Columbia University dental Studies
EDITED BY
RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, PH.D.
THE IMPROVEMENT
OF
THE MORAL QUALITIES
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL STUDIES
VOL. I.
THE IMPROVEMENT
OF
THE MORAL QUALITIES
AN ETHICAL TREATISE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY BY
SOLOMON IBN GABIROL, PRINTED FROM AN UNIQUE
ARABIC MANUSCRIPT, TOGETHER WITH A TRANS-
LATION, AND AN ESSAY ON THE PLACE OF
GABIROL IN THE HISTORY OF THE DE-
VELOPMENT OF JEWISH ETHICS
BY
STEPHEN S. WISE, Ph.D.
Jlork
III! CO! ' Mi:i.\ [JNIVERS1 1 N TRESS
THK M.\I -MM i AN ' . AGENTS
66 FIFTH AVENUE
1902
Copyright, 1002,
BY
THE MACMILLAN COM1AN\
o tbe
OF
MY FATHER AND TEACHER
IN LOVE, REVERENCE, AND
GRATITUDE
-wyn X"K3 DS'JWDJS D M 3^sn onmn my
^m3 jnrn ns rrpirnm
" Help the Celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and
irrigating help the seed to grow." Ethics of Gabirol.
Ut ager, quamvis fertilis, sine cultura fructuosus esse non
potest, sic sine doctrina animus. Seneca.
PREFACE
THE original suggestion to write on the " Ethics " of Ibn
Gabirol came from my revered friend and teacher, the late
Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut. After some study I came upon
the counsel of Dr. Rosin in his article 1 on the same subject,
which strengthened my determination to prepare a work on
the " Kthics " of Solomon ibn Gabirol, and, if possible, publish
the text of Gabirol's ethical treatise, "The Improvement of the
Moral Qualities," a manuscript of which, I learned, was con-
tained among the treasures in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
r a time I was compelled to base my studies upon a pho-
tographic reproduction of the manuscript, made under the kind
supervision of Dr. A. Neubauer. During the summer of 1895
tied in Oxford, and was enabled to make a careful exami-
nation of those passages the difficulty of reading which had
been increased by the photographic process. During my stay
in Oxford my work was facilitated in every way by Dr. Neu-
bauer, of whose kindness and hospitality I desire to make grate
ful acknowledgment
The manuscript, herewith published, is unique : 3 there being
no opportunity to collate the manuscript with other texts, it has
,. ,
* In the summer of : -sor ( iotthril found, in the library of the Alii
ivcrscllc. Paris, a copy of the " Kthu s." which, upon omi]
proved to be an exact repro 'he text of the Oxford manuscript, evidently
having been cop
vi i
PR I I A
been reproduced with the fewest possible changes; a few sug-
ns, with a view to emending the text, have been em-
bodied in footnotes.
The translator has collated four Hebrew manuscripts' (Paris,
Bodleian (2), Jews' College) as well as the printed editions, and
edit in the near future a Hebrew version of the
" Kthics," which, while taking account of the various I lebrew
manuscripts, shall more clearly reproduce, in some respects, the
spirit of the original Arabic.
I wish at this time to express my sincere gratitude to Prof.
Richard Gottheil for his unfailing kindness and valued counsel
during the term of my study at Columbia University.
I am indebted to Prof. J. H. Hyslop for some hints in the
interpretation of the " Ethics," and to Mr. I. Broyde of the
Jewish Encyclopedia staff for a number of suggestions bearing
on the Arabic text as well as the translation.
S. S. W.
PORTLAND. ORE., May 2, 1901.
1 Cf. Introduction, p. 7-
'"The Improvement of the Moral Qualities" is refem-d to. for the sake of
brevity, under the title " Kthics. "
Vlll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY ESSAY, i
TRANSLATION 29
AlTKMUX A (PREFACE OF THE HEBREW TRANSLATOR), . . 105
APPENDIX B, 108
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 115
ARABIC TEXT, 119
INTRODUCTION
To write an history of Jewish Ethics is to begin with the
first pages of the Bible. 1 The doctrine that the world was
created by Deity has a purely ethical significance, which bears
upon many departments of human conduct. That Deity pro-
nounced all that He had created good, is the sum and substance
of optimism ; the idea that one man was the progenitor of the
whole human race, implies the loftiest humanitarian principles
that can be conceived. In this wise, almost all the narratives
of the Bible, and, certainly, a large number of passages in the
Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, are of clear
and unmistakable ethical bearing and import. But in the days
of the Biblical authors the branches of learning were not as
strictly divided as they are at present. Jurisprudence, history
(including family and tribal traditions), and whatsoever there
was of natural science and speculative thought clustered around
one subject, Religion, and were intertwined with it. 2
The command, "Thou shalt not steal," was binding not
because theft was a social crime, but because God prohibited it.
The historical records of the Hebrew people, as they developed
from a family and tribe into a union of tribes and a nation,
were looked upon as authentic, because Moses had written them
at the command of God. The geometrical and architectural
principles in accordance with which the tabernacle in the desert
and, subsequently, the Temple of Solomon were built, were
Rosin (" Maimonidrs." pj> i 4). The first sentence in Lazarus <
man edition, p. 3) is ist das Grundbuch der jlldiM-hrn F.thik. "
:>as Problem der judischcn Sittenlehre " (" M- <- \ v J.,"
vol. xliii . p. 3-
i i
THK KTHK'S OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
of divine inspiration. " Love thy neighbor as thyself" \
sacred command of God. 1
Medicine was practised by the priests, hygienic laws \
strictly enforced, astronomical observations were made, because
the religious law required these things. Thus all the wisdom
of Biblical times was identified in a degree with religion. The
m of the prophets came to light as suggested by a relig-
ious subject or occasion ; hence the peculiar feature of the Bible,
to wit, the interblending of all the subjects of art, science, phi-
losophy and literature, without any plan or system other than the
one predominant desire, to further the cause of religion. Ethics
shared the same fate at the hands of those who wrote the Bible.
In the consciousness of the people a goodly number of
ethical thoughts and principles became crystallized in time in
the form of sayings or adages, and many of these sayings or
maxims were stored up in the Book of Proverbs, Kcclesiastes,
Ben Sira, and scattered here and there throughout the other
books of the Bible. In the Hebrew such proverbs or adages,
together with parables, fables, and even didactic songs, bore
the common name of Mashal 6cto), and in the collections just
mentioned we sometimes find these ethical dicta interspersed
with religious exhortations.
In the period of the development of the Mishna, the Tal-
mudim (Jerusalem and Babylonian) and the Midrashim, some
advance had been made in the exposition of ethics.'' \\Y
quently meet in these works with ethical sayings and parables
of real beauty and value, and even attempts at explaining Biblical
injunctions on the basis of ethical principles. Still no attempt
seems to have been made to reduce the study of ethics to a
formal science or the study of ethical teachings t< a system;
although the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philos-
irus (pp. 109, no). "In its origin Jewish ethirs is theologic. . . .
For' man's will and conduct there are standards that is, moral laws to be obeyed,
and (iod is the law-giver. Judaism regards what is morally good and what
pleasing \<> <i-nl. moral law and divine regulation, as inseparable concepts."
*Cf Hack (Winter und \Viinsclic, iii . pp. 027 ct
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
ophers were not unknown to the Hebrew sages. Here, again,
efforts were made to collect memorable sayings and proverbs,
for instance, in the " Chapters of the Fathers," but none to con-
struct a system. Abundant attention was given to the matter
of concrete ethics 1 (?0?), but no attempt was made to formulate
a systematic treatise on the subject corresponding to /^</?. a
During the period of the Saburaim and the Gaonim, up to
the time of Saadya Gaon, the representatives of Jewish thought
and learning certainly could not busy themselves with the build-
ing up of a theoretical system of ethics. The chief efforts of
the schools of Sura and Pumbaditha were bent upon evolving
order from out the chaos of Talmud ic jurisprudence, social,
criminal, and religious, and upon adapting the Tahnudic law to
. arious conditions under which the Jews lived in their dis-
persion the world over. In addition to the profound wisdom
and untiring activity required for the performance of such a
task, the rabbis must have wielded a moral power which com-
manded unbounded respect for their teachings and enactments;
but, engaged as they were in the truly herculean task of keep-
vastly dispersed constituency in common allegiance to the
law, and that without any worldly means of coercion, they could
not think of constructing a system of ethics, independent of
d< ^matic religious teaching.
The first to undertake this task was Saadya (892-942) in
the tenth chapter of the " Kmunoth we-Deoth." According to
his theory, the higher soul of man manifests itself in three
dynamic forces, so to speak inborn love, inborn aversion, and
discernment. In the tenth chapter of his book, Saadya emuner-
Utilities ot the soul which originate in intuitive
love, and which must be made subservient to discernment or
il training. Although this maybe considered an en<l<
.ti/e ethical theory, it cannot by any means be regarded
1 Cf. La/aruH (pp. 8, 9).
p. i ). "'
I ./-./. ). anil
165, 106).
3
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
as a complete work. Saadya makes no reference to the qualities
which result from inborn aversion, and thus leaves us in the
dark as to one-half of the system which he proposes to con-
struct. Moreover, the principal dynamic force of the soul, dis-
cernment, by which the offshoots or qualities resultant from the
other forces must be controlled and trained, is nothing more nor
less than what is called soul in a theological sense, in a Jewish
theological sense, and means little or nothing to the non-Jew
or non-believer. The real merit of the " Emunoth " consists in
the philosophical view it takes of the Jewish religion, and in its
brilliant defense of the ancient faith, as interpreted by the rab-
bis, as against the onslaughts of Karaism on the one hand,
and of heretical rationalism on the other. Still the writer foots
entirely upon tradition and dogmatic belief, and one must read
through the entire work and put one's self en rapport with the
author's religious views before being able to read appreciatively
the last chapter on the subject of ethics.
Ibn Gabirol took a new stand : he made an attempt to sys-
tematize ' the principles of ethics, independently of religious
dogma or belief. What Saadya ascribes to the higher soul of
man Gabirol attributes to the lower soul ; and the dynamic forces
of Saadya's higher soul he reduces to mere qualities or traits of
1 Munk (p. 169) believed that it was not the aim of Gabirol to establish "un
systeme de morale," but that he merely endeavored to write "un manuel populaire
de morale." Horovitz (p. 141, notes 155-158), following Munk, argues from
Gabirol's statements that the latter does not purport to set up an ordered system
of ethics, but merely wishes to write a practical handbook of morals in compliance
with the desire of his friends. " Er schlagt daher kein streng wissenschaftliches
Verfahren ein, es fehlt an jeder Definition der behandelten Begriffe, noch viel
weniger lasst er sich auf eine psychologische Zergliederung der erorterten Tu-
genden und Laster ein. . . . Wir konnen seinen Versuch nur als misslungen an-
sehen." Cf. also p. 142, note 164. Bacher (p. 51) holds that Gabirol's "Ethics"
pursues a scientific method. L. Venetianer (" Das Buch der Grade von ibn Fala-
quera," Berlin, 1894, p. xiv.) considers "Das Buch der Grade" "die erste wissen-
schaftliche systematische Ethik in der Literaturgeschichte der arabisch-jiidischen
Philosophic." The "Buch der Grade" is no more streng wissenschaftlich than
the ethical system of Gabirol. Hertz (p. 13) makes a similar claim for Bahya's
"Hoboth Ha-lebaboth," which he considers "the first Jewish ethical treatise
according to philosophical method."
4
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
the lower soul. Discernment, again, which his predecessor
regards as the balancing force of the higher soul, Gabirol
acknowledges to be no more than the utmost limit of perfection
in the lower soul, the line, so to speak, where the purely human
and the divine meet in man. In this wise, Gabirol's system of
ethics covers all that is truly human in conduct and in charac-
ter. With religious ethics which is beyond the " line of intel-
ligence," in so far as intelligence itself depends upon higher
inspiration, he does not meddle. From this point of view
his " Ethics " is unique, and must have created a considerable
stir among the religious thinkers of his time; but since Gabirol
avoids all religious questions, refers to the rabbis in reverent
tone, and quotes the Bible' in support of his views, he could
not be condemned as a heretic he was shunned rather than
despised.
The life of Gabirol, sharing in this respect the fate of the
Hebrew prophets and many later leaders in Jewish affairs, is
little known, and the little that is known is gleaned from casual
remarks which occur in his poems and from the meagre notices
of authors 3 who refer to his works.
Salomo ben Jehuda ibn Gabirol 3 (the Arabic form of his
' In the " Ethics, " Gabirol refers to the Bible in order to find some additional
support for his views, but he nowhere bases his thought upon a biblical verse or
paragraph. In the " Tons Vita; " he went one step further and entirely refrained
from citing the Bible. Horovitz (p. 78, notes 4, 5) alludes to this, following
Munk. Cf. Schmeidl (p. 103), Bacher (p. 45), Guttmann (p. 4), and Stossel (p.
47), who points out that Gabirol in this respect stands alone among the Jewish-
Arabic philosophers, Saadya, Maimonides, and their successors.
As proof of the attempt "Gabirol todtzuschweigen," one need but refer to
the work of a philosopher of the thirteenth century, who, in his " Ya'ir Netib," re-
commends the dil ; gent study of D s "lD1En "HDD. but fails to mention Gabirol's
"Ethics." Cf. Glidemann ("Das jiid. Unter. wahr. der Span. -Arab. Per. ," p.
59 of the Hebrew part). The mention of "The Choice of Pearls," by the
same author, Jehuda b Sam. b. Abbas, may imply that even as early as the thir-
teenth century the Gabirolian authorship of the "Choice of Pearls " was not ac
cepted. Cf. Steinschneider ("II. U.,"pp. 382-388).
Cf. Dukes (pp. 118-121).
'The name may be written either Gabirol or Gebirol ; cf. Geiger (p. ii<,
note 2=). As to the form Gebirol, a diminutive, cf. Kaufmann ("M. G. W. J.,"
vol. xliii., pp. 308, 309). ,
5
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
name being Abu Ayyub Sulaiman b. Yahya ibn Jabirol), poet l
and philosopher, 3 was born in Malaga about 1021, lived for
a time at Saragossa, and died at Valencia in the year 1058 3 or
1059. The two philosophical works of Gabirol are " Fons Vitae "
and "The Improvement of the Qualities of the Soul," the
1 Cf. Geiger, Sachs, Kampf, Dukes (several works), Stein and Steinschneider
("H. U.," p. 379, note 77), who give the literature on the subject.
2 For an account of the life and the works of Gabirol, consult Munk, Gratz,
Dukes, Guttmann, Geiger, Horovitz, Kaufmann, Kampf (pp. 167-191), Myer,
Schmiedl, Sachs (pp. 213-248), Joel, Stossel, Bacher (pp. 45-55), Rosin
(" Maimonides." pp. n, 12), Lowenthal, Kaufmann (" Attributenlehre," pp. 95-
115), Dukes (" Ehrensaulen, " pp. 1-25 and 59-76), Karpeles (" Geschichte der
jiidischen Literatur," i., pp. 465-483), Winter und Wlinsche (ii., pp. 723-730),
Eisler (" Vorlesungen tiber die jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters," Wien,
1876, i., pp. 57-68), Friedlander ("Geschichtsbilder," Briinn, 1880, pp. 23-28),
Baumker (" Avencebrolis Fons Vitae," Miinster, 1895), Adler("Ibn Gabirol and
His Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy," London, 1865), Guttmann ("Das
Verhaltniss des Thomas von Aquino . . . zur jiidischen Litteratur," Gottin-
gen, 1891, pp. 16-30), Muller (" De Godsleer der Middeleeuwsche Joden, " Gron-
ingen, 1898, pp. 90-107), Kahana (n^CTI. vol. i. , pp. 38-48-).
3 This latter date is uncertain, but is accepted by Steinschneider (" H. U.,"
p. 379) and Neubauer ("M. G. W. J. ," vol. xxxvi. , p. 498 et seq.}, who base
their judgments upon the statements of authors nearly contemporaneous with Gab-
irol. Steinschneider accepts the statement of Sa'id (circa 1070) , who praises
Gabirol as a logician and makes mention of his death, February, 1058, before the
completion of Gabirol 's "thirties." This coincides with the date given by the
poet Jehuda al-Harizi, who relates that Gabirol died at something over thirty
years. Munk (p. 157, note i) quotes these words of Harizi from the Amsterdam
edition of the Tahkemoni, JO tib D^PPI Ijn HM VI J Dn^Jfl VET) pV but
raises the very vulnerable objection that Gabirol could not have died at so early an
age, seeing that his works were important and revealed above all the prolonged
meditations of a spirit ripened by years. Munk (p. 156, note i) , who accepts the
date of Gabirol's death, 1070, in the city of Valencia, as given in Abraham Zacu-
to's " Yuhasin, " publishes an extract from an Arabic work of Moses ibn Ezra
(Hebrew Supplement, pp. 515-517, and French translation, pp. 263-265), whom
Harizi probably followed, which declared that "this young man, Gabirol, died in
the flower of his youth, in the early part of the eighth century (i.e. , about 1040 of
the present era) he had hardly passed his thirtieth year." Kampf (pp. 187-
191), basing his argument upon an explanation of Professor 'Roediger, holds that
the Arabic text of ibn Ezra bears out the interpretation that Gabirol "had already
passed the thirties." Neubauer, Steinschneider ("H. U.," p. 379, note 76), and
Kaufmann (p. 79, note 2) accept this date, namely, about 1057, which corresponds
with Sa'id's date. Guttmann (p. i, not" T ) without giving any reasons in support
of his position, inclines to the later date of Zacuto ; Gratz (note 2, pp. 419-421)
6
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
latter being ethical in character. The " Ethics " was written
in the year 1045 ' (1048). On the whole, the " Ethics " is writ-
ten in a fluent and classic Arabic style. Though excellently
translated it must be said that the occasional obscure pass-
ages are not made less obscure by the translator. The main
difficulty in translating arose from the fact that the Hebrew
language did not compare with the Arabic in the copiousness
of its philosophical terminology. In some places the Hebrew is
marked by an almost slavish fidelity to the original. The present
translator has erred, in not a few passages, in the same way.
The manuscript (1422,2 in the Bodleian Library) is a part of
the collection which was founded by Bishop Huntington during
his residence in the East as chaplain to the English merchants
at Aleppo. It consists of 46 pages 8vo, written in the Syrio-
Rabbinic Hebrew characters, about the end of the fourteenth
century, according to Neubauer. The following Hebrew man-
uscripts of the " Ethics " are extant : Paris (Bibliotheque natio-
nale, Ms. Hebr., 671,2), Bodleian (Neubauer 2413,7, and
1402,2), Jews' College, London (Neubauer 48,3), Leeuwarden
(cf. Neubauer, " Israelitische Letterbode," vol. xii., p. 83), Mun-
chen (St. 201,1 and 327,3), Talmud Torah Library in Rome,
and Casanate Library in Rome. 2 The following are the
printed editions : 3
likewise accepts the date 1069 or 1070. Dukes ("Ehrensaulen," p. 10, note 2),
whose calculation is rather far-fetched, believes that Gabirol died some time be-
tween the years 1070-1080, at about the age of thirty.
1 Steinschneider and Neubauer are correct in reading the date as 828 (1068),
but it has occurred to me that this date may be merely a reminiscence of the year
of Gabirol's death, current in the days of the copyist. Munk admits that 1428 (Sel.
era), as he reads the manuscript, leads to an erroneous conclusion. Steinschneider
("II. U.," p. 381, note 94) is inclined to accept the date 1045, which is given in
the earliest Hebrew sources and some of the Hebrew manuscripts.
* The two manuscripts in Rome were collated by K. Pollak for the Budapest
edition.
8 Cf. Steinschneider (" II . U.," 381). Lengthy extracts from the "Ethics"
en in a Latin translation by <i. (it-ntius, Amsterdam, 1640 (cf. Dukes, p.
t-2i), in a Latin version of Maimonides' niiH ni^H. The translator evidently
used only a Hebrew text, for the verses, as well as the concluding paragraphs of
<l>i( text, are missing. Rosin (p. 163, note 2) mentions an edition of the
" Kthics." published at \\ilna in 1845.
7
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Constantinople, 4to, 1550 (together with Bahya's rVQin
Riva di Trento, 1 4to, 1562 (together with Honein's
D^iDi^an, and rnann'D under the general title, pa: pi:.
Luneville, 4to, 1807 (same title and contents as the Riva di
Trento edition).
Lyck, I2mo, 1859 (same general title pa: pi:, but only the
"Ethics").
Warsaw, 8vo, 1886 (not mentioned by Steinschneider,
"H. U.">
Budapest, 8vo, 1896.
The " Fons Vitae " was attributed for centuries to a scho-
lastic philosopher, Avicebron, until Munk recognized 2 in 1846
that Ibn Gabirol and Avicebron were one, the name Avicebrol
(Avicebron) being a corruption of Ibn Gabirol or Ibn Gebirol. 3
The Arabic original of the " Fons Vitae" is lost, but a Latin trans-
lation has been preserved which was made by Johannes Hispa-
lensis, with the aid of Dominicus Gundisalvus. According to
Steinschneider (" H. U. ," p. 380) four manuscript copies of this
translation are extant. Munk discovered the identity of Avice-
bron and Ibn Gabirol through a comparison of the Paris manu-
script of the " Fons Vitae " with a Hebrew work by Shemtob
Palquera in the Paris Library, which proved to be a paraphrase
of the Arabic original, of which the " Fons Vitae " was evidently
likewise a translation. This discovery was of the greatest im-
portance, inasmuch as Avicebron the Jew, Salomon ibn Gabirol,
played no unimportant part in the development of scholastic phi-
1 In the Index Expurgationis ; cf. " R. E. J.," xxx., p. 273.
2 Cf. Guttmann (p. 7, note i)and " Literaturblatt des Orients," 1846, No. 46.
3 Kampf (p. 175, note n), in showing that the name Ibn Gebirol was natu-
rally altered in time into Avicebron, cites the name Reuben ha-Barceloni, which
became Bargeloni. The reverse change occurred in the name Ibn Gebirol. through
the transitional stages of Avengebirol, Avencebrol, and Avencebron, to Avicebron.
The change from Ibn to Avi is not uncommon ; cf. Ibn Sina Avicenna, Ibn
Badsha Avempace. According to M. Wittmann ("Die Stellung des HI.
Thomas von Aquin zu Avencebrol, Ibn Gebirol," Miinster, 1900, p. i, note 5),
the form Avicebrol is found as late as the time of Bradwardina, who died 1349.
The note is based upon information furnished by Ur. Cl. Baumker.
8
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
losophy. In recent years the " Fons Vitae," particularly the
Latin version, has received scholarly and ample treatment in
the works of Seyerlen, Guttmann, Baumker, and Wittmann.
In setting out to write the " Ethics," Gabirol endeavored
to give a systematic exposition of the endowments of the
human soul, i.e., the impulses, which may be so trained as to
lead to virtue, or permitted, ungoverned or ill-governed, to make
for vice. This task accomplished, he began to work at the
" Fons Vitae," which was designed to explain the revelation of
Deity in the world. 5 The " Ethics " may be regarded as a work
preparatory to the " Fons Vitae." The results, at which he ar-
rived in the " Ethics," 2 reasoning from the human senses, as he
perceived them, up to the highest spiritual possibilities of man,
formed the basis of his theological demonstration in " Fons
Vitae," which is based upon deductive methods of reasoning.
In the " Ethics " 3 Gabirol does not question any of the
theological or philosophical conceptions of his time. 4 God is :
He has created all that exists; man is the masterwork and
highest purpose of creation, the aim of all that has been called
into existence. 5 The symmetry of his form and the beauty of
1 Cf. Munk (p. 4 and p. 170 et seq.).
2 Frankel-Griin (p. 43, note 2), following Geiger (p. 86 et se<j.), speaks of
Gabirol's "Ethics" as "Vorstufe zur Metaphysick." Lowenthal ("Pseudo-
Arist.," p. 39) holds the "Ethics" to have been written demonstrably later than
the " Fons Vitae." /
3 An excellent, though brief, analysis of the " Ethics" of Gabirol is given by
Guttmann (pp. 17, 18), who, however, overestimates, in my judgment, the influ-
ence of Saadya upon the teachings of Gabirol. Cf. Munk (pp. 167-169), Dukes,
Rosin (pp. 166-181), and Ilorovitz (pp. 138-142).
4 It would undoubtedly be a fruitful task to trace the elements of Gabirol's
system of ethics, in so far as these are directly related to physics and metaphysics,
back to their first mainly Greek sources. Nevertheless, even though we would
insist in the spirit of Gabirol upon viewing this work as a system of ethics rather
than as a mere compilation of moral maxims, Gabirol does not dwell sufficiently
upon this aspect of his work to justify such a course.
6 This theory was held by Saadya (Kmunoth we-Deoth, iii. 58, iv. 75, vi. 95,
edition of Siucky. Leipzig, 1864), Bahya (BrUll. p. 73, note i), Donolo and Israeli
( Fried, pp. 59 and 37) , Joseph ibn Zaddik, and even by Gabirol's fierce antagonist,
Abraham ibn Daud, but opposed by Maimonides ; cf. Rosin (" Maimonides," p.
99) , Guttmann (" Saadya," pp. 83, 84. and 159-163), and Fried (p. 42).
9
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
his construction 1 render him the peer of all animal creatures;
and his intelligence and the spiritual endowments, which con-
stitute his soul, raise him infinitely above those creatures. 2
This soul makes him the equal of the angels, which are the
powers intermediary between the physical world and Deity.
By cultivating his powers for good (his virtues), man becomes
even the superior of those intermediary beings ; 3 for the latter
cannot be any more or less than that which they are, or accom-
plish any more or less than that unto which they are destined,
while man may rise through the measure of his spiritual perfec-
tion and beneficent activity to Deity himself, and even cause
the angels to serve him. At this point Gabirol quotes passages
from the Bible in which the angels are represented as acting
in the service of man, or even dominated by him. Curiously
enough, in this place, as well as in all the subsequent parts of
this book in which the Bible is cited in support of his views,
the author ignores the Talmudim and Midrashim, which might
have answered his purpose better and illustrated his thoughts to
greater advantage.
The argument thus far is based on the assumption that man
is a direct emanation of the Deity, and that his soul tends
toward reunion with the source of all being. The question now
suggests itself why is there any difference between man and
man? In other words, why do individual men vary in their
temperaments and spiritual powers ? There can be but one
answer to this question, and that is, the differences are due to
the cultivation of the soul. In the measure in which the soul
is more or less cultivated, in the measure in which it divests
itself of its sympathies with the lower sensual impulses and
makes for a loftier 'spiritual ideal, it places itself higher in the
scale of human perfection and ascends nearer to Deity. Still,
1 Cf. Musen (p. n).
2 Cf. Briill(p. 73, note 2).
3 Saadya places man above the angels, according to Abraham ibn Ezra ; cf.
Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 160, note i) and Schmiedl (p. 84) . This view was held
as early as the ninth century by David ben Merwan, who is quoted ad rent by
Jephet ben Ali of the tenth century ; cf. Beer (p. 15, and notes 27-30).
10
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
the soul, as it manifests itself in the life of this earth, in visible
existence, is but a creation of Deity and not Deity itself ; it is
not entirely free 1 to act of its own accord. In our time we
would say that the powers of every individual soul are limited
to a degree by the accidents of birth and environment, as well
as by racial and family peculiarities heredity. In Gabirol's
time it was believed that the soul was limited by the celestial
bodies : in principle, the ancient and modern thought on this
subject concur; the qualifications of every individual soul are
limited. But since we cannot accurately determine our relation
to Deity, and know not what limits the accidents of birth and
environment have destined for our souls, it is our duty to make
for the highest ideal.
" Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as plowing
and irrigating help the seed to grow." Through such efforts
man can evoke the latent powers which are within him. There
are numerous passages in the Talmudim in support of these
views, of which our author could not have been ignorant ; 2 but
Gabirol, it appears, studiously avoided quoting these authorities
unless he had some special reason for so doing.
The question next suggests itself how and when should
this helping of the celestial bodies, this cultivating of the soul,
begin ? Gabirol answered this question in the following way :
In order to cultivate his soul, man must necessarily know its
peculiarities. He must therefore study himself as he is, closely
examine his character and inclinations, habituate himself to the
abandonment of what is mean, i.e., whatsoever draws him into
close contact with the physical and temporal, and aim at the
1 Cf. Maimonides (Wolff, p. 58), who takes especial note of these limitations,
which he calls "natural," but he makes light of "celestial influences." Cf. p. 48,
note I, showing that Gabirol's belief in planetary influence did not weaken his
faith in man's freedom of will.
*Cf. Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist.," p. 43, note i), who holds, together with
Sachs, in opposition to the view of Guttmann, that Gabirol was a student of the
Talmud. Stossel (p. 3^) holds that Gabirol's Azharot, as well as the "Gebet-
stUcke verrathen ohne Zweifel seine Vertrautheit mit dem rabbinischen Schrift-
thume "
II
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
spiritual and the abiding. This effort in itself is blessedness,
and man's ability to make such an effort is a proof of divine
benevolence. Passages from the Psalms are adduced in support
of these views.
Up to this point Gabirol has said nothing new; he merely
sums up the accepted articles of belief in a manner that leads to
his own system. If the conjecture be correct, that he deliber-
ately avoided the Talmud in order to place his system of ethics
on a basis independent of rabbinical dogmatism, 1 such an in-
troduction to his work was nothing less than ingenious. The
most ardent devotee of the Talmud could not object to these
postulates, for the Bible bears them out, and the rabbinical
law contains nothing to oppose them. Men of thought and
insight could hardly fail to see that if the author could dis-
pense with the rabbinical teachings in the exposition of ethical
principles, a strong doubt arises as to the necessity or even the
validity of those teachings concerning the ceremonial law.
Undoubtedly at the hands of such thinkers, such rabbinists, he
received the unkind treatment of which he makes mention
further on. In the introductory chapter of the "Ethics,"
Gabirol's task has not been difficult ; for he leaned on generally
accepted beliefs and principles. At this point, he abandons
the beaten track and proceeds to pursue a then comparatively
1 Seyerlen (p. 25 and notes 38 and 43) compares Gabirol with Spinoza, the
latter introducing modern philosophy as the former introduced mediaeval philo-
sophy, and he emphasizes Gabirol's philosophical independence of Jewish theo-
logical dogma in the words (p. 41, note 43) : "Denn er hat die Philosophic
keineswegs bloss als die Magd der rabbinischen Theologie angesehen und behan-
delt, als das bloss formale Organ fur die Vertheidigung und den Ausbau der tal-
mudischen Weisheit, wie z. B. der bei den Juden so hochgefeierte Maimonides ;
ihm ist die Philosophic durchaus Selbstzweck. er weist ihr eine souverane Stel-
lung an, eine Stellung so ganzlich unabhangig von der Theologie, dass selbst
jeder Seitenblick auf diese vermieden wird." Cf. Geiger (pp. 90-93), Stossel
(pp. 46-48), Sandier ("Problem der Prophetic in der jud. Religionsph. ," Bres-
lau, 1891, p. 29, note 66), and Spiegler ("Geschichte der Philosophic des Juden-
thums," Leipzig, p. 254), who holds that Gabirol "trug nicht des Glaubens
Sklavenketten " and also "attacked the authority of the ' Kalam.'" Kampf (p.
173) maintained that although Gabirol was untrammelled in his philosophic re-
search, he yet expected to reconcile his results with the teachings of theology.
12
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
unknown path. He bases his ethical system on the work of
Rabbi Shabbatai Donolo, 1 whose words he copies in so far as
is required for his purpose.
GAHIUOL. DONOLO.
(Translation of Jehuda ibn Tibbon.) (Introduction to UbViS DIN rwjtt tt>WO)
f inn s njn 2^i;n PN N-O D'nSxn o IEINI aSiyn So ns Niai 10^ n*?Nn oniDM paiNDi
oc' ;'iai 503 nr r^i> s i . . c'>28 njrais hy K>NI O^DI nn nniD <i n npaiN on ppni 1*713
o-an raiyS nja^n nrvSm -Pixn naipS Din 13 nnin mnm nom moi nn^i 01 oni nsp
mam -^yn raij: 1 ? minc'n mam n-icm nSi -ip nn^Sn roi . . . . nnn nj Din
wa o^tt' T^an^ wnai aNn rcvS ^" nmnn nincni ---- C-NH nj nciisn
o^m nern ID Niai 131 iDrv N 1 ?
Being a close and logical thinker, he merely sums up and
iterates Donolo's idea 2 that man is the microcosm, a counter-
part or reflex of the universe entire, macrocosm, and leaves
this subject, bringing us directly to his own assumption that
the five senses, whose powers of perception are manifested i
through the composition and intermingling of the four elements 3
of the human body, constitute the links between the physical
and the spiritual in the constitution of man. To impress this
thought upon his readers, Gabirol allegorizes 4 the passage of
1 A physician and astronomer of the tenth century (b. 913).
9 Fried (p. 59, note i) shows that Donolo, in considering the world a micro-
cosm and man a macrocosm, and in deriving the composition of the body from
four humors corresponding to the four elements, follows the work of Israeli (855-
955)i which is in turn dependent upon HT^ D- Cf. Geiger (" Melo Chofnajim, "
Berlin, 1840, p. 29). Fried furthermore proves the dependence of Gabirol (p.
59), Bahya, Moses ibn Ezra, Halevi, Ibn Daud, Joseph ibn Zaddik (cf. Jellinek,
"Mikrokosmos," p. x., Bloch in Winter und Wiinsche, ii., p. 729, Steinschneider,
"II. U.," p. 407, Kaufmann, p. 5, note 2, Joel, i. , pp. 29, 30) upon Israeli.
8 Cf. Horovitz (p. 129, note no). On the place of the four elements in the
metaphysical speculation of the Middle Ages, cf. Schmiedl (pp. 282-287).
4 According to Gratz (vi., p. 47), Gabirol " allegorisirte Schriftverse um sie
den Ideen seiner Philosophic anzubequemen." Dukes (p. 113), changing the
opinion he had expressed in " Ehrensaulen " (p. 11), declares, in regard to this
passage : " Dieses ist eine philosophische Allegoric zu nennen." The critics, who
viewed this " philosophical allegory " as a mere exegetical effort, have done an in-
justice to the great thinker and poet. Gabirol's exegetical proofs of his ethical
principles are mere mnemonics, as the Talmudists have it, or inserted for the mere
purpose of giving an apparently religious or theological coloring to his extremely
secular and rationalistic views. This I would hold in opposition to the belief of
Bacher and Rosin, who lay great stress upon Gabirol's theological bearing and sig-
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Ecclesiastes (ix. 11), in such a manner as to make its compo-
nent elements severally indicate the different points of his
proposition.
Though he attributes the virtues to the senses/ Gabirol
would have it distinctly understood that he treats only of the
five physical senses, and not of the concealed 2 senses, which par-
take of the nature of the soul, such as HGWnn, perception, and nrn,
understanding. Thus he draws a sharp line of distinction be-
tween the purely physical and the purely psychical perceptions; 3
with the latter Gabirol does not pretend to meddle, having made
only the qualities that depend on the former the object of his
nificance. Brilll (p. 71) thinks that Gabirol's method is common to all mediaeval
ethical writers. A confirmation of this opinion is to be found in the fact that Gab-
irol always, or usually, states his thesis before citing biblical passages, while his
contemporaries and predecessors, excepting perhaps Saadya, who is almost as much
of a rationalist, practise the reverse method. Bloch (Winter und Wunsche. ii., p.
700) thinks it is characteristic of the Jewish " religious philosophy " of the Middle
Ages to cite the Bible only in support of propositions, the very reverse of the schol-
astic tendency, which was to make all reasoning follow upon and be subsidiary to
scriptural statement. Schmeidl (p. 103) remarks that Gabirol in "Fons Vitse"
makes no effort to adduce biblical verses in support of his arguments as has been
noted before. From this, again, Joel infers that Gabirol placed himself entirely
outside of the pale of Jewish belief. This, however, was thoroughly refuted by
Kaufmann (" Attributenlehre," p. 109, note IQ). Hence it seems that Gabirol
failed to quote the Bible in his philosophical works, rather out of reverence for
Scripture than because of aversion to it. But in his younger days, when he wrote
the " Ethics," he was not so cautious, and quoted biblical passages as mnemonics,
if not in confirmation of his thought. This he did in compliance with the practice
of all the Hebrew writers of his age. It would appear from this that when Gabirol
was mature enough to compose the " Fons Vita;," he felt himself so strong and
secure that he no longer deemed it needful to accommodate himself to the prevalent
style of writing. Cf. Guttmann (p. 4). For this additional reason his philosophy
was ignored by his contemporaries and he personally was persecuted. Abraham ibn
Daud alone set forth (in his HE") i"D1K) expressly to confute the heretical teachings
of Gabirol. Maimonides completely ignored him. Cf. Beer (pp. 22, 23, and An-
merkungen, xxxii. to xxxv.).
1 Cf. Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 261, note i.)
2 Horovitz (p. 138, note 138).
3 Rosin (p. 174) remarks that among the virtues enumerated by Gabirol,
"three of the cardinal platonic virtues, viz., temperance, wisdom, and justice, are
omitted." Viewing the line of distinction here laid down, there is no room left
for such an objection. Only such qualities as are attributed to the physical senses
are considered by Gabirol.
14
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
investigation. The good and the evil in man are judged on the
basis of his relations to the world without. These relations
take their rise through the physical senses, fora man cannot act
toward that which is outside of him, save as he perceives it
through coming into physical touch with it. Therefore, all the
tractable qualities of the soul must be cultivated with due re-
gard to the part played by the senses. ' In addition to the dis-
tinction between the physical and the concealed senses, Saadya
made a further distinction between the tractable qualities of
the soul, such traits as can be trained unto the good, or
allowed to lead unto evil, and the "powers of the soul,"
6?ajn mro. These " powers of the soul," according to Saadya, 2
are natural impulses acting independently of the power of will or
even of consciousness. It is by means of these that the exist-
ence of the soul is made manifest. These are rron, cognition, 3
niKD, desire (inborn love), and DJD, wrath (inborn aversion). The
two latter powers act from impulse, so to speak ; their possessor
being unconscious of, and, in a measure, irresponsible for their
action. Cognition or discernment is the supreme natural
power, which maintains the balance between inborn love
and inborn aversion. Gabirol ignored this idea of his great
predecessor, for he disagreed with Saadya, as will be made
clear, but appears unwilling overtly to express his disagree-
ment.
The wise man ought to profit by the knowledge that the
senses, in a measure, determine the qualities (the virtues and
vices), and that these again are constituted of and governed by
1 For a fuller treatment of the relation of the senses to the moral qualities, cf.
the last chapter of Ilorovitz.
8 Guttmann (" Saadya." p. 26r, note i; p. 201, notes 2 and 3; p. 223,
note 2)
8 Maimonides divides this " power of the soul " into two parts ^JftDn ?Dt?,
"practical intelligence," ; e., that part of intelligence which chooses between the
good and the evil ; and 'JVyn 73K>. " theoretical intelligence," which can distin-
guish between the true and the false. In both cases discernment acts intuitively,
(cf. }n mi. ch 3). The two aspects of this " power of the soul" are alike dis-
tinct from the SxTlDH ^3C>, which is a clear, rational conception of the causes that
affect man from without.
IS
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
the four humors' which represent the four physical elements. 1
The wise man ought to make his senses serve him, and yet hold
them well in check, in order to keep them from that which is not
meet for them. Like the skilful physician, 3 who determines
the nature of an illness by taking account of the disproportionate
division (or combination) of heat and cold, humidity and dryness
in the body of the patient, and who mingles his drugs in such
proportions as to respond to the wants of the sick body and re-
store its natural equilibrium, the wise man ought to take heed
of his qualities, which are identical with his senses, and yield
to them only in so far as it may be necessary. Deity has given
these natural impulses that they may be trained according to
the requirements of worthy conduct ; through rightful rule over
them, the object of man's being is attained; that is, the higher
life i's attained as long as life endures.
Thus we have Gabirol's theses, which may be summed up
as follows : The qualities of the soul are made manifest through
the five senses, and these senses in turn are constituted of the
four humors. Even as the humors may be modified one by
the other, so can the senses be controlled and the qualities of the
soul be trained unto good or evil.
One qualification must be noted : the soul here spoken of
1 Cf. Dieterici (" Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go).
2 Cf. Dieterici (" Logik, " p. 103). In a very appreciative paper, included in
the " Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Miinchen," 1866, ii., Haneberg, who is closely followed by Guttmann. shows
the relationship of Ibn Gabirol to the Encyclopadie of the " Ihwan al-safa. " The
points of contact between the Encyclop die and the "Ethics" are less marked,
except in those things common to both " Fons Vitse " and " Ethics," ?.., Micro-
cosm and Macrocosm. Cf. Guttmann (p. 35, note 7), Seyerlen (p. 21 and note
29) , and Horovitz (p. 91).
3 Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 12, note 2 ; p. 37, note 5 ; p. 47, note 3 ; pp. 77, 78
and notes) thinks that Maimonides' term for ethics DHDn jlpD (possibly a remi-
niscence of Gabirol's designation, the title of this book in the translation) shows
that he, too. conceived ethics to be, figuratively speaking, like the attempt of the
physician to order or re-arrange the bodily elements with a view to restoring har-
mony, which is health. Cf. Guttman ("Ibn Baud," p. 217, note i), Wolff
(" Maimonides," p. 2), Guttman (" Saadya," p. 282), Dukes (p. 93, and " Phil.,"
p. 79, note 2), Rosin (p. 169), and Musen (p. 6).
16
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
does not connote the divine within man ; it refers only to the
animal soul within man. 1 The author is cognizant of purely
psychical qualities, which have no relation to the physical con-
stitution, but he does not treat of these. Similarly, he is cog-
nizant of the concealed senses, which stand in no relation to
the humors and elements. But he refrains from treating of
these. Gabirol's object is to establish a system of purely
physio-psychological ethics. 2
In attributing the qualities of the soul to the five senses,
Gabirol is as original 3 as he is ingenious. In his demonstra-
tions he leans altogether on the Bible and avoids the Talmudim
and Midrashim. To the sense of sight he attributes the vir-
tues of meekness and pudency, and their opposites, pride and
impudence. He describes the sense of sight as the principal
one possessed by man, 4 standing in relation to the whole human
1 Cf . Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 46, note i), also chap. 7, &TI1D "ttD 1 , of
Abraham ibn Ezra, translated by Creizenach, Frankfort, 1840.
8 Dukes uses the term (p. 10) " eine psychologisch-ethische Abhandlung."
3 Cf. Dukes (pp. 95, 96). Kaufmann (" Die Theologie des Bachya ibn Pa-
kuda, " Wien, 1874, p. 193 et seg.) argues that Bahya's failure to mention Gabirol
in the enumeration of his philosophical sources, together with the fact of "eine
entschiedene Verwandschaft mit Bahya in einem Punkte," compels us to the con-
clusion " dass Gabirol in dieser Schrift bereits aus dem Werke Bachya's entlehnt
habe " (cf. " Sinne," p. 29, note 92). Kaufmann (p. 194, note 2) gives a close
comparison of Gabirol's classification of the twenty qualities with Bahya's ni^TH
rVQ3;>n. For a thoroughly convincing refutation, cf. Briill (p. 71 et see].).
Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 372, note 39), while undecided, leans a little to the
side of Gabirol's priority. Dukes (p. 10) does not doubt Bahya's dependence
upon Gabirol. Bacher (p. 57, note i) thinks that Bahya's arrangement (iii. , 10)
of the good and evil qualities follows that of Gabirol, thus dissenting from the
view of Kaufmann. Hertz (p. 28, note 4) regards it "questionable whether
Bahya and Gabirol at all knew each other's work." Broyde (" Les Reflexions de
1'ame par Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakouda," Paris, 1896) believes that Bahya de-
signed this work to be a refutation of the ethical principles laid down by Gabirol.
Schreiner (" H. I'..," vol. i., pp. 121-128) dissents from Broyde in this, and Gutt-
mann("M. (,. \V. [.," vol. xli., pp. 241-256) strenuously denies the authenticity
of this work, maintaining, moreover (p. 246, note 5). " Der Parallelismus zwischen
Bachya's und Gabirol's Schriften, den Broyde aufstellt (Hebr. Einleit., S. 9),
entbehrt jeder wissenschaftlichen Begrllndung."
4 Maimonides adopts this idea in full ; in fact, many resemblances to the
thought of Gabirol are traceable in the writings of Maimonides (}n F1V1, end of
chap, i and beginning of chap. 2).
2 17
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
structure as the sun to the solar system. Its excellence con-
sists in that it perceives near and distant objects within the
same time; its demerit, on the other hand, consists in the ina-
bility of the eye to see when it is closed; but the opening
and closing of the eyes in a conscious state depend upon the
power of the will, and the will power is exercised by the mind,
which is an attribute of the divine soul. Hence the sense of
sight stands nearest to the divine soul. 1 Another proof of this
is that the eye performs its functions only while its possessor is
awake and has full control over his senses ; when man is asleep,
the activity of his mind is at a standstill, his eyes do not see.
" Wonderful," says Gabirol, "are the words of the philosopher,
who said that the soul has spiritual hues, which are reflected
by the motions of the eyebrows." Hence the eye expresses
directly the qualities of the divine soul. 2 Our author, however,
will not go a step further into the inquiry as to the nature of
the divine soul ; the animal soul with its qualities forms the
field of his research. He touches upon this boundary only to
prove that the sense of sight forms, so to speak, the link between
the purely animal and the divine within man, and to justify his
position in attributing to it the qualities of meekness and
pudency, pride and impudence.
From Gabirol's discussion respecting each of the virtues, to
which the second part of the " Ethics " is devoted, it appears that
meekness is occasioned by a clear perception of the insignifi-
cance of the individual man as compared with the greatness and
grandeur of the world; pride, on the other hand, is caused by
an over-estimation of self and self's attainments. Pudency,
likewise, is the effect of calm consideration and wise reflection
touching the fitness of action to environment, whereas impu-
dence is a sanguine, ill-considered display of over-estimation of
1 For a full exposition of the relation of the senses to the soul as understood
in the time of Gabirol, see Kaufmann's " Sinne."
2 Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist. , " p. 125, note 6) suggests the Talmudic allegory
(" Ntddah," f. 30 b), showing that the sense of sight is the principal agent in
conveying wisdom, even to the unborn child.
18
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
self, and disregard for the worth and attainments of others.
Gabirol advises the proud and impudent to contemplate the
grandeur of creation, and to ponder upon the worth of the wise
and truly great men, in order that their arrogance may be mod-
erated. He points out, too, that pride and impudence are in-
stinctively, as it were, hated and despised, and that they provi-
dentially lead to disgrace and humiliation.
Next to the sense of sight is the sense of hearing, which
may be said to be almost as important as the former. The
" perceptions " of the sense of hearing are not as numerous and
not as attractive as the " perceptions " of the sense of sight ;
nor can the ear be controlled, as is the eye, by the power of the
will still, as a mere animal function, it is tractable. To the
sense of hearing Gabirol attributes the qualities of love and
mercy, hatred and cruelty. He is not quite explicit in giving
the reasons which lead him to attribute these qualities of the
animal soul to this sense, but he intimates that men of under-
standing will find his hints quite sufficient, and begs the reader
to excuse him for failing to produce arguments which require
elaborate and scientific demonstration. It is easy to perceive
why he is reticent at this point, and why he here puts forward
the provocation suffered by him at the hands of adversaries. In
attributing love and mercy, together with their opposites, to the
sense of hearing, and thus including them among the qualities
of animal life which can be modified by intelligent design,
Gabirol runs counter to the accepted belief of his time. It was
pointed out that his predecessor, Saadya, laid down as a postu-
late that desire and aversion, inborn love and inborn hate, be-
longed to the "powers of the soul" which work independently
of the will, and for the working of which man is, in a certain
measure, irresponsible. Gabirol, on the other hand, classifies
these with all other animal qualities which are subject to change
and modification at the demand of human reason. This point
of difference between him and Saadya was not alone sufficient
to arouse against him the enmity of the disciples of Saadya,
but even to mark him as an heretic. For he had ruled out
'9
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
providential intervention in the two most important " forces of
the soul," and thus made them out to be the servants of reason
or intelligence.
Love, according to Gabirol, is identical with lust, and is to
be attributed to animal passion. It is a quality to which most
human beings are heir, and which only those whose reason has
perfectly mastered their animal nature are spared. One of
the most pernicious effects of this trait is, that he who is
given to it lacks consistency and does not abide by his word.
The wise man must keep himself free from this passion. The
good sides of this quality come to light in the love of friends
and relatives, in the love of native land, in the love of wisdom
and of God, that love which prompts to good-will, to the fulfil-
ment of duty, and to ideal pursuits. Mercy is the noble twin
sister of love, and Gabirol finds no evil in it. Its nobility is so
exalted that it has even been represented as an attribute of
Deity. Hate is the opposite of love, and, as in the case of the
latter, its possessor is marked by inconsistency and a lack of
truthfulness. Sorrow and discontent are its constant compan-
ions. The worst form of hate is that which is caused by envy
or jealousy. Love and hate merge into each other if the object
of love be not ideal, if it be the mere satisfaction of physical
desire. Cruelty again is a quality of degraded and savage hu-
man beings, of those whose nature i c most nearly related to
that of wild beasts. Even in cases of meting out justice, cru-
elty may be excusable, but is never commendable. A wise
man should abstain from it altogether.
To the sense of smell are attributed the virtues of good- will
and wide-awakedness, wrath and jealousy. All these qualities
are revealed or expressed in the act of breathing. In order to
exercise good-will under exasperating circumstances, where dis-
pleasure would almost be in place, an effort is required like
unto that which is expended in holding one's breath. Wide-
awakedness in the doing of any work requires free breathing,
and jealousy, which is related to wrath, is betrayed by strong
or suppressed breathing. The critics of Gabirol, who pointed
20
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
out the incompleteness of the " Ethics," must have had this
part of his work in view, for he is too laconic in his explana-
tions in this part of the treatise. But in this case, as in the
case of the sense of hearing, it has been pointed out that his re-
ticence can easily be explained. Attributing wrath to mere ani-
mal life, and subjecting it unconditionally to the training of the
higher spiritual endowment in man, he again runs counter to
the accepted belief of his time, which classed wrath among the
" forces of the soul." In the second part of the work, treating
of wrath, Gabirol plainly says that he does not follow the ac-
cepted systems of ethics which classed wrath among the "forces
of the soul," but places it among the " tractable qualities of
the soul," i.e., among the animal impulses, which the rational
soul can and must control. To justify his position he quotes
two rabbinical passages, viz., " Pirke Aboth," v., 14, where this
trait is declared to be of four kinds or degrees, and " Sabbath "
(Babylonian Talmud) f. 105, where it is said that "he who
rends his garments in his wrath, is like unto an idolater."
Avoiding the Talmud wherever he could, and quoting it only
when he opposed the accepted theory of Saadya, our author
simply intended to disarm the animosity of the adherents of the
old doctrine, which he knew his opposition would arouse. The
two passages he cites are indeed a strong refutation of Saadya's
assumption. If wrath were an intuitive impulse and beyond
the control of the rational soul, the rabbis could not classify it
as of four degrees ; a natural impulse always remains true to
itself, and consistent in all its manifestations. Nor could they
judge so harshly the individual who yields to this impulse.
That they have done so proves their agreement with the teach-
ing of Gabirol, that wrath is a tractable quality of the animal
soul over which the rational soul must prevail.
Gabirol holds that contentedness is closely related to, if not
identified with, meekness or humility, and the same process of
thinking which leads to the latter must also conduce to the
former. Contemplating the grandeur of creation leads, as we
have seen before, from pride to humility, and in the same way,
2 I
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
attributing every individual experience to life as a whole, which
is the " origin of all that is good, and the source of grace," leads
man to contentedness. Man should aspire to be deserving of
honor and elevation, but he should be contented with his posi-
tion humble though it be, until deserved preferment is bestowed
upon him ; let him never seek promotion or preferment. Try-
ing circumstances should be accepted as a training and influ-
ence for the good, as a providential guide. Forbearance and
forgiveness are offshoots of the quality of contentment, for he
who exercises this virtue will not allow provocation and dis-
pleasure to affect his demeanor toward others. Envy is an off-
shoot of wrath ; it is a trait common to all rational beings, and
few are they who can escape its pangs. Primarily it is an
incentive to activity, for if a man sees that his neighbor pos-
sesses good things, he desires to acquire similar things, or other
things that are equally good, although, if he had not seen them,
he could very well do without either the one or the other, and
would never make any efforts to possess them. When jealousy
is allowed to gain the upper hand it develops into covetousness,
which is diametrically opposed to nobility and leads to the
greatest wrong-doing. The wise man should keep himself aloof
from it, for it brings no good ; it causes pain and constant wor-
riment, leads to misanthropy, brings on spiritual and physical
disquietude. Envy is a good quality only when it conduces to
a desire to emulate the good, when it develops into zeal for
noble principles. Wide-awakedness is peculiar to a sanguine
disposition, and is displayed at its best by persons who are free
from evil inclinations and who are not burdened by the weight
of care and worry. The wise man must exercise this quality in
all his actions, in his search for wisdom as well as in the per-
formance of his practical duties. Laziness is its opposite, and
in its turn conduces to duplicity ; the person who is too lazy to
perform his work has recourse to sly cunning in order to gain
what he wants or to find excuses for not performing his duty.
When a man is active and wide-awake, the gases which the
body exhales vanish in the air; on the other hand, when the
22
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
body is inactive, these gases mount to the brain, causing drow-
siness and sleep. Wide-awakedness is a very commendable
quality and leads to prosperity. Still the wise man should take
care lest it degenerate into rashness or light-mindedness, for
good work can be accomplished only after calm consideration.
The sense of taste is the least noble of all the senses, but it
has an advantage in that none of the other senses can exist with-
out it, nor can it be thought of where the other senses are miss-
ing. The control of the sense of taste requires a nobler effort
than the control of the other senses, for through it the predom-
inance of intelligence over the purely animal inclinations is
most clearly manifested. It must not be forgotten that the
first sin of man was committed as a result of the desire to grat-
ify this sense.
To the sense of taste are attributed the qualities of joy and
grief, 1 tranquillity and penitence, qualities which imply enjoy-
ment and gratification or the reverse, privation and care. Ga-
birol has no difficulty in connecting cheerfulness, apprehensive-
ness, and intellectual calm with the sense of taste, but he uses
a roundabout argument to establish the connection of penitence
(remorse) with this sense. A person who is not resolute in his
deeds, and regrets one day what he has done the preceding day,
is always disturbed in his enjoyment of life and is never grati-
fied by that which is, because he cannot rid himself of the
thought of the mistakes, real or imaginary, of the past. Cheer-
fulness is a quality of various aspects in different persons; it is
peculiar to the "warm-humid temperament," and more espe-
cially to those whose wishes are always gratified and who, for a
long time, have been spared the pangs of disappointment and
regret. It is natural that such persons be in good health, and
that age come not quickly upon them. Sometimes, however,
cheerfulness comes with the attainment of a long-cherished de-
If this happen to a light-minded person, his joy is mani-
1 in outbursts of merriment upon occasions \vlu-n merri-
ment and laughter are out of place. " It is my opinion," says
1 Cf. Rosin (p. 174, note i).
23
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Gabirol, "that cheerfulness is becoming to those pure and
clarified souls, which are inaccessible to flattery and exempt
from hypocrisy, the souls which are 'related to dominion/ which
rise in the scale of spirituality I mean to say, the souls of the
righteous who have perfect enjoyment in the object of their
activity and great delight in their abstinence from worldly
pleasures."
Our author emphasizes here that rejoicing, as well as de-
spondency, belongs to the purely animal nature, and cites Galen
as his authority to that effect. Man must always see to it that
his "animal soul" be in perfect submission to his "rational
soul," i.e., "that his intelligence control his natural impulses."
Apprehensiveness or grief is the opposite of cheerfulness
and appears in those whose desires are not gratified, and who
are disappointed in their hopes " when the soul misses that
which she loves." The possession of this quality leaves visible
marks upon the features of the countenance. The more a man
yields to the transient things of this world, the more he sue
cumbs to his animal desires and inclinations, the oftener is he
subject to disappointment, and a feeling of dissatisfaction and
gloom. On the other hand, the more he turns away from the
transient things and physical enjoyments, the more he devotes
himself to the study of science or the quest of moral and relig-
ious wisdom, the less disappointment will he suffer, and the
farther away from him will be sadness. It will be seen in the
translation (iii., 2) that Gabirol dwells upon the subject of
sadness at some length, and says many admirable things with a
view to consoling the sad at heart and the sorrow-stricken.
Dr. Sachs pertinently points out that Gabirol's brooding dispo-
sition and saddening experience seem to have dictated his utter-
ances on this subject. 1 It is noteworthy that the optimistic
spirit of Gabirol prompts him to find a good use even for sad-
ness, and this on purely pathological principles. Sadness
causes a person to shed tears, and by these means nature rids
itself of the used-up fluids which accumulate around the eye.
1 Cf. Sachs (p. 217, note 3).
24
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
It is because of this that children, in whom the animal soul is
dominant, cry so often : nature adjusts itself in them, so to
speak. Concerning the quality of tranquillity, our author
declares that it is most praiseworthy when it develops into per-
fect trust and reliance upon the goodness of God. Penitence,
on the other hand, is praiseworthy only when it leads to " re-
pentance for sin." But it is most despicable if it prompt one
"to say ' aye ' one day, and 'nay ' on the next day," or to make
vows and not fulfil them. It is best for man to avoid doing
or saying anything of which he must afterward repent.
The sense of touch is nearest to the sense of taste, and akin
to it. Its desire and enjoyment spring from a " perception " of
kinship to the desired object. The rational soul has no need
of it, save as it answers the physical requirements of the body.
To it are attributed the qualities of liberality and valor, nig-
gardliness and cowardice. The hand is the most active instru-
ment of the sense of touch; hence open-handedness (liberality)
and close-fistedness (niggardliness), as well as the power to
hold fast or to strike hard (valor), and the possibility of being
weakened by fright and deterred by danger (cowardice), are ex-
pressed in the terms of this sense. Biblical passages in which
these four qualities are connected with the hand are cited in
support of this thesis. Liberality, or generosity, is a precious
virtue, if it does not degenerate into prodigality and wasteful-
ness. It should by all means be made to prevail over the
inclination to parsimony. It leads a man to honor and recogni-
tion, and to compensation at the hand of Deity. But if gener-
osity degenerate into wastefulness, or deteriorate into an apt-
ness to sacrifice all possessions for the sake of satisfying one's
desires, or to a careless surrender of self-respect and self-honor,
it is anything but a virtue. Niggardliness is detestable to an
even greater extent than generosity is praiseworthy. Generos-
ity in its worst aspects, even when it deteriorates into prodi-
gality and wastefulness, affords some enjoyment and evokes
commendation to a certain degree; while its opposite, niggard-
liness, calls forth nothing but blame and reproach. The wise
25
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
men held that no superior traits of character are ever associated
with parsimony, -and no trustworthiness with love of gain. He
who yields to that inclination must part with the hope of a
good reputation. The only good side of this quality lies in the
fact that its possessor takes care of that which is his own by
rightful acquisition; but, even here, a man must be on his
guard constantly lest he become avaricious. A wise man should
not be niggardly with his wisdom, but give it freely to those
who desire to learn, for wisdom is a light which never loses of
its brightness and intensity because other lights are kindled by
it. When a man perceives that a tendency toward avarice is
beginning to creep over him, he should break its power at once;
he must begin to practise liberality toward those who are nearly
related to him, and, little by little, extend his generosity to
larger circles of his surroundings. Valor is the quality of men
of a sanguine disposition whose hearts are large, whose veins
and muscles are generously developed ; it waxes greatest in men
who practise the art of war. It is a noble quality when prac-
tised in the right time and at the right place, when its posses-
sor exercises it in order to ward off danger that comes upon him
unprovoked. But it is wrong to court danger and to brave death
needlessly ; in such instances the quality ceases to be bravery,
becomes foolhardiness, and is akin to madness. It is noble to
display bravery in defence of a principle, but ignoble to put one's
self in danger merely to show the absence of all fear of injury
and death. Valor should manifest itself only when there is a
need of it ; fortitude and serenity ought to be its limitations and
safeguards. Patience and forbearance toward those one loves,
fortitude and endurance in moments of hardship, are the noblest
manifestations of the quality of courage.
Cowardice is a quality peculiar to mean and despicable souls ;
the wise ought to loathe it, for it never brings any good. It is
most despicable when it leads an intelligent man to use his wis-
dom and knowledge as a plea to hide from danger and avoid war
at a time when the intelligent man is required in order to
protect a worthy cause. Cowardice is an offshoot of indolence.
26
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
One may, however, display cowardice when one is convinced
that strength and bravery cannot avail ; in such a case, coward-
ice ceases to be cowardice and becomes discretion.
The foregoing paragraphs constitute a brief, withal compre-
hensive, summary of Gabirol's system of ethics as contained in
both parts of his work. I have deemed it advisable to connect
the principal thoughts on the individual traits of character, to
which he gave utterance in the second part of his work, with
his theses touching the senses, to which the first part is devoted,
in order to make apparent the way in which these individual
traits are connected with the senses, according to the theory of
Gabirol. The chief aim of the author was to guide his reader
to the "improvement of the moral qualities," and this he ex-
pected to do by citing the simplest and commonest facts of
physical life. The organs of perception were, according to
Gabirol, not alone the instruments but also the emblems of the
various manifestations of physical life. Having attributed to
each of them a number of impulses, which are designated as
virtues or vices, he developed a general conception of life as it
is in this world (the animal life in man as he distinctly wishes
us to understand), which should and must be guided and gov-
erned by reason. Reason itself is over and above the life which
is cognizable through the perceptions of the sense-organs. The
consciousness of holding the animal impulses under control is
felicity. The very effort that a man puts forth to make his
animal soul subject to his rational soul affords him happiness,
but, unlike his predecessor Saadya and his successors, Maimon-
ides and Ha-Levi and their followers, Gabirol treats of ethics as
entirely independent of the religious law. In two or three
places, it is true, he mentions divine requital; but this he does
in such general terms as may be construe^ in a purely rational-
istic sense, or as mere phrases of common parlance. In no in-
stance does he refer to any particular command of the religious
law, that is not based upon an ethical principle.
And yet Gabirol was not an unbeliever. He speaks of
divine grace and mercy with a sincerity which leaves no room
27
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
for doubt in his belief. The word of Scripture is to him un-
questionable law and revelation; even to the authors of the
Talmud he refers with a reverence that is due to superior
beings. Why, then, does he avoid all reference to the specific
laws of the Bible and the Talmud ? The answer that suggests
itself to me is, that, according to Gabirol, all the written and
oral laws were designed for intellectual beings and for the
training of the rational soul. Logical, systematic thinker that
he was, he would have insisted upon an elaborate treatise on
the ethics of that soul, i.e., on the qualities of human intelli-
gence and reason, before undertaking to expatiate on the laws
and regulations which bear upon it. This was not the task he
had set himself in writing the " Ethics," as we have pointed
out before. The few instances in which he alludes to the
intellectual soul show that he regarded it as altogether exempt
from and superior to impulsive action ; he would not even ad-
mit that intuitive love and aversion are integral parts of and
inherent In it. He believes in the superior endowments of
some souls, and refers to them frequently. It appears, more-
over, that this mystic doctrine makes a sharp distinction between
the purely animal and the higher, or intellectual, qualities of
man; the former manifest themselves and work through the
senses, and the latter, the inward senses, are divine endowments,
which manifest themselves in the control they exercise over
the animal impulses. The principal agent in the exercise of
this control is reason or intelligence. This intelligence is the
mediator between the divine and animal in man, and any human
being who makes his intelligence master over his natural incli-
nations may enjoy the bliss to which Gabirol points.
28
TRANSLATION
OF
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MORAL
QUALITIES. 1
THIS is an essay on the improvement of the moral qualities
(i.e., character), according to the opinion of the greatest of the
ancient sages, composed by the learned, the worthy, the schol-
arly Solomon ben Gabirol, the Israelite, 2 the philosopher may
God sanctify his soul. He composed it in the city of Saragossa,
in the month of Nissan, in the year 828 3 (?) of the Alex-
andrian era.
Blessed be God, the Mighty, the Wise, the Orfe who is
nigh, Responsive, the One, the Eternal, the Primordial, the
Creator; greatly exalted be He.
Verily, when we look at man who is the best of all the
creatures of the Creator, exalted be His majesty, we recognize
that he is the object aimed at in the creation of all substances
and beings. Furthermore, he is best proportioned, as regards
constitution, of all living beings; and, in addition to this, most
perfect and most beautiful of form, and most completely fash-
ioned. He possesses a rational soul, elemental, 4 wise, everlast-
ing, which does not perish with him. For all this there are
clear proofs, both intellectual and Scriptural, which every in-
telligent man knows. The surest proof that man is pre-emi-
nent among creatures is, that he partakes of the state of the
1 Rosin renders the title more freely by " The Ennoblement of the Character."
5 The term " Israelite " is replaced in the Hebrew versions, printed and manu-
script, by " the Spaniard."
* Cf. Introduction, p. 6, note 3, and p. 7, note i.
4 Horovit/, accepting the Hebrew translation, fV^D. would render this
"transparent," "luminous" (p. 108, note 65); cf. I hikes (" 1'hil.," p. 57, note 5).
29
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
angels in regard to speech and understanding. These two
are divine and spiritual properties. Nay more, we see, be-
sides this, that the angels busy themselves with the righteous
man, as we learn from the case of Abraham, peace be unto him,
in that they brought him glad tidings and also warned him ; like-
wise from the case of Isaac and Jacob, our fathers. The latter
said in the course of his excellent prayer for his son (Gen. xlviii.
1 6), " The angel which redeemed me " ; ' and Scripture says of
him (Hos. xii. 5), " Yea, he had power over the angel and pre-
vailed " ; and Daniel said (vi. 23), " My God hath sent his angel."
Concerning the help vouchsafed to the pious and the destruction
of their enemies, it is said (II Kings xix. 35), " And it came to
pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote
in the camp of the Assyrians." There are many similar ex-
amples, which I will not go to the length of enumerating.
We know that some men may undoubtedly be superior to
others, nay more, that one man may be equal to a large number
of men although they be of one form and one composition, 2
except that the soul of one man is predisposed to worldly honor,
with the help of the celestial bodies, 3 and his preference for
ethical practice, and because the baser part of him is obedient
to the higher, i.e., his intellect exercises control over his phys-
ical nature. 4 But if his aim be low and his station unfit to reach
1 In giving the English of Gabirol's biblical citations, I have quoted as much
as is required to elucidate the general context. In doing so, I depart from the
precedent laid down by the author or scribe, who frequently cites no more than an
initial word or two of the Scriptural passage, sometimes even the non-essential
ones, leaving it to the reader to recall the rest. In citing the number of chapter
and verse, the Hebrew original has been followed.
* Wolff (p. 82, note 2) cites the somewhat similar idea of Maimonides.
3 Dukes (" Ehrensaulen," p. 12, note i) makes mention of the Talmudic
thought respecting planetary influence upon the physical conditions of man and
upon his fate; in his religio-metaphysical poem, "The Crown of Royalty,"
Gabirol treats of this in a brilliant, poetic style. Ibn Ezra did not fail to note
that Gabirol had fallen under the spell of the "astrological dreaming of his cen-
tury" : cf. Stein (p. 33) , and Schmiedl (p. 308, note 3), as well as Schmiedl's entire
chapter on this subject (pp. 299-316).
4 This thought, frequently expressed by Gabirol (cf. ii. i, iii O. is often met
with in Bahya ; the references are to the edition of the DU^TI HUn, by Jeliinek
30
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
that distinction, so that he does not rise to that control of which
the bodies in their course have not given promise, 1 i.e., a sign,
or to which ethics have not aided him, then the wise and in-
telligent man ought to expend all his efforts in order to reach
the highest dignity which he seeks, in order that it may be, as
one of the sages said, "Help the celestial bodies with your
souls, even as tilling and irrigating help the seed to grow " ; *
and this occurs naturally through the instrumentality of the
earth. He should endeavor to be one of the number of the ex-
cellent and through his zeal follow in their steps. Further,
he must refine his qualities until they be improved and not
employ his senses except when it appears necessary, until
he becomes one (of those) who is honorably known and famed
for his excellence, for that is worldly happiness. But when
man reaches it, his eyes must not cease to gaze wistfully at the
attainment of that which is above it, i.e. , enduring happiness
which he can reach in the intellectual world, the world Jo
come. For this is the highest gift of God to- His servants, in
addition to the favor which is their common lot as existent
creatures. 3 The prince David, peace be unto him, had implored
that he might attain to the well-being of this world, in saying
(Ps. Ixxxvi. 17), "Make with me a covenant for goodness."
He also desired to be one of those well fitted to attain the bliss
of the world to come, in that he said (Ps. xxxi. 20), " O how
(iii., 2, p. 135; ix. , i, p. 400; ix. , 2, p. 402; iii., 2, p. 137); cf. Brttll (p. 74,
note 3).
1 Steinschneider (" Alfarabi," p. 75, note 5).
8 Horovitz (pp. 127, 128, notes 105, 106). Maimonides holds that to admit
the influence of the planets upon human relations is to limit the freedom of man.
The possibility of such limitation of human freedom by planetary influence Gabirol
would not be ready to admit, except in some such way as modern freedomists
take account of the influences of heredity and environment. Thein (" Der Talmud
oder das I'rincip des planetarischen Einflusses," Frag, 1874, p. 65 ft seq.) dis-
cusses the position of Maimonides, Albo, Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda ha-Levi in regard
to this mystic and unphilosophic teaching.
* The thought that existence is in itself a mark of favor from God to man. as
set forth in this passage, is dwelt upon at greater length in " The Crown of
Royalty," and is, according to Sachs (p. 244. and note), emphasized by many of
the later moralists.
3'
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
great is the goodness which Thou hast laid up for them that fear
Thee"; (Ps. xxxvi. 9), "They shall be abundantly satisfied
with the fatness of Thy house. " This height cannot be reached
by any one save through merit. Thus he asked (Ps. xv. i,
2), "Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, who shall dwell
in thy holy hill?" And the answer is, "He that walketh
uprightly and worketh righteousness." Having arrived in the
course of our remarks at this stage in the account of man's pre-
eminence, let us direct our attention to the statement of the
object of this our work and the method of deriving some ad-
vantage therefrom. This will come to pass after we shall have
divided the treatise into all its sections as is incumbent upon
us. Then will we realize the benefit of it. Thus Solomon
the Wise, peace be unto him, has said (Eccles. vii. 27), " Be-
hold this have I found, saith the Preacher, counting one by one
to find out the account " ; by which he meant to say that when
things are brought together, it is necessary to enumerate them.
So, also, by properly ordering the discourse, it will be under-
stood.
God, Mighty and Exalted, has created the expanse of the
smaller world ' dependent upon four elements : He places in
man blood corresponding to air, yellow gall corresponding to
fire, black gall corresponding to earth, and white moisture cor-
responding to water. 2 Moreover God, exalted be He, equipped
him, i.e., man, with perfectness of form and with every organ
1 There is evidently an omission in the Arabic text, p. 4, line 5 ; the
Hebrew version includes a line omitted through the mistake of an early copyist,
who skipped from the former JD")N JT&OD ^V to the latter, thus omitting the
intervening line or lines. This Arabic omission is supplied by Kaufmann
("Sinne," pp. 37, 38).
2 " Fons Vitas " of Gabirol, Tractate iii. (Guttmann, p. 117, note 3) ; Dieterici,
" Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, 90; and " Logik," p. 103 ; " Anthropologie der Araber
im Zehnten Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1871 (pp. 4, 42, 189) ; M. Friedlander, " Essays
on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra," London, vol. iv. (p. 24, note 4). This
purely Greek conception was speedily incorporated into Jewish teachings. Gabi-
rol's immediate successor in point of time Bahya, follows him here. (Cf. In-
troduction, p. 13, note 2.) The teaching that man is a microcosm, constituted of
the four elements, found its way even into the poetry of the Middle Ages. Cf.
a poem of Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, cited by Sachs (p. 115, and p. 42 of the
3 2
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
complete and not wanting in any respect ; and He created within
him five senses, as we shall relate. Solomon the Wise alludes
to them when he says (Eccl. ix. u), "I returned and saw un-
der the sun "; "seeing" here means to observe carefully, the
general term for "seeing" being here used in the place of the
specific term, " observing carefully " as in saying, " under the
sun," he means whatever the sun encircles. In the saying,
"The race is not to the swift," he hints at the sense of smell,
which is (situated in) the nose, because running is impossible
except through the inhalation of air from without to cool the
natural heat which is within man. The inhalation is accomp-
lished by the sense of the nose, and if there were no nose there
could be no breathing, which causes motion. In saying " Nor
is the battle to the strong," he wishes to indicate the sense of
hearing; just as we see that war consists of crying and of hear-
ing in battle, as it is said (Ex. xxxii. 17), "There is a noise of
war in the camp." In saying, "Nor yet is bread to the
wise," he refers to the sense of taste and the meaning is
to be taken literally. In saying " Nor yet riches to the un-
derstanding," he refers to the sense of touch, which is of a
kind with the understanding : l the latter is of the category of
the inner senses, which are concealed in the nature of the soul,
as for example, perception, thought, and understanding. In
saying, " Nor is there favor to men of skill," he wishes to indi-
cate the sense of sight, which does not become knowledge except
through prolonged attention to scripture and continuous study
of books. 2 Were it not for the great length involved and our
love of conciseness, we would follow up these allusions with
clear arguments, (adduced) from syllogistic 3 reasoning and the
Hebrew supplement), who refers to an eleventh century exposition of this theory
in a Piut of K. Isaac ibn (iiat (" Ritual of Tripoli," p. 92 b).
1 Horovitz appears to hold (p. 140. note 154) that Gabirol follows Aristotle in
bringing the sense of touch into relation with the understanding ; cf. Dukes
( " Phil.." p I2i. note 4).
8 Horovitz (p. 138, note 141) adduces the somewhat similar views of Aristotle
and Pl.it'>; , f. Kaufmann (p. 140)
3 Kiy;i* is rendered by the Hebrew N12D. " reason." According to Stein-
3 33
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
science of oral traditions, 1 in order that they might be easily and
simply comprehended. But for those whose faculties are above
the ordinary and who are of high-minded purpose, this little will
suffice as evidence that the wise prince alluded to naught else
in this passage but the visible (outer) senses, and veiled the
mention of the hidden (inner) ones. 2 If a man be wise, he will
employ them in the right place and restrain them from every-
thing in connection with which he ought not to use them. Let
him rather be like a skilful physician, 3 who prepares prescrip-
tions, taking of every medicine a definite quantity; thus the
ingredients vary in quantity ; he uses of one the weight of a
Danik, and of the other the weight of a Kirat ; and so on ac-
schneider ("Alfarabi," pp. 26, 27, notes 21, 22), it is usually translated by the
term t''p!"l.
1 M. Ehrenpreis ("Die Entwickelung der Emanationslehre, " Frankfurt,
1895, p. i, note i) holds that Gabirol's use of this term "das Vorhandensein
spekulativ-kabbalistischer Schriften im 10. und n. Jahrh. vennuten lasst," assuming
that the Arabic word connotes " spekulativer Kabbala." Munk (p. 283, note 2)
insists with much emphasis that Jellinek wrongly renders this term by "la science
de la Kabbale." adding " II est evident que le mot rp3pn signifie ici simplement
tradition, ou ce qui est admis sur 1'autorite traditionelle. L'original arabe d'ail-
leurs ne laisse aucun doute a cet egard." Cf. Dukes (p. 103). B. Zimmels
("Leo Ilebraeus, ein jiidischer Philosoph der Renaissance," Leipzig, 1886, pp.
57, note i ; 58, note i ; 68, notes i and 2) maintains Munk (p. 527) was similarly
mistaken in believing Leo Hebraeus to be " sous les auspices de la Kabbale," the
mistake arising from the use of the term H;Qp, which Leo expressly uses as does
Gabirol, in the signification, the "ancient Hebrew tradition." The term n!?3p is
used with the same meaning by Saadya, Bahya, and Ibn Daud , vide Bacher (p.
6, note 4; page 40, note 3; p. 59, note 4; p. 145, note 2). Stossel (p. 51)
goes so far as to say, " Gabirol ist der Fortsetzer des Buches Jezirah und der
Vorarbeiter des Zohar." This -view has met with little or no acceptance, save in
the case of Isaac Myer (author of " Qabbalah, the Philosophy of Ibn Gebirol, the
Qabbalah and the Zohar," Philadelphia, 1888), whose voluminous work is written
in support of the theory that Gabirol was an outspoken Kabbalist. Mr. Myer
calls "The Crown of Royalty" a " kosmic Qabbalistic hymn," and the " Fons
Vitoe " " a philosophical Qabbalistic work," " one of the earliest exposures of the
secrets of the speculative Qabbalah."
2 Quoted by Kaufmann (" Sinne," p. 47, note 32), in the chapter treating of
the " inner and outer senses."
3 Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 284, note 2, and " Gabirol," p. 18, note i) points
out the similarity of this passage to " Emunoth," x. , p. 159 (ed. Slucky), and " Die
Propadeutik der Araber," Berlin, 1865 (pp. 44 and 163).
34
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
cording to his estimate of their respective effects. He will
not be satisfied until there be mixed in with it something
which will keep it from doing harm (to the person to whom it
is administered), and all this must be calculated.
Since this is so, man ought to consider carefully the qualities
which belong to his senses and not employ them except when
it is necessary ; for God, exalted be He, has so constituted them
in man that he can wisely order them, since through them he
guards the normal condition of his life. By their means he
sees colors, hears sounds, tastes food (flavors), smells odors, dis-
tinguishes between hard and soft, and all other things which
are necessary to his life ; and many which are useful we will
mention when we commence (the subject), please God. We
will now describe the senses and the various advantages to be
derived from their use and the necessity of refraining from the
use of them when they would cause harm.
We hold that the first and foremost of the senses is that of
the eye, since its position with regard to the body is like that
of the sun to the universe. 1 It is a sense which never fails to
perceive an object without (the lapse of) time, i.e., its percep-
tion of that which is near to it is as quick as its perception of
that which is far from it ; nor does any time elapse between its
perception of the near and its perception of the far, 2 as is the
case with the other senses. The eye alights upon its objects
of perception as long as it is open. 3 Therefore, sleep is impos-
sible unless it be closed. How wondrous is the saying of a
philosopher with regard to the sense of the eye ! " The soul has
spiritual tints, which sometimes become apparent in the motion
of the eyelid." 4 Again he said, " Keep watch over the sense of
sight : verily it may lead to various kinds of wrong : by some of
its motions it may testify to your (having) pride and haughtiness,
1 Cf. Horovitz (p. 138, note 140).
* Cf. Kaufmann (" Sinne, " pp. 117, 118, note 55, and p. 120, note 61), and
Horovit/. (p. 13';. note 1.4.1).
* Horovitz (p. 139, note 143).
4 Platonic doctrine. Cf. Horovit/ (p. 139. note 142), and Dukes (" Phil.,"
p. 78, note i).
35
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
and by others to your possession of meekness and humility. '
Therefore, compel it to make the very best movements and
restrain it from the most ignoble." " Furthermore," he said,
" social intercourse does not exist for the pleasure of the eye,
but the enjoyment of the mind." The learned man will under-
stand this saying. How beautiful is the agreement of this ut-
terance with the word of God, exalted and magnified be He
(Num. xv. 39), " Do ye not seek after your own heart and your
own eyes. "
The sense of hearing is next in point of importance. Though
the effect of this sense upon the soul is more readily felt than
that of sight, 2 man does not heed it as he does the eye. Under
good training, with reference to this sense, is included man's
refraining from listening to indecent things, and not judging in
regard to the pleasant tones which he hears according to their
sound, but according to their meaning and intent. One ought
not to be ensnared by what he hears, as the bird is ensnared
by the sounds to which it inclines with admiration; and one
ought to know of the places where it is necessary to pay good
heed and those wherein it is not fitting to listen at all, as he of
whom it is said (Isa. xxxiii. 15), "that stoppeth his ears from
the hearing of blood."
The sense of smell follows the sense of hearing, because
a sound is felt in the air; and it is of lesser moment than the
sense of hearing. Accordingly, there is less need of training
it, because it entails not (the possibility of) obedience or
revolt.
As for taste, though it be, in degree, below the senses afore-
mentioned, still the manner of training it is more important,
for the body cannot exist without it, as it can exist without the
others. The way to train it is, keep it from that which is for-
bidden, and give it free rein with regard to that which is per-
1 Dukes (pp. 97, 98) shows the thought, " Humility dwells in the eye," to be
Aristotelian. Cf. "Ethics," i. 3, where two maxims of Aristotle are quoted in
the paragraph, which restates the thesis, that pride and meekness are closely re-
lated to the sense of sight
2 Kaufmann (p. 141, note 4).
36
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
missible. Reason 1 should exercise rule over desire in all this.
The first instance wherein you can evidence your mastery over
your desire is in eating and in drinking, just as it was in this
regard that man first sinned.
Touch follows the sense of taste, 2 and is very similar to it.
Its pleasures are peculiar to those members of the body in
which the humors are well balanced. There is no occasion for
the reasoning soul therein, except to guide the body. As to
the manner of exercising it, thou must know that these desires
are ills of the body, which thou must treat, and diseases which
thou must heal. Think not that it is characteristic of the in-
tellectual soul. Do not suppose that complete happiness and
perfect blessedness are to be attained thereby, as one attains
to excellences, in virtue of which man is adjudged deserving of
honor in matters pertaining to the intellect.
As we have entered upon a description of the senses, let us
regard each of them in the light of a genus and then mention
the species comprised under it, namely, the qualities of man.
Then let us name every individual in the species and describe
its useful and harmful qualities and the method of effecting its
improvement. If now we proceed to represent the qualities of
the senses according to number, the result is that every sense
has four qualities. We would attribute, firstly, to the sense of
sight four, and a like number to the other senses, so that the
sum would amount to twenty qualities for the five senses.
Accordingly, we assign to the eye Pride, Meekness, Pudency,
and Impudence. 3 Our reason for putting pride in connection
with the sense of sight is clear, as has been remarked above,
while treating of it; also because thou perceivest the haughty
glance of the proud and boastful of spirit. The very reverse of
that we behold in the lowly of spirit, that is, meekness. Scrip-
" Plato looks upon the sensual desires as the baser portion of the soul. As
such it is intended to be ruled by the nobler, and its virtue lies consequently in
obedience to the Reason " (Kilter, "Ancient Philosophy." vol. ii., p. 411).
1 Horovitz (p 140, note 151).
me to have been familiar with this enumeration of
good and evii qualities. Cf. \VolfT (pp <> and 10).
37
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
ture says with reference to the unduly lofty (Isa. ii. n), " The
lofty looks of men shall be humbled," and again (id. v. 15),
" The eyes of the lofty shall be humbled," and so forth. The
use here of (the word) " eyes " shows that the quality of pride
is to be attributed to the sense of sight. Of meekness it is said
(Hab. i. 13), "Thou art of humbler eyes than to behold evil,"
and so forth. With regard to the impudent, thou observest in
most cases that his eyes stare and he is indifferent to shame ;
thus it is said of them (Isa. iii. 9), "The shew of their counte-
nance doth witness against them." Thus thou wilt notice that
the eyes of the unrighteous, the impudent, are troubled and
restless, like those of whom it is said (Job xi. 20), " The eyes
of the wicked shall fail." Again it is said of the impudent
(Jer. v. 3), " They have made their faces harder than a rock."
On the other hand, thou wilt find that the pudent man lowers
his eyes so that he may merit, by reason of this, the abundant
favor of God and men, as it is said (Prov. iii. 34), " He giveth
grace unto the lowly " ; and as we, with the help of God, ex-
alted be He, will explain very clearly in the successive chapters.
This favor can be acquired only by means of (the faculty of)
sight, having regard to him that sees and that which is seen.
Thus it was said of Moses our Master, peace be unto him (Num.
xii. 3), "The man Moses was very meek." Previously it was
said, corresponding to this (Ex. xi. 3), " The man Moses was
very great."
The sense of hearing constitutes a genus embracing four
species, namely, four qualities Love, Hate, Mercy, and Hard-
heartedness (cruelty). One has need of great precision in de-
termining the relation of these four qualities to the sense of
hearing. Even though we do not make our exposition tho-
roughly clear, nevertheless men of understanding will be con-
tent with hints and allusions. He ought not to be blamed who
brings forward a fraction of the truth for not gathering together
the whole. Perhaps the reader will admit as excuse for me, in
that I have not succeeded in bringing together the metaphysi-
cal and logical proofs and the Scriptural examples as far as I
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
have gone, the fact that human power is but slight, especially in
the case of a man like me, who is always greatly troubled and
who does but scantily realize his hopes. In some places in the
Bible (a mention of) the hearing occurs, followed by urging;
thus the expression (Deut. vi. 4, 5), " Hear, O Israel," and
after that it is said, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God," etc.
Furthermore (Gen. xxiv. 52), "When Abraham's servant
heard " ; it is said immediately following, " He who worshiped
the Lord, bowing himself to the earth " ; and again (Gen. xxix.
13), " And it came to pass that when Laban heard the tidings,"
"he embraced him and kissed hhn. " Hearing is also used in
connection with acceptance and approval, which are at the basis
of love; thus it is written (Ex. xxiv. 7), "We will do and we
will hear." The performance of a thing is due to the love of
a man therefor ; thus it is said (Gen. xxvii. 4), " Make me sa-
voury meat, such as I love." Sometimes satisfaction and cheer-
fulness follow upon hearing : thus it is said (Lev. x. 20),
" When Moses heard that he was content," just as anger ensues
in the absence of assent and hearkening, as (Ex. xvi. 20), " Not-
withstanding, they hearkened not unto Moses." ..." And
Moses was wroth with them." Hatred also results from hear-
ing, as thou must know from the case of Esau, of whom it is
said (Gen. xxvii. 34), "When Esau heard," and then follows
(id. xxvii. 41), " Esau hated Jacob." Mercy is known to result
from "hearing " ; thus God said (Ex. xxii. 26), " I will hear, for
I am merciful." It is said of the righteous dead (Prov. i. 33),
" Whoso hearkeneth unto me shall dwell safely." In contrast
to this, it is said of the unrighteous (Job xv. 21), "A sound of
fright is in his ears : in peace the despoiler shall come upon
him," and so forth. Hard-heartedness results from the want
of assent; thus it is said of Pharaoh in many places (Ex. ix.
12)," The Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh and he hearkened
not." A hard-hearted people is called (Jer. v. 15), "A nation
whose tongue thou shalt not understand, neither shalt thou
hearken unto what it speaketh," and so forth.
The sense of smell also commands four qualities Anger,
39
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Good-will, Jealousy, and Wide-awakedness. Anger is attributed
to the sense of smell, as it is said (Jud. xiv. 19), " And his nose
(anger) was kindled " : anger, indignation, and wrath appear
mostly in connection with the nose, as it is said (Dan. iii. 19),
" Then was Nebuchadnezzar full of fury, and the form of his
nose (visage) was changed." Good-will consists in the tran-
quillity of the thoughts, which are in the brain, and it is not
altered by an u illness " of the sense of smell, though the near-
est among the senses affecting it. Concerning good-will it
is said (Prov. xvi. 15), " In the light of the king's nose (coun-
tenance) is life, and his favor is as a cloud of the latter rain."
Jealousy and wide-awakedness are of the sense of the nose, and
jealousy is a branch of anger : thus it is written (Prov. vi. 34),
" For jealousy is the rage of a man." Thus becomes clear the
association of the heated temperament, which is anger, with
jealousy in the matter of this sense. Wide-awakedness con-
sists in the movements of a man and results from the ordering
of the organs of breathing, which are pivotal to the sense of
smell, as we have remarked above in the section devoted to the
exposition of the passage beginning with " The race is not to
the swift. "
The sense of taste includes as its species four qualities,
namely, Joy (Cheerfulness), Grief (Apprehensiveness), Peni-
tence, and Tranquillity. Dost thou not see that the greatest
pleasure is derived through eating and drinking, which is at-
tained by means of the sense of taste ? Hast thou not heard
of the saying on the part of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 25), "Bring it
here unto me and I will eat of my son's venison " ; and also
(Ruth iii. 7), " And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, his heart
was merry." Speech, consisting as it does of words, which are
of a kind with (the objects of) taste, sometimes gives rise to joy;
thus it is said (Prov. xv. 23), " A man hath joy by the answer of
his mouth." Opposed to this we find that grief follows upon
the failure to exercise this sense, as it is said (i Sam. i. 7), " She
wept and did not eat." It is also related of Jonathan (id. xx.
34), " He did eat no meat the second day of the month, for he
40
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
was grieved for David." Many such expressions are, used with
reference to Saul and others. As to the quality of penitence,
the reason for referring it to (the sense of) taste is that contri-
tion and penitence are felt for what has gone before, and one
denies himself different kinds of enjoyment, which are rendered
possible by means of the taste, as it is said (Hos. xiv. i), "O
Israel, return. " The attributing also of the quality of tran-
quillity to (the sense of) taste is seen in the saying of Senne-
charib (II. Kings xviii. 31), "Eat ye every man of his own
vine, and every one of his fig-tree; " and again (Jud. xviii. 7),
" And they saw the people that were therein, how they dwelt in
safety."
The sense of touch also stands in relation to four qualities,
and these are Liberality, Niggardliness, Valor, and Cowardice.
Liberality in connection with touch is possible only through
the action of the hand. Liberality consists in open-handedness,
even as niggardliness is but closefistedness. With regard to
giving, it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room
for him, and before great men it will lead him." Of niggard-
liness, it is said (Prov. xiii. n), "He that gathereth by close
hand will increase." That valor is in connection with the
touch is evident from the connection between seizing hold of
(something) and the hand ; thus it is said (Jud. v. 26), " Her
hand she put forth to the nail." In opposition to this, it is
said of cowardice (Isa. xxxv. 3), " Strengthen ye weak hands " ;
and again (Ezek. vii. 17), "All hands shall become feeble," and
so forth.
It having been made clear that all the qualities of the soul
are related to the five senses, let us now return to our first
theme (the elucidation of) which we have stated to be the
purpose of this book. Seeing that most men are not sufficiently
versed in the ruling of their qualities to enable them to regu-
late these according to ethical standards and a rational method,
we have resolved to write a satisfactory treatise concerning this,
which shall contain an account in cxtcnso of the qualities, the
ways in which to use them, and the mode in which to bring
41
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
about their improvement. 1 In addition to this I have met
with the persistent importunity of one of my friends, who de-
sires this as a memorial and preparation for himself and for
me, in the event that conditions change in the course of time,
places become disturbed and men alter. He desires also that
the relationship of the qualities to the senses should be set
forth. Before explaining this at all, I will make it clear to him
by means of a geometrical diagram and visible proofs. Then
let us first sketch a diagram of the four temperaments, which
we have mentioned above. We have drawn it at the beginning
of our work, in the form of a figure, so that the imagination
may be quick to grasp it and the senses ready to comprehend
it. We have indicated with reference to every temperament
whatever are its elements, and then joined to every tempera-
ment five qualities, in accordance with the requirements of the
calculation. We have joined them to whatever quality they
have, in preference to any other, after having classified them in
the diagram, giving those which are hot and cold, and to which
of the elements they belong, and likewise those that are moist
(humid) and dry (arid) and their conjunctions and disjunctions-
all this in the diagram. Of God we pray that He may put an
end to the opposition (clamor) of those who, on the strength of
their knowledge, enter upon a discussion with us, and that He
silence the mouths of those who argue with us in their folly.
I have no reason to trust that their envy will not lead them to
attempt to humiliate us ; yet will I not be deterred by their
disturbance, nor dismayed by their brutishness. The Lord
sufficeth as my portion, and in Him I trust, for He is a shield to
those taking refuge with Him, the surest protection to those
seeking after His help, as it is written (Lam. iii. 25), "The
Lord is good unto them that wait for Him." Verily, I am
innocent of that wherewith they charge me if they speak
haughtily : I am too pious to be the victim of their pride, even
though they occupy the foremost place, for there is no iniquity
1 Cf. the words of Bahya (iii. 10 and iii. i), who has the same purpose in
view ; Brtill (p. 79, note i).
42
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
in my hand. Therefore will I bear their attacks; but I do say
(Ps. xxxviii. 21), " They hate me only because I pursue the
good." God knows that I have not admitted into my work any-
thing except my own thoughts and writing, nor have I busied
myself with anything outside of my own ideas. ' To those who
have superior souls and lofty aspirations, their strong affection
for our discourse will point out that which we have in mind ;
and if they alight upon any mistakes in the course of it, they
will allow that my excuse is clear and evident, since in its
chief parts there is good sense. This is a copy of the first dia-
gram, which represents the elements and the temperaments :
m
v*
'api-id
1
I!
/ Tranquillity, Penitence, Meekness, Pudency, N.
* Mercy. N
Alike in respect of cold.
1 P.rlill (p. 71) attaches too much importance to these words, as if they proved
that Gabirol made no use of the writings of his predecessors. I take this state-
ment to be nothing more than a disavowal of plagiarism, such as is commonly
met with in the mediaeval writers. Cf. N \\c-isslovitz, " Prinz und Derwisch,"
MUnchen. 1890, p. 15, note I.
43
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
We have arranged to refer every temperament to its element
and every quality to its temperament, 1 as required by the argu-
ment, which we shall make clear in another place with the help
of the Almighty, the Sufficient, may He be exalted. Having
sketched this diagram as just explained, we would say here that
the sum of the human qualities which we can enumerate is twenty,
of which some are praiseworthy /rr sc, and others blameworthy
per sc. Whosoever wishes to attain to the improvement of his
qualities must pursue in his own person the goodly course so that
the praiseworthy qualities come to be to him excellences, unto
which he must accustom himself, from which he must not sep-
arate from the time of his youth, and whereunto he must apply
himself step by step and little by little. Thus saith the sage
(Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and
when he is old he will not depart from it. " The philosopher hath
said, " Intelligence is a gift, moral conduct is an acquirement,
but habit is master over all things." Know thou that all the
qualities of man, of the possession of which he gives evidence
at the period of his youth and manhood, are in him during his
infancy and boyhood: though it be not in his power to mani-
fest them, they are nevertheless within him in potentia, (if) not
in actn. Thou wilt observe that in some boys the quality of
pudency manifests itself, and in others impudence ; some incline
to enjoyment, others aspire to virtue, and still others are dis-
posed to vices ; these qualities above mentioned and others sim-
ilar to them being among those of the animal soul ; and when
men reach unto the stage of maturity, the strength of the ra-
tional soul displays its activity and it directs him that possesses
it to a proper understanding with regard to the improvement of
the qualities, since it is not the practice of the animal soul to
improve these. Now in addition to this proposition being sus-
ceptible of proof, it has been handed down to us by tradition
in the words of the Saint (Prov. xx. n), "Even a child is
known by his doings." As to the youths whom baseness over-
1 We meet with the same thought in Jehuda ha-Levi ; cf. Dukes (" Phil., "
pp. 74 and 127, notes 2 and 3).
44
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
comes, it is possible to transform them into a noble state as
long as the limits of childhood have not been passed ; but if
they overstep the boundaries of youth and reach maturity, and
continue to remain in this condition, it becomes difficult to set
them along a good course, just as a sprig may be made to stand
erect before it is full grown ; but when it has become a tree, it
is difficult to bend or move it. From this thou seest that most
men when they have reached maturity cannot be turned aside
from the course which in their youth they pursued, whereas
most men can be directed between the periods of childhood
and youth unto good habits. 1 This is the simple meaning of
(Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and
when he is old," etc. Thus, too, our Rabbis say, " At twenty
years of age, one dies with it."
It is impossible that evil-doing should belong to the rational
soul by nature, for this would not be in accordance with wis-
dom. The Deity hath created the soul pure, stainless, and
simple, as saith the sage (Ecc. vii. 29), " This only have I found,
that God hath made man upright." Whatever results there-
from that is not good, is the work of the vegetative soul, 2 i.e.,
the natural impulse. A philosopher has said that, " He who
clings to good qualities in order to enjoy by means of them the
pleasures of his senses and (to satisfy) the necessities of his
body, does not understand their true value; but he understands
them who seeks after them, because he recognizes their merit
and usefulness and knows that death caused by following them
is better than life, based upon their opposites ; and he who
keeps his thoughts away from the base, lifts them up to the
1 Rosin (" Maimonides, " p. 5, note 4, and p. 65, note 3) suggests the following
parallels: " Ueber die ethische Bildungsfahigkeit der Jugend," "Arist., N. E.,
ii. 2, im Xamen Plato's nach dessen De Leg. ii.; aber auch Aristot. ohne Nennung
Plato's, N. E. ii. i. Schl. und x. 10 ; dazu vgl. Maim, zu Abot i. 14."
1 This threefold division of the soul, vegetative, animal, and rational (cf. the
preceding paragraph of the text), is discussed at greater length in the "Eons
Vitae" ; cf. Munk (p. 200), Rosin (p 46, note i), and Horovitz (p. 115, note 77,
and p. 117, note 82). This same division occurs in Israeli (cf. Fried, p. 37)
and Kalonymos b. Kalonymos ; cf. J. Landsberger, " Iggereth Haale Chajjim,"
Darmstadt, 1882 (p. 172, and note on p. 266).
45
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
good." In the measure in which man separates himself from
baseness does he near God, may He be exalted; and in the
measure in which he nears baseness, does he separate himself
from Him. Now in regard to the twenty qualities of man,
David, peace be upon him, points to them and alludes to their
origin in the " Psalm of David " (xxxvii.) " Contend not
with thyself because of evil-doers." Of some of these he
clearly treats, as may be gathered from the literal interpreta-
tion of the verse; others he indicates merely by allusions: viz.,
he enjoins serving God, by cultivating qualities that are praise-
worthy, and inhibits the exercise of the blameworthy qualities.
Furthermore, he condemns the course of those who depart from
the right way, as it should be observed, and praises the course
of those who rightly habituate themselves to good practice. In
saying at first, "Contend not with thyself because of evil-
doers," he would put an inhibition upon envy of the wicked ;
for, if man does not envy them, he is necessarily bound to hate
them. Moreover, he warns against envy of them and jealousy
of their condition, these being his words (Ps. xxxvii. I), "Be
not envious against the workers of iniquity." He enjoins
trustfulness in the Lord and confidence in Him, in saying (id.,
xxxvii. 3), "Trust in the Lord and do good." Furthermore,
he alludes to the exercise of the qualities of pudency and mod-
esty (id., xxxvii. 3), "So shalt thou dwell in the land and feed
in faithfulness." His saying, first, "So shalt thou dwell in
the land," and then "and feed in faithfulness," shows that long
life on earth is the result of cultivating humility and pudency,
which he calls "faith," as thou knowest from the saying (Num.
xii. 7), "He is faithful in all my house," and that which pre-
ceded in the description of modesty. That which we have said
of the meriting of life, even long life on earth, corresponds to the
expression (Ps. xxxvii. n), "The meek shall inherit the earth."
In saying (id. , 4), " Delight thyself also in the Lord," he alludes
to the quality of joy, which the righteous exercises in that
service of the Lord, wherein he delights. Thus he says else-
where (Ps. xxxii. n), "Be glad in the Lord and rejoice, O ye
46
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
righteous " ; again, he says of the season of gladsome tidings
(Isa. Ixi. 10), " I will greatly rejoice in the Lord." In saying
(Ps. xxxvii. 4), " He shall give thee the desires of thine heart,"
he alludes to the quality of yearning which is love, for God
satisfies the yearning of the righteous, as is promised them
in the saying (Ps. xx. 6), " The Lord will fulfil all thy de-
sires." The words, " Cease from anger " are to be taken
literally; they forbid giving way to violent anger and wrath.
To " Cease from anger and forsake wrath " requires, first, the
uprooting thereof, and, second, penitence for what has gone
before. "The meek shall inherit the earth." These are the
lowly, viewing the verse literally. In saying (Ps. xxxvii.
12), "The wicked plotteth against the just and gnasheth upon
him with his teeth," he alludes to the use which the wicked
make of impudence and recklessness. In saying (id., 13),
"The Lord shall laugh at him," he means that He will destroy
the impudent one and cause the righteous to rejoice in his de-
struction ; thus it is said (Ps. Iviii. 11), "The righteous shall
rejoice when he seeketh vengeance." In saying (id., 14),
"The wicked have unsheathed the sword," he alludes to the
fervor and the daring which they (the wicked) display. In
saying (id., 14), "To slay such as be of upright conduct," he
alludes to the quality of hard-heartedness which prevails over
all their (other) qualities. In saying (id., 15), "Their bows
shall be broken," he hints at the quality of pride; similarly
it is said of a "brazen-faced nation " (Jer. vi. 23), "They shall
lay hold of bow and spear." In saying (id., 17), " The arms
of the wicked shall be broken," he means that the quality of
faint-heartedness takes possession of them when their youth
and strength are enfeebled, so that they cannot raise their arms
at all. In saying (id., 21), "The wicked borroweth and payeth
not," he alludes to the quality of niggardliness. In saying (id.,
21), "The righteous showeth mercy and giveth," he has in
mind the two qualities which dwell in the soul of the righteous,
namely, mercy and liberality. Concluding his enumeration of
these quolitics, he seals them with the quality of good-will.
47
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
We would say that when man pursues the right course in refer-
ence to these twenty qualities, i.e., in the manner in which we
have described the exercise of those that are praiseworthy, and
the putting aside of those that are blameworthy, then God be-
comes well pleased with him, as it is said (id. , 23), "The
steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord. " Let not man
suppose that the passage, " The steps of a good man are ordered
by the Lord " implies any compulsion 1 to obedience (to God)
1 Thus briefly Gabirol may be said to urge the doctrine of free-will, and to ex-
press his opposition to the Asharitic teachings in respect of predestination. Cf.
Maimonides (Wolff, p. 55 et seq. and pp. 94, 95, notes 36, 37), who acknowledges
the influence exerted by the physical temperament, which predisposes, without pre-
determining, the soul to certain lines of action and modes of being. Maimonides
proceeds to demonstrate the futility of commanding, instructing, rewarding or
punishing him who lacks " freedom of choice." Wolff (p. 94, note 36) is right in
saying that the doctrine of the freedom of the will (ilVfQ) is one of the funda-
mental principles of Judaism. He cites Philo and Maimonides, the latter closely
follows Aristotle; cf. Introduction (p. n, note i), Rosin (pp. 167, 168), and
Dukes (pp. 57-62). Saadya devotes the fourth chapter of his " Emunoth
weDeoth " to the advocacy of the doctrine of free-will ; cf. Guttmann (Saadya,
pp. 163-174). Bahya devotes the eighth section of the third chapter of his " Ho-
both ha-lebaboth " to an exposition of his understanding of the freedom of will
with which man is endowed ; vide Kaufmann in loco. According to Frankel-Grun
(chap. ii. pp. 35-41, and Kusari, v. 20. 25). freedom of the will constitutes one of
the most important bases of religion in the judgment of Jehuda ha-Levi. Joseph
ibn Zaddik is likewise an exponent of this doctrine ; cf. Jellinek (" l)er Mikro-
kosmos," p. 60) , and Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 18, notes 4 and 5) . According to
Rosin (" Maimonides," pp. 23, 24), Abraham ibn Daud is no less pronounced in
his advocacy of the freedom of the will, as well as Abraham ibn Ezra (p. 73, note
4). An admirable survey of the question is given by Rosin (" Maimonides," pp.
62-76). According to Joel ("Die Religionsphilosophie des Lewi ben Gerson,"
p. 54, and " Milhamot Adonai," tractate iii., chap. 4), Gersonides was obliged,
without acknowledging it, to sacrifice a part of divine omniscience in order to save
human freedom. Hasdai may be said to be the one notable protestant against the
freedom of the will ; cf. M. Joel, " Don Chasdai Creskas' religionsphilosophische
Lehren " (Breslau, 1866, pp. 46, 47), " Or Adonai" (tractate ii., part 5, chap. 4),
and Ph. Bloch ("Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kreskas," Munchen, 1879).
Moses of Narbonne wrote a treatise. nVPG3 "IDNfti"!, in order to disprove the
fatalistic doctrine expounded in the work of a contemporary, nTTJn n"ON ', cf.
Beer (pp. 114, 2, 3, 40-42). This entire problem has found fairly comprehensive
treatment at the hands of Stein, who shows Saadya, Bahya, Jehuda ha-Levi,
Abraham ibn Daud, Maimonides, Gersonides, Moses of Narbonne, Aaron of Nico-
media, and Joseph Albo to have been at one in their acceptance of what may
truly be called the Jewish dogma of the freedom of the will. Evidently overlook-
48
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
or disobedience ; (it does point) however, to the bliss and misery
(which are their respective reward and punishment). In say-
ing, " The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord," he
means that God created his soul perfect, not wanting in any-
thing; and when it inclines to virtue, to wholesome practice and
good conduct, the expression "are ordered" implies that he
merits the approval of God; and this is meant by the expres-
sion (id., 23), "And He delighteth in his way." As a result
of what we have said, it is clear that David, peace be upon him,
in these hints, gives a description of the way in which to im-
prove the qualities of the human soul and to accustom it to vir-
tuous practice in the same manner as Solomon the Wise has
done in his writings, wherein he urges (men) to effect their im-
provement in every possible manner, as I shall indicate, please
God, exalted may He be. Following our argument, we shall
proceed to describe the method of the diagram, which we have
drawn, of the senses and the qualities, and (in the course of
the description), we will explain how the qualities originate
in the senses, uniting every individual to its species, and
every species to its genus, i.e., we will make clear the nature
of the qualities derived from the sense of sight and their
quantity; so also those derived from the sense of hearing,
and the remaining senses in the same way. It will be a
tabular diagram, so that it may easily be grasped by beginners
in the study of this science, and those desirous of procuring
the benefit thereof, those asking help of God in order that
they may bring about their improvement, with the help of
abstract (exact) and concrete (worldly) sciences. This is the
form of the tabular diagram, which is devised in order to illus-
ing the passage to which our note is appended, Stein confessedly omits to treat of
Gabirol (p. 22), " da er in seinem einseitigen Neuplatonismus unserer Frage . . .
gar keine Beachtung widmet." Cf. Schmiedl (pp. 24-26). L. Knoller ("Das
Problem der Willensfreiheit in der alteren jtldischen Religionsphilosophie des
Mittelalters." I.cip/ig. 1884) goes over the same ground as Stein, taking up in turn
Saadya. Uahyn. ha-Levi, Ibn Zaddik, Ibn Daud, and Maimonides, but likewise
omits to discuss Cabirol's view with reference to the freedom of the will, giving his
reason for the omission (p. 15, note I).
4 49
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
trate the branching forth of the twenty qualities from the
five senses .
Sight. ' Hearing.
Pride. Love.
Meekness. Hate.
Pudency. Mercy.
Impudence. Hard-heartedness (Cruelty).
Smell. Taste.
Wrath. Joy (Cheerfulness).
Good-will (Suavity). Grief (Apprehensiveness).
Jealousy. Tranquillity.
Wideawakedness. Penitence (Remorse).
Touch.
Liberality.
Niggardliness.
Valor.
Cowardice.
Having attained what we desired in the matter of the repre-
sentation of the figures, let us now conclude this introduction
to our work by enumerating its divisions and its chapters. We
have named our work, " The Improvement of the Qualities,"
for the benefit largely of the masses, in order that they may
gain a knowledge of the nature of the noble, and understand
this matter through various methods of expression (illustra-
tion). We have introduced in the following whatever logical
and demonstrable arguments have occurred to us ; and, further-
more, as far as we are able, have adduced Scriptural verses.
Nor, after first giving these, do I see any harm in briefly citing
some utterances of the wise ; 2 and I shall follow this by adorn-
ing (what I have said) with "rejez" verses of litterateurs, and
some verses from the poets, and anything uncommon that occurs
to me, and whatever else I can recall, so that my book may be
complete in all its parts.
Perhaps the reader of this will, in his magnanimity and
1 This classification is not unlike the one to be found in Dieterici (" Logik,"
p. 148), which gives a list of praiseworthy and blameworthy " Charackterzlige,"
such as " Hochmuth, Gier, Neid."
Cf. Bahya; Briill (p. 77, note i).
50
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
highmindedness, excuse my not having exhausted my theme,
for my aim in composing this book was not to benefit him who
surpasses me in talent at this time, since I do not lay claim,
God forbid, to superiority in any department of science. Ver-
ily, the fruit which I have plucked from wisdom is my knowl-
edge that I am not wise, that I must not abandon the counsel of
my contemporaries, and that I must acknowledge to them my
weakness. I would be, in that case, as the saying goes, " as one
who tends a garden well when it is in its full bloom ; or like one
who heaps up brocaded stuffs boastfully in the presence of those
who make them. " The clearest ground for excusing me, in that
I have not exhausted my theme, and the surest reason for omit-
ting to blame me for not having completed it to the very end, 1
is that we live at the present time amid evil and distress, an
uninterrupted succession of troubles and disquieting circum-
stances ; but I complain not. Despite this, I do not cease to
praise our Creator, exalted may He be, for the grace which He
has vouchsafed to us, and for having enlightened our under-
standing and our judgment, causing us to find the way in which
to comprehend something of the sciences.
I have divided my work into five parts, every part con-
taining four chapters, which makes a total of twenty chapters,
the number contained in the diagram. To every part I have
joined the sense belonging to it, and to every sense whatever
qualities belong to it. These are the parts of the work, to wit,
five, corresponding to the five senses already mentioned.
1 Despite his voluntary acknowledgment of incompleteness, it is interesting to
note the critical remark of Abraham ibn Hasdai (as pointed out by Steinschneider,
II II. U.,"p. 342), respecting Gabirol's " Ethics" ; pIV ^THO- ed. J. Goldenthal,
Leipzig and Paris, iS3(>, I'reface p. 3. "I2H ^T3JI p !l&ta> "I pC^fl "(UJ DSn.Tl
*6i p 103 Tivpn -|-n hy n -|^n ^K &j>sjn nno ppn itnpi -IND ip* inn
D^atTOn 3n njn *sb ^Kin hy \ffton Cf. Rosin (p. i06, note i) and Dukes
(p. 119, note 2 and " Ehrensaulen," p. 11).
PART I.
The sense of sight, containing four chapters.
Chapter I., treating of the quality of pride.
Chapter II., treating of the quality of meekness, and urging
the exercise thereof.
Chapter III., treating of pudency and modesty.
Chapter IV. , treating of impudence and the refraining there-
from.
PART II.
The sense of hearing, comprising four chapters.
Chapter I., treating of love and the methods of exercising it.
Chapter II., treating of hate, the thrusting aside thereof, and
the abandonment of any leaning toward it.
Chapter III., treating of the quality of mercy and compassion,
the praise of those possessed of it, and the encouragement
to choose it.
Chapter IV., treating of the quality of hard-heartedness and the
relinquishment of any leaning toward it.
PART III.
The sense of taste, comprising four chapters.
Chapter I., treating of the quality of joy and the methods of ex-
ercising it.
Chapter II., treating of grief and consolation for sorrow.
Chapter III., treating of tranquillity.
Chapter IV., treating of penitence and guarding against (the
need of) it.
S3
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
PART IV.
The sense of smell, containing four chapters.
Chapter I., treating of the quality of anger and wrath.
Chapter II. , treating of good-will and cheerfulness.
Chapter III., treating of jealousy and envy.
Chapter IV. , treating of the quality of wide-awakedness.
PART V.
The sense of touch, embracing fotir chapters: thus completing the
twenty chapters of the book.
Chapter I. , treating of liberality and generosity. f
Chapter II., treating of the quality of niggardliness and the
dispraise thereof.
Chapter III., treating of valor and the exercise thereof.
Chapter IV., treating of cowardice and the guarding against it.
Having finished numbering the parts of the book and its
chapters, let us now begin to explain it all, with the help of
God, exalted may He be. We pray that He lead us in the paths
of rectitude, and by His grace bring us near unto the ways
of uprightness. Thus His Saint besought Him (Ps. xxv. 5),
"Lead me in Thy truth."
54
PART I
CHAPTER I.
TREATING OF PRIDE (HAUGHTINESS).
How good it is that this chapter happens to be the first of
all the chapters, as required by the connection. For I have
seen many of the elect exercise this quality unnecessarily and
give it preference over their other qualities ; so much so, that
the masses take it unto themselves and make use of it in cases
where it is needless to do so, until it gains the upper hand over
their nature. I also observe this quality frequently present in
young men, i.e., in the child and the youth, especially if the
temperament happen to be "yellow-hot." For it is character-
istic of the yellow gall to rise. In its excitement it accustoms
the nature of man to exercise this quality until he almost comes
to exercise it amid circumstances unsuited to its appearance.
Among the special branches of this quality are vanity (presump-
tuousness), boastfulness, and haughtiness. These are not (in-
cluded) among the qualities of the ancient saints, of whom their
noble virtues testified that they were opposed to them. Now,
as we see, some men, who were known to exercise these quali-
ties out of place, have thereby become despicable. Others aim
to exercise the praiseworthy aspects of the quality of Pride,
and are praised therefor. I shall not go to the length of re-
counting their names, for they are well knov/n. This being so,
we must carefully consider how to acquire the means of exercis-
ing this quality in the right place, and subduing it out of
season ; and we must make mention of the loathing, which en-
sues as a result of its blameworthiness.
55
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
When we perceive this quality beginning to affect the nature
of a man, it becomes necessary for us to call his attention to
serious matters, such as lead to reflection on the origin of exist-
ent things and their end, i. e. , the coming into being of things,
their beginnings, their transitoriness, and their destruction.
When he learns that all existent things are changeable, 1 and
finally that his own being will change (waste away) and his
body become extinct, then the quality of his soul, which was
haughty throughout the course of his life, will become meek
and penitent at (the thought of) death. Since we are forced
to accept this logical conclusion and traditional reasoning, it
behooves the wise man to avoid preferring this quality of his
own free will, since it is detestable and there results no benefit
whatever from pursuing it. On the contrary, it is the cause of
many dangers, especially if man's arrogance urge him not to
incline to the advice of any man ; and although in (seeking)
advice is the essence of good counsel, he turn away from it
and abide by his own opinion. Of such a man Solomon the
Wise, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xii. 15), "The way of a
fool is right in his own eyes." Thou knowest also what befell
Korach and Rehoboam and others like them, who cared only
for their own opinion. Man must remember that if he realize
not his own sins but consider his course correct, there will
surely befall him what befell them. Concerning this the sage
saith (Prov. xvi. 2), " All the ways of a man are clean in his
own eyes, but the Lord weigheth the spirits " ; and he saith of
pride (id. xvi. 18), "Pride goeth before destruction," i.e., the
result of pride and pomp is overthrow and degradation. Thus
it happened to Pharaoh, who said (Ex. v. 2), " Who is the
Lord? " and Goliath when he spake (i Sam. xvii. 10), "I defy
the armies of Israel ; " and Sennacherib for his boastfulness in
saying (II Kings xviii. 35), " Who are they among all the gods
of the countries " ; and Nebuchadnezzar in that he said (Dan. iii.
1 5), " Who is that God that shall deliver you out of my hands ? "
and others who follow them in the manner of their speech
1 Cf . Bahya vi. 5 (p. 297), and Brull (p. 75, note 2).
56
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
and whose end was complete abasement and utter obscurity.
Whosoever is in this state is not secure from error and sin.
Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxi. 24), "Proud and haughty scorn-
er is his name." He mentions craftiness, because it is the
source of boastfulness. Whoever acts in this wise ought to be
ashamed, and remember that according to the measure of his
superciliousness will he experience contempt, and in propor-
tion to his power will humiliation suddenly befall him. Thus
the sage saith (id. , xxix. .23), "A man's pride shall bring him
low," i.e., boastfulness and arrogance are the main causes of
man's humiliation, and these, by my life, are characteristic of
the wicked, as he saith (id., xxi. 4), " A high look and a proud
heart. " Some of the proud vaunt themselves in the exercise
of this blameworthy quality, because they delight therein (and
try to excuse themselves by) arguing, that the soul inclines
to distinction, and finds lowliness irksome. Again, they hold
that domineering (supremacy) strengthens it, while submission
weakens it, and were there no domination, the world would not
be well adjusted. 1 They further say that the prayers of the
excellent had the attainment thereof in view when they said
(Gen. xxvii. 29), " Let people serve thee and nations bow down
to thee." Yea, in this way God distinguished His prophet
when He spake to him (Gen. xxxv. 1 1), "And kings shall come
out of thy loins." On the other hand, he punished those who
deserved punishment by humbling their power; thus it is said
(Isa. ix. 14), "Therefore the Lord will cut off from Israel head
and foot, branch and rush in one day," and so forth. Sim-
pletons, discussing this superciliousness, do not consider that,
when they resort thereto, their souls become unduly great, that
they overstep their bounds, become overbearing toward their
relatives, turn away from their companions, deride the advice of
1 Guttmann (" Saadya," pp. 276, 277, note 2, Emunoth we-Deoth, x. 9)
points out that Gabirol closely follows the teaching of Saadya with respect to the
love of dominion ; it is worthy of notice that Gabirol quotes the same scriptural
passages. S. Landauer (pp. xix.-xxi. of his introduction to the Arabic text of
Saadya's work) holds that this chapter, the tenth, is a later addition to the book ;
cf. D. S. A. Taubeles (" Saadia Gaon," Halle, 1888, p. 32, note 43).
57
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
every man, for as much as they rely upon their own opinions
and go their own way. But when it is so exercised as to keep
one away from baseness, to enable one to rise unto the excel-
lences, and to be firm in devotion to God, exalted be He,
which is His highest gift, exalted and magnified may He be, to
His servants, then this becomes the means whereby men gain
the grace of God and reach the everlasting kingdom. Of these
it is said (Job xxxvi. 7), " He withdraweth not his eyes from the
righteous, but with kings are they on the throne ; yea, he doth
establish them forever, and they are exalted." But he, who
resorts to superciliousness unnecessarily and takes only his own
counsel, is like him of whom it was said (Prov. xviii. i), " He
intermeddleth with all wisdom." Men disregard such a man
and desire not his presence : of such as these the sage saith
(Prov. xxvi. 1 6), "The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit than
seven men that can render a reason." And often, moreover,
his vanity impels him to undertake something outside of his
usual course of action, because he relies upon his opinion sav-
ing him and upon his counsel protecting him. It is this that
causes him to stumble; thus it is said (Job v. 12), " He disap-
pointeth the devices of the crafty, so that their hands cannot
perform their enterprise." Having progressed thus far in our
description of the quality of superciliousness, the way in which
to make use thereof moderately, and the mode of suppressing
its use in the wrong place, we must now proceed to quote very
sparingly a few prose utterances of the wise concerning this
quality, and whatever verses concerning it we can.
The divine ' Socrates said : " From whom doth disappoint-
ment never part ? He who seeks a rank for which his ability
is too feeble." Again he said, " He who sets himself up as
wise will be set down by others for a fool." I hold that bad
manners are attributable to superciliousness. Socrates said,
" Aversion is always felt for him who has an evil nature, so that
men flee away from him." Aristotle says, "As the beauty of
1 The appellation "divine," as applied to Socrates and other Greek philos-
ophers, was not uncommon ; cf. Schmiedl (pp. 263, 264).
58
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
form is a light for the body, so is beauty of character a light for
the soul." Again he said in his testament to Alexander his
pupil, " It does not show much nobility of purpose on the part
of a king to lord it over men ; (the less so) for one man over a
fellow-man." A certain haughty man is said to have been
journeying along with his effects; some of them fell down,
whereupon he threw the others out of the wagon. The ancients
say, " With him who is pleased with himself, many become dis-
pleased." A poet ' composed these lines concerning the blame-
worthiness of haughtiness and arrogance :
" Let him who shows great vanity concerning his beauty
consider this ! If men would but consider what is within them,
neither young nor old would feel proud. Are there not in the
head of every son of man five orifices from which come forth
effluvia ? The nose exudes, the ear gives forth an unpleasant
odor, the eye sheds tears, and the mouth salivates. O son of
earth, to be consumed of earth on the morrow, desist from thy
pride, for thou wilt be food and drink (to the earth) ! "
It is told of Ardeshir, 2 the king, that he gave a book to a
man accustomed to stand at his side, and said unto him, " When
thou seest me become violently angry give it to me," and in the
book (was written), " Restrain thyself, for thou art not God ;
thou art but a body, one part of which is on the point of con-
suming the other, and in a short while it will turn into the
worm and dust and nothingness."
1 The Arabic verses, printed in our text, were not translated into Hebrew by
Jehuda ibn Tibbon, the translator of the work. He left them untranslated, with
a view to making good at a later time the omission by some Hebrew verses of
Gabirol or the verses of another. Cf. Appendix A. p. 106 and Munk (note 4 to p.
167). This purpose was never carried out ; cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382),
and " Ermahnungsschreiben," p. 9 (through a misprint the number ix. reads xi.),
who had expected to publish these verses. The citing of these Arabic verses by
Gabirol is taken by Steinschneider (Introduction, "J. Q. R.," xii., p. 609) to
show that some Jews must have been versed in this part of Arabic literature.
2 Called an "Indian King" in the "Choice of Pearls" (No. 538, and note
175). Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 388, note 130, and p. 881, note 193),
also Dukes (p. 72).
59
CHAPTER II. 1
TREATING OF MEEKNESS.*
THIS quality is more nearly a virtue than that which was
mentioned just before, because the possessor of this attribute,
i.e., modesty and humility, withholds his desire from seeking
gratification. When one attains this precious rank, the praise-
worthy character in man is made perfect. This, in my opinion,
is a disposition which merits praise for him who acquires it.
Verily, he is accorded the loftiest praise. Dost thou not see that
humility is the highest degree of the nobles and of the proph-
ets, distinguished by their divine rank ? 3 One of them said
(Gen. xviii. 27), " I am but dust and ashes " ; another said (Ps.
xxii. 7), " I am a worm and no man " ; and so forth. They were
praised for their actions and were honored. A man of intelli-
gence should know that lowliness and meekness cause him to rea-
lize his desire in regard to present things, as thou knowest from
the account of what happened to the captains of Achaziah, be-
cause of their folly ; and what happened to the third captain who
gently spake to Elijah (II Kings i. 13), " I pray thee let my life
and the life of these thy fifty servants be precious in thy sight."
Him there befell the reverse of what had befallen the former.
Verily, fame and glory will be the reward of whosoever is lowly.
The recompense of meekness is honor and prosperity, and also the
deserving of honor. Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 4), " The reward
of humility and the fear of God are riches, and honor, and life."
The most excellent of the ancient nobles (may God guide
thee aright) were accustomed to exercise the quality of meek-
1 This chapter is given in a German translation, based on the Hebrew text, in
Winter and Wunsche (vol. ii., pp. 727, 728), being copied from Dukes (pp. 113-
.
8 Cf. the chapter on fTUJJ, in " Emunah Ramah " (ed. S. Weil, Frankfort, 1852).
3 Cf. Bahya, vi. 8 and 10 ; Briill (p. 75, note i).
60
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
ness, and preferred it to their natural impulses. It is related
of an illustrious king, 1 that one night while a number of people
were assembled about him, he arose to trim the lamp. Where-
upon it was said to him, " Why didst thou not utter a command,
which would have sufficed ?" And he answered them, "As
king I rose, and as king I resume my seat." He was wont to
say that " Every grace (of man) is envied, except meekness."
The philosopher Buzurjmihr 2 said, "The fruits of lowliness
are love and tranquillity." Know thou that in honoring his
brother or his neighbor, man honors himself. Some one has
remarked that " lowliness consists in being beforehand with
greetings to whomsoever one may meet, and in descending to
the lowest rank." Contentment is of a kind with this quality.
When one is gifted with its presence, he has already gained su-
periority. It is said, " Whomsoever the Lord loveth he inspireth
with contentment." Scripture says of the contented servant of
God (Prov. xiii. 25), "The righteous eateth to the satisfying of
the soul." And it says of the reverse, " But the belly of the
wicked shall want." He who possesses strength, health, and
a sense of security ought never to feel sad. The fruit of con-
tentment is tranquillity. 3 The greatest riches are contentment
and patience. One of the sages has said, " He who desires of
this world only that which is sufficient for him, will be con-
tent with the very least thereof." Another sage was wont to
admonish his son, " He who cannot bear with one word, will be
compelled to listen to many. He who esteems his rank but
slightly, enhances men's estimation of his dignity." In holding
the view that it may be right (at times) to repudiate this qual-
1 Dukes (p. 114, note 2) points out that this tale is cited in Ibn Khallikan (i.
526), the King being there called Caliph Omar.
* Cf. Steinschneider ("H. U.," p. 382, and " J. Q. R.," xii., p. 606, note
3; the reference to the "Ethics" in the same page should be i. 2, not i. 3);
Dukes ( " Blumenlese, " p. 60, note 3), and Landsberger (as above cited, p.
223, note to p. 18).
3 Gabirol's demonstration that patience and contentment are the offshoots of
pudency is shown by Briill (p. 75, note 3) to have been copied almost literally by
Bahya, vi. 10 (p. 311).
61
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
ity, I mean thereby that a man should not abase himself before
the wicked. With reference to such a case it is said (Prov. xxv.
26), "A righteous man, falling down before the wicked, is as a
troubled fountain and a corrupt stream." It was said concern-
ing this, " He who deserves (the greatest) compassion is the
wise man lost among fools. " In the ethical sayings of Lokman 1
(we find), " When the noble man forsakes the world, he becomes
humble : the ignoble in forsaking the world becomes haughty."
In the book of al-Kuti 2 (it is said), "Be humble without
cringing, and manly without being arrogant. Know thou that
arrogance is a wilderness and haughtiness a taking refuge
therein, and, altogether, a going astray."
1 Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 853). In general see V. Chauvin, "Bib-
liographic des Ouvrages Arabes," iii., Louqmane et les Fabulistes, Paris, 1898.
Dukes (" Phil.," p. 161) cites a similar passage attributed to Ibn Ahnaf.
2 Gabirol refers to an Arabic paraphrase of the Psalms by one Hefes al-Kuti.
Cf. Neubauer (" R. E. J.," xxx., pp. 65-69) , and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382,
note 99, and " J. Q. R.," xiii., p. 312). Cf. also Dukes (p. 105). who (p. 116,
note 2) instances a number of parallels to this maxim of Lokman in the writings
of Maimonides, al-Gazzali, etc.
62
CHAPTER III.
ON THE QUALITIES OF PUDENCY AND MODESTY.
A WISE man was asked, "What is intelligence?" and he
answered, " Modesty." Again he was asked, " What is mod-
esty?" and he replied, "Intelligence." This quality, although
like unto meekness and agreeing therewith, is of a nobler rank
than the latter, for it is kindred to intelligence. To every
man of understanding the nobility of the intellect is patent, for
it is the dividing line between man and beast, in that it mas-
ters man's natural impulses and subdues passion. With the
help of intelligence man realizes the benefit of knowledge and
gets to understand the true nature of things ; he comes to ac-
knowledge the Unity of God, to worship his Master, and to
bear a striking resemblance to the character of the angels. 1
Since this precious quality is of so noble a kind, it follows that
modesty which resembles it is almost equally so. The proof
of its being thus related is, that thou wilt never see a modest
man lacking intelligence, or an intelligent man devoid of mod-
esty. This being so, man must direct all his efforts to the
attainment of this wonderful and highly considered quality.
He must prefer it to all his natural impulses, and regard it
as superior to all his other qualities, for by means of it he
acquires many virtues, and all vice becomes hidden from him.
Thus it is said, " The faults of him, whom modesty clothes with
dignity, will not be remarked by men." Dignity and honor fol-
low upon him. Thus it is said (Prov. xv. 33), "Before honor
is humility." The meek find acceptance before God because of
their modesty; He brings them unto everlasting bliss. Con-
1 As to the advantages which accrue to man by reason of his intelligence, cf.
Bahya, ii. 5 (p. 114), and BrUll (p. 74, note 2).
63
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
earning him who understands its ways, it is said (Ps. xxv. 9),
"The meek will He guide in judgment: and the meek will He
teach His way." Even as it is necessary that the intelligent
man be pudent in the presence of others, so must he be pudent
when alone. It was said that, " Pudency and faith are interde-
pendent, and either cannot be complete without the other." A
poet said, " Keep guard over thy modesty : truly pudency marks
the countenance of a nobleman." It is said that " Impudence
and a lack of pudency are offshoots of unbelief." He who
wishes to acquire pudency should associate with those who are
modest with respect to him. An Arab was wont to say, " Pay
no regard to any man unless he show thee that he cannot do
without thee, even when thou needest him most, so that, if thou
sin, he will forgive and act as though he were the sinner; and,
if thou wrong him, he will demean himself as though he had
been the offender." Another said, " Finally, one learns from
the words of prophecy, 'If thou art not pudent, do whatsoe'er
thou wilt.' ' In the course of a characterization of modesty,
the poet said,
" Upon him reposes the mantel of piety : and, in truth, a
light streams from between his eyes."
Al-fadil says : " By reason of belief and piety, men dwell
together for a time. Afterward they are kept together by
reason of modesty, pudency, and blamelessness." Aristotle
said in his discourse, " As a result of modesty (one's) helpers
are multiplied." He was accustomed to say, " In chaste chil-
dren modesty clearly rules over their countenance." It was
termed pudency 1 only because it is the way to eternal life. A
philosopher said, " Modesty asserts itself in the midst of
wrath." Again it was said, "The enmity of the modest man
is less harmful to thee than the friendship of the fool. " He
who desires to guard this quality should not trifle away his
dignity when asked to serve men, for when thou hast once
worn out thy dignity, thou wilt find no one to renew it for
thee. To make use of pudency (that is, to be overpudent),
1 Play upon the similarity of the words " pudency " and "life " in the Arabic.
64
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
in speaking the truth or enjoining good acts, in spreading re-
ligion and devotion, is blameworthy. In such cases one
must not make use of it; thus the saint said (Ps. cxix. 46),
" I will speak of thy testimonies also before kings, and will
not be ashamed." But it is necessary for man to cover his
face with the mantle of modesty before all men, as thou
knowest from the case of Saul when he hid himself, (as) it
is written (i Sam. x. 23), "Behold he is hidden among the
vessels." God selected him for kingship, as it is written (i
Sam. x. 24), "Behold whom the Lord hath chosen." To sum
up, according to the opinion of the philosophers and the sages,
this quality is one of the virtues of the noble soul, and its rela-
tion to these is as that of the spirit to the body. A philoso-
pher said, " Modesty consists in conducting affairs in the best
way wherein it is possible for them to be conducted, and in
leaving them in their best aspects." He who is modest will
attain to power.
CHAPTER IV.
TREATING OF THE QUALITY OF IMPUDENCE.
WE had much to say on the praiseworthiness of the quality
of pudency, but the quantity of blame which we shall mete out
to the quality of impudence is small. He who is possessed of
the quality of shamelessness is culpable in the eyes of God,
as are those of whom it is said (Jer. v. 3), " They have made
their faces harder than a rock; they have refused to return."
The Saint says with reference to the impudent (Prov. xi. 2),
" When pride cometh, then cometh shame," which means that
when impudence prevails over the qualities of man, he is
scorned by men and not respected. He is not taken seriously,
nor is he regarded with that consideration for his wisdom, even
though he be learned, which is paid to the pudent. Thus it is
written (ib.\ "But with the lowly is wisdom." If one is wise
and desires to pursue the goodly course which is acceptable
unto God, let him abandon this quality, refrain from exercising
it, and keep it afar from the character of his soul. Of him
who is impudent the prince saith (id. xxi. 24), " Proud and
haughty scorner is his name," by which he means that God will
requite according to his doing, whosoever is impudent, as it
is written (#.), " Who dealeth in proud wrath." It is possible
also that " Who dealeth in proud wrath " refers to such an im-
pudent one as, by reason of the qualitv of impudence, provokes
the displeasure and annoyance of others, and so forth. When
this disposition becomes part of man's nature, whosoever is
familiar with him must turn him away from it by rebuking
him as much as he is able, and by annoying him, until he be
rid of all that was in him. Thus it is said (id. xxi. 29), "A
wicked man hardeneth his face." Yet impudence (boldness)
66
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
may be commendable when supporting religion, when perform-
ing "service" and speaking the truth. But to oppose thereby
the righteous and the Prophets of God is reprehensible. Thus
it is said (Ez. ii. 4), " Impudent children and stiff- hearted."
If the man who practises this quality be of a yellow (bilious)
constitution, and if in the course of his youth he give strong
evidence of its possession, he must oppose to it its very reverse.
Let him trust in God, and he will accustom himself to avoid
this blameworthy quality and subdue it.
(END OF PART i.)
67
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE QUALITY OF LOVE.
IT is almost impossible for any man to be secure from this
"accident," O God, save he whose intellect is master over his
nature. None such exists ; and if any (be found to) exist, he is
undoubtedly one of the most excellent (men). Lust is a con-
stituent element in the nature of man, and if he desire to be
master and ruler, let him cast away lust (passion), make no use
of it whatever, ignore it and do without it, for it is one of the
baser qualities. It is well known that the qualities of the wise
are not perfected until their souls gain the mastery over their
desires. The deeds of him whose intellect prevails over his lust-
fulness are commendable. Upon the realization of desires,
there ensues the penalty of misfortune. One of the signs of
him, who is overcome by his lust, is that he is very changeable,
restless, and fickle of speech. Especially if, added to this, the
bloody temper prevail in his constitution and he be in the period
of youth and the season of spring, then it proves too strong for
him. Therefore the wise man must shrink from this quality
lest he make use of it and turn away from it, for there is
connected with it no inconsiderable harm. Thou knowest how
contempt, obscurity, and abasement come upon its devotee, and
that finally its outcome is evil. This thou knowest from the
story of Amnon and what happened to him when he hastened
after his desire. Man ought to employ this quality only in the
service of God and His divine Law, as it is written (Ps. i. 2),
"And his delight is in the law of the Lord," and again (id.,
68
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
cxix. 97), " How I love thy law," etc. Necessarily, one who
occupies himself with the quest of knowledge and moral science
(theoretical science and the practical arts), will be (so busy as to
be) kept from his lusts. The wise one said, " If aught befall
thee and no one occur to thee whom thou mightest consult with
reference thereto, avoid it and bring it not near to thy passion,
for passion is an enemy of the heart." And he said, " He who
is submissive to his lust is routed, and he who rebels against it
gains the victory." This quality is preferred by foolish men
only because of the imminence (immediateness) of its delight
and for the sake of the amusement and merriment and the hear-
ing of mirthful songs which they get through it. They heed not
the suffering and the wretchedness that follow in its train, and
therefore incline in accord with their natural impulses to the
attainment of present pleasure, as it is said (Prov. xiii. 19),
"The desire accomplished is sweet to the soul " turning aside
from wisdom and the service of the Lord, because of what ap-
pears to be the remoteness of the delight and pleasurableness
of these things. Verily, in their opinion, these are remote.
Yet these are not remote, but near at hand. They are remote
only in their mind. Therefore man must devote this quality of
love to God, exalted may He be, as it is written (Deut. xi. I),
"Thou shalt love the Lord thy God " ; and to his soul, as it is
written (I Sam. xx. 17), " For he loved him as he loved his own
soul"; to his relatives, as it is written (Gen. xxix. 18), "And
Jacob loved Rachel " ; to his offspring, as it is written (id.,
xxxvii. 3), " Israel loved Joseph " ; to his country, as it is writ-
ten (Num. x. 30), " But I will depart to my own land and to my
kindred"; to his companion, as spake David to Jonathan (II
Sam. i. 26), " Very pleasant hast thou been unto me " ; to his
wife (Prov. v. 19), " Let her be as the loving hind and the pleas-
ant roe"; to wisdom, as it is written (Prov. xxix. 3), "The
man that loveth wisdom rejoiceth his father." The moral
application of this quality is, man must evince it (in his deal-
ings) with all men. It has been said, " He who desires to be
endeared to men should conduct himself with regard to them in
69
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
the best possible manner. Benefit occasions love even as in-
jury begets hatred." Moreover, included under this quality are
wishes and unattainable desires. It is right for the man of un-
derstanding that he train himself (to keep aloof) therefrom.
The following is part of what the poets have said concerning
such wishes as cannot be realized, and wherefrom the soul real-
izes naught except possibly weariness of spirit, continual dis-
quietude, and protracted restlessness :
" My day is a day which is common to men until the dark-
ness of the night is fallen, and then my couch wearies me. I
spent my day in entertainment and in desire but the night
brought me altogether to grief."
Among other things which have been said with reference to
devoting one's self wholly to pleasure and passion, the blamewor-
thy outcome of this, and the trouble which is associated there-
with, the poet says :
" We have drunk of the dregs of the wine as if we were
kings of the two Iraks and the sea; but when the sun shone
brightly, thou mightest have found me with my riches flown,
and poverty once more my own."
When this quality obtains the mastery of the soul, the
senses become blunted and man is not conscious because of his
being given over to pleasure. He is as those of whom it is
.said (Isa. v. 20), " Woe unto them that call evil good and good
evil." The maxim of the sage is, "Thy love of anything ren-
ders thee blind and deaf." One sage, writing to another on
the subject of subduing the lusts, said, "Thou shalt not attain
what thou lovest until thou suffer much from what thou loath-
est. And thou shalt not be delivered from that which thou
loathest, until thou suffer much through that which thou lovest."
70
CHAPTER II.
(TREATING OF) HATE.
THOU shouldst know that he who hates men is hated by
them, and when this quality takes firm hold of the soul, it de-
stroys it, because it leads to the hatred of the very food and
drink with which man sustains life. Besides, he suffers injury
through the hostility of men. When excessive love is expended
on other than divine things, it is changed into the most violent
hatred. As thou knowest from the expression (II Sam. xiii.
15)," Then Amnon hated her exceedingly." He who loves thee
for some reason will turn his back, simultaneously with its dis-
appearance and ending. Thou must not trust in the counsel of
the enemy, the "Hater." Thus it is written (Prov. xxvii. 6),
"The kisses of an enemy are deceitful." From this quality
there branches out fretfulness. Thou knowest how the preva-
lence of fretfulness has been censured, the blameworthiness
which attaches to its use and the repugnance the soul feels
therefor. It has been said that the fretful cannot abide by one
state ; he has not a friend ; his circumstances are always dis-
turbed, and misery never parts company with him. He is like
one of whom it is said (Prov. xii. 27), " The slothful (listless)
man roasteth not that which he took in hunting. " Thou know-
est that many men make a show of friendship in their speech
and yet frequently are enemies at heart. Do not trust them, as
it is written (id., xxvi. 24), " He that hateth, dissembleth with
his lips." Even though he be gentle in discourse with thee,
do not associate with him, as it is written (id., 25), "When he
speaketh fair, believe him not." Thus Joab also made a show
of kind-heartedness and affection for Abner and Amasa before
killing them. So also did Ismael favor Guedaliah ben Achi-
7'
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
kam ere he killed him. It is said, " He who sows hatred will
reap regret." He who is of this character is ill-disposed to
his fellow-man in matters concerning himself and another. So
much the more will he be so in those affecting him and his
Lord. He acts as though he were praying, but his secret
thoughts are quite different. Thus it is written of them (Ps.
Ixxviii. 36), " Nevertheless they did flatter him with their
mouth and they did lie unto him with their tongues," and so
forth. The divine Socrates spake unto his disciples, bidding
them " Beware of whomsoever your heart hate, for the hearts of
men are like a mirror." Thus the sage said (Prov. xxvii. 19),
" As in water, face answereth to face, so the heart of man to
man." Souls are alike, and the most harmful and persistent
form of hatred is that caused by envy. The poet saith,
" Thou canst cure all manner of enmity except the enmity
which comes to thee through envy."
In the book of al-Kuti (it is said), "The very best that
thou canst look forward to in regard to thy enemies is that thou
bring them back to the love of thee, if that be possible."
72
CHAPTER III.
TREATING OF THE QUALITY OF MERCY AND COMPASSION
(PITY), THE PRAISE OF ITS POSSESSORS, AND AN EXHOR-
TATION TO GIVE PREFERENCE THERETO. THIS FORMS
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
SINCE this quality is of a kind with the nature of the Crea-
tor, may He be greatly praised and mightily exalted, it is com-
plementary to the twelve attributes especially characteristic of
Him, i.e., the thirteen qualities which are ascribed to the Lord
of Worlds, viz., "The Lord eternal is a merciful and gracious
God," and so forth. That which it is possible for the wise man
to aim at in action is, being slow to anger, "long-suffering,"
and largely generous, as it is said, "abundant in loving-kind-
nesses," tolerant of sin, as it it is said, "Forgiving iniquity,"
and so forth. The upright and wise man must emulate these
as far as he is able to do. Even as man desires that he be dealt
with mercifully, when compelled to seek help, so must he be
merciful to whosoever seeks his help. This quality is extremely
praiseworthy, and God, exalted may He be, has distinguished
His righteous servants through their love therefor. As thou
knowest of Joseph, where it is said (Gen. xliii. 30), "His bow-
els did yearn upon his brother." The intelligent man has the
qualities of pity and compassion implanted in his soul and ever
present therein. The sage said, " Mercy is the result of kind-
liness and honesty. " In regard to it, Solomon the Wise spake
when he exhorted to mercy and compassion (Prov. xxiv. n),
" If thou forbear to deliver them that are born unto death."
A beautiful feature of this quality in connection with the Crea-
tor, exalted and hallowed may He be, is that He is merciful in
dealing with all His creatures. Thus it is said (Ps. cxlv. 9),
73
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
"The Lord is good to all, and His tender mercies are over all
His works." In the book of Al-Kuti, it is said, "Spare no
effort to deliver those who are confronted with death." Again
he said, " Do not wrong the weak, for their Protector is God,
the mighty One. " He said, " Prosperous are they whose heart
is ever merciful and meek," and again we find therein, " He who
is not merciful will die by the hand of one who is merciless. "
74
CHAPTER IV.
TREATING OF HARD-HEARTEDNESS. THIS is THE EIGHTH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
*
I DO not find this quality among righteous or superior men.
But it is (to be found) in him whose nature resembles that of
a lion, for he is one who is never sated. These are the ones of
whom it is said (Deut. xxviii. 50), " A nation of fierce counte-
nance." Upon my soul, this is a wholly detestable quality,
whether (its measure be) great or small. It comes into being
when the spirit of wrath prevails over a man. This quality
is exercised for the purpose of wreaking vengeance upon ene-
mies. There is no harm in making use of it in this manner,
although the intelligent man ought not endeavor to be avenged
upon his enemies. For this is not befitting. Thus saith
the sage (Prov. xxiv. 17), "Rejoice not when thy enemy fall-
eth." To make use of it in order that one may do evil to his
fellow-man, to kill him, or to lay hold of the possessions of one
who has given no offence, is reprehensible. From such as
these may God preserve me, for of their ilk, the Saint said
(Ps. cxxiv., i and 3), " If it had not been the Lord who was on our
side, now may Israel say " : " Then they had swallowed us up
quick, when their wrath was kindled against us." A proof that
this quality is only found in the wicked is the expression (Prov.
xii. 10), "But the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel."
Plato, the author of the laws in regard to vengeance, said, " He
who desires to be revenged upon his enemies should add (a de-
gree of) excellence to himself."
END OF PART II.
75
PART III.
CHAPTER I.
TREATING OF JOY (CHEERFULNESS). THIS is THE NINTH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality is found to differ in various men. Sometimes,
it is natural; this is the case in him whose temper is humid-
hot as is that of blood; especially when his hopes are well
ordered and never confounded, and who, in addition, is far from
experiencing suffering and free from affliction. It is but
meet that in the nature of him who is of this character there
appear the sign of this quality that his exterior be sound, his
health robust, and old age without haste in overtaking him.
Thus it is said of such an one (Prov. xvii. 22), " A merry heart
doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit dries the bones. "
Sometimes it is coincident with the attainment of the desire
and the realization of a wish. Peculiar to it is continual smil-
ing without (apparent) cause. Very often lightmindedness ac-
companies it, whereof it is written (Eccl. vii. 6), " For as the
crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool."
It has been said that one of the distinguishing marks of the
fool is his laughing when there is no occasion for laughter. I
hold that this quality is to be found in the souls of those, above
all, who are free from defilement, the righteous, the pious,
the pure, destined for the Heavenly Kingdom, rising to spir-
ituality, i.e., the souls of the upright, for they are in perfect
enjoyment of their condition of service and greatly rejoiced be-
cause of their worship, as it is written (Ps. xxxii. 1 1), " Be glad
in the Lord and rejoice, ye righteous; and shout for joy, all ye
76
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
that are upright in heart." The well-bred man ought not to i\
dulge in laughter when seated in an assembly, for it was said that
for him who laughs much, but little respect is felt. Facetious-
ness takes away the veil of dignity. Even as anxiety (appre-
hensiveness) when it is aroused gives rise to weeping, so glad-
ness, when it is stirred, incites to laughter. Therefore the
intelligent man ought to understand that this quality and some
other qualities are not of the rational soul, as Galen holds, but
of the animal soul. The proof of this is that thou seest laugh-
ter break out in spite of dreadful events. Often, too, man is
unable to refrain therefrom. The same is held with regard to
wrath and other qualities. Considering this, man should urgent-
ly seek to render his animal soul submissive to his rational soul :
namely, that his intellect guide his nature. When he does this,
he becomes included among the most excellent men. Where-
fore Socrates says in regard to joy, " Whatever causes joy
causes sorrow." In the ethics of Diogenes, treating of joy, he
states : " Joy is life and exaltation to the heart, whereas grief
is distress and destruction."
77
CHAPTER II.
TREATING OF GRIEF (APPREHENSIVENESS). THIS is THE
TENTH CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality usually succeeds in establishing itself in the
soul when wishes fail of realization, and then the soul is
brought to such a point as almost to be killed when it loses the
objects of its love. Oh, what a quality is this ! How serious
a matter when it comes into evidence, and how waste is its place
when it prevails ! Thus it was said, " Apprehensiveness is a
living death." I have determined to linger here a little in the
discussion of this chapter. Perhaps God will grant us His
grace and inspire us with excellent words, which may relieve
the sadness of man, so that he may find healing in our discourse,
because it is impossible to find healing for psychical ills other
than in spiritual remedies. As this takes firmer hold of the
soul, so also it becomes more difficult to find the remedy. Of
God we pray that He protect us therefrom in His graciousness.
The constitution of apprehensiveness is cold and dry, like
the black gall (humor). No man can absolutely escape it. In
some it attains immense proportions, so that they thereby be-
come afflicted with psychical ailments. Thus it is said (Prov.
xii. 25), "Gloom in the heart of man maketh it stoop, but a
good word maketh it glad." Know thou that this quality is
generally visible in the countenance, as thou hast seen in the
case of Joseph, who discerned what was in the heart of " the
servants of Pharaoh," when he beheld their austere counte-
nances; it being said (Gen. xl. 6), "And he looked upon them,
and behold they were sad," and as Artaxerxes said to Nehe-
miah (Neh. ii. 2), " Why is thy countenance sad, seeing thou art
not sick." Thus it is obvious that this quality is generally dis-
78
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
tinctly visible in the countenance. Thou shouldst know that
if a man be madly in love with this world, 1 which is a world
de generatione et corruptione, he never omits to seek the grati-
fication of the senses, constantly moving on from one thing to an-
other. If he attain them and then lose them, gloom overcomes
him. On the other hand, if he be made to forget this world,
and apply himself to the world of intellect, then it becomes
possible for him to escape the psychical ills, which are (occa-
sioned by) worldly acquisitions, that is, if he turn away from
vain works and incline in the fulness of the soul to ethical sci-
ence and religious laws. Therefore the intellectual man ought
to cast away the lowly quality of the masses and the grandiose
manner of kings. If it be impossible for a man to have what
he desires, he must desire what he has. Let him not prefer
continual gloom. We ought to strive to cure our souls of this
evil (disease), in the same way as we must suffer hardships in
trying to cure our bodies and to rid them of diseases by means of
burning and cutting (fire and iron-), and so forth. Rather must
we gradually accustom ourselves to improve our souls through
strength of purpose, and to endure a little difficulty in order
that, as a result of this, we may pursue a praiseworthy course.
We know, moreover, that if we represent to ourselves that no
misfortune will befall us, it is as though we desired not to exist
at all. Because misfortunes are a necessary condition of the
passing of worldly things. If this were not, there could be no
becoming. Ergo, to wish that no accident should come to pass
is like wishing not to exist. But existence is (a part) of nature,
and annihilation likewise is (a part) of nature. Then if we
desire that this be not (a part) of nature, we desire the impossi-
ble; he who desires the impossible will have his wish denied,
and he whose wish is denied is miserable. We ought to be
ashamed to give the preference to this quality, grief, and we
should yearn to rise unto a state of beatitude. Let him who
would not mourn represent to his soul the things that lead to
mourning, as though they already were ; thus, for example, let
1 Cf. Bahya, x. 7 (p. 451), ix. 7 (p. 425) ; Brlill (p. 77, note 2).
79
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
man say, "A certain possession of mine will be destroyed and I
will mourn for it," accounting it as already destroyed, or (con-
sidering) as already lost that which he loves. Concerning this,
the poet-philosopher said :
" The man of prudence grows up, representing to himself
his mishaps before they befall him ; if they befall him sud-
denly, they will not terrify him because of the things already
pictured in his soul. He sees that one thing will lead to an-
other, and therefore he knows the end from the beginning."
But not the least trace of apprehensiveness is to be found in
those who are of lofty souls and noble aspirations. Socrates
was asked, " Why do we never perceive in thee any sign of ap-
prehensiveness ? " And he answered, " Because I have never
possessed anything over the loss of which I would grieve."
Wherefore let the intelligent man consider that there is nothing
in this world of all that grows, save it be insignificant at the
outset, and afterward develops, except grief, which is greatest
on the day it comes into being, and the longer it continues the
less it becomes, until it entirely disappears. The firm and re-
solute man is he who braces himself up with all his might in the
hour of his affliction. Alexander, in order to console his mother
about himself (in the event of his death), wrote to her as fol-
lows : " My mother, order a great and fortified city to be built
when the news of Alexander's death reaches you. Prepare
therein for eating and drinking, and gather together in it, on an
appointed day, men from all the lands to eat and drink. When
that has been done and all the men are ready to eat and drink
what the queen has prepared, let it be proclaimed at that mo-
ment that no man should enter her abode whom misfortune has
befallen." And thus she did upon the death of Alexander.
But when she ordered that no one whom misfortune had befal-
len should enter her house, she noticed (that) no one (came).
Then she felt sure that he had only wished to comfort her about
himself.
Alexander had heard from Aristotle, his master, that "Grief
injures the heart and destroys it." He wished to ascertain the
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
truth of this. He therefore decided upon an animal, the nature
of which was nearest to that of man, confined it in a dark place,
and allotted to it nourishment only sufficient to sustain its body.
Afterward he led it forth and slaughtered it : whereupon he
found its heart dissolved and melted away. Then he knew that
Aristotle had spoken nothing but the truth. Among the
words spoken by Galen on grief (we find), "Apprehensive-
ness is a consuming of the heart, and sadness is a sickness of
the heart." Afterward he explained this, saying, " Sadness is
felt for what is past, and apprehensiveness for what may occur."
In another place again (he said), " Sadness (is occasioned) by
what has occurred, and apprehensiveness is (felt) for what may
come to pass. Therefore beware of sadness, for sadness is the
end of life." Dost thou not see that when the face of man is
overclouded (with sadness), he will perish of grief. One of the
sages said, " Drinking poison is easier (to endure) than appre-
hensiveness." Now, if one should ask what benefit is derived
from choosing this quality at the occurrence of misfortune
and its appearance, I would answer that in shedding the tears
which have become spoiled and stagnant, and which nature is
incapable of returning to their place, we pour out the putrid
humors, which have become rotten, the chyme, and we remedy
it through purifying drugs, and thus we cleanse the humor in
such a manner as to cause it to return to its original state.
Thus it is known that in some small children there is a spoiled
excess, which cannot be passed off save through weeping.
This, then, is the natural use of weeping. Wherefore Socrates
said, " Sorrows are a species of ills of the heart, as diseases are
ills of the body." Among the words of Ptolemy on this (sub-
ject are), " Let him who wishes to live long, prepare to meet
misfortunes with a patient heart."
81
CHAPTER III.
TREATING OF TRANQUILLITY. THIS is THE ELEVENTH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality is commendable when a man directs it in faith
in the Lord, and places his reliance and his confidence in Him.
Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 19), "That thy trust may be in the
Lord." This is a praiseworthy disposition: its possessor is
worthy of very good fortune and abundant mercy from God, as
it is written (Ps. xxxii. 10), " He that trusteth in the Lord,
mercy shall compass him about." He who is in this state de-
serves to be blest, as it is said (Jer. xvii. 7), " Blessed is the
man that trusteth in the Lord and whose hope the Lord is."
This quality is usually found in the upright, those who fear
God and who are referred to in the command, which declares
(Ps. cxv. 1 1), "Ye that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord." The
excellence of this quality and its merit before God, exalted be
He, (is seen in the fact that) He promised it to Jacob during
his sleep, as it is said (Isa. xliv. 2), " Fear not, O Jacob, my
servant," and as it is said of the righteous man who trusts in
the Lord and who confides in Him (Ps. cxii. 7), "He shall not
be afraid of evil tidings: his heart is fixed, trusting in the
Lord."
82
CHAPTER IV.
TREATING OF PENITENCE (REMORSE) AND GUARDING AGAINST
(THE NEED OF) IT. THIS is THE TWELFTH CHAPTER
OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality comes into being, when a man quits a sinful
state and repents. When he gives evidence of the quality of
penitence, then his repentance is complete. It must be pre-
ceded by three conditions, namely, penitence, seeking pardon,
and guaranteeing to abandon one's wonted course. Thus our
master Saadya Alfayumi, may God be gracious unto him, ex-
plained that one of the righteous was wont to say, " He who
repents of his past sins is as though he had not sinned." This
trait is commendable from this point of view. But the repre-
hensible side of it comes to light in the case of him who says
" Yes " to-day in some matter and after a time regrets what he
has said and retracts, or who vows to fast or to give alms and
repents of his vow. All this is blameworthy. The reasonable
way, in my opinion, is for man to beware of placing himself in
a position which he may be compelled to regret. Although
men have not the power so to control themselves, that they can
choose (all) their qualities, nevertheless they can desire to rise
gradually from a base to a lofty course, and from faulty qualities
to sound ones. The acme of bliss for man is to be able to bri-
dle his soul, to rule it, to lead it along the right way. He
whose nature yields to his intellect becomes lordly; his merit
becomes high and profitable, and his deeds are praised.
END OF THE THIRD PART.
PART IV.
CHAPTER I.
TREATING OF WRATH. THIS is THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER
OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality, although among the forces of the animal soul,
we have set down as one of the qualities of man, because of
its analogy to his other qualities. Let us begin by describing
its useful side, although the latter is inseparable from its bane-
ful aspect. There is no quality so reprehensible, but that it at
times serves a use, even as no quality is so praiseworthy, but
that it frequently becomes detrimental. Thus thou knowest
that silence is a commendable trait, but it becomes detestable
when resorted to while listening to absurdities. Wrath is a
reprehensible quality, but when employed to correct or to re-
prove, or because of indignation at the performance of trans-
gressions, it becomes laudable. Therefore the thoroughly wise
and ethically trained man must abandon both extremes and set
about the right mean. 1 Galen said in his book on the qualities of
the soul, "Wrath and anger are two words with one meaning."
" Sometimes it appears, (to judge) from the countenance of the
wrathful, that he is distressed, his body feverishly inflamed, his
heart throbbing violently, his pulse beating strongly and
1 Rosin thinks that Maimonides followed Gabirol in his emphasis upon the
Aristotelian " middle way " (p. 12, note i ; p. 14, note 3 ; p. 26. note i ; pp. 27,
28, note 2; pp. 79-82). Cf. also Rosin ("J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 168, 169), Wolff
(chap, iv., pp. 15-17), Dukes (pp. 99-101, notes 2, 3 and 4, and " Phil ," pp 66,
67, and notes). Schmiedl (p. 268 note i) says very truly that the Aristotelian
doctrine of "the golden mean," " via media,'' became in time " ein wahrhaft,
judisch ethischer Lehrsatz. "
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
swiftly. " He said again, " Dignity becomes apparent in him
who indulges in wrath only after reflection. But he who in-
dulges therein unadvisedly gives evidence of stupidity." Where-
fore the saying, " He who is mighty in wrath and violent in
anger is not far removed from the mad." In the book of Al-
Kuti (it is said) that the man of wrath is never seen to be joy-
ful. We would classify the wrathful soul as of four kinds. 1
He who is quickly angered and (as) quickly appeased is of an
even-balanced disposition. This is mainly characteristic of a
man possessed of a yellow (bilious) temperament. He who is
slow to anger and difficult to appease is likewise of an even-
balanced disposition. But he who is difficult to appease and
quickly angered is in a reprehensible condition because he has
overstepped the boundaries of moderation. But he who is slow
to anger and quickly appeased is most praiseworthy. This is
one of the virtues of the noble and excellent men, among
whose qualities wrath rarely ever appears. Those who subdue
their souls' anger and prevail upon their nature to restrain it,
have been described as noble and characterized as exalted.
Thus the sage said (Prov. xvi. 32), " He that is slow to anger is
better than the mighty." This is one of the thirteen attributes
ascribed to God, exalted is He, in the passage (Ex. xxxiv. 6),
" And the Lord passed by before him," etc. It is said that as
scab is a disease of the body, so is wrath a disease of the soul.
The moral man must not become wrathful often, because, by
reason of his wrath, he is compelled to bear burdens. Thus
saith the sage (Prov. xix. 19), "A man of great wrath
shall bear punishment." The sage has forbidden it, saying
(Eccl. vii. 9), " Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry." Fur-
thermore the verse makes clear the reason for his forbidding it
in the expression (#.) "For anger resteth in the bosom of
fools." The wrathful deserves to be called "fool." It is im-
possible in most cases for the man of violent wrath to be secure
from grave sin and serious transgression. Thus the sage spake
1 Aristotelian; cf. " Moral Philosophy of Aristotle," by W. M. Hatch (Lon-
don, 1879, p 223 et set/.).
35
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
(Prov. xxix. 22): " A wrathful man aboundeth in transgression."
Thou wilt notice that most men, when they become wroth and
violently angry, take no heed of the disaster which they may
incur through the violence of their anger, like him of whom it
is said (id., 1 1), "A fool uttereth all his mind," and on the other
hand (ib.) t " But a wise man keepeth it till afterward." There-
fore our masters, peace be upon them, sought to interdict the
immoderate exercise of this quality, saying, " He who rends his
garments in wrath is like unto an idolater. " Acording to this,
a superior man must not be violent in wrath, for he accustoms
himself to the qualities of the wild and wicked beast. Nor
must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful, for this were
characteristic of little boys. ' The discreet stand with refer-
ence to this is to take the intermediate course. Thou must
know that man's reason is perfected when it subdues his wrath.
Thus Scripture says (Prov. xix. n), "The discretion of a man
deferreth his anger." Ptolemy, the sage, said of wrath,
" When thou becomest wrathful, pardon, for if thou dost not
yield, the taking 2 of vengeance is a sign of weakness."
1 Attributed to Aristotle in an article on " Ruhmliche Denkmale der Joiner
aus den Tiirkischen," Diez (vol. i., p. 83); cf. Hatch (above cited, p. 223).
2 Versified by Steinschneider (" Manna," chap, i., p. 89); cf. Bahya, vi. 7,
and Brtill (p. 77, note 3).
86
CHAPTER II.
TREATING OF THE QUALITY OF GOOD- WILL (SUAVITY).
THIS is THE FOURTEENTH CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS is one of the praiseworthy qualities, since it is rarely
to be met with, except in the case of a noble-minded person,
who accepts things just as they come to him and looks not for
better ones. The quality of contentment is also derived
therefrom. This is, as thou knowest, reader, an excellent qual-
ity, which we have portrayed and extolled above in the second
chapter of Part I. , whilst treating of the quality of meekness.
If the righteous man be well disposed toward his fellow-men
and the latter similarly disposed toward him, it is certain that
he will be acceptable unto God. 1 Yea, more, even his enemies
will make peace with him. Thus the sage saith (Prov. xvi. 7),
" When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his ene-
mies to be at peace with him," as thou knowest from the good-
will Abimelech bore Abraham, peace be upon him, and the lat-
ter's making peace with him ; thus also in the speech of our
sainted Rabbi to R. Hiyya, and so forth. Wherefore the excel-
lence of good-will is related to life, being a source of superior-
ity and a fount of good fortune according to the saying (id. , xvi.
15), " In the light of the king's countenance is life; and his
favor is as a cloud of the latter rain." So also in that of man ;
thus Pharaoh bore good-will to Joseph, even bringing him unto
kingly power. Thus Ahasuerus, too, bore good- will to Morde-
cai. Thou seest how such a man is treated and exalted ; how
much more he to whom God bears good-will, therefore the say-
ing (Isa.xlviii. 17), " I am the Lord thy God which teacheth thee
1 Cf. Diez (vol. i., p. 18, No. 29); cf. Bahya, v. 5, and vii. io(pp. 270, 271),
and Brlill (p. 76, note i).
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
to profit, which leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go."
The sage said, " Whosoever is contented is rich : whosoever is
obedient is joyous: whosoever is rebellious is sad. " He was
wont to say, " He who is not content of his own accord with
his condition will be (compelled to be) satisfied despite him-
self." From this quality there branch out forbearance and for-
giveness, which are of the attributes of the Creator, exalted is
He and blest, and of the wise and noble man. The poet spake,
" If I were not to pardon a brother's fault, and if I were to
say that I would exact vengeance from him, where then would
be the superiority? And if I were to cut myself from my
brethren because of their sins, I would be alone, and have
none with whom to associate. "
It is related : " A king once became angry at a company of
men and commanded that they be slain. Then spake one of
them, 'Verily we have sinned grievously. Will not thy good-
liness manifest itself in forgiveness ? ' Whereupon he forgave
them and slew them not."
88
CHAPTER III.
TREATING OF JEALOUSY. THIS is THE FIFTEENTH CHAPTER
OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality is an offshoot of wrath. Most rational beings
are not exempt from it : but it is in them all, for we see men
seeking to imitate the actions of their companions. For instance,
when one (man) sees that his friend has acquired some worldly
gain, mineral, animal, or vegetable, or other possessions, he
likewise endeavors to acquire similar things, although he be
able to dispense with them or compensate himself with other
things in their stead. Let him not protract his endeavor, nor
set his heart upon attaining such possessions. This is the ex-
pression to which the sage, peace be upon him, gave utterance
(Eccl. iv. 4), "Again I considered all travail and every right
work, that for this a man is envied of his neighbor." He whose
nature is overcome by this disposition is blameworthy, for it
leads him to envy, and a noble man is never found to be envious.
Books (i.e., of poetry) have been filled with the censure of envy,
and every man of intelligence knows how much has been said
as to its baseness. It is necessary to turn from it, for fre-
quently the affairs of the envious lead him to use violence.
Thus it is said of such as these (Micah ii. 2), "And they covet
fields and take them by violence." Enviousness is a loathsome
trait. The wise man must keep himself as far from it as he
can, for he gains no advantage through it : on the contrary,
continued depression and fatigue of the spirit through desires
and the constant hatred of men, scantiness of repose, preoc-
cupation of the mind, apprehensiveness and the punishment of
God, for transgressing that which He forbade in His revealed
Scripture. Man must not be jealous of unrighteous men, be-
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
cause he sees them devote themselves to pleasure and (the grati-
fying of) passions. But let him employ his zeal in the service
of God. Thus the sage said (Prov. xxiii. 17), "Let not thy
heart be envious of the sinners." Again he spake (Ps. xxxvii.
i), "Be thou not envious against the workers of iniquity."
Zeal is goodly only in the service of God, as thou knowest from
(the case of) Phinehas, of whom it is said (Num. xxv. 1 1), " While
he was zealous for my sake," and the good reward which he
merited thereby, as it is said (id., 12), " Wherefore, say, behold
I give unto him my covenant of peace." Among the things
which have been said with reference to the jealous and envious
(we find), "Thou wilt observe the envious man effusive in his
affection (for thee) when he meets thee, but hating thee in
thy absence. His name is friend, his intention unfriendly."
Again it has been said, " It appears as though the envious were
created in order to be angered." Furthermore it has been said,
" Let it suffice for thee that the envious man is grieved at
the time of thy joy." It is incumbent upon man to mount to
such an exalted rank with the aid of his powers and gifts, that
he be envied therefor." Let him ponder over this, as saith the
poet:
" Lo, I was envied, but God increased men's enviousness
touching me. Let man rather not live at all than live for a
single day unenvied. Man is not envied save for his excellences,
which are forbearance, scholarship, nobility, and generosity."
90
CHAPTER IV.
TREATING OF WIDE-AWAKEDNESS. THIS is THE SIXTEENTH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
I MUST preface, in treating of this quality, of what nature it
is derived. I would hold that it is of the yellow-gall species.
This quality appears usually when the soul is free from other
blamable qualities and when it is not mingled with aught of
grief, and most frequently it is (found) in pure and noble souls.
It is a commendable quality, and man ought to make use of it in
whatsoever work of art or science he be engrossed. Was it not
said of him (Prov. xii. 27), "The substance of a wide-awake
man is precious," which means that the most precious virtue of
the lofty is wide-awakedness, both in the present and future
life. In the world de generation* et corruptione, he is wide-
awake in his quest of knowledge as well as goodness of service
and faith, and in the attempt to attain to the world of intellect.
With reference to the reverse of this quality, i.e., weakness of
purpose in worldly affairs and in the attempt to save souls, it
has been said (Prov. xxiv. 10), "If thou faint in the day of ad-
versity thy strength is small"; and again (id., xii. 27), "The
slothful man roasteth not that which he took in hunting."
However, we have mentioned the languid while treating of the
quality of hatred. He who is one of the estimable, and admin-
isters his affairs with alacrity, will succeed in them. Thus it
is said (Prov. xii. 24), " The hand of the diligent shall bear
rule; but the slothful shall be under tribute." Concerning
this the poet spake :
" If the souls become too greatly ambitious, the bodies
will be wearied thereby."
This is a beautiful maxim. The sage, peace be upon him,
exhorted to wide-awakedness in matters religious and worldly
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
in saying (Prov. xix. 15), " Slothfulness casteth into a deep
sleep." This saying is very evident, for slothfulness necessa-
rily induces lethargy. For when the vapors, which are de-
signed to exude from the pores of the body through forcible
movements, are motionless and do not dissolve, they mount to
the brain, and bring about constant drowsiness. In the book
of Al-Kuti it is said of wide-awakedness, " He who satisfies his
land in respect of cultivation, will be satisfied by it with bread."
The ethical aspect of this quality is, " Man must not display it
in his lust. " He shall not be rash through this in his wrath,
for rashness is blameworthy since it is not one of the qualities
of the wise. The excellent do not make use of it. But one
ought to employ wide-awakedness in matters relating to religion
and law. The surest reason for the success of a man is (to be
found in) the wide-awakedness with which he conducts his
affairs, and the greatest sign of misfortune is his slothfulness
with regard to them. The poet has said :
" The pure and noble souls are wakeful, watchful, and sound
of judgment, while the stupid and heavy souls are drowsy, mean,
and low."
But that intense wide-awakedness which leads to hastiness
is culpable. Let the intelligent man beware of using it, for it
is the very worst of evils. 1 He who is hasty, rushes to destruc-
tion, and the man of hastiness is not secure from disappoint-
ment. A verse reads :
"A cautious man will realize his desires. But he who
hastens unduly is bound to stumble."
Man must not make undue haste in his affairs, because no
ood result can be obtained by haste, but through deliberation
ends are (more) easily attained. The beauty of the state of
wide-awakedness lies in its being potential in the soul and not
appearing quickly in action.
1 Attributed to Plato ; cf. " Denkwiirdigkeiten " (above cited, vol. i., p. 82);
paraphrased by Steinschneider (" Manna," chap, iii., p. 90).
KM> OF I'AKT IV.
9 2
PART V.
CHAPTER I.
TREATING OF THE QUALITY OF LIBERALITY (GENEROSITY).
THIS is THE SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality, when it is employed with moderation 1 and
does not lapse into prodigality, is commendable. Man must
prefer this quality to its antithesis, i.e., the quality of niggard-
liness, since the great men who are renowned by reason of their
excellences are not convinced that niggardliness is a praise-
worthy quality. Dost thou not see, may God guide thee aright,
in how many places the sage extols the man who is generous?
In one place he says that liberality brings a man to many de-
grees of eminence in this world and in the world to come.
Thus it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room
for him and bringeth him before great men " in this world,
because it brings him near to kings whose good-will he gains
through gifts ; as thou knowest from the respect of Ben Hadad
for Asa, and Tiglath for Ahaz, because presents were made to
them and in the world to come he will attain the merited
(share of its) bliss, which man realizes because of his serving
the Lord with his substance in almsgiving. Thus it is said
(Isa. liii. 12), "Therefore will I divide him a portion with the
great." Since liberality was a virtue of our father Abraham,
peace be upon him, he became known thereby and it was ascribed
to him. This quality is attributed to him in the Holy Scrip-
ture in several places, and thus is to be understood the explana-
1 Maimonides (Wolff, p. 16) likewise holds that liberality is the golden mean
between prodigality and niggardliness.
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THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
tion of (Ps. xlvii. 9), " The generous of the people are gathered
together, even the people of the God of Abraham." This is a
commendable quality because it secures honor for him who
exercises it. Thus it is said (Prov. xix. 6), " Many will entreat
the favor of the generous, and every man is a friend to him
that giveth gifts." Through this a man merits his fellow-men's
praise when he gives generously, and he is lauded therefor.
Thus spake a poet :
" When thou goest to him, thou wilt find him of pleasant
demeanor as if thou wert about to give him what he will give
thee. Had he naught but his life to give, he would give this.
Wherefore, let the fear of God be upon whomsoever would ask
this of him."
But the unseemly side of this quality appears when man
wastes his substance needlessly and mismanages it ; as, for in-
stance, he who spends it in devotion to pleasures and in gratify-
ing his lust. This is squandering and is not characteristic of
the wise. A gift in the right place is a treasure put aside. It
perisheth not in the course of time, but abideth with the ages.
This is the opinion of Solomon, peace be upon him, who said
(Eccl. xi. i), "Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt
find it after many days." This verse evidently exhorts to gen-
erosity, for if man be generous and bountiful, he will reap the
fruit thereof. Thus spake the poet :
" Sow thou generosity in the field of gifts, and noble deeds
shall be harvested by thee early."
Wherefore man ought to know that if he be in a prosperous
condition, then his generosity will not impair his prosperity,
and if he be in a straitened condition, his adversity will not
continue on that account. It is peculiar to this noble quality,
that he who employs it never feels the want of anything; on the
contrary, his abundance is much increased. Thus it is said
(Prov. xxviii. 27) : " He that giveth unto the poor shall not
lack." Furthermore, David the Saint, peace be upon him,
says of generous and liberal men (Ps. cxii. 9), " He hath dis-
persed, he hath given to the poor : his righteousness endureth
94
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
forever. " What is your opinion with reference to the use of
this gracious virtue ? It is like lending unto God, exalted and
magnified is He. Thus the saying (Prov. xix. 17), "He that
hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord. " Thus it was
said in the book on Ethics : " Bestow kindness on those who
are worthy and upon those who are unworthy. In the case of
the worthy, thy kindness will be in the right place; and in the
case of the unworthy, prove thou thy worth. " Again it was
said with reference to liberality, " It is a part of the noble qual-
ities to give liberally to him who asks. " In the book of Al-
Kuti (it is said) : " Know thou that resolution consists in doing
things with firmness. Consider well when to yield and when
to deny, when to grant and when to promise. For a gift after
denying is better than denying after (promising) a gift and favor.
Setting out to do after consideration is better than to abandon
after setting out. Know that thou shouldst be more prompt to
do what thou hast not promised, than to promise what thou wilt
not do. Therefore beware of hastily promising what thou fear-
est thou mayest be unable to perform. Adorn thy promise
with truth and thy deed with justice."
95
CHAPTER II.
TREATING OF NIGGARDLINESS.' THIS is THE EIGHTEENTH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
KNOWthou that this is a reprehensible quality. Among the
host of reprehensible qualities there is none more abominable
than this. For thou seest that he who is lavishly bountiful of
his substance, although blameworthy, is satisfied with the pleas-
ure he derives and men's goodly praise which is his. But nig-
gardliness is accompanied by evil repute without even the
attainment of pleasure ; and to be of evil repute is not one of
the qualities desired by the excellent. The noble-minded man
ought to shrink from this quality and not employ it on any occa-
sion. The sages are at one in thinking that manliness does not
go well with prodigality, nor religion with an inordinate desire
(for gain). He who is of this character may well despair of a
good repute and a fair record. Thus it was said (Isa. xxxii. 5),
" The vile person shall be no more called liberal, nor the churl
said to be bountiful." This "vile person" is like him, in the
wilderness of Maon, who said (I Sam. xxv. n), "Shall I then
take my bread and my water, . . . and give it unto men whom
I know not whence they be? " Thou knowest the severe pun-
ishment with which he met. But the good feature of this state
is that man does not squander his substance, be it great or
small, but guards it by means of this quality. He must not
overdo this, however, lest he pass over to the quality of greed,
which is not of the qualities of the noble. Thus the sage
spake in condemning niggardliness (Prov. xi. 26), " He that
withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him " ; and, on the con-
trary, "Blessing shall be on the head of him that selleth it."
1 This chapter is given, in a German translation from the Hebrew, by Dukes
(" Ehrensaulen," pp. 12, 13).
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIRCL
This verse outwardly 1 refers to "charity," but its, hidden im-
plication is knowledge. 2 The wise man ought not be niggardly
in dealing out his knowledge, for knowledge is not lessened by
imparting it (to others), as little as the brightness of the fire
dies away when a light is kindled therefrom. The best rule
with regard to the employment of this quality is to accustom
one's self to beneficence toward kinsmen, until one gradually
habituate one's self to benevolence toward strangers, and thus
train one's self to choose generosity.
1 On this point, Bacher (p. 53, note i) says : " Was hier als verborgener (al-
legorischer) Sinn angegeben ist, fallt mit der agadischen Deutung des Verses zu-
sammen (Sanhedrin, 91 b, unten). Ebenso gilt als selbstverstandlich diese
allegorische Auffassung des Verses als Warnung vor engherziger Zuruckhaltung
der Belehrung bei Abraham b. Chija, >DJ jVJil ed. Freimann, p. 17 a. . . ."
Gabirol's use of terms in this place suggests the formal distinction between the
"outward" and "inward" manifest and hidden meanings of Scripture, made
by the Islamic sect of Batiniya ; cf. Haarbrucker (Th. i , p. 256).
2 The same idea is expressed in the Midrash (Bemidbar rabbah, par. 15), in
reference to the prophetic powers of Moses; cf. Wolff (" Muhammedanische
Eschatologie, " Leipzig, 1872, p. 207, and note 412).
97
CHAPTER III.
TREATING OF VALOR. THIS is THE NINETEENTH CHAPTER
OF THE BOOK.
THE man who prevails over the temperament of the blood-
nature, who is large-hearted, full-veined, and long-armed, thou
wilt generally find to be a man of valor, especially if, com-
bined with that, he be master of the art of war. This quality
is praiseworthy (in man), when it is manifested in his strength,
and in accordance with his determination to be saved from what
might befall him. But when he departs from a moderate course
and unites valor with the quality of folly and it becomes the
cause of a man's throwing himself into dangerous places then it
is reprehensible. Of these two dispositions the sage saith (Prov.
xxviii. 14), " Happy is the man that feareth always; but he that
hardeneth his heart shall fall into mischief." But as regards
the great men who are mentioned as possessors of this quality,
heavenly signs gave evidence of their possessing this power,
thus Joshua, Gideon, Samson, Saul, David, Jonathan, Joab, and
Abner, and others like them, whose power gave evidence of the
quality of valor, were praised therefor; and those whose weak-
ness, in contradistinction to the former, gave evidence of the
quality of cowardice, were not commended for it, as I will show
in regard to them in the following chapter. It is necessary to
devote this quality to the service of God, as thou knowest from
(the story of) Moses, peace be upon him, when he retaliated
upon the people by saying to the children of Levi (Ex. xxxii.
27), " Put every man his sword by his side " ; and as thou
knowest from Phinehas in the matter of his zeal. Thus it is
said (Num. xxv. 7), "And when Phinehas, the son of Aaron the
priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation and took
98
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
a javelin in his hand." This quality of valor never fails to be
conspicuous in the souls of mighty men and courageous heroes.
With reference to valor and patience in facing danger, the poet
spake :
" There came a day in the heat of which some people
warmed themselves, but though there was no fire, they acted
as if in the fire's midst. But we had patience until the day
was done. Likewise, a case of misfortune can be brought to a
close only through patience."
Among the things which have been said in order to encour-
age the use of valor is : " Crave death, and life will be granted
thee." The Arabs were accustomed to call the man of valor
" safe." Among the things which have been said on the em-
boldening of the spirit in combat is the word of the poet :
" I went to the rear to preserve my life (in battle), but I
found that I could not preserve my life unless I went forward."
Thus the noble man must make use of this quality in such
a way as not to overstep the middle path lest he be called de-
mented (foolhardy). But he must pursue an excellent course
in regard to this quality. The philosopher spake, "The ex-
treme limit of valor is strength and endurance with respect to
what thou abhorrest. " Valor cannot go hand-in-hand with
vanity (untruth), nor firmness with absurdity, nor patience with
weariness, for these are of the qualities of asses and swine.
Valor consists in persevering in the right and overcoming thy
desires, until thou feel that to die in the best way thou hast
found is more desirable than to live in the opposite (i.e., evil)
way, which the power of understanding may have revealed to
thee. According to Al-Kuti, " Valor is the nature of a noble
soul, corresponding to the strength of the body. "
99
CHAPTER IV.
TREATING OF COWARDICE. THIS is THE TWENTIETH
CHAPTER OF THE BOOK.
THIS quality is generally found in spirits that are abject and
downcast, poor and wretched. It is a reprehensible quality.
Let the wise man be on his guard against it, let him make no
use of it, exert himself to keep away and abstain from it, since
he derives no benefit from it; on the contrary, he reaps ill-
repute, a vile record, and a diminution of praise. Men of lofty
purpose must dread it when they have learned to employ their
power of distinguishing in the use of things, so that it may be
the means of escaping serious danger. Among the offshoots of
this quality is slothfulness, of which we have already treated.
Thou knowest what was said with regard to its ignominy and
baseness. Thus the sage, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xxvi.
15), "A slothful man hideth his hand in his bosom, and will
not so much as bring it to his mouth again." This is the utter-
most that can be said of the shame thereof. The slothful cow-
ard is known to say : " I will not travel, for fear of highwaymen
and wild beasts. I will not engage in business, lest I meet
with losses. I will not fast, lest I become ill. I will give no
alms, lest I become poor," and similar words that put an end to
all activity, until there remains nothing for him to do, but
living on without moving from his place, as it is said (id., xxvi.
14), "As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful
upon his bed." A wise man should not choose this quality of
cowardice or make use thereof in preference to his other quali-
ties, lest he become known thereby and be as one who fancies
that he will be killed before the expiration of the appointed
time, as was said exaggeratedly of the slothful coward by the
poet, who spake thus :
100
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
" If a little bird merely raises its voice, the heart of the
coward is consumed (leaps with terror). But his teeth are sharp
as iron, at meal times."
But in a case where escape is impossible, it is permissible
for the quality of cowardice to come into play as in the case of
him, concerning whom it is said : " The king dispatched him to
a dangerous place. He refused to go. The king reviled him,
whereupon he said, ' It is better that thou revile me when liv-
ing than bless me when dead.' ' It has been said that this
quality has been made use of by those who prefer repose in this
world to all other qualities, not knowing that repose can be
enjoyed to the full, only after zealous care in the regulating of
affairs and the attainment of whatsoever be needed. Thus it is
said (Prov. xxiv. 27), " Prepare thy work without, and make it
fit for thyself in the field." Repose in and of itself signifies
slothfulness and cowardice. Thou knowest what happens to a
man by reason of his slothfulness : namely, he is deprived of
all his honor through utter poverty. Thus it is said (id., xxiv.
33-34) : " Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of
the hands to sleep : so shall thy poverty come as one that trav-
elleth, and thy want as an armed man." Again this quality
engenders in the body not a few ills and diseases, thus flab-
biness, dulness, swelling, gout, sciatica, and elephantiasis, and
similarly whatsoever results from indigestion; in fact, this
quality becomes habitual to a man and he considers everything
else as faulty and worthless; especially if this feeble coward
be of a phlegmatic disposition and on the way to old age, then
it weighs him down even more. }
1 We have here a reminiscence of Saadya's distinction between the results of
tranquillity and slothfulness. between the reposeful and the indolent, as found in
the " Emunoth weDeoth," x.
END OF PART V.
101
THUS' thou hast, may God have mercy upon thee, all that
was promised in the introduction. Because of our love of con-
ciseness, our aversion to prolixity, and our fear of departing
from the purpose of the book, we have much curtailed the dis-
course in the individual chapters and in the various parts. We
have not united every one of these qualities to its nature and
its sense, nor have we referred the senses to their natures,
although we ought to make clear the situation of every quality in
the body and give much of the science of the temperaments,
anatomy and physiognomy. We think, however, that this must
be deferred to some other time, when it may please God, exalted
may He be, for He is the One from whom to seek help. Hav-
ing finished as much as we could, and having said enough in the
chapters of this book, we would hold it to be possible that there
exist in man qualities other than those which have been classi-
fied, and still other natures. We say yes. We have been brief
with regard to the others for two reasons : First, we know that
among the qualities of men are those of vexation and weariness.
We feared that these might occupy as much space as the whole
book, and therefore we did not go to the length of collecting
many verses from the Hebrew and Arabic. Furthermore, be-
cause we knew that there is no quality which we have avoided
mentioning, that is not implied among those which have been
mentioned. It would bear the same relation to them that the
branches do to the root. If any one should happen to say,
" Thou must not exhort men to improve their qualities, nor
arouse them concerning the betterment of their moral status,
unless this be characteristic of thine own self because thou
wouldst be as he who recommends piety and forgets himself "
1 This concluding paragraph is omitted in the Hebrew translations, to which.
Is appended a Hebrew poem.
102
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
we would reply, " Every vessel gives forth whatever it con-
tains." How foolish is he who seeks to measure this world
and does not know the value of the parasang wherewith it is
measured. We have not mentioned any excellence which we
have not emulated; nor have we extolled any quality which we
have not tried to make part of our own nature. He who
adorns himself with what is not in him, will find his claims laid
bare after a time.
To Him that giveth understanding do I owe thanks: with
Him do I triumph: in Him do I greatly glory: with Him do I
take refuge against such things (as those aforementioned).
Him do I praise for he is worthy of praise; to Him it belongs
and Him praise behooves. Thus spake His saint, peace be
upon him (Ps. cix. 30, 31), "I will greatly praise the Lord with
my mouth ; yes, I will praise Him among the multitude. For
He shall stand at the right hand of the poor to save him from
those that condemn his soul."
Thus is ended what I sought to establish in the book on
u The Improvement of the Qualities," with the help of God and
His assistance. He is my lot and my fortune, the Helper and
the Giver of aid. Praise be to God, the Lord of both worlds !
Blessed be the Merciful who hath helped us !
103
APPENDIX A.
PREFACE OF THE HEBREW TRANSLATOR OF
THE "ETHICS."
LETTER of Rabbi Jehuda ibn Tibbon ' to Rabbi Asher ben
Meshullam of Lunel :
To the sweet comrade and the brother-ever-near, whose
words are as a light to my path, and whose memory is sweet
to my palate, my bundle of spices, my honey, and my honey-
comb. R. Asher, may God direct thy heart in the ways of
wisdom, and lift thee up to the inheritance of the most high
excellences. For thou art so precious in my sight, that I have
made my aim the doing of thy will. I have lightened for
myself the burden of translation, touching (the difficulties
of) which I was warned, because of the things which I have
mentioned in the introduction to my translation of the chapter
on " Unity," made by me for our Master, the holy Rabbi, thy
father (may his light shine), from out the book " The Duties of
the Heart." For remember when thou and I were studying
that chapter in his presence, I told thee in the course of con-
versation of the existence of a small work on the " Improvement
of the Qualities of the Soul," by the wise philosopher, Solomon
bar Rabbi Jehuda (may his memory be blessed) bar Gabirol
(may his memory be blessed), which contains all the subjects
discussed in the nine chapters of that book, and adds some-
thing concerning these things. His words are spoken rightly
1 Appended to the manuscripts (Neubauer, 1402, 2. Michael, 401) of the
Hebrew translation of the. " Ethics. " Steinschneider published it for the first
time (pp. 366, 367, of the " Katalog der Michael'schen Bibliothek," Hamburg,
1848); it was reprinted in the Lyck edition, 1859; cf. St. ("11. U.," p. 381)
and II. Gross, Gallia Judaica (Paris, 1897, p. 280).
I0 5
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
in a wise manner ' they lean 2 on Scripture, and are based
on the words of the sages, the parables of the ancients,
and the ethical sayings of the philosophers. The arrange-
ment of all the chapters is good, the author attains his ob-
ject in briefest 3 terms, his expressions are well chosen, and
the problems he raises are wholesome. He fills them with the
wisdom of the heart, with rare ethical sayings, with thoughts
like pearls and words like sapphires. When thou didst hear
this, thy soul did long to behold it, and to examine it carefully,
and thou didst say that if that work should come into our hands
with that chapter, it would suffice for us, as if it were the whole
work on the u Duties of the Heart," and even take its place.
It would spare us the trouble of over- much elaboration, and we
should be the better able to remember his words according to
the arrangement of his chapters. For such things as are long
drawn out, no man can master in good order. I promised thee
at that time to translate it after the completion of the first
chapter. Behold, I have translated it for thee, to the best of
my knowledge and power, all its words and its poetical expres-
sion, its parables, its ethical maxims, and its problems. But
the place of the verses which are noted therein is left vacant in
every chapter because of the word of our master, thy father,
Rabbi (may his light shine), who urged me to complete the task
before undertaking to give the verses in poetic paraphrase.
If I should find the words of the ancient poets like unto the
words of the author of this book, and the words of the Prince
(Samuel ha-Nagid), or of those who conducted themselves as
these did in matters similar to and relating to them, I will write
them in the book with the names of the respective authors.
Whatever I cannot find, I shall render to the best of my own
judgment, as well as with the aid of the opinion of a friend. I
will put every verse in its place on the page. Thou in thy
1 Cf. Dukes (p. 119, note i).
2 The use of this term in this way shows that Ibn Tibbon regarded the Scrip-
tural citations of Gabirol as mere mnemonics ; cf. Introduction, p. 13, note 4.
3 Cf. Rosin (p. 1 66, note i).
1 06
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
grace, take thou the trouble to correct its errors, to explain its
terms, and to elucidate its meaning, for no one is free from
error and sin. Thus said our master, David (Ps. xix. 13),
" Who can understand his errors? " As for our God, may He
teach us to profit, instruct us that we may understand and be-
come wise, so that wisdom become remembered of us and treas-
ured in our hearts. May He conduct us in the good and right
way, and enlighten our eyes with the light of the law as it is
written (Is. xlviii. 17), "I am the Lord, Thy God, which teach-
eth thee to profit"; and, as it is written (Ps. xxxii. 8), "I
will instruct thee and teach thee in the way thou shalt go."
Blessed is He that giveth strength to the weary.
107
APPENDIX B.
A COMPARISON OF SOME PROVERBS AND MAXIMS
IN THE "ETHICS" WITH PARALLEL SAYINGS
IX OTHER ARABIC, MAINLY JUD^O-ARABIC,
WORKS.
THE attempt has not been made to find out all the sources
whence Gabirol derived his maxims and apothegms, seeing
that, according to his own statements, these are merely cited
as illustrative of his ethical teachings. The parallels between
the "Ethics" and "Choice of Pearls" are pointed out with
some care, because the comparison may tend to throw some
light on the moot question of the authorship of the latter.
Steinschneider ("H. U.," pp. 387, 388) after pointing out the
similarity between the " Choice " and " Ethics " (with some
slight variants), makes mention of the surprising circumstance
that in the " Choice " no authors' names nor titles are cited,
whereas in a number of cases the " Ethics " gives authors and
titles in connection with quotations to be found in both works.
Even though Gabirol compiled the " Choice " for his personal
use when young, it is difficult, as Steinschneider remarks, to
see the reason for this omission.
A work by Honein, an Arabic florilegium of the ninth cen-
tury, translated into Hebrew by Harizi under the title noift
D'DlDl^sn, was published in a Hebrew text together with a Ger-
man translation by Lowenthal, who has performed with much
diligence the task of collating the maxims of Honein with those
of the Ethics and other mediaeval collections of apothegms
hence the frequent references to Lowenthal's German transla-
108
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
tion of Honein. Lowenthal holds that Gabirol made use of the
collection of Honein ibn Ishak in the Arabic original, and
(PP- 33> 34) points out the agreement of Gabirol with Honein
whenever Gabirol cites maxims and gives the authors' names
(with occasional exceptions), and also shows that many of the
anonymously given proverbs in the Ethics are identical with
those cited by Honein. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 350, note
658) thinks that Honein's work was known to the Spanish
Jews of the eleventh century, but that the maxims in the
" Ethics " and " Choice," and also those of Honein, may be de-
rived from a common (earlier) source.
Page 30. On the question of man's preference for ethical practice, cf. " Choice "
(xlii. 429).
Page 44. The saying of the philosopher, " Habit is master over all things" ;
cf. Steinschneider ("Erm.," p. 5 and p. xiv., Anm. 36, and " H. U.," p.
353, note 687), Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 96, no. 44; p. 156, no. 275 ; p.
244, no. 657), " Choice" (xliii., 480), Dukes (" Phil.," p. 75 and note 2), who
quotes the words of Publius Syrus, " Gravissimum est imperium consuetudi-
nis," attributed by Honein to Plato (i., chap, v., no. 7. p. 55 and note 7, and
ii., chap, ii , no. i, p. 101 and note 5), and to Aristotle (i., chap, x., no. 59, p.
67); cf. Honein, pp. 10, ii).
Page 45. On directing men " between the periods of childhood and youth unto
good habits," cf. p. 45, note i, Dukes (" Spruchkunde," p. 58, no. 3, and
" Blumenlese," p. 133, no. 171).
Page 48. Respecting compulsion to obedience and freedom of will, cf. p. 48,
note i, and "Choice" (p. 170, note 491).
Page 51. The fruit plucked from wisdom, etc.; cf. Steinschneider (' H. U.,"
p. 978, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 56. On abiding by one's own opinion, cf. Burckhardt (p. 102, no. 259).
Page 57. On the need of domination for the adjustment of affairs, cf. p. 57,
note i, and " Pirke Aboth." iii. 2.
Page 58. On the danger of stumbling because of reliance upon one's own opin-
ion, cf. " Choice" (Iv. 623).
Page 58. The saying of the divine Socrates, "From whom doth disappoint-
ment," etc.; cf. Steinschneider ("Erm., p. 20, n. 36) and "Choice" (Ivi.
629) .
Page 58. "lie who sets himself up," etc.; cf. Ilonein (ii., chap, i., no. 6,
p. 88).
Page 58. The saying of Socrates with respect to aversion; cf. Ilonein (ii.,
chap, i., no. 72, p. 97).
109
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Page 59. Aristotle's comparison of beauty of form with beauty of character;
cf. "Choice" (xliv. 551, and note on p. 178), Honein (ii., chap.iii., no. 9,
p. 109, and note 4). and Steinschneider (" II. U.," p. P^2).
Page 59. Aristotle's testament to Alexander; cf. Ilonein (ii.,chap. iv., no.
9, p. 115 and note 4), and Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. xv.,
"Arabic Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases," by J. R. Jewett, p. 73, no. 130.
Page 59. The saying of Ardeshir; cf. p. 59. note 2 : this tale is cited (together
with twelve other extracts from the " Ethics ") in the Hebrew, together with a
German translation in " Proben Morgenlandischer Weisheit," by D. Otten-
soser, Furth, 1851, p. 26.
Page 60. Honor, the recompense of meekness; cf. "Choice" (xliv. 514), and
Fleischer (p. 67. no. 32).
Page 61. "Lowliness consists," etc.; cf. Dukes (p. 67, no. 13, and " Spruch-
kunde," p. 17, no. 47).
Page 61. The fruit of contentment ; cf. p. 61, note 3, and " Choice" (x. 170).
Page 61. "He who desires of this world," etc.; cf. "Choice" (x. 161, and
note on p. 148), Ilonein (ii., chap, vi., no. 19, p. 124 and note 5), and
Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 21, no. Si).
Page 61. " He who cannot bear with one word," etc.; cf. "Choice" (iii. 95,
and note 79, p. 145), and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 164, no. 305).
Page 62. "A wise man lost among fools" ; cf. " Choice " (i. 66, 67, and note
488, p. 170), and Steinschneider (" Manna," p. 90, " Erm.," p. 20, no. 46,
and ' H. U.," p. 978, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 62. The saying of Lokman ; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xii., no. 13, p. 141
and note 6), and Dukes (p. 78).
Page 63. On the kinship of modesty and intelligence; cf. "Choice" (iii. 78).
Page 63. " The faults of him," etc. ; cf. "Choice" (xii. 177).
Page 64. Pudency when alone ; cf. "Choice" (xxxi. 328, 332 and notes on p.
159), Honein (ii., chap, v., no. 9, p. 118 and note 3, chap. vii. , no. 5, p
126, chap, xix., no. 23, p. 156 and note 3), Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 105,
no. 86, and " Spruchkunde," p. 25, no. 78), and Steinschneider ("Erm.,"
p. 22, no. 139, and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 64. The interdependence of pudency and faith; cf. " Choice " (xii. 178
and note on p. 150), and Dukes ( ' Blumenlese," p. 106, no. 86).
Page 64. " Pudency marks the countenance of a nobleman" ; cf. "Choice"
(xii, 176 and note on p. 150).
Page 64. "If thou art not pudent," etc. ; cf. Fleischer (p. 91, no. 24), and
Burckhardt (p. 188, no. 643).
Page 64. " Upon him reposes," etc. ; cf. Fleischer (p. 69, no. 54).
Page 64. The saying of Aristotle, "as a result of modesty," etc.; cf.
Ilonein (i.,chap. x. . no. 15, p. 65 and note 7) where it is said "Through
long-suffering one's helpers are increased."
Page 64. Modesty in the midst of wrath; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xxi., no. 57,
p. 167 and note 9).
Page 64. ' The enmity of the modest man"; cf. Fleischer (p. 79, no. 175),
Burckhardt (p. no, no. 415), Steinschneider ("Erm.," p. 22, no. 117) and
Haarbrucker (ii. p. 150) : this proverb is to be found in some form in almost
no
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
every Arabic collection, cf. "Choice" (xx. 266) and Honein (ii., chap, xxi.,
nos. 47, 48, p. 167 and note 2).
Page 64. On trifling away one's dignity; cf. Honein (ii. chap, xxi., no. 24,
p. 165 and note 14).
Page 66. On consideration for the wise, cf. Honein (i., chap, x., no. 62, p.
68).
Page 68. "None such exists," etc.; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 50, p.
138).
Page 68. " The penalty of misfortune " ; cf. " Choice " (xv. 190).
Page 68." Fickle of speech" ; cf. " Choice" (xv. 192).
Page 69. "Passion is an enemy of the heart"; cf. "Choice" (xv. 195), and
Honein (ii., chap, xvi., no. 12, p. 151, and note 2).
Page 69. " He who is submissive to his lust," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xv. 199)
and Burckhardt (p. 98, no. 249).
Page 70. On being blind to the object of one's love, cf. Honein (ii., chap.
xxi., no. 59, p. 167), and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 88, no. 13).
Page 70. "Thou shalt not attain what thou lovest, " etc. ; cf. Honein (ii.,
chap, xix., no. 29, p. 157, and note 3), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 22,
no. 140, attributed to Gregorius in the ^Ethiopic version of Honein ; cf.
Cornill, " Buch der Weisen Philosophen," Leipzig, 1875, p. 48, and in Ger-
man translation, p. 24.
Page 71. "He who loves thee for some reason," etc. ; cf. Honein (i., chap.
v., no. 5, p. 55 and note 5, and ibid., nos. 18, 19, p. 57 and note 5, and nos.
23, 24, p. 58 and note 2), being attributed in these five passages to Diogenes,
Apollonius. Solon, Gregorius, and Pikorus, respectively ; cf. Dukes (p. 45,
and "Phil.," . 140), "Choice" (xxv. 288), and Steinschneider ( ' H. U.,"
p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules ").
Page 72. " He who sows hatred," etc.; cf. "Choice" (liii. 616, and note on
p. 182).
Page 72. "Beware of whomsoever your heart hate," etc.; cf. Honein (ii.,
chap, i., no. 31, p. 90 and note 7), and Steinschneider ("Erm., "p. 21, no.
76).
Page 72. The most persistent form of hatred caused by envy ; cf. Dukes
(" Phil.," p. 135 and note 2) and Fleischer (p. 83, no. 224).
Page 72. " Thou canst cure," etc. ; cf. " Choice" (xlviii. 594, and note on p.
181).
Page 75. The best revenge upon one's enemies; cf. "Choice" (liii. 617. and
note on p. 182), Ilonein (ii., chap. ii. , no. 47, p. 107 and note 5). Dukes
(p. 71. note 21, and " Phil.," pp 132 and 134, note 17), Steinschneider (" H.
U.," cited as found in Bonsenyor's " Paraules"), and Briill (vol. ix. , p. 46,
no. 8, in part 21, " Spriiche des Aristoteles " of a manuscript discussed
under the caption, " Beitrage zur Jiidischen Sagen- und Spruchkunde im
Mittelalter "); attributed to Homer in Shahrastani (Haarbrucker, ii., p.
M4)
Page 76. Description of joyous souls; cf. Honein (i., chap, vi., p. 59).
Page 77. "For him who laughs much," etc. ; cf. "Choice" (xviii. 234 and
note on p. 152, xlii. 425, and note on p. 167), Honein (ii., chap, xiii., no.
Ill
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
17, p. 145 and note 10) , and Dukes ("Spruchkunde," p. 70, no. 23, and p.
61. no. 12).
Page 77. Diogenes on the effects of joy and grief; cf. Ilonein (ii. , chap,
vi., no. 19. p. 124, and chap. xii. , no. 32, p. 143) and Steinschneider(" II. U."
p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 79. " If it be impossible for a man to have what he desires," etc.; cf.
Steinschneider ("Erm.,"p. 20, no. 37, and "II. U.," p. 979, from Bon-
senyor's " Paraules"), Dukes (p. 88) and Marcus Aurelius (vii. 27).
Page 80. "Socrates was asked," etc. ; cf. "Choice" (vi. 118 and note on
p. 147), Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 64, p. 95 and note 3) and Dukes (p. 64,
note 6).
Page 80. "Grief is greatest on the day it comes into being"; cf. Dukes
(" Spruchkunde," p. 64, No. 9), who cites parallels from VTJH1 "pEil p, in
which, according to Guttmann (p. 48, note 2) , there are many points of agree-
ment with the " Ethics" and "Sayings of Aristotle." Attributed to Alex-
ander by Honein (iii. , chap, i., p. 173 and note I ; cf. p. 23).
Page 80. Alexander's attempt to console his mother; cf. Ilonein (iii., chap, i.,
p. 173 and note 2, p. 174 and note i) and Dukes (pp. 46, 47).
Page 80. "Alexander had heard from Aristotle"; told of Alexander in
Honein (ii., chap, v., no. 2, p. 117 and note i), and of Galen (ibid., chap, x.,
no. 2, p. 133 and note i).
Page 81. Galen on apprehensiveness and sadness; cf. Ilonein (ii., chap. i. , no.
n, p. 88 and note 5), and Steinschneider ("Erm. ," p. 20, nos. 28 and 38,
and " H. U." p. 979. from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 81. On the difference between sadness and apprehensiveness; cf.
Ilonein (ii., chap, viii., no. 2. p. 128 and note 5, and chap, ix., p. 131 and
note 2).
Page 81. On the second version of the difference between sadness and appre-
hensiveness ; cf. Honein (ii.. chap. ix.. p. 132 and note i).
Page 81. On the benefits to be derived from apprehensiveness; cf. Honein
(ii., chap, xvii., Nos. 6 and 7, pp. 151, 152 and notes).
Page 81. Socrates on sorrows; cf. Honein. (ii-, chap, i., no. 12, p. 88 and
note 6) and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 68, no. 3).
Page 81. Saying of Ptolemy; cf. Ilonein (ii., chap. xi.. no. 26, p. 136 and
note 9); Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 40), and Briill (vol. ix., p. 47,
no. 17, as above cited).
Page 83. On regretting what has been said and retracting; cf. " Choice " (xxx.
327. and note on p. 159, and xxv. 290).
Page 84. On indignation being praiseworthy at the sight of wrong-doing ; cf.
Frankel-Griin (p. 25, note i).
Page 84. On the right mean, or "middle way," cf. p. 84,' note i, and
Ilonein (ii., chap, i., no. 10, p. 88 and note 4).
Page 84. Galen on anger and wrath ; cf. Ilonein (p. 19).
Page 85. Al Kuti on the man of wrath ; cf. Ilonein (ii., chap, iii., no. i, p.
108).
Page 85. " Wrath is a disease of the soul," attributed to Galen in Ilonein (ii.,
chap, x., no. 5. p. 133)
i 12
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Page 86. " Nor must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful " ; cf. p. 86,
note i, and Honein (ii., chap, iv., no. 5, p. 114)
Page 86. Ptolemy on wrath ; cf. p. 86, note 2, and Honein (ii., chap, xi., no.
32, p. 137 and note 4).
Page 87. On the acceptableness of the righteous man ; cf. p. 87, note i, and
" Pirke Aboth " (iii. 13).
Page 88. The story of the king ; cf. "Choice" (i. 28, and note on p. 138, iv.
112, and xxvi. 295).
Page 89. The noble man is never envious; cf. Burckhardt (p. 98, no. 246).
Page 90. "His name is friend, his intention unfriendly"; cf. Honein (ii.,
chap, xiii., no. 21, p. 146 and note 4).
Page 90. The envious man, "created in order to be angered"; cf. Honein
(ii., chap, xiii., no. 33, p. 147 and note 2).
Page 90. "The envious man is grieved at the time of thy joy"; cf. Honein
(ii., chap, xiii., no. 34, p. 147, and note 3), and "Choice" (xlviii. 598, and
note on p. 181).
Page 92. " Hastiness the very worst of evils" ; cf. p. 92, note i, "Choice"
(v. 114-116, vi. 145, and Ixiv. , nos. 648, 649, and note on p. 184) ; Honein
(i., chap, x., no. 53, p. 67, and ii., chap, i., no. 18, p. 89 and note 4) ; Stein
Schneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 7) , and Ibn Hasdai (W. A. Meisel, " Prinz und
Derwisch," Pest, 1860, p. 201).
Page 92. "The man of hastiness is not secure from disappointment"; cf.
Briill (p. 78, note 2).
Page 92. "On the value of deliberation; cf. Honein (i., chap, x., no. 54,
p. 67).
Page 95. Bestowing kindness on the worthy and unworthy; cf. "Choice"
(xvi. 207).
Page 95. "Beware of hastily promising," etc.; cf. Burckhardt (p. 243, no.
530).
Page 96. Religion incompatible with inordinate desire ; Saadya speaks in
similar terms of undue greed (Emunoth we-Deoth, x.).
Page 97. "Knowledge is not lessened by imparting it"; cf. p. 97, notes J,
21 ; ascribed to Plato in Honein (it., chap. ii. , no. 6, p. 102 and note 3);
cf. Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist.," chap. vi. , p. 108) , Dukes (" Blumenlese, "
p. 178, no. 370 and note i, and " Spruchkunde," p. 31, no. 103, and p. 91,
note f).
Page 99. "Crave death and life will be granted thee"; cf. Honein (ii.,
chap, i., no. 13, p. 88 and note 7), Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 43)
and Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 180, no. 377).
Page 103. " Every vase gives forth whatever it contains" ; cf. Dukes ("Blu-
menlese," p. 149, no. 242, and note on p. 275 ; p. 153, no. 255 ; p. 182, no.
389).
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
In the citation of the principal authorities, the following
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Bacher W. Bacher, " Die Bibelexegese der jlidischen
Religionsphilosophen des Mittelalters vor
Maimuni," Budapest, 1892.
Beer B. Beer, ' ' Philosophic und philosophische
Schriftsteller der Juden," Leipzig, 1852.
Burckhardt J. L. Burckhardt, " Arabic Proverbs," Lon-
don, 1830.
Briill N. Briill, " Jahrbiicher fur jiidischeGeschichte
und Literatur," Jahrgang v.
" Choice " B. H. Ascher, " A Choice of Pearls," Lon-
don, 1859.
Dieterici (" Logik ") F. Dieterici, " Die Logik und Psychologic der
Araber, " Leipzig, ib68.
Dieterici (" Mikrokosmus ").... F. Dieterici, " Die Philosophic der Araber,"
vol. ii. , "Mikrokosmus," Leipzig, 1879.
Diez H. F. von Diez, " Denkwiirdigkeiten von
Asien," Berlin. 1811.
Dukes L. Dukes. " Salomo ben Gabirol aus Malaga
. und die ethischen Werke desselben L,"
Hannover, 1860.
Dukes (" Blumenlese ") L. Dukes, " Rabbinische Blumenlese," Leip-
zig, 1844.
Dukes (" Ehrensaulen ") L. Dukes, " Ehrensaulen und Denksteine
. . . hebraischer Dichter und Dichtungen,"
Wien, 1837.
Dukes (" Phil.") L. Dukes, " Philosophisches aus dem zehnten
Jahrhundert," Nakel, 1868.
Dukes (" Spruchkunde ") L. Dukes, " Zur rabbinischen Spruchkunde, "
Wien, 1851.
Fleischer H. L. Fleischer, " Ali's Hundert Sprtiche,"
Leipzig, 1837.
Frankl-Griin A. D. Frankl-Griin, " Die Ethik des Juda-
Halevi," Bilin.
Fried S. Fried. DVttDVI 1BD. " Das Buch Uber die
Elemente L," Leipzig, 1884.
Geiger A. Geiger, " Salomo Gabirol und seine Dich-
tungen," Leipzig, 1867.
Gratz II. Gratz, " Geschichte der Juden," vi., Leip-
zig, 1 86 1.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Guttmann J. Ciuttmann. " Die Philosophic des Salomon
ibn Gabirol," Gottingen, i
Guttmann (" Ibn Daud ") J. Guttmann, " Die Religionsphilosophie des
Abraham ibn Daud aus Toledo," Gottingen,
1879-
Guttmann (" Saadya ") J. Guttmann. " Die Religionsphilosophie des
Saadya, " Gottingen, 1882.
"Z. H. B." " Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Eibliographie "
Berlin
Haarbriicker Th. I laarbrUcker, " Religionspartheien und
Phiiosophen - Schulen," 2 vol., Halle,
1850-51 .
Hertz J. II. Ilert/., " Bachya, the Jewish Thomas a
Kempis," New York, 1898.
Honein A. Lowenthal. " llonein ibn Ishak, Sinn-
spriiche der 1'hilosophen," Berlin, 1896.
Horovitz S. Horovitz, " Die Psychologic Ibn Gabirols,"
Breslau, 1900.
Jellinek A. Jellinek, " Der Mensch als Gottes Eben-
bild von . . . Rabbi Schabtai Donolo, "
Leipzig, 1854.
Jellinek (" Mikrokosmos ") A. Jellinek, " Der Mikrokosmos . . . von R.
Josef ibn Zadik, " Leipzig, 1854.
" J. Q. R." " Jewish Quarterly Review," London.
Joel .M. Joel " Beitrage zur Geschichte der Phi-
losophic " i., Breslau, 1876.
Kampf S. I. Kampf. " Nichtandalusische Poesie an-
dalusischer Dichter . . . ," Prag, 1858.
Kaufmann I). Kaufmann, " Studien uber Salomon ibn
Gabirol," Budapest, 1899.
Kaufmann (" Attributenlehre ").!). Kaufmann. "Geschichte der Attributen-
lehre in der jiidischen Religionsphilosophie
des Mittelalters von Saadya bis Maimuni,"
Gotha, 1877.
Kaufmann (" Sinne ") D. Kaufmann, " Die Sinne." Budapest, 1884.
Lazarus M. Lazarus, "The Ethics of Judaism. "i.,
Philadelphia, 1900.
Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist."). .A. Lowenthal. " Pseudo-Aristoteles liber die
Seele, " Berlin, i8(>i.
" M. G. W. J." " Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissen-
schaft des Jtidenthums."
Munk S. Munk. " Melanges de philosophic juive et
arabe." Paris, 1.^59.
Musen J. Musen, " Ilatapuach," niDnn'D, Lemberg,
1873-
Myer I. Myer, " Oabbalah. The philosophical writ-
ings of Avicebron." Philadelphia, 1888.
Neubauer Ad. Neubauer. "Catalogue of the Mebiew
Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library," Ox-
ford. 1 886.
"R. E. J." " Revue des Etudes Juives."
Rosin D. Rosin, " J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 159-181.
116
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL
Rosin (" Maimonides ") D. Rosin, " Die Ethikdes Maimonides," Bres-
lau, 1876.
Sachs M. Sachs, ' ' Die religiose Poesie der Juden in
Spanien," Berlin, 1845.
Schmiedl A. Schmiedl, " Studien fiber judische, inson-
ders jiidisch-arabische Religionsphiloso-
phie," Wien, 1869.
Seyerlen R. Seyerlen, " Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen
zwischen abendlandischer und morgenlan-
discher Wissenschaft mit besonderer Ruck-
sicht auf Solomon ibn Gebirol und seine
philosophische Bedeutung," Jena., 1899.
Stein L. Stein, " Die Willensfreiheit . . . bei den
jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters,"
Berlin, 1882.
Steinschneider (" Al-Farabi ")..M. Steinschneider, " Al-Farabi des Arabischen
Philosophen Leben und Schriften," St. Pe-
tersburg, 1869.
Steinschneider (" C. B. ") M. Steinschneider, " Catalogus Librorum He-
brseorum in Bibl. Bodl.," Berol., 1860.
Steinschneider (" Erm.") M. Steinschneider, " Ermahnungsschreiben
des Jehuda ibn Tibbon und Spriiche der
Weisen," Berlin, 1852.
Steinschneider (" H. U.") M. Steinschneider, " Die hebraischen Ueber-
setzungen des Mittelalters," Berlin, 1893.
Steinschneider (" Intro.") M. Steinschneider, "An Introduction to the
Arabic Literature of the Jews," " J. Q. R.,"
vols. ix., x., xi., xii.
Steinschneider ("Manna") M. Steinschneider, " Manna," Berlin, 1847.
Stossel D. Stossel, " Salomo ben Gebirol als Philosoph
und Forderer der Kabbala, " Leipzig, 1881.
Winter und Wiinsche Winter und Wttnsche, " Die judische Lite-
ratur" (three volumes). Trier, 1894-1896.
Wolff M. Wolff, " Mose ben Maimun's acht Capi-
tel," Leipzig, 1863.
117
CORRECTIONS OF THE ARABIC TEXT.
THE editor has closely followed the MS. and has allowed
the peculiarities of the Judaeo-Arabic Script to remain un-
changed. In the following list he offers a number of sug-
gestions in correction of what are evident errors of the
copyist. A renewed collation of the MS. has enabled him
to correct in a few places his own previous readings. These
have invariably been indicated by the addition of " MS."
P. 1, i. .MS.
P- 6, 13
22
22
24
P- 7*25
p. 8, ii. .MS.
p. 10, 3
13
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p. 15, i. .MS.
read ....
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p. 19, 20
p. 20, 16. .MS.
p. 21, ii. .MS.
12. .MS.
16
p. 23, 25. .MS.
p. 24, 21
p. 26, 22 . . (?)
P- 27, 2
p. 18
J
&
CORRECTIONS OF THE ARABIC TEXT.
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