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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LO'S  ANGELE 


m 


J 


THE 

IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 

OF  INDIA 


VOL.   XXII 
SAMADHIALA  to  SINGHANA 


NEW  EDITION 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  HIS  iMAJESTY'S 
SECRETARY  OF  STATE  FOR  INDIA  IN  COUNCIL 


OXFORD 

AT    THK    CLARENDON    PRESS 
1908 


HENRY  FROWDE,  M.A. 

PUBLISHER   TO   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  OXFORD 

LONDON,  EDINBURGH 

NEW  YORK  AND   TORONTO 


D5 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES 

Notes  on  Transliteration 

J^07ve/-Souf/ds 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  woman.' 
a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  'father.' 
e  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  grey.' 
i  has  the  sound  of/  in  'pin.' 
i  has  the  sound  of  /  in  '  police.' 
o  has  the  sound  of  c  in  '  bone.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  u  in  '  bull.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  ti  in  '  flute.' 
ai  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  mine.' 
au  has  the  vowel-sound  in  'house.' 

It  should  be  stated  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish 
between  the  long  and  short  sounds  of  e  and  o  in  the  Dravidian 
languages,  which  possess  the  vowel-sounds  in  '  bet '  and  '  hot '  in 
addition  to  those  given  above.  Nor  has  it  been  thought  necessary 
to  mark  vowels  as  long  in  cases  where  mistakes  in  pronunciation 
were  not  likely  to  be  made. 

Consonants 

Most  Indian  languages  have  different  forms  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonants, such  as  dy  /,  r,  &c.,  marked  in  scientific  works  by  the  use 
of  dots  or  italics.  As  the  European  ear  distinguishes  these  with 
difficulty  in  ordinary  pronunciation,  it  has  been  considered  undesir- 
able to  embarrass  the  reader  with  them  ;  and  only  two  notes  are 
required.  In  the  first  place,  the  Arabic  /:,  a  strong  guttural,  has 
been  represented  by  k  instead  of  ^,  which  is  often  used.  Secondly, 
it  should  be  remarked  that  aspirated  consonants  arc  common ;  and, 
in  particular,  d/i  and  ///  (except  in  Burma)  never  have  the  sound  of 
//z  in  '  this '  or  '  thin,'  but  should  be  pronounced  as  in  '  woodhouse  ' 
and  '  boathook.' 

A   2 

503075 


iv  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

Burmese    Words 
Burmese  and  some  of  the  languages  on  the  frontier  of  China  have 
the  following  special  sounds  : — 

aw  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  law.' 
o  and  ii  are  pronounced  as  in  German, 
gy  is  pronounced  almost  like  j  in  *  jewel' 
ky  is  pronounced  almost  like  ch  in  '  church.' 
th  is  pronounced  in  some  cases  as  in  *  this,'  in  some  cases  as  in 

*  thin.' 
w  after  a  consonant  has  the  force  of  7m'.     Thus,  ywa  and  pwc 

are  disyllables,  pronounced  as  if  written  jjv/zt'a  "xwd.  puwe. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that,  whereas  in  Indian  words  the  accent 
or  stress  is  distributed  almost  equally  on  each  syllable,  in  Burmese 
there  is  a  tendency  to  throw  special  stress  on  the  last  syllable. 

General 
The  names  of  some  places — e.g.  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
Cawnpore — have  obtained  a  popular  fixity  of  spelling,  while  special 
forms  have  been  ofificially  prescribed  for  others.  Names  of  persons 
are  often  spelt  and  pronounced  differently  in  different  parts  of  India  ; 
but  the  variations  have  been  made  as  few  as  possible  by  assimilating 
forms  almost  alike,  especially  where  a  particular  spelling  has  been 
generally  adopted  in  English  books. 

Notes  on  Money,  Prices,  Weights  and  Measures 

As  the  currency  of  India  is  based  upon  the  rupee,  all  statements 
with  regard  to  money  throughout  the  Gazetteer  have  necessarily  been 
expressed  in  rupees,  nor  has  it  been  found  possible  to  add  generally 
a  conversion  into  sterling.  Down  to  about  1873  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  (containing  165  grains  of  pure  silver)  was  approximately 
equal  to  25.,  or  one-tenth  of  a  £  ;  and  for  that  period  it  is  easy  to 
convert  rupees  into  sterling  by  striking  off  the  final  cipher  (Rs.  1,000 
=  £100).  But  after  1873,  owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  as 
compared  with  gold  throughout  the  world,  there  came  a  serious  and 
progressive  fall  in  the  exchange,  until  at  one  time  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  dropped  as  low  as  \s.  In  order  to  provide  a  remedy  for 
the  heavy  loss  caused  to  the  Government  of  India  in  respect  of  its 
gold  i)aymcnts  to  be  made  in  England,  and  also  to  relieve  foreign 
trade  and  finance  from  the  inconvenience  due  to  constant  and 
unforeseen  fluctuations  in  exchange,  it  was  resolved  in  1893  to  close 
the  mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  thus  force  up  the  value  of 
the  rupee  by  restricting  the  circulation.     The  intention  was  to  raise 


IN  TROD  UCTOK  V  NO  TES  v 

the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee  \.o  is.  ^d.,  and  then  introduce  a  gold 
standard  (though  not  necessarily  a  gold  currency)  at  the  rate  of  Rs.  15 
=  £1.  This  policy  has  been  completely  successful.  From  1899  on- 
wards the  value  of  the  rupee  has  been  maintained,  with  insignificant 
fluctuations,  at  the  proposed  rate  of  i^.  4^. ;  and  consequently  since 
that  date  three  rupees  have  been  equivalent  to  two  rupees  before  1873. 
For  the  intermediate  period,  between  1873  and  1899,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  to  adopt  any  fixed  sterling  value  for  a  constantly  changing 
rupee.  But  since  1899,  if  it  is  desired  to  convert  rupees  into  sterling, 
not  only  must  the  final  cipher  be  struck  off  (as  befcjre  1873),  but 
also  one-third  must  be  subtracted  from  the  result.  Thus  Rs.  1,000 
=  £100  —  -I  =  (about)  £67. 

Another  matter  in  connexion  with  the  expression  of  money  state- 
ments in  terms  of  rupees  requires  to  be  explained.  The  method  of 
numerical  notation  in  India  differs  from  that  which  prevails  through- 
.out  Europe.  Large  numbers  are  not  punctuated  in  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands and  millions,  but  in  lakhs  and  crores.  A  lakh  is  one  hundred 
thousand  (written  out  as  1,00,000),  and  a  crore  is  one  hundred  lakhs 
or  ten  millions  (written  out  as  1,00,00,000).  Consequently,  accord- 
ing to  the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee,  a  lakh  of  rupees  (Rs.  1,00,000) 
may  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of  £10,000  before  1873,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  (about)  £6,667  after  1899;  while  a  crore  of  rupees 
(Rs.  1,00,00,000)  may  similarly  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of 
£1,000,000  before  1873,  and  as  the  equivalent  of  (about)  £666,667 
after  1899. 

Finally,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  rupee  is  divided  into 
16  annas,  a  fraction  commonly  used  for  many  purposes  by  both 
natives  and  Europeans.  The  anna  was  formerly  reckoned  as  i\d. ; 
it  may  now  be  considered  as  exactly  corresponding  to  id.  The 
anna  is  again  subdivided  into   1 2  pies. 

The  various  systems  of  weights  used  in  India  combine  uniformity 
of  scale  with  immense  variations  in  the  weight  of  units.  The  scale 
used  generally  throughout  Northern  India,  and  less  commonly  in 
Madras  and  Bombay,  may  be  thus  expressed  :  one  maund  =  40  seers  ; 
one  seer  =16  chittaks  or  80  tolas.  The  actual  weight  of  a  seer 
varies  greatly  from  District  to  District,  and  even  from  village  to 
village;  but  in  the  standard  system  the  tola  is  180  grains  Troy 
(the  exact  weight  of  the  rupee),  and  the  seer  thus  weighs  2-057  lb., 
and  the  maund  82-28  lb.  This  standard  is  used  in  official  reports 
and  throughout  the  Gazetteer. 

For  calculating  retail  prices,  the  universal  custom  in  India  is  to 
express  them  in  terms  of  seers  to  the  rupee.  Thus,  wlien  prices 
change,  what  varies  is  not  the  amount  of  money  to  ije  paid  for  the 


vi  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

same  quantity,  but  the  quantity  to  be  obtained  for  the  same  amount 
of  money.  In  other  words,  prices  in  India  are  quantity  prices,  not 
money  prices.  When  the  figure  of  quantity  goes  up,  this  of  course 
means  that  the  price  has  gone  down,  which  is  at  first  sight  perplexing 
to  an  Enghsh  reader.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  quantity 
prices  are  not  altogether  unknown  in  England,  especially  at  small 
shops,  where  pennyworths  of  many  groceries  can  be  bought.  Eggs, 
likewise,  are  commonly  sold  at  a  varying  number  for  the  shilling. 
If  it  be  desired  to  convert  quantity  prices  from  Indian  into  English 
denominations  without  having  recourse  to  money  prices  (which  would 
often  be  misleading),  the  following  scale  may  be  adopted  — based 
upon  the  assumptions  that  a  seer  is  exactly  2  lb.,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  rupee  remains  constant  at  \s.  ^d. :  i  seer  per  rupee  =  (about) 
3  lb.  for  2s. ;  2  seers  per  rupee  =  (about)  6  lb.  for  2s. ;  and  so  on. 

The  name  of  the  unit  for  square  measurement  in  India  generally 
is  the  b'lgha,  which  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
But  areas  have  always  been  expressed  throughout  the  Gazetteer  either 
in  square  miles  or  in  acres. 


IMPERIAL   GAZETTEF:R 
OF  INDIA 

VOLUME    XXII 

Samadhiala  (i). — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Samadhiala  (Chabharia)  (2). — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Samadhiala  (Charan)  (3). — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bomba.y. 

Samaguting. — Village  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Naga  Hills 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  25°  47'  N.  and  93^47'  E, 
It  was  occupied  in  1S66  by  Lieutenant  Gregory,  in  the  hope  that  an 
outpost  in  the  hills  would  put  a  stop  to  Naga  raids,  and  remained  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Naga  Hills  District  till  1878,  when  it  was  aban- 
doned in  favour  of  Kohima,  which  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
Angami  country. 

Samalkot  {Chamarlakota). — Town  in  the  Cocanada  taluk  of  Go- 
davari  District,  Madras,  situated  in  17''  3'  N.  and  82°  10'  E.,  7  miles 
north  of  Cocanada,  on  the  main  line  of  the  East  Coast  Railway, 
391  miles  from  Madras  city,  and  on  the  Samalkot  canal.  Samalkot 
is  a  rapidly  growing  town  in  the  Pithapuram  estate.  The  population 
in  1 90 1  was  16,015,  compared  with  4,961  in  1881.  A  sugar  refinery 
and  distillery,  employing  520  hands  daily,  was  opened  here  in  1899. 
A  Government  experimental  agricultural  farm  has  also  been  started. 
Samalkot  was  formerly  a  military  station,  but  was  abandoned- in  1869. 
Troops  were  again  stationed  here  from  1879  to  1893. 

Samana  Range. — A  rugged  range  of  hills  in  the  North-West 
Frontier  Province,  running  east  and  west  about  ^y'^  34''  N.  and  between 
70°  56'  and  71°  51'  E.,  and  separating  the  Miranzai  valley  in  the  Thai 
subdivision  of  Kohat  District  from  the  Khanki  valley  of  Tirah.  The 
range  has  an  elevation  of  5,000  to  6,500  feet ;  and  its  crest  is  held 
by  a  line  of  forts,  including  Fort  Lockhart,  Saragarhi,  and  Fort 
Cavagnari  or  Gulistan. 

Samana. — Town  in  the  Bhawanigarh  iahsll,  Karmgarh  nizamaf, 
Patiala  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  9'  N.  and  76°  15'  E.,  17  miles 
south-west  of  Patiala  town,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  metalled 
road.  Population  (1901),  10,209.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  many 
handsome  houses.     Samana  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  and 


2  SAMANA 

tradition  ascribes  its  foundation  to  the  fugitives  of  the  Samanid  dynasty 
of  Persia,  on  the  site  of  a  still  older  Naranjan  Khera  or  Ratangarh, 
Frequently  mentioned  in  the  Muhammadan  historians  as  a  fief  of 
Delhi,  it  surrendered,  with  Sarsuti,  Kuhram,  and  Hansi,  to  Muhammad 
of  Ghor  after  his  defeat  of  Prithwi  Raj  in  1192,  and  became  an  apanage 
of  Kutb-ud-din  Aibak.  Under  Muhammad  bin  Tughlak  we  read  that 
the  tribes  round  Samana,  driven  to  despair  by  his  exactions,  fled  to 
the  woods.  But  under  the  beneficent  rule  of  Firoz  Shah  III  the  tract 
recovered  its  prosperity,  and  became  the  scene  of  important  events  in 
subsequent  reigns.  Under  Jahanglr  it  possessed  a  thriving  colony  of 
weavers  who  supplied  the  emperor  with  fine  cloth,  and  whose  descen- 
dants still  own  part  of  the  town  ^.  Banda  Bairagi  sacked  the  place  in 
1708.  It  has  now  few  manufactures,  but  contains  an  Anglo-vernacular 
middle  school,  a  police  station,  and  a  dispensary. 

Samaro. — Old  name  of  the  Jamesabad  tahika  of  Thar  and  Parkar 
District,  Sind,  Bombay.     See  Jamesab.\d, 

Samastipur  Subdivision. — Southern  subdivision  of  Darbhanga 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  25°  28'  and  26°  5'  N.  and  85°  31''  and 
86°  i'  E.,  with  an  area  of  778  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from 
738,449  in  1891  to  752,637  in  1901,  when  there  were  967  persons  per 
square  mile,  or  more  than  in  any  other  subdivision  of  the  District. 
With  the  exception  of  part  of  the  dodb  between  the  Baghmati  and 
Burhi  Gandak  rivers,  the  subdivision  consists  of  a  large  block  of 
upland,  interspersed  with  a  few  chains  or  marshes.  It  is  the  richest 
and  most  fertile  part  of  the  District,  producing  all  the  most  valuable 
rabi  and  hhadoi  crops,  and  it  is  also  the  centre  of  the  indigo  industry. 
It  contains  one  town,  Samastipur  (population,  9,101),  the  head-quarters: 
and  843  villages.  Samastipur  town  is  an  important  railway  junction 
and  contains  workshops  of  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway. 
The  Government  estate  at  Pusa  has  recently  been  made  over  to  the 
Government  of  India  as  the  site  for  an  Imperial  agricultural  college 
and  research  laboratory,  and  portions  of  the  estate  are  being  utilized 
as  an  experimental  farm  for  cultivation  and  cattle-breeding. 

Samastipur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name  in  Darbhanga  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  52'  N. 
and  85°  48'  E.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Burhi  Gandak  river.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  9,101.  Samastipur  is  an  important  junction  on  the 
Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway,  and  the  site  of  railway  workshops 
which  employ  1,000  hands.  It  is  also  a  large  trading  centre.  It  was 
constituted  a  municipality  in  1897.  The  income  during  the  five  years 
ending  1901-2   averaged   Rs.  8,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.   7,600. 

'  As  early  as  1621  the  East  hidia  Company  sent  factois  to  Samana  to  purchase 
cnlicoes  known  by  the  name  of  '  semianoci,'  at  tlie  price  of  from  Rs.  2\  to  Rs.  4I 
per  piece  (W.  Foster,  The  Early  Faclories  in  India  '^1906)). 


SJJL4  YAPURAM  3 

In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  9,500,  of  which  Rs.  4,000  was  derived 
from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  8,600.  The  town  contains  the  usual  pubHc  offices,  &c. ;  the  sub- 
jail  has  accommodation  for  23  prisoners. 

Samatata. — Ancient  name  for  the  deltaic  tract  of  Bengal  and 
Eastern  Bengal.     See  Banga. 

Samayapuram. — Village  in  the  District  and  tdhik  of  Trichinopoly, 
Madras,  situated  in  10°  56'  N.  and  78°  45'  E.,  on  the  high  road  about 
8  miles  north  of  Trichinopoly  city.  Population  (1901),  1,213.  Adjoin- 
ing it  on  the  south  is  the  village  of  Kannanur  (population,  2,026).  The 
ground  covered  by  the  two  villages  is  of  much  historical  interest.  It  is 
called  Samiavaram  in  Orme's  History  and  Kannanur  in  ancient  stone 
inscriptions. 

In  1752,  when  the  French  army  under  Law  had  retreated  from  the 
south  of  the  Cauvery  to  the  island  of  Srirangam,  Major  Lawrence,  at 
Clive's  suggestion,  determined  to  divide  his  army  into  two  divisions, 
and  to  send  one  of  them  to  the  north  of  Trichinopoly,  with  the  view 
of  getting  possession  of  the  enemy's  posts  in  that  part  of  the  country 
and  intercepting  any  reinforcements  which  might  be  sent  from 
Pondicherry.  This  expedition  was  entrusted  to  Clive,  who  on  April  7 
took  possession  of  the  village  of  Samayapuram.  There  are  two 
temples  in  this  village  and  in  Kannanur  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
apart :  namely,  the  Bhojeswara  shrine  on  the  west,  and  the  Mariamman 
temple  on  the  east,  of  the  old  high  road  leading  to  Madras,  which 
then  ran  a  few  hundred  yards  to  the  east  of  the  present  road.  The 
Europeans  and  sepoys  were  placed  inside  these  buildings,  while  the 
Marathas  and  Tanjore  troops  encamped  outside.  A  detachment  sent 
by  Dupleix  from  Pondicherry  under  D'Auteuil  reached  Uttattur  on 
April  14;  and,  in  order  to  intercept  this  body  while  on  the  march, 
Clive  advanced  from  Samayapuram  towards  Uttattur,  on  which 
D'Auteuil,  who  had  already  started  for  Trichinopoly,  retraced  his 
steps  to  the  latter  village.  Clive  then  fell  back  on  his  former  position. 
Law,  who  was  commanding  at  Srirangam,  heard  of  Clive's  departure 
but  not  of  his  return,  and  determined  to  surprise  and  cut  off  whatever 
force  might  have  been  left  behind  by  him.  With  this  object  he 
dispatched  a  force  of  80  Europeans  (of  whom  40  were  English 
deserters)  and  200  sepoys.  In  the  skirmish  which  ensued,  and  which 
is  graphically  described  by  Orme,  Clive  had  more  than  one  narrow 
escape.  The  French  force  arrived  near  the  English  camp  in  Samaya- 
puram about  midnight ;  and  the  English  deserters  persuaded  the 
native  sentries  that  they  had  been  sent  by  Major  Lawrence  to  reinforce 
Clive,  and  with  all  their  following  were  allowed  to  enter  the  camp. 
They  reached  unchallenged  the  smaller  of  the  two  temples.  \\"hen 
challenged  there,  they  answered  by  a  volley  and  entered  the  building, 


4  SAA/A  YAPURAM 

putting  to  the  sword  every  person  they  met.  Clive,  who  had  been 
sleeping  in  a  neighbouring  resthouse,  thought  the  firing  was  that  of 
his  own  men  who  had  taken  some  false  alarm,  and  fetched  200  of  the 
European  troops  from  the  other  temple.  On  regaining  the  smaller 
shrine,  he  found  a  large  body  of  sepoys  firing  at  random.  Still  mis- 
taking them  for  his  own  troops  he  went  among  them,  ordering  the 
firing  to  cease,  upbraiding  some  for  their  supposed  panic  and  even 
striking  others.  One  of  the  French  sepoys  recognized  that  he  was 
English,  and  attacked  and  wounded  him  in  two  places  with  his  sword 
and  then  ran  away  to  the  temple.  Clive,  furious  at  this  supposed 
insolence  on  the  part  of  one  of  his  own  men,  pursued  him  to  the  gate 
and  there,  to  his  great  surprise,  was  accosted  by  six  Frenchmen. 
With  characteristic  composure  he  told  the  Frenchmen  that  he  had 
come  to  offer  them  terms,  and  that  if  they  did  not  accept  them  he 
would  surround  them  with  his  whole  force  and  give  them  no  quarter. 
Three  of  the  Frenchmen  ran  into  the  pagoda  to  carry  the  intelligence, 
while  the  other  three  surrendered  and  followed  Clive  towards  the 
resthouse,  whither  he  now  hastened  with  the  intention  of  attacking 
the  sepoys  there,  whom  he  now  knew  to  be  enemies  ;  but  they  had 
already  discovered  the  danger  of  their  situation  and  marched  off. 
Clive  then  stormed  the  temple  where  he  had  been  challenged  by  the 
six  Frenchmen ;  but  the  English  deserters  fought  desperately  and 
killed  an  officer  and  fifteen  men  of  Clive's  force,  and  the  attack 
was  accordingly  ordered  to  cease.  At  daybreak  the  officer  com- 
manding the  French,  seeing  the  danger  of  his  situation,  made  a  sally 
at  the  head  of  his  men ;  but  he  was  received  with  a  heavy  fire  which 
killed  him  and  the  twelve  others  who  first  came  out  of  the  gateway. 
The  rest  ran  back  into  the  temple.  Clive  then  advanced  into  the 
porch  of  the  gate  to  parley  with  the  enemy  and,  weak  with  loss  of 
blood  and  fatigue,  stood  with  his  back  to  the  wall  of  the  porch 
leaning  forward  on  the  shoulders  of  two  sergeants.  The  officer  of  the 
English  deserters  conducted  himself  with  great  insolence,  told  Clive 
in  abusive  language  that  he  would  shoot  him,  raised  his  musket  and 
fired.  The  ball  missed  Clive,  but  the  two  sergeants  fell  mortally 
wounded.  The  Frenchmen,  who  had  hitherto  defended  the  temple 
with  the  English  deserters,  thought  it  necessary  to  disavow  an  outrage 
which  would  probably  exclude  them  from  any  pretensions  to  quarter, 
and  immediately  surrendered. 

It  appears  from  an  inscription  in  the  Jambukeswaram  temple  on 
Srlrangam  island  that  the  Bhojeswara  temple  in  Samayapuram  was 
founded  by  a  Hoysala  Ballala  king;  and  Kannanur  is  itself  identified 
as  the  site  of  Vikramapura,  the  Hoysala  capital  in  the  Chola  country 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  name  Bhojeswara  is  considered  to  be 
a  corruption   of  the   original    Poysaleswara   (or   Iloysaleswara),  which 


SAMBALPUR   DISTRICT  5 

owes  its  origin  to  a  confusion  between  the  long-forgotten  Hoysala 
king  and  the  better-known  king  Bhoja  of  the  Paraniaras  in  Central 
India,  who  never  had  any  connexion  with  this  country.  In  the 
Jambukeswaram  inscription  king  Vira  Someswara  mentions  '[the 
image  of]  the  Lord  Poysaleswara  which  we  have  set  up  in  Kannanur, 
alias  Vikramapuram ' ;  and  the  south  wall  of  the  Kannanur  temple 
bears  an  inscription  of  the  Hoysala  king  Vira  Ramanatha  Deva  (son 
of  Someswara)  in  which  the  temple  is  called  Poysaleswara,  '  the  Iswara 
[temple]  of  the  Poysala  [king].'  There  is  also  a  copperplate  edict  of 
Vira  Someswara  in  the  Bangalore  Museum  which  was  issued  on 
March  i,  a.d.  1253,  the  day  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  'while  [the 
king]  was  residing  in  the  great  capital  named  Vikramapura,  which 
had  been  built  in  order  to  amuse  his  mind  in  the  Chola  country, 
which  he  had  conquered  by  the  power  of  his  arm.' 

Sambalpur  District. — District  of  the  Orissa  Division,  Bengal, 
lying  between  20°  45'  and  21°  57'  N.  and  82°  38'  and  84°  26'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  3,773  square  miles.  Up  to  1905  the  District  formed  part 
of  the  Chhattlsgarh  Division  of  the  Central  Provinces  ;  and  on  its 
transfer  to  Bengal,  the  Phuljhar  zaminddri  and  the  Chandarpur- 
Padampur  and  Malkhurda  estates,  with  an  area  of  1,175  square  miles 
and  a  population  (1901)  of  189,455  persons  were  separated  from  it, 
and  attached  to  the  Raipur  and  Bilaspur  Districts  of  the  Central 
Provinces.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gangpur  State  of 
Bengal ;  on  the  east  by  the  States  of  Bamra  and  Rairakhol ;  on  the 
south  by  Patna,  Sonpur,  and  Rairakhol  States ;  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Raipur  and  Bilaspur  Districts  of  the  Central  Provinces.  Sambalpur 
consists  of  a  core  of  tolerably  open  country,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  hills  and  forests,  but  continuing  on  the  south  into 
the    Feudatory    States   of    Patna   and   Sonpur   and  asoects 

forming  the  middle  basin  of  the  MahanadT.  It  is 
separated  from  the  Chhattlsgarh  plain  on  the  west  by  a  range  of  hills 
carrying  a  broad  strip  of  jungle,  and  running  north  and  south  through 
the  Raigarh  and  Sarangarh  States ;  and  this  range  marks  roughly  the 
boundary  between  the  Chhattlsgarh  and  Oriya  tracts  in  respect  of 
population  and  language.  Speaking  broadly,  the  plain  country  con- 
stitutes the  khalsa,  that  is,  the  area  held  by  village  headmen  direct 
from  Government,  while  the  wilder  tracts  on  the  west,  north,  and  east 
are  in  the  possession  of  intermediary  proprietors  known  locally  as 
zamlnddrs.  But  this  description  cannot  be  accepted  as  entirely 
accurate,  as  some  of  the  zamlndari  estates  lie  in  the  open  plain,  while 
the  khalsa  area  includes  to  the  north  the  wild  mass  of  hills  known  as 
the  Barapahar. 

The  MahanadI  river  traverses  Sambalpur  from  north  to  south-east 
for  a  distance  of  nearly  90  miles.     Its  width  extends  to  a  mile  or  more 


6  SAMBALPUR  DISTRICT 

in  flood-time,  and  its  bed  is  rocky  and  broken  by  rapids  over  portions 
of  its  course.  The  principal  tributary  is  the  lb,  which  enters  the 
District  from  the  Gangpur  State,  and  flowing  south  and  west  joins 
the  ISIahanadi  about  12  miles  above  Sambalpur.  The  Kelo,  another 
tributary,  passes  Raigarh  and  enters  the  Mahanadi  near  Padampur. 
The  Ong  rises  in  Khariar  and  passing  through  Borasambar  flows  into 
the  Mahanadi  near  Sonpur.  Other  tributary  streams  are  the  jTra, 
Borai,  and  Mand.  The  Barapahar  hills  form  a  compact  block 
16  miles  square  in  the  north-west  of  the  District,  and  throw  out  a  spur 
to  the  south-west  for  a  distance  of  30  miles,  crossed  by  the  Raipur- 
Sambalpur  road  at  the  Singhora  pass.  Their  highest  point  is  Debrlgarh, 
at  an  altitude  of  2,276  feet.  Another  range  of  importance  is  that  of 
Jharghati,  which  is  crossed  by  the  railway  at  Rengali  station.  To  the 
southward,  and  running  parallel  with  the  Mahanadi,  a  succession  of 
broken  chains  extends  for  some  30  miles.  The  range,  however,  attains 
its  greatest  altitude  of  about  3,000  feet  in  the  Borasambar  zamhiddri 
in  the  south-west,  where  the  Narsinghnath  plateau  is  situated.  Isolated 
peaks  rising  abruptly  from  the  plain  are  also  frequent ;  but  the  flat- 
topped  trap  hills,  so  common  a  feature  in  most  Districts  to  the  north 
and  west,  are  absent.  The  elevation  of  the  plains  falls  from  nearly 
750  feet  in  the  north  to  497  at  Sambalpur  town.  The  surface  of 
the  open  country  is  undulating,  and  is  intersected  in  every  direction 
by  drainage  channels  leading  from  the  hills  to  the  Mahanadi.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  area  consists  of  ground  which  is  too  broken  by 
ravines  to  be  banked  up  into  rice-fields,  or  of  broad  sandy  ridges  which 
are  agriculturally  of  very  little  value.  The  configuration  of  the  country 
is  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  tank-making,  and  the  number  of  village 
tanks  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  local  features. 

The  Barapahar  hills  belong  to  the  Lower  Vindhyan  sandstone  forma- 
tion, which  covers  so  large  an  area  in  Raipur  and  Bilaspur.  Shales, 
sandstones,  and  limestones  are  the  prevalent  rocks.  In  the  Barapahar 
group  coal-bearing  sandstones  are  found.  The  rest  of  the  District 
is  mainly  occupied  by  metamorphic  or  crystalline  rocks.  Laterite  is 
found  more  or  less  abundantly  resting  upon  the  older  formations  in  all 
parts  of  the  area. 

Blocks  of  'reserved'  forest  clothe  the  Barapahar  hills  in  the  north 
and  the  other  ranges  to  the  east  and  south-east,  while  many  of  the 
zamhiddri  estates  are  also  covered  with  jungle  over  the  greater  part 
of  their  area.  The  forest  vegetation  of  Sambalpur  is  included  in  the 
great  sal  belt.  Other  important  trees  are  the  beautiful  Anogeissus 
acuminata,  sdj  ( Terminalia  tonmitosa),  bljdsdl  {Pterocarpus  Ma/supium), 
and  shtsham  {Dalbcrgia  .Sissoa).  The  light  sandy  soil  is  admirably  fitted 
for  the  growth  of  trees,  and  the  abundance  of  mango  groves  and 
clumps  of  palms  gives  the  village  scenery  a  distinct  charm.     The  se///ui 


HISTORY  7 

or  cotton-tree   {Bombax  lualabaricum)   is   also   common    in    the  open 
country. 

The  usual  wild  animals  occur.  Buffaloes,  though  rare,  arc  found  in 
the  denser  forests  of  the  west,  and  bison  on  several  of  the  hill  ranges. 
Sdmbar  are  fairly  plentiful.  Ch'ital  or  spotted  deer,  mouse  deer,  '  ravine 
deer'  (gazelle),  and  the  four-horned  antelope  are  also  found.  Tigers 
were  formerly  numerous,  but  their  numbers  have  greatly  decreased  in 
recent  years.  Leopards  are  common,  especially  in  the  low  hills  close  to 
villages.  The  comparatively  rare  brown  flying  squirrel  {Pfcromys  oral) 
is  found  in  Sambalpur.  It  is  a  large  squirrel  with  loose  folds  of  skin 
which  can  be  spread  out  like  a  small  parachute.  Duck  and  teal  are 
plentiful  on  the  tanks  in  the  cold  season,  and  snipe  in  the  stretches 
of  irrigated  rice-fields  below  the  tanks.  Flocks  of  demoiselle  cranes 
frequent  the  sandy  stretches  of  the  MahanadI  at  this  time.  Fish  of 
many  kinds,  including  mahseer,  abound  in  the  MahanadI  and  other 
rivers.     Poisonous  snakes  are  very  common. 

The  climate  of  Sambalpur  is  moist  and  unhealthy.  The  ordinary 
temperature  is  not  excessive,  but  the  heat  is  aggravated  at  Sambalpur 
town  during  the  summer  months  by  radiation  from  the  sandy  bed 
of  the  MahanadI.  During  breaks  in  the  rains  the  weather  at  once 
becomes  hot  and  oppressive,  and  though  the  cold  season  is  pleasant 
it  is  of  short  duration.  Malarial  fever  of  a  virulent  type  prevails  in 
the  autumn  months,  and  diseases  of  the  spleen  are  common  in  the 
forest  tracts. 

The  annual  rainfall  at  Sambalpur  town  averages  59  inches ;  that 
of  Bargarh  is  much  lighter,  being  only  49  inches.  Taking  the  District 
as  a  whole,  the  monsoon  is  generally  regular.  Sambalpur  is  in  the 
track  of  cyclonic  storms  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  this  may  possibly 
be  assigned  as  the  reason. 

The  earliest  authentic  records  show  Sambalpur  as  one  of  a  cluster 
of  States  held  by  Chauhan  Rajputs,  who  are  supposed  to  have  come 
from  Mainpurl  in   the  United   Provinces.     In   1797  . 

the  District  was  conquered  and  annexed  by  the 
Marathas  ;  but  owing  to  British  influence  the  Raja  was  restored  in 
181 7,  and  placed  under  the  political  control  of  the  Bengal  Govern- 
ment. On  the  death  of  a  successor  without  heirs  in  1849  the  District 
was  annexed  as  an  escheat,  and  was  administered  by  the  Bengal 
Government  till  1862,  when  it  was  transferred  to  the  Central  Provinces. 
During  the  Mutiny  and  the  five  years  which  followed  it,  the  condition 
of  Sambalpur  was  exceedingly  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  disturbances  led 
by  Surendra  Sah,  a  pretender  to  the  State,  who  had  been  imprisoned 
in  the  RanchI  jail  for  murder,  but  was  set  free  by  the  mutineers.  He 
returned  to  Sambalpur  and  instigated  a  revolt  against  the  British 
Government,  \\\  ich  he  prosecuted  by  harassing  the  people  with  dacoities. 


SAMBALPUR   DISTRICT 


He  was  joined  by  many  of  the  zamindars,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  for  five  years  the  District  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  Surendra 
Sah  was  deported  in  1864  and  tranquillity  restored. 

The  archaeological  remains  are  not  very  important.  There  are 
temples  at  Barpali,  Gaisama  25  miles  south-west  of  Sambalpur,  Padam- 
pur  in  Borasambar,  Garh-Phuljhar,  and  Sason,  which  are  ascribed  to 
ancestors  of  the  Sambalpur  dynasty  and  of  the  respective  zamiiiddrs. 
The  Narsinghnath  plateau  in  the  south  of  the  Borasambar  zamliiddri 
is  locally  celebrated  for  its  temple  and  the  waterfall  called  Sahasra 
Dhara  or  '  thousand  streams,'  which  is  extremely  picturesque.  Huma 
on  the  MahanadI,  15  miles  below  Sambalpur  town,  is  another  place 
of  pilgrimage.  It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  a  small  stream,  called 
the  Jholjir,  with  the  MahanadI,  and  contains  a  well-known  temple  of 
Mahadeo. 

The  population  of  the  District  at  the  three  enumerations  was  as 

follows:    (1881)   693,499,  (1891)   796,413,  and  (1901)  829,698,     On 

the  transfer  of  territory  in  190";  the  population  was 

Population.  A       A    ^      (^  T3*oo  A 

reduced    to   640,243    persons.     Between    1881    and 

1 89 1  the  increase  was  nearly  15  per  cent.,  the  greater  part  of  which 

occurred    in    the    zaniinddris,    and    must    be    attributed    to    greater 

efficiency  of  enumeration.     The  District  had  a  half  crop  in  1897  and 

there  was  practically  no  distress;  but  in  1900  it  was  severely  affected, 

and  the  mortality  was  augmented  by  a  large  influx  of  starving  wanderers 

from  native  territory.     The  District  furnishes  coolies  for  Assam,  and  it 

is  estimated  that  nearly  12,000  persons  emigrated  during  the  decade. 

There  is  only  one  town,  Sambalpur,  and  1,938  inhabited  villages. 

The  principal  statistics  of  population,  based  on  the  Census  of  1901, 

are  given  below  : — 


TahsU. 

3 

V. 
< 

Number  of 

c 

.0 

■3 

0. 

(2 

0.1; 

§1 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 

1 

> 

Sambalpur  . 
Bargarh 

District  total 

1,489 
2,284 

I 
I 

766 

1,172 

275,302 
364,941 

185 
160 

+  7-6 

-f   O-I 

6,013 
6,836 

3,773 

1,938 

640,243 

170 

+  3-2 

12,849 

The  figures  for  religion  show  that  nearly  583,000  persons,  or  91  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  are  Hindus,  and  54,000,  or  8  per  cent., 
Animists.  Muhammadans  number  only  about  3,000.  Oriya  is  the 
vernacular  of  89  per  cent,  of  the  population.  A  number  of  tribal 
dialects  arc  also  found,  the  principal  being  Oraon  with  nearly  25,000 
speakers,  Kol  with  11,000,  and  Kharia  with  5,000. 


POPULATION  9 

The  principal  castes  are  Gonds  (constituting  8  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation), Koltas  (ii  per  cent.),  Savaras  (9  per  cent.),  Gahras  or  Ahirs 
(ir  per  cent.),  and  Gandas  (13  per  cent.).  Of  the  sixteen  zamindCiri 
estates,  ten  are  held  by  Raj  Gonds ;  two,  Rajpur  and  Barpali,  by 
Chauhan  Rajputs ;  one,  Rampur,  by  another  Rajput ;  two,  Borasambar 
and  Ghens,  by  Binjhals ;  and  one,  Bijepur,  by  a  Kolta.  The  Gond 
families  are  ancient ;  and  their  numbers  seem  to  indicate  that  previous 
to  the  Oriya  immigration  they  held  possession  of  the  country,  subduing 
the  Munda  tribes  who  were  probably  there  before  them.  A  trace  of 
the  older  domination  of  these  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
Binjhal  zaml/iddr  of  Borasambar  still  affixes  the  tlka  to  the  Maharaja 
of  Patna  on  his  accession.  Koltas  are  the  great  cultivating  caste,  and 
have  the  usual  characteristics  of  frugality,  industry,  hunger  for  land, 
and  readiness  to  resort  to  any  degree  of  litigation  rather  than  relinquish 
a  supposed  right  to  it.  They  strongly  appreciate  the  advantages  of 
irrigation,  and  show  considerable  public  spirit  in  constructing  tanks 
which  will  benefit  the  lands  of  their  tenants  as  well  as  their  own. 
The  Savaras  or  Saonrs  of  Sambalpur,  though  a  Dravidian  tribe,  live 
principally  in  the  open  country  and  have  adopted  Hindu  usages. 
They  are  considered  the  best  farm-servants  and  are  very  laborious, 
but  rarely  acquire  any  property.  Brahmans  (28,000),  though  not  very 
numerous,  are  distinctly  the  leading  caste  in  the  District.  The  Binjhals 
(39,000)  are  probably  Hinduized  Baigas,  and  live  principally  in  the 
forest  tracts.  Kewats  (38,000),  or  boatmen  and  fishermen,  are  a  numer- 
ous caste.  The  Gandas  (105,000),  a  Dravidian  tribe  now  performing 
the  menial  duties  of  the  village  or  engaging  in  cotton-weaving,  have 
strong  criminal  propensities  which  have  recently  called  for  special 
measures  of  repression.  About  78  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the 
District  are  returned  as  dependent  on  agriculture.  A  noticeable  feature 
of  the  rural  life  of  Sambalpur  is  that  ihQJhdnkar,  or  village  priest,  is 
a  universal  and  recognized  village  servant  of  fairly  high  status.  He  is 
nearly  always  a  member  of  one  of  the  Dravidian  tribes,  and  his  business 
is  to  conduct  the  worship  of  the  local  deities  of  the  soil,  crops,  forests, 
and  hills.  He  generally  has  a  substantial  holding,  rent  free,  containing 
some  of  the  best  land  in  the  village.  It  is  said  locally  that  thQjhdnkar 
is  looked  on  as  the  founder  of  the  village,  and  the  representative  of 
the  old  owners  who  were  ousted  by  the  Hindus.  He  worships  on 
their  behalf  the  indigenous  deities,  with  whom  he  naturally  possesses 
a  more  intimate  acquaintance  than  the  later  immigrants ;  while  the 
gods  of  these  latter  cannot  be  relied  on  to  exercise  a  sufficient  control 
over  the  works  of  nature  in  the  foreign  land  to  which  they  have 
been  imported,  or  to  ensure  that  the  earth  and  the  seasons  will 
regularly  perform  their  necessary  functions  in  producing  sustenance 
for  mankind. 


lo  SAMBALPUR  DISTRICT 

Christians  number  722,  including  575  natives,  of  whom  the  majority 
are  Lutherans  and  Baptists.  A  station  of  the  Baptist  Mission  is  main- 
tained at  Sambalpur  town. 

The  black  soil  which  forms  so  marked  a  feature  in  the  adjoining 
Central  Provinces  is  almost  unknown  in  Sambalpur.  It  occurs  in 
the  north-west  of  the  District,  beyond  the  cross 
gncu  ure.  j-ange  of  Vindhyan  sandstone  which  shuts  off  the 
Ambabhona  pargatia,  and  across  the  Mahanadi  towards  the  Bilaspur 
border.  The  soil  which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  country  is 
apparently  derived  from  underlying  crystalline  rocks,  and  the  differ- 
ences found  in  it  are  due  mainly  to  the  elimination  and  trans- 
portation effected  by  surface  drainage.  The  finer  particles  have 
been  carried  into  the  low-lying  areas  along  drainage  lines,  rendering 
the  soil  there  of  a  clayey  texture,  and  leaving  the  uplands  light  and 
sandy.  The  land  round  Sambalpur  town,  and  a  strip  running  along 
the  north  bank  of  the  Mahanad!  to  the  confines  of  Bilaspur  District, 
is  the  most  productive,  being  fairly  level,  while  the  country  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  Bargarh  ia/is'i!  has  a  very  decided  slope,  and  is 
much  cut  up  by  ravines  and  watercourses.  Nearly  all  the  rice 
is  sown  broadcast,  only  about  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  being 
transplanted.  For  thinning  the  crop  and  taking  out  weeds,  the  fields 
are  ploughed  up  when  the  young  plants  are  a  few  inches  high,  as  in 
Chhattlsgarh.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  area  under  culti- 
vation, consisting  of  high  land  which  grows  crops  other  than  rice, 
is  annually  left  fallow,  as  the  soil  is  so  poor  that  it  requires  periodical 
rests. 

'  No  less  than  235  square  miles  are  held  revenue  free  or  on  low  quit- 
rents,  these  grants  being  either  for  the  maintenance  of  temples  or  gifts 
to  Brahmans,  or  assignments  for  the  support  of  relatives  of  the  late 
ruling  family.  The  zammddri  estates  cover  48  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area  of  the  District,  109  acres  are  held  ryohvdri,  and  the  balance  on 
the  tenures  described  below  (p.  15).  In  1903-4,  396  square  miles, 
or  9  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  were  included  in  Government  forests; 
290  square  miles,  or  7  per  cent.,  were  classed  as  not  available  for  culti- 
vation; and  1,102  square  miles,  or  26  per  cent.,  as  cultivable  waste  other 
than  fallow.  The  remaining  area,  amounting  to  about  2,443  square 
miles,  or  nearly  64  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  District,  excluding  Govern- 
ment forests,  was  occupied  for  cultivation.  In  the  more  level  parts 
of  the  open  country  cultivation  is  close,  but  elsewhere  there  seems 
to  be  still  some  room  for  expansion.  Rice  is  the  staple  crop  of 
Sambalpur,  covering  1,355  square  miles  in  1903-4.     Other  crops  are 

'  The  figures  in  this  paragraph  refer  to  the  area  of  the  District  as  it  stood  before 
the  transfer  of  Phnljhar,  Chandarpur,  and  Malkhiirda,  revised  statistics  of  cultivation 
not  being  available. 


AGRICULTURE  \t 

til  or  sesanuim  (158  scjuare  miles),  the  pulse  unui  (145),  and  kodon 
(94).  Nearly  12,000  acres  are  under  cotton  and  4,400  under  sugar- 
cane. The  pulses  are  raised  on  the  inferior  high-lying  land  without 
manure,  the  out-turn  in  consequence  being  usually  very  small.  The 
pulse  kidthl  {Dolichos  uniflorus)  covers  56  square  miles.  Cotton  and 
///  are  also  grown  on  this  inferior  land.  Sugar-cane  was  formerly  a  crop 
of  some  importance ;  but  its  cultivation  has  decreased  in  recent  years, 
owing  to  the  local  product  being  unable  to  compete  in  price  with  that 
imported  from  Northern  India. 

The  harvests  have  usually  been  favourable  in  recent  years,  and  the 
cropped  area  steadily  expanded  up  to  1899,  when  the  famine  of  1900 
caused  a  temporary  decline.  New  tanks  have  also  been  constructed 
for  irrigation,  and  manure  is  now  utilized  to  a  larger  extent.  During 
the  decade  ending  1904,  a  total  of  Rs.  77,000  was  advanced  under 
the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  and  Rs.  68,000  under  the  Agricul- 
turists' Loans  Act. 

In  1903-4  the  irrigated  area  was  only  31  square  miles,  but  in 
the  previous  year  it  had  been  over  196,  being  the  maximum  recorded. 
With  the  exception  of  12  square  miles  under  sugar-cane  and  garden 
produce,  the  only  crop  irrigated  is  rice.  The  suitability  of  the  District 
for  tank-making  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  very  existence  of  villages  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
area  is  dependent  on  the  tanks  which  have  been  constructed  near  them. 
There  are  9,500  irrigation  tanks,  or  between  three  and  four  to  every 
village  in  the  District  on  an  average.  The  ordinary  Sambalpur  tank 
is  constructed  by  throwing  a  strong  embankment  across  a  drainage  line, 
so  as  to  hold  up  an  irregularly  shaped  sheet  of  water.  Below  the 
embankment  a  four-sided  tank  is  excavated,  which  constitutes  the 
drinking  supply  of  the  village.  Irrigation  is  generally  effected  by 
leading  channels  from  the  ends  of  the  embankment,  but  in  years 
of  short  rainfall  the  centre  of  the  tank  is  sometimes  cut  through. 
Embankments  of  small  size  are  frequently  thrown  across  drainage 
channels  by  tenants  for  the  benefit  of  their  individual  holdings.  The 
Jambor  and  Sarsutia  nullahs  near  Machida  are  perennial  streams,  and 
the  water  is  diverted  from  them  by  temporary  dams  and  carried  into  the 
fields.  In  certain  tracts  near  the  MahanadT,  where  water  is  very  close  to 
the  surface,  temporary  wells  are  also  sometimes  constructed  for  the  irri- 
gation of  rice.  Irrigation  from  permanent  wells  is  insignificant.  Several 
projects  for  new  tanks  have  been  prepared  by  the  Irrigation  department. 

The  cattle  of  the  District  are  miserably  poor,  and  no  care  is  exercised 
in  breeding.  As  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  however,  strong  cattle  are 
not  so  requisite  here  as  elsewhere.  For  draught  purposes  larger  animals 
are  imported  from  Berar.  Buffaloes  are  largely  used  for  cultivation. 
They  are  not  as  a  rule  bred  locally,  but  imported  from  the  northern 

VOL.  XXII.  B 


12  SAMBALPUR   DISTRICT 

Di.stiicts  through  Bilaspur  and  Surguja.  Those  reared  in  the  District 
are  distinctly  inferior.  Buffaloes  are  frequently  also  used  for  draught, 
and  for  pressing  oil  and  sugar-cane.  Only  a  few  small  ponies  are  bred 
in  the  District  for  riding.  Goats  and  sheep  are  kept  by  the  lower  castes 
for  food  only.  Their  manure  is  also  sometimes  used,  but  does  not 
command  a  price.  There  are  no  professional  shepherds,  and  no  use 
is  made  of  the  wool  of  sheep. 

The  area  of  '  reserved '  forest  is  396  square  miles.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Barapahar  hills  in  the  north  of  the  Bargarh  iahsll,  and  on  the 
ranges  in  the  west  and  south-west  of  the  Sambalpur 
tahsil.  There  are  two  types  of  forest,  the  first  con- 
sisting of  the  sal  tree  interspersed  with  bamboos  and  other  trees,  and 
the  second  or  mixed  forest  of  bamboos  and  inferior  species.  Sal  forest 
occupies  all  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  Sambalpur  range,  and  the  prin- 
cipal valleys  of  the  Barapahar  range,  or  an  area  of  about  238  square 
miles.  It  thrives  best  on  well-drained  slopes  of  sandy  loam.  The 
mixed  forest  is  situated  on  the  rocky  dry  hills  of  the  Barapahar  range, 
where  sal  will  not  grow,  and  covers  155  square  miles.  The  revenue 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  34,000,  of  which  about  Rs.  12,000  was  realized  from 
the  sale  of  bamboos,  Rs.  10,000  from  timber,  Rs.  3,600  from  grazing 
dues,  and  Rs.  5,000  from  firewood. 

The  Rampur  coal-field  is  situated  within  the  District,  Recent 
exploration  has  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  one  seam  of  good  steam 
coal  and  two  of  rather  inferior  quality  within  easy 
reach  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  former, 
known  as  the  lb  Bridge  seam,  contains  coal  more  than  7  feet  in  thick- 
ness. Two  samples  which  have  been  analysed  yielded  52  and  55  per 
cent,  respectively  of  fixed  carbon.  Iron  ores  occur  in  most  of  the  hilly 
country  on  the  borders  of  the  District,  particularly  in  the  Borasambar, 
rhuljhar  \  Kolabira,  and  Rampur  zamlnddris.  Some  of  them  are 
of  good  quality,  but  they  are  worked  by  indigenous  methods  only. 
There  are  160  native  furnaces,  which  produce  about  1,120  cwt.  of  iron 
annually.  ^Vhen  Sambalpur  was  under  native  rule  diamonds  were 
obtained  in  the  island  of  Hirakud  ('  diamond  island ')  in  the  Mahanadl. 
The  Jharias  or  diamond-seekers  were  rewarded  with  grants  of  land 
in  exchange  for  the  stones  found  by  them.  The  right  to  exploit  the 
diamond.s,  which  are  of  very  poor  quality,  was  leased  by  the  British 
Government  for  Rs.  200,  but  the  lessee  subsequently  relinquished  it. 
Gold  in  minute  quantities  is  obtained  by  sand-washing  in  the  lb  river. 
Lead  ores  have  been  found  in  Talpatia,  Jhunan,  and  Padampur  '^,  and 
antimony  in  Junani  oi)p()site  Hirakud.  Mica  exists,  but  the  plates  are 
too  small  to  be  of  any  conimcrcial  value. 

'  Now  ill  K.iipur  District,  Central  Pruviiicer. 
^  Now  ill  Bilaspur  Dialrict,  Central  I'rovinccs. 


TRADE  AND   C0MMUNICA210NS  13 

Tasuf  silk-weaving  is  an  important  industry  in  Sambalpur.  The 
cocoons  are  at  present  not  cultivated  locally,  but  are  imported  from 
Chota  Nagpur  and  the  adjoining  States.  Plain  and 
drilled  cloth  is  woven.  Remenda,  Barpali,  Chan-  communlcadons. 
darpur\  and  Sambalpur  are  the  principal  centres. 
A  little  cloth  is  sent  to  Ganjam,  but  the  greater  part  is  sold  locally. 
Cloths  of  cotton  with  silk  borders,  or  intermixed  with  silk,  are  also 
largely  woven.  Bhulias  and  Koshtas  are  the  castes  engaged,  the  former 
weaving  only  the  prepared  thread,  but  the  latter  also  spinning  it. 
Cotton  cloth  of  a  coarse  texture,  but  of  considerable  taste  in  colour 
and  variety  of  pattern,  is  also  woven  in  large  quantities,  imported 
thread  being  used  almost  exclusively.  It  is  generally  worn  by  people 
of  the  District  in  preference  to  mill-woven  cloth.  A  large  bell-metal 
industry  exists  at  Tukra  near  Kadobahal,  and  a  number  of  artisans 
are  also  found  at  Remenda,  Barpali,  and  Bijepur.  Brass  cooking 
and  water  pots  are  usually  imported  from  Orissa.  The  iron  obtained 
locally  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  all  agricultural  implements  except 
cart-wheel  tires.  Smaller  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  metal 
beads,  saddles,  and  drums. 

Rice  is  the  staple  export  of  Sambalpur,  being  sent  principally  to 
Calcutta,  but  also  to  Bombay  and  Berar.  Other  exports  include  oil- 
seeds, sleepers,  dried  meat,  and  .ya/z-hemp.  Salt  comes  principally  from 
Ganjam,  and  is  now  brought  by  rail  instead  of  river  as  formerly. 
Sugar  is  obtained  from  Mirzapur  and  the  Mauritius,  and  giir  or 
unrefined  sugar  from  Bengal.  Kerosene  oil  is  brought  from  Calcutta, 
and  cotton  cloth  and  yarn  from  Calcutta  and  the  Nagpur  mills.  Silk 
is  imported  from  Berhampur.  Wheat,  gram,  and  the  pulse  arluir  are 
also  imported,  as  they  are  not  grown  locally  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  meet  the  demand.  The  weekly  markets  at  Sambalpur  and  Bargarh 
are  the  most  important  in  the  District.  Bhukta,  near  Ambabhona, 
is  the  largest  cattle  fair ;  and  after  it  rank  those  of  Bargarh,  Saraipali, 
and  Talpatia.  Jamurla  is  a  large  mart  for  oilseeds  ;  Dhama  is  a  timber 
market  ;  and  Bhikhampur  and  Talpatia  are  centres  for  the  sale  of 
country  iron  implements.  A  certain  amount  of  trade  in  grain  and 
household  utensils  is  transacted  at  the  annual  fairs  of  Narsinghnath 
and  Huma. 

The  main  line  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  passes  for  a  short 
distance  through  the  north-east  of  the  District,  with  a  length  of  nearly 
30  miles  and  three  stations.  From  Jharsugra  junction  a  branch  line 
runs  to  Sambalpur  town,  30  miles  distant,  with  three  intervening 
stations.  The  most  important  trade  route  is  the  Raipur-Sambalpur 
road,  which  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  Bargarh  tahsll.  Next 
to  this  come  the  Cuttack  road  down  to  Sonpur,  and  the  Sambalpui- 
'  Now  in  bilaspur  District,  Ce.-tial  I^roviaces. 
1;  2 


14  SAMBALPUR   DISTRICT 

Bilaspur  road.  None  of  these  is  metalled  throughout,  but  the  Raipur- 
Sambalpur  road  is  embanked  and  gravelled.  The  District  has  27  miles 
of  metalled  and  185  of  unmetalled  roads,  and  the  expenditure  on  main- 
tenance is  Rs.  24,000.  The  Public  Works  department  is  in  charge 
of  115  miles  and  the  District  council  of  97  miles  of  road.  There 
are  avenues  on  68  miles.  The  Mahanadi  river  was  formerly  the  great 
outlet  for  the  District  trade.  Boat  transport  is  still  carried  on  as  far 
as  Sonpur,  but  since  the  opening  of  the  railway  trade  with  Cuttack 
by  this  route  has  almost  entirely  ceased.  Boats  can  ascend  the 
Mahanadi  as  far  as  Arang  in  Raipur,  but  this  route  is  also  little 
used  owing  to  the  dangerous  character  of  the  navigation. 

Sambalpur  is  recorded  as  having  suffered  from  partial  failures  of  crops 
in  1834,  1845,  1874,  and  1877-8,  but  there  was  nothing  more  than 
slight  distress  in  any  of  those  years.  In  1896  the 
rice  crop  failed  over  a  small  part  of  the  District,  prin- 
cipally in  the  Chandarpur  zamJnddri,  and  some  relief  was  administered 
here.  The  numbers,  however,  never  rose  to  3,000,  while  in  the  rest 
of  the  District  agriculturists  made  large  profits  from  the  high  prices 
prevailing  for  rice.  The  year  1900  was  the  first  in  which  there  is  any 
record  of  serious  famine.  Owing  to  the  short  rainfall  in  1899,  a  com- 
plete failure  of  the  rice  crop  occurred  over  large  tracts  of  the  District, 
principally  in  the  north  and  west.  Relief  operations  extended  over 
a  whole  year,  the  highest  number  relieved  being  93,000  in  August, 
1900,  or  12  per  cent,  of  the  population ;  and  the  total  expenditure  was 
8  lakhs. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  has  a  staff  of  three  Assistant  or  Deputy- 
Collectors,  and  a  Sub-Deputy-Collector.  For  administrative  purposes 
.  .  the  District  is  divided  into  two  fahsUs,  Sambalpur 
and  Bargarh,  each  having  a  tahslldar  and  Bargarh 
also  a  naih-tahslldar.  The  Forest  officer  is  generally  a  member  of 
the  Provincial  service. 

The  civil  judicial  staff  consists  of  a  District  and  two  Subordinate 
Judges  and  a  Munsif  at  each  tahslL  Sambalpur  is  included  in  the 
Sessions  Division  of  Cuttack.  The  civil  litigation  has  greatly  increased 
in  recent  years,  and  is  now  very  heavy.  Transactions  attempting  to 
evade  the  restrictions  of  the  Central  Provinces  Tenancy  Act  on  the 
transfer  of  immovable  property  are  a  common  feature  of  litigation,  as 
also  are  easement  suits  for  water.  The  crime  of  the  District  is  not 
usually  heavy,  but  the  recent  famine  produced  an  organized  outbreak 
of  dacoity  and  house-breaking. 

Under  native  rule  the  village  headmen,  or  gao/ifids,  were  responsible 
for  the  payment  of  a  lump  sum  assessed  on  the  village  for  a  period 
of  years,  according  to  a  lease  which  was  periodically  revised  and  re- 
newed.   The    amount    of    the    assessment    was    recovered    from    the 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


15 


cultivators,  and  the  headmen  were  remunerated  by  holding  part  of  the 
village  area  free  of  revenue.  The  headmen  were  occasionally  ejected 
for  default  in  the  payment  of  revenue,  and  the  grant  of  a  new  lease 
was  often  made  an  opportunity  for  imposing  a  fine  which  the  gaontid 
paid  in  great  part  from  his  own  profits,  and  did  not  recover  from  the 
cultivators.  The  cultivators  were  seldom  ejected  except  for  default 
in  the  payment  of  revenue,  but  they  rendered  to  their  gaon/ids  a 
variety  of  miscellaneous  services  known  as  f>heti  higdri.  Taxation 
under  native  rule  appears  to  have  been  light.  When  the  District 
escheated  to  the  British  Clovernment,  the  total  land  revenue  of  the 
khdlsa  area  was  about  a  lakh  of  rupees,  nearly  a  (juarter  of  which  was 
alienated.  Short-term  setdements  were  made  in  the  years  succeeding 
the  annexation,  till  on  the  transfer  of  the  District  to  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces in  1862  a  proclamation  was  issued  stating  that  a  regular  long-term 
settlement  would  be  made,  at  which  the  gaonfids  or  hereditary  managers 
and  rent-collectors  of  villages  would  receive  proprietary  rights.  The 
protracted  disturbances  caused  by  the  adherents  of  Surendra  Sah^  how- 
ever, prevented  any  real  progress  being  made  with  the  survey  ;  and  this 
gave  time  for  the  expression  of  an  opinion  by  the  local  officers  that  the 
system  of  settlement  followed  in  other  Districts  was  not  suited  to  the 
circumstances  of  Sambalpur.  After  considerable  discussion,  the  inci- 
dents of  land  tenures  were  considerably  modified  in  1872.  Thegao/Uids 
or  hereditary  managers  received  proprietary  rights  only  in  their  bhogrd 
or  home-farm  land,  which  was  granted  to  them  free  of  revenue  in  lieu 
of  any  share  or  drawback  on  the  rental  paid  by  tenants.  Waste  lands 
and  forests  remained  the  property  of  Government ;  but  the  gaontiJs 
enjoy  the  rental  on  lands  newly  broken  up  during  the  currency  of 
settlement.  A  sufficiency  of  forest  land  to  meet  the  necessities  of 
the  villagers  was  allotted  for  their  use,  and  in  cases  where  the  area 
was  in  excess  of  this  it  was  demarcated  and  set  apart  as  a  fuel  and 
fodder  reserve.  Occupancy  right  was  conferred  on  all  tenants  except 
sub-tenants  o{  bhogrd.  The  system  was  intended  to  restrict  the  power 
of  alienation  of  land,  the  grant  of  which  had  led  to  the  expropriation  of 
the  agricultural  by  the  money-lending  castes,  and  the  same  policy  has 
recently  received  expression  in  the  Central  Provinces  Tenancy  Act  of 
1898.  A  settlement  was  made  for  twelve  years  in  1876,  by  which 
the  revenue  demand  was  raised  to  i-i6  lakhs,  the  net  revenue,  exclud- 
ing assignments,  being  Rs.  93,000.  On  the  expiry  of  this  settlement, 
the  District  was  again  settled  between  1885  and  1889,  and  the  assess- 
ment was  raised  to  1-59  lakhs,  or  by  38  per  cent.  The  revenue  incidence 
per  acre  was  still  extremely  low,  falling  at  only  R.  0-3-1 1  (maximum 
R.  0-8-10,  minimum  R.  0-2)  excluding  the  zavilnddris.  The  term  of 
this  settlement  varied  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  years.  It  expired  in  1902 
and  the  District  is  again  under  settlement. 


i6 


SAMBALPUR   DISTRICT 


The  collections  of  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  have  varied  as 
shown  l^elow,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


18S0-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

I.nnd  revenue 
Total  revenue 

1,15 

2,57 

1,59 
3,73 

1,96 
4,4^ 

>,73 
4,40 

The  management  of  local  affairs,  outside  the  municipal  area  of 
Samfialpur  Town,  is  entrusted  to  a  District  council  and  four  local 
boards,  one  each  for  the  northern  and  southern  zamindaii  estates, 
and  one  for  the  remaining  area  of  each  tahsll.  The  income  of  the 
District  council  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  55,000,  while  the  expenditure  on 
education  was  Rs.  24,000. 

The  police  force  consists  of  492  ofificers  and  men,  including  a  special 
reserve  of  25,  and  3  mounted  constables,  besides  2,765  watchmen 
for  2,692  inhabited  towns  and  villages.  The  District  Superintendent 
sometimes  has  an  Assistant.  Special  measures  have  recently  been 
taken  to  improve  the  efificiency  of  the  police  force,  by  the  importation 
of  subordinate  ofificers  from  other  Districts.  Sambalpur  has  a  District 
jail  with  accommodation  for  187  prisoners,  including  24  females.  The 
daily  average  number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  141. 

In  respect  of  education  the  District  is  very  backward.  Only  3-3  per 
cent,  of  the  male  population  were  able  to  read  and  write  in  1901,  and 
but  400  females  were  returned  as  literate.  The  proportion  of  children 
under  instruction  to  those  of  school-going  age  is  6  per  cent.  Statistics 
of  the  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  are  as  follows:  (t88o-i) 
3,266,  (1890-1)  7,145,  (1900-1)  4,244,  (1903-4)  9,376.  The  last  figure 
includes  2,366  girls,  a  noticeable  increase  having  lately  been  made. 
The  educational  institutions  comprise  a  high  school  at  Sambalpur  town, 
an  English  middle  school,  6  vernacular  middle  schools,  and  120  primary 
schools.  Primary  classes  and  masters  are  attached  to  two  of  the  middle 
schools.  There  are  six  Government  girls'  schools  in  the  District.  A 
small  school  fo;  the  depressed  tribes  has  been  opened  by  missionaries. 
Oriya  is  taught  in  all  the  schools.  The  District  is  now  making  progress 
in  respect  of  education,  a  number  of  new  schools  having  been  opened 
recently.  The  total  expenditure  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  40,000,  of  which 
Rs.  35,000  was  provided  from  Provincial  and  Local  funds  and  Rs.  4,700 
by  fees. 

The  District  has  seven  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for  62  in- 
patients. In  1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  85,840,  of  whom 
836  were  in-patients,  and  1,999  operations  were  performed.  The  total 
expenditure  was  Rs.  10,700. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  tlic  municipal  town  o{  Sambalpur. 
The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  45  per 
1,000  of  the  District  population. 


SAyrBALPUR    TOJIW  17 

[J.  B.  l'\ill(.'r,  Setllciucnt  Report  (1891).  A  District  Ga/.ettccr  is  beinj:^ 
compiled.] 

Sambalpur  Tahsil. — Eastern  tahsil  oiiho.  District  of  the  same  name, 
Bengal,  lying  between  21°  8'  and  21°  57'  N.  and  83°  26' and  84°  26'  E., 
with  an  area,  in  1901,  of  1,822  square  miles.  '1  he  ])opulation  in  that  year 
was  362,622,  compared  with  344,391  in  1891.  In  1905  the  Chandar- 
pur-Padampur  and  Mfilkhurda  estates,  with  an  area  of  2,?iZ  •'^n^'ire  miles 
and  a  population  of  87,320,  were  transferred  to  the  Bilaspur  District 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  and  the  revised  figures  of  area  and  popula- 
tion of  the  tahsll  are  1,489  square  miles  and  275,302  persons.  The 
density  is  185  persons  per  .square  mile.  The  tahs'il  contains  one  town, 
Sambali>ur  (population,  12,870),  the  District  and  /^//.fJ/ head-quarters ; 
and  766  inhabited  villages.  Excluding  190  square  miles  of  Government 
forest,  56  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  If 
the  zatninddri  estates  be  also  excluded,  the  percentage  is  68.  The  culti- 
vated area  in  1903-4  was  851  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue 
in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  68,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  The  tahsll 
consists  of  a  strip  of  open  country  along  the  left  bank  of  the  MahanadI 
river,  flanked  to  the  east  and  south  by  hills.  It  contains  seven  zam'in- 
dari  estates,  with  a  total  area  of  614  square  miles. 

Sambalpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same 
name,  Bengal,  situated  in  21°  28'  N.  and  83°  58'  E.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  a  branch  line  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  30  miles  from 
Jharsugra  junction,  and  349  from  Calcutta.  The  town  lies  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  MahanadI,  and  is  very  picturesquely  situated,  com- 
manding a  beautiful  view  of  the  river  for  several  miles,  with  wooded 
hills  in  the  background.  In  flood-time  the  width  of  the  MahanadI 
is  more  than  a  mile,  and  portions  of  the  town  have  been  submerged  on 
one  or  two  occasions,  but  during  most  of  the  year  there  is  only  a  stream 
40  or  50  yards  wide.  During  the  open  season  a  pontoon  bridge  over 
the  MahanadI  is  maintained  by  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  giving 
place  to  a  ferry  in  the  monsoon  months.  The  population  in  1901  was 
12,870,  and  has  risen  by  more  than  30  per  cent,  since  1891.  The 
town  derives  its  name  from  the  Somlai  Devi,  its  tutelary  deity.  There 
are  no  buildings  of  importance ;  but  the  Brahmapura  temple  of 
Jagannath  has  a  great  reputation  for  sanctity,  and  many  civil  suits  are 
decided  by  the  oaths  of  parties  taken  at  this  shrine.  Sambalpur  was 
constituted  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  and 
expenditure  during  the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  28,000 
and  Rs.  29,000  respectively.  In  1903-4  the  income  had  risen  to 
Rs.  48,000,  mainly  derived  from  octroi,  A  wing  of  a  native  infantry 
regiment  was  stationed  here  until  1902.  Sambalpur  is  the  commercial 
centre  for  most  of  the  District,  and  also  the  States  of  Sonpur,  Patna, 
and   Rairakhol.      It  contains  a  depot  for  cooly   emigrants   to   Assam. 


iS  SAMBALPUR    TOWN 

The  principal  industries  are  the  weaving  of  tasar  silk  and  cotton  cloth 
by  hand.  A  printing  press  with  Oriya  and  English  type  was  established 
in  1902,  to  celebrate  the  restoration  of  Oriya  as  the  court  language  of 
Sambalpur.  I'he  town  possesses  a  high  school  with  a  boarding-house 
and  33  pupils,  a  girls'  school,  and  Oriya  and  Hindi  branch  schools. 
It  also  has  a  main  dispensary  and  a  police  hospital. 

Sambhal  Tahsil. — South-central  tahs'il  of  Moradabad  District, 
United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name, 
lying  between  28°  20'  and  28°  49'  N.  and  78°  24'  and  78°  44'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  469  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  245,619  in 
1891  to  245,886.  in  1901.  There  are  466  villages  and  three  towns: 
Sambhal  (population,  39,715),  the  iahs'il  head-quarters,  Solah  Sarai 
(10,623),  and  SiRSi  (5,894).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4 
was  Rs.  3,55,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  61,000.  The  density  of  popula- 
tion, 524  persons  per  square  mile,  is  about  the  District  average.  In 
the  east  of  the  tahsil  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  agriculture  is  precarious ; 
but  the  rest  consists  of  fertile  loam,  including  some  of  the  best  villages 
in  the  District.  The  Sot  or  Yar-i-AVafadar  drains  the  central  portion, 
and  smaller  channels  cross  the  south.  AVheat  and  sugar-cane  are  the 
most  important  crops.  In  1902-3  the  area  under  cultivation  was 
399  square  miles,  of  which  25  were  irrigated,  mostly  from  wells. 

Sambhal  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  .same  name  in 
Moradabad  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  35'  N.  and 
78°  34'  E.,  23  miles  south-west  of  Moradabad  city  by  a  metalled  road. 
Population  (1901),  39,715.  The  town  is  believed  by  the  Hindus  to 
have  existed  in  the  three  epochs  {yiiga)  preceding  the  present  or  Kali 
Yuga,  at  the  end  of  which  the  tenth  incarnation  of  Vishnu  will  appear 
in  Sambhal.  Many  ancient  mounds  exist  in  the  neighbourhood,  but 
have  not  been  explored.  Tradition  relates  that  Prithwl  Raj  of  Delhi 
finally  defeated  Jai  Chand  of  Kanauj  close  to  Sambhal,  and  an  earlier 
battle  is  said  to  have  taken  place  between  the  Raja  of  Delhi  and 
Saiyid  Salar.  Kutb-ud-din  Aibak  reduced  the  neighbourhood  for  a 
time  ;  but  the  turbulent  Katehriyas  repeatedly  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  early  Muhammadan  kings,  who  posted  a  governor  here.  In 
1346  the  governor  revolted,  but  was  speedily  crushed.  Firoz  Shah  III 
appointed  an  Afghan  to  Sambhal  in  1380,  with  orders  to  invade 
Katehr  every  year  and  ravage  the  whole  country  till  Khargu,  the  Hindu 
chief,  who  had  murdered  some  Saiyids,  was  given  up.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  Sambhal  was  the  subject  of  contest  between  the  sovereigns  of 
Delhi  and  the  kings  of  Jaunpur,  and  on  the  fall  of  the  latter  Sikandar 
Lodi  held  his  court  here  for  some  years.  Babar  appointed  his  son, 
Humayun,  to  be  governor  of  the  place,  and  is  said  to  have  visited 
it  himself.  Under  Akbar  Sambhal  was  the  head-cjuarters  of  a  sarkdr, 
but   in   the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan   its   importance  began  to  wane  and 


SAMBIIAR    LAKE  19 

Moradabad  took  its  place.  In  tlie  eighteenth  century  Saml)hal  was 
chiefly  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  the  Pindari,  Amir  Khan,  who 
raided  Rohilkhand  in  1805  and  afterwards  founded  the  State  of  Tonk. 

The  town  site  is  scattered  over  a  considerable  area,  and  contains 
a  mound  marking  the  ruins  of  the  old  fort.  No  building  stands  on  this 
except  a  mosque,  claimed  by  the  Hindus  as  a  Vaishnava  temple,  but 
in  reality  a  specimen  of  early  Pathan  architecture  in  which  Hindu 
materials  were  probably  used.  The  mosque  contains  an  inscri[)tion 
recording  that  it  was  raised  by  Babar ;  but  doubts  have  been  cast 
on  the  authenticity  of  this.  There  are  many  Hindu  temples  and 
sacred  spots  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  town  contains  a  tahsil'i, 
a  munsifl,  a  dispensary,  and  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist 
Mission.  It  has  been  a  municipality  since  187 1.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  21,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  30,000,  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  23,000); 
and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  29,000.  Refined  sugar  is  the  chief  article 
of  manufacture  and  of  trade,  but  other  places  nearer  the  railway  have 
drawn  away  part  of  its  former  commerce.  Wheat  and  other  grain  and 
ghl  are  also  exported,  and  there  is  some  trade  in  hides.  Combs  of 
buffalo  horn  are  manufactured.  The  tahsill  school  has  142  pupils, 
and  the  municipality  manages  two  schools  and  aids  seven  others  with 
349  pupils. 

Sambhar  Lake. — A  famous  salt  lake  in  Rajputana,  on  the  borders 
of  the  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur  States,  lying  between  26°  53'  and  27°  \'  N. 
and  74°  54'  and  75°  14'  E.,  and  distant,  by  railway,  53  miles  north-east 
of  Ajmer,  and  230  miles  south-west  of  Delhi.  The  lake  is  situated 
nearly  1,200  feet  above  sea-level,  and  when  full  is  about  20  miles  in 
length  (from  south-east  to  north-west),  from  2  to  7  miles  in  breadth, 
and  covers  an  area  of  about  90  square  miles.  In  the  hot  months  its 
bed  is  generally  quite  dry,  but,  after  exceptionally  heavy  rains,  it  con- 
tains water  throughout  the  year.  It  is  dependent  for  its  supply  on 
three  rivers  which  empty  themselves  into  it ;  of  these,  two  come  from 
the  spurs  of  the  Aravalli  Hills  to  the  west,  and  the  third  from  the 
country  to  the  north.  The  annual  rainfall  at  the  town  of  Sambhar 
averages  nearly  20  inches,  and  at  Nawa  about  17  inches.  The 
surrounding  country  is  sandy  and  sterile,  but  the  view  of  the  lake  in 
the  hot  season  is  very  striking.  Standing  on  the  low  sandy  ridges  to 
the  south,  one  sees  what  looks  like  a  great  sheet  of  glittering  snow, 
with  sometimes  a  pool  of  water  here  and  there,  and  a  network  of 
narrow  paths ;  but  what  appears  to  be  frozen  snow  is  a  white  crisp 
efflorescence  of  salt.  According  to  local  tradition,  the  goddess 
Sakambari  (the  consort  of  Siva),  in  return  for  some  service  done  her, 
converted  a  dense  forest  into  a  plain  of  silver,  and  subseciuently,  at 
the  request   of  the   inhabitants,  who   dreaded   the   cupidity   and  strife 


20  SAMBHAR   LAKE 

which  such  a  possession  would  excite,  transformed  it  into  the  present 
salt  lake,  which  was  named  Sambhar  (a  corruption  of  Sakambar)  after 
her.  This  is  supposed  to  have  happened  in  the  sixth  century.  To 
determine  the  origin  of  the  salt,  a  special  investigation  has  recently 
been  conducted  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.  Borings  made  in 
the  lake-bed  at  three  places  show  that  the  thickness  of  the  silt  varies 
from  61  feet  at  the  eastern  end  to  70  feet  near  the  centre  and  76  feet 
at  the  north-western  end,  and  that  the  rocks  below  this  silt  are,  in  each 
case,  schists  of  the  kind  cropping  up  around  the  edges  of  the  lake,  and 
forming  the  hills  belonging  to  the  Aravalli  series  in  the  neighbourhood. 
It  is  therefore  considered  that  the  salt  resources  of  Sambhar  are 
confined  to  this  body  of  silt  filling  in  a  depression  of  the  Aravalli 
schists  and  gneisses,  and  that  the  soluble  compounds  of  sodium  stored 
in  the  silt  have  accumulated  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water  brought 
in  every  year  by  the  rivers  which  are  in  flood  after  heavy  rains.  The 
concentration  of  common  salt  and  of  the  other  less  abundant  sodium- 
compounds  associated  with  it  has  been  effected  in  a  manner  common 
to  areas  of  internal  closed  drainage  in  all  arid  regions.  There  is 
nothing  to  show  a  past  inroad  of  the  ocean,  and  no  rock-salt  beds  exist 
in  the  geological  formation  of  the  area. 

The  Sambhar  Lake  is  said  to  have  been  worked  by  the  imperial 
administration  of  Akbar  and  his  successors  up  to  the  time  of  Ahmad 
Shah  (1748-54),  when  it  came  into  the  hands  of  its  present  owners,  the 
chiefs  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur.  The  western  half  belongs  entirely  to 
the  former,  and  the  eastern  half,  including  the  town  of  Sambhar,  is 
owned  by  the  two  States  jointly.  The  lake  is  said  to  have  passed  for 
a  time  into  the  possession  of  the  Marathas  and  Amir  Khan,  while  from 
about  1835  to  1843  the  British  Government,  in  order  to  repay  itself 
a  portion  of  the  expenses  incurred  in  restoring  order  in  Shekhawati  and 
the  neighbouring  districts,  took  the  salt-making  into  its  own  hands. 
Finally  in  1870  the  lake  was  leased  to  Government  for  an  annual 
payment  of  7  lakhs— 4^  lakhs  to  Jodhpur  and  2|  lakhs  to  Jaipur — on 
the  condition  that,  if  the  sales  of  salt  exceeded  1,725,000  maunds 
(about  63,400  tons)  in  any  year,  40  per  cent,  of  the  sale  price  of  such 
excess  would  be  paid  to  the  States  as  royalty.  Under  arrangements 
made  in  1884,  Jodhpur  receives  five-eighths  and  Jaipur  three-eighths  of 
the  total  royalty  payable.  These  States  also  receive  a  certain  quantity 
(Jodhpur  14,000  maunds  and  Jaipur  7,000  maunds)  of  salt  free  of  all 
charges  yearly.  Including  about  74,000  tons  taken  over  when  the 
lease  was  executed,  the  quantity  of  salt  manufactured  to  the  end  of 
March,  1904,  exceeded  4,300,000  tons,  or  a  yearly  average  of  about 
126,600  tons.  The  quantity  disposed  of  during  the  same  period, 
including  that  delivered  free  of  cost  under  treaty  arrangements, 
wastage,  &c.,  was  about  4,240,000  tons.     The  receipts   from  sale  of 


SAMBHAR    TOWN  21 

salt  have  been  326  lakhs,  and  the  expenditure,  including  all  treaty 
and  royalty  payments,  294  lakhs,  leaving  a  credit  balance  on  April  i, 
1904,  of  32  lakhs,  or  a  little  over  £212,000.  The  average  cost  of 
extraction  and  storage  has  been  rather  more  than  7  pies  (or  one 
halfpenny)  per  maund,  or  about  one  rupee  per  ton.  Duty  was  first 
levied  at  the  lake  on  October  i,  1878,  when  the  customs  line  was 
abolished.  Between  April  i,  1879,  and  March  31,  1904,  the  gross 
receipts  from  all  sources  have  been  2452  lakhs  and  the  total  ex- 
penditure 261  lakhs,  leaving  a  surplus  of  2x91  lakhs  (over  14^  million 
pounds  sterling).  The  average  yearly  net  receipts  have  thus  been 
nearly  88  lakhs,  or  about  £584,340. 

Salt  is  obtained  by  three  methods :  namely,  from  permanent  salt- 
works constructed  in  the  bed  of  the  lake,  called  kydrs ;  from  shallow 
solar  evaporation  pans  of  a  temporary  nature  constructed  on  the  lake- 
shore;  and  from  enclosed  sections  of  the  bed  on  which  salt  forms,  so 
to  speak,  spontaneously.  In  1903-4  (when  only  about  one-fourth  of 
the  usual  quantity  of  salt  was  manufactured)  24,000  labourers  of  both 
sexes  were  employed  on  the  extraction  and  storage  of  kyar  salt  and  the 
storage  of  pan  salt,  and  the  average  daily  earnings  were  about  5^  annas 
per  head.  The  castes  employed  are  Balais,  Barars,  Gujars,  Jats,  Kasais 
(butchers),  Khatiks,  Kumhars,  Malis,  Mughals,  Pathans,  and  Regars  ; 
and  nearly  all  permanently  reside  in  the  neighbourhood.  There  are 
three  railway  stations  on  the  lake — at  Sambhar,  Gudha,  and  Kuchawan 
Road  or  Nawa — and  the  line  runs  into  all  the  principal  manufacturing 
works  or  walled  enclosures.  The  salt  is  stored  close  to  the  line  and 
loaded  direct  into  the  railway  wagons ;  it  is  largely  consumed  in  Raj- 
putana.  Central  India,  the  United  Provinces,  and  in  the  Punjab  south 
of  Karnal,  and  it  also  finds  its  way  into  the  Central  Provinces  and 
Nepal.  The  lake  has  been  observed  to  furnish  diminished  quantities 
of  salt  during  the  last  few  years ;  but  samples  of  mud,  taken  at  depths 
of  from  4  to  12  feet  below  the  surface,  have  recently  been  found 
on  analysis  to  contain  6  per  cent,  of  salt,  and  from  this  fact  it  is  esti- 
mated that,  in  the  upper  12  feet  of  the  lake-silt,  the  accumulated 
salt  amounts  to  just  one  million  tons  per  square  mile.  As  the  total 
quantity  removed  by  artificial  means  since  the  commencement  of  the 
British  lease  in  1870  has  been  only  about  four  million  tons,  the 
system  of  manufacture  has  resulted  in  but  a  small  inroad  into  the 
total  stocks. 

[F.  Ashton,  '  Salt  Industry  of  Rajputana '  in  the  Journal  of  Indian 
Art  and  Industry,  vol.  ix.] 

Sambhar  Town.  -Town  within  the  joint  jurisdiction  of  the 
States  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur,  in  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  55''  N. 
and  75°  11'  E.,  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  Sambhar  Lake 
on  the  Rajputana-Malwa    Railway.       Population   (1901),    10,873.      In 


22  SAMBHAR   TOWN 

the  town  are  a  post  and  telegraph  office,  several  schools,  including 
one  for  girls  kept  up  by  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission, 
and  a  couple  of  hospitals,  one  of  which  is  maintained  by  the  British 
Government  for  the  benefit  of  those  employed  on  the  salt  lake.  Sam- 
bhar  is  a  very  ancient  town.  It  was  the  first  capital  of  the  Chauhan 
Rajputs  when  they  came  to  Rajputana  from  the  Ganges  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century ;  and  the  last  Hindu  king  of  Delhi, 
Prithwi  Raj  Chauhan,  who  died  in  1192,  was  proud  to  be  styled 
Sambhari  Rao  or  lord  of  Sambhar.  It  appears  to  have  been  held 
by  the  Muhammadan  kings  and  emperors  of  Delhi  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth  century  till  about  1708,  when  it  was  taken,  with 
the  sixty  villages  attached  to  it,  by  the  chiefs  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur. 
Subsequently  first  one  State  and  then  the  other,  taking  advantage  of 
any  temporary  weakness  in  its  neighbour,  appropriated  the  outlying 
villages  till  only  twelve,  besides  the  town  of  Sambhar,  remained  in 
joint  possession. 

Sambhuganj.  —Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Mymen- 
singh  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  24°  46'  N.  and 
90°  27'  E.,  3  miles  east  of  Nasirabad.  Population  (1901),  500.  It  is 
one  of  the  busiest  marts  in  the  District  for  country  produce  of  all 
kinds,  exporting  large  quantities  of  jute,  and  also  of  rice  and  mustard 
seed. 

Sameswari. — River  in  the  Garo  Hills,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  SoMESWARi. 

Samka  (Burmese,  Saga).- — State  in  the  central  division  of  the 
Southern  Shan  States,  Burma,  lying  between  19°  56'  and  20°  25'  N. 
and  96°  48'  and  97°  10'  E.,  with  an  area  (including  the  small  depen- 
dency of  Pongmu  on  the  north)  of  357  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Yawnghwe ;  on  the  east  by  Hsahtung ;  on  the  south 
by  Namtok  and  Sakoi ;  and  on  the  west  by  Loilong.  Samka  consists 
of  a  strip  of  the  Pilu  valley,  30  miles  long,  shut  in  by  high  ranges  on 
either  side,  the  higher  slopes  of  which  belong  to  the  adjoining  States. 
Rice  is  grown  both  in  the  valleys  and  in  tanngyas  on  the  hills,  and 
garden  crops  and  ground-nuts  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  popula- 
tion in  1 901  was  17,643,  distributed  in  241  villages.  Classified  accord- 
ing to  language,  7,698  of  the  inhabitants  were  Shans,  5,187  Taungthus, 
and  4,385  Inthas.  All  but  350  persons  were  returned  as  Buddhists. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  Myoza  are  at  Samka  (population,  1,899), 
in  the  centre  of  the  State  on  the  bank  of  the  Pilu.  The  revenue  in 
1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  17,000,  the  main  source  being  thathameda  \ 
and  the  expenditure  included  Rs.  10,000  tribute  to  the  British  (Govern- 
ment, Rs.  4,300  allotted  to  the  privy  purse,  Rs.  1,500  spent  on  public 
works,  and  Rs.  1,600  on  the  pay  of  officials. 

Samla. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 


SAM  THAR   STATE  23 

Sampgaon. — South-eastern  tdliika  of  Belgaurn  District,  ljonil)ay 
lying  between  15°  28'  and  15°  59'  N.  and  74°  38'  and  7/'  59'  E.', 
with  an  area  of  409  square  miles.  It  contains  123  villages,  including 
HONGAL  (population,  8,675),  The  head-quarters  are  at  Sampgaon, 
a  small  village.  The  population  in  1901  was  132,448,  compared  with 
132,632  in  1891.  The  density,  324  persons  per  square  mile,  is  above 
the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
3  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  21,000.  Sampgaon  has  a  great  variety  of 
soil  and  surface.  From  the  hilly  west  the  country  gradually  sinks  east- 
wards into  a  great  plain  of  black  cotton  soil.  In  the  south-west,  ranges 
of  quartz  and  ironstone,  about  150  feet  high  and  a  quarter  to  half  a 
mile  apart,  run  nearly  north  and  south.  The  Malprabha  river  crosses 
the  middle  of  the  tdluka  from  west  to  east.  Sampgaon  lies  in  the 
transition  tract  between  the  hills  and  plains,  and  enjoys  a  fair  immunity 
from  famine.  A  portion  is  also  protected  by  a  supply  of  water  from 
the  Gadekeri  tank.     The  annual  rainfall  averages  about  30  inches. 

Sampla  Tahsil. —  7a>^^/7  of  Rohtak  District,  Punjab,  lying  between 
28^  35'  and  29°  \'  N.  and  76°  35"  and  76°  58'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
409  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  162,423,  con)pared 
with  149,818  in  1891.  It  contains  the  towns  of  Bahadurgarh 
(population,  5,974)  and  Kharkhauda  (3,765);  and  122  villages,  includ- 
ing the  '  notified  area '  of  Sampla,  its  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue 
and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  3'i  lakhs.  The  greater  part  of  the 
tahsil  is  an  arid  upland  plain,  the  northern  portion  of  which  is  now 
watered  by  the  Western  Jumna  Canal.  In  the  extreme  south-east  is  a 
small  lowland  tract,  irrigated  by  countless  water-lifts. 

Samrala  Tahsil.- -7a//^J/  of  Ludhiana  District,  Punjab,  lying  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  between  30°  37'  and  30°  59'  N.  and 
76°  2' and  76°  24**  E.,  with  an  area  of  291  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  154,995,  compared  with  158,770  in  1891.  It  con- 
tains the  two  towns  of  Khanna  (population,  3,838)  and  Machhiwara 
(5,588) ;  and  263  villages,  of  which  Samrala  is  the  head-quarters.  The 
land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  3-5  lakhs. 

Samthar  State. — Treaty  State  in  Central  India,  under  the  Bundel- 
khand  Political  Agency,  lying  between  25°  43'  and  25°  57'  N.  and 
78°  48' and  79°  7'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about  178  square  miles.  The 
name  is  most  probably  a  corruption  of  Shamshergarh,  by  which  the 
capital  is  still  known.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
the  Jalaun  District  of  the  United  Provinces;  on  the  south  by  Jhansi 
District ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bhander  pargana  of  the  Gwalior 
State  and  by  Jhansi  District.  The  territory  consists  of  an  almost 
unbroken  level  plain,  sparsely  covered  with  trees.  The  soil  is  only 
moderately  fertile,  and,  though  traversed  by  the  Pahuj  and  Betwa, 
both   large   streams,  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  rainfall  for  its  i)ro- 


24  SAMTHAR   STATE 

ductivity.  Geologically,  the  State  consists  of  Bundelkhand  gneiss  and 
allied  rocks,  in  great  part  concealed  by  alluvium.  The  climate  is 
generally  temperate,  though  hotter  than  that  of  Malwa.  The  rainfall, 
as  shown  by  a  ten  years'  record,  averages  30  inches. 

On  the  death  of  Maharaja  Ram  Chandra  of  Datia  in  1733,  a  dispute 
arose  regarding  the  succession  to  that  State.  In  his  contest  with  rival 
claimants  Indrajit,  who  succeeded,  had  been  assisted  by  various  petty 
chiefs,  among  whom  was  Naune  Sah  Gujar,  a  son  of  a  man  in  the 
service  of  the  Datia  State.  On  his  accession  to  power  Indrajit  rewarded 
Naune  Sah's  son,  Madan  Singh,  with  the  title  of  Rajdhar  and  the 
governorship  of  Samthar  fort,  a  jdgir  of  five  villages  being  later  on 
granted  to  his  son  Devi  Singh.  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ranjit  Singh.  During  the  disturbances  caused  by  the  Maratha  inva- 
sion, Ranjit  Singh  became  independent  and  received  the  title  of  Raja 
from  the  Marathas.  On  the  establishment  of  the  British  supremacy 
he  requested  to  be  taken  under  protection,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
in  181 7,  confirming  him  in  possession  of  the  territory  he  then  held. 
In  1827  Ranjit  Singh  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hindupat, 
who,  however,  became  of  unsound  mind,  the  administration  being 
entrusted  to  his  Rani.  In  1862  ail  adoption  sanad  wix'^,  granted  to  the 
chief,  the  obligation  to  pay  succession  dues  being  remitted  (1877)  in 
the  case  of  a  direct  successor.  In  1864  the  eldest  son  Chhatar  Singh 
asserted  his  claim  to  rule  the  State,  which  was  recognized  by  Govern- 
ment, the  pargana  of  Amargarh  {A/iira)  being  assigned  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  ex-chief,  his  Rani,  and  a  younger  son,  Arjun  Singh  {alias 
All  Bahadur).  In  1883  this  arrangement  was  changed,  a  cash  allowance 
being  given  in  lieu  of  the  pargana.  Hindupat  died  in  1890;  and 
Government,  in  consideration  of  the  length  of  time  Chhatar  Singh  had 
been  actual  ruler,  decided  that  no  formal  recognition  of  his  succession 
was  needed.  Chhatar  Singh  was  a  good  administrator  and  improved 
the  condition  of  the  State  considerably.  During  his  rule  a  salt  con- 
vention was  made  with  the  British  Government  (1879),  by  which  the 
State  received  Rs.  1,450  as  compensation  for  dues  formerly  levied ; 
and  land  was  ceded  for  the  Betwa  Canal  (1882)  and  for  a  railway 
(1884).  In  1877  Chhatar  Singh  received  the  title  of  Maharaja  as 
a  personal  distinction.  He  died  in  1896,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Bir  Singh  Deo,  the  present  ruler,  who  received  the  title  of  Maha- 
raja as  a  personal  distinction  in  1898.  The  chief  bears  the  hereditary 
titles  of  His  Highness  and  Raja,  and  receives  a  salute  of  1 1  guns. 

The  population  of  the  State  has  been  :  (1881)  38,633,  (1891)  40,541, 
and  (1901)  33,472.  It  decreased  by  17  per  cent,  during  the  last 
decade,  owing  to  famine.  Hindus  number  31,211,  or  93  per  cent., 
and  Musalmans  2,229,  or  7  per  cent.  The  density  in  1901  was  188 
persons  per  scjuare  mile.     The   principal   castes   are   Chamars,   4,300, 


SAM  THAR  STATE  25 

or  13  per  cent.;  Brahmans,  3,800,  or  11  per  cent.;  Lodhls,  3,000,  or 
9  per  cent. ;  Kachhis  and  Gujars,  2,000  each,  or  7  per  cent. ;  Gadarias, 
1,700,  or  5  per  cent.  The  State  contains  90  villages  and  one  town, 
Samthar  ([)opulation,  8,286),  the  capital.  For  a  Hindu  State  in  this 
part  of  India  the  percentage  of  Musalmans  is  unusually  high.  The 
Muhammadan  element  also  takes  a  considerable  i)art  in  the  adminis- 
tration. The  prevailing  form  of  speech  is  Bundelkhandl.  About 
2i2i  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  supported  by  agriculture  and  17  per 
cent,  by  general  labour. 

The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  poor,  and  the  country  is  singularly 
devoid  of  tanks,  which  are  fairly  common  in  the  rest  of  Bundelkhand. 
The  principal  soils  are  mar,  an  inferior  black  soil ;  kdbar,  a  grey  soil ; 
pama,  a  yellowish  red  soil,  which  is  the  most  prevalent ;  and  rdnkar, 
a  stony  soil,  strewn  with  boulders  of  gneiss,  and  of  very  little  agricultural 
value.  Of  the  total  area,  85  square  miles,  or  42  per  cent.,  are  culti- 
vated, of  which  only  519  acres  are  irrigable;  49  square  miles,  or  25  per 
cent.,  are  cultivable  but  not  cultivated ;  and  the  rest  is  jungle  and 
waste.  Of  the  cropped  area,  jowdr  occupies  30  square  miles,  or 
35  per  cent. ;  wheat,  20  square  miles,  or  23  per  cent. ;  gram,  19  square 
miles,  or  22  per  cent. ;  and  cotton,  5  square  miles. 

The  only  metalled  road  in  the  State  is  8  miles  in  length,  and  leads 
to  Moth,  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Th^  opening  of 
the  railway  in  1888  has  greatly  facilitated  the  export  of  grain,  for  which 
there  was  formerly  no  market.  Saltpetre  is  exported  in  some  quantity, 
mainly  to  Bhopal. 

The  administration  is  carried  on  by  the  chief,  assisted  by  his  ivazlr 
(minister).  The  State  is  divided  into  ioMX  parganas,  with  head-quarters 
at  Shamshergarh,  Amargarh,  Maharajganj,  and  Lohargarh,  each  under 
a  tahsllddf.  In  all  general  administrative  matters  the  ivazlr  has  full 
powers.  The  chief  exercises  plenary  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  is  the 
final  court  of  reference  in  other  matters. 

The  revenues  of  the  State,  before  its  territories  were  reduced  by  the 
Marathas,  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  12  lakhs.  The  annual  receipts 
are  now  1-5  lakhs,  mostly  derived  from  land.  The  expenditure  is 
about  the  same. 

A  regular  settlement  was  made  in  1895  by  Maharaja  Chhatar  Singh, 
under  which  the  land  is  farmed  out  and  the  revenue  collected  in  cash 
from  the  pa/ta  (lease)  holders,  in  two  instalments.  The  incidence  of 
the  land  revenue  demand  is  Rs.  5  per  acre  of  the  cultivated  area. 
No  land  is  alienated  in  Jdgirs.  Until  Maharaja  Chhatar  Singh's  time, 
when  the  British  rupee  was  made  legal  tender,  the  currency  consisted 
of  the  Nana  shdhi  rupee  of  Jhansi  and  the  Datia  coin. 

The  troops  consist  of  the  chief's  body-guard  of  12  horsemen  and 
40  footmen,  and  an  irregular  force  eniployt-d  as  police,  which  numbers 


26  SAMTHAR   STATE 

200  hur.se-  and  500  footmen.  There  are  also  six  guns  manned  by  50 
gunners.  A  jail,  a  post  ofifice,  a  hospital,  and  five  schools  with  190 
pupils  are  maintained  in  the  State. 

Samthar  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Cen- 
tral India,  situated  in  25°  50'  N.  and  78°  55^  E.,  about  8  miles  from  the 
Moth  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population 
(1901),  8,286.  The  town,  which  is  often  called  Shamshergarh,  was 
built  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was  subsequently  reconstructed 
by  Chhatar  Singh.  It  contains  the  Raja's  palace,  a  jail,  a  post  ofifice, 
and  a  hospital. 

Samulcottah. — Town  in  Godavari  District,  Madras.     See  Samal- 

KOT. 

Samundri. —  Tahs'il  of  the  new  Lyallpur  District,  Punjab,  lying 
between  30*^  50'  and  31°  20'  N.  and  72°  39''  and  73°  21'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,309  square  miles.  The  population  in  1906  was  266,277. 
It  contains  495  villages,  including  Samundri  (population,  765),  the 
head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1905-6  amounted  to 
6-7  lakhs.  The  tahsil  consists  of  a  level  plain  sloping  gently  towards 
the  Ravi  and  the  Deg  on  the  south,  and  is  now  wholly  irrigated  by  the 
Chenab  Canal,  except  for  a  few  scattered  plots  in  the  Ravi  lowlands 
which  still  depend  on  wells.  The  soil  generally  is  a  fine  loam.  The 
boundaries  of  the  tahs'il  were  somewhat  modified  at  the  time  of  the 
formation  of  the  new  District. 

Sanala. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Sanand  Taluka. — Central  tdluka  of  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  22°  47''  and  23°  7'  N.  and  72°  5'  and  72°  32'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  361  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Sanand  (population, 
6,783),  its  head-quarters  ;  and  83  villages.  The  population  in  1901  was 
63,053,  compared  with  81,363  in  1891.  The  density,  175  persons 
per  square  mile,  is  less  than  the  District  average.  Land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  exceeded  2  lakhs.  Except  for  an  undulating  strip  of 
land  on  the  west,  Sanand  forms  the  centre  of  a  rich  plain  of  light  soil 
with  well-wooded  fields  ;  in  the  south  and  west  is  a  bare  stretch  of 
black  soil. 

Sanand  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Ahmadabad  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  23°  N.  and  72°  23''  E., 
on  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway,  18  miles  from 
Ahmadabad.  Population  (i 901),  6,783.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the 
capitals  of  the  house  of  Koth.  The  municipality,  established  in  1885, 
had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  about 
Rs.  8,000.  The  income  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  8,500.  The 
town  contains  three  schools,  two  for  boys  and  one  fur  girls,  attended 
respectively  by  310  and  128  pupils,  and  including  an  English  middle 
school   with   25   pupils. 


SANCHI  27 

Sanauda.— 7'/^^/;//;-(7/'  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Sanaur. — Town  in  the  Patiala  fa/isl/,  Karmgarh  }iizdfnat,  Patiala 
State,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  18'  N.  and  76°  31'  E.,  4  miles  south-east 
of  Patiala  town.  Population  (1901),  8,580.  It  is  a  place  of  some 
antiquity ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Babar,  Malik  Baha-ud-din,  the  Khokhar, 
became  the  chief  of  Sanaur  with  84  circumjacent  villages,  whence  the 
pargatia  was  known  as  the  Chaurasi.  In  1748  it  was  conquered  by 
Ala  Singh,  Raja  of  Patiala,  who  founded  his  new  capital  of  Patiala 
in  the  neighbourhood.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  agricultural 
produce,  but  is  decaying  owing  to  the  vicinity  of  Patiala  town.  Sanaur 
has  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school  and  a  police  station. 

Sanawan  Tahsil. — Northernmost  tahsll  of  Muzafflirgarh  District, 
Punjab,  lying  between  30°  5'  and  30°  47'  N.  and  70°  44'  and  71°  47'  E., 
with  an  area  of  1,321  square  miles.  Its  western  border  rests  on  the 
Indus.  The  country  along  the  banks  is  low-lying  and  is  only  protected 
from  floods  by  embankments.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  fahsJl  lies 
in  the  high  sandy  Thai.  The  population  in  1901  was  100,091,  com- 
pared with  94,245  in  1891.  It  contains  140  villages,  including  Sana- 
wan,  the  head-quarters.  Daira  Din  Panah  is  a  place  of  some  religious 
interest.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i-8 
lakhs. 

Sanchi. — Ancient  site  in  the  Bhopal  State,  Central  India,  situated 
in  23°  29'  N.  and  77°  45'  E.,  5^  miles  from  BhTlsa,  on  the  Midland 
section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  The  country  between 
Sanchi  and  BhTlsa  is  famous  as  the  site  of  the  most  extensive  Buddhist 
remains  now  known  in  India,  though,  as  Fergusson  has  pointed  out,  they 
may  not  have  possessed  the  same  importance  in  Buddhist  times,  and 
owe  their  survival  to  their  situation  in  a  remote  and  thinly-peopled 
country.  The  present  village  of  Sanchi  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  small 
flat-topped  hill  of  sandstone  rising  300  feet  above  the  plain.  On  the 
centre  of  the  level  summit,  and  on  a  narrow  belt  leading  down  the 
western  slope  of  the  hill,  stand  the  principal  remains,  which  consist 
of  the  great  stupa^  a  smaller  one,  a  chaitya  hall,  and  some  ruined 
shrines. 

The  great  sfilpa,  the  chief  object  of  interest,  stands  conspicuously 
in  the  centre  of  the  hill.  This  building  forms  a  segment  of  a  sphere, 
solid  throughout,  and  built  of  red  sandstone  blocks,  with  a  diameter 
of  no  feet  at  the  base.  A  berm  15  feet  high,  sloping  outwards  at  the 
base,  forms  a  raised  pathway  5^  feet  wide  round  the  stilpa,  giving  it 
a  total  diameter  of  121  feet  6  inches.  The  top  of  the  mound  is  flat 
and  originally  supported  a  stone  railing  and  the  usual  pinnacle.  This 
railing  was  still  standing  in  1819.  When  complete,  the  full  height 
must  have  been  77^  feet.  The  s/F/pa  is  enclosed  by  a  massive  stone 
railing,  with  monolithic  uprights  ri  feet  high,  which  is  pierced  by  four 

VOL.  XXII.  c 


28  SANCHl 

gates  covered  with  carving  l:)Oth  illustrative  and  decorative.  To  the 
north  and  south  originally  stood  two  monoliths,  which  may  have  borne 
edicts  of  Asoka,  one  of  which  near  the  east  gate  was  still  entire  in 
1862  and  measured  15  feet  2  inches  in  height.  Just  inside  each 
gate  is  a  nearly  life-size  figure  of  one  of  the  Dhyani  Buddhas ;  but 
unfortunately  they  have  been  moved,  and  no  longer  occupy  their 
original  positions.  The  carved  gates  are  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  edifice.  They  stand  facing  the  four  cardinal  points,  and 
measure  28  feet  5  inches  to  the  top  of  the  third  architrave,  and  with 
the  ornamentation  above,  32  feet  11  inches.  They  are  cut  in  a  white 
sandstone  rather  softer  than  the  red  stone  used  in  the  mound,  and  are 
profusely  carved  with  scenes  from  the  Jataka  stories  and  other  legends. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Buddha  himself  is  nowhere  delineated.  Bodhi 
trees  or  footprints  alone  represent  him ;  of  the  meditating  or  preaching 
figures  common  in  later  Buddhist  sculpture  there  is  no  trace. 

The  construction  of  the  mound  is  assigned  to  250  B.C.,  and  it  was 
probably  erected  by  Asoka.  The  gates,  judging  from  the  inscriptions 
upon  them,  are  slightly  earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Of  the  history  of  Sanchi  we  know  nothing.  Neither  of  the  Chinese 
pilgrims,  Fa  Hian  or  Hiuen  Tsiang,  makes  any  mention  of  the  place, 
while  the  Mahavamso  merely  narrates  a  tale  of  how  Asoka,  when  sent 
as  a  young  man  to  be  governor  of  Ujjain,  married  the  daughter  of 
the  Sreshtin  or  headman  of  Chaitiyagiri  or  Vasanta-nagar,  of  which 
the  ruins,  now  known  as  Beshnagar,  may  be  seen  near  BhIlsa,  but  no 
mention  is  made  of  this  stupa. 

Close  by  are  the  ruins  of  a  small  temple,  built  in  Gupta  style,  and 
probably  of  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  Beside  it  stand  the  ruins  of  a 
chaitya  hall  or  Buddhist  church,  which  is  of  great  importance  archi- 
tecturally, being  the  only  structural  building  of  its  kind  known  to  us, 
the  other  examples  of  chaitya  halls  being  rock-cut.  All  that  remains 
are  a  series  of  lofty  pillars  and  the  foundations  of  the  wall,  which  show 
that  it  was  terminated  by  a  solid  apse.  To  the  north-east  of  the  great 
stupa  formerly  stood  a  smaller  one,  which  is  now  a  heap  of  bricks  with 
a  carved  gateway  before  it.  To  the  east  on  a  kind  of  terrace  are  several 
shrines  with  colossal  figures  of  Buddha.  On  the  western  slope  of  the 
hill,  down  which  a  rough  flight  of  steps  leads,  is  the  smaller  stupa, 
surrounded  by  a  railing  without  gates. 

Several  relic  caskets  and  more  than  four  hundred  epigraphical  records 
have  been  discovered,  the  last  being  cut  on  the  railings  and  gates. 
A  fragment  of  an  edict  pillar  of  the  emperor  Asoka,  carrying  a  record 
similar  to  that  on  the  .Allahabad  pillar  and  the  pillar  lately  discovered 
at  Sarnalh,  has  also  been  unearthed  here.  The  record  is  addressed 
to  the  Maha  matra  in  charge  of  Malwa,  and  appears  to  refer  to  the  up- 
keep of  a  road  leading  to  or  round  the  stupa.     Great  interest  attaches 


SAXDAKrifU  29 

to  the  numerous  inscriptions  on  tlie  gates  and  railings.  Some  are 
from  corporate  bodies,  as  from  the  guild  of  ivory-workers  of  Vidisha 
(Bhilsa),  and  from  private  individuals  of  all  classes,  landholders,  alder- 
men (Sethi),  traders,  royal  scribes,  and  troopers,  showing  how  strong 
a  hold  Buddhism  had  obtained  on  all  classes  of  the  people.  No 
different  sects  are  mentioned,  such  as  are  met  with  in  Buddhist  cave 
records,  but  the  presence  of  Saiva  and  Vaishnava  names  proves  the 
existence  of  these  forms  of  belief  at  this  period.  The  donors  live 
at  various  places,  Eran  (Eranika),  Pushkara  (Pokhara),  Ujjain  (Ujeni), 
and  elsewhere.  The  records  run  from  the  first  or  second  century  B.C. 
to  the  ninth  and  tenth  a.d.,  and  include  some  of  unusual  interest.  One 
assigns  the  gift  of  an  upper  architrave  on  the  south  gate  to  Rano  Sari 
SatakarnI,  one  of  the  Andhra  kings,  in  characters  which  fix  the  date 
of  its  erection  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century  b.c.  Two  records 
dated  (in  the  Gupta  era)  in  a.d.  412  and  450  record  grants  of  money 
for  the  feeding  of  beggars  and  lighting  of  lamps  in  the  great  vihara 
(monastery)  of  Kakanadabota.  Another  record  appears  to  refer  to 
a  Kushan  king,  probably  Jushka  or  Vasudeva.  In  these  records  the 
name  of  the  place  is  written  Kakanada,  or  in  Pali  Kakanava,  the  name 
Sanchi  nowhere  occurring. 

The  stupa  was  first  discovered  by  General  Taylor  in  18 18,  and  was 
described  by  Captain  Fell  in  1819.  It  has  since  been  the  subject  of 
accounts  by  various  writers,  besides  forming  the  basis  of  three  books : 
A.  Cunningham,  Bh'ilsa  Topes  (1854) ;  J.  Fergusson,  Tree  and  Serpeut- 
Wo7-ship  (1868  and  1873);  and  F.  C.  Maisey,  Sduch'i  and  its  Remains 
(1892). 

In  1828  Mr.  Maddock,  Political  Agent  at  Bhopal,  and  Captain 
Johnson,  his  Assistant,  injured  the  two  stupas  by  a  careless  examina- 
tion. Though  then  well-known,  the  place  was  practically  neglected 
till  1881-2,  when  the  breach  in  the  great  stupa  was  filled  in  and  the 
fallen  gates  were  re-erected.  The  site  is  now  in  charge  of  the  Director- 
General  of  Archaeology,  the  Bhopal  Darbar  giving  a  yearly  grant 
towards  its  upkeep.  In  1868  the  emperor  Napoleon  III  wrote  to 
the  Begam  asking  for  one  of  the  gates  as  a  gift.  The  Government 
of  India,  however,  refused  to  allow  it  to  be  removed,  and  instead 
plaster  casts  were  taken  and  sent  to  Paris  ;  there  are  also  casts  at 
the  South  Kensington  Museum  in  T.ondon,  at  Dublin,  Edinburgh, 
and  elsewhere. 

[J.  Burgess,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  (1903),  p.  t^it^ 
(gives  a  summary  of  SanchT  literature) ;  Epigraphia  Indica,  vol.  viii, 
p.  166.] 

Sandakphu.— One  of  the  principal  peaks  in  the  Singalila  spur  of 
the  Himalayas,  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Darjeeling  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  27°  6'  N.  and  88°  o' E.     The  height  above 

c  2 


30  SANDAKPHU 

sea-level  is  11,930  feet.  It  commands  an  unequalled  view  not  only 
of  the  Sikkim  snows,  but  also  of  the  Nepal  mountains,  including 
Everest.  The  Nepal  frontier  road  runs  over  the  hill,  and  there  is  a 
staging  bungalow  which  is  available  to  travellers  on  application  to 
the  Deputy-Commissioner  of  Darjeeling. 

Sandarbans. — Government  estate  in  the  Twenty-four  Parganas  and 
Khulna  Districts,  Bengal,  and  Backergunge  District,  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam.     See  Sundarbans. 

Sandeman,  Fort.  — Subdivision,  tahsil,  and  town  in  Zhob  District? 
Baluchistan.     See  Fort  Sandeman. 

Sandi. — Town  in  the  Bilgram  tahsll  of  Hardo!  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  27°  18'  N.  and  79°  58'  E.,  at  the  termination 
of  a  metalled  road  from  Hardo!  town.  Population  (1901),  9,072.  The 
name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Raja  Santan,  a  Somavansi  of  JhusI,  who 
expelled  the  Thatheras  and  founded  a  fort.  Sandl  was  subsequently  ac- 
quired by  Saiyids,  who  held  it  for  many  years.  It  is  surrounded  by  fine 
groves  of  mangoes,  and  north-east  lies  the  great  Dakar  Lake.  Sandi 
was  a  municipality  from  1877  to  1904,  when  it  was  constituted  a 
'notified  area.'  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  income  and 
expenditure  averaged  Rs.  4,200,  and  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  9,000. 
There  is  an  important  market,  and  the  town  produces  blankets  and 
small  cotton  carpets  and  cloth.  There  are  two  schools  with  200  pupils, 
and  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist  Mission  is  maintained  here. 

Sandila  Tahsil. — South-eastern  tahsll  of  Hardoi  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Sandila,  Kalyanmal,  Gundwa, 
and  Balamau,  and  lying  between  26°  53'  and  27°  21'  N.  and  80°  16" 
and  80°  49'  E.,  with  an  area  of  558  square  miles.  Population  fell  from 
277,359  ""*  ^^91  to  266,195  ^^  1901,  the  rate  of  decrease  being  the 
highest  in  the  District.  There  are  415  villages  and  only  one  town, 
Sandila  (population,  16,843),  the  tahsil  head-quarters.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  4,28,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  68,000. 
The  density  of  population,  477  persons  per  square  mile,  is  slightly  above 
the  District  average.  The  tahsll  lies  between  the  Gumtl  on  the  north- 
east and  the  Sai  on  the  south-west.  Near  the  rivers  inferior  sandy 
tracts  are  found,  the  banks  of  the  GumtT  being  especially  poor.  In 
1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  338  square  miles,  of  which  116 
were  irrigated.  Wells  and  tanks  are  almost  equally  important  as  a 
source  of  supply,  and  the  liability  of  the  latter  to  fail  in  dry  seasons 
renders  the  tract  very  insecure. 

Sandila  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name, 
Hardoi  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  4'  N.  and  80*^30''  E., 
on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Population  (1901),  16,843. 
The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Arakhs,  who  were  ex- 
pelled towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Musalmans. 


SANDOWAY  DISTRICT  31 

It  was  visited  by  Firoz  Shah  Tughlak,  who  built  a  mosque,  now  in 
ruins.  Other  mosques  are  of  later  date  ;  and  a  remarkable  building 
called  the  Bara  Khambha  or  '  twelve  pillars,'  which  contains  a  tomb, 
was  erected  in  Akbar's  reign.  Sandila  possesses  male  and  female 
hospitals  and  a  town  hall,  besides  the  usual  ofifices.  It  has  been  admin- 
istered as  a  municipality  since  1868.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  ir,ooo.  In  1903-4 
the  income  was  Rs.  j  2,000,  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  8,000);  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  14,000.  A  market  is  held  twice  a  week,  and 
there  is  a  large  export  trade  in  firewood  to  Lucknow.  The  town  also 
exports  pan,  ghi,  and  sweetmeats.  Manufactures  include  art  pottery, 
cotton  curtains,  and  tablecloths  which  bear  artistic  designs  in  large 
checks.  There  are  three  schools  for  boys  and  two  for  girls,  with  a 
total  of  430  pupils,  and  the  American  Methodist  Mission  has  a  branch 
here. 

Sandoway  District  (Burmese,  Thandive). — A  coast  District  in  the 
Arakan  Division  of  Lower  Burma,  formed  by  a  narrow  strip  of  sea-board 
lying  between  17°  15''  and  19°  32'  N.  and  94°  o'  and  94°  52'  E.,  with  an 
extreme  length  of  179  miles  and  an  extreme  breadth  of  48  miles,  and 
an  area  of  3,784  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ma-i 
river,  which  separates  it  from  Kyaukpyu  District ;  on  the  east  by  the 
Arakan  Yoma,  which  divides  it  from  Thayetmyo,  Prome,  Henzada,  and 
Bassein ;  on  the  south  by  the  Kyaukchun  stream  and  the  Kyadaung 
hills ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  southern  boun- 
dary was  formerly  the  Gwa  river,  but  in  1893  a  small  tract  to  the  south 
of  that  stream  was  added  from  Bassein  District. 

The  District  is  mountainous.     The  spurs  of  the  Arakan  Yoma  reach 

almost  to  the  coast,  so  that  not  more  than  one-eighteenth  of  the  area  is 

level.     Except  in  this  plain,  and  on  the  sides  of  the 

Physical 
hills  where  taungya  clearings  have  been  made,  the  aspects 

District  is  covered  with  dense  jungle  of  considerable 

variety,  which  adds    much    to    its    beauty.     The    main    range  of   the 

Arakan  Yoma  has  in  the  north  a  direction  south-east-by-south  ;  but 

it  gradually  curves  towards  the  west,  and  at  the  source  of  the  Gwa, 

where  it  crosses  the  border  into  Bassein  District,  it  runs  nearly  due 

north  and  south.     In  the  north  some  of  the  peaks  attain  an  elevation 

little  short  of  5,000  feet,  which  falls  to  3,200  feet  at  Shaukbin,  where  the 

Taungup  pass  crosses  the  range.    South  of  18°  21'  N.  the  height  rapidly 

diminishes,  and  at  the  sources  of  the  Gwa  is  only  about  890  feet.    From 

the  mouth  of  the  Sandoway  river  northwards  the  coast  is  indented  with 

intercommunicating  tidal  creeks  ;    southwards  it  presents  a  rugged  and 

rocky  barrier  to  the  ocean.     An  uninhabited  island,  known  as   Foul 

Island,  and  called  by  the  Burmans  Nanthakyun,  lies  off  the  coast.    The 

name  is  derived  from  a  mud  volcano,  which  gives  the  island  its  conical 


32  SANDOWAY  DISTRICT 

appearance,  and  at  times  pours  out  a  strongly  smelling  torrent  of  hot 
mud  bubbling  with  marsh  gas. 

Most  of  the  rivers  draining  the  District  are  but  mountain  torrents  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  coast.  The  most  important  streams,  all  of  which 
rise  in  the  western  slopes  of  the  Arakan  Yoma,  are  the  Ma-i  and  the 
Tanlwe,  falling  into  the  arm  of  the  sea  which  divides  the  island  of  Ram- 
ree  from  the  mainland  ;  the  Taungup,  entering  the  Bay  of  Bengal  a  little 
farther  down  the  coast  near  the  village  of  the  same  name  ;  the  Sandoway, 
a  tidal  river  navigable  by  large  boats  as  far  as  Sandoway  town,  but  un- 
fortunate in  its  roadstead,  which  is  exposed  and  dangerous ;  and  the 
Gwa,  which  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  at  17°  36'  N.,  and  forms  a  good 
anchorage  for  steamers  and  vessels  drawing  from  9  to  10  feet  of  water. 

The  rocks  of  the  District  are  mostly  Cretaceous.  The  Ma-i  river  has 
given  its  name  to  a  group  of  beds  of  the  Arakan  Yoma,  which  occupies 
a  large  part  of  the  ground,  the  remainder  being  taken  up  by  beds  of 
eocene  age  (Nummulitic).  The  Ma-i  beds  comprise  limestone,  shales, 
and  greyish-green  sandstone,  while  shales,  sandstone,  and  some  lime- 
stones make  up  the  strata  of  the  Nummulitic  group. 

Almost  the  whole  face  of  the  country  is  covered  with  forest,  varying 
in  kind  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  land,  whether  low,  slightly 
hilly,  or  high.  The  lowest  ground,  within  tidal  limits,  is  covered  with 
dense  mangrove  jungle.  Above  this,  interspersed  among  the  rice 
plains,  trees  such  as  the  pyinma  [Lagerstroemla  Flos  Reginae)  and  the 
kanyinbyu  {Dipterocarpus  alatiis)  are  found  in  some  numbers ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  ground  rises,  dry  forest  appears  and  forms  a  belt  along  the 
lower  hill  slopes.  The  most  important  and  characteristic  trees  here 
are  the  pyingado  {Xylia  dolabriforinis),  the  /;/  {Dipterocarpus  tuber- 
culatus),  the  pyinma,  the  kanyinbyu,  the  thingan  {Hopea  odorata),  the 
zinbyiin  {Dillenia  pentagyna\  and  the  niyai/kchaw  {Homaiii/ni  tomen- 
tosum).  Various  kinds  of  palm  are  common,  especially  the  dani  {Nipa 
fruticaiis). 

The  fauna  is  very  rich  and  varied,  including  elephants,  tigers, 
rhinoceros,  leopards,  wild  cats,  bears,  bison,  wild  hog,  deer,  monkeys, 
and  crocodiles.  The  jackal  is  pressing  in  on  the  north,  and  has  now 
become  quite  coumaon  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Taungup.  Game-birds 
are  plentiful. 

The  climate  of  Sandoway  is  generally  considered  to  be  more  pleasant 
and  healthy  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  Arakan.  As  throughout 
Burma,  the  year  falls  into  three  seasons  :  the  cold  season,  from 
November  to  February ;  the  hot  season,  from  February  to  May ;  and 
the  wet  season,  from  May  to  October.  The  mean  monthly  maximum 
and  minimum  temperatures  are  90°  in  June  and  72°  in  January. 

The  rainfall  is  very  heavy.  During  the  three  years  ending  1904  it 
averaged  189  inches  o\er  the  District,  ranging  from  158  inches  at  Gwa 


HISTORY  33 

tu  201  at  Taungup,  and  amounting  to  198  inches  at  Sandoway  town. 

July  is  the  rainiest  month  of  the  year.     Floods  are  not  uncommon  in 

the  Sandoway  township.     The  creeks  being  narrow,  the  superfluous 

water  received  during  heavy  rains  causes  them  to  overflow  their  banks, 

and  in  some  cases  to  damage  cultivated  fields,  though  in  other  cases 

the  loam  deposited  helps  to  enrich  the  soil. 

The  origin  of  the  name  of  the  District  is  obscure.     The  following 

is  one  of  the  most   imaginative  of   the  derivations  assigned   to  it  in 

the  palm-leaf  chronicles.    There  reigned  in  Benares, 

•  1  1      J        •  r  ,  ,-r  History. 

at  a  time  when  the  duration  of  human  life  was  90 

millions  of  years,  a  descendant  of  the  first  Buddha  of  the  present 
epoch,  one  of  whose  sons  received  as  his  portion  the  country  now 
forming  Sandoway  District.  For  him  the  nats  or  spirits  built  a  city, 
Dwarawadi,  near  the  modern  Sandoway.  Many  ages  later  a  branch  of 
another  Benares  house  overthrew  the  ruling  dynasty  and  started  a  line 
of  their  own  in  Dwarawadi.  During  the  reign  of  the  last  of  these 
monarchs  the  country  was  attacked  by  the  grandsons  of  a  king  who 
ruled  in  Mogaung.  Arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thandwe  river,  the 
invaders  failed  in  their  attempts  to  find  the  city,  owing  to  the  devices 
of  its  guardian  nat,  or,  as  some  say,  to  its  miraculous  power  of  soaring 
above  the  earth  in  times  of  danger.  At  length  the  guardian  withdrew 
her  protection,  and  the  breathers  then  bound  the  city  to  the  earth  with 
an  iron  chain  and  divided  their  conquest  into  ten  shares,  making 
Thandwe  ('  iron-bound ')  their  capital.  The  legend  of  the  rule  in 
Sandoway  of  princely  houses  from  Benares  rests  probably  on  no  basis 
of  fact ;  but  that  there  has  been  at  least  one  Shan  invasion  of  Arakan 
is  certain,  and  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  at  one  time 
Sandoway  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Arakan.  In  later  years 
Sandoway  appears  only  as  a  province  of  the  Arakan  kingdom,  until  the 
conquest  of  Arakan  by  the  Burmans  in  1784.  It  was  then  formed  into 
a  governorship,  and  its  ivtin  or  governor  was  one  of  the  commanders 
of  the  Burmese  army  which  invaded  Bengal  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  Burmese  War.  The  country  was  ceded  to  the  British  with  the  rest 
of  Arakan  by  the  Treaty  of  Yandabo  in  1826,  and  was  at  first  garrisoned 
by  a  regiment  of  native  infantry.  A  few  years  later  the  military  head- 
quarters were  transferred  to  Kyaukpyu.  In  1890  Sandoway  town  was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  fanatics  headed  by  certain  pongyis.  The 
insurgents  succeeded  in  setting  fire  to  the  courthouse,  but  dispersed 
when  fired  upon  by  the  police,  and  since  then  the  District  has  enjoyed 
uninterrupted  quiet. 

Sandoway  does  not  boast  of  many  antiquities ;  but  it  possesses  three 
features  of  archaeological  interest  in  the  pagodas  known  as  the  Sandaw, 
Andaw,  and  Nandaw,  on  the  hills  near  Sandoway  town.  These 
pagodas  are  said  to  have  been  erected  by  the  old  Arakaiiese  kings  in 


34  SANDOWAY  DISTRICT 

the  years  .\.d.  761-84,  to  cover  respectively  a  hair,  a  tooth,  and  a  rib 
of  Gautama.  Three  times  a  year  pilgrims  resort  to  these  pagodas, 
remaining  one  day  at  each  shrine.  Ancient  silver  coins  are  sometimes 
found,  struck  by  kings  of  Arakan,  some  of  which  bear  dates  and  names 
in  Burmese  characters,  and  others  in  Persian  or  varieties  of  Nagari. 
Stones  inscribed  in  Sanskrit,  of  the  eighth  century,  have  been  dis- 
covered near  the  Sandoway  river. 

The  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was:    (1872)55,325, 

(1881)   65,182,   (1891)    78,509,   and   (1901)   90,927. 

The  principal    statistics  of  area  and   population  in 
1901  are  given  in  the  following  table: — 


Population. 


Township. 

J) 

3 

< 

Number  of 

Population.      ] 

1 
Population  per 
square  mile. 

Percentajre  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8gi 
and  iqoi. 

0 

3  0  lU   "^ 

a 

5,980 
7,439 
3,757 

I 

biC 
> 

23' 

'77 

Taungup 

Sandoway 

Gwa 

Distiict  total 

1,510 
1,010 
1,264 

32,948 
39,542 

'8,437 

22 

39 
15 

+    13 
+   16 
+  20 

3.784 

I 

633 

90,927 

24 

+    16 

17,176 

For  Lower  Burma  the  rate  of  growth  during  the  past  thirty  years  has 
been  slow,  though  the  population  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  in 
the  adjacent  District  of  Kyaukpyu.  The  density  is  still,  however, 
below  that  of  Kyaukpyu,  and  in  view  of  the  large  proportion  of  hill 
country  is  never  likely  to  be  much  enhanced.  In  1901,  79,400  persons 
(or  87  per  cent,  of  the  population)  were  Buddhists,  6,500  (7  per  cent.) 
Animists,  and  3,900  (4  per  cent.)  Musalmans.  The  tide  of  Muham- 
madan  immigration,  which  has  flooded  the  northern  portion  of  the 
coasts  of  Arakan,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  yet  penetrated  as  far 
south  as  Sandoway.  In  1901  the  Hindus  numbered  only  558. 
Burmese  was  spoken  by  54,300  persons,  Arakanese  by  28,100,  and 
Chin  by  7,100. 

The  number  of  Arakanese  in  the  District  in  1901  was  29,400;  but, 
unlike  Akyab  and  Kyaukpyu,  Sandoway  possesses  more  Burmans  than 
Arakanese,  the  total  of  the  former  being  49,700.  The  only  other 
indigenous  race  of  importance  are  the  Chins,  inhabiting  the  eastern 
hill  areas,  who  numbered  6,800  in  1901.  The  number  of  those  engaged 
in  or  dependent  upon  agriculture  in  1901  was  71,800,  or  nearly  79  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population,  a  very  high  proportion.  Of  the  total, 
about  11,000  were  returned  as  dependent  upon  taiiiigya  cultivation 
alone. 

There  were  528  Christians  in  1901,  of  whom  477  were  natives,  mostly 
Baptists.     The  American  Baptist  Union   has  established  a  church  at 


AGRICULTURE  35 

Sandoway  town,  and  a  school  for  Chin  children.    The  mission  has  a 

good  many  converts  among  the  Chins  and  a  few  among  Burmans. 

The  prevalent  soils  are  loams,  more  or  less  sandy.     Owing  to  the 

hilly  conformation  of  the    surfiice,   there   are   no  large  homogeneous 

tracts.      In    the    low-lyint:   lands  which    receive   the       .     .     ,^ 

.  .  ,  Agriculture. 

drainage  from  the  surroundmg  hills,  the  soil  may  be 

cxcel'ent,  while  that  on   neighbouring  slopes  may  be  poor.     A  tract 

classification    was,   however,   made   at   the   settlement   of   1897-8,   as 

follows.     The  best  land  includes  the  greater  portion  of  the  Taungup 

township,  a  belt  of  land  on  both  banks  of  the  Sandoway  river,  an  open 

space   surrounded    by   hills   in   the   Sandoway   township,   and   a   few 

scattered  areas  of  excellent  crop-bearing   land  in  the  Gwa  township. 

A  second  tract  consists  of  the  lighter  and  inferior  soils  found  in  the 

vicinity  of  Taungup,  and  some  scattered  stretches  near  the  sea-coast 

and  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  in  the  Sandoway  and  Gwa  townships. 

The  last  division  is  a  sandy  ridge  along  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 

stretching  from   Padin  to  Gwachaung,  where  the  soil  is  very  much 

exhausted  and  inferior  to  that  in  the  two  other  areas. 

Taungya  or  hill  clearings  are  worked  chiefly  for  sugar-cane,  plan- 
tains, cotton,  and  maize,  while  rice,  tobacco,  and  sesamum  are  grown 
in  the  plains  and  valleys.  Different  systems  of  cultivation  are  followed 
in  different  parts  of  the  District.  In  the  Taungup  and  Sandoway 
townships,  where  the  rainfall  is  exceedingly  heavy,  an  ordinary  plough 
is  used  to  turn  the  soil  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  rains;  but  in  the 
Gwa  township  the  surface  of  the  land  is  simply  scraped  with  harrows 
before  the  seed  is  sown. 

The  occupations  of  the  people  are  almost  exclusively  agriculture  and 
fishing.  Rice  holdings  as  a  rule  are  too  small  to  support  a  family, 
and  rice  cultivators  engage  also  in  the  cultivation  of  miscellaneous 
crops,  as  well  as  in  fishing  and  cattle-breeding. 

Only  106  square  miles  were  cultivated  in  1903-4,  but  this  represents 
an  increase  of  nearly  50  per  cent,  since  1 880-1.  The  principal  crops 
grown  in  1903-4  were:  rice,  92  square  miles;  tobacco,  1,900  acres; 
and  sugar-cane.  The  staple  food-grain  is  rice  ;  other  food-crops  are 
chillies,  plantains,  coco-nuts,  and  a  little  maize.  Of  garden  fruits, 
mangoes,  pine-apple,  and  jack  are  grown  throughout  the  District,  but 
are  of  inferior  quality.  The  area  under  garden  cultivation  is  1,900 
acres.  The  dani  palm  covers  3,100  acres,  for  the  most  part  in  the 
Taungup  township,  while  tobacco  is  grown  mainly  in  the  Sandoway 
township. 

Agricultural  loans  amounting  to  a  few  hundred  rupees  yearly  are 
given  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act;  but  nothing  is  advanced 
under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  and  very  little  is  done  by 
the  people  themselves  to  improve  their  agricultural  methods. 


36  SANDO IVA  Y  DISTRICT 

No  systematic  cattle-breeding  is  carried  on,  but  the  stock  employed 
is  mainly  home-bred.  Ponies  are  scarce,  and  would  be  of  little  use  in 
this  country  of  hill  ridges  and  tidal  creeks.  The  grazing  problem  is  not 
acute,  for  abundant  fodder  is  to  be  had  on  the  hills,  and  almost  every 
village  has  grazing  grounds  sufficient  for  its  need.  A  little  difficulty  is, 
however,  sometimes  experienced  near  the  sea  beach,  where  the  grass 
is  apt  to  dry  up  by  the  end  of  the  dry  season.  Cattle-disease  is  rare. 
This  has  been  ascribed  to  the  industry  of  the  cultivators  in  supplying 
their  cattle  with  water  from  wells  during  the  hot  season,  instead  of 
allowing  them  to  drink  from  the  tanks  in  which  they  bathe. 

The  District  has  no  system  of  irrigation ;  cultivation  is  dependent 
upon  the  annual  rainfall,  which  fortunately  is  on  the  whole  regular. 
Unseasonable  rain  or  breaks  in  the  monsoon  sometimes  cause  local 
scarcity  owing  to  the  deficiency  of  communications,  but  widespread 
distress  is  unknown.  The  only  important  leased  fisheries  are  the 
Maungdauk  and  Migyaungye  turtle-banks,  which  fetch  about  Rs.  800 
annually.  Net  licences  arc  issued  by  township  officers  and  circle  thitgyis. 
The  number  of  fishermen  and  their  dependents  in  1901  was  1,404. 

A  description  of  the  forests  has  been  given  under  the  head  of 
Botany.  From  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  three  most  valuable 
trees  are  the  pyingado  {Xylia  dolabriformis)  or  iron- 
wood,  a  timber  almost  equal  to  teak  in  hardness,  and 
much  used  for  house-building,  railway  sleepers,  and  furniture ;  the  in 
{Dipterocarpus  tubenulatiis)^  a  useful  timber  from  which  a  thick  resin 
is  extracted  ;  and  the  kanyinbyu  [Dipierocarpt/s  alatus),  a  large  tree 
which  yields  an  inflammable  oil,  nmch  used  in  making  torches.  It  is 
only  recently  that  the  Forest  department  has  extended  its  operations 
regularly  into  the  District.  There  is  a  teak  plantation  of  7^  acres  near 
Sandoway  town.  Teak-trees  exist  also  near  Taungup  and  on  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Thade  river.  The  forest  receipts  in  1903-4  were  slightly 
in  excess  of  Rs.  7,000. 

There  are  no  minerals  of  any  importance,  so  far  as  is  known.  Car- 
bonaceous deposits  have  from  time  to  time  been  reported  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Sandoway  town,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  the  coal  is 
of  value.  Limestone  is  burnt  in  certain  circles.  Salt-boiling  is  carried 
on  in  a  few  villages  near  the  coast.  Salt  is  manufactured  in  two  ways, 
known  locally  as  sitpo  and  lebo  (the  '  straining '  and  the  '  field '  pro- 
cesses). By  the  first  method  the  saline  crusts  are  gathered  after  ebb- 
tide, the  salt  contained  in  them  is  dissolved  and  the  solution  boiled. 
In  the  second  the  salt  water  is  evaporated  on  the  fields  and  the  process 
repeated  till  the  brine  is  sufficiently  concentrated,  when  it  is  drained  off 
into  a  tank.  In  boiling,  iron  cauldrons  and  earthen  pots  are  used — 
the  former  exclusively  in  the  Sandoway,  and  the  latter  in  the  'I'aungup 
township. 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIOXS  57 

The  manufactures  as  a  whole  are  few  and  unimijortanl.     Bricks  are 
burnt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sandoway.     Pots  (unglazed)  of  the  usual 
kind  are   made  at   Kinmaw  and   Natmaw.      Rough 
mat-plaiting  and  thatch-making  are  universal.     Silk-  communications. 
and  cotton-weaving  are  common  in  the  villages,  where 
the  women  work  on  hand-looms  to  supply  the  local  demand.     'J'he 
Chins  weave  and  embroider  shawls  of  good  quality  and  artistic  design. 
Sugar-cane  mills  worked  by  cattle  are  common.     The  juice  obtained 
is  boiled  down   into  jaggery,  which   is  exported    to  Akyab    in   large 
quantities,  the  total  produce  being  estimated  at  over  1,600  tons  a  year. 
There  is  a  steam  saw-mill  at  Gyiwa,  half-way  between  Sandoway  town 
and  Taungup. 

The  commerce  of  Sandoway  is  not  extensive  or  imj^ortant.  It  con- 
sists chiefly  of  a  small  coasting  trade  in  salted  fish,  rice,  and  vegetables 
with  Akyab  and  Kyaukpyu  along  the  tidal  creeks,  and  of  a  land  trade 
with  the  Pegu  and  Irrawaddy  Divisions  over  the  Arakan  Yoma  by  way 
of  several  passes  :  namely,  the  old  military  road  from  Taungup  to 
Prome,  and  four  smaller  routes  starting  from  the  Gwa  township  and 
known  as  the  Ponsogyi,  Lekkok,  Bawmi,  and  Thitkauk  routes.  The 
Gwa  township  also  carries  on  a  small  trade  by  sea  during  the  favourable 
season  with  parts  of  Bassein  District.  The  merchandise,  consisting 
chiefly  of  fish,  rice,  hides,  and  jaggery,  is  transported  in  ihaiipaus, 
native-built  boats  of  English  design,  often  over  50  feet  in  length. 
The  principal  exports  are  salted  fish  and  ngapi  (fish-paste),  rice,  timber, 
cattle,  horns,  hides,  tamarinds,  chillies,  jaggery,  and  coco-nuts.  These 
go  to  Akyab,  Kyaukpyu,  Bassein,  Rangoon,  and  Prome.  Railway 
sleepers  are  sent  as  far  as  Chittagong.  The  imports  are  cotton  twist, 
silk  and  other  apparel,  oils,  and  iron  ;  large  quantities  of  tobacco  and 
betel-nuts  are  also  imported  into  the  Gwa  township. 

The  means  of  communication  are  as  yet  very  imperfect.  There 
are  no  railway  lines,  and  only  three  metalled  roads  of  short  length, 
maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department  —  one  from  Sandoway 
town  southwards  to  Padegaw,  about  9  miles,  now  being  continued  to 
Kyeintali ;  another  from  Sandoway  westwards  to  Lintha  on  the  coast, 
6  miles ;  and  a  third  of  5  miles  from  Sandoway  north-westwards  to 
Kinmaw.  The  roads  from  village  to  village  are  mere  foot-tracks  without 
any  banking  or  formation.  The  new  road  from  Sandoway  to  Kyeintali 
will  eventually  be  extended  to  Gwa,  and  will  facilitate  communication 
between  the  northern  parts  of  the  District  and  the  Irrawaddy  delta. 
The  only  means  of  communication  eastwards  are  the  passes  over  the 
Arakan  Yoma  mentioned  above.  The  chief  of  these  connects  the 
village  of  Taungup  in  the  north  with  Padaung  on  the  Irrawaddy,  in 
Prome  District.  This  is  an  old  route  which  was  followed  by  the 
Burmans  in  their  invasion  of  Arakan  in  [784,  and  again  by  the  British 


38  SANDOWAY  DISTRICT 

in  1825,  though  it  was  then  pronounced  to  be  unfit  for  troops  or  laden 
cattle.  The  road  has  since  been  considerably  widened  and  rendered 
practicable  for  cart  traffic,  and  has  recently  been  surveyed  for  a  railway 
line.  Its  value  as  a  trade  route  is  not,  however,  very  great,  for  it  is 
not  metalled  and  cannot  be  used  by  carts  during  the  rains.  The  other 
passes  are  not  much  used. 

In  the  Taungup  and  Sandoway  townships  travelling  by  water  is 
practicable  during  most  of  the  year,  as  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sando- 
way river  northwards  the  coast  is  indented  with  navigable  tidal  creeks, 
by  means  of  which  communications  can  be  kept  up.  Southwards  the 
coast  is  rugged  and  rocky,  with  few  available  harbours.  The  steamers 
of  the  British  India  Company  call  weekly  each  way  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Sandoway  river,  communication  between  the  roadstead  and  the  town 
of  Sandoway,  15  miles  off,  being  maintained  by  launch.  Only  small 
steamers  of  19  or  20  tons  can  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  Sandoway 
town,  and  in  the  dry  season  even  these  are  detained  till  the  tide 
serves.  This  is  the  cause  of  much  delay  and  inconvenience,  both 
in  the  delivery  of  mails  and  in  the  expedition  of  merchandise. 

Foul  Island  has  been  surveyed  with  a  view  to  the  building  of  a 
lighthouse.  At  present  no  portion  of  the  coast  of  the  District  is 
lighted. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  townships :  Taungup  in  the  north, 
Sandoway  in  the  centre,  and  Gwa  in  the  south.  There  are  no  sub- 
.  .  .  divisions.  The  head-quarters  magistrate  is  in  charge 
of  the  treasury  at  Sandoway  town ;  where  also  are 
an  akunwun  in  charge  of  the  revenue  and  a  superintendent  of  land 
records,  under  whom  are  2  inspectors  and  10  surveyors.  The  excise 
staff  is  under  the  District  Superintendent  of  police,  subject  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  The  District  forms  a  subdivision 
of  the  Arakan  Public  Works  division,  which  is  conterminous  with  the 
civil  Division. 

The  northern  township,  where  the  system  of  revenue  collection  by 
the  agency  of  village  headmen  has  as  yet  been  introduced  only  to  a 
small  extent,  has  six  circle  thugyis ;  the  central  four ;  and  the  southern 
none.  The  total  number  of  village  headmen  in  the  District  is  233, 
of  whom  106  are  revenue  collectors,  remunerated  by  commission  at 
6  and  7  per  cent,  in  the  northern  and  central  townships,  and  at  10 
per  cent,  in  the  southern  township. 

The  Deputy-Conmiissioner  and  the  township  officers  are  magistrates 
and  judges  for  their  respective  charges,  and  the  treasury  officer  is 
additional  judge  of  the  Sandoway  township  court.  He  does  all  the 
civil  work  of  that  court,  and  also  tries  criminal  cases  when  the  town- 
ship officer  is  on  tour.  Fifteen  of  the  village  headmen  have  been 
empowered   to  try  certain   classes  of  petty  civil   suits,  and   two  have 


ADMINIRTRA  TION 


39 


special  criminal  powers  under  the  Village  Act.  There  are  benches  of 
honorary  magistrates  at  Sandoway  town  and  Taungup. 

Under  native  rule  revenue  from  land  in  Sandoway  was  taken  in  the 
shape  of  a  plough  tax.  Five  baskets  of  paddy  were  levied  for  each 
pair  of  buffaloes  used  in  ploughing,  half  a  basket  being  claimed  by  the 
keeper  of  the  royal  granary  as  wastage.  A  poll  tax  and  transit  dues 
were  also  collected.  In  1828,  shortly  after  the  annexation  of  Arakan, 
it  was  calculated  that  every  head  of  a  family  paid  Rs.  17  per  annum 
in  the  shape  of  revenue  to  Government.  In  1865-6  a  partial  settle- 
ment was  carried  out  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner,  resulting  in  a  few 
reductions  of  rates  on  account  of  the  alleged  exhaustion  of  the  soil 
and  a  desire  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  waste  land,  and  there 
were  further  settlement  operations  in  1 890-1 ;  but  practically  there  may 
be  said  to  have  been  a  uniform  rate  of  Rs.  i-io  per  acre  throughout 
the  District  until  1897-8,  when  an  area  of  148  square  miles  which  had 
been  cadastrally  surveyed  in  1892-3,  and  brought  under  supplementary 
survey  in  1894-5,  was  classified  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  regularly  settled.  The  average  rate  for  rice  land  over  the  whole 
District  is  now  Rs.  1-9-1  per  acre,  and,  in  the  settled  areas,  ranges 
from  14  annas  to  Rs.  2-8.  Garden  cultivation  is  assessed  at  a  uni- 
form rate  of  Rs.  1-12,  and  miscellaneous  cultivation  at  Rs.  2  to 
Rs.  4.  Over  the  unsettled  area  the  rates  vary  from  4  annas  to 
Rs.  i-io.  A  further  area  of  about  120  square  miles  was  surveyed 
in  1901-2,  and  summarily  setded  in  1903-4.  The  average  extent 
of  a  holding  in  the  settled  tract  is  2-8  acres,  and  in  the  unsetded 
tract  2-5  acres.  A  grant  of  452  acres  under  the  old  waste-land  grant 
rules  of  1865  still  exists  at  Indainggyi.  The  capitation  tax  rates 
are  Rs.  4  on  married  couples  and  Rs.  2  on  single  persons,  except 
in  a  few  Chin  villages,  where  lower  rates  of  Rs.  2  and  R.  i  are  in 
force. 

The  following  table  shows,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  growth  in 
the  revenue  since  1 880-1  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue  . 

47 
i>49 

1,62 

79 
2,30 

1,12 
2,68 

The  total  revenue  for  1903-4  includes  excise  (Rs.  62,000)  and  capi- 
tation tax  (Rs,  72,000).  The  excise  receipts  include  Rs.  49,500  from 
opium,  Rs.  4,000  from  tdri  (made  from  the  juice  of  the  dani  palm),  and 
Rs.  4,000  from  country  spirit.  Four  shops  are  licensed  for  the  sale  of 
kau7ig,  a  favourite  liquor  among  the  Chins  and  an  important  adjunct 
at  their  ;'/a/-worshipping  festivals. 

The  District  cess  fund,  the  income  of  which  is  derived  mainly  from 


40  SANDOU'AV  nr STRICT 

a  rate  of  lo  per  rent,  on  the  total  land  revenue,  is  administered  by  the 
Deputy-Commissioner  for  the  maintenance  and  construction  of  roads 
and  other  local  necessities.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  14,000. 
The  only  municipality  is  Sandoway  Town,  which  was  constituted  in 
1885. 

The  District  contains  nine  police  stations  and  one  outpost.  The 
District  Superintendent  is  assisted  by  2  inspectors  ;  and  the  force  con- 
sists of  3  head  constables  and  138  sergeants  and  constables,  besides 
1,259  rural  police.  There  are  75  military  police,  stationed  at  Sando- 
way town,  Taungup,  Lamu,  Kyeintali,  and  Gwa.  The  District  jail  has 
accommodation  for  84  prisoners.  Mat-making,  cane-work,  coir-work, 
gardening,  and  carpentry  are  carried  on  by  the  prisoners. 

The  standard  of  education  in  Sandoway  is  not  high.  At  the  same 
time,  though  below  the  Provincial  mean,  the  proportion  of  literate 
males  in  every  1,000  (343)  is  higher  than  in  any  of  the  other  Dis- 
tricts of  the  Arakan  Division.  For  females  the  corresponding  figure 
is  32,  and  for  both  sexes  together  189.  The  total  number  of  pupils 
was  650  in  1880-T,  1,034  in  1890-1,  and  1,586  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4 
there  were  6  secondary,  48  primary,  and  60  elementary  (private)  schools, 
with  2,329  male  and  276  female  pupils.  The  most  important  schools 
are  the  Sandoway  municipal  Anglo-vernacular  school,  and  the  American 
Baptist  Anglo-vernacular  Chin  school,  also  in  Sandoway  town.  The 
American  Baptist  Union  have  opened  a  number  of  small  schools  for 
Chins  in  the  rural  areas.  The  majority  of  these,  however,  have  not 
come  under  the  Educational  department  and  draw  no  results-grants. 
The  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  from  municipal  funds  was 
Rs.  2,800  ;  from  Provincial  funds,  Rs.  600 ;  and  from  the  District  cess 
fund,  Rs.  1,900.  Receipts  from  fees  at  the  municipal  school  yielded 
Rs.  3,200. 

There  are  two  hospitals,  with  accommodation  for  20  in-patients. 
During  1903  the  number  of  in-patients  treated  was  318,  and  that  of 
out-patients  18,677,  and  257  operations  were  performed.  The  expen- 
diture in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  4,000,  chiefly  borne  by  Local  and 
municipal  funds. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  Sandoway  municipality,  but  not  in  the 
interior  of  the  District.  The  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  protected 
is,  however,  said  to  be  fairly  high.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons 
successfully  vaccinated  was  1,735,  representing  19  per  1,000  of  popu- 
lation. 

[B.  Houghton,  Sc/f lenient  Report  (\'&Q)2)  ;  Maung  Pan  Hla,  Settkvient 
Report  {iZgq).] 

SandoAvay  Township. — Township  of  .Sandoway  District,  Lower 
Burma,  lying  between  18°  2'  and  t8°  46'  N.  and  94°  13'  and 
94°    52'   E.,   with  an  area  of   r,oio    square    miles.      It  occupies   the 


SANDOIVAV   TOJfW  41 

central  portion  of  tlio  District.  The  population  in  1901  was  39,542, 
compared  with  34,090  in  1S91.  It  contains  one  town,  SANno\VA\" 
(population,  2,845),  ^^^^  head-quarters  of  the  l^istrict  and  township  ; 
and  231  villages.  It  has  a  fairly  large  number  of  Chin  inhabitants  in 
the  hilly  country  which  forms  the  greater  part  of  its  area,  but  not  so 
many  as  the  Taungup  township,  and  Indians  outnumber  the  Chin 
population.  It  is  full  of  tidal  creeks,  and  there  is  a  little  plain  land 
along  the  valley  of  the  Sandoway  river.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4 
was  47  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  48,700  and  revenue. 

Sandoway  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same 
name  in  Lower  Burma,  situated  in  18°  28'  N.  and  94°  21'  E.,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sandoway  river,  15  miles  to  the  south-east  of  its 
mouth  and  between  4  and  5  miles  due  east  of  the  sea-coast  in  a  direct 
line.  The  town  lies  in  a  hollow,  about  12  miles  long  by  i  broad, 
which  is  cultivated  with  rice  and  surrounded  by  hills.  The  greater 
part  of  it  slopes  gently  from  the  river  bank  to  the  Zi  chaung,  which 
flows  into  the  river  at  the  west  end  of  the  town.  The  native  town 
is  backed  by  a  low  hill,  on  which  stands  the  civil  station  occupied  by 
the  European  officials.  The  officers'  residences  are  in  a  semicircle 
overlooking  the  jail.  'l"he  courthouse  is  some  little  distance  off,  nearer 
the  river. 

It  is  probable  that  Dwarawadi,  the  earliest  known  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Arakan,  was,  if  not  identical  with  Sandoway,  at  any  rate 
in  its  neighbourhood.  Sandoway  was  a  town  of  some  note  at  the 
commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  was  occupied  without 
resistance  in  the  first  Burmese  War,  and  was  subsequently  for  some 
time  the  head-quarters  of  the  garrison  of  Arakan.  Its  growth  of  late 
has  not  been  rapid,  and  it  is  still  little  more  than  a  large  village.  The 
population  in  1901  was  2,845,  '^^  whom  1,640  were  Buddhists,  967 
Musalmans,  and  238  of  other  beliefs.  Sandoway  was  constituted  a 
municipality  in  1885,  and  is  the  smallest  municipality  in  Burma.  The 
receipts  of  the  municipal  fund  during  the  ten  years  ending  190T 
averaged  Rs.  8,300,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  7,500.  In  1903-4  the 
receipts  were  Rs.  11,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  9,000.  House  and 
lighting  taxes  are  levied,  but  market  tolls  are  the  most  substantial  item 
of  revenue,  yielding  Rs.  6,000.  Sandoway,  though  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  a  roadstead  where  ocean  steamers  call,  can  be  reached  only 
by  craft  of  very  light  draught,  and  has  not  been  declared  a  port  under 
the  Ports  Act.  Its  trade  is  registered  by  the  Customs  departmetit,  but 
is  very  small,  and  its  foreign  commerce  is  insignificant.  The  imports 
by  coasting  trade  in  1903-4  were  valued  at  Rs.  2,39,000,  and  the 
exports  at  Rs.  26,000.  The  imports  are  almost  entirely  from  other 
ports  in  Burma.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  export  trade  of  the 
District  does  not  pass  through   Sandoway  town.     It  contains  a   small 


42  SAN  DOW  AY   TOIVN 

jail,  with  accommodation  for  84  prisoners,  a  hospital,  and  several 
schools.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  municipal  Anglo- 
vernacular  school,  with  an  attendance  of  about  120.  There  is  also 
a  mission  school  for  Chins,  managed  by  the  American  Baptist  Union, 
with  70  Chin  pupils  in  1903,  of  whom  24  were  girls. 

Sandur. — The  smallest  and  least  populous  of  the  five  Native  States 
in  direct  political  relations  with  the  Government  of  Madras.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  District  of  Bellary,  the  Collector  of  which  is  the  Politi- 
cal Agent,  and  lies  between  14°  58'  and  15°  14'  N.  and  76°  25''  and 
76°  42'  E.  In  shape  it  is  like  a  torpedo,  with  its  longer  axis  running 
from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  it  is  24  miles  long  and,  at  the 
broadest  part,  13  wide.  The  State  is  161  square  miles  in  area,  con- 
tains 20  villages,  and  has  a  population  (1901)  of  11,200,  of  whom 
between  one-third  and  one-half  live  in  Sandur  town.  It  consists  of 
a  long,  narrow  valley,  shut  in  by  two  nearly  parallel 
^cts  enclosing  walls  of  hills  covered  with  long  grass  and 

forest.  These  hills  are  formed  of  Dharwar  rocks, 
which  were  deposited  upon  the  older  granites  and  then,  as  the  earth's 
surface  cooled,  were,  with  the  granites,  subjected  to  enormous  lateral 
pressure,  and  so  crumpled  up  into  huge  wrinkles.  The  Sandur  valley 
is  the  hollow  of  one  of  these  wrinkles,  and  the  hills  surrounding  it  are 
the  sides  of  a  huge  trough  into  which  the  rocks  have  been  squeezed. 
The  strata  in  them  stand  on  edge,  curve  gradually  below  the  valley, 
and  reappear,  again  on  edge,  on  the  other  side. 

The  two  enclosing  lines  of  hill  are  smooth  in  outline,  flat-topped, 
and  very  level  along  their  summits,  so  that  from  outside  the  State  they 
resemble  long  lines  of  wall  shutting  it  in.  Their  highest  point  is  at  the 
south-east  corner,  above  the  Kumaraswami  temple  referred  to  later, 
where  they  run  up  to  3,400  feet.  Ramanmalai,  in  the  centre  of  the 
southern  of  the  two  lines,  just  above  Ramandrug  hill  station,  is 
3,256  feet  above  the  sea.  At  right  angles  to  the  longer  axis  of  the 
valley,  and  through  both  the  walls  of  hill  which  enclose  it,  runs  the 
Narihalla,  draining  almost  the  whole  of  it.  The  beautiful  little  gorges 
in  the  two  lines  of  hills,  by  which  the  stream  first  enters  and  then 
leaves  the  State,  are  among  the  most  striking  features  of  the  country. 
That  on  the  western  side,  by  which  it  enters,  called  the  Obalagandi, 
lies  about  2^  miles  from  Sandur  town.  At  the  bottom,  where  the 
river  runs,  it  is  only  some  15  yards  wide.  On  either  hand  the  dark 
purple  and  deep  red  hematite  rocks  which  form  the  sides  of  this 
natural  gate  rise  precipitously  to  a  height  of  180  feet,  gradually  near- 
ing  one  another  as  they  ascend.  The  bed  of  the  stream  is  strewn  with 
masses  of  rock  which  appear  to  have  fallen  from  the  sides  of  the  gate, 
and  their  rich  colours  form  a  fine  contrast  to  the  green  of  the  woods 
with  which  the  sides  of  the  hills  are  here  clothed.     The  Bhimagandi, 


SANDUR  43 

as  the  eastern  gorge  by  which  the  Narihalla  lea\  es  the  viillcy  is  chIIccI, 
is  wider,  but  equally  picturesque. 

Among  the  game  of  the  State  may  be  mentioned  occasional  tigers, 
numerous  wild  hog,  and  not  a  few  sd/iil>ar.  Peafowl  are  [)lentiful,  but 
are  held  sacred  to  the  god  Kumaraswami. 

The  valley  is  cooler  than  the  neighbouring  District  of  Bellary  and 
receives  more  rain  than  any  part  of  it,  the  average  fall  approaching 
30  inches  annually.  It  is  singularly  free  from  malaria,  considering  its 
conformation. 

Sandur  has  an  interesting  history.      In   1728   it  was  seized  by  an 

ancestor  of  the  present   Raja,  a   Maratha  named  Siddoji   Rao.     He 

belonged   to  a  family  called  the  Ghorpades,  which 

A  A-       .     .    A-,-        u  f  History, 

name  was  earned,  accordmg  to  tradition,  by  one  01 

them  who  scaled  a  precipitous  fort  by  clinging  to  an  iguana  {ghorpad) 

which  was  crawling  up  it.     Siddoji  Rao's  grandfather  had  been  in  the 

service  of  the  Sultan  of  Bijapur,   and  his   three  sons  joined   in  the 

Maratha    revolt    against   that    king    and    prospered    in    consequence. 

The  second  of  them,  Siddoji's  father,  earned  the  hereditary  titles  of 

Hindu  Rao  and  Mamalikat  (Mamlukat)  Madar  ('centre  of  the  State'), 

which  are  still  used  by  the  Rajas  of  Sandur.     Siddoji's  eldest  son  was 

the  famous  Morari  Rao  of  Goorv,  who  followed  his  father  as  ruler 

of  the  State.     In  the  campaign  of  1775-6  Haidar  All,  after  getting 

possession   of    Bellary,    took    Gooty   from    him,    and   sent    him    to 

Kabbaldurga  hill  in  Mysore,  where  he  died  soon  afterwards.     Haidar 

annexed  the  whole  territory,  including  Sandur,  and  began  the  fort  of 

Krishnanagar   which   is   still    standing    there.      It   was    finished    and 

garrisoned  by  his  son  Tipu. 

Morari  Rao  had  two  sons,  but  they  both  died  in  childhood ;  and  he 
adopted  a  distant  cousin  named  Siva  Rao,  who  fell  about  1785  in  a 
vain  attempt  to  turn  Tipu's  troops  out  of  Sandur,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Siddoji,  then  two  years  old.  Siddoji  was  put  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  uncle  Venkata  Rao,  who  in  1790,  on  his  ward's 
behalf,  attacked  and  drove  out  Tipu's  garrison,  and  gained  possession 
of  the  place.  After  the  peace  with  Tipu  in  1792  the  Ghorpades  were 
allowed  to  retain  Sandur  as  part  of  the  ancient  inheritance  of  the 
family,  but  none  of  them  ventured  to  reside  there  as  long  as  Tipu 
was  alive.  Siddoji  died  in  1796,  aged  thirteen,  and  his  widow 
adopted  a  cousin  called  Siva  Rao.  On  the  death  of  Tipu  at  the 
fall  of  Seringapatam  in  1799,  Siva  Rao  went  with  Venkata  Rao  to 
Sandur,  and  he  was  jdglrddr  there  when  Bellary  District  was  ceded 
to  the  Company. 

About  this  time  the  Peshwa,  Bajl  Rao,  granted  the  estate  to  one 
Jaswant  Rao,  a  distinguished  officer  in  Sindhia's  army.  No  pro- 
minence was  given  to  this  grant,  and  Siva  Rao  continued  to  hold  the 

VOL.  XXII.  D 


44  SANDUR 

estate.  The  Peshwa,  however,  regarded  him  as  a  rebellious  vassal, 
and  in  1815  endeavoured  to  gain  possession  of  Sandur  by  marching 
thither  with  troops,  under  the  pretence  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine 
of  Kumaraswami.  Siva  Rao  blocked  the  passes,  and  Baji  Rao  was 
only  allowed  to  go  to  the  temple  with  a  few  attendants  by  the  foot- 
paths over  the  hills. 

The  Treaty  of  Bassein,  however,  bound  the  Company  to  assist  the 
Peshwa  in  reducing  refractory  vassals,  and  BajT  Rao  accordingly  asked 
that  the  British  would  take  Sandur  from  Siva  Rao.  Munro  was 
therefore  detached  from  Dharwar  with  a  force  to  demand  the  sur- 
render of  the  valley.  Siva  Rao  resigned  possession  without  opposi- 
tion and  in  a  dignified  manner,  and  obtained  in  exchange  an  estate 
in  Bellary  District.  Almost  immediately  afterwards,  however,  the 
Peshwa  threw  off  the  mask  of  friendship  to  the  British  he  had  been 
wearing,  and  provoked  the  war  which  ended  in  1818  in  the  downfall 
of  his  power.  Munro  then  recommended  that  Sandur  should  be 
restored  to  Siva  Rao,  and  Government  agreed  to  the  proposal.  In 
1826  a  formal  sanad  (title-deed)  for  the  State  was  granted  to  Siva  Rao 
by  the  Madras  Government.  He  died  in  1840,  and  was  followed  by 
his  nephew  Venkata  Rao,  whom  he  had  adopted.  The  latter  died  in 
1 86 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sivashanmukha  Rao.  In  1876 
he  received  the  title  of  Raja  as  an  hereditary  distinction.  At  his  death 
two  years  later  his  brother  Ramachandra  Vitthala  Rao  succeeded,  who 
was  made  a  C.I.E.  in  July,  1892,  but  died  in  the  same  year.  Rama- 
chandra's  son,  the  present  Raja,  is  a  minor  and  is  being  educated  at 
Bellary. 

The  chief  buildings  of  antiquarian  interest  in  the  State  are  the  fort 
of  Krishnanagar  already  mentioned,  the  ancient  fortress  at  Raimandrug 
referred  to  in  the  account  of  that  place,  and  the  temple  of  Kumara- 
swami, which  is  picturesquely  situated  in  a  natural  amphitheatre  of 
wooded  slopes  near  the  top  of  the  hills  7  miles  south  of  Sandur  town. 
Kumaraswami,  the  Mars  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  was  the  child  of  Siva 
and  Parvatl.  The  legend  runs  that  a  ferocious  demon  named  Tarak- 
asura,  who  dwelt  in  this  part  of  the  Sandur  hills,  so  harassed  the  Devas 
that  they  entreated  Siva  to  send  his  warrior  son  to  rid  them  of  the 
monster.  Kumaraswami  came  and  slew  him  and  cut  off  his  head. 
The  foundation  of  the  temple  commemorates  the  happy  event.  In- 
scriptions in  the  building  show  that  it  was  in  existence  as  long  ago  as 
A.D.  950,  but  architecturally  it  is  disappointing. 

The    population  of  Sandur  in   1871   was    14,996.     The  famine  of 

1876-8  was  severely  felt,  and  in  1881   the  inhabitants  numbered  only 

„       ,    .  10,1532.      In     i8gi     the    total    was    11,388,    and    in 

Population.  '^^  ;^  ,  r    ,  , 

1 90 1,    11,200.     More  than   2,000  of  the  people  are 

Musalmans,  a  high  proportion.     Of  the  Hindus,  the  most  numerous 


FORESTS  45 

communities  are  the  sect  of  the  Lingayats  and  the  Bedars,  the  old 
fighting-caste  of  this  part  of  the  country,  both  of  whom  are  over  2,000 
strong.  Next  come  the  Marathas,  who  number  1,000;  then  the  agricul- 
turist Sadars  and  Madigas  and  the  shepherd  Kurubas  ;  and  after  them 
the  Brahmans,  who  are  more  than  usually  numerous  and  hold  consider- 
able grants  of  land.     Kanarese  is  the  prevalent  vernacular. 

The  soil  of  the  State  is  a  rich  heavy  loam,  which  compares  favourably 
with  that  of  the  adjoining  areas.     There  is  practically  no  black  cotton 

soil,  and  consequently  no  late  crops,  such  as  cotton,  .     , 

T,      r        y  ,    •  ,      .         Agriculture. 

are   grown.     By   tar   the    most   important   staple    is 

clwlam  {Sorghu>/t  vulgare),  which  is  followed  by  korra  {Setaria  italicd) 

and  sajja  {Peimisetum  typhoideum).      Pulses,  oilseeds,   betel-leaf,  and 

tobacco  are  also  grown.    The  two  last  and  a  few  other  garden  crops  are 

irrigated  from  wells,  there  being  at  present  no  irrigation  by  direct  flow 

from  either  tanks  or  channels  anywhere  in  Sandur.     About    150  of 

these  wells  are  worked,  most  being  temporary  affairs  without  proper 

lining ;  and  the  area  supplied  is  400  acres,  on  most  of  which  two  crops 

are  raised  annually.     Sugar-cane  used  to  be  a  profitable  crop,  but  it 

is  now  rarely  grown,  as  it  cannot  compete  with  that  cultivated  under 

the  TuNGABHADRA  channels.     *  Dry  crops  '  are  sown  from  the  early 

part  of  June  to  the  middle  of  July  and  reaped  in  October.     If  the 

rains  are  late  and  sowing  cannot  be  carried  out  until  the  end  of  July, 

the  out-turn  is  invariably  inferior.     Only  one  crop  is  usually  obtained 

from  'dry'  land,  though  if  good  rain  falls  in  November  or  December 

a  second  crop  of  Bengal  gram  is  sometimes  raised.     The  systems  of 

cultivation  are  similar  to  those  followed  in   Bellary  District,  though 

perhaps   manuring   is    more   common.     The   agricultural   implements 

employed  are  also  the  same.      Cattle  are  chiefly  bought,  as  in  that 

District,  from  drovers  from  Nellore  on  the  instalment  system. 

The  forests  of  Sandur  are  87,000  acres,  or  about  136  square  miles, 

in  extent.     Of  this  area,  40,000  acres  have  been  leased  to  the  Madras 

Government  for  twenty-five  years  from    1882  at  an 

Forests 
annual  rental  of  Rs.  10,000,  and  are  administered  by 

the  Forest  department  of  Bellary  District.  These  leased  forests,  as 
they  are  usually  called,  comprise  the  growth  on  the  whole  of  the 
two  ranges  which  run  along  each  side  of  the  valley  and  also  some 
part  of  that  on  the  plateaux  south  of  Sandur  town.  They  contain 
no  really  heavy  growth,  but  the  supply  of  Hardivickia  will  eventually 
be  considerable,  and  there  is  some  teak  and  sandal-wood.  The 
thick  grass  is,  however,  of  great  value  to  cattle  in  times  of  scarcity. 
The  chief  difficulty  in  reproducing  the  growth  is  the  constant  occur- 
rence of  fires. 

The  minerals  of  the  State  possess  unusual  interest.     The  hematites 
found  in  it  are  probably  the  richest  ore  in  India.     An  outcrop  near 

D  2 


46  SANDUR 

the  southern  boundary  close  by  the  village  of  Kummataravu  forms 
the  crest  of  a  ridge  150  feet  in  height,  which  apparently  consists 
entirely  of  pure  steel-grey  crystalline  hematite  (specu- 
lar iron)  of  intense  hardness.  Some  of  the  softer  ores 
used  to  be  smelted  by  the  natives,  but  the  industry  has  been  killed  by 
the  cheaper  English  iron.  Manganese  deposits  have  also  been  found 
in  three  places,  the  ore  from  one  of  them  showing  on  analysis 
43  per  cent,  of  manganese  dioxide.  There  are  also  traces  of  an  old 
gold-mine.  Jasper  rocks  of  great  beauty  and  a  wide  range  of  colours, 
and  many  different  tints  of  ochreous  mineral  pigments,  are  also  found 
in  large  quantities.  The  pigments  are  excavated  and  used  for  colour- 
washing houses,  and  might  probably  be  exploited  to  commercial 
advantage. 

Except  that  the  shepherd  caste  of  the  Kurubas  weave  coarse  woollen 
blankets  from  the  fleeces  of  the  sheep  of  the  country, 
there  are  no  manufactures  in  the  State.     Nor  is  any 
considerable  trade  carried  on  in  or  through  it. 

The  administration  is  conducted  by  a  Diwan,  subject  to  the  general 
authority  of  the  Collector  of  Bellary,  who  is  ex-qfficio  Political  Agent 
.  .  .  for  the  State.  The  Diwan  has  the  powers  of  a 
divisional  officer,  first-class  magistrate,  Additional 
Sessions  Judge,  and  District  Munsif,  while  the  original,  appellate,  and 
revisional  powers  of  a  Collector,  District  Magistrate,  and  District  and 
Sessions  Judge  vest,  in  matters  relating  to  the  State,  in  the  Political 
Agent.  No  legislation  is  undertaken  in  Sandur.  Such  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Legislative  Councils  of  the  Governments  of  India  and  Madras 
as  appear  to  the  administration  to  be  suited  to  the  State  are  brought 
into  force  by  the  simple  process  of  publicly  notifying  that  they  have 
been  adopted.  Many  of  the  executive  powers  exercised  have  no  other 
basis  than  old  custom  held  to  have  the  force  of  law. 

The  gross  income  of  the  State  averages  rather  more  than  Rs.  50,000, 
of  which  about  Rs.  20,000  is  derived  from  land  revenue  and  the 
mohtarfa  (an  old-established  tax  levied  according  to  no  very  fixed 
principles  on  professions,  trades,  and,  in  some  cases,  on  houses) ; 
Rs.  14,000  from  contracts  for  excise,  minor  forest  produce,  &c. ; 
and  Rs.  10,000  from  the  forests  leased  to  the  Madras  Government. 
On  the  expenditure  side  the  chief  items  are  the  Raja's  civil  list, 
Rs.  14,000;  the  charges  of  administration,  Rs.  13,000;  and  a  sum 
of  Rs.  7,576  which  since  1885-6  has  been  set  aside  yearly  for  the 
repayment  of  the  principal  and  interest  of  the  debts  incurred  by 
former  Rajas. 

Of  the  160  square  miles  of  which  the  State  consists,  only  about 
19  scjuare  miles,  or  12,500  acres,  are  cultivable,  the  rest  being  forest  or 
unfit  for  tillage.     About  15  square  miles  (9,500  acres)  are  cropped  at 


ADMTNISTRATTON  47 

present,  the  remainder,  often  owing  to  its  distance  from  the  villages, 
being  waste.  A  field  survey  under  the  direction  of  the  Madras  Survey 
department  is  in  progress.  When  it  has  been  completed,  a  settlement 
on  the  general  principles  followed  in  British  territory  will  be  carried 
out.  Formerly  the  accounts  showed  the  fields  by  their  names  and 
their  dimensions  in  huggas  or  '  ropes,'  but  the  length  of  the  '  rope ' 
was  nowhere  laid  down.  Between  1865  and  187 1  a  rough  survey  was 
carried  out  with  the  aid  of  the  village  accountants,  and  the  records 
so  obtained  are  the  existing  guides.  They  do  not,  however,  show 
particulars  of  assessment. 

Until  very  recently  the  assessment  payable  was  fixed  on  a  rack- 
renting  system,  each  field  being  put  up  to  auction  and  leased  for  five 
(or  sometimes  ten)  years  to  the  highest  bidder.  At  the  end  of  this 
lease  the  field  was  again  put  up  to  auction,  and  its  former  tenant  was 
thus  often  ousted.  The  uncertainty  which  this  system  involved  checked 
any  effort  to  improve  the  land  permanently  by  fencing  it,  constructing 
wells,  planting  trees,  and  so  on  ;  and  consequently  it  is  in  contempla- 
tion, as  soon  as  the  survey  and  settlement  have  been  completed  and 
the  rates  of  assessment  in  accordance  with  them  have  been  prescribed, 
to  give  the  ryots  the  same  occupancy  rights  as  in  British  territory. 
Meanwhile  they  are  allowed  to  go  on  holding  their  fields  at  the  rates 
fixed  by  the  last  auction  held,  and  are  not  disturbed  in  their  occupation 
by  fresh  auctions. 

The  State  contains  no  natural  salt  or  salt-earth,  and  therefore  no 
complications  arise  with  the  Salt  department  in  British  territory.  It 
grows  no  opium,  and  the  little  ganja  which  is  raised  is  cultivated  and 
harvested  under  ofificial  supervision.  The  system  for  the  supply  of 
liquor  is  simple.  The  exclusive  right  of  manufacturing  and  selling 
both  spirits  and  toddy  (palm  liquor)  is  sold  to  the  same  person.  He 
distils  spirit  in  Sandiir  from  imported  jaggery  (coarse  sugar),  and 
imports  from  elsewhere  such  toddy  as  is  required,  there  being  hardly 
any  palm-trees  in  the  State. 

Both  short-  and  long-term  prisoners  are  confined  in  the  jail.  The 
average  number  of  convicts  is  about  15,  and  is  thus  too  small  to  allow 
of  the  organization  of  jail  manufactures  ;  so  the  prisoners  are  usually 
employed  in  repairing  the  roads.  The  police  force  consists  of  an 
inspector,  4  head  constables,  and  25  constables  ;  and  there  are  4  police 
stations.  Under  the  terms  on  which  the  State  is  held,  sentences  of 
death  cannot  be  passed  without  the  sanction  of  the  Governmeni 
of  Madras.  Special  rules  regarding  criminal  jurisdiction  are  in  forct 
in  the  sanitarium  of  Ramandrug.  Extradition  from  the  State  is 
arranged  through  the  Political  Agent,  and  is  usually  sanctioned  only 
when  the  offence  is  of  a  minor  description.  In  the  case  of  more 
serious  crimes  triable  only  by  a  Court  of  Session,  the  Political  Agent 


48  SANDUR 

proceeds  against  the  offender  as  though  the  offence  had  been  committed 
in  British  India. 

Sandur  possesses  a  lower  secondary  school,  seven  primary  schools, 
and  a  girls'  school.  The  first  of  these  was  opened  at  the  end  of  1882, 
but  the  present  building  was  erected  in  1887-8,  and  the  institution 
is  consequently  known  as  the  Jubilee  School.  Neither  the  Muham- 
madans  nor  the  Lingayats  of  Sandur  place  much  value  on  education, 
and  progress  is  slow.  At  the  Census  of  1901  only  109  males  and 
5  females  in  every  1,000  could  read  and  write.  The  girls'  school  was 
started  by  the  London  Mission  in  1898-9,  and  is  still  managed  by 
that  body. 

The  Sandur  dispensary  was  opened  in  1881  and  is  very  popular, 
many  patients  coming  to  it  from  adjoining  villages  in  British  territory. 

[Further  particulars  regarding  Sandur  will  be  found  in  the  Bellary 
Disti-ict  Gazetteer  (1904),  and  its  geology  and  minerals  are  referred  to 
at  length  in  Mr.  Bruce  Foote's  account  of  the  geology  of  that  District 
in  Memoirs,  Geological  Survey,  vol.  xxv.  j 

Sandwip. — Island  off  the  coast  of  Noakhali  District,  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam,  lying  between  22°  23'  and  22°  37'  N.  and  91°  21'  and 
91°  2)2)  E.,  and  probably  formed  by  the  deposit  of  silt  from  the 
Meghna.  The  area  is  258  square  miles,  and  the  population  in  1901 
was  115,127,  dwelling  in  59  villages. 

The  island  has  an  interesting  history.  Cesare  de'  Federici,  the 
Venetian  traveller,  writing  in  1565,  described  it  as  densely  populated 
and  well  cultivated ;  he  added  that  200  ships  were  laden  yearly  with 
salt,  and  that  such  was  the  abundance  of  materials  for  ship-building 
that  the  Sultan  of  Constantinople  found  it  cheaper  to  have  his  vessels 
built  here  than  at  Alexandria.  In  1609  the  island  was  captured  from 
the  Muhammadans  by  a  number  of  Portuguese  who  had  been  expelled 
from  the  employ  of  the  Raja  of  Arakan.  Headed  by  one  Gonzales, 
these  pirates  established  themselves  in  force  on  the  island  and  seized 
Shahbazpur  and  Patelbanga,  with  an  army  of  1,000  Portuguese,  2,000 
sepoys,  and  200  cavalry,  and  a  navy  of  80  armed  vessels.  In  16 10  they 
allied  themselves  with  the  Raja  of  Arakan  in  an  attempt  to  invade 
Bengal,  but  after  some  successes  they  were  routed  by  the  Mughal 
troops.  In  1615  an  attack  upon  Arakan  was  made  by  Gonzales  with 
the  help  of  Portuguese  troops  from  Goa,  but  this  failed  ;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  Raja  of  Arakan  invaded  Sandwip,  defeated  Gonzales, 
and  took  possession  of  the  island.  For  the  next  fifty  years  Sandwip 
was  a  nest  of  Portuguese  and  Arakanese  pirates  who  devastated  the 
neighbouring  coasts  of  Bengal,  but  in  1664  the  Nawab  Shaista  Khan 
determined  to  put  an  end  to  their  depredations.  By  dint  of  promises 
and  cajolery  he  induced  the  Portuguese  to  desert  to  his  side,  and 
used  them   in  an  attack  upon   Sandwip  in    1665  which  was  entirely 


SANGAMESnUWK    7VJV.V  49 

successful.  The  island,  however,  long  remained  an  Alsatia  for  all  the 
bad  characters  of  Eastern  Bengal,  and  its  administration  was  a  constant 
cause  of  trouble  in  the  early  years  of  British  rule.  The  last  pirate  of 
note  was  Dilal  Raja.  He  is  remembered  for  his  attempts  to  produce 
a  high  physical  type  among  the  islanders  by  compelling  members  f)f 
different  castes  to  intermarry.  The  result  has  been  a  confusion  of 
castes  upon  the  island,  which  has  given  it  a  sinister  reputation  on  the 
mainland.  Until  1822  SandwTp  formed  part  of  Chittagong  District, 
but  in  that  year  it  was  made  over  to  the  newly  formed  District  of 
Noakhali.  A  Suh-Deputy-Magistrate-Collector  and  a  Munsif  are 
stationed  there. 

From  its  low-lying  position  SandwTp  is  peculiarly  exposed  to  in- 
undation from  storm-waves,  and  it  suffered  severely  in  loss  of  life 
and  property  by  the  cyclones  of  1864  and  1876.  The  number  of 
deaths  caused  by  the  latter  was  estimated  at  40,000,  or  nearly  half  the 
population,  and  its  effects  were  aggravated  by  a  terrible  epidemic 
of  cholera  which  immediately  followed.  Since  this  disaster  the  popu- 
lation has  rapidly  increased,  as  it  was  returned  at  only  72,467  in  i88r  ; 
the  density  is  now  446  persons  per  square  mile. 

Sangameshwar  Taluka. — Inland  tdluka  of  Ratnagiri  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  16°  49'  and  17°  20'  N,  and  73°  25'  and  73° 
50'  E.,  with  an  area  of  576  square  miles.  There  are  190  villages, 
but  no  town.  The  head-quarters  since  1878  have  been  at  the  village 
of  Devrukh.  The  population  in  igoi  was  129,412,  compared  with 
126,700  in  1891.  The  density,  225  persons  per  square  mile,  is  below 
the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  89,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  6,000.  The  chief  river  is  the  Shastri, 
which  cuts  the  tdluka  nearly  in  half.  North  of  the  river,  the  country 
is  hilly  and  becomes  rugged  at  the  foot  of  the  Western  Ghats,  which 
are  crossed  by  three  passes.  A  fair  amount  of  alluvial  soil  is  found 
in  the  river  valleys,  yielding  good  crops  of  rice  and  pulse.  Almost 
all  the  rest  of  the  tdluka  is  crumbled  trap.  Several  hot  springs  of 
varying  temperature  occur.  The  annual  rainfall  is  heavy,  averaging 
143  inches. 

Sangameshwar  Town.— Former  head-quarters  of  tlie  tdluka  of 
the  same  name  in  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  17°  16'  N. 
and  73°  33'  E.,  on  the  Shastri  river,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Alkanda 
and  Varuna,  about  20  miles  from  the  coast.  Population  (1901),  3,233. 
It  is  a  place  of  some  sanctity  and  antiquity.  The  river,  which  thirty- 
five  years  ago  was  navigable  by  the  largest  vessels  to  the  Sangameshwar 
quay,  is  now  impassable  6  miles  lower  down.  There  is,  however,  some 
trade  in  grain,  piece-goods,  and  salt  fish.  During  the  famine  of  1877-S, 
about  1,440  tons  of  grain  were  forwarded  from  Bombay  through 
Sangameshwar  to  the  Deccan.     Early  in  187S,  55  houses  were  burnt; 


50  SANGAMESHWAR    TOWN 

and  a  few  weeks  later  (March  i6)  a  disastrous  conflagration  completely 
destroyed  the  tdluka  offices  and  75  private  houses.  On  the  destruction 
of  the  public  offices,  the  head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  were  moved  to  the 
more  central  and  convenient  village  of  Devrukh. 

According  to  the  Sdhyddri  khanda,  Sangameshwar,  originally  called 
Ramakshetra,  possessed  temples  built  by  Parasu  Rama  or  Bhargava 
Rama.  In  the  seventh  century  it  was  the  capital  of  a  Chalukyan  king, 
Kama,  who  built  temples  and  a  fortress.  Of  these  temples,  one  called 
Karneshvara  remains.  But  the  shrine  of  the  Sangameshwar  temple 
is  said  to  be  older,  dating  from  Parasu  Rama's  time.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  for  long  the  residence  of  Basava,  the  founder  of  the 
Lingayat  sect.  Every  year  in  January-February  a  fair  is  held.  At  the 
confluence  of  the  rivers  are  several  sacred  places  [tlrthas),  among  them 
one  known  as  '  cleanser  of  sins  '  {Dhutapdp).  It  was  here  that  SambhajT, 
son  of  Sivaji,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Mughals  and  afterwards  put  to 
death  in  1689.     Sangameshwar  contains  five  schools  with  325  pupils. 

Sangamner  Taluka. —  Tdluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  19*^  12'  and  19°  47'  N.  and  74°  i'  and  74°  31'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  704  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Sangamner 
(population,  13,801),  the  head-quarters;  and  151  villages.  The  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  90,381,  compared  with  82,936  in  1891.  The 
presence  of  5,000  immigrants  on  relief  works  accounts  mainly  for 
the  increase.  The  density,  128  persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost 
equal  to  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  i'7  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  11,000.  The  tdluka  is 
divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  the  two  mountain  ranges  which 
traverse  it  in  a  parallel  direction.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Pravara 
and  the  Mula.  The  Pravara  flows  in  the  valley  between  the  two 
mountain  ranges.  With  the  exception  of  irrigation  from  the  Ojhar 
canal,  garden  cultivation  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  means  of  wells. 

Sangamner  Town.  —  Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same 
name  in  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  19°  34'  N.  and 
74°  13'  E.,  49  miles  north-west  of  Ahmadnagar  city.  Population 
(1901),  13,801,  including  a  hamlet  of  2,790.  The  municipality,  estab- 
lished in  i860,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901 
of  Rs.  15,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  12,500.  The  town  has 
much  trade  in  yarn,  millet,  gram,  metal,  groceries,  salt,  rice,  and  silk ; 
and  a  number  of  looms  are  at  work.  It  contains  a  Sub-Judge's  court, 
a  dispensary,  and  an  English  school. 

Sanganer. — Town  in  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in 
26°  48'  N.  and  75°  47'  E.,  on  the  Anian-i-Shah  river,  7  miles  south 
of  Jaipur  city,  and  3  miles  south-west  of  .Sanganer  station  on  the 
Rfijputana-AIalwa  Railway.  Population  (1901),  3,972.  The  old  palace, 
said  to  have  l)een  once  occupied  by  Akbar,  is  now  used  as  a  hospital. 


SANG  HI  5T 

The  town,  which  is  walled,  possesses  a  post  office,  an  upper  primary 
school  attended  by  44  boys,  and  several  Jain  temples,  one  of  which, 
constructed  of  marble  and  sandstone,  is  of  considerable  size  and  said 
to  be  950  years  old.  The  place  is  famous  for  its  dyed  and  stamped 
chintzes,  the  waters  of  the  Aman-i-Shah  being  held  to  possess  some 
peculiar  properties  favourable  to  the  dyeing  process ;  the  industry  has, 
however,  suffered  owing  to  cheap  foreign  imitations.  Country  paper 
also  is  manufactured  here. 

Sangareddipet.  —  Head-quarters  of  Medak  District,  and  of  the 
Kalabgur  hl/iik,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  17°  38'  N.  and  78°  5'  E., 
34  miles  north-west  of  Hyderabad  city,  and  14  miles  north  of  Shankar- 
palli  station  on  the  Nizam's  State  Railway.  Population  (1901),  4,809. 
The  offices  of  the  First  and  Third  Talukdars,  the  irrigation  Engineer, 
the  Police  Superintendent,  a  District  civil  court,  a  District  jail  and  dis- 
pensary, and  two  schools  with  201  pupils  are  located  here.  Six  private 
schools  have  85  pupils.  Two  miles  to  the  west  of  the  town  is  the 
Rajampet  State  stud  farm. 

Sangarh  Tahsil. — Northernmost  fahsll  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  Dis- 
trict, Punjab,  lying  between  30°  27'  and  31°  20'  N.  and  70°  24'  and 
70°  50'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,065  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Indus,  and  on  the  west  by  independent  territory.  A  narrow 
strip  along  the  river  is  irrigated  by  floods,  wells,  and  inundation  canals. 
A  considerable  portion  is  sandy  and  barren,  and  water  is  scarce  in 
many  parts.  The  tahstl  is  intersected  by  a  number  of  torrent-beds,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Vihowa  and  Sangarh,  from  which  it  takes 
its  name.  The  population  in  1901  was  86,482,  compared  with  76,888 
in  1891.  It  contains  169  ^  villages,  including  Taunsa  (population,  5,200), 
the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  one  lakh. 

Sanghar. — Tdluka  of  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  Sind,  Bomba\-, 
lying  between  25°  40'  and  26°  15'  N.  and  68°  51'  and  69°  25'  E. 
In  1 90 1  it  had  an  area  of  1,050  square  miles,  and  the  number  of 
villages  was  63.  The  present  area  is  830  square  miles,  the  reduction 
being  due  to  the  creation  of  new  tdlukas.  The  population  in  1901  was 
40,341,  compared  with  41,265  in  1891.  The  density,  49  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  considerably  above  the  District  average.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  1-3  lakhs.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  Sanghar.  The  idhika  is  mainly  irrigated  by  the 
Mithrao  Canal,  rice  being  the  principal  crop. 

Sanghi.  —  Village  in  the  District  and  taJn'il  o{  Rohtak,  Punjab, 
situated  in  29°  i'  N.  and  76°  41'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,1^6. 
It  is  administered  as  a  'notified  area.' 

'  Since  the  Census  of  1901,  one  village  with  a  popiilalion  of  16  persons  has  been 
transferred  to  the  Dera  Ismail  Khan  District  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province. 


52  SANG  LA 

Sangla. — Village  in  the  Khangah  Dogran  tahsll  of  Gujranwala  Dis- 
trict, Punjab,  situated  in  31°  43'  N.  and  73°  27'  E.  Population  (1901), 
982.  With  the  colonization  of  the  Sandal  Bar  {see  Chenab  Colony), 
it  has  rapidly  developed  into  a  place  of  some  importance.  It  is 
administered  as  a  '  notified  area,'  and  now  contains  three  cotton- 
ginning  factories,  which  in  1904  gave  employment  to  192  persons. 
Trade  will  probably  increase  largely  when  the  railway  to  Shahdara 
has  been  opened. 

Apart  from  its  recent  commercial  development,  Sangla  is  chiefly 
of  interest  in  connexion  with  the  theories  woven  round  the  ruins 
crowning  the  rocky  hill  known  as  Sanglawala  Tibba,  which  General 
Cunningham  identified  with  the  Sakala  of  the  Brahmans,  the  Sagal 
of  Buddhism,  and  the  Sangala  of  Alexander's  historians.  Modern 
authorities,  however,  have  declined  to  accept  the  identification  as 
correct ;  and  the  Sangala  of  Alexander  is  now  located  in  Gurdaspur, 
while  it  is  possible  that  Shahkot,  a  village  in  Gujranwala  District, 
II  miles  south-east  of  Sangla,  represents  the  Sakala  which  was  the 
capital  of  Mihirakula,  the  White  Hun,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth 
century  a.d.,  and  the  ruins  of  which  were  visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang. 
If  this  identification  be  correct,  we  probably  have  in  Shahkot  the 
site  of  the  Sakala  of  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Sagal  of  Buddhist 
legend.  But  the  task  of  identification  is  beset  with  difficulties  ;  and 
it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Chiniot  in  Jhang  is  not  the  modern 
representative  of  Sakala,  which  has  also  recently  been  identified  with 
Sialkot.  The  hill  of  Sanglawala  Tibba  rises  to  a  height  of  215  feet 
above  the  surrounding  plain  on  its  north  side,  and  slopes  southward 
till  it  ends  in  an  abrupt  bank  only  32  feet  in  height,  crowned  in  early 
times  by  a  brick  wall,  traces  of  which  still  exist.  The  whole  inter- 
vening area  is  strewn  with  large  antique  bricks,  great  quantities  of 
which  have  been  removed  during  recent  years.  An  extensive  swamp 
covers  the  approach  on  the  south  and  east,  the  least  defensible 
quarters,  with  a  general  depth  of  3  feet  in  the  rains,  but  dry  during 
the  summer.  This  must  have  once  been  a  large  lake,  which  has 
since  silted  up  by  detritus  from  the  hill  above.  On  the  north-east 
side  of  the  hill.  General  Cunningham  found  the  remains  of  two  con- 
siderable buildings,  with  bricks  of  enormous  size.  Close  by  stands 
an  old  well,  lately  cleared  out  by  wandering  tribes. 

[C.  J.  Rodgers,  Report  on  Sangla  Tihha  (1896).] 

Sangli  State. — State  under  the  Political  Agent  of  Kolhapur  and 
the  Southern  Maratha  Jagirs,  Bombay,  consisting  of  six  separate 
divisions  :  a  group  of  villages  near  the  valley  of  the  Kistna ;  a  second 
group  between  Kolhapur  territory  on  the  west  and  Jamkhandi  State ; 
a  third  group  in  Sholapur  District,  near  the  junction  of  the  Man 
and   Bhima  rivers ;    a   fourth  in   Dharwar  District ;   a  fifth  just  north 


SANGIJ  STATE  53 

of  the  town  of  Belgauni  ;  and  the  last  to  the  south  of  the  Mal- 
prabha  river  and  to  the  north-east  of  Kittur  in  Belgaum.  The  State 
contains  a  total  area  of  1,112  square  miles,  of  which  about  93  square 
miles  are  forest.  The  population  in  1901  was  226,128,  residing  in  six 
towns,  of  which  the  chief  is  Sangli  (population,  16,829),  the  head- 
quarters;  and  307^  villages.  Hindus  number  196,718  ;  Muhammadans, 
15,940;  and  Jains,  13,226. 

The  portion  of  the  State  watered  by  the  Kistna  is  flat  and  the  soil 
particularly  rich.  The  remaining  divisions  are  plains  surrounded  by 
undulating  lands  and  occasionally  intersected  by  ridges  of  hills.  The 
prevailing  soil  is  black.  Irrigation  is  carried  on  from  rivers,  wells,  and 
tanks.  The  climate  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Deccan  generally,  the 
air  being  very  dry,  especially  when  east  winds  prevail.  The  chief  crops 
are  millet,  rice,  wheat,  gram,  and  cotton  ;  and  the  manufactures  are 
coarse  cotton  cloth  and  native  articles  of  apparel. 

The  chief  of  Sangli  is  a  member  of  the  Patvardhan  family,  whose 
founder  Haribhat,  a  Konkanasth  Brahman,  was  the  family  priest  of  the 
chief  of  IchalkaranjI.  On  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the  chiefs 
son  with  the  daughter  of  the  first  Peshwa,  Haribhat  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  Peshwa,  one  of  whose  successors,  Madhav  Rao,  granted 
Xhejdgir  to  Haribhat's  son  Govind  Rao  and  two  grandsons.  In  1772 
thejdgir,  which  included  Miraj,  descended  to  Chintaman  Rao,  grand- 
son of  Govind  Rao,  the  original  grantee.  Chintaman  Rao  being  a 
child  of  six  years,  the  State  was  managed  during  his  minority  by  his 
uncle  Gangadhar  Rao.  When  the  minor  came  of  age,  he  quarrelled 
with  his  uncle,  who  attempted  to  keep  him  out  of  his  rights.  Even- 
tually the  estate  was  divided  between  them,  the  uncle  retaining  Miraj 
and  Chintaman  Rao  taking  Sangli.  The  revenue  of  Sangli  exceeded 
6  lakhs  and  that  of  Miraj  was  nearly  5  lakhs,  the  estates  being  respec- 
tively subject  to  a  service  of  1,920  and  1,219  horse.  Chintaman  Rao, 
the  grandfather  of  the  present  chief  of  Sangli,  became  a  feudatory  of 
the  British  Government  on  the  downfall  of  the  Peshwa  in  18 18.  In 
1846  the  East  India  Company  presented  him  with  a  sword  in  testi- 
mony of  their  respect  for  his  high  character,  and  in  acknowledge- 
ment of  his  loyalty.  Chintaman  Rao  died  in  1851.  The  chief  ot 
Sangli  does  not  now  pay  any  contribution  on  account  of  military 
service,  having  ceded  lands  of  the  annual  value  of  over  i^  lakhs  in 
lieu  thereof.  The  family  holds  a  savad  authorizing  adoption.  The 
rule  of  primogeniture  is  not  strictly  followed  in  the  matter  of 
succession. 

The  chief  ranks  as  a  first-class  Sardar  in   the  Southern   Maratha 

'  This  figure  differs  from  that  given  in  the  Census  Report^  being  based  on  more 
recent  information,  and  also  by  the  inclusion  of  hnmlets  and  unpopulated  villages. 
At  the  Census  of  1901  there  were  239  towns  and  inhabited  villages. 


54  SANGLI  STATE 

Country,  and  has  power  to  try  capital  offences  in  the  case  of  his  own 
subjects.  He  enjoys  an  estimated  revenue  of  15  lakhs,  and  maintains 
a  police  force  of  497  men,  of  whom  54  are  mounted,  323  are  unarmed, 
and  120  are  armed.  In  1903-4  there  were  89  schools,  including  nine 
girls'  schools,  one  high  school,  and  three  Anglo-vernacular  schools ; 
the  number  of  pupils  was  3,997.  The  State  contains  six  munici- 
palities; the  largest  are  Sangli  with  an  income  of  Rs.  13,500,  and 
Sh  AHA  PUR  with  Rs.  12,900.  In  the  one  jail  and  eight  lock-ups  of 
the  State  208  prisoners  were  confined  in  1903-4.  There  are  seven 
dispensaries,  attended  by  about  44,000  patients  in  1903-4.  In  the 
same  year  about  6,000  persons  were  vaccinated. 

Sangli  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  Sangli,  Southern  Maratha 
Jagirs,  Bombay,  situated  in  16°  52'  N.  and  74°  36'  E.,  on  the  Kistna 
river,  a  little  north  of  the  confluence  of  the  Varna.  Population 
(1901),  16,829.  The  income  of  the  municipality  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  13,500.  The  fort,  in  which  are  the  chiefs  palace  and  most  of 
the  public  ofifices,  was  built  about  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  new 
town  is  well  laid  out  with  broad  streets,  and  is  chiefly  occupied  by 
bankers,  merchants,  and  the  principal  officers  of  the  State.  It  contains 
a  high  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Sangod. — Head-quarters  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Kotah,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  55'  N.  and  76°  17''  E.,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ujar,  a  tributary  of  the  Kali  Sind,  about 
34  miles  south-east  of  Kotah  city.  Population  (1901),  4,369.  Sangod 
possesses  a  post  office,  a  vernacular  school,  and  a  hospital  with  accom- 
modation for  6  in-patients. 

Sangola  Taluka.  —  South-western  tdliika  of  Sholapur  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  17°  8'  and  17°  40'  N.  and  74°  54'  and 
75°  27'  E.,  with  an  area  of  654  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town, 
Sangola  (population,  4,763),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  75  villages.  The 
population  in  1901  was  82,634,  compared  with  78,420  in  1891. 
The  density,  127  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  Dis- 
trict average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  i-i  lakhs, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  8,000.  Sangola  is  a  level  plain,  with  a  few  treeless 
hillocks  fringing  its  southern  border.  It  is  mostly  bare  of  trees. 
Villages  are  three  or  four  miles  apart.  The  chief  river  is  the  Man, 
whicli  drains  the  taluka  from  west  to  north-east  for  about  35  miles. 
Most  of  the  soil  is  stony  and  barren,  and  much  of  it  fit  only  for 
grazing.     The  climate  is   hot. 

Sangola  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  17^26'  N.  and  75°i2'E., 
19  miles  south-west  of  Pandharpur.  Population  (1901),  4,763.  The 
fort,  which  is  now  occupied  by  the  taluka  offices,  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  a  Bijapur  king;  and  so  prosperous  was  the  town  which  grew 


SANGU  55 

u[)  round  it  that,  until  it  was  plundered  by  Holkar's  Pathans  in  1802, 
it  wa.s  locally  called  the  Golden  Sangola.  The  municipality,  estab- 
lished in  1855,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  lyoi 
of  Rs.  5,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,400.  The  town  con- 
tains a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  school,  and  a  dispensary. 

Sangri.— One  of  the  Simla  Hill  States,  Punjab,  lying  between 
31°  16'  and  31°  22'  N.  and  77°  22'  and  77°  28'  E.,  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Sutlej,  with  an  area  of  16  square  miles.  Population  (1901), 
2,774.  Formerly  a  dependency  of  Kulu,  it  was  seized  by  the  Gurkhas 
in  1803  and  restored  to  the  Kuki  Raja  in  18 15  by  the  British.  In 
1840  Raja  Ajit  Singh  of  Kulu  took  refuge  in  Sangri  from  the  Sikhs, 
and  Kulii  was  lost  to  his  branch  of  the  family,  which  retained  Sangri 
under  British  protection.  The  present  chief,  Rai  Hira  Singh,  suc- 
ceeded in  1876.     The  State  has  a  revenue  of  Rs.  2,400. 

Sangrur  Nizamat.  —  Head-quarters  nizdmat  or  administrative 
district  and  ta]isil  of  Jind  State,  Punjab,  lying  between  30°  6'  and 
30°  21'  N.  and  75°  48'  and  76"  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  252  square 
miles.  It  comprises  several  scattered  pieces  of  territory,  of  which  the 
principal  pargana,  SangrQr,  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by 
Patiala  and  Nabha,  and  on  the  east  and  south  by  Patiala.  It  also 
includes  the  ildkas  of  Kularan,  Balanwali,  and  Bazidpur,  which  are 
broken  up  into  six  detached  areas.  The  population  in  1901  was 
64,681,  compared  with  59,521  in  1891.  The  nimmat  contains  two 
towns,  Sangrur  (population,  11,852),  the  head-quarters  and  capital 
of  the  State,  and  Balanwali  (2,298);  and  95  villages.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-2  lakhs.  It  lies  in  the 
great  natural  tract  known  as  the  Jangal. 

Sangrur  Town. — Modern  capital  of  the  Jind  State,  Punjab, 
situated  in  30°  15' N.  and  75°  59'  E.,  48  miles  south  of  Ludhiana, 
on  the  Ludhiana-Dhuri-Jakhal  Railway.  Population  (1901),  11,852. 
Founded  about  300  years  ago,  it  remained  a  mere  village  until  Raja 
Sangat  Singh  in  1827  transferred  his  capital  from  Jind,  which  he  con- 
sidered as  being  too  far  from  Patiala  and  Nabha.  Raja  Raghubn- 
Singh,  the  successor  of  Sarup  Singh,  adorned  it  with  many  [public 
offices  and  other  buildings.  It  is  administered  as  a  municipality,  with 
an  income  of  about  Rs.  3,900,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi,  and  has 
a  considerable  local  trade.  The  principal  manufactures  are  leathern 
goods  and  furniture.  It  contains  the  Diamond  Jubilee  College,  com- 
pleted in  1902,  a  high  school,  the  Victoria  Golden  Jubilee  Hospital, 
and  a  Zanana  hospital. 

Sangu. — River  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  Rising  in  the  range 
of  hills  which  divides  Arakan  from  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts,  in 
21°  13'  N.  and  92°  37'  E.,  it  pursues  a  generally  northerly  course  over 
a   rocky  bed    to    Bandarban,  from  which   place    it    takes   a   tortuous 


56  SANGU 

westerly  direction  through  Chittagong  District,  and  finally  empties 
itself  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  in  22°  6'  N.  and  91°  51'  E.,  after  a 
course  of  168  miles.  The  Sangu  is  tidal  as  far  as  Bandarban,  where 
its  bed  is  sandy.  Though  shallow  in  ordinary  times,  during  the  rains 
it  becomes  deep,  dangerous,  and  rapid.  In  its  upper  reaches  it  is 
called  by  the  hillmen  the  Rigray  Khyoung,  and  lower  down  the  Sabak 
Khyoung.  It  is  navigable  by  large  cargo  boats  for  a  distance  of 
30  miles  throughout  the  year.  The  principal  tributaries  are  the  Dolu 
and  Chandkhali,  and  the  chief  river-side  village  is  Bandarban. 

Sanjan. — Village  in  the  Dahanu  tdluka  of  Thana  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  20°  12'  N.  and  72°  51''  E.,  with  a  station  on  the  Bombay, 
Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway.  Sanjan  was  in  former  times  a 
trading  town  of  considerable  importance,  and  according  to  tradition 
was  founded  by  one  Raja  Gaddhe  Singh.  It  covered  so  large  an  area 
that  it  earned  the  name  of  Navteri  Nagari,  or  the  city  which  measured 
9  kos  by  13.  Although  some  authorities  suppose  that  the  Sanjan  in 
which  the  ParsI  refugees  from  Persia  settled  about  720  was  a  town 
of  that  name  in  Cutch,  there  are  better  grounds  for  believing  that  it 
was  Sanjan  in  Thana  District,  which  is  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  Hamjaman  in  three  Silahara  land  grants  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries.  By  the  Arab  geographers  of  the  same  period  the  town  is 
repeatedly  spoken  of,  under  the  name  of  Sindan,  as  one  of  the  chief 
ports  of  Western  India.  In  915  it  was  described  as  a  great  city  with 
a  Jama  Masjid,  and  as  famous  for  the  export  of  a  fine  emerald,  known 
as  the  Mecca  emerald  owing  to  its  having  been  brought  from  Arabia. 
Al  Idrisi  speaks  of  it  in  the  twelfth  century  as  peopled  with  industrious 
and  very  intelligent  inhabitants,  large,  rich,  and  warlike,  and  enjoying 
a  great  export  and  import  trade  :  and  it  doubtless  maintained  its  wealth 
and  importance  till  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it 
was  attacked  and  after  a  fierce  resistance  stormed  by  Alaf  Khan, 
general  of  Ala-ud-din  Khilji.  Its  Pars!  citizens  were  killed,  enslaved, 
or  driven  to  the  hills,  and  most  of  those  who  escaped  settled  at 
Nargol,  about  four  miles  away,  which  is  still  one  of  the  largest  Parsi 
villages  on  the  coast.  From  that  date  little  is  heard  of  Sanjan  until 
1534,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Portuguese.  Pyrard  de  Laval  and 
Sir  T.  Herbert  both  mention  it  during  the  early  years  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  subject  to  Portugal ;  and  the  latter  writer  terms 
the  place  St.  John  (i.e.  Sanjan)  de  Vacas,  which  is  identical  with 
the  St.  John  or  St.  John's  Peak  known  to  English  navigators  of  that 
period.  Sanjan  had  by  this  time  lost  much  of  its  former  importance, 
and  yielded  through  its  customs-house  a  revenue  of  only  £23  (620 
pardaos).  It  was  guarded  by  a  fort  built  in  1613  by  the  Portuguese 
and  described  by  a  writer  of  that  nation  in  1634  as  a  round  fort  with 
six  bastions,   enclosing  a  very  handsome  well  and  two  ponds,   some 


SANJAWI  57 

houses,  an  arsenal,  and  a  church.  The  population  of  the  fort  then 
consisted  of  a  commandant  and  twenty  soldiers,  a  clerk,  an  ins[)ector, 
a  priest,  and  forty-two  families  of  Portuguese  and  native  Christians. 
The  garrison  was  accustomed  to  add  to  its  pay  by  cultivation. 
Dr.   Hove,  the  Polish  savant,  visited  the  town  in   1787. 

Sanjan  at  the  present  day  contains  the  remains  of  several  large 
ponds  and  lakes,  which  are  filled  with  silt  and  are  utilized  for  culti- 
vation. Bricks  of  an  antique  type  lie  scattered  over  the  surrounding 
fields  and  form  the  walls  of  most  of  the  ruined  buildings.  Apart 
from  these,  the  antiquities  of  Sanjan  consist  of  some  carved  slabs,  the 
remains  of  a  Parsi  'tower  of  silence'  (i 300-1 500),  the  ruins  of  the 
Portuguese  fort  mentioned  above,  and  two  inscribed  slabs,  one  bearing 
Hindu  characters  and  dated  1432,  and  the  other  Kufic  characters  of 
eight  centuries  ago.  The  latter  was  probably  erected  originally  over 
the  grave  of  one  of  the  Arab  merchants  whose  descendants,  the 
Navaits,  still  form  a  separate  class  in  the  coast  towns  of  Thana  Dis- 
trict.    Sanjan  also  contains  two  European  graves  of  unknown  date. 

Sanjari. — Southern  tahsll  of  the  new  Drug  District,  Central 
Provinces,  which  was  constituted  in  1906  from  portions  of  Raipur  and 
Bilaspur.  The  tahsll  lies  between  20°  23'  and  21°  i'  N.  and  80°  48' 
and  81°  31'  E.  It  was  formed  by  taking  373  square  miles  from  the 
former  Drug  tahsll,  and  944  square  miles  from  the  former  Dhamtari 
tahsll  of  Raipur.  It  thus  has  an  area  of  1,317  square  miles,  the 
population  of  which  in  1901  was  198,399,  compared  with  239,721  in 
1 89 1.  The  density  is  151  persons  per  square  mile,  and  there  are  690 
inhabited  villages.  The  head-quarters  have  been  fixed  at  Balod,  a 
village  of  1,228  inhabitants,  55  miles  from  Drug  town  by  road  ;  but 
the  tahsll  was  named  after  another  village,  Sanjari,  to  prevent  confusion 
with  the  Baloda  Bazar  tahsll  of  Raipur.  The  tahsll  contains  164 
square  miles  of  Government  forest.  It  includes  the  zamlnddn  estates 
of  Khujji,  Dondi-Lohara,  and  Gundardehi,  which  have  an  area  of 
426  square  miles  and  a  population  of  51,493  persons,  and  contain 
more  than  200  square  miles  of  forest.  The  north  of  the  tahsll  is 
an  open  black-soil  plain,  while  tracts  of  hill  and  forest  extend  to  the 
south  and  west. 

Sanjawi. — Sub-Zo/z^//  of  Loralai  District,  Baluchistan,  lying  between 
30°  9'  and  30°  28'  N.  and  67°  49'  and  68°  35'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  446  square  miles  and  population  (1901)  of  6,866,  an  increase  of 
1,334  since  1891.  The  head-quarters  station,  which  bears  the  same 
name  as  the  tahsll,  consists  of  a  military  fort  occupied  by  the  revenue 
establishment  and  local  levies.  Villages  number  37.  The  land 
revenue,  which  is  fixed  in  the  case  of  irrigated  lands,  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  16,000.  The  Pechi  Saiyids,  who  own  lands  in  Pui,  are 
exempted  from  payment  of  land  revenue  on  certain  conditions.     Much 


58  SANJAWI 

of  the  tahsil  lies  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Its 
glens,  orchards,  and  gardens  are  very  picturesque,  and  at  Sniallan  line 
myrtle  groves  of  great  age  are  to  be  seen. 

Sanjeli. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Sankala. — Ruins  in  Gujranwala  District,  Punjab.     See  Sangla. 

Sankaranayinarkovil  Taluk.^TH////^  in  Tinnevelly  District, 
Madras,  lying  between  8°  55'  and  9°  25'  N.  and  77°  14'  and  77°  52'  E., 
at  the  foot  of  the  Western  Ghats,  with  an  area  of  717  square  miles. 
The  population  in  1901  was  232,980,  compared  with  213,799  in 
1891 ;  the  density  is  325  persons  per  square  mile.  It  contains  two 
towns,  Sivagiri  (population,  18,150)  and  Sankaranayinarkovil 
(16,775),  the  head-quarters;  and  123  villages.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs,  3,02,000.  There  are 
a  considerable  number  of  zaminddris  in  the  tdliik^  the  largest  of  which 
is  the  Sivagiri  Estate.  It  contains  soils  of  both  the  red  and  black 
classes,  and  depends  for  its  cultivation  chiefly  on  the  north-east 
monsoon,  the  rainfall  during  the  earlier  or  south-west  monsoon  being 
trifling  and  uncertain. 

Sankaranayinarkovil  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the 
same  name  in  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras,  situated  in  9°  10'  N.  and 
77'^  32'  E.  It  is  a  Union,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  16,775.  ^  ^'^t; 
temple  is  dedicated  to  both  Vishnu  and  Siva,  a  combination  which  is 
uncommon.     A  large  cattle  fair  is  held  annually  in  August. 

Sankaridrug. — Village  in  the  Tiruchengodu  taluk  of  Salem  Dis- 
trict, Madras,  situated  in  11°  29'  N.  and  77°  52'  E.,  2  miles  from  the 
station  of  the  same  name  on  the  Madras  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
2,046.  The  place  is  built  just  under  the  Sankaridrug  hill,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  2,343  feet,  and  is  terraced  with  fortifications. 
These  point  to  the  vicissitudes  of  South  Indian  history,  some  of  them 
dating  from  the  time  of  the  Hindu  chieftains,  others  from  Tipu  Sultan's 
days,  and  yet  others  being  of  British  origin.  The  hill  is  well  worth 
climbing.  Past  a  Hindu  temple,  the  door  of  which  is  riddled  with 
bullets,  the  traveller  toils  up  a  flight  of  steep  steps,  and  half-way  along 
the  ascent  reaches  a  snowy  mosque  erected  in  honour  of  a  Musalman 
saint,  which  nestles  among  the  green  foliage  that  clothes  the  hill  like 
a  pearl  set  among  emeralds.  Leaving  this,  the  path  winds  among 
remains  of  modern  fortifications  and  the  houses  of  the  garrison,  now 
overgrown  with  shrubs  and  [jrickly  pear,  and  at  length  reaches  a  plateau 
at  the  top  of  the  hill.  Here  is  a  fount  of  pure  and  cold  water,  supposed 
to  be  possessed  of  medicinal  virtues;  and  the  remains  of  the  old  Hindu 
fort,  its  granary  and  the  subterranean  cell  into  which  condemned 
prisoners  were  thrown,  come  into  view.  Crowning  all  are  the  temples 
of  Vishnu,  the  lights  of  which  twinkle  in  the  evenings  in  the  surround- 
ing darkness.    The  village  is  very  healthy,  and  was  a  favourite  camping- 


SANKISA  59 

place  for  the  District  officers  till  Yercaud  rose  into  i)rominence.  The 
public  bungalow,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  District,  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  a  rock  just  under  the  hill. 

Sankeshwar  (more  correctly  Shankheswar,  or  '  the  conch  god  ').  — 
Village  in  the  Chikodi  iaiiika  of  Belgaum  District,  Bombay,  situated 
in  r6°  15'  N.  and  74°  29'  E.,  27  miles  north-by-west  of  Belgaum  town. 
Population  (1901),  5,639.  Sankeshwar  has  a  large  traffic  in  cotton, 
dry  coco-nuts,  dates,  spices,  and  curry-stuff.  The  ordinary  industry 
is  the  weaving  of  waist-cloths,  women's  sar'is,  and  blankets.  The  village 
contains  an  old  temple  of  Shankarling  and  a  monastery,  which  is  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  Sankaracharyas  of  the  Smarth  sect  of  Hindus.  In 
1488  Bahadur  Gilani,  the  Bahmani  governor  of  the  Konkan,  broke 
into  rebellion  and  established  his  head-quarters  here,  but  subsequently 
submitted  to  Mahmud  II.  In  1659  Sankeshwar  fell  to  Sivajl.  The  town 
contains  a  boys'  school  with  177  pupils  and  a  girls'  school  with  57. 

Sankhatra. — Village  in  the  Zafarwal  tahsil  of  Sialkot  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  32°  13'  N.  and  74°  56'  E.,  about  39  miles  from 
Sialkot  town.  Population  (1901),  2,233.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Hemraj,  a  Khattrl,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Hemnagar,  by 
which  it  was  known  for  upwards  of  a  century.  In  the  time  of  Akbar 
a  famous  fakir,  by  name  Sankhatra,  a  Deo  Jat,  settled  here,  and  the 
place  was  renamed  after  him.  His  tomb  still  exists  near  the  village. 
Although  of  no  commercial  importance,  Sankhatra  is  the  residence  of 
a  number  of  wealthy  merchants,  and  possesses  larger  and  finer 
mansions  than  any  minor  town  in  the  District.  In  1901  it  was  the 
scene  of  a  plague  riot,  when  the  naib-tahsilddr  in  charge  of  the  plague 
camp  was  burnt  to  death.  It  has  a  vernacular  middle  school  maintained 
by  the  District  board. 

Sankheda. — Town  in  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name,  Baroda  pra/it, 
Baroda  State,  situated  in  22°  9'  N.  and  73°  37'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Orsang  river.  Population  (1901),  4,296.  The  town  possesses 
Munsifs  and  magistrate's  courts,  other  local  offices,  a  dispensary,  and  a 
vernacular  school.  It  is  administered  as  a  municipality,  with  an  annual 
grant  from  the  State  of  Rs.  800.  The  only  object  of  interest  is  an  old 
fort,  which  surrendered  to  a  small  British  force  in  1802.  The  calico- 
printing,  lacquer-work,  dyeing,  and  wood-carving  of  Sankheda  have  a  local 
celebrity.     There  is  also  an  export  trade  in  seeds  and  makiid  flowers. 

Sankisa. — Village  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Farrukhabad,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  27°  20'  N.  and  79°  16'  E.,  near  the  East  Kali 
Nadi.  Population  (1901),  951.  The  village  is  also  called  Sankisa 
Basantpur,  and  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  ruins  situated  in  it.  These 
were  identified  by  Cunningham  with  the  site  of  the  capital  of  the 
country  called  Sankasya  by  Fa  Hian  and  Kapitha  by  Hiuen  Tsiang. 
This  town  was  said  to  be  the  place  at  which  Gautama  Buddha  de- 

VOL.  XXII.  E 


6o  SANKISA 

scended  from  heaven,  accompanied  by  Indra  and  Brahma.  The  iden- 
tification depends  chiefly  on  measurements  and  directions  which  are 
not  perfectly  definite,  and  its  correctness  has  been  doubted'.  The 
existing  village  is  perched  on  a  mound  of  ruins,  locally  known  as  '  the 
fort,'  41  feet  high,  with  a  superficial  extent  of  1,500  feet  by  1,000. 
A  quarter  of  a  mile  southward  is  another  mound,  composed  of  solid 
brickwork,  and  surmounted  by  a  temple  dedicated  to  Bisari  Devi. 
Near  the  temple  mound  Cunningham  found  the  capital  of  an  ancient 
pillar,  bearing  an  erect  figure  of  an  elephant,  which  he  considered  to 
belong  to  the  pillar  of  Asoka  mentioned  by  the  Chinese  pilgrims. 
The  latter  describe  the  pillar  as  surmounted  by  a  lion — a  discrepancy 
explained  away  by  supposing  that  the  trunk  had  been  broken  at  an 
early  date,  and  the  animal  could  not  be  distinguished  at  a  height  of 
50  feet.  Other  smaller  mounds  containing  masses  of  brickwork  sur- 
round those  mentioned,  and  there  are  the  remains  of  an  earthen 
rampart  upwards  of  3^  miles  in  circumference.  This  place  has  been 
very  imperfectly  explored,  but  ancient  coins  and  clay  seals  bearing 
the  Buddhist  confession  of  faith  are  frequently  found  here. 

[Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  Reports  of  No7-ther)i  India, 
vol.  i,  p.  271,  and  vol.  xi,  p.  22.] 

Sankosh. — A  large  river  which  rises  in  Bhutan,  and  at  the  point 
where  it  debouches  on  the  plains  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
Districts  of  Goalpara  in  Assam  and  Jalpaigurl  in  Eastern  Bengal.  It 
then  flows  along  the  western  boundary  of  the  Ripu  Duar,  and  at 
Maktaigaon  divides  into  two  branches.  The  western  arm  retains  the 
name  of  the  original  river,  and,  after  flowing  through  Jalpaigurl  and 
Cooch  Behar,  rejoins  the  eastern  branch,  which  is  called  the  Gangadhar, 
near  Patamari.  The  combined  stream  is  then  known  as  the  Dudh- 
kumar  and  falls  into  the  Brahmaputra  below  Dhubri.  For  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  it  flows  through  jungle  land ;  but  it  serves  as  a  trade 
route,  down  which  timber,  thatching  grass,  and  other  forest  products 
are  brought.  The  river  is  nowhere  bridged  in  Goalpara,  but  is  crossed 
by  ten  ferries.     The  total  length  is  about  200  miles. 

Sankrail. — Village  in  Howrah  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°34'N. 
and  88°  14'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly.  It  contains  jute- 
mills  and  cement  works,  and  pottery  of  some  local  repute  is  also  manu- 
factured. The  Sankrail  Khal,  which  here  enters  the  Hooghly  river, 
forms  a  means  of  communication  with  the  interior  of  Hooghly  District. 

Sanosra. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Santal  Parganas. — Southern  District  of  the  Bhagalpur  Division, 

Bengal,  lying  between  23°  48'  and  25°  18'  N.  and  86°  28'  and  87°  57'  E., 

with  an  area  of  5,470  square  miles.     It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 

Districts  of  Bhagalpur  and  Purnea;  on  the  east  by  Malda,  Murshid- 

'  V.  A.  Smith  in  \hs  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1898,  p.  508,  note. 


SANTAL   PARC  anas  6r 

abad,  and  Birbhuiii ;  on  the  south  by  Buidwan  and  Manbhuni ;  and 

on  the  west  by  Hazaribagh,  Monghyr,  and  Bhagalpur. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  District  is   undulating  or  hilly ;  to  the 

north-east,  however,  it  abuts  on  the  Gangetic  plain,  and  a  narrow  strip 

of  alluvial  land  about  6";o  square  miles  in  area  thus 

-  -  Physical 

falls  withui  it.     The  Rajmahal  Hills,  which  cover  asuects 

1,366  square  miles,  here  rise  steeply  from  the  plain, 
but  are  nowhere  higher  than  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
their  average  elevation  being  considerably  less.  Among  the  highest 
ridges  are  Mori  and  Sendgarsa.  The  major  portion  of  these  hills  falls 
within  the  Daman-i-koh  Government  estate,  which  has  an  area  of 
1,351  square  miles.  Among  the  highest  ridges  outside  the  Daman-i-koh 
are  the  NunI,  Sankara,  Ramgarh,  Kulanga,  Sarbar,  Sundardihi,  Laksh- 
manpur,  and  Sapchala  hills.  East  and  south  of  these  hilly  tracts  the 
country  falls  away  in  undulations,  broken  by  isolated  hills  and  ridges 
of  gneiss  of  sharp  and  fantastic  outline.  The  Ganges  forms  the 
northern  and  part  of  the  eastern  boundary,  and  all  the  rivers  of  the 
District  eventually  flow  either  into  it  or  into  the  Bhagirathi.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  Gumani,  the  Maral,  the  Bansloi,  the  BrahmanT,  the 
Mor  or  Morakhi  with  its  tributary  the  Naubil,  the  Ajay,  and  the  Bara- 
kar.     None  of  them  is  navigable  throughout  the  year. 

Archaean  gneiss  and  Gondwana  rocks  constitute  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Santal  Parganas,  the  latter  represented  principally  by  the  vol- 
canic rocks  of  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  which  occupy  an  elevated  strip  of 
land  along  the  eastern  border,  while  to  the  west  the  undulating  area 
that  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  District  consists  of  Bengal 
gneiss,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of  crystalline  rocks 
which  it  contains.  The  Gondwana  division  consists  of  the  Talcher, 
Damodar,  Dubrajpur,  and  Rajmahal  groups.  The  Talcher  and  Damo- 
dar  belong  to  the  Lower  Gondwanas,  and  the  other  two  groups  to  the 
Upper.  The  volcanic  rocks  of  the  Rajmahal  group  are  the  predomi- 
nant member  of  the  series,  and  they  constitute  the  greatest  portion 
of  the  hills  of  that  name.  They  are  basic  lavas  resembling  those  of 
the  Deccan  trap,  and  vary  in  their  coarser  types  from  a  dolerite  to 
a  compact  basalt  in  the  finer-grained  varieties.  A  trachytic  intrusion 
situated  in  the  Hura  coal-field,  about  22  miles  south-east  of  Colgong, 
although  petrologically  quite  different  from  the  basic  basalts  and  dole- 
rites,  may  nevertheless  belong  to  the  same  volcanic  series.  Sedimen- 
tary beds,  consisting  principally  of  hard  white  shales,  sometimes  also 
of  hard  quartzose  grits  or  carbonaceous  black  shales,  occur  frequently 
intercalated  between  successive  flows ;  and  these  are  of  great  interest 
on  account  of  the  beautifully  preserved  fossil  plants  which  they  contain. 
They  are  mostly  cycadaceous  plants  together  with  some  ferns  and 
conifers,  and  are  identical  with  those  found  in  the  Upper  Gondwana 

E  2 


62  SANTAL   FAR G ANAS 

at  Jubbulpore,  in  Cutch  and  various  other  places,  and  liave  been  of 
great  assistance  to  geologists  in  determining  the  age  of  the  series. 
In  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  the  Gondwana  groups  underlying  the  volcanic 
group  are  found  principally  along  the  western  border  of  the  range. 
The  outcrops  are  very  discontinuous,  owing  partly  to  the  faulted 
nature  of  the  western  boundary,  and  partly  to  the  overlaps  between 
the  different  members,  which  in  the  case  of  the  Barakars,  Dubrajpur, 
and  Rajmahal  amount  to  a  well-marked  unconformity.  The  Talchers 
are  very  poorly  represented.  They  consist  of  the  usual  greenish  silts 
and  sandstones,  with  only  a  local  development  of  the  well-known 
boulder  bed.  These  rocks  are  supposed  to  be  of  glacial  origin.  The 
next  group  is  the  most  important  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  as 
it  contains  the  coal-measures.  Along  the  western  border  of  the  hills, 
it  constitutes  several  coal-fields,  which,  enumerated  from  north  to  south, 
are:  the  Hura  coal-field,  a  tract  about  15  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  commencing  about  13  miles  south-east  of  Colgong ;  the  Chu- 
parbhita  coal-field,  about  10  miles  farther  south  in  the  valley  of  the 
Gumani ;  the  Pachwara  field,  in  the  Bansloi  valley ;  and  the  BrahmanI 
coal-field,  in  the  valley  of  the  river  from  which  it  is  named.  In  the 
three  southern  fields  the  Damodar  rocks  are  lithologically  similar  to 
the  Barakar  beds  of  the  Raniganj  coal-field,  consisting  of  alternations 
of  grit,  sandstone,  and  shale,  with  occasional  beds  of  inferior  coal. 
The  coal-measures  of  the  Hura  field  are  lithologically  different ;  they 
consist  of  friable  felspathic  grits  and  soft  white  shales,  with  a  few 
thick  seams  of  inferior  coal,  and  correspond  possibly  with  the  Rani- 
ganj group  of  the  Damodar  coal-fields.  The  Dubrajpur  group,  which 
either  intervenes  between  the  Damodar  and  volcanic  rocks  or  rests 
directly  on  the  gneiss,  to  be  overlapped  in  its  turn  by  the  volcanic 
rocks  themselves,  consists  of  coarse  grits  and  conglomerates,  often 
ferruginous,  containing  quartz  and  gneiss  pebbles,  with  occasionally 
hard  and  dark  ferruginous  bands. 

The  south-western  portion  of  the  District  contains  the  small  Deogarh 
coal-fields  and  the  northern  edge  of  the  Raniganj  coal-field.  The 
Talcher  and  Barakar  are  the  groups  represented.  The  boundaries 
of  these  coal-fields  are  often  faulted.  There  are  numerous  dikes  and 
intrusive  masses  of  mica  peridotite  and  augite  dolerite,  the  underground 
representatives  of  the  Rajmahal  flows.  These  intrusions  occur  in  pro- 
fusion in  the  surrounding  gneiss.  The  coal  in  the  Deogarh  fields  is 
neither  plentiful  nor  of  good  quality.  In  the  north  of  the  District 
the  rocks  disappear  beneath  the  Gangetic  alluvium  ^ 

The  narrower  valleys  are  often  terraced  for  rice  cultivation,  and  the 

^  Memoirs,  Geological  Siwvey  of  India,  vols,  vii  and  xiii,  pt.  ii,  and  Records, 
Geological  Sta-vey  of  Itidia,  vol.  xxvii,  pt.  ii.  The  above  account  was  contributed 
by  Mr.  E.  Vredenburg,  Deputy-Superintendent,  Geological  Survey  of  India. 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  63 

rice-fields  and  their  margins  abound  in  marsh  and  water  ])lants.  The 
surface  of  the  plateau  land  between  the  valleys,  where  level,  is  often 
bare  and  rocky,  but  where  undulating,  is  usually  clothed  with  a  dense 
scrub  jungle,  in  which  Dendrocalamus  strictus  is  prominent.  'I'hrough- 
out  the  District  the  principal  tree  is  the  sal  {Shorea  robusia),  but  all 
trees  characteristic  of  rough  and  rocky  soil  are  found  in  the  jungles. 
Such  are  the  palds  {Biitea  frondosa),  tun  {Cedrela  Tooiia),  dsan  {Ter- 
minalia  tomentosa),  haherd  {Terminalia  Chebuld),  haritakl  i^Tcrminalia 
belericd),  arjioi  {Terminalia  Arjuna),  Phyllanthus  Emblica,  jdmun 
{Euge/iia  Jambolafia),  babul  {Acacia  arabica),  khair  {Acacia  Catechii), 
mahiid  {Bassia  latifolia),  bakul  {Mimusops  Ekngi),  Mallotus  philip- 
pinensis,  kdntdl  {Artocarpus  integrifolia),  Artocarpus  Lakoocha,  Lager- 
stroemia  pannjiora,  Anogeissus  latifolia,  gamhdr  {Gnielina  arborea), 
kiisum  {Schleichera  trijugci),  and  dbniis  {Diospyros  vielanoxyloii). 

Outside  the  Government  estates,  where  forest  is  protected,  the  jungle 
is  being  gradually  destroyed  and  big  game  has  almost  disappeared. 
The  last  elephant  was  shot  in  1893  ;  a  few  bears,  leopards,  hyenas, 
and  spotted  deer  survive,  but  the  Santal  is  as  destructive  of  game  as 
of  jungle.  Wild  duck,  snipe,  and  quail  abound  in  the  alluvial  tract. 
Partridges  are  also  fairly  common,  and  partridge  taming  is  a  favourite 
amusement  of  the  Santals,  Peafowl  and  jungle-fowl  are  still  to  be  found 
in  the  Daman-i-koh  and  in  the  hills  to  the  south  and  east  of  Dumka. 

The  alluvial  strip  of  country  above  alluded  to  has  the  damp  heat 
and  moist  soil  characteristic  of  Bengal,  while  the  undulating  and  hilly 
portions  of  the  District  are  swept  by  the  hot  westerly  winds  of  Bihar, 
and  resemble  in  their  rapid  drainage  and  dry  subsoil  the  lower  plateau 
of  Chota  Nagpur.  In  this  undulating  country  the  winter  months  are 
very  cool  and  the  rains  not  oppressive,  but  the  heat  from  the  end  of 
March  to  the  middle  of  June  is  great.  Mean  temperature  rises  from 
64°  in  December  and  January  to  88°  in  April  and  May.  The  mean 
maximum  is  highest  (roo°)  in  April ;  but  after  May  it  drops  rapidly, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  fall  in  night  temperature,  and  from  July  to  October 
remains  almost  constant  at  88°  and  89°  The  mean  minimum  is  lowest 
(51°)  in  December  and  January.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  52  inches, 
of  which  8-8  inches  fall  in  June,  13-2  in  July,  11-4  in  August,  and  9-2 
in  September, 

Owing  to  the  completeness  of  the  natural  drainage  and  the  custom 
of  accumulating  excess  rain-water  by  dams,  floods  seldom  cause  much 
damage.  The  only  destructive  flood  within  recent  years  occurred  on 
the  night  of  September  23,  1899,  in  the  north-west  of  the  Godda  sub- 
division. The  storm  began  in  the  afternoon,  and  by  8  a.m.  next  morning 
lo-i  inches  of  rain  had  been  registered  at  Godda.  The  natural  water- 
courses were  insufficient  to  carry  away  the  water,  and  a  disastrous 
inundation  ensued.     It  was  estimated  that  881  lives  were  lost,  while 


64  SANTAL   PARGANAS 

upwards  of  6,000  cattle  perished  and  12,000  houses  were  destroyed. 
The  villages  in  the  submerged  area  were  afterwards  visited  by  a  some- 
what severe  epidemic  of  cholera,  probably  due  to  the  contamination 
of  the  water-supply. 

Until  the  formation  of  the  District  in  1855,  the  northern  half  formed 
part  of  Bhagalpur,  while  the  southern  and  western  portions  belonged 
to  Birbhum.  The  Rajmahal  Hills  lay  within  Bhagal- 
pur close  to  the  line  of  communication  between 
Bengal  and  Bihar,  and  the  Paharias  ('  hillmen ')  who  inhabited  them 
lived  by  outlawry  and  soon  forced  themselves  on  the  attention  of  the 
East  India  Company.  The  Muhammadan  rulers  had  attempted  to 
confine  the  Paharias  within  a  ring  fence  by  granting  zavnndaris  and 
jdgirs  for  the  maintenance  of  a  local  police  to  repel  incursions  into  the 
plains  ;  but  little  control  was  exercised,  and  in  the  political  unrest  of 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  these  defensive  arrangements 
broke  down.  Repressive  measures  were  at  first  attempted  with  little 
effect,  but  between  1779  and  1784  Augustus  Clevland  succeeded  by 
gentler  means  in  winning  the  confidence  of  the  Paharias  and  reducing 
them  to  order.  He  allotted  stipends  to  the  tribal  headmen,  established 
a  corps  of  hill-rangers  recruited  among  the  Paharias,  and  founded 
special  tribunals  presided  over  by  tribal  chiefs;  his  rules  were  eventually 
incorporated  in  Regulation  I  of  1796.  To  pacify  the  country,  Govern- 
ment had  to  take  practical  possession  of  the  Paharia  hills  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  zaminddrs  who  had  previously  been  their  nominal  owners. 
The  tract  was  therefore  not  dealt  with  at  the  Permanent  Settlement ; 
and  finally  in  1823  Government  asserted  its  rights  over  the  hills  and 
the  fringe  of  uncultivated  country,  the  Daman-i-koh  or  'skirts  of  the 
hills,'  lying  at  their  feet.  An  officer  was  appointed  to  demarcate  the 
limits  of  the  Government  possessions,  and  the  rights  of  \.\\e.  jagirddrs 
over  the  central  valley  of  Manjhua  were  finally  resumed  in  1837. 
A  Superintendent  of  the  Daman  was  appointed  in  1835  ;  ^^^  he 
encouraged  the  Santals,  who  had  begun  to  enter  the  country  about 
1820,  to  clear  the  jungle  and  bring  the  valleys  under  cultivation.  The 
Paharias,  pacified  and  in  receipt  of  stipends  from  Government,  clung 
to  the  tops  and  slopes  of  the  hills,  where  they  practised  shifting  culti- 
vation. The  valleys  offered  a  virgin  jungle  to  the  axes  of  the  Santals 
who  swarmed  in  from  Hazaribagh  and  Manbhum.  On  the  heels  of 
the  Santals  came  the  Bihari  and  the  Bengali  mahdjans  (money-lenders). 
The  Santal  was  simple  and  improvident,  the  inahajan  extortionate. 
The  Santals  found  the  lands  which  they  had  recently  reclaimed  passing 
into  the  hands  of  others  owing  to  the  action  of  law  courts ;  and  in 
1855,  starting  with  the  desire  to  revenge  themselves  on  the  Hindu 
money-lenders,  they  found  themselves  arrayed  in  arms  against  the 
British    Government.      The    insurrection    was   not   repressed    without 


POPULATION  65 

bloodshed,  but  on  its  conclusion  a  careful  inquiry  was  held  into  the 
grievances  of  the  Santals  and  a  new  form  of  administration  was  intro- 
duced. Regulation  XXXVII  of  1855  removed  the  area  of  the  present 
District  from  the  operation  of  the  general  Regulations  and  placed  the 
administration  in  the  hands  of  special  officers  under  the  control  of 
the  Lieutenant-Governor.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  courts  was 
suspended,  and  the  regular  police  were  removed.  Five  districts  (col- 
lectively named  the  Santa  1  I'arganas)  were  formed  and  placed  under 
the  control  of  a  Deputy  and  four  Assistant  Commissioners,  each  of 
whom  had  a  sub-assistant  and  was  posted  with  his  sub-assistant  at 
a  central  point  of  his  district.  These  ten  officers  were  intended 
simply  for  the  purpose  of  doing  justice  to  the  common  people,  and 
tried  civil  and  criminal  cases  and  did  police  work ;  revenue  work  and 
the  trial  of  civil  suits  valued  above  Rs.  1,000  were  carried  on  by  the 
District  staff  of  Birbhum  and  Bhagalpur. 

Under  this  system  the  Deputy-Commissioner  lived  at  Bhagalpur, 
and  of  the  officers  left  in  the  districts,  three  were  on  the  loop  and 
three  on  the  chord  line  of  rail,  while  only  two  were  posted  in  the 
important  districts  of  Dumka  and  Godda,  which  contained  nearly  half 
the  population  of  the  Parganas.  In  course  of  time,  however,  the 
Santal  Parganas  were  more  or  less  brought  under  the  ordinary  law  and 
procedure  of  the  '  regulation '  Districts,  and  the  Deputy-Commissioner 
was  practically  transformed  into  a  Judge.  Accordingly,  when  in  1872 
an  agitation  again  began  among  the  Santals,  directed  chiefly  against 
the  oppression  of  the  za?nhiddrs,  and  attended  by  acts  of  violence, 
it  was  felt  that  this  tract  required  a  simpler  form  of  administration 
than  other  parts  of  Bengal,  and  a  special  Regulation  (III  of  1872)  was 
passed  for  the  peace  and  good  government  of  the  Santal  Parganas. 
Under  its  provisions,  a  revenue  '  non-regulation '  District  was  formed  ; 
the  Deputy-Commissioner  was  appointed  to  be  the  District  officer, 
with  head-quarters  at  Dumka  instead  of  Bhagalpur,  and  the  three 
tracts  of  Deogarh,  Rajmahal,  and  Godda  were  reduced  to  the  status 
of  subdivisions.  The  areas  now  composing  the  subdivisions  of  Pakaur 
and  Jamtara  were  at  the  same  time  attached  as  outposts  to  Dumka, 
and  that  part  of  the  police  district  of  Deogarh  which  is  included  in  the 
Jamtara  subdivision  and  in  the  Tasaria  and  Gumro  taluks  was  withdrawn 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  regular  police  and  included  in  the  non-police 
area.     These  changes  completed  the  autonomy  of  the  District. 

Population  increased  from  1,259,185  in  1872  to  1,567,966  in  1881, 

t"  1)753)775  in  1891,  and  to  1,809,737  in  1901  :  the  increases  in  1881 

and   1 89 1   were  largely  due  to  greater  accuracy  in       ^       ,  ^. 

•  r^^     \J     ■      ■  ,        ,    ,     ,      ,  ,  Population. 

enumeration.     The  District  is  on  the  whole  healthy, 

but  malarial  fever  prevails  in  the  low-lying  country  bordering  on  the 

Ganges,  and  also  in  parts  of  the  hills. 


66 


SANTA L   FA RG ANAS 


The  principal  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  are  shown  below:- 


S     . 

Number  of 

ition. 

§E 

age  of 
on  in 
on  be- 
1891 

QOI. 

er  of 
able  to 
and 
te. 

Subdivision. 

•S-E 

c 

3 
0- 

l§ 

cen 
riat 
ulat 
een 
nd  I 

a: 

< 

0 
H 

> 
2,368 

Ph 

P4 

0. 

Deogarh 

952 

2 

297,403 

312 

+  4.7 

10,788 

Godda 

967 

1.274 

390,323 

404 

+  1-4 

7,704 

Pakaur 

683 

1,055 

238,648 

349 

+  3.6 

3,747 

Rajmahal     . 

741 

I 

1,292 

276,703 

373 

+  0.1 

5,559 

Dumka 

1,429 

2,105 

416,861 

292 

+  3-1 

11,020 

Jamtara 

District  total 

698 

1,073 

189,799 

272 

+  9-2 

5,698 

5,470 

3 

9,167 

1,809,737 

33' 

+  3.2 

44,5'6 

The  three  towns  are  Madhupur,  Deogarh,  and  Sahibganj  ;  Dumka, 
the  District  head-quarters,  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1903.  The 
population  is  most  dense  in  the  low  and  level  country  on  the  north-east 
and  north-west ;  the  Daman-i-koh  in  the  centre  of  the  District  is  a 
typical  part  of  Chota  Nagpur  and  is  sparsely  inhabited,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  stationary  or  decadent,  except  in  the  Rajmahal  subdivision, 
where  the  collection  of  sabai  grass  {Ischoemujn  angustifoliuni)  for  the 
paper-mills  gives  profitable  employment.  Elsewhere  emigration  has 
been  busily  at  work,  especially  among  the  Santals,  who  chafe  under 
the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Forest  department  on  the  indiscriminate 
felling  of  timber.  Outside  the  Daman-i-koh  the  only  tracts  that  show 
a  decline  are  Rajmahal,  Sahibganj,  and  Poreya.  In  the  tract  first 
mentioned  the  decrease  is  due  to  migration  across  the  Ganges,  while  in 
Sahibganj  it  is  attributed  to  an  outbreak  of  plague  at  the  time  of  the 
Census.  Poreya  is  a  poor  and  barren  tract  and,  like  the  Daman-i-koh, 
has  lost  by  emigration.  The  smallness  of  the  net  increase  for  the 
w^iole  District  during  the  decade  ending  1901  is  due  to  the  large 
scale  on  which  emigration  is  taking  place.  It  is,  in  fact,  estimated 
that  about  182,000  persons  must  have  left  the  District  during  that 
period,  and  that  the  natural  increase  of  the  population  was  at  least 
10  per  cent.  The  most  striking  features  of  the  migration  are:  firstly, 
its  great  volume ;  and  secondly,  the  strong  tendency  of  the  people  to 
move  eastwards.  There  is  a  large  influx  from  all  the  adjoining  Districts 
west  of  a  line  drawn  approximately  north  and  south  through  the  centre 
of  the  District,  i.e.  from  Bhagalpur,  Monghyr,  Hazaribagh,  and  Man- 
bhum  ;  but  the  movement  is  still  stronger  in  the  direction  of  the  Dis- 
tricts east  of  this  line,  i.  e.  Purnea,  Malda,  Murshidabad,  Birbhum,  and 
Burdwan.  The  immigrants  from  the  west  exceed  83,000,  while  the 
emigrants  to  the  east  number  close  on  117,000.  The  great  migration 
of  the  Santals  to  this  District  from  the  south  and  west  took  place 
during  the   middle  j)art  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  many  of  the 


POPULATION  67 

immigrants  enumerated  in  the  last  Census  are  probably  the  survivors 
of  those  who  took  part  in  the  movement.  The  tribe  is  still  spreading 
east  and  north  ;  and  the  full  effect  of  the  movement  is  not  exhausted 
in  the  Districts  that  adjoin  the  Santal  Parganas,  but  makes  itself  felt 
even  farther  away  in  those  parts  of  Dinajpur,  Rajshahi,  and  Bogra 
which  share  with  Malda  the  elevated  tract  of  quasi-laterite  known  as 
the  Barind.  Of  emigration  to  more  distant  places  the  most  noticeable 
feature  is  the  exodus  to  the  Assam  tea  gardens,  where  more  than  31,000 
natives  of  this  District  were  enumerated  in  1901,  and  to  Jalpaigurl, 
where  they  numbered  more  than  10,000.  A  large  variety  of  dialects 
are  used  in  the  District.  Bengali,  spoken  by  13-5  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  includes  the  Rarhi  /W/,  or  classical  Western  Bengali,  and 
Malpaharia  or  the  broken  Bengali  spoken  by  converted  aborigines  in 
the  centre  of  the  District,  Biharl  is  spoken  by  46  per  cent. ;  the  main 
dialect  is  MaithilT,  which  includes  a  sub-dialect  known  as  Chhika 
Chikki  boli,  but  a  dialect  of  Magadhl,  which  has  been  affected  by  its 
contact  with  Bengali,  is  also  largely  used ;  this  is  called  by  Dr.  Gricrson 
Eastern  Magadhl,  and  is  locally  known  as  Karmali  or  Khotta  or  even 
as  Khotta  Bangala.  Santali  itself,  which  is  spoken  by  649,000  persons, 
is  a  dialect  of  the  Munda  family,  while  Malto  belongs  to  the  Dravidian 
group.  Hindus  constitute  56-1  per  cent,  of  the  total  population, 
Animists   34-9  per  cent.,  and  Muhammadans  8-4  per  cent. 

The  Santals  are  now  the  distinctive  caste  of  the  District,  and  in  1 90  r 
numbered  663,000,  of  whom  74,000  were  returned  as  Hindus  and 
589,000  as  Animists.  They  are  a  typical  race  of  aboriginal  stock, 
and  are  akin  to  the  Bhumijs,  Hos,  and  Mundas.  Their  complexion 
varies  from  very  dark  brown  to  an  almost  charcoal  black,  and  their 
features  are  negritic.  The  original  habitat  of  the  race  is  not  known, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  from  a  comparatively  remote  period  they 
have  been  settled  on  the  Hazaribagh  table-land  ;  and  it  is  noticeable 
that  the  Damodar  river,  by  which  its  southern  ftice  is  drained,  is  the 
terrestrial  object  most  venerated  by  them.  Within  the  last  few  cen- 
turies they  have  worked  eastwards,  and  are  numerous  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  and  in  Midnapore ;  and,  as  has  been 
already  related,  they  are  now^  emigrating  to  North  Bengal  and  Assam. 
They  worship  various  deities,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Marang  Bum, 
who  is  credited  with  far-reaching  power,  in  virtue  of  which  he  associates 
both  with  the  gods  and  with  demons.  Each  Santal  family  has  also 
two  special  gods  of  its  own,  the  Orak  bonga  or  household  god  and 
the  Abjebonga  or  secret  god.  Their  principal  festival  is  the  Sohrai 
or  harvest  festival,  celebrated  after  the  chief  rice  crop  of  the  year  has 
been  reaped.  Public  sacrifices  of  fowls  are  offered  by  the  priest  in 
the  sacred  grove ;  pigs,  goats,  and  fowls  are  sacrificed  by  private 
families,  and  a  general  saturnalia  of  drunkenness  and  sexual  licence 


68  SANTAL   PARGANAS 

prevails.  Chastity  is  in  abeyance  for  the  time,  and  all  unmarried 
persons  may  indulge  in  promiscuous  intercourse.  Next  in  importance 
is  the  BahapFiJd,  held  in  Phalgun  (February-March)  when  the  sal 
tree  comes  into  flower.  Tribal  and  family  sacrifices  are  held,  many 
victims  are  slain  and  eaten  by  the  worshippers,  every  one  entertains 
his  friends,  and  dancing  goes  on  day  and  night. 

The  communal-  organization  of  the  Santals  is  singularly  complete. 
The  whole  number  of  villages  comprising  a  local  settlement  of  the 
tribe  is  divided  into  certain  large  groups,  each  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  a  pargajiait  or  circle  headman.  This  official  is  the  head 
of  the  social  system  of  the  inhabitants  of  his  circle ;  his  permission 
has  to  be  obtained  for  every  marriage,  and,  in  consultation  with 
a  panchdyat  of  village  headmen,  he  expels  or  fines  persons  who 
infringe  the  tribal  standard  of  propriety.  He  is  remunerated  by 
a  commission  on  the  fines  levied,  and  by  a  tribute  in  kind  of  one 
leg  of  the  goat  or  animal  cooked  at  the  dinner  which  the  culprits 
are  obliged  to  give.  Each  village  has,  or  is  supposed  to  have,  an 
establishment  of  officials  holding  rent-free  land.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  mdnjhi  or  headman,  who  is  usually  also  ijaraddr  where  the 
village  is  held  on  lease  under  a  zamlndar ;  he  collects  rents,  and 
allots  land  among  the  ryots,  being  paid  for  this  by  the  proceeds  of 
the  mdn  land  which  he  holds  free  of  rent.  He  receives  R.  i  at  each 
wedding,  giving  in  return  a  full  bowl  of  rice-beer.  The  prdmdnik, 
or  assistant  headman,  also  holds  some  7ndn  land.  The  jog-mdnjhi 
and  the  jog-prdmdnik  are  executive  officers  of  the  mdnjhi  and  the 
prdmdnik,  who,  as  the  Santals  describe  it,  'sit  and  give  orders'  which 
the  Jog-manjhi  and  jog-prdmdnik  carry  out.  The  7iaiki  is  the  village 
priest  of  the  aboriginal  deities,  and  the  kudam  naiki  is  the  assistant 
priest,  whose  peculiar  function  it  is  to  propitiate  the  spirits  (bhUts) 
of  the  hills  and  jungles  by  scratching  his  arms  till  they  bleed,  mixing 
the  blood  with  rice,  and  placing  it  in  spots  frequented  by  the  bhiits. 
The  gorait  or  village  messenger  holds  mdn  land  and  acts  as  peon 
to  the  headman,  and  is  also  to  some  extent  a  servant  of  the  zammddr- 
His  chief  duty  within  the  village  is  to  bring  to  the  mdtijhi  ^nd  prdmdnik 
any  ryot  they  want.  Girls  are  married  as  adults  mostly  to  men  of  their 
own  choice.  Sexual  intercourse  before  marriage  is  tacitly  recognized, 
it  being  understood  that  if  the  girl  becomes  pregnant  the  young  man 
is  bound  to  marry  her.  Should  he  attempt  to  evade  this  obligation, 
he  is  severely  beaten  by  the  jog-mdnjhi,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  his 
father  is  required  to  pay  a  heavy  fine. 

Other  castes  are  Bhuiyas  (119,000),  identified  by  Mr.  Oldham  with 
the  Mais,  whom  in  many  respects  they  closely  resemble  ;  Musahars 
(28,000),  whom  Mr.  Risley  considers  to  be  akin  to  the  Bhuiyas;  Male 
Sauria   Paharias  (47,000)  and  Mai  Paharias  (26,000),  two  Dravidian 


AGRICULTURE  69 

tribes  of  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  the  former  of  whom  are  closely  akin  to 
the  Oraons.  The  Muhammadans  are  chiefly  Shaikhs  (77,000)  and 
Jolahas  (63,000).  Agriculture  supports  81  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
industries  7  per  cent.,  commerce  o-6  per  cent.,  and  the  professions 
0-8  per  cent. 

Christians  number  9,875,  of  whom  9,463  are  natives,  including  7,064 
Santals.  'i'he  largest  numbers  are  to  be  found  in  the  head-quarters 
subdivision,  where  the  Scandinavian  JvUtheran  Mission,  called  the 
Indian  Home  Mission,  has  been  at  work  for  over  forty  years  and 
maintains  29  mission  stations  and  9  schools ;  it  has  also  a  colony 
in  Assam,  where  it  owns  a  tea  garden.  The  Church  Missionary 
Society,  which  works  in  the  Godda  and  Rajmahal  subdivisions,  has 
similarly  established  an  emigrating  colony  for  its  converts  in  the 
Western  Duars.  Several  Baptist  missionaries  work  in  the  Jamtara 
subdivision,  one  of  whom  has  established  two  branches  of  his  mission 
in  the  head-quarters  subdivision.  Other  missions  are  the  Christian 
Women's  Board  of  Missions  and  the  Methodist  Episcopalian  Mission, 
the  latter  of  which  works  chiefly  among  Hindus  and  Muhammadans  ; 
it  maintains  a  boarding-school,  with  an  industrial  branch  in  which 
boys  and  girls  are  taught  poultry-keeping,  gardening,  fruit-farming, 
and  carpentry. 

The  soil  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  hills  :  where 
basalt  or  felspar  or  red  gneiss  prevails,  the  soil  is  rich  ;  but  where 
the  hills  are  of  grey  gneiss  or  of  granite  in  which 
quartz  prevails,  it  is  comparatively  barren.  The  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  land  is  mainly  dependent  on  its  situation  and  its 
capability  of  retaining  moisture.  Where  the  surface  is  level  and 
capable  of  retaining  water  coming  from  a  higher  elevation,  it  is  not 
affected  even  by  shortness  or  early  cessation  of  rainfall,  and  good 
crops  of  rice  are  obtained.  If,  however,  the  slope  is  too  steep,  the 
rush  of  water  often  brings  with  it  drifts  of  sand,  which  spoil  the  fields 
for  rice  cultivation  and  damage  the  growing  crops.  In  the  alluvial 
tract  the  system  of  cultivation  differs  in  no  way  from  that  in  vogue 
throughout  the  plains  of  Bihar.  On  the  hill-sides  level  terraces  are 
cut  for  rice  cultivation,  and  these  are  flooded  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  rains  set  in,  small  banks  being  left  round  the  edge  of  each 
plot  to  hold  in  the  water.  Shifting  cultivation  is  now  restricted  to  the 
Saurias  of  the  hills  in  the  Rajmahal  and  Godda  subdivisions,  and 
to  certain  defined  areas  in  Pakaur.  Land  under  cultivation  is  divided 
into  two  main  classes,  bdri  or  high  land  forming  about  53  per  cent, 
of  the  cultivated  area,  and  jannn  or  rice-fields  the  rest.  The  former, 
being  uneven  and  wanting  in  organic  matter,  is  ordinarily  ill-suited 
for  cultivation  ;  but  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  villages,  where  the 
surface  is  fairly   level  and  rich  in  organic  matter,  bari  land  produces 


70 


SANTAL   PARGANAS 


valuable  crops  such  as  maize,  mustard,  the  larger  variety  of  cotton 
{barkdpas),  tobacco,  castor,  and  brinjdls  and  other  vegetables. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Deogarh     . 

Godda 

Pakaur 

Rajmahal   . 

Dumka 

Jamtara 

Total 

952 
967 
683 

741 

1,429 

698 

366 

347 
412 

501 

380 

155 

282 

208 

69 

43 

5  28 
202 

68 
125 
113 
129 

5.470 

2,161              1,332 

435 

Rice,  which  covers  1,213  square  miles,  forms  the  staple  food-grain, 
winter  rice  being  the  principal  crop.  It  is  largely  grown  in  the  alluvial 
strip  along  the  eastern  boundary  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  ridges  ; 
the  undulating  parts  of  the  District,  as  well  as  the  swampy  ground 
between  these  ridges,  are  also  sown  with  rice.  Among  the  other  crops 
are  maize  (262  square  miles),  various  pulses  (437  square  miles),  oil- 
seeds (360  square  miles),  millets,  wheat  and  barley,  sugar-cane,  and 
cotton.  Indigo  was  grown  till  recently  on  a  small  scale,  but  its  cultiva- 
tion is  now  extinct. 

Settlement  figures  show  that  within  twenty  years  cultivation  has 
extended  by  about  30  per  cent,  in  the  Daman-i-koh  and  by  about 
60  per  cent,  in  the  rest  of  the  District.  There  is  much  waste  land 
.still  available  for  cultivation,  and  rents  are  light.  For  several  years 
past  efforts  have  been  made  to  stimulate  the  improvement  of  means 
of  irrigation  by  loans  under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  and 
in  1901-2  Rs.  12,000  was  thus  advanced.  Rs.  15,000  was  also 
advanced  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act  at  the  close  of  the 
famine  of  1896-7,  and  Rs.  6,000  in  consequence  of  the  disastrous 
floods  of  I 899-1 900. 

There  is  scarcity  of  fodder  in  the  dry  months,  and  the  cattle  are 
generally  poor;  animals  of  a  better  quality  are,  however,  found  in 
the  Godda  subdivision,  and  good  milking  cattle  are  imported  from 
Bhagalpur.  Pigs  are  largely  kept  for  food  by  Santals,  Paharias,'and 
low-caste  Hindus. 

Besides  the  methods  of  supplying  water  to  the  rice  crop  which  have 
been  already  described,  the  system  of  irrigation  as  practised  in  the 
Godda  subdivision  consists  in  the  construction  of  water  channels 
leading  from  reservoirs  made  by  throwing  embankments  across  streams. 
These  (hannels  frequently  pass  through  several  villages,  each  village 
assisting  in  their  construction  and  sharing  in  the  benefits  derived  from 


FORESTS  7 1 

a  network  of  distributaries.     There  is  but  little  irrigation  from  wells ; 

kachchd  wells  are  sometimes  dug  for  only  one  season  to  irrigate  the 

sugar-cane  crop  from   February  to   May,  and   tobacco  is  also  grown 

in  small  patches  b)'  the  aid  of  well-water. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  District  was  mostly 

covered  with  jungle.    About  1820  the  Santals  began  to  flock  into  it  and 

betook  themselves   to    the   congenial  occupation  of 

Forests 
jungle  clearing ;  while  the  construction  of  the  loop 

railway  in  1854  and  of  the  chord-line  in  1866  hastened  the  process. 
In  1875  Government  instituted  inquiries  with  a  view  to  bringing  under 
scientific  management  the  Government  forests  in  the  Daman-i-koh,  and 
in  1876  an  area  of  35  square  miles  was  set  aside  for  special  reservation. 
This  area  was  formally  constituted  a  '  reserved '  forest,  and  the  forest 
lands  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Daman-i-koh  were  constituted  '  open ' 
forests,  the  management  being  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner. In  1894  all  Government  land  which  had  not  been  settled 
with  cultivators  was  constituted  '  protected '  forests  under  the  Indian 
Forest  Act  (VII  of  1878),  and  in  1895  the  forests  were  placed  in  charge 
of  the  Forest  department.  The  departmental  system  of  management 
was,  however,  found  not  to  be  sufficiently  elastic ;  and  in  December, 
1900,  the  forests  in  the  Rajmahal  subdivision  and  part  of  those  in 
the  Godda  subdivision  were  restored  to  the  control  of  the  Deputy- 
Commissioner.  The  hills  in  this  tract  are  inhabited  by  Male  Sauria 
Paharias,  who  are  allowed  the  right  of  shifting  cultivation,  which 
renders  scientific  forestry  impossible. 

The  chief  tree  is  the  sal  {Shorea  rol>i/sia),  and  its  distribution  is 
general  throughout  the  District,  except  where  the  forest  has  been 
destroyed,  as  is  largely  the  case  in  the  north  of  the  Daman-i-koh, 
by  shifting  cultivation  and  the  cultivation  of  sabai  grass.  In  the  plains 
and  valleys  the  forest  is  usually  of  pure  sal,  the  other  principal  trees 
being  pidr  i^B^ichafiania  latifolid),  Semecarpus  anacardium,  and  dsan 
{Terminalia  tomenfosa).  On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills  other  species 
appear  in  considerable  variety ;  among  these  are  Zizyphus  xylopyra, 
Atiogeissus  lafifo/ia,  Diospyros,  Sfereospermi/m,  and  Batihinia.  iVs  the 
hills  are  ascended,  different  species  are  met  with,  such  as  bamboos 
{Dendrocalamus  sfrictus),  b'ljdsdl  {JPterocarpiis  Marstipium),  sitsdl  {Dal- 
hergia  latifoUa),  gainhdr  {Giiielina  arhorea),  Kydia  c'a/ya'/ia,  and  Grewia 
iiliaefolia,  the  proportion  of  sdl  gradually  getting  less,  till  on  the  upper 
plateau  it  almost  disappears,  and  on  the  old  cleared  lands  gives  place 
to  a  dense  growth  of  shrubby  trees,  chief  among  which  are  Nydanthes 
Arbor-tristis,  Wendlandia,  Gardenia,  Flacourtia,  Woodfordia,  and  Ano- 
geissus.  At  present  most  of  the  sdl  trees  are  mere  shoots  from  stumps 
2  to  3  feet  high,  which,  when  they  grow  to  a  large  size,  are  always 
unsound  at  the  base.     Cultivating  tenants  of  Government  are  allowed 


72  SANTAL   PARC  ANAS 

to  remove  free  of  charge  all  timber  of  the  unreserved  species  and  such 
minor  products  as  are  required  for  their  domestic  consumption. 

The  area  under  the  Forest  department  is  292  square  miles  ;  and  in 
1903-4  the  revenue  under  its  control  was  Rs.  42,000.  Besides  this, 
143  square  miles  are  managed  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  The 
chief  sources  of  revenue  are  timber,  bamboos,  and  sabai  grass,  while 
minor  items  are  fuel,  coal,  stone,  and  tasar  silk  cocoons.  Other 
jungle  products  are  lac,  found  on  the  palds  {Butea  frondosa),  ber 
{Zizyp/ius  Jiijuba),  and  plpal  {Ficus  religiosa)  trees  ;  beeswax,  catechu, 
honey,  koiijtu  Siwdjombdr  (two  creepers  used  for  making  rope),  and  also 
a  variety  of  edible  products.  The  use  of  jungle  products  as  a  means 
of  subsistence  is  confined  for  the  most  part  to  Paharias,  Santals,  and 
Bhuiyas. 

Stone  is  quarried  on  the  hills  bordering  the  loop-line  of  the  East 
Indian  Railway  from  Murarai  to  Sahibganj ;  the  stone  quarried  is  for 

the  most  part  supplied  as  ballast  to  the  railway,  the 

Calcutta  municipality,  and  certain  District  boards. 
In  1903  coal-mines  were  worked  at  Bhalki,  Domanpur,  Ghatchora, 
and  Sarsabad  in  the  Dumka  subdivision,  and  at  Sultanpur  and 
Palasthol  mines  in  the  Jamtara  subdivision.  The  average  daily  number 
of  persons  employed  was  79,  and  the  output  of  coal  was  2,361  tons. 
The  Jamtara  mines,  which  lie  in  the  Damodar  coal-field,  produce  good 
coal,  but  are  only  worked  on  a  small  scale  for  want  of  access  to  the 
railway ;  elsewhere  the  coal  is  limited  in  extent  and  inferior  in  quality, 
and  is  generally  fit  only  for  brick-burning.  Hand  labour  is  employed 
as  a  rule  in  digging  out  the  coal,  the  wages  paid  being  Rs.  1-4  to 
Rs.  1-8  per  100  cubic  feet  of  coal  lifted.  Copper  ores  exist  at 
Beheraki  in  the  Deogarh  subdivision,  and  lead  ores  (principally 
argentiferous  galena)  occur  in  the  Sankara  hills  and  at  Turipahar, 
Beheraki,  and  Panchpahar.  At  Beheraki  29  oz.  8  dwt.  of  silver  have 
been  obtained  per  ton  of  lead,  and  at  Lakshmipur  near  Naya  Dumka 
50  oz.  3  grs.  of  silver  per  ton  of  lead.  A  considerable  area,  especially 
in  the  Rajmahal  Hills,  is  occupied  by  laterite,  often  constituting 
an  excellent  iron  ore.  Siliceous  white  clays  belonging  to  the  coal- 
measures  at  Lohandia  in  the  Hura  coal-field  are  suitable  for  the 
pottery. 

The  arts  and  manufactures  are  of  a  primitive  character  and  of  little 
importance.      The   manufacture   of  mattocks,   picks,   ploughs,   hooks, 

knives,  axes,  spears,  arrows,  and  shields  is  carried 
comm^ica^fons.   »"   ^«   ^  ^i^^age  industry.      The   iron  was  formerly 

smelted  from  native  ore  by  Kol  settlers  ;  but  with 
the  destruction  of  jungle  and  the  greater  facility  that  now  exists  for 
obtaining  old  scrap-iron  cheap  from  Deogarh  and  Rampur  Hat,  the 
Marayeahs  or  blacksmiths  of  the  District  no  longer  use  locally  smelted 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  73 

iron  or  steel.  Bais  or  measuring  cups  of  u  pretty  though  stereotyped 
pattern  are  made  on  a  limited  scale  by  Thatheris  and  Jadapetias 
(braziers).  Mochis  and  Chamars  carry  on  a  fairly  extensive  industry 
in  tanning  leather  and  making  shoes  ;  Doms,  Haris,  and  Santals  cure 
skins  for  exportation;  Mahlis  make  baskets,  bamboo  mats,  and  screens; 
Tatwas  and  Jolahas  weave  coarse  cotton  cknhs  ;  and  Kumhars  make 
tiles,  pots,  and  pans.  The  manufacture  of  ghi,  oil  {mahud,  sarguja, 
and  mustard),  and  giir  or  coarse  sugar  is  carried  on  as  a  domestic 
industry.  Tasar  cocoons  are  grown  throughout  the  District,  and 
spinning  and  weaving  are  also  carried  on.  The  lac  insect  is  reared  on 
palds  trees  on  a  fairly  large  scale ;  a  Marwari  at  Dumka  manufactures 
about  700  maunds  of  shellac  per  annum  for  export,  and  there  are 
other  factories  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dumka  and  at  Pakaur,  while 
lacquered  bangles  are  manufactured  at  Nunihat  and  a  few  other  places. 
Village  carpenters  are  numerous,  and  wood-carving  is  carried  on  to 
a  very  small  extent.  Silver  and  pewter  ornaments  are  also  made. 
Indigo  was  till  recently  manufactured  in  a  few  European  and  native 
factories,  but  the  industry  is  now  extinct.  Brick-making  on  European 
methods  has  been  carried  on  at  Maharajpur  for  the  last  few  years. 

The  chief  imports  are  rice,  gunny-bags,  raw  cotton,  sugar  refined  and 
unrefined,  molasses,  European  and  Bombay  piece-goods,  salt,  kerosene 
oil,  coal  and  coke.  The  chief  exports  are  food-grains,  linseed  and 
mustard  seed,  sabai  grass,  road-metal,  hides,  raw  fibres,  and  tobacco. 
Trade  is  carried  on  at  markets,  and  is  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands 
of  traders  from  Bihar  and  Marwari  merchants.  The  principal  entrepot 
is  Sahibganj.  About  200,000  maunds  of  sabai  grass  are  exported  to 
the  paper-mills  near  Calcutta,  the  approximate  value  of  the  export 
being  4  lakhs.  Road-metal  is  exported  chiefly  to  Calcutta,  Hooghly, 
and  Burdwan.  The  trade  in  hides  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  head- 
quarters and  Pakaur  subdivisions. 

The  District  is  traversed  on  the  east  by  the  loop-line  and  on  the 
west  by  the  chord-line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  The  Girldlh 
branch  leaves  the  chord-line  at  Madhupur  within  the  District,  and 
there  is  also  a  short  branch  connecting  Rajmahal  on  the  Ganges  with 
the  loop-line.  A  small  branch  line  from  Baidyanath  junction  to 
Deogarh  is  worked  by  a  private  company.  The  construction  of  a  line 
from  Bhagalpur  to  Hansdiha  by  a  private  syndicate  was  sanctioned, 
but  the  concession  lapsed  before  the  necessary  capital  was  raised. 
There  are  also  projects  for  the  construction  of  lines  from  Bhagalpur  to 
Deogarh,  from  Ahmadpur  to  Baidyanath,  and  from  Mangalpur  via  Siiri 
to  Dumka.  The  District  possesses  good  roads  by  which  its  produce  is 
carted  to  the  railway;  848-!  miles  being  maintained  by  the  District  road 
committee,  in  addition  to  village  roads  and  roads  in  Government 
estates.     The  chief  roads  are  the  Bhagalpur-Suri  road  passing  through 


74  SANTAL   PARGANAS 

Dumka,  the  Suri-Monghyr  road  passing  through  Deogarh,  the  roads 
from  Dumka  to  Rampur  Hat  and  to  the  different  subdivisional  head- 
quarters, the  road  from  Murshidabad  along  the  Ganges  through 
Rajmahal  and  Sahibganj  to  Bhagalpur,  as  well  as  several  connecting 
cross-roads  and  feeder  roads  to  the  railway  stations.  The  Ganges, 
which  skirts  the  north-east  of  the  District,  forms  an  important  channel 
of  communication,  but  the  other  streams  of  the  District  are  of  no 
commercial  importance. 

The  District  has  thrice  suffered  from  famine  within  the  last  fifty 
years.  On  occasions  of  scarcity  the  iiiahud  and  the  mango  trees 
.  afford  food  for  large  numbers;  but  in  1865-6,  when 

there  was  great  scarcity  and  distress,  the  people  were 
compelled  by  hunger  to  eat  the  mangoes  while  still  unripe,  and  thou- 
sands of  deaths  from  cholera  resulted.  In  1874  relief  was  afforded  by 
Government  on  a  lavish  scale,  the  fruit  was  allowed  to  ripen  before 
being  plucked,  and  there  was  no  outbreak  of  disease.  In  1896-7  part 
of  the  Jamtara  subdivision  and  the  whole  of  the  Deogarh  subdivision 
were  declared  affected.  Relief  works  were  opened  in  Jamtara  and  in 
Deogarh ;  but  the  highest  average  daily  attendance  in  Jamtara  was  only 
3,258,  in  the  third  week  of  May,  1897,  and  in  Deogarh  1,647,  towards 
the  end  of  June.  The  works  were  finally  closed  on  August  15,  after  an 
expenditure  of  Rs.  29,000  on  works  and  Rs.  25,000  on  gratuitous  relief. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  six  sub- 
divisions,   with   head-quarters    at    Dumka,    Deogarh,    Godda,    Raj- 

.  ^    .  .        .        MAHAL,  Pakaur,  and  Tamtara.     A  Joint-Magistrate 
Administration.         ,     '        ,,     •  >.  ,,  ,,     •       . 

or  J  )eputy-Magistrate-Collector  is  usually  in  charge 

of  the  Rajmahal  subdivision,  and  a  Deputy-Magistrate-Collector  of 
each  of  the  other  subdivisions  ;  in  addition,  three  Deputy-Magistrate- 
Collectors  and  a  Sub-Deputy-Magistrate-Collector  are  stationed  at 
Dumka,  and  one  Deputy-Magistrate-Collector  and  one  Sub-Deputy- 
Magistrate -Collector  at  Rajmahal,  Deogarh,  and  Godda,  and  one 
Sub- Deputy -Magistrate -Collector  at  Jamtara  and  Pakaur.  These 
officers  have  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  as  detailed  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraph.  The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  vested  ex  officio  with  the 
powers  of  a  Settlement  officer  under  the  Santal  Parganas  Regulation 
III  of  1872,  and  is  also  Conservator  of  forests.  An  Assistant  Con- 
servator of  forests  is  stationed  in  the  District. 

The  civil  and  criminal  courts  are  constituted  under  Regulation  V 
of  1893,  as  amended  by  Regulation  III  of  1899.  The  Sessions  Judge 
of  Birbhum  is  Sessions  Judge  of  the  Santal  Parganas  and  holds  his 
court  at  Dumka.  Appeals  against  his  decisions  lie  to  the  High  Court 
of  Calcutta.  The  Deputy-Commissioner  exercises  powers  under  sec- 
tion 34  of  the  Criminal  Procedure  Code  and  also  hears  appeals  from 
all  Deputy-Magistrates.     In  all  criminal  matters,  except  in  regard  to 


A  DMINISTRA  TION  7  5 

cases  comniiltcd  to  the  Court  of  Sessions  and  proceedings  against  Euro- 
pean British  subjects,  the  Commissioner  of  lihagalpur  exercises  the 
powers  of  a  High  Court.  Suits  of  a  value  exceeding  Rs.  1,000  are 
tried  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Judge,  or  by  subdivi- 
sional  otificers  vested  with  powers  as  Subordinate  Judges.  These 
courts  are  estabHshed  under  Act  XII  of  1887,  and  are  subordinate  to 
the  High  Court  of  Calcutta.  Suits  valued  at  less  than  Rs.  500  are 
tried  by  Deputy-  and  Sub-Deputy-Collectors  sitting  as  courts  under 
Act  XXXVII  of  1855,  an  appeal  lying  to  the  subdivisional  officer. 
That  officer  can  try  all  suits  cognizable  by  courts  established  under 
Act  XXXVII  of  1855,  and  an  appeal  against  his  decision  lies  to  the 
Deputy-Commissioner.  There  is  no  second  appeal  where  the  appellate 
court  has  upheld  the  original  decree  ;  if,  however,  the  decree  has  been 
reversed,  a  second  appeal  lies  to  the  Commissioner  of  the  Division. 
The  Deputy-Commissioner  and  Commissioner  have  powers  of  revision. 
These  courts  follow  a  special  procedure,  thirty-eight  simple  rules  re- 
placing the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure.  A  decree  is  barred  after  three 
years  ;  imprisonment  for  debt  is  not  allowed ;  compound  interest  may 
not  be  decreed,  nor  may  interest  be  decreed  to  an  amount  exceeding  the 
principal  debt.  When  any  area  is  brought  under  settlement,  the  juris- 
diction of  the  courts  under  Act  XII  of  1887  is  ousted  in  regard  to 
all  suits  connected  with  land,  and  such  suits  are  tried  by  the  Settle- 
ment officer  and  his  assistants  or  by  the  courts  established  under 
Act  XXXVII  of  1855  ;  the  findings  of  a  Settlement  court  have  the 
force  of  a  decree.  The  District  is  peaceful,  and  riots  are  almost 
unknown.  Persons  suspected  of  witchcraft  are  sometimes  murdered ; 
cattle-theft  is  perhaps  the  most  common  form  of  serious  crime. 

The  current  land  revenue  demand  in  1903-4  was  3-84  lakhs,  of 
which  I -16  lakhs  was  payable  by  449  permanently  settled  estates, 
Rs.  1,600  by  5  temporarily  settled  estates,  and  2-66  lakhs  by  9  estates 
held  under  direct  management  by  Government.  Of  the  latter  class,  the 
Daman-i-koh  is  the  most  important. 

Under  Regulation  III  of  1872  a  Settlement  officer  made  a  settle- 
ment of  the  whole  District  between  the  years  1873  and  1879,  defining 
and  recording  the  rights  and  duties  of  landlord  and  tenants,  and  where 
necessary  fixing  fair  rents.  One  of  the  results  of  this  settlement  was  to 
preserve  the  Santal  village  community  system,  under  which  the  village 
community  as  a  whole  holds  the  village  lands  and  has  collective  rights 
over  the  village  waste ;  these  rights,  which  have  failed  to  secure  recog- 
nition elsewhere  in  Bengal,  were  recorded  and  saved  from  encroach- 
ment. As  regards  villages  not  held  by  a  community,  the  custom 
prevailed  of  leasing  them  to  mustajirs,  a  system  which  led  to  great 
abuses,  and  there  was  also  a  tendency  for  the  zamlndar  to  treat  the 
Santal  mdnjhi  as  though  he  were  but  a  lessee  or  mustdjir.     By  the 

VOL.  XXII.  F 


76  SANTAL  PARGANAS 

police  rules  of  1856  a  mandal  or  headman  was  elected  for  each  village 
where  the  za»it/iddf''s  miistdjir  was  not  approved  by  the  Magistrate 
and  villagers,  his  duties  consisting  of  the  free  performance  of  police 
and  other  public  duties.  As,  however,  it  was  unsatisfactory  to  have 
two  heads  to  a  village,  the  zamlnddr's  mustdjir  and  the  ryot  mandal 
gradually  merged  into  one,  with  the  result  that  a  mustdjir,  when 
appointed,  had  to  secure  the  approval  of  the  Magistrate,  za?fnnddrs, 
and  villagers.  The  position  of  the  headman  thus  developed  was 
defined  at  the  settlement :  he  has  duties  towards  the  zamhiddr,  the 
ryots,  and  the  Magistrate ;  he  may  be  dismissed  by  the  last-named 
personage  on  his  own  motion  or  on  the  complaint  of  the  zammddr 
or  ryots  ;  and  the  stability  of  tenure  secured  by  Regulation  III  of 
1872  prevents  the  zaminddr  from  ousting  him.  The  rights  of  a  head- 
man are  not  usually  transferable,  but  in  the  Deogarh  subdivision  some 
headmen  known  as  w/<'/-ryots  are  allowed  to  sell  their  interest  in  a  vil- 
lage. In  1887  Government  passed  orders  to  prevent  the  sale  of  ryots' 
holdings  being  recognized  by  the  courts  in  areas  in  which  no  custom 
of  sale  had  been  proved.  In  1888  the  revision  of  the  settlement  of 
1873-9  ii^  certain  estates  was  undertaken,  and  the  work  is  being 
gradually  extended  throughout  the  District. 

Prominent  among  the  unusual  tenures  of  the  District  are  the  ghdt- 
wdlis  of  tappd  Sarath  Deogarh,  which  cover  almost  the  whole  Deogarh 
subdivision  and  are  also  found  in  Jamtara  and  Dumka.  These  are 
police  tenures,  originally  established  by  the  Muhammadan  government 
to  protect  the  frontier  of  Bengal  against  the  Marathas. 

Cultivable  land  is  divided  generally  into  five  classes  :  three  kinds  of 
d/idni  or  rice  land,  and  two  kinds  of  bdri  or  high  land.  Dhdni  lands 
are  classified  according  to  the  degree  by  which  they  are  protected  from 
drought,  and  the  average  rates  or  rent  may  be  said  to  be  for  the  first 
class  Rs.  3,  for  the  second  Rs.  2,  and  for  the  third  R.  i.  First-class 
bdri  land  is  the  well-manured  land  near  the  homesteads,  averaging 
R.  I ;  while  second-class  bdri  lands  include  the  remainder  of  the  cul- 
tivation on  the  dry  uplands,  and  average  4  annas.  Rates  vary  widely 
and  the  averages  are  only  an  approximation.  In  the  recent  settlement, 
the  average  rent  for  dhdni  land  over  600  acres  of  typical  zaminddri 
country  was  Rs.  i-ii  per  acre,  and  for  bdri  land  6  annas,  and  the 
corresponding  figures  for  the  Daman-i-koh  were  Rs.  1-9  and  R.  0-5-4. 
Ryots  have,  however,  been  allowed  abatements  in  the  settlement 
actually  concluded,  and  the  settled  rents  do  not  average  more  than 
Rs.  1-8  an  acre  for  dhdni  lands,  and  8  annas  for  bdri  land.  In  the 
Daman-i-koh  the  average  holding  of  a  cultivator  is  9^  acres,  of  which 
4I  acres  are  dhdni  land  ;  the  total  average  rent  rate  is  Rs.  8-14,  but  the 
average  rent  settled  is  only  Rs.  6-1  per  holding.  In  private  settled 
estates  the  rents  payable  are  somewhat  higher. 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


77 


The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  of 
total  revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees,  for  a 
series  of  years  : — 


1880-1. 

18Q0-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

2,43 
4,70 

2,90 
5,63 

2,88 
6,80 

3,87 
8,87 

Until  1 901  the  roads  were  managed  by  a  Government  grant  adminis- 
tered by  the  Deputy-Commissioner;  but  in  that  year  the  Cess  Act 
was  introduced  and  a  road  cess  committee  was  constituted,  with  the 
Deputy-Commissioner  as  chairman,  which  maintains  the  roads  outside 
the  municipal  areas  of  Dumka,  Deogarh,  and  Sahibganj. 

The  drainage  of  a  marsh  near  Rajmahal  was  undertaken  in  1898 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Drainage  Act,  and  the  work  is  now 
nearly  completed. 

The  District  contains  13  police  stations  or  thdmis  and  5  outposts. 
The  District  Superintendent  has  jurisdiction  in  Dumka  town,  the 
Deogarh  subdivision,  and  the  parts  of  Pakaur,  Rajmahal,  and  Godda 
outside  the  Daman-i-koh.  The  force  subordinate  to  him  in  1903 
consisted  of  6  inspectors,  28  sub-inspectors,  -^t^  head  constables,  and 
335  constables.  In  addition  to  these,  a  company  of  military  police, 
100  strong,  is  stationed  at  Dumka.  The  remainder  of  the  District  is 
excluded  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  regular  police  ;  and  police  duties 
are  performed  under  the  police  rules  of  1856  by  the  village  headman, 
a  number  of  villages  being  grouped  together  under  a  parganait,  ghat- 
wdl,  or  sarddr,  who  corresponds  to  a  thdna  officer.  The  parganait  is 
the  Santal  tribal  chief,  the  ghdhval  a  police  service-tenure  holder,  and 
the  sarddr  a  Paharia  tribal  chief.  As  these  indigenous  police  officials 
did  not  satisfactorily  cover  the  whole  non-police  area,  Regulation  III 
of  1900  was  passed,  under  which  stipendiary  sarddrs  are  appointed 
to  groups  of  villages,  where  there  is  no  existing  and  properly  remuner- 
ated officer,  and  are  paid  by  a  cess  on  the  villagers.  There  are  in  the 
Daman-i-koh  2,?>  parganaits  and  20  hill  sarddrs.  Excluding  these, 
there  are  in  the  Dumka  subdivision  55  stipendiary  sarddrs,  4  ghdt 
sarddrs  remunerated  by  holdings  of  land,  and  819  chaukldars ;  and 
in  the  Jamtara  subdivision  2  ghdhvdls,  27  sarddrs,  and  523  chaukiddrs. 
In  all,  chaukiddrs  number  3,965.  A  District  jail  at  Dumka  has  accom- 
modation for  140  prisoners,  and  subsidiary  jails  at  Deogarh,  Godda, 
Rajmahal,  Jamtara,  and  Pakaur  for  116. 

Education  is  very  backward,  only  2-5  per  cent,  of  the  population 
(4-7  males  and  0-2  females)  being  able  to  read  and  write  in  1901  ;  but 
progress  has  been  made  since  1891,  when  only  2-8  per  cent,  of  the 
males  were  literate.     The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  increased 

F  2 


78  SANTAL   PARGANAS 

from  about  17,000  in  1883  to  18,650  in  1892-3,  to  22,755  '■''  i900-i> 
and  to  27,284  in  1903-4,  of  whom  1,314  were  females.  In  that  year, 
9-3  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  0-95  per  cent,  of  the  girls  of  school- 
going  age  were  at  school.  The  educational  institutions  consisted  of 
26  secondary,  912  primary,  and  90  special  schools,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  a  training  school  for  gurus  at  Taljhari  under  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  a  training  school  at  Benagaria  under  the  Lutheran 
Mission,  and  the  Madhupur  industrial  school  maintained  by  the  East 
Indian  Railway  Company.  A  special  grant  of  Rs.  9,500  is  annually 
made  by  Government  to  encourage  primary  education  among  the 
Santals,  and  5,555  aborigines  were  at  school  in  1900.  The  total 
expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was  i-Sr  lakhs,  of  which 
Rs.  78,000  was  contributed  from  Provincial  revenues,  Rs.  1,100  from 
municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  45,000  from  fees. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  10  dispensaries,  of  which  7  had 
accommodation  for  89  in-patients.  The  cases  of  60,000  out-patients 
and  800  in-patients  were  treated,  and  2,686  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  15,000,  of  which  Rs.  5,000  was  met  from 
Government  contributions,  Rs.  1,000  from  Local  and  Rs.  2,300  from 
municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  6,000  from  subscriptions.  Two  of  the  dis- 
pensaries in  the  Daman-i-koh  are  maintained  by  an  annual  subscrip- 
tion among  the  Santals  of  an  anna  per  house.  Government  providing 
the  services  of  a  civil  Hospital  Assistant.  In  addition,  the  various 
missionary  societies  all  maintain  private  dispensaries.  The  Raj 
Kumari  Leper  asylum,  a  well-endowed  institution  with  substantial 
buildings,  is  managed  by  a  committee  of  which  the  Deputy-Commis- 
sioner is  chairman. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  municipal  areas.  In  1903-4 
the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  76,000,  or  42-5 
per  1,000. 

[Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal,  vol.  xv  (1877), 
and  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal  {i2>62>) ;  W.  B.  Oldham,  Santal  Parganas 
Manual  (Calcutta,  1898);  H.  H.  Heard,  Ghdttvdli  and  Mul-ryoti 
Te?iures  as  found  in  Deogarh  (Calcutta,  1 900) ;  F.  B.  Bradley-Birt, 
The  Story  of  an  Indian   Upland  (1905).] 

Santalpur  (with  Chadchat). — Petty  State  in  the  Political  Agency 
of  Palanpur,  Bombay.     See  Palanpur  Agency. 

Santals. — Tribe  in  Bengal.     See  Santal  Parganas. 

Santapilly. — Village  in  the  Bimlipatam  tahsll  of  Vizagapatam 
District,  Madras,  situated  in  18°  4''  N.  and  83°  37'  E.  In  1847  a 
lighthouse  was  erected  on  the  summit  of  a  small  hill  here,  to  warn 
coasting  vessels  making  for  Bimlipatam  off  the  Santapilly  rocks, 
distant  about  6^  miles,  the  lighthouse  bearing  south-east  half  east 
and  being  distant  about   17^  miles  north-east  of  Bimlipatam.     The 


SANTirUR  79 

light  is  visible  14  miles  seaward.  'Hicie  is  a  safe  passage  in  clear 
weather  between  the  rocks  and  the  shore,  the  channel  being  6  miles 
wide. 

Sante  Benniir.^Town  in  the  Channagiri  taluk  of  Shimoga  Dis- 
trict, Mysore,  situated  in  14°  10'  N.  and  76°  o'  R.,  8  miles  west  of 
Sasalu  railway  station.  Population  (1901),  1,613.  It  was  founded 
by  a  chief  of  the  Basavapatna  family,  probably  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
A  palace  was  built  by  Hanumappa  Naik,  and  an  ornamental  honda  or 
reservoir  made  in  front  of  the  temple,  with  pavilions  at  the  angles  and 
in  the  centre.  When  Basavapatna  was  taken  by  the  Bijapur  forces, 
the  Musalmans  destroyed  the  temple  here  and  built  a  mosque  on 
a  large  scale  in  its  place,  further  erecting  elegant  upper  storeys  to  the 
pavilions  at  the  honda.  The  chief,  who  had  been  forced  to  retire  to 
Tarikere,  slew  the  Musalman  governor  and  desecrated  the  mosque  in 
revenge.  The  Chitaldroog  chief  took  the  place  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  ;  but  in  1717  it  was  captured  by  Bednur,  which  held  it 
till  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Haidar  AH  in  1761.  The  Marathas  under 
Parasuram  Bhao  sacked  the  town  in  1791.  The  mosque,  never  used 
since  its  desecration,  and  the  honda,  with  its  ruinous  but  graceful 
pavilions,  are  the  only  features  of  interest  now  left. 

Santhal. — ^Petty  State  in  MahI  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Santipur. — Town  in  the  Ranaghat  subdivision  of  Nadia  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  23°  15'  N.  and  88°  27'  E.,  on  the  Hooghly  river. 
Population  (1901),  26,898,  having  declined  from  30,437  in  1891  ;  but 
it  is  still  the  most  populous  town  in  the  District.  Hindus  number 
18,219,  Muhammadans  8,672,  and  Christians  6.  Santipur  was  con- 
stituted a  municipality  in  1865.  The  income  during  the  decade 
ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  28,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  25,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  31,000,  including  Rs.  16,000  derived 
from  a  tax  on  houses  and  lands,  and  Rs.  7,000  obtained  from  muni- 
cipal property ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  26,000.  Santipur  was 
once  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  weaving  industry,  and  its  muslins  had 
a  European  reputation,  the  town  being  the  site  of  a  Commercial  Resi- 
dency and  the  centre  of  large  factories  under  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. Owing  to  the  competition  of  machine-made  goods,  however, 
the  weavers  are  no  longer  prosperous.  There  was  at  one  time  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  date-sugar,  but  this  too  is  becoming  less  profitable. 
The  earthquake  of  1897  destroyed  many  of  the  largest  buildings,  and 
the  impoverished  owners  have  been  unable  to  replace  them.  There 
is  still,  however,  a  considerable  local  trade.  The  Rash  Jatra  festival 
in  honour  of  Krishna,  celebrated  on  the  day  of  the  full  moon  in  Kartik 
(October-November),  is  attended  by  about  10,000  persons  ;  Santipur  is 
also  a  celebrated  bathing-place.  The  Zanana  Mission  has  a  school 
and  dispensary  here. 


8o  SANTOriLL  V 

Santopilly.  —  Village  and  lighthouse  in  Vizagapatani  District, 
Madras.     See  Santapilly. 

Saoner. — Town  in  the  District  and  ^a/isl/  of  Nagpur,  Central  Pro- 
vinces, situated  in  21°  23'  N.  and  78°  55'  E.,  23  miles  north-west  of 
Nagpur  city  on  the  Chhindwara  road.  The  town  is  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  Kolar  river,  the  people  on  the  northern  bank  consisting 
of  Marathas,  and  those  on  the  southern  of  Lodhis,  Kirars,  and  other 
immigrants  from  Northern  India.  The  present  name  is  a  corruption 
of  the  old  one  of  Saraswatpur  or  '  the  city  of  Saraswati,'  the  goddess 
of  wisdom.  Population  (1901),  5,281.  The  town  contains  an  old 
temple  constructed  of  large  blocks  of  stone  without  mortar,  and  the 
ruins  of  a  fort  ascribed  to  the  Gaolls.  Saoner  was  constituted  a  muni- 
cipality in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  during  the  decade  ending 
1901  averaged  Rs.  2,800,  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  5,000, 
derived  mainly  from  a  house  tax,  market  dues,  and  rents  of  land. 
The  town  is  an  important  cotton  mart,  and  possesses  three  ginning 
factories  containing  108  cotton-gins,  two  of  which  are  combined  with 
cotton-presses.  The  aggregate  capital  of  these  factories  is  about 
4^  lakhs,  and  two  of  them  have  been  opened  since  1900.  The 
Saoner  ginning  factory,  started  in  1883,  was  the  first  in  the  District. 
A  hand-dyeing  industry  is  also  carried  on,  in  connexion  with  which 
a/  {Morinda  citrifolid)  was  formerly  cultivated  round  the  town.  A  few 
trees  are  still  left.  A  large  weekly  cattle  market  is  held,  and  there  are 
an  English  middle  school  and  branch  schools.  A  dispensary  is  main- 
tained by  the  mission  of  the  Scottish  Free  Church. 

Saptagram.  —  Ruined  town  in  Hooghly  District,  Bengal.  See 
Satgaon. 

Saptashring  ('  the  seven-horned,'  otherwise,  but  wrongly,  called 
Chattar-singh  or  '  the  four-peaked '). — One  of  the  highest  points  in 
the  Chandor  range,  Nasik  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  20°  23'  N.  and 
73°  55'  E.,  4,659  feet  above  sea-level.  It  rises  about  the  centre  of  the 
range,  15  miles  north  of  Dindori.  The  highest  point  towers  900  feet 
above  the  plateau,  and  the  rock  is  perpendicular  on  all  sides  but  one, 
where  it  has  crumbled  away  and  grass  has  grown  in  the  crevices.  The 
rock  has  more  peaks  than  one,  but  it  seems  to  have  no  claim  to  the 
title  'seven-horned.'  The  hill  may  be  climbed  from  three  sides:  by 
a  good  but  steep  bridle-road  from  the  north ;  by  a  very  steep  sixty-step 
path  on  the  east,  formerly  the  only  road  used  by  pilgrims,  but  now 
abandoned  ;  and  on  the  south  by  a  steep  footpath  for  part  of  the  way 
which  ends  in  a  flight  of  350  steps  carved  in  the  face  of  the  rock. 
This  last  is  the  road  now  commonly  used  by  the  pilgrims  and  other 
visitors.  On  the  steps  figures  of  Rama,  Hanuman,  Radha,  and  Krishna, 
and  in  one  or  two  places  a  tortoise,  are  carved  at  intervals.  These 
steps  were  made  in  1768-99  by  three  brothers,  Konher,  Rudraji,  and 


SARA  8r 

KrishnajT  of  Nasik.  At  intervals  five  inscriptions  have  been  carved 
on  and  near  the  steps.  One  of  the  inscriptions  is  in  Sanskrit,  the 
others  in  MarathT.  They  give  the  names  of  the  three  brothers  and 
of  Girmaji  their  father.  At  the  foot  of  the  steps  the  three  brothers 
built  a  temple  of  Devi  and  a  resthouse,  and  at  the  top  a  temple  of 
Ganpati  and  a  pond  called  Ramtlrth.  These  steps  lead  to  the  plateau, 
and  from  the  plateau  a  farther  flight  of  472  steps  leads  to  the  shrine 
of  Saptashringanivasini  Devi.  The  472  steps  to  the  upper  hill-top 
were  built  about  17 10,  before  the  lower  steps,  by  Uma  Bai,  wife  of 
Khande  Rao  Dabhade,  the  hereditary  general  of  the  Maratha  army. 

The  shrine  of  the  goddess,  known  as  Mahishasur  Mardini  or  Sapta- 
shringanivasini, is  in  a  cave  at  the  base  of  a  sheer  scarp,  the  summit 
of  which  is  the  highest  point  of  the  hill.  Something  like  a  portico 
was  added  to  the  shrine  of  the  goddess  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  by  the  Satara  commander-in-chief,  and  the  present 
plain  structure  has  been  recently  built  by  the  chief  of  Vinchur.  At 
the  foot  of  the  steps  leading  to  the  shrine  is  a  small  stone  reservoir 
dedicated  to  Siva  and  called  Sivalya-tirth,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Uma  Bai.  On  one  side  of  the  pond  stands  a  Hemadpanti 
temple  of  Siddheshwar  Mahadeo,  mostly  in  ruins  but  with  the  dome 
still  standing,  with  some  rather  elaborate  stone-carving.  Under  the 
dome  stands  the  /itigam,  and  outside  in  front  of  it  a  carved  bull. 
Not  far  from  the  bathing-place  is  a  precipice  known  as  the  Sit  Kade, 
which  overhangs  the  valley  about  1,200  feet;  from  this  rock  human 
sacrifices  are  said  to  have  been  formerly  hurled ;  a  kid  is  now  the 
usual  victim. 

A  large  fair  lasting  for  a  week,  and  attended  by  about  15,000  pil- 
grims, is  held  on  the  full  moon  of  Chaitra  (April).  On  the  occasion 
of  the  fair  the  steps  leading  to  the  shrine  are  crowded  with  the  sick 
and  maimed,  who  are  carried  up  the  hill  in  hopes  of  a  cure.  Barren 
women  also  go  in  numbers  to  make  vows  and  gain  the  gift  of  a  child. 
Like  the  top  of  Mahalakshmi  in  Dahanu,  the  top  of  Saptashring  is 
said  to  be  inaccessible  to  ordinary  mortals.  The  headman  of  the 
village  of  Burigaon  alone  climbs  up  on  the  April  full  moon,  and  next 
morning  at  sunrise  is  seen  planting  a  flag.  How  he  climbs  and  how 
he  gets  down  is  a  mystery,  any  attempt  to  pry  into  which,  says  the 
tradition,  is  attended  by  loss  of  sight. 

Sara. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Pabna  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  24°  6'  N.  and  89°  3'  E.,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Padma.  Population  (1901),  3,011,  including  2,004 
persons  enumerated  within  railway  limits.  Sara  is  the  terminus  of  the 
Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  (northern  section),  and  is  connected  by 
a  steam  ferry  with  Damukdia  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  and  is 
consequently   an    important   trade    centre.      It   is    proposed    that    the 


82  SAJ?A 

Ganges  should  here  be  bridged,  to  bring  the  tract  north  of  the  Padma 
into  direct  raihvay  communication  with  Calcutta  without  transhipment. 

Saragarhi. — Village  on  the  crest  of  the  Samana  range,  Kohat 
District,  North-West  Frontier  Province,  situated  in  33°  55'  N.  and 
70°  45^  E.  It  is  held  by  the  Babi  Khel,  a  section  of  the  Rabia  Khel 
Orakzai.  During  the  Miranzai  expedition  of  1891,  the  village  was 
destroyed  after  severe  fighting  and  an  outpost  was  built.  In  1897 
this  post,  then  held  by  21  men  of  the  36th  Sikhs,  was  attacked  by 
several  thousand  Orakzais,  who  overwhelmed  the  little  garrison  after 
a  heroic  defence  and  massacred  the  Sikhs  to  a  man  on  September  12. 
A  monument  at  Fort  Lockhart  commemorates  the  gallantry  of  the 
defence,  while  other  memorials  have  been  erected  at  Amritsar  and 
Ferozepore  in  the  Punjab. 

Saraikela.  —  Feudatory  State  in  Chota  Nagpur,  Bengal,  lying 
between  22°  29'  and  22°  54'  N.  and  85°  50'  and  86°  11''  E.,  with  an 
area  of  449  ^  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Manbhum 
District ;  on  the  east  and  west  by  Singhbhum ;  and  on  the  south  by 
the  State  of  Mayurbhanj.  It  consists  chiefly  of  an  undulating  plain 
dotted  with  small  rocky  hills  ;  towards  the  east  it  is  more  hilly,  and  the 
higher  ranges  in  the  extreme  north-east  still  contain  valuable  timber. 
The  scenery  throughout  is  wild  and  romantic  in  places.  The  forests 
altogether  cover  about  50  square  miles,  the  chief  tree  being  the  sa/ 
{Shorea  robusta) ;  sabai  grass  [Ischoemuin  aiigiisti/oliinn)  grows  in  the 
forests.  The  State  is  drained  by  five  streams  :  the  Kharkai,  the  Sanjai, 
the  Sonai,  the  Asuya,  and  the  Bhangbanga.  The  largest  of  these,  the 
Kharkai,  rises  from  a  hill  in  Mayurbhanj  and  flows  northwards  past 
Saraikela  village,  which  it  skirts  on  its  southern  side,  eventually  joining 
the  Sanjai,  a  tributary  of  the  Subarnarekha. 

The  first  ruler  of  Saraikela  was  Bikram  Singh,  a  younger  son  of  the 
Porahat  Raj  family.  Obtaining  part  of  what  is  now  the  Saraikela 
State  as  a  fief,  he  quickly  made  himself  independent.  He  and  his 
descendants  enlarged  their  dominions  from  time  to  time,  and  gradu- 
ally eclipsed  the  parent  family  of  Porahat  in  power  and  importance. 
Saraikela  first  came  under  the  notice  of  the  British  in  1793,  when,  in 
consequence  of  disturbances  on  the  frontier  of  the  old  Jungle  Mahals, 
its  chief  was  compelled  to  enter  into  engagements  relating  to  fugitive 
rebels.  Ten  years  later,  Lord  Wellesley,  the  Governor-General,  invited 
Kunwar  Abhiram  Singh,  an  ancestor  of  the  present  Raja,  to  render 
assistance  in  the  war  against  Raghuji  Bhonsla  of  Nagpur.  In  1856  the 
Kunwar  of  Saraikela  received  the  personal  title  of  Raja  Bahadur ;  and 
his  services  during  the  Mutiny  were  rewarded  by  a  khilat  and  a  rent- 
free  grant  in  perpetuity  of  the  sub-estate  of  Karaikela,  a  portion  of  the 

^  This  figure,  which  differs  from  the  area  shown  in  the  Census  Report  of  1901,  was 
supplied  by  the  Surveyor-General. 


SARAIKELA  83 

escheated  territory  of  the  rebel  Raja  of  Porahat.  'I'he  i)rc.sciU  cliief 
of  Saraikela,  Raja  Udil  Narayan  Singh  Deo  JJahadur,  rendered  assis- 
tance to  the  British  Ciovernnient  in  the  Bonai  and  Keonjhar  risings 
of  1888  and  1891  ;  the  title  of  Raja  Bahadur  was  conferred  on  him 
in  1884  as  a  personal  distinction.  Within  the  Saraikela  State  are 
included  the  estates  of  DugnT,  Banksai,  and  Icha,  which  were  originally 
maintenance  grants  to  members  of  the  ruling  family.  They  pay  no 
rent,  but  are  subordinate  to  the  chief.  The  administration  is  con- 
ducted by  the  chief,  who  exercises  judicial  and  executive  powers  sub- 
ject to  the  control  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner  of  Singhbhum  and  the 
Commissioner  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division.  He  is  empowered  to 
pass  sentences  of  imprisonment  up  to  five  years  and  of  fine  to  the 
extent  of  Rs.  200,  but  sentences  for  more  than  two  years'  imprisonment 
require  the  confirmation  of  the  Commissioner.  Heinous  offences 
requiring  heavier  punishment  are  dealt  with  by  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner. The  present  sanad  of  the  chief  was  granted  to  him  in 
1899. 

The  population  increased  from  93,839  in  1891  to  104,539  in  1901, 
the  density  being  233  persons  per  square  mile.  The  number  of  vil- 
lages in  the  State  is  816,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Saraikela 
(population,  3,711),  the  head-quarters,  which  is  administered  as  a 
municipality,  and  Sini,  a  junction  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway. 
Hindus  number  63,650  and  Animists  39,956,  the  most  numerous 
castes  or  tribes  being  the  Hos  (21,000),  Santals  (20,000),  and 
Kurmis  (15,000).  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  supported  by  agricul- 
ture ;  rice  is  the  staple  food-grain,  other  crops  raised  being  maize, 
pulses,  and  oilseeds. 

Copper  and  iron  are  found,  and  nodular  limestone  is  abundant. 
Slabs  of  rock,  locally  called  makrdsa,  which  occur  in  some  parts  of  the 
State,  serve  for  building  purposes.  Copper-smelting  by  native  methods 
was  carried  on  twenty-five  years  ago  on  a  comparatively  large  scale,  but 
has  now  been  abandoned.  Soapstone,  slate,  and  mica  are  found  in 
places.  Cotton  and  tasar  cloth,  gold,  silver  and  brass  ornaments, 
copper  trumpets,  bell-metal  cups  and  bowls,  iron  ploughshares,  axes, 
vices,  spades,  shovels,  knives,  and  locks  are  manufactured.  The  chief 
imports  are  cotton  cloths,  salt,  kerosene  oil,  and  spices  ;  and  the  chief 
exports  are  rice,  ropes,  cotton,  tamarind,  sahai  grass  {Ischoevium  angusti- 
foliuth)  and  timber.  The  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  line  runs  from  east 
to  west  across  the  north  of  the  State.  It  is  joined  by  the  branch 
line  to  Asansol  at  Sini,  where  large  iron  and  steel  works  are  projected, 
to  utilize  ore  from  the  Mayurbhanj  State.  The  State  is  traversed  by 
the  roads  from  Chaibasa  to  Midnapore  and  Purulia,  which  are  kept 
up  by  the  Singhbhum  road-cess  committee ;  and  a  metalled  road 
from  Sini  to  Saraikela  is  maintained  by  the  chief.     The  total  revenue 


84  SARAIKELA 

of  the  State  is  Rs.  92,000,  of  which  Rs.  72,000  is  derived  from  the 
land.  There  is  a  police  force  of  11  officers  and  25  men,  and  a  jail 
with  accommodation  for  32  prisoners.  The  State  also  maintains  a 
dispensary,  2  middle  English,  3  upper  primary,  and  8  lower  primary 
schools. 

Saraj  Tahsil. — Tahs'il  in  the  Kulu  subdivision  of  Kangra  District, 
Punjab,  lying  between  31°  21' and  31°  50' N.  and  77°  17' and  77°  47' E., 
with  an  area  of  289  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north-east  by 
Spiti ;  on  the  east  and  south  by  Bashahr  and  the  Simla  Hill  States  ;  and 
on  the  west  by  Suket  and  Mandl.  The  population  in  1901  was  50,631, 
compared  with  50,551  in  1891.  It  contains  25  villages,  including  Ban- 
jar,  the  head-quarters.  The  tahsil  is  divided  into  the  two  wazlris  or 
cantons  of  Inner  and  Outer  Saraj,  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
Jalori  ridge,  which  has  an  average  elevation  of  12,000  feet.  Inner 
Saraj  lies  in  the  Beas  basin,  and  in  physical  aspects  resembles  the 
Kulu  Tahsil.  Outer  Saraj  belongs  to  the  Sutlej  valley,  and  the 
country  slopes  down  from  the  Jalori  ridge  to  the  river,  which  is  here 
only  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  46,000. 

Saralbhanga. — River  of  Assam,  which  rises  in  Bhutan  and  flows 
in  a  tortuous  southerly  course  through  Goalpara  District,  till  it  falls 
into  the  Brahmaputra.  Its  principal  tributary  is  the  Gaurang,  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river.  Through  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  it  flows  through  jungle  land,  but  it  is  one  of  the 
recognized  trade  routes  of  the  District  by  which  timber  and  other 
forest  produce  are  exported.  During  the  rainy  season,  boats  of  4  tons 
burden  can  proceed  as  far  as  Patgaon,  north  of  the  trunk  road.  The 
total  length  of  the  Saralbhanga  is  about  81   miles. 

Saran  District. — District  in  the  Patna  Division  of  Bengal,  lying 
between  25°  39'  and  26°  39'  N.  and  83°  54'  and  85°  12'  P2.,  with  an 
area  of  2,674'  square  miles.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
Sanskrit  Sarana,  meaning  '  refuge ' ;  and  there  is  a  legend  that  some 
demons  converted  here  by  Buddha  sought  the  '  refuge  '  of  the  Buddhist 
triad,  Buddha,  Dharma,  and  Sangha.  The  District  is  a  wedge  of  allu- 
vial soil,  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Gandak  rivers,  with  its  apex 
pointing  south-eastwards  towards  Patna  city.  The  Gandak  separates 
it  on  the  east  from  Muzaffarpur  and  Champaran,  and  on  the  south 
the  Ganges  forms  the  boundary  dividing  Saran  from  Patna  and  Shah- 
abad.  The  western  boundary  marches  with  the  United  Provinces. 
The  Gogra,  running  parallel  with  the  Gandak,  meets  the  Ganges 
opposite  the  head-quarters  station  of  Chapra  and  forms  the  south- 
west boundary  between  Saran  and   Ballia  District,  while  an  irregular 

'  This  area,  which  differs  from  that  given  in  the  Census  Report  of  1901  (2,656 
square  miles),  is  that  ascertained  in  the  recent  survey  operations. 


SARAN  DISTRICT  85 

base-line  drawn  north-east  from  the  Gogra  to  the  Gandak  constitutes 
the  western  boundary  with  Gorakhpur. 

Saran  is  a  beautifully  wooded  plain,  highly  cultivated  and  densely 
populated,    without   a    hill    and    hardly  any    elevations    except    those 
which  mark  the  site  of  some  old  fortress  or  deserted 
village.     It    is    very    fertile,    and    is    intersected    by  asoect^ 

numerous  water-channels  which  flow  in  a  south- 
easterly direction.  The  Ganges,  Gandak,  and  Gogra  are  described 
elsewhere.  The  Daha  or  Sandl,  Gandaki,  Dhanai,  and  Ghangri 
were  originally  spill-channels  from  the  Gandak,  with  which,  however, 
their  connexion  has  been  severed  by  the  Gandak  embankment ; 
they  form  the  system  known  as  the  Saran  Canals,  Similar  streams 
are  the  Khanua,  Jharahi,  and  Khatsa,  which  ultimately  fall  into  the 
Gogra  or  Ganges.  The  channels  of  the  Ganges,  Gandak,  and  Gogra 
are  perpetually  oscillating ;  and  sandbanks  form  in  the  beds  of  the 
rivers  one  year,  only  to  be  swept  away  the  next,  so  that  frequent  changes 
in  jurisdiction  are  necessary. 

The  soil  consists  of  alluvial  deposits,  the  basis  of  which  belongs  to 
an  older  alluvial  formation  composed  of  massive  argillaceous  beds, 
disseminated  throughout  which  occur  kankar  and  pisolitic  ferruginous 
concretions.  These  clay  soils,  locally  known  as  bhat,  are  exposed  in 
marshy  depressions  called  chaurs,  which  are  scattered  over  the  District. 
Elsewhere  they  are  overlaid  with  more  recent  sandy  deposits  known  as 
bd/igar. 

Though  the  District  contains  no  forests,  it  is  well  timbered,  the  most 
conspicuous  trees  being  the  sissu  {Dalbergia  Sissoo),  red  cotton-tree 
{Bombax  malabaricum),  and  tamarind.  The  village  sites  are  embedded 
in  groves  of  the  palmyra  palm  {Borassits  Jlabel/ifer),  the  date  palm 
{Phoenix  sylvestris),  and  other  semi-spontaneous  and  more  or  less  useful 
species.  The  groves  of  mango-trees  planted  in  beautifully  regular  lines 
are  a  marked  feature  of  the  landscape.  The  surface  is  highly  cultivated  ; 
but  the  banks  of  streams  and  patches  of  waste  land  are  covered  by  a  dry 
scrub  jungle  of  shrubs  of  the  order  of  Euphorbiaceae,  Butea  and  other 
leguminous  trees,  and  species  of  Ficiis,  Schkichera^  Wcndlafidia,  and 
Ginelina. 

Nilgai  and  wild  hog  are  common  in  the  low  scrub  jungle  which  is 
met  with  on  the  alluvial  islands,  and  are  very  destructive  to  crops. 
Wolves  carry  off  a  considerable  number  of  infants,  snakes  are  very 
numerous,  and  crocodiles  infest  the  large  rivers. 

The  winter  months  are  delightfully  cool,  but  the  dry  heat  is  intense 
in  May  and  June.     The  mean  temperature  varies  from  62°  in  January 
to  89°  in  May,  and  the  maximum  from  73°  in  January  to  100°  in  April 
and  May,  while  the  mean  minimum  ranges  from  50°  in  January  to  79 
in  June  to  August.     Saran  is  one  of  the  driest  Districts  in  Bengal,  the 


86  SARAN  DISTRICT 

average  annual  rainfall  being  only  45  inches.  The  monsoon  com- 
mences in  June,  when  6-9  inches  fall,  and  the  maximum  monthly  fall 
of  1 2-1  inches  is  reached  in  July.  The  average  fall  for  August  is 
II  inches  and  for  September  7-6  inches.  Humidity  ranges  from  57  per 
cent,  in  April  to  88  per  cent,  in  August.  The  rainfall  is  capricious,  and 
during  the  decade  ending  1901  it  varied  from  24  inches  in  1896-7 
(the  lowest  on  record)  to  65  inches  in  1899- 1900. 

The  District  has  always  been  liable  to  floods,  which  occur  when  the 
waters  of  the  smaller  rivers  are  banked  up  by  high  floods  in  the  great 
rivers  into  which  they  flow.  An  embankment  constructed  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gandak  for  a  distance  of  99  miles  now  protects  the 
north-east  of  the  District,  but  the  south-west  and  south  are  still  exposed 
to  inundation  from  the  Gogra  and  Ganges. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  Saran  formed  the  eastern  limit  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  the  Kosalas,  whose  head-quarters  were  in  Oudh  and  who 
were  separated  by  the  Gandak  river  from  the  eastern 
kingdom  of  Mithila.  Very  little  is  known  of  it,  and 
the  absence  of  any  reference  in  the  early  Vedic  literature  and  the 
paucity  of  Buddhist  remains  render  it  probable  that  it  maintained 
its  character  as  a  vast  jungle  for  a  much  longer  period  than  either 
of  the  adjoining  Districts  of  Muzaflarpur  or  Champaran.  Indeed,  the 
earliest  authentic  relic  which  has  been  found  in  Saran  is  an  inscribed 
copperplate  preserved  in  the  village  of  Dighwa  Dubaulia,  about  34  miles 
north-east  of  Chapra,  which  Dr.  Rajendralala  Mitra  declares  to  be  a 
counterpart  of  a  similar  plate  found  by  Colonel  Stacy  near  Benares, 
dealing  with  the  grant  of  a  village  by  Raja  Bhoja  Deva,  paramount 
sovereign  of  Gwalior  about  a.d.  876.  The  mediaeval  history  of  the 
District  is  connected  widi  the  fortunes  of  the  Hathwa  family,  whose 
head-quarters  were  at  Husepur.  Siwan  and  Manjhi  were  fortified  seats 
of  turbulent  Musalman  freebooters,  while  Manjha,  Parsa,  Mirzapur, 
Paterha,  and  Cherand  were  during  the  same  period  the  head-quarters 
of  powerful  Hindu  chieftains. 

The   recorded    population    increased    from    2,076,640   in    1872    to 

2,295,207   in    1881,  and  to  2,465,007   in   1891,   but  fell  to  2,409,509 

^       .    .  in   1 901.     The  increases  of  io4  per  cent,  between 

Population.         r,  1     00         1     r  ,     •       .1 

1872  and  1 88 1  and  of  7-4  per  cent,  durmg  the  next 

decade    are   partly   attributable    to    improved    enumeration.      Several 

causes  contributed  towards  the  decrease  of  2-2  per  cent,  during  the 

last  decade.     The  District  already  contained  a  larger  population  than 

it  can  support  and  the  volume  of  emigration  sensibly  increased.     The 

famine  of  1897  told  severely  on  the  people,  and,  though  it  caused  no 

direct    mortality,    reduced    their   vitality   and   lowered    the   birth-rate. 

Plague    also    assumed    epidemic    proportions    during    the    winter    of 

1900-r. 


POPULATION 


S7 


The  principal  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  arc  shown  below: — 


Subdivision. 


Cliapra 
Gopalganj 
Siwan  . 


District  total 


Number  of 

o"c« 

•P 

B 

a; 

^ 

rt 

< 

H 

> 

1,048 

2 

2,179 

788 

I 

2,148 

838 

I 

1,52s 

2,674 

4 

5,855 

S-i 


972,718  928 
635,047  806 
801,744  957 


2,409,509  j  901 


Z   3  V  C 


-  5-5 
+  0.1 
+  0.1 


OJH-3 

3  o  u  "^ 
S5  2  ^ 


43,472 
14,967 

24-741 


83,180 


The  four  towns  are  Chapra,  Siwan,  Rkvelganj,  and  MIrganj. 
The  villages  are  small,  and  their  average  population  is  only  397,  as 
compared  with  602  in  North  Bihar  as  a  whole.  The  density  of  popu- 
lation is  surpassed  in  only  two  Bengal  Districts.  It  is  very  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  District,  and  only  one  thdna  has  less  than 
800  persons  per  square  mile.  Saran  sends  out  a  greater  proportion 
of  emigrants  than  any  other  District  in  Bengal  outside  Chota  Nagpur, 
and  in  1901  more  than  a  tenth  of  the  District-born  population  were 
enumerated  away  from  home  ;  about  one-fifth  of  the  absentees  were 
found  in  contiguous  Districts,  but  the  remainder  had  gone  farther 
afield  and  were  enumerated  in  large  numbers  in  Rangpur,  Calcutta, 
and  the  Twenty-four  Parganas.  Owing  to  this  emigration,  the  pro- 
portion of  females  to  males  (6  to  5)  is  the  highest  in  Bengal.  Infant 
marriage  is  much  less  common  than  in  other  parts  of  Bihar ;  and  there 
has  been  a  marked  falling  off  during  the  last  two  decades  in  the 
proportion  of  married  persons,  and  also  in  the  number  of  children, 
which  points  to  preventive  checks  on  the  growth  of  population.  The 
language  spoken  is  the  BhojpurT  dialect  of  Hindi,  but  Muhammadans 
and  Kayasths  generally  speak  Awadhl.  Seven-eighths  of  the  population 
are  Hindus  (2,124,641),  and  practically  all  the  rest  are  Muhammadans 

(284,541)- 

The  Aryan  castes  are  strongly  represented,  as  Saran  lay  in  their 
line  of  march  eastwards.  Brahmans  number  184,000,  Rajputs  259,000, 
Babhans  106,000,  Kayasths  49,000,  and  Ahirs  290,000,  more  than 
a  third  of  the  population  belonging  to  these  five  castes.  Those 
excellent  husbandmen,  the  Koiris  and  Kurmis,  are  numerous,  as  also 
are  Chamars  (leather-dressers),  Kandus  (grain-parchers),  Nunias  (salt- 
petre manufacturers),  Dosadhs,  and  the  common  Bihar  functional 
castes.  Among  the  Muhammadan  tribes,  18,500  Pathans  and  6,000 
Saiyids  are  probably  descendants  of  foreigners,  but  the  ancestors  of 
97,000  Jolahas  and  63,000  Shaikhs  were  doubtless  local  converts  to 
Islam.  Of  every  100  persons,  81  are  agriculturists,  9  are  engaged  in 
industry,  one  belongs  to  the  professional  classes,  4  are  general  labourers. 


88 


SARAN  DISTRICT 


Agriculture. 


and  the  remainder  follow  other  occupations.  The  proportion  of  agri- 
culturists is  the  highest  in  Bihar. 

The  German  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission,  which  has  been  at  work 
at  Chapra  since  1840,  claims  to  have  baptized  500  persons,  most  of 
whom  were  probably  abandoned  children  or  orphans.  A  Roman 
Catholic  mission  has  recently  been  started  at  Chapra,  and  a  branch 
of  the  '  Regions  Beyond '  Missionary  Union  at  Siwan.  The  number 
of  native  Christians  in  1901  was  only  78. 

The  hard  clay  in  the  low  swamps  {chaurs)  produces  only  a  somewhat 
precarious  crop  of  winter  rice,  and,  being  dependent  on  the  rainfall, 
is  the  first  to  suffer  from  drought.  On  the  light 
sandy  uplands  an  autumn  rice  crop  is  obtained,  which 
is  generally  followed  by  a  spring  crop  of  poppy,  indigo,  barley,  wheat, 
sugar-cane,  pulses,  or  oilseeds.  The  most  fertile  soil  is  a  rich  loam 
known  as  kachh ;  and  the  finest  yield  is  obtained  from  the  lands  round 
the  village  sites,  which  are  highly  manured,  and  are  reserved  for  such 
lucrative  crops  as  poppy,  wheat,  vegetables,  and  condiments.  A  season- 
able rainfall  is  of  special  importance  in  a  District  where  the  normal 
precipitation  is  small,  and  where  only  15  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated 
area  is  protected  by  irrigation.  The  crucial  period  when  rain  is 
urgently  needed  is  the  last  fortnight  of  September,  and  during  the 
haihiyd  asterism  at  the  beginning  of  October.  A  drought  during  this 
period  not  only  ruins  the  winter  rice,  but  deprives  the  soil  of  the 
moisture  necessary  for  the  subsequent  spring  crops. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Chapra   .... 

Gopalganj 

Siwan      .... 

Total 

1,048 
788 
838 

780 
622 
661 

IIO 
88 
91 

2,674 

2,063 

289 

Rice  is  the  most  important  crop,  covering  an  area  of  516  square 
miles,  or  a  quarter  of  the  cultivated  area  ;  16  per  cent,  of  it  is  harvested 
in  the  autumn  and  the  remainder  in  the  winter.  Barley  and  maize 
cover  19  and  15  per  cent,  respectively  of  the  cultivated  area.  Khesari 
pulse,  which  is  sown  extensively  as  a  catch-crop  in  winter  rice  lands, 
may  be  called  the  poor  man's  food.  The  most  extensive  non-food 
crops  are  oilseeds,  linseed  occupying  124  square  miles,  and  rape  and 
mustard  17  square  miles.  Sugar-cane,  which  is  being  largely  substituted 
for  indigo,  occupies  3  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area.  Indigo  in  1903-4 
covered  only  19,300  acres,  or  less  than  half  the  area  sown  five  years 


TRADE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS  89 

before.     Saran  is  the  premier  opium  District  in  Bengal,  and  the  out- 
turn in  the  same  year  was  282  tons. 

Cultivation  has  long  ago  reached  its  utmost  limit,  and  there  is  no 
room  for  expansion.  Little  advantage  is  taken  of  Government  loans ; 
the  only  considerable  advances  made  were  in  the  famine  year  1897, 
when  2-31  lakhs  was  lent  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act. 

The  cattle  are  generally  poor ;  the  best  come  from  north  Muzaffarpur 
and  Darbhanga  and  from  the  United  Provinces.  Pasturage  is  in- 
sufficient, and  in  the  cold  season  large  herds  are  grazed  in  (^hamparan. 
The  Hathwa  Raj  has  recently  established  a  cattle-breeding  farm  at 
Sripur.  Most  of  the  horses  and  ponies  come  from  Ballia  and  elsewhere 
in  the  United  Provinces,  but  a  few  are  bred  in  Saran.  The  most 
important  fair  in  Bengal  is  held  at  Sonpur,  where  large  numbers  ot 
elephants,  ponies,  and  cattle  are  sold. 

Of  the  cultivated  area,  15  per  cent,  is  irrigated,  and  of  every  100  acres 
irrigated  72  are  watered  from  wells,  18  from  tanks  and  reservoirs, 
3  from  private  channels,  and  the  remainder  from  other  sources.  The 
number  of  wells  is  30,000,  of  which  27,000  are  of  masonry.  The  only 
Government  irrigation  works  are  the  Saran  Canals,  which  derive  their 
water-supply  from  the  Gandak.  In  addition  to  the  main  canal  with 
a  length  of  6^  miles  and  a  branch  of  12^  miles,  certain  natural  channels 
are  used  to  convey  the  water.  There  is  no  weir  across  the  river  ;  and, 
owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  water-supply  and  other  causes,  the 
scheme  has  been  a  failure,  and  the  canals  were  closed  in  1898.  They 
have,  however,  occasionally  been  reopened  in  especially  dry  years.  In 
1902,  for  instance,  3,000  acres  were  irrigated  during  the  rabi  season 
free  of  charge. 

The  only  minerals  are  salt  (in  very  small  quantities),  saltpetre, 
Glauber's  salt,  potter's  clay,  and  nodular  limestone  {kankar). 

A  little  coarse  cloth  is  woven,  but  the  industry  is  declining.     Cloth 
is  printed  with  Mirzapur  stamps,  or  stamped  with  gold-  and  silver-leaf 
ornamentation.      Siwan    brassware    has    more    than 
a  local  reputation,   which  is  well  deserved,   as    the  communications, 
materials  are  good  and  the  workmanship  excellent. 
A  little  black  and  red  and  glazed  pottery  is  also  made  at  Siwan.     Salt- 
petre was  an  important  item  in  the  exports  from  India  until  the  end 
of  the  French  Wars,  and  considerable  quantities  still  find  their  way 
to  Europe.     The  crude  saltpetre  is  extracted  from  saliferous  earth  by 
a  rough  process  of  lixiviation  ;  this  is  refined  by  boiling  and  is  then 
ready  for  the  market.     In  1903-4,  10,533  ^^^^  of  saltpetre  were  pro- 
duced, of  which   2,582  tons  were  refined  and  7,846  tons  crude  salt- 
petre, and  105  tons  were  sulphate  of  soda.     The  industry  is  in  the 
hands  of  the   Nunia  caste.      In    1903,    27    indigo   factories  were   at 
work  in  the  District.     The  industry  is  declining  rapidly  owing  to  the 


90  SARAN  DISTRICT 

competition  of  the  artificial  dye ;  and  several  factories  have  already 
been  closed,  while  others  are  reducing  the  scale  of  their  operations. 
The  reported  out-turn  for  1903-4  was  95  tons,  valued  at  3-27  lakhs. 
A  sugar  factory  has  recently  been  erected  at  Barhoga,  where  the  cane 
is  crushed  and  the  juice  boiled  and  clarified  and  manufactured  into 
sugar  by  imported  machinery.  Various  indigo  concerns  are  following 
the  example,  and  a  good  deal  of  sugar  is  also  prepared  in  native 
refineries.  Shellac  is  manufactured,  and  8  factories  were  at  work  in 
1 90 1  with  an  out-turn  valued  at  over  3  lakhs. 

Saran  never  produces  sufficient  food  for  its  own  consumption,  and 
imports  largely  exceed  exports,  the  cost  of  the  surplus  imports  being 
met  from  the  earnings  of  natives  of  the  District  employed  elsewhere, 
who  make  large  remittances  for  the  support  of  their  families.  The 
principal  imports  are  rice  and  other  food-grains  from  Muzaffarpur, 
Darbhanga,  and  Bhagalpur,  cotton  piece-goods,  salt,  and  kerosene  oil 
from  Calcutta,  and  coal  from  Burdwan  and  Chota  Nagpur.  The 
exports  are  opium,  sugar,  indigo,  saltpetre,  shellac,  molasses,  linseed, 
mustard  seed,  gram,  pulses,  and  other  food-grains.  Most  of  the 
exports  go  to  Calcutta,  but  the  sugar  finds  a  market  in  the  United 
Provinces.  The  bulk  of  the  traffic  now  goes  by  railway ;  and  the 
principal  marts  are  Chapra,  Revelganj,  Siwan,  Maharajganj, 
MIrganj,  Dighwara,  Sonpur,  and  Mairwa. 

The  main  Hne  of  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway  traverses 
the  District  from  Sonpur  at  the  south-east  corner  to  Mairwa  on  the 
western  boundary.  A  branch  line  connects  Chapra  via  Revelganj  with 
Manjhi,  where  the  Gogra  is  crossed  by  a  steam  ferry.  A  fine  bridge 
spans  the  Gandak  between  Sonpur  in  Saran  and  Hajipur  in  Muzaffar- 
pur, and  effects  a  junction  with  the  Tirhut  State  Railway  system,  now 
worked  by  the  Bengal  and  North-AVestern  Railway  Company,  and  via 
Katihar  with  the  northern  section  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway. 
The  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway  is  connected  with  the  East 
Indian  Railway  by  a  steam  ferry  from  Paleza  Ghat,  near  Sonpur,  to 
Digha  Ghat  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  chief  lines  of  road  run  from 
north  to  south,  originally  connecting  the  Gandak  with  the  Gogra  (and 
now  with  the  railway),  and  following  the  old  trade  routes  from  Nepal 
through  Champaran  and  Muzaffarpur.  From  Chapra  important  roads 
lead  to  Rewah  Ghat,  Sattar  Ghat,  and  SalTmpur  Ghat,  all  on  the 
Gandak.  Other  roads  also  converge  on  these  points,  such  as  the  road 
from  Doranda  railway  station  to  Maharajganj,  and  thence  northwards 
to  Barauli  and  Sallmpur  Ghat.  The  road  from  Siwan  to  Mirganj  and 
thence  to  Gopalganj  and  through  Batardah  to  the  Champaran  border 
is  also  of  importance.  In  1903-4  the  District  contained  1,219  miles 
of  roads  maintained  by  the  District  board,  of  which  137  were  metalled 
and  1,082  unmetalled,  besides  1,428  miles  of  village  tracks. 


J  DMINIS  TR.  I  riON 


91 


The  India  Cieneral  Steam  Navigation  C\)nipany  has  a  daily  steamer 
service  on  the  Ganges  and  Gogra  from  Digha  Ghat  in  Patna  District, 
nearly  opposite  Sonpur,  to  Ajodhya  in  Oudh.  These  steamers  connect 
at  Dlgha  Ghat  with  the  Goalundo  line,  and  are  often  crowded  with 
coolies  on  their  way  going  to  or  returning  from  Eastern  Bengal. 
Numerous  important  ferries  cross  the  Ganges,  Gandak,  and  Gogra 
rivers. 

Saran  is  less  liable  to  famine  than  the  neighbouring  Districts,  as  it 
is  protected  both  by  the  number  and  variety  of  its  crops,  and  by  the 
distribution  of  its  harvests  throughout  the  year. 
Nevertheless  famine  or  scarcity  has  occurred  on 
several  occasions,  notably  in  1769,  1783,  1866,  1874,  and  1897.  Little 
is  known  of  the  first  two  calamities.  In  1866,  the  year  of  the  Orissa 
famine,  the  winter  rice  failed  and  the  spring  crops  were  extremely 
poor ;  the  relief  afforded  was  inadequate,  and  over  8,000  persons  died 
of  starvation  and  disease.  In  1874  famine  was  caused  by  the  failure 
of  nine-tenths  of  the  winter  rice  crop.  Relief  on  this  occasion  was 
given  on  an  extravagant  scale,  and  no  deaths  occurred  from  starvation  ; 
the  number  on  relief  works  exceeded  a  quarter  of  a  million  in  June 
1874.  No  less  than  40,000  tons  of  grain  were  imported  by  Govern- 
ment, and  the  expenditure  was  24  lakhs.  In  1896  the  rainfall  was 
very  deficient,  amounting  to  only  23  inches,  and  the  autumn  crop 
yielded  less  than  half  and  the  winter  rice  only  one-sixteenth  of  the 
normal  out-turn.  In  spite  of  this,  the  famine  was  much  less  severe 
than  in  the  neighbouring  Districts,  and  the  maximum  number  on  relief 
works  was  only  24,000  in  May,  1897.     The  cost  of  relief  was  9  lakhs. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  three  sub- 
divisions, with  head-quarters  at  Chapra,  Siwan,  and  Gopalganj. 
The  staff  at  head-quarters  consists  of  the  Magistrate-  .  . 

Collector,  an  Assistant  Magistrate,  and  five  Deputy- 
Magistrates,  besides  officers  employed  specially  on  partition  and  excise 
work.     Each  of  the  outlying  subdivisions  is  in  charge  of  a  subdivisional 
officer,  assisted  by  a  Sub-Deputy-Collector. 

Subordinate  to  the  District  Judge  are  two  Sub-Judges  and  four 
Munsifs  at  Chapra,  one  Munsif  at  Siwilu  and  another  at  Gopalganj. 
The  Sub-Judges  hear  appeals  from  the  Champaran  civil  courts  also. 
Since  the  completion  of  the  survey  and  record-of-rights  the  number 
of  rent  suits  has  greatly  increased.  Criminal  justice  is  administered 
by  the  Sessions  Judge,  an  Assistant  Sessions  Judge,  the  District  Magis- 
trate, and  the  above-mentioned  stipendiary  magistrates.  Burglary  and 
petty  theft  are  common  and  riots  are  frequent,  but  there  is  very  little 
heinous  crime. 

In  Todar  Mai's  settlement  of  1582  Saran  was  assessed  at  4  lakhs, 
the  area  measured  being  415  square  miles.     In   1685  the  revenue  was 

VOL.  XXII.  G 


92 


SARAN  DISTRICT 


raised  to  8  lakhs,  and  in  1750  to  9^  lakhs,  of  which  half  a  lakh  was 
remitted.  In  1773,  eight  years  after  the  British  assumed  the  financial 
administration,  the  revenue  was  9-36  lakhs,  and  in  1793  the  Permanent 
Settlement  was  concluded  for  10-27  lakhs.  A  number  of  estates  held 
free  of  revenue  under  invalid  titles  have  since  been  resumed,  and  the 
demand  in  1903-4  was  i2-63  lakhs,  payable  by  5,506  estates.  Almost 
the  entire  District  is  permanently  settled ;  but  78  estates  paying 
Rs.  15,000  are  settled  temporarily,  and  28  estates  with  a  revenue 
of  Rs.  12,000  are  managed  direct  by  Government.  It  is  noteworthy 
that,  whereas  the  allowance  fixed  for  the  zamhiddrs  at  the  Permanent 
Settlement  was  one-tenth  of  the  '  assets,'  the  Saran  landlords  now  retain 
no  less  than  78  per  cent.  As  the  result  of  a  very  careful  calculation 
by  the  Settlement  officer,  the  gross  annual  produce  of  the  soil  is  valued 
at  425  lakhs,  of  which  sum  the  revenue  represents  less  than  3  per  cent, 
and  the  rental  12  per  cent.  The  District  was  surveyed  and  a  record-of- 
rights  was  prepared  between  1893  and  1901.  The  average  area  culti- 
vated by  a  family  is  estimated  at  3-8  acres.  Cash  rents  are  almost 
universal,  only  4  per  cent,  of  the  holdings  of  settled  and  occupancy 
ryots  paying  produce  rents.  The  average  rates  of  rent  per  acre  vary 
for  the  different  classes  of  ryots  :  those  holding  at  fixed  rates  pay 
Rs.  3-4-9  ;  settled  or  occupancy  ryots,  Rs.  4-5-4 ;  non-occupancy 
ryots,  Rs.  5-0-6;  and  under-ryots,  Rs.  5-2-8,  Lower  rents  rule 
in  the  north  than  in  the  south,  where  the  pressure  of  population 
is  greatest  and  cultivation  more  advanced.  Of  the  occupied  area 
90  per  cent,  is  held  by  ryots,  and  practically  all  of  them  have 
a  right  of  occupancy,  only  15,000  acres  being  held  by  non-occupancy 
ryots. 

The  following  table   shows    the   collections    of   land    revenue   and 
of  total  revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees  :  — 


1880  I. 

1 890- 1. 

IQOO-I. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

12,55 
20,22 

12,49 
22,21 

12,70 

25.17 

T2,57 

25,21 

Outside  the  municipalities  of  Chapra,  Siwan,  and  Revelganj,  local 
affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  with  subordinate  local  boards 
at  Siwan  and  Gopalganj.  As  many  as  19  Europeans,  principally  indigo 
planters,  have  seats  upon  the  board.  In  1903-4  its  income  was 
Rs.  2,44,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,54,000  was  derived  from  rates;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  2,43,000,  including  Rs.  1,27,000  spent  on  public 
works  and  Rs.  42,000  on  education. 

The  District  contains  10  police  stations  and  16  outposts.  The  force 
at  the  disposal  of  the  District  Superintendent  in  1903  numbered  4 
inspectors,  40  sub-inspectors,  37  head-constables,  and  508  constables. 


SAA\LV(,\IA'//   ST.  I  TE 


93 


The  rural  police  consisted  of  340  daffaddrs  and  3,971  chauklddrs.  An 
inspector  with  a  special  guard  is  in  charge  of  the  settlements  of  the 
criminal  tribe  known  as  the  Magahiya  Doms,  who  in  1901  numbered 
1,048  persons.  The  District  jail  at  Chapra  has  accommodation  for 
305  prisoners,  and  subsidiary  jails  at  the  other  subdi visional  head- 
quarters for  50. 

Education  is  backward,  and  only  3-5  per  cent,  of  the  population 
(7-3  males  and  0-2  females)  were  literate  in  1901.  The  number  of 
pupils  under  instruction  rose  from  about  18,000  in  1883-4  to  24,088 
in  1892-3,  but  fell  to  23,683  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4,  23,643  boys  and 
1,326  girls  were  at  school,  being  respectively  16-9  and  0-69  per  cent, 
of  the  children  of  school-going  age.  The  number  of  educational 
institutions,  public  and  private,  in  that  year  was  949,  including  20 
.secondary,  687  primary,  and  242  special  schools.  The  expenditure 
on  education  was  Rs.  1,19,000,  of  which  Rs.  12,000  was  derived  from 
Provincial  funds,  Rs.  41,000  from  District  funds,  Rs.  3,500  from  muni- 
cipal funds  and  Rs.  40,000  from  fees.  The  schools  include  12  night 
schools  for  bona  fide  agriculturists  and  day-labourers,  and  3  schools  for 
Doms,  Chamars,  and  other  depressed  castes. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  12  dispensaries,  of  which  4  had 
accommodation  for  135  in-patients.  The  cases  of  145,000  out-patients 
and  1,356  in-patients  were  treated,  and  6,645  operations  were  per- 
formed. The  expenditure  was  Rs.  1,54,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,000 
was  met  from  Government  contributions,  Rs.  6,000  each  from  Local 
and  from  municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  1,37,000  from  subscriptions. 
These  figures  include  a  sum  of  Rs.  1,33,000  subscribed  for  the 
Hathwa  Victoria  Hospital,  of  which  Rs.  1,24,000  was  spent  on  the 
buildings. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  municipal  towns,  outside 
which  it  is  backward.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully 
vaccinated  was  54,000,  representing  23-2  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal,  vol.  xi  (1877)  ; 
J.  H.  Kerr,  Settlement  Report  (Calcutta,  1904).] 

Saran  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Saran  District,  Bengal.  See 
Chapra. 

Saranda. — Hill  range  in  the  extreme  south-west  corner  of  Singh- 
bhum  District,  Bengal,  lying  between  22°  x'  and  22°  28'  N.  and  85°  o' 
and  85'^'  26'  E.,  bordering  on  the  Gangpur  State.  It  consists  of  a  mass 
of  mountains,  rising  to  the  height  of  3,500  feet.  The  population 
inhabiting  this  region  is  scattered  over  a  few  poor  hamlets  nestling 
in  deep  valleys,  and  belongs  for  the  most  part  to  the  Ho  and  other 
aboriginal  tribes. 

Sarangarh  State.— Feudatory  State  in  the  Central  Provinces,  lying 
between  21°  21'  and  21°  45'  N.  and  82°  56'  and  83°  26'  E.,  with  an 

G  2 


Q4  ^ARAXGARTl  STATE 

area  of  540  square  miles.  It  is  situated  between  Bilaspur  and  Sambal- 
pur  Districts  on  the  west  and  east,  while  the  MahanadT  river  divides 
it  from  the  Raigarh  State  and  the  Chandarpur  zaminddri  on  the  north. 
The  head-quarters,  Sarangarh,  is  32  miles  from  Raigarh  station  on  the 
Eengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  country  is  generally  level ;  but  a  chain 
of  hills  runs  from  north  to  south  across  the  centre  of  the  State  dividing 
the  Sarangarh  and  Sana. />arganas,  and  another  range  extends  along  the 
southern  border  adjoining  the  Phuljhar  zaminddri  of  Raipur.  The 
ruling  family  are  Raj  Gonds,  who,  according  to  their  own  traditions, 
migrated  from  Bhandara  many  generations  ago.  Sarangarh  was  at  first 
a  dependency  of  the  Ratanpur  kingdom,  and  afterwards  became  one 
of  the  eighteen  Garhjat  States  subordinate  to  Sambalpur.  It  has  been 
under  Government  management  since  1878,  in  consequence  of  the 
deaths  of  two  chiefs  at  short  intervals.  The  present  chief,  Lai  Jawahir 
Singh,  was  born  in  1886  and  is  now  being  educated  at  the  Raj- 
kumar  College,  Raipur.  During  his  minority  Sarangarh  is  adminis- 
tered by  the  Political  Agent  for  the  Chhattlsgarh  Feudatory  States. 
The  population  in  1901  was  79,900,  having  decreased  by  4  per  cent, 
during  the  previous  decade.  There  are  455  inhabited  villages  and  one 
town,  Sarangarh  (population,  5,227);  and  the  density  of  population 
is  147  persons  per  square  mile.  About  three-fourths  of  the  population 
speak  the  Chhattlsgarh!  dialect  of  Hindi,  and  the  remainder  the  Oriya 
language,  and  these  statistics  indicate  the  proportions  in  which  the 
population  has  been  recruited  from  Chhattlsgarh  and  Orissa.  The 
forest  tribes  are  not  found  in  large  numbers,  and  the  principal  castes 
are  Gandas,  Rawats  or  Gahras,  Chamars,  and  Koltas. 

The  soil  is  generally  light  and  sandy  and  of  inferior  quality  ;  but  the 
cultivators  are  industrious,  and  supplement  its  deficiencies  by  manure 
and  irrigation.  In  1904  the  area  occupied  for  cultivation  amounted 
to  254  square  miles,  or  47  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  having  increased 
by  26  per  cent,  since  the  last  revenue  settlement  in  1888.  The  cropped 
area  was  212  square  miles,  of  which  rice  occupied  163  square  miles, 
nrad  8,000  acres,  and  kodon  6,000.  There  are  about  790  tanks 
and  600  wells,  from  which  about  10,000  acres  can  be  irrigated  under 
normal  circumstances.  The  forests  occur  in  patches  all  over  the  open 
country,  and  are  not  extensive  or  valuable.  There  is  a  small  quantity 
of  sal  {Shorea  rolmsta\  but  the  bulk  of  the  forests  are  composed  of 
inferior  trees.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  two  or  three 
localities.  Tasar  silk  and  coarse  cotton  cloth  are  the  only  manu- 
factures. The  State  contains  57  miles  of  gravelled  and  40  miles  of 
embanked  roads.  The  principal  outlet  for  produce  is  the  Sarangarh- 
Raigarh  road.  There  is  also  some  traffic  from  Seraipali  to  Sarangarh, 
and  from  Saria  to  Raigarh. 

The  total  revenue  of  the  State  in   1904  was  Rs.  80,000,  of  which 


SARAXarUR  95 

Rs.  50,000  was  derived  from  land,  Rs.  8,000  from  furesls,  and  Rs.  9,000 
from  excise.  The  village  areas  have  been  cadastrally  surveyed,  and 
a  regular  settlement  (jn  the  system  followed  in  British  territory  was 
effected  in  1904.  The  land  revenue  was  raised  by  Rs.  9,000  or 
21  per  cent.,  the  incidence  being  about  5  annas  per  cultivated  acre. 
The  total  expenditure  in  1904  was  Rs.  67,000,  the  principal  items 
being  Government  tribute  (Rs.  3,500),  allowances  to  the  chief's  family 
(Rs.  11,000),  general  administration  (Rs.  8,800),  police  (Rs.  4,600), 
and  public  works  (Rs.  14,000).  The  tribute  is  liable  to  periodical 
revision.  During  eleven  years  since  1893  a  sum  of  1-74  lakhs  has 
been  spent  on  public  works,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Engineer 
of  the  Chhattisgarh  States  division.  In  addition  to  the  roads  already 
mentioned,  various  buildings  have  been  constructed  for  public  ofifices. 
The  educational  institutions  comprise  18  schools  with  1,472  pupils, 
including  2  vernacular  middle  schools  and  a  girls'  school.  In  1901 
the  number  of  persons  returned  as  literate  was  2,426,  the  proportion 
of  the  males  able  to  read  and  write  being  6  per  cent.  These  results 
compare  not  unfavourably  with  the  average  for  neighbouring  British 
Districts.  The  expenditure  on  education  in  1904  was  Rs.  4,500.  A 
dispensary  is  maintained  at  Sarangarh  town,  at  which  16,000  patients 
were  treated  in   1904. 

Sarangarh  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Feudatory  State  of  the 
same  name.  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  35'  N.  and  83"  5'  E., 
32  miles  by  road  from  Raigarh  railway  station.  Population  (1901), 
5,227.  Within  the  town  is  a  large  tank  with  a  row  of  temples  on  the 
northern  bank,  the  oldest  temple  being  that  of  Somleswari  Devi,  built 
200  years  ago  by  a  dhvdn  of  the  State.  The  only  important  industry 
is  the  weaving  of  tasar  silk  cloth,  in  which  about  fifty  families  arc 
engaged.  Sarangarh  possesses  a  vernacular  middle  school,  a  girls' 
school,  and  a  dispensary. 

Sarangpur. — Town  in  Dewas  State,  Central  India,  situated  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Kali  Sind,  in  23^  34'  N.  and  76°  29'  E.,  30  miles 
from  Maksl  station  on  the  Ujjain-Bhopal  Railway,  and  74  miles  from 
Indore  on  the  Bombay-Agra  road.  Population  (1901),  6,339.  Tlie 
site  is  very  old,  but  the  town  as  it  now  stands  does  not  date  back 
earlier  than  the  days  of  the  Muhammadan  kings  of  Malwa  (fifteenth 
century),  and  is  entirely  Muhammadan  in  character.  That  it  was 
a  place  of  importance  in  Hindu  times  is  shown  by  the  discovery  of 
old  coins  of  the  punch-marked  Ujjain  type,  while  many  fragments 
of  Hindu  and  Jain  temples  are  to  be  seen  built  into  walls.  The  place 
first  became  important  under  Sarang  Singh  Khichi  in  1298,  from  whom 
it  received  its  present  name.  During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies it  rose  to  great  importance,  and  is  constantly  mentioned  by  the 
Muhammadan  historians  ;  while  the  wide  area  covered  by  the  ruins  of 


9-6  SA  RANG  PUR 

the  old  t(jwn  shows  that  it  was  then  a  large  and  flourishing  place.  In 
1526  it  was  wrested  from  Mahmud  KhiljT  II  of  Malwa  by  Rana  Sanga 
of  Chitor ;  but  during  the  confusion  caused  by  Babar's  invasion  it  fell 
to  one  Mallu  Khan,  who  attempted  to  assume  independence  in  Malwa, 
but  was  soon  after  subdued  by  Sher  Shah,  It  was  then  included 
in  the  governorship  of  Shujaat  Khan,  and  on  the  fall  of  the  Suri 
dynasty  passed  to  his  son  Bayazid,  better  known  as  Baz  Bahadur, 
who  assumed  independence  and  struck  coins,  of  which  a  few  have 
been  found.  Sarangpur  is  best  known  as  the  scene  of  the  death  of  the 
beautiful  RupmatT,  the  famous  Hindu  wife  of  Baz  Bahadur.  She  was 
renowned  throughout  Malwa  for  her  singing  and  composition  of  songs, 
many  of  which  are  still  sung.  Her  lover  is  described  by  Muhammadan 
writers  as  the  most  accomplished  man  of  his  day  in  the  science  of 
music  and  in  Hindi  song,  and  many  tales  of  their  love  are  current  in 
the  legends  of  Sarangpur  and  M.^ndu.  In  1562  Akbar  sent  a  force 
to  Sarangpur  under  Adham  Khan.  Baz  Bahadur,  taken  by  surprise 
and  deserted  by  his  troops,  was  forced  to  fly,  and  RupmatI  and  the 
rest  of  his  wives  and  all  his  treasures  fell  into  the  hands  of  Adham 
Khan.  Various  accounts  of  Riipmati's  end  are  current,  but  the  most 
probable  relates  that  she  took  poison  to  escape  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  conqueror.  Baz  Bahadur,  after  various  vicissitudes,  finally 
presented  himself  at  Delhi,  and  was  graciously  received  and  raised 
to  rank  and  honour.  He  died  in  1588,  and  lies  buried  at  Ujjain, 
according  to  tradition,  beside  the  remains  of  RupmatT.  Sarangpur 
was  from  this  time  incorporated  in  the  Siibah  of  Malwa,  and  be- 
came the  chief  town  of  the  Sarangpur  sarkar.  In  1734  it  fell  to 
the  Marathas,  and  was  held  at  different  times  by  the  chiefs  of 
Dewas,  Indore,  and  Gwalior,  and  the  Pindari  leader  Karim  Khan. 
In  18 1 8  it  was  restored  to  Dewas  under  the  treaty  made  in  that 
year. 

Sarangpur  was  in  former  days  famous  for  its  fine  muslins.  The 
industry  has  decayed  since  1875,  and,  though  it  still  lingers,  is  gradu- 
ally dying  out.  There  are  few  buildings  of  any  note  now  standing, 
and  those  which  remain  are  in  a  dilapidated  state.  One  is  known  as 
Knpinali  kCi  Giimbaz,  or  '  Rupmati's  hall ' ;  but  from  its  absolute  simi- 
larity to  the  buildings  near  it,  this  title  would  appear  to  be  an  invention 
of  later  days.  Another  similar  domed  building  bears  an  inscription  of 
1496,  stating  that  it  was  erected  in  the  time  of  Ghiyas-ud-din  of  Malwa. 
A  Jama  Masjid,  once  a  building  of  some  pretensions,  bears  a  record 
dated  in  1640.  There  was  formerly  a  fort,  but  all  that  now  remains 
are  portions  of  the  wall  and  a  gateway  with  an  inscription  referring  to 
its  repair  in  1578.  A  mosque,  called  the  Plr  jdn  ki  Bhatl,  is  a  pic- 
turesque building  now  in  a  dilapidated  state.  Among  the  numerous 
Hindu  and  Jain  remains,  one  statue  of  a  Tirthankar  has  been  found 


SARA  IV A IV  97 

which  was  erected  in  a.  n.  1121.  Up  to  1889  the  two  briimhes  of  the 
State  exercised  a  joint  control ;  but  in  that  year  the  town  was  divided 
into  two  equal  shares,  each  section  being  controlled  by  a  kaindsddr 
with  a  separate  establishment.  A  joint  school  and  sarai,  an  inspection 
bungalow,  and  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office  are  maintained 
in  the  town. 

[A.  Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  Report  of  Northern  India, 
vol.  ii,  p.  288.] 

Saraspur  (or  Siddheswar  Hills). — A  range  projecting  from  the 
Lushai  system  into  the  Surma  Valley,  Assam.  The  hills  run  north 
and  south  between  24°  26^  and  24°  52'  N.  and  92°  30'  and  92°  35'  E., 
forming  the  boundary  between  Sylhet  and  Cachar.  The  height  varies 
from  600  feet  to  2,000  feet  above  sea-level ;  the  slopes  of  the  hills  are 
steep  and  covered  with  tree  forest,  and  are  composed  of  sandstones 
and  shales  of  Tertiary  origin. 

Saraswati  (i). — River  of  the  Punjab,  rising  in  Sirmur  State  close 
to  the  borders  of  Ambala  District.  It  debouches  on  the  plains  at  Adh 
Badri,  a  place  held  sacred  by  all  Hindus.  A  few  miles  farther  on  it 
disappears  in  the  sand,  but  comes  up  again  about  three  miles  to  the 
south  at  the  village  of  Bhawanipur.  At  Balchhapar  it  again  vanishes 
for  a  short  distance,  but  emerges  once  more  and  flows  on  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  across  Karnal,  until  it  joins  the  Ghaggar  in  Patiala 
territory  after  a  course  of  about  no  miles.  A  District  canal  takes  off 
from  it  near  Pehowa  in  Karnal  District.  The  word  Saraswati,  the 
feminine  of  Saraswat,  is  the  Sanskrit  form  of  the  Zend  Haragaiti 
(Arachosia)  and  means  '  rich  in  lakes.'  The  name  was  probably 
given  to  the  river  by  the  Aryan  invaders  in  memory  of  the  Haragaiti 
of  Arachosia,  the  modern  Helmand  in  Seistan. 

Saraswati  (2). — A  small  but  holy  river  of  Western  India,  rising  at  the 
south-west  end  of  the  Aravalli  range  near  the  shrine  of  Amba  Bhawani, 
and  flowing  south-westwards  for  about  no  miles,  through  the  lands  of 
Palanpur,  Radhanpur,  Mahl  Kantha,  and  Baroda,  and  past  the  ancient 
cities  of  Patan,  Anhilvada,  and  Sidhpur,  into  the  Lesser  Rann  of  Cutch, 
near  Anvarpur.  West  of  Patan  its  course  is  underground  for  some 
miles,  and  its  stream  is  small,  except  in  the  rains.  The  river  is  visited 
by  Hindus,  especially  those  who  have  lost  their  mothers.  Sidhpur  is 
considered  an  especially  appropriate  place  at  which  to  perform  rites  in 
honour  of  a  deceased  mother. 

Sarath  Deogarh. — Subdivision  and  town  in  the  Santnl  Parganas 
District,  Bengal.     See  Deogarh. 

Sarawan. — The  northern  of  the  two  great  highland  divisions  of 
the  Kalat  State,  Baluchistan,  as  distinguished  from  the  southern  or 
Jhalawan  division.  It  lies  between  28°  57'  and  30°  8'  N.  and  66°  14' 
and  67°  31'  E.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Kachhi  :  on  the  west 


98  SARA  WAN 

by  the  Garr  hills,  a  continuation  of  the  Khwaja  Annan  ;  on  the  north 
b\  the  Quetta-Pishm,  Bolan  PasS;  and  Sibi  Districts  :  and  on  the 
bouth  by  the  Jhalawan  country.  The  total  area  of  the  country  is 
4,339  square  miles.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  mountain 
ranges  running  north  and  south  and  enclo.sing  valleys,  sometimes 
of  considerable  extent,  which  lie  at  an  elevation  of 
^^\^  from  5,000  to  6,500  feet  above  sea-level.     Reckoning 

from  east  to  west,  the  principal  mountain  ranges 
are  the  Nagau,  Bhaur,  and  Zamuri  hills,  which  border  on  Kachhi ;  and 
the  Bangulzai  hills,  with  the  peaks  of  Moro  and  Dilband.  Southward 
of  these  lies  the  fine  Harboi  range,  about  9,000  feet  high.  West- 
ward again  the  Koh-i-maran  (10,730  feet)  forms  another  parallel  ridge. 
Next,  the  Zahri-ghat  ridge  commences  from  the  Chiltan  hill  and  skirts 
the  Mastung  valley  to  the  east,  while  two  more  minor  ranges  separate 
it  from  the  westernmost  ridge,  the  Garr  hills.  Most  of  these  moun- 
tains are  bleak,  bare,  and  barren,  but  the  Harboi  and  Koh-i-maran 
contain  juniper  trees  and  some  picturesque  scenery.  The  drainage 
of  the  country  is  carried  off  northward  by  the  Shirinab  and  Sarawan 
rivers.  Except  in  flood  time,  each  contains  only  a  small  supply 
of  water,  disappearing  and  reappearing  throughout  its  course.  The 
Shirinab  rises  to  the  south-east  of  Kalat.  It  is  joined  by  the  Mobi 
and  Gurgina  streams,  and  eventually  falls  into  the  PishIn  Lora  under 
the  name  of  the  Shorarud  or  Shar-rod.  The  Sarawan  river  rises  in 
the  Harboi  hills  and  joins  the  Bolan  near  Bibi  Nani. 

The  principal  peaks  of  the  country  consist  of  massive  limestone  ; 
and  Cretaceous  beds  of  dark,  white,  and  variegated  limestone,  some- 
times compact,  sometimes  siialy  in  character,  occur.  Sandstones, 
clays,  and  conglomerates  of  Siwalik  nature  have  also  been  found. 
The  botany  of  Sarawan  resembles  that  of  the  Quetta-Pishm  Dis- 
trict. Orchards,  containing  mulberry,  apricots,  peaches,  pears,  apples, 
almonds,  and  grapes,  abound  in  the  valleys.  Poplars  and  willows 
grow  wherever  there  is  water,  and  tamarisk  is  abundant  in  the  river- 
beds. In  the  spring  many  plants  of  a  bulbous  nature  appear,  includ- 
ing tulips  and  irises.  The  hill-sides  are  covered  with  southernwood 
{Artemisia)  and  many  species  o{  Astragali.  Mountain  sheep  and  Sind 
ibex  occur  in  small  numbers.  Foxes  are  trapped  for  their  skins,  and 
hares  afford  coursing  to  local  sportsmen. 

From  April  to  September  the  climate  is  dry,  bright,  bracing,  and 
healthy.  The  winter,  especially  round  Kalat,  which  receives  heavy 
falls  of  snow,  is  severe.  Except  in  the  east,  near  Barari,  the  heat  in 
summer  is  nowhere  intense.  The  rain-  and  snowfall  generally  occur 
in  winter,  from  January  to  March,  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
about  yi  inches,  of  which  6  inches  are  received  in  winter  and  i^  in 
sunuiier. 


AGRICULTURE  99 

The  Saiawan   country   Ibiincd   part   of  the   (iha/.iiivid   and   (ihorid 

empires,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arghiins  towards  the  end  of 

the  fifteenth  century.     From  them  it  passed  to  the  ,,.  ^ 

,,     ,    ,  .,  ,      ,  ,     r    ,  .  History. 

Mughals  until,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeentli 

century,  Mir  Alimad  of  Kalat  acquired  Mastung  from  Agha  Jafar,  the 
Mughal  governor.  Henceforth  Mastung  remained  under  Kalat  and 
was  the  scene  of  an  engagement  between  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  and 
Nasir  Khan  I  in  1758,  in  which  the  Afghans  were  at  first  defeated,  hut 
Ahmad  Shah  afterwards  advanced  and  assaulted  Kalat.  During  the 
first  Afghan  War,  the  country  was  one  of  the  districts  assigned  by  the 
British  in  1840  to  Shah  Shuja-ul-inulk,  but  it  was  restored  to  Kalat  in 
1842.  During  1840  the  Sarawan  tribesmen  revolted  and  placed  Nasir 
Khan  II  on  the  throne.  In  1871  another  rebellion  occurred,  and  the 
Brahuis  received  a  crushing  defeat  from  Mir  Khudadad  Khan  at  Khad 
near  Mastung.  In  1876  the  latter  place  was  the  .scene  of  the  memor- 
able settlement  effected  by  Sir  Robert  Sandeman  between  Khudadad 
Khan  and  his  rebellious  chiefs. 

Curious  mounds  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  valleys  occur  through- 
out the  country.  Two  of  the  largest  are  Sampur  in  Mastung  and 
Karbukha  in  Mungachar.  They  are  artificial,  being  composed  of 
layers  of  soil,  ashes,  and  broken   pottery. 

Kalat  Town,  and  Mastung,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Political  Agent, 

are  the  only  towns.     The  country  possesses   298  permanent  villages. 

The  population  in   1001  was   6^,^49      Most  of  the       ^       ,    . 

,  ,        ,    •  Tr     ,  ,  •    •       .  Population. 

people    make    their  way  to    Kachhi    in    the  winter. 

The  centre  of  the  country  is  inhabited  by  the  cultivating  classes 
known  as  Dehwars,  Khorasanis,  and  Johanis,  most  of  whom  are  sub- 
jects of  the  Khan  of  Kalat.  In  the  surrounding  hills  and  vales  live 
the  tribesmen  composing  the  Sarawan  division  of  the  Brahui  con- 
federacy. They  include  the  Lahris  (5,400),  Bangulzais  (9,000), 
Kurds  (3,100),  Shahwanis  (6,300),  Muhammad  Shahis  (2,800),  Rai- 
sanis  (2,400),  and  Sarparras  (900),  all  of  whom  are  cultivators  and 
flock-owners.  In  this  category  must  also  be  included  the  numerous 
Langav  cultivators  of  Mungachar  (17,000).  All  the  Muhammadans 
are  of  the  Sunni  sect.  A  few  Hindu  traders  are  scattered  here  and 
there.  Most  of  the  wealthier  men  possess  servile  dependants.  Artisans' 
work  is  done  by  Loris.  The  prevailing  language  is  Brahui ;  but  the 
Langavs,  some  of  the  Bangulzais,  and  a  few  other  clans  speak  Baluchi, 
and  the  Dehwars  a  corrupted  form  of  Persian. 

Cultivation  is  carried  on  in  the  centre  of  the  valleys,  which  possess 
flat  plains  of  a  reddish  clay  soil,  highly  fertile  when  irrigated.  This  is  the 
best  soil  and  is  known  as  matt,  luatmdl,  or  hanaina.  . 

Dark  loam  is  knowui  as  siydhzamtn.    The  greater  part 
of  the  cultivable  area  is  '  dry  crop  '  {khushkabii).      Owing  to  the  scant) 


loo  SARA  WAN 

rainfall,  it  seldom  produces  a  full  out-turn  oftener  than  once  in  four  or 
five  years.  The  principal  '  dry-crop  '  areas  are  Narmuk,  Gwanden,  the 
Bhalla  Dasht  or  Dasht-i-bedaulat,  Kabo,  Kuak,  Khad,  the  Chhappar 
valley,  and  Gurgina.  Kalat,  Mungachar,  Mastung,  and  Johan  are  the 
best  irrigated  areas.  Irrigation  is  derived  from  underground  water- 
channels  {kdrez),  which  number  247,  from  springs,  and  from  streams. 
Many  of  the  kdrez  are  dry  at  present.  Fine  springs  occur  at  Kahnak 
in  Mastung,  at  Kalat,  Dudran  near  Chhappar,  and  Iskalku  ;  and  the 
Sarawan  and  ShTrinab  rivers  afford  a  small  amount  of  irrigation.  The 
principal  crop  is  wheat,  the  flour  of  which  is  the  best  in  Baluchistan. 
In  '  wet-crop '  areas  lucerne,  tobacco,  and  melons  are  produced  in  large 
quantities.  Johan  tobacco  is  famous.  The  cultivation  of  onions  and 
potatoes  is  increasing.  Fine  orchards  are  to  be  seen  at  Mastung  and 
Kalat ;  and  in  the  former  place,  where  mulberries  abound,  experiments 
are  being  made  in  the  introduction  of  sericulture. 

The  sheep  are  of  the  fat-tailed  variety,  and  goats  and  camels  are 
numerous.  The  best  of  the  latter  are  to  be  found  in  Mungachar. 
Fine  horses  are  bred,  the  principal  breeders  being  the  Shahwanis, 
Garrani  Bangulzais,  Muhammad  Shahis,  and  some  Langavs.  The 
number  of  branded  mares  is  179,  and  12  Government  stallions  are 
at  stud  in  summer.  Mungachar  donkeys  are  of  large  size.  The 
bullocks  are  short  and  thick-set. 

The  chief  forest  tract  is  the  Harboi  range,  which  is  well  covered 
with  juniper.  Pistachio  forests  also  occur  here  and  there.  Tribal 
rights  exist  in  most  of  the  forests,  and  portions  are  occasionally  re- 
served for  fodder.  No  systematic  reservation  is  attempted  by  the 
State.  Great  care  of  pistachio-trees  is  taken  by  the  people  when  the 
fruit  is  ripening.  Coal  is  worked  in  the  Sor  range,  and  traces  of  the 
same  mineral  have  been  found  near  Mastung.  Ferrous  sulphate  exists 
in  the  Melabi  mountain. 

The  wool  of  sheep  and  goats,  of  which  there  is  a  large  production 
in  the  country,  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  felts  {thappur\  rugs  in 
the  dart  stitch  {kont  and  shifi),  saddle-bags  {khurjlti), 
comm^lStfons.  '"^^  overcoats  {zor  and  shdl).  The  best  rugs  are 
manufactured  by  the  Badduzai  clan  of  the  Bangul- 
zais. All  women  do  excellent  needlework.  Embroidered  shoes  and 
sandals,  which  are  made  at  Kalat  and  Mastung,  are  popular. 

The  chief  trading  centres  are  Mastung  and  Kalat.  The  exports 
consist  chiefly  of  wool,  ght,  wheat,  tobacco,  melons,  carbonate  of  soda, 
sheep,  and  medicinal  drugs  ;  and  the  imports  of  cotton  cloth,  salt,  iron, 
sugar,  dates,  and  green  tea.  Caravans  carry  tobacco,  wheat,  and  cloth 
to  Panjgur  in  Makran,  and  return  laden  with  dates. 

The  Mushkaf-Bolan  section  of  the  North-Western  Railway  touches 
the  country,  and  the  (^)uclta  Nushki   line   traverses   its   northern   end. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  i  o  i 

A  metalled  road,  88-|  miles  long,  built  in  1897  and  since  slightly  im- 
proved at  a  total  cost  of  3^  lakhs  of  rupees,  runs  from  Quetta  to  Kalat. 
Communications  from  north  to  south  arc  easy.  Yxo\y\  west  to  east  the 
tracks  follow  two  main  lines  :  from  Kardgap  through  the  Mastung  valley 
and  over  the  Nishpa  pass  to  the  Bolan,  and  through  Mungachar  and 
Johan  to  Narmuk  and  to  Bibi  Nani  in  the  Bolan  Pass.  Communica- 
tions with  the  Mastung  valley  are  being  improved  by  the  construction 
of  tracks  over  several  of  the  passes. 

The  country  is  liable  to  frequent  scarcity,  but  owing  to  the  number 
of  kdrez  it  is  the  best-protected   part  of  the  State.      The  nomadic 

habits    of   the    people    afford    a    safeguard    against 

f      •  A  ■  u  •   f  11   •     •       o^  Famine. 

lamine  ;  and,  even  m  years  when  ramfall  is  msutti- 

cient  for  '  dry-crop '  cultivation,  they  manage  to  subsist  on  the  pro- 
duce of  their  flocks,  supplemented  by  a  small  quantity  of  grain. 

For  purposes  of  administration  the  people,  rather  than  the  area, 
may  be  divided  into  two  sections  :  namely,  those  subject  to  the  direct 

jurisdiction  of  the  Khan  of  Kalat,  and  those  belong-    ,  ^    .  _     ^. 
.  .,    ,  ,.„         ■     .     ,  •      •        Administration. 

mg  to  tribal  groups.    1  he  principal  groups  constituting 

each  section  have  been  named  above.  The  areas  subject  to  the  Khan 
are  divided  into  the  two  nidbats  of  Mastung  and  Kalat.  The  Mastung 
nidbat  forms  the  charge  of  a  viustmifi^  who  is  assisted  by  a  naib  and  a 
id-nashin.  Kalat  is  in  charge  of  a  naib.  The  Brahui  tribesmen  are 
subject  to  the  control  of  their  chiefs,  who  in  their  turn  are  supervised 
by  the  Political  Agent  through  the  Native  Assistant  for  the  Sarawan 
country  and  the  Political  Adviser  to  the  Khan.  For  this  purpose  thdna- 
ddrs,  recruited  from  the  Brahuis,  are  posted  at  Alu,  Mastung,  and 
Mungachar.  In  the  Khan's  nidbats  the  various  officials  deal  with  both 
civil  and  criminal  cases,  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  Political 
Adviser  to  the  Khan.  Cases  among  the  tribesmen,  or  cases  occurring 
between  subjects  of  the  Khan  and  the  tribesmen,  are  disposed  of  by 
the  Political  Agent  or  his  staff,  and  are  generally  referred  to  jirgas. 
Cases  for  the  possession  of  land  or  of  inheritance  are  sometimes  deter- 
mined by  local  kdzis  according  to  Muhammadan  law. 

Mastung  and  Kalat-i-Nichara,  i.  e.  Kalat  and  the  neighbourhood,  are 
mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari  as  paying  revenue  in  kind  and  furnishing 
militia  to  Akbar.  The  only  part  of  the  country  which  has  been  sur- 
•veyed  is  Kahnak,  where,  owing  to  disputes  between  the  Rustamzai  clan 
of  the  Raisani  tribe  and  the  chief  section,  a  record-of-rights  was  made 
in  1899.  The  land  is  vested  in  a  body  of  cultivating  proprietors,  who 
either  pa)-  revenue  or  hold  revenue  free.  The  rate  of  revenue  varies 
from  one-fourth  to  one-tenth  of  the  produce,  and  is  generally  taken 
either  by  appraisement  or  by  an  actual  share.  Of  the  areas  subject  to  the 
Khan,  the  revenue  of  Johan  with  Gazg  is  leased  for  an  annual  payment 
in  kind,  and  the  same  system  is  followed  in  other  scattered  tracts.     In 


I02  SARAIVAN 

the  Kalat  nidbat,  revenue  is  paid  by  the  cultivators  either  in  kind  or  in 
personal  service  as  horsemen,  footmen,  labourers,  and  messengers.  In 
Mastung  the  land  revenue  is  recovered  both  in  kind  and  at  a  fixed 
rate  in  cash  and  kind  {zarri  and  kalang).  In  the  case  of  many  of 
the  kdrez  in  the  Mastung  and  Kalat  fiidbats,  the  State,  to  avoid  the 
trouble  of  collecting  the  produce  revenue  at  each  harvest,  has  acquired 
a  proportion  of  the  land  and  water  supplied  by  a  kdrez  in  perpetuity 
and  converted  them  into  crown  property,  leaving  the  remainder  of  the 
land  and  water  free  of  assessment.  In  1903  the  revenue  of  each  nidbat 
was  as  follows  :  Mastung,  Rs.  92,800  ;  Kalat,  Rs.  32,700  ;  Johan  with 
Gazg,  Rs.  1,200  ;  total,  Rs.  1,26,700. 

Kalat  Town  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Khan's  military  forces, 
and  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  95  sabres  strong,  is  stationed  at  Mastung. 
Tribal  levies,  32  in  number,  are  posted  at  Mastung,  Alu,  and  Munga- 
char.  Irregular  levies,  to  the  number  of  86,  maintained  by  the  Khan 
for  the  collection  of  revenue  and  keeping  the  peace  in  his  own 
iiidbats,  are  stationed  at  Kalat.  There  is  a  small  jail  at  Mastung  and 
a  lock-up  at  Alu. 

During  the  second  Afghan  \\'ar,  the  Sarawan  chiefs  rendered  good 
service  in  guarding  communications  and  providing  supplies,  in  recogni- 
tion of  which  the  British  Government  granted  personal  allowances  to 
some  of  them.  These  payments  have  since  been  continued,  to  assist 
the  sarddrs  in  maintaining  their  prestige  and  in  keeping  order  among 
their  tribesmen,  and  amount  to  Rs.  22,800  per  annum. 

Education  is  neglected.  A  few  persons  of  the  better  class  keep 
inuUds  to  teach  their  sons,  and  a  school,  which  promises  to  be  well 
attended,  is  about  to  be  opened  at  Mastung.  Two  dispensaries  are 
maintained,  one  by  the  British  Government  and  the  other  by  the  Kalat 
State.  The  total  number  of  patients  in  1903  was  8,919,  and  the  total 
cost  Rs.  5,300.  Inoculation  is  practised  by  Saiyids,  who  generally  get 
fees  at  the  rate  of  eight  annas  for  a  boy  and  four  annas  for  a  girl. 

Sarda. — The  name  given  to  part  of  a  river-system  flowing  from  the 
Himalayas  through  north-western  Oudh.  Two  streams,  the  Kuthi 
Yankti  and  KalapanT,  rising  in  the  lofty  Panch  Chiilhl  mountains  in 
the  north-east  corner  of  Kumaun  close  to  the  Tibet  frontier,  unite 
after  a  few  miles  to  form  the  Kali  river  or  Kali  Ganga,  which  divides 
Nepal  from  Kumaun.  At  a  distance  of  106  miles  from  its  source,  the 
Kali  receives  the  Sarju  or  Ramganga  (East)  at  Pacheswar.  The  Sarju 
and  its  tributary,  the  Ramganga  (East),  rise  in  a  lofty  range  leading 
south  from  the  peak  of  Nanda  Kot,  and  unite  at  Rameswar,  from  which 
point  the  combined  stream  is  called  indifferently  by  either  name.  From 
the  junction  at  Pacheswar  the  name  Kali  is  gradually  lost  and  the  river 
is  known  as  Sarju  or  as  Sarda.  At  Barmdeo  the  waters  descend  on  the 
plains  in  a  series  of  rapids,  the  course  to  this  point  being  that  of  a 


mountain  stream  over  a  steep  rocky  bed.  The  Sarda  now  divides  into 
several  channels,  which  reunite  again  after  a  few  miles  at  Mundia  Ghat 
(ferry),  where  the  last  rapids  occur,  and  the  bed  ceases  to  be  composed 
of  boulders  and  shingle.  From  this  point  the  river  forms  the  boundary 
between  Nepal  and  Pilibhlt  l^istrict  of  the  United  Provinces  for  a  short 
distance,  and  then  cuts  across  and  enters  Kheri  District.  In  Pllibhit 
it  is  joined  on  the  right  bank  by  the  Chauka,  which  is  now  a  river  of 
the  plains,  rising  in  the  tarat,  but  may  have  been  originally  formed  as 
an  old  channel  of  the  Sarda.  The  river  is  at  first  called  both  Sarda  and 
Chauka  in  Kheri,  and  its  description  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  many 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  its  course.  Four  distinct  channels 
may  be  recognized,  which  are,  from  south  to  north,  the  Ul,  the  Sarda 
or  Chauka,  the  Dahawar,  and  the  SuhelT.  The  first  of  these  is  a  small 
stream  which  joins  the  Chauka  again.  The  name  Sarda  is  occasionally 
applied  to  the  second  branch  in  its  lower  course  through  Sitapur,  but 
this  is  more  commonly  called  Chauka.  After  a  long  meandering  course 
it  falls  into  the  Gogra  at  Bahramghat.  This  channel  appears  to  have 
been  the  principal  bed  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  to  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  largest  volume  of  water  is,  however,  at 
present  brought  down  by  the  Dahawar,  which  leaves  the  Chauka  in 
pargana  Dhaurahra.  The  Suheli  brings  down  little  water  and  joins 
the  Kauriala  (afterwards  called  the  Gogra). 

Sardargarh. — ^Chief  place  in  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  25°  14'  N.  and  74°  E.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Chandrabhaga  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Banas,  about 
50  miles  north-by-north-east  of  Udaipur  city.  Population  (190 1),  1,865. 
The  old  name  of  the  place  was  Lawa,  but  it  has  been  called  Sardargarh 
since  1738.  A  strong  fort,  surrounded  by  a  double  wall,  stands  on 
a  hill  to  the  north.  The  estate,  which  consists  of  26  villages,  yields  an 
income  of  about  Rs.  24,000,  and  pays  a  tribute  of  Rs.  1,390  to  the 
Darbar.  The  Thakurs  of  Sardargarh  are  Rajputs  of  the  Dodia  clan, 
and  are  descended  from  one  Dhawal  who  came  to  Mewar  from  Gujarat 
at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Sardarpur. — Civil  and  military  station  in  the  Amjhera  district  ot 
Gwalior  State,  Central  India,  being  the  head-quarters  of  the  Political 
Agent  in  Bhopawar  and  of  the  Malwa  Bhil  Corps.  It  is  situated  on 
the  edge  of  the  Vindhyan  scarp,  in  22°  40'  N.  and  74°  59'  E.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mahi  river,  58  miles  by  metalled  road  from  Mhow. 
Population  (1901),  2,783.  The  station  derives  its  name  from  its  ori- 
ginal owner,  Sardar  Singh  Rathor,  a  near  relation  of  the  Amjhera  chief 
who  was  executed  in  1857.  He  was  a  famous  freebooter,  notorious  for 
his  cruelty,  of  which  tales  are  still  current  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
Malwa  BhIl  Corps  had  its  origin  in  some  irregular  levies  raised  about 
1837  by  ('aptain  Stockley.     The  men  were  collected  at  certain  points 


I04  SARDARPUR 

under  their  own  headmen,  and  in  harvest  time  used  to  return  home, 
their  wives  answering  for  them  at  muster.  A  few  years  later  they  were 
regularly  organized,  and  stationed  at  Depalpur  in  Indore  territory  and 
Dilaura  in  Dhar.  Between  1840  and  1845  the  corps  was  moved  to 
Sardarpur,  more  regularly  equipped  and  drilled,  and  employed  locally 
on  police  and  escort  duties,  a  military  officer  being  put  in  command. 
In  1857  the  corps  was  called  into  Indore  to  protect  the  Residency,  and 
assisted  to  escort  Colonel  Durand  in  his  retreat  to  Sehore.  Sardarpur 
was  at  this  time  sacked  by  the  Afghan  and  Rohilla  levies  of  the  Dhar 
State,  and  the  detachment  there  was  forced  to  retire.  After  order  had 
been  restored,  the  corps  was  reconstituted  at  Mandleshwar,  being 
subsequently  sent  back  to  Sardarpur  and  put  under  the  Political  Agent. 
Since  1883  it  has  been  regularly  officered  and  disciplined,  and  was 
lately  rearmed  with  the  magazine  rifle.  On  the  reorganization  of  the 
Indian  Army  in  1905,  it  was  again  converted  into  a  military  police 
battalion ;  and  in  1907  it  was  moved  to  Indore.  A  school,  a  combined 
British  post  and  telegraph  office,  a  hospital,  and  an  inspection  bungalow 
are  situated  in  the  station. 

Sardarshahr. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahs'il  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Sujangarh  nizamat  of  the  State  of  Bikaner,  Rajputana,  situated  in 
28""  27"  N.  and  74°  30'  E.,  about  76  miles  north-east  of  Bikaner  city. 
Population  (1901),  10,052.  Maharaja  Sardar  Singh,  before  his  acces- 
sion to  the  chiefship  (1851),  built  a  fort  here  and  called  the  town  which 
grew  up  round  it  Sardarshahr.  In  the  town  are  a  combined  post  and 
telegraph  office,  an  Anglo-vernacular  school  attended  by  82  boys,  and 
a  hospital  with  accommodation  for  7  in-patients.  The  tahsll,  which 
used  to  be  called  Bharutia  from  the  quantity  of  bhariit  grass  found 
here,  contains  187  villages,  in  which  Jats  and  Brahmans  preponderate. 

Sardhana  Tahsil. —  Tahsll  of  Meerut  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parganas  of  Sardhana  and  Barnawa,  and  lying  between 
29°  \'  and  29°  16'  N.  and  77°  19"  and  77°  43'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
250  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  168,692  in  1891  to 
180,141  in  1901.  There  are  124  villages  and  only  one  town,  Sar- 
dhana (population,  12,467),  the  tahs'il  head-quarters.  In  1903-4  the 
demand  for  land  revenue  was  Rs.  3,70,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  59,000. 
The  tahsil  is  thickly  populated,  supporting  721  persons  per  square 
mile.  It  lies  in  the  north  of  the  uplands  of  the  District,  and  its  two 
parganas  are  separated  by  the  river  Hindan,  which  is  also  joined  by 
the  Krishnl.  Both  these  rivers  are  fringed  with  ravines ;  but  the 
tahsll  is  a  fertile  tract,  well  irrigated  by  the  Upper  Ganges  and  Eastern 
Jumna  Canals.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  201  square 
miles,  of  which  82  were  irrigated. 

Sardhana  Estate. — An  important  estate  in  Meerut  District, 
United  Provinces.     The  area  of  the  estate  is  about  28  square  miles. 


SARDHANA    TOWN  105 

The  total  demand  for  rent  and  other  dues  in  1904  was  1-3  lakhs,  while 
the  Government  land  revenue  and  cesses  amounted  to  Rs.  53,000. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  estate  are  at  Sardhana  Town.  It  belongs 
to  a  family  of  Muswi  Saiyids,  who  claim  descent  from  All  Musa  Raza, 
the  eighth  Imam.  These  Saiyids  resided  at  Paghman  near  Kabul,  but 
were  expelled  on  account  of  services  rendered  to  Sir  Alexander  Burnes 
in  his  Kabul  mission,  and  subsequently  to  the  British  in  the  retreat 
from  Kabul.  A  pension  of  Rs.  r,ooo  a  month  was  given  to  the  family, 
which  settled  at  Sardhana.  During  the  Mutiny  Saiyid  Muhammad 
Jan  Fishan  Khan,  the  head  of  the  family,  raised  a  body  of  horse  and 
did  good  service  both  in  Meerut  District  and  before  Delhi,  As 
a  reward  the  title  of  Nawab  Bahadur,  and  confiscated  estates  assessed 
at  Rs.  10,000  per  annum,  were  conferred  on  Jan  Fishan  Khan,  with 
concessions  as  to  the  revenue  assessed.  The  pension  was  also  made 
permanent.  During  the  lifetime  of  the  first  Nawab,  and  for  some 
time  after,  the  family  added  largely  to  the  estate,  but  speculations 
in  indigo  and  personal  extravagance  caused  losses.  The  estate  was 
taken  under  the  Court  of  Wards  in  1895,  and  in  1901  the  debts, 
amounting  to  10  lakhs,  were  paid  off  by  a  loan  from  Government. 
The  present  Nawab,  Saiyid  Ahmad  Shah,  and  his  two  predecessors 
were  sons  of  Jan  Fishan  Khan,  who  died  in  1864. 

Sardhana  Town.  —  Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same 
name  in  Meerut  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  29°  9'  N.  and 
77^38'  E.,  on  a  metalled  road  12  miles  north-west  of  Meerut  city  and 
6  miles  from  Sardhana  station  on  the  North-Western  Railway.  The 
population  rose  from  12,059  in   1891  to  12,467  in  1901. 

The  place  is  now  of  small  importance,  but  it  was  once  famous  as 
the  residence  of  the  Begam  Sumru.  According  to  tradition,  the  town 
was  founded  by  a  Raja  Sarkat,  whose  family  ruled  till  their  expulsion 
by  the  Musalmans.  The  place  became  the  property  of  Dhilsars  and 
BishnoTs,  who  were  driven  out  by  Tagas  in  the  eighth  century.  Walter 
Reinhardt,  better  known  by  the  sobriquet  of  Sombre  or  Sumru,  was 
a  butcher  by  profession,  and  a  native  of  Luxemburg.  He  came  to 
India  as  a  soldier  in  the  French  army,  and  deserting  that  service, 
took  employment  with  the  British,  where  he  attained  the  rank  of 
sergeant.  Deserting  again,  he  rejoined  the  French  service  at  Chander- 
nagore,  and  on  the  surrender  of  that  settlement  accompanied  M.  Law 
in  his  wanderings  throughout  India  from  1757  to  1760.  In  the 
latter  year  Law's  party  joined  the  army  of  Shah  Alam  in  Bengal, 
and  remained  with  the  emperor  until  his  final  defeat  near  Gaya  by 
Colonel  Carnac.  Sumru  next  entered  the  service  of  Mir  Kasim,  by 
whom  he  was  employed  to  murder  the  English  prisoners  at  Patna 
(Patna  District)  in  October,  1763.  He  succeeded  in  escaping  into 
Oudh,  and  afterwards  served  several  native  chiefs,  until  in  1777  he 


To6  SARD  NANA    TOWN 

entered  the  service  of  Mirza  Najaf  Khan,  the  general  and  minister  of 
Shah  Alam  II,  and  received  the  pargaiia  of  Sardhana  in  fief,  as  an 
assignment  for  the  support  of  his  battalions.  He  died  here  in  the 
following  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  widow,  the  Begam  Sumru, 
who  continued  to  maintain  the  military  force.  This  remarkable 
woman,  the  illegitimate  daughter  of  a  Musalman  of  Arab  descent, 
and  the  mistress  of  Reinhardt  before  becoming  his  wife,  assumed  the 
entire  management  of  the  estate,  and  the  personal  command  of  the 
troops,  which  numbered  five  battalions  of  sepoys,  about  300  European 
officers  and  gunners,  with  50  pieces  of  cannon,  and  a  body  of  irregular 
horse. 

In  1 781  the  Begam  was  baptized  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
under  the  name  of  Johanna.  Her  troops  rendered  excellent  service 
to  the  Delhi  emperor  in  the  batde  of  Gokulgarh  in  1788,  where 
a  charge  of  Sardhana  troops,  personally  led  by  the  Begam  and  the 
celebrated  adventurer  George  Thomas,  saved  the  fortunes  of  the  day  at 
a  critical  moment.  In  1792  the  Begam  married  Levassoult,  a  French- 
man in  command  of  her  artillery.  In  1795  her  European  officers 
became  disaffected,  and  an  illegitimate  son  of  Reinhardt,  known  as 
Zafaryab  Khan,  put  himself  at  their  head.  The  Begam  and  her 
husband  were  forced  to  fly.  In  the  flight  the  Begam's  palanquin  was 
overtaken  by  the  rebels,  and  she  stabbed  herself  to  prevent  falling  alive 
into  their  hands  ;  whereupon  Levassoult  shot  himself,  in  pursuance  of 
a  vow  that  if  one  of  them  was  killed  the  other  would  commit  suicide. 
The  Begam's  wound,  however,  was  but  a  slight  one,  and  she  was 
brought  back  to  Sardhana.  Another  account  is  that  the  Begam  had 
become  tired  of  her  husband,  and  that  her  self-inflicted  wound  was 
only  a  device  to  get  rid  of  him.  However,  all  her  power  passed  tem- 
porarily into  the  hands  of  Zafaryab  Khan,  and  she  was  treated  with 
great  personal  indignity,  till  she  was  restored  to  power  some  months 
later  by  George  Thomas.  Henceforth  the  Begam  remained  in  undis- 
turbed possession  of  her  estates  till  her  death  in  1836. 

After  the  battle  of  Delhi,  and  the  British  conquest  of  the  Upper 
Doab  in  1803,  the  Begam  submitted  to  the  new  rulers,  and  ever  after 
remained  distinguished  for  her  loyalty.  Her  possessions  were  nume- 
rous, and  included  several  considerable  towns,  such  as  Sardhana, 
Baraut,  Barnawa,  and  Dankaur,  lying  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  great  marts  like  Meerut,  Delhi,  Khurja,  and  Baghpat.  Her  in- 
come from  her  estates  in  Meerut  District  alone  amounted  to  £56,721. 
She  kept  up  a  considerable  army,  and  had  places  of  residence  at 
Khirwa-Jalalpur,  Meerut,  and  Delhi,  besides  her  palace  at  Sardhana. 
She  endowed  with  large  sums  the  Catholic  Churches  at  Madras,  Cal- 
cutta, Agra,  and  Bombay,  the  Sardhana  Cathedral,  the  Sardhana  poor- 
house,  St.  John's  Roman  Catholic  College,  where  natives  are  trained 


SARGODHA    TOWN  toj 

for  the  priesthood,  and  the  Meerut  Catholic  Chapel.  She  also  made 
over  a  lakh  of  rupees  to  the  Bishop  of  Calcutta  for  charitable  purposes, 
and  subscribed  liberally  to  Hindu  and  Musalman  institutions. 

Zafaryab  Khan,  the  son  of  Suniru,  died  in  1802,  leaving  one 
daughter,  whom  the  Begam  married  to  Mr.  Dyce,  an  officer  in  her 
service.  David  Ouchterlony  Dyce  Sombre,  the  issue  of  this  marriage, 
died  in  Paris,  July,  1851,  and  the  Sardhana  estates  passed  to  his  widow, 
the  Hon.  Mary  Ann  Forester,  daughter  of  Viscount  St.  Vincent.  The 
palace  and  adjoining  property  have  since  been  purchased  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Mission,  and  the  former  is  used  as  an  orphanage. 

The  town  itself  lies  low,  and  has  a  poor  and  decayed  appearance. 
Immediately  to  the  north  is  a  wide  parade-ground,  beyond  which  is 
the  quarter  called  I^ashkarganj,  founded  by  the  Begam  as  a  cantonment 
for  her  troops,  and  the  old  fort  now  in  ruins.  East  of  the  town  lies 
the  Begam's  palace,  a  fine  house  with  a  magnificent  flight  of  steps  at 
the  entrance  and  extensive  grounds.  It  formerly  contained  a  valuable 
collection  of  paintings,  but  these  have  been  sold ;  some  of  them  are 
now  in  the  Indian  Museum,  and  others  in  Government  House,  Allah- 
abad. The  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  is  an  imposing  building.  The 
public  offices  include  the  /a/isl/l,  post  office,  and  police  station.  In 
addition  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Mission,  the  American  Methodists 
have  a  branch  here. 

Sardhana  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1883.  The  income  and 
expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  11,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  15,000,  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  10,500) ; 
and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  13,000.  The  trade  is  entirely  local,  except 
for  the  export  of  grain.  The  town  contains  a  middle  school  with  183 
pupils,  and  six  primary  schools  with  280  pupils. 

[H.  G.  Keene,  Calcufta  Review,  January  and  April,  1880.] 

Sargodha  Tahsil.  —  Tahsil  of  Shahpur  District,  Punjab,  lying  be- 
tween 31°  40''  and  32°  20'  N.  and  72°  28'  and  73°  2'  E.,  with  an  area, 
approximately,  of  751  square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of 
3,000  in  1 90 1,  but  the  population  has  largely  increased  since  the 
Census.  The  formation  of  the  tahsil  in  1906  out  of  portions  of  the 
Shahpur  and  Bhera  tahsils  of  Shahpur  District  and  the  Chinot  tahs'il 
of  J  hang  was  necessitated  by  the  colonization  of  the  Bar  {see  Jhelum 
Colony).  The  tahsil  contains  267  villages,  including  Sargodha,  the 
head-quarters.  The  only  cultivation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  irrigation 
from  the  Lower  Jhelum  Canal.  In  the  south  the  soil  is  a  deep  and 
fertile  loam  ;  in  the  north  there  is  a  preponderance  of  sand  and  clay  ; 
in  the  centre  are  the  Kirana  hills,  low  outcrops  of  rock  resembling 
those  at  Sangla  and  Chiniot. 

Sargodha  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  new  tahsil  of  the  same 
name  in  Shahpur  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  32°  4'  N.  and  72°  43'  E. 

VOL.  XXII.  H 


io8  SARGODHA    TOWN 

The  construction  of  the  town  only  commenced  in  1903,  and  the 
estimated  population  is  4,000.  Sargodha  is  the  capital  of  the  Jhelum 
Colony,  and  is  connected  by  the  new  Jech  Doab  branch  of  the  North- 
AV'estern  Railway  with  Malakwal  on  the  Sind-Sagar  line,  and  also  with 
Shorkot  Road  on  the  Wazlrabad-Khanevval  branch  of  that  railway. 
The  town  possesses  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school  and  a  civil 
hospital  maintained  by  the  District  board. 

Sarguja. — Native  State  in  the  Central  Provinces.     See  Surguja. 

Sarh  Salempur. — Former  name  of  the  Narwal  tahsti,  Cawnpore 
District,  United  Provinces. 

Sarlla. — Petty  sanad  State  in  Central  India,  under  the  Bundel- 
khand  Agency,  with  an  area  of  about  t^t^  square  miles,  and  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  Hamlrpur  District  of  the  United  Provinces.  The 
Sarlla  holding  was  founded  in  1765,  when  Aman  Singh  Bundela, 
a  son  of  Pahar  Singh  and  great-grandson  of  Maharaja  Chhatarsal  of 
Panna,  obtained  the  Jdgir.  Tej  Singh,  who  succeeded,  was  dis- 
possessed by  All  Bahadur  of  Banda,  but  was  restored  to  part  of  his 
land  through  the  mediation  of  Himmat  Bahadur.  On  the  establish- 
ment of  British  supremacy,  Tej  Singh  held  nothing  but  the  fort  and 
village  of  Sarlla.  In  recognition  of  his  influence  in  the  neighbourhood 
and  his  profession  of  allegiance,  he  received  a  cash  payment  of 
Rs.  1,000  a  month,  until  a  suitable  provision  of  land  could  be 
made.  In  1807  a  grant  of  eleven  villages  was  made  to  him  and  the 
allowance  stopped.  The  present  Raja,  Mahipal  Singh,  succeeded  in 
1898  as  an  infant,  the  State  being  under  administration  during  his 
minority. 

The  population  at  the  last  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  5,014, 
(1891)  5,622,  and  (1901)  6,298,  giving  a  density  of  191  persons 
per  square  mile.  Hindus  number  5,892,  or  94  per  cent.,  and  Musal- 
mans  406.  The  State  contains  ten  villages.  Of  the  total  area, 
14  square  miles,  or  42  per  cent.,  are  cultivated;  17  square  miles,  or 
52  per  cent.,  are  cultivable  ;  and  the  rest  waste.  The  chief  being 
a  minor,  the  administration  is  conducted  by  his  mother,  assisted  by 
a  kdmddr.  \Vhen  not  a  minor  the  chief  exercises  limited  powers. 
The  revenue  amounts  to  Rs.  59,000,  of  which  Rs.  42,000,  or 
71  per  cent.,  is  derived  from  land.  A  metalled  road  is  under  con- 
struction, which  will  connect  Sarlla  with  Kalpi  station  on  the  Jhansi- 
Cawnpore  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  a  distance 
Ki{  nearly  30  miles.  The  State  has  been  surveyed  and  settled  on  the 
methods  followed  in  adjoining  British  territory.  The  chief  town  of 
Sarlla  is  situated  in  25°  46'  N.  and  79°  42'  E.,  and  contains  a  jail, 
a  hospital,  and  a  school.     Population  (1901),  3,290. 

Sarispur. — Hill  range  between  Sylhet  and  Cachar  Districts,  East- 
ern Bengal  and  Assam.     Sec  Saraspur. 


SARSAIVA  1C9 

Sarjapur. — Town  in  the  Anekal  id/uk  of  Bangalore  District, 
Mysore,  situated  in  12°  51'  N.  and  77°  47'  E.,  18  miles  south-east  of 
Bangalore  city.  Population  (1901),  3,056.  With  eighteen  other 
villages,  this  was  formerly  a  Jaglr  held  from  the  Mughals  on  condition 
of  maintaining  a  military  force  for  the  service  of  the  emperor.  The 
Jdgir  was  confirmed  by  the  succeeding  rulers,  the  Marathas,  Haidar 
All,  and  the  British,  but  was  cancelled  in  the  time  of  Diwan  Purnaiya, 
who,  finding  that  the  jdgirddr  wanted  to  sell  his  villages,  bought  him 
out.  Cotton  cloths,  carpets,  and  tape  are  made  here.  Formerly  fine 
muslins  were  woven.  The  municipality  dates  from  1870.  The  receipts 
and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  igoi  averaged  Rs.  1,200. 
In  1903-4  they  were  Rs.  1,400  and  Rs.  2,000. 

Sarju. — The  name  applied  to  parts  of  two  rivers  in  the  United 
Provinces.     See  Gogra  and  Tons  (Eastern). 

Sarnath. — Ancient  remains  in  the  District  and  tahsll  of  Benares, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  23'  N.  and  83°  2'  E.,  about  3^  miles 
north  of  Benares  city.  The  most  imposing  building  is  a  large  stone 
stupa^  93  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  no  feet  high  above  the 
surrounding  ruins,  which  are  themselves  18  feet  above  the  general 
level  of  the  country.  The  lower  part  has  eight  projecting  faces,  all 
but  one  of  which  are  richly  carved ;  the  upper  portion  is  built  of 
bricks  and  was  probably  plastered.  Half  a  mile  away  is  another  stiipa 
composed  of  bricks,  which  is  now  surmounted  by  a  tower  with  an 
inscription  recording  its  ascent  by  the  emperor  Humayun.  The  space 
between  the  two  stTipas  is  thickly  strewn  with  brick  and  stone  debris. 
Excavations  have  shown  that  these  ruins  mark  the  site  of  a  large 
monastery.  In  1905  new  inscriptions  of  Asoka  and  Kanishka  were 
discovered.  A  Jain  temple  now  stands  close  to  the  stone  sti/pa,  and 
a  short  distance  away  is  a  lake  with  a  Hindu  temple  on  its  bank. 
Sarnath  is  identified  with  the  Mrigadava  or  deer-park,  in  which 
Gautama  Buddha  first  preached  his  doctrines,  and  near  which  was 
situated  the  Isipattana  monastery. 

[Rev.  M.  A.  Sherring,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Hindus,  chap,  xviii.] 

Sarsa. — Town  in  the  Anand  tdliika  of  Kaira  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  22°  2)c!  N-  ^^^d  73°  4'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,113. 
Sarsa  contains  two  old  wells  dating  from  1044,  and  a  temple  of 
Vaijanath  built  in  1156,  the  supposed  year  of  the  foundation  of  the 
town.  There  are  two  schools,  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  attended 
by  230  and  74  pupils  respectively. 

Sarsawa.  —  Ancient  town  in  the  Nakur  tahstl  of  Saharanpur 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  30°  i'  N.  and  77°  25'  E.,  near 
a  station  of  the  same  name  on  the  North- Western  Railway,  and  on 
the  old  road  from  Saharanpur  to  the  Punjab.  The  population  fell 
from  3,827  in  i8gi  to  3,439  in  1901.     The  town  takes  its  name  from 

H  2 


no  SARSAWA 

Siras  Pal,  who  was  attacked  and  defeated  by  Nasir-ud-din  of  Ghazni, 
and  it  is  also  said  to  have  been  plundered  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni.  In 
Babar's  time  the  mound  was  still  a  strong  brick  fort,  and  the  town 
and  fort  are  mentioned  as  important  places  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari. 
According  to  one  version,  Sarsawa  was  the  birthplace  of  the  celebrated 
saint  Guga  or  Zahir,  who  is  reverenced  by  both  Hindus  and  Muham- 
madans  all  over  Northern  India  ^ 

Sarsuti. — River  in  the  Punjab.     See  Saraswati  (i). 

Sam. — Hill  in  the  Gumla  subdivision  of  Ranch!  District,  Bengal, 
situated  in  23°  30'  N.  and  84°  28'  E.  It  is  3,615  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  is  the  highest  peak  on  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau. 

Sarvasiddhi. — Coast  taluk  in  the  south  of  Vizagapatam  District, 
Madras,  lying  between  17°  15'  and  17°  40'  N.  and  82°  31'  and 
83°  \'  E.,  with  an  area  of  341  square  miles.  The  population  in  igoi 
was  160,761,  compared  with  154,966  in  1891  ;  number  of  villages,  152. 
The  head-quarters  are  at  Yellamanchili  (population,  6,536),  the 
only  other  place  of  interest  being  Upmaka.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  2,60,000.  The  greater 
part  of  the  taluk  is  zamlnddri,  but  it  contains  about  83,000  acres  of 
ryotwdri  XdiWdi.  Of  this,  15,000  acres,  chiefly  small  hills  lying  near  the 
coast,  have  been  constituted  forest  Reserves ;  but  as  most  of  this  had 
been  stripped  bare  by  charcoal-burners,  firewood-gatherers,  and  goats 
before  reservation,  it  will  be  some  little  time  before  the  growth  is  of 
much  value.  The  soils  are  fertile,  chiefly  red  and  black  loams,  and 
irrigation  is  available  from  the  Varaha  and  Sarada  rivers  and  Konda- 
kirla  Ava.  Historically,  the  ryotivdri  portion  of  the  taluk  consists  of 
a  number  of  petty  estates  purchased  by  Government  between  1831 
and  1844  for  arrears  of  revenue  or  other  causes.  The  zamlnddri 
portion  belongs  partly  to  the  Vizianagram  and  Melupaka  estates,  and 
partly  to  the  Gode  family. 

Sarwahi  [Seorai,  Siwrae). — Ancient  site  in  the  Ahmadpur  Lamma 
tahsil  of  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  28°  10'  N.  and 
70°  2'  E.,  8  miles  north-east  of  Kot  Sabzal.  It  was  identified  by 
Sir  A.  Cunningham  with  the  Sodrai  or  Sogdoi  of  the  Greek  historians. 
It  was  one  of  the  six  forts  repaired  by  Rai  Sahasi  of  Sind  in  the  sixth 
century,  and  was  destroyed  by  Shah  Husain  Arghun  in  1525.  It  is 
still  a  place  of  considerable  sanctity  to  Muhammadans. 

Sarwan. —  Thakurdt  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Sarwar. — Head-quarters  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
south  of  the  State  of  Kishangarh,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  4'  N. 
and  75°  2'  E.,  close  to  the  Nasirabad-Deoli  road,  and  about  40  miles 
south  of  Kishangarh  town.  Population  (1901),  4,520.  The  town 
possesses  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office ;  a  steam  hydraulic 
*  W.  Crooke,  Popular  Religion  of  Noiiheni  India,  p.  133. 


S ASA  R  A  AT   TOIVN  iti 

cotton-press;  a  small  jail  witli  acrommodation  for  lo  prisoners; 
a  vernacular  middle  school,  attended  by  about  70  boys  ;  and  a  dis- 
pensary for  out-patients.  A  municipal  committee  of  seven  members 
attends  to  the  lighting  and  conservancy  of  the  place.  In  the  vicinity 
are  garnet  quarries  which  have  been  worked  regularly  since  1887-8, 
and  produce  perhaps  the  best  garnets  in  India.  The  value  of  the 
yearly  out-turn  is  estimated  at  about  Rs.  50,000.  The  quarries  consist 
usually  of  shallow  pits,  and  are  worked  by  a  large  colony  of  Jogis  and 
Malis.  The  Darbar  takes  one-half,  or  sometimes  three-fifths,  of  the 
crude  out-turn  as  royalty. 

Sasaram  Subdivision. — South-eastern  subdivision  of  Shahabad 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  24°  31'  and  25°  22'  N.  and  83°  30' 
and  84°  27'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,490  square  miles.  Its  population 
in  1901  was  539,635,  compared  with  533,356  in  1891,  the  density 
being  362  persons  per  square  mile.  The  subdivision  comprises  two 
distinct  tracts,  that  to  the  north  being  an  alluvial  flat  extensively 
irrigated  by  canals,  while  the  southern  portion  is  occupied  by  the 
Kaimur  Hills,  an  undulating  plateau  covered  with  jungle.  These  hills 
afford  little  space  for  cultivation,  and  this  part  of  the  subdivision 
suffered  severely  in  the  famine  of  1896-7.  The  subdivision  contains 
one  town,  Sasaram,  its  head-quarters  (population,  23,644);  and  1,906 
villages.  The  head-works  of  the  Son  Canals  system  are  at  DehrI. 
There  are  old  forts  at  Shergarh  and  Rohtasgarh,  and  Sasaram 
and  TiLOTHU  also  contain  antiquities  of  interest. 

Sasaram  Town  {Sahsard/n). — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of 
the  same  name  in  Shahabad  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24°  57'  N. 
and  84°  1'  E.,  on  the  Mughal  Saiai-Gaya  section  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway,  406  miles  from  Calcutta.  Population  (1901),  23,644,  of 
whom  13,647  were  Hindus  and  9,994  Musalmans.  The  name  Sasaram 
signifies  'one  thousand  toys' :  a  certain  Asura  or  demon  is  said  to  have 
lived  here  who  had  a  thousand  arms,  each  holding  a  separate  play- 
thing. The  town  is  noted  as  containing  the  tomb  of  the  Afghan 
Sher  Shah,  who  defeated  Humayiln,  and  subsequently  became  em- 
peror of  Delhi.  His  mausoleum  is  at  the  west  end  of  the  town,  within 
a  large  tank,  the  excavated  earth  of  which  has  been  thrown  into  un- 
shapely banks  some  distance  off.  The  tomb  itself  consists  of  an 
octagonal  hall  surrounded  by  an  arcade,  which  forms  a  gallery ;  and 
the  roof  is  supported  by  four  Gothic  arches.  The  tomb  of  Sher 
Shah's  father,  Hasan  Shah  Suri,  is  similar  but  less  imposing.  To  the 
east  of  the  town,  near  the  summit  of  a  spur  of  the  Kaimur  range  on 
which  the  tomb  of  Hazrat  Chandan  Shahld  plr  is  now  venerated, 
there  is  an  important  Asoka  inscription.  Sasaram  was  constituted  a 
municipality  in  1869.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2 
averaged  Rs.  16,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  15,000.      In  1903-4  the 


IT3  sasarAm  town 

income  was  Rs.  17,000,  mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or 
property  tax)  and  the  receipts  from  a  large  municipal  market  ;  and 
the  expenditure  was  Rs.  16,000. 

[M.  Martin  (Buchanan-Hamilton),  Eastern  India,  vol.  i,  pp.  423-30 
(1838);  Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  ix,  pp.  132-9.] 

Sasvad. — Head-quarters  of  the  Purandhar  tdhika  of  Poona  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  18°  21'  N.  and  74°  2'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Karha  river,  16  miles  south-east  of  Poona  city.  Population  (1901), 
6,294.  Sasvad  was  the  original  Deccan  home  of  the  Peshwa's  family. 
Beyond  the  town,  across  the  Karha  river,  stands  the  old  palace  of  the 
Peshwa,  now  used  as  the  Collector's  office.  Near  the  junction  of 
the  Karha  and  one  of  its  minor  tributaries  is  a  walled  building,  the 
palace  of  the  great  Brahman  family  Purandhare  of  Purandhar,  whose 
fortunes  for  upwards  of  a  century  were  closely  connected  with  those  of 
the  Peshwas.  This  latter  palace  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  and  in 
1 818  was  garrisoned  and  held  out  for  ten  days  against  a  detachment  of 
British  troops.  About  1840  the  Mirs  of  Sind  were  confined  in  Sasvad. 
There  is  a  mosque  built  entirely  of  Hemadpanti  pillars  and  remains. 
The  municipality,  which  was  established  in  1869,  had  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  an  average  income  of  Rs.  5,900.  In  1903-4 
the  income  was  Rs.  6,700.  The  town  contains  a  Sub-Judge's  court, 
a  dispensary,  and  four  schools  with  440  pupils,  one  of  which  is  for  girls 
with  an  attendance  of  60.  Sasvad  is  a  station  of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  Mission,  which  works  in  the  surrounding  villages 
and  supports  one  school. 

Sataisgarh. — Ruins  in  Malda  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
See  Panoua. 

Satana. —  Tdluka  in  Nasik  District,  Bombay.     See  Baglan. 

Sata-no-nes. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Satara  Agency. — Political  Charge  in  Satara  District,  Bombay, 
comprising  the  two  jdg'trs  of  Aundh,  lying  between  t6°  24'  and 
17°  47'  N.  and  74°  6'  and  75°  42'  E.,  with  an  area  of  447  square  miles; 
and  Phaltan,  lying  between  17°  55'  and  18°  6'  N.  and  74°  12'  and 
74°  44'  E.,  with  an  area  of  397  square  miles,  under  the  political 
superintendence  of  the  Collector  of  Satara.  Phaltan  lies  to  the  north 
of  the  Mahadeo  range,  which  drains  into  the  Nira,  between  Poona  and 
Satara  District ;  Aundh  is  scattered  within  the  limits  of  .Satara  District, 
the  considerable  block  of  the  Atpadi  tdhika  lying  to  the  north-east  of 
Khanapur  in  that  District.  The  surface  of  both  Phaltan  and  Aundh 
is  chiefly  flat ;  lines  of  stony  hills  divide  the  former  from  Satara 
District.  The  Nlra  runs  in  the  north  of  Phaltan,  and  the  Man  flows 
north  and  south  in  the  Atpadi  tdhika  of  Aundh.  Both  States  lie 
within  the  area  of  Deccan  trap.  The  climate  is  hot,  and  the  rainfall 
scanty  and  uncertain.    The  annual  rainfall  averages  20  inches  at  Phaltan 


S A  TAR  A   AGEXCY 


and  2  2  inches  at  Aundh.  The  temperature  at  Phaltan  rises  to  104° 
in  May  and  falls  to  50°  in  January. 

Formerly  the  group  of  Native  States  comprising  Akalkot,  Aundh, 
Bhor,  Daphlapur,  Jath,  and  Phaltan  was  recognized  as  the  Satara 
jdgirs,  once  feudatory  to  the  Raja  of  Satara.  In  1849  five  of  them 
were  placed  under  the  Collector  of  Satara,  and  Akalkot  under  the 
Collector  of  Sholapur.  Subsequently,  \\\&jdgir  of  Bhor  was  transferred 
to  the  Collector  of  Poona,  and  Jath  and  Daphlapur  to  the  Southern 
Maratha  Country.  The  last  two  are  now  under  the  Collector  of  Bijapur. 
The  present  chief  of  Aundh  is  a  Hindu  of  Brahman  caste,  with  the 
title  of  Pant  Pratinidhi.  The  family  is  descended  from  Trimbak  Krishna, 
accountant  of  Kinhai  village  in  the  Koregaon  taliika  of  Satara  District. 
In  1690  Rajaram,  Sivaji's  younger  son,  raised  Trimbak's  son  Parasu- 
ram  Pant  to  the  rank  of  Sardar,  and  in  1698  he  conferred  on  him  the 
title  of  Pratinidhi  or  'viceroy.'  In  1713  the  office  became  hereditary 
in  the  family.     The  chief  ranks  as  a  first-class  Sardar  of  the  Deccan. 

The  chief  of  Phaltan  is  a  Maratha  of  the  Ponwar  clan.  One  Podaka 
Jagdeo  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  and  was  slain  in 
battle  in  1327,  whereupon  the  emperor  gave  the  title  of  Nayak  and 
Oi  jdgtr  to  his  son  Nimbraji.  In  1825  the  State  was  attached  by  the 
Raja  of  Satara,  who  permitted  Banaji  Nayak  to  succeed  in  1827  on 
payment  of  a  nazard/ia  or  succession  fee  of  Rs.  30,000.  On  his  death 
in  the  following  year  Phaltan  was  again  attached  by  the  Satara  govern- 
ment until  1 841,  when  the  widow  of  the  deceased  chief  was  permitted 
to  adopt  a  son.  The  chief  is  styled  Nimbalkar  and  ranks  as  a  first- 
class  Sardar  of  the  Deccan. 

The  chiefs  of  Aundh  and  Phaltan  became  tributaries  of  the  British 
Government  on  the  lapse  of  the  Satara  territory.  Both  families  hold 
sanads  authorizing  adoption,  and  in  matters  of  succession  follow  the 
custom  of  primogeniture,  .'\undh  pays  no  tribute  now,  while  Phaltan 
pays  Rs.  9,600  in  lieu  of  a  small  mounted  contingent. 

The  population  of  the  Agency  in  1901  was  109,660,  dwelling  in  one 
town  and  142  villages,  compared  with  131,529  in  1891,  the  decrease 
being  due  to  the  famines  of  1896-7  and  1899-1900.  It  is  distributed 
between  the  two  States  as  under  : — 


States. 

a 

'Si 

c.t: 

V. 
< 

Number  of 

B 
_0 

3 
D. 

(2 

§1 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be> 
tween  i8qi 
and  1901. 

s 

f2 

S. 
> 

Aundh 
Phaltan 

Agency  total 

447 
.'.97 

I 

71 
71 

63,921 

4.=l,739 

143 

115 

—     2 
-31 

844 

I 

142 

log, 660 

128 

-J7 

114  SATARA   AGENCY 

Hindus  numbered  104,376,  Musalmans  4,118,  and  Jains  i,t66.  The 
principal  castes  are  Brahmans  (5,000),  Dhangars  (14,000),  Kunbis 
(29,000),  Mahars  (8,000),  Mails  (6,000),  Marathas  (11,000),  and 
Ramoshis  (5,000).  More  than  half  of  the  population  are  supported 
by  agriculture. 

The  soil  is  of  two  kinds,  black  and  red,  an  intermediate  variety 
being  found  in  Aundh.  Of  the  total  area,  25  square  miles  are  under 
forest,  and  76  square  miles  are  not  cultivable.  The  area  of  cultivable 
land  is  708  square  miles,  of  which  697  square  miles  were  cultivated 
in  1903-4,  and  34  square  miles  were  irrigated.  Indian  wnWet,  Jotvdr, 
wheat,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  gram  are  the  chief  crops.  Garden  land 
is  mostly  watered  from  wells.  Building  timber,  extensive  sheep-grazing 
lands,  and  salt  are  the  chief  natural  resources  ;  the  weaving  of  cotton 
and  silk  goods  and  the  carving  of  stone  idols  are  the  only  manufactures 
of  importance  in  Phaltan.  The  main  exports  are  cotton,  molasses, 
oil,  and  clarified  butter;  imports  include  piece-goods,  metals,  and 
miscellaneous  European  goods.  In  the  town  of  Phaltan  a  number  of 
Gujarati  VanTs  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  between  the  coast  and  the 
interior. 

The  Agency  suffered  severely  from  famine  in  1876-7,  1896-7,  and 
1899-1900,  when  a  good  deal  of  land  fell  waste.  In  1896-7  the 
maximum  number  of  persons  on  relief  works  exceeded  1,500,  while 
in  1899-1900  it  was  nearly  4,000,  and  more  than  Rs.  40,000  was  spent 
on  famine  relief  in  that  year.  The  States  were  first  visited  by  plague 
in  1896,  and  4,400  persons  fell  victims  up  to  the  end  of  1903  :  namely, 
4,000  in  Aundh  and  400  in  Phaltan. 

The  Collector  of  Satara  is  Political  Agent  for  both  States.  When 
the  States  became  tributaries  of  the  British  Government  in  1849,  the 
jdgirdars  retained  all  their  former  rights  and  privileges,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  power  of  life  and  death  and  of  adjudication  upon  serious 
criminal  cases.  Their  administration  is  conducted  on  the  principles 
of  British  law.  Criminal  and  civil  justice  is  administered  by  the 
chiefs  themselves,  with  the  aid  of  subordinate  courts.  Heinous 
offences  requiring  capital  punishment  or  transportation  for  life  are 
tried  by  the  Political  Agent,  assisted  by  two  assessors,  the  preliminary 
proceedings  being  conducted  by  the  jdgirdars.  The  gross  annual 
revenue  of  the  Agency  is  about  4^  lakhs  :  Phaltan  2  lakhs,  and  Aundh 
2\  lakhs.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  :  land,  3  lakhs  ;  forest  and 
excise,  Rs.  21,000.  The  excise  and  salt  arrangements  are  in  the  hands 
of  Government.  Survey  operations  were  commenced  in  1869,  and 
a  revision  settlement  was  introduced  in  1894-5  in  both  States.  In 
Aundh  the  rates  vary  per  acre  from  Rs.  1-2  to  Rs.  4-0  on  '  dry '  land, 
and  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  10  in  the  case  of  garden  lands,  while  on  rice 
land  the  maximum  rate  is  Rs.  8.     In  Phaltan  the  assessment  rates  vary 


SATARA    /AG IRS 


"5 


from  Rs.  1-4  to  Rs.  2-8  per  acre.  The  regular  police  in  Phaltan 
number  95  and  in  Aundh  83,  in  addition  to  irregular  police  for  guard 
and  escort  purposes,  numbering  32  in  Phaltan  and  87  in  Aundh. 
There  were  ^2>  schools  with  1,287  pupils  in  Phaltan,  and  27  with  1,117 
in  Aundh,  in  1903-4.  About  3,000  persons  are  annually  vaccinated 
in  the  Agency.  The  number  of  dispensaries  is  three,  one  at  Phaltan 
treating  annually  9,000  patients,  and  two  in  Aundh  treating  8,100 
patients. 

Satara  Jagirs. — A  group  of  States  in  the  Bombay  Presidency 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the  Collectors  of  Poona,  Satara, 
Sholapur,  and  Bijapur,  comprising  Bhor,  Aundh,  Phaltan,  Akalkot, 
Jath,  and  Daphlapur,  with  a  total  area  of  3,247  square  miles.  Of 
these,  Bhor  lies  in  the  north-west  of  Satara  District,  Phaltan  in  the 
north,  Aundh  in  the  east,  Jath  in  the  extreme  south-east,  Daphlapur 
also  in  the  south-east,  and  Akalkot  in  the  south-east  of  Sholapur.  The 
^oXBxa,  j'dgirs  were  feudatory  to  the  Raja  of  Satara,  and  became  tribu- 
taries of  the  British  Government  on  the  lapse  of  that  State  in  1849. 
The  jdglrdars  retain  all  their  former  rights  and  privileges,  with  the 
exception  of  the  power  of  life  and  death  and  of  adjudication  upon 
serious  criminal  cases.  Their  administration  is  now  conducted  on  the 
principles  of  British  law.  Criminal  and  civil  justice  is  administered 
by  the  chiefs  themselves,  with  the  aid  of  subordinate  courts.  In 
criminal  cases,  heinous  offences  requiring  capital  punishment  or  trans- 
portation for  life  are  tried  by  the  Political  Agents,  assisted  by  two 
assessors,  the  preliminary  proceedings  being  conducted  by  the  jTrglrdars. 
Such  cases  are  committed  by  the  ordinary  magisterial  courts  of  the 
States,  whether  the  court  concerned  be  presided  over  by  the  chief 
himself  or  by  an  officer  with  committal  powers.  In  the  latter  case  the 
proceedings  are  forwarded  through  the  chief.  No  appeal  lies  to  the 
Political  Agents  against  the  decisions  of  the  chief  in  criminal  matters. 

Details  of  Satara  Jagirs 


Jagh-s. 

Title  of  chief. 

Area  in 
square 
miles.* 

Nuinber 
of  towns 

and 
villages. -f 

Population. 

Gross 

revenue 

in  1903-4. 

Charge 
in  which 
included. 

Aundh 
Phaltan 
Bhor  . 
Akalkot      . 
Jath    .         i 
Daphlapur  \ 

Pant  Pratinidhi 
Ninihalkar 
Pant  Sachiv      . 
Raj  Bhonsla     . 

Deshmukh 

447 

397 

92.S 

498 

1  884 

1     96 

72 

72 

502 

loS 

6 

6.^,921 

45,7.^9 

137,268 

82,047 

61,868 

6,797 

Rs. 

2,30,700 
2,00,400 
3,6S,8oo 

4n^7>400 

3,27..^°° 

22,500 

)  Satara 
\    District. 

Poona. 

Sholapur. 

1  Bijapur. 

Total 

.^,247 

87.^ 

.^97.640 

16,07,100 

*  The  figures  for  area  in  this  column  differ  from  those  in  the  Censzts  Report  for  1901,  being 
based  upon  more  recent  information. 

t  At  the  Census  of  iqoi  there  were  71,  484,  and  103  villages  respectively  in  Aundh,  Bhor,  and 
Akalkot,  the  rest  bt-ing  uninliabited. 


iifi  SATAJ^A  JAG  IRS 

The  charges  are  now  permanent,  though  the  Bombay  Government 
had  occasion  to  effect  transfers  in  the  past.  Originally  the  Jagirs, 
with  the  exception  of  Akalkot,  were  placed  under  the  political  control 
of  the  Collector  of  Satara.  In  1874  Jath  and  its  dependency  Daphla- 
pur,  which  had  been  mismanaged,  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  Political 
Agent,  Kolhapur  and  Southern  Maratha  Country,  but  were  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  control  of  the  Collector  of  Bijapur.  Bhor  was  transferred 
from  the  Satara  to  the  Poona  Agency  in  1887.  The  present  chief 
of  Bhor  has  a  personal  salute  of  nine  guns. 

Satara  District. — District  in  the  Central  Division  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  lying  between  16°  48'  and  18°  11'  N.  and  73°  36'  and 
74°  58'  E.,  with  an  area  of  4,825  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  States  of  Bhor  and  Phaltan  and  the  Nira  river,  separat- 
ing it  from  Poona ;  on  the  east  by  Sholapur  District  and  the  States 
of  Aundh  and  Jath  ;  on  the  south  by  the  river  Varna,  separating  it 
from  the  States  of  Kolhapur  and  Sangli,  and  by  a  few  villages  of 
Belgaum  District ;  and  on  the  west,  along  the  Western  Ghats,  by 
the  Districts  of  Kolaba  and  Ratnagiri. 

From  Mahabaleshwar  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District,  4,717 

feet  above  the  sea,  start  two  hill  ranges  of  equal  height  and  nearly 

at  right  angles  to  each  other — one  the  main  range 
Phvsicfll 
asoects  ^^   ^^^  Western   Ghats  runnuig  towards   the   south 

for  sixty  miles,  and  the  other  the  Mahadeo  range 
of  hills,  which,  going  first  in  an  easterly  and  then  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  extends  towards  the  eastern  boundary,  where  it  sinks  gradually 
into  the  plain.  These  hills  throw  out  numerous  spurs  over  the  District, 
forming  the  valleys  of  the  several  streams  which  make  up  the  head- 
waters of  the  KiSTNA,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Southern  India. 
Except  near  Mahabaleshwar,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Koyna,  the  hills 
of  the  District  are  very  low  and  have  a  strikingly  bare  and  rugged 
aspect.  The  Mahadeo  range,  even  in  the  rainy  season,  is  but  scantily 
covered  with  verdure.  The  hills  are  bold  and  abrupt,  presenting  in 
many  cases  bare  scarps  of  black  rock  and  looking  at  a  distance  like 
so  many  fortresses.  The  highest  point  of  the  Western  Ghats  in 
the  District  is  Mah.\balf,shwar.  The  crest  of  the  range  is  guarded 
by  five  forts  :  Pratapgarh  the  northernmost,  Makarandgarh  7  miles 
south,  Jangli-Jaigarh  30  miles  south  of  Makarandgarh,  Bhairavgarh 
10  miles  south  of  Jangli-Jaigarh,  and  Prachitgarh  about  7  miles 
south  of  Bhairavgarh. 

Within  Satara  limits  are  two  river  systems  :  the  Bhima  system  in 
a  small  part  of  the  north-east,  and  the  Kistna  system  throughout 
the  rest  of  the  District.  A  narrow  belt  beyond  the  Mahadeo  hills 
drains  north  into  the  Nira,  and  the  north-east  corner  of  the  District 
drains  south-east  along  the  Man.     The  total  area  of  the  BhTma  system. 


SAT  ANA    nr STRICT  117 

including  part  of  the  Wai  faliika,  the  whole  of  Phaltan,  and  the  taluka 
of  Man,  is  probably  about  1,100  miles,  while  the  area  of  the  Kistna 
system  is  4,000.  Of  the  Kistna's  total  length  of  800  miles,  150  are 
within  this  District.  It  rises  on  the  eastern  brow  of  the  Mahabaleshwar 
plateau.  The  six  feeders  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kistna  are  the 
Kudali,  Vena,  Urmodi,  Tarli,  Koyna,  and  Varna;  the  two  on  the  left 
are  the  Vasna  and  Yerla.  Of  the  Bhima  river  system,  the  chief  Satara 
representatives  are  the  Nira  in  the  north  and  the  Man  in  the  north-east. 
The  Nlra  rises  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of  Bhor,  and  running 
through  Wai,  Phaltan,  and  Malsiras  in  Sholapur,  after  a  total  length 
of  130  miles,  falls  into  the  BhIma.  The  Man  river  rises  in  the  hills 
in  the  north-west  of  the  Man  taluka,  and,  after  a  course  of  100  miles 
through  that  taluka  and  tiie  Atpadi  mahdl  of  Aundh  State  and  through 
.Sangola  and  Pandharpur  in  Sholapur,  joins  the  Bhlma  at  Sarkoli,  10 
miles  south-east  of  Pandharpur. 

The  whole  of  Satara  lies  within  the  Deccan  trap  area.  As  in  other 
parts  of  the  Western  Deccan,  the  hills  are  layers  of  soft  or  amygdaloid 
trap,  separated  by  flows  of  hard  basalt  and  capped  by  laterite  or  iron- 
clay. 

The  botanical  features  of  Satara  are  similar  to  those  of  adjacent 
Deccan  Districts.  The  spurs  and  slopes  that  branch  east  from  the 
Western  Ghats  are  covered  by  teak  mixed  with  brush-wood.  As  is 
usual  in  the  Deccan,  the  cultivated  parts  have  but  few  trees,  though 
mango  groves  are  common  near  towns  and  villages.  Most  of  the 
roadsides  are  well  shaded  with  avenues  of  banian  and  mango.  Several 
types  of  flowering  plant  are  found  on  the  hills,  notably  the  Capparis, 
Hibiscus,  Impatiens,  Crotalaria,  Indigofera,  Smithia,  Kalanchoe,  Af?i- 
mania,  Senecio,  Lobelia,  Jasminum,  as  well  as  fine  examples  of  the 
orchid  family.  Oranges,  limes,  figs,  and  pomegranates  are  widely 
grown ;  but  an  attempt  to  introduce  European  fruit  trees  at  Panchgani 
has  met  with  indifferent  success.  Mahabaleshwar  strawberries  have 
gained  a  well-deserved  reputation. 

In  the  west  near  the  Sahyadris,  chiefly  in  the  Koyna  valley  and  the 
Mala  pass  hills,  are  found  the  tiger,  leopard,  bear,  and  a  few  sdmbar 
and  small  deer.  In  the  east  antelope  or  black  buck,  and  the  chinkdra 
or  Indian  gazelle,  are  met  with  in  certain  sparsely  populated  tracts. 
Common  to  both  east  and  west  are  the  hare,  monkey,  and  hog. 
The  Vena,  Kistna,  Koyna,  and  Varna  rivers  are  fairly  stocked  with  fish. 
Game-birds  are  not  numerous,  the  chief  being  the  common  sand- 
grouse,  the  painted  partridge,  common  grey  partridge,  quail,  and  snipe. 
From  December  to  March  the  demoiselle  crane  is  to  be  found  in  flocks 
on  some  of  the  rivers  and  reservoirs.  Herons  and  egrets  are  common. 
Of  the  ibis  four  species,  and  of  duck  seven  species,  are  to  be  seen 
on  the  larger  rivers. 


it8  SATARA   district 

According  to  the  height  above,  and  distance  from,  the  sea,  the 
climate  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  District.  In  the  east,  especially 
in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  the  heat  is  considerable.  But  near 
the  Ghats  it  is  much  more  moderate,  being  tempered  by  the  sea-breeze. 
The  temperature  falls  as  low  as  58°  in  January  and  reaches  100°  and 
over  in  May.  During  the  south-west  monsoon  the  fresh  westerly  breeze 
makes  the  climate  agreeable.  Again,  while  few  parts  of  India  have 
a  heavier  and  more  continuous  rainfall  than  the  western  slope  of  the 
Western  Ghats,  in  some  of  the  eastern  tdlukas  the  supply  is  very 
scanty.  The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Mahabaleshwar  is  nearly 
300  inches,  while  in  Satara  town  it  is  only  41  inches,  and  in  some 
places  farther  east  it  is  as  little  as  20  inches.  The  west  of  the  Dis- 
trict draws  almost  its  whole  rain-supply  from  the  south-west  monsoon 
between  June  and  October.  Some  of  the  eastern  tdlukas,  however, 
have  a  share  in  the  north-east  monsoon,  and  rain  falls  there  in  Novem- 
ber and  December.  The  May  or  '  mango '  showers,  as  they  are  called, 
also  influence  the  cultivator's  prospects. 

It  seems  probable  that,  as  in  the  rest  of  the  Bombay  Deccan  and 
Konkan,  the  Andhra  or  Satavahana  kings  (200  b.c.-a.d.  218),  and 
probably  their  Kolhapur  branch,  held  vSatara  till  the 
third  or  fourth  century  after  Christ.  For  the  nine 
hundred  years  ending  early  in  the  fourteenth  century  with  the  Muham- 
madan  overthrow  of  the  Deogiri  Yadavas,  no  historical  information 
regarding  Satara  is  available ;  and  most  of  the  Devanagari  and  Kanarese 
inscriptions  which  have  been  found  on  old  temples  have  not  yet  been 
translated.  Still,  as  inscribed  stones  and  copperplates  have  been  found 
in  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Ratnagiri  and  Belgaum  and  the  State 
of  Kolhapur,  it  is  probable  that  the  early  and  Western  Chalukyas  held 
Satara  District  from  about  550  to  750;  the  Rashtrakutas  to  973;  the 
Western  Chalukyas,  and  under  them  the  Kolhapur  Silaharas,  to  about 
1190;  and  the  Deogiri  Yadavas  till  the  Muhammadan  conquest  of  the 
Deccan  about  1300. 

The  first  Muhammadan  invasion  took  place  in  1294,  and  the 
Yadava  dynasty  was  overthrown  in  13 18.  The  Muhammadan  power 
was  then  fairly  established,  and  in  1347  the  Bahmani  dynasty  rose  to 
power.  On  the  fall  of  the  Bahmanis  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  each  chief  set  up  for  himself;  the  Bijapur  Sultans  finally 
asserted  themselves,  and  under  them  the  Marathas  arose.  Satara, 
with  the  adjacent  Districts  of  Poona  and  Sholapur,  formed  the  centre 
of  the  Maratha  power.  It  was  in  this  District  and  in  the  adjacent 
tracts  of  the  Konkan  that  many  of  the  most  famous  acts  in  Maratha 
history  occurred.  Sivaji  first  became  prominent  by  the  murder  of  the 
Raja  of  Javli  close  to  Mahabaleshwar,  and  by  the  capture  of  the  strong 
fort  of  Vasota  and  the  conquest  of  Javli.     He  then  built  the  stronghold 


HISTORY  1 19 

of  Pratapgarh  (1656),  against  which  the  Bijai)ur  Sultan  directed  a  large 
force  under  Afzal  Khan  with  the  object  of  subduing  his  rebellious 
vassal.  Sivajl  met  Afzal  Khan  in  a  conference  underneath  the  walls 
of  Pratapgarh,  slew  him  with  the  famous  vdgh-nak  (steel  tiger's  claw), 
and  routed  his  army  in  the  confusion  which  ensued.  Numerous  acqui- 
sitions of  territory  followed,  including  the  capture  of  Satara  in  1673  ' 
and  Sivajl  shortly  found  himself  in  a  position  to  organize  an  indepen- 
dent government,  placing  his  capital  at  Raigarh,  where  he  was  crowned 
in  1674.  On  the  death  of  SivajT  in  1680  the  fortune  of  the  Marathas 
was  temporarily  overshadowed.  Dissensions  occurred  between  his 
sons  Rajaram  and  Sambhaji ;  and  though  the  latter,  as  the  elder,  estab- 
lished his  claim  to  succeed,  he  was  surprised  and  captured  by  the 
Mughals  under  Aurangzeb  in  1689,  and  put  to  death.  Rajaram  was 
equally  unable  to  stay  the  advance  of  the  emperor,  and  in  1700  the 
capture  of  Satara  crowned  the  efforts  of  Aurangzeb  to  reassert  his 
power  in  the  Maratha  territory.  In  1707  Aurangzeb  died,  and  Sam- 
bhaji's  son  Sahu  was  released.  Aided  by  his  minister  BalajT  Viswanath, 
the  first  of  the  Peshwas,  he  secured  Sivaji's  possessions  in  the  face 
of  the  opposition  of  Tara  Bai,  Rajaram's  widow.  The  remainder  of 
Sahu's  reign  was  devoted  to  freeing  himself  from  the  power  of  Delhi, 
and  asserting  his  right  to  levy  chaitth  and  sardeshmukhi  in  outlying 
portions  of  the  Deccan.  He  was  gradually  superseded  in  authority  by 
his  able  minister  the  Peshwa,  who,  on  his  death  in  1749,  removed  the 
Maratha  capital  to  Poona.  Titular  kings  continued  to  reside  at  Satara 
until  the  power  of  the  Pjshwa  was  broken  in  1818. 

The  territory  was  thereupon  annexed ;  but  the  British,  with  a  politic 
g"enerosity,  freed  the  titular  Maratha  Raja  (the  descendant  of  SivajT) 
from  the  Peshwa's  control,  and  assigned  to  him  the  principality  of 
Satara.  Captain  Grant  Duff  was  appointed  his  tutor  until  he  should 
gain  some  experience  in  rule.  In  April,  1822,  the  Satara  territory  was 
formally  handed  over  to  the  Raja,  and  thenceforward  was  managed  by 
him  entirely.  After  a  time  he  became  impatient  of  the  control  exer- 
cised by  the  British  Government ;  and  as  he  persisted  in  intriguing 
and  holding  communications  with  other  princes,  in  contravention  of 
his  engagements,  he  was  deposed  in  1839,  and  sent  as  a  state  prisoner 
to  Benares,  and  his  brother  Shahji  was  placed  on  the  throne.  This 
prince,  who  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  his  people,  died  in  1848 
without  male  heirs ;  and  after  long  deliberation  it  was  decided  that  the 
State  should  be  resumed  by  the  British  Government.  Liberal  pen- 
sions were  granted  to  the  Raja's  three  widows,  and  they  were  allowed 
to  live  in  the  palace  at  Satara.  The  survivor  of  these  ladies  died  in 
1874.  During  the  Mutiny  a  widespread  conspiracy  was  discovered  at 
Satara  to  restore  the  Maratha  power  with  assistance  from  the  North  ; 
but  the  movement  was  suppressed  with  only  trifling  disturbances. 


SATARA   DISTRICT 


Besides  the  Buddhist  caves  near  Karad  and  VVai  there  are  groups 
of  caves  and  cells,  both  Buddhist  and  Brahmanical,  at  Bhosa  in  Tas- 
gaon,  Malavdi  in  the  Man  fdiuka,  Kundal  in  the  State  of  Aundh, 
Patan  in  Patan,  and  Pateshwar  in  Satara.  AVai  is  locally  believed 
to  be  Vairatnagari,  the  scene  of  the  thirteenth  year  of  exile  of  the 
Pandavas.  Satara,  Chandan,  and  Vandan  forts,  situated  lo  miles 
north-east  of  Satara,  were  built  by  the  Panhala  kings  about  iigo. 

Except  the  Jama  Masjid  at  Karad  and  a  mosque  in  Rahimatpur  the 
District  has  no  Musalman  remains.  Sivaji  built  a  few  forts  in  Satara 
to  guard  the  frontiers.  The  best  known  of  these  are  the  Mahiman- 
garh  fort  in  Man  to  guard  the  eastern  frontier,  Pratapgarh  in  Javli  to 
secure  access  to  his  possessions  on  the  banks  of  the  Nira  and  the 
Koyna  and  to  strengthen  the  defences  of  the  Par  pass,  and  Vardhan- 
garh.  The  District  has  a  number  of  Hindu  temples  recently  built  at 
places  of  great  sanctity,  e.g.  Mahuli,  Wai,  and  Mahabaleshwar. 

The   number  of  towns   and   villages  in   the   District   is   1,343.     Its 

population  at  each  of  the  last  four  enumerations  has  fluctuated  as 

Population.       f°^^o^''^=  (^^72)  1,062,121,  (1881)  1,062,350,  (1891) 

1,225,989,  and  (1901)  1,146,559.     The  decrease  in 

1901  was  due  to  famine,  and  also  to  plague.     The  distribution  of  the 

population  by  tdlukas  in  1901  is  shown  below: — 


V 

3 

Number  of 

5 

V      - 

0.  '.- 

ge  of 
n  in 
n  be- 
891 
01. 

rof 
ble  to 
nd 

Taluka. 

c 

13 

3 
a. 

3  2 

centa 
riatio 
ulatio 
•een  I 
nd  19 

umbe 
ons  a 
ead  a 
write 

< 

{  391 

0 

r- 

> 

c2 

0-^ 

0-      C 

Wai     .... 

92 

71.645 

^.11 

\-     5 

4,317 

„     Khandala  pclha    . 

(.. 

33 

-2,732 

^-41 

(  -  13 

794 

Man    .... 

6.9 

76 

64,889 

'03 

+     3 

J, 080 

Javli    .... 

'  A^l 

\.. 

195 

52,852 

'l-. 

\-  " 

983 

„    Malcolmpc;lh/6'//4a 

^4-3 

<I 

54 

12,735 

(    'OS 

i  +  12 

846 

Satara .... 

339 

152 

128,391 

379 

-    9 

6,563 

Koregaon 

346 

74 

83,375 

241 

-    9 

4,063 

Khanapur    . 

510 

91 

86,049 

169 

-  13 

3,037 

Patan  .... 

43« 

203 

104,167 

238 

-  23 

2,168 

Karad  .... 

378 

98 

■34,947 

357 

—  13 

5,091 

Khatao 

501 

85 

90,416 

192 

+     I 

3,570 

\alva  .... 

545 

t 

53 
Si 

143,030 
52,919 

J369 

\  +    6 

(  -    7 

7,001 
1.483 

Tasgaon 

1  )istrict  total 

325 

48 

92,412 

284 

—    I 

4-799 

4,825 

8 

1,335* 

1,146,559 

238 

-    6 

46,795 

*  The  Agricultural  department's  returns  give  the  total  number  of  villages  as  1,358. 

The  towns  are  Satara,  the  head-quarters,  \Vai,  Ashta,  Islampur, 
Karad,  Tasuaon,  Mhasvau,  and  Mahabaleshwar.  The  average  den- 
sity of  population  is  238  persons  per  square  mile  ;  but  the  Man  taluka, 
which  is  the  most  precarious,  has  only  103   persons  per  square  mile. 


AGRICULTURE  121 

Marathr  is  the  prevailing  vernacuUir,  being  spoken  by  95  per  cent,  of 
the  people.  Hindus  inckide  95  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Musalmans 
3  per  cent.,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  being  lower  than  in  any  other 
District  in  the  Presidency.  The  Jains,  who  number  18,483,  are  met 
with  chiefly  in  the  villages  in  the  south  of  the  Valva  and  Tasgaon 
tdlukas.  They  bear  the  reputation  of  being  laborious  agriculturists, 
and  contrast  favourably  with  their  neighbours  the  Marathas  and 
Maratha  Kunbis.  They  represent  a  survival  of  the  early  Jainisni, 
which  was  once  the  religion  of  the  rulers  of  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Carnatic. 

Of  the  Hindu  po[)ulation,  584,000,  or  54  per  cent.,  are  Marathas  or 
Maratha  Kunbis  ;  92,000,  or  8  per  cent.,  are  Mahars  ;  46,000,  or  4  per 
cent.,  Brahmans ;  and  45,000,  or  4  per  cent.,  Dhangars,  or  shepherds, 
who  are  mostly  to  be  found  in  the  hilly  tract.  Of  the  remainder,  the 
following  castes  are  of  importance  :  Chamars  or  leather-workers  ( 1 7,000), 
Kumhars  or  potters  (12,000),  Lingayats  (29,000),  Malis  or  gardeners 
(28,000),  Mangs  (26,000),  Nhavis  or  barbers  (i  5,000),  Ramoshis  (2 1,000), 
and  Sutars  or  carpenters  (i  1,000).  The  Marathas  or  Maratha  Kunbis, 
during  the  period  of  the  Maratha  ascendancy  (1674-1817),  furnished 
the  majority  of  the  fighting  men.  The  Mavlas,  SivajI's  best  soldiers, 
were  drawn  from  the  ghdtmdtha  ('  hill-top ')  portion  of  the  District. 
During  the  last  half-century  they  have  become  quiet  and  orderly,  living 
almost  entirely  by  agriculture.  Dark-skinned,  and  as  a  rule  small, 
they  are  active  and  capable  of  enduring  much  fatigue.  Brahmans, 
largely  employed  as  priests  or  government  servants,  are  found  in 
large  numbers  in  the  towns  of  Satara  and  ^Vai.  Agriculture  is  the 
main  occupation  of  the  people,  supporting  73  per  cent,  of  the  total ; 
12  per  cent,  are  supported  by  industry,  and  1  per  cent,  by  commerce. 

In  1901,  975  native  Christians  were  enumerated,  chiefly  in  Javli, 
Koregaon,  Satara,  and  ^Vai.  The  American  Mission  began  work 
in  the  District  in  1834,  when  a  girls'  school  was  opened  at  Maha- 
baleshwar.  Till  1849  the  school  was  removed  to  Satara  every  year 
during  the  rainy  season.  Since  1849  Satara  has  had  resident  mis- 
sionaries. 

The  soils  belong  to  three  main  classes  :  red  in  the  hills  and  black 
and  light  in  the  plains.  The  black  soil,  which  is  generall)-  found  near 
the  river  banks,  is  most  widely  distributed  in  the  ,  .  . 
Kistna  valley,  making  it  the  richest  garden  and  '  dry- 
crop'  land  in  the  District.  Near  the  heads  of  the  streams  which  issue 
from  the  Western  Ghats,  the  red  soil  of  the  valleys  yields  most  of  the 
rice  grown  in  the  District. 

Satara  is  mostl}'  ryotivdri,  about  one-tifth  of  the  total  area  being 
inam  ox  Jdg'ir  land.  The  chief  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4  are 
shown  in  the  following  table,  in  square  miles  :— 


S A  TAR  A   DISTRICT 


Taltika. 

Total 
area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Wai    . 

Man  . 
Javli  . 
Sataia 
Koregaon  . 
Khanapur  . 
Patan 
Karad 
Khatao 
Valva 
Tasgaon     , 

392 
629 

423 

339 
346 
5" 

438 

378 
501 

545 
325 

242 
440 
240 
228 

254 
401 
242 
25S 
362 
400 
259 

16 
'4 
9 

18 
11 
16 
9 
•9 
18 

'9 
6 

I 

3 

2 
2 

2 

3 
10 

3 
3 

7 
2 

71 

70 

145 
33 
42 

III 

51 
32 
63 
29 

Tota 

1 

4,827* 

3>326 

155 

38 

702 

*  This  figure  is  based  on  the  most  recent  information, 
for  .335  square  miles  of  this  area. 


Statistics  are  not  available 


Joiviir  ^^(^  bdjra,  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  occupy  1,479  square 
miles  in  almost  equal  proportions.  Rice-fields  (69)  are  found  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Ghats,  especially  along  the  Koyna  river.  Wheat  occupies 
77  square  miles.  In  the  west,  rdgi  (69)  and  vari  (69)  are  the  chief 
crops.  Pulses  occupy  478  square  miles,  chiefly  gram,  iitr^  kulith,  udid, 
intig,  and  math.  In  the  Kistna  valley  sugar-cane  and  ground-nuts  are 
extensively  cultivated.  Chillies  occupy  14  square  miles,  and  cotton 
covers  28  square  miles  in  the  east  of  the  District.  At  Mahabaleshwar 
and  Panchgani  potatoes  and  strawberries  are  grown  for  the  Poona 
and  Bombay  markets.  Tobacco  is  an  important  crop  in  Satara, 
occupying  8,000  acres. 

In  i860  an  experiment  was  made  in  the  cultivation  of  imphi  {Holcus 
saccharatiis)  or  Chinese  sugar-cane.  The  crop  reached  a  height 
of  8  feet  and  was  much  appreciated.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1904,  more  than  16  lakhs  was  advanced  to  the  cultivators  under 
the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts.  Of  this  sum, 
9  lakhs  was  advanced  during  the  three  years  ending  190 1-2. 

Satara  has  two  breeds  of  cattle,  the  local  and  the  khiidri,  which  is 
said  to  come  from  the  east.  Though  larger  and  more  muscular,  the 
khildri  is  somewhat  more  delicate  and  short-lived  than  the  local  cattle. 
The  valley  of  the  Man  used  to  be  famous  for  its  horses.  All  interest 
in  horse-breeding  has  now  died  out,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
chiefs  and  wealthy  landowners,  the  animals  ridden  are  seldom 
more  than  ponies.  Sheep  and  goats  are  bred  locally,  few  of  them 
either  coming  into  the  District  or  leaving  it.  Goats  are  valued  chiefly 
for  their  milk.  One  breed  of  goats  whose  long  hair  is  twisted  into 
ropes  is  kept  by  Dhangars.  Sural  goats  are  occasionally  imported. 
Pigs  are  reared  by  Vadars  and  Kaikadis,  and  donkeys  as  pack-animals 
by  Lamanis,  Kumbars,  and  Vadars.  Mules  are  used  as  pack-animals 
sparingly,  and  camels  are  rarely  seen. 


FOJ^ESTS  123 

A  total  area  of  154I  square  miles,  or  6  per  cent.,  was  irrigated  in 
1903-4,  the  principal  sources  of  supply  being  Government  canals  and 
channels  (11  square  miles),  tanks  and  wells  (88),  other  sources  (55^). 
The  chief  irrigation  works  are  :  the  Kistna,  Chikhli,  and  Rewari  canals, 
the  Yerla  and  Man  river  works,  and  the  lakes  at  Mhasvad  and  Mayni. 
The  Kistna  canal,  which  has  its  head-works  2  miles  above  Karad,  has 
an  unfailing  supply  of  water,  and  irrigates  6  square  miles  in  the  tdbikas 
of  Karad,  Valva,  and  Tasgaon.  The  works,  which  cost  8  lakhs,  were 
opened  in  1868,  and  can  supply  12,000  acres.  The  Chikhli,  Rewari, 
and  Gondoli  canals  cost  respectively  Rs.  57,000,  Rs.  59,000,  and 
4  lakhs,  and  can  supply  1,500,  1,900,  and  2,000  acres.  The  Yerla 
river  works,  begun  in  1867  and  finished  in  1868,  the  right-bank  canal 
being  9  and  the  left  8^  miles  long,  are  supplemented  by  the  Nehra 
lake,  finished  in  1 880-1,  with  a  capacity  of  523,000,000  cubic  feet. 
The  whole  scheme  involved  a  cost  of  nearly  8  lakhs  up  to  1903-4,  and 
commands  an  irrigable  area  of  5,000  acres.  The  Mhasvad  lake,  having 
a  catchment  area  of  480  square  miles  and  a  full  supply  depth  of  67  feet, 
completed  at  a  cost  of  nearly  2 1  lakhs,  covers  an  area  of  6  square  miles 
and  can  hold  2,633,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  It  includes  a  large 
lake  on  the  river  Man  in  the  Man  taluka,  and  also  a  high-level  canal 
(13  miles  long)  commanding  the  area  between  the  Man  and  the 
Bhima.  The  Mayni  lake,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Yerla,  cost  about 
4^  lakhs,  and  commands  4,800  acres. 

The  water-supply  in  the  west  is  plentiful,  but  there  is  much  scarcity 
in  the  east  during  the  hot  season.  The  supply  comes  partly  from  rivers 
and  partly  from  numerous  ponds  and  wells.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
are  32,600  wells  in  the  District,  of  which  27,000  are  used  for  irrigation. 
The  cost  of  building  wells  varies  greatly.  They  are  of  every  description, 
from  holes  sunk  in  the  rock  or  soil  to  carefully  built  wells  faced  with 
stone. 

Forests  cover  an  area  of  702  square  miles  (including  one  square  mile 
of  protected  forest),  of  which  616  square  miles  in  charge  of  the  Forest 
department  are  administered  by  a  divisional  and  a 
subdivisional  officer.  The  forests  are  scattered  over 
the  District,  and  are  much  broken  by  private  and  cultivated  land.  In 
the  west,  the  belt  of  evergreen  forest  along  the  line  of  the  Western 
Ghats  is  divided  into  six  fairly  compact  ranges  with  little  cultivated 
land  between.  The  seven  eastern  ranges  are  bare  hills,  with  here  and 
there  a  little  scrub  and  teak.  The  forests  of  the  western  tdlukas  have 
a  large  store  of  timber  and  firewood.  Jdmbul,  gela  (  Vangueria  spinosa), 
and  pesha  {Cylicodaphne  Wightiana)  grow  on  the  main  ridge  of  the 
Western  Ghats,  and  small  teak  on  the  eastern  slopes.  Sandal-wood 
is  occasionally  found,  and  the  mango,  jack,  and  guava  are  often  grown 
for  their  fruit.     Patches  of  bamboo  sometimes  occur.      A  cinchona 

VOL.  XXII.  I 


124  SATARA    DISTRICT 

plantation,  established  in  Lingmala  near  Mahabaleshwar,  has  proved  a 
failure.     In  1903-4  the  forest  revenue  amounted  to  Rs.  46,000. 

Iron  is  found  in  abundance  on  the  Mahabaleshwar  and  Mahadeo 

hills,  and  was  formerly  worked  by  the  Musalman  tribe  of  Dhavads. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  fall  in  the  value  of  iron  and 

jyLlD.6r3.lS  . 

the  rise  in  the  price  of  fuel,  smelting  is  now  no  longer 
carried  on.  Manganese  occurs  embedded  in  laterite  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Mahabaleshwar.  The  other  mineral  products  are  building  stone 
(trap  in  the  plains  and  laterite  on  the  hills),  road-metal,  and  limestone. 

Cotton  is  spun  by  women  of  the  Kunbi,  Mahar,  and  Mang  castes. 

The  yarn  thus  prepared  is  made  up  by  Hindu  weavers  of  the  Sali 

or  Koshti  caste,  and  by  Muhammadans,  into  cloth, 

communications    '^^P^'  ^^^  ropes.    Blankets  {kamb/is),  which  command 

a  large  sale,  are  woven  by  men  of  the  Dhangar  caste. 

Satara  brass  dishes  and  Shirala  lamps  are  well-known  throughout  the 

Deccan.     Notwithstanding  the  great  number  of  carpenters,  wheels  and 

axles  for  cart-making  have  to  be  brought  from  Chiplun  in  Ratnagiri. 

Paper  is  manufactured  to  some  extent. 

The  District  exports  grain  and  oilseeds,  a  certain  number  of  blankets, 
a  small  quantity  of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  chillies,  gur  (unrefined  sugar), 
and  a  little  raw  cotton.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton  piece-goods, 
hardware,  and  salt.  The  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  has  largely  in- 
creased the  trade  with  Poona  and  Belgaum,  and  at  the  same  time  has 
diminished  the  road  traffic  between  those  places.  The  road-borne 
traffic  with  Chiplun  in  Ratnagiri  District  is,  however,  still  consider- 
able, the  exports  being  unrefined  sugar,  blankets,  and  cloth,  and  the 
imports  spices,  salt,  coco-nuts,  and  sheets  of  corrugated  iron.  Weekly 
or  bi-weekly  markets  are  held  in  large  villages  and  towns,  such  as 
Mhasvad,  which  is  famous  for  its  blankets,  and  Belavdi  for  its  cattle. 
The  trade-centres  are  Wai,  Satara,  Karad,  Tasgaon,  and  Islampur. 

The  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  traverses  the  centre  of  the  District 
for  115  miles  from  north  to  south.  The  total  length  of  roads  is  433 
metalled,  and  284  unmetalled.  Of  these,  159  miles  of  metalled  and 
264  miles  of  unmetalled  road  are  maintained  by  the  local  authorities, 
the  remainder  being  in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  department.  There 
are  avenues  of  trees  on  about  400  miles.  The  Poona  and  Bangalore 
road,  crossing  the  District  from  north  to  south  near  the  railway,  and 
bridged  and  metalled  throughout,  is  the  most  important.  A  first-class 
road  is  maintained  from  Wathar  station  via  Wai  to  Panchgani  and  Maha- 
baleshwar, whence  it  passes  by  the  Fitzgerald  ghat  to  Mahad  in  Kolaba, 
and  another  runs  from  Karad  westwards  to  Chiplun  in  Ratnagiri  and 
eastwards  to  Bijapur.  An  alternative  route  to  Mahabaleshwar  runs 
through  Satara  town,  and  there  are  numerous  feeder  roads  for  the 
railway. 


FAMINE  125 

The  uncertain  and  scanty  rainfall  makes  eastern  Satara  one  of  the 
parts  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  most  liable  to  suffer  from  failure  of 
crops.  The  earliest  recorded  is  the  famous  famine 
known  as  Durga-devI,  which,  beginning  in  1396,  is  said 
to  have  lasted  twelve  years,  and  to  have  spread  over  all  India  south  of 
the  Narbada.  Whole  Districts  were  emptied  of  their  inhabitants  ;  and 
for  upwards  of  thirty  years  a  very  scanty  revenue  was  obtained  from  the 
territory  between  the  Godavari  and  the  Kistna.  In  1520,  mainly  owing 
to  military  disturbances,  the  crops  in  the  Deccan  were  destroyed  and 
a  famine  followed.  In  1629-30  severe  famine  raged  throughout  the 
Deccan.  The  rains  failed  for  two  years  in  succession,  causing  great 
loss  of  life.  According  to  local  tradition,  the  famine  of  1791-2  was  the 
worst  ever  known.  It  seems  to  have  come  after  a  series  of  bad  years, 
when  the  evils  of  scanty  rainfall  were  aggravated  by  disturbances  and 
war.  The  native  governments  granted  large  remissions  of  revenue, 
the  export  of  grain  was  forbidden,  and  a  sale  price  was  fixed.  Rice 
was  imported  into  Bombay  from  Bengal.  The  famine  of  1802-3 
ranks  next  in  severity.  It  was  most  felt  in  Khandesh,  Ahmadnagar, 
Sholapur,  Bijapur,  and  Dharwar ;  but  it  also  pressed  severely  on  Bel- 
gaum,  Satara,  Poona,  Surat,  and  Cutch.  This  scarcity  was  mainly 
due  to  the  ravages  of  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar  and  his  Pindaris,  who 
destroyed  the  early  crops  as  they  were  coming  to  maturity  and  pre- 
vented the  late  crops  being  sown.  This  scarcity  was  followed  by  the 
failure  of  the  late  rains  in  1 803.  The  pressure  was  greatest  in  July  and 
August,  1804,  and  was  so  grievous  that,  according  to  tradition,  men 
lived  on  human  flesh.  Grain  is  said  to  have  been  sold  at  a  shilling 
the  pound.  In  1824-5  ^  failure  of  the  early  rains  caused  consider- 
able and  widespread  scarcity.  In  1862  there  was  again  distress  on 
account  of  scanty  rainfall. 

The  early  rains  of  1876  were  deficient  and  badly  distributed,  and 
the  crops  failed,  distress  amounting  to  famine  over  about  one-half  of 
the  District,  the  east  and  south-east  portions  suffering  most.  This  was 
followed  by  a  partial  failure  of  the  rains  in  September  and  October, 
when  only  a  small  area  of  late  crops  could  be  sown.  With  high  prices, 
millet  at  8^  instead  of  i7i  seers  per  rupee,  and  no  demand  for  field 
work,  the  poorer  classes  fell  into  distress.  The  need  for  Government 
help  began  about  the  beginning  of  October.  The  long  period  of  dry 
weather  in  July  and  August,  1877,  forced  prices  still  higher,  and  caused 
much  suffering ;  but  the  plentiful  and  timely  rainfall  of  September  and 
October  removed  all  cause  of  anxiety.  By  the  close  of  November  the 
demand  for  special  Government  help  had  ceased.  On  May  19,  1877, 
when  famine  pressure  was  general  and  severe,  46,000  labourers  were 
on  relief  works.  The  total  cost  of  the  famine  was  estimated  at  about 
12  lakhs.     In  the  eastern  taliikas  the  number  of  cattle  decreased  from 

I  2 


126  SATARA   DISTRICT 

994,000  in   1876-7  to  775,000  in    1877-8.      In    1878   the   cultivated 
area  fell  short  of  that  in  1876  by  about  18,400  acres. 

In  the  famine  of  1896-7  the  District  again  suffered  severely.  In 
December,  1896,  the  number  on  relief  works  was  6,700.  It  rose  to 
27,000  in  April,  1897,  and  then  began  to  fall.  The  number  on  chari- 
table relief  was  5,000  in  September,  1897.  The  last  scarcity  occurred 
in  1 899- 1 900,  when  the  late  rains  failed.  The  drought  was  specially 
marked  in  the  region  east  of  the  Kistna  river.  Relief  works  were 
necessary  in  1899.  By  May,  1900,  47,000  persons  were  on  works, 
excluding  8,000  dependents  and  2,000  in  receipt  of  gratuitous  relief. 
The  latter  number  rose  to  17,000  in  September.  The  distress  con- 
tinued till  October,  1901,  owing  to  the  capricious  rainfall  of  1900. 
The  total  cost  of  the  famine  was  estimated  at  16  lakhs,  and  the 
advances  to  agriculturists  and  remissions  of  land  revenue  amounted 
to  18  lakhs.  It  is  calculated  that  there  was  a  mortality  of  nearly 
30,000  in  excess  of  the  normal  during  the  period,  and  that  200,000 
cattle  died. 

The  Collector's  staff  usually  includes  three  Assistants  or  Deputies. 
The  District  is  divided  into  eleven  talukas :  namely,  Karad,  Valva, 
.  .  .  Satara,  Wai,  Javli,  Khanapur,  KoREGAON,  Patan, 
Man,  Khatao,  and  Tasgaon.  The  talukas  of  Valva 
and  Wai  include  the  petty  divisions  {pethas)  of  Shirala  and  Khandala, 
and  Javli  includes  Malcolmpeth.  The  Collector  is  Political  Agent  for 
the  Aundh  and  Phaltan  States. 

The  District  and  Sessions  Judge  is  assisted  for  civil  business  by 
an  Assistant  Judge,  one  Subordinate  Judge  under  the  Deccan  Agri- 
culturists' Relief  Act,  and  eight  other  Subordinate  Judges.  There  are 
usually  34  magistrates  to  administer  criminal  justice.  The  usual  forms 
of  crime  are  hurt,  theft,  and  mischief.  Dacoity  is  common  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  District. 

Before  the  rise  of  the  Marathas  and  during  their  supremacy  many 
surveys  were  made  of  parts  or  the  whole  of  the  Satara  territory,  appa- 
rently with  the  object  of  readjusting  rather  than  of  altering  the  assess- 
ment, which,  under  the  name  of  kamdl  or  rack  rental,  had  remained  the 
same  for  years.  No  accurate  account  of  the  Bijapur  survey  remains, 
but  the  standard  of  assessment  was  continued  in  some  villages  to  the 
end  of  the  Peshwas'  rule  (1818).  When  Sivaji  took  the  country  (1655) 
he  made  a  new  but  imperfect  survey  on  the  model  of  Malik  Ambar's, 
fixing  two-fifths  of  the  produce  or  its  equivalent  in  money  as  the 
government  share.  The  Mughals  introduced  the  system  of  Todar 
Mai,  fixing  the  assessment,  not  by  measurement  as  in  the  districts 
conquered  earlier,  but  by  the  average  produce  or  its  equivalent  in 
money.  In  some  cases  Aurangzeb  raised  the  rents  for  a  few  years 
as  high  as  he  could,  and  this  amount  was  ever  afterwards  entered  in 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


127 


the  accounts  as  the  kamdl  or  rack  rental.  In  the  time  of  BalajT  BajT 
Rao  some  villages  in  ^Vai,  Valva,  Khanapur,  and  Karad  were  measured, 
but  do  not  seem  to  have  been  assessed.  Bajl  Rao  II  introduced  the 
farming  or  contract  system,  for  both  revenue  and  expenditure.  The 
contractors  usually  had  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  treated  the 
landholders  with  the  greatest  harshness.  The  result  of  the  excessive 
bids  made  by  the  contractors  to  please  BajT  Rao  was  that  most  vil- 
lages were  burdened  with  a  heavy  debt  incurred  on  the  responsibility 
of  the  headman  and  on  behalf  of  the  village.  The  first  step  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Satara  Raja  in  18 18  was  to  abolish  the  con- 
tract system  and  to  revert  to  a  strictly  personal  or  ryotivdr  settlement ; 
but  the  old  and  very  heavy  assessment  remained.  About  1822  the 
rates  returned  for  good  land  varied  from  Rs.  18  to  Rs.  1-2  per  acre; 
for  mixed  land  from  Rs.  9  to  i3-|  annas ;  and  for  uplands  from  Rs.  2-4 
to  4^  annas.  The  rate  for  garden  land  varied  from  Rs.  28  to  Rs.  1-2. 
Between  182 1  and  1829  Captain  Adams  surveyed  all  the  lands  of 
the  State.  The  arable  area  was  divided  into  numbers  or  fields,  and 
the  areas  of  all  holdings  and  grants  or  indms  were  fixed.  When  in 
1848  the  District  was  resumed  by  the  British  Government,  the  revenue 
survey  was  introduced,  beginning  with  Tasgaon  in  1852-3,  and  com- 
prising the  whole  of  the  District  before  1883.  A  revision  between  1888 
and  1897  disclosed  an  increase  in  cultivation  of  7,000  acres.  The 
revised  settlement  raised  the  total  land  revenue  from  iii  lakhs  to 
nearly  17  lakhs.  Under  the  current  survey  settlement  the  average 
rate  of  assessment  for  'dry'  land  is  15  annas,  for  rice  land  Rs.  3-14, 
and  for  garden  land  Rs.  3-9. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880- 1. 

1S90-1. 

igoo-i. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

23,82 
29,79 

23=94 
29>55 

22,18 
27,50 

29,43 
36,17 

There  are  twelve  municipalities  in  the  District:  Satara  City,  \\^ai, 
Rahimatpur,  Karad,  Islampur,  Ashta,  Tasgaon,  Vita,  Mayni, 
Mhasvad,  Malcoi.mpeth,  and  Satara  Suburban,  with  an  aggregate 
income  of  \\  lakhs.  Local  affairs  outside  these  are  managed  by  the 
District  board  and  11  local  boards.  The  total  receipts  of  these 
boards  in  1903-4  was  more  than  2\  lakhs,  the  principal  source  of  in- 
come being  the  local  fund  cess ;  and  the  expenditure  was  a  little  less 
than  that  sum.  Of  the  total  expenditure,  nearly  one  lakh,  or  40  per 
cent,  was  laid  out  on  roads  and  buildings  in  1903-4. 

The   District   Superintendent  of  police  is  assisted  by  an  Assistant 


128  SATARA   DISTRICT 

Superintendent  and  two  inspectors.  There  are  17  police  stations  and 
a  total  police  force  of  966,  of  which  16  are  chief  constables,  196  head 
constables,  and  754  constables.  The  mounted  police  number  7,  under 
one  daffaddr.  The  District  contains  19  subsidiary  jails,  with  accom- 
modation for  424  prisoners.  The  daily  average  number  of  prisoners 
during  1904  was  89,  of  whom  5  were  females. 

Satara  stands  nineteenth  among  the  twenty-four  Districts  of  the 
Presidency  in  the  literacy  of  its  population,  of  whom  4  per  cent 
(8  per  cent,  males  and  0-3  females)  could  read  and  write  in  190 1.  In 
1865  there  were  104  schools  and  6,100  pupils.  The  number  of  pupils 
rose  to  12,851  in  1881  and  to  23,168  in  1891,  but  fell  in  1901  to  22,146. 
In  1903-4  there  were  352  public  schools  with  16,962  pupils,  of  whom 
1,519  were  girls,  besides  47  private  schools  with  878  pupils.  Of  the 
352  institutions  classed  as  public,  one  is  managed  by  Government, 
282  by  the  local  boards,  and  36  by  the  municipal  boards,  31  are  aided 
and  2  unaided.  The  public  schools  include  3  high,  7  middle,  and 
342  primary  schools.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4 
was  more  than  if  lakhs.  Of  this,  Local  funds  contributed  Rs.  50,000, 
municipalities  Rs.  10,000,  and  fees  Rs.  25,000.  About  74  per  cent, 
of  the  total  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

In  1904  the  District  possessed  2  hospitals  and  9  dispen.saries  and 
7  other  medical  institutions,  with  accommodation  for  124  in-patients. 
About  106,960  persons  were  treated,  including  818  in-patients,  and 
3,609  operations  were  performed.  The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  19,770, 
of  which  Rs.  11,370  was  met  from  municipal  and  local  board  funds. 

The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  nearly 
28,000,  representing  a  proportion  of  24  per  1,000  of  population,  which 
is  almost  equal  to  the  average  of  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Bombay  Gazetteer,  vol.  xix  (1885) ;  W.  W.  Loch, 
Historical  Account  of  the  Poona,  Sdtdra,  and  Shoiapur  Districts  (1877).] 

Satara  Taluka. —  Tdluka  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  lying  between 
17°  30'  and  17°  50'  N.  and  73°  48'  and  74°  10'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
339  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Satara  (population,  26,022), 
the  District  and  tdluka  head-quarters;  and  152  villages.  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  128,391,  compared  with  139,892  in  1891.  The 
density,  379  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  highest  in  the  District. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  more  than  i'9  lakhs,  and 
for  cesses  Rs.  19,000.  Satara  includes  the  three  valleys  of  the  Kistna, 
Vena,  and  Urmodi  rivers,  which  are  open  and  slope  gently  towards  the 
base  of  steep  and  bare  hills.  Clumps  of  mangoes  stud  the  valleys,  and 
babul  grows  plentifully  on  the  banks  of  the  Kistna.  The  soil  near  the 
rivers  is  rich  and  black,  but  grows  gradually  grey  and  poorer  towards 
the  hills.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  rainfall,  averaging  40  inches, 
is  higher  than  in  most  other  tdlukas. 


SATHALLI  129 

Satara  City. — Head-quarters  of  Satara  District,  Bombay,  situated 
in  17°  41''  N.  and  74°  E.,  10  miles  from  Satara  Road  station  on  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Railway,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Kistna  and  the 
Vena.  The  strong  fort  of  Satara  is  perched  on  the  summit  of  a  small, 
steep,  rocky  hill.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  seventeen  {satara)  walls, 
towers,  and  gates  which  it  is  supposed  to  have  possessed.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  with  the  Peshwa  in  18 18,  it  fell,  after  a  short  resistance,  into 
the  hands  of  the  British,  but  was  restored  with  the  adjacent  territory 
to  the  representative  of  Sivaji's  line,  who,  during  the  Peshwa's  ascen- 
dancy, had  lived  there  as  a  State  prisoner.  In  1848,  on  the  death 
of  the  last  Raja,  the  principality  escheated  to  the  British.  The  town, 
lying  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  fortress,  consisted  in  1820  of  one  long 
street  of  tiled  houses,  built  partly  of  stone  and  partly  of  brick.  After 
the  breaking  up  of  the  Raja's  court,  the  population  considerably 
decreased.  But  Satara  is  still  a  large  place,  with  a  population  in 
1901  of  26,022,  including  2,917  in  suburban  and  990  in  cantonment 
limits.  Hindus  numbered  21,795,  Muhammadans  3,275,  Jains  253, 
and  Christians  599.  The  municipality,  established  in  1853,  had  an 
average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  69,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  60,000.  The  suburban  municipality,  estab- 
lished in  1890,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901 
of  Rs.  7,400.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  8,000.  Satara  has  few 
large  or  ornamental  buildings,  with  the  exception  of  the  Raja's  palace 
now^  used  as  the  Judge's  court.  On  account  of  its  high  position, 
2,320  feet  above  sea-level,  the  ^climate  is  unusually  pleasant.  The 
water-supply  is  obtained  by  aqueducts  and  pipes  from  the  Kas  lake 
in  the  hills,  16  miles  from  the  city.     A  civil  hospital  is  situated  here. 

Satgaon. — Ruined  town  in  Hooghly  District,  Bengal,  situated  in 
22°  58'  N.  and  88°  23'  E.,  to  the  north-west  of  Hooghly  town.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  153.  Satgaon  was  the  mercantile  capital  of  Bengal  from 
the  days  of  Hindu  rule  until  the  foundation  of  Hooghly  by  the  Portu- 
guese. Its  decay  dates  from  the  silting-up  of  the  channel  of  the 
SaraswatI;  and  nothing  now  remains  to  indicate  its  former  grandeur 
except  a  ruined  mosque,  the  modern  village  consisting  of  a  few  miser- 
able huts.  Satgaon  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  resting-places  of 
BhagTrathi.  De  Barros  writes  that  it  v,'as  '  less  frequented  than  Chitta- 
gong,  on  account  of  the  port  not  being  so  convenient  for  the  entrance 
and  the  departure  of  ships.'  Purchas  states  it  to  be  'a  fair  citie  for 
a  citie  of  the  Moores,  and  very  plentiful,  but  sometimes  subject  to 
Patnaw.'  In  1632,  when  Hooghly  was  declared  a  royal  port,  all  the 
public  offices  were  withdrawn  from  Satgaon,  which  rapidly  fell  into 
ruins. 

Sathalli. — Village  in  the  Hassan  tdh/k  of  Hassan  District,  Mysore, 
situated  10  miles  south-west  of  Hassan  town.     Population  (1901),  105. 


130  SATHALLI 

It  is  of  interest  as  the  centre  of  a  Christian  agricultural  community, 
which  had  its  origin  in  the  labours  of  the  well-known  Abbe  Dubois. 
There  is  a  group  of  twelve  villages,  almost  entirely  inhabited  by 
Christians,  who  follow  their  original  customs  in  all  matters  not  con- 
cerned with   religion. 

Sathamba. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Satkhira  Subdivision. — Western  subdivision  of  Khulna  District, 
Bengal,  lying  between  21°  38' and  22°  57' N.  and  88°  54' and  89°23'E., 
with  an  area  of  749  square  miles.  The  northern  part  of  the  subdivision 
resembles  in  its  general  physical  characteristics  the  adjoining  thanas  of 
Jessore;  the  drainage  is  bad  and  there  are  numerous  swamps.  The 
southern  portion  includes  a  large  area  in  the  Sundarbans,  where  there 
is  much  fertile  land  awaiting  reclamation.  The  population  in  1901  was 
488,217,  compared  with  495,600  in  1891,  the  density  being  652  persons 
per  square  mile.  It  contains  two  towns,  Satkhira  (population,  8,356), 
the  head-quarters,  and  Debhata  (5,454) ;  and  1,467  villages.  Iswari- 
PUR  was  the  old  capital  of  Raja  Pratapaditya.  Debhata  and  Kaliganj 
are  trading  centres. 

Satkhira  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Khulna  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°  43'  N.  and  89°  5'  E., 
on  a  khdl  or  channel  connected  with  the  IchamatI  river.  Population 
(1901),  8,356.  Satkhira  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1S69.  The 
income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  4,600,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  4,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  7,500, 
mainly  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  6,500.  The  town  contains  the  usual  public  offices,  a  sub-jail 
with  accommodation  for  12  prisoners,  as  well  as  many  Hindu  temples. 

Satlasna. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Satmala. — Range  of  hills  in  Bombay,  Berar,  and  the  Hyderabad 
State,  which  also  bears  the  names  of  the  Ajanta,  Chandor,  and 
Indhyadri  hills,  and  Sahyadriparbat. 

Satna  (or  Raghurajnagar). — Town  in  the  Rcwah  State,  Central  India, 
situated  in  24°  34''  N.  and  80°  50"*  E.,  on  the  Jubbulpore-Allahabad 
section  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Population  (1901),  7,471.  Satna 
is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Political  Agent  in  Baghelkhand  and  of  the 
Raghurajnagar  talisil  of  Rewah.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance  and  the  principal  centre  of  trade  in  the  State,  the 
value  of  exports  and  imports  passing  through  the  town  being  about 
4  lakhs  a  year.  The  principal  exports  are  wheat,  rice,  linseed,  and  ghl ; 
and  the  imports,  kerosene  oil,  cotton,  cloth,  and  sugar.  The  town  is 
clean  and  well  built,  with  many  good  houses.  To  the  west  and  across 
the  railway  lie  the  Agency  limits,  containing  the  residence  of  the 
Political  Agent,  offices,  and  other  buildings.  Satna  was  selected  as 
the  head-quarters  in  1872,  before  which  date  the  Political  officer  lived 


SATFURAS  131 

at  Nagod.  The  Agency  limits  occupy  95  acres,  with  a  population 
(1901)  of  382.  A  high  school,  a  Government  ^(f/^-bungalow,  a  combined 
post  and  telegraph  ofifice,  and  an  Agency  hospital  and  State  dispensary 
are  situated  in  the  town. 

Satodad-Vavdi. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Satpuras  (or  Satpuras). — A  range  of  hills  in  the  centre  of  India. 
The  name,  which  is  modern,  originally  belonged  only  to  the  hills  which 
divide  the  Narbada  and  Tapti  valleys  in  Nimar  (Central  Provinces), 
and  which  were  styled  the  sdtputra  or  '  seven  sons  '  of  the  Vindhyan 
mountains.  Another  derivation  is  from  sdtpura  ('  sevenfolds '),  referring 
to  the  numerous  parallel  ridges  of  the  range.  The  term  Satpuras  is 
now,  however,  customarily  applied  to  the  whole  range  which,  com- 
mencing at  Amarkantak  in  Rewah,  Central  India  (22°  41''  N.  and 
81°  48'  E.),  runs  south  of  the  Narbada  river  nearly  down  to  the 
western  coast.  The  Satpuras  are  sometimes,  but  incorrectly,  included 
under  the  Vindhya  range.  Taking  Amarkantak  as  the  eastern 
boundary,  the  Satpuras  extend  from  east  to  west  for  about  600  miles, 
and  in  their  greatest  width,  where  they  stretch  down  to  Berar,  exceed 
100  miles  from  north  to  south.  The  shape  of  the  range  is  almost 
triangular.  From  Amarkantak  an  outer  ridge  {see  Maikala)  runs 
south-west  for  about  100  miles  to  the  Saletekri  hills  in  Balaghat 
District  (Central  Provinces),  thus  forming  as  it  were  the  head  of  the 
range  which,  shrinking  as  it  proceeds  westward  from  a  broad  table-land 
to  two  parallel  ridges,  ends,  so  far  as  the  Central  Provinces  are  con- 
cerned, at  the  famous  hill  fortress  of  Asirgarh.  Beyond  this  point 
the  Rajpipla  hills,  which  separate  the  valley  of  the  Narbada  from  that 
of  the  Tapti,  complete  the  chain  as  far  as  the  Western  Ghats.  On 
the  table-land  comprised  between  the  northern  and  southern  faces 
of  the  range  are  situated  the  Central  Provinces  District  of  Mandla, 
and  part  of  Balaghat,  SeonI,  Chhindwara,  and  Betul. 

The  superficial  stratum  covering  the  main  Satpura  range  is  trappean  ; 
but  in  parts  of  the  Central  Provinces  crystalline  rocks  are  uppermost, 
and  over  the  Pachmarhl  hills  sandstone  is  also  uncovered.  In  Mandla 
the  higher  peaks  are  capped  with  laterite.  On  the  north  and  south 
the  approaches  to  the  Satpuras  are  marked  as  far  west  as  Turanmal 
by  low  lines  of  foot-hills.  These  are  succeeded  by  the  steep  slopes 
leading  up  to  the  summit  of  the  plateau,  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  narrow  deep  ravines,  hollowed  out  by  the  action  of  the  streams  and 
rivers,  and  covered  throughout  their  extent  with  forest. 

Portions  of  the  Satpura  plateau  consist,  as  in  Mandla  and  the  north 
of  Chhindwara,  of  a  rugged  mass  of  hills  hurled  together  by  volcanic 
action.  But  the  greater  part  is  an  undulating  table-land,  a  succession 
of  bare  stony  ridges  and  narrow  fertile  valleys,  into  which  the  soil  has 
been  deposited  by  drainage.     In  a  few  level  tracts,  as  in  the  valleys 


132  SATPURAS 

of  the  Machna  and  Sampna  near  Betul,  and  the  open  plain  between 
SeonI  and  Chhindwara,  there  are  extensive  areas  of  productive  land. 
Scattered  over  the  plateau,  isolated  flat-topped  hills  rise  abruptly  from 
the  plain.  The  scenery  of  the  northern  and  southern  hills,  as  observed 
from  the  roads  which  traverse  them,  is  of  remarkable  beauty.  The 
drainage  of  the  Satpuras  is  carried  off  on  the  north  by  the  Narbada, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Wainganga,  Wardha,  and  Tapti,  all  of  which 
have  their  source  in  these  hills. 

The  highest  peaks  are  contained  in  the  northern  range,  rising 
abruptly  from  the  valley  of  the  Narbada,  and  generally  sloping  down 
to  the  plateau,  but  towards  the  west  the  southern  range  has  the  greater 
elevation.  Another  noticeable  feature  is  a  number  of  small  table-lands 
lying  among  the  hills  at  a  greater  height  than  the  bulk  of  the  plateau. 
Of  these,  Pachmarhi  (3,530  feet)  and  Chikalda  in  Berar  (3,664  feet) 
have  been  formed  into  hill  stations  :  while  Raigarh  (2,200  feet)  in 
Balaghat  District  and  Khamla  in  Betul  (3,800  feet)  are  famous  grazing 
and  breeding  grounds  for  cattle.  Dhupgarh  (4,454  feet)  is  the  highest 
point  on  the  range,  and  there  are  a  few  others  of  over  4,000  feet. 
Among  the  peaks  that  rise  from  3,000  to  3,800  feet  above  sea-level, 
the  grandest  is  Turanmal  (Bombay  Presidency),  a  long,  rather  narrow 
table-land  3,300  feet  above  the  sea  and  about  16  square  miles  in  area. 
AVest  of  this  the  mountainous  land  presents  a  wall-like  appearance 
towards  both  the  Narbada  on  the  north  and  the  Tapti  on  the  south. 
On  the  eastern  side  the  Tasdin  Vali  (Central  India)  commands 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  general  height 
of  the  plateau  is  about  2,000  feet. 

The  hills  and  slopes  are  clothed  with  forest  extending  over  some 
thousands  of  square  miles  ;  but  much  of  this  is  of  little  value,  owing 
to  unrestricted  fellings  prior  to  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  conservancy, 
and  to  the  shifting  cultivation  practised  by  the  aboriginal  tribes,  which 
led  to  patches  being  annually  cleared  and  burnt  down.  The  most 
valuable  forests  are  those  of  sal  {S/iorea  robusfa)  on  the  eastern  hills, 
and  teak  on  the  west. 

The  Satpura  Hills  have  formed  in  the  past  a  refuge  for  aboriginal 
or  Dravidian  tribes  driven  out  of  the  plains  by  the  advance  of  Hindu 
civilization.  Here  they  retired,  and  occupied  the  stony  and  barren 
slopes  which  the  new  settlers,  with  the  rich  lowlands  at  their  disposal, 
disdained  to  cultivate  ;  and  here  they  still  rear  their  light  rains  crops 
of  millets  which  are  scarcely  more  than  grass,  barely  tickling  the  soil 
with  the  plough,  and  eking  out  a  scanty  subsistence  with  the  roots  and 
fruits  of  the  forests,  and  the  pursuit  of  game.  The  Baigas,  the  wildest 
of  these  tribes,  have  even  now  scarcely  attained  to  the  rudiments  of 
cultivation ;  but  the  Gonds,  the  Korkus,  and  the  Bhils  have  made 
some  progress  by  contact  with  their  Hindu  neighbours. 


SATTHIVA  133 

The  open  plateau  has  for  two  or  three  centuries  been  peopled  by 
Hindu  immigrants ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  last  fifty  years  that  travelling 
has  been  rendered  safe  and  easy,  by  the  construction  of  metalled  roads 
winding  up  the  steep  j)asses  and  enabling  wheeled  traffic  to  pass  over 
the  heavy  land  of  the  valleys.  Till  then  such  trade  as  existed  was 
conducted  by  nomad  Banjaras  on  pack-bullocks.  The  first  railway 
across  the  Satpura  plateau,  a  narrow-gauge  extension  of  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  line  from  Gondia  to  Jubbulpore,  has  recently  been  opened. 
The  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  from  Bombay  to  Jubbulpore, 
runs  through  a  breach  in  the  range  just  east  of  AsTrgarh,  while  the 
Bom  bay- Agra  road  crosses  farther  to  the  west. 

Satpuras,  East. — The  eastern  extension  of  the  Satpura  Hills  of 
Central  India,  lying  east  and  south  of  the  Son.  In  the  United 
Provinces  they  form  a  wilderness  of  parallel  ridges  of  low  rocky  hills, 
extending  over  1,700  square  miles  in  the  south  of  Mirzapur,  and 
covered  with  jungle,  with  the  exception  of  a  large  basin  in  tappa 
Singraull  and  a  smaller  area  in  Dudhi  where  the  soil  is  alluvial  and 
allows  cultivation.  Coal  has  been  found  in  Singrauli,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  in  1896  to  work  it.  The  few  inhabitants  are  chiefly  jungle 
tribes,  Kols,  &c.,  resembling  those  in  Chota  Nagpur. 

Sattanapalle. — Tdli/k  in  the  north  of  Guntur  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  16°  15'  and  16°  49'  N.  and  79°  51'  and  80°  26'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  714  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  159,645, 
compared  with  138,617  in  1891.  It  contains  168  villages,  of  which 
Sattanapalle  is  the  head-quarters.  The  demand  on  account  of  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  4,49,000.  A  wide 
extent  of  black  cotton  soil  produces  heavy  crops  of  cotton,  the  staple 
product.  There  is  practically  only  one  main  road,  with  two  or  three 
subsidiary  branches  ;  and  in  wet  weather  the  black  soil  and  the  water- 
courses with  their  treacherous  beds  become  almost  impassable. 

Sattankulam. — Town  in  the  Srivaikuntam  td/uk  of  Tinnevelly 
District,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  27'  N.  and  77°  55'  E.  It  derives  its 
importance  from  its  situation  on  the  border  of  the  great  palmyra  forest 
in  the  south-east  of  the  District.  Jaggery  (coarse  sugar)  goes  from 
here  to  Palamcottah  in  large  quantities.  It  is  a  Union,  with  a  popu- 
lation (1901)  of  6,953,  ^"^^  '^  the  head-quarters  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
mission  which  possesses  a  church  and  some  schools.  Two  miles  to 
the  east  is  Mudalur,  one  of  the  chief  Christian  villages  in  Tinnevelly 
District,  with  a  fine  Gothic  church. 

Satthwa. — South-eastern  township  of  Magwe  District,  Upper 
Burma,  lying  between  19°  39'  and  20°  9''  N.  and  95°  19'  and 
95°  51'  E.,  with  an  area  of  469  square  miles.  The  township  is  one 
of  the  great  rice-producing  areas  of  Upper  Burma,  being  low-lying  and 
fairly  well  watered.     Near  Kokkogwa,  on  the  Yabe  stream,  is  the  old 


134  SATTHWA 

capital  of  Paikthado,  the  walls  of  three  sides  of  which  remain.  The 
population  was  53,216  in  1891,  and  53,424  in  1901,  distributed  in 
one  town,  Taungdwingyi  (population,  5,041),  and  223  villages. 
There  were  about  1,800  Chins  in  the  township  in  1901.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  Satthwa  (population,  288),  a  village  due  south  of 
Taungdwingyi,  where  there  is  an  important  bazar.  In  1903-4  the 
area  cultivated  was  127  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and 
thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  86,000. 

Sattur  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the  taluks  of  Sattur  and  Srivilliputtur. 

Sattur  Taluk. — Northernmost  taluk  of  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  9°  2'  and  9°  43'  N.  and  77°  43'  and  78°  9'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  560  square  miles.  The  tdhik  is  comparatively  sparsely  peopled, 
the  total  population  in  1901  being  186,694,  compared  with  184,329  in 
1891,  or  a  little  more  than  330  persons  per  square  mile.  It  contains 
three  towns,  Virudupatti  (population,  16,837),  Sivakasi  (13,021), 
and  Sattur  (7,870),  the  head-quarters ;  and  206  villages.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
Rs.  2,68,000.  The  northern  and  eastern  villages  are  chiefly  black 
cotton  soil,  while  the  southern  and  south-western  portions  consist  of 
red  loam  and  sand.  The  only  river  is  the  Vaippar,  which  is  not  of 
much  use  for  irrigation.  Cotton  is  the  staple  product,  but  cambii  is 
also  largely  grown.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  careful  cultivation  of 
garden  crops  with  well-irrigation,  but  the  area  of  '  wet '  lands  is  small. 
The  idluk  includes  a  considerable  number  of  zamlnddri  and  indm 
villages,  none  of  which,  however,  is  very  large. 

Sattiir  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Tinnevelly  District,  Madras,  situated  in  9°  22'  N.  and  77°  55'  E.,  with 
a  station  on  the  South  Indian  Railway.  Sattur  is  also  the  head- 
quarters of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  subdivision  comprising  the 
Sattur  and  Srivilliputtur  taluks.  It  is  a  Union,  with  a  population 
(1901)  of  7,870,  and  has  a  Local  fund  hospital.  There  are  two  cotton- 
pressing  and  ginning  factories,  which  employ  in  the  aggregate  200 
hands. 

Satwas. — ^Head-quarters  of  the  Nemawar  district  of  Indore  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  22°  32'  N.  and  76°  43'  E.,  between  the 
Chankeshar  and  Datum  rivers,  in  the  Narbada  valley.  Population 
(1901),  1,743.  The  village  is  an  old  one,  and  from  the  numerous 
remains  which  it  contains  must  have  been  a  place  of  considerable 
importance  under  the  Mughals,  when  it  was  the  head-quarters  of 
a  mahal  in  the  sarkar  of  Hindia  in  the  Subah  of  Malwa.  A  fort 
stands  in  the  centre  of  the  village.  Three  miles  south-east  is  a  fine 
old  dam  across  the  DatunT  river,  now  much  out  of  repair.  In  1801 
a  severe  encounter  took  place  at  Satwas  between  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar 


SATYAMANGALAM  TOWN  135 

and  Major  Brownrigg,  who  was  commanding  a  force  of  Sindhia's 
troops.  A  little  later  the  notorious  Pindari  leader  Chitu  obtained 
land  in  this  district,  and  made  Satwas  and  Neniawar  his  two  principal 
places  of  residence.  From  1844  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
British  authorities  till  1861,  when  it  passed  to  Holkar.  Besides  the 
district  offices,  the  village  contains  a  State  post  office,  a  school,  and 
an  inspection  bungalow, 

Satyabadi. — Village  in  the  Khurda  subdivision  of  Purl  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  19°  57'  N.  and  85°  49'  E.  Population  (1901), 
1,547.  It  contains  a  shrine  dedicated  to  Sakhi  Gopal,  an  incarnation 
of  Krishna,  which  is  visited  by  all  pilgrims  going  to  Pun". 

Satyamangalam  Taluk.— North-west  taluk  of  Coimbatore  District, 
Madras,  lying  between  11°  15' and  ii°49'N.  and  76°  50' and  77°35'E., 
with  an  area  of  1,177  square  miles.  The  population  increased  from 
184,017  in  1891  to  214,101  in  1901,  or  by  16  per  cent.  Besides 
GoPiCHETTiPALAiYAM  (population,  10,227),  ^hc  head-quarters,  it  contains 
175  villages.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  4,42,000.  Almost  half  the  taluk,  its  northern  and  eastern  portions, 
is  covered  by  hills  which  contain  excellent  forests.  Of  the  cultivable 
area  about  13  per  cent,  is  usually  irrigated,  and  this  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  the  best  classes  of  land  in  the  District.  It  is  fed  mainly 
from  the  Bhavani  river,  which  traverses  the  taluk  from  west  to  east, 
and  the  area  watered  by  channels  is  larger  than  in  any  other  taluk. 
On  the  '  dry '  land  cambu  is  by  far  the  most  common  crop.  The 
rainfall  averages  27  inches  annually.  The  tract  which  lies  below  the 
hills  is  well  supplied  with  roads,  but  there  are  no  railways  or  tele- 
graphs in  any  portion  of  it.  After  Kollegal  it  is  the  most  sparsely 
peopled  taluk  in  the  District. 

Satyamangalam  Town. — Till  recently  the  head-quarters  of  the 
taluk  of  the  same  name  in  Coimbatore  District,  Madras,  situated  in 
11°  30'  N.  and  77°  15'  E.,  on  the  Bhavani  river  at  the  foot  of  the 
northern  Coimbatore  hills.  Population  (1901),  3,680.  Though 
apparently  never  strongly  fortified,  it  derived  some  strategical  impor- 
tance from  the  fact  that  it  lies  near  the  southern  end  of  the  Gazalhatti 
Pass,  which  was  the  ordinary  route  from  Mysore  to  this  District. 
Under  the  Naik  dynasty  of  Madura  it  was  the  residence  of  a  deputy- 
governor.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  the 
local  head-quarters  of  the  Jesuits.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mysore 
kings  in  1653,  was  held  by  the  British  for  some  time  after  Colonel 
Wood's  sudden  but  short  occupation  of  the  District  in  1768,  arnd  was 
abandoned  before  Haidar's  advance  at  the  end  of  the  same  year. 
A  ruined  mud  fort  in  the  neighbouring  pass  was  bravely  but  un- 
successfully defended  in  this  campaign  by  Lieutenant  Andrews,  who 
was  killed   by  the  besiegers.     The  town  was  occupied   by  a  division 


136  SATYAMANGALAM   TOWN 

under  Colonel  Floyd  during  General  Medows's  campaign  in  this 
District  in  1790,  preparatory  to  a  general  advance  into  Mysore  by  the 
Gazalhatti  Pass.  But  Tipu  descended  the  pass  in  September  of  that 
year,  crossed  the  Bhavani  above  Satyamangalam,  and  fought  two 
engagements  with  the  British  on  the  same  day.  In  the  first  of  these, 
a  cavalry  fight,  the  British  were  completely  successful,  and  in  the 
second,  an  artillery  duel,  they  held  their  ground  though  they  suffered 
severely.  It  was,  however,  decided  not  to  risk  a  general  encounter, 
and  the  place  was  abandoned  by  Colonel  Floyd  on  the  following 
morning.  Satyamangalam  is  now  the  head-quarters  of  a  deputy- 
tahs'ilddr  and  stationary  sub-magistrate.  It  is  an  ordinary  market 
town  without  special  features. 

Saugor  District  (Sdgar). — District  of  the  Jubbulpore  Division  in 
the  extreme  north-west  of  the  Central  Provinces,  lying  between  23°  9' 
and  24°  27'  N.  and  78°  4'  and  79°  22'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,962  square 
miles.  It  forms  with  Damoh  an  extension  of  the  great  Malwa  plateau, 
and  consists  of  a  flat  open  black-soil  tract  about  i  ,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Narbada  valley,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  steep 
escarpment  of  the  Vindhyan  Hills.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Jhansi  District  of  the  United  Provinces  and  by  the  Native  States  of 
Panna,  Bijawar,  and  Charkhari ;  on  the  east  by  Panna  and  Damoh 
District ;  on  the  south  by  Narsinghpur  District  and  the  Native  State 
of  Bhopal ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  Bhopal  and  Gwalior. 
The  District  is  narrowest  at  its  south-eastern  corner, 
asoects  ^^^  slopes  towards  the  north-east,  gradually  extend- 

ing in  width  until  it  culminates  in  the  heights  over- 
looking the  Bundelkhand  plain.  The  country  generally  is  undulating, 
with  numerous  isolated  hills.  The  most  open  parts  are  the  plain 
forming  the  Khurai  fa/isi/  on  the  north-west,  and  that  which  consists 
of  the  Garhakota,  Rehll,  and  Deori  pargatias  on  the  south-east.  East 
of  the  Khurai  tahsll^  which  is  separated  from  Saugor  and  Banda  by 
a  low  range  of  hills,  the  character  of  the  country  is  very  broken,  low 
flat-topped  hills  rising  from  the  plain  in  all  directions,  some  covered 
with  trees,  others  stony  and  barren.  On  the  south-east  and  north-east 
of  the  District  lie  thick  belts  of  forest.  The  drainage  of  the  country 
is  almost  entirely  to  the  north  and  east,  the  watershed  of  the  Narbada 
commencing  only  from  the  summit  of  the  range  immediately  over- 
looking it.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Sonar,  the  Bewas,  the 
Dhasan,  the  Bina,  and  the  Betwa.  Of  these,  the  Sonar,  Bewas,  and 
Dhasan  flow  from  south-west  to  north-east,  the  course  of  the  last 
named  being  more  northerly  than  that  of  the  other  two.  The  Bina 
flows  through  the  extreme  west  of  the  District,  and  the  Betwa  marks 
for  some  distance  the  border  separating  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Khurai   tahsll  from   the   State  of  Gwalior.      Two  small  streams,  the 


SAUGOR  DISTRICT     '  137 

Biranj  and  Sindhor,  take  their  rise  in  the  Deori  pargana  of  the  Rehll 
tahsil  and  flow  south  to  the  Narbada. 

The  greater  part  of  the  District  is  covered  by  the  Deccan  trap ;  but 
there  are  two  great  inliers  of  Vindhyan  sandstone,  one  to  the  north 
running  down  nearly  as  far  as  Saugor,  and  the  other  to  the  east  extend- 
ing from  near  Garhakota  to  beyond  Surkhi.  To  the  east  or  south-east 
of  Saugor  the  infra-trappean  or  Lameta  Hmestone  is  largely  developed. 
Calcareous  inter-trappean  bands  with  fossilized  shells  and  plants  also 
occur  largely  near  Saugor. 

The  Vindhyan  Hills  are  generally  poorly  wooded.  Saugor  contains 
some  almost  pure  teak  forest  in  the  west  near  Jaisinghnagar  and 
Rahatgarh,  and  teak  mixed  with  other  species  elsewhere.  Sandal- 
wood is  found  in  small  areas,  and  bamboos  occupy  the  slopes  of  most 
of  the  hills.  The  bamboo  is  fairly  well  reproduced  by  seed,  but  the 
forests  are  full  of  dead  trees,  and  are  in  poor  condition  for  the  most 
part.  Belts  of  cJmild  or  palas  {Butea  frondosd)  are  found  in  the  rich 
black  soil  of  the  open  plateaux,  and  of  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
such  as  those  near  Saugor.  The  cultivated  portions  of  the  District 
are  marked  by  the  presence  near  villages  of  scattered  trees  or  groves 
of  mango,  tamarind,  mahi/d  [Bassia  iatifolia),  and  plpal. 

Among  wild  animals,  sdinbar,  nilgai,  and  spotted  deer  are  numerous, 
and  hog  are  still  more  common.  Four-horned  deer,  barking-deer,  and 
mouse  deer  are  occasionally  met  with.  Herds  of  antelope  are  found 
all  over  the  open  country,  especially  in  the  Khurai  taksiL  Game-birds, 
such  as  peafowl,  spur-fowl,  sand-grouse,  partridges,  and  green  pigeons, 
are  fairly  numerous ;  but  water-fowl  are  not  plentiful,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  tanks.  Mahseer  of  small  size  are  numerous  in  most  of 
the  rivers,  and  murrel  {Ophiocephalus  striatus)  are  caught  in  every 
tank. 

The  climate  of  the  District  is  pleasant  considering  the  latitude. 
The  minimum  temperature  is  about  41°  in  the  cold  season,  and  the 
maximum  summer  heat  about  112°.  The  District  is  healthy  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  47  inches. 
Failures  of  crops  appear  on  the  whole  to  have  been  caused  in  equal 
degree  by  deficiency  and  by  excess  of  rainfall. 

The  early  history  of  Saugor  is  mainly  a  matter  of  tradition.  The 
old  capital,  Garhpahra,  7  miles  north  of  the  present  city,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  by  a  Gond  dynasty.  The 
Gonds  were  succeeded  by  a  tribe  of  Ahirs  called 
the  Fauladia,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  foundation  of  the  fort  at  Rehli. 
Some  Ahir  landowners  still  claim  to  be  their  descendants  and  bear  the 
title  of  Rao.  About  1023  the  AhIrs  were  supplanted  by  one  Nihalsha, 
a  Rajput  of  Jalaun,  who  took  possession  of  Saugor  and  the  surround- 
ing country.      Nihalsha's   descendants  retained  possession   for  about 


138  •       S AUG  OR  DISTRICT 

600  years,  but  are  said  to  have  been  defeated  by  the  Chandels  of 
Mahoba  and  subjected  to  tribute.  The  two  Banaphar  warriors  of  the 
Chandel  Rajas,  Alha  and  Udal,  are  popular  heroes,  and  their  fifty-two 
battles  are  celebrated  in  song.  Alha  is  still  supposed  to  live  in  the 
forests  of  Orchha,  and  nightly  to  kindle  the  lamp  in  a  temple  of  Devi 
on  a  hill  in  the  forest.  Saugor  itself  was  founded  in  1660  by  Udan 
Sha,  a  Dangi  chief,  said  to  be  one  of  Nihalsha's  descendants,  who  built 
a  small  fort  on  the  site  of  the  present  one  and  settled  the  village  of 
Parkota,  which  is  now  part  of  the  town.  The  grandson  of  Udan  Sha, 
Prithwipat,  a  man  of  weak  intellect,  was  dispossessed  by  Chhatarsal, 
the  famous  Bundela  Raja.  He  was  restored  by  the  Raja  of  Jaipur,  but 
was  again  ousted  by  the  Muhammadan  chief  of  Kurwai,  and  retired 
to  Bilehra,  which  with  four  other  villages  is  still  held  free  of  revenue  by 
his  descendants.  In  1735  Saugor  was  taken  by  a  nephew  of  BajT  Rao, 
the  Maratha  Peshwa,  who  left  his  lieutenant,  Govind  Rao  Pandit,  in 
charge  of  the  conquered  territory.  Govind  Rao  paid  great  attention 
to  the  improvement  of  the  town  and  surrounding  country.  The  fort 
of  Saugor  as  it  now  stands  was  built  by  him,  and  the  town  grew  into 
a  city  under  his  administration  and  became  the  capital  of  this  part  of 
the  country.  He  was  killed  in  1761  at  the  battle  of  PanTpat,  and  the 
Peshwa  gave  Saugor  and  the  surrounding  country  revenue  free  to  his 
descendants,  who  continued  to  hold  possession  until  it  was  ceded  to 
the  British.  During  their  rule  the  city  was  sacked  three  times  :  twice 
by  Amir  Khan,  Pindari,  and  once  by  Sindhia  after  a  long  siege  in  181 4. 
In  1818  Saugor  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  Peshwa,  and  became 
part  of  the  Saugor  and  Nerbudda  Territories,  which  were  for  a  time 
attached  to  the  North-Western  Provinces.  In  March,  1842,  occurred 
what  is  known  as  the  Bundela  insurrection.  Two  Bundela  landholders, 
who  had  been  served  with  civil  court  decrees,  rose  in  rebellion  and 
sacked  several  towns.  They  were  joined  by  a  Gond  chief,  and  dis- 
affection extended  into  the  adjoining  District  of  Narsinghpur.  In  the 
following  year  the  revolt  was  put  down,  but  the  District  had  suffered 
severely  and  the  land  revenue  was  realized  with  difficulty  for  several 
years. 

In  1857  the  garrison  of  Saugor  consisted  of  two  regiments  of  native 
infantry  and  one  of  cavalry,  with  a  few  European  gunners.  Shortly 
after  the  commencement  of  the  Mutiny  the  European  residents  moved 
into  the  fort.  The  sepoys  remained  in  their  lines  for  a  short  time,  when 
the  42nd  Regiment  and  the  3rd  Irregular  Cavalry  mutinied,  the  31st 
Regiment  remaining  faithful.  The  two  mutinous  regiments  moved  off 
towards  Shahgarh,  a  Native  State  to  the  north ;  the  Rajas  of  Shahgarh 
and  Banpur  then  entered  the  District  and  took  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  it.  At  the  same  time  the  Nawab  of  Garhl  Amapani, 
a  place  now  in  Bhopal,  occupied  Rahatgarh.     The  whole  District  was 


POPULATION  139 

thus  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels,  the  Europeans  holding  only  the  town 
and  fort  of  Saugor.  This  state  of  things  continued  for  about  eight 
months,  during  which  time  three  indecisive  engagements  were  fought. 
In  February,  1858,  Sir  Hugh  Rose  arrived  at  Rahatgarh  with  the 
Central  India  Field  Force,  defeated  the  rebels,  and  took  the  fort. 
Thence  he  passed  on  to  Barodia  Naunagar,  about  10  miles  from 
Rahatgarh,  where  he  met  and  defeated  the  troops  of  the  Raja  of 
Banpur,  and  then  came  into  Saugor.  All  the  rebels  about  Rahatgarh 
and  Khurai  now  fled.  Passing  through  Saugor  Sir  Hugh  Rose  went 
on  to  Garhakota,  where  he  met  and  defeated  the  Raja  of  Shahgarh's 
troops,  and  took  the  fort,  in  which  the  rebels  had  left  a  large  quantity 
of  treasure  and  property  of  all  kinds.  He  then  came  back  to  Saugor 
and  marched  towards  Jhansi,  meeting  the  remainder  of  the  Shahgarh 
Raja's  troops  at  Madanpur  and  defeating  them  with  great  slaughter. 
By  the  beginning  of  March,  1858,  a  regular  administration  was  restored, 
and  the  police  and  revenue  ofifices  re-established.  The  dominions  of 
the  Shahgarh  Raja  were  confiscated,  and  a  part  of  them  was  added 
to  Saugor  District. 

Dhamoni,  29  miles  north  of  Saugor,  contains  a  large  fort  almost  in 
ruins  and  surrounded  by  jungle.  At  Khimlasa,  42  miles  north-west  of 
Saugor,  and  the  old  head-quarters  of  the  Khurai  tahsll,  are  situated 
a  fort  and  a  Muhammadan  tomb,  the  walls  of  the  latter  being  of  per- 
forated screen-work.  Of  the  numerous  other  forts  in  the  District,  the 
largest  is  that  at  Rahatgarh,  25  miles  west  of  Saugor,  which  is  ascribed 
to  the  Muhammadan  rulers  of  Bhopal.  The  outer  walls  consist  of  26 
enormous  round  towers,  some  of  which  were  used  as  dwellings,  con- 
nected by  curtain  walls  and  enclosing  a  space  of  66  acres.  Within  is 
a  palace  called  the  Badal  Mahal,  or  'cloud  palace,'  from  its  great 
height.  There  are  also  forts  at  Rehli,  Garhakota,  Khurai,  DeorI, 
and  Jaisinghnagar,  with  masonry  walls  protected  by  massive  towers  ; 
but  these  are  now  for  the  most  part  in  ruins. 

At  the  Census  of  1901,  Saugor  contained  5  towns — Saugor,  Garha- 
kota, Etawa,  Khurai,  and  Deori — and  1,924  villages.     The  popu- 
lation  at  the  last  three  enumerations  has  been  as       ^       ,    . 
r  11  /  00  \    ^  /  o     \  1  /         \       Population, 

follows  :  (1881)  564,950  ;  (1891)  591,743  ;  and  (1901) 

471,046.  Both  in  1881  and  1891  the  rate  of  increase  was  far  below 
that  of  the  Province  as  a  whole,  owing  to  a  long  succession  of  partially 
unfavourable  seasons,  which  retarded  the  natural  increase  of  population 
and  also  caused  a  certain  amount  of  emigration  to  Central  India. 
Between  1891  and  1901  Saugor  with  Damoh  suffered  from  a  more 
disastrous  succession  of  failures  of  crops  than  any  other  part  of  the 
Province.  In  1902  a  tract  of  11  villages  with  some  Government  forest 
was  transferred  from  Saugor  to  Narsinghpur,  and  the  corrected  totals  of 
area  and  population  are  3,962  square  miles  and  469,479  persons.     The 

VOL.  XXII.  K 


140 


SAUGOR  DISTRICT 


statistics  of  population  in  1901  given  below  have  been  adjusted  on 
account  of  this   transfer : — 


Tahsil. 

V. 

Is 
< 

Number  of 

c 
.0 

"3 
0. 
0 

0.1) 

§1 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8gi 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

0 
H 

I 
2 
2 

1 

> 

Saugor     . 
Khurai     . 
Rehll 
Banda 

District  total 

1,064 
940 

1,254 
704 

525 
470 
660 

269 

166,399 

93,788 

136,463 

72,829 

156 
TOO 
109 
103 

-  19.8 
-25.6 
-19-3 

-  i6-5 

9,043 
3.729 
4,481 

1,975 

3,962 

5 

1,924 

469,479 

118 

—  20-4 

19,  228 

About  87  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Hindus,  and  4  per  cent. 
Animists,  the  latter  proportion  being  very  low  in  comparison  with  that  for 
the  Province  as  a  whole.  Muhammadans  number  23,215,  or  5  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  but  13,000  of  these  live  in  towns.  There  are  more 
than  15,000  Jains  in  the  District,  or  nearly  a  third  of  the  total  number 
in  the  Province.  The  language  of  Saugor  is  the  Bundeli  dialect  of 
Western  Hindi,  which  is  spoken  by  almost  the  whole  population.  Only 
3,800  persons  speak  Urdu  and  6,500  Marathi.  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
MarathI  spoken  in  Saugor  is  the  pure  form  of  the  language  belonging 
to  Poona,  and  not  the  Nagpur  dialect.  The  forest  tribes  have  entirely 
abandoned  their  own  languages. 

The  principal  landholding  castes  in  the  District  are  Brahmans,  Dan- 
gis,  LodhTs,  Kurmis,  and  Bundela  Rajputs.  Brahmans  (41,000),  who 
constitute  nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  population,  have  come  from  the 
north  and  west  of  India.  The  north  country  Brahmans  have  been  in 
the  District  longest,  and  the  Marathas  immigrated  at  the  time  when  it 
came  under  their  rule.  The  Dangis  (21,000)  were  formerly  a  dominant 
caste,  and  Saugor  was  sometimes  called  Danglwara  after  them.  They 
are  principally  mdlguzdrs  (landholders)  and  tenants,  rarely  labourers. 
Lodhls  (39,000)  constitute  8  per  cent,  of  the  population.  They  had  the 
reputation  of  being  quarrelsome  and  fond  of  display,  but  are  now  losing 
these  characteristics.  Kurmis  (22,000)  are  quiet  and  industrious  culti- 
vators, and  averse  to  litigation.  The  Bundela  Rajputs  were  a  renowned 
freebooting  tribe.  They  are  proud  and  penurious  to  the  last  degree, 
and  quick  to  resent  the  smallest  slight.  Even  now  it  is  said  that  no 
Bania  dare  go  past  a  Bundela's  house  without  getting  down  from  his  pony 
and  folding  up  his  umbrella.  There  are  only  one  or  two  Muhammadan 
landowners  of  any  importance.  Of  the  forest  tribes  Gonds  number 
22,000,  or  about  4§  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  Savaras  13,000,  or 
rather  less  than  3  per  cent.  The  Gond  Raja  of  Pitehra  was  formerly  a 
feudatory  of  the  Mandla  dynasty,  holding  a  considerable  portion  of  the 


AGRICULTURE 


141 


Agriculture. 


south  of  the  District.  l>oth  Gonds  and  Savaras  in  this  District  are 
comparatively  civilized,  and  have  partially  adopted  Hindu  usages. 
About  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  are  supported  by  agriculture. 

Christians  number  1,357,  of  whom  665  are  Roman  Catholics,  230 
Lutherans,  and  443  belong  to  the  Church  of  England.  Of  the  total 
number,  768  are  natives.  There  are  Swedish  Lutheran  and  Roman 
Catholic  missions,  of  which  the  former  is  located  at  Saugor  and  Khurai 
and  the  latter  at  Shyampura.  Etawa  contains  a  station  of  the  Christian 
Mission,  a  body  with  no  sectarian  tenets. 

The  prevalent  soil  is  a  dark-coloured  loam  of  varying  depth,  which 
has  been  formed  partly  by  lacustrine  deposit  and  partly  by  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  trap  rock,  the  loose  particles  of  which 
are  washed  off  the  hills  into  the  depressions  below. 
This  soil  is  locally  known  as  muiid,  and  is  much  prized  because  it  is 
easily  workable,  and  not  so  favourable  to  the  growth  of  rank  grass  as  the 
more  clayey  soil  found  in  other  parts.  It  covers  56  per  cent,  of  the  area 
under  cultivation.  Kdbar,  or  good  black  soil,  covers  2  per  cent.,  and 
raiydn,  or  thin  black  soil,  10  per  cent,  of  the  area  under  cultivation. 
The  other  soils  are  inferior  and  unsuitable  for  wheat.  The  soil  of  the 
Khurai  /a/zi'J/ contains  a  large  admixture  of  clay,  and  hence  is  somewhat 
stififer  and  more  difficult  to  work  than  that  of  Saugor  and  the  open  part 
of  Rehli.  The  most  serious  obstacle  to  cultivation  in  Saugor  District 
is  the  coarse  kdns  grass  [Saccharuin  spontaneimi) ;  this  rapidly  invades 
black  soil  when  left  fallow,  and,  when  once  it  has  obtained  a  hold, 
covers  the  whole  field  with  a  network  of  roots,  and  can  scarcely  be 
eradicated  by  the  ordinary  country  plough.  Kans  flourishes  particularly 
in  the  clayey  soil  of  the  Khurai  tahsil,  and  during  the  period  of  adverse 
seasons  has  overrun  large  areas  of  fertile  land.  Attempts  are  now  being 
made  to  eradicate  it  by  means  of  embankments  which  will  keep  the 
fields  under  water  during  the  rains. 

About  2\  square  miles  of  land  taken  from  Government  forests  arc 
held  on  ryotwdri  tenure  ;  14  square  miles  by  revenue-free  grantees  ;  and 
the  balance  on  the  ordinary  proprietary  {indlgtizdri)  tenure.  The  main 
agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given  below,  areas  being  in  scjuare 
miles : — 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Saugor 
KInirai 
Rehli 
Banda 

Total 

1,064 
940 

1,254 
704 

435 

238 

443 

227 

3 

I 

\ 
4 

437 
529 
417 
243 

124 
124 

327 
180 

3,962 

1,343 

8^ 

1,626 

755 

Formerly  the  wheat  crop  in  Saugor  District  far  exceeded  any  other. 

K  2 


142  S AUG  OR  DISTRICT 

In  1891-2  the  area  under  wheat  was  805  square  miles,  but  it  then  began 
to  decline  owing  to  a  succession  of  bad  seasons,  and  fell  to  153  square 
miles  in  1896-7.  There  has  now  been  some  recovery,  and  the  figures 
for  1903-4  show  466  square  miles  under  wheat,  or  37  per  cent,  of  the 
cropped  area.  Gram  has  been  steadily  growing  in  popularity,  both 
because  it  has  a  recuperative  effect  on  the  soil,  and  because  it  is  a  less 
expensive  crop  to  cultivate.  It  occupies  146  square  miles,  or  12  per  cent, 
of  the  cropped  area.  Linseed  has  been  affected  by  the  unfavourable 
seasons  no  less  than  wheat,  and  now  occupies  56  square  miles,  or  4-|  per 
cent,  of  the  cropped  area.  Jowar  has  in  recent  years  increased  greatly 
in  popularity,  as  it  is  a  cheap  food-crop,  and  very  little  seed  is  required 
for  it.  At  present  the  area  under  it  is  171  square  miles,  or  14  per  cent, 
of  the  total.  Kodon  covers  70  square  miles,  or  more  than  5  per  cent. 
There  are  20  square  miles  under  cotton  and  26  under  rice.  Til  and 
ramtilli  {Guizoiia  abyssinicd)  occupy  72  square  miles.  Betel-vine  gar- 
dens are  found  in  Saugor,  Baleh,  Sahajpur,  and  Jaisinghnagar,  and  the 
leaf  of  Baleh  has  some  reputation. 

At  the  time  of  settlement  {1892-3)  the  cropped  area  amounted  to 
about  1,600  square  miles,  but  the  prolonged  agricultural  depression 
reduced  this  in  1905  to  about  1,250  square  miles.  It  may  be  antici- 
pated that  with  good  harvests  the  more  valuable  spring  crops  will  con- 
tinue to  recover  the  ground  lost.  During  the  recent  bad  seasons  large 
agricultural  loans  have  been  made,  the  total  advances  between  187 1 
and  1904  amounting  to  more  than  8  lakhs.  Of  this  total,  about 
Rs.  50,000  has  been  remitted.  Loans  for  the  improvement  of  land 
have  been  taken  to  a  much  smaller  extent,  but  over  Rs.  50,000  was 
advanced  between  1891  and  1904  for  the  construction  of  embankments 
for  wheat-fields. 

Most  of  the  cattle  in  the  District  are  bred  locally,  and  are  small  but 
hardy,  though  no  care  is  exercised  in  breeding,  and  special  bulls  are 
not  kept  for  this  purpose.  Superior  plough-cattle  are  imported  from 
Malwa  and  Gwalior,  but  not  in  large  numbers.  Buffaloes  are  not  used 
for  cultivation,  but  they  are  kept  for  the  manufacture  of  ghl,  and  the 
young  bulls  are  taken  by  road  to  Chhattlsgarh  and  sold  there.  Ponies 
are  bred  in  the  District,  but  not  to  so  large  an  extent  as  formerly.  They 
are  of  very  small  size,  and  are  used  both  for  riding  and  pack-carriage. 
Since  the  extension  of  metalled  roads  the  people  prefer  to  travel  in 
bullock-carts.  Mules  are  bred  in  small  numbers  for  sale  to  the  Military 
department.  Donkeys  are  used  only  as  pack-animals  by  the  lowest 
castes. 

Only  5,500  acres,  or  r  per  cent,  of  the  total  under  cultivation,  were 
irrigated  in  1903-4,  and  this  area  consists  principally  of  rice  or  garden 
crops.  Irrigation  from  temporary  wells  is  common  in  the  north  of  the 
Banda  fahsil,  where  the  light  soils  respond  more  readily  to  it.   The 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  143 

embanking  of  fields  to  hold  up  moisture  for  wheat  cultivation  is  scarcely 
practised  at  all  in  this  District,  but  a  few  banks  have  been  erected  to 
prevent  surface  scouring  on  uneven  land.  Some  of  the  leading  land- 
holders have,  however,  now  adopted  the  practice  of  embanking  their 
fields,  and  experimental  embankments  have  been  constructed  by 
Government. 

Government  forests  cover  755  square  miles,  or  rather  less  than  19  per 
cent,  of  the  area  of  the  District.  There  are  large  forests  in  the  hills  of 
the  north  and  south,  and  a  series  of  scattered  blocks  „ 
on  the  range  running  from  north-east  to  south-west. 
Teak,  sdj  {Ter/nifiaiia  iofnentosa),  chiiild  ox palds  {Butea  fro?idosa),  and 
bamboos  are  the  principal  trees.  Teak  is  fairly  common,  but  the  timber 
is  inferior.  The  paids  scrub  forest,  found  in  the  plains,  is  of  an  open 
nature,  and  the  trees  are  freely  propagated  by  seed,  but  the  seedlings  are 
often  destroyed  by  the  winter  frosts  and  by  fires  in  the  hot  season. 
Among  minor  products  may  be  noticed  charcoal,  which  is  sold  to  the 
iron-workers  of  Tendukheda  in  Narsinghpur,  and  the  rusa  tikdri  grass 
{Andropogo/i  Schoenanthus),  used  in  the  manufacture  of  scent.  The 
forests  of  Banda  are  rich  in  mahtid  trees,  which  are  of  great  value  in 
times  of  scarcity.     The  forest  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  47,000. 

Iron  is  found  in  the  north  of  the  District  in  Hirapur  and  other 
villages  of  the  Shahgarh  pargana,  and  is  still  smelted  by  native  methods, 
but  the  industry  has  greatly  declined.  Sandstone  quarries  occur  in 
several  places,  from,  which  building  stone  of  a  good  quality  is  obtained, 
the  best  being  at  Rahatgarh  and  Maswasi,  just  north  of  Saugor.  The 
earthen  vessels  made  of  red  clay  in  Shahgarh  have  a  local  reputation. 

Weaving  and  dyeing  are  carried  on   principally  at  Saugor,   RehlT, 
Deori,  Gourjhamar,  and  Garhakota;  brass-working  at  DeorT,  Khurai, 
and   Malthone ;    iron-work   at   Rahatgarh ;    and  the 
manufacture  of  glass  bangles  at  Garhakota,  Pithoria,  communications, 
and  Rahatgarh.     At  Pithoria  glass  beads  and  rude 
phials  for  holding  scent  are  also  made.    Gold  and  silver  work  is  pro- 
duced at  Saugor,  Khurai,  and  Etawa,  but  many  of  the  Sonars  (gold- 
smiths) have  fallen  back  on  the  manufacture  of  ornaments  from  bell- 
metal.    The  local  industries  are  generally,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Province, 
in  a  depressed  condition.     There  are  no  factories  in  the  District. 

The  principal  exports  consist  of  food-grains,  and  until  lately  those  of 
wheat  were  of  far  greater  importance  than  all  others  combined.  But  in 
recent  years  the  exports  of  wheat  have  declined  almost  to  vanishing 
point,  though  with  favourable  harvests  they  will  probably  soon  recover. 
At  present  the  most  important  articles  of  exports  are  the  oilseeds, 
///and  linseed.  Cotton  and  hemp  {sail)  are  exported  to  some  extent; 
also  ghi  in  large  quantities,  dried  meat  (to  Burma),  hides,  horns  and 
bones,    and    forest    produce.      Betel-leaves   are    sent    to   the    United 


144  S AUG  OR   DISTRICT 

Provinces,  and  the  skins  and  horns  of  antelope  are  sold  for  ornamental 
purposes.  The  imports  are  principally  cotton  piece-goods,  kerosene  oil, 
metals,  all  minor  articles  of  hardware,  groceries,  and  spices.  Country 
cloth  comes  principally  from  the  Bombay  mills ;  unrefined  sugar  is  im- 
ported from  the  United  Provinces,  refined  sugar  from  Bombay  and 
Cawnpore,  and  tobacco  from  Cawnpore  and  Bengal.  Nearly  all  the  salt 
used  comes  from  the  Pachbhadra  salt  marshes  in  Jodhpur. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  railway  from  Bina  to  Katni  nearly  the 
whole  trade  of  Saugor  District  went  to  Kareli  station  in  Narsinghpur 
District  by  the  Saugor-Karell  road,  crossing  the  Narbada  at  Barmhan  ; 
but  at  present  the  bulk  of  the  trade  of  the  District  is  concentrated 
at  Saugor  station.  The  three  southern  parganas  of  the  Rehli  tahsil — 
Naharmow,  Gourjhamar,  and  Deori — still  send  their  exports  to  Kareli, 
while  the  Shahgarh  parga?ia  in  the  north  of  the  Banda  iahsll  has 
a  certain  amount  of  trafiic  with  Cawnpore  by  road.  The  branch 
line  from  Bina,  on  the  Indian  Midland  section  of  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula,  to  Katni,  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  passes  through  the 
centre  of  Saugor  District.  The  length  of  this  railway  within  the  Dis- 
trict is  71  miles,  and  there  are  seven  stations,  of  which  Bina,  Khurai, 
Saugor,  and  Shahpur  are  trade  centres.  The  main  line  of  the  Indian 
Midland  Railway  from  Itarsi  to  Cawnpore  also  runs  through  the 
north-west  of  the  Khurai  /ahsll  for  17  miles,  and  the  stations  of 
Bamora,  Bina,  Agasode,  and  Karonda  are  situated  on  it,  while  another 
branch  leads  from  Bina  to  Baran.  The  principal  roads  are  those 
leading  from  Saugor  to  Kareli,  Rahatgarh,  and  Rehll,  to  Cawnpore 
through  Banda,  to  Damoh  through  Garhakota,  and  to  Jhansi  through 
Malthone.  Of  these,  the  Kareli  and  Rahatgarh  roads  are  metalled 
throughout,  the  Rehli  road  for  most  of  its  length,  and  the  Cawnpore 
and  Jhansi  roads  for  a  few  miles  out  of  Saugor  town.  The  importance 
of  the  Kareli  road  has  now  largely  decreased.  The  total  length  of 
metalled  roads  in  the  District  is  117  miles,  and  of  unmetalled  roads 
162  miles;  the  annual  expenditure  on  maintenance  is  about  Rs.  50,000. 
A  few  minor  roads  are  maintained  by  the  District  council,  but  all  others 
are  in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  department.  The  length  of  avenues 
of  trees  is  185  miles. 

Little  is  on  record  concerning  the  agricultural  history  of  the  District 
prior  to  the  thirty  years'  settlement  of  1867,  but  severe  fiiilures  of  crops 
.  are  known  to  have  occurred  more  than  once  during 

the  first  half  of  the  century  and  also  in  the  years 
1854-56.  In  1868-9  *^he  autumn  harvest  failed  entirely  owing 
to  drought,  and  some  distress  was  felt  by  the  poorer  classes.  In  1878, 
1889,  and  1890  the  harvests  were  poor,  and  there  was  again  a  certain 
amount  of  privation.  The  spring  crops  were  below  the  average  in 
1892-3,  and  in   1893-4  and   1894-5  they  failed  almost  entirely  from 


ADMINISTRATION  145 

excessive  winter  rains.  Relief  works  were  opened  in  1894,  but  the 
people  did  not  resort  to  them  in  large  numbers.  In  1895-6  both 
crops  were  again  seriously  injured  by  drought,  and  in  1896-7  an 
almost  complete  failure  caused  severe  famine.  Relief  operations  were 
in  progress  during  the  whole  of  1897.  The  total  expenditure  exceeded 
12  lakhs,  and  the  maximum  daily  number  of  persons  on  relief  was 
58,000  in  May,  1897.  In  1898-9  Saugor  had  a  poor  spring  crop, 
and  in  1 899-1 900  the  autumn  crops  failed  entirely,  though  the  spring 
crops  gave  an  average  out-turn.  Tliere  was  again  famine  in  this  year, 
though  far  less  severe  in  Saugor  than  over  most  of  the  Province. 
Nearly  1 1  lakhs  was  spent  on  relief,  and  the  numbers  relieved  rose 
to  87,000  in  August,  1900.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  District  has 
lately  passed  through  a  most  severe  and  protracted  period  of  agricul- 
tural depression. 

The  executive  head  of  the  District  is  the  Deputy-Commissioner,  who 
is  also  District  Magistrate,  with  three  Assistants.     For  administrative 

purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  four  tahslls,  each    .  ,    .  . 

r     1  •  1   1  -7,7-         1  -7      7,7-  Administratxon. 

01  which  has  a  tahslldar  and  a  naib-talisllaar,  except 

Banda,  which  has    only  a   tahsilddr.      An   Executive    Engineer   and 

a  Forest  officer  are  stationed  at  Saugor. 

The  civil  judicial  staff  consists  of  a  District  and  a  Subordinate 
Judge,  with  a  Munsif  at  each  tahsil.  The  Divisional  and  Sessions 
Judge  of  Jubbulpore  has  superior  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction.  The 
crime  of  the  District  is  somewhat  heavy  as  compared  with  other  parts 
of  the  Province.  Robberies  and  dacoities  are  comparatively  frequent, 
and  cattle-stealing  and  simple  theft  are  also  common  offences.  Opium 
smuggling  from  the  adjoining  Native  States  is  prevalent. 

Under  the  Maratha  revenue  system  villages  were  farmed  out  to  the 
highest  bidder,  and  any  rights  or  consideration  which  the  village  head- 
men may  have  enjoyed  in  the  past  were  almost  entirely  effaced.  No 
legal  status  was  given  to  tenants,  and  the  older  cultivators  were  pro- 
tected only  by  custom,  which  enjoined  that,  so  long  as  the  annual  rent 
demand  was  paid,  their  tenure  should  be  hereditary  and  continuous. 
The  land  revenue  history  of  the  District  during  the  period  following 
■the  cession  in  1818  consists  of  a  series  of  abortive  attempts  to  raise 
a  revenue  equal  to  or  exceeding  that  of  the  Maratha  government,  when 
the  people  had  become  impoverished  by  the  exactions  of  that  govern- 
ment during  the  last  period  of  its  rule,  and  by  the  depredations  of  the 
Pindaris.  The  demand  at  cession  was  a  little  short  of  6  lakhs.  A  series 
of  annual  and  short-term  settlements  ensued  till  1835,  when  a  twenty 
years'  settlement  was  made,  and  the  revenue  fixed  at  Rs.  6,27,000. 
This  settlement  did  not  work  well,  and  the  disturbances' of  1842 
seriously  injured  the  District,  necessitating  a  general  reduction  of 
revenue  varying  from    10  to   20  per  cent.     Large  remissions  of  the 


146 


SAUGOR  DISTRICT 


ordinary  demand  were  also  frequently  made  during  the  currency  of 
this  settlement.  In  1854  a  revision  of  settlement  was  commenced, 
but  owing  to  the  Mutiny  and  other  causes  was  not  completed  through- 
out the  District  until  1867.  The  effect  of  this  settlement  was  to  reduce 
the  revenue  to  Rs.  4,64,000.  On  this  occasion  the  village  headmen 
received,  according  to  the  general  policy  of  the  Central  Provinces 
Administration,  proprietary  and  transferable  rights  in  their  villages. 
I'he  settlement  was  for  the  term  of  thirty  years,  and  the  District 
prospered,  the  cropped  area  increasing  from  1,040  to  1,250  square 
miles.  In  1891,  after  a  preliminary  cadastral  survey  had  been  com- 
pleted, a  new  settlement  conmienced,  but  owing  to  interruptions  caused 
by  famine  it  was  not  completed  till  1897.  The  revenue  then  fixed 
amounted  to  nearly  Rs.  6,96,000.  In  spite  of  the  enhanced  revenue, 
the  share  of  the  '  assets '  left  to  the  proprietors  was  considerably  larger 
than  at  the  former  settlement.  But  the  successive  failures  of  crops 
have  so  greatly  reduced  both  the  area  under  cultivation  and  the  value 
of  the  crops  grown  that  the  District  has  been  unable  to  pay  the  revised 
demand,  and  successive  reductions  have  been  made.  The  revenue 
as  now  fixed  is  Rs.  5,00,000,  the  incidence  per  acre  being  R.  0-10-3 
(maximum  R.  0-13-7,  minimum  R.  0-15-11);  while  the  incidence  of 
the  rental  is  Rs.  1-1-6  (maximum  Rs.  1-7,  minimum  R.  o-io-io). 

The  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  receipts  in  the  District  have 
varied,  as  shown  below  (in  thousands  of  rupees) : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

4,43 

7,23 

4,.';  2 
7,67 

4,91 

7,34 

4,96 

7,51 

The  management  of  local  affairs  outside  municipal  areas  is  entrusted 
to  a  District  council,  under  which  are  four  local  boards  each  having 
jurisdiction  over  a  single  tahsll.  The  income  of  the  District  council 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  74,000.  The  main  items  of  expenditure  were: 
education  (Rs.  20,000),  public  works  (Rs.  18,000),  and  medical  relief 
(Rs.  9,000).     Saugor,  Deori,  and  Khurai  are  municipal  towns. 

The  sanctioned  strength  of  the  police  force  is  653  of  all  ranks. 
This  includes  a  special  reserve  of  2  officers  and  23  men,  7  mounted 
constables,  and  cantonment  police  numbering  31.  In  proportion  to 
area  and  population  the  police  force  is  stronger  in  Saugor  than  in 
any  other  District  of  the  Central  Provinces,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  surrounded  by  Native  States,  and  thieves  and  dacoits  find  it  easy 
to  escape  across  the  border.  There  are  1,523  village  watchmen  for 
1,929  inhabited  towns  and  villages.  Saugor  has  a  first-class  District 
jail,  with  accommodation  for  145  male  and  22  female  prisoners.  The 
average  daily  number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  91. 


SAUGOR    TOWN  147 

In  respect  of  education  Saugor  stands  sixth  among  the  Districts 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  7-7  per  cent,  of  its  male  population  being 
able  to  read  and  write.  Only  919  females  were  returned  as  literate 
in  1 901  ;  but  this  is  probably  an  understatement,  as  the  people  object 
to  admitting  that  their  women  can  read  and  write.  Statistics  of  the 
number  of  pupils  under  instruction  are  as  follows:  (1880-1)  5,255; 
(1890-1)  5,959  ;  (1900-1)  6,339;  and  (1903-4)  8,401,  of  whom  1,331 
were  girls.  Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  famine  in  1 900-1  the  numbers 
were  reduced,  but  a  great  advance  has  been  made  since.  'I'he  educa- 
tional institutions  comprise  a  Government  high  school  at  Saugor  town, 
20  middle  and  113  primary  schools.  Notwithstanding  the  small  num- 
ber of  its  women  shown  by  the  Census  as  literate,  Saugor  is  one  of  the 
most  advanced  Districts  in  the  Province  in  respect  of  female  education. 
The  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  74,000,  of  which 
Rs.  67,000  was  provided  from  Provincial  and  Local  funds  and 
Rs.  7,000  by  fees. 

The  District  has  8  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for  97  in- 
patients. The  total  attendance  at  all  of  them  in  1904  was  71,166 
persons,  including  653  in-patients,  and  2,549  operations  were  per- 
formed. The  expenditure  was  Rs.  15,000,  chiefly  derived  from  Local 
funds  ;  and  they  possess  Rs.  6,800  invested  capital. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  municipal  towns  of  Saugor, 
Khurai,  and  Deorl.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully 
vaccinated  was  34  per  1,000  of  the  population  of  the  District. 

[E.  A.  De  Brett,  Settlement  Report  (1901);  E.  V.  Russell,  District 
Gazetteer  (1907).] 

Saugor  Tahsil. — Head-quarters  tahsll  of  Saugor  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  23°  31'  and  24°  \'  N.  and  78°  14'  and 
79°  6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,064  square  miles.  The  population 
decreased  from  207,456  in  1891  to  166,399  i"  1901.  The  density 
in  the  latter  year  was  156  persons  per  square  mile,  or  considerably 
above  the  District  average.  The  tahsil  contains  one  town,  Saugor 
(population,  42,330),  the  District  and  /rt/z5/7  head-quarters ;  and  525 
inhabited  villages.  Excluding  124  square  miles  of  Government  forest, 
57  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The 
cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  435  square  miles.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  185,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  19,000.  The  lie  of  the  country  is  undulating,  and  stretches 
of  good  cultivable  land  alternate  with  small  hills  and  patches  of 
forest. 

Saugor  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsll  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  23°  51'  N.  and 
78°  45'  E.,  with  a  station  on  the  Bina-Katni  connexion  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula    Railway,   654   miles  from   Bombay  and   760  from 


148  S AUG  OR    TOWN 

Calcutta.  Its  population  (1901)  is  42,330,  including  the  cantonment 
(10,918),  and  it  is  the  third  largest  town  in  the  Province.  The  popu- 
lation in  1 90 1  included  32,038  Hindus,  8,286  Muhammadans,  1,027 
Jains,  and  762  Christians,  of  whom  406  were  Europeans  and  Eura- 
sians. The  population  in  1872  was  45,655  ;  in  1881,  44,461  ;  and  in 
1891,  44,676.  The  garrison  consists  of  one  Native  cavalry  and  one 
Native  infantry  regiment,  a  detachment  of  British  infantry,  and  a  field 
battery. 

Saugor  is  supposed  to  be  the  Sageda  of  Ptolemy.  The  name  is 
derived  from  saga?;  'a  lake,'  after  the  large  lake  round  which  it  is 
built.  The  town  is  picturesquely  situated  on  spurs  of  the  Vindhyan 
Hills,  which  surround  the  lake  on  three  sides  and  reach  an  elevation 
of  about  2,000  feet.  Saugor  has  an  old  fort  extending  over  an  area 
of  six  acres,  which  was  built  by  the  Marathas,  and  which  the  European 
residents  held  for  several  months  in  1857,  controlling  the  town  while 
the  surrounding  country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels.  A  munici- 
pality was  constituted  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  77,600.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  75,000,  the  main  head  of  receipt  being  octroi,  while  water-supply 
and  conservancy  form  the  largest  items  of  expenditure,  which  amounted 
to  Rs.  73,000  in  the  same  year.  The  receipts  of  the  cantonment  fund 
in  1903-4  were  Rs.  26,000.  Saugor  is  not  a  growing  town,  and  each 
Census  has  shown  its  population  as  either  stationary  or  slowly  declining. 
It  has  no  factories  ;  and  the  industries  of  weaving,  brass-working,  oil- 
pressing,  and  the  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  which 
formerly  contributed  substantially  to  its  wealth,  are  now  declining. 
There  is  a  printing  press  with  Hindi  type.  '  The  high  school  at 
Saugor  was  established  in  1828  by  Captain  Paton  of  the  Bengal 
Artillery  from  his  private  funds,  and  supported  by  a  Maratha  gentle- 
man, Rao  Krishna  Rao.  Lord  William  Bentinck  on  his  visit  to  Saugor 
was  so  struck  by  the  public  spirit  displayed  by  the  latter  gentleman 
that  he  invited  him  to  Calcutta  and  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal 
and  an  estate  of  the  value  of  Rs.  1,000  a  year.  The  school  was  subse- 
quently removed  to  Jubbulpore,  but  was  re-established  at  Saugor  in 
1885.  The  town  contains  various  branch  and  mission  schools,  three 
dispensaries,  and  a  veterinary  dispensary.  A  station  of  the  Swedish 
Lutheran  Mission  has  been  established  here. 

Saugor  Island. — Island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghly  river, 
Bengal.     See  Sagar. 

Saundatti-Yellamma. — A  joint  municipality  in  Belgaum  District, 
Bombay,  including  the  town  Saundatti  {Sugandhavarti,  '  the  sweet- 
smelling'),  the  head-quarters  of  the  Parasgad  tdhika,  situated  in 
15°  46'  N.  and  75°  7'  E.,  and  Yellamma,  a  famous  hill  of  pilgrimage 
5^  miles  south-east  of  the  former.     Population  (1901),  9,525.     Saun- 


SAUSAR   TABSIL  149 

datti  is  an  important  centre  of  trade.  The  town  is  conniianded  by 
an  old  fort  in  tolerable  repair.  About  2  miles  to  the  south  are  the 
ruins  of  an  extensive  hill  fort  called  Parasgad,  from  whit:h  the  tdliika 
derives  its  name.  The  municipality,  established  in  1876,  had  an 
average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  12,400.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10,600.  The  town  was  formerly  the  strcjng- 
hold  of  the  Ratta  chiefs  (875-1250).  It  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's 
court,  a  dispensary,  and  a  municipal  middle  school,  besides  five  other 
boys'  schools  with  363  pupils  and  a  girls'  school  with  55. 

Vellamma  hill  takes  its  name  from  a  shrine  of  the  goddess  Ycllanmia 
which  is  held  in  great  veneration  throughout  the  Bombay  Carnatic. 
About  100,000  pilgrims  visit  the  shrine  annually,  women  predomi- 
nating, and  many  of  them  come  from  great  distances.  On  their  way  to 
the  hill  they  give  utterance  repeatedly  to  a  long-drawn  cry,  ''Ai  Yel- 
lammo — oh!^  which  resounds  along  the  high  roads  for  miles  as  it  is 
taken  up  by  successive  bands  of  pilgrims.  The  shrine  is  built  in  the 
bed  of  the  Saraswati  stream,  a  tributary  of  the  Malprabha.  Though 
locally  said  to  be  about  two  thousand  years  old,  the  temple,  exclud- 
ing the  sanctuary,  appears  to  have  been  built  in  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth  century,  on  the  site  of  an  older  building  dating  from  the 
thirteenth.  The  temple  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  courtyard  sur- 
rounded by  arcades  of  pointed  arches.  Fairs  are  held  in  honour  of 
the  goddess  at  the  full  moon  of  April-May  and  November-December. 
A  tax  of  half  an  anna  is  levied  from  each  pilgrim,  bringing  in  a  revenue 
of  about  Rs.  5,000  to  the  municipality.  In  the  early  days  of  British 
rule  women  came  to  the  shrine  naked  to  pray  for  children  or  for  the 
cure  of  skin  disease.  Hook-swinging  was  commonly  practised  at  the 
shrine,  and  175  persons  were  swung  in  1834.  Both  of  these  prac- 
tices have  been  discontinued.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  origin  of  the 
shrine. 

Saurath.— Village  in  the  MadhubanI  subdivision  of  Darbhanga 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  26°  24'  N.  and  86°  3'  E.  Population 
(1901),  2,062.  It  is  famous  for  the  mela  (religious  fair)  which  takes 
place  annually  in  June  or  July,  when  large  numbers  of  Brahmans 
assemble  to  settle  their  children's  marriages.  A  fine  temple  to 
Mahadeo  was  built  in   1845  by  the  Darbhanga  Raj. 

Sausar  Tahsil.— Southern  tahsil  of  Chhindwara  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  21°  28'  and  21°  55'  N.  and  78°  20'  and 
79°  16'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,103  square  miles.  The  population  in 
1901  was  121,148,  compared  with  120,451  in  1891.  The  density 
is  no  persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsil  contains  three  towns — 
Sausar  (population,  4,785),  the  head-quarters,  MohgaOxN  (5,73°)' 
and  Pandhurna  (8,904)~and  383  inhabited  villages.  Excluding 
331  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  62  per  cent,  of  the  available 


ISO  SAUSAR    TAHSIL 

area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was 
437  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year 
was  Rs.  1,25,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  The  tahs'il  consists  of 
a  tract  of  undulating  country  lying  below  the  Satpura  range,  covered 
with  light  shallow  soil,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  cotton-growing  areas 
of  the  Province. 

Sausar  To'wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahs'il  of  the  same  name, 
Chhindwara  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  40'  N.  and 
78°  48'  E.,  on  the  Chhindwara-Nagpur  road,  t,-^  miles  from  Chhind- 
wara town  and  46  from  Nagpur.  Population  (1901),  4,785.  Sausar 
was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  during 
the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  1,700.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  2,000,  principally  derived  from  a  house  tax.  Cotton  hand- 
weaving  is  the  only  industry.  Sausar  possesses  an  English  middle 
school  and  a  dispensary.  A  weekly  cattle-fair  is  held  at  Berdl,  a  mile 
from  the  town. 

Savali. — Town  in  the  Baroda  prdnt,  Baroda  State.     See  Savli, 

Savandurga. — A  conspicuous  fortified  hill,  4,024  feet  high,  in 
the  west  of  Bangalore  District,  Mysore,  situated  in  12°  55'  N.  and 
77°  18'  E.  It  is  an  enormous  bare  dome-shaped  mass  of  granite,  the 
summit  consisting  of  two  peaks  separated  by  a  chasm,  each  well  sup- 
plied with  water.  It  was  first  fortified  in  1543  by  an  officer  of  the 
Vijayanagar  kings.  The  chief  of  Bangalore  next  acquired  it,  with 
Magadi,  about  1570,  and  in  his  family  it  remained  till  taken  by 
Mysore  in  1728.  Its  capture  by  the  British  under  Lord  Cornwallis 
in  1 791  was  a  memorable  exploit.  It  is  now  deserted,  and  surrounded 
on  all  sides  with  heavy  forest. 

Savantvadi  State  (or  Sawantwari). — State  in  Bombay,  lying 
between  15°  38'  and  16°  14'  N.  and  73°  37''  and  74°  23'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  925  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west 
by  the  British  District  of  Ratnagiri ;  on  the  east  by  the  Western 
Ghats ;  and  on  the  south  by  the  Portuguese  territory  of  Goa.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  country  is  strikingly  picturesque.  From  the  sea- 
.  coast  to  the  foot  of  the  Ghats,  a  distance  varying 

aspects  from  20  to  25  miles,  are  densely  wooded  hills,  and, 

in  the  valleys,  gardens  and  groves  of  coco-nut  and 
areca-nut  palms.  Spurs  and  isolated  peaks  rising  from  300  to  3,000 
feet  above  the  plain  form  strong  natural  fastnesses,  some  of  which, 
like  Manohar  and  Mansantosh,  are  said  to  have  been  fortified  many 
centuries  ago.  The  chief  streams  are  the  Karli  on  the  north  and  the 
Terekhol  on  the  south,  which  open  out  into  creeks.  Both  are  navi- 
gable for  small  native  craft — the  Terekhol  for  about  15  and  the  Karli 
for  about  14  miles. 

The  Savantvadi  State  is  composed  for  the  most  part  of  metamorphic 


SAVANTVADI  STATE  151 

rocks,  but  at  the  northern  part  a  considerable  quantity  of  trap  is  found, 
and  on  the  west  a  narrow  band  of  laterite.  These  with  the  Ghats  on 
the  east  form  physical  features  which  serve  as  a  sort  of  natural  boun- 
dary to  the  country.  The  great  metamorphic  spurs  which  run  out 
west  from  under  the  mural  termination  of  the  Deccan  trap  at  the 
Ghats  extend  to  varying  distances,  and  either  end  abruptly  or  break 
into  clusters  of  lower  hills.  The  intervening  country  is  low  and 
covered  with  thicker  soil  than  is  usually  the  case  in  the  Konkan  : 
this  renders  Savantvadi  more  open  to  cultivation  than  the  barren 
laterite  plateau  to  the  west  and  north.  There  are  a  few  insignificant 
outliers  of  the  Kaladgi  (Cuddapah)  series. 

Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  bison,  deer,  wild  hog,  wild  dogs,  jackals 
foxes,  and  hyenas  are  found.  Snakes  are  common.  In  the  Ghat 
tracts  the  State  contains  good  teak  ;  and  black-wood,  a/>/,  kher,  and 
Jamba  are  common.  Near  the  sea,  jack-wood,  mango,  bhirand  {Gar- 
cinia  indica),  coco-nut  palms,  and  cashew-nut  are  plentiful. 

The  climate  is  humid  and  relaxing,  with  a  heavy  rainfall,  the  average 
annual  fall  being  150  inches.  April  is  the  hottest  month  in  the  year; 
in  May  a  strong  sea-breeze,  the  precursor  of  the  south-west  monsoon, 
tempers  the  heat.  The  temperature  rises  to  100°  in  May  and  falls  to 
62°  in  January. 

Early  inscriptions  show  that  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  centuries 
the  Chalukyas  ruled  over  Savantvadi.     In  the  tenth  century  the  rulers 

were  Yadavas.     In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Cha- 
11  •     •  A      ,        ,  r  1      r  History. 

lukyas  were  agam  m  power.  At  the  close  01  the  four- 
teenth century  Savantvadi  was  under  an  officer  of  the  Vijayanagar 
dynasty.  About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  formed  part 
of  a  powerful  Brahman  dynasty.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Bijapur 
power  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Savantvadi  became  part  of 
the  territory  of  these  kings.  In  about  1554  one  Mang  Savant  of  the 
Bhonsla  family  revolted  from  Bijapur,  and  making  Hodowra,  a  small 
village  9  miles  from  Vadi,  his  head-quarters,  defeated  the  troops  sent 
against  him,  and  maintained  his  independence  during  his  lifetime. 
After  his  death  his  successors  again  became  feudatories  of  the  Bijapur 
kings. 

The  chief  who  finally  freed  his  country  from  the  Muhammadan 
yoke  was  Khem  Savant  Bhonsla,  who  ruled  from  1627  to  1640.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Som  Savant,  who,  after  ruling  for  eighteen 
months,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Lakham  Savant.  When  the 
power  of  Sivajl  seemed  in  the  ascendant  (1650),  Lakham  Savant 
tendered  him  allegiance,  and  was  confirmed  as  Sar  Desai  of  the 
whole  Southern  Konkan.  Dying  in  1665,  Lakham  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Phond  Savant,  who,  after  ruling  for  ten  years,  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,   Khem  Savant  II.     This  chief,  by  aiding  the 


152  SAVANTVADI  STATE 

Mughals  in  their  struggles  with  Sivaji,  and  making  frequent  raids 
across  the  Goa  frontier,  added  considerably  to  his  territory  ;  and  sub- 
sequently, having  supported  Sivaji's  grandson  Sahu  in  his  contest 
with  the  Raja  of  Kolhapur,  he  was  confirmed  in  his  possessions.  It 
was  during  the  time  of  Khem's  successor  (1709-37)  that  the  Savant- 
vadi  State  first  entered  into  relations  with  the  British  Government. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  between  them  against  the  piratical  chieftain, 
KanhojT  Angria  of  Kolaba. 

The  chief,  who  ruled  from  1755  to  1803  under  the  name  of  Khem 
Savant  the  Great,  married  in  1 763  the  daughter  of  Jayaji  Sindhia  ;  and 
consequently  the  title  of  Raja  Bahadur  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
emperor  of  Delhi.  The  Raja  of  Kolhapur,  envious  of  this  honour, 
made  a  descent  on  A^adi,  and  captured  several  hill  fortresses,  which 
were,  however,  through  Sindhia's  influence,  subsequently  restored. 
The  rule  of  Khem  Savant,  who,  not  content  with  wars  on  land,  also 
took  to  piracy,  was  one  long  contest  against  Kolhapur,  the  Peshwa, 
the  Portuguese,  and  the  British.  Khem  Savant  died  childless  in  1803  ; 
and  the  contest  for  the  succession  was  not  decided  till  1805,  when 
Khem  Savant's  widow  Lakshml  Bai  adopted  a  child,  Ramchandra 
Savant,  alias  Bhau  Sahib.  This  child  lived  for  three  years,  and  was 
then  strangled  in  bed.  Phond  Savant,  a  minor,  was  chosen  to 
fill  his  place.  During  these  years  of  disorder  the  ports  swarmed  with 
pirates.  So  severely  did  British  commerce  suffer,  that  in  181 2  Phond 
Savant  was  forced  to  enter  into  a  treaty  ceding  the  port  of  Vengurla 
to  the  British,  and  engaging  to  give  up  all  his  vessels  of  war.  Soon 
after  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  Phond  Savant  III  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Khem  Savant  IV,  a  child  of  eight.  This 
chief,  when  he  came  of  age,  proved  unable  to  manage  his  State,  and, 
after  several  revolutions  and  much  disturbance,  at  last  in  1838  agreed 
to  make  over  the  administration  to  the  British  Government.  After 
this,  rebellion  twice  broke  out  (in  1839  and  1844),  but  the  disturbances 
were  soon  suppressed,  and  the  country  has  since  remained  quiet.  The 
State  was  eventually  restored  in  1861,  on  the  chief  undertaking  to 
defray  the  cost  (5^  lakhs)  of  the  last  rebellion,  to  pay  a  succession  fee 
of  one  year's  revenue,  to  protect  his  subjects,  and  to  meet  the  expense 
of  a  British  Resident  and  his  establishment. 

The  chief,  a  Maratha  by  caste  and  styled  Sar  Desai,  is  entitled  to 
a  salute  of  9  guns.  His  family  holds,  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption, 
and  in  point  of  succession  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 

The   population   numbered    190,814   in    1872;     174,433    in    1881  ; 

192,948  in  1891  ;  and  217,732  in  1901.    The  State  contains  one  town, 

„       ,    .  Vadi,    and    226    villages;    and    the   density   is    2xk 

Population.  M        TT-    ■>      r 

persons  per  square  mile.     Hindus  form  94  per  cent. 

of  the  total,   and  there  are  5,634  Musalmans  and   5,400  Christians. 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  153 

Among  Hindus  the  chief  castes  are  Erahmans  (14,000),  who  are  of  the 

Karhade,   Kudaldeskar,  and  Shenvi  subcastes  ;    Bhandaris,   or  toddy 

drawers  (25,000);    Marathas   (117,000),   who   are  largely   cultivators; 

Vanls,  or  traders  (12,000);  and  Mahars,  or  low-caste  watchmen  and 

labourers  (12,000).     The  Musalnians  describe  themselves  as  Shaikhs 

(4,000).     Native  Christians  are  almost  entirely  Roman  Catholics,  the 

only  mission    in   the   State   being  the    Portuguese    Catholic    Mission. 

They  have  increased  from  2,000  to  5,400  in  the  last  fifty  years.     The 

common  language  is  the   KonkanI  dialect  of  Marathl.     The  sturdy 

and  docile  Marathas  of  the  State  are  favourite  recruits  for  the  Indian 

army.     They  also  supply  much  of  the  immigrant  labour  in  the  adjacent 

British  Districts  during  the  cultivating  season.    Of  the  total  population, 

74  per  cent,  are  supported  by  agriculture. 

The  soil  is  chiefly  light,  and  mixed  with  stone  and  gravel,  and  not 

suitable  for  the  better  class  of  crops.     Of  the  total  area  of  arable  land, 

594  square  miles,  221   square  miles  were  cultivated 

1        •  _  -1  J  Agriculture, 

in    1903-4 :    namely,   rice  97   square    miles,  garden 

land  10  square  miles,  and  varkas  or  hill  crops  114  square  miles.     The 

staple  crop  is  rice  ;    but  the  quantity  grown  is  not  sufficient  for  the 

Avants  of  the  people,  and  a  good  deal  is  imported.     Excepting  rice, 

none   but  the   coarsest  grains   and   pulses  are  raised.     A  species  of 

oilseed,  ///,  5^;/-hemp,  and  black  and  red  pepper,  are  also  grown,  but 

neither  cotton  nor  tobacco.     Both   soil  and  climate  are  against  the 

cultivation  of  wheat  and  other  superior  grains.     For  these,  the  people 

have  to  look  to  the  country  east  of  the  Ghats,  whence  during  the  fair 

season,  from  October  to  June,  large  supplies  are  received. 

Savantvadi,  with  an  area  of  54  square  miles  of  forest  lands,  is  rich 
in  valuable  teak.  Iron  ore  of  fair  quality  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Ram  ghat  and  also  near  Danoli  in  the  Western  Ghats.  It  is 
worked  on  a  very  small  scale,  which  does  not  suffice  even  for  the  local 
demand.  The  Aker  stone,  a  slate-coloured  talc-schist,  extremely  hard, 
compact,  and  heavy,  is  unrivalled  for  building  purposes.  Laterite  is 
quarried  in  many  places.  Talc  of  inferior  quality  is  found  at  Kudawal 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 

Salt  of  an  inferior  kind  was  once  manufactured,  but  the  salt  works 
have  been  abolished.     The  principal  industries  of  the  State  consist  of 
gold  and  silver  embroidery  work  on  both  leather  and 
cloth  ;    fans,  baskets,  and  boxes  of  khas-khas  grass,  communica^fons. 
ornamented  with   gold    thread   and    beetles'   wings ; 
lacquered  toys,  and  playing-cards  ;  and  drawing-room  ornaments  carved 
from  the  horn  of  the  buffalo  and  bison.     A  pottery  establishment  for 
the  manufacture  of  tiles  is  now  at  work  in  the  State,  and  in  1903-4 
a  factory  was  established  in  the  jail  for  extracting  plantain  and  aloe 
fibre.     Before   the   construction    of  the   Southern    Mahratta   Railway 


T54 


SAVANTVADI  STATE 


a  considerable  transit  trade  existed  between  Belgaum  and  Vengurla. 
The  trade  is  now  purely  local,  the  imports  being  valued  at  5^  lakhs 
and  the  exports  at  Rs.  2,500. 

There  are  no  railways  ;  but  an  excellent  trunk  road  from  the  seaport 
of  Vengurla  passes  through  the  State,  leading  by  an  easy  gradient  over 
the  Western  Ghats  to  Belgaum.  The  other  chief  lines  of  communica- 
tion with  the  Deccan  are  the  Ram  ghat,  the  Talkat  ghdl,  and  the 
Vhondsi  ghat.  In  1904  a  branch  road  to  Malewad  was  constructed  to 
facilitate  the  sea-borne  trade  via  Araonda. 

In  1 79 1  the  rain  failed  shortly  after  the  country  had  been  plundered 
by  the  Raja  of  Kolhapur,  and  scarcity  ensued.  In  1821  excessive 
rain  destroyed  the  crops.  The  State  is  liable  to  local  floods  caused 
by  the  rapid  falling  and  overflowing  of  its  mountain  streams.  In 
1883-4  some  damage  to  the  crops  was  done  by  locusts,  and  again  in 
1902-3  and  1903-4. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  area  of  the  State  is  divided  into 
the  three  subdivisions  of  Vadi,  Banda,  and  Kudal.  Under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Political  Agent,  who  is  aided  by  an 
minis  ra  lo  .  ^ggjg^g^j^j.  PoHtical  Agent,  the  revenue  and  magisterial 
charge  of  each  of  these  fiscal  subdivisions  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  an 
officer  styled  Kamdvisddr.  Appeals  in  revenue  matters  lie  from  the 
Political  Agent  to  the  Commissioner,  Southern  Division.  Land  is 
divided  into  four  classes  :  namely,  State,  alienated,  rented,  and  ryotwdri. 
State  lands  are  either  crown  lands  or  private  lands,  the  latter  being  the 
personal  property  of  the  chief.  Both  classes  are  inanaged  by  the 
revenue  officials,  and  are  let  to  the  highest  bidder  for  a  fixed  term  of 
years.  Alienated  lands  are  classed  as  indm,  held  free  either  in  per- 
petuity or  during  the  lifetime  of  the  holder ;  dastibad,  which  are  rare 
and  are  liable  only  to  the  payment  of  certain  cesses  ;  and  devsii,  or 
religious  lands,  the  produce  of  which  is  devoted  to  temples.  Rented 
or  khoti  lands  are  tilled  or  sublet  to  others  by  the  khot,  who  pays 
a  certain  fixed  sum  to  the  State,  and  in  turn  receives  a  certain  share 
of  the  produce  from  his  sub-tenants.  Ryotwdri  or  peasant-held 
lands  pay  a  fixed  assessment,  as  in  British  territory.  The  State 
has  been  surveyed  and  a  regular  settlement  introduced  since  1877. 
By  its  completion  in  1895-6,  the  land  revenue  was  increased  from 
1-8  to  2-7  lakhs.  The  rates  per  acre  vary  from  i  anna  to  6  annas  for 
'dry'  land,  Rs.  5  to  Rs.  14  for  garden  land,  and  Rs.  4  to  Rs.  7  for 
rice  land. 

There  are  5  civil  courts  exercising  original  jurisdiction,  of  which 
3  are  permanent  and  2  are  temporary.  The  Desai  of  Parma  presides 
over  an  honorary  court  of  Small  Causes ;  the  fifth  court  is  that  of  the 
Registrar  of  the  Small  Cause  Court.  The  Chief  Judge  has  appellate 
jurisdiction,  and  the  Political  .^gent  exercises  the  powers  of  a  High 


SAVANUJ^   ST.ITF.  155 

Court.     There  are  nine  criminal  courts,  the  Political  Ai,'ont  haviiit^  the 
powers  of  a  Sessions  Judge. 

The  revenue  of  the  State  in  1903-4  was  about  4-3  lakhs,  chiefly 
derived  from  land  (about  2-7  lakhs),  abkari  and  sayer  (nearly 
Rs.  60,000),  forests  (Rs.  35,000),  and  stamps  (over  Rs.  33,000)  The 
expenditure  was  nearly  4-8  lakhs,  of  which  about  i^  lakhs  is  spent  as 
darbdr  and  paga  (stud  and  cattle-breeding)  grants,  and  fixed  assign- 
ments amounting  to  Rs.  50,000.  The  State  spends  about  Rs,  50,000 
annually  on  public  works,  and  contributed  Rs.  28,000  in  1903-4 
towards  the  salaries  of  the  Political  Agent  and  his  establishment.  Up 
to  1839  the  plrkhani  rupee,  first  struck  by  the  Bijapur  minister,  was 
the  standard  coin.  Since  then  it  has  been  replaced  by  the  British 
rupee. 

The  Savantvadi  State  maintains  a  local  corps,  consisting  in  1904  of 
327  men  of  all  ranks  under  a  European  officer,  which  is  to  be  reduced 
to  250:  and  an  unarmed  police  force  of  137,  of  whom  126  belonged 
to  the  permanent  force  and  the  rest  were  detailed  from  the  local 
corps.  The  State  has  one  jail,  with  a  daily  average  of  43  prisoners 
in  1903-4.  In  that  year  the  State  contained  155  schools  with  6,389 
pupils.  Of  these,  one  is  an  English  school  with  261  pupils.  Of  the 
total  population,  6-6  per  cent.  (12-8  males  and  o-8  females)  were 
returned  as  literate  in  1901.  One  hospital  and  3  dispensaries  are 
maintained,  in  which  21,000  patients  were  treated  in  1903-4.  There 
is  a  lunatic  asylum  with  14  inmates,  and  a  leper  asylum  with  77  in- 
mates.    In  the  same  year  about  6,300  persons  were  vaccinated. 

Savanur  State. — Native  State  within  the  limits  of  Dharwar  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  14°  57' and  15°  2'  N.  and  75°  22' and  75°25'E., 
with  an  estimated  area  of  70  square  miles.  The  State  is  for  the  most 
part  flat  and  treeless.  In  climate  and  fauna  it  does  not  differ  from 
the  adjacent  portions  of  Dharwar  District.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
27  inches.  Plague  broke  out  in  1898,  and  has  since  caused  the  death 
of  over  4,000  persons,  of  whom  one-c^uarter  fell  victims  in  the  year 
1902-3.     The  town  of  Savanur  alone  lost  1,600. 

The  reigning  family  are  Musalmans  of  Pathan  origin.  The  founder 
of  the  family,  Abdul  Rauf  Khan,  obtained  in  1680  from  the  emperor 
Aurangzeb  the  grant  of  a  jaglr  comprising  Bankapur,  Torgal,  and 
Azamnagar  or  Belgaum,  with  a  command  of  7,000  horse.  In  1730 
the  family,  as  deputies  of  the  Nizam,  received  additional  territory, 
which  the  Peshwa  seized  in  1747.  In  1786  Tipu  Sultan,  with  whom 
the  Nawab  was  connected  by  marriage,  strip})ed  him  of  much  territory  : 
but  allying  himself  with  the  Marathas,  the  Nawab  regained  some  part 
of  it,  and  obtained  from  the  Peshwa  a  pension  of  Rs.  10,000  a  month. 
At  the  close  of  the  last  Maratha  War  the  Nawab,  whose  conduct  had 
been  exceptionally  loyal,  was  confirmed  in  his  original  possessions  by 

VOL.    XXII.  L 


156  SAVANUR   STATE 

the  British  Government,  and  received  during  his  hfetime  an  additional 
yearly  grant  of  Rs.  6,000.  The  State  pays  no  tribute.  The  family 
holds  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption,  and  the  succession  follows  the 
rule  of  primogeniture. 

The  population  in  1901  was  18,446,  compared  with  16,976  in  1891, 
residing  in  one  town,  Savanur,  and  22  villages.  Hindus  number 
13,000,  Musalmans  5,000.  Of  the  Hindus,  nearly  one-half  (6,000)  are 
Lingayats.  The  Musalmans  describe  themselves  as  Shaikhs  (3,000) 
and  Pathans  (1,000),  with  a  few  Arabs  and  Saiyids,  About  two-thirds 
of  the  population  are  supported  by  agriculture. 

The  soil  of  the  northern,  eastern,  and  southern  villages  is  both  red 
and  black,  and  that  of  the  western  villages  is  red.  The  principal 
crops  are  cotton,  joivar,  kulith,  tur,  pd?i,  wheat,  gram,  plantains,  and 
sugar-cane.  Of  the  total  area  of  70  square  miles,  about  2  square  miles 
are  under  forest,  and  6  square  miles  are  uncultivable.  The  area  of 
cultivable  land  is  62  square  miles,  of  which  51  square  miles  were 
cropped  in  1903-4,  about  3  square  miles  being  irrigated.  The  betel-leaf 
grown  in  the  Savanur  gardens  is  celebrated  for  its  superior  quality,  and 
has  been  exported  in  greater  quantity  since  the  opening  of  the  Southern 
Mahratta  Railway.  Cotton  cloths,  such  as  sdrls,  dhotis,  &c.,  are 
manufactured  to  a  small  extent,  and  there  is  some  trade  in  grain  and 
raw  cotton.  The  State  escaped  the  severity  of  the  famine  of  1899- 
1900,  only  two  villages  being  affected. 

The  Collector  of  Dharwar  is  Political  Agent  for  the  State,  his  Senior 
Assistant  being  Assistant  Political  Agent.  There  are  two  criminal 
courts  and  one  civil  court,  and  the  Political  Agent  has  the  powers  ot 
a  District  Judge.  The  State  laws  are  modelled  on  those  of  British 
territory. 

The  revenue  is  about  one  lakh,  chiefly  derived  from  land.  The 
State  levies  no  customs  or  transit  duties.  A  Local  fund  cess  of  one 
anna  is  levied  from  all  landholders.  The  survey  settlement  introduced 
in  1870-1  was  revised  in  1895,  and  the  revised  rates  were  levied  in 
1896-7.  The  original  revenue  demand  of  Rs.  75,320  was  increased 
to  Rs.  90,463.  The  actual  demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  61,991,  in- 
cluding a  quit-rent  of  Rs.  6,803,  but  excluding  the  assessment  on 
indm,  waste,  and  forest  lands.  The  rates  per  acre  vary  from  4  annas 
to  Rs.  5-5  for  '  dry '  land,  R.  i  to  Rs.  1 2  for  rice  land,  and  Rs.  3  to 
Rs.  24  for  garden  land.  The  police  force  consists  of  48  men.  The 
State  contains  1 1  schools  with  548  pupils.  The  dispensary  at  Savanur 
treated  12,000  persons  in  1903-4,  and  502  persons  were  vaccinated  in 
the  same  year. 

Savanur  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  Savanur,  Bombay, 
40  miles  south-east  of  Dharwar,  situated  in  14°  58'  N.  and  75*"  23'  E. 
Population  (1901),  9,796.     The  town  covers  an  area  of  three-quarters 


SAVLI  157 

of  a  mile  and  is  enclosed  by  a  ditch,  with  eight  gates,  now  falling  into 
ruins.  Between  1868  and  1876  the  town  was  greatly  improved,  the 
roads  widened  and  metalled,  and  many  old  wells  and  ponds  repaired. 
The  municipal  income  is  about  Rs.  3,700.  There  are  5  schools  with 
403  pupils,  including  116  girls,  and  a  class  for  drawing  and  carpentry. 
The  town  contains  a  dispensary.  The  chief  objects  of  interest  are  the 
Nawab's  palace,  numerous  mosques,  a  Vaishnava  religious  establish- 
ment, and  the  math  of  Sri  Satya  Bodhaswami. 

Savda. — Town  in  the  Raver  tdluka  of  East  Khandesh  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  21°  9'  N.  and  75°  53'  E.,  on  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  8,720.  Savda  was  finally 
ceded  by  the  Nizam  to  the  Peshwa  in  1763,  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
bestowed  on  Sardar  Raste,  whose  daughter  was  given  in  marriage  to 
the  Peshwa.  In  1852,  in  connexion  with  the  introduction  of  the 
revenue  survey,  a  serious  disturbance  occurred  at  Savda.  From  10,000 
to  15,000  malcontents  gathered,  and  were  not  dispersed  till  a  detach- 
ment of  troops  arrived  and  arrested  59  of  the  ringleaders.  The 
municipality,  established  in  1883,  had  an  average  income  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  9,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  9,700.  The  chief  trade  is  in  cotton,  gram,  linseed,  and  wheat. 
At  the  weekly  market,  valuable  Nimar  and  Berar  cattle  are  offered  for 
sale.  The  town  contains  two  cotton-ginning  factories,  a  dispensary, 
and  four  schools,  with  520  pupils,  of  which  one,  with  36  pupils,  is 
for  girls. 

Savdi.— Village  in  the  Ron  tdluka  of  Dharwar  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  15°  39'  N.  and  75°  45'  E.,  about  5  miles  south-west  of  Ron 
town.  Population  (1901),  5,202.  It  contains  temples  of  Brahma- 
deo  and  Narayandeo,  each  with  an  inscription  ;  and  two  schools,  of 
which  one  is  for  girls. 

Savli. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name,  Baroda 
prdnt,  Baroda  State,  situated  in  22°  34'  N.  and  73°  15'  E.  Population 
(1901),  4,687.  It  possesses  Munsifs  and  magistrate's  courts,  a  verna- 
cular school,  a  dispensary,  and  local  offices,  and  is  administered  as  a 
municipality,  receiving  an  annual  grant  from  the  State  of  Rs.  1,000. 
A  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  cattle  is  carried  on,  and  the  town  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  a  wide  group  of  villages  In  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  are  large  tanks,  shady  trees,  and  fruitful  fields ;  at  no 
great  distance  is  the  wild  mehivdsi  country  of  ravines  and  jungles 
bordering  the  Mahi.  At  one  corner  of  the  Savli  tank  stand  two 
temples  which  commemorate  the  names  of  Damaji  Gaikwar  and  his 
father  Pilaji.  The  latter  was  assassinated  at  Dakor  in  1732,  but  his 
body  was  carried  away  from  that  place  by  his  followers,  and  the  last 
honours  were  hurriedly  paid  it  at  Savli.  The  treacherous  murder,  the 
invasion  of  Abhai  Singh,  and  the  hasty  funeral  of  the  founder  of  the 

L  2 


158  SAVLI 

Gaikwar's  house  mark  a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Maratha  conquest, 
and  give  something  of  historic  dignity  to  the  unpretending  temple 
of  Pilaji. 

Saw. — South-western  township  of  Pakokku  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  between  20°  48'  and  21°  37'  N.  and  94°  o'  and  94°  20'  E.,  along 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  Chin  Hills,  with  an  area  of  1,200  square  miles. 
The  greater  part  of  the  township  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Yaw,  but  the 
southern  portion  is  watered  by  the  Maw,  which  rises  near  Mount 
Victoria.  The  population  was  22,339  in  1891,  and  19,868  in  1901, 
distributed  in  117  villages.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Burmans,  but  Chins  and  Taungthas  are  also  numerous.  Saw  (popu- 
lation, 742),  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  is  the  head-quarters.  The  area 
cultivated  in  1903-4  was  about  23  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue 
and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  47,000. 

Sawai  Madhopur. — Head-quarters  of  the  nizdmat  and  tahs'il  of 
the  same  name  in  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  N. 
and  76°  23'  E.,  about  76  miles  south-east  of  Jaipur  city.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  at  Daosa  station  by  a  road 
running  via  Lalsot,  and  will  be  the  terminus  of  the  Jaipur-Sawai 
Madhopur  branch  now  under  construction.  Population  (1901),  10,328. 
The  town,  which  is  walled,  takes  its  name  from  Madho  Singh,  chief  of 
Jaipur  from  1751  to  1768,  by  whom  it  was  laid  out  somewhat  on  the 
plan  of  the  capital.  There  are  numerous  schools,  including  a  verna- 
cular middle,  a  Jain  pdtJisala,  and  6  indigenous  schools  attended  by 
about  300  boys,  besides  a  hospital  with  accommodation  for  4  in- 
patients. Copper  and  brass  vessels  are  largely  manufactured  and 
exported  southwards  ;  and  there  is  a  brisk  trade  in  lacquered  wooden 
articles,  round  playing-cards,  and  the  scent  extracted  from  the  khas-khas 
grass  {Andropogon  muricatus). 

Sawantwari. — State  and  town  in  Bombay.  See  Savantvadi  and 
Vadi  respectively. 

Sayla  State. — State  in  the  Kathiawar  Political  Agency,  Bombay, 
lying  between  21°  26'  and  22°  51'  N.  and  71°  12''  and  71°  34'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  222  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  ii,66r, 
residing  in  one  town  and  38  villages.  The  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  66,000,  and  59  square  miles  were  cultivated.  The  State  ranks  as 
a  third-class  State  in  Kathiawar.  Sayla  is  mentioned  as  a  pargana 
of  Jhalawar  in  the  Ain-i-Aklmrl,  but  by  the  eighteenth  century  it  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Kathis.  Sheshabhai,  the  son  of  the 
Halavad  chief,  took  possession  of  Sayla  in  1751,  and  added  it  to  the 
giriis  of  Narichana  and  Liya,  which  he  had  obtained  in  his  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  Dhrangadhra.  He  was  succeeded  by  Kakobhai, 
also  called  Vikmatsingh  (i 794-1813),  in  whose  time  a  permanent 
settlement  of   tribute  was  made  with  the  British  Government.      His 


SECUNDERAPAD 


159 


family  now  rules  over  the  State.  The  title  is  Thakur ;  but  the  present 
chief  bears  the  title  of  Thakur  Sahib,  conferred  on  him  as  a  personal 
distinction. 

Sayla  Town. — Chief  town  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Kathiawar,  Bombay,  situated  in  22°  32'  N.  and  71°  32'  E.,  16  miles 
from  the  Chuda  railway  station,  18  miles  south-west  of  Wadhwan,  on 
the  bank  of  a  large  tank  called  Manasarowar,  the  excavation  and 
building  of  which  is  popularly  attributed  to  Sidhraj  Jai-Singh,  the 
celebrated  sovereign  of  Anhilvada.  Population  (1901),  5,367.  Sayla 
is  famous  for  the  temple  of  Ramchandra,  built  by  Lala  Bhagat,  a 
Bania  saint  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  Food 
is  distributed  daily  to  travellers,  ascetics,  and  others.  There  is  a  brisk 
trade  in  cotton  and  grain. 

Sayyidpore. — Town  in  Rangpur  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam.     See  Saidpuk. 

Scinde. — Division  of  the  Bombay  Presidency.    See  Sind. 

Sealdah. — A  quarter  of  Calcutta,  Bengal.     See  Calcutta. 

Sealkote.  —  District,  tahsil,  and  town  in  the  Lahore  Division, 
Punjab.     See  Sialkot. 

Secunderabad  (^Sikandardbdd). —  British  cantonment  in  the  Hyder- 
abad State,  situated  in  17°  27'  N.  and  78°  30' E.,  6  miles  north-east 
of  Hyderabad  city.  The  population  of  Secunderabad  in  1901  was 
83,550,  and  the  population  of  Bolarum  and  Trimulgherry  12,888. 

Secunderabad,  named  after  the  Nizam  Sikandar  Jah,  is  one  of  the 
largest  military  stations  in  India.  The  British  troops  stationed  here 
were  formerly  known  as  the  Subsidiary  Force,  and  were  paid  from 
the  revenues  of  the  districts  ceded  by  the  Nizam  for  this  purpose 
under  the  treaty  of  1800.  The  Nizam  also  agreed  to  maintain  a  Con- 
tingent to  act  with  the  Subsidiary  Force  in  case  of  necessity.  This 
Contingent,  for  the  payment  of  which  Berar  was  assigned  to  the  British 
Government  by  the  treaty  of  1853,  modified  by  the  treaty  of  i860,  had 
its  head-quarters  at  Bolarum,  other  stations  being  Ellichpur  in  Berar, 
and  five  towns  in  the  Hyderabad  State  :  namely,  Aurangabad,  Hingoli, 
Jalna,  Amba  (Mominabad),  and  Raichur.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  tamper  with  the  fidelity  of  the 
troops  at  Secunderabad.  An  attack  on  the  Residency  was  repulsed,  and 
during  the  troubled  times  of  1857-8  much  good  service  was  rendered 
by  both  the  Subsidiary  Force  and  the  Hyderabad  Contingent.  By  an 
agreement  entered  into  in  1902,  the  Contingent  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
separate  force,  and  was  incorporated  in  the  Indian  army.  The  can- 
tonments, except  Aurangabad,  were  vacated,  and  Bolarum  was  merged 
in  Secunderabad.  The  garrison  of  Secunderabad  and  Bolarum  con- 
sisted in  1904  of  one  regiment  of  British  and  two  of  Native  cavalry; 
one    battery  of  horse   and  three   of   field   artillery,  with   ammuniticjn 


i6o  SECUNDERABAD 

columns;  two  battalions  of  British  and  six  regiments  of  Native  infantry; 
a  company  of  sappers  and  miners,  with  a  proportion  of  mule  corps  and 
transport  bearers.  The  combined  cantonment  comprises  the  areas  of 
Secunderabad,  Chilkalguda,  BowanpalH,  Begampett,  Trimulgherry, 
North  Trimulgherry,  and  Bolarum. 

Up  to  1850  the  cantonment  of  Secunderabad  consisted  of  a  line  of 
barracks  and  huts,  extending  for  a  distance  of  three  miles  from  east 
to  west,  with  the  artillery  in  front  and  on  the  left  flank,  and  the  in- 
fantry on  the  right.  Since  that  date,  however,  the  cantonment  boun- 
daries have  been  extended  so  as  to  include  the  areas  already  mentioned, 
covering  22  square  miles,  including  many  interspersed  villages.  New 
double-storeyed  barracks  have  been  erected  for  the  European  troops, 
and  improved  quarters  for  the  Native  troops. 

'I'he  country  for  miles  round  Secunderabad  undulates  into  hum- 
mocks, with  outcrops  of  underlying  rock,  crossed  from  east  to  west  by 
greenstone  dikes.  East  of  the  cantonment  are  two  large  outcrops  of 
granite  and  a  hill  of  some  size,  known  as  Maula  All,  and  near  it  another 
called  Kadam  Rasul  from  a  legend  that  it  bears  an  impress  of  the 
Prophet's  foot.  Shady  trees  line  the  roads  of  the  cantonment,  and  here 
and  there  are  clusters  of  date  and  palmyra  palms  ;  but  otherwise  the 
face  of  the  country  is  bare,  with  but  little  depth  of  soil  on  the  more 
elevated  spots.  Rice  is  cultivated  in  the  dips  and  villages,  in  most  of 
which  tanks  have  been  constructed.  The  water-supply  from  wells  is 
not  abundant ;  and  of  late  years  the  Jidimatla  tank,  which  has  not  been 
an  unqualified  success,  has  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding an  adequate  supply  of  water  for  the  troops  and  civil  population 
of  Secunderabad. 

The  climate  of  Secunderabad  is  generally  healthy,  though  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  rainy  season,  in  September,  fever  is  somewhat  preva- 
lent. The  rainfall  varies  considerably  ;  during  the  twenty-five  years 
ending  1903  it  averaged  33  inches. 

Seebsaugar. — District,  subdivision,  and  town,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam.     See  Sibsagar. 

Seepra. — River  in  Malwa.     See  Sipra. 

Seetamau. — State  and  town  in  Central  India.     See  Sitamau. 

Segowlie. — Village  in  Champaran  District,  Bengal.     See  Sagauli. 

Sehore  iSihor). — British  military  station  and  head-quarters  of  a  State 
tahs'il  and  of  the  Bhopal  Agency,  situated  in  the  Nizamat-i-Maghrib  or 
western  district  of  Bhopal  State,  Central  India,  in  23°  12'  N.  and 
77°  5'  E.,  on  the  Ujjain-Bhopal  Railway,  1,750  feet  above  sea-level. 
Population  (1901),  16,864,  of  whom  5,109  inhabited  the  native  town, 
and  11,755  the  military  station,  the  two  portions  forming  one  continu- 
ous site,  near  the  junction  of  the  Siwan  and  Lotia  streams,  which  have 
been  dammed  to  give  an  ample  water-supply. 


SEHORE  i6i 

A  mosque  erected  in  1332  shows  that  Sehore  was  even  at  that 
time  a  place  of  some  importance.  In  1814  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
famous  fight  between  Sindhia's  generals,  Jaswant  Rao  and  Jean  Baptiste 
Filose,  which  practically  saved  the  city  of  Bhopal  from  capture.  The 
real  importance,  however,  of  Sehore  dates  from  1818,  when,  after  the 
treaty  made  with  the  Bhopal  State,  it  was  selected  as  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Political  officer  and  the  newly  raised  local  contingent.  Up  to 
1842  the  Political  officer  ranked  as  an  Agent  to  the  Governor-General, 
but  then  became  a  Political  Agent.  Sehore  is  also  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Agency  Surgeon. 

In  18 1 8,  after  the  treaty  concluded  with  the  Nawab  in  the  previous 
year,  the  contingent  force  which  the  Bhopal  State  had  agreed  to  main- 
tain was  quartered  at  Sehore.  The  Bhopal  Contingent,  as  it  was 
designated,  was  supplied  from  the  Bhopal  State  army,  deficiencies  be- 
ing made  good  by  drafting  men  from  the  State  regiments.  There  were 
no  British  officers  with  the  corps,  which  was  directly  under  the  orders 
of  the  Political  officer.  These  State  levies,  however,  objected  to  wearing 
uniform  or  undergoing  proper  discipline ;  and  in  1824  the  Contingent 
was  reorganized  and  a  British  officer  attached  as  commandant,  the  force 
then  consisting  of  20  gunners,  302  cavalry,  and  674  infantry,  the  last 
being  rearmed  with  muskets  in  place  of  matchlocks.  The  troops  were 
employed  to  police  the  district  and  furnish  escorts.  Several  reorganiza- 
tions took  place  at  different  periods,  the  number  of  British  officers 
being  raised  to  3  in  1847.  In  1857  the  force  consisted  of  72  gunners, 
255  cavalry,  and  712  infantry.  Most  of  the  men  were  then  recruited 
in  Northern  India,  Sikhs  being  enlisted  in  both  the  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. The  regiment  showed  symptoms  of  unrest  at  this  period,  but 
never  mutinied  in  force,  and  assisted  in  protecting  the  Agent  to  the 
Governor-General  at  Indore,  and  also  escorted  the  Political  Agent  and 
European  residents  of  Sehore  to  Hoshangabad,  to  which  place  they 
retired  at  the  request  of  the  Begam.  The  artillery  served  as  a  complete 
unit  under  Sir  Hugh  Rose  throughout  the  campaign.  In  1859  the  force 
was  reconstituted  as  an  infantry  battalion  and  became  the  Bhopal  Levy. 
In  1865  it  was  again  reconstituted  as  the  Bhopal  Battalion,  and  in  1878 
was  employed  in  the  Afghan  campaign  on  the  lines  of  communication. 
In  1897  it  was  brought  under  the  orders  of  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
and  the  station  was  included  in  the  Nerbudda  district  instead  of  being, 
as  hitherto,  a  political  corps,  directly  under  the  Governor-General.  In 
1903  it  was  reconstituted  in  four  double  companies  of  Sikhs,  Muham- 
madans,  Rajputs,  and  Brahmans,  with  8  British  officers  and  896  rank 
and  file,  and  delocalized,  receiving  the  title  of  the  9th  Bhopal  Infantry  \ 
and  in  the  following  year,  for  the  first  time  since  its  creation,  it  was 
moved  from  Sehore  on  relief,  being  replaced  by  a  regiment  of  the 
regular  army.     The  Bhopal  State  contributes  towards  the  upkeep  of 


1 62  SEHORE 

the  force.     The  contribution,  originally  fixed  at  1-3  lakhs,  was  finally 
raised  in  1849  to  i'6  lakhs. 

The  station  is  directly  under  the  control  of  a  Superintendent, 
acting  under  the  Political  officer.  He  exercises  the  powers  of  a  first- 
class  Magistrate  and  Small  Cause  Court  judge.  An  income  of  about 
Rs.  60,000  is  derived  from  taxes  on  houses  and  lands  and  other  mis- 
cellaneous sources,  which  is  spent  on  drainage,  water-supply,  lighting, 
education,  and  hospitals.  The  station  has  increased  considerably  of 
late  years,  and  is  now  an  important  trading  centre,  the  yearly  fair  called 
the  Hardaul  Lala  we'/a,  held  in  the  last  week  of  December,  being 
attended  by  merchants  from  Cawnpore,  Agra,  and  Saugor.  A  high 
school,  opened  in  1839,  and  a  girls'  school,  opened  in  1865,  both 
largely  supported  by  the  chiefs  of  the  Agency,  are  maintained  in  the 
station,  besides  a  charitable  hospital,  a  leper  asylum,  a  d'aj^-bungalow 
for  Europeans,  two  sarais  for  native  travellers,  a  Protestant  church,  and 
a  Government  post  and  telegraph  office.  The  native  town  contains  a 
school,  a  State  post  office,  and  a  sarai. 

Sehwan  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Larkana  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  composed  of  the   Dadu,  Johi,  and  Sehwan  tdliikas. 

Sehwan  Taluka. —  Tdluka  of  Larkana  District,  Sind,  Bombay, 
lying  between  25°  53'  and  26°  39'  N.  and  67°  29'  and  67°  58'  E., 
with  an  area  of  1,272  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was 
54,779,  compared  with  53,574  in  189 1.  The  tdluka  contains  two 
towns — Sehwan  (population,  5,244),  the  head-quarters,  and  Bubak 
(3,300) — and  65  villages.  Owing  to  its  physical  features  this  tdluka, 
with  a  density  of  only  43  persons  per  square  mile,  is  less  thickly  popu- 
lated than  any  other.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  1-6  lakhs.  Sehwan  is  the  most  picturesque  taluka  in  the 
District,  for  the  hills  curve  south-west  almost  up  to  the  Indus,  while 
the  Manchhar  Lake  forms  its  north-western  boundary.  The  lands 
round  the  lake  are  irrigated  by  its  overflow  and  produce  excellent 
wheat,  but  south  of  them  there  is  little  regular  cultivation.  The 
Chitawah,  a  meandering  stream,  which  enters  the  tdluka  from  the 
north  and  winds  towards  the  Indus,  is  the  chief  source  of  irrigation 
in  the  north-east.  The  riparian  lands  of  the  Indus  are  irrigated  by 
small  watercourses  which  debouch  from  and  again  flow  into  the  river. 

Sehwan  To"wn. —  Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Larkana  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  26°  26''  N.  and 
67°  54'  E.,  on  a  branch  of  the  North- Western  Railway,  and  on  the 
main  road  from  Kotri  to  Shikarpur  via  Larkana,  84  miles  north-north- 
west of  Kotri,  and  95  miles  south-south-west  of  Larkana ;  elevation 
above  sea-level  117  feet.  Population  (1901),  5,244.  The  river  Indus, 
which  formerly  flowed  close  to  the  town,  has  now  quite  deserted  it. 
A  few  miles  south  of  Sehwan,  the  Lakhi  hills  terminate  abruptly,  form- 


SEIKPYU  163 

ing  a  characteristic  feature  of  this  portion  of  the  taluka.  The  Muhani- 
madan  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  fishing ;  the 
Hindus  in  trade.  A  large  section  of  the  people  are  professional 
mendicants,  sui)ported  by  the  offerings  of  pilgrims  at  the  shrine  of 
Lai  Shahbaz.  The  tomb  containing  the  remains  of  this  saint  is 
enclosed  in  a  quadrangular  edifice,  covered  with  a  dome  and  lantern, 
said  to  have  been  built  in  1356,  and  having  beautiful  encaustic  tiles 
with  Arabic  inscriptions.  Mirza  JanI,  of  the  Tarkhan  dynasty,  built 
a  still  larger  tomb  to  this  saint,  which  was  completed  in  1639.  The 
gate  and  balustrade  are  said  to  have  been  of  hammered  silver,  the 
gift  of  Mir  Karam  All  Khan,  Talpur,  who  also  crowned  the  domes 
with  silver  spires.  The  chief  object,  however,  of  anticjuarian  interest 
in  Sehwan  is  the  fort,  ascribed  to  Alexander  the  Great.  This  is  an 
artificial  mound  80  or  90  feet  high,  measuring  round  the  summit 
1,500  by  800  feet,  and  surrounded  by  a  broken  wall.  The  interior 
is  strewn  with  broken  pottery  and  tiles.  The  mound  is  evidently  an 
artificial  structure,  and  the  remains  of  several  towers  are  visible.  The 
fortifications  are  now  in  disrepair.  An  old  Christian  graveyard  below 
the  fort  contains  a  few  tombs  dating  from  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Sehwan  is  undoubtedly  a  place  of  great  antiquity. 
Tradition  asserts  that  the  town  was  in  existence  at  the  time  of  the 
first  Muhammadan  invasion  of  Sind  by  Muhammad  bin  Kasim  Safiki, 
about  A.  D.  711;  and  it  is  believed  to  be  the  place  which  submitted  to 
his  arms  after  the  conquest  of  Nerankot,  the  modern  Hyderabad. 

The  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1854,  and  had  an 
average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  12,200.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  14,000.  The  transit  trade  is  mainly  in 
wheat  and  rice ;  and  the  local  commerce  in  cloth  and  grain.  The 
manufactures  comprise  carpets,  coarse  cloth,  and  pottery.  The  art 
of  seal-engraving,  which  was  formerly  much  practised,  is  now  extinct. 
The  town  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  dispensary,  and 
a  middle  school. 

Seikpyu.— Southern  township  of  Pakokku  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  between  20°  50'  and  21°  21'  N.  and  94°  20'  and  94°  48'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  559  square  miles.  The  level  of  the  country  rises  on  all 
sides  towards  the  centre,  from  which  spring  numerous  streams  drain- 
ing into  the  Yaw  river,  which  sweeps  round  the  township,  first  in 
a  north-easterly  and  then  in  a  southerly  course.  The  inhabitants  are 
confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  Yaw  and  its  tributary,  the  Sada-on,  which 
drains  the  south.  The  hilly  centre  is  uninhabited.  The  population 
was  47,502  in  1891,  and  31,100  in  1901,  distributed  in  152  villages, 
Seikpyu  (population,  1,195)  on  the  Irrawaddy  being  the  head-quarters. 
The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  107  square  miles,  and  the  land 
revenue  and  thathanicda  amounted  to  Rs.  72,000. 


1 64  SEJAKPUR 

Sejakpur.     Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Sembiem. — Town  in  the  Saidapet  tdluk  of  Chingleput  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  13°  7'  N.  and  80°  16"  E.  Population  (1901), 
17,567.  It  lies  near  the  Perambur  railway  station  of  the  Madras 
Railway  and  just  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Madras  municipality,  and 
within  it  are  the  Perambur  railway  workshops,  which  employ  4,500 
hands.  It  is  consequently  almost  a  suburb  of  Madras,  and  being 
a  healthy  locality,  with  good  water,  is  growing  rapidly  in  population. 
There  is  a  considerable  Eurasian  community  in  the  place.  It  contains 
ten  small  paper-making  establishments,  which  give  employment  to 
about  a  dozen  hands  apiece. 

Sendamangalam. — Town  in  the  Namakkal  tdbik  of  Salem  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  ii°i7'N.  and  78°i5'E.  Population  (1901),  13,584. 
It  is  the  third  largest  town  in  the  District,  but  the  occupations  of  the 
people  are  purely  agricultural,  and  it  is  of  little  other  interest. 

Sendurjana. — Town  in  the  Mors!  tdluk  of  AmraotI  District,  Berar, 
situated  in  21°  N.  and  78°  6'  E.  Population  {1901),  6,860.  The  town 
has  declined  in  importance  since  1872,  but  a  large  bazar  is  held  here 
once  a  week. 

Seohara  {Siuhdrd). — Town  in  the  Dhampur  tahsil  of  Bijnor  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  situated  in  29°  13'  N.  and  78°  35'  E.,  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
10,062.  The  town  contains  a  police  station  and  a  handsome  mosque, 
and  also  a  branch  of  the  American  Methodist  Mission.  It  is  adminis- 
tered under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  3,000.  Its 
trade  is  of  some  importance.  A  primary  school  has  63  and  five  aided 
schools  have  182  pupils. 

Seondha  (Seora). — Head-quarters  of  a  pargana  in  the  Datia  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  26°  10'  N.  and  78°  47'  E.,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Sind  river,  36  miles  from  Datia  town.  Population  (1901),  5,542. 
The  town  has  been  steadily  declining  in  importance  of  late  years.  It 
is  of  old  foundation,  the  remains  of  the  earlier  settlement  lying  close 
to  the  modern  town.  Seondha  was  a  flourishing  place  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  the  fort  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  importance  some 
centuries  before.  It  may  possibly  be  the  Sarua  fort  taken  by  Mahmud 
of  Ghazni  in  the  eleventh  century  when  in  pursuit  of  Chand  Rai.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  Raja  Parlchhat  of  Datia 
gave  asylum  at  Seondha  to  the  mother  of  Daulat  Rao  Sindhia,  who 
had  fled  from  Gwalior ;  and  the  fort  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  on 
Sindhia's  behalf  by  Raghunath  Rao  and  General  Perron.  A  school  and 
a  combined  British  and  State  post  office  are  situated  in  the  town. 

Seoni  District. — District  in  the  Jubbulpore  Division  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  consisting  of  a  long  narrow  section  of  the  Satpura  plateau 
overlooking  the  Narbada  valley  on  the  north  and  the  Nagpur  plain  on 


SEONI  DISTRICT  165 

the  south,  and  lying  between  21°  36'  and  22°  57'  N.  and  79°  19'  and 
80''  17'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,206  .s(}uare  miles.  It  is  hounded  on  the 
north  by  Narsinghpur  and  Jubbulpore  Districts  ;  on  the  east  by 
Mandia,  Balaghat,  and  Bhandara  ;  on  the  south  by  Nagpur ;  and  on 
the  west  by  Chhindwara.  All  round  the  north  and  north-west  of  the 
District  the  border  hills  of  the  Satpura  range,  thickly 
fringed   with  forest   and   overlooking   the    Narbada,         Physical 

m  r  Till  1  Aspects* 

separate  beoni  from  Jubbulpore  and  Narsmghpur, 
except  along  a  strip  to  the  north-east,  where  the  Narbada  itself  is  the 
boundary  towards  Mandia,  and  44  villages  lying  below  the  hills  are 
included  in  the  District.  In  the  extreme  north-west  also  a  few  villages 
below  the  hills  belong  to  Seoni.  South  of  the  northern  passes  lies  the 
Lakhnadon  plateau,  a  rolling  country  of  alternate  ridges  and  hollows, 
terminating  in  another  belt  of  hill  and  forest  which  leads  down  to  the 
Wainganga.  Except  to  the  east  where  an  open  plain  stretches  to  the 
Mandia  border,  and  along  part  of  the  western  boundary,  the  Lakh- 
nadon plateau  is  surrounded  by  jungle.  The  Sher  river  flows  through 
the  centre  of  the  plateau  from  east  to  west,  and  passes  into  Narsingh- 
pur to  join  the  Narbada.  The  Temur  and  Soner  are  other  tributaries 
of  the  Narbada  rising  in  the  south.  To  the  south-west  of  the  District, 
and  separated  from  the  Lakhnadon  plateau  by  the  Thel  and  Wain- 
ganga rivers,  lies  the  Seoni  Haveli,  a  level  tract  of  the  most  fertile 
black  soil  in  the  District,  extending  from  the  line  of  hills  east  of  Seoni 
town  to  the  Chhindwara  border.  In  this  plateau  the  Wainganga  rises 
at  Partabpur,  a  few  miles  south  of  Seoni,  and  flows  for  some  distance 
to  the  north  until  it  is  joined  by  the  Thel  from  Chhindwara,  and  then 
across  the  District  to  the  east,  crossing  the  Nagpur-Jubbulpore  road 
at  Chhapara.  On  the  south-west  the  Pench  separates  Seoni  from 
Chhindwara.  The  heights  of  the  Seoni  and  Lakhnadon  plateaux  are 
about  2,000  feet  above  sea-level,  but  the  peak  of  Manorl  on  the  western 
border  of  the  District  rises  to  2,749  feet,  and  that  of  Kariapahar  near 
Seoni  to  2,379  feet.  East  of  Seoni  a  line  of  hills  runs  from  south  to 
north  ;  and  beyond  this  lies  another  open  tract,  about  200  feet  lower 
than  the  Seoni  plain,  constituting  the  valleys  of  the  Sagar  and  Hirri 
rivers,  and  containing  the  tracts  of  Ghansor  and  Barghat.  Another 
line  of  hills  separates  the  Ghansor  plain  from  the  valley  of  the  Wain- 
ganga, which,  after  crossing  the  District  from  west  to  east,  turns  south 
at  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Thanwar  river  from  Mandia, 
and  forms  the  boundary  of  Seoni  for  some  miles  until  it  diverges  into 
Balaghat.  The  valley  of  the  Wainganga,  at  first  stony  and  broken  and 
confined  by  hills  as  it  winds  round  the  northern  spurs  of  the  Seoni 
plateau,  becomes  afterwards  an  alternation  of  rich  alluvial  basins  and 
narrow  gorges,  until  just  before  reaching  the  eastern  border  of  the 
District  it   commences  its  descent  to  the  lower  country,  j)assing  over 


1 66  SEONI  DISTRICT 

a  series  of  rapid  and  deep  stony  channels,  overhung  by  walls  of  granite 
200  feet  high.  The  falls  of  the  Wainganga  and  its  course  for  the  last 
six  miles,  before  its  junction  with  the  Thanwar  on  the  border  of  the 
District,  may  perhaps  rank  next  to  the  Bheraghat  gorge  of  the  Nar- 
bada  for  beauty  of  river  scenery.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Wainganga 
is  about  400  feet  below  the  Ghansor  plain,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  another  line  of  forest-clad  hills,  and  a  narrow  rice-growing  strip 
along  its  western  bank,  called  the  UglT  tract,  is  included  in  Seoni. 
In  the  extreme  south  of  the  SeonI  tahsil  a  small  area  of  submontane 
land,  forming  the  Dongartal  or  Kurai  tract,  and  largely  covered  with 
forest,  is  the  residence  of  numbers  of  Gaolis,  who  are  professional 
cattle-breeders.  The  Bawanthari  river  rises  in  the  southern  hills,  and, 
receiving  the  waters  of  numerous  small  streams,  carries  the  drainage  of 
this  area  into  Nagpur  District  on  its  way  to  join  the  Wainganga. 

The  District  is  covered  by  the  Deccan  trap,  except  on  the  southern 
and  south-eastern  borders,  where  gneissic  rocks  prevail. 

The  forests  are  extensive,  forming  a  thick  belt  along  the  northern 
and  southern  hills,  with  numerous  isolated  patches  in  the  interior.  In 
the  north  they  are  stunted  and  scanty,  and  the  open  country  is  bare 
of  trees,  and  presents  a  bleak  appearance,  the  villages  consisting  of 
squalid-looking  collections  of  mud  huts  perched  generally  on  a  bare 
ridge.  In  the  rice  tracts,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vegetation  is  luxu- 
riant, and  fruit  trees  are  scattered  over  the  open  country  and  round 
the  villages.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  wood  the  houses  are  large 
and  well-built,  and  surrounded  by  bamboo  fences  enclosing  small 
garden  plots.  The  northern  forests  have  much  teak,  but  usually  of 
small  size,  and  there  is  also  teak  along  the  Wainganga  river  ;  the  forests 
in  the  south-east  are  principally  composed  of  bamboos.  The  open 
country  in  the  south  is  wooded  with  trees  and  groves  of  mahud  {Bas- 
sia  latifolia\  tendu  or  ebony  [Diospyros  tomentosa),  achdr  (^Buchanania 
/atifolia),  and  fruit  trees,  such  as  mangtj  and  tamarind. 

Tigers  and  leopards  are  not  very  common ;  but  deer  are  found  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  both  land  and  water  birds  are  fairly  fre- 
quent in  different  parts  of  the  District. 

The  climate  is  cool  and  pleasant,  excessive  heat  being  rarely  felt 
even  in  the  summer  months. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  53  inches.  During  the  thirty  years 
previous  to  1896  the  rainfall  was  only  once  less  than  30  inches,  in 
1867-8.     Irregular  distribution  is,  however,  not  uncommon. 

From   the  inscription  on  a  copperplate  found   in   SeonI  combined 

with  others   in  the  Ajanta  caves,  it  has  been  inferred  that  a  line  of 

princes,   the   Vakataka  dynasty,  was    ruling   on  the 

Satpura    plateau    from    the    third    century    a.  d.,   the 

name  of  the  perhaps  mythical  hero  who  founded  it   being  given  as 


HISTORY  T67 

Vindhyasakti.  Little  is  known  of  this  dynasty  except  the  names 
of  ten  princes,  and  the  fact  that  they  contracted  aHiances  with  better- 
known  ruling  houses.  The  architectural  remains  at  Deogarh  and 
Lakhnadon  may,  however,  be  attributed  to  them  or  their  successors, 
as  they  could  not  have  been  constructed  by  the  Cionds.  History  is 
then  a  blank  until  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Seoni  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  rising  Gond  dynasty  of  Garha-Mandla.  Ghansor, 
Chauri,  and  Dongartal  were  three  of  the  fifty-two  forts  included  in  the 
possessions  of  Raja  Sangram  Sah  in  1530,  and  the  territories  attached 
to  these  made  up  the  bulk  of  the  present  District.  A  century  and 
a  half  afterwards  the  Mandla  Raja  was  obliged  to  call  in  the  help 
of  Bakht  Buland,  the  Deogarh  prince,  to  assist  in  the  suppression  of 
a  revolt  of  two  Pathan  adventurers,  and  in  return  for  this  ceded  to 
him  the  territories  now  constituting  Seoni.  Bakht  Buland  came 
to  take  possession  of  his  new  dominions,  and  was  engaged  one  day 
in  a  hunting  expedition  near  Seoni,  when  he  was  attacked  by  a 
wounded  bear.  An  unknown  Pathan  adventurer,  Taj  Khan,  came  to 
his  assistance  and  killed  the  bear ;  and  Bakht  Buland  was  so  pleased 
with  his  dexterous  courage  that  he  made  him  governor  of  the  Dongartal 
tdluka,  then  in  a  very  unsettled  condition.  When  Seoni,  with  the  rest 
of  the  Deogarh  kingdom,  was  seized  by  Raghuji  Bhonsla,  Muhammad 
Khan,  the  son  of  Taj  Khan,  held  out  in  Dongartal  for  three  years 
on  behalf  of  his  old  master  ;  and  Raghuji  finally,  in  admiration  of  his 
fidelity,  appointed  him  governor  of  Seoni-Chhapara  with  the  title 
of  Diwan,  and  his  descendants  continued  to  administer  the  District 
until  shortly  before  the  cession.  In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Chhapara,  at  that  period  a  flourishing  town  with  2,000  Pathan 
fighting  men,  was  sacked  by  the  Pindaris  during  the  absence  of  the 
garrison  at  Nagpur  and  utterly  ruined.  A  tombstone  near  the  Wain- 
ganga  bridge  still  marks  the  site  where  40,000  persons  are  said  to  have 
been  buried  in  a  common  grave '. 

Seoni  became  British  territory  in  1818,  being  ceded  by  the  treaty 
which  followed  the  battle  of  Sitabaldi.  During  the  Mutiny  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  District  was  disturbed  only  by  the  revolt  of  a  Lodhi 
landholder  in  the  north,  who  joined  the  rebels  of  Jubbulpore  and 
Narsinghpur.  They  established  themselves  on  some  hills  overlooking 
the  Jubbulpore  road  near  SukrI,  from  which  they  made  excursions 
to  burn  and  plunder  villages.  The  rebels  were  dispersed  and  the 
country  pacified  on  the  arrival  of  the  Nagpur  Irregulars  at  the  end 
of  1857.  The  representative  of  the  Dlwan  family  firmly  supported 
the  British  Government.  In  1873  the  greater  part  of  the  old  Katangi 
tahsll  oi  Seoni  was  transferred  to  Balaghat,  and  51  villages  below  the 

'  According  to  another  account,  the  40,000  peiished  in  a  battle  between  the  rulers 
of  Seoni  and  Mandla. 


i68 


SEONI  DISTRICT 


hills  to  Nagpur,  while  Seoni  received  accessions  of  122  villages, 
including  the  Adegaon  tdluka  from  Chhindwara,  and  8  villages  from 
Mandla. 

The  archaeological  remains  are  of  little  importance.  At  Ghansor 
in  the  Seoni  tahsll  are  the  ruins  of  numerous  Jain  temples,  now  only 
heaps  of  cut  and  broken  stone,  and  several  tanks.  Ashta,  28  miles 
from  Seoni  in  the  Barghat  tract,  contains  three  temples  built  of  cut 
stone  without  cement.  There  are  three  similar  temples  in  Lakhnadon 
and  some  sculptures  in  the  tahsll.  Bisapur  near  Kurai  has  an  old 
temple  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Sona  Rani,  widow  of  the 
Gond  Raja  Bhopat,  and  a  favourite  popular  heroine.  The  ruins  of  her 
palace  and  an  old  fort  are  also  to  be  seen  at  Amodagarh  near  Ugli 
on  the  HirrI  river.  Along  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Satpuras,  the 
remains  of  a  number  of  other  Gond  forts  are  visible  at  Umargarh, 
Bhainsagarh,  Partabgarh,  and  Kohwagarh. 

The   population  of  Seoni  at   the   last  three  enumerations  was  as 

follows:   (1881)  335,997;  (1891)  370,767;  and  (1901)327,709.     Be- 

_       ,    .  tween  1881  and  1891  the  District  prospered,  and  the 

Population.  ^   .  ^       ,  ,  ,        r 

rate  of  mcrease   was   about   the    same   as   that   for 

the  Province  as  a  whole.     The  decrease  of  more  than  11  per  cent. 

during  the  last  decade  was  due  to  bad  seasons  and  emigration  to 

Assam.     The  principal  statistics  in  1901  are  shown  below: — 


Tahsil. 

en: 
< 

Number  of 

c 
0 

a 

1 

U 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

o5 

0 
H 

1) 

0    M 

Percentag 

variatior 

populatioi 

tween  \i 

and  iQG 

Seoni 
Lakhnadon 

District  total 

1,64s 

I 

677 
712 

192,364 

I35..M5 

117 

87 

-  12.3 

-  10.7 

4,390 
2,761 

3,206 

I 

1,389 

327,709 

102 

-  1 1.6 

7,151 

The  statistics  of  religion  show  that  55  per  cent,  of  the  population 
are  Hindus,  40  per  cent.  Animists,  and  about  \\  per  cent.  Muham- 
madans.  There  are  some  large  Muhammadan  landlords,  the  principal 
being  the  representative  of  the  Dlwan's  family,  who  holds  a  con- 
siderable estate,  the  Gondi  tdluka,  on  quit-rent  tenure.  The  people 
are  for  the  most  part  immigrants  from  the  north-west,  and  rather 
more  than  half  speak  the  Bundell  dialect  of  Western  Hindi.  Urdu 
is  the  language  of  nearly  11,000  of  the  Muhammadans  and  Kayasths, 
and  about  20,000  persons  in  the  south-east  of  the  District  below  the 
hills  speak  Marathi.  The  Ponwars  have  a  dialect  of  their  own  akin 
to  Rajasthani ;  and  Gondl  is  spoken  by  102,000  persons,  or  rather 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  number  of  Gonds  in  the  District. 

Gonds  number   130,000,  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  population.     They 


AGRICULTURE 


1 6c; 


have  lost  many  of  their  villages,  but  the  important  estates  of  Sarckha 
and  Dhuma  still  belong  to  Gond  landlords.  Ahirs  number  31,000, 
Malis  10,000,  and  the  rnenial  caste  of  Mehras  (weavers  and  labourers) 
19,000.  Lodhis  (5,000)  and  KurmTs  (8,000)  are  important  cultivating 
castes.  Banias  (3,000)  have  now  acquired  over  100  villages.  Another 
landholding  caste  are  the  Bagri  Rajputs,  who  possess  l)etween  60  and 
70  villages  and  are  fairly  prosperous.  The  I'onwars  (16,000)  are  the 
landowners  in  the  rice  tracts  of  Barghat  and  Ugli.  They  are  indus- 
trious, skilled  in  irrigation,  and  take  an  interest  in  cattle-breeding. 
About  70  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population  were  shown  as  dependent 
on  agriculture  in  1901. 

Christians  number  183,  of  whom  165  are  natives.  A  mission 
of  the  original  Free  Church  of  Scotland  is  maintained  in  the  town 
of  Seoni. 

Over  the  greater  part  of  the  District  the  soil  is  formed  from  the 
decomposition  of  trap  rock.  The  best  black  .soil  is  very  rare,  covering 
only  one  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area ;  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  land  on  the  plateaux  or  in  the 
valleys  is  black  and  brown  soil,  mixed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with 
sand  or  limestone  grit,  which  covers  49  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area. 
There  is  a  large  quantity  of  inferior  red  and  stony  land,  on  which  only 
the  minor  millets  and  //'/  can  be  grown.  Lastly,  in  the  rice  tracts 
of  Seoni  is  found  light  sandy  soil,  not  itself  of  any  great  fertility,  but 
responding  readily  to  manure  and  irrigation.  The  land  of  the  Seoni 
tahs'il  is  generally  superior  to  that  of  Lakhnadon. 

About  236  square  miles  are  held  wholly  or  partially  free  of  revenue, 
the  greater  part  of  this  area  being  comprised  in  the  large  Gondi  tdliika 
which  belongs  to  the  Diwan  family.  Nearly  7,000  acres  have  been 
sold  outright  under  the  Waste  Land  Rules;  and  180  square  miles, 
consisting  partly  of  land  which  was  formerly  Government  forest  and 
partly  of  villages  of  escheated  estates,  are  being  settled  on  the  ryottvdfi 
system.  The  remaining  area  is  held  on  the  ordinary  mdlguzdri  tenure. 
The  principal  agricultural  statistics  in  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Tahsil. 

Total.        Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

468 
360 

Seoni 
Lakhnadon 

Total 

1,648 

1,558 

712 
663 

.  1 

52 

1 

2 

453 

484 

3,206 

1,375 

6 

937 

S28 

The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  kodoti,  and  rice.  Wheat  occupied 
365  square  miles,  or  about  32  per  cent,  of  the  cropped  area,  the  greater 
part  being  in  the  Haveli  and  Ghansor  tracts.     Only  3  per  cent,  of  the 


I70  SEONI  D/STRTCT 

fields  classed  as  fit  to  grow  wheat  are  embanked.  Kodon  and  kutkl, 
the  light  autumn  millets,  were  sown  in  195  square  miles,  or  17  per 
cent,  of  the  cropped  area.  Rice  occupied  about  114  square  miles, 
or  8  per  cent,  of  the  cropped  area.  It  has  decreased  in  popularity 
during  the  last  few  years,  owing  to  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
having  been  generally  unfavourable,  and  the  area  under  it  at  present 
is  about  50  square  miles  less  than  at  the  time  of  settlement.  Rice 
is  generally  transplanted,  only  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
being  sown  broadcast  in  normal  years.  Linseed,  ///  and  other  oilseeds, 
gram,  lentils,  tiurd,  joivdr,  and  cotton  are  the  other  crops.  Joivdr  and 
cotton  have  lately  increased  in  popularity,  while  the  area  under  linseed 
has  greatly  fallen  off. 

A  great  deal  of  new  land  has  been  broken  up  since  the  settlement 
of  1864-5,  the  increase  in  cultivated  area  up  to  the  last  settlement 
(1894-6)  amounting  to  50  per  cent.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
new  land  is  of  inferior  quality  and  requires  periodical  resting  fallows. 
The  three-coultered  sowing  drill  and  weeding  harrow  used  by  culti- 
vators of  the  Deccan  iox  joivdr  have  lately  been  introduced  into  Seonl. 
6'(2«-hemp  is  a  profitable  minor  crop,  which  has  recently  come  into 
favour.  No  considerable  sums  have  been  taken  under  the  Land 
Improvement  Act,  the  total  amount  borrowed  between  1894  and 
1904  being  Rs.  29,000  ;  but  nearly  2\  lakhs  has  been  advanced  in 
agricultural  loans. 

Cattle  are  bred  principally  in  the  Kurai  tract  and  in  the  north 
of  the  Lakhnadon  tahsil.  The  Gaolis  and  Golars  in  Kurai  are  pro- 
fessional cattle-breeders,  and  keep  bulls.  Large  white  bullocks  are 
reared,  and  sold  in  Nagpur  and  Berar,  where  they  fetch  Rs.  50  or 
Rs.  60  a  pair  as  yearlings.  The  Lakhnadon  bullocks  are  smaller,  and 
the  majority  are  of  a  grey  colour.  Frequently  no  special  bulls  are  kept, 
and  the  immature  males  are  allowed  to  mix  with  the  cows  before 
castration.  Gonds  and  poor  Muhammadans  sometimes  use  cows  for 
ploughing,  especially  when  they  are  barren.  In  the  rice  tracts  buffaloes 
are  used  for  cultivation.  Small  ponies  are  bred  and  are  used  for  riding 
in  the  Haveli,  especially  during  the  rains.  Sheep  are  not  numerous, 
but  considerable  numbers  of  goats  are  bred  by  ordinary  agriculturists 
both  for  food  and  for  religious  offerings.  Lakhnadon  has  an  especially 
good  breed  of  goats. 

About  46  square  miles  of  rice  land  and  2,000  acres  of  sugar-cane 
and  garden  crop  land  are  classed  as  irrigable,  and  this  area  was  shown 
as  irrigated  in  the  year  of  settlement.  In  1903-4  the  irrigated  area 
was  only  6  square  miles,  owing  to  the  unfavourable  rainfall,  which  was 
insufficient  to  fill  the  tanks.  About  18  square  miles  are  irrigated  from 
tanks  and  4,000  acres  from  wells  and  other  sources  in  a  good  year. 
Rice  is  watered  from  tanks,  both  by  percolation  and  by  cutting  the 


TRADE  AND    COMMUNICATIONS  171 

embankments.     Sugar-cane  and  garden  crops  are  supplied  from  wells. 

There  are  about  650  tanks  and  1,300  wells. 

The  Government  forests  cover  an  area  of  828  square  miles,  of  which 

II  have  been  demarcated  for  disforestation  and  settlement  on  ryotwdri 

tenure.     They  are  well  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the 

Forests 
District.     Teak  and  sdj  {Terini/ia/ia    tomeittosa)  are 

the  chief  timber  trees,  the  best  teak  growing  in  the  Kurai  range,  where 

there  are  three  plantations.     Bamboos  are  also  plentiful.     Mahud  and 

lac  are  the  most  important  minor  products.     The  forest  revenue   in 

1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  63,000. 

Iron  is  found  in  the  Kurai  range  in  the  south  of  the  District  and  was 
formerly  smelted  by  native  methods,  but  has  now  been  displaced  by 
English  iron.  Other  deposits  occur  in  the  valley 
of  the  Hirri  river.  In  Khaira  on  the  Sagar  river, 
23  miles  from  SeonT  towards  Mandla,  coal  has  been  discovered,  and 
a  prospecting  licence  granted.  The  sands  of  the  Pachdhar  and  Bawan- 
thari  rivers  have  long  been  washed  for  gold  in  insignificant  quantities. 
An  inferior  kind  of  mica  has  been  met  with  in  Rukhar  on  the  SeonT- 
Nagpur  road  and  the  hills  near  it.  A  smooth  greyish-white  chalk  is 
obtained  near  Chhapara  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Wainganga.  Light- 
coloured  amethysts  and  topazes  are  found  among  the  rocks  in  the 
Adegaon  tract.  A  good  hard  stone  is  obtained  from  quarries  in  the 
hills  and  in  the  villages  of  Chakki-Khamaria,  Janawarkheda,  and  Khan- 
kara,  from  which  grindstones,  rolling-slabs,  and  mortars  are  made,  and 
sold  all  over  SeonI  and  the  adjoining  Districts  of  Chhindwara  and 
Bhandara. 

The  weaving  of  coarse  cotton  cloth  is  carried  on  in  several  villages, 

principally  at  Seoni,  Barghat,  and  Chhapara.      Tasar   silk  cloth   was 

formerly  woven  at  SeonT,  but  the  industry  is  nearly 

,-,  1     1    •     1      1         TV  T  -    •    /— II  1  Trade  and 

extmct.     Cotton  cloth  is  dyed  at  Mungwani,  Chha-^^jj^^^^jp^jj^j^g^ 

para,  Kahani,  and  other  villages,  dl  (Indian  madder) 

being  still  used,  though  it  has  to  a  large  extent  been  supplanted  by  the 

imported  German  dye.    At  Adegaon  the  amohivd  cloths  are  dyed  green 

with  a  mixture  of  madder  and  myrabolams.     Glass  bangles  are  made 

from  imported  glass  at  Chaonri,  Patan,  and  Chhapara ;  and  lac  bangles 

at   SeonI,  Chhapara,  Bakhari,  and  Lakhnadon.     Earthen  vessels   are 

made   in   several  villages,  those  of  Kaniwara    and  Pachdhar   having 

a  special  reputation.    These  are  universally  used  for  water,  and  also 

for  the  storage  of  such  articles  as  grain  and  glii^  while  Muhammadans 

and  Gonds   employ  them  as  cooking   vessels.     Iron  implements  are 

made  at  Piparwani  in  the  Kurai  tract  from   English  scrap  iron,  and 

are  used  throughout  the  south  of  the  District,  the  Lakhnadon  tahsil 

obtaining  its  supplies  from  Narsinghpur  and  Jubbulpore.     Skins  are 

tanned  and  leather-work  is  done  at  Khawasa. 

VOL.  XXII.  M 


172  SEONI  DISTRICT 

Wheat  is  the  principal  export ;  but  rice  is  exported  to  Chhindwara 
and  the  Narbada  valley,  and  san-hem^  fibre  is  sent  to  Calcutta,  often 
to  the  value  of  four  or  five  lakhs  annually.  Gram  and  oilseeds  are 
exported  to  some  extent,  and  also  the  oil  of  the  kasdr  plant,  a  variety 
of  safifiower,  which  is  very  prickly  and  is  sown  on  the  borders  of  wheat- 
fields  to  keep  out  cattle.  The  exports  of  forest  produce  are  teak,  sdj, 
hijdsdl  {Pterocarpus  Marsupitini)  and  bamboos  for  building,  mahud  oil, 
lac,  chironjl  (the  fruit  of  Buchanania  latifolia),  and  myrabolams.  Ghi, 
cotton,  and  hides  and  horns  are  also  exported.  Salt  comes  principally 
from  the  marshes  near  Ahmadabad  and  to  a  less  extent  from  Bombay. 
Both  sugar  and  gur  are  obtained  from  the  United  Provinces,  and  the 
latter  also  from  Chhindwara.  Mill-made  piece-goods,  from  both  Bombay 
and  Calcutta,  are  now  generally  worn  by  the  better  classes,  in  place  of 
hand-made  cloth.  Betel-leaves,  turmeric,  and  catechu  are  imported 
from  surrounding  Districts.  Superior  country-made  shoes  come  from 
Calcutta  and  Delhi.  The  trade  in  grain  and  ghl  is  principally  in  the 
hands  of  Agarwal  and  Parwar  Banias,  and  there  are  one  or  two  shops 
of  Cutchi  Muhammadans.  The  centre  of  the  timber  trade  is  at  Kurai, 
to  which  wholesale  dealers  come  from  Kamptee  to  make  purchases. 
Barghat  is  the  most  important  weekly  market,  and  after  it  Gopalganj, 
Kaniwara,  and  Keolari. 

The  narrow-gauge  Satpura  extension  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway 
has  recently  been  constructed.  A  branch  line  runs  from  Nainpur 
junction  in  Mandla  through  Seoni  to  Chhindwara,  following  closely 
the  direction  of  the  Seoni-Mandla  and  Seoni-Chhindwara  roads ;  the 
length  of  line  in  the  District  is  55  miles.  The  main  connecting  line 
between  Gondia  and  Jubbulpore  also  crosses  the  north-eastern  portion 
of  the  Lakhnadon  fa/isll,  with  stations  at  Ghansor,  Binaiki,  and  .Shikara  ; 
the  length  of  line  in  the  District  is  20  miles.  The  great  northern  road 
from  Nagpur  to  Jubbulpore,  metalled  and  bridged  throughout,  except 
at  the  Narbada,  passes  from  south  to  north  of  the  District.  The  trade 
of  Seoni  has  hitherto  been  almost  entirely  along  this  road,  that  of  the 
portion  south  from  Chhapara  going  to  Kamptee,  and  that  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Lakhnadon  fa/isli  to  Jubbulpore.  Roads  have  also 
been  constructed  from  Seoni  to  Chhindwara,  Mandla,  Balaghat,  and 
Katangi,  along  which  produce  is  brought  from  the  interior.  From 
the  hilly  country  in  the  east  and  west  of  the  Lakhnadon  ta/isil  car- 
riage has  hitherto  been  by  pack-bullocks,  and  over  all  the  rest  of 
the  District  by  carts.  The  length  ot  metalled  roads  is  133  miles  and 
of  unmetalled  roads  116  miles,  all  maintained  by  the  Public  Works 
department.  The  maintenance  charges  in  1903-4  were  Rs.  64,000. 
Avenues  of  trees  exist  for  short  and  broken  lengths  on  the  principal 
roads. 

From  1823  to  1827  the  District  suffered  from  a  succession  of  short 


ADMINISTRATION  173 

crops  due  to  floods,  hail,  and  blight,  resulting  in  the  desertion  of  many 
villages.  In  1833-4  the  autumn  rains  failed  and  a  part  of  the  spring- 
crop  area  was  left  unsown.  Grain  was  iin[)ortcd  by 
Government  from  Chhattisgarh.  The  winter  rains 
were  excessive  in  1854-5,  and  the  spring  crops  were  totally  destroyed 
by  rust.  In  1868  the  monsoon  failed  in  August,  and  the  year's  rainfall 
was  only  about  half  the  normal,  but  a  heavy  storm  in  September  saved 
a  portion  of  the  crops.  Distress  was  not  severe  in  Seoni,  and  the 
people  made  great  use  of  forest  produce.  From  1893  to  1895  the 
winter  rains  were  abnormally  heavy  and  the  spring  crops  were  damaged 
by  rust;  and  this  was  followed  in  1895  '^"^  1896  by  early  cessation 
of  the  rains.  In  the  former  year  the  autumn  crops  failed  partially, 
and  in  the  latter  year  completely,  while  in  1896  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  spring-crop  area  could  not  be  sown  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the 
land.  There  was  severe  famine  during  the  year  1897,  when  44  lakhs 
was  expended  on  relief,  the  numbers  relieved  rising  to  19,000,  or  5  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  in  September.  In  1899-1900  Seoni  had  a  very 
bad  autumn  harvest  and  a  moderate  spring  harvest.  The  distress  was 
considerable  but  not  acute,  the  numbers  on  relief  rising  to  45,000, 
or  12  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  the  total  expenditure  being 
6-6  lakhs. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  aided  by  one  Extra-Assistant  Commis- 
sioner.    For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  two 

tahsils,  each  of  which   has  a  tahsllday  and  a   naib- 

L   J  -ij-       r,.,     ,^-      •  rr  •     1    1         1^        .     rr  Administration. 

talisilaar.     Ihe  District  staff  includes  a  rorest  orhcer, 

but  public  works  are  in  charge  of  the  Executive  Engineer  of  Jubbul- 

pore. 

The  civil  judicial  staff  consists  of  a  District  and  a  Subordinate  Judge, 
and  a  Munsif  at  each  tahsll.  The  Divisional  and  Sessions  Judge  of 
the  Jubbulpore  Division  has  jurisdiction  in  Seoni.  The  crime  of  the 
District  is  light. 

Neither  the  Gond  nor  Maratha  governments  recognized  any  kind  of 
right  in  land,  and  the  cultivators  were  protected  only  by  the  strong 
custom  enjoining  hereditary  tenure.  The  rule  of  the  Gonds  was  never 
oppressive,  but  the  policy  of  the  Marathas  was  latterly  directed  to  the 
extortion  of  the  largest  possible  revenue.  Rents  were  generally  col- 
lected direct,  and  leases  of  villages  were  granted  only  for  very  short 
terms.  The  measure,  however,  which  contributed  most  largely  towards 
the  impoverishment  of  the  country  was  the  levy  of  the  revenue  before 
the  crops  on  which  it  was  charged  could  be  cut  and  sold.  In  18 10, 
eight  years  before  coming  under  British  rule,  it  was  reported  that  Seoni 
had  paid  a  revenue  of  more  than  three  lakhs ;  but  in  the  interval  the 
exactions  of  the  last  Maratha  ruler,  Appa  Sahib,  and  the  depredations 
of  the  Pindaris,  had  caused  the  annual   realizations  to  shrink  to  less 

M  2 


174 


SEONI  DISTRICT 


than  half  this  sum.  The  period  of  short-term  settlements,  which 
followed  the  commencement  of  British  administration,  constituted  in 
Seoni,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Central  Provinces,  a  series  of  attempts  to 
realize  a  revenue  equal  to,  or  higher  than,  that  nominally  paid  to  the 
Marathas,  from  a  District  whose  condition  had  seriously  deteriorated. 
Three  years  after  cession  the  demand  rose  to  i-']6  lakhs.  This  revenue, 
however,  could  not  be  realized,  and  in  1835  a  settlement  for  twenty 
years  reduced  the  demand  to  1-34  lakhs.  Even  under  this  greatly 
decreased  assessment  some  portions  of  the  District  suffered,  and  the 
revenue  was  revised.  The  rise  of  prices  beginning  about  1861,  how- 
ever, restored  prosperity,  and  revived  the  demand  for  land,  and  at  the 
next  revision  a  large  enhancement  was  made.  The  completion  of  the 
settlement  was  retarded  for  ten  years  owing  to  the  disturbances  conse- 
quent on  the  Mutiny,  and  it  took  effect  from  1864-5.  The  revised 
revenue  amounted  to  2-27  lakhs  on  the  District  as  it  then  stood,  or  to 
1-62  lakhs  on  the  area  now  constituting  Seoni,  and  was  fixed  for  thirty 
years.  During  its  currency  the  seasons  were  generally  favourable, 
prices  rose,  and  cultivation  extended.  When  records  were  '  attested ' 
for  revision  in  1894-5,  it  was  found  that  the  cultivated  area  had 
increased  by  50  per  cent,  since  the  preceding  settlement,  and  that 
the  prices  of  agricultural  produce  had  doubled.  The  new  assessment 
took  effect  from  the  years  1896-8,  and  was  made  for  a  term  of 
eleven  to  twelve  years,  a  shorter  period  than  the  usual  twenty  years 
being  adopted  in  order  to  produce  a  regular  rotation  of  District  settle- 
ments. Under  it  the  revenue  was  enhanced  to  2-93  lakhs,  or  by 
78  per  cent.  The  new  revenue  absorbs  48  per  cent,  of  the  'assets,' 
and  the  average  incidence  per  cultivated  acre  is  R.  0-5-9  (maximum 
R.  0-9-4,  minimum  R.  0-2-4),  while  the  corresponding  figure  for 
rental  is  R.  o-io-io  (maximum  R.  0-15-9,  niinimum  R.   0-6-6). 

The   revenue   receipts   from    land   and   all   sources   have   been,  in 
thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

1,54 
3,64 

1,64 
4,67 

2,83 
4;/° 

2,79 

5,42 

Local  affairs  outside  the  municipal  area  of  Seoni  are  entrusted  to 
a  District  council  and  two  local  boards.  The  income  of  the  District 
council  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  50,000.  The  expenditure  on  public  works 
was  Rs.  10,000,  on  education  Rs.  15,000,  and  on  medical  relief 
Rs.  5,000. 

The  police  force  consists  of  278  ofificers  and  men,  including  3 
mounted  constables,  under  a  District  Superintendent,  and  1,552  watch- 
men in  1,390  inhabited  towns  and  villages.     Seoni  town  has  a  District 


SEOXI  TOWN  175 

jail  with  accommodation  for  162  prisoners,  including  t6  females.  The 
daily  average  number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  53. 

In  respect  of  education  the  District  stands  eleventh  in  the  Province, 
4-3  per  cent,  of  the  male  population  being  able  to  read  and  write  in 
1901,  while  only  335  females  were  returned  as  literate.  The  percentage 
of  children  under  instruction  to  those  of  school-going  age  is  8.  Statis- 
tics of  the  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  are  as  follows  :  (1880-1) 
1,786;  (1890-1)  2,564;  (1900-1)  3,420;  and  (1903-4)  4,344,  including 
337  girls.  The  educational  institutions  comprise  a  high  school  at 
SeonT  supported  by  the  Scottish  Free  Church  Mission ;  2  English 
middle  schools,  4  vernacular  middle,  and  60  primary  schools,  of 
which  5  are  girls'  schools.  The  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4 
was  Rs.  36,000,  of  which  Rs.  20,000  was  derived  from  Provincial  and 
Local  funds  and  Rs.  3,000  from  fees. 

The  District  has  5  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for  56  in- 
patients. In  1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  25,774,  of  whom 
383  were  in-patients,  and  611  operations  were  performed.  The  expen- 
diture was  Rs.  8,000,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  provided  from 
Provincial  and  Local  funds. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  municipality  of  Seoni.  The 
number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  51  per 
1,000  of  the  District  population,  a  very  favourable  result. 

[Khan  Bahadur  Aulad  Husain,  Settlement  Report  (1899);  R.  A. 
Sterndale,  Seonee,  or  Camp  Life  on  the  Sdtpnrd  Range  (1877);  R.  V. 
Russell,  District  Gazetteer  (1907).] 

Seoni  Tahsil. — Southern  tahs'il  of  Seoni  District,  Central  Provinces^ 
lying  between  21°  36'  and  22°  24''  N.  and  79°  19'  and  80°  6'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,648  square  miles.  The  population  decreased  from  219,284 
in  1891  to  192,364  in  1901.  The  density  in  the  latter  year  was  117 
persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsil  contains  one  town,  Seoni  (popu- 
lation, 11,864),  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  \  and 
677  villages.  Excluding  468  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  60 
per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  culti- 
vated area  in  1903-4  was  712  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  1,69,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  21,000. 
The  western  portion  of  the  tahsil  towards  Chhindvvara  consists  of  a 
fertile  black-soil  plain,  while  on  the  south  and  east  there  are  tracts  of 
rice  country.     The  remainder  is  hilly  and  undulating. 

Seoni  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahs'il  of  the  same 
name,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  22°  5'  N.  and  79°  ^t^'  E.,  on  the 
road  from  Nagpur  to  Jubbulpore,  79  miles  from  the  former  town  and 
86  from  the  latter.  A  branch  line  of  the  Satpura  narrow-gauge  railway 
runs  from  Nainpur  junction  through  Seoni  to  Chhindwara.  Population 
(1901),    11,864,   including   nearly  3,000    Muhammadans.      Seoni   was 


r76  SEOIVI   TOWN 

founded  in  1774  by  the  Pathan  governor  of  Chhapara,  who  removed 
his  head-quarters  here,  and  built  a  fort  in  which  his  descendant  still 
resides.  It  was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts 
during  the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  25,000.  In  1903-4  the 
receipts  were  Rs.  39,000,  of  which  Rs.  29,000  was  derived  from  octroi. 
SeonI  is  the  principal  commercial  town  on  the  Satpura  plateau,  and 
has  a  cotton  hand-weaving  industry.  The  water-supply  is  obtained 
from  the  Bubaria  tank,  2\  miles  distant,  from  which  pipes  have  been 
carried  to  the  town.  The  large  ornamental  Dalsagar  tank  in  the  town 
is  kept  filled  from  the  same  source.  SeonT  contains  a  high  school 
with  2,3  pupils,  and  boys'  and  girls'  schools,  supported  by  the  Scottish 
Free  Church  Mission,  besides  municipal  English  middle  and  branch 
schools.  The  medical  institutions  comprise  three  dispensaries,  including 
a  police  hospital  and  a  veterinary  dispensary. 

Seoni-Malwa  Tahsil. —  Ta/ml  of  Hoshangabad  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  22°  13'  and  22°  39"  N.  and  77°  13'  and 
77°  44'  E.,  with  an  area  of  490  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  66,793,  compared  with  75,901  in  1891.  The  density  is  136  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  tahsU  has  one  town,  Seoni-Malwa  (population, 
7,531),  the  head-quarters;  and  196  inhabited  villages.  Excluding 
126  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  75  per  cent,  of  the  available 
area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was 
232  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year 
was  Rs.  1,29,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  12,000.  The  tahsil,  which  is 
a  very  small  one,  consists  of  a  highly  fertile  black-soil  plain  adjoining 
the  Narbada  and  a  strip  of  hilly  country  to  the  south. 

Seoni-Malwa  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  fahsil  of  the  same 
name  in  Hoshangabad  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  22°  27''  N. 
and  77°  29'  E.,  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  443  miles 
from  Bombay.  Population  (1901),  7,531.  The  town  was  created 
a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  during  the  decade 
ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  they  were  Rs.  9,000, 
derived  mainly  from  octroi.  Seoni-Malwa  was  formerly  the  most 
important  trading  town  in  the  District,  but  it  has  been  supplanted 
in  recent  years  by  Harda  and  Itarsi.  A  number  of  betel-vine  gardens 
are  situated  near  the  town,  in  which  a  special  variety  of  leaf  is  grown. 
Seoni-Malwa  possesses  an  English  middle  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Seorai. — Ancient  site  in  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab.     See  Sarwahi. 

Seoraj.— 7a//«/in  Kangra  District,  Punjab.     See  Saraj. 

Serajgunge. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Pabna  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam.     See  Sirajganj. 

Seram  Taluk. — Eastern  fdluk  of  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad 
State.  The  population  in  1901,  including  Jdgirs,  was  82,349,  com- 
pared with  54,106  in   189T  ;  the  area  was  404  square  miles.     Up  to 


SERAMPORE    TOIVA"  ,77 

1905  tlie  fd/id'  contained  one  town,  Seram  (population,  5,503),  the 
headquarters;  and  117  villages,  of  which  45  were  jdgJr.  The  land 
revenue  in  1901  was  i-8  lakhs.  In  1905,  21  villages  from  Gurmatkal 
were  added  to  Seram.  Rice  is  grown  in  the  fd/uk  by  tank-irrigation. 
The  paigdh  tdluk  of  Chltapur,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  28,930  and 
38  villages,  lies  to  the  east  of  this  tdluk,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
121  square  miles. 

Seram  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  1 7°  i  \'  N.  and  77°  18'  E., 
on  the  Nizam's  State  Railway.  Population  (1901),  5,503.  Seram 
contains  many  old  temples  and  mosques,  notable  among  them  being 
the  old  Jama  Masjid,  constructed  in  the  pillar  and  lintel  style,  and  the 
temple  of  Panchalinga,  the  pillars  of  which  are  richly  carved,  while  the 
ceilings  are  well  decorated.     It  has  a  ginning  factory  also. 

Serampore  Subdivision. — South  eastern  subdivision  of  Hooghly 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  22°  40'  and  22°  55''  N.  and  87°  59'  and 
88°  22'  E.,  with  an  area  of  343  square  miles.  The  subdivision  consists 
of  a  level  strip  of  land  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Hooghly  river, 
and  exhibits  all  the  features  of  a  thickly  peopled  deltaic  tract.  The 
population  in  1901  was  413,178,  compared  with  399,987  in  1891.  It 
contains  five  towns,  Serampore  (population,  44,451),  the  head-quarters, 
Uttarpara  (7,036),  Baidvabati  (17,174),  Bhadreswar  (15,150), 
and  KoTRANG  (5,944) ;  and  783  villages.  The  towns,  which  are  all 
situated  along  the  bank  of  the  Hooghly,  contain  a  large  industrial 
population,  and  the  subdivision  is  more  thickly  populated  than  the  rest 
of  the  District,  there  being  no  fewer  than  1,205  persons  per  square 
mile.     A  shrine  at  Tarakeswar  is  largely  resorted  to  by  pilgrims. 

Serampore  Town  {Srirdmpnr). — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision 
of  the  same  name  in  Hooghly  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  22"  45'  N. 
and  88°  21''  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  river,  opposite 
Barrackpore.  The  population  increased  from  24,440  in  1872  to 
25,559  in  1881,  to  35,952  in  1891,  and  to  44,451  in  1901,  the  progress 
being  due  to  the  important  mills  which  it  contains.  Of  the  total, 
80  per  cent,  are  Hindus  and  19  per  cent.  Musalmans,  while  of  the 
remainder  405  are  Christians. 

Serampore  was  originally  a  settlement  of  the  Danes,  who  remained 
here  until  1845,  when  by  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  Denmark  all  the 
Danish  possessions  in  India,  consisting  of  the  towns  of  Tranquebar 
and  Serampore  (or  Frederiksnagar,  as  it  was  called)  and  a  small  piece 
of  ground  at  Balasore,  formerly  occupied  as  a  Danish  factory,  were  sold 
to  the  East  India  Company  for  1 2^  lakhs  of  rupees.  Serampore  was 
the  scene  of  the  labours  of  the  famous  Baptist  missionaries,  Carey, 
Marshman,  and  Ward  ;  and  the  mission,  in  connexion  with  which  its 
founder  established  a  church,  school,  and  library,  still  flourishes.     Two 


178  SERAMPORE    TOWN 

great  vielas,  the  Snanjatra  and  the  Rathjatra,  are  annually  held  in  the 
Mahesh  and  Ballabhpur  suburbs  of  the  town.  At  the  first  the  image 
of  Jagannath  is  brought  from  his  temple  at  Mahesh  and  bathed ;  at 
the  second  and  more  important  the  image  is  dragged  to  the  temple 
of  a  brother  god,  Radhaballabh,  and  brought  back  after  an  eight  days' 
visit.  During  these  days  an  important  fair  is  held  at  Mahesh,  which 
is  very  largely  attended,  as  many  as  50,000  persons  being  present  on 
the  first  and  last  days  of  the  festival.  The  town  contains  several 
important  mills,  and  silk-  and  cotton-weaving  by  hand  is  also  largely 
carried  on ;  other  industries  are  silk-dyeing,  brick-making,  pottery,  and 
mat-making. 

Serampore  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1865.  The  income 
during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged  Rs.  55,000,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  53,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  60,000, 
including  Rs.  29,000  derived  from  a  tax  on  houses  and  lands, 
Rs.  16,000  from  a  conservancy  rate,  Rs.  5,000  from  tolls,  Rs.  1,600 
from  a  tax  on  vehicles,  Rs.  1,500  from  a  tax  on  professions,  &c.,  and 
Rs.  2,000  from  the  municipal  market,  which  is  held  in  a  corrugated 
iron  building.  The  incidence  of  taxation  was  Rs.  1-3-5  P^r  head  of 
the  population.  In  the  same  year  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  54,000, 
the  chief  items  being  Rs.  3,000  spent  on  lighting,  Rs.  9,000  on 
drainage,  Rs.  19,000  on  conservancy,  Rs.  7,000  on  medical  relief, 
Rs.  4,000  on  roads,  and  Rs.  2,000  on  education.  The  town  contains 
37  miles  of  metalled  and  18  miles  of  unmetalled  roads. 

The  chief  buildings  are  the  courts,  which  occupy  the  site  of  the 
old  Danish  Government  House,  the  school  (late  the  college),  the 
Danish  (now  the  English)  church  built  by  subscription  in  1805, 
the  Mission  chapel,  the  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a  sub-jail  with 
accommodation  for  28  prisoners,  which  was  formerly  the  Danish 
courthouse,  a  dispensary  with  42  beds,  and  the  temples  of  Radha- 
ballabh at  Ballabhpur  and  of  Jagannath  at  Mahesh.  The  former 
college,  which  was  founded  by  the  three  Serampore  missionaries,  is 
now  a  high  school.  It  possesses  a  fine  library  in  which  are  several 
historic  pictures,  and  had  312  boys  on  the  rolls  in  1902  ;  attached 
to  it  is  a  training  school  for  native  pastors  of  the  Baptist  Church. 
There  are  3  other  high  schools,  6  middle  vernacular  schools,  and 
15  primary  schools,  of  which  4  are  for  girls.  A  public  library  is 
maintained  by  subscriptions. 

Seringapatam  Taluk. — Central  taluk  of  Mysore  District,  Mysore 
State,  including  the  French  Rocks  i,ViCy-taluk,  and  lying  between  12°  iS' 
and  12°  44'  N.  and  76°  32'  and  76°  55'  E.,  with  an  area  of  274  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  88,691,  compared  with  85,242  in 
1 89 1.  The  taluk  contains  four  towns,  Sp:ringapatam  (population, 
8,584),  the  head-quarters,  Melukote  (3,129),  French  Rocks  (1,936), 


SEEING APATAM  TOWN  179 

and  Palhalli  (1,793);  ^^^d  210  villages.  The  land  revenue  demand  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  2,07,000.  The  Cauvery  flows  through  the  south  from 
west  to  east,  receiving  the  Lokapavani  from  the  north.  A  line  of  hills 
runs  north  from  the  Cauvery,  the  prominent  peaks  of  which  are  Kari- 
ghatta  (2,697  feet),  French  Rocks  (2,882  feet),  and  Yadugiri  (3,579  feet) 
at  Melukote.  The  country,  rising  gradually  on  both  sides  of  the 
Cauvery,  is  naturally  fertile,  and  is  irrigated  by  fine  channels  from 
the  river,  taken  off  from  five  or  six  dams.  Rice  and  sugar-cane  are 
generally  grown.  In  the  north-east  are  a  few  poorly  populated  wild 
tracts.     The  best  gardens  are  those  supplied  by  the  channels. 

Seringapatam  Town  (properly  Snrmigapatfand). —  Head-quarters 
of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name  in  Mysore  District,  Mysore,  situated  in 
12°  25'  N.  and  76°  42'  E.,  on  an  island  in  the  Cauvery,  10  miles  north- 
east of  Mysore  city.  The  population  fell  from  12,553  in  1891  to  8,584 
in  1 90 1,  chiefly  owing  to  plague.  The  island  on  which  the  town  stands 
is  about  3  miles  long  and  about  i  in  breadth. 

In  the  earliest  ages  Gautama  Rishi  is  said  to  have  had  a  hermi- 
tage here,  and  worshipped  the  god  Ranganatha,  whose  temple  is  the 
principal  building  in  the  fort.  The  Gautama  kshetra  is  a  small  island 
west  of  Seringapatam,  where  the  river  divides.  Under  two  large  boul- 
ders is  the  Rishi's  cave,  now  closed  up.  In  894,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Ganga  kings,  one  Tirumalayya  appears  to  have  founded  the  temples 
of  Ranganatha  and  Tirumala  on  the  island,  then  overrun  with  jungle, 
and,  enclosing  them  with  a  wall,  called  the  place  SrI-Rangapura.  About 
II 1 7  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Cauvery  was  bestowed  by  the 
Hoysala  king  on  the  reformer  Ramanuja,  who  formed  the  Ashtagrama 
or  '  eight  townships '  there,  appointing  over  them  his  own  agents  under 
the  designation  of  Prabhus  and  Hebbars.  In  1454  the  Hebbar  of 
Nagamangala,  descended  from  one  of  these,  obtained  permission  from 
the  Vijayanagar  king  to  erect  a  fort,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
district,  with  the  title  of  Danayak.  His  descendants  held  it  till  1495, 
when  it  passed  into  the  direct  possession  of  the  Vijayanagar  kings, 
who  made  it  the  seat  of  a  viceroy  known  as  the  Sri  Ranga  Rayal. 
In  1610  the  Vijayanagar  viceroy  was  ousted  by  the  Raja  of  Mysore, 
who  made  Seringapatam  his  capital.  It  was  besieged  on  a  number 
of  occasions,  but  without  success,  the  enemy  being  either  repulsed  or 
bought  off.  The  most  memorable  of  these  sieges  were:  in  1638  by 
the  Bijapurarmy;  in  1646  by  Sivappa  Naik  of  Bednur ;  in  1697  by  the 
Marathas;  in  1732  by  the  Nawab  of  Arcot ;  in  1755  by  the  Subahdar 
of  the  Deccan  ;  and  in  1757  and  1759  by  the  Marathas.  Haidar  took 
possession  in  1761,  and  it  was  again  besieged  by  the  Marathas  in  1771. 
In  1792  and  1799  took  place  the  two  sieges  by  the  British,  previous  to 
which  the  fort  had  been  greatly  strengthened  and  extended.  On  the 
former  occasion  Tipu  Sultan  submitted  to  the  terms  imposed ;  but  in 


t8o  seringa  fa  TAM   TOWN 

1799  he  prolonged  resistance  till  the  place  was  stormed,  losing  his  life 
during  the  assault.  By  this  victory  Seringapatam  became  the  property 
of  the  British,  who  leased  it  to  Mysore  for  Rs.  50,000  a  year.  At  the 
rendition  in  1881  it  was  given  up  to  Mysore,  the  Bangalore  cantonment 
being  taken  over  instead  as  an  *  assigned  tract.' 

The  historical  interest  of  the  place  continues  to  attract  many  visitors, 
who  view  the  site  of  the  breach,  the  ramparts,  the  dungeons  in  which 
British  prisoners  were  chained,  and  other  parts  in  the  fort  itself.  Out- 
side the  fort,  on  the  east,  is  the  Darya  Daulat,  a  pleasure  garden,  with 
a  lavishly  painted  summer  palace  of  Tipu  Sultan's  time,  afterwards 
occupied  by  Colonel  Wellesley  (the  future  Duke  of  Wellington).  On 
the  walls  are  elaborate  panoramic  paintings  of  the  defeat  of  Colonel 
Baillie  at  Pollilore  in  1780,  Haidar  and  Tipu  in  processions,  and 
numerous  representations  of  Rajas  and  other  notabilities.  Farther 
east  is  the  suburb  of  Ganjam  or  Shahr  Ganjam,  to  populate  which 
Tipu  forcibly  deported  12,000  families  from  Sira.  East  again  of  this 
is  the  Gumbaz  or  mausoleum  of  Haidar  and  Tipii,  situated  in  what 
was  the  Lai  Bagh,  another  pleasure  garden  with  a  palace  of  which 
nothing  now  remains.  The  island  is  watered  by  a  canal  which  is 
carried  across  the  south  branch  of  the  river  by  an  aqueduct  constructed 
by  Tipu.  In  1804  the  Wellesley  Bridge  was  built  across  the  eastern 
branch  by  the  Dlwan  Purnaiya,  and  named  after  the  Governor-General. 
It  is  an  interesting  specimen  of  native  architecture,  being  supported 
on  rough  stone  pillars  let  into  the  rock  in  the  bed  of  the  river. 

Since  1882  the  railway  has  run  through  Seringapatam,  the  fort  walls 
being  pierced  in  two  places  for  it.  Several  new  buildings  for  ofifice 
purposes  have  been  erected,  with  a  new  bathing  ghat  as  a  memorial 
to  the  late  Maharaja.  These,  and  various  municipal  improvements, 
have  given  the  place  a  more  prosperous  look  than  it  had  worn  since 
the  removal  of  the  British  garrison  in  1809.  The  municipality  dates 
from  1871.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending 
1901  averaged  Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  they  were  Rs.  8,400  and 
Rs.   14,600  respectively. 

Seringham. — Island  and  town  in  Trichinopoly  District,  Madras. 
See  Srirangam. 

Sermadevi  Subdivision.— Subdivision  of  Tinnevelly  District, 
Madras,  consisting  of  the  Amrasamudram,  Trnkasi,  and  Nangu- 
NERi  taluks. 

Sermadevi  Town. — Town  in  the  Ambasamudram  taluk  of  Tinne- 
velly District,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  41'  N.  and  77°  34'  E.  It  is  a 
Union,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  13,474.  Sermadevi  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  divisional  officer  in  charge  of  the  Nanguneri,  Amba- 
samudram, and  Tenkasi  taluks.,  and  a  station  on  the  recently  opened 
Tinnevelly-Quilon  branch  of  the  South  Indian  Railway.     The  fields  in 


SETTUR  T8r 

the   neighbourhood   are  very   fertile,   and  the    population    is   entirely 
agricultural.     Three  miles  distant  is   Pattamadai,  where  mats  of  fine 
texture  are  manufactured  from  reeds  by  a  few  Musalman  families. 
Seronj. — Pargana  and  town  in  Tonk  State,  Central    India.     See 

SiRONJ. 

Seshachalam. — Mountain  range  in   Cuddapah    District,  Madras. 

See  Palkonda. 

Set  Mahet. — A  vast  collection  of  ruins  lying  partly  in  the  Gonda 
and  partly  in  the  Bahraich  District  of  Oudh,  United  Provinces,  in 
27°  31'  N.  and  82"  \'  E.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Raptl.  The  ruins 
were  examined  by  General  Cunningham,  and  excavated  more  com- 
pletely by  Dr.  W.  Hoey  in  1884-5.  They  include  two  mounds,  the 
larger  of  which  is  known  as  Mahet  and  the  smaller  as  Set  or  Sahet, 
These  cover  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city,  with  many  temples  and 
other  buildings.  In  the  course  of  the  excavations  a  number  of  interest- 
ing sculptures  and  terra-cotta  figures  were  found,  specimens  of  which 
are  now  in  the  Provincial  Museum  at  Lucknovv.  A  noteworthy  inscrip- 
tion, dated  in  11 76  or  1276  Samvat  (a.d.  1119  or  12 19),  records  the 
survival  of  Buddhism  to  that  date.  For  many  years  it  was  held  that 
Set  Mahet  was  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  SravastT,  At  the  death 
of  Rama,  according  to  the  Hindu  sacred  writings,  the  northern  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Kosala  was  ruled  by  his  son,  Lava,  from  this  city. 
Throughout  the  Buddhist  period  references  to  SravastT  are  frequent, 
and  Gautama  Buddha  spent  many  periods  of  retreat  in  the  Jetavana 
garden  there.  When  Fa  Hian  visited  the  place  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  it  was  inhabited  by  only  200  families;  and  Hiuen  Tsiang, 
a  couple  of  centuries  later,  found  it  completely  deserted.  The  recent 
discoveries  of  the  approximate  site  of  Kapilavastu  increased  doubts 
which  had  been  before  felt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  identification, 
and  it  has  now  been  suggested  that  SravastT  must  be  sought  for  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  RaptT  within  Nepal  territory.  The  word  SravastT 
occurs  on  the  pedestal  of  an  image  dug  up  at  Set  Mahet ;  but  this  fact 
is  not  conclusive. 

[A.  Cunningham,  A?rhaeohgiial Si/rvey  Reporfs,  vol.  i,  p.  30,  and  vol. 
xi,  p.  78  ;  \\\  Hoey,  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1892,  extra 
number;  V.  A.  '$>vc\\\\\,  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1898,  p.  520, 
and  1900,  p.  I  ;  J.  Bloch,  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1898, 
p.  274;  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,   Buddhist  India,  passim.'] 

Settur. — Chief  town  of  the  zamlndari  of  the  same  name  in  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  Srivilliputtur  taluk  of  Tinnevelly  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  9°  24'  N.  and  77°  20'  E.  It  is  a  Union,  with 
a  population  (1901)  of  14,328.  The  zamlnddr  is  of  the  Maravun 
caste,  and  is  descended  from  an  old  family  of  foligdrs.  The  estate 
is  irrigated  by  the  streams  flowing  down  from  the  Western  Ghats. 


i82  SEVEy  PAGODAS 

Seven  Pagodas. — Village  in  the  District  and  tdluk  of  Chingleput, 
Madras,  situated  in  12°  37'  N.  and  80°  12'  E.,  35  miles  south  of 
Madras  city,  on  the  Buckingham  Canal,  between  it  and  the  sea. 
Population  (1901),  1,229.  The  vernacular  name  is  variously  spelt 
as  Mahabalipur,  Mahavellipur,  Mavallipur,  Mamalaipur,  Mamallapur, 
and  Mallapur,  The  disputations  regarding  its  form  are  discussed  in 
Major  M.  W.  Carr's  book  regarding  it  and  in  Mr.  Crole's  Manual  of 
the  District. 

The  village  itself  is  insignificant,  but  near  it  are  some  of  the  most 
interesting  and,  to  archaeologists,  the  most  important  architectural 
remains  in  Southern  India.  These  antiquities  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups :  the  five  so-called  raths  (monolithic  temples)  to  the 
south  of  the  village,  belonging  perhaps  to  the  latest  Buddhist  period ; 
the  cave-temples,  monolithic  figures,  carvings,  and  sculptures,  west 
of  the  village,  perhaps  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  which  contain 
some  marvellous  reliefs,  ranking  with  those  of  EUora  and  Elephanta ; 
the  more  modern  temples  of  Vishnu  and  Siva,  the  latter  being  washed 
by  the  sea.  To  these  last  two,  with  five  other  pagodas  buried  (accord- 
ing to  tradition)  under  the  sea,  the  place  owes  its  English  name.  Who 
were  the  authors  of  the  older  of  these  constructions  is  a  question  which 
cannot  be  considered  to  be  definitely  set  at  rest.  Mr.  Sewell,  after 
examining  the  question  in  its  different  aspects,  concludes  by  observing 
that  exactly  at  the  period  when,  according  to  the  style  of  architecture, 
as  judged  by  the  best  authorities,  we  find  a  northern  race  temporarily 
residing  at  or  near  this  place,  sculpturing  these  wonderful  relics  and 
suddenly  departing,  leaving  them  unfinished,  inscriptions  give  us  the 
Chalukyas  from  the  north  conquering  the  Pallava  dynasty  of  Kanchi, 
temporarily  residing  there  and  then  driven  out  of  the  country,  after 
a  struggle,  permanently  and  for  ever.  Everything,  therefore,  would 
seem  to  point  to  the  Chalukyas  of  Kalyanapura  as  being  the  sculp- 
tors of  the  Seven  Pagodas.  Mr.  Crole  describes  the  antiquities  as 
follows : — 

'  The  best,  and  by  far  the  most  important,  of  its  class  is  the  pastoral 
group  in  the  Krishna  fnaniapam,  as  it  is  called.  The  fact  is,  that  it 
represents  Indra,  the  god  of  the  sky,  supporting  the  clouds  ^  with  his 
left  hand,  to  protect  the  cattle  of  Bala  from  the  fury  of  the  Maruts  or 
tempest  demons.  Near  him,  the  cattle  are  being  tended  and  milked. 
To  the  right,  a  young  bull  is  seen,  with  head  slightly  turned  and  fore- 
foot extended,  as  if  suddenly  startled.  This  is  one  of  the  most  spirited 
and  lifelike  pieces  of  sculpture  to  be  seen  anywhere. 

'  A  little  to  the  north  of  this  is  the  great  bas-relief  which  goes  by  the 
name  of  "  Arjuna's  Penance."  It  covers  a  mass  of  rock  96  feet  in 
length  and  43  feet  in  height,  and  is  described  by  Fergusson  as  "  the 
most  remarkable  thing  of  its  class  in  India."     "Now,"  says  he,  "that 

'  More  correctly,  Krishna  supporting  a  hill ;  see  GiRl  RaJ. 


SEVEN  PAGODAS  183 

it  is  known  to  be  wholly  devoted  to  serpent-worship,  it  ac()uircs  aw 
interest  it  had  not  before,  and  opens  a  new  chapter  in  Indian  myth- 
ology. There  seems  nothing  to  enable  us  to  fix  its  age  with  absolute 
certainty ;  it  can  hardly,  however,  be  doubted  that  it  is  anterior  to  the 
tenth  century,  and  may  be  a  couple  of  centuries  earlier." 

'  Near  the  stone  choultry  by  the  side  of  the  road,  and  a  little  to  the 
north  of  the  rock  last  described,  stands  a  well-executed  group  lately 
exhumed,  representing  a  couple  of  monkeys  catching  fleas  on  each 
other  after  the  manner  of  their  kind,  while  a  young  one  is  extracting 
nourishment  from  the  female. 

'  Near  this  point,  a  spectator,  looking  southwards,  may  see,  formed 
by  the  ridges  on  which  the  caves  are  cut,  the  recumbent  figure  of 
a  man  with  his  hands  in  the  attitude  of  prayer  or  meditation.  This 
figure  measures  at  least  1,500  feet  long,  the  partly  natural  resemblance 
having  been  assisted  by  the  rolling  away  of  rocks  and  boulders.  On 
the  spot,  this  is  called  the  "Giant  Raja  Bali,"  but  it  is  no  doubt  the 
work  of  Jains. 

'The  whole  of  this  ridge  is  pitted  with  caves  and  temples.  There 
are  fourteen  or  fifteen  Rishi  caves  in  it,  and  much  carving  and  figuring 
of  a  later  period.  These  are  distinguished  by  the  marked  transition 
from  the  representations  of  scenes  of  peace  to  scenes  of  battle,  treading 
down  of  opposition  and  destruction,  the  too  truthful  emblems  of  the 
dark  centuries  of  religious  strife  which  preceded  and  followed  the 
final  expulsion  of  the  Buddhists.  Their  age  is  not  more  than  600 
or  700  years ;  and  the  art  is  poor,  and  shows  as  great  a  decadence 
in  matter  as  in  religion.  The  representations  are  too  often  gross  and 
disgusting,  and  the  carving  stiff  and  unnatural — entirely  wanting  in 
ease  and  grace  and  truth  to  nature. 

'  Behind  this  ridge,  and  near  the  canal,  are  two  more  of  the  mono- 
lithic raths^  and  one  similar  in  form,  but  built  of  large  blocks  of 
stone. 

*  The  last  period  is  represented  by  the  Shore  Temple,  the  Varaha- 
swami  Temple  in  the  village,  and  by  some  of  the  remains  in  a  hamlet 
called  Salewankuppen,  2  miles  to  the  northward.  In  the  two  former 
there  is  little  distinguishable  in  construction  and  general  plan  from 
similar  buildings  to  be  found  everywhere  in  the  South.' 

Mr.  Fergusson  discusses  the  architectural  aspects  as  follows  : — 

'The  oldest  and  most  interesting  group  of  monuments  are  the  so- 
called  five  raths,  or  monolithic  temples,  standing  on  the  sea-shore. 
One  of  these,  that  with  the  apsidal  termination,  stands  a  little  detached 
from  the  rest.  The  other  four  stand  in  a  line  north  and  south,  and 
look  as  if  they  had  been  carved  out  of  a  single  stone  or  rock,  which 
originally,  if  that  were  so,  must  have  been  between  35  feet  and  40  feet 
high  at  its  southern  end,  sinking  to  half  that  height  at  its  northern 
extremity,  and  its  width  diminishing  in  a  like  proportion. 

'  The  first  on  the  north  is  a  mere  pansala  or  cell,  1 1  feet  square 
externally  and  16  feet  high.  It  is  the  only  one,  too,  that  seems 
finished  or  nearly  so,  but  it  has  no  throne  or  image  internally,  from 
which  we  might  guess  its  destination. 

'  The  next  is  a  small  copy  of  the  last  to  the  southward,  and  measures 


r84  SEVEN  PAGODAS 

II  feet  by  i6  feet  in  plan,  and  20  feet  in  height.  The  third  is  very 
remarkable ;  it  is  an  oblong  building  with  a  curvilinear-shaped  roof 
with  a  straight  ridge.  Its  dimensions  are  42  feet  long,  25  feet  wide, 
and  25  feet  high.  Externally  it  seems  to  have  been  completely  carved, 
but  internally  only  partially  excavated,  the  work  being  apparently 
stopped  by  an  accident.  It  is  cracked  completely  through,  so  that 
daylight  can  be  seen  through  it,  and  several  masses  of  the  rock  have 
fallen  to  the  ground.  This  has  been  ascribed  to  an  earthquake  and 
other  causes.  My  impression  is  that  the  explanation  is  not  far  to 
seek,  but  arose  from  unskilfulness  on  the  part  of  workmen  employed  in 
a  first  attempt.  Having  completed  the  exterior,  they  set  to  work  to 
excavate  the  interior,  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  a  structural  building 
of  the  same  class,  leaving  only  such  pillars  and  supports  as  were 
sufficient  to  support  a  wooden  roof  of  the  ordinary  construction.  In 
this  instance,  it  was  a  mass  of  solid  granite  which,  had  the  excavation 
been  completed,  would  certainly  have  crushed  the  lower  storey  to 
powder.  As  it  was,  the  builders  seem  to  have  taken  the  hint  of  the 
crack,  and  stopped  the  further  progress  of  the  work. 

'  The  last,  however,  is  the  most  interesting  of  the  series.  Its  dimen- 
sions are  27  feet  by  25  feet  in  plan,  34  feet  in  height.  Its  upper  part 
is  entirely  finished  with  its  sculptures,  the  lower  merely  blocked  out. 
It  may  be  that,  frightened  by  the  crack  in  the  last-named  rath,  or  from 
some  other  cause,  they  desisted,  and  it  still  remains  in  an  unfinished 
state. 

'  The  materials  for  fixing  the  age  of  this  rath  are,  first,  the  palaeo- 
graphic  form  of  the  characters  used  in  the  numerous  inscriptions  with 
which  it  is  covered.  Comparing  these  with  Prinsep's  alphabets, 
allowing  for  difference  of  locality,  they  seem  certainly  to  be  anterior 
to  the  seventh  century.  The  language,  too,  is  Sanskrit,  while  all  the 
Chola  inscriptions  of  the  tenth  and  subsequent  centuries  are  in  Tamil, 
and  in  very  much  more  modern  characters.  Another  proof  of 
antiquity  is  the  character  of  the  sculpture.  We  have  on  this  rath 
most  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon,  such  as  Brahma  and  Vishnu  ;  Siva,  too, 
appears  in  most  of  his  characters,  but  all  in  forms  more  subdued  than 
to  be  found  elsewhere.  The  one  extravagance  is  that  the  gods  have 
generally  four  arms— never  more — to  distinguish  them  from  mortals; 
but  none  of  the  combinations  or  extravagances  we  find  in  the  caves 
here,  as  at  EUora  or  Elephanta.  It  is  the  soberest  and  most  reason- 
able version  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon  yet  discovered,  and  consequently 
one  of  the  most  interesting,  as  well,  probably,  as  the  earliest. 

'  None  of  the  inscriptions  on  the  raths  have  dates  ;  but  from  the 
mention  of  the  Pallavas  in  connexion  with  this  place,  I  see  no  reason 
for  doubting  the  inference  drawn  by  Sir  Walter  Elliot  from  their 
inscriptions — "that  the  excavations  could  not  well  have  been  made 
later  than  the  sixth  century."  Add  to  all  this,  that  these  raths  are 
certainly  very  like  Buddhist  buildings,  and  it  seems  hardly  to  admit  of 
doubt  that  we  have  here  petrifactions  of  the  last  forms  of  Buddhist 
architecture,  and  the  first  forms  of  that  of  the  Dravidian. 

'  The  want  of  interiors  in  these  raths  makes  it  sometimes  difficult  to 
make  this  as  clear  as  it  might  be.  We  cannot,  for  instance,  tell 
whether  the  apsidal  rath  was  meant   to  reproduce  a  chaitya  hall,  or 


SEVEN  PAGODAS  185 

a  vihdm.  From  its  being  in  several  storeys,  I  would  infer  the  latter ; 
but  the  whole  is  so  conventionalized  by  transplantation  to  tht  South, 
and  by  the  different  uses  to  which  they  are  applied  for  the  purposes  of 
a  different  religion,  that  we  must  not  stretch  analogies  too  far. 

'There  is  one  other  rath,  at  some  distance  from  the  others,  called 
"  Arjuna's  Rath,"  which,  strange  to  say,  is  hnished,  or  nearly  so,  and 
gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  form  their  oblong  temples  took  before  we  have 
any  structural  buildings  of  the  class.  This  temple,  though  entered  in 
the  side,  was  never  intended  to  be  pierced  through,  but  always  to 
contain  a  cell.  The  large  oblong  rath,  on  the  contrary,  was  intended 
to  be  open  all  round  ;  and  whether,  consequently,  we  should  consider 
it  as  a  choultry  or  a  gopurani  is  not  quite  clear.  One  thing,  at  all 
events,  seems  certain — and  it  is  what  interests  us  most  here — that  the 
square  raths  are  copies  of  Buddhist  vihdras,  and  are  the  originals  from 
which  all  the  vimdnas  in  Southern  India  were  copied,  and  continued 
to  be  copied  nearly  unchanged  to  a  very  late  period.  .  .  .  On  the 
other  hand,  the  oblong  raths  were  halls  or  porticoes  with  the 
Buddhists,  and  became  the  gopurams  or  gateways  which  are  fre(]uently, 
indeed  generally,  more  important  parts  of  Dravidian  temples  than  the 
vimdnas  themselves.  They,  too,  like  the  vimdnas,  retain  their  original 
features  very  little  changed  to  the  present  day. 

'The  other  antiquities  at  Mahabalipur,  though  very  interesting  in 
themselves,  are  not  nearly  so  important  as  the  raths  just  described. 
The  caves  are  generally  small,  and  fail  architecturally,  from  the  feeble- 
ness and  tenuity  of  their  supports.  The  Southern  cave-diggers  had 
evidently  not  been  grounded  in  the  art  like  tlieir  Northern  compeers, 
the  Buddhists.  The  long  experience  of  the  latter  in  the  art  taught 
them  that  ponderous  masses  were  not  only  necessary  to  support  their 
roofs,  but  for  architectural  effect ;  and  neither  they  nor  the  Hindus 
who  succeeded  them  in  the  North  ever  hesitated  to  use  pillars  of  two 
or  three  diameters  in  height,  or  to  crowd  them  together  to  any  required 
extent.  In  the  South,  on  the  contrary,  the  cave-diggers  tried  to  copy 
literally  the  structural  pillar  used  to  support  wooden  roofs.  Hence, 
I  believe,  the  accident  to  the  long  rath  ;  and  hence  certainly  the  poor 
and  modern  look  of  all  the  Southern  caves,  which  has  hitherto  proved 
such  a  stumbling-block  to  all  who  have  tried  to  guess  their  age.  Their 
sculpture  is  better,  and  some  of  their  best  designs  rank  with  those  of 
EUora  and  Elephanta,  with  which  they  were,  in  all  probabilit)',  con- 
temporary. Now,  however,  that  we  know  that  the  sculptures  in 
Cave  No.  3  at  Badami  were  executed  in  the  sixth  century  (a.d.  579), 
we  are  enabled  to  approximate  to  the  date  of  those  in  the  Mahabalipur 
caves  with  very  tolerable  certainty.  The  Badami  sculptures  are  so 
similar  in  style  with  the  best  examples  there,  that  they  cannot  be  far 
distant  in  date;  and  if  placed  in  the  following  century  it  will  not, 
probably,  be  far  from  the  truth.' 

A  number  of  coins  of  all  ages  have  been  found  in  the  neighb(jur- 
hood,  among  others  Roman,  Chinese,  and  Persian.  A  Roman  coin, 
damaged,  but  believed  to  be  of  Theodosius  (a.  d.  393),  formed  part  of 
Colonel  Mackenzie's  collection.  Others  have  been  found  on  the  sand- 
hills along  the  shore  south  of  Madras  city. 


1 86  SEWAN 

Sewan. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Saran  District,  Bengal.  See 
Si  WAN. 

Shabkadar. — Fort  in  the  Charsadda  tahsll  of  Peshawar  District, 
North- West  Frontier  Province,  situated  in  34°  13'  N.  and  71°  34'  E., 
17  miles  north-west  of  Peshawar  city,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  good  road  leading  to  Abazai  across  three  branches  of  the  Kabul 
river.  Originally  built  by  the  Sikhs,  and  by  them  called  Shankargarh, 
the  fort  lies  2  miles  from  the  village  of  Shabkadar ;  but  a  town  has 
now  sprung  up  round  it,  which  is  a  local  centre  of  trade  with  the 
adjoining  Mohmand  hills,  and  which  in  1901  had  a  population  of 
2,373.  The  fort  is  a  strong  one,  and  used  to  be  garrisoned  by  regular 
troops;  but  in  1885  it  was  made  over  to  the  border  military  police, 
who  now  hold  it  with  28  men.  In  August,  1897,  it  was  suddenly 
attacked  by  a  force  of  Mohmands,  who  succeeded  in  plundering  the 
town  and  burning  the  Hindu  shops  and  houses,  but  the  small  police 
garrison  was  able  to  hold  the  fort  itself.  On  August  9  the  Mohmands 
were  defeated  with  loss  by  a  small  force  under  General  Elles,  an 
engagement  signalized  by  a  brilliant  charge  of  two  squadrons  of  the 
13th  Duke  of  Connaught's  Lancers. 

Shadiwal. — Village  in  the  District  and  tahs'il  of  Gujrat,  Punjab, 
situated  in  32°  31'  N.  and  74°  6'  E.  Population  {1901),  7,445.  It  is 
administered  as  a  '  notified  area.' 

Shahabad  District. — District  in  the  Patna  Division  of  Bengal, 
lying  between  24°  31'  and  25°  46'  N.  and  83°  ig'  and  84°  51'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  4,373  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Districts  of  Ghazlpur  and  Ballia  in  the  United  Provinces  and  by 
the  Bengal  District  of  Saran  ;  on  the  east  by  Patna  and  Gaya  Districts  ; 
on  the  south  by  Palamau  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Districts  of  Mirzapur 
and  Benares  in  the  United  Provinces.  The  Karamnasa  river  forms 
part  of  the  western  boundary. 

Shahabad  consists  of  two  distinct  tracts  differing  in  cUmate,  scenery, 
and    productions.     The    northern    portion,    comprising    about   three- 
fourths    of    the   whole,    presents    the   ordinary    flat 
asnects  appearance  common  to  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  in 

the  sub-province  of  Bihar ;  but  it  has  a  barer  aspect 
than  the  trans-Gangetic  Districts  of  Saran,  Darbhanga,  and  Muzaffarpur. 
This  tract  is  entirely  under  cultivation,  and  is  dotted  over  with  clumps 
of  trees.  The  south  of  the  District  is  occupied  by  the  Kaimur  Hills, 
a  branch  of  the  great  Vindhyan  range.  The  Son  and  the  Ganges  may 
be  called  the  chief  rivers  of  Shahabad,  although  neither  of  them  any- 
where crosses  the  boundary.  The  District  lies  in  the  angle  formed  by 
the  junction  of  these  two  rivers,  and  is  watered  by  several  minor 
streams,  all  of  which  rise  among  the  Kaimur  Hills  and  flow  northwards 
towards  the  Ganges.     The  most  noteworthy  of  these  is  the  Karamnasa, 


SHAHABAD  DISTRICT  187 

the  accursed  stream  of  Hindu  mytliology,  which  rises  on  the  south- 
ern ridge  of  the  Kaimur  plateau,  and  flows  north-west,  crossing  into 
Mirzapur  District  near  Kukiha,  After  a  course  of  15  miles  in  that 
District,  it  again  touches  Shahabad,  which  it  separates  from  Benares  ; 
finally,  it  falls  into  the  Ganges  near  Chausa.  The  Dhoba  or  Kao  rises 
on  the  plateau,  and  flowing  north,  forms  a  fine  waterfall  and  enters  the 
plains  at  the  Tarrachandi  pass,  2  miles  south-east  of  Sasaram.  Here 
it  bifurcates — one  branch,  the  Kudra,  turning  to  the  west  and  ulti- 
mately joining  the  Durgauti ;  while  the  other,  preserving  the  name 
of  Kao,  flows  north  and  falls  into  the  Ganges  near  Gaighat.  The 
Durgauti  rises  on  the  southern  ridge  of  the  plateau  and,  after  flowing 
north  for  9  miles,  rushes  over  a  precipice  300  feet  high  into  the  deep 
glen  of  Kadhar  Kho  ;  eventually  it  joins  the  Karamnasa.  It  contains 
water  all  the  year  round,  and  during  the  rains  boats  of  \\  tons  burden 
can  sail  up-stream  50  or  60  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Sura,  Kora,  Gonhua,  and  Kudra. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  District  is  covered  with  alluvium.  The 
Kaimur  Hills  in  the  south  are  formed  of  limestones,  shales,  and  red 
sandstones  belonging  to  the  Vindhyan  system. 

Near  the  Ganges  the  rice-fields  have  the  usual  weeds  of  such  locali- 
ties. Near  villages  there  are  often  considerable  groves  of  mangoes  and 
palmyras  (Borassns  flabelUfer\  some  date  palms  {Phoenix  sylvestris), 
and  numerous  isolated  examj^les  of  Tamarindiis  and  similar  more  or 
less  useful  species.  P'arther  from  the  river  the  country  is  more  diversi- 
fied, and  sometimes  a  dry  scrub  jungle  is  met  with,  the  constituent 
species  of  which  are  shrubs  of  the  order  of  Euphorbiaceae^  Biiiea  and 
other  leguminous  trees,  species  of  Fiats,  Schleichera,  JVendlaiidia,  and 
Ginelina.  The  grasses  that  clothe  the  drier  parts  are  generally  of 
a  coarse  character.  There  are  no  Government  forests,  but  the 
northern  face  of  the  Kaimur  Hills  is  overgrown  with  a  stunted 
jungle  of  various  species,  while  their  southern  slopes  are  covered 
with  bamboos. 

Large  game  abounds  in  the  Kaimur  Hills.  Tigers,  bears,  and 
leopards  are  common  ]  five  or  six  kinds  of  deer  are  found ;  and 
among  other  animals  wild  hog,  jackals,  hyenas,  and  foxes  are  also  met 
with. 

Owing  to  its  distance  from  the  sea,  Shahabad  has  greater  extremes 
of  climate  than  the  south  and  east  of  Bengal.  The  mean  tem{)erature 
varies  from  62°  in  January  to  90°  in  May,  the  average  maximum  rising 
to  102°  in  the  latter  month.  Owing  to  the  hot  and  dry  westerly  winds 
which  prevail  in  March  and  April,  the  humidity  at  this  season  is  only 
52  per  cent.  With  the  approach  of  the  monsoon  the  humidity  steadily 
increases  ;  it  remains  steady  at  88°  throughout  July  and  August,  and 
then  falls  to  79°  in  November.    The  annual  rainfall  averages  43  inches, 

VOL.  XXII.  N 


188  SHAHABAD  DISTRICT 

of  which  5-5  fall  in  June,  ii'7  in  July,  i2-3  in  Augutil,  and  6'8  in 
September. 

Floods  are  occasionally  caused  by  the  river  Son  overflowing  its 
banks.  In  recent  times  the  highest  floods  occurred  in  1876  and 
1901  ;  in  the  latter  year  the  water  rose  1-2  feet  above  any  previously 
recorded  level,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  river  was  at  one  point  1 7  miles 
wide.  Owing  to  the  cutting  of  an  embankment  at  Uarara  by  some 
villagers,  the  flood  found  its  way  into  Arrah  town  and  caused  con- 
siderable damage  to  house  property. 

Shahabad  was  comprised  within  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Magadha, 
whose  capital  was  at  Rajglr  in  Patna  District,  and  its  general  history 
is  outlined  in  the  articles  on  Magadha  and  Bihar, 
in  which  Magadha  was  eventually  merged.  It  may 
be  added  that,  when  the  country  relapsed  into  anarchy  on  the  decline 
of  the  Gupta  dynasty,  Shahabad  came  under  the  sway  of  a  number 
of  petty  aboriginal  chiefs  and  had  a  very  small  Aryan  population.  The 
ruling  tribe  at  this  period  was  the  Chero,  and  the  District  was  till 
a  comparatively  recent  period  in  a  great  degree  owned  by  the  Cheros 
and  governed  by  their  chieftains.  They  were  subsequently  conquered 
by  Rajput  immigrants,  and  few  of  them  are  now  found  in  Shahabad, 
though  they  still  number  several  thousands  in  the  adjoining  District 
of  Palamau.  Under  the  Muhammadans  Shahabad  formed  part  of  the 
Subah  of  Bihar,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  the  scene  of  part 
of  the  struggles  which  made  Sher  Shah  emperor  of  Delhi.  Sher  Shah, 
after  establishing  himself  at  Chunar  in  the  United  Provinces,  was 
engaged  on  the  conquest  of  Bengal.  In  1537  Humayun  advanced 
against  him,  and  after  a  siege  of  six  months  reduced  his  fortress  of 
Chunar  and  marched  into  Bengal.  Sher  Shah  then  shut  himself  up 
in  Rohtasgarh,  which  he  had  captured  by  a  stratagem,  and  made 
no  effort  to  oppose  his  advance.  Humayun  spent  six  months  in 
dissipation  in  Bengal ;  but  then,  finding  that  Sher  Shah  had  cut  off  his 
communications  and  that  his  brother  at  Delhi  would  not  come  to 
his  assistance,  he  retraced  his  steps  and  was  defeated  at  Chausa  near 
Buxar.  Buxar  is  also  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  defeat  in  1764 
by  Sir  Hector  Munro  of  Mir  Kasim,  in  the  battle  which  finally  won 
the  Lower  Provinces  of  Bengal  for  the  British.  Since  then  the  only 
event  of  historical  interest  is  the  defence  of  the  Judge's  house  at 
Arrah  in  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 

Among  Hindu  remains  may  be  mentioned  the  temple  on  the 
MuNDESWARi  Hill  dating  from  the  sixth  or  seventh  century.  The 
short  reign  of  Sher  Shah  is  still  borne  witness  to  by  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Muhammadan  sepulchral  architecture,  his  own 
tomb  at  Sasaram,  which  he  originally  held  as  his  /V/^''/>.  His  father's 
tomb  in  the  same  town  and  the  louib  of  Bakhtyar  Khan,  near  Chain- 


POPULATION  189 

pur,  in  the  Bhabua  subdivision,  are  similar  but  less  imposing.  The 
small  hill  fort  of  Shergarh,  26  miles  south-west  of  Sasaram,  dates 
from  Sher  Shah's  time,  but  at  Rohtas(;arh  itself  few  traces  of  this 
period  remain  ;  the  palace  at  this  place  is  attributed  to  Man  Singh, 
Akbar's  Hindu  general.  Other  places  of  interest  in  Shahabad  are  the 
Chainpur  fort  with  several  interesting  monuments  and  tombs;  Ram- 
garh  with  a  fort,  and  Darauti  and  Baidyanath  with  ruins  attributed 
to  the  Savaras  or  Suars  ;  Masar,  the  Mo-ho-so-lo  of  Hiuen  Tsiang  ; 
TiLOTHU,  near  which  are  a  line  waterfall  and  a  very  ancient  Chero 
image ;  Patana,  once  the  capital  of  a  Hindu  Raja  of  the  Suar  tribe  ; 
and  Deo-Barunark  and  Deo-Markandeya,  villages  which  contain  several 
old  temples  and  other  remains,  including  an  elaborately  carved  mono- 
lith at  the  former  place.  The  sacred  cave  of  Gupteswar  lies  in  a  valley 
in  the  Kaimur  Hills,  7  or  8  miles  from  Shergarh. 

The  population  increased  from  1,710,471  in  1872  to  1,940,900  in 
i88r,  and  to  2,060,579  in  1891,  but  fell  again  to  1,962,696  in  1901. 
The  increase  in  the  first  two  decades  was  largely  due 
to  the  extension  of  cultivation,  owing  to  the  opening 
of  the  irrigation  canals.  The  climate  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Dis- 
trict is  said  to  be  steadily  deteriorating.  The  surface  is  so  flat  and  low 
that  there  is  no  outlet  for  the  water  which  accumulates,  while  the  intro- 
duction of  the  canals  is  said  to  have  raised  the  water-level  and  made 
the  drainage  even  worse  than  before.  Fever  began  to  make  its  ravages 
felt  in  1879,  '^I'^d  i'com.  that  time  the  epidemic  grew  steadily  worse  until 
1886,  when  the  District  was  stigmatized  as  the  worst  in  Bengal  in 
respect  of  fever  mortality. 

At  the  Census  of  1891  a  decrease  was  averted  only  by  a  large  gain 
from  immigration.  From  1892  to  1900  the  vital  statistics  showed  an 
excess  of  deaths  over  births  amounting  to  25,000,  and  in  1894  the 
death-rate  exceeded  53  per  1,000.  After  fever,  the  principal  diseases 
are  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  cholera,  and  small-pox.  Blindness  is  very 
common.  Plague  broke  out  at  Arrah  just  before  the  Census  of  1901. 
The  number  of  deaths  reported  was  small,  but  the  alarm  which  the 
epidemic  created  sufficed  to  drive  to  their  homes  most  of  the  tem- 
porary settlers  from  other  Districts. 

The  principal  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  are  shown  in  the  laljlc 
on  the  next  page. 

The  principal  towns  are  Arrah,  the  head-quarters,  Sasaram,  Dum- 
raon,  and  Buxar.  \Vith  the  exception  of  Sasaram,  all  the  towns  seem 
to  be  decadent.  The  population  is  densest  in  the  north  and  east  of 
the  District,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  Son,  and  decreases 
rapidly  towards  the  south  and  south-east,  where  the  Kaimur  Hills 
afford  but  small  space  for  cultivation.  The  Bhabua,  i/id/ta,  with  181 
persons  per  stjuare  mile,  has  the  scantiest  population  of  an\-  trad  in 

N   2 


I  go 


SHAHABAD  DISTRICT 


South  Bihar.  The  natives  of  this  District  are  in  demand  all  over 
Bengal  as  zamlnddrs'  peons  and  club  men ;  they  are  especially 
numerous  in  Purnea,  North  Bengal,  Dacca,  and  in  and  near  Calcutta, 
and  a  large  number  find  their  way  to  Assam.  Many  also  emigrate 
to  the  colonies.  The  vernacular  is  the  Bhojpurl  dialect  of  Biharl,  but 
the  Muhammadans  and  Kayasths  mostly  speak  AwadhT  Hindi.  In 
1901  Hindus  numbered  1,819,641,  or  no  less  than  92-7  per  cent, 
of  the  total,  and  Musalmans  142,213,  or  nearly  7-3  per  cent.;  there 
were  449  Jains  and  375  Christians. 


Subdivision. 

a 
3    . 

< 

Number  of 

Population. 

11 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 
■5 

0 

H 

0) 

Arrah 
Buxar 
Sasaram  . 
Bhabua   . 

District  total 

913 

669 

1,490 

1,301 

4,373 

2 
2 
1 

I 

1,245 

937 

1,906 

1,427 

699,956 
416,704 

539,635 
306,401 

767 
623 
362 
236 

-  5-9 

-  5-0 

+      1-2 

-  II-2 

39,253 
19,309 
16,848 
8,185 

6 

5,515 

1,962,696 

449 

-    4-7 

83,595 

The  most  numerous  castes  are  Ahirs  or  Goalas  (256,000),  Brahmans 
and  Rajputs  (each  numbering  207,000),  Koiris  (155,000),  Chamars 
(121,000),  Dosadhs  (87,000),  Babhans  (82,000),  Kahars  (70,000), 
Kurmis  (66,000),  Kandus  (63,000),  and  Telis  (51,000);  and,  among 
Muhammadans,  Jolahas  (53,000).  Agriculture  supports  64-8  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  industries  17-7  per  cent.,  commerce  0-5,  and  the 
professions   i-g  per  cent. 

The  only  Christian  mission  is  a  branch  of  the  German  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Mission,  whose  head-quarters  are  at  Ranchl.  The  number 
of  native  Christians  in  1901  was  72. 

Clay  is  the  predominating  soil,  but  in  parts  it  is  more  or  less  mixed 
with  sand.  The  clay  soils,  known  as  karail,  kezvdl,  matiydr,  and 
gurmat,  are  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  the 
level  of  the  land  and  the  possibility  of  irrigation  are 
here  the  main  factors  in  determining  what  crop  shall  be  cultivated. 
Doras  is  a  rich  loam  containing  both  clay  and  sand,  and  is  suited 
for  sugar-cane,  poppy,  mustard,  and  linseed.  Sandy  soil  is  known 
as  babnat,  and  when  it  is  of  very  loose  te.xture  as  dims.  The  alluvial 
tract  in  the  north  is  extensively  irrigated  by  canals  and  is  entirely 
under  cultivation.  The  low-lying  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Ganges,  locally  known  as  kadai,  is  annually  inundated  so  that  rice 
cannot  be  grown,  but  it  produces  fine  cold-season  crops.  Along  the 
west  bank  of  the  Son  within  about  3  miles  from  the  river  the  soil 
is  sandy,  and  requires  continuous  irrigation  to  produce  good  crops- 


Agriculture. 


AGRTCULTURE 


19T 


To  the  west  of  this  the  prevalent  soil  south  of  the  grand  trunk  road 
is  doras,  which  is  annually  flooded  and  fertilized  by  the  hill  streams. 
In  the  Sasaram  subdivision  karail  soil  is  most  common  and  grows 
excellent  rabi  crops.  The  undulating  plateau  of  the  Kaimur  Hills 
in  the  south  is  unprotected  by  irrigation  and  yields  poor  and  precarious 
crops. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated 
from  canals. 

Arrah 
Buxar 
Sasaram 
Bhabua      . 

Total 

91.^ 
669 

1,490 

1,301 

607 

408 
480 

505 

212 

167 

224 

20 

4,373 

2,000 

623 

There  are  altogether  about  311  square  miles  of  cultivable  waste, 
statistics  for  each  subdivision  not  being  available ;  and  it  is  estimated 
that  112  square  miles  are  twice  cropped. 

The  staple  food-crop  of  the  District  is  rice,  grown  on  1,307  square 
miles,  of  which  1,112  square  miles  are  under  aghani  or  winter  rice. 
This  crop  is  transplanted  in  June  and  July  (except  in  very  low  lands, 
where  it  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast),  and  the  water  is  retained  in  the 
rice-fields  by  ridges  till  the  middle  of  September,  when  it  is  allowed 
to  drain  off.  The  fields  are  left  to  dry  for  12  to  14  days,  after  which 
the  crop  again  needs  water,  for  which  it  depends  on  the  hathiyd  rain, 
or  failing  this,  on  irrigation.  These  late  rains  are  the  most  important 
in  the  year,  as  they  are  required  not  only  to  bring  the  winter  crop 
to  maturity,  but  also  to  provide  moisture  for  the  sowing  of  the  7-abi 
crops.  Boro,  or  spring  rice,  is  grown  in  river-beds  and  on  the  edge 
of  marshes  ;  it  is  sown  in  January  and  February,  transplanted  after 
a  month,  and  cut  in  April  and  May.  Of  the  other  crops  of  the  rainy 
season,  the  principal  are  maize  or  makai,  ma7-iid,  Joivar,  and  iHlJra  ; 
these  are  grown  on  well-drained  high  lands.  The  rain  crops  con- 
sist of  cereals  and  pulses.  The  chief  cereals  are  wheat  (188  square 
miles\  barley  (81  square  miles),  and  oats.  They  are  sown  in  October 
and  November,  and  harvested  between  the  last  week  of  February  and 
the  middle  of  April.  The  pulses  include  peas,  gram,  and  linseed  ; 
gram  and  linseed  are  grown  as  a  second  crop,  being  sown  in  the 
standing  aghani  rice  about  a  fortnight  before  it  is  cut.  Other  impor- 
tant crops  are  poppy  (25  square  miles)  and  sugar-cane  (54  square  miles). 

The  opening  of  the  Son  Canals  has  resulted  in  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  cultivated  area.  An  experimental  farm  is  maintained 
at  Dumraon,  but  even  in  the  adjoining  villages  the  cultivators  are  slow 


102  SHAHABAD    DISTRICT 

to  profit  by  its  lessons.  Little  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  Land 
Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts,  except  in  the  famine 
years  1896-8,  when  Rs.  75,000  was  advanced  under  the  latter  Act. 

The  cattle  are  for  the  most  part  poor,  but  good  bulls  are  kept  at  the 
Buxar  Central  jail,  and  their  offspring  find  a  ready  sale,  l^asture  is 
scarce  except  in  the  Kaimur  Hills,  where  numerous  herds  are  sent 
to  graze  during  the  rains.  A  large  cattle  fair  is  held  at  Barahpur,  at 
which  agricultural  stock  and  produce  are  exhibited  for  prizes. 

The  District  is  served  by  the  Son  Canals  system,  receiving  about 
80  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  water  supplied  by  it.  Wells 
and  ahars,  or  reservoirs,  are  also  maintained  all  over  the  District  for 
the  purposes  of  irrigation.  In  1901  it  was  estimated  that  489  square 
miles  were  irrigated  from  the  canals,  364  square  miles  from  wells,  and 
937  square  miles  from  ahars.  The  extent  to  which  an  artificial  water- 
supply  is  used  depends  on  the  variations  in  the  rainfall;  in  1903-4  the 
area  irrigated  from  the  Government  canals  was  623  square  miles. 

Red  sandstone  from  the  Kaimur  Hills  is  used  extensively  for  build- 
ing purposes,  for  which  it  is  admirably  adapted.  Limestone,  which 
is  obtained  from  the  same  locality,  is  commonly  dark  grey  or  blackish, 
and  burns  into  a  very  good  white  lime.  Kankar  or  nodular  lime- 
stone is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  plains,  and  especially  in  the 
beds  of  rivers  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Son  ;  it  is  used  for  metalling 
roads  and  is  also  burnt  to  make  lime.  A  small  quantity  of  alum  was 
formerly  manufactured  in  the  area  north  of  Rohtasgarh  from  slates  be- 
longing to  the  Kaimur  group  of  the  Vindhyan  series.  Copperas  or  iron 
sulphate  is  found  in  the  same  region. 

Sugar  is  manufactured  throughout  the  District,  the  principal  centres 

of  the  industry  being  at  Nasriganj  and  Jagdlspur.      Iron  sugar-cane 

mills,  manufactured  at  Bihiya,  are  now  in  general  use 

communkaHons.  "^'^''  ^  Sreat  part  of  Northern  India.     Carpets  and 

pottery  are  made  at  Sasaram  ;  the  speciality  of  the 

pottery  consists  in  its  being  painted  with  lac  and  overlaid  with  mercury 

and  gilt.     Blankets  and  cotton  cloth  are  woven  throughout  the  District. 

A  small  quantity   of  hand-made   paper  is  produced  at    Hariharganj. 

Saltpetre  is  manufactured  in  small  quantities,  the  out-turn  in   1903-4 

being  5,000  maunds. 

The  principal  imports  are  rice,  gram,  and  other  food-grains  from  the 
neighbouring  Districts,  European  cotton  piece-goods  and  kerosene  oil 
from  Calcutta,  and  coal  and  coke  from  Hazaribagh  and  Palamau.  The 
exports  include  wheat,  gram,  pulses,  and  oilseeds,  chiefly  to  Calcutta, 
and  raw  sugar  and  gur  to  the  United  Provinces  and  elsewhere.  The 
chief  centres  of  trade  are  Arrah,  Dumraon,  Buxar,  and  Chausa  on  the 
East  Indian  Railway,  Sasaram  and  Dehri  on  the  Mughal  Sarai-Gaya 
branch,  and  Nasriganj  on  the  Son.      The  main  lines  of  communication 


FAAfT^E  T93 

are  the  railways,  the  Ganges  and  Son  rivers,  and  the  Son  fannls,  to 
which  goods  arc;  Iirought  by  bullock  carts  and  pack-bullocks. 

The  main  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  runs  for  60  miles  from 
east  to  west  through  the  north  of  the  District,  and  the  Mughal  Sarai- 
Gaya  section  opened  in  1900  traverses  the  south.  In  addition  to 
58  miles  of  the  grand  trunk  road  from  Calcutta  to  Benares,  which 
passes  through  Dehrl-on-Son,  Sasaram,  and  Jahanabad,  and  is  main- 
tained from  Provincial  funds,  the  District  contains  186  miles  of  metalled 
and  532  miles  of  unmetalled  roads  under  the  control  of  the  District 
board;  there  are  also  1,218  miles  of  village  tracks.  The  principal 
local  roads  are  those  which  connect  Arrah  with  Buxar  and  Sasaram. 
Feeder  roads  connect  the  main  roads  with  the  stations  on  the  railway 
and  with  the  principal  places  on  the  rivers. 

'I'he  Ganges  is  navigable  throughout  the  year,  and  a  tri-weekly 
steamer  service  for  passengers  and  goods  trafiRc  plies  as  far  as  Benares, 
touching  at  Buxar  and  Chausa  in  this  District.  Navigation  on  the 
Son  is  intermittent  and  of  little  commercial  importance.  In  the  dry 
season  the  small  depth  of  water  prevents  boats  of  more  than  20  maunds 
proceeding  up-stream,  while  in  the  rains  the  violent  floods  greatly 
impede  navigation,  though  boats  of  500  or  600  maunds  occasionally 
sail  up.  Of  the  other  rivers  the  Karamnasa,  the  Dhoba,  or  Kao,  the 
DurgautT,  and  the  Sura  are  navigable  only  during  the  rainy  season. 
The  main  canals  of  the  Son  Canals  system  are  navigable ;  a  bi- 
weekly service  of  steamers  runs  from  Dehri  to  Arrah.  But  here,  as 
elsewhere,  most  of  the  water-borne  traffic  is  carried  in  country  boats, 
some  of  which  have  a  capacity  of  as  much  as  1,000  maunds.  The 
canal-borne  traffic  used  to  be  considerable,  but  has  suffered  greatly  from 
competition  with  the  Mughal  Sarai-Gaya  branch  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway.  The  only  ferries  of  any  importance  are  those  across  the 
Ganges. 

The  District  has  frequently  suffered  from  famine.   The  famine  of  1 866, 

having  been  preceded  by  two  years  of  bad  harvests,  caused  great  distress. 

The  Government  relief  measures  were  supplemented         „ 

,.       ,  ^      ,      ,     r  Famine. 

by  private  liberality,  but  3,161  deaths  from  starvation 

were  reported.     There  was  another,  but  less  severe,  famine  in  1869. 

In  1873  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  rice  crop  was  destroyed   by 

very  heavy  floods  and  the  subsequent  complete  absence  of  rain ;   the 

loss  would  have  been  even  greater  had  not  the  Son  water  been  turned 

into  the  unfinished  canals  and    freely  distributed.       Relief  works,  in 

the    shape    of  road    repairs,   were  opened  in   December,  and  a  sum 

of  i'i8  lakhs  was  spent  in  wages,  in  addition  to  Rs.  30,000  paid  to 

non-workers,  and  Rs.  r,6oo  advanced  to  cultivators  for  the  purchase  of 

seed-grain.     In  the  famine  of  1896-7  the  distressed  area  comprised  the 

whole  of  the  Bhabua  and  the  southern  portion  of  the  Sasaram  sub- 


194  SHABA  BAD   DISTRICT 

division.  Relief  works  were  started  in  October,  1896,  and  were  not 
finally  closed  till  July,  1897,  during  which  period  560,031  days' wages 
were  paid  to  adult  males  employed  on  piece-work,  and  175,105  to  those 
on  a  daily  wage,  the  aggregate  payments  amounting  to  Rs.  74,000. 
Gratuitous  relief  by  means  of  grain  doles  was  also  given,  and  poor- 
houses  and  kitchens  were  opened.  The  cost  of  gratuitous  relief  was 
rather  less  than  2  lakhs,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  famine  operations 
was  3-36  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  30,000  was  paid  from  District  and 
the  balance  from  Provincial  funds. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  4  subdivi- 
sions, with  head-quarters  at  Arrah,  Buxar,  Sasaram,  and  Bhabua. 
Subordinate  to  the  District  Magistrate-Collector  at 
Arrah,  the  District  head-quarters,  is  a  staff  consist- 
ing of  an  Assistant  Magistrate-Collector,  six  Deputy-Magistrate-Collec- 
tors, and  two  Sub-Deputy-Collectors.  The  subdivisions  of  Sasaram  and 
Buxar  are  each  in  the  charge  of  an  Assistant  Collector  aided  by  a 
Sub-Deputy-Collector,  and  the  Bhabua  subdivision  is  under  a  Deputy- 
Magistrate-Collector.  The  Executive  Engineer  of  the  Arrah  division 
is  stationed  at  Arrah  ;  an  Assistant  Engineer  resides  at  Koath  and  the 
Executive  Engineer  of  the  Buxar  division  at  Buxar. 

The  permanent  civil  judicial  staff  consists  of  a  District  Judge,  who  is 
also  Sessions  Judge,  two  Subordinate  Judges  and  three  Munsifs  at  Arrah, 
one  Munsif  at  Sasaram  and  another  at  Buxar.  For  the  disposal  of 
criminal  work,  there  are  the  courts  of  the  Sessions  Judge,  District 
Magistrate,  and  the  above-mentioned  Assistant,  Deputy,  and  Sub- 
Deputy-Magistrates.  The  District  was  formerly  notorious  for  the 
number  of  its  dacoits  and  for  the  boldness  of  their  depredations ; 
but  this  crime  is  no  longer  common.  The  crimes  now  most  preva- 
lent are  burglary,  cattle-theft,  and  rioting,  the  last  being  due  to  disputes 
about  land  and  irrigation. 

During  the  reign  of  Akbar,  Shahabad  formed  a  part  of  sarkdr  Rohtas, 
lying  for  the  most  part  between  the  rivers  Son  and  Karamnasa.  Half 
of  it,  comprising  the  zaminddri  of  Bhojpur,  was  subsequently  formed 
into  a  separate  sai-kdr  called  Shahabad.  The  land  revenue  demand  of 
these  two  sarkdrs,  which  was  fixed  at  10-22  lakhs  by  Todar  Mai  in 
1582,  had  risen  to  13-66  lakhs  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  under  All 
Vardi  Khan  in  1750,  but  it  had  again  fallen  to  10-38  lakhs  at  the  time 
of  the  Decennial  Settlement  which  was  concluded  in  1790  and  declared 
to  be  permanent  in  1793.  The  demand  gradually  rose  to  13-55  l^khs 
in  1843  and  16-72  lakhs  in  1862,  the  increase  being  due  to  the  revenue 
survey  which  took  place  in  1846.  In  1903-4  the  total  demand  was 
17-27  lakhs  payable  by  10,147  estates,  of  which  9,463  with  a  demand 
of  14-98  lakhs  were  permanently  settled,  544  with  a  demand  of  1-38  lakhs 
were  temporarily  settled,  while  the  remainder  were  held  direct  by  Govern- 


ADMINISTRA  TION  t  95 

ment.  The  incidence  of  land  revenue  is  R.  0-13-9  per  cultivated  acre, 
being  about  22  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  rental.  Rents  vary  with  the 
class  of  soil,  and  for  very  good  land  suitable  for  poppy  as  much  as 
Rs.  30  per  acre  is  occasionally  paid.  Rent  is  generally  paid  in  kind, 
especially  in  the  Bhabua  and  Sasaram  subdivisions.  The  average  hold- 
ing of  a  ryot  is  estimated  at  5|  acres.  The  only  unusual  tenure  is  the 
guzasthd,  which  connotes  not  only  a  right  to  hold  at  a  fixed  rate  in 
perpetuity  but  an  hereditary  and  transferable  interest  in  the  land.  The 
true  guzasthd  tenure  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Bhojpur  pargana,  but 
the  term  is  used  elsewhere  to  indicate  the  existence  of  occupancy  rights. 
The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  total 
revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1 900- 1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

25,00 

i6,74 
26,30 

17,26 
28,96 

17,21 
29>57 

Outside  the  municipalities  of  Arrah,  Jagdispur,  Buxar,  Dumraon, 
Bhabua,  and  Sasaram,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board 
with  subordinate  local  boards  in  each  subdivision.  In  1903-4  its 
income  was  Rs.  2,63,000,  of  which  Rs.  2,03,000  was  derived  from 
rates ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  2,89,000,  the  chief  item  being 
Rs.  2,15,000  expended  on  public  works. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  11  police  stations  and  18  outposts. 
The  force  subordinate  to  the  District  Superintendent  in  that  year 
consisted  of  4  inspectors,  43  sub-inspectors,  46  head  constables,  and 
526  constables;  there  was  also  a  rural  police  force  of  301  daffaddrs 
and  4,254  chaukldCu's.  In  addition  to  the  District  jail  at  Arrah  with 
accommodation  for  278  prisoners,  there  is  a  Central  jail  at  Buxar  with 
accommodation  for  1,391,  while  subsidiary  jails  at  Sasaram,  Buxar,  and 
Bhabua  can  hold  69.  The  prisoners  in  the  Central  jail  are  chiefly 
employed  in  weaving  and  tent-making. 

Of  the  population  in  1901,  4-3  per  cent.  (8-6  males  and  03  females) 
could  read  and  write.  The  total  number  of  pupils  under  instruction 
fell  from  20,883  in  1883-4  to  16,922  in  1892-3,  but  increased  again  to 
23,032  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4,  26,218  boys  and  445  girls  were  at  school, 
being  respectively  i8-6  and  0-28  per  cent,  of  the  children  of  school-going 
age.  The  number  of  educational  institutions,  public  and  private,  in 
that  year  was  1,004,  including  23  secondary,  623  primary,  and  358 
special  schools.  Two  small  schools  for  aborigines  are  maintained  at 
Rehal  and  Dahar.  The  expenditure  on  education  was  1-36  lakhs,  of 
which  Rs.  17,000  was  paid  from  Provincial  funds,  Rs.  40,000  from 
District  funds,  Rs.  3,000  from  municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  59,000  from 
fees. 


196  SHAH  A  BAD    DISTRICT 

In  1903  the  District  contained  12  dispensaries,  of  which  7  had  accom- 
modation for  115  in-patients.  The  cases  of  81,000  out-patients  and 
2,300  in-patients  were  treated,  and  8,000  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  35,000,  of  which  Rs.  5,000  was  derived  from 
Government  contributions,  Rs.  7,000  from  Local  and  Rs.  10,000  from 
municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  10,000  from  subscriptions. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  municipal  areas.  In  1903-4  the 
number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  48,000,  or  25-8  per 
1,000  of  the  population. 

[L.  S.  S.  O'Malley,  District  Gazetteer  (Calcutta,  1906)  ;  M.  Martin 
(Buchanan-Hamilton),  Eastern  India,  vol.  i  (1838).] 

Shahabad  Taluk. — '  Crown  '  tdlnk  in  the  south  of  the  Atraf-i-balda 
District,  Hyderabad  State,  also  known  as  the  Ji/nii/ii  or  'southern 
td/ukj  with  an  area,  mc\\\(l\ng  J dglrs,  of  654  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation in  1 90 1  was  76,905,  compared  with  73,245  in  1891.  The  td/nk 
contains  168  villages,  of  Avhich  103  are  Jdg'ir,  and  Shahabad  (3,955)  is 
the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  i-i  lakhs.  The 
paigdh  taluk  of  Vikarabad  with  25  villages,  a  population  of  11,270  and 
an  area  of  about  82  square  miles,  is  situated  to  the  north-west  of 
Shahabad. 

Shahabad  Tahsil  (i). — Northern  tahsJl  oi  Hardoi  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Alamnagar,  Shahabad,  Sarah 
(North),  Pandarwa,  vSaromannagar,  Pachhoha,  Pall,  and  Mansurnagar, 
and  lying  between  27°  25'  and  27°  47'  N.  and  79°  41'  and  80°  19'  E., 
with  an  area  of  542  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  248,034 
in  1891  to  250,533  in  1901.  There  are  518  villages  and  three  towns, 
Shahabad  (population,  20,036),  the  tahsil  head-quarters,  and  Pihani 
(7,616)  being  the  largest.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  3,31,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  53,000.  The  density  of  population,  462 
persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost  equal  to  the  District  average.  Shah- 
abad is  a  poor  tahsil,  containing  large  areas  of  sandy  soil.  It  lies 
between  the  Sendha,  a  tributary  of  the  Ramganga,  on  the  west,  and  the 
GumtT  on  the  east,  and  is  also  crossed  by  the  Garra  and  its  tributary  the 
Sukheta,  and  by  the  Sai.  In  190 1-2  the  area  under  cultivation  was 
365  square  miles,  of  which  69  were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  two-thirds 
of  the  irrigated  area,  and  tanks  and  small  streams  the  remainder. 

Shahabad  Town  (i). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  oi  the  same  name 
in  Hardoi  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  38'  N.  and  T^f  Si' 
E.,  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Population  (i 901),  20,036. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1677  by  Nawab  Diler  Khan,  an  Afghan 
officer  of  Shah  Jahan,  who  was  sent  to  suppress  a  rising  in  Shahjahan- 
pur.  Diler  Khan  built  a  large  palace  called  the  Bar!  Deorhl,  and 
filled  the  town  with  his  kinsmen  and  troops.  Shahabad  rose  to  con- 
siderable  importance   during    Mughal   rule,   but   declined   under   the 


STJAHABAD    TOJKV  197 

Nawabs  of  Oudh.  It  was  still  a  (Tuisiderahle  town  when  visited  by 
'I'ieffenthaler  in  1770,  but  Tennant  found  it  an  expanse  of  ruins  in 
1799.  In  1824  Bishop  Heber  described  it  as  a  considerable  town  or 
almost  city,  with  the  remains  of  fortifications  and  many  large  houses. 
The  inhabitants  have  obtained  notoriety  for  the  ill-feeling  which  exists 
between  Hindus  and  Musalmans,  and  serious  riots  took  place  in  1850 
and  1868.  Nothing  is  left  of  the  Barl  DeorhT  but  two  fine  gateways, 
and  Diler  Khan's  tomb  is  also  in  ruins.  The  fine  Jama  Masjid  erected 
by  the  same  noble  is  still  used.  Shahabad  contains  the  usual  tahstll 
offices  and  also  a  mi/nsifi,  a  dispensary,  and  a  branch  of  the  American 
Methodist  Mission.  It  has  been  administered  as  a  municipality  since 
1872.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditurf 
averaged  Rs.  11,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  17,000,  chiefly 
derived  from  taxes  on  houses  and  professions  and  trades,  and  from 
rents  and  market  dues,  while  the  expenditure  was  also  Rs.  17,000. 
A  daily  market  is  held,  and  grain  and  sugar  are  exported.  The  town 
is  noted  for  the  vegetables  and  fruit  produced  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Fine  cotton  cloth  used  to  be  woven  here,  but  the  manufacture  is 
extinct.  There  are  three  schools  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  with 
a  total  of  400  pupils. 

Shahabad  Tahsil  (2).— Southern  tahsil  in  the  State  of  Rampur, 
United  Provinces,  lying  between  28°  25'  and  28°  43'  N.  and  78°  52' 
and  79°  5'  E.,  with  an  area  of  166  square  miles.  Population  (1901), 
82,716.  There  are  197  villages  and  one  town,  Shahab.\d  (population, 
7.338),  the  fa/ml  head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  3,56,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  43,000.  The  density  of 
population,  498  persons  per  square  mile,  is  below  the  State  average. 
The  fa/isJl  lies  on  both  banks  of  the  Ramganga,  and  is  less  protected 
by  canals  than  other  parts  of  the  State.  In  1903-4  the  area  under 
cultivation  was  no  square  miles,  of  which  8  were  irrigated,  chiefly 
from  wells. 

Shahabad  Town  (2).— Head-quarters  of  the  tahsl/  of  the  same 
name  in  the  State  of  Rampur,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  34'  N. 
and  79°  2'  E.  Population  (1901),  7,338.  The  town  stands  on  rising 
ground  and  is  considered  the  healthiest  place  in  the  State.  The 
Nawab  has  a  summer  residence  here,  built  on  the  ruins  of  an  old 
fort;  it  is  about  100  feet  higher  than  the  surrounding  country  and 
commands  a  fine  view  for  miles  round.  The  old  name  of  the  town 
was  Eakhnor,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  was  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Katehriya  Rajas  of  Rohilkhand.  There  are  dispen- 
saries for  treatment  by  both  European  and  indigenous  methods,  and 
also  a  tahsUi  school.     The  town  is  noted  for  its  sugar. 

Shahabad  Town  (3).— Town  in  the  paigdh  taluk  of  Firozabad, 
Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  17°  8'  N.  and  76°  56'  E. 


1 98  SHAH  A  BAD    TOWN 

Population  (1901),  5,105.  Laminated  limestone,  known  as  Shahabad 
stone,  is  largely  quarried  in  the  vicinity,  and  takes  its  name  from  the 
town.  It  is  an  important  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
Railway.  An  elegant  masonr}-  enclosure  in  the  centre  of  the  town  is 
supposed  to  be  the  wall  of  a  royal  palace,  and  encloses  a  large  mosque 
and  a  well.  The  town  contains  two  post  offices,  British  and  Nizam's, 
a  police  station,  a  dispensar}',  and  three  vernacular  primary  schools. 

Shahabad  Town  (4). — Town  in  the  Thanesar  tahsil  of  Karnal 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  10'  N.  and  76°  52'  E.,  on  the  Delhi- 
Uniballa-Kalka  Railway,  16  miles  south  of  Ambala.  Population 
(1901),  11,009.  The  town  was  founded  by  one  of  the  followers  of 
Muhammad  of  Ghor  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  is  of  no 
commercial  importance.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1S67-8. 
The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  10,900, 
and  the  expenditure  Rs.  10,200.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  12,300, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,200.  The 
town  has  a  vernacular  middle  school  and  a  dispensary. 

Shahada  Taluka. — Taluka  of  West  Khandesh  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  21°  24'  and  21°  48'  N.  and  74°  24'  and  74°  47'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  479  square  miles.  It  contains  two  towns,  Shahada  (popu- 
lation, 5,399),  the  head-quarters,  being  the  larger;  and  155  ^^llages. 
The  population  in  1901  was  59,758,  compared  with  64,733  i>^  1891. 
This  is  the  most  thinly  populated  taluka  in  the  District,  the  density 
being  only  125  persons  per  square  mile.  The  demand  for  land  revenue 
in  1903-4  was  nearly  3  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  21,000.  Although 
Shahada  possesses  two  perennial  streams,  the  Tapti  and  its  tributary 
the  Gomi,  it  is  on  the  whole  scantily  provided  with  surface  water. 
The  prevailing  soil  is  a  rich  loam  resting  on  a  yellowish  subsoil.  The 
annual  rainfall  averages  24  inches. 

Shahada  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name 
in  West  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  21°  33'  X.  and 
74°  28'  E.,  48  miles  north-west  of  Dhulia.  Together  with  Kukdel, 
it  contained  in  1901  a  population  of  5,399.  A  municipality  was  con- 
stituted in  1869.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901 
averaged  Rs.  7,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  8,500.  The 
town  contains  three  cotton-ginning  factories,  a  dispensary,  and  four 
schools,  with  262  pupils,  of  which  one,  with  21  pupils,  is  for  girls. 

Shahapur  Taluka. — Eastern  taluka  of  Thana  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  19°  18'  and  19^  44'  X.  and  73°  10'  and  73°  43'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  610  square  miles.  It  contains  197  villages,  Shahapur  being 
the  head-quarters.  The  population  in  1901  was  83,881,  compared 
with  92,029  in  1S91.  It  is  the  most  thinly  populated  taluka  in  the 
District,  and  the  density,  138  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below 
the  District  average.     Land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 


SHAH  BANDAR    VILLAGE  199 

to  1-4  lakhs.  The  country,  which  was  formerly  known  as  Kolvan,  is 
for  the  most  part  wild,  broken  by  hills  and  covered  with  large  forests. 
In  the  south  there  are  wide  tracts  of  rice  lands.  The  soil  is  mostly  red 
and  stony,  and  the  climate  unhealthy,  except  in  the  rains.  There  are 
five  factories  for  husking  rice  in  Shahapur. 

Shahapur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  the  State  of  Sangli,  Bombay,  situated  in  15°  50'  N.  and 
74°  34' E.,  close  to  the  town  of  Belgaum.  Population  (1901),  9,056. 
Shahapur  is  the  most  important  trading  place  in  Sangli  State.  The 
dyeing  of  cotton  and  silk  yarn  and  the  weaving  of  cotton  and  silk  cloth 
are  largely  carried  on.  The  population  is  chiefly  composed  of  bankers, 
traders,  and  weavers.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  municipal  body, 
with  an  income  of  nearly  Rs.  13,000.  Besides  Hindu  temples,  Shaha- 
pur has  a  Protestant  church  and  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel.  Methodist 
Episcopal  and  Catholic  missions  are  both  at  work  in  Shahapur.  There 
is  also  a  dispensary. 

Shahbandar  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Karachi  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  composed  of  the  Mirpur  Batoro,  Sujawal,  Jati,  and 
Shahbandar  tdhikas. 

Shahbandar  Taluka. — Tdluka  of  Karachi  District,  Sind,  Bombay, 
lying  between  23°  41'  and  24°  25'  N.  and  67°  32'  and  68°  26'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,388  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  28,246  in 
1891  to  33,609  in  1901.  The  number  of  villages  is  104,  of  which 
Ladiun  is  the  head-quarters,  but  the  most  important  place  is  Shah- 
bandar. The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to 
i-i  lakhs.  The  tiili/ka  contains  large  tracts  of  kalar  lands  and  salt 
deposits.  The  soil  is  the  usual  alluvial  loam,  mixed  with  sand ;  but 
in  the  south,  where  the  Indus  outflow  meets  the  incoming  tide, 
a  deposit  of  soft  mud,  locally  known  as  l>hal,  appears.  The  td/uka 
is  irrigated  by  more  than  ten  canals ;  and  the  chief  crops  are  Jotvdr, 
bdjra,  rice,  barley,  and  mioig. 

Shahbandar  Village.— Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same 
name  in  Karachi  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  24°  10'  N.  and 
67°  56'  E.,  in  the  delta  of  the  Indus.  Population  (1901),  785.  Shah- 
bandar stood  formerly  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Malir,  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Indus,  but  it  is  at  present  10  miles  distant  from  the 
nearest  point  of  the  river.  A  great  salt  waste  commences  about 
a  mile  to  the  south-east  of  the  town,  and  on  its  westward  side  are 
extensive  jungles  of  long  bin  grass.  It  was  to  Shahbandar  that  the 
English  factory  was  removed  from  Aurangbandar  when  the  latter 
place  was  deserted  by  the  Indus ;  and  previous  to  the  abandonment 
of  the  factory  in  1775,  it  supported  an  establishment  of  fourteen  vessels 
for  the  navigation  of  the  river.  The  disastrous  flood  which  occurred- 
about  18 1 9  caused  material  changes  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Indus, 


200  SHAHBANDAK    VILLAGE 

and  hastened  the  decay  of  Shahbandar,  which  is  now  an  insignificant 
village.  Carless  states  that  the  native  rulers  of  Sind  had  a  fleet  of 
fifteen  ships  stationed  here.  Vessels  entered  by  the  Richal,  the  only 
accessible  mouth,  and,  passing  into  the  Hajamro  through  what  is  now 
the  Khedewari  creek,  ascended  that  stream  to  about  lo  miles  above 
Ghorabari,  where  it  joined  the  Malir. 

Shahdadpur  Taluka  (i). —  Tdluka  of  Hyderabad  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  lying  between  25°  42' and  26°  16' N.  and  68°  2  7' and  69°  o' E., 
with  an  area  of  644  square  miles.  The  population  in  190 1  was 
73,504,  compared  with  58,720  in  1891.  The  density,  114  persons 
per  square  mile,  is  a  little  less  than  the  District  average.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  about  i-8  lakhs.  The 
number  of  villages  is  102,  of  which  Shahdadpur  is  the  head-quarters. 
The  tdluka  stands  at  a  high  level  and  is  therefore  devoid  of  grass  ; 
but  it  produces  the  best  cotton  in  the  District,  and  also  good  bdjra 
and  tobacco  crops. 

Shahdadpur  Taluka  (2). —  Tdluka  of  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier  Dis- 
trict, Sind,  Bombay,  lying  between  27°  40'  and  28°  3'  N.  and  67^  22' 
and  68°  11'  E.,  with  an  area  of  622  square  miles.  It  contains  62 
villages,  of  which  Shahdadpur  is  the  head-quarters.  The  population 
in  1901  was  32,385,  compared  with  27,380  in  1891.  It  is  the  most 
thinly  populated  tdluka  in  the  District,  with  a  density  of  only  52  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  1-8  lakhs.  Portions  of  the  Begari,  Ghar,  and  Sukkur  canals  irrigate 
the  tdluka,  and  a  certain  amount  of  cultivation  is  usually  carried  out 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  hill  torrents. 

Shahdara. — Town  in  the  Ghaziabad  tahsU  of  Meerut  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  40'  N.  and  77°  18'  E.,  on  the  East 
Indian  Railway,  5  miles  from  Delhi,  A  light  railway  to  Saharanpur 
is  being  constructed.  Population  (1901),  5,540.  It  was  founded  by 
Shah  Jahan  as  a  market,  and  was  sacked  in  the  eighteenth  century 
by  Suraj  Mai,  the  Jat  Raja  of  Bharatpur,  and  plundered  by  the  soldiers 
of  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  just  before  the  battle  of  Panlpat.  It  is  badly 
drained,  and  drinking-water  is  obtained  from  a  distance.  The  American 
Methodist  and  Reformed  Presbyterian  Missions  have  branches  here. 
From  1872  to  1904  Shahdara  was  a  municipality,  with  an  income  and 
expenditure  averaging  about  Rs.  3,000.  It  is  now  administered  as 
a  'notified  area.'  The  trade  of  the  place  has  fallen  away,  and  it  is 
chiefly  celebrated  for  sweetmeats  ;  but  there  is  still  a  small  manufacture 
of  shoes  and  leather,  and  a  little  sugar-refining.  In  1904  there  was 
a  primary  school  with  75  pupils. 

Shahdheri  {Dheri  Shdhdn,  '  the  kings'  mound '). — Village  in  the 
District  and  talisil  of  Rawalpindi,  Punjab,  situated  in  t,:^  17'  N.  and 
72"  49'  E.,  8  miles  south-cast  of  Hassan  Abdal.     To  the  north-east  lie 


SHAHJAHANPUR  DISTRICT  201 

extensive  and  well  preserved  ruins,  identified  by  Sir  Alexander  Cunning- 
ham as  those  of  Takshasila,  the  Taxila  of  the  Greek  historians.  These 
ruins  lie  in  six  distinct  sites — Bir,  Hatial,  Sir-Kap-ka-kot,  Kacha  Kot, 
Babarkhana,  and  Sir-Sukh-ka-kot.  Of  these,  the  mound  at  Bir  rises 
above  the  banks  of  the  Tapra  Nala,  the  Tiber- nabon  of  the  Pseudo- 
Kallisthenes.  Hatial,  a  fortified  spur  of  the  Mar-gala  ('beheaded') 
range,  was  probably  the  ancient  citadel.  Sir-Kap,  or  the  fort  of  '  the 
beheaded,'  was  a  fortified  city,  united  to  the  citadel  by  a  wall  of  circuni- 
vallation.  The  remaining  three  sites  appear  to  be  more  modern  ;  l)ul 
near  Babarkhana  lie  the  ruins  called  Siri-ki-pind,  which  would  a[)pear 
to  be  the  great  Sirsha-danam  or  'head-offering'  stiipa  of  Buddha  built 
by  Asoka  and  mentioned  by  Hiuen  Tsiang.  Takshasila,  the  Sanskrit 
form  of  the  name,  means  '  the  hewn  rock,'  or  more  probably  '  the  rock 
of  Takshaka,'  the  great  Naga  king.  At  the  Macedonian  invasion, 
and  for  many  centuries  later,  Taxila  was  a  rich  and  flourishing  city. 
Alexander  found  it  ruled  by  Omphis  (Sanskrit,  Ambhi),  generally 
known  by  his  dynastic  title  of  Taxiles,  who  resigned  his  kingdom  to 
the  invader.  About  eighty  years  later  it  was  taken  by  Asoka,  and 
from  it  he  governed  the  Punjab  before  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Magadha.  About  200  h.c.  it  became  a  Graeco-Bactrian  dependency, 
and  rather  more  than  half  a  century  later  passed  to  the  Indo-Parthians, 
from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  Kushans  at  the  end  of  the  first 
century  a.d.  About  a.  D.  50  Apollonius  of  Tyana  visited  it,  and  says 
it  was  the  capital  of  Phraates,  whose  dominions  corresponded  with 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  Porus,  and  describes  its  beautiful  temple  of 
porphyry.  It  was  also  visited  by  Pa  Hian  in  a.d.  400,  and  by  Pliuen 
Tsiang  in  630  and  643.  Both  these  pilgrims  describe  it  as  a  place  of 
great  sanctity  and  the  scene  of  Buddha's  sacrifice  of  his  head.  After 
this  Taxila  disappears  from  history. 

Shahganj. — Head-quarters  of  the  Khutahan  tahstl  of  Jaunpur 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  3'  N.  and  82°  42'  E.,  at  the 
junction  of  a  branch  of  the  Bengal  and  North- Western  Railway  from 
Azamgarh  with  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Population  (lyoi)) 
6,430.  The  town  was  founded  by  Shuja-ud-daula,  Nawab  of  Oudh, 
who  built  a  market-place,  a  bdraddri,  and  a  dargdh,  or  tomb,  in  honour 
of  Shah  Hazrat  All.  Shahganj  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856, 
with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  6,000.  It  is  a  thriving  mart,  second  only 
to  Jaunpur  city,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  sugar-refining  industry,  besides 
being  a  depot  for  the  export  of  grain  and  the  distribution  of  imported 
cotton.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  a  branch  of  the  Wesleyan 
Mission,  and  two  schools  with  113  pupils. 

Shahjahanpur  District. — Southern  District  of  the  Bareilly  Division, 
United  Provinces,  lying  between  37°  35'  and  28°  29"  N.  and  79°  20' 
and  So"^  23'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,727  square  miles.     It  is  bounded  on 


202  SHAHJAHANPUR    DISTRICT 

the  north  by  Bareilly  and  Pihbhit ;  on  the  east  by  Kheri  ;  on  the  south 
by  Hardoi  and  Farrukhabad ;  and  on  the  west  by  Budaun.  The 
District  consists  of  a  narrow  alluvial  tract,  running  north-east  from 
the  river  Ganges  towards  the  Himalayas.  It  is  crossed 
Pnysica  nearly  at  right  angles  by  the  river  system  of  South 

Rohilkhand,  and  its  natural  features  thus  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  the  various  streams  which  have  cut  deep  channels 
through  the  alluvial  soil  of  the  Gangetic  basin.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Ramganga,  the  Deoha  or  Garra,  and  the  Gumti.  Near  the  Ganges 
is  a  stretch  of  wild  khadar,  from  which  an  area  of  stiff  clay,  drained 
by  the  Sot  or  Yar-i-Wafadar,  reaches  to  the  Ramganga.  The  channel 
of  the  latter  river  shifts  from  side  to  side  of  a  broad  valley  to  an 
extraordinary  extent.  Between  the  Ramganga  and  the  Garra  lies  an 
extensive  tract  of  sandy  soil,  which  changes  east  of  the  Garai  to  clay 
and  then  to  a  fertile  loam  extending  north-east  of  the  Garra.  The 
loam  tract  is  crossed  by  the  Khanaut,  a  tributary  of  the  Garra,  beyond 
which  another  sandy  area  is  found,  gradually  changing  to  a  forest  tract 
on  the  border  of  the  damp  sub-Himalayan  Districts. 

Shahjahanpur  is  situated  entirely  in  the  Gangetic  alluvium,  and 
kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is  the  only  stone  found  in  it. 

The  District  is  fairly  well  wooded,  and  contains  nearly  50  square 
miles  of  groves.  Mango,  bamboo,  babul  {Acacia  arabica),  shisham 
{Dalbergia  S/ssoo),  tun  {Cedrela  Toona),  and,  in  the  north,  sal  {Shorea 
robustd)  are  the  chief  timber  trees. 

Leopards  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  jungles  in  the  north  of  the 
District,  and  the  tiger  and  lynx  have  been  shot  there,  but  not  recently. 
Spotted  deer  frequent  the  same  tract,  and  nilgai  and  wild  hog  are 
common  everywhere,  especially  near  the  rivers.  Antelope  are  found 
near  the  Gumti  and  Ganges.  Hares,  partridges,  quail,  sand-grouse, 
and  peafowl  are  included  in  the  smaller  game,  while  the  large  ponds 
and  marshes  abound  in  the  cold  season  with  geese,  duck,  and  teal. 

The  climate  is  moister  than  in  the  Doab,  though  drier  than  in  the 
more  northern  Districts  of  Rohilkhand.  The  central  portion  is  healthy; 
but  in  the  north  bad  fever  and  ague  are  prevalent,  and  in  the  south  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Sot  is  also  unhealthy. 

The  annual  rainfall .  averages  about  37  inches,  varying  from  33  in 
the  south-west  of  the  District  to  40  inches  at  Shahjahanpur  city. 
In  1895-6  the  fall  was  only  23  inches,  and  in  1893-4  as  much  as 
57  inches. 

In  ancient  times  this  District  must  have  been  included  in  the 
kingdom  of  Panchala,  and  during  the  early  Muhammadan  period 
it  formed  part  of  the  tract  known  as  Katehr.  Shah- 
jahanpur city  was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan 
by  Nawab  Bahadur  Khan,  who  named  it  in  honour  of  the  emperor. 


HTSTORY  203 

Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  part  of  the  south  of  the  District  was 
included  in  the  territory  of  Muhammad  Khan,  Nawah  of  Farrukhabad  ; 
but  the  central  portions  were  acquired  by  All  Muhammad,  the  Rohilla 
chief.  On  the  east  the  Katehriyas  retained  their  independence,  and 
the  land  held  by  them  formed  a  debatable  ground  between  Oudh 
and  RoHiLKHAND.  In  1774,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Kohillas  by  the 
allied  forces  of  Oudh  and  the  British,  the  two  provinces  became 
united;  and  in  1801  this  District,  with  other  territory,  was  ceded  to 
the  British. 

Thenceforward  order  was  never  seriously  disturbed  until  the  Mutiny, 
although  the  District  bordered  upon  the  most  turbulent  part  of  Oudh. 
In  1857,  however,  Shahjahanpur  became  the  scene  of  open  rebellion. 
The  news  of  the  Meerut  outbreak  arrived  on  May  15  ;  but  all  remained 
quiet  till  the  25th,  when  the  sepoys  informed  their  officers  that  the 
mob  intended  to  plunder  the  treasury.  Precautions  were  taken  against 
such  an  attempt;  but  on  the  31st,  while  most  of  the  officers,  civil  and 
military,  were  at  church,  some  of  the  sepoys  forced  their  way  into  the 
building  and  attacked  them.  Three  Europeans  were  shot  down  at 
once ;  the  remainder  were  joined  by  the  other  officers,  and  the  whole 
party  escaped  first  to  Pawayan,  and  afterwards  to  MuhamdT  in  Kherl 
District.  The  mutineers  burnt  the  station,  plundered  the  treasury,  and 
made  their  way  to  the  centre  of  local  disaffection  at  Bareilly,  A  rebel 
government  under  Kadir  All  Khan  was  proclaimed  on  June  i.  On 
the  18th  Ghulam  Kadir  Khan,  the  hereditary  Nawab  of  Shahjahanpur, 
passed  through  on  his  way  to  Bareilly,  where  he  was  appointed  Nazim 
of  Shahjahanpur  by  Khan  Bahadur  Khan.  On  the  23rd  the  Nawab 
returned  to  his  titular  post,  and  superseded  Kadir  All.  He  remained 
in  power  from  June,  1857,  till  January,  1858,  when  British  troops 
reoccupied  Fatehgarh.  The  Nawab  of  Fatehgarh  and  Firoz  Shah  then 
hastened  to  Shahjahanpur  and  on  to  Bareilly.  After  the  fall  of  Luck- 
now,  the  Nana  Sahib  also  fled  through  Shahjahanpur  to  Bareilly.  In 
January  the  Nawab  put  to  death  Hamid  Hasan  Khan,  Deputy-Collector, 
and  Muhammad  Hasan,  Subordinate  Judge,  for  corresponding  with  the 
British.  On  April  30,  1858,  the  British  force,  under  Sir  Colin  Campbell, 
reached  Shahjahanpur.  The  rebels  fled  to  Muhamdl  and  Sir  Colin 
went  on  to  Bareilly  on  May  2,  leaving  only  a  small  detachment  to 
guard  the  station.  The  rebels  then  assembled  once  more,  and  besieged 
the  detachment  for  nine  days  ;  but  Brigadier  Jones's  colunm  relieved 
them  on  the  12th,  and  authority  was  then  finally  re-established. 

The  District  contains  a  few  ancient  sites  which  have  not  been 
explored,  the  largest  being  Gola  and  Mat!  in  the  Pawayan  tciJislI. 
A  copperplate  grant  by  Harsha  of  Kanauj,  dated  a,  D.  628,  was  found 
at  Banskhera  ^     There  are  no  Muhammadan  buildings  of  importance. 

'  Epigrnphia  Indira,  vol.  iv,  ]i.  20S. 
VOI„  XXII,  o 


!04 


SHAHJAHANPUR  DISTRICT 


The  District  contains  6  towns  and  2,034  villages.     The  population 
has  fluctuated  during  the  last  thirty  years.     The  numbers  at  the  four 
.  enumerations  were  as  follows  :  (1872)951,006,(1881) 

856,946,  (1891)  918,551,  and  (1901)  921,535.  Be- 
tween 1872  and  1 88 1  the  District  suffered  severely  in  the  famine  of 
1877-8  and  the  fever  epidemic  of  1879.  There  are  four  tahsils — 
Shahjahanpur,  Jalalabad,  Tilhar,  and  Pawayan  — each  of  which  is 
named  after  its  head-quarters.  The  principal  towns  are  the  municipali- 
ties of  Shahjahanpur  City,  the  District  head-quarters,  and  Tilhar. 
The  following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Tahsil. 

v 
u 

3     . 

en  (u 
c~ 

t 
< 

Number  of 

c 

_o 

1 

0.  6 

|1 
'^  v. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

f2 

> 

Shahjahanpur 
Jalalabad   . 
Tilhar 
Pawayan    . 

District  total 

394 
324 
418 

591 

I 
I 

3 

I 

463 
360 

.^58 

653 

265,467 
175,674 

257,035 
223,359 

674 

542 
615 

378 

-  2.8 
+  10-6 
-f    8.3 

—  10-4 

9,672 
3,340 
4.924 
5,189 

1,727 

6 

2,034 

921,535 

534 

+    0.3 

23,125 

About  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  are  Hindus  and  more  than  14  per 
cent.  Musalmans.  The  Arya  Samaj,  though  its  members  number  only 
1,646,  is  increasing  in  importance.  More  than  99  per  cent,  of  the 
people  speak  Western  Hindi,  the  prevaiHng  dialect  being  Kanaujia. 

Chamars  (leather-dressers  and  cultivators),  98,000,  are  the  most 
numerous  Hindu  caste.  The  other  large  castes  are  Kisans  (cultivators), 
79,000;  Ahirs  (graziers  and  cultivators),  71,000;  Rajputs,  68,000; 
Brahmans,  61,000;  Kahars  (fishermen  and  cultivators),  40,000;  Kachhis 
(cultivators),  34,000;  Muraos  (market-gardeners),  31,000;  and  Kurmis 
(agriculturists),  27,000.  Among  Musalmans,  Pathans  number  41,000, 
followed  by  Shaikhs,  24,000,  and  Julahas  (weavers),  18,000.  The 
proportion  of  the  population  supported  by  agriculture  is  69  per  cent. — 
a  high  figure.  Personal  services  support  5  per  cent.,  general  labour 
4  per  cent.,  and  cotton-weaving  2  per  cent.  Rajputs  and  Brahmans 
are  the  chief  holders  of  land ;  and  Rajputs,  Kachhis,  Muraos,  AhIrs, 
and  Chamars  are  the  principal  cultivators. 

Out  of  1,739  native  Christians  in  1901,  1,495  ^^^^^  Methodists.  The 
American  Methodist  Mission  opened  work  in  the  District  in  1859,  and 
has  seven  stations,  besides  two  in  Oudh. 

Agricultural  conditions  are  exceedingly  complex,  owing  to  the  varied 
character  of  the  soil  and  of  the  facilities  for  irrigation.  The  Ganges 
khadar  is  either  sand  or  light  loam,  and  suffers  from 
drought,  though  it  is  also  liable  to  disastrous  floods. 
The  clay  tract  adjoining  it  produces  rice  in  the  autumn,  and  requires 


Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURE 


205 


constant  irrigation  for  wheat  and  poppy,  the  principal  spring  crojjs. 
This  is  the  only  part  of  the  District  where  sugar-cane  is  not  grown. 
Along  the  Ramganga  irrigation  is  easy,  but  the  autumn  crops  are  liable 
to  great  damage  from  flooding.  East  of  this  river  the  sandy  tract 
produces  bdjra  and  wheat  of  medium  quality.  iVnother  clay  tract  is 
found  between  the  Garai  and  the  Garra,  which  is  liable  to  suffer  in  dry 
years.  The  most  fertile  tract  is  the  loam  area  in  the  centre  of  the 
District,  which  produces  much  sugar-cane  and  other  valuable  crops. 
North-east  of  this  the  soil  deteriorates  and  becomes  sandy  ;  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  jungle,  and  wild  animals  damage  the  crops,  while  the 
drinking-water  is  bad  in  places.  Some  better  land  is  found  in  the 
extreme  north-east,  but  its  value  depends  largely  on  its  distance  from 
the  forests  on  the  border,  and  on  its  immunity  from  wild  beasts. 

The  ordinary  tenures  of  the  United  Provinces  are  found.  Zamindari 
malidls  include  56  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  and  pattiddri  mahdls 
44  per  cent.  The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown 
below,  in  square  miles  : — 


TahsU.               i   Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

.Shahjahanpiir        .         394 
Jalalabad      .         .  '      324 
Tilhar.         .         .         418 
Pawayan        .         •   '      591 

292 
225 
330 
360 

84 

84 
114 

44 

•SO 

26 

146 

Total      1,727 

1,207 

347 

266 

The  chief  food-crops,  with  the  area  under  each  in  square  miles  in 
1903-4,  are:  wheat  (444),  rice  (106),  gram  (159),  and  bdjra  (173). 
Sugar-cane  covered  56  square  mile.s,  and  poppy  27.  Of  the  un- 
cultivated area,  about  52  miles  are  occupied  by  the  forests  in  the 
north-east  of  the  District,  and  an  equal  amount  by  swamps  and  sandy 
tracts  near  the  Gumtl. 

There  have  been  no  improvements  in  the  means  of  irrigation,  and 
no  expansion  of  cultivation  in  recent  years.  On  the  other  hand,  a  rise 
is  noticeable  in  the  area  bearing  a  double  crop,  and  the  valuable  crops 
are  being  more  largely  sown.  Thus  rice  has  taken  the  place  of  bdjra 
and  jowdr,  and  the  area  under  poppy  and  sugar-cane  has  increased. 
Considerable  advances  were  made  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1900,  amounting  to  i-6  lakhs,  but  a  quarter 
of  this  was  lent  in  the  famine  year  1896-7.  Only  small  sums  have 
been  advanced  in  later  years,  and  the  loans  granted  under  the  Land 
Improvement  Act  have  been  insignificant,  except  in  1896-7. 

In  the  north  of  the  District  the  bdngar  breed  of  cattle  is  found,  the 
bullocks  being  hardy  and  quick-moving.  In  1866  and  1867  attempts 
were  made  to  introduce  a  better  strain  near  Shahjahanpur  ;   but  the 

o  2 


2o6  SHAHJAHANrUR    DISTRICT 

climate  did  not  suit  tlie  animals  imported.  The  ordinary  breed  of 
horses  is  also  poor  ;  stallions  have  been  kept  by  Government  for  some 
years,  and  two  are  now  at  stud.     The  sheep  and  goats  are  inferior. 

In  1903-4,  out  of  347  square  miles  irrigated,  wells  supplied  207 
square  miles,  tanks  ox  jh'tis  86,  and  other  sources  54.  The  spring-level 
is  high,  and  in  ordinary  years  irrigation  is  not  required  for  many  crops, 
or  can  be  supplied  easily  by  temporary  wells  lasting  for  a  single  harvest. 
In  two  tracts  a  deficiency  of  water  is  experienced  in  dry  years.  The 
sandy  area  along  the  Gumtl  is  unprotected,  while  the  clay  tract  in  the 
south  of  the  District  depends  on  the  numerous  small  channels  which 
intersect  it,  and  which  are  dammed  at  the  end  of  the  rains,  to  supply 
water  for  the  spring  harvest. 

There  are  no  '  reserved '  or  '  protected '  forests  the  property  of 
Government ;  but  in  the  north-east  of  the  District  are  some  tracts 
of  unreclaimed  forest,  chiefly  sal,  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  do  not 
now  contain  any  large  timber,  but  supply  poles  for  use  in  house- 
building.    Their  total  area  is  about  52  square  miles. 

Kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is  the  only  mineral  product,  and  is 
used  for  metalling  roads  and  for  burning  into  lime. 

Sugar-refining  is  by  far  the  most  important  industry  in  the  District. 

Indigo  was  once  manufactured,  but  has  now  become  a  minor  product. 

The  matting  made  from  a  jungle  grass  called  haih 

commimicTtfons.  ''^  largely  exported.     Coarse  cotton  cloth,  chintz,  and 

brass  vessels  are  made  in  various  places  for  local  use, 

and  there  are  small  manufactures  of  ironware  inlaid  with   gold  and 

silver,  and  of  lacquered  goods.     The  Rosa  sugar  and  rum  factory  near 

Shahjahanpur  city  is  one  of  the  largest  in   India,  and  employed  632 

hands  in  1903. 

The  grain  trade  is  of  ordinary  dimensions,  and  sugar  is  the  principal 
article  of  export,  the  Shahjahanpur  production  being  celebrated 
throughout  India.  It  is  largely  exported  to  Rajputana  and  the  Punjab. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in  oilseeds  at  Tilhar.  European 
goods,  metals,  and  salt  are  the  principal  imports.  Forest  produce  is 
floated  down  the  rivers  from  Pllibhit ;  but  the  spread  of  railways  has 
largely  decreased  the  river  trafiic,  which  was  formerly  important. 
Tilhar  and  Shahjahanpur  are  the  chief  trade  centres,  though  markets 
are  held  at  many  smaller  places. 

The  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  main  line  crosses  the  centre  of  the 
District  and  is  the  chief  trade  route ;  but  a  little  traffic  is  carried  by 
the  Lucknow-Sitapur-Bareilly  State  Railway,  which  traverses  the  north- 
east corner.  The  two  lines  are  connected  by  a  steam  tramway  or 
light  railway,  40  miles  long,  from  Shahjahanpur  city  to  MailanT  in 
Kher!  District.  The  District  is  well  supplied  with  roads,  except  in  the 
tract  south-west  of  the  Ramganga.     Of  these,  118  miles  are  metalled. 


ADMINISTRATION  207 

and  are  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department,  but  the  cost  of 
46  miles  is  charged  to  Local  funds.  The  remaining  326  miles  are 
unmetalled.  Avenues  of  trees  are  maintained  on  222  miles.  'I'he 
principal  routes  comprise  the  branch  of  the  grand  trunk  road  from 
Fatehgarh  which  divides  at  Jalalabad,  one  line  going  to  liareilly  and 
one  to  Shahjahanpur  city  ;  the  road  from  Bareilly  through  Tilhar  and 
Shahjahanpur  to  Sitapur  and  Lucknow ;  and  the  road  from  Shahjahanpur 
through  the  north  of  the  District. 

In  a  large  part  of  the  District  the  effects  of  drought  can  be  mitigated 
as  long  as  the  cultivators  are  able  to  make  temporary  wells  ;  but 
elsewhere  a  failure  of  the  rains  is  disastrous,  and 
Shahjahanpur  has  often  suffered  severely.  The  great 
famine  of  1783-4  did  not  press  so  heavily  here  as  in  the  tracts  south 
of  the  Ganges.  In  1803-4,  two  years  after  cession,  rain  completely 
failed  for  the  autumn  harvest.  In  1825-6  drought  again  occurred,  but 
hardly  caused  famine.  The  autumn  rains  failed  in  1837-8,  but  a  slight 
fall  in  February  saved  the  spring  harvests.  The  famine  of  1 860-1  was 
severely  felt  throughout  Rohilkhand,  though  Shahjahanpur  escaped 
more  lightly  than  the  contiguous  District  of  Budaun.  In  1868-9  the 
period  of  pressure  was  severe,  but  only  lasted  for  seven  weeks.  The 
famine  of  1877-8  was  the  worst  since  the  commencement  of  British 
rule.  A  series  of  bad  harvests  had  followed  the  previous  scarcity 
of  1868-9,  and  prices  had  risen  owing  to  the  demand  for  grain  in 
Southern  India.  On  August  17,  1877,  the  Collector  reported  'roaring 
hot  winds,  and  not  a  vestige  of  green  anywhere.'  The  autumn  harvest, 
which  provides  the  chief  food-grains  for  the  lower  classes,  was  a 
complete  failure.  Rain  early  in  October  enabled  the  sowings  for  the 
rain  or  spring  cro[)  to  be  made,  and  advances  were  given  for  seed. 
Relief  works  were  opened  in  December  ;  but  the  people  refused  to 
come  on  them,  and  large  numbers  succumbed  in  the  cold  season.  The 
after-effects  of  the  famine  were  severely  felt  when  an  epidemic  of  fever 
broke  out  in  1879.  The  registered  death-rate  rose  from  29-37  per 
1,000  in  1877  to  57-04  in  1878,  and  stood  at  53-59  in  1879.  In  1895 
the  rains  ceased  prematurely,  and  distress  was  felt  in  the  north  of  the 
District  by  May,  1896.  The  monsoon  of  1896  closed  even  earlier  than 
in  1895,  and  the  sugar-cane  and  rice  were  seriously  damaged,  besides 
the  ordinary  food-crops.  Great  use  was  made  of  river  water,  so  that 
a  fair  spring  harvest  was  secured,  and  the  relief  works  opened  were  not 
resorted  to  by  any  large  number. 

The  Collector  is  usually  assisted  by  a  member  of  the  Indian  Civil 

Service,  and  by  four  Deputy-Collectors  recruited  in    .  .    ...     ..  ^ 

,    ,.  ,    , ,      .  .        ,         ,      ,       ,  Administration. 

India.     A  tahsilddr  is  stationed  at  the  head-quarters 

of  each  tahsil.  Two  officers  cf  tlie  Opium  de[)artment  arc  i^ostcd  lo 
this  District. 


208 


SHAHJAHANPUR  DISTRICT 


There  are  three  regular  District  Munsifs,  and  a  scheme  for  village 
Munsifs  was  introduced  in  1894.  The  District  Judge  and  Sub-Judge 
exercise  civil  jurisdiction  over  the  neighbouring  District  of  Budaun  j 
but  the  former  hears  sessions  cases  from  Shahjahanpur  alone.  Crime 
is  heavy,  the  more  serious  forms  of  offences  against  life  and  limb, 
with  robbery  and  dacoity,  being  common.  Female  infanticide  was 
formerly  suspected;  but  in  1904  only  154  persons  remained  under 
surveillance. 

At  cession  in  1801  the  present  area  formed  part  of  Bareilly ;  but  a 
separate  District  of  Shahjahanpur  was  constituted  in  1813-4.  Early 
settlements  were  for  short  periods,  being  based  as  usual  on  the  previous 
collections  coupled  with  a  system  of  competition.  The  first  regular 
settlement  under  Regulation  IX  of  1833  was  carried  out  in  1838-9. 
The  District  had  been  over-assessed,  and  considerable  reductions, 
amounting  to  about  12  per  cent.,  were  made,  the  demand  being 
fixed  at  9-8  lakhs.  Villages  were  grouped  according  to  their  capa- 
bilities of  soil  and  irrigation,  and  revenue  rates  fixed  per  acre  of 
cultivation.  Another  revision  took  place  thirty  years  later,  and  the 
new  settlement  was  based  on  rates  selected  from  the  rents  actually 
paid,  with  some  regard  to  prospective  increases.  The  result  was  an 
assessment  of  1 1-8  lakhs,  which  was  subsequently  reduced  by  Rs.  18,000. 
The  latest  revision  was  made  between  1896  and  1900.  In  this  settle- 
ment prospective  increases  in  the  rental  value  of  villages  were  altogether 
disregarded,  except  where  the  rents  were  found  to  be  totally  inadequate. 
About  four-fifths  of  the  area  assessed  was  held  by  tenants,  cash  rents 
being  paid  in  the  greater  part.  The  assessment  amounted  to  11-7  lakhs, 
or  48-6  per  cent,  of  the  accepted  'assets,' and  the  operations  chiefly 
resulted  in  a  redistribution  of  the  demand.  The  incidence  per  acre  is 
Rs.  1-2,  varying  from  R.  0-5  in  the  north  of  the  District  to  Rs.  1-7  in 
the  fertile  central  tract. 

The  total  collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from 
all  sources  have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880-1. 

1890-1. 

IQDO-I. 

1903    4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

1 1,20 
16,^7 

11,09 
19,92 

13.01 

25,80 

1 1, .S3 
26,01 

There  are  two  municipalities,  Shahjah.\npur  and  Tilhar,  and 
four  towns  are  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856.  Beyond  the 
limits  of  these  places  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board, 
which  has  an  income  and  expenditure  of  more  than  a  lakh.  In  1903-4 
the  expenditure  on  roads  and  buildings  amounted  to  Rs.  46,000. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  commands  a  force  of  3  inspec- 


SHAHJAHANPUR    CITY  209 

tors,  89  subordinate  officers,  and  365  constables,  besides  302  municipal 
and  town  police,  and  2,097  rural  and  road  police.  There  are  19  police 
stations.  The  District  jail  contained  a  daily  average  of  316  prisoners 
in  1903. 

The  population  of  Shahjahanpur  is  not  conspicuous  for  literacy,  and 
in  1 90 1  only  2-6  per  cent.  (4  males  and  0-3  females)  could  read  and 
write.  The  number  of  public  schools,  however,  increased  from  149  in 
1880-1  to  184  in  1900-1,  and  the  number  of  pupils  from  4,324  to 
8,796.  In  1903-4  there  were  186  public  schools  with  8,744  pupils,  of 
whom  514  were  girls,  and  60  private  schools  with  667  pupils.  F"our 
of  the  public  schools  are  managed  by  Government  and  124  by  the 
District  and  municipal  boards.  Out  of  a  total  expenditure  on  education 
of  Rs.  52,000,  Local  funds  provided  Rs.  41,000  and  fees  Rs.  10,000. 

The  District  possesses  i  r  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommo- 
dation for  130  in-patients.  About  85,000  cases  were  treated  in  1903, 
of  whom  1,400  were  in-patients,  and  3,000  operations  were  performed. 
The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  16,000,  chiefly  met  from  Local  funds. 

In  1903-4,  30,000  persons  were  vaccinated,  representing  a  proportion 
of  32  per  1,000  of  population.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the 
two  municipalities. 

\ District  Gazetteer  (1883,  under  revision)  ;  W.  A.  W.  Last,  Settkincnt 
Report  (1901).] 

Shahjahanpur  Tahsil. — Head-quarters  tahsll  of  Shahjahanpur 
District,  United  Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Shahjahanpur, 
Jamaur,  and  Kant,  and  lying  between  27°  39'  and  28°  i'  N.  and 
79°  36'  and  80°  5'  E.,  with  an  area  of  394  square  miles.  Population 
fell  from  273,146  in  1891  to  265,467  in  1901.  There  are  463  villages 
and  only  one  town,  Shahjahanpur  City  (population,  76,458),  the 
District  and  tahsll  head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  3,00,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  49,000.  The  density  of 
population,  674  persons  per  square  mile,  is  considerably  above  the 
District  average,  owing  to  the  inclusion  of  the  city.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  tahsll  flows  the  Garra,  with  a  narrow  belt  of  rich  alluvial 
soil  on  either  bank,  while  several  smaller  streams  act  as  drainage 
channels.  The  eastern  portion  has  a  good  loam  soil ;  but  the  centre 
is  clay,  and  the  western  tract  is  sandy  and  liable  to  periods  of 
depression.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  293  square 
miles,  of  which  84  were  irrigated,   mosdy  from  wells. 

Shahjahanpur  City. — Administrative  head-quarters  of  Shahjahan- 
pur District  and  tahsil,  with  cantonment,  United  Provinces,  situated 
in  27°  53'  N.  and  79°  54'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Deoha  or  GarrS 
river,  crowning  the  high  ground  just  above  its  junction  with  the 
Khanaut,  with  a  station  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway, 
768  miles  by  rail  from  Calcutta  and  987  from  Bombay.     Population 


2IO  SHAHJAHANPUR    CITY 

has  fluctuated.  The  numbers  at  the  four  enumerations  were  as 
follows:  (187^)  72,136,  (1881)  77,404,  (1891)  78,522,  and  (1901) 
76,458,  of  whom  73,544  resided  in  the  municipality  and  2,914  in 
cantonments.  Hindus  numbered  35,636  in  1901  and  Muhammadans 
40,017. 

The  date  usually  assigned  to  the  foundation  of  the  city  is  1647,  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Rajputs  in  this  neighbourhood  by  Diler  Khan  and 
Bahadur  Khan,  and  a  mosque  was  built  here  by  the  latter  in  that  year. 
The  city  has  no  history  apart  from  that  of  the  District,  which  has 
already  been  related.  There  are  few  buildings  of  any  interest.  The 
old  fort  was  completely  destroyed  after  the  Mutiny ;  and  the  mosque 
referred  to  above  and  a  few  tombs,  including  that  of  Bahadur  Khan, 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  city,  are  the  only  memorials  of  the  former 
rulers.  The  principal  public  buildings,  besides  the  ordinary  District 
offices,  are  the  municipal  hall,  the  District  school,  and  the  male  and 
female  dispensaries.  The  American  Methodist  Mission  has  its  head- 
quarters here,  and  possesses  several  churches  and  an  orphanage. 
A  new  meeting  house  has  recently  been  built  by  the  Arya  Samaj. 
Shahjahanpur  is  the  head-quarters  of  an  officer  of  the  Opium  depart- 
ment. The  municipality  was  constituted  in  1864.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  74,000 
and  Rs.  72,000  respectively.  In  1903-4  the  income  w-as  1-4  lakhs, 
including  octroi  (Rs.  58,000),  rents  of  nmnicipal  markets  (Rs.  27,000), 
and  sale  of  refuse  (Rs.  23,000).  The  municipality  also  has  Rs.  30,000 
invested.  The  expenditure  amounted  to  1-3  lakhs,  including  con- 
servancy (Rs.  39,000),  roads  and  buildings  (Rs.  13,000),  public  safety 
(Rs.  24,000),  and  administration  (Rs.  18,000).  Shahjahanpur  is 
remarkable  for  the  excellence  of  its  drainage  and  general  sanitation. 
British  troops  form  the  usual  garrison  of  the  cantonment,  and  in 
1901-2  Boer  prisoners  were  encamped  here.  The  income  and 
expenditure  of  the  cantonment  fund  in  1903-4  were  Rs.  15,000  and 
Rs.  18,000.  The  trade  of  Shahjahanpur  is  small  compared  with  its 
population.  Sugar  is  the  chief  article  of  manufacture  and  commerce. 
The  Rosa  (Rausar)  factory,  which  lies  two  miles  south  of  the  city,  is 
the  only  establishment  managed  by  Europeans.  It  deals  with  about 
10  or  12  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  produced  in  the  District,  and  employed 
632  hands  in  1903.  Raw  sugar  was  formerly  purchased  for  refining, 
but  cane-crushing  machinery  has  recently  been  erected,  to  supplement 
the  supply.  Rum  is  also  manufactured  and  exported  to  many  parts  of 
India.  The  District  high  school  has  188  pupils,  and  the  tahs'ili  school 
214,  while  the  municipality  maintains  4  schools  and  aids  17  others, 
with  1,452  pupils. 

Shah-ki-Dheri.  Milage  and  ruins  in  Rawalpindi  District,  Punjab. 
See  Sii7\iiDiii'.Ki. 


SHAHPUR   DISTRICT  21  r 

Shahpur  District  ^ — District  in  the  llavval[)indi  Division  of  the 
Punjab,  lying  between  31°  32'  and  32°  42'  N.  and  71°  37'  and 
73°  23'  E.,  with  an  area  of  4,840  square  miles.  It  adjoins  the  Districts 
of  Attock  and  Jhelum  on  the  north,  Gujrat  on  the  east,  Gujranwala  on 
the  south-east,  Jhang  on  the  south,  and  Mianwali  on  the  west. 

The  Jhelum  river  divides  Shahpur  into  two  parts,  nearly  equal  in 

area.     Entering  the   District  at  its   north-east  corner,  the  river  flows 

almost    due   west    for    60    miles,    and    then    near 

Khushab  turns  southward,  its  width  increasing  from  J  \. 

.  aspects. 

2  to  15  miles  during  its  course  through  the  District. 
The  tendency  of  the  river  to  move  westward  has  caused  it  to  cut  in 
under  its  right  bank,  receding  from  the  eastern  bank,  under  wliich 
deposits  of  silt  have  formed  a  fertile  stretch  of  low-lying  land  densely 
populated  by  prosperous  cultivators.  The  Jhelum  valley,  though  it 
comprises  at  most  a  fourth  of  the  area  of  the  whole  District,  contains 
more  than  a  half  of  its  population  and  all  its  towns. 

East  of  the  Jhelum,  the  District  includes  that  part  of  the  Chaj  Doab, 
or  country  between  the  Chenab  and  Jhelum,  which  is  called  the  Bar, 
consisting  of  a  level  uncultivated  upland  covered  with  brushwood. 
Its  climate  is  dry  and  healthy.  The  character  of  this  tract  is,  however, 
being  rapidly  changed  by  the  Jhelum  Canal.  As  the  network  of 
irrigation  spreads,  trees  and  bushes  are  cut  down,  and  the  country 
cleared  for  cultivation.  Metalled  roads  are  being  built,  and  colonists 
imported  from  the  congested  Districts  of  the  Province,  while  the  Jech 
Doab  branch  of  the  North-A\'estern  Railway  has  been  extended  t(j 
Sargodha,  the  head-quarters  of  the  new  Jhelum  ('olony. 

A\'est  of  the  Jhelum  stretches  an  undulating  waste  of  sandhills 
known  as  the  Thai,  extending  to  the  border  of  Mianwali.  Broken 
only  by  an  occasional  well,  and  stretching  on  three  sides  to  the 
horizon,  the  Thai  from  Nurpur  offers  a  dreary  spectacle  of  rolling 
sandhills  and  stunted  bushes,  relieved  only  by  the  Salt  Range  which 
rises  to  the  north.  Good  rain  will  produce  a  plentiful  crop  of  grass, 
but  a  failure  of  the  rains,  which  is  more  usual,  means  starvation  for 
men  and  cattle.  North  of  the  Thai  runs  the  Salt  Range.  Rising 
abruptly  from  the  plains,  these  hills  run  east  and  west,  turning  sharply 
to  the  north  into  Jhelum  District  at  one  end  and  Mianwali  at  the 
other.  The  general  height  of  the  range  is  2,500  feet,  rising  frequently 
to  over  3,000  feet  and  culminating  in  the  little  hill  station  of  Sakesar 
(5,010  feet).  The  mirage  is  very  common  where  the  Salt  Range  drops 
into  the  Thai. 

*  Throughout  this  article  the  information  given  relates  to  the  District  as  it  was 
before  the  formation  of  the  Sargodha  tahsii  in  1906.  Brief  notices  of  the  new  lahsil 
and  its  head-quarters  will  bj  found  in  the  articles  on  Sakgudha  TahsTi.  and  Sak- 
GuMHA  Town. 


212  SHAHPUR  DISTRICT 

The  greater  part  of  the  District  Hes  on  the  alluvium,  but  the  central 
portion  of  the  Salt  Range,  lying  to  the  north  of  the  Jhelum  river,  is  of 
interest.  The  chief  feature  of  this  portion  of  the  range  is  the  great 
development  attained  by  the  Productus  limestone,  with  its  wealth  of 
Permian  fossils.  It  is  overlain  by  the  Triassic  ceratite  beds,  which  are 
also  highly  fossiliferous.  Here,  too,  upper  mesozoic  beds  first  begin  to 
appear ;  they  consist  of  a  series  of  variegated  sandstones  with  Jurassic 
fossils,  and  are  unconformably  overlain  by  Nummulitic  limestone  and 
other  Tertiary  beds.  The  lower  part  of  the  palaeozoic  group  is  less 
extensively  developed  than  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  range,  but  the 
salt  marl,  with  its  accompanying  rock-salt,  is  still  a  constant  feature 
in  most  sections.  Salt  of  great  purity  is  excavated  at  the  village  of 
Warcha  \ 

East  of  the  Jhelum  the  flora  is  that  of  the  Western  Punjab,  with  an 
admixture  of  Oriental  and  desert  species  ;  but  recent  canal  extensions 
tend  to  destroy  some  of  the  characteristic  forms,  notably  the  saltworts 
(species  of  Haloxylon,  Salicornia,  and  Salsola),  which  in  the  south- 
east of  the  District  often  constitute  almost  the  sole  vegetation.  The 
Thai  steppe,  west  of  the  Jhelum,  is  a  prolongation  northwards  of  the 
Indian  desert,  and  its  flora  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Western  Rajputana. 
In  the  Salt  Range  a  good  many  Himalayan  species  are  found,  but  the 
general  aspect  of  the  flora  is  Oriental.  The  box  {Buxus),  a  wild  olive, 
species  of  Zizyphus,  Sagerefia,  and  Dodonaea  are  associated  with  a 
number  of  herbaceous  plants  belonging  to  genera  well-known  in  the 
Levant  as  well  as  in  the  arid  North-\Vestern  Himalaya,  e.g.  Dianthiis, 
Scorzonera^  and  Merendera.  At  higher  levels  Himalayan  forms  also 
appear.  Trees  are  unknown  in  the  Thai,  and,  except  Acacia  7nodesta 
and  Tecoma  undulata,  are  usually  planted ;  but  the  kikar  {Acacia 
arabica)  is  naturalized  on  a  large  scale  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Jhelum. 

'  Ravine  deer '  (Indian  gazelle)  are  found  in  the  Salt  Range,  the 
Thai,  and  the  Bar.  There  are  antelope  in  very  small  numbers  in  the 
Shahpur  fahsJl,  while  hog  are  found  in  the  south-east  of  the  District 
and  occasionally  in  the  Salt  Range.  In  the  Salt  Range  leopards  are 
rare  and  wolves  common.  Urial  (a  kind  of  moufiion)  also  live  on  the 
hills,  and  jackals  are  numerous  everywhere. 

The  town  of  Khushab  and  the  waterless  tracts  of  the  Bar  and  Thai 
are,  in  May  and  June,  among  the  hottest  parts  of  India.  The  thermo- 
meter rises  day  after  day  to  115°  or  more,  and  the  average  daily 
maximum  for  June  is  108°.  When  the  monsoon  has  once  begun,  the 
temperature  rarely  rises   above    105°.     The    Salt   Range   valleys   are 

*  Wynne,  'Geology  of  the  Salt  Range,'  Memoirs,  Geological  Survey  of  India, 
vol.  xxiv  ;  C.  S.  Middlemiss,  '  Geology  of  the  Salt  Range,'  Records,  Geological  Survey 
of  India,  vol.  xiv,  pt.  i. 


HISTORY  213 

generally  about  10°  cooler  than  the  plains,  while  at  Sakesar  the 
temperature  seldom  ranges  above  90°  or  below  70°  in  the  hot  months. 
January  is  the  coldest  month.  The  average  minimum  at  Khushab 
is  39°.  The  District  is  comparatively  healthy,  though  it  suffers  con- 
siderably from  fever  in  the  autumn  months.  'J'he  Bar  has  a  better 
climate  than  the  river  valleys,  but  has  deteriorated  since  the  opening 
of  the  Jhelum  Canal. 

The  rainfall  decreases  ra[)idly  as  one  goes  south-west,  away  from  the 
Himalayas.  In  the  Jhelum  valley  and  Salt  Range  it  averages  15 
inches.  In  the  Thai  the  average  is  7  inches.  The  great  flood  of  1893 
will  be  long  remembered.  On  July  20-1  in  that  year  the  Chenab  dis- 
charged 700,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  compared  with  an  average 
discharge  of  127,000. 

At  the  time  of  Alexander's  invasion,  the  Salt  Range  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Jhelum  was  ruled  by  Sophy tes,  who  submitted  without 
resistance  to  Hephaestion  and  Craterus  in  the  autumn 
of  326  r,.c.  The  capital  of  his  kingdom  is  possibly 
to  be  found  at  Old  Bhera.  After  Alexander  left  India,  the  country 
comprised  in  the  present  District  passed  successively,  with  intervals  of 
comparative  independence,  under  the  sway  of  Mauryan,  Bactrian, 
Parthian,  and  Kushan  kings,  and  was  included  within  the  limits  of 
the  Hindu  kingdom  of  Ohind  or  Kabul.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries,  the  Salt  Range  chieftain  was  a  tributary  of  Kashmir.  Bhera 
was  sacked  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  and  again  two  centuries  later  by  the 
generals  of  Chingiz  Khan.  In  1519  Babar  held  it  to  ransom;  and  in 
1540  Sher  Shah  founded  a  new  town,  which  under  Akbar  became  the 
head-quarters  of  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  STihah  of  Lahore.  In  the 
reign  of  Muhammad  Shah,  Raja  Salamat  Rai,  a  Rajput  of  the  Anand 
tribe,  administered  Bhera  and  the  surrounding  country;  while  Khushab 
was  managed  by  Nawab  Ahmadyar  Khan,  and  the  south-eastern  tract 
along  the  Chenab  formed  part  of  the  territories  under  the  charge  of 
Maharaja  Kaura  Mai,  governor  of  Multan.  At  the  same  time,  the  Thai 
was  included  among  the  dominions  of  the  Baloch  families  of  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  and  Dera  Ismail  Khan. 

During  the  anarchic  period  which  succeeded  the  disruption  of  the 
Mughal  empire,  this  remote  region  became  the  scene  of  Sikh  and 
Afghan  incursions.  In  1757  a  force  under  Nur-ud-din  Bamizai,  dis- 
patched by  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  to  assist  his  son  Timur  Shah  in 
repelling  the  Marathas,  crossed  the  Jhelum  at  Khushab,  marched 
up  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  laid  waste  the  three  largest  towns 
of  the  District.  Bhera  and  Miani  rose  again  from  their  ruins,  but  only 
the  foundations  of  Chak  Sanu  now  mark  its  former  site.  About  the 
same  time,  by  the  death  of  Nawab  Ahmadyar  Khan,  Khushab  also 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Raja  Salamat  Rai.     Shortly  afterwards  Abbas 


214  SHAH  PUR  DISTRICT 

Khan,  a  Khattak,  who  held  Pind  Dadan  Khan  and  the  Salt  Range  for 
Ahmad  Shah,  treacherously  put  the  Raja  to  death,  and  seized  Bhera. 
But  Abbas  Khan  was  himself  thrown  into  prison  as  a  revenue  defaulter; 
and  Fateh  Singh,  nephew  of  Salamat  Rai,  then  recovered  his  uncle's 
dominions. 

After  the  final  success  of  the  Sikhs  against  Ahmad  Shah  in  1763, 
Chattar  Singh,  of  the  Sukarchakia  misl  or  confederacy,  overran  the 
whole  Salt  Range,  while  the  Bhangi  chieftains  parcelled  out  among 
themselves  the  country  between  those  hills  and  the  Chenab.  Mean- 
while, the  Muhammadan  rulers  of  Sahiwal,  Mitha  Tiwana,  and  Khushab 
had  assumed  independence,  and  managed,  though  hard  pressed,  to 
resist  the  encroachments  of  the  Sikhs.  The  succeeding  period  was 
one  of  constant  anarchy,  checked  only  by  the  gradual  rise  of  Mahan 
Singh,  and  his  son,  the  great  Maharaja  Ranjit  Singh.  The  former 
made  himself  master  of  Miani  in  1783,  and  the  latter  succeeded  in 
annexing  Bhera  in  1803.  Six  years  later,  Ranjit  Singh  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Baloch  chieftains  of  Sahiwal  and  Khushab,  whom  he  over- 
came by  combined  force  and  treachery.  At  the  same  time  he  swallowed 
up  certain  smaller  domains  in  the  same  neighbourhood;  and  in  1810 
he  effected  the  conquest  of  all  the  country  subject  to  the  Sial  chiefs 
of  Jhang.  In  18 16  the  conqueror  turned  his  attention  to  the  Maliks 
of  Mitha  Tiwana.  The  Muhammadan  chief  retired  to  Nurpur,  in  the 
heart  of  the  Thai,  hoping  that  scarcity  of  water  and  supplies  might 
check  tlic  Sikh  advance.  But  Ranjit  Singh's  general  sank  wells  as 
he  marched,  so  that  the  Tiwanas  fled  in  despair,  and  wandered  about 
tor  a  lime  as  outcasts.  The  Maharaja,  however,  after  annexing  their 
territory,  dreaded  their  influence  and  invited  them  to  Lahore,  where 
he  made  a  liberal  provision  f(n-  their  support.  On  the  death  of  the 
famous  Hari  Singh,  to  whom  the  Tiwana  estates  had  been  assigned, 
Fateh  Khan,  the  representative  of  the  Tiwana  family,  obtained  a  grant 
of  the  ancestral  domains.  Thenceforward,  Malik  Fateh  Khan  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  turbulent  politics  of  the  Sikh  realm,  after  the 
rapidly  succeeding  deaths  of  Ranjit  Singh,  his  son,  and  grandson. 
Thrown  into  prison  by  the  opposite  faction,  he  was  released  by 
Lieutenant  (afterwards  Sir  Herbert)  Edwardes,  who  sent  him  to  Bannu 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Multan  rebellion  to  relieve  Lieutenant  Reynell 
Taylor.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Sikh  troops  mutinied,  and  Fateh  Khan 
was  shot  down  while  boldly  challenging  the  bravest  champion  of  the 
Sikhs  to  meet  him  in  single  combat.  His  son  and  a  cousin  proved 
themselves  actively  loyal  during  the  revolt,  and  were  rewarded  for 
their  good  service  both  at  this  period  and  after  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 

Shahpur  District  passed  under  direct  British  rule,  with  the  rest  of  the 
Punjab,  at  the  close  of  the  second  Sikh  \Var.  At  that  time  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  was  peopled  only  by  wild  pastoral  tribes,  without 


POPUr.ATION 


2^5 


fixed  abodes.  Under  the  influence  of  settled  government,  they  began 
to  establish  themselves  in  permanent  habitation.s,  to  cultivate  the  soil 
in  all  suitable  places,  and  to  acquire  a  feeling  of  attachment  to  their 
regular  homes.  The  Mutiny  of  1857  had  little  influence  upon  Shah- 
pur.  The  District  remained  tranquil ;  and  though  the  villages  of  the 
Bar  gave  cause  for  alarm,  no  outbreak  of  sepoys  took  place,  and  the 
wild  tribes  of  the  upland  did  not  revolt  even  when  their  brethren 
in  the  neighbouring  Multan  Division  took  up  arms.  A  body  of  Tiwana 
horse,  levied  in  this  District,  did  excellent  service  during  the  Mutiny, 
and  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  regiment  now  known  as  the 
1 8th  (Tiwana)  Lancers. 

No  less  than  270  mounds  have  been  counted  in  the  Bar,  None 
of  them  has  been  excavated,  but  they  serve  to  recall  the  ancient 
prosperity  of  the  tract,  which  is  testified  to  alike  by  the  Greek  his- 
torians and  by  local  tradition.  The  most  interesting  architectural 
remains  are  the  temples  at  Amb  in  the  Salt  Range,  built  of  block 
kaiikar.  The  style  is  Kashmiri,  and  they  date  probably  from  the 
tenth  century,  the  era  of  the  Hindu  kings  of  Ohind.  Sher  Shah 
in  1540  built  the  fine  mosque  at  Bhera  ;  and  the  great  stone  dam, 
now  in  ruins,  across  the  Katha  torrent  at  the  foot  of  the  Salt  Range 
is  also  attributed  to  him. 

The  population  of  the  District  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was  : 
(1868)  368,288,  (1881)  421,508,  (1891)  493,588,  and  (1901)  524,259, 

dwelling  in  c  towns  and  789  villages.     It  increased 

I      ^  .   J     •       .u     1    .    1        1        T^i      T^-  Population. 

by  6-2  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade.     The  Dis- 
trict is  divided  into  three  tahslls — Shahpur,  Bhera,  and  Khushar — 
the  head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from  which  it  is  named. 
The  towns  are  the  municipalities  of  Shahpur,  the  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  District,  Miani,  Sahiwal,  Khushab,  and  Bhera. 

The  following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in 
1901  : — 


Tahsit. 

01  u 

Number  of 

P'opulation. 

§■5 

li 

0 

c 
is 

0 
H 

Percetitag 
variatior 

populatioi 

tween  i8 

and  19c 

Number 

persons  aL 

read  ar 

write. 

Shahpur 
Bhera 
Khushab     . 

District  total 

1,025 
1,177 
2,536 

2 
2 

I 

289 
294 
206 

167,905 
194,469 
161,885 

163.8 
165.2 

63.8 

+   14.7 
-     0.6 
+     6.8 

8,612 

7>907 

5,9281 

4,840 

5 

789 

524.259 

108.3 

+     6.2     22,447  j 

Note. — The  figTires  for  the  areas  of  iahsils  are  taken  from  revenue  returns.    The 
total  District  area  is  that  given  in  the  Census  Report. 

Muhammadans    number   442,921,   or    84   per    cent,    of   the   total  ; 
Hindus,  68,489;  and  Sikhs,  12,756.     The  density  of  the  population 


2l6 


SHAHPUR   DISTRICT 


is  low,  as  might  be  expected  in  a  District  which  comprises  so  large 
an  area  of  desert.  The  language  spoken  is  Western  Punjabi,  or 
Lahnda,  with  three  distinct  forms  in  the  Jhelum  valley,  the  Thai, 
and  the  Salt  Range  respectively.  The  last  has  been  held  to  be  the 
oldest  form  of  Punjabi  now  spoken  in  the  Province. 

The  most  numerous  caste  is  that  of  the  agricultural  Rajputs,  who 
number  73,000,  or  14  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Next  come 
the  Jats  (64,000),  Awans  (55,000),  Khokhars  (24,000),  and  Baloch 
(14,000).  Arains  are  few,  numbering  only  7,000,  while  the  Maliars, 
very  closely  akin  to  them,  number  4,000.  The  commercial  and  money- 
lending  castes  of  numerical  importance  are  the  Aroras  (43,000)  and 
Khattrls  (16,000).  The  Muhammadan  priestly  class,  the  Saiyids,  who 
have  agriculture  as  an  additional  means  of  livelihood,  number  10,000. 
Of  the  artisan  classes,  the  Julahas  (weavers,  25,000),  Mochls  (leather- 
workers,  19,000),  Kumhars  (potters,  15,000),  and  Tarkhans  (carpenters, 
14,000)  are  the  most  important ;  and  of  the  menial  classes,  the  Chuhras 
(sweepers,  34,000),  Machhis  (fishermen,  bakers,  and  water-carriers, 
14,000),  and  Nais  (barbers,  9,000).  Mirasis  (village  minstrels)  number 
10,000.  About  48  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  supported  by  agri- 
culture. 

The  American  United  Presbyterian  Mission  has  a  station  at  Bhera, 
where  work  was  started  in  1884.  In  1901  the  District  contained 
21  native  Christians. 

In  the  valleys  of  the  Jhelum  and  Chenab,  and  in  the  plain  between 
them,  the  soil  is  chiefly  a  more  or  less  sandy  loam,  with  patches  of  clay 
and  sand.  The  Thai  consists  chiefly  of  sandhills, 
interspersed  with  patches  of  hard  level  soil  and  tracts 
of  ground  impregnated  with  salts,  while  in  the  hills  a  fertile  detritus 
of  sandstone  and  limestone  is  found.  The  conditions  of  agriculture, 
however,  depend  on  the  facilities  for  irrigation  and  not  on  soils, 
and  the  unirrigated  cultivation  is  precarious  in  the  extreme. 

The  District  is  held  chiefly  on  the  hhaiydchdrd  Rnd  pattiddri  tenures, 
though  zaminddri  lands  cover  about  145  square  miles  and  lands  leased 
from  Government  about  5,000  acres.  The  area  for  which  details  are 
available  from  the  revenue  records  of  1903-4  is  4,735  square  miles, 
as  shown  below  : — 


Agriculture. 


TahsH. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Shahpur    . 
Bhera 
Khushab  . 

Total 

1,021 

1,178 
2,536 

545 
550 
435 

499 

354 
30 

342 

462 

1,120 

63 

88 

597 

4,735 

1,530               S83 

1,924 

748 

Wheat  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  spring  harvest,  occupying  579  square 


AGRICULTURE  217 

miles  in  1903-4.  Gram  and  barley  covered  92  and  19  square  miles 
respectively.  In  the  autumn  harvest  spiked  millet  {bajra)  is  the  prin- 
cipal staple,  covering  209  square  miles ;  cotton  covered  66  square 
miles,  pulses  50,  and  great  millet  {jozvdr)  56. 

During  the  ten  years  ending  1 900-1,  the  area  under  cultivation 
increased  by  19  per  cent.,  and  it  is  still  extending  with  the  aid  of 
the  new  Jhelum  Canal.  There  is  little  prospect  of  irrigation  in  the 
Thai,  as,  although  it  lies  within  the  scope  of  the  proposed  Sind-Sagar 
Canal,  the  soil  is  too  sterile  to  make  irrigation  profitable.  Nothing 
has  been  done  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  crops  grown.  Loans 
for  the  sinking  of  wells  are  appreciated  in  the  tract  beneath  the  hills 
and  in  the  Jhelum  valley ;  more  than  Rs.  5,800  was  advanced  under 
the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act  during  the  five  years  ending 
1903-4. 

There  are  no  very  distinct  breeds  of  cattle,  though  the  services 
of  Hissar  bulls  are  generally  appreciated.  The  cattle  of  the  Bar  are, 
however,  larger  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  plains,  and  there 
is  an  excellent  breed  of  peculiarly  mottled  cattle  in  the  Salt  Range. 
A  great  deal  of  cattle-breeding  is  done  in  the  Bar,  and  a  large  profit 
is  made  by  the  export  of  glii.  Many  buffaloes  are  kept.  The  Dis- 
trict is  one  of  the  first  in  the  Punjab  for  horse-breeding,  and  the 
Shahpur  stock  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  best  stamp  of  remounts 
to  be  found  in  the  Province.  A  considerable  number  of  mules  are 
bred.  A  large  horse  fair  is  held  annually,  and  44  horse  and  13  donkey 
stallions  are  maintained  by  the  Army  Remount  department  and  3  horse 
stallions  by  the  District  board.  Large  areas  have  been  set  apart  in  the 
Jhelum  Colony  for  horse  runs,  and  many  grants  of  land  have  been 
made  on  condition  that  a  branded  mare  is  kept  for  every  2\  acres. 
Camels  are  bred  in  the  Bar  and  Thai.  A  large  number  of  sheep 
are  kept,  both  of  the  black-faced  and  of  the  fat-tailed  breed,  and  goats 
are  also  kept  in  large  numbers.  The  donkeys,  except  in  the  Jhelum 
and  Chenab  valleys,  are  of  an  inferior  breed,  but  are  largely  used 
as  beasts  of  burden. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  883  square  miles,  or  58  per 
cent.,  were  classed  as  irrigated.  Of  this  area,  343  square  miles  were 
irrigated  from  wells,  and  540  from  canals.  In  addition,  107  square 
miles,  or  7  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area,  are  subject  to  inundation 
from  the  Chenab  and  Jhelum,  and  much  of  the  land  in  the  hills  classed 
as  unirrigated  receives  benefit  from  the  hill  torrents.  The  Lower 
Jhelum  Canal,  which  was  opened  in  October,  1901,  irrigates  the 
uplands  of  the  Bar.  The  remainder  of  the  canal-irrigation  is  from 
the  inundation  canals  {see  Shahpur  Canals),  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  three  private  canals  on  the  Chenab,  all  take  off  from  the 
Jhelum.      It  is  intended  to  supersede  them  gradually  by  extensions 


2i8  SHAH  PUR    DISTRICT 

of  the  Lower  Jhelum  Canal.  In  1903-4  the  District  had  7,545 
masonry  wells,  worked  by  cattle  with  Persian  wheels,  besides  241 
unbricked  wells,  lever  wells,  and  water-lifts.  Fields  in  the  Salt  Range 
are  embanked  so  as  to  utilize  to  the  utmost  the  surface  drainage  of 
the  hills,  and  embankments  are  thrown  across  the  hill  torrents  for  the 
same  purpose. 

In  1903-4  the  District  contained  775  square  miles  of  'reserved' 
and  25  of  unclassed  forest  under  the  Deputy-Conservator  of  the 
Shahpur  Forest  division,  besides  21  square  miles 
of  military  reserved  forest,  and  3  square  miles  of 
'reserved'  forest  and  692  of  waste  lands  under  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner. These  forests  are  for  the  most  part  tracts  of  desert  thinly 
covered  with  scrub,  consisting  of  the  vd?i  {Salvadord),  jand  {Frosopis), 
leafless  caper  and  other  bushes,  which  form  the  characteristic  vege- 
tation. The  Acacia  arabica,  sh'isham  {Dalbergia  Sissoo),  and  other 
common  trees  of  the  plains  are  to  be  found  by  the  rivers,  and  planted 
along  roads  and  canals  and  by  wells ;  but  as  a  whole  the  District 
is  very  poorly  wooded.  The  forest  revenue  from  the  areas  under 
the  Forest  department  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  77,000,  and  from  those 
under  the  Deputy-Commissioner  Rs.  59,000. 

Salt  is  found  in  large  quantities  all  over  the  Salt  Range,  and  is 
excavated  at  the  village  of  Warcha,  the  average  output  exceeding 
r 00,000  maunds  a  year.  Small  quantities  of  lignite  have  been  found 
in  the  hills  south  of  Sakesar  ;  gypsum  and  mica  are  common  in  places, 
and  traces  of  iron  and  lead  have  been  found  in  the  Salt  Range.  Petro- 
leum also  has  been  noticed  on  the  surface  of  a  spring.  Limestone 
is  quarried  from  the  hills  in  large  quantities,  and  a  great  deal  of  lime 
is  burnt.  Crude  saltpetre  is  manufactured  to  a  large  extent  from  the 
earth  of  deserted  village  sites,  and  refined  at  five  licensed  distilleries, 
whence  it  is  exported.  The  manufacture  of  impure  carbonate  of  soda 
from  the  ashes  of  Salsola  Griffithii  is  of  some  importance. 

Cotton  cloth  is  woven  in  all  parts,  and  is  exported  in  large  quan- 
tities,   while   silk    and    mixtures   of   silk    and    cotton   are   woven    at 
Khushab,    and    cotton    prints   are   produced.      Felt 
comm^ica°k>ns.  ^"S"  ""^^  ^^^^^^  at  that  town  and  at  Bhera.     Bhera 
also  turns  out  a  good  deal  of  cutlery,  and  various 
kinds  of  serpentine  and  other  stones  are  used  there  for  the  handles 
of  knives,   caskets,   paper  weights,   &:c.     The  woodwork  of  Bhera  is 
above  the  average,  and  good   lacquered  turnery  is  made  at  Sahiwal. 
Gunpowder  and  fireworks  are  prepared  on  a  large  scale  at  several 
places.     Soap  is  also  manufactured. 

Cotton  is  exported  both  raw  and  manufactured,  and  there  is  a  large 
export  of  wheat  and  other  grains,  which  will  increase  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Jhelum  Colony.     Other  exports  are  wool,  i^h'u  hides  and 


ADAflN/S  TRA  TION  2 1 9 

bones,  salt,  lime,  and  saltpetre.  The  chief  imj^orts  arc  piece-goods, 
metals,  sugar,  and  rice. 

The  Sind-Sagar  branch  of  the  North-Western  Railway  crosses  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  the  Bhera  tahsll,  and,  after  passing  into  Jheluni 
District,  again  enters  the  District,  crossing  the  Khushab  tahsil.  The 
Jech  Doab  branch  strikes  off  through  the  heart  of  the  District,  running 
as  far  as  Sargodha,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Jhelum  Colony.  There  is 
also  a  short  branch  to  Bhera.  A  light  railway  from  Dhak  to  the  foot 
of  the  hills  near  Katha,  a  distance  of  about  10  miles,  is  under  survey, 
in  the  interests  of  the  coal  trade. 

The  District  is  traversed  in  all  directions  by  good  unmetalled  roads, 
the  most  important  leading  from  T.ahore  to  the  frontier  through  Shah- 
pur  town  and  Khushab,  and  from  Shahpur  to  Jhang  and  Gujrat.  The 
total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  20  miles,  and  of  unmetalled  roads 
838  miles.  Of  these,  13  miles  of  metalled  and  26  miles  of  unmetalled 
roads  are  under  the  Public  Works  department  and  the  rest  under  the 
District  board. 

The  Jhelum  is  crossed  between  Shahpur  and  Khushab  by  a  bridge 
of  boats,  dismantled  during  the  rains ;  and  a  footway  is  attached  to 
the  railway  bridge  in  the  Bhera  tahsil.  There  are  sixteen  ferries  on 
the  Jhelum,  those  on  the  Chenab  being  under  the  management  of  the 
authorities  of  Gujranwala  District.  A  certain  amount  of  trafific  is 
carried  by  the  former  river,  but  very  little  by  the  latter. 

Prior  to  annexation,  the  greater  part  of  Shahpur  was  a  sparsely 
populated  tract,  in  which  cultivation  was  mostly  dependent  on  wells 
and  on  the  floods  of  the  Jhelum  river;  and  although  the  District  has 
been  affected  by  all  the  famines  which  have  visited  the  Punjab,  it 
is  not  one  in  which  distress  can  ever  rise  to  a  very  high  pitch. 
No  serious  famine  has  occurred  since  annexation,  and  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  Lower  Jhelum  Canal  the  Chaj  Doab  may  be  said  to 
be  thoroughly  protected. 

The  District  is  in  charge  of  a  Deputy-Commissioner,  aided  by  two 

Assistant  or  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  of  whom  . 

r     ,       ^^-     ■  T     •     Administration, 

one   IS   m    charge   of  the   District   treasury.      It    is 

divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  the  three  tahslh  of  Shahpur, 

Bhera,  and  Khushab. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Magistrate  is  responsible  for 

criminal  justice.     Civil  judicial  work  is  under  a  District  Judge ;  and 

both  officers  are  subordinate  to  the  Divisional  Judge  of  the  Shahpur 

Civil  Division,  who  is  also  Sessions  Judge.      There  are  two  Munsifs, 

one  at  head-quarters  and  the  other  at  Bhera.    The  principal  crime  of 

the   District   is    catde-lifting,  though   dacoities   and    murders   are  not 

uncommon.      In    the    Salt    Range    blood-feuds    are    carried    on    for 

generations. 

VOL.  XXII.  P 


SHAH  PUR    DT STRICT 


At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  tract  which  now 
forms  the  District  was  held  by  various  independent  petty  chiefs,  all 
of  whom  were  subdued  by  Ranjit  Singh  between  1803  and  1816. 
Till  1849  it  was  governed  by  vSikh  kdrddrs,  who  took  leases  of  the 
land  revenue  of  various  blocks  of  country,  exacting  all  they  could  and 
paying  only  what  they  were  obliged.  The  usual  modes  of  collection 
were  by  taking  a  share  of  the  grain  produce  or  by  appraisement  of  the 
standing  crops,  and  the  demand  was  not  limited  to  any  fixed  share 
of  the  harvest.  On  annexation  in  1849  the  District  was  assessed 
village  by  village  in  cash,  the  Sikh  demand  being  reduced  by  20  per 
cent. ;  but  even  this  proved  too  high.  In  1851  the  distress  found  voice, 
and  the  revenue  was  reduced  in  the  Kalowal  (Chenab)  tahsll  from 
Rs.  1,00,000  to  Rs.  75,000.  In  1852  a  summary  settlement  was  carried 
out,  giving  a  reduction  of  22  per  cent.  In  1854  began  the  regular 
settlement,  which  lasted  twenty  years  and  resulted  in  a  further  decrease 
of  a  quarter  of  a  lakh.  A  revised  settlement  was  concluded  in  1894. 
The  average  rates  of  assessment  were  Rs.  2  (maximum  Rs.  3-10, 
minimum  6  annas)  on  'wet'  land,  and  R.  0-15-6  (maximum  Rs.  1-9, 
minimum  6  annas)  on  '  dry '  land.  These  rates  resulted  in  an  imme- 
diate increase  of  38  per  cent,  in  the  demand,  the  incidence  per  acre  of 
cultivation  being  R.  0-15-9.  The  average  size  of  a  proprietary  holding 
is  5  acres. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  and  of  total  revenue  are  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

4.33 

5.50 

4-97 
6,53 

5,53 
8,19 

9,08 
1 1 ,95 

The  District  contains  five  municipalities,  Shahpur,  Bhera,  Miani, 
S.MJiWAL,  and  Khushab.  Outside  these,  local  affairs  are  managed  by 
the  District  board,  whose  income,  derived  mainly  from  a  local  rate, 
was  a  lakh  in  1903-4,  while  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  85,000,  education 
being  the  largest  item. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  502  of  all  ranks,  including 
100  municipal  police,  and  the  Superintendent  usually  has  one  Assis- 
tant Superintendent  and  four  inspectors  under  him.  Village  watch- 
men number  538.  There  are  1 7  police  stations  and  5  outposts.  The 
District  jail  at  head-quarters  has  accommodation  for  280  prisoners. 

Shahpur  stands  tenth  among  the  twenty-eight  Districts  of  the 
Province  in  respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population.  In  1901  the 
proportion  of  literate  persons  was  4-2  per  cent.  (7-5  males  and  o-; 
females).  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was  2,119  '•'' 
1880-1,    8,560    in    1 890-1,    7,961   in    1900-1,  and   8,495    ''"'    1903  4- 


^n An  PUR   INUNDATION  CANALS  221 

In  the  last  year  there  were  7  secondary  and  74  primary  (puhlir) 
schools,  and  11  advanced  and  231  elementary  (private)  schools,  with 
696  girls  in  the  public  and  293  in  the  private  schools.  The  District 
possesses  two  high  schools,  both  at  Bhera.  It  also  has  twelve  girls' 
schools,  among  which  Pandit  Diwan  Chand's  school  at  Shahpur  is  one 
of  the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  Province.  The  total  expenditure  on  edu- 
cation in  1903-4  was  Rs.  48,000,  of  which  the  municipalities  contri- 
buted Rs.  5,800,  fees  Rs.  21,000,  endowments  Rs.  1,400,  Government 
Rs,  4,000,  and  District  funds  Rs.  15,600. 

Besides  the  civil  hospital  at  Shahpur,  the  District  has  eight  outlying 
dispensaries.  At  these  institutions  109,428  out-patients  and  1,463 
in-patients  were  treated  in  1904,  and  4,977  operations  were  performed. 
The  income  was  Rs.  17,000,  the  greater  part  of  it  coming  from  muni- 
cipal funds. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  12,072,  repre- 
senting 23  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[J.  Wilson,  District  Gazetteer  (1897);  Settlement  Report  (1894); 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  Western  Panjdln,  as  spoken  in  the  Shdh- 
pur  District  {i^()q);  and  General  Code  of  Tribal  Custom  in  the  Shahpur 
District  {i8g6).] 

Shahpur  Tahsil. — Tahsll  of  Shahpur  District,  Punjab,  lying  be- 
tween 31°  42'  and  32°  27'  N.  and  72°  12'  and  72°  51'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  1,021  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  and  north-west  by 
the  Jhelum  river.  The  tract  along  the  river  is  very  fertile,  and  is 
separated  from  the  hard  clay  uplands  by  a  well-marked  bank.  The 
tahsil  is  well  wooded.  The  population  in  1901  was  167,905,  com- 
pared with  146,376  in  1 89 1.  The  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of 
Shahpur  (population,  9,386) ;  and  the  tahsil  also  contains  the  town 
of  Sahiwal  (9,163)  and  289  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  5-3  lakhs. 

Shahpur  Inundation  Canals. — A  system  of  inundation  canals  in 
the  Punjab,  fed  from  the  Jhelum  river  and  mainly  situated  in  Shahpur 
District.  About  sixteen  of  them  are  owned  by  private  persons  and  six 
by  Government.  Of  the  latter,  three  are  classed  as  Imperial  and  two 
as  Provincial,  while  one,  the  Pind  Dadan  Khan  Canal  in  Jhelum  Dis- 
trict, has  recently  been  made  over  to  the  municipal  committee  of  Pind 
Dadan  Khan  for  management.  The  three  Imperial  canals  lie  wholly 
in  the  Shahpur  tahsll,  and  are  developments  of  a  canal  dug  in  1864 
by  Colonel  Sir  William  Davies,  to  supply  water  to  the  civil  station  of 
Shahpur.  In  1870  Government  acquired  this  canal  and  added  two 
new  canals.  The  Imperial  canals  command  an  area  of  105  square 
miles  and  irrigate  50  square  miles  a  year  on  an  average,  yielding  a  net 
revenue  of  Rs.  50,000,  or  24  per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay.  Of  the 
two  Provincial  canals,  the  largest  is  the  Ranlwah,  an  old  native  canal 

p  2 


22  2  RHAHPVR    TNUNDATTON  CANALS 

which  had  fallen  into  disuse  and  was  reopened  in  1 870-1.  It  com- 
mands 72  square  miles  in  the  Bhera  tahsil  and  irrigates  30  square 
miles  annually,  yielding  a  net  revenue  of  Rs.  ir,ooo.  It  has  ex- 
tinguished its  cai)ital  cost  and  yielded  a  net  profit  of  4-1  lakhs  to 
Government.  The  Corbynwah,  constructed  in  1879,  irrigates  about 
4,500  acres,  mostly  grass  lands,  in  the  Khushab  tahsil  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Jhelum. 

The  Pind  Dadan  Khan  Canal  does  not  pay  expenses,  but  it  supplies 
the  town  with  sweet  water.  It  performs  a  small  amount  of  irrigation 
as  well,  the  area  irrigated  in  1904-5  having  been  395  acres.  The 
private  canals  have  a  total  length  of  about  227  miles  and  irrigate 
87  square  miles.  Many  of  them  are  old  canals  which  had  silted  up 
and  were  re-excavated,  under  .Sir  Donald  McNabb  and  other  Deputy- 
Commissioners  of  the  District,  by  owners  or  lessees  to  irrigate  their 
own  lands.  They  also  irrigate  the  lands  of  other  persons  on  payment 
of  a  water  rate.  As  noted  in  the  article  on  the  Lower  Jhelum  Canal, 
most  of  these  inundation  canals  will  cease  to  exist  as  such  when  the 
Shahpur  branch  of  the  Lower  Jhelum  Canal  has  been  constructed. 

Shahpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Shah- 
pur, Punjab,  situated  in  32°  18'  N.  and  72°  27'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Jhelum  river.  Population  (1901),  9,386.  The  town,  founded  by 
a  colony  of  Saiyids,  and  called  after  their  leader,  vShah  Shams,  lies 
3  miles  from  the  civil  lines,  in  which  are  the  District  offices,  jail,  and 
church,  and  5  miles  from  Khushab,  the  nearest  railway  station  on  the 
North-AVestern  Railway.  The  place  is  of  no  commercial  importance. 
The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  and  expenditure 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  1,900.  In  1903-4 
the  income  amounted  to  Rs.  1,900,  chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expen- 
diture was  Rs.  1,800.  The  town  has  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle 
school,  maintained  by  the  District  board,  besides  Pandit  Diwan 
Chand's  girls'  school,  one  of  the  best  in  the  Province ;  and  a  civil 
hospital. 

Shahpur  State.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Shahpur  T^XviSs..  — Taluk  in  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad  State, 
with  an  area  of  585  square  miles,  includingy^z^Jr.?.  The  population  in 
1 90 1  was  104,274,  compared  with  93,210  in  1891.  It  contains  one 
town,  S.^GAR  (population,  5,445),  and  150  villages,  of  which  40  are 
jagir.  Shahpur  (population,  3,251)  is  the  head-quarters.  The  Bhima 
flows  along  the  south-east  border.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  amounted 
to  1-7  lakhs.     The  soil  is  chiefly  of  the  black  cotton  description. 

Shahpura  Chiefship. — Chiefship  under  the  political  supervision 
of  the  Haraoti  and  Tonk  Agency,  Rajputana,  lying  between  25°  29' 
and  25°  53'  N.  and  74°  44'  and  75"^  7'  E.,  with  an  area  of  405  square 
miles.     It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the  British  Dis- 


SHAHPUKA    CHIEFSHir  223 

Irict  of  Ajmer,  and  on  every  other  side  by  the  Udaipur  Stale,  except  in 
the  north-east  corner,  where  its  border  touches  that  of  Kishangarh. 
A  small  detached  tract  lies  about  5  miles  to  the  west  of  its  south- 
western boundary.     The  country  is  for  the  most  part 
flat,  open,  and  treeless,  and  contains  much  pasture-         Physical 
land.      In  the  north  are  two  small  rivers,  the  Khari 
and  the  Mansi,  which  flow  from  west  to  east,  unite  near  Phulia,  and 
eventually  join  the  Banas  river  north  of  Deoli. 

The  northern  portion  of  Shahpura  is  covered  by  the  alluvium  of 
these  rivers.  A  few  isolated  rocky  hills  are  to  be  found,  formed  of  the 
schists  of  the  Aravalli  system,  while  in  the  south  a  large  area  is  covered 
by  the  same  rocks,  traversed  by  numerous  dikes  and  veins  of  granite. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  about  26  inches,  and  has  varied  from 
over  44  inches  in  1892  to  about  10  in  1895. 

The  Shahpura  family  belongs  to  the  Sesodia  clan  of  Rajputs,  being 
descended  from  Amar  Singh  I,  Rana  of  Mewar  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  through  his  son  Suraj  Mai.  The 
chiefship  of  Shahpura  came  into  existence  about 
1629,  when  Suraj  Mai's  son,  Sujan  Singh,  received  from  the  emperor 
Shah  Jahan,  as  a  reward  for  gallant  services,  a  grant  of  the  pargana  of 
Phulia  out  of  the  crown  lands  of  Ajmer,  on  condition  of  performing 
service  with  50  horsemen.  Sujan  Singh  at  once  changed  the  name  of 
this  district  to  Shahpura,  after  his  benefactor,  and  founded  the  town 
of  the  same  name  ;  he  was  thus  the  first  chief  of  Shahpura.  He  was 
killed  in  1658  at  Fatehabad  near  Ujjain,  when  fighting  on  the  side 
of  Dara  against  Aurangzeb.  His  grandson,  Bharat  Singh,  was  the 
third  chief,  and  received  from  the  emperor  Aurangzeb  the  title  of  Raja. 
The  next  chief  was  Umed  Singh,  who  was  killed  at  Ujjain  in  1768, 
when  fighting  for  Rana  Ari  Singh  of  Mewar  against  Mahadji  Sindhia. 
The  seventh  chief,  Amar  Singh  (1796-1827),  is  said  to  have  received 
from  the  Maharana  of  Mewar  the  title  of  Raja  Dhiraj,  which  is  ac- 
corded to  his  successors  to  this  day.  The  eleventh  and  present  chief 
is  Raja  Dhiraj  Nahar  Singh,  who  succeeded  by  adoption  in  1870, 
received  full  powers  in  1876,  and  was  made  a  K.C.I.E.  in  1903. 
Under  the  sanad  of  June  27,  1848,  the  chiefship  pays  to  the  British 
Government  a  tribute  of  Rs.  10,000,  subject  to  the  proviso  that,  if  the 
customs  duties  levied  in  Ajmer  District  be  abolished,  the  chief  shall, 
if  the  Government  so  wish,  also  cease  to  collect  such  duties,  and  in 
such  a  case  the  tribute  shall  be  reduced  to  Rs.  2,000  a  year.  The 
chief  has  received  the  right  of  adoption.  In  addition  to  holding  Shah- 
pura directly  by  grant  from  the  British  Government,  the  Raja  Dhiraj 
possesses  the  estate  of  Kachhola  in  Udaipur,  for  which  he  pays 
tribute  and  does  formal  service  as  a  great  noble  of  that  State. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  Shahpura  is  133,  and  the  popu- 


224  SHAIirURA    CIlIEFSniP 

lation  at  each  of  the  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  51,750,  (1891) 
63,646,  and  (1901)  42,676.  The  decline  in  the  last  decade  was  due 
to  the  famine  of  1899- 1900,  and  the  severe  outbreak 
of  malarial  fever  which  followed  it.  The  chiefship 
is  divided  into  the  four  tahsils  of  Shahpura,  Dhikola,  Kothian,  and 
Phulia,  with  head  quarters  at  the  places  from  which  each  is  named. 
In  1901  Hindus  numbered  38,541,  or  90  per  cent. ;  Musalmans,  2,520, 
or  nearly  6  per  cent. ;  and  Jains,  1,543,  or  3  per  cent. 

The  most  numerous  castes  are  the  Brahmans,  Gujars,  and  Jats, 
almost  all  of  whom  are  agriculturists ;  and  the  Mahajans,  who  arc 
traders  and  money-lenders.  Nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  population 
are  supported  by  agriculture,  and  about  20  per  cent,  are  engaged  in 
such  industries  as  cotton-weaving  and  dyeing,  pottery,  carpentry,  boot- 
making,  &c. 

The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  a  fertile  loam.     The  principal  crops  arc 

bdjra,  Jowdr,  maize,  ///,  and  cotton  in  the  rainy  season,  and  wheat, 

.  barley,  gram,  and  poppy  in  the  cold  season.     The 

area   said   to  have  been   cultivated   in   1902-3  was 

247  square  miles,  or  three-fifths  of  the  entire  area  of  the  chiefship. 

About  30  square  miles  were  irrigated  :    namely,  1 7  from  tanks  and  1 3 

from  wells.     The  country  is  well  suited  for  tanks,  and  the  subject  of 

irrigation  has  been  receiving  considerable  attention  during  recent  years. 

'Hiere  are  no  real  forests,  but  extensive  grass  reserves  contain  babiil^ 

/iliii,  and  other  common  trees  useful  for  fuel.    Surplus  grass  is  regularly 

stored. 

The  principal   manufactures  are  the  lacquered  tables,  shields,  and 
toys,  which  have  more  than  a  local  reputation  ;  other  arts  are  cotton- 
weaving   of  the  ordinary  kind,  printing   on    fabrics, 

communications,  ^y^'"^'  ^^"^  ^'^^  manufacture  of  bangles  from  coco- 
nut shells.  A  cotton-press  at  Shahpura  town,  the 
property  of  the  chiefship,  gives  employment  to  80  men  during  the 
working  season,  and  about  4,500  bales  of  cotton  are  pressed  yearly. 

The  chief  exports  are  cotton  and  ghi  to  Bombay,  and  opium,  hides, 
barley,  maize,  and  tii  mostly  to  Beawar.  The  chief  imports  are  piece- 
goods  and  sugar  from  Bombay,  salt  from  Sambhar  and  Pachbhadra, 
wheat  from  Cawnpore,  rice  and  tobacco  from  Ajmer,  and  cattle  from 
Marwar  and  Malwa. 

There  is  no  railway  in  the  chiefship,  but  the  Rajputana-Malwa  line 
runs  parallel  to,  and  about  12  miles  distant  horn,  the  western  border. 
The  proposed  Baran-Ajmer-Marwar  Railway  will,  however,  pass  through 
the  territory.  The  only  metalled  roads  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Shahpura 
town,  and  their  length  is  about  2  miles.  The  only  British  post  ofifice 
is  at  the  capital,  where  there  is  also  a  telegraph  office.  The  chiefship 
niuiniains  a  pcjstal   system  of  its  own.     Letters  on  Stale   service  are 


.  /  D.  MINIS  TRA  TION  2  2  5 

carried  free,  and  private  letters  at  \  anna  each.     The  mails  are  carried 
by  runners. 

Of  famines  prior  to  1899- 1900  there  is  very  little  on  record.  In 
1869-70  there  was  severe  distress  ;  68  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  are  said  to 
have  perished,  about  2,000  persons  emigrated,  and 
9,000  died,  mostly  from  fever  or  scurvy.  There  was 
scarcity  in  1877-8,  1891-2,  and  1895-6.  The  famine  of  1 899-1900 
was  a  severe  one ;  the  rainfall  was  about  half  the  average,  and  practi- 
cally no  rain  fell  after  the  middle  of  July.  Relief  works  were  started  in 
September,  1899,  and  continued  till  August,  1900;  880,000  units  were 
relieved  on  works,  and  157,000  gratuitously,  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  77,600. 
Land  revenue  was  remitted  and  suspended,  advances  were  made,  and 
loans  were  given  to  the  jdglrdars.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  fodder 
66  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  died,  but  among  human  beings  deaths  from 
starvation  or  the  immediate  effects  of  insufficient  food  were  compara- 
tively few. 

The   chiefship  is   administered    by  the  Raja  Dhiraj,  assisted    by  a 

Kdviddr.     Under  the  latter  are  a  Revenue  Collector 

J  r        J   7  -7-7-  Administration, 

and  four  tahsildars. 

In  the  administration  of  justice  the  courts  are  guided  generally  by 
the  codes  of  British  India.  The  lowest  courts  are  those  of  the 
tahsildars,  two  of  whom  have  the  powers  of  a  third-class  magistrate, 
while  three  decide  civil  suits  not  exceeding  Rs.  50  in  value.  Over 
them  are  the  Faujddri  (criminal)  and  D'nvdni  (civil)  courts,  presided 
over  by  two  officials  called  hdkims.  The  former  can  sentence  to  three 
years'  imprisonment  and  Rs.  500  line,  while  the  latter  decides  suits 
not  exceeding  Rs.  3,000  in  value.  Both  hear  appeals  against  the 
decisions  of  tahsildars.  Over  them  is  the  Judicial  Officer,  who  has 
the  powers  of  a  Court  of  Session  except  that  he  does  not  hear  appeals, 
and  decides  suits  not  exceeding  Rs.  5,000  in  value.  Lastly,  there  is 
the  Alahakina  khds,  which  is  the  final  appellate  authority,  and  disposes 
of  all  cases  beyond  the  powers  of  the  Judicial  Officer,  subject  to  the 
proviso  that  all  cases  of  heinous  crime  involving  the  punishment  of 
death  or  imprisonment  for  life  are  reported  to  the  Political  Agent  and 
disposed  of  in  accordance  with  his  advice. 

The  normal  revenue  of  the  chiefship  is  nearly  3  lakhs,  the  chief 
sources  being;  land,  about  1-7  lakhs;  cotton-press,  Rs.  29,000; 
customs,  Rs.  17,000;  and  payments  hy  J dgirddrs,  Rs.  8,500.  The 
normal  expenditure  is  about  2-6  lakhs,  the  chief  items  being  :  civil 
and  judicial  staff,  1-4  lakhs;  private  and  household  expenditure, 
Rs.  46,000;  troops  and  police,  Rs.  11,000;  and  tribute,  Rs.  10,000. 
These  figures  relate  also  to  the  estate  of  Kachhola. 

The  coins  current  in  the  chiefship  are  the  British,  the  Ckilori  of 
Mewar,  and  the  Gydrdh  sa/ia  or  Igardh  sa/ia.    The  latter  is  a  local  coin 


2  26  SHAHPURA    CHIEFSHIP 

struck  by  the  Rajas  of  Shahpura  since  1760  or  1780,  but  the  mint  has 
been  closed  since  1870  under  the  orders  of  Government.  The  Gyardh 
Sana  rupee  was  formerly  worth  about  10  or  10^  British  annas,  but  now 
exchanges  for  about  8  annas. 

Of  the  132  villages  in  the  chiefship,  64  are  khdisa,  52  Jdgir,  and 
16  viudfi.  Land  under  the  last  tenure  is  held  free,  while  the  holders 
oi  jdgir  land  have  to  perform  service  and  pay  tribute.  In  the  khdisa 
area  the  land  revenue  is  paid  in  cash  on  the  kharif  or  rains  crops, 
varying  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  8  per  acre,  while  on  the  rabi  or  spring  crops 
it  is  levied  in  kind,  varying  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  produce. 
Save  in  a  few  cases,  the  tenants  have  no  proprietary  rights,  and  can  be 
dispossessed  at  an)'  time  ;  but  with  the  chief's  permission  they  can 
dispose  of,  or  transfer,  their  right  of  cultivation. 

The  military  force  consists  of  44  cavalry,  65  armed  and  176  general 
infantry,  or  a  total  of  285  of  all  ranks,  with  10  serviceable  guns. 

The  police  force  consists  of  400  men,  of  whom  42  are  mounted  and 
130  are  chauklddrs.  The  only  jail  is  at  the  capital  and  has  accom- 
modation for  29  prisoners  ;  the  daily  average  number  in  1904  was  20. 
The  jail  manufactures  are  unimportant  and  on  a  very  small  scale,  con- 
sisting of  cotton  carpets,  matting,  and  rope. 

In  respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population,  Shahpura  stands  third 
among  the  States  and  chiefships  of  Rajputana  with  5-3  per  cent,  able 
to  read  and  write :  namely,  9-8  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  0-4  of  the 
females.  There  are  only  four  schools,  of  which  three,  including  a  girls' 
school,  are  at  the  capital,  and  one  at  Kothian  in  the  north-west.  The 
daily  average  attendance  at  these  four  institutions  in  1904-5  was  200, 
and  the  expenditure  about  Rs.  4,000. 

A  hospital  is  maintained  at  the  capital,  which  cost  Rs.  1,840  in  1904. 
Vaccination  is  not  popular.  In  1904-5  the  vaccinator  successfully 
vaccinated  894  persons,  or  about  21  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

Shahpura  Town  (i).— Capital  of  the  chiefship  of  the  same  name 
in  Rajputana,  founded  about  1629  by  Sujan  Singh,  the  first  chief  of 
Shahpura,  and  named  after  the  emperor  Shah  Jahan.  It  is  situated 
in  25"^  38'  N.  and  74°  56'  E.,  about  19  miles  by  unmetalled  road  east 
of  Sareri  station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway,  and  60  miles  south- 
by-south-east  of  Ajmer  city.  Population  (1901),  8,974.  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  having  four  gates,  and  possesses  a  combined  post 
and  telegraph  ofifice ;  a  jail  with  accommodation  for  29  prisoners  ;  an 
Anglo-vernacular  school,  with  boarding-house  attached,  at  which  the 
daily  average  attendance  in  1904-5  was  50;  a  couple  of  primary 
schools  attended  by  129  boys  and  20  girls;  and  a  hospital  with 
accommodation  for  20  in-patients.  Outside  the  walls  and  close  to 
the  Kund  gate  stands  the  Ramdwara  or  monastery  of  the  Ramsanehi 
sect  of  mendicants.     This  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  about 


SHAJAPUR   ZILA  227 

150  years  ago  by  one  Ram  Charan  lA^s,  and  the  inaliant  or  high 
priest  resides  here.  The  Ramsanehis  (or  'lovers  of  Ram  )  have  no 
belief  in  the  worship  of  idols,  and  their  chief  tenet  is  the  repealing 
of  the  name  Ram.  They  shave  the  head,  moustache,  and  beard 
completely,  and  usually  cover  their  bodies  with  an  ochre-coloured 
sheet,  though  some  do  not  wear  more  than  a  simple  loin-cloth  at  any 
season.  They  live  by  begging  and  do  not  marry,  but  adopt  chelds  or 
disciples  from  the  Brahman,  Rajput,  and  Mahajan  castes. 

Shahpura  Town  (2). — Town  in  the  Sawai  Jaipur  nizdmat  of  the 
State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27°  23'  N.  and  75°  58'  E., 
about  34  miles  north-by-north-east  of  Jaipur  city.  It  belongs  to  the  Rao 
of  Manoharpur.  Population  (1901),  5,245.  There  are  2  elementary 
indigenous  schools,  attended  by  46  boys. 

Shahpuri. —Island  in  the  Naaf  estuary  in  the  Cox's  Bazar  sub- 
division of  Chittagong  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in 
20°  38'  N.  and  92°  19'  E.,  on  the  border  of  Arakan.  In  1823  the 
Burmans  claimed  possession  of  the  island,  and  overpowered  a  British 
guard  stationed  upon  it,  but  they  were  afterwards  driven  out.  A  second 
attempt  led  to  the  commencement  of  the  first  Burmese  War. 

Shahrig.  —  Subdivision  and  tahsil  of  Sibi  District,  Baluchistan, 
lying  between  29°  49'  and  30°  37'  N.  and  67°  14'  and  68°  22'  E. 
Its  area  is  1,595  ^Quare  miles,  and  the  population  in  1901  was  16,573, 
showing  an  increase  of  only  332  since  1891.  The  head-quarters  are 
at  Shahrig,  but  the  Assistant  Political  Agent  in  charge  of  the  sub- 
division generally  resides  at  Ziarat  or  SiBi.  The  number  of  villages 
is  93.  The  land  revenue,  including  grazing  tax,  in  1903-4  was  Rs. 
28,900.  All  irrigated  lands  are  under  a  fixed  cash  assessment  for 
a  term  of  ten  years,  which  terminates  in  191 1.  The  incidence  per 
irrigated  acre  ranges  from  Rs.  2-14-11  to  Rs.  2-2-6.  Besides  the 
Zawar  or  Harnai  valle}-,  the  tahsil  includes  a  mass  of  mountainous 
country  on  the  north,  intersected  by  the  picturesque  Kach-Kawas 
valley  leading  to  Ziarat.  It  possesses  the  distinction  of  having  the 
highest  recorded  rainfall  in  Baluchistan  (ii'67  inches). 

Shaikhawati.— District  in  Jaipur  State,  Rajputana.     See  Shekha- 

WATl. 

Shaikh  Othman.--Subui b  of  Aden  Settlement.  Populaticm  ( 1 90 1 ), 
6,948.     See  Aden. 

Shaikhpura.— Town  in  Monghyr  District,  Bengal.  See  Sheikhpura. 

Shajapur  Zila  (or  Shajahanpur).— District  in  the  Malwa  division 
of  the  Gwalior  State,  Central  India,  lying  between  22°  34' and  24°  19'  N. 
and  75°  44'  and  77°  6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,494  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1901  was  361,050,  giving  a  density  of  103  persons  per 
square  mile.  The  district  contains  three  towns,  Shajapur  (population, 
9,953),  the   head-quarters,  Shujalpuk  (5,731),  and   Agar   (includmg 


2  28  SHAJAPUR   /J LA 

the  military  station,  10,442);  and  1,393  villages.  The  country  is 
typical  of  the  Mahva  plateau,  and  the  soil  possesses  high  fertility. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Kali  Sind,  Chambal,  and  Parbati  rivers,  with 
the  minor  tributary  streams  of  the  Lakundar  and  Newaj.  Shajapur 
is  divided  into  six  parganas,  with  head-quarters  at  Shajapur,  Shujal- 
pur,  Sonkach,  Agar,  Susner,  and  Nalkhera.  The  land  revenue  is 
Rs.  14,02,000.  Besides  these  regular  parganas,  the  Bhainsoda  tappa 
is  separately  administered  by  a  special  naib-kamdsddr,  and  is  cut  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  district  by  intervening  portions  of  the  Dhar  and 
Indore  States. 

Shajapur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  district  and  pargana  of  the 
same  name  in  Gwalior  State,  Central  India,  situated  in  23°  26'  N.  and 
76°  17"  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lakundar  river,  a  tributary  of  the 
Kali  Sind,  1,480  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1901),  9,953.  The 
town  was  founded  by  Shah  Jahan,  who  stayed  here  in  1640  during 
one  of  his  visits  to  Mahva ;  and  the  present  name  is  corrupted  from 
Shahjahanpur.  It  contains  a  British  post  and  telegraph  office,  a  State 
post  office,  a  ^<r/^-bungalow,  a  dispensary,  and  a  school. 

Shakargarh. —  7a/w/ of  Gurdaspur  District,  Punjab,  lying  between 
32°  2'  and  32°  30'  N.  and  74°  57"  and  75°  23'  E.,  with  an  area  of  485 
square  miles.  The  Ravi  divides  it  from  the  rest  of  the  District  to 
the  south,  while  on  the  north  it  touches  Jammu  territory.  West  of 
the  narrow  lowlands  along  the  Ravi,  the  country  is  an  arid  expanse 
of  rolling  downs  intersected  by  torrent  beds.  The  population  in  1901 
was  234,465,  compared  with  250,336  in  1891.  It  contains  703  villages, 
of  which  Shakargarh  is  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in   1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  4,29,000. 

Shakarkhelda. — Village  in   Buldana  District,   Berar.     See  Fath- 

KHKLDA. 

Sham  Bazar. —A  quarter  of  Calcutta,  Bengal.     See  Calcutta. 

Shamli. — Town  in  the  Kairana  taJisll  of  Muzaffarnagar  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  29°  27'  N.  and  77°  18'  E.,  on  the  metalled 
road  from  Muzaffarnagar  town  to  Kairana.  Population  (1901),  7,478. 
It  was  originally  known  as  Muhammadpur  Zanardar,  and  formed  part 
of  the  grant  made  to  Mukarrab  Khan,  physician  to  Jahangir  and 
Shah  Jahan.  The  town  was  built  later  by  a  follower  of  Mukarrab 
Khan's  called  Shyam.  In  1794  it  was  the  residence  of  a  Maratha 
commandant,  who  was  suspected  of  intriguing  with  the  Sikhs.  Lakwa 
Dada,  the  Maratha  governor,  sent  (leorge  Thomas  against  the  town. 
Thomas  stormed  it,  and  killed  the  commandant  and  his  principal 
adherents.  In  1804  Colonel  Burn  was  surrounded  near  this  place 
by  an  overwhelming  force  of  Marathas,  who  were  joined  by  the  inhabi- 
tants, but  he  was  relieved  by  the  opportune  advance  of  Lord  Lake. 
During  the   Mutin}    the  ta/isi/dar  of   Shamli  gallantly  held    the    town 


northerx  shax  states  229 

and  kept  cumniunications  o[)en  for  several  months,  hut  was  defeated 
and  slain  by  the  Shaikh/adas  of  Thana  Bhawan  in  September,  1857. 
The  head-quarters  of  the  tahs'il  and  munsifl  have  been  removed  to 
Kairana,  owing  to  a  terrible  epidemic  of  fever.  The  place  was  once 
a  municipality,  but  decayed,  and  is  now  administered  under  Act  XX  of 
1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,500.    Four  schools  are  maintained. 

Shamsabad. — Town  in  the  Kaimganj  tahsil  of  Farrukhabad  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  32'  N.  and  79**  28'  E.,  on  an 
unmetalled  road  18  miles  north-west  of  Farrukhabad,  and  also  on  a 
branch  of  the  metalled  road  to  Kaimganj.  Population  (1901),  8,375. 
An  old  town  called  Khor  was  founded  on  the  cliff  of  the  Ganges 
three  miles  away,  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  by  a 
Rathor  descended  from  Jai  Chand,  last  king  of  Kanauj.  About  1228 
Shams-ud-din  Altamsh  came  down  the  Ganges,  which  then  flowed 
under  the  cliff,  and  expelled  the  Rathors,  founding  Shamsabad  in  his 
own  name.  The  Rathors  returned  to  Khor,  however,  and  later  took 
Shamsabad,  and  often  rebelled  against  Muhammadan  rule.  In  the 
contest  between  Delhi  and  Jaunpur  the  Rajas  of  Khor  or  Shamsabad 
supported  the  emperor  and  were  finally  driven  out  by  the  Jaunpur 
kings.  Only  the  mound  where  the  fort  stood  remains  of  Old  Shams- 
abad, and  the  new  town  was  founded  about  1585.  In  the  Mutiny 
of  1857  a  European  planter  lost  his  life  here.  The  place  has  now 
decayed,  and  is  divided  into  scattered  groups  of  houses  by  patches 
of  cultivation.  The  principal  thoroughfare  is  a  long  paved  street, 
with  a  small  grain  market  opening  into  a  larger  market-place.  Shams- 
abad is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of 
about  Rs.  1,200.  Trade  suffered  by  the  alignment  of  the  metalled 
road  and  railway,  which  left  the  town  some  distance  away,  and  the 
old  manufacture  of  fine  cloth  has  died  out.  There  is,  however,  a  small 
export  of  potatoes  and  tobacco.     The  town  school  has  177  pupils. 

Shan  States,  Northern. — A  group  of  Native  States  lying  to  the 
east  of  Upper  Burma  proper,  and  for  the  most  part  west  of  the  Salween 
river,  between  21°  31'  and  24°  9'  N.  and  96°  13'  and  99"  45'  E.  The 
area  of  the  States  is  about  21,000  square  miles  ;  their  shape  is  roughly 
that  of  an  obtuse-angled  triangle,  with  the  obtuse  angle  pointing  north. 
On  the  north  this  area  is  bounded  by  Chma  ;  on  the  east  by  China 
and  the  Southern  Shan  State  of  Kengtung,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Nam  Hka  river ;  on  the  south  by  the  Southern  Shan  States ;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Mandalay  and  Ruby  Mines  Districts  and  Mongmit. 
A  portion  of  the  eastern  boundary,  from  the  point  where  it  crosses  the 
Nam  Ting  to  where  it  strikes  the  Nam  Hka  (both  tributaries  of  the 
Salween),  has  not  yet  been  precisely  delimited,  but  it  roughly  follows 
the  watershed  between  the  Salween  and  Mekong  rivers. 

The  Salween  river  is  one  of   the  most  important  features  of  the 


230  NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

Stales,  constituting  a  formidable  natural  obstacle  between  the  country 
east  and  west.     It  has  a  general  north  to  south  direction,  and  flows 
from  China  through  the  entire  length  of  the  States, 
aspects  ^\'hich  it  roughly  divides  into  two   parts.    Through- 

out its  course  it  preserves  the  same  appearance 
of  a  gigantic  ditch  or  railway  cutting,  scooped  through  the  hills, 
which  everywhere  rise  on  either  bank  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  river.  Another  important  natural  feature  of  the  country  is  the 
fault  or  rift,  which  marks  a  line  of  great  geological  disturbance, 
running  from  the  Gokteik  pass  in  Hsipaw  State,  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  towards  the  Kunlong  ferry  on  the  Salween,  and  continuing 
in  the  same  direction  far  into  China  along  the  valley  of  the  Nam 
Ting.  It  is  roughly  defined  by  the  valley  of  the  Nam  Tu  (Myitnge), 
below  its  junction  with  the  Nam  Yao,  and  by  the  high  range  of  hills 
called  the  Loi  Hpa  Tan,  which  joins  the  eminence  known  as  Loi  Sak 
(6,000  feet)  farther  to  the  east,  and  divides  North  from  South  Hsenwi. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  Northern  Shan  States,  lying  west  of  the 
Salween  and  south  of  this  rift,  consists  of  the  Shan  table-land  or  plateau, 
stretching  from  Hsumhsai  eastwards,  with  a  mean  altitude  of  about 
3,000  feet.  This  comparatively  flat  area  embraces  the  greater  por- 
tions of  the  States  of  Hsipaw  and  South  Hsenwi.  It  is,  however, 
intersected  by  many  hill  masses  that  rise  above  the  level  of  the  plateau, 
such  as  Loi  Pan  in  eastern  Hsipaw,  which  attains  a  height  of  nearly 
7,000  feet,  and  Loi  Leng  in  South  Hsenwi,  nearly  9,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  intervening  and  surrounding  country  consists  of  grassy 
uplands.  North  of  the  Nam  Tu  and  the  fault  referred  to  above 
stretches  the  State  of  Tawngpeng,  a  mass  of  mountains  culminating 
north  of  the  capital  in  a  range  7,500  feet  high.  The  northern 
portion  of  North  Hsenwi  is  a  huge  stretch  of  upland  affected  by  the 
fault,  which  has  thrown  up  a  series  of  parallel  ranges  extending  to  the 
Shweli  valley  in  the  north-west,  without,  however,  altogether  destroying 
the  general  north  and  south  trend,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Shan 
hills  as  a  whole.  Its  large  grassy  upland  plains  are  sufficiently  uniform 
in  their  altitude  (4,000  feet)  to  be  looked  upon  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses as  a  plateau. 

The  central  physical  feature  of  South  Hsenwi  is  the  huge  mountain 
mass  of  Loi  Leng,  referred  to  above.  East  of  Loi  Leng  is  a  range 
comprising  eminences  known  as  Loi  Maw,  Loi  Se,  and  Loi  Lan,  which 
forms  the  watershed  separating  the  Nam  Pang  from  the  Salween,  and 
runs  in  a  north  and  south  direction  along  the  right  bank  of  the  latter 
stream.  East  of  the  Salween  in  the  north,  and  separated  from  the 
hilly  district  of  Mbngsi  in  North  Hsenwi  by  the  great  gulf  of  the  Sal- 
ween, which  flows  many  thousand  feet  below,  extends  the  mountainous 
tract   ot  Kokaiig,   where  many  of  the   peaks  rise  to  over   7,000  feet. 


PIIYSTCAr    ASPECTS  231 

South  of  Kokang,  in  the  Sonmu  State,  the  country  becomes  a  medley 
of  hills  and  valleys,  and  retains  this  character  througliout  the  rest  of 
the  trans-Sahveen  portion  of  the  Northern  Shan  States,  rising  higher 
and  higher  towards  the  eastern  range  which  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Salween  and  the  Mekong.  South  of  this  the  country 
of  East  Manglon  consists,  broadly  speaking,  of  the  mountain  mass 
which  divides  the  Salween  from  the  upper  courses  of  its  tributary, 
the  Nam  Hka. 

The  Northern  Shan  States  are  in  the  drainage  area  of  the  Irrawaddy 
and  Salween  rivers,  all  the  streams  on  the  west  of  the  watershed  find- 
ing their  way  ultimately  into  the  Irrawaddy  by  way  of  the  Nam  Tu 
(Myitnge)  or  the  Nam  Mao  (Shweli),  and  those  on  the  east  into 
the  Salween.  The  watershed  lies  at  no  great  distance  from  the  last- 
named  river ;  and  the  streams  entering  its  right  bank,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Nam  Pang,  referred  to  below,  have  consequently 
a  comparatively  short  course,  with  a  fall  which  makes  many  of  them 
sheer  mountain  torrents.  Among  the  largest  are  the  Nam  Nim  and 
Nam  Kyet.  Those  entering  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Salween  are 
of  greater  length,  among  the  most  important  being  the  Nam  Ting, 
which  flows  from  the  east,  rising  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shunning  Fu 
in  China,  the  Nam  Nang  of  the  Mothai  country,  and  the  Nam  Hka 
which  flows  through  the  Wa  States.  The  Nam  Pang,  although  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Salween,  does  not  join  that  river  in  these  States.  It  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  Salween's  affluents  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
Its  head-waters  are  in  the  hills  between  Loi  Leng  and  Loi  Maw  in  the 
South  Hsenwi  State ;  and  it  flows  from  north  to  south,  parallel  to  the 
Salween,  for  more  than  100  miles,  separated  from  it  by  the  intervening 
hills  of  Loi  Maw,  Loi  Se,  and  Loi  Lan,  and  enters  the  Salween  on  its 
right  bank  four  miles  below  the  village  of  Kenghkam,  in  the  Southern 
Shan  States.  It  has  many  tributaries,  which  flow  down  from  Loi 
Leng  and  Loi  Maw,  and  farther  south  it  is  joined  by  the  streams 
which  water  the  circles  of  Tangyan  and  Mongyai  in  South  Hsenwi. 
The  Nam  Pang  has  recently  been  bridged  by  the  Sawbwa  of  South 
Hsenwi  at  Mankat  on  the  Lashio-Tangyan  cart-road,  where  it  has 
a  breadth  of  nearly  200  feet.  The  Nam  Tu  or  Mvitngk  is,  after  the 
Salween,  the  most  important  river  in  the  Northern  Shan  States.  The 
main  stream  rises  in  the  Salween-Irrawaddy  watershed,  east  of  Hsenwi 
town,  and,  flowing  generally  westwards  and  southwards,  is  swelled 
above  Hslpaw  to  a  considerable  river  by  the  Nam  Yao,  which  comes 
down  from  the  Lashio  valley,  and  by  the  Nam  Ma,  which  winds 
through  the  South  Hsenwi  hills  from  Loi  Leng.  Farther  down  it  is 
joined  by  the  Nam  Hsim  on  its  right  and  by  the  Nam  Hka  on  its 
left  bank.  Ever  pursuing  its  southward  and  westward  course,  it  runs 
through  deep  gorges  between   Hsumhsai  and   Lawksawk,  and   finally 


2  32  NORTHERN  R?TAN  STATES 

quits  the  Shan  States  near  the  south-west  corner  of  HsTpaw.  The 
Nam  Kiit,  one  of  its  tributaries,  which  rushes  down  from  the  north- 
west, is  crossed,  not  far  from  where  it  empties  itself  into  the  main 
stream,  by  the  steel  girders  of  the  Gokteik  viaduct.  A  cart-bridge 
over  the  Nam  Tu  at  Hsipaw  is  in  course  of  construction.  The  Nam 
Mao  or  Shweli  river  (called  by  the  Chinese  Lung  Kiang)  skirts  the 
Northern  Shan  States  on  their  north-western  frontier  at  Namhkam. 
One  of  its  more  important  tributaries,  the  Nam  Paw,  has  its  entire 
course  in  North  Hsenwi  State.  There  are  no  lakes  worthy  of  the 
name,  except  the  Nawng  Hkeo  lake  in  the  Wa  country.  This  sheet 
of  water  is  said  to  be  about  half  a  mile  long  and  200  yards  broad,  but 
little  is  known  of  its  appearance  or  surroundings. 

The  geology  of  the  Northern  Shan  States  has  not  been  entirely 
worked  out  in  detail,  but  enough  has  been  done  to  show  that  the 
rocks  for  the  most  part  belong  to  the  Palaeozoic  period.  To  the 
north,  in  contact  with  the  gneiss  of  the  Ruby  Mines  District,  there 
is  a  broad  zone  of  mica  schists,  followed  to  the  south  by  a  great  series 
of  quartzites,  slaty  shales,  and  greywackes,  which  may  be  of  Cambrian 
age.  These  rocks  formed  an  old  land  surface,  along  the  borders  of 
which  a  series  of  rocks  ranging  from  Lower  Silurian  to  Mesozoic  times 
is  laid  down.  All  these  have  yielded  characteristic  fossils.  At  the 
base  there  is  a  great  thickness  of  limestones,  calcareous  sandstones, 
and  shales,  in  which  the  detached  plates  of  cystideans  are  very  com- 
mon, especially  in  the  shales.  Next  follow  sandstones  with  Upper 
Silurian  fossils,  which  frequently  overlie  the  Lower  Silurians,  and  rest 
directly  upon  the  older  rocks  beneath.  These  rocks  are  folded  and 
denuded,  forming  a  fresh  land  surface  upon  which  a  great  thickness 
of  limestone,  which  has  yielded  fossils  of  Devonian  type,  is  laid  down. 
This  limestone  extends  over  the  whole  of  the  Shan  plateau,  and  may 
include  strata  of  Carboniferous  as  well  as  Devonian  age.  To  the  east 
of  Hsipaw  thick  beds  of  red  sandstone  are  folded  in  among  the  lime- 
stones, and  a  calcareous  band  in  these  has  yielded  brachiopods  and 
other  fossils  which  are  probably  Jurassic  or  Lower  Cretaceous.  About 
5  miles  north  of  Lashio,  in  the  valley  of  the  Nam  Yao  river,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nam  Ma,  farther  south,  are  patches  of  Tertiary  clays  and 
sandstones,  containing  workable  seams  of  coal.  The  fault  referred  to 
in  an  earlier  paragraph  is  perhaps  the  most  prominent  geological  feature 
of  the  country. 

The  wild  crab-apple  tree  is  very  common,  being  met  with  almost 
everywhere  above  3,000  feet.  Wild  pear  and  cherry  trees  are  much 
in  evidence  in  East  Manglon  and  elsewhere  in  the  States.  The  giant 
bamboo  and  other  kinds  are  frequently  met  with  both  in  the 
jungles  and  round  the  villages.  They  form  a  most  important  branch 
of  the  economic  products  ;  in  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  the 


HISTORY  233 

Shan  would  do  without  plenty  of  bamboos.  Bracken  and  other  ferns 
abound  in  certain  localities  ;  and  these,  with  the  wild  violets  and  wild 
strawberries  that  are  found  on  some  of  the  higher  ridges,  recall  the 
flora  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  afford  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
vegetation  of  the  valleys. 

The  fauna  of  the  States  includes  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger, 
leopard,  bear,  gaur,  tsine  or  hsahig  {Bos  sondaicits),  sdmbar,  thaviin  (or 
brow-antlered  deer),  hog  deer,  barking-deer,  the  serow,  the  hare,  several 
species  of  monkeys,  the  Hylobates  hoolock  or  white-browed  gibbon, 
hog,  and  porcupine,  with  jungle  cats,  civet  cats,  foxes,  and  squirrels. 
The  game-birds  include  peafowl,  jungle  fowl,  Chinese  pheasant,  two 
or  three  kinds  of  partridges,  quail,  duck,  snipe,  geese,  teal,  and  green 
and  imperial  pigeons. 

The  climate  of  the  States  as  a  whole  is  temperate  and  salubrious. 
With  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  valley  of  the  Salween,  the  Hsipaw 
valley  is  the  hottest  part.  The  average  maximum  temperature  there 
at  the  beginning  of  April  is  about  96°,  and  the  minimum  at  the  same 
period  about  65°  The  rainfall  at  Hsipaw  is  less  heavy  than  at  Lashio, 
but  in  the  cold  season  a  dense  wet  mist  hangs  over  the  valley  for  some 
hours  after  sunrise.  The  health  of  the  police  stationed  at  H.sipaw 
has  always  been  very  bad,  owing  to  the  wide  range  of  daily  tempera- 
ture in  the  hot  season,  and  to  the  drenching  fogs  of  the  cold  season. 
The  climate  of  North  and  South  Hsenwi  is,  on  the  whole,  temperate. 
In  the  uplands  frost  occurs  in  January,  February,  and  March,  and 
as  much  as  ten  degrees  of  frost  has  been  recorded  in  Mongyin  in 
March.  Round  Hsenwi  town  and  in  the  Lashio  valley  the  thermo- 
meter rarely  falls  to  freezing-point,  but  in  the  hot  season  the  tem- 
perature never  exceeds  90°  for  any  length  of  time.  The  annual 
rainfall,  except  on  the  higher  ranges,  seems  to  average  about 
60  inches.  In  Tawngpeng  it  is  heavier  than  elsewhere  in  the  States. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  West  Manglon  the  climate  is  unhealthy,  as 
the  country  alternates  between  storm-swept  hills  and  steamy  valleys. 
The  soil,  moreover,  except  in  the  narrow  basins,  is  distinctly  unpro- 
ductive, so  that  it  seems  improbable  that  this  State  will  ever  increase 
greatly  in  prosperity  or  population.  The  highest  maximum  tempera- 
ture recorded  in  the  shade  at  Lashio  is  99^,  the  lowest  being  62°,  while 
the  highest  minimum  is  70°  and  the  lowest  41°.  The  rainfall  recorded 
at  Lashio  for  the  years  1900-4  was  as  follows:  1900,  60  inches;  1901, 
62  inches;  1902,  51  inches;  1903,  61  inches;  and  1904,  76  inches. 

The  Shans  are  the  representatives,  within  the  limits  of  the  Province, 
of  a  very  considerable  Tai   migration  wave   which   swept  over  Indo- 
China,  from  the  regions  about  South-western  China, 
during  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.     The 
Siamese  of  the  south,  the  Laos  of  the  country  east  of  Lower  Burma, 


2  34  NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

the  Hkiin  and  the  Lii  of  Kengtung,  and  a  host  of  other  communities 
in  the  interior  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  such  for  instance  as  the 
Muongs  of  Tongking,  are  all  the  descendants  of  the  primitive  hordes 
which  swarmed  down  from  the  northern  uplands  in  those  early  ages. 
The  Shans  proper  settled  first  in  the  valley  of  the  Shweli  or  Nam  Mao 
in  the  extreme  north  of  the  existing  Shan  States ;  and  in  course  of  time 
a  powerful  Shan  kingdom,  known  as  Mong  Mao  Long,  was  established 
in  this  region,  with  its  capital  at  Selan  in  the  north  of  North  Hsenwi, 
about  13  miles  east  of  Namhkam,  where  the  remains  of  fortifications 
are  still  to  be  seen.  From  this  centre  the  movement  of  the  people 
was  westwards  and  southwards,  so  that,  in  process  of  time,  not  only 
had  the  greater  part  of  the  present  Southern  Shan  States  been  overrun 
by  a  Tai  folk,  but  Shans  had  also  occupied  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  country  lying  between  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Chindwin  (Hkamti, 
Mogaung,  Hsawnghsup,  «S:c.),  and  had  extended  into  what  is  now 
Assam.  The  ancient  chronicles  relate  that  the  Mao  kingdom,  estab- 
lished about  the  seventh  century,  was  a  considerable  political  force 
up  to  the  time  of  Anawrata,  the  most  distinguished  monarch  of  the 
Pagan  dynasty.  During  the  reign  of  this  king  the  Mao  Shan  ruler 
appears  to  have  been  his  vassal,  but  the  suzerainty  was  temporary. 
The  Shans  regained  their  independence  later ;  and  the  break-up  of  the 
Pagan  dynasty  in  the  thirteenth  century  was  to  a  large  extent  caused 
by  a  so-called  Chinese  invasion  from  the  north-east,  which,  if  not 
wholly,  was,  at  any  rate,  partially  Shan.  After  this  the  Shans  were  a 
power  in  Burma  for  several  centuries,  and  the  early  rulers  of  Sagaing, 
Pinya,  and  Myinzaing  were  of  Tai  descent.  But  while  these  monarchs 
were  making  their  mark  in  Upper  Burma,  the  remnants  of  cohesion 
among  the  Tai  peoples  of  the  east  and  north  gradually  disappeared, 
the  Siamese  and  Lao  dependencies  broke  off  from  the  main  body  and 
united  to  form  a  separate  kingdom,  and  the  Shans  eventually  split  up 
into  a  swarm  of  petty  principalities,  which,  by  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  had  been  subjugated  by  the  Burmans  and  never 
wholly  threw  off  the  Burmese  yoke.  Sir  George  Scott  has  observed  in 
the  Upper  Bunna  Gazetteer  that  the  Tai  race  came  very  near  to  being 
the  predominant  power  in  the  Farther  East.  How  close  they  were  to 
this  achievement  will  never,  probably,  be  known  with  any  degree  of 
precision.  What  is  certain,  however,  is  that  on  the  annexation  of 
Upper  Burma  the  British  found  the  Shan  States  subject  to  the  Bur- 
mese crown,  but  administered  by  their  own  rulers,  and  decided  to 
treat  them  on  their  existing  footing,  and  not  to  bring  them  under 
direct  administration.  From  the  time  of  the  annexation  onwards  the 
histories  of  the  different  Northern  Shan  States  are  distinct,  and  will  be 
found  in  the  articles  on  Hsipaw,  North  and  South  Hsenwi,  M.^ng- 
LON,  and  Tawnopeng.    The  most  important  events  were  the  disturb- 


POPULATION  J35 

ancei.  in  Hsenwi  which  led,  in  x888,  to  the  splitting  up  of  the  State 
into  two  portions ;  the  troubles  in  West  Manglon  which  resulted  in  its 
incorporation  in  East  Manglon  ;  the  suppression  of  disaffection  among 
the  Kachins  in  the  north  ;  and  the  visit  of  the  Anglo-Chinese  Boun- 
dary Commission.  The  A\  as  have  given  trouble  in  the  east  from  time 
to  time. 

The  most  famous  pagoda  is  the  Mwedaw  at  Bawgyo  on  the  Nam  'l"u 
near  Hsipaw.  The  annual  festival  held  there  in  Tabaung  (March)  is 
attended  by  about  50,000  people  from  all  parts  of  the  States.  At 
JNIbngheng  in  South  Hsenwi  is  an  ancient  and  revered  shrine,  built  on 
a  rocky  eminence  200  feet  high.  Several  thousand  people  (including 
AVas  from  across  the  Salween)  worship  at  its  annual  festival  in  Tabaung. 
At  Manwap  in  the  same  State  is  the  Kawnghmu  Mwedaw  Manloi, 
supposed  to  have  been  built  on  the  spot  where  Gautama  Buddha 
died  in  one  of  his  earlier  incarnations  as  a  parrot.  The  pagoda  at 
Mongyai  contains  a  brazen  image  of  Suddhodana,  father  of  Gautama 
Buddha.  The  Kawnghmu  Kawmong  at  Manhpai  is  popularly  sup- 
posed to  be  illuminated  by  nats  on  moonless  nights,  and  another 
enchanted  pagoda  is  the  large  Homang  shrine  at  Tangyan.  The 
Palaungs  particularly  revere  the  Loi  Hseng  pagoda  on  one  of  the 
highest  hills  in  Tawngpeng.  Near  it  stands  an  ancient  tea-tree,  said 
to  have  been  grown  from  the  first  seed  ever  introduced  into  the  State. 
At  Tawnio  in  Kokang  (trans-Salween  Hsenwi)  is  a  Chinese  'joss-house' 
consecrated  to  Kwang  Fu  Tso,  the  military  god  of  the  Han  dynasty. 
Its  portals  are  guarded  by  statues  of  mounted  soldiers,  and  within  arc 
statues  of  armed  foot-soldiers.  Other  North  Hsenwi  shrines  of  impor- 
tance are  the  Se-u  and  the  Mongyaw  pagodas,  and  the  pagoda  of  the 
\\'hite  Tiger  at  Namhkam. 

The  population  of  the  Northern  Slian  States  was  not  known  with  any 
accuracy  till  the  Census  of  1901.  Even  then  the  whole  country  lying 
east  of  the  Salween — Kokang,  East  Manglon,  and  1  ti  n 

the  Wa  States,  as  well  as  \\'est  Manglon,  a  moun- 
tainous tract  of  no  great  width,  extending  along  the  western  bank  of 
the  Salween— was  omitted  altogether  from  the  operations,  while  the 
population  of  portions  of  North  Hsenwi  was  estimated.  The  total  of 
the  estimated  and  enumerated  areas  was  321,090  (enumerated  275>y^3> 
estimated  45,127).  That  of  the  omitted  areas  cannot  have  been  less 
than  50,000  (it  was  probably  well  above  this  figure),  so  that  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that,  if  a  complete  census  could  have  been  taken,  the 
total  population  of  the  States  would  have  been  found  to  be  about 
400,000.  The  distribution  of  population  for  the  area  covered  by  the 
Census  of  1901  is  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

Religion  and  language  statistics  were  collected  in  the  enumerated 
areas  only.     Here  263,985  out  of  a  total  population  of  275,963  were 

VOL.  XXII.  y 


236 


NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 


Buddhists,  more  than  half  the  remainder  being  Animisls.  The  distri- 
bution of  language  follows  generally  that  of  race,  which  is  indicated 
below. 


State. 


North  Ilsenwi 
Hsipaw . 
Tawngpeng     . 
South  Hsenwi 
Mandalay-Kunlon    Ra 
way  construction . 


Total 


Area  in 

Number 

square 
miles. 

of 
villages. 

6,330 
:;.o86 

939* 
1,661 

778 
2,400 

274 
961 

14:594 

3,835* 

Population. 


118,325 

104,700 

22,681 

67,836 

7.54S 


321,090 


Popula- 
tion per 
square 
mile 


19 


^9 

28 


Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 


2,8o3t 
6,998 
726 

2,218 

1,276 


14,021 


*  Excluding  the  estimated  area. 

t  This  number  excludes  literate  persons  among  an  estimated  population  of  45,127,  most  of  whom 
were  «n/-\vorshippers  and  illiterate;  the  literate  persons  would  not  exceed  1,200. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  States  is  made  up  of  Shans, 
who  numbered  222,200  in  1901  in  the  enumerated  and  estimated  areas, 
and  are  described  in  more  detail  below.  They  form  nine-tenths  of  the 
population  of  Hsipaw,  and  six-sevenths  of  that  of  South  Hsenwi.  In 
North  Hsenwi  they  have  been  forced  by  the  Kachins  into  the  valleys  of 
the  Shweli  and  the  Nam  Tu,  and  there  form  but  three-fifths  of  the  total. 
Besides  displacing  the  Shans  in  a  considerable  portion  of  North  Henswi, 
of  which  State  they  form  one-fourth  of  the  population,  the  Kachins 
have  also  spread  in  recent  years  into  the  north  of  Tawngpeng,  and  as 
far  as  the  mountainous  part  of  vSouth  Hsenwi.  In  1901  their  total  in 
the  enumerated  and  estimated  areas  of  the  Northern  Shan  States  was 
34,400.  The  Palaungs  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  population 
of  Monglong  and  of  the  Kodaung,  a  hilly  tract  in  the  west  and  north- 
west of  Hsipaw  ;  and  Tawngpeng  is  practically  a  Palaung  State,  two- 
thirds  of  its  inhabitants  belonging  to  that  race.  Palaungs  are  also  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  hills  of  North  Hsenwi,  and  have  spread 
into  South  Hsenwi.  In  all,  the  representatives  of  the  race  numbered 
35,600  in  1 90 1.  The  Burman  population  at  the  Census  totalled  8,100, 
practically  confined  to  the  Hsipaw  State  and  more  particularly  to  the 
Hsumhsai  sub-State,  which  is  the  home  of  the  Danus  (numbering  4,800). 
The  Chinese  were  strongly  represented  (7,300)  in  1901,  especially  in  the 
hills  of  North  Hsenwi.  In  very  much  smaller  numbers  are  found  the 
AVas  in  the  eastern  borders  of  South  Hsenwi,  the  Lisaws  in  North  and 
South  Hsenwi,  and  the  Taungthus  in  Hsipaw.  The  new  railway,  which 
was  under  construction  at  the  time  of  the  Census  and  was  enumerated 
separately,  has  brought  and  will  continue  to  bring  large  numbers  of 
natives  of  India  to  the  country.  Those  returned  in  1901  were  either 
navvies  on  the  railway  or  Government   employes  at  Lashio.    Of  the 


POPULATION 


237 


population  in  the  otiiitted  portion  of  the  Norlhein  Sliaii  Slates  that  is, 
the  trans-Salween  part  of  Hsenwi  (Kokang,  the  Wa  Slates,  and  JMang- 
lon)— nothing  but  the  roughest  guess  can  be  hazarded.  The  Kokang 
population  is  mainly  Chinese,  with  a  few  Palaungs,  Shans,  Lisaws,  and 
\\'as  ;  and  much  the  same  conditions  prevail  in  Sonmu,  except  that  Was 
predominate.  The  Wa  States  are  inhabited  by  Was.  Manglon  is 
divided  by  the  Salween  into  two  portions,  east  and  west.  The  eastern 
part  is  estimated  to  have  a  population  of  about  6,000  to  7,000,  of  whom 
5,000  are  ^Vas  ;  and  it  was  calculated  that  the  western  pari  in  1892 
contained  12,200  persons,  of  whom  by  far  the  greater  number  were 
Shans,  the  other  races  including  Palaungs,  I^isaws,  and  Muhsos.  Chris- 
tians numbered  238,  of  whom  165  were  natives.  In  1901  the  number 
of  persons  directly  dependent  upon  agriculture  was  217,775,  OJ"  79  P^f 
cent,  of  the  total  enumerated  population.  Of  this  total,  107,482  were 
dependent  on  taungya  (shifting)  cultivation.  The  figures  do  not  include 
the. 45,1 27  persons  estimated  in  North  Hsenwi,  who  were  nearly  all 
cultivators,  and  mostly  /a/^;/^^rz-cutters.  No  fewer  than  1 7,354  persons 
are  supported  by  tea  cultivation. 

The  Tai  have  been  divided  into  the  following  divisions :  the  norlli- 
weslern,  the  north-eastern,  the  eastern,  and  the  southern.  AVith  the 
southern,  whose  principal  representatives  are  the  Siamese  and  the  Laos, 
we  have  here  no  immediate  concern.  The  north-western  are  found  for 
the  most  part  on  the  west  of  the  Irrawaddy,  in  the  country  between  that 
stream  and  Assam  ;  they  include  the  Hkaniti  Shans,  the  Tai  inhabitants 
of  the  now  mainly  obsolete  States  of  Mogaung,  Wuntho,  Hsawnghsup, 
and  Kale,  and  of  the  Districts  of  ihe  Mandalay  and  Sagaing  divisions. 
The  eastern  Tai  may  be  roughly  said  to  inhabit  the  Southern  Shan 
States,  including  the  Shans  proper  of  those  States,  and  the  Hkiin  and 
Lii  of  Kengtung  and  Kenghung.  The  north-eastern  division  comprises 
the  Shan  Tayoks  or  Shan-Chinese  of  the  Chinese  border,  and  the  Shans 
of  the  Northern  Shan  Slates.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  Shans 
differ  but  Httle.  They  are  somewhat  fairer  than  the  Burmans,  their 
features  are  rather  flatter  and  their  eyes  often  more  prominent,  but  other- 
wise there  is  little  to  distinguish  them  from  their  neighbours.  The  north- 
western Shans  dress  as  a  rule  like  the  Burmans  among  whom  they  live  , 
the  eastern  and  north-eastern  Shans,  on  the  other  hand,  wear,  instead 
of  the  Burmese  waistcloth,  a  pair  of  loose,  very  baggy  cotton  trousers, 
and  their  head-cloth  is  fuller  and  more  like  the  Indian's /«(,'•/'/  than  the 
')^\xx\\xa.VL'a  gaiingbaung.  The  men,  moreover,  are  seldom  seen  without  the 
characteristic  limp  plaited  grass  hat  of  the  Shan  countr)-.  The  dress  of 
the  women  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Burmans,  with  the  addition 
of  a  head-cloth.  The  men  tattoo  their  legs  and  body  even  more  freely 
than  the  Burmans.  The  Shans  are  Buddhists,  and  their  yellow-robed 
monks  \v\\dXi\'i  pongyi-kyaungs  similar  to  those  of  Burma  proper.     Shan 

g  2 


238  NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

is  an  isolating  language,  abounding  in  tones.  Burmese  Shan  (spoken  in 
the  States),  Hkumti,  and  Chinese  Shan  have  been  placed  in  the  northern, 
and  Hkun  and  Lii  in  the  southern  subgroup  of  the  Tai  group,  one  of 
the  main  subdivisions  of  the  Siamese-Chinese  sub-family  of  the  Indo- 
(^hinese  language  family.  The  total  of  Shans  of  all  kinds  in  the  Pro- 
vince in  1 90 1  was  approximately  850,000. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  connected  with  the  agricultural  conditions 
of  the  country.  The  valleys  of  the  States  are  devoted  to  low-lying 
irrigated  rice  (Shan,  iia),  and  the  hills  to  taungya 
(Shan,  hai)  shifting  cultivation.  In  many  parts  the 
numerous  deserted  paddy-iields  appear  to  point  to  exhaustion  of  the 
soil.  This  is  especially  the  case  at  some  distance  from  the  hill-slopes  \ 
but  nearer  the  hills,  the  decayed  vegetable  matter  brought  down  yearly 
by  the  torrents  after  the  destructive  jungle  fires  fertilizes  the  rice  lands, 
and  maintains  their  yield.  Artificial  manures  are  hardly  ever  used  in 
'  wet '  cultivation.  In  taungya  or  hai  cultivation  the  selected  hill-slope  is 
prepared  by  burning  the  grass,  and  ploughing  and  harrowing  the  ground. 
The  trees  are  then  ringed,  the  branches  lopped  off  and  piled  round  the 
trunk,  and  the  whole  fired  just  before  the  first  rains  are  expected.  The 
ashes  are  next  distributed  in  small  heaps  and  loose  earth  is  raked  over 
them,  the  leaves  and  stubble  below  are  then  fired,  and  the  earth  is  burnt 
and  becomes  brick- red  in  colour,  after  which  the  heaps  are  again  spread 
out  and  the  seed  is  sown  when  the  rains  begin.  A  taungya  can  be 
worked  for  a  term  varying  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but  rarely 
exceeding  three  years.  It  is  a  ruinous  method  of  cultivation,  for  the 
organic  matter  is  volatilized,  and  the  ash  constituents  only  are  left  in  a 
highly  soluble  condition ;  the  available  plant-food  is  in  consequence 
rapidly  taken  up  by  the  crop,  which  diminishes  each  year,  and  a  great 
quantity  of  the  fertilizing  matter  is  carried  down  the  hill-slopes  by 
surface  drainage.  In  parts  of  the  South  Hsenwi  State  the  land  has  been 
so  thoroughly  deforested  that  little  remains  but  grass,  and  manure  has 
to  take  the  place  of  wood-ash  in  the  process  described  above.  Garden 
crops  are  grown  on  the  slopes  throughout  the  States  in  much  the  same 
way  as  taung}'as,  but  cattle-manure  and  ashes  are  always  freely  used. 
The  tea  cultivation  which  affords  their  chief  occupation  to  the  Palaungs 
of  Tawngpeng,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  hilly  Kodaung  district  of 
Hsipaw  and  of  Namlawk  in  the  Wa  State  of  Kanghso,  is  deserving  of 
special  mention.  In  Tawngpeng  the  dark-brown  clayey  loam  is  covered 
with  large  quantities  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and,  as  the  tea  shrub 
luxuriates  in  the  shade,  a  hill-slope  covered  with  dense  forest  is  usually 
selected.  The  gardens  are  not  laid  out  on  any  system,  but  at  random. 
Seed  is  collected  in  November  and  sown  in  nurseries  in  February  or 
later.  The  plants  are  kept  there  till  they  reach  a  height  of  2  feet  or  so 
(generally  in  the  second  year),  and  are  then  planted  out  in  the  clearings 


AGRTCrT  TURK  239 

in  August  and  September.  No  manure  is  used  and  the  trees  are  never 
pruned,  as  they  are  said  to  die  off  if  this  is  done.  They  are  first  picked 
in  the  fourth  year  and  continue  bearing  for  ten  or  twelve  years,  pro- 
ducing three  crops  a  year  between  March  and  October.  When  the 
yield  of  leaves  begins  to  get  poor,  the  trees  are  often  cut  down.  New 
shoots  are  thrown  up  from  the  stool,  and  these  are  in  turn  picked.  In 
gardens,  where  sufficient  room  is  allowed  for  growth,  the  trees  attain 
a  much  larger  size  than  where  close  planting  prevails.  Trees  said  to 
he  thirty  years  old  and  upwards,  and  still  in  bearing,  are  found  here. 

The  total  area  under  crops  in  the  trans-Salween  States  is  approxi- 
mately 312  square  miles,  of  which  about  three-quarters  are  under  rice. 
Tea  covers  rather  over  1 2  square  miles.  In  addition  to  rice  and  tea, 
poppy,  sesamum,  ground-nuts,  cotton,  buckwheat,  and  maize  are 
grown  in  the  /aiaigyas.  Poppy  is  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the 
trans-Salween  country,  the  hilliest  portions  of  North  and  South  Hsenwi, 
and  the  west  of  Manglon.  Rice  taungyas  are  sometimes  sown  with 
sesamum  in  the  second  and  with  cotton  in  the  third  year.  Maize  and 
buckwheat  are  grown  by  some  of  the  hill  tribes,  and  peas  and  beans 
by  the  Was.  In  the  homestead  plots,  onions,  yams,  brinjals,  indigo, 
maize,  sugar-cane,  millet,  and  beans  are  cultivated.  The  orange 
flourishes  in  many  parts  along  the  Salween  and  some  of  its  tributaries, 
and  along  the  Namma  in  HsTpaw ;  and  the  Hsipaw  Sawbwa  possesses 
excellent  orange  plantations  on  the  banks  of  the  Nam  Tu.  The  indige- 
nous pineapple  is  good  and  is  freely  cultivated  in  South  Hsenwi,  the 
valley  of  the  Shweli,  and  the  Hsumhsai  sub-State  of  Hsipaw,  where 
also  papayas  are  plentiful.  The  local  mangoes  and  plantains  do  not 
compare  well  with  those  produced  in  the  plains  of  Burma  ;  and  the 
crab-apples,  wild  plums,  peaches,  and  pears  are  more  interesting  for 
their  associations  than  for  their  edible  properties.  Wild  raspberries 
are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  walnuts  in  the  Wa  States. 

Cattle  are  bred  for  pack-work  and  for  sale  as  draught  bullocks  to 
Burmans  and  natives  of  India,  but  are  not  used  for  ploughing, 
slaughtering,  or  even  milking.  Buffaloes  are  bred  for  ploughing,  and 
are  sometimes  used  for  pressing  sugar-cane  and  sesamum  oil.  By 
the  Was  they  are  employed  for  sacrificial  purposes.  There  is  a  good 
deal  of  pony-breeding  ;  but  young  stallions  are  allowed  to  run  wild 
with  the  mares  and  fillies,  and  no  care  whatever  is  taken  in  selecting 
suitable  mature  beasts  for  propagating  the  breed.  The  small  animals 
produced  are  mostly  used  for  pack  purposes,  or  exported  to  Burma 
for  use  in  hired  carriages.  Goats  and  sheep  are  importt^l  from  China, 
and  the  latter  have  done  well  at  Lashio  and  Tangyan.  Crazing  for 
all  animals  is  j)lentiful  throughout  the  States. 

The  area  irrigated  by  means  of  channels  taking  off  from  the  streams 
in  the  valleys  is  large.     No  precise  data  as  to  its  extent  are  available, 


;?4o  NORTTJERN  SHAN  STATES 

but  in  the  cis-Salween  States  the  total  is  probably  nearly  too  square 
miles.  Much  ingenuity  is  spent  on  these  canals,  and  on  the  embank- 
ments keeping  the  water  in  the  terraces  of  paddy-fields,  which  follow 
the  contour  of  the  ground.  A  considerable  amount  is  spent  in  some 
States  on  irrigation  works,  the  actual  digging  of  the  waterways  being 
often  done  by  Maingthas.  In  places  fields  are  irrigated  by  means  of 
the  Persian  water-wheel. 

Teak  is  found  in  Hsipaw,  Tawngpeng,  and  North  Hsenwi ;  but  so 
far  Reserves  of  teak  have  been  formed  in  HsTpaw  only,  which  cover 
i8i  square  miles,  the  largest  being  the  Kainggyi 
Reserve  (121  square  miles)  and  the  Namnia  Reserve 
(50  square  miles).  It  is  not  possible  to  give  even  the  approximate 
areas  of  other  forest  tracts,  though  there  are  thousands  of  square  miles 
of  virgin  forest.  The  hill-sides  are  often  covered  with  pines  {Pinus 
Khasya),  oaks  (of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  including  the 
Himalayan  species),  and  chestnuts.  The  pine  forests  are  very  ex- 
tensive and  probably  cover  many  hundreds  of  square  miles ;  they  are 
generally  found  on  the  more  exposed  ridges  at  an  altitude  of  about 
4,000  feet.  Chestnut-trees  always  form  a  subordinate  feature  in  the 
forests  in  which  they  occur.  Ingyin  {Pentacme  siamensis)  and  thitya 
{Shorea  o/>fi/sa)  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Northern  Shan  States, 
the  latter  being  very  common  in  both  South  Hsenwi  and  Manglon, 
often  occurring  in  the  midst  of  pine  and  oak  forests.  Thitsl  {Mela7ifl- 
rrhoea  i/sitaia),  the  black  varnish  tree,  grows  in  Hsipaw,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  Loi  Leng,  and  in  the  Manhsang  circle  of  South  Hsenwi. 
The  gum  or  resin  that  exudes  from  it  is  much  prized  for  varnishing 
and  for  making  lacquer-work.  The  Cedrela  Tocma  is  another  usefvil 
tree  common  in  both  North  and  South  Hsenwi.  The  wood  has  been 
found  admirably  adapted  for  da  sheaths.  The  paper  mulberry  {Bivi/s- 
sonetia  papyrifera)  furnishes  the  raw  material  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Shan  paper  ;  and  the  silk  cotton-tree  {Bombax  malabaricuni)  is 
valued  for  its  down,  which  is  employed  for  stuffing  the  pillows  or  pads 
inserted  below  the  pack-saddles  of  bullocks.  Both  these  latter  trees 
are  common  throughout  the  States.  Bamboos  grow  freely  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  villages,  and,  as  elsewhere,  are  put  to  almost  every 
conceivable  household  use.  The  right  to  the  timber  in  the  forests  is 
reserved  to  the  British  Government. 

Coal  has  been  found  along  the  valley  of  the  Nam  Vao  in  the  Lashio 
circle  of  the  North  Hsenwi  State,  and  higher  up  the  same  stream 
near  Mongyaw,  as  well  as  along  the  valleys  of  the 
Namma  and  Nam  Pawng  in  South  Hsenwi  and 
Hsipaw.  Analysis  has  shown  the  coal  found  at  Lashio  to  be  of  very 
inferior  quality.  The  product  of  the  Namma  valley  is  described  as 
bituminous    coal,    which    should    properly    be    called    lignite,    and    is 


MINERALS  ,     241 

believed  to  be  good  fuel.  A  seam  of  lignite  was  recently  struck 
in  the  Nam  Pat  valley  in  South  Hsenwi  State  in  the  course  of  road- 
making.  Tourmaline  mines  are  worked  on  both  sides  of  the  Nam 
Pai  north  of  the  town  of  Monglong  in  HsTpaw,  where  well-rounded 
pebbles  of  black  tourmaline  are  not  uncommon,  sometimes  attaining 
the  size  of  a  walnut.  Rose-pink  tourmaline,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
much  rarer,  and  is  comparatively  seldom  met  with.  Salt  is  manufactured 
at  Mawhho  (Bawgyo)  in  the  Hsipaw  State.  The  Bawgyo  salt-well  is 
said  to  have  been  worked  for  the  last  500  years,  and  expert  opinion 
has  pronounced  the  brine  from  it  to  be  the  richest  known  in  Burma. 
Unfortunately  it  has  a  bitter  taste,  which  hinders  its  sale  when  other 
salt  can  be  procured.  A  good  deal  of  the  Bawgyo  salt  is  sold,  how- 
ever, in  the  Shan  States,  in  parts  where  Alandalay  salt  is  too  expensive 
and  where  Yunnan  block  salt  does  not  penetrate. 

Silver  and  lead  mines  were  formerly  worked  at  Bawdwingyi  in  the 
Tawngpeng  State,  and  at  Konghka  on  the  northern  aspect  of  Loi 
Leng  in  the  South  Hsenwi  State.  The  Bawdwingyi  mines  are  situated 
in  a  valley  10  miles  south-east  of  the  village  of  Katlwi,  and  5  or  6  miles 
north  of  Pangyang.  Silver,  lead,  and  copper  used  to  be  extracted 
from  these  mines,  the  last  only  in  small  quantities.  The  hills  are 
completely  honey-combed  with  shafts,  horizontal  and  perpendicular, 
in  some  of  which  human  skeletons  in  chains  have  been  discovered. 
It  is  said  that  2,000  Chinamen  were  engaged  in  mining  here ;  and 
the  ruins  of  stone  houses,  extending  along  the  valley,  and  long  rows 
of  beehive-shaped  smelting  ovens  and  Chinese  stone  bridges,  in  perfect 
preservation,  speak  to  the  energy  with  which  these  mines  were  exploited 
a  generation  ago.  A  prospecting  licence  for  this  area  was  issued  to 
a  Rangoon  firm  early  in  1902.  Silver  is  said  to  have  been  worked 
in  South  Hsenwi  also,  and  in  the  VVa  country  cast  of  Monghka.  Lead 
is  found  in  East  Manglon,  and  in  the  Wa  States  of  Loilon  and  Santong. 
Iron  is  extracted  at  Hsoptung  in  the  sub-State  of  Mongtung  in  HsTpaw  ; 
and  gold  occurs  near  Hopai  in  the  Lantaii  circle.  South  Hsenwi,  as 
well  as  in  the  streams  tributary  to  the  Salween.  For  years  Burmans 
and  Shans  have  cherished  the  story  that  gold  in  dust,  nuggets,  and 
veins  was  to  be  found  in  the  Nam  Yang  Long,  which  runs  into  the 
Nam  Hka  through  the  Wa  Pet  Ken.  A  visit  made  to  the  locality  in 
1897  failed  to  disclose  any  traces  of  gold.  Gold  is,  however,  certainly 
washed  from  the  sands  of  the  neighbouring  stream  ;  in  fact,  gold-dust 
is  nowhere  a  rarity  in  the  Shan  States,  and  washing  is  regularly  carried 
on  at  many  points  along  the  Salween.  A  mining  lease  for  3-84  square 
miles  in  the  valley  of  the  Namma,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Salween,  has 
been  granted  to  a  Rangoon  firm.  The  project  is  to  obtain  gold  by 
dredging  and  hydraulic  methods.  Saltpetre  is  obtained  from  bats' 
guano,  collected  from  the  limestone  caverns  common  throughout  the 


2  42  NORTIIERX  SHAN  STATES 

States.     Many  of  the  Was  are  said  to  be  adepts  at  extracting  saltpetre, 

which  they  bring  from  beyond  the  Salween  for  sale  at  the  Tangyan 

bazar  and  elsewhere. 

The  pickling  of  tea  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  Palaungs  in  Tawng- 

peng  and  Hsipaw.     On  the  evening  of  the  day  they  are  plucked,  the 

tea-leaves   are  steamed  over   a  cauldron  of  boiling 

Trade  and        water.     They  are  then  spread  on  a  mat,  where  they 

communications.  •'  '■      ,  .     •' 

are  rolled  by  hand,  after  which  they  are  thrown  mto 

pits  and  compressed  by  means  of  heavy  weights.     The  leaves  ferment 

in  the  pits  and  become  pickled  tea.     For  preparing  dry  tea  the  leaves 

are   steamed  and  rolled,  after  which  they  are  spread  out   in  the  sun 

to  dry.     After  about  three  days  water  is  sprinkled  on  the  leaves,  which 

are  again  rolled  and  allowed  to  dry.     They  are  then  sifted   through 

a  bamboo  sieve,  only  such   leaves  as  pass   through  the  sieve  being 

accepted.     The  best  quality  of  pickled   tea   fetches   from    Rs.   30  to 

Rs.  45   per   100  viss   (365   lb.),  and   the  best  dry  tea  from   Rs.    1-4 

to  Rs.  2  a  viss  at  the  gardens.     Pickled  tea  is  exported  in  conical 

baskets  carried  by  bullocks.      Dry  tea  is  packed  in  gunny-bags  for 

mule  transport,  or  is  carried  by  porters  to  the  railway. 

Cotton-spinning  and  weaving  are  carried  on  by  the  women  in  nearly 
every  household  in  the  States,  a  good  deal  of  cotton  being  grown  in 
the  fmingyas  and  sold  in  the  bazars.  The  implements  used,  the 
spinning-wheel,  loom,  and  other  plant,  and  the  methods  of  cleaning, 
dressing,  spinning,  and  weaving  the  cotton,  are  almost  identical  with 
those  of  the  Burmans.  The  more  expensive  skirts  and  blankets  are 
often  interwoven  with  graceful  and  artistic  patterns.  Among  the  Shans 
of  North  and  South  Hsenwi  curious  sleeping  webs  of  cloth  are  made 
with  zigzag  and  diamond-shaped  patterns,  woven  in  black,  red,  green, 
and  yellow,  the  cross-threads  being  often  of  silk.  Still  more  intricate 
is  the  Kachin  work  employed  in  the  adornment  of  shoulder-bags  and 
of  the  female  costume.  The  work  is  usually  dark  blue,  with  longitudinal 
blue  stripes,  but  is  sometimes  all  white  or  composed  of  equal  stripes 
of  red,  white,  and  blue,  into  which  are  woven,  at  intervals,  little  stars, 
crosses,  or  squares  of  various  colours  and  irregular  shapes.  Raw  silk 
is  obtained  by  the  Shans  from  the  Wa  and  Lao  States,  and  finds 
favour  in  South  Hsenwi  in  the  weaving  of  skirts  and  blankets.  Dyeing 
is  practised  in  most  Shan  households  where  weaving  is  done,  and  in 
most  parts  of  South  Hsenwi  State,  where  the  beautiful  natural  dyes 
of  the  country  still  hold  their  own  against  the  cruder  aniline  colours 
of  European  manufacture.  The  most  common  dyes  used  by  the 
Shans  are  obtained  from  the  Bt'xa  0?-ei/a7ia,  from  stick-lac,  from  indigo, 
and  from  the  yellow  wood  of  the  jack-fruit  tree. 

The  Shan  gold-  and  silversmitlis  are  clever  workers,  and  occasionally 
turn  out  very  good  repovs$i'  work  in  the  shape  of  gold  and  silver  lime, 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNTCATION^  243 

betel,  and  other  boxes,  and  da  and  dagger  scabbards,  gold  and  silver 
trappings  for  Sawbwas'  ponies,  hairpins,  rings,  jewellery,  goblets,  and 
other  articles.  Blacksmiths  are  common  throughout  the  States. 
Ploughshares  are  forged,  and  das^  choppers,  spades,  and  other  agri- 
cultural implements  are  manufactured  locally.  Many  of  the  Was  are 
clever  smiths,  and  Namhkam  in  North  Hsenwi  is  a  great  centre  for 
local  hardware,  which  is,  however,  all  manufactured  by  Chinese  or 
Maingtha  smiths,  who  set  up  their  forges  in  the  town  every  year. 
Brass-work  is  less  common,  but  occasionally  large  monastery  bells 
are  cast,  as  well  as  the  booming  bullock  bells  which  swing  on  the 
necks  of  the  leading  beasts  of  the  caravans.  Images  of  Buddha  and 
tattooing  implements  are  made  at  Hsenwi  town,  also  brass  buckles 
for  belts  and  betel-nut  pounders. 

Pottery,  in  the  shape  of  clay  water-bottles  and  earthen  chatties,  is 
manufactured  at  Tapong  and  Namhon  and  other  villages  in  South 
Hsenwi,  at  Manpan  in  Mongtung  (Hsipavv),  and  at  Namhkam,  Kokang, 
and  elsewhere.  North  and  South  Hsenwi  turn  out  a  certain  amount  of 
red  lacquer-work,  the  principal  articles  manufactured  being  the  round 
trays  or  salvers  standing  on  legs  which  are  used  for  religious  offerings. 
The  lacquered  goods  consist  of  a  framework  of  woven  bamboo,  smeared 
over  with  a  mixture  of  rice  ash  and  black  varnish  extracted  from  the 
mai  hak  or  thitsi  tree  {Melanorrhoea  usitatd),  which,  after  being  dried 
in  the  sun,  receives  a  coat  of  red  sulphide  of  mercury.  A  certain 
amount  of  wood-carving  is  done.  It  generally  takes  the  form  of  wooden 
images  of  Gautama  and  of  gilded  scroll-work  (known  as  iawng-lai-mawk 
to  the  Shans),  used  for  decorative  purposes  in  the  monasteries,  and  on 
the  tazaungdai?igs  which  are  placed  round  or  near  pagodas.  Mat- 
weaving  and  basket-making  are  practised  generally.  Grass  mats  are 
woven  at  Tangyan  and  Namhkam  ;  but  the  ordinary  kinds  are  the 
hsatpyu  mats,  made  from  the  outer,  and  hsatnu  from  the  inner  part 
of  the  bamboo.  The  manufacture  of  a  coarse-textured  paper  from 
the  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry  {Broussonetia  papyri/era)  is  carried  on 
wherever  that  particular  tree  is  found. 

The  means  of  transport  employed  in  the  trade  of  the  Northern  Shan 
States  now  includes  the  railway  from  Mandalay  to  Lashio ;  and  the 
system  of  feeder  cart-roads  connecting  the  raUway  with  the  interior  has, 
to  some  extent,  superseded  the  older  means  of  transport  by  mules, 
pack -bullocks,  and  pakondans  (petty  traders  who  carry  their  goods  on 
their  shoulders).  A  large  trade  in  surplus  rice  finds  its  way  by  means 
of  bullock  caravans  to  Tawngpeng,  the  great  tea-producing  area,  where 
very  little  rice  is  cultivated.  In  former  days  the  rice  was  exchanged 
for  tea,  pickled  and  dry,  which  the  traders  brought  down  and  sold  in 
Mandalay.  The  cash  they  received  for  their  tea  enabled  the  traders  to 
return  to  the  Shan  States  with   salt,  vgapi,  salted   fish,  cotton  goods, 


244  XORTHRRN  SHAX  STATES 

yarn,  matches,  kerosene  oil,  and  betel-nuts.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
railway,  however,  the  great  bulk  of  the  tea  produced  is  exported,  and 
most  of  the  goods  for  the  Shan  market  are  imported,  by  rail.  But  few 
caravans  now  make  the  through  trip  to  Mandalay.  As  a  means  of 
transport  the  pack-bullock  is  probably  as  much  used  as  ever ;  but  the 
bullock  caravans  now  ply  between  the  tea  gardens  and  the  railway,  or 
find  their  profit  in  bringing  rice  to  the  railway  and  distributing  rail- 
borne  imports  throughout  the  country.  Chinese  caravans  pass  through 
the  Northern  Shan  States  every  open  season  on  their  way  to  and  from 
the  Southern  Shan  States  and  Northern  Siam.  They  bring  iron  caul- 
drons, copper  cooking  pots,  straw  hats  made  especially  for  the  Shan 
market,  walnuts,  persimmons,  satin,  opium,  felted  woollen  carpets,  and 
fine  tobacco.  The  Panthay  settlement  at  Panglong  in  Sonmu  is  a  large 
trading  community  which  does  business  with  Burma  and  the  trans- 
Sal  ween  States.  The  Was  cultivate  and  export  to  China  large  quanti- 
ties of  opium,  and  agents  from  Kengtung  come  north  as  far  as  West 
Manglon  and  South  Hsenwi  to  purchase  the  drug.  Karenni  cutch  is 
brought  north  by  Mongnai  bullock  traders,  who  also  fetch  up  iron 
agricultural  implements  from  Laihkal.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried 
on  during  the  winter  months  in  oranges  from  Nawnghkam  (West  Mang- 
lon), Namma  (Hsipaw),  and  Hsipaw  itself,  and  during  the  rains  in 
Sal  ween  betel-leaf  from  Nawnghkam.  Stick-lac  is  collected  to  a  large 
extent  by  the  Kachins  of  North  Hsenwi,  who  sell  it  to  Indian  dealers 
in  the  Lashio  bazar,  whence  it  is  exported  to  Burma ;  and  carts  from 
Mandalay  and  Hsipaw  now  go  far  afield  into  South  Hsenwi  for  rice  and 
sesamum.  There  is  a  busy  local  trade  in  the  interior  in  home-grown 
tobacco,  fruit,  and  vegetables ;  and  the  bazars  are  always  well  attended. 
The  largest  marts  are  those  at  Namhkam,  Hsipaw,  Nawnghkio,  My- 
aukme,  and  Namlan.  Manchester  cotton  goods  are  rapidly  supplanting 
home-made  stuffs.  Imported  yarns  and  twist,  aniline  dyes,  German- 
made  pencils,  and  imitation  two-anna-piece  buttons  are  among  the 
most  noticeable  of  the  imported  articles.  The  value  of  the  imports 
from  Burma  to  the  Northern  Shan  States  reached  a  total  of  38  lakhs  in 
1903-4:  by  the  Mandalay-Lashio  railway,  22-6  lakhs;  by  the  Maymyo 
road,  5-8  lakhs  ;  by  Namhkam  and  Bhamo,  5  lakhs ;  via  the  Ruby 
Mines  District,  4-7  lakhs.  The  principal  items  were  European  cotton 
piece-goods  (valued  at  8-4  lakhs),  salted  fish  and  ngapi  {^-e^  lakhs),  salt 
(3-2  lakhs),  twist  and  yarn  (mostly  European)  (3-9  lakhs),  Indian  cotton 
piece-goods,  petroleum,  cattle,  betel-leaf,  and  tobacco.  The  exports 
from  the  States  to  Burma  in  the  same  year  were  valued  at  56^  lakhs: 
by  the  railway,  31-7  lakhs;  by  the  Maymyo  road,  6-6  lakhs;  by 
Namhkam  and  Bhamo,  5-7  lakhs;  through  the  Ruby  Mines  District, 
4-5  lakhs  ;  timber  and  forest  produce  floated  down  the  Shweli  and 
other  streams,  8  lakhs.     The  chief  items  were  pickled  tea  (22  lakhs). 


.7  DMlNrS  TRA  TTOK  2 4  5 

other  tea  (9  lakhs),  teak  timber  (7-5  laklis),  husked  rice  (2-3  lakhs), 
ponies  and  mules,  til  seed,  and  wax. 

Of  prime  importance  in  the  economy  of  the  country  is  the  Mandalay- 
Lashio  railway,  180  miles  in  length,  of  which  126  miles  lie  within  the 
Northern  Shan  States.  The  line  is  a  single  track,  and  was  constructed 
in  the  face  of  considerable  engineering  difficulties,  of  which  not  the 
least  notable  was  the  Gokteik  gorge,  now  spanned  by  a  viaduct.  It  had 
been  proposed  to  continue  the  railway  about  90  miles  farther  east  to 
the  Kunlong,  an  important  ferry  over  the  Salween,  and  eventually  to 
penetrate  into  Yiinnan  ;  but  this  extension  is  for  the  present  in  abey- 
ance. The  railway  enters  the  south-west  corner  of  the  HsTpaw  State 
from  Mandalay  District,  and  traverses  the  State  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  passing  through  Hsipaw  town  and  ending  at  Lashio  in  North 
Hsenwi.  The  Sawbwas  of  HsTpaw  and  North  and  South  Hsenwi  have 
spent  large  sums  in  constructing  feeder  roads  through  their  States  to 
the  railway.  Practically  parallel  with  the  railway  is  the  Government 
cart-road  from  Mandalay  to  Lashio,  bridged  but  not  metalled,  running 
for  1 1 1  miles  through  the  States.  The  principal  branch  cart-roads, 
connecting  with  either  the  railway  or  the  Government  cart-road,  are  : 
Nawnghkio  toTawnghkam  (24  miles),  Nawnghkio  to  Kalagwe  (35  miles), 
Gokteik  to  Haikwi  and  Pongwo(i8  miles),  Pyawnggawng  to  Monglong 
(55  miles),  Hsipaw  to  Mongtung  (76  miles),  with  branches  to  Kehsi 
Mansam  (13  miles)  and  to  the  Mongkiing  border,  connecting  with  the 
Southern  Shan  States  system,  Hsipaw  to  Tati  (7  miles),  HsTpaw  to 
Mongyai  (6r  miles),  Mongyai  to  Mongheng  (37  miles),  Lashio  to 
Tangyan  (80  miles),  with  a  branch  to  Mongyai,  Lashio  to  HsTpaw 
(14  miles),  Lashio  to  Mongyang  (21  miles),  and  Lashio  to  Kutkai 
(51  miles).  Innumerable  rapids  and  rocks  limit  navigation  on  the 
rivers  to  short  reaches,  and  the  only  boats  in  use  are  dug-outs, 
excepting  at  the  ferries.  The  ferries  across  the  Salween  (as  we  descend 
the  river)  are  the  Mongpawn  and  the  Monghawm,  connecting  the 
Kokang  district  of  North  Hsenwi  with  the  cis-Sahveen  country,  and 
the  Kunlong  (near  the  mouth  of  the  Nam  Ting).  These  lead  into 
North  Hsenwi.  Below  them  are  the  Mongnawng  (or  Hsaileng)  and 
the  Kawngpong,  between  South  Hsenwi  and  the  Wa  country  ;  the 
Kwipong,  the  Loihseng,  and  the  Manhsum,  used  by  traders  crossing 
from  West  Manglon  to  East  Manglon,  Monglem,  and  other  places  east 
of  the  Salween. 

Five  States  are  controlled  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Northern 
Shan  States,  the  chief  civil  officer  (a  member  of  the  Burma  Com- 
mission), who  has  his  head-quarters  at  Lashio.  These  .  . 

'^  .       ,  ,     ^  TT  Administration, 

are :    North  Hsenwi  m  the  north.  South  Hsfnwi 

near  the  Salween  in  the  east,  Manglon  in  the  south-east,  Hsipaw  in 
the  south-west,  and  Tawncpkno  in  the  north-west.     The  Wa  States 


246  NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

east  of  the  Salween  ran  hardly  be  said  to  be  under  British  control.  In 
ordinary  matters  the  States  are  administered  by  their  Sawbwas,  who  are 
assisted  by  amats  or  ministers  in  various  departments.  An  Assistant 
Superintendent  at  Hsipaw  advises  the  Sawbwas  of  Hsipaw  and  Tawng- 
peng,  officers  of  similar  rank  at  Kutkai  and  Tangyan  supervise  the 
affairs  of  the  Sawbwas  of  North  and  South  Hsenwi  and  Manglon,  and 
an  officer  of  the  Subordinate  civil  service  has  lately  been  posted  to 
Namhsan  to  help  the  Tawngpeng  Sawbwa  in  the  administration  of  his 
charge.  The  extensive  Kachin  colony  in  the  North  Hsenwi  State  is 
directly  under  the  civil  officer  at  Kutkai.  Lashio  itself  has  been  made 
practically  part  of  Burma  proper. 

In  the  Northern  Shan  States  the  criminal  and  civil  administration  is 
vested  in  the  Sawbwas,  subject  to  the  limitations  laid  down  in  their 
sonads  (deeds  of  appointment),  and  to  restrictions  imposed  by  the 
extension  of  enactments  and  the  issue  of  orders  under  the  Shan  States 
Act  or  the  Burma  Laws  Act.  The  customary  law  of  these  States  has 
been  modified  by  a  notification  which  specifies  the  punishments  that 
may  be  inflicted  for  offences  against  the  criminal  law,  limits  the  inflic- 
tion of  certain  punishments  to  the  more  heinous  offences,  and  pre- 
scribes simple  rules  of  procedure  in  criminal  cases.  The  Superintendent 
exercises  general  control  over  the  administration  of  criminal  justice, 
has  power  to  call  for  cases,  and  is  vested  with  wide  revisionary  powers. 
All  criminal  jurisdiction  in  cases  in  which  either  the  complainant  or 
accused  is  a  European  or  American,  or  a  Government  servant,  or 
a  British  subject  not  a  native  of  a  Shan  State,  is  withdrawn  from  the 
chiefs,  and  vested  in  the  Superintendent  and  Assistant  Superintendents. 
In  the  cases  above  mentioned  the  ordinary  criminal  law  in  Upper 
Burma,  as  modified  by  the  Shan  States  Laws  and  Oiminal  Justice 
Order,  1895,  is  in  force.  In  such  cases  the  Superintendent  exercises 
the  powers  of  a  District  Magistrate  and  Sessions  Judge,  and  the  Assis- 
tant Superintendents  exercise  the  powers  of  a  District  Magistrate 
under  sections  30  and  34  of  the  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure.  The 
Superintendent  and  Assistant  Superintendents,  if  European  British 
subjects,  are  also  ex-officio  justices  of  the  peace  in  the  States.  The 
.Superintendent  has  been  especially  empowered  to  withdraw  from  subor- 
dinate magistrates  such  cases  as  he  thinks  fit.  He  can  now  also  take 
cognizance  of  any  criminal  case,  and  try  or  refer  it  to  a  subordinate 
magistrate  for  trial.  The  Superintendent  and  each  Assistant  Superin- 
tendent exercise  the  powers  of  a  magistrate  under  the  Foreign  Juris- 
.  diction  and  Extradition  Act,  parts  of  which  are  in  force  in  the  States. 
In  regard  to  the  administration  of  civil  justice,  the  customary  law  has 
been  modified  by  a  notification  of  1900,  which  confers  original  appellate 
and  revisional  jurisdiction  on  the  Superintendent  and  Assistant  Super- 
intendents, creates  local  courts,  and  prescribes  a  simple  judicial  pro- 


ADMINISTKA  TION  247 

ceduie.  Various  Acts  and  Regulations  ha\e  been  extended  to  the 
Northern  Shan  States,  and  the  Gambling,  Excise,  Cattle  Trespass,  and 
certain  other  Acts  are  now  in  force  in  the  civil  station  of  Lashio.  In 
North  Hsenwi,  the  Kachin  Hill  Tribes  Regulation  has  been  extended 
to  the  Kachin  area.  The  most  prevalent  offences  occurring  in  the 
Northern  Shan  States  are  cattle  and  pony  thefts,  and  (in  Hsipaw  State) 
opium  cases. 

In  revenue  matters  the  Sawbwas  administer  their  States  in  accor- 
dance with  local  customs,  which  have  been  but  little  modified.  Tlic 
main  source  of  revenue  is  thathaineda.  In  Hsipaw  it  is  levied  at  the 
rate  of  Rs.  10  per  household;  in  Tawngpeng,  at  Rs.  20  on  tea-garden 
cultivators,  Rs.  10  on  cultivators  of  irrigated  land,  and  Rs.  5  on 
Kachins ;  in  North  Hsenwi,  at  Rs.  4-8  on  Kachin  families  in  the 
Kachin  tract,  and  at  Rs,  5  on  Shans  or  other  races,  whether  settled  in 
the  Kachin  tract  or  in  the  Shan  circles ;  in  South  Hsenwi,  at  Rs.  10  on 
cultivators  of  low-lying  rice  land  and  Rs.  6  on  /az/w^ra-cutters.  Taxes 
on  rice  and  tea  cultivation,  bringing  in  Rs.  58,000  in  1903-4,  are 
levied  in  the  Hsipaw  State,  and  a  tax,  yielding  Rs.  62,000,  is  assessed 
on  every  bullock-load  of  tea  exported  from  Tawngpeng.  A  tax  on 
opium  and  liquor  is  raised  by  means  of  licence  fees  in  Hsipaw  and 
Tawngpeng,  which  brought  in  Rs.  42,000  in  1903-4.  The  total 
revenue  collected  in  the  five  cis-Salween  States  in  that  year  amounted 
to  Rs.  6,26,000,  the  Hsipaw  State  alone  receiving  considerably  more 
than  half.  Thathaineda  realized  Rs.  3,87,000,  and  the  total  tribute 
paid  to  the  British  Government  was  Rs.  1,20,000. 

The  Sawbwas  are  responsible  for  the  suppression  of  crime  and 
the  preservation  of  order  in  their  States,  and  some  of  them  maintain 
small  irregular  police  forces.  In  addition,  Government  maintains  a 
civil  police  force,  which  consists  of  one  European  Assistant  Super- 
intendent of  police,  who  is  stationed  at  Lashio,  one  Burman  head 
constable,  and  65  policemen  recruited  in  the  Shan  States.  These 
police  are  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  the  prevention  and  detection 
of  crime  in  the  tract  of  country  directly  bordering  on  the  railway. 
There  are  3  police  stations— at  Lashio,  Hsipaw,  and  Nawnghkio. 
The  Northern  Shan  States  military  police  battalion  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Lashio.  The  force  is  under  a  commandant,  with  one 
assistant  commandant,  and  the  total  strength  of  the  battalion  is 
505  men.  The  majority  of  them  are  stationed  at  Lashio,  and  there 
are  100  at  Kutkai  and  30  each  at  Hsipaw  and  Tangyan. 

Hsipaw  State  maintains  a  jail  of  its  own,  with  an  average  of  about 
20  convicts.  The  prisoners  are  engaged  in  outdoor  work,  and 
keep  up  the  jail  garden,  which  produces  vegetables  for  sale  in  the 
local  bazar.  They  also  undertake  repairs  on  State  buildings,  the  jail 
itself  being  a  product  of  prison  labour.     Short-term  prisoners  in  other 


248  NORTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

States  are  kept  in  the  State  lock-ups.  Long-term  prisoners  are  sent  to 
serve  out  their  sentences  in  a  Burma  jail. 

Elementary  education  is  imparted  in  the  pongyi  kyaicngs  of  the 
States,  but  the  standard  of  literacy  is  low,  and  in  1901  only  9-7  per 
cent,  of  the  male  population  were  able  to  read  and  write.  American 
Baptist  Mission  schools  are  maintained  at  Hsipaw  and  Namhkam, 
and  the  Hsipaw  school   has   2   masters  and  about  40   pupils. 

There  are  civil  hospitals  at  Lashio  and  Hsipaw,  with  accommodation 
for  22  in-patients,  and  a  dispensary  at  Kutkai.  In  1903  the  number  of 
cases  treated  was  10,336,  including  366  in-patients,  and  119  operations 
were  performed.  The  income  amounted  to  Rs.  7,800,  derived  almost 
entirely  from  Provincial  funds.  There  is  a  hospital  at  Hsipaw,  managed 
by  the  American  Baptist  Mission,  with  24  beds.  In  1903  the  number 
of  cases  treated  at  this  institution  was  1,846,  including  20  in-patients. 
Another  hospital,  under  the  same  agency,  is  situated  at  Namhkam. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  7,233, 
representing  23  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[Sir  J.  G.  Scott,  Upper  Burma  Gazetteer  (5  vols.,  Rangoon,  1900-1) ; 
Burma:  a  Handbook  of  Practical  Information  (1906);  C.  C.  Lowis, 
A  Note  on  the  Palaungs  (Rangoon,  1906).] 

Shan  States,  Southern. — A  group  of  Native  States  in  Burma, 
under  the  charge  of  a  Superintendent,  lying  between  19°  20'  and 
22°  16'  N.  and  96°  13' and  101°  9'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about  36,000 
square  miles.  They  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Northern  Shan 
States,  from  which  they  are  separated  for  some  distance  by  the  Nam 
Tu  or  M)'itnge  river ;  on  the  east  by  China  ;  on  the  south  by  China, 
the  French  Lao  territory,  Siam,  and  Karenni ;  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Kyaukse,  Meiktila,  and  Yamethin  Districts  of  Upper  Burma,  and  the 
Toungoo  District  of  Lower  Burma. 

With  the  exception   of  a  tract  on  the  western    boundary  and    the 

eastern  half  of  the  Kengtung   State   towards   the   China   border,   the 

States  lie  in  the  drainage  area  of  the  Salween,  which 

^^'^^  roughly    bisects    them,    flowing    first    in    a    general 

southerly  course,  and  then  south-west  into  Karenni. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Kengtung  State  drains  into  the  Mekong,  of 

which   the  principal  tributaries  are  the  Nam  Lwi,  the  Nam  Lin,  and 

the  Nam  Hkok,  the  last  named  flowing  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course 

in  Chinese  territory.     The  most  noteworthy  tributaries  of  the  Salween 

on   its  eastern  side  within  the  limits  of  the  Southern  Shan  States  are 

the  Nam  Hka,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  the   trans-Salween 

areas,  and  the  Nam  Hsim  farther  south.     Its  western  tributaries  are  of 

more  importance  than  its  eastern,  and  their  courses  are  all  more  or  less 

parallel  with  that  of  the  Salween  itself.     The  Nam  Pang  rises  in  South 

Hsenwi   in    the   Northern   Shan    States,  and  waters  the  north-eastern 


SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 


!49 


cis-Salween  States,  joining  the  Salween  in  the  Kcnghkam  Slate  after 
a  general  southerly  course.  The  Nam  Teng  rises  in  the  north  in 
Mongkung  and  flows  south  into  Mongnai ;  there  it  bends  eastwards 
till  within  13  miles  of  the  Salween,  after  which  it  turns  south-west,  and 
eventually  joins  the  Salween  about  15  miles  above  the  Karenni 
boundary,  after  a  course  of  about  250  miles.  West  of  the  Nam  Teng 
is  the  Nam  Pawn.  This  stream  has  its  source  in  the  hills  of  laihka 
and  flows  southwards  into  Karenni,  emptying  itself  finally  into  the 
Salween  after  a  course  of  300  miles.  At  about  20°  N.  it  is  joined 
from  the  west  by  the  Nam  Tamhpak,  which  rises  in  the  small  Hopong 
State  and  drains  the  eastern  half  of  the  central  division,  running 
parallel  with  the  Nam  Pawn,  at  a  mean  distance  of  20  miles  to  the 
west  of  it.  West  of  the  Tamhpak  again  is  the  Nam  Pilu  or  Balu 
chaung,  which  waters  several  of  the  small  Myelat  States,  enters  the 
Inle  Lake,  and  then  leaves  it  in  a  southerly  direction,  draining  the 
southern  States  of  the  central  division.  It  finally  enters  Karenni, 
where  it  disappears  underground,  its  waters  flowing  in  unknown 
channels  to  the  Nam  Pawn.  A  portion  of  the  western  States  belongs 
to  the  Irrawaddy  drainage.  The  Nam  Tu  or  Myitnge  runs  along  the 
northern  boundar)',  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Nam  Lang,  with  its 
tributary  the  Nam  Et,  from  the  south,  before  entering  the  Irrawaddy 
valley.  The  last  two  rivers  water  the  whole  of  the  extreme  north- 
western area  excejjt  the  south-western  portion  of  Lawksawk,  which  is 
drained  by  the  Zawgyi.  This  stream  has  its  fountain-head  in  the 
M)elat,  runs  north  for  some  distance  in  the  Lawksawk  State,  then 
bends  abruptly  south-west,  traversing  the  north  of  Maw,  and  finally 
leaves  the  hills  in  Kyaukse  District  to  join  the  Irrawaddy.  The 
Paunglaung  river  rises  in  the  hills  that  form  the  boundary  between 
Yamethin  and  the  Myelat,  and  emerges  on  the  plains  in  Yamethin 
District,  where  it  is  renamed  the  Sittang. 

The  principal  hill  ranges,  like  the  rivers,  run  generally  north  and 
south.  Along  the  western  boundary  is  a  lofty  range  towering  over  the 
plains  of  Yamethin  and  Kyaukse  Districts,  containing  the  prominenl 
peaks  of  Sindaung  and  Myinmati,  near  Kalaw,  and  averaging  over 
5,000  feet.  East  of  this  range  lies  the  Menetaung  range  in  Pangtara, 
a  bold  block  of  hills  culminating  in  a  peak  known  as  Ashe-myin-anauk- 
myin  (7,678  feet);  and  east  of  that  again  the  Loi  Sang  range  divides 
the  valleys  of  Yawnghwe  and  the  Tamhpak.  Farther  east,  separating 
the  valleys  of  the  Tamhpak  and  the  Nam  Pawn,  is  a  long  range 
terminating  in  the  north  of  Karenni,  and  rising  to  over  8,000  feet  in 
two  peaks,  Loi  Mai  and  Loi  Maw.  Beyond  the  Nam  Pawn  runs 
a  parallel  range,  twice  exceeding  8,000  feet.  Eastward  of  this  system 
are  no  well-defined  continuous  hill  ranges,  the  country  up  to  the 
Salween  consisting  of  a  high  plateau  cut  up  by  valleys ;   nor  do  such 


2  50  SOUTHERN  SIIAN  STATES 

ridges  exisl  in  the  trans-Sahveen  Stales,  though  the  country  is  for  the 
most  part  very  rugged,  and  lofty  hill  masses  are  grouped  near  the 
frontiers.  The  Myelat,  east  of  the  high  range  separating  it  from 
Burma  proper,  is  characterized  by  open  rolling  downs,  large  tracts  of 
which  are  almost  treeless  and  rather  dry,  the  average  level  of  the 
country  being  at  a  considerable  altitude.  Eastwards  of  the  Myelat 
the  scenery  changes  from  tropical  to  alpine,  the  main  features  being 
the  lateral  ranges  and  intervening  valleys  described  above.  The  first 
of  these  tracts  of  lowland  is  the  well-watered  Yawnghwe  valley,  which 
displays  alternate  expanses  of  park-like  savannah  forest  and  well-tilled 
land,  with  the  great  Inle  Lake  in  its  centre.  Eastwards  of  this  comes 
the  basin  of  the  Tamhpak,  where  broad  plains  of  irrigated  rice  land  arc 
backed  by  grassy  downs  sloping  up  to  the  hills ;  and  beyond  this  lies 
the  typical  highland  strath  in  which  the  Nam  Pawn  runs.  Thence  to 
the  Salween  extends  a  wide  plateau,  with  its  rolling  prairies  well 
Limbered  in  parts,  broken  up  in  places  by  outcrops  of  detached  hills, 
and  varied  by  stretches  of  picturesque  river  scenery  along  the  Nam 
Teng  and  Nam  Pang. 

The  only  large  lake  in  the  States  is  the  Inle  in  Yawnghwe,  about 
12  miles  long  and  6  broad,  draining  by  the  Nam  Pilu  river  into  the 
Salween.  Two  smaller  lakes  are  situated  in  the  north-east  of  Mongnai 
and  in  Hsahtung. 

Not  much  is  known  of  the  geology  of  the  Southern  Shan  States, 
except  along  the  section  east  and  west  of  Taunggyi,  where  the  rocks 
have  been  classified  as  follows  ^  The  oldest  rocks  consist  of  gneisses 
with  veins  of  syenite  and  granite,  and  are  exposed  only  along  the 
western  edge  of  the  plateau.  Beyond  these,  limestone  is  the  pre- 
vailing rock,  the  lower  portion  probably  corresponding  to  the  Devonian 
limestone  of  the  Northern  Shan  States,  but  it  includes  also  fossiliferous 
beds  of  Permian  age  which  are  found  east  of  Taunggyi.  Purple  sand- 
stones are  either  faulted  or  folded  in  among  the  limestones,  and  may 
represent  the  Mesozoic  sandstones  found  between  Hsipaw  and  Lashio. 
Sub-recent  beds  of  conglomerate  sands  and  loams  occupy  longitudinal 
valleys  between  the  ridges  of  limestone. 

Along  the  western  border  runs  a  belt  of  fanxi  forest  reaching  to 
about  2,000  feet,  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  constituents  are 
bamboos,  Dipterocarpus^  DUienia,  and  climbers  like  Spatholobus  and 
Congea  toinentosa.  From  2,500  to  4,000  feet  the  hills  are  clad  with 
vegetation  of  a  different  character  and  composed  of  much  larger  trees, 
comprising  such  genera  as  Sc/iima,  Saurauja,  Turpinia,  Dalbergia, 
Caesalpi?iia,  Baiihitiia,  Terminalia^  Lagers troemia,  Strychnos,  and 
Quercus.     Several  arboreous  Compositae  are  also  to  be  found  in   this 

'  C.  S.  Middlemiss,  General  Report,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1S99-1900, 
p.   112. 


HISTORY  351 

belt.  There  is  a  plentiful  undergrowth  of  shrubs  and  herbaceous 
plants ;  and  ferns,  mosses,  and  lichens  abound.  At  an  altitude  of 
over  4,000  feet  the  forest  gives  place  to  an  open  rolling  plateau  of 
rounded  grassy  hills,  with  scattered  clumps  of  oaks  and  pines,  the 
vegetation  being  temperate  in  character.  Species  of  Kanunculus, 
Clematis,  Viola,  Folygala,  Hyperiawi,  Primula,  and  Sivertia  abound, 
as  well  as  representatives  of  the  more  tropical  genera,  such  as  Les- 
pedeza,  Codo?iopsis,  Ipomaea,  and  many  Labiatae^.  Further  particulars 
about  the  vegetation  of  the  States  will  be  found  under  the  head  of 
Forests. 

The  elephant,  bison,  tsine  or  hsai/ig  [Bos  sondaicus),  and  rhinoceros 
are  met  with,  as  well  as  the  tiger,  leopard,  and  other  felidae.  Sambar, 
swamp  deer,  hog  deer,  and  barking-deer  are  common ;  bears  are  widely 
distributed ;  but  the  wild  dog  and  the  jackal  are  rare,  as  also  is  the 
serow.  Hog  are  found  everywhere,  and  the  gibbon  and  monkeys  of 
various  kinds  arc  numerous.  Among  snakes  the  Russell's  viper  is  the 
commonest,  while  the  hamadryad,  cobra,  and  python  are  all  occa- 
sionally met  with.  The  harrier  and  kestrel  are  often  seen,  and  very 
rarely  the  Himalayan  eagle.  The  cuckoo  is  a  regular  visitor,  and  a 
lark  (identical  with  the  English  bird)  is  common.  The  list  of  water- 
fowl, both  migratory  and  indigenous,  is  large,  and  among  the  rarer 
visitors  may  be  mentioned  the  wood-snipe  and  woodcock. 

Portions  of  the  States,  such  for  instance  as  the  country  about  the 
town  of  Kengtung  and  several  of  the  tarai  areas,  are  very  unhealthy, 
but  on  the  whole  the  climate  is  fairly  temperate  and  salubrious.  In 
the  deeper  valleys  the  weather  is  humid  in  the  rainy  season,  and  very 
hot  during  March  and  April ;  on  the  uplands  the  heat  during  the  day 
in  those  two  months  is  considerable,  but  there  is  always  an  appreciable 
drop  in  the  temperature  at  night.  In  December  and  January  frost  is 
quite  common,  and  even  in  Mawkmai,  one  of  the  lowest  valleys,  the 
thermometer  has  been  known  to  fall  to  freezing-point.  The  head- 
quarters station  of  Taunggyi  has  an  annual  mean  temperature  of  66°. 
The  rainfall  throughout  is  moderate,  lessening  towards  the  east.  In 
Taunggyi  the  annual  average  is  about  60  inches,  and  at  Thamakan 
(Hsamonghkam)  in  the  Myelat  about  38. 

It  cannot  be  said  with  certainty  who  were  the  original  inhabitants 
of  the  Shan  States,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  Tai  {see  Northern 
Shan  States)  came  into  a  country  already  occupied 
by  Was,  Palaungs,  Yins,  Taungthus,  and  Karens. 
At  any  rate  Burmese  authority  was  undoubtedly  brought  to  bear  on 
the  Southern  Shan  States  long  before  permanent  control  was  gained 
over  Hsenwi,  which  was  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 

'  H.  Collett  and  W.  B.  Hemsley,  'On  a  Collection  of  Plants  from  Upper  Burma 
and  the  Shan  'i^i^'izi,'  Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society,  Botany,  vol.  xxviii. 
VOL.  XXII.  R 


2  52  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

Mao  Shan  kingdom  came  to  an  end.  In  the  remoter  parts  Burmese 
suzerainty  was  practically  without  effect  in  those  early  days,  but  in 
the  nearer  States  it  was  an  active  and  oppressive  reality  which  slowly 
crept  eastward,  despite  the  influence  of  China.  Wasted  by  internecine 
warfare  of  the  most  savage  description,  and  by  the  rapacity  of  the  Bur- 
mans,  the  States  in  time  declined  in  power.  The  government  of  Ava 
fostered  feuds  both  between  the  States  and  within  them,  so  as  to  keep 
their  rulers  too  weak  for  resistance.  Risings  were  put  down  by  calling 
out  troops  from  the  surrounding  principalities,  who  were  only  too  ready 
to  ravage  the  rebellious  area ;  in  fact,  some  of  the  States  are  but  now 
beginning  fully  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  those  troublous  days. 
The  chief  centre  of  Burmese  administration  in  the  years  preceding  the 
annexation  of  Upper  Burma  was  Mongnai,  the  capital  of  the  most 
powerful  chief,  where  an  officer  with  the  title  of  Bohmumintha  had  his 
head-quarters.  Troops  were  kept  here  and  at  Paikong,  in  Karenni, 
opposite  Mongpai,  the  latter  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the  Red 
Karens.  Burmese  Residents  were  appointed  to  the  courts  of  all  the 
States,  but  their  counsels  received  but  scant  attention  across  the  Sal- 
ween.  As  at  present,  the  Sawbwas  administered  their  own  charges, 
and  exercised  powers  of  life  and  death,  and,  what  was  probably  more 
important,  collected  taxes.  There  was  no  check  on  oppression,  though 
it  was  always  open  to  the  persecuted  subject  to  remove  to  another 
State.  After  the  death  of  king  Mindon  Min  the  administration 
collapsed,  as  it  did  over  all  the  outlying  parts  of  the  Burmese  domi- 
nions. The  first  chief  to  revolt  was  the  Sawbwa  of  Kengtung  across 
the  Salween,  who  quarrelled  with  his  suzerain  over  the  appointment 
of  a  new  Sawbwa  to  the  neighbouring  State  of  Kenghung  (now  in 
Chinese  territory),  massacred  the  Burmese  Resident  and  staff,  and 
burnt  Kenghung.  King  Thibaw  was  too  weak  to  retaliate,  and  the 
powerful  chief  of  Mongnai  joined  in  the  revolt,  followed  by  the  Saw- 
bwas of  Mongnawng  and  Lawksawk.  These  more  accessible  States, 
however,  on  joining  the  general  rebellion,  were  overrun  by  the  Bur- 
mese troops,  and  the  three  Sawbwas  had  to  take  refuge  in  Kengtung 
in  1884.  Here  the  first  attempt  was  made  at  a  Shan  coalition  with  the 
intention  of  throwing  off  the  Burmese  yoke,  and  it  appears  probable 
that  only  the  unexpected  annexation  of  Burma  itself  by  the  British 
prevented  the  formation  of  a  powerful  Shan  kingdom.  A  leader  was 
selected  in  the  Linbin  prince,  a  nephew  of  king  Mindon,  who  had 
escaped  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the  royal  family  by  Thibaw's  ser- 
vants, and  who  arrived  at  Kengtung  at  the  very  time  when  the  British 
expedition  was  being  dispatched  to  Mandalay.  The  Burmese  troops 
had  been  withdrawn,  and  it  was  a  question  of  forcing  on  the  States, 
some  more  or  less  unwilling,  the  ruler  the  allies  had  chosen.  The 
Linbin    faction    crossed    the   Salween   early  in   1886 ;    Mongnai  was 


HISTORY  353 

attacked,  and  an  unfrocked  p07igyi  named  Twet  Nga  Lu,  wlio  had  been 
administering  the  State  since  the  Sawbwa's  flight,  was  driven  out ;  the 
rightful  ruler  was  restored,  and  the  Lawksawk  and  Mungnawng  chiefs 
regained  their  dominions.  The  allies,  who  were  soon  joined  by  the 
south-western  and  many  of  the  Myelat  States,  next  set  themselves  to 
the  task  of  persuading  or  compelling  the  other  States  to  accept  the 
Linbin  prince  as  their  leader.  To  this  end  they  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  Kehsi  Mansam,  Mongkiing,  and  Laihka,  which  had  furnished 
troops  to  drive  the  Mongnai  Sawbwa  from  his  kingdom  ;  the  last  was 
ravaged  from  end  to  end,  and  the  two  former  fared  nearly  as  badly 
About  the  same  time  Mongpan  in  the  south  was  raided  by  the  Alawk- 
mai  ruler,  and  the  capital  was  sacked.  The  Sawbwa  of  Lawksawk  then 
proceeded  to  avenge  himself  on  Yawnghwe,  to  which  the  former  State 
had  been  subordinated  by  the  Burmese  government  when  the  Sawbwa 
fled  to  Kengtung  ;  but  the  Sawbwa  of  Yawnghwe  had  by  this  time 
tendered  his  allegiance  to  the  British  Government,  and,  with  some  of 
the  Myelat  States  behind  him,  was  able  to  maintain  himself  against  the 
Linbin  confederacy,  which  had  been  pressing  on  him  from  the  north 
and  east.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  arrival  of  an  expedition  under 
Colonel  Stedman  in  1886  that  the  investment  of  Yawnghwe  and  its 
Myelat  allies  ceased.  This  expedition  started  from  Hlaingdet  in  Meik- 
tila  District,  and  encountered  some  slight  opposition  from  the  Lawk- 
sawk forces ;  but  beyond  this  there  was  no  resistance.  The  submission 
of  Yawnghwe  and  the  Myelat  States  was  obtained  without  difficulty, 
and  the  Superintendent  of  the  Shan  States  was  installed  in  his  charge, 
a  post  being  established  at  Fort  Stedman  on  the  Lile  Lake  near 
Yawnghwe.  The  submission  of  these  States  was  followed  by  that 
of  the  south-western  States,  where  there  had  been  trouble  with  the 
Red  Karens ;  and  the  Superintendent  then  called  on  the  Sawbwas  of 
Mongnai  and  Mongpawn,  the  most  active  of  the  Linbin  coalition,  to 
submit  to  the  British  Government.  They,  however,  merely  withdrew 
to  their  territories.  Matters  were  complicated  at  this  stage  by  the 
States  of  Laihka,  Mongkiing,  and  Kehsi  Mansam,  which  had  suffered 
at  the  hands  of  the  Linbin  confederacy,  and  which  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  making  a  retaliatory  raid  on  Mongpawn,  the  Sawbwa  of 
which  was  the  Linbin  prince's  most  influential  supporter.  The  Super- 
intendent, accordingly,  after  driving  the  hostile  Sawbwa  of  Lawksawk 
out  of  his  State,  marched  into  Mongpawn,  and  brought  about  the 
reconciliation  of  the  chiefs  and  the  submission  of  the  Linbin  faction. 
The  prince  himself  surrendered  and  was  deported;  and  by  June,  1887, 
all  the  cis-Salween  Shan  States  had  been  brought  under  British  rule 
and  were  free  from  disturbance.  The  Superintendent  in  1887-8  made 
a  tour  throughout  the  States,  and  received  the  personal  submission 
of  the   Sawbwas,  settling  their  relations   to  the  Government  and  to 

R  2 


254  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

each  other,  without  a  shot  being  fired.  Some  trouble  was  caused 
by  the  e\-pongyi  Twet  Nga  Lu,  who  in  1888  was  able  to  drive  out 
the  Mongnai  Sawbwa  and  establish  himself  in  his  capital,  but  he  was 
eventually  shot  in  the  same  year.  The  column  which  dealt  with 
Twet  Nga  Lu  was  called  upon  to  quell  disturbances  in  the  Southern 
Myelat  States,  which  had  been  brought  about  by  the  chief  of  Yawn- 
ghwe ;  and,  after  it  had  settled  matters  in  Mongnai,  had  to  turn  its 
attention  to  Mawkmai,  which  had  been  invaded  and  reduced  to  vas- 
salage by  Sawlapaw,  the  chief  of  Eastern  Karenni,  or  Gantarawadi. 
Order  was  re-established  in  Mawkmai,  but  in  June,  1888,  Sawlapaw 
again  attacked  the  State.  He  was,  however,  driven  back  with  very 
severe  loss ;  and  as  he  refused  to  surrender,  a  punitive  expedition 
entered  Sawlon,  his  capital,  in  1889  and,  on  his  flight,  Sawlawi,  his 
heir,  was  appointed  in  his  place.  Finally,  the  Kengtung  State  on  the 
farther  side  of  the  Sal  ween  submitted  in  1890.  Considerable  diffi- 
culties arose  with  Siam  about  this  time  concerning  certain  trans- 
Salween  dependencies  of  Mawkmai,  Mongpan,  and  Karenni.  In 
1889-90  an  Anglo-Siamese  Commission,  in  which  the  Siamese  govern- 
ment declined  to  join  at  the  last  moment,  partitioned  these  tracts,  and 
the  Siamese  garrisons  were  withdrawn  from  so  much  of  the  country 
as  was  found  not  to  belong  to  Siam.  The  demarcation  of  this  frontier 
was  finally  carried  out  by  a  joint  Commission  in  1892-3.  The  Anglo- 
French  boundary  was  settled  in  1894-5,  when  the  State  of  Kengcheng 
was  divided  between  the  two  countries,  the  Mekong  forming  the  boun- 
dary, and  the  cis-Mekong  portion  being  added  to  Kengtung.  The 
boundary  of  the  Kengtung  State  and  China  was  settled  by  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  Boundary  Commission  of  1898-9. 

The  most  important  pagodas  are  those  at  Angteng  and  Thandaung 
in  Yawnghwe,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Dhamma  Thawka  Min 
(Asoka)  and  Anawrata ;  their  annual  festivals  are  largely  attended. 
In  the  Pangtara  State  is  the  Shweonhmin  pagoda,  a  richly  gilt  shrine 
in  a  grotto  in  the  hill-side.  The  sides  and  roof  of  the  cave  are  crowded 
with  statues  of  Buddha  and  emblems  of  the  faith.  There  is  a  larger 
attendance  at  its  festival  than  at  any  other  in  the  Southern  Shan  States, 
except  perhaps  that  of  Mongkung.  In  the  Poila  State  is  the  Tame 
pagoda,  covered  on  the  upper  half  with  copper  plates  and  much 
revered.  Both  the  Pangtara  and  Poila  pagodas  are  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Asoka  and  repaired  by  Anawrata  of  Pagan. 

The  population  of  the  Southern  Shan  States  in  1901  was  770,559. 

Its  distribution  is  given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  which  shows 

.  considerable  variation  in  density  of  population.    The 

small   States   of    Pangmi   and    Nawngwawn   are   as 

thickly  populated  as  the  delta  Districts  of  Lower  Burma.     With  the 

exception  of  Yawnghwe,  none  of  the  larger  Sawbwaships  show  a  high 


POPULATION 


255 


figure,  and  the  average  for  the  States  is  only  about  half  that  for  the 
Province  as  a  whole. 


State. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Number 

of 
villages. 

Popula- 
tion in 
igoi. 

Popula- 
tion per 
square 
mile. 

Number 

of 
literate 
persons. 

Kengtung   .         .         .         . 

I  2,000 

2,33s 

190,698 

16 

4,441 

Yawnghwe 

1,39^ 

1,091 

95,339 

68 

7,353 

Central  Division. 

Mongpai     .          .          .         . 

660 

158 

19,358 

29 

95 

Lawksawk  .... 

2,197 

397 

24,839 

II 

532 

Samka         .... 

357 

241 

17,643 

49 

581 

Nawngwawn 

4^ 

78 

4,805 

114 

140 

Hsahtung    .          .          .         . 

472 

159 

10,584 

22 

143 

Wanyiii       .... 

219 

158 

11,297 

51 

218 

Hopong      .... 

232 

177 

11,140 

48 

175 

Namhkok    .... 

106 

78 

6,687 

63 

114 

Sakoi ..... 

103 

27 

1,387 

'3 

6 

Eastern  Division. 

1 

1 

Mongnai  (with  Kengtavvng) 

2w'7 

981 

44,252 

16 

2,072 

Laihka         .... 

1,433 

531 

25,811 

18 

1,022 

Mawkmai  .... 

2,-7S7 

443 

29,454 

10 

i,-393 

Mongpan    .... 

2,300 

196 

16,629 

7 

553 

Mongpawn 

371 

212 

'3,143 

35 

302 

Mongnawng 

I..S75 

777 

39,102 

25 

417 

Mongkiing  .... 

1 .643 

627 

30,482 

iS 

400 

Mongsit       .... 

.303 

184 

9,013 

30 

207 

Ivehsi  Maiisam     . 

632 

37s 

22,062 

35 

429 

Kenglikam  .... 

j        167 

52 

5,45s 

33 

379 

Monghsu  (with  Mongsang) . 

164 

265 

17,480 

106 

262 

Kenglon      .... 

43 

69 

4,259 

99 

128 

Myclat  Division. 

Hsaniongh] 

cam    . 

297 

196 

12,561 

42 

494 

Kyawkkn 

94 

33 

4,771 

51 

323 

Kyong 

24 

20 

2,340 

97 

160 

Loi-ai 

200 

70 

5,44^ 

27 

231 

Loimaw 

49 

59 

4,576 

93 

37 

Maw  . 

550 

70 

7,743 

14 

340 

Mawnang 

40 

43 

3,755 

94 

25 

Mawson 

40 

31 

3-557 

89 

374 

Namhkai 

75 

76 

6,780 

90 

103 

Namtok 

20 

12 

778 

39 

23 

Pangmi 

29 

29 

3,456 

119 

372 

Pangtara 

200 

91 

15,0x4 

75 

1,565 

Poila  . 

102 

62 

7,866 

77 

864 

Yengan 

400 

7' 

9,958 

25 

580 

Loilong 

1,600 

437 

30,731 

19 

461 

2  7,39ot 

Total 

35>635 

10,917 

770,559* 

22 

'  Including  309  persons  enumerated  in  survey  camps  in  different  portions  of  the  States, 
t  Including  76  literate  persons  in  the  survey  camps. 

The  predominant  race  are  the  Shans  {see  Northern  Shan  States), 
who  numbered  331,300  in  1901.  They  inhabit  the  entire  Shan  States 
in  varying  proportions,  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  population 
of  the  eastern  division,  and  being  the  most  numerous  of  the  many 


2S6  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

races  inhabiting  the  Kengtung  State  across  the  Salween.  In  the 
central  division  they  are  not  in  the  majority,  the  Taungthus  taking 
their  place,  and  they  tend  to  confine  themselves  to  the  valleys,  as 
along  the  Nam  Tamhpak.  In  these  States  and  in  Loilong  they  are, 
however,  numerous.  In  the  rest  of  the  Myelat  States  they  are  poorly 
represented.  Next  in  importance  from  a  numerical  point  of  view  are 
the  Taungthus,  of  whom  there  were  124,900  in  1901.  They  abound 
most  in  the  southern  States  of  the  central  division,  forming  the  entire 
hill  population  there  ;  and  they  are  strongly  represented  in  all  but 
the  Northern  Myelat  States,  gathering  most  thickly  on  the  mountains 
bordering  Burma  proper.  Considerable  numbers  of  them  inhabit 
the  western  half  of  the  eastern  division,  but  in  the  Salween  valley 
and  in  the  north-eastern  States  they  are  practically  unknown.  The 
Danus,  a  race  of  mixed  Burman  and  Shan  origin,  and  to  a  large 
extent  speakers  of  Burmese,  numbered  50,900  in  1901.  They  are  the 
preponderating  race  in  the  Northern  Myelat  States,  and  are  strongly 
represented  in  the  northern  States  of  the  central  division.  The  total 
in  1901  of  the  Inthas  (lake-dwellers),  who  inhabit  the  valley  of  the 
Inle  Lake  and  of  the  Upper  Nam  Pilu,  was  50,500.  The  Hkiin  Shans, 
numbering  41,500,  are  practically  confined  to  the  Kengtung  State 
beyond  the  Salween,  where  too  arc  found  the  hill-dwelling  Kaws  or 
Akhas  (26,000),  the  Lii  Shans  (16,200),  and  the  ^\'AS  (23,800).  The 
Taungyos  (16,500) — a  hill  tribe,  who  have  been  hitherto  classified  with 
the  Taungthus,  but  who  are  probably  more  closely  allied  with  the 
Burmans — are  met  with  in  the  centre  of  the  Myelat  division ;  the 
Karens  (18,700)  live  in  the  southern  States  of  the  central  and  eastern 
divisions  bordering  on  Karenni,  and  the  Muhsos  (15,800) — a  Tibeto- 
Burman  community  who  appear  to  be  connected  with  the  Lisaws — 
on  the  highest  hills  in  the  east  of  the  Kengtung  State.  The  Palaungs 
in  1901  numbered  11,800.  They  are  nowhere  thickly  distributed,  but 
are  spread  over  all  the  northern  half  of  the  Southern  Shan  States  from 
Burma  proper  to  the  Salween,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  Kengtung.  The 
Padaungs  (7,800) — a  Karen  community,  best  known  to  Europeans  by 
reason  of  the  brass  rings  with  which  their  women  elongate  their  necks — 
form  a  large  part  of  the  population  of  Mongpai,  a  State  in  the  extreme 
south-western  corner,  on  the  Karenni  border.  Only  12,100  Burmans 
were  enumerated  in  the  States  in  1901,  although  91,700  persons  were 
returned  as  ordinarily  speaking  Burmese.  Less  important  from  a 
numerical  point  of  view  are  the  Riangs  or  Yins  (3,100),  a  pre-Shan 
tribe  of  Mon-Anam  extraction,  inhabiting  the  north-eastern  cis-Salween 
States,  and  very  closely  allied  with  the  Palaungs ;  and  the  Zayein 
Karens  (4,140)  of  Loilong,  the  southernmost  State  of  the  Myelat 
division.  There  were  not  quite  1,000  Chinese  in  1901,  most  of  whom 
were  born  in  the  States.     According  to  religion,  Buddhists  in   1901 


AGRICULTURE 


257 


numbered  696,800,  and  Animists  (mainly  trans -Sahveen  non-Shan 
tribes)  69,900.  Comparatively  few  Musalmans  and  Hindus  arc  found. 
Almost  the  only  natives  of  India  are  Government  servants  and  fol- 
lowers. Christians  numbered  1,528,  of  whom  1,483  were  natives. 
The  American  Baptist  Mission  has  stations  at  Mongnai,  in  the  eastern 
division,  and  at  Kengtung.  The  population  dependent  upon  agricul- 
ture in  1901  was  524,100,  or  68  per  cent,  of  the  total;  and  of  this 
total  262,200  persons,  or  about  half,  were  dependent  almost  wholly 
on  taungya  (shifting)  cultivation. 

Cultivation  in  the  Southern  Shan  States  may  be  grouped  under  three 
heads :  irrigated  crops,  '  dry '  field  crops,  and  garden  crops.  There  are 
no  regularly  constructed  canals ;  but  advantage  is  .  •  1 
taken  of  every  stream  in  the  country,  and  by  means 
of  weirs  and  small  distribution  channels,  or  water-wheels  where  the 
banks  are  high,  large  areas  in  the  valleys  are  irrigated.  Terraced  fields 
also,  fed  by  the  waters  of  mountain  brooks,  are  constructed  with  great 
labour  wherever  the  ground  allows,  and  the  agricultural  conditions  are 
such  that  in  some  of  the  more  favoured  localities  as  many  as  three 
crops  a  year  are  gathered  from  irrigated  land.  The  'dry  crops,'  of 
which  the  most  important  is  taungya  rice,  depend  upon  the  rainfall 
for  the  moisture  they  require.  There  is  nothing  peculiar  to  the 
Southern  Shan  States  in  the  methods  of  taungya  cultivation,  which 
have  been  described  in  the  article  on  the  Northern  Shan  States. 
Irrigation  in  the  case  of  garden  cultivation  is  effected  mainly  by  hand 
from  wells  and  other  sources. 

Rice  is  the  staple  food-grain ;  wheat  is  also  grown,  but  chiefly  for  the 
use  of  the  foreign  residents.  Potatoes,  capsicums,  and  onions  are  pro- 
duced in  considerable  quantities  and  exported  \  and  other  important 
crops  are  maize,  millet,  beans,  sugar-cane,  and  gram.  Cotton  is  culti- 
vated over  a  large  area,  sesamum  and  ground-nuts  are  grown  for  the 
oil  they  produce,  and  the  rhea  plant  for  the  sake  of  its  fibre,  which 
is  in  large  demand  among  the  local  shoe-  and  sandal-makers.  On  the 
higher  ranges  the  cultivation  of  thanat  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
used  for  cigar-wrappers,  is  extensive ;  and  here  poppy  and  indigo  are 
also  grown.  Cinnamon  is  found  in  some  of  the  States.  Tobacco 
is  a  universal  crop,  and  the  Langhkii  variety  has  a  wide  reputation. 
The  principal  garden  crops  are  pineapples,  bananas,  oranges,  limes 
and  citrons,  custard-apples,  guavas,  pomegranates,  peaches,  and  plums ; 
and  English  fruits  have  been  tried  with  success  at  Taunggyi.  In  the 
hotter  valleys  coco-nut  and  areca  palms  flourish.  Tea  is  indigenous, 
though  the  leaf  is  of  very  poor  quality,  and  coffee  has  been  success- 
fully grown  in  Samka  and  Hsahtung. 

With  the  increasing  population  the  area  under  cultivation  is  gradually 
extending,  but,  except  in  the  Myelat,  no  reliable  statistics  of  the  acreage 


2S8  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

under  crop  now  and  in  the  past  are  available.  In  the  Myelat,  exclusive 
of  Loilong,  about  40  square  miles  are  cultivated,  more  than  one-third 
of  which  is  irrigated.  The  people  are  timid  in  regard  to  experimental 
cultivation,  and  in  consequence  no  new  varieties  have  supplanted  the 
indigenous  staples. 

Cattle-breeding  is  carried  on  extensively  throughout  the  States.  The 
Taungthus  are  born  cattle  and  pony  breeders  ;  and  in  East  Yawnghwe 
and  the  States  in  the  Htamhpak  valley,  where  they  predominate,  the 
rearing  of  live-stock  is  freely  carried  on.  Cows  are  never  milked,  the 
calves  being  allowed  to  suckle  at  will;  and  the  village  bulls  are  per- 
mitted to  roam  about  with  the  herds.  Cattle  are  not  used  for  plough- 
work  in  the  Shan  States  ;  but  buffaloes  are  extensively  bred  in  every 
State  for  local  agricultural  work,  and  in  the  States  of  Kehsi  Mansam 
and  Mongnawng  for  export  also.  Ponies  are  bred  largely  in  the  States 
of  Mongkung,  Kehsi  Mansam,  Mongnawng,  and  East  Yawnghwe,  and 
to  a  limited  extent  generally  throughout  the  States ;  but  unfortunately 
sufficient  attention  is  not  given  to  the  selection  of  sires.  The  result 
is  that  the  ordinary  pony  now  procurable  is  a  very  indifferent  animal. 
In  some  States  the  chiefs  keep  Arab  stallions,  and  there  is  keen  com- 
petition for  their  foals.  The  smaller  animals  are  exported  to  Chieng- 
mai,  where  a  diminutive  animal  is  preferred,  if  showy.  Two  Persian 
donkey  stallions  were  at  one  time  placed  in  various  parts  of  the  States, 
but  mule-breeding  did  not  prove  popular,  and  the  experiment  was  dis- 
continued. An  indigenous  goat,  of  a  small  black  variety,  is  bred  in 
the  Kengtung  State  ;  but  otherwise  goat-breeding  is  in  the  hands  of 
Indian  residents,  who  confine  themselves  for  the  most  part  to  imported 
varieties.  Sheep  are  not  indigenous.  Several  kinds  have  been  tried, 
but  with  little  success.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  a  hardy  breed 
from  the  hills  in  India  would  do  well. 

Grazing  is  abundant  both  in  the  rains  and  in  the  dry  season.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  wet  season  cattle-diseases  (anthrax,  rinderpest,  surra, 
glanders,  &c.)  are  nearly  always  present  in  some  part  of  the  States. 
Occasionally  the  disease  is  imported  along  the  Government  cart-road 
or  by  the  caravans  from  China,  but  much  is  due  to  carelessness  in  the 
grazing  of  animals  on  low-lying  and  swampy  ground.  Since  the  engage- 
ment of  trained  veterinary  assistants  at  the  cost  of  the  chiefs,  the  live- 
stock has  been  better  cared  for  and  the  segregation  of  diseased  animals 
is  now  practised. 

The  most  important  fisheries  are  in  the  Inle  Lake  (Yawnghwe),  and 

on  the  Nam  Pilu  which  drains  that  piece  of  water.     These  fisheries 

.  are  of  great  value,  and  yield  a  considerable  revenue 

to  the  Yawnghwe  Sawbwa,     Besides  supplying  the 

local  bazars,  salted  and  dried  fish  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  States 

from    the  Yawnghwe   fishing   area.      In   the   lake   a   close   season   is 


FORESTS 


259 


observed  during  the  Buddhist  Lent.  The  spawning-beds  are  carefully 
preserved  and  supplied  with  food,  in  the  shape  of  rice,  ground-nut, 
and  sesamum  paste,  &c. 

Under  native  rule  the  right  of  the  paramount  power  to  the  forests 
in  the  Shan  States  was  always  asserted,  and  the  same  principle  has 
been  followed   since  annexation.     The  right  to  the 
timber  extracted  from  their  States  is  reserved  to  the  Forests. 

British  Government  by  the  Sawbwas'  sanads,  and  revenue  is  paid 
whether  the  trees  are  extracted  by  the  Sawbwas  themselves  or  by 
private  contractors.  The  distribution  of  the  forests  in  the  Southern 
Shan  States  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the  elevation.  The  average 
height  of  the  Shan  plateau  is  probably  between  2,000  and  3,000  feet 
above  sea-level ;  but  the  hills  frequently  exceed  7,000  and  sometimes 
8,000  feet.  The  lower-lying  streams  are  fringed  by  a  very  narrow  belt 
of  evergreen  forest.  This  gives  place  almost  at  once,  higher  up,  to  a 
dry  deciduous  forest,  frequently  of  the  indaing  type.  Teak  is  limited 
to  this  deciduous  belt,  and  is  rarely  found  above  3,000  feet.  Con- 
sequently, as  even  the  minor  watersheds  generally  exceed  this  elevation, 
teak  occurs  only  in  narrow  belts  parallel  to  the  streams.  Other  char- 
acteristic trees  of  the  deciduous  forest  are  :  pyingado  [Xylia  dolahri- 
formis),  padauk  [Fterocarpus  inacrocarpus),  pyinina  {Lagerstroemia 
Flos  Reglnae),  in  {Dipterocarpies  tubennlatus),  iiigyin  {Pentacme  siam- 
ensis),  thitya  {Shorea  obiusa),  and  thits'i  {Meiaiiorr/ioea  usitata).  At 
from  2,500  to  3,500  feet  the  deciduous  forest  may  be  associated  with 
pines  {Finus  Merkusii).  This  tree  is  rare  west  of  the  Nam  Teng,  and 
never  forms  pure  forest.  At  3,500  feet  Finus  Khasya  begins  to 
appear  ;  and  finally  at  4,000  feet  the  deciduous  forest  disappears,  and 
its  place  is  taken  either  by  pure  forest  of  Finus  Khasya,  or  by  mixed 
forest  of  broad-leaved  species,  characterized  by  oaks,  chestnuts,  and 
Schiviae.  At  6,000  feet  the  pine  or  oak  forests  are  generally  replaced 
by  a  dark-foHaged  evergreen  forest,  containing  magnolias,  Lai/riniae, 
and  rhododendrons. 

The  forests  can  best  be  considered  in  detail  with  reference  to  the 
drainage  basins.  These  are  five  in  number,  all  containing  teak  and 
other  valuable  timber.  In  order  of  their  economic  importance  they 
may  be  ranked  as  follows  :  tht  Saiween,  the  Myitnge  (or  Nam  Tu), 
the  Mekong,  the  Nam  Pawn,  and  the  Paunglang  or  Sittang.  In  the 
Saiween  basin  it  is  said  that  Mongnawng  once  contained  teak  forests. 
These  have  now,  however,  been  completely  destroyed  by  reckless 
over-working.  Only  the  States  in  the  lower  course  of  the  Saiween 
and  its  tributaries,  the  Nam  Pang  and  Nam  Teng,  now  possess  teak  ; 
and  working-plans  have  been  prepared  for  the  forests  of  Kenghkam, 
Mongnai,  and  Mongpan,  where  the  teak  area  exceeds  300  square 
miles.     Most  of  these  forests  have  been  over-worked  ;  and  the  forests 


26o  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

of  Mawkmai  and  of  the  Mongpu  and  Monghsat  sub-States  of  Kengtung 
are  too  exhausted  for  exploitation  at  present,  though  the  teak  tracts 
are  extensive.  The  timber  extracted  from  these  forests  is  floated  down 
the  Sahveen  to  the  Kado  forest  depot  above  Mouhnein.  The  teak 
forests  in  the  Nam  Tu  drainage  area  are  mostly  confined  to  Lawksawk, 
from  which  timber  is  extracted  by  way  of  the  Nam  I^ang  and  the  Nam 
Tu,  to  be  collected  at  Ava,  where  the  latter  stream,  there  known  as 
the  Myitnge,  falls  into  the  Irrawaddy.  The  working  of  the  forests  in 
Kengtung  in  the  Mekong  drainage  area  has  been  taken  in  hand 
recently,  but  all  the  timber  from  this  tract  is  destined  for  the  French 
market  at  Saigon.  The  Nam  Pawn  drainage  area  includes  the  valleys 
t)f  the  Nam  Pilu  and  Nam  Tamhpak.  It  contains  but  little  teak,  and 
the  streams  are  too  full  of  obstructions  to  be  of  use  for  floating  timber. 
The  forests  of  Loilong  on  the  Paunglaung  drainage  area  have  been 
reported  as  not  worth  exploiting,  owing  to  their  small  value  and  their 
remoteness.  The  minor  forest  products  include  lac,  turpentine,  thits'i, 
thanat  leaves,  Boehvieria  nivea,  rubber,  Chinese  varnish,  and  canes. 
( 'utch-bearing  tracts  are  said  to  be  fairly  common,  but  have  for  the 
most  part  been  ruined  by  reckless  cutting.  Details  of  the  export  of 
lac  and  thits'i  (from  the  Melanorrhoea  usitatd)  are  given  below  under 
Commerce  and  Trade.  Turpentine  and  Chinese  varnish  (from  the 
Aleuriiis  cordata)  could  be  exported  in  large  (juantities,  but  as  yet 
little  business  has  been  done  in  either  commodity.  Rubber  has  been 
exported  from  Kengtung,  but  the  cost  of  carriage  is  too  great  to  allow 
of  its  being  sold  at  a  j)rofit.  The  Boehmeria  nivea  is  said  to  be 
common  near  the  Sahveen  ;  it  is  used  locally  for  the  manufacture  of 
strong  fishing-lines,  and  is  a  very  valuable  product.  The  wholesale 
girdling  of  unmarketable  teak,  the  careless  logging  of  the  timber,  and 
the  ruinous  taungya  system  of  cultivation  have  done  immeasurable 
damage  to  the  forests  of  the  Shan  States,  and  the  ruin  brought  about 
liy  the  last-named  cause  increases  annually.  The  cutch  forests  have 
been  nearly  destroyed  by  excessive  and  thoughtless  Avorking.  The 
forest  revenue  from  the  Southern  Shan  States  in  1904  was  Rs,  87,652, 
to  which  Kengtung  contributed  Rs.  34,000,  Mawkmai  Rs.  18,524, 
Mongpan  Rs.  17,736,  and  Mongnai  Rs.  15,344. 

Coal  is  found  in  the  State  of  Laihka  and  in  the  Myelat,  but  in 
neither  locality  is  it  worked.  Reports  on  its  value  are,  however, 
favourable.  Washings  for  gold  are  carried  on  in 
the  stream-beds  at  various  localities,  but  nothing 
in  paying  quantity  has  yet  rewarded  the  washers.  Silver,  lead,  and 
plumbago  are  mined  in  a  small  way  in  the  Myelat,  and  iron  occurs 
in  some  quantity  in  Laihka  and  Samka,  in  the  former  State  giving 
employment  to  a  number  of  villages.  Copper  ore,  so  far  as  is  known, 
occurs  only  in  the  Myelat.     In  the  trans-Salween  sub-State  of  Mongpan, 


TRADE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS  261 

and  in  Namtok,  saltpetre  is  collected,  and  mica  (of  no  marketable 

size)  is  gathered  on  the  Nam  Teng.'    A  few  spinels  of  very  poor  quality 

have  been  found  in  Mawkmai  and  elsewhere,  but  rubies  have  not  been 

met  with,  and  neither  jade  nor  amber  is  known  to  exist.     Fine  pottery 

clay  is  worked    in    Mongkiing,   Yawnghwe,  and   Samka.     Laterite    is 

found  everywhere,  and  limestone  has  been  largely  employed  in  building 

houses  and  ofifices  in  Taunggyi,  and  is  extensively  used  for  metalling 

Government  roads.     Lime-burning   is   a  common  occupation  among 

the  Shans. 

Cotton-weaving  is  carried  on  in  practically  every  house  in  the  States, 

and  all  articles  of  wearing  apparel  among  the  poorer  classes  are  woven 

on    the    spot    from    locally   grown   cotton.      In    the 

neighbourhood  of  the  Inle  Lake  in   the  Yawntrhwc        Trade  and 
^  ..,  ...  .    ,  ^         communications. 

State  silk-weaving  is  an  miportant  nidustry,  the  silks 

having  a  finish  superior  to  those  of  the  Mandalay  looms.     Embroiflery 

(or  more  correctly  a  species  of  tapestry  work)  is  practised  among  the 

Taungthus  and  Taungyos,  being  applied  mostly  to  curtains  {ka/agas) 

and  women's  head-dresses. 

In  gold  and  silver-work  the  local  goldsmiths  are  but  little,  if  at  all, 
behind  the  artificers  of  Burma  ;  but,  though  deft,  they  lack  individuality, 
for  the  designs  in  use  are  mainly  modelled  on  Burmese  originals.  The 
iron-work  made  locally  is  for  the  most  part  confined  to  articles  of 
domestic  and  agricultural  utility,  such  as  ploughshares,  hoes,  axes, 
choppers,  scissors,  tongs,  and  tripods  for  cooking  pots  ;  and  these  are 
made  mainly  in  Laihka,  where  iron  is  smelted,  though  das  of  very 
superior  quality  are  forged  in  Mongkiing  and  Kehsi  Mansam.  Very 
little  work  is  done  in  brass,  wood,  or  ivory.  Pottery  is  a  widespread 
industry.  All  vessels  for  domestic  use  are  manufactured ;  and  in 
artistic  work  the  potters  of  Mongkiing,  Yawnghwe,  and  Samka  have 
a  wide  reputation,  the  glazed  work  of  Hona  (Mongkiing)  and  Kyawk- 
taing  (Yawnghwe)  being  especially  popular. 

Mat-weaving  is  a  universal  employment  during  .seasons  of  leisure 
from  agricultural  operations,  but  the  products  are  usually  rough. 
Lacquer-work  has  its  centres  in  the  States  of  Laihka  and  Mongnai. 
In  the  former  the  industry  gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of 
families  near  the  capital,  but  the  Shan  lacquer-work  is  generally  inferior 
to  that  of  Pagan.  Basket-weaving  is  fairly  well  distributed  through 
the  country,  and  umbrellas  and  hats  {kamm^ks)  made  of  bamboo 
spathes  are  produced  at  various  towns.  In  the  State  of  Kengh- 
kam  the  manufacture  of  Shan  paper  from  the  bark  of  a  species  of 
mulberry-tree  {Broimonetia  papyriferd)  has  assumed  considerable 
proportions. 

llie  chief  centres  of  trade  are  at  Taunggyi,  Monghsawk  (Fort 
Stedman),  Panglong  (in  Laihka),  Kehsi  Mansam,  Langhkii  (Mawkmai), 


262  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

wSamka,  and  Hsahtung.  Most  of  the  chiefs  are  large  traders,  and 
many  of  their  officials  follow  suit ;  at  Panglong  and  Kehsi  Mansani 
and  in  the  Hsahtung  State  whole  communities  are  entirely  dependent 
on  trade,  and  engage  in  agriculture  only  to  a  limited  extent.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  internal  trade  consists  of  cart  traffic  from  the 
plains  to  Taunggyi  and  Monghsawk.  From  the  former  pack-bullocks 
carry  merchandise  eastwards  ;  from  the  latter  it  is  borne  southwards 
by  river  to  Karenni.  Internal  trade  is  still  largely  in  the  hands  of 
caravan  traders,  who  employ  bullock  transport. 

External  trade  is  with  Burma  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  China  and 
Siam  on  the  other.  The  exports  to  Burma  by  all  routes  in  1903-4 
were  valued  at  47-6  lakhs.  The  value  of  the  forest  produce  exported 
to  Moulmein  and  to  Ava  down  the  Salween  and  Myitnge  rivers  in 
that  year  amounted  to  10  lakhs,  the  greater  part  being  teak  timber. 
Nearly  12,000  head  of  cattle,  valued  at  7  lakhs,  and  more  than  1,000 
ponies  and  mules,  valued  at  2  lakhs,  were  sent  down  during  the  year 
to  Burma.  Other  exports  included  lac  (valued  at  6  lakhs),  potatoes 
(0-4  lakh),  and  other  vegetables  and  fruits  (1-5  lakhs);  varnishes, 
provisions  of  various  kinds,  Shan  paper  for  umbrellas  and  ornaments, 
leathern  goods,  gums  and  resins  (including  thitsi),  turmeric,  silk  piece- 
goods,  thanaipet  (for  cigar-wrappers),  sesamum  and  ground-nut  oil, 
iron  implements,  and  lacquered  boxes  and  bowls.  The  imports  from 
Burma  in  the  same  year  were  valued  at  39-6  lakhs  ;  the  main  items 
were  European  cotton  piece-goods  (11  lakhs),  silk  goods  (3-9  lakhs), 
dried  fish  (i-8  lakhs),  betel-nuts  (1-7  lakhs),  salt  (1-3  lakhs),  cotton 
twist  and  yarn  (1-9  lakhs),  petroleum  (i  lakh),  woollen  goods  (i  lakh), 
apparel,  metal-work,  sugar,  wheat,  and  drugs  of  various  kinds  in 
smaller  quantities.  Most  of  the  trade  with  Burma,  whether  carried 
in  carts  or  on  bullocks,  goes  by  the  Government  cart-road  from 
Taunggyi  to  Thazi,  although  the  bullock-tracks  through  the  Natteik 
pass  to  Myittha  in  Kyaukse  District  and  through  Mongpai  to  Toungoo 
are  also  used.  A  certain  amount  of  trade  passes  via  the  Northern 
Shan  States  to  Upper  Burma,  being  registered  at  Maymyo.  To  China 
and  Siam  the  exports  are  much  the  same  as  to  Burma;  from  China 
the  chief  imports  are  straw  hats,  copper  and  iron  cooking  pots,  gold- 
leaf,  fur-lined  coats,  silk,  satin,  opium-smoking  requisites,  sulphur, 
camphor,  drugs  and  other  articles ;  from  Siam  they  include  cutch, 
raw  silk,  betel-nuts,  and  kerosene  oil.  The  China  and  Siam  trade  is 
not  registered,  and  statistics  of  its  volume  and  value  cannot  be  given. 
The  main  route  of  the  Chinese  trade  is  through  Kengtung  and  the 
Northern  Shan  States,  that  of  the  Siamese  trade  through  Mongpan. 

There  are  as  yet  no  railways,  but  a  light  railway  on  the  2  feet  6  inch 
gauge  is  projected,  to  connect  the  main  Rangoon-Mandalay  line  with 
Taunggyi.    A  few  good  roads  have  been  constructed.     The  principal 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  263 

land  highway  is  the  Thazi-Taunggyi  road  (105  miles  in  length).     This 
thoroughfare  starts  from  Thazi  on  the  Burma  Railway,  and  the  first 
41  miles  of  it  are  in  Burma.    It  then  passes  through  the  Hsamonghkam 
State  for  34  miles,  then  through  the  Yawnghwe  State  for  30  miles,  and 
ends  at  Taunggyi.     It  is  metalled  and  bridged  for  its  entire  length,  and 
is  very  largely  used  by  carts  and  mule  and  bullock  caravans.     A  count 
taken  at  a  given  point  showed  that  about  forty  carts  i)assed  that  point 
daily.     There  are  ten  furnished  inspection  bungalows  at  suitable  inter- 
vals along  the  route.     The  Sinhe-Fort  Stedman  branch  road  (14  miles) 
is  an  unmetalled  cart-road  branching  off  near  the  92nd  mile  of  the 
Thazi-Taunggyi  road.     It  has  good  timber  bridges  and  lies  entirely  in 
the  Yawnghwe  State.     A  furnished  inspection  bungalow  is  situated  at 
Mawlikhsat,  3  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Thazi-Taunggyi  road, 
and  another  at  Fort  Stedman,  107  miles  from  Thazi.     The  Taunggyi- 
Wanpong  cart-road  (69  miles)  forms  part  of  the  proposed  Taunggyi- 
Kengtung   cart-road.     It    is    unmetalled    but    bridged,    and    the    first 
12   miles  will  probably  be  metalled  shortly.     It  passes    through  the 
following  States:  Yawnghwe  (loi  miles),  Hopong  (i8i  miles),  Mong- 
pawn  (2ii  miles),  Laihka  (9  miles),  and  Mongnai  (9I  miles);  and  five 
furnished  inspection  bungalows  stand  on  it.    The  Wanpong-Takaw  cart- 
road  as  far  as  Kyusawk  (48  miles)  is  a  continuation  of  the  Taunggyi- 
Wanpong  cart-road  towards  Kengtung.     It  is  unmetalled  but  bridged, 
and  has  four  inspection  bungalows.     The  whole  of  it  is  in  the  Mongnai 
State.     The  mule-road  from  Fort  Stedman  to  Kengtung  starts  from 
near  the  105th  mile  of  the  Sinhe-Fort  Stedman  branch  road,  close  to 
Fort  Stedman,  and  21  miles  farther  on  joins  the  Taunggyi-Wanpong 
cart-road  near  Hopong  ;  it  then  leaves  the  latter  highway  at  Mongpawn 
and  goes  77  miles  to  Hsaikao  and  thence  to  Kengtung.     It  passes 
through  the  following  States  :  Yawnghwe  (20^  miles),  Hopong  (i  mile), 
Mongpawn  (6  miles),  Mongnai  (64  miles),  and  Kenghkam  (7  miles) ; 
and   five  inspection  bungalows   are  situated  along   it.     Feeder  roads 
(bridged  but  not  metalled),  constructed  by  the  chiefs,  connect  Lawk- 
sawk,  the  States  in  the  Nam  Tamhpak  valley,  Karenni,  Laihka,  Mong- 
kiing,  Kehsi  Mansam,  Mongnai,  Mongnawng,  and  Mawkmai  with  the 
Government  cart-road.     Similar  tracks  travel  north  and  south  of  the 
Thazi-Taunggyi  road  through  tlie  Myelat  States. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Nam  Pilu,  none  of  the  rivers  of  the  States 
is  navigable  for  any  great  distance,  the  Salween  itself  being  too  much 
obstructed  by  rapids.  Country  boats  navigate  the  Nam  Pilu  between 
Loikaw,  Fort  Stedman  (the  mart  for  Karenni),  Samka,  and  Mongpai. 
There  are  nine  ferries  across  the  Salween,  three  across  the  Nam  Pang, 
four  across  the  Nam  Teng,  and  two  across  the  Nam  Pawn.  The  ferries 
at  Hko-ut  (on  the  Nam  Teng),  Kenghkam  (on  the  Nam  Pang),  and  the 
Ta  Kaw  (on  the  Salween)  are  on  the  main  road  to  Kengtung,  and  are 


264  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

subsidized  by  Government.  The  other  ferries  are  kept  up  by  the 
chiefs,  and  small  tolls  are  levied. 

A  daily  postal  service  plies  between  Thazi,  Hsamonghkam,  Fort 
Stedman,  and  Taunggyi,  mule  transport  being  used.  Weekly  services 
are  maintained  between  Fort  Stedman  and  Loikaw  in  Karenni,  and 
between  Taunggyi  and  Loilem,  Mongnai,  and  Kengtung.  Letter-boxes 
are  placed  at  several  of  the  chief  places  throughout  the  States  and  their 
contents  are  collected  periodically,  this  subsidiary  postal  service  being 
maintained  by  the  chiefs. 

The  rainfall  of  the  States  is,  on  the  whole,  ample  and  reliable,  the 
population  is  sparse,  and  the  soil  is  not  infertile.  Thus,  except  for 
a  scarcity  of  food-grains  in  Laihka,  in  1889,  caused  by  the  ravages  of 
the  troops  of  the  Linbin  confederacy,  when  several  people  died  of 
want  of  food,  there  has  been  no  famine  in  the  country  within  recent 
years. 

The  Southern  Shan  States  are  administered  by  a  Superintendent  and 
Political  officer  (a  member  of  the  Burma  Commission)  at  Taunggyi, 
.  .  with  Assistant  Superintendents  at  Kengtung,  in  charge 
of  the  Kengtung  State  ;  at  Thamakan  or  Hsamongh- 
kam, in  charge  of  the  Myelat  division  and  Yawnghwe  (16  States)  ;  at 
Taunggyi,  in  charge  of  the  central  division  (9  States) ;  at  Loilem,  in 
charge  of  the  eastern  division  (12  States) ;  and  at  Taunggyi  as  head- 
quarters Assistant  and  treasury  officer.  A  sub-treasury  officer  and 
head-quarters  magistrate  resides  at  Kengtung.  A  certain  amount  of 
control  is  exercised  by  the  Superintendent  and  Political  officer  over  the 
Karenni  States,  which  do  not  form  part  of  British  India  and  are  not 
dealt  with  in  the  present  article. 

Under  the  supervision  of  the  Superintendent  and  Political  officer 
and  his  Assistants,  the  chiefs— known  as  Sawbwas,  Myozas,  and  Ngwe- 
gunhmus — control  their  own  States,  exercising  revenue,  civil,  and  crimi- 
nal jurisdiction  therein.  There  are  in  all  9  Sawbwas,  18  Myozas,  and 
1 1  Ngwegunhmus. 

The  system  of  criminal  and  civil  justice  administration  in  force 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Southern  Shan  States  is  the  same  as 
that  obtaining  in  the  Northern  Shan  States.  In  the  Myelat  States 
the  administration  of  criminal  justice  more  resembles  that  of  Burma 
proper.  The  chiefs  have  all  been  appointed  first  or  second  class 
magistrates  under  the  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure,  and  the  law  in  force 
is  practically  that  of  Upper  Burma.  The  administration  of  civil  justice 
in  Taunggyi,  and  in  the  stations  of  Kengtung  and  Fort  Stedman,  is 
vested  exclusively  in  the  Superintendent  and  Assistant  Superintendents. 
The  Gambling,  Excise,  Cattle  Trespass,  and  certain  other  Acts  have 
been  specially  extended  to  the  civil  station  of  Taunggyi. 

Considering  the  vast   area  of  the   Southern   Shan   States    there    is 


ADMINISTRATION  265 

remarkably  little  crime;  cattle-theft  is  the  most  common  offence, 
especially  in  the  northern  States  of  the  eastern  division  and  in  Western 
Karenni.  The  civil  courts  of  the  chiefs  are  freely  ai)plied  to,  succession 
cases  being  numerous,  and  litigation  between  timber  traders  is  com- 
mon. Appeals  from  decisions  in  the  civil  courts  of  the  chiefs  lie  to  the 
Superintendent,  and  to  Assistant  Superintendents  when  so  empowered 
specially  by  notification. 

Budgets  for  the  different  States  are  submitted  annually  for  the 
sanction  of  the  Superintendent.  These  budgets  show  only  purely 
State  revenue,  and  do  not  include  the  income  from  forests  in  cases 
where  chiefs  are  the  lessees  under  Government.  The  principal  source 
of  revenue  is  thathameda.  Land  tax  is  collected  in  many  States  in 
kind,  the  rate  varying  from  State  to  State,  and  is  a  cess  on  the  number 
of  baskets  of  seed  sown.  All  near  relatives  of  the  chiefs  are  exempted 
from  taxation,  as  are  the  majority  of  the  officials,  both  ministers  and 
circle  officers,  and  the  headmen  of  villages.  Many  families,  mostly 
resident  near  the  chief  towns,  hold  land  free  for  services  performed  for 
the  chief,  such  as  tilling  the  chiefs  private  lands,  acting  as  servants  in 
various  capacities,  liability  to  be  called  on  to  swell  the  chief's  retinue 
as  occasion  requires,  and  to  serve  as  local  police  or  as  body-guards. 
Many  such  tenures  are  hereditary. 

The  chiefs  control  the  excise  and  opium  arrangements  in  their 
charges  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  their  sanads ;  but  they  are 
prohibited  from  permitting  opium,  spirits,  fermented  liquor,  and  other 
articles  liable  to  customs  duties  or  excise  to  be  sent  into  Burma  from 
their  States,  except  in  accordance  with  the  rules  made  by  the  Govern- 
ment and  on  payment  of  the  duties  prescribed  by  those  rules. 
Generally  the  chiefs  administer  revenue  matters  according  to  local 
rules  and  customs,  which  have  been  modified  only  to  the  extent  of 
limiting  their  power  to  alienate  communal  lands  and  to  grant  land  to 
persons  who  are  not  natives  of  the  Shan  States. 

In  1903-4  the  total  revenue  raised  in  the  various  States,  apart  from 
forest  revenue  credited  to  the  British  Government,  amounted  to 
7-9  lakhs,  made  up  as  follows:  from  the  Myelat  division,  i-i  lakhs; 
from  the  central  division  (including  Yawnghwe),  t^-t^  lakhs  ;  from  the 
eastern  division,  2-4  lakhs ;  and  from  Kengtung,  i-i  lakhs.  The  tribute 
to  the  British  Government  is  fixed  for  periods  of  five  years.  The  actual 
collections  in  1903-4  were  :  from  the  Myelat  division,  Rs.  60,500;  from 
the  central  division  (including  Yawnghwe),  1-2  lakhs;  from  the  eastern 
division,  i  lakh  ;  and  from  Kengtung,  Rs.  30,000. 

The  chiefs  are  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  law  and  order  in 
their  States,  and  the  village  and  circle  headmen  form  the  real  police 
of  the  country,  assisted  by  a  few  retainers.  The  civil  police  force 
consists  of  only  70  men,  under  an  Assistant  District  Superintendent 


266  SOUTHERN  SHAN  STATES 

and  a  head  constable.  It  is  recruited  locally,  and  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  obtaining  men  to  serve,  for  the  pay  is  higher  than  in  Burma.  The 
men  are  armed  with  cut-down  Sniders,  and  14  of  them  are  mounted. 
Half  of  the  force  is  stationed  at  Taunggyi,  the  rest  at  Loilem,  Thama- 
kan  (Hsamonghkam),  Loikaw  (in  Karenni),  and  Kengtung.  Their 
duties  are  to  investigate  such  cases  as  the  Superintendent  or  his 
Assistants  may  direct,  and  to  furnish  escorts  and  patrols.  With  the 
preservation  of  order  in  the  States  they  are  not  concerned.  A  military 
police  battalion  has  recently  been  formed  for  the  Southern  Shan  States, 
which  has  displaced  the  troops  that  formerly  composed  the  garrisons  at 
Fort  Stedman  and  Kengtung.  It  consists  of  ten  companies — nine  and 
a  half  companies  of  Indians  (Sikhs,  Gurkhas,  and  Punjabi  Musalmans) 
and  half  a  company  of  Shans.  It  is  officered  by  a  commandant  and 
five  assistant  commandants,  and  is  distributed  at  all  the  principal 
stations.  There  are  no  jails  in  the  States,  only  lock-ups  at  the  head- 
quarters, in  which  short-term  convicts  are  confined.  Long-term  pri- 
soners are  sent  to  the  Meiktila  jail  to  serve  out  their  sentences. 

Education  in  the  States  is  backward.  Considering  the  large  num- 
ber of  hill  tribes,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  proportion  of  literate 
persons  in  1901  was  only  3-6  per  cent.  (7  males  and  3  females). 
Indigenous  teaching  does,  however,  exist.  To  every  village  of  any 
size  is  attached  a  Buddhist  monastery,  and  there  such  smattering  of 
letters  as  the  priests  can  give  is  imparted.  The  ordinary  peasant  is, 
however,  for  the  most  part  unlettered  ;  for  the  period  of  novitiate 
in  the  monastery  rarely  exceeds  a  single  Lent,  and,  except  in  the 
more  richly  endowed  pongyi-kyaioigs,  the  monks  themselves  can 
scarcely  be  termed  hterate.  Shan  is  naturally  the  language  taught 
in  the  religious  schools ;  but  in  the  Taungthu  districts  Taungthu  is 
the  medium,  although  it  does  not  possess  an  alphabet  of  its  own.  In 
the  Western  States  the  Burmese  characters  are  adopted,  and  in  the 
Eastern  the  Shan.  Among  the  Inthas  in  the  Yawnghwe  State  Bur- 
mese alone  is  taught ;  and  at  all  the  chief  places  in  the  larger  States 
monasteries  are  managed  by  pongyns  literate  in  Burmese,  who  teach 
that  language.  Very  few  details  regarding  the  number  of  monastic 
schools  are  available,  but  it  has  been  calculated  that  there  were  294 
in  the  Myelat  in  1903.  Lay  schools  do  not  exist  except  in  the  haws 
(palaces)  of  several  of  the  wealthier  chiefs,  where  the  chief's  children 
and  relations  receive  a  rudimentary  education. 

Schools  are  maintained  in  connexion  with  the  American  Baptist 
Mission  at  Mongnai,  where  Shan  is  taught  in  addition  to  English. 
In  1 90 1  a  school  for  the  sons  of  Shan  chiefs  was  opened  by  Govern- 
ment at  Taunggyi,  with  a  staff  of  one  head  master  and  three  assistant- 
masters.  Admission  to  this  institution  is  confined  to  sons  and  relatives 
of  chiefs,  their  officials,  and  respectable  commoners.      At  the  begin- 


SHEGAON  267 

ning  of  1905  the  school  contained  70  pupils.  The  education  given  is 
Anglo-vernacular  (Burmese),  and  Shan  is  not  taught. 

There  are  hospitals  at  Taunggyi,  Hsamonghkam,  Loilem,  and 
Kengtung ;  and  dispensaries  at  Kuheing  in  Mongnai,  and  at  Kalaw 
on  the  Taunggyi-Thazi  road.  These  contain  accommodation  for  52 
in-patients,  of  whom  691  were  treated  in  1903.  The  out-patients 
treated  during  the  same  year  numbered  22,129,  and  the  total  of 
operations  was  255.  The  income  of  these  hospitals,  derived  (with 
the  exception  of  Rs.  473  subscribed  at  Taunggyi  and  Hsamonghkam) 
from  Provincial  funds,  amounted  to  Rs.  11,000, 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  6,083, 
representing  7  per  1,000  of  population. 

[Sir  J.  G.  Scott,  Upper  Burma  Gazetteer,  5  vols.  (Rangoon,  1 900-1).] 

Shankargarh. — Village  and  fort  in  Peshawar  District,  North-West 
Frontier  Province.     See  Shabkadar. 

Shanor. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Sharakpur  Tahsil. — Northern  tahs'il  of  Lahore  District,  Punjab, 
lying  between  31°  15'  and  31°  54'  N.  and  73°  38'  and  74°  29'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  887  square  miles,  of  which  about  three-quarters  are  almost 
barren  waste,  and  hence  the  density  of  population  (134  persons  per 
square  mile)  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  western  portion 
of  the  tahsil  lies  in  the  upland  plateau  of  the  Rechna  Doab,  and  the 
south-western  corner  is  irrigated  by  the  Chenab  Canal.  The  rest  lies 
in  the  lowlands  of  the  Degh  river.  The  population  in  1901  was 
118,957,  compared  with  133,457  in  1891.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
the  town  of  Sharakpur  (4,474),  and  the  number  of  villages  is  386. 
The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,69,000. 

Sharakpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same 
name  in  Lahore  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  31°  28'  N.  and  74°  6'  E. 
Population  (1901),  4,474.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1875. 
The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  4,700, 
and  the  expenditure  Rs.  4,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  3,700, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  3,600.  Sha- 
rakpur is  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  Lahore  District  north  of  the  Ravi, 
and  is  famous  for  its  rice.  It  has  a  vernacular  middle  school,  main- 
tained by  the  municipality,  and  a  dispensary. 

Shegaon. — Town  in  the  Khamgaon  taluk  of  Buldana  District, 
Berar,  situated  in  20°  48'  N.  and  76°  45'  E.,  with  a  station  on  the 
Nagpur  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  340  miles  from 
Bombay  and  180  from  Nagpur.  Population  (1901),  15,057.  The 
town  is  an  important  centre  of  the  cotton  trade,  and  contains 
many  presses  and  ginning  factories.  The  municipality  was  consti- 
tuted in  1 88 1.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years 
ending  1901  both  averaged  Rs.  9,000.      In  1903-4  the  income  was 

VOL.  XXII.  s 


26S  SHE  G A  ON 

Rs.  14,300,  mainly  derived  from  taxes;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  9,000,  the  principal  heads  being  conservancy  and  administration. 

Sheikh  Budin. — Hill  station  on  the  borders  of  Bannu  and  Dera 
Ismail  Khan  Districts,  North-West  Frontier  Province,  situated  in 
32°  18'  N.  and  70°  49'  E.,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Nila  Koh,  40  miles 
north  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan  and  64  south  of  Bannu;  4,516  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  was  first  occupied  as  a  sanitarium  in  i860.  Sheikh 
Budin  is  now  the  summer  head-quarters  of  the  Derajat  Brigade,  and 
the  civil  officers  of  Bannu  and  Dera  Ismail  Khan  Districts  also  spend 
part  of  the  hot  season  here.  The  sanitarium  crowns  a  bare  limestone 
rock,  which  rises  abruptly  from  the  Marwat  range,  forming  its  highest 
point.  A  few  stunted  wild  olives  and  acacias  compose  the  only  vege- 
tation on  the  shadeless  slopes.  The  heat  is  frequently  excessive,  the 
thermometer  inside  a  bungalow  ranging  from  83°  to  94°,  though  miti- 
gated from  June  to  October  by  a  south-west  breeze.  Water  is  scarce, 
and  in  dry  years  has  to  be  fetched  from  the  bottom  of  the  hill. 

Sheikhpura  {Shaikhpura). — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision 
of  Monghyr  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  8'  N.  and  85°  51'  E. 
Population  (1901),  10,135.  ^^  is  on  the  South  Bihar  Railway  and 
is  an  important  centre  of  the  grain  trade.  Tubes  for  hukkas  are 
manufactured. 

Sheinmaga.  —  South-easternmost  township  of  Shwebo  District, 
Upper  Burma,  extending  from  the  Irrawaddy  to  the  Mu  river,  and 
lying  between  22°  11'  and  22°  32"  N.  and  95"^  32'  and  96°  o'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  465  square  miles.  It  is  very  dry  and  almost  perfectly 
level.  The  population  was  32,538  in  1891,  and  39,255  in  1901,  dis- 
tributed in  120  villages,  the  head-quarters  being  at  Sheinmaga  (popu- 
lation, 1,544),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy  about  25  miles 
south-east  of  Shwebo  town.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was 
43  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to 
Rs.  58,100. 

Shekhawati. — The  largest  nizdniat  or  district  in  the  State  ot 
Jaipur,  Rajputana,  lying  between  27°  20'  and  28°  34'  N,  and  74°  41' 
and  76°  6'  E.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Bikaner  ;  on 
the  south-west  by  Jodhpur ;  on  the  south  and  east  by  Jaipur  proper ; 
and  on  the  north-east  by  the  States  of  Patiala  and  Loharu.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  about  4,200  square  miles.  The  district  contains 
12  towns  and  953  villages;  and  the  population  in  1901  was  471,961, 
Hindus  numbering  413,237,  or  87  per  cent.,  and  Musalmans  55,251, 
or  more  than  11  per  cent.  The  principal  towns  are  Sikar,  Fateh- 
PUR,  Nawalgarh,  Jhunjhunu,  Ramgarh,  Lachmangarh,  and  Udai- 
PUR.  Some  of  them  present  a  fine  appearance,  the  houses  being  built 
of  blocks  of  white  stiff  clay,  cut  from  the  kankar  beds  and  allowed  to 
dry ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  numerous  mansions  of  the  wealthy 


SHEKHAIVATI  269 

bankers,  though  nearly  always  palatial,  are  in  many  cases  gaudy.  The 
country  is  for  the  most  part  a  mass  of  rolling  sandhills ;  the  rainfall  is 
precarious,  averaging  from  15  to  18  inches;  and  there  is,  speaking 
generally,  but  one  harvest  in  the  year,  raised  during  the  rainy  season, 
consisting  of  bdjra,  mung,  and  moth.  The  mode  of  cultivation  is  of 
the  rudest  description,  and  the  ploughing  is  frequently  done  by  camels. 
The  minerals  of  Shekhawati  used  to  be  important,  but  the  copper- 
mines  near  Khetri  and  Singhana  and  the  salt  lake  of  Kachor  Rewassa 
(the  latter  leased  to  the  British  Government  in  1879)  have  not  been 
worked  for  many  years.  Nickel  and  cobalt  are,  however,  found  at 
Babai  in  the  east,  and  the  ore  is  largely  used  for  enamelling. 

Shekhawati  takes  its  name  from  Shekhjl,  the  great-grandson  of 
Udaikaran,  who  was  chief  of  Amber  towards  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  country  was  wrested  either  by  Udaikaran  or  his 
fourth  son,  Balajl,  from  the  Kaimkhanis,  or  Musalman  descendants 
of  converted  Chauhan  Rajputs,  who  had  been  permitted  by  the 
Delhi  kings  to  hold  their  estates  as  a  reward  for  their  apostasy.  It 
is  recorded  that  Balaji  and  his  son,  Mokal,  used  to  pay  as  tribute 
to  the  chief  of  Amber  all  the  colts  reared  on  their  land ;  but  Shekhji 
so  enlarged  his  powers  that  for  some  generations  the  lords  of  Shekh- 
awati became  independent  of  the  parent  State.  The  Shekhawats  or 
descendants  of  Shekhji  are  a  sept  of  the  Kachwaha  clan,  of  which  the 
Maharaja  of  Jaipur  is  the  head,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  main 
branches,  Raisilots  and  Sadhanis.  The  former  are  descended  from 
Raisil,  a  great-grandson  of  Shekhji,  who,  for  services  rendered  to 
the  emperor  Akbar,  was  made  a  mansabddr  of  1,250  horse,  and 
obtained  several  districts,  such  as  Khandela,  Rewassa,  and  Udaipur. 
The  principal  Raisilot  chieftains  are  now  the  Rao  Raja  of  SIkar, 
the  two  Rajas  of  Khandela,  and  the  Rao  of  Manoharpur.  The 
Sadhanis  claim  descent  from  Raisil's  third  son,  Bhoj  Raj,  and  take 
their  name  from  one  of  his  descendants  called  Sadhu  ;  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives of  this  branch  are  the  Raja  of  Khetri  and  the  Thakurs  of 
Bissau,  Nawalgarh,  and  Surajgarh. 

The  numerous  chiefs  forming  the  Shekhawati  confederacy  were,  as 
stated  above,  for  many  years  practically  independent;  but  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century,  Maharaja  Jai  Singh  II,  with  his 
means  as  lieutenant  of  the  empire,  forced  them  to  become  to  some 
extent  tributary,  though  their  submission  was  not  complete  till  after 
the  Marathas  had  ravaged  the  country.  In  1836-7,  in  consequence 
of  the  disturbed  state  of  the  district,  it  was  decided  to  raise  a  corps 
of  cavalry  in  order  to  give  employment  to  the  plundering  classes. 
Two  regiments  of  infantry  and  a  battery  of  six  guns  were  subse- 
quently added  ;  and  the  whole  force  formed  the  Shekhawati  Brigade 
under  Lieutenant  Forster,  who  received  the  rank  of  major  from  the 

s  2 


2  70  SHEKHA  WA  TI 

Jaipur  Darbar.  The  force  attained  a  high  degree  of  etSciency  and 
proved  of  valuable  service  on  many  occasions  under  the  gallant  leading 
of  its  commander  and  his  sons.  All  plundering  was  soon  repressed, 
and  the  country  enjoyed  a  degree  of  freedom  from  highway  robberies 
previously  unknown.  The  brigade  was  disbanded  in  1842  ;  one  of  the 
infantry  Regiments  was  taken  over  by  the  British  Government,  and  is 
now  represented  by  the  13th  Rajputs  (the  Shekhawati  regiment),  of 
which  Maharaja  Madho  Singh,  the  present  chief  of  Jaipur,  was  appointed 
honorary  colonel  in  1904.  The  tenures  of  Shekhawati  have  this  pecu- 
liarity, that,  excepting  two  or  three  of  the  greater  estates,  all  holdings 
are  regularly  divided  among  all  the  sons  on  the  death  of  the  father. 

Shekhupura  Estate. — Estate  in  the  Districts  of  Gujranwala,  Sial- 
kot,  Lahore,  and  Amritsar,  Punjab.  It  comprises  180  villages  held  in 
idglr^  with  14  square  miles  of  proprietary  land,  and  yields  an  income 
of  about  Rs.  1,20,000.  Founded  by  a  Brahman  of  Meerut,  the  family 
supplied  several  soldiers  and  courtiers  to  the  Sikh  court,  including  Raja 
Teja  Singh,  governor  at  Peshawar  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Sikh 
army  in  1845.  Raja  Kiri  Singh,  a  grandson  of  Teja  Singh,  died 
suddenly  in  1906.  The  estate,  however,  is  so  heavily  in  debt  that 
it  is  under  the  Court  of  Wards,  and  likely  to  remain  so  for  some 
time.     The  rule  of  primogeniture  prevails  in  the  family. 

Shekhupura  Village. — Ancient  town  in  the  Khangah  Dogran 
tahsiloi  Gujranwala  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  3i°43'N.  and  74°  \'  E., 
on  the  road  between  Hafizabad  and  Lahore,  22  miles  from  the  former 
town.  Population  (1901),  2,205.  It  contains  a  ruined  fort,  built  by 
the  emperor  Jahangir.  Prince  Dara  Shikoh,  grandson  of  Jahangir, 
from  whom  the  place  may  derive  its  name,  is  said  to  have  connected  it 
by  a  cut  with  the  Aik  rivulet ;  and  this  cut  now  forms  the  main  channel 
of  the  stream.  Under  Ranjit  Singh  Shekhupura  became  the  residence 
of  one  of  his  queens,  Rani  Raj  Kauran,  better  known  as  Rani  Nakayan, 
whose  brick  palace  still  remains  the  most  conspicuous  object  in  the 
village.  After  annexation,  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  were  fixed 
for  a  time  at  Shekhupura ;  but  since  their  removal  to  Gujranwala, 
it  has  possessed  no  importance  except  as  a  resort  for  sportsmen. 
About  2  miles  from  the  village  is  a  large  tank  surrounded  by  hand- 
some flights  of  steps,  with  a  three-storeyed  baradart  in  the  centre. 
The  tank,  however,  is  dry,  and  indeed  is  said  to  have  never  held  water. 
A  lofty  watch-tower  stands  beside  it.  Both  tank  and  buildings  are  the 
work  of  Dara  Shikoh. 

Sheila.  —  Petty  State  in  the  Khasi  Hills,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  consisting  of  a  confederacy  of  villages  ruled  by  four  officers 
elected  by  the  people.  Many  lives  were  lost  in  the  earthquake  of 
1897  ;  and  the  population,  which  was  6,358  in  1891,  had  fallen  to  4,358 
in  igoi.    The  gross  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  4,172.    The  principal 


SHEOPUR    TOWN  271 

products  are  pineapples,  areca-nuts,  and  oranges,  which  prior  to  the 
earthquake  were  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  the  people,  hut  much 
damage  was  done  to  the  orange  groves  by  deposits  of  sand.  There 
is  also  some  trade  in  lime. 

Shencottah.— Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Travancore  State,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  59'  N.  and  77°  15'  E.,  on  the 
high  road  from  Quilon  across  the  CThats  to  Tinnevelly,  from  which 
place  it  is  about  40  miles  distant.  Population  (1901),  9,039,  of  whom 
90  per  cent,  are  Hindus.  The  Tinnevelly-Quilon  Railway  enters  Tra- 
vancore through  this  town.  There  are  several  tea  and  coffee  estates  in 
the  neighbourhood.  About  3  miles  to  the  south  are  the  Kutt.alam 
w^aterfalls.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  Rajas  of  Ilayatatunad  and  was 
annexed  to  Travancore  in  1734. 

Shendamangalam. — Town  in  Salem  District,  Madras.    See  Sknda- 

MANGALAM. 

Shendurni. — Town  in  the  Jamner  tdluka  of  East  Khandesh  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  20°  39'  N.  and  75°36'E.,  12  miles  east  of  Pachora 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,423- 
Shendurni  was  a  grant  made  to  the  family  priest  of  the  Peshwa  Bajl 
Rao.  It  contains  a  ruined  Hemadpanti  temple.  An  annual  fair  is  held 
here  in  honour  of  the  god  Trimbak.  The  town  has  a  cotton-pressing 
factory,  and  two  boys'  schools  with  260  pupils. 

Sheoganj. — Town  in  the  north-east  of  the  State  of  Sirohi,  Rajput- 
ana,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Jawai  river,  and  adjoining  the 
cantonment  of  Erinpura,  whence  it  derives  such  importance  as  it 
possesses.  It  takes  its  name  from  Rao  Sheo  Singh,  by  whom  it  was 
founded  in  1854.  Population  (1901),  4,361.  It  possesses  an  elemen- 
tary indigenous  school  attended  by  about  60  boys,  and  a  hospital  with 
accommodation  for  12  in-patients. 

Sheopur  Zila. — District  of  the  Gwalior  State,  Central  India,  lying 
between  25°  15'  and  26°24'N.  and  76°  38'  and  77°47'E.,  with  an  area 
of  2,862  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  214,624,  giving 
a  density  of  75  persons  per  square  mile.  The  district  contains  three 
towns,  Shkopur  (population,  6,712),  Baroda  (6,381),  and  Sabai.oarh 
(6,039),  t'^e  head-quarters;  and  729  villages.  The  south-western  and 
north-eastern  portions  form  a  level  plain,  but  the  rest  is  much  cut 
up  by  hills.  The  Chambal  and  Parbati  rivers,  and  their  tributaries 
the  Kunu,  AhelT,  Sip,  and  Kunwarl,  drain  the  district.  The  crops  are 
of  good  quality,  wheat  being  largely  grown.  The  district  is  divided  into 
three  pargafias,  with  head-quarters  at  Sheopur,  Bijaipur,  and  Sabal- 
garh,  and  also  contains  the  estate  of  Sheopur-Baroda  and  the  Jai^irs 
of  Khatauli,  Amalda,  Balapur,  and  Iklod.  The  land  revenue  is 
Rs.  8,13,000. 

Sheopur  Town. — Town  in  the  Sheopur  district  of  Gwalior  State, 


272  SHEOPUR    TOWN 

Central  India,  situated  in  25°  40' N.  and  76°  42'  E.,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Sip  river,  959  feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1901),  6,712. 
The  town  and  fort  are  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1537  by  Gaur 
Rajputs,  and  take  their  name  from  a  Saharia  who  was  sacrificed  to 
ensure  the  permanency  of  the  settlement,  and  whose  descendants  still 
hold  an  hereditary  grant  of  land  in  the  neighbourhood.  When  Akbar 
was  advancing  on  Chitor  in  1567,  this  fort  surrendered  to  him  without 
a  blow.  In  1808  the  country  fell  to  Daulat  Rao  Sindhia.  He  granted 
Sheopur  and  the  adjoining  tract  to  his  general,  Jean  Baptiste  Filose, 
who  at  once  proceeded  to  occupy  his  ^dgir,  and  invested  the  fort. 
Though  unable  to  take  the  latter  by  assault,  he  finally  starved  out 
the  Gaurs,  who  vacated  it  in  1809,  and  retired  to  Baroda  Town.  The 
fort  from  that  time  practically  became  Jean  Baptiste's  home ;  and  in 
1814  it  was  seized  together  with  his  family  by  Jai  Singh  KhTchI  of 
Raghugarh,  whose  territory  Filose  was  then  engaged  in  ravaging.  After 
the  Treaty  of  Gwalior  in  1818,  Filose  fell  into  disfavour  and  was  for  a 
time  imprisoned  at  Gwalior.  On  his  release  he  retired  to  Sheopur, 
which  was  then  his  only  remaining  possession.  Sheopur  is  famous  for 
its  coloured  lacquer-work  on  wood,  bedstead  legs  being  a  speciality ; 
playing-cards  are  another  article  of  local  manufacture.  Besides  the 
pargafia  offices,  a  school,  a  hospital,  a  police  station,  and  a  State  post 
office  are  situated  in  the  town. 

Shergarh. — Ruined  fort  in  the  Sasaram  subdivision  of  Shahabad 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24°  50'  N.  and  83°  44'  E.,  20  miles  south- 
west of  Sasaram  town.  The  spot  was  selected  by  Sher  Shah  as  the 
site  of  a  fortress  soon  after  he  had  begun  strengthening  Rohtasgarh, 
which  he  abandoned  on  discovering  the  superior  advantages  of  Sher- 
garh. The  top  of  the  rock  is  crowned  with  a  rampart  strengthened 
by  numerous  bastions  and  bulwarks,  with  a  grand  ascent  to  the 
principal  gate  on  the  north.  The  fort  itself  contains  several  sub- 
terranean halls.  About  7  miles  from  Shergarh  is  a  cave  called  the 
Gupteswar  cave,  containing  numerous  stalactites,  one  of  which  is 
worshipped  as  the  god  Mahadeo.  The  cave  has  never  been  thoroughly 
explored. 

Sherghati. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Gaya  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  situated  in  24°  33'  N.  and  84°  48'  E.,  21  miles  south 
of  Gaya  town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Morhar  at  the  point  where 
it  is  crossed  by  the  grand  trunk  road.  Population  (1901),  2,641. 
Owing  to  its  position  on  the  grand  trunk  road,  Sherghati  was  formerly 
a  place  of  great  importance,  and  it  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  sub- 
division which  was  broken  up  in  187 1.  It  has  since  somewhat 
declined.  There  are  still  to  be  found  here  the  descendants  of  skilled 
artisans,  workers  in  brass,  wood,  and  iron.  An  interesting  fort,  said 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Kol  Rajas,  contains  numerous  pillars  of 


SHE  VARO  V  HILLS  2 7 3 

polished  granite,  which  are  probably  coeval  with  the  later  Barabar 
caves. 

Sherkot.— Town  in  the  Dhampur  tahsil  of  Bijnor  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  29°  20'  N.  and  78°  35'  E.,  28  miles  east  of  Bijnor 
town.  Population  (1901),  14, 999-  Sherkot  was  founded  during  the 
reign  of  Sher  Shah,  and  under  Akbar  it  was  the  chief  town  of  a  inahal 
ox  pargMia.  In  1805  it  was  sacked  by  Amir  Khan,  the  Pindari,  and 
in  the  Mutiny  of  1857  it  became  the  scene  of  struggles  between  loyal 
Hindus  and  rebel  Musalmans.  Up  to  1844  it  was  the  head-quarters 
of  the  tahs'il,  and  a  dispensary  is  maintained  here.  Sherkot  is  adminis- 
tered under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  4,000. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  sugar,  and  embroidered  rugs  are 
made.  A  middle  school  has  135  pupils,  and  three  aided  schools 
are  attended  by  42  boys  and  65  girls. 

Shermadevi. — Subdivision  and  town  in  Tinnevelly  District,  Madras. 
See  Sermadevi, 

Sherpur  Town  (i). — Town  in  Bogra  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  situated  in  24°  40"  N.  and  89°  26'  E.  Population  (1901),  4,104. 
Sherpur  is  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbarl  in  1595  as  the  site  of  a  fort 
called  SalTmnagar,  named  in  honour  of  SalTm,  the  son  of  Akbar,  after- 
wards famous  as  the  emperor  Jahanglr.  It  was  an  important  frontier 
post  of  the  Muhammadans  before  they  established  their  capital  at 
Dacca ;  and  Akbar's  Hindu  general,  Raja  Man  Singh,  is  said  to  have 
built  a  palace  here.  It  is  referred  to  by  old  writers  as  Sherpur  Murcha, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Sherpur  in  Mymensingh,  and  is  marked  in  Van 
Den  Broucke's  map  (1660)  as  Ceerpoor  Mirts.  It  formerly  possessed 
a  large  number  of  brick  houses,  but  has  suffered  severely  in  recent 
earthquakes.  Sherpur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1876.  The 
income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  6,800,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  6,600.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  8,500, 
mainly  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax)  and  a  conservancy 
rate;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,500. 

Sherpur  Town  (2). — Town  in  the  Jamalpur  subdivision  of  Mymen- 
singh District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  25°  i"  N.  and 
90°  i'  E.,  between  the  Shiri  and  Mirghi  rivers,  about  half  a  mile  from 
the  former  and  a  mile  from  the  latter,  9  miles  north  of  Jamalpur. 
Population  (1901),  12,535.  There  is  a  considerable  river  trade,  the 
exports  being  chiefly  jute,  rice,  and  mustard-seeds,  and  the  imports, 
European  piece-goods  and  betel-nuts.  Sherpur  was  constituted  a 
municipality  in  1869.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending 
1901-2  averaged  Rs.  7,800,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  7,400.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10,700,  mainly  derived  from  a  property 
tax  and  a  conservancy  rate ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,400. 

Shevaroy  Hills  {Sher-oardyar  Malai). — A  small  detached  range 


2  74  SHF.VAROY  HILLS 

in  Salem  District,  Madras,  lying  between  1 1^43' and  11°  57'  N.  and 
78°  8'  and  78°  27'  E.,  and  occupying  an  area  of  150  square  miles. 
They  are  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  section  by  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Vaniar  stream.  The  western  portion  consists  of  three 
plateaux,  of  which  the  Green  Hills,  the  highest  point  of  which  is 
5,410  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  largest;  and  on  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  eastern  portion,  at  an  elevation  of  4,500  feet,  stands  the  well- 
known  sanitarium  of  Yercaud.  The  valley  between  the  two  was 
clearly  once  a  deep  lake  fed  by  the  Vaniar,  but  the  stream  gradually 
cut  through  the  barrier  which  held  back  the  water  and  the  lake 
became  the  bed  of  the  river. 

Geologically,  the  range  consists  of  Archaean  plutonic  rocks  of  the 
charnockite  series,  and  these  have  weathered  into  the  rugged  masses 
characteristic  of  that  family. 

There  are  three  routes  up  the  hills.  From  the  Mallapuram  station 
on  the  Madras  Railway  a  neglected  but  easy  ghat  leads  for  19  miles 
to  Yercaud,  and  from  the  Kadiampatti  station  a  steeper  way  reaches 
the  same  place  in  1 1  miles.  But  the  usual  route  is  up  the  ghat  on  the 
side  facing  Salem  town.  This  begins  5  miles  from  the  town  and  is 
about  6  miles  long.  A  good  cart-road  has  recently  been  constructed 
up  it. 

The  upper  levels  of  the  Green  Hills  plateau  are  covered  with  grass, 
and  on  no  part  of  the  Shevaroys  is  there  any  considerable  growth 
of  forest.  The  rainfall,  though  nearly  double  that  of  the  surrounding 
low  country,  averages  only  63  inches  annually  and  is  scarcely  sufficient 
to  support  heavy  timber.  The  temperature  is  most  equable,  rarely 
exceeding  75°  or  falling  below  60°;  and  the  soil  and  climate  are 
peculiarly  favourable  to  smaller  vegetation,  which  grows  with  the 
greatest  exuberance  and  adds  largely  to  the  natural  beauty  of  this 
picturesque  range.  Up  to  3,000  feet  there  is  a  zone  of  bamboo,  and 
on  the  higher  levels  some  teak,  black-wood,  and  sandal-wood  are  found. 
Among  the  imported  trees  and  plants  which  thrive  readily  may  be 
mentioned  the  pear,  peach,  apple,  guava,  citron,  orange,  lime,  lemon, 
strawberry,  and  potato ;  and  the  Australian  acacias,  eucalyptus,  and 
casuarina  do  well.  There  are  9,000  acres  planted  with  coffee,  most 
of  it  under  European  management. 

The  indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  range  are  the  Malaiyalis  ('hill 
men ')  or  Vellalas.  They  are  not  an  aboriginal  tribe,  but  are  without 
doubt  Tamils  from  the  low  country  who  either  emigrated  or  fled  to  the 
hills  within  comparatively  recent  times,  and  their  customs  present  few 
points  of  ethnological  interest.  Their  own  tradition  is  that  they  came 
from  Conjeeveram  at  the  time  when  the  Musalmans  became  the  domi- 
nant power  in  the  South.  They  speak  Tamil  and  are  nominally  Hindus, 
but  have  very  vague  ideas  of  the  principles  of  their  faith.     They  are 


SHIKAR  PUR    TALUK  A  275 

a  timid  and  harmless  people,  who  now  live  chiefly  by  primitive  cultiva- 
tion or  by  working  on  the  coffee  estates. 

Shevdivadar. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay, 

Shevgaon. — Easternmost  tdluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  19°  \'  and  19°  33'  N.  and  74°  58'  and  75°  32'  R.,  with 
an  area  of  678  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Pathardi  (popula- 
tion, 6,299),  and  179  villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Shevgaon. 
The  population  in  1901  was  92,384,  compared  with  100,373  in  1891. 
The  decrease  is  attributable  mainly  to  emigration  to  relief  works  in 
other  taliikas  and  to  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  consequent  upon  famine 
conditions.  The  density,  136  persons  per  square  mile,  is  slightly  above 
the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
2  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  15,000.  Shevgaon  lies  in  the  valley  of  the 
Godavari.  The  average  annual  rainfall,  over  26  inches,  is  higher  than 
in  other  tdlukas.  With  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  streams  which  drain 
the  tract  all  rise  in  the  hills  on  the  south  and  south-east,  and  flow 
northward  into  the  Godavari.  The  villages  are  for  the  most  part  well 
supplied  with  water,  which  throughout  the  low  grounds  is  always  to  be 
found  at  a  moderate  depth.  Near  the  Godavari  the  soil  is  deep  and 
stiff,  but  near  the  hills  it  is  of  a  lighter  composition  and  more  easily 
worked.  Early  and  late  crops  are  grown  in  about  equal  proportions. 
The  principal  manufacture  is  coarse  cotton  cloth  of  various  kinds. 

Shiggaon. — Head-quarters  of  the  Bankapur  tdluka,  Dharwar  Dis- 
trict, Bombay,  situated  in  14°  59'  N.  and  75°  13'  E.,  on  the  Poona- 
Harihar  road.  Population  (1901),  5,232.  Shiggaon  contains  temples 
of  Kalmeshwar  and  Basappa  and  ten  inscriptions,  one  in  the  temple 
of  Basappa  being  dated  11 21.  There  are  three  schools,  of  which  one 
is  for  girls. 

Shikarpur  District. — Former  District  in  Sind,  Bombay,  lying  be- 
tween 27°  and  29°  N.  and  67°  and  70°  E.,  and  comprising  the  four 
subdivisions  of  Rohri,  Sukkur,  Larkana,  and  Mehar.  Of  these,  the 
last  two  were  detached  in  1901  to  form  the  new  District  of  Larkana, 
and  the  other  two  now  constitute  Sukkur  District.  See  Larkana  and 
Sukkur  Districts. 

Shikarpur  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Sukkur  District,  Sind, 
Bombay,  composed  of  the  Shikarpur,  Naushahro  Abro,  and  Suk- 
kur tdlukas. 

Shikarpur  Taluka.— 7S///y^a  of  Sukkur  District,  Sind,  Bombay, 
lying  between  27°  55'  and  28°  10'  N.  and  68°  25'  and  69°  9'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  492  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  86,932  in 
1891  to  108,097  in  1901.  The  tdluka  contains  one  town,  Shikarpur 
(population,  49,491),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  88  villages.  The  density, 
220  persons  per  square  mile,  largely  exceeds  the  District  average. 
The   land    revenue   and   cesses   amounted    in    1903-4   to    2-7    lakhs. 


2  76  SHIKAR  PUR    TALUK  A 

The  northern  portion  of  the  taluka  is  but  poorly  irrigated,  but  excel- 
lent garden  crops  are  raised  near  Shikarpur  town  and  good  early 
crops  in  the  tracts  irrigated  by  the  Sind  Canal. 

Shikarpur  Town  (i), — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same 
name  in  Sukkur  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  27°  57'  N.  and  68''  40' 
E.,  and  connected  by  good  roads  and  the  North- Western  Railway  with 
Jacobabad,  from  which  it  is  distant  26  miles  south-east,  with  Sukkur 
23  miles  north-west,  and  Larkana  40  miles  north-east.  It  stands 
in  a  tract  of  low-lying  country,  annually  flooded  by  canals  from  the 
Indus,  the  nearest  point  of  which  river  is  18  miles  west.  The  elevation 
of  the  town  is  only  194  feet  above  sea-level.  Two  branches  of  the  Sind 
Canal— the  Chhota  Begari  and  the  Rais  Wah— flow  on  either  side  of  the 
town,  the  former  to  the  south  and  the  latter  to  the  north.  The  soil  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  is  very  rich,  and  produces  heavy  crops  of  grain 
and  fruit.  Population:  (1881)  42,496,  (1891)  42,004,  and  (1901) 
49,491.  Hindus  number  31,589,  Muhammadans  17,804.  The  Muni- 
cipal Act  was  brought  into  force  in  1855,  since  which  date  great 
sanitary  improvements  have  been  effected.  Before  that  time,  Shikar- 
pur was  notorious  for  its  unsightly  appearance.  The  Stewartganj 
market  (so  called  after  a  popular  District  officer)  is  a  continuation 
of  the  old  bazar,  and  is  a  commodious  structure.  The  great  covered 
bazar  of  Shikarpur  is  famous  throughout  Asia.  To  the  east  of  the 
town  are  three  large  tanks,  known  as  Sarwar  Khan's,  the  Gillespie, 
and  the  Hazari  tank.  Broad  roads  and  avenues  to  the  east  of  the  town 
still  mark  the  site  of  the  old  cantonment ;  but  most  of  the  barracks  and 
houses  are  now  dilapidated.  Other  features  of  interest  are  the  European 
cemetery,  opened  in  1851  ;  the  Collector's  residence,  shortly  to  be 
converted  into  a  circuit-house;  a  swimming  bath  near  the  Executive 
Engineer's  house ;  and  the  military  farm  buildings  occupying  the  old 
police  lines.  The  income  of  the  municipality  during  the  decade  ending 
1901  averaged  Rs,  1,14,270.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  1,28,000, 
derived  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  81,000)  and  conservancy  taxes 
(Rs.  12,000)  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  74,000,  including  Rs.  32,000 
for  conservancy,  Rs.  18,000  for  education,  and  Rs.  9,000  for  lighting. 
The  town  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  civil  hospital,  and 
a  dispensary.  The  schools,  including  a  Government  high  school  with 
330  pupils,  number  16,  of  which  12  are  for  boys  and  4  for  girls. 
The  boys'  schools  have  1,606  pupils ;  and  the  girls'  schools,  of  which 
2  are  for  Muhammadans  and  2  for  Hindus,  have  562  pupils.  Besides 
these,  there  are  several  private  schools,  including  an  English  school 
with   159  pupils. 

The  trade  of  Shikarpur  has  long  been  famous,  under  both  native 
and  British  rule.  The  town  is  situated  on  one  of  the  great  routes 
from  Sind  to  Khorasan  via  the  Bolan  Pass;  and  its  commerce  in  1841, 


SHIKAR  PUR    TALUK  277 

which  in  quality  remains  much  the  same  to-day,  was  thus  described  by 
Postans : — 

'  Shikarpur  receives  from  Karachi,  Marwar,  Multan,  Kahawalpur, 
Khairpur,  and  Ludhiana,  European  piece-goods,  raw  silk,  ivory,  cochi- 
neal, spices  of  sorts,  coarse  cotton  cloth,  kinkhabs,  manufactured  silk, 
sugar-candy,  coco-nuts,  metals,  kiravii  (groceries),  drugs  of  sorts,  indigo 
and  other  dyes,  opium,  and  saffron ;  from  Kachhi,  Khorasan,  and  the 
north-west,  raw  silk  (Turkestan),  various  kinds  of  fruit,  madder,  tur- 
quoises, antimony,  medicinal  herbs,  sulphur,  alum,  saffron,  asafoetida, 
gums,  cochineal,  and  horses.  The  exports  from  Shikarpur  are  confined 
to  the  transmission  of  goods  to  Khorasan  through  the  Bolan  Pass,  and 
a  tolerable  trade  with  Kachhi  (Bagh,  Gandava,  Kotri,  and  Dadar).  They 
consist  of  indigo  (the  most  important),  henna,  metals  of  all  kinds, 
country  coarse  and  fine  cloths,  European  piece-goods  (chintzes,  &c.), 
Multani  coarse  cloth,  silks  (manufactured),  groceries  and  spices,  raw 
cotton,  coarse  sugar,  opium,  hemp-seeds,  shields,  embroidered  horse- 
cloths, and  dry  grains.  The  revenue  of  Shikarpur  derivable  from  trade 
amounted  in  1840  to  Rs.  54,736,  and  other  taxes  and  revenue  from 
lands  belonging  to  the  town,  Rs.  16,645,  making  a  total  of  Rs.  71,381, 
which  was  divided  among  the  Khairpur  and  Hyderabad  Talpur  Mirs  in 
the  proportion  of  three-sevenths  and  four-sevenths,  respectively.' 

Since  Postans  wrote,  Shikarpur  has  lost  much  of  its  commercial  impor- 
tance, owing  to  the  construction  of  the  North-Western  Railway  and  its 
extension  to  Quetta.  The  enterprise  of  its  merchants,  however,  renders 
it  still  a  considerable  entrepot.  The  local  traders  deal  largely  with 
Central  Asia,  where  many  of  them  pass  long  periods,  while  others  travel 
to  Bombay  and  all  parts  of  India,  and  even  to  Europe  or  Japan.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  carpets  and  coarse  cotton  cloth.  In  the 
Government  jail,  baskets,  reed  chairs  covered  with  leather,  carpets, 
shoes,  &c.,  are  made  by  the  prisoners. 

Shikarpur  Taluk.— Northern  taluk  of  Shimoga  District,  Mysore, 
lying  between  14°  5'  and  14°  31'  N.  and  75°  8'  and  75°  32'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  429  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  63,604,  com- 
pared with  64,404  in  1891.  The  /i/z//^  contains  two  towns,  Shikarpur 
(population,  5,007),  the  head-quarters,  and  Siralkoppa  (2,270);  and 
202  villages.  The  land  revenue  demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,80,000. 
The  taluk  is  crossed  from  south  to  north  by  the  Choradi  or  Kumudvati, 
which  forms  the  large  Masur-Madag  tank  on  the  northern  border.  Lines 
of  low  hills  on  all  sides,  covered  with  jungle,  give  shelter  to  numerous 
tigers,  leopards,  and  other  wild  animals.  Malnad  ('highland')  and 
Maidan  ('lowland')  here  meet,  so  that  the  country  partakes  of  the 
character  of  both.  The  Jambu  hills  run  down  the  middle  ;  but  the  rest 
is  gently  undulating,  the  uncultivated  parts  being  covered  with  scrub 
jungle,  which  in  the  south  and  west  rises  into  forest.  The  best  soil  is 
in  the  north,  on  the  banks  of  the  Choradi.  '  Dry  cultivation  '  is  most 
successful  in    the  east.      Sugar-cane  and  rice,  especially  the  former. 


278  SHIKAR  PUR    TALUK 

are  the  chief  crops.  Jaggery  and  rice  are  the  principal  exports,  the 
former  being  sent  mostly  to  Dharwar,  and  the  latter  in  various  directions. 
Siralkoppa  is  the  chief  market  for  grain,  and  Shikarpur  for  cloth. 

Shikarpur  Town  (2). — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same 
name  in  Shimoga  District,  Mysore,  situated  in  14°  16'  N.  and  75°  2\' 
E  ,  33  miles  north-west  of  Shimoga  town.  Population  (1901),  5,007.  It 
was  originally  a  village  called  Malenhalli.  The  Keladi  chiefs  on  gain- 
ing possession  changed  the  name  to  Mahadanpur.  During  the  time  of 
either  Haidar  or  Tipu  it  received  the  present  name  of  Shikarpur  or 
Shikaripur,  'hunting  or  hunters'  town,'  from  the  abundance  of  game 
met  with  during  a  royal  hunt.  It  has  a  thriving  trade  in  cloth.  The 
old  fort,  at  the  east  end,  is  now  in  ruins.  The  municipality  dates  from 
1870.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901 
averaged  Rs.  2,800  and  Rs.  2,400.     In  1903-4  they  were  Rs.  4,500. 

Shikarpur  Town  (3). — Town  in  the  District  and  /«/;«/ of  Buland- 
shahr.  United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  17'  N.  and  78°  \'  E.,  13  miles 
south  of  Bulandshahr.  Population  (1901),  12,249.  The  present  town 
owes  its  existence  to  Sikandar  Lodi,  who  built  a  hunting-lodge  here 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  near  the  site  of  an  older  town  now 
represented  by  a  mound  called  the  Talpat  Nagari  or  Anyai  Khera.  North 
of  the  site  is  a  remarkable  building  of  red  sandstone  called  the  Bara 
Khamba,  or  'twelve  pillars,'  forming  an  unfinished  tomb  begun  by 
Saiyid  Fazl-ullah,  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  Farrukh  Siyar,  about  17 18. 
The  town  contains  a  fine  walled  sarai  built  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  many  substantial  brick  houses  and  a  few  handsome  mosques.  The 
American  Methodists  have  a  branch  mission  here.  The  town  is  admin- 
istered under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  4,500. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  cotton  cloth  and  shoes,  and  excellent  wood- 
carving  is  turned  out  on  a  small  scale.  There  are  a  middle  school  with 
190  pupils,  and  an  aided  primary  school  with  30. 

Shikohabad  Tahsil. — South-western  tahs'il  of  Mainpurl  District, 
United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name, 
lying  between  26°  53'  and  27°  11  N.  and  78°  29' and  78°  50'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  294  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  140,093  in 
1891  to  157,659  in  1901.  There  are  287  villages  and  two  towns,  the 
larger  of  which  is  Shikohabad  (population,  10,798),  the  tahsil  head- 
quarters. The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,71,000, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  44,000.  The  density  of  population,  536  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  the  highest  in  the  District.  On  the  south-west  the  tahsil 
is  bounded  by  the  Jumna,  while  the  Sirsa  flows  through  the  centre. 
The  Sengar  crosses  the  northern  portion,  and  the  Aganga  rises  near 
Shikohabad.  North  of  the  Sirsa  the  soil,  though  light,  is  very  fertile ; 
but  south  of  this  river  it  becomes  sandy  and  continues  to  deteriorate  till 
the  Jumna  ravines  are  reached.     The  tract  south  of  the  Sirsa  is  irri- 


SHILLONG   SUBDIVISION  279 

gated  by  the  Bhognipur  branch  of  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal.  When  first 
constructed  this  work  interfered  with  drainage,  but  cuts  have  been  made 
to  improve  this.  In  1902-3  the  cuUivated  area  was  196  square  miles, 
of  which  160  were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  more  than  half  of  the  irrigated 
area,  and  the  canal  about  a  third.  The  dry  tract  suffered  to  some 
extent  during  the  scarcity  of  1896-7. 

Shikohabad  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  tahsiloi  the  same  name 
in  Mainpurl  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  6'  N.  and 
78°  57'  E.,  on  the  Agra  branch  of  the  grand  trunk  road,  and  2  miles 
from  the  Shikohabad  station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  10,798.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  first  colonized 
by  a  Musalman  emigrant  from  Rapri,  named  Muhammad,  after  whom 
it  was  called  Muhammadabad.  The  name  was  changed  to  Shikoh- 
abad in  honour  of  Dara  Shikoh.  The  Marathas  held  the  place  and 
built  a  fort  north  of  the  site;  but  during  the  eighteenth  century  it 
often  changed  hands,  and  belonged  at  different  times  to  the  Jats,  the 
Rohillas,  Himmat  Bahadur,  and  Oudh.  The  British  obtained  pos- 
session in  1 80 1  and  established  a  cantonment  south-west  of  the  town, 
the  garrison  of  which  was  surprised  by  a  Maratha  force  under  Fleury  in 
1802,  after  which  the  troops  were  moved  to  Mainpurl.  Besides  the 
tahslli,  a  dispensary  is  situated  here.  The  town  is  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,600.  Shikohabad  is 
celebrated  for  its  sweetmeats  and  manufacture  of  country  cloth.  A 
steam  cotton-gin  employed  about  100  hands  in  1904.  The  tahsllt 
school  has  about  140  pupils  and  a  girls'  school  45. 

Shillong  Subdivision.  —  Subdivision  of  the  Khasi  and  Jaintia 
Hills  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  25°  1'  and 
26°  f  N.  and  90°  45'  and  92°  16'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,941  square 
miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Shillong  (population,  8,384),  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Administration;  and  1,199  villages.  The  sub- 
division is  a  section  of  the  Assam  Range,  and  consists  of  a  high  table- 
land, which  rises  sharply  from  the  Surma  Valley  to  a  height  of  about 
4,000  feet,  and  north  of  the  Shillong  peak,  which  is  over  6,000  feet, 
gradually  falls  away  in  a  succession  of  low  hills  towards  the  Brahma- 
putra. Almost  the  whole  of  this  country  is  outside  the  limits  of  British 
India,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  petty  Native  States  under  the  politi- 
cal superintendence  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  The  majority  of 
the  indigenous  inhabitants  are  Khasis,  a  tribe  of  Tibeto-Burman  origin, 
which  is  possibly  connected  with  the  Mons  of  Anam  and  Cambodia. 
Coal  is  found  in  both  the  Nummulitic  and  Cretaceous  strata,  and  there 
are  enormous  deposits  of  limestone  on  the  southern  face  of  the  hills. 
The  rainfall  in  this  region  is  extraordinary,  the  average  annual  fall  at 
Cherrapunji  being  458  inches.  The  clouds,  however,  quickly  lose 
their  moisture,  and  at  Shillong,  which  is  less  than  30  miles  away,  thu 


2  8o  SB IL LONG   SUBDIVISION 

fall  is  but  82  inches.  The  population  in  1901  was  134,329,  com- 
pared with  133,383  in  1 89 1,  the  density  being  only  34  persons  per 
square  mile. 

Shillong  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Khasi  and  Jaintia  Hills 
District,  and  summer  capital  of  the  Government  of  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  situated  in  25°  34'  N.  and  91°  53'  E.  It  is  connected  with  Gau- 
hati  by  a  metalled  road,  63  miles  in  length,  on  which  there  is  a  daily 
tonga  service,  and  which  is  continued  to  Cherrapunji,  a  village  over- 
looking the  plains  of  Sylhet.  The  population  at  the  last  three  enume- 
rations was  :  (1881)  3,737,  (1891)  6,720,  and  (1901)  8,384. 

Shillong  first  became  the  civil  station  of  the  Khasi  and  Jaintia  Hills 
in  1864,  in  the  place  of  Cherrapunji.  In  1874,  on  the  formation  of 
Assam  into  a  separate  Province,  it  was  chosen  as  the  head-quarters 
of  the  new  Administration,  on  account  of  its  salubrity  and  its  con- 
venient position  between  the  Brahmaputra  and  Surma  Valleys.  The 
climate  is  singularly  mild  and  equable,  and  the  thermometer  seldom 
rises  in  the  hottest  weather  above  80°  Fahrenheit.  In  the  winter 
shallow  water  freezes  at  night,  but  snow  seldom  falls.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  is  82  inches.  The  town  has  been  laid  out  with  great 
taste  and  judgement  among  the  pine  woods  at  the  foot  of  the  Shillong 
range,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  6,450  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  sur- 
rounded with  rolling  downs  ;  and  visitors  enjoy  facilities  for  riding 
and  driving,  polo,  golf,  and  cricket,  which  cannot  usually  be  obtained 
in  the  hill  stations  of  the  Himalayas. 

Prior  to  1897  most  of  the  public  offices  and  private  houses  were  built 
of  rough-hewn  masonry.  The  earthquake  of  June  12  in  that  year 
reduced  them  to  a  heap  of  ruins  in  the  space  of  a  few  seconds,  wrecked 
the  water-supply,  and  destroyed  the  embankment  which  dammed  up 
the  waters  of  the  lake  near  Government  House.  The  shock  occurred 
at  5  o'clock  on  Saturday  afternoon,  when  nearly  every  one  was  out  of 
doors,  and  only  2  Europeans  and  27  natives  were  killed.  Had  it  taken 
place  at  night,  there  would  have  been  few  survivors.  The  station  has 
since  been  rebuilt,  but  the  use  of  brick  and  stone  has  been  sedulously 
avoided.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from  the  neighbouring  hill 
streams,  and  is  distributed  in  pipes  all  over  the  town.  Shillong  is  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Officer  Commanding  the  Assam  Brigade,  of  the 
heads  of  all  the  departments  of  Government,  and  of  the  Welsh  Presby- 
terian Mission,  which  has  done  much  to  promote  the  spread  of  educa- 
tion in  the  hills.  The  garrison  consists  of  a  regiment  of  native  infantry 
and  a  volunteer  corps,  which  in  1904  had  a  strength  of  34.  There 
are  a  large  Government  press  and  two  small  private  presses.  Three 
monthly  papers  appear  in  the  Khasi  vernacular. 

The  jail  contains  accommodation  for  78  persons,  and  the  charitable 
dispensary  has  17  beds.     Shillong  is  administered  as  a  Station  under 


SHIMOGA   DISTRICT  281 

(Bengal)  Act  V  of  1876.  The  municipal  receipts  and  expenditure 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  29,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  25,500,  chiefly  from  taxes  on  houses  and 
lands  and  water-rate  (Rs.  17,100),  while  the  expenditure  of  Rs.  22,800 
included  conservancy  (Rs.  10,100)  and  public  works  and  water-supply 
(Rs.  7,100).  The  receipts  and  expenditure  from  cantonment  funds  in 
1903-4  were  Rs.  8,300  and  Rs.  7,000  respectively.  The  bazar  contains 
a  few  shops,  at  which  both  Europeans  and  natives  can  satisfy  most  of 
their  requirements,  while  the  Khasi  market  is  one  of  the  principal 
centres  of  trade  in  the  hills.  The  principal  educational  institution  is 
a  high  school,  which  in  1903-4  had  an  average  attendance  of  135  boys. 

Shimoga  District.  —  District  in  the  north-west  of  the  State  of 
Mysore,  lying  between  13°  27'  and  14*^  39'  N.  and  74°  38'  and  76°  4'  E., 
with  an  area  of  4,025  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Dharwar  District  of  Bombay ;  on  the  east  by  Chitaldroog ;  on  the 
south  by  Kadur ;  and  on  the  west  by  South  and  North  Kanara  Dis- 
tricts. 

The  greater  part  of  the  District  is  Malnad  ('  hill  country  '),  which 
includes    the  whole   area  west  of  a    line   drawn   from   Shikarpur   to 
Gajanur;  the  east  is  Maidan  or  Bayal-slme  ('plain 
country ').     The  first  is  a  region  of  tropical  forests  asnects 

and  mountain  wilds.  Trees  of  the  largest  size  stand 
thickly  together  in  miles  of  unbroken  ranks,  their  giant  trunks  entwined 
with  python-like  creepers,  their  massive  arms  decked  with  a  thousand 
bright  blossoming  orchids.  Birds  of  rare  plumage  flit  from  bough  to 
bough.  From  the  thick  woods,  which  abruptly  terminate  on  verdant 
swards,  bison  issue  forth  at  dawn  and  afternoon  to  browse  on  the  rich 
herbage,  while  large  herds  of  sdmbar  pass  rapidly  across  the  hill-sides. 
Packs  of  wild  dogs  cross  the  path,  hunting  in  company,  and  the 
warning  boom  of  the  great  langnr  monkey  is  heard  from  the  lofty  trees. 
The  bamboo  forest  has  beauties  of  its  own.  The  elegant  arcca-palnis 
of  Nagar ;  the  kCvis  of  Sorab,  with  the  rich  hues  of  wild  cinnamon  and 
the  sombre  green  of  the  jack,  intermingled  with  the  truncated  leaf  of 
the  bagni-T^dXm,  and  the  waving  branches  of  the  pepper-vine ;  the  mag- 
nificent avenues  of  the  dhupa-Xx^o.  in  Sagar — all  unite  to  vary  the 
attractions  of  this  region  of  natural  beauty.  The  view  from  the  head 
of  the  descent  to  the  Gersoppa  Falls  is  probably  one  of  the  choicest 
bits  of  scenery  in  the  world.  The  features  of  the  open  country  are 
tame  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  woodland  tracts,  but  there  is 
much  that  is  picturesque  in  the  fertile  taluk  of  Channagiri,  with  its 
splendid  Sulekere  tank. 

The  main  part  of  the  District  consists  of  the  western  slopes  of  the 
upper  Tungabhadra  valley.  This  river  is  formed  by  the  union  at 
Kadali  in  the  Shimoga  taluk  of  the  twin  streams  Tunga  and  Bhadra, 


282  SHIMOGA   DISTRICT 

of  which  the  former  runs  for  most  of  its  course  within  this  District, 
in  a  north-easterly  direction.  From  the  point  of  confluence  the  united 
river  runs  north  to  the  frontier.  The  Sharavati  rises  near  Kavaledurga 
in  the  south-west,  and  runs  north-west  to  the  frontier,  where  it  turns 
west  and  hurls  itself  down  the  Ghats  in  the  Jog  or  far-famed  Gersoppa 
Falls,  a  sheer  descent  of  830  feet.  The  streams  between  Kodachadri 
and  Kavaledurga  flow  west  or  south-west  into  Kanara.  The  west  of 
the  District,  resting  upon  the  Ghats,  is  very  mountainous,  the  high- 
est point  being  Kodachadri,  4,411  feet  above  the  sea.  Govardhan- 
giri  and  Chandragutti  are  also  conspicuous  hills,  the  latter  rising 
to  2,794  feet.  A  chain  of  hills  runs  from  Mandagadde  on  the  Tunga 
north  by  Anantapur  towards  Sorab,  with  a  ridge  west  from  Atavadi 
to  Talguppa.  On  the  east  are  two  lines  of  low  stony  hills  stretching 
from  the  south  of  Channagiri  to  the  frontier,  one  following  the  course 
of  the  Tungabhadra  northwards,  the  other  crossing  the  river  near 
Holehonnur  and  passing  near  Shikarpur.  The  south-west  around 
Nagar  and  Kavaledurga  is  full  of  hills. 

The  Shimoga  schist  band  is  a  southern  continuation  of  that  on 
which  the  town  of  Dharwar  is  situated.  Crossing  the  Tungabhadra 
near  Harihar,  it  extends  southwards  into  Kadur  District.  Its  western 
boundary  is  probably  continuous  from  Anantapur  to  the  Kudremukh. 
West  from  Anantapur  to  Talguppa  the  country  is  covered  by  a  great 
spread  of  laterite,  beneath  which  gneiss  is  exposed  in  deep  nullahs. 
In  places  the  laterite  is  over  100  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  quarried  in 
square  blocks,  which  form  the  most  common  building  material,  being 
used  not  only  for  dwelling-houses  but  for  bridges  and  other  public 
structures.     Broken  up,  it  forms  metal  for  roads. 

Magnificent  evergreen  forest  covers  the  west,  many  of  the  hills  being 
heavily  wooded  up  to  their  summits.  On  all  sides  trunks  with  clear 
stems  of  from  80  to  100  feet  to  the  first  branch  meet  the  eye.  The 
more  valuable  kinds  are  poon  {Calophyllum  iomentosum),  wild  jack, 
ebony,  some  {Soymida  febrifuga),  heigni  [Hopea  Wightiana),  eruol,  dhupa 
( Valeria  i/idica),  the  large  devadaram  {Erythroxylon),  gamboge,  and 
a  species  of  cedar.  Farther  east  is  a  rich  belt,  in  which  the  more 
important  trees  are  teak,  black-wood,  honne  {Fterocarpus  Marsupium), 
matti  {Terminalia  tomentosa),  sampagi  {Miche/ia  Chainpacd),  arse?itega 
{Adina  cordifolia),  alale  ( Terminalia  Chebula),  bdgi  {Albizzia  Lebbek), 
dindiga  {Anogeissus  latifolia),  and  others.  Sorab  abounds  with  kdns, 
apparently  the  remains  of  old  forests.  Many  are  cultivated  with 
pepper-vines,  and  sometimes  coff"ee.  The  sago-palm  {Caryoia  urens) 
is  also  grown  for  the  sake  of  its  toddy.  From  Mandagadde  a  long 
stretch  of  wooded  country  runs  north,  in  which  are  found  good  teak, 
and  much  second-class  timber,  with  a  large  quantity  of  Inga  xylocarpa^ 
used  for  making  charcoal  for  the  iron  mines. 


11  r STORY  283 

The  rainfall  rapidly  diminishes  eastwards  from  the  Ghai  region. 
Thus,  while  the  annual  fall  at  Nagar  averages  about  190  inches, 
at  Tirthahalli  114,  at  Sagar  70,  and  at  Sorab  57,  it  is  only  about  35  at 
Shimoga  and  25  at  Channagiri.  For  about  25  miles  from  the  Ghats 
the  south-west  monsoon  is  felt  in  full  force.  At  Shimoga  town,  which 
is  40  miles  distant,  it  often  produces  nothing  more  than  driving  clouds, 
with  occasional  drizzle  and  a  few  days  of  moderately  heavy  rain.  East 
of  the  Tungabhadra  the  wind  blows  with  much  force,  but  the  clouds 
rarely  break.  The  heaviest  rains  on  this  side  are  in  May  and  October, 
and  come  in  thunderstorms  from  the  eastward.  The  mean  temperature 
at  Shimoga  town  may  be  stated  as  ranging  from  55°  to  87°.  The  sea- 
breeze  relieves  the  heat  in  the  hot  season,  and  is  distinctly  felt  at 
Shimoga. 

The  Mauryas  are  said  in  inscriptions  to  have  ruled  over  Kuntala, 
which  included  some  parts  of  this  District.  A  Chandra  Gupta  is 
described  as  having  ruled  Nagarakhanda  (the  Shikar- 
pur  taluk).  Asoka  sent  a  Buddhist  missionary  to 
Banavasi,  on  the  north-west  frontier,  in  the  third  century  B.C.  The 
next  record  is  of  the  Satavahanas,  containing  a  grant  by  Satakarni  at 
Malavalli  in  the  Shikarpur  taluk,  probably  of  the  second  century  a.  d. 
They  were  followed  by  the  Kadambas,  whose  capital  was  Banavasi,  but 
their  place  of  origin  was  Sthanakundur  (Talagunda  in  the  Shikarpur 
taluk),  where  the  interesting  story  of  their  rise  is  recorded  on  a  pillar. 
Their  progenitor,  who  was  a  Brahman,  went  to  the  Pallava  capital 
Kanchi  (Conjeeveram)  in  order  to  complete  his  Vedic  studies.  While 
there,  he  had  a  violent  quarrel  with  Pallava  horsemen,  and  in  order  to 
be  revenged  adopted  the  life  of  a  Kshattriya.  Perfecting  himself  in  the 
use  of  arms,  he  overcame  the  frontier  guards,  and  established  himself 
in  the  inaccessible  forests  near  Sriparvata  (Kurnool  District),  where  he 
became  so  powerful  that  he  levied  tribute  from  the  great  Bana  and 
other  kings.  The  Pallavas  tried  to  put  him  down,  but  he  defeated 
them  in  various  ways,  till  they  were  compelled  to  make  peace  with  him, 
and  recognize  him  as  king  of  the  Kadamba  territory.  Tliese  events 
must  be  assigned  to  the  second  or  third  century.  Among  his  suc- 
cessors, Kakustha  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  Gupta  king, 
perhaps  Samudra  Gupta,  whose  expedition  to  the  South  in  the  fourth 
century  is   recorded  on  the  pillar  in  the  fort  at  Allahabad. 

While  the  Kadambas  were  ruling  in  the  west  of  the  District,  the 
Gangas  were  established  in  the  east.  The  story  of  their  rise  is 
recorded  in  inscriptions  at  Humcha  and  near  Shimoga.  In  the  fourth 
century  the  Ganga  king  married  the  Kadamba  king's  sister.  In  the 
fifth  century  the  Chalukyas  from  the  north  had  subdued  the  whole  of 
Kuntala,  and  made  Vatapi  (Badami  in  Bijapur  District)  their  capital. 
They  profess  to  have  subjected  the  Kadambas  in  the  sixth  century. 

VOL.   XXII.  T 


2^4  SHIMOGA   DISTRICT 

In  the  seventh  century  they  separated  into  two  families,  of  whom  the 
Western  Chalukyas  continued  to  rule  from  Badami.  Shimoga  District 
was  formed  into  the  Banavase  'twelve  thousand'^  province,  with  its 
seat  of  government  at  Belgami  (Shikarpur  taluk).  But  in  the  eighth 
century  they  were  overcome  by  the  Rashtrakutas,  and  did  not  regain 
supremacy  for  200  years.  The  Rashtrakutas  had  their  capital  at  Manya- 
kheta  (Malkhed  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions).  They  first  seized  and 
imprisoned  the  Ganga  king,  appointing  their  own  viceroys  to  govern 
his  territories.  But  eventually  they  reinstated  him  and  entered  into 
alliance  with  the  Gangas.  Intermarriages  now  took  place  between 
the  two  families  ;  and  in  the  tenth  century,  in  return  for  their  help 
in  defeating  the  Cholas,  the  Banavase  '  twelve  thousand '  and  other 
provinces  were  again  added  to  the  Ganga  kingdom  by  the  Rashtra- 
kiitas.  Meanwhile,  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century,  a  Jain  principality 
was  established  at  Pomburchchha  or  Hombucha  (Humcha)  by  Jina- 
datta,  a  prince  of  the  Ugra  family  and  Solar  race  from  Muttra.  His 
line  assumed  the  name  of  Santara  ;  and,  bringing  under  their  control 
all  the  country  as  far  as  Kalasa  (Kadiir  District),  they  descended  the 
Ghats  to  Sisila  or  Sisukali,  and  finally  established  their  capital  at 
Karkala  (South  Kanara),  appointing  lieutenants  at  Barkur,  Bangadi, 
Mudu-Bidare,  and  Mulki.  The  territories  thus  acquired  yielded  a 
revenue  of  9  lakhs  of  pagodas  above  and  t;  lakhs  below  the  Ghats. 
In  course  of  time  the  kings  became  Lingayats,  and  under  the  name 
of  Bhairarasa  ^Vodeyars  continued  in  power  down  to  the  sixteenth 
century,  being  subordinate  in  turn  to  the  Chalukyas,  Hoysalas,  and 
Vijayanagar,  till  their  territories  were  subdued  by  the  Keladi  chiefs. 

In  973  the  Rashtrakutas  were  overthrown,  and  the  Western 
Chalukyas  regained  their  ascendancy.  Their  capital  was  now  estab- 
lished at  Kalyani.  The  Banavase  '  twelve  thousand '  was  one  of  the 
most  important  provinces  of  their  empire.  But  in  11 55  the  Chalukyas 
were  supplanted  by  their  minister  Bijjala,  of  the  Kalachuri  family. 
In  his  reign  the  Lingayat  religion,  which  prevails  throughout  the 
Kannada  and  Telugu  countries,  was  founded  by  Basava,  who  was 
his  minister,  and  who  gave  his  sister  to  the  king  in  marriage.  But 
the  dynasty  lasted  for  only  three  generations,  till  11 83.  By  this  time 
the  Hoysalas  of  Dorasaniudra  (Halebld  in  Hassan  District)  had  sub- 
dued the  whole  of  Mysore,  and  Banavase  was  one  of  their  provinces. 
They  pushed  on  to  the  Kistna,  and  thus  came  into  collision  with  the 
Seunas,  or  Yadavas,  of  Deogiri  (Daulatabad).  The  latter  made  some 
head  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  established  themselves  in  parts 
of  the  north  of  the  country.      But  in  the  next  century,  both  Seunas 

'  These  numerical  designations,  almost  invariably  attached  to  the  names  of  ancient 
divisions  in  Mysore,  apparently  refer  to  their  revenue  capacity  or  to  the  number  of 
their  nads. 


HISTORY  285 

and  Hoysalas  fell  victims  to  the  Mubalinan  invasicjiis  fruiii  Dcliii.  'I'ht; 
Vijayanagar  kingdom  then  arose,  which  ultimately  ruled  over  all  the 
countries  south  of  the  Kistna.  Under  it,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
were  established  the  line  of  the  Keladi,  Ikkeri,  or  Rednur  chiefs  in 
the  west  of  the  District,  and  of  the  Basavapatna  or  Tarikere  chiefs 
in  the  east.  I'he  Keladi  chiefs  were  Lingayats  ;  and  their  founder, 
Sadasiva  Raya  Naik,  who  took  his  name  from  his  overlord,  first 
received  the  government  of  Barkur,  Mangalore,  and  Chandragutti. 
His  successor  removed  the  capital  to  Ikkeri.  After  the  fall  of  \'ijaya- 
nagar,  Venkatappa  Naik  (whom  the  Portuguese  called  Venkapor, 
king  of  Kanara)  assumed  independence,  and  in  the  next  reign  the 
capital  was  finally  removed  to  Bednur  (now  Nagar).  Sivappa  Naik, 
who  came  to  the  throne  in  1645,  overran  all  the  country  east  to 
Shimoga,  south  to  Manjarabad,  and  west  throughout  the  whole  of 
Kanara.  The  fugitive  king  of  Vijayanagar,  who  came  to  him  for 
protection,  was  established  by  him  at  Belur  and  Sakkarepatna,  and 
he  even  attempted  to  besiege  Seringapatam  on  his  behalf.  Sivappa 
Naik  died  in  1660;  and  his  successors  held  the  country  till  1763, 
when  Haidar  Ali  captured  Bednur,  and  brought  their  power  to  an 
end.  Haidar  formed  the  design  of  making  here  a  new  capital  for 
himself,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Haidarnagar,  the  present  Nagar. 
The  Basavapatna  chiefs  were  driven  from  their  seat  by  the  Bijapur 
invasions,  and  retired  first  to  Sante-Bennur,  and  finally  to  Tarikere 
(Kadur  District).  In  1783,  in  the  war  between  the  British  and 
Mysore,  troops  from  Bombay  captured  Bednur,  but  it  was  recovered 
by  Tipu  Sultan.  After  the  fall  of  Seringapatam  in  1799,  a  Maratha 
chief  named  Dhundia  Wagh  ravaged  Shimoga  and  the  east,  but 
was  pursued  and  slain  by  a  force  under  Colonel  Wellesley  (the  future 
Duke  of  Wellington).  In  1830  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  the  Nagar 
country,  owing  to  the  Raja's  misrule,  and  the  Tarikere  chief 
escaped  from  Mysore  to  join  the  insurgents.  When  the  insurrec- 
tion had  been  put  down,  the  Mysore  State  was  placed  under  a 
British  Commission,  which  continued  to  govern  the  country  till  the 
rendition  in  1881. 

The  Shikarpur  taluk  is  full  of  antiquities.  The  Satakarni  inscri[)tion 
at  Malavalli,  perhaps  of  the  second  century,  is  the  oldest,  and  on  the 
same  pillar,  in  the  same  Prakrit  language,  is  a  Kadamba  inscription. 
But  the  remains  at  Belgami,  the  former  capital  of  this  Banavase 
province,  throw  all  the  others  into  the  shade.  They  include  many 
ruined  temples  remarkable  for  their  carving,  and  numerous  inscriptions, 
mostly  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  fine  Bherundesvara 
pillar  is  an  elegant  monolith,  30^  feet  high  and  i^  thick,  with  a  double- 
headed  eagle  of  human  form,  4  feet  high,  at  the  top,  called  Ganda- 
bherunda.     At  Bandanikke,  the  chief  city  of  Nngarakhanda,  are  also 

T  2 


286 


SIJIMOGA    DISTRICT 


richly  carved  leniples,  .ill  in  ruins.  At  Huinclui  are  the  remains  of 
what  must  have  been  splendid  Jain  temples,  and  at  Ikkeri  is  a  fine 
Aghoresvara  temple.  The  latter  is  Dravidian,  but  the  others  are 
Chalukyan  in  style.  The  inscriptions  of  the  District  have  been  trans- 
lated and  published. 

The  population  at  each  Census  in  the  last  thirty  years  was:  (1871) 
507,856,  (i88r)  507,424,  (1891)  528,996,  and  (1901)  531,736-  The 
decline  in  the  first  decade  was  due  to  the  famine 
of  1876-8.  By  religion,  in  1901  there  were  468,435 
Hindus,  32,593  Musalmans,  9,506  Animists,  3,523  Jains,  and  1,967 
Christians.  The  density  is  132  persons  per  square  mile,  that  for  the 
.State  being  185.  The  number  of  towns  is  14,  and  of  villages  2,017. 
The  largest  place  is  Shimoga  Town,  the  head-quarters,  with  a  po{)ula- 
lioii  of  6,240  ill  1901,  reduced  from  11,340  in  1891  owing  to  plague. 

The  following  table  gives  the  principal  statistics  of  population  in 
1901  :■ — 


Population. 


5i 

Number  of 

ion. 

rof 
ble  to 
nd 

Talnk. 

»  a; 

c 

i 

be 

0. 

1^ 

centa 
riatio 
ulatio 
een  i 
nd  IQ 

umhe 
ons  a 
ead  a 
write 

< 

^ 

> 

(2 

Shimoga . 

687 

4 

401 

91,639 

133 

-  2.8 

5,390 

Sagar 

666 

1 

245 

56,818 

^5 

-  3-7 

3,792 

Sorab 

443 

I 

.^07 

7 ',493 

161 

+     2-1 

3,379 

Shikaipur 

429 

2 

202 

63,604 

146 

—    1.2 

3,698 

Honnali  . 

331 

2 

i^^r 

68,721 

208 

+    8.2 

3,389 

t'hannagiii 

465 

I 

244 

81,453 

175 

+    8.3 

3,374 

Tirthahalli 

476 

I 

248 

57,553 

121 

-    2.8 

4,060 

Nagar 
District  total 

52S 

2 

205 

40,455 

77 

-5-6 

1,836 

4,025 

M 

^,017 

53 1  >  736 

132 

4     0.6 

27,918 

Among  castes,  Lingayats  preponderate,  numbering  119,000;  Wok- 
kaligas  or  cultivators  number  90,000  ;  the  outcaste  Holeyas  and 
Madigas,  31,000  and  22,000;  Kurubas  or  shepherds,  24,000;  Bedas, 
23,000.  The  number  of  Brahmans  is  26,000.  Of  Musalman  sects 
the  Shaikhs  form  three-fourths,  being  24,000  in  number.  Among  the 
nomad  tribes  Lambanis  number  17,000  ;  Iruligas,  4,000;  and  Koramas, 
3,800.  By  occupation,  72-5  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
l)asture,  10-9  per  cent,  in  unskilled  labour  not  agricultural,  7-2  per 
cent,  in  the  preparation  and  supply  of  material  substances,  and 
2-8  per  cent,  in  the  State  service. 

Christians  number  1,967,  of  whom  1,897  are  natives.  The  Roman 
Catholic  and  Wesleyan  Missions  are  located  at  Shimoga  town,  and 
visit  various  out-stations. 

The  general  substratum  of  laterite  in  the  western  taluks^  wherever 


ACRfCUr.TVRE 


287 


it   approaches   the  surfare,  cheeks   vegetation.      The  soil   in  the  x'wk.- 
valleys,  characteristic  of  the  Malnad,  is  loose  and  sandy,  while  ihat 
of  garden  lands  is  stiff  and  clayey.     The  richest  soil 
is  in  the  north-east,  from  the  Sulekere   northwards.       Agricultixre. 
The  black  soil  prevails  here,  and  also  around   Nyaniti   and    Relgutti 
in  the  Honnali  taluk. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  cultivation  for  1903-4: — 


Area, 

n  square  miles,  shown  in 

the  revenue  account.?. 

Taluk. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

^,6 

Forests. 
If  9 

Shimoga 

617 

166 

65 

Sagar. 

666 

68 

67 

43 

I2T 

Sorab. 

427 

98 

88 

28 

28 

Shikarpur   . 

4°.^ 

lOI 

68 

4' 

103 

Honnali 

318 

186 

6 

18 

8 

Channagiri . 

464 

221 

i.S 

4' 

.^6 

Tirthahalli . 

473 

^>7 

65 

14 

4 

Nagar 

Total 

525 

54 

52 

28 

34 

3,893 

961 

426 

249 

493 

Rice  is  the  principal  crop.  Areca-nut  is  extensively  grown  in  the 
Nagar,  Sagar,  and  Tirthahalli  fd/ieks,  that  of  the  first-named  tract 
being  considered  superior  to  any  in  the  State.  Sugar-cane  is  largely 
raised  in  Shikarpur.  Honnali  chiefly  produces  different  kinds  of  'dry' 
grains,  as  well  as  cotton.  Pepper  grows  wild  in  the  forests  of  Nagar 
and  Sorab,  while  cardamoms  are  produced  in  the  jungles  about 
Agumbi,  though  they  are  not  so  good  as  those  raised  in  areca  gardens. 
All  kinds  of  'wet'  cultivation  are  carried  on  from  the  Sulekere  tank. 
The  area  occupied  by  rice  in  1903-4  was  383  square  miles ;  by  rdgi, 
141 ;  gram,  72  ;  other  food-grains,  294  ;  garden  produce,  26  ;  oilseeds, 
27  ;  sugar-cane,  14. 

During  the  twelve  years  ending  1904  a  sum  of  Rs.  9,000  was 
advanced  for  land  improvement,  in  addition  to  Rs.  14,300  for  irri- 
gation wells,  and  Rs.  7,000  for  field  embankments. 

The  area  irrigated  from  channels  is  7  square  miles,  from  tanks  and 
wells  232,  and  from  other  sources  187  square  miles.  The  number 
of  tanks  is  8,358,  of  which  583  are  classed  as  'major.' 

The  State  forests  cover  an  area  of  343  square  miles,  '  reserved  '  lands 
T53,  and  plantations  4.  Teak,  other  timber,  bamboos,  and  sandal- 
wood are  the  chief  sources  of  forest  income.  The  receipts  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  4-6  lakhs. 

Iron  is  extracted  in  some  parts.  On  the  summit  of  the  Ghats  stones 
are  frequently  found  possessing  magnetic  properties,  as  at  Kodachadri. 
Laterite  is  abundant  in  the  w^est,  and  extensively  quarried  for  building 
purposes.    Gold  is  widely  diffused,  and  a  broad  auriferous  tract  extends 


288  SHIMOGA    DTSTRTCT 

throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  District.  The  Honnrili  gold-mines, 
which  were  commenced  some  time  ago,  have  suspended  work,  owing 
partly  to  the  influx  of  water.  The  Mysore-Nagar  Company  started 
work  near  Benkipur,  but  no  good  results  have  been  obtained.  Deposits 
of  manganese  have  been  discovered  to  the  west  of  Shimoga,  and  large 
quantities  have  been  raised. 

The  District  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  sandal-wood  carving,  of  which 
industry  Sorab  is  the  principal  seat.     The  chief  articles  of  manufac- 
ture are  coarse  cotton  cloth,  woollen  blankets,  iron 

comimmi^atJons.  ^^^'^^^^'  ^'"^^^  ^"^  copper  vessels,  earthenware,  jag- 
gery, and  oils.  A  few  striped  carpets  are  made  at 
Shikarpur ;  pieces  of  chintz  at  Shimoga  and  Ayanur;  stone  jugs  at 
Tirthahalli  \  handmills  in  the  Honnali  tdluk,  and  ropes  of  various 
kinds.  There  are  reported  to  be  970  looms  for  cotton,  402  for  wool, 
48  for  other  fibres,  424  iron-works,  12  brass  and  copper-works,  88  oil- 
mills,  and  1,845  jaggery-mills. 

The  recent  opening  of  a  branch  railway  from  Shimoga  to  Birur  will 
no  doubt  stimulate  trade.  The  most  important  articles  of  export  are 
jaggery,  earthenware,  leathern  goods,  woollen  blankets,  and  oils.  Of  im- 
ported articles,  piece-goods  take  the  first  place,  then  woollen  blankets, 
oils,  gold  ornaments,  and  vessels  of  brass,  copper,  and  bell-metal. 

A  branch  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  runs  from  Birur  (Kadur 
District)  to  Shimoga  town,  of  which  16  miles  lie  in  the  south-east  of 
this  District.  A  short  line  from  Shimoga  westwards  is  proposed,  for 
the  transport  of  the  manganese  ore  discovered  there.  The  length  of 
Provincial  roads  is  219  miles,  and  of  District  fund  roads  450  miles. 

The  District  is  divided  into  eight  taluks :  Channagiri,  Honn.ai.i, 

Nagar,  Sagar,  Shikarpur,  Shimoga,  Sorab,  and  Tirthahai.tj. 

The  following  subdivisions    were   formed   in    190-?, 
Administration.         ,,        ,.        ,  ta-^./^ 

and  placed  m  charge  of  Assistant  Commissioners : 

Shimoga   and  Tirthahalli,  with    head-quarters  at  Shimoga ;    Honnali, 

Shikarpur,  and    Channagiri,  with    head-quarters   at    Shimoga ;    Sagar, 

Sorab,  and  Nagar,  with  head-quarters  at  Sagar. 

The  District  court  at  Shimoga  exercises  jurisdiction  over  Shimoga, 
Kadur,  and  Chitaldroog  Districts,  while  the  Subordinate  Judge's  court 
at  Shimoga  deals  with  Shimoga  District  and  a  part  of  Kadur  and 
Chitaldroog  Districts.  There  are  also  Munsifs'  courts  at  Shimoga 
and  Honnali.  In  the  border  tract  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
serious  crime. 

The  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the 
next  page,  in  thousands  of  rupees. 

The  revenue  survey  and  settlement  were  introduced  into  the  north 
of  the  District  between  1870  and  1874,  and  into  the  south  between 
1875  and  1878.     In   1903-4  the  incidence  of  land  revenue  per  acre 


SHIAfOGA    TAf.VK 


289 


of  cultivated  area  was  Rs.  i-14-r.  The  average  rate  of  assessment 
per  acre  on  'dry'  land  is  R.  0-11-5  (maximum  scale  Rs.  2-8, 
minimum  scale  R.  0-0-6) ;  on  '  wet '  land,  Rs.  3  (maximum  scale 
Rs.  6-8,  minimum  scale  R.  0-2) ;  and  on  garden  land,  Rs.  i  2-1  2-1  r 
(maximum  scale  Rs.  25,  minimum  scale  Rs.  1-8). 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4- 

I-and  revenue 
Total  revenue 

12,08 

12,65 
21,36 

13,08 
23,4s 

12,59 
23,41 

In  1903-4  there  were  ten  municipalities— Shimoga,  Kumsi,  Chan- 
nagiri,  Honnali,  Nyamti,  Shikarpur,  Sorab,  Sagar,  Kalurkatte,  and 
Tirthahalli— with  a  total  income  of  Rs.  36,000  and  an  expenditure 
of  Rs.  46,500.  There  were  also  four  village  Unions — Benkipur,  Hole- 
honnur,  Siralkoppa,  and  Nagar — whose  income  and  expenditure  were 
Rs.  6,000  and  Rs.  15,000.  The  District  and  taluk  boards  had  an 
income  of  Rs.  90,000  in  1903-4,  chiefly  derived  from  a  share  of  the 
Local  fund  cess,  and  spent  Rs.  78,000,  including  Rs.  70,000  on  roads 
and  buildings. 

The  strength  of  the  police  force  in  1904  was  one  superior  officer, 
93  subordinate  officers,  and  493  constables,  of  whom  2  officers  and 
30  constables  formed  the  special  reserve.  In  the  8  lock-ups  the  daily 
average  of  prisoners  was  32. 

In  1901  the  percentage  of  literate  persons  was  5-3  (9-6  males 
and  0-4  females).  The  number  of  schools  increased  from  369  with 
9,329  pupils  in  1890-1  to  406  with  11,828  pupils  in  1900-1.  In 
1903-4  there  were  359  schools  (242  public  and  117  private)  with 
9,802  pupils,  of  whom  1,418  were  girls. 

Besides  the  civil  hospital  at  Shimoga  town,  there  are  13  dispen- 
saries, in  which  101,732  patients  were  treated  in  1904,  of  whom 
434  were  in-patients,  the  number  of  beds  available  being  32  for  men 
and  26  for  women.     The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  34,000. 

There  were  2,685  persons  vaccinated  in  1904,  or  5  per  1,000  of  the 
population. 

Shimoga  Taluk.— South-eastern  tahik  of  Shimoga  District,  Mysore, 
including  the  Kumsi  sub-AJM-,  and  lying  between  13°  42'  and  m'' 
8'  N.  and  75°  16'  and  75°  53'  R.,  with  an  area  of  687  square  miles. 
Hie  population  in  1901  was  91,639,  compared  willi  94.71^'  '"  'S9'- 
The  taluk  contains  four  towns,  Shimoga  (jiopulation,  6,240),  the  Dis- 
trict and  taluk  head-quarters,  Benkii)ur  (2,676),  Kumsi  (2,001),  and 
Holehonnur  (1,931);  and  401  villages.  The  land  revenue  demand 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,77,000.  The  twin  rivers,  the  Tunga  and  the 
Bhadra,  entering  the  taluk  on  the  south,  flow  north  and  unite  at 
Kudali,  north  of  Shimoga  town,  whence  the  Tungabhadra  continues 


390  SHTMOGA    TALUK 

north  witli  a  winding  course.  The  greater  part  of  the  taluk  in  the 
west  and  south  is  covered  with  hills  and  forests,  abounding  in  tigers, 
leopards,  bears,  and  other  wild  animals.  Cultivation  is  almost  con- 
fined to  the  level  valleys  of  the  rivers,  but  the  beds  of  these  are  too 
deep  to  be  used  for  irrigation.  On  the  other  hand,  timber  is  floated 
down,  especially  in  the  Tunga.  The  soils  on  either  bank  of  the 
Tungabhadra  to  the  north  are  very  rich,  and  the  climate  is  remark- 
ably favourable  to  '  dry '  cultivation.  Rdgi  is  the  staple  crop  on  red 
soil,  but  the  black  soils  produce  jola,  cotton,  and  oilseeds.  The  rice 
lands  are  poor.  A  little  sugar-cane  is  grown,  besides  areca-nut,  betel- 
leaf,  and  plantains. 

Shimoga  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of  the 
same  name,  Mysore  State,  situated  in  13°  56'  N.  and  75°  35'  E.,  on 
the  Tunga  river,  and  terminus  of  the  Birur-Shimoga  railway  line. 
Population  fell  to  6,240  in  1901  from  11,340  in  1891,  chiefly  owing 
to  plague.  In  early  times  Mandali,  a  suburb  to  the  south,  was  an 
important  place  under  the  Gangas.  At  a  later  period  Shimoga  was 
ruled  by  the  Chalukyas  and  the  Hoysalas,  after  which  it  came  under 
\' ijayanagar.  From  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  held  by  the  Keladi 
or  Bednur  kings,  until  Bednur  was  taken  by  Haidar  All  in  1763. 
The  Marathas  under  Parasuram  Bhao,  in  a  battle  near  Shimoga  in 
\  798,  forced  Tipu  Sultan's  army  under  the  Benki  Nawab  to  retire 
on  Bednur,  and  besieged  Shimoga,  which  had  to  capitulate,  and  was 
plundered  and  burnt.  After  the  fall  of  Tipu  in  1799  it  was  again 
pillaged  by  Dhundia  Wagh,  and  left  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  present 
town  has  mostly  sprung  up  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  Tunga  being  here  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge.  It  is  a  prin- 
cipal station  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Wesleyan  Missions.  The 
municipality  dates  from  1870.  The  receipts  and  expenditure  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  15,600  and  Rs.  16,000.  In 
1903-4  they  were  Rs.  17,000  and  Rs.  24,600. 

Shinaki. — A  group  of  small  republics  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus, 
lying  west  of  Kashmir  and  south  of  Gilgit.  The  territory  extends  from 
the  junction  of  the  Astor  river  with  the  Indus  to  Seo  on  the  right  bank 
and  Jalkot  on  the  left  bank  of  the  latter  river.  Within  this  area  the 
people  are  grouped  in  communities  inhabiting  one  or  more  nullahs, 
each  community  forming  a  separate  republic.  Starting  from  the  junc- 
tion at  Ramghat  these  are,  in  order  :  on  the  right  bank,  Gor,  Kinergah, 
and  Hodar ;  and  on  the  left  bank,  Bunar,  Thak,  Butogah,  Giche,  and 
Thor.  They  constitute  the  area  known  as  the  Chilas  subdivision  of 
the  Gilgit  Agency,  while  Chilas  proper  includes  Kinergah,  Butogah, 
and  Giche.  Lower  down  the  river  are  Darel,  Tangir,  Khilli,  and  Seo 
on  the  right  bank,  and  Harban,  SazTn,  and  Jalkot  on  the  left  bank. 

After  the  conquest   of  Chilas   by   Kashmir  in    1851,  the  Maharaja 


SHIRAXr  COl'XTRY  291 

imposed  a  tribute  in  gold-dust,  and  arranged  for  the  administration 
of  the  country  as  part  of  the  Gilgit  district.  A  British  Agency  was 
re-established  at  Gilgit  in  1889,  which  included,  among  other  terri- 
tory, the  Chilas  subdivision  described  above  except  Thor,  In  1892 
a  British  mission  to  Gor  was  attacked  by  the  Chilasis,  which  led  to 
the  occupation  of  their  country  and  the  appointment  of  a  Political 
officer  at  Chilas.  The  right  of  the  Kashmir  Darbar  to  construct 
roads  and  station  a  limited  number  of  troops  in  the  territory  was 
secured,  but  the  autonomy  of  the  Chilasis  was  guaranteed.  Under 
the  revised  arrangements  made  in  1897  the  republics  pay  small  fixed 
sums  to  the  Maharaja,  and  in  1899  Thor  was  incorporated  in  Chilas. 
Darel  has  rendered  a  tribute  of  gold-dust  to  Kashmir  since  1866, 
when  the  Maharaja's  troops  raided  the  country.  The  tribute  is  now 
paid  through  the  Punial  governor.  Tangir  pays  a  small  tribute  to  the 
governor  of  Yasin.  The  remaining  communities  have  no  political 
relations  with  either  Kashmir  or  British  India,  except  Jalkot,  which 
from  its  position  dominates  Thor  and  the  head  of  the  Kagan  valley 
in  the  North-West  Frontier  Province. 

Shipki  Pass. — A  pass  in  Tibet  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Hindustan-Tibet  road,  situated  in  31°  49'  N.  and  78°  44'  E.  Strictly 
speaking,  Shipki  is  a  large  Tartar  village,  10,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
in  Tibet,  which  is  reached  from  the  Kanawar  valley,  Bashahr  State, 
Punjab,  by  two  routes,  one  leading  through  the  gorge  by  which  the 
Sutlej  enters  India,  the  other  over  the  Kang-wa  La  or  pass,  15,000  feet 
in  height. 

Shirani  Country. — A  tract  on  the  western  border  of  Dera  Ismail 
Khan  District,  North-West  Frontier  Province,  lying  between  31°  30' 
and  32°  N.  and  69°  45'  and  70°  20'  E.  It  is  bordered  on  the  north 
by  Wazlristan,  on  the  west  by  Baluchistan,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Usterana  Afghans.  The  Sulaiman  range,  running  from  north  to  south, 
divides  the  country  into  two  parts,  Largha  or  'lowland,'  and  Bargha  or 
'highland.'  The  former  had  a  population  of  12,371  in  1901,  and  is 
under  the  political  control  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province ;  the 
latter  is  under  that  of  Baluchistan.  The  Largha  Shirani  country  is 
administered  by  an  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner  with  head-quarters 
at  Drazinda,  acting  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Deputy- 
Commissioner  of  Dera  Ismail  Khan.  The  country  is  poor,  the 
lowlanders  being  dependent  on  agriculture,  while  the  Bar  Shiranis 
lead  a  pastoral  life  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the  Takht-i-Sulaiman,  to 
which  the  flocks  and  herds  of  both  sections  are  sent  in  summer. 
The  higher  hills  are  covered  with  forests  of  the  chilgoza  {Pinus 
gerardiand),  in  which  each  section  of  the  tribe  has  a  recognized  share, 
and  the  profits  from  the  sale  of  the  fruit  form  a  considerable  item  in 
their  income.     I'he  Shiranis  are  Afghans,  and   intensely  democratic, 


292  SHI  RANI  COUNTRY 

though  each  section  has  a  nominal  chief  or  neka.  Tribal  cohesion  is 
weak.  Before  annexation  the  Shiranis  had  been  the  terror  of  the 
frontier,  carrying  off  cattle  and  men  and  women,  whom  they  held  to 
ransom.  They  sacked  Draband,  which  was  held  by  a  small  Sikh 
garrison,  and  by  1848  had  laid  waste  the  border  for  miles.  In  1853 
a  British  expedition  sent  against  the  tribe  secured  their  submission, 
but  in  1890  a  force  had  to  be  sent  to  coerce  the  Khiddarzai  clan. 

In  1899  an  agreement  was  concluded  with  the  tribe,  whereby  they 
agreed  to  pay  Rs.  2,000  as  revenue,  and  the  British  undertook  the 
internal  administration  of  the  country.  This  was  carried  on  success- 
fully until  1902,  when  the  Extra- Assistant  Commissioner  was  murdered 
hy  a.  Jamaddr  in  the  Shirani  levies.  The  murderer  was  joined  by 
thirty  or  forty  malcontents,  mostly  from  the  Khiddarzai  section  of  the 
Oba  Khel,  and  for  some  months  evaded  a  military  force  in  the  higher 
ranges  of  the  Takht-i-Sulaiman.  He  finally  made  good  his  escape  to 
Afghanistan  with  his  gang,  whence  they  come  raiding  from  time  to 
time. 

Shirhatti. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Sangli  State,  Bombay,  situated  in  15°  14'  N.  and  75°  39'  E., 
12  miles  south-east  of  Gadag  on  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway. 
Population  (1901),  4,393.  The  town  is  administered  as  a  municipality 
with  an  income  of  Rs.  1,200,  and  contains  a  dispensary.  The  three 
most  important  places  of  interest  are  the  fort,  Avlingva's  math,  and 
Fakirswami's  viath.  The  fort,  according  to  one  account,  was  built  by 
Khangavnda  Desai,  and  according  to  another  by  Ankushkhan  of 
Lakshmeshwar.  At  Shirhatti  a  fair  in  honour  of  Faklrswami  is  held 
in  April-May,  attended  by  about  30,000  people. 

Shirol.— Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Kolhapur  State,  Bombay,  situated  in  16°  44'  N.  and  74°  38'  E., 
about  4  miles  north  of  the  meeting  of  the  Panchganga  and  Kistna, 
and  about  6  miles  from  Shirol  Road  station  on  the  Kolhapur  State 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  7,864.  Shirol  is  administered  as  a 
municipality,  with  an  income  of  Rs.  2,000.  It  contains  two  large 
temples,  two  mosques,  and  a  tower.  Shirol  is  sometimes  called 
Ghumat  Shirol  or  '  Shirol-with-the-dome,'  because  it  used  to  contain 
the  large  domed  tomb  of  a  Bijapur  officer  named  Nur  Khan,  which 
Parasuram  Bhau  Patvardhan  is  said  to  have  destroyed  in  1779.  The 
town  is  guarded  by  a  ditch  and  a  wall  and  is  strengthened  by  an  inner 
citadel.  During  the  wars  between  Kolhapur  and  the  Patvardhans  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Shirol  changed  hands  several 
limes.  In  1780  it  was  finally  taken  by  Sivaji  III,  and  has  since 
remained  under  Kolhapur.  At  a  suburb  known  as  Narsoba  Vadi  a 
large  fair,  attended  by  10,000  people,  is  held  twice  a  year  in  honour 
of  Dattatraya. 


SHTVARAJPUR  293 

Shirpur  T2\uV.2i,—  TaIuka  of  \V('st  Khandesh  l^istrirt,  Bombay, 
lying  between  21''  11'  and  21°  38'  N.  and  74^^  42'  and  75°  17'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  651  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Shirpur  (popu- 
lation, 9,023),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  99  villages.  The  population 
in  1901  was  50,177,  compared  with  56,012  in  1891.  The  density, 
77  persons  per  square  mile,  is  only  about  half  the  average  for  the 
District.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-9  lakhs, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  12,000.  A  broken  range  of  the  Satpuras,  running 
from  east  to  west,  divides  Shirpur  into  two  parts,  each  with  distinct 
natural  features.  The  northern  part  comprises  a  wild  and  hilly 
country,  sparsely  peopled  by  Bhils.  The  southern  is  an  unbroken 
plain,  with  no  trees  except  near  village  sites.  The  population  is  dense 
near  the  banks  of  the  Tapti,  but  becomes  scanty  as  the  hills  are 
approached.  Although  the  tdluka  has  three  rivers  that  flow  throughout 
the  year — the  Tapti,  and  its  tributaries  the  Anar  and  the  Arunavati — 
and  numerous  other  streams  from  the  Satpuras,  the  supply  of  surface 
water  is  on  the  whole  scanty.  The  prevailing  black  soil  is  a  rich  loam 
resting  on  a  yellowish  subsoil.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  nearly 
24  inches, 

Shirpur  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name  in 
West  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  21°  21'  N.  and  74°  53'  E., 
on  the  Bombay-Agra  road,  33  miles  north  of  Dhulia.  Population 
(1901),  9,023.  Shirpur  suffered  severely  from  floods  in  1875,  when 
water  stood  in  places  6  feet  deep,  destroying  property  to  the  value  of 
Rs.  32,000.  It  has  been  a  municipality  since  1870,  with  an  average 
income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  9,700.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  9,800.  The  town  contains  four  cotton-ginning  and 
pressing  factories,  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  dispensary,  and  five 
schools,  with  552  pupils,  of  which  one,  with  20  pupils,  is  for  girls. 

Shivaganga. — Zamlnddri  tahsll,  estate,  and  town  in  Madura 
District,  Madras.     See  Sivaganga. 

Shivarajpur. —  Tahsil  of  Cawnpore  District,  United  Provinces, 
conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name,  lying  along  the 
Ganges  between  26°  31'  and  26°  46'  N.  and  79°  55^  and  80°  W  E., 
with  an  area  of  276  square  miles.  Population  increased  very  slightly 
from  147,823  in  1891  to  147,910  in  1901.  There  are  311  villages,  but 
no  town.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,75,000, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  44,000.  The  density  of  population,  536  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  above  the  District  average.  Along  the  Ganges  lies 
a  high  ridge  of  hard  barren  or  sandy  soil.  A  small  river,  called  the 
Non,  drains  a  fertile  tract  south  of  this  area,  and  the  rest  of  the  tahstl 
is  composed  of  rich  loam  through  which  the  Pandu  flows.  In  the  west 
extensive  swamps  and  clay  land  are  found,  where  rice  is  grown.  In 
1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  145  square  miles,  of  which  80 


294  SHIVA  RAJ  PUR 

were  irrigated.  The  Cawnpore  branch  of  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal 
supplies  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  irrigated  area. 

Shivbara.  -Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Shivganga. — Valley  in  the  Salt  Range,  Jhelum  District,  Punjab, 
situated  in  32°  43'  N.  and  72°  53'  E.,  3  miles  north-east  of  Malot.  In 
it  stands  a  small  temple  in  the  later  Kashmir  style  ;  and  near  Warala, 
a  hamlet  on  the  adjacent  spur,  a  Buddhist  sculpture  was  found  by  the 
villagers  some  years  ago  and  set  up  by  Hindus  in  a  small  temple  at 
Shivganga.  Having  recently  been  broken  and  thus  rendered  useless 
for  purposes  of  worship,  the  Hindus  allowed  its  fragments  to  be  sent  to 
the  I^ahore  Museum,  where  it  was  restored.  The  relief  originally  con- 
tained eighteen  or  nineteen  figures,  the  central  one,  a  Bodhisattva, 
carved  in  a  somewhat  late  stage  of  Gandhara  art. 

Shivner. — Hill  fort  of  the  town  of  Junnar,  in  the  Junnar  tdluka  of 
Poona  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  19°  12'  N.  and  73°  52'  E.,  not  far 
from  Harischandragarh,  and  about  56  miles  north  of  Poona  city.  The 
hill  of  Shivner  rises  over  1,000  feet,  and  stretches  about  a  mile  across 
the  plain.  It  is  triangular  in  shape,  narrowing  from  a  southern  base  of 
about  800  yards  to  a  point  of  rock  in  the  north.  Near  the  south,  the 
lower  slopes  of  its  eastern  face  are  crossed  by  a  belt  of  rock  40  or 
50  feet  high.  The  south-west  of  the  hill  is  broken,  and  about  half-way 
up  is  strengthened  by  outworks  and  bastioned  walls.  During  the  first 
and  second  and  probably  the  third  centuries  after  Christ,  the  hill 
seems  to  have  been  a  great  Buddhist  centre.  About  50  cells  and 
chapels  remain.  They  are  found  on  three  sides  of  the  hill,  but  most 
of  them  are  cut  in  its  eastern  face.  Shivner  was  granted  in  1599  to 
Sivaji's  grandfather,  Maloji  Bhonsla;  and  here  in  1627  Sivaji  was  born. 
It  was  often  taken  and  retaken  ;  and  once,  in  1670,  the  forces  of  SivajT 
himself  were  beaten  back  by  its  Mughal  garrison.  Besides  its  five 
gates  and  solid  fortifications,  it  is  celebrated  for  its  deep  springs.  They 
rise  in  pillared  tanks  of  great  depth,  supposed  to  be  coeval  with  the 
series  of  Buddhist  caves  which  pierce  the  lower  portion  of  the  scarp. 
The  fort  commands  the  road  leading  to  the  Nanaghat  and  Malsejghat, 
formerly  the  chief  line  of  communication  between  this  part  of  the 
Deccan  and  the  coast. 

[For  further  information  respecting  Shivner  fort  and  caves,  see  the 
Gazetteer-  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  vol.  xviii,  part  iii,  pp.  153-63, 
184-201  (Bombay,  1885).] 

Shiyali  Taluk. — North-eastern  taluk  of  Tanjore  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  11°  8'  and  ir°  25'  N.  and  79°  39'  and  79°  52'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  171  square  miles.  Its  boundaries  are  the  Coleroon,  the 
sea,  and  the  Mayavaram  taluk.  It  contains  one  town,  Shiyali  (popu- 
lation, 9,722),  the  head-quarters;  and  96  villages.  The  population  fell 
from  119,803  in  1891  to  116,563  in  1901,  and  includes  unusually  few 


SHOLAPUR    DISTRICT  295 

Muhammadans  or  Christians.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  4,06,000,  Being  .situated  in  the 
delta  of  the  Cauvery  river,  Shiyali  contains  much  more  '  wet '  land  than 
'  dry ' ;  but  this  is  generally  not  of  the  best  kind,  because  the  irrigation 
channels  have  deposited  most  of  their  fertilizing  silt  before  they  reach 
land  which  extends  so  far  towards  the  sea.  The  Coleroon  channels 
from  the  Lower  Anicut  give  a  better  deposit,  and  some  of  tliese  run 
through  the  taluk.  Its  position  on  the  coast  results  in  its  receiving 
the  large  rainfall  of  54  inches,  and  agriculturally  it  is  prosperous 
on  the  whole,  though  nearly  20  per  cent,  of  the  cultivable  area  is 
unoccupied. 

Shiyali  Town  {SIrgdii). — Head-quarters  of  the  tdhik  o{  the  same 
name  in  Tanjore  District,  Madras,  situated  in  11°  14'  N.  and  79*^  44'  E., 
with  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  South  Indian  Railway.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  9,722.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  famous  Tamil  poet 
and  saint,  Tirugnana  Sambandha,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventh  century.  In  the  Siva  temple  there  is  a  shrine  dedicated  to 
this  saint,  with  a  Chola  inscription  recording  a  gift.  There  are  two 
high  schools,  one  maintained  by  the  Leipzig  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Mission  and  the  other  by  a  native  gentleman.  Shiyali  is  noted  for 
mats  made  of  a  kind  of  Cyperus.  Cotton  cloths  are  also  woven  of  an 
inferior  kind. 

Sholapur  Agency. — A  Political  Charge,  consisting  of  a  single  Stale 
lying  south-east  of  Sholapur  District,  Bombay.     See  Akalkot. 

Sholapur  District.  —  District  in  the  Central  Division  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  lying  between  17°  8'  and  18°  t^^'  N.  and  74^"  37' 
and  76°  26'  E.,  with  an  area  of  4,541  square  miles.  Except  the  Barsi 
taluka,  which  is  surrounded  by  the  Nizam's  territory,  Sholapur  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Ahmadnagar  District  ;  on  the  east  by  the 
Nizam's  Dominions  and  the  State  of  Akalkot ;  on  the  south  by  Bijil- 
pur  District  and  the  States  of  Jath  and  Miraj ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Aundh  State,  Satara  District,  Phaltan  State,  and  Poona  and  Ahmadnagar 
Districts.  On  the  west,  in  some  places  Miraj  villages  are  included, 
and  isolated  Sholapur  villages  lie  beyond  the  District  limits. 

Except  north  of  Barsi,  west  of  Madha,  and  south-west  of  Malsiras 
and  of  Karmala,  where  there  is  a  good  deal  of  hilly  ground,  the  District 
is  generally  flat  or  undulating.     Most  of  the  surface  .     ^ 

rolls  in  long  low  uplands  separated  by  hollows,  with  aspects, 

an  occasional  level.  The  shallow  soil  of  the  uplands 
is  suited  for  pasture,  and  the  deep  soil  of  the  lowlands  under  care- 
ful tillage  yields  the  richest  crops.  The  uplands  are  gently  rounded 
swellings  of  trap,  overgrown  with  yellow  stunted  spear-grass.  The 
District  is  somewhat  bare  of  vegetation,  and  presents  in  many  parts 
a  bleak,  treeless  appearance.    The  chief  rivers  are  the  Bhima  and  its 


296  SHOLAPUR   DISTRICT 

tributaries  the  Man,  the  Nira,  and  the  Sina,  all  flowing  towards  the 
south-east,  with  the  exception  of  the  Man,  which  runs  north-east  for 
50  miles  within  the  limits  of  the  District.  Besides  these,  there  are 
several  minor  streams.  Of  the  principal  reservoirs,  Ekruk  and  Siddh- 
eswar  are  near  Sholapur  city,  one  is  at  Ashti,  one  is  at  Koregaon, 
and  one  at  Pandharpur,  and  there  are  also  water-supply  works  at  Barsi 
and  Karmala.  The  Ekruk  lake  is  one  of  the  largest  artificial  pieces  of 
water  in  the  Presidency. 

As  in  most  of  the  Deccan,  the  geological  formation  is  trap,  covered 
in  most  places  with  a  shallow  layer  of  very  light  soil,  and  in  parts 
with  a  good  depth  of  rich  loam  suited  for  cotton. 

The  flora  of  Sholapur  is  of  the  purely  Deccan  type.  Babul,  mango, 
mm,  and  p'lpal  are  the  only  timber  trees  found.  Among  flowering 
plants  the  most  common  are  Cleome,  Capparis,  Cassia,  Woodfordia, 
Vicoa,  Echinops,  Celosia,  and  several  species  of  Acacia. 

The  District  is  too  well  tilled  to  leave  much  cover  for  wild  beasts. 
The  jackal,  grey  fox,  antelope,  and  hare  are,  however,  common.  The 
commonest  game-birds  are  :  kalam  {Anthropoides  virgo),  black  and  grey 
partridges,  quail,  and  snipe.  Bustard  are  scarce.  The  maral  is  noted 
among  river  fish. 

The  climate^  except  from  March  to  May,  is  healthy  and  agreeable.  In 
the  hot  season,  March  to  June,  the  mean  temperature  is  83°,  very  hot 
and  oppressive  in  the  day-time,  but  cool  at  night ;  it  falls  to  52°  in 
November  and  rises  to  108°  in  May:  annual  mean  80°.  During  the 
cold  season,  from  November  to  February,  the  weather  with  keen  easterly 
and  north-easterly  winds  is  clear  and  bracing.  The  rainy  season  is 
pleasant ;  the  sky  is  more  or  less  overcast,  and  the  rain  falls  in  heavy 
showers,  alternating  with  intervals  of  sunshine.  The  annual  rainfall 
averages  26  inches,  being  on  the  whole  scanty  and  uncertain.  Barsi, 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  Balaghat  hills,  is  comparatively  well  off 
with  an  average  fall  of  28  inches,  while  Madha  and  Karmala  receive  26 
and  23  inches  respectively,  but  so  unevenly  distributed  that  only  one 
out  of  every  four  seasons  can  be  adjudged  really  satisfactory.  Malsiras 
has  the  lowest  average,  namely  22  inches. 

Sholapur  is  one  of  the  Districts  which  formed  the  early  home  of  the 
Marathas,  and  is  still  a  great  centre  of  the  Maratha  population.  In  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  (90  ?;.  c.-a.d.  230) 
it  probably  formed  part  of  the  territories  of  the  Sata- 
vahana  or  Andhra  dynasty,  whose  capital  was  Paithan  on  the  Godavari, 
about  150  miles  north-west  of  Sholapur  city.  During  the  nine  hundred 
years  previous  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Deogiri  Yadavas  by  the  Muham- 
madans  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Sholapur,  like  the 
neighbouring  Districts  of  Bijapur,  Ahmadnagar,  and  Poona,  was  held 
by  the  early  Chalukyas  from  550  to  750,  by  the  Rashtrakutas  to  973,  by 


POPULATION  297 

the  revived  or  Western  Chalukyas  to  1156,  and  by  the  Deogiri  Yadavas 
till  the  Muhamniadan  conquest  of  the  Deccan. 

The  first  Muhammadan  invasion  of  the  Deccan  took  place  in  1294, 
but  the  power  of  the  Deogiri  Yadavas  was  not  crushed  till  1318.  From 
1318  Maharashtra  began  to  be  ruled  by  governors  appointed  from  Delhi 
and  stationed  at  Deogiri,  which  name  was  changed  in  1338  by  Muham- 
mad bin  Tughlak  to  Daulatabad,  the  'abode  of  wealth.'  In  1346  there 
was  widespread  disorder,  and  Delhi  officers  plundered  and  wasted 
the  country.  These  cruelties  led  to  the  revolt  of  the  Deccan  nobles 
under  the  leadership  of  a  soldier  named  Hasan  Gangii.  The  nobles 
were  successful,  and  freed  the  Deccan  from  dependence  on  Northern 
India.  Hasan  founded  a  dynasty,  which  he  called  Bahmani  after  the 
Persian  from  whom  he  claimed  descent,  and  which  held  sway  over  the 
Deccan  for  nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  years.  In  1489  Yusuf  Adil  Shah, 
governor  of  Bijapur,  assumed  independence,  and  overran  all  the  country 
north  of  Bijapur  as  far  as  the  Bhima.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years 
Sholapur  belonged  either  to  the  Bijapur  or  to  the  Ahmadnagar  Sultans, 
as  the  one  or  the  other  succeeded  in  retaining  it.  In  1668,  by  the 
treaty  concluded  between  Aurangzeb  and  Ah  Adil  Shah  of  Bijapur, 
the  fort  of  Sholapur  and  territory  yielding  Rs.  6,30,000  of  revenue  was 
ceded  to  the  Mughals  as  the  price  of  peace.  The  general  decay  of  the 
Mughal  empire  from  1700  to  1750  opened  the  way  for  Maratha  supre- 
macy. In  1795'  the  Marathas  wrested  from  the  Nizam  his  Sholapur 
possessions.  The  greater  part  of  the  District  formed  a  portion  of  the 
Peshwa's  dominions.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Peshwa  430  villages 
passed  to  the  British,  the  decisive  actions  being  the  battles  of  Pan- 
dharpur  and  Ashta  (181 7-8)  and  the  siege  of  Sholapur  (1818).  To 
the  territory  taken  from  the  Marathas,  232  villages  ceded  by  the  Nizam 
were  added  in  1822,  and  488  more  villages  which  lapsed  in  1848  on 
the  death  of  the  Raja  of  Satara  brought  the  District  to  its  present 
dimensions.     It   has  been  a  Collectorate  since  1838. 

Traces  of  Yadava  rule  are  to  be  found  in  the  Hemadpanti  temples 
at  Bavi,  Mohol,  Malsiras,  Nateputa,  Velapur,  Pandharpur,  Pulunj, 
Kandalgaon,  Kasegaon,  and  Marde.  There  is  a  fine  old  well  dating 
from  this  period  at  Marde.  Musalman  architecture  is  represented 
by  the  tomb  of  one  of  the  daughters  of  Aurangzeb  at  the  village  of 
Begampur. 

There  are  7  towns  and  712  villages  in  the  District.  The  popula- 
tion is  approximately  the  same  as  it  was  in  1872.     At  the  last  four 

enumerations  it   has  been:    (1872)  720,203,  (1881) 

,   /       \  rni  Population. 

583,411,(1891)  750,689,  and  (1901)  720,977-     The 

decrease  of  19  per  cent,  in   1881  was  due  to  mortality  or  emigration 

in  the  famine  of  1876-8 ;  and  the  population  decreased  by  4  per  cent. 

during   the   last   decade   owing  to  the  famine    years    of    1 896-1 901. 


..;8 


SIIOLAPUK   DISTRICT 


Pari  of  this  decrease  lias  been  made  good  by  irimiigration  since  the 
famine.  The  distribution  by  tdliikas,  according  to  the  Census  of  1901, 
was  : — 


a 

a 

Number  of 

c 
0 

^e  of 
n  in 

891 
01. 

0 

Taliika- 

e 

0 
u 

a 

3 
0. 

*X3  dj 
3  3 

centa 
riatio 
ulatic 
een  i 
nd  19 

a  0  D  "^ 

< 

0 

> 

(2 

8-g" 
b 

Pi      a. 

Karmala  . 

772 

I 

123 

67,558 

88 

-  28 

2,893 

Barsi 

596 

2 

122 

139,435 

234 

-     5 

6,934 

Malsiras  . 

574 

69 

52,533 

92 

-29 

1,630 

Madha     , 

619 

89 

82,984 

•34 

-    10 

3,558 

Pandharpui 

478 

2 

83 

91,928 

192 

+    I 

4.817 

Sholapur. 

848 

I 

151 

203,905 

240 

+ 13 

11,442 

Sangola    . 

District  total 

654 

1 

75 

82,634 

127 
159 

+     5 

2,013 

4.541* 

7 

712* 

720,977 

-    4 

33,287 

*  The  Agricultural  department's  returns  give  the  total  area  334,547  square  miles  and  the 
total  number  of  villages  as  718. 

The  chief  towns  are  Sholapur,  Pandhakpur,  Barsi,  and  Kar- 
MAi.A.  The  predominant  language  is  Marathi,  which  is  spoken  by 
82  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Kanarese  is  spoken  in  the  south  of 
the  District  on  the  Bijapur  border.  Of  the  total  population,  gi  per 
cent,  are  Hindus  and  8  per  cent.  Musalmans. 

Among  Hindus,  Brahmans  number  29,000.  The  most  important  and 
the  oldest  settlers  of  this  caste  are  Deshasths  (24,000).  The  Vaishya 
Vanis  are  the  last  remnant  of  the  Hindu  traders  of  the  District,  who 
are  now  mainly  Lingayats  (51,000)  and  are  known  as  Lingayat  Vanis. 
Marathas  (220,000)  are  the  strongest  caste  numerically  and  are  mostly 
agriculturists.  MalTs  or  gardeners  (24,000),  found  throughout  the  Dis- 
trict, have  two  divisions,  Khirsagur  and  Raut.  Craftsmen  include  Salis, 
Koshtis,  Devang  and  other  weavers  (23,000),  and  Chamars  or  shoe- 
makers (16,000).  Dhangars  or  shepherds  (74,000)  have  three  divisions, 
Bargis,  Hatgars,  and  Kutigars,  which  neither  marry  nor  eat  together. 
Kolis  (10,000)  are  divided  into  Maratha  KolTs  and  Panbhari  Kolis. 
Mahars  (66,000)  and  Mangs  (28,000)  are  the  watchmen  and  scavengers 
of  the  old  village  community.  There  are  37,000  Muhammadan  converts 
from  Hinduism,  who  describe  themselves  as  Shaikhs.  The  population 
is  supported  mainly  by  agriculture  (60  per  cent.),  industries  and  com- 
merce supporting  19  per  cent,  and  one  per  cent,  respectively. 

In  1901,  1,555  native  Christians  were  enumerated,  most  of  whom  are 
converts  of  the  American  Maratha  Mission,  which  commenced  work  in 
the  District  in  1862.  There  are  churches  at  Sholapur,  Dhotre,  Vatvat, 
and  a  few  other  places.  The  American  Protestant  Congregational 
Mission  is  at  work  in  Karmala,  and  an  inter-denominational  village 
mission  has  a  branch  at  Pandharpur. 


AGRICULTURE 


299 


Agriculture. 


The  soil  of  Sholapur  is  of  three  kinds :  black,  coarse  grey,  or  reddish. 
Except  in  the  Barsi  tdbika,  where  black  soil  is  the  rule  and  coarse  grey 
is  rare,  most  of  the  District  is  either  grey  or  red.  The 
black  soil  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
and  large  streams.  On  garden  land  manure  is  always  used,  and  also  on 
'  dry-crop  '  land  when  available.  The  usual  mode  of  manuring  a  field 
is  by  turning  into  it  a  flock  of  sheep  and  goats,  for  whose  services 
their  owner  is  paid  according  to  the  length  of  their  stay.  Scarcity  of 
manure  is  the  main  reason  why  so  little  land  is  watered,  compared  with 
the  area  commanded  by  the  Ekruk  lake  and  other  water-works.  An 
industrious  farmer  ploughs  his  land  several  times  before  he  sows  it,  and 
weeds  it  several  times  while  the  crop  is  growing.  An  irregular  rotation 
of  crops  is  observed,  and  about  a  fifth  or  sixth  part  of  the  holding  is 
often  left  fallow.  As  a  rule,  the  poorer  landholders  neither  weed  nor 
manure  their  land.  They  run  a  light  plough  over  it,  sow  the  seed 
broadcast,  and  leave  it  to  itself.  They  expect  to  get  from  it  at  best 
merely  a  bare  food-supply  for  the  year ;  and  while  the  crop  is  ripening, 
they  supplement  their  field  profits  by  the  wages  of  labour.  Much  of  the 
best  land  is  in  the  hands  of  money-lenders,  who  have  either  bought  it 
or  taken  it  on  mortgage.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  for  the  petty  land- 
holders to  diminish,  and  the  land  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  men  of 
capital  who  employ  the  old  holders  as  their  tenants  or  labourers.  It 
may  be  accepted  that  only  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  agricultural  classes 
are  free  from  debt,  and  that  the  remaining  90  per  cent,  are  involved, 
and  require  advances  from  time  to  time.  The  Dekkhan  Agriculturists' 
Relief  Act,  by  protecting  their  property  from  attachment  and  sale  for 
debt,  has  rendered  this  necessity  less  urgent. 

The  District  is  almost  entirely  ryotzvdri,  only  about  7  per  cent,  being 
held  as  tndm  ox  jdgir  land.  The  chief  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4 
are  shown  below,  in  square  miles  : — 


Taluka. 

Total 
area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forest. 

Karmala    . 
Barsi 

Malsiras    . 
Madha 
Pandharpiir 
Sholapur   . 
Sangola      . 

Total 

772 
597 
574 
619 
478 
848 
659 

595 
536 

472 

521 
430 
725 
574 

14 
23 
18 
21 
13 
14 
24 

II 

5 
I 
I 

4 
2 

So 
13 
33 
49 
10 
60 
3  2 

4)547* 

3,853 

127 

24 

277 

The  figures  in  this  table  are  based  on  the  latest  information. 

The  staple  food-grain  of  the  District  is  \2,'i&  jowdr  (1,521  square 
miles).  In  Malsiras  and  Sangola  bojra  (521  square  miles)  is  equally 
important,     ^^'heat  (82  square  miles)  is  chiefly  an  irrigated  crop,  and 

vol,.  XXII.  u 


300  SHOLAPUR   DISTRICT 

is  of  inferior  quality.  Of  pulses,  titr  (155  square  miles)  and  gram 
(104)  are  important;  math  and  kulith  occupy  64  and  37  square  miles 
respectively.  Oilseeds  (292  square  miles)  are  grown  in  rows  among  the 
jowar.  Of  other  crops,  chillies  (9  square  miles),  cotton  (72  square 
miles),  and  5-a«-hemp  (45  square  miles)  are  the  most  important.  There 
has  been  a  gradual  tendency  of  late  years  to  discard  old  forms  of  field- 
implements  in  favour  of  more  modern  appliances  ;  and  especially  is  this 
the  case  with  iron  sugar-cane  presses  and  iron  ploughs.  The  latter  were 
exhibited  in  Bombay  in  1904,  and  have  been  ordered  by  several  culti- 
vators. Iron  lifts  for  wells  have  also  taken  the  place  of  leathern  bags 
in  many  places.  The  opening  of  cotton-mills  in  Sholapur  city  has  led 
the  people  to  pay  more  attention  to  seed-selection  and  staple ;  while 
the  better  kinds  of  manure  are  now  largely  employed  for  sugar-cane 
cultivation. 

During  the  ten  years  ending  1904,  18-3  lakhs  was  advanced  to 
agriculturists  under  the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans 
Acts.  Of  this  sum  5  lakhs  was  advanced  in  1896-7,  and  9  lakhs 
during  the  three  years  ending  190 1-2. 

The  chief  breeds  of  cattle  are  the  khildri,  raised  by  Dhangars  ;  the 
desi,  bred  by  Lamanis,  and  breeds  from  Malwa,  Gujarat,  and  Gokak 
in  Belgaum.  The  khilari  breed  is  the  best,  and  the  desi  is  the 
commonest.  Buffaloes  are  classed  as  gaulis  or  'milkmen's,'  and  desi 
or  'local.'  The  famine  of  1876  and  the  Afghan  War  of  1879  combined 
to  deprive  Sholapur  of  its  reputation  as  a  pony-breeding  District.  The 
Civil  Veterinary  department,  however,  maintains  3  pony  stallions  at 
Sholapur,  Sangola,  and  Karmala.  The  dry  plains  of  the  southern 
tdlukas  are  specially  suited  for  rearing  sheep  and  goats.  The  Dhangars 
breed  flocks  of  sheep,  and  the  poorer  classes  keep  goats.  Donkeys 
are  bred  by  Beldars  or  quarrymen,  and  pigs  are  reared  by  Vaddars  or 
earth-workers. 

The  chief  irrigation  works  in  Sholapur  District  are  the  Koregaon, 
Ashti,  Ekruk,  and  Mhasvad  lakes.  The  first  named  is  a  pre-British 
work  improved,  and  the  three  last  are  new  works.  Large  projects 
have  been  undertaken  at  Patri,  Budhihal,  Bhamburda,  Wadshivne, 
Flotgi,  and  Mangi.  The  total  area  under  irrigation  from  various 
sources  in  1903-4  was  127  square  miles.  Government  works  supplied 
12  square  miles,  private  canals  one  square  mile,  wells  11 1  square 
miles,  tanks  one  square  mile,  and  other  sources  2  square  miles. 
Koregaon  lake,  13  miles  north-east  of  Barsi,  is  formed  by  throwing 
two  earthen  dams  across  two  separate  valleys.  The  lake  has  now 
a  capacity  of  81,000,000  cubic  feet  and  supplies  282  acres  of  land, 
the  estimated  irrigable  area  being  nearly  2  square  miles.  The  Ashti 
lake  lies  in  the  Madha  /dh/ka,  t  2  miles  north-east  of  Pandharpur. 
The  lake  when   full    holds    1,419,000,000   cubic   feet  nf  water.      It   is 


TRADE   AND    COMMUXrCATIONS  301 

estimated  to  irrigate  ig  .square  miles,  and  actually  supplies  about 
2  square  miles.  The  Ekruk  lake,  the  largest  artificial  lake  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  lies  5  miles  north-east  of  Sholapur  city.  The 
lake  is  60  feet  deep  when  full,  and  holds  3,310,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
water.  It  supplies  4  and  commands  26  square  miles.  The  Mhasvad 
tank  in  Satara  District,  recently  constructed  by  throwing  a  dam  across 
the  Man  river,  supplies  7  square  miles  of  land  with  water,  and  could 
irrigate  38  square  miles.  The  capital  outlay  on  these  tanks  has  been 
(1903-4):  Mhasvad  21  lakhs,  Ekruk  13,  Koregaon  f,  and  Ashti 
8  lakhs.  There  are  24,629  wells  in  the  District,  with  an  average 
depth  of  15  to  40  feet,  of  which  20,865  are  used  for  irrigation. 

The  dry,  shallow  soil  of  the  uplands  of  Sholapur  is  ill-suited  for 
trees.  The  District  now  possesses  219  square  miles  of  'reserved'  land 
under  the  Forest  department.  The  fodder  reserves 
and  pasture  land  in  charge  of  the  Revenue  depart- 
ment amount  to  58  square  miles.  There  are  no  '  protected '  forests. 
The  forest  area  is  much  scattered.  It  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
two  tracts  :  on  the  hills  between  Barsi  and  the  Nizam's  territories  in 
the  extreme  north-east,  and  on  the  hills  to  the  south  of  Malsiras  and 
Sangola  in  the  extreme  south-west.  Before  December,  187 1,  when 
forest  conservancy  was  introduced,  Sholapur  was  extremely  bare  of 
trees  and  brushwood.  In  the  whole  of  the  forest  area,  no  timber- 
cutting  rights  are  admitted  to  exist.  The  forest  lands  are  of  two 
classes  :  scrub  forest  and  babul  meadows.  The  scrub  forest  is  found 
on  the  hills,  and  babid  meadows  occur  all  over  the  District. 

Forest  receipts  are  comparatively  small,  being  only  Rs.  18,000  in 
1903-4.  About  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  Reserves  are  yearly  leased 
for  grazing ;  the  remainder  are  leased  yearly  for  grass-cutting,  and  in 
these  tree  plantations  are  formed.  The  timber  of  the  babul  and  the 
7iim  are  used  for  fuel,  and  also  for  making  beams,  posts,  doors,  carts, 
ploughs,  and  other  implements.  The  bark  of  the  babul  and  of  the 
tarvad  {Cassia  auriculata)  is  used  for  tanning,  and  the  pods  as  well 
as  the  flowers  of  the  palas  {Butea  frondosa)  for  dyeing.  The  bark  of 
the  apta  is  made  into  ropes.  The  forests  are  in  charge  of  an  Extra- 
Assistant  Conservator, 

Except  trap  or  basalt  used  as  building  stone  and  for  road-metal, 
and  nodular  limestone  used  in  cement,  Sholapur  has  no  mineral 
products. 

The  chief  industries  are  spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing.     Silks  and 
the    finer   sorts  of  cotton  cloth,  such  as  dhotis   and  women's   saris, 
prepared  in  Sholapur,  bear  a  good  name.     Blankets 
are   also   woven   in  large   numbers.     Besides    hand-  communications. 
loom  weaving,  3  cotton-mills,  with   144,520  spindles 
and   528   looms,  have   been  established,   which    give   employment    to 

u  2 


302  SHOLAPUR   DTSTRICr 

5,239  hands,  and  turn  out  14,000,000  pounds  of  yarn  and  2,000,000 
pounds  of  cloth.  The  mill  of  the  Sholapur  Spinning  and  Weaving 
Company  began  working  at  Sholapur  city  in  1877  with  a  nominal 
capital  of  8  lakhs.  In  addition  to  the  cotton-mills,  there  are  2  ginning 
factories,  employing  about  174  operatives.  Oil-presses  of  the  native 
type  are  worked  by  Tells  in  many  places,  and  saltpetre  is  manufactured 
to  some  extent  by  Mahars  and  Mangs. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  railway,  trade  has  greatly  increased.  Next 
to  cotton,  a  large  proportion  of  which  comes  from  other  Districts,  the 
chief  exports  are  oil,  oilseeds,  ghi,  turmeric,  and  cotton  cloth.  The 
imports  are  salt,  piece-goods,  yarn,  gunny-bags,  and  iron-ware.  Trade 
is  carried  on  at  the  towns  and  in  markets,  fairs,  village  shops,  and 
also  by  travelling  carriers.  The  largest  centres  of  internal  trade  are 
Sholapur  city,  Barsi,  and  Pandharpur ;  and  next  to  these  Vairag, 
Madha,  Mohol,  Karmala,  Akluj,  Nateputa,  and  Sangola.  The  traders 
are  chiefly  Lingayats,   Bhatias,   Hindu  Vanis,  and  Marwaris. 

The  south-east  line  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  which 
connects  with  the  Madras  Railway  at  Raichur,  passes  through  the 
District  with  a  length  of  115  miles,  p'rom  Hotgi  near  Sholapur  city, 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway  runs  south 
towards  Bijapur,  for  a  distance  of  about  8  miles  within  the  District. 
At  Barsi  Road  a  pioneer  enterprise  in  light  railways  connects  Barsi 
town  with  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  This  line,  which  is 
on  a  2  foot  6  inch  gauge,  was  opened  in  1897.  Extensions  of  the 
Barsi  Light  Railway  to  Tadwalla,  27  miles  from  Barsi  town,  and 
to  Pandharpur,  were  opened  in  1906.  There  are  (1904)  567  miles 
of  roads  in  the  District,  of  which  140  miles  are  metalled.  Of  these 
the  Poona-Hyderabad  trunk  road  is  the  most  important,  traversing 
the  District  in  a  south-easterly  direction  for  78  miles.  Except  341  miles 
of  unmetalled  roads  in  charge  of  the  local  authorities,  all  these  roads 
are  maintained  by  the  Public  A\'orks  department.  The  Barsi  Light 
Railway  Company  maintains  and  repairs  21  miles  of  metalled  road. 

The  earliest  recorded  famine  is  the  great  Durga-devi  famine,  which 
began  about  1396  and  is  said  to  have  lasted  nearly  twelve  years. 
.  Next  came  the  famine  of  1460.     About  1520  a  great 

famine  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  military  hordes 
destroying  and  plundering  the  crops.  The  famine  of  1791  was  very 
severe,  especially  in  the  Carnatic,  where  the  crops  entirely  failed.  In 
the  Deccan  the  yield  was  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  usual  out-turn  ; 
and  as  thousands  flocked  from  the  Carnatic  to  the  Deccan  for  food, 
the  distress  became  very  severe.  During  this  famine  grain  sold  at 
3  seers  a  rupee.  In  1802  the  plunder  and  destruction  of  crops  by 
Holkar  and  the  Pindaris  caused  a  serious  scarcity,  which  the  failure 
of  the  rains  in  October  and  November,  1803,  turned  into  a  famine  of 


ADMINISTRA  TION  303 

terrible  severity.  In  18 18,  owing  partly  to  the  ravages  of  the  Pcshwa's 
armies,  and  partly  to  the  failure  of  crops,  the  District  again  suffered 
from  famine,  accompanied  by  cholera,  which  destroyed  thousands. 
Other  famines  or  scarcities  occurred  in  1824,  1832-3,  1845,  1854, 
1862,  1876-7,  1896-7,  and  1899-1900,  owing  to  scanty  rainfall. 

In  the  famine  of  1876-7  the  District  suffered  very  severely.  At 
the  height  of  distress  the  largest  number  on  works  was  95,617  in 
January,  1877.  ^  considerable  number  of  people  left  the  District 
and  went  to  Berar  and  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  and  many  cattle  died. 
During  the  cold  season  of  1879,  ^''^"^  January  to  March,  swarms  of 
rats  and  mice  appeared  and  about  seven-eighths  of  the  crops  were 
wholly  destroyed.  The  scanty  rainfall  of  1896  caused  a  failure  of  the 
crops  throughout  the  whole  of  the  District,  thus  necessitating  relief 
measures.  The  largest  number  on  works  was  124,800  in  April.  The 
maximum  number  on  gratuitous  relief  was  15,600  in  September. 
The  distress  continued  till  the  end  of  November.  The  last  scarcity, 
which  extended  over  two  consecutive  years,  was  in  1 899-1 901.  In 
October,  1899,  relief  works  were  opened  which  continued  till  October, 
1902.  The  maximum  on  relief  was  reached  in  April,  1900,  when 
nearly  156,000  persons  were  on  works  and  13,000  in  receipt  of 
gratuitous  relief.  By  August,  1900,  the  number  on  gratuitous  relief 
had  reached  25,000.  The  excess  of  mortality  over  the  normal  in 
1 899-1 900  was  18,800,  and  it  is  calculated  that  70,000  cattle  died. 
Including  advances  to  agriculturists  and  weavers,  and  remissions  of 
land  revenue,  the  famine  in  this  District  alone  cost  the  state  84  lakhs. 
More  than  io|  lakhs  was  advanced  under  the  Land  Improvement  and 
Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts. 

The   District   consists  of  seven   fdliikas,  in  two  subdivisions   under 

an  Assistant  Collector  and  a  Deputy-Collector.     The    ^  ,    ...     .. 

_        ^    ^-1         _         _,_  Administration. 

tdhikas   are   Sholapur,   Madha,  Karmala,   Barsi, 

Pandharpur,  Sangola,  and   Malsiras.     The   Collector   is    Political 

Agent  of  the  State  of  Akalkot. 

The  District  and  Sessions  Judge  at  Sholapur  is  assisted  for  civil 
business  by  six  Subordinate  Judges.  There  are  twenty-eight  officers 
to  administer  criminal  justice  in  the  District.  The  proximity  of  the 
Nizam's  Dominions  facilitates  dacoities  by  small  bands  of  bad  characters, 
who  take  refuge  across  the  frontier.  The  commonest  forms  of  crime 
are  theft  and  hurt. 

Sholapur  is  mainly  ryohvdri.  The  revenue  history  of  the  District 
differs  little  from  that  of  Ahmadnagar  and  Poona,  of  which  many  of 
the  villages  once  formed  a  part.  Like  those  Districts,  Sholapur,  after 
a  few  years  of  rapid  advance  after  British  annexation,  suffered  from 
1825  onwards  from  low  prices,  and  large  remissions  had  in  consequence 
to  be  granted.     In   1830  the  old  rates  were  replaced  by  Mr.  Pringle's 


304 


SHOLAPUR   DISTRICT 


settlemenl ;  but  the  new  rates  again  proved  excessive,  mainly  owing  to 
the  bad  seasons  which  followed  their  introduction,  and  in  consequence 
temporary  rates  were  granted  between  1836  and  1839  on  more  favour- 
able terms.  In  1840  a  regular  revenue  survey  settlement  was  commenced 
by  Captain  AVingate,  and  was  gradually  introduced  into  the  whole  of  the 
District.  The  revision  survey  of  the  Madha  tahika  led  to  revised  rates 
being  introduced  in  that  tdluka  in  1869  70  and  extended  to  the  whole 
of  the  District  by  1874.  In  October,  1874,  in  consequence  of  the 
marked  fall  in  produce  prices  during  the  three  previous  years,  Govern- 
ment decided  that  it  was  advisable  to  limit,  and  in  some  cases  to 
reduce,  the  amount  of  the  enhancements  made  at  the  revised  survey 
settlement.  The  reductions  made  were  from  74  to  38  per  cent,  in 
Madha,  from  77  to  44  per  cent,  in  Sholapur,  from  76  to  46  per  cent, 
in  Pandharpur,  and  from  62  to  42  per  cent,  in  Barsi.  The  revision 
survey  of  1874-94  found  an  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  of  0-4  per 
cent.,  and  the  settlement  enhanced  the  total  revenue  by  27  per  cent, 
in  the  three  tahtkas  for  which  details  arc  available.  The  average  rates 
per  acre  fixed  by  this  survey  are:  'dry'  land,  8  annas;  garden  land, 
J  5  annas  ;  and  rice  land,  Rs.  1-6. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

15.42 

21,77    i 

1 

Land  re\eniie 
T0t.1l  revenue 

10,61 
14,46 

11,94 
16,89 

9.4' 
14,57 

There  are  five  municipalities— Sholapuk,  Baksi,  Karmala,  San- 
(iOLA,  and  I'ANDHAKruK — with  a  total  income  averaging  2-8  lakhs. 
Aniong  special  sources  of  municipal  income  are  a  pilgrim  tax  at  Pan- 
dharpur and  a  water  rate  at  Sholapur.  The  District  board  and  seven 
tdluka  boards  had  an  income  of  1-5  lakhs  in  1903-4,  the  principal 
source  being  the  land  cess.  'I'he  expenditure  amounted  to  1-2  lakhs, 
ini^luding  Rs.  45,000  devoted  to  the  maintenance  and  construction 
of  roads  and  buildings. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  aided  by  two  Assistants  and 
one  inspector.  There  are  12  police  stations  in  the  District.  The  total 
strength  of  the  police  force  is  579:  namely,  9  chief  constables,  109 
head  constables,  and  461  constables.  The  mounted  police  number 
7,  under  one  daffadar.  There  are  8  subsidiary  jails  in  the  District, 
with  accommodation  for  197  prisoners.  The  daily  average  number 
of  prisoners  in   1904  was   70,  of  whom  5   were  females. 

Sholapur  stands  fifteenth  as  regards  literac)'  among  the  twenty-four 
Districts  of  the  Presidency.      In  1901  onl\  4-7  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 


SHOLAPUR    CITY  305 

lion  (8-9  males  and  0-4  females)  could  read  and  write.  In  1881  there 
were  1 74  schools  with  7,060  pupils.  The  number  of  pupils  increased 
to  14,711  in  1891  and  to  14,984  in  1901.  In  1903-4  the  number 
of  educational  institutions  was  297,  comprising  2  high  schools,  7 
middle,  and  258  primary  schools,  one  training  school,  2  industrial 
schools,  and  one  commercial  school;  and  the  number  of  pupils  was 
6,162,  including  547  girls.  Of  the  271  schools  classed  as  public, 
one  is  managed  by  Government,  176  by  local  boards,  36  by  munici- 
palities, 57  are  aided,  and  2  are  unaided.  The  total  expenditure  on 
education  in  1903-4  was  \\  lakhs,  of  which  Provincial  revenues  con- 
tributed Rs.  47,000,  Local  funds  Rs.  27,000,  and  fees  Rs.  16,000. 
Of  the  total,  70  per   cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  contains  two  hospitals,  including  one  for  females, 
8  dispensaries,  one  leper  asylum,  and  3  other  medical  institutions, 
with  accommodation  for  83  in-patients.  Tn  1904  the  number  of 
patients  treated  was  151,682,  of  whom  1,118  were  in-patients,  and 
3,802  operations  were  performed.  The  total  expenditure  on  the 
civil  hospital  and  8  dispensaries  and  the  leper  asylum  was  Rs.  24,667, 
of  which  Rs.  15,229  was  met  from  Local  and  municipal  funds. 

The  number  of  people  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  w'as  18,000, 
representing  25  per  1,000  of  population,  which  is  slightly  higher  than 
the  average  of  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Bombay  Gazetteer,  vol.  xx  (1884)  ;  W.  W .  Loch, 
Historical  Account  of  the  Poona,  Sdtdra,  and  Sholdpur  Districts  (1877).] 

Sholapur  Taluka.  —  South-eastern  tdluka  of  Sholapur  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  17°  22'  and  17°  50'  N.  and  75°  ^Ty'  and 
76°  26"  E.,  with  an  area  of  848  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town, 
Sholapur  (population,  75,288),  the  head-quarters;  and  151  villages. 
The  population  in  1901  was  203,905,  compared  with  180,630  in 
1 89 1.  It  is  the  most  thickly  populated  tdluka  in  the  District,  with 
a  density  of  240  persons  per  square  mile.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  1903-4  was  2-6  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  18,000.  The 
tdluka  is  undulating  and  devoid  of  trees,  rising  in  places  into  small 
hillocks  showing  bare  rock.  The  climate  is  dry ;  the  cold  season 
is  clear  and  bracing.  The  two  chief  rivers  are  the  Bhima  and  the 
Sina.  The  Bhima  forms  the  southern  boundary  for  about  35  miles  ; 
and  the  Sina  runs  south  through  the  tdluka  for  about  40  miles. 

Sholapur  City  {Solapur  =  ' %\yX&&c\  villages').— Head-quarters  of 
Sholapur  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  17°  40'  N.  and  75°  54'  E., 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1881),  61,281, 
(1891)  61,915,  and  (1901)  75,288.  Hindus  number  55,988;  Muham- 
madans,  16,103;  Jains,  1,206;  and  Christians,  1,681. 

The  strong  fort  in  the  south-west  corner  of  the  city,  surrounded 
by  a  ditch,  is  ascribed  to  Hasan  Gangu,  the  founder  of  the  Bahmani 


3o6  SHOLAPUR   CITY 

dynasty  (1347).  On  the  dissolution  of  that  kingdom  in  1489,  Shola- 
pur  was  held  by  Zain  Khan  ;  but  during  the  minority  of  his  son  it  was 
in  151 1  besieged  and  taken  by  Kamal  Khan,  who  annexed  it  with  the 
surrounding  districts  to  the  Bijapur  kingdom.  In  1523  Sholapur  formed 
part  of  the  dowry  of  Ismail  Adil  Shah's  sister,  given  in  marriage  to 
the  king  of  Ahmadnagar.  But  not  being  handed  over  to  Ahmadnagar, 
it  was  for  forty  years  a  source  of  constant  quarrels  between  the  two 
dynasties,  until  it  was  given  back  to  Bijapur  as  the  dowry  of  the 
Ahmadnagar  princess  Chand  Bibl  (1562).  In  1668,  in  accordance 
with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Agra,  Sholapur  fort  passed  to  the 
Mughals,  from  whose  possession  it  fell  to  the  Nizam  in  1723,  at  the 
time  when  Ramchandra  Pant,  the  Maratha,  threw  off  his  allegiance 
to  Muhammad  Shah  the  emperor.  In  1795  ^'^  W'^''  ceded  by  the 
Nizam  to  the  Marathas,  after  the  battle  of  Kharda.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  with  the  Peshwa  in  181 8,  it  was  stormed  by  General  Munro. 
Since  then  the  city  has  been  steadily  increasing  in  importance.  Its 
convenient  situation  between  Poona  and  Hyderabad  has  made  it, 
especially  since  the  opening  of  the  railway  in  1859,  the  centre  for 
the  collection  and  distribution  of  goods  over  a  large  extent  of  coun- 
try. The  chief  industry  of  Sholapur  is  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
cotton  cloth,  more  than  12,000  persons  being  engaged  as  hand-loom 
weavers,  spinners,  and  dyers.  Sholapur  has  one  spinning  and  weaving 
mill  and  two  spinning-mills.  The  first  mill,  belonging  to  the  Sholapur 
Spinning  and  Weaving  Company,  was  opened  in  1877,  with  a  capital 
of  8  lakhs.  The  three  mills  have  528  looms  and  144,520  spindles, 
giving  employment  to  more  than  5,000  persons.  The  total  capital 
invested  is  30  lakhs. 

Sholapur  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  a  large  plain  1,800  feet  above 
sea-level,  on  the  watershed  of  the  Adila,  a  feeder  of  the  Sina.  To  the 
south-west,  close  to  the  city  wall,  lies  the  fort,  and  farther  on  are  the 
officers'  bungalows  of  the  old  cavalry  lines,  now  mostly  occupied  by 
railway  servants  and  the  railway  station.  To  the  south  is  the  Siddh- 
eswar  lake,  with  a  temple  in  the  centre.  On  the  south-east  bank  of  the 
lake  is  the  municipal  garden;  and  about  1,000  yards  more  to  the 
south-east  are  the  Collector's  office  and  bungalow.  About  100  to  500 
yards  south-west  of  the  Collector's  office  stretch  the  officers'  bungalows 
of  the  old  cantonment ;  to  the  west  of  the  officers'  bungalows  are  the 
Protestant  church  and  the  post  office.  The  chief  public  building  is 
the  Ripon  Hall.  The  old  military  cantonment  of  Sholapur  has  been 
transferred  to  the  civil  authorities,  and  is  included  within  municipal 
limits.     No  troops  are  now  stationed  here. 

Sholapur  was  formerly  enclosed  by  a  wall  2\  miles  in  circuit.  About 
1872,  to  give  room  to  the  growing  town,  the  municipality  pulled  down 
the  whole  of  the  east  wall  and  parts  on  the  south-west  and  north.     The 


SHOLINGHUK  307 

walls,  where  still  standing,  are  8  to  10  feet  high,  4  to  6  feet  wide  at  the 
base,  and  3  to  4  feet  wide  at  the  top. 

The  fort  is  an  irregular  oblong  about  230  yards  by  176,  enclosed  by 
a  double  line  of  lofty  battlemented  and  towered  walls  of  rough  stone 
10  to  20  yards  apart,  and  surrounded,  except  on  the  east  or  Siddheswar 
lake  side,  by  a  wet  moat  100  to  150  feet  broad  and  15  to  30  deep.  The 
whole  work  is  Muhammadan,  the  outer  wall  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  the  inner  wall  and  four  great  square  towers  from  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  outer  wall,  with  battle- 
mented curtains  and  four  corner  and  twenty-three  side  towers  pierced 
for  musketry,  and  with  openings  and  vaulted  chambers  for  cannon,  rises 
20  to  30  feet  from  the  edge  of  the  moat.  About  20  yards  behind,  the 
inner  wall,  also  towered  and  battlemented,  rises  5  to  10  feet  above 
the  outer  wall.  It  has  about  twenty-five  towers,  exclusive  of  the  four 
square  towers. 

The  houses  in  the  city  are  mostly  built  of  mud,  but  sometimes  of 
stone  and  burnt  bricks,  and  are  covered  with  flat  roofs.  On  account  of 
the  absence  of  any  high  ground  in  the  neighbourhood,  Sholapur  is  011 
all  sides  exposed  to  the  winds.  The  climate,  except  during  the  months 
of  March,  April,  and  May,  is  agreeable  and  healthy.  The  municipality, 
established  in  1853,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  end- 
ing 1 901  of  i^  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  2\  lakhs,  including 
loans  from  Government  (Rs.  45,000)  and  octroi  dues  (Rs.  60,000). 
Water-works,  constructed  by  the  municipality  between  1879  and  1881, 
give  a  daily  supply  of  about  13  gallons  a  head.  The  water  is  drawn 
from  the  Ekruk  lower  level  canal  through  a  line  of  lo-inch  pipes  into 
a  settling  tank,  and  thence  pumped  by  steam-power.  Sholapur  has 
39  schools,  attended  by  1,425  boys  and  638  girls,  including  a  Govern- 
ment high  school  with  165  pupils,  four  middle  schools,  one  normal 
school,  an  industrial  and  a  commercial  school.  There  is  also  a 
kindergarten  class  supported  by  the  American  Mission.  Besides 
the  chief  revenue  and  judicial  offices  there  are  two  Subordinate 
Judges'  courts,  two  hospitals,  of  which  one  is  for  females,  and  four 
dispensaries.  Sholapur  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  American  Pro- 
testant Mission,  which  has  branches  at  8  villages  in  the  Sholapur 
tdluka. 

Sholinghur. — Town  in  the  Walajapet  taluk  of  North  Arcot  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  13°  7'N.  and  79°25'E.  Population  (1901),  6,442. 
The  station  of  the  same  name  on  the  Madras  Railway  is  i\  miles 
from  the  town.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  contraction  of  the  words 
Chola-linga-puram,  and  to  have  been  given  to  it  because  one  of  the 
Chola  kings  here  found  a  natural  Hngam  and  built  a  shrine  over  it 
called  the  Choleswara  or  Sholeswara  temple.  I'he  town  is  extensive, 
and  a  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  in  its  bazars  and  at  its  weekly  fair  : 


3o8  SHOLINGHUR 

bill  the  place  derives  its  chief  importance  from  its  temples.  Besides 
that  of  Sholeswara,  another  shrine  witliin  the  town  is  dedicated  to 
Bhaktavatsala.  This  is  of  fine  proportions  and  is  tliought  to  have 
been  built  by  one  of  the  Vijayanagar  kings.  The  other  chief  temples 
lie  outside  the  town.  The  most  celebrated  is  that  of  Narasimhaswami, 
situated  upon  the  summit  of  the  loftiest  hill  in  the  neighbourhood. 
From  it  a  magnificent  view  may  be  obtained  of  the  country  round, 
with  its  reservoirs  and  fertile  cultivation.  Upon  a  lower  hill  to  the 
east  is  a  temple  to  Anjaneyaswami  which,  though  not  so  pretentious 
as  its  neighbour  architecturally,  enjoys  an  equally  wide  reputation. 
Women  suffering  from  dementia  or  hysteria  (who  are  supposed  to  be 
possessed  by  evil  spirits)  are  brought  to  it  to  be  cured.  Another  fine 
shrine  lies  below  the  Narasimhaswami  hill.  It  is  now  in  ruins,  having 
been  struck,  it  would  appear,  by  lightning,  and  its  finely  carved  columns 
lie  about  in  confusion.  There  are  very  many  sacred  pools  or  tirthaiiis 
round  Sholinghur,  the  chief  being  the  Brahma  tlrtham^  in  which  people 
bathe  on  Thursdays.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Sholinghur,  in  1781, 
was  fought  the  battle  between  Sir  Eyre  Coote  and  Haidar  Alt  in 
which  the  latter  lost  heavily.  Two  large  Muhammadan  tombs  by  the 
side  of  the  road  on  the  south  of  the  town  mark  the  spot  where  the 
bodies  of  the  slain  of  the  My.sore  army  were  interred  in  two  common 
graves. 

Shorapur. — Taluk  and  town  of  Gulbarga  District,  Hyderabad 
State.     See  Surapur. 

Shorarud. — Sub-/r?/m/ of  Quetta-Pishin  District,  Baluchistan.  See 
Qui':  IT  A  TahsTl. 

Shorkot  Tahsil.  —  T^/wJ/ of  Jhang  District,  Punjab,  lying  between 
30°  35'  and  31°  17'  N.  and  71°  37'  and  72°  31''  E.,  with  an  area  of 
916  square  miles.  It  lies  on  both  banks  of  the  Chenab.  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  95,136,  the  density,  104  persons  per  square  mile, 
being  lower  than  in  the  more  fully  irrigated  taJis'iIs  of  the  District.  It 
contains  176  villages,  including  Shorkot,  which  is  a  place  of  some  his- 
torical interest.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1905-6  amounted  to 
1-8  lakhs.  The  north-west  of  the  /rt//.^// occupies  a  corner  of  the  great 
desert  plateau  of  the  Thai.  The  lowlands  on  either  side  of  the  Chenab 
are  studded  with  prosperous  villages,  picturesquely  situated  among  palm 
groves.  Farther  towards  the  east,  past  Shorkot  town,  the  ancient  site 
of  which  forms  a  conspicuous  landmark,  is  a  remnant  of  the  old  Jangal 
Bar,  which  soon  gives  place  to  the  highly  cultivated  lands  watered  by 
the  Chenab  Canal. 

Shorkot  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
J  hang  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  48'  N.  and  72°  8'  E.,  among  the 
lowlands  of  the  Chenab,  about  4  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
and  36   miles   south-west  of  Jhang  town.     Population  (1901),  3,907. 


SnUJABAD    TAHSiL  309 

The  modern  town  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  huge  mound  of  ruins, 
marking  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  large  antique  bricks,  and  so  high  as  to  be  visible  for  8  miles 
around.  Gold  coins  are  frequently  washed  out  of  the  ruins  after  rain. 
Cunningham  identified  Shorkot  with  one  of  the  towns  of  the  Malli 
attacked  and  taken  by  Alexander.  He  also  inferred,  from  the  evidence 
of  coins,  that  the  town  flourished  under  the  Greek  kings  of  Ariana  and 
the  Punjab,  as  well  as  under  the  Indo-Scythian  dynasties  up  to  a.d.  250. 
It  was  probably  destroyed  by  the  White  Huns  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  reoccupied  in  the  tenth  by  the  Brahman  kings  of  Ohind  and  the 
Punjab.  The  modern  town  is  of  little  importance.  It  is  surrounded 
by  fine  groves  of  date-palms.  Many  of  the  buildings  are  lofty,  but  most 
are  more  or  less  in  ruins.  Shorkot  is  now  administered  as  a  '  notified 
area.' 

Shravan  Belgola.  —  Village  in  Hassan  District,  Mysore.  See 
Sravana  Belgola. 

Shrigonda  Taluka.  —Southern  taluka  of  x\hmadnagar  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  18°  27' and  18°  54'  N.  and  74°  23'  and  74"^ 
56'  E.,  with  an  area  of  615  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  ShrI- 
GONDA  (population,  5,415),  the  head-quarters;  and  83  villages.  The 
population  in  1901  was  61,240,  compared  with  66,658  in  1891.  The 
density,  100  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-4  lakhs,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  10,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  taluka  lies  in  the  valley  of  the 
Bhima,  and  has  a  gentle  slope  from  the  north-east  towards  that  river  on 
the  south  and  its  tributary  the  Ghod  on  the  south-west.  For  the  most 
part  it  is  a  level  plain,  with  an  average  elevation  of  1,900  feet  above  sea- 
level,  skirted  on  the  north-east  by  a  chain  of  low  hills  with  flat  summits, 
ox pathdrs,  which  have  a  uniform  elevation  of  about  2,500  feet.  Towards 
the  hills  the  soil  is  generally  of  a  very  poor  description.  That  of  the 
centre  of  the  taluka  is  tolerably  fertile  ;  but  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Bhima  deep  clayey  soils  prevail  which  require  much  labour  in  their 
cultivation,  and  only  yield  good  crops  in  years  of  plentiful  rainfall.  The 
old  trunk  road  from  Ahmadnagar  enters  the  taluka  on  the  north  at  the 
fifteenth  mile  from  Ahmadnagar  city  and  runs  south.  The  Dhond- 
Manmad  Railway  completely  traverses  the  taluka  from  north  to  south. 

Shrigonda  Town  (also  called  Chamargonda,  from  Govind,  a  pious 
Chamar).— Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name  in  Ahmad- 
nagar District,  Bombay,  situated  in  i8°37'N.  and  74°  42'  E.,  32  miles 
south  of  Ahmadnagar  city.  Population  (1901),  5,415-  It  '""^s  four 
temples,  and  two  mansions  belonging  to  Maharaja  Sindhia  of  Gwalior. 

Shujabad  Tahsil.  77?//5J/  of  Multan  District,  Punjab,  lying  be- 
tween 29°  22'  and  30°  \'  N.  and  71°  2'  and  71*  31'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
680  square  miles.    The  Chenilb  bounds  it  on  its  longest  (north-west) 


3IO  SHUJABAD    TAHSlL 

border.  Above  the  Chenab  lowlands,  which  are  subject  to  periodical 
inundation  from  the  river,  is  a  high-lying  tract  of  Bar  country  mainly 
unirrigated.  The  surface  of  the  country  slopes  away  towards  the 
junction  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  Chenab  in  the  south-west  corner.  The 
population  in  1901  was  124,907,  compared  with  114,714  in  1891.  It 
contains  the  towns  of  Shujabad  (population,  5,880),  the  head-quarters, 
and  Jalalpur  (5,149);  and  148  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  3-2  lakhs. 

Shujabad  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahs'il  oi  the  same  name  in 
Multan  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  29°  53'  N.  and  71°  18'  E.,  5  miles 
east  of  the  Chenab,  on  the  North-Western  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
5,880.  The  town,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  was  founded  in 
1750  by  Nawab  Shuja  Khan,  a  kinsman  of  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  and 
Subahddr  of  Multan.  His  son,  Muzaffar  Khan,  who  governed  Multan 
from  1779  to  1818,  greatly  advanced  the  prosperity  of  the  town  and 
built  the  Jahaz  Mahal,  which  contains  some  curious  frescoes  said  to 
represent  Arabian  cities,  and  had  a  beautiful  marble  floor,  since 
removed  to  the  public  library  at  Multan.  The  building  is  now  used 
as  a  tahs'il  court.  Having  capitulated  to  Edwardes  in  j  848  after  the 
action  at  Kineri,  it  was  used  as  a  commissariat  depot  throughout  the 
siege  of  Multan.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  10,500,  and  the  expen- 
diture Rs.  10,700.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  11,700,  chiefly  from 
octroi;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  11,100.  The  town  has  an  Anglo- 
vernacular  middle  school,  maintained  by  the  municipality,  and  a  dis- 
pensary. It  contains  one  small  cotton-ginning  factory  with  21  hands, 
but  is  of  no  commercial  importance. 

Shujalpur  (or  Shujawalpur). — Head-quarters  of  the  pargana  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Shajapur  district  of  Gwalior  State,  Central  India, 
situated  in  23°  24'  N.  and  76°  43'  E.,  on  the  Ujjain-Bhopal  Railway. 
Population  (1901),  5,731.  The  town  was  originally  founded  by  a  Jain 
merchant,  and  called  after  him  Rai  Karanpur,  one  of  the  wards  still 
bearing  this  title.  The  real  interest  of  the  place,  however,  lies  in  its 
connexion  with  Shujaat  Khan,  an  active  champion  of  Sher  Shah,  who 
raised  the  place  from  a  small  village  into  a  flourishing  town.  Shujaat 
Khan  was  locally  known  as  Shujawal  Khan,  and  a  further  contraction 
has  given  the  name  of  the  town.  Though  Mandu  and  Ujjain  were  his 
official  residences  as  governor  of  Malwa,  Shujaat  always  had  a  predi- 
lection for  this  place.  In  i8o8  it  fell  to  the  Pindari  leader  Karim  Khan, 
as  part  of  his  Jogir.  It  was  one  of  the  places  of  which  the  revenues 
were  assigned  to  the  British  Government  by  Article  5  of  the  treaty  of 
1844,  but  was  restored  to  Sindhia  under  the  treaty  of  i860.  Near 
Shujalpur  is  the  cenotaph  of  Ranoji  Sindhia,  the  founder  of  the  Gwalior 
house,  who  died  in  1745.     Besides  X\\(i  pargafia  offices,  a  police  station, 


SHJVEBO  DISTRICT  31  t 

a  school,  a  State  post  office,  a  dispensary,  and  an  inspection  bungalow- 
are  situated  here. 

Shujaota. —  Thakurdt'm.  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Shwebo  District. — A  dry  zone  District  of  the  Sagaing  Division  ot 
Upper  Burma,  lying  between  22°  11"  and  23°  52'  N.  and  94°  50'  and 
96°  \  E.,  with  an  area  of  5,634  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Katha  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Ruby  Mines  and  Mandalay  Districts ; 
on  the  south  by  Sagaing;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Chindwin  Districts.  The  Mu,  flowing  down  from  the  north,  divides  it 
into  almost  equal  portions  east  and  west,  and  the  Irrawaddy  forms 
the  boundary  on  the  east.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  wide,  almost 
rectangular  plain  running  north  and  south,  dotted 
with  thin  bushes  and  scrub  jungle,  with  a  low  ridge  asnects 

of  hills  known  as  the  Minwun  range  skirting  the 
Irrawaddy  in  the  east,  and  with  small  isolated  clumps  of  rising  ground 
in  the  north  and  north-east,  and  fringes  of  forest-clad  upland  in  the  west 
and  north-west.  The  level  is  generally  uniform  and  somewhat  unin- 
teresting ;  but  the  river-side  villages  with  their  pagodas  and  monasteries, 
and  the  interior  plain,  viewed  from  the  crest  of  the  Minwun  range,  are 
not  without  a  picturesqueness  of  their  own.  The  most  important  rivers 
are  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Mu.  The  former  enters  the  District  near 
its  north-eastern  corner,  and  flows  due  south  till  it  reaches  Kabwet, 
about  half-way  down  the  eastern  border.  Here  it  bends  westwards 
for  a  few  miles,  and  again  turning,  runs  south  for  a  further  stretch  till 
it  enters  Sagaing  District.  It  is  navigable  all  the  year  round  by  river 
steamers  of  the  deepest  draught.  The  Mu  is  full  of  snags,  and,  except 
in  the  rains,  is  navigable  only  in  its  lower  reaches.  Running  in  a  tortuous 
channel  through  arid  country,  it  dwindles  away  in  the  dry  season  to  a 
rivulet  fordable  everywhere  along  its  course,  though  at  the  appropriate 
season  it  is  freely  used  for  timber-floating.  The  principal  lakes  are  the 
Mahananda,  the  Halin  (or  Thayaing),  the  Kadu,  and  the  Thamantha. 
The  first,  north-east  of  Shwebo  town,  fed  by  the  old  Mu  canal,  is  the 
largest.  The  other  three,  lying  south  of  Shwebo,  are  shallow  meres 
depending  on  the  drainage  from  the  adjacent  country,  but  are  rarely 
dry,  though  they  seldom  have  much  water  in  them. 

The  surface  of  the  District  is,  to  a  great  extent,  covered  by  the 
alluvium  of  the  Mu  river,  from  beneath  which  rise  low  undulating 
hills  of  sandstone  of  Upper  Tertiary  (pliocene)  age.  To  the  east  these 
are  brought  down  by  a  great  fault  against  crystalline  rocks,  gneiss, 
granite,  and  crystalline  limestone,  which  form  the  Minwun  range. 
The  alluvium  is  largely  impregnated  with  salt.  Coal  occurs  in  the 
Tertiary  beds. 

From  a  botanical  point  of  view  the  District  is  very  poor.  Only 
three  kinds  of  bamboos  are  found  :  namely,  thaikwa  {Bambusa  Tu/da), 


312  SIIWEBO   DISTRICT 

viyinwa  [Dendroca/amns  <;fn'c/iis),  and  tinwa  {Cephalostachyum  per- 
gracile).  The  most  important  trees  are  teak  {Tecto7ia  gra?idis),  in 
Dipterocarpus  tuberculatus),  thitya  {Shorea  obfusa),  thitsl  {Alelafwrr/wea 
usttata),  yuima  {Chickrassia  tabiilaris),  ingyin  [Penfacme  siamensis), 
pyingado  {Xylia  dolabriformis),  s/ia  {Acacia  Calechu),  and  tanaung 
{Acacia  leucophloea).  Further  details  regarding  the  vegetation  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  Forests, 

The  wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  the  bison,  the  hsaifig  {Bos  son- 
daicus),  the  hog  deer,  the  sd/nbar,  the  barking-deer,  the  brow-antlered 
deer  {Cervus  eldi\  the  wild  hog,  the  hare,  the  jackal  {Canis  aureus), 
the  jungle  dog  {Cyan  rutihms),  and  the  common  tree  cat  or  palm  civet 
{Paradox urns  hermaphroditus).  Tigers  are  scarce,  but  leopards  are 
common  everywhere ;  and  during  the  cold  season  water-fowl  abound. 
Quail  visit  the  District  in  the  rains,  and  the  jungle-fowl  and  francolin 
breed  and  are  plentiful. 

The  climate  is  good,  except  in  the  north  and  north-west,  where  it  is 
malarious.  The  heat  in  the  dry  season  is  very  great,  as  elsewhere  in 
the  dry  zone,  but  is  less  intense  in  the  north  and  north-west  of  the 
District.  The  mean  temperature  recorded  at  Shwebo  is  80°,  the  ther- 
mometer readings  varying  from  56°  in  January  to  104°  in  May.  The 
rainfall  is  scanty  and  irregular,  except  in  the  north  and  north-west. 
The  average  varies  from  29  to  49  inches,  but  the  maximum  would,  no 
doubt,  be  higher  if  a  record  were  kept  in  the  hilly  tracts.  The  rainfall 
follows  the  valleys  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Mu,  and  leaves  the  rest  of  the 
District  comparatively  dry. 

According  to  tradition,  Shwebo  town  was  founded  by  a  hunter 
(Burmese,  mokso)  named  Nga  Po  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  was  then  called  Moksongapoywa.  It  was  from 
this  hunter  ancestor  that  Alaungpaya  (Alompra),  the 
redoubtable  Burmese  conqueror,  traced  his  descent.  The  warrior  king, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  the  hunter's  village,  fortified  the  place 
after  he  had  risen  from  obscurity  to  prominence,  surrounded  it  with 
a  moat  and  walls,  and  made  it  his  capital  after  his  successful  rebellion 
against  the  Takings.  None  of  the  successors  of  Alaungpaya  ever  used 
Shwebo  as  a  capital  for  any  length  of  time ;  but  it  was  with  the  aid 
of  men  from  this  District  that  prince  Tharrawaddy  displaced  Bagyidaw 
from  the  throne,  and  Mindon  successfully  rebelled  against  his  half- 
brother  Pagan  Min ;  while  the  Shwebo  people  maintained  their  charac- 
ter as  king-makers  by  supporting  Mindon  against  the  futile  rebellion 
of  the  Myingun  and  Padein  princes.  When  the  British  force  first 
marched  into  Shwebo,  after  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma,  the 
kayaing  wun  (the  chief  official  of  the  place)  submitted  with  all  his 
subordinates,  and  greatly  assisted  the  administration  by  putting  down 
the   organized    dacoil    hands    under    the    leadership   of   the   notorious 


POPULATION 


3^3 


Hla  U  and  others,  which  kept  the  District  more  or  less  disturbed  for 
five  years  after  the  occupation.  A  good  deal  of  the  western  portion  of 
Shwebo  then  formed  a  separate  District  known  as  Ye-u,  which  was 
split  up  in  1895,  the  greater  part  of  its  area  being  incorporated  in 
Shwebo. 

The  principal  pagodas  are  the  Shwetaza  at  Shwebo,  the  Ingyindaw 
at  Seikkun,  the  Shwekugyi  at  Myedu,  and  the  Thihadaw  at  Kabwet. 
Shwebo  is  rich  in  archaeological  remains,  as  the  old  walled  towns,  the 
ruined  shrines,  and  the  inscribed  marble  slabs  that  are  found  scattered 
all  over  the  District  testify ;  but  the  country  has  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  studied  from  an  archaeological  point  of  view. 

The  population  increased  from  230,779  in  1891  to  286,891  in  1901. 
Its  distribution   in   the  latter  year  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  : — 


Population. 


The  only  town  is  Shwebo,  the  head-quarters.  Ye-u  is  one  of  the 
most  densely  populated  townships  in  Upper  Burma ;  and  the  other 
central  townships,  Shwebo  and  Kinu,  are  thickly  inhabited,  their 
density  contrasting  forcibly  with  that  of  the  Kyunhla  township,  which 
occupies  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District.  There  has  been  con- 
siderable immigration  from  the  Mandalay  and  Lower  Chindwin  Dis- 
tricts, and  the  number  of  persons  born  in  India  who  were  enumerated 
here  in  1901  was  about  2,600.  This  number  constitutes  a  compara- 
tively small  proportion  of  the  representatives  of  the  Indian  religions, 
who  in  1 901  included  4,300  Musalmans  and  1,600  Hindus.  Shwebo 
town  and  cantonment  contain  between  1,000  and  1,500  natives  of 
India  ;  but  a  large  number  of  the  Musalmans  are  indigenous  Zairbadis, 
known  sometimes  as  Myedu  ka/ds,  who  are  found  here  and  there, 
especially  in  what  used  to  be  the  Myedu  township.  The  majority  of 
the  population  is  Buddhist,  and  nearly  99  per  cent,  talk  Burmese. 

The   Burman  population  in   1901  was  280,700,  or  over  97  per  cent. 


314  SHWEBO   DISTRICT 

of  the  total.  The  other  indigenous  races  are  represented  by  less  than 
i,ooo  Shans  in  the  northern  areas. 

No  less  than  216,686  persons,  or  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  population, 
were  in  1901  engaged  in,  or  dependent  upon,  agriculture.  Owing  to 
the  frequent  failure  of  the  rains,  the  cultivator  has  to  supplement  his 
income  by  selling  firewood,  bamboos,  and  timber,  by  extracting  resin 
oil,  by  making  mats  and  thatch,  or  by  working  as  a  cooly  on  the  railway 
or  on  the  Shwebo  Canal,  or  as  a  field-labourer  in  other  Districts ;  but 
with  the  beginning  of  the  monsoon  he  drifts  back  to  his  ancestral 
fields. 

Christians  are  fairly  numerous ;  their  total  in  1901  was  2,493, 
including  1,328  Roman  Catholics.  The  Roman  communion  has  long 
been  at  work  in  the  District.  It  has  its  head-quarters  at  Monhla  and 
Chanthaywa,  possesses  several  churches,  and  ministers  to  1 1  Chris- 
tian villages,  in  which  it  keeps  up  vernacular  schools.  The  Anglican 
(S.P.G.)  Mission  at  Shwebo  was  started  in  1887.  It  maintains  a  church 
and  an  Anglo-vernacular  school.  Altogether,  1,555  of  the  Christians 
are  natives. 

The  soil  varies  from  a  stiff  black  cotton  soil  to  light  sand,  and  the 

surface  from  rich  ravines  annually  fertilized  by  leaf-mould  washed  down 

from    the   neighbouring   highlands    to   sterile    ridges 
Agriculture  <:3  o       i^^  c_> 

ikons)  of  alkali  and  gravel.     The  rainfall  is  precarious 

throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  District,  but  is  fairly  reliable  in  the 
hilly  areas  in  the  north  and  north-west.  The  husbandman  in  Shwebo 
is  as  conservative  and  short-sighted  as  elsewhere  in  Burma,  and  makes 
rice  his  main  crop,  in  defiance  of  the  varying  soil  and  the  fickle  rain 
supply.  On  the  southern  and  south-western  borders,  however,  sesa- 
mum,  millet,  and  a  little  cotton  are  grown  ;  and  the  alluvial  formations 
of  the  rivers  are  covered  in  the  dry  season  with  island  crops  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  tobacco,  onions,  brinjals,  tomatoes, 
gram,  and  the  like.  Rice  is  cultivated  in  the  usual  manner,  except  in 
the  Tabayin  and  Ye-u  townships,  where  the  fields  are  ploughed  dry, 
and  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  and  left  to  mature  without  trans- 
planting. 

The  area  cultivated  depends  entirely  upon  the  local  rainfall,  and  thus 
varies  very  considerably  from  year  to  year.  In  1890-1  about  372  square 
miles  were  under  crop,  in  189 1-2  only  130  square  miles,  a  total  which 
increased  steadily  till  1897-8,  excluding  the  bad  year  1895-6.  There 
was  a  large  increase  in  1 899-1 900,  and  by  1 900-1  the  cultivated  area 
had  risen  to  645  square  miles,  but  this  total  fell  to  239  square  miles  in 
1902-3.  The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given  in  the 
table  on  the  next  page,  in  square  miles. 

The  promise  of  the  early  rains  caused  the  increase  in  1903-4,  but  of 
the  total  shown  above  no  less  than  167  square  miles  failed  to  mature. 


AGRICULTURE 


315 


Rice  was  sown  on  432  square  miles.  Comparatively  little  mayin  (or 
hot-season)  rice  is  grown.  Peas  of  various  kinds  covered  15  scjuare 
miles,  and  sesamum  42  square  miles,  and  1,200  acres  were  under 
cotton,  a  small  area  as  compared  with  that  in  the  neighbouring  Dis- 
tricts of  Sagaing  and  Lower  Chindwin.  Cultivation  is  increasing  year 
by  year,  fallow  lands  ever  being  brought  under  cultivation ;  and,  but 
for  climatic  causes,  the  increase  would  have  been  by  leaps  and  bounds. 


Township. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Forests. 

Shwebo 
Kinu. 
Sheinmaga . 
Kanbalu     . 
Kyunhla     . 
Ye-u  . 
Tabayin 
Tamadaw  . 
Taze  . 

450 
244 

465 
K636 

955 
140 
615 

598 
531 

35 
39 
43 

132 
98 
13 

57 
55 
49 

26 
24 

22 

7 
5 
I 

5 

.    3 

4 

-      2.702 

Tota 

I 

5,634 

521 

97 

2,702 

There  is  not  much  experimenting  in  new  and  untried  products. 
Natives  of  India  have  attempted  to  cultivate  gram  on  alluvial  lands, 
but  have  failed  hitherto,  owing  to  want  of  rain.  American  maize  and 
tobacco  (Virginia  and  Havana)  were  tried  on  Sheinmaga  Island  in 
1 900,  and  were  fairly  successful  so  far  as  out-turn  was  concerned ; 
but  they  offered  no  inducement  to  the  husbandman,  as  their  quality 
was  considered  inferior  to  that  of  the  local  varieties.  Agricultural 
advances  are  made  regularly,  the  average  for  the  four  years  ending 
1905  being  about  Rs.  16,000,  but  cultivators  often  find  some  difficulty 
in  furnishing  the  required  security.  Instances  in  which  borrowers  have 
had  to  share  the  loan  with  their  sureties  have  come  to  light ;  and  it  is 
said  that,  without  some  accommodation  of  this  kind,  security  would 
often  not  be  forthcoming.  Some  villages  have,  however,  benefited 
largely  by  means  of  Government  loans,  and  on  the  whole  the  advances 
may  be  said  to  be  popular. 

Oxen  and  buffaloes  are  bred  in  the  ordinary  haphazard  fashion. 
Not  a  single  bull  is  kept  for  breeding.  A  few  half-bred  stallions  are 
kept  for  stud  purposes,  but  they  are  really  unfit  for  breeding.  Sheep 
and  goats  are  reared  exclusively  by  natives  of  India,  and  their  numbers 
are  trifling. 

Irrigation  is  at  present  effected  by  means  of  the  old  Mu  canal  and 
numerous  tanks.  The  former  used  to  take  off  from  the  Mu  river,  and 
crossed  several  streams  which  were  temporarily  dammed  and  diverted 
into  it,  but  now  only  that  portion  of  the  canal  is  kept  up  which  does 
not  intersect  the  larger  waterways.  The  present  catchment  area  is 
comparatively  small,  and  the  water-supply  depends  on  local  rainfall,  so 

VOL.  XXII.  X 


3t6  SHWEBO    DISTRICT 

that  when  rain  fails  the  work  is  of  little  use.     In  a  favourable  year,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  gets  too  full,  and  fear  of  a  breach  of  the  embankment 
occasionally  makes  it  necessary  to  open  the  sluices,  with  the  result  that 
the  water  flows  over  and  deluges  the  already  inundated  fields.     The 
Shwebo  Canal,  opened  in  1906,  has  been  designed  to  draw  a  large 
quantity  of  water  from  the  Mu  ;  and  as  it  will  be  possible  to  control 
it  effectually,  it  should  prove  an  invaluable  irrigation  work.     The  cost 
of  the  work  was  51  lakhs,  and  the  area  irrigable  is  295  square  miles. 
The  principal  tanks  are  at  Hladaw,  Payan,  Palaing,  Kywezin,  Gyogya, 
Yinba,   Pindin,  Kanthaya,   Yatha,  and  Taze.     Their  catchment  area, 
like  that  of  the  old  Mu  canal,  is  small,  and  they  depend  solely  on  the 
rainfall  and  the  drainage  from  the  adjacent  country.     At  certain  times 
they  have  a  reserve  of  water  which  may  prove  really  useful,  but  such 
occasions   are  very  rare.     In  1903-4  about  97  square  miles,  mostly 
under  rice,  were  irrigated.     Of  this  total,  18,800  acres  obtained  their 
water-supply  from  tanks,  5,000  acres  from  wells,  and  39,100  acres  from 
Government  canals.     These  last  had  irrigated  only  4,000  acres  in  the 
previous  year  (1902-3),  the  increase  in  1903-4  being  due  to  the  im- 
provements made  in  the  old  Mu  canal,  assisted  by  propitious  rainfall. 
The  irrigated  lands  lie  almost  entirely  in  the  Shwebo  subdivision  and 
the  Tabayin  township. 

The  only  two  large  fisheries  are  the  Bandiba  and  the  Kyauksaung 
in  the  Irrawaddy. 

Shwebo  is  included  in  the  Mu  Forest  division,  which  also  comprises 

Sagaing  and  a  part  of  Katha.     The  forests  are  confined  to  the  north 

and  north-west,  and  are  of  two  kinds,  teak  and  cutch. 

In  the  former,  padauk  {Pterocarpus  indicus)  and  in 

(Dipterocarpus  tuberculatus)  are  also  found  to  some  extent.    The  Yabin 

and  Kanbalu  Reserves  are  the  only  ones  in  the  District.     In  the  former 

the  planting  of  teak,  to  the  extent  of  a  square  mile,  has  been  carried 

out   successfully.      In   the   latter   experiments   have   been   tried  with 

sandal-wood  seed,   which   germinated  well,  though  the  young  plants 

have  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  insects  and  rodents.     The  area  of 

'reserved'  forests  is  595  square  miles,  of  which  10  square  miles  are 

cutch,  and  the  rest  teak,  with  a  sprinkling  of  padauk  and  indaing. 

The  area  of  the  'unclassed'  forests  is  2,107  square  miles;  and  it  has 

been  proposed  to   convert    83    square   miles   of  these   into   a   cutch 

Reserve,    though   the   final   settlement  has  not   yet  been  completed. 

The   chief  minor  forest   products  are   thitsl   (resin    oil),    cutch,    and 

bamboos,  all  of  which  are  abundant.    Five  Chinese  firms  are  engaged 

in  the  cutch  trade,  and  their  business  is  brisk.     The  forest  revenue 

in  1903-4  was  nearly  a  lakh  and  a  half. 

Coal  was  worked  from   1892  to  1903  by  the   Burma  Coal   Mines 
Company  at  Letkokpin,  6  miles  from  Kabwet  on  the   Irrawaddy,  by 


TRADE   AXD    COMMVNTCATTOXS  ^7 

means  of  shaftings,  the  hauling  being  done  l)y  steam.  'I'lie  mines 
were  capable  of  turning  out  2,000  tons  monthly,  but  the  Burma 
Railways  Company  were  the  chief  purchasers,  consuming  about  800 
tons  a  month.  The  mine  has  now  been  shut  down.  A  prospecting 
licence  for  rubies,  gold,  and  silver  has  been  issued,  and  leases  of  land 
for  the  purpose  of  boring  for  earth-oil  have  been  granted ;  but  though 
good  petroleum  has  been  obtained,  the  wells,  which  are  in  the  Kyunhla 
township,  have  been  abandoned  owing  to  the  unhealthiness  of  the 
place.  Salt  is  extracted  from  brine-wells  in  the  Kanbalu,  Shwebo, 
•and  Sheinmaga  townships.  The  average  earnings  of  the  workers  are 
four  annas  a  day,  and  the  salt  produced  is  used  locally,  besides  being 
exported  to  other  Districts.  Pottery  clay  exists  in  places.  Gravel, 
laterite,  and  sandstone  are  extracted,  mostly  by  natives  of  India,  to 
meet  local  demands  on  account  of  public  works. 

Silk-weaving  is  carried  on  at  Chiba  and  Seikkun  in  the  Shwebo 
township.  The  produce  of  the  village  looms  holds  its  own,  in  spite 
of  the  competition  of  imported  fabrics,  which, 
though  cheaper,  are  far  less  strong  and  durable,  co  Jmunicrttons. 
The  method  of  working  is  purely  Burmese,  and  the 
patterns  ha\e  improved  greatly  in  design  of  late.  For  weaving  pur- 
poses raw  silk  (Indian  or  Chinese)  is  brought  from  Mandalay,  and 
the  articles  turned  out  are  mainly  pasos  (waistcloths)  of  various  kinds. 
Articles  other  than  pasos  are  woven  only  when  special  orders  have 
been  given.  The  dyeing  of  the  raw  silk  is  largely  done  on  the  spot. 
The  manufacture  of  pottery  is  practised  all  the  year  round  at  Kyauk- 
myaung,  Shwegun,  Shwedaik,  and  a  few  other  villages  on  the  Irra- 
waddy  by  professional  potters ;  elsewhere  it  is  carried  on  only  during 
the  dry  months  of  the  year  as  a  subsidiary  occupation  by  agriculturists. 
Unglazed  pottery  is  manufactured  in  the  ordinary  way  from  clay  mixed 
with  sand,  and  fired  in  heaps  that  are  coated  with  clay.  If  black 
instead  of  the  usual  red  ware  is  required,  bran  is  poured  on  the  burn- 
ing heap  and  the  articles  are  coloured  by  the  smoke.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  glazed  pottery,  the  only  essential  difference  is  the  smearing 
of  the  green  pots  with  what  is  known  as  chaiv,  the  slag  left  after  silver 
has  been  extracted  from  lead  ore.  The  making  of  glazed  pots  is  a 
more  profitable  industry  than  that  of  unglazed,  as  it  is  attended  with 
less  breakage.  In  the  Kanbalu  township  a  considerable  section  of  the 
population  are  engaged  during  the  dry  season  in  weaving  mats  and 
rough  baskets  of  various  kinds.  Tantabin  is  the  centre  of  the  mat 
and  basket  industry. 

The  principal  exports  are  salt,  which  is  taken  by  local  traders  in 
boats  to  Katha  from  Sheinmaga  and  Thitseingyi  on  the  Irrawaddy, 
and  cutch,  sent  by  rail  to  Rangoon  by  a  few  Chinese  firms  which 
have  been  established  in  the  District  since  the  opening  of  the  cutch 

X  2 


3t8  SHWEBO   DTSTRTCT 

forests.  Pulse  is  sent  out  in  boats  by  merchants  living  on  the  Irra- 
waddy  and  the  Mu ;  rice  and  European  goods  come  in  by  rail,  prin- 
cipally from  Mandalay ;  and  sesamum  oil  in  carts  from  the  Sagaing 
and  Lower  Chindwin  Districts,  Boats  fetch  tobacco  from  Sagaing, 
Myingyan,  and  Pakokku ;  tigapi  (fish-paste)  is  brought  by  rail  from 
Mandalay  and  in  boats  from  the  deltaic  Districts  of  Lower  Burma ; 
and  rice  comes  by  rail  from  Kawlin  and  Wuntho  in  the  neighbouring 
District  of  Katha.  As  Shwebo  District  is  poor,  the  wants  of  the  people 
are  confined  for  the  most  part  to  these  main  articles  of  consumption. 
The  chief  centres  for  boats  are  Kyaukmyaung,  Thitseingyi,  and  Shein- 
maga  on  the  Irrawaddy,  and  Mugan,  Sinin,  and  Ye-u  on  the  IMu. 
The  jaggery  sugar  from  the  Ye-u  subdivision  is  exported  in  carts  to 
Katha,  where  it  finds  a  ready  sale  owing  to  its  damp-resisting  pro- 
perties. Mandalay  supplies  the  raw  Chinese  or  Indian  silk  used  by 
the  silk- weavers  of  the  District. 

The  Burma  Railway  runs  through  the  heart  of  Shwebo,  linking 
Myitkyina  with  Mandalay,  and  serving  the  whole  District,  as  from 
almost  every  station  a  road  branches  out  either  east  to  the  Irra- 
waddy or  west  to  the  Mu.  The  Public  \\V)rks  department  main- 
tains 48  miles  of  metalled,  and  203  miles  of  unmetalled  roads.  The 
principal  metalled  roads  are  from  Shwebo  to  Kyaukmyaung  (17  miles), 
connecting  the  Mu  valley  with  the  Irrawaddy,  and  from  Kinu  to  Ye-u 
(13  miles).  The  most  important  unmetalled  tracks  are  from  Kinu  to 
Kabwet  on  the  Irrawaddy  9  miles  below  Thabeikkyin,  whence  an 
important  metalled  road  climbs  to  Mogok,  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Ruby  Mines  District ;  from  Ye-u  to  Paga  on  the  Upper  Chindwin 
border ;  and  from  Ye-u  to  Saingbyin  on  the  Lower  Chindwin  border. 
The  District  fund  keeps  up  86  miles  of  unmetalled  roads.  The  Irra- 
waddy is  navigable  all  the  year  round,  and  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla 
Company's  express  and  cargo  steamers  between  Mandalay  and  Bhamo 
call  at  Kyaukmyaung  and  at  Kabwet  every  week  in  each  direction. 
The  ferry  steamer  plying  between  Mandalay  and  Thabeikkyin  also 
calls  at  those  two  stations,  as  well  as  at  Sheinmaga  and  Thitseingyi, 
twice  a  week  in  each  direction.  The  Mu  is  navigable  in  the  rains  by 
native  craft  to  the  borders  of  Katha  District.  There  are  five  ferries 
across  the  Irrawaddy,  and  eleven  across  the  Mu,  at  convenient  dis- 
tances from  each  other. 

Its  capricious  rainfall  always  renders  the  District  liable  to  partial 
scarcitv,  but  the  only  serious  failure  of  crops  that  has  occurred  in 
recent  years  was  in  1801.  Ye-u  was  then  a  separate 
District,  comprising  the  present  Ye-u  subdivision 
and  the  Kyunhla  township,  and  it  was  in  the  former  area  that  the 
distress  was  most  acute.  It  was  due  to  a  series  of  bad  harvests  caused 
by  deficient  rainfall,  and  pressed  all  the  more  heavily  on  the  people 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3  r  9 

because  they  had  not  then  fully  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the 
troublous  times  that  followed  close  on  annexation.  Many  of  the  vil- 
lagers were  compelled  to  sell  their  cattle  to  procure  food,  to  resort 
to  roots  as  a  means  of  subsistence,  and  to  emigrate  to  the  Lower 
province  and  to  the  Ruby  Mines  District  for  their  living.  Relief 
works  were  not  opened  on  the  east  of  the  Mu,  as  the  railway  afforded 
ample  employment  there  for  the  able-bodied,  but  they  were  started  in 
Ye-u.  Advances  were  liberally  made  to  cultivators  to  enable  them  to 
buy  seed  and  to  retain  their  cattle,  partial  or  total  remissions  and  sus- 
pensions of  revenue  were  granted,  while  rice  was  imported  by  Govern- 
ment and  distributed  at  cost  price,  and  gratuitous  relief  was  given 
to  the  disabled.     Fortunately  the  famine  was  of  short  duration. 

The  District  contains  three  subdivisions  :  Shwebo,  Kanbalu,  and 
Ye-u.  The  first  comprises  the  Shwebo,  Kinu,  and  Sheinmaga  town- 
ships, the  second  the  Kanbalu  and  Kvunhla  town-  .  ,  .  . 
ships,  and  the  third  the  Ye-u,  Tabavin,  Tamadaw, 
and  Taze  townships.  The  subdivisions  and  townships  are  in  charge 
of  the  usual  executive  officers,  under  whom  are  884  village  headmen. 
Of  the  latter,  258  are  subordinate  to  circle  headmen.  Shwebo  forms 
(with  Sagaing  District)  a  Public  Works  division,  with  two  subdivisional 
officers  in  the  District ;  and  the  forests  are  included  in  the  Mu  Forest 
division. 

As  elsewhere,  the  subdivisional  and  township  courts  are  presided 
over  by  the  subdivisional  and  township  officers  concerned,  but  the 
latter  do  not  try  suits  relating  to  immovable  property  or  to  any  right 
or  interest  in  such  property.  At  District  head-quarters,  the  treasury 
officer  is  additional  judge  of  the  Shwebo  township  court  as  well  as 
head-quarters  magistrate.  Litigation  is  normal  and  crime  is  on  the 
whole  light.  Dacoity,  murder,  and  cattle-theft  are  infrequent,  and 
opium  cases  are  few.  Ordinary  thefts  and  excise  and  gambling  cases, 
for  the  most  part  committed  in  Shwebo  town  and  its  suburbs,  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  fairly  numerous. 

Prior  to  the  reign  of  Mindon  Min  there  was  ncj  organized  scheme 
uf  revenue  collection  in  Shwebo;  that  monarch,  however,  introduced 
some  kind  of  system  into  the  methods  of  the  rapacious  officials. 
Thathameda  was  then  for  the  first  time  levied,  royal  lands  were  taxed 
on  a  uniform  scale  of  one-fourth  of  the  produce,  and  imposts  were 
placed  on  monopolies,  carts,  fisheries,  and  other  sources  of  income. 
After  annexation  the  thathameda  continued  to  be  levied  on  much  the 
same  system  as  before.  The  land  revenue  administration  is  at  present 
in  a  state  of  transition.  Most  of  the  District  is  occupied  under  the 
ordinary  hobabaing  (non-state)  and  state  land  tenures,  which  are  com- 
mon to  all  the  dry  zone  Districts  of  Upper  Burma.  In  the  Kyunhla 
township  the  conditions  were  at  one  time  peculiar.    Tradition  relates 


320 


SHWEBO  DISTRICT 


that  about  three  centuries  ago  the  country  here  was  waste,  and  that 
a  number  of  enterprising  hunters  from  the  west  of  the  low  range  of 
hills  which  now  separates  Shwebo  from  the  Upper  Chindwin  District, 
finding  the  basin  of  the  Mu  more  promising  for  cultivation  than  their 
own  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Chindwin,  moved  over  and 
established  themselves  in  what  afterwards  became  the  Indaing  and 
Kyunhla  sJnvehmii-^\\)%  and  the  Inhla,  Mawke,  and  Mawton  myos. 
The  descendants  of  these  settlers  were  known  as  taivyathas,  'jungle- 
owners  '  or  '  natives,'  and  they  alone  acquired  absolute  ownership  of 
land.  Strangers  who  came  afterwards  to  settle  in  this  area  are  said 
to  have  been  able  to  work  land  only  with  the  permission  of  the  native 
who  owned  it,  and  when  they  moved  out  of  one  jurisdiction  into 
another  they  forfeited  all  claim  to  their  fields.  As  a  general  rule, 
a  native  who  moved  elsewhere  retained  absolute  ownership  of  his 
holdings,  even  after  severing  his  connexion  with  the  locality  ;  but  in 
the  northern  areas  of  Indauktha,  Seywa,  and  Mettaung  he  lost  his 
proprietary  right  when  he  moved  out  of  his  myo.  These  peculiar 
tenures  have  now  been  swept  away;  the  land  in  the  three  northern 
myos  having  been  made  state  land  en  bloc,  that  in  the  southern  areas 
being  treated  partly  as  bobabaing  and  partly  as  state.  The  survey  of 
the  District  was  completed  in  1895,  in  3,090  square  miles  out  of  a 
total  area  of  5,634,  Settlement  operations  were  commenced  at  the 
end  of  1900,  and  are  still  in  progress.  The  average  area  of  a  holding 
is  from  15  to  20  acres.  The  revenue  history  of  Shwebo  presents  no 
marked  features,  except  the  continual  reductions  in  the  thathatneda 
rates  of  assessment,  and  the  frequent  remissions  of  revenue  rendered 
necessary  by  the  precarious  nature  of  the  rainfall.  At  present  only 
state  land  is  assessed  to  revenue,  the  rate  being  one-third  of  the  pro- 
duce in  the  Tantabin  and  Yatha  circles  of  the  Kanbalu  township, 
one-sixth  of  the  produce  in  the  Kyunhla  township,  Rs.  2  an  acre  in  the 
Yeu  subdivision,  and  one-fourth  of  the  produce  in  the  rest  of  the 
l^istrict.  Water  rate  is  taken  from  lands  which  receive  water  from 
a  Government  irrigation  work  at  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  2-8  per  acre, 
according  to  the  fertility  of  the  land  irrigated. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  fluctuations  in  the  revenue  since 
1 890- 1,  in  thousands  of  rupees.  Thaihameda  is  at  present  the  main 
source  of  revenue.  It  rose  from  Rs.  4,64,000  in  1891  to  Rs.  6,ir,ooo 
in  1 90 1,  but  fell  to  Rs.  5,17,000  in  1903-4. 


1 890- 1. 

1 900- 1. 

1903-4. 

Lnnd  revenue 
Total  revenue 

5 
5,28 

1,22 

7,83 

?.3 

The  income  of  the  District  fund,   which  provides  for  various  local 


ADM/NISTRA  TION  3  2  1 

needs  such  as  roads,  ^^f/^-bungalows,  &c.,  was  Rs.  21,000  in  1903  4, 
and  the  chief  item  of  expenditure  was  Rs.  21,000  on  public  works. 
The  municipality  of  Shwebo  is  the  only  one  in  the  District. 

Soon  after  annexation,  both  European  and  Native  troops  were 
stationed  at  Shwebo,  and  at  Kyaukmyaung  on  the  Irrawaddy,  which, 
previous  to  the  building  of  the  railway,  was  the  key  to  the  District  ; 
and  in  1888  a  cantonment  was  established  at  Shwebo.  It  is  situated 
to  the  north-east  of  the  town  on  high  ground  and  on  a  very  healthy 
site.  With  the  pacification  of  the  country  the  Native  troops  were 
gradually  withdrawn,  and  a  reduction  followed  in  the  strength  of  the 
European  troops,  who  during  the  last  five  years  have  numbered  only 
five  companies.  Shwebo  is  the  head-quarters  of  a  company  of  the 
Upper  Burma  Volunteer  Rifles,  drawn  from  the  Shwebo,  Katha, 
Bhamo,  and  Myitkyina  Districts. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  assisted  by  subdivisional 
police  ofificers,  who  are  either  Assistant  Superintendents  or  inspectors, 
and  by  a  head-quarters  inspector.  The  sanctioned  strength  of  the 
force  is  473  men,  consisting  of  16  head  constables,  37  sergeants,  and 
420  constables,  posted  at  13  police  stations  and  18  outposts.  Shwebo 
is  the  head-quarters  of  a  military  police  battalion,  and  the  sanctioned 
strength  of  the  force  serving  within  the  limits  of  the  District  is  495  men, 
of  whom  415  are  stationed  at  Shwebo,  30  at  Kanbalu,  and  50  at  Ye-u. 
There  is  a  District  jail  at  Shwebo,  with  accommodation  for  237  males 
and  3  females.  \\^heat-grinding  is  the  only  important  industry  carried 
on  within  its  walls,  the  flour  turned  out  by  the  prisoners  being  consumed 
by  the  military  police. 

The  proportion  of  literate  persons  in  1901  was  50  per  cent,  in  the 
case  of  males  and  2  per  cent,  in  that  of  females,  or  25  per  cent,  for 
both  sexes  together — figures  which  place  Shwebo  in  the  very  front  rank 
of  the  Districts  of  Burma  from  an  educational  point  of  view.  The 
chief  educational  institution  is  the  All  Saints'  S.P.G.  Mission  school  at 
Shwebo.  Among  the  purely  vernacular  schools,  which  are  mainly 
responsible  for  the  high  standard  of  literacy,  two  lay  institutions  in 
Shwebo  town  and  two  monastic  schools  at  Tabayin  and  Kanbauk 
deserve  special  mention.  Altogether  there  were  11  secondary,  142 
primary,  and  694  elementary  (private)  schools  in  the  District  in  1904, 
with  a  total  of  9,175  male  and  954  female  scholars,  as  compared  with 
1,678  pupils  in  1891  and  6,583  in  1901.  The  expenditure  on  educa- 
tion in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  12,500.  To  this  total  Provincial  funds 
contributed  Rs.  9,000,  fees  Rs.  2,200,  subscriptions  Rs.  700,  and  the 
Shwebo  municipality  Rs.  600. 

There  are  3  hospitals  and  one  dispensary,  with  accommodation  for 
62  inmates.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  15,890,  includ- 
ing 662  in-patients,  and  244  operations  were  performed.     The  annual 


^2  2  SHWEBO   DISTRICT 

cost  is  about  Rs.  9,500,  towards  which  municipal  funds  contributed 
Rs.  3,300  in  1903  and  Provincial  funds  Rs.  4,500,  the  dispensary  being 
maintained  by  the  railway. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  within  Shwebo  municipal  limits.  The 
operation  is  so  popular  among  the  people  that  the  number  of  vaccina- 
tors has  of  late  been  increased  from  two  to  eight  for  the  whole  District. 
In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  vaccinated  was  11,799,  representing 
41  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

Shwebo  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Shwebo  District,  Upper 
Burma,  containing  the  Shwebo,  Kinu,  and  Sheinmaga  townships. 

Shwebo  Township.^— South-eastern  township  of  Shwebo  District, 
Upper  Burma,  lying  between  22°  26'  and  22°  46'  N.  and  95°  27'  and 
95°  59'  E.,  with  an  area  of  450  square  miles.  It  stretches  from  the 
Irrawaddy  on  the  east  to  the  Mu  river  on  the  west,  and  is  flat  and  dry 
throughout.  The  population  was  45,713  in  1891,  and  51,248  in  1901, 
distributed  in  one  town,  Shwebo  (population,  9,626),  the  head-quarters, 
and  149  villages.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  35  square  miles, 
and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  1,03,300. 

Shwebo  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name 
in  Upper  Burma,  situated  in  22°  35'  N.  and  95°  42"  E.,  on  the  Sagaing- 
Myitkyina  railway,  53  miles  from  Sagaing.  The  town  occupies  part 
of  what  was  once  a  vast  rice  plain,  the  country  north,  south,  and  west 
adjoining  the  walls  being  still  devoted  to  rice  cultivation ;  and  its 
surroundings  are  bare  and  not  outwardly  attractive.  Aw^ay  to  the  east 
beyond  the  Irrawaddy  can  be  seen  the  Shan  plateau  ;  while  from  the 
same  direction  a  spur  of  the  higher  ground  that  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Mu  and  the  Irrawaddy  runs  down  almost  to  the  town, 
and  on  this  spur  are  placed  the  present  cantonments.  The  soil  is  poor 
and  the  water  is  brackish,  so  that  there  is  little  cause  for  surprise  at 
the  dreariness  of  the  general  prospect  round  Shwebo,  and  little  hope 
for  improvement  until  an  efficient  water  scheme  is  in  working  order. 
The  royal  garden  at  Uyindaw,  about  a  mile  north  of  the  town,  and 
a  smaller  garden  about  half  a  mile  beyond  it,  are  the  only  plots  of 
successful  arboriculture  in  the  neighbourhood ;  for  the  rest,  there  is 
little  to  relieve  the  eye  but  the  tamarinds  and  other  trees  in  the  urban 
area.  Two  conspicuous  objects  are  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
the  south-east  corner  of  the  town  and  the  stone  S.P.G.  church  in  the 
north-west.  The  condition  of  the  town  has  improved  of  late  years, 
a  succession  of  mat-walled,  thatch-roofed  houses,  swept  away  in 
periodical  conflagrations,  having  been  replaced  by  more  pretentious 
buildings  with  carved  wooden  fronts.  The  roofs  of  corrugated  iron, 
if  they  do  not  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  town,  at  any  rate  contribute 
to  its  security  from  lire.  In  a  few  instances  large  brick  buildings  have 
been  erected. 


SHWEBO    TOWN  ^^^x, 

The  old  town  of  Shwebo  is  of  considerable  historical  interest,  having 
been  the  birthplace  and  capital  of  Maung  Aung  Zeya,  who  seized  the 
throne  of  Burma  under  the  title  of  Alaungpaya,  and  founded  the 
last  dynasty  of  Burmese  kings.  In  1752  this  monarch  commenced 
serious  operations  against  the  Takings,  and  in  1753  had  made  such 
progress  that  he  had  himself  anointed  king  at  his  old  home,  and  then 
proceeded  to  lay  out  and  build  a  town  there.  This  city,  known  as 
Moksobo,  comprised  an  outer  moat  and  wall,  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
over  2  miles  each  way,  which  exist  to  the  present  day,  and  a  square 
inner  citadel  with  a  side  of  about  500  yards.  Within  this  citadel  was 
an  inner  wall,  which  contained  in  its  turn  the  palace;  but  the  palace 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  innermost  wall  have  entirely  disappeared. 
Alaungpaya  also  constructed  the  Shwechettho  pagoda,  a  shrine  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  remains  of  the  north  inner  wall ;  the  bahusin  in  frcjnt 
of  the  palace,  on  which  was  hung  the  big  drum  for  beating  the  hours  ; 
the  naisi?i  or  spirit  shrine  of  the  nine  evil  spirits  whom  all  kings  feared 
and  propitiated  ;  and  a  royal  lake  north  of  the  town.  The  natsin  still 
stands  near  the  south  of  the  jail,  and  the  lake  is  the  Mahananda.  The 
present  town  of  Shwebo  just  includes  the  fringe  of  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  old  town  of  Moksobo. 

After  building  the  town  described  above,  Alaungpaya  turned  his 
restless  ambition  towards  Siam,  but  died  during  the  course  of  a  cam- 
paign in  the  south.  His  remains  were  brought  back  to  Moksobo,  and 
interred  in  the  year  1760  near  the  entrance  to  the  present  courthouse. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Naung- 
dawgyi,  and  whose  successor  and  brother  Sinbyushin,  after  reigning 
for  two  years  at  Moksobo,  moved  the  capital  to  Ava  in  the  year  1  766, 
taking  with  him  some  of  the  famous  Moksobo  soil.  The  town  then 
began  to  decHne,  till  1837,  in  the  reign  of  king  Bagyidaw,  when  this 
monarch's  brother,  who  was  prince  of  Thayetmyo  and  Tharrawaddy, 
changed  the  name  from  Moksobo  to  Shwebo.  In  the  same  year  he 
conspired  against  his  elder  brother  and  seized  the  throne.  From  the 
earliest  days  of  its  greatness  the  town  had  been  named  Yang>  i-aung  or 
'  the  victorious,'  and  to  use  Shwebo  as  a  base  of  operations  was  thought 
to  be  a  guarantee  of  success  in  any  enterprise.  Accordingly,  in  1852 
king  Tharrawaddy's  son,  Mindon,  came  to  bhwebo  when  maturing  his 
designs  on  the  throne,  which  culminated  in  a  successful  conspiracy 
against  his  brother,  Pagan  Min.  Again,  in  Mindon's  reign  his  nephew, 
the  Padein  prince,  came  to  Shwebo,  and  plotted  for  his  uncle's  over- 
throw; but  on  this  occasion  the  proverbial  luck  of  the  city  failed.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  that  the  use  of  Shwebo  as  a  capital  ceased 
140  years  ago. 

Immediately  after  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma  a  detach  ment  <;! 
British  troops  came  up  to  Shwebo,  but  returned  almost  immcduUcly 


3  24  SHWEBO    TOWN 

to  Mandalay.  This  withdrawal  stimulated  the  rebels  who  were  abroad 
in  the  land,  and  a  confederacy  of  dacoit  gangs,  under  a  leader  known 
as  Mintha  Hmat,  devastated  the  town.  On  this  the  British  troops 
returned  and  have  held  the  place  ever  since. 

The  population  of  the  town  was  9,368  in  189 1,  and  9,626  in  1901, 
the  majority  being  Burmans.  The  Indian  colony  consists  of  700  Musal- 
mans  and  more  than  600  Hindus,  about  half  of  whom  are  military 
followers  and  other  residents  of  the  cantonment.  The  Christian 
population  exceeds  1,000.  A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
agriculturists,  the  rest  work  at  the  usual  petty  trades  and  crafts  of  the 
urban  areas  of  Upper  Burma.  There  are  many  special  industries  for 
which  villages  in  the  District  are  famous,  but  from  an  industrial  and 
artistic  point  of  view  Shwebo  itself  is  inconspicuous.  A  local  black- 
smith trained  in  France  does  excellent  work  in  steel  and  iron.  He 
and  his  pupils,  however,  are  the  only  artisans  who  have  endowed 
Shwebo  with  anything  approaching  an  industry  of  its  own. 

The  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888.  The  receipts  and 
expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1 900-1  averaged  Rs.  20,000. 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  36,000,  of  which  bazar  rents  contributed 
Rs.  19,700,  and  a  house  and  land  tax  Rs.  4,400.  The  expenditure 
amounted  to  Rs.  41,000,  the  chief  ordinary  items  being  lighting 
(Rs.  4,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  4,700),  and  roads  (Rs.  11,500).  The 
municipality  contributes  Rs.  600  annually  to  the  S.P.G.  Anglo-vernacular 
school,  besides  which  there  are  two  good  lay  schools.  The  municipal 
hospital  has  accommodation  for  45  in-patients.  The  income  and  ex- 
penditure of  the  cantonment  fund  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  6,000. 

Shwedaung  Subdivision. — Western  subdivision  of  Prome  Dis- 
trict, Lower  Burma,  containing  two  townships,  Shwedaung  and 
Padaung. 

Shwedaung  Township. — Township  in  the  Shwedaung  subdivi- 
sion of  Prome  District,  Lower  Burma,  lying  along  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Irrawaddy,  between  18°  18'  and  18°  48'  N.  and  95°  4'  and 
95°  2\'  E.,  with  an  area  of  300  square  miles.  The  population  was 
66,388  in  1891,  and  66,743  in  1901,  but  the  agricultural  population 
increased  from  25,700  to  36,300.  There  are  311  villages  and  one 
tow^n,  Shwedaung  (population,  10,787),  the  head-quarters.  The  area 
cultivated  in  1903-4  was  87  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  90,000  land 
revenue. 

Shwedaung  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name  in  Prome  District,  Lower  Burma,  situated  in  18°  42'  N. 
and  95°  13'  E.,  on  the  Rangoon-Prome  road,  8  miles  due  south  of 
Prome  town.  Population  (1901),  10,787.  Shwedaung  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  town  committee  constituted  in  1882.  The  income  of  the 
town  fund  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  24,000  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  29,000. 


SHWEGYIN   TOWN  325 

'I'here  is  a  hospital  in  the  town  with  24  beds.  A  considerable  amount 
of  silk  is  manufactured,  almost  every  house  in  the  town  having  its 
loom. 

Shwegu.— Western  subdivision  and  township  (jf  Bhamo  District, 
Upper  Burma,  lying  between  23°  37'  and  24°  50'  N.  and  96°  34' 
and  97°  r6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,423  square  miles.  The  population 
in  1 90 1  was  21,943,  Kachins  numbering  about  5,300,  Shans  about 
3,800,  and  Burmans  over  12,500.  The  subdivision  contains  185  vil- 
lages, the  head-quarters  being  at  Shwegu  (population,  2,493),  a  long 
straggling  collection  of  villages  on  the  high  left  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy, 
a  regular  calling-place  for  the  Flotilla  steamers,  ^''aluable  forests  are 
found  in  the  township,  and  ample  room  for  extension  of  cultivation 
exists  in  the  almost-deserted  Sinkan  valley.  The  Kachin  areas  lie  in 
the  east  of  the  township,  north  and  south  of  the  Irrawaddy.  The  area 
cultivated  in  1903-4  was  12  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and 
ihathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  45,000. 

Shwegyin  Subdivision.— Subdivision  of  Toungoo  District,  Lower 
Burma,  containing  the  Kyaukkyi  and  Shwegyin  townships. 

Shwegyin  Township.— Southernmost  township  of  Toungoo  Dis- 
trict, Lower  Burma,  lying  between  17°  33'  and  18°  13'  N.  and  96°  48' 
and  97°  13'  E.,  with  an  area  of  493  square  miles.  It  extends  from  the 
Sittang,  which  separates  it  from  Pegu  District,  to  the  borders  of  Sal- 
ween  District.  The  population  was  30,628  in  1891,  and  26,894  in 
1 90 1  (nearly  all  Burmans  or  Takings),  residing  in  one  town,  Shwegyin 
(population,  7,616),  the  head-quarters,  and  164  villages.  The  area 
cultivated  in  1903-4  was  23  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  22,000  land 
revenue. 

Shwegyin  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Toungoo  District,  Lower  Burma,  and  formerly  head-quarters 
of  a  District  called  after  it.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  in  17°  55' N. 
and  96°  53'  E.,  close  to  the  western  slopes  of  the  Paunglaung  Hills, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sittang  river,  immediately  to  the  north  of  the 
point  where  the  Shwegyin  stream  enters  it  from  the  east.  It  is  well 
laid  out,  but  is  low-lying  and  apt  to  be  flooded  during  the  rains. 
Shwegyin  means  in  Burmese  'gold-washing,'  and  it  is  probable  that 
gold  was  found  in  the  neighbourhood  at  one  time.  The  place  has, 
however,  no  history,  having  grown  from  a  small  village  in  compara- 
tively recent  times.  Neither  in  the  first  nor  the  second  Burmese  War 
was  any  resistance  offered  to  the  British,  who  on  both  occasions  occu- 
pied the  town.  Population  (1901),  7,616.  Shwegyin  ceased  to  be 
a  District  head-quarters  in  1895,  and  this  accounts  for  part  of  the 
decrease  in  population  during  the  last  decade.  The  falling  off  had, 
however,  begun  earlier,  and  was  largely  caused  by  the  remoteness  of 
the  town  and  its  inaccessibilitv  from  the  railway. 


326  SHWEGYIN  TOWN 

The  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888,  the  present  com- 
mittee consisting  of  3  ex-officio  and  8  nominated  members.  The 
municipal  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901 
averaged  Rs.  20,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  22,000,  of  which 
Rs.  11,000  was  derived  from  markets,  and  Rs.  3,300  from  house  and 
land  tax;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  19,000,  including  Rs.  3,200 
spent  on  conservancy  and  Rs.  3,500  on  education.  The  municipal 
school  contains  95  pupils,  and  an  American  Baptist  Karen  school 
138.     The  municipal  hospital  has  accommodation  for  27  in-patients. 

Shweli. — River  of  Burma,  called  Nam  Mao  by  the  Shans,  who  in 
ancient  days  first  established  themselves  in  what  is  now  Burma  along 
the  ShweU  valley.  The  stream  rises  in  China  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Tengyiieh,  and  flows  first  in  a  south-westerly  and  then  in  a  northerly 
direction  past  Namhkam  village,  through  the  Shan  State  of  Mongmit 
and  along  the  northern  end  of  the  Ruby  Mines  District  into  the  Irra- 
waddy,  which  it  reaches  at  a  point  20  miles  south  of  the  town  of 
Katha.  The  total  length  of  the  river  is  about  260  miles.  It  abounds 
in  rapids,  and  is  but  little  used  for  navigation,  but  is  employed  freely 
for  floating  timber.     It  has  no  tributaries  of  importance. 

Siahan.  —  Mountain  range  in  Baluchistan,  separating  Makran 
from  Kharan.  The  eastern  part  is  known  as  Band.  It  runs  south- 
south-west  and  east-north-east  between  27°  7'  and  28°  2'  N.  and 
63°  22'  and  65°  42'  E.,  and  unites  with  the  Jhalawan  hills  near 
Shireza,  having  a  total  length  of  176  miles.  It  is  the  narrowest  range 
in  Western  Baluchistan,  the  width  nowhere  exceeding  20  miles.  North 
of  Panjgur  the  general  mass  bifurcates,  the  spur  on  the  south  being 
known  as  the  Koh-i-Sabz.  Its  general  aspect  is  abrupt  and  rugged, 
and  its  geological  formation  a  slaty  shale.  It  has  a  mean  elevation 
of  about  5,000  feet.  On  the  west  are  the  two  fine  defiles  of  Tank-i- 
Grawag  and  Tank-i-Zurrati,  through  which  the  Rakhshan  river  passes. 

Sialkot  District. — District  in  the  Lahore  Division  of  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  31°  43'  and  32°  51''  N.  and  74*^  11'  and  75°  \'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,991  square  miles.  It  is  an  oblong  tract  of  country,  occu- 
pying the  submontane  portion  of  the  Rechna  or  Ravi-Chenab  Doab, 
with  a  length  from  north-west  to  south-east  of  a  little  over  50  miles, 
and  an  average  breadth  of  44  miles,  stretching  from  the  valley  of  the 
Ravi  on  the  south-east  to  that  of  the  Chenab  on  the  north-western 
border.  On  the  north-east  the  District  is  bounded  by  the  Jammu 
province  of  Kashmir ;  on  the  east  by  Gurdaspur ;  and  on  the  west 
by  Lahore  and  Gujranwala.     Along  the  bank  of  both  great  boundary 

rivers,  a   narrow   fringe    of  alluvial    lowland    marks 
Plivsic3.1  .  • 

asoects  ^^^^   central    depression    in    which    they   run ;    while 

above  them  rise  the  high  banks  that  form  the  limits 

of  their  wider  beds.     Parallel  to  the  Ravi,  another  stream,  the  Degh, 


STALKOT  D I  STRICT  -27 

which  rises  in  the  Jamniu  liills,  traverses  the  centre  of  the  District. 
A  torrent  in  the  rains,  at  other  times  the  Degh  dwindles  to  the  merest 
trickle ;  hke  the  greater  rivers  it  is  fringed  on  either  side  by  a  strip  of 
alluvial  soil,  but  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course  through  the  Zafarwal 
tahsll  the  shifting  of  its  bed  has  covered  a  large  area  with  barren  sand. 
Several  other  minor  streams,  of  which  the  Aik  is  the  most  important, 
traverse  the  District.  Midway  between  the  Ravi  and  the  Chenab  is 
a  raised  dorsal  tract,  which  forms  a  slightly  elevated  plateau  stretching 
from  beyond  the  Jammu  border  far  into  the  heart  of  the  dodb.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  District  near  the  hills  wears  an  aspect  of  remark- 
able greenness  and  fertility.  The  dorsal  ridge,  however,  is  dry  and 
sandy  ;  and  between  the  Degh  and  the  Ravi  the  wild  and  unproductive 
upland  grows  moi'c  and  more  impregnated  with  saltpetre  as  it  recedes 
from  the  hills,  till  near  the  Lahore  border  it  merges  into  a  tangled 
jungle  of  brushwood  and  reeds.  The  District  also  comprises  a  small 
tract  of  low  hills,  called  the  Bajwat,  on  the  north  of  the  Chenab. 
a  country  of  green  grass  and  flowing  streams,  which  presents  an 
agreeable  change  from  the  arid  plains  of  the  Punjab. 

There  is  nothing  of  geological  interest  in  Sialkot,  which  is 
situated  entirely  on  the  alluvium.  Cultivation  is  close,  leaving  little 
room  for  an  indigenous  flora  of  perennial  plants.  Towards  the  Jammu 
border,  especially  in  the  north-west  of  the  District,  plants  of  the  Outer 
Himalayan  fringe  appear.  Trees  are  rare,  except  where  planted  about 
wells,  by  roadsides,  and  in  gardens. 

A  few  wolves  are  the  only  representatives  of  the  carnivora,  while 
even  hares  and  deer  find  little  cover  in  so  highly  cultivated  a  tract. 
A  few  wild  hog  and  nilgai  are  found,  but  no  antelope  have  been 
shot  in  recent  years.  In  the  cold  season  wild  geese,  ducks,  and  other 
water-fowl  abound  in  the  marshes  and  on  the  river  banks  and  islands  ; 
quail  are  plentiful  in  spring,  but  partridges  are  scarce. 

The  climate  in  summer  is,  for  the  plains,  good ;  and,  though  there 
are  generally  a  few  days  of  most  intense  heat,  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  hills  prevents  any  long-continued  spell.  The  cold  season  resem- 
bles that  in  the  Punjab  generally,  but  begins  early  and  ends  late. 
The  low  hills  are  cool  but  very  malarious,  as  is  also  the  waterlogged 
valley  of  the  Degh,  while  other  parts  are  decidedly  healthy.  Pneumonia 
is  common  in  the  winter  and  fever  in  the  autumn. 

Owing  to  its  submontane  position  the  District  has  an  abundant  rain- 
fall, but  this  diminishes  rapidly  in  amount  as  the  distance  from  the 
hills  increases.  The  average  rainfall  varies  from  22  inches  at  Raya 
to  35  at  Sialkot;  at  the  latter  place  28  inches  fall  in  the  summer 
months,  and  7  in  the  winter.  The  heaviest  rainfall  recorded  during 
the  twenty  years  ending  1901  was  64  inches  at  Sialkot  in  188 1-2, 
and  the  lowest   10  inches  at  Daska  in   189 1-2. 


338  SIALKOT  DISTRICT 

The  legendary  history  of  the  District  is  connected  with  Raja  SaH- 
vahan,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  town  of  Sialkot,  and  his  famous  son 
Rasalu,  and  is  described  under  Sialkot  Town. 
Pasrur  is  also  an  ancient  place.  At  an  early  date 
the  District  fell  to  the  Rajas  of  Jammu,  and  under  the  Mughals 
formed  the  Rechna  Doab  sarkdr  of  the  Subah  of  Lahore.  Under  Shah 
Jahan  the  sarkdr  was  entrusted  to  All  Mardan  Khan,  the  famous  engi- 
neer, who  dug  a  canal  through  it  to  bring  water  from  the  Chenab  to  the 
imperial  gardens  at  Lahore.  On  the  decline  of  the  Mughal  empire 
Ranjit  Singh  Deo,  Rajput,  a  hill  chief,  extended  his  sway  over  the  low- 
lands, owning  a  nominal  allegiance  to  Delhi.  In  1748  he  transferred 
his  allegiance  to  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani,  who  added  Zafarwal  and  two 
other  parganas  to  his  fief.  Before  his  death  in  1773  Ranjit  Deo  had 
secured  possession  of  the  whole  District,  except  Sialkot  town  and  its 
dependencies,  which  were  held  by  a  Pathan  family.  After  his  death 
the  Bhangi  confederacy  of  the  Sikhs  took  Sialkot  from  the  Pathans,  and 
eventually  overran  the  whole  country  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Jammu 
hills,  dividing  it  among  a  score  of  leaders.  These  petty  States  were, 
however,  attached  by  Ranjit  Singh  in  1791  ;  and  his  annexation  of 
Pasrur  in  1807  gave  him  control  of  the  tract,  after  his  general,  Diwan 
Mohkam  Chand,  had  defeated  the  Sardars  of  Sialkot  at  Atari. 

In  the  Mutiny  of  1857  the  station  was  denuded  of  British  troops; 
and  the  Native  regiments  which  were  left  behind  rose,  and,  after  sacking 
the  jail,  treasury,  and  courthouse,  and  massacring  several  of  the  Euro- 
pean inhabitants,  marched  off  towards  Delhi,  only  to  be  destroyed 
by  Nicholson  at  Trimmu  Ghat.  The  rest  of  the  Europeans  took 
refuge  in  the  fort,  and  on  the  morning  after  the  departure  of  the 
mutineers  order  was  restored.  The  only  events  of  interest  in  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  District  are  the  plague  riots  which  occurred 
at  the  villages  of  Shahzada  and  Sankhatra  in  1901. 

Numerous  mounds  are  scattered  about  the  District,  which  mark  the 
sites  of  ancient  villages  and  towns.  None  of  them,  except  that  on 
which  the  Sialkot  fort  stood,  has  been  excavated,  but  silver  and  copper 
utensils  and  coins  have  been  dug  up  from  time  to  time  by  villagers. 
Most  of  the  coins  are  those  of  Indo-Bactrian  kings.  The  excavations 
in  Sialkot  revealed  the  existence  of  some  old  baths,  with  hot-water 
pipes  of  solid  masonry.  The  fort  itself,  of  which  very  little  now 
remains,  is  not  more  than  1,000  years  old,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
rebuilt  by  Shahab-ud-din  Ghori  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 
For  further  information,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  articles  on 
Sialkot  Town  and  Pasrur  Town. 

The  District  contains  7  towns  and  2,348  villages.  The  population 
at  the  last  four  enumerations  was  :  (1868)  1,004,695,  (1881)  1,012,148, 
(1891)  1,119,847,  and  (1901)  1,083,909.     It  decreased  by  3-2  per  cent. 


POPULATION 


329 


during  the  last  decade,  the  decrease  being  greatest  in  the  Raya  tahsll 
and  least  in  Daska.  The  Chenab  Colony  is  responsible  for  this  fall 
in  population,  no  less  than  103,000  persons  having 
left  to  take  land  in  the  newly  irrigated  tracts.  The  Population. 
District  is  divided  into  five  tahslls — Siai.kot,  Pasruk,  Zafarwal, 
Raya,  and  Daska — the  head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from 
which  it  is  named.  The  chief  towns  are  the  municipalities  of  Sialkot, 
the  administrative  head-quarters  of  the  District,  Daska,  Jamki,  Paskur, 
Kila  Sobha  Singh,  Zafarwal,  and  Narowal. 

The   following   table   shows   the   chief  statistics   of  population    in 
1901  : — 


Tahsil. 


Sialkot 
Zafarwal 
Pasrur 
Raya . 
Daska 


District  total 


Number  of 

S"" 

c~ 

Hi 

■-    c 

u 

< 

H 

^ 

428 

I 

637 

310 

I 

480 

394 

2 

443 

4«.S 

I 

456 

360 

2 

332 

1,991 

7 

2..348 

0.4) 


c   ,3   „     . 

V CvJ 

bxc  Coo  O 
rt   O   O  —   o 

a^  rt  rt  (u.^ 
u  u  3  j;  n 


312,688 

178,887 

193,746 
192,440 

206,148 


1,083,909 


730-5 

577-1 
491.7 
396.8 
572.6 


3-2 

6.3 

5-0 

10-4 

0.6 


644-4      -   3-2 


12,101 
3,9.50 
5,601 
5,586 
4,103 


31,341 


Note. — The  figures  for  the  areas  oi  tahslls  are  taken  from  revenue  returns.    The  total  area 
of  the  District  is  that  given  in  the  Census  Report. 

Muhammadans  number  716,953,  or  over  66  per  cent,  of  the  total; 
Hindus,  302,012,  or  28  per  cent.  ;  and  Sikhs,  50,982,  or  less  than 
5  per  cent.  Sialkot  town  contains  the  famous  shrine  of  Baba  Nanak, 
the  first  Sikh  Guru.  The  density  of  the  population  is  high.  The 
language  of  the  people  is  Punjabi,  but  the  dialect  known  as  Dogri 
is  largely  spoken  by  Hindus  on  the  Jammu  border. 

The  Jats  are  in  greater  numerical  strength  in  Sialkot  than  in  any 
other  District  in  the  Province,  numbering  258,000,  or  24  per  cent, 
of  the  total.  Other  agricultural  tribes  include  the  Arains  (67,000), 
Rajputs  (60,000),  Awans  (24,000),  and  Gujars  (10,000).  The  com- 
mercial classes  are  Khattris  (19,000),  Aroras  (19,000),  and  Pahari 
Mahajans  (11,000).  The  Bhatias  (6,000)  are  stronger  in  Sialkot  than 
anywhere  else.  Brahmans  number  35,000  and  Saiyids  15,000.  Of 
the  artisan  classes,  the  most  important  are  the  Tarkhans  (carpenters, 
44,000),  Kumhars  (potters,  32,000),  Julahas  (weavers,  28,000),  Lobars 
(blacksmiths,  21,000),  Mochls  (shoemakers  and  leather-workers,  17,000), 
Telis  (oil-pressers,  14,000),  and  Sonars  (goldsmiths,  10,000).  Kash- 
miris number  32,000.  Of  the  menial  classes,  the  Chuhras  (sweepers, 
64,000)  are  the  most  numerous ;  other  large  menial  castes  are  Jhinwars 
(water-carriers,  23,000),  Nais  (barbers,  22,000),  Chhimbas  and  Dhobis 


330 


STALKOT  DT STRICT 


(washermen,  17,000),  Machhis  (fishermen  and  water-carriers,  15,000), 
Meghs  (weavers,  34,000),  Barwalas  and  Batwals  (village  watchmen, 
34,000),  Mirasls  (village  minstrels,  12,000),  and  Changars  (labourers, 
6,000).  There  are  22,000  Fakirs.  About  46  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion are  supported  by  agriculture. 

The  American  United  Presbyterian  Mission,  which  was  established 
at  Sialkot  in  1855,  supports  a  theological  seminary,  a  Christian  training 
institute,  a  female  hospital,  and  an  Anglo-vernacular  high  school.  The 
Established  Church  of  Scotland  maintains  two  European  missionaries 
at  Sialkot  (branch  established  in  1857)  and  one  in  Daska,  and  also  has 
a  separate  female  mission,  mainly  occupied  with  work  in  zimanas. 
The  Church  of  England  Mission  at  Narowal  was  founded  in  1859, 
and  the  Zanana  Mission  at  that  place  in  1884.  The  Roman  Catholics, 
who  entered  the  field  in  1889,  have  now  three  stations.  Sialkot  has 
the  largest  number  of  native  Christians  in  the  Punjab,  amounting  to 
10,662,  or  r  per  cent,  of  the  population,  in  1901. 

The  soil  consists  chiefly  of  loam,  but  clay  is  found  in  depressions, 

and  the  waste  lands  mostly  consist  of  sandy  or  salt-impregnated  soil. 

Owing  to  the  abundant  rainfall,  and  the  very  large 

Agncu  ure.  pjoportion  of  the  cultivated  area  which  is  served  by 
wells,  the  District  is  secure  against  any  serious  failure  of  crops. 

The  District  is  held  almost  entirely  on  the  hhaiyachard  qwA  pattldari 
tenures,  zamindari  lands  covering  only  about  30,000  acres.  The  area 
for  which  details  are  available  from  the  revenue  record  of  1903-4  is 
1,984  square  miles,  as  shown  below: — 


Tahsll. 

Total 
area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 

waste. 

Sialkot    . 
Zafarwal 
Pasrur     . 
Raya 
Daska     . 

Total 

436 
310 

394 
485 
369 

333 
250 

303 
305 
294 

160 

98 

170 

165 
265 

41 
21 
29 
131 
38 

1,984 

1,485 

858 

260 

Wheat  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  spring  harvest,  covering  60 r  square 
miles  in  1903-4;  barley  and  gram  occupied  120  and  64  square  miles 
respectively.  Sugar  is  the  most  valuable  crop  of  the  autumn  harvest, 
and  the  area  planted  (50  square  miles)  is  surpassed  only  in  Gurdaspur. 
Rice,  maize,  and  great  millet  {Jo7var)  are  the  chief  autumn  food-grains. 

The  cultivated  area  has  increased  by  28  per  cent,  since  1854  and 
by  I  per  cent,  in  the  ten  years  ending  1901-2,  the  increase  being  due 
to  the  steady  extension  of  well-cultivation  and  the  great  pressure  of 
population  on  the  soil.  Nothing  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  im- 
proving the  quality  of  the  crops  grown.     Loans  for  the  construction 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  331 

of  wells  are  extremely  popular,  over  Rs.  60,000  having  been  advanced 
during  the  five  years  ending  1903-4. 

Very  few  cattle  are  bred  locally.  Agricultural  stock  is  purchased 
at  the  Amritsar  fairs  or  at  the  Gulu  Shah  cattle  fair  in  the  Pasrur 
tahstl,  and  imported  from  Jhang,  Gujranwala,  and  Gujrat.  Horses 
and  ponies  are  not  common,  and  the  indigenous  breed  is  poor ;  two 
pony  and  five  donkey  stallions  are  kept  by  the  District  board.  Sheep 
and  goats  are  numerous,  and  donkeys  are  largely  used  as  pack  animals, 
but  camels  are  scarce. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  858  square  miles,  or  58  per 
cent,,  were  classed  as  irrigated.  Of  this  area,  788  square  miles  were 
irrigated  from  wells,  16  from  canals,  and  54  from  streams.  In  addition, 
135  square  miles,  or  9  per  cent.,  are  subject  to  inundation  by  the 
Chenab,  Ravi,  and  minor  streams.  Irrigation  from  canals  is  confined 
to  small  private  channels  taken  from  the  Degh  and  other  streams  ; 
irrigation  from  streams  is  either  by  lift  or  from  the  perennial  brooks 
of  the  Bajwat.  Wells  are  the  mainstay  of  the  cultivation,  owing  to  the 
copious  supply  of  subsoil  water,  and  the  fact  that  they  can  be  con- 
structed at  comparatively  small  cost.  In  1903-4  the  District  possessed 
24,452  masonry  wells  worked  with  Persian  wheels  by  cattle,  besides 
1,450  unbricked  wells,  lever  wells,  and  water-lifts. 

The  District  contains  only  one  square  mile  of  '  reserved '  forest  under 
the  Deputy-Conservator  of  the  Chenab  Forest  division,  1-4  square  miles 
of  military  reserve,  and  7  of  unclassed  forest  and  Government  waste 
under  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  With  the  exception  of  one  planta- 
tion these  are  chiefly  grass  reserves,  and  even  an  ordinary  coppice  can 
hardly  be  found.     In  1904  the  forest  revenue  was  Rs.  1,500. 

The  District  contains  several  beds  of  kankar  or  nodular  limestone, 
and  saltpetre  is  prepared  to  a  small  extent. 

Sialkot  town  was  once  famous  for  its  paper,  but  the  industry  has 
much  declined  of  recent  years  owing  to  the  competition  of  mill-made 
paper.     It  also  possesses  a  recently  introduced  and 
flourishing   industry  in   the    manufacture  of  cricket  communications, 
bats,  polo   and   hockey  sticks,  and   the   like,  which 
have  a  wide  popularity  all  over  India.     Tents,  tin  boxes,  and  surgical 
instruments  are  made ;  and  three  flour-mills,  in  one  of  which  cotton- 
ginning  is  also  carried  on,  employed   85  hands  in  1904.     Cotton  is 
woven  all   over  the  District,  and  printed  cotton  stuffs  are  made  at 
Pasrur ;  shawls  of  pashm,  the  fine  wool  of  the  Tibetan  goat,  are  pro- 
duced at  Kila  Sobha  Singh.     Damascened  work  on  iron  is  made  at  the 
village  of  Kotli  Loharan  near  Sialkot,  and   Daska  and  other  places 
produce  vessels  of  brass  and  white  metal  on  a  considerable  scale.     In 
1869  an  undertaking  was  started  at  Sialkot  under  the  name  of  the 
Belfast  Flax  Company,  to  encourage  the  growth  of  flax  for  export  to 

VOL.  XXII.  V 


332  SIALKOT  DISTRICT 

England ;  but,  though  an  excellent  fibre  was  raised  in  the  District, 
the  difficulty  of  procuring  good  seed  and  the  apathy  of  the  peasantry 
caused  the  enterprise  to  prove  a  failure  after  some  years'  trial. 

Sialkot  town  is  the  only  important  centre  of  commerce,  and  receives 
such  surplus  raw  produce  as  the  District  produces,  most  of  which  is 
consumed  in  the  town  and  cantonment.  The  chief  exports  are  rice, 
sugar,  paper,  cotton,  cloth,  and  brass  vessels ;  and  the  chief  imports 
are  grain,  rice,  tobacco,  ^^/,  timber,  and  tea,  besides  the  various  neces- 
saries for  the  British  troops  in  cantonments.  There  is  a  branch  of  the 
Alliance  Bank  of  Simla  at  Sialkot. 

A  branch  of  what  is  now  the  North-Western  Railway  from  Wazirabad 
to  Sialkot,  a  distance  of  27  miles,  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1880,  and 
its  continuation  to  Jammu  in  1890.  The  principal  metalled  road  runs 
parallel  to  the  railway  from  Wazirabad  to  Jamnm.  An  important 
metalled  road  connects  Sialkot  and  Amritsar.  The  chief  unmetalled 
roads  are  from  Sialkot  to  Gurdaspur,  to  Gujranwala,  and  via  Eminabad 
to  Lahore.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  56  miles,  and  of 
unmetalled  roads  785  miles;  of  these,  24  miles  of  metalled  and  29 
of  unmetalled  roads  are  under  the  Public  Works  department,  and  the 
rest  are  maintained  by  the  District  board.  The  (^henab  is  crossed  by 
nine  ferries  and  the  Ravi  by  five,  but  there  is  little  traffic  on  either 
river. 

The  District  was  visited  by  famine  in  1783,  181 2,  1843,  ^"^^  1861. 

Neither  in  1870  nor  1878  did  it  suffer  severely,  and  with  the  extension 

.  of  well-irrigation   that  has  taken  place   in   the   last 

twenty  years  it  is  believed  to  have  become  practically 

secure.     The  crops  matured  in  the  famine  year  1899-1900  amounted 

to  63  per  cent,  of  the  normal. 

The  District  is  in  charge  of  a  Deputy-Commissioner,  aided  by  five 
Assistant  or  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  of  whom  one  is  in  charge 
of  the  District  treasury.  The  tahslls  of  Sialkot, 
Zafarwal,  Raya,  Daska,  and  Pasrur  are  each  under 
a  tahsllddr  and  a  naib-tahsllddr.  Sialkot  is  the  head- quarters  of 
a  Superintending  Engineer  and  two  Executive  Engineers  of  the  Canal 
department. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Magistrate  is  responsible  for 
criminal  justice,  and  civil  judicial  work  is  under  a  District  Judge. 
Both  officers  are  supervised  by  the  Divisional  Judge  of  the  Sialkot 
Civil  Division,  who  is  also  Sessions  Judge.  The  District  Judge  has 
one  Subordinate  Judge  and  five  Munsifs  under  him,  one  at  head- 
quarters and  one  at  each  outlying  tahstl.  A  cantonment  magistrate 
is  posted  to  Sialkot  cantonment.  The  District  is  singularly  free  from 
serious  crime,  despite  the  large  number  of  Sansis  and  other  criminal 
tribes  domiciled  in  it. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  ^^Ih 

The  revenue  history  in  pre-annexation  times  presents  no  special 
features.  A  summary  settlement  was  made  in  1847  by  the  European 
Political  ofificers  under  the  Regency.  The  kind  rents  of  the  Sikhs  were 
appraised  and  a  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  made,  while  all  extra  cesses 
were  abolished.  This  assessment  worked  well  until  the  fall  in  prices 
which "  followed  annexation.  Bad  seasons  and  bad  management  aggra- 
vated the  distress,  and  even  large  remissions  failed  to  prevent  the 
people  from  abandoning  their  holdings.  In  1850  the  Rechna  Doab 
settlement  began,  including  the  present  Districts  of  Sialkot  and  Gujran- 
wala,  and  the  tahsils  of  Shakargarh  and  Shahdara.  The  demand  of 
the  summary  settlement  was  reduced  from  15  lakhs  to  13.  Cesses 
were  also  reimposed  at  the  rate  of  16  per  cent,  on  the  demand.  The 
settlement  was  revised  in  1863-6,  and  a  general  reduction  made,  one- 
sixth  of  the  gross  produce  being  assumed  as  the  equivalent  of  half  the 
net  'assets.'  The  initial  demand  was  slightly  over  12  lakhs,  and  the 
ultimate  demand  12^  lakhs.  The  sanctioned  theoretical  rates  at  the 
next  revision  (1888-93)  indicated  a  revenue  of  i8i  lakhs,  but  the  actual 
demand  was  1 5  lakhs,  an  increase  of  2 1  per  cent.  The  average  assess- 
ment on  'dry'  land  is  Rs.  1-4-6  (maximum  Rs.  1-14,  minimum 
R.  o-ii),  and  on  'wet'  land  Rs.  2-0-6  (maxinmm  Rs.  3,  minimum 
Rs.  i-i).  The  demand  in  1903-4,  including  cesses,  was  over  17-3 
lakhs.     The  average  size  of  a  proprietary  holding  is  7-6  acres. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  alone  and  of  total  revenue  are 
shown  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880- 1. 

1890-1.        1900-1.    '    1903-4. 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

11,12 
14,11 

11,49          13,93     1     14,55 
15,75          20,19         20,62 

The  District  contains  seven  municipalities,  Sialkot,  DASKA-t7/;/^Kot 
Daska,  Jamki,  Pasruk,  Kila  Sobha  Singh,  Zafarwal,  and  Naro- 
WAL )  and  nine  '  notified  areas.'  Outside  these,  local  affairs  are 
managed  by  the  District  board,  whose  income,  mainly  derived  from 
a  local  rate,  amounted  in  1903-4  to  i-8  lakhs.  The  expenditure  was 
also  1-8  lakhs,  hospitals,  schools,  and  public  works  forming  the  chief 
items.  Sialkot  is  one  of  the  few  Diblricts  m  the  Punjab  in  which  local 
boards  have  answered  expectations. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  576  of  all  ranks,  including 
59  cantonment  and  146  municipal  police,  in  charge  of  a  Superinten- 
dent, who  usually  has  6  inspectors  under  him.  The  village  watchmen 
number  2,149.  There  are  17  police  stations.  The  District  jail  at 
Sialkot  town  has  accommodation  for  482  prisoners. 

Sialkot  stands  twenty-third  among  the  twenty-eight  Districts  of 
the  Punjab  in  respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population.      In   lyoi  the 

V  2 


334 


SIALKOT  DISTRICT 


proportion  of  literate  persons  was  2-8  per  cent.  (5-2  males  and  0-3 
females).  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was  5,266  in 
i88o~i,  13,300  in  1890-1,  13,745  in  1900-1,  and  15,780  in  1903-4. 
In  the  last  year  there  were  one  Arts  college,  2 1  secondary,  and  1 83  pri- 
mary (public)  schools,  besides  9  advanced  and  228  elementary  (private) 
schools,  with  1,415  girls  in  the  public  and  278  in  the  private  schools. 
The  principal  educational  institutions  are  the  Sialkot  Arts  college  and 
5  high  schools.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was 
1-2  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  24,497  was  contributed  by  municipalities, 
Rs.  42,000  came  from  fees,  Rs.  7,000  from  Government  grants,  and 
Rs.  35,000  from  Local  funds. 

Besides  the  civil  hospital  and  a  branch  dispensary  at  head-quarters, 
local  bodies  maintain  7  outlying  dispensaries.  At  these  institutions  in 
1904  a  total  of  139,968  out-patients  and  1,872  in-patients  were  treated, 
and  7,562  operations  were  performed.  A  leper  asylum  and  four  Kot 
dispensaries,  for  the  inmates  of  the  '  Kot '  or  reformatory  for  criminal 
tribes,  are  also  maintained  in  the  IJistrict.  The  Kot  dispensaries  treat  a 
large  number  of  out-patients.  The  expenditure  in  1904  was  Rs.  23,000, 
of  which  Rs.  11,000  was  contributed  by  Local  and  Rs.  12,000  by 
municipal  funds.  The  District  also  has  four  mission  dispensaries,  aided 
from  Local  and  municipal  funds,  one  for  males  and  three  for  women 
and  children ;  and  in  Sialkot  town  a  charitable  dispensary  is  maintained 
by  the  representative  of  an  old  family  of  hakims  or  native  physicians. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  34,609,  re- 
presenting 32-3  per  1,000  of  population. 

[J.  R.  Dunlop-Smith,  District  Gazetteer  (1894-5)  ;  Settlement  Report 
(1895)  ;  and  Customarv  Law  of  the  Main  Tribes  in  the  Sialkot  District 

(1895)-] 

Sialkot  Tahsil. — Northern  tahsll  of  Sialkot  District,  Punjab,  lying 

between  32°  17'  and  32°  51'  N.  and  74°  i  I'and  74°  43'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  436  square  miles.  The  Chenab  forms  part  of  the  north-western 
boundary  of  the  tahsll,  which  includes  a  submontane  tract  known  as 
the  Bajwat  to  the  north  of  that  river.  The  country  is  traversed  by 
a  number  of  hill  torrents,  and  except  in  the  south-east  is  extremely 
fertile  and  is  fairly  well  supplied  with  irrigation  wells.  The  population 
in  1901  was  312,688,  compared  with  302,866  in  1891.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  the  town  of  Sialkot  (population,  57,956),  and  it  also 
contains  637  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  4,00,000. 

Sialkot  Town. — Head-quarters  of  Sialkot  District  and  tahsil, 
Punjab,  situated  in  32°  30'  N.  and  74°  32''  E.,  on  the  Wazirabad- 
Jammu  branch  of  the  North-Western  Railway ;  distant  by  rail  from 
Calcutta  1,341  miles,  from  Bombay  1,369,  and  from  Karachi  808. 
Population  (1901),  57,956.      Sialkot  stands  on  the  northern  bank  of 


STALKOT    TOWN  3;, 5 

the  Aik  torrent,  upon  the  edge  of  the  high  triangular  ridge  which 
extends  southward  from  the  Jammu  hills,  and  is  72  miles  from 
Lahore, 

Popular  legends  attribute  its  foundation  to  Raja  Sala,  the  uncle  of 
the  Pandavas,  and  say  that  it  was  refounded  in  the  time  of  Vikramaditya 
by  Raja  Salivahan,  who  built  the  fort  and  city.  Salivahan  had  two  sons : 
one,  Puran  by  name,  was  killed  by  the  instrumentality  of  a  wicked  step- 
mother, and  thrown  into  a  well,  still  the  resort  of  pilgrims,  near  Sialkot; 
the  other,  Rasalu,  the  great  mythical  hero  of  Punjab  folk-tales,  is  said 
to  have  reigned  at  Sialkot.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  Rasalu 
became  involved  in  wars  with  Raja  Hudi,  popularly  stated  to  have 
been  a  Gakhar  chieftain.  Being  worsted  in  battle,  Rasalu,  as  the 
price  of  peace,  was  forced  to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  his 
conqueror,  who  gave  the  territory  he  had  conquered  to  Rasalu's 
adopted  son.     According  to  a  further  legend  related  to  Mr.  Prinsep : — 

'  After  the  death  of  Raja  Rasalu,  the  country  is  said  to  have  fallen 
under  the  curse  of  Puran  (brother  of  Rasalu,  who  had  become  a 
fakir)  for  300  years,  lying  totally  devastated  from  famine  and  in- 
cessant plunder.' 

It  has  recently  been  suggested  that  Sialkot  is  the  ancient  site  known 
as  Sakala  or  Sagal.  In  a.  d.  790  the  fort  and  city  were  demolished  by 
an  army  under  Raja  Naraut,  supported  by  the  Ghandaurs  of  the 
Yusufzai  country.  Under  the  Mughal  emperors,  Sialkot  became  the 
head-quarters  of  a  fiscal  district  {sarkdr).  The  country  was  afterwards 
occupied  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Rajput  princes  of  Jammu. 
The  mound  which  rises  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  crowned  with  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  fort,  is  popularly  believed  to  mark  the  site  of  the 
original  stronghold  of  Raja  Salivahan  ;  but  the  fort  itself  is  not  more 
than  1,000  years  old,  and  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  Shahab-ud- 
dln  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Some  old  baths  with  hot-water 
pipes  of  solid  masonry  have  been  discovered  here.  Other  similar 
mounds  stand  among  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  In  modern  times, 
the  old  fort  is  of  historical  interest  for  its  gallant  defence  by  the  few 
European  residents  who  took  refuge  here  during  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 
It  is  now  dismantled,  and  the  few  buildings  it  contains  are  used  for 
public  purposes.  The  town  also  contains  the  shrine  of  the  first  Sikh 
Gurii,  Baba  Nanak  {see  Amritsar  District),  the  scene  of  an  annual 
fair  largely  attended  by  Sikhs  from  all  parts  of  the  District ;  the  Darbar 
BaolT  Sahib,  a  covered  well,  erected  by  a  Rajput  disciple  of  Baba 
Nanak,  held  high  in  religious  consideration  among  the  Sikhs ;  the 
Muhammadan  shrine  of  Imam  Ali-ul-hakk,  a  handsome  building  of 
ancient  construction ;  and  a  temple  erected  by  Raja  Tej  Singh.  The 
municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income  and  expenditure  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  about  a  lakh.      In   1903-4  the 


3^6  SIALKOT   TOWN 

income  was  a  lakh,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi  (Rs.  80,500) ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  also  a  lakh,  including  conservancy  (Rs.  13,200), 
education  (Rs.  17,000),  medical  (Rs.  12,000),  and  administration 
(Rs.  25,900). 

The  large  military  cantonment  is  situated  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  native  town.  The  garrison,  which  belongs  to  the  Rawalpindi 
division,  consists  of  one  battery  and  one  ammunition  column  of  horse 
artillery,  one  regiment  of  British  cavalry,  two  regiments  of  Native 
cavalry,  one  battalion  of  Native  infantry,  and  one  company  of  sappers 
and  miners.  There  is  also  a  mounted  infantry  school.  During  the 
ten  years  ending  1902-3  the  income  and  expenditure  of  cantonment 
funds  averaged  Rs.  37,000. 

Sialkot  is  a  flourishing  trade  centre  and  depot  for  agricultural  pro- 
duce. It  has  an  extensive  manufacture  of  cricket  and  tennis  bats, 
hockey  sticks,  &c.,  tents,  surgical  instruments,  and  tin  boxes.  Boots  are 
also  made,  and  various  cotton  stuffs,  chiefly  twill  {susi).  The  manufac- 
ture of  paper  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  four  centuries  ago,  and 
under  the  Mughal  emperors  Sialkot  paper  was  largely  used  at  the 
Delhi  court.  The  manufacture  has  now  greatly  declined,  owing  to  the 
competition  of  mill-made  paper.  The  town  contains  three  flour-mills, 
in  one  of  which  cotton-ginning  is  also  carried  on.  The  number  of 
employes  in  1904  was  85.  The  Alliance  Bank  of  Simla  has  a  branch 
in  the  town.  The  principal  educational  institutions  are  the  Sialkot 
Arts  college  and  four  Anglo-vernacular  high  schools,  of  which  one  is 
managed  by  the  Educational  department,  two  by  the  Scottish  and 
American  Missions,  while  the  fourth  is  the  Christian  Training  Insti- 
tute of  the  Scottish  Mission.  There  are  five  middle  schools  for  girls, 
one  of  which  is  attached  to  the  convent.  In  the  town  are  a  civil 
hospital  with  a  branch  dispensary,  an  American  Mission  hospital  for 
women  and  children,  and  a  charitable  dispensary  maintained  by  a 
member  of  an  old  family  of  hakims  or  native  physicians. 

Sibi  District  {S'lwi). — District  of  Baluchistan,  lying  between  27° 
55'  and  30°  38'  N.  and  (^f  17'  and  69°  50'  R.  Its  total  area  is 
11,281  square  miles;  but  this  includes  the  Marri-Bugti  country 
(7,129  square  miles),  which  is  only  under  political  control,  leaving 
4,152  square  miles  of  directly  Administered  territory.  The  Lahri 
fiiabat  of  the  Kalat  State  in  Kachhi  (1,282  square  miles)  is  also 
politically  controlled  from  Sibi.  The  District  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Loralai  District ;  on  the  south  by  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier  Dis- 
trict ;  on  the  east  by  the  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District  of  the  Punjab  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Kachhi,  the  Bolan  Pass,  and  Quetta-Pishin.  The 
portion  under  political  control  occupies  the  centre,  east,  and  south  of 
the  District ;  the  areas  under  direct  administration  form  protrusions  in 
the  north-western,  north-eastern,  and  south-western  corners. 


S/BI  DISTRICT  337 

No  area  in  Baluchistan  presents  such  strongly  marked  variations, 
both  physical  and  climatic,  between  its  various  parts  as  Sibi  Dis- 
trict, Two  portions  of  it,  the  Sibi  and  Naslrabad 
iahslls,  consist  of  perfectly  level  plain,  lying  respec-  •Physical 
lively  at  the  apex  and  base  of  Kachhi.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  District  consists  entirely  of  mountainous  country, 
rising  in  a  series  of  terraces  from  the  lower  hills  of  the  Sulaiman 
range.  These  hills  include  Zen  (3,625  feet)  in  the  Bugti  country, 
and  Bambor  (4,890  feet)  and  Dungan  with  Butur  (about  6,000  feet) 
in  the  Marri  country.  North-westward  the  mountains  stretch  to  the 
watershed  of  the  Central  Brahui  range  in  Zarghun  and  Khalifat,  at 
an  elevation  of  11,700  feet.  With  the  exception  of  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Marri-Bugti  country,  the  drainage  of  the  whole  of  this  area  is 
carried  off  by  the  Nari,  which  in  traversing  the  Marri  country  is  known 
as  the  Beji.  On  the  south  it  is  joined  by  three  considerable  hill- 
torrents,  the  Chakar  or  Talli,  the  Lahri,  and  the  Chhatr.  All  of  these 
streams  are  subject  to  high  floods,  especially  in  July  and  August,  when 
the  fertile  lands  of  Kachhi  are  irrigated  from  them. 

The  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Siwaliks  (upper  and  middle  miocene) ; 
SpTntangi  limestone  and  Ghazij  group  (middle  eocene) ;  volcanic  agglo- 
merates and  ash-beds  of  the  Deccan  trap ;  the  Dunghan  group  (Upper 
Cretaceous) ;  belemnlte  beds  (neocomian) ;  and  some  massive  lime- 
stone (Jurassic),  as  well  as  spreads  of  recent  deposits,  are  exposed  in  ■ 
the  District. 

The  vegetation  of  the  District  is  as  varied  as  its  physical  aspects. 
On  the  south  it  is  similar  to  that  of  Sind,  the  uncultivated  land  pro- 
ducing Frosopis  spicigera,  Capparis  aphy/la,  Salvadora  o/eoides,  Zizy- 
phus  numnuilaria,  Tamarix  ifidica,  Acacia  arahica,  and  Acacia  modest  a. 
In  the  lower  highlands  the  dwarf-palm  {Nannorhops  Ritchieana) 
abounds,  and  the  blue  gum  {Ej/calyptus)  has  been  found  to  grow  well. 
In  the  higher  hills  are  found  the  juniper,  pistachio,  ash,  wild  almond, 
and  Caragana.  Cumin  seed  grows  in  the  Ziarat  hills,  which  also 
produce  many  varieties  of  grass. 

Mountain  sheep  and  inarkhor  are  found  in  the  higher  '  hills,'  where 
leopards  and  black  bears  are  also  sometimes  seen.  'Ravine  deer'  or 
gazelle  and  hares  occur  in  the  plains.  Large  flocks  of  sand-grouse 
visit  the  District  when  there  is  a  good  mustard  crop.  Fair  fishing 
is  to  be  had  in  the  Nari. 

While  the  highlands  possess  a  climate  which  is  pleasantly  cool  in 
summer  and  very  cold  in  winter,  the  plains  suffer  from  the  great  heat 
common  in  Sind.  Naslrabad  has  a  mean  temperature  in  July  of  96°, 
and  is  subject  to  the  effects  of  the  simoom.  For  five  months  alone, 
during  the  cold  season,  are  the  climatic  conditions  tolerable  to 
Furopeans.     The  Marri-Bugti  country  and  the  Shahrig  iahfil  (2,300 


338  SIBI  DISTRICT 

to  4,000  feet)  possess  a  climate  intermediate  between  the  extremes 

of  the  plains  and  the  highlands.     The  annual  rainfall  varies  with  the 

altitude,  from  3   inches  in   Naslrabad   to  5   in  Sibi  and  nearly  12  in 

Shahrig,   where  the  vapour-bearing  clouds  strike  Khalifat  and  empty 

their  contents  into  the  valley. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  District  was  always  a 

dependency  of  Multan.      It   is  known  to   have  formed   part  of  the 

Ghaznivid  empire,  and  was  ruled  by  a  petty  chief 

in  the  time  of  Nasir-ud-din  Kubacha.    About  1500, 

it  was  taken  by  Shah  Beg,  Arghun,  and  thus  passed  under  Kandahar ; 

but,  under  the  Mughal  empire,  it  again  became  subordinate  to  Multan. 

It  was  taken   by  the    Kalhoras  of  Sind   in  17 14;    but  they  had  to 

retire  before  the  power  of  the  Durranis,  by  whom  the  local  governors 

were  generally  selected  from  the  Barozai  clan  of  the  Panni  Afghans, 

which  still  retains  much  influence.     During  the  last  two  years  of  the 

first  Afghan  War  an  Assistant  Political  Agent  was  posted  to  Sibi,  and 

on  its  conclusion  the  District  was  handed  over  to  Kalat,  but  again 

came   under   Barakzai   rule  in    1843.     I'"^   the   succeeding  years   the 

Marris  acquired  ground  in  the  District ;  and  their  depredations  were 

not  checked  until  Sibi,  Shahrig,  and  Duki  were  assigned  to  the  British, 

in  1879,  by  the  Treaty  of  Gandamak.     The  Marris  and  Bugtis  had 

been  controlled  from  the   Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District  of  the  Punjab 

previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  Baluchistan  Agency  in  1877  ;  and 

this  charge  now  devolved  on  the  Political  Agent  in  Thal-Chotiali,  the 

name  first  given  to  the   District  on  its  establishment  in  1879.    The 

Kuat-Mandai  valley,  which  belongs  to  the  Marri  tribe,  has  been  held 

since  1881  as  security  for  the  payment  of  a  fine  inflicted  after  the  Marri 

expedition  of  1880.     Owing  to  disputes  between  the  Zarkun  Afghans 

and  the  Marris,  the  Kohlu  valley  was  brought  under  British  protection 

in  1 89 1.     Naslrabad  was  a  nidbat  of  the  Kalat  State  till  1.903,  when 

it  was   taken   over   on  a  perpetual  lease  for  an  annual   payment   of 

Rs.  1,15,000,  increased  by  Rs.  2,500  in  April,   1904.     The  name  of 

the  District  was  changed  to  Sibi  in  1903,  at  which  time  the  Sanjawi, 

Duki,  and  Barkhan  /ahslls,  which  had  hitherto  formed  part  of  the  old 

Thal-Chotiali  District,  were  transferred  to  the  new  Loralai  District. 

Sibi  District  proper  possesses  one  town  and  304  villages,  and   its 

population   in   1901   amounted  to   73,893,  or   18   persons  per  square 

^       ,    .  mile.       The    Marri-Bugti    country    has    8    villages 

Population.  ,  .    .  .      °  ^,  ■'         ,  ^     ° 

and  a  population  of  38,919.     The  total  population, 

including  tribal  areas,  is  therefore  112,812.  But  this  does  not  include 
the  Dombkis  (12,400),  Umranis  (1,100),  and  Kaheris  (7,100),  who 
live  in  that  portion  of  Kachhi  which  is  controlled  from  Sibi  Dis- 
trict. The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  the  area,  Szc,  of  the 
Administered  territory  by  tahsih  in   1901  : — 


POPULA  TION 


339 


Tahsil. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Population. 

Population 

per  square 

mile. 

Towns. 

Villages. 

Kohlu . 
Sibi      , 
Shahrig 

NasTrabad     . 

Total 

362 
1,343 

1,595 
852 

I 

9 

32 

93 

170 

1,743 
20,526 

16,573 
35,713 

5 
15 
10 
42 

4,152 

I 

304 

74,555* 

18 

*  Includes  662  Marris  enumerated  in  the  Kohlu  tahsil. 

In  the  Administered  area  90  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Muham- 
madans  of  the  Sunni  sect  and  9  per  cent,  are  Hindus  ;  in  the  Marri- 
Bugti  country  the  Muhammadans  number  99  per  cent.  About  43  per 
cent,  of  the  people  speak  Baluchi ;  the  other  languages  spoken  are 
Pashtii,  Jatkl,  and  Sindl.  A  peculiar  dialect,  called  Tarino,  is  spoken 
in  Shahrig.  The  Baloch  number  about  48,000 ;  Afghans  follow  with 
18,000.  The  Marris  and  Bugtis  and  the  Dumars  are  large  flock- 
owners  ;  the  other  inhabitants  are  cultivators. 

The  soil  of  the  plains  is  alluvium,  locally  known  as  pat;  in  the 
lower  highlands  it  is  sandy ;  in  Kohlu  it  is  much  impregnated  with 
salt.  Clay  and  gravel  occur  at  the  higher  elevations.  The  directly 
Administered  area  is  well  irrigated  and  fertile,  but  the  Marri  and 
Bugti  hills  afford  small  opportunity  for  agriculture.  Of  all  the  tahsl/s, 
Kohlu  alone  has  not  been  surveyed.  The  total  cultivable  area  in  the 
remaining  tahsl/s  is  878  square  miles,  of  which  about  234  square  miles 
are  cultivated  annually.  The  principal  harvest  is  the  sdnwanri  or 
autumn  crop ;  wheat  and  oilseeds  compose  the  spring  crop  {arhd?-i). 
The  largest  area  is  under  Joivdr,  after  which  come  oilseeds  and  wheat. 
Rice,  millets,  and  gram  are  also  grown.  Cultivation  has  extended 
everywhere  with  the  advent  of  peace  and  security ;  in  Nasirabad  it  has 
risen  from  76  square  miles  in  1880-1  to  165  square  miles  in  1902-3, 
and  in  Sibi  from  about  7  square  miles  in  1879-80  to  about  59  square 
miles  in  1904.  Quantities  of  vegetables  are  raised  in  Sibi  for  the 
Quetta  market,  and  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  melons 
is  increasing.  Between  1897  and  1904  advances  for  agricultural 
improvements  were  given  to  the  amount  of  nearly  Rs.  50,000. 

The  class  of  cattle  in  the  plains  is  excellent.  The  ponies  of  the 
Marri  and  Bugti  hills  are  light  in  limb  and  body,  but  carry  heavy 
weights  unshod  over  the  roughest  ground.  In  the  plains  larger 
animals  are  kept.  The  number  of  branded  mares  is  164.  Govern- 
ment staUions  are  stationed  at  Sibi  in  the  winter.  Camels  are  bred 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  District.  A  horse  and  cattle  fair  is  held 
at  Sibi  in  February. 

The  Nasirabad  fa/ist/  is  irrigated  by  the  Desert  and  Begari  branches 


•;4o  .9/7?/  DISTRICT 

of  the  Government  canals  in  Sind.  The  water  is  brought  to  the  land 
either  by  gravitation  {moki)  or  by  lift  {charkJn).  The  area  irrigated 
annually  between  1893  and  1903  averaged  80,000  acres.  In  the  Sibi 
tahsil  a  system  of  channels  from  the  Nari  river  irrigates  about  26,000 
acres.  Elsewhere,  excluding  Kohlu,  about  13,700  acres  are  irrigated 
from  springs  and  streams.  Wells  are  used  for  irrigation  in  NasTrabad, 
but  their  number  is  limited.  Most  of  the  irrigated  land  is  allowed  to 
lie  fallow  for  a  year  or  two.    The  kdrez  number  14. 

'  Reserved '  juniper  forests  number  seven,  with  an  area  of  69  square 
miles  ;  and  mixed  forests,  nine  in  number,  cover  about  41  square 
miles.  The  former  are  situated  in  Shahrig,  and  seven  of  the  latter 
are  in  the  Sibi  tahsil.  The  juniper  forests  contain  an  undergrowth 
of  wild  almond  {Prnm/s  ehurnea)  and  mdkhi  (Caragana) ;  and  the 
mixed  forests  grow  Prosopis  s/>in'gera,  Capparis  aphyl/a,  tamarisk,  and 
acacia. 

Coal  occurs  in  the  Shahrig  tahsil,  and  petroleum  at  Khattan  in  the 
Marri  country.  An  account  of  the  methods  of  working  them  will  be 
found  in  the  article  on  Baluchistan.  The  output  of  coal  from  Khost 
in  1903  amounted  to  37,000  tons,  but  petroleum  is  no  longer  worked. 
An  unsuccessful  boring  for  oil  was  made  in  1891  near  Spintangi. 
Earth-salt  was  manufactured  in  NasTrabad  up  to  1902. 

Rough  woollen  fabrics,  coarse  carpets  in  the  dari  stitch,  nose-bags, 

and  saddle-bags  are  produced  in  many  places.      Felts  and  felt  coats 

are    made    by    the    women    of   the    highlands   for 

Iradean         domestic   use.     Mats,   ropes,  sacks,  baskets,  camel- 
communications.  >       f    >  »  ' 

pads,  and  many  other  articles  are  woven  from  the 

dwarf-palm,  which  is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants  of  the  District. 

Embroidery  is  made  by  the  Bugti  women,  the  stitch  chiefly  used  being 

herring-bone,  with  the  threads  looping  through  each  other.    The  design 

often  consists  of  large  circular  buttons  or  medallions  joined  by  rings 

of  chain  stitch. 

The  District  produces  jo7var,  wheat,  ghl,  and  wool,  and  in  years 
of  good  rainfall  medicinal  drugs,  especially  cumin  seed,  in  some  quan- 
tities. The  only  centre  of  trade  is  Sibi,  the  total  imports  and  exports 
of  which  town  by  rail  have  risen  from  11,800  tons  in  1898  to  13,700 
tons  in  1903.  Trade  is  largely  carried  on  by  agents  of  firms  from 
Shikarpur  in  Sind.  The  principal  imports  into  Sibi  are  gram,  pulse, 
rice,  dried  fruits,  and  piece-goods  ;  the  exports  are  Jowdr,  bdjra,  wheat, 
and  oilseeds. 

The  Sind-Pishin  section  of  the  North-Western  Railway,  on  the 
standard  gauge,  enters  the  District  near  Jhatpat  and,  after  crossing  the 
Kachhi  plain,  passes  to  Kach  Kotal.  Sibi  town  is  the  junction  for 
the  Mushkaf-Bolan  branch.  The  centre  and  south  of  the  District  are 
ill  provided  with  roads.     Partially  metalled  roads  extend  to  125  and 


A  D  MI  NTS  TRA  TTON  34  r 

unmetalled  tracks  to  444  miles.  They  arc  maintained  chiefly  from 
Provincial  revenues  and  partly  from  Local  funds.  The  main  routes 
consist  of  part  of  the  Harnai-Fort  Sandeman  road,  and  a  cart-road 
from  Sibi  to  Kach  and  thence  to  Ziarat.  A  bridle-path,  which  will 
form  an  important  artery,  is  in  course  of  construction  from  Babar 
Kach  station  to  Kohlu  via  Mawand. 

The  Naslrabad  and  Shahrig  tahslls  are  fairly  well  protected  from 
famine,  owing  to  their  extensive  irrigation.  Parts  of  the  Sibi  and 
Kohlu  tahslls  and  of  the  Marri-Bugti  country,  how- 
ever, depend  almost  entirely  on  rainfall,  the  failure 
of  which  frequently  results  in  scarcity.  Between  1897  and  1901  the 
rainfall  was  continuously  deficient,  and  in  1897-8  about  Rs.  3,400  was 
expended  in  the  Sibi  tahsil  out  of  money  allotted  by  the  Indian  l-amine 
Relief  Fund.  In  1 899-1 900  a  sum  of  Rs.  18,000  was  supplied  from 
Imperial  revenues  for  grain  doles  to  the  Marris  and  Bugtis,  and  in  the 
following  year  Rs.  7,000  from  the  same  source  was  distributed  among 
them  for  the  purchase  of  bullocks  and  seed  grain.  A  contribution 
of  Rs.  6,459  from  the  Indian  Famine  Relief  Fund  was  also  spent 
on  the  same  objects  in  Sibi,  Shahrig,  and  Kohlu.  Between  1899  and 
1901  District  relief  works  cost  about  Rs.  24,400. 

The    District   consists   of   two    portions :    Sibi    District,  containing 

the  Sibi  and  Shahrig  tahslls,  which  form  part  of  British  Baluchistan  ; 

and  the  Kohlu  and  Railway  District,  consisting  of    ^  ,    .  .  ^    ^. 

T-   ,  ,  ,    XX         ,_,,-,         II  r         Administration, 

the  Kohlu  and    Naslrabad   tahsils  and    the   railway 

line  lying  in  Kachhi  and  the  Marri  country,  which  form  part  of  the 

Agency  Territories.     For  purposes   of  administration   the  District  is 

treated  as  a  single  unit,  in   charge  of  a  Political  Agent  and  Deputy 

Commissioner,  with  three  subdivisions  :  Nasirabad,  Sibi,  and  Shatiric. 

Each  of  the  first  two  is  in  charge  of  an  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner, 

and  the  latter  of  the  Assistant  Political  Agent.     The  Political  Agent 

exercises  political  control  in  the  Marri-Buoti  country,  and  over  the 

Dombki  and  Kaheri   tribes  of  the  Lahri  uiabat  in   Kachhi    through 

the  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner  at  Sibi.      Each  tahsil  has  a  nail>- 

tahsilddr,  except  Kohlu,  where  a  naib-tahslldar  exercises  the  powers 

of  a  tahslldar.     A  Munsif  is  stationed  at  Sibi. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  and  Political  Agent  is  the  District  and 

Sessions  Judge.     The  Assistant  Political  Agent  and  the  Extra- Assistant 

Commissioners  are  magistrates  of  the  first  class,  with  power  to  try  suits 

to  the  value  of  Rs.  10,000.     Tahstldars  are  magistrates  of  the  second 

class,  with  civil  powers  up  to  Rs.  300.     Naih-tahsilddrs  are  magistrates 

of  the  third  class,  with  civil  powers  in  suits  of  the  value  of  Rs.  50. 

The  Munsif  at  Sibi  is  also  a  magistrate  of  the  second  class.     Appeals 

from  the  officers  of  the  lower  grades  lie  to  the  subdivisional  officers. 

Many  cases    in  which  the  people  of   the  country  are  concerned  are 


342  SIB  I  DISTRICT 

referred  io  jirgas  for  an  award  under  the  Frontier  Crimes  Regulation. 
The  number  of  cognizable  cases  reported  during  1903  was  134,  con- 
victions being  obtained  in  73  instances.  The  total  number  of  criminal 
cases  was  304  and  of  civil  suits  1,209.  '^  he  cases  referred  to  jirgas 
numbered  645,  including  17  cases  of  murder,  7  cases  of  robbery,  24  of 
adultery,  and  15  cases  of  adultery  accompanied  by  murder. 

In  Akbar's  time  Sibi  was  a  niahdl  of  the  Bhakkar  sarkdr  of  the 
Multan  Subah.  It  paid  about  Rs.  34,500,  and  furnished  500  cavalry 
and  1,500  infantry.  The  Panni  tribe  also  supplied  a  separate  con- 
tingent. Chhalgari,  i.  e.  the  Harnai  valley,  which  depended  on  Kan- 
dahar, paid  Rs.  240  in  money,  415  kharwars  of  grain,  and  supplied 
200  horse  and  300  foot.  Under  the  Durranis  the  revenue  of  the 
Sibi  tahs'il  was  about  Rs.  4,500.  The  present  system  of  levying 
revenue  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  District,  and  even  in  different 
areas  within  the  same  tahs'il.  Fixed  cash  assessments,  varying  from 
Rs.  2  to  Rs.  2-8  per  acre  on  irrigated  lands,  are  to  be  found  side 
by  side  with  the  collection  of  an  actual  share  of  the  produce  (batai) 
at  rates  varying  from  one-fourth  to  one-twelfth.  Details  of  each 
system  are  given  in  the  separate  articles  on  the  tahsils  of  the  District. 
The  annual  value  of  the  revenue-free  holdings  and  grants  of  grain  is 
Rs.  19,300.  The  land  revenue,  including  grazing  tax  but  excluding 
water  rate,  amounted  in  1903-4  to  nearly  2  lakhs.  This  includes  the 
revenue  of  Nasirabad  for  six  months  only.  The  water  rate  in  Nasir- 
abad,  amounting  to  1-2  lakhs  in  1903-4,  is  paid  over  to  the  Government 
of  Bombay,  as  the  Begari  and  Desert  Canals,  which  irrigate  it,  belong 
to  the  Sind  system.  The  total  revenue  of  the  District  from  all  sources 
was  2-4  lakhs  in  the  same  year. 

The  Sibi  bazar  fund  and  the  Ziarat  improvement  fund  are  referred 
to  in  the  articles  on  Sibi  Town  and  Ziarat.  Octroi  and  conservancy 
cess  are  levied  in  some  bazars  near  the  Sind-Pishln  railway,  and  are 
credited  to  the  Shahrig  bazar  fund,  the  money  being  spent  on  sanitary 
and  other  works  under  the  direction  of  the  Assistant  Political  Agent  in 
charge  of  Shahrig.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  Rs,  6,800,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  6,300. 

A  small  detachment  of  native  infantry  is  stationed  at  Sibi.  The 
District  Superintendent  of  police  at  Quetta  is  in  charge  of  the  regular 
police,  which  consisted,  in  1904,  of  199  constables  and  23  mounted 
men,  under  a  European  inspector  and  Honorary  Assistant  District 
Superintendent,  with  6  deputy-inspectors  and  56  sergeants.  It  was 
distributed  in  twenty-four  stations.  The  police  employed  on  the  rail- 
way line  numbered  63.  The  total  force  of  levies  available  amounts  to 
439  men,  of  whom  238  are  mounted  and  91  are  employed  on  the 
railway.  These  figures  do  not  include  225  men  stationed  in  the 
Marri-Bugti  country,  and  26  in  the  Lahri  nidbat.     Local  funds  main- 


SIBI  TAHSIL  343 

tain  2  1  watchmen.  There  is  a  District  jail  at  Sibi  town  and  four 
subsidiary  jails,  with  total  accommodation  for  loo  male  and  24  female 
prisoners.  Prisoners  whose  terms  exceed  six  months  are  sent  to  the 
Shikarpur  jail  in  Sind. 

In  1904  the  District  had  one  middle  and  eight  primary  schools, 
including  a  school  for  native  girls  and  another  for  European  and 
Eurasian  boys  and  girls.  The  number  of  pupils  was  342,  and  the 
annual  cost  Rs.  6,511,  of  which  Rs.  2,284  was  paid  from  Provincial 
revenues  and  Rs.  4,187  from  Local  funds.  The  number  of  boys  and 
girls  receiving  elementary  instruction  in  mosque  and  other  private 
schools  was  926.  Education  in  the  Marri-Bugti  country  is  represented 
by  a  single  school  at  Dera  Bugti. 

The  District  possesses  one  hospital  and  four  civil  and  railway  dis- 
pensaries, with  accommodation  for  74  patients.  The  average  dail)' 
attendance  of  patients  in  1903  was  21.  Two  of  the  institutions 
are  maintained  by  the  North-Western  Railway,  two  are  aided  from 
Local  funds,  and  the  other  is  maintained  from  Provincial  revenues. 
The  expenditure  from  Local  funds  and  Provincial  revenues  in  1903 
was  Rs.  9,000.  A  female  dispensary  has  recently  been  established  at 
Sibi.  Shahrig  has  an  evil  reputation  for  malaria  in  summer,  and 
syphilis  is  common  in  parts  of  the  tahs'il.  Malarial  fever  is  the  most 
prevalent  disease  throughout  the  District.  Vaccination  is  optional  and 
most  of  the  people  still  resort  to  inoculation.  The  number  of  persons 
successfully  vaccinated  in  1903  was  3,363,  or  46  per  1,000  on  the  total 
population  of  the  Administered  area. 

[O.  T.  Duke,  Report  on  the  District  of  Thal-Chotidli  and  Harnai 
(Foreign  Department  Press,  1883);  R.  L  Bruce,  History  of  the 
Marri  Baloch  Tribe  and  its  Relations  with  the  Bugti  Tribe  (Lahore, 
1884);  Bombay  Records,  No.  XVII,  New  Series,  containing,  among 
other  papers,  a  Diary  kept  by  Captain  Lewis  Brown  while  besieged 
in  Kahan  ;  R.  D,  Oldham,  '  Geology  of  Thal-Chotiali  and  part  of 
the  Marri  Country,'  Records,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xxv, 
part  i ;  C.  L.  Griesbach,  '  Geology  of  the  Country  between  the 
Chappar  Rift  and  Harnai,'  ib.  vol.  xxvi,  part  iv;  Major  A.  McConaghey, 
District  Gazetteer  (1907).] 

Sibi  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Sibi  District,  Baluchistan,  com- 
prising the  tahsils  of  Sibi  and  Kohlu.  The  Extra-Assistant  Com- 
missioner in  charge  also  exercises  political  control  in  the  Marri-Bugti 
country  and  in  the  Lahri  niabat  of  the  Kalat  State  in  Kachhi. 

Sibi  Tahsil  {Siwi).—  Tahstl  of  Sibi  District,  Baluchistan,  lying 
between  29°  21'  and  30°  15'  N.  and  67°  11'  and  68°  9'  E.,  at  the 
apex  of  the  Kachhi  plain,  and  including  the  hilly  country  round 
Sangan.  It  has  an  area  of  1,343  square  miles,  and  a  population 
(1901)  of  20,526,  showing  an  increase  of  7,125  since   i8yi.     Il  con- 


344  SIBI   TAHSiL 

laiiis  one  town,  Siui  (population,  4,551),  the  head-quarters;  and  32 
villages.  The  land  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i-i  lakhs.  The 
rate  of  revenue  levied  in  Sibi  is  two-ninths  of  the  produce,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  usual  one-sixth  ;  in  Sangan  it  is  one-fourth,  half  of 
which  is  paid  over  to  the  Barozai  chief,  and  in  Kuat-Mandai  one- 
twelfth,  the  Marri  chief  taking  an  equal  amount.  The  tahsil  is 
irrigated  by  canals  from  the  Nari  river. 

Sibi  Town  {Shvi). — Head-quarters  of  Sibi  District,  Baluchistan, 
situated  hi  the  tahsi/  of  the  same  name,  in  29°  t^t,'  N.  and  67°  53'  E., 
88  miles  from  Quetta  and  448  from  Karachi.  The  population  numbered 
4,551  in  1901,  an  increase  of  1,607  since  1891.  The  place  is  very  old, 
being  mentioned  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century.  Owing  to  its 
exposed  situation,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Harnai  and  Bolan  Passes, 
it  has  suffered  from  frequent  sieges,  including  an  assault  by  the  British 
in  1841.  The  existing  town  dates  from  1878.  It  possesses  a  consider- 
able trade.  'I'he  Victoria  Memorial  Hall,  erected  by  public  subscrip- 
tion in  1903,  is  the  only  building  of  im[)ortance.  A  piped  water-supply 
has  been  provided  by  military  funds  iVom  the  Nari  river  at  a  cost  of 
Rs.  1,15,000.  Though  not  a  municipality,  a  town  fund  is  maintained, 
the  income  of  which  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  23,700  and  the 
expenditure  to  Rs.  23,000. 

Sibpur. — Southern  suburb  of  Howrah  City,  Bengal,  opposite  Tort 
AVilliam.  During  the  last  century  the  place  has  grown  from  a  small 
village  into  a  flourishing  town,  possessing  jute-mills,  flour-mills,  and 
engineering  and  rope  works.  On  the  river  side,  to  the  south,  are  the 
Royal  Botanical  Gardens,  among  the  finest  of  their  kind  in  the  world. 
A  fort  was  erected  here  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  defend  the  shipping 
from  the  piratical  incursions  of  the  Maghs  or  Arakanese.  A  little  above 
the  gardens  stands  the  Sibpur  Engineering  College. 

Sibsagar  District. — District  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying 
between  25°  49'  and  27°  16'  N.  and  93°  3'  and  95°  22'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  4,996  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Lakhim- 
pur ;  on  the  north  by  the  Brahmaputra  and  Subansiri,  which  divide 
it  from  Lakhimpur  and  Darrang ;  on  the  west  by  Nowgong ;  and  on 
the  south  by  hills  inhabited  by  Naga  tribes.  The  eastern  half  of  the 
^.  .  .  District  consists  of  a  wide  well-cultivated  plain 
aspects  stretching   from   the  foot  of   the  Naga  Hills  to  the 

Brahmaputra ;  but  west  of  the  Dhansiri  the  forest- 
clad  ranges  of  the  Mikir  Hills,  which  rise  in  places  to  an  elevation 
of  4,500  feet,  project  into  the  valley.  South  of  the  Brahmaputra  lies 
a  belt  of  land  3  or  4  miles  in  width,  w^hich  affords  excellent  grazing 
in  the  dry  season,  but  is  exposed  to  heavy  inundations  during  the 
rains.  Beyond  this  the  level  rises,  and  the  central  portion  of  the 
District  presents  a  succession  of  wide  plains,  producing  rice,  and  dotted 


SIB  SAGA  R   DISTRICT  345 

in  every  direction  with  the  groves  of  bamboos  and  areca  pahiis  by  which 
the  houses  of  the  villagers  are  concealed.  Much  of  the  high  land  in 
the  centre  and  south  was  originally  covered  with  tree  forest,  but  this  has 
been  largely  taken  up  by  tea  planters  ;  and  neat  bungalows  and  trim 
tea  gardens  are  now  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  scenery.  Along  some 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Brahmaputra  the  country  is  too  low  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  is  covered  with  grass  and  reeds,  while  the  foot  of  the  hills 
is  clothed  with  forest ;  but,  generally  speaking,  very  little  land  in  the 
plains  is  available  for  settlement,  and  over  considerable  areas  the 
density  of  population  exceeds  400  persons  per  square  mile.  The 
Majuli,  a  large  island  which  lies  north  of  the  main  channel  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  presents  a  very  different  appearance.  The  land  lies  low, 
the  population  is  comparatively  sparse,  and  extensive  tracts  are  covered 
with  high  grass  jungle  and  forest,  which  is  rendered  particularly  beauti- 
ful by  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the  creeping  cane. 

The  Brahmaputra  flows  through  the  northern  portion  of  the  District, 
and  at  the  western  end  divides  Sibsagar  from  Darrang.  The  principal 
tributaries  on  the  south  bank  from  east  to  west  are  the  Burhi  Dihinc,, 
which  for  part  of  its  course  divides  Sibsagar  from  Lakhimpur,  the 
DiSANG,  DiKHO,  Jhanzi,  Bhogdai  or  Disai,  Kakadanga,  and  Dhaxsiri. 
All  of  these  rivers  flow  in  a  northerly  and  westerly  direction  from  the 
Naga  Hills.     The  District  contains  no  lakes  of  any  importance. 

The  plain  is  of  alluvial  origin,  and  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
clay  and  sand.  West  of  the  Disai  there  is  a  protrusion  of  the  subsoil, 
which  is  a  stiff  clay,  abounding  in  iron  nodules.  The  Mikir  Hills 
consist  of  gneiss,  which  towards  the  south  is  overlaid  by  sedimentary 
strata  of  Tertiary  origin.  These  younger  rocks  consist  of  soft  yellow 
sandstones,  finely  laminated  grey  clay  shales,  and  nodular  earthy  lime- 
stones. 

Except  in  the  west,  the  proportion  of  forest  land  is  comparatively 
small.  Marsh  lands  are  covered  with  high  grass  and  reeds,  the  two 
most  prominent  kinds  being  ikm  {Saccharum  arundinaceum)  and  iial 
{Fhrag/iHies  Roxburghii) ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  District  is  under 
cultivation.  The  high  land  between  the  rice-fields  is  usually  covered 
with  short  grass. 

Wild  animals  are  not  common,  except  in  the  Mikir  Hills  and  the 
marshy  country  at  their  foot,  where  elephant,  rhinoceros,  buffalo, 
bison,  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  and  various  kinds  of  deer  are  found.  In 
1904,  6  persons  and  990  cattle  were  killed  by  wild  animals  and  rewards 
were  paid  for  the  destruction  of  27  tigers  and  leopards.  Small  game 
include  partridges,  pheasants,  jungle  fowl,  ducks,  geese,  and  snipe. 

The  climate,  though  damp,  is  comparatively  cool  and  is  healthy  for 
both  Europeans  and  natives.  During  the  winter  months  the  sun  has 
little  effect,  as  fogs  often  hang  over  the  plains  till  a  late  hour,  and  in 


346  SIBSAGAR   DISTRICT 

January  the  mean  temperature  in  Sibsagar  is  less  than  60°.  In  July 
it  rises  to  84°,  and  the  atmosphere  is  overcharged  with  moisture,  and 
therefore  oppressive. 

In  the  plains,  the  average  annual  rainfall  varies  from  80  inches  in 
the  west  to  95  near  the  Lakhimpur  border.  The  supply  of  rain  is 
thus  always  abundant,  and  flood  is  a  more  serious  obstacle  to  cultiva- 
tion than  drought.  Hailstorms  occasionally  do  damage,  especially  to 
the  tea  gardens.  The  great  earthquake  of  June  12, 1897,  was  distinctly 
felt  in  Sibsagar,  but  in  comparison  with  Lower  Assam  the  amount  of 
damage  done  was  small. 

About  the  eleventh  century  the  dominant  power  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  District  was  the  Chutiya  king,  who  ruled  over  a  tribe 
of  Bodo  origin,  which  is  believed  to  have  entered 
Assam  from  the  north-east  and  to  have  overthrown 
a  Hindu  Pal  dynasty  reigning  at  Sadiya.  In  the  south  there  were 
scattered  tribes  of  Morans,  and  the  west  was  within  the  sphere  of 
influence  of  the  Kachari  king  at  Dimapur.  In  1228  the  Ahoms,  a 
Shan  tribe  from  the  kingdom  of  Pong,  crossed  the  Patkai  range  and 
established  themselves  in  the  south-east  of  Sibsagar.  These  foreigners 
gradually  consolidated  their  power,  conquered  the  Chutiyas,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  had  become  the  dominant  tribe  in  Upper 
Assam.  The  Kacharis  were  next  defeated ;  and  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  Ahom  capital  was  established  at  Gargaon,  the 
modern  Nazira,  9  miles  south-east  of  Sibsagar  town.  It  was  captured 
by  Mir  Jumla  in  1662  ;  but  during  the  rains  the  Muhammadan  force 
melted  away,  and  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Ahoms 
had  succeeded  in  making  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  of  the  Brah- 
maputra Valley  above  the  town  of  (loalpara.  About  this  time  the  seat 
of  government  was  shifted  to  Rangpur,  near  the  modern  town  of 
Sibsagar,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Rudra  Singh,  the 
greatest  of  the  Ahom  Rajas,  in  1699.  The  District  at  this  time 
appears  to  have  been  very  prosperous.  There  was  a  strong  govern- 
ment, and  justice  seems  to  have  been  administered  in  a  fairly  liberal 
manner,  though  the  death  penalty,  when  inflicted,  took  savage  forms, 
and  no  mercy  was  shown  to  rebels  or  their  families.  Buchanan- 
Hamilton,  writing  in  1804,  reported  that  three-fourths  of  the  whole 
area  of  Upper  Assam  south  of  the  Brahmaputra  was  under  cultivation, 
and  the  system  of  compulsory  labour  which  prevailed  enabled  the  Raja 
to  construct  numerous  good  roads,  and  large  embankments  which  kept 
the  flood-water  off  the  fields.  At  the  same  time  the  extreme  aversion 
which  the  Assamese  now  have  to  all  forms  of  labour  for  the  state,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which,  as  soon  as  Assam  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
British,  they  abandoned  the  various  trades  imposed  upon  them  by  their 
former  rulers,  shows  that  the  Ahom  system,  though  tending  to  develop 


POPULATION  347 

the  material  prosperity  of  the  country,  was  far  from  acceptable  to  the 
mass  of  the  people.  Rangpur  continued  to  be  the  capital  till  after 
the  accession  of  Gaurinath  Singh  in  1780.  This  prince  was  driven  from 
his  palace  by  a  rising  of  the  Moamarias,  a  powerful  religious  sect,  and 
established  himself  first  at  Jorhat  and  afterwards  at  Gauhati.  Then 
ensued  a  period  of  extreme  misery.  The  Moamarias  ravaged  the 
country  on  their  way  to  Gauhati ;  and,  after  their  defeat  by  the  British 
troops  in  1793,  the  Ahom  prime  minister  laid  waste  the  whole  of  the 
province  north  of  the  Dikho  river.  A  fierce  struggle  broke  out 
between  the  different  pretenders  to  the  crown,  one  of  whom  called 
in  the  Burmans  to  his  aid.  The  Burmans  established  themselves  in 
the  province,  and  were  only  expelled  by  the  British  in  1825,  after 
they  had  been  guilty  of  the  utmost  barbarity.  The  Brahmaputra 
Valley  was  then  incorporated  with  the  territories  of  the  East  India 
Company;  but  in  1833  Upper  Assam,  including  the  District  of  Sib- 
sagar,  was  handed  over  to  the  Ahom  Raja,  Purandar  Singh.  This 
prince,  however,  proved  incapable  of  carrying  out  the  duties  entrusted 
to  him,  and  in  1838  the  District  was  placed  under  the  direct  manage- 
ment of  British  officers.  Since  that  date  its  history  has  been  one  of 
peaceful  progress.  The  native  gentry  were,  however,  impoverished  by  the 
abolition  of  the  offices  they  had  formerly  enjoyed,  and  by  the  libera- 
tion of  their  slaves,  and  they  had  some  grounds  for  feeling  discontented 
with  British  rule.  In  1857  one  of  them  named  Mani  Ram  Datta,  who 
had  been  the  chief  revenue  authority  under  Raja  Purandar  Singh, 
engaged  in  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  young  Raja,  Kandar- 
peswar  Singh,  who  was  residing  at  Jorhat,  and  other  disaffected  persons. 
Mani  Ram  was,  liowever,  convicted  and  hanged,  and  all  tendencies  to 
rebellion  were  thus  nipped  in  the  bud. 

The  District  contains  several  enormous  tanks,  the  largest  of  which 
are  those  at  Sibsagar,  Rudrasagar,  Jaysagar,  and  Gaurisagar.  These 
tanks  were  made  by  the  Ahom  Rajas  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  in 
most  cases  have  fine  brick  temples  standing  on  the  broad  banks  by 
which  they  are  surrounded.  In  the  south-west  corner  of  Sibsagar  the 
ruins  of  the  Kachari  capital  at  Dimapuk  lie  buried  in  dense  jungle. 

The  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was:  (1872)  317,799, 
(1881)  392,545,  (1891)  480,659,  and  (1901)  597,969.  The  enormous 
increase  of  88  per  cent.,  which  took  place  in  the 
twenty-nine  years,  was  due  partly  to  the  fact  that 
Sibsagar,  unlike  Lower  and  Central  Assam,  has  been  healthy,  so  that 
the  indigenous  population  increased  instead  of  dying  out,  but  even 
more  to  the  importation  of  a  large  number  of  garden  coolies.  The 
District  is  divided  into  three  subdivisions — Sibsagar,  Jorhat,  and 
GoLAGHAT — with  head-quarters  at  the  towns  of  the  same  name,  and 
contains  2,109  villages. 

VOL.  XXII.  t 


348 


SIBSA  G.  I R   niS  TRIG  T 


The  table  below  gives  for  each  subdivision  particulars  of  area,  towns 
and  villages,  and  population,  according  to'the  Census  of  1901  : — 


Subdivi'^ion. 

u 
ci 

3 

< 

Number  of 

U.'U 

§1 

'Zi  (U 

1  = 
I"- 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able 

to  read  and 

write. 

1 

I 

I 
I 

3 

1 
> 

Golaghat   . 
Torhat 
Sibsagar     . 

District  total 

3,015 

819 

1,162 

4,996 

792 
651 
666 

167,068 
219,137 

211,764 

597,969 

55 
267 
182 

+  19-9 
+  20.9 
+  32.1 

5,318 

8,377 
6,698 

2,109 

120 

+  24.4 

20,393 

About  89  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  Hindus,  4  per  cent. 
Muhamniadans,  and  7  per  cent.  Animistic  tribes.  The  tea  industry 
has  introduced  a  large  number  of  foreigners  into  the  District,  and  one- 
fourth  of  the  persons  enumerated  there  in  1901  had  been  born  in  other 
Provinces,  Assamese  was  spoken  by  only  59  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion, while  19  per  cent,  spoke  Bengali  and  6  per  cent,  Hindi.  Immi- 
gration has  also  caused  a  great  disparity  between  the  sexes,  there  being 
only  886  women  to  every  1,000  men. 

As  is  natural,  the  Ahoms  (111,100)  arc  the  most  numerous  caste, 
but  there  are  also  a  large  number  of  Chutiyas  (57,000).  The  higher 
Hindu  castes  of  Lower  Assam  are  not  so  strongly  represented ;  there 
were  only  36,600  Kalitas  in  1901,  and  even  fewer  Kewats  and  Kochs. 
'J'hc  priestly  caste  naturally  tend  to  congregate  round  the  Ahom 
capitals,  and  Brahmans  at  the  last  Census  numbered  14,400.  The 
principal  foreign  cooly  castes  were  Santals  (19,300),  Bhuiyas  (16,800), 
and  Mundas  (16,200).  The  chief  hill  tribes  are  Mikirs  (22,900)  and 
Miris  (17,600),  though  all  of  the  latter  are  settled  in  the  plains,  and 
many  of  them,  in  name  at  an)-  rate,  have  attorned  to  Hinduism. 
Members  of  European  and  allied  races  numbered  356  in  1901.  The 
District  is  entirely  rural,  and  no  less  than  91  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation in  1 90 1  were  supported  by  agriculture,  a  high  proportion  even 
for  Assam. 

There  is  a  branch  of  the  American  Baptist  Mission  at  Sibsagar, 
and  about  one-half  of  the  native  Christians  (2,113)  in  1901  were 
members  of  that  sect. 

The  soil  varies  from  pure  sand  to  an  absolutely  stiff  clay,  but  is 
largely  composed  of  loam  suitable  for  the  growth  of  rice.  In  places 
this  loam  has  lost  some  of  its  fertility,  owing  to  con- 
tinuous cultivation ;  but  the  character  of  the  rice 
crop  depends  more  on  the  level  of  the  land  and  the  rainfall  than 
on  the  constituents  of  the  mud  puddle  in  which  it  is  planted.     The 


Agricultixre. 


AGRICULTURE 


549 


soil  best  suited  for  tea  is   high   land,  which,  in   its   natural   state,  is 
covered  with  dense  tree  forest. 

The  following  table  gives  agricultural  statistics,  in  square  miles  :— 


Subdivision. 

Area  shown  in  the  revenue 
accounts. 

Forest  area. 

Settled. 

Unsettled. 

Cultivated. 

Golaghat  . 
Jorhat 
Sibsagar    . 

Total 

477 
4.^1 

2,708 
.34^ 
731 

Not 
available. 

780 
'9 

77 

1,215 

3,781 

804 

876 

Most  of  the  unsettled  waste  land  lies  in  the  Mikir  Hills  or  in  the 
marshes  along  the  Brahmaputra,  or  is  permanently  covered  with  water; 
and,  except  in  the  Dhansiri  valley,  which  is  far  from  healthy,  the  area 
of  unsettled  waste  suited  for  permanent  cultivation  is  comparatively 
small.  Rice  is  the  staple  food-crop,  and  in  1903-4  covered  540  square 
miles,  or  64  per  cent,  of  the  total  cultivated  area.  More  than  90  per 
cent,  of  the  rice  land  is  usually  under  sdli^  or  transplanted  winter  rice, 
and  dhii,  or  summer  rice,  is  only  grown  on  the  Majuli  and  in  the 
marshes  near  the  Brahmaputra.  Mustard  and  pulse,  sown  on  land 
from  which  a  crop  of  dim  has  been  taken,  covered  21,000  and  16,000 
acres  respectively  in  1903-4.  Sugar-cane  {7,000  acres)  is  largely 
grown  on  the  high  land  near  Golaghat.  Garden  crops,  which  include 
tobacco,  vegetables,  pepper, /^F;?  or  betel-leaf,  and  areca-nut,  are  a  source 
of  considerable  profit  to  the  villagers.  In  the  hills  the  Mlklrs  raise 
rice,  chillies,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  other  crops,  but  no  statistics  of 
cultivated  area  are  prepared. 

Sibsagar  has  long  been  a  great  centre  of  the  tea  industr)-.  By 
1852  the  Assam  Company  had  opened  fifteen  factories  vvith  2,500  acres 
under  cultivation,  which  yielded  an  out-turn  of  267,000  lb.  of  manu- 
factured tea.  The  industry  soon  recovered  after  the  crisis  of  1866, 
and  since  that  time  has  been  steadily  increasing  in  importance.  In 
1904  there  were  159  gardens  in  the  District  with  79,251  acres  under 
cultivation,  which  yielded  over  30,000,000  lb.  of  manufactured  tea  and 
gave  employment  to  182  Europi:;aris  and  94,061  natives,  nearly  all  of 
whom  had  been  brought  at  great  e.xpense  from  other  parts  of  India. 
The  most  important  companies  are  the  Assam  Company,  with  head- 
quarcers  at  Nazira,  about  9  miles  south-east  of  Sibsagar;  the  Jorhat 
Company,  with  head-quarters  at  Cinnamara,  4  miles  from  Jorhat ;  and 
the  Brahmaputra  Company,  with  head-quarters  at  Neghereting,  the 
port  for  Golaghat. 

Apart  from  tea,  the  District  has  witnessed  a  steady  increase  of  culti- 
vation,   and    between    1891   and   1901   the   area   settled   at   full    rates 

z  2 


350  SIBSAGAR   DISTRICT 

increased  by  i8  per  cent.  Little  attempt  has,  however,  been  made 
to  introduce  new  varieties  of  crops  or  to  improve  upon  old  methods. 
The  harvests  are  regular,  the  cultivators  fairly  well-to-do,  and  agricul- 
tural loans  are  hardly  ever  made  by  Government. 

As  in  the  rest  of  the  Assam  Valley,  the  cattle  are  poor.  The 
buffaloes  are,  however,  much  finer  animals  than  those  imported  from 
Bengal. 

The  heavy  rainfall  renders  artificial  irrigation  unnecessary,  and  flood 
rather  than  drought  is  the  principal  obstacle  to  agriculture.  A  con- 
siderable area  of  land  is  rendered  unfit  for  permanent  cultivation  by 
the  spill-water  of  the  Brahmaputra  and  its  tributaries,  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Ahom  Rajas  most  of  these  rivers  were  enclosed  in  carefully 
protected  embankments.  On  the  abolition  of  the  system  of  compulsory 
labour,  these  works  fell  into  decay.  The  reconstruction  of  embank- 
ments along  sections  of  the  Dihing,  Disang,  Dikho,  and  Darika  rivers 
has,  however,  been  taken  in  hand. 

The  '  reserved '  forests  of  Sibsagar  covered  an  area  of  876  .square  miles 
in  1903-4,  nearly  nine-tenths  of  which  are  situated  in  the  Miklr  Hills 
and  the  valley  of  the  Dhansiri.  They  include  the 
great  Nambar  forest,  which,  with  the  adjoining 
Reserves,  extends  over  618  square  miles,  and  was  the  first  area  to  be 
'reserved'  in  Assam.  It  was  constituted  as  far  back  as  1873,  ^^ut  little 
timber  was  extracted  from  it  prior  to  the  construction  of  the  Assam- 
Bengal  Railway.  '^I'he  area  of  '  unclassed  '  state  forest,  or  (lovernment 
waste  land,  is  3,091  sc^uare  miles  ;  but  this  includes  the  Mlkir  Hills, 
part  of  which  are  under  cultivation,  and  large  tracts  of  land  practically 
destitute  of  trees.  There  is  little  trade  in  timber  in  vSibsagar,  and  the 
out-turn  from  the  '  unclassed '  forests  largely  exceeds  that  from  the 
Reserves.  The  most  valuable  timber  trees  are  nahor  {Alesiia  ferrea), 
ajhar  {Lagerstroemia  Flos  Reginae),  satn  {Artocarpus  Chaplasha),  tita 
sapa  {Michelia   Champaca),  and  uriam  {Bischofia  javanka). 

Coal  of  inferior  quality  and  limestone  are  found  in  the  Mlkir  Hills. 
The  hills  to  the  south  contain  three  coal-fields  known  as  the  Nazira, 
Jhanzi,  and  Disai.  Tetroleum  is  found  in  the  two  former  fields;  and 
all  of  them  have  large  deposits  of  clay  ironstone,  and  impure  limonilc 
containing  iron  ore.  Under  native  rule  this  iron  was  extensively 
worked,  and  salt  was  manufactured  from  springs  which  exist  in  the 
coal-measures.  Gold  was  also  washed  from  almost  all  the  rivers.  At 
the  present  day  a  little  coal  is  mined  by  the  Assam  Company  at  Tel[)um 
on  the  Dikho  river,  and  by  the  Singlo  Company  near  Safrai ;  but  the 
whole  of  the  output  is  used  in  the  tea  factories  of  these  two  companies, 
and  none  is  sold. 

Hie  manufactures  of  the  District,  apart  from  tea,  are  of  little  impor- 
tance.    Hardlv  a   house   is   without  its    loom,  on   which    the   women 


TRADE   AiVI)    COMMUNTCATTONS  351 

weave   cotton   and    silk    cloths,  (-hiefly,  however,  for   home    use   and 

not  for  sale.     Silk  is  obtained  from  three  kinds  of  worms,  eri  {Aftaais 

ridni),  miigd  {A?itheraea  assama),  and  />af  (Bomfyx 

textor).       The    eri    worm     is     usually    fed    on    the       Tradeand 

...  I  r,-  .  .  .      ,  -  commxinications. 

castor-ou    plant   yRicinns   communis),    the   muga   on 

the  s?^m-tree  {Machilus  odoratissima),  and  the  pat  on  the  mulberry-tree 
(Morus  indica).  A  fine  white  kind  of  thread,  which  is  much  valued,  is 
obtained  by  feeding  the  muga  worm  on  the  chapa  {Afagno/ia  Griffi.thii) 
and  the  mezankuri  i^Tetranthera  polyautha).  Silk  cloth  is  still  very 
largely  worn  by  men  and  women  alike,  but  is  being  gradually  ousted  by 
European  cotton  goods.  Muga  silk  is  produced  in  large  (juantities, 
but /J/  is  comparatively  rare.  Brass  vessels  are  usually  hammered  out 
by  Morias,  a  degraded  caste  of  Muhammadans ;  those  made  of  bell- 
metal  are  cast  by  Assamese  Hindus.  Neither  metal  nor  earthen 
vessels  are,  however,  produced  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the  local 
demand,  and  a  further  supply  is  imported  from  Bengal.  The  jewellery 
consists  of  lockets,  ear-rings,  and  bracelets,  which  are  often  tastefully 
enamelled  and  set  with  garnets  or  false  rubies.  The  goldsmiths  are 
a  degraded  section  of  the  Kalita  caste,  most  of  whom  live  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Jorhat.  Mustard  oil  and  raw  molasses  are  also 
manufactured,  but  not  on  any  very  extensive  scale.  European  capital 
is  invested  in  two  saw-mills,  which  in  1904  employed  iii  workmen. 
The  out-turn  consists  almost  entirely  of  tea  boxes. 

The  exports  of  the  District  include  cotton,  mustard-seed,  canes,  and 
hides  ;  but  the  only  article  of  any  importance  is  tea.  The  chief  imports 
are  rice,  gram,  and  other  kinds  of  grain,  piece-goods,  salt,  kerosene  and 
other  oils,  and  iron  and  hardware.  The  Brahmaputra  and  the  Assam- 
Bengal  Railway  are  the  main  channels  of  external  trade.  The  chief 
centres  of  commerce  are  the  three  subdivisional  towns,  but  the  tea 
industry  tends  to  decentralization.  On  every  garden  there  is  a  shop, 
where  the  cooly  can  purchase  almost  everything  that  he  requires  ;  and 
local  supplies  are  obtained  from  the  numerous  weekly  markets  held 
in  different  parts  of  the  District.  The  most  important  of  these  are 
at  Nazira,  about  9  miles  south-east  of  Sibsagar,  and  at  Mariani  and 
Titabar  in  the  Jorhat  subdivision.  The  Assamese  themselves  have 
no  taste  for  business,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  external  trade  is 
in  the  hands  of  Marwari  merchants,  known  as  Kayahs,  who  amass 
considerable  wealth.  Each  town  also  contains  a  few  shops,  where  fur- 
niture, hardware,  and  haberdashery  are  sold  by  Muhammadan  traders 
from  Bengal.  Cotton  is  grown  by  the  MlkTrs  and  Nagas,  who  barter  it 
for  salt  and  other  commodities  with  the  Marwaris  of  Golaghat. 

The  Assam-Bengal  Railway  runs  through  the  southern  part  of  the 
District  from  Dimapur  to  Barhat,  and  at  Mariani  and  Titabar  meets 
a  light  railway,  which  runs  from  those  places,  via  Jorhat,  to  Kakilamukli 


352  STB  SAG  A  R    DISTRICT 

on  the  Brahmaputra.  A  daily  service  of  passenger  steamers  and  a  large 
fleet  of  cargo  boats,  owned  and  managed  by  the  India  General  Steam 
Navigation  Company  and  the  Rivers  Steam  Navigation  Company,  ply 
on  the  Brahmaputra  between  Goalundo  and  Dibrugarh.  Disangmukh 
is  the  port  for  Sibsagar,  Kakilamukh  for  Jorhat,  and  Neghereting  for 
Golaghat ;  but  steamers  also  call  at  the  mouths  of  the  Dihing,  Dikho, 
Jhanzi,  and  Dhansiri,  In  the  rains  feeder  vessels  go  up  the  Dikho  to 
Santak,  up  the  Disang  to  Safrai,  and  up  the  Dhansiri  to  Golaghat. 

The  principal  roads  are  the  trunk  road,  which  runs  for  no  miles 
through  the  District,  passing  through  Jorhat  and  Sibsagar,  and  the 
Dhodar  All,  which  leaves  the  trunk  road  at  Kamargaon  in  the  Golaghat 
subdivision,  and  runs  through  the  south-east  of  the  District  into  Lakh- 
impur.  Numerous  branch  roads,  many  of  which  follow  the  lines  of  the 
alls,  or  old  embankments  constructed  by  forced  labour  under  the  Ahom 
kings,  run  from  north  to  south  and  connect  the  Dhodar  All  and  the 
trunk  road.  North  of  the  Brahmaputra  there  is  only  one  road,  which 
crosses  the  Majuli  from  Kamalabari  to  Garamur.  In  1903-4,  237  miles 
of  unmetalled  roads  were  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department 
and  705  miles  by  the  local  boards.  Most  of  these  roads  are  bridged 
throughout,  and  ferries  are  maintained  only  over  the  larger  rivers. 

For  general  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  three 

subdivisions  :   Sibsagar,  which  is  under  the  immediate  charge  of  the 

Deputy-Commissioner  ;  and  [orhat  and  Golaghat, 
Administration.      ,  .  ,  ,,         ^    \.  j  ^"   t-  •  ^    ^ 

which  are  usually  entrusted  to  European  magistrates. 

The  transfer  of  the  head-quarters  of  the   District   from    Sibsagar  to 

Jorhat  has,  however,  recently  been  sanctioned.     The  staff  includes  six 

Assistant  Magistrates,  two  of  whom  are  stationed  at  Jorhat  and  two 

at  Golaghat,  and  a  Forest  officer. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  has  the  powers  of  a  Sub-Judge,  and  the 
Assistant  Magistrates  exercise  jurisdiction  as  Munsifs,  Appeals,  both 
civil  and  criminal,  lie  to  the  Judge  of  the  Assam  Valley ;  but  the  chief 
appellate  authority  is  the  High  Court  at  Calcutta.  The  people  are,  as 
a  whole,  law-abiding,  and  there  is  not  much  serious  crime.  In  the 
MikTr  Hills  and  in  the  tract  recently  transferred  from  the  Naga  Hills 
District  a  special  form  of  procedure  is  in  force.  The  High  Court  has 
no  jurisdiction,  and  the  Deputy-Commissioner  exercises  the  powers  of 
life  and  death  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Chief  Commissioner. 

The  land  revenue  system  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  in 
force  in  the  rest  of  Assam  proper,  which  is  described  in  the  article 
on  Assam.  The  settlement  is  ryoftvari,  and  is  liable  to  periodical 
revision.  Mustard  and  summer  rice  are  seldom  grown  on  the  same 
land  for  more  than  three  years  in  succession,  and  the  villagers  are 
allowed  to  resign  their  holdings  and  take  up  new  plots  of  land  on 
giving    notice    to   the    revenue    authorities.     In   1903-4,  17,000  acres 


ADMINTSTRA  TIOX 


353 


of  land  were  so  resigned  and  about  32,000  acres  of  new  land  taken  up. 
Fresh  leases  are  issued  every  year  for  this  shifting  cultivation,  and 
a  large  staff  of  mandals  is  maintained  to  measure  new  land,  test  appli- 
cations for  relinquishment,  and  keep  the  record  up  to  date.  In  the 
Miklr  Hills  the  villagers  pay  a  tax  of  Rs.  3  per  house,  irrespective 
of  the  area  brought  under  cultivation.  The  District  was  last  settled 
in  1893,  and  the  average  assessment  per  settled  acre  assessed  at  full 
rates  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2-10-2  (maximum  Rs.  4-2,  minimum  Rs.  r-i  i). 
A  resettlement  is  now  in  progress. 

The  following  table  shows  the   revenue    from  land  and   the   total 
revenue,  in  thousands  of  rupees : — 


i88o-i. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

6,19 
14,11* 

8,11 
17,66 

13,96 
26,01 

14,22 
25,92 

*  Exclusive  of  forest  receipts. 

Outside  the  station  of  Sibsagar  and  the  Jorhat  and  Golaghat  unions, 
the  local  affairs  of  each  subdivision  are  managed  by  a  board  presided 
over  by  the  Deputy-Commissioner  or  the  Subdivisional  officer.  The 
presence  of  a  strong  European  element  on  these  boards,  elected  by  the 
planting  community,  lends  to  them  a  considerable  degree  of  vitality. 
The  total  expenditure  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,82,000,  about 
three-fifths  of  which  was  laid  out  on  public  works.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  income  is  derived  from  local  rates,  supplemented  by  a  grant 
from  Provincial  revenues. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  prevention  and  detection  of  crime,  the 
District  is  divided  into  ten  investigating  centres,  and  the  civil  police 
force  consisted  in  1904  of  50  officers  and  278  men.  There  are  no 
rural  police,  their  duties  being  discharged  by  the  village  headmen. 
In  addition  to  the  District  jail  at  Sibsagar,  subsidiary  jails  are  main- 
tained at  Jorhat  and  Golaghat,  with  accommodation  for  56  males  and 
7  females. 

Education  has  made  more  progress  in  Sibsagar  than  in  most  Dis- 
tricts of  the  Assam  Valley.  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction 
in  1880-1,  1890-r,  1900-1,  and  1903-4  was  4,547,  8,798,  12,063,  and 
12,451  respectively;  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  last  year  was 
more  than  three  times  the  number  twenty-nine  years  before.  At  the 
Census  of  1901,  3-4  per  cent,  of  the  population  (6-i  males  and  0-4 
females)  were  returned  as  literate.  Tiie  District  contained  302  primary 
and  15  secondary  schools  and  one  special  school  in  1903-4.  The 
number  of  female  scholars  was  236.  The  great  majority  01  the 
pupils  are  in  primary  classes.  Of  the  male  population  of  school - 
going  age  21  per  cent,  were  in  the  primary  stage  of  instruction,  and 


354  SI  B  SAG  A  R    DTSTRTCT 

of  the  female  population  of  the  same  age  less  than  one  per  cent.  The 
total  expenditure  on  education  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,01,000,  of  which 
Rs.  35,000  was  derived  from  fees.  About  34  per  cent,  of  the  direct 
expenditure  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  possesses  3  hospitals  and  4  dispensaries,  with  accom- 
modation for  58  in-patients.  In  1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was 
89,000,  of  which  600  were  in-patients,  and  1,000  operations  were 
performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  15,000,  half  of  which  was  met 
from  local  and  municipal  funds. 

In  1903-4,  46  per  1,000  of  the  population  were  successfully  vac- 
cinated, which  is  a  little  above  the  proportion  for  the  Province  as 
a  whole.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  towns  of  Sibsagar, 
Jorhat,  and  Golaghat. 

[Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  A  Statistical  Account  of  Assam,  vol.  i  (1879); 
L.  J.  Kershaw,  Assessment  Reports,  Central  Goldglidt,  JVestern  Gold- 
ghat,  N'orther)!  Jorhat,  Central  Jorhat,  and  Southern  Jorhat  Group 
(1905)  ;  B.  (\  Allen,  District  Gazetteer  (1906).] 

Sibsagar  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Sibsagar  District,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  26°  42'  and  27°  16'  N.  and  94°  24' 
and  95°  22'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,162  square  miles.  It  contains  one 
town,  Sibsagar  (population,  5,712),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  666  villages. 
The  subdivision  lies  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  hills  inhabited  by  Nagas.  It  was  the 
original  centre  from  which  the  Ahom  tribe  extended  their  influence 
over  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  evidences  of  their  occupation 
are  to  be  found  in  numerous  large  tanks,  embankments,  and  ruins  of 
temples  and  palaces.  The  population  in  1901  was  211,764,  or  nearly 
one-third  more  than  in  1891  (160,304).  This  enormous  increase  is 
due  to  natural  growth  among  the  Assamese,  who  are  found  here  in 
large  numbers,  and  to  the  importation  of  coolies  for  tea  cultivation. 
In  1904  there  were  56  gardens  with  28,076  acres  under  plant,  which 
gave  employment  to  75  Europeans  and  33,329  natives.  The  staple 
food-crop  is  sdli,  or  transplanted  winter  rice  ;  but  much  damage  is 
done  to  cultivation  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  steps 
have  recently  been  taken  to  restore  the  embankments  which  enclosed 
these  rivers  in  the  time  of  the  Ahom  Rajas.  The  subdivision,  as 
a  whole,  supports  182  persons  per  square  mile,  but  in  the  Namditol 
tahsil,  which  covers  an  area  of  160  square  miles,  the  density  is  as  high 
as  364,  and  little  good  land  remains  available  for  settlement  except  in 
tracts  which  require  to  be  protected  from  flood.  In  the  west  the 
rainfall  is  85  inches,  but  on  the  eastern  border  it  is  about  ro  inches 
more.  The  assessment  for  land  revenue  and  local  rates  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  5,66,000, 

Sibsagar  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and   subdivision 


STDDAPUR  355 

of  the  same  name,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  26°  59'  N. 
and  94°  38'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dikho  river.  It  lies  on 
the  trunk  road  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  is 
connected  by  road  with  the  railway  at  Nazira  and  with  the  Brahma- 
putra at  Disangmukh,  the  distance  to  each  of  these  places  being  about 
9  miles.  Population  (1901),  5,712.  Sibsagar  is  somewhat  unfavour 
ably  situated  for  trade,  and  the  population  shows  little  tendency  to 
increase.  The  town  takes  its  name  from  a  tank  (sdgar),  a  mile  and 
three-quarters  in  circumference,  which  was  constructed  by  the  Ahom 
Raja  Sib  Singh  in  1722.  Between  1699  and  1786  Rangpur  near 
Sibsagar  was  the  capital  of  the  Ahoms,  but  in  the  latter  year  the  Raja 
was  driven  by  his  rebellious  subjects  to  Jorhat.  The  rainfall  is  heavy 
(94  inches),  but  the  town  is  healthy,  though  during  the  rains  most  of 
the  country  in  the  neighbourhood  is  flooded.  It  is  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District  staff  and  of  a  branch  of  the  American  Baptist  Mission. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  public  buildings,  there  are  a  hospital  with 
20  beds  and  a  jail  with  accommodation  for  77  prisoners.  Sibsagar  was 
constituted  a  station  under  (Bengal)  Act  V  of  1876  in  t88o.  The 
municipal  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  ii,ooo:  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  11,500,  includ- 
ing taxes  on  houses  and  lands  (Rs.  2,400)  and  grant  from  Provincial 
Revenues  (Rs.  5,000),  while  the  expenditure  Avas  Rs.  11,200.  The 
principal  imports  are  cotton  piece-goods,  oil,  grain,  and  salt ;  the 
exports  are  inconsiderable.  The  chief  educational  institutions  are  two 
high  schools,  which  had  an  average  attendance  of  393  boys  in  1903-4. 
About  150  members  of  the  Assam  Valley  Light  Horse  were  resident  in 
the  District  in  1904.  The  transfer  of  the  head-quarters  of  the  District 
to  Jorhat  has  recently  been  sanctioned. 

Siddapur.— South-easternmost  /a/t/hi  of  North  Kanara  District, 
Bombay,  lying  between  14°  12'  and  14°  31'  N.  and  74°  40^  and 
75°  i'  E.,  with  an  area  of  332  square  miles.  There  are  197  villages, 
the  head-quarters  being  at  Siddapur.  The  population  in  1901  was 
41,342,  compared  with  42,751  in  1891.  The  density,  125  persons 
per  square  mile,  exceeds  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-46  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  9,000.  Sidda- 
pur is  covered  with  hills  in  the  west,  which  are  thickly  wooded  towards 
the  south  but  are  bare  in  the  north.  The  valleys  among  the  western 
hills  are  generally  planted  with  spice  gardens.  The  centre  of  the  h7////.'c! 
is  a  series  of  low  hills,  crossed  by  rich  valleys  and  many  perennial 
streams.  In  the  east  the  hills  are  few  and  the  country  stretches  in 
wide  fairly-wooded  plains,  in  parts  dotted  with  sugar-cane  and  rice- 
fields  ;  the  extreme  south-east  is  hilly  and  thickly  wooded,  mostly  with 
evergreen  forests  containing  timber  of  great  girth  and  height.  The 
small  streams  are  of  great  value   for  garden  irrigation.     In  the  west 


356  STDDAPUR 

the  soil  is  red,  and  in  the  valleys  a  rich  alluvial  mould  is  found.  In 
the  east  the  soil  is  red  in  places,  but  is  not  rich.  The  chief  products 
are  rice,  sugar-cane,  Bengal  gram,  kulith,  areca-nuts,  pepper,  carda- 
moms, betel-leaf,  lemons,  and  oranges.  Except  in  the  west,  where 
fever  prevails  during  the  later  rains  and  the  cold  season,  the  tdluka 
is  fairly  healthy,  and  during  the  hot  months  the  climate  is  agreeable. 
The  annual  rainfall  averages  115  inches, 

Siddapura. — Village  in  the  Molakalmuru  taluk  of  Chitaldroog  Dis- 
trict, Mysore,  situated  in  14°  49'  N.  and  76°  47'  E.,  on  the  Janagahalla, 
9  miles  north-east  of  Molakalmuru  town.  Population  (1901),  1,796. 
It  has  become  of  special  interest  from  the  discovery  of  edicts  of  Asoka 
in  the  neighbourhood.  They  are  addressed  to  the  officials  in  Isila, 
which  may  represent  the  '  Sidda '  of  Siddapura.  If  so,  the  place  was 
in  existence  in  the  third  century  b.c.  The  other  inscriptions  found 
are  Pallava,  Hoysala,  and  Vijayanagar  of  the  eleventh,  thirteenth,  and 
sixteenth  centuries. 

Siddhavattam. — Subdivision  and  taluk  of  Cuddapah  District, 
Madras.     See  Sidhout. 

Siddheswar. — Hills  between  Sylhet  and  Cachar  Districts,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam.     See  Saraspur. 

Siddipet  Taluk. —  Taluk  in  Medak  District,  Hyderabad  State, 
with  an  area  of  1,199  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was 
'5°)55T)  compared  with  155,523  in  1891,  the  decrease  being  due  to 
cholera.  The  taluk  has  one  town,  Siddipet  (population,  8,302),  the 
head-quarters;  and  233  villages,  of  which  102  a.r e  jdglr.  The  land 
revenue  in  1901  was  3-6  lakhs.  Tanks  supply  a  considerable  area 
of  rice  cultivation. 

Siddipet  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdlffk  of  the  same  name 
in  Medak  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  18°  6^  N.  and 
78°  61'  E.  Population  (1901),  8,302.  Siddipet  is  a  commercial  town 
of  some  importance,  and  contains  a  dispensary,  a  State  school,  a  mis- 
sion school,  and  a  post  office.  An  old  fort  adjoins  it  to  the  west.  Brass 
and  copper  vessels  of  a  superior  kind,  as  well  as  silk  and  cotton  fabrics, 
are  manufactured  here. 

Sidhauli. — South-eastern  /aksi/  of  Sitapur  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Bar!,  Sadrpur,  Kondri  (South), 
Mahmudabad,  and  Manwan,  and  lying  between  27°  6'  and  27°  31'  N, 
and  80°  46'  and  81°  24''  E.,  with  an  area  of  502  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation increased  from  269,122  in  1891  to  299,492  in  1901,  the  rate 
of  increase  being  the  highest  in  the  District.  There  are  544  villages 
and  two  towns,  including  Mahmijdabad  (population,  8,664).  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  4,60,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  74,000.  The  tahsll  supports  597  persons  per  square  mile,  being 
the    most   densely   populated    in  the   District.      It   extends   from  the 


STDHOUT   TALUK  357 

Gumtl  on  the  south-west  to  the  Gogra  on  the  east,  and  thus  lies 
partly  in  the  uplands  and  partly  in  the  low  alluvial  tract  bordering 
the  latter  river,  which  is  also  intersected  by  the  Chauka.  In  1903-4 
the  area  under  cultivation  was  362  square  miles,  of  which  98  were 
irrigated.  Wells  supply  one-fifth  of  the  irrigated  area,  and  tanks  and 
ih'ih  most  of  the  remainder. 

Sidhnai  Canal. — An  irrigation  work  in  the  Punjab,  taking  off  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Ravi  and  watering  part  of  Multan  District.  It 
derives  its  name,  meaning  '  straight,'  from  a  remarkable  reach  of  the 
Ravi,  which  extends  in  a  perfectly  straight  cutting  for  10  or  12  miles 
from  Tulamba  to  Sarai  Sidhu.  It  was  opened  for  irrigation  in  1886. 
The  head-works  consist  of  a  weir  737  feet  long,  built  across  this  reach. 
The  main  line  has  a  bed-width  of  90  feet  and  a  maximum  discharge  of 
1,820  cubic  feet  per  second  ;  after  30  miles  it  divides  into  two  large 
distributaries,  which  between  them  take  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole 
supply.  The  very  short  length  of  the  canal  compared  with  the  area 
irrigated  is  one  cause  of  its  financial  success.  There  are  in  all  13  main 
distributary  channels  taking  out  of  the  main  line,  and  three  subsidiary 
canals  which  take  out  of  the  river  above  the  dam.  The  gross  area 
commanded  is  595  square  miles,  of  which  the  greater  part  was  Govern- 
ment waste,  and  was  settled  by  colonists  brought  from  various  parts  of 
the  Punjab,  the  land  being  given  out  for  the  most  part  in  90-acre  plots. 
Although  the  whole  of  the  water  in  the  Sidhnai  reach  can  be  turned 
into  the  canal,  the  Ravi  in  the  winter  is  often  absolutely  dry  owing  to 
the  supply  taken  by  the  Bari  Doab  Canal,  so  that  the  spring  crop  has 
to  be  matured  by  the  aid  of  wells.  The  average  area  irrigated  during 
the  three  years  ending  1903-4  was  190  square  miles.  The  capital 
outlay  up  to  the  end  of  1903-4  was  about  13  lakhs,  and  the  average 
annual  profit  more  than  1 1  per  cent. 

Sidhout  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Cuddapah  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the  Sidhout,  Badvel,  and  Pullampp:t  taluks. 

Sidhout  Taluk  ('  the  hermit's  banyan-tree '). — Eastern  taliik  of 
Cuddapah  District,  Madras,  lying  between  14°  16"  and  14°  41'  N. 
and  78°  52'  and  79°  22'  E.,  with  an  area  of  606  square  miles.  It  is 
situated  between  the  Palkonda  Hills  and  the  Velikonda  range.  The 
population  in  1901  was  68,087,  compared  with  66,810  in  1891  ;  and 
the  density  is  112  persons  per  square  mile,  compared  with  the  District 
average  of  148.  It  contains  79  villages,  including  Sidhout,  the  head- 
quarters. The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  1,10,000.  The  annual  rainfall  is  33  inches,  against 
the  District  average  of  28  inches.  The  best  land  is  in  the  valley  of 
the  Penner,  where  water  is  easily  obtained  by  sinking  wells.  Little 
of  the  tdhtk  is  cultivated  except  the  valleys,  owing  to  the  numerous 
rugged   hills   by   which   it   is   cut   up.       Though    four    rivers   cross    it. 


358  STDTTOUT   TALUK 

few  irrigation  channels  are  drawn  from  them,  as  they  run  in  deep 
beds;  and  ahiiost  the  only  benefit  derived  from  the  wealth  of  water 
which  runs  away  to  the  sea  is  the  increase  in  the  moisture  of  the 
subsoil  in  the  valleys.  The  [)rincipal  products  are  indigo  and  cotton. 
More  than  half  of  the  taluk  consists  of  '  reserved  '  forests. 

Sidhout,  the  head-quarters,  is  a  place  of  some  importance  and  of 
considerable  sanctity.  Owing  to  a  fancied  resemblance  in  its  position 
on  the  Penner  to  that  of  Benares  on  the  Ganges,  and  to  the  relative 
situation  of  some  neighbouring  villages  and  rivers,  it  is  sometimes 
called  Dakshina  Kasi  or  the  'Southern  Benares.'  It  is  known  for 
its  melons,  the  cultivation  of  which  is  carried  on  from  January  to 
March  in  the  dry  sandy  bed  of  the  Penner. 

Sidhpur  Taluka.  -Northern  tdhika  of  the  Kadi  prdnt,  Baroda 
State,  with  an  area  of  254  square  miles.  The  population  fell  from 
107,470  in  rSgt  to  90,161  in  1901.  The  taluka  contains  two  towns, 
Sidhpur  (population,  r4,743),  the  head-quarters,  and  Unjha  (9,800) ; 
and  78  villages.  It  is  flat  and  undulating  by  turns,  and  is  somewhat 
bare  of  trees,  while  the  surface  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  The  Saras- 
wati  river  flows  through  the  centre.  In  1904-5  the  land  revenue  was 
Rs.  2,89,000. 

Sidhpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluka  of  the  same  name, 
Kadi  prdnt,  Baroda  State,  situated  in  23°  55'  N.  and  72°  26I  E.,  on 
the  Saraswati  river,  with  a  station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway, 
64  miles  north  of  Ahmadabad.  Population  (1901),  14,743.  Sidhpur, 
which  was  formerly  known  as  Sristhala,  is  a  town  of  much  religious 
importance,  and  is  frequented  by  great  crowds  of  Hindu  pilgrims. 
'I'hey  resort  here  because  it  is  said  to  be  the  only  place  where 
slirdddka  can  be  performed  for  the  i)roj)itiation  of  the  manes  of 
deceased  mothers.  What  Gaya  is  for  the  fathers,  Sidhpur  is  for  the 
mothers. 

A.  K.  Forbes  in  his  Rds  Mala  has  described  the  celebrated  Rudra 
Mahalaya  or  Mala,  founded  in  the  tenth  century  by  Mularaja,  and 
reconstituted  by  Jay  Singh  Siddha  Raja,  once  the  glory  of  Sidhpur, 
but  now  only  a  massive  ruin  : — • 

'  The  Rudra  Mala  was  a  very  large  edifice  of  the  usual  form  and 
apparently  three  storeys  high.  In  the  centre  of  three  sides  of  the 
Hiandapa  projected  two-storeyed  porticoes  called  I'up  choris;  on  the 
fourth  the  adytum,  a  most  massive  structure  rising  to  the  extreme 
height  of  the  central  building,  and  then  mounting  beyond  it  into 
a  sikdra  or  spire.  On  either  side  stood  a  ki?-tti  stambha  or  triumphal 
pillar,  one  of  which  exists  in  a  nearly  perfect  state.  Two  richly 
adorned  columns  support  an  entablature  and  sculptured  pediment. 
Above  the  brackets,  formed  of  the  heads  of  marine  monsters,  springs 
a  delicately  chiselled  arch  called  the  torana  or  'garland.'  The  tevmple 
stood  in  the  centre  of  an  extensive  court,  to  which  access  was  given  by 


SID  LAG  H ATT  A    TOWN  35.J 

three  large  gate-houses,  thai  in  front  oi)ening  on  to  the  terrace  lead- 
ing to  the  river.  The  rest  of  the  surrounding  wall  was  composed  of 
numerous  lesser  shrines,  three  of  which  remain  and  have  been  con- 
verted into  a  Muhammadan  mosque." 

But  the  work  of  destruction  has  proceeded  rapidly  since  the  time  of 
Forbes,  and  now  there  is  little  left  save  gigantic  stones  with  superb 
carving  to  show  the  former  magnificence  of  the  great  temple.  Oppo- 
site Sidhpur  and  across  the  river  is  a  large  square  building  forming  a 
dharmsdla  of  Kewalpuri  Gosains.  The  town  also  contains  numerous 
other  temples,  and  several  tanks,  one  of  which,  the  Bindu  Sarovar,  is 
held  peculiarly  holy.  The  tortuous  and  narrow  streets,  the  crowded 
houses,  and  the  population  too  great  for  the  area  inhabited,  unite  in 
making  Sidhpur  an  unattractive  town  for  all  except  the  Audichya 
Brahmans,  who  derive  comfortable  incomes  from  this  holy  place,  and 
the  Bohras.  The  latter  are  merchants  who  carry  on  business  in 
Burma,  Zanzibar,  &c.,  and  then  retire  to  Sidhpur  to  spend  the  rest 
of  their  existence  in  their  well-built  houses  and  pleasant  gardens. 
The  town  possesses  a  magistrate's  court,  Anglo-vernacular  and  ver- 
nacular schools,  a  dispensary,  and  the  usual  public  otifices.  It  is 
administered  as  a  municipality,  which  was  reconstituted  on  a  partly 
elective  basis  in  1905,  and  has  an  income  of  Rs.  6,500  from  customs, 
excise,  and  tolls.  The  chief  arts  are  dyeing  and  printing  of  cloth,  but 
the  wood-carving  on  the  houses  is  also  worthy  of  notice.  Sidhpur  is 
locally  known  as  the  centre  of  the  poppy-growing  tract  in  Baroda,  and 
the  place  where  the  State  manufactures  opium. 

Sidlaghatta  Taluk.--  Central  taluk  of  Kolar  District,  Mysore, 
lying  between  13°  13'  and  13^  41'  N.  and  77°  48'  and  78""  8'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  329  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  70,022, 
compared  with  58,977  in  1891.  The  taluk  contains  one  town,  Sid- 
laghatta (population,  7,638)  the  head-quarters ;  and  353  villages. 
The  land  revenue  demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,44,000.  The  Pa- 
paghni  river  crosses  the  tdhk  to  the  north-east.  The  Ponnaiyar  drains 
the  south-west  angle,  forming  some  large  tanks.  The  north-west  is 
hilly  and  rugged,  and  the  soil  poor  and  stony  ;  but  black  soil  occurs 
near  the  river.  South  of  Sidlaghatta  the  soil  is  good,  and  i)otatoes 
are  grown. 

Sidlaghatta  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name 
in  Kolar  District,  Mysore,  situated  in  13°  23'  N.  and  77^  52'  E., 
30  miles  north-west  of  Kolar  town.  Population  (1901),  7,638.  It  was 
founded  about  1524  by  a  robber  chief,  in  whose  family  it  remained 
for  eighty-seven  years.  The  Marathas  then  took  and  held  it  for  forty- 
five  years,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Mughals.  The  Marathas  again 
got  possession,  and  sold  it  to  the  chief  of  Chik-Ballapur.  For  about 
5  miles  round  the  town  occurs  a  kind  of  laterite  called  cliattu,  which 


36o  SWLAGHATTA    TOWN 

differs  from  the  ordinary  formation  in  allowing  the  growth  of  large  trees. 
Reduced  to  clay  it  forms  a  durable  plastering  for  walls,  and  makes  roofs 
watertight.  The  municipality  dates  from  1870.  The  receipts  and 
expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  3,750  and 
Rs.  4,550.     In   1903-4  they  were  Rs.  5,000. 

Sidoktaya. — North-western  township  of  Minbu  District,  Upper 
Burma,  lying  between  20°  7'  and  20°  54'  N.  and  94°  2'  and  94°  30'  E., 
on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Arakan  Yoma,  in  the  Mon  river  basin, 
with  an  area  of  1,121  square  miles.  It  is  sparsely  populated,  and  cursed 
with  a  malarious  climate  which  no  Burman  from  the  plains  can  endure. 
The  population  fell  from  24,337  in  1891  to  22,511  in  1901,  and  in  the 
latter  year  included  10,400  Chins,  while  the  nominally  Burman  popu- 
lation is  much  mixed  with  Chin.  There  are  208  villages,  the  head- 
quarters being  at  Sidoktaya  (population,  1,207),  <Ji''  the  Mon  river.  In 
1903-4  the  area  cultivated  was  15  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue 
and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  ^59,000. 

Sidri.  —  Thakurat  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Sihawal. — Head-quarters  of  the  Bardi  tahsll  of  the  Rewah  State, 
Central  India,  situated  in  24^34'  N.  and  82*^  17'  E.  Population  (1901), 
198.  The  place  is  of  no  importance  except  as  the  head-quarters  of 
a  tahsll,  but  contains  a  British  post  office. 

Sihor.  —  Town  in  the  State  of  Bhaunagar,  Kathiawar,  Bombay, 
situated  in  21"^  43'  N.  and  72°  E.,  on  the  Bhavnagar-Gondal  Railway, 
about  13  miles  west  of  Bhaunagar  town,  and  on  the  slope  of  the  Sihor 
range  of  hills.  Population  (1901),  10,101.  The  name  is  a  corruption 
ofSinghpur,  'the  lion  city.'  A  still  more  ancient  name  is  Saraswatpur. 
It  formed  a  capital  of  the  Bhaunagar  branch  of  the  Gohel  Rajputs  until 
Bhaunagar  town  was  founded  in  1723.  The  old  site  of  the  city  is  about 
half  a  mile  to  the  south.  Sihor  is  famous  for  its  copper-  and  brasswork, 
snuff,  and  plaster  (c/uinain).  The  dyers  are  numerous  and  skilful,  and 
dye  women's  scarves  (sdd/as)  with  various  colours,  but  they  are  especially 
famous  for  their  chocolate  dye.  Sihor  is  also  a  great  place  for  oil- 
pressers.  Near  the  southern  wall  of  the  town  is  situated  the  Brahma 
kund,  the  water  of  which  possesses  special  virtues  for  bathers.  Farther 
up  the  river  Gautami  lie  the  Gautami  kund  and  Gautameshwar  Maha- 
deo.  The  Sihor  stone  found  in  the  Ranio  hill  is  much  used  for 
building. 

Sihor. — Town  and  military  station  in  Central  India.     See  Sehore. 

Sihora  State. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Sihora  Tahsil. — Central  /a/isi/  of  Jubbulpore  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  23°  19'  and  23°  55'  N.  and  79°  49'  and 
80°  38'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,197  square  miles.  The  population 
decreased  from  212,949  in  1891  to  186,424  in  1901.  The  density 
in  the  latter  year  was   156  persons  per  square   mile,   which   is   below 


SIKA.VDARABAD    TOWN  361 

the  District  average.  The  ta/isl/  contains  one  town,  Siiiora  (popula- 
tion, 5,595),  the  head-quarters  ;  and  706  inhabited  villages.  Excluding 
96  square  miles  of  Government  forest,  55  per  cent,  of  the  available 
area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The  cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was 
563  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was 
Rs.  2,87,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  32,000.  The  tahsi/  contains  part  of 
the  highly  fertile  wheat-growing  tract  known  as  the  Jubbulpore  Ihiveli, 
though  in  Sihora  the  land  is  not  quite  so  level  or  productive  as  in  the 
Jubbulpore  tahslL  On  the  west  and  east  broken  and  hilly  country 
borders  the  Vindhyan  and  Satpura  ranges. 

Sihora  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  tahsii  of  the  same  name  in 
Jubbulpore  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  23°  29'  N.  and 
80°  6'  E.,  26  miles  from  Jubbulpore  city  by  rail.  Population  (1901), 
5,595.  Sihora  was  created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal 
receipts  during  the  decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  5,100.  In  1903-4 
the  receipts  were  Rs.  5,000,  mainly  derived  from  a  house  tax  and 
brokers'  fees.  The  iron  ore  found  locally  is  smelted  by  indigenous 
methods  in  Sihora,  and  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  local  trade  ;  but 
the  town  is  not  growing.  It  contains  a  vernacular  middle  school,  a 
girls'  school  supported  by  the  Zanana  Mission  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  a  dispensary. 

Sikandarabad  Tahsii. — North-western  iahs'il  of  Bulandshahr  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Sikandarabad, 
Dadri,  and  Dankaur,  and  lying  along  the  Jumna,  between  28°  15' 
and  28°  39'  N.  and  77°  18'  and  77°  50'  E.,  with  an  area  of  516  square 
miles.  The  population  rose  from  224,368  in  1891  to  260,849  in  1901. 
There  are  404  villages  and  seven  towns,  the  largest  of  which  are 
Sikandarabad  (population,  18,290),  the  iahsll  head-quarters,  and 
Dankaur  (5,444).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  4,32,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  74,000.  The  tahsii  is  the  poorest 
in  the  District,  and  supports  only  505  persons  per  square  mile,  against 
an  average  of  599.  It  is  crossed  from  north  to  south  by  two  main 
lines  of  drainage — the  Patwai  and  the  Karon  or  Karwan.  Both  of  these 
are  naturally  ill-delined,  but  their  channels  have  been  deepened  and 
straightened.  The  area  between  the  Patwai  and  Jumma  is  poor,  being 
largely  covered  with  tamarisk  and  grass  jungle  varied  by  patches  of  salt 
waste.  In  the  north  the  Hindan  and  Bhuriya  rivers  increase  the  satu- 
ration, while  they  bring  down  fertile  deposits  of  earth.  The  tahsii 
is  well  supplied  with  irrigation  by  the  Mat  branch  of  the  Upper 
Ganges  Canal,  which  passes  through  the  centre  from  north  to  south. 
In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  358  square  miles,  of  which 
150  were  irrigated.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  irrigated  area  is 
supplied  from  the  canal. 

Sikandarabad  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  tahsii  of   the  same 


362  SIKANDARABAD    TOWN 

name  in  Bulandshahr  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  2S'  N. 
and  77°  42'  E.,  on  the  grand  trunk  road,  4  miles  from  Sikandarabad 
station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Population  (1901),  18,290,  of 
Avhom  10,599  were  Hindus  and  6,814  Musalmans.  The  town  was  built 
by  Sikandar  LodT  in  1498,  and  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  pargana 
or  mahal  under  Akbar.  In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  held  for  a 
time  by  Najib-ud-daula.  Saadat  Khan,  Nawab  of  Oudh,  attacked  and 
defeated  a  Maratha  force  here  in  1736.  The  Jat  army  of  Bharatpur 
encamped  at  Sikandarabad  in  1763,  but  fled  across  the  Junnia  on  the 
death  of  Suraj  Mai  and  defeat  of  Jawahir  Singh.  Under  Maratha  rule 
the  town  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  brigade  under  Perron  ;  and  after 
the  fall  of  Aligarh,  Colonel  James  Skinner  held  it.  During  the  Mutiny 
of  1857,  the  neighbouring  Gujars,  Rajputs,  and  Muhammadans  attacked 
and  plundered  Sikandarabad ;  but  Colonel  Greathed's  column  relieved 
the  town  on  September  27,  1857.  There  are  several  tombs  and 
mosques  of  some  antiquity.  Besides  the  tahslli  and  police  station 
there  is  a  dispensary  ;  and  the  American  Methodists,  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  and  the  Zanana  Bible  and  Medical  Mission  have 
branches  here.  Sikandarabad  has  been  a  municipality  since  1872. 
During  the  ten  years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure 
averaged  Rs.  15,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  23,000,  chiefly 
derived  from  octroi  (Rs.  17,000)  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  21,000. 
There  is  not  much  trade ;  but  fine  cloth  or  muslin  is  manufactured  and 
exported  to  Delhi,  and  a  cotton-gin  has  been  recently  opened,  which 
en)ployed  105  hands  in  1903.  The  town  contains  a  flourishing  Anglo- 
vernacular  school  with  more  than  200  pupils,  a  tahslli  school  with  120, 
and  five  primary  schools  with  240  pupils. 

Sikandarpur. — I'own  in  the  Bansdih  iahsll  of  Ballia  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  26^3'  N.  and  84^4'  E.,  24  miles  north  of 
Ballia  town  and  2  miles  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Gogra.  Population 
(1901),  7,214.  Tradition  ascribes  the  founding  of  the  town  to  the 
reign  of  Sikandar  LodT,  from  whom  its  name  was  taken.  Its  former 
importance  is  attested  by  the  ruins  of  a  large  fort,  and  of  houses 
extending  over  a  large  area.  Its  decadence  is  locally  ascribed 
to  the  wholesale  migration  of  the  inhabitants  to  Patna,  but  nothing 
is  known  as  to  the  cause  or  even  the  date  of  this  abandonment. 
Sikandarpur  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income 
from  taxation  of  Rs.  1,200.  The  local  market  is  famous  for  its  otto 
of  roses  and  other  perfumes,  produced  from  flowers  grown  locally 
and  exported  to  Bengal.  There  is  also  a  small  manufacture  of  coarse 
cloth.     The  town  school  has  63  pupils. 

Sikandra.^ — Village  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Agra,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  27°  13'  N.  and  77°  57'  E.,  5  miles  north-west 
of  Agra  city  on   the   Muttra   road.     Population    (1901),    1,618.     The 


SJKANDRA   RAO    TANS II.  363 

village  is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  Sikandar  Lodi,  who 
built  a  palace  here  in  1495,  which  now  forms  part  of  the  orphanage. 
Jahanglr's  mother,  who  died  at  Agra  in  1623,  is  buried  here  ;  but  the 
place  is  chiefly  famous  for  the  tomb  of  Akbar,  which  was  built  by 
Jahangir,  and  completed  in  1612-3.  It  stands  in  a  spacious  garden 
of  150  acres,  surrounded  by  massive  walls  and  gateways  in  the  middle 
of  each  side.  The  entrance  is  by  a  gateway  of  magnificent  proportions, 
with  four  lofty  minarets  of  white  marble.  The  building  is  of  unusual 
design,  and  according  to  Fergusson  was  probably  copied  from  a  Hindu 
or  Buddhist  model.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  four  square  terraces, 
placed  one  above  the  other  and  gradually  decreasing  in  size.  The 
lowest  is  320  feet  square  and  30  feet  high,  and  has  a  large  entrance 
adorned  with  marble  mosaic.  Above  the  highest  of  these  four  terraces, 
which  are  chiefly  of  sandstone,  stands  a  white  marble  enclosure,  157  feet 
square,  the  outer  wall  of  which  is  composed  of  beautifully  carved 
screens.  The  space  within  is  surrounded  by  cloisters  of  marble,  and 
paved  with  the  same  material.  In  the  centre  is  the  marble  cenotaph 
of  the  great  emperor,  a  perfect  example  of  the  most  delicate  arabesque 
tracery,  among  which  may  be  seen  the  ninety-nine  names  of  God. 
Finch,  after  describing  his  visit  to  the  tomb  in  1609,  says  that  the 
intention  was  to  cover  this  upper  enclosure  with  a  marble  dome  lined 
with  gold.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  an  important  branch 
at  Sikandra,  with  a  church  built  in  1840,  and  an  orphanage  established 
after  the  famine  of  1837-8,  which  contains  about  409  boys  and  girls, 
mostly  famine  waifs.  In  addition  to  ordinary  literary  subjects,  some 
of  the  children  are  taught  cloth  and  carpet  weaving,  bookbinding, 
printing,  and  other  trades. 

Sikandra  Dhar. — Range  of  hills  in  the  Punjab,  which,  starting 
from  a  point  on  the  border  of  the  Suket,  Bilaspur,  and  Mandi  States, 
runs  north-west  for  50  miles  in  the  last  State.  It  is  pierced  by  the 
Beas  river  about  20  miles  north-west  of  Mandi  town.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  that  of  Sikandar  Khan  Surl,  who  is  said  to  have 
established  a  cantonment  on  its  summit,  intending  to  conquer 
Kangra. 

Sikandra  Rao  Tahsil.— South-eastern  tahsll  of  Allgarh  District, 
United  Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Sikandra  and  Akrabad, 
and  lying  between  27°  32'  and  27°  53'  N.  and  78°  10'  and  78°  32'  E., 
with  an  area  of  337  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  183,185 
in  1891  to  211,532  in  1901.  There  are  248  villages  and  seven  towns, 
the  largest  of  which  are  Sikandra  Rao  (population,  11,372),  the  tahs'il 
head-quarters,  and  Pilkhana  (5,109).  The  demand  for  land  revenue 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  4,32,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  69,000.  On  the  north- 
east the  Kali  Nad!  forms  the  boundary,  and  in  the  south  one  or  two 
small  streams  rise.     Irrigation  is  supplied  by  the  Etawah  branch  of  the 

VOL.  XXII.  A  a 


364  STKANDRA    RAO    TAFfSIL 

Upper  Ganges  Canal :  and  the  tahs'i/  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  in 
the  District,  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  large  waste  areas  covered 
with  saline  efflorescences.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was 
218  square  miles,  of  which   164  were  irrigated. 

Sikandra  Rao  Town.  Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same 
name  in  Aligarh  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  27°  41'  N, 
and  78°  23'  E.,  on  the  grand  trunk  road  and  on  the  Cawnpore- 
Achhnera-Railway.  Population  (190 1),  11,372.  The  town  was  founded 
in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Sikandar  Lodi,  and  afterwards  given  as 
a  jaglr  to  Rao  Khan,  an  Afghan,  from  which  circumstances  the 
double  name  is  derived.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  Ghaus  Khan, 
of  Sikandra  Rao,  was  one  of  the  leading  rebels,  and  held  Koil  or 
AlTgarh  as  deputy  for  Walidad  Khan  of  Malagarh  in  Bulandshahr 
District.  Kundan  Singh,  a  Pundlr  Rajput,  did  good  service  on  the 
British  side,  and  held  the  pargana  as  ndzim.  Sikandra  Rao  is  a 
squalid,  poor-looking  town,  on  a  high  mound  surrounded  by  low, 
badly-drained  environs.  A  great  swamp  spreads  eastwards,  attaining 
a  length  of  4  miles  in  the  rains.  There  is  a  mosque  dating  from 
Akbar's  time,  and  a  ruined  house  in  the  town  was  once  the  residence 
of  a  Muhammadan  governor.  The  public  buildings  include  the  ta/islli, 
dispensary,  and  school.  Sikandra  Rao  has  been  a  municipality  since 
1865.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901,  the  income  and  expen- 
diture averaged  Rs.  8,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  13,000, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi  (Rs.  9,000) ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  14,000.  The  town  is  declining,  and  its  trade  is  chiefly  local. 
There  is  a  small  export  of  glass  and  saltpetre,  which  are  made  in 
the  neighbourhood.  The  middle  school  has  220  pupils,  and  five 
primary  schools   270  pupils. 

Sikar. — Head-quarters  of  the  chiefship  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Shekhawati  nizdmat  of  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27° 
37'  N.  and  75°  8'  E.,  about  64  miles  north-west  of  Jaipur  city,  and 
about  45  miles  north  of  Kuchawan  Road  junction  on  the  Rajpul- 
ana-Malwa  Railway.  The  town  is  walled,  and  posse.sses  some  large 
bazars  and  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office.  The  population  in 
1901  was  21,523,  thus  making  Slkar  the  second  largest  town  in  the 
State;  Hindus  numbered  12,967,  or  60  per  cent.,  and  Musalmans 
7,704,  or  over  35  per  cent.  The  Rao  Raja  maintains  an  Anglo- 
vernacular  school,  attended  in  1904  by  90  boys,  and  a  hospital  witli 
accommodation  for  16  in-patients.  There  are  also  seven  indigenous 
schools  in  the  town.  The  Rao  Raja's  palace,  the  top  of  which  is 
illuminated  at  night  by  an  electric  light,  rises  1,491  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  can  be  seen  from  a  long  distance  across  the  desert.  About 
7  miles  to  the  south-east  is  a  ruined  temple  of  Harasnath,  which  stands 
on  a  hill  2,998  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  said  to  lie  900  vears  okl. 


S/A'AVA/  365 

The  Sikar  chiefship  contains  four  prosperous  towns — Sikar,  Fatrhpur, 
Lachhmanoarh,  and  Ramuarh — and  426  villages.  The  total  popu- 
lation in  1901  was  173,485,  Hindus  numbering  147,973,  O''  more 
than  85  per  cent.,  and  Musalmans  23,033,  or  over  13  per  cent.  The 
ordinary  income  of  the  chiefship  is  about  8  lakhs,  and  the  Rao  Raja 
pays   a  tribute  to  the  Jaipur  Darbar  of  about  Rs.  41,200. 

Sikkim. — -Native  State  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas,  lying  between 
27°  5'  and  28°  9'  N.  and  87°  59'  and  88"  56'  E.,  with  an  area  of 
2,818  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Tibet  ; 
on  the  south-east  by  Bhutan  ;  on  the  south  by  Darjeeling  District ;  and 
on  the  west  by  Nepal.  The  Tibetan  name  for  Sikkim  is  pronounced 
Denjong,  and  more  rarely  Demojong  or  Demoshong ;  and  the  people 
are  called  Rong-pa,  or  'dwellers  in  the  valleys,'  the  term  Mom-pa,  or 
'dwellers  in  the  low  country,'  being  used  occasionally  to  describe  the 
Lepcha  inhabitants. 

The  main  axis  of  the  Himalayas,  which  runs  east  and  west,  forms 
the  boundary  between  Sikkim  and  Tibet.     The  Singalila  and   Chola 
ranges,  which  run  southwards  from  the  main  chain, 
separate  Sikkim  from  Nepal  on  the  west,  and  from  asoec^s 

Tibet  and  Bhutan  on  the  east.  From  the  eastern 
flank  of  the  Singalila  range  rise  the  great  snow  peaks  of  Kinchinjunga 
(28,146  feet),  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the  world;  it  throws 
out  a  second  spur  terminating  at  Tendong.  The  Chola  range,  which 
is  much  loftier  than  that  of  Singalila,  leaves  the  main  chain  at  the 
Dongkya  mountain  ;  it  is  pierced  by  several  passes,  the  most  fre- 
quented of  which  are  the  Tangkar  La  (16,000  feet),  Natu  La  (14,200 
feet),  and  Jelep  La  (14,390  feet).  Over  the  last  named  comes  prac- 
tically the  whole  trade  between  Bengal  and  Tibet.  From  the  north- 
west face  of  the  Dongkya  mountain  an  immense  spur  takes  off  and 
runs  first  west  and  then  south-west  to  Kinchinjunga,  forming  the  water- 
shed of  all  the  remote  sources  of  the  Tista.  This  spur  has  a  mean 
elevation  of  from  18,000  to  19,000  feet ;  but  several  of  its  peaks,  of 
which  Chomiomo  is  one,  rise  much  higher.  Sikkim  may  be  in  fact 
described  as  the  catchment  area  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Tista  river. 
The  whole  of  the  State  is  situated  at  a  considerable  elevation  within 
the  Himalayan  mountain  zone,  the  ranges  that  bound  it  on  three  sides 
forming  a  kind  of  horseshoe,  from  the  sides  of  which  dependent  spurs 
project,  serving  as  lateral  barriers  to  the  Rangit  and  the  Tista's  greater 
affluents,  the  Lachung,  Lachen,  Zemu,  Talung,  Rongni,  and  Rangpo, 
These  basins  have  a  southward  slope,  being  broad  at  the  top  where 
they  leave  the  watershed,  and  gradually  contracting,  like  a  fan  from 
its  rim  to  its  handle,  in  the  Tista  valley  near  Pashok.  The  rivers  are 
very  rapid  and  generally  run  in  deep  ravines,  the  ascent  from  the 
bank  for  the  first  few  hundred  feet  being  almost  precipitous. 


366  ST K KIM 

Sikkim  is  covered  by  gneissic  rocks,  except  in  the  central  portion 
where  metamorphic  rocks  belonging  to  the  Daling  series  occur '. 

Sir  J.  D.  Hooker  divides  the  country  into  three  zones,  calling  the 
lower  up  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  tropical ;  thence  to  13,000  feet, 
the  upper  limit  of  tree  vegetation,  the  temperate ;  and  above  to  the 
perpetual  snowline  at  16,000  feet,  the  alpine.  South  of  the  Penlong  La, 
where  the  Nepalese  have  been  allowed  to  settle,  the  more  productive 
sites  have  been  cleared  for  cultivation  up  to  6,000  feet,  the  greatest 
height  at  which  maize  ripens ;  and  trees  ordinarily  remain  only  in  the 
rocky  ravines  and  on  the  steepest  slopes  where  no  crops  can  be  grown. 
The  tropical  zone  is  characterized  by  large  figs,  TeTiimialia,  Vatica, 
Myrtaceae,  laurels,  Euphorbiaceae,  Afeliaceae,  Bauhhiia,  Bomhax, 
Morns,  Artocarpiis  and  other  Urficaceae,  and  many  Leguviinosae  ;  and 
the  undergrowth  consists  of  Acanthaceae,  bamboos,  several  Calami, 
two  dwarf  Arecae,  Wallichia,  and  Caryota  iirens.  Plantains  and  tree- 
ferns,  as  well  as  Fandanus,  are  common  ;  and,  as  in  all  moist  tropical 
countries,  ferns,  orchids,  Scitamineae,  and  Pothos  are  extremely  abun- 
dant. Oaks,  of  which  (including  chestnuts)  there  are  upwards  of 
eleven  species  in  Sikkim,  become  abundant  at  about  4,000  feet ;  and 
at  5,000  feet  the  temperate  zone  begins,  the  vegetation  varying  with  the 
degree  of  humidity.  On  the  outermost  ranges,  and  on  northern 
exposures,  there  is  a  dense  forest  of  cherry,  laurels,  oaks,  and  chest- 
nuts, Magnoiia,  Andromeda,  Styrax,  Fyri/s,  maple  and  birch,  with  an 
underwood  of  Araliaceae,  HolboeUia,  Limonia,  Daphne,  Ardisia,  Myr- 
sineae,  Symplocos,  Rubia,  and  a  prodigious  variety  of  ferns.  Pledocomia 
and  Musa  ascend  to  7,000  feet.  On  drier  exposures  bamboo  and  tall 
grasses  form  the  underwood.  Rhododendrons  appear  below  6,000  feet, 
becoming  abundant  at  8,000  feet,  while  from  10,000  to  14,000  feet  they 
form  the  mass  of  the  shrubby  vegetation.  Orchids  are  plentiful  from 
6,000  to  8,000  feet  and  Vaccinia  between  5,000  and  8,000  feet.  The 
sub-alpine  zone  begins  at  about  13,000  feet,  at  which  elevation  a  dense 
rhododendron  scrub  occupies  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  filling  up  the 
valleys  so  as  to  render  them  impenetrable.  In  this  zone  the  chief 
forms  of  the  vegetation  are  Gentiana,  Primula,  Pediciilaris,  Meconopsis, 
and  such-like  genera,  gradually  changing  to  a  Siberian  flora,  which  at 
last  entirely  supersedes  that  of  the  sub-alpine  zone  and  ascends  above 
18,000  feet. 

The  tiger  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  ;  but  the  leopard  {Fe/is pardi/s) 
and  the  clouded   leopard  {F.  nebulosa)  are  fairly  common,  the  latter 

'  Journal,  Asiatic  Society,  Bengal,  vol.  xxxi,  '  Journal  of  a  Trip  undertaken  to 
explore  the  Glaciers  of  the  Kinchinjunga  Group  in  the  Sikkim  Himalaya,'  bj'  J.  L. 
Sherwill ;  Records,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xxiv,  pts.  i  and  iv,  '  Extracts  from 
the  Journal  of  a  Trip  to  the  Glaciers  of  ICabru,  Pandim,  &c.,'  and  'The  Geology 
and  Mineral  Resources  of  Sikkim,'  by  P.  N.  Pose. 


I!  T STORY  367 

ascending  to  about  7,000  feet.  The  snow  leopard  {^F.  unciix)  inhabits 
the  higher  altitudes,  while  the  marbled  cat  {F.  marmorata)  and  the 
leopard  cat  (/<  bengaknsis)  are  found  on  the  warmer  slopes.  The  large 
Indian  civet  cat  ( Viverra  zibetha)  is  not  unconniion  up  to  5,500  feet, 
and  the  spotted  tiger-civet  {Frio/iodon  pardico/or),  though  rare,  occurs 
between  5,000  and  6,000  feet.  A  palm-civet  [Parodoxurus  grayi)  is 
fciirly  common  in  the  warmer  forest.  The  cat-bear  {Aeliirus  fulgens) 
occurs  from  about  7,000  feet  upwards.  The  brown  bear  {Ursus  arctiis) 
is  found  at  high  altitudes,  rarely  below  ri,ooo  or  12,000  feet,  and  the 
Himalayan  black  bear  ( U.  forqnatits)  is  common  from  that  point  down 
to  about  4,000  feet.  Though  these  are  the  only  two  bears  recorded, 
the  Lepchas  assert  the  existence  of  a  third  species,  possibly  to  be 
identified  with  U.  malayanus.  The  sdmbar  {Cerviis  unkolor)  is  fre- 
quent at  all  elevations  up  to  9,000  or  10,000  feet.  The  commonest 
of  the  deer  tribe  is  the  barking-deer  {Cervuhis  mimtjac),  found  from 
the  lowest  valleys  up  to  9,000  feet ;  the  musk  deer  {Moschus  moschi- 
feriis)  remains  always  at  high  elevations,  rarely  descending  below 
8,000  feet  even  in  winter.  The  serow  {N'emorhaediis  biibalitiiis)  fre- 
quents the  rockiest  ravines  over  6,000  feet,  while  the  gonil  (^Ce/nas 
goral)  affects  similar  localities,  but  descends  to  3,000  feet  and  is  found 
up  to  8,000.  The  bharal  [Ovis  nahura)  is  found  in  considerable  herds 
at  high  altitudes.  An  exceptionally  large  number  of  birds  and  butter- 
flies occur  in  the  State. 

The  climate  varies  between  the  tropical  heat  of  the  valleys  and  the 
alpine  cold  of  the  snowy  ranges.  The  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  averaging 
137  inches  annually  at  Gangtok.  From  November  to  P'ebruary  the 
rainfall  is  light,  and  the  weather  in  November  and  December  is  clear 
and  fine.  In  March  thunderstorms  conunence  and,  growing  more  and 
more  frequent,  usher  in  the  rainy  season,  which  lasts  till  October. 

Sikkim   was  known   to   early  European   travellers,  such  as   Horace 

della  Penna  and  Samuel  Van  de  Putte,  under  the  name  of  Bnviiashon 

(see  Markhanrs  Tibef,  p.  64)  :    while  Bogle  called  it 

1^         .  r        ,         1    ■  1        T  History, 

Demojong.     Local  traditions  assert  that  the  ancestors 

of  the  Rajas  of  Sikkim  originally  came  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lhasa  in  Tibet.  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
head  of  the  family  was  named  Piintso  Namgye  ;  and  to  him  repaired 
three  Tibetan  monks,  professors  of  the  Nyingmapa  (or  '  red  cap '  sect 
of  Buddhism),  who  were  disgusted  at  the  predominance  of  the  Gelukpa 
sect  in  Tibet.  These  Lamas,  according  to  Mr.  Edgar's  Report,  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  the  Lepchas  of  Sikkim  to  their  own  faith,  and 
in  making  Piintso  Namgye  Raja  of  the  country.  The  avatars  of  two 
of  these  Lamas  are  now  the  heads,  respectively,  of  the  great  monasteries 
of  Pemiongchi  and  Tassiding.  In  1788  the  Gurkhas  invaded  Sikkim 
in  the  governorship  of  the  Morang  or  larai,  and  only  retired,  in  1789, 


368  SIKKIM 

on  the  Tibetan  government  ceding  to  theni  a  piece  of  territory  at  the 
head  of  the  Koti  pass.  But  in  1792,  on  a  second  invasion  of  Tibetan 
territory  by  the  Gurkhas,  an  immense  Chinese  army  advanced  to  the 
support  of  the  Tibetans,  defeated  the  Gurkhas,  and  dictated  terms  to 
them  almost  at  the  gates  of  Katmandu. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Nepal  War  in  18 14,  Major  Latter  at  the 
head  of  a  British  force  occupied  the  Morang,  and  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Raja  of  Sikkini,  who  gladly  seized  the  opportunity  of  revenging 
himself  on  the  Gurkhas.  At  the  close  of  the  war  in  1816,  the  Raja 
was  rewarded  by  a  considerable  accession  of  territory,  which  had  been 
ceded  to  the  British  by  Nepal.  In  February,  1835,  the  Raja  granted 
the  site  of  Darjeeling  to  the  British,  and  received  a  pension  of  Rs.  3,000 
per  annum  in  lieu  of  it. 

There  was,  however,  a  standing  cause  of  quarrel  between  the  Raja 
and  the  paramount  power,  due  to  the  prevalence  of  slavery  in  Sikkim  : 
the  Raja's  subjects  were  inveterate  kidnappers,  and  the  Raja  himself 
was  most  anxious  to  obtain  from  the  British  authorities  the  restoration 
of  runaway  slaves.  With  some  notion  of  enforcing  the  latter  demand, 
Dr.  Campbell,  the  Superintendent  of  Darjeeling,  and  Dr.  Hooker,  the 
famous  naturalist,  were  seized  in  1849  whilst  travelling  in  Sikkim,  and 
detained  for  six  weeks.  As  a  punishment  for  this  outrage  the  Raja's 
pension  was  stopped,  and  a  piece  of  territory,  including  the  lower 
course  of  the  Tista  and  the  Sikkim  iarai,  was  annexed.  The  practice 
of  kidnapping  Bengali  subjects  of  the  British  Crown  was,  however,  not 
discontinued  ;  and  two  especially  gross  cases  in  i860  led  to  an  order 
that  the  Sikkini  territory,  north  of  the  Ramman  river  and  west  of  the 
RangTt,  should  be  occupied  until  restitution  was  made.  Colonel  Gawler, 
at  the  head  of  a  British  force,  with  the  Hon.  Ashley  Eden  as  envoy, 
advanced  into  Sikkim  and  proceeded  to  Tumlong,  when  the  Raja  was 
forced  to  make  full  restitution,  and  to  sign  a  treaty  (in  March,  1861) 
which  secured  the  rights  of  free  trade,  of  protection  for  travellers,  and 
of  road-making.  For  many  years  the  State  was  left  to  manage  its  own 
affairs;  but  for  some  time  prior  to  1888  the  Tibetans  were  found  to  be 
intriguing  with  the  Maharaja,  who  became  more  and  more  unfriendly. 
Affairs  reached  a  climax  in  1888,  when  war  broke  out  with  the  Tibetans, 
who  took  up  a  position  11  miles  within  Sikkim  territory.  British  troops 
were  sent  against  them,  and  they  were  driven  off  with  ease.  In  1889 
a  Political  officer  subordinate  to  the  Commissioner  of  the  Rajshahi 
Division  was  stationed  at  Gangtok  to  advise  and  assist  the  Maharaja 
and  his  council;  and  this  was  followed  in  1890  by  the  execution  of 
a  convention  with  the  Chinese,  by  which  the  British  protectorate  over 
Sikkim  and  its  exclusive  control  over  the  internal  administration  and 
foreign  relations  of  the  State  were  recognized.  Since  the  Tibetan 
expedition  of  1904,  the  I'olilical  officer  has  been  directly  responsible 


POPULATION  369 

to  the  Government  oi  India.  The  Maharaja  receives  a  salute  of 
15  guns. 

After  the  appointment  of  the  Political  officer  in   i88y  coninmnica- 
tions  were  greatly  improved  by  the  construction  cjf  roads  and  bridges, 
and   the   settlement  of  Nepalese  was   permitted   in 
certain    parts  of  the    State.     These    measures   were  ^" 

followed  by  a  rapid  developnienl  of  the  country.  Settlers  from  Nepal 
flocked  in,  and  the  population,  which  in  1891  was  returned  at  30,458, 
had  grown  to  59,014  ten  years  later;  an  increase  of  93-7  per  cent. 
The  first  Census  was  admittedly  incomplete ;  but  a-  great  deal  of  the 
increase  is  accounted  for  by  the  growth  of  the  immigrant  population, 
as  of  the  total  inhabitants  in  1901  no  fewer  than  22,720,  or  38-5  per 
cent.,  had  been  born  in  Nepal.  In  addition,  the  climate  is  good ; 
there  have  been  no  serious  epidemics ;  the  people  have  been  pros- 
perous and  they  are  very  prolific,  the  crowds  of  children  being 
a  striking  feature  of  every  Sikkim  hamlet.  The  State  is  still  very 
sparsely  populated,  having  a  density  of  only  21  persons  per  square 
mile ;  but  a  great  quantity  of  waste  land  is  fit  for  cultivation,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  population  will  continue  to  grow  at  a  very  rapid  rate. 
As  elsewhere  where  the  Mongoloid  element  of  the  population  prepon- 
derates, there  is  a  great  excess  of  males  over  females.  The  principal 
diseases  are  fever,  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system,  worms,  bowel 
complaints,  and  skin  diseases.  Deaf-mutism  is  far  more  common  than 
elsewhere  in  Bengal.  The  Census  of  1901  returned  125  villages  j 
but  in  reality  Sikkim  contains  few  true  villages,  except  in  the  Lachen 
and  Lachung  valleys  in  the  north  of  the  State.  Here  the  houses, 
somewhat  similar  in  appearance  to  Swiss  chalets,  cluster  together  in 
the  valley  bottoms.  In  southern  Sikkim  the  nearest  approach  to 
villages  is  to  be  found  in  the  groups  of  houses  near  the  Maharaja's 
palaces  at  Tumlong  and  Gangtok;  round  some  of  the  larger  monas- 
teries, such  as  Pemiongchi,  Tassiding,  and  Pensung ;  and  at  the 
copper-mines  of  Pache  near  Dikyiling,  and  the  bazars  at  Rangpo, 
Rhenok,  Pakhyong,  Namchi,  ManjhTtar,  Tokul,  and  Seriong.  Khas- 
kura  is  the  dialect  of  27  per  cent,  of  the  population,  while  most  of  the 
others  speak  languages  of  the  Tibeto-Burman  family,  including  Bhotia, 
Limbu,  Lepcha,  Murmi,  Mangar,  Khambii,  and  Newar.  Of  the  total 
population,  38,306,  or  65  per  cent.,  are  Hindus,  and  20,544,  or  nearly 

35  per  cent.,  are  Buddhists.  Buddhism,  which  is  of  the  Tibetan  or 
Lamaist  type,  is  the  State  religion  of  Sikkim,  which  contains  about 

36  monasteries.  Most  of  the  Buddhists  are  members  of  the  two  main 
indigenous  castes,  Lepchas  and  Bhotias  (8,000  each).  The  Lepchas 
claim  to  be  the  autochthones  of  Sikkim  proper.  Their  physical  charac- 
teristics stamp  them  as  members  of  the  Mongolian  race,  and  certain 
[)eculiarities  of  language  and  religion  render  it  i)robable  that  the  tribe 


370  SIR  KIM 

is  a  very  ancient  colony  from  southern  Tibet.  They  are  above  all 
things  woodmen,  knowing  the  ways  of  birds  and  beasts  and  possessing 
an  extensive  zoological  and  botanical  nomenclature  of  their  own.  The 
chief  Nepalese  tribes  represented  are  the  Khambu,  Limbu,  Murmi, 
Gurung,  Khas,  Kami,  Mangar,  Newar,  and  Damai.  The  great  majority 
of  the  population  (92  per  cent.)  are  supported  by  agriculture. 

In  1901  Christians  numbered  135,  of  whom  125  were  natives.  The 
missions  at  work  in  the  State  are  the  Church  of  Scotland  Mission  and 
the  Scandinavian  Alliance  Mission. 

By  far  the  most  important  crop  is  maize,  which  occupies  a  larger 
area  than  all  the  other  crops  together ;  it  is  estimated  to  cover 
,  94  square  miles.     After  maize,  the  largest  areas  are 

under  mariid,  buckwheat,  rice,  wheat,  and  barley, 
■which  are  estimated  to  cover  from  4,000  to  12,000  acres  each.  Carda- 
moms, grown  on  about  600  acres,  are  a  valuable  crop.  Cultivation  has 
rapidly  extended  in  recent  years,  but  a  large  quantity  of  cultivable 
waste  still  remains.  Plantains,  oranges,  and  other  fruits  are  grown  in 
the  gardens,  and  the  Government  apple  orchards  started  at  Lachung 
and  Lachen  are  proving  a  success.  Cattle,  yaks,  and  sheep  of  various 
kinds  are  bred  in  the  State  and  are  also  imported  from  Tibet. 

The  principal  trees  have  been  enumerated  in  the  section  on  Botany. 
'I'he  forests  have  suffered  much  from  promiscuous  cutting,  and  also 
from  fires  caused  by  villagers  when  clearing  ground 
for  cultivation.  An  attempt  is  now  being  made  to 
introduce  a  proper  system  of  forest  conservancy.  Pine,  tun  {Cedrela 
Toona),  Cryptomeria,  fir,  alder,  beech,  chestnut,  and  a  few  other  kinds 
have  been  raised  in  nurseries  for  planting  by  the  roadsides  ;  and  an 
avenue  of  150  rubber-trees  planted  at  Singtam  is  doing  well.  The 
receipts  from  forests  in  1903-4  were  Rs.  19,000,  derived  chiefly  from 
the  sale  of  railway  sleepers  and  tea-box  i)lanking  ;  the  ex[)enditure  in 
the  same  year  was  Rs.  12,000. 

Copper  ores  are  very  widespread  in  Sikkim.  The  ore  is  copper 
pyrites,  often  accompanied  by  mundic,  and  occurs  chiefly  in  the  Baling 
beds.  It  is  generally  disseminated  in  slates  and 
schists,  and  seldom  occurs  in  true  lodes.  The 
analysis  of  a  sample  taken  at  random  from  the  deeper  part  of  a  copper 
mine  at  Pachikhani  gave  20-3  per  cent,  of  copper.  Some  ores  have 
been  recently  smelted  and  exported  for  sale  on  a  small  scale  under 
State  supervision,  but  the  experiments  have  not  proved  remunerative. 
Iron  occurs  chiefly  as  pyrites,  being  most  plentiful  at  Bhotang,  where 
magnetite  is  also  found  ;  but  it  has  not  yet  been  put  to  any  economic 
use.  Garnet  is  in  places  abundant  in  the  gneiss  and  mica  schists,  but 
it  is  of  poor  quality. 

A   weaving  school  al   Lachung  has  d<mc  well  :    tweed  suitings  and 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3  7 1 

blankets  are  ihc  cliief  ailiclcs  made.      There  are  several  trade  routes 
through  Sikkini  from  Darjeeling  Distriel  into  Tibet ;  but  owing    partly 
to  the  natural  difficulties  of  the  country,  and   [)artly 
to    the   jealousy   of   the    Tibetan   authorities,    trade  communications, 
over   these  roads   has  never    been    fully    developed. 
In  the  convention  of  1890  provision  was  made  for  the  opening  of  a 
trade  route  ;  but  the  results  were  di.sappointing,  and  the  failure  of  the 
Tibetans  to  fulfil  their  obligations  resulted  in  1904  in  the  dispatch  of 
a  mission  to  Lhasa,  where  a   new  convention   has   been   signed.     In 
1902-3   the  total  value  of  the  trans-frontier  trade   was  19  lakhs,  the 
principal  imports  being  wool,  musk,  and  yaks'  tails,  and  the  principal 
exports  cotton  piece-goods,  woollen  cloths,  silk,  tobacco,  copper,  iron 
and   other   metals,  Chinese   caps,  chinaware,  maize,  and    indigo.     In 
1903-4,  when  trade  was  disorganized,  the  value  fell  to  ']\  lakhs. 

Good  roads,  properly  bridged  throughout,  have  been  opened  since 
1889  from  Pedong  in  British  territory  to  the  Jelep  La  and  to  Tunilong, 
and  in  1903-4  the  State  contained  376  miles  of  road.  A  cart-road  has 
recently  been  constructed  from  Rangpo  to  (iangtok  from  Imperial 
funds,  and  a  mule-track  on  a  gradient  of  i  in  15  has  been  made 
from  Gangtok  to  Chumbi  via  the  Natula.  Iron  bridges  have  been 
constructed  across  the  Tista,  the  Rangit,  and  other  streams. 

The  Political  officer,  who  is  stationed  at  Gangtok,  advises  and  assists 

the  Maharaja  and  his  council,  but  no  rules  have  yet  been  laid  down  for 

the  civil  and  criminal  administration.     The  landlords    .  ^    .   .  ^    ^. 

...     ,     .   .,    Administration. 
referred  to  m  a  later  paragraph  exercise  ahmited  civil 

and  criminal  jurisdiction  within  the  lands  of  which  they  collect  tlie 
revenue,  but  all  important  cases  are  referred  to  the  Maharaja  or  the 
Political  officer.  Those  referred  to  the  Maharaja  are  decided  by  him 
in  consultation  with  his  ministers  {lompo),  at  present  fi\e  in  number, 
two  of  whom  are  always  in  attendance  on  him.  Appeals  are  heard 
by  the  Maharaja  sitting  with  one  or  more  members  of  his  council,  or 
by  a  committee  of  the  council.  Capital  sentences  passed  by  other 
authorities  require  the  confirmation  of  the  Maharaja.  The  annual 
budget  estimates  of  income  and  expenditure  are,  in  the  first  instance, 
approved  by  the  Maharaja  and  his  council,  and  are  then  submitted  for 
the  sanction  of  the  Government  of  India  by  the  Political  officer. 

The  total  receipts  in  1902-3  amounted  to  1-58  lakhs,  of  which 
Rs.  61,000  was  derived  from  the  land,  Rs.  37,000  from  excise,  Rs.  25,000 
from  forests,  and  Rs.  10,000  under  the  head  of  agriculture,  of  which 
Rs.  9,000  was  derived  from  cardamom  rents.  In  1903-4  a  great 
demand  for  labour  was  created  by  the  Tibet  mission  and  many  vil- 
lagers left  their  houses  ;  a  marked  decrease  in  the  collections  of  land 
and  excise  revenue  resulted,  and  the  total  receipts  drojjped  to 
r-54  lakhs.      The   excise    revenue    is    mainly  derived    from    the   fees 


372  SI K KIM 

charged  for  licences  to  hx^tw  pachwai  ox  rice-beer  for  home  consumption, 
and  from  the  fees  charged  for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  country 
spirit ;  the  manufacture  of  the  latter  is  conducted  on  the  out-still  system. 
The  collection  of  the  land  revenue  is  in  the  hands  of  landlords 
variously  known  as  Kazi  landlords  (numbering  21),  Lama  landlords 
(13),  and  thikaddrs  (37).  Under  these  are  village  headmen  (styled ///>t'>i 
in  Bhotia,  tassa  in  Lepcha,  and  inandal  in  Khaskura),  each  headman 
being  over  those  ryots  whom  he  or  his  predecessors  have  introduced. 
The  sum  payable  by  each  ryot  is  fixed  by  an  informal  committee  of 
headmen  and  villagers,  presided  over  by  the  landlord  and  his  agent. 
The  rate  now  allowed  to  the  landlord  is  14  annas  per  paihi  (about 
4  seers)  of  seed  for  Nepalese  ryots,  and  8  annas  per  pathi  for  Lepcha 
and  Bhotia  ryots.  In  maize  and  other  'dry'  lands  of  fair  quality  about 
.\pafkis,  and  in  terraced  rice  lands  about  6  pathh,  go  to  the  acre. 
Terraced  rice  lands,  however,  more  often  pay  produce  rents  on  the 
kiith  system,  one-fourth  of  the  out-turn  being  taken  by  the  landlord. 
New  land  pays  no  rent  for  three  years,  in  consideration  of  the 
labour  involved  in  constructing  the  terraces.  The  paihi  and  kuth 
systems  were  introduced  from  Nepal  and  have  now  been  adopted 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Sikkim.  The  monasteries,  however, 
and  some  of  the  Sikkim  Kazis  still  maintain  the  old  practice  of 
assessing  each  household  according  to  its  circumstances.  Each  land- 
lord pays  to  the  State  a  sum  fixed  at  the  commencement  of  his  lease. 
A  man  can  settle  down  and  cultivate  any  land  he  may  find  unoccupied 
without  any  formality  whatever ;  and  when  once  he  has  occupied  the 
land,  no  one  but  the  Maharaja  can  turn  him  out.  The  latter,  however, 
can  eject  him  at  any  time ;  and  if  he  ceases  to  occupy  the  land,  he  does 
not  retain  any  lien  upon  it,  unless  he  pays  rent  for  it  as  though  he  had 
cultivated  it.  In  the  Lachung  and  Lachen  valleys  the  system  is  pecu- 
liar. Here  the  assessment  on  each  village  is  communicated  each  year 
to  the  pipiui,  or  village  headman,  who  collects  the  rents  but  gets  nothing 
for  his  trouble  except  exemption  from  the  obligation  of  carrying  loads 
and  from  the  labour  tax.  'Yhtpipon  calls  a  committee  of  all  the  adult 
males  over  fifteen  years  of  age  at  the  end  of  the  year  and,  in  consulta- 
tion with  them,  fixes  what  each  individual  should  pay,  having  regard 
to  his  general  condition,  the  number  of  his  cows,  mules,  ponies,  and 
yaks,  and  the  quantity  of  land  in  his  possession.  There  are  no  fixed 
rates  ;  but  the  assessment  on  animals  appears  to  work  out  at  about 
3  annas  for  each  cow  or  yak,  and  4  annas  for  each  mule  or  pony.  In 
the  upper  part  of  Lachung  the  villagers  redistribute  the  fields  among 
themselves  every  three  years  by  lot,  the  richer  people  throwing  for  the 
big  plots  and  the  poorer  villagers  for  the  small  ones.  Grazing  lands  are 
divided  in  the  same  way,  but  not  the  liouse  and  homestead.  The 
Lamas  arc  not  bound  to  labour  for  llic  .Maharaja,  and  the)'  pay  no  dues 


SILCHAR   SUBJ)1V1SI0X  373 

of  any  kind,  no  matter  how  niucli  land  may  be  cultivated  by  themselves 
or  their  bondsmen. 

The  vState  maintains  a  small  foree  of  military  police,  composed  of  one 
havilddr,  3  head  constables,  and  16  naiks  and  constables.  A  jail  with 
accommodation  for  24  prisoners  has  recently  been  built  at  Gangtok. 

Of  the  total  population,  5  per  cent.  (9-5  males  and  0-3  females)  could 
read  and  write  in  1901.  A  school  is  maintained  at  Gangtok  ;  in  1903-4 
it  had  37  pupils  on  its  rolls,  and  the  expense  of  maintenance  was 
Rs.  2,000. 

A  civil  hospital  building  has  been  constructed  at  Ciangtok  and  a 
dispensary  at  Chidam.  In  1903-4  these  were  attended  b}-  14,000 
patients,  and  153  operations  were  performed.  In  addition  to  this, 
1,500  persons  were  vaccinated  during  the  year.  The  medical  charges 
borne  by  the  State  were  Rs.  4,000. 

[Aifchison's  Treaties,  \o\.  i,  3rd  Edition  (1892):  W.  T.  Blanford, 
'Journey  through  Sikkim,'  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bcnj^al,  vol.  xl, 
part  ii,  p.  367  (187 1);  Journal  of  f lie  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  September 
(1873);  Abbe  C.  H.  Desgodins,  La  Mission  du  7/7W  (Verdun,  1872); 
Sir  J.  AVare  Edgar,  Report  on  a  Visit  to  Sikkim  and  the  Tibetan  Frontier 
in  1873  (Calcutta,  1874);  Col.  J.  C.  Gawler,  Sikkim  (1873)  :  Sir  j.  D. 
Hooker,  Himalayan  Journals  (1854);  Colman  Macaulay,  Report  of  a 
Mission  to  Sikkim  and  the  Tibetan  Frontier  {Od\QM\X.-A,  1885);  Gazetteer 
of  Sikkim  (Calcutta,  1894).] 

Silana. — Petty  State  in  K.\thia\vak,  Bombay. 

Silao.  — Village  in  the  Bihar  subdivision  of  Patna  1  )istrict,  Bengal, 
situated  in  25°  5' N.  and  85°  24' E.  Population  (1901),  1,50:^.  It  is  a  large 
grain  mart  where  the  best  table  rice  in  Patna  is  sold,  and  is  also  noted 
for  its  sweetmeats  and  parched  rice  sold  to  pilgrims  en  route  to  Rajglr. 

Silchar  Subdivision. — Head-quarters  subdivision  of  Cachar  Dis- 
trict, Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  24°  15'  and  25'^  8'  N. 
and  92°  27'  and  93°  16'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,649  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1901  was  301,884,  compared  with  267,673  in  1891.  it 
contains  one  town,  Silchar  (population,  9,256),  the  head-cjuarters  of 
the  District  and  the  principal  centre  of  local  trade  ;  and  809  villages. 
The  demand  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  local  rates  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  3,81,000.  The  subdivision  consists  of  a  level  plain  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  mountains,  through  the  centre  of  which  the  Barak  flows 
in  a  tortuous  course.  The  surface  of  the  plain  is  dotted  over  with  low 
isolated  hills  called  t'llas,  many  of  which  have  been  planted  with  tea. 
The  staple  crops  are  tea  and  rice,  and  the  former  industry  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  In  1904  there  were  133  gardens  with  47,972 
acres  under  plant,  which  gave  employment  to  113  Euroi)eans  and 
49,900  natives.  The  poinilation  is  fairly  dense,  the  subdivision  sup- 
})orting   1S3  pers'ons  per  square   mile,   in  si)ite  of   the  fact  that  more 


374  SILCHAR   SUBDIVISION 

than  one-third  of  the  total  area  is  '  reserved '  forest,  while  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  remainder  lies  too  low  even  for  the  cultivation  of  rice. 
For  administrative  purposes  the  subdivision  is  divided  into  the  three 
thdnas  of  Silchar,  Lakhipur,  and  Katigara.  The  rainfall  is  heavy  even 
for  Assam.  At  Silchar  it  is  124  inches  in  the  year,  but  near  the  hills 
it  exceeds  160  inches. 

Silchar  Town. — Head-quarters  of  Cachar  District,  and  of  the  sub- 
division of  the  same  name,  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in 
24°  49'  N.  and  92°  48'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Barak  river.  Silchar 
used  formerly  to  be  extremely  inaccessible,  as  during  the  dry  season 
only  small  stern-wheel  steamers  can  ply  over  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Barak,  and  the  journey  from  Calcutta  used  to  take  as  much  as  four  or 
five  days.  The  Assam-Bengal  Railway  has  now  reduced  the  time  to 
T^l  hours,  the  route  followed  being  by  Goalundo  and  Chandpur.  Dur- 
ing the  rainy  season  a  service  of  large  steamers  plies  between  Calcutta 
and  Silchar.  The  town,  though  small,  has  been  steadily  increasing  in 
size  and  importance,  and  the  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations 
was  :  (1872)  4,925,  (1881)  6,567,  (1891)  7,523,  and  (1901)  9,256.  As 
is  the  case  with  many  of  the  towns  of  Assam,  the  great  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  are  foreigners. 

Silchar  is  very  prettily  situated  and  commands  a  charming  view  down 
the  Barak,  which  is  lined  with  groves  of  areca  palm  and  dotted  with 
the  sails  of  native  craft,  while  a  little  to  the  north  the  blue  hills  of  North 
Cachar  rise  sharply  from  the  plain.  The  heavy  rainfall  (124  inches)  and 
the  comparatively  high  mean  temperature  render  the  climate  somewhat 
oppressive  during  the  rains.  The  place  is  subject  to  earthquakes,  and 
in  1869  some  damage  was  done  to  the  buildings.  Another  severe  shock 
was  felt  in  1882,  but  the  great  earthquake  of  1897  did  comparatively 
little  harm.  Silchar  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  staff,  and  of 
the  Surma  Valley  Light  Horse,  which  in  1904  had  a  strength  of  156 
resident  in  the  District.  A  detachment  of  military  police  is  also 
stationed  in  the  town.  The  jail  contains  accommodation  for  76  males 
and  8  females,  and  a  hospital  provides  33  beds.  A  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England  resides  here,  and  there  is  a  branch  of  the  Welsh 
Presbyterian  Mission.  Silchar  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1893. 
The  receipts  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  20,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  and  expenditure  were 
Rs.  21,000,  the  chief  sources  of  income  being  tax  on  houses  and  lands 
(Rs.  5,900)  and  tolls  on  ferries  and  markets  (Rs.  7,400),  while  the 
main  items  of  outlay  were  conservancy  (Rs.  7,000)  and  public  works 
(Rs.  4,300).  Silchar  is  the  industrial  and  educational  centre  of  the 
District.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  rice,  European  piece- 
goods,  timber,  and  other  forest  produce,  and  tea-boxes  are  manufactured 
by  native  firms.     'I'here  is  also  a  small  printing  press,  at  whicli  a  ver- 


Sn/T/A  CITAL  AjV  3  7  5 

nacular  paper  is  published.  The  })rincipal  educational  institution  is 
the  high  school,  which  in  1903-4  had  an  average  attendance  of  251 
pupils. 

Silghat. — Village  in  Nowgong  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam, 
situated  in  26°  37'  N.  and  92°  56'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Brahma- 
putra, which  derives  its  name  from  the  rocky  spur  of  the  Kamakhya 
hills,  which  at  this  point  come  down  to  the  river.  It  is  a  place  of  call 
for  river  steamers,  and  prior  to  the  construction  of  the  railway  nearly  all 
the  external  trade  of  the  District  passed  by  this  route.  A  temple  sacred 
to  Durga  stands  on  the  hills  immediately  to  the  east  of  Silghat. 

Siliguri. — Village  in  the  Kurseong  subdivision  of  Darjeeling  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  26°  43'  N.  and  88°  26'  E.,  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mahanandii.  Population  (1901),  784.  SillgurT  is  the  northern  terminus 
of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Darjeeling- 
Himalayan  Railway.  It  is  also  the  terminus  of  the  cart-road  from 
Kalimpong  and  Sikkim,  and  it  thus  focuses  the  whole  trade  of  Dar- 
jeeling, Sikkim,  and  Tibet.  Several  jute  firms  are  established  here,  and, 
in  addition  to  the  permanent  shops,  there  is  a  bi-weekly  Government 
market.  A  Deputy-Magistrate  is  stationed  at  Siliguri.  The  sub-jail 
has  accommodation  for  8  prisoners,  and  the  dispensary  has  20  beds. 

Sillana. — State  and  town  in  Central  India.     See  Sailana. 

Sillod. — '  Crown '  fd//^k  in  the  north  of  x^urangabad  District,  Hyder- 
abad State,  with  an  area  of  249  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901, 
includingjdglrs,  was  29,916,  compared  with  35,521  in  1891,  the  decrease 
being  due  to  the  famines  of  1897  and  1899-1900.  The  ^d/uk  contains 
54  villages,  of  which  8  a.r e  Jdglr,  and  Seona  (population,  3,412)  is  the 
head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  i-i  lakhs.  The  country 
is  hilly  in  the  north,  and  is  composed  of  black  cotton  soil. 

Simhachalam.  -  Temple  in  the  District  and  fa/isl/  of  Vizagapatam, 
Madras,  situated  in  17°  46' N.  and  83°  15'  E.,  6  miles  north-west  of  Viza- 
gapatam town.  It  stands  picturesquely  in  a  steep  wooded  glen,  down 
which  flows  a  stream  broken  by  numerous  cascades,  about  half-way  up 
the  northern  flank  of  Kailasa  hill.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  lies  the  village 
of  Adivivaram,  from  which  a  long  series  of  flights  of  stone  steps  wind  up 
the  glen  to  the  temple.  These  steps  are  continued  up  to  the  top  of  the 
hill  and  down  its  other  side.  \The  temple,  which  is  the  most  famous 
place  of  local  pilgrimage  in  the  Northern  Circars,  is  dedicated  to  the 
Lion  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  built  by 
Langula  Gajapati  of  Orissa.  Apart  from  its  surroundings  the  shrine 
possesses  no  striking  beauties,  though  there  are  some  fine  black  stone 
carvings,  x^n  inscription  dated  1516  records  the  visit  of  Krishna  Deva 
Raya,  the  greatest  of  the  kings  of  Vijayanagar.  The  temple  is  now 
in  the  charge  of  the  Raja  of  Vizianagram,  who  has  a  bungalow  and  a 
beautiful  rose-garden  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 


376  SIMLA    DISTRICT 

Simla  District  {Sham la). — District  in  the  Delhi  Division  of  the 
Punjab,  consisting  of  nine  small  tracts  lying  among  the  Simla  Hill 
States,  between  30°  58'  and  31°  22'  N.  and  77°  7'  and  77°  43'  E.,  with 
a  total  area  of  tot  square  miles.  The  town  lies  on  the  spurs  which  run 
down  from  Jakko  hill,  and  occupies  an  area  of  only  6  square  miles. 
North-east  of  it  lie  the  parganas  of  Kot  Khai  and  Kotgarh,  the  former 
32  miles  by  road  from  Simla  in  the  valley  of  the  Giri,  the  latter  22  miles 
(50  by  road)  on  a  northern  spur  of  the  Hatu  range  overlooking  the 
Sutlej  valley.  The  Bharauli  tract  is  a  narrow  strip  of  hill  country, 
extending  from  Sabathu  to  Kiarighat,  about  8  miles  long  and  from 
2  to  6  wide.  Besides  these  tracts,  the  cantonments  of  Jutooh, 
Sabathu,  Solon,  Dagshai,  and  Sanawar,  the  site  of  the  T-awrence 
Military  Asylum,  are  included  in  the  District. 

The  hills  and  the  surrounding  Native  States  compose  the  southern 

outliers  of  the  great  central  chain  of  the  Western  Himalayas.     They 

descend    in    a   gradual   series  from   the   main  chain 

Physical         j      |^  j^^   Bashahr  State  to  the  general  level  of  the 
aspects.  .     ? 

Punjab    plain    in    Ambala    District,   thus    forming   a 

transverse  south-westerly  spur  between  the  great  basins  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  Indus,  here  represented  by  their  tributaries,  the  Jumna  and  the 
Sutlej.  A  few  miles  north-east  of  Simla  the  spur  divides  into  two  main 
ridges,  one  of  which  curves  round  the  Sutlej  valley  towards  the  north- 
west, while  the  other,  crowned  by  the  town  of  Simla,  trends  south- 
eastward to  a  point  a  few  miles  north  of  Sabathu,  where  it  merges  at 
right  angles  in  the  mountains  of  the  Outer  or  Sub-Himalayan  system, 
which  run  parallel  to  the  principal  range.  South  and  east  of  Simla,  the 
hills  between  the  Sutlej  and  the  Tons  centre  in  the  great  peak  of  Chaur, 
11,982  feet  above  the  sea.  Throughout  all  the  hills  forests  of  deodar 
abound,  while  rhododendrons  clothe  the  slopes  up  to  the  limit  of 
perpetual  snow.  The  scenery  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Simla  itself  presents  a  series  of  magnificent  views,  embracing  on  the 
south  the  Ambala  plains,  with  the  Sabathu  and  Kasauli  hills  in  the 
foreground,  and  the  massive  block  of  the  Chaur  a  little  to  the  left, 
while  just  below  the  spectator's  feet  a  series  of  huge  ravines  lead  down 
into  the  deep  valleys  which  score  the  mountain-sides.  Northwards,  the 
eye  wanders  over  a  network  of  confused  chains,  rising  range  above 
range,  and  crowned  in  the  distance  by  a  crescent  of  snowy  peaks,  which 
stand  out  in  bold  relief  against  the  clear  background  of  the  sky.  The 
principal  rivers  of  the  surrounding  tracts  are  the  Sutlej,  Pabar,  Giri 
Ganga,  Crambhar,  and  Sarsa. 

The  rocks  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Simla  belong  entirely 
to  the  carbonaceous  system  and  fall  into  four  groups — the  Krol,  the 
infra-Krol,  the  Blaini,  and  the  infra-Blaini,  or  Simla  slates.  The  Simla 
slates  are  the  lowest  beds  seen  :  they  are  succeeded  by  the  Blaini  group. 


pfivsrcir.  ASPECTS  ^-j-j 

consisting  of  two  hands  of  boulder  skilc,  sepurutcd  I:)y  white-weathering 
slates  (bleach  slates),  and  overlain  by  a  thin  band  of  pink  dolomitic 
limestone.  The  Blaini  group  is  overlain  by  a  band  of  black  carbon- 
aceous slate,  which  follows  the  outcrop  of  the  Blaini  beds.  The 
overlying  beds  consist  of  a  great  mass  of  quartzite  and  schist,  known 
as  the  Boileauganj  beds ;  they  cover  the  greater  part  of  Simla  and 
extend  to  Jutogh.  Above  these  is  the  Krol  group,  consisting  of 
carbonaceous  slates  and  carbonaceous  and  crystalline  limestones,  with 
beds  of  hornblende-garnet  schist  which  probably  represent  old  volcanic 
ash-beds  ;  they  are  largely  developed  in  Prospect  Hill  and  Jutogh. 
Intrusive  diorite  is  found  among  the  lower  limestones  of  the  Krol 
group  on  the  southern  slopes  of  Jutogh.  No  fossils  have  been  found 
in  any  of  these  rocks,  and  in  consequence  their  geological  age  is 
unknown^. 

In  the  F/om  Simlensis  (edited  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Hemsley),  the  late 
Sir  Henry  Collett  has  enumerated  1,237  species  of  trees  and  flowering 
plants  ;  but  this  number  w'ould  be  raised  considerably  if  a  botanical 
census  of  the  smaller  Native  States  were  available,  and  if  the  alpine 
region  in  Bashahr  including  Kanawar,  with  which  the  work  does  not 
deal,  were  added.  Deodar,  pines,  and  firs,  several  oaks  and  maples, 
a  tree-rhododendron,  the  Himalayan  horse-chestnut,  and  different  kinds 
of  buckthorn  and  spindle-tree  {Rhamnus  and  Euotiymus),  and  of  Ficus 
with  Celtis,  are  common ;  climbers  such  as  ivy,  vines,  and  hydrangea 
are  frequent,  with  a  host  of  shrubs  and  herbs  belonging  to  familiar 
European  genera.  In  Bashahr  the  alpine  flora  is  varied  and  plentiful, 
while  that  of  Kanawar  is  almost  purely  Tibetan. 

The  leopard  and  bear  are  common  in  the  Simla  hills.  The  ai}?ii/  or 
serow,  the  gural,  the  kakar  or  barking-deer,  and  the  musk  deer  are 
found.  Pheasants  of  various  kinds  are  found  in  the  higher  ranges, 
while  chikor  and  jungle-fowl  abound  in  the  lower. 

The  climate  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  European  constitution, 
and  the  District  has  therefore  been  selected  as  the  site  of  numerous 
sanitaria  and  cantonments.  There  are  four  seasons  in  Simla.  The 
winter  lasts  from  December  to  February,  when  the  mean  maximum 
temperature  ranges  from  49°  to  44°,  v/hile  sharp  frosts  and  heavy  snow 
bring  the  mean  minimum  sometimes  down  to  34°.  The  temperature 
rises  rapidly  from  February  to  March,  and  from  March  to  June  hot- 
season  conditions  prevail,  the  mean  maximum  ranging  from  56'  in 
March  to  74°  in  June.  The  maximum  recorded  during  recent  years 
was  94°  in  May,  1879.     The  rainy  season  extends  from  July  to  Sep- 

'  McMahon,  '  The  Blaini  Group  and  Central  Gneiss  in  the  Simla  Himalayas,' 
Records,  Geological  Survey  of  /tidia,  vol.  x,  pt.  iv ;  Oldham,  '  Geology  of  Simla  and 
Jutogh,'  ibid.,  vol.  xx,  pt.  ii ;  Mammal  of  Geology  of  India,  second  edition,  p.  1 32  1  The 
Carbonaceous  Svstem\ 


378  SIMLA   DT STRICT 

tember.  About  the  middle  of  September  the  monsoon  currents 
withdraw,  and  during  October  and  November  fine  weather  prevails 
with  rapidly  falling  temperature.  Cholera  visited  Simla,  Sabathu,  and 
Dagshai  in  1857,  1867,  1872,  and  1875,  though  one  or  other  station 
escaped  in  each  visitation.  In  1857  the  death-rate  among  Europeans 
from  cholera  was  3-5  per  1,000,  and  in  1867  it  was  4-2  per  1,000. 
Goitre,  leprosy,  and  stone  are  prevailing  endemic  diseases,  and  syphilis 
is  said  to  be  very  common  amongst  the  hill  people. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  65  inches  at  Simla,  46  at  Kotgarh,  and 
40  at  Kilba.  During  the  three  monsoon  months  the  average  fall  at 
Simla  is  41   inches. 

The  acquisition  of  the  patches  of  territory  composing  Simla  District 
dates  from  the  period  of  the  Gurkha  War  in  181 5-6.  At  a  very  early 
time  the  Hill  States,  together  with  the  outer  portion 
of  Kangra  District,  probably  formed  part  of  the 
Katoch  kingdom  of  Jalandhar  (Jullundur);  and,  after  the  disruption 
of  that  principality,  they  continued  to  be  governed  by  petty  Rajas  till 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  After  the  encroachments 
of  the  Gurkhas  had  led  to  the  invasion  of  their  dominions  in  18 15, 
the  British  troops  remained  in  possession  of  the  whole  block  of  hill 
country  between  the  Sarda  and  the  Sutlej.  Kumaon  and  Dehra  Dun 
became  a  portion  of  British  territory ;  a  few  separate  localities  were 
retained  as  military  posts,  and  a  portion  of  Keonthal  State  was  sold 
to  the  Raja  of  Patiala.  With  these  exceptions,  however,  the  tract 
conquered  in  1815  was  restored  to  the  hill  chiefs  from  whom  it  had 
been  wrested  by  the  Gurkhas.  Garhwal  State  became  attached  to  the 
United  Provinces ;  but  the  remaining  principalities  rank  among  the 
dependencies  of  the  Punjab,  and  are  known  collectively  as  the  Simla 
Hill  States.  From  one  or  other  of  these  the  plots  composing  the 
little  District  of  Simla  have  been  gradually  acquired.  Part  of  the 
hill  over  which  the  station  of  Simla  spreads  was  retained  by  Govern- 
ment in  1 8 16,  and  an  additional  strip  of  land  was  obtained  from 
Keonthal  in  1830.  The  spur  known  as  Jutogh,  3^  miles  from  the 
centre  of  the  station,  was  acquired  by  exchange  from  Patiala  in  1843, 
as  the  equivalent  of  two  villages  in  Bharauli.  Kot  Khai  and  Kotgarh, 
again,  fell  into  our  hands  through  the  abdication  of  the  Rana,  who 
refused  to  accept  charge  of  the  petty  State.  Sabathu  hill  was  retained 
from  the  beginning  as  a  military  fort ;  and  the  other  fragments  of 
the  District  have  been  added  at  various  dates.  As  a  result  of  some 
administrative  changes  made  in  1899,  Kasauli  and  Kalka,  which  till 
then  belonged  to  the  District,  were  transferred  to  Ambala. 

The  District  contains  6  towns  and  45  villages.  The  population  at 
each  of  the  three  enumerations  was:  (1881)  36,119,  (1891)  35,851, 
and  (1901)  40,351.     It  increased  by  12-6  per  cent,  in  the  last  decade. 


AGRICULTURE 


379 


These  enumerations  having  been  made  in  the  winter  do  not  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  summer  population,  which  in  Simla  town  alone 
in  the  season  of  1904  amounted  to  45,587  (municipal 
limits  35,250,  outside  area  10,337).  The  District  is  opu  ation. 
divided  into  the  two  ^ViO-tahsiis  of  Simla-^/zw-Bharauli  and  Kot 
Khai-«^/;;-Kotgarh,  with  head-quarters  at  Simla  and  Kot  Khai  respec- 
tively. The  only  town  of  importance  is  Simla,  the  summer  head- 
quarters of  the  Government  of  India  ;  the  cantonments  have  already 
been  mentioned.  The  village  population  is  almost  entirely  Hindu,  the 
few  Muhammadans  which  it  includes  being  for  the  most  part  travellers. 
The  density  of  j)opulation  is  399-5  persons  per  square  mile.  The 
language  spoken  in  the  villages  is  Paharl. 

The  Kanets  (9,000)  are  by  far  the  most  important  element  in  the 
rural  population.  Like  all  hill  tribes,  they  are  a  simple-minded,  orderly 
people,  quiet  and  peaceful  in  their  pursuits  and  submissive  to  authority. 
The  Dagis  and  Kolis  (4,000)  are  the  principal  menial  tribes.  About 
39  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  are  returned  as  agricultural. 

The  Simla  Baptist  Mission  was  started  in  1865.  The  American 
Presbyterian  Mission  has  an  out-station  at  Sabathu,  occupied  in  1837, 
and  supports  a  leper  asylum  and  various  schools.  The  Kotgarh  branch 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  established  in  1840,  is  an  itinerant 
mission  to  the  hill  tribes.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  also  has 
a  branch,  with  a  mission  church,  in  Simla,  and  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  Zanana  Mission  has  a  station.  In  1901 
the  District  contained  368  native  Christians. 

Cultivation  is  carried  on  in  all  the  lower  valleys.  Wherever  the 
slope  of  the  ground  will  permit,  fields  are  built  up  in  terraces  against 
the  hill-side,  the  earth  often  having  to  be  banked  up  .  •  1 
with  considerable  labour.  The  only  classification  of 
soil  recognized  by  the  people  is  that  depending  on  irrigation  and 
manure ;  lands  irrigated  or  manured  generally  yield  two  crops  in  the 
year,  while  the  poor  sloping  fields  lying  at  some  distance  from  the 
homestead,  and  neither  irrigated  nor  manured,  yield  only  catch-crops 
either  of  wheat  or  barley  in  the  spring  or  of  the  inferior  autumn 
grains.  Every  husbandman  has,  besides  his  plot  of  cultivated  land,  a 
considerable  area  of  grass  land,  which  is  closed  to  grazing  when  the 
monsoon  rains  begin,  and  reaped  in  October  and  November. 

The  area  dealt  with  in  the  revenue  returns  of  1903-4  was  77  square 
miles,  of  which  36  per  cent,  were  not  available  for  cultivation,  44  per 
cent,  were  cultivable  waste  other  than  fallows,  and  9,956  acres,  or 
20  per  cent.,  were  cultivated.  The  chief  crop  of  the  spring  harvest 
is  wheat,  which  occupied  3,586  acres  in  that  year  ;  the  area  under 
barley  was  1,534  acres  ;  practically  no  gram  is  grown.  There  were  274 
acres    under    poppy.     Maize    and    rice,    the    principal    staples   of  the 

VOL,  XXIL  B  b 


38o  SIMLA   DISTRICT 

autumn  harvest,  covered  1,560  and  875  acres  respectively.  Of  millets 
china  and  ma/idal  {Eleusi/ie  coracana),  and  of  pulses  vidsh  {Fhaseoius 
radiatus)  and  kulthi  {Dolichos  unijioriis),  are  the  most  common. 
Potatoes,  hemp,  turmeric,  and  ginger  are  largely  cultivated.  Tea  is 
grown  at  Kotgarh,  where  51  acres  were  picked  in  1904.  No  increase 
worth  mention  has  occurred  in  the  cultivated  area  during  the  last 
ten  or  fifteen  years ;  the  demand  made  by  the  expansion  of  Simla 
town  on  the  surrounding  hills  being  rather  for  grass,  wood,  and  labour 
than  for  agricultural  produce.  Practically  no  advances  are  taken  by 
the  people  from  Government.  The  cattle  are  of  the  small  mountain 
breed.  Very  few  ponies  arc  kept,  and  the  sheep  and  goats  are  not 
of  Importance.  Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  745  acres,  or 
7  per  cent.,  were  irrigated  by  small  channels,  by  which  the  waters 
of  the  hill  streams  are  led  to  and  distributed  over  the  terraced  fields. 

Forests  of  timber  abound,  but  only  a  small  part  of  the  Simla  Forest 
division  lies  within  British  territory,  the  greater  portion  being  leased 
from  the  Rajas  of  the  various  States.  In  1903-4  the 
'  '  District  contained  13  square  miles  of  'reserved'  and 
510  acres  of  'unclassed'  forest  under  the  Forest  department,  and 
33  square  miles  of  '  unclassed '  forest  and  Government  waste  lands 
under  the  control  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  It  also  contains 
457  acres  of  'reserved'  and  2,678  of  'unclassed'  forest  belonging  to 
the  Simla  municipality,  which  are  preserved  as  the  catchment  area 
for  the  Simla  water-supply.  In  1903-4  the  total  revenue  of  the  forests 
under  the  Forest  department  was  Rs.  10,000. 

The  only  mineral  product  of  importance  is  iron,  which  is  found  in 
the  Kot  Khai  tract  and  smelted  roughly  by  the  natives. 

Most  of  the  artistic  industries  of  Northern  India  are  represented  in 
Simla  town  by  artisans  who  come  up  for  the  season, 

CO  JmiikTtLs.  ^^^  ^ei'y  f^^^'  ^e^"y  belong  to  the  District.  Shawls 
are  made  at  Sabathu  by  a  colony  of  Kashmiris ; 
basket-weaving  and  some  rough  iron-smelting  at  Kot  Khai  are  the  only 
indigenous  arts. 

There  is  a  considerable  trade  with  Chinese  Tibet,  which  is  registered 
at  Wangtu,  near  Kotgarh.  Most  of  the  trade,  however,  is  with  Rampur 
in  Bashahr.  Imports  are  chiefly  wool,  borax,  and  salt ;  and  the  exports 
are  cotton  piece-goods.  The  principal  imports  from  the  plains  are  the 
various  articles  of  consumption  required  by  the  residents  at  Simla. 

The  Kalka-Simla  Railway  (2  feet  6  inches  gauge)  has  its  terminus 
at  Simla,  which  is  also  connected  with  Kalka  by  a  cart-road  and  a  road 
through  Kasauli.  The  Hindustan-Tibet  bridle-road  leads  from  Simla 
to  Rampur  and  Chini  in  Bashahr,  and  a  road  from  Sultanpur  in  Kulu 
joins  this  at  Narkanda,  forming  the  easiest  line  of  communication 
between  Simla  and  Leh.     A  road  to  Mussoorie  branches  off  from  that 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


381 


Administration. 


to  Rampur.  Another  runs  westwards  to  Bilaspur,  whence  it  leads  to 
Mandl  and  Suket  on  one  side,  and  to  Nadaun  and  Kangra  on  the 
other.  Sabathu,  Dagshai,  Solon,  Sanawar,  and  Kasauli  are  all  con- 
nected by  cross-roads. 

The  District  has  never  been  visited  by  famine,  the  rainfall  being 
constant  and  the  crops  always  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  its  small  agri- 
cultural population. 

The  two  sub/rt/As-jA,  Simi  A-r//w  Bharaikj  and  Koi  KHAi-r//w- 
KoTGARH,  are  each  under  a  naib-tahsilddr.  1'he  Deputy-Commissioner, 
who  is  also  Superintendent  of  Hill  States,  is  aided 
by  two  Assistant  or  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners, 
of  whom  one  is  in  charge  of  the  District  treasury.  Simla  and  the  Hill 
States  form  an  executive  division  of  the  Public  Works  department,  and 
also  a  Forest  division. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  as  District  Magistrate  is  responsible  for 
the  criminal  justice  of  the  District ;  civil  judicial  work  is  under  a 
District  Judge;  and  both  oilficers  are  supervised  by  the  Divisional 
Judge  of  the  Ambala  Civil  Division  (who  is  also  Sessions  Judge). 
The  District  Judge  is  also  Judge  of  the  Small  Cause  Courts  of  Simla 
and  Jutogh.  The  Cantonment  Magistrate  of  Kasauli,  Jutogh,  Dagshai, 
Solon,  and  Sabathu  has  jurisdiction  throughout  the  District.  He  also 
has  the  powers  of  a  Small  Cause  Court  in  all  these  cantonments  except 
Jutogh.  The  station  staff  officers  of  Dagshai,  Solon,  Sabathu,  and 
Jutogh  are  appointed  magistrates  of  the  third  class  in  the  District,  but 
exercise  powers  only  within  their  own  cantonments.  The  District  is 
free  from  serious  crime. 

Little  is  known  of  the  revenue  systems  which  obtained  in  the  Simla 
hills  before  annexation.  After  various  summary  settlements  made 
between  1834  and  1856,  a  regular  settlement  was  made  between  1856 
and  1859,  the  rates  varying  between  Rs.  5-14  per  acre  on  the  best 
irrigated  land  and  R.  0-3-8  on  the  worst  kind  of  'dry'  land.  In  1882 
the  assessment  was  revised  by  Colonel  ^^^ace  ;  an  increase  of  36  per  cent, 
in  Kotgarh  and  Kot  Khai,  and  of  20  per  cent,  in  Bharauli,  was  taken, 
while  the  assessment  of  Simla  was  maintained.  The  people  are  prosper- 
ous and  well-to-do,  and  the  revenue  is  easily  paid.  The  demand  in 
1903-4,  including  cesses,  amounted  to  Rs.  21,000.  The  average  size 
of  a  proprietary  holding  is  i'2  acres. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  alone  and  of  total  revenue  are  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — ■ 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

igoo-i. 

i90-'-3- 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue  . 

14 
1,44 

17 
1,81 

42 

4.07 

17 

3,77 

B  b  2 


382  SIMLA    DISTRICT 

Simla  is  the  only  nninicii)ality  in  the  l^istrict,  thougli  the  Deputy- 
Commissioner  exercises  the  functions  of  a  municipal  committee  in 
Kasumpti,  and  those  of  a  District  board  throughout  the  District.  The 
income  of  the  District  fund,  derived  mainly  from  a  local  rate  of  Rs.  9-5-4 
per  cent,  on  the  revenue,  except  in  the  Simla  and  Kotguru  parganas, 
where  the  rate  is  Rs.  8-5-4,  amounted  in  1903-4  to  Rs.  2,767;  and 
the  expenditure  was  Rs.  1,971,  more  than  half  being  devoted  to  edu- 
cation. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  315  of  all  ranks,  including 
II  cantonment  and  128  municipal  police,  under  a  Superintendent,  who 
is  usually  assisted  by  two  inspectors.  There  are  three  police  stations 
and  one  outpost.  The  District  jail  at  Simla  town  has  accommodation 
for  44  male  and  12  female  prisoners. 

The  District  stands  first  among  the  twenty-eight  Districts  of  the 
Province  in  respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population.  In  1901  the  pro- 
portion of  literate  persons  was  17-4  per  cent.  (22-2  males  and  8-5 
females).  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was  827  in  1 880-1, 
2,077  'J"^  1900-1,  and  r,88i  in  1903-4.  In  the  last  year  the  District 
possessed  12  secondary,  16  primary  (public)  schools,  and  10  elementary 
(private)  schools,  with  492  girls  in  the  public  and  42  in  the  private 
schools.  Most  of  these  are  in  Simla  town.  The  Lawrence  Asylum 
at  Sanawar,  founded  in  1847  by  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  for  the  children 
of  European  soldiers,  and  now  containing  some  450  boys  and  girls, 
is  supported  by  the  Government  of  India.  The  total  expenditure  on 
education  in  the  District  in  1903-4  was  3-7  lakhs,  i-6  lakhs  being 
derived  from  Provincial  revenues  and  i-i  lakhs  from  fees. 

Besides  the  Ripon  Hospital  and  the  Walker  Hospital  m  Simla  town, 
the  District  has  one  outlying  dispensary  at  Kot  Khai.  In  1904  these 
three  institutions  treated  a  total  of  26,032  out-patients  and  1,365  in- 
patients, and  2,399  operations  were  performed.  The  expenditure  was 
Rs.  68,000,  derived  almost  entirely  from  municipal  funds  and  sale  of 
securities. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  641,  repre- 
senting 16  per  1,000  of  the  population.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  in 
Simla  town. 

■  [D,  C.  J.  Ibbetson,  Gazetteer  (1883-4,  under  revision)  ;  E.  G.  Wace, 
Settlement  Report  (1884);  H.  F.  Blanford,  The  Silver  Ferns  of  Simla 
and  their  Allies  (1886);  Sir  H.  Collett,  Flora  Simlensis  (1902); 
E.  J.  Buck,  Simla,  Past  and  Present  (1904).] 

Simla  Town.  —  Head-quarters  of  Simla  District,  Punjab,  and 
summer  capital  of  the  Government  of  India,  situated  on  a  transverse 
spur  of  the  Central  Himalayan  system,  in  31°  6'  N.  and  77°  10'  E.,  at 
a  mean  elevation  above  sea-level  of  7,084  feet.  It  is  distant  by  rail 
from    Calcutta    1,176    miles,    from    Bombay    1,112    miles,   and    from 


SIMLA    TOIV.V  383 

Karachi  947  miles;  from  Kalka,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  by  cart-road, 
58  miles.  The  population  of  Simla  (excluding  Jutogh  and  Kasumpti) 
was:  (1881)  12,305,  (i8gi)  13,034,  and  (1901)  13,960,  enumerated 
in  February  or  March  when  it  was  at  its  lowest.  At  a  municipal 
census  taken  in  July,  1904,  the  population  within  municipal  limits  was 
returned  at  35,250.  Of  the  population  enumerated  in  1901,  Hindus 
numbered  8,563,  Muhanimadans  3,545,  Sikhs  346,  Christians  1,471, 
and  Jains  and  Parsis  35. 

A  tract  of  land,  including  part  of  the  hill  now  crowned  by  the  station, 
was  retained  by  the  British  Government  at  the  close  of  the  Gurkha 
War  in  1816.  Lieutenant  Ross,  Assistant  Political  Agent  for  the  Hill 
States,  erected  the  first  residence,  a  thatched  wooden  cottage,  in  1819. 
Three  years  afterwards,  his  successor.  Lieutenant  Kennedy,  built  a 
permanent  house.  Officers  from  Ambala  and  neighbouring  stations 
followed  the  example,  and  in  1826  the  new  settlement  had  acquired 
a  name.  A  year  later,  Lord  Amherst,  the  Governor-General,  after 
completing  his  progress  through  the  North-West  on  the  conclusion  of 
the  successful  Bharatpur  campaign,  spent  the  summer  at  Simla.  From 
that  date  the  sanitarium  rose  rapidly  into  favour  with  the  European 
population  of  Northern  India.  Year  after  year,  irregularly  at  first,  but 
as  a  matter  of  course  after  a  few  seasons,  the  seat  of  Government  was 
transferred  for  a  few  weeks  in  every  summer  from  the  heat  of  Calcutta 
to  the  cool  climate  of  the  Himalayas.  Successive  Governors-General 
resorted  with  increasing  regularity  to  Simla  during  the  hot  season. 
Situated  in  the  recently  annexed  Punjab,  it  formed  an  advantageous 
spot  for  receiving  the  great  chiefs  of  Northern  India,  numbers  of  whom 
annually  come  to  Simla  to  pay  their  respects.  It  also  presented  greater 
conveniences  than  Calcutta  as  a  starting-point  for  the  Governor- 
General's  cold-season  tour.  At  first  only  a  small  staff  of  officials 
accompanied  the  Governor-General  to  Simla  ;  but  since  the  adminis- 
tration of  Lord  Lawrence  (1864)  Simla  has,  except  in  1874,  the  year 
of  feraine  in  Bengal,  been  the  summer  capital  of  the  Government  of 
India,  with  its  secretariats  and  head-quarters  establishments.  Simla 
was  the  regular  head-quarters  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  before  it  was 
that  of  the  Governor-General,  and  now  several  of  the  Army  head- 
quarters offices  remain  in  Simla  all  the  year  round.  The  Punjab 
Government  first  came  to  Simla  in  1871,  and,  except  for  a  three  years' 
sojourn  at  Murree  from  1873  to  1875,  has  had  its  summer  head-quarters 
at  Simla  ever  since. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  station  has  grown  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  From  30  houses  in  1830  it  increased  to  upwards  of  ico  in 
1841  and  290  in  1866.  In  February,  1881,  the  number  of  occupied 
houses  was  1,141,  and  in  March,  1901,  it  was  1,847  (including 
Kasuujpti).     Schemes  for  extending  the  station  are  under  considera- 


384  SIMLA    TOWN 

tion.  At  present,  the  bungalows  extend  over  the  whole  length  of 
a  considerable  ridge,  which  runs  east  and  west  in  a  crescent  shape, 
with  its  concave  side  pointing  southward.  The  extreme  ends  of  the 
station  lie  at  a  distance  of  6  miles  from  one  another.  Eastward,  the 
ridge  culminates  in  the  peak  of  Jakko,  over  8,000  feet  in  height,  and 
nearly  1,000  feet  above  the  average  elevation  of  the  station.  Woods 
of  deodar,  oak,  and  rhododendron  clothe  its  sides,  while  a  tolerably 
level  road,  5  miles  long,  runs  round  its  base.  Another  grassy  height, 
known  as  Prospect  Hill,  of  inferior  elevation  to  Jakko  and  devoid  of 
timber,  closes  the  western  extremity  of  the  crescent.  The  houses  cluster 
thickest  upon  the  southern  slopes  of  Jakko,  and  of  two  other  hills 
lying  near  the  western  end,  one  of  which,  known  as  Observatory  Hill, 
is  crowned  by  Viceregal  Lodge.  The  church  stands  at  the  western 
base  of  Jakko,  below  which,  on  the  south  side  of  the  hill,  the  native 
quarter  cuts  off  one  end  of  the  station  from  the  other.  The  eastern 
portion  bears  the  name  of  Chota  Simla,  while  the  most  western 
extremity  is  known  as  Boileauganj.  A  beautiful  northern  spur,  running 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  ridge,  and  still  clothed  with  oak  and  old 
rhododendron  trees,  has  acquired  the  complimentary  designation  of 
Elysium.  Not  far  from  the  western  end,  two  batteries  of  artillery 
occupy  the  detached  hill  of  Jutogh.  The  exquisite  scenery  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood has  been  described  in  the  article  on  Simla  IJistrict. 

Simla,  besides  being  the  summer  head-quarters  of  the  Governments 
of  India  and  of  the  Punjab,  and  of  the  various  Departments  of  Army 
head-quarters,  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Deputy-Conservator  of  Forests, 
Simla  division,  and  of  the  Executive  Engineer,  Simla  division,  as  well 
as  of  the  ordinary  District  staff,  and  the  summer  head-quarters  of  the 
Commissioner  of  the  Delhi  Division.  A  battalion  of  Volunteers,  the 
2nd  Punjab  (Simla)  Rifles,  is  stationed  here.  There  are  four  churches 
of  the  Church  of  England :  Christ  Church  (the  station  church)  opened 
in  1844,  a  chapel  of  ease  at  Boileauganj,  a  chapel  attached  to  Bishop 
Cotton  School,  and  a  native  church  in  the  bazar.  There  are  also 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  two  convents,  and  an  undenomina- 
tional church  following  the  Presbyterian  form  of  worship.  The  Church 
Missionary  Society,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
Zanana  Mission,  and  the  Baptist  Mission  have  branches  in  the  town. 
There  are  two  masonic  lodges.  Simla  also  contains  the  United  Service 
Institution  of  India,  and  a  large  club.  The  Government  offices  are 
for  the  most  part  accommodated  in  large  blocks  of  buildings ;  and 
a  town  hall  contains  a  theatre,  reading-room,  and  ball-room.  Annan- 
dale,  the  Simla  cricket  ground  and  racecourse,  has  recently  been  greatly 
enlarged.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1850.  The  income  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  4-2  lakhs,  and  the  expenditure 
4-1  lakhs.      In  1903-4  the  income  was  5-5  lakhs,  chiefly  derived  from 


SIMLA   HILL    STATES  385 

octroi  (1-7  lakhs),  taxes  on  houses  and  lands  (1-3  lakhs),  municipal 
property  and  fines,  &:c.  (Rs.  51,000),  and  loans  from  Government 
(Rs.  39,000).  The  expenditure  of  5-4  lakhs  included  :  general  adminis- 
tration (Rs.  57,000),  water-supply  (Rs.  89,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  33,000), 
hospitals  and  dispensaries  (Rs.  36,000),  public  safety  (Rs.  37,000), 
public  works  (i  lakh),  interest  on  loans  (Rs.  53,000),  and  repayment 
of  loans  (Rs.  64,000).  Water  is  supplied  to  the  station  by  a  system 
of  water-works  constructed  at  a  cost  of  about  6  lakhs,  and  supposed 
to  be  capable  of  supplying  a  minimum  of  300,000  gallons  a  day.  The 
supply  is  not,  however,  sufficient  for  the  rapidly  growing  needs  of  the 
town.  A  drainage  system  is  now  being  extended  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
6  lakhs.     The  consolidated  municipal  debt  amounts  to  about  12  lakhs. 

The  commerce  of  Simla  consists  chiefly  in  the  supply  of  necessaries 
to  the  summer  visitors  and  their  dependants,  but  the  town  is  also  an 
entrepot  for  the  trade  with  China  and  Tibet  mentioned  in  the  article 
on  Simla  District.  There  are  a  large  number  of  European  shops, 
and  four  banks.  The  chief  exports  of  the  town  are  beer  and  spirits, 
there  being  two  breweries  and  one  distillery. 

The  chief  educational  institutions  are  the  Bishop  Cotton  School, 
a  public  school  for  European  boys  founded  by  Bishop  Cotton  in  1866 
in  thanksgiving  for  the  deliverance  of  the  British  in  India  during  the 
Mutiny  of  1857 ;  the  Auckland  high  school  for  girls  \  the  Christ 
Church  day  school  for  boys  and  girls ;  two  convent  schools  and  a 
convent  orphanage ;  the  Mayo  Orphanage  for  European  and  Eurasian 
orphan  girls  ;  and  a  municipal  high  school.  The  two  chief  medical 
institutions  are  the  Ripon  and  Walker  Hospitals,  the  latter  founded  in 
1902  through  the  munificence  of  Sir  James  AA'alker,  C.I.E.,  as  a  hospital 
for  Europeans. 

Simla-rz/w-Bharauli. — These  two  isolated  tracts  form  a  sub-/«/iw/ 
of  Simla  District,  Punjab,  lying  between  30°  58'  and  31°  8'  N.  and 
77°  \'  and  77°  15'  E.,  with  an  area  of  25  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  all  sides  by  the  Simla  Hill  States.  The  population  in  1901  was 
29,668,  compared  with  25,405  in  1891.  Simla  (population,  13,960)  is 
the  head-quarters,  and  there  are  35  villages.  The  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  7,000.  The  sub-/a/«J/  lies  entirely 
in  the  hills. 

Simla  Hill  States. — A  collection  of  Native  States  in  the  Punjab, 
surrounding  the  sanitarium  of  Simla,  and  extending  between  30°  46' 
and  32°  5'  N.  and  76°  28'  and  79°  14'  E.  They  are  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  high  wall  of  the  Himalayas ;  on  the  north-west  by  the 
mountains  of  Spiti  and  Kulu  belonging  to  the  District  of  Kangra,  and 
lower  down  by  the  Sutlej,  separating  them  from  the  State  of  Suket  and 
Kangra  proper ;  on  the  south-west  by  the  plains  of  Ambala ;  and  on 
the  south-east  by  Dehra  Dun  and  the  Native  State  of  Tehri.     They  are 


386  SIMLA   HILL    STATES 

controlled  by  the  Superintendent,  Simla  Hill  States,  in  subordination  to 
the  Punjab  Government.  Table  III  appended  to  the  article  on  the 
Punjab  (Vol.  XX^  p.  381)  gives  some  of  the  leading  statistics  regarding 
them. 

The  mountains  here  form  a  continuous  series  of  ranges,  ascending 
from  the  low  hills  which  bound  the  plains  of  Ambala  to  the  great 
central  chain  of  the  ^Vestern  Himalayas.  This  central  chain  terminates 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Sutlej  in  Bashahr,  the  most  northern  of  the 
States.  The  same  State  is  broken  on  its  northern  frontier  by  spurs 
from  the  snowy  hills  which  separate  it  from  Spiti,  and  on  the  east  by 
similar  spurs  from  the  range  shutting  it  off  from  Chinese  Tartary. 
Starting  from  the  termination  of  the  Central  Himalayas,  a  transverse 
range,  the  last  to  the  south  of  the  Sutlej,  runs  south-west  throughout 
the  length  of  the  Simla  States,  forming  the  watershed  between  the 
Sutlej  and  the  Jumna.  A  few  miles  north-east  of  Simla,  it  divides  into 
two  main  branches,  one  following  the  line  of  the  Sutlej  in  a  north-west 
direction,  and  the  other,  on  which  Simla  stands,  continuing  south-west, 
until,  at  a  few  miles  north  of  Sabathu,  it  meets  at  right  angles  the 
mountains  of  the  Outer  or  sub-Himalayan  system,  which  have  a  direc- 
tion parallel  to  the  Central  Himalayas,  i.e.  from  north-west  to  south- 
east. South  and  east  of  Simla,  the  hills  lying  between  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Tons,  the  principal  feeder  of  the  Jumna,  centre  in  the  great 
Chaur  peak,  11,982  feet  high,  itself  the  termination  of  a  minor  chain 
that  branches  off  southwards  from  the  main  Simla  range.  The  moun- 
tain system  (excluding  Bashahr)  may  be  thus  mapped  out  roughly  into 
three  portions  :  the  Chaur  peak,  and  the  spurs  radiating  from  it,  occupy- 
ing the  south-east  corner ;  the  Simla  range,  extending  from  the  Central 
Himalayas  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Sabathu ;  and  the  mountains  of 
the  sub-Himalayan  series,  running  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and 
forming  the  boundary  of  the  Ambala  plains.  The  last-mentioned  group 
may  be  subdivided  into  the  sub-Himalayas  proper,  and  an  outer  range, 
corresponding  to  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Hoshiarpur  on  the  one  side 
and  of  the  Gangetic  Doab  on  the  other.  The.  sub-Himalayan  and  the 
Siwalik  ranges  form  parallel  lines,  having  between  them  an  open  space 
of  varying  width,  known  as  the  Kiarda  Dun,  a  broad  and  well-cultivated 
valley.  The  Dun  in  Nalagarh  is  open  and  richly  cultivated,  like  the 
corresponding  Kiarda  Dun  in  Sirmur  and  Jaswan  Dun  in  Hoshiarpur. 

The  wilder  parts  of  Bashahr  beyond  the  Sutlej  are  thus  described  by 
Sir  H.  Davies  : — 

'Immediately  to  the  south  of  Spiti  and  Lahul  is  the  district  of 
Kanawar,  which  forms  the  largest  subdivision  of  the  Bashahr  prin- 
cipality, and  consists  of  a  series  of  rocky  and  precipitous  ravines, 
descending  rapidly  to  the  bed  of  the  Sutlej.  The  district  is  about 
70   miles  long,   by  40  and    20    broad    at    its  northern   and   southern 


SIMLA   HILL   STATES  387 

extremities  respectively.  In  middle  Kanawar  the  cultivated  spots  have 
an  average  elevation  of  7,000  feet.  The  climate  is  genial,  being  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  periodical  rains  of  India  ;  and  the  winters  are  com- 
paratively mild.  Upi)er  Kanawar  more  resembles  the  alpine  region  of 
Tibet.  Grain  and  fuel  are  produced  abundantly;  the  poppy  also 
flourishes.  The  Kanawaris  are  probably  of  Indian  race,  though  in 
manners  and  religion  they  partially  assimilate  to  the  Tibetans.  The 
people  of  the  north  are  active  traders,  proceeding  to  Leh  for  charas, 
and  to  Gardokh  for  shawl-wool,  giving  in  exchange  money,  clothes, 
and  spices.  The  mountain  paths  are  scarcely  practicable  for  laden  mules, 
and  merchandise  is  carried  chiefly  on  the  backs  of  sheep  and  goats.' 

The  principal  rivers  by  which  the  drainage  of  these  hills  is  effected 
are  the  Sutlej,  the  Pabar,  the  Giri  or  Giri  Ganga,  the  Gambhar,  and  the 
Sirsa.  The  Sutlej  enters  Bashahr  State  from  Chinese  territory  by  a  pass 
between  two  peaks,  the  northern  of  which  is  22,183  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  flows  south-west  through  Bashahr,  receiving  the  drainage  from  the 
Central  Himalayas  on  the  one  side  and  from  the  Spiti  hills  on  the 
other,  till  it  reaches  the  border  of  Kulu,  a  few  miles  above  the  town  of 
Rampur.  From  this  point  it  forms  the  boundary  of  the  Simla  States, 
until,  shortly  before  reaching  the  border  of  Kangra  proper,  it  turns 
southwards,  and  passes  through  the  State  of  Bilaspur,  which  it  divides 
into  two  nearly  equal  portions.  It  is  crossed  by  bridges  at  ^Vangtu^  and 
at  Lauri  below  Kotgarh.  In  Bilaspur  small  boats  are  employed  on  the 
river  ;  elsewhere  inflated  skins  are  used  to  effect  a  passage.  The  Sutlej 
is  not  fordable  at  any  point.  Its  principal  feeders  in  Bashahr  are  the 
Baspa  from  the  south,  and  the  Spiti  from  the  north.  The  Pabar,  which 
is  one  of  the  principal  feeders  of  the  Tons,  and  therefore  of  the  Jumna, 
rises  in  the  State  of  Bashahr,  having  feeders  on  the  southern  slopes  of 
both  the  Central  Himalayas  and  the  transverse  Simla  range.  It  flows 
southwards  into  Garhwal.  The  Giri,  or  Giri  Ganga,  rises  in  the  hills 
north  of  the  Chaur,  and,  collecting  the  drainage  of  the  whole  tract 
between  that  mountain  and  the  Simla  range,  flows  south-west  until, 
meeting  the  line  of  the  Outer  Himalayas,  it  turns  sharply  to  the  south- 
east, and  enters  the  State  of  Sirmur.  Its  principal  feeder  is  the  Ashmi, 
or  Assan  river,  which  rises  near  Mahasu,  in  the  Simla  range,  and,  after 
receiving  a  considerable  contribution  from  the  eastern  face  of  the  hill 
upon  which  Simla  station  stands,  joins  the  Giri  just  at  the  point  where 
that  river  turns  south-east.  The  Gambhar  rises  in  the  Dagshai  hill, 
and,  running  north-west  past  Sabathu,  receives  the  Blaini  and  several 
other  streams  which  rise  in  the  hills  to  the  south  of  Simla  station,  and, 
still  continuing  its  course  north-west,  empties  itself  into  the  Sutlej  about 
8  miles  below  the  town  of  Bilaspur.  The  Sirsa  collects  the  drainage  of 
the  Dun  of  Nalagarh.  Of  these  streams,  the  Pabar  and  Giri  Ganga  are 
of  considerable  volume.  Except  the  Sirsa,  all  are  perennial,  retaining 
a  small  supply  of  water  even  in  the  winter  months,  and  swelling  to 


388  SIMLA    HILL   STATES 

formidable  torrents  during  the  rainy  season.  The  Pabar  is  fed  from 
perennial  snow.  Further  information  regarding  the  Simla  Hill  States 
will  be  found  in  the  separate  articles  on  each.  Opium  made  in  the 
Hill  States  is  imported  into  the  Punjab  on  payment  of  a  duty  of 
Rs.  2  per  seer. 

The  chiefs  of  the  Hill  States  possess  full  powers,  except  that  sentences 
of  death  passed  by  them  require  the  confirmation  of  the  Superintendent, 
Hill  States,  who  is  also  the  Deputy-Commissioner  of  Simla  District.  In 
thirteen  of  the  twenty-eight  States,  owing  to  the  minority  or  incapacity 
of  the  chiefs,  the  administration  is  not  at  present  in  their  hands.  In 
Bija,  Kunihar,  Madhan,  and  Mailog  it  is  carried  on  by  councils  of  State 
officials  ;  in  Dhadi  it  is  in  the  hands  of  a  relative  of  the  chief,  and  in 
Tharoch  in  those  of  the  Wazir  ;  Bilaspur,  Jubbal,  Bashahr,  Kumharsain, 
and  Kanethi  are  administered  by  native  officials  of  the  British  service, 
deputed  by  Government,  who  are  styled  managers  ;  in  Baghal  the 
council  consists  of  a  brother  of  the  late  chief  and  an  official  deputed  by 
Government ;  and  in  Kuthar  the  manager  is  a  member  of  the  ruling 
family  of  Suket.  In  all  these  cases,  the  authority  in  charge  of  the 
administration  exercises  in  practice  the  powers  of  the  chief. 

Sinbaungwe.  —  North-eastern  township  of  Thayetmyo  District, 
Burma,  lying  between  19°  30' and  19°  47'  N.  and  95^  10'  and  95°  50'  E., 
and  stretching  from  the  Irrawaddy  eastwards  to  the  confines  of  Magwe 
and  Yamethin  Districts,  with  an  area  of  1,873  square  miles.  Its  head- 
quarters are  at  Sinbaungw^e,  a  village  of  2,394  inhabitants,  on  the  left  or 
east  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy.  The  country  is  dry  and  undulating,  and 
sparsely  inhabited.  The  population  was  22,108  in  1891,  and  23,395 
in  1 90 1,  distributed  in  105  villages.  Thathameda  was -the  main  source 
of  revenue  up  to  1902-3,  when  it  was  replaced  by  capitation  tax.  The 
area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  36  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  36,000 
land  revenue. 

Sinchula. —  Hill  range  in  Jalpaiguri  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  lying  between  26°  41'  and  26°  49'  N.  and  89°  29'  and  89°  45'  E., 
and  forming  the  boundary  between  British  territory  and  Bhutan.  The 
average  elevation  of  the  range  is  from  4,000  to  a  little  over  6,000  feet, 
the  highest  peak,  Renigango,  in  26°  47'  N.  and  89°  34''  E.,  being  6,222 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  hills  run  generally  in  long  even  ridges,  thickly 
wooded  from  base  to  summit,  but  occasionally  the  summits  bristle  with 
bare  crags  from  200  to  300  feet  in  height.  From  Chota  Sinchula 
(5,695  feet  high)  a  magnificent  view  is  obtained  over  the  whole  of  the 
Buxa  Duars.  In  the  distance  are  seen  large  green  patches  of  cultivation 
in  the  midst  of  wide  tracts  of  brown  grass  and  reed  jungle,  the  cultivated 
spots  being  dotted  with  homesteads  ;  in  the  foreground,  near  the  hills, 
are  dense  sal  {Shorea  robusta)  and  other  forests,  the  whole  being  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rivers  and  streams.    The  Sinchula  range  can  nearly 


SIND  389 

everywhere  be  ascended  by  men  and  by  beasts  of  burden,  but  not  by 
wheeled  vehicles. 

Sind. — 'i'he  province  of  Sind  forms  the  extreme  north-western 
portion  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  consisting  of  the  lower  valley  and 
delta  of  the  Indus,  and  lying  between  23°  35^  and  28°  29'  N.  and 
66"  40'  and  71°  10'  E.^  It  has  an  area  of  53,116  square  miles 
and  a  population  (1901)  of  3,410,223,  and  includes  one  Native  State, 
Khairpur,  with  an  area  of  6,050  square  miles  and  a  population  of 

i99>3i3- 

Sind  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Baluchistan,  the  Punjab,  and 
the  State  of  Bahawalpur ;  on  the  east  by  the  Rajputana  States  of 
Jaisalmer  and  Jodhpur ;  on  the  south  by  the  Rann  of  Cutch  and  the 
Arabian  Sea;  and  on  the  west  by  the  territory  of  the  Jam  of  Las 
Bela  and  of  the  Khan  of  Kalat  (Baluchistan).  It  comprises  three 
well-defined  tracts  :  the  Kohistan,  or  hilly  country, 
which    lies  as  a  solid  block  between   Karachi  and  asoects 

Sehwan,  and  is  thence  continued  north  as  a  narrow 
fringe  along  the  skirts  of  the  Kirthar  range  ;  Sind  proper,  the  central 
alluvial  plain,  watered  by  the  Indus  ;  and  the  Registan,  or  I'har,  a 
band  of  so-called  desert  on  the  eastern  border,  where  rolling  sandhills 
alternating  with  valleys  are  often  fairly  wooded,  and  there  are  exten- 
sive level  tracts  of  pasture  land. 

Almost  every  portion  of  the  great  alluvial  tract  of  Sind  has  at  some 
time  or  other  formed  a  channel  for  the  river  Indus  (Sanskrit,  Sindhie, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  province),  or  one  of  its  many  branches. 
This  main  central  stream  of  North-Western  India,  after  collecting  into 
its  bed  the  waters  of  the  five  Punjab  rivers,  has  deposited  near  its 
debouchure  into  the  Arabian  Sea  a  vast  mass  of  deltaic  matter, 
through  which  it  flows  by  several  shifting  channels  to  join  the  sea 
on  the  southern  border  of  the  province.  In  every  direction  traces 
of  ancient  river-beds  may  be  discovered,  crossing  the  country  like 
elevated  dikes,  for  the  level  of  the  land,  as  in  all  other  deltaic 
regions,  is  highest  at  the  river  bank.  The  Indus  brings  down  from 
the  turbid  hill  torrents  a  greater  quantity  of  detritus  than  can  be 
carried  forward  by  its  diminished  velocity  in  the  plain ;  and  hence 
a  constant  accumulation  of  silt  takes  place  along  its  various  beds, 
raising  their  level  above  that  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  inci- 
dentally affording  an  easy  means  of  irrigation,  on  which  the  agricul- 
tural prosperity  of  Sind  entirely  depends,  by  side  channels  drawn  from 
the  central  river.  Besides  the  Indus  there  are  some  hill  streams  or 
nais,  of  which  the  Hab,  which  may  almost  be  called  a  river,  is  impor- 
tant.    Appearing  as  a  string  of  unconnected  pools  in  the  dry  season, 

*  All  spheiical  values  were  obtained  from  the  Compiler,  Sind  CazcUccr,  and  are 
based  upon  the  latest  information. 


390  SIND 

it  forms  the  boundary  between  Sind  and  Baluchistan.  Other  impor- 
tant nais  are  the  Malir  from  which  the  city  of  Karachi  obtains  its 
drinking-water  supply,  the  Baran  which  supplies  Kohistan,  and  the 
Gaj. 

The  only  elevations  deserving  the  name  of  mountains  occur  in  the 
KiRTHAR  range,  which  separates  Sind  from  Baluchistan,  and  attains 
in  places  a  height  of  about  7,000  feet  above  sea-level,  sinking  in  the 
south  to  the  Pab  hills.  The  wild  and  rocky  tract  of  Kohistan,  in 
the  western  portion  of  Karachi  District,  forms  almost  the  only  remain- 
ing exception  to  the  general  flatness  of  the  province.  Another  off- 
shoot of  the  Kirthar  chain,  however,  known  as  the  Lakhi  range, 
extends  in  a  barren  mass  eastward  into  the  Kotri  tdluka  of  Karachi 
District,  presenting  evident  marks  of  volcanic  origin  in  its  hot  springs 
and  sulphurous  exhalations.  A  few  insignificant  limestone  ranges 
intersect  the  Indus  valley,  on  one  of  which,  known  as  the  Ganjo 
hills,  with  an  elevation  of  only  100  feet,  stands  the  Talpur  capital 
of  Hyderabad.  A  second  small  chain,  running  in  a  north-westerly 
direction  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaisalmer,  attains  towards  the 
Indus  a  height  of  150  feet,  and  forms  the  rocks  on  which  are  perched 
the  towns  of  Rohri  and  Sukkur. 

The  plain  country  comprises  a  mixed  tract  of  dry  desert  and  alluvial 
plain.  The  finest  and  most  productive  region  lies  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Shikarpur  and  Larkana,  where  a  long  narrow  island  extends 
for  160  miles  from  north  to  south,  enclosed  on  one  side  by  the  river 
Indus,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Western  Nara.  Another  great  alluvial 
tract,  with  an  average  width  of  70  or  80  miles,  stretches  eastward  from 
the  Indus  to  the  Eastern  Nara.  The  Indus  is  known  to  have  fre- 
quently changed  its  course  within  historical  times.  Vestiges  of  ancient 
towns  still  stud  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rann  of  Cutch.  Sandhills 
abound  near  the  eastern  border.  Large  tracts  rendered  sterile  for  want 
of  irrigation  also  occur  in  many  other  parts  of  Sind. 

The  scenery  of  the  province  naturally  lacks  variety  or  grandeur,  and 
its  monotony  renders  it  tame  and  uninteresting.  Nothing  can  be  more 
dreary  to  a  stranger  approaching  the  shore  than  the  low  and  flat  coast, 
entirely  devoid  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Even  among  the  hills  of  Kohis- 
tan, where  fine  rocky  scenery  abounds,  the  charm  of  foliage  is  almost 
totally  wanting.  In  the  Thar  and  Parkar  District,  in  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  Khairpur  State,  and  in  the  tdlukas  of  Rohrl,  Mirpur  Mathelo, 
and  Ubauro  (Sukkur  District),  the  Registan  or  desert  tract  consists  of 
nothing  but  sandhills,  many  of  which,  however,  derive  picturesqueness 
from  their  bold  outline,  and  are  sometimes  even  fairly  wooded.  The 
several  ranges  of  sandhills  succeed  one  another  like  vast  waves. 

The  alluvial  strip  which  borders  either  bank  of  the  Indus  for  a 
distance  of  12   iiiilus,  though  superior  to  every  other  part  of  Sind  in 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  391 

soil  and  productiveness,  can  lay  no  claini  to  picturesque  beauty.  Even 
here,  however,  extensive  forests  of  />ai>ul  {Acacia  arahica)  in  many 
places  skirt  the  reaches  of  the  river  for  miles  together.  Near  the  town 
of  Sehwan,  the  Lakhi  range  forms  an  abrupt  escarpment  towards  the 
Indus  in  a  perpendicular  face  of  rock  600  feet  high.  But  the  finest 
views  in  the  province  are  those  which  embrace  the  towns  of  Sukkur 
and  Rohri,  and  the  island  fortress  of  Bukkur,  with  its  lofty  walls,  lying 
in  the  river  between  them.  All  three  crown  the  range  of  limestone 
hills  through  which  the  Indus  has  here  cut  its  way,  and  the  minarets 
and  houses,  especially  in  Rohri,  overhang  the  stream  from  a  towering 
height.  A  little  to  the  south  of  Bukkur,  again,  lies  the  green  island 
of  Sadh  Bela  with  its  sacred  shrine,  while  groves  of  date-palm  and 
acacia  stud  the  banks  of  the  Indus  on  either  side. 

The  extreme  south-eastern  border  of  Sind  is  formed  by  the  Rann 
OK  CuTCH,  an  immense  salt-water  waste,  with  an  area  of  about 
9,000  square  miles.  It  bounds  the  District  of  Thar  and  Parkar  for 
a  distance  of  nearly  80  miles.  Every  part  of  it  is  devoid  of  herbage, 
and  a  large  portion  is  annually  converted  into  a  salt  lake  from  June 
to  November,  owing  to  the  influx  of  the  sea  at  Lakhpat  Bandar  on  the 
Kori  mouth  of  the  Indus,  as  well  as  at  other  places  in  Cutch  and 
Kathiawar.  During  the  remaining  six  months  of  the  year,  after  the 
evaporation  of  the  water,  the  surface  becomes  encrusted  wath  salt,  while 
herds  of  chinkdra  (gazelle)  and  a  few  wild  asses  roam  over  the  desert 
expanse.  According  to  local  tradition,  a  well-tilled  plain,  irrigated  by 
a  branch  of  the  Indus,  once  covered  the  western  portion  of  the  Rann ; 
but  the  hand  of  man  assisted  by  an  earthquake  diverted  the  waters, 
and  the  tract  has  ever  since  remained  a  waste  of  salt.  The  upper  part 
of  the  Kori  mouth  still  bears  the  name  of  the  purdna  or  'ancient' 
stream ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  Indus  once  took  a  more 
easterly  course  than  at  present,  and  so  rendered  some  portion  of  the 
Rann  a  fertile  lowland. 

The  whole  sea-coast  of  Sind,  except  the  part  between  Karachi  and 
Cape  Monze,  where  the  Pab  hills  approach  the  shore,  is  low  and  flat, 
and  submerged  at  spring-tides.  It  consists,  in  fact,  of  a  series  of  mud- 
banks  deposited  by  the  Indus,  or  in  a  few  places  of  sandhills  blown 
from  seaward.  The  sea  near  the  shore  is  very  shallow,  owing  to  the 
quantity  of  mud  brought  down  by  the  river.  A  bank  extends  along 
the  coast  from  Karachi  to  Cutch,  about  2  miles  from  the  land  and 
3  miles  in  wndth,  and  which  is  generally  dry  at  low  water.  This  cir- 
cumstance renders  the  approach  to  the  shore  extremely  dangerous  for 
large  vessels,  and  the  only  harbour  in  the  province  is  at  Karachi. 

Lakes  are  rare,  the  largest  being  the  Manchhar  in  the  Sehwan 
tdli/ka,  formed  by  the  surplus  waters  of  the  Western  Nara  and  the 
rain  torrents  of  the   Kirthar  hills.     During  the  inundation  season,  it 


392  SIND 

measures  20  miles  in  length,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  180  square 
miles.  At  the  same  period,  the  flood-hollows  (dand/is)  of  the  Eastern 
Nara  form  pretty  lakelets.  The  Makhi  dandh,  50  miles  in  circum- 
ference, through  which  the  Eastern  Nara  winds  till  it  emerges  at 
Bukkur,  was,  owing  to  its  thick  jungle  and  wooded  islets,  the 
favourite  haunt  of  the  Hur  outlaws. 

The  greater  part  of  Sind  is  occupied  by  the  alluvium  of  the  Indus, 
frequently  covered  by  sand-dunes  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  province, 
which  is  an  extension  of  the  Rajpulana  desert.  Western  Sind  between 
the  Indus  and  tlie  Baluchistan  frontier  is  a  hilly  region,  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  Tertiary  strata  folded  into  a  succession  of  anticlines 
and  synclines.  The  following  are  the  principal  geological  divisions  of 
this  series  : — 

Miocene. 

9.  Manchhar  or  Siwalik  (sandstones,  clays,  and  conglomerates  of 
fluviatile  or  terrestrial  origin,  with  fossil  wood  and  remains  of  extinct 
mammalia). 

8.  Gaj  (limestones,  shales,  and  sandstones,  partly  fluviatile,  partly 
marine). 

Oligocene. 

7.  Upper  Nari  (principally  shales  and  sandstones,  partly  fluviatile, 
partly  marine). 

Eocene. 

6.  Lower  Nari  (principally  limestone  and  shale,  marine). 

5.  Kirthar  (mostly  Nummulitic  limestone  of  great  thickness, 
forming  the  higher  hill  ranges). 

4.  Upper  Ranlkot  (shales  and  limestones,  marine,  corresponding 
in  age  with  the  London  clay). 

3.  Lower  Ranikot  (mostly  sandstone  of  fluviatile  origin,  with  beds 
of  lignite  and  fossil  plants). 

2.  Cardita  beaumonti  beds  and  Deccan  trap  (sandstones,  shales, 
impure  limestones,  and  intercalated  volcanic  beds,  approximately 
of  the  same  age  as  the  Thanet  Sands  in  England). 

Cretaceojis. 
I.  Hippuritic  limestones  (only  locally  developed). 

Hot  sulphurous  springs  occur  at  a  number  of  places  along  the  hills 
of  Western  Sind,  the  best  known  being  those  of  Lakhi,  near  Sehwan, 
and  Magar  Pir  north  of  Karachi.  At  Nagar  Parkar,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  Rann  of  Cutch,  there  is  an  outcrop  of  granitic  rocks 
similar  to  those  of  the  Aravalli  range.  The  geology  of  U'estern  Sind 
has  been  described  in  detail  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Blanford  in  vol.  xvii  of  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India. 

Whatever  is  cultivated   in    Egypt,   in  Arabia,  and  in  the  countries 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  393 

bordering  the  Persian  Gulf  may  be  grown  witli  success  in  Sind,  since 
these  countries  are  equally  characterized  by  great  summer  heat,  but 
little  tempered  by  rain  ;  great  winter  cold ;  a  dry  soil  and  similar 
geological  formations.  The  chief  trees  of  Sind  are  the  l>abul  {Acacia 
arabica),  bahdn  {Populiis  eupkratica),  karidi  {Prosopis  spicigera),  and 
si?'as.  The  ni/ii,  plpal,  banyan,  and  bei-  also  occur.  The  babul  is  the 
staple  tree  of  Lower  Sind,  its  wood  yielding  timber  for  boat-building 
and  fuel,  its  bark  being  used  in  tanning,  and  its  leaves  and  pods  a--, 
fodder  for  camels  and  goats.  Siras  and  lai  (tamarisk)  arc  found  in 
all  forius  from  scrub  to  big  trees.  The  ba/ui/i^  common  in  Upper  Sind, 
furnishes  a  light  soft  wood  used  in  house-building  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  celebrated  lacquer-boxes  of  Hala  and  Khanot.  The 
shores  of  the  Indus  delta  abound  with  low  mangrove  thickets,  which 
yield  good  fuel  and  fodder.  Among  exotic  trees  are  the  tali  (Dal- 
bergia  Sissoo)  and  the  tamarind. 

The  commoner  wild  animals  are  the  wolf,  wild  hog,  chinkdra 
(gazelle),  hog-deer,  jackal,  wild-cat,  and  hare.  The  hyena  is  rare.  Ibex 
and  gad  (mountain  sheep)  are  found  in  the  western  hills,  and  the 
wild  ass  in  the  eastern  desert.  The  lynx  is  rarely  found,  while  the 
leopard  and  bear  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  western  hills  as 
stragglers  from  Baluchistan.  Antelope  have  been  introduced  with 
success  into  the  Khairpur  State.  The  migratory  birds  which  visit 
the  province  in  large  numbers  include  geese,  ducks,  teal,  snipe,  crane, 
flamingo,  pelican,  and  ibis.  The  Indian  bustard  is  found  east  of  the 
Indus  and  the  tilur  and  lekh  or  fiorican  in  all  parts.  Quail  and 
many  kinds  of  sand-grouse  occur  in  large  numbers,  while  swans  are 
seen  on  rare  occasions.  The  principal  local  game-birds  are  the 
francolin,  or  black  partridge,  and  the  grey  partridge.  The  blue  rock- 
pigeon  is  common  near  the  Kirthar  hills.  Mortality  caused  by  snakes 
has  greatly  diminished,  but  the  black  cobra,  the  karait,  and  the  kappar 
are  common.  An  unusually  large  species  of  the  first  [Bungarus 
sifidanus)  is  found  in  Rohri.  Pythons  are  occasionally  met  with  in 
Karachi  District. 

Owing  to  its  prevalent  aridity,  and  the  absence  of  the  monsoons,  the 
climate  of  Sind  ranks  among  the  hottest  and  most  variable  in  India. 
The  average  temperature  of  the  summer  months  is  95°,  and  that  of  the 
winter  months  60°.  But  the  thermometer  frequently  rises  in  summer  to 
114°  and  occasionally  to  120°,  while  in  winter  it  falls  at  night  a  few 
degrees  below  freezing-point,  and  ranges  even  in  the  daytime  from  40° 
to  80°.  No  other  part  of  India  has  so  long  a  continuance  of  excessively 
hot  weather,  owing  to  the  deficiency  of  rain.  The  climate  on  the  sea- 
coast,  however,  is  much  more  equable  in  temperature  than  in  Upper 
Sind ;  and  Karachi,  the  great  centre  of  European  population,  enjoys 
a  strong  sea-breeze,  which  blow\s  day  and  night  from  April  to  October. 


394  SIND 

In  Northern  Sind  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  strongly  marked. 
The  thermometer  at  Shikarpur  often  sinks  below  freezing-point  in 
winter,  and  ice  forms  as  late  as  February ;  yet  in  summer,  for  weeks 
together,  the  readings  at  midnight  do  not  fall  below  ioo°,  Jacobabad 
boasts  of  the  highest  temperature  yet  recorded  at  an  Indian  meteoro- 
logical station  (126°  in  June,  1897). 

On  the  verge  of  two  monsoons,  Sind  is  unrefreshed  by  either.  The 
south-west  monsoon  stops  at  Lakhpat,  in  Cutch,  in  the  south-east ;  the 
north-east  monsoon  passes  no  farther  than  Karachi  in  the  extreme 
south-west.  The  rainfall  of  Sind  is  thus  scanty  and  irregular,  and  it 
averages  only  about  8  inches.  The  record  of  series  of  almost  rainless 
seasons  is  occasionally  broken  by  a  sudden  excessive  fall.  Of  such 
deluges,  the  most  notable  occurred  at  Karachi  in  1902,  when  12  inches 
fell  in  24  hours. 

In  the  earliest  times  of  which  records  are  available  the  Aryans  were 
already  settled  on  the  Indus  and  traded  by  sea  with  both  East  Africa 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  (1000  B.C.).  About  five  hundred 
years  later  Darius  Hystaspes  conquered  the  whole  of 
the  Indus  valley  and  gave  a  further  impetus  to  trade,  which  led  to  the 
introduction  of  the  art  of  coining  money.  Persian  rule  in  Sind  had 
passed  away,  and  with  it  the  traffic  by  sea  with  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
Arabia,  before  the  advent  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  after  passing 
through  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  sailed  down  the  Indus  in  the  year 
325  B.C.  The  departure  of  Alexander  was  followed  by  the  rise  of  the 
Mauryan  empire,  which  included  within  its  boundaries  the  whole  of 
Northern  India  as  well  as  Gujarat  and  Sind.  When  this  empire  fell, 
the  Bactrian  Greeks  invaded  the  Punjab  about  200  B.C.;  and  it  is 
probable  that  both  Apollodotus  and  his  successor  Menander  ruled  over 
Sind  a  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  From  this  time  until 
the  7th  century  a.d.  India  was  the  scene  of  numerous  invasions  by  the 
^hordes  of  Central  Asia,  of  whom  the  EphthaHtes  or  White  Huns  settled 
in  Sind  and  established  the  Rai  dynasty  at  Alor  and  Brahmanabad.  At 
this  time  sun-worship  flourished  in  Northern  Sind,  while  Buddhism  had 
a  firm  hold  on  the  people  of  the  south.  The  Rai  dynasty  was  ter- 
minated by  the  usurpation  of  the  Brahman  minister  Chach,  whose 
family  was  soon  after  ousted  by  the  rising  power  of  the  Muhammadans. 
During  the  reign  of  Chach's  son  Dahir,  a  few  peaceful  Muhammadan 
merchants,  as  the  Arab  version  of  the  conquest  asserts,  who  had  been 
sent  into  Sind  by  the  Khalif  Abdul  Malik  to  purchase  female  slaves  and 
other  articles  of  lawful  commerce,  were  attacked  by  robbers,  and  either 
made  prisoners  or  killed  on  the  spot.  One  or  two  of  the  injured  mer- 
chants alone  escaped  to  make  their  complaints  to  the  Khalif,  and  the 
latter  readily  embraced  so  excellent  an  opportunity  of  spreading  Islam 
into  the  delta  of  the  Indus.     He  died  before  the  army  collected  for  the 


HISTORY  395 

purpose  could  invade  Sind  ;   but  his  son  dispatched  Muhammad  bin 
Kasim,  Sakifi,  to  carry  out  the  conquest  about  711. 

Muhammad  bin  Kasim  set  out  from  Shiraz  with  a  large  force,  and 
first  captured  the  seaport  of  Debal,  identified  by  some  with  Manora 
and  by  others  with  the  village  of  Kakar  Bukera  20  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Tatta,  or,  more  probably,  with  Tatta  itself.  Thence  he 
marched  upon  Nerankot,  the  modern  Hyderabad ;  and  after  its  capitu- 
lation he  next  took  the  strong  fortress  of  Sehwan.  Returning  to  Neran- 
kot, the  Musalman  leader  proceeded  to  cross  the  Indus,  whose  main 
channel  then  flowed  east  of  the  city,  and  successfully  engaged  the  army 
of  Raja  Dahir.  The  native  prince  was  slain  at  the  fort  of  Rawar,  while 
his  family  were  carried  away  prisoners  by  the  conqueror.  In  712 
ISIuhammad  bin  Kasim  arrived  at  the  capital,  Alor,  which  was  taken  ; 
and  then  advanced  upon  Multan  (in  the  present  Punjab  Province), 
which  submitted  with  an  immense  treasure.  The  end  of  the  first  great 
Musalman  conqueror  of  India  was  tragic.  The  story  runs  that  he  was 
falsely  accused  by  the  daughters  of  Dahir,  whom  he  had  dispatched  to 
his  master's  harem,  of  having  violated  their  chastity,  and  that  he  was 
thereupon  sewn  up  alive  in  a  raw  cow-hide  by  the  Khalif's  orders. 

Sind  remained  thenceforward,  with  scarcely  a  break,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Muhammadans,  but  the  hold  of  the  Khalifs  upon  this  distant  province 
grew  slowly  weaker,  and  became  virtually  extinct  in  871.  Two  Arab 
chiefs  founded  what  were  practically  independent  kingdoms  at  Multan 
and  Mansura.  The  former  comprised  the  upper  valley  of  the  united 
Indus  as  far  as  Aror ;  the  latter  extended  from  that  town  to  the  sea,  and 
nearly  coincided  with  the  modern  province  of  Sind.  The  country  was 
then  well  cultivated ;  and  Aror,  the  capital,  surrounded  by  a  double 
wall,  is  said  to  have  almost  equalled  Multan  in  size,  and  to  have 
possessed  a  considerable  commerce.  The  Arab  princes  apparently 
derived  but  a  very  small  revenue  from  Sind,  and  left  the  administration 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  natives.  Arab  soldiers  held  lands  on  military 
tenure,  and  liberal  grants  provided  for  the  sacred  buildings  and  institu- 
tions of  Islam.  Commerce  was  carried  on  by  caravans  with  Khorasan, 
Seistan,  and  Zabulistan,  and  by  sea  with  China,  Ceylon,  and  Malabar. 
The  Arabs  also  permitted  the  native  Sindls  the  free  exercise  of  their 
own  religion  to  a  considerable  extent. 

While  Mahmiid  of  Ghazni  was  leading  raids  upon  India,  early  in  the 
eleventh  century,  Sind  was  ruled  by  a  governor  who  nominally  repre- 
sented the  Khallf.  In  loio  Mahmud  captured  Multan,  and  in  1024 
appointed  his  Wazir,  Abdur  Razzak,  governor  of  the  provmce,  which 
was  subdued  by  1026.  In  1053  ihe  Sumras,  a  Rajput  tribe  in  Lower 
Sind,  taking  advantage  of  the  weak  and  indolent  character  of  the 
Ghazni  sovereign,  shook  off  their  allegiance  and  succeeded  in  establish- ' 
ing  a  chief  of  their  own  tribe  as  the  independent  ruler  of  the  eastern 

VOL.  XXII.  c  c 


396  SINB 

delta.  Their  authority  never  extended  to  Upper  Sind,  which  continued 
under  the  rule  of  Mahmud's  successors  and  thus  in  time  became  part 
of  the  Delhi  kingdom.  The  Sumras  were  eventually  overthrown  and 
their  capital,  Tur,  destroyed  by  the  troops  of  Ala-ud-din  KhiljT  about  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  or  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1333  the 
Sammas,  another  Rajput  tribe  of  Cutch  and  Lower  Sind,  following 
the  example  of  the  Sumras,  seized  the  reins  of  government  and  set  up 
a  ruler  of  their  own  under  the  title  of  Jam.  A  few  years  later  (about 
1340)  Tatta  w^as  founded  and  became  their  capital. 

The  connexion  of  Sind  with  the  rest  of  India  is  slight  during  this 
period ;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  province  was  conquered  by 
Muhammad  Ghori,  and  that  Kubacha,  who  held  it  for  him  and  for 
Kutb-ud-din,  the  first  of  the  Slave  kings  of  Delhi,  rebelled  after  the 
latter's  death,  but  was  overthrown  by  Altamsh.  In  1221  Jalal-ud-din, 
the  last  Shah  of  Khwarizm  (Khiva),  was  driven  into  Sind  by  his  enemy 
Chingiz  Khan.  '  The  adventures  of  this  heroic  prince,  who  battled  his 
way  back  through  Persia  only  to  succumb  after  a  decade  of  daring 
energy,  form  a  stirring  page  of  romantic  history."  Muhammad  bin 
Tughlak  died  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  in  135 1,  in  pursuit  of  a  rebel 
leader  whom  the  Sammas  had  sheltered. 

The  history  of  the  Sammas  after  their  accession  to  power  is  of  interest, 
by  reason  of  the  ability  with  which  they  held  their  own  in  several  cam- 
paigns against  the  forces  of  the  imperial  government,  and  by  reason  also 
of  the  conversion  of  large  numbers  of  people  from  Hinduism  to  Islam. 
The  first  ruler  of  the  line  was  a  Muhammadan  with  a  Hindu  name,  Jam 
Unar,  a  fact  which  seems  to  argue  recent  conversion.  Under  J  una,  the 
second  Jam,  Bukkur  in  Upper  Sind,  which  had  hitherto  been  held  on 
behalf  of  the  Sultan  of  Delhi,  was  added  to  the  Samma  dominions  ;  but 
under  his  successor,  Tamachi,  Firoz  Tughlak  retook  Bukkur  and  carried 
Tamachi  and  his  son,  Khair-ud-din,  captives  to  Delhi.  On  the  death 
of  Tamachi  a  few  years  later,  Khair-ud-dIn  was  released  and  allowed  to 
resume  the  government  of  Sind.  It  was  during  his  reign,  in  135 1,  that 
Muhammad  bin  Tughlak  entered  Sind  in  pursuit  of  the  rebel  whom 
Khair-ud-dln  had  sheltered.  Muhammad's  successor,  Firoz  Shah,  was 
so  harassed  by  the  Sammas  on  his  way  back  to  Delhi  that  eight  years 
later  he  returned  to  avenge  himself  upon  them,  accomplishing  his  pur- 
pose after  preliminary  failure.  The  Samma  kings  gradually  extended 
their  authority  over  the  whole  of  Sind,  the  zenith  of  their  fame  being 
reached  in  the  time  of  Jam  Nizam-ud-din,  better  known  as  Jam  Nanda, 
who  died  in  1509  after  a  reign  of  forty-six  years.  The  line  ended  with 
Jam  Firozj  who  was  conquered  by  Shah  Beg  Arghun  in  1520. 

The  Arghun  dynasty  traced  its  origin  to  Chingiz  Khan,  and  com- 
menced its  rule  in  Sind  in  1521.  The  first  prince  of  the  line,  Shah  Beg 
^  S.  Lane  Poole,  Mediaeval  India,  p.  71. 


HISTORY  397 

Arghun,  having  been  driven  out  of  Kandahar  by  Babar,  defeated  the 
Samma  army  in  1520,  and  sacked  Tatta,  the  capital  of  Jam  Firoz 
Samma.  By  a  subsequent  agreement  the  Jam  retained  all  Sind  between 
Sukkur  and  Tatta,  while  the  Shah  took  the  region  north  of  Lakhi.  But 
the  Sammas  soon  after  repudiated  this  agreement ;  and  a  battle  fought, 
probably  in  the  south-east  of  the  present  Hyderabad  District,  resulted 
in  their  utter  defeat  and  the  secure  establishment  of  the  Arghun  power. 
Shah  Beg  afterwards  captured  the  fort  of  Bukkur,  and  rebuilt  the  forti- 
fications with  bricks  taken  from  the  ancient  stronghold  of  Aror.  Just 
before  his  death  in  1522  he  made  preparations  to  invade  Gujarat,  but 
did  not  live  to  accomplish  his  purpose.  Shah  Beg  was  not  only  a  bold 
soldier,  but  also  a  learned  Musalman  theologian  and  commentator.  His 
son  and  successor,  Mirza  Shah  Hasan,  finally  drove  Jam  Firoz  from 
Tatta  to  Cutch,  and  at  length  to  Gujarat,  where  he  died.  During  Shah 
Hasan's  reign,  the  Mughal  emperor  Humayun  being  defeated  by  the 
Afghan  Sher  Shah  in  1540  fled  to  Sind,  where  he  endeavoured  un- 
successfully to  take  the  fort  of  Bukkur.  After  a  short  stay  in  Jodhpur, 
Humayun  returned  to  Sind  by  way  of  Umarkot  in  1542,  and  again 
attempted  without  success  to  conquer  the  country.  Shah  Hasan  died 
childless  in  1554,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  years,  and  with  him  ended 
the  Arghun  dynasty. 

A  short-lived  line,  the  Turkhan,  succeeded  and  witnessed  the  sack  of 
Tatta  in  1555  by  the  Portuguese;  but  in  1592  the  Mughal  emperor 
Akbar,  who  was  himself  born  at  Umarkot  during  the  flight  of  his  father 
Humayun,  defeated  Mirza  Jani  Beg,  ruler  of  Tatta,  and  united  Sind 
with  the  empire  of  Delhi.  The  province  was  incorporated  under 
Akbar's  organization  in  the  Subah  of  Multan.  During  the  flourishing 
period  of  the  Mughal  empire,  the  general  peace  of  the  great  monarchy 
extended  to  Sind,  and  but  few  historical  events  of  importance  occurred 
for  the  next  century.  In  the  interval,  however,  between  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  empire  by  Akbar  and  the  dismemberment  which  followed 
on  the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah,  the  Daudputras,  or  sons  of  Daud  Khan, 
rose  to  distinction.  Weavers  and  warriors  by  profession,  they  led  a  wild 
and  wandering  life  at  Khanpur,  Tarai,  and  throughout  the  Sukkur 
country.  After  a  long  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  Mahars,  a  race 
of  Hindu  origin,  the  Daudputras  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
supremacy  over  Upper  Sind,  and  founded  the  town  of  Shikarpur. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  another  race,  closely 
allied  to  the  Daudputras,  rose  to  power  in  the  lower  Indus  valley. 
The  Kalhoras  traced  their  descent  historically  to  Muhammad  of 
Kambatha  (1204),  and  more  mythically  to  Abbas,  the  uncle  of  the 
Prophet.  About  1558,  the  family  rose  into  notice  through  the  sanctity 
of  one  Adam  Shah,  the  chief  of  a  large  sect  of  mendicants  in  Chanduka, 
whom  the  governor  of  Multan  attacked  and  put  to  death.     The  fakirs 

c  c  2 


398  SIA'D 

descended  from  this  family  long  lived  a  life  of  warfare  against  the 
Mughal  lieutenants,  until  at  length,  in  1658,  under  Nasir  Muhammad 
Kalhora,  they  began  successfully  to  oppose  the  imperial  troops,  and 
to  organize  themselves  into  a  regular  government.  At  length,  about 
1 701,  Yar  Muhammad  Kalhora,  assisted  by  the  Sirai  or  Talpur  tribe, 
seized  upon  Shikarpur,  where  he  fixed  his  court,  and  obtained  from 
the  emperor  Aurangzeb  a  grant  of  the  tract  between  the  Indus  and 
the  Nara,  together  with  a  regular  title  (Khuda  Yar  Khan)  under  the 
imperial  system.  By  the  year  171 1  Yar  Muhammad  had  farther 
overrun  the  Kandiaro  and  Larkana  tracts,  as  well  as  the  country 
around  Sukkur. 

On  the  death  of  Yar  Muhammad  Kalhora,  in  17 19,  his  son  Nur 
Muhammad  succeeded  to  his  territories,  and  conquered  the  Shikarpur 
territory  from  the  Daudputras.  Sehwan  and  its  dependencies  also  fell 
under  his  rule,  and  his  territory  extended  from  the  Multan  border  to 
Tatta.  The  fort  of  Bukkur,  however,  did  not  come  into  the  possession 
of  the  Kalhoras  till  1736.  With  this  exception,  Nur  Muhammad's 
authority  stretched  from  the  desert  to  the  Baluchi  mountains.  During 
his  reign  the  Talpur  tribe  of  Baloch,  who  were  to  be  the  last  native 
rulers  of  Sind,  first  came  into  notice  in  the  person  of  Mir  Bahram, 
an  able  officer  of  the  Kalhora  kings.  When  Nadir  Shah,  the  Persian 
conqueror,  swooped  upon  Delhi  in  February,  1739,  and  broke  down 
the  decaying  Mughal  organization,  all  the  provinces  west  of  the  Indus 
were  detached  from  the  empire  and  incorporated  with  the  Persian 
dominions.  Tatta  and  Shikarpur  formed  part  of  the  territory  thus 
c^ded  to  Nadir  Shah.  Shortly  after  his  return  to  Kabul,  Nadir  set 
out  upon  a  second  expedition  against  Sind  and  the  Punjab,  in  order 
to  repress  his  troublesome  vassal  Nur  Muhammad.  Two  years  earlier, 
the  Kalhora  prince  had  persuaded  Sadik  Ali,  subahddr  of  Tatta,  to 
make  over  that  province  in  return  for  a  sum  of  3  lakhs ;  and  this 
transaction  apparently  aroused  the  anger  of  his  new  suzerain.  On 
Nadir's  approach  Nur  Muhammad  at  first  fled  to  Umarkot,  but 
afterwards  surrendered  with  the  loss  of  Shikarpur  and  Sibi,  which  the 
Shah  made  over  to  the  Daudputras  and  Afghans.  An  annual  tribute 
of  20  lakhs  was  also  imposed  upon  the  Kalhora  prince. 

On  Nadir  Shah's  death  Sind  became  tributary,  in  1748,  to  Ahmad 
Shah,  Durrani.  In  1754,  the  tribute  being  in  arrears,  Ahmad  Shah 
advanced  against  Sind,  and  Nur  Muhammad  fled  to  Jaisalmer,  where 
he  died.  His  son,  Muhammad  Murad  Yar  Khan,  managed  to  appease 
the  Afghan  ruler,  and  obtained  a  confirmation  of  his  rank  and  power. 
He  founded  the  town  of  Muradabad.  In  1757  his  subjects  rose 
against  his  oppressive  government  and  dethroned  him,  placing  his 
brother  Ghulam  Shah  upon  the  throne.  The  new  prince,  in  1762, 
invaded  Cutch,  and  during  the  next  year  took  the  seaports  of  Basta 


HISTORY  399 

and  Lakhpat  on  the  Indus.  In  176S  he  founded  the  city  of  Hyder- 
abad on  the  ancient  site  of  Nerankot.  During  the  early  part  of  his 
reign,  in  1758,  the  East  India  Company  estabh'shed  a  factory  at  Tatta. 
Sarfaraz  Khan,  his  son  and  successor  (1772),  discouraged  the  Company's 
operations,  and  the  factory  was  eventually  withdrawn  in  1775.  Soon 
afterwards  the  Baloch  deposed  the  chief,  and  two  years  of  anarchy 
followed.  In  1777  Ghulam  Nabi  Khan,  a  brother  of  Ghulam  Shah, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  throne.  During  his  reign  Mir  Bijar,  a 
Talpur  chief,  rose  in  rebellion,  and  in  the  battle  between  them  the 
Kalhora  prince  lost  his  life.  Abdun  Nabi  Khan,  his  brother,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  made  a  compromise  with  Mir  Bijar,  retaining 
the  sovereignty  for  himself,  but  appointing  the  Talpur  chief  as  his 
minister.  In  1781  an  Afghan  army  invaded  Sind,  where  the  tribute 
remained  always  in  a  chronic  state  of  arrears,  but  Mir  Bijar  defeated 
it  near  Shikarpur.  Thereupon,  Abdun  Nabi  Khan  assassinated  his 
too  successful  general.  Abdullah  Khan  Talpur,  son  of  the  murdered 
man,  at  once  seized  upon  the  government,  and  the  last  of  the  Kalhoras 
fled  to  Kalat.  Thence  he  made  many  unsuccessful  efforts  to  regain 
his  kingdom,  and  at  last  re-established  himself  for  a  while  by  Afghan 
aid.  But  on  his  putting  Abdullah  Khan  to  death,  Mir  Fateh  All, 
a  kinsman  of  the  murdered  Talpur,  once  more  expelled  him.  The 
Kalhora  king  made  a  final  effort  to  recover  his  throne ;  but,  being 
defeated  by  Mir  Fateh  All,  he  fled  to  Jodhpur,  where  his  descendants 
still  hold  distinguished  rank.  With  him  ended  the  dynasty  of  the 
Kalhoras. 

In  1783  Mir  Fateh  All  Khan,  first  of  the  Talpur  line,  established 
himself  as  Rais  of  Sind  and  obtained  ^farmdn  from  the  Afghan  Shah 
Zaman  for  its  government.  The  history  of  Sind  under  its  new  dynasty — ■ 
generally  spoken  of  as  the  Talpur  Mirs— is  rendered  very  complicated 
by  the  numerous  branches  into  which  the  ruling  house  split  up.  Fateh 
All  Khan's  nephew,  Mir  Sohrab  Khan,  settled  with  his  adherents  at 
Rohri ;  his  son,  Mir  Tharo  Khan,  removed  to  Shahbandar ;  and  each 
of  them  occupied  the  adjacent  country  as  an  independent  ruler, 
throwing  off  all  allegiance  to  the  head  of  their  house  at  Hyderabad. 

The  Talpurs  thus  fell  into  three  distinct  branches — the  Hyderabad 
or  Shahdadpur  family,  ruling  in  central  Sind  ;  the  Mirpur  or  Manikani 
house,  descendants  of  Mir  Tharo,  ruling  at  Mirpur ;  and  the  Sohrabani 
line,  derived  from  Mir  Sohrab,  ruling  at  Khairpur.  Further,  to  increase 
the  complication,  Fateh  All,  head  of  the  Hyderabad  Mirs,  associated 
with  himself  in  the  government  his  three  younger  brothers,  Ghulam 
All,  Karram  All,  and  Murad  All.  He  then  turned  his  attention  to 
the  recovery  of  Karachi  and  Umarkot.  The  former,  alienated  to  the 
Khan  of  Kalat,  he  recovered  in  1795;  the  latter,  held  by  the  Raja 
of  Jodhpur,  the  Mirs  regained  in  1813.     In  180 1  Mir  Fateh  All  died, 


400  SIND 

leaving  one  son,  Sobhdar,  and  bequeathing  his  dominions  to  his  three 
brothers.  Of  these,  Ghulam  All  died  in  1811,  and  left  a  son,  Mir 
Muhammad ;  but  the  two  surviving  brothers  retained  the  chief  power 
in  Hyderabad.  Karram  All  died  without  issue  in  1828  ;  but  Murad 
All  left  two  sons,  Nur  Muhammad  and  NasTr  Khan.  Up  to  1840  the 
government  of  Hyderabad  was  carried  on  by  these  two  Mlrs,  together 
with  their  cousins,  Sobhdar  and  Mir  Muhammad.  The  Talpur  Mirs 
adorned  Hyderabad  and  its  rival  Khudabad  with  many  handsome 
buildings,  of  which  their  own  tombs  are  the  most  remarkable. 

The  first  connexion  of  the  British  with  Sind  took  place  as  early  as 
1758,  in  the  matter  of  the  factory  at  Tatta.  In  1799  a  commercial 
mission  was  sent  to  Sind,  to  conduct  business  between  the  British  and 
the  Talpur  Mirs  ;  but  it  ended  unsatisfactorily.  The  agent  resided  from 
time  to  time  at  Tatta,  Shahbandar,  or  Karachi,  and  endured  numerous 
indignities,  until  at  length  he  received  a  peremptory  order  from  the 
Mirs  to  quit  their  territory.  The  East  India  Company  took  no  notice 
of  this  insult.  In  1809  an  arrangement  was  effected  between  the  Mirs 
and  the  Company,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  the  French 
from  settling  in  Sind.  In  1825  the  Khosas,  a  Baloch  tribe,  made 
incursions  into  Cutch,  and  a  military  demonstration  became  necessary 
as  a  preventive  measure.  In  1830  Lieutenant  (afterwards  Sir  Alexander) 
Burnes,  after  many  delays  and  threats  on  the  part  of  the  Mirs,  was 
permitted  to  follow  up  the  course  of  the  Indus,  then  unexplored,  taking 
with  him  presents  from  the  King  of  England  to  Ranjit  Singh  at  Lahore. 
Two  years  later  Colonel  Pottinger  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Hyder- 
abad Mirs  for  the  advancement  of  commerce,  by  which  traders  and 
merchants  were  permitted  to  use  the  roads  and  rivers  of  Sind,  though 
no  Englishman  might  settle  in  the  country.  The  Khairpur  Mirs  also 
ratified  this  treaty.  In  1835  Colonel  Pottinger  obtained  leave  to  survey 
the  sea-coast  of  Sind  and  the  delta  of  the  Indus  ;  yet  trade  did  not 
enter  the  river,  and  the  Mirs  clearly  mistrusted  the  intentions  of  their 
powerful  neighbours. 

In  1838  the  first  Afghan  ^^'ar  necessitated  the  dispatch  of  British 
troops  to  join  the  main  army  by  way  of  the  Indus,  in  spite  of  a  clause 
in  the  treaty  expressly  forbidding  the  employment  of  the  river  as  a 
military  highway.  Lord  Auckland  considered  that  so  great  an  emer- 
gency overrode  the  text  of  the  agreement.  In  December  of  that  year 
a  large  force  under  Sir  John  Keane  landed  in  Sind,  but  found  itself 
unable  to  proceed,  owing  to  the  obstacles  thrown  in  its  way  by  the 
Mirs  in  withholding  stores  and  carriage.  After  a  threat  to  march  upon 
Hyderabad,  Sir  John  Keane  at  length  succeeded  in  continuing  his 
course.  Owing  to  this  hostile  demeanour,  a  reserve  force  was  dis- 
patched from  Bombay  in  1839  to  take  up  its  station  in  Sind.  The 
Baloch  garrison  at  Manora,  near  Karachi,  endeavoured  to  prevent  it 


HISTORY  4or 

from  landing,  and  the  British  accordingly  found  it  necessary  to  occupy 
that  fort. 

A  treaty  was  afterwards,  in  1839,  concluded  with  the  Hyderabad 
Mlrs,  by  which  they  agreed  to  pay  23  lakhs  to  Shah  Shuja,  in  com- 
mutation of  all  arrears  of  tribute  due  to  the  Afghans ;  to  admit  the 
establishment  in  Sind  of  a  British  force  not  exceeding  5,000  men,  the 
expenses  being  defrayed  in  part  by  the  Mirs  themselves  ;  and  finally, 
to  abolish  all  tolls  upon  trading  boats  on  the  Indus.  The  Khairpur 
Mirs  concluded  a  similar  treaty,  except  as  regards  the  subsidy.  The 
British  then  took  possession  of  the  fort  of  Bukkur,  under  the  terms  of 
the  engagement.  By  careful  conciliatory  measures,  the  British  repre- 
sentatives secured  the  tranquillity  of  the  country,  so  that  a  steam  flotilla 
navigated  the  Indus  unimpeded.  Nur  Muhammad,  the  senior  Hyder- 
abad Mir,  died  in  1841,  and  the  government  passed  to  his  two  sons, 
conjointly  with  their  uncle,  NasTr  Khan. 

In  1842  Sir  Charles  Napier  arrived  in  Sind,  with  sole  authority  over 
all  the  territory  on  the  lower  Indus.  New  conditions  were  proposed 
to  the  Mirs,  owing  to  delay  in  payment  of  the  tribute,  these  terms 
including  the  cession  of  Karachi,  Tatta,  Sukkur,  Bukkur,  and  Rohri. 
After  some  delay  and  a  slight  military  demonstration,  the  treaty  was 
signed  in  February,  1843.  But  the  Baloch  composing  the  Sindi  army 
did  not  acquiesce  in  this  surrender  of  independence ;  and  shortly  after- 
wards they  attacked  the  Residency,  which  stood  near  the  Indus,  a  few 
miles  from  Hyderabad.  The  Resident  (Major  Outram)  and  his  small 
suite,  after  defending  the  building  for  a  short  time,  found  themselves 
compelled  to  retreat  and  soon  after  joined  Sir  C.  Napier's  force.  On 
February  17,  1843,  Napier  found  the  Mirs'  army,  22,000  strong, 
posted  on  the  Fuleli  river  near  Miani.  He  gave  them  battle  with  only 
2,800  men  of  all  arms  and  12  pieces  of  artillery,  and  gained  a  com- 
plete and  brilliant  victory.  The  Baloch  loss  amounted  to  about 
5,000  men,  while  that  of  the  British  did  not  exceed  257.  Shortly 
after,  the  chief  Mirs  of  Hyderabad  and  Khairpur  surrendered  as  pri- 
soners of  war,  and  the  fort  of  Hyderabad  was  captured,  together  with 
the  Mirs'  treasure,  computed  at  about  a  crore  of  rupees.  In  March 
Napier  received  reinforcements  from  Sukkur,  and  went  in  search  of 
the  rest  of  the  enemy,  with  5,000  men.  He  found  the  Baloch  army, 
20,000  strong,  under  Sher  Muhammad  of  Mirpur,  in  a  strong  position 
near  Dabo.  After  a  desperate  resistance,  the  Sindls  fled  in  disorder, 
their  leader  retreating  to  the  desert.  Soon  afterwards  our  troops 
occupied  Mirpur  Khas  and  Umarkot.  Sind  was  declared  a  conquered 
country,  and  annexed  to  the  British  dominions,  with  the  exception  of 
the  present  Khairpur  State,  which  was  made  over  to  All  Murad,  one 
of  the  Khairpur  Mirs  who  had  supported  the  British  policy. 

The  Talpur  family  thus  ceased  to  be  a  ruling  power,  save  in  Khair- 


402  SIND 

pur,  after  a  sovereignty  of  53  years.  The  Mirs  were  removed  succes- 
sively to  Bombay,  Poona,  and  Calcutta  ;  but  in  1854  Lord  Dalhousie 
allowed  them  to  return  to  Sind  and  take  up  their  residence  at  Hyder- 
abad. Under  the  Talpurs  the  government  of  Sind  consisted  of  a  rude 
military  feudalism.  The  Mirs  themselves  had  litde  education  or 
refinement,  and  lived  in  primitive  Baloch  simplicity,  their  extravagant 
propensities  being  shown  in  their  fondness  for  horses,  arms,  and  field 
sports.  Their  sole  aim  was  to  hoard  up  wealth,  oppose  all  improve- 
ments, and  enjoy  themselves  after  their  own  fashion. 

Immediately  after  annexation  Sir  C  Napier  was  appointed  the 
first  British  Governor,  while  a  pension  of  3I  lakhs,  together  with  lands 
in  j'dglr,  was  distributed  amongst  the  deposed  Mirs.  The  judicial  and 
revenue  systems  underwent  a  speedy  remodelling,  and  the  province  was 
divided  into  extensive  Districts.  The  wild  border  tribes  were  reduced 
to  order  by  the  skilful  management  of  General  John  Jacob.  Since  the 
British  annexation  the  chief  events  in  Sind  have  consisted  of  com- 
mercial improvements,  including  especially  the  immense  harbour  works 
at  Karachi,  which  have  rendered  the  modern  capital  one  of  the  most 
important  seaports  of  India.  Under  the  Commissionership  of  Sir 
Bartle  Frere  (185 1-9),  in  whose  time  the  province  was  so  peaceful  that 
he  was  able  to  send  his  only  European  regiment  to  the  Punjab  during 
the  Mutiny,  Sind  took  most  important  steps  in  the  direction  of  mercan- 
tile progress  ;  and  at  a  later  date  the  construction  of  the  Indus  valley 
portion  of  what  is  now  the  North- Western  Railway  contributed  greatly 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  by  linking  Karachi  with  the  wheat- 
growing  tracts  of  the  Punjab. 

In  1 88 1  a  staff  of  village  officers  was  organized  in  Sind,  and  the 
present  system  of  irrigation  settlements  introduced,  under  which  the 
assessment  depends  on  the  means  of  irrigation  used.  Of  recent  years 
Sind  has  progressed  rapidly  in  population  and  prosperity ;  Karachi  is 
now  a  very  important  port,  with  a  steadily  growing  export  of  wheat, 
cotton,  and  oilseeds.  ( iiltivation  is  extending  as  schemes  of  immigration 
bring  settlers  for  the  lands  watered  by  the  new  canals.  Sind  now  con- 
tains more  Baloch  inhabitants  than  the  whole  of  Baluchistan.  There 
are  numerous  settlers  from  the  Punjab  on  the  Jamrao  Canal  ;  and 
the  future  of  the  province,  which  knows  not  famine,  seems  assured. 

The  most  famous  ruins  are  at  Brahmanabad  in  Thar  and  Parkar 
District.  Throughout  the  province  are  scattered  remains  of  Muham- 
madan  buildings,  built  of  burnt  bricks  decorated  with  enamelled  tiles 
in  beautiful  patterns.  These  bear  legible  inscriptions  in  Arabic 
characters.  The  finest  specimens  are  at  Tatta,  and  include  the  tomb 
of  Jam  Nizam-ud-dln,  built  in  great  part  from  the  remains  of  some 
magnificent  Hindu  temples  ;  Dlwan  Sarfa  Khan's  tomb,  with  an  ela- 
borately carved  gravestone,  and  a  7nihrah  decorated  with  glazed  blue 


rOPULA  TTON 


403 


and  white  tiles  ;  Nawab  Isa  Khan's  torn)),  decorated  throughout  witli 
surface  tracery;  and  the  great  Jama  Masjid,  built  in  1647  and  still  in 
use.  In  Sehwan  there  are  the  remains  of  an  old  fort  which  legend 
ascribes  to  Alexander,  besides  other  forts  known  as  Charlo  Rani-jo-kot, 
Kot  Nurpur,  Dharnjo,  and  Dilniji.  Later  tile-work  is  found  in  abundance 
upon  the  Talpur  tombs  at  Hyderabad.  In  the  delta  of  the  Indus  are 
sites  of  many  ruined  cities,  such  as  Lahori,  Kakar  Bukera,  Samui,  Fateh- 
bagh,  Kat  Bambhan,  Jun,  Thari,  Badin,  and  Tur.  Close  to  the  village 
of  Virawah  in  Thar  and  Parkar  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  and  once 
prosperous  city,  Pari  Nagar,  said  to  have  been  founded  in  a.  d.  456 
by  Jeso  Paramara  of  Balmir,  and  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  Muhammadans.  In  these  ruins  are  the  fragments  of  many  Jain 
temples. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  area  and  popu- 
lation of  Sind  according  to  the  Census  of  1901  :  — 


Population. 


Districts  and 
States. 

Area 
in 

square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Total  population. 

Urban  popul 

ition. 

Persons 

per 
square 
mile  in 
rural 
areas. 

1 

.0 

> 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Persons. 

Males. 

Females. 

Hyderabad      . 
Karachi   . 
Sukkur     . 
Larkana  . 
Thar  and  Parkar     . 
Upper  Sind  Frontier 

Total  British  ) 
Territory  i 

Khairpur  . 

Grand  total 

8,291 
11,970 

5,403 

5,091 
13,690 

2,621 

7 
5 

5 
5 
3 

I 

1,405 
628 
606 
708 

666 
390 

989,030 
446,513 
523.345 
656,083 
363,894 
232,045 

544,420 
248,816 
281,847 
354,103 
202,727 
129,877 

444,610 
197,697 
241,498 
301,980 
161,167 
102,168 

103,105 
140,052 

100,719 

32.175 
10,517 
10,787 

54,862 
80,715 
54,414 
17.505 
5.701 
6,547 

219,744 

48,243 
59,337 
46,305 
14,670 
4,816 
4,240 

19 
26 
78 
123 
26 
84 

47,066 

26 

4,403 

3,210,910 

1,761,790 

1,449,120 

397,355 

177,611 

60 

6,050 

I 

153 

199.313 

108,766 

90,547 

14,014 

7.346 

6,668 

36 

53,116 

27 

4,556 

3,410,223 

1,870,556 

1.539.667 

411,369 

227,090 

184,279 

57 

Including  towns,  the  average  density  is  64  persons  per  square  mile. 
The  population,  which  is  extremely  scattered  in  all  parts  of  the  pro- 
vince, gathers  thickest  in  Larkana  (129  per  square  mile),  Hyderabad 
(119),  and  Sukkur  (97).  In  the  Frontier  District  of  Upper  Sind,  the 
density  falls  to  89.  The  extensive  District  of  Karachi,  though  it  con- 
tains the  capital  town  and  largest  commercial  centre,  has  but  37  persons 
to  the  square  mile ;  in  the  Khairpur  State  the  density  is  only  33  ;  and 
in  the  wide  but  desert  expanse  of  Thar  and  Parkar  District  it  does  not 
exceed  27. 

Of  the  4,429  towns  and  villages  of  British  Sind,  2,367  contain  less 
than  500  inhabitants;  1,200  between  500  and  1,000;  693  between 
1,000  and  2,000  ;  150  between  2,000  and  5,000  ;  12  between  5,000  and 
10,000;  3  between  10,000  and  20,000  ;  2  between  20,000  and  50,000; 
and  2  above  50,000. 

Karachi,   the  capital  city,  had   a   population   in    1901   of   116,663 


404  SIiYD 

persons,  including  8,019  i"  cantonments;  but  its  commercial  impor- 
tance is  far  greater  than  this  total  would  seem  to  imply,  Shikarpur, 
still  a  depot  of  transit  trade  with  the  Bolan  Pass  and  Khorasan,  had,  in 
1901,  49,491 ;  Hyderabad  City,  the  Talpur  capital,  69,378,  including 
4,588  in  cantonments.  The  other  chief  towns  and  places  of  interest 
include  Ai.or,  the  capital  of  Sind  under  its  Hindu  Rajas  ;  Brahman- 
ABAD,  a  mass  of  extensive  ruins  of  very  great  antiquity  near  Shahdadpur ; 
the  fortified  island  of  Bukkur  in  the  Indus ;  Keti,  the  port  on  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Indus  (2,727) ;  Khairpur,  the  capital  of  the 
State  of  the  same  name ;  Kotri,  the  station  on  the  North-Western 
Railway  opposite  Hyderabad  city  (7,617) ;  Larkana,  the  head-quarters 
of  the  newly  formed  District  of  that  name  (14,543);  Rohri  (9,537) ; 
Sehwan  (5,244);  the  deserted  port  of  Shahbandar;  Sukkur,  the 
great  inland  port  of  the  Indus,  and  point  of  departure  for  the  line 
of  rail  to  Quetta  (31,316);  Tatta,  the  old  emporium  on  the  sea-board 
(10,783);  Jacobabad,  the  military  station  of  the  Frontier  District 
(10,787,  including  3,107  in  cantonments);  Umarkot  (4,924),  Akbar's 
birthplace;  Mirpur  Khas  (2,787),  a  rising  town  in  the  Jamrao 
tract  ;  and  Tando  Adam  (8,664),  an  important  trading  centre  in 
Hyderabad. 

Sind  is  very  sparsely  populated  even  at  the  present  day.  No 
statistics  are  available  as  to  the  number  of  inhabitants  under  its 
native  rulers,  though  a  probable  conjecture  sets  it  down  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  at  not  more  than  1,000,000,  or  only 
about  16  persons  per  square  mile.  A  Census  taken  in  1856,  exclusive 
of  the  Khairpur  State,  returned  the  population  at  1,772,367.  A  more 
accurate  enumeration  undertaken  in  1872  gave  the  total,  again  exclud- 
ing the  Khairpur  State,  at  2,206,565,  thus  showing  a  gain  of  434,198 
persons,  or  26  per  cent.,  in  the  fifteen  years.  The  Census  of  1881 
disclosed  a  total  population  in  British  Districts  of  2,417,057,  which  had 
increased  to  2,875,100  in  1891.  In  190X  the  population  was  12  per 
cent,  greater  than  at  the  previous  Census,  a  striking  increase  of  over 
1,000,000  having  taken  place  in  thirty  years. 

The  main  feature  of  this  increase,  which  is  found  in  every  District 
of  the  province,  seems  to  be  the  influx  of  foreigners,  chiefly  from  the 
adjacent  territories  and  the  Punjab.  In  Karachi,  as  in  the  city  of 
Bombay  and  other  large  seaports,  the  indigenous  population  is  in  the 
minority.  Much  of  the  increase  in  the  more  rural  parts  of  the  province 
may  be  attributed  to  the  general  development  of  the  people,  under  the 
influence  of  prosperous  harvests  and  improved  means  of  access  to 
markets.  The  rate  of  increase  in  the  towns  has  been  generally  higher 
than  in  the  surrounding  country.  Karachi  owes  its  prosperity  to  the 
development  of  its  sea  trade,  and  to  the  opening  of  direct  railway 
communication    with    Upper    India    and    the    western    frontier.     The 


poPUf.A  rroN  405 

extension  of  railway  communication  has  adversely  affected  Sukkur 
and  Shikarpur,  which  depended  largely  on  their  overland  and  river 
traffic. 

The  collection  and  registration  of  vital  statistics  does  not  differ 
materially  in  system  from  the  rest  of  the  Presidency.  The  average 
birth-rate  per  1,000  in  the  province  for  the  year  1904  is  22,  the  highest 
being  26  in  Sukkur  and  the  lowest  18  in  Hyderabad  ;  while  the  death- 
rate  is  17,  the  highest  being  25  in  Karachi  and  the  lowest  12  in  Upper 
vSind  Frontier.  The  mortality  is  swelled  by  the  fever  which  prevails 
after  the  annual  inundations  have  subsided  with  the  arrival  of  the  cold 
season.     Other  common  diseases  are  smallpox  and  cholera. 

Plague  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  Karachi  city  in  December, 
1896,  having  probably  been  introduced  from  Bombay.  From  Karachi 
it  spread  to  Hyderabad  in  January,  1897,  and  to  Sukkur  in  the  fol- 
lowing month.  The  epidemic  in  Sukkur  and  the  neighbouring  town 
of  Rohri  was  virulent ;  but  very  effective  measures  of  repression  and 
disinfection  were  adopted  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  1,20,000,  and  there  has  been 
no  recrudescence  of  the  disease.  Shikarpur  has  altogether  escaped 
attack ;  Hyderabad  has  been  free  on  several  occasions  of  varying 
duration  ;  but  Karachi  has  enjoyed  no  respite,  save  for  a  few  weeks, 
since  the  first  outbreak.  Plague  has  exercised  little  effect  on  the  popu- 
lation, except  in  Karachi  city.  During  the  seven  years  preceding  the 
outbreak  the  average  annual  birth-rate  for  the  city  was  47  per  1,000, 
and  the  average  annual  death-rate  37.  This  difference  of  10  represents 
the  normal  growth  of  population,  apart  from  variations  owing  to  migra- 
tion. For  the  seven  years  ending  1903  the  birth-rate  declined  to  42 
and  the  death-rate  rose  to  70,  showing  that  the  population  was  annually 
decreasing  at  the  rate  of  28  per  1,000.  Adding  to  this  the  potential 
loss  of  normal  accretion,  the  full  effect  of  plague  is  expressed  by  an 
annual  loss  of  38  per  1,000.  In  Karachi  the  number  of  deaths 
ascribed  to  plague  from  its  commencement  up  to  the  end  of  1903 
is  about  18,000,  but  in  reality  was  probably  larger.  The  mortality  in 
Hyderabad  and  Sukkur  Districts  up  to  the  close  of  1903  was  3,581 
and  697  respectively. 

Classified  according  to  sex,  the  native  population  of  British  Districts 
in  1901  consisted  of — males  1,758,432,  and  females  1,447,649.  The 
European  element  was  represented  by  4,829  persons  :  namely,  males 
3,358,  and  females  1,471.  Classified  according  to  sex  and  age,  there 
were  returned  (i)  under  15  years — boys  704,544,  and  girls  584,785  ; 
total  children  1,289,329,  or  40  per  cent. ;  (ii)  of  15  years  and  upwards — 
males  1,057,246,  and  females  864,335;  total  adults  1,921,581,  or  60 
per  cent.  In  Sind  the  proportion  of  females  has  always  been  notably 
low.  So  far,  no  complete  explanation  is  forthcoming  of  this  peculiarity  ; 
but  it  is  doubtless  due,  in  some  measure,  to  a  large  portion  of  the 


4o6  SIND 

population  being  recently  arrived  immigrants,  who  leave  their  women 
behind. 

Of  the  total  population  in  British  Districts  the  unmarried  number 
1,626,175  ;  the  married  1,298,630  ;  and  the  widowed  286,105,  of  whom 
two-thirds  are  women.  The  proportion  of  widowed  is  considerably  less 
than  in  the  rest  of  the  Presidency,  doubtless  owing  to  the  absence  of 
prejudice  against  widow  marriage  among  the  majority  of  the  population, 
which  is  Muhammadan.  The  premier  Hindu  caste  of  Sind,  namely, 
the  Lohanas,  do  not  favour  widow  marriage,  though  it  is  not  forbidden. 
It  is  noteworthy  that,  in  some  sections  of  the  Lohana  caste,  the  practice 
of  marrying  a  widow  to  her  deceased  husband's  younger  brother  still 
prevails. 

More  than  five-sixths  of  the  population  of  Sind  speak  Sindl.  The 
only  other  languages  of  importance  are  Rajasthani,  Baluchi,  and  Pun- 
jabi, spoken  by  immigrants  from  Rajputana,  Baluchistan,  and  the 
Punjab.  Gujarat!  is  spoken  in  parts  of  Thar  and  Parkar  and  in 
Karachi  city.  Sind!  belongs  to  the  north-western  group  of  Indo-Aryan 
languages,  and  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  Prakrit  than  either 
MarathT  or  Gujarat!,  having  preserved  numerous  phonetic  and  gram- 
matical forms  that  have  dropped  out  of  other  vernaculars.  In  Karachi 
and  Hyderabad,  a  dialect  of  Sindl  known  as  Siraiki  is  spoken.  Another 
known  as  Larl  is  the  literary  dialect,  dealt  with  in  grammars  of  the 
language.  Sindl  literature  consists  mainly  of  translations  from  Arabic 
and  Persian,  chiefly  theological  works,  and  a  few  rude  national  ballads. 

Classified  by  religion,  the  Muhammadans  number  2,446,489,  or 
76  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  in  British  Districts ;  Hindus, 
751,252;  Christians,  7,817;  ParsTs,  2,000;  Jains,  921;  and  Jews,  428. 
The  Sikhs,  of  whom  a  considerable  number  were  returned  in  previous 
years,  are  concealed  in  the  Census  statistics  of  1901  under  the  denomi- 
nation of  Nanakpanthi  Hindus.  They  probably  amount  to  150,000. 
The  Musalmans  by  race  are  divided  into  Afghans  or  Pathans,  Arabs, 
Baloch,  Brahuis,  Jats,  Makranis,  Mughals,  Sindis,  Shaikhs,  and  the 
menial  or  slave  tribes,  including  those  of  African  descent. 

Of  these  ten  divisions,  the  Jat  and  Makrani  are  allied  to  the  Baloch. 
Arabs,  numbering  122,000,  are  largely  Saiyids,  or  at  least  claim  this 
distinction.  Shaikhs,  who  are  partly  Arab,  but  mainly  Hindu  converts, 
number  32,000.  The  Afghans  reside  chiefly  in  Sukkur  and  Shikarpur 
Districts,  and  are  greatly  superior  to  the  Sindis  in  physical  development 
and  personal  courage.  The  Baloch  consist  of  many  tribes,  originally 
wild  mountaineers  from  the  barren  hills  to  the  westward,  who  settled 
in  Sind  under  the  Talpur  dynasty  and  received  large  jagirs  in  return 
for  military  service.  They  are  fairer,  more  powerful,  and  hardier  than 
the  Sindis ;  they  have  genuine,  though  peculiar,  ideas  of  honour ;  and 
they  are  brave  soldiers  with  a  large  share  of  national  pride.     They  are> 


POPULATION 

on  the  other  hand,  grossly  illiterate,  rough  in  manners  and  debauched, 
violent  and  revengeful,  and  addicted  to  coarse  amusements.  Formerly 
inveterate  cattle  thieves,  they  are  now  less  given  to  dishonest  prac- 
tices. In  religion  they  belong  to  the  Sunni  sect,  though  the  Talpur 
Mirs,  on  arrival  in  Sind,  adopted  the  Shiah  persuasion.  The  Baloch 
number  514,000,  divided  into  sixteen  main  tribes.  Of  Uiese,  the  most 
important  numerically  is  the  Rind,  with  its  offshoots,  the  Dombki, 
Khosa,  Jamali,  Jakrani,  and  Lighari,  who  all  claim  descent  from  Rind, 
the  grandson  of  the  mythical  progenitor  of  the  Baloch  tribes,  Harin. 
After  the  Rind  group  come  the  Chandias  and  Burdis.  Of  the  Marri 
and  Bugti  tribes,  who  are  famous  on  the  frontier,  only  a  small  number 
are  found  in  Sind.  The  Talpurs,  included  in  the  Marri  tribe  in  the 
Census,  claim  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Rind.  From  the  Census  of  1901 
it  appears  that  the  Baloch  in  Sind  consist  of  Rind  and  allied  tribes, 
254,000;  Chandias,  72,000;  Burdis,  65,000;  others,  117,000.  The 
Sindls,  numbering  over  a  million,  represent  the  original  Hindu  popu- 
lation, converted  to  Islam  under  the  Abbaside  Khalifs.  They  are 
taller  and  more  robust  than  the  natives  of  the  rest  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  of  dark  complexion  and  muscular  frame.  Their  detractors 
represent  them  as  idle  and  apathetic,  addicted  to  drunkenness  and 
other  vices,  and  wanting  in  personal  cleanliness.  Though  naturally 
indolent,  they  are  capable  of  sustained  effort ;  they  are  kindly,  inoffen- 
sive, and  on  the  whole  honest.  In  religion,  they  are  Sunnis.  Of  the 
numerous  tribal  divisions  of  the  Sindis,  the  Sumro  and  Samo,  repre- 
senting the  dynasties  which  ruled  in  Sind  from  the  eleventh  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  are  interesting.  They  number  102,000  and  733,000 
respectively,  and  form  the  majority  of  the  Sindis.  The  Muhanos 
(107,383)  are  boatmen  and  fishermen,  forming  a  distinct  section  with 
peculiar  customs. 

The  Hindus  occupy  in  Sind  a  position  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Musalmans  in  the  rest  of  the  Presidency,  being  in  the  minority  and 
greatly  influenced  by  the  former  predominance  of  Musalman  ideas. 
The  Brahmans  are  illiterate  and  depraved,  and  form  a  very  small 
proportion  (  0-4  per  cent.)  of  the  population.  The  premier  Hindu 
caste  is  here  the  Lohanas,  who  represent  half  the  total  Hindu  popu- 
lation. They  are  the  Banias  or  merchants  of  Sind.  The  x\mil  section 
of  the  Lohanas  are  clerks  and  writers ;  they  wear  the  Musalman  beard. 
The  castes  of  numerical  importance  are:  Lohanas,  4i3,oooj]Dhers, 
70,000;  Kolis,  32,000;  Rajputs,  26,000;  and  Brahmans,  13,000. 
Among  the  Christians  of  the  province,  4^437  are  Roman  Catholics, 
3,136  belong  to  the  Anglican  communion,  and  244  are  of  other  sects. 
There  are  4,221  Europeans,  2,988  native  Christians,  and  608  Eurasians. 
The  native  Christians  are  mostly  Roman  Catholics.  The  missions 
working  in  Sind  are  the  Church  of  England  Zanana  Mission,  with 


4o8  SIND 

stations  at  both  Karachi  and  Hyderabad,  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Mission  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Mission,  which  work  only  in  Karachi 
District. 

The  occupational  distribution  of  the  population  in  the  British 
Districts  and  Khairpur  State  in  1901  was  :  agriculture,  75  per  cent.  ; 
industries  and  commerce,  5  per  cent.;  general  labour,  12  per  cent. 
There  are  very  few  industries. 

The  SindT  Muhammadan  is  taller  and  more  robust  than  the  native 
of  other  Provinces  of  India.  He  is  strong,  extremely  hardy  of  exposure 
and  fatigue,  and  in  the  main  truthful  and  honest.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  is  incapable  or  impatient  of  any  prolonged  labour,  except  earthwork 
or  when  engaged  in  his  own  cultivation.  Though  extremely  simple 
in  his  habits  in  the  villages,  he  is  liable  to  become  addicted  to  gambling 
and  intoxication  in  the  towns.  He  is  unclean  in  his  person  and  im- 
moral. He  makes  a  poor  artisan,  and  nearly  all  the  skilled  workmen 
in  the  large  towns  are  foreigners.  The  landowners  have  on  the  whole 
retrograded.  I'heir  influence  over  their  cultivators  and  tribesmen  has 
decreased  with  the  establishment  of  criminal  and  civil  courts,  the 
increase  of  cultivation,  and  the  general  relaxation  of  feudal  ties.  Care- 
less habits  of  living,  illiteracy,  inability  to  cope  with  the  money-lenders 
and  the  uncertainties  of  cultivation  have,  rather  than  the  extravagance 
so  loosely  ascribed  to  them,  caused  the  impoverishment  of  many  of  the 
old  families.  Those  surviving  live  for  the  most  part  within  their 
means,  and  are  of  great  assistance  in  local  matters  to  the  adminis- 
tration. The  Baloch,  who  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  population, 
have  adopted  the  language  and  approximated  in  habits  to  the  Sindis ; 
but  many  tribes  retain  to  the  full  their  predatory  instincts,  especially 
in  regard  to  cattle.  The  Baloch  is  also  a  poorer  cultivator  than  the 
Sindi. 

Of  the  Hindus,  the  Amils  have  perhaps  changed  more  in  their  habits 
than  any  other  class.  They  have  been  the  only  class  freely  to  seek 
education,  and  with  education  have  adopted  many  Western  habits. 
Although  many  now  enter  other  professions,  they  still  hold  the  great 
majority  of  government  appointments,  for  which  their  talents  qualify 
them.  A  small  number  of  the  Banias  have  availed  themselves  of 
education  to  enter  government  service,  but  the  majority  continue  to 
follow  purely  mercantile  pursuits.  Their  most  profitable  traffic  in  the 
past  has  been  money-lending,  in  which  many  have  acquired  fortunes 
in  both  real  and  personal  property.  They  are  frugal  and  avaricious, 
and  generally  manage  to  secure  a  competency  in  whatever  trade  they 
adopt. 

In  Upper  Sind,  the  ordinary  food  of  the  lower  classes  consists  of 
boiled  rice  or  flat  cakes  o^  Jowdr.  The  accompaniment  to  this  fare, 
in  the  shape  of  a  little  meat,  vegetables,  or  fish,  is  designated  dor ;  but 


POPULATION  409 

meat  is  rare.  Buttermilk,  khir^  is  the  usual  beverage.  In  Lower  Sind 
bdjra  is  eaten  as  well  as  Jowdr,  and  in  rice  districts  rice  becomes  the 
staple  diet.  Muhammadans  do  not  take  alcohol,  but  they  are  addicted 
to  bhang.  Hindus  take  native  liquor  freely,  and  there  is  a  growing 
taste  for  English  spirits.  Well-to-do  Muhammadans  eat  wheaten  cakes 
and  ?i  pulao  of  boiled  rice  and  spiced  goat's  flesh.  The  diet  of  Hindus 
of  the  better  class  consists  for  the  most  part  of  rice,  wheaten  cakes, 
vegetables,  and  pulse.  A  few  are  vegetarians ;  the  rest  partake  almost 
daily  of  spiced  goat's  flesh  and  occasionally  indulge  in  pulao.  Both 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans  are  very  fond  of  sweetmeats. 

Dress  is  undergoing  a  considerable  change ;  garments  of  European 
materials  and  cut  are  every  day  becoming  more  prevalent.  The 
educated  and  official  classes,  more  particularly  among  the  Amils, 
have  evolved  a  compromise  between  Oriental  and  occidental  costume, 
the  principal  features  of  which  are  a  long  black  or  dark  cloth  coat 
buttoned  up  to  the  throat,  with  a  turned-down  collar,  and  cotton  cloth 
or  flannel  trousers.  European  boots  are  also  becoming  general.  The 
old  Baloch  hat  or  siraiki  topi,  now  hardly  ever  worn  by  Muhammadans, 
has,  in  a  modified  shape,  become  the  distinctive  head-dress  of  the 
pleaders,  though,  even  among  them,  it  is  giving  way  before  the  turban. 
Among  Muhammadans,  the  almost  universal  head-dress  is  the  volu- 
minous white  turban  or  patko.  A  flowing  shirt  [pehryati),  and  the 
loosest  of  trousers  {suthan),  plaited  at  the  waist  and  drawn  in  at  the 
ankle,  are  the  principal  garments,  though  among  the  better  classes 
the  former  is  surmounted  in  winter  by  a  coat  of  English  tweed  or 
of  broadcloth  or  green  velvet,  embroidered  with  gold  lace  or  silk 
and  sometimes  trimmed  with  fur.  In  summer,  a  shawl  is  thrown 
over  the  shoulders  or,  when  riding,  tied  round  the  waist.  The  Baloch 
of  Upper  Sind  wears  a  white  smock  gathered  in  at  the  waist  and 
reaching  down  to  the  ankles ;  in  winter,  he  puts  on  a  sheepskin  postin 
which,  according  to  strict  Baloch  custom,  is  the  only  coloured  garment 
permissible.  In  the  Frontier  District  dark  clothes  were  formerly  the 
sign  of  a  blood-feud ;  but  the  tradition  is  dying  out,  and  the  chiefs  and 
landowners  now  often  Avear  coloured  coats  and  waistcoats,  which  some 
hide  under  the  white  smock.  Instead  of,  or  in  addition  to,  the  smock 
a  very  long  shirt  is  frequently  worn.  The  working  costume  of  the 
cultivating  classes  consists  of  a  turban,  a  tight  cotton  coat  with  short 
sleeves,  and  trousers  dyed  with  indigo  to  conceal  the  dirt.  The 
ordinary  cultivator  wears  no  warm  clothes  even  in  frosty  weather, 
but  goes  about  shivering  with  a  sheet  thrown  over  his  head.  In  the 
desert,  the  men  dress  in  the  Kachhi  fashion.  The  Banias  are  the  most 
conservative  in  their  dress,  though  the  moment  a  member  of  that  class 
enters  Government  service  or  a  profession  he  discards  his  hereditary 
costume  for  the  garb  of  the  Amil.     Their  ordinary  dress  consists  of 


4IO  SIND 

the  white  cotton  vest  {cholo),  the  waistcloth  {dhofi),  and  a  small  flat 
red  or  white  turban  {pagri).  A  short  coat  {angarakho)  fastened  with 
tapes  completes  their  costume.  In  the  Frontier  District  the  pagrl 
is  replaced  by  a  small  round  cap  or  loose  white  turban. 

Muhammadan  women  generally  wear  a  cotton  vest  {s/io/i),  red  cotton 
trousers  {suthdn\  and  a  shawl  (rao)  thrown  over  the  head.  In  some 
parts  a  skirt  {paro),  mostly  of  red  cotton,  is  worn  instead  of  trousers. 
Baloch  women  wear  a  long  white  gown  {ghagho),  reaching  to  the 
ankles.  Parda  women,  when  they  venture  out  in  public,  are  enveloped 
from  head  to  foot  in  the  long  white  biirko,  which  corresponds  to  the 
yashmak  of  the  nearer  East.  Hindu  women  wear  a  white  muslin  vest 
(cholo)^  a  red  cotton  skirt  (peshgir),  and  a  white  muslin  shawl  {rao), 
which  is  replaced  in  public  by  a  thicker  garment  {chadar)  drawn  over 
the  face,  leaving  only  one  eye  exposed.  In  the  desert,  the  women  wear 
a  red  cotton  skirt,  fully  plaited,  known  as  the  gJiaghro.  Among  Hindu 
ladies  of  the  upper  classes  garments  of  a  semi-European  cut  are  coming 
into  favour ;  the  rudimentary  Sindi  slippers  covering  only  the  toes  are 
being  displaced  by  the  European  shoe,  and  the  unwholesome  fashion 
of  encasing  both  entire  arms  in  ivory  bangles,  which  once  put  on  are 
never  removed  till  the  wearer  dies  or  becomes  a  widow,  is  gradually 
losing  influence.  Married  women  among  both  Muhammadans  and 
Hindus  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  nose-ring. 

In  the  cities  substantial  storeyed  houses  are  common  ;  in  Karachi, 
stone  is  used ;  in  Hyderabad,  brick ;  and  in  Upper  Sind,  sun-dried 
brick.  These,  however,  are  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy ;  the  majority 
live  in  mud  houses  devoid  of  verandas  and  of  all  but  the  smallest 
window  apertures.  The  Muhammadan  peasantry  live  in  wattle  huts 
or  mud  cottages.  The  large  landowners  of  the  Frontier  District 
usually  have  substantial  bungalows  surrounded  by  high  crenellated 
walls ;  and  everywhere  the  Muhammadan  nobleman  surrounds  his 
private  apartments  with  a  wall  {alain  pandh),  sheltering  them  from 
the  public  gaze. 

The  favourite  game  of  the  Sindis  is  wrestling  {malakhrd),  in  which 
the  negroes  or  Sidis  are  the  most  expert  performers.  At  fairs  and 
festivals  a  wrestling  competition  is  certain  to  be  one  of  the  chief 
attractions.  The  national  sport  of  the  Baloch  is  horse-racing;  the 
great  meeting  is  held  at  the  Jacobabad  horse  show,  but  there  are 
generally  races  at  Baloch  wedding  feasts,  and  matches  and  small 
sweepstakes  are  not  uncommon.  Cock-,  quail-,  partridge-,  and  ram- 
fighting  are  also  popular  amusements  with  the  lower  classes ;  in  the 
riverain  forests  hog-baiting  is  occasionally  practised.  Hawking  was 
formerly  the  favourite  pastime  of  the  Muhammadan  nobility  and 
gentry ;  but  it  is  being  driven  out  by  the  universal  taste  for  breech- 
loaders, which,  however,  are  rarely  discharged  at  a  bird  on  the  wing. 


POPULATION  4tt 

The  educated  classes  have  taken  readily  to  cricket  and  lawn-tennis. 
Chaiipar,  a  game  played  with  dice  on  a  board,  is  common  among 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans  ;  the  former  also  play  various  card  games, 
such  as  pisakot,  chovih,  and  bezique,  which  afford  opportunities  for 
gambling.  Among  Muhammadans,  the  nautch  is  still  a  source  of 
supreme  delectation,  though  it  is  losing  favour  with  Hindus,  who, 
in  Upper  Sind,  delight  to  watch  a  bhagat  or  performance  in  which 
Bania  men  dance  and  sing  religious  songs  to  the  sound  of  drums. 
Both  Hindus  and  Muhammadans  are  fond  of  instrumental  music 
and  singing  ;  concertinas  and  American  organs  are  being  introduced. 
There  are  no  amusements  in  the  home. 

The  important  Muhammadan  festivals  are  the  Bakri  Id,  Muharram, 
and  Ramzan  Id.  They  are  the  occasion  of  feasting,  prayers,  the 
putting  on  of  new  clothes,  and,  above  all,  visits  to  spiritual  guides 
{murshids)  and  to  the  popular  shrines  with  which  Sind  is  so  plenti- 
fully endowed.  Fairs  are  generally  held  in  connexion  with  these 
shrines,  of  which  the  most  famous  are  the  shrines  of  Kalandar  Lai 
Shahbaz  at  Sehwan,  Shah  Abdul  Latif  at  Bhit  Shah  near  Hala,  Shaikh 
Tabir  or  Uderolal  at  Uderolal  near  Hala,  and  Shah  Khair-ud-din  in 
Sukkur.  The  fair  at  Sehwan  is  attended  by  a  vast  concourse ;  one 
of  the  principal  features  is  the  dancing  of  the  dervishes  who  come 
in  large  numbers  from  all  parts  of  the  East.  The  chief  Hindu  festivals 
are  Mahasivaratri,  HolT,  Chetichand,  Thadri,  Dasarah,  and  Divali.  The 
first  is  specially  observed  by  the  votaries  of  Siva,  who  fast  and  decorate 
the  lingam.  The  Holi,  or  Hori  as  it  is  also  called,  though  not  the 
occasion  for  the  bacchanalian  orgies  seen  in  other  parts  of  India,  is 
still  the  pretext  for  noisy  and  sometimes  drunken  and  obscene  revels. 
Chetichand,  the  Hindu  New  Year,  the  first  day  of  Chet  Sudh,  is  observed 
as  a  rule  on  the  river-side,  where  large  numbers  collect.  The  Thadri 
in  Sawan  is  the  occasion  for  much  gambling.  The  Dasarah  and  Divali 
or  Diari  are  the  two  most  important  festivals  of  the  Hindus ;  the 
former  is  celebrated  with  fireworks  and  the  latter  with  displays  of 
lamps. 

The  joint  family  system  exists  among  both  Hindus  and  Muham- 
madans, but  it  is  disappearing.  The  tendency  is  for  the  sons  to 
separate  on  the  death  of  the  father,  and  among  Hindus  the  family 
generally  breaks  up  on  the  death  of  both  parents. 

Both  Hindus  and  Muhammadans  are  known  by  their  personal 
names,  coupled  with  their  patronymics.  The  Muhammadan  is  further 
distinguished  by  the  designation  of  his  tribe,  which  is  generally,  though 
not  necessarily,  an  endogamous  division,  marriages  between  first  cousins 
being  regarded,  as  among  the  Arabs,  with  approval.  A  Muhammadan 
of  the  lower  classes  is  simply  known  by  his  personal  name,  followed 
by  the  name  of  his  tribe.      The   Muhammadans  employ  the  usual 

VOL.  XXII.  D  d 


412  SIND 

Arabic  or  Persian  names,  but,  especially  among  the  lower  classes, 
names  of  Indian  origin  are  frequent.  The  Persian  terminations  bakhsh 
and  dad,  meaning  'granted,'  used  with  one  or  other  of  the  many  names 
of  the  Almighty  are  common,  while  the  Sindi  equivalent  dino  and  the 
Siraiki  ditto  are  frequently  substituted.  A  few  special  Sindi  names  are 
Mitho,  '  sweet ' ;  Kauro,  '  bitter  ' ;  Warayo,  '  returned  ' ;  Bacho,  '  pre- 
served.' The  day  of  birth  frequently  inspires  a  name,  e.g.  Sumar 
(Monday),  Jumo  (Friday).  Saiyids  always  add  the  honorific  Shah  to 
their  names ;  Pathans  and  Baloch  append  the  title  Khan, 

Among  Hindus,  names  are  usually  formed  by  suffixing  to  appropriate 
nouns  such  terminations  as  -das,  '  slave ' ;  -mal,  '  brave ' ;  -ram,  an  incar- 
nation of  deity ;  -nand,  the  name  of  Krishna's  father ;  -rai,  '  a  king ' ; 
and  -chand,  '  the  moon.'  Thus  Narayandas  means  '  the  servant  of 
Narayan,'  i.e.  God  ;  Hotchand  signifies  the  friend  of  the  moon.  The 
followers  of  Guru  Nanak  and  others  attach  the  termination  Singh, 
'lion,'  to  certain  words,  e.g.  Awat  Singh.  Some  Sikhs  even  use  the 
Persian  termination  Bakhsh,  e.g.  Gobind  Bakhsh.  By  some,  the  names 
of  the  days  of  the  week  are  employed,  though  both  Shukur  (Friday) 
and  Chanchar  (Saturday)  are  avoided,  being  considered  unlucky. 
Among  Hindus,  the  descendants  of  a  common  ancestor  are  designated 
by  an  adjectival  form  of  his  name :  thus  Gidvani  from  Gidu,  Advani 
from  Adu ;  and  a  tendency  is  exhibiting  itself  in  the  educated  ranks 
of  the  younger  generation  to  extend  the  use  of  the  cognomen  with 
a  view  to  the  introduction  of  the  European  style,  but  the  paucity  of 
names  exposes  the  system  to  obvious  disadvantages. 

The  soil  of  Sind  is  plastic  clay,  deposited  by  the  Indus.  With  water, 
it  develops  into  a  rich  mould ;  without  water,  it  degenerates  into  a 
desert.  There  are  two  principal  harvests — the  spring 
or  rabi,  sown  in  September,  October,  or  November, 
and  reaped  in  February,  March,  or  April ;  and  the  autumn  or  khartf, 
sown  during  the  floods  of  the  river  from  May  to  August,  and  reaped 
from  October  to  December. 

The  total  extent  of  cultivated  land  in  British  Sind  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  6,444  square  miles,  the  greater  portion  of  the  province 
being  uncultivable  for  want  of  water.  The  rati  harvest  consists  of 
wheat,  barley,  gram,  vetches,  oilseeds,  and  vegetables.  The  kharlf 
includes  the  millets  known  as  bajra  and  Jowdr,  the  two  chief  food- 
grains  in  Sind ;  rice,  indigo,  san  hemp,  ///,  pulses,  and  cotton.  The 
area  under  each  staple  in  1903-4  was  as  follows:  jowdr^  1,051  square 
miles;  bdjra,  1,478;  rice,  1,381;  wheat,  858;  gram,  12^;  mug,  38; 
^(^"g^  339;  tobacco,  13:  til,  182;  miscellaneous  products,  such  as 
vegetables,  fruits,  &c.,  64  square  miles.  The  average  yield  of  each  crop 
in  pounds  per  acre  is— wheat,  1,066;  barley,  965;  bdjra,  "^d^;  jowdr, 
1)798;  gram,  469;  cotton  (cleaned),  466;  ///,  448;  sugar-cane,  4,315. 


AGRICULTURE  413 

The  fruits  commoii  to  the  country  include  dates,  plantains,  mangoes, 
limes,  oranges,  pomegranates,  citrons,  figs,  grapes,  tamarinds,  mul- 
berries, and  melons.  The  British  have  introduced  apricots,  peaches, 
and  nectarines,  with  excellent  results ;  and  Egyptian  cotton,  with 
a  longer  staple  than  the  ordinary  variety,  has  been  grown  with  con- 
siderable success. 

The  methods  of  cultivation  still  differ  little,  if  at  all,  from  the 
primitive  type.  Rotation  of  crops  is  unknown,  and  the  implements 
belong  to  the  coarsest  patterns.  Two  bullocks  generally  draw  the 
clumsy  native  plough,  while  a  heavy  log  of  wood,  with  a  man  perched 
on  either  end,  and  drawn  by  four  bullocks,  does  duty  for  a  harrow. 

Loans  under  the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  x\cts 
were  slow  in  gaining  popularity  in  Sind,  owing  partly  to  the  ignor- 
ance of  cultivators  and  partly  to  the  hold  of  the  money-lenders,  who 
threatened  foreclosure  if  money  was  borrowed  from  Government. 
Recently,  however,  the  system  has  been  much  extended,  and  is  now 
indispensable,  in  consequence  of  the  contraction  of  credit  caused  by 
the  introduction  of  the  Dekkhan  x^griculturists'  Relief  Act.  But 
Government  loans  are  made  only  to  the  owners  of  land,  and  not  to 
the  large  class  of  cultivators.  This  class  is  in  a  chronic  state  of 
indebtedness,  though  much  of  the  burden  of  their  debts  is  assumed 
by  the  landowners,  the  money-lenders  generally  exacting  a  condition 
that  the  landowner  shall  be  responsible  for  his  tenants'  debts.  Among 
the  landowners,  especially  those  holding  50  acres  or  less,  indebtedness 
is  widespread  ;  the  larger  landholders,  however,  find  it  easier  to  keep 
out  of  debt.  The  creditors  are  almost  invariably  professional  money- 
lenders, though  most  of  them  fall  in  the  category  of  agriculturists, 
in  so  far  that  they  own  land  which  they  generally  cultivate  through 
the  medium  of  the  original  owners  reduced  to  the  status  of  tenants. 
The  ordinary  rate  of  interest  paid  on  private  loans  by  agriculturists 
is  18  per  cent,  per  annum. 

Among  domestic  animals,  the  camel  of  the  one-humped  species 
ranks  first  as  a  beast  of  burden,  numbers  being  bred  in  the  salt 
marshes  of  the  Indus  in  Hyderabad  and  the  Kohistan.  Great  herds 
of  buffaloes  graze  on  the  swampy  tracts  of  the  delta  ;  and  ghl  (clarified 
butter),  made  from  their  milk,  forms  an  important  item  of  export. 
The  fat-tailed  sheep  and  the  goat  abound  in  Upper  Sind,  Sukkur, 
Thar  and  Parkar,  and  the  Kohistan.  The  horses,  though  small,  are 
active,  hardy,  and  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.  The  Baloch 
of  Upper  Sind  pay  much  attention  to  the  breeding  of  mares.  The 
Government  has  introduced  English  stallions  ;  and  horse-breeding  is 
carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  superior  class  of  remounts 
for  the  cavalry,  as  well  as  to  improve  the  local  breed.  There  is  a 
strong  and  useful  type  of  mule.     Bullocks  are  chiefly  used  for  draught 

D  d  2 


414  SIND 

or  for  turning  irrigation  wheels.  Good  cattle  are  bred,  of  medium 
size.  The  milch  cows  are  well-known,  and  are  exported  to  other  parts 
of  the  Presidency. 

The  dry  character  of  the  soil  and  the  almost  complete  absence  of 
rain  render  irrigation  a  matter  of  prime  importance.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  for  two  or  three  years  in  succession,  no  rain  whatever  falls  in 
the  province.  Under  these  circumstances  the  Indus  is  to  Sind  what 
the  Nile  is  to  Egypt.  When  the  province  was  annexed  in  1843, 
numerous  irrigation  canals  existed  which  derived  their  supply  direct 
from  the  river.  These  canals  are  carried  away  from  the  river  bank 
in  the  direction  the  water  can  most  easily  flow  to  reach  the  fields  that 
are  to  be  irrigated.  None  of  them  has  its  head  where  the  bank  is 
really  permanent,  and  they  can  draw  off  water  only  during  the  inunda- 
tion season.  The  river  must  consequently  rise  several  feet  before  the 
canals  will  fill.  Many  of  these  canals  are  but  old  deltaic  channels, 
reopened  and  extended,  and  all  have  the  appearance  of  rivers  rather 
than  artificial  cuts.  The  system  is  very  imperfect ;  but  much  has  been 
done  since  the  country  came  under  British  rule  to  improve  it,  and  to 
minimize  the  risks  to  which  cultivation  is  necessarily  exposed,  owing 
to  its  dependence  on  the  capricious  nature  of  the  supply  in  the  river. 
Enormous  areas,  formerly  waste,  have  moreover  been  brought  under 
cultivation  by  the  construction  of  new  canals,  also  dependent,  as  must 
be  the  case,  on  the  river  inundation,  but  designed  on  more  modern 
principles  and  kept  under  control  by  means  of  masonry  regulators  near 
the  heads.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  Indus,  which  in  its  course 
through  Sind  offers  only  three  points — Sukkur,  Kotri,  and  Jerruck — 
sufficiently  stable  for  the  permanent  heads  necessary  for  perennial 
canals,  these  inundation  canals  far  exceed  the  perennial  canals  in 
number,  revenue  production,  irrigational  scope,  and  paying  properties. 
The  Eastern  Nara,  a  depression  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  has, 
by  means  of  a  cut  through  the  rock  above  the  Bukkur  gorge,  been 
converted  into  a  river  of  manageable  size,  from  which,  by  means  of 
weirs,  a  system  of  perennial  canals  has  been  carried  out.  The  latest 
of  these — the  Jamrao  Canal — is  designed  throughout,  from  headworks 
to  village  watercourses,  on  the  most  modern  scientific  principles.  The 
other  perennial  canals  are  the  Fuleli,  the  Mithrao,  the  Thar,  and  the 
Hiral,  all  of  which,  together  with  their  branches,  have  regulators  at 
their  heads  to  control  the  water  passing  down  them.  Their  mouths 
are  not  liable  to  be  choked  with  silt  or  masked  by  sandbanks,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  inundation  canals.  Remodellings,  improvements,  and 
extensions  to  the  old  canals  are  being  actively  carried  out  by  the 
Government  Engineers,  and  cultivation  now  is  much  less  speculative 
than  it  used  to  be.  The  supply  of  water  from  all  canals  is  obtained  in 
two  ways,  by  flow  and  by  lift.     Flow,  which  is  due  to  the  action  of 


AGRICULTURE  415 

gravity,  is  necessary  only  for  rice,  but  is  much  in  favour  with  the  culti- 
vators for  all  kinds  of  crops,  as  it  saves  personal  labour.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  leads  to  great  waste  of  water  and  waterlogging.  Lift,  which 
is  represented  by  the  Persian  wheel  and  bullock-power,  economizes 
water,  but  necessitates  industry  and  adds  about  Rs.  2  per  acre  to  the 
cost  of  raising  a  crop. 

The  principal  canals  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus  are  : — Major — 
the  Desert  Canal,  dug  to  irrigate  the  waterless  tract  along  the  north 
frontier  and  to  convert  the  raiders  of  Kalat  into  agriculturists  ;  the 
Unar  Wah  and  the  Begari,  which  with  the  Desert  Canal  irrigate  the 
Upper  .Sind  Frontier  and  Sukkur  Districts.  Minor —  the  Sukkur 
Canal,  which  is  the  only  perennial  canal  on  the  right  bank,  irrigating 
the  northern  portion  of  Sukkur  District  and  109  square  miles  of  Lar- 
kana  ;  the  Ghar,  which  waters  Larkana ;  the  Western  Nara,  taking  off 
15  miles  south  of  the  Ghar,  and  passing  through  Larkana  into  the 
Manchhar  Lake  and  the  Sind  Wah.  Of  these,  the  Begari,  the  Sind, 
the  Ghar,  the  Western  Nara,  together  with  the  Kalri,  the  Baghar  near 
Tatta,  the  Pinyari,  and  the  Sattah,  were  in  use  at  the  time  of  annexa- 
tion. On  the  left  bank  : — Major^\h&  Eastern  Nara  works,  the  Jam- 
rao,  the  Thar,  and  the  Mithrao  Canals,  deriving  their  supply  from  the 
Eastern  Nara,  and  watering  the  taliikas  of  Thar  and  Parkar  and  of 
Hyderabad;  the  Nasrat,  Naolakhl,  and  the  Mahi  Wah — the  first  two 
irrigating  parts  of  Hyderabad  and  the  third  irrigating  parts  of 
Sukkur  District ;  and  the  Dad,  known  from  its  great  velocity  as  the 
Khune  Wah  throughout  the  first  reaches.  Minor — the  Fuleli,  with 
numerous  branches,  which  takes  off  north  of  Hyderabad  and  supplies 
the  whole  of  the  Tando  subdivision  and  some  parts  of  Karachi ;  the 
Gharo  Mahmudo,  which  waters  parts  of  Hyderabad  District  and  is 
really  a  side  channel  of  the  Indus ;  the  Nasir,  the  Kari  Shamuli,  the 
Mihrab  Wah,  AHbar  Kacheri,  and  the  great  Marak  and  the  Sarfaraz 
Wah,  all  irrigating  Hyderabad  District ;  and  the  Dahar  canal  in  Sukkur. 

The  total  number  of  '  major '  productive  works  is  9,  and  of  the 
'  minor '  works  and  navigation  channels  for  which  capital  accounts 
are  kept  is  8.  There  are  26  other  'minor'  works.  The  area  irri- 
gated by  canals  has  increased  by  about  50  per  cent,  since  the  advent 
of  British  rule,  and  the  proportion  of  area  protected  by  irrigation  to 
the  total  cultivated  area  is  now  87  per  cent.  The  Begari,  the  Ghar, 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Nara,  and  the  Fuleli  with  their  branches  and 
some  '  minor '  works  are  also  navigable  channels.  The  financial  results 
of  the  irrigation  works  for  a  series  of  years  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the 
next  page. 

Cultivation  is  also  carried  on  either  within  embankments,  which  are 
raised  to  impound  the  scanty  rainfall,  or  on  watercourses  which  dis- 
tribute the  water  of  the  hill  streams  or  nais.     Some  of  these  7tais  are 


4t6 


SIND 


of  a  considerable  size  and  perennial  ;  others  fail  during  the  dry  season. 
The  province  contains  more  than  30,000  wells,  of  which  12,600  are 
used  for  irrigation  purposes.  The  area  irrigated  from  wells  was  iir 
square  miles  in  1903-4,  and  the  assessment  amounted  to  Rs.  22,000. 
The  use  of  the  Persian  wheel  for  lifting  water  from  wells  is  general. 


1880-1. 

1 890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Number  of  works . 
Irrigated  area  in  square  miles 
Total  receipts        .         .     Rs. 
Current  expenditure       .     Rs. 

32 

2,332 
30,68,000 
13.01,000 

33 

3.443 
47,00,000 
20,88,000 

63 

4.7.56 
67,64.000 
24,65,000 

67 

4.92.5 

69,69,000 

29,47,000 

Fisheries. 


Rents,  wages,  and 
prices. 


Seafish  abound  along  the  coast.  The  principal  are  the  pomphlet, 
sole,  and  sardine,  which  come  in  shoals  in  February  ;  the  shark,  saw- 
fish, ray,  skate,  ringan  sird,  a  cod,  sir,  cavalho,  and 
red  snapper.  Of  fresh-water  fish,  which  are  of  much 
more  importance  than  the  seafish,  the  chief  are  the  pa/la,  dhambhro 
(a  carp),  singhdro,  jhirkhan,  and  gandan.  The  long  and  also  the 
snub-nosed  crocodile  are  found  in  the  Indus.  Excellent  oysters  are 
collected  at  Karachi. 

There  are  few  tenant-rights  in  existence  in  Sind.  The  smaller 
zamlnddrs  cultivate  their  own  land,  while  the  larger  estates  are  let 
to  yearly  tenants,  who  almost  always  pay  rent  in 
kind  for  the  privilege  of  cultivating,  the  zajnt?7ddrs 
being  responsible  for  the  Government  revenue.  The 
share  of  the  produce  paid  varies  from  one-fourth  to  one-half,  according 
to  the  difficulty  and  expen.se  of  cultivating.  In  Upper  Sind,  in  the 
Rohri  td/uka,  a  special  form  of  tenancy  known  as  maurusi  haripan,  or 
hereditary  tenancy,  exists,  which  presents  some  resemblance  to  the 
aformtiento  of  the  Portuguese.  The  hereditary  tenant  pays  to  the 
proprietor  a  quit-rent,  known  as  lapo,  zafninddri,  malkano,  tohro  or  deh 
kharch,  seldom  exceeding  6  or  8  annas  per  acre.  The  rate  cannot 
be  enhanced.  The  settlement  of  the  Government  demand  is  then 
made  direct  with  the  tenant,  against  whom,  in  the  land  registers,  the 
quit-rent  is  also  entered.  This  right  of  occupancy  is  permanent  and 
alienable.  In  other  cases,  the  karis  or  cultivators  pay  /apo  to  the 
zannnddr,  and  also  a  proportion  of  the  crop  as  rent,  fixed  in  accor- 
dance with  custom.  The  zavilnddr  is  then  liable  for  the  Government 
assessment. 

The  daily  wages  for  skilled  labour  are  one  rupee  in  the  case  of 
masons,  and  12  annas  for  carpenters  and  blacksmiths.  Unskilled 
labourers  receive  4  annas  to  8  annas.  It  is  not  customary  to  give 
food  in  addition  to  money  wages.  Except  among  the  Muhano  fisher- 
folk   and   Musalman    cultivators,  the  women  do  not  perform  outdoor 


FOJ^ESTS 


417 


labour.  The  average  rates  for  skilled  and  unskilled  labour  in  different 
parts  of  the  province  during  the  decade  ending  1903  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : — 


Districts. 

Skilled. 

Unskilled. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Hyderabad 
Karachi  . 
Sukknr    . 
Larkana . 
Thar  and  Parkar 
Upper  Sind  Frontier 

R.    a.    p. 

100 
I      S     0 
I      2      0 
I      0     0 
I      0     0 
I      0     0 

R.   a.     p. 
0120 

0  10     0 

1  0     0 
0   14     0 
012      0 
0   12      0 

R.    a.    p. 
066 
0     S     0 
066 
066 
066 
056 

R.     a.     p. 

040 
050 
040 
050 
043 
0     3     3 

The  rates  are  generally  above  the  normal  level  of  the  Presidency. 
During  the  last  decade,  immigrants  driven  by  famine  from  Rajput- 
ana  and  Kathiawar  have  considerably  lowered  the  high  rates  of  wages 
previously  prevailing. 

The  diffusion  of  education  and  the  expansion  and  development  of 
the  agricultural  resources  of  the  province  have  effected  much  improve- 
ment in  the  condition  of  the  people.  The  middle-class  clerk  is  rapidly 
adopting  a  more  European  style  of  living.  Besides  the  evolution  in 
dress  noticed  above,  he  now  adds  chairs  and  a  table  to  the  few  cots 
which  formerly  represented  his  furniture,  he  buys  glass  and  crockery, 
and  replaces  the  primitive  wick  and  earthen  bowl  by  an  oil-lamp.  Tea 
and  cigarettes  are  also  purchased,  and  his  food  generally  is  of  better 
quality.  This  tendency  is  not  so  noticeable  in  the  cultivator.  His 
dress  and  furniture  betoken  no  change ;  but  his  body  is  well  nourished 
and,  except  in  winter,  well  clothed.  Education  has  not  yet  disclosed 
to  him  other  wants.  For  the  landless  labourer  of  Sind  work  is  always 
plentiful,  and  its  return  sufficient  to  supply  all  his  material  wants. 

The  extent  of  forest  land  is  small  for  a  province  of  so  large  an  area, 
amounting  to  only  1,066  square  miles,  excluding  the  State  of  Khairpur. 
The  Forest  department  has  charge  of  about  100 
separate  forests  (under  the  control  of  a  Deputy- 
Conservator),  chiefly  situated  along  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  extending 
southward  from  Ghotki  to  the  mid  delta.  They  run  in  narrow  strips, 
from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  2  miles  in  breadth,  and  about  3  miles  in 
length.  These  strips  of  forest  are  supposed  to  have  been  constructed 
as  game  preserves  by  the  Mirs.  Many  of  them  suffer  greatly  at  times 
from  the  encroachments  of  the  stream.  The  floods  of  1863  swept  away 
1,000  acres  of  the  Dhareja  forest  in  Sukkur  District,  and  a  similar 
misfortune  occurred  to  the  forests  of  Sunder  Belo  and  Samtia  in  the 
two  succeeding  years. 

The  common  trees  have  already  been  noticed  under  Botany.     I'he 


Forests. 


41 8  SINB 

delta  of  the  Indus  contains  no  forests,  but  its  shores  and  inlets  abound 
with  low  thickets  of  mangrove-trees,  the  wood  of  which  makes  good 
fuel.  The  Forest  department  has  lately  introduced  several  valuable 
exotics,  including  the  tamarind,  the  water-chestnut,  and  the  tallow-tree. 
In  1860-1  the  revenue  derived  from  the  Sind  forests  was  1-2  lakhs, 
while  the  receipts  in  1903-4  amounted  to  nearly  3^  lakhs.  These  are 
mainly  from  grazing  fees,  the  sale  of  firewood  and  timber,  cultivation, 
fisheries,  charcoal,  l>abF/l  pods  and  seeds,  reeds,  &ic.  Large  quantities 
of  firewood  are  exported. 

The  salt  of  the  delta  is  the  only  mineral  product  of  commercial 

importance.     Extensive  beds  of  remarkably  pure  bay  salt  occur  on  the 

Sirganda  creek,  an  eastern  arm  of  the  Indus,  said  to 

minerals         ^^   capable   of  supplying   the   consumption   of   the 

whole  world  for  a  century.     Since  1880,  no  salt  has 

been  taken  from  these  deposits,  all  that  is  required  being  manufactured 

at    Maurypur.      The    only  deposits   now   worked   are   at    Dilyar   and 

Saran  in  Thar  and  Parkar.     Fuller's  earth  and  soda  compounds  are 

found  in  Sind. 

Lignite  occurs  interbedded  with  the  lower  Ranikot  formation,  south- 
west of  Kotri.  Limestone  is  found  abundantly  over  Western  Sind, 
often  containing  numerous  flint  nodules  which  were,  at  one  time, 
largely  made  use  of  for  flintlocks.  Hot  sulphurous  springs  occur  at 
a  number  of  places  along  the  hills  of  Western  Sind,  the  best  known 
being  those  of  Lakhi  near  Sehwan,  and  Magar  Pir  north  of  Karachi. 

Though  chiefly  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  country,  Sind  has  a  repu- 
tation  for  pottery,  leathern  work,  and  carpets,  which   in   design  and 
finish  are  equal  to  the  productions  of  any  part  of  the 
manufactures      Bombay  Presidency.     The  chief  articles  produced  in 
Hyderabad  are  blankets,  coarse  cotton  cloth,  camel 
fittings,    metal-work,    lacquered    work,    enamel,   and   gold   and    silver 
embroidery.     Hala  is  famous  for  pottery  and  tiles,  Bubak  for  carpets, 
and  Tatta  for  cotton  hingis.     The  principal  productions  of  Shikarpur 
are  earthenware,  metal  vessels  of  all  descriptions,  coarse  cotton  cloth, 
and  leathern  articles.     Lacquered  work,  embroidered  shoes,  woollen 
carpets,  and  saddle-bags  are  the  chief  products   of  the  Upper  Sind 
Frontier  District. 

In  1904  there  were  30  cotton-ginning  mills  in  the  province,  mostly 
in  Hyderabad  (23),  which  employed  more  than  4,000  hands.  Many 
rice-husking  factories  have  been  opened  in  Larkana  District.  In 
Karachi  District  the  numerous  factories  include  an  arsenal,  6  cotton- 
ginning,  cleaning,  and  pressing  factories,  2  bone-mills,  2  metal  works, 
and  a  railway  workshop.  The  province  has  in  all  40  factories,  em- 
ploying over  8,000  operatives. 

The  trade  of  Sind  centres  almost  entirely  in  the  great  seaport  of 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  419 

Karachi,  a  creation  of  British  rule,  and  now  the  chief  port  of  entry  and 

exit  for  the  Punjab.     The  total  value  of  the  imports  into    Karachi    in 

1903-4   amounted    to    9-6   crores,    while  those  into 

the  rest  of  the   province  were  only  about  3  lakhs.       °™^ade 

In  the  same  year,  the  exports  from  Karachi  amounted 

to  about  15  crores,  and  from  the  remainder  of  Sind  to  nearly  8^  lakhs. 

The  staple  articles  of  export  are  raw  cotton,  wool,  wheat  and  other 

grains. 

Karachi  has  long  formed  the  chief  outlet  for  the  cotton  crops  of 
Sind  and  the  Punjab.  The  province  at  one  time  actually  imported 
the  material  necessary  for  its  own  petty  domestic  manufactures  from 
Cutch  and  Gujarat,  to  the  amount  of  several  thousand  mminds  annually. 
About  1840,  however,  extensive  cotton  plantations  sprang  up  in  Sind 
itself.  In  1861  exports  first  began;  and  in  1866,  by  which  time 
cotton  was  also  received  from  the  Punjab,  they  exceeded  250,000  cwts. 
At  present,  cotton  cultivation  occupies  319  square  miles,  and  the 
province  annually  supplies  Karachi  with  about  369,000  cwts.  The 
remainder  exported  consists  of  Punjab  cotton,  from  the  Districts  of 
Multan,  Lahore,  and  Amritsar ;  but  it  bears  in  European  markets  the 
name  of  'Sind,'  from  its  place  of  shipment.  Since  1870,  a  large  trade 
in  raw  cotton  has  sprung  up  with  China.  The  total  export  of  raw 
cotton  in  1903-4  amounted  to  1,026,330  cwts. 

The  wool  of  Sind  forms  a  staple  of  almost  equal  importance,  though 
the  larger  portion  of  the  exports  comes,  not  from  the  province  itself. 
but  from  Ferozepore  District  in  the  Punjab,  and  from  Afghanistan  and 
Baluchistan.  The  supply  from  the  latter  countries  is  brought  into  the 
market  in  a  dirty  condition.  The  value  of  wool  exported  from  Karachi 
in  1873-4  was  63-5  lakhs,  which  increased  to  76  lakhs  in  1903-4. 

Of  late  years,  a  very  important  and  increasing  trade  in  wheat  witli 
Europe  has  been  developed.  The  supply  comes  almost  entirely  from 
the  Punjab.  The  following  table  shows  the  exports  (in  tons)  of  wheat 
from  Karachi  for  a  series  of  years  : — 

1872-3     .         8,499  1892-3     .     173,691 

1882-3     •     136,614  1902-3     .     442,411 

1903-4     .     869,355 

The  external  land  trade  of  Sind  is  with  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan, 
and  Seistan.  The  value  of  imports  and  exports  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  48  and  41  lakhs,  respectively.  The  share  of  Baluchistan  is  15  per 
cent.,  of  Seistan  9  per  cent.,  and  the  rest  (76  per  cent.)  is  with  Afghani- 
stan. The  chief  imports  are  horses,  sheep,  goats,  piece-goods,  drugs 
and  medicines,  ^hl,  mustard,  grapes,  and  raw  wool  ;  the  exports  are 
piece-goods  of  European  and  Indian  manufacture,  indigo,  wheat,  rice, 
and  sugar. 


430  STND 

Karachi  has  a  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  a  Port  Trust.  The  great 
harbour  works  of  Karachi  are  described  under  that  article. 

Communications  are  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Indus,  by  numerous 
excellent  roads,  by  the  North-Western  Railway,  and  by  the  Hyderabad- 
Jodhpur  metre-gauge  line  which  connects  the  frontier 
'  with  the  Jodhpur-Bikaner  Railway,  thus  linking 
Sind  at  Hyderabad  with  Rajputana,  Northern  and  Central  India,  and 
Gujarat,  The  Indus  is  under  the  charge  of  a  special  Government  de- 
partment, the  Indus  Conservancy  \  the  duty  of  which  is  to  remove  all 
obstructions  to  navigation  as  soon  as  they  appear.  The  main  line  of 
the  North-Western  Railway  traverses  the  province  from  north  to  south, 
entering  it  at  Reti  and  terminating  at  Karachi  and  Kiamari.  Between 
Karachi  and  Kotri  the  line  is  double ;  between  Rohri  and  Reti  it  is 
being  doubled ;  and  between  Kotri  and  Rohri  there  is  a  single  line  on 
either  side  of  the  Indus.  The  eastern  Kotri-Rohri  chord  was  originally 
constructed  in  consequence  of  the  shifting  of  the  right  bank  of  the 
Indus  and  frequent  breaches,  which  dislocated  communication.  The 
line  on  the  left  bank  is  on  high  ground  and  less  liable  to  inundation, 
and  saves  about  36^  miles  on  the  through  distance  from  the  Punjab  to 
Karachi.  The  Quetta  branch  commences  at  Ruk,  and  running  north- 
west leaves  the  province  some  little  way  beyond  Jacobabad.  Another 
branch  runs  south-east  from  Hyderabad  to  Radin,  and  is  likely  before 
long  to  form  part  of  the  Bombay-Sind  connexion  railway.  A  short 
branch  of  3  miles  connects  Phulji  with  Puranadero  on  the  Indus  right 
bank.  The  North-Western  Railway  facilitates  the  transmission  of 
goods  from  Karachi  to  Northern  Sind  and  the  Punjab,  or  vice  versa, 
thus  saving  the  long  detour  by  sea  and  river  between  Karachi  and 
Kotri,  via  the  Indus  delta.  The  Indus  has  been  bridged  at  Sukkur 
and  Kotri.  The  distance  from  Karachi  to  Delhi  by  standard  gauge 
throughout  via  Bhatinda  is  907  miles,  and  by  mixed  gauge  via  Hyder- 
abad and  Jodhpur  781  miles. 

Karachi  is  also  the  focus  of  a  number  of  trade  routes  from  Afghani- 
stan and  Central  Asia.  Three  important  lines  converge  at  Karachi, 
placing  it  in  direct  communication  with  the  interior  of  Sind,  with  Las 
Bela  and  Kalat.  Trunk  roads  connect  Sukkur  District  with  the 
adjoining  Districts  of  Upper  Sind,  and  with  Larkana,  Hyderabad,  and 
Karachi.  The  total  length  of  roads  (1903-4)  in  the  province  is 
12,776  miles,  of  which  153  miles  are  metalled. 

The  Indus  is  navigable  by  country  boats  at  all  times  of  the  year,  and 
affords  H^cilities  of  communication  for  both  the  import  and  export  trade 
of  the  areas  in  proximity  to  the  river.  On  the  Fuleli  canal  about  100 
country  boats  ply  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  steam  launches 
have  recently  been  introduced  for  passenger  traffic. 

'   This  tlepartnient  nnd  the  fees  levied  for  its  iii'lceep  were  ab<ih=he(l  in  March,  igo6. 


/  DMTNTR  TRA  TIO.Y 


42T 


SInd  forms  the  most  important  part  of  the  Sind  and  Baluchistan  Postal 
Circle,  which  is  in  charge  of  a  Deputy-Postmaster-General.  The 
following  statistics  show  the  advance  in  postal  business  since  1880- 1. 
The  figures  include  those  for  the  State  of  Khairpur. 


1      I880-I. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

190.^-4. 

Number  of  post  offices  . 

85* 

127 

168 

193 

Number  of  letter-boxes . 

29* 

S5 

200 

212 

Number     of    miles    of 

postal      communica- 

tion .... 

1,994* 

',725 

2,026 

2,1091 

Total  number  of  postal 

articles  delivered — 

Letters  . 

5.152,731* 

4,983,89.^* 

5,668,297 

5,598,709 

Postcards 

280,764* 

1,435.779* 

3.199,659 

3,691,870 

Packets 

55.219* 

204,271* 

344,977t 

454,727t 

Newspapers  . 

674.755* 

719,519* 

568,176+ 

549,690^ 

Parcels . 

34,935* 

42,913* 

49.330 

53,941 

Value   of    stamps   sold 

to  the  public    .    Rs. 

79,370* 

2,50,810* 

2,61,213 

3,48,167* 

Value  of  money  orders 

issued        .         .     Rs. 

26,41,047* 

51,31.980* 

57,59,110* 

67,28,244* 

Total   amount   of    sav- 

ings bank  deposits  Rs. 

23.79,759* 

33,25,793* 

40,03,929* 

Administration. 


*  Including  figures  for  Baluchistan. 
t  Including  unregistered  newspapers.  \  Registered  as  newspapers  in  the  Post  Office. 

A  submarine  cable,  laid  in  1864,  connects  Karachi  with  Fao  in 
Turkish  Arabia,  and  thence  by  Turkish  Government  telegraph  with 
Constantinople  and  Western  Europe.  Another  telegraph  line  runs 
from  Karachi  along  the  Makran  coast,  and  thence  by  submarine  cable 
to  Bushire  in  Persia,  connecting  ultimately  with  the  Russian  system, 
as  well  as  with  the  Siemens  line  to  Berlin  and  England. 

Sind  forms  a  non-regulation  sub-province  under  a  Commissioner, 
who  has,  however,  larger  powers  than  those  of  an  ordinary  Commis- 
sioner of  a  Division.  It  contains  four  Collectorates — 
Karachi,  Sukkur,  Larkana,  and  Hyderabad  ;  together 
with  the  two  Districts  of  Thar  and  Parkar  and  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier, 
each  under  a  Deputy-Commissioner,  besides  the  Native  State  of  Khair- 
pur. It  is  nominally  a  '  scheduled  area,'  i.e.  it  is  not  necessarily  brought 
within,  or  is  from  time  to  time  removed  from,  the  operation  of  the 
general  Acts  of  the  legislature  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary 
courts  of  judicature,  but  actually  has  been  brought  under  the  ordinary 
laws  and  jurisdiction.  The  Commissioner  has  two  Assistants,  one 
being  an  Indian  Civilian  who  performs  the  duties  of  a  secretary. 

The  Districts  were  originally  administered  by  a  separate  service,  the 
Sind  Commission  ;  but  this  has  been  gradually  superseded  by  the  Indian 
Civil  Service  and  is  now  almost  extinct.  The  Provincial  and  Subor- 
dinate services  are,  however,  distinct  from  those  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 


42  2  SIND 

dency.     The  Collector  of  Sukkur  is  Political  Agent  for  the  Khairpur 
State. 

The  Sadr  Court,  presided  over  by  a  Judicial  Commissioner,  is  the 
highest  court  of  civil  and  criminal  appeal,  and  the  High  Court  at 
Bombay  has  no  jurisdiction  in  or  over  Sind,  except 
and  justice  ''^^  regards  (i)  its  powers  under  the  Administrator- 
General  Act,  1874  ;  (2)  probates  and  administrations; 
(3)  decrees  in  matrimonial  cases ;  and  (4)  European  British  subjects. 
The  District  Court  of  Karachi  is  a  Colonial  Court  of  Admiralty,  from 
which  an  appeal  lies  to  the  Sadr  Court,  and  ultimately  to  His  Majesty 
in  Council'.  The  Subordinate  Judges  in  Sind  form  a  distinct  service  ; 
otherwise,  the  judicial  system  does  not  differ  from  that  in  the  rest 
of  the  Presidency.  In  certain  parts  of  Upper  Sind,  the  Sind  Frontier 
Regulations  are  still  in  force,  whereby  the  District  Magistrate  can  refer 
murders  and  other  offences  likely  to  give  rise  to  reprisals  among 
Baloch  and  Pathans  to  the  speedier  and  more  primitive  procedure 
of  a  Jirga  or  council  of  their  own  elders,  and  himself  punish  those 
found  guilty.  In  such  matters  he  is  not  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Sadr  Court. 

The  revenue  of  Sind  under  Arab  rule  appears  to  have  been 
small,  and  was  chiefly  derived  from  the  land  tax.  The  assessment  of 
Sind  and  Multan  was  27  lakhs;  and  this  is  supposed  to  have  com- 
prised the  poll  tax,  customs  duties,  and  other  miscellaneous  items, 
besides  the  land  tax,  which  was  fixed  at  two-fifths  of  the  produce  of 
wheat  and  barley  if  the  fields  were  watered  by  public  canals,  and 
three-tenths  if  irrigated  by  wheels  or  other  artificial  means,  and  at 
one-fourth  if  altogether  unirrigated.  The  form  of  government  under 
the  Talpurs  may  be  described  as  a  purely  military  despotism  on 
feudal  principles,  their  Baloch  chieftains  holding  j'dg'ns  or  grants  of 
land  for  rendering  service  to  the  state  when  called  upon.  The  land 
revenue  was  mainly  paid  in  kind,  the  state  share  being  one-eighth, 
two-fifths,  or  one-fifth  of  the  produce  according  to  the  nature  of  the  land 
cultivated.  A  cess,  payable  usually  in  kind,  was  levied  on  land 
irrigated  by  water-wheels,  and  a  capitation  tax  on  Hindus  and  traders. 
A  cash  payment,  fixed  at  a  certain  sum  ^ex  Jarlb  (about  half  an  acre) 
and  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  was  also  exacted.  The 
average  seems  to  have  ranged  from  Rs.  6  to  Rs.  12   \)ex  Jar'i/>.     An 

'  Since  1906  the  Sadr  Court  and  the  District  Court,  Karachi,  have  been  amalga- 
mated in  a  new  Court,  known  as  the  Court  of  the  Judicial  Commissioner  of  Sind. 
It  is  presided  over  by  a  Judicial  Commissioner  and  two  additional  Judicial  Commis- 
sioners, one  of  whom  is  to  be  a  barrister  especially  qualified  to  deal  with  mercantile 
cases.  The  new  court  performs  all  the  functions  of  a  High  Court,  and  the  two 
additional  Commissioners  also  i  erform  the  duties  of  the  District  and  Sessions  Court 
of  Karachi. 


LAND  REVENUE  423 

ad  valorem  duty  of  6  per  cent,  was  levied  on  all  goods  imported  into, 
and  2\  per  cent,  on  those  exported  from,  Karachi,  in  addition  to  a 
3  per  cent,  town  duty.  All  fishermen  were  forced  to  surrender  one- 
third  of  the  produce  of  their  nets  to  Government,  and  each  boat  on 
the  Indus  paid  a  fixed  tax.  The  Mirs  farmed  the  greater  part  of  the 
revenue  to  contractors,  a  system  which  led  to  great  abuses.  The 
amount  of  revenue  collected  from  every  source  under  the  Talpur 
dynasty  has  been  variously  estimated ;  its  real  value  was  never 
known,  but  in  1809  it  was  said  to  be  nearly  43  lakhs  \  in  18 14, 
61  lakhs;  in  1824,  under  50  lakhs,  and  this  subsequently  decreased 
to  35  lakhs. 

The  land  in  Sind  is  held  by  a  large  number  of  ryots  (peasant  occu- 
pants), and  by  a  small  number  of  large  zamindar  proprietors.     At  the 

present    time    there   are    in    round    figures     32,700     , 

u  ij-  f        J  .:  f   f  .       Land  revenue. 

holdmgs    of   under    5   acres,   61,000    01    from    5    to 

25  acres,  27,500  of  from  25  to  100  acres,  and  11,400  of  100  acres 
and  over.  With  few  exceptions,  5,000  acres  is  the  limit  of  large 
holdings.  Both  ryotivdri  and  zamlnddri  tenures  occur,  but  the  latter 
is  the  commonest  tenure  throughout  the  province.  The  zammddr 
supplies  the  seed,  plough,  cattle,  and  labour,  divides  the  crop,  and 
pays  the  assessment  out  of  his  share  of  it,  after  recovering  the  value 
of  the  seed  advanced.  At  annexation,  and  for  many  years  afterwards, 
the  revenue  was  collected  in  kind.  Sir  Bartle  Frere  introduced  cash 
payments,  and  a  regular  survey  was  commenced  in  1863.  In  1882-3 
the  existing  forms  of  settlements  were  three  in  number — the  original, 
revised,  and  irrigational  settlements;  but  by  1902-3  the  whole  of  the 
province  had  been  brought  under  the  irrigational  settlement,  which 
includes  the  charge  for  irrigation  water  under  land  revenue.  The 
special  feature  of  the  Sind  land  settlement  is  the  allowance  for  fal- 
lows, which  are  common  owing  to  the  poorness  of  the  soil,  the 
abundance  of  waste  land,  and  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
manure.  The  assessment  is  now  based  on  the  mode  of  irrigation 
adopted,  it  being  open  to  the  farmer  to  choose  the  best  method  of 
irrigation,  season  by  season.  Occupants  are  liable  to  the  full  assess- 
ment on  each  survey  number  when  cultivated,  but  fallow  lands  are 
free  provided  that  assessment  is  paid  thereon  once  in  five  years. 
Remissions  are  freely  granted,  and  the  fallow  rules  are  suspended  in 
years  of  bad  inundation. 

To  protect  the  owners  of  large  estates  from  the  results  of  financial 
embarrassment,  two  Encumbered  Estates  Acts,  Bombay  Acts  XIV  of 
1876  and  XX  of  1896,  have  been  introduced,  and  in  March,  1901, 
certain  sections  of  the  Dekkhan  Agriculturists'  Relief  Act  (1879)  were 
applied  to  Sind.  A  special  officer  is  entrusted  with  the  charge  of 
encumbered   estates  administered  by   Government   on    behalf  of  the 


424  SJND 

owners.  In  the  lands  commanded  by  the  Jamrao  Canal,  grants  made 
smce  1900  are  subject  to  the  condition  that  they  shall  not  be  trans- 
ferred without  the  sanction  of  the  Commissioner.  The  rent-free  or 
partial  rent-free  tenures  in  Sind  comprise  jdgirs,  charitable  grants 
{khairdts),  and  garden  grants.  The  descendants  of  the  Talpur  dynasty 
hold  jdgirs  permanently  alienated.  Many  other  jdgirs  have  been 
granted  on  terms  involving  their  eventual  lapse  to  Government.  On 
the  Sind  frontier,  an  interesting  survival  of  former  land  grants  made 
by  the  Afghan  government  to  Pathan  settlers  is  to  be  found  in  the 
pattaddri  grants,  equivalent  to  an  assignment  of  a  fixed  portion  of  the 
revenue  of  certain  lands,  and  amounting  in  all  to  half  a  lakh  of 
rupees.  These  grants  are  also  found  in  Karachi  and  Sukkur  Districts. 
Khairats,  or  charitable  grants  to  Saiyids,  amount  to  6  lakhs,  being  the 
estimated  revenue  of  the  lands  so  granted.  In  addition  to  these 
ordinary  alienations,  large  tracts  of  land  in  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier 
District  have  been  granted  rent-free  to  Baloch  chiefs  and  their  tribes- 
men. The  area  of  these  grants  is  26,000  acres.  Garden  grants  are 
either  rent-free  or  on  reduced  assessment,  to  encourage  the  cultiva- 
tion of  garden  produce,  while  huri  and  seri  grants  represent  lands 
allotted  for  the  growing  of  trees  or  in  reward  for  public  service  such 
as  the  detection  of  crime. 

The  minimum  and  maximum  rates  of  assessment  per  acre  on 
'  dry '  land  vary  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  3-8,  on  rice  lands  Rs.  2-3  to 
Rs.  5-4,  and  on  garden  lands  Rs.  2-3  to  Rs.  6-8.  The  total  land 
revenue  in  1903-4  was  92-2  lakhs,  of  which  69-6  was  from  canal- 
irrigation.  The  gross  revenue  in  the  same  year  from  all  sources 
amounted  to  1-5  crores.  The  land  tax  ordinarily  forms  two-thirds  of 
the  net  revenues  of  Sind ;  but  remissions  are  constantly  necessitated 
by  droughts,  floods,  or  bursting  of  embankments.  In  spite  of  these 
drawbacks,  however,  the  revenue  has  steadily  increased  under  British 
rule.  The  cost  of  clearing  canals  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
items  of  public  expenditure. 

The  chief  port  in  Sind  is  Karachi.     The  Commissioner  in  Sind  is 

the  chief  customs  authority ;   and  the  Collector  of  Customs  and  Salt 

Revenue  in  Sind,  aided  by  two  Assistants,  is  chief 

revenue  customs  officer  for  all  ports  in  the  province.     Small 

establishments  are  maintained  at   Keti   Bandar  and 

Sirganda — two  subordinate  ports,   which   have   practically   no   foreign 

trade.     The   average   annual   receipts  of   Karachi   port  were  8  lakhs 

during  the  decade  1 881 -go,  and  25^  lakhs  during  the  next  ten  years, 

the  i)rincipal  items  in  both  periods  being  spirits  and  liquors  4^  lakhs 

and  5^  lakhs,  and  petroleum  Rs.  66,000  and  1-3  lakhs,  respectively. 

Between   1894  and  1900  duties  on  sugar  realized  5  lakhs  and  those 

on  cotton  goods  more  than  6^  lakhs.     In  1903-4  the  total  receipts 


MISCELLANEOUS  REl'ENUE  425 

exceeded  },2,\  lakhs,  the  chief  heads  of  receipt  being  petroleum  about 
2\  lakhs,  sugar  6^  lakhs,  spirits  and  wines  7  lakhs,  and  cotton  goods 
more  than  7  lakhs. 

The  Collector  of  Customs  and  Salt  Revenue  administers  the  Salt 
department,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Commissioner  in  Sind.  The 
province  produces  nearly  all  the  salt  required  for  local  consumption, 
the  chief  sources  of  supply  being  the  Maurypur  salt-works,  7  miles  from 
Karachi,  and  the  Uilyar  and  Saran  deposits  in  Thar  and  Parkar  District. 
At  these  three  centres  and  also  at  Sukkur,  where  a  depot  is  maintained 
for  the  convenience  of  the  people  of  Upper  Sind,  salt  is  issued  to  the 
public  after  payment  of  duty.  A  small  extra  charge  is  made  at  Maury- 
I)ur,  Dilyar,  and  Saran  to  cover  the  cost  of  manufacture,  and  at  the 
Sukkur  depot  for  railway  freight.  The  State  of  Khairpur  is  annually 
supplied  with  about  12,000  maunds  of  salt  from  Maurypur,  free  of 
duty.  The  manufacture  of  salt  by  private  individuals  is  strictly  pro- 
hibited. The  quantity  of  salt  manufactured  during  the  decades 
ending  i8yo  and  1900  averaged  225,000  maunds  and  288,000  maunds, 
and  in  1903  amounted  to  349,000  maunds.  Rock-salt  is  imported 
from  the  Punjab  by  private  individuals,  chiefly  for  the  use  of  Punjabi 
residents,  the  imports  amounting  to  11,000  maunds  in  1903.  Small 
quantities  of  table  and  packing  salt  are  imported  from  Europe.  The 
average  consumption  per  head  rose  from  5-8  lb.  in  r88i  to  7-3  lb.  in  1891 
and  7-4  lb.  in  1903.  The  total  revenue  from  salt  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  6'3  lakhs.  There  are  two  Government  fishing  yards  at  Shamspir 
and  Khadda,  near  Karachi,  to  which  salt  is  supplied  at  a  reduced 
rate  of  R.  i  per  maund,  on  condition  that  the  curing  is  performed 
within  the  Government  enclosure.  The  extension  of  railway  coninmni- 
cations  has  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  consumption  of  salt  in  the 
province. 

The  opium  revenue  of  Sind  is  derived  partly  from  transhipment 
or  re-exportation  fees  levied  upon  foreign  opium  transhipped  or  re- 
exported at  Karachi,  and  partly  from  excise  duty  upon  opium  sold  at 
the  District  treasuries  to  licensed  dealers  for  local  consumption.  The 
average  number  of  chests  of  opium  carried  annually  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  Hongkong  and  other  ports  via  Karachi  and  Bombay  rose  from 
1,990  between  i88i  and  1890  to  2,389  in  the  next  decade.  In  1903 
the  number  was  2,873.  The  amount  of  fees  for  each  of  these  periods 
was  Rs.  9,500,  Rs.  11,400,  and  Rs.  13,800.  Poppy  cultivation  being 
prohibited,  opium  for  local  consumption  is  obtained  from  Bombay  and 
issued  to  persons  selected  by  the  Commissioner  in  Sind  from  the 
tenderers,  who  are  allowed  to  sell  opium  at  single  shops,  and  are  bound 
to  regulate  their  selling  prices  according  to  a  standard  fixed  by  the 
Commissioner,  Licensed  practitioners  are  allowed  to  keep  one  seer 
of  opium  for  medical  purposes,   while   private   persons    may  possess 


426  SIND 

three  tolas  of  opium  and  five  seers  of  poppy-heads,  except  in  a  portion 
of  Thar  and  Parkar  District  on  the  east  of  the  Nara  Canal,  where  the 
limit  for  private  possession  is  ten  tolas.  The  revenue  from  opium 
fluctuates  with  the  price  of  labour,  the  character  of  the  harvest,  and 
the  general  condition  of  the  classes  addicted  to  the  use  of  it. 

Excise  revenue  in  Sind  includes  receipts  on  account  of  country 
liquor,  intoxicating  drugs  other  than  opium,  foreign  imported  liquors, 
and  toddy.  Country  liquor  is  either  mahuct  spirit,  obtained  from 
distilleries  at  Uran  near  Bombay,  or  molasses  spirit  from  a  central 
distillery  at  Kotri  in  Hyderabad  District.  Licences  for  distillation 
are  granted  to  persons  chosen  by  Government,  who  pay  an  annual 
fee  of  R.  I  per  gallon  of  the  capacity  of  their  stills.  A  few  wholesale 
licences  are  granted  free  of  charge,  while  the  retail  traders,  selected  by 
the  Collector  or  Deputy-Commissioner  for  each  District,  pay  licence 
fees  varying  from  Rs.  500  in  Karachi  town  to  Rs.  6  in  rural  areas. 
The  trade  in  intoxicating  drugs,  namely  bhangs  charas,  and  gd/ija,  is 
regulated  by  the  Bombay  Abkari  Act.  The  cultivation  of  hemp  under 
licence  is  restricted  to  Deho  Yakubani  and  Bubak  in  Larkana  District, 
the  bhang  produced  being  stored  in  a  central  warehouse  at  Bubak, 
whence  the  retail  and  wholesale  dealers  are  supplied.  Ganja  is  usually 
obtained  from  Panvel  in  the  Kolaba  District  of  Bombay,  and  charas 
from  the  Government  warehouse  at  Amritsar  in  the  Punjab.  A  quanti- 
tative duty  is  levied  of  R.  i  per  seer  on  bhang,  Rs.  6  per  seer  on  charas, 
and  Rs.  5  per  seer  on  gdnja,  the  retail  licences  for  each  shop  being 
sold  by  auction  every  year.  Government  regulates  the  maximum  daily 
quantity  which  may  be  purchased  by  one  person. 

The  excise  revenue  from  foreign  liquors  is  derived  from  licences 
for  the  right  of  sale,  which  are  of  three  kinds  :  importers'  licences, 
granted  only  in  Karachi  town  to  large  firms  for  the  sale  of  not  less 
than  2  gallons  at  a  time ;  wholesale  licences,  at  fees  varying  from 
Rs.  25  to  Rs.  250,  for  the  sale  of  not  less  than  one  pint  at  a  time  ; 
and  retail  licences,  which  permit  unrestricted  sale  on  payment  of  fees 
ranging  from  Rs.  500  to  Rs.  700.  Rum  and  malt  liquor  manufactured 
by  the  Murree  Brewery  Company  at  Quetta  are  treated  as  foreign 
spirit,  and  are  sold  only  in  the  towns  of  Karachi,  Hyderabad,  and 
Sukkur.  The  consumption  of  toddy  is  very  small,  there  being  only 
nine  shops  in  Sind  authorized  to  sell  it.  The  incidence  of  excise 
revenue  per  head  of  population  was  2  annas  in  1881,  4-4  annas  in 
3891,  and  5'4  annas  in  1901.  Imports  of  foreign  liquor  rose  from 
264,000  gallons  in  1887-8  to  488,000  gallons  in  1 890-1,  538,000  in 
1900-1,  and  601,000  in  1903-4.  The  average  net  revenue  from 
country  liquor  and  intoxicating  drugs  rose  from  3^  to  5  lakhs  and  from 
Rs.  84,000  to  1-3  lakhs,  respectively,  during  the  decade  ending  1890, 
and  to  nearly  8  lakhs  and  2*7  lakhs  during  the  following  decade,  the 


PUBLIC    WORKS  427 

actual  revenue  under  eacli  head  in  1903-4  being  about  8^  lakhs  and 
23  lakhs.  Government  are  considering  the  question  of  still  further 
restricting  the  sale  of  cheap  European  spirits,  which  are  much  in 
favour  with  the  Christian,  Parsi,  and  Hindu  population ;  but  the 
consumption  of  country  liquor  and  intoxicating  drugs  by  both  Hindus 
and  Muhammadans  has,  of  recent  years,  been  practically  stationary, 
subject  to  slight  fluctuations  in  accordance  with  retail  prices  and  the 
character  of  the  harvests.  The  number  of  shops  for  each  District  is 
strictly  fixed  by  the  Commissioner ;  and  no  shop  is  opened  or  removed 
to  a  new  locality  without  previously  consulting  local  opinion. 

There  is  a  special  irrigation  branch  of  the  Public  Works  department 
in  Sind,  for  dealing  with  the  work  arising  from  the  canal  system,  the 
control  being  vested  in  two  Superintending  Engineers 
— one  for  the  Indus  right-bank  canals  and  the  other 
for  the  canals  of  the  left  bank.  Each  of  these  two  divisions  is  again 
subdivided  into  five  districts,  each  under  an  Executive  Engineer ;  and 
to  cope  with  new  work,  a  special  survey  and  construction  district,  also 
under  an  Executive  Engineer,  has  lately  been  organized. 

The  Indus  Commission,  consisting  of  the  Commissioner  in  Sind  as 
president,  with  the  two  Superintending  Engineers  and  a  secretary 
as  members,  was  constituted  in  1901.  The  duties  of  the  Indus  Com- 
mission, which  acts  as  an  advisory  board  to  Government  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  Indus  within  the  boundaries  of  the  province,  are  briefly 
as  follows :  to  record  scientific  observations  upon  the  velocity  and 
discharge  of  the  current ;  to  superintend  topographical  or  hydro- 
graphical  surveys  in  connexion  with  changes  in  the  bed  and  water- 
level,  and  with  alluvion  and  diluvion  ;  to  maintain  river  gauges  and 
register  their  readings  ;  to  record  on  maps  all  changes  noted  by  their 
own  engineer  or  reported  from  various  Districts  and  the  Native  States  ; 
to  investigate  the  relation  between  the  rise  of  level  at  Sukkur  and 
Kotri ;  to  discuss  and  decide  proposals  for  works  upon  old  and  new 
canals,  for  new  embankments,  sluices,  and  extensions  ;  to  consider 
and  decide  what  expenditure  shall  be  incurred  upon  the  maintenance 
of  lines  of  embankment ;  to  carry  out  works  required  for  the  conserva  - 
tion  of  the  river  banks,  and  for  the  improvement  and  clearance  of 
channels^  especially  such  .as  feed  irrigation  canals ;  and  to  supervise 
the  collection  of  registration  fees  payable  by  boat-owners  under  Act  I 
of  1863. 

The  chief  works  carried  out  in  Sind  during  recent  years  are  the 
Jamrao  Canal,  the  largest  irrigation  work  in  the  province,  which  cost 
72  lakhs;  the  enlargement  and  improvement  of  the  Mahi  Wah,  Nasrat, 
Dad,  and  Begari  Canals  \  the  great  bridges  across  the  Indus  at  Sukkur 
and  Hyderabad,  which  cost  together  more  than  56  lakhs  ;  water-works 
at  Karachi,  Sukkur,  and  Hyderabad,   District  offices  at  Larkana,  the 

VOL.  XXII.  E  e 


428  snvD 

Empress  market  at  Karachi,  and  the  Sind  College.     Extensive  works 
have  been  carried  out  in  Karachi  harbour  since  1886. 

Seven  years'  experience  of  the  working  of  Municipal  Act  XXVI 
of  1850  had  proved  that  the  people  of  Sind,  though  unfitted  to 
control  their  own  municipal  affairs,  were  quite  ready 
°*^f  "nal  ^°  contribute  funds  for  public  improvements.  Ac- 
cordingly, Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Bartle)  Frere  drew 
up  proposals  in  1858  to  amend  that  Act  so  as  to  make  it  lawful  to 
constitute  any  District  or  portion  thereof  a  municipality,  and  to  impose 
a  cess  on  the  land  tax,  and  a  shop  and  house  tax.  Under  this  scheme 
the  expenditure  of  funds  was  to  be  left  in  the  hands  of  District  officers, 
assisted  by  a  board  for  each  municipal  division  thus  constituted,  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  tdluka  local  board.  The  superintendence 
of  large  and  important  works  was  to  vest  in  the  Collector,  subject 
to  the  control  of  the  Commissioner,  and  the  immediate  supervision 
of  minor  works  devolved  upon  the  heads  of  villages.  The  system 
advocated  was  neither  new  nor  experimental.  It  had  been  in  force 
for  some  years  in  parts  of  the  province,  and  had  operated  to  relieve 
cultivators  from  statute  labour  in  road-making  and  bridge  construction. 
The  scheme,  however,  was  ultimately  withdrawn  in  favour  of  Act 
XXXIII  of  i860,  which  abolished  the  land  cess  and  shop  tax  hitherto 
levied  as  a  Local  fund  in  parts  of  Sind.  The  cess  was  nevertheless 
revived  soon  afterwards  in  the  shape  of  a  levy  of  one  anna  per  rupee 
of  assessment,  wherever  the  limit  of  assessment  had  not  been  authori- 
tatively fixed.  In  1863  Government,  by  executive  order,  appointed 
District  and  tdhika  committees  with  definite  duties  to  promote  educa- 
tion and  the  construction  of  roads.  The  proceeds  of  a  cess  fixed 
at  one  anna  per  rupee  of  land  revenue  and  subsequently  legalized 
by  Act  VIII  of  1865,  tolls,  ferry  fees,  and  cattle  pound  receipts  were 
placed  under  the  control  of  these  committees.  The  members,  however, 
met  but  rarely,  owing  to  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  ratepayers  ; 
and  save  for  improvements,  which  the  Collectors  and  their  deputies 
personally  supervised  and  effected,  no  progress  was  made  till  the 
passing  of  the  Local  Boards  (Bombay)  Act  I  of  1884,  which  aimed 
at  carrying  out  local  improvements  by  local  taxation,  at  decentralizing 
the  management  of  local  funds,  and  at  giving  a  large  share  in  their 
management  to  the  ratepayers.  By  1903-4  there  were  6  District 
and  51  tdluka  boards  in  Sind,  composed  of  716  members,  of  whom 
407  were  nominated  and  299  elected.  All  members  are  elected  except 
those  for  8  tdlukas  in  the  Thar  and  Parkar  District  and  for  the  whole 
of  the  Upper  Sind  Frontier  District.  The  total  revenue  of  the  boards 
rose  from  7^  lakhs  in  1890-1  to  8  lakhs  in  1900-1  and  to  8|  lakhs 
in  1903-4,  and  their  expenditure  from  7^-  lakhs  to  7f  and  9  lakhs 
in  the  same  period.     The  chief  heads  of  expenditure  in  1903-4  were: 


LOCAL   AND   MVNICTPAL  429 

education  (2-7  lakhs),  roads  (Rs.  92,000),  repairs  to  roads  (2-2  lakhs), 
horse-  and  cattle-breeding,  experimental  cultivation  and  tree  planting, 
and  the  improvement  of  rural  water-supply  and  village  sanitation.  In 
many  places  village  sanitary  committees  have  been  established,  under 
a  system  whereby  half  the  cost  of  village  sanitation  is  borne  by  the 
villagers,  one-third  by  Local  funds,  and  one-sixth  by  Government. 
Though  progress  in  local  self-government  is  necessarily  slow,  the  local 
boards  are  all  in  a  sound  financial  condition,  and  continue  to  effect 
considerable  improvement  within  the  areas  of  their  jurisdiction. 

The  history  of  municipal  administration  in  Sind  commenced  with 
the  establishment  by  Sir  Charles  Napier  of  conservancy  boards  under 
Act  XXI  of  1841  in  Karachi  and  Hyderabad,  shortly  after  the  conquest 
of  Sind  (1843).  In  the  rest  of  the  province  the  responsibility  for 
urban  conservancy  and  the  provision  of  roads,  lighting,  and  water- 
supply  rested  with  the  local  panchdyats  and  inhabitants,  who,  though 
helped  by  small  grants  from  the  District  Magistrates,  were  unable 
to  effect  much  progress.  In  1852,  at  the  instance  of  Sir  Bartle  Frere, 
Act  XXVI  of  1850  was  applied  to  Karachi,  and  subsequently  to 
Hyderabad,  Sukkur,  Shikarpur,  and  other  towns.  Its  provisions  were 
simple,  contemplating  only  the  levy  of  a  house  tax  and  town  duties, 
the  prevention  of  nuisances,  and  the  establishment  of  dispensaries. 
Act  XXVI  of  1850  was  subsequently  amended  by  Act  I  of  187 1, 
which  obliged  municipalities  to  pay  a  certain  proportion  of  the  local 
police  charges,  and  was  finally  repealed  by  Act  VI  of  1873,  which  was 
not  actually  applied  to  Sind  until  1878.  Bombay  Act  II  of  1884  intro- 
duced further  changes,  by  extending  the  elective  principle,  exempting 
all  municipalities  from  police  charges,  and  obliging  them  to  establish 
and  maintain  middle  and  primary  schools ;  and  further  progress  in 
municipal  government  has  been  effected  by  the  passing  of  Bombay 
Act  III  of  1901. 

There  are  26  municipalities  in  the  province,  with  a  total  income 
in  1903-4  of  nearly  25  lakhs,  and  an  expenditure  of  23^-  lakhs,  these 
figures  being  almost  treble  the  corresponding  items  in  1884-5.  The 
chief  sources  of  income  are  octroi,  which  has  risen  during  the  last  two 
decades  from  5  lakhs  to  15  lakhs,  house  tax,  haldlkhor  cess,  water  rate, 
and  the  sale  proceeds  of  lands.  A  house  tax  is  perhaps  the  most 
unpopular  source  of  income,  and  is  levied  in  only  5  out  of  the  26 
municipalities  :  the  haldlkhor  or  conservancy  cess  is  levied  in  14  places 
and  the  receipts  have  largely  increased.  The  diminution  of  waste  areas 
and  the  depreciation  of  the  value  of  building-sites  in  Karachi  in  conse- 
quence of  plague  epidemics  has  effected  a  marked  reduction  in  the  sale 
proceeds  of  waste  lands  during  recent  years.  A  large  water-rate  revenue 
in  the  Karachi,  Hyderabad,  and  Sukkur  municipalities  is  chiefly  ear- 
marked for  the  repayment  of  loans  and  the  maintenance  of  water-works. 

VOL.  XX H.  E  e  2 


43°  SIND 

The  larger  municipalities  evince  rather  more  desire  for  progress  than 
those  in  the  Districts  of  the  Presidency  proper  ;  but  the  efficiency 
of  the  smaller  boards  depends  chiefly  upon  the  energy  of  the  officials 
and  members. 

The  total  strength  of  the  army  stationed  in  Sind  in  1904  was  : 
British  troops,  1,666;  Indian,  2,049;  total,  3,715.  This  force  became 
under  the  reorganization  scheme  of  1904  the  Karachi 
brigade,  and  is  distributed  in  cantonments  at  Karachi, 
Hyderabad,  and  Jacobabad.  The  volunteer  corps  include  the  Sind 
Volunteer  Rifle  Corps,  the  Karachi  Volunteer  Artillery,  and  the  North- 
western Railway  Volunteer  Rifles,  with  a  total  strength  of  about  1,000 
men. 

The  total  police  force  consisted,  in  1904,  of  4,501  officers  and  men, 

exclusive  of  four  District  Superintendents.     In  Thar  and  Parkar  the 

Deputy-Commissioner,  and  in  the  Upper  Sind  Fron- 
Police  and  .      .  . 

lails  ^'^^    District   an    Assistant    Superintendent,    are    in 

charge  of  the  force ;  but  the  area  includes  so  large 
an  extent  of  desert  that  any  general  statement  of  numbers  per  square 
mile  would  only  mislead.  In  Hyderabad  District,  where  the  popula- 
tion is  thickest,  there  is  one  policeman  to  every  12  square  miles  and 
to  every  1,403  inhabitants  ;  in  Karachi  District,  including  the  capital, 
there  is  one  policeman  to  every  14  square  miles  and  to  every  538 
of  the  population ;  while  in  the  desert  District  of  Thar  and  Parkar 
there  is  one  policeman  to  every  33  square  miles  and  to  every  910 
inhabitants.  The  Commissioner  is  ex  officio  the  head  of  the  police, 
but  direct  control  has  recently  been  transferred  to  a  Deputy-Inspector- 
Gene  ral. 

Sind  possesses  no  hereditary  village  police.  The  local  zammddrs 
assist  the  police  in  all  criminal  cases.  The  tracking  of  criminals  and 
stolen  animals  by  their  footprints  is  skilfully  performed  by  village /a^/.f, 
who  are  paid  by  the  village  cess  fund.  Cattle-lifting  and  thefts  in 
general  are  the  chief  offences  with  which  the  police  in  Sind  are  called 
upon  to  deal. 

The  Central  jail  at  Hyderabad  contains  accommodation  for  865 
inmates.  There  are,  besides,  2  District  jails  and  54  subsidiary  jails. 
Two  jails  at  Karachi  and  Sukkur  are  being  constructed.  The  convicts 
are  employed  in  preparing  articles  for  use  or  consumption  in  the  jails, 
in  jail  repairs,  and  in  manufacturing  cloth  or  carpets. 

Sind  stands  last  among  the  four  Divisions  of  the  Bombay  Presidency 

in  regard  to  the  literacy  of  its  population,  of  whom  only  about  2-9  per 

Educaf  o  '^^"*''  ^^'^  iiiales  and  0-5  females)  are  able  to  read  and 

write.      The  most    backward    District  is  Thar  and 

Parkar.     Education  has,  however,  made  relatively  rapid  progress  since 

annexation.     In  1859-60  the  province  contained  only  20  Government 


MEDICAL 


431 


schools  ;  the  total  number  of  Government  schools  in  1873-4  amounted 
to  213,  of  which  26  were  for  girls.  The  number  of  pupils  was  12,728^ 
of  whom  8,531  were  Hindus  and  only  4,139  Muhammadans.  In  1883-4 
the  schools  under  the  department  had  increased  to  340,  with  23,273 
pupils.  On  March  31,  1904,  the  educational  institutions  of  all  kinds 
were  as  shown  in  the  table  below  :— 


Number 

Scholars. 

tutions. 

Males. 

Female. 

Total. 

Public. 

Arts  colleges 
Secondary  schools 
Primary  schools 
Training  schools 
Other  special  schools . 

I 

39 
1,306 

5 
8 

122 

4,668 

50,026 

121 

292 

454 

8,855 
27 

3 

122 

5,122 

58,881 

148 

295 

Private       .... 
Total 

826 

9.839 

1,849 

11,688 

2,185 

65,068 

11,188 

76,256 

The  Musalman  population  showed,  until  recently,  but  little  interest 
in  education,  and,  like  the  Hindus  of  the  province,  are  indisposed 
to  educate  their  daughters.  There  is  an  Arts  college  in  Karachi, 
with  an  engineering  class,  and  the  city  contains  also  a  medical  class. 
Hyderabad  possesses  two  training  colleges,  one  for  males  and  the  other 
for  females,  and  a  medical  class.  There  are  three  normal  schools  in 
Sind  for  females  :  two  at  Karachi,  and  one  at  Hyderabad.  Among 
private  institutions,  the  European  and  Indo  -  European  schools  at 
Karachi  and  the  missionary  schools  in  that  town  and  Hyderabad 
teach  up  to  the  matriculation  standard  of  the  Bombay  University. 

There  are  printing  presses  at  Karachi  and  at  numerous  other  towns. 
About  fifteen  newspapers  and  periodicals  are  published  in  Sind,  of 
which  the  Khair-khah  Sind  has  the  largest  circulation. 

Civil  surgeons  are  stationed  at  Karachi,  Hyderabad,  Sukkur,  Shikar- 
pur,  and  Jacobabad.  Numerous  charitable  dispensaries  have  been 
established  in  all  the  chief  towns.  The  total  number 
of  patients  treated  in  1904  in  the  several  hospitals 
and  dispensaries  was  about  440,000,  of  whom  7,000  were  in-patients. 
There  are  three  hospitals  for  females  in  Sind,  and  a  lunatic  asylum  at 
Hyderabad.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  at  Karachi  under  Bombay 
Act  IV  of  1879,  and  was  made  compulsory  in  Larkana  in  1899  and  in 
Rohri  and  Sukkur  in  1904.  In  1903-4  the  Government  vaccinators 
operated  upon  82,745  persons. 

[Major  Outram,  Campaign  in  Scinde  and  Afghanistan  in  1838-39 
(1840);  T.  Postans,  Scinde,  Personal  Observations  on  the  Manners  and 
Customs  of  its  Inhabitants  and  its  Productive  Capabilities  (i  843) ;  General 

VOL.  XXII.  E  e  3 


Medical. 


432  SIND 

W.  F.  P.  Napier,  The  Conquest  of  Scinde  (1845);  Sir  W.  Napier,  History 
of  Sir  Charles  Napier's  Administration  of  Scinde  (1851);  Richard  F. 
Burton,  Scinde  or  the  Unhappy  Valley  { 1 85 1 ) ;  Scinde  Revisited^  2  vols. 
(1877);  Captain  G.  Malet,  Translation  of  Muham77iad  Masum  ShdKs 
History  of  Sind  from  710  to  1590  (Bombay,  1855);  A.  W.  Hughes, 
Gazetteer  of  the  Province  of  Sind  (1876) ;  Major  Raverty,  '  The  Mihran 
of  Sind  and  its  Tributaries  '  (vol.  Ixi,  Journal^  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal, 
1893) ;  General  Haig,  The  Indus  Delta  Country,  a  Memoir  oti  its  Ancient 
Geography  and  History  (1894) ;  W.  P.  Andrew,  The  Indus  and  its  Pro- 
vinces (1858);  Mirza  Kalichbeg  Fredunbeg,  Chackndtna,  an  Ancient 
History  of  Sind,  in  two  parts  (Karachi,  1902);  Official  Correspondence 
relative  to  Scinde,  1836-43  (1843);  Miscellaneous  Itiformation  con- 
nected with  Sind  (Bombay,  1855);  Official  Sketch  of  the  Judicial  Ad- 
ministration of  Scinde  under  the  Tdlpur  Dynasty  (Bombay,  1858); 
Official  History  of  Alienations  in  &>/</ (Karachi,  1886);  History  of  the 
Plague  in  Sind,  1896-7  (Karachi,  1897).  A  new  Gazetteer  is  in 
preparation.] 

Sind  River. — One  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Central  India,  flowing  in  a 
north-easterly  direction  for  250  miles  through  the  Agency,  till  it  enters 
the  United  Provinces  near  Jagmanpur  (26°  24'  N,  and  79°  12'  E.), 
finally  joining  the  Jumna  about  10  miles  farther  north.  The  origin  of 
the  name  is  not  known,  but  a  river  called  the  Sindhu  is  mentioned  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana,  together  with  the  Dhasan,  which  is  probably  this 
stream.  Cunningham  wished  to  identify  it  with  the  Sindhu  mentioned 
in  Bhavabhuti's  play  of  Mdlatl  Mddhava,  taking  the  Para,  Lavana  or 
Lun,  and  Madhumati  to  be  the  Parvati,  Nun,  and  Mahuar,  which  are 
tributaries  of  this  stream.  Its  nominal  source  is  a  tank  1,780  feet  above 
sea-level,  situated  in  the  village  of  Nainwas  (24°  N.  and  77°  31'  E.)  in 
the  Sironj  pargana  of  Tonk  State.  It  first  flows  for  20  miles  through 
Tonk,  being  crossed  by  the  Guna-Bina  section  of  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  Railway  near  Pagara.  The  Sind  then  enters  Gwalior,  which 
it  does  not  again  quit  during  its  course  in  the  Agency,  forming  the 
boundary  between  that  State  and  Datia  during  the  more  northern  part 
of  its  course.  For  the  first  130  miles  the  Sind  is  a  stream  of  very 
moderate  dimensions,  but  at  Narwar  it  commences  to  widen  and  rapidly 
develops  into  a  large  river.  It  is  fed  by  numerous  affluents.  The 
Parvati  and  Mahuar  join  it,  on  its  west  and  east  banks,  respectively, 
near  Parwai ;  10  miles  north  of  this  place  the  Nun  enters,  close  to  the 
spot  where  the  Agra-Jhansi  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Rail- 
way, and  the  Agra-Jhansi  road,  cross  the  river.  The  latter  is  served  by 
a  temporary  wooden  bridge  during  eight  months  of  the  year.  The  Saon 
and  Besli  enter  70  miles  farther  north,  and  the  Kunwari  and  Pahuj,  two 
large  streams,  22  miles  above  them.  The  Sind  has  a  continuous  stream 
during  the  whole  year  throughout  most  of  its  course ;  but,  owing  to  its 


SINDKHED  433 

high  rocky  banks,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  unsuited  for  irrigation  purposes. 
In  the  rains  it  is  apt  to  rise  with  great  suddenness,  often  causing  serious 
floods.  Between  Kolaras  and  Narwar  the  river  flows  through  the  most 
picturesque  scenery,  winding  in  and  out  among  hills  covered  with  thick 
tree-jungle  down  to  the  water's  edge. 

Sindgi. — North-eastern  tdluka  of  Bijapur  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  i6°  35'  and  17°  12'  N.  and  75°  57"  and  76°  28''  E.,  with  an 
area  of  810  square  miles.  There  are  144  villages,  including  Sindgi,  the 
head-quarters;  but  no  town.  The  population  in  1901  was  86,238,  com- 
pared with  93,618  in  1 89 1.  The  density,  106  persons  per  square  mile, 
is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  2-20  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  16,000.  Except  some  villages 
on  the  Bhima  river,  the  east  of  Sindgi  is  a  rough  rocky  plain,  with  fre- 
quent and,  in  some  cases,  abrupt  undulations.  It  is  scantily  cultivated, 
treeless,  and  monotonous.  The  portion  of  the  tdbika  on  the  banks  of 
the  BhIma  to  the  north  and  east  is  a  plain  of  black  soil.  This  is  well 
tilled,  and,  along  the  river  banks,  dotted  with  rich  villages.  In  the 
south  the  part  watered  by  the  Don  river  is  the  best  cultivated  portion. 
The  supply  of  water  is  scanty.     The  annual  rainfall  averages  25  inches. 

Sindhnur  Taluk. — Taluk  in  Raichur  District,  Hyderabad  State, 
with  an  area  of  621  square  miles,  including  jdgirs.  The  population  in 
1901  was  65,434,  compared  with  49,776  in  1891.  The  taluk  contains 
one  town,  Sindhnur  (population,  5,242),  the  head-quarters;  arid  126 
villages,  of  which  6r  are  Jdgir.  It  is  separated  on  the  south-east  from 
the  Madras  District  of  Bellary  by  the  Tungabhadra  river.  The  land 
revenue  in  1901  amounted  to  2-5  lakhs. 

Sindhnur  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluk  of  the  same  name  in 
Raichur  District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  15°  47'  N.  and  76°  46'  E. 
Population  (1901),  5,242.  The  town  contains  a  post  office  and  a  school. 
Country  cloth,  grain,  and  especially  cotton  are  largely  exported.  Half 
a  mile  from  the  town  is  an  old  stone  mosque  said  to  have  been  erected 
during  Aurangzeb's  reign, 

Sindiapura. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Sindkhed. — Village  in  the  Mehkar  tdluk  of  Buldana  District,  Berar, 
situated  in  19°  57'  N.  and  76°  10'  E.  Population  (1901),  2,711.  The 
pargana  of  Sindkhed  was  granted  mjdg'ir  to  the  kdzl  of  the  town  about 
1450,  and  he  afterwards  gave  it  voluntarily  to  the  famous  Maratha 
family  of  Jadon  or  Jadav,  the  most  famous  member  of  which  was 
LakhjI.  Lakhji  was,  according  to  one  account,  a  Rajput  from  Kur- 
wali  in  Hindustan,  but  the  family  also  claimed  descent  from  the  Yadava 
Rajas  of  Deogiri.  LakhjI  obtained  a  command  of  10,000  horse  under 
the  Ahmadnagar  government,  but  afterwards  espoused  the  Mughal 
cause,  receiving  a  command  of  15,000  horse  in  the  imperial  army. 
He  was   entrapped  by   MalojT   Bhonsla   into  giving  his  daughter   in 


434 


SINDKHED 


marriage  to  Shahji,  and  she  thus  became  the  mother  of  SivajT.  Not- 
withstanding this  connexion,  the  Jadons  were^  except  on  one  occasion, 
steady  imperialists  throughout  the  wars  between  Mughal  and  Maratha, 
and  held  high  rank  in  the  imperial  army.  The  representatives  of  the 
family  are  now  settled  at  Kingaon  Raja  ;  but  they  lost  their  possessions 
in  1851,  owing  to  an  act  of  rebellion  by  Arab  troops  under  their 
command. 

The  temple  of  Nilkantheshwar  to  the  south-west  of  the  village  is 
the  oldest  structure  traditionally  assigned  to  Hemad  Pant.  Several 
fine  buildings  attest  the  former  magnificence  and  prosperity  of  the 
place.  Sindkhed  was  held  by  Sindhia  for  nearly  sixty  years,  and  was 
restored  to  the  Nizam  in  1803.  In  1804  General  Wellesley  wrote  : 
"  Sindkhed  is  a  nest  of  thieves  ;  the  situation  of  this  country  is  shock- 
ing ;  the  people  are  starving  in  hundreds,  and  there  is  no  government 
to  afford  the  slightest  relief."  Bajl  Rao  Peshwa  encamped  at  Sindkhed 
for  some  days  in  18 18,  when  the  British  troops  were  on  his  track.  The 
decline  of  the  place  was  hastened  by  marauders,  whose  names — Mohan 
Singh,  Budlam  Shah,  and  Ghazi  Khan— were  long  remembered  with 
terror. 

Sindkheda  Taluka. — Tdluka  of  West  Khandesh  District,  Bom- 
bay, lying  between  21°  4'  and  21°  66'  N.  and  74°  28'  and  74°  58'  E., 
with  an  area  of  505  square  miles.  It  contains  two  towns,  Sindkheda 
(population,  5,021),  its  head-quarters,  being  the  larger;  and  141 
villages.  The  population  in  1901  was  76,811,  compared  with  73,385 
in  1 89 1.  The  density,  152  persons  per  square  mile,  is  above  the 
District  average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
3-4  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  24,000.  The  northern  portion  forms  a 
continuation  of  the  rich  black  soil  of  the  Tapti  plain  ;  the  southern 
is  for  the  most  part  hilly  or  undulating,  with  large  tracts  of  waste  land 
used  for  grazing  cattle.  Except  along  the  banks  of  the  Tapti  and  the 
Panjhra,  Sindkheda  is  poorly  supplied  with  surface  water.  The  two 
chief  rivers  are  the  Tapti,  flowing  along  the  entire  northern  boundary 
for  a  distance  of  35  miles,  and  its  tributary  the  Panjhra,  flowing  along 
the  eastern  boundary.     The  annual  rainfall  averages  22  inches. 

Sindkheda  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same 
name  in  West  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  21°  16'  N.  and 
74°  45'  E.,  on  the  Tapti  Valley  Railway.  Population  (1901),  5,021. 
The  municipality,  established  in  1864,  had  an  average  income  during 
the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  4,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  3,800.  The  town  contains  two  cotton-ginning  and  pressing 
factories,  a  dispensary,  and  three  schools,  with  284  pupils,  of  which 
one,  with  20  pupils,  is  for  girls. 

Sind-Sagar  Doab.— A  doab  or  '  tract  between  two  rivers '  (the  Indus 
and  Chenab,  and  higher  up  the  Indus  and  Jhelum)  in  the  Punjab,  lying 


SINGHANA  435 

between  29°  58'  and  -i^f  15'  N.  and  70°  33'  and  73°  50'  E.  It  com- 
prises the  Districts  of  Jhelum,  Rawalpindi,  Attock,  Mianwali,  and 
Muzaffargarh,  and  parts  of  Shahpur  and  J  hang. 

Singahi  Bhadaura. — Town  in  the  Nighasan  tahs'il  of  Kheri  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  18'  N.  and  80°  55'  E.  Population 
(1901),  5,298.  The  place  consists  of  two  separate  sites,  from  which 
it  derives  its  double  name,  and  it  belongs  to  the  Rani  of  Khairlgarh, 
who  resides  here.  There  is  a  dispensary  and  a  primary  school  with 
70  pupils. 

Singaing. —  Northern  township  of  Kyaukse  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  between  21°  39' and  22°  I'N.  and  96° and  96°54'E.,  with  an  area 
of  825  square  miles.  The  population  was  37,244  in  1891,  and  40,123 
in  1901,  distributed  in  169  villages,  Singaing  (population,  4,057),  on  the 
railway  10  miles  north  of  Kyaukse  town,  being  the  head-quarters.  An 
important  village  is  Paleik  (population,  3,070),  near  where  the  railway 
crosses  the  Myitnge  river.  The  township  proper  is  extremely  well 
irrigated  by  canals.  Its  boundaries  now  include  the  mountainous 
Yeyaman  tract  to  the  east,  with  an  area  of  700  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  only  1,648,  This  stretch  of  upland  is  inhabited  by 
Danus,  who  are  engaged  in  taungya  ('hill-slope')  cultivation.  In  1903-4 
the  township  as  a  whole  contained  67  square  miles  under  cultivation, 
of  which  47  square  miles  were  irrigated,  and  the  land  revenue  and 
thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  2,04,000. 

Singalila. — Hill  range  in  Darjeeling  District,  Bengal,  lying  between 
26°  38'  and  27°  42'  N.  and  88°  o'  and  88°  9'  E.,  and  consisting  of  an 
immense  spur  60  miles  long  which  stretches  south  from  Kinchinjunga 
to  the  plains  of  India  and  separates  Sikkim  and  Darjeeling  District 
from  Nepal.  The  waters  from  its  west  flank  flow  into  the  Tambar, 
and  those  from  the  east  into  the  Great  Rangit,  a  feeder  of  the  Tista. 
The  highest  peaks  are  Singalila  (12,130  feet),  Sandakphu  (11,930 
feet),  Phalut  (11,811   feet),  and  Sabargam  (11,636  feet). 

Singhana. — -Town  in  the  Shekhawati  7iizdmat  of  the  State  01 
Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  28°  6'  N.  and  75°  51'  E.,  on  the  skirts 
of  a  hill  which  attains  a  height  of  1,817  f^et  above  the  sea,  and  about 
82  miles  north  of  Jaipur  city.  Half  of  the  town  belongs  to  the  Raja 
of  Khetri  and  the  other  half  is  held  jointly  by  nine  Thakurs.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  5,176.  Singhana  possesses  a  post  office,  and  4  elementary 
indigenous  schools  attended  by  150  boys.  The  copper-mines  in  the 
vicinity,  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbari,  have  not  been  worked  for 
many  years. 


Oxford  :    Printed  at  the  Clarendon  Press  by  HORACE  Hart,  M.A. 


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