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THE  «->^^     ^     ^    -r-'-X^,^: 

J^       IMPROVEMENT  % 

^^  \  OF  THE 


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vwwwvx 

BF  ISAAC  WATTS,  D.J). 

TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED, 

QUESTIONS  ADAPTED  TO  THE  WORK; 

FOR 
THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 


»•  Few  books  have  been  perused  by  me  with  greater  pleasure  than  Dr. 
Wjitts's  Improvement  of  the  Mind  ;  of  which  the  radical  principles  may 
indeed  be  raund  in  Locke's  Conduct  of  the  Understanding ;  but  they  are 
so  expandeui«nd  ramified  by  Watts,  as  to  confer  on  him  the  merit  of  a 
wni-k  in  the  highest  degree  useful  and  pleasing.  Whoever  has  the  care 
of  instnicting  others  may  be  charged  with  denciency  in  his  duty  if  this 
book  is  not  r«commeaded."  Dr.  Johnson's  L\fe  ofDV'  Watts* 


SECOND  EDITION. 


BOSTON: 

:|PRINT£D  AVD  SOLD  BY  J^MES  LORING,  2  dORNHILL. 
[f  '  ■  "• 

:i}  1822. 


0::^  The  following  pages  contain  the  whole  of  the 
First  Part  of  Dr.  Watts's  Improvement  of  the  Mind.    This 
is  believed  to  be  sufficiently  complete  in  itself  without  1 
the  Second  Part,  and  more  particularly  suited  to  the  ca-  j 
pacitiey  of  Young  Persons.    Both  Parts  might  render  the  ^ 
Work  too  expensive  for  many  scholars,  and  thus  exclude 
the  whole  from  use.     As  this  First  Part  was  originally 
published  in  a  separate  volume,  it  is  plain  that  the  excel- 
lent Author  did  not  consider  it  as  having  any  indispens-^ 
able  connexion  with  the  Second, 


«««•«««««•       BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  eighteenth  of 
•      L.  S.    »    November,  A.  D.  1819,  and  in  the  foity.fifth  year  of  the' 
*•«•«•**•••    Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  JAMES 
LORING,  of  the  said  District,  has  deposited  in  this  Office  the  tJJe  ol' 
a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  Proprietor,  in  the  worLn  fal- 
lowing, to  wit : 

The  Improvement  of  the  Mind.  By  ISAAQ  WATTS,  D.D  To  which 
are  added,  Questiqns  adapted  to  the  Work ;  for  the  use  of  Schools  anr 
Academies. 

"  Few  books  have  been  perused  by  me  with  greater  pleasure  than  Dr 
Watts's  Improvement  of  the  Mind  ;  of  which  the  radical  principles  may 
indeed  be  fx)und  in  Locke's  Conduct  of  the  Understanding  ;  but  they  are 
so  expanded  and  ramified  by  Watts,  as  to  confer  on  him  the  merit  of  r 
work  in  the  highest  degree  useful  and  pleasing,  Whoever  has  the  car 
of  instructing  others  may  be  charged|with  deficiency  in  his  duty  if  tli: 
book  is  not  recommended."  .Dr.  Johnson's  Life  of  Dr.  WatU> 

In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled 
*♦  An  Act  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  by  securing  the  Copies 
of  Maps,  Charts  and  Books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  Cop- 
ies, during  the  times  therein  mentioned  :"  and  also  to  an  Act,  entitled, 
"  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  Act,  entitled,  An  Act  for  the  Encourage^! 
nient  of  Learning,  by  securing  the  Copies  of  Maps,  CharUand  Book^, 
to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  Copies,  during  the  times  therein 
mentioned ;  and  -extending  the  Benefits  thereof  to  the  Arts  of  Design-. 
inff»  Engraving  and  Etching  Historical,  and  other  Prints." 

JNO.  W  DAVIS  5^  ^^^''*  "f  ^^^  District 

Albert  Adsit  Oiemons 
Aug.  24,  1938 
\^Gt  avaiiabi©  for  exchange)  j 


7 


PREFACE. 


i  THE  present  Treatise,  if  it  may  assume  the  honour  of  that  name,  is 
nkde  up  of  a  variety  of  remarks  and  directions  for  the  improvement  of 
p^e  mind  in  useful  knowledge.  It  was  collected  from  the  observations 
■which  I  had  made  on  my  own  studies,  and  on  the  temper  and  sentiments, 
the  humour  and  conduct  of  other  men  in  their  pursuit  of  learning,  or  in 
the  affairs  of  life ;  and  it  has  been  considerably  assisted  by  occasional  col- 
'liPtions,  in  the  coune  of  my  reading,  from  many  authors  on  different  suh- 
lijCts.  I  confess,  in  far  the  greatest  part,  I  stand  bound  to  answer  for  the 
M'aknesses  or  defects  that  will  be  found  in  these  papers,  not  being  able  to 
Moint  to  other  writers  whence  the  twentieth  part  of  them  are  derived. 
[  The  work  was  composed  at  different  times,  and  by  slow  degrees.  Now 
'find  then,  indeed,  it  spread  itself  into  branches  and  leaves,  likea  plant  in 
April,  and  advanced  seven  or  eight  pages  in  a  week  :  and  sometimes  it 
lay  by  without  growth,  like  a  vegetable  in  the  winter,and  did  not  increaje 
half  so  much  in  the  reyolution  of  a  year. 

As  these  thoughts  occurred  to  me  in  reading  or  meditation,  or  in  my 
notices  of  the  various  appearances  of  things  amongst  mankind,  they  were 
tin-own  under  those  heads  which  make  the  present  titles  of  the  chapters, 
and  were  by  degrees  reduced  to  something  like  a  method,  such  as  the  sub- 
ject would  admit. 

On  these  accounts,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  same  accurate  order 
should  be  observed,  either  in  the  whole  book,  or  in  tlie  particular  chapter 
thereof,  which  is  necessary  in  the  system  of  ^ny  science  whose  scheme  is 
projected  at  once.  A  book  which  has  been  twenty  years  a  writing  may 
be  indulged  in  some  variety  of  style  and  manner,  though  I  hope  there  will 
not  be  iound  any  gi'eat  difference  of  sentiment;  for  wherein  I  had  im- 
provetl  in  latter  years,  beyond  what  I  had  first  written,  a  few  dashes  and 
alterations  have  corrected  the  mistakes :  and  if  the  candour  of  the  reader 
will  but  allow  what  is  defective  in  one  place  to  be  supplied  by  additions 
li'om  another,  I  hope  there  will  be  found  a  sufficient  reconciliation  ofwhat 
night  seem,  at  first,  to  be  scarce  consistent. 

The  language  and  dress  of  these  sentiments  is  such  fis  the  present  tem- 
per of  mind  dictated,  whether  it  were  graveor  pleasant,  severe  or  smihngo 
Jf  there  has  been  any  thing  expressed  with  too  much  severity,  I  suspect  it 
will  be  found  to  fall  upon  those  sneering  or  daring  writf  »s  of  the  age 


iv  PREFACE. 

against  religion  and  against  the  Christian  scheme,  vrho  seem  to  have  left 
reason,  or  decency,  or  both  behind  them,  in  some  of  their  writings. 

The  same  apology  of  the  length  of  years  in  composing  this  book,  may 
serve  also  to  excuse  a  repetition  of  the  same  sentiments  which  may  happen 
to  be  found  in  different  places  witliout  the  author's  design ;  but  in  other 
pages  it  was  intended,  so  that  those  rules,  for  the  conduct  of  the  under- 
standing, which  are  most  necessary,  should  be  set  in  several  lighu,  that 
they  might,  with  more  frequency,  and  more  force,  impress  the  soul.  I 
shall  be  sufficiently  satisfied  with  the  good  humour  and  lenity  of  my  read- 
ers, if  they  will  please  to  regard  these  papers  as  parcels  of  impei-fect 
sketches,  which  were  designed  by  a  sudden  pencil,  and  in  a  thousand  leis- 
ure moments,  to  be,  one  day,  collected  into  landscapes  of  some  little  pros- 
pects in  the  regions  of  leaniing,  and  in  the  world  of  common  life,  pointing 
out  the  fairest  and  most  fruitful  spots^s  well  as  the  rocks,and  wildernesses, 
and  faithless  morasses  of  the  counti-y.  But  I  feel  age  advancing  upon 
jne  ;  and  my  health  is  insufficient  to  perfect  what  I  had  designed,  to  in- 
crease and  amplify  these  remarks,  to  confirm  and  improve  these  rules,  axcC) 
to  illuminate  the  several  pages  with  a  richer  and  more  beautiful  varietyjofi 
examples.  The  subject  is  almost  endless ;  and  new  writers  in  the  pie«-  ! 
ent,  and  in  the  following  ages,  may  stiil  find  sufficient  foUieSjWeaknes^eS, 
and  dangei-s,  among  mankind,  to  be  represented  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
guard  youth  against  them. 

These  hints,  such  as  they  are,  I  hope  may  be  rendered  some  way  useful 
to  persons  in  younger  years,  who  will  favour  them  with  a  perusal,  and 
who  would  seek  the  cultivation  of  their  own  understandings  in  the  early 
days  of  life.  Perhaps  they  may  find  something  here  which  may  wake  y 
latent  genius  and  direct  the  studies  of  a  willing  mind.  Perhaps  it  may 
point  out  to  a  student,  now  and  then,  what  may  employ  the  most  useful 
labours  of  his  thoughts, and  accelerate  his  diligence  in  the  most  momentous 
inquiries.  Perhaps  a  sprightly  youth  might  here  meet  with  something  to 
guard  or  warn  him  against  mistakes,  and  withhold  him,  at  other  times, 
from  those  pursuits  which  are  like  to  be  fruitless  and  disappointing.         J, 

Let  it  be  observed  also,  that,  in  our  age,  several  of  the  ladies  pursae 
science  with  success  ;  and  others  of  them  ai"e  desirous  of  improving  their 
reason,  even  in  the  common  affairs  of  life,  as  well  as  the  men :  yet  the 
characters  w^hich  are  here  drawn  occasionally  are  almost  universally  ap« 
plied  to  one  sex  :  but  if  any  of  the  other  shall  fiad  a  character  which  suits  f 
thera,  they  may,  by  a  small  change  of  the  termination,  apply  and  assume 
it  to  themselves,  and  accept  the  instruction,  the  admonition,  or  the  i»p» 
plause,  v.'hich  is  designed  in  it. 


^•:^< 


^///i /~^.  f  j.^ 


X  THE 

/ 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MIND, 


Directions  for  the  Attainment  of  useful  KiiGivledgd 


INI  RODUCTION. 

NO  man  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know  every  thing;; 

Hhis  can  neither  be  sought  nor  required,  for  it  is  utier- 

*ly  impossible  ;    yet  all  persons  are  under  some  obliga- 

i^  tion  to  improve  their  own  understanding  ;  otherwise  it 

■will  be  a  barren  desert,  or'a  forest  overgrown  with  weeds 

and  brambles.    Universal  ignorance  or  infinite  errors 

-will  overspread  the  mind,  which  is  utterly  neglected, 

and  lies  without  any  cultivation. 

Skill  in  the  sciences  is  indeed  the  business  and  pro- 
fession but  of  a  small  part  of  mankind  ;  but  there  are 
many  others  placed  in  such  an  exalted  rank  in  the 
world,  as  allows  them  much  leisure  and  large  oppor- 
tunities to  cultivate  their  reason,  and  to  beautify  and 
enrich  their  minds  with  various- knowledge.  Even  the 
lower  orders  of  men  have  particular  callings  in  life, 
wherein  they  ought  to  acquire  a  just  degree  of  skill; 
and  this  is  not  to  be  done  well,  without  thinking  and 
reasoning  about  them. 

The  common  duties  and  benefits  of  society,  which, 
belong  to  every  man  living,  as  we  are  social  creatures, 
and  even  our  native  and  necessary  relations  to  a  fami- 
ly, a  neighbourhood,  or  government,  oblige  all  per- 
sons whatsoever  to  use  their  reasoning  powers  upon  a 
thousand  occasions  ;  every  hour  of  life  calls  for  some 
regular  exercise  of  our  judgment  as  to  times  and  things, 
persons  and  actions  ;  without  a  prudent  and  discreet 
determination  in  matters  before  us,  we  shall  be  plung- 
gedinto  perpetual  error's  in  our  con(itu(it»  Now  that 
B 


^  i5TRo»tr€Tioir. 

which  should  always  be  practised,  must  at  some  time 
be  learnt. 

Besides,  every  son  and  daughter  of  Adam  has  a  most 
important  concern  in  the  aiFairs  of  a  life  to  come,  and 
therefore  it  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  moment  for  ev- 
ery one  to  understand,  to  judge,  and  to  reas  )n  right 
about  the  things  of  religion.  It  is  in  vain  for  any  to 
say,  we  h-J  ve  no  leisure  or  time  for  it.  The  daily  inter- ' 
vals  ci  time,  and  vacancies  from  necessary  labour,  to- 
gether with  the  one  day  in  seven  in  the  Christian  world, 
allows  sufficient  time  for  this,  if  men  would  but  apply 
themselves  to  it  with  half  so  much  zeal  and  diligence 
astlieyd'>to  the  trifles  and  amusements  of  this  life ; 
and  it  would  turn  to  infinitely  better  account. 

Thus  it  appears  to  be  the  necessary  duty,  and  the  in- 
terest of  every  person  living,  to  improve  his  under- 
standing, to  inform  his  judgment,  to  treasure  up  useful 
knowledge,  and  to  acquire  the  skill  of  good  reasoning, 
as  far  as  his  station,  capacity,  and  circumstances  fur- 
nish him  with  proper  means  for  it.  Our  mistakes  in  ^ 
judgment  may  plunge  us  into  much  folly  and  guilt  in 
practice.  By  acting  without  thought  or  reason,  we 
dishonour  the  God  that  made  us  reasonable  creatures, 
we  often  become  injurious  to  our  neighbours,  kindred, 
or  friends,  and  we  bring  sin  and  misery  upon  ourselves : 
For  we  are  accountable  to  God,  our  judge,  for  every* 
part  of  our  irreguinr  and  mistaken  conduct,  where  he 
hath  given  us  sufficient  advantages  to  guard  against 
those  mistakes. 

It  is  the  design  of  Logic  to  give  this  improvement  to 
the  mind,  and  to  teach  us  the  right  use  of  reason  in  the 
acquirement  and  communication  of  all  useful  knowl- 
edge ;  though  the  greatest  part  of  writ;  rs  on  that  sub- 
jec7t  have  turned  it  into  a  composition  of  hard  words, 
trifles,  and  subtleties,  for  the  mere  use  of  the  schools, 
and  that  only  to  amuse  the  minds  and  the  ears  of  men 
with  empty  sounds,  which  flatter  their  vanity,  and  puff 
up  their  pride  with  a  pompous  and  glittering  show  of 
false  learning ;  and  thus  they  have  perverted  the  great 
and  valuable  design  of  that  science. 

A  few  modern  writers  have  endeavoured  to  recover 
the  honour  of  Logic,  since  that  excellent  author  of  the 
Art  of  Thinking  led  the  way.  Among  the  rest,  I  have 
presumed  to  make  an  attempt  of  the  same  kind,  in  a 
t^^tise  published  several  years  ago,  wherein  it  wa^« 


UrTRODC«TION.  V 

lay  constant  aim  to  assist  the  reasoning  powers  of  ev- 
ery i'ank.  and  «,rder  of  men,  as  well  as  to  keep  in  eye 
to  the  best  interest  of  the  schools,  and  the  candidates 
of  true  learning.  There  1  have  endeavoured  to  shovr 
the  mistitkes  we  are  exposed  to  in  our  conception, 
judgment,  and  reasoning ;  and  pointed  to  the  various 
springs  of  them.  I  have  also  laid  down  many  general 
and  particular  rules  how  to  escape  error,  and  attain 
truth  in  matters  of  the  civil  and  religious  life,  as  well 
as  in  the  sciences. 

But  there  are  several  other  observations  very  per- 
tinent to  this  purpose,  which  have  not  fallen  so  direct- 
ly under  any  of  those  heads  of  discourse,  or  at  !east 
thev  would  have  swelled  that  treatise  to  an  improper 
size ;  and  therefore  I  have  made  a  distinct  coliectitm 
of  them  here  out  of  various  authors,  as  well  as  from 
my  own  observation,  and  set  them  down  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads. 

The  learned  world,  who  have  done  so  much  unmer- 
ited honour  to  r.h;\t  logical  treatise,  as  to  receive  it  into 
our  two  flourishing  Universities,  may  possib  y  aamit 
this  as  a  second  part  or  supplement  to  that  treatise. 
And  I  may  venture  to  persuude  myself,  that  if  the 
common  and  the  busy  ranks  of  mankind,  as  well  as 
the  scholar  and  the  gentleman,  would  but  transcribe 
such  rules  into  their  understanding,  and  practise  them 
upo  all  occasio'  s,  there  would  be  much  more  truth 
and  knovrtedge  found  among  men  ;  and  it  is  reasona- 
ble to  h^pe  that  justice,  virtue,  and  goodness  would  at- 
tend as  the  happy  consequents. 


CHAPTER  I. 
General  Rules  for  (he  hnfirovtment  of  Knoivledge.* 

Rule  I. 
DEEPLY  possess  your  mind  with  the  vast  impor- 
tance of  a  good  judgment,  and  the  rich  and  inestima- 

•  Though  the  mort  of  these  following  rules  are  chiefly  addressed  t» 
those  whom  their  foitune  or  their  station  requires  to  addict  themselves  to 
tl»e  particular  improvement  of  their  minds  in  gj-eeter  degrees  of  knowl- 
edge ;  yet  eyerjjf  one  who  has  leisure  and  opportunity  to  be  acquaiutod 
with  such  writings  as  tibne,  nuiy  find  lonsthing  among  them  for  their 
•wniua. 


8  GENERAL   RULES  T© 

ble  advantage  of  right  reasoning.  Review  the  instan- 
ces of  your  own  misconduct  in  life;  think  seriously 
With  yourselves  how  many  follies  and  sorrows  you  had 
escaped,  and  how  much  guilt  and  misery  you  had  pre- 
vented, if  from  your  early  years  you  had  but  taken 
due  pains  to  judge  aright  concerning  persons,  times, 
and  things.  This  will  awaken  you  v/ith  lively  vigour 
to  address  yourselves  to  the  work  of  improving  your 
reasoning  powers,  and  seizing  every  opportunity  and 
advantage  for  that  end. 

Rule  II.  Consider  the  weakness,  frailties,  and 
mistakes  of  human  nature  in  geiieral,  which  arise f'om 
0he  very  constitution  of  a  soul  united  to  an  animal  body» 
and  subjected  to  many  incouveniencies  thereby.  Con- 
sider the  many  additional  weaknesses,  mistakes,  and 
fraiities,wh-ch  are  derived  from  our  original  apostasy  and 
fail  from  a  state  of  innocence ;  how  much  our  powers  of 
understanding  are  yet  more  darkened,  enfeebled,  and 
imposed  upon  by  our  senses,  our  fancies,  and  our  un- 
ruly passions,  8cc.  C<  nsid^r  the  depth  and  difficulty 
of  many  truths,  and  he  fluttering  appearances  of 
falsehood,  whence  arises  an  iniioi'e  variety  of  dangers 
to  wlvich  we  are  exposed  m  our  judgment  of  tilings. 
Re'ad  with  greediness  those  authors  that  treat  of  the 
doctrine  of  prejudices,  prepossessions,  and  springs  of 
crr-)^,  on  puip  'S'  t«j  make  your  soul  watchful  oq  all 
sides,  that  it  suffer  itself,  as  far  as  possible,  to. be 
imposed  upon  by  none  •>£  them.  See  more  qq  this  sub- 
ject. Logic,  P  rr  II.  Chap.  3,  and  Part  III,  Chap.  3. 

Rule  III  A  slight  view  of  things  so  momentous  is 
net  sufficient.  You  should  therefore  contrive  and  prac- 
tise some  proper  methods  to  acquaint  yourself  with 
y^'ur  own  ignorance,  and  fo  impress  your  mind  with  a 
deep  and  painful  sense  of  the  low  and  imperfect  degrees 
of  y "ur  presetit  knowledge,  that  you  may  be  incited 
with  labour  i^nd  activity  to  pursue  afrer  greater  meas- 
ures. Am:>ng  < others,  you  may  find  some  such  methods 
as  these  successful. 

1.  Take  a  wide  survey  now  and  then,  of  the  vast 
and  unlimited  regions  of  learning.  Let  your  medit  itions 
run  over  the  names  of  all  the  sciences,  with  their  nu- 
merous branchings,  nnd  innumerable  particular  themes 
of  knowledge ;  and  then  reflect  how  few  of  them  vou 
are  acquainted  with  in  any  tolerable  degree.  _  The 
most  learned  of  mortals  will  never  find  occaskai   to 


OBTAIN  KNOWLEDGE.  9 

act  over  again,  what  is  fabled  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
that  when  he  had  conquered  what  was  called  the  East- 
ern World,  he  wept  tor  want  of  more  worlds  to  con- 
quer.  The  worlds  of  science  are  immense  and  endless. 

2.  Think  what  a  numberless  variety  of  questions  and 
dijBiculties  there  are  belonging  even  to  that  particular 
science  in  which  you  have  made  the  greatest  progress, 
and  how  few  of  them  there  are  in  which  you  have  ar* 
rived  at  a  final  and  undoubted  certainty ;  excepting 
only  those  questions  in  the  pure  and  simple  mathemat- 
ics, whose  theorems  are  demonstrable  and  leave  scarce- 
ly any  doubt ;  and  yet  even  in  the  pursuit  of  some  few 
of  these,  maiikind  have  been  strangely  bewildered. 

3.  Spend  a  few  thoughts  sometimes  on  the  puzzling 
inquiries  concerning  vacuums  and  atoms,  the  doctrine 
of  infinities,  indivisibles,  and  incommensurables  in  ge- 
ometry, wherein  there  appear  some  insolvable  diffi- 
culties. Do  this  on  purpose  to  give  you  a  more  sensible 
impression  of  the  poverty  of  your  understanding,  and 
the  imperfection  of  your  knowledge.  This  will  teach 
you  what  a  vain  thing  it  is  to  fancy  that  you  know  all 
things ;  and  will  instruct  you  to  think  modestly  of  your 
present  attainments,  when  every  dust  of  the  earth,  and 
every  inch  of  empty  space,  surmounts  your  understand- 
ing and  triumphs  over  your  presumption.  Arithmo 
had  been  bred  up  to  accounts  all  his  life,  and  thought 
himself  a  complete  master  of  numbers.  But  when  he 
was  pushed  hard  to  give  the  square  root  of  the  num- 
ber 2,  he  tried  at  it,  and  laboured  long  in  millesimal 
fractions,  until  he  confessed  there  was  no  end  of  the  in- 
quiry  ;  and  yet  he  learned  so  much  modesty  by  this 
perplexing  question,  that  he  was  afraid  to  say  it  was 
an  impossible  thing.  It  is  some  good  degree  of  im- 
provement when  we  are  afraid  to'be  positive. 

4.  Read  the  accounts  of  those  vast  treasures  of 
knowledge  which  some  of  the  dead  have  possessed,  and 
which  some  of  the  living  do  possess.  Read  and  be  as- 
tonished at  the  almost  incredible  advances  which  have 
been  made  in  science.  A.cquaint  yourselves  with  some 
persons  of  learning,  that  by  converse  among  them,  and 
comparing  yourselves  with  them,  you  may  acquire  a 
mean  opinion  of  your  own  attainments,  and  may  be 
thereby  animated  with  new  zeal,  to  equal  them  as  far 
us  possible,  or  to  exceed:   thus  let  your  diligence  be 

quickened  by  a  generous  and  laudable  emulation.  Jf 
B2 


id  GENERAL   RULES   TO 

Vanillus  had  never  met  with  Scitorio  and  Polydes,  he 
had  never  imagined  himself  a  mere  novice  in  Philoso- 
phy, nor  ever  iet  himself  to  study  in  good  earnest. 

Remember  vm,  that  if  upon  some  few  superficial  ac- 
quirements, you  valut%  exalt,  and  swell  yourself,  as 
though  you  were  a  man  of  learning  already,  you  are 
thereby  buikling  a  most  unpassable  barrier  against  all 
improvement ;  y-u  will  lie  down  and  indulge  idleness, 
and  rest  yourself  contented  iri  *.he  midst  of  deep  and 
shameful  ignorancv.  Midti  od  t  cienciam pervenissent 
si  aeilluc  iiervenhae  non  fiiU assent 

Rule  IV.   Presume  not  too  much  upon  a  bright 

fjenius,  a  ready  wit,  and  good  parts,,  for  these  without 
abour  and  study  will  never  m  ike  a  m  =n  of  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  This  has  been  an  unhappy  temptation 
to  persons  of  a  vigorous  and  gay  fancy  to  despise  learn- 
ing and  study  Tl.ev  have  been  acknowledged  to 
shine  in  an  ass-^nbly,  nnd  sparkle  in  a  discourse  upon 
common  topscs,  and  thence  they  took  it  into  their  heads 
to  abandon  reading  and  labour,  and  grow  old  in  igno- 
i>ance;  but  when  t*iey  had  lost  the  vivacities  of  animal 
nature  ^nd  youth,  thev  became  stupid  and  sottish  even 
to  contempt  and  ridicule.  Lucid  as  and  Scintillo  are 
young  men  of  this  stamp  ;  the}'  shine  in  conversation, 
they  spread  their  native  riches  before  the  ignorant ; 
they  pride  themselves  in  their  own  lively  images  of 
fancy,  and  imagine  themselves  wise  and  learned  ;  but 
thev  had  best  avoid  the  presence  of  the  skilful,  and  the 
test  rf  reasoning;  and  I  would  advise  them  once  a  day 
to  think  forward  a  little,  what  a  contemptible  figure 
thev  will  make  in  age. 

The  witty  men  sometimes  have  sense  enough  to 
"know  their  own  foible,  and  thevefcre  they  cr  ftily  shun 
the  attacks  <-'f  argument,  or  b-jldly  pretend  to  despise 
and  renou*^ce  them ;  because  they  are  conscious  of 
their  ow  i  ignorance,  and  inwardly  confess  their  want 
of  acquaint  mce  with  the  skill  of  reasoning. 

Rule  V.  As  you  are  not  to  fancv  yourself  a  learn- 
ed man,  because  you  are  blessed  with  a  ready  wit,  so 
neither  must  you  imagine  that  large  and  laborious 
reading,  and  a  strong  memory,  can  denominate  yoij 
truly  wise. 

Wh  it  that  excellent  critic  has  determined  when  he 
decided  the  question,  whether  wit  or  study  makes  th^. 


OBTAIN   KNOWLEDGE.  1  I 

best  poet,  maj'  well  be  applied  to  every  sort  of  learn- 


-Ego  vec  studium  sine  divjte  venn. 


Nee  rude  quid  prosit,  video  ingenium :   alterius  sic 
Altei-a  poscit  opem  res,  et  conjurat  amice. 

Hor.  de  Ait.  Poeto 

THUS    MADE   ENGLISH  t 

Concerning;  poets  there  has  been  contest, 
Whether  they'i-e  made  by  art  or  nature  best! 
But  if  I  may  presume  in  this  affair, 
Among:  the  rest  my  judgment  to  declare. 
No  ait  without  a  genius  will  avail. 
And  parts  without  the  help  of  art  will  fail: 
But  both  ingredients  jointly  must  unite, 
Or  verse  wiU  never  shine  with  a  transcendent  light. 
♦  Oldham. 

It  is  meditation  and  studious  thought,  it  is  the  exer- 
cise of  your  own  reason  and  judgment  upon  all  you  read, 
that  gives  good  sense  even  to  the  best  genius,  and  af- 
fords your  understanding  the  truest  improvement.  A 
i)oy  of  a  strong  memory  may  repeat  a  whole  book  of 
Euclid,  yet  be  no  Geometrician;  for  he  may  not  be. 
able  perhaps  to  demonstrate  one  single  theorem.  Me- 
morino  has  learnt  half  the  Bible  by  heart,  and  is  be- 
come a  living  conctordauce,  and  a  speaking  index  to 
theological  folios,  and  yet  he  understands  little  of  di- 
vinity, 

A  well  furnished  library  and  a  capacious  memory 
are  indeed  of  singular  use  towards  the  improvement 
of  the  mind  ;  but  if  all  your  learning  be  nothing  else 
but  a  mere  amassment  of  what  others  have  written, 
without  a  due  penetratif^n  into  their  meanings,  and 
without  a  judicious  choice  and  determination  of  your 
own  sentiments,  I  do  not  see  what  title  your  head  has 
to  true  learning  above  your  shelves.  Though  you 
have  read  Philosophy  and  Theology,  Morals  and  Met-? 
aphysics  in  abundance,  and  every  other  art  and  sci- 
ence, yet  if  your  memory  is  the  only  faculty  employ- 
ed, with  the  neglect  of  your  reasoning  powers,  you  can 
justly  claim  no  higher  character  than  that  of  a  good 
historian  of  the  sciences. 

Here  note.  Many  of  the  foregoing  advices  are  more 
peculiarly  proper  for  those  who  are  conceited  of  their 
abilities,  and  are  ready  to  entertain  a  high  opinion  of 
themselves.  But  a  modest,  humble  youth,  of  a  good 
genius,  should  not  suffer  himself  to  be  discouraged  b)* 


IZ  GENERAL  RULES  Tt 

any  of  these  considerations.  They  are  designed  only 
as  a  spur  to  diligence,  and  a  guard  against  vanity  and 
pride. 

Rule  VI.  Be  not  so  weak  as  to  imagine,  that  a 
life  of  learning  is  a  life  of  laziness  and  ease.  Dare  not 
give  up  yourself  to  any  of  the  learned  professions,  un- 
less you  are  resolved  to  labour  hard  at  study,  and  can 
make  it  your  delight,  and  the  joy  of  your  life,  accord- 
ing to  the  motto  of  our  late  Lord  Chancellor  King, 
Labor  ipse  volufitas. 

It  is  no  idle  thing  to  be  a  scholar  indeed.  A  man 
much  addicted  to  luxury  and  pleasure,  recreation  and 
pastime,  should  never  pretend  to  devote  himself  entire- ' 
ly  to  the  sciences,  unless  his  soul  be  so  reformed  and 
refined,  that  he  can  taste  all  these  entertainments  emi- 
nently in  his  closet,  among  his  books  and  papers.  So- 
brino  is  a  temperate  man  and  a  philosopher,  and  he 
feeds  upon  partridge  and  pheasant,  venison  and  ra- 
gouts, and  every  delicacy,  in  a  growing  understanding, 
and  a  serene  and  healthy  goul,  though  he  dines  on  a 
dish  of  sprouts  or  turnips.  Languinos  loved  his  ease, 
and  therefore  chose  to  be  brought  up  a  scholar ;  he 
had  much  indolence  in  his  temper,  and  as  he  never 
cared  for  study,  he  falls  under  universal  contempt  in 
his  profession,  because  he  has  nothing  but  the  gown 
and  the  name. 

Rule  VII.  Let  the  hope  of  new  discoveries,  as 
well  as  the  satisfaction  and  pleasure  of  known  truths, 
animate  your  daily  industry.  Do  not  think  learning 
in  general  is  arrived  at  its  perfection,  or  that  the 
knowledge  of  any  particular  subject  in  any  science  can- 
not be  improved,  merely  because  it  has  lain  five  hun- 
dred or  a  thousand  years  without  improvement  The 
present  age,  by  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  mgenuity 
and  diligence  of  men,  has  brought  to  light  such  truths 
in  natural  philosophy,  and  such  discoveries  in  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  as  seemed  to  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  man.  But  may  there  not  be  Sir  Isaac  New- 
tons  m  every  science  ?  You  should  never  despair  there- 
fore of  finding  out  that  which  has  never  yet  been 
found,  unless  j^ou  see  something  in  the  nature  of  it 
which  renders  it  unsearchable,  and  above  the  reach 
of  our  faculties. 

Nor  should  a  student  in  divinity  imagine  that  our  age 
Is  arrived  at  a  full  understanding  of  every  thing  which 


OBTAIN   K NOW t EDGE.  l5 

can  be  known  by  the  Scriptures.  Every  age  since 
the  Reformation  hath  thrown  some  further  light  on 
difficult  textb  and  paragraphs  of  the  Bible,  which  have 
been  long  obscured  by  the  early  rise  of  antichrist ;  and 
since  there  are  at  present  many  difficulties  and  dark- 
nesses banging  about  certain  truths  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion, and  since  st-veral  of  these  relate  to  important 
doctrines,  such  as  the  Origin  of  Sin,  the  Fall  of  Adam, 
the  Person  of  Christ,  the  blessed  Trinity,  the  Decrees 
of  God,  Sec.  which  do  still  embarrass  the  minds  of  hon- 
est ai^d  inquiring  readers,  and  which  make  work  for 
noisy  controversy  ;  it  is  certain  there  are  several  things 
in  the  Bible  yet  unknown  and  not  sufficiently  explain- 
ed, .nd  it  is  certain  that  there  is  some  way  to  solve  these 
difficulties,  and  to  reconcile  these  seeming  contradic- 
tions. And  why  n.ay  not  a  sincere  searcher  of  truth 
in  the  present  age,  by  labour,  diligence,  study  and 
P'ayer,  with  the  best  use  of  his  reasoning  powers,  find 
out  the  proper  solution  of  those  knots  and  perplexities 
which  have  hitherto  been  unsolved,  and  which  have 
afforded  matter  for  angry  quarrelling ;  happy  is  every 
maM  who  shall  be  favoured  of  Heaven  to  give  a  help- 
ing hnnd  towards  the  introduction  of  the  blessed  age 
of  light  and  love. 

Rule  VIII.  Do  not  always  hover  on  the  surface 
of  things,  nor  take  up  suddenly,  with  mere  appearan- 
ces ;  but  penetrate  into  the  depth  of  matters,  as  far  as 
your  time  and  circumstances  allow,  especially  in  those 
things  which  relate  to  your  own  protessionw  Do  not 
indulge  yourselves  to  judge  of  things  by  the  first 
glimpse,  or  a  short  and  superficial  view  of  them  ;  for 
this  will  fill  the  mind  with  errors  and  prejudices,  give 
it  a  v/rong  turn  and  ill  habit  of  thinking,  and  m'ake 
much  work  for  retraction.  Subito  js  carried  away 
with  title  pages,  so  that  he  ventures  to  pronounce  up- 
on a  large  octavo  at  once,  and  to  recommend  it  won- 
derfully, when  he  has  read  half  the  preface.  Another 
volume  of  controversies  of  equal  size  was  discarded  by 
him  at  once.,  because  it  pretended  to  treat  of  tne  Trin- 
ity, and  yet  he  could  neither  find  the  word  essence, 
nor  subsistencies  in  the  twelve  first  pages  ;  but  Subito 
changes  his  opinions  of  men,  and  books,  and  things  so 
often,  that  nobody  regards  him. 

As  for  those  sciences,  or  those  parts  of  knowledge, 
which  either  your  profession,  your  leisure,  your  incli' 


14  OBNERAL  RULB8  TO 

nation,  or  your  incapacity,  forbids  you  to  pursue  with 
much  application,  or  to  search  far  into  them,  you  must 
be  contented  with  an  historical  and  superficial  know- 
ledge of  them,  and  not  pretend  to  form  any  judgments 
of  your  own,  on  those  subjects  which  you  understand 
very  impt  rfectly. 

Rule  IX.  Once  a  day,  especially  in  the  early  year* 
of  life  nd  study,  call  yourselves  to  an  account  what 
new  ideas,  what  new  proposition  or  truth  you  have 
gained,  what  further  connrmation  of  known  truths, 
and  what  advances  you  have  made  in  any  part  of 
knowledge ;  and  let  no  day,  if  possible,  pass  away 
without  some  intellectual  gain;  such  a  course,  well 
pursued,  must  certainly  advance  us  in  useful  know- 
ledge. It  is  a  wise  proverb  among  the  learned,  bor- 
rowed from  the  lips  and  practice  of  a  celebr^ited 
painter,  A'ulla,  dies  nine  linea ;  let  no  day  pass  without 
one  line  at  least ;  and  it  was  a  sacred  rule  among  the 
Pythagoreans,  that  they  should  every  evening  thrice 
run  over  the  actions  and  affairs  of  the  day,  and  exam- 
ine what  their  conduct  had  been,  what  they  had  done, 
or  what  they  had  neglected ;  and  they  assured  their 
pupils  that  by  this  method  they  would  make  a  noble 
progress  in  the  path  of  virtue. 

Nor  let  soft  slumber  close  your  eye«. 
Before  you've  recollected  thrice 
The  train  of  actioni  through  the  days 
Wh«e  have  mv  feet  chose  out  their  way? 
What  have  I  learnt,  where'er  I've  been, 
From  ail  I've  heard,  from  all  I've  seen? 
What  know  I  more  that's  worth  the  knowing? 
What  have  X  done  that's  worth  the  doing? 
What  have  I  sought  that  I  should  shunT        ") 
What  duty  have  I  left  undone?  > 

Or  into  what  new  follies  run  ?  j 

These  self  inquiiies  are  the  road 
That  leads  to  virtue,  and  to  God. 

I  would  be  glad,  among  a  nation  of  Christians,  to  find 
young  nien  heartily  engaged  in  the  practice  of  what 
this  heathen  writer  teaches. 

Rule  X.  Maintain  a  constant  watch  at  all  times 
against  a  dogmatical  spirit ;  fix  not  your  assent  to  any 
proposition  in  a  firm  and  unalterable  manner,  till  you 
have  some  firm  and  unalterable  ground  for  it,  and  till 
you  have  arrived  at  some  clear  and  sure  evidence  ;  till 
you  have  turned  the  proposition  on  all  sides,  and  search- 
ed the  matter  through  and  through,  so  that  you  cannot 


•BTAIK  KN0WLEI>€£.  15 

be  mistaken.  And  even  where  you  may  think  you  have 
full  gt  ounds  of  assurance,  be  not  too  early,  nor  too  fre- 
qut  nt,  in  expressing  this  assurance  in  too  peremptory 
and  positive  a  manner,  remembering  that  human  na- 
ture is  iilways  liable  to  mistake  in  this  corrupt  and  fee- 
ble stite.  A  dogmatical  spirit  has  many  inconvenien- 
cies  attendmg  it :  As 

1.  It  stops  the  ear  against  all  further  reasoning  upon 
that  subjt  ct,  and  shuts  up  the  mind  from  all  further 
imp»'ovements  of  knowledge.  If  you  have  resolutely 
fixed  your  opinion,  though  it  be  upon  too  slight  and  in- 
sufficient grounds,  yet  you  will  stand  determined  to 
renounce  the  strongest  reason  brought  for  the  contrary 
opinion,  and  grow  obstinate  against  the  force  of  the 
clearest  argument  Positivo  is  a  man  of  this  character, 
and  has  often  pronounced  his  assurance  of  the  Carte- 
sian vortexes ;  last  year  some  fui  ther  tight  broke  in 
upon  hJs  underst^anding,  with  uncontrollable  force,  by 
reading  something  of  mathematidl  philosophy;  yet 
having  asserted  his  former  opinions  in  a  most  confident 
manner,  he  is  tempted  now  to  wink  a  little  against  the 
truth,  or  to  prevaricate  in  his  discourse  upon  that  sub- 
ject, lest,  by  admitting  conviction,  he  should  exjDose 
himself  to  the  necessity  of  confessing  his  former  folly 
and  mistake ;  and  he  has  not  humility  enough  for  that. 

2.  A  dogmatical  spirit  naturally  leads  us  to  arro- 
gance of  mind,  and  gives  a  man  some  airs  in  conver- 
sation, which  are  too  haughty  and  assuming.  Audens 
is  a  man  of  learning,  and  very  good  company,  biit  his 
infallible  assurance  renders  his  carriage  sometimes 
insupportable. 

3.  A  dogmatical  spirit  inclines  a  man  to  be  censori- 
ous; of  his  neighbours.  Every  one  of  his  own  opinions 
appears  to  him  written  as  it  were  with  sunbeams,  and 
he  grows  angry  that  his  neighbour  does  not  see  it  in  the 
same  Ight.  He  is  tempted  to  disdain  his  correspond- 
ents, as  men  of  a  low  and  dark  understanding,  because 
they  will  not  believe  what  he  does.  Furio  goes  farther 
in  this  wild  track,  and  charges  those  who  refuse  his 
notions  with  wilful  obstinacy,  and  vile  hypocrisy;  he 
tells  them  boldly  that  they  resist  the  truth,  and  sin 
against  their  consciences. 

These  are  the  men,  that  when  they  deal  in  contro- 
versy deMght  in  reproaches.  They  abound  in  tossing 
aljout  absurdity  and  stupidity  among  their  brethren. 


16  GENERAL   RITLES   T^ 

Thev  cast  the  imputation  of  heresv  and  nonsense  plen- 
tifu  ly  uooii  their  antagonists ;  and  in  matters  of  sacred 
itnportance,  they  deal  out  dieir  anathemas  in  abun- 
dance, upon  Christians  better  than  themselves;  they 
denounce  d  urination  upon  their  neighbours,  without 
eitaer  justice  or  mercv  ;  and  when  they  pronounce 
sentenct-s  of  divine  wrath  against  supposed  heretics^ 
they  add  their  own  humap.  fire  and  indignation.  A  dog- 
m  itist  m  religion  is  not  a  great  way  off  from  a  bigot, 
and  is  in  high  danger  o£  gi-owing  up  to  be  a  bloody 
pers- cutor. 

Rule  XI.  Though  caution  and  slow  assent  will 
guard  you  -gai  :st  frequent  mistakes  and  retractions, 
yet  you  should  get  humility  and  courage  enough  to  re- 
tract any  mistake,  i-m^  confess  an  error;  frequent 
changes  are  tokens  oi  levity  in  our  first  determin  .tions  ; 
yet  y  .u  should  nev'er  be  too  proud  to  change  y  ur  opin- 
ion, nor  frighted  at  the  na  ne  of  a  changeling.  Learn 
to  scorn  those  vulgar  bugbears  which  confirm  foolish 
man  in  his  old  misiakes,  for  fe-ir  of  bring  charged  with 
inconstancy.  I  confess  it  is  better  not  to  judge,  than  to 
judge  false'y,  and  it  is  wiser  to  withhold  our  assent  till 
we  see  complete  evidence;  but  if  we  have  too  sudden- 
ly given  our  assent,  as  the  wisest  man  does  sometimes, 
if  we  have  professed  what  we  find  afterwards  to  be 
false,  we  should  never  be  ashamed  nor  afraid  to  re- 
nounce a  mistake.  That  is  a  noble  essay  which  is  found 
among  the  occasional  papers,  to  encourage  the  world 
to  practise  retractions  ;  and  I  would  recommend  it  to 
the  perusal  of  every  scholar  and  every  Christian. 

Rule  XII.  He  that  would  raise  his  judgment  above 
the  vulgar  r-mk  of  mankind,  and  learn  to  pass  a  just 
sentence  on  persons  and  things,  must  take  heed  of  a 
fanciful  temper  of  mind,  and  a  humorous  conduct  in  liis 
affairs.  Fancy  and  humour,  early  and  constantly  in- 
dulged, may  expect  an  old  age  overrun  with  follies. 

The  notion  of  a  humourist  is  one  that  is  greatlv  pleas- 
ed, or  greatly  displeased  with  little  things,  who  sets  his 
heart  much  upon  matters  of  very  small  importance ; 
who  has  his  will  determined  every  day  by  trifles,  his 
actions  seldom  directed  bv  the  reason  and  nature  of 
things,  and  his  passions  frequently  raised  by  things  of 
little  monient.  Where  this  practice  is  allowed,  it  will 
insensibly  warp  the  judgment  to  pronounce  little  things 
great,  and  tempt  you  to  lay  a  great  weight  upon  them. 


OBTAIN   KNOWLEDGE.  17 

Is  short,  this  temper  will  incline  you  to  pass  an  unjust 
value  on  almost  every  thin^  that  occujs ;  and  every 
step  you  take  in  this  path  is  just  so  far  out  of  the  way 
Vo  wisdom. 

Rule  XIII.  For  the  same  reason  have  a  care  of 
trifling  with  things  ivj^ortant  nnd  momf-nt.'us,  O'  of 
sporting  with  things  awful  and  sacred ;  tlo  not  indulge 
a  spirit  of  ridicule,  as  some  vvitt\'  men  do  on  all  occi^ 
sions  and  subjects.  This  will  s  unhappily  bias  the 
judgment  on  the  other  side,  a-id  hicline  you  to  p.iss  a 
low  esteem  on  thi-;  most  valua')  e  oi)jccts.  Whatsoev- 
er evil  habit  we  indulge  in  practice,  ic  will  inscsibly 
obtain  a  power  over  our  understtandiiig,  and  betray  us 
int'>  many  errors  Jocauder  is  re  .dy  with  his  jest  to 
answer  eves  y  thing  that  he  hears;  he  reads  bo' ks  in 
the  same  jovial  humour,  and  has  gotten  the  art  of  turn- 
hig  every  thought  and  sentence  into  merriment.  How 
many  av^-kward  and  irregular  judgments  does  this  man 
pass  upon  solemn  subjects,  even  when  he  designs  to  be 
grave  and  in  earnesr !  His  rnii  th  and  raughiag  humour 
is  formed  into  habit  and  temper,  and  leads  his  und^.-r- 
standing  shamefully  astr  »y.  You  w;l!  see  him  wan- 
dering in  pursuit  of  a  gay  fiving  feather,  and  h  is 
drawn  by  a  kind  of  ignis  fatuus  into  bogs,  ami  mire, 
almost  every  day  of  his  lif-. 

Rule  XtV.  Ever  nifiinlai;!  a  virtuous  and  pious 
frame  of  spirit ;  for  an  indniy,ence  of  vicious  inclina- 
tions debases  the  understanding  nd  perverts  the  judg- 
ment. Whoredom  and  wine,  and  new  \vine,  take  a- 
wav  the  heart  and  soul  and  reason  of  a  man.  Sensu- 
ality ruins  the  better  facultit*s  of  the  inind  ;  an  indul- 
gence to  appetite  <nd  passion  enfeebles  the  powers  of 
reason,  it  makes  the  iudg'rent  weak  and  susceptive  of 
every  fnlseho  ,d,  and  esjjecially  •  f  such  mistakes  as 
have  a  tendeiicy  towards  the  gratification  of  the  ani- 
ipal ;  and  it  warns  the  s  u!  aside  strangely  from  that 
steadfa-t  honesty  aid  integrity  thit  necessarily  belongs 
to  the  pur'^uit  of  truth.  It  is  the  virtuous  man  who  is 
in  n  fitir  way  to  wisdom.  *'  Ciod  gives  to  those  that  are 
go.'^d  in  his  sight,  wisdom,  and  knowledge,  and  joy." 
Eccl.  ii   26. 

Piety  towards  God,  as  well  as  sobriety  and  virtue, 

are  necessary  qualitlcations  to  make  a  truly  wise  and 

judicious  man.     He  that  abandons  religion  must  act  m 

SQch  a  contradiction  to  his  own  conscience  a«d  best 

C 


18  •KITERAL   RFLKS   Tft 

judgment,  that  he  abuses  and  spoils  the  faculty  itself. 
It  is  thus  in  the  nature,  of  things,  and  it  is  thus  by  the 
righteous  judgment  of  God  ;  even  the  pretended  sages 
among  the  heathens,  who  did  not  like  to  retain  God  in 
their  knowiedee,  they  were  given  up  to  a  reprobate 
mind,  t'r  vow  aSoxifiov,  an  undistinguished  or  injudicious 
mind,  so  that  t.ev  jude^ed  inconsistej^tly,  and  practised 
mere  absurdities,  ra  yu>l  «»ijx»vt«,  Rom.  i.  28. 

And  it  is  the  character  of  the  slaves  of  antichrist,  2  ' 
Thess.  ii.  10,  &c.  that  those  *'  who  receive  not  the  love 
of  the  truth,  were  exposed  to  the,  power  of  diabolical 
sleights  and  lying  wonders."  Wher;  divine  revelation 
shines  and  blazes  in  the  f  ice  of  men  ^  with  glorious  ev- 
idence, and  they  wink  their  eyes  against  it,  the  God  of 
this  world  is  sii'fft-red  to  t>!ind  them  even  in  the  most 
obvious,  common,  and  sensible  things.  The  great  God 
of  heaven,  for  this  CHuse,  sends  them  strong  delusions 
that  they  should  believe  a  lie;  and  the  nonsense  of 
transubstantiation  in  the  popish  world,  is  a  most  glaring 
accomplishment  of  this  prophecy,  beyond  even  what 
could  have  been  thought  of  or  expected  among  crea- 
tures who  pretend  to  reason. 

Rule  XV.  Watch  against  the  pride  of  your  own 
reason,  and  a  vain  conceit  of  your  own  intellectual  pow- 
ers, with  the  neglect  of  divine  aid  and  blessing.  Pre- 
sume not  upon  great  attainments  in  krowled^  by  your 
own  self-sufficiency ;  those  who  trust  to  their  own  un- 
derstandings entirely,  are  pronounced  f^ols  in  the  word 
of  God ;  and  it  is  the  wisest  of  men  gives  them  this 
character ;  "  he  that  trusteth  in  his  own  heart  is  a  fool." 
Prov,  xxviii.  26.  And  the  same  divine  writer  advises 
us  "  to  trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  our  hearts,  and  not  to 
lean  to  our  own  understandings,  nor  to  be  wise  in  oui*- 
own  eyes."    Chap.  iii.  5, 7. 

Those  who,  with  a  neglect  of  religion,  and  depend" 
cnce  on  God,  apply  themselves  to  search  out  every  ar- 
ticle in  the  things  of  God  by  the  mere  dint  of  their  own 
reason,  have  been  suffered  to  run  into  wild  excesses- 
of  foolery,  and  strange  extravagance  of  opinions.  Every 
one  who  pursues  this  vain  course  and  will  not  ask  for 
the  conduct  of  (iod  in  the  study  of  religion,  has  just 
reason  to  fear  he  shall  be  left  of  God,  and  given  up  a 
prey  to  a  thousand  prejudices;  that  he  shall  be  con- 
signed over  to  the  follies  of  his  own  heart,  and  pursue , 
his  owt»  temporal  and  eternal  raiH.    And  even  in  com- 


•BTAIN  XNOWLEDOE.  19 

mon  studies,  we  should,  by  humility  and  dependence, 
engage  the  God  of  truth  on  our  side. 

KuLE  XVI.  Offer  up  therefore  your  daily  requests 
to  God,  the  Father  of  lights,  that  he  would  bless  all 
your  attempts  and  labours  in  reading,  study,  and  con- 
versation. Think  with  yourself,  how  easily  and  how 
insensibly,  by  one  turn  of  thought,  he  can  lead  you  into 
a  large  scene  of  useful  ideas ;  he  can  teach  you  to  lay 
hold  on  a  clue  which  may  guide  your  thoughts  with 
safety  and  ease  through  all  the  difficulties  of  an  intri- 
cate subject-  Think  how  easily  the  Author  of  your  be- 
ings can  direct  your  motions  by  his  pj  ovidence,  so  that 
the  glance  of  an  eye,  or  a  word  striking  the  ear,  or  a 
sudden  turn  of  the  fancy,  shall  conduct  you  t  a  train 
of  happy  sentiments.  By  his  secret  and  supreme  me- 
thofl  of  government,  he  can  draw  you  to  read  such  a 
treatise,  or  converse  with  such  a  person,  who  may  give 
you  more  light  into  some  deep  subject  in  an  hour*  than 
you  could  obtain  by  a  month  of  your  own  soUtary  labour. 

Think  with  yourself,  with  how  much  ease  the  God 
of  sp.rits  can  cast  into  your  minds,  some  useful  sugges- 
tion, and  give  a  happy  turn  to  your  own  thoughts,  or  the 
thoughts  of  those  with  whom  you  converse,  whence 
you  may  derive  unspeakable  light  and  satisfaction,  in  a 
matter  that  has  long  puzzled  and  entangled  you;  he 
can  shew  you  a  "fialh  which  ihf  vvMure*ti  eye  hath  not 
*een"  and  lead  you  by  s  me  unknown  gate  or  portal, 
out  of  a  wilderness  and  labyrinth  of  difficulties,  wherein 
you  have  been  long  wandeiing. 

Implore  constantly  his  divine  grace  to  point  your  in- 
clination to  proper  stu'lies,  and  to  fix  your  heart  there. 
He  can  keep  off  lemptations  on  the  right  hand,  and  on 
the  left,  both  by  the  roui  se  of  his  providence,  and  by 
the  secret  and  insensible  intimations  of  his  Spirit.  He 
cau  guard  your  understandings  from  every  evil  influence 
of  error,  and  secure  you  frorn  the  danger  of  evil  books 
and  men,  which  mij?ht  otherwise  have  a  fatal  effect, 
and  lead  you  into  pernicious  mistakes. 

Nor  let  this  sort  of  advice  ftili  under  the  censure  of 
the  godless  and  prof-me,  as  a  mere  piece  of  bigotry  or 
enthusiasm,  derived  from  faith  and  the  Bible ;  for  the 
reasons  which  I  have  given  to  support  this  pinus  prac- 
tice of  invoking  the  blessing  of  God  on  our  studies,  are 
derived  from  the  light  of  nature  as  well  as  revelation. 
He  that  made  our  souls,  and  is  the  Father  of  spirits. 


20  GENERAL   RULES,  &;C. 

shall  he  not  be  supposed  to  have  a  most  friendly  influ- 
ence towards  rhe  instruction  and  government  of  them? 
The  Author  of  our  rational  powers  can  mv  )h'e  them  in 
darkness  vvhe-  iie  ple:ses,  by  a  suddt^u  distemper:  or 
he  cin  .iba.idon  them  to  wa-der  into  dark  and  fooUsh 
opinions,  when  they  are  niled  with  a  vain  conceit  of  their 
own  iigijt.  He  expects  to  be  acknowledged  in  ilie 
common  affairs  of  (ife,  and  he  does  as  cctainly  expect 
it  ill  the  superior  operations  of  the  mi  d,  and  in  the 
sea:  ch  of  kn  wiedge  and  tru^h.  The  very  Greek  hea- 
tlK-:,-.,  ')'.  the  igiit  oi  reas --n,  wi  re  taught  to  say,  'Ex 
Awf  a§;^6/z  icrQa,  and  the  Latins,  '.*  ji  Jove  Frncip.ium 
Mu  a:/'  in  work.s  of  le^trning  they  thought  it  nect  ssa- 
ry  CO  be:^in  ^vith  God.  Even  the  poets  cail  upon  the 
muse  as  a  goddess  to  .ss  st  ihem  ;n  tiseu- compositions. 

The  first  lines  of  Honier.in  hisliiad,  and  Odyss  >,the 
first  tine  of  Vi  us  sens,  in  his  song  of  Hero  and  Leantier, 
the  beginning  <  f  Hesiod,  in  his  poem  of  Weeks  and  D  vys, 
and  several  others,  furiiish  us  witn  sufficient  examples 
of  this  kind  ;  nor  d«'ts  Ovid  leave  -ut  ibis  piece  of  de- 
votion as  he  begins  his  stories  of  the  Me  ta>  nor  pilosis. 
Christianity  so  much  the  more  obUi.es  us  by  the  pre- 
cepts of  8c;ipLurc  to  invoke  the  assistance  of  the  true 
God  in  a  I  ou  '  . hours  of  the  min  .for  iht  improvement 
of  ourselves  and  others.  Bishop  S  underson  says,  that 
siudy  without  prayer  is  athessm.  as  well  as  that  pra3'er 
w  ihouL  study  is  presumption.  _  And  we  are  still  more 
abuu  !antly  tnco  .raeed  bv  t'?e  testimony  of  those  who 
have  acknowledged  fr  m  their  own  experience,  that 
sincere  prayer  was  no  hindrance  to  their  studies  ;  they 
have  gotten  more  knowledge  sometimes  upon  their 
knees,  than  by  their  labour  in  perusing  a  varietv  of  au- 
thors ;  and  they  have  b.ft  this  observat)on  for  such  as 
follow,  Bene  orasse  est  bene  studuissey  Praying  is  the 
best  studying 

To  conclude,  let  industry  and  devotion  join  together, 
and  y  u  need  not  doubt  the  happy  success  ;  Pvov  ii.  2. 
"  Incline  thine  ear  unto  wisdom,  apply  thine  heart  to 
understanding  ;  cry  after  knowledge,  and  hft  up  thy 
voice  ;  sr;k  her  as  silver,  antl  search  for  her  as  for 
hidden  treasures:  Then  shalt  thou  understand  the 
fear  of  thf  Lord,"  8cc  which  is  *'the  begi'.ning  of  wis- 
dom It  is  *'  the  Lord  who  gives  wisdom,  even  to  the 
simple,  and  out  of  his  moutii  cometh  knowledge  and 
iinderstandihg.'* 


VIVE   mSTHODS   OV   lOf  FRO  YEMEN  X.  21 


CHAPTER  II. 

Observation^  Reading,  Instruction  by  Lectures^ 
Conversation^  and  Study,  comfiared. 

THERE  are  five  eminent  means  or  methods  where- 
by the  mind  is  improved  in  the  knowledge  of  things  ; 
and  these  are  observation,  reading,  instruction  by  lec- 
tures, conversation,  and  meditation,  which  last,  in  a 
most  peculiar  manner,  is  called  study.  Let  us  survey 
the  general  definitions  or  descriptions  of  them  all. 

I.  Observation  is  that  notice  that  we  take  of  all  oc- 
currences in  human  life,  whether  they  are  sensible  or 
intellectual,  whether  relating  to  persons  or  things,  to 
ourselves  or  others.  It  is  this  that  furnishes  us,  even 
from  our  infancy,  with  a  rich  variety  of  ideas  and  pro- 
positions, words  and  phrases  ;  it  is  by  this  we  know  that 
lire  will  burn,  that  the  sun  gives  light,  that  a  horse  eats 
grass,  that  an  acorn  produces  an  oak,  that  man  is  a 
being  capable  of  reasoning  and  discourse,  that  our  judg- 
ment is  weak,  that  our  mistakes  are  many,  that  our 
sorrows  are  great,  that  our  bodies  die  and  are  carried 
to  the  grave,  and  tliat  one  generation  succeeds  another. 
All  those  things  which  we  see,  which  we  hear  or  feel, 
■which  we  perceive  by  sense  or  consciousness,  or  which 
we  know  in  a  direct  manner,  with  scarce  any  exercise 
of  our  reflecting  faculties  or  our  reasoning  powers,  may 
be  included  under  the  general  name  of  observation. 

When  this  observation  relates  to  any  thing  that  im» 
medi-^tely  concerns  ourselves,  and  of  which  we  are 
conscious,  it  may  be  called  experience.  So  I  am  said 
to  know  or  experience  that  I  have  in  myself  a  power 
of  thinking,  fearing,  loving,  &c.  That  I  have  appetites 
and  passions  working  in  me,  and  many  personal  oc- 
currences have  attended  me  in  this  life. 

Observation  therefore  includes  all  that  Mr.  Locke 
means  by  sensation  and  reflection. 

When  we  are  searching  out  the  nature  or  properties 
of  any  being  by  various  methods  of  trial ;  or' when  we 
apply  some  active  piwers,  or  set  some  causes  to  work, 
to  observe  what  effects  they  would  produce,  this  sort 
of  observation  is  called  experiment.  So  when  I  throw 
a  bullet  into  water,  I  find  it  sinks ;  and  when  I  throw 
the  same  bullet  mto  quicksilver,  I  see  it  swims ;  but  if 
C  2 


22  THE   FIVE   METHODS 

I  beat  cut  this  bullet  into  a  thin  hollow  shape,  like  a 
dish,  then  it  wiP.  swim  in  the  water  too.  So  when  I 
strike  two  flints  together,  I  find  they  produce  iire;  when 
I  throw  a  seed  into  the  earth,  it  grows  up  into  a  plant. 

All  these  belong  to  the  first  method  of  knowledge, 
which  I  shall  call  observation. 

II.  Reading  is  that  means  or  method  of  knowledge, 
whereby  "  v.^e  acquaint  ourselves  wi'h  what  other  men 
have  written,  or  published  to  the  world  in  their  writ- 
ings." These  arts  of  reading  and  writing  are  of  in- 
finite advant -ge;  for  by  them  we  are  made  partakers 
of  the  sentimtnts,  observations,  reasonings,  and  im- 
provements, of  all  the  learned  world,  in  tht  most  re- 
mote nations,  and  in  former  ages,  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning of  mankind. 

ill.  Pubiic  or  private  lectures  are  such  **  verbal  in- 
structions as  are  given  by  a  teacher  while  th^'  learners 
attend  in  silence."  This  is  the  way  of  learning  r.^Iigion 
fi-om  the  pulpit,  or  of  philnsophy  or  theolo:<y  from  the 
professor's  chair,  or  of  mathematics  by  a  teacher  shew- 
ing us  various  theorems  or  prfiblems,  i.e.  speculations 
or  practices  by  demonstration  and  operation,  with  all 
the  instruments  of  art  necessary  to  those  operations. 

IV.  Conversation  is  another  method  of  improving 
our  minds,  wht-rein  "by  mutual  disccurse  and  inquiry 
we  learn  the  sentiments  of  othtn-s,  as  well  as  communi- 
cate our  sentiments  to  others  in  the  same  manner.'* 
Sometimes  indeed,  though  bi'th  parties  speak  by  turns, 
yet  the  advantage  is  only  on  one  side;  as,  when  a 
teacher  and  a  learner  meet  and  discourse  together; 
but  frequently  the  profit  is  mutual.  Under  this  head 
of  conversation,  we  may  also  rank  disputes  of  various 
kinds. 

V.  Meditation  or  study  includes  all  those  "  exercises 
of  the  mind,  whereby  we  render  all  the  former  methods 
useful,  for  our  increase  in  true  knowledge  and  wis- 
dom." It  is  by  meditation  we  come  to  confirm  our 
memory  ofthings  that  pass  through  our  thoughts  in  the 
occurrences  of  life,  in  our  own  experiences,  and  in  the 
observations  we  make ;  it  is  by  meditation  that  we  draw 
various  iHferences,  and  establish  in  our  minds  general 
principles  of  knowledge.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we 
comjjare  the  various  ideas  which  we  derive  from  our 
senses,  or  fron^  the  operations  of  our  souls,  and  join 
them  in  propositions.    It  is  by  meditation  that  we  fix 


•  F   IMPROVEMENT    COMPARED.  23 

in  our  memory  whatsoever  we  learn,  and  form  our  own 
judgment  of  the  truth  or  fdlsehood,  the  strength  or 
weakness  of  whyt  others  speak,  or  write.  It  is  medita- 
tion or  study  that  draws  out  long  chains  of  argument, 
and  searches  and  finds  deep  and  difficult  truths,  which 
before  lay  conceded  in  darkness. 

It  would  be  a  needless  thing  to  prove  that  our  own 
solitary  meditati< ns,  together  with  the  few  obseiva- 
tions  that  the  m<.st  part  of  mankind  are  capable  of 
making,  are  not  sufficient,  of  tliemselves,  to  lead  us  in- 
to the  attainment  of  any  considerable  proportion  of 
knowledge,  at  least  ir.  an  age  so  much  improved  as 
ours  is,  without  the  assistance  of  conversation  and 
reading,  and  other  proper  instructions  that  are  to  be 
atiainerl  in  our  days.  Yet  each  of  these  five  methods 
have  their  peculiar  advantages,  whereby  they  asMst 
each  other;  and  their  peculiar  defects,  which  have 
need  to  be  supplie^d  by  the  other's  assistance.  Let  us 
trace  over  some  of  the  particular  advantages  of  each. 

I.  One  method  of  improving  the  mind,  is  observa- 
tion, and  the  advantages  of  it  aie  these : 

1.  It  is  owing  to  observation  that  our  "  mind  is  fur- 
nished with  the  first  simple  and  com.plex  ideas."  It  is 
this  lays  the  ground-wcirk  and  foundation  of  all  know- 
ledge, and  makes  us  capable  ot  using  any  of  the  other 
mettiods  for  improving  the  mind  ;  for  it  vve  did  not  at- 
tain a  variety  of  s-^nsihle  and  intellectual  ideas  by  the 
sensations  of  outward  objects,  by  the  consciousness  of 
our  own  appetites  and  p;issionsi  pleasures  and  pains, 
and  by  inward  experience  of  the  acting-,  of  out  own 
spirits,  it  would  be  impossible  either  f(  r  men  or  books 
to  teach  us  any  thing.  It  is  observation  that  must  give 
us  our  first  ideas  of  things,  as  it  includes  in  it  sense  and 
consciousness. 

2.  All  our  knowledge  derived  from  observation, 
whether  it  be  of  single  ideas  or  of  propositions,  is  know- 
ledge gotten  at  first  hand.  Hereby  we  see  and  know 
things  as  they  are,  or  as  they  appf^ar  to  us  ;  we  take 
the  niipressions  of  them  on  our  minds  from  the  original 
objects  themselves,  which  give  a  clearer  and  stronger 
conception  of  things;  these  ideas  are  more  lively,  and 
the  propositions  (at  least  in  many  cases)  are  much  more 
evident.  Whereas,  what  knowledge  we  derive  from 
lectures,  reading  and  conversation, "is  but  the  Qopy  of 


24  THE   EIVE  METHODS 

Other  men's  ideas,  that  is,  the  picture  of  a  picture  ;  and 
it  is  one  remove  further  trom  the  original. 

3.  Anothc^r  advantage  oi  observation  is,  that  we 
may  gain  knowledge  ail  the  day  long,  and  every  moment 
of  our  Uves,  and  every  moment  ot  our  txistence  we  may 
be  adding  something  to  our  intellectual  treasures  there- 
by, except  uniy  while  we  are  asleep  ;  and  even  then 
the  remembrance  of  our  dreansiug  will  teach  us  some 
truths,  and  lay  a  foundation  for  a  better  acquaintance 
with  human  nature,  both  in  the  powers  and  in  the 
frailties  of  it. 

II.  The  next  v/ay  of  improving  the  mind  is  by  read- 
ing, and  the  advantages  of  it  are  such  as  these : 

1.  By  reading  we  acquaint  ouvseives  in  a  very  ex- 
tensive manner  "  with  the  affairs,  actions,  and  thoughts 
of  the  living  and  the  dead,  in  the  most  remote  nations, 
and  most  distant  ages ;"  and  that  with  4is  much  ease 
as  though  they  lived  in  our  own  age  and  nation.  By 
reading  of  books,  we  may  iearn  something  from  all  parts 
of  mankind ;  whereas  by  observation,  we  learn  all  from 
ourselves,  and  only  what  comes  within  our  own  direct 
cognizance;  by  conversation  we  can  only  enjoy  the  as- 
sistance of  a  very  few  persons,  viz.  those  who  are  near 
us,  and  live  at  the  same  time  when  we  do,  that  is,  our 
neighbours  and  contemporaries ;  but  our  knowledge  is 
much  more  narrowed  still,  if  we  confine  ourselves 
merely  to  our  own  solitdry  reasonings,  without  much 
observation  or  reading.  For  then  all  our  improvement 
must  arise  only  from  our  own  inward  powers  and 
meditations. 

2.  By  reading  we  learn  not  only  the  actions  and 
sentiments  of  different  nations  and  ages,  but  we  transfer 
to  ourselves  the  knowledge  and  improvements  pf  the 
"most  learned  men,  the  wisest  and  the  best  of  mankind," 
when  or  wheresoever  they  lived :  For  though  many 
books  have  been  written  by  weak  and  injudicious  per- 
sons, yet  the  most  of  those  books  which  have  obtained 
great  reputation  in  the  world,,  are  the  products  of  great 
and  wise  men  in  their  several  ages  and  nations ;  where- 
as we  can  obtain  the  conversation  and  instruction  of 
those  only  who  are  within  the  reach  of  our  dwellings,  or 
our  acquaintance,  whether  they  are  wise  or  unwise ;  and 
sometimes  that  narrow  sphere  scarce  affords  any  per- 
son of  great  eminence  in  wisdom  or  learning,  unless  our 
iiistructer  happen  to  have  this  character.    And  as  for 


eii'  iMPRovK.MExr  compahed.  25 

|)iir  own  study  and  meditations,  even  when  we  arrive  at 
some  good  degrees  ct"  learning,  our  advantage  tor  fur- 
ther improvement  in  knowledge  by  them  is  still  far 
more  contracted  than  what  we  ioay  derive  from  readirig. 

3.  When  we  read  gocKl  authors,  we  learn  "the 
best,  the  most  laboured,  and  most  refined  sentiments 
even  of  those  v/ise  and  learned  men  ;''  for  they  have 
studied  hard,  and  have  committed  to  writing  their  ma- 
turest  thoughts,  and  the  result  of  their  long  study  and 
experience;  whereas  by  conversation,  and  in  some 
lecrures,  we  obtain,  many  times,  only  the  present 
thoughts  of  our  tutors  or  friends,  which  (though  they 
may  be  bright  and  useful)  yet,  at  first,  perhaps,  may 
be  sudden  "and  indigested,  and  are  mere  hints  which 
have  risen  to  no  maturity. 

4.  It  is  another  advantage  of  reading,  that  Vt^e  may 
''review  what  we  have  read;"  we  may  consult  the 
page  agnin  and  again,  and  meditate  on  it  at  successive 
seasons  in  our  serenest  and  retired  hours,having  the  book 
always  at  haa'') ;  but  what  we  obtain  by  conversation 
ant'  if)  lectures,  is  oftentimes  lost  again  as  soon  as  the 
company  breaks  up,  or  at  least  when  the  day  vanishes  ; 
unless  we  happen  to  have  the  talent  of  a  good  memory, 
or  quickly  retire  and  note  down  what  remarkahles 
we  have  found  in  those  discourses.  And  for  the  same 
reason,  and  for  the  want  of  retiring  and  writing,  many 
a  learned  man  has  lost  several  useful  meditations  of 
his  own,  md  could  never  recal  them  again. 

III.  The  advantages  of  verbal  instructions  by  public 
or  priviite  lectures  are  tiiese  : 

1.  There  is  something  more  sprightly,  m<n'e  de- 
lightful and  entertaining  in  the  living  discourse  of  a 
wise,  learned,  and  well  qualified  teacher,  than  there  is 
in  the  silent  and  sedentary  practice  of  reading.  The 
very  turn  of  voice,  the  good  pronunciation,  and  the  po- 
lite and  alluring  manner  which  some  teachers  have 
attained,  will  engage  the  attention,  keep  the  sf  til  fixed, 
and  convey  and  ijuinuate  into  tiie  nnind  the  ideas  of 
thinJTS  in  a  more  lively  and  forcible  way,  than  the  mere 
reading  of  bfxks  in  the  silence  ami  retirement  of  the 
closet. 

2.  A  tutor  or  instructer  when  he  paraphrases  and 
explains  other  authors,  can  "  mark  out  ihe  precise 
point  of  difficulty  or  controversy,"  and  unfold  it.  He 
€an  rfiew  you  which  paragraphs  are  of  greater   ini- 


26  tHE   FIVE  METHODS 

portance,  and  which  are  of  less  moiTient.  He  can  teack- 
his  hearers  what  authors,  nt  whftt  parts  of  an  author, 
are  best  worth  reading  on  any  particular  subject:  and 
thus  save  his  disciples  much  time  a-  d  pains,  by  short- 
ening the  labours  of  their  closet  nnd  private  studies. 
He  can  shew  you  what  were  the  ('octrines  of  the  an- 
cients in  a  compendiuir.,  which  perhaps  would  cost 
much  labour  and  the  perusal  of  matiy  books  to  attain. 
He  can  inform  you  whi.t  new  doctrines  or  sentiments 
are  arising  in  the  world,  beftre  they  c<  me  to  be  public  ; 
as  well  as  acquaint  you  with  his  ow:  {Jiivate  thoughts, 
and  his  own  experiments  and  ot>se  vaiions,  which  never 
were,  and  perhaps  never  will  be  published  to  the  world, 
and  yet  may  be  very  valuable  and  useful. 

3.'  A  living  instructer  can  conv?y  to  our  senses  those 
notions  with  which  he  would  furnish  our  m»nds,  when 
he  teaches  us  natural  philosophy,  or  most  parts  of 
mathematical  learning.  He  can  make  the  experiments 
before  our  eyes  He  can  describt  figures  and  diagrams, 
point  to  the  lines  and  angles,  ^nd  make  out  the  de- 
monstration in  a  more  intelligible  manner  by  sensible 
means,  which  cannot  so  well  be  done  by  (Tiere  reading, 
even  though  we  should  have  the  same  figures  lying  in 
a  book  before  our  <fyes.  A  living  teacher,  therefore, 
is  a  most  necessary  help  in  these  studies. 

I  might  add  also,  that  ever,  where  the  subject  of  dis- 
course is  moral,  logical,  or  rhetorical,  &c.  and  which 
does  not  directly  come  ur  der  the  notice  of  our  senses, 
a  tutor  may  exp'ain  his  ideas  by  such  familiar  exam- 
ples, an-?  plain  or  simple  sinr\ilitudes,  as  seldom  find 
place  in  books  an<  witings. 

4.  When  an  instructer  in  his  lectures  delivers  any 
matter  of  difficulty,  or  expresses  himself  in  such  a 
manner  as  seen's  obscure,  so  that  you  do  not  t?»k*-  up 
his  ideas  clearly  or  fully,  you  have  opportunity,  at  least 
when  the  lecture  is  finished,  or  at  other  proper  sea- 
sons, to  inquire  how  such  a  sentence  should  be  under- 
stood, or  how  such  a  difficuUy  may  be  explained  and 
removed. 

If  there  be  permission  given  to  free  converse  with 
the  tutor,  either  in  the  midst  of  the  lecture,  or  rather 
at  the  end  of  it,  concerning  any  doubts  or  difficulties 
that  occur  to  the  hearer,  this  brings  it  very  near  to 
conversation  or  discourse. 


«X   IMPROVEMBNT   COMPARED.  2*? 

IV.  Conversation  is  the  next  method  of  improve- 
■iient,  and  is  attended  vviih  the  following  advantages : 

1.  When  we  converse  familiarly  with  a  learned 
friend,  we  have  his  own  help  at  h;  nd  to  explain  to  us 
every  word  and  sentiment  that  seems  obscure  in  his 
discourse,  and  to  inform  us  of  his  whole  meaning,  so 
that  we  are  in  much  less  danger  of  mistaking  his  sense  ; 
whereas  in  books,  whatsoever  is  really  obscure,  may 
also  ai)ide  always  obscure  without  remedv,  since  the 
anthoris  not  at  hand,  that  we  may  inquire  his  sense. 

If  we  mistake  the  meaning  of  our  friend  in  conver- 
sation, we  are  quickly  set  right  again  ;  but  in  reading 
■we  many  times  go  on  in  the  same  mistake,  and  are  rot 
capable  of  recovering  ourselves  from  it.  Thence  it 
comes  to  pass  that  we  have  so  many  contests  in  all 
figes  about  the  meaning  of  ancient  authors,  and  espe- 
cially the  sacred  writers.  Happy  should  we  be,  could 
we  but  converse  with  Moses,  Isaiah  and  St.  Paul,,  and 
consult  th?  prophets  and  apvstles.  when  we  meet  Avith 
a  difficult  text !  But  \^\•^t  glorious  conversation  is  re- 
served for  the  ages  of  future  blessednes*. 

2.  When  we  are  di^<coursing  upon  any  theme  with 
a  friend,  we  may  propose  our  doubts  and  objections  a- 
gainst  his  sentiments,  and  have  them  solved  and  an- 
swered at  once.  The  difficulties  that  arise  in  our 
minds  may  be  removed  l>y  one  enlightening  word  of 
our  correspondent ;  whereas  in  reading,  if  a  difficulty 
or  question  arise  in  our  thoughts  which  the  author  has 
not  happened  to  mention,  ^e  must  be  content  without 
a  present  answer  or  solution  of  it.    Books  cannot  speak. 

3.  Not  only  the  doubts  which  arise  in  the  mind  upon 
any  subject  of  discouise  are  easily  proposed  and  solved 
in  conversation,  but  the  very  difficulties  we  meet  with 
in  books  and  in  our  private  studies  may  find  a  relief 
by  friendly  conference.  We  may  pore  upon  a  knotty 
point  in  solitary  medit3tion  many  months  without  a  so- 
lution, because  perhaps  we  havp  gotten  into  a  wrong 
track  of  thought ;  and  our  la!>our  (while  we  h?e  pursu- 
ing a  f;ilse  scent)  is  not  only  useless  and  unsuccessful, 
but  it  leads  us  perhaps  into  a  long  train  of  error,  for 
want  of  being  corrected  in  the  first  step.  But  if  we 
note  down  this  difficulty  when  we  read  it,  we  may  pro- 
pose it  to  an  ingenious  correspondent  when  we  see 
him  ;  we  may  be  relieved  m  a  moment,  and  find  the 
difficulty  vanish ;   He  beholds  the  object  perhaps  in  a 


28  THE    FIVE   METHOD^ 

different  view,  sets  it  before  us  in  quite  another  light, 
leads  us  at  one?  ir^to  evidence  and  truth,  and  that  wkli 
a  delightful  surprise. 

4.  Conversaticn  calls  out  into  light  what  has  been 
lodged  in  all  the  recesses  and  secret  chambers  of  the 
soul ;  by  occasional  hints  and  incidents,  it  brings  old 
useful  notions  into  remembrance;  it  uiiiblds  and  dis- 
plays the  hidden  Treasures  of  knowledge,  with  which 
reading,  obs  rvation,  snd  study,  ha^t  before  furnished 
the  mind.  By  mutual  discourse  the  soul  is  awakened 
and  allured  to  bring  forth  its  hoards  of  knowledge,  and 
it  learns  how  to  render  them  most  useful  to  mankind. 
A  man  of  vast  readiiig,  v/ithout  conversation,  is  like  a 
miser  who  lives  only  to  himself. 

5.  In  free  and  frieiidiy  conversation,  our  intellectual 
powers  are  more  animated,  and  our  spirits  act  with  a 
superiour  vigour  in  the  quest  and  pursuit  of  unknown 
truths.  There  is  a  sharpness  and  sagacity  of  thought 
that  attends  conversation,  beyond  v/b.at  we  find  whilst 
shut  up  reading  and  musin?;  in  our  retirements.  Our 
souls  may  be  seVene  in  scLtude,  but  not  spark hng,  thougU 
perhaps  we  are  employed  in  reading  the  works  of  tlie 
brightest  writers.  Often  has  it  happened  in  free  dis- 
Gour-^e,  that  nev/  thosightsare  strangely  struck  out,  and 
the  seeds  of  truth  sparkle  and  blase  through  the  com-, 
pany,  which  in  calm  and  silent  reading  would  never 
have  been  excited.  By  conversation  yoix  will  both  give 
and  receive  this  benefit ;  as  flints  when  put  into  motion 
and  striking  against  each  diher,  produce  living  fire  on 
both  sides,  which  would  never  have  arisen  from  the  same 
hard  materials  in  a  state  of  rest. 

6.  Li  generous  conversation,  amojigst  ingenious  and 
learned  men,  we  have  a  great  advantage  of  proposing 
flur  private  opinions,  and  of  bringing  our  own  sentiments 
to  the  test,  and  learning  in  a  more  compendious  and  a 
safer  way  what  the  world  will  ji\dge  of  them,  how  man- 
kind will  receive  them,  what  objections  may  be  raised 
against  them,  what  defects  there  are  in  our  scheme,  and 
how  to  correct  our  own  mistakes ;  which  advantage's 
are  not  so  easy  to  be  obtained  by  our  own  private  medi- 
tatiens ;  for  the  pleasure  we  take  in  our  own  nrtinns, 
and  the  passion  of  self-love,  as  well  as  tbe  narrowness 
of  our  views,  tempt  us  to  pass  too  fav^ur^ble  an  opinion 
m  our  own  schemes ;    whereas  the  varitty  of  genius  in 


OF   IMPROVEMENT   COMPAREn.  29 

our  several  associates,  will  give  happy  notices  how  our 
opinions  will  stand  in  view  of  mankind. 

7.  It  IS  also  another  considerable  advantage  of  con- 
versation, that  It  furnishes  the  student,with  the  knowk  dge 
of  men  nnd  the  aff  drs  of  life,  as  reading  furnishes  him 
with  b(K)k  learning.  A  man  who  dwells  all  his  days  a- 
mong  books,  may  have  ama-^sed  tcgether  a  vast  heap 
of  notions  ;  but  he  may  be  a  mere  scholar,  which  is  a 
contempiil)lesortof  character  in  the  world.  A  hermit, 
who  has  been  shut  up  in  his  cell  m  acollegOv  has  contrac- 
ted a  sort  of  mould  and  rust  upon  his  soul,  and  all  his  airs 
of  behaviour  have  a  certain  awkwardness  in  them  ;  but 
these  awkward  airs  are  worn  away  by  degrees  in  com- 
pany ;  the  rust  and  the  mould  are  filed  and  brushed  off 
by  polite  conversati'  n.  The  scholar  now  becomes  a  citi- 
zen or  a  gentlv  man,  a  neighbour  and  a  frieud ;  he  karf^s 
how  to  dress  liis  sentiments  in  the  fairest  colours,  as  well 
as  to  set  them  in  the  strongest  light.  Thus  he  brings 
out  his  notions  with  honour,  he  makes  some  use  of  them 
m  the  world,  and  improves  the  theory  by  the  practice. 

But  before  we  proceed  too  far  in  finishing  a  bright 
character,  by  conversation,  we  should  consider  tlhiat 
something  else  is  necessary  besides  an  acquaintance  with 
men  and  books ;  and  therefore  I  add, 
^  V.  Mere  lectures,  reading,  and  conversation,  with-t 
out  thinking,  are  not  sufficient  to  make  a  man  of  knowl- 
edge, and  wisdom.  It  is  our  own  thought  and  reflection, 
study  and  meditation,  must  attend  all  the  other  n)et])odR 
of  improvement,  and  perfect  them.  It  carries  these 
advantages  with  it : 

1.  Though  observation  and  instruction,  reading  and 
conversation,  may  furnish  us  with  many  ideas  of  men 
and  things,  yet  it  is  our  own  meditation,  and  the  labour 
of  our  own  thoughts,  that  must  form  our  judgment  of 
things.  Our  own  thoughts  should  join  or  disjoin  these, 
ifleas  in  a  proposition  for  ourselves ;  it  is  our  own  mind 
that  must  judge  for  ourselves  concern' ng  the  agreement 
or  disagreemeiit  of  ideas,  and  form  propositions  of  truth 
out  of  them.  Reading  and  conversation  may  acquaint 
us  witii  many  tiuths,  and  with  many  arguments  to  sup- 
port them  ;  but  it  is  our  own  study  and  reasoning  that 
must  determine  whether  these  pi*opositions  are  true, 
ard  whether  these  argiinients  are  just  and  solid. 

It  is  confessed  tliere  are  a  thousand  things  which  our 
eyes  have  not  seen,  and  which  would  never  come  within 
I> 


30  FIVE   METHODS  OE   IMPROVEMENT. 

the  reach  of  our  personal  and  immediate  knowledge  and 
observ^ation,  because  of  the  distance  of  times  and  places  ; 
these  must  be  known  by  consulting  other  persons,  and 
that  is  done  either  in  their  writings  or  in  their  discours- 
es. But  after  all.  let  this  be  a  fixed  posnt  with  us,  that 
it  is  our  own  reflection  and  judgment  must  determine 
how  far  we  should  receive  that  which  books  or  men  in- 
form us  of,  and  how  far  they  are  worthy  of  our  assent 
and  credit. 

2,  It  is  meditation  and  study  that  transfers  and  con- 
veys the  notions  and  sentiments  of  others  to  ourselves, 
so  as  to  make  them  properly  our  own.  It  is  our  own 
judgment  upon  them  as  well  as  our  memory  of  them, 
that  makes  them  become  our  own  property.  It  does  as 
it  were  concoct  our  intellect  jal  food,  and  turns  it  into  a 
part  of  ourselves ;  just  as  a  man  may  call  his  limbs  and 
his  flesh  his  own,  whether  he  borrowed  the  materials 
from  the  ox  or  the  sheep,  from  the  lark  or  the  lobster ; 
whether  he  derived  it  from  corn  or  milk,  the  fruits  of 
the  trees,  or  the  herbs  and  roots  of  the  earth  ;  it  is  all 
DOW  become  one  substance  wi-h  himself,  and  he  wields 
and  manages  those  muscles  and  limbs  for  his  own  proper 
purposes,  which  once  were  the  substance  cf  other  ani- 
mals or  vegetables ;  that  very  substance  which  last  week 
was  grazing  in  the  field,  or  swimming  in  the  sea,  waving 
in  the  milk  pail,  or  growing  in  the  garden,  is  now  be- 
come part  of  the  man. 

3.  By  study  and  meditation  we  improve  the  hints  that 
we  have  acquired  by  observation,  conversation,  and 
readiiig;  we  take  more  time  in  thinking,  and  by  the  la- 
bour of  the  mind  we  penetrate  deeper  into  the  themes 
of  knowledge,  and  carry  our  thoughts  soirsetimes  much 
farther  on  many  subjects,  than  we  ever  met  with,  either 
in  the  books  of  the  dead,  or  discourses  of  the  living>  It 
is  our  own  reasoning  that  draws  out  one  truth  from  an- 
other, and  forms  a  whole  scheme  or  science,  from  a  few 
hints  which  we  borrowed  elsewhere. 

By  a  survey  of  these  things  we  may  justly  conclude, 
that  he  who  spends  all  his  time  in  hearing  lectures,  or 
poring  upon  books,  without  observation,  meditation,  or 
converse,  will  have  but  a  mere  historical  knowledge  of 
learning,  and  be  able  only  to  tell  what  others  have  known 
or  said  on  the  subject ;  he  that  lets  all  his  time  flow  away 
in  conversation,  without  due  observation,  reading  or 
study,  will  gala  but  a  slight  and  superficial  knowledge. 


RULES   ON  OBSERVATIOISr.  31 

"^irhicli  will  be  in  danger  of  vanishing  with  the  voice  K)f 
the  sp<-;aker ;  and  he  that  confines  himself  mertly  to 
Ills  closet,  and  his  own  narrow  observation  of  things,  and 
is  taught  only  by  his  own  solitary  thoughts,  without  in- 
struction by  lectures,  reading,  or  free  conversation,  will 
be  in  danger  of  a  narrow  spirit,  a  vain  conceit  of  himself, 
and  an  unreasonable  contempt  of  others ;  and  after  all, 
he  will  obtain  but  a  very  limited  and  imperfect  view  and 
khowledge  of  things,  and  he  will  seldom  learn  how  to 
make  that  knowledge  useful 

These  five  methods  of  improvement  should  be  pursu- 
ed jointly,  and  go  hand  in  band,  where  our  circumstan- 
ces are  so  happy  as  to  find  opportunity  and  conveniency 
to  enjoy  them  all ;  though  1  must  give  my  opinion  that 
two  of  them,  \iz.  re9.ding  and  meditation,  should  employ 
much  more  of  our  time,  than  public  lectures  or  conver- 
sation and  discourse.  As  for  observation,  we  may  be 
always  acquiring  knowledge  that  way,  whether  we  are 
alone  or  in  company. 

But  it  will  be  for  our  further  improvement,  if  we  go 
over  all  these  five  methods  of  obtaining  knowledge  more 
distinctly  and  more  at  large,  and  see  what  special  ad- 
vances in  useful  science  we  may  draw  from  them  alL 


CHAR  III. 

Rules  relating  to  Observation. 

THOUGH  observation,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  and  as  it  is  distinguished  from  meditation  and 
study,  is  the  first  means  rf  improvement,  and  in  its 
strictest  sense  does  not  include  in  it  any  reasonings  of 
the  mind,  upon  the  things  which  we  observe,  or  infer- 
ences drawn  from  them  ;  yet  the  m  tions  of  the  mind 
are  so  exceedingly  swift,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a 
thinking  man  to  gain  experiences  or  observations,  with- 
out making  srime  secret  and  short  reflections  upon  them  ; 
and  therefore,  in  giving  a  few  dir*ctions  concerning 
this  method  of  improvement,  I  shall  not  so  narrowly 
confine  myself  to  the  first  mere  impression  of  objects  on 
the  mind  by  observation ;  but  include  also  some  hints 
Avhich  relate  to  the  first,  most  ^asy,  and  obvious  reflec* 
tions  or  reasonings  which  arise  from  them. 


B2  B.ULi;S   RELATING 

|.  Let  the  enlargement  ot  your  knowledge  be  on§ 
constant  view  and  design  in  life  ;  since  there  is.  no  time 
or  place,  no  transactiosiS,  occurrences  or  engagements  in 
life,  which  excludi  s  us  from  this  niethotl  of  improving 
tiie  mind.  V/hen  we  are  alone,  even  in  darkness  and 
silence,  we  may  inverse  with  our  own  hearts,  observe 
the  workings  of  our  own  spirits,  and  reflect  upon  the  in- 
ward motions  o^jur  own  passions  in  some  of  the  latest 
occurrences  in  lifp  ;  we  may  acquaint  ourselves  with  the 
powers  and  properties,  the  tenderxies  and  inclinations 
of  both  body  and  spirit,  and  gain  a  more  intimate 
knowledge  of  ourselves.  Wfien  we  are  in  company, 
we  may  discover  something  more  of  human  nature,  of 
human  passions  and  follies,  and  of  human  affairs,  vices 
and  virtues,  by  conversing  with  mankind  and  observing 
their  conduct.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  more  valuable 
than  the  knowledge  of  ourselves,'  imd  the  knowledge  of 
men,  except  it  be  the  knowledge  of  God  wno  made  us, 
and  our  relation  to  him  as  our  Governor. 

When  we  are  in  the  house,  or  the  city,  wheresoever 
we  turn  our  eyes,  we  see  the  works  of  men  ;  when  we 
are  abroad  in  the  country,  we  behold  more  of  the  works 
of  God.  The  skies  and  the  ground  above  and  beneath 
us,  may  entertain  our  observation  with  ten  thousand 
varieties.' 

Endeavour  therefore  to  derive  some  instruction,  or 
improvement  of  the  mind  from  every  thing  which  you 
see  or  hear,  from  every  thing  which  occurs  in  human 
life,  from  every  thing  within  you  or  without  you. 

Fetch  down  some  knowledge  from  the  clouds,  the 
stars,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  revolutions  of  all  the 
planets ;  dig  and  draw  up  some  valuable  meditations 
from  the  depths  of  the  earth,  and  search  them  through 
the  vast  oceans  of  water ;  extract  some  intellectual  im- 
jjrovements  from  the  minerals  and  metals ;  from  the 
wonders  of  nature  among  the  vegetables  and  herbs,  trees 
and  fiowers.  Learn  some  lessons  from  the  birds  and 
the  beasts,  and  the  meanest  insect.  Read  the  wisdom 
of  God,  and  his  admirable  contrivahce  in  them  all.— r 
Read  his  almighty  pc.wer,  his  rich  and  various  goodness, 
in  all  the  works  of  his  hands. 

From  the  day  and  the  r.ight,  the  houVs  and  the  flying 
minutes  learn  a  wise  improvement  of  time,  and  be  watch- 
ful to  seize  eveiy  opportunity  to  increase  in  knowledge. 

From  the  vicissitudes  and  revolutions  of  nations  and 


TO   OBSERVATION.  33 

Camilies,  and  from  the  various  occurrences  of  the  world, 
learn  the  instability  of  mortal  affairs,  the  uncertainty  of 
life,  the  certainty  of  death.  From  a  coffin  and  a  funeral, 
learn  to  meditate  upon  your  own  departure. 

From  the  vices  and  fellies  of  others,  observe  what  is 
hateful  in  them  ;  consider  how  such  a  practice  looks  in 
another  person,  and  remember  that  it  looks  as  ill  or 
worse  in  yourself.  From  the  virtue  of  others,  learn 
something  worthy  of  your  imitation. 

From  the  deformity,  the  distress,  or  calamity  of  others 
derive  lessons  of  thankfulness  to  God,  and  hymns  of 
grateful  praise  to  your  Creator,  Governor.and  Benefac- 
tor, who  has  formed  you  in  a  better  mould,  and  guarded 
you  from  those  evils.  Learn  also  the  sacred  lesson  of 
contentment  in  your  own  state,  and  compassion  to  your 
ne^hbour  under  his  miseries. 

From  your  natural  powers,sensations,judgment,mem- 
ory,  hands,  teet,  &c.  make  this  inference,  that  they  were 
not  given  you  for  nothing,  but  for  some  useful  employ- 
ment to  the  honour  of  your  Maker,  and  for  the  good  of 
your  fellow-creatures,  as  well  as  for  your  own  best  in- 
terest and  final  happiness* 

From  the  sorrows,  the  pains,  the  sickness,  and  suf- 
ferings that  attend  you,  learn  the  evil  of  sin,  and  the  im- 
perfection of  your  present  state.  From  your  own  sins 
and  follies  learn  the  patience  of  God  toward  you,  and 
the  practice  of  humility  toward  God  and  man. 

Thus  from  every  appearance  in  nature,  and  from  ev- 
ery occurrence  of  life,  you  may  derive  natural,  moral, 
and  religious  observations  to  entertain  your  minds,  as 
well  as  rules  of  conduct  in  the  affairs  relating  to  this 
life,  and  that  which  is  to  come. 

II.  In  order  to  furnish  the  mind  with  a  rich  variety  of 
ideas,  the  laudable  curiosity  of  young  people  should  be 
indulged  and  gratified  rather  than  discouraged.  It  is  a 
very  hopeful  sign  in  young  persons,  to  see  them  curious 
in  observing,  and  inquisitive  in  searching  into  the  great- 
est part  of  things  that  occur ;  nor  should  such  an  enquir- 
ing temper  be  frowned  into  silence,  nor  be  rigorously  re- 
strained, but  should  rather  be  satisfied  by  proper  answers 
given  to  all  those  queries. 

For  this  reason  also,  where  time  and  fortune  allow  it, 
young  people  should  be  led  into  company  at  proper  sea- 
sons, should  be  carried  abroad  to  see  the  fields  and  the 
■woods,  and  the  rivers,  the  buildiJigs,  towns,  and  cities 
D  3 


34  RtrLES  RELATING 

distant  from  their  own  dwelling ;  they  should  be  enter- 
tained with  the  sight  of  strange  birds,  beasts,  fishes^  in- 
sects, vegetables,  and  productions  both  of  nature  and 
art  of  every  kind,  whether  tliey  are  the  praiucts  of  their 
own  or  foreign  nations ;  and  in  due  time,  where  Provi- 
dence gives  opportunity,  they  may  travel  under  a  wise 
inspector  or  tutor  into  different  parts  of  the  world  for 
the  same  end,  that  they  may  bring  home  treasures  of 
useful  knowledge. 

III.  Among  all  these  observations,  write  down  what 
is  most  remarkable  and  uncommon ;  reserve  these  re- 
marks in  store  for  proper  occasions,  and  at  proper  sea- 
sons t:  ke  a  review  of  them.  Such  a  practice  vvill  give 
you  a  habit  of  useful  thinking ;  this  will  secure  the  work- 
ings of  your  soul  from  running  to  waste,  and  by  this 
means  even  your  looser  moments  will  turn  to  happy- 
account  both  her  e  and  hereafter.  And  whatever  useful 
observations  have  been  made,  let  them  be  at  least  some 
part  of  the  subject  of  your  conversation  among  your 
triends  at  next  meeting. 

Let  the  circumstances  or  situations  in  life  be  what  or 
where  they  will,  a  man  should  never  neglect  this  im- 
provement which  may  be  derived  from  observation. 
Let  him  travel  into  the  East  or  West-Indies,  and  fulfil 
the  duties  of  the  miUtary  or  the  mercantile  life  there; 
let  him  rove  through  the  earth  or  the  seas  for  his  own 
humour  as  a  traveller,  or  pursue  his  diversions  in  what 
part  of  the  world  he  pleases  as  a  gentleman  ;  let  pros- 
perons  r  adverse  fortune  call  him  to  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  globe ;  still  let  him  carry  on  his  knowledge 
and  the  improvement  of  his  sduI  by  wise  observations. 
In  due  time,  b  *  this  means,  he  may  render  himself  some 
waj'  useful  to  the  societies  of  mankind. 

The  bildmo,  in  his  younger  years,  visited  the  for- 
ests of  Norway  oi-  the  account  of  trade  and  timber,  and 
besides  his  proper  observations  on  the  growth  of  trees  on 
thosf  northern  niouiitains,  he  h  arned  there  WriS  a  sort 
of  people  cat  led  Fiiis,in  those  confines  which  border  upon 
Sweden,  whose  i)abitation  is  in  the  woods;  and  he  lived 
af  erwards  to  give  a  good  account  of  thei'.i,  and  some  of 
their  c;  stems,  to  th*  Royal  Society ,  for  the.  improvement 
of  natural  knowledge.  PuteoU  w;ts  taken  captive  in- 
to Turkey  in  his  youth,  and  travelled  with  hismaste.  in 
their  holy  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  wh-reby  he  became 
more  intelligent  m  the  forms,  ceremonies,' and  fooleries 


TO  OBSERVATION,  So 

of  the  Mahometan  v/orship,  than  perhaps  ever  any  Brit- 
on knew  l)etore  ;  and  by  his  manuscripts  we  are  more 
acquainted  in  this  last  century  with  the  Turkish  sacreds, 
than  any  one  had  ever  informed  us. 

IV.  Let  us  keep  our  minds  as  free  as  possible  from 
passions  and  prejudices,  for  these  will  give  a  wrong  turn 
to  our  obsei-vations  both  on  persons  and  things.  The 
eyes  of  a  man  in  the  jaundice  make  yellow  observations 
on  every  thing ;  and  the  soul  tinctured  with  any  pas- 
sion or  prejudice,  diffuses  a  false  colour  over  the  real 
appearances  of  things,  and  disguises  many  of  the  com- 
mon occurrences  of  life;  it  never  beholds  things  in  a 
true  liglit,  nor  suffers  them  to  appear  as  they  are.  When- 
soever, therefore,  you  would  make  proper  observations, 
let  self,  with  all  its  influences,  stand  aside  as  far  as  pos- 
sible ;  abstract  your  own  interest  and  your  oAvn  concern 
from  them,  and  bid  all  friendships  and  enmities  stand 
aloot  and  keep  out  of  th?  way,  in  the  observations  that 
you  make  relating  to  persons  and  things. 

If  this  rule  were  well  obeyed,  we  should  be  much  bet- 
ter guarded  against  those  common  pieces  of  misconduct 
in  the  observations  of  men,  viz.  the  false  judgments  of 
pride  and  envy.  How  ready  is  envy  to  mingle  with  the 
notices  which  we  take  of  other  persons  I  How  often  is 
mankind  prone  to  put  an  ill  sense  upon  the  actions  of 
their  neighbours,  to  take  a  survey  of  them  in  an  evil  po- 
sition, and  in  an  unhappy  light  !  And  by  thjs  means 
we  form  a  worse  opinion  of  our  neighbours  than  they  de- 
se  ve  ;  while  at  the  same  time  pride  and  self  flattery 
tempt  us  to  m^ke  unjust  observations  on  ourselves  in  our 
own  favour.  In  all  the  favourable  judgments  we  pass 
concerning  ourselves,  we  should  allow  a  little  abatement 
on  this  account. 

V.  In  making  your  observations  on  persons,  take  care 
of  indulging  that  busy  curiosity  which  is  ever  inquiring 
into  private  and  domestic  affairs,  with  an  endless  itch 
of  learning  the  secret  history  of  families.  It  is  but  sel- 
dom that  such  a  prying  curiosity  attains  any  valuable 
end  :  It  often  begets  suspicions,  jealousies,  and  disturb- 
ances in  households,  and  it  is  a  frequent  temptation  to 
persons  to  defame  \he\v  neighbours.  Some  persons  can- 
not help  telling  what  they  know ;  a  busy  body  is  most 
liable  to  become  a  tattler  upon  every  occasion. 

VI.  Let  your  observation,  even  of  persons  and  their 
conduct,  be  chiefly  designed  hi  order  to  lead  you  to  {j. 


36  RULES  ON   OBSERVATION. 

better  acquaintance  with  things,  particularly  with  hu- 
man nature;  and  to  inform  you  what  to  imitate  and 
what  to  avoid,  rather  than  to  furnish  out  matter  for  the 
evil  passions  of  the  mind,  or  the  impertinences  of  dis- 
course, and  reproaches  of  the  tongue. 

VII.  Though  it  may  be  proper  sometimes  to  make 
your  observations  concerning  persons  as  well  as  things, 
the  subject  of  your  discourse  in  learned  or  useful  con- 
versations ;  yet  what  remarks  you  make  on  particular 
persons,  especially  to  their  disadvantage,  should  for  the 
most  part  lie  hid  in  your  own  breast,  till  some  just  and 
apparent  occasion,  some  necessary  call  of  Providence, 
leads  you  to  speak  to  them. 

If  the  character  or  conduct   which  you  observe  be 

featly  culpable,  it  should  so  much  the  less  be  published, 
ou  may  treasure  up  such  remarks  of  the  follies,  inde- 
cencies, or  vices  of  your  neighbours,  as  may  be  a  constant 
guard  against  your  practice  of  the  same,  without  expos- 
ing the  reputation  of  your  neighbour  on  that  account.  It 
is  a  good  old  rule,  that  cur  conversation  should  rather  be 
laid  out  on  things  than  on  persons ;  and  this  rule  should 
generally  be  observed,unless  names  be  concealed,where- 
soever  the  faults  or  follies  of  mankind  are  our  present 
theme. 

Our  late  Archbishop  Tillotson  has  written  a  small,  but 
excellent  disccurse  on  evil  ^peaking,  wherein  he  admi- 
rably explains,  limits,  and  applies  that  general  apostolic 
precept,  Sfieak  evil  of  no  man.    Titus  iii.  2. 

VIII.  Be  not  too  hasty  to  e)'ect  general  theories  from 
a  few  particular  observations,  appearances,  or  experir 
ments.  This  is  what  the  logicians  call  a  false  induction.- 
When  general  observations  are  drawn  from  S('  many 
particulars  as  to  become  certain  and  indubitable,  these 
are  jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  treasure 
in  a  little  room ;  but  they  are  therefore  to' be  made  with 
the  gre  -ter  care  and  caution,  lest  errors  become  large 
and  diffusive,  if  we  should  mistake  in  these  general 
notions. 

A  hasty  determination  of  some  universal  principles, 
without  a  due  survey  of  all  the  particular  cases  »vliich 
may  be  included  in  them,  is  the  way  to  lay  a  trap  for 
our  own  understandings,  in  their  pursuit  of  any  subject, 
3nd  we  shall  often  be  taken  captives  into  mistake  and 
falsehood.  Niveo  in  his  youth  observed,  that  on  three 
Pyrigtmas  days  together  there  fell  a  good  quantity  of 


OE    BOOKS   AND   READING.  ^7 

<$now,  and  now  hath  wnt  it  f'own  in  his  Almfinaclc,  as  a 
part  of  his  wise  remat  ks  on  the  weathei ,  that  it  will  al- 
"wavs  snow  at  Christmns,  Eui'on,  u  young  lad.  tcx.k  no- 
tice ten  times,  that  there  w^'.s  a  sharp  frost  when  the 
wind  was  in  the  north  east,  theiefore  in  the  middle  of'ast 
July  he  almost  expected  it  should  freeze,  b<:cause  tlie 
weathercock  showed  him  a  nnrth  east  wind ;  and  he 
was  still  mote  d'sappoint.ed,  wh-  n  he  found  it  a  very  sul- 
try season.  It  is  the  same  hasty  jv'dgn.ent  th;>t  hath 
thrown  scandal  .>n  a  whole  natirm  for  the  sake  of  some 
culpable  characters  behinging  to  several  particular  na- 
tives of  that  country  ;  where^is  all  the  Frenchmen  are 
not  gav  and  airy  ;  all  the  Italians  are  net  jealous  and 
revenejeful ;  uor  are  all  the  English  overrun  with  the. 
spleen. 


CHAP.  IV. 

Of  Books  and  R  ading. 

L  THE  world  is  full  of  books,  but  there  are  multi- 
tudes which  ace  so  ill  written,  ihey  were  never  worth 
any  man's  re;-ding;  and  there  are  thousands  more 
"Which  mav  be  good  in  their  kind,  vet  are  worth  noth- 
ing when  the  month  or  year  or  occasion  is  past  for 
■which  they  were  written.  Others  may  be  valuable  in 
themselves,  for  some  special  purpose,  or  in  some  pecu- 
liar science,  but  are  not  fit  t-.  be  perused  by  any  but 
those  who  i^re  engaged  in  that  particular  science  or 
business.  To  wh  it  use  is  it  tor  a  divine,  or  physician, 
or  a  tradesnran,  to  read  over  the  huge  voiumes  of  re- 

{)ovts  of  judged  cases  in  the  law  ?.  Or  for  a  lawyer  to 
earn  Hebrew  ar*d  read  the  Ral-bins  ?  It  is  of  vast  ad- 
vantage for  improvement  of  knowledge  and  saving 
time,  for  a  young  man  to  have  th-  njnst  proper  books 
for  his  reading  lecommended  bv  a  judicious  friend. 

II.  Books  of  importance  oi  any  kind,  and  especially 
complete  treatis  s  on  any  subjtct,  should  be  first  read 
in  a  more  general  'ind  cursory  m-mner,  to  learn  a  little 
what  the  treatise  promises,  and  what  you  miy  expect 
from  the  waiter's  manner  and  skill.  A»kI  for  this  end 
I  would  advisr-  alwavs  that  the  pn-fare  be  read,  and  a 
survty  taktn  of  the  Mble  of  contents,  if  there  be  one, 
before  the  first  survey  of  the  book.    By  this  means  you 


38  OS   BOOSS  AND  READING. 

will  not  only  be  better  fitted  to  give  the  book  the  first 
reading,  but  you  will  be  nnuch  assisted  in  your  second 
perusal  of  it,  which  should  be  done  with  greater  atten- 
tion and  deliberate  ,n,  and  you  will  learn  with  n^ore  ease 
and  readiness  what  the  author  pretends  to  teach.  In 
your  reading,  mark  what  is  new  or  unknown  to  you  be- 
fore, and  review  those  chapters,  pages,  or  paragraphs, 
ynless  a  reader  has  an  uncommon  and  most  retentive 
memory,  I  may  venture  to  c-.fl5rm,  that  there  is  scree 
any  book  or  chapter  worth  reading  once  that  is  not 
worthy  of  a  second  perusal :  At  least  to  take  a  careful 
review  of  all  the  lines  or  paragraphs  which  you  mark- 
ed, and  make  a  recollection  of  the  sections  which  you 
thought  truly  valuable. 

There  is  another  reason  also  why  I  would  choose  to 
take  a  superficial  and  cursoiy  survey  of  a  book,  before 
I  sit  down  to  read  it,  and  dwell  upon  it  with  studious  at- 
tention ;  and  that  is,  there  may  be  several  difficulties 
in  it  which  we  cannot  easily  understand  and  conquer 
at  the  first  reading,  for  want  of  a  fuller  comprehension 
of  the  author's  whole  scheme.  And  therefore,  ir  such 
treatises,  we  should  not  stay  till  we  master  every  dif- 
ficulty at  the  first  perusal ;  tor  perhaps  many  of  these 
would  appear  to  be  solved  when  we  have  proceeded 
further  in  that  book,  or  would  vanish  of  themselves 
upon  a  second  reading. 

What  we  cannot  reach  and  penetrate  at  first,  may 
be  noted  down  as  matter  of  after  consideration  and  in- 
quiry, if  the  pages  that  follov/  do  not  happen  to  strike 
a  complete  light  on  those  which  went  before 

III.  If  three  or  four  persons  agree  to  read  the  samfe 
book,  and  each  bring  his  own  remarks  upon  it  at  some 
set  hours  appointed  for  conversation,  aud  they  com- 
inunicatc  mutually  their  sentiments  on  the  subject,  and 
debate  about  it  in  a  friendly  manner,  this  practice  will 
render  the  reading  any  author  more  abundantly  bene- 
ficial to  every  one  of  them. 

IV,  If  several  persons  engaged  in  the  same  study, 
take  into  their  h^^nds  distinct  treatises  on  one  subject, 
and  appoint  a  season  of  communication  once  a  week, 
they  may  inform  each  other  in  a  brief  manner  concern- 
ing the  sense,  sentiments,  ,and  method  of  those  several 
authors,  and  thereby  proimote  each  other's  improve- 
ment, either  by  recommending  the  perusal  of  the  same 
book  to  their  companions,  or  perhaps  by  satisfying  their 


«F   BOOK^   AND   READING.  S9 

inquiries  concerning  it  by  conversation,  without  CTcry 
one's  perusing  it. 

V.  Remember  that  your  business  in  reading  or  in 
conversation,  especially  on  subjects  of  natural,  moral, 
or  divine  science,  is  not  mereiy  to  know  the  opinion  of 
the  author  or  speaker,  for  this  is  but  the  mere  knowledge 
of  history  ;  but  your  chief  business  is  to  consider  wheth- 
er their  opinions  are  right  or  not,  and  to  improve  your 
own  solid  knowledge  on  that  subject  by  meditation  on 
the  themes  of  their  writing  or  discourse.  Deal  freely 
with  every  author  you  read,  and  yield  up  your  assent 
only  to  evidence  and  just  reasoning  on  the  subject. 

Here  I  would  be  understood  to  speak  only  of  human 
authors,  and  not  of  the  sacred  and  inspired  writings.  In 
these  our  business  is  only  to  find  out  the  true  sense  and 
understand  the  true  meaning  of  the  paragraphand  page, 
and  our  assent  then  is  bound  to  follow  when  we  are  be- 
fore satisfied  that  the  writing  is  divine.  Yet  I  might  add 
also  that  ^ven  this  is  sufficient  evidence  to  demand  our 
assent. 

But  in  the  composures  of  men,  remember  you  are  st 
man  as  well  as  they ;  and  it  is  not  their  reason  but  your 
own  that  is  given  to  guide  you  when  you  arrive  at  years 
of  discretion,  of  manly  age  and  judgment. 

VI.  Let  this  therefore  be  your  practice,  especially 
after  you  have  gone  through  one  course  of  any  science 
in  your  academical  studies ;  if  a  writer  on  that  subject 
maintains  the  same  sentiments  as  you  do,  yet  if  he  does 
not  explain  his  ideas  or  prove  the  positions  well,  mark 
the  faults  or  defects,  and  endeavour  to  do  it  better, 
either  in  the  margin  of  your  book,  or  rather  in  some  pa- 
pers of  your  own,  or  at  least  let  it  be  done  in  your  pri- 
vate meditations. — As  for  instance : 

Where  the  author  is  obscure,  enlighten  him ;  where 
he  is  imperfect,  supply  his  deficiencies  ;  where  he  is  too 
brief  and  concise,  amplify  a  little,  and  set  his  notions  in  a 
fairer  view  ;  where  he  is  redundant,  mark  those  para^ 
graphs  to  be  retrenched ;  when  he  trifles  and  grows  im- 
pertinent, abandon  those  passages  or  pages  ;  where  he 
argues,  observe  whether  his  reasons  be  conclusive ;  if 
the  conclusion  be  true,  and  yet  the  argument  weak,  en- 
deavour to  confirm  it  by  better  proofs ;  where  he  de- 
rives or  infers  any  propositions  darkly  or  doubtfully, 
make  the  justice  of  the  inference  appear,  and  add  fur- 
ther nifer«nces  or  corollaries,  if  such  occur  to  your  mind; 


40  01*   BOOKS  AND   READING. 

where  you  suppose  he  is  in  a  mistake,  propose  your  ob- 
jections and  correct  his  sentiments ;  what  he  writes  so 
well  as  to  approve  itself  to  your  judgment,  both  as  just 
and  useful,  treasure  it  up  in  your  memory,  and  count  it 
a  part  of  your  intellectual  gains. 

N<  te. — Many  of  these  same  directions  which  I  have 
now  given,  may  be  practised  with  regard  to  conversa- 
tion, as  well  as  reading,  in  order  to  render  it  useful  in 
the  most  extensive  and  lasting  manner. 

VII.  Other  things  also  of  the  like  nature  may  be 
usefully  practised  with  regard  to  the  authors  which  you 
read,  viz.  If  the  method  of  a  book  be  irregular,  retjuce 
it  into  form  by  a  little  analysis  of  your  own,  or  by  hints 
in  the  margin;  if  those  "things  are  heaped  together 
which  should  be  separated,  you  may  wisely  distinguish 
and  divide  them ;  if  several  things  relating  to  the  same 
subject  are  scattered  up  and  down  separately  through 
the'treatise,  you  may  bring  them  all  to  one  view  by  ref- 
erences ;  or  if  the  matter  of  a  book  be  really  valuable 
and  deserving,  you  may  throw  it  into  a  better  method, 
reduce  it  to  a  more  logical  scheme,  or  abridge  it  into  a 
lesser  form  ;  all  these  practices  will  have  a  tendency 
to  advance  vcur  skill  both  in  logic  and  niethod,  to  im- 
prove your  judgment  in  general,  and  to  give  you  a  fuller 
survey  of  that  subject  in  particular.  When  you  have 
finished  the  treavise  with  all  your  observations  upon  it, 
recollect  and  determine  what  real  improvements  you 
have  made  bv  readmg  that  author. 

VIII.  If  a  book  has  no  index  to  it,  or  good  table  of 
contents,  it  is  very  useful  to  make  one  as  yt;u  are  read- 
Big  it;  not  with  that  exactness  as  to  include  the  sense 
ot  every  page  and  paragraph,  which  should  be  done  if 
you  designed  to  print  it';  but  it  is  sufficient  in  your  in- 
dex to  take  notice  only  of  those  parts  of  the  book  which 
are  new  to  you,  or  v/hich  you  think  well  written,  and 
worthy  of  your  remembrance  or  review. 

Shall  I  be  so  free  as  to  assure  my  younger  friends, 
from  my  own  experience,  that  these  methoiis  of  read- 
ing will  cost  some  pains  in  the  first  years  of  your  study, 
and  especially  in  the  first  authors  which  you  peruse  in 
a^iy  science,  or  on  any  particular  subject ;  but  the  pro- 
fit will  richly  compensate  the  pains.  And  in  the  fol- 
lowing years  of  life,  after  you  have  read  a  few  valua- 
ble books  on  any  special  subject  in  this  manner,  it  will 
be  very  easy  to  yead  others  of  the  same  kind,  because 


OF  BOOKS  ANO  READING.  41 

you  will  not  usually  find  very  much  new  matter  in  thenn 
which  you  have  not  already  examined. 

IX.  If  the  writer  be  remarkable  for  any  peculiar  ex- 
cellencies or  defects  in  his  style  or  manner  of  writing, 
make  just  observations  upon  this  also ;  and  whatsoever 
ornaments  you  find  there,  or  whatsoever  blemishes  oc- 
cur in  the  language  or  manner  of  the  writer,  you  may 
make  just  remarks  upon  them.  And  remember,  that 
one  book  read  over  in  this  manner,  with  all  this  labori- 
ous meditation,  will  tend  more  to  enrich  your  under- 
standing, than  the  skimming  over  the  surface  of  twenty- 
authors. 

X.  By  perusing  books  in  the  manner  I  have  de- 
scribed, you  will  make  all  your  reading  subservient,  not 
only  to  the  enlargement  of  your  treasures  of  knowledge, 
but  also  to  the  improvement  of  your  reasoning  powers. 

There  are  many  who  read  with  coustancy  and  dili- 
gence, and  yet  make  no  advances  in  true  knowledges 
by  it.  They  are  delighted  with  the  notions  which  they 
read  or  hear,  as  they  would  be  with  stories  that  are 
told ;  but  they  do  not  weigh  them  in  their  minds  as  in  a 
just  balance,  in  order  to  determine  their  truth  or  false- 
hood ;  they  make  no  observations  upon  them,  or  infer-, 
ences  from  them.    Perhaps  their  eye  slides  over  thej 

{)ages,  or  the  words  slide  over  their  ears,  and  vanish, 
ike  a  rhapsody  of  evening  tales,  or  the  shadows  of  a 
cloud  flying  over  a  green  field  in  a  summer's  day. 

Or  if  they  review  them  sufficiently,  to  fix  them  in 
their  remembrance,  it  is  merely  with  the  design  to  tell 
the  tale  over  again,  and  show  what  men  of  learning 
they  are.  Thus  they  dream  out  their  days  in  a  course 
of  reading  without  real  advantage.  As  a  man  may  be 
eating  all  day,  and  for  want  of  digestion  is  never  nour- 
ished ;  so  these  endless  readers  may  cram  themselves 
in  vain  with  intellectual  food,  and  without  real  improve- 
ment of  their  minds,  for  want  of  digesting  it  by  proper 
reflections. 

XI.  Be  diligent  therefore  in  observing  these  direc- 
tions: Enter  into  the 'sense  and  arguments  of  the  au- 
thors you  read,  examine  all  their  proofs,  and  then  judge 
of  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  their  opinions ;  and  thereby 
you  shall  not  only  gain  a  rich  increase  of  your  under- 
standing, by  those  truths  which  tlife  author  teaches, 
when  you  see  them  well  supported,  but  you  shall  ac- 
quire also  by  degrees,  an  habit  of  judging  justly,  and  of 

E 


42  &E  BOOKS  JLI7D  REABIN^C. 

reasoning  well,  in  imitation  of  the  good  writer  whose  i 
works  you  peruse.  j 

This  is  laborious  indeed,  and  the  mind  is  backward  i 
to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  weighing  every  argument  and 
tracing  every  thing  to  its  original.  It  is  much  less  la- 
bour to  take  all  thmgs  upon  trust;  believing  is  much 
easier  than  arguing;  But  when  Studentio  had  once 
persuaded  his  mind  to  tie  itself  down  to  this  method 
which  1  have  prescribed,  he  sensiijly  gained  an  admi- 
rable facility  to  read,  and  judge  of  what  he  read,  by 
hisd^Ly  practice  of  it»  and  the  man  made  large  advan- 
ces in  the  pursuit  of  truth  ;  while  Plumbiims  and  Plu-^ 
meo  made  less  progress  in.  knowledge,  though  they  had 
read  over  more  folios.     Plumeo  skimmed  over  the  pa- 

fes  like  a  swallow  over  the  flowtry  meads  in  May. 
'lumbinus  read  every  line  and  syllable,  but  did  not  give 
himselt  the  trouble  of  thinking  and  judging  about  them,. 
They  both  could  boast  in  company  of  their  great  read- 
ing, for  they  knew  more  titles  and  pages  timriStudere- 
tio,  but  were  far  less  acquainted  with  science. 

I  confess  those  whose  reading  is  designed  only  to  fit 
them  for  much  talk  and  little  knowledge,  may  content 
themselves  to  run  over  their  authors  in  such  a  sudden 
and  trifling  way;  they  may  devour  libraries  in  this 
manner,  ye»  be  poor  reasoners  at  last^  and  have  no  sol- 
id wisdom  or  true  learning.  The  traveller  who  walks 
on  fair  and  softly  in  a  course  that  points  right,  and  ex- 
amines evei7  turning  before  he  ventures  upt-n  it,  will 
come  sooner  and  sater  to  his  journey's  end,  than  he  who 
runs  tlirough  every  lane  he  meets,  though  he  gall  jps 
fuij  speed  all  the  day.  The  man  of  much  reading  and 
a  large  retentive  memory,  but  without  meditation,  may- 
become  in  the  sense  of  the  world  a  knowing  man ;  and- 
if  he  converse  much  with  the  ancients,  he  may  attain! 
the  fame  of  learning  too ;  but  he  spends  his  days  afar 
off  from  wisdom  and  true  judgment,  and'possesses  very 
little  of  the  substantial'  riches  of  the  mind 

XII.  Never  apply  yourselves  to  read  any  human  au- 
thor with  a  determination  beforehand  either  for  or  a- 
^aiiist  him,  or  with  a  settled  resolution  to  believe  or 
disl^elieve,  to  confirm  or  to  oppose  whatsoever  he  saith ; 
but  always  read  with  a  design  to  lay  your  mind  open 
to  truth,  and  to  embrace  it  wheresoever  you  find  it,  as 
well  as  to  reject  every  falsehood,  though  it  appear  un- 
der ever  so  fair  a  disguise.   How  unhappy  are  those  men 


Q-E  ^OOKS  AND  REAmNG.  4S 

who  seldom  take  an  atithor  into  their  hands  but  they 
have  determined  b'  f«^re  ttiey  begin  whether  they  will 
like  or  dishke  him  !  They  have  got  some  notion  of  his 
name,  his  charncter,  his  p^'ty,  or  his  principles,  by 
general  conversation,  or  perhaps  by  some  slight  view 
of  a  few  pages ;  and  hav  ing  all  their  own  opinions  ad- 
justed beforehand,  they  read  all  th-^t  he  writes  with  a 
prepossession  either  for  or  against  him.  Unhappy 
those  who  hunt  and  purvey  for  a  party,  and  scrape  to- 
gether out  of  every  author,  all  those  things,  and  those 
only,  wiiich  favour  their  own  tenets,  while  they  despise 
and  neglect  all  the  rest, 

XIII.  Yet  take  this  cAation.  I  would  not  be  under- 
stood herc  as  though  I  persuaded  a  person  to  live  with- 
out any  settled  principles  at  all,  by  which  to  judge  of 
men,  and  books  and  thit>gs ;  or  that  I  would  keep  a 
man  always  doubtisig  about  his  fouiidations.  The  chief 
things  that  I  design  In  this  advice  are  these  three : 

1 .  That  after  our  most  necessary  and  important  prin- 
ciples of  science,  prudence,  and  religi'm,  are  settled  up- 
on good  grouiids,  with  regard  to  our  present  conduct 
and  our  future  hopes,  we  should  read  with  a  just  freedom 
of  thought  ail  th(  se  books  which  treat  of  such  subjects 
as  may  admit  of  doubt  ami  reasonable  dispute.  Nor 
should  any  of  our  opinions  be  so  resolved  upon,  especially 
in  younger  years,  as  never  to  hear  or  to  bear  an  opposi- 
tion ti-  them. 

2.  When  we  peruse  tiiose.  authors  who  defend  our 
own  settled  s<^ntim«nts,  we  should  not  take  all  their  ar- 
guments for  just  and  solid ;  but  we  should  make  a  wise 
distinctiou  between  the  corn  and  the  chaff,  between  solid 
reasoning  and  the  mere  superficial  colours  of  it;  nor 
sh(  uld  we  readily  jiwallow  df^wn  all  their  lesser  opinions, 
because  we  agi'Cf-  with  them  in  the  gi^uter. 

3.  That  whei  we  read  thuse  i  uthors  which  oppose 
our  most  certain  and  estab'ished  pris.ciples,  we  thould 
be  ready  to  receive  any  informations-  froni  them  in  other 
points,  and  not  abandon  at  oncf  every  thi.g  they  say^ 
though  wt  are  well  fixed  in  our  opposition  to  their  main 
point  of  argunig. 

Fas  estf  et  ab  hoste  docerL......\irg. 

Seize  upon,  truth  where'er  'tis  found, 

An.on^st  your  fntiids,  amongst  your  foes. 
On  Chrht/an  i.r  on  Htatheti  ground; 

Tht   flowtr's  divine  wlitre'er  it  grows  : 

Xcglect  the  prickles,  and  assume  tl>e  wsd. 


44  OI  BOOKS  AND  READING, 

XIV.  What  I  have  said  hitherto  on  this  subject  re- 
lating to  books  and  reading,  must  be  chiefly  understood 
of  that  sort  of  books,  and  those  hours  of  our  reading  and 
study,  whereby  we  design  to  improve  the  intellectual 
powers  of  the  mind  with  natural,  moral,  or  divine  know- 
ledge. As  for  those  treatises  which  are  written  to  direct 
or  to  enforce  and  persuade  our  practice,  there  is  one  thing 
further  necessary  ;  and  that  is,  that  when  our  consci- 
ences are  convinced  that  these  rules  of  prudence  or  duty 
belong  to  us,  and  require  our  conformity  to  them,  we 
should  then  call  ourselves  to  account,  and  inquire  se^ 
riously  whether  we  have  put  them  in  practice  or  not; 
■we  should  dwell  upon  the  arguments,  and  impress  the 
motives  and  methods  of  persuasion  upon  our  own  hearts, 
till  we  feel  the  force  and  power  of  them  inclining  us  to 
the  practice  of  the  things  which  are  there  recommended. 

If  folly  or  vice  be  represented  in  its  open  colours,  or  its 
secret  disguises,  let  us  search  our  hearts,  and  review  our 
lives,  and  inquire  how  far  we  are  criminal :  Nor  should 
we  ever  think  we  have  done  with  the  treatise  till  we  tieel 
ourselves  in  sorrow  for  our  past  misconduct,  and  aspir- 
ing after  a  victory  over  those  vices,  or  till  we  find  a 
cure  of  those  tollies  begun  to  be  wrought  upon  our  souls. 

In  all  our  stiidies  and  pursuits  of  knowledge,  let  us 
remember  that  virtue  and  vice,  sin  and  holiness,  and  the 
conformation  of  our  hearts  and  lives  to  the  duties  of  true 
religion  and  moi'ality,  are  things  of  far  more  consequence 
than  all  the  furniture  of  our  understanding,  and  the  rich^ 
est  treasures  of  mere  speculative  knowledge ;  and  that 
because  they  have  a  more  immediate  and  effectual  influ- 
ence upon  our  eternal  fe'icity  or  eternal  sorrow. 

XV.  There  is  yet  another  sor  t  of  books,  of  which  it  is 
proper  I  should  say  something  while  I  am  treating  oci 
this  subject ;  and  these  are,  history,  poesy,  travels,  books 
of  diversion  or  amusement;  among  which  we  may  rec- 
kon also,  little  common  pamphlets,  newspapers,  or  such 
like ;  for  many  of  these  I  confess  once  reading  may  be 
Sufficient,  where  there  is  a  tolerable  good  memory. 

Or  when  several  persons  are  in  company,  and  onp 
reads  to  the  rest  such  sort  of  writings,  once  hearing  may 
be  sufiBcient,  provided  that  every  one  be  so  attentive, 
and  so  free  as  to  make  their  occasional  remarks  on  such 
lines  or  sentences,  such  periods  or  paragraphs,  as  in 
their  opinion  deserve  it.  Now  all  those  paragraphs  or 
sentiments  deserve  a  remark,  which  are  new  and  un- 
common, are  noble  and  excellent  for  the  matter  of  them, 


OF  BOOKS  ANS^READING.  45 

arc  strongj  and  convincmg  for  the  argument  contained  in 
them,  are  beautiful  and  elegant  for  the  language  or  the 
manner,  or  any  way  worthy  of  a  second  rehearsal;  and 
at  the  request  of  any  of  the  company,  let  those  para- 
graphs be  read  over  again. 

Such  parts  also  of  these  writings  as  may  happen  to  be 
remarkably  stupid  or  silly,  false  or  mistaken,  should 
become  subjects  of  an  occasional  criticism,  made  by 
some  of  the  company ;  and  ttiis  may  give  occasion  to  the 
repetition  of  them  for  the  confirmation  of  the  censure, 
for  amusement  or  diversion. 

Still  let  it  be  remembered,  that  where  the  historical 
narration  is  of  considerable  moment,  where  the  poesy» 
oratory,  &c.  shine  with  some  degrees  of  perfection  and 
glory,  a  single  reading  is  neither  sufficient  to  satisfy  a 
mind  that  has  a  true  taste  for  this  sort  of  writings,  nor 
can  we  make  the  tullest  and  best  improvement  of  tliem 
without  proper  reviews,  and  that  in  our  retirement  as 
well  as  in  company.  Who  is  there  that  has  any  goQt 
for  polite  writincjs,  that  would  be  sufficiently  satisfied 
with  hearing  the  beautiful  pages  of  Steele  or  Addison, 
the  admirable  descriptions  of  Virgil  or  Milton,  or  some  of 
the  finest  poems  of  Pope,  Voting,  or  Dryden,  once  read 
over  to  them,  and  then  lay  them  by  forever  ? 

XVI.  Amongst  these  writings  of  the  latter  kind,  we 
may  justly  reckon  short  miscellaneous  essays  on  all  man- 
ner of  subjects ;  such  as  the  Occasional  Papers,  the  Tat- 
lers,  the  Spectators,  and  some  other  books  that  have 
been  compiled  out  of  the  weekly  or  daily  products  of 
the  press,  wherein  are  cont  Aned  a  great  number  of 
brighi  thoughts,  ingo-nious  remarks,  and  admirable  ob- 
servations, which  have  had  a  considerable  share  in  fur- 
nishiii^  the  present  age  with  knowledge  and  politeness. 
I  wish  every  paper  ^mong  these  writings  could  have 
been  recommended  both  as  innocent  and  useful.  1  wish 
every  unseemly  irlea,  and  wanton  expression  had  been 
banished  from  amongst  them,  and  every  trifling  page 
had  b-'en  excluded  from  the  company  of  the  rest  when 
they  had  been  bound  up  in  volumes.  But  it  is  not  to  be 
expected,  in  so  imperfect  a  state,  that  every  page  or 
piec  of  such  mixed  public  papers  should  be  entirely 
blameless  and  laudable.  Yet  in  the  main  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, there  is  so  much  virtue,  prudence,  ingenuity  and 
goodness  in  them,  especially  in  eight  volumes  of  Specta- 
tors, there  is  such  a  reverence  of  things  sacred,  so  many 
E  2 


46.  O?   BOOKS   AND   READING. 

valuable  remarks  for  our  conduct  in  life,  that  they  are 
not  improper  to  lie  in  parlours,  or  summer  houses,  or 
places  of  usual  residence,  to  entertain  our  thoughts  in 
any  moments  of  leisure,  or  vacant  hours  that  occur. 
There  is  such  a  discovery  of  the  follies,  iniquities,  and  , 
fashionable  vices  d  jnaokiud  contained  in  them,  that  <; 
-we  may  learn  much  of  the  humours  and  madnesses  of 
the  age,  and  the  public  world,  in  our  own  solitary  retire- 
ment, without  the  danger  of  frequenting  vicious  com- 
pany, or  receiving  the  mortal  infection, 

XVII.  Among  other  books  which  are  proper  and  re- 
quisite, in  order  to  improve  our  knowledge  in  general, 
or  our  acquaintance  with  any  particular  science,  it  is 
siecessary  that  we  should  be  furnished  with  Vocabula- 
ries and  Dictionaries  of  several  sorts,  viz.  of  common 
•words,  idioms,  and  phrases,  in  order  to  explain  their 
sense ;  of  technical  words  or  the  terms  of  art,  to  show 
their  use  in  arts  and  sciences ;  of  names  of  men,  coun- 
tries, towns,  rivers,  &c.  which  are  called  historical  and 
geographical  dictionaries,  &c.  These  are  to  be  consult- 
ed and  used  upon  eyery  occasion ;  and  never  let  an  un- 
known word  pass  in  your  reading,  without  seeking  for  ( 
its  sense  and  meaning  in  seme  of  these  writers.  , 

If  such  books  are  not  at  hand,  you  must  supply  th^ 
want  of  them,  as  well  as  you  can,  by  consulting  such  as 
can  inform  you  ;  and  it  is  useful  to  note  down  the  mat» 
ters  of  doubt  and  inquiry  in  some  pocket  book,  and  take 
the  first  opportunity  to  get  them  resolved,  either  by  per- 
sons fv  books,  when  we  meet  with  them. 

XVIII.  Be  not  satisfied  with  a  mere  knowledge  of 
the  best  authors  that  treat  of  any  subject,  instead  of  ac- 
quainting yourselves  thoroughly  with  the  subject  itself. 
There  is  many  a  young  student  that  is  fond  of  enlarging 
his  knowledge  of  boo^s,  and  he  contents  himself  with 
the  notice  he  has  of  their  title  page,  which  is  the  attain- 
ment of  a  bookseller  rather  than  a  scholar.  Such  per- 
sons are  under  a  great  temptation  to  practise  these  two 
follies.  (1.)  To  heap  up  a  great  number  of  books,  at  a 
greater  expense  than  most  of  them  can  bear,  and  to  fur- 
nish their  libraries  infinitely  better  than  their  understand- 
ings. And  (2.)  when  they  have  gotten  such  rich  treas- 
ures of  knowledge  upon  their  shelves,  they  imagine 
themselves  men  of  learning,  and  take  a  pride  in  talking 
of  the  names  of  famous  authors,  and  the  subjects  of 
which  they  treat,  without  any  real  improvenient  of  their, 
c^n  minds  in  true  science  or  wisdom.    At  best  theii^v 


jrDGMENT   OF   BOOKS.  ^7 

learning  reaches  no  farther  than  the  indexes  and  tables 
of  contents,  while  they  know  rot  how  to  judge  or  reason 
concerning  the  matters  contained  in  those  authors. 

And  indeed  how  many  volumes  of  learning  soever  a 
man  possesses,  he  is  still  deplorably  poor  in  his  under- 
standing, till  he  has  made  those  several  parts  of  learning 
his  own  property,  by  reading  and  reasoning,  by  judging 
for  himself,  and  remembering  what  he  has  read. 


CHAP.  V. 

Judgment  of  Books'. 

I.  IF  we  -would  form  a  judgment  of  a  book  which 
we  have  not  seen  before,  the  hrst  thing  that  offers  is 
the  title  page,  and  we  may  sometimes  guess  a  little  at 
the  import  and  design  di  a  book  thereby ;  though  it 
must  be  confessed  that  titles  are  often  deceitful,  and 
promise  more  than  the  book  performs.  The  author's 
name,  if  it  be  known  in  the  world,  may  help  us  to  con- 
jecture at  the  performance  a  little  more,  and  lead  us 
to  guess  in  what  manner  it  is  done.  A  perusal  of  the 
preface  or  introduction  (which  I  before  recommended) 
may  further  assist  our  judgment ;  and  if  there  be  an  in- 
dex of  the  contents,  it  will  give  us  still  some  advancing 
light. 

If  we  have  not  leisure  or  inclination  to  read  over  the 
book  itself  regularly,  then  by  the  titles  of  chapters  we 
may  be  directed  to' peruse  several  particular  chapters 
or  sections,  and  observe  whether  there  be  any  thing  val- 
uable or  important  in  them.  We  shall  find  hereby, 
whether  the  author  explains  his  ideas  clearly,  whether 
he  reasons  strongly,  whether  he  methodizes  well, 
whether  his  thoughts  and  sense  be  manly,  and  his  man- 
ner polite ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  he  be  ob- 
scure, weak,  trifling  and  confused ;  or  finally,  whether 
the  matter  may  not  be  solid  and  substantial,  though  the 
style  and  manner  be  rude  and  disagreeable. 

II.  By  having  run  through  several  chapters  and 
sections  in  this  manner,  we  may  generally  judge  wheth- 
er the  treatise  be  worth  a  complete  perusal  or  not.  But 
if  by  such  an  occasional  survey  of  some  chapters,  our 
expectation  be  utterly  discouraged,  we  may  well  lay 
aside  that  book  ;  for  there  is  great  probability  he  can 


48  jrVSGMEN^T  OF   BOOKS* 

be  but  an  indifferent  writer  on  that  subject,  if  he  affords 
but  one  prize  to  divers  blanks,  and  it  may  be  some 
downright  blots  too.  The  piece  can  hardly  be  valuable, 
if,  in  seven  or  eight  chapters  which  we  peruse,  there 
be  but  little  truth,  evidence,  force  of  reasoning,  beauty, 
and  ingenuity  of  thought,  &c.  mingled  with  murh  er- 
ror, ignorance,  impertinence,  dullness,  mean  and  com- 
mon thoughts,  inaccuracy,  sophistry,  railing,  &c.  Life 
is  too  short  and  time  is  too  precious,  to  read  every  new 
book  quite  over,  in  order  to  find  that  it  is  not  worth 
reading. 

III.  There  are  some  general  mistakes  which  per- 
sons are  frequently  guilty  of  in  passing  a  judgment  on 
the  books  which  they  read. 

One  is  this;  when  a  treatise  is  written  but  tolerably 
well,  we  are  ready  to  pass  a  favourable  judgment  of  it, 
and  sometimes  to  exalt  its  character  far  beyond  its 
merit,  if  it  agree  with  our  own  principles,  and  support 
the  opinions  of  our  party.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
author  be  of  differeit  sentiments,  and  espouse  contrary 
principles,  we  can  find  neither  wit  nor  reason,  good 
sense  nor  good  language  in  it.  Whereas,  alas  I  if  our 
opinions  of  things  were  certain  and  infallible  truth*  yet 
a  silly  author  may  draw  his  pen  in  the  defence  of  them, 
and  he  may  attack  even  gross  errors  with  feeble  and 
ridiculous  arguments.  Truth  in  this  world  is  not  al- 
ways attended  and  supported  by  the  wisest  and  safest 
methods  ;  and  error,  though  it  can  never  be  maintain- 
ed by  just  reasoning,  yet  may  be  artfully  covered  and 
defended  ;  an  ingenious  writer  may  put  excellent  col- 
ours upon  his  own  mistakes.  Some  Socinians  who  deny 
the  atonement  of  Christ,  have  written  well,  and  with 
much  appearance  of  argument  for  their  own  unsrriptU' 
ral  sentiments,  and  some  writers  for  the  Trinity  and 
satisfaction  of  Christ,  have  exposed  themselves  and  the 
sacred  doctrine,  by  their  feeble  and  foolish  manner  of 
handling  it.  Books  are  never  to  be  judged  of  merely  by 
their  subject,  or  the  opinion  they  represent,  but  by  the 
justness  ot  their  sertiments,  the  beauty  ot  their  manner, 
the  force  of  their  expre<<sion ;  or  the  strength  of  reas>on, 
and  the  weight  ot  just  and  proper  argument  which  ap- 
pears in  them. 

But  this  folly  and  weakness  of  trifling  instead  of  argu- 
ing does  not  happen  tu  fall  only  tcthe  share  of  Christian 
writers ;  there  are  some  who  have  taken  the  pea  ix| 


JUDGMENT   OF   BOOKS.  «      49 

hand  to  support  the  deistical  or  antichristian  scheme  of 
our  days,  who  make  big  pretences  to  reason  upon  all 
occasions,  but  seem  to  have  left  it  all  behind  them  when 
they  are  jesting  with  the  Bible,  and  grinning  at  the  books 
which  we  call  sacred.  Some  of  these  performances 
would  scarcely  have  been  thought  tolerable  if  they  had 
not  assaulted  the  Christian  fnith,  though  they  are  now- 
grown  up  to  a  place  amongst  the  admired  pens.  I  much 
question  whether  several  of  the  rhapsodies  called  the 
Characteristics,  would  ever  have  survived  the  first  edi- 
tion, if  they  had  not  discovered  so  strong  a  tinfcture  of 
infidelity,  and  now  and  then  cast  out  a  profane  sneer  at 
our  holy  religion.  I  have  sometimes  indeed  been  ready 
to  wonder  how  a  book  in  the  main  so  loosely  written, 
should  ever  obtain  somnny  readers  among  men  of  sense. 
Surely  they  must  be  conscious  in  ihe  peiusal,  that  some- 
times a  patrician  may  write  as  idle  as  a  man  of  plebeian 
rank,  and  trifle  as  much  as  an  old  schoolman,  though  it 
is  in  another  form.  I  am  forced  to  say,  there  are  few 
books  that  ever  I  read,  which  made  any  pretences  to  a 
great  genius,  from  which  I  derived  so  little  valuable 
knowledge  as  from  these  treatises.  There  is  indeed 
amongst  them  a  Uvely  pertness,  a  parade  of  literature, 
and  much  of  what  some  folks  now-a-days  call  politeness, 
but  it  is  hard  that  we  should  be  bound  to  admire  all 
the  reveries  of  this  author,  under  the  penalty  of  being 
unfashionable. 

IV,  Another  mistake  which  some  persons  fall  into  is 
this :  When  they  read  a  treatise  on  a  subject  with  which 
they  have  but  little  acquaintance,  they  find  almost  eve- 
ry thing  n«w  and  strange  to  them,  their  understandings 
are  greatly  entertained  and  improved  by  the  occurrence 
of  many  things  which  were  unknown  to  them  before, 
they  admire  the  treatise,  and  commend  the  author  at 
once ;  whereas  if  they  had  but  attained  a  good  degree 
of  skill  in  that  science,  perhaps  they  would  find  that 
the  author  had  written  very  poorly,  that  neither  his 
sense  nor  his  method  was  just  and  proper,  and  that  he 
had  nothing  in  him  but  what  was  very  common  or  trivial 
in  his  discourses  on  that  subject. 

Hence  it  comes  to  pass  that  Carlo  and  Faber,  who 
were  both  bred  up  to  labour,  and  unacquainted  with 
the  sciences,  shall  admire  one  of  the  weekly  papers,  or 
^  little  pamphlet,  that  talks  pertly  on  some  critical 
or  learned  th^me^  because  the  matter  is  all  strange  and 


30  JtDGMEWT  OP  BOOKS. 

new  to  them,  and  they  join  to  extol  the  writer  to  the 
skit* s ;  and  for  the  same  reason  a  young  academic  shall 
dwell  upon  a  Journal  or  an  Observator  that  treats  of 
trade  and  politics  in  a  dictatorial  style,  and  shall  be 
lavish  in  the  praise  of  the  author  ;  while  at  the  same 
time  p)ersons  well  skilled  in  tho<;e  different  subjects  hear 
the  impertinent  tattle  with  a  just  contempt;  for  they 
faiow  how  weak  and  awkward  many  of  those  little  di- 
minutive discourses  are ;  and  that  those  very  papers  of 
science,  politics  or  trade,  wiiich  were  so  much  admired 
by  the  ignorant,  are  perhaps  but  very  mean  perform- 
ances ;  though  it  must  also  be  confessed  there  are  some 
excellent  essays  in  those  papers,  and  that  upon  science 
as  well  as  trade. 

V.  But  there  is  a  danger  of  mistake  in  our  judgment 
of  bo^ks  on  the  other  hand  also;  for  when  we  have 
made  ourselves  masters  of  any  particular  theme  of 
knowledge,  and  surveyed  it  long  on  all  sides,  there  is 
perhaps  scarcely  any  writer  on  that  subject  who  much 
entertains  and  pleases  us  afterwards,  because  we  find 
little  or  nothing  new  in  him  ;  and  vet  in  a  true  judg- 
ment perhaps  his  sentiments  are  most  proper  and  just, 
his  explication  clear,  and  his  reasonings  strong,  and  all 
the  parts  of  the  discourse  are  well  connected  and  set  in 
a  happy  light ;  but  we  knew  most  of  those  things  Ije- 
fore,  and  therefore  they  strike  us  not,  and  we  are  in 
danger  of  discommending  them. 

Thus  the  learned  and  the  unlearned  have  their  sev- 
eral distinct  dangers  and  prejudices  ready  to  attend 
them  in  their  judgment  of  the  writings  of  men.  These 
which  I  have  mentioned  are  a  specimen  of  them,  and 
indeed  but  a  mere  specimen  ;  for  the  prejudices  that 
%varp  our  judgment  aside  from  truth  are  almost  infinite 
and  endless. 

VI.  Yet  I  c^Jinot  forbear  to  point  out  two  or  three 
more  of  these  foUies,  that  I  may  attempt  something  to- 
wards the  correction  of  them,  or  at  least  to  guard  others 
against  them. 

There  are  some  persons  of  a  forward  and  lively  tem- 
per, and  who  are  fond  to  intermeddle  with  all  appear- 
ances of  knowledge,  will  give  their  judgment  on  a  book 
as  soon  as  the  title  of  it  is  mentioned,  foV  they  would  not 
willingly  seem  ignorant  of  any  thing  that  others  know. 
And  especiall)  if  they  happen  to  have  any  superior 
character  or  possessions  of  this  world,  they  fancy  tliey 


JtrDdMENT   09   BOOKS.  i»l 

have  a  right  to  talk  freely  upon  every  thing  that  stirs 
or  appears,  though  they  have  no  other  pretence  to  this 
freedom.  Divito  is  worth  forty  thousand  pounds:  Poli- 
tulus  is  a  fine  young  gentleman,  who  sparkles  in  all  the 
shining  things  of  dress  and  equipage :  Aulinus  is  a  small 
attendant  on  a  minister  of  state,  and  is  at  court  almost 
every  day.  These  three  happened  to  meet  in  a  visit, 
where  an  excelliint  book  of  warm  and  refintd  devotions 
lay  in  the  windo.v  :  What  dull  stuff  is  here  ?  says  Divi- 
to";  I  never  read  so  much  nonsense  in  one  page  in  my 
life,  nor  would  I  give  a  shilling  for  a  thousand  such  trea- 
tises. Aulinus,  though  a  couriier,  and  not  used  to 
speak  roughly,  yet  would  not  allow  there  was  a  line  of 
good  sense  in  the  book,  and  pronounced  him  a  madman 
that  wrote  it  in  his  secret  retirement,  and  declared  him 
a  fool  that  published  it  after  his  death.  Politulus  had 
more  manners  than  to  differ  from  men  of  sueh  rank  and 
character,  and  therefore  he  sneered  at  the  devout  ex- 
pressions as  he  heard  them  read,  and  made  the  divine 
treatise  a  matter  of  scorn  and  ridicule  ;  and  yet  it  was 
well  known  that  neither  this  fine  gentlenian,  nor  the 
courtier,  nor  the  man  of  wealth,  had  a  grain  of  devotion 
in  them  beyond  their  horses  that  waited  at  the  door 
with  their  gilded  chariots.  But  this  is  the  way  of  the 
world ;  blind  men  will  talk  of  the  beauty  of  colours,  and 
of  the  harmony  or  disproportion  of  figures  in  painting; 
the  deaf  will  prate  of  discords  in  raui>ic ;  and  those  who 
have  nothing  to  do  with  religion  will  arraign  the  best 
treatise  on  divine  subjects,  though  they  do  not  under* 
stand  the  very  i.  nguage  of  the  scripi:ure,nor  the  cont- 
mon  terms  or  phrases  used  in  Christianity. 

VII.  I  might  here  name  another. sort  of  judges,  who 
will  set  themselves  up  to  decide  in  favour  of  an  author, 
or  will  pronounce  him  a  mere  blunderer,  according  to 
the  company  they  have  kept,  uid  the  judgment  they 
have  heard  passed  upon  a  book  by  othei*s  ot  their  own 
stamp  or  size,  though  they  have  no  knowledge  or  taste 
of  the  subject  themselves.  These  with  a  fluent  and  vol- 
uble tongue  become  mere  echoes  of  the  praises  or  cen- 
sures of  other  men.  Sonillus  happened  to  be  in  the 
room  where  the  three  gentlemen  just  mentioned  gave 
out  their  thoughts  so  fref^ly  upon  an  admirable  book  of 
devotion  ;  and  two  days  afterwards  he  met  with  some 
friends  of  his  where  this  book  w  is  the  subject  of  conver- 
sation and  praise.    Sonillus  wondered  at  their  dulness. 


52  7DDGMEMT   OB   BOOKS. 

and  repeated  the  jests  which  he  had  heard  cast  upon 
the  weakness  of  the  author.  His  knowledge  of  the  book 
and  his  decision  upon  it  was  all  from  hearsay,  for  he  had 
never  seen  it,  and  if  he  had  read  it  through  he  had  no 
manner  of  right  to  judge  about  the  things  of  religion, 
having  no  more  knowledge  or  taste  of  any  thing  ot  in- 
ward piety,  than  a  hedgehog  or  a  bear  has  of  politeness. 

When  I  hid  written  these  remarks,  Probus,  who 
knew  all  the  four  gentlemen,  wished  they  might  have  an 
opportunity  to  read  their  own  character  as  it  is  repre- 
sented here.  Alas !  Probus,  I  fear  it  would  do  them  very 
little  good,  though  it  may  guard  others  against  their  fol- 
ly, for  there  is  never  a  one  of  them  would  find  their  own 
name  in  these  characters  if  they  read  them,  though  all 
their  acquaintaiice  would  acknowledge  the  features  im- 
mediately.and  see  the  persons  altno'st  alive  in  the  picture. 

VIII.  There  is  yet  another  mischievous  principle 
■which  prevails  among  some  persons  in  passing  a  judg- 
ment on  the  writings  of  others,  and  that  is,  when  from 
the  secret  stimulations  of  vanity,  pride  or  envy,  they  des- 
pise a  valuable  book,  and  throw  contempt  upon  it  by 
wholesale  ;  and  if  you  ask  them  the  reason  of  their  se- 
vere censure,  they  will  tell  you  perhaps  that  they  have 
found  a  mistatae  or  two  in  it,  or  there  are  a  few  senti- 
ments or  expressions  not  suited  to  their  tooth  and  hu- 
mour. Bavius  cries  down  an  admirable  treatise  of  phi- 
losophy, and  says  there  is  Atheism  m  it,  because  there 
are  a  few  sentences  that  seem  to  suppose  brutes  to  be 
mere  machines.  Under  the  same  influence,  Momus 
will  not  allow  Paradise  Lost  to  be  at  eood  poem,  because 
he  had  read  some  flat  and  heavy  hnes  in  it,  and  he 
thought  Milton  had  too  much  honour  done  him.  It  is  a 
paltry  humour  that  inclines  a  man  to  rail  at  any  human 
performance  because  it  is  not  absolutely  perfect.  Hor- 
ace would  give  us  a  better  example. 

Sunf  delicto  temen  quibus  nos  ignovbtse  velimus., 
Namneque  chorda  sonum  reddit  quern  vult  manuf  et  menesi 
2fcc  semper  feriet  quodcunqxze  ininabitur  arc  us: 

Verwn  uH  plum  nitent  in  carmine,  ntSn  ego  paucis 

Ojff'endar  maculis,  quas  aut  incuria  Judit, 

Ant  liumarta  parum  caxnt  natura Hot.  de  Art.  Poet. 

THUS    mAdE    ENGLISH. 

Be  not  too  rigidly  ccDSoiious : 

A  string  may  jar  in  the  best  roaster's  Land, 

And  the  most  skilful  archer  miss  his  aim: 

So  in  a  poem  elegantly  writ 

I  \\i\{  not  quarrel  wiiii  a  small  mistake, 

Su«h  as  our  nature's  fiailty  n  ay  excusc........<.iJwi'onjwjc?? 


JUDGMENT   OF   BOOKS^  53 

'fhis  noble  translator  of  Horace,  whom  I  here  cite, 
has  a  very  honourable  opinion  ot  Homer  in  the  main,  yet 
he  allows  him  to  be  justly  censured  for  some  grosser 
spots  and  blemishes  in  him. 

For  who  without  aversion  ever  look'd 
On  holy  lE^ai-bage,  though  by  Homer  cook'd, 
Whose  i-aihng  nerofcs  and   whose  wounded  gods 
Make  some  suspect  he  snores  as  well  as  nuds. 

Such  wise  and  just  distinctjoi^s  ughtto  ')e  made  wh«n 
■we  p.iss  a  judgment  on  mortal  thuigs,  but  envy  condemn^ 
by  wholesale.  Envy  is  a  cursed  plaut ;  some  fibres  of  it 
are  rooted  almost  in  every  man's  nature,  and  it  works  in 
a  sly  and  imperceptible  manner,  and  that  even  i»)  some 
persons  who  in  the  main  are  men  of  wisdom  and  piety. 
They  know  not  how  to  bear  the  praises  that  are  given  to 
an  ingenious  author,  esp^  cially  if  he  be  living  and  of  their 
profession,  and  therefore  they  will,  if  possible ,  find  some 
blemish  in  his  writings,  that  they  may  nibble  and  b.irk 
at  it.  They  will  endeavour  to  diminish  the  honour  of  the 
best  treatise  that  has  been  wriittn  on  any  subject,  and 
to  render  it  useless  by  their  cerisur^s,  rather  than  suffer 
their  envy  to  lie  asleep,  and  the  little  mistakes  of  that 
author  to"  pass  unexposed.  Perhaps  they  will  commend 
the  work  in  general  with  a  pretended  air  of  candour, 
but  pass  so  many  sly  and  invidious  remarks  upon  it 
afterwards,  as  shall  etJectually  destroy  all  their  cold 
and  formal  praises.* 

IX.  When  a  person  feels  any  thing  of  this  invidious 
humour  working  in  him,  he  may  b)^  the  following  consid- 
eration attempt  the  correction  of  it.  Let  him  think 
with  himself  how  many  are  the  beauties  of  such  an  au- 
tkor  whom  he  censures  in  comparison  of  his  blemishes, 
SMd  remeniber  that  it  is  a  much  more  honourable  and 
goocl-natured  thing  to  find  out  peculiar  beauties  than 
Faults:  True  and  undisguised  candour  is  a  much  more 
amiable  and  divine  talent  than  accusation.  Let  him  re- 
flect again,  what  an  easy  matter  it  is  to  find  a  mistake 
in  all  human  authors,  who  are  necessarily  fallible  and 
imperfect. 

1  confess  where  an  author  sets  up  himself  to  ridicule 

•  I  grant  when  wisdom  itselfcensures  a  weak  and  foolish  performance, 
U  will  pass  its  severe  sentence,  and  yet  with  an  air  of  candour,  if  the  au- 
thor has  any  thing  valual>le  in  him :  But  envy  will  sometimes  imitate  tlie 
same  favoui-able  airs,  in  order  to  make  its  false  cavils  appear  more  just 
and  credible,  when  it  has  a  mind  u»  snarl  at  some  of  the  brightest  per- 
formances.of  a  human  writer. 

F 


64  JUDGMENT   OE   BOOKS. 

divine  writers  arul  things  sacred,  and  yet  assumes  an  air 
ot" sovereignty  aud  dictatorship,  to  exalt  and  almost  deif)^ 
all  the  Pagan  ancients,  and  cast  his  scorn  upon  all  the 
moderns,  especially  if  they  do  but  savour  of  miracles  and 
the  gospel,  it  is  fit  the  admirers  of  this  author  should 
know,  that  iiature  and  these  ancients  are  n'^t  the  same, 
though  some  writers  always  unite  them.  Reason  and 
nature  never  made  these  ancient  Heathens  their  stand- 
ani,  either  of  art  or  genius,  of  writing  or  heroism*  Sir 
Richard  Steele,  in  his  little  Essay,  called  the  Christia« 
Hero,  has  shewn  our  Saviour  and  St  P-iul  in  a  more  glo»- 
riyus  and  transcendent  light,  than  a  Vir^ii  or  a  Homer 
could  do  for  their  Achilles,  Ulysses,  or  ^neas  ;  and  I 
am  persuaded,  if  Moses  and  David  hatl  not  been  inspir- 
ed writers,  these  very  men  would  have  ranked  them  at 
least  with  Herodotus  and  Hora,ce,  if  not  given  them  the 
superior  place. 

But  where  an  author  has  many  beauties  consistent 
with  virtue,  piety  arid  truth,  let  not  little  critics  exalt 
themselves,  and  shower  down  their  ill  nature  upon  hinnj 
without  bounds  or  measure ;  but  rather  stretch  their 
own  powers  of  soul  till  they  wiite  a  treatise  superior  to 
that  which  they  condemn.  This  is  the  noblest  and  sur- 
est manner  ot  suppressing  what  they  censure. 

A  little  wit,  or  a  little  learniug,  with  a  good  degree  of 
Vanity  and  ill  nature,  will  teach  a  man  to  pour  out  whole 
pages  of  remark  and  reproach  upon  one  real  or  fancieji 
mistake  of  a  great  and  good  author ;  r.nd  this  may  be 
dressed  up  by  the  same  talents,  and-made  enteriaining^ 
enough  to  the  world,  who  love  reproach  and  scandal ; 
but  it  the  remarker  would  but  once  make  this  attempt, 
and  try  to  outshine  the  author  by  writing  a  better  b  wk 
on  the  same  subject,  he  would  soon  l>e  convinced  oU^'is 
own  insufficiency  ,and  perhaps  might  learn  to  judge  more 
justly  and  favourably  of  the  performance  of  other  men. 
A  cobler  or  a  shoemaker  may  find  some  little  fault  with 
the  latchet  ot  a  shoe  that  an  Apelles  had  painted,  and 
perhaps  with  justice  too;  when  the  whole  figure  and 
portraiture  is  such  as  none  but  Apelles  could  paint.  Ev- 
eiy  poor  low  genius  may  cavil  at  what  the  richest  and 
the  noblest  hath  performed  ;  but  it  is  a  S'gn  of  envy  and 
malice,  added  to  the  littleness  and  poverty  of  genius^ 
when  such  a  cavil  becomes  a  sufficient  reason  to  pro- 
nounce at  once  against  a  bright  author,  and  a  whoifr 
vadtrdble  treatise. 


JUDGM£IVT    OF   BOOKS.  55 

X.  Another,  and  that  a  very  frequent  fault,  in  pass- 
ing a  judgmt-nt  upon  books,  is  this,  that  persons  spread 
the  same  praises  or  the  same  reproaches  over  a  whole 
treatise,  and  all  the  chapters  in  it,  which  are  due  only 
to  some  of  them.  They  jud^e  as  it  were  by  wholesale, 
without  making  a  due  distinction  between  the  several 
parts  or  sections  of  the  performance ;  and  this  is  ready 
to  lead  those  who  hear  them  talk  into  a  dangerous  mis- 
take. Fiorus  is  a  great  and  just  admirer  of  the  late 
Archbishf'p  of  Cambray,  and  mightily  commends  every 
thing  he  h?»s  written,  and  will  allow  no  blemish  in  him  ; 
whereas  the  writings  of  that  excellent  man  are  not  all 
of  a  piece,  nor  are  those  very  books  of  his,  which  have 
a  g''od  iiumber  of  beautiful  and  valuiible  sentiments  ir| 
them,  to  be  recommcridt-d  throughout,  or  all  at  once 
without  distinction.  There  is  his  demonstration  of  the 
existence  and  attributes  of  God,  which  has  justly  gained 
an  universal  esteem  for  bringing  down  some  new  and 
nob'e  thoughts  of  the  wisdom  of  the  creation  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  unlearned,  and  they  are  such  as  well 
deserve  the  perusal  of  ♦^he  man  of  science,  perhaps  as  far 
as  the  50th  st  ction :  but  there  are  many  ot  the  following 
sections,  which  are  very  weakly  written,  and  some  of 
them  built  upon  an  enthusiastical  and  mistaken  scheme, 
a-kin  to  the  peculiar  opinions  of  father  Malebranche ; 
5uch  ns  sec.  51,  53.  1  hat  we  know  the  finite,  only  by 
the  ideas  of  the  infinite.  Sec.  55,  60.  That  the  superior 
reason  in  man  is  God  himself  acting  in  him.  Sec.  61,62. 
That  the  idea  of  unity  cannot  be  taken  from  creatures, 
but  from  God  only  ;  and  several  of  his  sections,  from  65 
to  68,  upon  the  doctrine  of  liberty,  seem  to  be  inconsist- 
ent. Again,  towards  the  end  of  his  book,  he  spends  more 
time  and  pains  than  are  needful,  in  refuting  the  Epicu- 
rean fancy  ot  atoms  moving  eternally  through  infinite 
changes,  which  might  be  done  effectually  in  a  much 
shorter  and  better  way. 

So  in  his  Posthumous  Essays,  and  his  Letters,  there 
are  many  admirable  thoughts  in  practical  and  experi- 
Hiental  religi<m,  and  ver>  beautiful  and  divine  sentiments 
rn  devotiort ;  but  sometimes  in  large  paragraphs,  or  in 
^vhole  chapters  together,  you  find  him  in  the  clouds  of 
mystic  divinity,  .T^id  he  never  descends  within  the  reach 
of  common  ideas  or  common  sense. 

But  r -member  this  also,  that  there  are  but  few  such 
avithors  as  this  great  man,  who  talks  so  very  weakly 


56  JUrWSMENt   OP  BOOKS. 

sometimes,  and  yet  in  other  places  is  so  much  superior 
to  the  greatest  part  of  writers. 

There  are  other  instances  of  this  kind,  where  men  of 
good  sense  in  the  main,  set  up  forjudges,  but  they  carry 
too  many  of  their  passions  about  them,  and  then,  like 
lovers,  they  are  in  rapture  at  the  name  of  their  fair  idol ; 
they  lavish  out  all  their  incense  upon  that  shrine,  and 
cannot  bear  the  vh ought  of  admitting  a  blemish  in  them. 

You  shall  hear  Altisono  not  nnly  idmire  Casimere /of 
Poland  in  his  hrics,  as  the  utmost  purity  and  periectioa 
of  Latin  poesy,  but  he  wii»  allow  nothi  ig  in  him  to  be  ex- 
travagant or  faulty,  and  wiil  vindicate  every  line ;  nor 
can  I  much  wonder  at  it  when  I  have  heard  him  pro- 
nounce Lucan  the  best  of  the  ancient  Latins,  arid  idolize 
his  very  weaknesses  and  mistakes.  I  will  read'ly  ac- 
knowledge the  Odes  of  Casimere  to  have  more  spirit 
and  force,  more  magnificence  and  fire  in  them,  and  in 
twentv  places  arise  to  more  dignity  and  beauty,  than  I 
could  ever  meet  with  in  any  of  our  modern  poets ;  •fGt  I 
am  afraid  to  say,  that  "  Pala  sutilis  e  liLce"  has  dignity 
enough  in  it  for  a  robe  made  for  the  Almighty,  Lib.  4. 
Od.  r.  I.  Sr ;  or  that  the  Man  of  Virtue  in  Od.  3.  1  44. 
under  the  rums  of  heaven  and  earth,  wili  bear  up  the 
fragments  of  the  fallen  world  with  a  comely  wound  on 
his  shoulders. 

..»....«..........n..?af«  ruenti 

Stibjiciem  sua  colla  ccelo 
Mundum  decoro  vulnere  fulciet : 
Interque  cceli  fragmina. 

Yet  I  must  needs  confess  also,  that  it  is  hardly  possi- 
ble a  man  should  rise  to  so  exalted  and  sublime  a  vein 
of  poesy  as  Casimere,  who  is  not  in  danger  now  and  then 
of  such  extravagancies ;  but  still  they  should  not  he  ad- 
mired or  defended,  if  we  pretend  to  pass  a  just  judgment 
on  the  writings  of  the  greatest  men. 

Milton  is  a  noble  genius,  and  the  world  ngrees  to  con- 
fess it ;  his  poem  of  Paradise  Lost  is  a  gorious  perform- 
ance, and  rivals  the  most  famous  pieces  of  antiquity  ; 
but  that  reader  must  be  def-plv  prejudiced  in  f  wour  of 
the  poet,  who  can  imagine  him  fqual  to  himself  through 
all  that  work.  Neither  the  sub'ime  sentiments,  nor  dig- 
nity of  numbers,  nor  force  or  f^eauty  .')f  expression,  are 
equally  maintained,  ev^en  in  all  tliose  pans  which  re- 
quire grandeur  or  beauty,  force  or  harmoiy.  I  cannot 
but  consent  to  Mr.  Dryden's  opinion,  though  I  will  not 


0»   LIVING   INSTRBTCnONS,   &C.  57 

^sc  his  wordff,  that  for  some  scores  of  hnes  together, 
there  is  a  colfiness  and  flatness,  and  almost  a  perfect 
absence  of  thiat  spirit  of  poesy,  which  breathes  and  lives 
ami  flames  ib  other  pages 

XI.  Whe0  you  hear  any  person  pretending  to  give 
his  judgmentW  a  book,  consider  with  yourself  whether 
he  be  a  capablfe  judge,  or  whether  he  may  not  lie  under 
some  unhappy  bias  or  prejudice  for  or  against  it,  or 
whether  he  has  made  a  sufficient  inquiry  to  form  hi* 
justest  sentiments  upon  it. 

Though  he  be  a  man  of  good  sense,  yet  he  is  incapa- 
ble of  passing  a  true  judgment  of  a  particular  book,  it  he 
be  not  well  acquainted  with  the  subject  of  which  it  treats, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  written,  be  it  verse  or 
prose  ;  or  if  he  hath  not  had  an  opportunity  or  leisure 
to  look  sufficiently  into  the  writing  itself. 

Again,  though  he  be  ever  so  capable  of  judging  on  all 
ether  accounts,  by  the  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  of 
the  book  itself,  yet  you  are  to  consider  also  whether 
there  be  any  thing  in  the  author,  in  his  manner,  in  his 
language,  in  his  opinions,  and  his  particular  party,  which 
may  warp  the  sentiments  of  him  that  judgeth,  to  think 
well  or  ill  of  the  treatise,  ard  to  pass  too  favourable  or 
too  severe  a  sentence  concerning  it. 

If  you  find  that  he  is  either  an  unfit  judge  because  of 
his  ignoi  ance,  or  because  of  his  prejudices,  his  judgment 
of  that  book  should  go  for  nothing.  Philographo  is  a 
good  divine,  an  useful  preacher,  and  an  approved  ex- 
positor of  scripture,  but  he  never  had  a  taste  for  any  of 
the  polite  learning  of  the  age ;  he  was  fond  of  every 
thing  that  appeared  in  a  devout  dress,  but  all  verse  was 
alike  to  him.  He  told  me  last  week  there  was  a  very 
fine  book  of  poems  published  on  the  three  Christian 
graces.  Faith,  Hope  and  Charity,  and  a  most  elegant 
piece  of  oratory  on  the  four  last  things,  Death,  Judgment, 
Heaven,  and  Hell.  Do  you  think  I  shall  buy  either  of 
those  books  merely  on  Philographo*s  recommendation  ? 


CHAP.   VI. 

Of  living  Instructions  and  Lecturesy  of  Teachers  and 

Learners, 

I.  THERE  are  a  few  persons  of  so  penetrating  a 

gi^nius,  and  so  just  a  judgment,  as  to  be  capable  (^  leam^ 

F  2 


58  or   LIVING  INSTRUCTIONS,   &C. 

ingthe  arts  and  sciences  with'  ut  the  assistanceof  teachers. 
There  is  scarcely  any  science  so  safely  and  so  speedily 
learned,  even  by  the  noblest  genius  and  the  best  books, 
without  a  tutor.  His  assistance  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  most  persons,  and  it  is  very  useful  for  all  beginners. 
Books  are  a  sort  of  dumb  teachers,  they  point  out  the 
way  to  learning ;  but  if  we  labour  under  any  doubt  or 
mistake,  they  cannot  answer  sudden  questions,  or  ex- 
plain present  doubts  and  difficulties ;  this  is  properly 
the  work  of  a  living  instructor. 

II.  There  are  very  few  tutors  who  are  sufficiently 
furnished  with  such  universal  learning,  as  to  sustain  all 
the  parts  and  provinces  of  instruction.  The  sciences 
are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  lie  far  wide  of  each 
other  ;  and  it  is  best  to  enjoy  the  instructions  of  two  or 
three  tutors  at  least,  in  order  to  run  through  the  whole 
encyclopoedia,  or  circle  of  sciences,  where  it  may  be  ob- 
tained ;  then  we  may  expect  that  each  will  teach  the 
few  parts  of  learning  which  are  committed  to  his  care 
in  greater  perfection.  But  where  this  advantage  can- 
not be  had  with  convenience,  one  great  man  must  sup- 
ply the  place  of  two  or  three  common  instructors. 

III.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  instructors  he  competent- 
ly skilled  in  those  sciences  which  they  profess  and  teach  ; 
but  they  should  have  skill  also  in  the  art  or  method  of 
teaching,  and  patience  in  the  practice  of  it. 

It  is  a  great  unhappiness  indeed,  when  persons,  by  a 
spirit  of  party,  or  faction,  or  interest,  or  by  purchase, 
are  set  up  for  tutors,  who  have  neither  due  knowledge 
of  science,  nor  skill  in  the  way  of  communication .  And„ 
alas !  there  are  others,  who  with  all  their  ignorance  and 
insufficiency,  have  selt  admiration  and  effrontery  enough 
to  set  up  themselves  ;  and  the  poor  pupils  fare  accordr- 
ingly,  and  grow  lean  in  their  understandings. 

And  let  it  be  observed  also,  there  are  some  very  learn- 
ed men,  who  know  much  themselves,  but  have  not  the 
talent  of  communicating  their  own  knowledge ;  or  else 
they  are  lazy,  and  will  take  no  pains  at  it.  Either  they 
have  an  obscure  and  perplexed  way  of  talking,  or  they 
show  their  learning  uselessly,  and  make  a  long  periphra- 
sis on  every  word  of  the  book  tliey  explain,  or  they  can- 
not condescend  to  young  beginners,  or  they  run  present- 
ly into  the  elevated  parts  of  the  science,  because  it  gives 
themselves  greater  pleasure,  or  they  are  soon  yngry 
and  impatient,  and  cannot  bear  with  a,  few  impertinent 


•H   LIVING   1N81RUCTIOK9,  &C.  bQ 

questions  of  a  young,  inquisitive,  and  sprightly  genius ; 
or  else  they  skim  over  a  science  in  a  very  slight  and  su- 
perficial survey,  and  never  lead  their  disciples  into  the 
cepthsofit. 

IV.  A  good  tutor  should  have  characters  and  quahfi- 
cations  very  diftbrent  from  all  these.  He  is  such  an  one 
as  both  can  and  will  apply  himself  with  diligence  and 
concern,  and  indefatigable  patience  to  eftect  what  he 
undertakes  ;  to  teach  his  disciples,  and  see  that  they 
learn ;  to  adapt  his  way  and  method  as  near  as  may  be 
to  the  various  dispositions,  as  well  as  to  the  capacities  of 
those  whom  he  instructs,  and  to  inquire  often  into  their 
progress  and  improvement. 

And  he  should  take  particular  care  of  his  own  tem- 
per and  conduct,  that  there  be  nothing  in  him  or 
about  him  which  may  be  of  ill  example ;  nothing  that 
may  savcur  of  a  haughty  temper,  or  a  mean  and  sordid 
spirit ;  nothing  that  may  expose  him  to  the  aversion  or 
to  the  contempt  of  his  scholars,  or  create  a  prejudice  in 
their  minds  against  him  and  his  instructions ;  but  if  pos- 
sible, he  should  have  so  much  of  a  natural  candour  and 
sweetness  mixed  with  all  the  improvements  of  learn- 
ing, as  might  convey  knowledge  into  the  minds  of  his 
disciples  with  a  sort  of  gentle  insinuation  and  sovereign 
delight,  and  may  tempt  them  into  the  highest  improve- 
ments of  their  reason  by  a  resistless  and  insersible  force. 
But  I  shaW  have  occasion  to  say  more  on  this  subject 
when  1  come  to  speak  more  directly  of  the  methods  of 
the  communication  of  knowledge. 

V.  The  learner  should  attend  with  constancy  and 
care  on  all  the  instructiors  of  his  tutor,  and  if  he  hap- 
pens to  be  at  any  time  unavoidably  hindered,  he  must 
endeavour  to  retrieve  the  loss  by  double  industry  for  the 
time  to  come.  He  should  always  recollect  and  review 
his  lectures,  read  over  some  other  author  or  authors  up- 
on the  same  subject,  confer  upon  it  with  his  instructor  or 
with  his  associates,  and  write  down  the  clearest  result 
of  his  present  thoughts,  I'easonings,  and  inquiries,  whicH 
he  may  have  recourse  to  hereafter,  either  tore-examine 
them  and  to  apply  them  to  proper  use,  or  to  improve 
them  further  to  his  own  advantage. 

VI.  A  student  should  never  satisfy  himself  with  bare 
attendance  on  the  lectures  of  his  tutor,  unless  he  clearly 
takes  up  his  sense  and  meaning,  and  understands  the 
things  which  he  teaches.    A  young  disciple  should  b«- 


60  OF   LIVING  INSTIirCTIONS,    &C. 

have  himself  so  well  as  to  gain  the  affection  and  ear 
of  his  instructor,  that  upon  every  occasion  he  may  with 
the  utmost  freedom  ask  questions,  nd  talk  over  his  owa 
sentiments,  his  doubts  and  difficulties  with  him,  and  in  a 
humble  and  modest  manner,  desire  the  solution  of  them, 

VII.  Let  the  learner  endeavour  to  maintain  an  hon- 
ourable opinion  of  his  instructor,  and  heedfully  listen  to 
his  instructions,  as  one  willing  to  be  led  by  a  more  ex- 
perienced guide ;  and  though  he  is  not  bound  to  fall  in 
with  every  sentiment  of  his  tutor,  yet  he  should  so  far 
comply  with  him  as  to  resolve  upon  a  just  consideration 
of  the  matter,  and  try  and  examine  it  thoroughly  with 
an  honest  heart,  before  he  presume  to  determine  against 
him.  And  then  it  should  be  done  with  great  modesty^^ 
with  a  humble  jealousy  of  himself,  and  apparent  unwil- 
lingness to  differ  from  his  tutor  if  the  force  of  ai'gument 
and  truth  did  not  constrain  him. 

VIII.  It  is  a  frequent  and  growing  tolly  in  our  age, 
that  pert  young  disciples  soon  fancy  themselves  wiser 
than  those  who  teach  them ;  at  the  first  view,  or  upon  a 
very  little  thought,  they  can  discern  the  insignificancy, 
weakness  and  mistake  of  what  their  teacher  asserts. 
The  youth  of  our  day,  by  an  early  petulancy,  and  pre  - 
tended  liberty  of  thinking  for  themselves,  dare  reject  at 
once,  and  that  with  a  sort  of  scorn,  all  those  sentiments 
and  doctrines  which  their  teachers  have  determined, 
perhaps  after  long  and  repeated  consideration,  after 
years  of  mature  study,  careful  observation,  and  much 
prudent  experience. 

IX.  It  is  true,  teachers  and  masters  are  not  infallible, 
nor  are  they  always  in  the  right ;  and  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  for  youneer 
minds  to  maintain  a  just  and  solemn  veneration  for  the 
authority  and  advice  of  their  parents,  and  the  instruc- 
tion of  their  tutors,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  to  secure 
to  themselves  a  just  freedom  in  theirown  thoughts.  We 
ate  sometimes  too  ready  to  imbibe  all  their  sentiments 
without  examination  if  we  reverence  and  love  them  ; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  take  all  freedom  to  contest 
tlieir  opinions,  we  are  sometimes  tempted  to  cast  off 
that  love  and  reverence  to  their  persons  which  God  and 
nature  dictate.  Youth  is  ever  in  danger  of  these  two 
extremes . 

X.  But  I  think  I  may  safely  conclude  thus :  Though 
the  authority  of  a  teacher  must  not  absolutely  determitv* 


QV   LEARNING  ▲   LANGUAGE,  Ql 

the  judgment  of  hb  I'upi),  yet  young  and  raw  and  unex- 
perienced learners  should  pay  all  proper  deference  that 
tan  be  to  the  instructions  of  their  parents  and  teachers, 
short  of  absolute  submission  to  their  dictates.  Yet  still 
•we  must  maintain  this,  that  they  should  never  receive 
any  opinion  into  their  assent^  whether  it  be  conformable 
or  contrary  to  the  tutor's  mind,  without  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  it  first  given  to  their  own  reasoning  powers. 


CHAP.  VII. 

Of  learning  a  Language, 

THE  first  thing  required  in  reading  an  author,  or  in 
hearing  lectures  of  a  tutor,  is,  that  you  well  understand 
the  language  in  which  they  write  or  speak.  Living 
languages,  w  such  as  the  native  tongue  of  any  nation  in 
the  present  age,  are  more  easily  learned  and  taught  by 
a  few  rules  and  much  familiar  converse,  joined  to  the 
reading  some  proper  authors.  The  dead  languages  are 
such  as  cease  to  be  spoken  fn  any  nation ;  and  even 
these  are  more  easy  to  be  taught,  as  far  as  may  be,  in 
that  method  wherein  living  languages  are  best  learned; 
i.  p.  partly  by  rule,  and  partly  by  rote  or  custom.  And 
It  may  not  be  improper  in  this  place  to  mention  a  very 
few  directions  for  that  purpose. 

I.  Begin  with  the  most  necessary  and  most  general 
observations  and  rules  which  belong  to  that  language, 
compiled  in  the  form  of  a  grammar ;  and  these  are  but 
few  in  most  languages.  The  regular  declensions  and 
variations  ci  rcuns  and  verbs  should  be  early  and  thor- 
oughly learned  by  heart,  together  with  twenty  or  thirty 
of  the  plainest  and  most  necessary  rules  of  syntax. 

But  let  it  be  observed.that  in  almost  all  languages  some 
of  the  roost  common  nouns  and  verbs  have  many  irreg- 
tilarities  in  them  ;  such  are  the  common  auxiliary  verbs 
to  be  and  to  have,,  to  do,  and  to  he  done,  &c.  The  com- 
paratives and  superlatives  of  the  v/ords,  goodybadygreat^ 
vtmch,  nrr,aUy  little^  &c,  and  these  should  be  learned 
among  the  first  rules  and  variations,  because  they  conr 
tiniialh  occur. 

But  as  to  other  words  which  are  less  frequent,  let  but 
few  of  the  anomalies  or  irregularities  of  the  tongue  be 
t&ught  aniong  the  general  rules  to  young  beginners. 


62  OF   LEARNII7G   A  LANGUAGS. 

These  will  come  in  aftenvat  ds  to  be  learned  by  advaa- 
ced  scholars,  m  a  way  ot  notes  or.  the  rules,  as  in  the 
Latin  gr  .mmar,  called  the  Oxford  grammar,  or  in  Rud- 
diman's  n-'-ies  on  his  rudio^ents,  &c.  Or  they  may  be 
learned  by  examples  alrne,  when  they  do  occur  ;  or  by 
a  larger  and  mrre  complete  system  of  grammar,  which, 
descends  tv  the  more  pa:  t»cii!ar  forms  of  speech  ;  so,  the 
heterochte  nouns  of  the  Lai  in  tonj?ue  which  are  taught 
in  the  school  bu'  k  cailed  Quce  Genus,  should  not  be 
touched  in  the  first  iearninj;  of  the  rudiments  o^  that 
tc^igne. 

II  As  the  grammar  by  which  you  learn  any  tongue 
should  be  ven"  short  at  fi:  st,  so  it  must  be  written  in  a 
tongue  with  which  you  are  well  acquainted,  and  which 
is  very  familiar  to  you.  Therefore  1  much  prefer  the 
common  English  Accidence  (as  it  is  called)  to  any 
grammar  whatsoever,  written  in  Latin  for  this  end. 
The  English  Accidence  has,  doubtless,  many  faults; 
but  those  editions  of  it  which  were  printed  since  the  year 
1728,  under  the  correction  of  a  learned  professor,  are 
the  best,  or  the  Englis*  rudiments  of  the  Latin  tongue, 
by  that  leamed  N  rth  B'iton,  Mi.  Ruddiman,  which 
are  perhaps  the  most  usefu:  books  of  this  kind  which  I 
am  acquainted  with  ;  especially  because  1  would  not 
depart  too  far  trom  the  ancient  and  common  forms  of 
teaching,  which  several  good  grammarians  have  done, 
to  the  grea.t  detriment  of  such  lads  as  have  been  re* 
moved  to  other  sch«  ols. 

The  tiresome  and  unreasonable  method  of  leaming 
the  Latin  tongue,  bv  a  gram  mar  with  Latin  rules,  would 
appear,even  to  those  masters  who  teach  it  so,  in  its  prop- 
er colours  of  absurdity  and  ridicule,  if  those  very  mas- 
ters would  attempt  to  learn  theChinese  or  Arabic  tongue, 
by  a  grammar  written  in  the  Chinrse  or  Arabic  lan- 
guage. Mr.  Clarke  of  Hull,  has  said  enough  in  a  few 
pages  of  the  preface  tohis  new  grammar,  1723,  to  make 
that  practice  appear  very  irrational  and  improper ; 
though  he  has  said  it  in  so  warm  and  angi  y  a  manner 
that  it  has  kindled  Mr.  Ruddiman  to  write  against  him, 
and  to  say  what  c-^n  be  said  to  vindicate  a  practice 
which  I  think  is  utterly  indefensible. 

HI.  At  the  same  time  when  you  begin  the  rules,  begin 
also  the  practice.  As  for  instance,  when  you  decline 
MUSA  MusiE,  read  and  coi  strue  the  same  day,  some 
easy  Latin  author  by  the  help  of  a  tutor,  or  with  some 


OF   LEAB.RINO   A   LANGUAGE.  63 

English  translation  ;  choose  such  a  book  whose  style  is 
simple,  and  the  subject  of  discourse  very  pi  lin,  obvious 
and  not  hard  to  be  understtxxl ;  ma.iv  little  books  have 
been  composed  vvith  this  view,  as  Torderius's  Colloquies, 
some  of  h.rasmus*s  little  writi:»i;s,  the  sayings  of  V\e  wise 
men  of  (■rre^ice,  ('ato's  Moral  Distiches,  and  the  rest 
which  are  collected  at  the  end  of  Mr.  Ruddiman's  En- 
glish Grammar,  or  the  Latin  Testament  of  Castellio's 
translation,  which  U  accounted  the  purest  Latin,  &c. 
These  are  very  propc'r  nport  this  occtsion,  togetiier 
with  /Esop's  and  Phtedrus's  Fables,  and  littk  storips, 
and  the  common  and  daily  afFiirs  of  domestic  lite,  writ- 
ten in  the  Ln,ti!i  tongue.  But  let  the  higher  poets,  and 
orators,  and  historians,  and  other  writers,  whose  lan- 
guage is  more  labourfd,  and  whose  sense  is  more  re- 
mote from  common  life,  be  rather  kept  oat  of  sight  until 
there  be  some  profici-^ncy  made  in  the  language. 

It  is  strange  that  masters  should  teach  chil(l»'en  so 
early  Tully's  Epistles,  or  Orations,  or  the  p'jems  of 
Ovid  or  Virgil,  whose  sense  is  ften  diffivult  to  find, 
because  of  the  great  traoKposition  of  the  words ;  and 
when  they  have  found  the  grammatical  sense,  they 
hj^^e  very  little  use  of  it,  because  ':hey  have  scarcely  any 
notion  oi  the  ideas  and  designs  of  the  writer,  it  being  so 
remote  from  the  knowledge  of  a  child;  whereas,  little 
com  Don  stories  and  coUoq-iies,  and  the  rules  of  a  child's 
behaviour,  and  such  obvious  subjects,  will  much  better 
assist  the  memory  of  the  words  by  their  acquaintance 
witi^  the  things. 

IV.  Here  it  mav  be  useful  also  to  appoint  the  learn- 
er to  get  by  heart  the  more  conimon  and  useful  words, 
both  nouns  and  adjectives,  pronouns  and  verbs,  out  of 
some  well  formed  and  judicious  vocabulary.  This  will 
furnish  him  with  names  for  the  most  familiar  ideas. 

V.  As  soon  as  ever  the  learner  is  capable,  let  the  tu- 
tor converse  with  him  in  the  tongue  which  is  to  be 
learned,  if  ft  he  a  living  language,  or  if  it  be  Latin^ 
which  is  the  living  language  of  tne  learned  world  ;  thus 
he  will  acquaint  hin^self  a  little  with  it  bv  rote,  as  well  as 
by  rule,  and  ')y  living  practice  as  well  as  by  reading  the 
writings  of  the  dead.  For  if  a  child  of  two  years  old  by 
this  method  learns  to  speak  his  mother  tongue,  I  am 
sure  the  same  method  will  greatly  assist  and  facilitate  the 
learning  of  my  other  language  to  those  who  •■\n\  older. 

VI.  Let  the  chief  lessons  and  the  chief  exercises  of 


64  OB   LEARNING  A   I^ANGITAGfi. 

schools,  v.c.  where  Latin  is  used  (at  least  for  the  fir$t 
year  or  more)  be  the  nouns,  verbs,  and  general  rules  of 
syntax,  together  with  a  mere  translation  out  of  some 
Latin  author  into  English ;  and  let  scholars  be  employ- 
ed and  examined  by  their  teacher,  daily,  in  reducing 
the  words  to  their  original  or  theme,  to  the  first  case  of 
nouns  or  first  tense  oi  verbs,  and  giving  an  account  of 
their  formations  and  changes,  their  syntax  and  depend- 
encies, which  is  called  parsing.  This  is  a  most  useful 
exercise  to  lead  boys  into  a  complete  and  thorough 
knowledge  of  what  they  are  doing. 

The  English  translations  which  the  learner  has  made, 
should  be  well  corrected  by  the  master,  and  then  they 
should  be  translated  back  again  for  the  next  day's  exer- 
cise, by  the  child,  into  Latin,  while  the  Latin  author  is 
withheld  from  him ;  but  he  should  have  the  Latin  words 
given  him  in  their  first  case  and  tense,  and  should  never 
be  left  to  seek  them  hJmscU  from  a  dictionary;  and  the 
nearer  he  translates  it  to  the  words  of  the  author  whence 
he  derives  his  English,  the  more  should  the  child  be 
commended.  I'hus  will  he  gain  skill  in  two  languages 
at  once.  I  think  Mi%  Clarke  has  done  good  service  to 
the  public  by  his  translations  of  Latin  books  for  this  end. 

But  let  the  foolish  custom  of  employing  eveiy  silly  boy 
to  make  themes  or  declamations,  and  verses  upon  moral 
subjects,  in  a  strange  tongue,  before  he  understands 
common  sense,  even  in  his  own  language,  be  abandoned 
and  cashiered  forever. 

VII.  As  the  learner  improves  let  him  acquaint  him- 
55etf  with  the  anomalous  words,  thein-egular  declensions 
of  nouns  and  vei'bs,  the  more  luicoramon  connexions  o£ 
words  in  syntax,  and  the  exceptions  to  the  general  rules 
of  grammar;  but  let  them  all  be  reduced,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  those  several  original  and  general  rules 
which  he  has  learned,  as  the  proper  rank  ai>d  place  t<^ 
iNrhich  tliey  belong. 

VIIL  While  he  is  doing  this,  it  may  be  pwper  for  hini 
to  converse  with  authors  which  are  a  litUe  more  diffi- 
cult, with  historians,  orators,  and  poets,  &:c»  but  let  his 
tutor  inform  him  of  the  Roman  or  Greek  custpms  which 
•ccur  therein.  I^et  the  lad  theh  translate  some  parts 
«f  them  into  his  mother  tongue,  or  into  some  other  weli 
known  language,  and  thence  back  again  into  the  oi-igi- 
nal  la.'ijpiiage  of  the  author.  But  let  the  verse  be  trans- 
latad  into  prose,  for  p'.'csy  d<ies  t.ot  belong  to  i^ramma^. 


OF   liEARNlNO  A   LANGUAGE.  65- 

IX.  By  this  time  he  will  be  able  to  acquaint  himself 
with  some  ot  the  special  emphases  of  speech,  and  the 
peculiar  idioms  of  the  tongue.  He  should  be  taught  also 
the  special  beauties  and  ornaments  of  the  language ;  and 
this  may  be  done  partly  by  the  help  of  authors  who 
have  collected  t»uch  idioms  and  cast  them  into  an  easy 
method,  and  partly  by  the  judicious  remarks  which  his 
instructor  may  make  upon  the  authors  which  he  reads, 
wheresoever  such  peculiarities  of  speech  or  special  ele- 
gancies occur. 

X.  Though  the  labour  of  learning  all  the  lessons  by 
Iieart  that  are  borrowed  from  poetical  authors  which 
they  construe*  is  an  unjust  and  unnecessary  imposition 
upon  the  learner,  yet  he  must  take  the  pains  to  commit 
to  memory  the  most  necessary,  if  not  all  the  common 
rules  of  grammar,  with  an  example  or  two  under  each 
of  them  ;  and  some  of  the  select  and  most  useful  periods 
or  sentences  in  the  Latin  or  Greek  author  which  he  reads 
may  be  learned  by  heart,  together  with  some  of  the 
choicer  lessons  out  of  their  poets ;  and  sometimes  whole 
episodes  out  of  heroic  poems,  8cc.  as  well  as  whole  odes 
among  the  lyrics,  may  deserve  this  honour. 

XI.  Let  this  be  always  carefully  observed,  that  the 
learners  perfectly  understand  the  sense  as  well  as  the 
language  of  all  those  rules,  lessons,  or  paragraphs,  which  . 
they  attempt  to  commit  to  memory.  I-*et  the  teacher 
possess  them  of  their  true  meaning,  and  then  the  labour 
will  become  easy  and  pleasant;  whereas  to  impose  on 
a  child  to  get  by  heart  a  long  scroll  of  unknown  phra- 
ses, or  words  without  any  ideas  under  them,  is  a  piece 
of  useless  tyranny,  a  cruel  imposition,  and  a  pi-actice  fit- 
ter for  a  jackdaw  or  a  parrot,  than  for  any  thing  that 
wears  the  shape  of  a  man. 

XIL  And  here,  I  think,  I  have  a  fair  occasion  given 
me  to  considet  that  question  which  has  been  often  dc* 
bated  in  conversation,  viz.  Whether  tiie  teaching  of  a 
school  full  of  boys  to  learn  Latin  by  the  Heathen  poets,- 
as  Ovid  in  his  Epistles,  and  the  silly  fables  of  his  Meta* 
morphoses,  Horace,  Ju-  enal,  and  Martial,  in  their  im- 
pure Otles,  Satires,  Epigrams,  &c.  is  so  proper  and 
agreeable  a  pr.ictice  in  a  Christian  countiy. 

XIII.  (1.)    I  grant  the  language  and  style  of  thcs«? 
men  who  wrote  in  their  own  native  tongue,  must  be 
more  pure  and  perfect,  in  some  nice  elegancies  and  pe^ 
cuiiarities,  than  modem  writers  of  other  nation^  yf\\& 
G 


66  OB    LEARNING  A   LANGTTAQE. 

have  imitated  them ;  and  it  is  owned  also  that  the  beau- 
ties of  their  poesy  may  much  excel ;  but  in  either  of 
these  things  boys  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  much  im- 
proved or  injured  by  one  or  the  other. 

XIV.  (2.)  It  shall  be  confessed  too,  that  modern  poets, 
in  every  livi  )g  language,  have  brought  into  their  works 
so  many  wor(is,epithets,phmses,a'idmetaphors,from  the 
Heathen  fables  and  stories  ot  their  gods  and  iieroes,  that 
in  order  t  >  understand  these  modern  writers,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  unde;  stand  something  of  those  ancient  follies  ; 
but  it  may  he  mswereJ,  that  a  gootl  dictionary,  or  such 
a  book  as  the  Pantheon,  or  history  of  those  Gentile  de- 
ities, may  ^ive  sufficienr  inform  ttion  of  those  stories,  so 
far  as  they  are  necessary  and  useful  to  school  boys. 

XV.  (3.)  I  will  grant  yet  further,  that  lads  who  are 
designed  to  make  great  scholars  or  divines  may,  by  read- 
ing these  Heathen  poets,  be  taught  better  to  understand 
the  writings  of  the  ancient  fathers  against  the  Heathen 
religion  ;  and  they  learn  here  what  ridiculous  fooleries 
the  Gentile  nations  believed  as  the  articles  ot  their  faith  ; 
what  wretched  and  foul  idolatries  they  indulged  and 
practised  as  duties  of  religion,  for  want  of  the  light 
of  divine  revelation.  But  this  perhaps  msy  be  learned  as 
well  either  by  thePantheon,  or  some  oth'^r  collection,  at 
school ;  or  after  they  have  left  the  school,  they  may 
read  wbat  their  own  inclinations  lead  them  to,  and 
whatsoever  of  this  kind  may  be  really  useful  for  them. 

XVI.  But  the  great  question  is,  Whet  Ivr  all  these  ad- 
vantages which  have  been  mentioned  will  compensate 

.  for  the  long  months  and  years  that  are  wasted  among 
their  incredilile  and  trifling  romances,  their  false  and 
shameful  stories  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  and  their  a- 
mours,  and  of  the  lewd  heroes  and  vicious  poets  of  the 
Heathen  world  ?  Can  these  idle  and  ridiculous  tales  be 
of  any  real  and  solid  advantage  in  human  life  ^  Do  they 
not  ton  often  defile  the  mind  with  vain,  mischievous  and 
impure  ideas  ?  Do  they  not  stick  long  upon  the  fancy,and 
leave  an  unhappy  influence  upon  youth  r*  Do  they  not 
tincture  the  imagination  with  folly  and  vice,  very  early, 
and  nervert  it  from  all  tiiat  is  good  and  holy? 

XVII.  Upon  the  whole  survey  of  things,  it  is  my  opin- 
'ion,  that  for  almost  all  boys  who  learn  this  tongue,  it 

would  be  much  safer  to  be  taught  Latin  poesy  (as  soon 
and  as  far  as  thev  can  need  it)  from  those  excellent 
translations  of  David*s  P»alms,  which  are  given  us  by 


OB   LEAKNING  A  LANGUAGE.  67 

Buchanan  in  the  various  measures  of  Horace  ;  and  the 
lower  classes  had  better  read  Dr.  Johnston's  translation 
of  these  Psalms,  another  elegant  writer  of  the  Scots  na- 
tion, instead  of  Ovid*s  Epistles ;  for  he  has  turned  the 
same  Psalms,  perhaps  with  greater  elegance,  into  ele- 
giac verse,  whereof  the  learned  W.  Benson,  Esq.  has 
lately  published  a  noble  edition,  and  I  hear  that  these 
Psalms  are  honoured  with  an  increasing  use  in  the  schools 
of  Holland  and  Scotland.  A  stanza  or  a  cou^Dlet  of  these 
writers,  would  now  and  then  stick  upon  the  minds  of 
youth,  and  would  furnish  them  infinitely  better  with  pi- 
ous and  moral  thoughts,  and  do  something  towards  mak- 
ing them  good  men  and  Christians. 

XVni.  A  little  book  collected  from  the  Psalms  of 
both  these  translators,  Buchanan  and  Johnston,  and  a 
feAv  other  Christian  poets,  would  be  of  excellent  use  for 
schools  to  begin  their  instructions  in  Latin  poesy ;  and  I 
am  well  assured  this  would  be  richly  sufficient  for  all 
those  in  lower  rank,  who  never  design  a  learned  pro- 
fession, and  yet  custom  has  foolishly  bound  them  to  leara 
that  language. 

But  lest  it  should  be  thought  hard  to  cast  Horace  and 
Virgil,  Ovid  and  Juvenal,  entirely  out  of  the  schools,  I 
add,  if  here  and  there  a  few  lyric  odes,  or  pieces  of  sat- 
ires, or  some  episodes  of  heroic  verse,  with  here  and 
there  an  epigram  of  Martial,  all  which  shall  be  pure  and 
clear  fr  .m  the  stains  of  vice  and  impiety,  and  which  may 
inspire  the  mind  with  noble  sentiments,  fire  tfee  fancy 
with  bright  and  warnih.teas,  or  teach  lessons  of  morality 
and  prudence,  were  chosen  out  of  those  ancient  Roman 
writers  for  the  use  of  the  schools,  and  were  collected 
and  printed  in  one  moderate  volume,  or  two  at  the  most, 
it  would  be  abundantly  sufficient  pi'ovision  out  of  the 
Roman  poets  for  the  instruction  of  boys  in  all  that  is 
necessary  in  that  age  of  life. 

Surely  Juvenal  himself  would  not  have  the  face  to  vin- 
dicate the  masters  who  teach  boys  his  sixth  satire,  and 
many  paragraphs  of  several  others,  when  he  himself 
has  charged  us, 

Nil  dictu  fcedum,  viiuque  hocc  limtna  tangat 

Intra  qucB  puer  est.  Sat.  14. 

Sutfcr  no  lewdness,  nor  indecent  speech, 

Th'  apartment  of  the  tender  youth  to  reach.„.Dr|/dirn. 

Thus  far  in  answer  to  the  foregoing  question.  Hut  I 
retire ;  for  Mr.  Clark,  of  Hull,  in  his  treatise  on  Edu- 


6J8  OF  LEARNING  A  liANGtrACE. 

cation,  and  Mr.  Phillips,  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, have  given  more  excellent  directions  for  learn- 
ing Latin. 

XIX.  When  a  language  is  learned,  if  it  be  of  any  use 
at  all,  it  is  a  pity  it  should  be  forgotten  again  It  is  prop- 
er, therefore,  to  take  all  just  opportunities  to  read  some- 
thing frequently  in  that  language,  when  other  necessa- 
ry and  important  studies  will  give  you  leare.  As  in 
learning  any  tongue,  dictionaries  which  contain  words 
and  phrases  should  be  always  at  hand,  so  they  should 
be  ever  kept  within  reach  by  persons  who  would  re- 
member a  tongue  which  they  have  learned.  IS  or  should 
we  at  any  time  content  ourselves  with  a  doubtful  guess 
at  the  sense  or  meaning  of  any  words  which  occur,  but 
consult  the  dictionary,  which  may  give  us  certain  infor- 
mation, and  thus  secure  us  from  mistake.  It  is  mere 
sloth  which  makes  us  content  ourselves  with  uncertain 
guesses ;  and  indeed  this  is  neither  safe  nor  useful  for 
persons  who  would  learn  any  language  or  science,  or 
have  a  desire  to  retain  what  they  have  acquired. 

XX.  When  you  have  learned  one  or  many  languages 
€ver  so  perfectly,  take  heed  of  priding  yourself  in  these 
acquisitions ;  they  are  but  mere  treasures  of  words,  or 
instruments  of  true  and  solid  knowledge;  and  whose 
chief  design  is  to  lead  us  into  an  acquaintance  with 
things,or  to  enable  us  the  more  easily  to  convey  those  ideas 
or  that  knowledge  to  others.  An  acquaintance  with  the 
various  tongues  is  nothing  elselput  a  relief  against  the 
mischief  which  the  building  i^pBabel  introduced  ;  and 
wei-e  T  master  of  as  many  languages  as  were  spoken  at 
Babel,  I  should  make  but  a  poor  pretence  to  true  learn- 
ing or  knowledge,  if  I  had  not  clear  and  distinct  ideas, 
and  useful  notions  in  my  head,  under  the  words  which 
my  tongue  could  pronounce.  Yet  so  unhappy  a  thing  is 
human  nature,that  this  sort  of  knowledge  of  sounds  and 
syllables,  is  ready  to  puff  up  the  mind  with  vanity, 
more  than  the  most  valuable  and  solid  improvements  of 
it.  The  pride  of  a  grammarian,  or  a  critic,  generally 
exceeds  that  of  a  philosopher. 


KNOWING  THE   SENSE,  t&C.  69 


CHAP.  VIII. 

Ofinguinng  into  the  Sense  and  Meaning  of  any  Wri- 
ter or  Sfieakert  and  especially  the  Sense  of  the  Sa- 
cred Writings. 

IT  is  a  great  unhappiness  that  there  is  such  an  am- 
biguity in  words  and  forms  of  speech,  that  the  same 
sentence  may  be  drawn  into  different  significations ; 
whereby  it  comes  to  pass»  that  it  is  difficult  sometimes 
for  the  reader  exactly  to  hit  upon  the  ideas  which  the 
writer  or  speaker  had  in  his  mind.  Some  of  the  best 
rules  to  direct  us  herein  are  such  as  these : 

I.  Be  well  acquainted  with  the  tongue  itself,  or  lan- 
guage wherein  the  author's  mind  is  expressed.  Learn 
not  only  the  true  meaning  of  each  word,  but  the  sense 
which  those  words  obtain  when  placed  in  such  a  par- 
ticular situation  and  order.  Acquaint  yourself  with 
the  peculiar  power  and  emphasis  of  the  several  modes 
of  speech,  and  the  various  idioms  of  the  tongue.  The 
secondary  ideas  which  custom  has  superadded  to  ma- 
ny words,  should  also  be  known,  as  well  as  the  partic- 
ular and  primary  meaning  of  them,  if  ^ye  would  un- 
derstand any  writer.    See  Logic^  Part  I.  Chap,.  4.  §  3. 

II.  Consider  the  signification  of  those  words  and 
phrases,  more  especially  in  the  same  nation,  or  near 
the  same  age  in  which  that  writer  lived,  and  in  what 
sense  they  are  used  by  authors  of  the  same  nation, 
opinion,  sect,  party,  &c. 

Upon  this  account  we  may  learn  to  interpret  several 
phrases  of  the  New  Testament  out  of  that  version  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  into  Greek,  which  is  called  the  Sepr 
tuag^nt ;  for  though  that  version  be  very  imperfect  and 
defective  in  many  things,  yet  it  seems  to  me  evident, 
that  the  hftly  writers  of  the  New  Testament  made  use 
of  that  version  many  times  in  their  citation  of  texts  out 
of  the  Bible. 

III.  Compare  the  words  and  phrases  in  one  place  of 
an  author  with  the  same  or  kindred  words  artd  phrases 
used  in  other  places  of  the  same  author,  which  are  gen- 
erally called  parallel  places ;  and  as  one  expression 
explains  another  which  is  like  it,  so  sometimes  a  con- 
trary expression  will  explain  its  contrary.    Remember 

G  2 


70  OF  KNOWING  THE*SE»SE 

always,  that  a  writer  best  interprets  himself;  and  as 
we  believe  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  the  supreme  agent  in 
the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  he 
can  best  explain  himself.  Hence  the  theological  rule 
arises,  that  scripture  is  the  best  interpreter  of  scrip- 
ture ;  and  therefore  Concordances,  which  shew  us  par- 
allel places,  are  of  excellent  use  for  interpretation. 

IV.  Consider  the  subject  of  which  the  author  is  treat- 
ing, and  by  comparing  other  places  where  he  treats  of 
the  same  subject,  you  may  learn  his  sense  in  the  place 
which  you  are  reading,  though  some  of  the  terms 
which  he  uses  in  those  two  place  may  be  very  different. 

-  And  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  author  use  tlie  same 
words  where  the  subject  of  which  he  treats  is  not  just 
the  same,  you  cannot  learn  his  sense  by  comparing 
those  two  places,  though  the  mere  words  may  seem 
to  agree ;  for  some  authors,  when  they  are  treating  of 
a  quite  different  subject,  may  use  pv'^rhaps  the  same 
words  in  a  veiy  different  sense,  as  St.  Paul  does  the 
words  faith,  and  law,  and  righteousness. 

V.  Observe  the  scope  and  design  of  the  writer ;  in- 
quire into  his  aim  and  end  in  that  book,  or  section,  or 
paragraph,  which  will  help  to  explain  particular  sen- 
tences ;  for  we  suppose  a  wise  and  judicious  writer  di- 
rects his  expressions  generally  towards  his  designed 
end. 

VI.  When  an  author  speaks  of  any  subject  occasion- 
ally, let  his  sense  be  explained  by  those  places  where 
he  treats  of  it  distinct  ly  and  professedly ;  where  he 
treats  of  any  subject  in  mystical  or  metaphorical  terms, 
explain  them  by  other  places  where  he  treats  of  the 
same  subject  in  terms  that  are  plain  and  literal ;  where 
he  speaks  in  an  oratorical,  affecting,  or  persuasive  way. 
let  this  be  explained  by  other  places  where  he  treats  of 
the  same  theme  in  a  doctrinal  or  instructive  way; 
where  the  author  speaks  more  strictly,  and  particular- 
ly on  any  theme,  it  will  explain  the  mere  loose  and  gen- 
eral expressions ;  where  he  treats  more  largely,  it  will 
explain  the  shorter  hints  and  brief  intimations ;  and 
wheresoever  he  writes  more  obscurely,  search  out  some 
more  perspicuous  passages  in  the  same  writer,  by  which 
to  determine  the  sense  of  that  obscure  language. 

VII.  Consider  not  only  the  person  who  is  introduced 
speaking,  but  the  persons  to  whom  the  speech  is  direct- 
fx\f  the  circumstances  of  time  and  place,  the  temper 


OE  WRITERS  AND  SPSAKERS.  71 

and  spirit  of  the  speaker,  as  well  as  the  temper  and 
spirit  of  the  hearers ;  in  order  to  interpret  sciipture 
■well,  there  needs  a  good  acquaintance  -with  the  Jewish 
customs,  some  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Roman  and 
Greek  times  and  manners,  which  sometimes  strike  a 
strange  and  surprising  light  upon  passages  which  be- 
fore were  veiy  obscure. 

Vf  II.  In  particular  propositions,  the  sense  of  an  au- 
thor  may  be  sometimes  known  by  the  inferences  which 
he  draws  from  them  ;  and  all  those  senses  may  be  ex- 
chxded,  which  will  not  allow  of  that  inference. 

Note.  This  rule  indeed  is  not  always  certain  in  read- 
ing and  interpreting  human  authors,  because  they  may 
mistake  in  drawing  their  inferences ;  but  in  explaining 
scripture  it  is  a  sure  rule ;  for  the  sacred  and  inspired 
writers  always  make  just  inferences  from  their  own 
propositions.  Yet  even  in  them  we  must  take  heed  we 
do  not  mistake  an  allusion  for  an  inference,  which  i3 
many  times  introduced  almost  in  the  same  manner. 

IX.  If  it  be  a  matter  of  controversy,  the  true  sense 
of  the  author  is  sometimes  known  by  the  objection's 
that  are  brought  against  it  So  we  may  be  well  assured, 
the  Apostle  speaks  against  our  justification  in  the  sight 
of  God  by  our  own  works  of  holiness  in  the  3d.  4th. 
and  5th.  chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  because 
of  the  objection  brought  against  him  in  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  chapter,  viz.  *  W/iat  shall  we  say  then  ?  Shall 
we  coniinue  in  sin,  that  grace  may  abound  .^*  Which 
objection  could  never,.have  been  raised,  if  he  had  been 
proving  our  justification  by  our  own  works  of  right- 
eousness. 

X  In  matters  of  dispute  take  heed  of  warping  the 
sense  of  the  writer  to  your  own  opinion,  by  any  latent 
prejudices  of  self  love  and  party  spirit.  It  is  this  reign- 
ng  principle  of  prejudice  and  party  that  has  given  such 
1  variety  of  senses  both  to  the  sacred  writers  and  oth- 
;rs,  which  would  never  have  come  into  the  mind  oi" 
:he  reader,  if  he  had  not  laboured  under  some  such 
^repossessions. 

XI.  For  the  same  reason  take  heed  of  the  prejudices 
)f  passion,  malice,  envy,  pride,  or  opposition  to  an 
mthor,  whereby  you  may  be  easily  tempted  to  put  a 
alse  and  invidious  sense  upon  his  words.  Lay  aside 
herefore  a  carping  spirit,  and  read  even  an  adversary 
vith  attention  and  diligence,  with  an  honest  design  to- 


72  OP   COWVERSATION   AND 

find  out  his  true  meaning;  do  not  snatch  at  little  lap- 
ses and  appearances  of  mistake,  in  opposition  to  his 
declared  and  avowed  meaning ;  nor  impute  any  seirse 
or  opinion  to  him  which  he  dei ,ies  to  be  his  opinion,  un- 
less it  be  proved  by  the  most  plain  and  express  lan- 
guage. 

Lastly,  Remember  ^at  you  treat  every  author,  writ- 
er, or  speaker,  just  hs  you  yourself  would  be  willing 
to  be  treated  bv  others,  who  are  se;<rching  out  the  mean- 
ing, of  what  you  write  or  speak ;  and  inaintain  upon 
your  spirit  an  awfnl  sense  •  f  the  presence  of  God,  who 
is  the  judge  of  hearts,  and  will  punish  those  who,  by  a 
base  and  dishonest  turn  of  niind,  wilfully  pervert  the 
meaning  of  the  sacred  writers  or  even  of  common  au- 
thors, under  the  infiuenct  of  culpable  prejudices.  See 
More*s  LogiCy  Part  I.  Chafi  6^3.  "  Directions  con-r 
cerning  the  Definition  of  Names/^ 


CHAP.  IX. 

^ules  of  Imfirovement  by  Conversation,, 

I.  IF  we  would  improve  our  minds  by  conversation,, 
it  is  a  gi  e^-t  happiness  to  be  acquainted  with  persons 
•wiser  thf^n  '  urselves.  It  is  a  piece  of  useful  advice, 
therefore,  to  get  the  favour  of  their  conversation  frer 
quently,  as  far  as  circumstances  will  allow  ;  and  if 
they  happen  to  he  a  little  reserved,  use  all  obliging 
methods  to  draw  out  of  them  what  may  increase  your 
own  knowledge. 

II.  Wha  soever  company  you  are  in,  waste  not  the 
time  in  triflf  s  and  impertinence.  If  you  spend  some 
hours  amongst  children,  talk  with  them  according  to 
their  capacity  ;  mark  the  young  buddings  of  infant 
rea'^on  ;  observe  the  different  motions  >ind  distiiict 
■working?  of  the  animal  and  the  mind,  as  far  as  you  can 
discern  them  ;  t  ke  notice  by  what  degrees  the  little 
creature  grows  up  to  the  use  of  his  reasoning  powers, 
and  what  early  prejudices  beset  and  endanger  his  un- 
derstanding. By  this  means  you  will  learn  how  to  ad^ 
dre&s  yourself  to  children  for  their  benefit,  and  per- 
haps vou  may  derive  some  useful  philasophemes  or 
theorems  for  your  own  entertainment. 

III.  If  you  happen  to  be  in  company  with  a  merchant 


OB  FROVITING  BY  IT.  78 

or  a  sadlor,  a  farmer  or  a  mechanic,  a  milk-maid  or 
a  spinster,  lead  them  into  a  discourse  of  the  matters 
of  their  own  peculiar  province  or  profession  ;  for  eve- 
ry one  knows,  or  sliould  know  his  own  business  best. 
In  this  sense  a  common  mechanic  is  wiser  than  a  phi- 
losopher. By  this  means  you  may  gain  some  improve- 
ment in  knowledge  from  every  one  you  meet. 

IV.  Confine  not  yourself  always  to  one  sort  of  com- 
pany or  to  persons  of  the  same  party  or  opinion,  either 
m  matters  of  learning,  religion,  or  the  civil  life,  lest,  if 
you  should  happen  to  be  nursed  up  or  educated  in  early 
mistake,  you  should  be  confirmed  and  established  ih 
the  same  mistake,  by  conversing  only  with  persons  cif 
the  same  sentiments.  A  free  and  general  conversation 
■with  men  of  very  various  countries,  and  of  diftierent 
parties,  opinions  and  practices,  (so  far  as  it  may  be 
<Jone  safely)  is  of  excellent  use  to  undeceive  us  in  many 
•wrong  judgments  which  we  may  have  framed,  and  to 
lead  us  into  juster  thoughts.  It  is  said,  when  the  king 
of  Siam^  near  China,  first  conversed  with  some  Europe- 
an merchants,  who  sought  the  favour  of  trading  on  his 
coast,  he  inquired  of  them  some  of  the  common  ap- 
pearances of  summer  and  winter  in  their  ccuntrj ;  and 
•when  they  told  him  of  water  growing  so  hard  m  their 
rivers,  that  men  and  horses  aiKl  laden  carriages  passed 
over  it,  and  that  rain  sometimes  fell  down  as  white  and 
;as  light  as  feathers,  and  sometimes  almost  as  hard  as 
stones,  he  would  not  believe  a  word  they  said ;  for  ice, 
snow,  and  hail,  were  names  of  things  utterly  unknown 
to  him  and  to  his  subjects  in  that  hot  clinjate  ;  he  re- 
nounced all  traffic  with  such  shameful  liars,  and  would 
not  Buffer  them  to  trade  with  his  people.  J^ee  here  the 
natural  effects  ol  gross  ignorance. 

Conversation  with  foreigners  on  various  occasions  has 
a  happy  influence  to  enlarge  our  minds,  and  to  set  them 
free  from  any  errors  andgioss  prejudices  we  are  ready 
to  imbibe  concerning  them.  Domicillus  has  never  tra- 
velled five  miles  ft  om  his  mother's  chimrcy,  nnd  he 
imagines  all  outlandish  men  are  papishes,  and  wor- 
ship noticing  but  a  cross.  Tytirus,  the  shepherd,  was 
bred  up  all  his  life  in  the  country  .and  never  saw  Rome  ; 
he  fancied  it  to  be  only  a  huge  village,  and  was  there- 
fore infinitely  surprised  to  find  such  palaces,  such 
streets,  such  glittering  treasures  and  gay  magnificence 
as  his  first  journey  to  the  city  shewed  him,  and  with 


74  OE  CONVERSATION  AND 

wonder  he  confesses  his  folly  and  mistake.    So  Virgil 
Introduces  a  poor  shepherd : 

Urbem  quam  dicvnt  Romam^  Melibase,  putavi 
Stultus  ego  huic  noitrce  similem,  quo  scepe  solenxuo 
Pastores  evium  tencros  depellere  foetus,  &c. 

THUS    £NGLISn£D: 

Fool  that  was,  I  thought  imperial  Rome 

Like  market  towns,  where  once  a  week  we  copie, 

And  thither  drive  our  tender  lambs  from  home. 

Conversation  would  have  given  Tytirus  a  better  no- 
tion of  Rome,  though  he  had  never' happened  to  travel 
thither. 

V.  In  mixed  company,  among  acquaintance  and 
strangers,  eRdeavour  to  learn  something  from  all.  Be 
swift  to  hear,  but  be  cautious  of  your  tongue,  lest  you 
betray  your  ignorance,?. nd  perhaps  offend  some  of  those 
who  are  present  too.  The  scripture  severely  censures 
those  who  speak  evil  of  the  things  which  they  know 
not.  Acquaint  yourself  therefore  sometimes  with  per-^ 
sons  and  parties  which  are  far  distant  from  your  com- 
mon life  and  customs ;  this  is  a  way  whereby  vou  may- 
form  a  wiser  opinion  of  men  and  things.  Prove  all 
things,  and  holdfast  that  which  is  ffood,  is  a  divine 
rule,  and  it  cnmes  from  tVie  Father  of  iijiht  and  truth. 
But  young  persons  should  practse  it  indeed  with  due 
limitation,  and  under  the  eye  of  their  elders. 

VI  Be  not  fright er;ed  nor  provoked  at  opinions  dif- 
ferent frnin  your^  own.  Srme  persons  are  so  confident 
they  nre  in  the  right,  that  they  will  rot  come  within 
the  hearing  of  any  notions  but  their  own ;  they  canton 
out  to  themselves  a  little  province  in  the  intellectual 
world,  where  thiy  fa;  cy  the  light  shines,  and  all  the 
rest  is  in  d^-rkness.  They  never  venture  into  the  ocean 
of  knowledge,  nor  survey  the  riches  of  other  minds, 
which  are  as  so|id,  and  as  useful,  and  perhaps  are  finer 
gold  than  what  they  ever  possessed.  Let  not  men  im- 
agine there  is  no  ct  i  tain  truth  but  in  the  sciences  which 
they  study,  and  amongst  that  party  in  which  they  were 
born  and  educated. 

VII.  Believe  that  it  is  possible  to  learn  something 
from  persons  much  below  yourself.  We  are  all  short 
sighted  creatures ;  our  views  are  also  narrow  and  lim- 
ited ;  we  often  see  but  one  side  of  a  matter,  and  do  not 
extend  our  sight  far  and  wide  enough  to  reach  every 


OF  PROFITING   BY    IT.  75 

thin^  that  has  a  connexion  with  the  thing  we  talk  of  ; 
we  see  but  in  part»  and  know  but  in  part;  therefore  it 
is  no  wonder  we  form  not  right  conclusions,  becaise  we 
do  not  survey  the  whole  of  my  subject  or  argument. 
Even  the  prudest  admirer  of  his  own  p  irts  mi^^lit  find 
it  useful  to  consult  with  othe-s,  though  of  inferior  ca- 
pacity and  penetr  ition.  W,.  have  a  different  prfispect 
of  tne  same  thing,  if  I  may  so  speak,  accordnjg  to  the 
different  position  of  our  understandings  towards  it ;  a 
weaker  man  may  sometimes  light  on  notions  which, 
have  escaped  a  wiser,  and  which  the  wiser  man  might 
make  a  hnppy  use  of,  if  he  would  condescend  to  take 
notice  of  them. 

VIII.  It  is  of  considerable  advantage,  when  we  are 
pursuing  any  difficult  point  of  knowledge,  to  have  a  so- 
ciety of  mgeniouas  correspondents  at  hand,  to  whom  we 
may  propose  it ;  for  every  man  has  something  of  a  dif- 
ferent genius  and  a  various  turn  of  mind,  whereby  the 
subject  proposed  will  be  showti  in  all  its  lights,  it  will 
be  represented  in  all  its  forms,  and  every  side  of  it  be 
turned  to  view,  that  a  juster  judgment  may  be  framed, 

IX.  To  make  conversation  more  valuable,  and  use- 
ful, whether  it  be  in  a  designed  or  accidental  visit, 
among  persons  of  the  same  or  of  different  sexes,  after 
the  necessary  stlutations  are  finished,  and  the  stream 
of  common  talk  begins  to  hesitate,  or  runs  flat  and  low, 
let  some  one  person  take  a  b«)k  which  may  be  agree- 
able to  the  whole  company,  and  by  common  consent  let 
him  read  in  it  ten  lines,  or  a  paragraph  or  two,  or  a  few 
pages,  till  some  word  or  sentence  gives  an  occasion  for 
any  of  the  company  to  offer  a  thought  or  two  relating 
to  that  subject.  Interruption  of  the  reader  should  be 
no  blame,  for  conversation  is  the  business  ;  whether  it 
be  to  confirm  what  the  author  says,  or  to  improve  it, 
to  enlarge  upon  or  to  correct  it,  to  object  against  it,  or 
to  ask  any  question  that  is  akin  to  it,  and  let  every  one 
that  pleases  add  his  opinion,  and  promote  the  conver- 
sation. When  the  discourse  sinks  again  or  diverts  to 
trifles,  let  him  that  reads  pursue  the  page,  and  read  on 
further,paragraphs  or  pages,till  some  occasion  be  given 
by  a  word  or  sentence  for  a  new  discourse  to  be  start- 
ed, and  that  with  the  utmost  ease  and  freedom.  Such 
a .  method  as  this  would  prevent  the  hours  of  a  visit 
from  running  all  to  waste  ;  and  by  this  means,  even  a- 
mong  scholars,  they  would  seldom  find  occasion  for  that 


7Q  OB   CONVERSATION  Air9 

too  just  and  bitter  reflection,  *  I  have  lost  my  time  m 
the  company  of  the  learned.' 

By  such  a  practice  as  this,  young  ladies  may  very 
honourably  ancl  agreeably  improve  their  hours  ;  while 
one  applies  herself  to  reading,  the  others  employ  their 
attention  even  among  the  various  artifices  of  the  needle; 
but  let  all  of  them  make  their  occasional  remarks  or 
inquirieSr  This  will  guard  a  great  deal  of  that  precious 
time  from  modish  trifling,  impertinence,  or  scandal, 
which  might  otherwise  afford  matter  for  painful  re- 
pentance. 

Observe  thi»  rule  in  general,  whensoever  it  lies  in 
your  power  to  lead  the  conversation,  let  it  be  directed 
to  some  profitable  point  of  knowledge  or  practice,  so 
far  as  may  be  done  with  decency ;  and  let  not  the 
discourse  and  the  hours  be  suffered  toTun  loose  with- 
out aim  or  design;  and  when  a  subject  is  started,  pass 
not  hastily  to  another,  before  you  have  brought  the 
present  theme  of  discourse  to  some  tolerable  issue, 
or  a  joint  consent  to  drop  it. 

X.  Attend  with  sincere  diligence,  while  any  one  of 
the  company  is  declaring  his  sense  of  the  question  pro- 
posed ;  hear  the  argument  with  patience,  though  it 
differ  ever  so  much  from  your  sentiments,  for  you  your- 
self are  very  desirous  to  be  heard  with  patience  by 
others  who  differ  from  you.  Let  not  your  thoughts  be 
active  and  busy  all  the  while  to  find  out  something  ta 
contradict,  and  by  what  means  to  oppose  the  speaker, 
especially  in  matters  that  are  not  brought  to  an  issue. 
This  is  a  frequr-nt  and  unhappy  temper  and  practice. 
You  should  rather  be  intent  and  solicitous  to  take  up 
the  mind  and  meaning  of  the  speaker,  zealous  to  seize 
and  approve  all  that  is  true  in  his  discourse  ;  nor  yet 
should  you  want  courage  to  oppose  where  it  is  necessa- 
ry ;  but  let  your  modesty  and  patience,  and  a  friendly 
temper,  be  as  conspicuous  as  your  zeal. 

XI.  When  a  man  speaks  with  much  freedom  and 
ease,  and  gives  his  opinion  in  the  plainest  language  of 
common  sense,  do  not  presently  imagine  you  shall  gain 
nothing  by  his  company.  Sometimes  you  will  find  a 
person,  who,  in  his  conversation  or  his  writings,  deliv- 
ers his  thoughts  in  so  plain,  so  easy,  so  familiar  and  per- 
spicuous a  manner,  that  you  both  understand  and  assent 
to  every  thing  he  saith,  as  fist  as  you  read  or  hear  it ; 
hereupon  some  hearers  have  been  ready  to  concludr 


OP   PROFITING   BY   IT.  77 

in  haste,  *Surely  this  man  s  lith  none  but  common  things; 
I  knew  as  much  before,  or,  I  could  have  s  >id  all  this 
myself.*  This  is  a  frequent  mistake.  Pellucido  was  a, 
very  great  genius ;  when  he  spoke  in  the  senate,  he  was 
wont  to  convL-y  his  ideas  in  so  simple  and  happy  a  man- 
ner, as  to  instruct  and  convince  every  hearer,  and  to 
enforce  the  conviction  through  the  whole  illustrious  as- 
sembly ;  and  that  with  so  much  evidence,  that  you 
would  have  been  ready  to  wonder,  that  every  one  who 
spoke  liad  not  said  the  same  things ;  but  Pellucido  was 
tlie  only  man  that  could  do  it;  the  only  speaker  who 
had  attained  this  art  and  honour.  Such  is  the  writer 
cf  whom  Horace  would  say, 

Ut  tibi  quivis  ; 

Speret  idem;  suiiet  inultum,  frustraqtie  laboret 

Ausits  idem,  De  Art.  Poet* 

Smooth  be  your  style,  and  j^Iain  and  natural, 
To  strike  the  sons  of  Wapping  or  Whitehall. 
While  others  think  this  easy  to  attain,  •% 

Let  them  but  try,  and  with  tiieir  utmost  pain,  > 
'I'hey'll  sweat  and  strive  to  imitate  in  vaiu.         j 

XII.  If  any  thing  seem  dark  in  the  discourse  of  your 
companion,  so  that  you  have  not  a  clear  Idea  of  what  is 
spoken,  endeavour  to  obtain  a  clearer  conception  of  it 
by  a  decent  manner  of  inquiry.  Do  not  charge  the 
speaker  with  obscujity,  either  inhis"sense  or  his  words, 
but  entreat  his  favour  to  relieve  your  own  want  of  pen- 
etration, or  to  add  an  enlightening  word  or  two,  that 
you  may  take  up  his  whole  meaning. 

If  difficulties  arise  in  your  mind,  and  constrain  your 
dissent  to  the  things  spoken,  represent  what  objections 
some  persons  would  be  ready  to  make  against  the  sen- 
timents of  the  speaker,  without  tellmg  him  you  oppose. 
This  manner  of  address  carries  something  more  modest 
and  obliging  in  it,  than  to  appear  to  raise  objections  gf 
your  own  by  way  of  contradiction  to  him  that  spoke. 

XIII.  When  you  are  forced  to  differ  from  him  who 
delivers  his  sense  on  any  point,  yet  agree  as  far  as  yoii 
can,  and  represent  how  far  you  agree ;  and  if  there  be 
any  room  for  it,  explain  the  words  of  the  speaker  in 
such  a  sense  to  which  you  can  in  general  assent,  and  so 
agree  with  him  ;  or  at  least  by  a  small  addition  or  al- 
teration of  his  sentiments  shew  your  own  sense  of  things 
It  is  the  practice  and  delight  of  a  candid  hearer,  ¥j 
make  it  appear  how  unwilling  he  is  to  differ  from  fjj^ 
that  speaksv    Let  the  speaker  know  that  it  is  nothing. 


'?§'  OP  convIsrsation  and 

but  truth  constrains  you  to  oppose  hitn»  and  let  tfcat 
difference  be  always  expressed  in  few,  and  civil,  antl>: 
chosen  words,  such  as  may  give  the  least  offence. 

And  be  careful  always  to  take  Solomon's  rule  witff 
you,  and  let  your  correspondent  fairly  finish  his  speech 
before  you  reply ;  **  for  he  that  answereth  a  matter  be- 
fore he  heareth  it,  it  is  folly  and  shame  unto  him." 
Prov.  xviii.  13. 

A  little  watchfulness,  care,  and  practice  in  younger 
fife,  will  render  all  these  things  more  easy,  familiar, 
and  natural  to  you,  and  will  grow  into  habit. 

XrV.  As  you  should  carry  about  with  you  a  con- 
stant and  sincere  sense  of  your  own  ignorance,  so  you 
should  not  be  afraid  nor  ashamed  to  confess  this  igno- 
rance, by  taking  all  proper  opportunities  to  ask  "and 
inquire  for  farther  information ;  whether  it  be  the 
meaning  of  a  word,  the  nature  of  a  thing,  the  reason 
of  a  proposition,  the  custom  of  a  nation,  &c.  never  re- 
main in  ignorance  for  want  of  asking* 
^Many  a  person  had  arrived  at  some  considerable  de- 
^ee  of  knowledge,  if  he  had  not  been  full  of  self  conceit, 
and  imagined  that  he  had  known  enough  already,  or 
else  was  ashamed  to  let  others  know  that  he  was  un- 
acquainted with  it.  God  and  man  are  ready  to  teach 
the  meek,  the  humble,  and  the  ignorant ;  but  he  that 
flancies  himself  to  know  any  particular  subject  well, 
or  that  will  not  venture  to  as^k  a  question  about  it,  such 
an  one  will  not  put  himself  into  the  way  of  improvement 
by  inquiry  and  diligence.  A  fool  may  be  '*  wiser  in  his 
own  conceit  than  ten  men  who  can  render  a  reason,'*" 
and  such  an  one  is  very  likely  to  be  an  everlasalig  fool ; 
^nd  perhaps  also  it  is  a  silly  shame  which  renders  his 
lolly  incuiiable. 

Stultomm  incurata  pudor  malus  vlcera  celae. 

Hor.Epiit.AG.  Ln>.l 

Jif  EITGLISK  THirS  : 
rf  fbols  Bave.  «lcewj  and  their  pride  conceal  'eir, 
llrey  most  bave  fleers  still,  for  none  can  heal  'em. 

XV.  Re  not  too  forward,  especially  in  the  younger 
part  of  life,  to  determine  any  question  in  company  with 
an  infallible  and  peremptory  sentence,  nor  speak  with 
assuming  airs  and  with  a  decisive  tone  of  voice.  A. 
yt)ung  man  in  the  presence  of  his  elders  should  rather 
hear  and  attend,  ^d  weigh  the  arguments  which  are 


Ot    F&OriTINO    BY    IT.  79 

brought  for  the  proof  or  refutation  of  any  doubtful 
proposition ;  and  when  it  is  your  turn  to  sjieak,  propose 
your  thoughts  rather  in  the  wny  of  inquiry.  By  ihh 
means  your  mind  will  be  kept  in  a  fitter  temper  to  re- 
ceive  truth,  and  you  will  be  more  ready  to  correct  and 
improve  your  own  sentiments,  where  you  have  net  been 
too  positive  in  affirming  them.  But  if  y<ju  h  *v€  magis- 
terially decided  the  point,  you  will  find  a  secret  unwil- 
lingness to  retract,  though  you  should  feel  an  inward 
conviction  that  you  were  in  tlic  wrong. 

XVI.  It  is  granted,  indeed,  that  a  season  "may  hap- 
pen, when  some  buld  pretender  to  science  may  assume 
haughty  and  positive  airs,to  assert  and  vindicate  a  gr;)Ss 
and  dangerous  error,  or  to  renounce  and  vUify  eouie 
very  important  truth  ,  and  it  he  hus  a  p' :pul  ^r  talent 
of  talkirig,  and  there  be  no  remonstrance  made  against 
him,  the  company  may  be  tempted  too  easily  to  give 
their  assent  to  the  in)|)udence  and  infallibility  of  the 
presumer.  They  may  imagine  a  proposition  so  much 
vilified  can  never  b©  true,  and  that  a  aoctrine  which  i« 
so  boldly  censured  and  renoiuiced  can  never  be  defend- 
ed. Weak  minds  are  too  ready  to  persuade  themselves, 
that  a  man  would  never  t:»lk  with  so  much  assurance, 
unless  he  were  certainly  in  the  right,  and  could  well 
mamtain  and  prove  what  he  said.  &y  this  means  truth 
itself  is  in  danger  of  being  betrayed  or  lost,  if  there  be 
no  opposition  made  to  such  a  pretending  talker. 

Now,  in  such  a  case,  even  a  wise  and  a  modest  man 
may  assume  air&  too,  and  repel  insolence  with  its  own 
weapons.  There  is  a  time,  as  Solomon  the  wisest  dt 
men  teaches  us,  when  -a  fool  should  be  answered  ac- 
cording to  his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own  conceit, 
and  lest  others  too  easily  yield  up  their  faitti  and  reasor> 
to  his  imperious  dictates.  Courage  and  positivity  are 
never  more  necessary  tbari  on  such  an  occasion.  But 
it  is  good  to  join  some  argument  with  them  of  real  and 
convincing  force,  and  let'it  be  strongly  pronounced  too.' 

When  such  a  resistance  is  made,  you  shall  find  some 
of  these  bold  talkers  will  draw  in  their  horns,  when 
their  fierce  and  feeble  pushes  ngainst  truth  and  reason 
are  repelled  with  pushing  and  confidence.  It  is  pity 
indeed  that  truth  should  ever  need  such  sort  of  defen- 
ces; but  we  know  that  a  triumphant  assurance  hath 
sometimes  supported  gross  falsehoods,  and  a  whole 
company  have  been  captivated  to  error,  by  this  raeansj 


80  OP   CONVERSATION    AND 

till  some  man  with  equal  assurance  has  rescued  them. 
It  is  a  pity  that  any  momentous  point  of  doctrine 
should  happen  to  fall  under  such  reproaches,  and  re- 
quire such  a  mode  of  vindication  ;  though  if  I  happen 
to  hear  it,  I  ought  not  to  turn  my  back,  and  to  sneak  off 
in  silence,  and  leave  the  truth  to  lie  baffled,  bleeding, 
and  slain.  Yet  I  must  confess,  I  should  be  glad  to  have 
no  occasion  ever  given  me  to  fight  with  any  man  at 
this  sort  of  weapons,  even  though  I  should  be  so  hap- 
py as  to  silence  his  insolence,  and  to  obtain  an  evident 
victory. 

XVII.  Be  not  fond  of  disputing  every  thing  firo  and 
con,  nor  indulge  yourself  to  show  your  talent  of  attack- 
ing and  defending.  A  logic  which  teaches  nothing  else 
is  little  worth.  This  temper  and  practice  will  lead  you 
just  so  far  out  of  the  way  of  knowledge,  and  divert 
your  honest  inquiry  after  the  truth  which  is  debated  or 
sought.  In  set  disputes,  every  little  straw  is  often  laid 
hold  on  to  support  our  own  cause ;  every  thing  that  can 
be  done  in  any  way  to  give  colour  to  our  argument  is  ad- 
vanced, and  that  perhaps  with. vanity  and  ostentation. 
This  puts  the  mind  out  of  a  proper  posture  to  seek  and 
deceive  the  truth. 

XVIII.  Do !  lot  bring  a  warm  party  spirit  into  a  free 
conversation,  which  is  designed  for  mutual  improve- 
ment in  the  search  of  truth.  Take  heed  of  allowing 
yourself  in  those  self  satisfied  assurances  which  keep 
the  doors  of  the  understanding  barred  fast  agninst  the 
admission  of  any  new  sentiments.  Let  your  soul  be 
ever  ready  to  hearken  to  further  discoveries,  from  a 
constant  and  ruling  consciousness  of  our  prr  sent  fallible 
and  imperfect  state ;  and  m.^ke  it  appear  to  your 
friends,  that  it  is  no  hard  task  for  you  to  learn  and  pro- 
nounce those  little  words,  /  was  mistaken,  how  hayd 
soever  it  bef-rthe  bulk  of  mankind  to  pronounce  them. 

XIX.  As  you  mav   sometimes  raise  inquiries  for 
,  your  own  instruction  and  improvement,  and  draw  out 

the  learning,  wisdom,  and  fine  sentiments  of  your 
friends,  who  perhaps  may  he  too  reserved  or  modest ; 
so  at  other  times,  if  you  perceive  a  person  unskilful  in 
the  matter  of  debate,  you  may,  by  questions  aptly  pro- 
posed in  the^ocratic  method,  lead  him  into  a  clearer 
knowledge  of  the  subject ;  then  vou  become  his  instrnct- 
or  in  such  a  manner  as  may  not  appear  to  make  your- 
self his  superior. 


OF    PROF£TING    BY    IT.  ^1 

XX.  Take  heed  of  affecting  always  to  shine  in  com  - 
pany  above  the  rest,  and  to  display  the  riches  of  your 
own  understanding  or  your  oratory,  as  though  you 
"wouid  render  yourself  admirable  to  all  that  are  present. 
This  is  seldom  well  taken  in  polite  company  ;  much 
less  should  you  use  such  forms  of  si^eech  as  should  in- 
sinuate the  Ignorance  or  dullness  of  those  with  whom 
vou  converse. 

XXI.  Though  you  should  not  affect  to  flourish  in  a 
copious  harangue  and  a  diffusive  style  in  company,  yet 
neither  should  you  rudely  interrupt  and  reproach  him 
that  happens  to  use  it.    But  when  he  has  done  speak- 

^  ing,reduce  his  sentiments  into  a  more  contracted  form  ; 
not  with  a  show  of  correcting,  but  as  one  who  is  doubt- 
ful whether  you  hit  upon  his  true  sentiments  or  not. 
Thus  matters  may  be  brought  more  easily  from  a  wild 
confusion  into  a  single  pdnt,  questions  may  be  sooner 
determined,  and  difficulties  more  readily  removed. 

XXII.  Be  not  so  ready  to  charge  ignorance,  preju-^ 
dice,  and  mistake  upon  others,  as  you  are  to  suspect 
yourself  of  it;  and  in  order  to 'show  how  free  you  are 
from  prejudices,  learn  to  bear  contradiction  with  pa- 
tience ;  let  it  be  easy  to  you  to  hear  your  own  opinion 
strongly  opposed,  especially  in  matters  which  are  doubt- 
ful and  disputable  amongst  men  of  sobriety  and  virtue. 
Give  a  patient  hearing  to  arguments  on  all  sides,  other- 
wise you  give  the  company  occasion  to  suspect  that  it 
is  not  the  evidence  of  truth  has  led  you  into  this  opinion, 
but  some  lazy  anticipation  of  judgment ;  some  beloved 
presumption,  some  long  and  rash  possession  of  a  party 
scheme,  in  which  you  desire  to  rest  undisturbed.  If 
your  assent  has  been  established  upon  just  and  sufii- 
cient  grounds,  why  should  you  be  afraid  to  let  the  trutli 
be  put  to  the  trial  of  argumejitt' 

XXIII.  Banish  utterly  out  of  all  convcrsatioo,  and 
especially  out  of  all  learned  a!:d  intellectual  conference, 
every  thing  that  tends  to  provoke  passion,  or  raise  a 
fire  m  the  blood.  Let  no  sharp  language,  no  noisy  ex- 
cliuiation,  no  sarcasms  or  biting  jests,  be  heard  among 
you  ;  no  perverse  or  invidious  consequences  be  drawji 
fron>  each  other's  opinions,  and  imputed  to  the  person  ; 
let  there  be  no  wilful  i)erversion  of  anotlier's  meaning ; 
n.0  sudden  seizure  of  a  lapsed  syllable  to  play  upon  it, 
nor  any  abused  construction  of  an  innocent  mistake; 
suttier  not  vour  tongue  to  insult  a  modest  opponent  JJlijit? 

U  2 


82  OP   CONVERSATION    AND 

begins  to  yield  ;  let  there  be  ho  crowing  or  triumph, 
even  where  there  is  evident  victory  on  your  side.  AH 
these  things  are  enemies  to  friendship,  and  the  ruin  of 
free  conversation.  The  impartial  search  of  truth  re- 
qmres  all  calmness  and  serenity,  all  temper  and  can- 
dor ;  mutual  instructions  can  never  be  attained  in  the 
midst  of  passion,  pride,  and  clamor,  unless  we  suppose, 
in  the  midst  of  such  a  scene,  there  is  a  loud  and  pene- 
trating lecture  read  by  both  sides  on  the  folly  and 

'    shameful  infirmities  of  human  nature. 

•XXiy.  Whensoever  therefore  any  unhappy  word 
shall  arise  in  company  that  might  give  you  a  reasonable 
disgust,  quash  the  rising  resentmer.t,  be  it  ever  so  just, 
and  command  your  soul  and  your  tongue  into  silence, 
lest  you  cancel  the  hopes  of  all  improvement  for  that 
hour,  and  transform  the  learned  conversation  into  the 
mean  and  vulgar  form  of  reproaches  and  railing.  The 
man  who  began  to  break  the  peace  in  such  a  society, 

,^  will  fall  under  the  shame  and  conviction  of  such  a  si- 
lent reproof,  if  he  has  any  thing  ingenuous  about  him. 
If  this  should  not  be  sufficient,  let  a  grave  admonition, 
or  a  soft  and  gentle  turn  of  wit,  with  an  air  of  pleas- 
antry, give  the  warm  disputer  an  occasion  to  stop  the 
progress  of  his  indecent  fire,  if  not  to  retract  the  inde- 
cency, and  quench  the  flame. 

XXV.  Inure  yourself  to  a  candid  and  obliging  man- 
ner in  all  your  conversation,  and  acquire  the  art  of 
pleasing  address,  even  when  you  teach  as  well  as  when 
you  learn,  and  when  you  oppose  as  well  as  when  you 
assert  or  prove.  This  degree  of  politeness  is  not  to  be 
attained  without  a  diligent  attention  to  such  kind  of  di- 
rections as  are  here  laid  down,  and  a  frequent  exercise 
and  practice  of  them. 

XXVI.  If  you  would  know  what  sort  of  companions 
you  should  select  for  the  cultivation  and  advantage  of 
the  mind,  the  general  rule  is.  Choose  such  as  by  their 
brightness  of  parts,  and  iheir  diligence  in  study,  or  by 
their  superior  advancement  in  learning,  or  peculiar 
e?ccellency  in  any  art,  science,  or  accomplishment,  di- 
vine or  human,  may  be  capable  of  administering  to  your 
improvement ;  and  be  sure  to  maintain  and  keep  some 
due  regard  to  their  moral  character  always,  lest  while 
you  wander  in  quest  of  intellectual  gain,  you  fall  into 
the  contagion  of  irreligion  and  vice.  No  wise  man 
w^ould  venture  into  a  house  infected  with  the  plague 


OF  PROFITING   BY    IT.  83 

in  order  to  see  the  finest  collections  of  any  virtuoso  in 
Europe. 

XXVII.  Nor  is  it  every  sober  person  of  your  ac- 
quaintance, no,  nor  every  man  of  bright  parts,  or  t  ich 
in  learning,  that  is  fit  to  engage  in  free  conversation  for 
the  inquiry  after  truth.  Let  a  person  have  ever  so  il- 
lustrious talents,  yet  he  is  not  a  proper  associate  for 
such  a  purpose,  if  he  lie  under  any  of  the  following  in- 
firmities : 

(1.)  If  he  be  exceedingly  reserved,  and  hath  either 
no  inclination  to  discourse,  or  no  tolerable  capacity  of 
speech  and  language  for  the  communication  of  his 
sentiments. 

(2.)  If  he  be  haughty  and  proud  of  his  knowledge, 
imperious  in  his  airs,  and  is  always  fond  of  imposing 
his  sentiments  on  all  the  company. 

(3.)  If  he  be  positive  and  dogmatical  in  his  own  opin- 
ions, and  wUl  dispute  to  the  end  ;  if  he  will  resist  the 
brightest  evidence  of  truth  rather  than  suffer  himself 
to  be  overcome,  or  yield  to  the  plainest  and  strongest 
reasonings. 

(4.)  if  he  be  one  who  always  affects  to  outshine  all 
the  company,  and  delights  to  hear  himself  talk  and 
flourish  upon  a  subject,  and  make  long  harangues,  while 
the  rest  must  be  all  silent  and  attentive. 

(5.)  If  he  be  a  person  of  a  whiffling  and  unsteady 
turn  of  mind,  who  cannot  keep  close  to  a  point  of  con- 
troversy, but  wanders  from  it  perpetually,  and  is  al- 
ways solicitous  to  say  something,  whether  it  be  perti- 
nent to  the  question  or  not. 

(6.)  If  he  be  fretful  and  peevish,  and  given  to  resent- 
ment upon  all  occasions  ;  if  he  knows  not  how  to  bear 
contradiction,  or  is  ready  to  take  things  in  a  wrong 
sense ;  if  he  be  swift  to  feel  a  supposed  offence,  or  to 
imagine  himself  affronted,  and  then  break  out  into  a 
sudden  passion,  or  retain  silent  and  sullen  w  rath. 

(7.)  If  he  affect  wit  on  all  occasions,  and  is  full  of  his 
conceits  and  puns,  quirks  or  quibbles,  jests  and  repar- 
tees ;  these  may  agreeably  entertain  and  animate  an 
hour  of  mirth,  but  they  have  no  place  in  the  search 
after  truth. 

8. )  If  he  carry  always  about  him  a  sort  of  craft,  and 
cunning,  and  disguise,  and  act  rather  like  a  spy  than 
a  friend.  Have  a  care  of  such  a  one  as  will  make  an  ill 
use  of  freedom  in  conversation,  and  immediately  charge 


S4  OE   CONVERSATION   AND 

heresy  upon  you,  when  you  happen  to  diffei'from  those 
sentiments  whicii  authority  or  custom  has  established. 

In  short,  you  should  avoid  the  man  in  such  select 
conversation,  who  practises  any  thing  that  is  unbecom- 
ing the  character  of  a  smcere,  tree,  and  open  searcher 
after  truth. 

Now,  though  you  may  pay  all  tlie  relative  duties  of 
life  to  persons  of  these  unhappy  qualifications,  and  treat 
them  with  decency  and  love,  so  far  as  religion  and  hu- 
manity oblige  you,  yet  take  care  of  entering  into  a  free 
debate  on  matters  of  truth  or  falsehood  in  their  com- 
pany, and  especially  about  the  principles  of  religioa. 
I  confess,  if  a  person  of  such  a  temper  happens  to 
judge  and  talk  well  on  such  a  subject,  you  may  hear 
him  with  attention,  and  derive  what  profit  you  can 
from  his  discourse ;  but  he  is  by  no  means  to  be  chosen 
for  a  free  conference  in  matters  of  learning  and  knowl- 
edge. 

XXVIII.  While  I  would  persuade  you  to  beware  of 
such  persons,  and  abstain  from  too  much  freedom  of 
discourse  amongst  them,  it  is  very  natural  to  infer  that 
you  should  watch  against  the  working  of  these  evil 
qualities  in  your  own  breast,  if  you  happen  to  be  tainted 
with  any  of  them  yoursel£  Men  of  learning  and  inge- 
nuity will  justly  avoid  your  acquaintance,  when  they 
find  such  an  unhappy  and  unsocial  temper  prevail- 
ing in  you. 

XXiX.  To  conclude :  When  you  retire  from  com- 
pany, then  converse  with  yourself  in  solitude,  and  in- 
quire what  you  have  learned  for  the  improvement  of 
your  understanding,  or  for  the  rectifying  your  inclina- 
tions, for  the  increase  of  your  virtues,  or  the  melioi  a- 
ting  your  conduct  and  behaviour  in  any  future  parts  of 
life.  If  you  have  seen  some  of  your  conipany  candid, 
modest  and  humble  in  their  manner,wise  and  sagacious, 
just  and  pious  m  their  sentiments,  polite  and  graceful, 
as  well  as  clear  and  strong  in  their  expression,  and 
universally  acceptable  and  lovely  m  their  behaviour, 
endeavour  to  impress  the  idea  of  ah  these  upon  your 
iiicmory,  and  treasure  them  up  for  your  imitaiion. 

XXX.  If  the  laws  of  reason,  decency,  and  civility, 
have  not  been  well  observed  amongst  your  associates, 
take  notice  of  those  defects  for  your  own  improvement ; 
and  from  every  occurrence  of  thi^  kind,  remark  souie- 
thijig  tu  imitate  pr  to  avoid,  in  elegant,  polite  and  use^ 


01'    PROFITING   BY    IT.  85 

ful  conversation.  Perhaps  you  will  find  that  some  p  r- 
sons  present  have  really  displensed  the  company,  by 
an  excessive  and  too  visible  a  desire  to  please  ;  i.e.  l)y 
giving  loose  to  servile  flattery,  or  promiscuous  prai^^e  ; 
while  others  were  as  ready  to  oppose  and  contradict 
every  thing  that  was  said.  Some  have  deserved  just 
'censure  for  a  morose  and  affected  tncitumitj^,  and 
others  have  been  anxious  and  careful  lest  their  silence 
should  be  interpreted  a  want  of  sense,  and  ther  fore 
they  have  ventured  to  make  speeches,  though  they  had 
nothing  to  say  which  was  worth  hearing.  Perhaps  you 
will  observe,  that  one  was  ingenious  in  his  thoughts, 
and  bright  in  his  language,  but  he  was  so  top-tull  of 
liimself,  that  he  let  it  spill  on  all  the  company  ;  that  he 
spoke  well  indeed,  but  that  he  spoke  too  long,  and  did 
not  allow  equal  time  or  liberty  to  his  associates.  You 
will  remark,  that  another  was  full  charged  to  let  out 
his  words  before  his  friend  had  done  speaking,  or  im- 
patient of  the  least  opposition  to  any  thing  he  said.  You 
will  remember  that  some  persons  have  talked  at  large, 
and  with  great  confidence,  of  things  which  they  un- 
derstood not ;  and  others  counted  every  thing  tedious 
and  intolerable  that  was  spoken  upon  subjects  out  of 
their  sphere,  and  they  would  fain  confine  the  confer- 
ence entirely  within  the  limits  of  their  own  narrow 
knowledge  and  study.  The  errors  of  conversationare 
almost  infinite. 

XXXI.  By  a  review  of  such  irregularities  as  these, 
you  may  learn  to  avoid  those  follies  and  pieces  of  ill 
conduct  which  spoil  good  conversation,  or  make  it 
less  agreeable  and  less  useful ;  and  by  degrees  you  will 
acquire  that  delightful  and  easy  manner  of  address 
and  behaviour  in  all  useful  correspondencies,  which 
may  render  your  company  every  where  desired  and 
beloved  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  amongst  the  best  of 
your  companions,  you  may  make  the  highest  improve- 
ment in  your  own  intellectual  acquisitions,  that  the 
discourse  cf  mortal  creatures  will  allow,  under  all  our 
disadvantages  in  this  sorry  state  of  mortality.  But  there 
is  a  day  coming,  when  we  shall  be  seized  away  from 
this  lower  class  in  the  school  of  knowledge,  where  we  la. 
hour  under  the  many  dangers  and  darknesses,the  errors 
and  incumbrances  of  flesh  and  blood ;  and  our  conver- 
sation shall  be  with  angels  and  more  illuminated  spir- 
its, in  the  upper  regions  of  the  universe. 


•SL6  «F   DISJPnXES   IJT    OENERAr^. 

CHAP.  X, 

Of  Dhpiites, 

I.  Under  the  general  head  of  conversation  for  tiic 
improveifient  of  ttie  mind,  we  may  rank  the  practice 
of  disputing ;  that  is,when  two  or  more  pei  sons  appeai* 
to  maintain  different  sentiments,  and  defend  their  own 
or  oppose  the  other's  opinion,  in  alternate  discourse, 
by  some  methods  of  argument. 

II.  As  these  disputes  often  arise  in  good  earnest, 
where  the  two  contenders  do  really  believe  the  differ- 
ent propositions  which  they  support;  so  sometimes  they 
ar^  appointed  as  mere  trials  of  skill  in  academies  or 
schools,  by  the  students ;  sometimes  they  are  practised, 
and  that  with  apparent  fervour,  in  courts  of  judicature 
by  lawyers,  in  order  to  gain  the  fees_of  their  different 
clients,  while  both  sides  perhaps  are  really  of  the 
same  sentiment  with  regard  to  the  cause  which  is  tried. 

III.  In  common  conversation,  disputes  are  often 
managed  without  any  forms  of  regularity  or  order,  and 
they  turn  to  good  or  evil  purposes,  chiefly  according  to 
the  temper  of  the  disputants.  They  may  sometunes 
be  successful  to  search  out  truth,  sometimes  effectual 
to  maintain  truth,  and  convince  the  mistaken,  but  ajt 
other  times  a  dispute  is  a  mere  scene  of  battle  in  order 
to  victory  and  vain  triumph. 

IV.  There  are  some  few  general  rules  which  should 
he  observed  in  all  debates  whatsoever,  if  we  would  find 
out  truth  by  them,  or  convince  a  friend  of  his  errour, 
even  though  they  be  not  managed  according  to  any  set- 
tled forms  of  disputation.  And  as  there  are  almost  as 
many  opinions  and  judgments  of  things  as  there  are 
persons,  so  when  several  persons  happen  to  meet  and 
confer  together  upon  any  subject,  they  are  ready  to 
declare  their  different  sentiments,  and  support  them 
by  such  reasonings  as  they  are  capable  of.  This  is 
calied  debating,  or  dispudng,  as  is  above  described. 

V.  When  persons  begin  a  debate,  ihey  should  always 
take  c^ire  that  they  are  agreed  in  some  general  princi- 
ples or  propositions,  which  either  more  nearly  or  remote- 
ly affect  the  question  m  hand;  for  otherwise  they  have  no 
foundation  or  hope  of  convincing   each  other ;    they 


OP   DISPUTES    IN   GENERA r..  87 

Oiust  have  some  common  ground  to  Stand  upon,  while 
they  maintain  the  contest. 

When  they  find  they  agree  in  some  remote  proposi- 
fions,  the  n  let  them  search  farther,  and  inquit  e  how  near 
they  approach  to  each  other's  sentiments ;  and  what- 
soever propositions  they  agree  in,  let  these  lay  a  foun- 
dation for  the  mutual  hope  of  conviction.  Hereby  ycu 
will  be  prevented  from  running  at  every  turn  to  some 
original  and  remote  propositions,  and  axioms,  which 
practice  both  entangles  and  prolongs  a  dispute.  As  for 
instance,  if  there  was  a  debate  proposed  between  a 
Protestant  and  a  Papist,  whether  there  be  such  a  place 
as  purgatory ;  let  them  remember  that  they  both  agree 
in  this  pc  int,  that  Christ  has  made  satisfaction  or  atone- 
ment for  sin,  and  upon  this  ground  let  them  both  stand, 
while  thty  search  opt  the  controverted  doctrine  of 
purgatory,  by  way  of  conference  or  debate. 

VI.  The  question  should  be  cleared  from  all  doubt- 
ful terms  ami  needless  additions  ;»and  all  things  that 
belong  to  the  question,  should  be  expressed  in  plain  and 
intelligible  language.  This  is  so  necessary  a  thing, 
that  without  it^  men  will  be  exposed  to  such  sorts  of 
ridiculous  contests  as  was  found  one  day  between-  the 
two  unlearned  combatants.  Sartor  and  Sutor,  who  as- 
saulred  and  defended  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion  w  th  much  zeal  and  violence  ;  but  Latino  happen- 
ing to  come  into  their  company,  and  inquiring  the  sub- 
ject of  their  dispute,  asked  each  of  them  what  he 
meant  bv  that  long  w-rd  transubstantiation.  Sntor 
readily  infovmed  him,  that  he  understood  bowing  at 
the  name  of  Jesus;  but  Sartor  asiured  him  that  he 
meant  nothing  but  bowing  at  the  high  altir :  •  ••  ISo 
won.  ;er,  then,"  said  Litino,  *MhHt  you  cannot  agree, 
when  you  neither  underst  nd  on'e  another,  nor  the  word 
about  which  you  contend.*'  I  tlsink  the  whole  family 
of  the  Sartors  and  Sutors  woulV  be  wiser  if  the^'  avoid- 
ed '-^uch  kind  of  debates  till  they  understood  the  terms 
better.  But  alas!  even  their  wives  carry  on  such  con- 
ferences; the  other  diy  one  was  heard  in  the  street 
explaining  to  her  less  learned  rieiglibour,  the  meaning 
of  metaphysical  science  ;  and  she  assured  her,  that  as 
physjcs.  were  medicines  for  thr  body.so  metaphysics  was 
physics  for  the  soul ;  upon  this  they  went  on  to  dis- 
pute the  point,  hovr  far  the  divine  excelled  the  doctor. 


89  OB  nispuTES  iir  G&irEitAt. 

Auditum  adntisti  visum  teneatis  amici? 
Ridentem  dicere  verum  quid  vetat  f. Hor. 

Can  it  be  faulty  to  repeat 

A  tiialogue  that  waik'd  the  street  ? 

Or  can  my  gravest  friends  forbear 

A  laugh,  when  such  disputes  they  hear"? 

VII.  And  not  only  the  sense  and  meaning  of  the 
words  used  in  the  question  should  be  settled  and  adjust- 
ed between  the  disputants,  but  the  precise  point  of  in- 
quiry should  be  distinctly  fixed ;  the  question  in  debate 
should  be  Umited  precisely  to  its  special  e:5Ctent,  or  de- 
clared to  be  taken  in  its  more  general  sense.  As  for 
instance,  if  two  men  are  contending  whether  civil  gov- 
trnment  be  of  (livine  rigut  or  not  ;  here  it  must  be  ob- 
served, the  question  is  not  whether  monarchy  in  one 
man,  or  a  republic  in  multitudes  of  the  people,  or  an 
aristocracy  hi  a  few  of  the  chiefs,  is  appointed  of  God 
a?  necessary ;  but  waether  civil  government  in  its  most 
general  sense,  or  ii^  any  form  whatsoever,  is  derived 
from  the  will  and  appointment  of  God  ?  Again,  the 
point  of  enquiry  should  be  hmited  further.  Thus,  the 
question  is,  not  whether  government  comes  from  the 
will  of  God  by  the  light  of  divine  revelation,  for  that 
i^  granted ;  but  whether  it  be  derived  from  the  will  of 
God  by  the  light  of  reason  too.  This  sort  of  specifica- 
tion or  limitation  of  the  question,  hinders  and  prevents 
the  disputants  from  wandering  away  from  the  precise 
point  of  incjuiry. 

It  is  this  trifling  humour  or  dishonest  artifice  of 
changing  the  question  and  wandering  away  from  the 
first  point  of  debate,  which  gives  endless  length  to  dis- 
putes, and  causes  both  the  disputants  to  part  without 
any  satisfaction.  And  one  chief  occasion  of  it  is  this  ; 
when  one  of  the  combatants  feels  his  cause  run  low 
and  fail,  and  is  just  ready  to  be  confuted  and  demolish- 
ed, he  is  tempted  to  s^ep  aside  to  avoid  the  blow,  and 
betakes  him  to  a  different  question  ;  thus,  if  his  adver- 
sary be  not  well  aware  of  him,  he  begins  to  entrench 
himself  in  a  new  fastness,  and  holds  out  the  siege  with 
a  new  artillery  of  thoughts  and  words.  It  is  the  pride 
of  man  which  is  the  spring  of  this  evil,  and  an  unwil- 
lingness to  yield  up  their  own  opinions  even  to  be  over- 
come by  truth  itself. 

VIII.    Keep  this  always  therefore  upon  your  mind 
as  an  everlasting  rule  of  conduct  in  your  debates  to  find 


OF   DISPUTES   IN   GENERAL.  89 

out  truth,  that  a  resolute  design,  or  even  a  warm  af- 
fectation of  victory,  is  the  bane  of  all  real  improvement, 
and  an  effectual  bar  against  the  admission  of  the  truth 
which  you  profess  to  seek.  This  works  with  a  secret, 
but  a  powerful  and  mischievous  influence  in  every  dis- 
pute, unless  we  are  much  upon  our  guard.  It  appears 
in  frequent  conversation  ;  every  age,  every  sex,  and 
each  party  of  mankind,  are  so  fond  of  being  in  the 
right,  that  they  know  not  how  to  renounce  this  unhap- 
py prejudice,  this  vain  love  of  victory. 

When  truth  with  bright  evidence  is  ready  to  break 
in  upon  a  disputar.t,  and  to  overcome  his  objections  and 
mistakes,  how  swift  and  ready  is  the  mind  to  engage 
wit  and  fancy,  craft  and  subtilty,  to  cloud  and  perplex 
and  puzzle  the  truth,  if  possible  !  How  eager  is  he  to 
throw  in  some  impertinent  question  to  divert  from  the 
main  subject !  How  swift  to  take  hold  of  some  occa- 
sional word,  thereby  to  lead  the  discourse  ojfffrom  the 
point  in  hand !  So  much  afraid  is  human  nature  of 
parting  with  its  errors,  and  being  overcome  by  truth. 
Just  thus  a  hunted  hare  calls  up  all  the  shifts  that  na- 
ture hath  taught  her,  she  treads  Imck  her  mazes,  cross- 
es and  confounds  her  frnmer  traok.  and  uses  all  pos- 
sible n^ethods  to  divert  the  scent ,  when  she  is  in  dan- 
ger of  being  seized  and  taken.  Let  pass  practise  what 
nature  teaches:  but  would  one  imagine,  that  any  ra- 
tional being  should  take  such  pains  to  ^void  truth,  and 
to  escape  the  improvement  of  its  Uiderstanding.^ 

IX.  When  you  come  to  a  dispute  in  order  to  find 
©ut  truth,  do  not  presume  that  vou  are  certainly  pos- 
sessed of  it  beforehand.  Enter  the  debate  with  a  sin- 
cere design  of  yielding  to  re;- son,  on  which  side  soever 
it  appears.  Use  no  subtle  arts  to  cloud  and  entangle 
thie  question  ;  hide  not  yourself  in  doubtful  words  and 
phrases  ;  do  not  affect  little  shifts  and  subterfuges  to 
avoid  the  force  of  an  aigument ;  take  a  generous  pleas- 
urt-  to  espv  the  first  risi>g  beams  of  truth,  though  it 
be  on  the  side  of  yc'ur  opponent ;  endeavour  to  remove 
the  little  obscuriti.  s  that  hang  about  it,  and  suffer  and 
encourage  it  to  break  out  into  open  and  convincing 
light ;  that  while  your  opponent  perhaps  may  gain  the 
better  of  mur  rei  sonings,yet  you  yourself  may  triumph 
over  error,  and  I  am  sure  that  is  a  much  more  valua- 
ble acquisition  and  victory. 

X'    Watch  narrowly  in  every  dispute,  that  your  op- 


90  OF    DISPUTES   IN    GENERAL. 

poaent  does  not  lead  you  unwarily  to  graut  some  prija= 
ciple  of  the  proposition,  which  will  bring  with  it  a  fatal 
consequence,  and  lead  you  insensibly  into  his  sentiment, 
though  it  be  far  astray  froni  the  truth ;  and  by  this 
wrong  step  you  will  be,  as  it  were»  plunged  into  dan- 
gerous errors  before  yon  are  aware.  Polonides  in  free 
conversation,  led  Incauto  to  agree  with  liim  in  this 
plain  proposition,  tliat  the  blessed  God  has  too  much 
justice  in  any  case  to  punish*  any  being  who  is  in  itself 
innocent ;  till  he  not  only  allowed  it  with  an  unthinkiug 
iilacrity,  but  asserted  it  in  most  uuiversal  and  unguard- 
ed termt.  A  little  after,  Polonides  came  in  discourse- 
to  commend  the  virtues,  the  innocence,  and  the  piety  o£ 
our  blessed  Saviour  ;  and  thence  inferred,  it  was  hn- 
possible  that  God  should  ever  punish  so  holy  a  person^ 
who  was  never  guilty  of  any  criine  ;  then  Incauto  es- 
pied the  snare,  and  found  himself  robbed  and  defrauded' 
of  the  great  doctrine  of  the  atonement  by  the  death  of 
Christ,  upon  which  he  liad  placed  his  immortal  hopes, 
according  to  the  go?ipeL 

This  taught  hin;i  to  bethink  hi m^lf  what  a  danger- 
ous concession  he  had^cnade  in  so  universal  a  manner, 
that  God  would  ney#  punish  any  bdn^'j  who  was  inno- 
cent, and  he  saw  it  neetlful  to  recal  his  words»  or  to  ex- , 
plain -them  better,  by  adding  this  restriction  or  limita- 
tion, viz.  Unless  tliis  innocent  lx;iag  were  some  way  in«r 
volved  in  another's  sin,  or  stood  as  a  voluntary  si^ret^ 
for  the  guilty  ;  by  this  limitatioii,  he  secured  the  great 
and  blessed  doctrine  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  for  the 
sins  of  men,  and  learnt  to  be  more  cautious  in  his  con- 
cessions for  the  time  to  come. 

Two  months  ago,  Fatal'io  had  almost  tempted  his- 
friend  Fidens  to  leave  off  prayer,  and  to  abandon  his 
dependence  on  the  providence  of  God  ia  the  comm<Mi 
affairs  of  Ufej  by  obtainhig  of  him  a  concession  of  the 
like  kind.  Is  it  not  evident  to  reason,  says  Fatalio,  that 
God's  immense  schenae  of  transactions  in  the  universe, 
was  contrived  and  determined  long  before  you  a:^.d  I 
w^ere  bom  ?  Can  you  imagine,  my  dear  Fidens,  tliat 
the  blessed  God  changes  his  original  contrivances,  and 
makes  new  inter rur.>tions  in  the  course  of  them,  so  often 
as  you  and  I  want  his  aid,  to  prevent  the  little  accidents 
of  life,  or  to  *rvivtvd  usfrox  them  ^  Can  you  suffer  your- 

*  The  word  punish  Iiere*  signifies,  to  brinr  some  ratural  evil  aj)«s 
ft  person  on  account  of  moral  orrl  Jsnc 


OF    mSPBTKS    IN   GENERAL.  9} 

self  tn  be  persuaded,  that  the  .^rcat  Creator  of  this 
world  t^kes  care  to  support  a  bridge  which  was  quite 
rotten,  and  to  make  it  stand  fiiTn  a  tew  minutes  longer 
till  you  had  rode  over  it  ?  Or,  will  he  uphold  a  falling 
tower,  while  we  two  were  passing  by  it,  that  such 
worms  as  you  and  I  are,  might  escape  the  ruin  ^ 

But  you  say,  you  prayed  for  his  protection  in  the 
morning,  and  he  certainly  hears  prayer.  I  grant  he 
knows  It ;  but  are  y«u  so  fond  and  weak,  said  lie,  as  to 
sup|>ose  that  the  universal  I^ord  of  all,  had  such  a  re- 
gard to  a  word  or  two  of  your  breath,  as  to  make  alter- 
ations in  his  own  eternal  scheme,  upon  that  account  ? 
^or  is  there  any  other  way  whereby  his  providence 
can  preserve  you  in  answer  to  prayer,  but  by  creating 
such  perpetual  interruptions  and  changes  in  his  own 
conduct  according  to  your  daily  behaviour  ? 

I  acknowledge,  says  Fidens,  there  is  no  other  way 
to  secure  the  doctrine  of  divine  providence,  in  all  these 
common  aff  irs,  and  therefore  I  begin  to  doubt  wheth- 
er God  does  or  ever  will  exert  himself  so  particularly 
in  our  little  concerns. 

Have  a  care,  good  Fidens,  that  you  yield  not  too  far ; 
take  heed  lest  you  have  granted  too  m.uch  to  Fatalio. 
Pray  let  me  ask  of  you,  could  not  the  great  God,  who 
grasps  and  surveys  all  future  and  distant  things  in  one 
single  view,  could  not  he  from  the  beginning,  foresee 
your  morning  prayer  for  his  protection,  and  appoint 
all  second  causes  to  concur  for  the  support  of  that  cra- 
zy bridge;  or  to  make  that  old  tower  stand  firm  till 
you  had  escaped  the  danger?  Or  could  not  he  cause 
all  the  mediums  to  work,  so  as  to  make  it  fall  before 
you  came  near  it?  Can  he  not  appoint  all  his  own 
transactions  in  the  universe,  and  every  event  in  the  nat- 
ural world,  in  a  way  of  perfect  correspondence  witli 
his  own  foreknowledge  ot  all  events,  actions,  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  moral  world  in  every  part  of  it  ?  Can 
he  not  direct  every  thing  in  natui'e,  which  is  but  his 
servant,  to  act  in  perfect  agreement  with  his  eternal 
prescience  of  our  sins,  or  of  our  piety  ?  And  hereby  all 
the  glory  of  Providence,  and  our  necessary  depend- 
ence upon  it  by  faith  and  prayer,  are  as  well  secured, as 
if  he  interposed  to  alter  his  own  scheme  every  moment. 

Let  me  ask  again,  did  not  he  in  his  own  coansels,  or 
decrees,  appoint  thunders,  and  lightnings,  and  earth- 
quakes, to  burn  up  and  destroy  Scdom  aaid  Gomorrah^ 


92  OTP   DISPUTES   IN   GENERAL. 

and  turn  them  into  a  dead  s-;  a,  just  at  the  time  when 
the  iniquities  of  tiiose  cities  were  raised  to  their  supreme 
height  ?  Did  he  rot  ordain  the  fountains  of  the  deep 
to  be  broken  up,  and  ov  rwhelming  rains  to  fall 
from  Heaven,  just  when  a  guilty  world  deserved  to  be 
drowned;  while  he  t  ck  eyre  for  the  security  of 
righteous  Noah,  by  an  ark  which  wou'd  flo-t  on  that 
very  deluge  of  wate*'s  ?  Thus  he  cnn  punish  the  crim- 
ina?  when  he  pleases,  and  reward  the  devout  worshipper 
in  the  proper  season,  by  his  original  and  eternal  schemei 
of  appointment,  as  w  it  as  if  he  interposed  every  mo- 
ment anew.  Take  heed,  Fidens,  that  you  be  not 
tempted  av/av  by  such  sophisms  of  Fatalic,  to  with- 
hold praver  frotn  God,  and  to  renounce  your  faith  in 
his  providence. 

Rememb  r  this  short  and  plain  caution  of  the  subtle 
Errors  of  men  :  Let  a  snake  but  once  thrust  in  his  head 
at  some  small  unguarded  fold  of  your  garment,  and  he 
will  insensibly  and  unavoidabl.  wind  his  whole  body 
into  your  bosom,  and  givt  ynu  a  pernicious  wound. 

XI.  On  the  other  hand,  wheii  you  have  found  your 
opponent  make  any  such  concession  as  may  turn  to 
your  real  advantage  in  maintaining  the  truth,  be  wise 
and  watchful  to  obsLrv«=^  it,  and  make  a  happy  im- 
provement of  it.  Rhapsodus  has  taken  a  great  deal  of 
pains  to  d*  tract  froiVi  the  honour  of  Christianity,  by 
sly  insinuations,  that  the  sacred  writers  are  perpetual- 
ly promoting  virtue  and  pi  ty  by  promises  and  threat- 
enings ;  whereas,  neither  the  fear  of  future  punishment, 
nor  tht  hope  of  future  reward,  can  prissibly  be  called 
good  affections. or  such  as  are  the  acknowltedged  springs 
and  sources  of  all  actions  truly  gord.  He  adds  further, 
that  this  fear,  or  this  hope,  cannot  consist  in  reality 
with  virtue  or  goodness,  if  it  either  stands  as  essential 
to  any  mot  al  performance,  or  as  a  considerable  motive 
to  any  good  action  ;  and  thus  he  would  fain  lead  Christ- 
ians to  be  ashamed  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  because  of 
its  future  and  eternal  promises  and  threatenings,as  being 
inconsistent  with  his  notion  of  virtue ;  for  he  supp<.ses, 
that  virtue  should  be  so  beloved  and  practised  for  the 
sake  of  its  own  beauty  and  loveliness,  that  all  other 
motives  arising  from  rewards  or  punishments,  fear  or 
hope,  do  re.'^lly  take  away  just  so  much  from  the  very- 
nature  ef  virtue,  as  their  influence  reaches  to ;  and  no 
part  of  those  good  practices  are  really  valuable,  but 


OV   DISPUTES    IN   G£K£RAL.  8i3 

vvhat  arises  from  the  mere  love  of  virtue  itself,  without 
any  regard  to  punismeiit  or  reward. 

But  observe,  in  two  j)ages  afterwards,  he  grants,  that 
this  principle  of  fear  of  future  punishment,  and  hope  of 
future  reward,  how  mercenary  and  servile  soever  it 
may  be  accounted,  is  yet  in  many  circumstances  a  great 
advantage,  security,  and  support  to  virtue;  especially 
%vherc  theie  is  dai^ger  of  the  violence  of  rage  or  lust, 
or  any  counter  working  passion  to  control  and  over- 
-come  the  good  affections  of  the  mind. 

Mow,  the  1  ule  and  the  ])ractice  of  Christianity,  or  the 
gospel,  as  it  is  closely  connected  with  future  rewards 
and  punishments,  may  be  well  supported  by  this  con- 
cession. Pray,  Rhapsodus,  tell  me,  if  every  man  in 
this  present  life,  by  the  violence  of  some  counter  work- 
ing passion,  may  not  have  his  good  aftections  to  virtue 
controlled  or  overcome?  May  not,  therefore,  his  eter- 
nal fears  aud  hopes  be  a  great  advantage,  s  .curity,  and 
suppoitto  virtue  in  so  dangerous  a  staie  and  situfition, 
as  our  journey  through  this  world  towards  a  better  ? 
And  this  is  all  that  the  defence  of  Christianity  necessa* 
rily  requires. 

And  yet  further,  let  me  ask  our  rh.apsodist,  if  you 
have  nothing  else,  sir,  but  the  beauty,  and  excellency, 
and  loveliness  of  virtue,  to  preach  and  flourish  upon, 
before  such  sorry  and  degenerate  creatures,  as  the  bulk 
of  mankind  are,  and  you  have  no  future  rewards  or 
punishments,  with  which  to  address  iheir  hopes  and 
tears,  how  many  of  these  vicious  wretches  will  you  ever 
reclaim  from  all  their  varieties  of  profaneness,  intem- 
perance, and  madness  ?  How  many  have  you  ever  ac- 
tually reclaimed  by  this  smrcth,  soft  method,  and  these 
fine  words?  What  has  all  that  leasoning  and  rhetoric 
done,  which  have  been  displayed  by  your  predecessors, 
the  Heathen  moralists,  upon  this  excellency  and  beauty 
of  virtue?  What  has  it  been  able  to  do  towards  the  re- 
forming of  a  siiiful  world?  Perhaps  now  and  then,  a 
man  of  better  natural  mould,  has  been  a  little  refined, 
and  perhaps  also,  there  may  have  been  here  and  there 
a  inan  restrained  or  recovered  from  injustice  and  knav- 
ery, from  drunkenness,  and  lewdnc  ss,  and  vile  debauch- 
eries, by  this  fair  reasoning  and  philosophy ;  but  have 
the  passiofss  of  revenge  and  envy,of  ambition  and  pride, 
and  the  inward  secret  vices  of  the  mind  been  mortifi- 
ed ffieiely  by  thig  philosophical  language  ?  Have  any 
15 


94  OF  DISPUTES   IN   GENERAL. 

of  these  men  been  made  new  creatures,  men  of  raal 
piety  and  love  to  God  ? 

Go  dress  up  all  the  virtues  of  human  nature,  in  all 
the  beauties  of  your  oratory,  and  declaim  aloud  on  the 
praise  of  social  virtue,  and  the  amiable  qualivies  of  good- 
ness, till  your  heart  or  your  lungs  ache,  among  the 
looser  herds  of  mankind,  and  you  will  ever  find,  as 
your  Heathen  fathers  have  done  before,  that  the  wild 
passions  and  appetites  of  men  are  too  violent  to  l^e  re- 
strained by  such  mild  and  silken  language.  You  may 
as  well  build  up  a  fence  of  straw  and  feathers,  to  resist 
a  cannon  ball,  or  try  to  quench  a  fl  »ming  grenado  with 
a  shell  of  fair  water,  as  hope  to  succeed  in  these  at- 
tempts. But  an  eternal  heaven,  and  an  etern  il  hell, 
carry  divine  force  and  power  with  them  ;  this  doctrine 
from  the  mouth  of  Christian  prt^achers,  has  begun  the 
reformation  of  multitudes ;  this  gospel  has  recovered 
thousands  among  the  nations,  from  iniquity  and  death. 
They  have  been  awakened  by  these  awful  scenes  to 
be^in  religion,  and  afterwards,  their  virtue  has  improv- 
ed itself  into  superior  and  more  refined  principles  and 
habits  by  divine  grace,  and  risen  to  high  and  eminerA 
degrees,  though  not  to  a  consummate  stite.  The  bless- 
ed God  knows  human  nature  much  bettt  r  than  Rhap- 
sodus  doth,  and  has  throughout  his  word  appointed  a 
more  proper  and  more  effectual  method  of  address  to 
it,  by  the  passions  of  hope  and  fear,  by  punishments 
and  rewatds. 

If  you  read  on  four  pages  further  in  these  writings, 
you  will  find  the  author  makes  another  concession.  He 
allows  that  the  master  of  a  family,  using  proper  re- 
wards and  gentle  punishments  towards  his  children, 
teaches  them  goodness,  and  by  this  help  instructs  them 
in  a  virtue,  which  afterwards  they  practise  upon  otlier 
grounds,  and  without  thinking  of  a  penalty  or  a  bribe; 
and  this,  says  he,  is  what  we  call  ^  lilieral  education, 
and  a  liberal  service. 

This  new  concession  of  that  author  may  also  be  very 
happily  improved  in  favour  of  Chrislianit)'.  What  are 
the  best  of  men  in  this  life  ?  They  are  by  no  meaiis 
perfect  in  virtue ;  we  are  all  but  children  here  under 
the  great  Master  of  the  family,  and  he  is  pleased,  by 
hopes  and  fears,  by  mercies  and  corrections,  to  instruct 
us  in  virtue,  and  to  conduct  us  onward  towards  the 
sublimer  and  more  perfect  practice  o^  it  in  the  future 


AF   DISPUTES   IN   OENERAL.  0.5 

world,  where  it  shall  be  performed,  as  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, perhaps  without  thinking  of  penalties  and  bribes. 
And  since  he  hath  allowed  that  this  conduct  may  be 
called  a  liberal  education  and  a  liberal  service,  let 
Christianity  then  be  indulged  the  title  of  a  liberal  edu- 
cation also,  and  it  is  admirably  fitted  for  such  frail  and 
sinful  creatures,  while  they  are  training  up  towards 
the  sublinier  virtues  of  the  heavenly  state. 

XII.  When  you  are  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  a 
person  of  very  diflferent  principles  from  yourself,  and 
you  cannot  find  any  ready  way  to  prevail  with  him  to 
embrace  the  truth  by  principles  which  you  both  freely 
acknowledge,  you  may  fairly  make  use  of  his  own  prin- 
ciples to  show  him  his  mistake,  and  thus  convince  or 
silence  him  from  his  own  concessions. 

If  your  opponent  should  be  a  Stoic  philosopher,  or  a 
Jew,  you  may  pursue  your  argument  m  defence  of  some 
Christian  doctrine  or  duty  against  such  a  disputant,  by 
axioms  or  laws  borrowed  either  from  Zeno  or  Moses, 
And  though  you  do  not  enter  into  the  inquiry  how  ma- 
ny of  the  laws  of  Moses  are  abrogated,  or  whether 
Zeno  was  right  or  wrong  in  his  philosophy,  yet  if  from 
the  principles  and  concessions  ot  your  opponent,  you  can 
support  your  argument  for  the  gospel  of  Christ,  this 
has  been  always  counted  a  fair  treatment  of  an  adver- 
sary, and  it  is  called  argumentum  ad  hominem,  or  ratio 
ex  concessis.  St.  Paul  sometimes  makes  use  of  this 
sort  of  disputation  when  he  talks  with  Jews  or  Heathen 
philosophers ;  and  at  least  he  silences  if  not  convinces 
them,  which  is  sometimes  necessary  to  be  done  against 
an  obstir.ate  and  clamorr.us  adversary,  that  just  honour 
might  he  paid  to  truths  which  he  knew  were  divine, 
and  that  the  only  true  doctrine  of  salvation  might  be 
confirmed  ynd  propagated  among  sinful  and  dying  meiv, 

XIII.  Yet  great  care  must  be  taken  lest  your  de- 
bates break  in  upon  your  passions,  and  awaken  them 
to  take  part  in  the  controversy.  When  the  opponent 
pushes  hard,  and  gives  just  and  mortal  wounds  to  our 
own  opinions,  rur  passions  are  very  apt  to  feel  the 
strokes,  and  to  rise  in  resentment  and  defence.  Sf  If  is 
so  mingled  with  the  sentiments  which  we  have  chosen, 
and  has  such  a  tender  feeling  of  all  the  opposition  which 
is  made  to  them,  that  personal  brawls  are  very  ready  to 
e»me;  in  as  secoijds,  to  succeed  and  finish  the  dispute  ot" 


96  '       OF   mSPliTES    IN    GENERAL. 

opinions.  Then  noise  and  clamour  and  folly  appear  in 
all  their  shapes,  and  chase  reason  and  truth  cut  of  sight. 

How  unhappy  is  the  case  of  frail  and  wretched  man- 
kind in  this  dark  and  dusky  state  of  strong  passion  and 
glimmering  reason  !  How  ready  are  we,  when  our  pas- 
sions are  engaged  in  the  dispute,  to  consider  mdi-e  what 
loads  of  nonsence  and  reproach  we  can  ia>  upon  our 
opponent,  than  what  reason  and  truth  require  in  the 
controversy  itself.  Dismal  are  the  consequences  man- 
kind are  too  often  involved  in  by  this  evil  principle  ;  it 
is  this  common  and  dangerou's  jSractice  that  carries  the 
heart  aside  from  all  tliat  is  fair  and  honest  in  our  search 
after  truth,  or  the  propagation  of  it  in  the  world.  One 
would  wish  from  one's  very  soul,  that  none  of  the 
Christian  fathers  had  been  guilty  of  such  follies  as  these. 

But  St.  Jerome  fairly  confesses  this  evil  jninciple,  in 
his  apology  for  himself  to  Pammachius,  that  he  had 
not  so  much  regarded  what  was  exactly  to  be  spoken 
in  the  controversy  he  had  in  hand,  as  what  was  fit  to 
lay  a  lead  on  Jovinian.  And  indeed,  I  fear  this  was  the 
vile  custom  of  many  of  the  writei's,  even  in  the  church 
aftairs  of  those  times.  But  it  will  be  a  double  scandal 
upon  us  in  our  more  enlightened  age,  if  we  will  allow 
ourselves  in  a  conduct  so  criminal  and  dishonest.  Hap-^ 
py  souls,  who  keep  such  a  sacred  dominion  over  their 
inferior  and  animal  powers,  and  all  the  influences  of 
pride  and  secular  interest,  that  tht  sensitive  tumults, 
or  these  vicious  influences,  never  lise  to  disturb  the 
superior  and  better  operations  of  the  reasoning  niind  ! 

XIV.  These  general  directions  are  necessary,  or  at 
least  useful,  in  all  debates  whatsoever,  whether  they 
arise  in  occasional  conversation,  or  are  appointed  at 
any  certain  time  or  place ;  whether  they  ai-e  managed 
with  or  without  any  formal  rules  to  govern  them.  But 
there  are  three  sorts  of  disputatiot),  in  v^hich  there  are 
some  forms  and  orders  observed,  and  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  these  three  names,  viz.  Socratic^  Foren- 
sic, and  Academic,  i.  e.  the  disputes  of  the  schools. 

Concerning  each  of  these  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
discourse  a  little,  and  give  a  few  part;- uiar  directions 
ov  remarks  about  thera, 


SOCRATICAL  DISPUTATION.  90 


CHAP.  XL 


The  Socratical  Way  of  Disfiutation. 

I.  I'HIS  method  of  dispute  derives  its  name  from  Soc- 
rates, by  whom  it  was  practised,  and  by  other  philoso- 
|)hers  in  his  age,  l(Mig  l>cfore  Aristotle  invented  the  par- 
ticular forms  of  syllogism  in  mood  and  figure,  which 
are  I'ow  used  in  scliolastic  disputations. 

II,  The  Socratical  way  is  managed  by  questions  and 
answers  in  such  a  manner  as  th>s,  viz.  If  I  would  lead 
a  person  into  the  belief  of  a  heaven  and  a  hell,  or  a  fu- 
ture state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  I  might  begin 
in  some  such  manner  of  inquiry,  and  suppose  the  most 
obvious  and  easy  answers. 

Quasi.  Does  not  God  govern  the  world? 

jins.  Surely  he  that  made  it  governs  it 

Quest.  Is  not  God  both  a  good  and  a  righteous  gov- 
ernour  ? 

jim.  Both  these  characters  doubtless  belong  to  him. 

Quest'  What  is  the  true  notion  of  a  good  and  right- 
eous goveniour  ? 

jins»  That  he  punishes  the  wicked  and  rewards  the 
good. 

Quest.  Are  the  good  always  rewarded  in  this  life? 

Jins.  No  surely,  for  many  virtuous  men  are  misera- 
ble here,  and  greatly  afflicted. 

Quest.  Are  the  wicked  always  punished  in  this  life  ? 

.^ns.  No  certainly,  for  many  of  them  live  without 
sorrow,  and  some  of  the  vilest  of  men  are  often  raised 
to  great  riches  and  honour. 

Quest.  Wherein  then  doth  God  make  it  appear  that 
he  is  good  and  righteous  ? 

jins.  I  own  there  is  but  little  appearance  of  it  on  earth. 

Quest.  Will  there  not  be  a  time  then  when  the  tables 
shall  be  turned,  and  the  scene  of  things  changed,  since 
God  governs  mankind  righteously  ? 

j^ns.  Doubtless,  there  must  be  a  proper  time,  where- 
in God  will  make  that  goodness  and  that  righteousne^ 
to  appear. 

Quest.  If  this  be  not  before  their  death,  how  can  it 
be  done  ? 

jins.  I  can  think  of  no  other  way  but  by  supposing 
man  to  have  some  existence  after  tliis  life. 


88  SOCRATICAL   DISPUTATION. 

Qtiest,  Are  you  not  convinced  then  that  there  Hiust 
be  .  state  rf  reward  and  punishment  alter  death  ? 

^ns.  Yes,  surely,  I  now  see  plainly  that  the  good- 
ness and  righteousness  of  God,  as  governor  of  the 
world,  necessarily  require  it. 

Ill  Now  the  advantages  of  this  method  are  very 
considerable. 

(1.)  It  represents  the  form  of  a  dialogue  cr  common 
conversation,which  is  a  much  more  easy,more  pleasant, 
and  a  more  sprightly  way  of  instruction,  and  more  fit 
to  excite  the  attention  and  sharpen  the  penetr'-Jtion  of 
the  learner,  than  solitary  reading,  or  silent  attention  to 
a  lecture.  Man  being  a  social  cieature,  delights  more 
in  c  inversation,  and  learns  better  this  way,  it  it  could 
always  be  wisely  and  happily  practised. 

(2.)  This  method  halh  something  very  obliging  in  it, 
and  carries  a  very  humble  and  condescending  air,  w'len 
he  thnt  instructs  seems  to  be  the  inquirer,  and  seeks 
information  from  him  who  learns. 

(3.)  It  leads  the  learner  into  the  knowledge  of  truth 
as  it  were  by  his  own  invention,  which  is  a  very  pleasing 
thing  to  human  nature;  and  by  questions  pertinently 
and  artificially  proposed,  it  does  as  t  ffectually  draw 
him  on  to  discover  his  own  mistakes,  which  he  is  much 
more  easily  persuaded  to  relinquish  when  he  seems  to 
have  discovered  them  himself. 

(4.)  It  is  managed  in  a  great  measure  in  the  form  of 
the  most  eas>  reasoning,  always  arising  from  something 
asserted  or  known  i:  the  foregoing  answer,  and  so  pro- 
ceeding to  inquire  something  unknown  in  the  following 
question,  which  agaiii  makt  s  way  for  the  next  answer. 
Kow  such  an  exeicise  is  very  alluring  and  entertaining 
to  the  understanding,  while  its  own  reasoning  powers 
are  ail  along  employed  ;  and  that  without  labtmr  or  dif- 
ficulty, because  the  querist  finds  nut  and  proposes  all 
the  interrjfi^diate  ideas  or  middle  t  rms. 

IV.  There  is  a  method  very  nearly  akin  to  this,  which 
has  much  cbtained  of  late,  viz.  writing  controversies  by 
questions  only,  or  confinning  or  refuting  any  position,  or 
persuading  to  or  dehorting  from  any  practice,  by  the 
mere  proposal  of  queries.  The  answer  to  them  is  sup- 
posed to  be  so  plain  and  so  necessary,  that  they  are  not 
expressed,  because  the  query  itself  carries  a  convincing 
argument  in  it,  and  seems  to  determine  what  the  an- 
swer must  be. 


or   FORENSIC   DISPUTES.  99 

V.  If  Christian  catechisms  could  be  framed  in  tlie 
manner  of  a  Socratical  dispute  by  question  and  aris>fcer, 
it  would  wonderfully  eiklighten  the  nands  of  children, 
and  it  would  improve  their  intellectual  and  reasoning 
powers,  at  the  same  time  that  it  leads  them  iiito  the 
knowledge  of  religion ;  and  it  is  upon  one  account  well 
suited  to  the  capacity  of  children ;  for  the  questions  may 
he  pretty  numerous,  and  the  querist  must  not  proceed 
teo  swiftly  to'vards  the  determination  of  his  point  pro- 
posed, that  h:-  may  with  more  ease,  with  brighter  evi- 
dence, and  with  surer  success,  draw  the  leari»er  on  to 
assent  to  those  principles,  step  by  step,  from  whence  the 
final  conclusion  will  naturally  arise.  The  ouly  incon- 
venience would  be  this,  that  if  children  were  to  reason 
out  all  their  way,  entirely  into  the  knowledge  of  every 
part  of  their  religion,  it  would  draw  common  catechisms 
i  nto  tfw  large  a  volume  for  their  leisure,  t^ttention,  or 
memory. 

Yet  those  who  explain  their  catechisms  to  them  may, 
by  due  application  and  forethought,  instruct  them  iu 
this  manner. 


CHAP.  XIT. 

Of  Forensic  Disputes. 

I.  THE  Forum  was  a  public  place  in  Rome  where 
lawyers  and  orators  nia-de  iheir  speeches  before  the 
proper  judge  in  matters  of  property^  or  in  criminal  ca- 
ses, to  accuse  or  excuse,  to  complain  or  defend  ;  thence 
all  sorts  of  disputations  in  public  assemblies  or  courts  of 
justice,  where  several  persons  make  their  distinct 
speeches  for  or  against  any  person  or  thing  whatsoever, 
but  more  especially  in  civil  mattets,  may  come  under 
the  name  of  Forensic  Disputes. 

II.  This  is  practised  not  only  in  the  courts  of  judica- 
ture, where  a  single  person  sits  to  judge  of  the  truth  or 
goodness  of  any  cause,  and  to  determine  according  to  the 
weight  of  reasons  on  either  side ;  Hut  it  is  used  also  in 
poiitici*!  senates  or  parliaments,  ecclesiastical  synods, 
and  assemblies  of  various  kinds. 

In  these  assemblies,  generally  one  person  is  chosen 
chaiiman  or  moclerat<ir,  not  to  give  a  determination  to 
the  rontroversy,  but  chiefly  to  keep  the  several  speak- 
ers to  the  rules  of  order  and  decency  in  their  conduct ; 


l(jK)  OF  S'ORfiNSIC    DISPUTES. 

but  the  final  determination  of  the  question  arises  from 
the  majoa'itv  of  opinions  or  votes  in  the  assembly,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  or  ought  to  be  swayed  by  the  superior 
weight  of  reason  appearing  in  the  several  speeches  that 
are  made. 

III.  The  method  of  proceeding  is  usually  in  some 
such  form  as  this.  The  first  person  who  speaks  whea 
the  court  is  set,  opens  the  case  either  more  briefly  or  at 
large,  and  proposes  the  case  to  the  judge,  or  the  chair- 
man, or  moderator  of  the  assembly,  and  gives  Ivis  own, 
reasons  for  his  opinion  ia  the  case  proposed. 

IV.  This  persOTi  is  succeeded  by  one,  or  perhaps  twe 
or  several  more,  who  paraphrase  on  the  «ame  subject, 
and  ai  gue  on  the  same  side  of  the  question ;  they  confirm 
Ayhat  the  first  has  spoken,  and  urge  new  reasons  to  en- 
force the  same ;  then  those  who  are  of  a  different  opin- 
ion stand  up  and  make  their  several  speeches  in  a  suc- 
cession, opposing  the  cause  which  others  have  maintain- 
ed, giving  their  reasons  against  it,  and  eiwieavouring  to 
refute  the  arguments  whereby  the  first  speakers  have 
supported  it. 

V .  After  this,  one  and  another  rises  up  to  make  their 
replies,  to  vindicate  or  to  condemn,  to  establish  or  to 
confute  what  has  been  offered  before,  on  each  side  of  the 
question  ;  till  at  last,  according  to  tl*e  rules,  orders,  or 
customs  of  the  court  or  assembly,  the  controversy  is  de- 
cided, either  by  a  single  judge,  or  the  suffrage  of  the 
assembly. 

VI.  Where  the  question  or  naatter  in  debate  consists 
of  si^eral  parts,  after  it  is  once  opened  by  the  first  oi* 
second  speaker,  sometimes  those  who  follow  take  each 
of  them  a  particular  part  of  the  debate,  according  to 
their  inclination  or  their  prior  agreement,  and  apply 
themselves  to  argue  upon  that  single  point  only,  that  so 
the  whole  complexion  of  the  debate  may  not  be  throwa 
into  confusion  by  the  variety  of  subjects,  if  every  speak- 
er should  handle  all  the  subjects  of  debate. 

VII.  Before  the  final  sentence  or  determination  is 
given,  it  is  usual  to  have  the  reasons  and  arguments 
which  have  been  offered  on  both  sides,  summed  up  and 
represented  in  a  more  compendious  nianner  y  and  tliLs  is 
donf  either  by  the  appointed  judge  of  the  court,  or  the 
chairman,  or  some  noted  person  iu  the  assembly,  that  so 
judgment  may  proc<eed  upoa  the  fullest  survey  of  thp 


OP  ACADEMIC    DISPUTATIOI?*,  101 

whole  subject,  that  as  far  as  possible  in  human  affairs, 
nothinja;  may  be  done  contrary  to  truth  or  justicer 

VII i.  As  this  is  a  practice  in  which  multitudes  of 
gentlemei),  besides  tho^e  of  the  learned  professions,  may 
be  engaged,  at  least  in  their  maturer  years  of  life,  so  it 
would  be  a  very  proper  and  usehd  thmg  to  introduce 
this  custom  into  our  academies,  viz.  to  propose  cases, 
and  let  the  students  debate  them  in  a  Forensic  manner 
in  the  presence  of  their  tutoi's.  There  was  something 
of  this  kind  practised  L)y  the  Roman  youth  in  their 
schools,  in  order  to  train  them  up  for  orators,  both  in 
the  forum  and  in  the  senate.  Perhaps  Juvenal  gives 
some  hints  of  it  when  he  says, 

.......>.i..~..> ......n ct  nos 

Con^llum  dedimus  Syllcc^  privatus  ut  ultutn 
Dormiret.^ ^.,.^^, Sat.  I . 

Where  with  men-boys  I  strove  to  get  I'eno'wn, 
Advising  Sylla  to  a  piivate  gown, 
That  he  might  sleep  the  sounder. 

Sometimes  these  were  assigned  to  the  boys  as  single 
subjects  of  a  theme  or  declamation  ;  so  the  same  \)cet 
speaks  sarcastically  to  Hannibal, 

~ I  deniens,  et  snsvas  curre  per  Alpea, 

Ut  pueris  placeas  et  declamatio  Jias.  Sat.  10. 

Go  climb  the  rugged  Alps,  ambitious  fool. 
To  pleati.'  the  boys,  and  be  a  theme  at  school. 

See  more  of  this  matter  in  Kennet's  antiquities  of 
Rome,  in  the  second  Essay  on  the  Roman  Etlucatixjn. 


CHAP.  XIII. 
Of  Academic  or  Scholastic  Disputatiov. 

THE  common  methods  in  which  disputes  are  man-' 
aged  in  schools  of  learning  are  these,  \  iz. 

I.  The  tutor  appoints  a  question  in  some  of  the  sci- 
ences, to  be  deb  tted  nmongst  his  students  ;  one  of  them 
undertakf's  tJ!  affirm  or  deny  the  question,  nml  todelend 
his  assertion  or  negation,  and  to  ai^swer  all  objections 
against  it ;  he  is  called  the  respondent ;  and  the  rest  of 
the  students  in  the  Scime  class,  or  who  pursue  the  same 
scienre,  are  the  opponent.^.,  who  are  appointed  to  disjjute 
or  raise  objections  against  tlie  proposition  thus  affirmed 
or  denied. 

K 


102  OF   ACADEMIC,    OR 

.  II.  Each  of  the  students  successively  in  their  turn 
becomes  the  respondent  or  the  defender  of  that  propo^ 
sition,  while  the  rest  oppose  it  also  successively  in  their 
turns, 

III.  It  is  the  business  of  the  respondent  to  write  a 
thesis  in  Latin,  or  short  discourse  on  the  question  pro- 
posed ;  and  he  either  affirms  or  denies  the  question  ac- 
coi'ding  to  the  opinion  of  the  tutor,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  the  truth,  and  he  reads  it  at  the  beginning  of  the 
dispute. 

IV.  In  his  discourse,  (which  is  written  with  as  great 
accuracy  as  the  youth  is  capable  of)  he  explains  the 
terms  of  the  question,  frees  them  from  all  ambiguity, 
fixes  their  sense,  declares  the  true  intent  and  meaning 
of  the  question  itself,  separates  it  from  other  questions 
with  which  it  may  have  been  complicated,  and  distin- 
guishes it  from  other  questions  which  may  happen  to  be 
akin  to  it,  and  then  pronounces  in  the  negative  or  af- 
firmative concerning  it. 

V.  When  this  is  done,  then  in  the  second  part  of  his 
discourse  he  gives  his  own  strongest  arguments  to  confirm 
the  proposition  he  has  laid  down,  i.  e.  to  vindicate  his 
own  side  of  the  question ;  but  he  does  not  usually  pro- 
ceed to  represent  the  objections  against  it,  and  to  solve 
cr  answer  them ;  for  it  is  the  business  of  the  other  stu- 
dents to  raise  objections  in  disputing. 

VI.  Note.  In  some  schools  the  respondent  is  admit- 
ted to  talk  largely  upon  the  question,  with  many  flour- 
ishes and  Illustrations,  to  introduce  great  authorities 
from  ancient  and  modern  writings  for  the  support  of  it, 
and  to  scatter  Latin  repioaches  in  abundance  on  all 
those  who  are  of  a  different  sentiment.  But  this  is  not 
always  permitted,  nor  should  it  indeed  be  ever  indulg- 
ed, kst  it  teach  youth  to  reproach,  instead  of  reasoning. 

VII.  When  the  respondent  has  read  over  his  thesis 
in  the  school,  the  junior  student  makes  an  objection,  and 
draws  it  up  m  the  regular  form  of  a  syllogism  ;  the  re- 
spondent repeats  the  objection,  and  either  denies  the 
major  or  minor  proposition  directly,  or  he  distinguishes 
upon  some  word  or  phrase  in  the  major  or  minor,  and 
shows  in  what  sense  the  proposition  may  be  true,  but 
that  sense  does  not  affect  the  question ;  and  then  de- 
clares that  m  the  sense  which  affects  the  present  ques- 
tion, the  proposition  is  not  true,  and  consequently  he  de- 
nies it. 


'  SCHOLASTIC   DIBFOTATION.  103 

VIII.  Then  the  opponent  proceeds  by  another  syllo- 
gism to  vindicate  the  proposition  that  is  denied ;  again 
the  respondent  answers  by  denying  or  distiv  guishing. 

Thus  the  disputation  goes  on  in  a  series  or  succession 
of  syllogisms  and  answers,  till  the  objector  is  silencedi 
and  has  no  more  to  say. 

IX.  When  he  can  go  no  further,  the  next  student  lie- 
gins  to  propose  his  objection,  and  then  the  third  and 
the  fourth,  even  to  the  senior,  who  is  the  last  opponent. 

X.  During  this  time,  the  tutor  sits  in  the  chair  as . 
president  or  moderator,  to  see  that  the  rules  of  dispu- 
tation and  decency  be  observed  on  both  sides ;  and  to 
admonish  each  disputant  of  any  irregularity  in  their 
conduct.  His  work  is  also  to  illustrate  and  explain  the 
answer  or  distinction  of  the  respondent  where  it  is  ob- 
scure, to  strengthen  it  where  it  is  weak,  and  to  correct 
it  where  it  is  false ;  and  wh^  the  respondent  is  pinch- 
ed with  a  strnog  objection,  aflci  is  at  a  loss  for  an  answer, 
the  moderator  assists  him,  and  suggests  some  answer  to 
the  objection  of  the  opponent,  in  defence  of  the  question, 
according  to  his  own  opinion  or  sentiment. 

XI.  In  public  disputes,  where  the  opponents  and  re- 
spondents choose  their  own  side  of  the  question,  the 
moderator's  work  is  not  to  favour  either  disputant ;  but 
he  only  sits  as  president,  to  see  that  the  laws  of  dispu- 
tation be  observed,  and  a  decorum  maintained. 

XII.  Now  the  laws  of  disputation  jrelate  either  to  the 
opponent,  or  to  the  respondent,  or  to  both. 

The  laws  obliging  the  opponent  are  these : 

1.  That  he  must  directly  contradict  the  proposition 
of  the  respondent,  and  not  merely  attack  any  of  the  ar- 
guments whereby  the  respondent  has  supported  that 
proposition  ;  for  it  is  one  thing  to  confute  a  single  argu- 
ment of  the  respondent,  and  another  to  confute  the  the- 
sis itself. 

2.  (Which  is  akin  to  the  former.)  He  must  contra- 
dict or  oppose  the  very  sense  and  intention  of  the  prop- 
osition as  the  respondent  has  stated  it,  and  not  merely 
oppose  the  words  of  the  thesis  in  any  other  sense ;  for 
this  would  be  the  way  to  plunge  the  dispute  into  ambi- 
guity and  darkness,  to  talk  beside  the  question,  to  wran- 
gle about  words,  and  to  attack  a  proposition  different 
Irom  what  the  respondent  has  espoused,  which  is  called 
ignoratio  elenchi. 

3.  He  must  propose  his  argumenta  in  a  plain,  short, 


104  OF   ACADEMIC,   OR 

and  syllogrstic  fornrj,  according  to  the  rules  of  logic,  with- 
out flying  to  fallacies  or  sophisms ;  and  as  far  as  may- 
be, he  should  use  categorical  syllogisms. 

4.  Though  the  respondeit  may  be  attacked  either 
upon  a  point  of  his  own  concessicm,  which  is  called  ar- 
gumcntum  ex  concessifi,  or  by  reducing  him  to  an  ab- 
surdity, which  is  called  reductio  ad  ubsurdum^  yet  it  is 
the  neatest,  the  most  useful,  and  the  best  sort  of  dispu- 
tation, where  the  opponent  draws  his  objections  from 
the  nature  of  the  question  its. If. 

5.  Where  the  respondent  denies  any  proposition,  the 
opponent,  if  he  proceed,  must  directly  vindicate  and 
confirm  that  proposition,  i.  e.  he  must  make  that  prop- 
osition the  conclusion  of  his  .next  syllogism. 

6.  \^^li£re  tlie  respondent  limits  or  distinguishes  any 
propositicm,  the  opponent  must  directly  prove  his  own 
proposition  in  that  sense,  And  according  te  that  member 
of  the  distinction  in  whiclwhe  respondent  denied  it. 

XIII.  The  laws  that  oblige  the  respondent  are  these : 

1.  To  repeat  the  argument  pf  the  opponent  in  the 
very  same  words  in  which  it  was  proposed,  before  be 
attempts  to  answer  it. 

2.  If  the  syllogism  be  false  in  the  logical  form  of  it, 
he  must  discover  the  fault  according  to  the  rules  of  logic. 

3.  If  the  argument  does  not  directly  and  effectually 
oppose  his  thesis,  he  must  show  this  mistake,  and  make 
it  appear  that  his  thesis  is  safe,  even  though  the  argu- 
ment of  the  opponent  be  admitted  ;  or  at  least,  that  the 
argument  does  only  aim  at  it  collaterally,  or  at  a  dis- 
tancei  and  not  directly  overthrow  it,  or  conclude  against 
it. 

4.  Where  the  matter  of  the  opponent's  objection  is 
faulty  in  any  part  of  it,  the  respondent  must  grant  what 
is  true  in  it,  he  must  deny  what  is  false,  he  must  distin- 
guish or  limit  the  proposition  which  is  ambiguous  or 
doubtful ;  and  then,  granting  the  sense  in  which  it  is 
true,  he  must  deny  the  sense  in  which  it  is  false. 

5.  If  a  hypothetiic  proposition  be  false,  the  respond- 
ent must  deny  the  consequence;  if  a  disjunctive,  he 
must  de!>y  the  disjunction  ;  if  a  categoric  or  relative,  he 
must  simply  deny  it. 

6.  It  is  sometimes  allowed  for  the  respondent  to  use 
an  indirect  answer  after  he  has  answered  directly ;  and 
he  may  also  show  how  the  opponent's  argument  may 
be  retorted  against  himself. 


SCHOLASTIC  DISPUTATION.  106 

XIV.  The  laws  that  oblige  both  disputants  are  these. 

1.  Sometimes  it  is  necessai7  there  should  be  a  men- 
tion of  certain  general  principles,  in  which  they  both 
agree,  relating  to  the  question,  that  so  they  may  not  dis- 
pute on  those  things  which  either  are  or  ought  to  have 
been  first  granted  on  both  sides. 

2.  When  the  state  of  the  controversy  is  well  known, 
and  plainly  deteniiined  and  agreed,  it  must  not  be  al- 
tered by  either  disputant  in  the  course  of  the  disputa- 
tion ;  and  the  respondent  cspfrcially  should  keep  a 
watchful  eye  on  the  opponent,  in  this  matter. 

3.  Let  neither  party  invade  the  f)rovince  of  the  other ; 
especially  let  the  respondent  take  heed  that  he  does 
not  turn  opponent,  except  in  retorting  the  argument  up- 
on his  adversary  after  a  direct  response ;  and  even  this 
is  allowed  only  as  an  illustration  or  confirmation  of  his 
own  response. 

4.  L^t  each  wait  with  patience  till  the  other  has  done 
speaking.  It  is  a  piece  of  rudeness  to  interrupt  another 
in  his  speech. 

Yet  though  the  disputants  have  not  this  liberty,  the 
moderator  may  do  it,  when  either  of  the  disputants 
break  the  rules,  and  he  may  interpose  so  far  as  to  keep 
them  in  order. 

XV.  It  must  be  confessed,  there  are  some  advanta- 
ges to  be  attained  by  academical  disputations.  It  gives 
vigour  and  briskness  to  the  mind  thus  exercised,  and 
relieves  the  languor  of  private  study  and  meditation.  It 
sharpens  the  wit  and  all  the  inventive  powers.  It  makes 
the  thoughts  active,  and  sends  them  on  all  sides  to  find 
arguments  and  answers  both  for  opposition  and  defence. 
It  gives  opportunity  of  viewing  thel  subject  of  discourse 
on  all  sides,  and  of  learning  what  inconveniences,  difficul- 
ties, and  objections,  attend  particular  opinions.  It  fur- 
nishes the  soul  with  various  occasions  of  starting  such 
thoughts  as  otherwise  would  never  have  come  into  the 
mind.  It  makes  a  student  more  expert  in  attacking 
and  refuting  an  error,  as  well  as  in  vindicating  a  truth. 
It  instructs  the  scholar  in  the  various  methods  of  ward- 
ing off  the  force  of  objections,  and  of  discovering  and  re- 
felling  the  subtle  tricks  of  sophisters.  It  procures  also 
a  freedom  and  readiness  of  speech,  and  raises  the  mod- 
est and  diffident  genius  to  a  due  degree  of  courage. 

XVI.  But  there  are  some  very  grievous  inconvenien- 
ces that  may  sometimes  overbalance  all  these  advanta- 

K  2 


106  OF  ACADEMIC,   OR 

ges.  For  many  young  students,  by  a  constant  habit  of 
disputing,  grow  impudent  and  audacious,  proud  ani 
disdainful,  talkative  and  impertinent,  and  render  them- 
selves intolerable  by  an  obstinate  humour  of  maintaining 
whatever  they  have  asserted,  as  well  as  by  a  spirit  of 
contradiction,  opposing  almost  every  thing  that  they 
hear.  The  disputation  itself  often  awakes  the  passions 
(rf  ambition,  emulation,  and  anger ;  it  carries  away  the 
mind  from  that  calm  and  sedate  temper  which  is  so 
necessary  to  contemplate  truth. 

XVII.  It  is  evident  also,  diat  by  freguent  exercises  of 
this  sort,  wherein  opinions  true  and  false  are  argued, 
supported,  and  refuted,  on  both  sides,  the  mind  of  man 
is  led  by  insensible  degrees  to  an  uncertain  and  fluctuat- 
ing temper,  and  falls  into  danger  of  a  skeptical  humour, 
which  never  comes  to  an  establishment  in  any  doctrines. 
Many  persons  by  these  means  become  much  more  ready 
to  oppose  whatsoever  is  offered  in  searching  out  truth ; 
they  hardly  wait  till  they  have  read  or  heard  the  senti- 
ment of  any  person,  before  their  heads  are  busily  em- 
ployed to  seek  out  arguments  against  it.  They  grow 
naturally  sharp  in  finding  out  difficulties ;  and  by  in- 
dulging this  humour,  they  converse  with  the  dark  and 
doubtful  parts  of  a  subject  so  long,  till  they  almost  render 
themselves  incapable  of  receiving  the  full  evidence  ot  a 
proposition  and  acknowledging  the  light  of  truth.  It 
has  some  tendency  to  make  a  youth  a  carping  critic, 
rather  than  a  judicious  man. 

XVIII.  I  would  add  yet  further,  that  in  these  dispu- 
tations the  respondent  is  generally  appointed  to  main- 
tain the  supposed  truth,  that  is,  the  tutor's  opinion.  But 
all  the  opponents  are  busy  and  warmly  engaged  in  find- 
ing arguments  against  the  truth,  Now  if  a  sprightly 
young  genius  happens  to  manage  his  argument  so  well 
as  to  puzzle  and  gravel  the  respondent,  and  perhaps  to 
perplex  the  moderator  a  little  too,  he  is  S(X)n  tempted 
to  suppose  his  argument  unanswerable,  and  the  truth 
entirely  to  lie  on  his  side.  The  pleasure  which  he  takes 
in  having  found  a  sophism  which  has  great  appearance 
of  reason,  and  which  he  himself  has  managed  with  such 
success,  becomes  perhaps  a  strong  prejudice  to  engage 
his  inward  sentiments  in  favour  of  his  argument,  and  in 
opposition  to  the  supposed  truth. 

XiX.  Yet  perhaps  it  may  be  possible  to  reduce  scho- 
laiitic  disputations  imder  such  a  guard  as  may  in  some 


SCHOLASTIC   filBPUTATION,  \(i1 

i[neasure  prevent  most  of  these  abuses  of  them,  and  the 
unhappy  events  that  too  often  attend  them  ;  for  it  is  a 
pity  that  an  exercise  which  has  some  valuable  benefits 
attending  it  should  be  utterly  thrown  away,  if  it  be  pos- 
sible to  secure  young  minds  against  the  abuse  of  it ;  for 
which  purpose,  some  of  these  directions  may  seeni 
proper : 
XX.    General  directions  for  scholastic  disputes. 

1.  Never  dispute  upon  mere  trifles,  things  that  arc 
utterly  useless  to  be  known,  under  a  vain  pretence  of 
sharpening  the  wit ;  for  the  same  advantage  may  be  de- 
rived from  solid  and  useful  subjects,  and  thus  two  hap- 
py ends  may  be  attained  at  once.  Or  if  such  disputa- 
tions are  always  thought  dangerous  in  important  mat- 
ters, let  them  be  utterly  abandoned. 

2.  Do  not  make  infinite  and  unsearchable  things  the 
matter  of  dispute,  nor  suchpropositibns  as  are  made  ui> 
of  mere  words  without  ideas,  If  st  it  lead  young  persons 
into  a  most  unhappy  habit  of  talking  without  a  meaning, 
and  boldly  to  determine  upon  things  that  are  hardly 
within  the  reach  of  human  capacity. 

3.  Let  not  obvious  and  known  truths,  or  some  of  the 
most  plain  and  certain  propositions  be  bandied  about  in 
a  disputation,  for  a  mere  trial  of  skill;  for  he  that  op- 
poses  them  in  this  manner  will  be  in  danger  of  contract- 
ing a  habit  of  opposing  all  evidence,  will  acquire  a  spirit 
of  contradiction,  and  pride  himself  in  the  power  of  resist- 
ing the  brightest  light,  and  fighting  against  the  strong- 
est proofs ;  this  will  insensibly,  injure  the  mind,  and 
tends  greatly  to  an  universal  skepticism. 

Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  the  most  proper  subjects 
of  dispute  seem  to  be,  those  questions  which  are  not  of 
the  very  highest  importance  and  certainty,  nor  of  the 
meanest  and  trifling  kind ;  but  rather  the  intermediate 
questions  between  these  two;  and  there  is  a  large  suf- 
ficiency of  them  in  the  sciences.  But  this  I  put  as  a 
mere  proposal,  to  be  determined  by  the  n^ore  learned 
and  prudent. 

4  It  would  be  well  if  every  dispute  could  be  so  order- 
ed as  to  be  a  means  of  searching  out  truth,  and  not  to 
gain  a  triumph.  Then  each  disputant  niigla  come  to 
the  work  without  bins  and  prejudice,  with  a  desire  of 
truth,  and  not  with  ambition  of  glory  and  victory. 

Nor  should  the  aim  and  design  of  tlie  disjJutkrit  be  to 
avoid  arttuUy  and  escape  the  difficulties  which  the  op- 


108  OE    ACADEMIC,    OR 

ponent  offers,  but  to  discuss  them  thoroughly,  and  solve 
thfm  fairly,  f  thev  are  capable  of  being  solved. 

Again,  Jet  the  opponent  be  solicitous  not  to  darken 
and  confound  the  responses  that  are  given  him  by  fresh 
subtilties;  but  let  him  bethink  himself  whether^they 
are  not  a  just  answer  to  the  objection,  and  be  honestly 
ready  to  perceive  and  accept  them,  and  yield  to  them.  ' 

5.'  For  this  end,  letbcth  the  respondent  and  opponent 
use  the  clearest  and  most  distinct  and  expressive  lan- 
guage in  which  they  can  clothe  their  thoughts.  Let 
them  seek  and  practise  brevity  and  perspicuity  on  both 
sides,  without  long  declamations,  tedious  ciixumlocu- 
tions,  and  rhetorical  flourishes. 

If  there  happens  to  be  any  doubt  or  obscurity  on 
either  side,  let  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  ever  refuse 
to  give  a  fair  explication  of  the  words  they  use. 

6.  They  should  not  indulge  ridicule,  either  of  persc»s 
or  things,  in  their  disputatious.  They  should  abstain 
from  all  banter  and  jest,  laughter  and  merriment. 
These  are  things  that  break  in  upon  that  philosophical 
gravity,  sedateness  and  serenity  of  temper,  which  ought 
to  be  observed  in  every  search  after  truth.  However  an 
argument  on  some  subjects  may  be  sometimes  clothed 
with  a  little  pleasantry,  yet  a  jest  or  witticism  should 
never  be  used  instead  of  an  argument,  nor  should  it  ev- 
er be  suffered  to  pass  for  a  real  and  solid  proof. 

But  especially  if  the  subject  be  sacred  or  divine,  and 
have  nothing  in  it  comical  or  ridiculous,  all  ludicrous 
turns,  and  jocose  or  coiviical  airs,  should  be  entirely  ex- 
cluded, lest  young  minds  become  tinctured  with  a  silly 
ard  prtfan^  sort  (■{  ridicule,  and  learn  to  jest  and  trifle 
with  the  awful  solemnities  of  religion. 

7.  Nor  should  sarcasm  and  reproach,  or  insolent  lan- 
guage, ever  be  used  among  fair  disputants.  Turn  not 
off'  ivoTt}  things  to  speak  of  persons.  Leave  all  noisy  con- 
tests, all  immodest  clamours,  brawling  language,  and 
especially  all  personal  scandal  and  scurrility  to  the 
meanest  part  of  the  vulgar  world.  Let  your  manner 
be  all  candour  and  gentleness,  patient  and  ready  to  hear, 
hunbly  zealous  to  inform  and  be  informed ;  you  should 
be  free  and  j)leasant  in  every  answer  and  behaviour, 
rather  like  well  bred  gentlemen  in  polite  conversation, 
than  like  noisy  and  contentious  wranglers. 

8.  If  the  opponent  sees  victory  to  incline  to  his  side, 
let  him  be  cuntent  to  show  the  force  of  his  argument  tq 


SCHOLASTIC    DISPUTATION.  lOd 

die  intelligent  part  of  the  company,  with  too  importu- 
nate nnd  petulent  demands  of  an  answer,  and  without 
insulting  over  his  antagonist,  or  putting  the  mcidesty  of 
t^  respondent  to  the  blush.  Nor  let  the  respondent 
triumph  over  the  opponent  when  he  is  silent  and  replies 
no  more.  On  which  side  soever  victory  declares  kself, 
let  neither  of  them  manasre  with  such  unpleasii^  aiid 
insolent  airs,  as  to  awaken  those  evil  passions  of  pride, 
anger,  shame,  or  res'^ntment,  on  either  side,  wliich 
alienate  the  mind  from  truth,  render  it  obstinate  in  the 
defence  of  an  error,  and  never  suffer  it  to  part  with 
any  of  its  old  opinions^ 

In  short,  when  truth  evidently  appears  on  either  side, 
let  them  learn  to  yield  to  conviction.  W\^n  either  paiN- 
ty  is  at  a  nonp'us^  let  them  confess  the  difficulty,  and 
desire  present  assistance,  or  farther  time  and  retirement 
to  consider  of  the  matter,  and  not  rack  their  present 
invention  to  find  out  little  shifts  to  avoid  the  fca-ce  and 
evidence  of  truth. 

9.  Might  it  not  be  a  fairer  practice,  in  order  to  attain 
the  best  ends  of  disputation,  and  to  avoid  some  of  the. 
ill  effects  of  it,  if  the  opponents  were  sometimes  engag- 
ed on  the  side  of  truth,  and  produced  their  arguments 
in  opposition  to  error?  And  what  if  the  respondent  was 
appointeil  to  support  the  error,  and  defend  it  as  well  as 
he  could,  till  he  was  forced  to  yield,  at  least  to  those  ar- 
guments of  the  opponent  which  apj>ear  to  be  really 
just,  and  strong,  and  unanswerable? 

In  this  practice  the  thesis  of  the  respondent  should 
only  be  a  fair  stating  of  the  question,  with  some  of  the 
chief  objections  against  the  truth  proposed  ai.d  solved. 

Perhaps  this  practice  mightnot  so  easily  be  perverted 
and  abused  to  raise  a  cavilling,  disputative,  and  skeptic- 
al temper  in  the  minds  of  youtru 

I  confess,  in  this  method  which  I  now  propose,  there 
would  be  one  amongst  the  students,  viz.  the  respondent, 
always  engaged  in  the  support  of  supposed  error;  but 
all  the  rest  would  be  exercising  their  talents  in  arguing 
for  the  supposed  truth  ;  whereas,  in  the  common  meth- 
ods of  disputation  in  the  schools,  especially  where  the 
students  are  numerous,  each  single  student  is  perpetu- 
ally employed  to  oppose  the  truth,  and  vindicate  error, 
except  once  in  a  long  time,  when  it  comes  to  his  turn  to 
be  respondent. 

10.  Upon  the  whole,  it  seems  necessary  that  these 


110  OF   STUDY,   OR  MEDITATION. 

methods  of  disputation  should  be  learned  in  the  schools,  in 
order  to  teach  students  better  to  defend  truth,  and  to  re- 
fute error,  both  in  writing  and  conversation,  where  the 
scholastic  forms  are  utterly  neglected.  . 

But  after  all,  the  advantage  which  youth  may  gaSb 
by  disputation  depends  much  on  the  tutor  or  moderator ; 
he  should  manage  with  such  prudence,  both  in  the 
disputation  and  at  the  end  of  it,  as  to  make  all  the  dis- 
putants know  the  very  point  of  controversy  wherein  it 
consists ;  he  should  manifest  the  fallacy  of  sophistical, 
objections,  and  confirm  the  solid  arguments  and  answers. 
This  might  teach  students  how  to  make  the  art  of  dispu- 
tation useful  for  the  searching  out  the  truth  and  the  de- 
fence of  it,  that  it  may  not  be  learned  and  practised  on- 
ly as  an  art  of  wrangling,  which  reigned  in  the  schools 
several  hundred  years,and  divested  the  growing  reason 
of  youth  of  its  best  hopes  and  improvements. 


CHAP.  XIV. 

Of  Study y  or  Meditation, 

I.  IT  has  beeii  proved  and  established  in  some  of 
the  foregoing  chapters,  that  neither  our  own  observa- 
tions, nor  our  reading  the  labours  of  the  learned,  nor  the 
attendance  on  the  best  lectuves  of  instruction,  nor  enjoy- 
ing the  brightest  conversation,  can  ever  make  a  man 
truly  knowing  and  wise,  without  the  labours  of  his  own 
reason  in  surveying,  examining,  and  judging,  concerning 
all  subjects,  upon  the  best  evidence  he  can  acquire.  A 
good  genius,  or  sagacity  of  thought,  a  happy  judgment, 
a  capacious  memory,  and  large  opportunities  of  observa- 
tion and  converse,  will  do  much  of  themselves  t(  ward 
the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  where  they  are  well  improv- 
ed ;  but  where,  to  the  advantage  of  learned  lectures, 
living  instructions,  and  well  chosen  books,  diligence  and 
study  are  superadded,  this  man  has  all  human  aids  con- 
curring to  raise  him  to  a  superior  degree  of  wisdom  and 
knowledge. 

Under  the  preceding  heads  of  discourse,  it  has  been 
already  decl^iredhow  our  own  meditation  and  reflection 
should  examine,  cultivate,  and  improve,  all  other  meth- 
ods and  advantages  of  enrichine:  tne  understandihg. 
What  remains  in  this  chapter,  is  to  give  some  further 


OF  STUDY,    OR  MBDITATIOW,  111 

occasional  hints  how  to  employ  our  own  thoughtSj  what 
sort  of  subjects  we  should  meditate  on,and  in  what  man- 
ner we  should  regulate  our  studies,  and  how  we  may- 
improve  our  judgment,  so  as  in  the  most  effectual  and 
compendious  way  to  attain  such  knowledge  as  may  be 
most  useful  for  every  man  in  his  circumstances  of  life, 
and  particularly  for  those  of  the  learned  professions. 

II.  The  first  direction  for  youth  is  this,  learn  betimes 
to  distin>;uish  between  words  and  things.  Get  clear  and. 
plain  ideas  of  the  things  you  are  set  to  study.  Do  not 
content  yourselves  with  mere  words  and  names,  lest 
your  laboured  improvements  only  amass  a  heap  of  unin- 
telligible phrases,  and  you  teed  upon  husks  instead  of 
kernels.    This  rule  is  of  unknown  use  in  every  science. 

But  the  greatest  and  most  common  danger,  is  in  the 
sacred  science  of  theology,  where  settled  terms  and 
phrases  have  b^en  pronounced  divine  and  orthodox, 
which  yet  have  had  no  meaning  in  them.  The  scholas- 
tic divinity  would  furnish  us  with  numerous  instances  of 
this  folly ;'  and  yet  for  many  ages,  all  truth  and  all  her- 
esy have  been  determined  by  such  senseless  tests,  and 
by  words  without  ideas ;  such  Shibboleths  as  these  have 
decided  the  secular  fates  of  men ;  and  bishoprics,  or 
burnings  mitres,  or  faggots  have  been  the  rewards  of 
different  persons,  according  as  they  pronounced  these 
consecrated  syl.'ables,  or  not  pronounced  them.  To  de- 
fend them  was  all  piety,  and  pomp,  and  triumph ;  to 
despise  them,  to  doubt  or  deny  them,  was  torture  and 
death.  A  thousand  thank  offerings  are  due  to  that  Prov- 
idence, which  has  delivered  our  age  and  our  nation  from 
these  absurd  iniquities!  O  that  every  specimen  and 
shadow  of  this  madness  were  banished  from  ourscliools 
and  churches  in  every  shape ! 

III.  Let  not  young  students  apply  themselves  to 
search  out  deep,  dark,  and  abstruse  matters,  far  above 
their  reach,  or  spend  their  labour  in  any  peculiar  sub- 
jects, for  which  they  have  not  the  advantages  of  neces- 
sary antecedent  learning,  or  books,  or  observations..  Let 
them  not  be  too  hasty  to  know  things  above  their  present 
powers,  nor  plunge  their  bquiries  at  once  into  the  depths 
of  knowledge,  nor  begin  to  study  any  science  in  the  mid- 
dle of  it ;  this  will  confound  rather  than  enlighten  the 
understanding ;  such  practices  may  happen  to  discour- 
'age  and  jade  the  mind  by  an  attempt  above  its  power, 
it  may  baviUt  the  understanding,  and  create  a\x  aversion 


112  OF   STUDY,   OR   BIEDITATIOK-. 

to  future  diligence,  and  perhaps  by  despair  may  forbid 
the  pursuit  of  that  subject  forever  afterwards ;  as  a 
limb  overstrained  by  lifting  a  weight  above  its  power, 
may  never  recover  its  former  agility  and  vigour ;  or  if 
it  does,  the  man  may  be  frighted  from  ever  exerting  its 
strength  again. 

IV.  Nor  yet  let  any  student,  on  the  other  hand,  fright 
himself  at  every  turn  with  insurmountable  difficulties, 
nor  imagine  that  the  truth  is  wrapt  op  in  impenetruble 
darkness.  These  are  formidable  spectres  which  the 
understanding  raises  sometimes  to  natttr  its  own  lazi- 
ness. Those  things  which,  in  a  remote  and  confused 
view,  seem  very  obscure  and  perplexed,  may  be  af>- 
proached  by  gentle  and  regular  steps,  and  may  then 
unfold  and  explain  themselves  at  large  to  the  eye.  The 
hardest  problems  in  geometry,  and  the  most  intricat© 
schemes  or  diagrams,  may  be  explicated  and  under- 
stood, step  by  step ;  every  great  mathematician  bears  a 
constant  witness  to  this  observation. 

V.  In  learning  any  new  thing,  there  should  be  as  little 
as  pc»sible  first  proposed  to  the  mind  at  once,  and  that 
being  understood  and  fully  mastered,  proceed  then  to 
the  next  adjoining  part  yet  unknown.  This  is  a  slow, 
but  safe  and  sure  way  to  arrive  at  knowledge.  If  the 
mind  apply  itself  at  first  to  easier  subjects,  and  things 
near  akin  to  what  is  already  known,  and  then  advance 
to  the  more  remote  and  knotty  parts  of  knowledge  by 
slow  degn  es,  it  would  be  able  in  this  manner  to  cope 
with  great  difficulties,  and  prevail  over  them^vith  ama- 
zing and  happy  success. 

Mathon  happened  to  dip  into  the  two  last  chapters 
of  anew  book  of  geometry  and  mensurations ;  as  soon  as 
he  saw  it,  and  was  frighted  with  the  complicated  dia- 
grams which  he  found  there,ab(iut  the  frustums  of  cones 
and  pyramids,&:c.  and  some  deep  demonstr,  tions  among 
conic  sections ;  he  shut  the  book  again  in  desijah*,  and 
imagined  none  but  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  ever  fit  to 
read  it.  But  his  tutor  hapj>ily  persuaded  him  to  begin 
the  first  pages  about  lines  andangles,  and  he  found  such 
suq^rising  pleasure  in  three  weeks  time  ia  the  victories 
he  daily  obtained,  that  at  last  he  became  one  of  the  ciiief 
geometers  of  his  age. 

VI.  Engage  not  the  mind  in  the  intense  pursuit  of 
too  many  things  at  once ;  especially  such  as  have  no  re- 
lation to  Qfie  anothor.    This  will  be  ready  to  distract  the 


OE   STUDY,    OR   MKDITATlOlff.  113 

understanding,  and  hinder  it  frdhi  attaining  perfectioa 
in  any  one  subject  of  studv^  Such  a  practice  gives  a 
slight  srtlHttering  of  several  sciences,  without  any  solid 
and  substantial  knowledge  of  them,  and  without  any- 
real  and  ralaable  improvement ;  and  though  two  or 
three  sorts  ot  study  may  be  usually  carried  on  at  once, 
to  entertain  the  mind  with  variety,  that  it  may  not  be 
over  tired  with  one  sort  of  thoughts ;  yet  a  multitude  of 
subjects  will  too  much  distract  the  attention,  and  weakens 
the  application  of  the  mind  to  any  one  of  them. 

Where  two  or  three  sciences  are  pursued  at  the  same 
time,  if  one  of  them  be  dry,  abstracted,  and  unpleasant, 
as  logic,  metaphysics,  law,  languages,  let  aaother  be 
more  entertaining  and  agreeable,  to  secure  the  mind 
from  wearint- ss,  and  aversion  to  study.  Delight  should 
be  intermingled  with  labour  as  far  as  possible,  to  allure 
us  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  dry  studies  the  better.  Poetry, 
practical  mathematics,  history,  &c.  are  generally  es- 
teemed enteruiining  studies,  and  may  be  happily  used 
for  this  purpose.  Thus  while  we  relieve  a  dull  at.d 
heavy  hour  by  some  alluring  employments  of  the  mind; 
our  very  divet  sions  enrich  our  understandings,  and  our 
pleasure  is  turned  into  profit. 

VII.  In  the  pursuit  of  every  valuable  subject  of  knowl- 
edge, keep  the  end  always  in  your  eye,  and  be  not  di- 
verted from  it  by  every  petty  trifl# you  meet  with  in  the 
way.  Some  persons  hnve  such  a  wandering  genius,  that 
they  are  ready  to  pursue  every  incidental  theme  or  oc- 
casional idea,  till  they  have  lost  sight  of  their  original 
subject.  These  a,re  the  men  who,  when  they  are  en- 
gaged in  conversation,  prolong  their  story  by  dwelling 
on  every  incident,and  swell  their  narrative  with  long  pa- 
rentheses, till  they  have  lost  their  first  design ;  like  a 
man  who  is  sent  in  quest  of  some  great  treasure,  but  he 
steps  aside  to  gather  every  flower  he  finds,  or  stands 
still  to  dig  up  every  shining  pebble  he  meets  with  in  his 
way,  till  the  treasure  is  forgotten  and  never  found. 

VIII.  Exert  your  care,  skill,  and  diligence,  about 
every  subject  and  every  question,  in  a  just  proportion  to 
the  imjKirtance  of  it,  together  with  the  danger  and  bad 
consequences  of  ignorance  and  error  therein.  Many 
excellent  advantages  flow  from  this  o.e  direction. 

1.  This  rule  will  teach  you  to  be  very  careful  in  gain- 
ing some  general,  and  fundamental  truths  in  philosophy, 
in  i-eligion,  tuid  in  human  life ;  because  they  aralbf  ther 


114  OF   STWDT,   OR  MEDITATIOW. 

highest  moment,  and  conduct  our  thoughts  with 
into  a  thousand  inferior  and  particular  propositions. 
Such  is  that  great  principle  in  natural  philo§<!Jphy.  the 
doctrine  of  gravitation,  or  mutual  tendency  of  all  bodies 
towards  each  other,*  which  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  S6 
well  established,  and  from  which  he  has  drawn  the  so- 
lution of  a  multitiuie  of  appearances  in  the  heavenly 
bodies  as  well  as  on  earth. 

Such  is  that  golden  principle  of  morality  which  our 
blessed  Lord  has  given  us,  *'  Do  that  to  others  which  you 
think  just  and  reasonable  that  others  should  do  to  you ; " 
which  is  almost  sufficient  in  itself  to  solve  all  cases  of 
eonscience  which  relate  to  our  neighbour. 

Such  are  those  principles  in  religion,  that  a  rational 
creature  is  accountable  to  his  Maker  for  all  his  actions ; 
that  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal;  that  there  is  a  future 
state  of  happiness  and  of  misery  depending  on  our  be- 
haviour in  the  present  life,  on  which  all  our  religious 
practices  are  built  or  supported. 

We  should  be  veiT  curious  in  examining  all  proposi- 
tior^s  that  pretend  to  this  honour  of  being  general  prin- 
ciples ;  and  we  should  not  without  just  evidence  admit 
into  this  rank  mere  matters  of  common  fame,  or  com- 
monly received  opinions;  no, nor  the  general  determin- 
ations of  the  learne(;jp  or  the  established  articles  of  any 
church  or  nation,  &c.  for  there  are  many  learned  pre- 
sumjjtions,  many  synndical  and  national  mistakes,  ma- 
ny established  falsehoods,  as  well  as  many  vulgar  er- 
rors, wherein  multitudes  of  men  have  followed  one 
another  for  whole  ages  almost  blindfold.  It  is  of  great 
importance  for  every  man  to  be  careful  that  these  gen- 
eral principles  are  just  and  true ;  for  one  error  may  lead 
us  into  thousands,  which  will  naturally  follow,  if  once  a 
leading  falsehood  be  admitted. 

2.  This  rule  will  direct  us  to  be  more  earefiil  about 
practical  points  than  mere  speculations,  since  they  are 
commonly  of  much  greater  use  and  consequence ;  there- 
fore  the  speculations  of  algebra,  the  doctrine  of  infinities, 
and  the  cfuadrature  of  curves  in  mathametical  learning, 
together  with  all  the  train  of  theorems  in  natural  phi- 
losophy^  should  by  no  means  intrench  upon  our  studies 
of  morality  and  virtue.  Even  in  the  science  of  divinity 
itself,  the  sublimest  speculations  of  it  are  not  of  that 
worth  and  valuCj  as  the  role&  of  duty  towards  God  and 
to*Wafds  Tti&t, 


0»   STUDY,    OR    MEDITATION.  1  IS 

3.  la  matters  of  practice  we  should  be  most  careful 
to  fix  our  end  right,  aud  wisely  determine  the  scope  at  \ 
whicli  we  aim ;  because  that  is  to  direct  us  in  the  choice 
and  use  of  all  the  medne  to  attain  it.  if  our  cud  be 
wrojig,  all  our  labour  ia  the  means  will  be  vain,  or  per- 
haps so  much  the  more  perLicious,  as  they  are  better 
suited  to  attain  that  mistaken  end.  If  mere  sensible 
pleasure,  or  human  grandeur,  or  wealth,  be  our  chief 
eod,  we  shall  choose  means  contrary  to  piety  and  vir- 
tue, and  proceed  apace  towards  real  mi«ry. 

4.  This  rule  will  engage  ciu*  best  povv  ers  ard  deepest 
attention  in  the  affairs  of  religion,  and  thiigs  that  relate 
to  a  future  world;  for  those  proposiiion.s  which  extend 
only  to  the  interest  of  the  present  life,  are  but  of  small 
importance  when  compared  with  those  that  have  influ- 
ence  upon  our  everlasting  concernments. 

5.  Aodeven  in  the  affairs  of  r*=  ligion,  it  we  walk  by  the 
conduct  of  this  rule,  we  shall  be  ipuch  more  laborious  in 
our  inquiries  into  the  necessary  and  fundan-entf  1  arti- 
cles of  faith  and  practice,  than  the  lesser  appendices  of 
Christianity.  The  doctrines  of  repentance  towards  God, 
faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  love  to  men,  and  uni- 
versal holiness,  will  employ  our  best  and  brightest  hours 
and  meditations ;  while  the  mint,  anise,  and  cummin, 
the  gestures,  vestures,  and  fringes  uf  religion,  will  be  re- 
garded no  further  than  they  have  a  plain  and  eviuent 
connex'on  with  faith  and  love,  with  holiness  and  peace. 

6.  This  rule  will  make  us  solicitous  not  only  to  avoid 
such  errors,  whose  influence  will  spread  wide  into  the 
whole  scheme  of  our  own  knowledge  and  practice,  but 
such  mistakes  also  whose  influence  weald  be  yet  more 
extensive  and  injurious  to  others,  as  well  as  to  ourselves ; 
perhaps  to  many  persons  or  many  families;  to  a  whole 
church,  a  town,  a  country,  or  a  kingdom.  Upon  this 
account,  persons  who  are  called  to  instruct  others,  who 
are  raised  to  any  eminence  either  in  church  or  state, 
ought  to  be  careful  in  settling  their  principles  in  matters 
relating  to  the  civil,  the  m^ral,  or  the  religious  life,  lest 
a  mistake  of  theirs  should  diffuse  wide  mischief,  should 
draw  along  with  it  most  pernicious  consequences,  and 
perhaps  extend  to  following  generations. 

These  are  some  of  the  advantageswhich  arise  from 
the  eighth  rule,  viz.  Pursue  every  inquiry  and  study  in 
proportion  to  its  real  value  and  importance. 

IX.  Have  a  care  lest  some  belored  notion,  or  some 


116  OF   STUDY,    OR   MEDITATION. 

dariing  science,  so  far  prevail  over  your  mind,  as  to  give 
a  sovereign  tincture  to  ill  your  other  studies,  and  dis- 
colour all  yrur  ideas;  like  a  person  in  the  Jaundice,  who 
spreads  a  yellow  seme  with  his  eyes  over  all  tlie  objects 
whicU  he  meef s.  I  have  known  a  man  of  peculiar  skill 
in  \ousic,  and  much  devoted  to  that  science,  who  found 
out  a  great  resemblance  of  the  Athanasian  doctiine  of 
the  Triiiity  in  every  single  note,  and  he  thought  it  car- 
ried something  of  argument  in  it  to  prove  the  dnctrine. 
I  have  read  of  another,  who  accommodated  the  seven 
days  of  the  first  week  of  creation  to  seven  notes  of  music, 
and  thus  the  whole  creation  became  harmonious. 

Under  this  influence,  derived  from  mathematical  stu- 
dies, some  have  been  tempted  to  cast  all  their  logical, 
their  metaphysical,  and  their  theological,  and  moral 
learning-nnto  the  method  of  mathematicians,  and  bring 
every  thing  relating  to  those  abstracted,  or  those  prac- 
tical scfences,  under  theorems,  problems,  postulates, 
scholiums,  corollaries,  &c.  whereas  the  matter  ought 
always  to  direct  the  method  ;  for  all  subjects  or  matters 
of  thought,  cannot  be  moulded  or  s\ibdued  to  one  form. 
Neither  the  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  understanding, 
nor  the  doctrines  nor  the  duties  of  religion  and  virtue, 
can  be  exhibited  naturally  in  figures  and  diagrams. 
Things  are  to  be  considered  as  they  are  in  themselves ; 
their  natures  are  infleKible,  and  their  natural  relations 
unalterable ;  and  therefore,  in  order  to  conceive  them 
aright,  we  must  bring  our  understandings  to  things,and 
not  pretend  to  bend  and  strain  things  to  conjport  with 
our  fancies  and  forms. 

X.  Suffer  not  any  beloved  study  to  prejudice  your 
tnmd  so  far  in  favour  of  it  as  to  despise  all  other  learn- 
ing. This  is  a  fault  of  some  little  souls,  who  have  got  a 
smattering  of  astronomy,  chemistry,  metaphysics,  his- 
tor\ ,  &c.  and  for  want  of  a  due  acquaintance  with  other 
sciences,  make  a  so  ff .  t  them  all  in  comparison  of  their 
favourite  science.  Theif  ut  derstandings  are  hereby 
cooped  up  in  narrow  bounds,  si  thnttbey  never  look  a- 
broad  into  "rherprovintesof  the  intellectual  world ,wliich 
are  more  be  .utiful  perhaps,  and  mort  fruitful  than  their 
own  ;  if  ihey  W'uld  sean  h  a  little  into  other  sciences, 
they  might  not' only  find  treasures  of  new  knowledge, 
but  might  be  funsished  also  with  rich  hints  of  thought, 
and  gloj'ious  rssistaiices,  to  cultivate  that  very  province 
to  which  they  have  confined  themselves. 


oe  s;rDD¥,  or  meditation.  IIV 

Here  I  would  always  give  some  grains  of  allowance 
to  th6  sacred  science  of  tlieology,  which  is  incomparably- 
superior  to  all  the  rest,  as  it  teaches  us  the  knowledge 
of  God,  and  the  way  to  his  eternal  favour.  This  is  that 
noble  study  which  is  every  man's  duty,  and  every  one 
who  can  be  called  a  rational  creature  is  capable  of  it. 
This  is  that  science  which  would  truly  enlarge  the  minds 
of  men,  were  it  studied  with  that  freedom,  that  unbias- 
sed love  of  truth,  and  that  sacred  charity  which  it  teach- 
es ;  and  if  it  were  not  made,  contrary  to  its  own  nature, 
the  occasion  of  strife,  faction,  malignity,  a  narrow  spirit, 
and  unreasonable  impositions  on  the  mind  and  practice. 
Let  this,  therefore,  stand  always  chief. 

XI.  Let  every  particular  study  have  due  and  proper 
time  assigned  it,  and  let  not  a  favourite  science  prevail 
with  you  to  lay  out  such  hours  upon  it,  as  ought  to  be 
employed  upon  the  more  necessary  and  more  impontanf 
affairs  or  studies  of  your  professicn.  When  you  have, 
according  to  the  best  of  your  discretion,  and  according; 
to  the  circumstances  of  your  lite,  fixed  proper  hours  for 
particular  studies,  endeavour  to  keep  to  those  rules ;  not 
indeed  with  a  superstitious  preciseness,  but  with  some 
good  degrees  of  a  regular  constancy.  Order  and  method 
in  a  course  of  study  saves  much  time,  and  makes  large 
improvements ;  such  a  fixation  of  certain  hours  will 
have  a  happy  influence  to  secure  you  from  trilling  and 
wasting  away  yo'ir  minutes  in  impertinence, 

XII.  Do  not  apply  yourself  to  any  one  study  at  one 
time  longer  than  the  mind  is  capable  of  giving  a  close 
attention  to  it  without  weariness  or  wandering.  Uo  not 
over- fatigue  the  spirits  at  any  time,  lest  the  mind  be 
seized  with  a  lassitude,  and  thereby  be  tempted  to  nau- 
seate and  grow  tired  of  a  particular  subject  before  you 
have  finished  it. 

XIII.  In  the  beginning  of  your  application  to  any  new 
subject  be  not  too  uneasy  under  present  difficulties  that 
occur,  nor  too  importunate  and  impatient  for  answers 
and  solutions  to  any  questions  that  arise.  Perhaps  a  little 
more  study,  a  little  further  acquaintance  with  the  sub- 
ject, a  little  time  andexperience,  will  solve  those  diSi' 
culties,  untie  the  knot,  and  make  your  doubts  vanish  ; 
especially  if  you  are  under  the  instruction  of  a  tutor,  he 
can  inform  you  that  your  itiquiries  are  perhaps  too  early, 
and  that  you  have  not  yet  learned  those  principles  upQ.n 
wliich  the  solution  of  such  a  dijficulty  depends, 

I^  2 


118  OF   STUDY,   OR   MEDITATION, 

XIV.  Do  not  expect  to  art-jve  at  certainty  in  every 
subject  which  you  pursue.  There  are  a  hundred  things 
wherein  we  mortals  in  this  dark  and  imperfect  state 
must  be  content  with  probability,  where  our  best  light 
and  reasonmgs  will  reach  no  further.  We  must  balance 
larguments  as  justly  as  we  can,  and  where  we  cannot 
iind  weight  enough  on  either  side  to  determine  the  scale 
with  sovereign  force  and  assurance,  we  must  content 
ourselves  perhaps  with  a  small  preponderation.  This 
will  give  us  a  probable  opinion,  and  those  probabilities 
are  sufficient  ff)r  the  daily  determination  of  a  thousand 
actions  in  human  life,  and  many  times  even  in  matters 
of  religion. 

It  is  admirably  well  expressed  by  a  late  writer, 
"^*  When  there  is  a  great  strength  of  argument  set  before 
us,  if  we  will  refuse  to  do  what  appears  most  fit  for  us. 
Vmtil  every  little  objection  be  removed,  we  shall  never 
take  one  wise  resolution  as  long  as  we  live." 

Suppose  I  bad  been  honestlv  and  long  searching  what 
religion  I  should  choose,  and  yet  I  could  not  find  thai 
the  arguments  in  defence  of  Christianity  arose  to  com- 
plete certainty,  but  went  only  so  far  as  to  give  me  a 
probable  evidence  of  the  truth  of  it ;  though  niany  diffir 
culties  still  remained,  yet  I  should  think  myself  obliged 
to  receive  and  practise  that  religion ;  for  the  God  ot 
nature  and  reason  has  bound  us  to  assent,  and  act  ac- 
cording to  the  best  evidence  we  have,  even  though  it  be 
not  absolnte  and  complete;  and  as  he  is  our  supreme 
Judge,  his  abounding  goodness  and  equity  will  approve 
and  acquit  the  man  whose  conscience  honestly  and  wilr 
lingly  seeks  the  best  light,  and  obeys  it  as  far  as  he  can 
discover  it. 

But  in  matters  of  great  importance  in  religion,  let  him 
^oin  all  due  diligence  with  earnest  and  humble  prayer 
for  divine  aid  in  his  inquiries ;  such  prayer  and  such 
diligence  as  eternal  concerns  rt  quire,  and  such  as  he 
mriy  plead  with  courage  before  the  Jfdge  of  all. 

XV.  Endeavour  to  apply  every  speculative  study, 
as  tar  as  possible,  to  some  practical  use,  that  both  your- 
self and  others  may  be  the  better  for  it.  Inquiries  eveii 
in  natural  philosopfiy  should  not  \ye  mere  amusements, 
and  much  less  in  the  affairs  of  religion.  Researches 
into  the  springs  of  natural  bodies  and  their  moticns  should 
lead  men  to  invent  happy  methods  for  the  ease  and  con- 
venience of  human  life ;  or  at  least  they  should  be  m^ 


OE   STUDY,   OR  MEDITATION.  119 

proved  to  awaken  us  to  admire  the  wondrous  wisdom  and 
contrivance  otGod  our  Creator ,in  all  the  works  of  nature. 

If  we  pursue  mathematical  speculations,  they  will  in- 
ure us  to  attend  closely  to  any  subject,  to  seek  and  gain 
clear  ideas,  to  distinguish  truth  from  falsehood,  to  judge 
justly,  and  to  argue  strongly  ;  and  these  studies  do  more 
directly  furnish  us  with  all  the  various  rules  of  those 
uselul  arts  oihfe,  vi?.  measuring,  building,  sailing,  8cc, 

Even  our  inquiries  and  dlsputi'tjons  about  vacuum  or 
space,  and  atoms,  about  incommensurable  quantities, 
and  infinite  divisibility  of  matter,  and  eternal  duration, 
which  seem  to  be  purely  speculative,  will  show  us  some 
good  practical  lessons,  will  lead  us  to  see  the  weakness 
of  our  nature,  and  should  teach  us  humility  in  arguing 
upon  diviiie  subjects  and  matters  of  sacred  revelation. 
This  should  guard  us  against  rejecting  any  doctrine 
which  is  expressly  and  evidently  revealed,  though  we 
cannot  fully  understand  it.  It  is  good  sometimes  to  lose 
and  bewilder  ourselves  in  such  studies  for  this  very  rea- 
son, and  to  attain  this  practical  advantage,  this  improve- 
tnent  in  true  modesty  of  spirit. 

XVI.  Though  we  should  always  be  ready  to  change 
our  sentiments  of  things  upon  just  conviction  of  their 
falsehood  yet  there  is  not  the  same  necessity  of  chang- 
ing our  accustomed  m.ethcds  of  reading,  or  study  and 
practice,  even  though  we  have  not  been  led  at  first  into 
the  happiest  method.  Our  thoughts  may  be  true,  though 
we  may  have  hit  upon  an  improper  order  of  thinking. 
Truth  does  not  always  depend  upon  the  most  convenient 
method.  There  may  be  a  certain  form  and  order  in 
which  we  have  long  accustomed  ourselves  to  range  our 
ideas  and  notions,  which  may  be  best  for  us  now,  though 
it  was  not  originally  best  in  itself.  The  inconveniences 
of  changing  may  be  much  greater  than  the  conveniences 
we  could  obtain  by  a  new  method. 

As  for  instance ;  if  a  man  in  his  younger  days  has 
ranged  all  his  sentiments  in  theology  in  the  method  of 
Ames's  Medulla  Theologix,  or  Bishop  Usher's  Body  of 
Divinity,  it  may  be  much  more  natural  and  easy  for  him 
tct*fcontinue  to  dispose  all  his  further  acquirements  in 
the  same  order,  though  perhaps  neither  of  those  trea- 
tises are  in  themselves  written  in  the  most  perfect 
method.  So  when  we  have  long  fixed  our  cases  of 
shelves  in  a  library,  and  ranged  our  books  in  any  par- 
ncular  order,  viz.  according  to  their  languages,  or  ac-* 


120  OF  rfXING  THE  ATTENTIOBT, 

cording  to  their  subjects,  or  according  to  the  alphabet- 
ical names  of  the  authors,  &c.  we  are  perfectly  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  order  in  which  they  now  stand,  and 
we  can  find  any  particular  book  which  we  seek,  or  add 
a  new  book  which  we  have  purchased,  with  much  great- 
er ease  than  we  can  do  in  finer  cases  of  shelves,  where 
the  books  ranged  in  any  different  manner  whatso- 
ever, any  different  position  of  the  volumes  would  be 
new,  and  strange,  and  troublesome  to  us,  and  would  not 
countervail  the  inconveniences  of  a  change. 

So  if  a  man  of  forty  years  old  has  been  taught  to  hold 
his  pen  awkwardly  in  his  youth,  and  yet  writes  suffi- 
ciently well  for  all  the  purposes  of  his  station,  it  is  not 
worth  while  to  teach  him  now  the  most  accurate  meth- 
ods of  handling  that  instrument ;  for  this  would  create 
him  more  trouble  without  equal  advantage,  and  per- 
haps he  might  never  attain  to  write  better  after  he  has 
placed  his  fingers  perfectly  right  with  this  new  accuracy. 


CHAP.  XV. 
Of  fixing  the  Attention, 

A  STUDENT  should  labour,  by  all  proper  methods, 
to  acquire  a  steady  fixation  of  thought.  Attention  is  a 
very  necessary  thing  in  order  to  improve  our  minds. 
The  evidence  of  truth  does  not  always  appear  immedi- 
ately, nor  strike  the  soul  at  first  sight.  It  is  by  long  at- 
tention and  inspection  that  we  arrive  at  evidence,  and 
it  is  for  want  of  it  we  judge  falsely  of  many  things.  We 
make  haste  to  determine  upon  a  slight  and  a  sudden 
view,  we  confirm  our  guesses  which  arise  from  a  glance, 
we  pass  a  judgment  while  we  have  but  a  confused  or 
obscure  perception,  and  thus  plunge  ourselves  into  mis- 
takes. This  is  like  a  man,  who  walking  in  a  mist,  or 
being  at  a  great  distance  from  any  visible  object,  (sup- 
pose a  tree,  a  man,  a  horse,  or  a  church,)  judges  much 
amiss  of  the  figure  and  situation  and  colours  of  it,  and 
sometimes  takes  one  for  the  other ;  whereas,  if  he  would 
but  withhold  his  judgment  till  he  came  nearer  to  it,  or 
stay  till  clearer  fight  comes,  and  then  would  fix  his  eyes 
longer  upon  it,  he  would  secure  himself  from  those  mis- 
takes. 

Now,  in  order  to  gain  a  greater  fecility  of  attention, 
we  may  observe  these  rules ; 


OF    FIXING   THE   ATTENTION.  121 

L  Get  a  good  liking  to  the  study  of  knowledge  you 
would  pursue.  We  may  observe,  that  there  is  not  much 
difficulty  in  confining  the  mind  to  contemplate  what  we 
have  a  great  desire  to  know  ;  and  especially  if  they  are 
matters  of  sense,  or  ideas  which  paint  themselves  upon 
the  tancy.  It  is  but  acquiring  an  hearty  good  will  and 
i-esolution  to  search  out  and  survey  the  various  proper- 
ties and  parts  of  such  objects,  and  our  attention  will  be 
engaged,  if  there  be  any  deiighi  or  diversion  in  the  study 
or  contemplation  of  them.  Tlierefore  mathematical 
studies  have  a  strange  influence  towards  fixing  the  at- 
tention of  the<riind,  and  giving  a  steadiness  tu  a  wander- 
ing disposition,  because  they  deal  much  in  lines,  figures, 
and  numbers ;  which  affect  and  please  the  sense  and 
imagination.  Histories  have  a  strong  tendency  the  same 
way,  for  they  engage  the  soul  by  a  variety  of  sensible 
occurrences  ;  when  it  hath  begun,  it  knows  not  how  to 
leave  off;  it  longs  to  know  the  final  event*  through  a 
natural  curiosity  that  beloiigs  to  mankind.  Voyages 
and  travels,  and  accounts  of  strange  countries  and 
strange  appearances,  will  assist  in  this  work .  This  sort 
of  study  detains  the  mind  by  the  perpetual  occurrence 
and  expectation  of  something  new,  and  that  which  may 
gratefully  strike  the  imagination. 

II.  Sometimes  we  may  make  use  of  sensible  things 
and  corporeal  images  for  the  illustration  of  those  notions 
which  are  more  abstracted  and  inteliectual.  Therefore 
diagrams  greatly  assist  the  miad  in  astronomy  and  phi- 
losophy ;  and  the  emblems  of  virtues  and  vices  may 
happily  te^ich  children,  aqd  pleasingly  impress  those 
useful  moral  ideas  on  young  minds,  which  perhaps  mi^t 
b  ^  conveyed  to  them  with  much  more  difficulty  by  mere 
moral  rnd  abstracted  discourses. 

I  confess,  in  this  practice  of  representing  moral  sub- 
jects by  pictures,  we  should  be  cautious  lest  we  so  far 
immerse  the  mind  in  corporeal  images,  as  to  render  it 
unfit  to  take  in  ^n  abstracted  and  intellectual  idea,  or 
cause  it  to  form  wrong  conceptions  of  immaterial  things. 
This  practice,  therefore,  is  rather  to  be  used  at  first  in 
order  to  get  a  fixed  habit  of  attention,  and  in  some  cases 
only  ;  but  it  can  never  be  our  constant  way  and  method 
of  pursuing  all  moral,  abstracted,  and  spiritual  themes. 

Ill:  Apply  yourself  to  those  studies,  and  read  those 
authors  who  draw  out  their  subjects  into  a  perpetual 
chain  of  connected  reasonings,  wherein  the  following 


122.  OS   FIXIITG  THE  ATTENTION. 

parts  of  the  discourse  are  naturally  and  easily  derived 
from  those  which  go  before.  Several  of  the  mathemat- 
ical sciences,  if  not  all,  are  happily  useful  for  ttiis  pur- 
pose.^ Tliis  will  render  the  labour  of  study  delightful  to 
a  rational  mind,  and  will  fix  the  pow  ers  of  the  under- 
standing with  strong  attention  to  their  proper  operatjons 
by. the  very  pleasure  of  it.  Labor  ipse  voluptas^  is  a 
happy  proposition,  wheres(«ver  it  can  be  applied. 

IV.  Do  not  choose  your  constant  place  of  study  by 
the  finery  of  the  prospects,  or  the  most  various  and  en- 
tertaining scenes  of  sensible  things.  Too  much  light,  or 
a  variety  of  objects  which  strike  the  eye,  or  the  ear,  es- 
pecially while  they  are  ever  in  motion,  or  often  chang- 
ing, have  a  natural  and  powerful  tendency  to  steal  away 
the  mind  too  often  from  its  steady  pursuit  of  any  subject 
which  we  contemplate;  and  thereby  the  soul  gets  a 
habit  of  silly  curiosity  and  impertinence,  of  trifling  and 
wandering.  Vagario  thought  himself  furnished  with 
the  best  closet  for  his  study  among  the  beauties,gaieties, 
and  diversions  of  Kensington  or  Hampton  Court ;  but 
after  seven  years  professing  to  pursue  learning,  he  was 
a  mere  novice  still. 

V.  Be  not  in  too  much  haste  to  come  to  the  determi- 
nation of  a  difficult  or  important  point.  Think  it  worth 
your  waiting  to  find  out  truth.  Do  not  give  your  assent 
up  to  either  side  of  a  question  too  soon,  merely  on  this 
account,  that  the  study  of  it  is  long  and  difficult.  Rath- 
er be  contented  with  ignorance  for  a  season,  and  contin- 
ue in  suspense  till  your  attention,  and  meditation,  and 
due  labour,  have  found  out  sufficient  evidence  on  one 
sMe.  Some  are  so  fond  to  know  a  great  deal  at  once, 
and  love  to  talk  of  things  with  freedom  and  boldness  be- 
fore they  truly  understand  them,  that  they  scarcely 
ever  allow  themselves  attention  enough  to  search  the 
matter  through  and  through. 

VI.  Have  a  care  of  indulging  the  njore  sensual  pas- 
sions and  appetites  of  animal  nature  *  they  are  great 
enemies  to  attention.  Let  not  the  mind  of  a  student  be 
under  the  influence  of  any  warm  affection  to  things  cf 
sense,  when  he  comes  to  engage  in  the  search  of  truth  or 
the  improvement  of  his  understanding.  A  person  under 
the  power  of  love,  or  fear,  or  anger,  great  pain,  or  deep 
sorrow,  hath  so  little  government  of  his  soul,  that  he  can- 
not keep  it  attentive  to  the  proper  subject  of  his  medi- 
tation.   The  passions  call  away  the  thoughts  with  in- 


CAPACITT   op   the    MIHD.  ISB 

cessant  impoi'tunity  towards  the  object  that  excited 
them ;  and  if  we  indulge  the  frequent  rise  and  roving 
of  passions,  we  shall  thereby  procure  an  unsteady  and 
inattentive  habit  of  nnind. 

Yet  this  one  exception  must  be  admitted,  viz.  If  we 
can  be  so  happy  as  to  engage  any  passion  of  the  soul  on 
the  side  of  the  particular  study  which  we  are  pursuing, 
it  may  have  great  influence  to  fix  the  attention  more 
strongly  to  it. 

VII .  It  is  therefore  very  useful  to  fix  and  engage  thfe 
mind  in  the  pursuit  of  any  study,  by  a  consideration  of 
the  divine  pleasures  of  truth  and  knowledge^by  a  sense 
of  our  duty  to  God,  by  a  delight  in  the  exercise  of  our 
intellectual  faculties,  by  the  hope  of  future  service  to 
our  fellow  creatures,  and  glorious  advantage  to  ourselves, 
both  in  this  world  and  that  which  is  to  come.  These 
thoughts,  though  they  may  move  our  affections,  yet 
they  do  it  with  a  proper  influence ;  these  will  rather  as- 
sist and  promote  our  attention,  than  disturb  or  divert  it 
from  the  subject  of  our  present  and  proper  meditations. 
A  soul  inspired  with  the  fondest  love  of  truth,  and  the 
warmest  aspirations  after  sincere  felicity  and  celestial 
beatitude,  will  keep  all  its  powers  attentive  to  the  inces- 
sant pursuit  of  them ;.  passion  is  then  refined  andowise- 
crated  to  it*  divinest  purposes. 


CHAP.  XVI. 

Of  Enlarging-  the  Cafiacity  of  the  Mmd* 

THERE  are  three  things  which  in  an  especial  manner 
go  to  make  up  that  amplitude  or  Capacity  of  mind, 
which  is  one  ot  the  noblest  characters  belonging  to  the 
understaiKling :  (1.)  When  the  mind  is  ready  to  take  in 
great  and  sublime  ideas  without  pain  or  difficulty.  (2.) 
When  the  mind  is  free  to  receive  new  and  strange  ideas, 
upon  just  evidence,  without  great  surprise  or  aversion. 
(3.)  When  the  mind  is  able  to  conceive  cr  survey  many 
ideas  at  once  without  confusion,  and  to  form  a  true  judg- 
ment derived  from  that  extensive  survey.  The  person 
who  wants  either  of  tbese  characters,  may  in  that  re- 
spect be  said  to  have,  a  r.arrow  genius.  Let  us  diffuse 
our  mediutionsT  a  little  upon  this-subgect. 


124  OF   ENLARGING  THE 

I.  That  is  an  ample  and  capacious  mind  which  is 
ready  to  take  in  vast  and  sublime  ideas  without  pain  or 
difficulty.  Persons  who  have  never  been  used  to  con- 
verse with  any  ttiing  but  the  common,  little,  and  obvious 
affiirs  ot  lift-,  have  acquired  a  narrow  or  contracted 
hnbit  of  soul,  that  they  are  not  able  to  stretch  their  in- 
tellects vv  ide  enough  to  admit  large  and  noble  thoughts ; 
thjy  are  ready  to  makr  their  domestic,  daily,  and  fa- 
miliar images  of  things,  the  measure  of  all  that  is,  and 
all  that  can  be. 

Talk  to  them  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  planetary 
worlds ;  tell  them  that  the  star  called  Jupiter  is  a  solid 
globe,  two  hunc^red  and  twenty  times  bigger  than  our 
earth  ;  that  the  sun  is  a  vast  globe  of  fire,  ai^ove  a  thou- 
sand times  bi?ger  than  Jupiter,  that  is,  t\v*o  hundred 
and  twenty  th  u'-and  times  bigger  than  the  earth  ;  that 
the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun  is  eighty  one  mil- 
lions of  miles  ;  and  that  a  cannon  bullet  shot  from  the 
earth  would  not  arrive  at  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars 
in  some  hundred  of  years ;  they  cannot  bear  the  belief 
of  it,  but  hear  all  these  glorious  labours  of  astronomy  as 
a  mere  idle  romance. 

Inform  them  of  the  amazing  swiftness  of  the  motion 
of  some  of  the  smallest  or  the  biggest  bodies  in  nature ; 
assure  them,  according  to  the  best  philosophy,  that  the 
planet  Venus,*  {i  e.  our  morning  or  evening  star,  which 
is  near  as  big  as  our  earth,)  though  it  seems  to  move 
from  its  place  but  a  few  yards  in  a  month,  does  really 
fly  seventy  thousand  miles  in  an  hour ;  tell  them  that„ 
the  rays  of  light  shoot  from  the  sun  to  our  earth  at  the 
rate  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  miles  in  the 
second  of  a  minute ;  they  stand  aghast  at  such  sort  of 
talk,  and  believe  it  no  more  than  the  tales  of  giants  fif- 
ty yards  high,  and  the  rabbinical  fables  of  Leviathan, 
who  every  day  swallows  a  fish  of  three  miles  long,  and 
is  thus  preparing  himself  to  be  the  food  and  entertain* 
ment  of  the  blessed  at  the  feast  at  Paradise. 

These  unenlarged  souls  are  in  the  same  manner  dis- 
gusted with  the  wonders  which  the  microscope  has  dis- 
covered concerning  the  shape,  the  Umbs,  and  motions  of 
ten  thousand  little  animals,  whose  united  bulk  would  not 
equal  a  peppercorn  ;  they  are  ready  to  give  the  lie  to 
all  the  improvements  of  our  senses  by  the  invention  ofa 
variety  of  glasses,  and  will  scarcely  believe  any  thing 


J 


GAPACITX    OF  THE   MiND.  125 

beyond  the  testimony  of  the  naked  eye,  without  the  as- 
sistance of  art. 

Now  if  we  would  attempt  in  a  learned  manner  to  re- 
lieve the  minds  that  labour  under  this  defect : 

( 1.)  It  is  useful  to  begin  with  some-first  principles  of 
geometry,  and  lead  them  onward  by  degrees  to  the  doc- 
trine of  quantities  which  are  incommensurable,  or  which 
will  admit  of  no  commow  measure,  though  it  be  never 
so  small.  By  this  means  they  will  see  the  necessity  c^ 
admitting  the  infinite  divisibility  of  quantity  or  matter. 

This  same  doctrine  may  also  be  proved  to  their  un- 
derstandings, and  almost  to  their  senses,  by  some  easier 
arguments  in  a  more  obvious  manner.  As  the  v^ry  op- 
ening  and  closing  of  a  pair  of  compasses  will  evidently 
prove,  that  if  the  smallest  supposed  part  of  matter  or 
quantity  be  put  between  the  points,  there  will  be  still 
less  and  less  distances  or  quantities  all  the  way  between 
the  legs,  till  you  come  to  the  head  or  joint ;  wherefore 
there  is  no  such  thing  possible  as  the  smallest  quantity. 
But  a  little  acquaintance  with  true  philosophy  and 
mathematical  learning  would  soon  teach  them  that 
there  are  no  limits  either  as  to  the  extension  of  space 
or  to  the  division  of  body,  and  would  lead  them  to  be- 
lieve there  are  bodies  aniazingly  great  or  small  beyoud 
their  present  imagination, 

(2,)  It  is  proper  also  to  acquaint  them  with  the  cir? 
cumfereiice  of  our  earth,  which  mav  be  proved  by  very 
easy  principles  of  geometry,  geography,  and  astronomy, 
to  be  about  twenty  four  thousand  miles  round,  as  it  has 
been  actually  found  to  have  th'S  dimension  by  mariners 
■who  have  sailed  round  it.  Then  lei  them  be  taught, 
that  in  every  twenty  four  hours,  either  the  sun  and  stars 
must  all  move  rnund  this  earth,  or  tiie  earth  must  turn 
roimd  upon  its  own  axis.  If  the  earth  itself  revolve  thus, 
then  each  house  or  mountain  near  the  equator,  must 
move  at  the  r^te  of  a  thousand  miles  in  an  hour ;  but  if 
(as  they  general Iv  suppose)  the  sunor  stars  move  round 
the  earth,  then  (tl'e  circumference  of  their  several  or- 
bits or  spheres  bei  g  vastlv  greater  than  this  earth)  they 
roust  have  a  m<ition  prodigiously  swifter  than  a  thousand 
miies^an  hour.  Such  a  thought  as  this  will  by  degrees 
enlarere  their  minds ;  and  they  will  be  taught,  even  up- 
on their  own  principles  of  the  diurnal  revolutions  of  the 
heavens,  to  take  in  some  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the 
Jieavenly  bodies,  their  spaces  and  raotion'=i- 
M 


1(26  9B  ENLARGING  THJ? 

(3.)  To  this  i^ould  be  added  the  use  of  telescopes,  to 
help  them  to  see  the  distant  wonders  in  the  skies ;  and 
microscopes,  which  discover  the  minutest  parts  of  little 
animals,  and  reveal  some  of  the  finer  and  more  curious 
works  of  nature.  They  should  be  acquainted  also  with 
some  other  noble  inventions  of  modern  philosophy,  which, 
have  a  great  influence  to  enlarge  the  human  under^ 
standing,  of  which  I  shall  take  occasion  to  speak  mcs^e 
under  the  next  head, 

(4.)  For  the  same  purpose  they  may  be  invited  to 
read  those  parts  of  Milton's  admirable  poem,  entitled 
Paradise  Lost,  where  he  de&cribes  the  armies  and  pow- 
ers of  angels,  the  wars  and  the  senate  of  devils,  the  crem- 
ation g£  this  earth,  tt^ether  with  the  descriptions  of 
Iieaven,  hell,  and  paradise. 

It  must  be  granted  that  poesy  often  deals  m  these 
vast  and  sublime  ideas.  And  even  if  the  subject  or 
matter  of  the  poem  doth  nqt  require  such  amazing  and 
extensive  thoughts,  yet  tropes  and  figures,  which  are 
some  of  the  main  powers  and  beauties  of  poesy,  do  so 
gloriously  exalt  the  matter,  as  to  give  a  sublime  im^g-. 
illation  its  proper  relish  and  delight. 

So  when  a  boar  is  chased  in  hunting, 

..M Wis  iiostrils  flames  expire, 

And  his  red  eye  balls  roll  wiUi  living  tir^m^.prydeHi 

When  Ulysses  withholds  and  suppresses  his  resentmcot.- 

..M...., ...His  wretb  comprest, 

Reooiliiig,  mntter'd  thunder  in  his  hreast^>*t,Pq^. 

,  But  especially  where  the  subject  is  grand,  the  po" 
fails  not  to  represent  it  in  all  its  grandeur. 
So  when  the  supremacy  of  Qod  is  described : 

He  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 

A  hero  perish,  or  a  spaiTow  fall : 

Atoms  or  systems  into  ruin  hurl'd; 

Anfl  now  a  buhUe  bui-st,  and  now  a  ■wot\d».,.Popfi. 

These  sorts  of  wrfting  have  a  natural  tendency  to  eairt 
lare^e  the  capacity  of  the  mind,  and  make  sublime  ideas 
familiar  to  it.  And  instead  of  running  always  to  the 
ancient  Heathen  poesy  with  this  design,  we  may  with 
equal,if  not  superior  advantage,  apply  ourselves  to  con- 
verse with  some  of  the  best  of  our  modern  poets,  as  well 
as  with  the  writings  of  the  prophets,  and  the  {joedcal 
parts  of  the  Bible,  viz.  the  book  of  Job  and  the  Psalms, 


CAPACITY   0^   THE   MINI*.  127 

in  which  sacred  authors  we  shall  find  sometiiTies  more 
sublime  ideas,  more  glorious  descriptions,  more  elevat- 
etl  language,  than  the  fondest  critics  have  ever  found  ' 
in  any  of  the  Heathen  versifiers  either  of  Greece  or 
Koaie;  for  the  eastern  writers  use  and  allow  much 
stronger  figures  and  treses  than  the  western. 

Now  there  are  many  great  and  sacred  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  this  sort  ot  enlargement  of  the  mind. 

It  will  lead  us  into  more  exalted  apprehensions  of  the 
great  God  our  Creator  than  ever  we  had  before.  It  will 
entertain  our  thoughts  with  holy  wonder  and  amaze- 
ment, while  we  contemplate  that  Being  who  created 
these  various  works  of  surprising  greatness,  and  sur- 

S (rising  smallness ;  who  has  displayed  most  inconcei va- 
le wisdom  in  the  contrivance  of  all  the  parts,  powers, 
and  motions  of  tliese  little  animals,  invisible  to  the  nak- 
ed eye ;  who  has  manifested  a  most  divine  extent  of 
knowledge,  power,  and  greatness,  in  forming,  moving, 
and  managing  the  most  extensive  bulk  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  ana  in  surveying  and  comprehending  all  those 
immeasurable  spaces  in  which  they  move .  Fancy,  with 
all  her  images,  is  fi^tigued  and  overwhelmed  in  follow- 
ing the  planetai'v  worlds  through  such  immense  stages, 
such  astonisuing  journies  as  these  are,  and  resigns  its 
place  to  the  pure  intellect,  which  learns  by  degrees  to 
take  in  such  ideas  as  these,  and  to  adore  its  Creator 
■wit^^  new  and  sublime  devotion. 

And  not  only  are  we  tRught  to  form  juster  ideas  of 
the  great  God  by  these  methods,  but  this  enlargement 
of  the  mind  carries  us  on  to  nobler  conceptions  of  his  in- 
telligent creatures.  The  mind  that  deals  only  in  vul- 
gar and  common  ideas,  is  ready  to  imagine  the  nature 
and  powers  of  man  to  come  something  too  near  to  God 
his  Maker,  because  we  do  not  see  or  sensibly  converse 
with  any  beings  superior  to  ourselves.  But  when  the 
soul  has  obtained  a  greater  amplitude  of  thought,  it  will 
not  then  immediately  pronounce  every  thing  to  be  God 
which  is  above  man.  It  then  learns  to  suppose  there 
may  be  as  many  various  ranks  of  beings  in  the  invisible 
world  in  a  constant  gradation  superior  to  us,  as  we  our- 
selves are  superior  to  all  the  ranks  of  being  beneath  us 
in  this  visible  world  ;  even  though  we  descend  down^ 
ward  far  below  the  ant  and  the  worm,  the  snail  and  the 
oyster,  to  the  least  and  to  the  dullest  animated  atoms 
whith  are  cfiscovered  to  us  by  microscopes. 


t28  OF   ENLARGING  THE 

By  this  means  we  shall  be  able  to  suppose  what  pro- 
digious power  angels,  whether  good  or  bad,  must  be  fur- 
nished with,  and  prodigious  know  edge,  iti  order  to  over- 
see the  realms  ot  Persia  and  Graecia  of  old,  or  if  any 
such  superintend  the  aflfairs  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Ireland,  Germany,  8cc  in  oui  d^^ys :  What  power  and 
speed  is  necessary  to  desiroy  one  hundred  and  eighty 
five  thousand  xirmed  men  in  one  night  in  the  Assyrian 
camp  of  Sennacherib,  and  all  the  first  born-in  the  land 
of  Egypt  in  another,  both  which  are  attributed  to  an 
angel. 

By  these  steps  we  shall  ascend  to  form  more  just  ideas 
of  the  knowledge  and  grandeur,  thu  power  and  glory  of 
the  man,  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  intimately  united  to  God, 
and  is  one  with  him.  Doubtless  he  is  furnished  with  su- 
perior powers  to  ah  the  angels  in  heaven,  because  he  is 
employed  in  superior  work,  and  appointed  to  be  the 
Sovereign  Lord  of  all  the  visible  and  invisible  worlds. 
It  is  his  human  nature,  in  which  the  Godhead  dwells 
bodily,  that  is  advanced  to^these  honours,  and  to  this 
empire ;  and  perhaps  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  tixe 
government  of  the  kingdoms  of  nature  and  grace,  but 
what  is  transacted  by  the  man  Jesus,  mhabited  by  the 
divine  power  and  wisdom,  and  employed  as  a  medium 
or  conscious  instrument  of  this  extensive  gubernation. 

II.  I  proceed  now  to  consider  the  next  thing  where- 
in the  capac'ty  or  ampUtude  of  the  mind  consists,  and 
that  is,  when  the  mind  is  free  to  receive  new  and  strange 
ideas  and  propositions  upon  just  evidence,  without  any- 
great  surprise  or  aversion.  Those  who  confine  them- 
selves within  the  circle  cf  their  own  hereditary  ideas 
and  opinions,  and  who  never  give  themselves  leave  so 
much  as  to  exvmire  or  believe  any  thing  beside  the  dic- 
tates v'f  their  own  family,  or  sect,  or  party,  are  justly 
charged  with  a  narrowness  of  soul.  Let  us  survey  some 
instances  of  this  imperfection,  and  then  direct  to  the 
cure  of  it. 

(1.)  Persons  who  have  been  bred  up  all  their  davs 
within  the  smoke  of  their  father's  chimney,  or  within 
the  limits  of  their  nativi-  town  and  village,  are  surprised 
at  every  new  sight  that  appears,  when  they  travel  a 
few  miles  from  home.  The  ploughman  stands  amazed  at 
the  shops,  the  trade,  the  crowds  of  people,  the  magnifi- 
cent bmldin|;s,  the  pomp,  the  riches,  and  equipage  of 
the  court  and  city,  and  would  hardly  believe  what  was 


CAPACITY    OE   THE    MIND.  129 

told  him  before  he  saw  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cock* 
ney,  travelling  into  the  country,  is  surprised  at  many 
actions  of  the  quadruped  and  winged  animals  in  the  field, 
and  at  many  common  practices  of  rural  affairs. 

If  either  of  these  happen  to  hear  an  account  of  the 
famili;ir  and  daily  customs  of  foreign  countries,  they 
j3 renounce  them  at  once  indecent  and  ridiculous ;  so  nar- 
row are  their  understandings,  and  their  thoughts  so  con- 
fined, that  they  kr;ow  not  how  to  believe  any  thing  wise 
and  proper,  besides  what  they  h^ve  been  taught  to 
practise. 

This  narrowness  of  mind  should  be  cured  by  hearing 
and  reading  the  accounts  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
and  the  histories  of  past  ages,  and  of  nations  and  coun- 
tries distant  from  our  own,  especially  the  more  polite 
parts  of  mankind.  Nothing  tends  in  this  respect  so  much 
to  enlarge  the  mind  as  travelling,  i.  e.  making  a  visit  to 
pther  towns,  cities,  or  countries,  besides  those  in  which 
ve  weiT  boiTj  and  educated  :  and  where  our  condition 
pf  lifie  does  not  grant  us  this  privilege,  we  must  endeav- 
our to  supply  the  waijt  of  it  by  books. 

(2.)  It  is  the  same  narrowness  of  mind  that  awakens 
the  surprise  and  aversion  of  some  pers^ons,  when  they 
hear  of  doctrines  and  schemes  in  human  affairs,  or  in 
religion,  quite  different  from  what  they  have  embraced. 
Perhaps  they  have  been  trained  up  from  their  infancy 
in  one  set  of  notions,  and  their  thf  ughts  have  been  con- 
fined to  one  single  tract  both  in  the  civil  or  religious  life, 
•without  ever  hearing  or  knowing  what  other  opinions 
are  current  among  mankind ;  or  at  least  they  have  seen 
all  other  notions  besides  their  own  represented  in  a  false 
^nd  malignant  light,  whereupon  they  judge  and  condemn 
at  once  eVery  sentiment  but  what  their  own  party  re- 
ceives, and  they  think  it  a  piece  of  justice  and  truth  to 
lay  heavy  censures  upon  the  practice  of  every  different 
sect  in  Christianity  or  politics.  They  have  so  rooted 
themselves  in  the  opinions  of  their  party,  that  they  can-^ 
not  hear  an  objection  with  patience,  nor  can  they  bear 
a  vindication,  or  so  much  as  an  apology,  for  any  set  of 
principles  beside  their  own  :  all  the  rest  is  nonsense  or 
heresy,  folly  or  blasphemy. 

This  defect  also  is  to  be  relieved  by  free  conversation 

with  person  of  different  sentiments ;  this  will  teach  us 

to  bear  with  patience  a  defence  of  opinions  contrary  to 

our  own.    If  we  are  scholars,  we  should  also  read  th,e 

M  2  • 


130  OP   ENLARGING   THE 

objeTCtions  against  our  own  tenets,  and  view  the  princi- 
ples of  other  parties,  as  they  are  represented  in  their 
own  authors,  and  not  merely  in  the  citations  ot  those 
who  would  confute  them.  We  should  take  an  honest 
and  unbiassed  survey  of  the  force  of  reasoning  on  all 
sides,  and  bring  all  to  the  test  of  unprejudiced  reason 
and  divine  revelation.  Note,  this  is  not  to  be  done  in  a 
rash  and  self  sufficient  manner,  but  with  a  humble  de< 
pendence  on  divine  wisdom  and  grace,  while  we  walk 
among  snares  and  dangers. 

By  such  a  free  converse  with  persons  of  different  sects 
(especially  those  who  differ  only  in  particular  forms  of 
Christianity,  but  agree  in  the  great  and  necessary  doc- 
trines of  it,)  we  shall  find  that  there  are  persons  of  good 
sense  and  virtue,  persons  of  piety  afid  worth,  pe!  fons  of 
much  candour  and  goodness,  who  belong  to  different 
parties,  and  have  imbibed  sentiments  opposite  to  each 
other.  This  will  soften  the  roughness  of  an  unpolished 
soul,  and  enlarge  the  avenues  of  our  charity  towards 
others,  and  incline  us  to  receive  them  into  all  the  degrees 
of  unity  and  affection,  which  the  word  of  God  requires- 

(3.)  I  might  borrow  further  illustrations,  both  of  this 
freedom  and  this  aversion  to  receive  new  truths,  from 
modern  astronomy  and  natural  philosophy.  How  much 
is  the  vulgar  part  of  the  world  surprised,  at  the  talk  of 
the  diurnal  and  annual  revolutions  of  the  earth  I  They 
have  ever  been  taught  by  their  senses,  and  their  neigh- 
bours, to  imagine  the  earth  stands  fixed  m  the  centre  of 
the  universe,  and  that  the  sun,  with  all  the  planets  and 
the  fixed  stars,  are  whirled  round  this  little  globe  once  in 
twenty-four  hours ;  not  considering  that  such  a  diurnal 
motion,  by  reason  of  the  distance  of  some  of  those  heav- 
enly bodies,  must  be  almost  infinitely  swifter,  and  more 
inconceivable  than  any  which  the  modern  astronomers 
attribute  to  them.  Tell  these  persons  that  the  sun  is 
fixed  in  the  centre,  that  the  earth,  with  all  the  planets, 
roll  round  the  sun  in  their  several  periods,  and  that  the 
moon  rolls  round  the  earth  in  a  lesser  circle,  while,  to- 
gether with  the  earth,  she  is  carried  round  the  sun ;  they 
cannot  admit  a  syllable  of  this  new  and  strange  doc- 
trine, and  they  pronounce  it  utterly  contrary  to  ail  sense 
and  reason. 

Acquaint  them  that  there  are  four  moons  also  perpet- 
ually rolling  round  the  planet  Jupiter,  and  carried  along 
with  him  in  his  periodical  circuit  round  the  sun,  whicii 


CAPACITY    OF    THE    MINI).  131 

little  moons  were  never  known  till  the  year  1610,  wlien 
Galileo  discovered  them  by  his  telescope ;  inforrei  them 
that  Saturn  has  live  moons  of  the  same  kind  attending 
him  ;  and  that  the  body  of  that  planet  is  encompassed 
■with  a  broad,  flat,  circular  ring,  distant  from  the  planet 
twenty  one  thousand  miles,  and  twenty  one  thousand 
miles  broad  ;  they  look  upon  these  things  as  tales  and 
fancies,  and  will  tell  you  that  the  glasses  do  but  delude 
your  eyes  with  vast  images ;  and  even  when  they  them- 
selves consult  their  own  eye -sight  in  the  use  of  these 
tubes,  the  narrowness  of  their  mind  is  such,  that  they 
will  scarcely  believe  their  senses  when  they  dictate  ideas 
80  new  and  strange. 

And  if  you  proceed  further,  and  attemp^t  to  lead  them 
into  ^  belief  that  all  these  planetary  worlds  are  habita- 
ble, ar>d  it  is  probabie  tbey  are  replenished  with  intel- 
lectual beings  dwelling  in  bodies,  they  will  deride  the 
folly  of  him  that  informs  them  ;  for  they  resolve  to  be- 
Keve  there  are  no  habitable  worlds  but  this  earth,  anrt 
no  spirits  dwelling  in  bodies  besides  mankind  ;  and  it  is 
well  if  they  do  not  fix  the  l>rand  of  heresy  on  the  man 
who  is  leading  them  out  of  their  long  imprisonment,  and 
loosing  the  fetters  of  their  souls» 

There  are  many  other  things  relating  to  mechanical 
experiments,  and  to  the  properties  of  the  air,  water,  fire, 
iron,  the  loadstone,  and  other  minerals  and  metals,  as 
well  as  the  doctrine  of  the  sensible  qualities,  viz.  colours, 
sounds,  tastes,  &c.  which  this  rank  of  men  cannot  believe 
for  want  of  a  greater  amplitude  of  mind. 

The  best  way  to  convince  them,  is  by  giving  them 
some  acquaintance  with  the  various  experiments  in  phi- 
losophy, and  proving  by  ocular  demonstration  the  mul- 
tiform and  amazing  operations  of  the  air  pump, the  load- 
stone, the  chemical  furnace,  optical  glasses,  and  mechan- 
ical engines.  By  these  means  the  understanding  will 
stretch  itself  by  degrees,and  when  they  have  found  there 
are  so  many  new  and  strange  things  that  are  most  evi- 
dently true,  they  will  not  be  so  forward  to  condemn  every 
new  proposition  in  any  of  the  other  sciences,  or  in  the 
aff.iirs  of  religion  or  civil  lite. 

III.  The  capacity  of  the  understanding  includes  yet' 
another  qualification  in  it,  and  that  is,  an  ability  to  re- 
ceive many  ideas  at  once  without  confusion.    The  am- 
ple mind  takes  a  survey  of  several  objects  with  one 
glance,  keeps  tbem  all  within  siglu,  and  present  ^c  the 


132  OF   ENLARGING    THE 

soul,  that  they  may  be  compared  together  in  their  mu- 
tual respects ;  it  forms  jui.t  judgments,  and  it  draws 
proper  inferences  from  this  comparison,  even  to  a  great 
length  of  argument,  and  a  chain  of  demonstrations. 

The  narrowness  that  belongs  to  human  souis  in  gen- 
eral, is  a  great  imperfection  and  impediment  to  wisdom 
and  happiness.  I'here  are  but  few  persons  wlio  can 
contemplate  or  practise  several  things  at  once ;  our  fac- 
ulties are  very  hmited.  and  while  we  are  intent  upon  one 
part  or  property  of  a  subject,  we  have  but  a  slight 
gUmpse  of  the  rest,  or  we  loose  it  out  of  sight.  But  it  is 
a  sign  of  a  large  and  capacious  mind,  if  we  can  with  one 
single  view  take  in  a  variety  of  objects ;  or  at  least  when 
the  mind  can  spply  itself  to  several  objects  with  so  swift 
a  succession,  and  in  so  few  moments,  as  attains  almost 
the  same  ends  as  if  it  were  all  done  in  the  same  instant, 

This  is  a  necessary  qualification  in  order  to,  great 
knowledge  and  good  judgment ;  for  there  are  several 
things  in  human  life,  in  religion,  and  in  the  sciencesj, 
which  have  various  circumstances,  appendices,  and  re- 
lations attending  them ;  and  without  a  survey  of  all  those 
ideas  which  stand  in  connexion  with,  and  relation  to  each 
other,  we  are  often  in  danger  of  passing  a  false  judgment 
on  the  subject  proposed.  Jt  is  tor  this  reason  there  are 
so  numerous  controversies  found  among  the  learned  and 
unlearned  world,  in  matters  of  religion,  as  well  as  in  the 
affairs  of  civil  government.  The  notions  of  sin  and  duty 
to  God  and  our  fellow  creatures ;  cf  law,  justice,  author- 
ity, and  power ;  of  covenant,  faith,  justification,  redemp- 
tion, and  gra*ce ;  of  church,  bishop,  presbyter,  ordina- 
tion, &c.  contain  in  them  such  complicated  ideas,  that 
■when  we  are  to  judge  of  any  thing  concerning  them,  it 
is  hard  to  take  into  our  view  at  once  all  the  attendants 
or  consequents  that  must  and  will  be  concerned  in  the 
determination  of  a  single  question  ;  and  yet,  without  a 
due  attention  to  many,  or  most  of  these,  we  are  in  dan- 
ger of  determining  that  question  amiss. 

It  is  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  our  minds,  that  we 
are  exposed  to  the  same  peril  in  the  matters  of  human 
duty  and  prudence.  In  many  things  which  we  do,  wc 
■  ought  not  only  to  consider  the  mere  naked  action  itself, 
but  the  persons  who  act,  the  persons  towards  whom,  the 
time  when,  the  place  where,  the  manner  how,  the  end 
for  which  the  action  is  done,  together  with  the  effects 
that  must,  or  that  may  follow,  and  all  other  stirrounding 


CAPACITY    OE   THE   MIND.  133 

circumstances  :  these  things  must  necessaa*ily  be  taken 
into  our  view,  in  oixjer  to  determine  whetiier  the  action, 
which  is indiffeient  in  itselfi  be  either  lawful  or  unlawful, 
good  or  evil»  wise  or  foolish,  decent  or  indecent,  proper 
or  improper,  as  it  is  so  circumstantiated. 

Let  me  give  a  plain  instance  for  the  illustration  cf  this 
matter.  Mario  kills  a  dog,  which,  considered  merely  in 
itself,  seems  to  be  an  indirferejit  action  ;  now  the  dog 
was*  Timon*s,  and  not  his  own  ;  this  makes  it  look  unlaw- 
ful. But  Timon  bid  him  do  it ;  this  gives  it  an  appear- 
ance of  lawfulness  again.  It  was  done  at  church  ;  and 
in  time  of  divine  service ;  these  circumstances  added, 
cast  on  it  an  air  of  irreligion.  But  the  dog  flew  at  Ma- 
rio, and  {)ut  him  in  danger  of  kis  life ;  this  relieves  the 
seeming  impiety  of  the  action.  Yet  Mario  might  have 
escaped  by  flying  thence ;  thtreforc  the  action  appears 
to  be  improper.  But  the  dog  was  known  to  be  mad  ; 
this  further  circimistance  makes  it  almost  necessary 
that  the  dog  should  be  slain,  lest  he  might  worry  the  as- 
sembly, and  do  much  mischief.  Yet  again,  Mario  killed 
him  with  a  pistoi  which  he  happened  to  have  in  his 
pocket  since  yesterday's  journey ;  now  hereby  the  whole 
congregation  was  terrified  and  di;5composed,  and  divine 
service  was  broken  oft':  this  carries  an  appearance  of 
great  indecency  and  impropriety  in  it:  but  after  all, 
when  we  consider  a  further  circumstance,  that  Mario, 
being  thus  violently  assaulted  by  a  mad  dog,  had  no  way 
of  escape,  and  had  no  other  weapon  about  him,  it  seems 
to  take  away  all  the  colours  of  impropriety,  indecency, 
or  unlawfulness,  and  to  allow  that  the  preservation  of 
one  or  many  lives  will  justify  the  act  as  wise  and  good. 
Now  all  these  concurrent  appendices  of  the  action  ought 
to  be  surveyed,  in  order  to  pronounce  with  justice  and 
truth  concerning  it. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  human  actions  in  private 
life,  in  domestic  a  flairs,  in  traffic,  in  civil  government, 
in  coi^  ts  of  justice,  in  schools  cf  learning,  &c.  which 
have  so  many 'complicated  circumstances,  aspects,  and 
situations,  with  regard  to  time  and  place,  persons  and 
things,  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  i)ass  a  right 
judgment  concerning  them,  without  entering  into  most 
of  these  circumstances,  and  surveying  them  extensively, 
and  comparing  and  balancing  them  all  aright. 

Wherce,  by  the  way,  I  may  take  occasion  to  say. 
How  many  thousands  a"re  there  who  take  upon  them  Jt» 


134  OE   ENLARGING  THE 

pass  their  censures  on  the  personal  atid  the  domestic 
actions  of  others,  who  pronounce  boldly  on  the  affairs 
of  the  public,  and  determine  the  justice  or  madness,  the 
wisdom  or  folly  of  national  administrations,  of  peace  and 
war,  &c.  whom  neither  God  nor  men  ever  qualified  for 
sucii  a  post  of  judgment  ?  They  were  not  capable  of  en- 
tering into  the  numerous  concurring  springs  of  action,  nor 
had  they  ever  taken  a  survey  of  the  twentieth  r.art  of 
the  circumstances  which  were  necessaiy  for  such  judg- 
ments or  censures. 

It  is  the  narrowr.ess  of  our  minds,  as  well  as  the  vices 
of  the  will,  that  oftentimes  prevents  us  from  taking  a 
full  view  of  all  the  complicated  and  concurring  appendi- 
ces that  belong  to  human  actions;  thence  it  comes  to 
pass,  that  there  is  so  little  right  judgment,  so  little  jus- 
tice, prudence,  or  decency,  practised  among  the  bulk  of 
mankind ;  thence  arise  intiirlte  reproaches  and  censures, 
alike  foolish  and  unrighteous  You  see,  therefore,  how 
needful  and  happy  a  thing  it  is  to  be  possessed  of  some 
measure  of  t'l's  amplitude  of  soul,  in  order  to  make  us 
very  wise,  op  knowing,  or  just,  or  prudent,  or  happy. 

I  confess  this  sort  of  amplitude  or  capacity  of  mind  is 
in  a;  great  measure  the  gift  of  nature,  for  some  are  bom 
Tvith'much  more  capacunis  souls  than  others. 

The  genius  of  some  persons  is  so  poor  and  limited,  that 
they  can  hardly  take  in  the  connexion  of  two  or  three 
propositions,  urdess  it  be  m  matters  of  sense,  and  which 
they  have  learned  by  experience  ;  they  are  utterly  unfit 
for  speculative  studies ;  it  is  hard  for  them  to  discern  the 
difference  betwixt  right  and  wrong  in  matters  of  reason, 
on  any  abstracted  subjects  ;  these  ought  never  to  setup 
for  scholars,  but  apply  themselves  to  those  arts  and  pro- 
fessions of  life  which  are  to  be  learned  at  an  easier  rate, 
by  slow  degrees,  and  daily  experience. 

Others  have  a  soul  a  little  more  Capacious,  and  they 
can  take  in  the  connexion  of  a  few  propositions  pretty 
well ;  but  if  the  chain  of  consequences  be  a  little  prolix, 
here  they  stick  and  are  confounded.  If  persons  of  this 
make,ever  devote  themselves  to  science,  they  should  be 
well  assured  of  a  solid  and  strong  constitution  of  body, 
and  well  resolved  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  iiard  labour  and 
diligence  in  study.  If  the  iron  be  blunt,  king  Solomon 
tells  us,  we  must  put  more  strength. 

But,  in  the  third  place,  there  are  some  of  «o  bright 
and  happy  a  genius,  and  so  ample  a  mind,  that  they  can 


CAPACITY   OF   THE   MIND.  135. 

take  in  a  long  train  of  propositions,  if  not  at  once,  yet  in 
a  very  flew  moments,  and  judge  well  concerning  the  de- 
pendence of  them.  They  can  survey  a  variety  of  com- 
plicated ideas  without  fatigue  or  disturbance  ;  and  a 
number  of  truths  nftering  themselves  as  it  were  in  one 
view  to  their  understanding  doth  not  perplex  or  con- 
found them.    This  makes  a  great  man. 

Now,  though  there  may  be  much  owing  to  nature  in 
this  case,  yet  experience  assures  us,  that  even  a  lower 
degj-ee  of  this  capacity  and  extent  of  thought,  may  be 
increased  by  diligence  and  application,  by  frequent  ex- 
ercise, and  the  o[)servation  of  such  rules  as  these  : 

I.  Labour  by  all  means  to  gain  an  attentive  and  pa- 
tient tempei*  of  mind,  a  power  of  confining  and  fixing 
yoip*  thoughts  ^  long  on  any  one  appointed  subject,  till 
you  have  sinveyted  it  on  every  side  and  in  every  situa- 
tion, and  run  through  the  several  powers,  parts,  pro- 
perties and  relations,  effects  and  consequences  of  it. 
He  whose  thoughts  are  very  fluttering  and  wandering, 
and  cannot  be  iixttd  attentively  to  a  few  ideas  succes- 
^'ely,  will  never  l>e  able  to  survey  many  and  various 
©bjects  distinctly  ijt  once,  but  will  certainly  be  over- 
whelmed and  confoufttiedwith  the  multiplicity  of  them. 
I'he  rules  for  fixing  the  attention  in  the  former  chapter 
are  proper  to  l»e  consulted  here. 

II.  Accustfim  yourself  to  clear  and  distinct  ideas  in 
every  thing  yoh  think  of.  Be  not  satisfied  with  obscure 
and  confused  Conceptions  of  thing^,  especially  where 
clearer  may  bef  obtained ;  for  one  obscure  or  confused 
idea,  especially:  if  it  be  of  great  importance  in  the  ques- 
tion, intermingled  with  many  clear  ones,  and  placed  in 
its  variety  of  asibects  towards  them,  will  be  in  danger  of 
spreading  confusion  over  the  whole  scene  of  ideas,  and 
thus  may  have  -.in  unhappy  influence  to  overwhelm  the 
understanding  w  \ih  darkness,  and  pervert  the  judgment. 
A  little  black  paint  will  shamefully  tincture  and  spoil 
twenty  gay  colon  rs. 

Consider  yet  further,  that  if  you  content  yourself  fre- 
quently with  won  Is  instead  of  ideas,  or  with  cloudy  and 
confi]sed  notions  c  f  things,  how  impenetrable  will  that 
darkness  be,  and  iliow  \ast  and  endless  that  confusion, 
which  must  surrcWd  and  involve  the  understanding, 
when  many  of  thfcflie  obscure  and  confused  ideas  come  to 
be  set  before  the  sibul  at  once?  And  how  impossible  will 
it  be  tQ  form  a  cle<'  iir  and  just  judgment  about  them? 


136  Off   BNLARQIICG   THE 

III.  Use  all  diligence  to  acquire  and  treasure-  up  a 
large  store  of  ideas  and  notions ;  takeever^'  opportuni- 
ty to  add  someth.ng  to  your  stock,  and  by  frequent  rec- 
ollection fix  thenn  i;i  your  memorv ;  nothing  tends  to 
canfirrn  and  enlarge  the  memory  like  a  frequent  review 
of  its  possessions.  Thei^the  brain  being  well  furnished 
with  various  traces,  signltures^and  images,  will  have 
a  rich  treasure  always  ready  to  be  proposed,  or  offer- 
ed to  the  soul,  when  it  directs  its  thought  towards  any- 
particular  subject.  This  will  gradually  give  the  mind 
a  faculty  of  surveying  many  objects  at  cnce  >  as  a  room 
that  is  ridUy  adorned  and  hung  round  vith  a  great  va- 
riety of  pictures  strisies  the  eye  almost  at  once  with  all 
that  variety,  especially  if  they  have  been  well  surveyed  ^ 
one  by  one  at  first ;  this  makes  it  haWtuai  and  more 
easy  to  the  inhabitants  to  take  in  manf  of  tliose  pakitett 
scenes  with  a  single  glance  or  two. 

Here  note,  that  by  acquiring  a  ridi  treasure  of  no- 
tions, I  (Jo  not  mean  only  single  ideas^but  also  proposi- 
tions, observations,  and  experiences,  with  reasonings 
and  arguments  upon  the  various  jubjects  that  occur 
among  natural  and  moral,  common  or  sacred  affairs ; 
that  when  you  are  called  to  judge  conceruing-anyques, 
tion,  you  will  have  some  principles  of  truth,  some  useful 
axioms  and  observations,  always  ready  at  hand  to  ^-^ 
rect  and  assist  your  judgment. 

IV.  It  is  necessar}'  that  we  should  as  far  as.  possible 
entertain  and  lay  up  our  daily  new  ideas  in  a  regular 
Order,  and  range  the  acquisitions  of  oursouk  under  pro- 
per heads,  whetherof  divinity,  law,  ph5«ics,  raathemat- 
ics,  morality,  politics,  trade,  domesticlife,  civility,  de- 
cency, &c.  whether  of  cause,  effect,  aibstanc^-,  mode, 
power,  property,  body,  spirit,  &:c.  ^V-e  sliould  inuiMi 
6ur  minds  to  method  and  crder  contiaually  ;  and  whe» 
we  take  in  any  fresh  ideas,  occurrewces,  and  observa- 
tions, we  should  dispose  of  them  intfeeir  proper  places, 
and  see  how  they  stand  and  sie^ae  vith  the  rest  of  our 
notions  on  the  s  .me  subjects ;  as  a  scliclar  would  dispose 
of  a  new  book  on  a  proper  shelf  anco'ig  its  kindred  au- 
thors ;  or  as  an  officer  at  the  post  kouse  in  London  dis-' 
poses  of  every  letter  he  takes  in,  piacing  it  in  the  box^ 
that  belongs  to  the  proper  road  orcounty. 

In  any  of  these  c;ises.  if  things  liy  all  in  a  heap,  the 
addition  of  any  new  object  w  juld  increase  the  confusion  ; 
but  method  give.s  a  speedy  and  slitrt  survey  of  theqa 


CAPACITY    OF   THIi   MIND,  137 

with  ease  and  pleasure.  Method  is  of  admirable  ad- 
vant  ige  to  keep  our  ideas  from  a  confused  mixture,  an-d 
to  preserve  them  i-eady  for  every  use.  The  science  of 
onthology,  which  distributes  all  beings,  and  all  the  aifec- 
tions  of  being,  whether  absolute  or  relative,  under  pro- 
per classes,  is  of  good  service  to  keep  our  intellectual 
acquisitions  in  such  order  as  that  the  mind  may  survey 
them  at  once. 

V.  As  method  is  necessary  for  the  improvement  of 
the  mind,  in  order  to  make  your  treasure  of  ideas  most 
useful ;  so  in  all  your  further  pursuits  of  truth,  ai^d  ac- 
quirements of  rational  knowledge,  observe  a  regular 
])rogressive  method.  Begin  with  the  most  sin)p!e,  easy, 
ajul  obvious  ideas  ;  then  by  degreesjoin  two.  and  three, 
and  more  of  them  together  ;  thus  the  complicatr  d  ideas 
growing  up  under  your  eye  and  observation,  will  not 
give  the  same  confusion  of  thought  as  thej'  would  do  if 
they  were  all  offered  to  the  mind  at  once,  without  your 
observing  the  original  and  formation  of  them. 

An  eminent  example  of  this  appears  in  the  study  of 
arithmetic.  If  a  scholar  just  admitted  into  the  school 
observes  his  master  performing  an  operation  in  the^/ule 
of  division,  his  head  is  at  once  disturbed  and  confounded 
with  the  manifold  comparisons  of  the  numbers  of  the 
divisor  and  dividend,  and  the  multiplication  of  the  one 
and  subtraction  of  it  from  the  other  ;  but  if  he  begin 
regularly  at  addition,  and  so  proceed  by  subtraction  and 
multiplier ti:)n,  he  will  then  in  a  few  weeks  be  able  to 
take  in  an  intelligent  survey  of  all  those  operations  in 
division,  and  to  practise  them  himself  with  ease  and 
pleasure,  each  of  which  at  first  seemed  all  intricacy 
and  confusion. 

An  illustration  of  the  like  nnture  may  be  borrowed 
from  geometry  and  algebra,  and  other  mathematical 
practices.  How  easily  does  an  expert  geometrician, 
with  one  glance  of  his  eye,  take  in  a  complicated  dia- 
gram, made  up  of  many  lines  and  circles,  angles  and 
arches  !*  How  r<  adily  does  he  judge  of  it,  whether  the 
demonstration  desigiied  by  it  be  true  or  false .^  It  was 
by  degrees  he  arrived  at  tiiis  sir -tch  of  understanding; 
he  began  with  a  single  line  or  a  pr/nt;  he  joined  two 
lines  in  an  nngle ;  he  advanced  to  triangles  and  squares, 
polygons  and  circles  ;  thus  .he  powers  of  his  understand- 
ing were  stretched  and  augmented  daily,  till  by  dili- 


138  OF    fiKLARGING  THE   CAPACITY,    &C. 

gence  and  regular  application,  he  acquired  this  extent-^ 
sive  faculty  of  mind. 

But  this  advantage  does  not  belong  only  to  mathe- 
matical learning.  If  we  ap|ply  ourselves  at  first  in  any 
science  to  clear  and  single  ideas,  and  never  hurry  our- 
selves on  to  the  following  and  more  complicated  parts  of 
knowledge,  till  we  thoroughly  understand  the  foregoing, 
we  may  practise  the  same  method  of  enlar^ng  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  soul  with  su-t  cess*  in  any  one  ot  the  scien- 
ces, or  in  the  affairs  of  life  and  religion. 

Beginning  with  A,  B,  C,  and  making  syllables  out  of 
letters,  and  words  out  of  syllables,  has  been  the  founda- 
tiori  of  all  that  glorious  superstructure  of  arts  and  scien- 
ces, which  have  enriched  the  minds  and  libraries  of  the 
learned  world  in  several  ages.  These  are  the  first  steps 
by  which  the  ample  and  capacious  souls  among  man- 
kind have  arrived  at  that  prodigious  extent  of  knowl- 
edge, which  renders  them  the  wonder  and  glory  of  the 
nation  where  they  live.  Though  Plato  and  Cicero, 
.  Descartes  and  Mr.  Boyle,  Mr.  Xocke  and  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  were  doubtless  favoured  by  nature  with  a  gen- 
ius of  uncommon  amplitude,  5'et,  in  their  early  years  and 
first  attempts  of  science,  this  was  but  limited  and  nar- 
row, in  comparison  of  what  they  attained  at  last.  But 
how  vast  and  capacious  were  those  powers  which  they 
afterwards  acquired  by  patient  attention  and  watchful 
observation,  by  the  pursuit  of  clear  ideas,  and  a  regular 
method  of  thinking! 

VI.  Another  means  of  acquiring  this  amplitude  and 
capacity  of  mind,  is  a  perusal  of  difficult,  entangled 
questions,  and  of  the  solution  of  them  in  any  science. 
Speculative  and  casuistical  divinity  will  furnish  us  with 
many  such  cases  and  controversies.'  There  are  some 
such  difficulties  in  reconciling  L-everal  parts  of  the  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul,  relating  to  the  Jewish  law  and  the 
Christian  gospel ;  a  happy  solution  whereof  will  require 
such  an  extensive  view  of  things,  and  the  reading  of 
these  happy  solutions  will  enlarge  this  faculty  in  youn- 
ger students. 

In  moral  and  political  subjects,  Puffi?ndorf's  Law  of 
Nature  and  Nations,and  several  deternunations  tliei-ein, 
will  promote  the  same  amplitude  of  mind.  An  attend- 
ance on  public  trials  and  arguments  in  the  civil  courts 
of  justice,  will  be  of  good  advantage  for  this  purpose  ; 
and  after  a  man  has  studied  the  general  principles  of 


OF    IMPROTING    THE    MEKOB.Y.  139 

the  law  of  nature  and  the  laws  of  England  in  proper 
books,  the  reading  the  reports  of  adjudged  cases,  col- 
lected by  men  of  great  sagacity  and  judgment,  will  rich- 
ly improve  his  mind  towards  acquiring  this  desirable 
amplitude  and  extent  of  thought,  and  more  especially 
in  persons  of  that  profession. 


CHAP.  XVII. 

Of  Imjiro-uing  the  Memwy.  , 

MEMORY  is  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind  of  man, 
very  different  from  perception,  judgment,  and  rea- 
soning, and  its  other  powers.  Then  we  are  said  to  re- 
member any  thing,  when  the  idea  of  it  arises  in  the 
mind  with  a  consciousness  at  the  same  time  that  we 
have  had  this  idea  before.  Our  memory  is  our  natur- 
al power  of  retaining  what  we  learn,  and  of  recalling 
it  on  every  occasion.  Therefore  we  can  never  be  said 
to  remember  any  thing,  whether  it  be  ideas  or  propo- 
sitions, words  pr  things,  notions  or  arguments,  of  which 
we  have  not  had  some  former  idea  or  perception,  either 
by  sense  or  imagination,thought  or  reflection ;  but  what- 
soever we  learn  from  observation,  books,  or  conver- 
sation, 6cc.  it  must  ail  be  laid  up  and  preserved  in  the 
memory,  if  we  would  make  it  really  useful. 

So  necessary  and  so  excellent  a  faculty  is  the  mem- 
ory of  man,  that  all  other  abilities  of  the  mind  borrow 
from  hence  their  beauty  and  perfection  ;  for  the  other 
capacities  cf  the  soul  are  almost  useless  without  this. 
To  what  purpose  are  all  our  labours  in  knowledge  and 
wisdom,  if  we"\vant  memory  to  preserve  and  use  what 
we  have  acquired  ?  What  si.5nify  all  other  intellectual 
or  spiritual  improvements,  if  they  are  lost  as  soon  as 
they  are  obtained  ?  It  is  memory  alone  that  enriches 
the  mind,  by  preserving  what  our  labour  and  industry 
daily  collect.  In  a  word,  there  can  be  neither  knowl- 
edge, nor  arts,  nor  sciences,  without  memory ;  nor  can 
there  be  any  improvement  of  mankind  iig^virtue  or 
morals,  or  the  practice  of  religion,  withoutthe  assist- 
ance and  influence  of  this  power.  Without  memory 
the  soul  of  man  would  be  but  a  poor,  destitute,  naked 
being,  with  an  everlasting  blank  spread  over  it,  except 
the  fleeting  ideas  of  the  present  moment. 


i40  OF    IMPROVING   THE    MEMOR¥. 

Memoiy  is  very  useful  to  those  who  speak,  as  well 
as  to  those  who  learn.  It  assists  the  teacher  and  the 
orator,  as  well  as  the  scholar  cr  the  hearer.  The  best 
speeches  and  instructions  are  almost  lost,  if  those  who 
hear  them  immediately  forget  them.  And  those  who 
are  called  to  speak  in  public  are  much  better  heard 
and  accepted,  when  they  -cai)  deliver  their  discourse 
by  the  help  of  a  lively  genius  and  a  ready  memory, 
than  when  they  are  forced  to  read  all  that  they  would 
communicate  to  their  hearers,  .heading  is  certainly  a 
heavier  way  of  the  conv^eyance  of  cur  sentiments  ;  and 
there  are  very  few  mere  readers  who  have  the  felicity 
of  penetrating  the  soul,  and  awakening  the  passions  of 
those  who  hear,  by  such  a  grace  and  power  of  oratory, 
as  the  man  who  seems  to  talk  every  word  from  his 
very  heart,  and  pours  out  the  riches  of  his  awn  knowl- 
edge upon  the  people  round  about  him  by  the  help  of 
a  tree  and  copious  memory.  T'his  gives  life  and  spirit 
to  every  thing  that  is  spoken,  and  has  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  make  a  deeper  impression  on  the  minds  of 
men ;  it  awakens  the  dullest  spirits,  causes  them  to 
receive  a  discourse  with  more  affection  and  pleasure, 
and  adds  a  singular  grace  and  excellency  both  to  the 
person  and  his  oration. 

A  good  judgment  and  a  good  memory  are  very  dif- 
ferent qualifications.  A  person  may  have  a  very  strong, 
capacious  and  retentive  memory,  where  the  judgment 
is.  very  poor  and  weak ;  as  sometimes  it  happens  in 
those  who  are  but  one  degree  above  an  ideot,  who 
have  manifested  an  amazing  strength  and  extent  of 
memory,  but  have  hardly  been  able  to  join  or  disjoin 
tvvo  or  three  ideas  in  a  wise  and  happy  manner,  to 
make  a  solid,  rational  proposition. 

There  have  been  instances  cf  others  who  have  had 
but  a  very  tolerable  power  of  memory,  yet  their  judg- 
ment has  been  of  a  much  superior  degree,  just  and 
wise,  solid  and  excellent. 

Yet  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  where  a  happy 
memory  i^ornid  in  any  person,  there  is  one  good  foun- 
dation lai^for  a  wise  and  just  judgment  of  things, 
wheresoever  the  natural  genius  has  any  thing  of  sagac- 
ity and  brightness  to  make  a  right  use  cf  it,  A  good 
judgment  must  always  in  some  measure  depend  upon 
a  survey  and  comparison  of  several  things  together  in 
the  mind,  and  determining  the  truth  of  some  doubtful 


Off  IMFROVING  THE  MEMORT.  141 

proposition  by  that  survey  and  comparison.  When  the 
mind  lias,  as  it  were,  set  all  those  various  objects  pres- 
ent before  it,  which  are  necessaiy  to  form  a  true  prop- 
osition or  judgment  concerning  any  thing,  it  then  deter- 
mines that  such  and  such  ideas  are  to  be  joined  or 
disjoined,  to  be  affirmed  or  denied,  and  this  in  a  con- 
sistency and  correspondence  with  all  those  other  ideas 
and  propositions  which  in  any  way  relate  or  belong  to 
the  same  subject.  Now  there  can  be  no  such  compre- 
hensive survey  of  many  things  without  a  tolerable  de- 
gree of  memory ;  it  is  by  reviewing  things  past  we  learn 
to  judge  of  the  future ;  and  it  happens  sometimes  that 
if  one  needful  or  important  object  or  idea  be  absent, 
the  judgment  concerning  the  thing  inquired  will  there- 
by become  false  or  mistaken. 

You  will  enquire  then,  how  comes  it  to  pass  that 
there  are  some  persons  who  appear  in  the  world  of 
business,  as  Avell  as  in  the  world  of  learning,  to  have  a 
good  judgment,  and  have  acquired  the  just  character 
of  prudence  and  wisdom,  and  yet  have  neither  a  very 
bright  genius  or  sagacity  of  thought,  nor  a  very  happy 
memory,  so  that  they  cannot  set  before  their  minds  at 
%  once  a  large  scene  of  ideas  in  order  to  pass  a  judgment  ? 

Now  we  may  learn  from  Penseroso  some  accounts 
'of  this  difficulty.  You  shall  scarcely  ever  find  this  man 
forward  in  judging  and  determining  things  proposed 
to  him,  but  he  always  takes  time,  and  delays,  and  sus- 
pends, and  ponders  things  maturely,  before  he  passes 
his  judgment;  then  he  practices  a  slow  meditation, 
ruminates  on  the  subject,  and  thus  perhaps  in  two  or 
three  nights  and  days  rouses  and  awakens  those  several 
ideas,  one  after  another  as  he  can,  which  are  necessary 
in  order  to  judge  aright  of  the  thing  proposed,  and 
makes  them  pass  before  his  review  in  succession  :  this 
he  doth  to  relieve  the  want  both  of  a  quick  sagacity  of 
thought,  and  of  a  ready  memory  and  speedy  recollec- 
tion ;  and  this  caution  and  practice  lays  the  foundation 
of  his  just  judgment  and  wise  conduct.  He  surveys 
well  before  he  judges. 

Whence  I  cannot  but  take  occasion  to  infer  one  good 
rule  of  advice  to  persons  of  higher  as  well  as  lower 
genius,  and  of  large  as  well  as  narrow  memories,  viz. 
That  they  do  not  too  hastily  pronounce  concerning 
matters  of  doubt  or  inquiry,  where  there  is  not  an  ur 
Tent  necessity  of  present  action.  The  bright  genius  i^ 
^  2 


142  OF    IMPROVING   THE    MEMORY, 

ready  to  be  so  forward  as  often  betrays  itself  into  greati 
errours  in  judgment,  speech,  and  conduct,  without  a 
continual  guard  upon  itself,  and  using  the  bridle  of  the 
tongue.  And  it  is  by  this  delay  and  precaution,  that 
many  a  person  of  much  lower  natural  abilities  shall 
often  excel  persons  of  the  brightest  genius  in  wisdom 
and  prudence. 

It  is  often  found  that  a  fine  genius  has  but  a  feeble 
memory  :  for  where  the  geniua  is  bright,  and  the 
fmagination  vivid,  the  power  of  memory  may  be  too 
much  neglected,  and  lose  its  improvement.  An  active 
fancy  readily  wanders  over  a  multitude  of  objects,  and 
iscontinually  entertaining  itself  with  new  flying  images; 
it  runs  through  a  number  of  new  scenes  or  new  pages 
with  pleasure,  but  without  due  attention,  and  seldom 
suffers  itself  to  dwell  long  enough  upon  any  one  of  them, 
to  make  a  deep  impression  thereof  upon  the  mind,  and 
commit  it  to  lasting  remembrance.  This  is  one  plain 
and  obvious  reason  why  there  are  some  persons  of  very 
bright  parts  and  active  spirits,  who  have  but  short  and 
narrow  powers  of  remembrance  ;  for,  having  riches 
of  their  own,  they  are  not  solicitous  to  borrow. 

And,  as  such  a  quick  and  various  fancy  and  inven- 
tion may  be  some  hindrance  to  the  attention  and  mem- 
ory, so  a  mind  of  a  good  retentive  ability,  and  which 
is  ever  crowding  its  memory  with  things  which  it  learns 
and  reads  continually,  may  prevent,  restrain,  and 
cramp  the  invention  itself.  The  memory  of  Lectorides 
is  ever  ready,  upon  all  occasions,  to  offer  to  his  mind 
something  out  of  other  men's  writings  or  conversations, 
and  is  presenting  him  with  the  thoughts  of  other  per- 
sons perpetually  ;  thus  the  man  who  had  naturally  a 
good  flowing  invention,  does  not  suffer  himself  to  pur- 
sue his  own  thoughts.  Some  persons  who  have  been 
blest  by  nature  with  sagacity,  and  no  contemptible  gen- 
ius, have  too  often  forbid  the  exercise  of  it,  by  tying 
themselves  down  to  the  memory  of  the  volumes  they 
have  read,  and  the  sentiments  of  other  men  contained 
in  them. 

Where  the  memory  has  been  almost  constantly  em- 
ploying itself  in  scraping  together  new  acquirements,and 
where  there  has  not  been  a  judgment  sufficient  to  dis- 
tinguish what  things  were  lit  to  be  recommended  and 
treasured  up  in  the  memory,  and  what  things  were 
'(He,  useless,  or  needless,  the  mind  has  been  filled  with 


OF   IMPROVING   THE   MEMORY.  142 

a  wretched  heap  and  hotch  potch  of  words  or  ideas, 
arid  the  soul  may  be  said  to  have  had  large  possessions, 
but  no  true  riches. 

I  have  read  in  some  of  Mr.  Milton's  writings  a  very- 
beautiful  simile,  whereby  he  represents  the  books  o/ 
the  Fathers,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Christian  churcli. 
Whatsoever,  saith  he,  Old  Time,  with  his  huge  draej 
net  has  conveyed  down  to  us  along  the  stream  of  ages^ 
whether  it  be  shells  or  shell  fish,  jewels  or  pebbles, 
sticks  or  straws,  sea  weeds  or  mud,  these  are  the  an- 
cients, these  are  the  fathers.  The  case  is  much  the 
same  with  the  memorial  possessions  of  the  greatest 
part  of  mankind.  A  few  useful  things  perhaps,  mix- 
ed and  confounded  with  many  trifles,  and  all  manner 
of  rubbish,  fill  up  their  memories  and  compose  their 
intellectual  possessions.  It  is  a  great  happiness  there- 
fore to  distinguish  things  aright,  and  to  lay  up  nothing 
in  the  memory  but  what  has  some  just  value  in  it,  and 
is  worthy  to  be  numbered  as  a  part  of  our  treasure. 

Whatsoever  improvements  arise  to  the  mind  of  man 
from  the  wise  exercise  of  his  own  reasoning  powers, 
these  111  ay  be  called  his  proper  manufactures;  and 
whatsoever  he  borrows  from  abroad,  these  may  be 
termed  his  foreign  treasures :  both  together  make 
a  wealthy  and  a  happy  mind. 

How  many  excellent  judgments  and  reasonings  are 
framed  in  the  mind  of  a  man  of  wisdom  and  study  in  a 
length  of  years?  How  many  worthy  and  admirable 
notions  has  he  been  possessed  of  in  life,  both  by  his  own 
reasonings,  and  by  his  prudent  and  laborious  collec- 
tions in  the  course  of  his  reading  ?  But,  alas !  how  ma- 
ny thousands  of  them  vanish  away  again  and  are  lost 
in  empty  air,  for  want  of  a  stronger  and  more  reten- 
tive memory^  When  a  young  practitioner  in  the  law- 
was  once  saicf  to  contest  a  point  of  debate  with  that 
great  lawyer  in  the  last  age.  Sergeant  Maynard,  he  is 
reported  to  have  answered  him,  Alas !  young  man,  I 
have  forgot  much  more  law  than  ever  thou  hast  learnt 
or  read. 

What  an  unknown  and  unspeakable  happiness  would 
it  be  to  a  man  of  judgment,  and  who  is  engaged  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  if  he  had  but  a  power  of  starop- 
ing  all  his  own  best  sentiments  upon  his  memory  in 
some  indelible  characters  ;  and  if  he  could  but  imprin'. 
every  valuable  paragraph  and  sentiment  of  the  mobt 


144  OF   IMPROVING  THTil   iftEMORY. 

excellent  authors  he  has  read  upon  his  mind,  with  the 
same  speed  and  facility  with  which  he  read  them  ?  If 
a  man  of  good  genius  and  sagacity  could  but  retain  and 
survey  all  those  numerous^  those  wise  and  beautitul 
ideas  at  once,  which  have  ever  passed  through  his 
thoughts  upon  any  one  subject,  how  admirably  would 
hie  be  furnished  to  pass  a  just  judgment  about  all  pres- 
ent objects  and  occurrences  ?  What  a  glorious  enter- 
tainment and  pleasure  would  fill  and  felicitate  his  spir- 
it, if  he  could  grasp  all  these  in  a  single  survey  ;  as  the 
skilful  eye  of  a  painter  runs  over  a  fine,  and  compli- 
cate piece  of  history,  wrouglit  by  the  hand  of  a  Titian  or 
a  Raphael,  views  the  whole  scene  at  once,  and  feeds- 
himself  with  the  extensive  delight!  But  these  are  joys- 
ithat  do  not  belong  to  mortality 

Thus  far  I  have  indulged  some  loose  and  unconnected 
thoughts  and  remarks  with  regard  to  the  different: 
powers  of  wit,  memory,  and  judgment ;  lor  it  was  very 
difficult  to  throw  them  into  a  regular  form  or  method 
"without  more  room,  Let  us  now  with  more  regularity 
treat  of  the  memory  alone. 

Thr.ugh  the  meniory  be  a  natural  faculty  ,of  the 
ipind  !jf  in;  n,  snd  belongs  to  spii  its  which  are  not  incar- 
nate, yet  ii  is  greatly  assisted  or  hindered,  and  much 
diversified  by  the  brain  or  the  animal  nature,  to  which 
the  soul  s  united  m  this  present  state.    But  what  part 
of  the  brain  that  is,  wherein  the  images  of  things  he 
treasured  up,  is  very  hard  for  us  to  determine  with 
<;ertainty.     It  is  most  probable  that  those  very  fibres, 
'pores,  or  traces  of  the  brain,  which  assist  at  the  first 
idea  or  perception  of  any  object,  are  the  same  which 
assist  al^o  at  the  recollection  of  it ;  arid  then  it  will  fol- 
iow  th.lt  the  memory  has  no  special  part  of  the  brain 
devoted'  fcoits  own  service,  but  uses  ali  those  parts  in 
general    v.i;i^ch  subserve  our  sensntions,  M  well  as  our 
thinking  ,  tiil  ineasoning  powers. 

As  the  I  ts#niory  grows  and  improves  in  .v'pung  per- 
sons from  1  "b^jr  childhood,  and  decays  in  old  age,  so  it 
^ifiay  be  incr  ^*^^  ^Y  ^^'^  ^"^^  labour,  and  proper  exer- 
cise ;  or  it  m  *a  ifc^  injured  atjd  quite  spoiled  by  sloth,  or 
^y  a  disease  ^-^  stroke  on  the  head.  There  are  some 
reasonings  on  i  '^'?  subject  which  make  it  evident,  th-^t 
^he  goodness  ot  '  ^  W^^^o^y  depends  in  a  great  degree 
^P^n   the   cons     "^^^^  ^"^'  ^^^  temjierature  of  that 


OF   IMPROVING   THE   MEMORY.  145 

part  of  the  brain  which  is  appointed  to  assist  the  ex- 
ercise of  all  our  sensible  and  intellectual  faculties. 

So  for  instance,  in  children  ;  they  perceive  and  for- 
get a  hundred  things  in  an  hour  ;  the  brain  is  so  s  )f t 
that  it  receives  immediately  all  impressions  like  water 
or  liquid  mud,  and  retains  scarcely  any  of  them ;  all  the 
traces,  forms,  or  images  which  are  drawn  there,  are 
immediately  effliced  or  closed  up  again,  as  though  you. 
wrote  with'your  finger  on  the  surface  of  a  river,  or  on 
a  vessel  of  oil. 

On  the  contrary  in  old  age,  men  have  a  very  feeble 
remembrance  of  things  that  were  done  of  late ;  i.  e^ 
the  same  day,  or  week,  or  year ;  the  brain  is  grown  so 
hard,  that  the  present  images  or  strokes  make  httle  or 
no  impression,  and  therefore  they  immediately  vanish: 
Prisco,  in  his  seventy-eighth  year,  will  tell  long  stories 
of  things  done  when  he  was  in  the  battle  at  the  Boyne, 
almost  fiify  years  ago,  and  when  he  studied  at  Oxford, 
seven  years  before ;  for  those  impressions  were  made 
when  the  brain  was  more  susceptive  of  them ;  they 
have  been  deeply  engraven  at  the  proper  season,  and 
therefore  they  remain.  But  words  or  things  which  he 
lately  spoke  or  did,  they  are  immediately  forgotten, 
because  the  brain  is  now  grown  more  dry  and  solid  in 
its  consistence,  and  receives  not  much  more  impres- , 
sion  than  if  you  wrote  with  your  finger  on  a  floor  of 
clay,  <x  a  plastered  wall. 

But  in  the  middle  stage  of  life,  or  it  may  be  from  fif- 
teen to  fifty  years  of  age,  the  memory  is  generally  in 
its  happiest  state  ;  the  brain  easily  receives  and  long 
retains  the  images  and  traces  which  are  impressed  up- 
on it ;  and  the  natural  spirits  are  moi^e  active  to  range 
these  little  infinite  unknown  figures  of  things  in  their 
proper  cells  or  cavities,  to  preserve  and  recollect  them. 

Whatsoe^^r  therefore  keeps  the  brain  in  its  best 
temper  and  consistence  may  be  a  help  to  preserve  the 
memory ;  but  excess  of  wine,  or  luxury  of  any  kind,  as 
well  as  excess  in  the  studies  of  learning  or  the  busines- 
ses of  hfe  may  overwhelm  the  memory,  by  overstrain- 
ing and  weakening  the  fibres  of  the  brain,  overwasting 
the  spirits,  injuring  the  true  consistence  of  that  tender 
substance,  and  confounding  the  images  that  are  laid 
up  there. 

A  good  memory  has  these  several  qualifications :  (1) 
It  is  ready  to  receive  and  admit  with  great  ease  the  vp.~ 


146  OF    IMPROVING    THE    MEMORY. 

rious  ideas  both  of  words  and  things  which  are  leamied 
or  taught.  (2.)  It  is  large  and  copious  to  treasure  up 
these  ideas  in  great  number  and  variety.  (3.)  It  is 
strong  and  durable  to  retain  for  a  considerable  time 
those  words  or  thoughts,  which  art  committed  to  it. 
(4.)  It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and  recollect, 
upon  every  proper  occasion,all  those  words  or  thoughts 
which  have  been  recommended  to  its  care,  or  treas- 
ured up  in  it. 

Now  in  every  one  of  these  qualifications,  a  memory 
may  be  injured,  or  may  be  improved ;  yet  I  shall  not 
insist  distinctly  on  these  particulars,  but  only  in  gene- 
ral propose  a  few  rules  or  directions,  whereby  this  no- 
ble faculty  of  memory,  in  all  its  branches  and  qualifi- 
cations, may  be  piieserved  or  assisted,  and  show  what 
are  the  practices  that  both  by  reason  and  experience 
have  been  found  ofTiappy  influence  to  this  purpose. 

There  is  one  great  and  general  direction  which  be- 
longs to  the  improvement  of  other  powers  as  well  as 
of  the  memory,  and  that  is,  to  keep  it  always  in  due 
and  proper  exercise.  Many  acts  by  degrees  form  a 
habit, and  thereby  the  ability  or  power  is  strengthened 
and  made  more  ready,and  appear  again  in  action.  Our 
memories  should  be  used  and  inured  from  childhood  to 
bear  a  moderate  quantity  of  knowledge  let  into  them 
early,  and  they  will  thereby  become  strong  for  use  and 
service.  As  any  limb  well  and  duly  exercised,  grows 
stronger, the  nerves  of  the  body  are  corroborated  there- 
by. Milo  took  up  a  calf,  and  daily  carried  it  on  his 
shoulders ;  as  the  calf  grew,  his  strength  grew  also, 
and  he  at  last  arrived  at  firmness  of  joints  enough  to 
bear  the  bull. 

Our  memories  will  be  in  a  great  measure  moulded 
and  formed,  inproved  or  injured,  according  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  them.  If  we  never  use  them,  the^-  will  be  al- 
most lost.  Those  who  are  wont  to  converse  or  read 
about  a  few  things  only,  will  retain  hut  a  few  in  their 
inemory.  Those  who  are  used  to  remember  things 
but  for  an  hour,  and  charge  theii*  memories  with  it  no 
longer,  will  retain  them  but  an  hour  before  they  vanish. 
And  let  words  be  remembered  as  well  as  things,  that 
you  so  may  acquii  e  a  cofiia  verborum,  as  well  as  rcrurriy 
and  be  more  ready  to  express  your  mind  on  all  occa- 
sions. 

Yet  there  sliould  be  a  caution  given  in  some  cases ; 


OP   IMPROVING    THE    MEMORY.  14? 

the  memory  of  a  child,  or  any  infirm  person,  sliould 
not  be  overburdened ;  for  a  limb  or  a  joint  may  be 
overstrained  by  being  too  much  loaded,  and  its  natural 
power  never  be  recovered.  Teachers  should  wisely 
judge'of  the  power  and  constitution  of  youth,  and  im- 
pose no  more  on  them  than  they  are  able  to  bear  with, 
cheerfulness  and  improvement. 

And  particularly  they  should  take  care  that  the 
memory  of  the  learner  be  not  too  much  crowded  with 
a  tumultuous  heap  or  overbearing  multitude  of  docu- 
ments or  ideas  at  one  time  ;  this  is  the  way  to  remem- 
ber nothing ;  one  idea  effaces  another.  An  overgree- 
dy  grasp  does  not  retain  the  largest  handful.  But  it  is 
the  exerciiie  of  memory  with  a  due  moderation,  that  is 
one  general  rule  towards  the  improvement  of  it. 
I'he  particular  rules  are  such  as  these  : 
1.  Due  attention  and  diligence  to  learn  and  know 
things  which  we  would  commit  to  our  remembrance, 
is  a  rule  of  great  necessity  in  this  case.  When  the  at-. 
tention  is  strongly  fixed  to  any  particular  subject,  all 
that  is  said  concerning  it  makes  a  deeper  impression 
upon  the  mind.  There  .are  some  persons  who  com- 
plain they  cannot  remember  divine  or  human  discours- 
es which  they  hear,  when  in  truth  their  thoughts  are 
wandering  half  the  time,  or  they  hear  with  such  cold- 
ness and  indiffereiice.and  a  trifling  temper  of  spirit,  that 
it  is  DO  wonder  the  things  which  are  read  or  spoken 
make  but  d  slight  impression  on  the  brain,  and  get  no 
firm  footing,  in  the  aeat  of  memory,  but  soon  vanish 
and  are  lost. 

It  is  needful,  therefore,  if  we  would  retain  a  long  re- 
membrance of  the  t^jings  which  we  read  or  hear,  that 
we  should  engage  our  delight  and  pleasure  in  those 
subjects,  and  u^e  the  other  methods  which  arc  before 
prescribed,,  in  order  to  fix  the  attention.  Sloth,  indo- 
lence, and  idleness,  will  no  more  bless  the  mind  with 
intellectual  riches,  than  they  will  fill  the  hand  with 
gain,  the  field  with  corn,  or  the  purse  with  treasure. 

Let  it  be  added  also,  that  not  only  the  slothful  and 
the  negligent  deprive  themselves  of  proper  knowledge 
for  the  furniture  of  their  memory,  but  such  as  appear 
to  have  active  spirits,  who  are  ever  skimming  over  the 
surface  of  things  with  a  volatile  temper,  will  fix  noth- 
ing in  their  mind.  Vario  will  sppnd  whole  morningsi 
?n  running  over  loose  and  unconnected  pages,  and  with 


t4S  OF   IMPROVING   THE    MEMOHT. 

fresh  curiasity  is  ever  glancing  over  new  words  and 
ideas  that  strike  his  present  fancy  ;  he  is  fluttering 
over  a  thousand  objects  of  arts  and  science,  and  yet 
treasures  up  but  littie  knowledge.  There  niustbe  the 
labour  and  the  diligence  of  close  attention  to  particular 
subjeccs  of  thought  and  inquiry,  which  only  can  im- 
])re.<s  what  we  read  or  think,  upon  the  remembering 
faculty  of  man. 

%  Clear  and  distinct  apprehension  of  the  things 
which  we  commit  to  memory  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
make  them  stick  and  dwell  there.  If  we  would  re- 
member words,  or  learn  the  names  of  persons  or  things, 
we  should  have  them  recommended  to  our  memoiy, 
hy  a  clear  and' distinct  pronunciation,  spelling,  or  writ- 
ing. If  we  would  treasure  up  the  ideas  of  things,  no- 
tions, propositions,  arguments,  and  sciences,  these 
should  be  recommended  also  to  our  memory,  by  a  clear 
and  distinct  perception  of  them*  Faint,  glimmering, 
and  confused  ideas,  will  vanish  like  images  seen  in  twi- 
light. Every  thing  which  we  learn  should  be  convey- 
ed to  the  understanding  in  the  plainest  expressions, 
without  any  ambiguity,  that  we  may  not  mistake  what 
we  desir-e  toreniember*  This  is  a  general  rule,  wheth- 
er we  would  employ  the  memory  about  words  or 
things,  though  it  nmst  be  confessed,  that  mere  sounds 
and  words  ai*e  much  harder  to  get  by  heart  than  the 
knowledge  of  things  and  real  images!! 

For  this  reason,  take  heed,  (as  I  have  often  before 
warned)  that  you  do  not  take  up  with  words  instead 
of  things,  nor  mere  sounds  instead  of  real  senti^nents 
and  ideas.  Many  a  lad  forgets  what  has  been  taught 
him,  merely  because  he  never  well  understood  it ;  he 
never  clearly  and  distinctly  took  in  the  meaning  of 
tfiose  sounds  and  syllables  wiiich  he  was  required  to 
get  by  heart. 

This  is  one  true  reason  why  boys  make  so  poor  a 
proficiency  in  learning  the  Latin  tongue,  under  mas- 
ters who  teach  them  by  grammars  and  rules  written 
in  Latin,  of  which  I  have  spoken  before.  And  this  is 
a  common  case  with  children,  when  thev  learn  their 
catechisms  in  their  early  days.  The  lang^uage  and  t^e 
seiniments  conveyed  in  those  catechisms  af e  far  above 
the  understanding  of  youth  of  that  age,  apd  they  have 
ao  tolerable  ideas  under  the  words.  This  makes  the 
answers  much  harder  to  be  remembered,  and  in  truth 


OV  IMPROVING  THJC   IttSSfOaY.  14.9 

they  learn  nothing  but  words  without  ideas ;  and  if 
they  are  ever  so  perfect  in  repeating  the  words,  yet 
they  know  nothing  of  divinity. 

And  for  this  reason  it  is  a  necessary  rule  in  tesjch- 
ing  childien  the  principles  of  religion,  that  they  should 
be  expressed  in  very  plain,  easy,  and  familiar  words, 
brought  as  low  as  possible  down  to  their  understand- 
ings, according  to  their  tlifferent  ages  and  capacities ; 
and  thereby  they  will  obiain  some  useful  knowledge 
when  the  words  are  treasured  up)  in  their  memory,  be* 
cause  at  the  same  time  they  will  treasure  up  those 
divine  ideas  too. 

S.  Method  and  regularity  in  the  things  we  commit 
to  memory,  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  take 
more  effectual  possession  of  the  mind,  and  abide  there 
long.  As  much  as  systematical  learning  is  descried  by 
some  vain  and  humorous  tfiflers  of  the  age,  it  is  cer- 
tainly the  happiest  way  to  furnish  the  mind  with  a  va- 
riety of  knowledge. 

Whatsoever  you  would  trust  to  your  memory,  let  it 
be  diiposed  in  a  proper  method,  connected  well  to- 
gether, and  referred  to  distinct  and  particular  heads 
or  classes,  both  general  and  particular.  An  apothe- 
cary's boy  will  much  sooner  learn  all  the  medicines  in 
his  master's  shop,  when  they  are  ranged  in  boxes  or  on 
shelves  according  to  their  distinct  natures,  whether 
herbs,  drugs,  or  minerals,  whether  leaves  or  roots, 
whether  chemical  or  Galenical  preparations,  whether 
simple  or  compound,  &c.  and  when  they  are  placed  in 
some  order  according  to  their  nature,  their  fluidity,  or 
their  consistence,  &c.  in  phials,  bottles,  gallipots,  cas- 
es, drawers,  8cc.  So  the  genealogy  of  a  mmily  is  more 
easily  learnt  when  you  be^iu  at  some  great  grandfather 
as  the  root,  and  distinguish  the  stock,  the  large  boughs, 
the  lesser  branches,  twigs,  and  the  buds,  till  you  come 
down  to  the  present  iiifanis  of  the  house.  An4  indeed 
all  sorts  of  arts  and  sciences,  taught  in  a  method  some- 
thing of  this  kind,  are  more  happily  committed  to  the 
mind  or  memory. 

1  might  give  another  plain  simile  to  confirm  the 
truth  of  this.  What  horse  or  carriage  can  take  up  and 
bear  away  all  the  various,  rude,  and  uu^ieldy  loppings 
of  a  branchy  tree  at  once?  But  if  they  are  divided  yet 
further,  so  as  to  be  laid  close,  and  bound  up  in  a  more 
uniform  manner  into  several  faggots,  perhaps  thc89 


150  0»  IMPROVING  THfc  MEMORY. 

loppings  may  be  all  carried  at  one  single  load  or  bur- 
den. 

The  mutoal  dependence  of  things  on  each  other  helps 
the  memory  of  both.  A  wise  connexion  of  the  parts  of 
a  discourse  in  a  rational  method  gives  great  advan- 
tage to  the  reader  or  hearer  in  order  to  his  remem- 
brance of  it.  Therefore  many  mathematical  demon- 
strations in  a  long  train,  may  be  remembered  much 
better  than  a  heap  of  sentences  which  have  no  connex- 
ion. The  book  of  Proverbs,  at  least  from  the  tenth 
chapter  and  onwarf!»,  is  much  harder  to  remember 
than  the  book  of  Psalms,  for  this  reason ;  and  some 
Christians  have  told  me  that  they  remember  -what  is 
■written  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  that  to  the 
Hebrews,  much  better  than  many  others  of  tlie  sacred 
epistlesy  because  there  is  more  exact  method  and  con- 
nexion observed  in  them. 

'  He  that  would  learn  to  remember  a  sermon  which  he 
Iiears,  should  acquaint  himself  by  degrees  with  the 
method  in  which  the  several  important  parts  of  it  are 
delivered.  It  is  a  certain  fault  in  a  multitude  of  preach- 
ers, that  they  utterly  neglect  method  in  their  ha- 
rangues ;  or  at  It  ast  they  refuse  to  render  their  meth- 
od visible  and  sensible  to  the  hearers.  One  would  be 
tempted  to  think  it  was  for  fear  lest  their  auditors  should 
remember  too  much  of  their  sermpns,  and  prevent 
their  preachir^  them  three  or  four  times  over ;  but  I 
have  candour  enough  to  persuade  myself,  that  the  true 
reason  is,  they  imagine  it  to  be  a  more  modish  way  of 
preaching  without  particulars :  I  am  sure  it  is  a  much 
more  usetess  one-  And  it  would  be  of  great  advantage 
both  to  the  speaker  and  hearer,  to  have  discourses  for 
the  pulpit  cast  into  a  plain  and  easy  method,  and  the 
reasons  or  inferences  ranged  in  a  proper  order,  and 
that  under  the  words,_^rs/,  secondly ^  2a\d  thirdly ^  how- 
ever they  may  be  now  fancied  to  sound  unpolite  or  un- 
fashionable ;  but  Archbishop  Tillotson  did  not  think  so 
in  his  days. 

4.  A  frequent  review  and  careful  repetition  of  the 
things  we  would  learn,  and  an  abridgment  cf  them 
in  a  narrow  compass  for  this  end,  has  a  great  influence 
to  fix  them  iu  the  memory ;  therefore  it  is  that  the 
ruies  of  grammar,  and  useful  examples  of  the  variation 
of  words,  and  the  peculiar  forms  of  speech  in  any  lan- 
guage, «rew)  often  appoii>teU  by  the  masters  as  lessons 


OB  IMPKOVIBrO  THE  MEItfORT.  151 

for  the  scholars  to  be  frequently  repeated;  and  tliey 
are  contracted  into  tables  for  frequent  review,  that 
what  is  not  fixed  in  the  mind  at  first,  may  be  stamped 
upon  the  memory  by  a  peri>etual  survey  and  reyienrsal, 

Re})etition  is  so  very  useful  a  practice,  that  Maemon, 
even  from  his  youth  to  his  old  age,  never  read  a  book 
without  making  some  small  points,  dashes,  or  houks,  in 
the  margin,  to  mark  what  parts  of  the  discourse  were 
proper  for  a  review:  and  when  he  came  to  the  end  of 
a  section  or  ciiapter,  he  always  shut  iiis  book,  and 
recollected  all  the  sentiments  or  ex,)iessions  he  had 
remarked,  so  that  he  could  give  a  to!  Table  analysis 
and  abstract  of  every  treatise  he  had  read,  just  after 
he  had  finished  it.  Thence  he  became  so  well  furnish- 
ed with  a  rich  variety  of  knowle  Jge. 

Even  when  a  person  is  hearijjg  a  sermoa  or  a  leo 
ture,  he  may  give  his  thoughts  leave  now  aid  then  to 
step  back  so  far  as  to  recoUtCt  thf  severiil  heads  of  it 
from  the  beginning,  two  or  three  times  before  the  lec- 
ture or  sermon  is  finished  ;  the  omission  or  the  loss  of  a 
sentence  or  two  among  the  amplific  itions  is  richly 
compensated  by  preserving  in  the  mind  the  method 
and  order  of  the  whole  discourse  in  the  most  import- 
ant branches  of  it. 

If  we  would  fix  in  the  memory  the  discourses  we 
hear,  or  what  we  design  to  speak,  let  us  abstract  thenx 
into  brief  compends,  and  review  them  often.  Lawyers 
and  divines  have  need  of  such  assistances  :  they  write 
down  short  notes  or  hints  of  the  principal  heads  of 
whatthey  desire  to  commit  to  their  memory,  in  order 
to  preach  or  plead ;  for  such  abstracts  and  epitomes 
may  be  reviewed  much  sooner,  and  the  several  am- 
plifying sentiments  or  sentences  will  be  more  easily 
invented  or  recollected  in  their  proper  jilnces.  The 
art  of  short  hand  is  of  excellent  use  for  this  as  well  as 
for  other  purposes.  It  must  be  acknowledged,  that 
those  who  scarcely  ever  take  a  pen  in  their  hand  to 
wri':e  short  notes  or  hints  of  what  they  are  to  speak  or 
learn,  who  never  trv  to  cast  thinc:s  into  method,  or  to 
contract  the  survey  of  them  in  order  to  commit  them 
to  their  memory,  had  need  have  a  double  degree  of 
that  natural  power  of  retaining  and  recollecting  what 
thev  read  or  hear,  or  intend  to  speak. 

Do  not  plunge  yourself  into  other  businesses  or  stu- 
dies, amusements  or  recreations,  immediately  after  you 


112  0F  IMPROVINII  THE   MEMORY. 

iiaye  attended  upon  instruction,  if  you  can  well  avoid  it. 
Get  time  if  possible,  to  recollect  the  things  you  have 
heard,  that  ihey  may  not  be  washed  all  away  from  the 
mind  by  a  torrent  of  other  occurrences  or  engagements, 
nor  lost  in  the  crowd  or  clamour  of  other  loud  or  im- 
portunate affairs. 

Talking  over  the  things  which  you  have  read  with 
vour  companions,  on  the  first  proper  opportunity  you 
have  for  it,  is  a  most  useful  manner  of  review  or  repe- 
tition, in  order  to  fix  them  upon  the  mind.  Teach 
them  your  younger  friends,  in  order  to  establish  your  own 
knowledge,  while  you  communicate  it  to  them.  The 
animal  jxiwers  of  your  tongue  and  of  your  ear,  as  well 
as  your  intellectual  faculties,  will  all  join  together  to 
help  the  memory,  Hermetas  studied  hard  in  a  remote 
corner  of  the  land,  and  in  solitude,  yet  he  became  a  ve- 
ly  learned  man.  He  seldom  was  so  happy  as  lo  enjoy 
'Suitable  society  at  home,  and  therefore  he  talked  over 
to  the  fields  and  the  woods  in  Uie  evening,  what  he  ha4 
been  reading  in  the  day,  and  found  so  considerable  ad- 
vantage by  this  practrce,  that  he  recommended  it  to  all 
bis  friends,  since  he  could  §et  his  firobatum  to  it  for 
seventeen  years. 

5.  Pleasure  and  delight  in  the  things  we  learn,  give 
rreatr  assistance  towards  the  remembrance  of  them. 
Whatsoever  therefore  we  desire  that  a  child  should 
commit  to  his  memory,  make  it  as  pleasant  to  him  as 
possible ;  endeavour  to  search  his  genius  and  his  tem- 
per; and  let  him  take  in  the  instructions  you  give  him, 
or  the  lessons  you  appoint  him,  as  far  as  may  be,in  away 
suited  to  his  natural  inclination.  Fabellus  would  never 
learn  any  moral  lessons  till  they  were  moulded  into  the 
form  of  some  fiction  or  fable  like  those  of  ^sop,  or  till 
they  put  on  the  appearance  of  a  parable,  like  those 
>vherein  our  blessed  Saviour  taught  the  ignorant  world. 
Then  he  remembered  well  the  emblematical  instruc- 
tions that  were  given  him,  and  learnt  to  practise  the 
moral  sense  and  meaning  of  them.  Young  Spectorious 
was  taught  virtue  by  setting  before  him  a  variety  of 
examples  of  the  various  good  qualities  in  human  life; 
»nd  he  was  appointed  daily  to  repeat  some  story  of  this 
kind  out  of  Valerius  Maximus.  The  same  lad  was 
early  instructed  to  avoid  the  common  vices  and  follies 
of  youth  in  the  same  manner.  This  is  akin  to  the  mt  th- 
cd  whereby  the  Lacedaemonians  trained  up  their  chiU 


Q£   IMPROVING  THE   MBMORT.  ISo 

dren  to  hate  drunkenness  and  intemperance,  viz.  by 
bringing  a  drunken  man  into  their  company,  and  show- 
ing them  what  a  beast  he  had  made  of  himself.  Such 
visible  and  sensible  forms  of  instruction  will  make  long 
and  useful  impressions  upon  the  memory. 

Children  may  be  taught  to  remember  many  things 
in  a  way  of  sport  and  play.  Some  young  children  have 
learnt  their  letters  and  syllables,  and  the  pronouncing 
and  spelling  of  words,  by  having  them  pasted  or  writ- 
ten upon  many  Uttle  flat  tablets  or  dies.  Some  have 
been  taught  vocabularies  of  different  languages,  having 
a  word  in  one  tongue  written  on  one  side  of  these  tab- 
lets, and  the  same  word  in  another  tongue  on  the  other 
side  of  them. 

-^There  might  be  also  many  entertaining  contrivances 
for  tlie  instruction  of  children  in  several  things  relating 
to  geometry,  geography,  and  astronomy,  in  such  allur- 
ing and  illusory  methods,  which  would  make  a  most 
agreeable  and  lasting  impression  on  their  minds. 

6.  The  memory  of  useful  things  may  receive  consid- 
erable aid  if  they  are  thrown  into  verse ;  for  the  num- 
bers, and  measures,  and  rhyme,  accoiding  to  the  poesy 
of  different  languages,  have  a  considerable  influence 
upon  mankind,  both  to  make  them  receive  with  more 
ease  the  things  proposed  to  their  observation,  and  pre  - 
serve  them  longer  in  their  remembrance.  How  many 
are  there  of  the  common  affairs  of  human  life  which 
have  been  taught  in  early  years  b^  the  help  of  rhyme, 
and  have  been  like  nails  fastened  in  a  sure  place,  and 
riveted  by  daily  use  ! 

So  the  number  of  the  days  of  each  month  is  engrav-. 
en  on  the  memory  of  thousands  by  these  four  lines : 

Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  June,  and  November ; 
February  twenty-eight  alone. 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one. 

\ 

So  lads  have  been  taught  frugality  by  surveying  and 
judging  of  their  own  expenses  by  these  three  lines  : 

Compute  the  pence  but  of  one  day's  expense. 
So  many  pounds,  and  ang^els,  groats,  and  pence, 
Are  spent  in  one  whole  year's  circumference. 

For  the  nun  ber  of  day  sin  a  year  is  three  hundred 
and    sixty-live,  which  number  of  pence  makes   one 
pound,  one  angel,  one  groat,  and  one  penny. 
O  2 


154  OS   IfidPROVING   THE   H£MORT. 

So  have  rules  of  health  been  prescribed  in  the  book 
called  Schola  Salernitani,  and  many  a  person  has  pre- 
served himself  doubtless  from  evening  gluttony,  and  the 
pauis  and  diseases  consequent  upon  it,  by  these  two  lines : 

"^Ex  magna  ccena  stomacho  Jit  maxima  poena : 
Ut  sis  node  levis,  ^t  tiii  cosna  brevis. 

ENGLISHED. 

To  be  easy  all  night,  _ 
V  Let  your  supper  be  light, 

0r  else  you'll  complain 
Of  a  stomach  in  pain. 

And  a  hundred  proverbial  sentences  in  various  lan-r 
guages  are  formed  into  rhyme  or  a  verse,  whereby  they 
are  made  to  stick  upon  the  memory  of  old  and  young. 

It  is  from  this  principle  that  moral  rules  have  been 
east  into  a  poetic  rnould  from  all  antiquity.  So  the 
golden  verses  of  the  Pythagoreans  in  Greek;  Cato's 
distitchs  De  Mortem  in  Latin;  Lilly's  precepts  to 
scholars  called  Qui  mihiy  with  many  others,  and  this 
has  been  done  with  very  good  success.  A  line  or  two 
of  this  kind  recurring  on  the  memory,  have  often  guard- 
ed youth  from  a  temptation  to  vice  and  folly,  as  well 
as  put  them  in  mind  of  their  present  duty. 

It  is  for  this  reason  also  that  the  genders,  declensions, 
and  variations  of  nouns  and  verbs  have  been  taught  in 
verse  by  those  who  have  complied  with  the  prejudice 
di  long  custom,  to  teach  English  children  the  Latin 
tongue  by  rules  written  in  Latin ;  and,  tinaly,  those  rude 
heaps  of  words  and  terminations  of  an  unknown  tongue 
-would  have  never  been  so  happily  learned  by  heart,  by 
a  hundred  thousand  boys,  without  this  smoothing  arti- 
fice ;  nor  indeed  do  1  know  any  thing  else  can  be  said 
with  §ood  reason,  to  excuse  or  relieve  the  obvious  ab- 
surdities of  this  practice. 

When  you  would  remember  new  things  or  words,  en-„. 
deavour  to  associate  and  connect  them  with  some 
"words  or  things  which  you  have  well  known  before, 
and  which  are  fixed  and  established  in  your  memory. 
This  association ,  of  ideas  is  of  great  importance  and 
force,  and  may  be  of  exceJlent  use  in  many  instances  of 
human  life.  One  idea  which  is  familiar  to  the  mind, 
connected  with  others  which  are  new  and  strange,  will 
bring  those  new  ideas  into  easy  remembrance.  Maron- 
ides  had  got  the  first  hundred  lines  of  Virgirs  .ffinein 


OF   IMPROVING  THE   MEMORX.  155 

printed  upon  his  memorv  so  perfectly,  that  he  knew' 
not  only  the  order  and  number  of  every  word,  but  in 
each  verse  also ;  would  undertake  to  remember  two  or 
three  hundred  names  of  persons  or  things,  by  some  ra- 
tional or  fantastic  connexion  bf  tween  some  word  in  the 
verle,  and  some  letter,  syllable,  property,  or  accident 
of  the  name  or  thing  to  be  remembered,  even  though 
they  had  been  repeated  but  once  or  twice  at  most  in  his 
hearing.  Animato  practised  much  the  same  art  of 
memory,  by  getting  the  Latin  names  of  twenty-two  an- 
imals into  his  head  according  to  the  alphabet,  viz.  asinus^ 
daaiiiscus,  canis^  draco^  elefihas^felia^  gryfihus^  hircus^ 
juvenia^  leOy  mulua^noctua^  ovia^fianthera^quadru^ies^ 
rhinoceroa^  simia,  taurua,  ursua,  xiphiaa^  hyana  or 
ytena,  zibetta.  Most  of  these  he  divided  also  into  four 
parts,  viz.  head  and  body,  feet,  fins  or  wings,  and  tail, 
and  by  some  arbitrary  or  chimerical  attachments  of 
each  of  these  to  a  word,  or  thing  which  he  desired  to 
remember,  he  committed  them  to  the  care  of  his  mem- 
ory, and  that  with  good  success. 

It  is  also  by  this  association  of  ideas  that  we  may  bet- 
ter imprint  any  new  idea  upon  the  memory,  by  joining 
with  it  some  circumstance  of  the  time,  place,  compa- 
ny, &:c.  whereia  we  first  observed,  heard,  «r  learned  it. 
}f  we  would  recover  an  absent  idea,  it  is  useful  to  recol- 
lect those  circumstances  of  time,  place,  &c.  The  sub- 
staiKe  will  many  times  be  recovered  and  brought  to 
the  thoughts  by  recoilectiog  the  shadow ;  a  man  recurs 
to  our  fancy  by  remembermg  his  garment^  his  size,  or 
stature,  his  office,  or  e.  ^loyment,  &c.  A  beast,  bird, 
or  fish,  by  its  colour,  figure,  or  motion,  by  the  cage, 
court  yard,  or  cistern  wherein  it  was  kept. 

To  this  end  also  we  may  refer  that  rerr^embrance 
of  names  and  things  which  may  be  derived  from  our 
recollection  of  their  likeness  to  other  things  which  we 
know;  either  their  resemblance  in  name,  character, 
form,  accident,  or  any  thing  that  belongs  to  them.  An 
Idea  or  word  which  has  been  lost  or  forgotten,  has 
often  been  recovered  by  hitting  upon  some  other  kin- 
dred word  or  idea,  which  has  the  nearest  resemblance 
to  it,  and  that  in  the  letters,  syllables,  or  sound  cf  th^ 
inaroej  as  well  as  the  properties  of  the  thing. 


156  OV  IMPROVIlVG  THE   MEMORY. 

If  we  would  remember  Hippocrates,  or  Galen,  or 
Paracelsus,  think  of  a  physician's  name,  beginning  with 
H,  G,  or  P.  If  we  will  remember  Ovidius  Naso,  we 
may  represent  a  man  with  a  large  nose ;  if  Plato,  we 
may  think  upon  a  person  with  large  shoulders;  if 
Crispus,  we  shall  fancy  another  with  curled  hair ;  and 
;so  of  other  things. 

And  sometimes  a  new  or  strange  idea  may  be  fixed 
in  the  memory,  by  considering  its  contrary  or  opposite. 
So  if  we  cannot  hit  upon  the  word  Goliath,  the  remem- 
brance of  David  may  recover  it;  or  the  name  of  a 
Trojan  may  be  recovered  by  thinking  of  a  Greek,  &c. 

7.  In  such  cases,  wherein  it  may  be  done,  seek  after 
a  local  memory,  or  a  remembrance  of  what  you  have 
read  by  the  side  or  page  of  where  it  is  written  or  print- 
ed ;  whether  the  right  or  left,  whether  at  the  top,  the 
middle,  or  the  bottom ;  whether  at  the  beginning  of  a 
chapter  or  paragraph,  or  the  end  of  it.  it  has  been 
some  advantage,  for  this  reason,  to  accustom  one's  self 
to  books  of  the  same  edition  ;  and  it  has  been  a  constant 
and  special  use  to  divines  and  private  Christians,  to  be 
funiished  with  several  Bibles  of  the  same  edition,  that 
wheresoever  they  arCj  whether  in  their  chamber,  par- 
lour, or  ;study,  in  the  younger  or  elder  years  of  life,  they 
may  find  the  chapters  and  verses  standing  in  the  same 
parts  of  the  page. 

This  is  also  a  great  conveniency  to  be  observed  by 
printers  in  the  new  editions  of  Grammars,  Psajms* Tes- 
taments, &c.  to  print  every  chapter,  paragraph,  or 
verse,  in  the  same  part  of  the  page  as  the  former,  that 
so  it  may  yield  an  happy  assistance  to  those  young 
learners,  who  find,  and  even  feel,  the  advantage  of  a 
local  memory. 

8.  Let  every  thing  we  desire  to  remember  be  fairly 
and  distinctly  written  and  divided  into  periods,  with 
large  characters  in  the  b(?ginning,  for  by  this  means  we 
sliall  the  more  readily  imprint  the  matter  and  words 
on  our  minds,  and  recollect  them  with  a  glance,  the 
more  remarkable  the  writing  appears  to  the  eye. 
This  sense  conveys  the  ideas  to  the  fancy  better  than 
any  other ;  and  what  we  have  seen  is  not  so  somi  for- 
gotten  as  what  we  have  only  heard.  What  Horace 
affirms  of  the  mind  or  passions  mjiy  t|e  said  also  of  the 
memory. 


CE  IJMFBOVIXfG   TBK   J^IESIORT.  1B7 

Segniut  irritant  animos  demlsaa  per  aurem 

9 nam  quoi  sunt  oculis  subjecta  jidelitut,  ct  qua: 

Tpte  tioi  traelit  sptctatou  » 

APPLIED  THT^S  IN  ENOLXSH  : 

Sounds  wUicli  address  the  «ar  are  lost  and  die 
In  out:  gJwii  hour  ;  hut  that  which  strikes  the  eye 
Lives  long  upon  the  mind;  the  faithful  sight 
Engraves  the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light. 

For  the  assistance  of  weak  memories,  the  first  let- 
ters or  words  of  every  period  in  every  page,  n^ay  be 
written  in  disanct  colours ;  yellow,  green,  red,  black, 
&c.  and  il'  you  observe  the  same  order  of  colours  in  the 
following  sentences,  it  will  be  still  the  better.  This 
will  maice  a  greater  impression,  and  may  much  aid  the 
mi^mory. 

Under  this  head  we  may  take  notice  of  the  advan- 
tage which  the  memory  gains,  by  having  tlie  several 
ob)t;cts  of  our  learning  drawn  out  into  schemes  and  ta- 
bles; matttrs  of  mathematical  bcience  and  natural 
philosopny  are  not  only  let  into  the  understanding,  but 
pi'fserved  in  the  memory  by  figures  and  diagrams. 
The  situation  of  the  several  pat  ts  of  the  earth  is  bet- 
ter learned  by  one  day's  conversing  with  a  map  or  sea 
chart,  than  by  merely  reading  the  description  of  their 
situation  a  hundred  times  over  in  books  of  geography. 
S(»  the  constellations  in  astronomy,  and  their  position 
in  the  heavens,  are  more  easily  remembered  by  hem- 
ispheres of  the  stars  well  drawn.  It  is  by  having  such 
sort  of  memorials,  figures,  and  tables  hung  round  our 
studies,  (U-  places  of  residence  or  resort,  that  our  mem- 
ory of  tb.ese  things  will  be  greatly  assisted  and  improv- 
ed, as  I  have  shown  at  large  in  the  twentieth  chapter 
of  the  use  of  Sciences. 

I  miglit  add  here  also,  that  once  writing  over  what 
we  design  to  remember,  and  giving  due  attention  to 
what  we  write,  will  fix  it  more  in  the  mind  than  read- 
ing it  five  times.  And  in  the  same  manner,  if  we  had 
a  plan  of  the  naked  lines  of  longitude  and  latitude,  pro- 
jected on  the  meridian  printed  for  this  use,  a  learner 
plight  much  more  speedily  advance  himself  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  geography  by  his  own  drawing  the  figures  of 
all  the  parts  of  the  world  upon  '\i  by  imitation,  than  by 
many  days  survey  of  a  map  of  the  world  so  printed. 
The  same  also  may  be  said  concerning  the-  constella* 
tions  of  heaven,  drawn  by  the  learner  on  a  naked  pro- 


15$  0£  IMPROVING  THB  AtEMORT. 

jection  of  the  circles  of  the  sphere  upctti  the  plane  ot 
the  equator. 

9.  It  has  sometimes  been  the  practice  of  men  to  im- 
print names  or  sentences  on  their  memory,  by  taking 
the  first  letters  of  every  word  of  that  sentence,  or  of 
those  names,  and  making  a  new  word  out  of  them. 
So  the  name  of  the  Maccabees  is  borrowed  from  the 
first  letters  of  the  Hebrew  words,  which  make  that 
sentence,  Mi  Camoka  Bealim  Jehovah,  i.  e.  Who  is 
like  thee  among  the  gods  ?  Which  was  written  on 
their  banners.  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,  hath  been 
called  a  fish,  in  Greek  ixers,  by  the  fathers,  because 
these  are  the  firet  letters  of  those  Greek  words,  Jesus 
Christ,  God's  Son,  the  Saviour.  So  the  word  Vibgyor 
teaches  us  to  remember  the  order  of  the  seven  origi- 
nal colours,  as  they  appear  by  the  sun  beams  cast 
through  a  prism  on  white  paper,  or  formed  by  the  sun 
in  a  rainbow,  according  to  the  different  refrangibility 
of  the  rays,  viz.  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  or- 
ange, and  red. 

In  this  manner  the  Hebrew  grammarians  teach  their 
students  to  remember  the  letters  which  change  their 
natural  pronunciation  by  the  inscription  of  a  dag-esh, 
by  gathering  these  six  letters,  beth,  gimel,  daleth,  caph, 
pe,  and  thau,  into  the  word  Begadchefiat  ;  and  that 
they  might  not  forget  the  letters  named  Quiescent,  viz, 
c,  A,  i>,  and  U  they  are  joined  in  the  word  ahevi.  So 
the  universal  and  particular  propoations  in  logic,  are 
remembered  by  the  words  darAara,  celare7ity  Darii^  &c. 

Other  artificial  helps  to  memory,  may  be  just  men- 
tioned here. 

Dr.  Grey,  in  his  book  called  Memoria  Technica,  has 
exchanged  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  for  some 
consonants,  b,  d,  t,  f,  1,  y,  p,  k,  n,  and  some  vowels,  a, 
e,  i,  0,  u,  and  several  diphthongs,  and  thereby  formed 
words  that  denote  numbers,  which  may  be  more  easi- 
ly remembered ;  and  Mr.  Lowe  has  improved  his 
scheme,  in  a  small  pamphlet  called  Mnemonics  deUn-^ 
eated,  whereby  in  seven  leaves,  he  has  comprised  al- 
most an  infinity  of  things  in  science  and  in  common 
life,  and  reduced  them  to  a  sort  of  measure  like  Latin 
verse ;  though  the  words  may  be  supposed  to  be  very 
barbarous,  being  such  a  mixture  of  vowels  and  conso- 
nants as  are  very  unfit  for  harmony. 

But  after  all,  the  very  writers  on  this  subject  have 


of   DETEB-MINING  A   aXTESTIOIT.  159 

•onfessed,  that  several  of  these  artificial  helps  of  mem- 
ory are  so  cumbersome  as  not  to  be  suitable  to  every 
temper  or  person  ;  nor  are  they  of  any  use  for  the  de7 
livery  of  a  discourse  by  memory,  nor  of  much  service 
in  learning  the  sciences :  but  they  may  be  sometimes 
practised  for  the  assisting  our  remembrance  of  certain 
sentences,  numbers  and  names. 


CHAP.  XVIII. 

Of  Determining  a  Question, 

I.  WHEN  a  subject  is  proposed  to  your  thoughts, 
consider  whether  it  be  knowable  at  all,  or  not ;  and 
then  whether  it  be  not  above  the  reach  of  your  inquiry 
and  knowledge  in  the  present  state  ;  and  remember, 
that  it  is  a  great  waste  of  time  to  busy  yourselves  too 
much  amongst  unsearchables ;  the  chief  use  of  these 
studies  is  to  keep  the  mind  humble,  by  finding  its  own 
ignorance  and  weakness. 

II.  Consider  again  whether  the  matter  be  worthy  of 
your  inquiry  at  all ;  and  then,  how  far  it  may  be  wor- 
thy of  your  present  search  and  labour  according  to 
your  age,  your  time  of  life,  your  station  in  the  world, 
your  capacity,  your  profession,  your  chief  design  and 
end.  There  are  many  things  worth  inquiry  to  one 
man,  which  are  not  so  to  another;  and  there  arc 
things  that  may  deserve  the  study  of  the  same  person 
in  one  part  of  life,  which  would  be  improper  or  imper- 
tinent at  another.  To  read  books  of  the  art  of  preach- 
ing, or  disputes  about  church  discipline,  are  proper  for 
a  theological  student  in  the  end  of  his  academical 
studies,  but  not  at  the  beginning  of  them.  To  pursue 
mathematical  studies  very  largely,  may  be  useful  for 
a  professor  of  philns'  phy,  but  not  for  a  divine. 

III.  Consider  wliether  the  subject  of  vour  inquiry 
be  easy  or  difficult ;  whetlier  ym  have  sufiicient  loun- 
dation  or^kill,  futTiiture  and  advantnges,  for  the  pur- 
suit of  it.  It  would  be  madrtess  for  a  young  statuan'  to 
attempt  at  first  to  carve  a  Venus  or  a  Mercury,  and 
especially  without  proper  tools.  And  it  is  equfl  folly 
for  a  man  to  pretend  to  make  great  inn.provements  in 
natural  philosophy  without  due  expeiiments. 

IV.  Coasider  whether  the  subject  be  any  ways  use- 


IfiO  OB  pKTi!iK.j«[iariffa  a  avjECSTiQn. 

fal  or  not,  before  you  engage  in  the  study  of  it ;  otteia 
put  this  question  to  yourselves,  Cui  bono  '/  To  what 
purpose  :*  What  end  will  it  aUain  ?  Is  it  for  the  gloiy 
of  Gorl,  for  the  good  of  men,  for  your  own  advantage, 
for  the  removal  oF  any  natural  or  moral  evil,  for  tne 
attainment  of  any  natural  or  moral  gond  ?  Will  the 
profit  be  equal  to  the  I  ibour }  There  are  many  subtle  im- 
pertinences learned  in  the  schools,  many  painful  trifles, 
even  among  the  mathematical  theorems  and  problems, 
many  dijfficilefi  nu^a^  or  laborious  follies  of  various 
kinds,  wnich  some  mgenk  us  men  have  been  engaged  in. 
A  due  reflection  upon  these  thin^^s  will  call  the  mind 
away  from  vain  amusements,  and  save  much  time. 

V.  C'onsider  what  tendency  it  has^to  make  you  wiser 
and  better,  as  well  as  to  make  fou  more  learned  ;  and 
those  questions  which  tend  to  wisdom  and  prudence  in 
our  conduct  among  men,  as  well  as  piety  toward  God, 
are  doubtless  more  important,  and  preferable  beyond 
all  those  inquiries  which  only  improve  our  knowledge 
in  mere  speculations. 

VI.  If  the  question  appear  to  be  well  worth  your 
diligent  application,  and  you  are  furnished  with  the 
necessary  requisites  to  pursue  it,  then  consider  whether 
it  be  dressed  up  and  entangled  in  more  words  than  is 
needful,  and  contain  or  include  more  complicated  ideas 
than  is  necessary ;  and  if  so,  endeavour  to  reduce  it  to 
a  greater  simplicity  and  plainness,  which  will  make 
the  inquiry  and  argument  easier  and  plainer  all  the  way. 

VII.  If  it  be  stated  in  an  improper,  obscure,  or  irreg- 
ular form>  it  may  be  meliorated  by  changing  the  phrase, 
or  transposing  the  parts  of  it  j  but  be  caretul  always  to 
keep  the  grand  and  important  point  of  inquiry  the  same 
in  your  new  stating  the  question.  Little  tricks  and  de- 
ceits of  sophistry,  by  sliding  in,  or  leaving  out  such 
words  as  entirely  change  the  question,  should  be  aban- 
doned and  renounced  by  all  fair  disputants  and  honest 
searchers  after  truth. 

The  stating  a  question  with  clearness  and  justice 
es  a  great  way  many  times  towards  the  answering  it. 
he  greatest  part  of  true  knowledge  lies  in  a  distinct 
perception  of  things  which  are  in  themselves  distinct ; 
and  some  men  give  more  light  and  knowledge  by  the 
bare  stating  of  the  question  with  perspicuity  and  just- 
ice, than  others  by  talking  of  it  in  gross  contusion  for 
whole  hours  together.    1  o  state  a  question  is  but  to 


^j 


OF   PBTBRMINirro   A   CtUBSTION'.  IGl 

s»parate  ami  disentangle  the  parts  of  itft'om  one  anoth- 
er, as  well  as  from  every  thing  which  does  not  concern 
the  question,  and  then  j.iy  the  T\isentangkd  parts  of 
the  question  in  due  order  and  methodj  oftentimes 
without  more  ado  this  fully  resolves  the  doubt,  a«id 
shews  the  mind  where  the  truth  lies,  without  argu*- 
jnent  or  dispute. 

VIII.  If  the  question  relate  to  an  axiom,  or  first 
principle  of  truth,  remember  that  .i  long  train  of 
consequences  may  depend  upon  it ;  thereffie  it  should 
Dot  be  suddenly  admitted  or  receivrd. 

It  is  not  enough  to  determine  the  truth  of  a  propo- 
sition, much  less  to  raise  it  to  the  honour  ot  an  nxiom, 
or  first  principle,  to  say,  rhnt  it  has  been  believed 
through  many  ages,  that  it  has  been  received  by  ma- 
ny nations,  that  it  is  almost  universally  ackm)wledged, 
or  nobody  denies  it,  that  it  is  established  by  human 
laws;  or  that  temporal  penalties  or  reproaches  will  at- 
tend the  disbelief  of  it. 

IX.  Nor  is  it  enough  to  forbid  any  proposition  the 
title  of  an  axiom,  because  it  has  been  denied  by  some 
persons,  and  doubted  by  others ;  for  some  persons  have 
been  unreasonably  credulous,  and  others  have  been  as 
unreasonably  skeptical.  Then  only  j^hould  a  proposi- 
tion be  called  an  axiom,  or  a  self-evident  truth,  when, 
by  a  moderate  attention  to  the  subject  and  predicate, 
their  connexion  appears  in  so  plain  a  light,  and  so  cl^ar 
an  evidence,  as  needs  no  third  idea,  or  middle  term, 
to  prove  them  to  be  connected. 

X.  While  you  are  in  search  after  truth  in  question!^ 
of  a  dfcubtfu^nature,  or  such  as  you  have  not  yet  thor- 
oughly examined,  keep  up  a  just  indifference  to  either 
side  of  the  question,  if  you  would  be  led  honestly  into 
the  truth :  for  a  desire  or  inclination  leaning  to  either 
side,  biasses  the  judgment  strangely :  whereas  by  this 
indifference  for  every  thing  but  truth,  you  will  be  eX' 
cited  to  examme  fairly  instead  of  presuming,  and  your 
assent  will  be  secured  from  going  beyond  your  evidence. 

XI.  For  the  most  part  people  are  born  to  their  opin- 
ions, and  never  question  the  truth  of  what  their  family, 

^*or  their  country,  or  their  party  profess.  They  clothe 
tJhien'  minds  as  they  do  their  bodies,  after  the  fashion  in 
vogue,  n(  r  one  of  a  hundred  ever  examined  their  l^rin- 
ciples.  It  is  suspected  of  lukewarmness  to  suppose  ex- 
aipination  necessary :  and  it  will  be  charged  as  a  ten* 
P 


162  OF  DETERMINING  A  aUESTIOW, 

dency  to  apostasy  if  we  go  about  to  examine  them. 
Persons  are  applaud©^  for  presuming  they  are  in  the 
right,  and  (as  Mr.  Locke  saith)  he  that  considers  and 
inquires  into  the  reason  of  things  is  counted  a  foe  to  or- 
thodoxy, because  possibly  he  may  deviate  from  some 
of  the  received  doctrinefj.  And  thus  men,  without  any 
industry  or  acquisition  of  their  own  (lazy  and  idle  as 
they  are)  inherit  local  truths,  i»  e,  the  truths  of  that 
place  where  they  live,  and  are  inured  to  assent  without 
evidence. 

This  hath  a  long  and  unhappy  influence ;  for  it  a  man 
can  bring  his  mind  once  to  be  positive  and  fierce  for 
propositions  whose  evidence  he  hath  never  examined, 
and  that  in  matters  of  the  greatest  concernment,  he  will 
naturally  follow  this  short  and  easy  way  of  judging  and 
believing  in  cases  of  less  moment,  and  build  all  his  opin- 
ions upon  insufficient  grounds.  ^ 

XII.  In  determining  a  questior,  especially  when  it  is 
a  matter  of  difficulty  and  importance,  do  not  take  up 
with  partial  examination,  but  turn  your  thoughts  on  alJ. 
sides,  to  gather  in  all  tlie|light  you  can  toward,  the  solu- 
tion of  it.  Take  time,  and  uae  all  the  helps  that  ar« 
to  be  attained,  before  you  fully  determine,  except  only 
where  present  necessity  of  action  calls  for  speedy  de- 
termination. » 

If  you  would  know  what  may  be  called  a  partial  ex- 
amination, take  these  instances,  viz. 

When  you  examine  an  object  of  sense,  or  inquire  in- 
to some  matter  of  sensation  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  object,  or  in  anirxonvenicnt  situation  ot  it,  or  under 
any  indisposition  of  the  organs,  or  any  disguise  wliatso- 
ever  relating  to  the  medium  oy  the  organ  of  the  object 
itself;  or  when  you  examine  it  by  one  sense  only,  where 
others  might  be  employed  ;  or  Avhen  you  inquire  into 
it  by  sense  only,  without  the  use  of  the  understanding, 
and  judgment,  and  reason. 

If  it  be  a  question  which  is  to  be  determined  by  rea- 
son and  argimient,  tlien  your  examination  is  partial 
when  you  turn  the  question  only  in  one  light,  and  do  nc^ 
turn  it  on  all  sides;  when  you  look  upon  it  only  in  its 
relations  nnd  aspects  to  ot^e  sort  of  object,  and  not  ^ 
another ;  when  you  consider  only  the  advantages  of  it, 
and  the  reasons  for  it,  and  neglect  to  think  of  the  rea- 
sons against  it,  r<nd  never  survey  its  inconverJencies  too; 
when  you  determine  on  a  sudden,  before  jou  have  giv- 


OF   DETERMINING   A   aUESTlOIC.  165 

cn  yourself  a  due  time  for  weighing  all  circumstan- 
ces, &c. 

Again,  If  it  be  a  question  of  fact,  depending  upon  the 
report  or  testimony  of  men,  your  examination  is  but 
partial,  when  you  inquire  only  what  one  man  or  a  few 
say,  and  avoid  the  testimony  of  others ;  when  you  only 
ask  what  ttjose  report  who  were  not  eye  or  ear  witnes- 
ses, and  neglect  those  who  saw  and  heard  it;  when 
you  content  yourself  with  mere  loose  and  general  talk 
about  it,  and  never  enter  into  particulars;  or  when 
there  are,  many  who  deny  the  fact,  and  you  never  con- 
cern you^elf  about  their  reasons  for  denying  it,  but  re- 
solve to  believe  only  those  who  affirm  it. 

There  is  yet  a  further  fault  in  your  partial  examina- 
tion of  any  question,  when  you  resolve  to'determine  it 
by  natural  reason  only,  where  you  might  be  assisted 
by  supernatural  revelation ;  or  when  you  decide  the 
point  by  some  word  or  sentence,  oi  by  some  part  of 
revelation, without  comparing  it  with  other  parts,which 
might  give  further  light  and  better  help^to  determine 
the  meaning. 

It  is  also  a  culpable  partiality,  if  you  examine  some 
doubtful  or  pretended  vision  or  revelation  without  the 
use  of  reason;  or  without  the  use  of  that  revelation, 
which  is  undoubted  and  sufficiently  proved  to  be  divine. 
I'hese  are  all  instances  of  imperfect  examination  ;  and 
we  should  never  determine  a  question  by  one  or  two 
lights,  where  we  may  have  the  advantage  of  three  or 
four. 

XIII.  Take  heed  lest  some  darling  notion,  some  fa- 
vouiite  hypothesis,  some  beloved  doctrine,  oi^ some  com- 
mon but  unexamined  opinion,  be  made  a  test  of  the  truth 
or  falsehood  of  all  other  propositions  about  the  same 
subject.  Dare  not  build  much  upon  such  a  notion  or  doc- 
trine till  it  be  very  fully  examined,  accurately  adjusted, 
and  sufficiently  confirmed.  Some  persons,  by  indulg- 
ing such  a  practice,  have  been  led  into  long  ranks  of 
errors  ;  they  have  found  themselves  involved  in  a  train 
otj  mistakes,  by  taking  up  some  petty  hypothesis  or 
principle,  either  in  philosophy,  politics,  or  religion, 
upon  slight  and  insufficient  grounds,  and  establishing 
that  as  a  test  and  rule  by  which  lo  judge  of  all  other 
things. 

XIV.  For  the  same  reason,  have  a  care  of  suddenly 
determining  any  one  question  on  which  the  determina'  - 


164  OF   ©ETERMIMING  Arfl^UESTIOW. 

tion  of  any  kindred  or  parallel  cases  will  easily  or  nat-    | 
urally  follow.    Take  heed  of  receiving  any  wrong  turn    I 
in  your  early  judgment  of  things;  be  watchful  as  far 
as  possible,  against  «ny  false  b.as  which  may  be  given    | 
to  the  understanding,  especially  in  younger  years.    The 
indulgence  of  some  one  silly  opinion,  or  the  giving  cred- 
it to  one  foolish  fable,  lay&the  mind  open  to  be  imposed 
upon  by  many.    The  ancient  Romans  were  taught  tc 
believe  that  Romulus  and  Remus,  tite  founders  of  their 
state  and  empire,    were   exposed   in  the  woods,  and 
nursed  by  a  wolf :  This  story  prepared  then*  minds  for 
the  reception  of  any  tales  of  the  like  nature  relating  to 
other  countries.    Trogus  Pompeius  would  enforce  the 
belief,  that  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Spain  was  also 
nursed  and  kickled  by  a  hart,  from  the  fible  of  Romu- 
lus and  Remus.    It  was  by  the  same  influence  they 
learned  to  give  up  their  hopes  and  fears  to  omens  and 
soothsaying,  when  they  w'ere  once  persuaded  that  the 
greatness  of  their  empire,  and  the  glory  of  Romulus 
their  founder,  wen-  predicted  by  the  happy  omen  of 
twelve  vultures  appearing    to  him   when   he   sought 
where  to  build  the  city.    They  readily  received  all  the 
following  legends,  of  prodigies,  auguries,  and  prognos- 
tics, for  many  ages  together,  with  which  Livy  has  fur- 
nished his  huge  history. 

So  the  chiki  who  is  once  taught  to  believe  any  one 
occurrence  to  be  a  go^l  or  evil  omen,  or  tuiy  day  of  the 
month  or  week  to  be  lucky  or  unlucky,  hath  a  wide  in- 
road made  on  the  scurdness  of  his  understanding  in  the 
following  judgments  of  his  life  ;  he  lies  ever  open  ta  all 
the  silly  impressions,  and  idle  tales  of  nurses,  and  im- 
bibes many  a  foolish  story  with  gre^^diness,  which  he 
must  unlearn  again,  if  ever  he  become  acquainted 
with  truth  and  wisdom. 

XV.  Have  a  care  of  interesting  your  warm  and  re- 
ligious zeal  in  those  matters  whicfr'  ai;.  not  sufficiently 
evident  in  themselves,  or  which  are  not  fully  and  thor- 
oughly examined  and  proved  ;  for  this  zeaJ,  whether 
right  or  wrf^g,  when  it  is  once  engaged,  will  have  a 
powerful  influence  to  establish  your  own  minds  in  those 
doctrines  which  are  really  doubtful,  and  to  stop  up  all 
the  avenues  of  further  light.  This  will  bring  upon  the 
soul  a  sort  of  sacred  awe  and  dread  of  heresy,  with  a 
divine  concern  to  maintain  whatever  opinion  you  have 
espoused  as  divine,  though  perhaps  you  have  espoused 


M^ihty 


•  F   DETERnilMNG   A   aVESTION.  16: 

it  without  any  just  evidence,  and  ought  to  have  renoun 
ced  it  as  false  and  pernicious. 

We  ought  to  be  zealous  for  the  most  important  point 
of  our  religion,  and  to  contend  earnestly  for  the  fait" 
once  delivered  to  the  Sjaints ;  but  we  ought  not  to  em- 
ploy this  sacred  fervour  of  spirit  in  the  service  of  any 
article,  till  we  have  seen  it  made  out  with  plain  and 
strong  conviction, that  it  is  a  necessary  or  important  point 
of  faith  or  practice,  and  is  either  an  evident  dictate  of 
the  light  of  nature,  or  an  assured  article  of  revelation. 
Zeal  must  not  reign  over  the  powers  of  our  understand- 
ing, but  obey  them  :  God  is  the  God  of  light  and  truth, 
a  God  of  reason  and  order,  and  he  never  requires  man- 
kind to  use  their  natural  faculties  amiss  for  the  support 
of  his  cause.  Even  the  most  mysterious  and  sublime 
doctrines  of  revelation  are  not  to  be  believed  without  a 
just  reason  for  it ;  nor  should  our  pious  affections  be 
engaged  in  the  defence  of  them,  till  we, have  plain  and 
convincing  proof  that  they  are  certainly  revealed, 
though  perhaps  we  may  never  in  this  world  attain  to 
such  clear  and  distint  ideas  of  them  as  we  desire. 

XVI.  As  a  warm  zeal  ought  never  to  be  employed 
in  the  defence  of  any  revealed  truth,  till  our  reason  be 
well  convinced  of  the  revelation  ;  so  neither  should  wit 
and  banter,  jest  and  ridicule,  ever  be  indulged  to  oppose 
or  assault  any  doctrines  of  pr'ofessed  revelation,  till 
reason  has  proved  thev  are  not  really  revealed  ;  and 
even  then  these  methods  should  be  used  very  sel- 
dom, and  with  the  utmost  caution  and  prudence.  Rail- 
lery and  wit  were  never  made  to  answer  our  inquiries 
after  truth,  and  to  determine  a  question  of  rational 
controversy ;  though  they  may  sometimes  be  service- 
able to  expose  to  contempt  those  inconsistent  follies 
which  have  been  first  abundantly  refuted  by  argument ; 
they  serve  indeed  only  to  cover  nonsense  with  shame, 
when  reason  has  first  proved  it  to  be  mere  nonsense. 

It  is  therefore  a  silly  and  most  unreasonable  test 
which  some  of  our  deists  have  introduced  to  judge  of 
divine  revelation,  viz.  to  try  if  it  will  bear  ridicule  and 
laughter.  They  are  effectually  beaten  in  all  their  com- 
bats at  the  weapons  of  men,  that  is,  reason  and  argu- 
ment ;  and  it  would  not  be  unjust  (though  it  is  a  little 
uncourtly)  to  say,  that  they  would  now  attack  our  re- 
ligion with  the  talents  of  a  vile  animal,  that  is,  grin 
and  grimace. 

P  2 


166  OF    DET£RMINirrG  A  aUESTIOBT. 

I  cannot  think  that  a  jester  or  a  monkey,  a  droll  or 
a  puppet,  can  be  proper  judges  or  deciders  ot  contro-. 
%ersy.  That  which  dresses  up  all  things  in  dis^guise, 
%  not  likely  to  lead  us  into  any  just  sentiments  abou^ 
them.  Plato  or  Socrates,  Csesar  or  Alexander,  might 
have  a  fool's  coat  clapped  upon  any  of  them,  and  perhaps 
in  this  disguise,  neither  the  wisdom  of  the  One,  nor  the 
majesty  ot  the  other,  would  secure  them  trom  a  sneer; 
this  treatment  would  never  intorm  us  whether  they 
were  kings  or  slaves,  whether  they  were  focls  or  phi- 
losophers. The  strongest  reasoning,  the  best  sense, 
and  the  politest  thoughts,  may  be  set  in  a  most  ridicu- 
lous light  by  this  grinning  faculty  ;  the  most  obvicijs 
axioms  of  eternal  truth  may  lie  dressed  in  a  very  fool- 
ish form,  and  wra^it  up  in  artful  absurdities  by  this  tal- 
ent; but  they  are  truth,  and  reason,  and  good  sense 
still.  Euclid,  with  all  his  demonstrations,  might  be  so 
covered  and  overwhelmed  with  banter,  that  a  beginnty 
in  the  mathematics  might  be  tempted  to  doubt  whether 
his  theorems  were  true  or  not,  and  to  imagine  they 
could  never  be  useful.  So  weaker  minds  migiit  be  easily 
prejudiced  against  the  noblest  principle  of  truth  and 
goodness;  and  the  younger  part  of  mankind  might  be 
beat  oft"  trom  the  belief  of  the  most  serious,  the  most 
rational  and  important  points,  ^feven  of  natural  religion, 
by  the  impudent  jests  of  a  profane  wit.  I'he  moral  du- 
ties of  the  civil  life,  as  well  as  the  articles  of  Christian- 
ity, may  he  painted  over  with  the  culours  of  folly,  anc^ 
exposeH  upon  a  stage,  so  as  to  ruin  all  social  an^  per- 
sonal virtue  among  the  gay  and  thoughtless  part  of  the 
woi'ld.  f 

XVII.  It  should  be  observed  also,  that  these  very 
men  cry  cut  loudly  against  the  use  of  all  severe  rail- 
ing and  reproach  in  debates,  and  all  penalties  and  per- 
secutions of  the  state,  in  order  to  convince  the  minds 
and  consciences  of  men,  and  determine  points  of  truth 
and  error.  Now  I  renounce  these  penal  and  smart- 
ing methods  of  conviction  as  much  as  they  do,  and  yet 
I  think  still  these  are  every  whit  as  wise,  as  just,  and 
as  good  for  this  purpose  as  banter  and  ridicule.  Why 
should  public  mockery  in  priAt,  or  a  merry  joke  up- 
on a  stage,  be  a  better  test  of  truth,  than  severe,  railing 
sarcasms,  and  public  persecutions  and  penalties"? 
Why  should  more  light  be  derived  to  the  understand- 
ing:, by  a  song  of  scurrilous  mirth,  or  a  witty  ballad. 


OP   DETERMINING  A    aUESTlOJY.  167 

than  there  is  by  a  rude  cudgel  ?  When  a  professor  of 
any  religion  is  set  up  to  be  laughed  at,  I  cannot  see 
how  this  should  help  us  to  judge  of  the  truth  of  his 
faith  any  better  than  if  we  were  scourged.  I'he  jeers 
of  a  theatre,  the  jiillory,  -cirKl  the  whipping  post,  -are 
very  near  akin.  When  the  person  or  his  opinion  is 
made  the  jest  of  the  mob,  or  his  back  the  shambles  of 
the  executioner,  I  think  there  is  no  more'conviction  in 
the  one  than  in  the  other. 

XVIII.  Besides,  supposing  it  is  but  barely  possible, 
that  the  great  God  should  reveal  his  mind  and  will  to 
men  by  miracle,  vision,  or  inspiration,  it  is  a  piece  of 
contetnpt  and  profane  insolence  to  treat  any  tolerable 
or  rational  appearance  of  such  a  revelation  with  jest 
and  laughter,  in  order  to  find  whether  it  be  divine  or 
iW)t.  And  yet,  if  this  be  a  proper  test  of  revelation,  it 
inay  be  properly  applied  to  the  true  as  well  as  the 
false,.in  order  to  distinguish  it.  Suppose  a  royal  proc- 
lamation were  sent  to  a  distant  part  of  the  kingdom  ^ 
And  some  of  the  subjects  should  doubt  whether  it  came** 
from  the  king  ornot:  Is  it  possible  tnat  wit  and  ridi- 
cule should  ever  decide   the    point?    Or    would    the 

Erinceever  think  himself  treated  with  just  honour  to 
ave  his  proclamation  canvassed  in  this  manner  on  a, 
public  stage,  and  become  the  sport  of  buffoons,  in  or- 
der to  determine  the  question,  whether  it  is  the  word  of 
a  king  or  not  ^  "**■ 

Let  such  sort  of  writers  go  on  at  their  dearest  peril, 
and  spdrt  themselves  in  their  own  deceivings ;  let  them 
at  their  peril  make  a  jest  of  the  Bible,  and  treat  the 
sacred  articles  of  Christianity  with  scoff  and  merri- 
ment: But  then  let  them  lay  aside  all  their  pretences 
to  reason  as  well  as  religion ;  and  as  they  exnose 
themselves  by  such  writings  to  the  neglect  and  Son-. 
tempt  of  men,  so  let  them  prepare  to  m.eet  the  majesty 
and  indignatif  n  of  God  without  timely  repentance. 

XIX.  In  reading  philosophical,  mora!,  or  religious 
controversies,  never  raise  your  estee*  of  any  opinion 
by  the  assurance  and  zeal  wherewith  the  author  as-**" 
serts  it,  nor  by  the  highest  praises  he  bestows  upon  it ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  let  your  esteem  ot  an  opinion 
be  abated,  nor  your  aversion  to  it  raised  by  the  super- 
cilious contempt  cast  upon  it  by  a  warm  writer,  nor 
by  the  sovereign  airs  with  which  he  condemns  it.  Let 
the  force  of  argument  alone  influence  your  assent  qx 


168  OF    DETERMINING   A   aUESTIOJT. 

dissent.  Take  care  that  your  soul  be  not  warped  or 
biassed  on  one  side  or  the  other,  by  any  strains  of 
flattering  or  abusive  language  ;  for  there  is  no  question 
whatsoever,  but  hath  some  such  sort  of  defenders  and 
opposers.  Le  ive  those  writers  to  their  own  follies, 
who  practise  thus  upon  the  weakness  of  their  readers 
without  argument;  leave  tliem  to  triumph  in  their 
own  fancied  possessions  and  victories;  it  is  oftentimes 
found  that  their  possessions  are  but  a  heap  of  errors, 
and  their  boasted  victories  are  but  overbearing  noise 
and  clamour  to  silence  the  voice  of  truth. 

In  philosophy  and  religion,  the  bigots  of  all  parties 
are  generally  the  most  positive,  and  deal  much  in  this 
sort  of  argu'nent.  Sometimes  these  are  the  weapons 
of  pride  ;  for  a  haughty  man  supposes  all  his  opinions 
to  be  infallible,  and  imagines  the  contrary  sentiments 
are  ever  ridiculous,  and  not  worthy  of  notice.  Some- 
times these  ways  of  talking  are  the  mere  arms  of  igno- 
rance :  The  men  who  use  them  know  little  of  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  question,  and  therefore  they  exult  in 
their  own  vain  pretences  to  knowledge,  as  though 
no  man  of  sense  could  oppose  their  opinions.  They 
rail  at  an  objection  against  their  own  sentiments,  be- 
cause they  can  find  no  other  answer  to  it  but  railing. 
And  men  of  learning,  by  their  excessive  vanity,  have 
been  sometimes  tempted  into  the  same  insolent  prac- 
tice, as  well  as  the  ignorant* 

Yet  let  it  be  remembered  too,  that  there  are  some 
truths  so  plain  and  evident,  that  the  opposition  to  them 
is  strange,  unaccountable,  and  almost  monstrous  ;  and 
in  vindication  of  sucii  truths,  a  writer  of  good  sense 
may  sometimes  be  allowed  to  use  a  degree  of  assur- 
ance, and  pronounce  them  strongly  with  an  air  of  con- 
fidence, while  he  defends  them  with  reasons  of  con- 
vincing force. 

XX.  Sometimes  a  question  may  be  proposed  which 
is  of  so  large  and  extensive  amatute,  and  refers  to  such 
a  multitude  of  subjects,  as  ought  not  injustice  to  be  de- 
termined at  once  by  a  single  argument  or  answer ;  as  if 
one  should  ask  me,  Are  you  a  professed  disciple  of  the 
Stoics  or  the  Platonists  ?  Do  you  receive  and  assent  to 
the  principles  of  Gassendus,  Descartes,  or  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  ?  Have  you  chosen  the  hypothesis  of  Tycho  or 
Copernicus  ?  Have  you  devoted  yourself  to  the^s?nti- 
^leuts  of  Arminius  or  Calvin  ?  Are  your  notions  Eniscor 


OF    DETER.MIMINO   A   aUESTlO?/.  16f 

pal,  Presbyterian,  or  Independent  ?  Sec.  I  think  it  may 
be  very  proper  in  such  cases  not  to  give  an  answer  in 
the  gross,  but  rather  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  particulars, 
and  explain  one's  own  sentiments.  Perhaps  there  is  no 
man,  nor  set  of  men  upon  earth,  whose  sentiments  I 
entirely  follow.  God  has  given  me  reason  to  judge  for 
myself,  and  though  I  may  see  suflicient  ground  to  agree 
to  the  greatest  part  of  the  opinions  of  one  person  or  par- 
ty, yet  it  does  by  no  means  follow  that  I  should  receive 
them  all.  Truth  does  not  always  go  by  the  lump*  nor 
does  error  tincture  and  spoil  all  the  articles  of  belief  that 
some  one  party  professes. 

Since  there  are  difticulties  attending  every  scheme  of 
human  knowledge,  it  is  enough  for  me  in  the  main  to 
mclir.e  to  that  ^de  which  has  the  fewest  difficulties  ; 
and  I  'w(iuld  endeavour,  as  far  as  possible,  to  correct  the 
mistakes  or  the  harsh  expresstons.  of  one  party,  by  soft- 
ening and  reconciling  methods,  by  reducing  the  ex- 
tremes, and  by  borrowing  some  of  the  best  principles  or 
phrases  from  another.  Cicero  was  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  antiquity,  and  gives  us  an  account  of  the  various 
opinions  of  philosophers  in  his  age ;  but  he  himself  was 
ot  the  eclectic  sect,  and  chose  out  of  each  of  them  such 
positions  as  in  his  wisest  judgment  came  nearest  to  the 
truth. 

XXI.  When  you  are  called  in  the  course  of  life  or 
religion  to  judge  and  determine  concerning  any  question, 
and  in  affiim  or  deny  it,  take  a  full  surveyof  the  objec- 
tions against  it, as  well  i^s  of  the  arguments  for  it,as  far  as 
your  time  and  circumstances  admit,  and  see  on  which 
side  the  preponderation  falls.  If  either  the  objections 
against  any  proposition, or  the  arguments  for  the  defence 
of  it,  carry  m  them  most  undoubted  evidence,  and  are 
plainly  uninswerable,  they  will  and  ought  to  constrain 
the  assent,  tiiough  there  ma\  be  many  seeming  proba- 
bilities on  the  '  ther  side,,  which  at  fivst  sight  would  flat- 
ter the  judgment  to  favour  it.  But  where  the  reasons 
on  both  sides  are  very  near  of  equal  weight,  there  sus- 
pension f!r  doubt  is  our  duty,  unit  ss  in  cases  wherein 
present  determination  or  practice  is  required,  and  there 
wc  must  act  according  to  the  present  appearing  pre- 
ponderation of  reasons. 

XXII.  In  matters  of  moment  and  importance,  it  is 
our  duty  indeed  to  seek  after  certain  and  conclusive  ar- 
guments, (if  they  can  be  found)  in  order  to  determine  a 


170  OF    DETERMINING  A   fttTESTIOX. 

question ;  but  where  the  matter  is  of  little  consequence, 
it  is  not  .^orth  our  labour  to  spend  much  time  in  seek- 
ing after  c*.;rtainties;  it  is  sufficient  here,  if  probable 
reasons  offer  themselves.  And  ev-en  in  matters  of  great- 
er importance,  especially  wherf  daily  practice  is  neces- 
sary, and  where  we  cannot  attain  any  sufficient  or  cer- 
tain grounds  to  determine  a  question  on  either  side,  we 
must  tiien  take  up  with  such  probable  arguments  as  we 
can  arrive  at.  But  this  general  rule  should  be  observ- 
ed, viz.  to  take  heed  that  our  assent  be  no  stronger,  or 
rise  no  higher,  in  the  degree  of  it,  than  the  probable  ar- 
gument will  support. 

XXIII.  Tnere  are  many  things,  even  in  religion,  as 
well  as  in  philosophy  and  civil  life,  which  we  believe 
with  very  different  degrees  of  assent ;  and  this  is  or 
should  be  always  regulated  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  evidence  which  we  enjoy ;  and  perhaps  there 
are  a  thousand  gradations  in  \iv  assent  to  thetaingswe 
believe,because  thf  re  are  thousands  of  circumstances  re- 
lating to  different  questions,  which  increase  or  diminish 
the  evidence  we  have  concerning  theni,  and  that  in 
matters  both  of  reason  and  revelation. 

I  believe  there  is  a  God,  and  that  obedience  is  due  to 
him  from  every  reasonable  creature  :  this  I  am  most 
fully  assured  of,  because  I  have  the  strongest  evidence, 
since  it  is  the  plain  dictate  both  of  re  ison  ind  revelation. 

Again,  I  believe  tiiere  is  a  future  resunvctinn  of  the 
dead,  because  scripture  tells  us  so  in  the  plainest  terms, 
though  reason  says  <iothing  of  it.  I  i^eiieve  also  that  the 
same  matter  of  our  bodies  whxh  died  (in  part  at  least) 
shall  arise ;  but  I  am  not  so  fully  assured  of  this  circum- 
stance, because  the  re\'elation  of  it  is  nor.  quite  so  clear 
and  express.  Yet  further  I  believe,  that  the.  good  men 
who  were  acquainted  here  on  earth  shaii  i^now  each 
other  in  heaven ;  but  my  persuasion  of  it  is  not  absolutely 
certain,  because  my  assent  to  it  arises  only  from  circum- 
stantial reasonings  of  men  upon  what  God  has  cold  us, 
and  therefore  my  evidences  are  not  strong  beyond  a  pos- 
sibility of  mistake.  This  direction  cannot  be  too  often 
repeated,  that  our  assent  ought  always  to  keep  pace 
with  our  evidence ;  and  our  belief  of  any  proposition 
should  never  rise  higher  than  the  proof,  or  evidence  we 
have  to  support  it,  nor  should  our  faith  run  faster  than 
right  reason  can  encourage  it. 

XXIV.    Perhaps  it  will  be  objected  here,  why  then 


OF   DETERMINING  A   auESTION.  171 

does  our  Saviour;  in  the  histories  of  the  Gospel,  so  much 
commend  a  strong  faith,  and  lay  out  both  his  miraculous 
benefits  and  his  praises  upon  some  of  those  poor  crea- 
tures of  little  reaspning,  who  profes>>ed  an  ttssured  be- 
lief of  his  commission  and  power  to  heal  them  ? 

I  answer,  the  God  of  nature  has  given  every  man  his 
own  reason,  to  be  the  judge  of  evidence  to  himself,  in 
particular,  and  to  direct  his  assent  in  all  things  about 
■which  he  is  called  to  judge  ;  and  even  the  matters  of 
revelation  are  to  be  believed  by  us,  because  our  reason 
pronounces  the  revelation  to  be  true.  Therefore  the 
great  God  will  not,  or  cannot,  in  any  instance,  require 
us  to  assent  to  any  thing  without  reasonable  or  suffic'ent 
evidence  ;  nor  to  believe  any  proposition  morr  strongly 
than  what  our  evidence  for  it  will  support.  We  have 
therefore  abundant  ground  to  believe,  that  those  :>ersons 
of  whom  our  Saviour  requires  such  strong  f;iith,or  whom 
he  commends  for  their  strong  faith,  had  a  strong  and 
certain  evidence  of  his  power  and  commission  from  the 
eredible  and  incontestable  reports  they  had  heard  of  his 
miracles,  which  were  wrought  on  purpose  to  give  evi- 
dence to  his  commission.*  Now  in  such  a  case,  both  this 
strong  faith  and  the  open  profession  of  it,  were  very- 
worthy  of  public  encouragement  and  praise  from  our 
Saviour,because  of  the  great  and  public  opposition  which 
the  magistrates  and  the  priests,  and  the  doctors  of  the 
age,  made  against  Jesus,  the  man  of  Nazareth,  when 
he  appeared  as  the  Messiah. 

And  besides  all  this,  it  may  be  reasonably  supposed, 
"with  regard  to  some  of  those  strong  exercises  of  faith 
which  are  required  and  commended,  that  these  believ- 
ers had  some  further  hints  of  inward  evidence  and  im- 
mediate revelation  from  (rod  himself;  as  when  St.  Pe- 
ter confesses  Christ  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  Matt.  xvi.  16, 
IT.  our  blessed  Saviour  commends  him,  saying,  '*  Bless- 
ed art  thou,  Simon  Barjona :"  But  he  adds,  *'  Flesh  and 
blood  hRth  not  revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  my  Father 
■who  is  in  heaven." 

•  When  our  Saviour  gently  reproves  Thomas  for  his  unbelief,  (John 
XX.29.)  he  does  it  in  these  words  :  "  Because  thou  bast  seen  me,  Thomas, 
thou  hast  believed  :  blessed  are  they  who  have  not  seen,  and  yet  have  be- 
lieved," t.  e.  "  Blessed  are  they  who,  though  they  have  not  been  fa\-oured 
with  th(  evidence  of  their  senses  as  thou  hast  been,  yet  have  been  con- 
vincef*  Sy  the  reasonable. and  sufficient  moral  evidence  of  the  well  ground- 
ad  report  of  others,  and  hnvebflieved  in  me  upon  that  evidence."  Of 
tiiis  moral  evidence  Mr.  Ditton  writes  exceedingly  veil  in  his  book  of 
the  Hoisiiycuon  of  Christ. 


172  OS   DETERMINING  A   aUBSTION. 

And  the  same  may  be  said  concerning  the  faith  of  mir? 
acles,  the  exercise  of  which  was  sometimes  required  of 
the  disciples  and  others ;  /.  e,  when  by  inward  and  cli- 
vine  influences  God  assured  them  such  miracles  should 
be  wrought.their  obedience  to  and  compliance  with  these 
divine  illuminations  was  expected  and  commended^ 
Now  this  supernatural  inspiration  carried  sufficient  evi- 
dence with  it  to  them,  as  well  as  to  the  ancient  prophets, 
though  we  who  never  felt  it  are  not  so  capable  to  judge 
and  distinguish  it. 

XXV.  What  is  said  before  concerning  truth  or  doc- 
trines may  be  also  affirmed  concerning  duties ;  the  rea- 
son of  both  is  the  same ;  as  the  one  are  truths  for  cur 
speculation,  the  others  are  truths  for  our  practice.  Du- 
ties which  are  expressly  required  in  the  plain  language 
of  scripture,  or  dictated  by  the  most  evident  reasoning 
upon  first  principles,  ought  to  bind  our  consciences  more 
than  those  which  are  but  dubiously  inferred,  and  that 
only  from  occasional  occurrences,  incidents,  and  circum- 
stances :  as  for  instance,  I  am  certain  that  I  ought  to 
pray  to  God ;  my  conscience  is  bound  to  this,  because 
there  are  most  evident  commands  for  it  to  be  found  in 
scriptui-e,  as  well  as  to  be  derived  from  reason.  I  be- 
lieve also  that  I  may  pray  to  God,  either  by  a  written 
form,  or  without  one,  because  neither  Reason  nor  reve- 
lation expressly  requires  either  of  these  modes  of  prayer 
at  all  times,  or  forbids  the  other.  I  cannot  therefore 
bind  my  conscience  to  practise  the  ooe  so  as  utterly  to 
renounce  the  otlier ;  but  I  would  practise, either  of  them 
as  my  reason  and  other  circumstances  direct  me. 

Again, — I  believe  that  Christians  ought  to  remembei* 
the  death  of  Christ  by  the  symbols  ot  bread  and  wine; 
and  I  believe  there  ought  to  be  pastors  in  a  Chriyrian 
church  some  way  ordained  or  set  apart  to  lead  the  wor- 
ship, and  to  bless  and  distribute  the  elements ;  but  the 
last  of  these  practices  is  not  so  expressly  directed,  pre- 
scribed, and  required  in  scripture  as  the  former;  and 
therefore  I  feel  mv  conscience  evidently' bound  to  remem- 
ber the  death  of  Christ  with  some  society  of  Christians 
©r  other,  since  it  is  a  most  plain  command,  though  their 
methods  of  ordaining  a  pastor  be  very  different  from 
other  men,  or  from  my  own  opinion;  or  whether  the 
person  who  distributes  these  elements  be  only  an  occa- 
sional or  a  settled  administrator;  since  none  of  these 
things  are  plainly  determmed  in  scripture ;   I  noust  not 


•F  DETJCRMININA  A  Q.ir£STIOiV.  1^3 

omit  or  neglect  an  express  command,  because  some  un- 
necessary circumstances  are  dubious.  And  I  trust  I 
shall  receive  approbation  from  the  God  of  nature,  and 
from  Jesus  my  Judge  at  the  last  day,  if  I  have  endeav- 
oured in  this  mantier  to  believe  and  practise  every  thing 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  evidence  which  God  has 
given  me  about  it,  or  which  he  has  put  me  into  a  capacity 
to  seek  and  obtain  in  the  age  and  nation  wherein  I  live. 

Query.  Whether  the  obstinate  Deists  and  Fatalists  of 
Great  Britain,  will  find  sufficient  apology  from  this  prin- 
ciple ?  But  I  leave  them  to  venture  the  awful  experiment* 

XXVI.  We  may  observe  these  three  rules,  in  judg- 
ing of  probabilities  which  are  to  be  determined  by  reason, 
relating  either  to  things  past,  or  things  to  come. 

1.  That  which  agrees  most  with  the  constitution  of' 
nature  carries  the  greatest  probability  in  it,  where  na 
other  circumstance  appears  to  counterpoise  it ;  as,  if  I 
let  loose  a  greyhound  within  si^ht  of  a  hare  upon  a  large 
plain,  there  is  great  probability  that  the  greyhound 
will  seize  her  ;  that  a  thousand  sparrows  will  fly  aw  ay 
at  the  sight  of  a  hawk  among  them. 

2.  That  which  is  most  conformable  to  the  constant  ob- 
servations of  men,or  to  experiments  frequently  repeated, 
is  most  likely  to  be  true ;  as,  that  a  winter  will  not  pass 
away  in  England  witliout  some  frost  and  snow ;  that  if 
you  deal  cut  great  quantities  of  strong  liquor  to  the  mob, 
there  will  be  many  drunk ;  that  a  large  assembly  of  men 
will  be  of  different  opinions  in  any  doubtful  point ;  that 
a  thief  will  make  his  escape  out  of  prison,  if  the  doors 
of  it  are  unguarded  at  midnight. 

3.  In  matters  of  fact,  which  are  past  or  present,  where 
neither  nature,  nor  observation,  nor  custom ,  gives  us  any 
sufficient  information  on  either  side  of  the  question,  there 
we  may  derive  a  probnbiiity  from  the  attestation  of  wise 
and  honest  men,  by  word  or  writing*  or  the  concurring 
witnesses  of  multitudes  who  have  seen  and  known  what 
they  relate,  6vC.  I'his  testimony  in  many  cases  will  a- 
rise  to  the  degree  of  moral  certainty.  So  we  believe  that 
the  tea  plant  grows  at  China;  and  that  the  Emperor  of 
the  Turks  lives  at  Constantinople  ;  that  Julius  Caesar 
conquered  France  ;  and  that  Jesus  our  Saviour  lived  and 
died  in  Judea ;  that  thousands  were  converted  to  the 
Christian  faith  in  a  century  after  the  death  of  Christ ; 
and  that  the  bn^ks  which  contain  the  Christian  religion 
are  certain  histories  and  epistle*  which  were  written 

Q 


174  OE  DKTERMljriWft  ▲  aUEdTIOITr 

above  a  thousand  years  ago.  There  is  an  infinite  vari- 
ety of  such  piYipositions  which  can  admit  of  no  reasona- 
ble doubt,though  they  are  not  matters  whicli  are  directly 
evid'  nt  to  our  own  senses.or  our  mere  reasoning  powers. 

XXVII.  When  a  point  hath  been  well  exHmined, 
and  our  own  judgment  settled  upon  just  arguments  in 
our  marly  age,  and  after  a  large  survey  of  the  merits  of 
the  caase.  it  would  be  a  weakness  for  us  always  to  con- 
tinue fluttering  in  suspense.  We  ought  therefore  to 
stand  firm  in  such  well  established  principles,  and  not 
be  tempted  to  c'.ange  and  alter  for  the  sake  of  every 
difficulty,  ;  r  every  occasional  objection.  We  are  not 
to  be  ca!  ried  about  with  every  flying  doctrine,  like  chil- 
dren tossed  to  and  fro,  and  wavering  with  the  wind.  It 
is  a  good  thif.g  to  have  the  heart  established  with  grace, 
not  with  meats,  that  is,  in  the  great  doctrines  of  the  gos- 
pel of  gr;xe,  and  in  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  the  same  yes- , 
terday,  to-day,  and  forever  ;  but  it  is  not  so  riecessary 
in  the  more  minute  matters  of  religion,such  as  meats  and 
drinks,  forms  and  ceremonies,  which  are  of  less  impor- 
tance, and  for  which  Scripture  has  not  given  us  such 
express  directions.  This  is  the  advice  of  the  great 
Apostle,  Eph.  iv.  14.   Heb.  xiii.  8,  9. 

In  short,  those  truths  which  are  the  springs  of  daily 
practice  should  be  settled  as  soon  as  we  con  with  the 
exercise  of  our  best  powers,  after  the  state  of  manhood ; 
but  those  things  wherein  we  may  possibly  mistake,should 
never  be  so  absolutely  and  finrilly  established  and  deter- 
mined, as  though  we  were  infallible.  If  the  Papists  of 
Great  Britain  had  maintained  such  a  resolute  establish- 
ment and  assurance  in  the  days  of  King  Henry  VIII. 
or  Queen  Elizabeth,  there  never  had  been  a  reforma- 
tion ;  nor  would  any  Heathen  have  been  converted  even 
under  the  ministry  of  St.  Paul,  if  their  obstinate  settle- 
ment in  their  idolatries  had  kept  their  eyes  shut  against . 
all  further  light.  Yet  this  should  not  hinder  us  from 
settling  our  most  important  principles  of  faitli  and  prac- 
tice, where  reason  shines  with  its  clearest  evidence,  and 
the  word  of  God  plainly  determines  truth  and  duty. 

XXVIII.  But  let  us  remember  also,  that  though  the 
gospel  be  an  infallible  revelation,  we  are  but  fallible  in- 
terpreters, when  we  determine  the  sense  even  of  some 
important  propositions  written  there ;  and  therefore, 
though  we  seem  to  be  established  in  the  belief  of  any 
particular  sense  of  scripture,  and  though  there  may  be 


OF   I^aVIRINO    INTO   GADSES  AND  EFFECTS.        175 

just  calls  of  Providence  to  profess  and  subscribe  it,  yet 
there  is  no  need  that  we  should  resolve  or  promise,  sub- 
scribe or  swear,  never  to  change  our  mind ;  since  ic  is 
possible,  in  the  nature  and  course  of  things.we  may  meet 
•with  such  a  solid  and  substantial  objection,  as  may  give 
us  a  quite  different  view  of  things  from  what  we  once 
imagined,  and  may  lay  before  us  sufficient  evidence  of 
the  contrary.  We  may  happen  to  find  a  fairer  light 
cast  over  the  same  scriptures,  and  see  reason  to  alter  our 
sentiments  even  in  some  points  of  moment.  Sicsetitio, 
sic  sentiam^  i.  e.  Sol  believe,  and  sol  will  believe,  is  the 
prison  of  the  soul  for  life  time,  and  a  bar  against  all  the 
improvements  of  the  mind.  To  impose  such  a  profession 
on  other  men  in  matters  not  absolutely  necessary,  and 
not  absolutely  certain,  is  a  criminal  usurj3ation  and  ty- 
ranny over  faith  and  conscience,  and  w  hich  none  has 
power  to  require  but  an  infallible  dictator. 


CHAP.  XIX. 

Of  Inquiring  into  Causes  and  Effects. 

SOME  eftects  are  found  out  by  their  causes,  and  some 
causes  by  their  effects.    Let  us  consider  both   these. 

I.  VVhen  we  are  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  any  par- 
ticular effect  or  appearance,  either  in  the  world  of  na- 
ture, or  in  the  civil  or  moral  concerns  of  men,  we  may 
follow  this  method : 

1,  Consider  what  effects  or  appearances  you  have 
known  of  a  kindred  nature,  and  what  have  been  the  cer- 
tain and  real  causes  of  them ;  for  like  effects  have  gen- 
erally like  causes,  especially  when  they  are  found  in 
the  same  sort  of  subjects. 

2  Consider  what  are  the  several  Dossible  causes 
which  may  produce  such  an  effect ;  and  find  out  by  some 
circumstances  how  many  of  those  possible  causes  are  ex- 
cluded in  this  particular  case  ;  thence  proceed  by  de- 
grees to  the  probable  causes,  till  a  more  close  attention 
and  inspection  shall  exclude  some  of  them  also,  and 
lead  you  gradually  to  the  real  and  certain  cause. 

3  Consider  what  things  preceded  such  an  event  or 
appearance,  which  might  have  any  influence  upon  it ; 
and  though  we  cannot  certainly  determine  the  cause  of 
any  thing  only  from  its  going  before  the  effect,  yet  among 


176  o¥  iNauijaiKc  into 

the  many  forerunners,  we  may  probably  li^ht  up.aa  the 
true  cause  by  further  and  more  particular  inquiry. 

4.  Consider  whether  one  cause  be  sufficient  to  produce 
the  effect,  or  whether  it  does  not  rcqaire  a  concurrence 
of  several  causes;  and  then  endeavour  as  far  as  possi- 
ble to  adjust  the  degrees  of  influence  that  each  cause 
might  have  in  producing  the  effect,  s.Vii\  the  proper  agen- 
cy and  influence  of  each  of  them  therein.    , 

So  in  natural  philosophy,  if  1  would  find  w  hat  are  the 
principles  or  causes  of  that  sensation  which  we  call  heat 
when  I  stand  near  the  fire ;  here  I  shall  find  it  is  necessa- 
ry that  there  be  an  agency  oithe  particles  of  fire  on  my 
flesh,  either  mediately  by  themselves,  or  at  least  bj^  the 
intermediate  air ;  there  must  be  a  particular  sort  of  mo- 
tion and  veliication  imprest  upon  my  nerves ;  there  must 
be  a  derivation  of  that  motion  to  the  brain  ;  and  there 
must  be  an  attention  of  my  soul  to  this  motion ;  if  either 
of  these  are  wanting,  the  sensation  of  heat  will  not  be 
produced. 

So  in  the  moral  world,  if  I  inquire  into  the  revolution 
of  a  state  or  kingdom,  perhaps  1  find  it  brought  about 
by  the  tyranny  or  folly  of  a  prince,  or  by  the  disaffection 
of  his  own  subjects ;  and  this  disaffection  and  opposition 
may  arise  either  upon  the  account  of  impositions  in  re- 
ligion, or  injuries  relating  to  their  civil  rights ;  or  the 
revolution  may  be  effected  by  the  invasion  of  a  foreign 
army,  or  by  the  opposition  of  some  person  at  home  or 
abroad,  that  lays  claim  to  the  government,  &c.  or  a  hero 
wlio  would  guard  the  liberties  of  the  people ;  or  by  many 
of  these  concurring  together ;  then  we  must  adjust  the 
influences  of  each  as  wisely  as  we  can,  and  not  ascribe 
the  whole  event  to  one  of  them  alone. 

II.  When  we  are  inquiring  into  the  effects  of  any 
particular  cause  or  causes,  we  may  fdlow  this  method : 

3.  Consider  diligently  the  nature  of  every  cause  apart, 
and  observe  what  effect  every  part  or  property  of  it 
will  tend  to  produce. 

2.  Consider  the  causes  united  together  in  their  seve- 
ral natures,  and  ways  of  operation  ;  inquire  how  far  the 
powers  or  properties  of  one  will  hinder  or  promote  the 
effects  of  the  other,  and  wisely  balance  the  proportions 
of  their  influence. 

3.  Consider  what  the  subject  is.  in  or  upon  which  the 
cause  is  to  operate;  for  the   same  cauw»  r>a  different 


CAUSES  AND  EFFECTS.  177 

subjects  will  oftentimes  produce  different  effects,  as  the 
sun  which  softens  wax,  will  harden  clay. 

4.  Be  frequent  and  diligent  in  making  all  proper  ex- 
periments, in  setting  such  causes  at  work,  whose  effects 
you  desire  to  know,  and  putting  together  in  an  orderly 
manner  such  things  as  are  most  likely  to  produce  some 
useful  effects,  according  to  the  best  survey  you  can  take 
of  all  the  concurring  causes  and  circumstances. 

5.  Observe  carefully  all  the  events  which  happen  ei- 
ther by  an  occasional  concurrence  of  various  causes,  or 
by  the  industrious  applications  of  knowing  men ;  and 
when  you  see  any  happy  efiect  certainly  i)roduced,  and 
often  repeated,  treasure  it  up,  together  with  the  known 
causes  of  it,  amongst  your  improvements. 

6.  Take  a  just  survey  of  all  the  circumstances  which 
attend  the  operation  of  any  cause  or  causes,  whereby 
any  special  effect  is  produced ;  and  find  out  as  far  as  pos- 
sible how  far  any  of  those  circumstances  had  a  tendency 
either  to  obstruct  or  promote,  or  change  those  opera- 
tions, and  consequently  how  far  the  effect  might  be  in- 
fluenced by  them. 

In  this  manner  physicians  practise  and  improve  their 
skill.  They  consider  the  various  known  effects  of  par- 
ticular herbs  or  drugs,  they  meditate  what  will  be  the 
effects  of  their  composition,  and  whether  the  virtues  of 
the  one  will  exalt  of  diminish  the  force  of  the  other,  or 
correct  any  of  its  innocent  qualities.  Then  they  observe 
the  native  constitution,  and  the  present  temper  or  cir- 
cumstances of  the  patient,  and  what  is  likely  to  be  the 
efiect  of  such  a  medicine,  on  such  a  patient.  And  in  all 
uncommon  cases  they  make  wise  and  cautious  experi- 
ments, and  nicely  observe  the  effects  of  particular  com- 
potind  medicines  on  different  constitutions,  and  in  differ- 
ent diseases ;  and  by  these  treasures  of  just  observations, 
they  grow  up  to  an  honourable  degree  of  skill  in  the 
art  of  healing. 

So  the  preacher  considers  tl\e  doctrines  and  reasons, 
the  precepts,  the  promises  and  threatenings  of  the  word 
of  God,  and  what  are  the  natural  effects  of  them  upon 
the  mind ;  he  considers  what  is  the  natural  tendency  of 
such  a  virtue  or  such  a  vice  ;  he  is  well  apprized  that 
the  representation  of  some  of  these  things  may  convince 
the  understanding,  some  may  terrify  tht*  conscience, 
some  may  allure  the  slothful,  and  some  encourage  the 
despondmg  mind ;  he  observes  the  temper  of  his  hear- 
Q  2 


173  OF   THE   SCIENCIS5, 

ers,  or  of  any  particular  person  that  converses  with  him 
about  things  sacred,  and  he  judges  what  will  be  the  ef- 
fects of  each  representation  on  such  persons;  he  reviews 
and  recollects  what  have  been  the  effects  of  some  spe- 
cial parts  and  methods  of  his  ministry ;  and  by  a  careful 
survey  of  all  these,  he  attains  greater  degrees  of  skill  in 
his  sacred  employment. 

Mote. — In  all  these  cases,  we  must  distinguish  those 
causes  and  effects  which  are  naturally  and  necessarily 
connected  with  each  other,  from  those  which  have  only 
an  accidental  or  contingent  connexion.  Even  in  those 
causes  where  the  effect  is  but  contingent,  we  may  some 
times  arrive  at  a  very  high  degree  of  probability ;  yet 
we  cannot  arrive  at  such  a  certainty  as  where  the  causes 
operate  by  an  evident  and  natural  necessity,  and  the  ef- 
fects necessarily  follow  the  operation. 

See  more  on  this  subject.  Logic,  Part  II.  Chap  V. 
Section  7.  I 


CHAP.  XX. 

Of  the  Sciences^  and  their   Use  in  particular  l^rq- 
fessions, 

I.  THE  best  way  to  learn  any  science,  is  to  begin 
with  a  regular  system,  or  a  short  and  plain  scheme  of 
that  science,  well  drawn  up  into  a  narrow  compass,  o- 
mitting  the  deeper  and  more  abstruse  parts  of  it,  and 
that  also  under  the  conduct  and  instructioi*.  of  some  skil- 
ful teacher.  Systems  are  necessary  to  give  an  entire 
and  comprehensive  view  of  the  several  parts  of  any  sci- 
ence, which  may  have  a  iilhtual  influence  towards  the 
explication  or  proof  of  each  other ;  whereas,  if  a  man 
deals  always  and  only  in  essays  and  discourses  on  par- 
ticular parts  of  a  science,  he  will  never  obtain  a  distinc^ 
and  just  idea  of  the  whole,  and  may  perhaps  omit  some 
important  part  of  it,  after  seven  years  reading  of  such 
occasional  discourses. 

Bor  this  reason,  young  students  should  apply  them- 
selves to  their  gysten^s  much  more  than  pamphlets. 
That  man  is  never  so  fit  to  judge  of  particular  sub- 
jects relating  to  any  science,  who  has  never  taken  a  sur- 
vey of  the  whole. 

it  is  the  remark  of  an  ingenious  writer,  should  a  bar- 


AI7D  THEIR   VSm,  It^ 

barous  Indian,  who  had  never  seen  a  palace  or  a  ship, 
view  their  separate  and  disjointed  parts,  and  observe 
the  pillars,  doors,  windows,  cornices,  and  turrets  of  the 
one,  or  the  prow  and  stern,  the  ribs  and  masts,  the 
ropes  and  shrouds,  the  sails  and  tackle  of  the  other,  he 
would  be  able  to  form  but  a  very  lanme  and  dark  idea 
of  either  of  those  excellent  and  useful  inventions.  In 
like  manner,  those  who  contemplate  only  the  fragments 
or  pieces  broken  oft' from  any  science,  dispersed  in  short 
unconnected  discourses,  and  do  not  discern  their  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  and  how  they  may  be  adapted,  and 
by  their  union  procure  the  delightful  symmetry  of  a 
regular  scheme,  can  never  survey  an  entire  body  of 
truth,  but  must  always  view  it  as  deformed  and  dis- 
membered ;  while  their  ideas,  which  must  be  ever  in- 
distinct, and  often  repugnant,  will  lie  in  the  brain  un- 
sorted,  and  thrown  together  without  order  or  cohe- 
rence :  Such  is  the  knowledge  of  those  men  who  live 
upon  the  scraps  of  the  sciences. 

A  youth  of  genius  and  lively  imagination,  of  an  active 
and  forward  spirit,  may  form  within  himself  some  al- 
luring scenes  and  pleasing  schemes  in  the  beginning; 
of  a  science,  which  are  utterly  inconsistent  with  sofneof 
the  necessary  and  substantial  parts  of  it,  whidi  appear 
in  the  middle  or  the  end.  And  if  he  never  read  and 
pass  through  the  whole,  he  takes  up  and  is  satisfied 
with  his  own  hasty,  pleasing  schemes,  and  treasui-es 
these  errors  up  amongst  his  solid  acquisitions ;  whereas 
his  own  labour  and  study  farther  pursued,  would  have 
shewn  him  his  early  mistakes,  and  cured  him  of  his  self 
flattering  delusions. 

Hence  it  comes  to  pass,  that  we  have  so  many  half 
scholars  now  a  days,  and  there  is  so  much  confusion  and 
inconsistency  in  the  notions  and  opinions  of  some  per- 
sons, because  they  devote  their  hours  of  study  entirely 
to  short  essays  and  pamphlets,  and  cast  contempt  upon 
systems  under  a  pretence  of  greater  politeness; 
whereas  the  true  reason  of  this  contempt  of  systematic- 
al learning,  is  mere  laziness  and  want  of  judgment. 

II.  After  we  are  grown  well  acquainted  with  a  short 
system  or  compendium  of  a  science,  which  is  written  iu 
the  plainest  and  most  simple  manner,  it  is  then  proper 
to  read  a  large  regular  treatise  on  that  subject,  if  we 
design  a  complete  ^jLiiowIedge  and  cultivation  of  it;  and 
either  while  we  are  reading  this  largei*  system,  or  aftev 


180  OF  THE   SCIENCES, 

we  have  done  it,  then  occasional  discourses  and  essays 
upon  the  particular  subjects  and  parts  of  that  science 
may  be  read  with  tht*  greatest  profit;  for  in  these  es- 
says we  may  often  find  very  considerable  corrections 
and  improvements  of  what  these  compends,  or  even 
the  larger  systems  may  have  taught  us,  mingled  with 
some  mistakes. 

And  these  corrections  or  improvements  sliould  be  as 
remarks  adjoined  by  way  of  note  or  commentary  in 
their  proper  pUces,  and  superadded  to  the  regular 
trt^^tise  we  have  read.  Then  a  studious  and  judicious 
review  of  the  whole  will  give  us  a  tolerable  acquaint- 
ance with  That  science. 

III.  It  is  a  great  happiness  to  have  such  a  tutor,  or 
such  friends  and  companions  at  hand,  who  are  able  to 
inform  us  what  are  the  best  books  written  on  any  sci- 
ence, or  any  special  part  of  it.  For  want  of  this  advan- 
tag**,  manv  a  man  has  wasted  his  time  in  reading  over 
perhaps  some  whole  volumes,  and  learned  little  more 
b}  it  than  to  know  that  those  volumes  were  not  worth 
his  reading. 

IV.  As  for  the  languages,  they  are  certainly  best 
learned  in  the  younger  years  of  life.  The  memory  is 
then  most  empty  and  unfurnished,  and  ready  to  receive 
new  ideas  continually.  We  find  that  children,  in  two 
years  time  after  they  are  born,  learn  to  speak  their  na- 
tive tongue. 

V.  The  mere  abstracted  sciences,  which  depend 
more  upon  the  understanding  and  judgment,  and  which 
de-.;l  much  in  abstracted  ideas,  should  not  be  imposed 
upon  children  too  soon ;  such  are  l^ic,  metaphysics, 
ethics,  politics,  or  the  depths  and  difficulties  of  gram- 
mar and  criticism.  Yet  it  must  be  confessed,  the  first 
rudiments  of  grammar  are  necessary,  or  at  least  very 
convenient  to  b("  known,  when  a  youth  learns  a  new  lan- 
guage ;  and  some  general,  e^sy  principles  and  rules  of 
morality  and  divinity  are  needful,  in  order  to  teach  a 
child  his  duty  to  <^od  and  man ;  but  to  enter  far  into 
abstracted  reasonings  on  these  subjects  is  beyond  the 
capacity  of  children. 

VI.  There  are  several  of  the  sciences  that  will  more 
agreeably  employ  our  younger  years,  and  the  general 
parts  of  them  may  be  easily  taken  i:  by  boys.  The  first 
principles  and  the  easier  practices  of  arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, plain  trigonometry,  measuring  heights,  depthi, 


AND  THSIR  VS£.  181 

lengths,  distances,  Sec.  the  rudiments  of  geometry  artd 
astnmomy,  together  with  something  of  mechanics,  may- 
be easily  conveyed  into  the  minds  of  acute  young  per- 
sons from  nine  to  ten  years  old  and  upwanls. — These 
studies  may  be  entertaining  and  useful  to  young  ladies 
as  well  as  to  gentlemen,  and  to  all  those  who  are  bred 
up  to  the  learned  professions.  The  fair  sex  may  inter* 
niingle  those  with  the  operations  of  the  needle,  and  the 
knowledge  of  domestic  life.  Boys  may  be  taught  to 
join  them  with  their  rudiments  of  grammar,  and  their 
labour  in  the  languages.  And  even  those  who  never 
learn  any  language  but  their  mother  tongue,  may  be 
taught  these  sciences  with  lasting  benefit  in  early  days. 

That  this  may  be  done  with  ease  and  advantage,  take 
these  three  reasons : 

(1 .)  Because  they  depend  so  much  upon  schemes  and 
pumbers,  images,  lines,  and  figures,  and  sensible  things, 
that  the  imagination  or  fancy  will  greatly  assist  the  un- 
derstanding, and  render  the  knowledge  of  them  much 
more  easy. 

(2.)  These  studies  are  so  pleasant,  tliat  they  will 
make  the  dry  labour  of  learning  woixls,  phrases,  and 
languages,  more  tolerable  to  bovs  in  a  Latin  school,  by 
this  most  agreeable  mixture.  1  he  employment  of  y  outh 
in  these  studies,  will  tempt  them  to  neglect  many  of  the 
foolish  plays  of  childhood,  and  they  will  find  sweeter  en- 
tertainment for  themselves  and  their  leisure  hours,  by  a 
cultivation  of  these  pretty  pieces  c£  alluring  knowledge. 

(3.)  The  knowledge  of  these  parts  ot  science  are 
both  easy  and  worthy  to  be  retained  in  the  memory  by 
all  children  when  they  come  to  manly  years,  for  they 
are  useful  through  all  the  parts  of  human  life :  They 
tend  to  enlarge  tne  understanding  early,  and  to  give  a 
various  acquaintance  with  useful  subjects  betimes. 
And  surely  it  is  best,  as  far  as  possible,  to  train  up  chil- 
dren in  the  knowledge  of  those  things  which  they  should 
never  ioreet,  rather  than  to  let  them  waste  years  of 
life  in  trifles,  or  in  hard  words  which  are  not  worth  re- 
membering. 

And  here  by  the  way,  I  cannot  but  wonder  that  any 
author  in  our  age  should  have  attempted  to  teach  any 
of  the  exploded  physics  of  Descartes,  or  the  noble  in- 
ventions of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  his  hypothesis,  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  their  motions,  hi  his  doctrine  of 
light  and  colours,  and  other  parts  of  his  physiology,  or  to 


18^  OS  THE   SCIEN^C£S, 

iostruct  children  ip  the  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  the 
heavens,  earth,  and  planets,  without  any  figures  or  dia- 
grams. Is  it  possible  to  give  a  boy  or  a  young  lady  the 
ctear,distinGt,and  proper  apprehensions  of  these  things, 
without  lines  and  figures  to  describe  them  ?  Does  not 
their  understanding  want  the  aid  of  fancy  and  images 
to  convey  stronger  and  juster  ideas  of  them  to  the  in- 
most soul  ?  Or  do  they  imagine  that  youth  can  pene- 
trate into  all  these  beauties  and  artifices  of  nature, 
without  these  helps,  which  persons  of  maturer  age  find 
necessary  for  that  purpose  ?  I  would  not  willingly  name 
the  books,  because  some  of  the  writers  are  said  to  be 
gentlemen  of  excellent  acquirements. 

VII.  After  we  have  first  learnt  and  i^one  through  any 
of  those  arts  and  sciences  which  are  to  be  explained  by 
diagrams,  figures,  and  schemes ;  such  as  geometry, 
geography,  astronomy,  optics,  mechanics,  &c.  we  may 
best  preserve  them  in  memory,by  having  those  schemes 
and  figures  in  large  sheets  of  paper,  hanging  always 
before  the  eye  in  closets,  parlours,  halls,  chambers,  en- 
tries, staircases,  &c.  Thus  the  learned  images  will  be 
perpetually  impressed  on  the  brain»  and  will  keep  the 
learning  that  depends  upon  them  alive  and  fresh  m  the 
mind  through  the  growing  years  of  life :  the  mere  dia- 
grams and  figures  will  ever  recal  to  our  thoughts  those 
theorems,  problems,  and  corollaries,  which  have  been 
demonstrated  by  them. 

It  is  incredible  how  much  ^ography  may  be  learnt 
this  way  by  the  two  terrestrial  hemispheres,  and  by 
particular  maps  and  charts  of  the  coasts  and  countries 
of  the  earth,  happily  disposed  round  about  us.  Thus 
we  may  learn  also  the  constellations,  by  just  projections 
of  the  celestial  sphere,  hung  up  in  the  same  manner. 
And  I  must  confess,  for  the  bulk  of  learners  of  astrono- 
my, I  like  that  projection  of  the  stars  best,  which  in- 
cludes in  it  all  the  stars  of  our  horizon,  and  therefore  it 
reaches  to  the  38  J  degrees  of  southern  Utitude,  though 
its  centre  is  the  north  pole.  This  gives  us  a  better 
view  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  as  they  appear  every  night 
to  us ;  and  it  may  be  made  use  of  with  a  little  instruc- 
tion, and  with  ease,  to  serve  for  a  nocturnal,  and  shew 
the  true  hour  of  the  night. 

But  remember,  if  there  be  any  colouring  upon 
these  maps  r>r  projections,  it  should  be  laid  on  so  thin 
as  not  to  obscure  or  conceal  any  part  of  the  lines,  fig- 


AND   THEIR  USE.  183 

ures,  or  letters;  whereas  most  times  they  are  daubed 
so  thick  with  gay  and  ^larin,^  colours,  and  hung  up  s  i 
high  abovi'.  the  reach  of  the  eye  that  should  survey  and 
read  them,  as  though  their  only  design  were  to  make  a 
gaudy  show  upon  the  wail  and  ihey  hurg  there  mere- 
ly to  cover  the  naked  plaister  or  wainscot.  Those  sci- 
ences which  may  be  drawn  out  into  tables  may  also  be 
thus  hung  up  and  disposed  m  proper  places,  such  as 
brief  abstracts  of  history,  chronology,  &c.  and  indeed 
the  schemes  of  any  of  the  arts  or  sciences  may  be  ana- 
lized  in  a  sort  of  skeleton,  and  represented  upon  tables, 
■with  vanous  dependencies  and  connexions  of  their  seve- 
ral parts  and  subjects  that  belong  to  them.  Mr.  Solo- 
mon Lowe  has  happily  thrown  the  grammar  of  several 
languages  into  such  tables ;  and  a  frequent  review  of 
these  abstracts  and  epitomes  would  tend  much  to  im-' 
print  them  on  the  bram,  when  they  have  been  once  well 
learned  ;  this  would  keep  those  learned  traces  always 
open,  and  assist  the  weakness  of  a  labouring  memory. 
In  this  manner  may  a  scheme  of  the  scripture  history 
be  drawn  out,  and  perpetuate  those  ideas  in  the  mind 
with  which  our  daily  reading  furnishes  us. 

VIII.  Every  man  who  pretends  to  the  character  of  a 
scholar  should  attain  some general.and superficialideas 
of  most  or  all  the  sciences ;  for  there  is  a  certain  con- 
nexion among  the  various  parts  of  human  knowledge,  so 
that  some  notions  borrowed  from  any  one  science  may- 
assist  our  acquaintance  with  any  otlier,  either  by  way 
of  explication,  illustration,  or  proof;  though  there  are 
some  sciences  conjoined  by  a  much  nearer  affinity  thaa 
others. 

IX.  Let  those  parts  of  every  science  be  chiefly  studied 
^  at  first,  and  reviewed  afterwards,  which  have  a  more 

direct  tendency  to  assist  our  proper  professioi),  as  men, 
or  our  general  profession  as  Christians,  always  observ- 
ing what  we  ourselves  hnve  found  most  necessary  and 
useful  to  us  in  the  course  of  our  lives.  Age  and  expe- 
rience will  teach  us  to  judge  which  of  the  sciences,  and 
which  parts  of  them,  have  been  of  greatest  use.  and  are 
most  valuable  ;  but  in  younger  years  of  life  we  are  not 
sufficient  judges  of  this  matter,  and  therefore  should 
seek  advice  from  those  who  are  elder 

X.  There  are  three  learned  professions  among  us,  viz, 
divinity,  law,  and  medicine.  Though  every  man  who 
pretends  to  be  a  scholar  or  a  gentleman,  should  so  far 


184  OB  THE   SCIENCES, 

acquaint  himself  with  a  superficial  scheme  of  all  these 
sciences,  as  not  to  stand  amazed  like  a  mere  stranger 
^t  the  mention  of  the  common  subjects  that  belong  to 
them  ;  yet  there  is  no  necessity  for  every  m|ln  of  learn- 
ing to  enter  into  their  difficulties  and  deep  recesses,  nor 
to  climb  the  heights  to  which  some  others  have  arrived. 
The  knowledge  of  tliem  in  a  proper  measure  may  be 
happily  useful  to  eviery  profession,  not  only  becaiise  all 
arts  and  sciences  have  a  sort  of  communion  and  connex- 
ion with  each  other,  but  it  is  an  angelic  pleasure  to  grow 
in  knowledge,  it  is  a  matter  of  honour  and  esteem,  and 
renders  a  man  more  agreeable  and  acceptable  in  every 
company. 

But  let  us  survey  several  of  them  more  particularly, 
with  regard  to  the  learned-professions;  and  first  of  the 
mathematics. 

XI.  Though  I  have  so  often  commended  mathemat- 
ical studies,  and  particularly  the  speculations  of  arith- 
metic and  geometry,  as  a  means  to  hx  a  wavering  mind, 
to  beget  an  habit  of  attention,  and  to  improve  the  faculty 
of  reason ;  yet  I  would  by  no  means  be  understood  to 
recommend  to  all  a  pursuit  of  these  sciences  to  those  ex- 
tensive lengths  to  which  the  moderns  have  advanced 
them.  This  is  neither  necessary  nor  proper  for  any  stu- 
dents, but  those  few  who  shall  make  these  studies  their 
chief  profession  and  business  of  life,  or  those  gentlemen 
whose  capacities  and  turn  of  mind  are  suited  to  these 
studies,  and  have  all  manner  of  advantage  to  improve 
Id  them. 

The  general  principles  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geom- 
etry, and  trigonometry,  of  geography,  of  modern  astron- 
omy, mechanics,  statics,  and  optics,  have  their  valuable 
and  excellent  uses  not  only  for  the  exercise  and  improve- 
ment of  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  but  the  subjects  them- 
selves are  very  well  worth  our  knowledge  in  a  moderate 
degree,and  are  often  made  of  adminble  service  in  human 
life.  So  much  of  these  subjects  as  Dr.  Wells  has  gjven 
us  in  his  three  volumes,  entitled,  **  The  Young  Gentle- 
man*s  Mathematics**  is  richly  sufficient  for  the  greatest 
partof  scholars  or  gentlemen;  though  perhaps  there 
mav  be  some  single  treatise,  at  least  some  of  these 
■  saibjects,  which  may  be  better  written  and  more  useful 
to  be  perused,  than  those  of  that  learned  author. 
;  But  a  penetration  into  the  abstruse  difficulties 
sin^  depths  of  modern  alg«bra  and  fluxions^the  various 


And  thsir  usb.  185 

methods  of  quadratures,  the  mensuration  of  all  manner 
of  curves,  an  1  their  'Yiutual  transfoi-mation ,  and  twenty 
other  things  that  some  modern  mathematicians  deal  in, 
are  not  worth  the  labour  of  those  who  design  either  of 
the  three  learned  professions,  divinity,  law,  or  physic, 
as  the  business  of  life.  This  is  the  sentence  of  a  consid* 
erable  mnn,  viz.  Dr.  George  Cheyne,  who  was  a  very 
good  proficient  and  writer  on  these  subjects :  He  affirms, 
that  they  are  but  barren  and  airy  studies  for  a  man 
entirely  to  live  upon,  and  that  for  a  man  to  indulge  and 
riot  in  these  exquisitely  bewitching  contemplations,  is 
only  proper  for  public  professors,  or  for  gentlemen  of 
estates,  who  have  a  strong  propensity  this  way,  and  a 
genius  fit  to  cultivate  them. 

But,  say  s  he,  to  own  a  gseat  but  grievous  truth.though 
they  may  quicken  and  sliarpen  the  invention,  strength- 
en and  extend  the  imagination,  improve  and  refine  the 
reasoning  faculties,  and  are  of  use  both  in  the  necessary 
and  the  luxurious  refinement  of  the  mechanical  arts  ; 
yet,  having  no  tendency  to  rectify  the  will,  to  sweeten 
the  temper,  or  mend  the  heart,  they  often  leave  a  stiff- 
ness, a  positiveness  and  sufficiency  on  w^eak  minds, 
which  is  much  more  pernicious  to  society,  and  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  great  end  of  our  being,  than  all  their  ad- 
vantages can  recompense.  He  adds  further,  concerning 
the  launching  into  the  depth  of  these  studies,  that  they 
are  apt  to  beget  a  secret  and  refined  pride,  and  over- 
weenmg  and  overbearing  vanity,  the  most  opposite 
temper  to  the  true  spirit  of  the  gospel.  This  tempts 
them  to  presume  on  a  kind  of  omniscience  in  respect  to 
their  fellow  creatures,  who  have  not  risen  to  thci»*  ele- 
vation ;  nor  are  they  fit  to  be  trusted  in  the  hands  of  any 
but  those  who  have  acquired  a  humble  heart,  a  lowly 
spirit,  and  a  sober  and  teachable  temper.  See  Dr. 
Chevne's  preface  to  his  Essay  on  Health  and  long  Life, 

XII.  Some  of  the  practical  parts  of  geometry,astron-. 
omy,  dialling,  optics,  statics,  mechanics,  &c.  may  be 
agreeable  entertainments  and  amusements  to  students 
in  every  profession,  at  leisure  hours,  if  they  enjoy  such 
circumstances  of  life  as  to  furnish  them  with  convenien- 
ces for  this  sort  of  improvement ;  but  let  them  take 
great  care  lest  they  entrench  upon  more  necessary  em- 
ployments, and  so  fall  under  the  charge  and  censure  of 
wisted  time. 
Yet  I  cannot  help  making  this  observation,  that  where 
R 


18&  OB  THS  SGIEireES, 

students,  or  indeed  any  young  gentleman,  have  in  their 
early  yeara  made  themselves  masters  of  a  variety  of 
elegant  problems  in  the  mathematical  circle  of  knowl- 
edge, and  gained  the  most  easy,  neat,  and  entertaining 
experiments  in  natural  philosophy,  with  some  short  and 
agi'eeable  speculations  or  practices  in  nny  other  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  they  have  hereby  laid  a  fou  idation 
for  the  esteem  and  love  of  mankind  among  those  with 
whom  tliey  converse,  in  higher  or  lower  ranks  of  life  ; 
they  have  been  often  guarded  by  this  means  from  the 
temptation  of  guilty  pleasures,  and  h^ve  sectired  both 
their  own  hours  and  the  hours  of  their  companions  from 
running  to  waste  in  sauntering  and  trifles,  and  from  a 
thousand  impertinences  in  silly  dialogues.  Gaming  and 
drinking,  and  many  criminal  and  foolish  scenes  of  talk 
and  action,  have  been  prevented  by  these  innocent  and 
improving  elegancies  of  knowledge. 

XIII.  History  is  a  necessary  study  in  the  supreme 
place  for  gentlemen  who  deal  in  politics.  The  govern- 
ment of  nations,  and  distressful  and  desolating  events 
which  have  in  all  ages  attended  the  mistakes  of  politi- 
cians, should  be  ever  present  on  their  minds,  to  warn 
them  to  avoid  the  like  conduct.  Geography  and  chro- 
nology, which  precisely  inform  us  of  the  place  and  time 
where  such  transactions  or  events  happened,  are  the 
eyes  of  history,  and  of  absolute  necessity  in  some  meas- 
ure to  attend  it. 

But  history,  so'f  ar  as  relates  to  the  affairs  of  the  Bible, 
is  ss  necessary  to  divines  as  to  gentlemen  of  any  profes- 
sion. It  htlp.s  us  to  reconcile  m  nny  difficulties  in  script- 
ure, and  demonstrates  a  Divine  Providence.  Dr.  Pri- 
deaiix's  Connexion  of  the  Old  and  New  I'estament  is 
ac  excellent  treatise  of  this  kind. 

XIV.  Among  the  smaller  histories,  biography  or  the 
raemoirs  of  the  lives  of  great  and  good  men,  has  a  high- 
rank  in  my  esteem,  as  woiihy  of  the  perusal  of  every ' 
person  who  devotes  himself  to  the  study  of  divinity. 
Therein  we  frequently  find  our  holy  religion  reduced  to 
practice,  and  many  parts  of  Christianity  shining  with  a 
transcendant  and' exemplary  light.  We  learn  there 
how  deeply  sensible  great  and  good  men  have  been  of 
tie  ruins  of  human  nature,  by  the  first  apostasy  from 
God,  and  how  they  have  toiled  and  laboured,  and  turn-^ 
ed  themselves  on  all  sidea,  to  seek  a  recovery,  in  vain, 
till  they  haye  found  the  gospel  of  Christ  an  all  sufficient 


Airo  TBBIX,  VSB.  1^7 

relief.  We  are  there  furnished  with  effectual  «nd  un- 
answerable evidences  that  the  religion  of  Jesus,  with  all 
its  self  denials,  virtue^  and  devotions,  is  a  very  practica- 
ble thing,  since  it  hab  been  carri' d  to  such  a  degree  erf 
honour  by  some  wise  and  holy  men.  VVe  have  been 
there  assured,  that  the  pleasures  and  satisfactions  of  the 
Christian  hfe,  in  its  present  practice  and  future  hopes, 
are  not  the  mere  raptures  of  fancy  and  enthusiasm, 
when  some  of  the  strictest  professors  of  reason  have 
added  the  sanction  of  their  testimony. 

In  short,  the  lives  or  memoirs  of  persons  of  piety,  well 
written,  have  been  of  infinite  and  unspeaknble  advan- 
tage to  the  disciples  and  professors  of  Christianity,  and 
have  given  us  admirable  mstances  and  rules  how  to  re- 
sist every  temptation  of  a  soothing  or  frowning  world, 
how  to  practise  important  and  dimcult  duties,  how  to 
love  God  aboveball,  and  to  love  our  neighbour  as  our- 
selves, to  live  by  the  faith  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  to  die 
in  the  same  faith,  in  sure  and  certain  hope  of  a  resur- 
rection to  eternal  life. 

XV.  Remember  that  logic  and  ontology  or  metaphys- 
ics are  necessaiy  sciences,  though  they  have  been  great- 
ly r. bused  by  scholastic  writers,  who  have  professed  to 
teach  them  in  former  ages.  Not  only  all  students, w he tl^- 
er  they  design  the  profession  of  theology,  law  or  physic, 
but  all  gentlemen  should  at  least  acquire  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  them.  The  introduction  of  so  many  sub* 
tleties,  nice  distinctions,  and  insignificant  terms,  without 
clear  ideas,  has  brought  a* great  part  of  the  logic  and 
metaphysics  of  the  schools  into  just  contempt.  Their 
Ic^ic  has  appeared  the  mere  art  of  wrangling,  and  their 
metaphysics  the  skill  of  splitting  an  hair,  of  distinguish- 
ing without  a  difference,  and  of  putting  long  hard  names 
upon  common  things,  and  sonietimes  upon  a  confused 
jumble  of  things,  which  have  no  clear  ideas  belonging 
to  them. 

It  is  certain  that  an  unknown  heap  of  trifles  and  im- 
pertinences have  been  intermingled  with  these  useful 
parts  of  learning,  upon  which  acmunt  many  persons  in 
this  polite  age,  have  made  it  a  part  of  their  breeding  to 
throw  a  jest  upon  them ;  and  to  rally  ^hem  well  has 
been  esteemed  a  more  valuable  talent  than  to  under- 
stand them. 

But  this  is  running  into  wide  extren^es;  nor  ought 
these  parlw  of  sciience  to  be  abandoned  by  the  wise,  be^ 


18S  OF  THE   SCIENCES, 

cause  some  writers  of  former  ages  have  played  the  fool 
•with  them.  True  logic  teaches  us  to  use  our  reason 
well,  and  brings  a  light  into  the  understanding ;  true 
metaphysics  or  ontology,  casts  a  light  upon  all  the  ob- 
jects of  thought  and  meditation,  by  ranging  every  being, 
with  all  the  absolute  and  relative  perfections  and 
properties,  modes,  and  attendants  of  it,  in  proper  ranks 
or  classes,  and  thereby  it  discovers  the  various  relations 
of  things  to  each  other,  and  what  are  their  general  ov 
special  differences  from  each  other,  wherein  a  great 
part  of  human  knowledge  consists.  And  by  this  means 
It  greatly  CMiduces  to  instruct  us  in  method,  or  the  dis- 


position of  every  thing  into  its  proper  rank  or  class  of 
beings,  attributes,  or  acticms. 
XVI.  If  I  were  to  say  any  thing  of  natural  philosophy, 


I  would  venture  to  lay  down  my  sentiments  thus: 

I  think  it  must  needs  be  very  usefuljto  a  divine  to  un- 
derstand something  of  natural  science.  The  mere  na^ 
tural  history  of  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes,  of  insects,  trees, 
and  plants,as  well  as  of  meteors.such  as  clouds, thunder, 
lightnings,  snow,  hail,  frost,  &c.  in  all  their  common  or 
uncom.mon  appearances,  may  be  of  considerable  use  to 
one  who  studies  divinity,  to  give  him  a  wider  and  more 
dehghtful  view  of  the  works  of  God,  and  to  furnish  him 
with  lively  and  happy  images  and  ntietaphors  drawn 
from  the  large  volume  of  nature,  to  display  and  repre- 
sent the  things  of  God  and  religion,  in  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  affecting  colours. 

And  if  the  nuere  history  of  these  things  be  useful  for 
this  purprse,surely  it  will  be  of  further  advantage  to  be 
led  into  the  reasons,  causes,  and  effects  of  these  natural 
objects  and  appearances,  and  to  know  the  established 
laws  of  nature,  matter  and  motion,  whereby  the  great 
God  carries  on  his  extensive  works  of  providence  from 
the  creation  to  this  day. 

I  confess  the  old  Arisjotlean  scheme  of  this  science 
will  teach  us  but  very  Uctle  that  is  worth  knowing.about 
these  matters ;  but  the  later  writers,  who  have  explain- 
ed nature  and  its  operations  in  a  more  sensible  and  geo- 
metrical manner,  are  well  worth  the  moderate  study  of 
a  divine  ;  especially  those  who  have  followed  the  prin- 
ciples of  that  wonder  of  our  age  and  nation,  Sir  Isaac 
Newton.  There  is  much  pleasure  and  entertainment, 
;as  well  as  real  profit,to  be  derived  from  those  admira- 
ble improvements  which  have  been  adv^ced  in  uatur  , 


▲  N»  TffSm  V6E.  1%9 

al  philosophy  in  late  years,  by  the  assistance  of  mathe- 
matical leaming,as  well  as  from  the  multitude  of  exper- 
iments which  have  been  made,  and  are  still  makin^^,  ia 
natural  subjects. 

XVII.  This  is  a  science  which  indeed  eminently  be- 
longs to  the  phyacian;  he  ought  to  know  all  the  parts 
of  human  nature,  what  are  the  sound  and  healthy  func- 
tions of  an  animal  body,  and  what  are  the  distempers 
and  dangers  which  attend  it ;  he  should  also  be  furnish- 
ed with  a  large  knowledge  of  plants  and  minerals,  and 
every  thing  which  makes  up  the  materia  medkat  or  the 
ingredients  of  which  medicines  are  made  ;  and  many 
other  things  in  natural  philosophy  are  subservient  to  his 
profession,  as  well  as  the  kindred  art  of  surgery. 

XVIII.  Questions  about  the  powers  and  operations  of 
oature  may  also  sometimes  come  into  the  lawyer's  cog- 
nizance, especially  such  as  relate  to  assaults,  wounds, 
murders,  &c.  I  remember  I  have  read  the  trial  of  a 
man  for  murder  by  drowning,  wherein  the  judge  on  the 
bendi  heard  several  arguments  concerning  the  lungs 
being  filled  or  not  filled  with  water,  by  inspiration  or  ex- 
piration, &c.  to  all  which  he  professed  himself  so  much 
a  stranger,  a»did  not  do  him  any  great  honour  in  public. 

XIX.  But  I  think  no  divine,  who  can  oljtain  it,  sliould 
be  utterly  destitute  of  this  knowledge.  By  the  assistance 
of  this  study,  he  will  be  better  able  to  survc  y  the  various 
monuments  of  creating  wisdom  in  the  heavens, the  earth 
and  the  seas,  with  wonder  and  worship ;  and  by  the  use 
of  a  moderate  skill  in^this  science.he  may  communicate 
90  much  of  the  astonishing  works  of  God,  in  the  fornfta- 
tion  and  government  of  this  visible  world,  and  so  far  in- 
struct many  of  his  hearers,  as  may  assist  the  transfusicfti 
of  the  same  ideas  into  their  minds,  and  raise  them  to  the 
same  delightful  exercises  of  devotion.  O  Lord,  how 
manifold  are  thy  works !  In  wisdom  hast  thou  made 
them  all !  They  are  sought  out  by  all  that  have  pleas- 
ure in  them. 

Besides,  it  is  worthy  of  ihtf  notice  of  every  student  in 
theology,  that  he  ought  to  have  some  acquair»tance  with 
the  principles  of  nature,  that  he  may  judge  a  little  how 
far  they  will  go ;  so  that  he  may  not  be  imposed  upon 
to  take  every  strange  appearance  in  nature  for  a  mira- 
cle, that  he  may  reason  the  clearer  upon  this  subject, 
that  he  may  better  confirm  the  miracles  of  Moses  and 
of  Christ,  nor  yield  up  his  faith  to  any  pretences  of  pro- 
R  2 


190  OE  THE   SCIENCES, 

digy  and  wonder,  which  are  either  the  occasional  and 
uncommon  operations  of  the  elements,  or  the  crafty 
sleights  of  men  well  skilled  in  philosophy  and  mechanic- 
al operations  to  delude  the  simple. 

XX.  The  knowledge  also  of  animal  nature,  and  o£ 
the  rational  soul  of  man,  and  the  mutual  influence  of 
these  two  ingredients  of  our  composition  upon  each  oth- 
er, is  worthy  the  study  of  a  divine.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  persons  of  this  character  and  office,to  judge 
now  far  the  animal  powers  have  influence  upon  such  and 
such  particular  appearances  and  practices  of  mankind  ; 
how  far  the  appetites  or  passions  of  human  nature  are 
owing  to  the  flesh  and  blood,or  to  the  mind ;  how  far  they 
may  be  moderated,  and  how  far  they  ought  to  be  sub- 
dued ;  and  what  are  the  happiest  methods  of  obtaining 
these  ends.  By  this  science  also  we  may  be  better  in- 
formed how  far  these  passions  or  appetites  are  lawful, 
and  how  far  they  are  criminal,  by  considering  how  far 
they  are  subject  to  the  power  of  the  will,  and  how 
far  they  may  be  changed,  and  coxrected  by  our  watch- 
fulness, care  and  diligence. 

It  comes  also  very  properly  under  the  cognisance  of 
this  profession,  to  be  able  in  some  measure  to  determine 
questions  which  may  arise  relating  to  real  inspiration, 
or  prophecy,  to  wild  enthusiasm,  to  fits  of  a  convulsive 
kind,  to  melancholy  or  frenzy,  &c.  and  what  direc- 
tions are  proper  to  be  given  concerning  any  appearan- 
ces of  this  nature. 

XXI.  Next  to  the  knowledge*  of  natural  things,  and 
acquaintance  with  the  human  nature  and  constitution, 
which  is  made  up  of  soul  and  body,  I  think  that  natural 
religion  properly  takes  its  place.  This  consisis  of  these 
two  paits,  viz.  (1.)  The  speculative  or  contemplative, 
which  is  the  knowledge  of  God  in  his  various  perfec- 
tions, and  in  his  relations  to  his  rational  creatures,  so 
far  as  may  be  known  by  the  light  of  nature,  which 
heretofore  used  to  be  called  the  second  part  of  meta- 
physics. It  includes  also.  (2.)  That  which  is  practical 
or  active,  that  is,  the  knowledge  of  the  several  duties 
which  arise  from  our  relation  to  God,  and  our  relation 
to  our  fellow  creatures.and  the  proper  conduct  and  gov- 
ernment of  ourselves ;  this  has  been  used  to  be  called 
ethics,  or  moral  philosophy. 

XXII.  The  knowledge  of  these  things  is  proper  for 
3|11  men  oflearnb^  i  not  only  because  it  teaches  them  to 


AND  THEIR  USE.  191 

obtain  just  views  of  the  several  parts  of  revealed  religion 
and  of  Christianity,  which  are  built  upon  them,  but  be- 
cause every  branch  of  natural  religion  and  of  moral  duty- 
is  contained,  and  necessarily  implied,  in  all  the  revealed 
religions  that  ever  God  prescribed  to  the  world.  We 
may  well  suspect  that  religion  does  not  come  from  God, 
which  renounces  any  part  of  natural  duty. 

Whether  mankind  live  under  the  dispensation  of  the 
patriarchs,  or  of  Moses,  or  the  prophets,  or  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  still  we  are  bound  to  know  the  one  true 
God,  and  to  practise  all  that  adoration  and  reverence, 
all  that  love  to  him,  that  faith  in  his  perfections,  with 
that  obedience  and  submission  to  his  will,  which  natural 
religion  requires.  We  are  still  bound  to  exercise  that 
justice,  truth  and  goodness  towards  our  neighbours,  that 
restraint  and  moderation  of  our  own  appetites  artd  pas- 
sions, and  that  regular  behaviour  towards  ourselves  and 
all  our  fellow  creatures  around  us,  which  moral  philos- 
ophy teaches.  There  is  no  sort  of  revealed  religion  that 
will  dispense  with  these  natural  obligations;  and  a  hap- 
py acquaintance  with  the  several  appetites,  inchnations, 
and  passions  of  human  nature,  and  the  best  methods  to 
rule  and  restrain,  to  direct  and  govern  them,  are  our 
constant  business,  and  ought  to  be  our  everlasting  study. 

Yet  I  would  lay  down  this  caution,  viz.  That  since  stu- 
dents are  instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God 
in  their  lectures  on  Christianity,  and  since  among  the 
Christian  duties  they  are  also  taught  all  the  moral  dic- 
tates of  the  light  of  nature,  or  a  complete  scheme  of  eth- 
ics, there  is  no  absolute  necessity  of  learning  these  two 
parts  of  natural  religion,  as  distinct  sciences,  separate 
and  by  themselves ;  but  still  it  is  of  great  importance  for 
a  tutor,  while  he  is  reading  to  his  pupils  these  parts  of 
the  Christian  religion,  to  give  them  notice  how  far  the 
light  of  nature  or  mere  reason  will  instruct  us  in  these 
doctrines  and  duties,  and  how  far  we  are  obliged  to  di- 
vine revelation  and  scripture,  for  clearing  up  and  estab- 
lishing the  firm  foundations  of  the  one,  for  affording  us 
superior  motives  aud  powers  to  practise  the  other,  for 
raising  them  to  more  exalted  degrees,  and  building  so 
glorious  a  superstructure  upon  them. 

XXIII.  The  study  of  natural  religion,  viz.  The  knowl. 
edge  of  God  and  the  rules  of  virtue  and  piety  as  far  as 
they  are  discovered  by  the  light  of  nature,  is  needful  in- 
deed to  prove  the  truth  of  divine  revelation  or  scripture 


192  OK  THE  SCIENCES. 

in  the  most  effectual  manner :  but  after  the  divine  au- 
thority of  scripture  is  established, that  will  be  a  very  suf- 
ficient spring  from  whence  the  bulk  of  mankind  may 
derive  their  knowledge  of  divinity,  or  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, in  order  to  their  own  present  £^th  and  practice, 
and  their  future  and  eternal  happiness.  Iq  this  sense 
theology  is  a  science  necessary  for  every  one  that  hopes 
for  the  favour  of  God,and  the  felicity  of  another  world ; 
and  it  is  of  infinitely  more  importance  than  any  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  which  belong  to  any  of  the  learned  pro- 
fessions here  on  earth. 

XXIV,  Perhaps  it  will  be  thought  necessary  I  should 
say  something  concerning  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  or 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations. 

If  we  would  speak  with  great  justness  and  propriety, 
the  civil  law  signifies  the  peculiar  law  of  each  state, 
country,  or  city  ;  but  what  we  now  a  days  usually  mean 
by  the  civil  law,  is  a  body  of  laws  composed  out  of  the 
best  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  laws,  and  which  was  in 
the  main  received  and  observed  through  all  the  Roman 
dominions  for  above  twelve  hundred  years. 

The  Romans  took  the  first  grounds  of  this  law  from 
what  they  call  the  twelve  tables, which  were  the  abridg- 
ments of  the  laws  of  Solon  at  Athens,  and  oi  the  other 
cities  of  Greece  famous  for  knowledge  and  wisdom  ;  to 
which  they  added  their  own  ancient  customs  of  the  city 
of  Rome,  and  the  laws  which  were  made  there.  These 
written  laws  were  subject  to  various  interpretations, 
whence  controversies  daily  arising,they  were  determin- 
ed by  the  judgment  of  the  learned ;  and  these  determin- 
atictfis  were  what  they  first  called  Jus  Czvi/e.— All  this 
by  degrees  grew  to  a  vast  number  of  volumes  ;  and 
therefore  the  Emperor  Justinian  commanded  his  chan- 
cellor Tribonian  to  reduce  them  to  a  perfect  body,  and 
this  is  called  the  body  of  the  civil  law. 

XXV.  But  that  which  is  of  most  importance  for  all 
learned  men  to  be  acquainted  with,is  the  law  of  nature, 
or  the  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  amoi  g  mankind, 
whether  it  be  transacted  between  single  persons  or  com- 
munities, so  far  as  common  reason  and  tlie  light  of  na- 
ture dictates  and  directs.  This  is  what  Puffendorff  calls 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations,  as  will  appear  if  you  con- 
sult Sect.  3.  Chap.  III.  of  that  most  valuable  folio  he  has 
written  on  the  subject ;  which  is  well  worthy  the  study 
cf  every  man  of  learning,  particularly  lawyers  and  d|:» 


AND  THEIR   17SE.  193 

vines,  together  with  other  treatises  on  the  same  them  e. 

If  any  question  proposed  relate  to  right  and  property, 
and  justice  between  man  and  man,  in  any  polite  and  civ- 
ilized country, though  it  must  be  adjudged  chiefly  accord, 
ing  to  the  particular  statutes  and  laws  ot  that  country, 
yet  the  knowledge  ot  the  law  of  nature  will  very  consid- 
erably assist  the  luwyer  and  the  civil  judge  in  the  deter- 
mination thereof.  And  this  knowledge  will  be  of  great 
use  to  divines,  not  only  in  deciding  of  cases  of  conscience 
among  men,  and  answering  any  difficult  inquiries  which 
may  be  proposed  to  them  on  this  subject,but  it  will  great- 
ly assist  them  also  in  their  studies  relating  to  the  law  of 
God,  and  the  performance  or  violation  thereof,  the  na- 
ture of  duty  and  sin>  rewards  and  punishments. 

XXVI.  I  have  spoken  something  of  the  languages 
before,  but  let  me  here  resume  the  subject,  and  put  in  a 
few  thoughts  about  those  studies  which  are  wont  to  be 
called  philological ;  such  as  history,  languages,  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  poesy,  and  criticism. 

An  acquaintance  witli  some  of  the  learned  languages 
at  least,  is  necessary  for  all  the  three  learned  professions. 

XXVil.  The  lawyers,  who  have  the  least  need  of 
foreign  tongues,  ought  to  understand  Latin.  During 
many  ages  past,  very  important  matters  in  the  law  were 
always  written  and  managed  in  that  language  by  the 
lawyers,  as  prescripticns  in  medicine  by  the  physicians, 
and  citations  of  the  scriptures  in  divinity  were  always 
made  »n  Latin  by  the  divines.  Pravers  also  were  ordain- 
ed to  be  said  publicly  and  privateh  in  the  Roman  tongue; 
pater  iio&ters  and  ave  marias  were  half  the  devotions  of 
those  ages.  These  cruel  imp(>sitions  upon  the  people 
w«iul(l  not  suffer.them  to  read  in  their  own  mother  tongue 
what  was  done,  either  to  or  tor  their  own  souls,  their 
bodies,  or  their  estaies.  I  am  ready  to  suspect  this  was 
all  owing  to  the  craft  and  policy  of  the  priesthood  and 
church  of  Rrme,  which  endeavoured  to  aggrandize 
themselves,  and  exalt  their  (.wn  profession  into  a  sove- 
reign tyranny,  and  to  make  niere  slaves  of  the  laity  a- 
mong  mankind,  by  keeping  them  in  utter  ignorance, 
darkness,  and  dependence.  And  they  were  willing  to 
compound  the  matter  with  the  physicians  and  the  law- 
yers, and  allow  then?  a  small  share  in  this  tyranny  over 
the  populace,  to  maintain  their  own  supreme  dominion 
over  all. 

I3ut   we  thank  God  the  world  is  grown  something 


194  9Jt  THE  BCIENCSS, 

wiser  ;  >ncl  of  late  years  the  British  Parliament  has  been 
pleased  to  give  rehet  from  that  bondage  in  matters  re- 
lating to  the  law  also,  as  in  the  age  of  the  Reformatiai 
we  were  delivered  from  saying  our  prayers  in  Latin, 
from  being  bound  to  read  the  word  of  God  in  a  tongue 
unknown  to  the  people,  and  from  living  in  everlasting 
subjection  to  the  clergy  iA  matters  of  this  life,  and  tiie 
life  to  come* 

But  to  return  :  There  are  still  so  many  forms  of  pro^ 
ceedings  in  judicature,  and  things  called  by  Latin  names 
in  the  pr.'tessions  of  the  law,  and  so  many  barbarous 
words  with  Latin  terminations,  that  it  is  necessary  law- 
yers should  understand  this  language.  Some  acquaint- 
ance also  with  the  old  French  tongue  is  needful  tor  the 
same  persons  and  professions,since  the  tenures  of  Lyttle- 
ton,  which  are  a  sort  of  Bible  to  the  gentlemen  of  the 
long  robe,  were  written  in  that  language;  and  this  tongue 
has  been  interwoven  in  some  forms  of  the  EngUsh  law, 
from  the  days  of  William  the  Conqueror,  who  came 
from  Normandy  in  France. 

XXVII I.  Physicians  should  be  skilled  in  the  Greek  as 
well  as  in  the  Latin,  because  their  great  master  Hippoc- 
rates wrote  in  that  tongue,  and  his  writings  are  still  of 
good  value  and  use.  A  multitude  of  the  names,  both  of 
the  parts  of  the  body,  of  diseases,  and  of  medicines,  are 
derived  from  the  Greek  language ;  and  there  are  many 
excellent  books  of  physic,  both  in  the  theoretical  ana 
practical  parts  of  it,  which  are  delivered  to  the  woild  in 
the  Roman  tongue ;  and  of  which  that  profession  should 
not  be  ignorant 

XXIX.  Such  as  intend  the  study  of  theology  should 
be  well  acquainted  also  with  the  Latin,  because  it  has 
been  for  many  hundred  years  the  language  of  the  schools 
of  learning ;  their  disputations  are  generally  limited  to 
that  language,  and  many  and  excellent  books  of  divini- 
ty must  be  entirely  concealed  from  the  students,  unless 
they  are  acquainted  with  Latin  authors. 

But  those  that  design  the  sacred  profession  of  theolo-* 
cy,  should  make  it  their  labour  of  chief  importance  to 
Be  very  conversant  with  their  Bibles,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New-Testament ;  and  this  requires  some  knowl- 
edge of  those  original  languages,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  i 
in  which  the  scriptures  were  written.  All  that  willj 
pursue  these  studies  with  honour,  should  be  able  to  read 
Cie  Old  Testament  tolerably  in  the  Hebrew  tongue ;  at 


AND  THEIR  USE.  19& 

leait  the  J'  should  be  so  far  acquainted  with  it,  as  to  find 
out  the  sense  of  a  text  by  the  help  of  a  dictionary.  But 
scarce  any  man  should  be  thought  worthy  ot  the  name  of 
a  solid  divine,  or  a  skilful  teaclier  of  the  gospel,  in  these 
days  of  light  and  liberty,  unless  he  has  pretty  good 
knowledge  of  the  Greek,  since  all  the  important  points 
of  the  Christian  religion  are  derived  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament, which  was  first  written  in  that  language. 

XXX.  As  for  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  tongues,  if  one 
divine  in  thirty,  or  in  three  hundred,  travel  far  into  these 
regions,  it  is  enough.  A  few  learned  men  skilled  in 
these  languages  will  make  sufficient  remarks  upon  them 
for  the  service  of  the  whole  Cb.ristian  world ;  which  re- 
marks may  sometimes  happen  to  be  of  use  to  those  di- 
vines who  are  unacquainted  with  them  in  reading  the 
fiible.  But  the  advantage  of  these  tongues  is  not  of  so 
great  importance  as  it  has  been  too  often  represented. 
My  reader  will  agree  with  me,  when  he  considers  that 
the  chief  uses  of  them  are  these: 

The  Arabic  is  a  language  which  hlassome  kindred  and 
affinity  to  the  Hebrew,  and  perhaps  we  may  now  and 
then  guess  at  the  sense  of  some  uncommon  and  doubtful 
Hebrew  word,  which  is  found  but  once  or  twice  in  the 
Bible,  by  its  supposed  affinity  to  the  Arabic ;  but  what- 
ever conjectures  may  be  made  by  some  kindred  of  a 
Hebrew  word  to  an  Arabic  root,  yet  there  is  no  certain- 
ty to  be  gathered  from  it ;  for  even  words  of  the  same 
language,  which  are  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  same 
theme  or  primitive,  will  give  us  but  very  doubtful  and 
sorry  information  conceraing  the  true  sense  of  kindred 
words  which  spring  from  tlie  same  theme. 

Let  me  give  a  plain  instance  or  two  of  this  uncertain- 
ty. The  word  stra^f^s  signifies  slaughter ;  stratum  is 
Latin  for  a  bed;  s^ramen  is  straw ;  and  straguium  is 
a  quilt  or  coverlet :  They  are  all  drawn  and  derived 
from  sternoy  which  signifies  to  throw  down,  to  kill,  or  to 
spread  abroad.  Let  the  critics  tell  me  what  certain 
sense  they  could  put  upon  either  of  these  four  words  by 
their  mere  cognation  with  each  other,or  their  derivatioa 
from  one  common  verb.  Again,  who  can  teli  me  the 
certain  meaning  and  precise'idea  of  the  word  honest  in 
English,  and  assure  me  that  it  signifies  a  man  of  integ- 
rity, justice,  and  probity,  though  it  is  evidently  derived 
from  honestus  in  Latin  ?  Whereas  honeatus  has  a  very 
different  idea,  and  signifies  a  man  of  some  figure  in  the 


196  OS  TSE  SClEJirCE^^ 

world,  or  a  man  of  honour.  Let  any  man  judge  thea 
how  little  service  toward  explaining  the  Hebrew  tongue 
can  be  furnished  from  all  the  languag?  of  Arabia.  Sure- 
ly a  great  part  of  the  long  learned  fatigues  and  tiresome 
travels  of  men  through  this  country,  is  almost  vain  and 
useless  to  make  the  Hebrew  Bible  better  understood. 

As  for  the  Syriac  language,  it  is  granted  there  may 
be  some  small  advantage  drawn  from  the  knowledge  of 
it,  because  there  is  a  very  ancient  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  that  tongue ;  and  perhaps  this  may  some- 
times give  a  proper  and  apposite  meaning  to  a  difficult 
and  doubtful  text,  and  offer  a  fair  hint  for  recovering  the 
true  meaning  of  the  scripture  from  the  perverse  glosses 
of  other  writers.  But  there  are  several  commentators 
and  lexicographers  who  have  been  acquainted  with  the 
Syriac  language;  and  have  given  us  the  chief  of  these 
hints  in  their  writings  on  scripture. 

And  after  all,  since  none  of  these  assistances  can  yield 
us  a  sufficient  proof  of  a  true  interpretation,  and  give 
a  certain  sense  of  a  text,  who  would  be  persuaded 
to  waste  any  great  number  of  his  better  hours  in  such 
dry  studies,  and  in  labours  of  so  little  profit  ? 

XXXI.  The  Chaldean  language  indeed  is  much  near- 
er to  the  Hebrew,  and  it  is  proper  for  a  divine  to  have 
some  acquaintance  with  it,  because  there  are  several 
verses  or  chapters  of  Ezra  and  Daniel  which  are  writ- 
ten in  that  language ;  and  the  old  Jewish  targums  or 
commentaries,  which  are  written  in  the  Chaldean  tongue, 
mav  sometimes  happen  to  cast  a  little  light  upon  a  doubt- 
ful scripture  of  the  Old  Testament. 

But  it  must  be  still  owned,  that  the  knowledge  of  these 
eastern  tongues  does  not  deserve  to  be  magnified  to  such 
a  degree  as  some  of  the  proficients  in  them  have  indulg- 
ed ;  wherein  they  have  carried  matters  beyond  all  rea- 
son and  justice,  since  scarce  any  of  the  most  important 
subjects  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  and  the  way  of  salvation, 
can  gain  any  advantage  from  them. 

XXXII.  "  The  art  of  grammar  comes  now  to  be  men- 
tioned. It  is  a  distinct  thing  from  the  mere  knowledge 
cf  the  languages ;  for  all  mankind  are  taught  from  their 
infancy  to  speak  their  common  tongue,  by  a  natural  imi- 
tation of  their  mothers  and  nurses,  and  those  who  are 
round  about  them,  without  any  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
grammar,  anrt  the  various  observations  and  rules  that 
irelate  to  it^    Grammar,  indeed^  is  nothing  else  but  rules 


AND  THEIR   ITSE.  197 

and  observations  drawn  from  the  common  speech  of 
mankind  in  their  several  languages  ;  and  it  teaches  us 
to  speak  and  pronounce,  to  spell  and  write  with  propri- 
ety and  exactness,  according  to  the  custom  nf  tliose  in 
every  nation,  who  are  or  were  supposed  to  speak  and 
write  their  own  language  best :  Now  it  is  a  shame  for  a 
man  to  pretend  to  science  and  study  in  any  of  the  three 
learned  professions, who  is  not  in  some  measure  acquaint- 
ed with  the  propriety  of  those  languages  with  which  he 
ought  to  be  conversant  in  his  daily  studies,  and  more  es- 
pecially in  such  as  he  may  sometimes  be  called  upon  to 
write  as  well  as  read. 

XXXIII.  Next  to  grammar,  we  proceed  to  consider 
rhetoric. 

.Now  rhetoric  in  genferal  is  the  art  of  persuading,which 
may  be  distinguished  into  these  three  parts,  viz.  (1.) 
Conveying  the  sense  of  the  speaker  to  the  understanding 
of  the  Iiearers  in  the  clearest  and  most  intelligi'^le  man- 
ner, by  the  plainest  expressions  and  the  most  lively  and 
striking  representations  of  it,  so  that  the  mind  may  be 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the  thing  proposed.  (2.)  Per- 
suading the  will  effectually  to  choose  or  refuse  the  thing 
suggested  and  represented.  (3.)  Raising  the  passions  in 
the  most  vivid  and  forcible  manner,  so  as  to  set  all  the 
soul  and  every  power  of  nature  at  work,  to  pursue  or 
avoid  the  thing  in  debate. 

To  attain  this  end,  there  is  not  only  a  great  deal  of  art 
necssary  in  the  representation  of  matters  to  the  audito- 
ry, but  also  in  the  disposition  or  method  of  introducing 
these  particular  representations,  together  with  the  rea- 
sons which  might  convince,  and  the  various  methods 
which  might  persuade  and  prevail  upon  the  hearers. 
There  are  certain  seasons  wherein  a  violent  torrent  of 
oration,  in  a  disguised  and  concealed  method,  may  be 
more  efl'ectnal  than  all  the  nice  forms  of  logic  and  rea- 
soning. The  figures  of  interrogation  and  reclamation 
have  sometimes  a  large  place  and  happy  effect  in  this 
sort  of  discourse,  and  no  figure  of  speech  should  be  want- 
ing here,  where  the  speaker  has  art  enough  happily  to 
jintroduce  it. 

There  are  many  remarks  and  rules  laid  down  by  the 
teachers  of  this  art,  to  improve  a  young  genius  in  those 
glorious  talents  whereby  Tully  and  Demosthenes  acquir- 
ed that  amazing  influence  and  j-uccess  in  their  own  age 
znd  naiion,  and  that  innnorta!  lame  througli  all  nations 


198  OK   THS  StIEXCKS, 

and  ages.  And  it  is  with  great  advantage  these  rules 
may  be  perused  and  learned.  But  a  happy  genius,  a 
lively  imagination,  and  warm  passions,  together  with  a 
due  degree  of  knowledge,  and  skill  in  the  subject  to  be 
debated,  and  a  perpetual  perasal  of  the  writings  of  the 
best  orators,  and  hearing  the  best  speakers,  will  do  more 
to  make  an  orator  than  all  the  rules  of  art  in  the  world, 
without  these  natural  talents,  and  this  careful  imitation 
of  the  most  approved  and  happiest  orators. 

XXXi  V.  W  ovv  you  will  presently  suppose  that  plead- 
ers at  the  bar  have  great  need  of  this  art  of  rhetoric ;  but 
it  has  been  a  just  doubt,  whether  pleading  in  our  British 
courts  of  justice,  before  a  skilful  judge,  sho;ild  admit  d 
any  other  aid  from  rhetoric  than  that  which  teaches  to 
open  a  cause  clearly,  and  spread  it  in  the  most  perspio 
nous,  complete  and  impartial  manner  before  the  eyes 
of  him  who  judges ;  for  impartial  justice  being  the  thmg 
which  is  sought,  there  should  be  no  artifice  used,  no  el- 
oquence or  power  of  language  employed  to  persuade 
the  will,  or  work  upon  the  pas^ians,  lest  the  decisive  sen- 
tence of  the  judge  should  be  biassed  or  warped  into  in- 
justice. For  this  reason,  Mr.  Locke  would  banish  all 
pleaders  in  the  law  for  ftes  out  of  his  government  of  Car- 
olina, in  his  posthumous  works,  though  that  great  man 
might  possibly  be  too  severe  in  so  universal  a  censure  of 
the  profession. 

XXXV.  But  the  case  is  very  different  with  regard 
to  divines ;  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit,  beyond  all  caa- 
troversy,  has  a  much  larger  extent. 

Their  business  is  not  to  plead  a  cause  of  right  and 
wrong  before  a  wise  and  skilful  judge,  but  to  address  all 
the  ranks  of  mankind,  the  high  and  low,  the  wise  and  the 
unwise,  the  sober  and  the  vicious,  and  persuade  them  all 
to  pursue  and  persevere  in  virtue  with  regard  to  them- 
selves, injustice  and  goodness  with  regard  to  their  neigh- 
bours, and  piety  towards  God.  These  are  affairs  of  ev:- 
erlasting  importance,  and  most  of  t!ie  persons  to  whom 
these  addresses  are  made,  are  ROt  wise  and  skilfuljudg- 
es,  but  are  influenced  and  drawn  strongly  to  the  contra- 
ry side  by  their  own  sinful  appetites  and  passions,  and 
bribed  or  biassed  by  the  corrupt  customs  of  the  world. 

There  is  therefore  a  necessity  not  only  of  a  clear  and 
faithful  representation  of  tilings  to  men,  in  order  to  con- 
vince their  reason  and  judgment,  but  of  all  the  skill  and 
fore  3  ofi^ersuasion  addressed  to  the  >vjll  and  the  passions. 


ANA   THEia   VSE.  199 

So  TuUy  addressed  the  whole  senate  of  Rome,  and  De- 
mosthenes the  Athenian  people,  among  who:n  were  ca- 
pacities and  inclinations  of  infinite  variety  ;  andthei-efore 
they  made  use  of  all  the  lightning  and  thunder,  all  the 
enti*eaties  and  terrors,  all  the  soothitjg  elega::cies  and 
the  flowery  beauties  of  language,  which  their  art  could 
furnish  them  with.  Divines  in  the  pulpit  have  miicli  the 
same  sort  of  hearers,  and  therefore  they  should  imitate 
thop.e  ancient  examples.  The  understanding  indeed 
ought  to  be  first  convin-ced  by  tlie  piainest  and  strongest 
force  of  reasoning ;  but  when  this  is  done,  all  the  pow- 
erful motives  should  be  used,  which  hive  any  just  influ- 
ence upon  human  nature;  all  the  springs  of  passion  should 
be  touched,  to  awaken  the  stupid  and  the  thoughtless 
into  consideration,  to  penetrate  and  melt  the  hardest 
heart,  to  persuade  the  unwilling,  to  excite  the  lajsy,  to 
reclaim  the  obstinate,  and  reform  the  vicious  part  of 
mankind,  as  well  as  to  encourage  those  who  are  humble 
and  pious,  and  to  support  their  practice  and  their  hope. 
The  tribis  of  men  are  sunk  into  so  fatal  a  degeiieracy 
and  dreadfulilistance  from  God,  and  from  all  that  is 
holy  and  happv,  that  all  the  eloquence  which  a  preacher 
is  master  of,  should  be  employed  in  order  to  recover  the 
world  fi'om  its  shameful  ruin  and  wretchedness  by  the 
gospel  of  our  blessed  Saviour,  and  restore  it  to  virtue  and 
piety,  to  God  and  happiness,  by  the  divine  power  of  this 
gospel.  O  may  such  glorious  masters  of  sacred  oratory 
never  be  wanting  in  the  pulpits  of  the  Christian  world ! 

XXXVI.  Shall  I  now  speak  something  of  my  senti- 
ments concernicig  poesy  ? 

As  for  books  of  poesy,  whether  inthe  learned  or  in  the 
modem  languages,  they  are  of  great  use  to  be  read  at 
hours  of  leisure,  by  all  persons  that  make  any  pretence 
to  good  education  or  learning,  and  that  for  several  rea- 


1.  Because  there  are  many  couplets  or  stanzas  writ- 
ten in  poetic  measures,  which  contain  a  variety  of  mor- 
als or  rules  of  practice,  relating  to  the  common  pruden- 
tials of  mankind,  as  well  as  to  matters  of  religion ;  and 
the  poetic  numbers  (or  rhyme,  if  there  be  any)  add  very 
considerable  force  to  the  memory. 
.  Besides,  many  an  elegant  and  admirable  sentiment  or 
descriptinn  of  things,  wliich  are  found  among  the  poets, 
are  well  worth  committing  to  memory,and  the  particular 
measures  of  verse  greatly  assist  us  in  recollecting  such 


200  ©P   THE  SCIENCES, 

excellent  passages,  which  might  sometimes  raise  our 
conversation  from  low  and  groveling  subjects. 

2.  In  heroic  verse,  but  especially  in  the  grander  lyrics, 
there  are  sometimes  such  noble  elevations  of  thought 
and  passion,  as  illuminate  allthit  gs  around  us,  and  con- 
vey to  the  soul  mosi  exalted  and  magnificent  images  and 
sublime  sentiments:  these  furnish  us  with  glorious  springs 
and  mediums  to  raise  and  aggrandize  our  conceptions, 
to  warm  our  smis,  to  awaken  the  better  passions,  and 
to  elevate  them  to  a  divine  pitch,  and  that  tor  de- 
votional purposes.  It  is  the  Lyric  ode  which  has  shown 
to  the  world  some  of  the  happiest  examples  of  this  kind, 
and  I  cannot  say  but  this  part  of  poesy  has  been  my  fa- 
vourite amusesTient  above  all  others. 

And  for  this  reason  it  is,  that  I  have  never  thought 
the  heroic  poems,  Greek,  Latin,  or  English,  which  have 
obtained  the  highest  fame  in  the  world,  are  sufficiently 
diversified,  exalted  or  animated,  for  want  of  the  inter- 
spersion  of  now  and  then  an  elegiac  or  lyric  ode.  This 
might  have  been  done  with  great  and  beautiful  propri- 
ety, where  the  poet  has  introduced  a  song  at  a  feast,  or 
the  joys  of  a  victory,  or  the  soliloquies  of  divine  satisfac- 
tion, or  the  pensive  and  despairing  agonies  of  distressing 
sorrow.  Why  shcjuld  that  which  is  called  the  most  glo- 
rious form  of  poesy,  be  bound  do\«^  and  confined  to  such 
a  long  and  endless  uniformity  of  measures,  when  it  should 
kindle  or  melt  the  soul,  swell  or  sink  it  into  all  the  vari- 
ous and  transporting  changes  of  which  human  nature  is 
capable  ? 

Cowley,  in  his  unfinished  fragment  of  the  Davideis, 
has  shown  us  this  way  to  improvement ;  and  whatever 
blemishes  may  be  found  in  other  parts  of  that  heroic  es- 
say, this  beauty  and  glory  of  it  ought  to  be  preserved  for 
imitation.  I  am  well  assured,  that  if  Homer  and  Virgil 
had  happened  to  practise  it,  it  would  have  been  renown- 
ed and  glorified  by  every  critic.  I  am  greatly  mistaken, 
if  this  wise  mixture  of  numbers  would  not  be  a  further 
reach  of  perfection  than  they  have  ever  attained  to  with- 
out it :  let  it  be  remembered,  that  it  is  not  nature  and 
strict  reason,  but  a  weak  and  awful  reverence  of  anti- 
quity, and  the  vogue  of  fallible  men,  that  has  established 
those  Greek  and  Roman  writings  as  absolute  and  con^- 
plete  patterns.  In  several  ages  there  have  been  some 
men  of  learning  who  have  very  justly  disputed  this  glo- 
ry, and  have  pointed  to  many  of  their  mistakes. 


3.  But  Still  there  is  another  end  of  reading  poesv,  and 

{)erhaps  the  most  considerable  advantage  to  be  obtained 
irom  it  by  the  bulk  of  mankind,  and  that  is,  to  furnish 
«ur  toi^gues  with  the  richest  and  most  polite  variety  of 
phrases  and  words  upon  all  occasions  of  life  or  religion. 
He  that  writes  well  in  verse,  will  often  find  a  necessity 
to  send  his  thoughts  in  search  through  all  the  treasure 
of  words  that  express  any  one  idea  in  the  same  language, 
that  so  he  may  comport  with  ihe  measures,  or  the  rhyme 
cf  the  verse  which  he  writes,or  with  his  own  most  beauti- 
ful and  vivid  sentiments  of  the  thing  he  describes.  Now 
by  much  reading  of  this  kind,  we  shall  insensibly  acquire 
the  habit  and  skill  of  diversifying  our  phrases  upon  all 
occasions,  and  of  expressing  our  ideas  in  the  most  pro- 
per and  beautiful  language,  whether  we  write  or  speak 
of  the  things  of  God  or  men. 

It  is  pity  that  some  of  these  harmonious  writers  have 
ever  indulged  any  thing  uncleanly  or  impure  to  defile 
their  paper  and  abuse  the  ears  of  their  readers,or  to  of- 
fend against  the  rules  of  the  nicest  virtue  and  politeness : 
but  still  amongst  the  writings  of  Mr,  Dryden,  Mr.  Pope, 
and  Dr»  Young,  as  well  as  others,  there  is  a  sufficient 
choice  in  our  own  language,  wherein  we  shall  not  find 
anv  indecency  to  shock  the  most  modest  tongue  or  ear. 

Perhaps  there  has  -ardly  been  a  writer  in  any  nation, 
and  I  may  dare  to  affirm  thei*e  is  none  in  our*s,  has  a 
richer  and  happier  talent  of  painting  to  the  hfe,  or  has 
ever  discovered  such  a  large  and  inexhausted  variety 
of  desc?  iption,  as  the  celebrated  Mr.  tope.  If  you  read 
his  translation  of  Homer's  Iliad,  you  will  find  almost  all 
the  terms  or  phrases  in  our  tongue  that  ar«  needful  to 
express  any  thing  that  is  grand  or  magnificent ;  but  if 
you  peruse  his  Odyssey,  which  descends  much  more  in- 
to comipion  life,  there  is  scarce  any  useful  subject  of  dis- 
course or  thought,  or  any  ordinary  occurrence,  which 
he  has  not  cultivated  and  dressed  in  the  most  proper 
language  ;  and  yet  stiil  he  has  ennobled  and  enlivened 
even  the  lower  subjects  with  the  brightest  and  most  a- 
greeable  ornaments. 

I  should  add  here  also,  that  if  the  same  author  had 
more  frequently  employed  his  genius  upon  divine  themes, 
his  short  poem  on  the  Messiah,  and  some  part  of  his  let- 
ters between  Abelard  and  Eloisa,  with  that  ode  on  the 
dying  Christian,  &c.-  sufficiently  assure  us,  that  his  pen 
would  have  honourably  imitatedsome  of  the  lender  scenes 
S  2 


,202  eF  THR  SCIENCES, 

of  penitential  sorrow,  as  well  as  the  sublimer  odes  of  the 
Hebrew  Psalmist,  and  perhaps  discovered  to  us,  in  a 
better  nxanner  than  any  other  translation  has  done,  how 
great  a  poet  sat  upon  the  throne  of  Israel. 

4.  After  all  that  I  have  said,  there  is  yet  a  further 
use  of  reading  poesy ;  and  that  is,  when  the  mind  has 
been  fatigued  with  studies  of  a  more  laborious  kind,  or 
when  it  is  any  ways  unfit  for  the  pursuit  of  more  difficult 
subjects,  it  may  be,  as  it  were,  unbent:  and  repose  itself 
a  while  on  the  flowery  meadows  Where  the  muses  dwell. 
It  is  a  very  sensible  relief  to  the  soul,  when  it  is  over  tir- 
ed, to  amuse  itself  with  the  numbers  and  beautiful  sen- 
timents of  the  poets ;  and  in  a  little  time  this  agreeable 
amusement  may  recover  the  languid  spirits  to  activity 
and  more  important  service. 

XXXVII.  All  this  I  propose  to  the  world  as  rny  best 
observations  about  reading  of  verse.  But  if  the  question 
were  offered  to  me.  Shall  a  student,  of  a  bright  genius, 
never  divert  himself  with  writing  poesy  ?  I  would  an- 
swer, Yes,  when  he  cannot  possibly  help  it ;  a  lower 
genius,  in  mature  years,  would  heartily  wish  that  he  had 
spent  much  more  time  in  reading  the  best  authors  of 
this  kind,  and  employed  much  fewer  hours  in  writing. 
But  it  must  be  confessed,  or  supposed  at  least,  that 
there  may  be  seasons  when  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a 
poetic  soul  to  restrain  the  fancy  or  quench  the  flame; 
when  it  is  hard  to  suppress  the  exuberant  flow  of  lofty 
sentiments,  and  prevent  the  imagination  from  this  sort 
of  style  or  lancjuage ;  and  that  is  the  onlv  season,  I  think, 
wherein  this  inclination  should  be  indulged  ;  especially 
by  pers-^ns  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  professions 
of  a  different  kind ;  and  one  reason  is,  because  what 
they  write  in  that  hour,  is  more  likely  to  carry  in  it  some 
appear^.nce  above  nature,  some  happy  imitation  of  the 
dictates  of  the  muse.*  ' 

XXXVIII,  There  are  other  things  besides  history, 
grammar  and  languages,  rhetoric  and  poesy,  which 
have  been  included  und  r  the  name  of  philological 
knowledge  ;  such  as,  an  acquaintance  with  the  notions, 
customs,  manners,  tempers,  poHty,  6cc.  of  the  various 
nations  of  the  earth,  or  the  distinct  sects  and  tribes  of 
mankind.    This  is  necessary,  in  order  to  understand 

•  The  muse,  in  the  ancient  heathen  sense,  i#  supposed  to  be  a  goddess; 
btit,  in  the  philosophic  sense,  it  can  mean  ne  moi-e  than  a  bright  genius, 
with  a  waiTQ  and  strong  imagination,  elevated  to  an  uncommon  de^i^e. 


AND  THEIR  USE.  203 

history  the  better ;  and  every  man  who  is  a  lawyer  or 
a  gentleman,  .ought  to  obtalh  some  acquaintance  with 
these  things,  without  which  he  can  never  read  history  to 
any  great  advantage,  nor  can  he  maintain  his  own  sta- 
tion and  character  in  life,  with  honour  and  dignity,  with- 
out some  insight  into  them. 

XXXIX.  Students  in  divinity  ought  to  seek  a  larger 
acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  laws,  polity,  customs,  &c, 
in  oi-der  to  understa^  many  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  Ncwj|^d  to  vindicate  the  sacred  writers 
from  the  i*eproaches  of  Infidels.  An  acquaintance  also 
with  many  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  aftairs  is  needful, 
to  explain  several  texts  of  scripture  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, to  lead  sincere  inquirers  into  the  true  and  genu- 
ine sense  of  the  Evangelists  and  Apostles,  and  to  guard 
their  writings  from  the  unreasonable  cavils  of  men, 

XL.  The  art  of  criticism  is  reckoned  by  some  as  a 
distinct  part  of  Philology ;  but  in  truth  it  is  nothing  else 
than  a  more  exact  and  accurate  knowledge  or  skill  in 
the  other  parts  of  it,  and  a  readiness  to  apply  that  knowl- 
edge upon  all  occasions,  in  order  to  judge  well  of  what 
relates  to  these  subjects,  to  explain  what  is  obscure  in 
the  authors  which  we  read,  to  supply  what  is  defective, 
and  amend  what  is  erroneous  in  manuscripts  or  ancient 
copies,  to  correct  the  mistakes  of  authors  and  editors  in 
the  sense  of  the  words,  to  reconcile  the  controversies  of 
the  learned ;  and  by  these  means  to  spread  a  juster 
knowledge  of  these  things  amongst  the  inquisitive  part  of 
mankind. 

Every  man  who  pretends  to  the  learned  professions, 
if  he  doth  not  arise  to  be  a  critic  himself  in  philological 
matters,  should  l>e  frequently  conversing  with  those 
books,  whether  dictionaries, paraphrasts,commentators, 
or  other  critics,  which  may  relieve  any  difficulties  he 
may  meet  with, and  give  him  a  more  exact  acquaintance 
■with  those  studies  which  he  pursues. 

And  whensoever  any  person  is  arrived  to  such  a  de- 
gree ot  knowledge  in  these  things  as  to  furnish  him  well 
for  the  practice  of  criticism,  let  him  take  gieat  care  that 
pride  and  vanity,  contempt  of  others,  with  inward  wrath 
ardinsolence,donot  mingle  themselves  with  his  remarks 
and  censures.  Let  him  remember  the  common  frail- 
ties of  human  nature,  and  the  mistakes  to  which  the 
wisest  man  is  sometimes  liable,  that  he  may  practice 
Hus  art  with  due  mcdesty  and  candour, 


(aiirisi^ii(Dsr©( 


INTRODUCTION. 

Directions  for  the  Attainment  ^  useful  Knoivledge, 
What  will  be  the  state  of  the  mind  if  uncultivated  ? 
Who  are  the  persons  under  the  greatest  obligations  te 

mental  improvement  ? 
How  are  correct  judgment  and  reasoning  useful  to 

persons  in  humble  life? 
To  what  exercise  do  the  common  duties  of  society 

oblige  all  persons  ? 
What  will  be  the  consequence  of  an  indiscreet  deter- 
mination in  matters  before  us  ? 
Who  are  interested,  in  the  concerns  of  a  life  to  come  ? 
What  is  the  most  important  subject  on  which  every 

one  should  reason  correctly  ? 
Which  are  the  most  suitable  opportunities  for^this  duty? 
What  are  the  necessary  duty  and  interes£  of  every 

person  ? 
What  is  the  consequence  of  acting  without  thought  or 

reason  ? 
In  what  respects  are  we  accountable  to  God  ? 
What  is  the  design  of  logic  ? 
In  what  way  have  many  writers  perverted  this  science  ? 

CHAPTER   I. 

General  Rules  for  the  Imfirovement  of  Knowledge* 

Rule  1. 
Of  what  should  the  mind  be  deeply  possessed? 
What  should  we  review,  and  think  upon  seriously  ? 
To  what  exertions  will  this  awaken  us  ? 

Rule  2. 

What  are  the  considerations  which  expose  us  to  error 

in  our  judgments  of  things  ? 
What  are  the  subjects  discussed  l^  different  authors, 

to  which  we  should  carefully  attend  ? 


aVESTIONS.  206 

RULE  3. 

What  will  incite  to  labour  and  activity  in  the  pursuit 

of  knowledge  ? 
Of  what  should  we  take  a  wide  survey? 
On  what  should  we  meditate  ? 
What- is  fabled  of  Alexander  the  Great  ? 
What  are  the  worlds  that  cannot  be  conquered  ? 
What  are  the  questions  and  difficulties  in  which  wc 

should  think  ?       A 
On  what  inquiries  slMld  we  spend  a  few  thoughts? 
For  what  reasons  should  we  do  this  ? 
By  what  means  did  Arithmo  learn  nVndesty  ? 
What  is  an  evidence  of  improvement  ? 
What  should  we  read,  and  with  whom  should  we  be 

acquainted  ? 
What  effect  should  this  produce  ? 
What  will  be  a  barrier  against  all  improvement  ? 

Rule  4. 
What  has  proved  a  temptation  to  persons  of  a  vigorous 

fancy  ? 
What  is  related  of  Lucidas  and  Scintillo  ? 
Whose  presence  and  what  test  should  such  persons 

avoid? 

Rule  5. 
Can  laborious  reading  and  a  strong  memory  insure  true 

wisdom  ? 
What  may  be  applied  to  every  sort  of  learning  ? 
How  may  the  understanding  be  best  improved  ? 
How  may  we  justly    obtain  the  reputation  of  true 

learning? 
For  whom  are  many  of  the  preceding  advices  peculiar- 
ly proper  ? 

Rule  6. 
Who  are  the  persons  unfitted  for  devotedness  to  the 

sciences  ? 
What  are  the  dispositions  that  will  bring  contempt  on 

a  profession  ? 

Rule  7. 
What  should  animate  our  daily  industry  ? 
What  has  the  ingenuity  of  man  brought  to  light  ? 
What  should  a  student  in  divinity  not  imagine  ? 
What  truths  of  the  Christian  religion  still  embarrass 

the  minds  of  honest  inquirers  ? 


209  AVEITIONS. 

Rule  8. 
How  may  we  attain  the  knowledge  of  things  whick 

relate  to  our  own  profession  ? 
Who  are  the  persons,  whose  opinions  of  men  and 

books  are  disregarded  ? 
On  what  subjects  should  we  not  pretend  to  form  a 

judgment  ? 

Rule  9. 
In  what  particulars  should  we  ^y  call  ourselves  t» 

an  account  ?  *r 

What  was  the  rule  considered  sacred  amongst  the 

Pythagoreans? 

Rule  10. 
By  what  means  may  we  fix  our  opinions  and  form  a 

correct  judgment  ? 
What  are  the  inconveniencies  of  a  dogmatical  spirit  ? 

Rule  11. 
What  is  an  evidence  of  humility  united  with  courage  ? 
Into  what  mistake  may  a  wise  man  suddenly  fall  ? 

Rule  12. 
How  should  we  conduct  so  as  to  raise  our  judgment 

superior  to  that  of  the  vulgar  ? 
How  may  fancy  and  humour  distress  us  ? 
What  is  tlie  description  of  a  humourist  ? 

Rule  13. 
What  is  the  spirit  and  conduct  calculated  to  lead  ujt 

into  error  ? 
What  are  the  consequences  of  jesting   and   foolish 

merriment  ? 

Rule  14. 
What  is  that  indulgence  which  perverts  the  mind  in 

pursuit  of  truth  ? 
What  will  follow  an  abandonment  of  religion  ? 
Who  are  the  characters  given  up  to  strong  delusions  ? 

Rule  15. 
Against  what  should  we  carefully  watch  ? 
What  is  the  advice  of  Solomon  ? 
What  is  the  course  which  should  lead  us  to  fear  the 
displeasure  of  God  ? 

Rule  16. 
For  what  should  we  suppHcate  the  Father  of  lights  ? 
What  should  be  our  thoughts  of  the  Author  of  out 

being  ? 
To  what  does  Christianity  obligate  a  student.* 


AVB9TI0NI.  sot 

CHAPTER  II. 

Observation^  Reading,  Instruction  by  Lectures, 
Conversation,  and  Study^  comfiared. 

What  are  the  five  eminent  means  of  knowledge  ? 

What  is  observation  ? 

What  may  be  called  experience,  and  experiment  ? 

How  is  the  art  of  reading  defined  ? 

How  are  lectures  described,  and  what  are  their  uses  ? 

What  is  conversation  ? 

What  is  included  in  meditation  or  study,  and  what  are 
their  benefits  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  observation  ? 

How  may  the  mind  be  improved  by  rending  ? 

How  are  public  or  private  lectures  rendered  profitable  ? 

In  what  way  does  conversation  tend  to  mental  im- 
provement ? 

What  is  indispensable  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  thought  and  reasoning  ? 

How  may  the  correct  sentiments  of  others  become 

W properly  our  own  ? 
hat  is  the  difference  between  hearing  and  study? 

CHAPTER  III. 

Rules  relating  to  Observation. 

What  are  some  of  the  methods  by  which  we  may  en- 
large our  knowledge  ? 

How  should  the  curiosity  of  the  young  be  encouraged  ? 

In  what  way  can  usetul  thinking  be  promoted  ? 

From  what  should  we  keep  our  minds  free,  and  why  ? 

In  what  circumstances  are  envy,  pride  and  self-flattery 
apparent  ? 

What  is  the  curiosity  which  ought  to  be  suppressed, 
and  why  ? 

What  should  be  our  object,  in  our  observation  of  per- 
sons and  their  conduct  ? 

What  are  the  thoughts,  which  should  for  the  most 
part  be  secreted  ? 

By  what  good  old  rule  may  our  conversation  be  regu- 
lated? 

What  are  the  best  means  of  establishing  correct  gen- 
eral theories  ? 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Of  B^oks  and  Reading, 
What  useful  remarks  are  made  on  books  ? 


208  auESTiojfs. 

How  may  the  reading  of  a  student  be  directed  most 

Wjrofitably  ? 
hat  is  a  good  rule  in  the  study  of  books  of  importance? 

By  what  method  may  the  reading  of  the  same  book  by^ 
three  or  four  persons  be  rendered  beneficial  to  each  ? 

What  is  another  method  by  which  persons  engaged  in 
the  same  study  may  be  profited  ? 

In  reading  or  in  conversation,  what  should  be  our  chief 
business  ? 

What  should  be  our  practice,  after  going  through  one 
course  of  a  science  ? 

By  what  means  may  the  plans  of  some  books  be  im' 
proved  ? 

What  advantages  may  be  derived"  from  making  an  in- 
dex to  a  valuable  book  which  has  none  ? 

What  remarks  on  authors  Will  enrich  the  understand- 


ing 


How  may  that  reading  be  described,  which  is  not  at- 
tended with  advances  in  true  knowledge  ? 

What  are  the  directions  by  which  we  may  judge  just- 
ly and  reason  correctly  concerning  the  valuable  works 
which  we  may  peruse  ? 

What  ought  to  be  our  determinations  in  the  examina- 
tion of  human  authors  ? 

What  are  the  three  important  things  to  be  observed  ia 
our  reading  ? 

In  the  reading  of  practical  treatises,  what  should  be 
our  conduct  r 

What  is  of  more  consequence  than  the  richest  treas- 
ures of  mere  speculative  knowledge  ? 

When  one  person  reads  to  several,  what  are  the  ideas 
on  which  remarks  should  be  made  ? 

What  are  the  passages,  8cc.  which  require  a  private 
review  ? 

What  is  worthy  of  remark  respecting  the  Tatler,  Ad- 
dison's Spectator,  &c. 

Of  what  utility  are  dictionaries,  &c.  of  several  sorts? 

To  what  two  temptations  are  superficial  readers  liable? 

Wlio  is  deplorably  poor  in  his  understanding  ? 

CHAPTER  V. 
Judgment  of  Books, 
How  may  we  be  aisted  in  our  j:i<l^  nent  of  a  book  ? 
By  what  rule  may  we  safely  reject  the  production  of 
an  author  ? 


j  aiTESTioirfl.  20f 

In  judging  of  books,  what  are  the  most  common  mis- 
takes ? 

What  noble  principles  do  those  infidels  lay  aside,  who 
jest  with  the  Bible  ? 

How  may  we  be  qualified  to  judge  of  a  particular  sub- 
ject ? 

After  having  become  masters  of  a  particular  theme,  to 
what  mistake  in  judgment  are  we  liable  ? 

Who  are  the  persons  that  obtrude  their  opinions  on 
subjects  above  their  capacity  ? 

Who  may  be  named  as  another  sort  of  judges  ? 

What  is  a  mischievous  principle  in  judging  of  books  ? 

What  is  the  more  noble  exaiiiple  which  Horace  would 
give  us  ? 

What  does  Roscommon  say  of  Homer  ? 

What  are  some  evidences  of  the  base  passion  of  envy  ? 

How  may  this  invidious  humour  be  counteracted  ? 

What  is  a  peculiar  excellence  of  Sir  Richard  Steele's 
essay,  called  the  Christian  Hero  ? 

What  may  be  reasonably  demanded  of  little,  ill-natured 
critics  ;  and  wl.y  ? 

What  is  a  very  frequent  fault  in  our  judgment  upon 
books  ? 

In  what  way  should  we  speak  of  the  writings  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Cambray  ? 

What  should  we  remember  respecting  this  great  man  ? 

What  may  be  said  of  the  poesy  of  Casimere  ? 

What  is  the  general  character  of  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost? 

By  what  considerations  should  we  be  influenced  in  judg- 
ing of  a  man,  who  censures  or  commends  a  book  ? 
CHAPTER  VI. 

Of  living  Instructions  arid  Lectures^  of  Teachers  and 
Learners. 

How  are  the  advantages  of  a  tutor's  instructions  ap- 
parent ? 

What  are  the  benefits  of  a  plurality  of  tutors  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  circumstances  which  disqualify 
a  man  for  the  office  of  an  instructer  ? 

What  are  the  qualifications,  temper  and  conduct  ne- 
cessary to  constitute  a  good  tutor  ? 

In  what  way  should  the  learner  improve  the  precepts 
of  his  tutor  ? 

What  is  the  behaviour  becoming  a  stu^eot  > 
T 


210  «,VE3TION3. 

What  should  be  the  student's  opinion  of  his  instructer  ; 
and  with  what  disposition  should  he  make  known 
his  doubts  and  scruples  ? 

What  is  a  frequent  and  growing  folly  ? 

Gf  what  two  extremes  are  youth  in  danger  ? 

What  is  the  duty  of  a  learner  to  his  teacher^ 
CHAPTER  VII. 
Of  learning  a  Language. 

How  are  the  living  languages  distinguished  from  the 
dead? 

What  directions  are  necessary  in  learning  a  language  ? 

What  is  the  best  plan  of  a  grammar  for  learning  the 
Latin  tongue  ? 

By  what  means  may  the  most  rapid  progress  be  made  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  conversing  iji  a  language 
to  be  studied  ? 

What  is  a  most  useful  exercise  for  boys  ? 

What  may  be  fairly  objected  against  the  teaching  of 
Latin  by  the  heathen  poets,  as  Ovid,  Horace,  Juve- 
nal, &c.  ? 

After  the  learning  of  a  language,  what  should  be  our 
practice  ?   and  what  is  the  disposition,  common  to  a 
critic,  against  which  we  should  watch  ? 
CHAPTER  VIII. 

Of  inquiring  into  the  Sense  and  Meaning  of  any  Wri- 
ter or  Sfieaker^  and  esfiecially  the  sense  of  the  Sa- 
cred Writings. 

What  is  the  farst  rule  to  direct  us  in  understanding  a 
writer  or  speaker  ? 

Whiit  is  the  second  ? 

What  is  the  third  ? 

What  is  the  fourth  ? 

What  is  the  fifth  ? 

What  is  the  sixth  ? 

What  is  the  seventh  ? 

What  is  the  eighth  ? 

What  is  the  ninth  ? 

What  is  the  tenth  ? 

What  is  the  eleventh  ? 

What  should  we  remember  ?  and  of  what  should  we 
maintain  an  awful  sense  ? 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Rules  of  Imfirovement  by  Conversation. 
By  what  means  may  conversation  be  renderedimproving? 


aUE£TIONS.  21J 

In  what  respects  may  company  become  salutaty  ? 
How  may  we  gain  improvemeut  from  those  with  whom 

we  meet  ? 
Why  should  we  not  confine  our  conversation  to  one  sort 

of  company  ? 
How  may  conversation  enlarge  our  minds  ? 
What  should  be  our  endeavour  in  mixed  company  ? 
With  what  should  we  not  be  provoked ;  and  why  ? 
How  may  we  learn  the  narrowness  of  our  own  minds  ? 
What  is  a  great  advantage  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  ? 
How  may  conversation,  in  social  parties,  become  valu- 
able ? 
What  should  be  the  conduct  of  a  hearer,  whilst  one  of 

the  company  expresses  his  opinion  ? 
For  what  reason  should  we  avoid  prejudice  against  a 

plain  style  ? 
What  is  the  best  method  to  obtain  an  explanation  of 

obscure  expressions? 
By  what  means  may  objections  be  made  with  modesty  ? 
How  should  a  candid  hearer  express  his  differences 

in  opinion  ? 
Of  what  should  we  maintain  a  constant  sense  ? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  confessing  our  imperfect 

informatum  ? 
Why  should  we  withhold  our  decisions  in  company  ? 
On  what  occasion  may  it  be  proper  to  repel  a  bold  ad- 
vocate of  error  ;  and  why  f 
For  what  reasons  should  we  avoid  a  disputatious  temper? 
What  is  calculated  to  bar  the  understanding  against 

salutary  convictions  ? 
What  are  the  best  methods  of  gaining  improvement,  or 

of  communicating  instruction  in  conversation? 
What  is  the  affectation  we  should  avoid  ? 
How  may  a  confused  conversation  be  reduced  to  order  ? 
What  are  the  things  we  should  not  charge  upon  others  ; 

and  why  ? 
What  are  the  evils  in  conversation  which  are  enemies 

to  friendship  ? 
What  are  the  best  means  of  counteracting  ungenerous 

reproaches  ? 
To  what  manner  of  conversing  should  we  be  inured^ 

and  on  what  occasions  ? 
What  ought  to  be  the  character  of  our  chosen  com- 
panions? 


S12  ttUESTIONB. 

What  are  those  infirmities  in  a  persMi,  which  render 
him  unsuitable  as  an  associate? 

What  should  the  contemplation  of  these  evil  qualities 
teach  us? 

On  retiring  from  company,  what  should  be  our  thoughts? 

What  are  the  errors  of  conversation,  which  we  should 
notice  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  an  easy  manner  of  address  ? 

CHAPTER  X. 

Of  Disputes. 

How  is  the  practice  of  disputing  described  ? 

In  what  way  may  disputes  arise ;  and  how  are  they 
pursued  ?  f 

What  may  be  the  consequences  of  disputes  in  conver- 
sation ? 

What  should  be  observed  in  attempts  to  convince  one 
of  error  ? 

In  what  sheuld  disputants  endeavour  to  agree;  and  why? 

From  what  should  the  question  be  cleared,  and  how  il- 
lustrated ? 

Why  i$  such  a  course  necessary  ? 

How  may  disputants  be  kept  to  the  point  of  inquiry  ? 

Of  what  evil  is  the  pride  of  man  the  spring  ? 

What  is  the  bane  of  improvement,  and  how  does  it  op- 
erate ? 

With  what  design  should  we  enter  on  a  debate  ? 

Against  what  should  we  watch  narrowly  in  a  dispute  ; 
and  why  ? 

Give  some  examples  of  unguarded  conversation. 

How  do  the  purposes  of  God  afford  encouragements  to 
prayer  ? 

By  what  caution  should  we   guard  against  the  subtle 
errors  of  men  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  false  opinions  relative  to  true 
virtue  ? 

By  what  means  does  the  great  Master  of  the  human 
family  instruct  us  in  virtue  ? 

How  may  an  opponent  be  silenced  or  convinced  ? 

When  may  the  passions  misguide  the  judgment  ? 

What  are  the  three  sorts  of  disputation  ? 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Socratical  Way  of  Disputation, 

From  whom  dees  the  Socratical  method  of  dispute  d«- 

rive  its  name  ?  V 


AUESTIOKS.  Sl3 

Give  an  example  of  the  Socratical  way  of  disputation  ? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  this  method  ? 
What  is  the  method  nearly  a-kin  to  this  ? 
What  would  be  a  happy  manner  of  framing  Christian 
catechisms  P 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Of  Forensic  DUfmtes, 
What  is  a  general  definition  of  forensic  dispute  ? 
On  what  occasions  is  this  practice  used? 
What  is  the  method  of  proceeding  ? 
Where  the  question  consists  of  several  parts,  what  is 

the  method? 
What  is  usual  before  the  final  sentence ;  and  why  ? 
How  may  forensic  disputes  be  rendered  useful  ? 
What  was  the  practice  amongst  the  Roman  youth,  as 

suggested  by  Juvenal  ? 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Of  Academic^  or  Scholastic  Disfiutation, 

What  are  the  common  methods  of  dispute  in  schools  of 
learning  ? 

To  what  do  the  laws  of  disputation  relate  ? 

What  are  the  laws  obhging  the  opponent  ? 

What  are  those  which  oblige  the  respondent? 

What  are  those  which  oblige  both  disputants  ? 

Enumerate  some  advantages  attained  by  academical 
disputation. 

What  are  some  of  its  inconveniences  ? 

What  are  the  general  directions  for  scholastic  disputes  ? 

How  should  the  tutor  or  moderator  direct  the  disputa- 
tion advantageously  ? 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Of  Study,  or  Meditation. 

What  has  been  proved  and  established  ? 

To  a  good  genius  and  happy  judgment,  what  is  an  in- 
dispensable addition  in  the  acquisition  of  wisdom  ? 

What  is  the  first  direction  for  youth  in  the  pursuit  of 
study  ? 

In  the  science  of  theology,  what  is  a  common  danger  ? 

By  what  absurd  tests  have  truth  and  heresy  been  tried  ? 

What  are  the  practices  which  may  discourage  young 
students  ? 


214 


auESTIONS. 


By  what  means  may  the  difficulties  of  study  be  sur^ 

mounted  ?  \ 

What  is  the  pursuit  calculated  to  distract  the  unaer- 

standinv^  ?    '  ' 

How  miiy  our  diversions  be  made  to  enrich  our  minds  ?^ 
What  is  a  good  rule  in  the  pursuit  of  valuable  knowl- 
edge? 
By  what  rule  should  we  exert  our  care  and  skill  irt  the 

d'scussion  of  subjects  ? 
What  advantages  ft  )w  from  this  one  direction  ? 
What  are  the  evils  which  may  flow  from  an  injudicious 

fondness  for  a  particular  scif'nce  ? 
What  IS  the  fault  of  some  little  souls  ;  and  its  conse- 

queuces  ?  ; 

What  is  the  science  which  should  always  stand  chi^  ? 

and  why  ? 
What  should  be  the  plan  of  our  studies  as  to  time  ? 
How  may  fatigue  in  study  be  avoided  ? 
In  the  beginning  of  anew  study,  what  should  be  our 

conduct  ? 
What  course  should  we  pursue,  when  we  cannot  obt^ 

all  the  evidence  which  we  desire  ? 
In  what  way  should  speculative  studies  be  applied  to  a 

practical  use  ? 
What  are  the  things  in  which  it  may  be  unnecessary 

to  change  ?  and  why  ? 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Of  fixing  tkt  Attention. 

How  may  we  obtain  satisfactory  evidence  of  truth,  and 
avoid  mistakes  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  attachment  to  a  particular  study? 

What  are  the  uses  and  dangers  of  emblematical  rep- 
resentations ? 

Describe  the  authors  whose  works  should  be  studied. 

What  are  the  things  which  render  any  place  unsuita- 
ble as  a  place  of  study  ? 

For  what  reasons  should  our  decisions  sometimes  be 
withheld  ? 

In  our  studies,  what  are  the  dangers  from  our  passions 
and  appetites  ? 

When  may  any  passion  of  the  soul  be  salutary  in  our 
inquiries  ? 

How  mav  the  mind  be  fixed  and  engaged  in  the  search 
of  truth? 


avKSTioNS.  215 

CH/VPTER  XVI. 

Of  Enlarging  the  Capacity  of  the  Mind, 

What  are  the  three  things  which  constitute  a  capa- 
cious mind  ? 

Who  are  the  persons  of  a  narrow  and  contracted  habit 
of  soul  ? 

Mention  some  of  the  facts,  at  the  relation  of  which 
such  persons  stand  aghast. 

In  what  way  is  it  best  to  commence  the  instruction  of 
such  ? 

Of  what  use  maybe  the  reading  of  Milton  *s  Paradise 
Lost  ?      , 

Where  may  we  find  the  most  sublime  ideas  and  the 
mnst  elevated  language  ? 

How  will  an  enlargement  of  our  minds  lead  us  to  con^ 
template  the  glory  of  God  and  his  Son  ?  ^ 

Describe  the  second  evidence  of  a  noble  capacity  of 
mind. 

How  may  narrow  views  be  eradicated  ? 

How  may  free  conversations  with  persons  differing  from 
us,  improve  our  minds  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  truths  in  astronomy  and  natural 

'    philosophy  which  astonish  the  unlearned  ? 

,What  is  the  best  cure  of  this  ignorance  ? 

Describe  the  third  evidence  of  a  noble  capacity  of  mind? 

What  are  some  t)f  the  inconveniencies  of  a  narrow  mind, 
in  relation  to  religion,  human  prudence,  civil  gov- 
ernment. &c.  ?  . 

Who  are  the  persons  that  ought  never  to  set  up  for 
scholars  ^ 

What  makes  a  great  man  ? 

What  are  the  six  general  rules  by  which  the  capacity 
of  the  mind  may  b«  Increased  ? 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Of  Imfiroving  the  Memory, 

©escribe  the  memory,  and  its  advantages. 

How  may  the  judgment  be  distinguished  from  the 
memory  ? 

What  is  a  good  rule  to  persons  of  all  capacities? 

What  are  some  of  the  infirmities  of  genius  and  memory? 

What  constitutes  a  wealthy  and  a  happy  mind  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  joys  that  do  not  belong  t« 
mortality  ? 


216  ouestions. 

At  what  age  does  the  memory  grow,  and  how  may  it 

be  improved  or  injured  ? 
What  are  the  four  qualifications  of  a  good  memory  ? 
How  will  a  due  exercise  of  the  memory  improve  it  ? 
What  is  the  first   general   rule  for  improving    the 

memory  ? 
What  is  the  second  ? 
What  is  the  third  ? 
What  is  the  fourth  ? 
What  is  the  fifth  ? 
What  is  the  sixth  ? 
What  is  the  seventh? 
What  is  the  eighth? 
What  is  the  ninth? 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

Of  Determining  a  Question. 

In  considering  a  question,  what  should  be  our  first 

thoughts  ? 
How  may  the  inquiry  and  argument  oS.  a  question  be 

rendered  plain  and  easy  ? 
How  may  the  obscurity  of  a  question  be  removed  ? 
What  is  the  advantage  of  the  clear  statement  of  a 

question? 
If  the  question  relate  to  an  axiom,  what  are  the  truth* 

connected  with  its  solution  ? 
When  may  a  proposition  be  called  an  axiom  ? 
In  searching  alter  truth,  what  is  a  good  rule  ? 
Describe  the  persons  who  build  their  opinions  upon  v^ 

sufficient  grounds. 
In  deciding  a  question  of  difficulty,  what  may  be  called 

instances  of  a  partial  examination  ? 
By  what  indulgence  may  we  be  led  into  gross  errors  ? 
By  what  follies  may  the  mind  receive  a  false  bias  ? 
What  is  the  zeal  against  which  we  should  watch;  and 

why  ? 
Why  should  jest  and  ridicule  be  avoided  in  our  ve- 

searches  ? 
What  arc  inefficient  methods  of  conviction  ? 
What  is  a  profane  insolence,  and  its  perils  ? 
Of  what  siiould  we  be  aware  in  reading  controversial 

productions  ? 
When  should  a  question  not  be  determined  by  a  single 

argument;  and  why? 
Of  what  should  we  t&ke  a  full  survey  in  a  subject  ? 


QUESTIONS.  £17 

What  is  a  g<»d  fnle  by  which  our  assent  to  a  proj)osi« 

tion  sl.ould  be  proportioned  ? 
Wh^'t  are  some  of  the  truths  believed  with  different 

decrees  of  assent  ? 
©n  what  grounds  did  our  Saviour  commend  a  strong 

laith? 
How  may  we  distinguish  the  duties,  which  should  evi-  - 

dently  bind  our  consciences,  from  other  duties  ? 
V\'hat  are  three  good  rules  iu  judtjing  of  prob  bilities? 
By  what  means  and  in  what  particuha's  bhouid  our 

judgments  be  settled  ? 
In  considering  the  gospel,  what  should  we  remember ; 

and  for  what  reasons  ? 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Of  inquiring  into  Causes  arid  MffiCts, 

incur  inquiries  into  the  causes  of  an  effect,  what  me* 
thod  should  we  foUow  ? 

How  should  We  proceed  in  relation  to  natural  philoso- 
phy? 

How  in  relation  to  events  in  the  moral  world  ? 

In  our  inquiries  hito  the  effects  of  a  cau&e,  what  method 
should  we  take? 

Kow  do  physiciars  improve  their  skill  ? 

By  what  means  may  a  preacher  extend  his  usefulness? 

What  must  we  distinguish  ia  relation  to  causes  and 
effects  ? 

CHAPTER  XX. 
<3/  the  Sciences,  and  th^ir    Use  in  fiarticulat   Pro- 

Jeasibns. 
©f  what  use  is  system,  m  the  learning  of  a  science  ? 
What  is  the  remark  (fan  ingenious  writer? 
Why  is  it  that  we  have  so  many  half-scholars  ? 
After  a  good  acquaintance  witl)  the  compendium  of  a 

science,  how  should  we  proceed  ? 
In  what  respects  may  a  tutor  be  advantageous? 
When  should  the  lajic,uaf;es  be  studied  ;  and  why  ? 
What  are  above  the  capacities  of  children  ? 
Wnat  are  the  sciences  pleasing  to  young  persons  ? 
What  are  the  three  reasons  that  render  the  study  of 

these  sciences  easy  ? 
How  may  certain  sciences  be  preserved  in  the  memory  T 
Ot  v/hat  should  every  scholar  attain  some  general  ideas? 
WI)Hf  parts  of  a  science  should  be  studied  first  ? 


21^  atrBSTiojf*. 

What  should  we  learn  from  the  connexion  of  the-  sci- 
ences? 

What  are  the  sciences,  a  moderate  kno-vf  ledge  of  which 
are  of  practical  use  ? 

What  was  the  sentence  of  Dr.  Gheyne  respecting  some 
mathematical  studies? 

What  ire  the  advantages  of  a  knowledge  of  elegant" 
problems  in  the  mathematics  ? 

Whv  is  the  study  of  history  essential  to  politicians  and 
ecclesiastics  ? 

How  is  the  study  of  sacred  biography  useful  ? 

What  are  the  uses  of  logic  and  metaphysics? 

What  are  the  benefits  of  a  knowledge  of  natural  phi- 
losophy ? 

How  is  this  science  necessary  to  a  physician  ? 

Why  necessary  to  a  lawyer  or  a  judge  ? 

In  w^hat  way  useful  to  a  divine  ? 

How  may  the  knowledge  of  animal  nature  and  of  the 
rational  soul  be  of  practical  use  ? 

Of  what  does  natural  religion  consist,  as  comprised  in 
two  parts  ? 

How  does  natural  religion  harmonize  with  revealed  ? 

Wh-^t  is  a  necessary  caution  on  this  subject  ? 

To  what  should  the  study  of  natural  religion  lead  us? 

What  is  meant  bv  the  civil  law  ? 

What  were  the  first  grounds  of  this  law? 

What  is  a  more  important  law;,  and  its  uses  ? 

What  are  the  philological  studies  ? 

Why  is  the  Latin  necessary  to  the  student  in  law  ? 

In  What  way  have  the  priesthood  of  Rome,  the  lawyers 
and  physicians  abused  the  people  ? 

Why  are'Greek  and  Latin  necessary  to  physicians  ? 

How  will  the  LatiU;  Greek  and  Hebrew  assist  the  stu- 
dies of  the  Christian  minister  ? 

What  are  the  chief  uses  of  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
tongues  ? 

What  of  the  Chaldean  ? 

"V/hat  is  grammar,  and  its  necessity  ? 

What  are  the  three  parts  of  rhetoric  ? 

Bv  what  means  may  this  art  be  attained  ? 

Why  should  it  be  laid  aside  by  pleaders  at  the  bar  ? 

What  are  the  reasons  which  justify  its  use  by  Christ- 
ian ministers  ? 

By  what  reasons  is  the  reading  of  poesy  enforced? 


¥*E«TldJiii.  219 

When  may  &.  genius  indulge  himself  in  \vTiting  poesy? 
'i'Shat  studies  promote  a  knowledge  of  hist-ryf 
'V'hat  is  the  knowle<^ge  which  students  in  divinity  ought 

tr  seek  ;  ajid  why  ? 
What  is  the  art  of  criticism,  and  its  uses? 
!How  may  our  studies  be  facilitated  ? 
Of  what  should  a  good  critic  be  aware,  that  modesty 
«fid  €aiu;U>ur  Jmay  siccoxn^any  his  criticisms  I 


•♦t* 


CONTENTS. 

?<^ 
Preface  ---.--- 

The  liitrodnction         -        -         -         -    ^     -        _ 

Chap.  I  General  xvles  for  the  improv^ement  of 
knowledge  -         -         -         -         -  "  ,       -  V 

Chap.  II-  Five  methods  of  improving:,  descriVbed  and 
compared,  viz  Observation,  reading,  ins'-traction 
by  lectuFes,  conversation,  and  study,  wl  tn  their 
several  advantages  and  defects  -         -  2? 

Chap.  III.  Of  observation,  either  by  ^he  sens«2s  or 
the  mind        -        -        -        -        -        r-         -        3- 

Chap.  IV,  Of  reading  and  books,  with  directions 
relating  thereto^.  ,.^^-  ,      -  .         -  '"         S'J 


jifi%BSffit  of  books,  both  approbation         i 


and  censure   jgi||pHh^.lMMi»  -         ^        '        -         4% 

Chap.  VI.    0*f  Irving  instructions  and 'lectures,  of    '  ■> 
teachers  and  learners  -         -         -         -        , 

Chap,  ¥11.  Of  learning  a  language,  particularly  the 
Latin  _._.._ 

Chap.  Vm.  Of  inquiring:  into  the  sense  and  meaning 
of  any  writer  or  speaker,  whether  human  or  divine    6t 

Char.  fX.  Of  convt»r?ation  and  profiting  by  it,  and 
of  person?  fit  or  unfit  for  free  converse       -         -        7£ 

Chap.  X  Of  disputes,  and  general  rules  relating  to 
them 8C 

Cii  p  XI.  Of  Socraticai  disputation,  by  question 
und  answer  -         _         _         _         _  97 

Chap  XII.  Of  forensic  disputes  in  courts  of  justice 
or  public  assemblies         .  _  -  -  9J 

Che  p.  XIII.  Of  academic  or  scholastic,  disputes,  and 
the  rules  of  them,  and  how  far  they  may  be  useful  101 

Chfip.  XIV.  Of  study,  or  meditation,  and  the  final 
det=  ruination   of  things  by  our  own  judgment  110 

Chap.  XV     Of  fixing  the  attention  -        -         120 

Chap.  XVI.    Of  enlarging  the  capacity  of  the  mind  12S 

Chap.  XVII.  Of  the  memory,  and  the  improvement 
thereof 135 

Chap  XVIII.  Of  determining  a  question;  several 
cauticns  about  it ;  of  reason  and  revelation  ;  of 
argument  and  ridicule  ;  of  assent  only  in  propor- 
tion to  evidence,  &;c.  -         -         -         -         15§ 

Chap.  XIX    Of  inquiring  into  causes   and  effects  175 

Chap.  XX.  Of  the  sciences,  and  their  uses  in  par- 
ticular professions  •        -        if        -        -     V^ 


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