakhs  towards 
the  cost  of  the  Deoli  Regiment. 

Of  interesting  archaeological  remains  the  oldest  known  is  the  chaor'i 
at  Mukandwara,  belonging,  it  is  believed,  to  the  fifth  century.  The 
village  of  Kanswa,  of  which  the  old  name  was  Kanvashram,  or  the  her- 
mitage of  the  sage  Kanva,  about  4  miles  south-east  of  Kotah  city, 
possesses  an  inscription  which  is  important  as  being  the  last  trace  of 
the  Mauryas.  It  is  dated  in  a.  d.  740,  and  mentions  two  chiefs  of  this 
clan,  Dhaval  and  Sivgan,  the  latter  of  whom  built  a  temple  to  Mahadeo. 
Among  other  interesting  places  are  the  fort  of  Gagraun  ;  the  ruins  <  f 
the  old  town  of  Mau  close  by ;  the  village  of  Char  Chaumu,  about 
20  miles  to  the  north,  with  a  very  old  temple  to  Mahadeo;  and  lastly 
Ramgarh,  6  miles  east  of  Mangrol,  where  there  are  several  old  Jain 
and  Sivaite  temples. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  State  is  2,613,  and   the 
population  at  each  of  the  three  enumerations  was  :       pODUiation 
(1881)  517,275,  (1S91)  526,267,  and  (1901)  544,879- 
The  apparent  increase  of  $\  per  cent,   in  the  last   decade  is  due   to 


4i6 


KOTAH  STATE 


the  restoration  of  certain  Jhalawar  districts  in  1899.  In  1891  the 
territory  now  forming  the  Kotah  State  contained  718,771  inhabitants. 
Thus,  during  the  subsequent  ten  years,  there  was  a  loss  of  173,892 
persons,  or  24  per  cent.,  which  is  ascribed  to  the  great  famine  of  1899- 

1900  and  the  severe  epidemic  of  malarial  fever  that  followed  it.     In 

1 90 1  the  State  was  divided  into  fifteen  nizamats  and  11  tahslls,  besides 
jagir  estates,  and  contained  4  towns  :  namely,  Kotah  City  (a  munici- 
pality), Baran,  Mangrol,  and  Sangod. 

The  following  table  gives  the  principal  statistics  of  population  in 
1901  : — 


Number  of 

"S-* 

O 

Subdivision. 

_0 
3 

a. 
0 

Oh 

Percentage 
variation  ii 

population  1 
tween  1891 
and  1901. 

Number  0 
persons  able 
read  and 
write. 

a 
S 

0 
H 

Villages. 

Anta    nizdmat . 

79 

23,658 

-   27.S 

453 

Baran            „ 

I 

82 

32,296 

-    14-7 

682 

Barod           ,, 

75 

15,977 

-  3i-6 

396 

Digod           ,, 

77 

'7,494 

—    20-6 

367 

Etawah         „     . 

,  , 

61 

18,019 

—    22-0 

238 

Ghatoli        ,, 

78 

9,628 

-    52-0 

160 

Kan  was        ,, 

.  . 

112 

1 7.554 

~    36-3 

238 

Khan  pur      ,, 

,  . 

85 

18,500 

-    29.S 

234 

Kishanganj  ,,     . 

105 

15,206 

~    25.8 

'47 

Kunjer          ,, 

,  . 

62 

'5>692 

-    27.2 

212 

Ladpura        ,, 

I 

142 

63,440 

-  21-5 

2,182 

Mangrol       ,, 

I 

74 

27,473 

-  '4-' 

362 

Sangod         ,, 

I 

118 

23,832 

-  26-8 

382 

Shergarh       , , 

•  •  . 

81 

21,413 

-  24-3 

288 

Taraj            ,, 

118 

19,725 

—  40-0 

127 

1 1  tahslls  . 

1,103 

160,359 

—    20-2 

1,213 

1  kotris  or  estates 

... 

'57 

44,6i3 

~    19-9 

609 

Statt 

:  tota 

[ 

4 

2,609 

544,879 

—    24-2 

8,290 

Of  the  total  population,  487,657,  or  more  than  89  per  cent.,  are 
Hindus,  the  Vaishnava  sect  of  Vallabhas  being  locally  important ; 
37,947,  or  nearly  7  per  cent.,  Musalmans ;  and  12,603,  or  more  than 
2  per  cent.,  Animists.  The  language  mainly  spoken  is  Rajasthani,  the 
dialects  used  being  chiefly  HaraotI,  Malwi,  and  Dhundari  (or  Jaipur!). 

Of  castes  and  tribes  the  most  numerous  is  the  Chamars.  They 
number  54,000,  or  nearly  10  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  are  by 
hereditary  calling  tanners  and  workers  in  leather,  but  the  majority  now 
live  by  general  labour  or  by  agriculture.  Next  come  the  Mlnas 
(47,000),  a  fine  athletic  race,  formerly  given  to  marauding  but  now 
settled  down  into  good  agriculturists.  The  Dhakars  (39,000)  are 
mostly  cultivators ;  the  Brahmans  (39,000)  are  employed  in  temples  or 
the  service  of  the  State,  and  many  hold  land  free  of  rent ;  the  Malis 
(36,000)  are  market-gardeners  and  cultivators  ;  the  Gujars  (35,000)  are 


A  GRIC  UL  TURE  4 1 7 

cattle-breeders  and  dealers,  and  also  agriculturists.  Among  other  castes 
may  be  mentioned  the  Mahajans  (20,000),  traders  and  money-lenders, 
and  the  Rajputs  (15,000),  the  majority  of  whom  belong  to  the  Hara 
sept  of  the  Chauhan  clan.  The  Rajputs  look  upon  any  occupation 
save  that  of  arms  or  government  as  derogatory  to  their  dignity ;  many 
of  them  are  in  the  service  of  the  State,  chiefly  in  the  army  and  police, 
or  hold  land  on  privileged  tenures,  but  the  majority  are  cultivators  and, 
as  such,  lazy  and  indifferent.  Taking  the  population  as  a  whole,  about 
47  per  cent,  live  solely  by  the  land,  and  another  20  per  cent,  combine 
agriculture  with  their  own  particular  trade  or  calling. 

Of  the  335  native  Christians  enumerated  in  1901,  all  but  2  were 
returned  as  Presbyterians.  The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
Mission  has  had  a  branch  at  the  capital  since  1899. 

The  country  is  fertile  and  well  watered.  The  soils  are  divided 
locally  into  three  classes :  namely,  kail  (or  sar-i-mdl),  a  rich  black 
loam  containing  much  sand  and  decomposed  vege- 
table matter;  utar-mdl,  a  loam  of  a  lighter  colour 
but  almost  equally  fertile ;  and  bari,  a  poor,  gravelly,  and  sandy  soil, 
of  a  reddish  colour,  often  mixed  with  kankar.  On  the  first  two  classes, 
fine  crops  of  wheat,  gram,  &c,  are  grown  without  irrigation. 

Agricultural  statistics  are  available  for  about  4,778  square  miles,  or 
84  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  State,  comprising  all  the  khdlsa 
lands  and  detached  revenue-free  plots,  and  some  of  the  jdgir  estates. 
After  deducting  1,544  square  miles  occupied  by  forests,  roads,  rivers, 
villages,  &c,  or  otherwise  not  available  for  cultivation,  there  remain 
3,234  square  miles,  of  which  nearly  1,400,  including  about  40  square 
miles  cropped  more  than  once,  are  ordinarily  cultivated  each  year,  i.  e. 
about  43  per  cent,  of  the  cultivable  area.  The  net  area  cropped  in 
1903-4  was  1,315  square  miles,  and  the  areas  under  the  principal  crops 
were  (in  square  miles) :  381,  or  nearly  29  per  cent.,  under  jowar;  359, 
or  about  27  per  cent.,  under  wheat ;  197,  or  15  per  cent.,  under  gram  ; 
82  under  linseed;  68  under  til;  40  under  both  poppy  and  maize;  ^^ 
under  cotton ;  and  20  under  barley.  There  were  also  a  few  square 
miles  under  san  (Indian  hemp),  indigo,  bdjra,  tobacco,  and  rice. 

The  indigenous  strain  of  cattle  is  of  an  inferior  type,  and  all  the  best 
bullocks  are  imported  from  Malwa.  There  is  a  little  horse  and  pony- 
breeding.  Sheep  and  goats  are  reared  in  considerable  numbers,  but 
are  of  no  distinctive  class. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  104  square  miles,  or  between 
7  and  8  per  cent.,  were  irrigated:  namely,  87  from  wells,  11  from 
canals,  and  about  6  from  tanks  and  other  sources.  The  wells  are  the 
mainstay  of  the  State,  and  number  over  24,000,  more  than  half  being 
of  masonry.  The  water  is  for  the  most  part  lifted  by  means  of  leathern 
buckets  drawn  up  with  a  rope  and  pulley  by  bullocks  moving  down  an 


4i  8  EOT  AH  STATE 

inclined  plane ;  but  in  a  few  places  the  renth  or  Persian  wheel  is  used, 
and,  in  the  case  of  shallow  wells,  the  water  is  raised  by  a  contrivance 
known  as  a  dhenkn,  which  consists  of  a  pole,  supported  by  a  prop,  with 
a  jar  or  bucket  at  one  end  and  a  heavy  weight  at  the  other.  Of  canals, 
the  most  important  has  been  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  Parbati 
river.  There  are  altogether  about  350  tanks,  of  which  30  are  useful 
for  irrigation.  The  principal  is  that  known  as  the  Aklera  Sagar,  which 
has  cost  about  Rs.  80,000;  it  has,  when  full,  an  area  of  about  \\  square 
miles,  and  holds  up  260  million  cubic  feet  of  water.  Considerable 
attention  is  being  paid  to  the  subject  of  irrigation,  and  several  pro- 
mising works  are  under  construction  :  notably  the  Umed  Sagar,  in  the 
Kishanganj  district  in  the  east,  which  is  estimated  to  cost  over  2  lakhs, 
and  to  have  a  capacity  of  more  than  400  million  cubic  feet  of  water. 

There  are  no  real  forests  in  Kotah,  and  valuable  timber  trees  are 
scarce.  The  principal  trees  are  teak,  which,  however,  seldom  attains 
any  size,  babul  {Acacia  arabica),  bar  (Eicus  bengatensis),  bel  (Aegle 
Marmelos),  dhdk  (Butea  frondosa) ,  dhonkra  (Anogeissus  penduia),  gular 
(Eicus  glomerata),  jdmun  (Eugenia  Jambolana),  kadamb  (Anthocephalus 
Cadamba),  mahua  (Bassia  latifolia),  turn  (Melia  Azadirachta),  pipal 
(Eicus  religiosa),  sdlar  (Boswellia  serrata),  semal  (Bombax  viala- 
baricum),  and  tendu  (Diospyros  tomentosa).  The  forests  have  never 
been  regularly  surveyed,  but  their  area  (including  several  large  game 
preserves)  is  estimated  at  about  1,400  square  miles.  There  was  no 
attempt  at  forest  conservancy  till  about  1880,  and  it  is  only  within 
recent  years  that  any  real  progress  has  been  made.  Several  blocks 
have  been  demarcated  and  entirely  closed  to  cutting  and  grazing,  and 
plantations  and  nurseries  have  been  started.  The  receipts — derived 
from  grazing  fees  and  the  sale  of  wood,  grass,  and  minor  produce  such 
as  gum,  honey,  and  wax — have  risen  from  Rs.  37,000  in  189 1-2  to 
over  Rs.  69,000  in  1903-4,  and  the  net  revenue  in  the  last  year  was 

Rs-  33,3°°- 

The  mineral  products  are  insignificant.  Iron  is  found  near  Indar- 
garh  in  the  north  and  Shahabad  in  the  east ;  the  ore  is  rudely  smelted, 
and  the  small  quantity  of  metal  obtained  is  used  locally.  Good  building 
stone  is  found  throughout  the  State. 

The  most  important  indigenous  industry  is  that  of  cotton-weaving. 

The  muslins  of  Kotah  city  have  a  more  than  local  reputation  ;  they  are 

both  white  and  coloured,  the  colours  being  in  some 

communications.  cases  Particularly  pleasing,  and  are  occasionally  orna- 
mented by  the  introduction  of  gold  or  silver  threads 
while  still  on  the  loom.  Cloths  are  printed  and  dyed  at  the  capital  and 
several  other  places.  The  tie  and  dye  work  (called  chimdri  bandisk)  of 
Baran  is  very  interesting,  but  the  demand  for  it  is  annually  diminishing, 
probably   because   of  the   increased  import  of  cheap  printed  foreign 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  419 

cloths.  Among  other  manufactures  may  be  mentioned  silver  table- 
ornaments  and  rough  country  paper  at  the  capital,  embroidered 
elephant  and  horse-trappings  at  Shergarh,  inlaid  work  on  ivory,  buffalo 
horn,  or  mother-of-pearl  at  Etawah,  lacquered  toys  and  other  articles 
at  Gianta  and  Indargarh,  and  pottery  at  the  place  last  mentioned. 
There  is  a  small  cotton-ginning  factory  at  Palaita  about  25  miles  east 
of  Kotah  city  ;  it  is  a  private  concern  started  in  1898,  and  when  work- 
ing gives  employment  to  about  thirty  persons. 

The  chief  exports  are  cereals  and  pulses,  opium,  oilseeds,  cotton,  and 
hides ;  while  the  chief  imports  are  salt,  English  piece-goods,  yarn,  rice, 
sugar,  gur  (molasses),  iron  and  other  metals,  dry  fruits,  leathern  goods, 
and  paper.  The  trade  is  mostly  with  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  Cawnpore, 
and  the  neighbouring  States  of  Rajputana  and  Central  India.  The 
opium,  which  is  claimed  to  be  as  good  as,  if  not  superior  to,  the  Malwa 
product,  is  manufactured  into  two  different  shapes.  That  for  the 
Chinese  market,  which  is  sent  mostly  to  the  Government  depot  at 
Baran  and  thence  to  Bombay,  is  prepared  in  balls,  while  that  for 
home  consumption  or  for  other  States  in  Rajputana — chiefly  Blkaner, 
Jaisalmer,  and  Jodhpur — is  made  up  into  cakes.  The  chief  centres 
of  trade  are  Kotah  city  and  Baran,  and  the  principal  trading  castes  are 
the  Mahajans  and  Bohras. 

The  only  railway  in  the  State  is  the  Blna-Baran  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  which  was  opened  for  traffic  in  May,  1899. 
The  section  within  Kotah  limits  (about  29  miles)  is  the  property  of  the 
Darbar,  cost  more  than  17  lakhs,  and  has  four  stations.  The  net 
earnings  of  this  section  during  the  five  years  ending  1904  averaged 
Rs.  24,000  per  annum,  or  a  little  less  than  \\  per  cent,  on  the  capital 
outlay.  The  actual  figures  for  1904  were  :  gross  earnings,  Rs.  52,000  ; 
expenses,  Rs.  26,000;  and  net  profits,  Rs.  26,000,  or  about  1-55  per 
cent,  on  the  capital  outlay.  An  extension  of  this  line  from  Baran 
to  Marwar  Junction  on  the  Rajputana- Malwa  Railway  has  been  sur- 
veyed, and  the  greater  part  of  the  earthwork  within  Kotah  limits  was 
constructed  by  famine  labour  in  1899- 1900.  A  line  from  Nagda  (in 
Gwalior  in  the  south)  to  Muttra  has  recently  been  sanctioned  and  work 
has  commenced  ;  it  is  to  run  via  the  Mukandwara  pass  to  Kotah  city, 
and  thence  north-east  through  Bundi  and  past  Indargarh. 

The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  143  miles,  and  of  unmetalled 
roads  410  miles  ;  they  were  all  constructed  and  are  maintained  by  the 
Public  Works  department  of  the  State.  The  more  important  metalled 
roads  lead  from  the  capital  to  Baran,  Bundi,  and  Jhalrapatan. 

Prior  to  1899  the  State  had  a  postal  service  of  its  own,  which 
cost  about  Rs.  5,000  annually  ;  but  in  that  year  the  Darbar  adopted 
Imperial  postal  unity,  and  there  are  now  32  British  post  offices.  2 
of  which  (at  Kotah  and  Baran)  are  also  telegraph  offices. 


42o  KOTAH  STATE 

So  far  as  records  show,  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900  was  the  first  that 
ever  visited  the  State.  When  in  former  times  famines  were  devastating 
the  surrounding  districts,  Kotah  remained  free  from 
severe  distress,  and  was  able  to  help  her  neighbours 
with  grain  and  grass.  In  1804  the  regent  (Zalim  Singh)  was  able  to  fill 
the  State  coffers  by  selling  grain  at  about  8  seers  for  the  rupee,  and 
Kotah  is  said  to  have  supported  the  whole  population  of  Rajwara  as 
well  as  Holkar's  army.  In  1868,  and  again  in  1877,  the  rains  were  late 
in  coming,  and  the  kharif  crop  was  meagre  ;  but  the  spring  harvest 
was  up  to  the  average,  and,  though  prices  ruled  high  for  a  time,  there 
was,  on  the  whole,  little  suffering.  The  famine  of  1 899-1 900  was 
severe,  and  the  entire  State  was  affected.  The  rainfall  in  1899  was 
but  15!  inches,  of  which  more  than  7  fell  on  one  day  (July  8),  and  after 
that  date  the  rain  practically  ceased.  The  out-turn  of  the  kharif  was 
1 8  per  cent,  of  the  normal,  and  rabi  crops  were  sown  only  on  irrigated 
land.  The  advent  of  the  railway  to  Baran  had  created  a  greatly 
increased  export  trade,  and  the  high  prices  prevailing  in  other  parts  of 
India  tempted  the  dealers  to  get  rid  of  their  stores  of  grain  in  spite 
of  the  local  demand.  The  difficulties  of  the  situation  were  enhanced 
by  an  unprecedented  wave  of  immigration  from  the  western  States  of 
Rajputana,  and  from  Mewar,  Bundi,  and  Ajmer-Merwara.  Thousands 
of  needy  foreigners  poured  into  Kotah  with  vast  herds  of  cattle,  and 
by  December,  1899,  the  grazing  resources  of  the  country  had  been 
exhausted.  The  Maharao  was  insistent  from  the  first  on  a  generous 
treatment  of  the  sufferers,  and  by  his  personal  example  did  not  a  little 
to  mitigate  distress.  Poorhouses  were  opened  at  the  capital  in  Septem- 
ber, 1899,  and  subsequently  at  other  places,  and  relief  works  were 
started  in  October ;  other  forms  of  relief  were  famine  kitchens,  the 
grant  of  doles  of  grain  to  the  infirm  and  old  and  to  pardd-nashlu 
women,  advances  to  agriculturists,  and  the  gift  of  clothes,  bullocks,  and 
seed-grain.  More  than  six  million  units  were  relieved  on  works,  and 
three  millions  gratuitously,  at  a  cost  of  7^  lakhs.  The  total  expenditure, 
including  advances  to  agriculturists,  exceeded  9-5  lakhs,  and  over  15 
lakhs  of  land  revenue  was  suspended.  The  mortality  among  human 
beings  was  considerable,  and,  though  the  forests  and  grass-preserves 
were  thrown  open  to  free  grazing,  25  per  cent,  of  the  live-stock  are  said 
to  have  perished. 

The  administration  is    carried   on   by  His  Highness  the  Maharao, 

assisted  by  a  Dlwan.     Since   1901    the  administrative   divisions  have 

%    .  .  been  remodelled,  and  there  are  now  19  nizamats  and 

Administration.  ...        ^     ,      c  ,     c  ■  ,  -   ■      A 

4  tahsils.     Each  of  the  former  is  under  a  nazim,  and 

each  of  the  latter  under  a  tahsildar,  and   these  officers   are   assisted 

respectively  by  naib-nazims  and  naib-tahsildars. 

For  the  guidance  of  its  judiciary  the  State  has  its  own  codes,  framed 


ADMINISTRA  TION  4  2 1 

in  1874  largely  on  the  lines  of  the  British  Indian  enactments,  and 
amended  from  time  to  time  by  circulars  issued  by  the  Darbar. 
lowest  courts  are  those  of  the  tahslldars  (usually  third-class  magistra- 
and  nazims  (generally  second-class  magistrates) ;  they  can  also  try  civil 
suits  not  exceeding  Rs.  300  in  value.  Appeals  against  their  decrees  in 
criminal  cases  lie  to  one  of  three  divisional  magistrates  (faujddrs),  who 
are  further  empowered  to  pass  a  sentence  of  two  years'  imprisonment 
and  Rs.  500  fine.  Similarly,  appeals  against  the  decisions  of  nazims, 
&c,  in  civil  cases  lie  to  one  of  two  courts,  which  can  also  deal  with 
original  suits  not  exceeding  Rs.  1,000  in  value.  Over  xhcfaujdars  and 
the  two  courts  just  mentioned  is  the  Civil  and  Sessions  Judge,  who  can 
try  all  suits  of  any  description  or  value,  and  can  pass  a  sentence  of 
seven  years'  imprisonment  and  Rs.  1,000  fine.  The  highest  court  and 
final  appellate  authority  is  known  as  the  Mahakma  khas ;  it  is  presided 
over  by  the  Maharao,  who  alone  can  pass  a  death  sentence. 

The  ordinary  revenue  in  a  normal  year  is  about  31  lakhs,  and  the 
ordinary  expenditure  about  26  lakhs.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue 
are  :  land  about  24  lakhs,  and  customs  about  4  lakhs.  The  chief 
items  of  expenditure  are  :  army  and  police,  5  lakhs ;  tribute  to  Govern- 
ment, including  contribution  towards  the  cost  of  the  42nd  (Deoli) 
Regiment,  4-3  lakhs  j  revenue  and  judicial  staff  (including  Mahakma 
khas),  3-8  lakhs  ;  public  works  department,  2-5  lakhs  ;  palace  and  privy 
purse,  2-3  lakhs;  charitable  and  religious  grants  and  pensions,  i-S 
lakhs;  and  karkhanas  (i.e.  stables,  elephants,  camels,  bullocks,  Sec), 
1-2  lakhs.  In  the  disastrous  famine  year  of  1899- 1900  the  receipts 
were  about  half  the  average,  and  the  Darbar  had  to  borrow  from 
Government  and  private  sources  almost  a  year's  revenue  to  enable  it 
to  carry  on  the  administration  and  afford  the  necessary  relief  to  its 
distressed  population.  The  result  is  that  the  State  now  owes  about 
13  lakhs,  though  it  has  a  large  cash  balance,  besides  investments. 

Kotah  had  formerly  a  silver  coinage  of  its  own,  minted  at  the  capital 
and  Gagraun  (probably  since  the  time  of  Shah  Alam  II),  while  in  the 
restored  districts  the  coins  of  the  Jhalawar  State  were  current.  The 
rupees  were  in  value  generally  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  similar  coins 
of  British  India  ;  but  in  1899,  when  large  purchases  of  grain  had  to  be 
made  outside  the  State,  the  rate  of  exchange  fell,  and  at  one  time  both 
the  Kotah  and  Jhalawar  rupees  were  at  a  discount  of  24  per  cent. 
The  Darbar  thereupon  resolved  to  abolish  the  local  coins  and  intro- 
duce British  currency  as  the  sole  legal  tender  in  the  State.  This  very- 
desirable  reform  was,  with  the  assistance  of  Government,  carried  out 
between  March  1  and  August  31,  1901,  at  the  rate  of  114  Kotah  (or 
118  Jhalawar)  rupees  for  100  British  rupees. 

The  land  tenures  are  the  usual  jagir,  mi/dji,  and  khalsa,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  the  estates  held  on  the  first  two  tenures  occupy  about  one- 


422 


KOTAH  STATE 


fourth  of  the  area  of  the  State.  The  jaglrddrs  hold  on  a  semi-feudal 
tenure,  and  are  not  dispossessed  save  for  disloyalty  or  misconduct ;  they 
have  the  power  of  alienating  a  portion  of  their  estates  as  a  provision  for 
younger  sons  or  other  near  relatives,  and  they  may  raise  money  by 
a  mortgage,  but  it  cannot  be  foreclosed.  No  succession  or  adoption 
can  take  place  without  the  Maharao's  consent,  and  in  most  cases 
a  nazardna  or  fee  on  succession  is  levied.  The  majority  of  the 
jaglrddrs  pay  an  annual  tribute,  and  some  of  them  have  also  to  supply 
horsemen  or  foot-soldiers  for  the  service  of  the  State.  Lands  are 
granted  on  the  mudfi  tenure  to  individuals  as  a  reward  for  service 
or  in  lieu  of  pay  or  in  charity,  and  also  to  temples  and  religious 
institutions  for  their  upkeep.  They  are  usually  revenue  free.  In  the 
khalsa  area  the  tenure  of  land  was  very  widely  changed  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  administrative  measures  of  the  regent,  Zalim 
Singh.  Before  his  time  two-fifths  of  the  produce  belonged  to  the  State, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  cultivator  after  deduction  of  village  expenses. 
Zalim  Singh  surveyed  the  lands  and  imposed  a  fixed  money-rate  per 
frigha,  making  the  settlement  with  each  cultivator,  and  giving  the  village 
officers  only  a  percentage  on  collections.  By  rigorously  exacting  the 
revenue,  he  soon  broke  down  all  the  hereditary  tenures,  and  got  almost 
the  whole  cultivated  land  under  his  direct  proprietary  management, 
using  the  cultivators  as  tenants-at-will  or  as  farm-labourers.  A  very 
great  area  was  thus  turned  into  a  vast  government  farm  ;  and  while  the 
proprietary  status  of  the  peasantry  entirely  disappeared,  the  country 
was  brought  under  an  extent  of  productive  cultivation  said  to  be  with- 
out precedent,  before  or  since,  in  Rajputana.  At  the  present  time  the 
chief  claims  to  be  the  absolute  owner  of  the  soil,  and  no  cultivator  has 
the  right  to  transfer  or  alienate  any  of  the  lands  he  cultivates.  So  long, 
however,  as  the  cultivator  pays  his  revenue  punctually  he  is  left  in 
undisturbed  possession  of  his  holding,  and  if  he  wishes  to  relinquish 
any  portion  thereof  he  can  do  so  in  accordance  with  the  rules  in  force. 
In  some  of  the  ceded  districts  the  ma?wtiddri  system  is  in  force,  under 
which  the  manotiddr  or  money-lender  finances  the  cultivators,  is  re- 
sponsible for  their  payments,  and  collects  what  he  can  from  them, 
while  elsewhere  the  land  revenue  system  is  ryotwdri. 

The  rates  fixed  by  Zalim  Singh  remained  more  or  less  in  force  till 
about  1882-5  m  tne  case  °f  ^e  restored  tracts,  and  1877-86  in  the 
case  of  the  rest  of  the  territory,  when  fresh  settlements  were  made, 
which  are  still  in  force.  The  rates  per  acre  vary  from  4^  annas 
to  Rs.  5-8  for  'dry'  land,  and  from  Rs.  2-4  to  Rs.  17-9  for  irri- 
gated land.  A  revision  of  the  settlement  is  now  in  progress,  operations 
having  been  started  at  the  end  of  1904. 

The  Public  Works  department  has  been  under  the  charge  of  a  quali- 
fied European  Engineer  since  1878,  and  the  total  expenditure  down  to 


ADMIXISTRA  TION  423 

the  end  of  1905  amounts  to  about  80  lakhs.  The  principal  works 
carried  out  comprise  the  metalled  and  most  of  the  fair-weather  roads, 
the  masonry  causeways  over  the  Kali  Sind  and  other  rivers,  the 
pontoon-bridge  over  the  Chambal,  the  earthwork  of  the  proposed 
Baran-Marwar  Railway,  several  important  irrigation  tanks  and  canals, 
the  Maharao's  new  palace  (with  electric  light  installation),  the  Victoria 
Hospital  for  women,  numerous  other  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  the 
Central  jail,  the  public  offices,  resthouses,  &c. 

The  military  force  which  the  Maharao  may  maintain  is  limited  to 
15,000  men,  and  the  actual  strength  in  1905  was  7,913  of  all  ranks  : 
namely,  cavalry  910  (609  irregular),  artillerymen  353,  and  infantry 
6,650  (5,456  irregular).  There  are  also  193  guns,  of  which  62  are  said 
to  be  unserviceable.  The  force  cost  about  4-8  lakhs  in  1904-5,  and  is 
largely  employed  on  police  duties  or  in  garrisoning  forts.  There  are 
no  British  cantonments  in  Kotah ;  but  under  the  treaty  of  1838,  as 
amended  in  1844,  the  Darbar  contributes  2  lakhs  yearly  towards  the 
cost  of  the  42nd  (Deoli)  Regiment,  of  which  His  Highness  has  been  an 
honorary  major  since  January,  1903. 

There  are  two  main  bodies  of  police:  namely,  one  for  the  city  (r 7 7 
of  all  ranks)  under  the  kotwdl ;  and  the  other  for  the  districts,  number- 
ing 5,260,  and  including  3,490  sepoys  and  sowars  belonging  to  the 
army,  and  1,668  chauklddrs  or  village  watchmen  under  a  General 
Superintendent.  The  districts  are  divided  into  six  separate  charges, 
each  under  an  Assistant  Superintendent,  and  there  are  altogether  39 
thdnas  or  police  stations  and  516  outposts.  Excluding  the  men  be- 
longing to  the  army,  and  the  chauklddrs,  who  receive  revenue-free 
lands  for  their  services,  the  force  costs  about  Rs.  45,000  a  year. 

Besides  the  Central  jail  at  the  capital,  there  are  small  lock-ups  at  the 
head-quarters  of  each  district,  in  which  persons  under  trial  or  those 
sentenced  to  short  terms  of  imprisonment  are  confined. 

In  regard  to  the  literacy  of  its  population,  Kotah  stands  last  but  one 
among  the  twenty  States  and  chiefships  of  Rajputana,  with  1-5  per  cent 
of  the  population  (2-9  males  and  o-i  females)  able  to  read  and  write. 
The  first  State  school  was  started  in  1867,  when  two  teachers  were 
appointed,  one  of  Sanskrit  and  the  other  of  Persian.  In  1S74  English 
and  Hindi  classes  were  added  ;  but  this  was  the  only  educational  insti- 
tution maintained  by'  the  Darbar  up  to  1881,  when  the  daily  average 
attendance  was  186.  In  1891  there  were  19  State  schools  with  a  daily 
average  attendance  of  752,  and  by  1901  these  figures  had  increased  to 
36  and  1,106  respectively.  Similarly,  the  State  expenditure  on  educa- 
tion rose  from  about  Rs.  4,000  in  18S0-1  to  nearly  Rs.  9,000  in 
1S90-1,  and  to  Rs.  25,000  in  1900-1.  Omitting  indigenous  and 
private  schools  not  under  the  department,  there  were  41  educational 
institutions  maintained  by  the  Darbar  in  1905,  and  the  number  on  the 


424 


KOTAH  STATE 


Vaccination  appears    to 
nowhere   compulsory.      In 
vaccinated  16,351  persons, 
total  State  expenditure  in 


rolls  was  2,447  (including  115  girls).  The  daily  average  attendance  in 
1904-5  was  1,586  (75  being  girls) ;  and  the  total  expenditure,  including 
Rs.  5,000  on  account  of  boys  attending  the  Mayo  College  at  Ajmer, 
was  Rs.  33,000.  Of  these  41  schools,  39  are  primary;  and  of  the 
latter,  5  are  for  girls.  The  only  notable  institutions  are  the  Maharao's 
high  school  and  the  nobles'  school,  which  are  noticed  in  the  article  on 
Kotah  City.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  fees  are  levied  anywhere, 
and  that  everything  in  the  shape  of  books,  paper,  pens,  &c,  is  supplied 
free,  the  mass  of  the  people  are  apathetic  and  do  not  care  to  have  their 
children  taught. 

The  State  possesses  21  hospitals,  including  that  attached  to  the  jail, 
with  accommodation  for  216  in-patients.  In  1904  the  number  of  cases 
treated  was  105,464  (1,808  being  those  of  in-patients),  and  3,765  opera- 
tions were  performed. 

have  been  started  about  1866-7  and  is 
1904-5  a  staff  of  five  men  successfully 
or  30  per  1,000  of  the  population.  The 
1904-5  on  medical  institutions,  including 
vaccination  and  a  share  of  the  pay  of  the  Agency  Surgeon  and  his 
establishment,  was  about  Rs.  60,000. 

[W.  Stratton,  Kotah  and  the  Haras  (Ajmer,  1899);  P.  A.  Weir  and 
J.  Crofts,  Medico-topographical  Accoidnt  of  Kotah  (1900);  Kotah  Ad- 
ministration Reports  (annually  from  1894-5).] 

Kotah  City. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Rajputana, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Chambal  in  250  11/  N.  and  750  51/  E., 
about  45  miles  by  metalled  road  west  of  Baran  station  on  the  Bina- 
Baran  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  and  about  120 
miles  south-east  of  Ajmer.  It  is  said  that,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
some  Bhlls  of  the  Koteah  clan  who  then  lived  here  were  attacked 
and  ousted  by  Jet  Singh,  the  grandson  of  Rao  Dewa  of  Bundi,  who 
settled  in  the  place,  and  built  a  town  which  he  called  Kotah.  It  was 
held  by  Bundi  till  1625,  when,  with  its  dependencies,  it  was  granted  by 
Jahanglr  to  Madho  Singh,  the  first  chief  of  Kotah,  and  became  the 
capital  of  the  State  then  formed.  It  has  since  increased  in  size  and 
importance,  and  is  now  one  of  the  eight  cities  of  Rajputana.  It  is 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  high  and  massive  crenelated  wall,  with 
well-fortified  bastions  at  regular  intervals,  while  on  the  west  the  river 
Chambal— 400  yards  wide  and  crossed  by  an  iron  pontoon-bridge, 
except  in  the  rains,  when  the  passage  is  made  by  ferry — forms  a  natural 
barrier.  The  city  possesses  six  massive  double  gates  closed  nightly  at 
1 1  p.m.,  and  may  be  divided  into  three  well-defined  and  distinct  areas, 
each  separated  from  the  next  by  a  high  wall :  namely,  Ladpura,  Ram- 
pura,  and  the  city  proper,  the  latter  including  the  old  town  or  purani 
basti.      In  the  southern  extremity  is  the  old  palace,  an  imposing  pile 


KOTAH  CITY  425 

of  buildings  overlooking  the  river.  Of  the  numerous  temples,  the  most 
famous  is  that  of  MathureshjT,  the  idol  in  which  is  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Gokul  in  Muttra,  while  the  oldest  is  probably  that  of 
Nllkanth  Mahadeo. 

The  population  has  been  gradually  decreasing,  as  the  following 
figures  show:  in  1881,  40,270;  in  1891,  38,620;  and  in  1901,  33,657. 
This  is  said  to  be  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  place,  situated  on  the 
western  border  of  the  State  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  railway,  is  not  a  general  trade  centre,  and  partly  because,  with  the 
improved  administration  and  the  greater  security  afforded  to  life  and 
property,  the  people  have  spread  more  into  the  country.  Another 
probable  reason  for  the  falling  off  in  population  is  the  unhealthiness  of 
the  site,  caused  by  the  water  of  the  Kishor  Sagar  (or  lake)  on  the  east 
percolating  through  the  soil  to  the  river  on  the  west.  The  greater  pro- 
portional decrease  in  the  last  decade  is  certainly  due  to  the  famine 
of  1 899-1900  and  the  severe  outbreak  of  malarial  fever  that  im- 
mediately followed  it.  Of  the  total  population  in  1901,  Hindus  num- 
bered 23,132,  or  nearly  69  per  cent.,  and  Musalmans  9,027,  or  about 
27  per  cent.  The  principal  manufactures  are  muslins,  both  white  and 
coloured,  silver  table-ornaments,  and  a  little  country  paper.  An  oppor- 
tunity for  seeing  the  various  industries  occurs  each  year,  when  an 
exhibition  is  held  generally  in  February.  A  municipal  committee, 
which  was  formed  in  1874,  has  done  much  to  improve  the  sanitation 
of  the  place.  The  income  (derived  mainly  from  an  octroi  duty  on 
all  imports)  and  the  expenditure  are  each  about  Rs.  20,000  a  year. 
The  Central  jail  is  a  commodious  and  well-managed  building,  with 
accommodation  for  468  prisoners.  The  daily  average  number  in  1904 
was  428,  the  expenditure  exceeded  Rs.  23,000,  and  the  profits  from 
manufactures  (carpets,  rugs,  cotton  cloth,  &c.)  were  about  Rs.  2,000. 
Excluding  private  educational  institutions,  there  are  4  schools  main- 
tained by  the  State,  which  were  attended  in  1904-5  by  about  400  boys 
and  30  girls.  The  Maharao's  high  school  and  the  nobles'  school  teach 
up  to  the  matriculation  standard  of  the  Allahabad  University.  Attached 
to  the  high  school  is  a  class  recently  started  for  paftvdris,  in  which  sur- 
veying is  taught ;  and  the  nobles'  school  has  a  boarding-house  where 
the  boys  are  fed  and  lodged  free  by  the  State.  Including  the  hospital 
attached  to  the  jail,  there  are  four  medical  institutions  at  Kotah,  with 
accommodation  for  79  in-patients.  The  Victoria  Hospital,  reserved  for 
females,  was  opened  in  1890  and  has  22  beds.  Among  places  of 
interest  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  may  be  mentioned  the 
Maharao's  new  palace,  called  after  him  the  Umed  Bhawan,  which  is 
lighted  with  electricity ;  the  extensive  and  well-kept  gardens,  contair. 
a  public  library  and  reading-room  ;  and  several  palaces,  such  as  the 
Amar  Niwas,  the  Brij  Bilas,  and  the  Chhatarpura. 


426 


KO  TAH-JHALA  II 'AR   A  GENC  Y 


Kotah-Jhalawar  Agency. — Political  Charge  in  the  south-east  of 
Rajputana,  lying  between  230  45'  and  250  51'  N.  and  750  28'  and 
770  26'  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Jaipur  and  the  Allgarh 
district  of  Tonic ;  on  the  west  by  Bundi  and  Udaipur ;  on  the  south- 
west and  south  by  several  States  of  Central  India  and  the  Pirawa 
district  of  Tonk ;  and  on  the  east  by  Gwalior  and  the  Chhabra  district 
of  Tonk.  The  head-quarters  of  the  Political  Agent  are  at  Kotah.  The 
population  has  varied:  (1881)  857,763,  (1891)  869,868,  and  (1901) 
635,054-  The  decrease  of  nearly  27  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade 
was  due  to  the  famine  of  1899-1900  and  the  severe  epidemic  of  malarial 
fever  that  followed  it.  The  total  area  is  6,494  square  miles,  and  the 
density  of  population  is  98  persons  per  square  mile,  as  compared  with 
76  for  Rajputana  as  a  whole.  As  regards  size  the  Agency  ranks  fifth, 
and  as  regards  population  seventh,  among  the  eight  political  divisions 
of  Rajputana.  In  1901  Hindus  formed  89  per  cent,  of  the  total  and 
Musalmans  more  than  7  per  cent.  There  were  also  356  Christians 
(including  340  natives).  The  Agency  is  made  up  of  the  two  States 
shown  below : — 


State. 

Area  in 
square  miles. 

Population, 
190 1. 

Normal  land  revenue 

(k/ialsa),  in  thousands 

of  rupees. 

Kotah       . 
Jhalawar 

Total 

5,684 
8lO 

544,879 
9°,I75 

24,00 
3,c° 

6,494 

635,054 

27,00 

There  are  altogether  3,017  villages  and  6  towns;  of  the  latter,  the 
largest  are  Kotah  (33,657)  and  Jhalrapatan  Chhaoni  (14,315). 

Kotaria. — Estate  and  head-quarters  thereof  in  Udaipur  State, 
Rajputana.     See  Kotharia. 

Kotayam. —  Taluk  of  Malabar  District,  Madras.     See  Kottayam. 

Kotayam. — Town  in  Travancore  State,  Madras.     See  Kottayam. 


Oxford :  Printed  at  the  Clarendon  Press  by  Horace  Hart,  M.A. 


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