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Issued August 5, 1°07,
Bo WE PAnREMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BUREAU OF SOILS—BULLETIN No. 46.

MILTON WHITNEY, Chief.

IN COOPERATION WITH THE VIRGINIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
ANDREW M. SOULE, Director.

IMPROVEMENT OF
VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED
TOBACCO.

Jaye
GEORGE T. McNESS anp E. H. MATHEWSON,
Of the Bureau of Soils,
AND

B. G. ANDERSON,
Of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

ees

rae

Ar
2

WASHINGTON :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
190%.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF SOILS,
Washington, D. C., May 16, 1907.

Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a
report covering demonstration work carried on in cooperation with the
Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station in an effort to improve the
methods used in growing tobacco in the dark fire-cured tobacco dis-
tricts of Virginia. This work covers a period of three years, and the
report, entitled Improvement of Virginia Fire-Cured Tobacco, by
George T. McNess and E. H. Mathewson, of the Bureau of Soils, and
B. G. Anderson, of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,
embodies results and suggestions of much practical benefit to the
growers.

In accordance with your suggestion, the report has been gone over
carefully with Assistant Secretary Hays, who authorizes me to state
that he concurs in my recommendation for its publication.

Respectfully, 3
Mitton WHITNEY,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.

COA EEREES.

Parr I. GENERAL DIscussron.

HEAL OORT GIG Met eer oe ee Se WE ane ees gare Wt dae Sie hk ae eee
ltteers eet lee ears a, So np ee Pen Sie le © Oe a, VIS ere eee NS

Parr II. Demonstration WorkK Ar APPOMATTOX.

EL cEMesuil etn y CUNO! J 24: oe se yes es oe A Se ee
Coshol production and receipts from sales: 224.6) 22 5 5 De oe
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STSSUSOIC: CLEANS) (Gis Sy ES Se oath Se Mean Py ee ns AACA Mad a ee gE Ree A kok

Part JIT. Merxops or CuLrTivaTING, CURING, AND HANDLING.

SURG DCT a 2s 5d cian Sa esha er a it ys 7 Maat lef aN i ei, pa rs CO I
ate pete Lie COUR Con CLC. eee eer e ees ey Pea od ees Pe
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MiPricdamtera yin certian 2 2) Che Oe So Po he te elect eS
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rie td ee EGE EC OEE o pc e te 8 Sky once Naas es ee eee ew awe ease ewe
Rite IPE I fe ete Re RNR eRe ye ee cone oe Boe wk eae
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SIPS BS TES DS aa RR a ee es ee ed, Ue ee ye ne ee ee
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SU SEESER TET eh FS gia aces MAE | UMS 2 litical eg ee I

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COON SO He

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LEL GS Rea Ons:

PLATES.
Page
Puate I. Dark fire-cured tobacco fertilized with Formula No. 1...--..---: 16
II. Dark fire-cured tobacco fertilized with Formula No. 2.......---- 16
III. Dark fire-cured tobacco fertilized with Formula No. 3...--..---- 24
PV. Plowme under wheat and=subsoilime..2)- 2 =... 24
V.. Method of -harvesting dark tobaccoss-9)- 2. ee ee 32 |
Vil. Scattoldine and: hauling dark tobacco: -2- =e 32 |
TEXT FIGURES.
Fie. 1) Cultivator used in the Appomattox felds=s5"s5ss222522 see ol

2..Curing barn for dark fire-cured tobaceos:s=2 252 225ces2 = se ta) |

‘A

IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED
TOBACCO.

PART I. GENERAL DISCUSSION.
INTRODUCTION.

Virginia may justly be called the parent of the tobacco industry in
this country, for the culture of tobacco was the principal occupation
of the early colonists. Tobacco was first grown by the settlers in the
historic town of Jamestown, in James City County, and the first
exportation was made in 1612 by John Rolfe. At that time all of the
tobacco, except what was used by the colonists, was exported to
Europe, principally to England, that being the only market; and as
the price was uniform, whether for sale or for a circulating medium,
it was necessary to institute an inspection to compel uniformity of
grades.

The original standard of the type was what is now termed the dark
export type, and for a long series of years the laws regulating pro-
duction, especially those passed by the colonial assembly of Virginia,
requiring all of the product that failed to come up to the legal exactions
as to quality and soundness to be destroyed, were rigidly executed. As
the popuiation of the colony increased new lands were cleared and
the culture of tobacco spread rapidly, the tobacco field in a great many
instances taking precedence over other crops; so much so that the sub-
sistence of the colonists was seriously threatened. Laws were passed
by the colonial legislature of Virginia that every person planting 1
acre of tobacco should also plant 2 acres of corn. Commercial fer-
tilizers were not known at that time and, owing to the abundance of
land, intensive farming was not practiced. The tobacco was planted
on freshly cleared ground, and this soil, owing to its virgin fertility,
always produced a tobacco of fine quality. Thus extensive areas in
Virginia were early denuded of forest growth.

The principal method of harvesting tobacco was to pull the leaves
from the stalk as they ripened and to hang them on cords to be cured
in the sun and air. In later years it became the custom to split the
stalk and hang the plant astride a stick, as is now generally practiced,
Although the early planters for the most part cured their tobacco in

8 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

the sun and air, it was found that the tobacco kept better when the
curing was conducted with the addition of small fires. At first small
smothered fires of bark and rotten wood were used, but from year to
year the amount of fire.was increased until fires of sufficient heating
capacity were built to dry the tobacco out in about three days. After
the war of 1812 the demand for colored tobacco for export caused a
change in the process of curing. After being cut and hung upon
sticks the tobacco was either placed upon scaffolds in the sun to
yellow and then housed, or it remained several days in the barn with-
out fire until it had yellowed sufficiently to receive the heat without
curing dark. A great many of the growers learned to cure a beautiful
piebald, which commanded a high price in Richmond. Open wood
fires constituted the only mode of curing by artificial heat until about
the year 1828, when flues were first used in Virginia.

There are five distinct qualities of tobacco produced in Virginia—
dark shipping; red and colored shipping; sun and air cured fillers;
bright yellow wrappers, smokers, and fillers; and mahogany flue-cured
manufacturing. These are severally characterized by peculiarities of
color, quality, body, and flavor, the result of soil influence modified
by curing and management.

It is of the dark shipping type raised south of the James River and
east of the Blue Ridge that this publication treats. The dark shipping
tobacco is generally grown on rich land and cured with open fires.
England, Germany, France, Spain, Austria, and Italy take the bulk
of this tobacco, although the high grades are used in this country for
plug wrappers. Petersburg and Lynchburg are the most important
markets for thistype. In the vicinity of Petersburg the soil is mostly
gray in color, becoming more red and containing a larger percentage
of clay as the Blue Ridge is approached. The gray soil in the eastern
end of the ‘‘ dark belt” produces a coarser but thinner leaf than the
red-clay lands and it is used to a considerable extent in domestic
manufacture, but it is also used to supply a part of the varied export
demands. ‘The tobacco grown on the heavier soils is darker in color
finer in texture and fiber, and of better body. This is used for both
domestic manufacture and export, and from this section of the dark
belt the finest grades of black wrappers are obtained, besides which
a considerable proportion of the crop is especially adapted for the
Austrian market.

Notwithstanding the great strides made in agricultural science during
the past quarter of a century, the methods of cultivation, fertilization,
and crop rotation now in use in the dark belt are essentially the same as
they were a century ago. Why is it that other tobacco sections of the
country have improved their methods of culture and fertilization,
producing larger yields at less expense, even on soils less productive
than the clay soils of the Piedmont region? This question has been

CLIMATE. 9

studied by the Bureau of Soils for the last three years, and it is
believed from these investigations that there is an opportunity for the
tobacco farmers of this district to make larger profits from their
tobacco crops by using improved methods of culture and fertilization.

During the year 1904 the Bureau of Soils began work in Appomattox
County, which after the first year was conducted in cooperation with
the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, arrangements being
made with Prof. Andrew M. Soule, director of the station, whereby
the investigations could be extended to the mutual advantage of both
the Bureau of Soils and the State of Virginia.

CLIMATE.

In climate Appomattox County is typical of the Piedmont region of
Virginia. The climate is favorable to the growing of wheat, corn, oats,
tobacco, fruit, and vegetables and to the raising of stock. The normal
precipitation is about 43 inches. The precipitation is uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the year, but during the growing season crops
sometimes suffer because of periods of drought. The altitude of the
area is not quite sufficient for the best results in apple and peach grow-
ing, on account of the late frosts in the spring. On the higher points
end on the small elevations away from the streams the best results are
obtained. The trouble with the lower elevations is that the cold air
settles in them and frosts are more likely to do damage when the
trees are in bloom. ‘There are no extensive areas in the county which
are high enough to be above the ‘‘ frost line.”

The following tables show the normal monthly and annual tempera-
ture and precipitation at Lynchburg and Farmville, which are. the
Weather Bureau stations nearest to the location of the tobacco fields,
for the years 1904, 1905, and 1906, during which the experiments
were conducted:

Mean monthly and annual temperature for three years at Lynchburg and Farmville.

1904. | 1905. | 1906.

Month. i q ; ae | | Ene
Lynch- : or Lynch- ; Sea Lynch- | y, Ta
burg. Farmyille. burg. Farmyille. | burg. | Farmyille,
Taint 2 es Dar GAM! tee. g | 32,2 35.2 | 42.0 | 10.0
HIE) Oy (1 ch ee ee 33.0 31.0 | 30.1 29.9 | 38. 4 | 30. 4
1S ap et ale ae 46.6 48.8 48.8 48.3 | 41.2 | 39. 4
AX[Sia Sak Cee Ree ane ae 52.1 52.8 56.8 Bis) | 5850:))| st oper
Ee Gee Gee aaa eS 65n2 65. 6 67.9 67.6 65. 2 65, 2
Js Bie eee HET. 74.2 74.3 75.4 74.6 74.8
SM ee retrnetc. Cratdis su) se widlac's « 75.5 78.0 76.2 79.0 | 75. ¢ 76.1
LTE TES hs Cccciont Dae Gee Oe e ee 74.4 74.6 74, 2 74.7 | C100) ae an omen ae me
Bentembens so. 2s-ct---sa10 63.9 67.0 GONO lee eee 72.5 | 71.9
WGTOMET AN ees Pee mee: ie Oil ise eee cad BG Sil etree eee 55. 4 | 06. 4
UN OWOUUD ERs oe oi we wise 8 ste 44.6 43.4 46 45.6 BGS fy il secee ee Be oe
IDEGEMIerer ence Ses. n ccleae os 35.0 33.8 | 39.1 36.0 AQNOM oscee ono fare
MGR CBS ero rnISe Soe ser STS eee = eee DOO IL: Pree eee DADE Soon tse eg

2417—No. 46—07 Z

10 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA - FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Monthly and annual precipitation for three years at Lynchburg and Farmville.

1904. 1905. | 1906.
Month. g |

Lynch “s Lynch e | Lynch- é
ios Farmville. burg Farmville. | burg. | Farmyille.
JANUALY 252-20 ce eee iE Vk Boeeeer eas 3.11 2.44 | 4.08 2.57
MebrTuary esas S25 eee acess 1.91 2. 80 2:47 1.70 | 1.14 . 85
Var C hee ey ee Deal, 3.10 2.21 | 1.68 | AC OST ee me eee
oA rile = Se ooh eee en a ee .97 1.20 2.33 | 2.34 | 2.47 | ibs:
Vay ee es he ee ee Se 2.76 4.90 6.11 Sh (ike 3.18 2.86
SAINI Bete oe kee eee ea es 5.49 4.24 AOD 2). 8a eee Solel hee ee
Parkyee re Soe Ne ee ees 3.74 3.14 | 6. 86 1.75 | ACTOS rene oe oe
ATID US eee ee ee ae] 2.70 6.21 2.15 | 4.84 10. 69
Septembers-h2 24. s-c eee dA Talisc cscs ose peg 5 | Se ae Pe 2.34 . 90
OCGLODEr Rho eee ee eee C4QINS eS ase 2 AG 0 ie ee Mcelty 7.98
NOVEMDCL eek eet eee ee oes . 98 3. 83 .45 48 | 297 . 80
December ewes eee ee 2.81 1. 60 G5328 esa se eee De Q2e| oeee ace nee
WiGalr her ee ete 263i 1s 2-6 Seer ee 45500 Foose Gael 49.63" |Steoeee ee Se

The data given in the above tables partly represent the conditions as
regards the temperature and rainfall during the period the work was in
progress.

The following table shows the precipitation during the growing sea-
son of 1904, 1905, and 1906 upon the fields at Appomattox. It will be
noticed that during July and August of 1905 and 1906 the rainfall was
excessive, so much so that it caused the tobacco to speck, which caused
a deterioration in the quality of the leaf.

Precipitation during growing season at Appomattox, Va.

Month. | 1904. | 1905. | 1906.
JNM Cae See ae ee ws Sete ee ee Oa a ee ee ec 2.48 2.20 4.98
adie et SS ce Se ett See eS ee ee ee eee 3. 00 6.05 2.68
PARAS US ie sere eee ae eee erase es Se eee ts aan beige e See Seeman eee ee 3.24 | 4.98 | 7.34
Seplembenrsee- essere cr Soke oe tLe aa eee: Cone eee eee eee eee ener 3.30 | 2.86 22
RO talWesee hoe ae i oe Sees aie Se Saloni Be eee ee eee 12.02 | 16.09 17.52

The weather conditions during the season of 1904 were, perhaps,
about the average. June and July were droughty, while during
August and September enough rain fell to keep the crops in good
growing condition. In the growing season of 1905 June was a dry
month, and, while the rainfall of 6 inches during July was favorable
for the growth of the tobacco, less rainfall in August would have
been more desirable. The season, on the whole, was more favorable
for plant growth than that of the preceding year. In August of 1906
the climatic conditions were extremely unfavorable. A great number
of cloudy days occurred during this month. This condition, together
with the 7 inches of rain which fell during the month, caused consider-
able damage to the growing tobacco throughout the county.

SOILS—CECIL CLAY. i fe §
SOILS.

Appomattox, the county seat of Appomattox County, is located 23
miles east of Lynchburg, on the Piedmont Plateau, in that geo-
graphical division of the State known as Middle Virginia. As viewed
from the near-by mountains to the northward, it has the general
appearance of an eroded plain, but in traveling across the county its
surface is seen to be greatly eroded, hilly, and cut by the channels of
many streams. The county is drained on the north by the James
River and on the south by tributaries of the Staunton River. The
divide between these two rivers is a ridge crossing the county from
Concord to Pamplin City. The greater portion of the county is under-
lain by talcose and mica schists. The soil derived from the schists is
principally the Cecil sandy loam, with occasional patches of Cecil clay,
these two soils being the best adapted for the culture of heavy tobacco.
Ninety-two per cent of the county is composed of these two soils. It
is upon the Cecil clay soil that the cooperative experiments between
the Bureau of Soils and the Virginia Experiment Station have been
conducted.

CECIL: CLAY.

The surface soil of the Cecil clay is a red loam or clay loam ranging
in depth from 4 to 8 inches. The subsoil is a stiff tenacious clay to a
depth of 3 feet or more, with the clay content usually increasing in
the lower depths. There is considerable quartz or hornblende gneiss
strewn over the surface and mixed with the soil, but these rock frag-
ments do not occur in sufficient quantities to interfere seriously with
cultivation. The Cecil clay in the present area occurs principally upon
the slopes adjoining the larger streams, but it is also found upon the
divide. Owing to its location it is rolling and in places rather hilly
and broken, and for these reasons possesses good natural drainage.
Unless the soil is kept in a good condition for retaining moisture, by
deep plowing and by incorporating with it an abundance of organic
matter, it is apt to be droughty. The brownish red loamy phase of
this soil, locally known as ‘‘ push land,” is the loamy surface material
washed from the higher elevations and consequently is deeper and
more loamy than the typical Cecil clay.

This type of soil is regarded as the best for general farming and is
especially adapted to the cultivation of heavy export tobacco, and to
the production of an excellent quality of plug wrapper tobacco, which
is used for domestic manufacture. The yields range from 500 to 1,000
pounds to the acre, although in the cooperative experiments a yield of
1,500 pounds to the acre has been obtained, under better methods of
fertilization and cultivation. The average yield obtained by the farmer
is about 700 pounds to the acre. Tobacco is followed by wheat with a

12 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

yield of 12 bushels to the acre. Wheat is followed by clover, and
when a good stand is obtained the latter crop is very beneficial to the
soil. Owing to the compactness of the soil there should be grown
more cover crops, such as rye and cowpeas, which when plowed under
improve the physical condition of the soil. Lime is also beneficial to
this type.

The following table shows the texture of the soil and subsoil in the
plats used in the present experiments:

Mechanical analyses of Cecil clay.

oO o) Yen) ‘S) a ie) lo
= Sa Bae S % Ee Ss Ae
Oe lie eae erase Pes) ho 2| =
Bl Og hea: Sar eis Moga ewe
Locality. | Description. a | Ba | asa) S| 28 | ee ioe ibes
2 Seeley | cspso pear ssl = (5S eles
Be eer Sl Vee oy [eee esl allan
eae als |S
Sra = O = Fy Sea 3)
Peete | Meena el ee om) | IES Gal leaner Ze (Ges || Jes Gis | JEX Gi
Appomattox, Va ...---| Red clay loam, 0 to 8 j..-..- Zrii eh Ol | ee 5ON OSGi (aco stlanlSaeom fee 2OnG
inches.
Ole Slee ne ee Red clay, 8 to 36 inches....|...... Be et Pee eee} 4 SD Syl SES
Experiment Farm..... Red clay loam, 0 to 7 |.-... - SE Bes PAIGE PAN a) |) OO] Sb 7
inches.
DO-8 eres ast eee Red clay (subsoil)........-. [sScsac GH eS ot eels G29 ale Men Ae Bose
| | | |

PART II. DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX.

SEASON OF 1904.

Owing to the deterioration in both quality and yield per acre of the
heavy fire-cured tobacco, the Bureau of Soils decided that it was
adyisable to extend its investigations to include this branch of the
tobacco industry. The purpose was to determine by actual field work
if it were possible, by introducing more intensive methods of culture,
such as are used in some other tobacco districts, to improve the quality
and yield of this type of tobacco, and to make its production more
profitable. In the spring of 1904 a suitable location for conducting
these experiments was decided upon, land on the farm of Mr. H. C.
Babcock, 33 miles northeast of Appomattox being selected. Arrange-
ments were made with Mr. Babcock for the use of 5 acres of Cecil
clay land for a series of years, together with the necessary curing
barns, tobacco sticks, and plant-bed land.

In order to test the effect of variation in soil on the quality of
tobacco, two fields were selected—one of 3 acres and the other of 2
acres, the soil of the latter being a little more loamy and darker in
color than that of the 3-acre field. Prior to this the 2-acre field had
been cropped with tobacco and wheat in rotation for several years and
it was in a state of low productiveness. The soil of the 3-acre field is
locally known as ‘* mellow red land,” and is somewhat ‘‘ puffy,” though
possessing medium to good depth and friability, and owing to the

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1904. iis

system under which it had been farmed it was also producing small
crops. The year preceding the experiment (1903) it had been planted
in corn, and yielded, with the aid of a small amount of commercial
fertilizer, between 10 and 15 bushels to the acre. Prior to that it had
lain out as an old discarded field for a number of years, being used
occasionally as a pasture.

The experiment as planned was really complete on the 3-acre field.
This field was divided into plats of 1 acre each, and the 2-acre field
into similar plats. These latter were an exact duplication of two of
the plats on the 3-acre field, except for the difference in soil. The
odd plat on the 3-acre field was used as a check against the results
obtained on the others. Taking into consideration the slight differ-
ence in soil, this duplication of plats was also decided upon in order
to lessen the chances of failure which might occur from unforeseen
conditions of soil or season. Results proved that this caution was
advisable. Both fields were planted to tobacco in 1904 and 1905, but
only the 3-acre field was planted to tobacco in 1906, the 2-acre field
being in wheat to determine the effect of the fertilizer applied to the
tobacco upon the succeeding crops in the rotation.

Both of the crops grown on the 2-acre field were abnormal and from
the standpoint of the experiment of no real value. In 1904 great dif-
ficulty was experienced in obtaining a stand of plants on this field,
owing to the unexpected presence in the soil of innumerable individ-
uals of a so-called ‘* wireworm” or root webworm (Crambus caligi-
nosellus). In a day or two after setting out the tobacco several of
these pests were found on each plant, riddling the stalk and eating out
the pith, either destroying the plant at once or weakening it so it
would eventually die. No remedy was found to kill the webworm,
but it is believed that by keeping the soil cropped and not allowing
the land to lie out and grow up in “‘stichneck,” this pest can be over-
come. On June 29 this field had been completely reset for the fourth
time, and as the season for the ravages of the webworm was then over
a good stand of plants was at last obtained, which started off well and
made excellent growth until the end of the season. As this crop was
planted fully a month after the best time for planting to obtain normal
growth, it was not considered of experimental value as an illustration
of average results.

In 1905 no trouble was experienced in ebtaining a good stand, but,
owing to the position of the field, the exceptionally heavy rains of the
season washed it badly. This, together with a long-continued season
of warm rainy weather occurring at a time when the tobacco plants
were in such a tender, succulent condition and so vulnerable to plant
diseases that they began to speck, affected both the quality and yield
to such an extent as to make the result of no value from the stand-
point of an experiment.

14 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

The crops grown upon the 3-acre field during 1904, 1905, and 1906,
with no more than the usual seasonal vicissitudes, were quite normal,
and the results are a demonstration of what it is reasonable to expect
one year with another under circumstances such as obtained during
these seasons. In discussing the results of the work it is to be under-
stood that reference is made to the 3-acre field, except when otherwise
stated. |

The custom in most of the dark tobacco districts of Virginia, and
particularly in the Appomattox locality, has been to apply to the
tobacco crops about 400 pounds of a local fertilizer analyzing about 3
per cent ammonia, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, and 3 per cent potash—
as the farmer terms it, ‘*3-8-3 goods.” The total cost of producing an
acre of tobacco, charging labor at the prevailing rate of 75 cents a day,
has been about $50. The yield under average conditions has been
about 800 pounds to the acre, and at the average price of 73 cents per
pound would return to the farmer $60. Under these conditions the
farmer received little more than enough to pay the cost of production,
with no pay for the managing ability required, capital invested, or
risk involved.

The Bureau of Soils and the Virginia Experiment Station both
believe that much better results are possible by the introduction of a
more intensive system in methods of cultivation and fertilization.
The results of the experiments which are recorded in this bulletin
furnish strong proof that this belief is well founded. Owing to the
rapidly changing economic conditions throughout the South, and
especially owing to the increasing scarcity and advancing prices of
labor, some such radical change in the conduct of the tobacco industry
in Virginia seems imperative if tobacco is to retain its commanding
position as a money crop in the dark districts of the State.

FERTILIZATION.

To secure practical results as soon as possible and to leave the
testing of untried formulas to some future time, the fertilizers used
in a comparative test with that in local use were such as had been
proved to be suited to the production of tobacco in other work of the
Bureau.

On plat No. 1 of the 3-acre field 400 pounds of a standard 3-8-3 brand
of fertilizer, such as is generally used by the farmers, were applied.
On plat No. 2 and plat No 3 mixed formulas were applied, which gave
to the acre very much larger quantities of the important ingredients
and in proportions considerably changed from those in the brand of
fertilizer used on plat No. 1. The cost of the* materials used in the
home mixture was greater, but not when measured by the amounts of
ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash actually applied. This can be

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1904. 185)

ascertained by figuring the cost per unit of these salts from the data
given in the tables. The very large increase, both absolute and rela-
tive, in the amount of ammonia” furnished by the mixture will at once
arrest the attention. The amount of potash furnished was also much
greater, but it must be remembered that the soil was in an unpro-
ductive condition, having received no application of stable manure for
several years; neither had leguminous crops been grown upon it for an
indefinite period. On soils that have been well manured or on which
repeated heavy crops of legumes have been grown, the need of heavy
applications of ammoniates, in order to produce a good crop, will
be greatly lessened. However, in this section of Virginia the supply
of barnyard manure is limited as compared with the acreage planted,
and crop rotation is not generally practiced on a very intensive plan.
Tobacco is one of the high-priced crops, and usually responds readily
to liberal fertilizing, and it will generally be found that with an
increase in yield there will also be an improvement in the quality of
the leaf and naturally a better price obtained. Thus it will be found
that tobacco will pay well for the liberal use of fertilizers when low-
priced crops like corn might not do so,

Composition and cost of the several fertilizers used in the Appomattox fields.

| Formula No. 2.
| Horm | ‘
B = ieeeeNIG) z |
JENSEN _(factory-|Ground| Nitrate | Bone Pines Total
-mixed).| fish. | soda. | meal. aotaEh Reese
| |
Guaranteed analysis:
AummO ae GINIES Ee See cries oaciaacieaae per cent...) 3 10 19 BD )g eee ob eg) icra acc
Rhosphonmeacids(P5O;)ms---2~ 2.222255: GOs--4| 9 [alee ee | DOE rete iees Beara
OLAS MUMS Oe sewen terse oe eee ae GOs. ASR SSS | ars Seen cleo eee 50) esse
Quantity applied per acre........... pounds... 400 500 100 | 100 | 150 850
Equivalent quantity per acre of— |
nemmomiae (INH 3) 52 oso oss ease 22552 2 dorts.| 12 50 LOG) Reesor eae ee eee 73.5
Phosphoricacid: (PsO:))- ss. 5.<=- 5c 2555 Genes | 36 Sou lee eieeneds | Do | Se eeeeee 57
RG tashis (KS ON ees. a ee cee ass eee oes TD ll eer ae Pas Senge | Aaa as 75 73
Cost per ton delivered at Appomattox...dollars.. 25.00 | 34.50 50.50 | 30.00 3085052 eee
Cost of quantities used in experiment-...... doz 5.00 8. 62 2. 53 1.50 3.79 16. 44
Cost of fertilizer constituents per pound:
PRTTNVH OME CNG EL a!) eeseree ooo are 5 sine ete are aie cents... 21.66 | 14.45 TSESOM aldo - eereras eeeentatets
iPhosphoreracids (PsO=)\ ic... s2ee62 aos 5. doses 5. 00 45005 See ese 4. 00) |eaee ee ae eerie
IPO tashs(KSO) a s-se ee eee cee ce pee dou OOPS a eee eed lS wrath Se |= 6; Obs Ears
Cost of fertilizer constituents per acre:
Amuaronian(GNiblis) as sa se cee = nee dollars. . 2.60 To22 BBB Cy De aes 10. 37
Phosphorie acid: (PsO:\ia--22----2---2-- qdo=y la 1280 US AQ Hae See ces A BSt| pe eee 2. 28
IROtaASI A (KS O) hence se saeecs oes cee soe OWeeoe M60 Gaaeee salecee en sae 1 eee wae 3.79 | 3.79
| \ }

aThe term ‘‘ammonia’”’ is used instead of ‘‘nitrogen,’’ because it is the term in common use in
Virginia and will perhaps be better understood.

16 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCU.

Composition and cost of the several fertilizers used in the Appomattox fields—Continued.

| | Formula No. 3.
Formula

. eNO sete] | |
Material. (factory- Ground, Nitrate | Bone ae a Total
mixed). | fish. soda. meal. potash.
|
Guaranteed analysis:
Ammyronia (NIEHS) peaaceeeneenceeeereee per cent. - 3 | 10 | 19 2 abl ee eee Season
Phosphoriciacid(R5O-) ese seeeee eee do==ss) 9 Did ater As isle oe Bes otee
Potash (KoO)t sae nose ost Seneee oo See ee doze} 3a) Seer See S| eer Dal ene
Quantity applied per acre.........-. pounds. - 400 | 1,200 | 150 100 250 | 1,700
Equivalent quantity per acre of— | |
JNMMTMO VEY (INNS EY) Seconeanceccsssuedasdos doa 12 | 120 | 28.5 | AR Tien Been oe 153
Phosphoric acid’ ((P50F)ssc-ssn-sben eo Oosee 36 BAG rae eer | DON eae aia 106
ROtASHV (KO) sate se nee cae eee as Ae dose == 12: | Leoees leas tee eel eee sens 125 125
Cost per ton delivered at Appomattox...dollars.- 20) 00M 84000). 2 50 500Ri 2305 00Nie 50550 eens
Cost of quantities used in experiment. ..--. dows 5.00 | 20.70 32/90 | ele 50 6.31 32.30
Cost of fertilizer constituents per pound: | |
/Nremraayoreuley (SHS fs) Seba aaccescoseeeesoaac cents... 21.66 | 14.45 13.:305|1 S280 hiss eee eee
Phosphoricacidy(R5O;) assesses asseo dott: 5. 00 400) \22 sae eee AS OOM Ses Sea seeae ae
Bolashi(KeO)\essassacc seer cates seco eer doss SOOM area or. Mesa 25 lees Ol) {lSeccoace
Cost of fertilizer constituents per acre: |
Jimmie), (INDEIp) cass eonesocoassassaas dollars... 2.60} 17.34 | 3.79 | G25 Rae eee | 21.75
IRhosphorie acide (Es On)\sssssesseee a= = dozer 1.80 aeclGulisasoaceec Osu sane 4,24
IPOLASHE (GO) Fe teen eee eR ee ee doses: GO een oe | Werte eee G1 |== 658

The three plats were fertilized each according to the above formulas,
the same treatment being given the same plat in all three years. The
1904 crop was a late one to start, owing to unfavorable weather con-
ditions in the spring, but during the season made a good growth.
Marked differences could be noted between the three plats—differences
that could be correlated with the varying amounts of fertilizers used, as
ach plat was given the same amount and kind of cultivation.

HARVESTING AND CURING.

Harvesting was begun in September, the first cutting of ripe plants
being made on the 22d of that month and the last cutting on October 4.
Weather conditions were fairly good during the curing of the first
cutting and a satisfactory cure was obtained; but after the second
cutting conditions were unfavorable during the entire curing process,
with the result that the colors were not as clear nor as solid as could
be desired. One of the difficulties with late tobacco is the failure to
obtain a good cure, owing to the cool, dry weather conditions so often
encountered in the fall.

As is well known by those having experience in the handling of
cigar types of tobacco, the fermenting process to which it is subjected,
especially by the bulk method, has an important effect in completing
the color changes in the leaf. Although the leaf may be uneven in
color or even green before undergoing this process, after being fer-
mented the tobacco is solid and even in color. This suggested trying
the effect of the bulk method on the last curing, regulating the tem-
perature so as to avoid drying the leaf.

PLATE lI.

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

DARK FIRE

CURED TOBACCO FERTILIZED WITH FORMULA No. 1.

PLATE II.

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

* ig ne
ee ee
ae Os i de A ie aes Eto
boitien ;

Re or

ee "
= WANE. ‘
pt Pts 57,

DARK FIRE-CURED TOBACCO FERTILIZED WITH FORMULA No. 2.

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1904. 17

A room adapted for this purpose was fitted with bulkheads and the
tobacco packed in bulk.“ The room was kept at a temperature of 90°
F. whenever the tobacco was being handled and a temperature of
80° F’. was maintained during the fermentation process. In fourteen
days the temperature of the bulk had risen to 100° F. The tobacco
was then taken down, well shaken, and rebulked. At the expiration
of another ten days the temperature had again risen to 100° F. The
tobacco was then taken off the bulk and assorted into the various com-
mercial grades and prepared for the market. In cases where there is
a large quantity of leaf to be handled there are doubtless instances
where this process might be employed to good advantage, but for gen-
eral practice by the farmers the Bureau and the Virginia station do not
feel justified in recommending it. The practice of placing*the tobacco
down in small bulks in cool rooms and allowing it to lie for some days
or even weeks without the development of perceptible heat will be of
some assistance In evening the colors and will often improve the gen-
eral appearance of the tobacco. This practice is to be recommended
if the tobacco is not put down in too high ** order,” and in any ease it
should be examined frequently to see that no mold or other damage
develops. e

COST OF PRODUCTION AND RECEIPTS FROM SALE.

Although the results from the 1904 crop were considered favorable
and encouraging, it was believed that the soils on which this crop grew
had not reached, with this single year of intensive methods, its maxi-
mum state of productiveness.

The following expense account for 1904 shows in detail the amount
of time used and the expenses incurred in the various operations inci-
dent to the experiment, also the cost of the fertilizer applied to the
respective plats. The difference shown in the amount of time employed
in some of the operations is due ina great measure to the number of
plants grown on each plat. For instance, on plat No. 1, 4,500 plants
were set, while on plat No. 3, 6,000 plants were set. -The prices
charged for the labor and the teams emploved are at the prevailing
local rates for farm help. |

The following tables show a detailed account of the expenses incurred
and the results obtained from the sale of the tobacco from the three
plats:

«For exact directions as to the method of laying a bulk, see Bulletin No. 29,
Bureau of Soils.

2417—No. 46—07——3

18 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Expenses of the 1904 crop.

: Cost of labor and ma-
Labor required on— ne Terie)
Item. == je per 3
| Plat Plat | Plat | hour. | Plat | Plat | Plat
NOs HINO 22 NOws: | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3.
| | | | |
: | Hours. | Hours.) Hours.| Cents. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.
Plowing, 1 horse, twice ...... aavajaiewiaversiereia cee 12 12 1 ie ees) Bsa) 2.10
FlarrOywalne; 2NOLSCS esse eee erence 2 2 2a 25 | 50 | . 50 | 50
Laying off rows, fertilizing, and bedding...) 8 8 | 8 | se] 1.40) 1.40) 1.40
Mixing and applying fertilizers............. | 33| 5 | 6 7k 26 | .38 | 45
Hertilizersdeliverediatmwanm 22 -es= sso see |e sant Seer ISoseoene |iesorial J 5525) | PGS seo sa00
Majkim oni S Waa e ee es ero. ae alert meee | 8 10 10 73\| . 60 | 1D | .7d
Plants, 50 cents per 1,000 ....-.. Jesn5 sobcgced |Saasecesicocooseslesoseces | Soeccas - | 2.00) / ada2e 3.50
Setting: Ckopes neat ep een lack ae eter ae 20 25 25 | 72\. Sie SOU Pend S8a\= aele88
Cultivacin See OUT UII CSoe ee eee ae a ee 83 83 83! 173} 1.49 1.49 | 1.49
Hoeingsithinee times asec ieee etepaeapic 60 60 60 73|. 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50
Applying anibrate Ol SOda este meee soe ola 3 3 |e ee LOR) 29
Topping, suckering, and worming......-.-.; 42 3) 64 | Wy) 38.15 4.13 | 4, 80
SS] OURAN”, THOUS HDT — Seb be cucsecoesdaouer | 6 Us 73 (| 45 | 96 96
Rarisereen ls peimd Peracre s. sees 2 isda [eee oe ell memes cee ae oeeel| eee .20 | 20 | . 20
Cuttingyand scatiolding ses -ee ce eee 25 32 37 | Ue Us eyo Qe 2. 75
Hauling to barn (4 men and 2 horses) ..---- 3 $ 4 | 50 EB Ney || 2.00
Resmlahine parma simim ee ieC ee es eee sec 20 25 3 i eeeleoO 1.87 2.25
Rakinerd Ow ME tOWACCOkes see = saa eee = 5) 7 8 Tz 38 52 . 60
Strip pingandstyim eae eee ee ee ee ceae 40 | 60 60 7z| 3.00 4.50 | 4.50
Bulking and rebulking twice ............--- 18 | 20 22 Ga) 18) 1.50 | 1.65
SOMO EAA! IMMbORE Robe ooscesoemeuceacooceaaS 61 92 115 73| 4.58 6.90 8. 63
Loading and-hauling to market.......-..---|---.--.- Jocec tees feesecee: eeeerere 2. 80 3. 60 | 5.10
Motalveost pemacrey.-.- 5. ss-sses ea |anneee ee | Sects cle sc sesaiesees see 40.89 |} 61.15 | 82.87
}
Yield of tobacco and receipts from the 1904 crop, sold at Lynchburg, April 28, 1908.
Plat No: i:
Soo pounds ues, at pos/0 per 100 pounds sz ae ae ee $22. 40
210 pounds:short leat_at/>7.50 per: 100 pounds=- 255-2 222 -- ae ee 15. 75
VOwpounds long leat; at $10.50 per L00spounds .- 22 = S22 422i ee 7.35
673 pounds. . 45. 50
Plat No. 2:
j5o poundsrlugs,. at :>6.10 per 100 pounds242 asses eae ene ee 20. 45
aps pounds short.leat, at $10:75 per 100 pounds. 2324-5 see soase eee 38. 48
159 pounds! long leat, at-$11750 per 100 poundsi=- 22 =e) ae Sesto
35 pounds wrappers, at $12.50 per 100 pounds -..-- i eee a reer 4.37
883 pounds. 81. 10
Plat No. 3: ;

, 3(6 pounds lugs, at $7 per 100 pounds: -._2--- 222-222. So eee oe ee 26. 32
395 poundsishiort leat, at-$/-25 per 00 pounds: 222-2 s25= ee. a2 ee ee 28. 63
Sosepounds long leat, at $9.00 per 100) pounds. 9.4205 o- 456-2 eee 36. 86

65 pounds short wrappers, at $10.75 per 100 pounds. .--......---..--:- 6. 98
100 pounds, wxappers, at, 12-50 per 100 pounds... 3223 eee — eee 12. 50
1, 324 pounds. 111. 29

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that plat No. 1 yielded
673 pounds of tobacco, which was produced ata cost of $40.89 and
sold at public auction on the Lynchburg market, on April 28, 1905,
for $45.50, leaving a net profit of $4.61 per acre. Plat No. 2 pro-
duced 883 pounds at a cost of $61.15 and sold for $81.10, showing a
net profit of $19.95 per acre; while plat No. 3 produced 1,324 pounds
at a cost of $82.87 and sold for $111.29, showing a net profit of $28.42

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1905. ie,

per acre. A comparison of the data for plat No. 1, which was ferti-
lized with a 3-8-3 mixture, such as used by the farmers, with plat
No. 8, which was fertilized with the Bureau’s mixture, shows an
increase of $41.98 in cost of production for the latter, but at the same
time there is an increase of $65.79 in the returns from the sale of the
tobacco and a net profit of $28.42, while on the former plat the
profit was only $4.61. It appears that the heavier application of
fertilizer, provided it be composed of the proper ingredients mixed
in the right proportions, will result in a larger yield of the better
grades of tobacco, which more than repays the planter his original
expenditure.
SEASON OF 1905.

In the fall of 1904 the stubble which was left from the previous crop
of tobacco was plowed out with a two-horse plow, and the land har-
rewed and seeded down in rye as a winter cover crop. This was
plowed under in the spring of 1905 in order to maintain or increase
the humus supply and to improve the physical condition of the soil.
When the rye had grown to the right height for turning under, the
soil (Cecil clay) was too hard and dry to plow, and when it later reached
the proper condition, the rye had grown too tall. The growth was so
large on plats No. 2 and No. 3, and especially on plat No. 3, that it
was deemed advisable to mow the rye and remove it before plowing.
The condition of the rye demonstrated the marked difference in the
after effect of the different fertilizers and indicated clearly the advan-
tage of the heavier applications. In cutting the rye the mowing bar
of the machine was set very high to leave a good stubble to turn
under. On account of the number of tobacco roots which were raked
up with the cured rye it was impossible to obtain an accurate measure
of the quantity of rye, but as near as could be estimated plat No. 2
yielded 1,000 pounds, while plat No. 3 yielded 2,000 pounds. The
growth of the rye on plat No. 1 was all plowed under, as it was not
heavy enough to interfere with the preparation of the land.

The tobacco crop of 1905 was planted earlier than that of 1904 and
the growth started much better and more uniformly. The climatic
conditions were fairly favorable and the entire crop matured at the
same time, so that at harvest it was gathered at one cutting. Plat No.
3 and a portion of plat No. 2 were cut on August 31 and September 1,
the remainder of plat No. 2 being harvested on September 2 and plat
No. 1 on September 8.

The climatic conditions were favorable for curing, the weather con-
tinuing warm and the moisture conditions excellent. No difficulty
was experienced in obtaining a first-class cure. The yield from each
plat showed an increase over the previous year, and, judging from the
market returns, the quality seemed the same. The product of the

IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

three plats was sold at Lynchburg by public auction on the same day

and under the same market conditions.

The largest yield obtained in 1905 is adjudged to be due in a measure
to better moisture conditions, to early transplanting, and to a healthy
unchecked growth, and in part to the general improvement in the pro-
ductiveness of the soil, following the continuance of the intensive

methods employed.

The following tables give a detailed statement of the expenses in-
curred in the production of this crop and the returns from the sale

of the tobacco from the three plats:

Cost of growing 1905 cover crop.

Labor required on—

Cost of labor and seed.

EHapenses of 1905 crop.
1 5 =
Labor required on— Bate COS Git mee ma
Item. per
Plat Plat |. Plat hour Plat Plat Plat

Nome eNot2 ae NOmos INOssI | ONO HZ: | No. 3.

Hours. | Hours. Hours.| Cents. | Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.
Gostowtentilizer sco. ene ue Sse eh eA eae ee vas Keir Bean 5.25 | 16.75 | 33.00
Plowing =2=horse; plo wmece ees ee ene se sie ce 6 | 6 | 6 25 1.50 1.50 1.50
ELA RO\ ALIVE? V4 J OVONEES|S 4 Sao ARs bas B enn Saeose el 2 2 | 25 .50 . 50 .50
Laying off rowsand listing, 1-horse plow.... 103 103 103 Ue) ak cok 1. 84 1.84
Mixing and applying fertilizers ............. 3 | 5 | 6 73| 23 38 || 45
Miaiks oon Saas sere es). opens Me ees oe 9 | 10 10 | 73| . 68 Si) .79
Costhoplantsi(s0rcemtsipents O00) seme e eee tree eal Ee See |e eee eee een eam 2.50 3.00 | 3.29
Setting and resetting.......... BAe lene ene eae 18 | 20 21 eens 5 OR 1.58
TSI A OY HONE] OLONKNO NAY, (CAN) ees nu OYeIe ENCORE) ies Oe Ie Ee ae ees lasaosdoe . 20 5204 . 20
Pansiereena(omeshalt poumdyper acres 5-20 | s-ee oale cee eee eee eee eee 09 | .09 . 09
AM PLYVIN Se POISOMees acta aee ee teens aoceee ae. Dil 5 5 7s .38 38 38
Culltivatinoeisuxa iim esr eer or age eee cere 25 | 25 25 j 173 4.38 4.38 4.38
EL OCII Se Ree ee eed Ne aoe ME fiw me en |. Pontes 38 20 20 | Wl 2°85 |= AS 50nl tele oe
Poppins andssuGkenin epee pee eee 52 65 70 73; 3.90 4.88 | 5. 20
Cuttine-and scattoldinge s.- - soon cee ee. ene 35 | 44 | 47 TE PAS 3) 30 cea aaaae
Hauling to barn (2 horsesand 5 men) ...... 23 L 4 o73, «1.44 2.01 | 2.30
Regulating barn andifiring 2 222222 ees -.- 16 Dill 24 74, «1.20 1.58 1.80
PakAN CxO OM ees esc oe eee me ee ee 6 | 8 9 74 .45 . 60 - 68
Stripping, assorting, and tying...........-.. 96 120 138 | Wea 720) | 9800 10.35
Haulin sso diya eli wire 2 ee ere acho salon |S cenece harall = mene aS al eee een Se ee 3. 42 5. 20 | 6. 65
COMMIUSSTO MAMAS eT TY GS AT CS eee eee ya rete ae petal ee epee ne oil ot ae ee 3.05 4,93 | 6.19
RO CALI COS Titer is seo sae eee Se en ae saps coat ices Sie 2h | a 45.04 | 64.27) 86.17

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1906. 21

Receipts from the 1905 crop sold at Lynchburg, January 21, 19086.

Plat No. 1:
BUONO SMUoH atin. LO per 100 pounds... 0. 2.2L een ee $18. 36
367 pounds.short leai, at $8.25 per 100 pounds ..__.-.--........-.--2- 30. 27
iS pounds lone leat at5l0 per 100 pounds. =... ..22-... 2.25.22 11.50
842 pounds. 60. 13
Plat No. 2: %
sto) pounds) lugs, at.65-40 per, 100 pounds’... 2..c% 2c 2 cn ete se Lt 18. 63
98. pounds short leat, at $7.50 per 100 pounds. -.......22._:.....-.-- 29. 85
Hs poundsloneileat. at ps. /D per 100! pounds: .°.2. 2.22.5. ... 222 Ale
60 pounds wrappers, at $15 per 100 pounds -..-.......-.-.....-....- 9. 00
-1, 296 pounds. 100. 61
Plat No. 3:
oz pounds lies, at $o-40 per 100 pounds@ 2. 22: = 3... 22222. Le 17. 65
420 pounds short:leaf, at $7.75 per 100 pounds :-.-...-..2-.22 2222-222 32. 5d
695 pounds long leaf, at $9.25 per 100 pounds....-.........-2...-.--- - 64.28
85 pounds wrappers, at $14.25 per 100 pounds ..............-.-....- 12, dl
1,527 pounds. 126. 59
Total gross returns from each plat in rye and tobacco.
ine 5 POURS LObAGeO 2st a ee Pe Se cll 2b 5 les $60. 13
: — $60.13
Nor 2-—b-206 pounds tobacco <1 2.2 2625s 22 jg eS eR EN eS MK 100. 61
No. 2—1,000 pounds rye, at $8 per ton.-.---..----..- Leak 2 SA Slee a 4.00
— 104. 61
Mats leo wmOGUMnUcd TOWALCOM | 0-5 o2 ceciasae ee oe eee 24 Bae oe 126. 59
Mae OOO ponndszyerat $S-per ton 2.2.2.2. 22) 8. 00
134. 59

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that plat No. 1 yielded 842
pounds of tobacco, which was produced at a cost of $45.04 and sold at
public auction on the Lynchburg market for $60.13, leaving a net
profit of $15.09 per acre. Plat No. 2 produced 1,296 pounds of tobacco
and 1,000 pounds of rye hay at a cost of $68.47, and the rye and
tobacco together sold for $104.61, showing a net profit of $36.14 per
acre; while plat No. 3 produced 1,527 pounds of tobacco and 2,000
pounds of rye hay at a cost of $90.77, and the rye and tobacco
together sold for $134.59, showing a profit of $43.82. IJgnoring the
cost and proceeds of the rye, we find that plat No. 1 showed a profit of
$15.09; plat No. 2, $36.34, and plat No. 3, $40.42 against the profits for
the last crop (1904) of plat No. 1, $4.64; plat No. 2, $19.94; and plat
No. 3, $28.41.

SEASON OF 1906.

Wheat was used as the winter cover crop following the tobacco
grown in 1905, as it was thought wheat would not run up so early in the
spring as rye. The wheat grew well, and, as in the previous year,
the growth on plat No. 3 was much larger than on the otner plats.

22 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

The entire growth was plowed under early in May. The amount of
vegetable matter plowed under on plats Nos. 2 and 3 was several times
greater than on plat No. 1.. This should give plats Nos. 2 and 3 con-
siderable advantage over plat No. 1 in the matter of permanent soil
improvement and should show plainly in subsequent crops of the
rotation.

In plowing the field in preparation for the 1906 crop, one-half of
each plat was plowed in the usual manner with a 2-horse turn plow
to a depth of about 6 inches, while the remaining half was plowed in
a similar manner but was also subsoiled (see Pl. IV) to an additional
depth of from 6 to 10 inches. The season of 1906 was an extremely
wet one, and there was no time during the growing period when the
crop lacked moisture in the least. With these conditions there was no
time during the growth of the crop that the slightest difference could
be observed between the crop on the snbsoiled land and on that not
subsoiled. Had the season been droughty or even normal there might
have been a marked difference. The entire crop grew well up to the
middle of August and gave promise of a heavy yield and good quality.
From that time on to harvest, there was protracted, wet, muggy
weather, with no sun for several days at a time, which began to affect
the quality and yield of the crop and, in common with nearly all other
tobacco in the vicinity, the leaves began to speck badly. The resulting
damage placed the buik of the tobacco in the lug grade.

It is worth noting, however, that although the excessive wet and
dull weather ruined the quality and yield of the tobacco, yet the plats
which received the heavier applications of fertilizer did not speck
more than the lighter fertilized plat, while the tendency of the lower
leaves to yellow was less on the heavily fertilized plats than on the
lighter fertilized one, showing that the larger amounts of fertilizer
were beneficial to the plants even under the adverse climatic conditions.

Hapenses of 1906 cover crop.

| | S 1
Labor required on— | Rate | Cost of eee seed

Plowing, out stulbblies2 Morsesas25- 4-424. 3 | 3 204). Ono 0.75 0.75
Harrowing, DZRINOLSES Ae sen reels a anes ere | | Ziel | 50 50 00 . 50
Cost of seed wheat, 14 bushels..............- [ease Esra Weesensése [Scale Lies il ayaa aan 1. 20 1.20 i 20
Sowing wheat, Dorseaduill 285s ee ae | ae | 1: | 13 30 | .45 . 45 .45

TROTAMICOS ES A Oe oe ater sk eae Pe tegh eees R Ph en 2 lise een O05 22.00 Sea n0

bo
ps)

DEMONSTRATION WORK AT APPOMATTOX, 1906.

Expenses of 1906 tobacco crop.

Cost of labor and mate-

| Labor required on—

| Hours. | Hours. Hours.| Cents. \Dollars. Dollars. Do’lars.

Rlowinewanmds2erorses 4-5 4. 6-22 = 3 es sien 6 6 6 25 1.50 1.50 1.50
aero wna sNOISCS secon ae ee ok Sere cie seo 3 3 3 25 75 ID + iD
COSEGH IRenMNZGS). 355 See Se sonaseeoBons Jeane SAC denSn pans ere aaetse on ISM asocor 5.25 | 16.75 33. 00
Laying Off TOWS..-- 2-2 ---- oF eseehesssoSscosS5 9 | 10: 103 173 1.58 | 1.84 1. 84
Mixing and applying fertilizer. ............. 3 Ds 6 73 apEid 41 45
Wiley akginye? Will Re gene sooopnpohbese soe=snbosce 12 | 14 15 73 . 90 1.05 1.13
Wosm Ol plas sacaesecme re ea a= es ae See eed scl erinis aia |arigaie sisal Oe te oe oe 2.00 2.40 2. 60
Setting and resetting.~ 22.5.4 2252....-524.-: 16 | 202 21 Ti 11520 1.54 1.58
Cultivating, five times ..............-....... | 19 | 19 | 19 ye ae o heer ase 3.33
JEN) FINS GSoC Se eee BOs. Se anes Seen en 22 223 223 7k 1. 65 1.69 1. 69
Topping, suckering, and worming...-....-.. | 49 64 | 69 | 74 3.68 4. 80 5.18
Guitinevandscatiolding= 222... 3.2525... ace. 24 34 | 4] 72) 1:80 DDD 3. 08
EULER Sere eR aS 3 | 5 6 473} 1.43 | 9:38 9.85
hiring And resulating barn) s....2.--2.2...- 9 | ily 20 72 . 68 ifs! 1.50
PAINE GO Willlc2 ssccce es cee tee arn ee 4i 32 eli 7i 34 64 -83
Sirippinewand assonung 22 see =e ce ones es 70 | 99 | 110 | C3\— 2) 7.43 8. 25
LEESEPU IE AYES), Pa Tg as) Fa A ec Se aa |e Peeetse 2.64 4.61 6.52
CommissionsandisellinsCharevesicc fess: - eae een eee meen se cs (yee hens 1.92 3.30 4.5]
‘CUSEOH GOWER BEND) .5608 soc sc easosesesedasaes |osos sees jozeeeneassessece | Etec verse 2. 90 2. 90 2. 90
TRIMS By Seats Ses eek en ee | canes 2 5 Seie, Reece ISH ae 39.03 | 60.15 | 83.49
Prices obtained for the 1906 crop at Lynchburg, February 27, 1907.

Piat.No. 1:
172 pounds common lugs, at.$4.70 per: 100 pounds. -_.......--.2+--: 2... $8. 08
285 pounds good lugs, at $7 per 100 pounds --.-.-----. Poh eee Te Ame ee eee 19. 95
pours leat ate. ou per LOO pounds <2... 2S See eee 6.12
529 pounds. 34.15

Plat No. 2:
Sus pounds common lugs,at go per 100 pounds 2.2./2.52..02.¢.-.-2<22.2 18. 40
tmepouuas coum lugs, atip/.20 per 100 pounds... 2....2.222622.2.25-..222 34.58
mepeunas eat. atpo per 100 Pounds - 2 4.25252 Ye. sce seed hse ee eek 6.93
922 pounds. 59. 91

Plat No. 3:
5930 pounds common lugs, at $5 per 100 pounds......-----.------------- 26.50
ju pannas: cood lies, at./-50 per LOO pounds... ........--..--2.--+------ 52. 50
Tapousds leat> at, $8.00 per 100 pounds -....-.-..-.-.---+-------=-2--- 6. 37
1,305 pounds. 85. 37

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that plat No. 1 yielded 529
pounds of tobacco, which was produced at a cost of $39.03 and sold at
Lynchburg at public auction for $34.15, showing a loss of $4.88; plat
No. 2 produced 920 pounds of tobacco, at a cost of $60.15, and was sold
for $59.91, showing a loss of 24 cents; while plat No. 3 produced 1,305
pounds of tobacco, at a cost of $83.49, and sold on the market for
$85.37, showing a profit of $1.88. These poor results are due entirely
to the unfavorable weather conditions during the latter part of the
erowing season, although the proportionate increase in the various
plats, due to the effect of better methods of fertilizing and cultivation,
shows as wellas during normal seasons.

24 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Asa result of these three years of field experiment the Bureau of
Soils and the Virginia Experiment Station feel justified in asserting
that under proper conditions it will be of financial benefit to the farm-
ers in the dark belt of Virginia to use fertilizers much more liberally
on their tobacco than they have been accustomed to do. Itis of course
necessary to discriminate in order to make high fertilizing pay. A soil
suitable for growing a fairly good quality of tobacco should be chosen.
It should possess reasonably good depth and mellowness so as to be
easily tilled and have a proper water-holding capacity. Fertilizers
can not be expected to make up for shortcomings of the soil in these’
regards. Without proper moisture and friability in a soil it is impos-
sible for the plant to get the full benefits from the fertilizer applied
either in large or small quantities. Good cultivation and handling are
also necessary to make a success of a tobacco crop.

PART III. METHODS OF CULTIVATING, CURING, AND HANDLING.
SEED BED.

The custom of going annually into the woods and clearing and
burning a given area of land for a plant bed is still followed in
Virginia. This work is usually performed and the seed sown during
the winter months, at a time when the other farm work is not
pressing. Jn former years it was considered necessary to select a
piece of land bordering a small stream, which is usually both rich and
moist. At the present time, however, not so much attention is being
paid to such location, and desirable land for this purpose is often
found on the higher levels. The prime consideration in selecting a
suitable locality for the seed bed is to see that the soil is loamy and
mellow; that it will not bake during a drought, and that it will absorb
the rain without becoming mucky. The soil may be safely judged by
the forest growth, the presence of oak, hickory, dogwood, etc., being
usually considered a strong indication of good plant-bed land. The
slope of the land should receive some attention, both as regards the
tendency to wash from excessive rains and its probable effects on the
earliness of the plants. A southern or western exposure is the most
desirable. . .

If possible the wood should be stacked long enough before burning
to become seasoned. A mixture of dry and green wood is more
effective than either green or seasoned wood alone, as a steady
moderate heat is more desirable than excessive heat. From 3 to 4
cords of wood with a plentiful supply of brush will usually be found
sufficient to burn 100 square yards of land. After the brush and
leaves are cleared off the land long poles are placed upon the bed
about 5 feet apart to serve as skids on which to slide the fires. A
layer of brush and wood is placed along the upper side and fires

"© “ON VINWHOS HLIM Gaza OoOoOVEdO | GaYyNO-saYl4 AUVG

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE III.

PLATE IV.

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLOWING UNDER WHEAT AND SUBSOILING.

ate

se ret

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 25

started at frequent intervals. After the fires have burned in one
place long enough to dry out the soil to a depth of 3 inches the burn-
ing wood should be pulled along the skids to a new place on this bed.
This operation is repeated until the entire surface of the bed has been
burned. With moderate fires it will take from one-half to three-
quarters of an hour between ‘‘ pulls” to burn a place sufliciently.

For two reasons it is not desirable to burn a bed when it is wet.
One is that it will take considerable more burning to dry out this
extra moisture and it may also do harm to the physical condition of
the soil. Whenever possible the bed should be worked up and then
seeded down immediately after burning. There is no other time that
the soil will work into such good tilth. Most of the ashes and coals
should be raked off. It will be found advantageous in preparing
the soil to plow it several’ times in different directions with a shovel
cultivator plow. Remove all the small roots and small stumps and
cut off the large ones low enough so as not to interfere with stretching
the cloth over the bed. Before sowing the bed, rake it off with a fine-
toothed rake.

The fertilizer applied should not contain any potash, as the ashes
that are left upon the bed will supply enough. The custom in these
experiments has been to sow the seed in acid phosphate, about 25
pounds to 100 square yards, using from 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of seed @
for this amount of bed. Top dressing of hen, hog, or horse manure
and nitrate of soda will also be found valuable. If horse manure free
from grass can be obtained, it will serve both as an effective mulch and
fertilizer. If suitable manure is not available for the purpose, fine
straw scattered over the bed will serve asa good mulch; but of course
it would have no value as a manure.

For protection against dry weather in the spring, this mulching of
the bed is considered important. Beds so mulched will rarely need
artificial watering and will stay moist and the plants continue to grow
when other beds are dry and hard and the plants at a standstill. The
manure or mulch should be applied some time before the plants come
up, and it is also advisable to apply broadcast from 15 to 20 pounds of
nitrate of soda to each 100 square yards of bed at this time. In the
middle section of Piedmont Virginia, plants usually begin to appear
the very last of March. The cheesecloth covering should be stretched
over the bed before this time. Under normal conditions nothing more
need be done to the bed until the plants are large enough to set out,
~ unless the stand of plants is too thick and heavy or weeds appear in
the bed. In this case the plants should be thinned out or the bed
weeded.

@\f the seed is clean, 1 tablespoonful is sufficient; but if there is considerable chat
and dust in it, 2 tablespoonfuls will be advisable.

26 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Asa rule, about 10,000 plants can safely be counted on from each 100
square yards of bed. The cost of production varies considerably
according to the convenience of the wood supply for burning the bed,
the variation in the amount of labor necessary to prepare the soil, and
the favorableness of the growing season. Fifty cents a thousand would
be a conservative estimate of the cost of growing plants one year with
another.

PREPARATION OF THE FIELD.

The success of a crop of tobacco is often made or marred by the
carefulness or carelessness of the preparation which is given the field
before the crop is set out. No other general field crop will pay better
for painstaking foresight in this regard than tobacco. If a crop rota-
tion is followed, the crop preceding tobacco should be one which will
add a fair amount of vegetable matter to the soil and permit of fall or
winter plowing. It is also very important that the preceding crop
shall leave the field as free as possible from insects, especially the
dreaded root webworm, or so-called ** wireworm ” (Crambus sp.). Con-
siderable headway can be made by the use of poisons in combating
ecutworms and some other insects affecting tobacco, but when the field
becomes infested with root webworms a partial failure is generally
assured in spite of anything that-may be done. The worm has been
found to be particularly troublesome in fields where much ironweed,
a variety of Vernonia shrub, has grown previously, and this weed
should not be allowed to grow after August 15 on a field intended for
tobacco the following year. If it shouid be found impossible to keep
this weed down, it should never be plowed under, but should be
burnt off or mowed down and then burnt. In this way thousands of
egos of this insect will be destroyed.

For the heavy tobaccos of this section of Virginia there is not a
crop better than the cowpea for tobacco to succeed. It is a legumin-
ous crop that, through the aid of nodules on its roots, can add to the
soul’s store of ammonia, subtracting it (nitrogen) from the air. It also
adds vegetable matter to the soil and its hay makes a first-class stock
food, besides permitting fall or winter plowing. At Appomattox no
other available crop was found which left the field so free from insect
pests. The moths of the root webworms do not seem, according to
the experience of the writers, to like the vine as a place for depositing
theireges. Therefore the use of the cowpea is strongly recommended
whenever practicable as a crop to precede this heavy, dark type of
tobacco.

The tobacco field should be deeply and thoroughly plowed. When
plowed in the fall or winter, it should be deepened a little each year
until the top soil is at least 8 inches deep. Winter plowing, aside
from the benefit to the physical condition incident to repeated freezing
and thawing, places the field in a condition to be readily put in order

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 27

for transplanting at an early date. Land not plowed in the winter
often gets hard and dry in the spring, so that it is impossible to place
it in good condition until it is too late to obtain the best results from
the crop. It is a matter of experience that early crops are usually the
best and most economical to produce. ‘Therefore winter plowing is
important as assuring an early crop.

In the dark tobacco districts of Virginia the greater portion of the
crop is set out between May 15 and June 10, with the heaviest setting,
if the climatic conditions are favorable, during the closing days of
May. This, from our experiment, is never too soon, and it would be
a great advantage to the farmers if they planted their crops as soon
after May 15 as possible. If this were practiced, they would then have
a good opportunity to perfect their stand before it is too late, and all
of the plants would have a chance to mature properly.

DISTANCE OF PLANTING.

There is considerable difference of opinion among tobacco growers
as to the number of plants which it is most profitable to set to the
acre. Noinvariable rule is possible, as the ideal number varies with
the conditions of soil and season. From 3,600 to 5,000 to the acre
will perhaps express the limits within which most crops are planted.
The usual practice is to make the rows 33 feet apart and set the plants
3 feet apart in the row. A crop set at this distance will give 4,200
plants to the acre. It is probable that a large portion of the crop in
the dark district is set with a less number of plants.

Experience and the experiments of several of the experiment sta-
tions go to show that the thinner plantings, other conditions being
equal, will give a thicker and larger leaf and one that will cure up
with a clearer color and better luster than where the plants stand
closer together. Thicker plantings, on the other hand, will normally
produce larger yields to the acre and the tobacco will be finer in texture
and fiber.

The aim of the grower should be to strike the medium for the best
average profit. It is, of course, true that there is a counterbalancing
relation between the thickness of setting plants and the height to
which the plants may be topped. The Bureau and the experiment
station in their experiment have grown as high as 6,000 plants to the
acre on plat No. 3, and judging from the sales that number was not
beyond the limits of profitable returns. With the adoption of a more
intensive system of cultivation on richer soils, it is their opinion that
it will be found profitable to piant closer than is now the custom. It
would appear conservative to suggest that at least 5,000 plants can be
grown to the acre on soils that are in a reasonably good state of fer-
tility. This number will be secured by making the rows 33 feet apart
and setting the plants 23 feet apart in the row.

28 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.
METHOD OF APPLYING FERTILIZER.

As before stated, it is the custom in the neighborhood of Appomat-
tox to apply 400 pounds of fertilizer to the acre on the tobacco crop.
This is applied almost exclusively by dropping a small handful in the
furrows directly at the spot where the plant is to be set or by drilling
it along the whole length of the row. Only a few farmers, judging
from the above practice, seem to believe in broadcasting. When used
in the larger quantities, as on plat No. 3, there would probably be
many advocates of the broadcast method for at least a part of the
fertilizer. In the absence of reliable experimental data we can not
express decided opinions. It is not probable that the difference
between the two methods would be large. For the sake of uniformity
the fertilizer was drilled in upon all three plats in the experiment. In
order to secure an even distribution of each of the ingredients of the
home mixture, the fish was distributed in the furrows separately,
and the other ingredients, after being carefully mixed, were also dis-
tributed in the furrow. A double-shovel plow was then run through
the furrow, mixing the fertilizer with the soil and insuring at the same
time a deep bed of loose soil directly under the plant. A small bed was
made by a one-horse turn plow upon this furrow. This made a bed
of loose soil in which to set the plants, and the furrows left at each side
made certain that no water would stand directly around the plant in
the event of heavy rains.

The so-called hills were made by striking through the bed with a
hoe at the place indicated for the plant to about the normal level of
the field. After making sure that the spot was free from trash or
other obstructions that might interfere with the setting of the plant,
a pat was made with the hoe, which completed the hill. A man will
‘cut off” in this way about 6,000 hills in a day if the field is reason-
ably free from trash and in a condition of good tilth. Variations of
this method might be desirable or necessary according to the condition
of the field.

SETTING THE PLANTS.

The aim at setting time is to have the plants grow off quickly and
uniformly. A regular start in the growth of the plants is more
important than many farmers seem to realize. There is a saving of
labor all through, and it is possible to cultivate much more effectively
if the crop maintains a uniform state of development. The ideal
condition would be to have the crop sufficiently uniform to justify
cutting clean as you go at harvest time. It would be the most
economical way of handling and best for the quality of the tobacco.

In drawing plants from the bed care should be taken to have them
uniform in size and hardness. They should not be bruised or allowed
to lie around and curl up. When transplanted, care should be taken

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 29

that the earth is pressed firm around the roots at the bottom of the
kole as well as at the top. It is very important in setting a plant that
the head should be just at or slightly above the level of the ground.

It is, of course, necessary to take advantage of such planting seasons
as come, but hot weather, moderate precipitation, with several days
of cloudiness and little wind are the conditions most favorable to the
newly transplanted plants. Cold winds and heavy rains are very unfa-
vorable. About the third day after transplanting, a good idea may be
obtained by the grower as to which plants will probably live. If the
season In which the plants were set was a good one, there will still be
left a good supply of moisture in the soil, and it is then the time to
make an effort to perfect the stand of plants. Select the very strong-
est plants in the seed bed and reset the doubtful hills, pouring around
each plant about a cupful of water. When the water has settled down,
draw a little dry soil around the plant to keep the moist soil from baking
and forming a clod about the roots. If great care is exercised in set-
ting on the third day, the new plants will start growing at once and
the entire field will be uniform.

Of course, if the soil is full of worms, especially the wireworm, an
even start is out of the question. If this worm is found attacking
practically every plant, as is sometimes the case, the grower might as
well give up the field for tobacco that year, unless he chooses to wait
until the last of June before resetting the field, at which time the worm
disappears, but the chances would be less for a profitable crop from
such late setting.

CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS.”

Cutworms.—Some headway was made in fighting the cutworms, which
were present in considerable numbers, by using a mixture of Paris
green and corn meal or wheat middlings and sifting a small quantity
of this mixture on each hill either before or after the plant was set.
The worms come to the surface when the soil is moist and eat this
mixture. Whenever heavy rains washed the poison away the appli-
cation was repeated. This mixture was also used in killing the bud
worm and is best applied by shaking it over the plant. A tin can hold-
ing a quart or more with holes punched in the bottom and a handle
made of stiff wire was found a convenient arrangement for applying
the poison.

Hornworm.—The greatest pests of tobacco last season in Virginia
were the hornworms. They made their appearance in two main
broods. The first of these appeared during the latter part of June
and the first part of July; the second early in August, remaining from

« For descriptions and full directions for the control of the insect pests of tobacco

see Farmers’ Bulletin No. 120, by L. O. Howard, Bureau of Entomology, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

30 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

that time until frost. The August brood was by far the more trouble-
some. Many farmers pay but slight attention to the June brood, the
tobacco being in many cases so small that the leaves which they muti-
late could be primed off at topping time. If the tobacco is forward,
however, the worms will do as much harm as at any other time, and
they must be kept off. Spraying with Paris green at the standard rate
of 1 pound of Paris green and 1 pound of lime to 125 gallons of water
was found effective. The mixture was kept well agitated during appli-
cation, as the Paris green settles and the last part coming from the
tank might be so strong as to damage the tobacco. The tobacco is not
easily damaged by Paris green at the stage of its growth when the first
crop of worms are present, and if care be taken not to get the settled
solution on the leaves very little risk is taken.

For combating the hornworm in August the use of Paris green is
of very doubtful expediency. In these experiments and from the
experience of the farmers it has been demonstrated that the use of
Paris ereen in the later stages of the growth of this type of tobacco is
attended by great danger of burning the leaf, if applied in sufficient
streneth to kill the worms. Hand picking is therefore the great reli-
ance of the Virginia growers. An effort should be made to check the
worms when they are small, as at that stage of their growth the damage
done by them is less, and they will usually be found near the damaged
portion of the leaf upon which they are feeding. After they get
larger they travel from one plant to another and easily elude very close
searching.

It is the habit of the moth of the hornworm to spend its days in
seclusion, but at dusk it flies over the tobacco fields, depositing its eggs
on the underside of the leaves of the plant. Many of the moths were
poisoned by the old-time remedy of putting a few drops of sweetened
cobalt solution in the flowers of neighboring jimson weeds or in arti-
ficial flowers made for the purpose and set up on stakes about the field.

The natural lessening of the worm damage and of the labor neces-
sary in catching the worms is one of the several reasons why early
planted tobacco is Jikely to be more profitable than late planted tobacco.
lf the crop is ready for harvest by the last of August the tobacco is
only liable to damage from the hornworm for a short period of time,
whereas if the tobacco is set late and not ready for harvest until the
latter part of September or the beginning of October the worms have
a longer period in which to cause damage.

CULTIVATION.

The practice of many farmers in the dark district of Virginia is to
cultivate the crop twice with a double-shovel plow and then for a last
cultivation to lay the crop by with a turning plow by throwing four
furrows to the row, two on each side. <A period of two or three

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 31

weeks usually elapses between these cultivations. The crop is gener-
ally hand hoed twice. As opposed to this practice of infrequent
deep cultivation, both the Bureau and the experiment station believe
in the advantage to be gained by frequent shallow cultivation. About
a week or ten days after the crop has been transplanted to the field
the first cultivation should take place, as at that time the roots have
not spread out into the soil and it has very likely become consider-
ably packed in the middle of the rows, owing to heavy rains which
may have occurred and to the considerable tramping which it has
received when wet incident to the operations of setting, fighting cut-
worms, etc. At this time, therefore, a thorough deep breaking out
of the middles of the rows seems desirable, and for this purpose on
the stiff, red clay soils of Piedmont Virginia there is perhaps no bet-
ter implement than the double-shovel plow with narrow blades run
three times in a row.

This has been the practice in these experiments and has given satis-
factory results. After this the roots of the plants will begin to spread

Fic. 1.—Cultivator used in the Appomattox fields.

into the rows and only shallow cultivation should be practiced. For
this purpose a five-toothed cultivator of the familiar type (see fig. 1),
with an 18-inch sweep on the rear stock and with depth-regulating
attachment was used in the Appomattox fields. The crop was regu-
larly cultivated each week during its growth. The idea of using a
turning plow to form a high bed to each row or of repeatedly hilling
up each plant with a hoe still has a good number of advocates, but it
is probably being practiced less and less each year. Its exponents
argue that there will be fewer lugs on the crop that is hilled and that
it is easier to worm and sucker when walking in the furrows. Neither
the Bureau nor the experiment station believes in the practice and it
is certainly more expensive than simply passing through the row once
or twice with a cultivator. In droughty weather the moisture supply
is not so well retained as by the more level system of cultivation;
besides the tearing up of the root system incident to the use of the

32 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

turning plow is wrong both in theory and in practice. If a rain occurs
soon after the operation and settles the soil around the roots, the
evil effect may not be so serious, but if droughty weather prevails the
greatest harm to the growing crop is done.

The increasing tendency of the plant to make lugs where level
cultivation is practiced. is perhaps indisputable in theory, but in
practice we find the difference very slight and more than compensated
for by the advantages enumerated. It is not to be understood that
perfectly level cultivation is advised. The cultivator with the sweep
attachment will draw a little soil to the plant each time it is used, and
the field will finally be left with a gently undulating surface, sufficient
to prevent water from standing around the plant in the event of heavy
rains.

The first crop of tobacco grown at Appomattox was hand hoed twice -
and a portion of it three times, owing fo the dry weather, depredation
of the wireworm, and the countless number of vines and sassafras
bushes that attempted to take possession of the soil. ‘The succeeding
crops were hoed only once, owing to the improved condition of the
soil and also to the fact that very little resetting was necessary, and
that consequently the crop started uniformly. In order to obtain the
best results in cultivating, it is necessary that the plants should be set
in line on the row so that the implement will place the soil uniformly
around each plant.

TOPPING AND SUCKERING.

After a period of eight or nine weeks from the time of transplanting,
some of the plants will normally begin to show signs of budding out.
The topping season is now on hand. Theaim here is to have the crop
mature in a uniform condition, to improve the quality of the leaf pro-
duced, and to obtain as large a yield as possible. Experience and
judgment are necessary in this important operation, although the
greatest yield would be obtained by leaving on all the leaves and
merely plucking out the bud as soon as it could be distinguished and
by keeping off all the suckers. This is, in fact, all that is done in
most of the types of cigar tobacco, but for the tobacco under con-
sideration the leaves would be too small, and consequently lacking the
body and toughness required by the demands of the trade.

The leaves that grow on the middle of the stalk naturally have the
quality most desired. In order to improve still further the quality of
these middle leaves there has developed the custom of priming off
several of the bottom leaves and of breaking out several of the top
leaves along with the bud in its undeveloped stage, so that all the
nourishment is concentrated in less than half the leaves that would
naturally grow on the stalk. About eight or ten leaves are usually
left to mature, although the number left varies with the conditions.
Primarily the number of leaves that should be left on a plant depends

‘OOOVEOL AHYVd ONILSSAYVH 4O GOHLAIA

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE V.

PLATE VI.

Bul. 46, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

cra
iors

SCAFFOLDING AND HAULING DARK TOBACCO.

i
Ave

’

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 33

upon the thrift and vigor of its growth. If it is topped too low, the
yield will be unnecessarily sacrificed and the leaves remaining will be
coarse and overgrown, besides being more liable to damage by the
weather or in the handling.

For the Austrian trade, which demands the largest leaf, there
is very little to be gained by having the cured leaf more than 24
inches long, while for plug wrappers 20 inches would be more satis-
factory. The aim of the grower should be to force the growth of the
selected leaves while the plant is still young and vigorous. It is best,
therefore, to break the top of the plant out just as soon as it gets
above the number of leaves which are to remain. This will usually
be some little time before the bud would appear. As an aid to top-
ping to a certain number, as it is often desired to do, in giving instruc-
tions to field hands it is perhaps worth remembering that the leaves of
tobacco are so arranged on the stalk that after the bottom leaves are
primed off, the ninth leaf will be directly over the bottom one and if
it be broken out with the top the plant can be topped to eight leaves
without counting.

The time that it takes a plant to mature after topping depends some-
what on the number of leaves which are left. In order to bring as
many plants as possible to a uniform state of ripeness at one time, it is
customary to top to more leaves at first and then to fewer at subsequent
toppings until the desired number are left. In these experiments, on
plat No. 3, where the growth was very vigorous, the first toppings were
made at about twelve leaves to the plant, and then down to seven or
eight, leaving the field at the last topping with an average of ten leaves
to the plant, while plat No. 2 averaged nine leaves to the plant, and
plat No. 1 seven leaves.

Suckers will begin to appear from the axis of the leaves soon after
the plant is topped. The first suckers will appear near the top of the
plant and so on downward as the upper ones are broken off. ‘Two sets
of suckers will usually grow on the plant, but it will be necessary to
go over the field five or six times, as they will grow upon the plants at
different times. The whole object of topping is defeated if the suckers
are allowed to grow, and they should not be longer than 2 inches before
they are removed. ‘The field should be gone over at least once a week,
and in the experiment it was found more satisfactory to sucker the
crop every five days, as the suckers being smaller could be broken out
easier and faster than if allowed to grow larger.

HARVESTING.

From ninety to one hundred days after transplanting and about
thirty-five days after topping the tobacco will usually be ready to har-
vest. Certain signs of ripeness accompany this maturity of the plant.

34 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

Their recognition is largely a matter of experience and judgment.
The leaves for some time have been graining up and the appearance of
the field has not the intensely green color which it had for two weeks
after topping. The suckers have ceased to grow with their usual vigor.
The edges of the leaf have turned a little yellow and begun to fold
under a little all around. The leaf is thick, heavy, and brittle, and
if it be pinched up between the thumb and finger it will crack open.
These signs are unmistakable to the experienced grower. It is a fine
question to know just when the entire crop is in the most favorable
condition for cutting, in order to secure the best results in quality and
yield. If it should stand too long in the field, it will deteriorate in
weight, elasticity, and soundness. If, on the other hand, it is cut
too soon, it will be sound but will be lacking in body and weight, and
in the curing process it will not yellow so readily and the final color
will be dull in hue instead of being clear and lustrous.

It is not always possible to choose, but when possible it is best not
to cut tobacco until three or four days after a heavy rain, as the gum
which accumulates on the leaf-in dry weather and which helps its
appearance and quality when curing is washed off by the rain, and if
possible should be given time to accumulate again before cutting.

Harvesting by splitting the stalk down from the top to within 2 or 3
Inches of the bottom and cutting off just below the bottom leaf and
straddling the split stalk over a stick is the common practice. (See
Plate V.) There are some localities where many of the farmers cut
the plant down and allow it to wilt on the ground and then spear it
upon the stick. Both methods have their advantages according to cir-
cumstances and labor. The splitting of the stalk hastens the curing
process by allowing 2 more ready escape of the moisture from the
stalk. This is undoubtedly an advantage. The sticks used through-
out Virginia are all split by hand from pine timber. They are made
43 feet long, so as to fit the distance between the tier poles in the curing
barn, which are generally 4 feet apart. The method of procedure at
harvest is of course varied some to meet the individual ideas of the
farmers and according to the conditions of labor attending each case.
The general method, however, is as follows: The sticks are first
dropped through the field every fourth row, thick enough to take the
tobacco that is to be cut for four rows. Two men with sharp knives”
will each spear the stalk and cut the plants from two rows and hang
them at once on the stick which the third man is holding in the row
between them. (See Plate V.) The laborer holding the stick should
keep careful watch of the number of plants put on the stick and lay it
carefully on the ground when full. The tips or tails of the tobacco
should be turned away from the sun when there is danger of sunburn
and toward the sun to make the tobacco wilt better when there is no
such danger. From six to ten plants are usually placed upon a stick,

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. 35

depending upon the size and condition of the plants and to a certain
extent upon the climatic conditions which are to be expected during
the curing process.

It is economy to place as many plants upon the stick as can be
handled without damage. Eight plants to the stick are about the usual
number. When the sun is high and hot it will not take many minutes
for the tobacco to sunburn, and it is best to turn the stick of tobacco
to prevert this damage. After wilting, the tobacco should be hung
on a scaffold in the field (see Plate VI) or hauled to the barn (see

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Fig. 2.—Curing barn for dark fire-cured tobacco.

fig. 2). If the labor conditions are favorable, there is no cheaper and
in some cases no better way of handling tobacco than to haul it to the
barn as fast as it wilts. There are, however, many instances when
much is to be gained by first scaffolding in the field. The tobacco
becomes so thoroughly wilted and sapped by staying several days on
the scaffold with the hot sun shining upon the butts that the sticks
may be spaced more closely in the barn without danger of house burn

pole sweat. There is thus a material saving of barn room.
Another important gain by scaffolding is that when the labor force is

36 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

short the tobacco is removed from the hills in a much shorter period
of time, thus insuring it from damage by hail, frost, ete.

To secure a uniform cure, it is important that the tobacco placed in
the barn should be cut as nearly at the same time as practicable. Not
over two or three days should be consumed, and it would be better if
the barn could be filled in one day. In some instances it is probable
that the tobacco may have to remain on the scaffold for several days
after it is cut; therefore it should not be crowded on the scaffold, but
sufficient space should be lett between the sticks, so that in the event
of rain the air and sun can penetrate and Tite he dry out the tobacco.
Otherwise the plants would ‘‘strut” with the moisture held between
the leaves and the tobacco might become damaged. Owing to the
scarcity of labor in Appomattox County, all of the tobacco in these
experiments was placed upon a scaffold before being taken to the
curing barn.

CURING.

At curing time we find one of the strongest arguments in favor of
reasonably early planted tobacco. It is a dificult matter to obtain a
satisfactory cure in cool, dry weather, such as often prevails in
Virginia after the month of September is well advanced. In such
weather it is hard to control the moisture and temperature conditions.
It must be borne in mind that curing tobacco is entirely a different
process from merely drying the leaf. Heat alone will dry tobacco,
but in curing it is necessary to maintain an adequate: amount of
moisture. The changes which occur in the leaf while it is curing are
mainly chemical in their nature and can not take place when it is
merely dried, so that if the leaf becomes dry before the color changes
are produced it will be found extremely difficult to bring them about
afterwards even by a return of the right conditions of moisture.

This is where the trouble is experienced in curing a barn of late-set
tobacco. It is apt to dry instead of tocure. The cool temperature at
which the tobacco dries is unfavorable to the chemical changes that take
place in the leaf to develop the desirable colors, and, unless used judi-
ciously, if artificial heat is employed the conditions are not improved,
because the addition of this heat is apt to exhaust the moisture and
the result will be worse than if no heat is used. The yellowing
stage is the first step in the curing process. The change to yellow is
caused by a breaking down of the green chlorophyl granules during
the first few days after the plant is cut. The riper the tobacco the
more quickly will this change take place. Therefore to yellow uni-
formly, the plants should be cut as nearly as possible at a uniform
stage of ripeness. This change in the leaf is favored and hastened by
gentle warmth, moderate moisture, and darkness.

It is not orgie y to use artificial heat in yellowing ine type of
tobacco, especially with early cut tobacco. In cool weather this

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CURING. of

change in the leaf may be favored by hauling the tobacco to the barn
in the middle of the day and crowding it closely together in the barn,
which wiil retain the heat and conserve the moisture. The barn should
be kept closed, so as to keep out the light and cold air, maintaining a
temperature of about 90° F. When crowded together on the poles in
this manner, it must be closely watched, especially if the weather should
turn moist and warm. ‘Tobacco usually can not be left in this condi-
tion more than a few days. After the tobacco yellows it must be
regulated in the barn, giving enough space between each stick to allow
a free circulation of air, especially when helped by the building of
small wood fires. ‘The distance to be left between the sticks is a mat-
ter for judgment in each particular case, depending upon the nature
of the barn and the expected climatic conditions. The next change
that takes place in the leaf is from the yellow to the brown stage, and
for this purpose artificial heat is used. This is alsoa chemical change
and is due to certain oxidizing enzymes upon the chromogen com-
pounds within the leaf.“ Moderate warmth and the presence of sutf-
ficient moisture to keep the leaf in a soft, pliable condition until the
change is completely effected in any given part of the leaf is essential.

The first fires built under the tobacco should be very small to avoid
danger of premature drying of the tips of any of the leaves not yet
fully yellowed. This is called *‘ coddling the tails” by the farmers.
The temperature should not be raised above 95° F. or 100° F. at this
first firing, and should be maintained only long enough to dry out the
surplus moisture and start the tips of the leaves already well yellowed
to turn brown. A few hours at this time will generally be sufficient.

Unless the weather continues very moist it will not be necessary to
fire the barn for several days; but at the expiration of that time fires
should again be placed in the barn. This process should be repeated
every few days until all the gum has disappeared from the leaf and the
tips of the leaves have begun to take on the brown color. After these
conditions have been obtained a somewhat higher temperature may
be used safely if the moisture supply is sufficient to prevent the
drying of the leaf before the color changes have taken place. It will
not usually be found desirable to allow the temperature to rise above
125° F. for any length of time, as more tobacco has become damaged
by too much than too little heat. It is the experience of old growers
that tobacco cured with little heat will retain its oil and luster better
and will be easier to order than when cured with more heat. After
the barn has been fired three or four times in the way mentioned, the
leaf will probably be pretty well cured, and will require no further
attention until it is desired to take the tobacco down, perhaps several
weeks later. In the event, however, of protracted warm, damp
periods, it will be found necessary to examine the tobacco, especially

a@See Report No. 65, Bureau of Soils, by Oscar Loew.

38 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

in the middle of the barn, and if musty stems are found and white
begins to accumulate upon the midrib, moderate fires may be continued
long enough to dry the tobacco thoroughly and prevent the spread of
any damage.

In curing tobacco by fire it is better to make several small fires
than a few large ones. The average-size barn in Virginia is about 20
feet square, and it is customary to build in this space about 20 small
fires of hard wood, either oak or hickory. The color which a crop of
tobacco will cure depends to a great extent upon the nature of the
soil upon which it was grown. It is possible, however, by managing
the barn to cure tobacco either light or dark in color. As a general
principle, to cure tobacco light it should be spread thinly in the barn
and enough fires used to cause a quick cure without drying the leaf
too rapidly. To darken or blacken tobacco, the principle is to delay
the cure and permit the tobacco to approach the pole-sweat condition,
and not to dry off the excessive moisture faster than is necessary to
prevent actual damage. Hang the tobacco closer on the tier poles in
order to preserve the moisture. If the atmospheric conditions are such
that a high heat and moisture can be maintained at the same time for a
considerable period, material darkening of the tobacco will result. It
may be well to remember, however, that tobacco once darkened can
not be lightened again, and also that it is possible for the manufac-
turer to take tobacco and darken it to meet the demands of the trade.
Therefore it seems advisable for the grower to cure his tobacco a
good, rich, solid cherry-red color, which meets the requirements of a
larger trade and consequently invites competition among the buyers,
this class of leaf being acceptable both for home manufacturing and

export.
STRIPPING AND ASSORTING.

Nearly all the tobacco grown in the dark district of Virginia is
taken down during a natural ‘‘season.” ‘‘ Ordering” cellars are the
exception, although they are used in some instances. Tobacco will
retain its order better and suffer. less damage when taken down ina
cool **season.” It should be in sufficiently good ‘‘ order” so as not to
break in handling, but must not be too moist. It is in the right con-
dition when the stem is still a little brittle close to the stalk. Tobacco,
of course, comes in ** order” much more readily in warm than in cold
weather, and it softens very slowly, even in a saturated atmosphere
when the temperature is below 50° F.; but under 40° F. it will hardly
come into ‘‘order” unless continued damp weather occurs.

The stripping from the stalk and the assorting of the leaves are
usually performed at a single operation. The grade forming the
largest portion of the crop is not usually stripped off by the sorter,
but is passed over on the stalk to those who are performing the tying,
to be stripped off later. The tying is usually done by women and
children. :

MARKETING. 39

In an average crop, reasonably uniform in size and color, about
four grades are made. The poorest grade is known as sand lugs, and
consists of two or three leaves from the bottom of the plant, which are
thin and poor in texture. The next grade is good lugs, and consists of
leaves that have little more body and shghtly better texture, but are
perhaps uneven in color, wormeaten, or have some other imperfec-
tion sufficient to keep them from being classed with the leaf grades.
The next two grades are composed of perfect leaves of good color,
body, and texture, known as long and short leaf, and in some crops it
is possible to select a fifth grade, which will be suitable for plug wrap-
pers for domestic manufacture. In the last grade the leaves must be
absolutely perfect in every respect. The proportion of grades varies
greatly in crops, and it is understood that a certain grade of one crop
will differ from the same grade in another. This is especially true of
the leaf grades. Sometimes the good lugs of one crop may really be
better tobacco and bring more money on the market than the leaf
grades of another crop.

An effort should be made in assorting a crop to make each grade
conform as closely as possible to some specific trade requirement.
For example, if there is sufficient leaf in a crop to warrant making a
wrapper grade care should be taken to place in that grade only leaf
that is suitable for that purpose, and so with the Austrian and Italian.
types and others demanded by foreign trade. The various market
erades pass imperceptibly from one to another, and it is often a matter
of judgment, even among experts, as to where a certain grade of leaf
may be used to the best advantage. The qualifications of the higher
grades of leaf are more clearly defined than are the lower grades.

MARKETING.

Practically all of the tobacco grown in the dark district of Virginia
is marketed by the auction system. In all of the larger towns and
cities of the district there are immense sale warehouses conducted for
the display and sale of tobacco. <A considerable portion of the crop is
shipped to town in hogsheads by rail; but a still larger portion is
marketed by packing the different grades down in the wagon body and
hauling to town. By this method tobacco is often taken to markets
25 or 30 miles distant.

The auction system.of selling has many advantages to recommend
it, as well as some disadvantages. There are some growers who
believe that they could do better by personally negotiating the sale of
their tobacco as they do with their other crops. Under the existing
system the market, the buyers, and the money are always at the
farmer’s immediate command whenever his tobacco is ready for sale.
The charges and commissions for selling are uniform at the different
markets and are subject to little change. If a grower is not satisfied
with a price on a certain lot of his tobacco, he may pass the sale and

40 IMPROVEMENT OF VIRGINIA FIRE-CURED TOBACCO.

offer it again at another time, usually without extra warehouse charges.
The laws and regulations which have been formulated as a result of
many years of experience for the purpose of assuring fair dealings
between the buyer, seller, and warehouseman are, in general, satisfac-
tory. Itis, however, beyond the province of this Bureau and this
station to enter into a discussion for or against this system of market-
ing; the intention is merely to describe the system as it exists. ~
There is, of course, an opportunity with the auction system for the
grower to look after the marketing end of his operations to advantage.
It is needless to emphasize that the tobacco should be placed upon the
market in the best possible condition, so that it will appear to advan-
tage, and it is advisable for the grower to keep in close touch with the
market so as to know the prevailing price of the standard grades.
He will then be in a position to know. whether he is receiving a fair
price for his tobacco and can better judge as to the advisability of
passing a sale or not. :

In the foregoing account of the methods of cultivating and handling
dark tobacco, the Bureau and the experiment station have attempted
to explain the methods which they have found to be the best in their
general experience, and as brought out in their three years’ experi-
ments. Of course no two crops would ever be handled exactly alike,
and without a clear understanding of the principles involved it would
be impossible intelligently to adapt methods to various conditions,
seasonal and otherwise. In the experimental crops grown at Appo-
mattox the practice has varied somewhat each year, according to con-
ditions, but the procedure all through has been based upon the princi-
ples outlined in this bulletin.

SUMMARY.

In the dark fire-cured tobacco district of Virginia, with declining
yields and low prices, little profit results to the grower.

More intensive methods of cultivation and a greater expenditure per

acre for fertilizers—larger application and a better grade of fertilizer—
result in increased yields per acre and in a larger proportion of the
higher grades of leaf.
The increased returns from the inboneively cultivated crop pay for
the increased cost of labor and fertilizer and leave a larger net profit
to the grower than accrues from the methods used by the generality of
the growers in this district.

Intensive cultivation leaves the fields in better condition for succeed-
ing crops in the rotation, giving increased profits from these crops.

The effect of the more intensive fertilization and cultivation was
noticeable over the three years covered by this demonstration work,
and the limit of improvement of the soil had apparently not been
reached.

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